_
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WILD LIFE
OF THE WORLD
si
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WILD LIFE OF THE WORLD
A DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY OF THE
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
OF ANIMALS
BY
R. LYDEKKER, F.R.S.
ILLUSTRATED WITH
OVER SIX HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS
AND
ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY STUDIES IN COLOUR
i m
VOL. 1 1.
LONDON
FREDERICK WARNE AND CO., LTD
AND NEW YORK
^
As
Printed in Great Britain
CONTENTS
ASIA
CHAPTER
I. AECTIC ASIA
II. THE ANIMAL LIFE OF SIBERIA .
III. SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
IV. THE CASPIAN AREA
V. THE INDIAN FAUNA
VI. THE MALAY PROVINCE
VII. FAUNA OF THE MALAY ISLANDS AND THE PHILIPPINES
VIII. THE FAUNA OF THE CHINESE PROVINCE
1
18
38
84
102
160
208
224
NORTHERN SEAS
I. MAMMALS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC .
II. BIRDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
III. MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC
IV. MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE ARCTIC
V. FISHES OF THE NORTHERN SEAS
VI. LOWER FORMS OF MARINE LIFE
V
. 241
. 249
. 259
. 268
. 286
. 299
vi CONTENTS
AMERICA
CHAPTER PAGB
I. THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC AMERICA AND CANADA . . 315
II. THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES . . . .330
III. TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS .... 353
IV. THE ANIMALS OF PATAGONIA AND CHILE . ,. . .421
V. THE WEST INDIES— THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS . . .424
LIST OF COLOURED PLATES
Mandarin Duck
V
jEx galerita
Frontispiece
Glutton or Wolverine
Gulo luscus
. Facing page 24
Gazelle
Gazella dorcas
44
Asiatic Wild Ass
Equus hemionus .
46
Striped Hyaena and Jackal
Hycena striata, Canis aureus .
54
Sambar
Cervus unicolor .
104
Indian Buffalo
Bos bubalus
108
Indian Humped Cattle
]>os indicus
no
Black-Buck
Antilope cervicapra
112
Indian Rhinoceros .
Rhinoceros unicornis
118
Manchurian Tiger .
Felis tigris longipilis
12G
Tiger ....
Felis tigris
128
Leopard
Felis pardus
130
Hanuman Monkey
Semnopithecus entellus .
148
Lanceolated Jay .
Garrulus lanceolatus
154
Monal.
Lophophorus impeyanus
158
White-Handed Gibbon
Hylobates lar
162
Indian Tapir .
Tapirus indicus .
180
Pied Hornbill
Diceros bicornis .
190
Indian Python
Python molurus .
204
Orang.
Simia satyrus
210
I AK ....
Bos grunniens . .
226
viii LIST
OF COLOURED PLATES
Manchurian Crane .
Grus viridirostris
Facing page 234
Giant Salamander .
Megalobatrachus maximus
• »
236
Common Seal
Phoca vitulina .
•
• »»
242
Californian Sea-Lion
Otaria gillespii .
4
• n
262
Polar Bear .
Ursus maritirmus
•
' >•
268
Silver Gull .
Larus argentatus
•
1!
276
Razorbill
Alca tor da
•
»>
284
Elk or Moose
Alces machlis
a
' »>
318
American Bison
Bos bison .
•
» »
332
Red Co ati
Nasua rufa
•
l>
362
Llama ....
Llama glama
•
)>
366
Great Ant-Eater
MyrmecopJiaga jubata
•
»»
378
Giant Toucan
Rhamphastus magnirostris
n
392
Blue and Yellow Macaw .
Ara ararauna
• •
»»
396
Kivo Vulture
Cathartes papa
• •
»
400
Chested Screamer .
Chauna chavaria
l
>»
406
Horned Frog
Ceratophrys dorsata
n
412
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
The Arctic Fox
PAUB
3
Pallas's Sand-Grouse
PAOB
97
Norwegian Lemming
6
Demoiselle Cranes .
99
Little Stint
10
Four-Horned Antelope
102
Red-necked Phalarope
12
Muntjacs . . ,
106
Snowy Owl
14
Nilgai
112
Snow-Bunting
16
Himalayan Tahr .
113
Siberian Pica
18
Indian Elephants .
118
Pine-Grosbeak . .
26
Large Indian Squirrel
120
Waxwings .
30
Hunting-Leopard .
134
Caracal
38
Indian Civet
136
Persian Ibex
41
Sloth Bear . . ,
142
Suleman Markhor .
43
Indian Fox-Bat
147
Chows
51
Lion-Tailed Macaque ,
150
Tibet Dog .
52
Bonnet Macaque .
151
Bearded Tit
59
Slender Loris
152
Desert Lark . .
60
Indian Cobras
158
Bee-eaters . . ,
63
Malay Pangolin
160
Griffon Vultures . ,
67
Pig-Tailed Monkey
161
Fancy Pigeons . ,
71
Slow Loris . . ,
164
Spoonbills . . ,
75
Cobego
166
Pratincoles .
76
Clouded Leopard . ,
. 167
Black-winged Stilt
78
Malay Palm-Civet .
, 169
The Scheltopusik .
82
Binturong . .
, 170
The Sarmatian Polecat
84
Malay Bear
. 171
Saiga Antelopes
87
Himalayan Panda .
. 172
Rosy Starling
91
The Gayal .
. 174
Pander's Chough-Thrush
92
A Thamin Stag
. 176
Pheasants .
95
Malay Chevrotain .
. 178
X
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
PAOI
Red-Beaked Hill-Tit
. 182
Sze-chuan Takin .
. 230
Malay Grackle
. 185
Pere David's Deer .
. 232
Small Racket-Tailed Drongo
. 187
Michie's Tufted Deer
233
Red-Headed Barbet
. 190
Bactrian Camel
. 234
Necklaced Suruku
. 191
Telescope Fish and Veil-I
ailed F
ish
. 238
Blue-Crowned Hanging Parrots .
. 192
Porpoises .
. 241
Red-Footed Falconet
. 194
The Killer .
. 245
Crested Wood-Partridges .
. 195
1
The Manx Shearwater
249
Argus Pheasant
. 196
Avocet
. 250
Burmese Peacock .
197
Oyster-Catcher
. 251
Water-Pheasant
200
Storm Petrel
. 255
Indian Darter
201
Gannet . . ,
256
Big- Headed Tortoise
202
Great Auks
. 257
Bauded Monitor .
203
Sea-Otter .
259
Malay Flying-Dragon
204
Northern Sea-Elephants .
260
Green Whip-Snake
205
Northern Sea-Bears ,
264
Indian Long- Nosed Crocodile .
206
Narwhal . . .
268
Atlas Moth . . . .
208
Walrus . . .
270
Proboscis Monkey . .
210
Greenland Whale . ,
271
The Black Ape .
211
Bernicle Geese . ,
273
Tarsier ,
212
Eider Drake . .
275
Tana Tree-Shrew .
213
Fulmar Petrel . .
279
The Anoa . .
214
Red-Throated Diver .
280
Babinua .
215
Bridled Guillemots
282
Malay Swift and its Edible Nests
217
Little Auk .
283
Sumatran Broadbill
218
Puffins
284
Beinwardt'a Flying Frog .
219
Cod Fish .
286
Climbing 1'erch
220
Sapphirine Gurnard
289
The Gurami
221
Turbot
290
Stick Insect .
222
The Chimaura
294
Dried-Leaf Insect .
223
Hammer-Headed Shark .
295
Thread Scorpion .
223
Basking Shark
296
■ Deer
224
Hag-Fish .
297
Raccoon Dog
226
The Lancelet . ,
298
Short-Tailed Panda
227
Edible Crab
299
Kulja
228
i
Slender Sea-Spider
299
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
XI
Prideaux's Hermit Crab ,
PAGE
. 300
Silky Tamarin
PAOl
. 359
Mantis-Shrimp
. 301
Jaguarondi
. 360
The Octopus
. 303
Maned Wolf
. 362
A Naked -Gilled Gastropod
. 304
Kinkajou ....
. 364
Hermione hystrix .
. 307
Chilian Pudu
. 365
Orange Comb-Star
. 307
A Herd of Alpacas
. 366
Pustule Star
308
Vicunas ....
. 367
Moseley's Sea-Lily
309
Collared Peccaries .
. 368
Sea- Porcupine
310
Tree-Porcupine
. 369
Sailing Jelly -Fish .
310
Chinchilla ....
. 371
Actinia equina
311
Viscacha ....
372
Red Coral ....
312
Paca ....
. 373
Musk-Ox ....
315
Carpinchos
. 374
Wapiti ...
318
Peba Armadillo
375
Rocky Mountain Goat
320
Unau ....
377
American Flying Squirrel
322
Glossy Tanager .
383
Canadian Porcupine
324
Grey Cardinal .
384
Raccoon .
327
Orange Troupial .
385
Rattle- Snake
330
Urraca Jay .
386
Virginian Deer .
332
Sickle-Beaked Tree-Pecker
387
Prongbuck .
334
Costa Rican Hammerer
388
Prairie Marmots .
335
Peruvian Cock-of-the-Rock
389
Puma .
339
Ribbon-Tailed Humming- Bird
390
American Badger . . . .
342
Guacharo .
391
The Skunk .
344
Red-Bearded Motmot
392
Opossum .
346
Red-Tailed Jacnmar
394
Pipiri .
348
Russet-Throated Puff- Bird
395
Swallow-Tailed Kite
349
The Harpy .
398
Mexican Turkey .
350
The Condor
399
Floridan Eel-Salamander .
351
Turkey Vulture .
400
Jaguar .
353
Mexican Curassow
401
White-Throated Capuchin
354
Hoatzin .
402
Woolly Spider-Monkey
355
Seriema .
403
Three- Banded Douroucoli
356
Trumpeter .
404
Bald Uacari .
357
Solitary Tinamu .
406
Red Howler . . . .
358
Rhea or Nandu -
407
Xll
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Heloden
PAGE
, 409
Surinam Lantern-Bearer .
tAOh
. 417
Horned Iguana
. 410
Morpho liecuba
. 418
Bushraa.ster
. '411
Long-armed Whip-Scorpion
419
Surinam Water-Toad
. 412
Bird-catching Spider
. 420
Piraya
414
The Mara ....
. 42L
The Double-Eyed Fish .
. 414
Slender-Beaked Parraquet
422
Arapalma .
. 415
Undulated Seed-Snipe
423
Lepidosiren
415
Cuban Solenodon .
424
Hercules Beetle
. 416
Green Tody .
425
ASIA
VOL. II. — I.
THE ARCTIC KOX.
CHAPTER I
The Animals of Arctic Asia
The Boreal zone of animal life extends all round the Xorth Pole, its Asiatic
portion being consequently much more extensive than the European, which com-
prises only the coast from the North Cape to the mouth of the Obi River; and
it may be shortly defined as the tract lying northward of the limit of trees,
where the realm of the Arctic steppe-area, or tundra, begins. In the Western
Hemisphere the northern boundary of tree-growth lies somewhat to the southward
of the Arctic Circle, but in the Eastern Hemisphere runs slightly north of the
same in certain parts of Siberia.
The landscape and vegetation of the tundra bear the impress of the Polar
climate, with its long dark cold winter, and its short cool summer of perpetual
daylight. Among the characteristics of the Arctic winter are the violent winds
which heap up the thin mantle of snow in certain parts of the tundra, and sweep
it clean away in others. Equally noticeable is the absence of moisture in the air,
under the clear wintry sky. The long winter drags on into the months of our
own spring, and in March or April often develops its most intense cold : but in
May the temperature of the air suddenly rises, July being the hottest month,
4 THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC ASIA
while the brief summer ends in August. Although during the greater part of
July and August the sun never sets, its warmth is for the most part used up in
melting the enormous masses of ice and snow, so that very little remains for
©
warming the air.
The summer temperature varies much in different parts of the Boreal area,
hut is almost everywhere low, even during July. Fogs are frequent, and in some
parts occur continually, being often so dense that objects cannot be recognised even
a yard distant. So cold and penetrating, indeed, is this fog, that it wets every-
thing like rain, and sometimes can hardly be distinguished from a drizzle. It is
clear that such a brief and foggy summer cannot allow the warmth of the sun to
penetrate the frozen ground very deeply: and at the most the warming influence
extends only to a depth of from 12 to 18 inches, below which the ground remains
frozen solid. In spite of this permanently frozen soil, the Arctic countries, where
free from ice in summer, are characterised by a vegetation, which although poor in
3p cies clothes a large extent of the tundra with a green mantle, in which moss
j plays a conspicuous part. Only indeed in the southern parts of the tundra, on the
hanks of rivers, and in fiords, are willow-bushes and small meadows, or thickets of
evergreen small-leaved shrubs, rising here and there among mosses, met with.
Where the most severe climate holds sway, the vegetation covers only small
isolated spots separated by the bare stony soil, where the melted snow gathers in
flat cakes on the ground. In such spots, where the soil becomes a swamp containing
thin layers of peat, are the flats of the tundra carpeted with a few flowering plants.
Those most sheltered against the icy winds form, indeed, warm areas where the
almost vertical rays of the sun melt so much of the ice and snow that plants
ive such a supply of water as to cause them to grow with the vigour of those
in the flower-beds of a southern garden. These flowery oases interrupt, however,
only at rare intervals the dead monotony of the tundra, as the time for develop-
ment at the disposal of Arctic plants is limited to a short period of some eight or
nine weeks' duration.
In spite, however, of the moistness of the Arctic summer, the character of the
station in these tracts bears a considerable resemblance to that of the deserts
of more southern latitudes, for owing to the frozen subsoil the roots of the plants
Buffer from dryness at a slight depth, and therefore their leaves, like those of
desert plants, are adapted for retaining water. In general the leaves of
Ar.-tic plants are either of a juicy, or a leathery and hard type, and their scaly or
spiny form presents but little surface to the air, and thus checks wasteful
evaporal ion.
Monotony is the prevailing note of the tundra; everywhere wind and silence,
the sun unci- one long monotonous day, lighted by the pale moon-like sun in a veil
off Far or near there is no green like that of the grassy plains of Europe,
although bere and I here flowery patches of the tundra heather (Cassiope tetragona),
the crow-berry (Empetrum nigrum), or the mountain avens (Dri/as octopetab'),
relieve the dull monotone. Here and there also the white coral-like reindeer
• (Cladonia rangiferina) spreads itself over the ground, while in its midst
half-hidden dwarf willow, or a poor little blossom of the golden saxifrage
( 7* ryaoeplen lum alter n ifolvum), affords a brighter bit of colour. In places again
ARCTIC FOX 5
may be seen the pigmy crow-foot (Ranunculus pygmceus) or perhaps a few
stunted plants, the tiny whitlow-grass or a clump of saxifrage standing out con-
spicuously. The dry leaves and stems of the previous year or two, which
generally remain on the growing plants, and which they serve to protect, do hut
add to the characteristic impression of dearth.
Occasionally, indeed, a yellow Iceland poppy raises its head above the
rest of the herbage, generalhv close to spots overflown by water in early summer;
and where the grass is greener, the plant-patches may widen out and the n
disappear. At wide intervals a vivid green spot breaks the monotonous brown
and grey, showing where the grass grows more richly on some abandoned Samoj ed
camp, or on the holes of the Arctic fox, but even these do little to redeem the
cheerless character of the region.
Apart from the polar bear, which is an inhabitant rather of tin-
Arctic Fox. .
frozen sea, the Arctic fox (Canis lagojnis) is the largest mammal of
the Asiatic Boreal tract, and is indigenous not only to the Eastern but also to the
Western Hemisphere, the southern limit of its distribution being where tree-
growth begins. This peculiar fox is distinguished from others of its tribe by the
short and rounded ears, the short muzzle, and the whiskers on its cheeks. The soles
of its feet are more thickly haired in winter than in summer, to facilitate its
walking on slippery ice and frozen snow, and in these regions its dark, short-
haired summer coat is exchanged for a longer white winter dress. In summer,
with the exception of the yellowish white of the under-parts, the fur is principally
brown or dark rust-colour, but occasionally bluish grey above and nearly white
beneath. These parti-coloured foxes turn absolutely pure white in winter. Such
a change is. however, by no means constant in the species; the valuable " blue-
fox " of the furrier being: skins of individuals of this animal in the winter coat.
As a matter of fact, the Arctic fox is what is called a dimorphic animal : some
individuals turning pure white in winter, while others at this season assunir a
pale slaty-blue coat. Both dark and light individuals may be found in the same
district, and apparently in the same litter. In Iceland none of the Arctic foxes
turn white in winter.
In many places the Arctic fox seems to migrate south in winter, particularly
in the northern section of its American habitat. Although these foxes are known
to store up provisions for that season in certain districts, as in Spitzbergen, it is
possible that their wanderings may be undertaken in search of food. On the
island last named there grow neither berries on which the foxes could subnet
during winter, nor is there open water to be found for a distance of many miles
through which food might be floated to the shore. Moreover the sea-birds, on
which these foxes elsewhere prey, leave these inhospitable shores in October.
Nevertheless, a considerable number of foxes winter in Spitzbergen, where they
are as active during the long polar night as during summer, when their barking. is
so frequently heard. Apparently, therefore, the foxes of Spitzbergen must collect
provisions for the winter, as is the case with those inhabiting other districts.
During the British Polar Expedition of 1875 a large number of dead lemmings were
found hidden in clefts of the rocks, where they had been placed by the foxes as a
winter store.
6 THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC ASIA
The most abundant rodent of the tundra is the common lemming
Lemming, (jLemmus norveygicus), whose distributional area extends from
Norway through Siberia, and whose place is taken by other species in North
America. Lemmings have very small ears, a rather stout body, an arched and
rounded head, an extremely short tail, long claws, and thick fur; the different
3peciea varying to some degree in size and coloration. About 5 inches is the
length of the common Norwegian species. This kind hibernates in winter and
does not turn white. The Arctic lemming (Dicrostonyx torquatus), which under-
„ > 8uch a colour-change, is remarkable for the fact of its developing two claws
„.], front-toe with the assumption of the winter dress, the additional claw
being used for digging. Lemmings subsist on grass, reindeer-moss, birch-catkins,
and probably roots; but in seasons of scarcity they migrate in enormous numbers
to other districts. If a mild winter be followed by an early spring and warm
summer, lemmings increase rapidly, but the dry summer diminishes their food
NORWEGIAN LEMMTNG.
Btore, and thus induces them to travel long distances in search of a fresh supply.
V | only do these tiny rodents cross mountains, valleys, rivers, and lakes, but
Bometimea tiny fall in such numbers into wells and rivers that all the water in the
country i- contaminated and undrinkable.
Swans.
The Boreal /one is far richer in birds than in mammals, among
its larger feathered inhabitants two kinds of swan being common on
the tundra of the Siberian area. Of these, the whistling or whooper swan (Gygnus
bul little known in Europe, although it regularly crosses the North
md Baltic on migration. This species is abundant in the bays of Rugen and
1 loin bul appears on the Frische Baffin such numbers as to make the meadows
* > 1 1 its journeys it passes through England as well as northern
Germany, and is seen as far south as the Lake of Constance and the Swiss lakes,
and sometimes even crosses into northern Africa. Most whistling swans winter,
lowever, in south-eastern Europe, and thousands have been seen at Varna on the
Sea as well as in Asia Minor. Those wintering in Europe and Africa mostly
SWANS — GEESE— HARLEQUIN DUCK 7
come from Lapland and northern Russia. But this splendid swan inhabits not
only the north of Europe and Asia, but also the Boreal zone of North America. In
Iceland some remain throughout the year, but these resort to the open sea when
the inland lakes are frozen. In America the swans migrate as far south in winter
as Virginia, Carolina, and Louisiana. The Siberian birds winter partly on the
Black Sea, and partly on the Caspian, but some remain on the large lakes of
southern Siberia and China; and in the latter country are sometimes seen in
numbers on the lakes near the imperial palace at Peking.
In disposition the whooper is a decidedly quarrelsome and tyrannical bird,
which flies very high while migrating, when it often utters the deep "whoop"
from which its familiar name is derived. Of practically the same size as the mute
swan, it lacks the peculiarly graceful movements of the neck of that bird. Like
the mute swan it is wholly white, but majr be distinguished from the latter by the
jet black feet and the colouring of the beak, which is yellow from the base to
beyond the nostrils, and elsewhere black. The much smaller Bewick's swan
(C. bewicki) is another species travelling south every winter, when it passes
through Finland, crosses the Baltic, and visits Scotland, England, Holland, and
north Germany on its way, journeying almost regularly every year in October and
March. Bewick's swan inhabits nearly the same countries as the whistling swan,
but seems to go farther north ; it has been met with nesting in Novaia Zemlia, but
its principal breeding-area is northern Siberia, whence it visits southern Siberia,
northern China, and Mongolia, where it spends the winter. In Turkestan and
Persia it has apparently not yet been observed, but in Astrakhan it has been seen
passing in great numbers, which probably winter on the shores of the Caspian.
This bird much resembles the whistling swan, but is 10 inches shorter, its length
not exceeding 50 inches ; the yellow in its beak meets the black just at the nostrils,
beyond which it does not extend.
The geese are represented in the north Asiatic tundra by the
Geese. . .
bean-goose, and the white fronted species, which are both breeding
birds in this area, as well as by the snow-goose (Chen hyperboreus), which is
seldom seen in Europe. All these birds rarely winter on the Caspian, but are
seen in innumerable flocks in China, Japan, and Korea, and in the southern states
of North America, and occasionally wander to Mexico and the West Indies. The
snow-goose is a common bird in the Arctic zone of North America, whereas in
north-eastern Asia it nests on the inland lakes and swamps within the Arctic
Circle. It is caught in great numbers by the natives of the north for the sake of
its savoury flesh and its excellent feathers, which are preserved in pits dug in the
frozen ground of the tundra, where they are covered up with earth. With the
exception of the black tips of its wings, the plumage of the snow-goose is entirely
white, but the feet and beak are bright red.
The beautiful harlequin duck (Cosmonetta histrionica), which
Harlequin Duck. , , ,,-,..-,! • • xi u £
belongs to the divmg-ducks, appears m winter on the shores oi
England and Germany, occasionally on the Rhine, the Main, and the upper
Danube, and less frequently on the Lake of Constance. It inhabits the Arctic
zone of Europe, Asia, and America, but is particularly abundant in Siberia, where
it is found nesting down to the Caspian and the Sea of Aral. It is more frequent
8 THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC ASIA
in America than in Asia: in Iceland, where it does not appear in very large
numbers, but Beems to be resident, with a marked preference for flowing water, it
is called stream-duck. The nest is found on the shores of rapid rivers, well hidden
ander willow-bushes or other covert. The bird obtains most of its food from the
bottom of such rivers by diving in the roughest and most troubled waters, and
sists on molluscs, small crustaceans, fish-spawn, insects, and aquatic plants, and
during the breeding-season on the larvae of the gnats found in such quantities in
places of this description. This duck flies strong and fast, dives splendidly, and
nods its head as it swims. It breeds late, the eggs not being laid before the 1st of
July. The colour of the male is remarkable, being chiefly greyish blue, with the
cheeks, a spot on the ear, a stripe on each side of the nape, and a ring round the
c, white: the white markings being mostly edged with black. The sides of
tli.- body are chestnut, as is a stripe on the breast; while the wings are brown,
blue, white, and grey with a purple speculum. The female is much more soberly
clad, being dark brown, with a white ear-patch, and a white breast marked with
brown undulations.
Long-Tailed Equally conspicuous is the long-tailed duck (Harelda glacialis),
Duck. which appears every winter in immense flocks on the shores of the
Baltic and North Sea. Also a diving-duck, this species nests on the Arctic coasts
of Europe, Asia, and America, and though most abundant in Siberia, often
nests "ii the large inland lakes of Lapland. Its European breeding-area includes
ill" lakes and shores of northern Norway, while in other parts of the Continent
it probably appears only on migration, which does not take it far to the south.
Some winter in Iceland, some in the Hebrides where it is known as the musical
• luck, sonic in the Orkneys where it is termed the calloo, many on the mainland
of Scotland and the coast of Scandinavia, a few in England, and fewer still in
many, where it is called the ice-duck. Its southern limits seem to be the
Lake of Constance and northern Italy, where a few stragglers occur. This duck
measures about 26 inches in length; the males being distinguished by the long
and narrow middle tail-feathers. The breeding-plumage of the male is white on
the head, the fore part of the neck, and the upper part of the back, the lower part
«.! t In- back being dark brown ; the breast is brown, and the rest of the lower-parts
whio- : the lores and sides of the face are grey, separated by a white line from the
beak, which is lead-colour with an orange band. The characteristic middle tail-
Feathers arc black, the outer ones being white,
scaup Duck. ^ie ,scauP (Fuligula marila), another common diving-duck in
the Arctic regions, winters in thousands in China and Japan, and
migrates in the west of its Old World habitat as far south as the Mediterranean,
lower Egypi and Arabia. The nest has been found on Loch Leven in Scotland,
well as in Brunswick, Mecklenburg, and other parts of Germany; but the
principal breeding-area of the species is the Arctic zone. This duck feeds more
mimal than on vegetable matter, diving for molluscs to depths down to 12 feet.
On tin German coast it is taken in drift nets of that depth, in the wide meshes
wind, the birds entangle their heads as they dive. The scaup measures about
In colour the drake is greenish black with brown wings barred with
fche b,,cl; is white or speckled, the lower part of the body white, the beak
SCOTERS— GREY PLOVER— BAR-TAILED GOD WIT 9
bluish grey with a black nail, the feet blue with black claws, and the eyes yellow.
The female, which, like the young males, has a white band round the base of the
beak, in colour is brown with whitish wavy linos; the wings being much the same
as in the male.
Among other northern ducks, six species of scoter are common
Scoters. ° . x
to both hemispheres, all of which are black in colour, and dis-
tinguished by a large knob near the base of the broad and flat beak. The common
scoter {(Edemia nigra) swarms in the North Sea every winter, and appears in
thousands on the shores of the British Isles, Holland, and France. It nests,
however, in the polar regions, where it is especially numerous on the Siberian
coasts, also appearing, although rarely, on the Caspian and the Baltic. Returning
to its breeding-area in March and April, this scoter nests mostly in barren
localities near fresh water ; but it is quite marine in its habits, and seldom seen
far away from the sea. Except during pairing-time, it seldom comes on shore,
and even then prefers deep open waters. Being a very shy bird, and alwa}rs out
in the open, it is difficult of approach. In length it is about 20 inches from beak
to tail, and may be recognised by the reddish yellow mark round the nostrils.
The female is brown with whitish tips to the feathers of the under-parts, and a
very small knob on the beak.
The velvet scoter {(E.fasca), which is unknown in Arctic Iceland and Greenland,
and represented in America by (E. deglandi, much resembles in habits the common
species, with which it associates in large flocks. The feathers are as valuable as
those of the eider-duck ; and the species is much hunted in Kamchatka, where the
natives drive it into the bays with boats, where it is killed with sticks. They
also take scoters in nooses, using a stuffed female bird as a decoy ; few are,
however, shot, as these birds sink the body deep into the water while swimming,
only showing the head and neck above the surface. The velvet scoter is rather
larger than the common species, from which it may be distinguished by the white
speculum on the wing, the white spot below the eye, the red feet, and the reddish
yellow beak, of which the base and edges are black.
The plovers of the far north are represented by a species easily
Grey Plover. ...
mistaken for the golden plover, but recognisable by its superior
size, stronger beak, and the presence of a small hind-toe. This bird, the grey
plover (Squatarola helvetica), during migration is often seen on the North Sea,
more seldom on the Baltic, and very rarely inland, though now and then visiting
peat-moors. Inhabiting the north-east of Europe and the north of Asia and
America, the grey plover migrates in August and September, and returns in
March, April, or May. Migration takes it as far south as Cape Colony, the
Malay Archipelago, and Australia, and in America it is met with in Brazil
and Peru. The grey plover is mostly mottled white above and black below,
except the abdomen and tail-coverts, which are white. The wing has a white bar
when open, and the tail is white with six or seven black bars.
Bar-Tailed The bar-tailed godwit (Limosa lapponica), which breeds on the
Goiwit. large swamps and inland waters of northern Sweden, Finland, and
Lapland, on the Peninsula of Kola in northern Russia, and the tundras of
northern Siberia, migrates to central and southern Europe, and appears in
JO
I'HE AMMALS OF ARCTIC ASIA
thousands in the autumn and spring on all the shores of the North Sea, swarming
on the beach as the tide turns, and eagerly following the receding waves. Feeding
on molluscs, insects, and crustaceans, this species may be distinguished from the
black-tailed godwit by the brown-barred feathers of the tail and axillaries, and
the brown-spotted back, of which the lower part is whitish.
spotted An allied species inhabiting the Arctic zone from Norway to
Redshank, southern Siberia, and visiting in the Mediterranean area, or even
still farther south, is the spotted or dusky redshank (Tota.ius fusctis). This bird
nests in tip- highest north, beyond the Arctic Circle, whence it migrates south in
_ ist. in which month, or September, it may sometimes be seen in flocks of six to
twenty on the shores. During their spring migration in April and May these birds
i appear in solitary inland places. One of the largest of the sandpipers, this
species is about a foo( long, and may be recognised by the white lower half of the
« S
^c
M III I- STINT.
rod the brownish bars ou the white secondaries. The beak is almost black,
wuh the lower mandible red ai the base, and the legs are red with black claws.
The (i,lls- which breed in the far north beyond the limits of
tree-growth, are small birds frequenting the sea-shore, where they
■'' for f ' "" ""■ -""'- Sociable in disposition, they breed in colonies and
tteron m large flocks which generally migrate under the leadership of a
^"je other species. The little stint (Tringa mvnuta) selects as its dwelling-
bl<* ' r in her^ge( with quiet nooks and smooth water. But seldom
"'VV"1"^ °f ' '' " preferS 8ma11 bays with muddy soil, or inland
; J: ^ *°" fche 8ea" " breeds i* the north from Scandinavia to the
"insula but in largest numbers in northern Asia beyond the Urals.
migrates - far as Cape Colony and Ceylon, and occurs in almost
V:UiVy.;:] Eur°P« «* — tern Asia. A quiet, brisk, confiding bird.
,'"'"''- ^me Prom its grasshopper-like call of "stint" and having a
KNOT— PURPLE SANDPIPER— BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER n
twittering trill by way of a song, the little stint is distinguished by the shining
white of its under-parts, the chestnut brown of the back, and its small size, the
length being only about 6 inches. Teinminck's stint (T. temmincki), which does
not extend so far east in its breeding-range as the last, and travels less far to the
south on migration, differs by having the six outer tail-feathers white instead of
grey, as well as by the darker colour of the legs, and its somewhat superior bodily
size. The Siberian birds winter in India, while those nesting in Europe seem to
bear to the west, and are much more frequent in spring and autumn in Britain.
France, Switzerland, and Spain than elsewhere. M any have also been found
wintering in Senegambia.
The knot (T. canutus) also migrates through the west of Europe,
Knot. . . .... r
its main route to Africa taking it through Sweden, Denmark,
Scotland, England, France, and Holland, the numbers passing through Germany
being comparatively few. When migrating across Asia it visits southern Siberia,
Lake Baikal, and China, and journeys as far south as New Zealand. As a breed-
ing bird it inhabits the Arctic countries of Europe, Asia, and America, and seems
to nest more frequently near inland waters than by the sea-shore. Running with
short, quick steps, it holds the wings straight up when crossing soft mud or
stepping over watery places. The flight is fast and straight with strong, although
not frequent, movements of the widely expanded wings. The knot, which feeds
on the smaller animals of the shore, such as insects and their larvae, is the largest
of its kind, being almost as large as the golden plover. In summer the plumage
is chestnut-brown spotted with blackish on the upper part of the bod}" ; but in
winter the colour is ashy grey above, with dark bars on the lower part of tin-
back and the white upper tail-coverts. The throat and under-parts are white, and
the feet and beak black.
Purple Frequenting steep and rugged shores, where the sea washes
sandpiper, the wildest rocks and sprinkles them with its spray, the purple
sandpiper (T. maritima) in May repairs inland to nest on some elevated plateau
or in some moorland valley, where it is often found in numbers. When surprised,
the young birds hide away, while the old ones, uttering the most pitiful cries,
scud about with ruffled feathers, drooping wings, and body almost touching the
ground. At other times the purple sandpiper is less mindful of its safety. It
walks gracefully, swims well, and has a strong undulating flight, while in
character it is sociable and peaceable. In diet it differs in some ways from its
relatives, since it subsists principally on small shell-fish. The breeding-area,
which is circumpolar, extends to a higher latitude than that of any other sand-
piper, embracing the shores of Hudson Bay, Labrador, Greenland, Iceland,
Spitzbergen, Novaia Zemlia, northern Lapland, and northern Siberia, and seeming
to include the Fame Islands in its southern boundary. In winter this bird
migrates to the Mediterranean, and the Azores on one side of the Atlantic, and
the Bermudas on the other. About 8 inches long, the species is distinguished- by
the blackish upper tail-coverts, the white bar on the wings, and the yellow feet.
Broad-Billed The broad-billed sandpiper (Trivga platyrhyncha), which is
sandpiper. f0Und in muddy shallow places in stagnant water, where grass does
not grow too abundantly, and where cattle drink and leave innumerable foot-
I 2
THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC ASIA
prints, nests in the Scandinavian mountains and the swamps of Finland, although
true br ling-grounds are in the tundras of Arctic Europe and Asia. In
autumn this bird migrates as far south as Formosa, Bengal, and Madagascar.
In babits it is as much a snipe as a sandpiper. In colour it is blackish brown
above, with a white eye-stripe, and a brown spot in front of the eye which is
placed well in the centre of the side of the head; the beak is broad in the middle
/
//
&*9
agS^^p^
**
^
RED-NECKED 1'IIAI.AROPE.
and longer than the head, curving slightly downwards at the point. It is not
a large bird, being only some (i inches in length.
Another well-known member of this group is the sanderling
Sanderling. . a i _ »
(Cahdris arenaria), which inhabits Hat and sandy shores, Vicing
seldom seen on muddy ground. During the nightless summer it breeds within
the Arctic Circle, its ana extending ;,]] round the pole; and on migration it
aches Borneo, Java Ceylon, Cape Colony, Patagonia, and the Sandwich Islands,
aving representatives dnring the winter in almost every country on the way.
PHALAROPES — SNOWY OWL 13
The sanderling walks daintily and briskly, with an occasional short run,
and flies fast and energetically. Its food consists of worms, molluscs, crustaceans,
and other small inhabitants of the shore. The plumage of the upper part of the
body is grey in autumn and chestnut in spring, while the under-parts are white,
with the exception of the brown-spotted breast, and the beak, legs, and feet,
which are greenish black. In length it is about 8 inches. The sanderling is
best recognised by its three toes and the large amount of white in its plumage.
The phalaropes, that is the fringed feet — from their toes bein<r
Phalaropes. .
lobed like those of the grebes — are also birds of the far north where
they wander about in summer on the shores and feed on insects, molluscs, and
algee, leaving them in winter to find their food on the surface of the sea. The
red-necked phalarope (Phalaropus hyperboreus) nests in the Arctic regions,
mostly in the neighbourhood of the sea, but sometimes also far inland, where
it is not found at other seasons. Breeding as far north as Novaia Zemlia,
and as far south as Ireland, this bird is abundant in northern Asia and North
America. On migration the American birds journey down the continent into
Chile, while those from Asia are met with on the shores of the Indian Ocean and
the islands of the Malay Archipelago. Phalaropes spend most of their time on
the water, swimming high and lightly, and are very grebe-like in their habits,
although, owing to the closeness of the feathers and the lightness of the body,
they cannot dive. They rise as easily from the water as from the ground, and
are as graceful on the wing as when swimming. The red-necked phalaropr,
which is 7 inches in length, may be distinguished by its thin, tapering, black
beak. The head and shoulder- feathers are dark grey, those of the back and
wings being darker, with light edges ; the breast is ashy grey, the neck chestnut,
except at the nape, while the under-parts are white, and there is a white
bar on the wing. The female, which is larger than the male, has a brighter
coloured plumage. Unlike most birds, she selects her mate, and does all the
courting, the pair taking turns in sitting on the eggs.
The grey phalarope (P. fulicarius) frequents similar haunts, breeding all
round the North Pole, although most abundantly in northern Siberia, where it
nests on the small pools in the lower parts of the tundra. On migration this
bird traverses nearly half the globe, having been met with off the coasts of Chile
and New Zealand. The grey phalarope is more gregarious than its red-necked
relative, being rarely seen alone and often in flocks of fifty or more. In other
respects the resemblance between the two is close, the females of the present
species being also larger and richer in plumage than the males, and making all
the advances during the pairing-season. The eggs of both species are four in
number, and both have the same extremely pointed shape, but those of the grey
kind are larger and not so deep in their brown ground-colour. On the upper-
parts the grey phalarope is dusky grey, and below chestnut ; the tail has the two
middle feathers more than half an inch longer than the rest ; and the beak is flat
and broad, and yellow, with a black tip.
The snowy owl (Nyctea scandiaca) not only breeds, but is
snowy owl. permanently resident, in the Arctic regions of both hemispheres.
Naturally it is most abundant where prey is most easily obtained. Although in
14
THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC ASIA
i-
winter the plumage is pure snowy white, in summer it is flecked with brown, thus
exhibiting in a modified decree the colour-change so conspicuous in many Arctic
mammals. The loud of this great white owl comprises Arctic hares, lemmings, mice,
and birds. If these animals are compelled by the winter cold to move southwards,
the snowy owl follows them. In America it is said to reach Florida and Texas:
in Europe it winters in Lithuania and Poland, and rarely in Denmark and Great
Britain ; in Asia it
has been found in
the valley of the
Indus. Its nest is
a small heap of moss
on the ground ; and
the eggs are from
four to seven in
fejj number, being more
~%k, j j0 than are hatched
by any other owl of
the same size. The
adults, which seek
their prey by day
as well as by night,
select prominent
hillocks for their
look - out stations.
At rest they gener-
ally sit erect with
the wings partly
'*i ml JmM hidden under the
fluffy side feathers ;
and when fluttering
and hovering across
the tundra they
make an audible
beating with their
wings, so that the
flight is not silent
like that of other
owls. In length the
vv owl. snowy owl measures
about 24 inches. Its
plumage is white with dark brown mottlings or bars in summer, but tends to
become lighter with age, and, as already said, in old individuals becomes pure
white in winter. The toes are thickly feathered : most so in American examples.
Gerfalcons. ' '"' '-,'rl';l,,,<)lls ;"'e distributed round the North Pole in several
species differing so slightly from each other that they might almost
ssed as varietiea During three months of the year they find abundant food
ROUGH-LEGGED B UZZARD—SNO IV- B UN TEX t , , 5
within the Arctic Circle, but when the animals on which they prey are driven
southward by the winter, these falcons follow them. Above the tree-line the egga
of these birds are laid on rocks ; within it the nests are built on trees, the old
nests of other birds being sometimes occupied and relined with grass and moss.
The eggs, from three to four in number, which are laid in May or June, vary
much in their markings, but have always a white ground-colour. This is more or
less clouded — sometimes entirely — with reddish brown. The young falcons are
plentifully provided for by their parents, mainly with birds caught while on the
wing. In the Middle Ages gerfalcons were highly valued for hawking purposes,
and are still so used by the tribes of the northern steppes. From 19 to 22 inches
is the usual length of these birds, which vary greatly in colour, some being nearly
white, while others are of all intermediate shades between this and dark grey.
Light and dark birds have been found in the same nest, but none quite white,
as the whiteness seems to come only with old age. The species known as Falco
candicans, the Greenland falcon, has white plumage, with or without brown
markings, the tail being white, the flanks without bars, and the beak yellow.
The other two northern species have blue beaks and barred flanks, F. islandicus
having a white head with narrow black streaks, while in F. gyrfalco, the grey
gerfalcon, the crown is grey mottled with black. The Iceland falcon appears
peculiar to the island from which it takes its name. The Greenland falcon nests
on Bering Island and throughout Arctic America, while the grey species builds
in the north from Norway to Hudson Bay, and is the one most abundant in Arctic
Siberia.
Rough-Legged The rough-legged buzzards (Archibuteo) differ from the true
Buzzard. buzzards by the completely feathered legs, and from the eagles —
which they resemble in having the tarsus reticulated behind — by the weaker and
shorter beak, and by the nostrils being concealed by an overhanging shelf. The
species common in Arctic Siberia, A. lagopus, is an inhabitant of the tundra, but
breeds in Russia as far south as 56° N. latitude. When driven south by the
inclemency of the winter in October and November, it is seen in the British Isles,
central Europe, and central Asia. In March it returns north to nest on the dwarf
birches, or the beds of reindeer-moss, or even on the bare ground. The food of
these birds is generally similar to that of the true buzzards, but in Siberia
principally consists of lemmings. The rough-footed buzzard carries its wings
somewhat lower than usual, and its flight is slow and straight. The toes and cere
are yellow, the head and neck white ; and there is much white in the plumage, of
which the colour is mainly brown above ; the tail is, however, white marked with
black bars, which are most numerous in old birds. The female has less white in
her plumage than the male, and is, as is usual among birds-of-prey, rather larger,
being 26 inches in length, while the male measures only 22£ inches.
Passing on to a very different group of birds, we find the snow-
bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis) living beyond the boundaries of
tree -growth all round the North Pole, but more abundant in mountainous
districts than on the tundra. In Scandinavia this strikingly coloured bunting is
found only on the highest peaks of the Dovrefjeld, and in northern Lapland close
to the boundary of perpetual snow. It is also met with in Spitzbergen, Novaia
I
THE AXIMALS OF ARCTIC ASIA
Zemlia, and Iceland, and has been found nesting even in Grinnell Land in latitude
N:> 33' X.. while it not infrequently builds in the north of Scotland. Every
autumn these birds migrate in immense flocks to milder regions when the deep
snow makes it impossible for them to find food in the north. They do not, how-
ever, come south before the middle of November, and by the beginning of March
they have all disappeared on their northward journey. Meanwhile they have
been wandering about on the fields and roads free from snow, and even in village-
streets, thus showing, while
in their winter-haunts, that
they are not forest birds, as
they never perch on trees,
but always settle on stones
or rocks. In their breeding-
area they frequent bare cliffs,
and other solitary spots
where nothing but stunted
willow-bushes, heather, or a
thin carpet of mountain-
plants covers the ground, and
no human footstep breaks
the silence. The snow-bunt-
ing is a lively, peaceable bird,
with a walk like that of a
lark. When a flock is search-
ing for food on the ground,
it looks as if it were rolling
along, owing to the hindmost
birds flying ahead of their
leaders as soon as the latter
have settled down. In sum-
mer the snow-buntino- lives
on the gnats and flies of the
tundra, as well as on seeds
and tender plants. In length
the adult bird measures
about 7 inches. The species
differs from others of its
tribe by the length of its
wings which reach almost
"I1 "I' the |;1il. The plumage is black above, with white wing-
ts, and black and white primaries and tail. In winter the black feathers
have pale brown edges, so that the dark plumage becomes rufous.
Lapland Bunting . Al|l,,1"'r member of the same group, the Lapland bunting
I Plectrophanea Iwpponicus), also breeds in the far north, but inhabits
ow-lying swampyparts ofthe tundra, and not the bare uplands, avoidino- when
m, the snow, before which it retires gradually south. For winter-quarters this
SNOW-BUB
LAPLAND BUNTING i7
bird chooses fields without trees, and when the snow falls keeps to the high roads.
Nesting all round the pole, in America it has been seen as far south as Colorado,
and in Europe it visits northern Italy, while the Siberian birds descend to the
valley of the Yang-tsi. Among the conspicuous features of the plumage is a broad
white eye-stripe, continued down the sides of the neck ; the crown, throat, and
breast are black ; the nape is bright chestnut, the rest of the upper-parts being
dark brown streaked with white or rufous, and the under-parts white, while the
wings are spotted. The beak is yellow tipped with black, and the legs are wholly
black ; the hind claw is nearly straight, and longer than the toe, thereby differing
from that of the snow-bunting. The whole length of the bii*d is about 6j- inches.
The distribution of this species is very similar to that of the snow-bunting ;
but to Great Britain it is only a casual autumn and winter visitor, almost unknown
in Scotland and the neighbouring isles, although a specimen was recorded from the
Flannan Islands in the Outer Hebrides in 1904. In Ireland it appears to be
altogether unknown ; and no instance of its nesting in the United Kingdom has
been recorded. In this it is unlike the snow-bunting, which breeds regularly in the
Shetlands and on Ben Nevis and in certain other parts of Scotland.
On account of the length of the claw of the hind-toe, which exceeds that of
the toe itself, the Lapland bunting, together with two nearly allied North Ameri-
can species, is frequently separated generically from the snow-bunting under the
name of Calcarius lapponicus, but such distinction seems unnecessary and it is
therefore here included in the genus PlectrophaTles, which is typified by the
snow-bunting.
vol. n.-
i
£--#
SIBERIAN PICA.
CHAPTER II
The Animal Life of Siberia
The Siberian tract is bounded on the north by the line of tree-growth, on the west
by the Ural Mountains, on the south-west by the Kirghiz steppes, and on the south
by the mountain-ranges extending from the Pamir Plateau in the south-west to
the Sea of Okhotsk and forming the north-western slope of the central Asiatic
highlands. The climate of this vast area, speaking generally, is very like that of the
Baltic area of Europe, of which indeed Siberia may be regarded as an eastern
extension where the original conditions have been less altered by agriculture and
settlement.
The greater part of this tract is situated within the forest and pasture belts
of the northern temperate zone, the forests being more distinctly separated into
those of deciduous trees and those of conifers than is the case elsewhere, although
mixed forests exist whose origin, as in Europe, may in great part be
due to human agency. Wherever forestry has not interfered with the original
primitive conditions, forests of pine generally occupy the colder districts, and
,h"M' "' deciduous trees the warmer areas, that is to say,such as are situated in the
south and within the maritime zone. Exceptions there are, indeed, due to peculiar-
l,"'s"t the situation or the soil. Sandy and peaty ground will, for instance, be
overed with conifers even within the zone of deciduous trees ; while birch-forests
"■'•">• more to the northward and at a greater elevation than pine-forests.
1,1 comparing the Siberian fauna with that of Europe, it will be interesting to
18
VEGETATION i9
contrast also the forests, although, unfortunately, only in very small areas in
Europe has even an approximation to the old primeval conditions been retained.
In Bohemia, on the estate of Prince Adolf of Schwarzenberg, there is, however, a
large stretch of forest still retaining much of the primeval wild state, a condition
which it is intended to preserve in perpetuity. Unlike woods due to human agency,
these virgin forests consist of a mixture of firs, pines, beeches, alders, elms, and
sycamores; and it is only at a considerable elevation that firs begin to reign
supreme. Everywhere the ground is cumbered by fallen trunks, from the
mouldering remains of which have sprouted younger trees. The soil, covered with
a carpet of luxuriant moss, produces a plentiful undergrowth of beech, fir, and
pine, which only await the falling of some forest giant to develop to their full
height. Generally speaking, it may be said that the trunks of such trees have
reached a diameter of only from 4 to 8 inches in from a hundred and twenty to
a hundred and sixty years. A different reason is accountable for the slow
development of the Siberian trees ; the climate, especially in winter, being poor in
moisture, so that the trees are exposed to long and dry frosts, and consequently
grow very slowly. The forests consist principally of larches, but partly also of
pines, firs, and beeches, and have no brushwood, although farther north the long
wreaths of blackish grey mosses and lichens hanging from the trees give an
appearance of recent origin, which on closer examination proves deceptive.
The southerly and maritime forests of the area situated in a milder climate
stamp the landscape with a different character; the dense forests of Kamchatka,
for instance, being interspersed with fertile meadows. In these latter the
principal plants are perennial grasses (mostly growing in tufts, and seldom creeping)
with flat green leaves, which do not roll up in dry seasons. These grasses, with
a few included plants, form a compact sheet of verdure, but on poor ground
there are wide tracts covered with moss alone, while some localities are actually
bare, thus changing the character of the country from that of meadow-land
to that of a steppe, or giving it the appearance of an ordinary field. The meadows
are mostly of smaller extent than the original steppes, especially where, owing to
a moist climate, pastures and forests alternate with one another. Probably land-
scapes of this description once extended all over Europe, since the climate of the
Continent is favourable to the growth of both grass and trees, and produces
numerous plants not belonging to the sylvan flora, which seem to prove the exist-
ence of natural meadows at earlier periods. These by cultivation have been
transformed into the fertile meadows of the present day, which are certainly
widely different from their prototypes. Siberia, however, has preserved these
primitive meadows in their natural condition, and amid the grass are many taller
plants, especially spirals and umbellifers, some of which exceed the height of a
man.
The forest and meadow zone of Siberia gradually merges into the tundra in
the north, while to the south, especially to the south-west, it passes into the area of
the steppes. The steppes, being situated in a climate with cold winters, are less
abundant in grasses than the plains of warmer countries, although they contain
more plants with woody stems, and more dwarf shrubs than the meadows. The
steppe-grasses have narrower leaves than the meadow-grasses, and are in conse-
20
THE ANIMAL LIFE OF SIBERIA
quence curled up in dry weather— a preservative against the evaporation of sap,
which is also prevented by the wax-like nature of the leaves, and close tissue of
the epidermis. Animals, as well as perennial bulbous plants, are more frequent in
the steppes than in the meadows ; and the evergreen shrubs are mostly small-leaved,
with a protective covering of fine hairs.
Owing to the milder climate and more abundant vegetation, the
Siberian fauna is more varied than that of the tundras and includes
representatives of a larger number of groups. Among the hoofed group, the elk is
the largest of the Siberian mammals; the Asiatic habitat of this species extending
from the boundaries of European Russia to the Siberian forest-zone, although the
precise limits of its range are still undetermined.
The true deer are represented by the Manchurian wapiti {Cervus canadensis
xanihopygus), the isubra of the natives, which although long confounded with
the red deer, is now known to be a near relative of the American wapiti, from
which., among other features, it is distinguished by the reddish tinge of its summer
coat. From Manchuria the range of this wapiti extends into Amurland. The
Siberian roe (Capreolus pygargus) is a much larger and lighter-coloured animal
than its European relative, with heavier and more rugged antlers, larger and more
thickly haired cars, and a greater amount of white on the rump. Manchuria is
also the home of a smaller kind of roebuck {Capreolus bedfordi), apparently more
nearly akin to the European species.
The musk-deer (Moschus moschiferws) is likewise found in Siberia, although
apparently not so commonly as in the tract farther south. The wild sheep of
this an-a is the Kamcliatkan bighorn (Ovis canadensis nivicola), a near ally of
the northern forms of American bighorn, but distinguished by certain peculiarities
in coloration and the conformation of the skull. Information with regard to the
precise range of this handsome sheep is much required, but it is known to extend
from Kamchatka to the Stanovoi Mountains. Horns measurino; from 35 to 38
inches along the curve have been recorded. A small member of the argali group
(0. ammo a storcki) has also been described from Kamchatka.
, With the exception of the beaver the largest of the rodents in
the Siberian area is the mountain hare, a species also found in the
tundra. The Siberian pica (Ochotona alpina) is, on the other hand, an
inhabitant of the steppe, where the entrances to its burrows may often be seen
in hundreds or even thousands. Besides holes in the ground, these picas
live in rocky clefts or among crumbling rocks ; and when grazing near their
homes often betray themselves by the loud whistling, from which they take
their name of whistling hares, a title, however, not applicable to all the members
of the group.
Picas drink but little, and never hibernate, although many of the places
inhabited by them are under snow for months. In autumn they collect large
quantities of grass, which is their principal food, and in Siberia build this up in
- a yard or more high, to afford a supply during the winter. Not infre-
quently these hay-stacks are annexed by sable-hunters, as provender for their horses.
Siberian pica is about 9 inches long, and greyish brown in colour, with a
y.ll, .wish tinge on the under-parts.
RODENTS
21
squirrel and The European squirrel inhabits the Siberian forest zone from the
chipmunk. Ural in the west to the Pacific in the east : this eastern representa-
tive of the species being light grey in colour. In the same area lives the sniped
Siberian ground-squirrel or chipmunk (Tamias asiaticus), which extends as far
west as the Dwina in Russia, and as far east as Amurland. In North America
it is represented by a number of allied species.
susliks and Mar- Susliks also are represented in northern Asia, the long-tailed
mots. species (Spermophilus eversmanni) being the most abundant in the
north-east. The bobac marmot (Arctomys bobac), ranging from Galicia and
southern Poland to the Amur countries and Kamchatka, is also abundant. This
species inhabits plains or low hills, where it digs its many-chambered burrows, each
large enough to contain a numerous family. Early in the morning the marmots
appear at the entrance of their burrows, after the manner of their kind, to feed on
roots, herbs, and grass. They use hay to line their burrows, and spend the whole
winter in deep sleep ; the young, which are born in spring, and half-grown by the
middle of summer, are not so numerous as in the Alpine species, there being
frequently only one at a birth. The 'bobac is a smaller animal than its cousin of
the Alps, measuring only some 15 inches from the nose to the root of the tail.
In colour it is uniformly grey and rusty yellow, and its front teeth are white
instead of orange. It is believed to be the animal in which bubonic plague
originates.
The lovely Siberian flying-squirrel or polatouche (Sciuropter"<
volans), which is a rare animal in museums, is one of the smallest of
its tribe, being only about 6 inches in length. In colour it is brown above and
white below, the tail being grey superiorly and chestnut underneath. With its
large expressive eyes this little creature is one of the prettiest of all rodents. It
inhabits Siberia as far east as the Lena, and is also found in Lapland and northern
Russia; ranging as far north as the boundary of forest-growth, and to the south-
west occurring in Lithuania and the Russian Baltic provinces. In the European
parts of its area, however, especially in the west, it is becoming rare. The haunts
of this species are the forests, sometimes of fir, but more often those of birch, in
the latter of which it is almost invisible in winter owing to its white winter coat
so exactly matching the silvery bark. Although not hibernating during the cold
season, it ventures out of its retreat only in mild weather. Its food, which it eats
in squirrel-fashion, consists of the buds and bark of the birch, and all kinds of seeds
and fruits. As this rodent is not entirely nocturnal, it may often be observed in
the day-time, but becomes most lively towards dusk. Dwelling entirely in trees,
in the branches and holes of which it makes its nest, in its flying leaps it often
covers a distance of 100 feet from stem to stem ; its flying apparatus acting,
of course, as a parachute, and not as wings.
One of the European dormice, the tree-dormouse, is also found, in
other Kodents. giberi& The ]argest northern rodent, the beaver, occurs in many
places on the Obi, but seems to have disappeared from eastern Siberia. The
hamster also ranges into Siberia, but not farther east than the Obi. The water-
rat, however, ranges over the whole area ; and on the lower Yenesei, its fur is
used for clothing purposes and forms an important article of trade.
22
THE ANIMAL LIFE OF SIBERIA
The habitat of the northern field-mouse (Microtias ratticeps) extends from
Sweden and Lapland through northern Russia over the greater part of Siberia
where this rodent lives in the forests and their outskirts ; its principal food consist-
ing of roots. The root-vole (M. ceconomus), which derives its name from its habit
of gathering stores of edible roots, inhabits Siberia and Kamchatka. These mice
live generally in pairs, and in spring migrate in vast numbers to the west, whence
th.-yreturn in autumn anxiously expected by the fur-hunters for the sake of the
valuable furs yielded by the small carnivora which follow the host in large numbers.
Other kinds of field-mice, or voles, also inhabit Siberia. Lemmings are repre-
sent-! in northern Asia and North America by the banded species (Dicrostonyx
torqtuitax), whose popular name appears to be derived from the black stripe down
the back. Among other members of the mouse tribe, the harvest-mouse is found
in Siberia, as is also the long-tailed field-mouse, although only in the western
portion of the country. The house-mouse and the brown rat are as frequent
in human habitations throughout this tract as they are in similar situations in
Europe. The Asiatic representative of the jumping-mice (Zapus) is said to reach
Siberia, although its main habitat is the Sze-chuan district of China.
The lynx ranges all over Siberia; but the common wild cat
is replaced in Asia north of the Himalaya by Pallas's cat (Felis
manvl), which is, however, more particularly indigenous to central Asia. The
Manchurian race of the tiger (Felis ticjris longipilis), which occurs in the south of
the area, can hardly be regarded as a true Siberian animal ; and the same is the case
with the snow-leopard, which ranges but little farther north than the Altai. The
fox ranges all through Siberia, while the wolf extends beyond the forest zone into
the tundra, and is even said to venture out on the ice of the Arctic Ocean as far as
the Kuriles, occasionally crossing to America.
Unlike the wolf and the fox, the Siberian wild dog (Canis [Oyon]
alpinus) does not belong to the fauna of Europe, but to an Asiatic
group of Canidce, all the members of which have one tooth less on each side of the
lower jaw than the true dogs. They have also a proportionately shorter muzzle,
long hairs between the pads of their feet, and twelve to fourteen teats instead
of ten. This group, which in some respects approaches the hunting-dog of Africa,
ranges over Siberia and central Asia as far as Amurland, and also occurs on the
island of Saghalin, as well as throughout India, Burma, and the Malay countries,
far as is known, is absent from northern China and Japan. Although some
other name than wild dogs would perhaps have been more appropriate for these
animals, from their habit of hunting in packs, their fine and handsome appearance,
and their courage, the Asiatic wild dogs in one way fully deserve their title. The
Siberian wild dog, which inhabits Siberia at least to the Altai, and probably still
farther Bouth, appears now and then on the open steppe, but prefers forests,
especially those covering the mountains, as on the eastern shore of the Yenesei.
It is not found everywhere within this area, but only locally; its distribution
depending, perhaps, partly on the nature of the country, and partly on the supply
of suitable prey, which in some parts includes even deer. The Siberian wild dog,
which is distinguished from its Indian and Malay relatives principally by its larger
upper tine molar teeth, varies in hue either individually, locally, or according
BROWN BEAR— SABLE — SIBERIAN MINK 23
to season, but generally speaking its colour is like that of a fox in summer and
whitish in winter.
Kamchatkan The brown bear is another mammal ranging all over Siberia,
Brown Bear. ancj js particularly large and numerous in Kamchatka, where it is
represented by the race known as Ursus arctus piscator, but the Siberian race may
be distinct. In Kamchatka bears make paths of about a couple of feet wide
along the wooded banks of the rivers, at a distance of some two yards from the
water, which sometimes follow the rivers all through the forests. These paths are
partly made for the sake of reaching the salmon on which this bear feeds during
certain seasons in Kamchatka. In places they are littered with half-devoured fish,
the heads of which are crushed, but the tails and intestines left untouched. When
fishing, the bears are said to wade slowly into the water, and in a depth of about
18 inches wait motionless for their prey, as they swim upstream, probably killing
them with their paws, and then carrying them ashore to feed on the best parts.
The European pine-marten ranges into Siberia, which is the
special home of the much more valuable sable {Mustela zibellma).
Although a near relative of the pine-marten, the latter is distinguished by the more
conical head, the larger ears, the longer and stouter legs, and the proportionately
larger feet. Of a blackish colour above, with a dark grey nose, grey cheeks, a
chestnut-brown neck and flanks, greyish white or light brown edges round the
ears, and an orange-coloured throat, the sable sometimes shows a few white hairs
among the dark fur of the back ; the nose, cheeks, and under-parts being white.
Occasionally, however, it is yellowish brown above and nearly white below, with
onlv the legs black.
The sable originally ranged from the Urals to Bering Sea, and from
68° N. latitude to the mountains bordering Siberia on the south, but it has been so
much hunted that it has disappeared from many districts, and is now met with
only in the forests of the northern mountains, especially those of eastern Siberia,
and in Kamchatka. Dwelling in the most inaccessible and unfrequented localities,
deep in the primeval forest, it avoids the proximity of man, and but very rarely
appears near villages. Mainly nocturnal, and sleeping beneath the roots of trees,
or in holes in their trunks by day, it is a dangerous enemy to hares and most other
small mammals, as well as to birds of all kinds, and it also feeds on fishes and
berries. Once a year in April the female gives birth to four or five young.
The beech -marten does not belong to the fauna of Siberia,
Siberian Mink. , . , , ,1 • mi
but the polecat occurs in the southern provinces. Ihe ermine is
distributed throughout the area, as is also to a great extent the weasel, although
the latter is not found so far north. More noteworthy is the Siberian mink
(Mustela sibirica), which ranges east of the Yenesei, and also occurs in northern
and central Europe. This species resembles generally the polecat, or rather has
dark and light markings on the head and face similar to those of the latter. Both
above and below it is uniform tan-brown in colour. Of its habits scarcely anything
is known.
Although by no means confined to the Old World, or even to
0 venne. giberia) the glutton or wolverine (Gulo luscus) may be regarded as
a characteristic animal of the latter. So much has been written, both true and
24 THE ANIMAL LIFE OF SIBERIA
false, regarding this animal, that our notice here may well be brief. Although
undoubtedly voracious, it does not appear to be so gluttonous as has been asserted.
Neither does it attack reindeer, unless they be sick or wounded, devoting its atten-
tion to foxes and other mammals of a size more suited to its powers. In addition
to feeding on carrion, it is active enough to catch hares and many kinds of birds.
If it comes across the carcase of a deer left by hunters it will not touch the
inviting banquet the first night, but revisits the kill the second night, when it
3 its fill, burying in the ground what it cannot eat. So partial indeed are
wolverines to carcases, that they will gnaw through thick wood, or even dig a
hole several feet into the ground in order to get at a slain deer.
Of other Carnivora, the badger is widely distributed in Siberia, ranging as
far east as the river Lena ; while the otter is found over almost the whole area,
its northern limits nearly reaching the Arctic Circle.
tosectivora and Of the insect-eating mammals, the hedgehog ranges as far east
Bats. as Anmrland ; while the shrews are represented in Siberia by the
common shrew and the pigmy shrew throughout the country from east to west.
The water-shrew is spread along the south of the tract, and the spider musk-shrew
ranges into the north-eastern districts. The northern limits of the mole extend
to some portion of the valle}^ of the Lena. A large number of bats inhabit
smaller or larger areas in Siberia, but as all these are essentially southern types
they can in no sense be regarded as characteristic of this vast tract.
Arctic Blue- The Siberian area is much richer in birds than the Arctic
Throat and region ; the perching-birds, which are there so scarce, being repre-
Ruby Throat. sente(j j^ qUite a number of species. One of the Siberian songsters
is the Arctic blue-throat (Cyanecula succica), which breeds also in northern
Sc mdinavia and northern Russia, and seems to be the onhy blue-throat of northern
Asia. It appears in Germany on migration, but so seldom, that in travelling
during the night it would seem to take about nine hours to fly from the German
t to Egypt. In Siberia, where it nests in great numbers, it is found as far east
i- Kamchatka This bird, which has a light ej^e-stripe, is distinguished from the
central European blue-throat b}T a red in place of a white spot on the throat. An
allied species, the ruby -throat (Calliope camchatkensis), on its return from winter-
quarters in India, southern China, and the Philippines, appears in southern
Siberia in April, although it does not visit the tundra before the snows have
melted. Thickets and underwood are the haunts of this shy, solitary bird, whose
song much superior to that of the blue-throat— resembles the music of the
nightingale. The silky plumage of the male is of uniform olive-brown above,
with the chin and throat of a brilliant scarlet-red, the breast grey, and the cheeks
in-] eye-stripe white. The wheatear is as common in the north of Asia as in the
north of Europe, and so is the dipper.
Thrush Tribe ^ *"ne thrush tribe, the rock-thrush, although local, is abundant
in Siberia, while the fieldfare, missel-thrush, song-thrush, and
redwing abound every where in summer. On the other hand, the red-tailed fieldfare
( Twrdua naumanni) and red-necked thrush (T. ruficollis), which inhabit northern
'•1 central Asia, are species equally common, but unknown in Europe. From the
Glutton or wolverine.
WARBLERS AND TITS 25
same districts the dark thrush (T. obscwrus) as well as the Siberian thrush
(T. sibiricus) visit Europe as birds of passage.
Accentors and The Alpine accentor ranges from the south of Europe to the
Warblers. cliffs of the sea of Okhotsk, although its European relative, the
common hedge-sparrow, does not range much farther east than the Urals. Another
species, the mountain accentor (Accentor montanellus), is found right across
the continent, being common round Lake Baikal, as well as in the Stanovoi
Mountains and eastern Siberia generally From western central Asia, where it
also appears, it sometimes migrates to the Crimea, Hungary, Dalmatia, and Italy,
where, as in Pekin, it is caught, and kept for sale in cages. Both the garden-
warbler and the blackcap have been found near Omsk in western Siberia, while
the white-throat also occurs in that region, as well as the lesser white-throat, which
ranges much farther east. Another species, Eversmann's warbler (Pliylloscopn*
borealis), which is found with the blue-throat in the high north, winters in the
Malay Archipelago. This warbler has a strong beak, thick at the base, brown
legs, and a broad yellow eye-stripe ; in colour its plumage is greenish and olive-
brown above and grejdsh white with a yellowish hue below, the wings having
yellow edges and two whitish bars.
Goidcrest and Another song-bird visiting Siberia is the goldcrest, which may
Tits- be seen wherever there are forests suited to its habits. The great
and the coal tit also nest in the country, but the crested tit does not breed east of
the Urals, being replaced by other species. The same holds good for the marsh-tit,
which occurs in western Siberia, and is represented in the eastern districts by
the mandarin tit (Parus camchatkensis). The blue-tit's distributional area ends
in western Siberia, but that of the azure tit (P. cyanus) extends as far eastward
as the Amur. This tit also inhabits northern Europe, where it has been found
nesting in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In colour its plumage is blue and white, the
head being white with a blue band through the eye, the wings blue with a white
bar and white tips, while the tail-feathers are blue, the outer ones broadly tipped
and edged with white. This handsome little bird migrates to milder countries in
autumn, to return to its breeding-area in March or the beginning of April. Living
in similar localities to the marsh-tit, it nests in hollows of trees, and feeds on insects
and partly also on seeds and berries. Searching every crevice of the bark, it
climbs the thinnest twigs for its food in a brisk manner, chirping or uttering the
peculiar " terr terr" by which it may be recognised at a long distance. The long-
tailed tit ranges from west to east; but the bearded tit is represented by the
closely allied Siberian tit (Panurus sibiricus), which is lighter in plumage than
the European bird.
The nuthatch is also found in Siberia, as is the creeper, the latter being
indeed indigenous to the mountains of central Asia.
Larks, Wagtails, In Siberia the larks are represented by several species, among
and Pipits, these being the skylark, which ranges throughout the area. The
other larks visiting the country are, however, mainly restricted to the southern and
western districts. The horned larks (Otocori/s), distinguished by ear-like tufts on
the back of the head, include one truly northern species, ranging not only over
northern Asia, but also over North America and northern Europe. This bird, the
26
THE ANIMAL LIFE OF SIBERIA
shore-lark (0. alpestris), appears as a winter visitor to Britain and the German
coast, reaching as far south as Carinthia. Some 7 inches in length, it has a yellow
crown and throat, with a broad black band across the crown. In habits it
resembles the skylark. Both the grey and the white wagtail are breeding-birds in
Siberia, although the latter does not reach the Arctic Circle. Another kind, the
blue-headed wagtail, is represented in northern Asia, from Scandinavia to eastern
Siberia, by the grey-headed wagtail (Motacilla borealis). Of the pipits, the tree-
pipit, water-pipit, and the meadow-pipit are also Siberian breeding-birds, but
/// most especially so
is the red-throated
pipit (An thus cer-
vinus), as it is
to be met with
throughout the
north. This bird
visits Germany and
Austria on migra-
tion, and has been
caught in Bohemia,
Salzburg, the Tyrol,
and Styria. An-
other species, the
Scandinavian rock-
pipit^, rupestris),
which is resident
in Scandinavia and
Finland, is known
in India as a bird
of passage, and thus
seems widely spread
over northern Asia.
It is distinguished
from the rock-pipit
resident in the Bri-
tish Isles by the
vinous tint of the
breast.
A considerable variety of buntings inhabit Siberia, among them
being the snow-bunting and the Lapland bunting. The yellow-
isted lmi. ling (Emheriza aureola) commonly ranges from northern Russia to
south-eastern Siberia, but has been shot in Austrian Silesia. The pine-bunting
,/;- kucocephala), which inhabits the same localities, has been taken in lower
A'^"';l The ,iMl" bunting (E.pusilla) inhabits Siberia and northern Russia, and
in [ndia, Burma, and China; and from Lapland to the Pacific is found
he rustic 1 muting ( /;. rustica), a species also abundant in China during
winter.
• S -
PINE fiROSBKAK.
Buntings.
CROSSBILLS AND GROSBEAKS— FINCHES AND LINNETS 27
Crossbills The crossbills- are mostly natives of the north, the common
and Grosbeaks. European species inhabiting central Asia and the greater part of the
Siberian area, while in Siberia the pine-crossbill ranges as far north as the
boundaiy of tree-growth, as does the larch or two-barred crossbill ( Loxia
bifasciafa). The latter bird is distinguished by two white bands on the wings,
owing to the greater and median wing-coverts as well as the secondaries being
tipped with white. It has a stouter beak than the American white-winged cross-
bill, which it otherwise much resembles. The northern representative of the
bullfinch, the so-called Pyrrlmla major, is spread over Siberia from west to east,
as is the scarlet grosbeak (Carpodacus erythrinus), a native of the forests of
Siberia, distinguished by the scarlet hue of its plumage. Wherever, in the vast
uninhabited forests of the high north, pines and firs are interspersed with juniper
bushes, there lives and breeds the pine-grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator), which
feeds on the seeds of the cones and the berries of shrubs, particularly those of the
southernwood, though it also supplies its young with a considerable amount of
insect food. In April this bird makes its nest, which may be recognised by the
way it is fastened to the trunk and adjacent bough of the tree on which it is placed.
At the proper season it generally contains four eggs, much like those of the
bullfinch, but larger. In October and November this grosbeak migrates to Russia,
southern Sweden, and north-eastern Germany, a few stragglers visiting other
countries farther west and south. Breeding close up to the Arctic Circle in both
hemispheres, it may be distinguished by its red head, tail-coverts, and under-parts,
the red being replaced in the female by yellow of a deeper tone above than below.
Finches and The goldfinch is another Siberian bird, while the siskin ranges
Linnets. through the country to the Pacific. Siberia is also the principal
breeding-area of the mealy redpoll (Linota linaria), one of the linnets, which nests
in the birch-forests of northern Europe and Asia, building on low trees, often
scarcely 4 inches from the ground. This bird is restricted to birch-woods, from
the fact of its food consisting principally of birch and alder seeds, though in its
winter-quarters it does not confine itsslf to these. It also feeds on gnats, which
in its native home envelop the shrubs like clouds, and serve principally as food for
its young. The mealy redpoll arrives in the south in November and returns to
its northern home in February and March. It ranges as far westward as the
British Isles, and in hard winters migrates to southern Europe and northern
Africa. In Germany it is generally found on the plains or in valleys, in forests
with alder and birch trees, and in the open fields with trees and bushes near by,
or even on bare stubble. It is said to sleep on the snow if surprised in the fields
by night, but otherwise in high thick hedges. These redpolls, which are exceed-
ingly tame and lively, climb like tits, often upside-down, on the thinnest twigs, and
are so sociable that they always fly in flocks, frequently accompanied by siskins
and sparrows and by other linnets. When breeding, it is quite silent, but at other
times it has a low and insignificant song, practically a mere twittering. In length
it is about 5 inches ; in colour the crown is red, the wing white, the chin black,
and the breast pink. The female lacks the pink on the breast so distinctive of
her partner. Although both the greenfinch and the chaffinch are found in western
Siberia, the real finch of the Asiatic and European north is the brambling (Fringilla
28 THE ANIMAL LIFE OF SIBERIA
itifringiUa), which breeds in immense numbers in the stunted birch, fir, and
pine forests of the mainland of Siberia, as well as on the larger islands, like Japan,
although, on account of the absence of forests, it is unknown in Iceland. From
the first half of September until October it migrates to Spain, southern France,
and Italy, and in hard winters even to Greece, Asia Minor, and Algeria. The
brambling flies slowly, sometimes in enormous flocks, and is mostly found in
forests rich in beechmast. In March it returns just as leisurely to its northern
home. A true forest-bird, it prefers conifers to deciduous trees, and often travels
distances of from six to eight hours in order to roost in its favourite pines. In its
winter-haunts it associates with chaffinches, yellow buntings, sparrows, linnets,
and other birds, and is occasionally seen in inhabited districts. In its breeding-
area it consumes insects during summer, with which it also feeds its young. The
nest is higher from the ground than that of the chaffinch, and generally is partly
cons! meted of birch-bark The low, chirping, screeching song of the brambling is
not comparable to that of the chaffinch, which the bird resembles in so many ways.
From that species it maybe distinguished by its blackish head, blackish back,
white rump, and the white spot on the wing.
The group of cherry-finches is represented in Siberia west of Lake Baikal
by the European hawfinch, but elsewhere in Asia by other species. So far north
as corn is grown in Siberia the house-sparrow may be found, while the tree-
sparrow is met with all through Siberia from west to east.
starling The starling has a similar distribution to the hawfinch, ranging
and oriole. ag far nort,h as latitude 70°. The golden oriole, on the other hand, is
a more southern bird, although it inhabits Siberia as far east as Dzungaria.
Almost all the crow-like birds of central Europe are found in
Crow Tribe. . , r
Siberia, but the nutcracker is represented by the slender-beaked race
i A ucifraga caryocatactes macrorhyncha), which ranges as far as Kamchatka to
the east, and generally lives in pine-groves, the seeds of which form its principal
food. The jays are represented in the north of Europe and Asia by the Siberian
jay ( Prrisoreus infaustus), which is found in great numbers, especially near
\ akutsk, in the Stanovoi Mountains, and also on the southern shore of the Sea
>! Okhotsk, while in Scandinavia it is met with south as far as Stockholm and
' hristiania. Its breeding-area extends as far north as firs of any size can grow;
In it in its winter-haunts, in milder climates, it lives among birches and other trees.
\ >i v early in spring it returns to its nest, which is placed in the thickest branches
of some pine or fir close to the stem, and is built of lichens and dry twigs, and
,il""1 with hair and a few feathers from the breast of the builder and others
borrowed from the ptarmigan. The nest is by no means easy to find since the
birds are very quiet when in its neighbourhood, and perch, with bristling feathers,
M11"'' close to the trunk of the tree in their endeavours to remain hidden so long as
ssible. When, however, closely approached, they suddenly fly off through the
tops of the trees with loud cries. The jerky, bustling flight is similar to that
of the common jay, which the Siberian bird resembles in its habit of establishing
"I nuts and other food, and also in feeding on insects and the eggs and
ing of the smaller birds. At times these birds are so greedy for animal food
the Laplanders are obliged to chase them away with sticks from the places
CROW TRIBE— SHRIKES, FLYCATCHERS, AAD WAXWING 29
where they dry their meat, although they welcome them as a rule on account of
their catching the gadflies which torment the reindeer. Bird-lovers appreciate
this species for the reason that it is easily tamed, and amusing in its ways.
About 12 inches in length, in colour it is principally light grey, with the crown
and nape blackish brown, the upper tail-coverts rusty red, the under-parts rufous,
and the tail-feathers grey, the four feathers on each side of the tail being red
with grey tips. Of other members of the group, the jackdaw is found as far east
as the Lena, but is represented in north-eastern Asia and Japan by the white-
collared Pallas's daw (Gorvus dauricus). The ordinary European rook appears in
Siberia, and along with it the closely allied C. pastinator, in which the area at the
base of the beak does not become bare in adult life.
The habitats of the two commonest crows are separated in Asia in the sane-
way as in Europe, the Yenesei forming the boundary of that of the Siberian hooded
crow (G. sharpei) on the east, and of the Siberian carrion crow ( G. orientalis)
on the west. On the Lena River and still farther east only carrion crows are to
be seen, and these range into Japan. The raven is found all through Siberia.
siirikes. Fly- Among the shrike tribe, the red-backed species is common in
catchers, and western Siberia, while the great grey shrike ranges as far east as the
waxwing. Lona >phe flycatchers are represented by the red-breasted species,
which is found right across the continent, and by the spotted flycatcher, whose area
is bounded on the east by the Altai Mountains.
The waxwing (Anrpelis garrulus) is an irregular visitor to the west and south
of Europe, but a breeding-bird in the north of Europe and Asia, as well as in
Alaska. In the forests of its northern home this splendid bird feeds during
summer exclusively on the myriads of gnats which fill the air ; but later on eats
the berries in which the region abounds. When the trees and shrubs are covered
with snow, the waxwing migrates to the forests of southern Sweden, Russia,
Poland, and Lithuania, which it visits regularly every year on account of their
abundance of berries. In very hard winters it has to go still farther afield, ami
extends its wanderings to the British Isles, northern Italy, and Turkey, which
form the limits of its southern range. In northern Germany it appears as a rule
every two or three years, and sometimes regularly every year, but to Britain ami
France its visits are not so frequent, though there as elsewhere it arrives in flocks
and never as a straggler. Waxwings swallow berries whole, drink very seldom,
and catch gnats in the air as if they were flycatchers. They are generally seen in
parties sitting quietly together on one tree, on the ends of the branches, where
they can be recognised from afar. Very trustful of man, they nest in colonies, on
either firs or birches, each nest being on a branch near the stem. The nest is
built of fir-twigs, moss, and black hair-lichen, lined with hair and feathers. The
waxwing is 7| inches in length. In colour it is purplish red below and greyish
brown above, with a chestnut crest ; the tail ends in a broad yellow band, and the
secondaries have their shafts prolonged into the scarlet wax-like points from which
the bird derives its name.
The swallows are represented in Siberia by the same species as
S Weil lows etc
in Europe, the house-martin ranging as far east as Tashkent, while
the chimney swallow reaches the valley of the Yenesei, eastwards of which its
3°
THE ANIMAL LIFE OF SIBERIA
place is taken by an allied species, Hirundo guttv/ralis. The sand-martin inhabits
Siberia throughout. The swift ranges as far east as Lake Baikal, but not so far
a- Kamchatka.
The European nightjar is also a western species, as is the blue roller, while
tin' hoopoe reaches the shores of the Pacific. The kingfisher, though in a smaller
and more brilliantly coloured form, also extends to the same shores; and the
woodpeckers of tin- Baltic area are found right through Siberia, as are the
wryneck and the cuckoo.
f/
a//^r^^u^^
WAX WINGS.
Owls.
Several kinds of owls are indigenous to the Siberian area; but
the barn owl, which, although nearly cosmopolitan, dislikes countries
l|,] climate, is unknown in this tract. On the other hand, Tengmalm's
[Nyctala tengmalmi), which has been found nesting in the Carpathians, and
as far west as the British Isles, is a true northern type, although
OWLS 31
nowhere of frequent occurrence. During the day it keeps to dense bushes
hollow trees, and never, like the little owl, enters buildings. Although appear-
ing in greater numbers in spring and autumn, it is a shy and solitary bird,
only rarely seen. Its nest is placed in firs, beeches, and other trees at a height
of some 50 feet from the ground, generally in holes with a wide opening. The
young begin to chirp early in the morning, but are silenced by the plaintive
notes of the female, which resemble a low human wailing. This owl flies so
noiselessly that even a mouse does not hear it, the flight being very like that
of a kite with much hovering and fluttering, and never in jerks and curves
like that of the little owl. Tengmalm's owl is 9| inches long and has the facial
disc nearly complete, the toes heavily feathered, and the plumage thick and fluffy.
It is brown above, much spotted with white, and white below irregularly barred
with brown, but the spots on the wings and tail disappear with age.
The favourite residences of the hawk-owl (Surnia ulula) are the birch-forests
of the north of Europe and Asia; but its breeding-area does not extend so far
north or south as that of the snowy owl, although the bird is everywhere more
frequent, especially in the Ural Mountains. Avoiding rocks, this species is
essentially a bird of the woods, which frequents the plains and is often seen in
marshes and swamps where there are bushes. The northern winter drives it
southwards, when it regularly appears in the Baltic countries down to Denmark
in the west, and occasionally straggles to the British Isles, southern Germany, and
also to similar latitudes farther east. In March these owls return to the north to
breed among the birch trees, the trunks of which they resemble in colour and
marking. When it does not make use of the hollow of a tree, or the re-lined nest
of a crow, the hawk owl builds a nest of its own of thin twigs, leaves, and moss, on
some tall tree. So courageously does this owl defend its nest against other birds,
that there is scarcely a bird in its native forest safe from its attacks. It seizes
jays as they fly, and kills the willow-grouse and other birds much superior to itself
in size and weight; but it chiefly preys on voles, mice, and lemmings, on which it
darts down like a falcon and strangles with its claws. For a while it sits waiting
© ©
for prey on some dry bough, like a shrike, soon to fly hovering and searching close
to the ground, after which it suddenly settles on some point of vantage to watch
again. Its beautiful flight has much of the gracefulness of the kestrel, for which
© © ©
it might indeed be mistaken, did not its thick head serve to show its owl nature.
It soars like a kestrel by day, and especially in the afternoon, as also at dusk. Its
quick and agile movements and its habits so much resemble those of diurnal birds-
of-prey that it well deserves its name from these traits, as it also does from the
dark undulating hawk-like lines on the lower parts of the body. The head is flpt
and low, the face narrow, without a disc, the tail long and graduated, the wings
slightly pointed, the feathers of the crown smooth, and those of the sides of the
head bristled. It has neither ear-tufts nor an operculum, and its legs are covered
with greyish feathers. In length this owl measures about 14 inches. The back
and wings are brown with white spots, the tail is brown with nine white cross-
bars, and the face white with a black edge on each side.
The same localities are inhabited by a still more exclusively northern species,
the Lapp owl (Syrnium lapponicum), which breeds in the far north of Europe
32 THE ANIMAL LIFE OF SIBERIA
and Asia from Lapland to the Sea of Okhotsk. Rare in Finland and farther south,
it is never driven far away from home by the cold of winter. It follows the
migrating lemmings as far south as central Scandinavia, and nests in hollow trees,
on the ground among shrubs, and probably also in rocky clefts. It is as strong
and courageous as the snowy owl, and lives on much the same kind of food. The
Lapp owl somewhat resembles the hawk-owl, but is more slender, although con-
siderably larger ; it may always be recognised by its large head and long body. In
length it is from 27 to 28 inches, the female being larger than the male. In
colour it is ashy brown streaked with w^hite above, and below whitish grey with
brown stripes.
The eared owls are represented by the short-eared owl, which is found almost
everywhere, and the long-eared owl, which ranges across the continent and reaches
Japan. The eagle-owl, which also inhabits the Siberian area, ranges down to
central Asia, where it is replaced by Bubo turcomanus, distinguished by its paler
plumage.
Falcons and Of falcons and hawks, the first on our list is the little merlin,
Hawks. which has been found as far north as Novaia Zemlya, and inhabits
Great Britain, central Europe, and western and central Asia, but does not
apparently reach as far east as Kamchatka, though known as a visitor to Korea,
I 1 1 ina, and northern India. Where trees are to be found, the merlin builds in
them, but on the tundra and large moors and heaths it nests on the ground, and in
mountainous country, on ledges and in rocky clefts. Sometimes the nest is a mere
scratching in the ground, in other cases it is roughly made of heather and other
dry plants. The young birds migrate in August and September with the old ones.
Those inhabiting Europe resort to the Mediterranean countries and North Africa.
During March, April, and May merlins return to their breeding-area. In habits
the merlin is in many respects very similar to the hobby. It is one of
the boldest of the falcons, and attacks not only smaller birds but many larger
than itself. Like the hobby, after flying several times round its sleeping-place in
the evening, it suddenly drops down like a stone. When on the wing, it may be
distinguished from the hobby by the shorter body and wings, and it has also a
somewhat paler colour. The tail is slaty blue tipped with white and barred with
black, the last bar being broader than the rest. The cere and feet are yellow7, and
the throat is white. The male, which is about 10 inches long, is slaty blue above
with black streaks, the lower parts being rufous white, with brown lancet-
Bhaped spots. The primaries are bluish with black shafts, and barred with white
"ii the inner webs. The grey gerfalcon, the peregrine, and the kestrel
are found wit din the area, the last ranging up to the Polar Circle, and even
farther north, but the hobby, although reaching Kamchatka, prefers the
southern parts of Siberia.
The golden eagle is distributed not only over Europe, but also over Asia from
the Himalaya northwards, and is thus found in Siberia. The white-tailed sea-
eagle also inhabits Siberia, but is replaced on the coast of the Pacific by the larger
Steller's sea-eagle (ThalassaetuA peldgicus). This, the largest of all eagles, is 41
inches in lengj h. In colour it is principally black and brown, with a white wedge-
shaped tail and thighs, and white on the lower part of the back and wing-coverts.
GAME-BIRDS — HERONS AND STORK 33
Like its relative, the almost equally large black and white Korean species, this
giant eagle possesses a remarkably loud and piercing cry.
The osprey, an inhabitant of almost all countries, is also a member of the
Siberian fauna. The honey-buzzard, which inhabits not only Europe but has been
found in Japan and near Peking and breeds in Scandinavia up to the Arctic Circle,
is probably indigenous to the greater part of Siberia, in which country the black
kite ranges as far east as the Lena, while its relative, the red kite, begins to be
rare at the Urals. The sparrow-hawk and the gos-hawk are, however, met with
right across to the far east. The marsh-harrier, although more frequent west of the
Altai, reaches the Amur. The hen-harrier is found within the same latitudes as
far east as Japan, but does not range far north, the same being the case with
Montagu's harrier, whose habitat extends to China.
As regards its game-birds, Siberia is very similar to central
Game -Birds. ° ° J
and northern Europe, the black-cock ranging as far east as the
Stanovoi Mountains. The hazel-hen is also found thus far ; but in Kan-su, and
perhaps farther north, is replaced by Severtzow's hazel-hen (Tetrastes severtzowi).
The capercaillie ranges into this part of northern Asia, as do the willow-grouse
and ptarmigan. The quail is met with as far east as northern China; but the
partridge is represented in the area under consideration by the bearded partridge
(Perdix daurica), which also inhabits Mongolia and China. Somewhat smaller
than the European partridge, this is distinguished by the bright buff breast, the
black patch on the lower surface, and the long feathers on the chin and throat.
Herons and With the bare mention that neither the ring-dove nor the
stork. turtle-dove is found very far east, it may be observed that the
herons are chiefly restricted to warmer countries, although the common species,
which is of very wide distribution, occurs in Siberia, where it is more abundant
along the southern border. The bittern is also found there, at least in certain
localities ; and the warmer parts of Siberia are visited by the two European
representatives of the stork tribe, the white and the black stork.
Rails, Bustard, Among the rail-like birds, the European coot ranges from Europe
and crane, to China and Japan ; the little bustard is found as far east as China,
while south-west Siberia is the northern home of the land-rail, which reaches the
Lena River ; the water- rail ranging to the Amur. The European crane occurs in
Kamchatka, but the great bustard is unknown beyond the Lena.
The snipe family is represented by the European woodcock,
which is a true northern bird, in the farthest east, while western
Siberia is the principal home of the jack snipe, and the common snipe ranges as
far east as China and Japan, as does the great snipe.
The curlew is common not only in northern Europe but also in
Curlew.
Siberia and as far east as Japan, while its relative the whimbreJ
{Numenius phceopus) is a true northern bird. The latter breeds in the north
of Asia and Europe, whence it migrates south, to appear regularly every year on
some parts of the shores of the Baltic, as, for instance, on Riigen and the neigh-
bouring island Hiddensee, on the coasts of Schleswig-Holstein, and the German
shores of the North Sea as far as east Friesland. It arrives in considerable
numbers in Holland and the British Isles, but in France, Switzerland, and central
VOL. II. — ^
34 THE ANIMAL LIFE OF SIBERIA
Germany is very rare. In winter it has been seen in south-east Africa. In shape
and colouring this species is a miniature of the curlew, which it resembles also
in voice and habits. Thunderstorms do not alarm the whimbrel, which is
most active when the weather is about to change, so that it is regarded as a
weather-prophet by the peasants of many countries. Its clear, flute-like calls are
shriller than those of the curlew, but are otherwise very similar. If these be
well imitated, the whimbrel may be lured within shooting-distance, as it readily
follows the calls of its fellows, towards which it is socially disposed, although it
does not seek the society of other birds. The whimbrel is 15 inches in
length, the colour of its plumage being principally dark brown streaked with
black.
Among: a host of other waders visiting Siberia in the breeding-
other Waders
season, the spotted redshank and the greenshank (Totanus canescens)
frequent flat shores, and seek their food in still, shallow waters. Although the
latter bird is frequently seen during migration on the muddy shallows of the coast,
it prefers fresh waters, avoiding those surrounded by trees and bushes, but liking
to wade among aquatic plants. Never resorting to covert, if it cannot escape by
flight from birds-of-prey, it will lie flat down on the ground, or even on the water.
Sometimes it will dive, and will continue to do so until the enemy retires. The
greenshank feeds on small fish and insects, and closely resembles a sandpiper
in general habits, gait, and flight. Its breeding-area is northern Siberia as far
east as the Stanovoi Mountains ; and on the autumn migration it travels as far
south as Cape Colony. During autumn and spring it visits all parts of Europe,
either on its outward or homeward journey, as it does not appear to return by the
same route as the one by which it went. In length it measures some 13 inches.
It is ashy brown above, mottled with white, and white below, the lower part of
the back and tail being also white, while the wings are grey beneath and the legs
olive-green. Like the greenshank, the spotted redshank ranges from the tundra
to the south. The sandpiper, the redshank, the green sandpiper, and the wood-
sandpiper are thorough Siberian birds, as is also the ruff.
In addition to the little stint, Temminck's stint, the knot, and the purple
sandpiper, there are two other Siberian species indigenous to northern Europe,
namely, the curlew-sandpiper and the dunlin.
The former (Tringa subarquata), whose home is in upper Sweden, Esthonia,
Finland, Russia, and Siberia, migrates to the countries on the North Sea and the
Baltic, the shores of the Mediterranean, the African coast down to the Cape of
Good Hope, India, and even Australia. It appears in flocks of hundreds on the
coasts of Holland and France, and visits the German and Swiss lakes. The
1,1,11,1111 migration begins at the end of July and ends in the middle of October.
On the spring migration in April and May the curlew-sandpiper appears much
Leas frequently along the German route. By no means timid in disposition, this
bird returns to its favourite haunts even when driven away, and prefers muddy
flats and shingly beaches to the banks of rivers and brooks. It breeds on the
lower Yenesei, where its nest and eggs were found in 1897. In length this sand-
piper measures about 7 inches. The beak is slightly bent at the tip. The tail is
grey, the rest of the plumage, save for the white tail-coverts, being very similar
DUCK TRIBE 35
in colouring to that of the dunlin. In habits the dunlin (T. alpina) closely
resembles the curlew-sandpiper, but is of much more common occurrence. Its
breeding-area extends to the Arctic Circle and throughout Siberia from west to
■east. The nest is a mere depression amid heather or rushes, or on a dry patch in
grass. The young, which are hatched in sixteen days, run as soon as their down
is dry, when they are taken by their parents to grassy or muddy ground to search
for the worms and insects which form their principal food. The dunlin appears in
great numbers on the shores and islands of the Baltic, and still more numerously
•on those of the North Sea, as well as on the shores of the Mediterranean, which it
•crosses into Africa, where it goes as far south as Zanzibar. During migration it
is found everywhere on inland lakes, ponds, marshes, and rivers, but not in sucli
large numbers as on the seashore, where these birds follow the tide out and in,
sleeping while it is at flood. When disturbed they fly in circles out to sea, their
flight being peculiar and characteristic owing to the moderate expansion of the
wings. In its summer dress, with the coal-black shield on its white breast, the
dunlin is one of the handsomest of the sandpipers. It is about 7 inches in length
and in colour rusty brown with dark markings above, and white below, the tail
being light brown with white shafts and narrow white fringes to the feathers, and
the beak and legs black.
In addition to the golden plover, the group of plovers is represented in Siberia
by several kinds, northern Siberia being the home of the dotterel and little
ringed plover. The breeding-area of the European lapwing extends through
Siberia as far as Kamchatka; and ranging across more to the south is found
the thicknee.
Swans, geese, and ducks abound in Siberia, but all belong to
Duck Tribe. . . ,
species already noticed. Of the former, Bewick's swan and the
whooper, although birds of the far north, also inhabit Siberia along the southern
boundary of the tundra, while the mute swan is found on all the larger lakes.
The geese need no special mention, and the same is the case with many of the
ducks ; among the latter the wild duck, shoveller, gadwall, wigeon, pintail, and
teal are species indigenous not only to the north of the Old World but also to
North America, all of them breeding in Siberia.
The sickle-winged duck (Eunetta falcata), which visits eastern Siberia and
Japan, is not indigenous to Europe, although said to have been shot in solitary
places in Bohemia and Hungary. It is most common from Lake Baikal and the
Yenesei eastwards, where it arrives in April, while it winters in more southern
countries, especially China and Japan. This duck, which is found in the Stanovoi
Mountains, is about 18 inches long, and is distinguished by its five long narrow
shoulder-feathers, which are bent like a sickle, as well as by a mane-like tuft on
the nape. The head is of a copper hue, the neck white with a bright green ring,
the body marked with black and white lines, the tail yellow on each side with
black upper and lower coverts, and the wings grey with a wide black speculum.
A number of the diving ducks also frequent Siberia; among them the
harlequin-duck, the long-tailed duck, and the scaup range from the tundra down to
the true Siberian area. The golden-eye and the tufted duck are found all through
Siberia from west to east, while the pochard is indigenous to the warmer districts.
3^
THE ANIMAL LIFE OF SIBERIA
The range of the scoter and the velvet scoter extends from the polar region some
distance southwards. Of the mergansers the goosander abounds on Lake Baikal.
The red-breasted merganser ranges up to 70° N. latitude in the Old World, as well
as in the New, and is indigenous to Siberia. The smew (Mergus albellus) is
another inhabitant of the north which appears regularly every year in central
Europe. Although absent from Iceland and very rare in northern Norway, it is
common in European and Asiatic Russia, near or a little south of the Polar Circle.
Miffratine as far south as the Black Sea, Turkey, and Greece, it visits Poland,
Hungary, Switzerland, and France, less frequently Denmark and Sweden, and
rarely Holland and Great Britain. The smew is characterised by rising from
the water without apparent effort, and its rapid flight, from which it drops
suddenly on to the water. It frequently associates with the golden-eye, which it
resembles when seen from a distance, although distinguished by the smaller body,
and the more pointed head, marked with more white. When flying, it appears
more slender, with a longer neck and narrower wings. The smew is 17 inches in
length, and principally white in colour, although the face, back, edges and middle
of the wings, the larger wing-coverts, and two narrow bands running from each
side of the back to the breast are black. The long crest is greenish black, the
sides are delicate grey, the tail-feathers grey with whitish tips, the beak bluish
with a paler nail, and the feet bluish grey. The female is grey above, with a
white throat, a blackish neck, and the crown and nape reddish brown.
The cormorant ranges right across northern Asia ; and on Lake
Other Sea Birds. . .
Baikal and elsewhere the shag, which is really a bird of the sea,
appears in myriads. The black tern, the common tern, and the laughing gull
may be mentioned as species indigenous to the north of Europe and Asia and
North America.
Of the grebes, the great crested, the red-necked, and the black-necked species
are also not only European but likewise Siberian and North American in habitat.
The same remark applies to the eared grebe (Podicipes auritus), which migrates
through Germany, Holland, France, Switzerland, northern Italy, and Hungary,,
and breeds in Greenland, Iceland, Britain, Scandinavia, Jutland, and the corre-
sponding latitudes of Russian Asia and North America. The last-named species,
which is 12 inches in length, has a black hood on the top and chestnut plumes
on the sides of the head, and is deep chestnut on the neck and sides.
Reptiles and Like the birds, the reptiles and amphibians of Siberia are
Amphibians, essentially of a European type, although, owing to the severity of
tin- climate, the number of species is but small. Of the lizards, the viviparous
species, which in Europe reaches Lapland, inhabits Siberia from west to east,
while the European sand-lizard is met with only in the south-west. The viper
reaches the Polar Circle and ranges to the Pacific, and the ringed snake is found
as tar east as Lake Baikal and as far north as the sixty-fifth degree.
Among tlir amphibians common to Europe and Siberia mention may be made
of the edible frog, whose northern boundary is 59° N. latitude, and whose eastern
limit extends to the Pacific. The same is the case with the common frog, which
inhabits Europe as Ear as northern Scandinavia; but the moor-frog is not found
so far east, although it occurs in western Siberia. The common toad ranges to
REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, AND FISHES 37
Japan, although it is not a very northerly form. The green toad, which reaches
52° X. latitude in Siberia, but whose eastern boundary has not yet been fixed, is
sometimes found in Mongolia; and the tree-frog, which inhabits Europe up to
■58° N. latitude, is found right across the Asiatic continent.
_ Of the fishes of Siberia it must suffice to state that these are in
Fishes.
the main specifically identical with those of northern Europe, the
perch, carp, crucian carp, spiny loach, pike, salmon, and sea-trout, as well as many
others, ranging into the Siberian rivers, which probably also harbour the lampern.
Mention must, however, be made of the abundance of salmon of the genus
Oncorhynchus in the rivers of Siberia and Kamchatka; the group being
represented by several species, such as 0. orientalis, 0. lycaodon, 0. lagocrjilid/ns,
•and 0. proteus. These arrive at the mouths of the rivers from May to Angusl :
each species having its own particular time, which is wonderfully constant in spite
of annual differences in the seasons. Although a few remain throughout the
summer near the mouths of the rivers, and return to the sea in the autumn,
practically the whole host ascend the rivers to spawn, after which they perish, in
some cases actually choking the rivers with their bodies. It is these spawning and
moribund salmon which form the prey of the Kamchatkan bears, to which reference
is made above. Such a waste of life as occurs in the case of these salmon is very
remarkable.
'
\
/-
/
-
CARACAL.
CHAPTER III
South- Western Asia
The Siberian a«rea is bordered on the north-west by the Baltic province, and on
the west by the eastern European tract. On the south-west it touches the Caspian
province, the fauna of which is nearly related to that of the Mediterranean region ;
ilc- Latter, as stated above, including a large part of south-western Asia. Besides-
Asia Minor, Syria. Palestine, and the Sinaitic Peninsula, this region embraces
tic- northern hall' of Arabia; other south -western countries comprised in the
Mediterranean region being Mesopotamia and, generally speaking, the basins of
the Euphrates and Tigris and, farther east, Persia and Afghanistan so far as they
are not included in the basins of the rivers flowing into the Caspian and the Sea
of Aral; but Baluchistan and the greater part of the Indus countries, as well as-
Kashmir, belong zoologically to the Mediterranean region. The non-Asiatic part
38
NATURE OF COUNTRY 39
of this region comprises North Africa about 20° N. latitude, the Iberian Peninsula,
the south of France, including the greater part of the Rhone valley, the Apennine
Peninsula, the Balkan Peninsula (except its northern districts, which belong to the
valley of the Danube), and the islands of the Mediterranean.
Generally speaking, the climate is characterised by its wet winters, the rains
occurring in the cold season, and the summer in many parts of this tract being
almost or completely rainless. These countries, with their winter rains and long
summer droughts, are the home of evergreen trees and shrubs which with their hard,
thick, leathery leaves give the Mediterranean landscape its principal character.
The trees are mostly low, with the stems gnarled, the branches dense, and the leaves
of the general character of those of the laurel or oleander, but usually smaller,
and in most cases indeed very small. Both sides of such leaves are frequently
provided with gland-hairs, which secrete fluids, while air-conducting hairs are absent,
or confined to the under side. Notwithstanding, the leaves are seldom bright in
colour and are often overspread by a bluish film, probably in consequence of a
resinous secretion, their hard leathery condition being owing to the compact
arrangement of their cells. Compared with other plants of dry climates, these trees
are remarkable not only for their evergreen leaves but also for their absence of
thorns and of protecting covers to the buds.
At a distance large stretches of country appear almost devoid of vegetation,
owing to the colouring of the dusty and sparse bushes being so similar to that of
the ground. Such apparently barren spots occur, however, only on limestone soil,
and indicate the remnants of former forests in which the ilex (Quercus ilex) and
the Aleppo pine (Pinus aleppensis) were predominant. The vegetation on
gravelly soil is much more abundant, the shrubs growing denser and higher, and
representing the brushwood of primeval forests, the trees of which have nearly all
disappeared. Here ilex and the Aleppo pine are scarce, being replaced by the
cork tree (Quercus suber) and the maritime pine (Pinus maritima). The stone-
pine (Pinus pinea), on the other hand, which occupies so important a place in
Mediterranean landscapes, grows on sandy soil, and seldom forms extensive woods.
Many of the woodlands chiefly consist of monotonous groups of mastic trees
(Pistacia lentiscus), this monotony being, however, in some degree broken by the
intermixture of shrubs of other kinds.
Among the hard-leaved types, the olive (Olea europea) occupies a conspicuous
position on account of its massive stem, branching at a small height, its gnarled
branches, its thick and deeply cleft bark, but more especially on account of its
small, narrow, hard leaves, covered on both sides with sparse scale-like hairs,
which give to the under surface a silvery tinge. As regards its leaves, the ilex is
not unlike the olive, the foliage of both being of the small and hard type. The
oleander (Nerium oleander), again, which grows on the banks and islands of rivers
with little water, like the bay (Laurus nobilis), can scarcely be regarded as a tree
of this tract; but the myrtle (Myrtus communis) with its stiff leaves, the
rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), the lavender (Lavandula latifolia), and thyme
(Thymus serpyllum), are common, as is also the sage (Salvia officinalis); the
last, with its wide, felt-like, soft-haired, leaves, differing greatly from the others.
The species of rock-rose (Cistus), with their large white or carmine-coloured
40 SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
blossoms are among the more beautiful plants of the Mediterranean countries;
their leaves being either leathery and brilliant, or sticky from resinous secretions,
or else closely haired and consequently softer. The peculiar character of the hard-
leaved plants is distinctly shown in one of the spurge-laurels {Daphne gnidium), as
well as in an asparagus (Asparagus acutifolius) with its needle-shaped evergreen
leaves, and also in the tree-heather (Erica arborea), distinguished by its almost
tree-like mode of growth. In spots less densely covered with shrubs than else-
where, bulbous plants grow abundantly, in association with grasses, hard-leaved
evergreen perennials, and short-lived spring annuals which die soon after ripening
their seed. Poplars, ash, and other deciduous trees, unknown among the ever-
green woods, make their appearance near water and in damp soils. Forests of
northern trees, such as horse-chestnut, do not exist in the countries round
the coasts, but are restricted to the mountainous tracts, which have quite a different
climate.
The Mediterranean region consists in a great degree, if not in the greatest
degree, of deserts, whose origin is, of course, primarily due to a small annual
rainfall. In deserts, indeed, vegetation depends not so much on rain as on
warmth and the dryness of the air in summer, when these are at their maximum,
the life of desert-plants being more or less quiescent.
Within the Mediterranean region is included the desert-tract crossing North
Africa, Arabia, southern Persia, and Baluchistan, throughout which the winter
climate is generally mild ; only the more northerly districts being visited by slight
frost and rapidly melting snow. The summer temperature is one of the hottest
known, rising in July over the greater part of the area to 96" or even higher.
The vegetation is of the same type as that of the Sahara. Rocky table-
lands, sandy valleys, hilly or flat stony plains, undulating expanses of sand, and
broad basins of clay lands are the leading physical features. Yet the desert is
by no means completely devoid of plants : its stony table-lands are the poorest in
vegetation, their only vegetable life being a few small thorny bushes. Less barren
are the sandy valleys and especially the banks of the (for the most part) dry water-
courses. The oases, which are the deepest valleys and the best-watered parts,
afford a sharp contrast to the rest of the tract, being abundantly clothed with trees
and plants. The distribution of desert-plants is much more dependent on under-
ground waters than on casual showers. In all deserts there is, however, probably a
--hurt-lived flora due to the brief rainfall in spring. Called to life by the moisture,
there shoot up a number of plants, which as a rule die at the end of the rainy period,
leaving the recently green ground as barren as before. Many perennial desert-
plants bear leaves and blossoms only during the rainy period, not because their
deep-seated roots are watered by the moisture, but because the evaporation of
their sap is checked by the moisture in the atmosphere.
Then- is. of course, a complete transition from a true desert to ordinary country,
and some of the tracts of intermediate type may be called semi-deserts. That
part of Arabia lying southward of the 20th degree of latitude may, for instance,
be ttrine.l a semi-desert, its fauna showing affinity in the main with that of Africa
south of the Sahara, with some admixture of forms characteristic of the Medi-
terranean region. Central Asia Minor, Armenia, Kurdistan, south-western Persia,
DEER
4i
Afghanistan, and the valley of the upper Indus are likewise semi-deserts, and
the lower part of the valley of the Indus, Baluchistan, part of Persia, and that
portion of Arabia north of 20° N. latitude are occupied by real desert. On the
other hand, the Asiatic shores of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea are clothed
with hard-leaved forests.
Several of the mammals of south-western Asia are the same as
those of Europe, among the hoofed group being the eastern race of
the red deer, whose range extends from Asia Minor into northern Persia, where the
animal becomes very dark-coloured on the under-parts. The fallow deer, as a
member of the Mediterranean fauna, is indigenous to Asia Minor, where it is found
principally in the Taurus. The mountains of Luristan, between Mesopotamia and
Deer.
\
/
i
*
■»
■»
PERSIAN IBEX.
/
Persia, are the home of the Persian fallow deer (Cervus mesopotamicus), distin-
guished from the common fallow-deer by the form of the antlers, in which the
trez-tine is closer to the brow-tine and the latter smaller than in the common
fallow deer, while the palmation begins below, instead of above the middle of the
beam. In other respects the Persian fallow deer, which may perhaps be spotted
the whole year round, is closely related to the ordinary species. The roebuck of
south-western Asia, which is spread over Caucasia, Armenia, and Asia Minor as
far as Palestine on one side and Persia on the other, is so little different from the
European animal that it may be regarded as specifically identical,
ibex and wild Although there are no wild representatives of the ox tribe in
Goats. the area under consideration, there are several forms of wild goat.
Among these is the Arabian race of the African ibex (Capra nubiana sinaitica),
42 SO UTH- WESTERN ASIA
which inhabits the Sinaitic Peninsula, Arabia Petraea, and Palestine, and is repre-
sented by another variety (C. nubiana mengesi) in south Arabia, the typical
(C. nubiana) being an inhabitant of Egypt and the districts as far south as the
tropic of Capricorn. The Arabian race is of special interest as indicating a transi-
tion from the more typical ibex towards the wild goat. The Persian race of the
latter (G. hircus cegagrus) is found from the Caucasus and the mountains of
Asia Minor to Persia and Baluchistan, passing in the last-named country
into the Sind race (G. hircus blythi). In former times other races of the wild
goat inhabited all the islands of the Greek Archipelago, but at the present day they
survive only in Crete, Antimilo, and perhaps Gyaros, in a truly wild form. In Sind
and Baluchistan wild goats range from the sea-level upwards, and in Persia inhabit
the mountains to a height of 12,000 feet. Horns of the Persian wild goat are known
which exceed 55 inches in length. They are scimitar-shaped and sharply keeled
in front, but rounded behind, the front keel bearing a number of irregular bosses
or knobs, unlike the regular transverse knots of the horns of the true ibex.
Although sometimes widely separate, they are generally more or less close together.
The does carry much smaller horns, which are quite smooth and bent backwards,
slightly compressed, oval in section, and farther apart at the base than those of the
bucks. The old bucks are furnished with a flowing beard, and in winter grow long
hair on the neck and shoulders. In winter the general colour of the pasang is
brownish grey, in summer yellowish, or reddish brown, the under-parts of the
body and the inner sides of the thighs being whitish or white, but there is
considerable variation in this respect according to age. In contrast to the general
tint the black of the face, shoulders, and legs stands out very conspicuously.
Domesticated Many domesticated breeds of goat, as for instance the Caucasian,
Goats. still retain a strong resemblance to the wild goat, although others are
distinguished by the form of their horns and other characters. Some breeds, for
instance, approach the markhor in their corkscrew-shaped horns, although the
horns of nearly all domesticated goats are twisted in a direction opposite to those
of the markhor. Many domesticated goats are, however, hornless, while in others an
additional pair is developed. Besides the differences in the size and shape of their
bodies, there are variations in the length of their hair. The hair of many domesti-
cated goats hangs almost down to the ground, while that of others is very short and
of all colours between white and brownish black. The hair of the Egyptian goat is
short, generally brownish, but yellow on the legs, and often piebald, with light
round spots on a dark ground. This goat, like the Hausa sheep, is distinguished
by the strongly arched profile, as well as by the throat-lappets and drooping ears
the horns being either absent or very small, while in most cases there is no beard.
The Sudan goat, again, is characterised by its short horns of 3 or 4 inches in length,
which are bent at first backwards and outwards while their tips point forwards,
as well as by the long black beard which reaches down to the chest and spreads
over the shoulders and the upper part of the fore-legs. Among the long-haired
breeds, the Angora goat, indigenous to Asia Minor, but introduced into different
I- 1 its of Europe and South Africa, is distinguished by its large size, great hang-
ing ears, long compressed spiral horns, and long, wavy silky hair. Another long-
haired breed is the Tibetan shawl-goat, which is of rather small size with a short
MARKHOR
43
neck, fairly long, hanging ears, and long flat horns, keeled in front and curving
outwards, backwards, and inwards. The hair of the Tibetan, or miscalled Kashmir,
goat is as celebrated as that of the Angora goat. The Syrian or mamber goat
has long, shaggy, silky black hair, a short beard, semicircular horns in both sexes,
and a strongly curved profile. In this breed the ears are longer than those of the
Egyptian goat, being
in fact so long as to
form its most distinc-
tive feature.
Very
Markhor. . . ™ ,
different
from the wild goat and
ibex is the markhor
(0. falconeri), distin-
guished by its spiral
horns and the long hair
of the beard continu-
ing on to the shoulders.
There are several local
races of this tine goat,
distinguished, among
other characters, by
the shape of the horns,
which in some form
a close spiral like a
screw, while in others
the spiral is more open
and corkscrew - like.
They are compressed
and keeled both before
and behind, although
the hind keel tends to
become rounded in old
age. The range of the
markhor extends from
Bokhara, Cabul, and
the trans-Indus moun-
tains through Astor
and Hazara to the Pir
Panjal mountains of
Kashmir. The typical form is the Astor markhor, in which the horns make an
extremely open spiral. In the Pir Panjal race (C. falconeri cashmiriensis) the
spiral becomes closer ; and this closeness of the twist becomes more marked in the
Cabul race (C. falconeri megaceros). In the small Suleman, or straight-horned
race (C. falconeri jerdoni), the twist becomes like that of an ordinary screw. In
the Astor and Pir Panjal race the colour is reddish brown in summer and greyish
'• ' .1
' :
- is t i
SULEMAN MARKHOR.
44 SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
in winter, being alwaj-s paler on the under-parts, with a dark stripe down the lower
part of the legs. Young animals are greyish brown, with a dark stripe down the back.
Unlike the ibex, which frequents rocky regions above the tree-line, the
markhor is generally found among forests on rocky ground, where it keeps much
in covert, coming out to graze in the open only in the mornings and evenings.
The markhor is perhaps the most imposing of all the wild goats, and surpassed
by none in agility, strength, or weight. In height it reaches 41 inches at the
withers, and horns measuring 56 and even 60 inches in length are known.
South-western Asia possesses several well-marked forms of wild
sheep, foremost among these being the red, or Gmelin's sheep (Ovis
orientalis), which is a reddish-coloured species, often with a faint white saddle-
mark in old rams, and the horns curving outwards and backwards in reverse direc-
tion to those of the muflon, so as sometimes to nearly meet behind the neck. The
ewes are hornless. About 33 inches at the withers is the ordinary height of this
sheep ; and horns measuring 36 and 40 inches are known, although the ordinary
length is much less. In colour the rams are russet yellow or foxy red above, and
whitish on the fore-part of the head and below, with a dark patch on the throat,
where there is a fringe of hair, and a dark mark on the front of the fore-legs, the
aforesaid whitish saddle-patch on the back being more or less conspicuous. This
animal inhabits eastern Persia and Asia Minor, being especially common on the
Cilician Taurus. This sheep, of which one race inhabits Armenia, another Anatolia,
and a third the southern flank of the Elburz range, is represented on certain islands
in Lake Urmi, in Persia, by a race known as 0. orientalis urmiana; and in the
Troodos mountains of Cyprus its place is taken by the typical Cyprian race,
whose shoulder-height is only about 28 inches. In this the fringe on the throat is
smaller, and there is a dark line along the side dividing off the reddish yellow
Hanks from the white under-parts. An allied sheep from the Luristan district of
Persia has been named 0. isphahanica.
Very distinct is the urial or sha (0. vignei) typically from Astor and Ladak,
but represented in the Salt Range of the Punjab by the race known as 0. vignei
cycloceros. Another race, 0. v. blanfordi, inhabits Baluchistan, while a fourth,
0, v. arlcal, is found on the Kopet-Dagh, between Turkestan and northern Persia.
I'll'' rams have a long ruff of hair hanging down their neck, starting in two
i ufts at the chin, which join together on the chest. The horns are coarsely
wrinkled and triangular in section, their bases being close together, but above this
they sweep outwards, upwards, and finally forwards, seldom forming more than a
complete circle. Those of the females are short and almost straight. The colour
is reddish brown or fawn in summer and light greyish brown in winter, the
lower-] .arts being whitish. The ruff is sometimes black, but generally blackish
brown interspersed with white, and in the rams is always white in the front,
growing gradually black towards the hinder part. In height the Punjab urial
measures 32 inches at the shoulder. The Ladak sha is larger and is said to
reach a height of 36 inches or more.
G The third group of hollow-horned ruminants found in south-
western Asia is that of the antelopes. Familiar as is the name
antelope, yet it is one exceedingly difficult to define, as there is an almost complete
-J
_
z
GAZELLES— ORYX— ONA GER 4 5
transition from the goats to members of this group, while the group itself is very-
large and comprises a number of widely different types. As a matter of fact,
"antelopes" really comprise a number of groups of ruminants. The grea
majority of the antelopes are inhabitants of Africa. Elsewhere, with the excep-
tion of a few species in Syria and Arabia, together with the blackbuck, the nilgai,
and the four-horned antelope of India, the chiru of Tibet, and the saiga of Russia
and western Asia, there is only the numerous and wide-spread group of the
gazelles. Typically these are rather small or moderately large antelopes, of graceful
build, with large eyes, a rather short tail, sharp hoofs, a white streak bordered
with brown running down the side of the face towards the nose, and usually tufts
of long hair at the knees. The colour is fawn or sandy, in harmony with the
desert country these antelopes generally frequent. Gazelles are spread all over
northern, eastern, and southern Africa, in suitable districts, as well as western
Asia as far as India, and a great part of central Asia. Of the Asiatic forms the
Dorcas gazelle (Gazella dorcas) is common to Africa and Asia, occurring, for
instance, in Syria, Palestine, and the adjoining districts of Asia Minor, although
its principal habitat is Africa. Three kinds inhabit southern Arabia, namely,
G. arabica, G. marica, and G. muscatensis, while others, such as the Baluchi
(G. fuscifrons), the Persian (G. seistanica), and the Indian (G. bennetti), occur
farther east. A well-known species is the goitred gazelle (G. subgutturosa), of
which there are several local races. This species inhabits an extensive area in
south-western and central Asia, extending from the table-land of Persia, Asia
Minor, and the Caucasus through Afghanistan, the Altai and the confines of the
Gobi desert, The does are usually hornless. The bucks carry lyrate horns, diverg-
ing from the base, with the points turned towards each other. Seen from the aide
the horns appear to be S-shaped, and have sixteen to twenty -live strongly marked
rings. In colour the typical Persian race of this gazelle in summer is pale fawn
above, and white below and up to the root of the tail, though not around it.
The colours are distinctly separate at the sides, and round the white rump-patch is
a dark band ; the tail is blackish brown.
Very characteristic of Mesopotamia and Arabia is the beaut il'ul
beatrix oryx (Oryx beatrix), whose allies are all African. This small
species stands about 35 inches at the shoulder, and is mostly white in colour, with
brown legs and brown markings on the face and throat, as well as a tail-tip of
the same colour. Its horns are straight.
It may be added that the wild boar is a denizen of much of the area now
under consideration.
Passing on to the horse tribe, the onager or Asiatic wild ass
onager. ^quus onager) is an inhabitant of Syria, Asia Minor, the Euphrates
districts, Kurdistan, Persia, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Sind, Each, and other districts
of northern and western India. This species, of which there are several local races.
has moderately large ears, an erect mane, and a tail covered at the base with short
hair which grows longer towards the tip. It is fawn or chestnut-brown above,
and white below, the back being marked with a dark brown, partly white-edged,
stripe, running down the middle. Sometimes there is a shoulder-stripe and
sometimes the legs are barred with reddish brown. The shoulder-height is about
46 SO UTH- WES TERN A SI A
48 inches, and the total length about 80 inches, while the tail measures about 23
inches. The colour is darker at the ear-tips and round the hoofs, and the tip of
the tail is blackish. The typical race is the ghor-khar of Persia and the Caspian
area, which is replaced in Baluchistan and Sind by E. o. indicus, and in Syria by
E. o. hemippus, the wild ass of the Bible.
The Asiatic wild ass, which inhabits desert and semi-desert plains, is generally
found in herds very difficult of approach, and subsists on such vegetation as is to be
met in those arid districts. An exceedingly swift animal, it is rarely overtaken by
a single horseman, and is generally caught when young by being tired out by a
number of horsemen taking up its pursuit one after the other.
The group of hyraxes (Hyracoidea), although mainly African,
have an outlying representative (Procavia syriaca) in the Sinaitic
Peninsula, Palestine, and Syria. This little animal — the miscalled coney of the Bible
— is covered with rather soft shaggy hair of a yellowish or fawn colour, with a small
oval glandular patch of yellow hair on the back. Like all its kindred, it is very wary,
and must be patiently waited for at sunrise or sunset, when it appears in front of
its hole. The young, generally four in number, are born in a nest of hair and
grass. The flesh is dark-coloured like that of the hare, and although rather dry
and insipid is much appreciated by the Arabs,
squirrels and Many of the rodents of southern and western Asia are European
Dormice. species, the common squirrel, for instance, ranging into Asia Minor.
There are, however, some eastern types. Thus a striped Indian member of the
group, the palm-squirrel (Funambulus palmarum), whose habitat extends from
southern India to Sind and Baluchistan, enters the Mediterranean region. Again the
Afghan marmot (Arctomys dichrous) inhabits the neighbourhood of Cabul and
other parts of northern Afghanistan ; and the European beaver has also a wide
distribution within this region. It is not improbable indeed that the latter rodent
occurs in Asia Minor, as it has been observed near Aleppo. Another European
rodent, inhabiting south-western Asia, is the larger dormouse which ranges into
Syria; and the tree-dormouse is represented in eastern Persia by a brighter-
coloured relative, the Persian dormouse (Glis picta).
Mice. Rats, and The common house-mouse has reached many parts of the region,
voles. especially in the neighbourhood of the coast ; but in Sind, Ladak, and
hmir it is replaced by the nearly allied Mus bactrianus, whose range extends
iioin north-western India to Egypt. In many respects resembling the European
mouse, this species generally has a shorter tail, and is of a light sandy brown or
lawn colour above, and white below. One of its relatives, the Persian field-
mouse i .1/. aAanus), is distributed over central Asia, inhabiting Persia, eastern
Turk, .stan and the centre of the Tian-Shan range. This mouse is a near relative
of the European wood -mouse, and is found in fields and pastures close to forests,
entering houses in winter. Reddish brown above and pale yellowish grey below,
ji has a total length of rather more than 4 inches.
In south-western Asia the black rat is represented by the Alexandrian rat
< .1/. rattus ah'.oindrinus), which is reddish and brownish grey above, and
yellowish white below, with a total length of 6£ inches, the tail measuring 7£
inches. The original habitat of this rat extends from North Africa and the
J.
<
u
<
MICE. RATS, AND VOLES — HARES AND PICAS 47
Asiatic part of the Mediterranean area to India ; but it has been carried on board
vessels to Italy, whence it has spread to south-eastern France and Switzerland.
It has also been observed in south-western Germany and in North America,
having been carried across the Atlantic in ships. This rat has been called the
roof-rat, because it is often seen in Italy on the roofs of the houses. As it is
unknown in Persia and Afghanistan, it did not originally belong to the south-
western fauna.
In Afghanistan there occurs one of the Oriental bandicoot-rats (Nesocia
hardwickei). All these bandicoot-rats are indigenous to the Indian region and
the adjoining parts of south-western and central Asia, but the spiny mice are
partly inhabitants of the Mediterranean region although unknown in the European
portion of the same. They occur, however, in North Africa as well as in south-
western Asia. These mice, which in eastern Africa range down to Mozambique in
the south, are small desert-haunting creatures of about the size of house-mice, but
resembling tiny hedgehogs, in having the lower part of the back clothed with stiff
spines instead of hairs. The pale spiny mouse (Acanthomys dimidiatus) inhabits
Egypt, northern Arabia, Palestine, and Sind, but may range much farther over
south-western Asia. It is sandy coloured above, and white below, with a total
length of 8 inches, half of which is taken up by the tail. The Oriental bush-rats
are also represented by one species (Golunda ellioti) in Sind ; and in Quetta and
Afghanistan we have the so-called Quetta mole (Myospalax fuscicapillus) as a
representative of a genus allied to the lemmings, with other species from central
Asia and Kurdistan. Ranging up to 5000 feet in the mountains, this rodent
constructs long passages in the ground, from which are thrown up heaps of earth
like those of the European mole.
The hamsters are represented by the grey Cricetus (Cricetulus) phceus, which
ranges from Russia to central Asia, as well as by other species of the same and
-allied sub-genera. Equally numerous are the graceful little gerbils, which
are such essentially desert-rodents. The common Indian species (Gerbillus
indicus), for instance, inhabits the barren parts of north-western India, Sind, the
Punjab, western Rajputana, Baluchistan, and southern Afghanistan. It is found
up to a height of 4000 feet, lives in sandy deserts or semi-deserts, and is most
common in Sind, where it burrows everywhere beneath the roots of bushes, or
in sandy hillocks. Its food consists of roots and seeds of all kinds. In colour it is
sandy grey above and dirty white below, its length ranging from 5 to 7 inches,
that of the tail being a little less. Somewhat smaller than the Indian gerbil is
the Afghan G. erythrura, which also inhabits Baluchistan and southern Persia
Although frequenting barren country, this is often found in the neighbourhood
of human habitations. The dwarf gerbil (G. nanus), first discovered in Baluchistan
and Sind, probably also inhabits Arabia and the coast of Abyssinia. Several other
species have been found in Sind, the east European province, and the Oriental
region.
Among the hares, the Afghan Lepus tibetanus ranges over a
ares an icas. ^^ ^^ .^ _^_fgjianjstan an(j Baluchistan as well as the valley of the
upper Indus ; but farther east, in Sind, Each, and the districts adjoining the Punjab,
it is replaced by the Sind hare (L. day anus), which is a true animal of the desert.
4«
SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
The picas, so numerous in northern and central Asia, are represented in the
south-west by the Afghan pica (Ochotona or Lagomys rufescens), which is not
found below 5000 or 6000 feet, and lives in colonies in rocky clefts or burrows of
its own making, which it leaves at mornings and evenings in order to feed. It
measures about 7 inches in length.
Of the jerboas, a group unknown in Europe, there are several
forms in south-western Asia. Foremost among these is the five-toed
Afghan species (Alactaga indica), which inhabits south-eastern Persia, Afghanistan,
and northern Baluchistan. This rodent, which is rufous above and white below,
has a length of almost 3i inches and a tail double as long. It dwells in great
numbers on the stony plains of Afghanistan, where it burrows deep holes in the
ground, and hops about with astonishing agility. Leading a nocturnal life, it
hibernates from October to April. In habits it is much the same as the better-
known alagdaga, or Kirghiz jerboa, of Persia, and the steppes of south-eastern
Kussia, the Caspian area, and central Asia. The three-toed jerboas are also repre-
sented in south-western Asia, although the best-known species, the Egyptian
jerboa (Di]jus jacwlus), which inhabits northern Arabia, has its principal area in
the north of Africa.
The south-western Asiatic portion of the Mediterranean region
Mole-Rat. . r te
forms approximately the centre of a semicircular area extending from
south-eastern Europe to lower Egypt which is the habitat of the mole-rats, as
typified by the great Spalax typhlus. This extraordinary rodent has rudimentary
ears, and the small eyes completely covered with skin. The fur is as soft as the
mole's, and the hairs may be directed either forward or backward with equal ease,
thereby facilitating the movements of the animal along its subterranean passages.
In colour it is yellowish brown with an ashy grey hue above, and is ashy grey
with white spots and streaks below. From the moles it differs widely, not only in
structure, but by the circumstance that it subsists solely on vegetable food, although
it resembles those animals in the form and construction of its burrows.
Porcu ines. Although the porcupines are represented in Asia as well as in
Africa, the species found in south-western Asia, whose area extends
to the Caspian and Black Sea, does not appear to be satisfactorily determined.
The porcupine of south-western Asia was formerly identified with the species
indigenous to southern Europe and North Africa, but is really much more like the
Indian porcupine (Hystrix leucura), of which the south-western Asiatic form is
regarded merely as a local variety.
Jungie-cat Passing on to the cat tribe, among the beasts-of-prey, it is not yet
definitely known how far the European wild cat extends into south-
western Asia, although it appears to be represented by a local race in the Altai.
In a large portion of the area under consideration that species is, however, replaced
by one of the races of the jungle-cat (Felis chaus), which is one of the commonest
wild cats in British India. The habitat of the jungle-cat extends from Burma
to the Caucasus and north-eastern Africa, while in India the species is
found from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin, and from the sea-level to a
height of over 7000 feet. It also inhabits Ceylon and perhaps the Andaman
Islands; and although frequenting primeval forest as well as the plains, is
JUNGLE-CAT— CARACAL— LION 49
particularly fond of high grass and sugar-plantations, while it is often seen in
the neighbourhood of villages, where it is said to pair with domesticated cats.
Like the latter, it breeds twice a year, each time giving birth to three or four
kittens. In length it is from 22 to 26 inches, the tail measuring only 10 or 11
inches, and the height at the shoulder is from 10 to 11 inches. Although the tips of
the ears carry a few long hairs, these do not form regular tufts, like those of the true
lynxes. The jungle-cat holds indeed an intermediate position between the latter
and the more typical cats. In colour it is chiefly sandy brown or greyish brown,
darker above and lighter below. The limbs are sometimes marked by dark
cross-stripes, and towards the end of the black-tipped tail there are black rings.
Occasionally a black, or melanistic, phase is met with.
Like the jungle-cat, the caracal (F. caracal) is indigenous to both
C3.r3.C3.!
Asia and Africa ; and is distributed over the greater part of India,
where it is most abundant in the Punjab, Sind, Kach, and the north-west generally.
The caracal is a slender, long-legged lynx without whiskers, and with a tail about
one-third the length of the body. It is smaller than the European lynx, the length
of the head and body being between 26 and 30 inches, and the shoulder-height
16 to 18 inches. The caracal connects the true lynxes with the jungle-cat, just as it
is connected through the latter with the true cats. In general colour it varies on the
upper-parts between reddish grey and brownish red, the sides of the upper lip having
a blackish spot, while below the colour is lighter, or even white, sometimes with
indistinct reddish spots. The tail, which is of the same colour as the body, has a
black tip ; and the ears, which are white inside, are always black, or nearly so,
externally, with a terminal pencil of long black hairs. The caracal lives amid bushes
and high grass, and hunts gazelles, small deer, and hares, as well as birds, fre-
quently capturing the latter while on the wing by leaping high in the air, and
knocking them down with a blow of its paw. It is sometimes trained for the
chase, and in former times was kept in great numbers by Indian princes for
hunting purposes.
The distributional area of the lion (F. led) includes the whole of
Africa from Cape Colony to Algeria and Abyssinia, but this area has
many gaps, since in some districts the species has been exterminated, the greatest
of these gaps being the one separating the African area of the lion from its Asiatic-
habitat. In former, even historical, times, this gap was more or less filled up, for the
lion was found not only in Arabia and Syria but apparently also over a large part of
south-eastern Europe, as for instance Greece and Rumania. In prehistoric times
it was spread over Italy, Spain, Germany, France, and Great Britain. In all these
latter countries it may have been, at least partly, destroyed by change of climate,
but the lions of south-eastern Europe and south-western Asia were mostly exter-
minated by man. At the present day the lion is much more abundant in Africa
than in Asia ; sometimes it is seen south of the Euphrates, and it is still frequent
in the deltas of that river and the Tigris, fresh traces of these animals having been
noticed daily among the ruins during the excavations at Babylon. It also occurs
on the upper course of the Tigris, and its range extends from the swampy banks of
the Euphrates and Tigris to Kurdistan and the mountainous country south of
Shiraz. The Mesopotamian and Indian lion respectively represent distinct races.
VOL. II. — 4
5o SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
Tiger, Leopard. Tigers are found, as mentioned above, in the Caucasus, and also
etc. in Persia in the Caspian provinces, Mazandaran, and Ghilan, lying
northwards of the Elburz range, and corresponding in part to the ancient Hyrcania,
so famous in classic times for the size and numbers of these animals. The
Persian tiger is a somewhat rough-haired race of the species, known as Felts
tigris virgata. The leopard, which is absent from Sind and the Punjab, is found
in many districts within the limits treated of in the present chapter, the Caucasian
and Persian representative of the species forming a local race known as F. pardus
panthera, and it ma}' be this form which occurs in Kashmir. The Indian fishing-cat
(F. viverrina) enters the Mediterranean region in Sind. In Rajputana a little to
the north we meet the Indian desert-cat (F. ornata), which may thus be ranked
with the animals of south-western Asia, as well as with those of India. The
hunting-leopard, which belongs to a different genus, is distributed over a great
part of Africa, and through Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia, and India, so that it
belongs as much to south-western Asia as to Africa or India, although it is more
familiar in connection with the Indian area.
wolves and The European wolf is known to occur as far east as Baluchistan
jackals. an(j -western Sind, and its distribution probably extends into the
northern Punjab. The south-western boundary of its range is the Indus, and as
that is at the same time, generally speaking, the western boundary of the Indian
wolf (Canis pallipes), the latter may enter the Mediterranean region in this district,
as it certainly does the Ethiopian region in the south of Arabia.
The typical jackal (C. aureus) has full claim to be called an animal of the
Mediterranean region, as it ranges from Burma to the Caucasus, and farther west
through Turkey and Greece to Dalmatia. In North Africa it is replaced not only
in Egypt and Abyssinia but also in the countries between the Mediterranean and the
Sahara by other species (C. anthus and C. lupaster). The hairs of the tail are
reddish brown, but black at the base and tip. The Asiatic jackal, whose tail
measures, like that of the other species, one-third of the head and body, and whose
length is from 24 to 29 inches, is yellowish, or pale rusty red mingled with black
above, and paler below ; the ears and the inner sides of the legs being redder than
the other parts of the body, and the tip of the tail black. The variety inhabiting
eastern Europe and Asia Minor resembles the Indian form, and is of a pale dirty
yellow with a rusty red hue. The Egyptian jackal (C. lupaster) is much larger,
and has shorter ears, the sides of the body being yellowish grey and the hind-legs
reddish yellow. The jackal of north-western Africa (C. anthus) is, on the other
hand, a smaller, paler, sharper-nosed, and more elegantly built animal.
The jackal lives on plains and mountains, in forests and fields, even in populous
towns. It is found in the Himalaya up to a height of 4000 feet and even higher,
especially in the neighbourhood of the hill-stations, and is common on the Nilgiris
of southern India. It occurs solitary, in twos, or in packs, sometimes of consider-
able size. Mainly but not exclusively nocturnal, during the cold season jackals may
be seen wandering about at all hours of the day, not unf requently even in villages.
Its food is of various kinds, and consists not only of freshly killed mammals and
birds, but also of carrion, and in case of need of vegetable substances, such as
sugar-cane.
DOMESTICATED DOGS
5i
Domesticated Here a few words may be appropriately introduced with regard
D°£s- to domesticated dogs, some of which are derived from the wolf and the
Indian wolf, while others have been considered to trace their origin from jackals.
None, however, come from the fox. The number of different breeds of domesticated
dogs is so large and their relationships so involved, that it is difficult to group
them with accuracy.
As exceptional in their habits and environment, mention may be made of
the wolf-like Eskimo breed of Arctic America and Greenland. Closely allied to
- \v--
.
I ■-'
UJ. 1/ •^>™<*JL~iz!>*"-~'
CHOWS.
this breed is the spitz, or Pomeranian, of which two strains are known, a larger
and a smaller. It has a representative in the Chinese "chow," which is
usually reddish brown in colour, with a bluish tongue and muzzle. While the spitz
and the Eskimo betray close relationship to the wolf, many other breeds exhibit an
unmistakable resemblance to the local wolves or jackals. In some breeds, on the other
hand, this resemblance is very much in abeyance, as for example in the Tibet clog,
which is not unlike a mastiff, but distinguished by its shaggy coat and thick under-
fur, as well as by its long, bushy, curly tail. It is probably related to the St. Bernard.
52
SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
Foxes.
South-western Asia is the home of several species of foxes, in
addition to the European fox which also occurs within the area. One
of these is the desert-fox (Canis leucopas), which seems to be widely spread over
south-western Asia, as it occurs near Muscat in Arabia, as well as in Baluchistan,
Afghanistan, Sind, Rajputana, the Punjab, and the United Provinces as far east
as Fatigarh. It is almost exclusively an animal of the desert, and in India
TIBET DOG.
lives principally on gerbils. It is rarely found in the same localities as the Bengal
fox, though both inhabit the desert-like country, occupying the greater part
of Sind.
The hoary fox (C. canus) inhabits Baluchistan, southern Afghanistan, and
perhaps also the east of Sind, while in Europe it is represented by a few stragglers.
Principally ashy grey in colour above, and white below, it is smaller than the
Asiatic desert-fox, being only 33 inches long inclusive of the tail, which measures
BEARS — WEASEL TRIBE— MONGOOSES 53
15 inches. From the east the little Bengal fox (C. bengalensis) just enters the
Mediterranean region, but does not range westward of Sind and the Punjab ; while
from the west Riippell's fennec (C. famelicus) seems to extend over south-western
Asia. The latter is intermediate between the North African fennec and the true
fennecs, having proportionately smaller ears than the African forms, although these
appendages are larger than in other small foxes.
Two races of the brown bear are found in south-western Asia,
the one the silvery grey Syrian brown bear ( Ursus arctus syriacus),
and the other the Himalayan brown bear ( U. arctus isabellinus), which, at least in
immature animals, displays a more creamy or " isabelline " tone of colour. A very
different species, the Himalayan black bear (U. torquatus), also enters the
Mediterranean region in Kashmir and the adjacent countries.
Among the representatives of the weasel tribe met with in the
Weasel Tribe. . .
area under consideration, the beech-marten is found in Palestine,
Syria, and Asia Minor, although probably not in Persia, and only in northern
Afghanistan. In Kashmir the yellow-throated Indian marten (Mustela fiavigula)
enters the region. The polecat is replaced near Kandahar and Quetta, and perhaps
also in other countries bordering on south-western Asia, by the mottled polecat
(M. sarmatica). The European ermine does not range very far south, although its
habitat extends into Asia Minor, Persia, and the Himalaya. The weasel probably
inhabits much the same part of the region as the ermine. The badger ranges to
the Caucasus, but in southern Spain and perhaps Asia Minor is replaced by an
allied species or race (Meles mediterraneus), while farther east the latter is succeeded
by the smaller and paler Persian badger (M. canescens). The limits of the range
of the European otter in south-western Asia are still unknown, although the
species has been stated to occur in Mesopotamia and Persia. Elliot's otter
(Lutra ellioti, or barang), which is common in Sind and elsewhere in the Indus
country, though not farther west, extends from India into the Mediterranean
region.
Certain kinds of mongoose demand brief notice, the well-known
Egyptian species (Herpestes ichneumon) being found in the European
and African, as well as in the Asiatic portion of the Mediterranean region. This
species (which is represented in Spain by a local race, H. i. wicldringtoni) reaches
a length of about 20 inches, with a tail-length of about 16 inches. The general
colour of the fur is greyish browm, the hairs being ringed with reddish brown and
pale yellow, and the tip of the tail black. This species shows the antipathy to snakes
characteristic of its kindred and is immune to their venom, but whether it eats
crocodile's eggs in the numbers reputed is not ascertained. The ancient Egyptians
kept the ichneumon as a domesticated animal, and perhaps their modern descend-
ants may do the same, as it is an excellent mouser. For this useful quality the
ancient Egyptians considered it sacred, and represented it in various ways on
their wall paintings and elsewhere.
The small Indian mongoose (H. auropunctatus) ranges from the east into
south-western Asia, being found in the Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan, southern
Afghanistan, and Persia. This mongoose, wrhich is, moreover, indigenous to
northern India from Kashmir to upper Burma, is about half the size of the
54 SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
ichneumon, and in the Mediterranean region is much paler in colour than in the
Indian region, where it varies from light grey to dark brown, and is sprinkled with
small white or yellow dots. The common Indian mongoose (H. mungo) occurs in
Baluchistan.
A distant relative of the mongoose, the European genet (Genetta
vulgaris) inhabits southern France, Spain, parts of south-western Asia,
and North Africa. An exceedingly supple animal with graceful movements, and a
good mouser, it is domesticated in Barbary, and occasionally also in southern Europe.
Like other genets it has a valuable fur. The prevailing colour is light grey, with
three or four longitudinal rows of oblong blackish spots on the sides. Above and
beneath the eyes and at the base of the upper jaw are white spots, and the tail is
marked with white and black rings. The length of the head and body is about
19 inches, and that of the tail 16 inches.
The hyaenas, which in former times were spread over the greater
ripe ysen ^ ^ Europe, and eastwards into China, are at the present day
confined to the warmer countries of the Old World, ranging from Africa into India.
Only one of the three existing species, the striped hyaena, inhabits both Africa and
Asia ; the other two, the spotted hyaena and the brown hyaena, being confined to
Africa. The striped hyaena (Hyama striata) was widely spread in early times
over the greater part of Europe, although less common there than the spotted
species. At the present day it is abundant in the northern and central provinces of
India, but rare in lower Bengal and unknown in Ceylon. From India it ranges
through Baluchistan, Persia, and Mesopotamia, to the Caucasus, as well as through
Arabia, Syria, and Palestine. In Africa it inhabits Egypt, Abyssinia, and the
countries north of the Sahara, while in east central Africa it is represented by the
race known as H. striata schillingsi.
The striped hyaena, which has a total length of about 5 feet from the nose to
the end of the tail, is distinguished by its large pointed ears, and the erect mane
extending from the head to the base of the long-haired tail. The hind-legs are
shorter and have smaller feet than the fore-limbs. In colour it is dirty grey, striped
with black on the sides and legs. This species prefers open country with hills, or
sandy plains, and in Syria and Palestine is often found among the tombs in the
rocks. In India, where it often frequents ruins, it hides in caves or among the
rocks on the slopes of ravines. Leading in the main a nocturnal life, it is some-
times seen by daylight, especially early in the morning or late in the evening.
During the night it covers long distances, no tracks being more common than
those of this animal, which might be mistaken for dogs' spoor, were it not for the
smaller impressions of the hind-feet. Unlike the spotted species, the striped
hyaena leads a solitary life, and it is seldom that more than one or two are seen at
a time.
_. . Among the insect- eating mammals the hedgehogs are re-
Hedgehogs. ° b & to
presented by several species in south-western Asia, the European
form inhabiting Asia Minor and Syria, while the large-eared hedgehog (Erinaceus
< I a ritus) ranges from the Caspian district into Mesopotamia. In Persia, Baluchistan,
and near Kandahar and Quetta dwells the long-spined hedgehog (E. macracan-
thus), distinguished by the long spines on its head, some of which are as much as
^
Z
Z
f.
BED GEHO GS—BA TS 55
H inches in length. This species measures about 9i inches in length, the tail being
a little over an inch, and the pointed ears two inches long. The Afghan hedgehog
{E. megalotis), which has equally long ears, is about a foot in length without the tail,
which measures 1| inches. This species is distributed over the greater part of
Afghanistan, where it lives on worms, insects, lizards, and especially snails. During
the day it sleeps, and from October or November to February it hibernates in deep
holes in the ground. Another hedgehog of south-western Asia is Jerdon's hedge-
hog (E. jerdoni), which inhabits Sind and the Punjab, and is about 7^ inches long
without its tail, which measures a little over an inch in length. The collared
hedgehog (E. collaris), which is found in the Punjab, Sind, and other parts of
north-western India, has long ears, and a length of 7 inches, exclusive of the tail,
which measures about an inch. It is dark in colour with a whitish chin, and a
band of white running along each side of the lower jaw up the neck. This species
frequents sandy plains, where it hides beneath thorns or in long grass during the
day. Its food consists mainly of insects, but it also eats lizards and snails.
Stoliczka's hedgehog (E. pictus), which ranges from the east of the Mediterranean
area into India, is a very small species, the males being only about 8 inches in
length exclusive of the short tail, while the females are smaller. It inhabits
north-western India, the Punjab, Sind, Kach, and Rajputana, and extends as far
east as Agra. By day it hides among grass or in holes, such as those abandoned
by foxes, and is said to be common in the dry parts of north-western India, but
as it has been seldom observed, its habits are not well known. All the hedgehogs,
it may be noted, are immune to snake-poison.
Passing on to the bats, several noteworthy species deserve mention,
among them being the Indian pipistrelle (Pipistrellus abramus),
which is very common, and whose habits have been well observed. It is found
beneath roofs, in sheds, old houses, etc., much oftener than in woods, and flies early
in the evening, often in the neighbourhood of human habitations. With a body-
length of 1-S- inches and a tail-length of almost 1£ inches, in colour it is dark brown
above and paler brown below. Its range extends from northern Australia and, at
least in summer, over central Europe as far north as Sweden. In India, where
it is found up to the height of 7000 feet in the Himalaya, it is one of the most
common bats. It flies quickly, but smoothly; and in its pursuit of flying
insects suddenly drops in its flight and hovers for a while over the same
spot.
Another species, Kuhl's bat (P. Jcuhli), is reddish or blackish brown above
and more yellowish below, but is specially characterised by the yellowish white hind
edge of the flying-membrane which extends from the fifth finger to the foot. The
length is just over 3 inches, the tail measuring 1£ inches, and the expanse of wing
8f inches. Its range extends from the valleys of the southern Alps through
southern Europe to northern and north-eastern Africa and south-western Asia. In
southern Europe it is the commonest bat, and may be seen flying in great numbers
along the streets and between the houses of towns and villages; it is also
found on the rocky shores of the Mediterranean at the foot of the Maritime Alps and
along the shores of the Adriatic. This bat flies with great swiftness, although not
so high or in such bold curves as its two northern relatives. Neither does it range
56
SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
so high up the mountains, never being found higher than 1000 feet on the southern
slopes of the Alps.
The desert -bat (Myotis desertorum), which inhabits Persia, Baluchistan,
Afghanistan, and probably other parts of south-western Asia, assimilates in colour
to the desert-sand. Another bat of this area is the widely distributed Miniopterus
schreibersi, which ranges from southern Europe through Asia, Africa, and
Madagascar, to Australia. Its powerful flight and the graceful movement of its
wings°make it almost the equal of the swallow in speed. In length it is 2£ inches,
the tail measuring about the same ; in southern Europe and northern Africa it is
grey, in India generally dark brown.
The remarkable long-tailed bat (Rhinopoma microphyllum) is of almost
equally wide distribution, ranging from Egypt to Burma. It is at once dis-
tinguished from all other bats by its extremely long, thin, whip-like free tail.
In length the body measures only 3 inches, but the tail is nearly 2i inches long.
In colour it is sombre greyish blue both above and below. It may be added
that a few species of monkeys inhabit Kashmir, but as these are obviously out-
lying Oriental forms, and not distinctive Mediterranean types, they need not be
further referred to in this place.
Buibuiand The birds of south-western Asia include a great number of
Chats. central European types mingled with others unknown in the former
area. The nightingale, for instance, is found in Asia Minor, but in Persia and
Turkestan is replaced by the bulbul or Persian nightingale (Daulias hafizi, or
golzii), which is of rather larger size, with a longer and more rounded tail and
a paler colour. In the neighbourhood of the Caspian the nightingale lives
mostly amid dense brambles. Another European species, the black redstart, occurs
in Asia Minor ; and the stonechat of central and southern Europe ranges through
the corresponding latitudes of Asia as far as Japan, while the whinchat is met
with as far south as Persia. The wheatear, again, is represented in south-western
Asia and north-eastern Africa by the eastern black -throated wheatear (Saxicola
melanoleuca), which breeds in Greece, southern Russia, and Asia Minor, and on
migration visits the Nile valley and the regions as far south as Zanzibar. Like all
the wheatears, it is a brisk, restless bird, which feeds on beetles, grubs, caterpillars,
and other flying and creeping insects. In habits it resembles the other members of
the group, but dwells on low mountains among barren rocks or on sandy shores,
often appearing near human dwellings and making its nest in walls and stone-heaps.
In length it is over 5i inches. The males are black on the side of the face and the
throat, and on the scapulars and wing-coverts, and pale rusty red mingled with
white on the upper part of the head and back.
The dippers have a representative in this area which differs from
the European form in certain details of coloration. The white-necked
dipper (Cinclus albicollis), as it is called, is indigenous to Asia Minor, North Africa.
and southern Europe. Although very like the common species, it is paler and
greyer in colour.
Rock-Thmsh. The roc^-tnrusn of this region is the blue species (Monticola
cyanus), which inhabits the shores of the Mediterranean from Spain
to Greece and is further distributed through Asia Minor, Persia, and central Asia,
R O CK- THR USB— WARBLERS 5 7
as far as the eastern coast of China. This species frequents quiet isolated rocky
districts, and is a real bird of the rocks, never perching on trees, and when
disturbed flying to the highest spot attainable. It avoids the society of other
species, and is generally seen only in company with its mate, searching every
crevice and turning over every stone for its food, which consists of insects, spiders,
centipedes, and berries, especially currants. It is a favourite cage-bird, and has a fine
rich song, consisting of a few loud notes, with rather unmusical interludes. During
nesting-time the male keeps close to the nest, and often performs his graceful
" love " flight, fluttering slowly up into the air, and coming down in regular
curves. In colour, the cock is slaty blue, with blue edges round his wing and
tail feathers, the female being mainly brown. The thrushes are less well
represented in the Mediterranean area, but, like the blue rock-thrush, the European
blackbird breeds in Asia Minor.
Among the warblers, the blackcap breeds in Asia Minor, as does
Warblers. w 1
also the whitethroat ; and the Orphean warbler (Sylvia orpheus)
has its principal habitat in the Mediterranean countries. In the west it is reported
as a straggler into England, and has been met with in Belgium and more
frequently in Luxemburg; eastwards its range extends through Asia Minor as far
as Turkestan. Although perching more in the tops of trees than in the brush-
wood below, this bird nests in the latter. In Spain it is found in pines of 50 feet
in height, as well as in clumps of fig, olive, and carob trees. In Algeria and Tunis,
where it is very common, it seems to prefer mountain woods to plantations and
gardens in the plain. In August and September it migrates to central Africa and
India, and in the beginning of April returns to its breeding-area. Its song is
loud, clear, and melodious, including a succession of resounding notes, which the
bird, perched on an olive bough, with puffed-out throat, is never weary of repeat-
ing, the melody being continued even while the songster is fluttering to the
ground with expanded tail and quivering wings. In olive plantations, where the
trees are planted at wide intervals, the bird is very wary, but in the dense tops of
fig-trees and carobs it may be watched without difficulty. Like the others, this
warbler feeds on insects and fruit. It is distinguished by the black crown and
sides of the face, and the brown and white tail. In size it is about the same as
the barred warbler.
Among other members of the group occurring in south-western Asia are
Bonelli's warbler (Sylvia bonellii) and the olivaceous warbler (Hypolais pallida),
which is common to south-western Asia, northern Africa, and southern Europe.
The latter resembles the garden warbler, but is much smaller, and distinguished
by having the first primary longer than the coverts. The olive-tree warbler
(H. olivetorum), inhabiting Asia Minor and Syria, is somewhat larger and darker,
and brownish grey instead of olive-brown above. The grasshopper-warblers are
represented by Savi's warbler (Locustella luscinioides), a species ranging as far
north as Great Britain, and eastwards into southern Russia and western Asia.
Resembling its relatives in habits and haunts, it generally frequents river-
banks covered with dense shrubs, but for its nesting-place chooses a more open
spot, where reeds are interspersed with other marsh-plants. Its song resembles
that of the grasshopper-warbler, but is sweeter and more musical, although so
5S
SOUTH- WESTERN ASIA
monotonous that the bird is known in the fen-districts as the reel-bird. In
length it is about 5 inches; in colour reddish brown above, and white on the
throat, the under tail-coverts being pale chestnut. The sedge-warblers are repre-
sented in this area by the moustached sedge-warbler (Lusciniola melanopogon),
which inhabits Asia Minor, northern Africa, and southern Europe, where it dwells
among swamps covered with reeds, here and there varied with low bushes. By
no means shy, it will continue hunting for insects when its haunts are approached.
It may be easily distinguished from the reed-warblers by its peculiar habit of
spreading the tail aloft and shrugging its wings. Of the size of the common reed-
warbler, it has a dark, rusty brown back due to the feathers having dark centres.
The head is nearly black, the first primary broad and long, and there is a distinct
greyish white eye-stripe.
Cetti's warbler (Bradypterus cettii) is one of the best songsters of the
Mediterranean area, in some parts of which it remains the whole year round,
singing every month. Living in impenetrable thickets, this warbler makes a nest
near the water, in which it lays bright red, unspotted eggs. In length it is
5| inches. The plumage is a rich russet-brown above, and white on the throat
and breast. The tail-feathers are ten in number.
Both the wrren and the goldcrest occur in south-western Asia,
while still more common is the fan-tailed Cisticola cursitans, which
is light brown with darker streaks above and white shading into brownish below,
the general appearance being that of a small reed-warbler with a curved beak
and fan-shaped tail.
The coal-tit ranges as far west as Japan, the blue tit into Persia, while the
sombre tit (Panes lucjubriv) of the south of Europe occurs in Asia Minor and
Palestine. The last-named species somewhat resembles the marsh-tit, which it
exceeds in size by about an inch, and is further distinguished by the black chin
and throat, the browner crown, and the white edges to the wings and tail. A shy,
unsociable species, inhabiting mountain valleys with wild fruit-trees, it appears
on its breeding-grounds at the end of April, to leave again for the south at the
beginning of September. The bearded tit (Panurus biarmicus), distinguished by
its curved beak and the length of the tail, in which the feathers are graduated,
also enters the Mediterranean region. The favourite haunts of this bird (the sole
representative of its kind) are reed-beds, especially near the sea. Not infrequently
it is found in small patches of reeds, and when these die down it betakes itself
to dense willow bushes, and occasionally trees. The nest, always well hidden, is
placed on the ground in a bunch of reeds, and is made of grass and flags lined with
reed-flowers. The bearded tit still breeds in the vast reed-thickets of Friesland and
south Holland, but has become somewhat rare in England. It is more frequent
in southern France, especially in the Rhone delta, and it has been observed in
Spain. Very rarely it is found in Germany, as, for instance, in Oldenburg, on the
Moselle, Minister, and Mecklenburg. Its chief habitat includes south-eastern
Europe, Asia Minor, and western Asia as far as the Saisan Lake at the foot of the
Altai. It is a lively bird with a soft, twittering song, incessantly busy in climbing
up and down the waving reeds, and feeding on snails and aquatic and other insects,
;specially aphides. In autumn and winter it collects in flocks to feed on the seeds
WRENS AND TITS— NUTHATCHES
59
of the reed. In length it measures about Qh inches. In colour the crown is grey,
the long moustache black, the back orange-tawny, the tail, which is over 3 inches
long, fawn-coloured, the wings striped with reddish brown, buffish white and
black, and a good deal of black on the coverts. Beneath it is mostly rosy grey,
and the feet are black and the bill yellow.
■ .
BEARDED TIT.
Nuthatches.
Two species of nuthatch, the European and the rock, or Syrian
(Sitta neumayeri), occur in the Mediterranean area, the latter
inhabiting Greece, Asia Minor, and Syria, and ranging as far as Afghanistan, while
it also occurs in Bosnia and Dalmatia. From the common nuthatch it diners
widely in habits, living almost exclusively on rocks or old walls, in the crevices of
which is placed the carefully constructed nest. The bird itself, which measures
about 51 inches in length, is somewhat smaller and rather browner above than the
6o
SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
Larks.
common species, the lower-parts being whitish, with the exception of the russet
feathers on the flanks, abdomen, and under tail-coverts.
The European skylark is replaced in south-western Asia by the
short-toed lark (Calandrella brachydactyla), which, like its eggs, is
of a pale sandy colour, in harmony with the barren plains on which it dwells. In
its mode of flight, and especially in singing as it hovers over one particular spot,
this species resembles the skylark, its rich full notes being also like those of
that bird, although softer. Its habit of collecting in large flocks at certain times
^~VTZ.
-
DESERT LARK.
of the year is likewise similar. In addition to southern Europe, this bird
inhabits northern Africa, south-western and north-western Asia, especially the
districts round the Caspian Sea. According to the climate of the countries it
inhabits, it is resident or migratory. Now and then it appears in the British Isles,
(Jermany, and the northern countries of Europe as a straggler, its breeding-area
extending from the south of France to Turkestan.
The calandra \-A\\(Melanocorypha calandra) is another member of the group,
distributed over southern Europe from Spain to Greece, through Asia Minor and
the countries round the Caspian as far east as Turkestan, and also inhabiting
LARKS — WAGTAILS AND PIPITS — B UN TINGS 6 1
northern Africa from Morocco to Egypt and Nubia. Frequenting cornfields and
meadows, steppes and deserts, it leads a life similar to that of the skylark, which it
resembles in all its habits, including that of nesting on the ground. In winter it
associates in immense flocks with larks of other species. An excellent songster,
it trills its melody with the addition of many passages from the songs of other
birds, so that its chant is full of variety. It is especially vocal at pairing-time
when the male soars to such a height that his presence is betrayed only by his
melody. This lark, which is 7 inches in length, has a large thick beak, a short
tail, and resembles the European skylark in colour and markings, except that the
coverts are bright rufous and form a shoulder-patch.
The crested lark ranges from Europe into and beyond south-western Asia.
whereas the area of the woodlark does not extend farther east than Asia Minor.
The desert-larks are distinguished \yy their broad flat crest, quite unlike the
pointed one of the crested larks, and the long thin beak. One of these (Alcemon
desertorum), an unmistakable bird of the desert, in its sandy grey colouring,
inhabits the whole of the desert-zone extending from north-western Africa to the
west of British India, although nowhere very common, being distributed in solitary
pairs, each of which claims a territory of its own. The song is short and simple ;
the nest is made on the sand, and the eggs are greyish with sandy markings.
Wagtails and Of the wagtails, the white species is rarer in south-western Asia
Pipits. anci the south generally than its common European relative, the grey
wagtail, which ranges from central and southern Europe and northern Africa through
the corresponding latitudes of Asia to the Far East. The yellow wagtails, in various
forms, have a similarly extensive range. The pipits are represented within the
present area by the water pipit and the tawny pipit, the former inhabiting the
mountains and the latter the plains.
Several European buntings are found in south-western Asia and
Bunting's. . . ,
other parts of the Mediterranean area, as, for instance, the corn bunting,
the ortolan, the cirl bunting, the meadow bunting, and the reed bunting. Another
species inhabiting south-western Asia is the black-headed bunting (Emberiza
melanocephala), which does not breed in Europe, though it straggles as far west
as the British Isles. It inhabits south-eastern Europe and south-western Asia,
and ranges from the shores of the Adriatic and the lower slopes of the Caucasus
to India, migrating east and west instead of south and north. In India it
appears from November to March in large numbers, doing great damage to the
fields, and in Asia Minor and Turkey arrives at the end of April in one flock, so
that places near the seashore, where not a single bunting was seen the day before,
suddenly resound with its song. It nests by preference in sage-bushes and the
Christ's thorn (Paliurus aculeatus) or on the ground, and feeds on insects and
seeds. In length it measures 7 inches, and in colour is light bay with no streaks
on the sides, but the conspicuous black cap from which it takes its name.
The rusty Cretzschmar's bunting (E. ccesia) dwells in the desert parts of south-
eastern Europe and south-western Asia, where it frequents barren rocky hills and
nests among shrubs and isolated rocks. This bird is rather smaller and somewhat
more brightly coloured than the ortolan, with a grey head, neck, and chest-band,
and a rich chestnut throat and breast.
62 SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
Among the finches we find the citril finch in Asia Minor and
Finches. n0I.thern Africa, while the goldfinch is an inhabitant of south-western
Asia from Smyrna to Persia. The greenfinch is also to be found in this region, and
the chaffinch, which is rare in Persia, is a common bird in Asia Minor, as is also the
bullfinch, while the rock-sparrow and the tree-sparrow range as far as Afghanistan.
The common house-sparrow is replaced in Asia Minor, although not in northern
Africa, by the Italian house -sparrow.
Starlings are represented in Palestine, southern Europe, and north-
west Africa by the Sardinian species (Sturnus unicolor), a near relative
of the European starling, but distinguished by the shorter body and the unspotted
black plumage, which is of a violet hue on the wings. This starling is found in the
Ukraine, Caucasia, and a great part of south-western Asia, ranging as far as Kashmir.
Of the crow tribe, the rook ranges into Syria and Persia. From
the north, the hooded crow enters this region, but not the carrion
crow. In Persia and Mesopotamia the hooded crow is represented by an allied
species in which the markings are white instead of grey. The jackdaw and
magpie are also present, but the jay is replaced in Asia Minor by the black-headed
jay (Garrulus krynicki) and in Syria by the Syrian jay (G. syriacus). The
chough occurs in Persia where the mountains are sufficiently high, and the
Alpine chough ranges from the Lebanon to the Himalaya and Altai.
shrikes and Another European bird found in Asia Minor and Persia is the
Flycatchers, lesser grey shrike, which is, however, rare. The commonest shrike is
the woodchat, but the red-backed shrike also breeds within the region. The four
European flycatchers already described are also frequent in south-western Asia.
swallows and The swallows are represented by the European species, as well
Martins. as by the red-rumped swallow (Hirundo rufula) which ranges from
southern Europe to Turkestan. Although very like the ordinary swallow, it has a
streaked abdomen, the back marked with white, the neck and lower part of the
back variegated with chestnut, and a chestnut eye-stripe. It lives by preference
among rocks near the sea or large inland waters, and makes beneath projecting
ledges a rounded nest of mud and clay, furnished with an entrance tube sometimes
as much as 5 inches in length.
The European martin and sand-martin inhabit the latitudes of Asia corre-
sponding with those of their habitat in Europe. Another species, the crag-martin
{Cottle rupestris), is indigenous to the south of Europe and thence distributed
through Asia as far as China. Nesting in the towers and ruins of mountain
castles or among high rocks and steep cliffs on the seashore, only in cool mornings
and wet foggy weather does it come down from the heights. On such occasions it
will associate with other swallows, to return so soon as possible to its mountain
home. Here it builds a nest of clay and earth sheltered by a projecting rock. In
size it is slightly larger than the sand-martin ; the back is light grey, the throat
white, the chin mottled with brown, and the lower-parts light rusty greyish brown,
the outer tail feathers having a white blotch in the middle of the outer web.
Bee Eater and The swifts are represented in south-western Asia by the Alpine
other Picarians. swift ; and in like manner the nightjar inhabits the latitudes of Asia
corresponding to those of its European habitat. The blue roller, whose area extends
BEE- EATER
63
from central and southern Europe into western Asia, avoids the magpie everywhere,
and never nests in the same localities as that bird. The hoopoe ranges from
Europe and North Africa all through Asia to the Pacific. The kingfisher, although
not met with quite so far east, inhabits the same latitudes in western Asia as in
Europe. The bee-eater {Merops apiaatcr) principally inhabits the countries
around the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Like the other members of its kind,
this beautiful bird is distinguishable at a glance by the two long feathers in the
middle of the tail, which end in sharp points. Generally speaking, this bee-eater
lives on the steep banks of rivers, or by the sea, and from there visits sand}7 plains
and flowery meadows, grassy mountains, and the skirts of forests. In flight it is
exceedingly graceful, executing the boldest curves, serenely moving in the upper
air, or fluttering close above the ground, catching insects as it flies. Like the
swallows, it does
not walk with ease, k
*
and when on the
ground moves
about with short
tripping steps. It
perches on hillocks,
stones, or bare
branches ; and re-
sembles the swal-
lows in being
gregarious, especi-
ally during the
breeding - season,
where it may be
seen in thousands.
The nests and sleep-
ing - places are a
labyrinth of bur-
rows, excavated
close together in
sandy or soft
ground by the beak and claws. The colonies are generally found in river banks and
occasionally on flat stretches of sand a yard or two underground. The bee-eater
feeds on wasps, bees, hornets, and other hymenopterous insects, and takes up its
position near a wasp-nest or bee-hive to catch the owners as they fly in or out.
The bee-eater is a bird of passage, which arrives on its nesting-grounds in
April and leaves in August. In Greece it arrives earlier and remains longer.
Sometimes it extends its migrations beyond the northern boundaries of its area,
and then appears in Britain, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and elsewhere:
Its principal breeding-grounds are, however, in the Mediterranean countries, and
round the Black Sea ; but the species ranges from Spain and southern France,
through Turkey, Asia Minor, and Persia to Turkestan and Kashmir. During
migration the bee-eater is found throughout northern Africa, and even makes its
V^
BEE-EATERS.
64 SO UTH - WESTERN A SI A
way to Cape Colony. This beautiful bird is about 10 inches long ; the head and
mantle are chestnut, the back creamy buff, the lower part of the back being
marked with blue, while the tail-feathers are green with blue edges ; the bright
yellow throat has a black edge, and the rest of the under-parts are light greenish
blue.
The crested cuckoos, which are about the size of the common
species, are distinguished by the slender body, the thin but fairly
strong beak, and the pointed crest. Most of the species are African, but one
inhabits the south of Europe and south-western Asia, and two others are Indian.
The great spotted cuckoo (Coccystes glandarius) is the Mediterranean species, which
is found in Africa as far south as the Congo, and has straggled as far north as
England and Germany. It is an active bird, less wary than the ordinary cuckoo,
and feeds entirely on insects. Its haunts are in forests and gardens abounding in
trees, particularly mimosa-forests ; and it deposits its eggs chiefly in the nests of
rooks and other members of the crow tribe. In length it is about 16 inches ; and
in colour it is ashy brown above spotted with white, and creamy white below
with a burl* hue on the chest, the crown and crest being dark grey.
So far as the central European birds-of-prey are not exclusively
inhabitants of the north, they are probably all found in suitable
districts of the Mediterranean countries. Among the nocturnal kinds, the barn,
the little, and the tawny owl range into Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine, while
the scops-eared owl is a typical bird of the Mediterranean countries.
Among the falcons, the noble and widely spread peregrine is
found in the Mediterranean, as in other districts, in the mountains,
while the lanner (Falco feldeggii) prefers the plains. The latter species nests in
oaks and other tall forest-trees near rivers, or on the ledges of steep cliffs. It
inhabits southern Europe and northern Africa and the corresponding latitudes of
central Asia as far east as China. Its European breeding-area comprises Spain,
Bohemia, lower Austria, Hungary, Bosnia, Galicia, Poland, southern Russia, Bulgaria,
and, although rarely, Greece ; while it builds frequently in Asia Minor. It is also
found in forests near Vienna and all down the Danube as far as the Dobrudscha,
where it generally uses the abandoned nests of other birds-of-prey. In winter the
lanner resorts to warmer climates, for instance Egypt, where it arrives with other
birds on the lagoons and swamps of the Nile Delta, but soon settles down to a
hunting-tract of its own in places where it has a good view of the surrounding
country. While the morning mist still hangs above the lagoons, and the geese,
ducks, and other water birds fill their shores with a deafening noise, the lanner
suddenly dashes down and seizes — amid the momentary silence caused by its
appearance — a victim from the midst of the flock, which it carries off to the
nearest elevated spot. When young, this falcon resembles the peregrine, but later
may be easily distinguished by its superior size, more pointed wings, and the buff
bars on the tail. In flight it is swifter than the peregrine, and works its wings
more vigorously, while when at rest it crosses them over the narrow tail and
holds the body erect. The kestrel ranges from southern Europe and North Africa
into India, while the lesser kestrel (F. cenchris) breeds in southern Europe, the
Grecian Archipelago, Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, and farther east, as well as in
FALCONS — EAGLES 65
northern Africa. Its European range comprises Spain, southern Italy, Greece, the
Dobrudscha, and southern Russia. It breeds as far north as Styria and occasion-
ally appears as a straggler in the British Isles. In August and September it
migrates to South Africa, whence it returns in March and April to its breeding
grounds. Although it may sometimes eat lizards, mice, and small birds, its principal
food appears to be the larger insects, especially locusts, and on this account it is
protected in Turkey and Russia. In size the lesser kestrel measures about 12 inches.
The head and tail are grey, the chestnut of the back is not spotted, the claws
are white, and the feet, lores, and eyelids yellow. The beak is deeply notched.
With respect to the eagles, the golden eagle is a breeding bird
over the greater part of Asia. Bonelli's hawk-eagle (Nisaetus
fasciatus) inhabits southern Europe, north-western Africa, and Asia as far east as
Madras. Though occasionally building on river-banks, it nests chiefly on rocky
cliffs, which form its usual resorts. From these it descends to the plains to seek
its prey; and, although a somewhat roving species, never migrates. An active,
powerful bird, quicker in flight than other eagles, it may be distinguished from
them by its slender form, long tail, and the buff colour of the under-parts, as
well as by carrying its body more horizontally and inclining it more forward.
It is of fearless appearance, and as courageous as it looks. In India it is known as
the peacock-killer, and will not only kill pea-fowl and birds of that size, but
even attack the golden eagle and deprive it of its prey. In length it measures
about 26 inches. The feathers of the head and back are mostly white at their
bases, the white increasing as the bird grows older, so that it becomes pre-
dominant in old age. The buff under-parts are narrowly streaked with dark brown,
the cere and feet are yellow, and the toes and claws noticeably large. Another
member of the same group, the booted hawk-eagle (Ar. pennatus) is mostly found in
the forest-regions of the south of Europe, ranging thence eastwards to India and
Ceylon. Nesting as a rule in small colonies, where the forest offers a wide view,
it uses by preference the abandoned nests of other birds-of-prey ; but when it builds
a nest this is large, bulky, and finished with green branches. The booted eagle is
exceedingly courageous during the brooding-period, which lasts for four weeks,
and until the young are fully fledged. In habits the male differs from other
birds-of-prey by its dove-like gentleness, and also by the way in which it returns
to its mate, perching close by on a branch, and then walking slowly towards the
nest with drooping head and puffed-up crop, like a pigeon, uttering all the while
a sonorous " kei kei." When hunting for prey in the forest with the same skill
as a hawk, this eagle hovers rather nearer the ground, capturing as it goes
starlings and pigeons, but more especially lizards and frogs. When loaded with its
prey, it is often attacked by kites, to which it occasionally yields its booty.
Unlike its kindred, this eagle has a sort of song, consisting of alternating notes,
comparable more to the voice of a singing bird than to the shrill scream of a bird-
of-prey. It is only 24 inches long, not quite so large as a buzzard, but in shape is
a small replica of the golden eagle. A white patch on the shoulder is its most
characteristic mark, other features being the pointed feathers on the neck, the
bluntness and roundness of the other feathers, and the fact that the tail is com-
pletely covered by the wings when at rest.
vol. 11. — 5
66 SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
Buzzards, Kites, As regards the buzzards, the European species is met with
etc- in remote parts of Asia Minor, but in northern Africa, south-eastern
Europe, and the corresponding latitudes of Asia is replaced by the African buzzard
(Buteo desertorum), distinguished by its inferior size and the rusty hue of the tail
and flanks. A relative of the buzzards, the serpent-eagle, a species indigenous to
southern rather than to central Europe, is widely spread through south-western
Asia as far as India. Possibly the sea-eagle nests in some parts of the area,
but the osprey, although not fond of warm countries, occurs more frequently.
The black- winged kite (Elanus cceruleus) ranges across to India, and is also met
with in Africa and eastern Europe. Its prey consists of insects and small
mammals, especially mice. The nest is often found on lemon or orange trees,
especially in Egypt, where the bird is very tame, as it is never harmed. This
kite is recognisable at a distance by its colour, which is not unlike that of a gull,
being ashy grey above and white below. When hovering, it raises the tips of its
wings above the body. Its total length is about 13 inches.
The black kite may be regarded as a bird of the Mediterranean countries ; and
the same may be said of the sparrow-hawk, which breeds in Asia Minor and Persia,
as do the goshawk, the marsh-harrier, the hen-harrier, and Montagu's harrier. The
pale harrier (Circus swainsoni), on the other hand, which inhabits the south of
Europe, especially southern Russia, Turkey, Greece, and the countries of the lower
Danube, ranges in Asia as far as India, and is found over the greater part of
Africa. Never perching on trees, it spends the night on the ground in high
grass or corn. The nest, which is made of grass, flags, and other plants twisted
together in a slovenly way, is either placed on the ground before the reeds, grass,
or corn are high enough to hide it, or in low bushes. In habits this shy and
cautious bird is very like the hen-harrier, quartering the ground at a small height
above it in search of prey, and often betraying the nest by indulging in eccentric
performances around and above. It is paler above than the hen-harrier, the
white upper tail-coverts are barred with grey, and there is no notch on the web of
the fifth primary feather.
Passing on to the vultures, the black or cinereous species
Vultures. ° r
(Vultwr rnonachus) nests on old oaks, beeches, or limes in the depths
of the forest ; and always where approach is easy from above. A favourite
situation, for instance, is on the top of some dead tree which by its bare branches
offers a convenient perching place. The nest, which is used for many years, and
may sometimes be placed in crevices and on rocky ledges, is always large enough to
completely hide the sitting bird from below. It consists of a foundation of stout
sticks, with a superstructure of thinner twigs, and as a rule contains but one egg.
The young vulture, which is nursed with the greatest care by the parents, is not
able to seek its own food till three months old. The black vulture has an easy,
sweeping flight, and often rises completely out of sight in the air. Subsisting
partly on living animals, as, for instance, kids, dormice, lizards, and tortoises, this
vulture feeds chiefly on decaying carcases, especially those of mammals, the bones
of which it gnaws with the sharp notch in its beak, severing the flesh even when
hard and dried, and sometimes devouring so much that it is scarcely able to move.
Its range extends from the Mediterranean to China, but in northern Africa it inhabits
VULTURES
67
only the Atlas countries and a part of the western coast, and very rarely appears
in Egypt. In Europe it is common in the plains of the Danube down to the
Dobrudscha, as well as in Bulgaria, Rumania, Servia, Bosnia, southern Hungary,
and Croatia. Farther north it never breeds, although common in Asia Minor and
the southern slope of the Ural. It travels enormous distances in search of prey,
and on such excursions has occasionally been seen in Holstein. It is 42 inches
long, and blackish in colour on the head and neck On each shoulder it carries
a movable tuft of feathers; while the lower part of the neck is covered with
.
.
GRIFFON VULTURES.
down, which, when the bird draws
in its head, and thereby hides the
bare part of the neck, forms a heart-
shaped collar surrounding a triangular
patch of dark feathers. The rest of
the plumage is black with brownish
reflections. The very different griffon
vultures, which are about the size of turkeys, are distinguished by their almost
erect carriage, the strong beak, which in the middle is as high as half its
length, and the somewhat slender head and neck. The legs, which are shorter
than the middle toe, are feathered on the upper part, and the neck and head are
covered with down. The true griffon vulture (Gyps fnlvus) is a bird of the roojks,
frequenting either mountains, or, more commonly, the plains or sea-cliffs. In the
pairing-season this vulture heaps up dry twigs and plants to form a loose nest in
a cavity in some steep, inaccessible position, in which is laid some time after the
68 SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
middle of February the solitary dull greenish white egg, occasionally blotched
with brown at one end. In a favourite situation there may be several nests from
100 to 200 feet apart. Sometimes they are in caves, but only in the absence of
rocks are they placed on trees. The griffon vulture feeds on carcases, which it
discovers from a considerable height, and on which it descends in spirals. Scarcely
has one vulture settled on a carcase, when several others, attracted probably by the
downward flight of the discoverer, arrive on the spot. Vultures generally alight
some little distance from their prey, and then run up in long strides with neck
thrust straight out, tail raised and spread, and wings drooping.
The flight of the griffon vulture is easy and falcon-like, in fact, rather hovering
than flying, being often continued for some time without any movement of the
wings, and yet without diminution of speed. When descending on its prey, a
vulture sometimes utters a twittering note, and on alighting croaks hoarsely.
Although apparently awkward, these birds move on the ground with great
activity ; and when lamed can run so quickly as often to be overtaken only
with difficulty.
The griffon is the most common of the European vultures, its breeding-area
extending from the Mediterranean to Turkestan. It is abundant in Spain, Sardinia,
Sicily, south-eastern Europe, Asia Minor, and northern Africa down to Abyssinia, but
rare in Italy. In the north of Greece and Turkey it is found breeding, as it is
in the Dobrudscha, Bulgaria, Rumania, Bosnia, southern Hungary, Carinthia, and
Carniola ; but it also ranges much farther north, a straggler having been observed on
one occasion in the south of Ireland. In length it measures about 44 inches. The
head and a ruff of feathers round the neck are white, the bare skin of the head
and neck being leaden. With the exception of a tuft of narrow pointed white
feathers at the base of the neck, and the black wings, the plumage is pale reddish
and greyish brown.
scavenger- The scavenger-vultures are smaller birds, not much larger than
Vulture. a pheasant, which carry their bodies almost horizontally. They have
a slender beak, unfeathered legs, and a bare face and throat, although the hind
part of the head is covered with either feathers or down. The common Egyptian
species (Neophron percnopterus), which inhabits Africa right down to Cape Colony,
ranges from Arabia and Syria to central Asia and India, and from Constantinople
to Spain and the Canaries. Stragglers wander still farther, and have occasionally
lvacln.-d Britain. The species is rare in Italy and the Danubian countries, but
sometimes travels from northern Italy to Switzerland, where it has been found
breeding near the Lake of Geneva. In Europe the scavenger-vulture is probably
most common in the south of the Balkan Peninsula. Numbers of these birds
frequent the Turkish quarter of Constantinople, where they are appreciated and
protected, as being of use in clearing up the garbage. They are also well treated
in Egypt, where they have been highly appreciated for many centuries. They are
excellent street scavengers, feeding upon all kinds of filth ; but they will also kill
and eat lizards, mice, rats, and other creeping animals. After they have eaten their
fill they sit in dreamy silence in the same place until they get hungry again,
when they seek their food in company. Large parties of scavenger-vultures are
often seen performing complicated evolutions in the air apparently by way of
QUAIL AND PARTRIDGES— FRANCOLINS 69
exercise, but when on a long journey they fly straight ahead, giving a few beats of
their wings at a time and then gliding on quietly for a long distance, looking some-
what like storks. In walking they resemble a rook. The Egyptian vulture is
generally very tame, but when persecuted soon becomes wary. In certain localities
it builds in inaccessible spots, as on narrow ledges of rocks, or in caves; and
there are generally several nests near together. In Constantinople it nests on the
mosques, in India on almost any building, and in Egypt sometimes on the pyramids.
The nest is seldom placed on trees, although in Constantinople it has been seen in
cypresses. This vulture does not even use trees for perching, avoiding forests in
favour of mountains or rocky ravines and cliffs, and preferring barren country to
cultivated ground. At times it visits the seashore, and often follows caravans
through the desert for the sake of the carcases and other waste. The scavengvi -
vulture has a length of from 26 to 27 inches. The bare parts of the head
and neck are yellowish. In young birds the body is dark brown in colour,
but later on becomes white, with black wings, the primaries being whitish at
the base.
Quail and Among the game-birds of south-western Asia are included the
Partridges, quail and the partridge, the latter of which is a breeding bird in Asia
Minor. The chukar partridge (Caccabis chukar), distinguished by its white lores,
is met with all through Asia from Asia Minor to China ; while Arabia and the African
shore of the Red Sea form the home of the black-headed partridge (C. melanocejjhala),
which has a black crown and grey outer tail-feathers. The sisi partridges are
smaller birds, not quite the size of quails, without spurs on the legs, and with twelve
feathers in the tail. Among these, Bonham's sisi (Ammoperdix bonhami) ranges
from Arabia and Mesopotamia into north-western India, It inhabits the hills up
to the height of 7000 feet; and its colour resembles that of the ground to such
a degree that the bird has only to keep quiet to remain undiscovered. The
cocks have a band across the forehead continuous with a black eye-stripe, a
whitish chin, a grey throat, and the flanks chestnut barred with black; the
hens lacking the black and white markings on the head and the longitudinal
barrino- on the flanks. In another species, Hey's sisi (A. heyi), which inhabits
both shores of the Red Sea and Palestine, and is rather larger than a quail,
the hens are very similar in colour to those of the preceding species, but the cocks
are much paler, with a chestnut chin, and no black on the forehead or above
the eyes.
Althouo-h very partridge-like in appearance, francolins are more
slender in build, with a thinner neck and longer beak. The throat
and region round the eyes are often bare, and the legs of the cocks are generally
armed with spurs. The typical species (Francolinus vulgaris), generally known
as the black partridge in India, was formerly common in Sicily, where, however, it
now appears to have been exterminated. It is rare in northern Africa, but from
Cyprus it is met with more or less abundantly through Syria, Asia Minor, Caucasia,
and Persia, to northern India. Its favourite haunts are swampy plains near rivers,
where it hides among reeds or long grass, although it also occurs on cultivated land.
The neighbourhood of water is indispensable to its existence. Hidden in bushes
and hio-h oTass, francolins wander about silently and alone in the daytime, now
7o SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
and then uttering their somewhat subdued call, which Mohammedans regard as a
prayer. During pairing-time the cry is heard much ot'tener. Every morning and
evening in spring the cock bird stands on some elevated spot and "crows," his
call being answered by one or more of his fellows. The nest is a hollow scratched
in the ground by the hen beneath a bush, and lined with grass, roots, and dry
bamboo. The eggs, from six to ten, vary in colour from greenish to brownish buff,
and are bluntly pointed. The francolin affords excellent sport, and is one of the
best-known game-birds of India ; indeed so much is it sought after throughout its
range that in many places it has been more or less completely cleared off. This
regrettable circumstance is largely due to the fact that although a large clutch of
eggs is laid, usually only two or three chicks hatch out. The plumage of the cock
is noticeable for the white-spotted black under-parts, black throat, white ear-band,
and chestnut gorget. The upper half of the back is black spotted with white, the
lower part of the back and tail are black barred with white, and the primaries have
a row of spots on both webs.
In south-western Asia the most abundant of the three pigeons is
the rock-dove (Columba livia), so named from the nature of its haunts.
Avoiding the forest and seeming to dislike trees, this bird keeps to steep cliffs or
projecting rocky ledges, nesting in large gloomy caves or small clefts, sometimes
even in the craters of volcanoes or in wells. In the British Isles and other parts of
western and northern Europe, it builds by preference on cliffs near the coast,
but elsewhere it may also be found inland, and in the south it lives even in the
desert when it can find convenient breeding-places. In these countries its
numbers are everywhere proportionately small compared with those living in
southern Europe. The species is common on the rocky shores of the Mediterranean
from Portugal and Spain to Asia Minor and from Morocco to Syria, whence its
range extends through Persia to Turkestan and India.
Rock-doves, as a rule, make their simple nests in caves and crevices among
rocks. The nest is a slight heap of twigs, grass, and heather, or other plants, on
winch, twice in the season and sometimes oftener, are laid two white eggs. In
India these birds often nest in the neighbourhood of the Alpine swift ; and in Egypt
they often lay in oval-shaped pots placed by the peasants on the houses for their con-
venience ; and many villages in upper Egypt harbour such swarms of doves that
they almost seem to have been built more on account of the doves than of their
human inhabitants. The rock-dove is a shy bird, strong in flight, and able to cover
long distances on the wing ; in fine weather it is in the habit of circling in the air
moving its wings slowly when aloft, and closing them as it gently descends. In
spring it often extends its wings with such force that the hard quills clap together
over its back, as is the manner with many other doves. As it rises it often
produces a peculiar crackling sound by beating the ground rapidly with
its wings.
Its food includes all kinds of grain and other seeds, as well as the roots of a
few plants together with slugs and snails, and occasionally worms. In digging food
out of the ground, it uses the beak to loosen the earth, and to aid in the comminution
of its food fragments of gravel, chalk, or hard clay containing salt are swallowed.
Occasionally a rock-dove wil) hover just above the water in order to drink, and
R O CK-D O VES — D O ME STIC A TED PIGE ONS
7»
sometimes during a shower it will lie on one side and raise the opposite wing to
allow the rain to wash the body feathers, this habit being common to other doves.
The rock-dove has a total length of 13 inches, and in colour is chiefly greyish
blue. The lower part of the back is white, the wings have two broad black bars,
FANCY PIGEONS.
the axillaries are white, and the legs dark red. In appearance it much resembles
ordinary domesticated pigeons, of which indeed it is the ancestral form.
Domesticated The variations in colour and marking and the differences in the
Pigeons. shape and size of domesticated pigeons afford a most striking example
of what can be done by careful selection during a long period of years. Many of
7 2 SO VTH- J VE STERN A SI A
the existing breeds are of great antiquity, pigeons having been kept long previous
to the Christian era. In the Middle Ages the number of breeds was considerable,
and these were greatlv increased when the sea route to India was opened, and
Eastern pigeons introduced into the Netherlands, whence the breeding of fancy
varieties as a hobby spread into England, France, and other European
countries.
To mention the many varieties now kept would occupy too much space, and to
classify them is not easy. The largest are the runts of which there are several
well-marked strains; the smallest is the white African owl which originated in
Turin. The carriers, dragons, and barbs are distinguished by the development of
the eye-wattles, the pouters by the abnormal size of the crop, which, as in the
pigmy variety, is so large as to almost bury the head. In the jacobins the head is
buried in a hood, in the frills the head in many cases is crested, and all the feathers
of the throat and chest curl up so as to form a sort of ruff. In the fantails the
fancier has devoted his attention to developing the tail, which spreads out in
peacock-fashion. The tumblers, so called from their curious acrobatic flight, are
remarkable for their power of staying on the wing for hours. It was this quality
which led to their being crossed with the dragons, which are as noteworthy for
their speed, and with the smerle, which had a great reputation for strength and
intelligence, in order to produce the most useful pigeons now bred, namely, the
homers, good examples of which are worth £100 apiece.
The turtle-dove ranges through south-western Asia as far east as
Turtle Doves. pergia . but in southern Asia generally, west of India, we have the
collared turtle-dove (Turtur risorius), which is usually regarded as the ancestor
of the variety so often kept in confinement. This dove, whose distributional area
is bounded on the west by Turkey, is pale brown above and pale ivory-grey below.
There is a black band on the sides of the neck, and the middle tail-feathers are
brown throughout, while the others are dark brown at the base on the upper side,
and whitish towards the tips. This dove is from 11 to 12 J inches long, and has
dark red legs and feet.
Of the herons, the common species ranges over the whole Eastern
Hemisphere, and the purple heron (Ardea purpurea) has a similar
distribution although its haunts are quite different. Instead of installing itself in
the neighbourhood of running water, the latter bird keeps mainly to pools and
swamps where aquatic plants are abundant, amid which it fishes in the usual
quiet heron fashion. The nest is generally placed in the middle of the swamp,
amongst the densest reeds, or on willows and other bushes near the water, or
occasionally, as in Ceylon, on a teak tree. It is built of reeds bent down to form
a sort of stage, twigs, leaves, and other materials. When reposing, this graceful
bird generally sits down on its hind legs, with its long neck forming a double curve.
If surprised, it stands motionless with its neck and beak directed straight upwards,
so as to assume the appearance of a crooked stick. This attitude, as in the case of
the bittern, is generally adopted at the approach of man, and the bird rarely takes
to flight until the intruder is in close proximity. When enraged, it bristles
up the stiff feathers on the crown and attacks its adversary with its long
and formidable beak. Although less wary, the present species resembles the
PURPLE HERON— WHITE HERON— LITTLE EGRET 73
common heron in many respects, as for instance in the choice of its food. It nests
in some parts of Holland, but more frequently in Hungary, southern Austria, and
the Dobrudscha, occasionally straggling to Britain and Germany and rangino- into
central Asia. In length it measures about 36 inches. In colour the crown of the
head and its crest are black, the throat is white, and the neck reddish brown with
a black stripe down each side, and another on the nape. The back, wings, and
tail are grey, the breast is red, and the thighs rufous.
The great white heron or egret (Herodias alba) lives amid sur-
Wliite Heron. . . . . ..
roundings similar to those 01 the purple species, its nesting-sites being
dense reed-patches by the side of a swamp, or trees growing in water. Usually
only a few pairs make their nests in company, but in winter these herons collect
in considerable flocks. They are exceedingly graceful birds, and in the air may be
distinguished from common herons by their narrower wings, by the more back-
ward extension of the legs, as well as by the lighter and more buoyant character
of the flight. Their food includes fishes, small mammals, and lizards, although
insects and snails captured in the water or on herbage in the meadows are
preferred. In Europe this conspicuous bird is extremely shy, but in many parts
of China it is so well treated by the natives that it has become quite tame,
frequently perching on trees near human dwellings, and seeking its food in the
neighbouring ponds. Its distributional area extends from southern and south-
eastern Europe through Asia to Japan and Australia, the bird wintering in
northern India, Burma, and Africa. In Spain, France, and Italy it is rare, but it
is rarer still in Germany. As a straggler it is known in the British Isles and the
south of Sweden. Formerly it was a frequent breeding species in the Danubian
countries from Hungary to the Dobrudscha, but it has been so much sought after
for the sake of the plumes known as " ospreys " that its numbers have greatly
diminished in those districts. These plumes are the long filamentous feathers
developed on the back during the breeding-season, which disappear in autumn.
The colour of the plumage is entirely white, with the beak and feet black. In
length the great white egret measures about 44 inches.
The little egret (H. garzetta) also frequents swamps and gently
flowing rivers, although it shuns reed-beds in favour of trees growing
in small clumps near or in water. A favourite site for the nest is a pollard willow,
some 10 or 12 feet above the water. The nest is a loosely interlaced mass of thin
twigs, sometimes lined with reeds, flags, and grasses, its bulk being equal to that
of a crow's nest. Towards the end of May it contains three or four (rarely five)
bluish green eggs. This graceful bird, whose plumes are not so highly appreciated
as those of the white heron, is about 20 inches in length, with white plumage, black
beak, and greenish yellow legs and feet. Inhabiting all the Mediterranean countries,
especially in the east, this egret is also found in the plains of the Danube, the
countries round the Black and Caspian Seas, the valley of the Volga, the Sea of .
Aral, and other inland waters of central Asia, as well as in China and Japan.
It frequently appears in the delta of the Nile, and occasionally straggles into
Germany, northern France, Holland, and England, although unknown north of the
Baltic. It breeds as far south as Cape Colony, and has been shot in northern
Australia.
74 SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
The squacco heron (Ardeola ralloides) also belongs to the Mediter-
L ranean reoion, and is found in similar situations to the last. It nests
in colonies in trees amid marshes, the nest being lighter and more neatly made than
that of the egret, and carefully lined with twigs, ferns, and flags. From four to
six is the number of the eggs, which are of the usual pale bluish green heron-colour,
and are laid about the end of May. In structure and habits the squacco serves in
some degree to connect the typical herons with the night-herons. It associates
with other swamp birds, although but rarely with the little egret, and is dis-
tinguishable from a distance by its pale vinous colour and thick neck. In flight
it is slow and noiseless, and on the ground rather deliberate and lethargic in its
movements, often standing motionless for a considerable time. In districts where it
is not persecuted it becomes unsuspicious and easy of approach. The range of the
squacco includes southern Europe, Africa, and south-western Asia. It is a common
breeding-bird in the valley of the Danube down to the Dobrudscha, but is rare in
Italy and southern France, and more so in Switzerland and southern Germany
while only a few straggle so far north as Holland and England. In length
it measures about 21 inches. In colour it is warm buff" on the upper-parts,
and yellowish on the head, neck, and shoulders, with white wings and tail,
green lores, blue and black beak, and pinkish legs and feet, the soles of the feet
being yellow.
„. .. Night-herons differ from ordinary herons by their shorter bodies
Night-Heron. J9 .
and thicker necks, the latter being closely feathered. As regards
habits they are distinguished from the true herons in the same manner as are owls
from falcons, since they shun the daylight, sleep by day, and are active only
after dark. From the bitterns they differ by the closer plumage and the presence
of the characteristic long, narrow, ribbon-like feathers at the back of the head.
The common night-heron (Nycticorax griseus) frequents swamps bordered by trees
and brushwood, but never those unprovided with such covert. The nest, which
may be described as a cradle of a few dry twigs, sometimes lined with flags and
reeds, contains from three to five pale greenish blue eggs at the usual time. During
the nesting-season the night-heron is not exclusively nocturnal, the males generally
crouching in the daytime near the sitting females, with their necks between their
shoulders, their legs bent, and their eyes half, or entirely, closed. In the twilight,
both birds go out in search of the small fishes, frogs, mice, beetles, dragon-flies, and
larvae which form their food.
The night-heron has a wide distribution, inhabiting southern and eastern
Europe, Africa, Asia, and America, but is absent from Australia. In Europe
it is most frequent in the plains of the Danube, but it occasionally wanders
as far north as the British Isles, the Faroes, and the south of Sweden. The
head is rather large and the neck thick ; but the feathers are more compact than
those of the squacco and white herons. When standing with its crest erect and
the white neck-feathers extended like fingers, the night-heron is a decidedly
handsome bird. It is about 18 inches in length. The crown, neck, back, and
shoulder-feathers are glossy greenish black, the lower part of the back and
tail are dove-colour, while a collar round the neck and all the under-parts
are white.
GLOSSY IBIS — STORKS AND SPOONBILL
75
Glossy Ibis.
Another swamp-bird of the region is the glossy ibis {Plegadis
falcinellus), which, as regards habits, resembles partly the phalaropes,
and partly the herons and storks. It has a light, measured, striding walk, wades
in mud and water, and swims in case of need. This bird inhabits the south of
Europe but is really cosmopolitan in distribution, being found not only in Asia and
Africa but in Australia and North America. In Europe it is common round the
Black Sea, in the delta and plains of the Danube, in southern Russia and southern
SPOOXBILLS.
Poland, while it occurs in Italy, southern France, and Spain. Though rare north
of the Alps, it is known as a straggler in Britain, the Faroes, Iceland, and
Scandinavia. It is 22 inches long, and bronzy in plumage with metallic re-'
flections, blackish above and brownish below.
storks and Both kinds of European stork are known in south-western Asia
Spoonbill, mainly as migratory birds, although they breed now and then where
the climate and conditions are favourable. The spoonbills in many of their habits
76
SOUTH- WESTERN ASIA
resemble the storks. The legs are proportionately longer than those of the true
ibises, and covered with hexagonal scales ; the tail is straight, and the beak broad
and expanding at the tip into the spoon from which these birds derive their name.
The common spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia) haunts the marshes and fens, and nests
either on grassy tussocks or on trees, sometimes in numbers on one tree which is
always near or in the water. The young, which remain in the nest till fully
fledged and able to find their own food, are brought up like storks, but their food
consists of insects and crustaceans, fishes, molluscs, frogs, and all kinds of aquatic
animals, for which the bird searches the water in duck-fashion with its spoon-
shaped beak. It breeds as far north as Holland and straggles into Great Britain
and Scandinavia. It is common in Spain and in the plains of the Danube, where
■
-
PRATINCOLES.
Pratincoles.
in some localities it breeds in thousands. Everywhere it is very local though it
ranges right across Asia to Japan and down north-eastern Africa to Abyssinia. In
Length the spoonbill measures about 38 inches. The plumage is wholly white,
and the slate-coloured beak barred with black and yellow at the tip.
Of the active little birds known as pratincoles, the Mediterranean
region possesses one representative. The distinctive characteristics
of these birds are the short, more or less bent beak, the very long middle toe, of
which the claw is comb-like, and the long pointed wings, extending beyond the
tail, which is frequently forked. The pratincoles, which are spread over Europe,
Asia, Africa, and Australia, are all alike in their habits, the one found in the
Mediterranean area (Glareola pratincola) frequenting treeless steppes traversed
by -hallow rivers with Hat shores. Although as much in need of water as the
PRATINCOLES— CREAM-COLOURED COURSER 77
larger plovers, it keeps more to dry situations, such as ploughed ground, or the
cracking mud of half-dried pools, where it often associates with rooks, starlings,
and lapwings. It prefers flying to walking, and is mostly found on opeD places
with a wide view, or cultivated, and especially ploughed, ground, the latter partly
covered with water. The nest, which is placed near pools on undulating sandy
ground dotted over with sparse plants, or on pastures with short grass, consists
merely of a shallow hollow lined occasionally with dry stems and rootlets. The
pratincole breeds in colonies, the nests being about 6 feet apart ; the eggs, three in
number, are heavily marked. The young pratincoles are able to run as soon as
hatched, and in case of danger press their bodies close to the ground, which their
down resembles in colouring. Pratincoles eat all kinds of insects, especially locu-t s,
grasshoppers, and beetles, capturing their prey in the air, or from plants or on
the ground. They are lively, energetic birds, in flight not unlike swallows, and
wading and swimming like plovers. When at rest, they look very like plovers, not-
withstanding the long pointed wings, and the forked tail which is always in motion.
The common pratincole inhabits the plains of the Danube, especially the
Dobrudscha, in flocks of thousands, and is not less numerous near the Volga, the
lakes of southern Russia, the Black and Caspian Seas and the Sea of Aral, as well
as in the steppes of Turkestan and southern Siberia, Asia Minor, and North Africa.
It is common in central Hungary and Greece, although rare in south-western
Europe ; Italy and southern France see it only on migration, but it breeds in Spain,
and a few stray northwards to Germany and Britain. On the muddy banks of the
Nile pratincoles appear in immense numbers after the inundation has receded. The
common species is about lOi inches long, and greyish brown in colour above. The
throat is buff, girdled by a narrow black band, the lower part of the body and upper
tail-coverts are white, the tail is greenish black, white at the base and brown at
the tip, the lower wing-coverts are greyish brown, the feet black, and the beak
blackish with a red base.
Cream-coloured A rare visitor to the British Islands, the handsome cream-coloured
Courser. courser (Cursorius gallicus) is a common Mediterranean species
ranonn£ from the Canaries and north-western Africa through south-western Asia
to north-western India. Now and then it has been found breeding in Sicily and
Spain, and occasionally it straggles into Great Britain, France, Switzerland and
Germany. In length it measures about 9 inches. The head is bluish grey behind,
with a white and a black band on each side. Although the larger quills are black,
the general colour of the plumage is that of the desert sand, which the eggs so
resemble in their sandy brown, ashy grey, and olive-coloured spots and speckles
that they are almost indistinguishable from the stones among which they are laid.
The courser takes its name from the speed with which it runs, this being so rapid
that the legs do not seem to move. These birds appear indeed to roll along rather
than run ; the male always leads the way, the female keeping about thirty paces
behind. At intervals a courser will check itself to pick some food from the ground,
and then dart on again as rapidly as before. Thus it will run for hours, never
attempting to take wing, and leading the inexperienced to think that it can be
caught with the hands, until suddenly, when hard pressed, it shows that it can
fly as well as it can run.
78
SOUTH- WESTERN ASIA
Curlew and Stilt.
Although the woodcock breeds in remote places within the region
'under consideration, and the common snipe may perhaps occasionally
nest in northern Africa, the other snipe, as well as the curlews, are essentially
birds of the north. The slender-billed curlew {Nwmenius tenuirostris) is, how-
ever, an inhabitant of Asia Minor and Egypt and southern Europe from Portugal to
Greece. It differs from the common curlew by the shape of its beak and its smaller
size. Some of the sandpipers of Europe and northern Asia breed in the Mediter-
ranean area, for instance the redshank whose nest has been found in Asia Minor
and Greece, although the majority of this group breed in the far north. The
^
s
.*
BLACK-WINGED STILT.
stilts, on the other hand, are dwellers in warmer climates, the black-winged species
(Evnumtopus candidus) inhabiting the south of Europe from Spain to southern
Russia, although more abundant in the south-east than elsewhere. It also inhabits
south-westero Asia, its range extending into China; and it breeds in Africa as far
south as Cape Colony. In Europe it nests in Hungary, and all down the Danube,
to the Black Sea. Stragglers visit the coasts of Germany, Holland, and Great
Britain, but in central Germany and Switzerland the stilt is very rare. In spring
and summer stilts build a large nest of reeds and grass. They seek their food by
wading deep in soft mud or up to the full length of their long legs in water; and
they are always found in muddy, shallow swamps, or on low river-banks, where
PURPLE GALLINULE— SAND-GROUSE 79
they feed on insects, molluscs, and frogs. Stilts walk in a peculiarly mincing and
leisurely manner, carrying the body horizontally. In flight they move the wings
slowly, bending their tips downwards; they hold the legs out straight when flying
strong, but let them dangle when they hover. The great length of the legs is
always sufficient to distinguish a stilt, either on the ground or in the air. In
length these birds measure about 14 inches. In colour the tail is grey, the under-
pays and lower half of the back are white, the mantle and wings greenish black,
the feet pink, and the beak black.
, „ „. , With the bare mention that the two kinds of European bustards
Purple Gallinule.
range into the Mediterranean area, as does Macqueen's bustard which
is principally indigenous to the Caspian region, we pass on to the rail tribe, of which
the central European species are found in the area under consideration partly
as migratory, partly as breeding birds, while the brighter coloured gallinules are
represented by the purple species. These birds are characterised by the presence of
a horny plate covering the front and crown of the head, as well as \>y the relatively
deep beak, of which the edges are notched, and the rather long hind-toe. The
gallinules, of which there are about twenty kinds, are distributed over the warmer
countries of both hemispheres, and distinguished from their near relatives the coots,
which they approach in their habits, by the blue coloration of their plumage.
The Mediterranean species (Porphyrio cceruleus) frequents swamps and marshy
localities in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, and the
Caspian district south of the Terek. It arrives in its breeding-area towards the
end of April, and leaves again in September, a few individuals remaining in
certain suitable places. Although resembling the coot in its habits, the gallinule
has a more stately walk, and contracts the long red toes at every step, and spreads
them out as they descend. The slender red legs, which hang down during its
short flights, make the bird conspicuous from a distance. The gallinule is
an expert swimmer and diver, generally seen on the water, but spending much of
its time on land lurking among the vegetation, and in spring robbing other birds'
nests of their eggs or young. Its own nest is generally placed in situations difficult
of access, where it is concealed amid reeds or growing rice ; not unfrequently it is
floating on the water. From its relatives the true coots the purple gallinule differs
by the circumstance that it feeds its young, which are soon able to swim and
dive. It is 18 inches long, and in colour is deep rich blue, the sides of the
head, throat, and upper part of the breast light blue, and the under tail-coverts
white.
Representing a very different family, the sand-grouse, which are
mostly birds of the Mediterranean countries, are distinguished by long
and pointed wings, a rounded or wedge-like tail, and feathered feet. In structure
they approximate to the pigeons on the one hand and to the game-birds on the other.
The large sand-grouse (Pterocles arenarius) inhabits northern Africa from Morocco
to Tripoli, the south-western districts of the Asiatic part of the Mediterranean
region as far as India, and the countries round the Black and Caspian Seas and
the Sea of Aral. In Spain both this species and the pin-tailed sand-grouse occur,
although each has a province of its own, the two species being apparently inimical
to each another. Sometimes the large sand-grouse strays into other countries of
So SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
southern Europe, and now and then stragglers appear in Germany. Being an
inhabitant of the deserts, it is coloured in harmony with its surroundings ; the
plumage is sandy yellow and black above, with the throat chestnut edged with
black, the chest grey, and the rest of the under-parts black. In length it measures
nearly 14 inches. The three eggs are laid in a small hollow on the ground, never very
far from water, and are sandy in colour, with greyish and reddish brown markings.
These birds are light and strong on the wing and traverse great distances in search
of food, which comprises tender buds and leaves, seeds, fruits, and insects. They
feed in larger or smaller flocks, the members of which keep up a constant
"chucking," like domesticated fowls, or a kind of dove-like cooing. On the
wino- these birds utter a loud " kadda-kadda," and when startled an indignant
" gur-gur-gur."
The pin-tailed sand-grouse (Pteroclurus alchatus) is a species of south-western
Asia, rano-incr into Arabia, the Caucasus, and Turkestan. In the west of Europe it
is represented by a subspecies (P. alchatus pyrenaicus), which breeds in northern
Africa and southern Europe, especially Spain and Portugal. This species is a little
smaller than the ringed sand-grouse, from which it is distinguished by the length
of the two pointed middle feathers of the tail, the eastern form being further
'liti'L'i-entiated by the yellowish white under-parts. In summer the breast is pale
rufous, in winter brownish white; in the western form the plumage is darker,
and the breast in summer reddish brown.
To provide water for their young, cock sand-grouse fly oft" to a pool in which
they thoroughly soak the feathers of the breast. On their, return to their young,
the latter pass the wet feathers of their parents through their beaks, and thus
obtain sufficient moisture.
Comparatively few of the anserine birds breed in the Mediter-
ranean area ; but the red-crested pochard ranges from Europe as far
as Persia and India ; and in suitable localities the white-eyed duck, the pochard, and
the wild duck are met with here and there, while the grey lag-goose is also occasion-
ally seen. There are, however, no mergansers and no swans.
Pigmy In addition to the common species, the pigmy cormorant (Phala-
cormorant. crocorax pygmceus) frequents the coasts, and is especially common in
Hungary, where it breeds from April to September and October. Its distributional area
extends from Hungary and Dalmatia to northern Africa, the Caspian, the Sea of Aral,
and Persia. In autumn this species migrates south. It lives among deep marshes, and
nests in colonies on retired waters amid weeds and willow-bushes, in company with
spoonbills, ibises, white herons, night-herons, and crested herons. In these colonies,
where the nests are often built on willow-bushes close beside or above one another,
those of the present species, to the number of three or four, are placed on the highest
branches of each bush. This cormorant, which never nests on tall trees, climbs
slender willow-stems, and even reeds, always grasping several at a time with its
long toes, aided by its tail. It is a shy and suspicious bird, much smaller than
the common cormorant, measuring only from 21 to 23 inches in length. In colour
it is mainly black, but the head and upper part of the neck are reddish brown,
and the lower-parts marked with long white spots. The dark grey wing-coverts
have black edges, and the beak and feet are black.
WHISKERED TERN— GULL— GREBES— REPTILES 81
_. , . _ Although the terns are represented in south-western Asia bv the
Whiskered Tern. ,,, , , . . . . r , J
black tern and the white-winged black tern, the whiskered tern
(Hydrochelidon hybrida) is much more characteristic of the region. This bird
arrives on its breeding-grounds towards the end of April, and nests in swamps
and meadows near large ponds among aquatic plants, or if the water be high, on
dense willow-bushes and low trees, the nest being an untidy mass of weeds, often
afloat and adrift. The young remain in the nest till fully fledged, and are later
on fed by the old birds, whom the}' follow with cries, when on the wing. When
disturbed by a bird-of-prey, such as a hen-harrier, the males of the whole colony
assemble round the enemy, and noisily chase it away. In habits this species most
resembles the black tern. Its range extends over southern Europe, northern Africa,
and thence eastwards through the Malay Archipelago to Australia ; but the species
is not so common in the west as in the east, where it occurs in large numbers,
especially round the Caspian and in Asia Minor. As a straggler it is known in
the British Isles, in Germany it is very rare, but it is common in southern Hungary
and the Dobrudscha. The blood-red beak, the white stripe along the cheek, the
grey breast and black crown render this tern easily recognisable. It is 10 J
inches long, and grey above and below, with a white edge to the outermost
tail feathers.
Mediterranean One °f ^he conspicuous gulls is the Mediterranean black-headed
Black-Headed species (Larus melanocephalus), whose principal home is in the
countries around the Mediterranean and Black Sea. This gull
occurs in thousands on lake Sinoe in the Dobrudscha and at Singora in Asia
Minor, while in winter and spring it is abundant near Alexandria, where it breeds
on small islands, and floating patches of grass and reeds, often at some distance
from the sea. In gait and flight it resembles the laughing gull. It has white
wings, with a black line on the outer web of the first primary, and a pitch-
black head ; the delicate pearl-grey of the upper-parts and the fine, pinky white
of the under surface, together with the coral-red beak and feet, rendering it a very
handsome bird. It length it measures from 15 to 17 inches.
Of the grebes, the little grebe seems to be confined to Europe and
Grebes
Asia Minor, but both the great crested grebe and the eared grebe have
a much wider distribution, extending over a large part of the Mediterranean region.
Among the reptiles of south-western Asia, the scheltopusik
6P e8' (Ophisaurus apus), a snake-like lizard in which the front legs are
absent and the hind pair rudimentary, is very characteristic. It is about a
yard long, and in colour chestnut-brown, dark coppery red, or greyish yellow above,
and greyish and yellowish brown or reddish brown below. It inhabits grassy and
bushy localities in south-eastern Europe, Asia Minor, and northern Africa, where it
preys on small animals of all kinds, and will successfully attack even the viper.
Several species of thorny-tailed lizards, such as Stellio vulgaris, occur within
the area, and one species of Amphisbcena. Like the scheltopusik the amphisbsenas
have only one pair of legs, but in their case it is the front and not the hind pair
which persists. The grey species (Amphisbcena cinerea), which inhabits Asia
Minor, northern Africa, and the Iberian peninsula, is the only European representa-
VOL. II. — 6
g2 SOUTH-WESTERN ASIA
tive of the family, whose main home is America. Like the rest of its kind, this
reptile can creep either forwards or backwards with equal ease; it lives in the
ground especially in ant-hills, and feeds on insects and worms.
In addition to the sand-viper, already noticed in the chapter on Southern Europe,
the snakes are represented in south-western Asia, southern Europe, and northern
Africa by the Egyptian Eryx jaculus, which is sometimes over 30 inches in
length. It is variable in colour, though as a rule yellowish with brown or black
spots and cross lines ; and it feeds principally on lizards.
Of the poisonous snakes a few species are found in south-western Asia as
well as in Europe and northern Africa. The blind snakes, which differ in several
/
. , K
«k>£,ifr *~'-h ■'.:: , .
THE SCHELTOPUSIK.
points from ordinary snakes, and are remarkable, among other features, for certain
small rod-like bones forming the sole vestiges of the hind-legs of their ancestors,
are represented by the European blind snake (Ti/phlops vermicularis) in Arabia, Asia
Minor, and the Caucasus, as well as in Greece. It is 10 or 12 inches long, and in
colour light yellow or light brown above marked with black spots, and white below.
While there are no amphibians or fishes specially characteristic of
south-western Asia, a few insects are worth mention. Among these
is the oleander hawk-moth (DapJtnis nerii), whose wings are often over 4 inches
across. In colour the fore- wings are grassy green, marbled and striped with pink,
white, green, and violet, and bearing at the base a dark green spot ringed with white.
This moth sometimes appears in the south of England. The caterpillar, which has
Insects.
INSE CTS— SPIDERS
83
a long horn, is green or yellowish in colour, marked on each side by a kidney-shaped,
white-centred spot, and a white streak along the body. It feeds on the oleander
and the periwinkle from July to September.
The locusts in the Mediterranean region are represented by the migratory
species (Pachytylus migratorius), which forms a common pest in south-western
Asia and north-western Africa, and appears in flocks so great as to darken the sun
for hours and strip off every vestige of vegetation.
Among the Arachnida of the Mediterranean region are certain
representatives 01 the false spiders, a group common to the warmer
countries of both hemispheres. They live chiefly in deserts and steppes, and are
dreaded on account of their poisonous bite. One of the most noxious is Galeodes
araneoides, which inhabits Greece, southern Russia, Persia, and Arabia. It is
about 2 inches long, and pale yellow in colour, every part except the upper
surface being greyish brown. An allied Egyptian species, G. arabs, frequently
enters dwelling-houses, where it climbs on tables to catch flies ; and other species
have been observed to ascend trees. False spiders constitute the suborder Solifugce.
THE SARMATIAN POLECAT.
CHAPTER IV
The Caspian Area
By Dr. Paul Matschie, who has devoted much attention to the definition of the
Mediterranean region, the Caspian area is regarded as an outlying transitional
subresrion, whose fauna is connected on the one hand with that of the Holarctic
region to the north (especially as represented by the so-called Pontic area of
eastern Europe), and on the other with that of what he terms the Chinese region
in the east, while to the west it is as intimately connected with the typical
Mediterranean region. This tract includes the catchment basins of the rivers
flowing into the Caspian and the Sea of Aral, although only the lower course of
the Volga and that portion of the Urals situated south of Uralsk lie within its
limits. The southern portion, that is the tract between the Caspian and the
Hindu Koh and the districts around the upper course of the two large rivers
discharging into the Sea of Aral, may on the whole be characterised as a semi-
desert. The rest of the area has for centuries been known as the steppe. This
steppe is mainly situated between the lower course of the Volga, and the Caspian
on the west, and the Tian-Shan Mountains on the east, and forms with its
central Asiatic continuation the north-eastern branch of the northern African and
Arabian desert, and, unlike the desert beyond the Tian-Shan, is neither hilly nor
mountainous.
The Caspian plain, like the central Asiatic highlands, lies within the temperate
zone, and is subject to sudden changes of temperature and great dryness of the
air, the cold winter giving the sparse vegetation an appearance differing greatly
from that of the desert-region to the south-west. The influence of the winter is
distinctly shown in the oases and on the banks of the rivers, where the most
84
CHARACTER OF COUNTRY 85
noticeable vegetation consists of deciduous trees and bushes such as poplars, elms,
willows and ash trees, amongst which appear wild roses, raspberry-bushes,
hawthorns, and a kind of honeysuckle. In the less watered parts tamarisk,
wormwood, and liliaceous plants such as garlic and tulips, are everywhere found.
The characteristic plant, however, is the saxaul (Anatasis ammodendron), a thick-
stemmed tree of about 20 feet in height, with a hard, heavy wood, and a sappy
bark apparently serving as a water-reservoir. In May this tree, which occasionally
forms small forests, has little yellow blossoms, and in September pear-shaped,
fleshy fruits. Also prominent and widely distributed is a hardy woolly reed
(Lasiogrostis splendens), nearly 7 feet in height, which grows principally on
saline soils, and forms large thickets in favourable places. Common, although less
characteristic, is a juicy and thorny shrub (Nitraria schoberi) with small leaves,
which grows best on saline and clay soils, attaining a height of about 12 inches,
and affording in its berries a favourite food to many animals.
Most of the plants have small or no leaves, and are protected from drought in
much the same way as the desert plants of northern Africa and south-western
Asia. Their growth depends partly on the spring rains; but while the plants
nourished by underground moisture bear leaves during the whole or the greater
part of the summer, those dependent on these rains appear for a few weeks only.
The western districts, traversed by the lower Volga, differ in the character
of the landscape from those farther east, the vegetation consisting of dwarf
plants widely scattered over large spaces of bare ground, and remarkable for the
predominance of greyish green, hairy herbs rich in aromatic oils. In spring there
appear tender and juicy plants, such as lilies and their allies, and early grasses,
especially Poa bidbosa. These are replaced by a yarrow {Achillea gerberi) and a
number of grasses with hard, curly leaves. As heat and dryness increase, there
follow a number of spiny plants, the spines of which replace the tender leaves of
spring. At the end of summer aromatic plants and saline herbs predominate,
the roots of these going deep enough to derive sufficient moisture, while their
neighbours perish through drought.
Between the Caspian and the Sea of Aral is the Trans-Caspian region. Bare
mountains, rivers without estuaries and in summer without water, barren salt-
plains, unlimited sand, and innumerable sand-hills, partly bare and partly
covered with low bushes, form the Trans-Caspian landscape. To complete the
picture it should be added that the air is laden with dust and the sky cloudless.
In the north-eastern part of the Caspian area lies the monotonous Kirghiz steppe,
where thorny desert plants struggle with inclement nature. Wherever the ground is
damp the woolly reeds grow in tall, impenetrable thickets, and everywhere the
sand is clothed with the ragged saxaul, whose long, hard roots form the fuel of the
Kirghiz nomads, by whom it is piled in pyramids near their tent-villages or
carried away in the caravans. Here and there the steppe is traversed b}T water-
courses, dry during the greater part of the year, which feed small salt lakes, on
the shores of which innumerable flocks of birds of passage stop to rest in spring
and autumn.
To the south-eastward of the Kirghiz steppe lies the Turkestan desert, where
the growth of plants becomes poorer on the barren soil of the ancient bed of the
86 THE CASPIAN AREA
Aralo-Caspian Sea. Along the shore of the Sea of Aral the yellow sand is of such
compactness that the feet of the numerous camels leave scarcely an impression
The depth of this sea is inconsiderable, and its water contains so much salt as to
be drinkable only at the mouths of the rivers, and in a few patches of fresh
water far out from the shore. A south-west storm drives the water into the bays
and floods the sandy banks, but in the warm season the sand is driven into the
water, thus continually changing the outline of the coast, filling the bays, forming
isthmuses, islands, and sand-bars, and cutting off strips of water into salt-lagoons
which dry up in summer. On following the course of the Syr-Darya upwards,
it will be found that the ground is as flat as a table, and the country forms a
typical desert for vast distances, only interrupted here and there by saxaul
bushes. On approaching the Russian Fort Perovsk, a district showing traces of
recent floods, and closely covered with tall reeds, is entered. Between Perovsk
and Chumenarik the traveller will be surprised by coming on a rich vegetation,
which in its masses of reeds, saxaul, and thorny plants, affords good covert for the
tiger, and forms the favourite haunts of wild boars and gazelles, besides containing
innumerable flocks of geese, wild ducks, and, above all, pheasants. Farther east
the country becomes mountainous, till at length the tall poplars in the gardens of
the city of Turkestan stand out clear against the sky.
The Caspian area is bordered by the Siberian province of the Holarctic region
on the north, by the Pontic or Black Sea province in the north-west, and by the
Mediterranean region on the south-west and south. Being a comparatively small
tract, surrounded by land, it shares many animal forms with the adjoining
countries. Wherever climate, soil, and vegetation are suitable, the northern
Asiatic, European, and south-western Asiatic fauna is to be met with ; while, on
the other hand, there are many Caspian animal types either absent from the
adjoining provinces or merely intruding on their confines, save in the case of the
Chinese province, which in climate and soil closely resembles the Caspian area.
Where the climate of the Caspian area is like that of the wooded zone of the
northern temperate latitudes, the animals are of similar or closely allied forms.
This is the case with the eastern red deer or maral (Cervus elaphus maral), which
inhabits north-eastern Persia, the Caucasus, and Circassia, and is a large local
variety of the red deer of eastern Europe, with which it probably intergrades
in the Carpathians.
A portion of the Caucasus must be regarded as belonging to the
Caspian area. In addition to the bison and the chamois, the goats
are the most remarkable hollow-horned ruminants of these districts. Two of
these, known by the name of tur, one of which presents some approximation to the
bharal of the Himalaya, are highly characteristic of this part of the area. Of
the two kinds, Pallas's tur (Capra cylindricornis) occurs to the west of the
Kasbeg Mountains whence it ranges over Daghestan. It has a shoulder-height of
about 36 inches, and long, black, smooth, almost cylindrical horns, which wind in a
spiral outwardly and backwards, the points turning towards each other about a foot
apart. The west Caucasian tur (C. caucasica), which inhabits the whole of the
western Caucasus, is of the same size but more stoutly built, with long black horns
curving upwards and backwards in a more ibex-like manner, their tips far apart
SAIGA — WILD BOAR — ALA GDA GA
8?
and curving sometimes downward and sometimes outwards. Moreover the horns
are three-cornered at the base, and provided with more or less distinct knots on
the front surface. In the central Caucasus occur certain tur which have much the
appearance of hybrids between the two preceding species, although they have
been regarded as indicating a third species.
While the deer occur only on one border of the Caspian
area, the saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica), although not strictly
confined to it, is one of its characteristic mammals. This antelope, which is
about the size of a sheep, is one of the ugliest of the group, on account of the
peculiar shape of its head and its clumsy body. It has a large, strongly curved,
inflated nose, blunt at the extremity, with large nostrils directed downwards, and
yellow, lyrate horns of which the length is usually under 12 inches. In summer the
Saiga.
SAIGA ANTELOPES.
coat is tawny and in winter whitish grey, the under-parts and lower surface of the
tail being always white. In prehistoric times the distributional area of the saiga
extended as far as the south-east of England, and the animal lived on the eastern
boundaries of Poland only a hundred years ago. At the present day it is restricted
to southern Russia, south-western Siberia, and above all the Kirghiz steppes.
The wild boar of Hungary and the Caspian area, on account of
wild Boar. .^ h^& g.^ ^ ^^ described as a distinct species under the name
of Sits attila, but as it is better regarded as a race of the typical wild boar, it may
be called S. scrofa attila.
A characteristic rodent of the Caspian area is the large five-toed
Aiagdaga. jerboa known as the alagdaga (Alactaga decuman a), the best-known
representative of its genus, which ranges from the Caspian through southern
Russia as far as the Crimea, and over the deserts and steppes of central Asia as far
88 THE CASPIAN AREA
south as Bushire on the Persian Gulf. The alagdaga is about 7 inches long
exclusive of the tail, which is considerably longer. In colour it is greyish rufous
above and white below, the tail being brown with a black and white arrow-shaped
tip. These jerboas associate in small parties, two or three pairs together in a
burrow, which they dig in the ground. This burrow, which is of considerable size,
and somewhat elaborate in plan, consists of a central chamber and several galleries,
one of which ends near the surface and is opened only as an exit in case of danger.
In the deep chamber of the burrow, the young, five to eight in number, are born
in summer, and remain with their parents till the following spring, the whole
family hibernating from the beginning of September until the end of April. On
its nocturnal excursions the alagdaga steals the eggs and young of the steppe-lark,
though it chiefly feeds on vegetables and occasionally on insects. Food being
scarce in the desert, the alagdaga, like other animals of this area, travels long
distances in search of provender. Its speed when moving over the ground in long
leaps is considerably greater than that of the three-toed jerboas, and even exceeds
that of a hare.
Allied to the jerboas is the mouse-like rodent known as Sicista or
Sminthus subtilis, which differs from ordinary mice and voles by the
presence of four, in place of three, upper cheek-teeth. The Caspian is about the
centre of the distributional area of this species, which comprises northern, eastern,
and south-eastern Europe, as well as western and central Asia. In length the
sminthus measures approximately 2h inches, and the tail is about the same. The
hair on the body is very soft, but that on the tail is short and thinly spread. Along
the yellowish grey upper-parts runs a black stripe bordered by a light band, the sides
being light greyish yellow and the under-parts yellowish white, while the point of
the nose, the lips, chin, and feet are white. In habits this rodent resembles the
voles.
Passing on to the mouse tribe, it may be mentioned that a pecu-
Mouse Tribe. ,.,,.-.,,., , ~ .
liar blind vole-like rodent occurs in the Caucasus, representing a
genus by itself, for which the name Prometheomys has been proposed.
Gerbils are represented in the Caspian area by Gerbillus tamaricinus, which is
about 13 inches long inclusive of the tail, the length of the latter being about 6
inches. In colour it is yellowish grey above, paler at the sides, and brownish on
the hind part of back, with a white spot on each side. Above the eyes and behind
the ears it is white, as are the lower parts ; but the tail is brown. Another
murine rodent, the rice-hamster (Cricetus [Cricetulus] phwus), which owes its
name to the damage it does to rice-plantations, and has been already mentioned
in the preceding chapter, ranges from southern Russia through the Caspian area
into Persia and Afghanistan. Only about a third the size of the common species,
it is light grey in colour with white under-parts and feet.
Manui or PaUas's On the steppes the place of the European wild cat is taken by
Cat Pallas's cat (Felis rnanul), which has a large range in central Asia
extending from the Kirghiz steppe in the west to Mongolia in the east, and from
southern Siberia in the north to the highlands of Tibet in the south. About the
size of an ordinary domestic cat, it is distinguished by its very long soft fur and
bushy tail. The general colour is a silvery, yellowish grey, darker on the back
CORSAC FOX— POLECAT 89
and lighter on the lower-parts, the chest being dark brown. It is often marked on
the sides with a few dark stripes, and the tail has six or seven dark rings, while
there are also spots on the forehead, and occasionally indistinct bars on the legs.
The manul, which formerly occurred in the Orenburg steppe, feeds principally on
small rodents, such as picas, and has been regarded as the ancestor of the Angora
cat, although this is improbable.
The characteristic fox of the Caspian area is the corsac (Canis
Corsac Fox. .
corsac), a species whose nearest relative seems to be the Asiatic desert-
fox. It is of the colour of the desert sand above, and white below, with a black tip
to the tail. Its haunts are more or less desert-like districts, such as are found from
the shores of the Volga and the Caspian to south-eastern Siberia, China, and the
Amur countries. This fox does not apparently dig its own burrow, but generally
inhabits one abandoned by marmots, where it will die rather than attempt to bolt
when driven in by dogs. It lives principally on small rodents, such as picas and
voles, which it hunts during the night.
sarmatian The habitat of the Sarmatian polecat (Mustela sarmatica)
Polecat. extends from eastern Europe, where it has been taken in the forest of
Bielowitzka, right through the Caspian area to southern Afghanistan where it is
particularly common. This species, which has a bushy tail half the length of
the body, is generally about 13 inches in length without its tail. In colour it
is of a brown and yellow piebald above, and brilliant black below, with a brown
or black face, and a white band across the forehead extending down the sides of the
neck. This polecat lives in the environs of Quetta in holes in the ground, which
are probably made by rats, and it seems to be as common on cultivated as on un-
cultivated ground. Although its habits are not well known, it is probably a
nocturnal animal, as it is rarely seen during the day. Its food consists of birds, rats,
mice, lizards, beetles, and snails. One of these animals in captivity killed in succes-
sion four wagtails and four rats. The rats were always seized at the same spot,
namely, close behind the ears, and held firmly between the teeth of their conqueror
until they ceased to struggle, when they were finished off with one or two bites in
the back of the head. As soon as blood flowed from the wounds, the polecat licked
it up, but it never tried to suck the blood ; nor, although it had fasted for some time,
did it eat its victims at once, but took them to a compartment of its cage, where it
was accustomed to sleep, and there devoured them at nightfall. The Sarmatian
polecat, which emits the same disagreeable smell as its European relative, brings
forth three or four young at the end of March or beginning of April.
Long-Eared In concluding this brief survey of the Caspian mammals, mention
Hedgehog. may De made of the long-eared hedgehog (Erinaceus auritus), which
belongs to the same genus as the European hedgehog, but is somewhat smaller,
with ears more than half the length of the head
Many of the birds in the Caspian area are closely related to those'
eppe- ar . ^ Europe. The steppe-lark (Melanocorypha sibirica) is an abundant
and characteristic bird on the lower Volga and the Ural Rivers, where it occurs with
the skylark ; and thence it ranges into central Asia as far east as the Altai Mountains
and the Irtish River. It is a little larger than the skylark with a stouter beak.
Black Lark.
90 THE CASPIAN AREA
The crown and wing-coverts are light rusty yellow, the secondaries white at the
tip and black at the base, the two outer tail-feathers white, and the others blackish
brown with white edges ; the flanks are streaked with dark brown, the back is light
brown with dark spots, and the under-parts are white. This bird occasionally
strays as far west as Belgium, and has been taken in England among a flock of
snow-buntings.
More remarkable than the steppe-lark is the black lark (J/.
yeltoniensis), which is found between the Volga and the Irtish, and
between the Caspian and the mountains of central Asia. It is so numerous near
Lake Yelton, north-east of Sarepta, as to be named after that sheet of water. In
size it is almost as large as a starling. The females are grey with dark brown
spots like other larks, but the males are quite black, especially in summer when
the sand-coloured edges of the feathers are worn off. In other respects the species
is distinguished by its stout, finch-like beak, and strong, short-toed feet. The
black plumage of the cocks forms a striking contrast to the light ground of the
steppe ; and its peculiar fluttering flight as it descends makes the bird easily recog-
nisable. When singing, it soars to a considerable height, glides on a little distance
with half-drooping wings, then soars higher, and hovers almost out of sight until
at last it comes to the ground at a considerable slope. Although this lark has
straggled into western Europe on a few occasions, it rarely wanders westward
of southern Russia.
The spurred pipit, or Richard's pipit (Anthus richardi), is
remarkable in more than one way, for not only is it the largest of its
genus, measuring 8 inches in length, but it has the claw on the hind-toe over an
inch in length, or longer than the toe itself. The feathers of the upper-parts
are dark brown edged with pale brown or sandy buff, while below the colour of
the plumage is rusty yellowish white shading into rufous on the sides. This
species, instead of striding over the ground like other pipits, moves more like a
thrush. In flight it resembles a wagtail, and when rising always utters its call, a
short "zirp" or " ziep," similar to the chirp of a sparrow. On migration it
appears not only in India, but also in southern Europe and northern Africa, though
not known to breed there. Stray individuals have been taken in England,
Belgium and Holland, on the German coast, and on the islands of the North Sea.
Ros stari" ^e starnngs are represented in the Caspian area by the rosy
starling (Pastor roseus), conspicuous for its pink body and black
crested head, wings, and tail. Young birds, which lack the crest, are brownish grey
with a whitish throat, and indistinctly spotted on the breast. In length the adult is
about 8 inches. The breeding-area of this bird extends from the Caspian east-
wards to Mongolia, and westwards to the plains of the Danube. In habits this
species resembles the common starling, although the flocks in which it collects are
not so large. It is also much more active on the wing, probably by reason of having
daily to search a vast extent of country for its food, and being compelled to catch
insects in the air after the fashion of the bee-eaters. Its principal food-supply is
afforded by the wandering locust, which invades its habitat in cloud-like swarms.
The Turks have a saying that it kills ninety-nine of these insects and eats the
hundredth. On account of its locust-killing habit it is considered almost sacred by
ROSY STARLING
9i
the inhabitants of most of the countries it frequents, and is nowhere persecuted
or destroyed. In the paddy-fields of India it is, however, so much dreaded that it
has been given the name of demon-bird, and coolies are employed to drive it away :
for its food, besides insects, comprises berries, fruits, and grain, especially rice, of
*<£?*
ROSY STARLING.
which last it seems very fond. It seems to visit India regularly, but migration
seldom takes it to northern Africa; and it appears at irregular intervals in Italy,
France, England, and the countries between these and its breeding-area. In Europe
the rose-coloured starling generally associates with the common starling, visiting
pastures in much the same manner. In its native habitat it in most cases roosts
THE CASPIAN AREA
in willow bushes near rivers, or some such places, on account of the absence of
taller trees The nest, which is nearly always placed in the neighbourhood of
water is a plain structure composed of dry twigs and stems, generally in a hole in
a tree' or in crevices in rocks or ruins. Sometimes this starling, which leaves its
home in August and returns in April, breeds in the countries to which it migrates in
immense numbers. In 1875 Germany and Switzerland were visited by flocks of
these birds : in the north German plain parties of thirty were noticed, and near
Villafranca in northern Italy at least 12,000 were seen. Arriving on the 3rd of
June, they settled on the walls of the fortress and the roofs of the adjacent houses,
and drove away the other starlings as well as swallows, sparrows, and pigeons.
On the 9th of June their nests contained eggs ; by the 12th of July all the young
were fledo-ed : and on the 14th of the same month they departed with their parents,
none returning the following year.
(■^smmi^mm^mw^^Bit)^^^
pander's chough-thrush.
One of the most characteristic birds of the Caspian area is
1 Pander's chough-thrush (Podoces pander i), a species about the size of
a starling, with a long, stout, pointed beak, short rounded wings, and moderately
long stout l<gs. Flying only when in danger, it commonly runs about on the sand
after the manner of a fowl. In summer it feeds principally on beetles, and in
winter on seeds. In colour it is delicate grey and pale pink above, with the throat
white, the lower part of the neck and tail black, a black patch on the lores, and
black and white win^s.
Red-Footed Aim >ng the birds-of-prey, the red-footed falcon (Falco vespertinus)
Falcon. js nn inhabitant of the Caspian area and the corresponding latitudes
of eastern Europe and central Asia. In Europe it is found in Hungary, Poland,
and Russia, is very common in the Dobrudscha, and also occurs in Servia and
Rumania, but is less abundant in Galicia, east Prussia, and Silesia, and thence
westwards becomes rarer and rarer. In September and October it migrates,
RED-FOOTED FALCON — IMPERIAL EAGLE — STEPPE-EAGLE
93
following the course of the rivers, and appears in southern France, Switzerland,
Italy, Greece, the Mediterranean islands, the shores of the Bosphorus, eastern
Africa, Arabia, and India. It returns in spring, to nest on cliffs and high trees, or
on ledges of rock and steep slopes, but never in the plains. Its nest has on rare
occasions been found in central and northern Germany. In Hungary it takes
possession of magpies' and jackdaws' nests, driving away the rightful owners, if
necessary, with the assistance of its fellows. This falcon is gregarious, and generally
hunts in the evening till late at night, a practice from which is derived its specific
name. It preys chiefly on insects, especially locusts, following the swarms of the
latter on their journeys in company with rosy starlings. It also catches small
beetles on the ground, clutches them with its claws, and eats them piece-meal as it
flies. After appeasing its hunger, it perches on the dry branches of a tree, or on a
hedge or even a clod of earth. It takes its name of red-footed falcon from the
bright red hue of its feet, the same colour obtaining on the lores. In the males the
back is leaden grey, in the females bluish grey barred with black. In length this
falcon is about 11| inches. The tail is black, the thighs are chestnut, and the claws
yellowish white.
A much larger bird, the imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca), is an
" inhabitant both of the forest and of the steppe. In plains and in
mountains of moderate height, it frequents the forest where it is much less
particular in the choice of its breeding-places than the golden eagle. In the
steppe it nests among solitary groups of trees, and even in treeless districts. The
nest, which is comparatively small and built of the usual thick sticks at the base,
with thinner ones towards the top, is sometimes lined with green leaves, dry grass,
wool, and other material. In April or later it contains two or three white eggs with
regular violet grey and rusty-coloured spots and dots, and also forms a home for
numerous sparrows, which build in its sides. Most of the nests are found in
districts where dormice are plentiful, these rodents being the favourite prey of the
imperial eagle. By no means so bold as the golden eagle, this species will neverthe-
less defend its nest even against that eagle with the greatest courage. Like the
golden eagle, it performs playful evolutions in the air, holding itself more like a raven
than a falcon, that is to say, more nearly horizontal. The imperial eagle inhabits
south-eastern Europe and north-eastern Africa, and ranges eastwards into India
and China. In Europe it breeds in southern Hungary, but more frequently in
Slavonia, Transylvania, Servia, Rumania, Turkey, Greece, and the lower Danube.
From southern Europe it does not migrate at all, or at least not far, but in more
northerly parts it is a bird of passage, and in Africa is met with far up the
valley of the Nile. The female, like that of most other birds-of-prey, is much the
larger of the two, although not so vivid in colouring as the male. The total length
of this eagle is from 30 to 33 inches. The feet are covered with dark feathers
down to the toes ; on the middle toe are five large scales, and on each of the rest of
the toes four. The cere and feet are pale yellow ; there is a white patch on the sca-
pulars, and the tail shows indistinct ashy grey markings with a black bar at the end.
The nest of the steppe-eagle (A. nipalensis) has been found on
steppe-Eagle. ^ sh0res of the Volga, in central Asia, and in the Dobrudscha,
where one was situated on the bare ground beneath the shelter of a shrub. The
94 THE CASPIAN AREA
bird is not rare in India and in the neighbourhood of the Black Sea, and has been
recorded from Pomerania and other parts of eastern Germany, though it apparently
never strays as far as western Europe. Avoiding the forest, it keeps to wild open
country. In general colour it is pale brown above and below, and in length
measures about 30 inches. In size it is superior to the spotted eagle (Aquila
clanga), which measures from 24 to 28 inches, and is slenderer in build. The
home of the latter species is apparently the boundary between the Caspian and
central Asia on one hand, and Siberia on the other.
By no means a true steppe bird, the spotted eagle prefers leafy
spotted Eagle. WQQ^^ especiaiiy those at some elevation. Its nest, generally placed
on some tall old tree, is always covered with fresh, leafy branches. This species
is distinguished from the lesser spotted eagle by its white tail-coverts, its superior
size, and its call, which resembles the yelping of a hound. Its prey consists principally
of ducks, geese, game-birds, young hares, marmots, mice, frogs, and beetles. This
eao-le, which migrates to the south in the middle of September, and returns in
April, occurs frequently in southern Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and France. In
northern Germany it is one of the rarest birds, but in winter is common in Egypt,
although it does not apparently breed either there or in south-eastern and southern
Europe. Since the two spotted eagles and the steppe-eagle have often been
mistaken for one another, the boundaries of their respective breeding-areas are not
yet accurately known.
On the Caucasian boundary of the Caspian and in Transcaspia
there occur two kinds of game-birds unknown in Europe, namely,
the Caucasian and the Caspian snow-cocks. The former (Tetraogallus caucasicus)
which is 21 inches in length, is greyish above, and has all the feathers of the back
marked with narrow black and light yellow bars. The back of the head and nape
are reddish, and down the sides of the throat runs a reddish brown band. In the
mountains this bird is found up to the snow-line, where it lives among rocks above
the limit of trees, the vegetation consisting only of grasses and a few herbs. The
Caspian snow-cock (T. caspius) is a larger bird, quite 24 inches long, differing in
plumage by the absence of the reddish patch on the nape and head. It is similar
in habits to the preceding species and like it feeds on young leaves, berries, and
insects. In both species the cocks carry stout spurs, and in both sexes there is a
long bare patch behind the eye.
The true pheasants are distributed in the wild state over southern,
Pheasants.
western, central, and eastern Asia, where they inhabit small patches
of wood with low bushes or the edge of forests adjoining open country. Their
best-known representative is the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), in which
the cock measures about 37 inches in total length, and has spurs to the feet and
short ear-tufts on the head, but no crest. The colour is glossy blackish green on
the head, reddish brown on the lower part of the back and upper tail-coverts,
black, buff, orange, and lake on the back and scapulars, red, green, and purple on
the chest, breast, and flanks, dark green down the middle of the breast, and dark
brown and rufous below, the eighteen brown tail-feathers having narrow black
bars. From the shores of the Black Sea and the foot of the Caucasus, where it is
particularly common near the river Phasis (from which it takes its name), and
PHEASANTS
95
from the adjoining districts of Asia Minor, the range of this bird extends to fche
Caspian. According to the old legend the pheasant was brought by the Argonauts
from Colchis (the Mingrelia of to-day) to Greece, and by the Greeks carried to
Italy, whence it gradually spread over Europe, where it has become thoroughly
established in the warmer countries, such as Hungary, Austria, and Bohemia, but
in the colder parts is maintained only by artificial preservation. In Europe the
pheasant lives in woods and plantations where underwood is abundant, and is
specially partial to those near water. Naturally it is a ground-bird, fond of
)
V_ t.
m/
. -
PHEASANTS.
dusting itself in sand or dust in sunny places, and finding its food chiefly on the
ground. While feeding it slinks quietly amid the grass from one bush to another,
escaping when disturbed immediately into the undergrowth. During the day
pheasants seldom perch on trees, although they shelter amid their branches at.
night. Where trees are wanting they will, however, roost contentedly in bushes.
Although not migratory, in autumn, when the leaves begin to fall, they take to
wandering about the country to a considerable extent.
For nesting the hen chooses a quiet spot in some thicket but she will also lay
under low bushes amid grass, clover, or even corn, the nest being always well
96 THE CASPIAN AREA
hidden. At ordinary times and while searching for food, the cock slinks about
with stooping body, and only when on the alert raises his ear-tufts. Generally
the tail is carried horizontally, but at certain seasons both this and the ear-tufts
are elevated, when the bird struts about with the breast well forward and the neck
thrown back, clapping his wings, and now and then gliding in a curious manner
along the ground. In Europe, pairing-time lasts throughout April and May, the
hens beginning to sit on their eight to fifteen eggs during the latter month. The
eggs are well concealed in some hollow in the ground lined with twigs, moss,
leaves, etc. In shape they are round oval, and in colour uniformly brown, olive-brown,
or greenish. After twenty-five days, during which period the cocks do not take the
slightest notice of their partners, the young are hatched. When a week old, their
tail and wing feathers begin to appear, and when the size of quails they are
almost fledged and capable of flying short distances, and soon after this are able to
follow their mother to the branches of a tree to roost ; the mother and her family
keeping together until autumn. When surprised, young pheasants chirp, and
when excited, utter a low harsh " girr," followed by a high whistling " rick " ; when
frightened, they lie with their bodies pressed close to the ground till the danger is
past. The danger-signal of the hen is a low hissing "she," but occasionally a
sonorous "kak kak." The crow of the cock is a rapid repetition of "or-ork." Old
pheasants are easily frightened, and when danger threatens retain the habit of
pressing the body close to the ground, and trying to hide the head. Although
pheasants have a noisy and apparently heavy flight, when once well on the wing
they fly fast and straight, gliding down from a height without moving the wings.
On the ground they walk with long strides, and generally try to escape by
running, their speed being very great, and the distances traversed on foot often
very considerable.
Young birds eat small insects, especially the so-called ant-eggs, which the hen
finds for them. Adult pheasants feed, according to the time of year, either on
insects and snails or on leaves, berries, beechmast, acorns, corn, and other seeds.
Foxes are the principal enemies of these birds, but cats, martens, hedgehogs, and
rats also kill them or rifle their nests. Peregrines, kites, buzzards, sparrow-hawks,
and other birds-of-prey also destroy a considerable number in some districts, while
ravens, crows, magpies, and jays steal both the eggs and the helpless young. A
large number of pheasants perish through storms, floods, and continued rainy
or frosty weather, the young being particularly sensitive to wet. If a pheasant
escapes from all these dangers, and last, but by no means least, the gun of
the sportsman or the net of the poacher, it may reach the age of fifteen years.
Pheasants are unsuited for domestication, as they are restless and continually
trying to escape, so that the only way to breed these birds is to put the eggs of
wild pheasants under domesticated hens.
The common pheasant, whose native home is the Caspian district and the
countries to the west of the same, has many relatives in the Caspian and Chinese
areas. The species or races west of the meridian of Calcutta form a group
characterised by having the feathers of the lower part of the back chestnut-brown
in colour, while in those found to the eastward of the same line the lower part of
the back is always slatey grey. Moreover, all the northern species are distin-
PALLAS S SAND-GROUSE
97
guished by the presence of a white ring round the neck, which is absenl in the
more southern forms. In the British Isles the so-called " Old English pheasant,"
which appeared on the bills of fare long before the Norman Conquest, and is
thought to have been introduced by the Romans, is now rare owing to the intro-
duction of the Chinese ringed species (P. torquatus), with which it has been so
freely crossed that the present birds are nearly all hybrids, and, whether with or
without a white collar, combine in varying degrees the characters of both species.
Paiias-s sand- Pallas's three-toed sand-grouse (Syrrhaptes paradoxus) inhabits
Grouse. the Kirghiz steppe, and extends thence into northern China, It is
/Si
PALLAS S SAXD-GROFSE.
specially characterised by the feathered feet and toes, the long and pointed wings,
and the wedge-shaped tail, of which the two middle feathers terminate in long
points. The general colour of the plumage is sandy, and the entire length about
15 inches. The back and shoulders are ornamented with black transverse markings,
and on the throat and along each side of the neck are patches of rusty red. There
are no black spots on the sides of the neck, but across the breast is a white band
streaked transversely with black, and there is a black transverse patch on the
abdomen. The colouring harmonises so well with that of the barren soil of the
native home of this species that at a distance of only forty feet the bird is
almost invisible. The hens lack the band across the breast, and the patches on
the throat and the sides of the head are buff". This sand-grouse walks with the
vol. n. — 7
98 THE CASPIAN AREA
body sloping downwards, the plumage bristled up, the head dropped between the
shoulders, and the feet pointing inwards. When picking up food,, it adopts a
peculiar attitude, bowing the head so low and holding the tail so high that the
bird looks as thouo-h it were about to turn a somersault. Awkward though it
may appear on the ground, it is, however, extremely active on the wing, its
flight resemblino- that of the golden plover. On starting, the bird flaps its
wings like a pigeon, but when in full flight moves with great rapidity. When
on the wing, flocks of these birds assume the form of a solid triangle, with the
apex in the direction of flight, travelling at a height of about 200 feet from the
ground. More generally, however, they fly in files at a height of from 15 to 30 feet,
although single birds often rise higher. When rising, they utter a high shrill
" tick, tickticktick, tick " ; the call is " kurr kurr," and sometimes there is heard
a low sonorous " geluk geluk."
In the middle of April the hens begin to brood their three or four eggs, which
are greenish or greyish yellow, spotted with brown and lilac, and are laid in a
slight hollow with little or no lining. A second clutch is laid during the summer.
In the late autumn these sand-grouse migrate to warmer regions, wThence they
return in March or the beginning of April to their breeding-grounds. In summer
they wander considerable distances over their native steppes, and, like other birds
inhabiting the same area, sometimes leave their home to appear in innumerable
flocks in more western lands. In 1859, for instance, multitudes appeared in
Europe, as they did again in 1863. In the latter year most of the countries north
of the Alps, including France and England in the west, Switzerland in the south,
and Jutland in the north, were visited by these birds in great numbers. In con-
sequence, however, of the destruction inflicted on the flocks by gunners, very few
appeared the following season. In 1888 occurred another incursion when the
flocks visited Prussia, Pomerania, Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover,
Oldenburg, Saxony, and Bavaria, and continued their journe}T in a westward
direction to Great Britain.
These long wanderings of Pallas's sand-grouse do not, however, lead to any
increase in the size of its normal distributional area; and they probably occur
merely in consequence of unfavourable weather, or a temporary scarcity of food.
Their nutriment apparently consists solely of green vegetable substances and
seeds, no less than forty-five different kinds of seeds having been taken from the
crop of a specimen killed in Scotland in 1889. In its partiality for vetch-seed this
bird resembles pigeons, to which it also approximates in its bodily form and
peculiar way of drinking.
DemoiseUe The Caspian province forms almost the centre of the distribu-
Crane. tional area of a small species of crane, which ranges from Algiers
through northern Africa, south-western Asia, the Caspian countries, and the central
Asiatic steppe as far as China, and winters in southern India and central Africa,
especially on the White Nile. This bird was known to the ancient Romans as the
" virgin from Numidia," and is now called the demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo).
Its chief habitat is the country round the mouth of the Volga, where it dwells amid
the steppes and marshes. It resembles the European crane in the choice of its
nesting-places, as well as in being a bird of the open country rather than of the
DEMOISELLE CRANE — MACQUEEN'S BUSTARD
99
swamps. In size this species is considerably smaller than the common crane,
measuring only about 30 inches in total length. Among its characteristic features
may be noted the long and pointed quills, the tuft of long whitish feathers behind
each ear, and the generally ashy tone of the plumage, relieved on the head, chin,
throat, quills, and tail by black. The demoiselle crane is a slender bird, with
graceful movements and a playful and gentle disposition. Occasionally it wanders as
o itHifv* ■
"* V*
. i
■*:
DEMOISELLE CRANES.
far away from its proper habitat as Heligoland and south Sweden, but such stragglers
as have been reported in the British Isles had probably escaped from captivity.
Macqueen's A very characteristic bird of the Caspian province is Macqueen's
Bustard. bustard (Hv ha ra macqueeni), which normally ranges from northern
Persia and Afghanistan to southern Siberia, and visits southern Persia and north-
western India in winter. It leaves the Caspian area in September, to return in
March or April. In length this bustard measures about 26 inches, and it is easily
ioo THE CASPIAN AREA
recognised by Its crest of black-tipped white feathers, and conspicuous ruff. The
general colour of its plumage is, however, adapted for a life in the desert, and even
beyond its breeding-area this bird is only to be found on dry sandy plains. Shy
and difficult to approach, this bustard when alarmed in the desert squats on the
ground beneath a bush or behind a stone, but when sheltered by covert stands up
to survey its pursuers. It feeds principally on plants, but also eats beetles, and
even during winter keeps chiefly in pairs, although occasionally congregating in
small flocks such as sometimes stray westward into Germany and send out
stragglers still farther west.
Another bird of the Kirghiz steppe and the deserts of central
Asiatic Dotterel. .
Asia is the Asiatic dotterel (JEgialitis asiatica), which has occasion-
ally been caught in Heligoland and has strayed into England. In this dotterel,
which is 7 inches in length, the colour of the upper-parts is light greyish
brown ; the quills are dark brown, the primaries having white shafts, while the
forehead, cheeks, and under-parts are white. There is a broad black-edged chest-
nut band across the neck, which turns light rusty grey in winter, when the white
feathers on various parts of its body lose their pure tint. In winter this bird
visits India and Cape Colony where it has been observed to feed chiefly on beetles
and other small insects.
Marsh Green- The marsh-greenshank (Totanus stagnatilis), which frequents
shank. £ne swampy shores of slowly running rivers, where it is found more
commonly during its spring migration in April and May than on its autumn
migration in August, breeds in the area extending more or less round the
Caspian. On migration it visits India, Australia, and South Africa. It is not
rare in Hungary, where it breeds in some parts ; in Germany it appears only in a
few places, and it has strayed into the British Isles. In character and habits it
resembles the common greenshank, although the beak is more slender, the leg
longer, and the size much less, the length being only a little over 9 inches. The
upper tail-coverts are white with black bars, and the tail-feathers white with
brown speckles on the outer web.
. „ , The bramini duck (Tadorna casarca) is a common breeding-bird
Bramini Duck. . x . ' °
in Bulgaria, and on many lakes in southern Russia, especially in the
Dobrudscha, but rarely visits Germany and Switzerland. Its principal breeding-
area, however, is in the countries round the Caspian, the Sea of Aral, and the waters
of central Asia. In autumn it migrates to southern Asia, Asia Minor, and the
Mediterranean countries as far west as Morocco. This duck often nests at a long
distance from the water, the nest being placed in burrows, especially those of the
bobac or marmot, or in holes made by the bird itself, in hollows of trees, among
stones, or in natural crevices on the shore. When the nest is far from water the
young either walk there, or are carried by the duck in her beak, one after the other.
When in a tree or other elevated position, the ducklings drop down without hurting
themselves, either on to the water or the ground. The drake, which is 25 inches
in length, has the general colour rusty brown, and the head pale buff; on
the neck is a narrow black ring ; the wing-coverts are white, and the primaries,
as well as the tail, beak, and feet, black. The female has no ring round
the neck.
WHITE-HEADED DUCK— LITTLE GULL — REPTILES 101
White-Headed Another species whose habitat centres in the Caspian province is
Duck. the white-headed duck (Erismatura leucocephala), which belongs to the
group distinguished by having from sixteen to twenty-four stiff narrow feathers in the
tail. This duck is easily recognisable by its white head, in which the centre of the
crown, like the back of the neck, is black, by the small wings, long graduated tail,
rusty and yellowish brown general colouring, and the large nail to its bluish beak.
When swimming, this species spreads out its tail like a fan, and carries it almost
vertically. It is about 17 inches long, and ranges from the Caspian to Siberia in
the north, Mongolia in the east, and through southern Russia to Transylvania and
Hungary in the west. It appears occasionally on the Rhine, the Lake of
Constance, and the adjoining countries down to the shores of the Mediterranean.
In Transylvania it arrives as a regular breeding-bird in the middle of May in
small flocks which split up into pairs. Soon afterwards the females seem to
disappear owing to their being occupied on their nests, while the males are left to
associate by themselves. The nest is a floating one fastened on all sides to stems of
reeds and other water plants, and contains at the proper season eight or nine greenish
white eggs. This duck feeds on water-insects, small fishes, molluscs, and aquatic
plants, and gets its food by diving, in which it excels all other species.
The little gull (Larus minutus) is found on the shores of the
Little Gull
North Sea and the Baltic. It is found breeding on Lake Ladoga, but
is more numerous in warmer countries, and is principally at home on the Caspian
at the mouth of the Volga, being less frequent on the Black Sea, though in winter
and spring it often visits the shores of the Mediterranean. This gull swims less
than others of its kind, and is much more constantly on the wing, its food consist-
ing of water-insects, small molluscs, and fishes. It has a shrill call. In size it is
hardly equal to a tern. As regards coloration, its distinctive points are the black
head, the greyish black under surface of the wings, and the red beak and legs.
Among the reptiles of this area, the Caspian terrapin {Clemmys
caspica) is the most remarkable. Living in slow and stagnant
waters, it ranges down to the Persian Gulf and through southern Russia and the
Balkan Peninsula to Dalmatia. It is from 8 to 10 inches in length, and yellowish
green or olive in general colour, marked with orange-yellow edged with black, the
black under surface showing yellow spots, and the neck and legs 3-ellow stripes.
Two lizards of the agamoid group inhabit the Caspian and south Russian
steppes, one of these, the Caspian agama {Agama sanguinolenta), being about 16
inches in length, and brownish grey in colour above, marked with four rows of
large black spots, and plain pale yellow below. Associated with this species is
often found the eared lizard (Phrynocephalus mystaceus), which lives principally
on the rivers Kuma and Terek discharging into the Caspian Sea; and like
all its kindred, is distinguished by the rounded, almost toad-like head, the long
slender legs, and toes serrated at the edges. The eared lizard, which has a
total length of about 17 inches, shows at each corner of its mouth a patch of
skin covered with thin scales, which when the animal is under the influence of
excitement becomes either red or blue, and thus stands out conspicuously from the
dull yellow or brownish grey wTith numerous black spots of the upper surface, as
well as from the uniform wThitish yellow under surface.
/
FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE.
CHAPTER V
The Indian Fauna
India, together with Burma and the Malay countries and a portion of China, forms
the Oriental or Indian region of zoological geography. But in a work of the
present nature it will be convenient to treat India by itself, and at the same time
to ignore the zoological provinces into which it is divided by the students of
geographical distribution. In this sense the Indian area extends from the Indus to
the Bramaputra, and embraces the whole Indo-Gangetic plain and the entire
peninsula, tin; northern boundary of the tract being formed by the great barrier of
tin- I limalaya.
The vegetation, climate, and other physical conditions differ enormously in
different parts, but since a large number of readers are probably more or less
intimately acquainted with these variations, it will scarcely be necessary to
describe them in these pages, and the consideration of the numerous remarkable
types of animal life met with in this vast area is accordingly entered upon without
any preliminary matter of this nature.
chitai or One of the most characteristic, and at the same time one of the
spotted Deer, handsomest, of the larger Indian mammals is the chitai, or spotted
deer (Cervus axis), which is distributed over a large extent of the mainland, and
also occurs in Ceylon. In size this species may be said to be medium, the stags in
in .rthern and central India standing about 3G or 38 inches at the shoulder,and measur-
ing nearly G feet in length, although in southern India they are somewhat smaller.
The antlers of the stags, which are commonly about 30 inches long, although a
CHITAL OR SPOTTED DEERSAMBAk 103
pair of 38 inches is known, resemble those of several kinds of Oriental deer in
having normally but three tines aside, both the bez and trez tine of the red
deer group being absent. They consequently end in a simple fork, of which, in
this particular species, the hinder or outer branch is always considerably laro-er than
the other. In the angle between the brow-tine and the beam there are, however,
often several small irregular snags, which in most cases are the only abnormal
points. The ground-colour of the coat of the chital is a reddish fawn, spotted at
all seasons and ages with white all over the body. From the nape to the tip of the
rather long pointed tail runs a dark stripe, bordered on each side by one or two
rows of white spots along the back, these white spots often joining into a streak
on the lower parts of the sides. The chin, the upper part of the throat, the under-
pays, the inner sides of the limbs, and lower surface of the tail are pure white, as
are the insides of the otherwise brown ears. The uniformly coloured head is
brownish, darker on the face than elsewhere, with a black band above the muzzle.
Now and then blackish or reddish spotted varieties are met with. The chital stag
has no mane, the muzzle is broad, and there are usually no upper tusks, although
these have been found in a few does.
Bushes and trees near water, as well as bamboo-thickets, form the favourite
haunts of this beautiful deer, which frequents river- valleys as well as hilly districts,
but is never found far away from its drinking-places. Many of its haunts are
situated amid the finest scenery of the plains and lower hills, in situations where
tall flowering trees stand along the banks of streams, or where clearings of rich
grass alternate with clumps of bamboos. In such places may be seen at all seasons
herds of several hundred, for the chital is a gregarious species. It is, moreover, by
no means exclusively nocturnal, and may often be seen grazing three or four hours after
sunrise, while it is abroad again an hour or two before sunset. In the daytime it rests
in deep shade, grazing or browsing, and it generally drinks between eight and ten
in the morning, although at different hours in different seasons. Chital have no
objection to going into water, and swim well. How long the does carry their
young is not definitely ascertained, some say eight months, others six. The pairing-
time seems to be irregular; it is commonly said to begin in September, and, in
northern India, in the cold season, but young may be born apparently at any
time of the year. In the retention of its white spots throughout the year the
chital agrees with several other species of deer inhabiting tropical countries ; and
thereby differs from species like the fallow deer and the Japanese deer, which lose
their spots in winter, when, owing to the absence of leaves from the trees, there is
no need for a colouring of this type.
The largest Indian deer, the sambar (C. unicolor), the woodland
deer of south-eastern Asia, is spread widely over India, and occurs
wherever undulating or mountainous country is covered with forests. In the
Himalaya it is found up to the height of 10,000 feet, and in southern India and
Ceylon is common even on the tops of the mountains. Unlike the chital, it is rare
in the river-valleys but, like the former, is absent from the Punjab, Sind, and
western Rajputana, where the deserts or semi-deserts are unsuited to the habits of
deer of all kinds.
The sambar attains a shoulder-height of 4 feet, and a length of 7 feet 6' inches,
io4 THE INDIAN FAUNA
the tail measuring about a foot. This is the size of stags, but hinds are somewhat
smaller. In countries beyond India proper the antlers of sambar seldom grow-
longer than 35 inches, and one of the largest known pairs has a length of 48 inches.
Fully developed antlers have only the usual three tines of this group of deer, and
they are less subject to irregularities than those of most other Oriental species.
The brow-tine forms an acute angle with the beam, and the two tines of the
terminal fork are generally equally developed in the typical Indian race of the
species, although they are subject to considerable variation in this respect among
the local races. The sambar has a large muzzle and coarse hair, the stags generally
ha vino- a mane on the neck and throat. The general colour of the coat is uniform
dark brown, sometimes tending to grey, and sometimes of a pale yellowish hue,
becoming a little paler below, with some chestnut on the hind-quarters and
under-parts. Old stags are sometimes almost black or slaty grey. In the
typical Indian race the fawns are not spotted, although they are so in the Malay
form. Sambar are seldom found in large herds, but generally alone, or in small
family-parties of four or five or a few more. They are mainly nocturnal in their
habits, and although they may sometimes be seen grazing in the open at morning
and evening, they generally feed during the night, passing the day amid thick
covert. In addition to grass and various wild fruits, they feed largely on young
twigs and leaves. The pairing-time in the Indian plains is during October
and November, but in the Himalaya is said to be in spring. It is at this
season that sambar gather in herds, and the loud call of the stag resounds
during the darker hours. Rarely is there more than one fawn at a birth, and the
period of gestation is eight months. The antlers are generally shed about April,
but may fall at any season, and in many cases apparently they are not cast every
year. The call of the stag is a loud, metallic bellow ; that of the hind a shriller and
rather weak grunting. When a sambar scents a tiger or leopard, or beholds a
human being, it utters a sharp, hissing danger-signal. A large number of these
deer are killed by tigers and wild dogs, while some of the stags meet their death in
combats among themselves.
The sambar has a very wide distribution, extending from Ceylon and the
.Malay countries to Sze-chuan in north-western China.
A smaller ally of the sambar, the para, or hog-deer (C. porcinus),
inhabits the whole plain of the Indus and Ganges from Sind and the
Punjab to Assam, and thence ranges into Tenasserim. Common in the Terai, but never
ascending the mountains, it may enter the Indian peninsula within a small area
along the tributaries of the Ganges, but it is doubtful if it occurs in central India,
and the statement that it is indigenous to Bombay and Madras is probably due to
its being mistaken for the muntjac. Hog-deer have been introduced into Ceylon,
where they are confined to a small area near Mathura. A local race (C. p. hecki),
inhabits Siam.
The hog-deer has rather a long tail, and short legs, and fairly long pedicles to
the small three-tined antlers, the brow-tine of which forms an acute angle with
the beam, while the outer tine of the terminal fork is longer than the inner one.
In shoulder-height it is only about 24 inches, and its length from 42 to 44 inches,
the tail measuring about 8 inches. The antlers, which are shed in April, do not as
HOG-DEER — SWAMP-DEER 105
a rule exceed a foot in length, but in a few very rare cases are known to attain
19 inches. In colour the hog-deer is more or less of a reddish or yellowish brown,
with a whitish speckling or grizzling, owing to the white tip of each hair ; below
the colour is darker brown. In summer the insides of the ears and the under surface
of the tail are white, and the general colour is paler and more or less distinctly sp< >tte< 1
with pale brown or whitish. It has been doubted whether full-grown hoc-deer
were ever spotted, but specimens in captivity have been observed to assume these
spots every summer. Young hog-deer up to the age of six months are spotted all
over.
The para inhabits alluvial plains, to which it is almost entirely confined. In
many grassy districts it exists in great numbers, keeping principally among the
long grass mingled with tamarisk and other bushes, which form the favourite
haunt of the Indian rhinoceros and buffalo. Although a small jungle often shelters
a considerable number, more than two or three of these unsociable animals are
seldom seen together, and they are generally found alone. By no means graceful
in their movements, hog-deer run in a clumsy manner, holding the head very low ;
yet they require a good horse to overtake them. The pairing-season is said to be in
September and October, and the period of gestation eight months.
The barasingha or swamp-deer (C. clwvauceli) inhabits the foot of
Swamp-Deer. ° x x
the Himalaya from upper Assam to the Kyarda Dun west of the
Jumna ; and is found all over Assam, as well as in some parts of the Bengal
Sandarbans, and at Bahawalpur and Rohri in upper Sind; it also occurs in the
district between the Ganges and Godaviri River. These deer likewise inhabit
certain parts of the valley of the Narbada as far as Bastar and its neighbourhood
to the south, and are also spread over the central provinces in the same tracts as
the dammar tree and the red jungle-fowl. The barasingha (which must not be
confounded with the species thus miscalled in Kashmir) attains a shoulder-height
of about 45 inches, and has a leno;th of almost 5 feet, the tail measuring some
5 inches. The ordinary length of the antlers is 30 inches, but a specimen of MS inches
is known. The antlers are smooth, with the brow-tine forming almost a right
angle with the beam, and often carrying small snags on the upper side ; the bez-tine
and trez-tine are absent, but the two branches of the main fork of the beam again
subdivide, so that there are at least four points on each side, and frequently more.
The somewhat woolly hair is rather thin, and forms a mane on the neck. In winter
the colour is yellowish brown above, and paler below, but 111 summer it is a rich
reddish brown, more or less distinctly marked along the back with one or two rows
of whitish spots. The under-parts are white or whitish. The hinds and fawns are
paler coloured, the latter being fully spotted.
The barasingha does not live in the forest, but on its outskirts, in plains or
undulating country covered with grass and a few trees, and hardly deserves the
name of swamp-deer commonly applied to it in certain parts of north-eastern
Bengal. In winter these deer wander about in herds of from thirty to fifty or
more, but in spring solitary bucks are often met with. They feed principally on
grass, and are apparently much less nocturnal than the sambar, being often seeD
grazing late in the forenoon and again early in the afternoon. They rest in the
shade at noon, and, if we may judge from their habits in captivity, are fond of the
io6
THE INDIAN FAUNA
water during the hot season. Unlike the species previously mentioned, this deer
has no gland and tuft of long hair on the outer side of the hind-leg.
The muntjac, or kakar (Cervulus muntjac), is a small and
Muntjac. peculiar kmd 0f forest-deer which is never seen in the open
plains. In the Himalaya it ranges up to 5000 feet, and even higher. Rare
• /
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■P
* f
MUNTJACS.
in central India and the north-west, this or closely allied muntjacs range eastwards
as far as Hainan and through the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago to Borneo.
Muntjacs have small (in some cases almost rudimentary) antlers carried on the top
of long pedicles which are continued on two rib-like ridges down the face. There
is a small brow-tine, directed upwards, to each antler, but no branch above this ;
and the tips of the beam incline inwards. A black line runs down the inner side of
ro8 THE INDIAN FAUNA
country, though in the wilder parts of its range it occasionally grazes in cornfields.
It feeds principally on grass, including sprigs of bamboo, but will not touch
bamboo-leaves, although it eats the leaves and even the bark of other trees.
Early morning and early evening are its chief feeding times ; and it drinks and
rests during the day.
Gaur are excellent climbers, descending and ascending the steepest slopes with
the greatest ease. Like most large Indian animals, they are extremely suspicious
of danger, although in wild parts where, as a rule, they are safe from attack, they
are not quite so cautious. When wounded they will sometimes turn against man,
and solitary bulls have attacked intruders, without being molested.
The calves, which all have a black stripe down the back, are generally born in
August or September, but some as early as April. Gaur have never been known
to live in captivity beyond their third year ; and all recent attempts made to
domesticate them have failed, though they were undoubtedly domesticated in the
mountains between Assam and Burma in former times ; the gayal of this region
being a domesticated form of the species.
The habitat of the Asiatic buffalo (B. bubalis) includes the
' plains of the Bramaputra and Ganges from Assam to Tirhut, from
the Terai to Rohilcund in the west, as well as the plains of Midnapur and Orissa
near the eastern coast, the eastern side of the United Provinces as far
south as the Godaveri and the Pranhita, and perhaps a little beyond. The
species is also common in northern Ceylon. As a domesticated animal its area extends
into the Malay Peninsula and as far west as Italy ; some of the small Malay forms
of the species probably, however, represent local wild races, as is the case with
one from Borneo.
The Asiatic buffalo, especially in old age, is very thinly haired ; its colour is
dark ashy grey, almost black, the legs, which are thick" and short, being sometimes
white. The animal is of heavy build, and has large hoofs, a rather short tail, a
large wide muzzle, and a long- head which is carried low. The forehead is com-
paratively flat, and the large and angulated horns are black in colour. Two
distinct types of horn — the one sharply and regularly curved, and the other
extending straight outwards for a considerable distance — exist, these representing
either distinct local races or dimorphic phases of the species. Apart from this, a
pale brown variety occurs in Assam.
The height of the typical race of this Indian buffalo is about 64 inches;
the length of the head and body 9 feet 7 inches ; and that of the tail 47 inches.
The horns may reach a length of 79 inches measured along the curve. The wild
buffalo is generally found in marshy country, where it frequents grass-jungle,
although it sometimes inhabits open plains or low scrub-jungle, and very rarely
forests. It associates in rather small herds and feeds principally on grass,
grazing in the mornings and evenings, and resting in the high grass during
the day. By no means shy, and not avoiding the neighbourhood of man, the
buffalo often inflicts great damage on crops, a herd, or even a solitary bull, some-
times taking possession of a field, and keeping out the rightful owner. Al-
though an old solitary bull will occasionally attack a human being without
provocation, a herd will rarely rush at an intruder, unless he takes to flight. The
pf]
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Z
ASIATIC BUFFALO — HUMPED CATTLE — INDIAN GAZELLE 109
courage of the animal, is, however, unquestionable even in captivity, and a single
individual will not hesitate to charge an elephant, while a herd will attack a tiger
or any other dangerous beast-of-prey as soon as it appears on the scene.
Tame as well as wild buffaloes are fond of bathing, and love to lie in shallow
water during the heat of the day, with only part of their heads above the surface.
The pairing-season for both the tame and the wild forms is the autumn. After ten
months, or perhaps a few days more, the cow brings forth one or two calves. It
is somewhat remarkable that the tame buffalo, which is kept for its milk and as a
beast of burden or draught, never associates with the humped Indian domesticated
cattle, although tame buffalo cows often pair with wild bulls of their own kind.
The domesticated Indian humped cattle (B. indicus) differ from
' European cattle, not only by the presence of the large hump on the
withers, but in colour, voice, and habits, the difference being so great that they
undoubtedly represent a distinct species, probably derived from the wild bantin
(Bos sondaicus) of the Malay countries ; the hump being a feature due to domesti-
cation. Humped cattle have a somewhat vaulted forehead, with uniformly curved
horns, long ears, and a large dew-lap occupying the whole length of the throat.
The colour varies in individuals and breeds, but, generally speaking, the legs have
a white ring round the fetlock. Most are of a pale fawn, some cream-colour, others
milk-white, while a few are red and brown, black, or even mottled. The differ-
ence in size is greater than that of colour, the largest of the so-called Bramini
bulls standing as high as a buffalo, while the smallest are scarcely larger than a
European calf about four weeks old. They are used by the natives of India
mainly for draught purposes ; but some of the bulls are specially protected by the
Hindus and allowed to wander at will in the bazars and about the towns. In
certain districts of India these cattle have reverted to a half -wild state, and on the
sea-coast near Nellore there is a large-sized half -wild breed with long horns. In
northern India the zebu, as this species is commonly called in Europe, seems to
have formed a variety of mixed breeds by crossing with ordinary European cattle
which have been introduced.
The Indian gazelle (Gazella bennetti) inhabits the plains from
the river Kistna and Palamau, northwards throughout the United
Provinces, but is replaced in Baluchistan and eastern Persia by the allied
G. fuscifrons. Both sexes are horned, the horns of the bucks being ringed and
showing a very slight double curve, with the tips pointing upwards and not far
apart; those of the females are much smaller, smooth, and conical in shape.
The bucks have a shoulder-height of 26 inches, and a length of 41 h inches to the
root of the tail, the tail itself measuring 8 inches. Their horns measure from 10
to 12 inches. The colour is chestnut-brown above, becoming darker on the sides
and thighs, where the brown blends into the white of the lower-parts, the tail being
blackish. A white stripe runs down each side of the face, which is of a darker
reddish tint between the bases of the horns and the nostrils, and there is sometimes
a dark spot over the nose, and always a dark stripe on the outer edge of the light
stripes on the face.
The Indian gazelle is generally seen in parties of from two to six, although
there are sometimes as many as twenty. Frequenting waste ground, especially in
Indian Gazelle.
tro THE INDIAN FAUNA
places broken up by ravines, it is rare on alluvial plains, but more common among
sand-hills and scattered trees. Like other gazelles, it gets over the ground very
quickly, and can seldom be overtaken by dogs. When startled, it does not jump
in the air like the blackbuck, but stands hissing and stamping with its fore-feet
on the ground. It is closely related to the edmi gazelle of northern Africa, as well
as to two south Arabian species (G. arabica and G. muscatensis).
The blackbuck (Antilope cervicajyra) inhabits the treeless plains
Blackbuck . .
of India from the foot of the Himalaya to the neighbourhood of Cape
Comorin, and from the Punjab to Lower Assam, but is not found either in Ceylon
or east of the Bay of Bengal, or down the Malabar coast from Surat southwards.
It is not met with in the marshy delta of the Ganges, but is abundant on the plains
near the shore at Midnapur as well as in Orissa.
The blackbuck, which is the only representative of its genus, is of moderate
size, standing 32 inches at the shoulder, and measuring 48 inches to the root of the
tail, the latter, which is compressed, measuring 7 inches. The hoofs are pointed,
and the knees furnished with tufts of long hair. As a rule only the males are
horned, the horns being close together at the base, and then diverging to
form a more or less closely wound spiral. They are circular in section, ringed
throughout, and at the tips from 7 to 20 inches apart. They do not generally
exceed 20 inches in length, but in Rajputana and Harriana are longer, and in some
cases measure over 28 inches. Full-grown bucks are blackish brown above, and
in old age almost black, though the nape remains reddish brown, and the face is
blackish brown. There is a white streak below the ears, and the eyes are sur-
rounded by white circles. Does and young bucks are fawn-colour above and at
the sides, and like the older bucks, white below, in sharp contrast. Old bucks show
a pale streak along the line of division between the dark and the light areas. This
antelope lives in herds, sometimes numbering thousands of every sex and age, but
oftener consisting of from about ten to thirty, or even fifty, females and fawns,
accompanied by one old buck. Sometimes two or three young bucks of the same
Bandy colour as the does associate with the herd, but these are generally driven
away by the old bucks, and form parties by themselves.
Like most animals dwelling on open plains, blackbuck have apparently no
fixed times for grazing, although they are in the habit of resting at mid-day.
They seem to frequent the neighbourhood of water not so much for the sake of
(I r'm king, but for the fresh green grass growing in such situations.
Like the African springbok, the blackbuck is in the habit of occasionally
Leaping into the air, and this habit is generally indulged in by all the members of
a herd one after the other when they scent danger, and are about to take to flight.
Many blackbuck are taken by the natives in nets and snares; and they are also
caught by means of a tame buck which, with a cord attached, is induced to mingle
with the. herd. In the fight which is sure to ensue between this buck and the
leader of the herd, the latter is captured.
Four Homed The four-horned antelope (Tetraceros quadricornis) is the only
Antelope. hollow-horned ruminant furnished with two pairs of horns. These
appendages, which are confined to the bucks, are short, smooth, and conical in shape,
one pair being situated between the eyes, and the other behind them. The hind pair
H
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JM
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1
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I
1
1
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z
FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE
1 1 1
are much longer than those in front, which are sometimes reduced to small knobs,
and may be altogether wanting. The hair of this antelope is thin, coarse, and short,
but rather long on the tail ; the general colour is of a more or h-ss reddish hue, the
fawn of the back gradually blending into the white of the lower-parts on th^ Bides
NILGAI.
and legs. A dark stripe, widest on the front pair, runs along the front of eat h
leg; the colour on the muzzle and outsides of the ears is darker than elsewhere;
and some of the fawns show a dark stripe along the back. The native name is
chousino-ha.
The males are a little over 25 inches in height at the shoulder, while at the
haunches they measure 28 inches, thus standing higher behind than in front.
ii2 THE INDIAN FAUNA
The length is 47 inches, including the tail which measures about 5 inches. The
females are considerably smaller. The hind horns never exceed 4J inches in
length, and the front pair range from 1 to 2 or sometimes 2| inches. This
antelope is found from the Punjab to Nepal, along the foot of the Himalaya and
probably in most of the wooded and mountainous parts of India.
The nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), which inhabits India from
the foot of the Himalaya to Mysore, is one of the larger antelopes,
and in general appearance (apart from the horns) somewhat resembles a horse
with an unusually thin neck. It is absent from Ceylon, and apparently also from
the Malabar coast and the neighbourhood of Bombay, although it reappears near
Madras. In certain parts of the United Provinces it is very common, as it
is in Gujerat, but it becomes much more rare farther south. The bulls have
a shoulder-height of 52 inches, and a length of about 80 inches to the root of the
tail, 18 to 25 inches being the length of the latter. The horns are generally
from 8 to 9 inches loner, but are absent in the much smaller females. The hind
©'
legs are shorter than the front pair ; the muzzle is narrow and ox-like, and both
sexes have a mane, although the males alone have a tuft of hair on the throat.
The horns, which are not very far apart, rise close behind the eyes, and are short,
smooth, pointed, almost straight, and directed upwards and backwards. In shape
they are conical at the tips, triangular at the base, flat behind, and ridged in front.
The general colour of the males is dark grey, with a shade of blue or brown ; the
mane, the tuft on the throat, the upper half of the ears, two spots on the inside of
the ears, and the end of the tail being black. A patch on the throat, two small spots
on the cheeks, the lips, chin, lower half of the ears, the under side of the tail, the
under-parts, and two rings just above the hoofs are white. The females and young
are rufous. The haunts of the nilgai are in dense bushes with a few low trees, or
where tracts of bushes alternate with grassy plains. These antelopes are found on
flat, as well as on undulating around and among the hills, but seldom in thick
jungle; and they often do great harm to cultivated ground. The bulls often live a
solitary life, but sometimes collect in small herds up to a dozen, or they may
accompany the larger herds of females and calves.
Nilgai graze a good deal all day long and also browse on leaves, especially
those of the jujube tree. There are different opinions as to how often they drink,
some observers saying that they do so daily, and others every two or three days,
particularly in the cold season. When startled, the nilgai starts off at a heavy
gallop, going so quickly that a good horse is required to overtake it. The bulls are
sometimes caught and killed, but the cows are much speedier. The nilgai becomes
very tame in captivity, even to the extent of drawing light vehicles, carrying loads,
or as a riding animal. Both the four-horned antelope and the nilgai are related to
the bushbucks and elands of Africa.
Hi Besides antelopes and oxen, the Indian fauna includes two species
of short-horned goats or tahr, which are nearly allied to the goats,
but differ in the form and size of their horns and skull. The Himalayan, or
typical tahr (Hemitragus jemlaicas), is a shaggy ruminant inhabiting the forests
of the Himalaya from the Pir Panjal range to Sikhim, and characterised by the
long head, with a narrow straight face. The black horns are slightly wrinkled,
I
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-2
HIMALAYAN TAJ/ A'
JI3
much compressed, and flattened on the sides; towards the base, where they almost
touch each other, they are rather rounder, though they are always flat at the
back. In front they are keeled, and, diverging from the base, they curve back-
ward, to approach each other at the tips. The tahr has a short tail, bare
beneath, hard patches on the knees and breast, short hair on the head, and long
hair on the body. Old bucks carry on their neck, shoulders, and breast a long
shaggy mane, hanging down to their knees. The general colour is a deep brown
or reddish brown, the face and fore part of the legs being very dark, and in some
cases almost black ; the bucks are ___
pale or rusty red on the hind side of g
their legs, and, when old, show an
indistinct stripe running along the
back.
The tahr has a shoulder-height
t>
i
HIMALAYAN TAHB.
of 36 to 40 inches, a length of about 56 inches to the root of the tail, and a
tail 3 inches long. The horns of the bucks measure from 12 to 15 inches
along the curve, those of the does being much smaller. On ground where it
seems almost impossible for any other animal to place its feet, the tahr moves
with the greatest ease. Like goats, these ruminants collect in herds, the sexes
keeping separate during most of the year, the females being found in more open
country than the males. They pair in October, and in June or July their one
offspring is born.
VOL. II. — 8
i14 THE INDIAN FAUNA
The Nilgiri tahr (H. hylocrius), the " ibex " of Indian sportsmen,
inhabits the Nilgiri and Anaimalai Hills of southern India, and the
Western Ghats down to Cape Comorin. The bucks stand from 39 to 42 inches
high, and measure about 50 inches in length, with a tail of about 3 inches long ;
the does are about 35 inches at the shoulder. The horns of the bucks measure
alono- the curve from 12 to 16 inches, and those of the females about 10 inches.
In both sexes the horns almost touch each other at the base, rise parallel for a
short distance, then bend backwards and diverge ; they are wrinkled, flat inside,
and convex outside, rounded at the back, and bluntly keeled on the front inner
edge. The hair is close, short, and coarse, that of the males forming a mane on the
neck and spine. The principal colour is dark yellowish brown, the coat of the
females and young being greyish. A dark stripe runs along the back, and the
lower-parts are lighter coloured than the rest. The faces and legs of the old
bucks are dark sepia-brown, almost black, with a wide, pale, whitish stripe on the
sides of the face. A spot behind the eye, the inner side of the legs (which are dark
brown in front), and a saddle-like patch on the back are similarly coloured, the
" saddle " becoming nearly white in old animals.
With the exception of the Abyssinian ibex, the Nilgiri tahr is the only wild
goat living south of the northern temperate zone. Its haunts are somewhat
like those of the Himalayan tahr and wild goat, but of a more tropical character.
These tahr are generally found in herds of from five to fifty or more in ravines and
forest country. Sometimes they collect on the tops of grassy hills, but their
favourite haunts are grassy slopes and steep ridges well up the mountains. Every
morning and evening they graze on the mountain-meadows, and spend the rest of
the day among the rocks. The Nilgiri tahr is as active and wary as its Himalayan
cousin, but, in spite of its watchfulness, often falls a victim to the leopard, although
rarely to the tiger.
Himalayan The gorals, which approach the goats on the one hand and the
Gorais. antelopes on the other, may be recognised by their short cylindrical
horns, which are of almost equal size in both sexes, taper backwards in a gentle
curve, and, with the exception of the tips, are finely but irregularly ringed and
furrowed throughout. The two Himalayan species (Urotragus goral and U.
bedfordi) inhabit the outer ranges of the Himalaya, from Kashmir to Bhutan.
The former is a goat-like, thick-legged ruminant, with almost parallel horns set
close together, and somewhat coarse hair (with a woolly under-fur), which on the
head and neck forms a short mane. In colour the coat is more or less reddish or
greyish brown, becoming a little paler on the lower-parts. The face is rather
darker near the horns ; a black stripe runs down the back to the black tail, and
there is a dark stripe down the front of each leg. The horns are black, and the
throat white.
The goral has a shoulder-height of about 27 inches, a total length of 54 inches,
and a tail-length of 4 inches, the horns of the bucks being from 6 to 8 inches long.
The species is generally found in small parties of from four to eight, and lives in
rugged, rocky country at heights of from 3000 to 8000 feet. It seldom leaves its
feeding grounds, and never save in company, although the old bucks generally live
alone. In cloudy weather goral graze at any hour of the day, at other times only
HIM ALA YAN SER O W— INDIAN CHE VR 0 TAIN x 1 5
in the mornings and evenings. They appear somewhat indifferent to the neigh-
bourhood of man, and are often found near hill-stations. The kids, of which
there is only one at a birth, are dropped in May or June, six months after the
pairing-season.
Himalayan The serows, which are near relatives of the gorals, are character-
Serow. jse(j Dy tjie hairy tail, naked muzzle, and short, conical horns curving
gently backwards and finely but irregularly ringed and striped. There is but
little difference in the size of these latter appendages in the two sexes. Serows
are indigenous to south-eastern and eastern Asia, one species inhabiting Japan,
another Formosa, and a third the Himalaya, Burma, and the Malay countries.
The Himalayan serow (Capricornis sumatrensis bubalinus), and other local
varieties of the Sumatran species, inhabit the Himalaya from Kashmir to the
Mishmi Hills. The species, inclusive of its local races, is distinguished by its
clumsy build, large head and ears, coarse sparse hair of medium length without
under-fur, and the short mane on the neck. The colour is black or dark grey
above, and wThitish below, the head and neck being blackish, and the flank, thighs,
and the lower part of the legs either rufous or dirty white. The inside of the
ears, and the front and sides of the chin are white, and a stripe along the back
black.
The shoulder-height is 37 inches, the total length over 5 feet, and the tail is
about 3 inches long. The horns of the bucks are 9 or 10 inches long, those of the
females slightly smaller. Although its gait is awkward, the serow moves very
quickly over difficult ground. It lives a solitary life, mostly at heights of from
6000 to 12,000 feet, is nowhere abundant, generally keeps to dense forest and rocky
ridges, shelters in caves under projecting rocks or among shady trees, and, although
difficult of approach, is bold and dangerous when wounded or driven to bay.
Indian The small but zoologically important group of chevrotains or
cnevrotain. mouse-deer is represented in India by Tragulus meminna, which
inhabits the forests of the southern part of the peninsula and Ceylon, its dis-
tributional area extending to Orissa on the east coast, and to the western Ghats
near Bombay.
In this interesting Indian species (which stands about 12 inches in height
and measures from 18 to 22 inches in length) the chin and throat are completely
clothed with hair, and the brown back is ornamented with whitish spots, while
the sides are marked with similarly coloured oblong spots which often run into
lines. This chevrotain never ventures out on the open plains, but lives among
rocks, the clefts of which afford it shelter from the heat of the day, and a place of
retreat at the approach of an enemy. It issues forth at dusk ; and, like all its
kindred, has a peculiar mincing walk, treading on the tips of its hoofs, and thus
making its limbs look so stiff as to give the impression that the fore-legs are
without the knee-joint. The male lives alone during most of the year, but
accompanies the female during the pairing-time in June and July. The young,
two in number, are born at the close of the rainy season, or the beginning of the
cold weather.
Chevrotains form a group quite distinct from the true ruminants, and serve
in some degree to connect the deer with the pigs.
„6 THE INDIAN FAUNA
Indian Wild Leaving the chevrotains, we come to the Indian wild boar (Sus
Boar. cristatus), which is found in the Himalaya up to heights of 13,000
feet, and ranges southwards into Ceylon and south-eastwards into Burma. In
shoulder-height the boar measures up to 40 inches or more, and the total length is
about 5 feet. Some are even larger, the males being always larger than the
females. Along the back runs a crest of long black bristles, the hair is coarse and
bristly everywhere, has no under-fur, but is thinner at the sides, and thinnest
below. The sparsely-haired tail reaches almost to the hocks, and is fringed at the
sides ; the ears are thinly haired on the outside and more closely inside ; the general
colour is black, mixed more or less with rusty brown or white. Old individuals
are grey, younger ones brown, and the sucklings show dark brown stripes along
their light brown bodies.
The Indian wild boar is distinguished from its European relative by its longer
tusks (which are said to grow as long as 12 inches, although rarely exceeding
9 inches), the longer crest and the thinner hair on the rest of the body ; it attains a
large stature. Not improbably it is the ancestor of Indian domesticated swine,
with which it doubtless sometimes pairs since the young of the latter are sometimes
striped.
During the day the Indian wild boar remains concealed in high grass or
bushes, sometimes in the forest or in tall standing crops. The sows and young
generally associate in " sounders " of ten to twelve or more, but the full-grown boars
live by themselves. They wander about to feed in the morning and evening,
especially in marshes, their favourite food being roots, in search of which they turn
up the ground in a way similar to the European wild boar, doing much harm to
cultivated fields. Their food is, however, not confined to vegetable matter, for
more than once they have been seen to eat carcases, and in Assam they dig out
and eat the fish which spend the dry season in the mud.
The Indian wild boar often feeds at night, but in districts where it is un-
molested its life is less nocturnal. Its speed is considerable, but does not last, and
on fairly even ground both boar and sow may be easily overtaken by a good
horse. Wild boar-hunting, universally known as "pig-sticking," is one of the most
popular of Indian sports. This sport owes much of its excitement to the boldness
with which the boar defends himself to the last, the badgered animal, although
surrounded by spears, attacking his adversaries again and again. Undoubtedly
the boar is the most courageous of the wild animals of India. There are many
anecdotes of desperate fights between wild boars and tigers, and in several instances
the tiger is killed by the boar. A boar will even attack and kill a camel ; and
instances are on record of this animal charging elephants. The courage of the
boar appears, however, to vary to a considerable extent in different parts of India, as
indeed is the case with its bodily size and shape.
A very different animal is the pigmy hog (S. salvanius), of the
forests at the foot of the eastern Himalaya, which stands only
11 inches at the shoulder, with a length of 26 inches. Unlike the last species, it
has no distinct mane, and in general colour is brown or blackish brown. The
young are white below with whitish stripes along the back and sides. In habits
this diminutive representative of the pig tribe resembles the wild boar, being
ON A GER — RHINOCEROS — ELEPHANT 1 1 7
mostly found in high grass, and said to associate in parties of from five to twenty
which consist both of sows and full-grown boars.
The deserts of north-western India, such as the Bikanir desert,
Jesalmere, the Rann of Kach, and (across the Indus) the neighbour-
hood of Mithankot, on the Punjab frontier, form the habitat of the onager (Equus
onager indicus), which also occurs in Baluchistan and Afghanistan, where it
probably passes into the closely allied Persian race of the species. As the
Asiatic wild ass, of which the Indian animal is merely a local race, is de-
scribed elsewhere in this work, the bare mention that it is represented in north-
western India will suffice.
Indian Rnino- Poor as is India in members of the horse family, it is richer than
ceros. any other country in the world in rhinoceroses, all the three Asiatic
species occurring within its limits, although the true home of two of these is the
Malay area. By far the largest of the three is the Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros
unicornis), which, in common with the other two, differs from its African cousins
by its heavily folded skin. It is an inhabitant of the great grass-jungles of northern
India, and is now almost entirely confined to the valley of Assam, and to Nepal and
other districts west of the Tista River. Formerly it was much more widely
distributed. In the reign of the Emperor Baber, for instance, from 1505 to 1530,
it was common in the Punjab up to Peshawar, and its remains have been found as
far south as Madras.
The Indian rhinoceros attains a height of 5 feet or more, and from the point of
the nose to the tip of the tail measures over 10 feet, the tail being 27 inches in length.
The horn, however, is seldom more than 12 inches long. The skin is bare, except
the ears and the tail, and is studded with prominent tubercles ranging up to an
inch in diameter, the largest of which are on the thighs and shoulders. Of the
folds which divide the skin into large shields, one is situated at the back of each
shoulder, and another in front of each thigh. Large folds also surround the neck,
others are below the shoulders and thighs, and on the hind-quarters, so that the tail
lies in a deep furrow. The colour is blackish grey, with no lighter or darker shades.
The Indian rhinoceros is an inhabitant of ground where it can bathe and
wallow in the mud. It is quiet and peaceable in disposition ; all that has been
written about its savageness and its animosity against the elephant resting on no
basis of fact. A wounded or much-molested animal may, however, sometimes
defend itself, and when it does, it uses not its horn but its pointed lower incisors in
the same way as the wild boar uses his tusks. It generally feeds during the
morning and evening, and sleeps during the day, its food consisting principally of
grass and herbage. The Sumatran and Javan rhinoceroses are noticed under the
heading of the Malay fauna.
Unlike the Indian rhinoceros the Indian elephant (Elephas
Indian Elephant. ., _...., ■,. . 0.
maximus) is not restricted to India, its range extending into biam,
Cochin China, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and even Borneo, where, however/
it may have been introduced. In India wild elephants are still found along the
foot of the Himalaya as far west as Dehra Dun, and in a few localities tbey are
met with down to Mysore and even farther south ; but their distributional area is
by no means so large now as it used to be.
ITS
THE INDIAN FA UNA
The Indian elephant is almost hairless, with a few faint traces of woolly fur
such as that of the mammoth, and a tuft of long hairs at the end of the tail. On
the fore-feet five of the toes have nails, but on the hind-feet only four are thus
provided. The trunk, unlike that of the African species, is as uniformly flexible
as an indiarubber tube, and has a single finger-like process on the upper margin of
the tip. The tusks in the females are short and rudimentary, but in the males
they are generally well developed, although in some of the latter they are reduced
to small stumps like
those of the females.
The colour of the
body is a uniform
blackish grey, often
varied with small
flesh-coloured spots
on the forehead, the
base of the trunk,
and the ears. The
more or less white
elephants considered
sacred in Siam are
merely partial al-
binos.
The shoulder-
height is almost ex-
actly double the
circumference of the
fore - foot. Fully
grown females are,
as a rule, no higher
than 8 feet, while
the average height
of the males is about
9 feet, though a few
are recorded as hav-
ing exceeded 10 feet.
One of the longest
tusks known meas-
ured 8 feet in length,
nearly 17 inches in
circumference, and weighed 74£ lbs. Another shorter tusk is said to have had a
weight of 110 lbs. In both these cases the tusk was the only one, so that it is
supposed to have been unusually well developed.
Forests in undulating or mountainous districts, generally those containing
many bamboos, are the favourite haunts of the Indian elephant, though at the
beginning of the rainy season these animals often move for awhile into grassy
plains. They live in herds of from sometimes as many as a hundred in number,
- a/./c±
INDIAN ELEPHANTS.
/
z
z
z
z
Z
INDIAN ELEPHANT n9
and in each herd are elephants of different sizes and different ages in both sexes.
When food is scarce these herds sometimes disperse into smaller parties, and some-
times the males live alone, though they always belong to a herd, and join it
occasionally. Generally the elephants in a herd belong to the same family, and
are all closely related to one another, and the leader is in all cases a female.
The cheek-teeth of the Indian elephant consist of a number of closely
approximated thin vertical plates, evidently adapted for masticating grass and
leaves; and the food of this species consists almost entirely of grasses and the
young shoots and leaves of certain trees and plants, especially palm, bamboo,
plantain, and fig, together with wild fruits. Of such food an elephant will con-
sume quite 600 lbs. weight every day. Elephants drink only twice a day, once
before sunrise and again after sunset. Water as well as solid food is conveyed to
the mouth by the trunk, the tufts of grass being torn up and the leaves and shoots
plucked off by coiling this instrument round them. Only small objects such as
small fruits are grasped by the finger-like process at the tip. When an elephant
drinks, the water is sucked up into the two tubes of the trunk for a distance of
about 18 inches and then squirted into the mouth. A similar method is employed
when an elephant is eating rice or other corn.
Indian elephants rest during the midday heat, and feed in the mornings and
evenings and often far into the night. While grazing, the herd disperses, but
immediately musters again at the slightest suspicion of danger. In many districts
elephants wander for long distances, probably on account of their food, or perhaps
to escape from troublesome insects, these journeys being generally performed in
single file. In hot weather, when elephants reach water they take a bath or
wallow in the mud, and when heated they squirt water all over their bodies by
means of their trunks. They rarely bathe after sunset, and when exposed to the
sun and away from water they throw earth and leaves on their backs.
An elephant can neither gallop, canter, nor trot, its only paces being a walk
and a shuffle at the rate of about a mile in four minutes. It cannot jump, and as
its stride doe^ not exceed 78 inches a ditch 7 feet wide effectually bars its passage.
When ascending or descending slopes, elephants bend their limbs in the manner
most suitable to the occasion, and if necessary make holes in the ground to afford
a footing. In kneeling an elephant first bends its hind-legs one after the other,
and then its fore-legs, stretching them out at the same time ; when rising it begins
with the fore-legs. These animals are quite at home in water, in fact, few land
mammals are their superiors in swimming. They swim very deep, and at a rate
of only about a mile an hour, but they can keep this pace up for at least six hours
at a stretch without resting.
Although an elephant has a very keen sense of smell, its sight and hearing
are not particularly good, and its brain is small in proportion to its bulk. The
latter feature is, however, characteristic of large animals in general, and must not
be taken to indicate inferiority. In disposition the Indian elephant is docile and
obedient, and its memory is remarkably retentive. Although in most cases gentle
and affectionate, in certain circumstances these animals are highly passionate and
vindictive, and often display strong emotion. Fear and anger are denoted
by a shrill trumpet-like sound of varying pitch; pain is indicated by a terrific
120
THE INDIAN FAUNA
roar ; and the attention of the female to her calf is attracted by a subdued rumbling
sound in the throat. A prolonged squealing through the trunk indicates pleasure,
and uneasiness is denoted by a peculiar metallic sound produced by beating the
ground with the trunk and at the same time blowing through it. Most elephants
are timid and peaceful, although females with young as well as the solitary males
known as " rogues " may sometimes be aggressive. The attack is made by the feet
and tusks and not by the trunk, which is kept tightly coiled up on such occasions.
An Indian elephant never charges with its trunk extended.
Large Indian India is rich in
squirrel. rodents, especially
squirrels, one of the handsomest
of these being the large Indian
squirrel (Ratufa indica), which
attains a total length of 16 to 18
, inches, and is represented by
1 several local races in different
parts of its habitat. One of
these, from the northern parts of
the western Ghats and Mysore, is
red above, with the tip of the
tail whitish. A second variety
found in Orissa, Bastar, Chutia
Nagpur, south-western Bengal,
and Manipur is mainly red
above, but with black on the
shoulders and tail, which latter
generally has a yellow tip. In
the third variety, which inhabits
southern Manipur and certain
parts of central India, the shoul-
ders and hind part of the back
and tail are always black, while
the rest of the upper-parts is
more or less black.
This squirrel dwells among
high forest -trees, rarely coming
down to the ground, and places
its nest of twigs and leaves amid
the topmost branches. It is able to jump distances of 20 feet from tree to tree,
and its cry is a rapid succession of loud screeches. It represents a group of giant
squirrels all restricted to the Indian region.
Paim-squirreL ^ie ^n^ Pa^m_sclunTel (Funambulus palmarum) is found all over
India with the exception of the Malabar coast and Ceylon. In the
west it ranges as far as Sind and Baluchistan, though not common in either of those
countries ; but it is unknown eastwards of the Bay of Bengal. Its home is in the
open and cultivated plains, especially in the neighbourhood of human habitations,
LARGE INDIAN SQUIRREL.
SQUIRRELS AND MARMOTS 121
and it is never found in forests. It is about six inches long without including the
tail; in colour the back is greyish, or reddish and blackish brown with three
longitudinal whitish yellow stripes, the sides being lighter in hue, and the lower-
parts whitish.
The palm-squirrel is one of the commonest animals of India, and being
exclusively diurnal is, perhaps, the least wary of all. It is generally found in
plantations and gardens, on large banyan and pipal trees, and especially on
palms. It is frequently seen on the ground, but never far from trees, in which
at any alarm it may immediately take refuge. It shelters beneath the roofs of
houses, and sometimes even ventures into the rooms, and since it is also common
in gardens and plantations, it would appear, like the rat and mouse, to be one
of the mammals which follow man wherever possible. Indeed by some writers
it has been regarded as a half -domesticated form of the three-striped jungle
squirrel. Its food consists of fruits, seeds, and buds of trees ; but it also eats
insects, and is said to rob birds' nests, although this is doubtful. The cry of this
small and easily-tamed rodent is a shrill bird-like chirping. The nest, in which
the female produces a litter of two to four young at a time, is a large, rough
structure of grass, wool, or any kind of fibre, placed in the branches of a tree, the
gutter of a roof, or among the rafters of a house.
striped The striped jungle-squirrel (F. tristriatus) is mainly remarkable
Jungle-Squirrel. as tne presumed original form of the palm-squirrel. Although its
cry is quite different, being much more piercing, it resembles the latter in colora-
tion, and in nesting on houses, but it is much smaller, and is met with where
the palm-squirrel is absent. The back is black or blackish brown with three
narrow longitudinal white or whitish stripes, and the lower-parts are whitish or
grey. This species is widely distributed over the forest-districts of India and
Ceylon, has been found in Sikhim, and is very common on the Malabar coast
where the palm-squirrel is unknowTn.
Hodgson's Several species of marmot are found in the Himalaya and Tibet,
Marmot. an(j since one of these (Arctomys hodgsoni) occurs in Nepal, Sikhim,
and Bhutan, it probably lives on the southern slope of the mountains, and conse-
quently belongs to the Indian fauna.
The lesser flying-squirrels are represented in India by Sciuro-
ying quirre s. ^erug fuscicapHlUS} which inhabits the mountains of Travancore and
Ceylon, and is also said to occur on the Nilgiris. India is also the home of several
of the larger flying-squirrels, which belong to a different genus. Of these the large
brown flying-squirrel (Petaurista oral) inhabits all the larger forests from the
Ganges to Ceylon, and those of the countries east of the Bay of Bengal from Burma
to Tenasserim, as well as the Mergui Islands. In length its body measures about
18 inches without the tail, and in colour it is dark chestnut or greyish brown or
rusty black, mixed with grey above, and lighter, sometimes white, below. This
species, which in different parts of its range is represented by local races, is nocturnal
in its habits, and sleeps in holes of trees during the day. Although principally an
inhabitant of the forest, it is often found in the neighbourhood of villages and
mango-plantations, and its food consists of fruits, nuts, bark of trees, beetles, and
larvse, but not of corn. When asleep this squirrel rolls up its body, and sits with
122 THE INDIAN FAUNA
its head bent downward, but in hot weather it lies on its back with its membrane
extended, and, as the membrane hinders its movements, is not so active as the true
squirrels, either among the trees or on the ground. Its flight from tree to tree is
remarkable ; at first it drops straight down from above, then takes a curved, and
at last a horizontal direction, in order to ascend again towards the stem or branch
where it intends to alight. It is thus enabled to influence the direction of its
flight, which sometimes carries it a distance of 80 yards.
The large red flying-squirrel (P. inornatus) inhabits elevations of from 6000
to 10,000 feet in the western Himalaya; it is common in Kashmir, and is also
found in Nepal. A third species, the grey-headed flying-squirrel (P. caniceps),
occurs at elevations of from 5000 to 7500 feet from Nepal and Sikhim as far as
Landour to the west, while a fourth species, Hodgson's flying-squirrel (P. inagnificus),
is found on the Himalaya from Nepal eastwards at a height of 5000 to 6000 feet,
as well as from the Assam valley southwards.
The mouse tribe, and especially true mice and rats, are plentifully
Rats and Mice. . . r J ...
represented in India. The brown rat inhabits villages, banks of
rivers, and high roads, and in Calcutta and other cities grows so large as to be
often mistaken for the bandicoot. This rat is unknown in most of the interior of
India, and would thus appear to have been introduced. The European black rat,
which has also probably been introduced, is found in various parts of the country,
especially in large ports. Besides the typical form, India possesses three other
races of the black rat. One of these is the roof-rat (Mus rattus alexandrinus), a
rather large form, whose colour is brown and somewhat reddish above, and
generally white below ; the tail is longer than the body, its lower part, as is the
case in Simla, being sometimes white. This rat inhabits the western parts
of India, whence its range extends into North Africa. The second form is the
glossy black rat (M. rattus nitidus), distinguished from the roof -rat by its thinner
fur, partly interspersed with bristles, and by the tail being but little if at all
longer than the body, as well as by the white soles of the feet. The tree black rat
(M. rattus rufescens), which inhabits India, Ceylon, and Burma, is much smaller,
with a very long tail, and generally bristly hair of a red or yellowish brown colour.
The tree-rat lives principally in trees, and in the Laccadives and elsewhere is found
in the crowns of cocoa-nut palms. It is said never to come to the ground, and to
feed on cocoa-nuts.
The universally distributed house-mouse is not absent from India, except from
the Punjab, Sind, Rajputana, and some of the north-western provinces. Whether it
has been introduced by ships into India, or whether it originated there, is difficult
to say. The Himalayan form of this mouse (M. musculus homurus) generally
has a shorter tail, and longer and smoother hair than the mouse of the Indian plains,
and may therefore be regarded as a distinct race, as may also the Indian house-
mouse (M. musculus urbanus), which differs in many respects from its European
relative.
The common Indian field-mouse (M. buduga) does not, like the European
field-mouse, belong to the voles, but to the typical group of the family.
It is common in fields, in burrows, and holes beneath stones and roots,
and also occurs in gardens, woods, and even houses. The burrows, which are
RATS AND MICE — BANDICOOT-RATS 123
generally found near large stone-heaps, are usually inhabited by only one pair.
These mice are spread over India and Ceylon, but are not found in the Indus valley
except at Karachi, nor in the Himalaya. The general colour is light sandy or dark
greyish brown above, and white below. The length of the head and body is from
2 \ to 3 inches, and that of the tail nearly the same.
The brown spiny mouse (M. platytJirix), which ranges over India and Ceylon,
and is found on the Malabar coast, in Sind, and in the Punjab, but not in Bengal,
is especially remarkable for its habits. Living exclusively on red sandstone soil, in
which it generally digs holes of moderate depth, it gathers a heap of pebbles in
front of its hole, with which it stops the entrance after retiring within, and makes
itself a bed of pebbles in the dwelling chamber. This mouse probably feeds on
vegetable substances, and derives its name from the nature of its fur, which is
covered above and below with flat spines, these being particularly stiff and coarse
on the back. In colour it is dark brown, sometimes a little lighter above, and
white below; to the root of the tail it measures 3 or 3^ inches, the tail being
rather less.
In various parts of India lives the metad, or soft-furred field-rat (M. metada),
whose colour is earthy brown above, lighter on the sides, and white below. It has
a length of 5 inches to the root of the tail, the length of the tail varying between
4 and 5 inches. The metad lives in pairs, or in parties of five or six, in cultivated
fields, where it digs a slight and rude hole beneath the root of a bush, or hides
among stone-heaps. It makes its nest in holes abandoned by other rodents, or in
the crevices formed in the ground during the dry season. At the beginning of the
rainy season, when these crevices close up, large numbers of the rats perish in their
holes, but if it does not rain sufficiently, they increase to such an extent that they
destroy vast quantities of seed-corn.
The bandicoot-rats, which differ in the structure of their teeth
Bandicoot-Ra s. ^^ ^e ^^ rats a^ mice, have a short body and head, short and
wide snout, a long scaly and almost bare tail, round ears, broad feet, and, with the
exception of the first toe of the hind foot, strong and almost straight claws on the
toes. The five known species are distributed over central Asia and India.
The common bandicoot-rat (Nesocia bandicota) inhabits India and Ceylon,
but is absent from lower Bengal, as well as from Sind and the Punjab, though
common in certain parts of Rajputana and probably elsewhere in the north-western
provinces. It is of considerable size, namely, 12 to 15 inches without the tail,
which measures from 11 to 12h inches. The hair of this rat is coarse, often with
bristles of 2 or 3 inches long on the back. In colour it is blackish brown above,
sometimes pale yellowish or greyish on the sides, and greyish brown or brownish
grey below. This bandicoot-rat, which, like all its kindred, is a burrower, inhabits
cultivated districts, and is particularly common in south Indian villages and towns,
and probably also in forests. It is very injurious to corn, but also feeds on fruit
and other vegetable substances, and is said to kill a fowl now and then. When
wandering about at night or attacking its prey, it grunts like a pig. It is lazy and
cowardly, apparently readily tamed, and much more easily killed by a dog than
might be supposed from its size.
The kok bandicoot-rat (N. bengalensis) inhabits the greater part of India from
i24 THE INDIAN FAUNA
the Himalaya to Cape Comorin, and from lower Sind to Cachar, and perhaps as far
as Assam, while it also occurs in the valley of Kashmir and Ceylon, and is prob-
ably spread over Burma as far as the Mergui Archipelago. It is generally found
on damp, swampy ground, but also ranges to the top of the Nilgiri and other hills.
The coarse hair is dark brown mixed with yellow above, and grey or yellowish
below. The head and body measure from 6 to 9 inches in length, and the tail
from 5 to 7 inches. The kok, which lives in cultivated ground, gardens, or pastures,
betrays its presence by the heaps of earth in front of its holes. Its galleries opening
into the banks of ditches and tanks near rice-fields are long and irregular, often
branched, sometimes circular, and lead to a principal chamber, in which the animal
stores up grain, often amounting to a pound in weight. The burrows sometimes
occupy an area with a diameter of 15 to 20 yards, each being apparently
inhabited by only a single rat. The food consists principally of grass and roots.
The kok is a spiteful animal, which when irritated bristles up its long spines and
utters a grunting sound. It takes readily to the water, in which it swims well ;
generally it has from eight to ten, but sometimes fourteen, young at a time ; and it
grows so tame in captivity that it will answer when called by name.
The Indian bush -rat (Golunda ellioti), which inhabits the greater
n.]C,|, Pat
part of India and Ceylon, is a rodent with coarse hair, and a length of
4J inches to the root of the tail, the latter measuring about 4 inches more. In
colour it is yellowish brown, with black and grey speckling above, and brownish
white or grey below. This rat lives only in forest, generally in a dense thorn-bush ;
its round or oblong nest of twisted grass and rootlets being placed on the ground
among stones and twigs. This nest has a diameter of 8 to 10 inches, and its cup is
about 4 inches across. A solitary animal, the bush-rat is largely diurnal, feeding
in the morning and evening, and subsisting principally on the roots of the grass
known as Gynodon dactylon. It is very injurious to coffee-plantations in Ceylon
owing to its eating the buds and blossoms. The Indian bush-rat is rather slow in
its movements, and cannot leap so well as other mice; at times it apparently
undertakes regular migrations.
Although voles are practically absent from the Indian area, the
Indian GerbiL ° r J
pretty little gerbils have a representative in the Indian gerbil rat
(Gerbillus indicus), which is distributed over India and Ceylon as far east as the
Bay of Bengal, and as far west as Baluchistan. In colour this species is sandy or
fawn above and white below. To the root of the tail its length is from 5 to
7 inches, the tail measuring from 6 to 8 inches more. Leading an exclusively
nocturnal life, and never seen outside its hole by day, this gerbil frequents sandy
and uncultivated ground, although it often appears on the edges of cultivated fields.
Its burrows, which have numerous passages and large chambers of 6 to 12 inches
in diameter, it lines with dry grass. Its food includes roots, grass, seeds,
and corn, and it sometimes does great damage to cornfields. In 1878-79, for
instance, it destroyed in the Dekkan an area of several thousands of square miles
planted with sorghum, by biting off the stems, and eating or storing away the grain.
This gerbil is very prolific, and has eight to twelve or more young at a time. It can
jump 4 or 5 yards in one leap, and often escapes from dogs by jumping right ovei
their backs.
MALABAR SPINY MOUSE — HARES— PORCUPINES 125
Malabar spiny The Malabar spiny mouse (Platacanthomys lasiurus), which is
Mouse. the sole representative of its genus, occurs in the Anamalai Hills and
Travancore, where it lives at heights of 2000 feet above the sea. It is not unlike
a dormouse, and is reddish brown above and almost white below, with a long,
bushy, squirrel-like tail. The length of the head and body is about 4i inches, and
that of the tail about 5 inches. It lives exclusively in high trees, gnawing small
holes into the stems and branches, and lining the holes with moss and leaves.
According to native reports, this mouse eats pepper-pods, damages jack -fruit, and
drinks palm-juice.
Three species of the hare family occur within the Indian area.
Hares
Of these the red-tailed hare (Lepus ruficaudatus), which has a length
of from 18 to 20 inches to the root of the tail, is reddish brown above, with some
black on the back and face, the chest and legs being rufous, the upper side of the
tail reddish brown, and the chin, throat, and lower-parts white. It inhabits the
north of India, except Rajputana, Sind, and the south-western Punjab, and ranges
from the foot of the Himalaya to the Godaveri, or farther south, while it occurs
as far as Assam in the east, and north-western Hazara in the west. A second
species, the black-naped hare (L. nigricollis), is found to the south of the Godaveri
and in Ceylon. It is chiefly a hill-species, and is common on the Nilgiris and in
Newera Ellia. Like the red-tailed hare, it seeks refuge in holes of the ground or
in trees when in danger, and has apparently only one or two young which, in the
Nilgiris, are born between October and February. It may be easily recognised by
the large black patch on the back of neck; and has been introduced into
Mauritius.
The spiny hare (Cajirolagus hispidus) represents another genus, of which
one of the species (0. furnessi) inhabits the Liu-Kiu Islands, while an allied type
{Nesolagus netscheri) occurs in Sumatra. It has short ears, small eyes, and coarse
bristly fur. In colour it is black and brownish white above, and paler brownish
white below. This hare, which inhabits the foot of the Himalaya from Gorakhpur
to Upper Assam, is remarkable for making burrows like a rabbit, although, like
the true hares, it does not collect in colonies.
Of the porcupines the common Indian species (Hystrix leucura)
Porcupines. rangeg from Kashmir to Ceylon, and from the Bay of Bengal to the
Black Sea. In length it measures to the root of the tail from 28 to 30 inches, the
tail beino- some 3 or 4 inches long. In colour it is blackish brown, with the tips of
the spines on the cheeks, and on a collar on the throat, the terminal halves of those
on the back, and the whole length of those on the tail, white.
During the day this porcupine remains in clefts among rocks, or in burrows
which it digs on the slopes of hills, the banks of rivers, or somewhat similar places.
Although it sometimes ventures out before sunset and does not return till after
sunrise, it is practically nocturnal, and therefore very seldom seen. Nevertheless
it is one of the most common of Indian mammals. It feeds principally on roots,
but does great damage to cultivated fields by destroying root-crops of all kinds, as
well as fruits. The Himalayan porcupine (H. hodgsoni) differs from the last by the
absence of a crest and by its dark brown coloration. Inhabiting the lower slopes of
the Himalaya in Nepal and Sikhim up to a height of 5000 feet, and also found in
i26 THE INDIAN FAUNA
Assam, it lives in burrows made by itself, and resembles in its habits the common
Indian species. A third kind, the Bengal porcupine (H. bengalensis), is found in
lower Bengal, Sikhim, Assam, and Arakan, and probably throughout Burma.
Among the numerous Indian beasts-of-prey the first place is
Tiger. ......
undoubtedly held by the tiger (Felis tigris), which inhabits the whole
of India, Burma, and the rest of south-eastern Asia, including Java and Sumatra,
although unknown in Ceylon and Borneo. Its habitat likewise includes a very
large portion of China and an extensive area in central and western Asia. It is
found, for instance, in the district around Lob Nor, in the Altai, the Amur valley,
around Lake Aral on the southern shores of the Caspian, and in the Caucasus, but
is quite unknown in Tibet, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and those districts of Persia
which lie south of the Elburz Mountains.
Formerly the tiger was an inhabitant of almost every Indian forest and jungle,
but in the last thirty or forty years its numbers have been greatly reduced, and in
some districts it is now very rare, and in others, such as many parts of Bengal and
near Bombay, exterminated. It is still abundant in the forests at the foot of the
Himalaya, in the western Punjab and upper Sind it is rare, and from lower Sind
and Kach it has disappeared. The Javan tiger (F. tigris sondaica) forms a race
different from the Indian, and the long-haired Manchurian tiger (F. tigris
mongolica), as well as the Persian tiger (F. tigris virgata), are likewise distinct
races. In size the tiger is quite equal to the lion, its length varying from 102
to 114 inches, inclusive of the tail, which measures about 36 inches. Much larger
tigers are, however, occasionally met with, a few of these being over 10 feet long
from nose to tail-end. The average weight of a male tiger is from 390 to 420 lbs. ;
that of a large tigress is about 265 lbs.
© ©
The general appearance of the tiger is well known. It is one of the cats with
round pupils to the eyes ; the full-grown males have a fairly well-developed ruff
beginning behind the ears and extending round the sides of the neck. The fur is
short and close, but varies in length, thickness, and colour according to season and
country. The tail, which tapers towards the end, has no terminal tuft like that of
the lion. Of all the cross-striped cats the tiger is the most distinctly marked. Its
head and body are barred with broad vertical black st? Ipes and there are black
rings round the tail ; the ground-colour of the back and sides varies from pale rufous
to dark brownish yellow, but the lower-parts are always white. Tigers inhabiting
the forests of the north are darker and redder than those of the more open jungles
of central and southern India. The cubs, which are born striped, are always
lighter in colour than their parents. Like leopards and other cats, tigers are some-
times black and occasionally white.
Tigers pair for life, and breed at any season of the year. About fourteen or
fifteen weeks after pairing there are born from two to five or even six cubs, which
the tigress is said to hide from the tiger, although in rare cases male tigers have
been seen in the company of females and cubs. The latter remain with their
mother until they have reached a fair size, and when several tigers are found
together, it is generally a family party. The cubs are fully grown when they are
three years old, and as even full-grown tigers are accompanied at times by their
mother, it is thought that in the wild state tigresses have a litter every three
TIGER I2?
years ; but this does not hold good in the case of those in captivity, which some-
times breed twice a year.
Tigers rest during the day and begin their search for prey in the evening,
often extending their wanderings for miles, and using by preference well-trodden
paths or sandy river-beds. The break of day does not always induce them to retire,
and sometimes they continue their prowl till eight or nine o'clock in the morning,
the course of their wanderings being indicated by the shrieks of monkeys and pea-
fowl, the warning calls of crows and smaller birds, and the roaring of deer. These
particular danger-signals do not, however, always denote the approach of a tiger, as
they are uttered at the approach of a leopard or smaller cat, or bear, dog, or even man.
After the night's wanderings tigers usually repair, especially during the hot
season, to some shady spot near water beneath a high bush or tree, or to a lair
among high grass, or a low thicket of reeds, tamarisks, or other plants growing
along a river-bed. In some districts they will lie down on a shelving shore, or in
rocky countries in a cave, although they prefer the depths of a forest. With more
persistency than other wild animals tigers keep to certain localities, though there
may be others just as suitable close by. Some spot in the high grass on the bank
of a river, some particular ravine, is chosen again and again, year after year, and
when the occupant of such a spot is killed it is soon succeeded by another. In the
hot season from March to June, when vegetation is dried up and water scarce
everywhere, the hunting grounds of tigers are confined to small limits. Tigers are
much more silent animals than lions. In districts inhabited by lions there is
hardly an evening on which the air does not ring with their roars, but even in
localities where tigers abound they are seldom heard. The roar resembles that of
the lion, consisting of a long terrific growl, repeated several times, growing
gradually louder and quicker, and ending with the last notes repeated three or four
times. A startled tiger utters a peculiar "woof," and one preparing to charge
emits the well-known hiss. When hit by a bullet, the male generally roars, but
the tigress remains silent, and more than once tigresses when mortally wounded
have died without uttering a sound. The tiger, like the lion, does not spend any
part of its time in trees, seldom even ascending them, and being incapable of
climbing vertical stems, whether thick or thin. It has been stated that tigers have
pulled men down from trees 8 or 12 feet high, but in these cases they must have
been assisted by some peculiarity in the tree, such as a much inclined stem of a
forking branch. Generally tigers take little notice of a man in a tree who keeps
quiet, even if he be only a few feet above the ground ; and it is a mistake to
suppose that they are good jumpers, as their hind legs seldom leave the ground,
unless when clearing an obstacle. They can, however, spring to a moderate height,
and they share with other cats the habit of scratching tree-stems to smooth the tips
and edges of their claws when these have grown uneven. They generally choose
some particular tree for this purpose on which the marks of their claws are seen
up to the height of 10 or 12 feet.
Moat tigers prey upon deer, but almost all of them kill cattle now and then.
They also prey upon wild boars, antelope, and porcupines, the spines of the latter
being often found in tiger-skins. Peacocks and monkeys are more frequently
caught by the leopard, but the tiger occasionally pursues and eats bears.
r28 THE INDIAN FAUNA
Gaur-calves fall easy victims, but the mastering of a full-grown bull gaur is
more than most tigers are able to manage. Sometimes hungry tigers will be con-
tented with food not much to their taste, such as frogs; and during floods in
Bengal they have been seen to devour fish, tortoises, crocodiles, and large lizards ;
and there is a case on record of a tiger being killed in whose stomach was found
nothing but locusts.
The number of domesticated animals killed every year by tigers is very con-
siderable, and many tigers seem to live exclusively on such food. By long ex-
perience the tiger has grown more and more cunning, and less afraid of man.
Tigresses with their cubs often take up their quarters in the neighbourhood of a
village, and prey on the herds ; and, in fact, they always show a great predilection
for beef. Sheep and goats are less frequently attacked, but pigs, horses, and camels
are never safe from their voracity.
The manner in which tigers kill their prey has been often discussed. It
has been supposed that they leap on their victims from a distance, and kill them
with their paws, or tear their throats and suck the blood ; but this is not the
case so far as cattle are concerned. It may be that tigers kill small animals by
striking them with the fore-paw, but domesticated animals killed by tigers are
generally found with their necks broken, and the arteries of the neck untouched,
although the neck and breast bear numerous wounds made by the claws. Con-
sequently it would seem that tigers do not spring on their prey, and native
herdsmen confirm this opinion. According to their accounts, a tiger clasps the fore-
quarters of its victim, puts one of its paws on the shoulder, then clutches the throat
and turns its neck backwards, leaping to one side at the same time so as to throw
down its victim and twist or break its neck. Perhaps tigers do not always trouble
to break the necks of small animals, and when they attack larger victims, such
as buffalo, which they are unable to throw on their backs, they apparently ham-
string them.
Very probably tigers take advantage of the sudden fright, to which their
appearance gives rise, to rush on their victims ; and they generally crawl stealthily
as close up as possible before the final rush, though they have occasionally been
observed to gallop up to their prey. When a tiger brings down an animal
during the day, it sometimes carries the carcase a little way off, but generally
leaves it untouched till the evening in order to return after sunset and carry it to a
quieter place before making a meal. The manner in which a tiger will drag the
carcases of cattle and buffalo across uneven ground, through dense bushes, and up
steep slopes, shows its enormous muscular strength. Sometimes it will lift the
carcase clear of the ground, and in one instance a tiger carried a bull weighing some
450 lbs. for a distance of about 300 paces.
When disturbed by jackals or vultures, tigers drive them away, but frequent
interruption usually makes them hide their prey under bushes and leaves, and
retire to a thicket near water. If a tiger is very hungry it will eat both hind-
quarters of a large animal in a night, and when undisturbed, remains with the carcase
for three days, eating from time to time. Although a cow may perhaps be sufficient
to feed it for five days, a tiger begins to look out for other prey before the end of
that time. Young tigers, which are much more destructive than old animals, may
TIGER — LION— LEOPARD 1 2 9
perhaps kill from mere bloodthirstiness ; and when one of these attacks a herd, it
generally kills several head. Tigresses with young are perhaps the most destructive
of all, possibly for the purpose of teaching their young how to kill prey.
A tiger fired at or wounded when returning to its prey, never repeats its visit,
but goes in search of another victim. An animal which returns to its prey several
times, and takes several days to devour it, may be expected to eat carrion as well.
This is the case with the tiger, which, although it generally hunts living animals,
is often satisfied with the carcases of deer and cattle which have died of wounds or
of some disease, and it is even said to eat the dead bodies of its own kind.
The ordinary tiger, which feeds on venison or cattle, is the greatest coward in
the presence of man, and is often driven away by the animals it attacks. Bears
are certainly more to be dreaded than tigers, and, with the exception of man-eaters
and those that have been wounded, the most dangerous tigers are females with cubs,
or sometimes hungry individuals when about to eat their prey.
Tigers become man-eaters when they are fat, heavy, and old, or have become
crippled from a wound, or are tigresses with cubs, where deer are scarce ; and it is
significant that man-eaters are generally found in districts which are visited by
herds of cattle only for part of the year. Once a tiger has conquered its innate fear
of men it will continue to attack them, although it seldom confines itself to human
prey only. Man-eaters generally become more cunning than other tigers, and it is
such animals that give rise to the stories which make out the tiger to be the most
formidable of all wild beasts. The most remarkable of these stories is one common
all over India, namely, that the spirits of men killed by a tiger are its servants
afterwards, sitting on its head and not only warning it of danger but helping it to
destroy other human beings. Considering these superstitions, it is not surprising
that tigers themselves, or images representing them, are objects of worship among
many Indian tribes, that in former times oaths were sworn on a tiger-skin in
Indian tribunals, and that various parts of the body, as, for instance, the front
teeth, claws, and whiskers, are kept as amulets and charms.
A tiger may reach a considerable age ; one was known to visit a certain group
of villages for twenty years, and, beyond growing a little lighter in colour, showed no
sign of old age when killed. The limits of a tiger's life have not, however, been
ascertained, except in the case of captive specimens which afford no certainty as
to what obtains in the wild state.
Tiger-cubs are sometimes born in captivity, but the species does not breed in this
condition so readily as the lion, whose cubs, moreover, are much more easily reared.
The second large cat of the Old World, the lion (F. leo), is now
exterminated in India except in the Gir Forest of the Kathiawar
district of Gujarat, where it is now exceedingly rare, and is protected by Govern-
ment. As it is now almost entirely an African animal, it may be more appropriately
dealt with among the fauna of the southern continent ; and it is therefore only
necessary to add that the Indian lion constitutes a local race (F. leo gujratensis),
characterised by the poor development of the mane.
The leopard (F. pardus) comes third on the list of Indian cats,
8°Par ' and next in size to the tiger. Great difference in the size of leopards
is noticeable, but speaking generally, it may be said that the length, measured from
vol. 11. — q
i3o THE INDIAN FAUNA
the nose to the tip of the tail, varies between 5 and 8 feet. The average height
at the shoulder is about 24 inches, and the tail varies between three-quarters and
half the length of the body.
On the head and upper part of the body the fur is generally close and short,
but below it is longer. The length of the fur varies with the climate ; in the
colder parts of the leopard's habitat, for instance, it is longer than elsewhere.
The general colouring of the upper-parts varies between reddish yellow and
yellowish white, or pale brownish yellow, being sometimes darker and sometimes
lighter; the lower-parts are usually white. The whole body is marked with
circles or rosettes of unequal size. On the back these spots generally form black,
irregular rings, which surround lighter or darker spots of the ground-colour, while
the spots on the head, the lower ends of the extremities, and the sides are brownish,
solid, and smaller. The greater part of the tail is also spotted, but the spots near
the end are larger and fewer. Young leopards are brownish, and their marking
is less distinct. The coloration varies from that of the ordinary character through
all the intermediate shades up to that of the black phase, which was formerly
regarded as a separate species, although it is not even a distinct race. It is just
analogous to a black domesticated cat, the parents being often of the ordinary
colour, while black and spotted cubs may be met with in the same litter. In black
leopards the rings and spots are distinctly visible in certain lights.
There are several distinct local races of the leopard, and even in India there
are two forms distinguished by their size, the larger of these being the typical
representative of the species. In Persia, and perhaps Kashmir, occurs a race
(F. pardus panthera) somewhat approaching the snow-leopard in the bushiness
of its tail and longer hair. The Manchurian leopard (F. pardus fontanieri) is
perhaps the most distinct of all. But African leopards are also distinguishable in
colour from the Indian animal, and form several distinct races. Even in India
leopards vary considerably in colour, according as to whether they inhabit dark
and damp forests or deserts, so that sub-races may perhaps be recognised. This,
however, is not a subject which need be 4 arther discussed here ; the main point
to bear in mind is that all these varieties form but a single species. The leopard
is thus an inhabitant of the whole of Asia, from the Caucasus to Amurland, and it
is likewise found almost throughout Africa, so that it is one of the most widely
distributed of all large animals.
In habits this cat differs very markedly from both the tiger and the lion, being
much more agile, and capable of climbing vertical and smooth stems with the
quickness of a monkey. It can also jump a considerable distance from the ground ;
and although it likes wetting its feet as little as the domesticated cat, and often
inhabits mountainous country without water, it swims when necessary without
hesitation and just as well as the tiger.
The favourite haunts of the Indian leopard are rocky mountains covered with
dense forests, where it hides in caves, or among projecting ledges, in order to survey
the surrounding country at sunset. Its usual tactics are to cut off, with surprising
quickness and stealthiness, any animal grazing apart from the herd of its
companions. Wherever it may live, it knows how to hide in an almost
miraculous way, owing to its spotted fur blending so well with the background.
a
<
O
Ed
LEOPARD I3I
Large leopards will often kill cattle, ponies, asses, and the larger deer, but
smaller individuals are contented with smaller prey. Leopards are not particular
in the choice of their food ; mammals, birds, and reptiles, which are not too large
to be killed, or too small to be caught, are welcome prey, and they will leap on a
cow or pounce on a sparrow. If they have any preference, it would seem to be
for jackals and dogs, especially the latter. The Indian leopard is also a terrible foe
to monkeys, killing many in the rocky hills among which it lives. Leopards seem
to kill their prey in a manner different from that of tigers, for they tear open
the throat or keep the necks of their victims between their jaws until broken, or
the animals are strangled. They never begin, like tigers, on the hind-quarters of
their prey, but always attack the under-parts first, and eat the intestines. After a
meal they retire to a hiding-place near by, to return to the carcase next day. Like
tigers, they carry away their prey and hide what they cannot eat, often among the
branches of trees.
At night leopards often venture over the roofs of huts to the penned goats
and calves of the natives, carrying them away with great boldness and quickness.
They slink round human habitations for the purpose of stealing cattle, ponies,
asses, sheep, and goats, and thus often come in contact with the villagers. They
fear man much less than do tigers, at least when not hunting for prey, and although
less powerful, are in many respects much more dangerous than the latter, as they
attack their adversaries with more courage and persistency, and when driven to
bay defend themselves with the greatest fury. Some leopards become man-eaters,
and one is said to have killed two hundred persons within the two years before it
was shot.
Leopards are even more silent than tigers, and if undisturbed seldom utter a
sound. When surprised, or compelled to defend themselves, they hiss and growl
exactly like tigers. The cry, however, is different, consisting of a peculiar half -grunt
and half-cough, three or four times repeated, which resembles in its regularity the
noise of a saw.
Leopards are generally found alone, except during the pairing-season. About
the same time after this, as in the case of the tigress, the female gives birth to from
two to four cubs, which in India are born in February or March, and seem, like
young tigers, to take three years to grow up. As leopards have an extremely bad
character, they are much hunted, especially by the natives of India. But in spite
of their greater abundance they are shot much less frequently than tigers ; the
cleverness with which they hide, the quickness of their movements, and the
colouring of their fur, rendering them very difficult of detection. Moreover, they
often look up into trees, and thus detect the waiting sportsman, who is perchance
thinking that his quarry will never appear, while it is all the time watching
him from a short distance, and eventually slinks off without Ins being aware of
its presence.
In leopard-shooting, a young goat, calf, or dog is generally tied up near a tree,
on which the sportsman is sitting. From time to time a string tied to the live
bait is pulled, to keep the animal awake and make it move or cry out. As the
leopard is more likely to appear at night, a light is sometimes placed in an earthen
pot, so that it may shine on the animal tied to the tree, and the ground strewn with
1 32 THE INDIAN FAUNA
flour or chopped straw to make the colour of the leopard show up better. These
methods are, however, a little unsportsman-like. Leopards are much oftener
caught in traps than tigers, and many are killed by means of cage-traps, in each
of which a live animal is placed in a separate compartment so arranged as to open
and leave it free to escape as another door closes behind on the leopard.
One of the most remarkable of the Indian cats, on account of its
haunts and habits, is the fishing-cat (F. viverrina), which is of civet-
like slenderness of shape, and has a length of from 30 to 32 inches, exclusive of the
tail, which measures from 9 to 12 inches. In colour it is earthy brownish grey, rather
lighter below, marked all over with black or dark brown, oblong spots, arranged in
more or less distinct rows. It inhabits swampy jungle near the banks of rivers,
creeks, and bays, and is distinguished from most other cats by eating fish, fresh-
water molluscs, and snakes. It probably, however, also consumes the flesh of
birds and mammals, as cases have been known in which it has killed calves,
sheep, and dogs, and even carried off infants from the huts of their parents.
The fishing-cat is found in Bengal, in the valley of the Indus, on the Malabar
coast, and in Ceylon. At the foot of the Himalaya it ranges as far as Nepal to
the west ; eastwards it inhabits Burma, Tenasserim, and southern China. It does
not apparently exist in the Malay Isles but is said to occur in Formosa.
The prettily marked leopard-cat (F. bengalensis), which has its
home in the forest, where it lives on birds and small mammals, is of
a reddish, or light grey colour, with white lower-parts. It is marked all over with
more or less oblong black or brownish spots, arranged in rows along the body ; the
head being striped, and the tail ringed. Its length is from 24 to 26 inches,
exclusive of the tail, which makes it half as long again. It lives in the holes of
trees, stealing domesticated fowls, and preying on birds generally. The leopard-cat,
in many varieties, is found all over India from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin ; but
is absent from Ceylon, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula, although present in the
Malay Archipelago, the Philippines, Formosa, and China up to Amurland.
Rusty-Spotted The small rusty-spotted cat (F. rubiginosa) inhabits grass-grown,
cat. dried-up tanks in southern India and Ceylon, but is rare in the
northern parts of central India. It sometimes chooses drains in fields adjoining
villages for its residence, and apparently never lives in the jungles. It is some
27 inches long, including the tail. In colour it is reddish grey or rusty red, with
the lower-parts white, and the head and neck marked with rusty coloured or dark
brown stripes, and the body with oblong spots of the same colour arranged in rows.
The desert-cat (F. ornata) is an inhabitant of sandy plains and
hills m the dry north-western districts of India, where it probably
lives principally on gerbils. In size it is about the same as a domesticated cat, and
is of a light sandy colour, marked with numerous small spots, arranged in more or
less distinct longitudinal rows. This cat, which is remarkable for not leading an
exclusively nocturnal life, is said to interbreed with domesticated cats to such an
extent that most of the latter in the districts it inhabits are similarly coloured.
The waved cat (F. torquata) is widely spread over northern
India, although nowhere common. It has been found in Kashmir,
Nepal, Rajputana, and elsewhere, and is noteworthy as being possibly the ancestor
JUNGLE-CAT AND CARACAL — HUNTLNG-LEOPARD 133
of the Indian domesticated cats, although, on the other hand, it may quite likely
itself be the descendant of domesticated cats which ran wild. The tail is a little
more than half the length of the head and body, and like that of domesticated
cats tapers towards the end. In colour it is brownish, or ashy grey, marked on
the sides with dark cross-stripes or rows of spots, the head and back showing
indistinct stripes.
Jungle-Cat and The jungle-cat (F. chaus) is a species connecting the more
caracal. typical cats with the lynxes, and has a very wide geographical
distribution, ranging from northern Africa and the Caucasus through western Asia
to India, Ceylon, and Burma. As it is not a distinctive Indian animal, it need not
be fully described in this place. The same remark applies to the caracal
(F. caracal), which is essentially a lynx of a uniform red colour, but retains the
long tail of the more typical cats. It is common to India and Africa ; and was at
one time very generally kept by the native princes in most parts of India fox-
hunting purposes.
The range of the hunting-leopard {Cyn&lurus jubatus) extends
over Africa, and thence through south-western Asia to Persia, the
countries round the Caspian, and India. It is as yet unknown how far south the
hunting-leopard (which is absent from the Malabar coast and Ceylon as well as
from the north of the Ganges) is found in India, but its range there is probably
much the same as that of the blackbuck. Although, as above mentioned, common
to India and Africa, the chita, as this species is called by the natives, is fully
noticed here on account of its extensive employment in hunting in the former
country.
The hunting-leopard is about the size of a leopard, but stands higher on its
legs, and is more slender in build. The pupils of the eyes are x-ound, the ears
short and round, the fur coarse, rather longer on the neck than elsewhere, and
moderately long and somewhat shaggy on the under-parts. The ground-colour,
which varies between pale brownish yellow and vivid reddish yellow, is lighter
below than on the sides and the back, and is marked nearly all over with small
solid round spots, not arranged in rosettes. The chin and throat are whitish, and
without spots, and a black line runs from the eye to the upper lip, while a less
distinct one, which in many cases separates into spots, extends from the outer
corner of the eye to the ear, the latter being black outside and yellowish brown
round the edge. Like the body, the tail, which is more than half the length of
the body, is spotted down to the indistinctly ringed end. Young hunting-leopards
look grey, and appear to be unspotted, on account of their long hair, but show their
markings when shorn. The full-grown animal has a length of 42 inches, a tail-
length of 30 inches, and a shoulder-height of about 32 inches.
Hunting-leopards are employed for the chase, and regarded as essential to the
state of many Indian princes. They are usually caught when full-grown, and
their habits are consequently well known to the men who catch and train them.
The usual haunts of these animals are low, solitary hills overlooking plains inhabited
by blackbuck, which form their principal prey, although they also kill gazelles,
and no doubt deer and other mammals as well. Now and then they carry away
goats and sheep, but they rarely molest domesticated animals, and never, so far as
134
THE INDIAN FAUNA
known, attack man. When stalking their prey they slink along, taking advantage
of uneven ground, and every sort of cover to within 100 or 200 feet, when they
make a sudden rush. In this they display an absolutely marvellous speed for a
short distance, surpassing that of any other mammal, even a greyhound, for no dog
is able to overtake a running blackbuck or gazelle. The hunting-leopard has,
however, no difficulty in outrunning these animals, and one has been seen to over-
take in 400 strides a blackbuck 200 paces ahead.
After eating its fill the hunting-leopard generally spends two days resting
in its lair. The third day it repairs to a special tree, which forms a kind of
HUNTING-LEOPARD.
assembling place for these animals, where it sharpens its claws, the marks being
soon recognised by the trappers, who fix snares of dried antelope-sinews to poles
driven into the ground round the tree.
On one of these expeditions, which has been somewhat fully described, the
shikaris drove in a bullock-cart up to the tree, and fastened all round it, to a
distance of from 8 to 10 yards, the snares to the poles. Sending the cart away, one
of the shikaris and a European hid behind bushes and branches which had been
heaped up at a distance of 50 to 60 paces, in order to watch. At sunset four
hunting-leopards appeared, two large ones and two smaller ones. After stopping at a
distance of about 400 paces they came gradually closer, playing with each other all
CIVETS 135
the while. About 100 paces from the tree they stopped again, as if suspecting
danger. After awhile, however, they grew reassured and ran quickly to the tree.
Tha two larger were the first to be caught in the snares by their fore-legs. The
shikaris rushing up threw a blanket over their heads, and tied their legs together.
Meanwhile the ox-cart had come back, and the blankets were taken off and replaced
by a hood, one of the natives being seriously bitten while this was being done.
After the leopards had been tied to the carriage, and the snares all collected, the
party returned to camp.
Women and children remain all day with the newly captured animals, talking
all the time in order to accustom them to the human voice. Then the different
stages of the training begin, and in six months the leopards are generally tamed,
some of them being as obedient and docile as dogs. They are fond of being
caressed, are good-natured even with strangers, and like to rub themselves against
their friends, purring all the time like cats. They are never kept in cages, but
generally tied to a wall by a chain, and allowed to sleep on a native bedstead, or
charpoi.
When a hunting-leopard is taken into the field a hood is placed on its head to
prevent it from seeing, a line is tied to a leather belt round its neck or body, and
the animal is conveyed in a bullock-cart to a place where antelopes are likely to be
found. The latter allow the party to come fairly close, and when the shikaris think
they are near enough, the hunting-leopard is freed from its hood, and let loose.
According to the distance, the hunting-leopard either runs straight at the antelopes
or sneaks up near enough to be able to attack them successfully. When a buck is
with the herd, the hunting-leopard generally selects it for attack, probably because,
as a rule, it is behind the others ; and brings the antelope down by striking its legs.
Immediately it clutches the fallen animal by the throat, and holds it until the
shikaris come up. The latter then cut the antelope's throat and catch some of its
blood in a basin for the hunting-leopard, who licks it up greedily. While drink-
ing the blood, the hood is again drawn over its head, and it is taken on to other
game, as a good chita will sometimes catch as many as four bucks in a morning.
Passing- on to the civet tribe, we find the true civets represented
Civets
by the Indian civet ( Viverra zibetha), which ranges from Bengal east-
wards into China and Hainan and southwards into Siam. This animal may be
recognised by its small round ears, long thick tail, which is thin at the end and
measures more than half the length of the body, and the crest of long bristly hair
running down the middle line of the back. In colour it is yellowish or brownish
grey, profusely striped and spotted with black, the crest being black and the tail
ringed with black. The lower part of the legs and the feet are dark brown or black ;
the head is grey, the chin brown, and the forehead as well as the sides of the neck
and upper part of the chest are white; on the throat is a broad black band
generally edged with white, and the neck has another dark band beginning behind
the ear.
This civet, which has a length of about 40 inches including the tail, usually
lives alone, hiding during the day in woods or high grass, and appearing in the
open only after sunset. It feeds on small mammals, birds, snakes, frogs, insects,
eggs, fruits, and roots. The civet used in perfumery is taken from this and other
136
THE INDIAN FAUNA
species of civet-cat, and is collected when they are closely confined in cages, either
by being scooped out of the scent-gland with a spoon or scraped from the walls
of the cage. The scent is always recognisable, but most so when the animal is
irritated, on which occasion it drops the odoriferous matter in lumps from the gland,
although as a rule this takes place only every two or three weeks.
On the Malabar coast, somewhat widely separated from the habitat of the
Indian civet, lives another species, the Malabar civet (V. civettina). A smaller
species is the rasse (V. malaccensis), distinguished by the absence of a crest, the
stronger and more curved claws, the short first toe of the fore-foot, the slender body,
and the more pointed nose. Its average size is 22 inches exclusive of the tapering
tail which measures 16 inches. In colour it varies from brownish grey to yellowish
.
INDIAN CIVET.
brown, and it is striped and spotted with black or dark brown on the back and
sides.
In many cases these stripes and spots are indistinct or absent. There is a grey
spot in front of the eye and another behind the ear ; the head is grey or brownish
grey and the chin usually brown. The feet are brown or black and the tail, which
is 16 inches long, is marked with alternate black and white rings. Including the
tail, the rasse averages 38 inches in length. It is often referred to a distinct
genus, Viverricula.
The range of this civet includes all India with the exception of the north-west,
south-western Asia, Ceylon, Java, Socotra, the Comoro Islands, and Madagascar.
As it is the only civet common to Asia and Madagascar, it may have been intro-
duced into the island by man, as it is frequently tamed and kept in cages by the
Malays. It lives in holes in the ground or among rocks and dense bushes, but
PALM-CIVETS ,37
although, unlike other civets, it is a good climber and quite at home amongst trees,
it does not apparently choose the forest for a residence. Sometimes it settles close
to human habitations, occasionally seeking shelter in drain-pipes and out-houses.
When wild, the rasse, which is kept in captivity for the sake of its civet,
feeds on small vertebrates as well as molluscs and, to some extent, on
fruits and roots. It generally seeks its prey by night, although occasionally
by day, and always alone; it often robs fowl-houses, and is therefore cordially
hated by the Chinese, who are great poultry - keepers. They take their
revenge, however, not only by eating its flesh, but by wearing its fur, which
is much appreciated in China, where it is worn by people who cannot afford more
expensive kinds.
Palm-civets ^e Palm'civets differ from the true civets by the absence of a
crest, the small sharp retractile claws, the vertical pupil of the eye,
the long tail, and especially by the feet having the soles bare.
The Indian palm-civet (Paradoxurus niger) lives wherever there are
trees from the foot of the Himalaya to Ceylon, in the remotest forest as well as
in the neighbourhood of human habitations. It is unknown in the Punjab and
Sind, and is rare in the treeless districts of the north-west as well as in the Deccan,
but is common in upper Bengal and on the western and southern coasts. The head
and body measure about 22^ inches and the tail 19 h inches ; but females are some-
what smaller. The slender tail tapers but slightly, and is closely covered with
hair, while the body is clothed with a coat of coarse blackish or brownish grey
hair, which is long and shaggy on the back, and has little or no under-fur.
Although the back is not striped, in young animals there may sometimes be indistinct
stripes or rows of spots in this region. The feet, the greater part of the legs, and the
terminal half of the tail are black, although the tip of the latter is sometimes
white, and there may be a few spots on the body. The face is generally more
or less black, with a distinct white or grey spot below each eye, frequently a
second on each side of the nose, and often a third above the eyes. The coloration
varies, however, according to locality, the race inhabiting southern India and
Ceylon being, as a rule, blacker than those from other districts. The common
palm-civet is well known in most parts of India, although on account of its nocturnal
habits it is seldom seen in the daytime. It generally spends the day on trees,
coiled up either in the branches or in a hole in the trunk. It takes its name of
palm-civet from being so often found on cocoa-nut palms, but it also frequents
mango-plantations, and often takes up its abode under thatched roofs, or in sheds
and water-pipes.
Its food consists partly of small mammals and reptiles, and partly of birds,
eggs, insects, fruit, and other vegetable substances. Occasionally these animals
destroy domesticated fowls, while they also rob vegetable gardens, and display a
predilection for palm -juice, or toddy, from which they derive their title of toddy-
cats.
The palm-civet of Ceylon (P. aureus), which is restricted to the island from
which it takes its name, is pale rusty-red, or chestnut-brown in colour ; another
species (P. jerdoni) inhabits the Palnai Mountains in Madura, the Nilgiris, and
probably all the higher ranges of Cochin and Travancore.
138 THE INDIAN FAUNA
India abounds in species of mongoose, the most abundant being
the Indian mongoose (Herpestes mungo), a shaggy greyish animal
some 18 inches long, speckled with white or pale grey, and occasionally rufous on
the head and legs. It is represented by several varieties in different parts of its
range, which extends from Baluchistan, the Himalaya, and Assam down to Ceylon.
This mongoose lives among thickets, in plantations and cultivated fields, along the
banks of rivers, or on rugged ground covered with bushes, but not as a rule in
dense forest. Often found near human habitations, it digs its own burrows in the
ground, lives in pairs, and has three or four young in the spring. It feeds princi-
pally on small rodents, snakes, lizards, birds and their eggs, and insects, but at
times also on fruit. It is often domesticated and is well known for its success in
catching rats and killing snakes.
The stripe-necked mongoose (H. viticollis), which inhabits the western coast
from Bombay to Cape Comorin, and also Ceylon, is the largest Indian species,
being about 21 inches long without the tail.
The ruddy mongoose {H. smithi) is found all over India with the exception of
north-western Bengal. It is about 20 inches long, its tail measuring 19 inches ;
like the preceding species it has a black tip to the tail, but there is no black
stripe down the neck.
The Nilgiri mongoose (H. fuscus) has no black tip to the tail, is blackish
brown in colour, and 18 inches long. It inhabits the Nilgiris and the hills of
Travancore, but not Ceylon, where it is represented by the Sinhalese mongoose
(H. fulvescens), which is yellowish in colour, with a yellow tip to the tail, and
measures just over 16 inches in length.
The hysenas are represented in India by the striped species
Striped Hyaena. . , - . , . . . .
(Hyama striata), but since that animal receives notice in another
chapter the bare mention of its name will suffice in this place.
m , Among the members of the dog tribe, the European wolf (Canis
Wolves. & . . „ .
lupus) just enters the area forming the proper subject of the present
chapter, but is elsewhere replaced by the Indian wolf (G pallipes). India from the
Himalaya to the south, especially the open plain country, forms the principal habitat
of this animal, which is rare in hilly and wooded parts, and is apparently not
present on the Malabar coast. It occurs on the right bank of the Indus, but on
the left is replaced by the European wolf, which is widely distributed over Asia,
though not found east of the Bay of Bengal.
The Indian species is unknown in Ceylon, but reappears in the south of Arabia.
In some respects it approaches a jackal, being smaller than the European wolf,
without woolly under-fur, and with the hair generally shorter. The prevailing
colour is pale fulvous, usually mixed with brown, and, especially on the back, with
a good deal of black. Some individuals are reddish, and others rusty red all
over. In length it measures about 36 inches exclusive of the tail, which is
about 17 inches long. In habits this species much resembles the European
wolf, but, although social, does not form large packs; it is also a silent animal,
which only now and then barks like a pariah dog, and seldom or hardly ever
howls. It feeds on such warm-blooded animals as it is able to overpower,
but especially on goats, sheep, and antelopes, and when in twos and threes
WOLVES — WILD DOG i39
occasionally attacks man, while it yearly carries off a number of children from
the native villages.
Like its relatives, the Indian wolf is decidedly clever, and many of the
stories told about its cunning are based on fact. Sometimes part of a pack
will drive blackbucks or gazelles over some selected place, where the other
members of the pack lie in wait hidden in ravines or in their own holes. An eye-
witness describes a wolf lying on its back, and stretching its legs into the air in
order to excite the curiosity of a herd of antelope. By accident the antelope were
disturbed, and then two other wolves suddenly jumped out from where they had
been hiding. When attacking a flock of sheep, wolves are said to divide in a
similar way, one half keeping the dogs at bay, while the rest carry off the sheep.
In this instance it may however be that one half of the wolves are occupied by the
dogs defending the flock, while the others raid the sheep without the need of a
mutual understanding between the two parties as to their respective duties. The
following story is said to be well authenticated. Near a village in central India
lived an old she-wolf and a full-grown young male, which used to frequent a
certain spot situated on the slope of a hill from where the main road, always
crowded with children, descended the hill. The young wolf would hide in bushes
between the village and the foot of the hill, while the older animal ascended the
hill, waited for a favourable opportunity, and then rushed down and seized a child
in the road. This happened many times. At first the inhabitants of the village
pursued the wolf, and sometimes succeeded in making it drop its prey, but in such
cases the other wolf managed, during the general confusion, to carry off' another
child, while the one first taken was so much hurt that it did not recover. In this
case, as in many others, superstition prevented the inhabitants of the village from
killing the two wolves, and an Englishman who succeeded in ridding them of the
pests had the greatest difficulty in finding people to assist him in the task. The
chief reason which prevents the natives from killing a wolf in many parts of India
is that its blood shed on a field is supposed to make it barren. It is therefore
not astonishing that, in spite of pursuit by the natives, wolves are often seen
carrying off young goats from villages in broad daylight.
The Indian wolf brings forth three to eight young in one of the last three
months of the year, generally in December, in holes in the ground, or in caves
among rocks. The young are born blind, with pendent ears. They are easily
tamed, when they behave like domesticated dogs ; and it is possible that the pariah
dogs of India are partly descended from the present species, which appears to some-
times breed with village-dogs. It is probable that the Indian wolf is the ancestor
of some of the European breeds of domesticated dogs.
The Indian jackal is the widely spread Canis aureus, of which mention is
made in another chapter.
The Indian wild dog (G. sumatrensis deccanensis), which is a
local form of a Malay species, occurs in all the larger forests of India
but not in Ceylon. It also inhabits Gilgit, Ladak, and parts of the valley of the
upper Indus, as well as eastern Tibet and the forest zone of the Himalaya from
Kashmir to Assam. In form it more resembles a jackal than a wolf, owing to
its short legs. The hair, which in Tibet and the Himalaya has a close, woolly
-^
i4o THE INDIAN FAUNA
under-fur, is long ; and the tail, which is black, and in some cases whitish at the
tip, ends in a long-haired brush. The colour, which varies much, is generally rusty
red, but sometimes rusty grey, or even light greyish brown above, and lighter
below. In the Indian peninsula, this wild dog is a forest-animal, but in the valley
of the lower Indus and Tibet, where there are no forests, it lives in open country.
The total length is 45 inches including the tail of 8 inches, but excluding the long
brush at the end, which measures another 6| inches. Although it may sometimes
hunt at night, the Indian wild dog is mainly diurnal in its habits ; and like other
dogs feeds on carcases and sometimes on vegetable substances, one of these animals
in captivity having been in the habit of eating grass and leaves of different kinds,
not, as in the case with domesticated dogs, on account of being ill, but apparently
with full enjoyment.
The Indian wild dog hunts in packs, generally from six to twelve in number,
but sometimes as many as twenty. In India it preys on deer, antelopes, and
wild boars, but in Tibet seems to prefer wild sheep and ibex. As it avoids the
neighbourhood of man it seldom attacks domesticated animals, although it now and
then kills sheep, goats, and cattle, and in three instances these animals have been
known to bring down a tame buffalo. The wild dogs, or dholes, represent the sub-
genus, or genus, Cyon.
The Indian fox (Canis benqalensis), ranging from the foot of the
Indian Fox. . _. 1. . ,a /> & &
Himalaya to Cape Comorin, is common everywhere, except in the
forests. It is not known in Ceylon or Burma, nor is it found east of Assam or
west of Sind and the Punjab. In size it is small, measuring only about 20 inches
long, with a tail of about 14 inches. In colour it is reddish grey above (changing to
silvery grey or rusty red according to the season), speckled with white. The sides
are much greyer than the back ; the chin and throat are white ; and the lower-
parts pale reddish yellow or buff, becoming rufous towards the hind-legs. The
ears are grey outside, and white inside, and the tail is more or less reddish above,
with (unlike that of other Indian foxes) a black tip.
The Indian fox, which feeds chiefly on rats, land-crabs, grasshoppers, and
beetles, has been observed to catch quails, and often kills young birds and steals
eggs. It is apparently fond of lizards, and habitually eats fruits as well as the
buds and sprigs of certain plants. Usually it digs its burrow in treeless plains,
sometimes under a thorn bush. In parts exposed to floods during the rainy season
it chooses sloping banks near water or other elevated ground. Each burrow has
several apertures, some ending in the ground, others leading to a chamber two or
three feet down.
Himalayan Of the bears, the Kashmir race of the brown bear ( Ursus arctus
Black Bear, isabellinus) inhabits parts of the Himalaya but not the true Indian
area. On the other hand, the Himalayan black bear (U. torquatus) must be
regarded as an Indian animal. This bear is spread over the whole wooded
zone of the Himalaya, ranging from Afghanistan and Baluchistan, the Khirthar
Mountains, and the border of Sind, as far west as the Persian boundary, and eastward
to the mountains of Assam, and south (although rarely) as far as the Mergui
Islands. It also occurs in Sze-chuan, southern China, Hainan, and Formosa. This
baar is specially characterised by the white gorget or collar on the chest. The
HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR — SLOTH-BEAR 141
chin is white, the upper lip whitish, and the nose and occasionally the paws
are reddish brown. The average length is about 5 feet, exclusive of the tail,
which measures 4 inches. Full-grown males, which are usually larger than the
females, have an average weight of 300 lbs. Unlike the sloth-bear, this species has
a smooth coat with hair of moderate length. There is no under-fur, but in winter
the greater length of the hair on the shoulders makes the animal look humpbacked.
The claws are short and strong, and the ears rather large and long-haired.
In the Himalaya, but not in Baluchistan, this bear is a forest-animal, and is
found in the mountains in summer up to a height of 12,000 feet, but in winter
rarely above 5000 feet. It is often seen near villages, devouring fruit in the
orchards and corn in the fields. Its food in winter consists principally of acorns
and chestnuts, but at other times of fruit and roots. This species is, however, not
so fond of roots as is the brown bear of the Himalaya, although it often climbs
trees in search of fruit, generally during the night or early morning. Like other
bears it is fond of honey, and yet in spite of all this it is the most carnivorous of
all Indian bears, killing sheep, goats, ponies, and cattle, and at times feeding on
carcases.
All reports agree in considering the black bear a more dangerous animal
than the brown species, and sin^e it lives in the neighbourhood of villages it
oftener comes in contact with man. It is said to see and hear better than the
brown bear, while its sense of smell is reported to be singularly keen by some
observers and mediocre by others. In walking and running it is a thorough bear,
having the fast shambling trot of its kindred ; and, like its brown cousin, is a good
swimmer.
Its usual abode is in the depths of the forest, to which it retires for rest in
caves, hollows of trees, or dense bushes. Except during pairing-time these bears
are generally solitary. The cubs, often those of two successive years, remain with
the mother until full-grown. Generally two in number, they are born in spring and
are very small at birth and do not open their eyes for some time.
A characteristic mammal is the sloth-bear (Melursus ursinus),
which inhabits India from the foot of the Himalaya to Capa
Comorin, and occurs in Ceylon. Living principally in bushy, hilly districts, this
bear ranges as far as the outskirts of the Indian desert to the north, and to
Kathiawar in the west. It seems to occur in the north and east of Bengal, but its
identity with the bear inhabiting the plains of Assam has not yet been satisfactorily
made out. The sloth-bear has one pair of incisors less than other bears in its upper
jaw; its teeth comprising two incisors, one canine, and six cheek-teeth on each side
of the upper jaw, and three incisors, one canine, and seven cheek-teeth on each side of
the lower jaw. The claws of the sloth-bear are large and strong, and the snout and
lower lip very extensile and flexible. The hair is coarse and long, longest between
the shoulders, and the colour is black, except for the dull grey tip of the nose, a
narrow white semicircular spot on the chest, and the white claws. In length this
bear measures about 5 feet, the tail being about another 5 inches; the average
shoulder-height is some 30 inches, and the weight of a male (considerably more
than that of the female) may be 330 lbs. or more.
The sloth-bear is still one of the most common animals of India. In some
142
THE INDIAN FAUNA
parts, however, as for instance in eastern Bengal and the Dekkan, where some
forty or fifty years ago it was common, it is now exterminated. Wherever it
exists it betrays itself by the holes it digs in the ground when searching for ants,
by the marks of its claws on the trees it ascends for honey, and by its peculiar
trail. This bear goes about singly or in twos and threes ; the trios being generally
a female with two cubs. Now and then parties of four or five are met with.
• Bushes, forests, and mountains form the favourite haunts of this species ; and in
the hot season, while the monsoon is on and when the females have young, they
retire into caves, especially those formed by the weathering of the granitic gneiss,
of which many of the mountains of India consist. This gneiss, disintegrated into
SLOTH-BEAR.
large, loose, and broken blocks, forms large caves which are favourite resorts of
these bears, as they afford shelter from the sun, and a refuge from flies, gnats, and
other insects, which are particularly troublesome during the monsoon.
At other times when they cannot find caves, or during the cool season, sloth-
bears spend the day amid long grass, bushes, or in holes in the sides of ravines.
They wander in search of food at night, and in the neighbourhood of human
habitations are rarely seen in the daytime, although in wild, uninhabited parts
they often remain out till eight or nine o'clock in the morning and are again on
the move an hour or so before sunset. In wet and cloudy weather they may be
abroad all day. Although like other Indian animals they avoid the noonday sun,
they are not so sensitive to heat as their black coat might lead us to expect, and
they have less hesitation than the tiger in exposing themselves to the sun's rays.
SLOTH-BEAR
Mi
Its long shaggy hair, the peculiar shape of its long movable snout, and its
short hind-legs make this bear one of the most remarkable of its kind, and as
peculiar in its appearance as it is in habits. It generally moves at a quick walk,
but when frightened or in a hurry trots away so awkwardly that it appears to roll
along the ground. If startled by a shot or other sound, it rolls downhill head-
over-heels like other bears ; ascending rocks comes easy to it, and it climbs trees
slowly and heavily, as is shown by the deep impressions of its claws in the bark.
Its food consists almost exclusively of fruit and insects. Sloth-bears generally
visit fruit-trees on their nightly excursions, sometimes climbing about in the
branches and shaking off the fruit, sometimes standing up on their hind-legs and
drawing the branches down with their fore-paws. The animal food of these bears
consists chiefly of beetles and their larvs9, and white ants. They will turn over
stones for beetles, climb the trees for bees, and dig holes of a yard or more in depth
for ants. When they reach an ants' nest they blow away the dust and then draw
the hapless inhabitants into their mouths with such a powerful suction that it may
be heard at a distance of two hundred paces. They are exceedingly fond of the
fermented sap of the wild date-palm, climbing the trees to get at the pots which
are hung up to catch the juice, and are said occasionally to get intoxicated on this
beverage. They are also fond of sugar-cane and do great damage to sugar-
plantations. Sometimes they eat maize and other grain, or steal birds' eggs.
Although they may occasionally kill the larger animals, they do not eat them. Dry
bones of cattle are sometimes gnawed by them, and once a wounded muntjac, and
on another occasion a cow killed by a tiger, were found partly eaten by a sloth-
bear.
The habit of sucking their paws, grunting all the while, is especially character-
istic of sloth-bears, and young specimens in captivity are fond of sucking the hands
of their keepers. The sense of smell is apparently well developed, but the sight
of this bear is indifferent, and the peculiar way in which it looks at intruders gives
the impression of its being short-sighted. Neither is its sense of hearing very
acute, and it seems to discover honeycombs in trees and ants' nests or larvae of
beetles underground mainly by smell.
When sniffing about for food on their nocturnal excursions sloth-bears utter a
peculiar sound audible at a considerable distance. Occasionally during pairing-time,
or at the beginning of the cold season, they utter a shrill scream ; and when
surprised or startled, and especially when wounded, they break into long loud
guttural tones, while when mortally wounded they give vent to plaintive cries.
When wounded by a bullet, a sloth-bear generally attacks its unwounded
companion. On the whole these bears are cowardly, although in some cases they
will furiously attack men, using both teeth and claws. When surprised and trying
to escape, they content themselves with knocking down their adversaries by a blow
of the paw. Often, however, they inflict serious wounds, and in some cases clutch
their victims and bite fiercely till all struggles cease. The most furious attacks are
made by females with young ; wounded bears are generally dangerous, but some-
times this species attacks without provocation.
Native hunters generally send beaters through the jungle or over a hill and
shoot the bear as soon as it is within range. Elephants are seldom used, for the
144 THE INDIAN FAUNA
bears run away from them at once, and moreover, the ground is too uneven and
rocky for elephants to advance quickly enough. A peculiar method of hunting
this bear with hounds is used by the Polygars who inhabit the extreme south of
the Indian peninsula. When the hounds have driven the bear to bay each hunter
sticks a long bamboo cane smeared with bird-lime on to its shaggy fur, and thereby
holds it fast. This bear — which is also caught in nets — often tries to escape when
pursued, and runs until it falls down from exhaustion, continuing its course for
many miles, heedless of cold or heat. It has been stated that when attacking it
rises on its hind-legs, so that it may be shot through the breast; but this is
erroneous, as it seldom stands on its hind-legs, except when enraged or perhaps
when surprised.
Seven months after pairing-time the young, of which there are generally two,
are born, mostly in December or January, but sometimes as early as October, or as
late as February. At birth they are about the size of Newfoundland pups.
They remain blind for three weeks, and have soft long hair which becomes rougher
and coarser in a few months. When two or three months old, the mother takes the
cubs out, carrying them on her back, to the long hair of which they cling. In this
way they ride about occasionally until they are a good size. Sometimes the mother
will carry one cub while the other runs at her side. Generally the cubs remain
with their mother for two or three years, by which time they are fully grown.
Yellow-Breasted Of the weasel tribe there are many Indian species. Among the
Marten. typical representatives of the group the yellow-breasted Indian marten
{Mustela flavigula) is found throughout the Himalaya, from Kashmir to Assam,
as well as in Burma, the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, southern China and
the Amur countries, and also in the Nilgiris, the mountains of Travancore, and
probably in the higher portions of the Western Ghats, This marten has a
length of from 20 to 22 inches exclusive of the tail, which measures 16 inches
and more. In the southern portion of its range it has rather short hair, but in
the Himalaya the hair is longer, with a woolly under-fur in winter. The head
as far as the ears, the face, the hind part of the neck, the lower portion of the back,
and the tail and legs are glossy brown or black, while the back is pale brown, or,
sometimes, brownish white. The chin and lower part of the throat are white, and
the rest of the throat as well as the breast orange or brownish yellow ; the under-
pays being paler than the back. The coloration, however, varies in different
districts ; and on this and other differences several local races have been named.
The yellow-breasted marten inhabits the forest and is often seen in the day-
time, sometimes in pairs and sometimes in parties of five or six, among bushes or
trees, wandering in search of prey, and uttering all the time a low chuckle, winch
in anger becomes a hoarse cry. It feeds on birds and their eggs, small mammals,
reptiles, fruits, and insects.
YenowBeiiied The yellow-bellied weasel (M. cathia) is dark reddish brown on
weasel. the back, face, head, ears, extremities, and tail, and of a deep yellow
on the lower-parts. It is employed in Nepal for catching rats, a task in which it is
most successful ; and is also trained for catching fowls, geese, and even sheep and
goats, which it kills by biting through the arteries of the neck. It inhabits heights
up to 8000 feet in the Himalaya, as far west as Masuri, and in other mountains
OTTERS— RATEL — HEDGEHOG — MOLES AND SHREWS 145
from Assam southwards. In length it averages 10 inches, the tail measuring 5 or
6 inches more ; the males are considerably larger than the females.
The common European otter is well known in India under a
Otters
somewhat greyer form. Another kind, the smooth otter (Lutra ellioti),
is found south of the foot of the Himalaya, and is common on the Indus, as well as
in lower Bengal, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula. It is much smaller than the
common otter, and of a uniform brown colour with a light greyish gloss ; and is
probably the otter kept by the Malays for fishing. The golden otter (L
aureobrunnca), a smaller species, occurs in the Himalaya ; but the clawless otter
(L. leptonyx) belongs more to south-eastern Asia, although it is sometimes found
near Calcutta.
Another representative of the weasel tribe, the Indian ratel
(Mellivora indica), inhabits India from the Himalaya southwards,
but is unknown in Ceylon and east of the Bay of Bengal, and seems to be absent
from the Malabar coast. Like its African relatives, this ratel has very long front-
claws, double the length of the hind-claws. In length it is about 32 inches, the
tail measuring another 5 or 6. In colour it is grey, or whitish grey above, and
black below, the hair being very thin on the under-parts. It is exclusively
nocturnal, and common in hilly districts, as well as in the river-valleys of northern
India, where the high banks are convenient for its burrows. Ratels are said to
live in pairs, and to feed on rats, birds, frogs, and insects, but especially on honey
and bees. The long front claws are specially adapted for digging out honey-comb.
The reason for the peculiar coloration of the ratel and certain other members of
the weasel tribe — light above and dark below — appears to be for the purpose of
rendering them conspicuous, as they are all strong-smelling creatures, unfit for
food.
Indian Among the insect-eating mammals, the hedgehogs are represented
Hedgehog, by Erinaceus micropus, a species inhabiting Madras, of whose habits
and range nothing definite is known. It is pale in colour and only about 6^- inches
in length.
Moles and Two kinds of mole (Talpa micrura and T. leucura) inhabit the
snrews. south-western Himalaya and Assam, but none is known from the
plains of India. Musk-shrews are, however, very numerous in the Indian area.
Among these, the grey musk-shrew (Crocidura ccerulea) lives in the neighbourhood
of human habitations all over India and Ceylon, and in many islands of the Indian
Ocean, to which it has probably been brought in ships. The length of the head and
body is 6 inches, and that of the tail about 3^ inches. This shrew may be only a
domesticated form of the brown musk-shrew (0. murina), which lives principally
in forests, but is also found in houses. It smells particularly strong of musk,
and feeds mainly on insects and their larvae and worms.
The grey musk-shrew, generally called the musk-rat, may be regarded as the
common shrew of India, and is nocturnal, like other shrews. During the night it
hunts for cockroaches and other insects in houses, squeaking occasionally as it does
so, while during the day it shelters in holes and drains. Its hiding-places often
have a very strong smell of musk, emitted by the secretion of the glands on the
sides of the animal, but when not irritated or frightened this shrew leaves no scent
vol. 11. — 10
i46 THE INDIAN FAUNA
on objects over which it runs. In colour it is generally a bluish grey, paler
below than above, but there is considerable variation in the tint. Analogous
variations occur in the brown musk-shrew, which probably inhabits the whole
Indian area, as it does the Himalaya from Kashmir to Assam up to quite 8000 ft.
insectivorous Among the insect-eating bats, Kuhl's bat (Scotophilus kuhli)
Bats. js abundant throughout India, and also ranges to Borneo and the
Philippines. The upper-parts of this bat are generally yellowish brown, but vary
between vivid chestnut, golden brown, and greyish brown, the lower-parts being
yellow or dull white. In length it is about 3 inches, the tail measuring about
2 inches. In flight it is easy and slow, and it lives singly or in pairs, or in small or
large parties, in verandas, temples, and other buildings, and also in the holes of
trees, its food being chiefly white ants or termites.
Six kinds of tube-nosed bats {Harpy iocephalus), recognisable by their tubular
nostrils and the hairy membrane between the hind-legs, are indigenous to the
Himalaya and Tibet. The genus is nearly allied to Myotis — represented in northern
India only by the wall-bat (M. rnuricola). A remarkable Indian species of another
genus is the painted bat (Cerivoula picta), which is widely spread over India,
Ceylon, and Burma, although rare in the drier districts of these countries. It is
small in size, the length without the tail being about 1+ inches. In colour it is a
deep orange, or bright rusty red above, but lighter and yellower below, the
membranes being orange and black. In the daytime this species more resembles
a large butterfly than a bat, but is remarkably like dead leaves when at rest, and
is thus well protected by its colouring. As it is often found on plantain-trees, it is
known in Ceylon as kehel vulha, or plantain-bat, and this is probably the origin of
its generic name. One of the wrinkled-lipped bats {Nyctinomus plicatus) occurs
in India and south-eastern Asia generally, but neither in Ceylon nor the Himalaya.
This bat is furnished with long narrow wings, and has a length of 2|- inches, with
a tail-length of 1£ inches. In colour it is brownish black, or greyish brown above,
and is sometimes of the same hue below, although generally lighter. Another
family is represented by the Indian false-vampire (Megaderma lyra), a large-eared
species of about 3£ inches in length, of a dark ashy or slate-grey colour above, and
lighter below. This bat belongs to a group characterised by the long snout, large
wings, and the absence of a tail, and deserves attention on account of its food. It
is spread over India from Kashmir to Ceylon, and from Karachi to Calcutta, and is
also found in China, but not as yet in Burma. It sleeps in caves, old buildings,
and under roofs during the day, and lives partly on insects, but principally on
small vertebrates, the blood of which it sucks. Strange to say, males of this species
seem much more numerous than females. There are many other Indian forms of
insect-eating bats — among them several kinds of tomb-bats (Taphozous) — but
these need not be mentioned in detail on this occasion.
The group of fruit-bats, the majority of which are of large bodily
size, are, as their name implies, fruit-eaters ; and the crowns of their
cheek-teeth, instead of bearing sharp cusps, are, as a rule, marked only by a simple
longitudinal groove. Moreover, the outer and inner margins of their ear-conchs
are joined so as to form a more or less oval ring at the base, instead of, as in most
insectivorous bats, rising from the head independently of each other. All the
148 THE INDIAN FAUNA
a length of about 9 inches, varies much in coloration, but is generally reddish
brown on the head, and lighter on the shoulders and the hind part of the neck ;
the back behind the shoulders is brown or black, the lower-parts are yellowish
brown, and the chin, the front of the neck, the sides, and hind-quarters are
generally darker, and the breast sometimes dark brown or black. This bat roosts
on trees, suspended by its hind-legs, head-downwards during the day. It generally
selects the tamarind tree, but sometimes the bamboo, and when wrapped up in its
wings looks like a large dry leaf. It is generally found in large numbers on one
tree, and if not driven away always chooses the same group of trees for its abode.
Towards sunset it begins to grow restless, and climbs about in the branches, and
by and by starts on its nocturnal excursion, singly or in pairs. With the exception
of oranges, it feeds on all kinds of fruit, especially figs. At early dawn these bats
return to their resting-places, where, from the arrival of the first few until the sun
stands high in the sky, there are continuous quarrels about the best places, most of
them trying to get higher up the tree, and to drive away their neighbours from too
close a vicinity. In this endeavour they climb up the branches, biting one another
fiercely as they pass, striking each other with the long claws of their thumbs, and
screaming and screeching unceasingly. Each newcomer is driven back on all sides
and obliged to fly several times round the tree, and when it has gained a bough on
which to hang, has again to fight, and is perhaps chased away two or three times
before being able to maintain its place. About 10 o'clock they begin to grow drowsy
as they hang side by side on a branch, fanning themselves with their wings, or wrap-
ping their wings round their heads, until evening wakes them again. When
eating they hang by one foot, and hold the fruit with the other, not by clasping it
with their toes, but by thrusting their claws into it. The Indian fox-bat, like most
other bats, has only one young at a time, which is born at the end of March, or in
April, and is carried about by its mother until the end of May or beginning of
June, when it is almost full-grown.
The short-nosed fruit-bat (Cynopterws sphinx), which is endowed with an
appetite uncommon even in this voracious family, ranges throughout India from
the Himalaya to Ceylon, and eastwards to Burma, the Malay Peninsula and
Archipelago, and the Philippines. In colour it is light or dark brown, and its length
is 4^ inches. Dwelling in forests, it rests during the day suspended either on
palms and other trees or in caves and hollow trees, and feeds exclusively on fruit.
This fruit-bat has a particularly light and buoyant flight, whereby it is distin-
guished from the fox-bats, which fly heavily and in a straight line, although in
general behaviour and habits both have much in common.
Amoncj the monkeys of India, one of the most familiar, in all
Indian Langur. .
senses of the word, is the langur or hanuman (Semnopithecus entellus),
in which the hair on the head radiates in a circle from one central point and
overhangs the black face like a penthouse. The hair of the body is rather woolly,
and in colour mainly greyish brown, although the naked portions of the face, ears,
hands, and feet are black. The males measure from 25 to 30 inches in length,
exclusive of the tail, which is a quarter as long again as the body, but the females
are much smaller. The range of this species extends from the Dekkan to the south
bank of the Ganges and the outer ranges of the Himalaya, and on the west includes
Hanuman Monkey.
LANGURS AND MACAQUE MONKEYS 149
Gujarat and Kathiawar, but its extreme limits are not as yet ascertained. This is
all the more remarkable since the hanuman is one of the best-known animals of
India, being protected everywhere, not fearing man, and found as frequently in
villages as in the depths of the primeval forest. Far away from villages the
hanuman lives on trees, the banks of rivers or tanks, and on rocky hills, but never
very far from water. It is very brisk in its movements, and leaps with astonishing
sureness from branch to branch, often jumping from 20 to 30, or even 40, feet
to the ground. Old males are sometimes seen alone, but, as a rule, hanumans
associate in smaller or larger parties, composed of individuals of both sexes and of
all ages. The females carry their young clinging to their bodies, and while the young
are very small may temporarily keep apart from the rest of the troop, although
they can hardly be said to form separate parties. It is distinguished from others of
its kindred by the circumstance that the female, though generally giving birth to
only one young at a time, sometimes has twins.
Himalayan The Himalayan langur (S. schistaceus) inhabits the area extend-
Langur. jng through Kashmir and the greater part of the Himalaya as far as
Bhutan. It has long hair, which on the head radiates like that of the hanuman,
but the ears are smaller and covered by the long hair of the cheeks, and the
tail has a thin but distinct tuft. The colour of the back, tail, and the outsides of
its limbs is greyish brown or dark slaty grey, with a slight tinge of purple, the
head and lower-parts being whitish. Like the hanuman, the face, ears, palms, and
soles are black. Except that it lives in a cooler climate and is larger, the Hima-
layan langur differs little from the hanuman in habits, although it may often be
seen leaping among the snow-clad branches of the Himalayan deodar-forests.
„ In the Nilgiri langur (S. johni), which ranges from the Nilgiris
Nilgin Langur, etc. . ° x ^ ' ~ °
to Cape Comorin, the head and body measure 26 inches in length, and
the tail 30 inches, but the females are smaller. In colour this species is glossy black
or brownish black, the head being yellowish brown, and the lower part of the back
and root of the tail ashy grey. This langur, which lives in small troops of from
five to ten, is oftener killed than most Indian monkeys on account of the beauty of
its fur and the flavour of its flesh, which is said to be eaten by some of the natives.
Consequently it is shy and cautious, though very noisy. The ursine langur (S.
ursinus), which inhabits the mountains of Ceylon, is distinguished by its very long
hair (often 4 or 5 inches in length on the sides), and is greyish brown in colour.
This monkey is generally found in large troops, jumping from tree to tree, and
uttering a short howl when alarmed. A second species (S. senex) also inhabits
the mountains in the south of Ceylon.
Macaque Of the macaque monkeys the best-known in northern India is
Monkeys. the bandar or Bengal macaque (Macacus rhesus), the males of which
attain a length of about 22 inches, with a 10-inch tail, while the females are much
smaller. In colour it is principally light greyish brown, varied with dark brown
or rufous, the under-parts being yellowish. Its range extends from the Himalaya
to the Godaveri and from Kashmir to Burma. This monkey, which has been
found at an elevation of 10,000 feet in Kashmir, generally lives in large troops,
and has little fear of man, being occasionally found in villages. It seeks its food
on the ground, eating spiders and all kinds of insects, and also fruit and seeds.
*5°
THE INDIAN FA UNA
It frequents cultivated districts, especially in the neighbourhood of tanks, or near
clumps of trees on the banks of rivers, but is still more common in forests ; it
delights in going into the water, where it swims well. Closely related to the last
is the Himalayan macaque (31. assamensis), which inhabits the southern slope of
the Himalaya from Masuri or farther west as far east as northern Burma, and is
generally found at a height of from 3000 to 6000 feet. Another species, the lion-
tailed macaque (M. silenus), is a long-haired black monkey, the males of which
measure 24 inches in length, with a tail of 10 inches, the females being smaller.
LION-TAILED MACAQUE.
The face is framed by a grey fringe, which leaves only the forehead free and
conceals the ears, and the tail is tufted. This species, which inhabits the forests
of the Western Ghats from below Goa to Cape Comorin, is very common in Cochin
and Travancore, and found at a considerable height above the sea. Another kind,
the bonnet macaque (M. sinicus), is found all over the south of India, not only in
forests but in populous cities. It is one of the most inquisitive and mischievous of
the macaques, tamer than the rhesus monkey, and unsurpassed in making grimaces
by any member of the tribe. It derives its name from the fact of the hair
radiating in all directions from the crown of the head, although it rarely falls over
the forehead, the short hair on which is parted in the middle. The full-grown
MA CA Q UE MONKE YS—L O RISES
I51
males measure 27 inches, exclusive of a tail of 24 inches or more. This monkey-
inhabits the western coast up to Bombay, but in the east is not found north of the
Godaveri. In Ceylon the bonnet monkey of southern India is replaced by the
toque macaque (M. pileatus), which is perhaps a little smaller and has the hair
wavy and rough instead of straight and smooth. In colour it resembles the
bonnet monkey, being greyish or
brownish above and whitish below.
The face is flesh-coloured and the
upper lip black, while the naked
parts of the ears, hands, and feet
are smoky brown.
The lorises — com-
monly miscalled sloths
by travellers and sportsmen — are
the sole representatives in India
and the Malay countries of the
great group of lemuroids, whose
headquarters are Madagascar and,
in a less degree, Africa. The
slender or true loris (Loris gracilis)
is much the smaller of the two,
and is restricted to the lowland
forests of southern India and
Ceylon. The slow loris (Nycticebus
tardigradus), on the other hand,
extends from Assam and Sylhet
to the Malay countries, where it
is represented by a distinct local
race. In length it may measure
16 inches, the slender loris being
only about half that size. The fur
of the slender loris is soft, close,
and woolly, greyish in colour, with
a more or less reddish, and often a
silvery, tinge on the upper-parts
and the outer sides of the limbs.
It feeds partly on fruits and leaves,
and partly on insects, eggs, and
small vertebrates, and is very fond
of honey and syrup. The large eyes of this loris, which are set very close
together, form a favourite remedy among the uneducated natives for ophthalmic
diseases, and are also used as love-potions.
The Indian pangolin or scaly ant-eater (Manis pentadactyla)
belongs to another group (the Edentata) of which there are no
representatives among the European fauna. The range of this species extends
from Peshawar, Sind, and probably Baluchistan to Bengal and Orissa, and from
BONNET MACAQUE.
Indian Pangolin. .
»52
THE INDIAN FAUNA
the foot of the Himalaya to Ceylon. This strange animal, whose allies inhabit
the Malay countries, China, and Africa, has a short plump body and stout tail, the
united length of which is 42 inches. The fore-feet are furnished with very long
claws, the middle one of
. i.^^* which is double the length
of the corresponding claw
on the hind-foot. The large
scales covering the head,
body, and tail, which distin-
guish the pangolins from all
other mammals, are arranged
in this species in from eleven
to thirteen rows along the
body, the middle row con-
taining from fourteen to
seventeen to the root of the
tail. These scales are about
double the width of those of
the two other Asiatic species
of pangolin, and are light
yellowish brown in colour,
the skin being pinkish white
on the scaleless parts. The
Indian pangolin is a noc-
turnal animal, hiding among
rocks or in its burrow dur-
ing the day, although it is
sometimes seen abroad shortly
after sunrise. The crooked
burrow extends to a depth
of 8 to 12 feet below the
ground to terminate in a
large chamber of about 6
feet in diameter. The aper-
ture is stopped with earth
when its owners are inside.
The food of pangolins consists
of ants and termites. To
obtain these, pangolins tear
up the nests with their long
claws, inserting their long sticky tongues into the passages and withdrawing
them when covered with the insects. The tongue also serves for drinking,
by being alternately protruded and drawn back in quick succession. It
is doubtful, however, whether pangolins drink at all when in the wild
state, as they frequently occur in places far from any water. Like
many birds, they swallow small stones to aid in the digestion of their food.
SLENDER LORIS.
SUSU— WARBLERS— LARKS
i53
The Indian pangolin walks very slowly with an arched back, and frequently
stands up on its hind -legs with its body horizontal. Although little is known of
its reproduction, it apparently has seldom more than one young, or at most two, at
a birth. Pangolins are easily tamed, but it is difficult to keep them long in confine-
ment owing to the nature of their food.
Susu, or Gan- The great rivers of India are the home of a peculiar kind of
getic Dolphin, fresh- water dolphin, which has no very near kindred in any part of
the world, the South American fresh-water dolphins representing a distinct family
The susu, as this species is called in India, is known scientifically as Platanista
gangetica, and lives in the Ganges, Indus, Bramaputra, and all the larger
tributaries of these rivers, principally in the tidal portions, although it is found up
to the foot of the mountains. The head terminates in a long compressed snout, a
little expanded at the tip, and much shorter in males than in females. The body
has a rudimentary back-fin and triangular, fan-shaped flippers. This dolphin is
quite blind. The upper jaw carries thirty pairs of cylindrical teeth, the number
in the lower jaw being usually somewhat greater. The entire length varies
between 7 and 8 feet, the females being larger than the males ; and the colour
is blackish.
Although sometimes found in pairs, the Gangetic dolphin is generally solitary ;
it seems to migrate towards the sources of the rivers in the hot season. Sight
would be of little use in this case, since the water of the Indus, like that of the
Ganges and Bramaputra, is anything but clear at all seasons, and the creature
obtains its food, consisting of fish and prawns, by probing in the mud with its
long snout.
o
Like the mammals, the birds of India present a mixture of
Warblers, etc. . .
Oriental and other types, many of them belonging to European genera
and even species. Among the perching-birds, we find one of the furze-chats and
many of the thrushes breeding within the area. The moustached sedge- warbler,
which is spread over southern Europe, North Africa, and Asia Minor, inhabits
India as far east as Lucknow. The fan-tailed warbler also occurs, and the wrens
are well represented. Tits, nuthatches, and tree-creepers are likewise all present
in the Indian area.
Larks and Wag- The larks are represented by the Indian skylark (Alauda
tails. gulgula), which is spread all over the country and Ceylon ; and the
European crested lark breeds in the north-west of India, where the genus is also
represented by two other species. The finch-larks, small short-legged and short-
toed birds, with short thick beaks, extend from India into Africa, the ashy-crowned
finch-lark (Pyrrhulauda grisea) ranging from Sind to Calcutta, and from the foot
of the Himalaya to Ceylon, and being everywhere resident throughout this large
area. The rufous finch-larks (Ammomanes), again, are represented in India by the'
red-tailed species (A. phoenicura), distinguished from other members of the group
by its black-tipped tail. More than a dozen different kinds of wagtail occur
within the area, the most notable being the large pied species (Motacilla maderas-
patensis), whose breeding-range extends from Sind to Sikhim and western Bengal,
and from the foot of the Himalaya to Ceylon.
154 THE INDIAN FAUNA
The Indian list also includes numerous buntings, five of winch are
resident, the most widely distributed being the streaked bunting
(Emberiza striolata), which ranges from Palestine and Arabia through Sind
and the Punjab into the United Provinces. The crested bunting (Melophus
melanicterus), on the other hand, is very local in distribution, its range extending
from Kashmir to Bhutan, from Sind to Mahableshwar, and from Assam to
Tenasserim. It is distinguished by both sexes being crested, though differently
coloured, as well as by the tail being nearly square at the end. The male is black
and the female dark brown, both showing a certain amount of red on the wings
and tail.
Finches and Among the finches may be mentioned the universal house-
stariings. sparrow, which in India is much whiter about the cheeks and
blacker on the edges 0f the white than the western race. The weaver-birds
include eight Indian species, but the group is more abundantly represented in south-
eastern Asia. Six species of starlings are found in India, two of which are
resident.
„ . , , The orioles, known in India as mango-birds, are represented by
Orioles and Jays. . . . ° . .
nine species, eight of which are mainly yellow in coloration and
have the tail black and yellow or green, while the ninth, Oriolus trailli, has a red
tail and in plumage is black and maroon. The raven, the carrion-crow, the rook,
the hooded crow, and the jackdaw are all found in India, and in addition there are
the more characteristic brown-necked raven (Corvus umbrinus), the jungle-crow
(G. macrorhynchus), and the house-crow (G. splendens). The handsome green magpie
(Cissa chinensis) ranges from the valley of the Jumna into south-eastern Asia, but the
Ceylonese magpie (C. ornata) is confined to Ceylon. The tree-pies are represented
by four species, one of which, Dendrocitta rufa, the Indian magpie, ranges from the
Himalaya to Travancore. The lanceolated or black-throated jay (Garrulus
lanceolatus) ranges from Hazara to Nepal and is frequent in Kashmir, where it is
found in summer up to 8000 feet. It derives its popular names from its chin and
throat being black with white shaft-streaks, the black ending in a patch of iron grey.
It has a blue tail barred with black, and not a black one like G. bispecularis, the
Himalayan jay, which is also distinguished by having the forehead and crown
purplish instead of black. The Indian shrikes include a dozen species ; and of
cuckoo-shrikes there are three, the most generally distributed being the black-
headed cuckoo-shrike (Campophaga sykesi). Sixteen different kinds of bulbul are
likewise natives of the country,
swallows and Of swallows and martins about twenty species are found within
swifts. the area, including the European sand-martin and the Indian sand-
martin (Cotile sinensis) which ranges from the Himalaya to the Philippines. There
are two kinds of swift (Cypselus melanocephalus and G. cinereiventris) in which
the head is black, as well as a third kind (C. phceocepltalus) in which it is grey ; the
distribution of all three is curiously local.
Roller, Bee-Eater, Among other noteworthy picarian birds of India, reference may
Kingfishers, and be made to the Indian blue roller (Coracias indica), and also to the
Indian hoopoe ( Upupa indica), both of which are very close indeed to
the European forms. The long-tailed bee-eaters are strikingly represented by the
^^2^Sfc~
Lanceolated Jay
O WLS— BIRDS- OF-PRE Y 1 5 5
green species (Merops viridis) and the blue-tailed bee-eater (M. philippinus), the
latter of which ranges from the south of India and Ceylon to Celebes. The
European kingfisher is represented in India and the Malay Archipelago by a smaller
race (Alcedo ispida bengalensis) ; but other members of the group occur in the
Himalaya, India, and south-eastern Asia, the group being still more strongly repre-
sented in the Malay countries. The same is also the case with certain other groups
of picarian birds. Although the European cuckoo is only a winter visitor to India,
one of the crested cuckoos (Coccystes jacobinus) ranges from the Malay Peninsula
into south-western Asia, and also occurs in Africa from the Sahara to the south.
The Indian owls include several European species, as well as
other related types. Among the former, the barn-owl is found as a
breeding-species. Nearly allied are the masked owls, distinguished by the circum-
stance that the feathers forming the eye-discs run in separate rows down their
foreheads, leaving a space in the middle. The Ceylon masked owl (Phodilus
assimilis), which has a wide range in India, is exclusively nocturnal, and lives in
the larger forests. The screech-owls and forest-owls likewise have Indian repre-
sentatives. A relative (Bubo bengalensis) of the European eagle-owl is more or
less restricted to India, but the larger B. coromandus, equalling B. ignavus in size,
ranges from India to China. The fish-owls (Cetupa) are distributed over south-
western and southern Asia. They live chiefly on fish and crustaceans, and only
partly on small mammals, birds, and reptiles.
M M m The common kestrel may be regarded as an Indian falcon, since
Birds- of -Prey. . ...
it breeds not only in the Himalaya, but in the Western Ghats, and
probably in Burma. Bonelli's eagle ranges from the west into India, although not
farther east; and the pigmy eagle is resident in India and Ceylon, but rare in
Burma. The spotted eagle breeds in northern India, but its near relative the small
spotted eagle remains within the area throughout the year. The most abundant
species is, however, the tawny eagle (Aquila vindhiana), which varies greatly in
colouring, but is in most cases almost uniformly brown. This eagle, which is from
26 to 27 inches in length, is often seen either perching on a tree or flying about
over fields and woods, in pursuit of small mammals, birds, lizards, snakes, and frogs,
and sometimes helping vultures to devour the carcases of cattle, or robbing smaller
falcons of their prey. Although absent from Ceylon and the Malabar coast, and
apparently also from lower Bengal and Assam, it is distributed over the greater
part of India and upper Burma, but nowhere beyond these limits. The Indian
serpent-eagle (Spilornis chila) is also confined to India. The sea-eagles are
represented in the Indian area by the banded Haliaetus leucoryphus, distinguished
by a bright bar across its dark brown tail. This sea-eagle lives on the banks of
rivers and other waters, and is probably spread over all southern and central Asia,
though absent from southern India and Ceylon. The osprey ranges round the
world, and is of course present in India as elsewhere. The kites are well repre-
sented throughout the area, but their relatives the buzzards, and honey-buzzards,
are more numerous beyond its limits. The place of the common sparrow-hawk
is taken in the Himalaya and the large forests of India and Ceylon by the besra
sparrow-hawk (Accipiter virgatus), which is also occasionally found in the Malay
countries, China, and Japan.
156 THE INDIAN FAUNA
Vultures range from south-western Asia into India, but no farther east. Of
these, the Egyptian vulture, which occurs in north-western India, is replaced
elsewhere in the country by the somewhat smaller Indian bird {Neophron
ginginianus). The range of the European griffon vulture extends to Nepal and
Sikhim and southwards to the Dekkan ; and the Indian griffon (Gyps indicus)
inhabits the peninsula from the plains of the Indus and Ganges to the south, and is
also found on the other side of the Bay of Bengal. A third kind, the slender-
beaked griffon (G. tenuirostris), is a native of the southern slopes of the Himalaya ;
while a fourth, the Bengal vulture (G. bengalensis), although absent from Ceylon
and not occurring above a moderate height in the Himalaya, is the most common
Indian vulture. These birds assemble in large flocks around the carcases of all
kinds of animals, and in 1878 and 1879 accompanied the British army into southern
Afghanistan to feed on the fallen camels.
India is particularly rich in game-birds. Among these, the black -
Game Birds.
breasted or rain quail (Coturnix coromandelica), distinguished by the
large black patch on the chest and breast, is indigenous to India and the Malay
Peninsula. Chiefly Indian are the two bush-quails, small birds distinguished
from the true quails by the longer and straighter beak, as well as by the presence
of a short and blunt spur on the legs of the cocks. Of the two kinds the jungle
bush-quail (Pedicula asiatica) is irregularly distributed over India and Ceylon,
usually frequenting forests, grass-jungles, and broken ground, and generally found
in coveys. The other kind (P. argoonda) prefers more rocky situations. The
francolins are represented in northern and central India by the common species,
usually known as the black partridge (Francolinus vulgaris), which ranges from
Cyprus to Manipur. The painted f rancolin (F. pictus), on the other hand, is con-
fined to India, where it occurs to the south of the range of the common species.
Three other francolins (F. chinensis, F. pondicerianus, and F. gularis) are also
found in the country. Pheasants are abundant in certain parts of the Himalaya.
Among these is the chir (Catreus wallichi), characterised by a pendent crest, the
feathers of which are brown tipped with white. Of jungle-fowl, distinguished by
the comb extending along the middle of the head, by the wattles, the long curved
spurs and the length of the middle pair of tail feathers, two kinds occur in India,
and a third is restricted to Ceylon. Of these, the most widely distributed is
Gallus ferrugineus, the red jungle-fowl, whose range extends to Cochin China and
Sumatra. This bird is generally considered to be the ancestral form of domesti-
cated fowls, as typified by game-fowls (see Chap. VI.). From India domesti-
cated fowls appear to have spread north, east, and west over the Old World. The
Chinese kept them 1000 years B.C., and about the same time they were bred by the
Persians, Babylonians, and the inhabitants of Asia Minor. The ancient Greeks
kept them in the year 600 B.C., and in Italy they were known almost as early.
Domesticated fowls were likewise familiar to the ancient Britons as well as to the
inhabitants of central and southern Germany long before the Roman invasions.
They have been developed into numerous breeds, differing from each other in
many ways — bantams and dwarf Japanese, cochins, brahmas, crested houdans,
five-toed dorkings, langshans, Orpingtons, and many others bearing but little
resemblance to each other except in the general character, which marks them aa
GAME-BIRDS — WADERS 1 5 7
originating from a common ancestor which the ordinary farmyard or game breeds
most nearly approximate.
Pea-Fowl and The typical pea-fowl (Pavo cristatus) inhabits India and Ceylon
Monai. in the wild state, but is rather local. In the Himalaya it ranges to a
height of 2000 feet, and in southern India as high as 5000 feet, but in Ceylon it is
never found above 3000 feet, being mainly an inhabitant of the low, dry country in
the north of the island. In its wild state it is not found farther east than Assam, and
it has probably been introduced into Gujarat, Katch, and Rajputana, and certainly
into Sind, since in these districts, where it is considered a sacred bird and protected
very strictly, it occurs as semi-domesticated in the neighbourhood of the
villages. Where it lives in its original wildness, it is generally found in small
parties in forests or in bushy, rugged ground not far from water. It feeds on
grain, insects, small lizards, and snakes, and makes its presence known by its
characteristic scream. The hens lay six or seven eggs in a hole in the ground
scantily covered with twigs, leaves, or grass, and the breeding-time lasts from June to
September. Magnificent birds are the monals, of the high mountains of southern-
central and southern Asia, whose general habits are very similar to those of the true
pheasants. Of these, the Himalayan monal, or impeyan pheasant (Lophophorus
impeyanus), ranges in the Himalaya from Kashmir to Bhutan up to heights of
10,000 feet or more in summer, living just below the upper forest-zone, and some-
times rather higher. Its food consists of insects, berries, seeds, leaves, etc., and its
cry is a loud plaintive whistle.
Pigeons and A very large number of species of the pigeon tribe occur in India
sand-Grouse. an(j Ceylon, among which the genera Osmotreron and Turtur are
the most largely represented. Many of the species have, however, a range
extending beyond India and Ceylon, on which account, as well as from limitations
of space, the group cannot be noticed in detail on this occasion. Of the sand-
grouse, the painted species (Pterocles fasciatus) is peculiar to India, where it is
resident; while the black-bellied sand-grouse (P. arenarius) is a cold-weather
migrant to India, arriving at the end of September and leaving in March.
Among the heron tribe, several species chiefly characteristic of
Europe and south-western Asia visit India. The common heron, for
example, breeds in both India and Ceylon ; while the purple heron is represented
by a form which may be regarded as a local race of the European bird. Both the
white heron and the little egret likewise breed throughout the Indian area, as well
as much farther east. The European little bittern, again, which breeds in the
Himalaya as far as Nepal to the east, is spread over the Indian area, China, Japan,
New Guinea, and northern Australia. The European representative of the night-
herons is a breeding bird in India, Ceylon, and Burma. On the other hand, except
in Sind, the flamingo is rare in India and Ceylon, and unknown farther east.
The European white stork has been found breeding in Ceylon ; but the rest
of the Asiatic storks are principally represented outside the Indian area. The
spoonbill and the glossy ibis breed in India, and the true ibises are represented by
several species.
Among the rail tribe, the grey-headed gallinule (Porphyrio
poliocephalus) ranges from India and Ceylon to the Caspian, and also
[58
THE INDIAN FAUNA
occurs in Burma ; but to the east, in the Malay Archipelago, it is replaced by
other species. The Indian moorhen {Gallinula phoenicura) is found as far east as
Formosa and Celebes : and the coot breeds in many parts of India, and likewise
ranges to Java and Japan.
Cranes, Fiori- The cranes are represented in the north of India by the stately
can, etc. Sarus crane {Grus antigone), which is a larger bird than the European
INDIAN COBRAS.
species. It has a light grey plumage, reddish brown eyes, and crimson warts on its
head and neck.
Characteristically Indian are the two floricans, Sypheotides aurita and S.
bengalensis, the latter being confined to Assam, and the district between the
Ganges and the Himalaya. Snipe and woodcock winter within the area, as do
the thicknee and several of the plovers. The Indian courser (Cursorius coroman-
delicus) is exclusively an Indian species, as is also the small pratincole (Glareola
*„..*■*&
m
3*,.
MONAL.
DUCK TRIBE — CORMORANTS — REPTILES 159
lactea), the so-called Indian pratincole (G. orientalis) ranging beyond the area
into eastern Siberia and northern Australia.
As regards the ducks, the most interesting species are perhaps
Duck Tribe. .
the Indian tree-duck (Dendrocycna javanica) and the Indian comb-
duck (Sarcidiornis Tnelanonotus), closely allied species to both of which are found
in Africa and South America. A whole host of ducks, and a few geese, visit India
during the cold season, but the majority of these must be regarded as purely
migratory.
The common cormorant is a breeding-bird in India and Ceylon,
and in several localities is found the somewhat rare Indian cormorant
(Phalacrocorax fwscicollis), though the commonest species is the small P.javanicus
which, in addition to India, inhabits Ceylon, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.
As many of the reptiles of India are more or less closely related
ReDtiles
to those of south-western and south-eastern Asia, a brief notice must
suffice. One of the most characteristic is the gharial (Garialis gangeticus) of all
the great rivers, and there are two crocodiles (Crocodilus porosus and C. palustris).
Chelonians are represented by land-tortoises of the widely-spread genus Testudo,
as well as by sub-aquatic species of the Oriental genera (Damonia, Nicoria, and
Morenia). The rivers abound in the large batagurs (Batagur, Hardella, Cachuga,
etc.), as well as in soft-tortoises (Trionychidce). Among snakes, there are the Indian
python (Python molurus), the cobra (Naia tripudians), Russell's viper (Vipera
russelli), and the krait (Bungarus cceruleus), of which the three last are all deadly.
India is the home of sixteen species of viper, of which twelve have a conspicuous
depression, or pit, between the nostril and the eye, and are hence called pit-vipers,
while the remaining four are devoid of these. As examples of the latter the saw-
scaled viper (Echis carinata) and the aforesaid Russell's viper may be mentioned.
The first-named is a snake of the plains ; the other, though more abundant in the
plains, is occasionally found even at an altitude of 7000 feet. Among those of the
Himalaya, the mountain-viper (Lachesis monticola) is noteworthy on account of
being oviparous, instead of ovoviviparous. It is found on the lower ridges of the
eastern Himalaya from Nepal to Assam, from the foot of the hills to an altitude of
8000 feet or more. To the lizards, amphibians, fishes, and invertebrates of India it
is impossible to refer, although remarks relating to some of them will be found in
the next two chapters.
*
f
-C^r^
MALAY PANGOLIX.
CHAPTER VI
The Malay Province
Burma and the Malay countries form a part of the great Oriental region, but may
be conveniently considered as a province by themselves. This province includes the
Assam and Sylhet districts of north-eastern India, Burma, a considerable portion
of China, and all of the Asiatic continent lying to the. south and south-east of
this, as well as the islands as far as, and inclusive of, the Philippines, the Moluccas,
and Celebes. The fauna of Celebes and the Moluccas presents, it is true, a certain
similarity with that of Australia and New Guinea, and for a long time all four
areas were included in the same zoogeographical realm. Of late years, however,
naturalists have realised that the animals of Celebes and the Moluccas have greater
affinities with those of the Malay countries than with those of Australasia. It
should be added that the Andamans, as well as the islands of Hainan and Formosa,
are included in the Malay province.
As might be expected from the luxuriant forests which clothe the greater part
of this vast tract, and the slight difference between the wet winter and the still
rainier summer, the fauna of the Malay province is decidedly of a more Oriental
type than is the case with that of India itself, where a large admixture of forms
characteristic of south-western Asia is met with.
Among the mammals of the Malay tract the number of kinds of
monkeys, especially langurs, forms a predominant feature in the
fauna. In Aracan, Pegu, and northern Tenasserim this group is represented by
Phayre's langur (Semnopithecus phayrei). In this species the females measure
about 18h inches to the root of the tail, while the tail itself is some 21 inches more.
The males somewhat exceed their partners in size. The most characteristic feature
of this langur is the presence of a peaked longitudinal crest on the crown of the
head. The general colour is dark ashy brown, darker on the head and limbs than
elsewhere, the root of the tail being whitish and the tip dark. A silvery gloss is
Langurs.
1 60
LANG URS—MA CA Q UES
161
noticeable on the upper-parts, and the under-parts are white or whitish. This
langur inhabits forests, or bamboo-plantations on the slopes of mountains or the
banks of rivers, and goes about in troops of from twenty to thirty head. It is
oftener heard than seen, as it is very shy and cautious; and when a troop is
disturbed its members hurry through the forest, leaping from tree to tree, and
violently shaking the branches as they go. Sometimes an old male will remain in
a secure situation on the top of some high tree, where he is recognisable by his
warning call, which resembles that of the hanuman. The young mew like cats or
utter a plaintive sound expressive of want. Another member of this group,
inhabiting the forests of Cochin China and Hainan, deserves mention on account of
its peculiar form. The
body is remarkably
short, the arms and
legs are of almost
equal length, and the
coloration and mark-
ing are of a very
striking type. The
douc langur (S. ne-
mceus), as this species
is called, has a brilliant
yellow face, with pale
grey whiskers, while
a bright chestnut band
below the ear adds to
the varied coloration
of its brown head.
The general colour is
dark grey above and
lighter grey below
with a large white
©
spot on the lower part
of the back. The
tail is also white, but
the upper parts of the arms and legs, as well as the hands and feet, are black, the
fore-arms are white, and the lower portions of the legs a bright reddish brown.
All these colours are in strong contrast to one another, thus making the douc
© * ©
one of the most brilliantly coloured of all mammals.
Of the macaques two species deserve special notice. The first,
the crab-eating macaque (Macacus cynomolgiis), inhabits river-deltas
and the shores of tidal rivers. Its range extends over a great part of Burma,
including Arakan, as well as Tenasserim, Siam, and the Malay Archipelago, but in
the latter area, as in the Nicobars, it seems to have been introduced by the Malays,
who are very fond of animals. This monkey is distinguished by its stout body,
large head, and very short neck. The legs are stout and rather short, and the tail
is long and somewhat thick at the root. The general colour is greyish brown,
«■■■
■
PIG-TAILED MOXKEY.
Macaques.
vor.. ii.
1 1
1 62 THE MALAY PROVINCE
reddish, or golden brown above, and light grey or nearly white below, with the
bare parts, namely, the face, ears, and buttocks, flesh-coloured or dark brown, while
the eyelids are in manj cases white or bluish white. These macaques are generally
found in troops of from fifteen to twenty in number, and are most abundant in
mangrove-thickets, where they subsist mainly on insects and crabs. Old males
attain a length of 22 inches, with a tail-length of 19 inches. The mouths of the
rivers of Tenasserim and Arakan, as well as the delta of the Irawadi, being the only
ways into the interior of the country, these macaques are so accustomed to the
presence of man that they will allow themselves to be approached quite close, and
will often follow vessels for some distance. Being good swimmers and divers, they
are almost as much at home in the water as on the banks and beaches where they
seek their food. The newly born young may be seen clinging to their mothers at
all times of the year. If its offspring attempts to let go its hold the mother tries to
soothe it by patting it on the head, and pressing it with a serious air to her breast,
the screaming and chattering youngster behaving all the time like an obstinate
baby. The young of this docile and amusing monkey soon become tame, and the
females always remain gentle, although the males grow morose and malicious in
old age.
The second species, the pig-tailed monkey (M. nemestrinus), is characterised
by its short and stout body, its long and muscular limbs, and prolonged muzzle.
The hair is generally short, but somewhat longer on the shoulders than elsewhere.
The tail, which is slender and pig-like, is about a third the length of the body, and
is carried erect. In general colour this species is yellowish brown above, and
lighter below, with the head dark brown or black. A broad black stripe runs
down the back, and the tail is in all cases black at the base and pale yellowish
brown at the tip. The length of the head and body averages about 18^ inches,
and that of the tail 8 inches. The pig-tailed macaque inhabits the greater part of
Tenasserim, especially the south, as well as southern Burma, the Malay Peninsula,
and Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. In Sumatra it is trained by the natives to pluck
and carry down cocoa-nuts from the trees. A peculiarity of this monkey is its
habit of bending- its tail in a double curve when excited.
Of the family of man-like apes (which are unknown in India
proper) there are several Malay representatives. Of these the gibbons,
which are peculiar to this tract, are characterised by their slender bodies, and their
inordinately long arms, which touch the ground when the animals walk or stand
erect. One of the best-known species, the hulok (Hylobates huloc), is almost con-
fined to mountainous forests, and inhabits the lower ranges of Bhutan, Assam, Sylhet,
Cachar,Manipur, Chittagong, Arakan, and the Irawadi Valleynear Bhamo. Like most
other gibbons, the hulok is generally found in troops of fifty to a hundred or more,
only the old males leading a solitary life. The males are black, and the females
brownish black or whitish brown in colour. The length is about 20 inches ; the arms
measure about 24 inches, and the legs 19 inches ; and the height, when standing erect,
is about 31 inches. This gibbon is exclusively arboreal, and, assisted by its long arms,
is able to leap enormous distances from branch to branch and from tree to tree ;
it descends mountains with surprising agility, grasping bamboo stems or branches,
bending them down by its weight, and letting them go as soon as it is able to reach the
9W3Hh Vi'-ifv**
White-Handed Gibbon.
GIBB ONS—L ORIS — BA TS 163
next branch on its descent. It ascends mountains quite as quickly, but when walking
on level ground may, in spite of its rapid strides, be easily overtaken. It walks
with the sole flat on the ground and the great toe extended apart from the others. It
is at once distinguishable from the other gibbons by the white bar across the eye-
brows, and its black hands and feet. Its food consists of fruits, leaves, and young
twigs, but also includes spiders, insects, birds' eggs, and small birds. Huloks in
captivity display so much skill and activity in catching and eating birds that it is
possible these may form the principal item of their food in a wild state. These
gibbons drink like baboons, bending down their heads to the water, and drinking
with the lips. Their name is derived from their call, the two syllables of which
several times repeated are imitated by the word hu-lok. At some distance the
voice sounds very human, and has a kind of plaintive ring. Huloks are easily
tamed when caught young, and as a rule are gentle, good-natured, and intelligent.
Another species, the white-handed gibbon (H. lar), inhabits Tenasserim, Arakan,
and the Malay Peninsula, where it is found at a height of 3500 feet or more in the
mountains. This gibbon also has a whitish bar across the eyebrows, but, unlike
the hulok, its hands and feet are white. The legs are 20 inches long, the arms
measure 25 inches, and the height when erect reaches 30 inches, the females being
smaller than the males. This gibbon is so exclusively an arboreal animal, and
depends so much on its hands when in movement that it carries its burdens with its
feet. Unlike the hulok, it is said to drink from the hollow of the hand. Neither in
the wild state nor in captivity is it so active or cheerful as the hulok, nor does
it walk so easily. Its voice is also different, but in other respects it is much like
its relative.
The lemurs are represented only by the slow loris {Nycticebus
tardigradus), which inhabits the mainland east of the Bay of Bengal,
as well as Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. This loris has close, woolly hair, which
covers the face, except the nose and lips, and almost hides the ears and tail. The
larger individuals are ashy grey, much lighter below than above, with a more or
less silvery gloss on the back, and a chestnut stripe along the back, expanding
on the head, where it forks, one branch running down to the eye, around which it
forms a brown ring. From this larger form a smaller phase is distinguished by the
reddish grey back, and lighter coloured under-parts, the stripe along the back being
wider and in many cases of a bright brown. The broad reddish patch in which
this stripe ends on the head encloses the ears, but does not reach the rings encircling
the eyes. The slow loris is exclusively nocturnal, and feeds partly on leaves, young
shoots, and fruits, and partly on insects, birds' eggs, and young birds. When about
to catch an insect, it rises on its hind-legs, and then throws itself on its prey. It
is generally silent, or utters only a feeble, crackling sound, but when angry or
about to bite, it gives vent to a grunt.
The bats of the Malay province are mainly of the same types as
those of India. The Indian fox-bat, however, is represented by the
kalong or Malay fox-bat (Pteropus edulis), which is the largest bat known. It is
very like its relative, but darker in colour. In iength it measures about a foot,
but its wingspread is as much as 5 feet. It inhabits the Malay Peninsula.
Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and the Philippines, and is said to be found on the Nicobars
164
THE MALAY PROVINCE
and Andamans. The small long-tongued fruit-bat (Carponycteris or Macroglossus
minimus), which ranges from northern India to Australia and the Bismarck Archi-
pelago, is remarkable on account of its diminutive size, its length being only 2|
inches. Perhaps the most remarkable of the numerous forms of insect-eating
bats inhabiting the tract under consideration is the naked bat (Chiromeles
torquatus), which has almost completely bare skin. As the young would be
unable to obtain any hold on a surface of this nature, this bat is provided
with large pouches on the under surface of the body, in which its offspring
d/r^^-^^ir4' -^
SLOW LORIS.
.
Moles.
are carried about in safety. This bat inhabits the Malay Peninsula and
Islands.
Among the Insectivora, in which the tract is fairly rich, the
short-tailed mole (Talpa micrura) is particularly common in Nepal
and Sikhim, as well as on the mountains of Assam. To some extent it differs in
habits from the European mole, as it does not throw up hillocks of earth. Its
eyes are covered with skin, and it derives its name from the shortness of its tail,
which is almost bare and completely hidden in the fur. It is of a velvet-black
colour, with a more or less distinct silvery gloss, and in length measures about
■ih inches.
SWIMMING-SHRE W—GYMNURAS — TREE-SHREWS 165
Swimming- The Himalayan swimming-shrew (Chimarrogale himalayica)
shrew. resembles in its habits the European water-shrew, inhabiting the
banks of mountain-streams, where it runs over the stones on their beds.
It swims well, and is said to live on water - insects and small fishes. In
length it is about 4i inches, its tail measuring 3 inches. It is slaty grey
above with bright blackish brown to the tips of the hairs, and pale brownish
grey below.
The gymnuras, which are allies of the hedgehogs, but without
Gymnuras. . . , ,. ~.T . „ „ . . , .,
spines, are mainly peculiar to Malaya. One or the two largest is the
long-tailed gymnura {Gymnura rafflesi), which inhabits the Malay Peninsula, the
south of Tenasserim, and the island of Sumatra. This species has a long head,
with a pointed muzzle, rounded ears, well-developed claws, and a naked rat-
like tail. It attains a length of 14 inches, with a tail about three-quarters as
long as the body. In colour it is white and black, the head and neck being white,
with the exception of a black spot on the crown and over each eye, and the rest of
the body is black. The arrangement of colour varies greatly, however, and in
Burma these animals have in many cases a white tip to the tail, while the Bornean
G. alba is white all over. Gymnuras are exclusively nocturnal, feeding principally
on cockroaches, ants, and larvae ; they exhale a peculiarly disagreeable, garlic-like
smell. The short-tailed gymnura (Hylomys suilla) is a much smaller animal, of
less than 5 inches in length, with a very abbreviated tail. It ranges from
Burma, Tenasserim, and the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. A
third genus is represented by the Philippine Podogymnura truei. It is allied to
Gymnura and Hylomys, and has a long hind-foot and a stout tail rather more
than a third the length of head and body.
Very characteristic of the Malay countries are the tree-shrews,
Tree-Shrews.
which are somewhat squirrel-like animals, although with the elongated
muzzle and sharp-cusped cheek-teeth characteristic of the Insectivora generally.
They are practically unique in the group in their diurnal and arboreal habits. A
well-known example is the Malay tree-shrew ( Tupaia ferruginea), which measures
nearly 8 inches to the root of the tail, the tail itself being about 9 inches long.
Its colour on the upper-parts varies from yellowish and brownish to deep rusty
red, the under-parts being white. The range of this species includes Burma, the
Himalaya as far westward as Nepal, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and
Borneo. Tree-shrews live both in forests and bamboo-plantations, as well as in
bushes or trees near villages. They feed on insects and fruit, and, according to
native reports, small birds and mice. When feeding, they sit up on their hind-legs
and hold their food with the fore-feet, licking their palms at the end of the meal,
and also smoothing down their coats with their claws. They drink often, and not
unfrequently bathe. In disposition they are pugnacious, fighting among them-
selves when in captivity. When agitated they utter shrill cries, their usual call
being a short jerky whistle. A very remarkable member of the group is the pen-
tailed tree-shrew (Ptilocercus lowi), of Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, a mouse-
like creature, with an inordinately long tail, of which the greater portion is nearly
naked, but the extremity ornamented with two ridges of long hair arranged like
the vanes of a feather.
1 66
THE MALAY PROVINCE
Flying-Lemur.
Still more remarkable are the flying-lemurs, or cobegos, of which
one species (Galeopitheciis volans) inhabits the Malay Peninsula, Java,
Sumatra, and Borneo, and a second the Philippines. These strange animals,
which fly by means of a parachute, are evidently related to the more typical
Insectivora, and perhaps serve to show how the ancestors of the latter have been
gradually modified into bats. The Malay cobego, which has a length of about
C'oliKiiO.
16 inches, and a tail measuring some 9 inches, is protected from attack by its
peculiar coloration. Leading an exclusively nocturnal life, and often hanging on
the trunks and branches of trees during the day with its head downward, the
cobego when at rest looks exactly like a piece of bark. The short, thin, soft fur com-
pletely covers even the parachute, and varies in colour between darkish grey and
light chestnut-brown, while the lower-parts are light brown with a more or less
reddish hue. The back is so thickly speckled with silvery white as to form an
almost exact imitation of the lichen-clad trunk on which the creature rests.
CATS
167
Cats.
Several carnivorous mammals are highly characteristic of the
Malay countries. Among them is the clouded leopard (Felis nebulosa),
which inhabits heights up to 6500 feet in the south-eastern Himalaya and the
mountains of Assam, Burma, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo,
being replaced in Formosa by a race with a shorter tail. In the typical race the
I
tail is generally four - fifths the
length of its body, which is 38 or
40 inches ; in addition to its length,
the tail is remarkable for its long
close fur, which is almost equally
thick throughout. In general
colour this cat is earthy greyish
or pale yellowish brown, the lower-
parts as well as the inner sides
of the legs being white or yellow-
ish. On the head it is more or
less distinctly marked with ver-
tical stripes, and on the sides
with large irregular dark blotches of which in old individuals only the black
edges remain. The legs and lower-parts are marked with black spots, and the
tail is irregularly ringed. Although its habits are very imperfectly known, this
cat apparently leads a nocturnal life, feeding on mammals and birds. Still less
is known about its smaller relative the marbled cat (F. marmorata), which is of
similar marking and colouring, and has a length of about 21 A inches, with a tail of
\
^.
CLOUDED LEOPARD.
168 THE MALAY PROVINCE
15 inches. It inhabits the same countries as the preceding, and seems to live
principally on trees. Quite unknown are the habits of the golden cat (F. temminclei),
which is 40 inches long including the tail, and inhabits the south-eastern Himalaya,
Tenasserim, Sumatra, and Borneo, and probably also Burma and Malacca. It has
occasionally been brought alive to Europe. The flat-headed cat (F. planiceps), so
called on account of its flat, marten-like head, is a species confined to the Malay
Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. It is one of the few uniformly coloured cats, and
is the size of the domestic species, but with shorter legs and long soft fur. Its
colour above is deep dark reddish brown with silvery speckles, and whitish with
more or less brown speckles beneath.
Burmese Civet To the east of the Bay of Bengal the Indian civet is replaced by
and Linsangs. the Burmese Viverra megasjnla, which ranges through Burma, the
Malay Peninsula, Cochin China, and Sumatra. Much more interesting are the
linsangs, which form a group of civets confined to the Malay countries and the
eastern Himalaya, although, like many Malay types, Vaey have a relative in the
forest-district of Africa. The Nepalese linsang {Lbnsanga pardicolor), which has
a tail almost as long as its body, is marked with large black spots on the very pale
brown of the back and sides, but is unspotted below. The head is brown with, in
many cases, a black spot behind each ear ; there are four vertical bands on each side
of the neck, and two wider bands start behind the ears ; these latter do not break
up into spots so much as is the case with those behind the shoulders. These bands
are continued in rows of large round spots, interrupted by smaller ones in the
middle, all along the back, while the sides are marked by three rows of square-
shaped or round spots, becoming smaller towards the lower-parts. The spots which
compose these rows form cross-lines ; and a more or less regular spotting is also
noticeable on the outer sides of the limbs, except the feet, which are pale brown and
unspotted. The tail is marked with from eight to ten alternately dark and light
rings of almost equal width, and thereby contributes much to the beauty of this
graceful little civet. The length of the head and bod}7 is from 14 to 15 inches, and
that of the tail from 12 to 13. The linsang is at home both on the ground and on
trees; it sleeps and rears its young in holes in branches or the trunks, and is generally
solitary. It catches small birds by jumping on them from a hiding-place in the
grass. In February and August the female produces a pair of kittens. No dis-
agreeable civet-like smell emanates from this beautiful little animal. In Tenasserim
the Nepalese linsang is replaced by the Burmese species (L. maculosa), of whose
habits nothing is known.
The palm-civets are represented by the Malay Paradoxwrus
Palm-Civets. r . r J 0.
hermajjhroditiLS, which ranges from the Bay of Bengal to Siam, the
Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. Another kind, the Himalayan palm-
civet (P. grayi), ranges from Simla into Assam, Arakan, and the Andamans. It is
more of a vegetable-feeder than the Indian palm-civet, but, like the latter, is partly
carnivorous, devouring birds and small mammals. It lives in mountainous forests,
sleeping in hollows in trees, where it probably gives birth to four young at a time.
It is said to do great damage to the banana-plantations in the Andaman Islands.
A third kind, the small-toothed palm-civet (Arctogalidia leucotis), is distinguished
by the smallness of its teeth, with the exception of the canines, as well as by
PALM-CIVETS — BINTURONG
169
the large bare soles of its feet and a peculiar divergence between its first digits and
the others. It ranges from Sikhim to Borneo, its habits being probably very
similar to those of the other members of the group. Hardwicke's palm-civet
(Hemigale hardwickei) is a transversely banded member of the group, which forms
a genus by itself; it is a native of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo. The
last named-island is the home of an allied striped species, Dvplogale Itosei, which
likewise represents a genus by itself.
IKk.
MALAY PALM-CIA'ET.
Binturo A distant relative of the palm-civets is the weird binturong
(Arctictis binturong), which is probably an extremely ancient type of
animal, and is peculiar among the Carnivora on account of its prehensile tail, being
the only known placental mammal with a truly prehensile tail in the Old World. It
is the only representative of its genus, and has rather a wide distribution in the Malay
Province. It differs from the palm-civets by walking on the whole soles of its feet,
as is indicated by the large tract devoid of hair on the hind-pair. The claws are
short and partially retractile, and the short ears are surmounted with long tufts of
hair. With the exception of a whitish edge to the ears, the whole of the long and
170
THE MALAY PROVINCE
coarse hair clothing the head, body, limbs, and tail is black with a more or less
marked greyish grizzle. To the root of the tail the length is from 28 to 33 inches,
and that of the tail 2G or 27. The tail, which is very thick at the root, is covered
with bristly hairs longer than those on the body. The binturong ranges from Simla
through the Malay Peninsula to Java ; it feeds on small mammals, birds, fishes,
worms, insects, and fruits, leading a nocturnal life among the trees, and climbing in
a somewhat slow manner, partially supported by its tail. The binturong is said to
have a loud howling voice, and to be fierce by nature, although easily tamed when
caught young.
web-Footed Another very remarKable Malay representative of the group is
Civet. the web-footed civet (Cynogale bennetti), which is a distinctly aquatic
animal, although a good climber. It feeds partly on land animals and fruits, but
Sis'"*'- .,
BINTURONG.
chiefly on crabs and fishes. In external appear-
ance it presents some resemblance to an otter.
The anterior cheek-teeth are unusually long,
probably for seizing and rending fish. Like the otter, it has a broad depressed muzzle,
thickly fringed with whiskers, which are unusually long on the cheeks and over
the eyes. The toes are webbed at the base. The short tail measures only 9£ inches,
the length of the head and body being about 32 inches. In colour this civet is
brownish, the back and outside of the legs being more grizzly than the rest. It is
a native of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo.
Crab-Eating The mongooses are represented by the crab-eating species (Her-
Mongoose. pestes urva), which ranges from Nepal to southern China, One of its
distinctive features is the white behind the eye ; the general colour on the legs and
under-parts is reddish brown, and on the back grey ; the tail has no black tip. This
mongoose, which is partly aquatic in its habits, and feeds chiefly on crabs and frogs,
is stoutly built and about 20 inches in length to the root of the tail, the tail itself
measuring about a foot.
MALAY WILD DOGS — MALAY BEAR
171
Malay Wild
Dogs.
Eastward of the Bay of Bengal hyaenas are unknown, and the
only members of the dog family met with are the jackal and the
Malay wild dog (Canis sv/matrensis). The latter differs from the Indian race of
the same species by its inferior stature, slighter build, and colour, the upper-parts
MALAY BEAR.
being rufous and the lower surface white. In habits the two races appear, how-
ever, to be practically identical.
The Himalayan black bear is met with as far south as Mergui,
a ay ear. ^^ ^^ .^ wegtern an(j southern China, Hainan, and Formosa. The
typical bear of south-eastern Asia is, however, the Malay bear (Zfrsws malayanus),
172
THE MALAY PROVINCE
which ranges from Chittagong to Borneo, and likewise extends into the Sze-chuan
province of western China. This is a very small species, apparently never
attaining a greater length than 4| feet, the tail measuring about 2 inches. It is
specially characterised by its short and rounded skull. The fur is short and
coarse, the claws are curved, the ears are small, and the tongue is very long. The
general colour of the fur is black shading to brown, becoming whitish on the
muzzle and chin, and round the e}^es. On the throat is a pale-coloured gorget,
the broad extremities of this often coalescing to form a large patch, the end of
which tapers and is continued down the body. Very little is known of the habits
of this bear in the wild state, although it is comparatively common in menageries.
It seems to be a thoroughly forest-animal, and an excellent climber, living chiefly
on fruits, but preying upon mammals and birds when opportunity offers, and
HIMALAYAN PANDA.
probably also feeding on insects and their larvae, while it evidently has a liking
for honey.
Himalayan That very remarkable mammal, the Himalayan panda (A^lurus
Panda. fulgens), which, together with the short-tailed panda of Sze-chuan
forms a special subfamily of the raccoons, inhabits the south-eastern Himalaya at an
altitude of 6500 to 11,000 feet. It does not occur west of Nepal, but is distributed
through the mountains north of Assam and into Yunnan. It has a broad rounded
head, circular pupils to the eyes, which are set well forward, large ears, stout
limbs, with the feet thickly covered with hair on the under side, long, sharp,
curved, partially retractile claws, and a long ringed tail. The length of the body
is about 24 inches, and the tail measures about 19 inches. The coat is long and
thick, with woolly under-fur ; the colour on the back, head, and tail is bright rufous,
but the under-parts and inner sides of the limbs are blackish. The face and lower
lip are white, except for a reddish stripe extending over the eyes down to the
FERRET-BADGERS— SAND-BADGER— OTTERS 173
corners of the mouth ; the ears are white on the edges and inner surface. The
panda, as a rule, is found in pairs or small families in the forest, living in the
hollows of trees, and probably also among rocks, but spending much of its time on
the ground, where it feeds. Its food seems to consist of grass, roots, fruits, and
bamboo-shoots, and also eggs, and insects and their larvae. On the ground its
movements are very slow and awkward, but it can hold fruit and other objects
between the fore-paws. Its senses of hearing, sight, and smell do not appear to
be very well developed, and as its movements are slow and it is not shy, the panda
is easily caught. It sleeps curled up like a dog, with the head covered by the tail,
or hidden between the chest and fore-paws. It is also known to sleep on its legs,
in the manner often seen among the American raccoons, in accordance with its
habit of reposing on the branches of trees. It does not seem to be exclusively
nocturnal in its habits, although sleeping a great deal during the day ; captive
specimens being most lively in the mornings and evenings. Its usual cry is a short
feeble chirping like that of a bird, but when angry it rears itself in bear-fashion
on its hind-legs, as if to seize the intruder, and snorts or hisses. The male when
excited emits a strong smell of musk. A local race of the species inhabits
Sze-chuan.
Very characteristic of the Malay province are the so-called
Ferret-Badgers. . .
ferret-badgers, of which four species are known, two of these being
Chinese and the others more distinctly Malayan. The Burmese species (Helictis
personata) is a small mammal with a long body, head, and nose, living in trees
and feeding on fruits, small mammals, and birds. It is mainly confined to Manipur
and lower Burma. The limbs are short, strong, and somewhat compressed, the
pads of the soles being naked, and the claws of the fore-feet double as long as
those of the hind-feet. The upper-parts are grey. The brown ferret-badger
(H. orientaiis), in which the upper-parts are brown, ranges from Nepal to Java.
Like the Burmese species, it is about 16 inches long, with a tail of 9 inches. In
habits these animals appear to be nocturnal, and they live chiefly in woods.
The sand-badgers, of which there are two species, are more
Sand-Badger. . ° . .
exclusively Malayan. They have stout bodies and limbs, rather short
tails, long mobile muzzles, naked towards the tip and terminating in a flat disc
like the snout of a pig, very short rounded ears, small eyes, slightly-curved blunt
claws, and long coarse hair, with a woolly under-fur. The common sand-badger
(Arctonyx collaris), which occurs in Nepal, Sikhim, Assam, Sylhet, Cachar, Arakan,
Pegu, and Tenasserim, is more or less dirty grey in colour above, with a peculiar
mark on the white head, the under-parts and legs being darker. In length it
measures about 30 inches, the tail being about 11 inches. Nocturnal in its
habits, it lives in rocky undulating country, and in thickets among hills, hiding
in the clefts of the rock, or in holes excavated by its powerful claws. The
second species, A. taxoides, occurs in Assam, Arakan, and probably southern China.
The otters of the Malay countries are to a great extent closely allied
to those of India. The common Indian species, for instance, is met with
on the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal, although it is not definitely known how
far east and south its range extends. The same is the case with the smooth Indian
otter (Lutra ellioti), which also inhabits Burma and the Malay Peninsula. A third
174
THE MALAY PROVINCE
species, the clawless-otter (L. cinerea), distinguished by the extraordinary small,
stunted claws, which are sometimes entirely absent, ranges from India into China.
It is common near Calcutta, in Assam, Burma, southern China, and the Malay
Peninsula and Islands, and is said to be the species which frequents the neighbour-
hood of Newera Elliya, in Ceylon. The head and body of this species measure
about 2 feet, and the tail 13 inches. A fourth species is the large Malay otter
THE GATAL, A DOMESTICATED BREED OF THE GADR.
(L. swmatrana), distinguished by the hairy nose ; it inhabits the Malay Peninsula
and Islands, and may extend into Tenasserim.
Passing on to the hoofed animals, we find the gaur (Bos gav/rus),
which has been already alluded to in the preceding chapter, extend-
ing through the hilly tracts of Burma and the Malay Peninsula. Another member
of the group, the gayal or mithan, is found in a domesticated condition from
Tippera, Manipur, Cachar, and the Lushai Hills to Chittagong. It is a somewhat
Gayal.
Ban tin.
BANTIN—SEROW AND GORAL — THAMIN 175
smaller animal than the gaur, with a flat forehead, regularly conical black horns,
and no forwardly-curving ridge between the latter. The general colour is
blackish, with the lower part of the legs white. As mentioned above, the saladang,
or Malay race of the gaur, comes, however, very close in the characters of the skull
and horns to the gayal, and there is little doubt that the latter is merely a domesti-
cated race of the former, in which case it is not entitled to a distinct scientific
name. Gayal are kept by the Kukis and Manipuris for the sake of their flesh,
and, according to some accounts, also for their milk, although the latter is doubtful,
because, as a rule, Buddhists never drink milk. These animals apparently are
not used either for tilling the ground or for carrying loads, and are allowed to
wander about in the woods during the day, returning in the evening to their
owner's village.
Throughout Burma and the Malay Peninsula as well as in
Borneo and Java occurs a very distinct species of wild ox, the bantin
(B. scmdaicus), which also inhabits Siam and perhaps Sumatra, and is distributed
northward as far as Pegu, Arakan, and the mountain-ranges east of Chittagong.
In many respects the bantin resembles the gaur, but is of lighter build, with
longer limbs, and the ridge on the back much less strongly developed. The
dewlap is of moderate size, and the tail longer than that of the gaur, reaching to
the hocks ; the head is also somewhat longer. In young animals the horns are
cylindrical in shape, but in fully grown animals are flattened at the base. In the
Javan and Bornean races the cows and calves are bright rufous in colour, shading
to chestnut about the head and upper part of the limbs, but the old bulls are black.
In both sexes the lower part of the legs are white, from the hocks and knees down-
wards, as is also a large patch on the buttocks ; and the lips and in sides of the ears
are also white. The bulls of the Burmese race of the species — the tsaine of the
natives — are, however, tawny or pale chestnut-coloured at all ages. The bantin
stands about 66 inches high at the withers ; and, judging from the length of its
legs, is riot such a good climber as the gaur, being more restricted to the plains
covered with grass and jungle, and less of a mountain-animal.
The humped cattle, or zebu, of India and Africa, are probably derived from
the bantin.
Brief mention may be made of the serow (Capricornis suma-
Serow and Goral. . . J tpitt-i
trensis), which ranges from the eastern end of the Himalaya,
through Manipur and Yunnan, as far as Sumatra, and is met with in Assam,
Burma, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula. In the typical Sumatran race the lower
part of the legs is reddish, but in the Malay race (G. s. swettenltami) the colour is
almost uniformly black. Another race (C. s. milne-edwardsi) inhabits Sze-chuan.
A goral, which appears to be a local race of the ashy goral of Sze-chuan, inhabits
the mountains of Burma, and has been named Urotragus cinereus evansi.
In the countries east of the Bay of Bengal the sambar of India
Thamin. . J ° . .
is represented by a distinct race (Cervus umcolor eqiiirms); while in
Java and the Moluccas there exists an allied species, the rusa (C. hippelaphus), with
much more slender antlers. One of the most characteristic deer of Burma and the
Malay Peninsula is, however, the thamin {G. eldi), which belongs to the same group
as the barasingha of India, from which it is distinguished, among other features,
176
THE MALAY PROVINCE
■
by the peculiar form of the antlers. The thamin inhabits Manipur and suitable
districts throughout Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Cambodia, and Hainan, where
it always frequents alluvial plains near rivers. It is of fairly large size, the stags
standing 45 inches at
the shoulder, and the
hinds about 42 inches.
The antlers, which
measure on an average
40 inches or more,
have exceptional^
long and curved brow-
tines, which form a
continuation of the
curve of the beam, the
junction being gener-
j ally marked by a
number of small snags.
The beam, which for
.1 considerable dis-
tance— generally half
its length — is un-
branched, and curves
backwards and out-
wards and finally for-
wards, carries towards
the tip a number of
small snags, from two
or three up to nine or
ten. In Mergui and
Malacca the antlers
are shorter, the brow-
tines bearing gener-
ally from two to three
points: in Siam, where
the upper part of the
antler is flattened, it
carries numerous
small points. The
Siamese race is known
as C. eldi platyceros.
The thamin is short-
tailed, coarse-haired,
and in winter shaggy-
coated, the throat of
the stags being thickly
a thamin stag. haired. The colour
DEER — CHEVROTAINS — RHINOCEROS 177
of the coat in winter is dark brown, in summer fawn, the hinds being paler
and redder. The fawns are spotted. Thamin are generally seen in herds of
from ten to fifteen or more. During the day they may possibly seek the shelter of
the woods, but they usually keep to the open plains, and are often observed grazing
on wild rice and other plants ; they apparently seek marshy spots, not on account of
the presence of water alone, since they are met with in plains where there is no
water during the dry season. In Manipur the antlers are shed in June, in lower
Burma about September. In Burma the rutting-time lasts from March to May,
and the fawns — generally one to each doe — are usually born in October or
November. The antlers appear in the second year, but the stags are not fully
developed until about their seventh year,
schomburgk's A very distinct species, Schomburgk's deer (C. schomburgki),
and other Deer, nearly allied to the thamin, occurs in Siam, but very little is known
of its habits. There are also numerous distinct species of small deer in the
Philippines — among them Prince Alfred's deer (C. alfredi), in which the stags are
black with white spots at all seasons.
The muntjacs are represented in Moulmein by Cervulus feat, a
species which differs from the ordinary forms by its darker colouring
and the long tuft of hair between the antlers. Other species, such as Reeves's
muntjac (C. reevesi), distinguished by its small size and bright coloration, inhabit
China and Formosa. The Indian muntjac also occurs in the countries east of the
Bay of Bengal, its representative in Burma having been named Cervulus muntjac
grandicornis.
Of the chevrotains or mouse-deer, the small Malay species
(Tragidus javanicus) occurs as far north as Tenasserim, as well as in
Cambodia, Cochin China, and the Malay Peninsula and islands. It is the smallest
of the ungulates with the exception of the pigmy antelopes of West Africa, the
head and body measuring only 18 inches long and the tail 3 inches. In colour it
is reddish brown above, and whitish below, with a dark line down the nape
and generally a brown stripe down the chest. This chevrotain frequents
dense jungle, and is also found in mangrove-swamps on the coast. Like the rest of
its kind, it is a timid, gentle little animal, walking on the tips of its hoofs, living
alone except during the pairing-season, and easily tamed. The second species is
the napu (T. napu), which inhabits much the same localities, and is distinguished
mainly by its larger size, its shoulder-height being about 13 inches and its length
about 27 inches. Numerous island forms of these two species have received dis-
tinct names. Of a third species (T. Stanley anus), the home is not definitely known.
The Indian wild boar extends into Burma ; but in the Malay islands
Wild Pigs. . . .
its place is taken by several more or less closely allied species, such as
Sus vittatus, S. verrucosus, and S. barbatus, the latter distinguished by the great
length of its head. A small pig (S. andamanensis) inhabits the Andaman Isles, and
differs from the Indian animal not only by its inferior size, but by the absence
of a crest of long hair on the back.
Javan Of the two Malay rhinoceroses, the Javan, or lesser one-horned
Rhinoceros, rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus), is distributed from Assam through
Burma and the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java, and Borneo ; and is also found
vol. 11. — 12
i78
THE MALAY PROVINCE
in the Bengal Sandarbans and parts of eastern Bengal. It is considerably smaller
than the large one-horned Indian species, from which it differs widely in the characters
of the skin. In place of the large tubercles of the Indian species, the skin of the body
and limbs is covered with small, angular, scaly discs of uniform size which form a
network of cracks. As in the Indian rhinoceros, the skin is divided into shields by
folds, those before and behind the shoulders being continued right across the body
like the other two main folds. The horn, which is frequently absent in the
female, is never very large. This rhinoceros is more an inhabitant of forests than
of grassy plains, and although found in the low swamps of the Sandarbans, is
usually met with in mountainous regions. In Burma and Java it is found at a
considerable altitude, its footprints having been noticed south-east of Sadiya at an
altitude of 6500 feet.
MALAY CHEVEOTAIN.
Sumatran
Rhinoceros.
The two-horned Sumatran rhinoceros (R. sumatrensis) ranges
from Assam into Siam, and southwards into Sumatra and Borneo.
It is the smallest existing member of the group, the average height being only
about 4 feet. This rhinoceros is more thickly haired than any of the other
species, the greater portion of the body, which is greyish brown or black, being
thinly covered with longish black hair, which tends, however, to disappear with
age. From both the other Asiatic rhinoceroses it is broadly distinguished by
possessing two horns, which are often of considerable size and curve backwards.
The skin is coarsely granular, with the folds indistinctly marked, and only the one
behind the shoulder continued across the back. It also differs from the other
species in having only one pair of incisor teeth in the lower jaw. The Chittagong
representative of this species (R. sumatrensis lasiotis), which was at first thought
TAPIR— IRA WAD I DOLPHIN— SQUIRRELS 179
to differ from the Sumatran and Malay animal by its more abundant hair, now
appears to be distinguishable only by its superior size.
The Malay tapir (Tapirus indicus), which ranges from Tenas-
serim to Sumatra, and perhaps Borneo, is the only representative of
its kind in the Old World. In height it stands about 40 inches at the withers,
and has a curved back, measuring along the curve from the tip of the nose to
the root of the tail about 8 feet. The head, legs, and the fore part of the body
are black or dark brown, the rest of the body and the tips of the ears being white
or grey. The young up to six months differ in colour from the adults, being of a
soft silky dark brown, marked with brownish yellow spots, especially on the sides ;
the under-parts are white. According to native reports, this tapir, instead of
swimming, is accustomed to walk along the bottom of rivers or lakes.
It feeds on leaves and young sprigs and buds ; and its colouring seems
intended to break up the outline of the body, and thus render the animal
inconspicuous.
The Irawadi is inhabited by a fresh-water dolphin of quite a
' different type from the one found in the great Indian rivers. This
dolphin (Orcella fluminalis) is characterised by its rounded head, short beak, small
scythe-shaped dorsal fin, and moderately large, almost oval flippers. It occurs locally
in the Irawadi from Prome to Bhamo in the deeper parts of the river, but has never
been observed in the tidal portion, so that it appears to be confined exclusively to
fresh water. This dolphin, which is nearly related to another species of the genus
(0. brevirostris) inhabiting the Malay seas, is characterised by the small
number of its teeth, of which it has in the upper jaw only fifteen, and in the lower
jaw fourteen pairs. The sides of the body are marked with numerous small
irregular stripes, the ground-colour being pale slaty above and white
beneath. The length is about 7£ feet. This dolphin, whose food consists,
so far as is known, entirely of fish, is a sociable species, seldom seen alone.
It keeps to deep water, coming to the surface about every minute or so to
breathe, when it emits a short blowing noise while exhaling and a weaker sound
while inhaling.
Like India, the Malay province is rich in rodents, especially
the squirrel tribe. In the eastern Himalaya, Sikhim, Bhutan, and
the large mountain-forests of Assam, Manipur, Burma, Siam, the Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, and even in Celebes, the large Indian squirrel is
replaced by the nearly allied Malay form (Ratufa bicolor). Similar in habits to the
Indian species, this squirrel is generally seen in pairs; it eats fruits and nuts of various
kinds, as well as insects and birds' eggs, and has a loud harsh cry. In colour it is
black or dark brown above, and paler underneath. The black-backed squirrel
(Sciurus atrodorsalis) has a black stripe on the back ; its tail is 7 inches long, the
body measuring 8^ inches. It inhabits Siam, but is represented in northern
Tenasserim by 8. flavimanus. Both are remarkable not only for their varied
coloration, but for being generally found not among tall trees, but in bushes and
hedges near villages or in bamboo thickets. There are many other Malay squirrels ,
and flying-squirrels are also common in the Malay countries, but marmots and
susliks are absent.
Squirrels.
i So THE MALA Y PRO VINCE
Among the members of the mouse tribe, the Indian house-rat is
well known within the Malay area, where there also occurs the closely-
allied lesser rat (Mus concolor), which lives in the roofs of wooden buildings. It is
well known in Pegu, Tenasserim, and the Mergui Islands, but probably has a wider
distribution. This rat is 4 inches long, the tail being rather longer than the
body, and it has a rough coat interspersed with bristles on the back, which is
reddish brown above and paler below. The palm-mouse (Vandeleuria oleracea),
which occurs for the most part in India, Ceylon, Assam, and Burma as far as
Yunnan, is a remarkable species, representing a genus by itself, and is noticeable on
account of its habit of living in trees and bushes, especially palms and bamboos.
Here it builds a nest consisting of grass and leaves, which at the proper season
contains from three to four young. Equally noteworthy is the mouse known as
Chiropodomys gliroides, which is also the only representative of its kind. It has
uniformly close hair, which becomes still thicker on the tail. In colour this mouse
is brown above and white below. It is distributed all over the Malay countries,
occurring in Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Borneo.
Black-Bellied One vole, the black-bellied Microtus melanogaster, occurs in the
Vole. upper Irawadi valley. It is yellowish brown above and dark brown
beneath, with a ground-colour of dark ashy grey. The head and body measure
3|- inches, and the tail a little over an inch. This vole ranges into Malaya from
south Tibet and south-west China.
Very characteristic of the Malay province are the bamboo-rats, the common
bay species (Rhizomys badius) inhabiting the foot of the Himalaya, Nepal,
Sikhim, Bhutan, Manipur, Burma, and Siam. The close fur, which conceals the
ears, is of a chestnut or greyish brown colour.
The bay bamboo-rat makes its home in a burrow, or sometimes beneath the
root of a tree, or in thick tall grass, the teeth as well as the claws being used in
digging. In the evenings this rodent issues forth from its hiding-place to feed on
grass, corn, and bamboo-shoots ; it is also said to be fond of roots and to take up
its abode in situations where it can obtain them readily. Another kind, the
larger bamboo-rat (R. sumatrensis), ranges from Siam to Tenasserim ; it is of
large size, measuring 17 inches to the root of the tail, the tail itself being about
5£ inches long. In colour it is dark ashy grey or light brown above, somewhat
darker down the middle of the back, and paler below. A third kind (R. pruinosus)
apparently ranges from Assam to Cambodia and China.
The true porcupines are represented in the Malay province by
Porcupines. -T ■ • i
the Himalayan and Bengal species, as well as by a third kind, the
long-tailed Hystrix longicauda, which inhabits the Malay Peninsula and Islands,
and also by the small H. ywnnanensis, of Yunnan, which lacks the crest of the
other forms.
Of the brush-tailed porcupines one species is indigenous to western and central
Africa, and the other to Burma and the Malay province. These rodents are much
smaller and more rat-like than the true porcupines, from which they differ by
their long scaly tails, terminating in a tuft of flattened and alternately wide and
narrow spines. The flattened spines of the body are grooved, and taper towards
the tip. The Malay species (Atherura macrura) is about 22 inches long, exclusive
Oh
<
z
<
E
PANGOLINS— GRO UND-THR USHES— BABBLERS 18 1
of the tail, which measures about 10 inches. Its range extends from Chittagong,
Tippera, and the Khasi Hills to Java, Sumatra, and Borneo.
The Malay pangolin (Manis javanica), one of two representatives
in this area of the Edentata, ranges from Sjdhet and Tippera
through Burma, Cochin China, Cambodia, and the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra,
Java, Borneo, and Celebes. This species, which attains a length of 24 inches, with
a tail of about 20 inches, is larger than its two Asiatic relatives, from which it
also differs by its more slender shape, as well as by the much greater relative
length of the hind claws, which are nearly as long as those of the fore-feet.
The Chinese pangolin (31. aurita), which ranges from southern China, Hainan,
Formosa, the Kareen Mountains, and the district north of Bhamo to Assam and
the Himalaya as far west as Nepal, is distinguished from its Indian relative by
its much larger scales, darker colour, and larger ears. It has, moreover, many
more hairs between the scales than the other Asiatic species. Its length is from
19 to 23 inches, the tail measuring from 13 to 15 inches more.
Ground- Many of the more noteworthy birds of the Malay countries have
Thrushes. an extensive geographical range, the numerous species of ground-
thrushes, for instance, ranging over India, central Asia, and Australia. These
birds resemble ordinary thrushes in many respects, but differ by the colours of the
axillaries and the pattern formed by the white bases of the quills on the under-
side of the wing. The orange-headed ground-thrush (Geocichla citrina), a bird
about the equal in size of the song-thrush, breeds throughout the area lying
between the extreme east of Assam and Tenasserim. Here it is found in large
numbers all the year round, and in summer it ascends in the Himalaya up to
heights of 5000 or 6000 feet, whence it ranges occasionally into Ceylon and the
Malay Peninsula as far south as Tongkah. The Malay ground-thrush (G. innotata),
which differs in being without the white tips to the medium wing-coverts, is a more
southerly species, ranging from Tenasserim to Malacca.
Babbling Another group is represented by the babbling thrushes, many
Thrushes, species of which are common to India and the Malay countries.
Babblers, etc. Among ^e m0st striking is the Himalayan white-crested species
(Garrulax leucolophus), which ranges to Bhamo and eastern Assam. Nearly
allied is the white-crested Burmese G. bela/ngeri, chiefly inhabiting Tenasserim and
Pegu. A third member of the white-crested group, the Siamese G. diardi, ranges
over Siam and Cambodia, while the black-gorgetted G. pectoralis and the necklaced
G. moniliger both range from the Himalaya to Burma. Closely related are the
babblers, of which there are numerous representatives in the area under considera-
tion, while some are found in India and Africa. To another branch of the same
family (Timeliidce) belong the hill-tits, all of which are arboreal in their
habits, and have the two sexes dissimilar in plumage. Among them, the red-
beaked Liothrix lutea is an inhabitant of upper Burma and Aracan, but its habitat
extends into southern China, across the Khasi Hills, and along the Himalaya from
Bhutan to Simla. In size this hill-tit is a little larger than the coal-tit ; in colour
it is olive-green above and yellow below, with an orange-coloured throat and chin,
a yellow ring round the eye, and yellow or crimson edges to the wing-feathers.
X82
THE MALAY PROVINCE
These birds, which feed on berries and other fruits, seeds, and insects, generally
collect in small parties among thickets and underwood. Another member of the
group is the red-capped babbler (Timelia pileata), which is the only member of
its genus, and inhabits Borneo, Siam, Cochin China, and Java, although absent
from the Malay Peninsula. In colour it is olive-brown on the upper-parts, and
whitish below, with a rufous crown and a white forehead. Its home is among
the grassy plains, where it leads an almost hidden life among the grass on the
ground, often betraying its presence by its agreeable song.
RED-BEAKED HILL-TIT.
Tailor-Bird.
A very characteristic species is the tailor-bird {Orthotonus
sutorius), which ranges from India and Ceylon through Burma and
the Malay Peninsula as far south as Mergui to Siam and China. Tailor-birds have
long straight slender beaks, with the aid of which they construct their nests,
formed of green leaves sewn together with plant-fibres. They are generally
confined to well-wooded tracts and bushy districts ; and, for their size, are
possessed of singularly loud voices.
VARIOUS PERCHING BIRDS 183
Magpie-Robin Another noteworthy bird is the magpie - robin (Copsychus
and snama. saularis), which ranges throughout India and Burma as far as
Moulmein. Of equally wide distribution is the shama (Cittocincla macrura), a
bird frequently kept in confinement by the Malays.
The crow-tits, an Oriental group of birds distinguished by a
Crow-Tits. . 1
thick crest and a deep, short, and compressed beak, are largely
represented in India and the Malay province. They feed solely on insects. A well-
known member of the group is the yellow-billed species (Paradoxomis flavirostris)
which inhabits Assam, the Khasi Hills, Bhutan, Sikhim, and Nepal, where it
generally frequents reed-thickets.
The flower-peckers are small birds of much the same habits as
Flower-Peckers. . . L
tits, wandering about m small parties, and frequenting tall trees.
They resemble sun-birds in having the edges of the beak serrated for a portion of
its length, but the beak is shorter. They feed on insects, honey, and soft fruits, and
construct pear-shaped hanging nests with an entrance-hole at the side. One species,
the Nilgiri flower-pecker (Dicceum concolor), is confined to the western coast of
India, a second, D. virescens, is peculiar to the Andamans, but nine others are common
to India and the Malay countries, while others range over the Malay Peninsula and
Islands to New Guinea and Australia. One of the most widely distributed is the
scarlet-backed flower-pecker (D. cruentatum), whose habitat extends eastwards
from Calcutta to China and southwards to Sumatra.
The gorgeous sun-birds {Nectar iniidce) resemble flower-peckers
in the long tubular tongue, but are distinguished by the long, cylindrical
beak. Although mainly African, the group is well represented in Burma and the
more eastern countries of the Malay province, while nine species are known from
India. All have a richly coloured plumage, with a metallic gloss, resembling in this
respect, as well as in their habits, the humming-birds of America which to a certain
degree they represent in the Old World. They feed on tiny insects, which they
capture with their tongues in flowers, as well as on honey. They do not, however,
hover like humming-birds over flowers, but cling to them after the manner of tits.
In this -group the sexes differ in plumage, and the nest is pensile.
In the spider-hunters, on the other hand, the plumage lacks
a gloss, the two sexes are alike, and the nest is attached by its
rim to a broad leaf. These birds are represented by numerous species in India and
the islands of the Malay Archipelago ; a striking member of the group being the
little spider-hunter {Arachnothera longirostris), the range of which extends from
the Western Ghats of India to the Malay Archipelago.
The allied* group of white-eyes have, like the flower-
peckers and the sun-birds, the tongue adapted for catching minute
insects and sucking honey. This organ is extensile and forked at the tip, where it
is provided with a brush of horny fibres. In general colour these birds are green,
but they take their name from the white rings encircling their eyes. They are
represented by about sixty species distributed over the tropical countries of Africa
and Asia, the groups of islands belonging to both, and the whole of the Australian
area. The Siamese white-eye (Zosterops siamensis) inhabits the forests and gardens
of southern Pegu, Tenasserim, Siam, and Cochin China. These birds dwell in small
1 84 THE MALAY PROVINCE
parties in the crowns of palms, continually twittering and searching the leaves for
insects. The common Indian white-eye (Z. palpebrosa) does not extend farther
east than Bhamo, and is not found farther south to the east of the Bay of Bengal.
Very similar in habits are the bright green leaf-birds, of which
Leaf Birds
the golden - fronted Chloropsis aurifrons ranges from southern
Bengal to Cambodia. In this species the crown of the head is brilliant golden
yellow, the face black, and the throat of the same colour, crossed by an orange
band, with a deep blue spot on the chin, and brilliant turquoise-blue lesser wing-
coverts. Its brilliant plumage makes this species difficult to discover among the
palm-leaves, especially as, like all its kindred, it mimics the calls of other birds.
The bulbuls though largely African are more characteristically
Buibuis. ....
represented in tropical Asia, especially the Malay Islands. They are
all birds of the forest, living principally among the upper branches of trees, and
rarely in underwood, their food consisting of insects and berries. They resemble
thrushes in habits, and in all cases possess a melodious song. Among these, the
Bengal red- whiskered bulbul (Otocompsa emeria), one of the crested species,
ranging from Simla to China, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula, has a black head
with white ear-coverts, a crimson tuft extending from the lower eyelid over the ear-
coverts, the under tail-coverts crimson, and the tail-feathers tipped with white.
The long crest springs from the centre of the crown, and, like the peculiar ear-tuft,
is most highly developed in the Burmese and Malay form of the bird.
Among the finch tribe, the European tree-sparrow inhabits not
Sparrows. . .
only the Himalaya as far east as Assam (where it is found in summer
at heights of 7000 feet and more), but also the Malay province as far as Java. In
the eastern portion of its vast distributional area this bird does not, as in Europe,
build in trees but, like the house-sparrow, nests in holes of houses and other build-
ings. The house-sparrow itself ranges as far east as Cochin China ; while the closely
allied Pegu house-sparrow (Passer flaveolus), which has a good deal of yellow in its
plumage, likewise lives in or near buildings, as well as in jungle, ranging into
Cochin China, but most abundant in the northern portions of the area under
consideration.
The weaver-birds are near relatives of the finches, which they
Weaver-Birds. . , .... ,
resemble m general bodily form, especially in the shape of the beak,
although distinguished by having ten in place of only nine pairs of primary quills.
The group is likewise characterised by the peculiarly constructed nests, which
differ from those of all the finch tribe by being closed above. In shape the nest is
like a bottle or ball, suspended from above, and attached to leaves or twigs at the
side, and entered by a tube from below. This is the construction of the nests of
the tree-weavers, but those of the fire and velvet weavers, as well as of the widow-
birds and certain others, are oval in shape, provided with a hole at the side or the
top, and a roof-like covering with stems protruding from the upper wall. This
roof is fastened by grass-stems to shrubs and bushes, the twigs and stems of which
are ingeniously worked in so as to serve the purpose of rafters. The gorgeous
weavers, or munias, are inhabitants of the forest, but the tree-weavers frequent
more open country, where meadows alternate with coppices or clumps of trees, or
resort to plantations surrounding villages, or hang their nests from trees over-
WE A VER- BIRDS — MUNI AS
185
shadowing native huts. The lire-weavers, widow-birds, and velvet-weavers, on the
other hand, inhabit the plains, where they nest in high grass.
Although mainly African, the weaver-birds are represented by two Oriental
genera, among them being the eastern baya (Ploceus megalorhynchu*), which ranges
from Bengal and the eastern Himalaya to the islands of Java and Sumatra. The
bottle-like nest of this species is built of grass, with an entrance-tube from below of
as much as 24 inches in r
length ; it is often seen
hanging from the eaves
of the native houses in
Assam, where the bird is
known as the took-ra.
In their
Muiiias.
habits mun-
ias resemble finches more
than others of their kin-
dred, but are quicker in
their movements. In the
breeding-season the flocks
of these birds break up
into single pairs ; each of
which constructs a large
spherical nest of fine
grasses — not woven but
untidily packed together
— with an entrance -hole
at the side. One of the
best known representa-
tives of the group is the
Indian red munia or am-
andavat {Sporceginlhus
amandava), better known
perhaps as the abadavat,
a small crimson bird with
brown wings, and ' num-
erous circular white spots
on the sides of the body.
The allied Burmese species
(S. flavidiventris) is distinguished by the yellowish red, instead of black, under-
pays.
Another well-known member of the group is the Indian rice-bird (S
oryzivorus), which is about the size of a goldfinch, and inhabits the Malay
Peninsula and Isles. It is of light grey colour above, and a pale red below, in
contrast to which the black crown, chin, upper tail-coverts, and tail, as well as the
white lower tail-coverts, the black edges of the cheeks, and the red of the beak,
stand out conspicuously. Despite the fact that its song is often by no means
MALAY GRACKLE.
1 86 THE MALAY PROVINCE
pleasing, the rice-bird is often kept in captivity ; it is generally considered an
enemy to the rice-cultivator.
The well-known grackles are glossy black Oriental representa-
Grackles
tives of the starling tribe, characterised by their crow-like beaks,
which, like their feet, are yellow or red, and bare warty wattle-like patches on the
sides of the head. Grackles range from India through the Malay countries as far
eastwards as New Guinea. The Malay grackle (Eulabes javanensis), whose habitat
extends from Tenasserim to Borneo, is almost as large as a jackdaw ; it easily
learns to whistle and talk, a habit very characteristic of all the grackles, which
are in consequence frequently called talking mynas.
Nearly allied are the beautiful glossy starlings, which also have
' a sable plumage, but with a much more brilliant metallic gloss. The
most common species (Calornis calibeius) ranges from Tippera, Dacca, and Cachar
through the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.
Although likewise glossy black in plumage, the African and
Oriental drongos form a very different group of birds, characterised
by their crow-like beaks, with bristles at the base and round the nostrils, and
their long and generally forked tails. These birds, which resemble flycatchers in
their habits, live alike in thin forest, plantations, and open plains dotted with trees,
from the branches of which they take short flights in pursuit of their insect-prey.
In spite of their stings, they capture without hesitation numbers of bees and wasps.
The nest, which is very like that of the golden oriole, contains at the proper season,
eggs much resembling those of the shrikes. Drongos live in pairs or families ; the
cocks have an agreeable song, and considerable powers of mimicry. The most
remarkable of the group are perhaps the racket-tailed species, the smaller of which
(BJtringa remifer) ranges from the eastern Himalaya and the hill-tracts of Assam
through Burma to Tenasserim, and also inhabits Perak, Sumatra, and Java.
In the crow tribe the Burmese crow (Corvus insolens) replaces
Crows and Kittas. . _.-.__. .
the Indian crow in the Malay province. Like its Indian cousin, this
species generally frequents towns and villages in large flocks, although it will
occasionally take up its residence near isolated huts in the forest. In another
group, the kittas, which are exclusively Oriental, resemble magpies and their
relatives in form and habits, but are more beautiful in plumage. The green
kitta (Cissa chinensis) is light bluish green with refldish brown wings, a
brown-black band crossing the eyes and extending to the sides of the head, a
red beak, and coral-coloured legs. Its area of distribution extends from the
Jumna valley to Mergui.
Jays and Tree- The jays are represented by the Burmese Garrulus leucotis, a
Pies. species restricted to tall pine-forests. The tree-pies again, which are
distributed over India, southern China, Formosa, Hainan, the Andamans, and
Sumatra, are of the size and appearance of magpies ; and they resemble the latter
in habits, although keeping to the tops of trees, and live principally on fruits,
though they eat also insects and young birds. Among them, the Indian tree-pie
(Dendrocitta rufa) ranges from Kashmir to Travancore and from Assam to Mergui,
while another, the Himalayan tree-pie (D. himalayanus), is found from the valley
of the Sutlej to Tenasserim.
CUCKOO-SHRIKES — PARADISE-FL YCA TCHER — PITTAS
187
The widely spread cuckoo-shrikes represent another afroup, char-
Cuckoo-Shrikes. . . . © r>
acterised by the fairly wide beak, which is not distinctly flattened but
slightly bent and notched, and seldom very strong. Their plumage is glossy black
SMALL RACKET-TAILED
DRONGO.
or grey, that of the females being often reddish brown
or whitish with black cross-bands. The pale grey
cuckoo-shrike (Campojrfiaga melanoptera) inhabits
many parts of the Malay province, extending from
Tenasserim to Siam and China. It is a pale grey bird
with black wings and tail.
Paradise- In no genus are the characteristics of
Flycatcher, the flycatchers more strongly developed
than in the paradise-flycatchers of the Oriental region,
among which the Burmese Terjjsiphone affinis ranges
from Sikhim to Tenasserim. In colour it is black and
grey, with a chestnut back and white under-parts.
As in the other species, the two middle tail feathers
are of great length.
Very characteristic of the area under
consideration are the pittas, which differ
from all the other Oriental perching-birds by the large
size of the first primary quill of the wing. Pittas are
birds of the size of thrushes, but with a shorter and
stouter body, longer legs, and a short tail. They
Pittas.
1 88 THE MALA Y PRO VIA CE
range from India through the Malay countries to Australia, but have also one
outlying African species. Phayre's pitta (Anthocincla phayrei), distinguished by
the aigrette-like plumes on the upper part of the neck, inhabits Burma and
Tenasserim. To an allied genus, distinguished by the absence of these plumes,
belongs the giant pitta (Pitta ccerulea), of Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula,
Sumatra, and Borneo. It is the largest member of the group, measuring about
11| inches in length.
Among the so-called picarian birds, the large needle-tailed swift
(Chcetura indica) ranges from Ceylon and southern India to Assam
and the adjacent districts. The allied tree-swifts, specially characterised by their
minute nests affixed to the branches or leaves of trees, lay only one large egg,
which so completely fills the nest that, when brooding, the females are com-
pelled to hold on to the supporting branch or leaf to prevent falling out, as indeed
are the young. These swifts, represented by half a dozen species, are distributed
from India through the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago to New Guinea. The
smallest members of the group are included in the genus Collocalia, whose distri-
butional area includes not only India, the Malay countries, and Polynesia, but also
Madagascar. Their nests consist of nothing but saliva, hardened by the air and
stuck to rocks in the shape of a ball. These are the well-known edible nests
imported in such immense quantities into China, those of most value being the
almost pure white ones of Collocallia fuciphaga, a species inhabiting the islands
lying between Mauritius and Samoa, and also found on the Nicobars and
Andamans, as well as in Tenasserim and Arakan, where it invariably keeps to
the shore.
Nightjar, Frog- In another group the horned nightjar (Chordiles cerviniceps),
Mouths, etc which in Sikhim and elsewhere spends its days in caves, belongs to
a genus widely spread over southern Asia, the Malay Archipelago, Australia, and
tropical America, and is distinguished by the absence of bristles on the beak. The
allied nocturnal frog-mouths, so called from the enormous size of the gape, are
distributed over India, the Malay Archipelago, and Australia. Some build nests of
twigs resembling those of pigeons, while others form for their one egg only a loose
basis of leaves and feathers on horizontally growing boughs. The group includes the
genera Podargus and Batrachostomus, the members of the latter being exclusively
Oriental, and represented in this area by B. hodgsoni, which inhabits the country
between Sikhim and northern Tenasserim. Among the broad - billed rollers,
represented by half a dozen species spread over the tropical countries of the Eastern
Hemisphere, the wide-beaked Eurystomus orientalis ranges through the Malay
countries into China as far as Manchuria.
In the bee-eater group, the square-tailed species are represented
both in India and the Malay Peninsula by Swinhoe's bee-eater
(Melittophagus swinhoei), characterised by its habit of awaiting its prey on some
dead twig, instead of hawking for it in the air like the majority of its kindred
The bearded bee-eaters, which, in place of inhabiting the plains, frequent clearings
in the forests of the higher mountains, never associate in parties, but go about in
pairs, and are rarely found far away from their nest, which is placed in the hole
of some tree. A well-known member of the group is the scarlet-bearded bee-eater
KINGFISHERS — HORNBIII — WO ODPE CKERS 1 8 9
{Nyctiomis amictus), of the Malay Peninsula and Isles, a species somewhat larger
than the European bee-eater. The plumage of this bird is green with a pale
violet band across the forehead and crown, and a scarlet throat.
Although the group of pied kingfishers is represented in India
their true home is tropical America (where, however, they lack the
pied type of coloration), while they are also found in Africa and Europe. These
birds fly better than the other kingfishers, and wander over a large tract in
pursuit of their prey, hawking above the surface of the water and seizing their
victims with a jerk. The Oriental species, Ceryle varia, inhabits India and the
Malay Peninsula. The wood-kingfishers, which live in forest, or in fields and
plantations, and feed, according to their size, on insects or small vertebrates,
especially snakes, generally sit crouching in a lazy, dreamy attitude, with their beaks
on their breasts, yet keeping a keen watch on their surroundings, and ready at any
moment to dash down on their prey. They nest in holes in trees, and are dis-
tinguished from their kindred by seizing their prey on the surface, instead of
diving for it in the water. They are inhabitants of Africa as well as of .tropical
Asia, the range of the brown Oriental Halcyon fuscus extending from Asia Minor
to the Philippines. Representing another genus, the Indian three-toed insectivorous
kingfisher (Ceyx tridactyla), which ranges from India through Burma to the
Malay Peninsula, is one of the most richly coloured members of the whole
group.
If only on account of its habit (shared by the rest of its kind) of
walling up the female in a hole in a tree during the period of incuba-
tion, mention must be made of the great pied hornbill (Diceros bicornis), the
largest representative of its kind, whose habitat extends from the forests of the
Himalaya to southern India and Sumatra.
Another noteworthy bird is the sultan woodpecker (Chryso-
Woodpeckers. J . £_ J
coiaptes sultaneus), a species about the size or the European green
woodpecker, with the mantle and wings golden yellow, the crown and lower part
of the back scarlet, the tail black, the lower-parts white and black, and the neck
marked by white and black stripes. The haunts of this bird are amid forests and
plantations, and in Burma frequently on the banks of rivers. Its near allies,
the stump-woodpeckers, have a similar type of plumage, but differ somewhat in the
structure of the feet. One of the commonest of this rather large group is the tiger-
woodpecker (Chrysonotus javanensis), whose range extends from the Malay
Peninsula to Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. The piculets differ from the more typical
woodpeckers by their diminutive size and short beak and tail, as well as by the
circumstance that the feathers of the latter are soft and rounded at the tips instead
of hard and pointed. The rufous piculets, specially characterised by having only
three toes, are represented by three Asiatic species, among which the ochre-coloured
Sasia ochracea ranges from Nepal and the eastern Himalaya over the greater part
of the Malay countries. It is generally met with in bamboo-jungle, where it may
often be heard hammering vigorously at the stems in which it nests. The four-
toed piculets, on the other hand, are chiefly an American group, although repre-
sented in south-eastern Asia by the Oriental Picumnus innominatus, whose
habitat extends from the Himalaya to Sumatra.
190
THE MALA Y PRO VINCE
Barbets.
Resembling the woodpeckers in many respects are the barbets,
the species of which vary in size from the dimensions of a wren to
those of a green woodpecker. They have strong beaks, with coarse bristles around
the base, and inhabit the edges and clearings of forests. All of them, but more
especially the larger ones, are lazy birds of dreamy appearance, in the habit of
sitting for hours at a time
on a branch, digesting their
food, and from time to time
uttering their loud shrill
call in monotonous repeti-
tion. They take to flight
reluctantly, and never go
far on the wing, although
the smaller kinds are in
f this respect somewhat more
active, and are also better
climbers. The food of these
birds consists of berries and
insects and their larvae,
especially those living be-
neath bark or in decaying
wood. In this respect as
well as in their habit of
nesting in holes (which some
cut out for themselves), and
in their eggs, the barbets
resemble woodpeckers. The
distribution of the group
extends over the tropical
countries of Asia, Africa,
and America, but the species
of the genera Megakema
and Chotorhea (distinguish-
ed by the very long bristles
around the mouth) are ex-
clusively Malayan. A well-
known representative of the
latter is the red-headed
barbet {Chotorhea versi-
color) which ranges from the Malay Peninsula to Borneo and Sumatra.
Another allied family is that of the trogons, which differ from
the generally green barbets by their soft and glossy plumage being in
most cases gorgeously coloured. They derive their name from the toothed edges of
their short strong beaks, which are bent like a hook and fairly wide at the base.
Although chiefly American, trogons are represented in Africa and southern Asia.
They live in the depths of the forest, perching lazily on the branches, looking out
BED-HEADED BARBET.
Trogons.
Pied Horxbill.
TROGOiVS — GLOSS Y CUCKOOS — KOELS— SPUR-CUCKOOS
191
Glossy Cuckoos.
for passing insects which they dash down upon like flycatchers and devour when
they have regained their station. They also eat berries and other fruits, which
they peck at as they fly. Trogons have a remarkably thin and tender skin, from
which the feathers readily fall out ; and their gorgeous colours soon fade in
museums, if not carefully protected from the light. In the Oriental region the
family is represented by the surukus, which range from India to the Malay Islands,
a well-known species being the
necklaced suruku {Pyrotrogon .^ - t
casumba), of the Malay Penin-
sula, Sumatra, and Borneo.
Among the cuc-
koo tribe may first
be noticed the glossy cuckoos,
resplendent in gorgeous plum-
age of green, red, or steel-blue,
though occasionally clad in sober
grey. These birds are distri-
buted over the warmer countries
of the Eastern Hemisphere, ex-
cepting Europe, one of their most
beautiful representatives, Chal-
cococcyx maculatus, inhabiting
the Himalaya, the Andamans,
the Nicobars, and Sumatra,
where it frequents the highest
branches of the forest- trees,
uttering its three quickly re-
peated notes not only by day
but on moonlight nights. The
allied genus Chrysococcyx is
exclusively African.
To the same
family belong the
koels, birds of the size of the
European cuckoo, with a black
plumage marked by bands and
spots when young. They gener-
ally lay their eggs in the nests
of members of the crow family ; and their range extends from India to Australia.
The best-known species is Eudynamis honorata, ranging from India through the
Malay Peninsula and Islands as far as Flores.
The spur-cuckoos are strong birds of medium size, recognisable
by the long straight spur on the hind-toe. They have long reddish
brown graduated tails, which often expand like fans ; and their call consists of a
number of sonorous sounds, uttered slowly at first, and then repeated quickly until
they form one long trembling note. There are more than forty species of these
NECKLACED SURUKU.
Spur-Cuckoos.
192
THE MALA Y PRO VINCE
birds inhabiting the Oriental region and Australia. A common Malay species, also
inhabiting India and Ceylon, is the hedge-cuckoo (Centropus sinensis), a bird
about the size of a jackdaw, with glossy black plumage showing greenish and
reddish brown wings. Another characteristic representative of the group is the
bush-cuckoo (Zanclostomus javanicus), ranging from Tenasserim and the Malay
Peninsula to Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, and the only representative of its genus.
y
BLUE-CROWNED HANGING PARROTS.
Parraquets.
It is steely blue and green above, and chestnut beneath, with the head, neck, and
breast grey, and the tip of the tail white.
To devote any space to the description of the physical character-
istics of the parrot tribe on the present occasion would be quite
superfluous, but it may be well to mention that in the wild state these birds are of
a sociable nature, associating;: even during the breedino--time in colonies, which after
the young are hatched increase to immense flocks, whose members are accustomed
to fly long distances in search of food. Only those of one genus breed on the
ground, and those of a second in an open nest, all the rest using holes in the
PARR A Q UETS — O WLS— BIRDS- OF-PRE Y 193
ground, or rocky clefts, or, oftener, holes in trees, which they generally cut out for
themselves with their beaks. They all use their feet and beaks simultaneously in
climbing, or eating, the beak helping to grasp the branches and the feet holding
the food. These habits are not equally well developed in all cases, for the short-
tailed kinds make the most extensive use of their beaks and claws, and are most
active climbers, but walk and fly awkwardly, while the long-tailed species make
less use of their beaks, and do not climb so well, but run and fly better. Notwith-
standing the shape of the beak, only one member of the group, and that but
recently, has developed into a bird-of-prey. All the rest feed on seeds or fruit, as
well as buds, flowers, and insects, some being very fond of nectar and the sap of
trees. Parrots are represented by a host of species, ranging over the warmer
countries of all the continents except Europe, and extending from 40° N. latitude to
55° S. latitude, though only a few approach the extreme of these limits, their chief
area being within the tropics. Most of the Asiatic species belong to the true
parraquets, a group comprising a great variety of species, distinguished by the
upper half of the beak being generally coloured red (although occasionally black)
and the narrowness of the naked cere. They are spread over an area extending
from the West African coast to the Solomon Islands. In south-eastern Asia they
are represented by the genus Palceomis, most of the five-and-twenty members of
which are green in plumage. The common P. torquatus ranges from Baluchistan,
India, and Ceylon through Burma to Cochin China, but many of the species have
a very restricted distribution. The pretty little hanging-parrots are also repre-
sented in southern Asia, where they range from India through the Malay
Peninsula to the Philippines. These parrots, which feed principally on soft fruits
and honey, climb about briskly in the branches and move quickly on the ground.
Their note is pleasing ; but their chief peculiarity is the habit of hanging head-
downwards like bats, in which attitude they not only rest and sleep, but also
frequently feed. One of the most beautiful species native to the Malay Peninsula
is the small blue-crowned Loriculus galgulus, a member of a genus with no less
than f our-and-twenty species, ranging from India to New Guinea and the Bismarck
Archipelago.
Among the owls, special mention may be made of the grass-owl
(Strix Candida), a relative of the barn-owl, which ranges from India
to Fiji and north Australia, the barn-owl itself being represented in India and
the Malay countries by the closely allied S. javanica. The grass-owl lives among
grass and breeds in the ground. Another owl, the Malay masked owl (Photodilus
badius), ranges from the eastern Himalaya through the Malay Peninsula to Java
and Borneo. The fish-owls are also represented within the area, the best known
species being perhaps the Indian fish-owl (Cetupa ceylonensis), which ranges from
Palestine through India, including Ceylon, into China.
Passing on to the birds-of-prey, we find the tiny falconets, whose
Birds-of-Prey. to r J > .
bodily size rarely exceeds a length of 6 inches, ranging from the
Himalaya to the Philippines. They breed in the holes of trees like owls, lay
eggs of a dull colour and rather long in shape, and live in clearings of the forest
where they perch on the dead branches of medium-sized trees, lurking for insects,
and occasionally catching small birds. Of the four species the smallest is the red-
vol. 11. — 13
194
THE MALAY PROVINCE
footed Microhierax ccerulescens, which inhabits Nepal, Burma, and Cambodia. The
honey-buzzards are represented in Malaya by the crested Pemis ptilorhynchus,
whose rano-e extends from India and Ceylon to the larger Malay Islands. To the
same group belongs the bramini kite (Haliastur indus), whose habitat extends from
India to China. The favourite haunts of this species are the neighbourhood of the
J>
REIJ-FOOTED FALCONET.
seashore, or the banks of rivers, swamps, and large artificial ponds. In Calcutta
and other ports where it is abundant it often visits the shipping, and will follow
vessels on their voyage for the sake of the kitchen-refuse. It captures small fish
from the surface of the water, picks up frogs and crabs in swamps and rice-fields,
eats insects, and robs kites and crows of their prey, although it seldom attacks
birds, unless they be ill or maimed. A notable group are the falcon-kites, whose
range extends from Africa and India to Australia. The common black species
EA GLES— GAME-BIRDS
'95
(Baza lophotes), indigenous to India, the Malay Peninsula, and the Indo-
Chinese countries, has, like all its kindred, a crest on the back of the head, and in
colour is glossy black, with the wings grey and white, the under surface of the
tail grey, the shoulders marked with chestnut and reddish brown, the breast barred
with white and chestnut above, and, lower down, ochre-yellow banded with brown.
For a bird-of-prey this is certainly a striking coloration. The handsome serpent-
eagles, distinguished by the long, movable crest on the head, range from India
to the Malay Islands, their largest representative being Spilornis child,
which is found throughout the Oriental region in the neighbourhood of water,
/
/
/
CRESTED WOOD-PARTRIDGES.
where it feeds on snakes, lizards, and frogs, as well as small mammals, birds, and
insects. The crested eagles, characterised b}^ their feathei'ed legs, are forest-birds
inhabiting Africa, and the tropical parts of Asia and America. The Malay crested
eagle (Spizaetus caligatus), which ranges from Kashmir and Bengal to the Malay
Archipelago, preys on hares, squirrels, and peacocks and other game-birds. Most
remarkable of all is the great monkey-eating eagle (Pithecai )haga jefferyi) of the
Philippines, the sole representative of its genus, and first described in 1896.
Among game-birds, a characteristic and peculiar Oriental group
is that of the wood-partridges ; the crested representative of which,
Rollulus roulroul, the only member of its genus, ranges from the south of
Game-Birds.
19b
THE MALAY PROVINCE
Tenasserini through the Malay Peninsula to Borneo and Sumatra. Not less
noteworthy is the red jungle-fowl (Gallus ferruginous), which also occurs in India,
and is generally regarded as the ancestral stock of domesticated game. In India it
inhabits the lower ranges of the Himalaya from Kashmir to Assam and the greater
part of the Peninsula ; eastward of the Bay of Bengal it is found throughout Burma,
the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and Cochin China, while in Java, Sumatra, and other
islands it has probably been introduced. Both sexes crow like domesticated cocks,
the call of the female being a little shorter than that of her mate. Jungle-fowl
breed in the Himalaya between March and July, but farther south much earlier ;
they generally lay live or six, but occasionally from nine to eleven, eggs of a pale
clay-colour, in a flat depression on the ground, sometimes bare, and at other times
lined with grass and dead leaves. Recent experiments demonstrate that in certain
ARGUS-PHEASANT.
circumstances the hybrids between the Ceylon jungle-fowl (G. Stanley i) and
domesticated fowls are fertile, both inter se and with their parents, and under
really favourable conditions it is surmised that complete fertility could be estab-
lished. This being so, Darwin's argument from the infertility of the hybrids that
G. stanleyi cannot be the parent stock of domesticated poultry no longer holds
good. The difficulty, however, is to convert this negative evidence into positive
proof that the Ceylon jungle-fowl is entitled to occupy that position. An important
point in the case is the fact that when domesticated fowls tend to revert to the
wild type, the cocks develop red or brown (never black) breasts. As the Indian
Gallus ferruginens is black -breasted, the reversion is thus in the direction of the
Sinhalese species, which has a reddish brown breast in the males. An essentially
Oriental group is that of the crested fire-backed pheasants, of which the red-backed
Malay Lophura rufa may be taken as a well-known example, with a magnificent
plumage. Its general colour is brilliant purplish blue, with white shaft-stripes on
the flanks, the lower part of the back fiery chestnut-brown, the middle tail-feathers
GAME-BIRDS
197
white, and the bare face blue. There are many allied pheasants, but we pass on to
the splendid Argus-pheasants, which almost rival the lordly peacock in size, and are
distinguished by their very long middle tail-feathers, and by the gradual increase
in the length of the flight-feathers which causes the secondaries to largely exceed
•
BURMESE PEACOCK.
the primary quills in this respect. The true Argus (Argusianus argus) is a native
of the south of Tenasserim, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra, and takes
its name from the delicately shaded eye-like spots on the wings. It is restricted
to evergreen forests, and feeds on fruits and insects. Both sexes possess a loud
call, which they repeat ten or twelve times, that of the hens being quite distinct
from that of the cocks. These pheasants always live alone, the cock, which
198 THE MALAY PROVINCE
seeks its food only in the mornings and evenings, spending the night on a tree,
but resting during the day on a spot about 6 or 8 yards in diameter, which
is kept scrupulously clear of plants, dead leaves, and other rubbish. The hen makes
no such clear space, and seems to wander about the forest without any fixed abode.
Pea-fowl, likewise an exclusively Oriental group, are represented in many parts of
the Malay Peninsula, as well as in Java and Sumatra, by the Burmese Pavo
muticus, a species characterised by the feathers of the crest being webbed to the
bases of their shafts. Equally characteristic of, and restricted to, the Oriental
region are the beautiful peacock-pheasants, which resemble the pea-fowl in their
general habits, and have the same way of extending their tails like fans. The
grey peacock-pheasant (Polyplectrum chinquis), ranging from Sikhim to Mergui,
is mainly brown in colour with glossy, green and purple eye-spots on the tail, one
on each side of each feather.
The group of long-tailed pigeons is peculiar to south-eastern
Asia and Polynesia, and is somewhat closely allied to the
wood-pigeon. They are all slender in shape, with long graduated tails. The
small Malay dove (Geopelia striata), which ranges from Tenasserim and Siam
through the Austro-Malay Islands, may be taken as an example of the
group. Another group, the bronze-winged doves, likewise range through
the Malay Archipelago into the Australian area. Among these the golden
green Chalcophaps indica, a species about the size of a turtle-dove, occurs in the
Himalaya and certain parts of peninsular India, as well as in Ceylon, the Andamans,
and Nicobars, but is most common in the Malay Peninsula and Islands, whence
its range extends as far as New Guinea. The fruit-pigeons, again, characterised
by the longish beak, dilatable at the base, in order to permit of large fruits being
swallowed whole, are also well represented in the Malay area, the most note-
worthy kind being, perhaps, the nutmeg-pigeon (Carpophaga ainea). The green
pigeons include, among others, the genus Treron, of which the two species, T.
nipalensis and T. nasica, are found in the present area, the former ranging into north-
eastern India. These pigeons are distinguished by the fairly strong beak, which
is thickened and bent into a hook at the tip.
Herons and Several handsome species of the heron tribe are met with in the
storks. countries east of the Bay of Bengal, among them being the large
Sumatran heron (Ardea sumatrana), whose habitat extends from Tenasserim to
Australia. This bird is remarkable on account of confining its wanderings to the
seashore and the mouths of large rivers where, when the tide ebbs, it may be seen
stalking about in search of food, which consists of small fishes and crustaceans,
while as the tide comes in it perches on the neighbouring mangrove-trees. The
Indian cattle-egret (Bubulcus coromandus), ranging from India and Ceylon to
Korea in the north-east, and the Moluccas in the south-east, is remarkable on
account of its habits. It breeds in colonies, one nest close to another ; and seldom
frequents swamps, after the manner of most of its relatives, but is a constant
companion of buffaloes and other cattle, sitting on their backs, and feeding on the
insects to be found there. The Indian white-necked stork (Dissura episcopus),
a species considerably smaller than the white stork, has the plumage black with a
coppery gloss, except the hinder part of the back and tail, which are white. The
STORKS— B USTARD- Q U AIL— J A CAN AS 1 99
neck is covered with short, white down, but the crown of the head, unlike that of
the African representative of the species, is wholly black. In the giant storks the
beak is much compressed at the sides, with the tip bent slightly upwards, and
the upper half flattened towards the base. The tropical parts of Asia, Africa,
Australia, and America, respectively form the habitats of the four species of these
birds. The Indian black-necked stork (XenorhyncJtus asiaticus) which ranges from
the Malay Peninsula to India and Ceylon in the west, and Australia in the south-
east, is similar in general habits to other members of the tribe. The ugliest and in
some respects the most remarkable of all storks are the adjutants, or marabouts,
which are common to the warmer parts of Africa and Asia. Among other dis-
tinctive features of these birds are the large, pointed, four-sided beak, the pouch
on the breast (absent in one), the bare head and neck, the soft and shaggy plumage,
and the soft curling plumes of the under tail-coverts, which are so much valued in
the feather-trade. In all these respects adjutants differ markedly from other storks,
as indeed they do in their habits, which approximate to those of vultures ; these birds
living on carcases and offal, and playing an important part as scavengers. The
best known of the two Oriental representatives of the group is the great Indian
adjutant (Leptoptilus dubius), whose range extends from northern India to Sumatra,
Java, and Borneo. The smaller Javan adjutant (L. javanicus), which lacks the
pouch, inhabits Ceylon and eastern China as well as India and the Malay Islands
mentioned above. Africa and India form the respective homes of the three kinds of
shell-storks, distinguished from the rest of the tribe by the form of the beak, which
gapes in the middle owing to its two halves shutting closely only at the tip and base.
These birds feed on fishes, frogs, insects, and worms, but mainly on molluscs, the
shells of which their peculiarly shaped beaks are admirably adapted to crush. The
Indian shell-stork (Anastomus oscitans) inhabits India, Assam, and Manipur, but is
rare in Pegu, and unknown in Burma, though it reappears in Cochin China. In the
wood-storks, which inhabit the warmer parts of Africa, Asia, and America, the upper
half of the beak is rounded, with the point bent slighth' downward, being in this
respect somewhat intermediate between that of the ibises and that of other storks.
The Indian wood-stork (Pseudotantalus leucocephahis) is one of the best known birds
of the country, being very common in well-watered parts, where it lives alone or in
parties, breeding not unfrequently in colonies on large trees in the neighbourhood
of villages. It is easily tamed, and inhabits India and Ceylon, Burma, Cochin
China, and southern China.
The bustard-quails, which are widely spread through the warmer
Bustard-Quails. . •/ x »
parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, are represented by the black
species known as the island bustard-quail (Tumix pugnax), whose range extends
through south-eastern Asia from India and Ceylon to southern China, Formosa,
Sumatra, and Java. Although these birds live in pairs, it is the male which
incubates the eggs and takes care of the young, while the females fight With one
another for the possession of partners.
Jacanas and Another noteworthy group are the jacanas, characterised by the
Water-Pheasant, inordinate length and slenderness of their legs and toes, whereby
they are enabled to walk on the floating leaves of water-plants. The Indian
species (Parra indica) ranges from India through Burma and the Malay Peninsula
200
THE MALAY PROVINCE
to Sumatra, Java, and Celebes, but is unknown in Ceylon. Nearly allied is the
beautiful water-pheasant (Hydrophasianus chirurgus), which differs from the
jacanas by the absence of the naked shield on the forehead, and the possession of
elongated middle tail-feathers. This bird is an inhabitant not only of the Malay
Peninsula and southern China, as well as Java and the Philippines, but also of
Ceylon and India, and is very abundant on the lakes of Kashmir.
Among the duck tribe, the cotton-teal, the smallest members of
the family, are specially distinguished by their goose-like beaks. They
occur in Africa, and Australia, as well as in India, China, and south-eastern Asia,
Cotton-Teal.
ft^t < C\ I i cj ^*
WATER-PHEASANT.
including the Malay Archipelago as far east as Celebes. The Indian species
(Ncttopus coromandeliaMux), which frequents sheets of water in which plants are
plentiful, is rapid on the wing and has a peculiar call. It generally breeds some
distance from the water, in large trees, but sometimes in the ruins of old buildings,
laying from eight to ten small white eggs.
Pelicans and The pelicans are represented in the area under consideration
Darters. by two species, namely, the eastern pelican (Pclecanus rosrus),
ranging over eastern Asia and the Malay Archipelago, and the spot-
beaked P. philippensis, which inhabits India as well. More remarkable than
PELICANS AND DARTERS
20I
the pelicans are the darters, easily recognisable by the slender body, the
long thin snake-like neck, the long tail, narrower at the base than at the
tip, moderately long wings, and the slender, pointed beak. The group is
represented by one species in each continent, except Europe. The Indian darter
(Plotus melanogaster), which is distributed over India and the Malay countries,
lives near fresh water, and is not seen near the sea except at river-mouths. When
INDIAN DARTER.
swimming, this bird raises only its head and long serpent-like neck out of the water,
and dives either from the surface or from a tree-stump or root a little height above.
It subsists on fish, which it captures by stabbing through the gills ; afterwards, rising
with its victim to the surface, it throws it into the air, catches it, and swallows it
head-first. After the meal, it rests, like a cormorant, with expanded wings on the
branch of a tree or some other convenient station. The nest and eggs are like those of
cormorants, in whose society, as well as in that of herons, darters frequently breed.
202
THE MALAY PROVINCE
Tortoises and Among the reptiles, there are comparatively few meriting special
Terrapins. attention. The land-tortoises and terrapins are, however, abundantly
represented. Among these are three kinds of land-tortoise, Testudo elongata,
T. phifji nota, and T. emys, of which the second is confined to Burma and northern
Pegu, while the other two range from Assam over a large part of the Malay
countries. The three species of the chiefly terrestrial genus Geoemyda are peculiar
to this area ; and the same is nearly the case with those of Cyclemys, although one
ranges into Cachar. One species of the allied genus Morenia is likewise Malay ;
and batagurs of the genus Cachuga occur in the Irawadi. Very characteristic of
the province is the big-headed tortoise (Platystemum megacepkalum), which
represents a family by itself, and is distinguished by its slender body, long tail
and massive head. It is a rare inhabitant of the rivers of Burma, Siam, and
rj~
BIG-HEADED TORTOISE.
Lizards.
southern China. The fresh-water soft-tortoises, which are distributed over the
warmer countries of Asia, Africa, and North America, are represented in the Malay
province by Trionyx cartilagineus, the shell of which attains a large size.
The largest representative of the lizards is the banded monitor
( Varanus salvator), which may attain a length of over 40 inches,
exclusive of the long tail. It ranges over India as well as south-eastern Asia,
dwelling among swamps and in trees above the surface of the water. Among the
great group of agamoid lizards, mention may be made of the variable lizard
{Calotes versicolor), which is reddish yellow in colour with brown cross-bands, and
'I'Ti'ves its names from its chameleon-like change of colour. This' lizard ranges
from Afghanistan and Baluchistan into China, and Cochin China.
Of the Hying lizards, which are peculiar to the Oriental region, the most common
is perhaps Draco volans, which ranges from the Malay Peninsula into Borneo. The
geckos, which are of much wider distribution, have a fairly common representative
LIZARDS — SNAKES
203
in the touktar {Gecko verticillatus), which inhabits eastern Bengal, southern China,
and the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. The stump-tailed gecko (Gehyra
mutilata) is noteworthy on account of its extensive geographical rano-e, which
embraces Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, New Guinea, the
Mascarenes and Seychelles, and western Mexico. Such a distribution is almost, if
not quite, unparalleled in the case of a land verte-
brate. Unlike the geckos, which occur in all the
continents of the world, the chamseleons have
a more restricted range, and include only a
BANDED MONITOR.
Snakes.
single Oriental species (Chamceleon calcaratus), which is confined to India and
Ceylon, and does not therefore enter the area under consideration.
Among numerous venomous snakes inhabiting the Malay area,
one of the most formidable is Russell's viper (Vipera russelli), which
is common to India and the Malay Peninsula, and is said to occur also in Sumatra
and Java. Belonging to the same genus as the European viper, this species, which
attains a length of 4 feet, is sluggish in disposition, fearless of man, and a fierce
biter, so that it is one of the most dangerous of all snakes. The cobra (Naia
204
THE MALAY PROVINCE
\
^
trijpudians), which has an even worse reputation, is found as far as the Caspian
to the west, and eastward ranges into southern China and the Malay Archipelago.
This snake, which preys principally on small reptiles, although also on small
mammals and birds, attains in some cases a length of over 6 feet. The giant cobra
(N. bungariis), which is more than double that length, is a deadly foe to other
snakes, and by reason
of its greater ferocity
is more dangerous than
the typical species, al-
though fortunately less
common. It ranges over
the greater part of
India, Burma, and the
Malay Peninsula. The
Indian python {Python
f molurus) is a well-
. known member of a
non - venomous group,
distinguished, among
' J, other characters, by the
possession of vestiges of
\ the hind-limbs and a
prehensile tail, and is
almost entirely confined
to the tropics, where it
occurs in both hemi-
spheres. The Indian
species, which attains
occasionally a length of
over 20 feet, inhabits
India, Ceylon, the Malay
Peninsula, and Java.
The Malay python {P.
reticulatus), which
ranges from Burma to
the Nicobars, and the
Malay Peninsula and
Islands, is larger, grow-
ing to 30 feet. The
green whip-snake (Dry-
ophis mycterizans), which is likewise poisonous, and sometimes pale brown instead of
green, takes its name from the whip-like shape of its body. In length about 5 feet,
it lives principally amid bushes and high grass, and ranges over India, Ceylon, and
Burma. That striking Indo-Malay snake the banded krait (Bungarus fasciatus) takes
its native name of sankni, meaning the " wearer of bracelets," from its alternating
bands of black and yellow. The same word reappears in sank (pronounced like the
'
MALAY FLYING-DRAGON.
Indian Python.
SNAKES
205
English " sunk "), the native name of the bangles made from the shell of the great
Indian conch. Although seldom exceeding 5 feet, the banded crait, which is a
deadly snake, may grow to as much as 6 feet in length. It is mimicked in the
matter of colour
by a smaller and
perfectly harmless
snake known as
L a < rxlon fasc ia-
tus, which has,
however, a brown
collar on the
throat. Whether
this is a case of
true mimicry may
be doubtful, seeing
that the banded
krait is mainly
nocturnal in habit,
and is nowadays
most frequently
seen by Europeans
when travelling at
night by motor.
It is also extraor-
dinarily sluggish,
so that when trod
upon it will merely
crawl lazily out of
the way, and when
observed in the
act of swallowing
another snake will continue its meal in the midst
of a circle of admiring natives. It is essentially
a cannibal species, and has been seen in the act
of swallowing a rat-snake (Zamenis mucosus) of
about 5 feet in length, and likewise a large tree-
snake of the genus Dipsadomorphus. It is also
reputed to kill and eat cobras. Unlike the typical
krait (Bungarus cceruleus), which is stated to be
responsible for more deaths than aiiy other Indian
snake, the banded krait very rarely, if ever, attacks
human beings. A vast number of other snakes must
be passed over without mention, but a few words must be said with regard to the
blind-snakes (Typldopodidce), which are represented in India and the Malay area
by the typical genus Typhlops. The commonest species is T. bramimis, the range
of which extends from southern China and the Malav Peninsula and Islands to
206
THE MALAY PROVINCE
Arabia, Africa, and Madagascar. These remarkable snakes are very similar in
habits to large earth-worms.
Crocodiles, which inhabit all the warmer countries of Africa,
Asia, Australia, and America, and are the largest of living reptiles,
are mainly denizens of the water, and without exception carnivorous, although
Crocodiles.
'<•«*&,
(
INDIAN LONG-NOSED CROCODILE.
S
they do not all live on the same kind of food. The gharial (Garialis gangetica),
which feeds mainly on fish, and grows to about 20 feet in length, inhabits
the Indus, Ganges, and the Bramaputra, together with a few other rivers in India,
is an Indian rather than a Mala}' species. Among other features, it is character-
ised by its long and narrow jaws and slender curved teeth. Instances of its attack-
ing human beings have been recently recorded. It is the sole representative of its
genus. An allied form, the Bornean gharial, representing a second genus, is noticed
CROCODILES
207
under the heading of the Malay Islands, although it also occurs in the Peninsula.
The true crocodiles, which comprise eleven or twelve species, are represented
within the Malay area by Crocodilus porosus, ranging from Ceylon and eastern
India to Australia and the Fiji Islands, and frequenting the lower courses of
rivers and the seashore, and also by the swamp or Indian crocodile (C. palustris)
inhabiting the rivers, ponds, and swamps over an area extending from the Malay
Archipelago to Sind and Baluchistan.
In the first of these species the length of the snout is from one-and- two-thirds
to two-and-a-quarter times the width, whereas in the second the proportion is one-
and-a-third to one-and-a-half. Crocodilus porosus has, moreover, from seventeen to
nineteen pairs of teeth in the upper jaw, and a more or less strongty developed ridge
on the skull in front of each eye, whereas in C. palustris the number of pairs of
upper teeth is invariably nineteen, and there is no bony ridge in front of the eye.
The former is stated to attain the enormous length of 33 feet, and the latter appears
to fall but little short of these dimensions.
'■
ATLAS MOTH.
CHAPTER VII
The Fauna of the Malay Islands and the Philippines
Although the great Malay Islands of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes, together
with the Philippines and the smaller islands of the Archipelago, form a part of the
Malay province of the Oriental region, they contain so many animals unknown
elsewhere that they may be accorded a chapter to themselves. Throughout the
great sylvan area of these islands and New Guinea, and the adjacent continental
portions of south-eastern Asia, the annual rainfall is very great, attaining an
average of about 80 inches, but rising in some places to 120, in others to 160, and
reaching in Buitenzorg in Java almost 200. There are indeed districts in eastern Java
in which the fall is considerably much less than 40 inches, and where in consequence
tall trees or even savannas are scarce, but, speaking generally, most of the land-
surface of the Malay Archipelago is clothed with primeval forests, which are types
of tropical luxuriance and beauty, and utterly unlike the forest-growth of Europe.
Amid this leafy luxuriance flourishes a rich and remarkable fauna, many of the
members of which are common to the mainland of the Malay province, under which
heading they have been already noticed, while others are peculiar to this island tract.
208
SI AMAN— ORANG-UTAN 209
Among the man-like apes, the first to be noticed is the gibbon
locally known as the siaman (Hylobates syndactylus), which is
restricted to Sumatra, where it inhabits forests up to a height of about 3000 feet,
and is distinguished from others of its kind by the presence of a web between the
second and third toes, and of a kind of pouch on the throat, as well as by the hair
of the fore-arm pointing towards the elbow instead of towards the wrist. The
siaman, which is about 36 inches in height, and measures 66 inches across the
arms, has rather long hair of a black colour, except the whiskers, which are grey
or whitish. On account of its exceedingly long arms, it walks awkwardly on the
ground, but among the tree-tops, where it spends most of its time, it moves with
great agility, often taking long leaps, especially when in danger. By the Malays
the siaman is considered dull and stupid, and it is very wary and difficult of
approach. Throughout the day it is silent, but at morning and evening, as the sun
rises or sets, it indulges in terrific cries, given with the full strength of the troop.
Another gibbon, H. agilis, is found only in Sumatra and Siam, while a third kind,
the wou-wou, or silver-haired gibbon (H. leuciscus), is peculiar to Java and Borneo.
The most remarkable of the man-like apes of the Malay Islands
is the orang-utan (Simia satyrus), which is peculiar to Sumatra and
Borneo. This ape, the mias of the Dyaks and the " man-of-the-woods " of the
Malays, attains a height of about 4 feet, and, when standing erect, touches the
ground with its finger-tips on account of its long arms. The legs are very short,
the calves thin, and the long slender feet carry a short and opposable great toe
which is often without a nail, and in old age seems in some cases to lose its
terminal joint. Like the feet, which touch the ground only on their outer sides, the
long slender hands are horny and wart-like on both sides, with the thumb relatively
smaller than the great toe, and a slight web between the fingers. The skull tapers
almost to a point at the crown, the forehead is high, the oval face flat, and the
nose pressed into the face, while the jaws are projecting, and the long lips broad,
smooth, and flexible. In the males each cheek carries a protuberance which almost
covers the ear, and the front part of the neck is furnished with a loose pouch of skin
communicating with the windpipe. The shaggy reddish hair, a foot or more in
length, is very sparse on the front of the body, although somewhat more abundant
than on the face, ears, hands, and feet, which, except for the whiskers and beard,
are almost entirely bare, and bluish or brownish in colour.
The mias inhabits the primeval forests of the plains, where, with the aid of
its long powerful arms, it moves amid the foliage so easily and rapidly that a man
walking in the same direction on the ground is scarcely able to keep up with its
progress. At a height of some 25 feet from the ground it builds of branches a sort
of nest or platform on which it sleeps, and where it stays until the morning
dew has disappeared from the leaves. The food of the mias consists mainly of
certain fruits, among which the evil-smelling but tasty durian seems to be the
favourite. Orang-utans live in small family parties, consisting of the two parents
and their offspring. The young, which are very much like human infants in their
ways, signify their wants by crying, but cease their wailing when they find them-
selves alone, to resume their crying when they become aware of the return of their
parents. In captivity they enjoy being caressed to such an extent that they cry
vol. 11. — 14
2IO
FAUNA OF THE MALAY ISLANDS AND PHILIPPINES
s
Proboscis
Monkey.
when put down, and fully appreciate the delight of a bath, especially the subse-
quent drying and combing. They soon grow tame and accustomed to all kinds of
food, including meat, and they will drink beer, wine, and spirits, as well as coffee
and tea. Unfortunately, the life of captive orang-utans in Europe is invariably
brought to a premature close.
Langurs
of peculiar
species inhabit the larger
Malay Islands with the
exception of Celebes,
but they are eclipsed in
interest by their ludi-
crous-looking relative,
the proboscis - monkey
(Nasalis larvatus) of
Borneo. This ape, the
sole representative of
its kind, is recognisable
at a glance by its long
and flexible nose, which
often attains its maxi-
mum development in
the old male. In colour
this grotesque monkey
is reddish brown, with
blackish ears, and much
yellow and whitish on
various parts of the
body. Its size is con-
siderable, the head and
body measuring about
30, and the whip-like
tail 26, inches. These
monkeys associate in
small troops, and, like
langurs, apparently
spend most of their time
in the trees. The object
of the ungainly proboscis of the adult male, which hangs down over the upper
lip, is quite unknown.
Moor-Macaque Peculiar to the south of Celebes and the neighbouring island of
and Black Ape. Bouton is the moor-macaque (Macacus maurus), whose tail is merely
a short bare stump about an inch long curving upwards. In colour this monkey
is black, with a long narrow face and a flat nose. Another black monkey inhabit-
ing Celebes, Batchian, and some of the Philippines, far to the east of its nearest
allies, is the black ape (Cynopithecus niger), a species representing a genus by
PROBOSCIS MONKEY.
VjSL :£3*M&&
xu
Orang.
MOOR-MACAQUE AND BLACK APE—TARSIER
211
itself, with affinities to the macaques and the baboons. It is likewise a short-tailed,
or rather almost tailless, species, and its long narrow face looks all the longer from
the curving crest of long black hair with which the head is crowned.
Among the lemurs, the slow loris is common to the mainland
and Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, but the strange tarsiers are confined
to the islands of the Archipelago. The typical Tarsius spectrum is an inhabitant
Tarsier.
THE BLACK APE.
of Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and some of the smaller islands, and a second species, T.
fuscus, has been described from Celebes and some of the islands of the Philippine
group. Ghostly in appearance, tarsiers are characterised externally by their nails,
which are developed into claws only on the second and third toes of the foot, but
more especially by the disc-like expansion of the tips of the fingers and toes, as
well as by the remarkably long ankles and the enormous eyes and ears. Tarsiers,
which are not so large as rats, are nocturnal animals, living in trees, where they
hop along the branches. When feeding, they hold their food, which consists of
insects and small lizards, between their fore-paws like squirrels.
2X2
FAUNA OF THE MALAY ISLANDS AND PHILIPPINES
:
'
Pen-Tailed Omitting mention of the bats, as being of no very special interest,
Tree-snrew. ancj merely referring to the occurrence of a species of flying lemur,
or cobego (Galeopithecus phttippinensis), in the Philippines, and of the largest of
r < the tree-shrews (Tupaia
tana) in Borneo, attention
must be concentrated on
the remarkable pen-tailed
tree-shrew (Ptilocercus
lotvi), the sole representa-
tive of a type long supposed
to be peculiar to Borneo,
but now known to occur
also in the Malay Penin-
sula. From ordinary tree-
shrews this curious little
animal, which is about the
size of a mouse, differs by
• f m*--)H&& ^ . ..^«'V^'"" •-; the terminal third of the
otherwise short-haired long
tail bearing on opposite
sides two rows of elongated
hairs resembling the vanes
of a feather.
A peculiar
generic type
of gymnura (Podogym-
nura) has been obtained
from Mount Aboo in Mind-
anao, Philippine group.
Among the
beasts-of-
prey, the tiger is found in
Sumatra and Java, but not
in Borneo or the other
islands, while the leopard
also occurs in Borneo, al-
though, like the tiger, it is
unknown in Celebes. The
rare Bornean bay cat (Fcl is
badia) is restricted to the
island from which it takes its name, and is of a uniform bright chestnut-brown colour,
except for a white streak down the under surface of the terminal half of the tail.
The civet-cats are represented by Vircrra tanqalv/nqa, which
Other Carnivora. . 1 ' .
inhabits Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and the Philippines, and is also
found in the Moluccas, its distributional area thus extending farther east than
that of any other member of the group. Borneo is the home of the banded civet
Gymnura.
Cats.
.
TAKSIER.
OTHER CAKNIVORA — BUFFALOES
213
{Diplogale hosei), the sole member of its genus, while it is also one of the habitats
of other species mentioned in the last chapter. The Malay wild dog ranges from
the mainland of the Peninsula to Sumatra and Java and possibly to Borneo ; while
the only bear found in the islands is the small smooth-coated Malay species (Ursus
malayanus), which inhabits Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, as well as the Malay
Peninsula and north-west China. The weasel group is more numerous in the
islands, one of the most peculiar types being the Malay badger {Mydaus meliceps),
the only species of its genus, which inhabits the mountains of Java, Sumatra, and
TANA TREE-SHRKW.
Borneo. This animal is to be avoided by the hunter on account of its habit of
ejecting a noisome fluid well nigh as evil-smelling as the secretion of the American
skunks. It is much smaller and also browner than the European badger, with a
stripe of white down the back.
Several hoofed mammals are indigenous to the Malay Islands.
Buffaloes. . ...
Whether the karabau or wild buffalo of Java is an indigenous race of
the Indian buffalo or imported is uncertain, but a small Bornean buffalo has been
described as a distinct race under the name Bos bubalis hosei. Another buffalo, the
tamarao (B. mindorensis), inhabiting the island of Mindoro in the Philippines, is
covered with coarse, thick, blackish brown hair, and stands only about 3^ feet at
214
FAUNA OF THE MALAY ISLANDS AND PHILIPPINES
the shoulder. In many respects it forms a transition from the Indian species to
the small and more aberrant pigmy buffalo, or anoa {B. depressicornis), of Celebes.
The latter stands about 39 inches high, and is slightly lower at the withers than at
the hind-quarters. The small triangular horns are set much more upright and are
much less curved than in the Indian buffalo : their length is seldom more than a
foot even in the bulls. In colour the anoa is either reddish yellow or black in
THE ANOA.
youth, when it has a thick coat of woolly hair, but dark blackish brown in old age,
the under-parts being always paler ; there are sometimes two white spots on each
cheek, and white markings on the legs, and the whole animal much resembles a
young Indian buffalo. Although it apparently presents signs of affinities to the
antelopes, it is essentially, alike in colour, structure, and habits, a buffalo, although
less specialised than the typical members of that group.
The deer of the Malay Islands include the rusa or Javan sambar
(Cervus hippelaphus) of Java, with local races in the Moluccas and
Timor, the Luzon race of the sambar (C. nnicolor phUippinus), the Basilan race
Deer.
DEER — WILD SWINE
215
of the same (C. unicolor nigricans) from the small island of Basilan in the
Philippines, the much larger Malay sambar (0. unicolor equinus) in Borneo, as
well as the very distinct Bavian deer (G. Icuhli) from a small group of islands lying
between Java and Borneo, and the equally distinct but much handsomer Philippine
0
■
■
\i Ir ~ ^V
4.:.
■
*. ■ a
BABIRUSA.
spotted deer (C. alfredi). There are probably other species still to be named from
the Philippines.
That puzzling group, the wild swine, has numerous representa-
Wild Swine. . . , . , T , -t ,■ * 1 ^ n -1
tives in the islands under consideration. Among them, the collared
pig (Sus vittatus), which inhabits Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, is distinguished by a
white stripe on the sides of the face and neck. The warty pig (S. verrucosus), with
three warts on each cheek, is a native of Java and Borneo, and is nearly related to
216 FAUNA OF THE MALAY ISLANDS AND PHILIPPINES
the wild pig of Celebes (S. celebensis). Very different is the long-snouted bearded
pig (S. barbatus) of Borneo, easily recognisable by its whiskers and elongated head,
and represented by races, of which one has been named S. o'i, in the islands near
the Malay Peninsula. Most remarkable of all is, however, the babirusa (Babirusa
alfurus) of Celebes, represented by an allied species in Boru. This strange pig,
which has a highly arched back and a peculiarly rough, thick, and almost bark-like
skin, stands about 42 inches in height at the middle of the back. The ears are
small, the tail is short, and the skin, which is ashy grey in colour and hangs in
loose folds, is almost bare, although sparsely haired along the middle of the back.
The babirusa differs, however, from other swine most notably in regard to the
peculiar formation of the tusks of the boar, which are devoid of enamel, and attain
an excessive length. Their abnormally large growth is due to the circumstance
that those of the upper jaw are not worn against the lower pair, after the
manner obtaining in most wild swine. The upper tusks of the males, which
occasionally measure between 12 and 14 inches in length, pierce the skin of the
muzzle, and after rising vertically for a short distance, curve backwards and
downwards and finally forwards, with their tips often touching the forehead.
The lower pair, which do not grow so long, are less stout than the upper ones,
but are curved in a more or less similar fashion. Both pairs are relatively small
in the females.
Generally speaking, the rodents are very similar to those of the
Sciuirrels
Malay Peninsula and neighbouring parts of the mainland, but there
are certain more or less peculiar types. Among the squirrel family the sharp-nosed
Sciurus tupaioides is notable on account of its extraordinary resemblance to the
tree-shrews, having the fur similar both in texture and colour, as well as the same
pointed nose, and even the pale stripe across the shoulders. A peculiar genus,
characterised by its grooved incisors and large tufted ears, is typified by the
groove-toothed squirrel (Rhithrosciurus macrotis), a native of Borneo. It has
a long bushy tail, and the flanks are ornamented with black and white bands ;
in habits it is terrestrial. Borneo is also the home of certain species of pigmy
squirrels, another member of the same group inhabiting the Philippines, while yet
another inhabits West Africa. These squirrels are distinguished not only by their
diminutive size, but also by certain peculiarities in their skull and teeth. One of
the prettiest members of the group is Whitehead's squirrel (Nannosciurus wldte-
headi) of north Borneo.
The Philippines are remarkable on account of being the habitat
of a number of peculiar generic types of rats, the majority of which
are confined to the mountains of Luzon, and two of which greatly exceed
all the other members of the family in size. One of these large forms
is Cuming's rat (Phlceoinys cumingi), a long and rough-haired species found
in the lowlands. Of the Luzon rats, Crateromys scliatenbergi is another
large long-haired form, but the remainder are of smaller size. These have
been named Chrotomys whiteheadi, Carpomys melanurus, C. phceurus, Batomys
granti, and Rhynchomys soricoides; the last remarkable for its long shrew-
like nose. Another Luzon rat, Xeromys silaceus, has been assigned to a genus
typically Australian.
FOR C UPINE — RABBIT— CUSCUS
21 7
Porcupines and The porcupines are represented in Borneo by Giinther's porcupine
Rabbit. {Tricky s guentheri), a relative of the brush-tailed group, but with shorter
spines and parallel-sided tail-bristles. The Sumatran rabbit (Nesoiagus nitscheri)
Cuscus.
is nearly related to the Assam spiny rabbit;
the group being known only by these two
species, and a third from the Liukiu Islands.
The great majority of the
mammals of the Malay Islands
and the Philippines are related to those
of the mainland, but some (with their allies
of the Peninsula) exhibit a remarkable
affinity with West African types. When
Celebes is reached, indications of relation-
ship to the Australian fauna are exhibited
by the presence of the black cuscus (Phal-
anger ursinus), a member of an otherwise
exclusively Australasian group.
\
MALAY SWIFT AXD ITS EDIBLE NESTS.
Perching and Among birds peculiar to the islands under consideration, atten-
Picarian Birds. ^jon mav grs^ be directed to the white-necked starling (Streptocitta
albicollis) of Celebes, a bird about the size of a thrush, with shining bluish black
plumage, relieved by a white ring round the neck, and with long narrow feathers
2l8
FA UNA OF THE MALA Y ISLANDS AND PHILIPPINES
curving forwards on the forehead and cheeks. The swifts which build edible nests
are represented by Collocalia nidifica, a species unknown on the mainland ; while
among the broadbills the black Sumatran species (Eurylcemus sumatranus) is con-
fined to the Archipelago. Closely allied to these is the beautiful Calyptomena
viridis,& bird the size of a nightingale, with a short, broad beak almost covered
by the curly feathers of the forehead. The powdered woodpecker (A lophonerpes
pidverulentus) is common to India, the Malay Peninsula, and the Malay Islands
-, except Celebes ; but the
latter island and the
Philippines are the sole
habitat of the four
species of the nearly
allied genus Microstic-
tus. Of these the Cele-
besian M. fulvus is slaty
grey above, and light
brown below, sprinkled
with small spots on the
head, neck, and throat,
the males being red on
the crown, face, and
cheeks. In size and
colour these birds ap-
proximate to the black
woodpeckers.
Notable
Pigeons.
among the
pigeon tribe is the flight-
less Nicobar species
(Calcenas nicobarica),
which ranges from the
Nicobars to the Solomon
Islands, and is the only
representative of its
kind. Feeding, like most
of the group, on seeds,
this bird, which is a
little larger than an ordinary pigeon, is distinguished by its short body, the presence
of a collar of narrow ribbon-like feathers, the blue plumage with green and yellow
metallic reflections, the black head, and the white tail. Several types of ground-doves
(some of which were formerly assigned to the American genus Geotrygon) are pecu-
liar to Celebes and the Philippines, and belong to the Austro-Malay genus Phlogoenas.
SUMATRAN BROADBILL.
Reptues and The majority of the reptiles of the Philippines and Malay Islands
Amphibians. are so nearly related to those of the Malay mainland, that they require
but little notice here. In Borneo and Java lives, however, Schlegel's ghariai
REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
219
(Tomistoma schlegeli), the sole living representative of its kind. Schlegel's gharial
was first discovered in Borneo, to which island it was long supposed to be peculiar,
but in 1890 it was recorded from Sumatra, and later from the Malay Peninsula.
From the Indian gharial the Malay species differs by its proportionately shorter
snout, but still more markedly by the circumstance that in the skeleton of this
• ■
region the nasal bones extend so far forward
as to join the premaxillary bones which form
the tip of the muzzle, instead of being separated
from them by a considerable interval. The
teeth, too, are less numerous, and some of them
are considerably larger than the others instead
of the whole of them forming a nearly even
and regular series. Java is the home of the
common Malay flying-lizard {Draco volans). A
few amphibians, though common to the islands
and the mainland, are worth mention, such, for
instance, as the tiger-frog (Rana tigrina),
whose range extends westwards to India and
Ceylon. This, the largest of the Indian
frogs, lives principally in water, and leaps along its surface in the same way as on
firm ground. The flying-frogs, ranging from India to China, Japan, and Madagascar,
and characterised by their long webbed toes which act as a kind of parachute, are
represented in the Archipelago by the Javan Rhacophorus reinwardti, and another
species in Borneo. The first account of the habits of the flying frog of Borneo
{Rhaccyphorus pardalis) was received with incredulity, and the statement as to its
flying powers thought to be exaggerated. Recent observations, however, tend to
show that in the main this account is correct, and that the frogs of this genus
retnwardt's flying frog.
220
FA UNA OF THE MALA Y ISLANDS AND PHILIPPINES
really take flying leaps by the aid of the interdigital membranes. The Javan
species, which is about 4 inches long, and of a deep shining green above and yellow
beneath, and is arboreal in its habits, even breeding amid the foliage. It is, more-
over, remarkable for its power of changing the colour of its skin. A specimen
captured in the daytime and examined in strong sunlight will, for instance, be
found of a brilliant greenish blue ; towards evening it will, however, change to
green, and finally to nearly black, the transformation taking place more rapidly in
males than in females. Night is the time when these frogs are really active, and
it is then that they awaken from their diurnal torpor and commence to search for
grasshoppers .and other orthopterous insects. Like other tree-frogs, they hold on
to leaves and boughs by means of adhesive discs to their toes. In regard to the
leaps from which they take their name, flying-frogs will leap to a height of about a
CLIMBING PERCH.
foot in an arc of a circle and alight two or three yards distant in a characteristic
attitude, with their bodies inflated to the greatest possible degree and their toe-
membranes fully extended. During these flying leaps, which are for the purpose
of escaping foes, the webs perform the part of a parachute. Each leap is
of extreme rapidity, lasting only a fraction of a second. Among the curious
worm-like amphibians or coecilians, the widely-spread Iclrfhyophis glutinosus,
whose range includes Ceylon, many parts of India, and Burma, occurs in Sumatra
Borneo, and Java. This creature, which is about 15 inches long and half
an inch thick, lives in damp places, particularly in soft mud, where it
lays large eggs, forming a heap like a bunch of grapes, in a hole near
the water, made for the purpose. The mother winds her body round the
eggs, and thus protects them and the young, which do not hatch out till they
have lost their outer gills. The young, which have fish-like heads and flat
FISHES
221
tails with a tin above and below, lead an aquatic life during the early stages
of their existence.
Like the reptiles, the fishes of the islands under consideration
Fishes. .
are to a great extent similar to those ot the mainland. The labyrinth-
gilled perches, taking their name from the complicated structure of their gill-
chambers, which are modified to enable their owners to live for a considerable time
out of water, are represented by three generic types in the islands, one of which
is known only by a single species, the celebrated climbing-perch Anabas scandens,
whose range extends from India to the Philippines. This fish works its way through
herbage on the ground by means of its pectoral fins, and is somewhat doubtfully
reported to climb trees in a similar manner. Isine inches is the usual length of
this fish. In an allied genus the paradise-fish (Polyacanthus signatus) affords an
example of what is known as discontinuous distribution, since it occurs in Ceylon
THE GURAMI.
and Java and nowhere else. A third type is represented in Java, Sumatra, and
Borneo by the gurami (Osphromenus olfax), one of the best flavoured fresh- water
fishes of the Malay province. It has been acclimatised in Mauritius, Cayenne, and
Australia, and attains a length of over 5 feet. In shape the gurami is not unlike
a large turbot, and it is one of the few fishes which build nests. This nest, which
is ball-shaped and constructed of plants, is built by the united efforts of the two sexes.
Very characteristic of the Indo-Malay fresh waters are the big-headed and
long-bodied fishes of the family Ophiocephalidae. There are two genera, Ophio-
cephalus and Chorum ; three of the representatives of the former being African. A
well-known species is the lula (0. striatus) of India and Ceylon, which constructs
a nest and hatching-place for its eggs by beating back the rushes in the shallow
portion of a tank with its tail, and then biting off the ends of weeds left growing
in the water so as to clear a space of sufficient size to serve the purpose of a nursery.
Ways leading to and from the nest are cleared, and in these both parents take up
their position during the breeding season, although the male, which is the smaller,,
222
FAUNA OF THE MALAY ISLANDS AND PHILIPPINES
alone fights when protection of the eggs is necessary. The eggs, which are of
large size and of a translucent golden yellow or amber colour, are spread out when
first laid like a sheet flush with the surface of the water between tufts of rushes
which serve in some degree to protect them from the direct rays of the sun.
During the breeding season lula cannot be tempted to take a bait of any kind, but
are caught by the Singhalese in a trap known as a kuda. This is a small, wide-
meshed bucket of deep and conical form, about 20 inches long, terminating blindly
at the narrow end, and opening like a funnel at the opposite extremity, while
beyond this it is just wide enough to receive the body of the fish, which when inside
becomes jammed. The kuda is set in one of the ways to the nest, when the capture
STICK INSECT (CYPHOCRANIA GIGAS).
of one or both fish is almost certain.
The floating eggs of the lula owe
their buoyancy to the presence in
each of a globule of oil, which
occupies the greater part of the
whole structure, and is immersed
in the golden yellow yolk. As the
eggs lie immediately below the
surface and are exposed to the full
effects of the influence of the sun's rays, development proceeds with astonishing
rapidity, hatching taking place within three days, if not within twenty-four hours,
of the time when the eggs are deposited.
Among the insects of the Malay Islands, the Atlas moth (Attacus
atlas) is noteworthy on account of its size, the wing-spread being
almost a foot. Many other insects of the area, although by no means all, are
likewise very large, and also remarkable for their gorgeous colours. Others,
again, as the stick-insects, or Phasmida?, attract attention on account of their
strange forms. These large insects, which are slow-moving vegetable-feeders, are
almost entirely confined to the tropics; one of the largest Malay Island forms,
Cyphocrania gigas, presenting, like others of its kind, a striking resemblance to a
dry twig. The leaf-insects (Phy Ilium), another genus of the same family, are
Insects.
WHIP-SCORPIONS
22
similarly protected by their shape and colouring. One of the best known is the
dried leaf-insect (P. siccifolium), the external appearance of which is sufficiently
indicated by its name.
.--
£ \
DRIED LEAF-INSECT.
In the Malay Archipelago, as in other parts of the tropics, are
' several kinds of whip-scorpions, so-called on account of their long
thread-like many-jointed tails. The common thread-scorpion (Thelyphonus
caudatus) of the islands of the Archipelago is a well-known representative of this
family, which is spread over both the Old and New Worlds.
>
.<*r*>- .■•-■■$ •--£
S-:-£t'=j&
^S»f-~ •
THREAD-SCORPION.
MUSK-DEER
CHAPTER VIII
The Fauna of the Chinese Province
The area of which the animals form the subject of this chapter consists, roughly-
speaking, of a triangle, the angles of which are formed by the Pamir plateau in the
west, by the island of Formosa in the south, and by that of Saghalin in the north.
The features of the landscape of the area differ greatly in its different divisions.
The greater part of China proper, for instance, is occupied by forest-tracts
characteristic of a dry climate ; tropical forests of considerable extent are on the
other hand found in Formosa and the adjacent coast of the continent, while an
extensive forest, whose primeval condition is only retained in the sacred groves,
exists in southern Japan. In this forest some of the trees and many of the tropical
shrubs of the Malay area have their northern limit. In addition to deciduous
forests recalling those of eastern Korea, there are large pine-forests in those parts
of Japan which have a cold winter. The largest of these forests occur in the
northern islands of the group as well as in Saghalin, though in the latter island
the forested tracts frequently alternate with meadows, so as to form park-like
landscapes recalling those of north-western China and the Amur countries.
The grassy steppes of northern China and the Amur countries are bordered by
the great Gobi desert, extending from the Pamirs to Chingan at an average
elevation of from 3000 to 5000 feet. This tract is broken into by mountain ranges,
and dotted with lakes, small and large, saline and fresh-water, the beds of which
dry up at certain seasons of the year as do those of many of the rivers. Few of the
plains are destitute of vegetation, but, except in certain cases, there is no forest.
Tulips are the most striking plants, and when they are in blossom the Dzungarian
224
MONKE YS— CARNI FOR A 2 2 5
desert, forming the north-western branch of the Gobi, which at other times is a
barren waste, is carpeted with flowers. The Gobi is separated by the Kuen Lun
Mountains from the plateau of Tibet, an area of very scanty vegetation and almost
entirely devoid of trees, where the sandy soil produces only a few grasses and other
plants together with low bushes. The Tibetan plateau, in its turn, is bounded by
the mountains of south-eastern Tibet at the point of exit of the four large rivers,
the Irawadi, Salwin, Mekon, and Yang-tsi. The mountains are cleft in all
directions by valleys which develop a richer vegetation than that of the plateau
itself. In the north-west Tibet is bordered by the tableland of the Pamirs, or
Roof of the World, where the Himalaya unites with the other great ranges of
central Asia, namely, the Karakorum, the Kuen Lun, the Tian-Shan, and the Hindu
Kush, to form an almost rectangular mountain group attaining an average height
of 12,000 feet, and therefore to a great extent above the limits of tree-growth, while
many of its higher peaks tower considerably over 20,000 feet. An extensive
portion of this tract consists of desert valleys and steppes ; but in some parts dense
bushes clothe the banks of the rivers, and vegetation abounds on the slopes of the
highlands.
The fauna of the area under consideration includes many animals common to
the adjacent tracts, or species and races nearty related to the same. Some of its
animals are, however, related to American types, and a large number are peculiar
to the province, and it is these which claim principal attention.
Among the mammals of the Chinese area are a few monkeys.
Monkeys. . . J
The highlands of eastern Tibet and the mountains of Sze-chuan,
especially those parts which are covered with snow during the greater part of the
year, are inhabited by the orange snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellance), a
brilliantly coloured species, taking its name from the peculiar shape of its nose.
Another member of the same genus (R. bieti) is a native of the Mekon Valley, a
third (R avunculus) inhabits lower Tonkin, and a fourth (R. brelichi) central
China. In the same tract as the first dwells the Sze-chuan macaque (Macacus
arctoides), a large brown, stump-tailed species, inhabiting the coldest and most
inaccessible forests of Sze-chuan. To the same group belongs the macaque of
Japan (31. fuscatus), in wThich, however, the short tail is more thickly haired and
terminates in a tuft.
Among the beasts - of - prey are the long-haired Manchurian
Carnivora. . . . . 7 . . . .
tiger (Felis tigris longipihs), the heavily-spotted and thick-built
Manchurian leopard (F. pardus villosa), and the snow-leopard or ounce (F. undo).
The last of these, whose range extends at least as far east as the Altai, is
found throughout the mountains of central Asia. Its ground-colour is whitish
grey, marked with black spots, which form irregular rosettes on the back, sides,
and tail, and are much larger than those of the true leopard. The ocelot-like
Fontanier's cat (F. tristis), the smaller but allied F. scripta, and a race of the golden
cat (F. temmincki wardi) are likewise distinctive of this tract. The most
remarkable member of the dog tribe inhabiting this limit is the raccoon-dog (Cants
nprocyonoides) of the Amur district and Japan, which takes its name from its
superficial resemblance to a raccoon, and is characterised by its pointed muzzle,
short, rounded ears, shaggy coat, and mingled black and yellow coloration.
vol. 11. — 1 t
226 THE FAUNA OF THE CHINESE PROVINCE
A small banded civet from Tonkin has been made the type of a peculiar genus,
under the name of Chrotogcde owstoni. It resembles the banded Hemigale
hardwickei of the Malay countries in colouring, but is distinguished by the
spatulate crowns of its milk-incisor teeth — a difference which is regarded as of
generic value.
Even more noteworthy is the short-tailed panda (JEluropus melanoleucus) of
Sze-chuan and Kansu, long regarded as an aberrant bear, but the skeleton of which
indicates relationship with the long-tailed Himalayan panda. This strange animal,
which has a rudimentary tail and thickly haired soles, is white in colour, with a
black ring round each eye and thick eai"s, shoulders, and limbs, and inhabits
bamboo-jungle. The true bears are represented by the blue bear of Tibet (Ursus
pruinosus) and a larger species, both allied to the brown bear, as well as by
X.
-
RACCOON-DOG.
local races of the Himalayan black bear and the Malay bear in Tibet and Sze-
chuan. A bear from the Tian Shan (Ursus leuconyx) appears to be the Asiatic
representative of the American grisly. There is also in the Altai and Siberia
a wild dog (Canis primcevus).
Among a large number of hollow-horned ruminants inhabiting
Yak. . .
central Asia, the foremost place is occupied by the yak (Bos grunniens),
whose habitat includes Tibet and part of the Chinese province of Kan-su. The yak,
which appears to be most nearly allied to the bison, is distinguished from all other
oxen by its peculiar coat and tail. On the head and upper part of the rump the
hair is comparatively short, but long hair covers the under-parts of the body and
extends over the shoulders and thighs, falling low on the hocks. On the chest is a
tuft of long hair, and the tail, which does not generally reach below the hocks, is
very bushy. The general colour is dark blackish brown, with white round the
muzzle, and in old age tending to grizzled grey on the crown of the head and
throat. The wild yak is a large animal, old bulls probably reaching nearly 6 feet
a
w
H
<
en
O
Q
YAK
227
in height, while the horns often measure from 25 to 30 inches, and may occasionally
be longer. It is distributed northwards from Tibet into the Kuen Lun and west-
ward into Ladak, where it is found near the Pangong Lake and in the Chang-
chenmo Valley. It is said to be numerous in the valley of the upper Indus, east of
Ladak, and to be less shy there than elsewhere. A great number are found in
SHORT-TAILED PANDA.
north and south Tibet, where they frequent the neighbourhood of streams, attracted
by the luxuriant growth of grass, although the yak is able to live on the
scantiest pasture, upon which it is forced to exist in the higher valleys. The
country throughout the greater part of its range is sterile and dreary enough, but
it chooses the wildest and most inaccessible regions, and in summer is found at
heights of from 13,000 to 19,000 feet, being a decided lover of cold and extremely
sensitive to warmth. The yak is a great wanderer, travelling in summer regularly
228
THE FAUNA OF THE CHINESE PROVINCE
to grassy plains where it is quite unknown in winter ; but these journeys are made
only by the cows and calves, the old bulls, which live alone or in small companies
of threes and fours, being supposed to remain in the same district throughout the
year. In summer the cows form herds of from ten to a hundred head, or more in
districts where pasture is good, grazing at night-time and in the early morning.
*%K
i^/frxA^,0-^
J'*%r-=^->-- "^^
KULJA ARGALI.
Yak retire during the day to some steep barren slope, where they remain for hours
on the same spot. Old bulls prefer resting-places where they can obtain a good
view of the surrounding country, and often wander far above the limit of vegetable
growth to the summit of some steep mountain. Very little is enough to warn the
yak — which has a sharp sense of smell, but appears not to see well — of the approach
of the sportsman, and, when anxious and expecting danger, the cows and old bulls
place themselves at the head and on the flanks of the herd with the calves in the
middle ; but when the sportsman draws near the whole herd takes to flight, rushing
WILD SHEEP— IBEX— GORAL, SEROWS, AND TAKIN 229
swiftly away with their heads lowered and their tails in the air, although very
often a wounded bull will turn and attack its assailant, when it is an opponent by
no means to be despised. In many districts of Tibet yak are used as beasts of
burden, and are also valued for their milk or flesh. In some districts these
domesticated yak are much smaller than their wild relatives, and their colour
departs from the original type by being more or less mingled with white. It is
from the domesticated breed that the white tails are obtained which in India are
used as fly-whisks under the name of " chowries."
The districts inhabited by the yak, as well as the adjacent tracts,
are also the home of several species and races of wild sheep. Fore-
most among these is the true argali (Ovis ammon) of the Altai, which is probably
the largest member of its tribe. In Ladak and Tibet this species is represented
by a distinct race, the Tibetan argali (0. ammon hodgsoni), characterised by the
large white ruff on the chest of the rams in winter. In Mongolia is a third race
(0. ammon mongolica), while the Sair Mountains and adjacent districts are the
home of another race (0. a. sairensis), and a fifth race (0. a. littledalei) inhabits the
Kulja district. Marco Polo's sheep (0. a.poli) of the Pamir is another well-marked
race, characterised by its still longer and more curving horns. Of quite a
different type is the bharal (Pseudovis nahura), which ranges across Tibet from the
Himalaya to the Kuen Lun, the Altyn Tagh, and Kan-su. In habits and structure
this species is between a sheep and a goat, but in external appearance it is some-
what more of a sheep.
The goats are represented by the magnificent Siberian ibex
(Capra sibirica), inhabiting the mountain-ranges of central Asia
from the Altai to the Himalaya, and including several local races.
Gorai, Serows The gorals are represented in Sze-chuan by the ashy Urotragus
and Takin. cinereus, and by a second species, U. caudatus, in north China,
characterised by its long tail. Another species (U. swinhoei) inhabits Formosa.
Japan possesses a small serow (Capricornis crispus), of which there are two local
races ; and a race of the Sumatran species, as well as the large white-maned serow
(C. argyrochostes), are peculiar to Sze-chuan and Kan-su. Allied to the serows are
the larger ruminants known as takin (Budorcas), inhabiting the Mishmi Hills, north
of the Assam Valley, Bhutan, and western and central China. They are heavily
built ruminants, of the size of a Kerry cow, with curiously twisted horns, and long,
shaggy hair. The Mishmi takin (B. taxicolor) is mainly brown in colour, but the
Sze-chuan B. tibetanus is mostly yellowish or grey, with a black face, whereas the
Shen-si B. bedfordi is entirely golden yellow. The last species, which inhabits the
Tsin-lin Shan of southern Shen-si, the eastern continuation of the Kuen-Lun, has
a special interest on account of the approximation of its type of colouring to that
of the golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellanos) of Sze-chuan. The
Tsin-lin takin forms the culmination of a series of colour-changes which have
resulted in the transformation of a comparatively short-haired chocolate-brown
animal, with a tawny saddle patch and black limbs, under-parts, and head, into one
in which the coat is of great length and of a uniformly golden yellow. The dark
phase is represented by the Mishmi takin and its Bhutan relative ; the intermediate
stage by the Sze-chuan species, in which the greater part of the fur of the body is
23°
THE FAUNA OF THE CHINESE PROVINCE
yellow (replaced by grey in some individuals), while the face, ears, and limbs are
black or blackish ; and the wholly yellow phase by the Tsin-lin animal, the coat of
which may be likened to that of a yellow Polar bear, if such a creature existed.
These colour-changes are paralleled by the snub-nosed monkeys (p. 225), which,
like takin, are peculiar to this part of Eastern Asia, although differing somewhat
in regard to the limits of their range. The Mekon species (Rhinopithecus bieti),
from the mountains bordering the valley of the upper Mekon, in Tonkin, is, for
-
SZE-CHUAN TAKIN.
instance, a slate-coloured monkey, with the cheeks, under-parts, and a patch on the
thighs, white. On the other hand, in R. brelichi, from the mountains of Kwei-
Chow, in central China, a golden yellow tint appears on the forehead, inner sides
of the arms, and backs of the legs, while there is a tawny patch between the
shoulders, and the under-parts have become grey. Finally, in R. roxellance, of Sze-
chuan, the prevailing tint is bright golden yellow mingled with darker yellow.
This species lives at a height of about 1000 feet, but the other two probably dwell
at lower levels ; it is further characterised by the great length and silkiness of the
hair of the back, thereby showing another resemblance to the golden takin.
GAZELLES AND CH1RU—DEER 231
That these two series of colour are dependent, in some degree at any rate, on
environment and altitude, seems almost certain, but the reason of the development
of the yellow remains a mystery. Animals inhabiting hot moist regions are known
to display a tendency to melanism, while in certain other localities there is a
similar tendency to erythrism ; but this development of a golden tint in two groups
from central and eastern China seems unparalleled. The length of the coat in the
golden takin and golden monkey may be explained by the coldness of the high
ranges on which these animals dwell ; a similar feature characterising the Sze-
chuan bamboo rat (Rhizomys vestitus) as compared with its lowland relatives,
but this has nothing to do with colour
Takin are now known to inhabit the Mishmi Hills, Bhutan, Sze-chuan, Kan-su,
and the Tsin-lin Shan. In the later Tertiary period the group appears to be
represented by the extinct Bucapra of the Siwalik Hills of northern India, at
present known only by a single imperfect skull, unfortunately lacking the
horn-cores.
Takin inhabit thick bamboo-jungle, and are adepts in getting over rough and
precipitous ground.
Gazelles Of the antelopes there are several representatives in the Chinese
and cniru. area. Of the goitred gazelle, a local race (Gazella subgutturosa
sairensis) inhabits the Altai, while the Saikik gazelle (G. yarcandensis) is a
native of Kashgaria. The Mongolian gazelle (G. gutturosa) is a native of the
region from which it takes its name, and, like the goitred species, is characterised
by the presence of a dilatable sac in the throat of the males. Of a very different
type is the goa or Tibetan gazelle (G. picticaudata), which is found at heights of
from 13,000 to 18,000 feet in Ladak and Tibet. Nearly allied is Przewalski's gazelle
(G. przewalskii) of Mongolia. Ladak and Tibet are likewise the habitat of the
chiru or Tibetan antelope (Pantholops hodgsoni), the sole representative of its kind^
characterised by its inflated nose the long slender black horns of the bucks, and
the presence of only two pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw.
Deer are numerously represented in this extensive tract. Of the
Deer. . . ....
wapiti (Cervus canadensis), which is typically a North American
species, there are several local races, such as the Tian Shan race (G. canadensis
songaricus), the Siberian race (C. canadensis asiaticus), and the Manchurian race
(C. canadensis xanthopygus) ranging into Amurland. The Bokhara wapiti (C. c.
bactrianus) is another race of the same species, while a fifth is the Tibetan wapiti
G. c. wardi. Very distinct from the wapiti type is the Yarkand deer (G. yarcand-
ensis) of the forests of the Tarim Valley. Other types are the hangul (G. cash-
mirianus) of the valley of Kashmir and adjacent districts, and the pale grey
Sze-chuan G. macneilli, with a darker race, G. m. kansuensis, in Kan-su. The
mansarowar (G. wallichi), of which the shou (G. w. ajjinis), of upper Sikhim and
the district north of Bhutan, is a local race, is a large stag of somewhat allied type.
More distinct is the white-muzzled Thorold's deer (C. albirostris) of eastern Tibet.
All the foregoing belong to the typical group of the genus, but the sikas,
which are peculiar to this tract, form a group confined to the area under considera-
tion. The largest of these is the Pekin sika (C. hortulorum) of Manchuria,
represented by a smaller race (C. hortulorum kopschi) in the Yang-tsi Valley This
232
THE FAUNA OF THE CHINESE PROVINCE
deer is chestnut, brilliantly spotted with white in summer, but uniformly dark
brown in winter. The Manchurian sika (G. sica manchuricus) is a smaller animal,
of which the still smaller typical race (G sica) is a native of Japan. Another
species (C. taevanus) is found in Formosa. A race of the sambar (G. unicolor
dejeani) is found in Sze-chuan.
The most remarkable of
the deer of this area is,
however, the large Pere
David's milou deer (Elajrfi-
urus davidianus), a species
formerly kept in confinement
in the Imperial Park at Pekin,
but now represented only by
a herd in the Duke of Bed-
ford's park at Woburn. The
true habitat of this species is
not certainly known, although
it is suggested that it came
from
Kashgaria.
The
car-
riage is more like that of a
mule than a red deer (which
the species equals in size), the
general colour of the long
hair is reddish dun, and the
antlers of the stags are of an
altogether peculiar type, hav-
ing a very long back tine.
The Siberian roe (Capreolus
pygargus) ranges from the
Altai to Manchuria, the latter
country being the home of a
second species (G. bedfordi).
Muntjacs are represented
in the area by the Sze-chuan
Ger vulus lachrymans, to-
gether with G sclateri, G.
bridgemani, and C. reevesi, of
central and western China.
Their allies, the tufted deer,
are absolutely characteristic of the tract. Of the latter, Michie's tufted deer
(Elaphodus mitchianus), which is common along the reedy rivers of eastern
China, is blackish grey in colour, the lower half of each hair being white and
the upper half black. Another species, the Sze-chuan tufted deer (E. cephalo-
phus), inhabits Sze-chuan and Kan-su, and a third kind is found in the
mountains of central China. The swamps of the Yang-tsi form the haunts
of the little Chinese water-deer {Hydropotes, or Hydrelaphus, inermis), an
pere David's deer
DEER — M USK-DEER
233
animal of the approximate size of the Indian muntjac, with a long body, short
legs, and light reddish brown hair marked with indistinct rows of black spots in
the young. Like the musk-deer, the bucks have no antlers, but long curved tusks
in the upper jaw. The does are peculiar in producing from three to six young at
a time ; those of other deer generally having only one or two.
MICHIE S TUFTED DEER.
Musk-Deer.
The Himalayan musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus), which ranges
all over the Himalaya, whence it extends northward into Tibet and
so on through central Asia to Siberia, represents a very distinct group of deer. In
this species the bucks attain a shoulder-height of about 20 inches, and are slightly
higher behind. The coat is formed of coarse, brittle, pithy hair, the fore-legs are
long with narrow, pointed hoofs, of which the outer pair are abnormally long, the
tail is short, and the bucks carry long scimitar-like upper tusks. The colour is
brown, more or less sprinkled with grey, and indistinctly spotted. Some animals
are paler, others yellowish, and in Kashmir there are some with rows of grey spots
on their backs. The musk-deer lives alone, seldom more than two being seen
together; and inhabits steep mountain-slopes, where it leads the life of a hare,
sheltering, like the latter, in a lair made by itself, and feeding in the morning
and evening. Very active in its movements, it is enabled to traverse slippery
and precipitous rock-surfaces by means of its large lateral hoofs. It leaps rather
234
THE FAUNA OF THE CHINESE PROVINCE
than runs, and, where not much hunted, is by no means shy. According to some
accounts, it feeds on grass and lichens ; according to others, on leaves and flowers.
A second species (M. sifanicus) has been described from Kan-su, and a third (M.
parvipes) from Korea.
The Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), distinguished by the
possession of two humps, and its long and shaggy winter coat, is
certainly a native of the Gobi Desert and adjacent districts. The colour of the
hair is generally uniform, but varies in different individuals from dark brown to
Bactrian Camel.
4&
BACTRIAN CAMEL.
pale yellowish grey, similar differences in colour being noticeable in the camels
found in a wild state in some parts of central Asia. Many of these latter are
undoubtedly descended from animals which have escaped from captivity, but
others are probably truly wild. To the east of Yarkand, however, between Khotan
and Lob Nor in the Gobi Desert, occur herds of wild camels said to be characterised
by their comparatively small size, and the very distinct callosities on the knees as
well as by certain peculiarities of the skull. They are exceedingly wary, and so
swift that the native horsemen are unable to overtake them in the deep sand, so
that none have as yet been caught and tamed. So long as there is no snow on the
ground, these camels wander about on the beds of the Yarkand and Tarim Rivers,
where they find pools of stagnant water, but after the first snowfall they repair to
Manchurian Crane.
WILD HORSES — KIANG — SMALLER MAMMALS 235
the desert, where they apparently exist without water. Possibly they prefer snow
to the stagnant water, on account of its not being salt, but even snow soon acquires
a saline taste from contact with the salt-impregnated soil of the central Asiatic
desert.
Wild Horses or The domesticated horse (Equus caballus) is distinguished from
Tarpan. the African wild ass and zebra, not only by the possession of bare
leathery callosities, or "chestnuts," on all four legs, but also by the long hair
clothing the tail to the root, as well as by the pendent mane and the forelock. It
has also a smaller head, shorter ears, considerably longer legs, and broader hoofs,
this being notably the case with the front pair, which are very much broader than
the hind ones. Domesticated horses, it is almost needless to say, show great
variation in colour, dun-coloured individuals occasionally displaying two or three
dark cross-stripes on the shoulders, and dark bars on the legs. Formerly wild
horses inhabited the open plains of Europe and northern and central Asia; and
till within half a century ago the tarpan was still abundant on the Kirghiz steppes ;
while less than a couple of centuries since its range extended from the Dnieper to
the Altai. Although these tarpan were undoubtedly more or less extensively
crossed with horses escaped from captivity, it is probable that they were the direct
descendants of the wild horses which roamed over the plains of Europe contempor-
aneously with the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros.
The Gobi Desert is, however, the home of the truly wild tarpan (E. caballus
przewalskii) named in honour of the great Russian traveller, Przewalski, by whom
it was discovered. The muzzle is frequently white, the tail js not haired com-
pletely up to the root, there is a small forelock, and the mane is upright, but may
fall over in the adult. The general colour is dun, without a dark stripe down the
back (at least in the summer coat) or any trace of a shoulder-stripe or of bars on
the legs ; but the fetlocks and the front of the legs are dark brown ; and the mane
and tail-tuft black. These wild tarpan were probably the ancestors of the ordinary
horses of western Asia and Europe, where they are still represented by the dun
ponies of Norway. They are so fleet that it is impossible to come up with the
adults, and the young alone can be taken and then only with relays of horses.
The kiang (E. kiang) of Tibet and Mongolia, to which the
chiggetai of the Kirghiz steppes is allied, is a large red-coloured
animal, with the muzzle, under-parts, and inner surfaces of the limbs white, and a
broad chocolate stripe down the back. " Chestnuts " are present only on the
fore-limbs, the lower half of the tail is alone clothed with long hair, and the ears
are longer than in the wild horse, although not nearly so large as in the African
wild ass. In this respect, as well as in the absence of a shoulder-stripe and of
bars on the legs, and in the great breadth of the hoofs, especially the front pair,
the kiang approximates to the horses and differs from the asses and zebras of
Africa. Kiang go about frequently in small parties, but sometimes alone ; and are
most active in getting over rough ground. In Chang-chemo they are found at
an elevation of from 13,000 to 18,000 feet.
smaller Tibet is the home of a peculiar genus of water-shrews {Nectogale) ,
Mammals. an(j fche Yarkand district is inhabited by the remarkable long-eared
jerboa (EucJtoretes naso), the sole representative of its genus. Voles of the genus
236 THE FAUNA OF THE CHINESE PROVINCE
Microtus are also common in this tract, which is also the habitat of one of the
zokors or the mole-voles (Myotalpa fontanieri). Zokors, which inhabit central and
north-eastern Asia, are members of the mouse tribe which lead a burrowing life,
and although nearly allied to lemmings, are almost identical in appearance with
the mole-rat. Both have the same curious flattening of the head and rounding of
the muzzle which give to the mole-rat its remarkable physiognomy, and in both the
eyes are rudimentary and the external ears wanting. Indeed, the likeness between
a zokor and a mole-rat, if we except the more powerful front claws of the former,
is much greater than that between a swift and a swallow. Till recently zokors
were generally known to zoologists by the name of Siphneus, but it is now the
fashion to replace that term by Myotalpa. Very noticeable is the occurrence in
north-eastern Asia of a representative of the jumping-mice (Zapus) of North
America. American affinities are also displayed by the occurrence in Japan of the
mole-like Urotrichus talpoides, a near relative of the North American Neiirotriclms
gibbsi. Quite recently another peculiar generic type, Scapanulus oweni, allied to
the American Scapanus, has been discovered in Kan-su. The Japanese Dymecodon
and the Sze-chuan Scaptonyx are also mole-like types peculiar to this region.
The scattered distribution of the members of the Insectivora and the remote
corners of the earth in which many of them are found afford conclusive evidence
of the antiquity of this primitive and waning group of mammals. Additional
evidence of this is afforded by the discovery in Sze-chuan of a member of the group
which has been named Neotetracus sinensis, the name being intended to suggest
affinity with the small and imperfectly known Tetracus nanus of the French
Miocene. The smallest member of its group, Neotetracus is nearly related to the
Malay Gymnura and Hylomys, and the Philippine Podogymnura ; but while
approximating to the last in external characters, and especially the well-developed
tail, it agrees with the hedgehogs in the character and number of teeth and likewise
in the presence of vacuities in the palate, so that it forms a kind of connecting link
between the Gymnurincs and Erinaceinw. In size the Sze-chuan species may be
compared roughly to a half -grown rat ; but the general colour of its coat is reddish
yellow.
The Japanese dancing mouse is widely spread in China and Japan, and differs
from ordinary mice in several structural details. That its original home was
China seems to be demonstrated by the fact that it was formerly known in Japan
by the name of Nankin Nesumi, meaning the mouse from Nankin. Perhaps the
most important difference between the dancing and ordinary mice is to be found in
the structure of the internal ear, in which there are several peculiarities, notably the
larger size of the so-called crystalline otoliths. In size the dancing mouse is smaller
and of lighter build than the house mouse, besides being of a more delicate consti-
tution. The dancing mouse, moreover, has a shorter tail with much fewer rings of
scales, and in this respect it resembles Wagner's mouse (Mils wagneri) of China, a
species allied to M, musculus, but with a shorter tail. Wagner's mouse is found not
only in China but also in southern Russia, while in central Asia it takes the place
as a semi-domesticated species of the ordinary house-mouse of Europe. The con-
clusion arrived at is that the dancing mouse is a variety of Mus wagneri, originally
domesticated in China, whence it was carried first to Japan, and then to Europe.
Giant Salamander.
BIRDS— REPTILES— FISHES 2 3 7
Among the few birds of the Chinese province of which space allows
mention, one of the most characteristic is the mandarin-duck (/Ex
galerita), a near ally of the summer-duck (jE. sponsa) of North America, the Asiatic
species being the most brilliantly coloured member of the family on that continent.
Both kinds nest in the hollows of trees. Among the geese may be mentioned the
swan -goose (Cygnopsis cygnoides), the largest of the living geese, from which
many of the domesticated geese of the east are derived. The stateliest of the
cranes is the Manchurian species (Grus viridirostris). Pheasants abound in this
tract, among these being the gorgeous golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus) and
its near relative, the still more handsome Amherst's pheasant (G. amherstice). The
Turkoman eagle-owl (Bubo turcomanus) is a larger and paler representative of the
great eagle-owl of Europe. Lastly, the Asiatic blue-winged magpie (Cyanopica
cyanea) is remarkable on account of the great distance by which its habitat is
separated from that of its only relative, the Spanish species.
Alligators and The resemblance to American types exhibited by some of the
salamanders, mammals of north-eastern Asia is paralleled by the existence in China
of an alligator (Alligator sinensis) which inhabits the Yang-tsi River, and is
closely allied to the Mississippi species. Despite the fact that two living examples
were exhibited in London in 1890, the Chinese alligator, first brought in modern
times to European notice in 1870, appears to be rare in collections. It seems,
however, that the existence of the species was known to Marco Polo and Father
Martini, who published a Chinese atlas in the year 1656 at Amsterdam, although in
neither case was a specimen seen. According to Martini, the river at Chingkiang
was infested by these reptiles, which were a terror to the populace. A specimen
seen in the early part of 1869 was carried about the city of Shanghai as a dragon
by a party of Chinese; but it was not till 1879 that the species was scientifically
described on the evidence of one specimen from the Yang-tsi at Wuhu, and a second
at Chingkiang, and was definitely recognised as a true alligator akin to the
Mississippi species, the other well-known representative of the genus. Alligators
occur, however, in the Tertiary strata of Europe, and these explain the distribution
of the existing forms, one of which may have travelled to America by way of
Bering Strait. So far as is known, the distribution of the Chinese species seems
to be restricted to a small area in the Yang-tsi Valley. The giant salamander
(Megalobatrachus maximus), the largest living member of its tribe, is an inhabitant
of the fresh waters of China and Japan, and attains a length of about 40 inches.
Curiously enough, this huge amphibian is frequently found in clear mountain-
streams not above a foot or so in width, where it lies curled up among the stones.
Its flesh is a favourite article of diet with the Chinese. Special mention must be
made of the occurrence in Siam of a salamander of the genus Amblystoma, of
which the other seventeen members are American.
Domesticated Although it is impossible to allude to the fishes of the rivers of
Fishes. the area un(ler consideration, brief reference may be made to the
golden carp, as being a domesticated breed of the Chinese crucian carp notable for
its variation in colour. Some of these fish are golden yellow with a metallic gloss,
others bright red, and others again black ; while there are yet other colour-
variations, one of which is piebald, and a second silvery white. Besides these
238
THE FAUNA OF THE CHINESE PROVINCE
variations in colour, there are breeds distinguished by their strange form, such as
the so-called telescope-fish and the veil-tailed fish, which have been imported into
Europe from Japan. The former is characterised by its large goggle-eyes and long
tail-fin and the latter by its short body and complex tail.
Another curious type is presented by the paradise-fish, a domesticated form of
■ I
TELESCOPE FISH AND VEIL-TAILED FISH.
a species of carp of the genus Polyacanthus. This fish, which is from 3 to 4
inches long, is banded with blue and red, and assumes a specially brilliant hue
during the breeding-season. The males, which are much lighter-coloured than
their partners, are distinguished by the excessive development of their fins.
The paradise-fish is indigenous to China, but has been introduced into Europe as
an ornamental denizen of aquariums. It is one of several fishes which build nests
for their young.
THE NORTHERN SEAS
PORPOISES
CHAPTER I
The Mammals of the North Atlantic
Seals.
The most abundant mammal of the shores of the North Atlantic
is the common seal (Phoca vitulina), the typical representative of a
group of Carnivora specially modified for an aquatic existence. This adaptation
is remarkably displayed by the limbs, which take the form of paddles, or flippers.
Seals are also distinguished from the land Carnivora by the number and structure
of their teeth, none of them having three pairs of front, or incisor, teeth in each
jaw, and none showing the so-called carnassial teeth characteristic of the more
typical flesh -eating mammals. Other features of the group are the absence of
collar-bones in the skeleton, the shortness of the tail, and the prominence of the
eyes.
With the exception of a few which ascend rivers some distance above their
estuaries, and others inhabiting inland seas or lakes, seals are confined to the
sea, where they subsist almost exclusively on animal food, especially fishes,
molluscs, and crabs and lobsters of which they devour immense quantities.
Although all are fairly intelligent and easily tamed, the various kinds differ
considerably in their mode of life. The walruses and eared seals, for instance, in
which the males exceed the females in size, are polygamous animals, resorting
during the breeding-season to certain particular shores, where they remain for a
considerable part of the year. The typical, or earless, seals, on the other hand, for
vol. ii. — 16
241
242 THE MAMMALS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
the most part associate in pairs, and only leave the water for short periods. The
distribution of the three groups of these animals is somewhat noteworthy. Out of
the whole assemblage only a single kind appears to be restricted to the tropics,
although a few others range into that zone, either from the north or the south, the
great majority being thus denizens of the cooler seas.
Seals inhabit not only the Caspian and Aral Seas and Lake Baikal, but also
certain other inland lakes. Apparently neither the seals of the Caspian and Aral,
which inhabit salt water, nor those of Lake Baikal, which live in fresh water, are
specifically distinct from the ringed seal (Phoca hispida or fcetida), of which they
respectively constitute local races. In addition to those of Lake Baikal, seals,
probably of the same race, occur in the comparatively small sheet of fresh water
lying to the north-east of it which is known as Lake Oron. The seals which
occur in a few of the Russian and Finnish lakes are stated to come so close to the
typical form of the ringed seal that they are not even racially separable, this being
in accordance with physical conditions as the lakes in question are even now not
completely landlocked, and at no very distant epoch probably had more free com-
munication with the ocean. Seals of this type occur in Lake Saima, in the south-
eastern corner of Finland, and likewise in Lake Ladoga, both these sheets of water,
although now fresh, having been doubtless at one time in close connection with the
Gulf of Finland. Farther east seals are stated to inhabit Lake Onega, in the
government of Olonetz, but the evidence is inconclusive. There seems, however,
no reason why it should not be true, seeing that Onega is connected by water with
Ladoga, as well as with the White Sea.
The typical, or earless seals, forming the family Phocidce, are specially
characterised by the absence of external ears, the shortness of the neck, and the
circumstance that the hind -flippers are directed backwards so as to lie parallel with
the tail, and are of use only in swimming. Moreover, even the front flippers are,
as a rule, not used in progression on land, these animals shuffling along by means
of a kind of serpentine movement with the front flippers held close to the sides of
the body and the hind-pair stretched out behind. The Greenland and the crested
seal are, however, in the habit of making use of the front flippers when on land,
and drag themselves along by their aid. During pairing-time many members of
the group associate in large herds, and nearly all the typical seals are sociable
animals, which display remarkable affection for their young.
The typical representative of the group, the aforesaid common
seal, grows to a length of between 5 and 6 feet, and in colour is mostly
yellowish grey spotted with dark brown or blackish above, and yellowish white
blotched with greyish brown beneath. At birth the fur is woolly in texture and
yellowish white in colour, but within a few hours the young seal exchanges its first
coat for a hairy dress like that of its parents.
This species inhabits not only the North Atlantic, but likewise the North
Pacific, in both areas rang-ins: into the Arctic Ocean, so that its distribution is
probably circumpolar. Along the European coasts the range of this seal extends
into the Mediterranean, and on the American side as far south as New Jersey;
while on the Asiatic coast of the Pacific it reaches Kamchatka, and on the American
side, South California. Off the Spitzbergen and Greenland coasts the common
SEALS— DOLPHIN 243
seal is still abundant, but in the North Sea it is less plentiful than formerly
and from many places has quite disappeared. In the North Atlantic this species
keeps exclusively to the shore, and is never found on ice-floes in the open sea.
From the shore it ascends many of the larger rivers, having been found in North
America far up the St. Lawrence. Preferring sheltered channels and shallow
bays, it chooses such rocks and sand-banks as are isolated from the shore, where it
may be met with at low tide all the year round, for it does not migrate.
Another British species is the grey seal {Halichoerus gryjius),
attaining a length of from 8 to 9 feet, and silvery or yellowish grey
in colour, generally with blackish or smoky brown irregular spots, which are
sometimes so large as to cause the whole coat to be nearly black, though occa-
sionally these are absent. The under-parts are lighter. This is essentially a
northern species, most common in Britain in the Hebrides.
Although often seen along the Scandinavian coast as far as Finmarken and
around Iceland, it is apparently unknown in Spitzbergen and the other European
Arctic Islands. Its occurrence on the east coast of Greenland is doubtful, but on
the west side of that country it is found as far north as Disco Island, Sable Island
off the coast of Cape Breton forming its southerly limit.
Very distinct is the monk seal (Monachus albiventer), inhabiting:
Monk Seals. .
the Mediterranean and Black Sea, as well as the eastern Atlantic,
inclusive of the coasts of Madeira and the Canaries. Like the West Indian seal of
the same genus, it-is remarkable on account of being a native of the warmer seas.
This seal is 8 feet or more in length, and in colour is dark brown and grey above,
and whitish below. It is distinguished by having the first and fifth toes of the
hind-feet longer than the rest, as well as by the presence of small or rudimentary
nails to all the toes.
The West Indian monk-seal (M. tropicalis) was discovered in August 1494,
when the sailors of Columbus killed eight of these " sea-wolves " as they called them
on the rocky island of Alta Vela off the coast of Hayti. In colour this seal is
glossy black when young, gradually turning to dark brown with a greyish tinge on
the sides and lower-parts, and becoming more or less yellowish white with age.
Its teeth are well developed and apparently adapted for crushing shells as well as
catching fish, but little has been ascertained as to its feeding habits beyond that,
like others of its family, it is able to fast for months when captured. Though
known for centuries, and its haunts being neither inaccessible nor distant from the
habitations of man, there is a strange want of information regarding this species,
which has so decreased in numbers that it is becoming, or has become, extinct.
As breathing air and producing living young which are suckled
Dolphin. ft l . , .
by the female parent, whales and dolphins, collectively forming the
Cetacean order, come within the category of mammals of the littoral zone. All are
able to remain a long time under water, and breathe rapidly by raising the blow-
hole slightly above the surface. In the group of toothed whales, which includes
the sperm-whale and all the dolphins and porpoises, the blow-hole is single. One
of the most familiar representatives of this section of the group is the common
dolphin (Delphinus delphis), which grows to a length of about 1\ feet, and is
generally dark grey above, and white or whitish below, with grey or pale bands on
244 THE MAMMALS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
the flanks, though there is much variation in the colour and markings. The body
is slender, the head small, the muzzle long and slender, and the front flipper nearly
three times as long as broad. Dolphins feed chiefly on fish, although some kinds
also eat crabs and shell-fish ; all associate in " schools " of larger or smaller siz«.
Bottle-Nosed Nearly allied is the bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursiops tursio), which
Dolphin, attains a length of 12 feet, and is sometimes grey in colour, in other
cases black above and pale grey below, but more generally leaden grey above, and
white below. The beak is shorter and thinner towards the end than that of the
common dolphin, and the body stoutly built. These dolphins congregate in schools
of considerable size, which are composed during pairing-time of about equal numbers
of males and females of all ages. In spring they are said to migrate north, and in
autumn south, but at Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, where they have been care-
fully observed, some are reported to frequent the same station throughout the year.
Short-Beaked The group of short-beaked dolphins, which are mostly natives of
Dolphins. warm and temperate seas, are characterised by the shortness of the
head and the ill-defined beak. Among them, the white-beaked species (Lageno-
rhynchus albirostris), which grows to a length of about 9 feet, inhabits the North
Atlantic, where it ranges as far north as Greenland and Davis Strait. In colour it
is generally purplish black on the back and whitish below, with the sides greyish,
the muzzle whitish, and some whitish spots behind the blow-hole and near the base
of the terminal fin.
A second kind, the white-sided dolphin (L. acutus), resembles the last more or
less closely in shape, but the head appears more swollen, the back-fin broader and
more erect, and the flippers shorter. It attains a length of 8 feet, and inhabits the
North Atlantic, where it is most common around the Orkneys. The colour is grey
above and white below, with a wide yellowish band along the side enclosing a
large white spot, a narrow black stripe extending from the dorsal fin to the tail,
a similar stripe running from the base of the pectoral fin on to the head, and
the eyes being ringed with black. There are several other members of this
group of dolphins.
In the so-called blackfish the rounded head has no distinct beak,
Blackflsh.
the back-fin is long, low, and stout, the flippers are long and narrow,
and the few teeth confined to the front half of the jaws. The common and widely
distributed blackfish (Globiocephalus melas), frequently called the pilot- whale, grows
to a length of at least 20 feet, and is wholly black, save for a large white spear-
shaped patch on the breast. This dolphin goes about in schools of a hundred or
more, always piloted by a leader a little distance in advance, who is followed
under all circumstances even when driven to destruction on a sandy beach.
Appearing frequently, although irregularly, on the northern and western coasts of
Europe, the blackfish seems to be scarce in the Mediterranean, but its range in-
cludes Greenland, the Cape of Good Hope, and New Zealand.
, „ . . Resembling the last in general external appearance, Risso's dolphin
Rissos Dolphin . ° b rr *_
(Grampus griseus) is distinguished by the head being less rounded,
the shorter flippers, the greater length of the pointed back-fin, and the very narrow
tail. This species is about 13 feet long, and mainly grey in colour, although greyish
white below, with the head and fore part of the body of a lighter or darker grey
RISSO'S DOLPHIN— KILLER — PORPOISE
245
and showing a yellowish tinge. The whole body is marked irregularly with
light streaks, apparently due to wounds inflicted by the spines on the suckers
of the squids upon which this species feeds. Though a stranger to the Arctic
seas, this dolphin has a very wide distribution, having been found in the North
Atlantic, the North Sea, and the Mediterranean, as well as in the South Atlantic
and North Pacific.
Still more widely distributed appears to be the killer, or grampus
(Orca gladiator), which is one of the largest of the group, growing to
a length of fully 20 feet. It is easily recognised by its striking coloration,
conical depressed head, and tall back-fin, as well as by its armature of powerful
teeth, of which there are from ten to thirteen pairs in each jaw. In colour, killers
KUler.
-•-•/,':->
THE KILLER.
are generally black above and whitish below, the white extending in a tongue-like
form on to the flanks, and also as a patch above each eye. Killers are generally
seen in small shoals, sometimes consisting of males and females only, and sometimes
of individuals of both sexes and all ages. They surpass all their relatives in
ferocity, and their principal prey appears to be porpoises, but they often join
in small parties to attack the largest whales, such as the Greenland species,
which become so terrified by the onslaught as to make little or no attempt .at
escape or resistance.
Familiar to almost all is the European porpoise (Phocosna com-
munis), a species dark slaty grey above and whitish below, with the
tail-fin reddish or yellowish. Gi^owing to a length of about 5 feet, this species
is characterised by the sloping head, the equality in the length of the upper and
lower jaws, and the large triangular back-fin placed a little in front of the middle of
Porpoise.
246 THE MAMMALS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
the back. In many cases the fin has horny tubercles on the fore-edge, and it is always
longer along the base than it is high. The species is widely distributed, not only
in the North Atlantic but also in the North Pacific, where it ranges from Alaska
to Mexico. It generally keeps near the coast, but will swim up large rivers for
a considerable distance in quest of food. Porpoises feed exclusively on fish. The
members of a shoal, alternately rising and diving as they swim, form one of the most
interesting sights of the sea.
The beaked whales (Ziphiidce) and sperm-whales (Physeteridce)
Beaked Whales. ,
form family groups, distinguished, among other features, from the
majority of dolphins by the absence of teeth in the upper jaw, at least in the existing
members of the group. The beaked whales have, at most, a single pair of teeth in
the lower jaw, which are placed about the middle of its length, and are more or less
laterally compressed, so much so, indeed, in some cases as to assume a strap-like
form. The commonest species is Sowerby's beaked whale (Mesoplodon bidens),
attaining a length of about 15 feet, and characterised by the rather small teeth
which in some cases project but little above the edges of the mouth when closed.
The long beak is nearly straight, and above it the head gradually curves upwards
so as to form a fairly high protuberance in front of the blow-hole, while behind
there is a second step which gradually merges into the line of the back
cuvier's Beaked Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris), although but seldom
whale. met with, appears to be of world-wide distribution. It is distin-
guished by the two conical teeth at the tip of the lower jaw, as well as by the
circumstance that only the first three vertebrae of the neck are fused together. In
the bottle-nosed whale all seven of these vertebrae are united.
Bottle-Nosed The bottle-nosed whale {Hyp>eroodon rostratus), is a near ally,
wnaie. generally seen in schools, or " gams " as they are called, whereas the
beaked whales are generally met with alone or in pairs. These whales have the
back-fin sickle- shaped and situated a little behind the centre of the back ; the head
rises abruptly from the beak, protected by a cushion of fat in front of the crescent-
shaped blow-hole. They differ from the cachalot and resemble the beaked whales
in having only one or two pairs of teeth in the lower jaw, which are largest in the
males. This sex attains a length of 30 feet, but the females do not exceed 24 feet.
The bottle-nose ranges south to the English Channel, and as far north as the Arctic
Circle, or even a few degrees beyond, and although more frequently stranded on
the British coasts than any other whale, is more of a deep-water species than any
of those mentioned above.
With the fin-whales, or rorquals, we reach the first representatives
of the second great group of cetaceans, the whalebone whales, or
Mystacoceti. These are distinguished by the development of plates of whalebone
from the whole surface of the upper jaw, by means of which they strain off
the water taken into the mouth with their food, which may consist of fish of con-
siderable size or of minute organisms floating on the surface of the sea. The members
of this group take their name of fin-whales from the presence of a small back-fin,
and their Norse designation of rorquals from the flutings on the collapsible pouch
on the throat when in its contracted condition. On account of the presence of this
pouch, in which the food is contained, the whalebone is very short, and of no
FIN WHALES 247
commercial value. Fin-whales are all of long slender build, and may be regarded
as the racers of their tribe. In habits they are migratory, the northern forms
visiting Norway, Iceland, and even Greenland in summer, and returning in winter
to warmer seas. Of the four species inhabiting the seas of the Northern Hemisphere,
the common fin-whale, or rorqual (Balcenoptera musculus), rarely exceeds 70 feet
in length, and has relatively long jaws and a long slender body. It is dark slaty
grey above, and often white beneath and on the inner side of the flippers. The
dark colour of the upper-parts generally extends to the left side of the lower jaw,
and the white of the under-parts to the right side of the same, this difference in
the coloration of the two sides corresponding to a want of symmetry in the skull
common to many whales. The first few plates of whalebone are white, and the
others dark-coloured with grey tips. This finner seldom visits the Mediterranean,
but is otherwise well represented in European seas ; it also extends along the coast
of North America, and may occur in New Zealand waters, as the so-called southern
rorqual does not appear specifically separable. It feeds largely on fish, devouring
enormous quantities of herring, and though often found alone, is frequently noticed
in shoals of from ten to twenty head. When about to dive, it turns almost on to one
side, and at times stands almost vertically for a moment or so in the water. Its
breathing is so rapid and so powerful as to cause a loud noise, by means of which
this species is said to be distinguishable from its allies.
The whalers of Finmarken recognise three varieties, or phases, of this rorqual
— namely, a darker, a lighter, and a yellowish. The dark phase is stated to be met
with in company with shoals of herrings. These rorquals usually arrive off" the
Faroes in the middle of June, coming from the south-west and proceeding in a
north-easterly direction ; the immigration lasting till about the middle of July.
Early in August they commence their return journey southwards, when they keep
principally to the south side of the islands. By the end of the same month nearly
all have left the Faroes. They arrive off Finmarken in two divisions, the first of
which is composed of members of the dark phase. These dark whales arrive early
in March and advance in an easterly direction, but do not, as a rule, go beyond the
Varanger Fiord, whence they return in April along the coast ; the migration being
completed by the end of that month. The second division consists chiefly of the
two lighter-coloured phases ; and it seems probable that it is this light-coloured
phase which is taken off Mayo feeding on shrimps, etc. The members of this
second division reach the Faroes in the first half of June, and are then met with
about fifteen miles off Soro, where they stay till about the beginning of July, when
they move eastwards as far as Baadsfiord, whence they disappear in a north-
easterly direction.
The gigantic Sibbald's fin- whale (B. sibbaldi) generally has 16 pairs of ribs, or
one more than the common species, from which it differs by the stouter body. It
attains a length of 85 feet, and is the largest of existing animals. This species
may always be recognised by the long flippers, as well as by the small size and
position of the back-fin, which is situated close to the tail. In colour it is dark
bluish grey, with a few white spots on the chest and the inner side and edges
of the flippers. The whalebone is black. This finner is said to swim faster than
any other whale, and when gliding along the surface of the sea occasionally shows
248 THE MAMMALS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
its whole vast length, although it seldom leaps into the air : when about to descend,
the huge flukes are lifted high above the waves. Like the last, this species feeds
on fish, especially pilchards and sprats, but also consumes minute crustaceans.
In spring it journeys northwards, and resorts to the neighbourhood of the shores
during the breeding-season, although it spends the winter in the open sea.
The lesser fin- whale (B. rostrata), which has a pointed muzzle, and seldom
exceeds about 33 feet in length, is characterised by a glistening white band across
the upper part of the flipper, which contrasts conspicuously with the greyish
black of the rest of the outer side of this appendage and the upper-parts generally.
The under-parts, inclusive of the lower side of the flukes, are white. The species
is further distinguished by having only eleven pairs of ribs, and the almost
white whalebone. Inhabiting the northern seas of both hemispheres, it is specially
common off" the coast of Norway, and is likewise by no means rare around the
British Isles. It occurs in the Arctic Ocean, which it enters from the Pacific by
way of Bering Strait. In the North Pacific it occasionally visits the estuaries of
large rivers, as it does the fiords and bays of Norway in the other hemisphere.
The fourth and last European member of the group is Rudolphi's fin-whale
(B. borealis), which attains a length of about 50 feet, and has thirteen pairs of ribs.
It may be distinguished from the last species by its smaller back-fin and the shorter
flippers. In colour it is bluish black with long white spots above, and more or
less white below, though the under sides of the flukes and flippers are black. The
black whalebone is more curled and frayed at the ends than that of the other species,
for, unlike it, this finner never eats fish, but feeds exclusively on small crustaceans.
A very different animal is the hump-backed whale (Meqaptera
Humpback. J ... . P
boops), another North Atlantic species, which attains a length of some
50 feet, and is black above, and more or less marbled with white below. The
flippers are either white or spotted with white, and the species owes its name to the
presence of a protuberance on the hinder half of the back, which apparently varies
in height in different individuals. This hump carries a small back -fin, which,
together with the fluted pouch on the throat, indicates its relationship to the fin-
whales. From these it differs, however, by the comparatively large size of the warty
head, the greater depth of the body, and the excessive length of the flippers, which
measure from 10 to 12 feet in length, and have scalloped edges. The black
whalebone is short and thick. Humpbacks occur north and south of the equator
in both the Atlantic and the Pacific, and also in the Indian Ocean ; but some
naturalists regard the one inhabiting the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf as
distinct from the European form.
The Atlantic black whale or right- whale (Balama biscayensis or glacialis) is
referred to in another chapter.
THE MANX SHEARWATER
CHAPTER II
The Birds of the North Atlantic
Avocet.
The birds frequenting the coasts of the North Atlantic are so numerous that a
mere list of the species would occupy several pages. Many have been referred to
in earlier chapters, and only a few of importance remain to be mentioned.
Among the waders of the coast, one of the most noteworthy is
the avocet (Recurvirostra avocetta), conspicuous on account of its pied
plumage, stilt-like legs, and long, thin, up-turned beak. Wherever common,
this bird nests in colonies, and the limits of its range include the British Isles
(where it is now but an occasional visitor), Scandinavia, Mongolia, Hainan, Ceylon,
South Africa, and Spain. The nest is a mere depression in the sand or mud, or a
hollow in the grass near the shore, and the pear-shaped eggs are four in number,
as is usual with the birds of this group. The young birds are fully feathered in a
few weeks, although they are taken about and fed by their parents for a long time.
Avocets feed at the water's edge, following the ebbing tide to the shallows, and
returning with the flood. Their food consists mainly of fish-spawn, shell-fish,
young shrimps, and larvae, which are caught by searching the mud of the pools
with a sideways motion of the beak, and sifting it between the two jaws. On the
wing an avocet holds its long legs stretched out behind in a line with the beak,
while the wings curve away from the body in a characteristic manner.
24Q
250
THE BIRDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
Ringed Plover.
J
A far commoner shore-bird is the ringed plover (AZgialitis
hiaticula), whose range extends from the far north to Cape Colony
and from Greenland to Kamchatka. The nest is the usual depression on the beach,
and the eggs are the normal four. In length this bird measures only 7 inches, or
not half the size of the avocet. It is one of the most intelligent of birds, and
is an adept at feigning death or lameness when its eggs are threatened. One of
the first to warn other birds of approaching danger, it may frequently be seen
— ^ piloting a flock of
dunlin across the waves
to a place of safety.
The colour is greyish
brown above and white
below, with a conspic-
uous black-bordered
white forehead, a white
eye-stripe, and a black-
ish gorget.
Sandy
Kentish Plover. ^
shores
covered with short grass
mingled with other
plants form the fav-
ourite resorts of the
Kentish plover (AS.
alexandrina), a species
which, except on migra-
tion, rarely frequents
fresh water, although
common on some of the
large lakes of Hungary.
Raiiiiina from Iceland
to Japan, it winters in
the north of Africa, the
Malay Archipelago, and
Australia. It is never
found very far north,
and is remarkably capricious in the choice of its halting-places and breeding-
grounds. The nest is generally placed close to the water, although far
enough away to be safe from the tide, and is most difficult of discovery
owing to the size and coloration of the eggs, which are three or four in
number. It has been stated that wherever the nest of the ringed plover
contains four eggs, that of the Kentish plover has only three, but this
merely a generalisation from insufficient instances. In size this
about half an inch shorter than the ringed plover, from which
&»:
AVOCET.
be
is
may
bird
it may be distinguished at a glance by its black
ijororet.
legs
and incomplete
TUR NSTONE — O YSTER- CA TCHER
251
Turnstone.
The tumstones take their name from the fact that they obtain
their food in great part by turning over shells and stones, and thus
capturing the small worms and molluscs which live beneath. Wherever the shore
has grassy patches adjoining sandy pools and banks of pebbles, the European
species (Strepsilas interpres) may be seen, either in families or solitary. Its
breeding-area includes the north of Europe, Asia, and America, and in Europe
extends as far south as the shores of the North Sea and Baltic. In August and
September the turnstone starts on its migrations, which take it over almost all of
the Southern Hemisphere, and in April and May it returns to its breeding-places.
OYSTER-CATCHER.
Oyster-catcher.
The nest is a mere depression in the beach, lined with a few hairs and sheltered
by low scrub or a tussock of grass. In this the female lays her four greenish grey
eggs, which are not unlike those of the snipe.
The oyster-catchers are easily recognisable by the long solid
beak, slightly bent upwards, which is about double the length of the
head and so much compressed at the sides that towards the end it resembles the
blade of a knife with a rounded point. This peculiar type of beak is employed
for prising open the shells of bivalves, as well as for thrusting into those of whelks
and drawing out the soft bodies of the molluscs on which these birds chiefly subsist.
Their diet includes worms and molluscs, as well as the shoots of maritime plants.
Pebbly or rocky shores with patches of vegetation are the usual haunts of the
European species (Hcematopus ostralegus), whose breeding-area extends from the
252 THE BIRDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
North Cape to Spain, and eastwards into Siberia. Large numbers of these birds
frequent the shores of the North Sea and Baltic, while many resort to the Black
Sea and Caspian. In winter they journey as far south as Portuguese East Africa
and Senegambia, but this migration is undertaken only by a section of the species,
as in Iceland oyster-catchers migrate in winter only from the north to the south of
the island, where the influence of the Gulf Stream renders the climate sufficiently
warm for them to exist at that season. Unlike most shore-birds, oyster-catchers
do not take to the water solely in cases of necessity, but will enter it occasional^'
at all times. They swim well, and escape from danger by diving. Their gait is
a brisk walk, with many hops, but it may become a quick, although frequently
interrupted, run ; the flight is low and duck-like.
Oyster-catchers are generally found in small parties and are singularly watch-
ful and courageous birds. They will attack crows, gulls, and birds-of-prey with
such loud cries and impetuosity that they generally succeed in driving them away,
and their nesting-grounds are consequently but seldom invaded. The nest, which
is never far from water, consists of a shallow hole scratched by the bird in the
shingle, and lined with pebbles and broken shells. Several of such nests are
generally made, in one of which (not necessarily the last) are laid the stone-
coloured eggs, indistinguishable at a short distance from the pebbles with which
they are surrounded.
Among the duck tribe mention may be made of the sheldrake
(Tadorna comuta), which ranges from Britain to Japan as a breed-
ing species, and migrates in winter to the Mediterranean, India, and South China.
Although essentially a shore-bird, the shelduck generally makes its nest in a
rabbit-burrow or some other hole some distance away from the beach. When a
convenient hole cannot be found ready to hand, the bird will make one for itself,
and in the Isle of Sylt shelducks are induced to lay in holes made by the natives
with the object of collecting the eggs. By taking these judiciously, as many as
thirty may be obtained from a single hole, although the normal number is about
ten. Of the hosts of other kinds of ducks which visit the coasts of the North
Atlantic in winter, to return to the Arctic breeding-grounds in spring, mention
here is unnecessary.
Nearly all the terns are sea-birds, but the little tern (Sterna
Little Tern. . . ...
minuta) often frequents inland waters, although its nest is generally
situated near the shore. When looking for food, this tern seldom comes nearer the
surface than 10 feet, and often flies three times as high, nevertheless it discovers
quite small creatures from that height, and generally flutters some time above
them before dashing down into the water, to rise again as rapidly with its prey.
These lively birds, which scream as they chase one another in the air, are dis-
tinguished from other terns by their brisk movements and diminutive size. About
9i inches long, they have a black crown, a white tail, a yellow beak, and orange
legs. As breeding-birds, they range from 60° N. latitude down to the Mediterranean,
the Black Sea, and the Caspian, and as migrants reach Cape Colony and Java. The
eggs are usually laid on the sand or among the shingle, with no perceptible attempt
at a nest; but on the east coast of Scotland there is frequently a hollow sur-
rounded— not lined — with a ring of brijjhtlv coloured fragments of shells.
TERNS 253
The Arctic tern (S. macrura), well known on both sides of the
Arctic Tern
North Atlantic, as well as in the North Pacific, breeds within the
Arctic Circle and as far south as the Humber and the islands off the south of
Ireland, anywhere in fact north of 50° in Europe and 42° in America. A migrant,
it appears every year in Chile and Cape Colony and as far south as 66° N. latitude
in the Southern Ocean. Its two or three eggs are laid close to the sea, sometimes
on the bare rock, but generally in a hole among shingle (occasionally lined with a
little grass), and bear so great a resemblance to pebbles that they are only re-
cognisable by being alike. In flight this tern appears slower than many of the
others, owing to the long sweeping curves it takes, but it nevertheless flies lightly
and easily, and occasionally hovers. It may be recognised at a glance by the
absence of a black tip to its red beak, as well as by its short red legs. The crown
is black, the head grey, and the tail white and grey, while there is a narrow grey
band on the inner webs of the primaries. In length the Arctic tern measures about
15 inches.
Common and The common tern (S. fluviatilis), which has a red beak with a
Roseate Terns, black tip, is also a shore-bird, breeding in colonies on shingly beaches.
Much handsomer is the roseate tern (S. dougalli), which breeds in a few localities
in the British Isles, and on some of the islands in the North Sea, as well as in
many favourite spots within the temperate and tropical zones, its nests having
been found in the Bermudas, the West Indies, Ceylon, the Andamans, New
Caledonia, and northern Australia. In the Atlantic it ranges from 57° N. latitude
to the Cape of Good Hope. The species is distinguished by the evanescent roseate
tinge on the breast and under-parts, as well as by the inner webs of the primaries
being white throughout, the very long outer feathers of the tail, the black beak
and orange-red legs, and, lastly, by its particularly loud and grating scream.
Another species, the Sandwich tern (S. cantiaca), nests from the
Sandwich Tern. . . *_. ... n ,i ™ i o. -> ,-, /-<
Orkneys to the Mediterranean and on the Black Sea and the Caspian ,
while on the American coast its breeding-grounds extend from the north of Florida
to Honduras. As a migrant, this bird appears on the western side of Central
America, but is unknown elsewhere in the Pacific ; in the Atlantic its range
includes Cape Colon}^ ; from the Mediterranean it makes its way down the Ked
Sea to the Indian Ocean as far south as Natal, and from the Black Sea and
Caspian it journeys to the Persian Gulf and the north-west coast of India. It still
breeds in the British Isles, though no longer near the Kentish town from which it
takes its name, the main settlement being on the Fame Islands, though there are
others on both the east and west coasts. This is the largest of the native British
terns, and may be known by the yellow-tipped black beak, black legs and fore-
head, long white nape-feathers, and the deeply forked white tail.
The gull-billed tern (S. anqlica) is so distinct from all its rela-
Gull-Billed Tern. , . ,,?.,.» \ . \ -,■,-,
tives that it is frequently assigned to a genus apart, under the
name of Gelochelidon. Ranging over Europe, Africa, North and South America,
and Asia, it is nowhere very common, and generally, as in the British Islands,
known only as a visitor. It nests on the west coast of Denmark, in the
Mediterranean, in Australia, and on the west shore of the Atlantic from New
Jersey southwards, and it occurs all down that coast to Argentina, but is not found
254 THE BIRDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
on the Pacific side except in Central America, where, like the Sandwich tern, it
crosses the isthmus from the Caribbean Sea. The head, beak, and legs are black
and the tail is grey. On account of its cry of " ya-ha, ha, ha," it is known in many
places as the laughing tern.
The largest European member of the group is the Caspian tern
{Hydroprogne caspia), which is 20 inches long, with a stout reel beak,
occasionally horn-coloured at the tip, short black legs, and a short and not deeply
forked white tail. Nesting in the Baltic and the inland seas of Asia, as well as on
both coasts of North America down to Florida and California, in the Persian
Gulf, and in Australia and New Zealand, it does not occur on the Asiatic side
of the Pacific.
Among the Laridce of the North Atlantic are the little gull
Gulls. .
(Larus minutus) and the black-headed gull (L. ridibundus), both
of which breed in northern Europe and Siberia, and have a wide range of
migration.
A third kind, the herring-gull (L. argentatus), rarely occurs in the Baltic, but
is common on the shores of the North Sea, and, like the black-backed species, is a
common British breeding bird. Attaining a length of 23 inches, it has the back
and wing-coverts bluish grey, and the primaries black with white tips and spots
and a grey wedge down their inner webs, which increases in width on the hinder
feathers till the black is reduced to a band near the tip. The head is white spotted
with grey and the beak yellow, while the legs are flesh-coloured. This gull
inhabits both shores of the North Atlantic, as well as the eastern side of the
North Pacific, and is most common near the mouths of rivers. It lives chiefly on
the shore, where it feeds on the eggs of other birds, molluscs, crustaceans, and
dead fish. Living fish, however, also form a portion of its diet, and in capturing
these the bird will often dash down with such force as to dive a couple of feet or
more into the water. It is said to prey on the shoals of herring as they pass along
the coast, and from this habit derives its popular name. The nest, which is always
near the sea, may be either on flat sand, sand-dunes, or amid rocks, but on the
American side is frequently in trees or bushes. Sometimes it is a small and loosely
built structure, but it may be large and built of grass and seaweeds lined with
stalks.
The other sea-gulls of the North Atlantic have their chief breeding-places in
the far north, and may therefore be more appropriately noticed among the birds
of the Arctic Ocean.
The petrels and their allies differ from the gulls (to which many
of them present a superficial resemblance) by having the nostrils
taking the form of a pair of tubes on the upper surface of the beak, which is
generally hooked. These birds are more decidedly oceanic, or pelagic, than the
gulls, and although met with in all latitudes, are more numerous in the tropics,
and especially in the Southern Hemisphere, than in the north. During the breeding-
season they resort to unfrequented coasts, where they nest either in cavities of rocks
or in holes in the ground dug by themselves. At this season they feed much more
on land than at other times, a large portion of their nutriment consisting of carrion.
The members of the group met with in the North Atlantic are few in number
PE TRELS—SHEA R IV A TERS 2 5 5
and small in size. The most common is the storm-petrel (Procellaria pelagica)
which measures only 5h inches in length, and is the smallest web-footed bird met
with in the British Isles. Its colour is blackish, relieved by a white band across the
rounded tail. To its habit of skimming the surface of the wave this bird owes its
name of petrel, or peterel, the equivalent of little Peter.
An allied species, the fork-tailed petrel {Oceanodroma leucorrhoa), likewise
breeds on the islands of the North Atlantic, especially those on the American side,
and also occurs in the Pacific. Slightly larger than the storm-petrel, this bird is
distinguished by the white band being restricted to the upper surface of the tail,
which is deeply forked.
STORM PETREL.
If the petrels may be compared to swallows, their relatives the
Sti63,rw3,tGrs
shearwaters may be likened to swifts, since when on the wing they
assume the form of a crossbow. The flight of these birds is indeed remarkable,
the members of a flock darting about almost with the swiftness of arrows in all
directions, although generally following one another in single file. One of the
best known forms is the white -breasted Manx shearwater (PufJUnus anglorum),
remarkable on account of the length of the winding burrows it excavates for its
nest. About 14 inches long, this bird is blackish grey in colour, with greyish
pencillings on the head and neck and a white breast. Its home is the North
Atlantic from Iceland to the Canaries on the one side, and from Greenland to
Brazil on the other. Its food consists of fishes and other creatures to be met with
near the surface of the water. Although this bird captures its prey while
swimming or diving, it never descends deep into the water, and never follows in
the wake of a ship for the sake of the offal. It takes its name from the manner
in which it ploughs through the weaves as it alights.
256
THE BIRDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
cormorants The cormorants having been alluded to in an earlier chapter, it
and Gannet. w[\\ suffice to mention in this place that they are met with on almost
all coasts save those of the South Pacific. To the same group belongs a very
cnaracteristic bird of the North Atlantic, the gannet (Sula bassana), a species of
the approximate size of a goose, with a generally creamy white plumage relieved
GANNET.
by black primaries. The bare face is bluish black, the beak yellowish white, and
the leg greenish black. Gannets breed on a few islands round the British coasts
as well as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; the almost inaccessible localities where it
nests in larga colonies including North Barra, Ailsa Craig, and the Bass Rock.
In October gannets migrate south, generally following the coast, the limit being
seemingly Madeira and its latitude on the mainland. In the north the breeding-
area extends to Iceland. On the American side, where they have five or six
well-known breeding-places, gannets travel as far south as the Gulf of Mexico on
GREAT AUK
257
migration. On land these birds are awkward, their short legs being placed far
back, and the under surface of, the body almost touching the ground ; the wings,
which are long enough to be crossed over one another at the tail, are, however,
very powerful, and endow their owners with great powers of night. These birds
rest and sleep on the water, their slumber being so sound that they may sometimes
be approached so close by boats as to be captured before they awake.
Although auks are more birds of the ocean than of the shore,
their breeding-places are on the coasts of the North Atlantic, and
they accordingly come within the purview of the present chapter. The most in-
Great Auk.
GREAT AUKS.
teresting member of the group is undoubtedly the great auk (Alca, or Plautus,
impennis), distinguished not only by its size, but likewise by its total incapacity
for flight, being the only bird in the Northern Hemisphere thus handicapped. In
early times, especially in North America, it was termed penguin, a name afterwards
transferred to the well-known Antarctic birds. The head, neck, and back of the
great auk are black, and its under-parts white, but the glossy black head is marked
by a peculiar white patch between the beak and the eye. Although its wings
were not strong enough to support the body in the air, they formed an excellent
pair of paddles. Like its relatives, all of which use their wings to move beneath
vol. ii. — ry
258 THE BIRDS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC
as well as above the water, the great auk was indeed particularly well adapted
both for swimming and diving. The resistance of the water being so much greater
than that of the air, wings employed for swimming beneath the surface of the
former must necessarily be moved by muscles of great strength. In the great
auk this condition is fulfilled by the shortness of the terminal segments of the
wings, while in other diving birds the same end is attained by the wings never
being fully opened.
The great auk was confined to the North Atlantic and never entered the Arctic
Circle, although it ranged along the European side from Iceland to the Bay of
Biscay, and on the American side from Greenland to Virginia. It was, however,
only in winter that the bird was seen in the more southern parts of this habitat.
Generally known as the garefowl, it bred in large numbers on the Geyrfuglasker —
or Garefowl-rock — a small rocky island off the south-west coast of Iceland ; and on
Funk Island to the north-east of Newfoundland. The colony on the Geyrfuglasker
might have existed for many years if that island had not sunk into the sea in
consequence of a volcanic eruption, so that the birds were obliged to move to the
rocky islet of Eldey, which is nearer the shore, and thus more accessible. There
the last two survivors were killed on the 3rd of June 1844.
The history of the extermination of the great auk begins with the 21st of
May 1534, on which day two boats' crews from Cartier's ships landed on Funk
Island, and in less than half an hour filled their boats with birds as easily as if
they had been so many stones. Besides those eaten fresh, each ship took away
five or six barrels of salted birds. After this date the French fishermen relied to a
great extent on the supply of these birds for food, and it became a practice for
passing ships to call at Funk Island in order to lay in a store of salted auks. The
immense numbers of the bird may be judged from the fact that although each laid
only a single egg, and the increase, even under favourable conditions, was conse-
quently but slow, yet it took more 4than two hundred years to kill off the colony.
Some might have survived to the present day, if it had not become the practice to
hunt the birds for the sake of their feathers as well as for food. Frequently the
crews of several ships would spend the summer on Funk Island for the sole purpose
of auk-hunting, when they would kill the birds in thousands and leave the carcases
to decay, the result being that by the year 1840 a clean sweep had been made of
the entire colony.
jgHMMf^'
SEA-OTTER.
CHAPTER III
Mammals and Birds of the North Pacific
Sea-Otter.
Although the air-breathers of the North Pacific include a consider-
able number of species identical with those of the North Atlantic,
yet there are a certain number of types quite unknown in the latter area.
Among these is the sea-otter (Latax lutris), whose long flipper-like hind-feet are
quite unlike those of ordinary otters, and more nearly resemble those of the eared
seals. As these are doubled under when on land, the progress of the animal is
not a walk but a succession of short leaps. The sea-otter also differs from ordinary
otters in its dentition, especially in the form of the hinder cheek-teeth, which are
surmounted by lobulated blunt tubercles well adapted for crushing the shell-fish
and sea-urchins which constitute its principal food. On the American coast
sea-otters range as far south as Oregon, but are most common round Alaska
and near Vancouver Island ; on the Asiatic side they frequent the shores of
Kamchatka, where, however, they are more rare than in Alaska. Formerly the
Pribiloff Islands, in Bering Sea, were inhabited by sea-otters, more than five thousand
being killed on these islands soon after their discovery. From these and many
'59
260
MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC
other of their former haunts the otters have, however, long since disappeared,
and as they are being constantly hunted for the sake of their valuable fur,
there is a probability that the species will be exterminated at no very distant
date.
Unlike the common seal, which, as mentioned in a previous
chapter, is common to the two oceans, the elephant-seal, or sea-
elephant {Macrorhinus leoninus), has no representative in the Atlantic. It con-
siderably exceeds the walrus in bulk, and is the largest of all the members of the
seal tribe. In addition to its huge bulk, this seal is specially distinguished by the
Sea-Elephant.
NORTHERN SEA-ELEPHANTS.
dilatable trunk of the old males, as well as by the circumstance that the first and
fifth toes of the hind-flippers are much longer than the rest, a feature in which the
species resembles the crested seal. All the hind-toes are devoid of nails. Elephant-
seals are found on both sides of the equator, but are much more numerous in the
south, the typical northern species, first discovered by Lord Anson on Juan Fer-
nandez, making annual migrations from that island to the coast of California.
Considering the numbers in which this seal formerly occurred on the Calif ornian
coast, the information concerning its habits is singularly meagre. Apparently
elephant-seals inhabited the area between the 25th and the 35th degree of N.
latitude ; and previous to the year 1852 were common on the Cerros Islands,
where, in spite of their bulk and slow movements, they were accustomed to go
SEA-ELEPHANT— NORTHERN SEA- LION 261
up the ravines from the bays, and there assemble in herds of several hundreds,
thus easily falling into the hands of the hunters. About 1860 they had
become so rare that hunting did not pay, and from that time to 1880, so few
were seen round the islands of Guadaloupe and San Benito, that they were
believed to be exterminated, but in that year the crew of a schooner killed thirty
in the Bay of San Cristobal, and in 1882 forty more were killed and six young
ones brought alive to San Francisco, one of which was sent to the Zoological
Gardens at Philadelphia. A larger number were killed in 1883, and in October
1884, when the schooner Laura visited the Bay of San Cristobal by order of the
National Museum of the United States, the crew found three young animals,
which were spared in the hope that later on they might be joined by others.
All the other localities in the south of Lower California which in former times had
been inhabited by elephant-seals were afterwards searched, but without success.
Returning to San Cristobal in December, the party found fifteen head, all of which
wei'e killed. Since that date specimens have been obtained from Guadaloupe
Island.
Northern The largest representative of the eared seals, a group entirely
Sea-Lion. unknown in the North Atlantic, is the northern sea-lion (Otaria
stelleri), a species which grows to a length of 13 feet, with a girth of 10 feet, and
a weight of as much as 1300 lbs. Eared seals, it is almost unnecessary to mention,
differ from the typical seals by the retention of small external ear-conchs. They
are further distinguished by the hind-flippers being disconnected with the tail, and
directed forewards when on land, and the relatively great length of the fore-flippers,
as well as by a distinct constriction at the neck. The males are also much larger
than the females, and both sexes pass the breeding-season on land, when each male
collects a party of females.
In colour this species is light chestnut-brown when young, but the older
animals are light reddish brown when they reach the breeding-grounds. Later on
the hair bleaches to an ochery tint, but the new coat of the males in November is
a full brown, darker on the under-parts, the females being much lighter. This seal
ranges from the islands of Bering Sea to California and Japan, and on the Pribiloffs
is found in company with the northern fur-seal, or sea-bear, from which it differs not
only by its general appearance and greatly superior size, but likewise by its gait
and habits. On land it is a much slower mover than the fur-seal, its pace being only
about one-third as fast. During the breeding-season the males travel less far
inland, seldom ascending above the line of the highest tides. The males arrive
early in May at the breeding-grounds, where they are followed by the females
three or four weeks later. The most powerful males collect from ten to fifteen
females around them, with which they remain until the end of September. The
males allow the females to go wherever they please, and often carry the young on
their backs down to the surf, where they play together. In this respect they are
quite unlike the sea-bears, which never indulge in any such games. They also differ
from the latter in not deserting the breeding-grounds to return in spring, remaining
near the Pribiloffs throughout the year, although from the setting-in of rough
weather in January until the melting of the ice and snow they divide into small
parties.
262 MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC
caiifornian The Calif ornian sea-lion (0. gillespii), which inhabits not only the
Sea-Lion. shores of California, but both sides of the North Pacific, is distinguished
from the northern sea-lion by its inferior size ; the largest specimens not exceeding
8 feet in length, including the outstretched flippers. It is further distinguished
by the head being more arched above the eyes.
One of the sights for which the traveller visiting San Francisco for the first
time is always on the look out are the sea-lions on the Farallone and Santa
Barbara Islands. Although some of these animals belong to the northern species,
the majority, and the whole of those on Santa Barbara, are referable to the
Caiifornian sea-lion. To the inexperienced it is by no means easy to distinguish
between the two by their appearance ; but there is such a marked difference in the
nature of their cries, that there is no chance of these ever being confounded. The
northern sea-lion utters only a deep bass growl and a prolonged steady roar. The
Caiifornian species, on the other hand, never roars, but utters a sharp bark,
occasionally approaching a howl.
The late Captain Scammon, writing of his experiences of the sea-lions on
Santa Barbara in 1852, says that " at the close of the season — which lasts about
three months on the Caiifornian coast — a large majority of the great herds, both
male and female, return to the sea, and roam in all directions in quest of food, as
but few of them could find sustenance about the waters contiguous to the islands,
or points on the mainland, which are their annual resorting places. They live
upon fish, molluscs, and sea-fowls, always with the addition of a few pebbles
or smooth stones, some of which are a pound in weight."
Some years ago it was estimated that the total number of sea-lions in the
neighbourhood of San Francisco was 25,000, each of which consumed from 10 to
■40 lbs. weight of fish daily. Captain Scammon, in his account, mentions that these
seals display extraordinary skill and cunning in the capture of the sea-gulls which
form a notable item in their diet.
Acting on information of this nature, the Fish Commissioners of California
have of late years taken steps to largely reduce the numbers of the sea-lions on
account of the injury they are supposed to inflict on the salmon-fishery. The Board
claim that it is not their intention to exterminate the seals but merely to reduce
their numbers — estimated at 30,000 — by one-third. Men have been employed to
shoot the sea-lions, of which a considerable number have been already slain ; but
the Government lighthouse reserves have been closed against the work of
destruction.
A protest against this slaughter of these animals has been raised by Dr. C.
Hart Merriam, who is of opinion that the number of sea-lions on the Caiifornian
coast has been greatly overestimated, and that long before the contemplated 10,000
were killed there would not be one left alive.
Not content with merely raising a protest against the destruction of the seals,
Dr. Merriam endeavoured to show that they do comparatively little harm to the
fishery. " The local fishermen, the State Fish-Commission, and others assert without
qualification, that the sea-lions feed extensively on salmon, and the inference from their
statements is that the animals subsist chiefly, if not entirely, on fish. A few years
ago, when similar complaints were made against the fur-seals, I took the trouble
Lf//S <■ t#W» gt,
C^.J3x"a Cfr.
Californian Sea-Lion.
CALIFORNIAN SEA- LI ON 263
to examine the stomach-contents of a large number of these animals, and found to
my surprise that the great bulk of their food consisted of squids, hundreds of whose
beaks and pens were found in their stomachs, while in only a few instances were
any traces of fish discovered."
This is valuable testimony so far as it goes, but the advocates of the slaughter
might urge that what is true of fur-seals may not hold good in the case of sea-lions.
Dr. Merriam is, however, fully prepared for such possible objections; and quotes
the results of observations made by Professor Dyche upon the stomachs of twenty-
five sea-lions he had the opportunity of dissecting. In the case of eight of these
the stomach was found to contain remains of cuttles and squids, several being
completely filled with large pieces of the giant squid. Moreover, although salmon
were being caught in numbers by fishermen in the same spot and at the same time,
not a bone or a scale was detected in the stomachs of the sea-lions. Of the seventeen
other sea-lions, which were examined at another place, the stomachs of eight were
filled with the flesh of the giant squid, two were gorged with large cuttlefish, while
the remaining seven contained pens and beaks of squids, varying in quantity from
about half a pint to a quart or more.
" Professor Dyche was told that there were no fish within two or three miles
of the sea-lion rookeries near the camp, as the sea-lions had caught or driven them
away. In the face of this statement, he himself caught a dozen rock-cod one
morning between shore and the seal-rocks ; and his boatman, an old salmon fisher-
man, caught plenty of rock-cod, weighing from one to eight pounds each, within
sixty feet of the flat rock where from one to three-hundred sea-lions landed daily.
The water close to these rocks, where the sea-lions had lived for ages, proved to be
the best fishing-ground in the locality. Professor Dyche states further that he
landed a number of times on the rocky islands where in places the excrement from
the sea-lions formed a layer a foot thick. He hunted through this for fish-bones
and scales, without being able to discover a single one. On the other hand, the
tough pens from the backs of the squids were abundant."
Although the fishermen were loud in their denunciations of the sea-lions as
salmon-fishers, they were quite unable to substantiate their assertions by ocular
demonstration ; and their surprise was great when they were shown the masses of
squid and cuttle taken from the stomachs of the seals. It is no argument to say
that sea-lions in captivity will feed greedily and thrive upon a fish-diet ; — of course
they will, rather than perish from starvation. Neither does it much affect the
question when salmon in nets are found bitten or eaten, since this may be the work
in many cases of otters or sharks, although it is quite likely that the sea-lions
themselves might sometimes be tempted by such attractive prey.
Dr. Merriam is careful not to spoil his case by attempting to prove too much.
" It is not claimed," he writes, " that sea-lions in their native element never eat fish ;
at the same time the only actual evidence we have on the subject fails utterly to
substantiate the allegations of the fishermen. On the contrary, all the twenty-five
stomachs of sea-lions examined by Professor Dyche contained remains of squids
or cuttle-fishes, and not one contained so much as the scale or bone of a fish. And
is it not significant that in former years, when sea-lions were much more plentiful
than now, salmon also were vastly more abundant ? If the fishermen will look
264
MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC
into their own habits and customs during the past twenty-five years, it is believed
that the cause of decrease of the salmon will be not difficult to find, and this
without charging it to the inoffensive sea-lion, whose rookeries constitute one of
the greatest attractions to the visitor on the California coast.''
Northern sea- The northern sea-bear (0. iirsina) displays a greater difference in
Bear. the size of the two sexes than any other eared seal. The males are
full grown in the sixth year, at which age they measure from 7 to 8 feet long and
about 7 feet in girth. The females, on the other hand, which are fully developed
by the fifth year, rarely exceed 4 feet in length and 30 inches in girth. The
northern sea-bear is thus very much smaller than the northern sea-lion : it has also
NORTHERN SEA-BEARS
longer ears, and is furnished with the close under-fur characteristic of all sea-bears,
which forms commercial sealskin. In 1890 the American Commercial Company
was granted a lease by the Government of the United States conferring upon them
the exclusive right to kill, under certain restrictions, fur-seals or sea-bears on the
Pribiloff Islands, for commercial purposes. This licence expired in April 1909.
Consequently the control of the seal herds reverted to the American Government,
who had to decide what measures should be taken for their protection, and to
what extent killing should be continued on the islands, or whether it should be
altogether prohibited for a certain number of years. The Pribiloffs were acquired
by the United States by purchase from Russia about the year 1867 ; and a few
years later (1874) it was estimated that they were annually visited by something
like four and a half million sea-bears. At the present time these enormous hosts
NORTHERN SEA-BEAR — NORTHERN SEA-COW 265
have dwindled down to a remnant of between thirty and fifty thousand head ; and
in order to preserve this remnant, the United States Government has recently
established a close time for five years.
The sea-bears reach the Pribiloffs (St, George and St. Paul Islands) during
June and July, the old males arriving first, and each collecting round him a harem
of breeding females, as the latter make their appearance somewhat later. Younger
seals, of both sexes, associate by themselves in herds apart from the breeding parties,
and of the former only the males or " bachelors " may legally be killed for com-
mercial purposes. During the time of their sojourn on the Pribiloffs many of those
not actually engaged in breeding (exclusive of the old males) take long excursions
out to sea, frequently travelling to a distance of from fifty to one hundred miles
from the shore, and remaining at sea from ten days to a fortnight at a time. It is
these seals which fall victims to pelagic, or open sea, sealing, a pernicious practice
which appears to be the main factor in the recent depletion of the herds.
By a treaty executed a few years ago American subjects were debarred from
pelagic sealing, while British subjects resident in Canada were permitted to engage
in this pursuit only outside the sixty-mile limit, and this alone during the non-
breeding seasons. Japan was no party to the Anglo-American agreement, and
Japanese vessels were consequently at liberty to practise pelagic sealing to any
extent their owners please anywhere outside the three-mile limit without restric-
tion as to season.
Northern The manatis and dugongs were formerly represented in the Xorth
sea-cow. Pacific by the northern sea-cow (Rhytina gigas), a gigantic species
exterminated soon after its discovery. In the autumn of 1741 Bering was ship-
wrecked on the larger of the two Commander Islands, which lie about 100 miles
off the coast of Kamchatka. The survivors, who remained on the island for ten
months, are said to have lived chiefly on the flesh of the large sea-cow they dis-
covered, although they did not begin to kill these animals until the 12th of June 1742.
For a sirenian, the size was gigantic, the length being from 25 to 30 feet, the girth
20 feet, and the weight estimated at over 3| tons. The head was small ; and, with
the exception of a couple of small incisors shed in early youth, the jaws were
without teeth, whose function was discharged by horny plates on the palate and
lower jaw. The flippers, too, were devoid of nails, terminating merely in some
coarse bristles, and the dark brown bare skin was so thick, rough, and wrinkled that
Steller compared it to the bark of a tree. In habits the northern sea-cow was social,
living in herds near the mouths of rivers and feeding on seaweed. It was unable
to dive, and so poor a swimmer as to be occasionally washed ashore by heavy seas.
Soon after Bering's crew returned to Kamchatka expeditions of fur-hunters
went out to winter on the Commander Islands, where the sea-cows afforded plenty of
fresh meat. These expeditions were succeeded by others, the members of which
also killed sea-cows for food ; and ships sailing to the north-western coast of North
America were in the habit of landing parties on Bering Island to kill and salt sea-
cows, there being at that time no cattle in Kamchatka.
In 1754 the sea-cow was exterminated on Copper Island, and by 1763 there
were very few left on Bering Island, where at the time of its discovery the number
was estimated at from 1500 to 2000.
266 MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE NORTH PACIFIC
Up to 1883 two skeletons, one in the Imperial Museum in St. Petersburg and
the other in the collection of the Imperial Academy at Helsingfors, and two ribs
preserved in the British Museum, were all the remains of the northern sea-cow
known to science. In that year, however, Dr. Stejneger was sent to Bering Island
by the United States National Museum in search of skeletons, and within two years
he succeeded in procuring a number of more or less incomplete skulls, together with
vertebrae and other bones from the sand of the island. Many of these were found
so far from the shore that it was suggested that the island must have been elevated
since Bering's time, a supposition confirmed by the discovery of a skeleton near its
centre.
Dolphins and Although the cetaceans of the North Pacific are very similar to
Killers. those of the North Atlantic, there are some peculiar types. Among
the forms common to both oceans, the bottle-nosed dolphin is apparently indigenous
to all the warmer seas, as are also the common dolphin and Risso's dolphin. The
blackfish is likewise widely distributed, although the North Pacific form is distinct
enough to be ranked as a separate race, while by some it is regarded as a species
under the name of Globioceplialus scammoni. The killer of the Pacific has likewise
been distinguished from the one inhabiting the Atlantic, although there is apparently
but one widely spread species. Allied to the true killer is the lesser killer
(Pseudorca crassidens), which is as cosmopolitan, although apparently more common
in the Pacific than elsewhere. It is uniform black, with a total length of about
14 feet, and has generally eight teeth on each side of the upper jaw and ten on each
side of the lower jaw. The porpoise inhabits the Pacific as far north as Alaska.
Lesser Sperm- The sperm-whale is likewise an inhabitant of the North Pacific,
wnaie. as is aiso Cuvier's beaked whale, referred to in the chapter on .North
Atlantic mammals. More noteworthy is the lesser sperm-whale (Cogia breviceps),
which does not exceed 10 or 12 feet in length, and is the sole representative of its
genus. Widely distributed, this species is black above and paler below, with a large
back-fin and short, sickle-shaped flippers. The muzzle is short, and the blow-hole
crescentic in shape, and placed on the top of the head in front of the eye, somewhat
to the left of the middle line.
The largest North Pacific representative of the whalebone-whales
Grey Whale
is Sibbald's fin-whale, which occurs at all seasons off the Californian
coast. The common rorqual is represented in the North Pacific by a variety, as
is also the hump-backed whale. An exclusively Pacific type is the grey whale
(Rhachianectes glaucus), which represents a genus by itself. This remarkable whale,
which is peculiarly a coast species, and frequently runs aground in the surf where
it remains till floated by the next tide, attains a length of 40 or 50 feet, and
has flippers 6 feet long, but no back-fin. In colour it is bluish grey with pale
mottlings, becoming paler below, though occasionally black all over. The yellow
whalebone is short and the oil poor both in quality and quantity ; nevertheless, the
ease with which it is caught has led to this whale being well-nigh exterminated.
The skeleton presents several curious peculiarities.
Black The right -whales form a small group characterised by the
Right-Whale, absence of a back-fin, the relatively large size of the head, the arch-
like curvature of the edges of the lower lips, the shortness of the five-toed flippers,
BLACK RIGHT- WHALE — PALLAS 'S CORMORANT 267
the union of the seven vertebrae of the neck into a solid mass, and the length,
narrowness, elasticity, and black colour of the whalebone. There are two species,
the Greenland whale (Balcena mysticetus), restricted to the Arctic Ocean, and the
black right- whale (B. glacialis), now somewhat rare in the North Atlantic, but still
found in all the south seas, and ranging in the North Pacific as far north as Japan.
The black species has a relatively smaller head than the Greenland whale, and
a broader muzzle, the latter bearing a peculiar horny protuberance commonly
known as the "bonnet." The whalebone is also shorter, and the edges of the
lower lips form a higher arch. The Atlantic form of this whale was once abundant
in European seas, where it was hunted by the Basques and others until the dis-
covery of Spitsbergen at the close of the sixteenth century, when, the present
species being almost exterminated, attention was directed to the Greenland whale.
Paiias's The North Pacific birds, as a whole, are so similar to those of the
cormorant. North Atlantic and, in somewhat less degree, Indo-Pacific that with
the exception of one interesting species they may be passed over without notice on
this occasion. The species in question is Paiias's cormorant (Phalacrocorax
perspicillatus), which deserves attention on account of its comparatively recent
extermination. Like the northern sea-cow, this northern bird was the largest of
its tribe. With a bare white ring round each eye and a crest on the head, the
plumage in general was dark green both above and below, the neck showing a blue
gloss, and the wings and shoulders being deep red. So far as known, this bird was
confined to Bering Island, where, at the time of Bering's shipwreck in 1741, it
was used as food by the survivors of the crew, and scientifically described by
Steller. Its extermination may be attributed to much the same causes as that of
the great auk, the destruction of both birds having perhaps been accelerated by
volcanic eruptions. The great auk, as already mentioned, was incapable of flight,
and in the present species the wings were disproportionately short and the body
heavy and clumsy, the weight being about 15 lbs. As it was easily caught and
its flesh more appreciated than any other available food, the bird was so much
sought after by Bering's shipwrecked crew and those who followed them that
when Dr. Stejneger visited the island in 1882 in search of the remains of the northern
sea-cow he found the present species had been extirpated some thirty years before.
NARWHAL.
CHAPTER IV
Mammals and Birds of the Arctic
The beautiful Arctic fox (Canis lac/opus), so valued on account of
Arctic Fox. , . . ...
its fur, is unique among mammals m presenting two distinct colour-
phases in the same locality at the same time of year. In winter, for instance,
some of these foxes are pure white, while others are pale slaty blue ; and there is
a difference, although less marked, between the summer coats of the two phases.
Arctic foxes range northward from Iceland and Norway to Grinnell-land.
Even more Arctic in its distribution is the polar bear (Ursus
Polar Bear. ... .
maritimus), which retains its snowy livery at all seasons. This
animal is met with both on ice-girdled shores and the open ice-fields, but is rarely
seen in large parties. Generally, indeed, a male and female, often accompanied
by one or two cubs, wander about in company, but where sealers and whalers have
left the carcases of their victims in large numbers, there the bears will frequently
collect to enjoy the banquet. Seal and whale flesh and blubber form, indeed, the
main food-supply of the polar bear, but in some districts quantities of fish,
especially salmon, are consumed by them, and, in summer, grass, lichens, and
seaweed are eaten with relish. Although some polar bears undoubtedly migrate
in winter, males and cubs being often seen at that season much farther south than
in summer, it is possible that many old males hibernate in the far north, and the
females certainly do so, or at least retire beneath the snow before the birth of
their young.
268
#
SEALS — WALRUS 269
Like its relative the common seal, the ringed seal (Phoca
Seals.
foetida) inhabits the Arctic, the North Atlantic, and the North Pacific
Oceans, but does not range so far south, although occasionally appearing off
the British coasts. To the same genus belongs the Greenland, or harp, seal (P.
grcenlandica), which, like the last, has a white or yellowish white coat when born,
but when full grown is yellowish white with a characteristic black mark on the
back from which it derives its second English name. It is this species, and not
the common seal, which now forms the chief object of pursuit of the sealers who
approach the Arctic regions from the Atlantic.
The third member of the group, the bearded seal (P. barbata), is by far the
largest of the Arctic forms, old males attaining a length of 10 feet. It is further
distinguished from its kindred by the broad muzzle, arched forehead, small teeth,
and the long middle toe on the front flippers. Associating in large herds, this
seal ranges as far south as Iceland and Labrador, and has been seen in the north
of Great Britain. A very different animal is the crested or bladder-nosed seal
(Cystophora cristata), which takes its name from the dilatable sac on the nose of
the adult males, this sac communicating with the chamber of the nose. This
species seldom ranges farther south than Newfoundland, and is rarely or never
found on land, being essentially an ice-seal. The hooded seal is a migratory
species. In summer the big herds are found along the south-east coast of Green-
land, and in February and March these seals appear in countless numbers on the
winter-formed ice-floes off the Labrador and Newfoundland coasts, both in the
open Atlantic and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Sometimes large herds become
imprisoned upon the floes, through long-continued winds in one direction which
pack the ice and cut off their retreat. When this occurs and the seals are exposed
to the rays of the sun, their skins burn and crack. They are then valueless, and
the animals are not molested by the sealers.
This species is much fiercer and bolder than other seals, and will often defend
itself with such courage that the Eskimos by whom it is hunted in their frail
"kayaks" are exposed to considerable danger, especially since the males are
protected from the clubs of their enemies by the inflated appendage on
the head.
Those well-known Arctic animals, the walruses, are represented
Wnlrus
by two distinguishable forms, the one (Odobcenus rosmarus)
inhabiting the North Atlantic and the other the North Pacific. Both are so
nearly allied that it appears best to regard the latter merely as a local race of the
former. The formidable upper tusks, which form one of the most conspicuous
features of the walruses, are longer, thicker, and more inclined towards each other
in the Pacific than in the Atlantic form. These weapons appear to be chiefly
employed in raking up from the sea-bottom the bivalve molluscs on which these
animals mainly subsist. The bivalves which supply most of the food are those
known as My a truncata and Saxicava rugosa, and for crushing their hard shells
the blunt-crowned cheek-teeth of the walrus are admirably adapted. In addition
to bivalves, walruses also consume fishes and crustaceans ; and with their animal
food they also swallow, perhaps unintentionally, large quantities of seaweed.
Three centuries ago the Atlantic walrus occasionally wandered so far south as the
270
MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE ARCTIC
north of Scotland, and so far east as the Lena, but it is now restricted to the more
remote parts of the Arctic regions, where it is yearly becoming scarcer.
When feeding on bivalves the walrus rejects the shells before the soft parts are
swallowed ; and when taken from the stomach these soft parts, if recently swallowed,
are quite uninjured, the siphons, lobes of the mantle, etc., being found in perfect
preservation. This indicates that the molluscs cannot be ground up by the blunt
cheek-teeth, as has been asserted, but that the shells are removed in some other
way, probably by the action of the lips. Off Greenland, at any rate, walruses like-
WALRUS.
wise consume large quantities of the small shrimp known as Gammarus locusta, of
which the males are about an inch in length, while the females are still smaller.
In this case also the shell is removed and rejected before the morsel is swallowed.
How this is accomplished is difficult to imagine.
That the walrus catches and eats fish, the cod being the chief species preyed
upon, appears to be little known. Equally noteworthy is the fact that numbers of
eider-ducks and Arctic fulmars are seized and devoured by these animals. This,
however, by no means exhausts the constituents of the diet, for, when a walrus
comes across a dead whale, porpoise, or seal, it gorges itself with the flesh, and
walruses will occasionally attack and kill live cetaceans and seals. How they
accomplish this, or how they commence operations when about to devour a dead
GREENLAND RIGHT- WHALE
271
whale, we are not told ; and unless, they employ their tusks for the purpose — which
would be an unrecorded use for those weapons — it is extremely difficult to imagine
how they manage to break up the carcase into portions small enough to be swallowed,
as there are no incisors in the lower jaw, and those in the upper jaw are small and
scarcely project above the level of the gum.
The Pacific walrus was never very widely distributed, although it ranged west-
wards to Cape Chelagskoi and eastwards to Point Barrow in North Alaska, and
was particularly abundant in Bristol Bay north of the Alaskan Peninsula. The exist-
ence of walruses in the North Pacific became known about 1640 ; but, whaling being
much more profitable, regular walrus-hunting was not engaged in before 1860, when,
owing to the decrease of whales, the whalers turned their attention to the walrus
with such vigour, that the animal, like its Atlantic relative, is rapidly becoming
exterminated.
GREENLAND WHALE
Greenland Right- The Arctic Ocean is the home of three cetaceans, none of
Whale. which ranges very far beyond its limits. By far the largest of
these is the Greenland right-whale (Balcena mysticetus), apppropriately called
the Arctic whale, since its distribution seems nearly circumpolar. This whale
frequents the vicinity of the ice-floes, and, although in some cases found in the
open sea during the summer, never apparently wanders beyond the southern
boundary of the ice-field in winter. So soon, however, as the winter ice, which has
compelled it to go south, breaks up, the whale once more travels north. In the
North Atlantic the species is never found south of a line drawn through Lapland,
Iceland, and Labrador. On the Pacific side its southernmost limit is 56° N. latitude in
the Sea of Okhotsk. In colour this whale is usually black, with very little white, and
in length it ranges from 50 to 60 feet or more. It is the most specialised member
of the whole group, having the longest whalebone, the narrowest upper jaw, and
the greatest lateral expansion of the lower jaw. The head occupies a third of the
272 MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE ARCTIC
total length, and the high roof formed by the upper jaw and the great lateral
expansion of the two branches of the lower jaw make the capacity of the mouth
enormous. This whale, in spite of its colossal dimensions, feeds on minute
invertebrates, which it is compelled to swallow in immense quantities ; hence the
necessity for the great size of the mouth.
The second member of the exclusively Arctic triad of cetaceans
Narwhal.
is the narwhal (Monodon monoceros), the males of which are
characterised by the presence of one (generally the left) spear-like and spirally
twisted tusk, projecting straight out from the upper jaw and reaching a length of
8 to 10 feet. Occasionally both tusks are developed, in which case each has
the same spiral. The right tusk, as a rule, however, remains undeveloped, as is the
case with both those of the female. The narwhal — that is to say the corpse- whale —
takes its name from the pale grey colour of the skin, this grey tint passing into whitish
on the under-parts. There is no back-fin, and the flippers are short and rounded.
In distribution the species is circumpolar, and it is seldom seen south of the Arctic
Circle. Narwhals go about in small parties, and feed on squids and cuttles,
crustaceans, and fishes. The tusk is probably employed as a fighting weapon
in combats between rival males.
The third member of the group is the white whale, or beluga
White Whale. . ... .
(Delphinapterus leucas), distinguished from all its relatives by the
glistening buffish white skin of the adult, the colour of the calves being light
greyish brown. The head is rounded, like that of the narwhal, and, as in that
species, the back-fin is represented merely by a slight ridge. The white whale
is a purely Arctic species, although it occasionally wanders so far south as the
Scottish coast. It is of fair commercial importance on account of its skin
furnishing some of the leather sold under the name of porpoise-hide. Attaining
a length of 16 feet, this cetacean is reported to feed chiefly on salmon. From
the peculiar sound emitted as it rises to breathe, it is sometimes called by sailors
the sea-canary.
The birds of the Arctic are chiefly those of swimming habit,
Brent-Goose. . . °
among them being the sea-geese which frequent the shores, and
generally breed in one or other of the polar regions. In these birds the beak is
shorter and deeper than in ordinary geese, the cutting edge of its lower half being
sbraighter and the serrations on the upper half invisible externally. One of the
most familiar members of the group is the brent-goose (Branta bernicla), which
appears annually in large numbers on certain parts of the shores of the Baltic and
North Sea in winter. This species inhabits the high north of Europe, Asia, and
North America, and breeds within the Arctic Circle. It feeds by day, and seems
to avoid the company of its cousin the bernicle goose, whose feeding-time is always
the night. A well-grown brent-goose will measure about 22 inches in length. The
species may be easily recognised by the jet-black head, and the presence of a white
patch on each side of the neck.
The nearly allied bernicle goose (B. leucopsis) differs by
Bernicle Goose. . J ° 1 ' J
having the head white, with a black crown and nape and a black
stripe from the eye to the beak. Migrating in smaller flocks than the brent-goose,
RED-BREASTED GOOSE
273
this species appears to breed generally or always within the Arctic Circle, although
comparatively little is known with regard to its nesting haunts
BERXICLE GEESE.
Red-Breasted A third member of the group, the red-breasted goose (B.
Goose. rtificollis), is characterised by the black head, with a white patch
in front of the eye, and the deep chestnut of the throat and breast, the
VOL. II. — 18
274 MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE ARCTIC
colour of the upper-part of the body being mainly black, and that of the
under-parts white.
This bird inhabits the Asiatic shores of the Arctic Ocean, whence it wanders to
the Caspian Sea and surrounding steppes, where it feeds principally on saline plants.
It is still a straggler to the British Isles, and in former days seems to have reached
the valley of the Nile, since it appears in the old Egyptian paintings.
Of a totally different type was the now extinct Labrador pied
"' duck {Carnptolcemvbs labradorius), a species formerly abundant on
the coast from which it takes its name, whence it migrated into the New England
states, and perhaps still farther south. In colour this duck was chiefly black,
with a white head, neck, and breast, a narrow black stripe down the middle of
the head and a collar of the same round the neck. In the more soberly clad female
the general tint was brownish, with a white wing-patch. The Labrador duck used
to nest on rocky islets, where it was shot in such numbers during the breeding
season that it became exterminated some fifty years ago.
Another member of the group is Steller's eider (Somateria stelleri),
SteUer's Eider. .01 \ />
remarkable for its narrow, vaulted beak, of which nearly the whole
tip is occupied by the so-called nail. In colour the adult drake is bluish black,
with much white on the wings, a violet wing-patch, a white head, a green area on
the nape, and a chestnut breast. It nests on the Arctic coast between Alaska and
the Taimyr Peninsula, in Russian Finland, and on Varanger Fjord, and in winter
appears in the Baltic, straying occasionally as far south as the north of France.
Better known is the common eider (S. mollissima), which has a
Eider. . v !
black crown with the middle line of feathers on the beak extending
only half-way to the nostrils. The drake is white above and black below, the white
extending to the lower half of the breast, and the beak, nape, and legs being green.
The eider nests in the British Islands, in the islands off the coast of Denmark and
Norway, and northwards within the Arctic Circle all round the pole, although the
north-east American form (S. mollissima dresseri) is often regarded as a separate
species, and the one inhabiting Arctic America and Greenland (S. m. borealis) as a
second.
Eiders are true sea-birds, always following the coast, and never crossing a
peninsula to make a short cut. They fly well, and swim excellently, braving the
wildest surf, although at the approach of a storm taking refuge on land. They are
also expert divers, frequently remaining under water for two minutes, and going
down 10 or 12 fathoms in search of the crabs and molluscs on which they chiefly
subsist. Owing to the commercial value of their down, eiders are now protected in
Europe, and are consequently no longer decreasing in numbers. The nest is a large
structure of heather and other plants, including seaweed, grass, and moss, and lined
with such a quantity of down, plucked from her own breast, that the female is not
only completely concealed while sitting, but is able to cover the eggs when leaving
the nest — a precaution never omitted. The first clutch of eggs consists of four, five,
or sometimes from six to nine, but if there be more than ten in the nest, they are
the product of two females, which either sit side by side or by turns. The male
leaves his mate as soon as the eggs are laid, and goes out to sea to moult, returning
when the female has finished her task.
EIDER
275
The eider-down trade is of great importance to the inhabitants of the northern
coasts. In Iceland the privilege of taking the nests and eggs of the eider and
other sea-birds is usually vested in the landlords, by whom the ducks are encour-
aged to nest on certain small islands, where they become so tame as to incubate
upon the houses, and allow the inhabitants to walk about among them as they sit.
Unfortunately the people are so ignorant and greedy as to take not only the first
clutch, but also the second and even the third, although there are only three eggs
in the second clutch, and two, or sometimes only one, in the third clutch, the eggs
of these clutches being smaller than those of the first. The result of this practice
EIDER DRAKE.
is to make the eiders abandon the places where they are thus treated ; and more
prudent proprietors prohibit the taking of any eggs save those of the first clutch,
and otherwise do all in their power to protect the eiders. In Norway it is the
practice to collect the young birds in baskets and carry them down to the sea ;
where they are followed by their screaming parents, which, on arrival, collect
together as many as possible. Without this precaution, the young, which are com-
paratively safe on the sea, would suffer severely on their way down from the
attacks of birds-of-prey, gulls, and other depredators.
The female eider plucks out so many of her feathers for the lining of the nest,
that her breast is frequently quite bare, and there are none left for the second and
third broods. In such cases it has been stated the male bird contributes his own
down, which he permits the female to pluck, but this appears to be a myth.
276 MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE ARCTIC
Eider-down is most valuable if collected before incubation has commenced, since
when this takes place it becomes mixed up with the other materials of the nest,
such as grass and seaweed. When such a mixture has occurred the down is more
easily freed from grass than from seaweed, so that grass-down is more valuable
than seaweed-down. A pound of well-cleaned down is the yield from five to seven
nests, and is worth about fifteen shillings. In colour the down is brownish, with
whitish specks. So closely does it adhere that scarcely any is blown away by the
wind, and yet it never felts into a mass, but remains light and elastic. The uses
of the eider are many. The skins are worked up into warm underclothing ; the
eggs, which are gathered in large quantities in June and July, are used for
domestic purposes, and the flesh is eaten, especially in Greenland, although said
to have an oily flavour.
A much handsomer bird, the king-eider (S. spectabilis), like its
King-Eider. .. . ... , ^
relative, inhabits the American, Asiatic, and, more rarely, the European
shores of the Arctic Ocean. In Greenland, where it is said to be as common as the
eider, the king-eider breeds, as it does in Spitzbergen, Novaia Zemlia, and northern
Siberia. It is still common on the Lofoten Islands, but is rarely found farther
south than the north-western coast of Norway and the latitude of Iceland,
although on the Pacific Coast it occasionally occurs so far south as California.
Its breeding-area extends farther north than that of the eider. The down, which
is as soft as that of the eider, is never collected, the inhabitants of the far north
taking the skins of the birds, which, after the larger feathers have been removed,
they sew together into garments, these being worn next the body with the downy
side inward. King-eiders are captured by the Greenlanders during the moulting-
season, when they are unable to fly, the flocks being surrounded, and their
members forced to dive until exhausted, when they are easily overtaken and killed
with spears or arrows. The king-eider is said to be able to remain under water
longer than any other bird, although probably not more than a couple of minutes.
Resembling the true eider in general characters, it is somewhat smaller, and distin-
guished by the grey crown and the orange tubercle on the beak, which is also
orange with a black margin. The plumage of the female is chiefly russet brown.
Another familiar bird frequenting the Arctic coasts is the shag
(Phalacrocorax graculus), which, although inhabiting the great
Siberian lakes, is essentially a maritime species, nesting on cliffs or in caves, and
never in trees or bushes. It breeds in the British Isles, and even so far south as
Morocco, but is very rare in the Baltic and farther to the east, and does not range
west of Iceland. From the ordinary cormorant the shag differs by the gracefully
curved crest on the head, as well as by the absence of any white on the glossy
green plumage, and the presence of only twelve, in place of fourteen, tail-feathers.
Common and Although they are not strictly Arctic in their distribution, certain
Herring Gulls, members of the gull tribe may be conveniently mentioned in this place.
Among them is the common gull (Larus canus), which breeds on the northern coasts
of Europe and Asia down to about 53° N. latitude ; and in winter wanders so far
south as the Nile valley and the Persian Gulf. The grey back, the white spot on the
brown primary quills, the yellow tip to the beak, and the greenish yellow legs are
among the distinctive features of this gull. Much larger is its cousin the herring-
^
X
GULLS 277
gull, with a yellow beak and flesh-coloured legs, which is also a bird of the north,
but not an Asiatic one, since it does not occur east of the White Sea. In America
this gull (L. argentatus) breeds so far down as New Jersey on the Atlantic side, and
California on the western coast. In summer the American birds appear in Mexico
and the West Indies, while their European brethren wander to the shores of the
Caspian, the Black Sea, and the Mediterranean.
Greater Black- Its large size, coupled with the white head, the blackish back,
Backed Gull. and the flesh-coloured legs, serve to distinguish the great black-backed
species (L. marinus), one of the boldest and strongest of its kind. This gull
subsists largely on the prey it can steal from its relatives, as well as on their eggs
and young. The breeding-area of this species extends into that of the truly Arctic
gulls, and includes northern Europe, Iceland, Greenland, and Baffin Bay, while the
winter migration takes these gulls to Egypt, the Canaries, and Florida.
Lesser Black- From its larger namesake the lesser black-backed gull (L. fuscus)
Backed Gull, differs not only by its inferior bodily size, but by its bright yellow
legs. This gull breeds from the northern coasts of Europe to the Mediterranean ;
and its range extends in winter down to the Bight of Benin, the Red Sea, and
the Persian Gulf. In northern Asia and America this species is, however,
unknown.
Greater White- This gull (L. hyperboreus) is a truly Arctic species, breeding all
Wmg-edGuii. r0lln(] the pole, and ranging so far south as the Strait of Gibraltar,
Florida, and Japan in winter. The largest of all the gulls, this species visits the
British Isles, and is as omnivorous and rapacious as its black-backed relative,
from which it differs in being wholly white with a slight pearly tinge, as well as
by its shorter legs and wings. The nest is a conical heap of sand and seaweed,
hollowed slightly at the apex, and frequently as much as a couple of feet
in height.
The beautiful Iceland gull (L. leucopterus) is likewise a pearly
Iceland GulL . . . . .
white species, but only about two-thirds the size of the last, with
much longer legs and wings and a shorter beak. Its breeding-area is circumpolar,
and includes Jan Mayen, Iceland, Greenland, and Baffin Bay. In winter this gull
occasionally straggles so far south as the British Isles on one side of the Atlantic
and Boston on the other. An excellent diver, it feeds chiefly on live fish, and in
pursuit of these it follows seals and other predaceous marine animals as they
chase the shoals of small fish. The Iceland gull thus finds its food with little
trouble, and at the same time indicates to sealers the whereabouts of their booty.
Of the two kinds of fork-tailed gulls, the larger (Xema
Sabine's Gull. . <•
furcatum) is South American, ranging as far north as the Galapagos
Islands. The smaller Sabine's gull (X. sabinei), on the other hand, is Arctic, with
a circumpolar breeding-area. In winter it migrates to the North Sea, and in
America, where it is much more abundant, to the Gulf of Mexico, and, not im-
probably, on the Pacific side across the equator so far south as Callao. In these
gulls the head, back, and wings are grey, the head relieved by a black collar and
the wings by black primary quills. The beak is black tipped with red in both
kinds, but the larger species is distinguished by a white band at the base of the
upper half.
278 MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE ARCTIC
The familiar kittiwake, or three-toed gull (Rissa tridactyla), is
likewise circumpolar, with a breeding - area extending from the
farthest north down to northern France, the Kurile Islands, and the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. In colour this gull is slaty grey above with a white tail and grey
wings, of which the outer primaries are tipped with black and the secondaries with
white. The beak is greenish yellow, and the three toes characteristic of the genus
are black. This gull is exclusively a sea-bird, frequenting high rocky shores, and
breeding on lofty cliffs, where it dwells with razorbills above and guillemots below
in such enormous numbers that the sky is darkened by their wings and the ears
deafened with their crieb. Kittiwakes are excellent swimmers, and the most grace-
ful in flight of all the gulls. When in search of prey, they fly slowly and deliber-
ately, but so soon as a fish is sighted, they dart through the crests of the waves in
a downward curve, dive like a flash, and never rise without a fish in their beaks.
If the fish be not too large, it is swallowed at once, but if of too great bulk for
this, it is borne ashore to be devoured piecemeal.
The beautiful ivory-gull (Paqophila ebumea) takes its name
Ivory-Gull. . J & v . 1
from its ivory-white plumage, relieved by the black feet, greenish
yellow beak passing into bluish grey at the base, and the red ring round the eye.
Even in winter this lovely gull seldom strays farther south than the limits of the
ice, and its northern summer range is perhaps greater than that of any of its
kindred. Occasionally a straggler reaches the British Isles, or even the north of
France, while on the American side the species has been seen in New Brunswick.
Wedge-Tailed The wedge-tailed gull (Rhodostethia rosea), which is another of
GuU- the Arctic members of the group, may be recognised by the grey
back, rosy flanks, and the narrow black collar round the neck. The short beak is
black, and the feet are red. This exclusively Arctic species, which was discovered
by Sir James Ross on Melville Peninsula in 1823, has been seen to the north of
Spitzbergen, in Franz Josef-land, in Bering Strait, and north of Siberia, so that
it is regarded as circumpolar. Only a few stragglers have been met with beyond
the Arctic Circle.
The skuas, or pirate-gulls, are provided with long curved talons
Great Skua. . , & . .
characteristic of predaceous birds, and, as a matter of fact, in general
habits they are much more like frigate-birds than ordinary gulls. The group is
noticeable on account of being common to the Arctic and the Antarctic region
The largest of the northern forms is the great skua (Stercorarius catarrhactes),
whose colour is mottled brown above and pale chestnut below, with the outer
primaries white at the base, and the hooked beak and feet black. This fierce bird
feeds on animal substances of all kinds, whether alive or dead, but is specially fond
of fish, which it occasionally captures for itself, but generally steals from other
birds. With the quickness and strength of a hawk, a skua attacks any bird
weaker than itself, which it kills by one bite in the skull, clutching the body in
its strong claws and swallowing the flesh piecemeal. Skuas never breed in
company with other birds, but in colonies of a hundred or more of their own kind,
usually on some rocky shore, or upland moor, where there are springs or ponds,
perhaps a quarter of a mile from the sea. They seldom breed very far within
the Arctic Circle, their favourite haunts being just south of this, such as Iceland.
SKUAS
279
Greenland, and Baffin-land. In Europe the known breeding-places, of which the
Shetlands are the most southerly, are yearly becoming fewer. Of late years,
indeed, these birds have rapidly diminished in numbers, and they seem about to
share the fate of the great auk. Like the rest of its tribe, the great skua takes its
name from its monotonous cry of " skua-skua."
Temminck's The second Arctic representative of the group is Temmincks
skua. skua (Stercorarius pomatorhiniis). Inferior in size to the last, it has
the two middle tail-feathers much longer than the rest, and twisted vertically, being in
this respect unlike its larger relative, in which these feathers exceed the others by less
than an inch. This bird breeds in Arctic and sub- Arctic Europe, Asia, and America,
and in winter ranges southwards as far as northern Australia, South Africa, and Peru.
FULJIAR PKTREL.
Long-Tailed Nearly allied is the long-tailed skua (S. parasiticus), a bird
Skua. which, when driven inland by storms, takes readily to a country life,
and often may be seen in meadows and fields (especially when freshly ploughed)
seeking its food after the manner of a plover. Since fresh water is not much to
its taste, it never remains long away from the sea, near which it makes its home
among the marshes. Although migrating as far south as Gibraltar, it seldom
breeds beyond the Arctic Circle, within which it is met with all round the pole.
Of the approximate size of a jackdaw, this skua is distinguished by the middle
tail-feathers gradually tapering until they are 9 inches longer than the others, as
well as by the white shafts of the two outer primary quills. In colour it is dark
grey above with the crown and nape blackish, and the throat, neck, and under-
pays white, shading into pale grey.
28o
MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE ARCTIC
Fulmar Petrel.
The group of petrels collectively known (from their typical
representative) as fulmars differ from the shearwaters by the shorter
beak and the vertical plates more or less distinctly developed on the sides of the
palate. The true fulmar (Fidmarits glacialis) is an Arctic species, ranging from
Baffin Bay to Franz Josef -land, and breeding as far south as St. Kilda. In winter
it migrates as far as Massachusetts on one side of the Atlantic, and the north coast
of Spain on the other. Thousands of these birds breed on steep cliffs, or rocky
islands, the colonies usually consisting of this species alone, although above or
below them are the zones occupied by razorbills, kittiwakes, and other birds.
Towards the end of May, in a slight depression on the bare ground, is laid the large,
white egg, which is incubated alternately by the male and female with such
assiduity that the birds will often refuse to move till pelted with pebbles, and even
then almost immediately return to their task, carefully putting the egg into proper
BlHBHBi
&~
RED-THROATED DIVER.
position with their beaks, and sitting as persistently as before. When occupied in
devouring a carcase, fulmars become so absorbed that they pay no heed to
approaching boats, and may be easily killed with the oars. In such feasts the
sharp claws enable the birds to obtain a firm hold on the slippery skin of whales
and seals, in which large holes are torn by means of the hooked beak.
On the wing a fulmar looks much like a gull, to which it also approximates in
coloration. When perching, or rather crouching, for it cannot stand long on its legs,
it presents, however, a very different appearance, owing to its much stouter build.
The group of divers are exclusively inhabitants of the colder
portions of the Northern Hemisphere, and seldom leave the sea
except to breed. They even preen themselves afloat, this being due to the circum-
stances that the position and structure of their legs prevent them from standing
upright and even from walking in the generally accepted use of the term, their
movements on land being mere shuffles or slides. Divers frequently nest near
small fresh-water ponds, situated in quiet lonely spots, or high up among the
Divers.
DIVERS — G UILLEMO TS 281
mountains, with low banks, or flat grassy islands, on which the nest can be placed
so as to permit the parent birds to slide straight into the water. If the sheet of
water be small, only a single pair of divers will nest, but on larger lakes each
pair has its own defined area, from which all intruders are chased away. The
members of a couple are devoted to one another, and always dive, swim, and
fly in company, each being careless of its own safety when its mate is killed or
injured. The young are able to dive long and perse veringly almost as soon as they
leave the egg, and thereby escape many dangers. When in want of rest they
climb on the backs of their parents, where they nestle close and hide among the
feathers. A few days after leaving the shell they begin to catch their own food,
which consists chiefly of fish. Small fish are swallowed whole, but larger ones
are brought to the surface, where they are gradually pecked to pieces, the birds
diving to recover the carcass as it from time to time sinks. By far the commonest
of the four kinds is the red-throated Colymbus septentrionalis, a circumpolar
species, breeding within the Arctic Circle and southwards as far as Scotland in the
Atlantic, and somewhat lower still in the Pacific. On the winter migration it
travels to the Gulf of Mexico in the one hemisphere and to the Mediterranean and
Formosa in the other. The dark brown back, grey head, red throat, and black beak
are characteristic features of this diver. Much larger is the great northern diver
(C. glacialis), which attains some 33 inches in length, and is about as large as a
goose. The back is ornamented with a kind of chessboard pattern of black and
white squarish patches, while the throat is marked by two black and as many
black and white rings streaked vertically. This stately bird inhabits the northern
parts of Europe and America, but does not breed farther south than the Shetlands
in European waters, or than Maine on the western side of the Atlantic. A third
species, the black-throated G. arcticus, distinguished by its black throat and beak,
is circumpolar, breeding in the north of Scotland and the Orkneys, though at
present unknown in Iceland and Greenland. It also breeds in Scandinavia
Russia, north-eastern Germany, and right across Siberia to Kamchatka.
Very characteristic of the shores of the colder portions of the
Guillemots. J . r
Northern Hemisphere are the guillemots, whose movements on land
are nearly as awkward and ungainly as those of the divers. Owing, however, to
their powerful claws, guillemots are excellent climbers. The flight is recognisable
by the quick, short movement of the wings, being low and in long downward or
upward spirals especially when ascending or descending high cliffs. These birds
are powerful swimmers and divers, sitting high on the water with the tail slightly
raised, and the neck depressed between the shoulders. They dive noiselessly,
opening the wings as they descend and using them as paddles. The length of the
dive is sometimes as much as 10 fathoms, or even more, and when undisturbed
the birds generally reappear close to where they went down. The common species,
Uria troile, breeds as far south as the mouth of the Tagus, in Portugal, and is
particularly numerous in the Faroes and Iceland, while northwards its breeding-
range is known to extend to Bear Island, half-way between the North Cape and
Spitzbergen. On the American side these birds breed as far down as Massachusetts.
On the Pacific coast of the New World the typical form is replaced by the somewhat
larger U. troile californica. At their breeding-places guillemots may be seen in
28,
MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE ARCTIC
pairs, the members of which tenderly caress each other and rub their necks
together as they sit side by side on the cliffs which have been inhabited by their
ancestors for ages. Nest there is none, the egg being laid on the bare rock.
Though always pear-shaped (to prevent them rolling off the ledges), the eggs vary
in colour more perhaps than those of any other bird, even the ground-colour
ranging from white through every shade of greenish blue. The so-called bridled
guillemot (U. ringvia) differs from the typical form by a ring round the eye
and a short white streak running from the latter across the temples ; but this
variation does not seem to entitle the birds to be regarded even as a distinct
race, much less a species, since they are found everywhere among the ordinary
BRIDLED GUILLEMOTS.
form and have no special habitat of their own. On the other hand, the some-
what larger Brunnich's guillemot (U. bruennichi) is a perfectly well-defined
species, easily recognised by the shortness of its beak. This bird is thoroughly
Arctic in its distribution, being known only as a straggler outside the Arctic Circle.
More distinct is the black guillemot (U. grylle), which lays two eggs instead
of one, and is smaller than the other kinds, measuring only about 13 inches in
length. In colour it is black with a white bar on the wing, and red feet. It
also flies lower than other guillemots, rarely rising more than a foot or so above the
water. It is likewise by far the best diver, its disappearance being instantaneous,
and its speed beneath the surface nearly as rapid as through the air. This
guillemot breeds on both sides of the Arctic Circle, but not farther south than
Ireland and Denmark. It passes the winter on the sea, rarely visiting the land,
and only occasionally strays far from its birthplace.
MARBLED GUILLEMOT^LITTLE AUK—RAZORBILL
28
Marbled
Guillemot.
The short-beaked guillemots are distinguished by their small size
as well as by the short beak, which is strongly compressed at the
sides. One species, the marbled guillemot (Brachyrhamphus marmoratus), inhabits
the north-western coast of North America, and is blackish brown barred with
rufous above, and white below.
Ltti Auk. ^ne °^ the smallest °f au sea-birds is the little auk, or rotche
(Alle nigricans), which breeds within the Arctic Circle nearly up to
79° N. latitude, and occasionally wanders as far south in winter as the Azores and
Canaries. This bird appears during May in its breeding-places, of which it takes
possession with much clamour, such breeding-places being always situated on low
shores and never on cliffs. In June, when the snow has melted, the female lavs
her one greenish white egg, which is about the size of that of a dove, and thus
comparatively large for so small a bird. The parents sit on the egg alternatelv
with much assiduity ; and, when sufficiently strong, the young are conducted by
them to the sea. These birds remain on shore only during the breeding-season
LITTLE AUK.
and never resort to fresh wrater from choice, being essentially sea-birds ; they are,
however, often driven inland by winter storms.
The last incursion of little auks into the British Isles occurred in January
1912, and was due to the stormy weather which prevailed in the early part of that
month. The birds seem to have struck the coast in greatest numbers between
Norfolk and the Firth o£ Forth, those reported from the western and midland
counties having probably travelled from the east. Although the number of birds
appears to have been fewer than in the visitation of 1895, they seem to have
spread over a wrider area of country.
An allied bird breeding within the Arctic Circle, and likewise
largely to the south of the same, is the razorbill (Alca torda),- the
breeding-area of this species including countries as remote from one another as
Jan Mayen, Brittany, Greenland, and Maine. Young razorbills leave the cliffs on
which they were hatched at the tender age of less than three weeks, when only
half-fledged. Encouraged by the screaming and expressive gestures of the old
birds, they leap dowrn in the same manner as young guillemots, many of them
falling on rocks instead of into the water, and thus perishing miserably. Normally
Razorbill.
2S4
MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF THE ARCTIC
the female lays only one egg, but if this be lost a second is deposited, and if need
be, even a third. As a breeding-site razorbills prefer bare beetling cliffs with
numerous clefts and crannies in which the eggs are deposited, the open ledges
favoured by guillemots not being to the liking of these birds.
That grotesque bird the puffin, or sea-parrot (Fratcrcula arctica)}
is sufficiently characterised by its curiously shaped and brilliantly
coloured beak. The plumage is pied, the head, back, and a collar round the neck
Puffin.
TUFFINS.
being deep black, and the under-parts pure white, while the feet and much of the
beak, as well as the fleshy rosettes, are brilliant orange. The beak is indeed of
most remarkable form, being high at the base, like that of a parrot, much com-
pressed at the sides, and deeply grooved in front. Very powerful is this beak,
which also serves as a pouch, owing to the presence of much loose skin at the base.
\fdj^£dsae!&-
Razorbill.
PUFFIN— CRESTED AND H0RNB1LLED AUKS 285
In the receptacle formed by this skin are carried the small fishes brought home by
the old birds for the support of their young. When a puffin is returning laden,
the extremities of four or five fishes may project from each corner of the beak,
giving to the bird the appearance of possessing a moustache. Puffins generally
associate in vast flocks, which extend over wide stretches of rocky shores and
islets, their gleaming white breasts giving the breeding-places the appearance of
being covered with a snowy veil. On the east side of the Atlantic puffins breed so
far south as the mouth of the Tagus ; and in winter they visit the Mediterranean.
On the western side the southernmost breeding-places are in Newfoundland, and
winter stragglers reach the coast of New England.
Crested and With two very remarkable auks of small size this brief account
Hombiiied Auks.0f the birds of the Arctic may be brought to a close. The first of
these is the crested auk (Simorhynchus cristatellus) of the North Pacific, easily
recognised by the tuft of plumes curling over the forehead and the white bar on
the ear-coverts. The second is the rhinoceros-billed auk (CerorhyncJia monocerata)
of the shores of north-western America and northern Asia. In summer the beak
develops a prominent horny knob between the nostrils, which disappears in winter,
although the white plumes on each side of the head persist.
., •■
L^
COD FISH.
CHAPTER V
The Fishes of the Northern Seas
The animal-life of the sea, like that of the land, depends largely on the nature of
the local plant-life. Marine plants in the main belong to groups entirely different
from all land or even fresh-water vegetation, although the marine flora is connected
with that of fresh water by means of the brackish-water flora, which, however, is
of very limited extent. Apart from the essential difference between marine and
fresh-water vegetation, the local variations in aquatic floras, due to climatic con-
ditions, are much less marked than are those of land floras, owing to the more
equable temperature of water. Although in the sea the influence of warm and cold
currents has to be largely taken into account, while in fresh water the amount of
rainfall is an important factor, yet the depth of the water is all-important in regard
to plant life. In addition, the amount of light received exercises a most im-
portant influence, the larger plants growing only near the surface, where the light
is brightest, while the smaller and most lowly organised types alone inhabit the
darkest depths. Moreover, the water has not only what may be called its basal
flora, but likewise supports a vast development of plant-life which floats on its
surface, this floating flora only being fully developed where the water is of great
depth, although in the shallows on coasts and elsewhere it may be mingled with
the basal flora.
The nature of aquatic floras depends much on that of the river or sea bottom,
whether this be rocky, pebbly, muddy, or sand}*. The basal flora in fresh water
consists chiefly of such plants as thrive in mud, while that of the ocean is largely
286
OCEAN FLORAS 287
composed of plants suited to grow on rocks or among stones. In fresh waters the
temperature of the air exerts the maximum influence on plant-life, whereas in the
deep sea that influence is imperceptible within a short distance of the surface.
With the exception of a few sea-grasses (Naiadacece), the bulk of the ocean flora
is made up of various seaweeds or Algae, some of which possess a growth recalling
that of the larger land-plants. The larger seaweeds and all the sea-grasses are
confined to the zone within tide-range which extends into the line of surf, the
necessary conditions to their existence being bright light and a constant change
and movement of water and air. Such as are situated just above the limits of ebb
tide, with almost the whole growth under water, are strong and healthy, whereas
those placed higher up on the shore are in danger of becoming dried up and are
therefore more stunted in growth. In the upper zone the seaweeds are chiefly
green, in the middle zone they are brown, while in the lower zone they are mostly
red, although brown forms may be found in the upper and green in the middle
zones. Some kinds which grow at a considerable depth in the more brightly
illumined portions of the ocean thrive also in darker situations near the surface
On coral-reefs many seaweeds are restricted to violently agitated water, while
others are peculiar to the quieter spots ; but those which grow on sandy or muddy
bottoms are essentially still-water types.
On passing from the temperate to the tropical zones the ocean flora is less rich
in variety of form than that of the temperate and frigid zones ; but there are
certain marine types of plants exclusively tropical, such as some of the sea-grasses
and tree-seaweeds, while the red seaweeds are generally numerous and the brown
kinds less abundant. Among the brown seaweeds is, however, the well-known
yellow Sargassum, found in the tropics at some distance from land floating on the
surface of the sea, particularly in the tropical Atlantic, where it forms the so-called
Sargasso Sea. Other species of the same group occur in the tropics, although
most of these also range into the adjacent temperate regions. The scanty flora of
the bed of the tropical oceans is still very imperfectly known, especially when
compared with those of temperate waters, some of which present peculiarities by
no means easy of explanation. The flora of the Australasian seas, for example, is
quite as singular and unique as are the fauna and flora of the mainland ; while the
seaweeds of the Red Sea differ in toto from those of the Mediterranean. As a
good example of the flora of the warmer temperate waters, that of the Bay of
Naples may be selected. Here at low-water mark the sea-bottom is muddy and
sandy with a substratum of rocks and stones ; and upon this flourish luxuriant
forests of red and green seaweed, which in deeper waters become either wanting or
but poorly developed. The deeper zones possess, however, a rich plant-growth of
their own, the sea-bed off Capri at a depth of from 60 to 65 fathoms having a
luxuriant vegetation, while a stretch lying at a depth of about 30 fathoms is
covered with a regular meadow of sea-grass, whereas in from 40 to 58 fathoms of
water vegetation is altogether lacking. Near the surface plant-growth is strongest
in winter and spring, while in the depths it is fullest in summer and autumn.
Localities, which in winter are covered with a luxuriant growth, in summer are
bare, and during the latter season many plants which belong to the upper zone
retreat to the depths, a few even differing somewhat in form at the two seasons.
288 THE FISHES OF THE NORTHERN SEAS
The floras of the cool temperate waters of the North Sea and Baltic have also been
well investigated, and, since they are somewhat dissimilar, they may be taken as
two representative northern types. As in all cool temperate waters, the brown
seaweeds are predominant in size and quantity in both areas, the well-known
bladder-wrack (Fucus vesiculosa) being chiefly characteristic of the upper zone of
the rocky coast region, while the allied F. serrata, together with several other
species characterised by their broad leaves, grows in deeper water. There are
a number of other brown algae, the thread-like group being rich in variety of form,
whereas the red seaweeds are less abundant and varied, as they are in some localities
in the Mediterranean. Of the green seaweeds there are but few forms, while the
sea-grasses are only represented by the common grass-wrack (Zostera marina).
Wide stretches of the rocky bed of the Baltic are covered with bladder-wrack, the
most varied and luxuriant growth being found in the lower zone. On the other
hand, the sandy and muddy bottom of the quiet bays presents a somewhat
monotonous picture, being covered with sea-grasses down to a depth of 5 fathoms.
The scantiness of the Baltic flora is attributed to the small amount of saline matter
contained in the water, this sterility being most pronounced in the west and east
where the water is the least salt. In these shallow seas the general growth in
winter is much weaker than in summer. In spring the chalky ridge lying off the
north of Heligoland is covered with fresh green seaweed, and farther on, near the
edge of the surf, with the yellowish brown leaves of the tangle (Laminaria). In
May these seaweeds are replaced by a dark red species, which disappears entirely
in July ; and in August and September the rock is covered with a brown robe,
only to become bare once more with the approach of winter.
In the cooler southern seas the most remarkable seaweed is the giant
Macrocystis pyrifera, which grows to a length of 1000 feet and exceeds all other
ocean plants in size. Although the northern species of bladder- wrack has not
been observed in southern waters, the group is represented by a few species in
the vicinity of the Auckland Islands, where there are none of the sea-grasses so
common on the coasts of Australia and New Zealand. The Antarctic and Arctic
Oceans far surpass all the rest in the rich development of their vegetation, the
brown and red seaweeds predominating, while sea-grass is absent.
The pelagic, or floating flora of the ocean, consists mainly of microscopic
organisms, most numerous within 100 fathoms of the surface. On the actual
surface but few plants thrive, among these few being Trichodesmum erythramm,
which by its abundance and red colour gives the name to the Red Sea.
Bass and sea- Among the animal inhabitants of the ocean, fishes claim the most
Perches. important position. In the sea dwell the greater number of the bony
fishes, among which the first place is now generally assigned to the perch tribe.
Closely allied to the true perches, which inhabit slightly salt as well as fresh water,
are bass and sea-perches. Among these one of the most familiar is the common
bass (Labrax lupus), which attains a length of 18 inches or more, and is fairly
common in European seas. In appearance this fish is like a slender perch, slaty
blue above and silvery below, with a dark spot on the gill-cover beneath the
spines, while the paired fins are yellowish and the median fins grey. The group
is confined to the North Atlantic and its branches and affluents ; but the allied
SEA-BREAMS AND GURNARDS
289
genus Serranus is much more widely distributed, and its members, as a rule, are
brighter in colour. The comber (£>. cabrilla), for example, is orange-yellow with
blue longitudinal stripes, while the dusky perch (S. gigas) is a rich reddish brown
with two oblique stripes on the gill-covers running downwards and backwards.
Both these species are British, the first being resident. A third species occasionally
straying into British waters is S. scriba, of the Mediterranean, which is striped
and streaked with blue and spotted with purple.
Belonging to another genus, with two species, is the stone-bass {Poly prion
cernium), of which the colour is greyish yellow, marbled or blotched. Like Serranus,
this genus has one dorsal fin in place of two, and the tail is not forked. The
European species occurs in the Mediterranean and on the west coast of Europe, the
other being found in the South Pacific. Another British fish of the perch tribe is the
richly coloured Dentex vulgaris, gorgeous in a gold and silver and purple and blue
t%>
SAITHIRINE GURNARD.
Sea-Breams.
livery, and recognisable at a glance by the four front teeth in each jaw, of which
the outer pair are much the larger. This is really the Mediterranean representative
of a genus widely distributed in the Atlantic, Indian, and North Pacific Oceans,
and especially numerous on the south coast of Africa.
The sea-breams (Sparidce) frequent the coasts of all tropical and
temperate seas, conspicuous amongst them being the gilt-heads
which take their name from the golden crescent between the eyes. Among several
species, the silvery Pagrus auratus occasionally strays into British waters. All
the sea-breams are deep and compressed fishes of brilliant coloration, many of them
being scarlet or rose-coloured. In common with numerous other fishes, they retire
in winter to the deeper parts of the sea, to return to shallow water as the weather
becomes warmer and the spawning season commences.
Gurnards and The gurnards and their relatives the bullheads may be met with
Bullheads. jn aj} seas> generally near the coast and at the bottom. In the second
genus the species known as Coitus quadricornis ranges from the British shores to.
vol. 11. — 19
2go
THE FISHES OF THE NORTHERN SEAS
the Arctic Ocean, while the so-called " father lasher " (C. scorpius) has a nearly
similar distribution. A third genus of the family, THglops, is purely Arctic, and
a fourth, Bunocottus, is Antarctic. The gurnards themselves are restricted to
temperate and tropical seas, the two most familiar forms being the grey Trigla
gurnardus and the sapphirine T. hirundo. The latter is a brilliantly coloured
Mediterranean and north European fish, reddish brown above, reddish golden on
the sides, and reddish white below, with large blue pectoral fins. All these fishes
possess three free filaments at the base of the pectoral fins, which serve as organs
of touch and also for walking on the sea-bottom ; the broad pectorals likewise
enabling their owners to spring some distance out of water.
"?. tlr
TURBOT.
Flying Gurnards.
Dories.
In the flying gurnards (Dactylopterus), which belong to another
family, the outstretched pectoral fins act almost as a parachute, so
that these fish can skim the surface of the ocean in a manner similar to that
characteristic of the true flying-fishes.
Grouped in another family consisting of two genera are the
dories, the species most familiar to Europeans being the John Dory
{Zeus faber), a flat and deep fish, with a row of bony plates along the bases of the
dorsal and pelvic fins, and ragged filaments on the dorsal spines.
In the valuable family of flat-fishes the adults of all are un-
symmetrical, the head being so twisted as to bring the two eyes to
the same side, which is always dark, whereas the blind side is normally white.
All are carnivorous, and some members of the group abound on all muddy and
sandy shores, where the colour of the dark side harmonises with that of the sea-
bottom. They spawn in the first four or five months of the year, moving afterwards
Flat-Fishes.
WEE VER-FISH—L UMP-SUCKERS—BLENNIES 291
in large shoals from deep water to the coast, where they remain in the shallows
during the summer. The largest of the family is the halibut {Hippo glossus
vulgaris), of which one example is recorded to have measured 20 feet in length.
This is a North Atlantic species, unknown to the south of the Bay of Biscay.
The smaller but more valuable turbot (Rhombus maximus) ranges into the
Mediterranean, but does not occur on the American side of the Atlantic ; its usual
length is about 17 inches, although it occasionally reaches 28 inches. In place of
scales, the body is sparsely covered with scattered bony tubercles. The brill
(R. Icevis) is a narrower fish, usually about 20 inches long, and covered with small
smooth scales. In both the brill and the turbot the eyes are on the left side,
whereas in the halibut they are on the right, as they also are in the plaice (Pleuro-
nectes platessa), the type of the whole family. This species is common in British
waters, whence it extends across the North Sea to the Baltic. It is specially
characterised by the large reddish yellow spots on the dark side of the body and
fins. To the same genus belongs the flounder (P. flesws), which has tubercles
round the base of the fins, and is common in British seas and the Baltic, whence it
ascends rivers for some distance. Perhaps the most highly esteemed member of
the entire group is the sole (Solea vulgaris), in which the eyes are on the right
side and the nostrils are equal-sized. Soles range all round the coasts of Europe,
from the Mediterranean to the north of Scandinavia, where they frequent sandy or
gravelly bottoms in rather shallow water. In the other species of this genus the
nostrils are unequal.
Yet another family is typified by the greater weever (Trachinus
Weever-Fisli etc
" draco), in which a long spine on the gill-cover is employed as a
formidable defensive weapon. This species occurs throughout the Atlantic and
also in the South Pacific off the coast of Peru.
The clumsy-looking lump-suckers are thus named from the
presence of an adhesive disc on the under surface of the body
formed by the coalesced and aborted pelvic fins. A well-known representative of
the group is the common lump-fish (Cyclopterus lumpus), met with abundantly in
the colder latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, in which the males are generally
red, the females blue, and the young green or yellow on the under surface.
The blennies, on the other hand, constitute a family (Blenniidce)
by themselves, comprising about two hundred species distributed over
the temperate and tropical seas, although some inhabit estuaries and fresh waters.
The typical species is the viviparous blenny (Zoarces viviparus) of the eastern North
Atlantic, which attains a length of 2 feet or more, and brings forth as many as
two hundred young at a time. When born, these are more than an inch long, and able
to take care of themselves. Belonging to the same family, but very different in
appearance, is the eel-like butter-fish (Centronotus gunnellus), which derives its
name from the slime on the body.
Another and much more ferocious representative, common to the temperate
coasts of northern Europe and North America, is the ugly wolf-fish (Anarrkichas
lujms), which grows to 6 feet or more in length, and possesses a formidable set of
crushing teeth. Although these fishes are capable of defending themselves with
ferocity, and will attack even human beings, they appear to have received their
a92 THE FISHES OF THE NORTHERN SEAS
specific title from an idea that they are as destructive to other members of their own
tribe as sharks. As a matter of fact, their food consists almost entirely of shelled
molluscs, crabs, and sea-urchins, for seizing and crushing which their armature of
teeth is adapted. The misnomer is not restricted to the name wolf-fish and its
Latin equivalent, for the name Anarrhichas, bestowed in 1560, refers to a notion
that the wolf -fish is in the habit of climbing out of the water on to the rocks.
Wolf-fish is not the only name for the species, for, in common with many other kinds,
it is known as " cat-fish," or its Scandinavian equivalent Halfkatten, while in the
Orkneys it is termed " swine-fish," on account of a pig-like movement of the nostrils.
Wolf-fishes, of which there are several species in the colder seas of the northern
hemisphere, live in deep water, where there is a complete absence of light, and only
enter the shallows during the spawning season, when they remain quiescent during
the day and are active only at night. The voracity of these fishes is exemplified
by the fact that at least five quarts of sea-urchins were taken from the stomach of
an American specimen ; while in that of a second was found an equal quantity of
sea-urchins and whelks, the shells of many of the latter being merely cracked.
In other instances the contents of the stomach have included scallops, crabs,
hermit-crabs, and brittle-stars, so that the nature of the food seems to depend on
local conditions. A remarkable habit, apparently connected with feeding, was
recorded in 1886 in connection with the Alaskan wolf-fish (A. lepturus). Attention
was directed to a mass of turf floating in the sea and undergoing strange move-
ments. A native stated that these movements were due to a wolf-fish, and when
a canoe was brought close to the sods this was found to be true, the fish being seen
tearing at the grass, and not desisting till driven off with a paddle. So well is this
habit known to the natives that they are accustomed to catch wolf-fish by means
of hooks baited with grass roots. Such attacks on floating masses of vegetable
matter are for the purpose of obtaining crabs and molluscs that may be lurking
in these sods rather than for the sake of eating the grass.
To another group belong the well-known sticklebacks, all of
Sticklebacks. . . , & .
which can exist in the ocean, although the majority prefer fresh
water. The exception is the fifteen-spined species (Gasterosteus spinachia), which
never leaves salt or brackish water. This species is restricted to European seas,
where it ranges northwards from the Bay of Biscay. Indeed the whole group is
either arctic or temperate in distribution. Sticklebacks, as mentioned in an earlier
chapter, build nests, which are guarded by the males.
A most important group is the cod tribe (Gadidce), in which the
soft, dorsal fins (varying in number from one to three) extend along
the greater part of the back, and the pelvic pair, which are situated far forwards,
may include several rays or be reduced to mere filaments.
The common cod (Gadus morrhua), though varying much in colour and size,
may always be distinguished by the white lateral line. Like all the other species
of its genus, it has three dorsal and two anal fins. Next in importance as a food-
fish is the haddock (G. ceglefinus), characterised by the lateral line being black.
Both kinds inhabit the North Atlantic above the fortieth degree of latitude. The
whiting (G. merlangus) differs from both the preceding by the absence of barbels,
and is also lighter in colour than the cod, with the under-parts white and
COD TRIBE— SAND-EELS — SALMON— HERRING 293
a black spot at the base of each- pectoral fin. Of inferior quality is the coal-fish
(G. virens), so named on account of the blackness of the upper-parts. In this fish,
which has more than fifty English popular names, the lower jaw projects beyond
the upper, thus affording an easy means of distinction from the three preceding
species. It is further characterised by carrying a small barbel, and by the
straightness of the lateral line, which is white. In habitat it is a North Atlantic
species, occurring commonly as far north as latitude 80°, but only singly in the
Mediterranean and Baltic. In America this fish is miscalled the pollack, although
the fish (G. pollachius) properly entitled to that name is confined to the west coast
of Europe, and is a much handsomer species, showing golden and silvery tints on
the sides.
The other members of the group, all characterised by the presence of one
anal and two dorsal fins, include the hakes, among which the European Merluccius
vulgaris is a small-scaled fish of elongated form with large, pointed teeth and no
barbels. In colour it is brownish grey speckled with black above and silvery
white beneath. From this species the ling (Molva vulgaris) differs by possessing
a barbel, while the lower teeth are alone large, and the median fins bordered
with white. Another genus of the group with a much more extensive distribu-
tional area is the one which includes the rocklings (Motella). In these fish both
dorsal and anal fins are single, the front portion of the former being reduced to a
mere fringe with the first ray long and spiny. In the allied genus Raniceps, on
the other hand, the dorsal fin is double, although the first is rudimentary and
includes but three rays. In British seas this group is represented by the lesser
hake (R. raninus). Another British cod, the torsk (Brosmius brosine), which
possesses but one dorsal fin extending along the greater part of the back, is a deep-
water fish, ranging southwards from the Arctic seas, and frequently found in
company with ling, both being well-known food-fishes in the north of Europe.
In these fishes the anal fin commences near the throat, but in the allied sand-eels
it is placed much farther back.
Of the not very numerous species, the larger sand-eel (Am-
modytes lanceolatus) occurs commonly on the eastern coasts of the
North Atlantic, and in the Baltic, as well as in the Mediterranean, where it burrows
in the sand, and subsists on worms and other invertebrates. Owing to its silvery
skin, it is much used as bait by fishermen. The lesser sand-eel (A. tobianus),
which has similar habits and much the same distribution, is distinguished by the
fins being curved in outline instead of straight.
__. The great salmon family includes both marine and fresh- water
Salmon Tribe. ° J .
forms, and although some are restricted to the deep sea, those most
familiarly known are either in the habit of ascending rivers to spawn, or spend
the whole of their time in the latter. The carps, being exclusively fresh-water, need
no mention here.
„ . __, The herrings, on the other hand, are as characteristically marine
Herring Tribe. ° J
fishes, but are seldom found far from shore, although they range
throughout the temperate and tropical zones. The first group includes the
numerous kinds of anchovy, among which the common Engraulis encrasicholus is
confined to the European side of the North Atlantic, ranging from Norway to the
294
THE FISHES OF THE NORTHERN SEAS
Mediterranean, where it is most abundant. Of true herrings there are over sixty
species, the most important being the common Clupea harengus, which occurs in
the North Pacific as well as in the North Atlantic, and contributes so largely to the
food-supply of Britain and other European countries. From its larger relative, the
common sprat (C. sprattus) differs by having the dorsal tin nearer the tail, that of
the herring commencing half-way between the muzzle and the base of the tail. It
is also distinguishable by the sharp spines on the keeled abdomen. Sprats are
generally said to be confined to the North Atlantic, but an apparently similar fish
is also met with off the coasts of Tasmania. The fry of sprats, together with those
of the herring, constitute " whitebait." In that very distinct fish the pilchard
(C. pilchardus) the dorsal fin is nearer the head than the tail ; while, in common
THE CHIMERA.
with the other members of the genus, the upper jaw does not, as in the
anchovy, project beyond the lower. In the immature condition these fish are
known as sardines. Pilchards inhabit the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean,
and the North Sea, but do not enter the Baltic or range across to America.
In the British Isles they are most abundant off the Cornish coast. Of the
two other important European species of Clupea, the shads, the twait-shad
(C. Jlnta), ascends the Nile.
Eels are represented in almost every temperate and tropical sea
and river, where the numerous species are not confined to any
particular depth, some thriving in the shallowest water, while others live in the
open ocean hundreds of miles from land. Conger eels (Conger) live permanently
in the sea, but true eels (Align 11 In) descend from fresh water to the ocean,
Eels.
EELS
295
whence they never return. The fry are transparent creatures known as
Leptocephali. Apparently the breeding-resort of the eels of northern Europe
is in deep water outside the 500-fathom line to the south-west of Ireland, where
their Leptocephali have been taken in abundance. It by no means follows that
all north European eels which reach the sea arrive at the breeding-area, and
possibly Finnish eels never breed at all. If this be so, it is practically certain
that young eels, or elvers — unlike young salmon — do not return to the rivers
from which their parents started ; this being improbable, seeing that eels are
hatched in the sea.
Naturalists are still in ignorance with regard to the age of the youngest
Leptocephalus larva at present known, namely, specimens of about 7 cm. in
HAMMER-HEADED SHARK.
length, it being uncertain whether these are six or eighteen months old. Of
younger larvae and the eggs nothing is known, and we are also ignorant as to the
interval which elapses between the arrival of eels in the sea and their spawning.
Neither is it known what becomes of eels subsequent to spawning ; possibly
they die soon after this event, although they may live for a considerable period.
All that is definitely known is that after having once entered the sea they never
return to fresh water.
In Sweden, as the result of recent investigations it has been found that the great
majority of the five-year-old eels collect at the mouths of the rivers discharging
into the Gottland and Botten lakes, where they remain in a barren condition from
five to seven years, after which they make their way, as ten- to twelve-year-old
fishes, by the Kattegat, the Skagerak, and the North Sea to the Atlantic for the
purpose of spawning.
296
THE FISHES OF THE NORTHERN SEAS
Chimsera.
All the foregoing groups are included in the class of bony fishes.
That strange fish the sea-cat, or chimsera (Chimcera monstrosa),
represents, on the other hand, a totally distinct section — the Holocephali. This
fish, which ranges throughout the Atlantic and North Pacific, bears on its head
the curious crown-like structure from which it derives its popular title of " king
of the herrings."
A third, and at the present day far more important, section of
the class — the Elasmobranchii — includes the predaceous sharks and
rays. Although sharks are most numerous within the tropics, many of them range
into temperate seas. Among those which occasionally put in an appearance in
Sharks.
BASKING SHARK.
British waters, the most striking is the great blue shark (Carcharias glaucus),
which reaches a length of 25 feet and is found in both the Atlantic and the Pacific.
The tope (Galeus vulgaris), which belongs to the same family and has nearly the
same distribution, is much smaller, rarely exceeding a length of 7 feet. The strange-
looking hammer-head (Zygoma malleus) is a cosmopolitan species, whose chief
peculiarity is sufficiently indicated by its name. Of more normal form is the
smooth hound (Mustdus vulgaris), which measures from 3 to 6 feet in length, and
differs from the tope by having the second dorsal fin much smaller than the first.
It is less common in British waters than its cousin the tope.
The largest shark of the North Atlantic is the basking species (Cetorhinus
maximus), a fish with a huge mouth but very small teeth. This shark is quite
harmless to the larger denizens of the sea, except when attacked, and subsists on
RAYS — LAMPREYS AND HAG-FISHES
297
invertebrates or fishes. It is much hunted for the sake of its oil, of which a
specimen 314 feet in length yielded no less than 198 gallons. A commoner species,
the rough hound (Scy Ilium canicula), which sometimes reaches just over
40 inches in length, but is generally smaller, preys upon small fishes and marine
worms, digging for the latter in the sand. Its range extends from the Mediterranean
all round the coasts of Europe. In colour this shark is reddish blotched with brown.
Its relative the nurse-hound (»S'. catidus) does not range so far north, but attains
larger dimensions, being known to reach a length of 4 feet. It may be distinguished
by the circumstance that the oval fin terminates below the second dorsal instead
of between the two dorsals.
The electric rays are so called on account of the presence of an
electric organ between the head and the pectoral fin. Of the half-
dozen members of the group (all of which can give a powerful shock) the common
torpedo {Torpedo nobiliana) reaches about 4 feet in length, and inhabits the
Mediterranean and the Atlantic as far south as Madeira. More familiarly known
Rays.
HAG-FISH
are the true rays, or skates, among which the common skate (Raia bat is) is largely
used as a food-fish on the European coast of the Atlantic. This species also ranges
into the Mediterranean, the North Sea, and the Baltic.
Another well-known representative of the group is the thornback skate
(R. clavata), the skin of which is protected by spines and tubercles, irregularly
dotted all over the back. Even more formidable is the sting-ray (Trygon pastinaca),
whose body is pear-shaped, while the long tail, in lieu of fins, is armed with a
serrated spine capable of inflicting a dangerous wound. This species is found in
both the North Atlantic and North Pacific, where it is most abundant in the
warmer zones. Of the whip-rays, so called from their whip-like tails, the most
notable are the ox-ray (Dicerobatis giorncv) of the Mediterranean, and the devil-
fish (D. diabolus) of the West Indies, the latter attaining a length of 10 feet,
with a diameter of 18 feet.
Lampreys and Following after the true fishes come the lampreys and hag-fishes,
Hag-Fishes, which are included by naturalists in a class by themselves. Both
prey on fishes, but whereas lampreys attach themselves to the outside, hag-fishes
298 THE FISHES OF THE NORTHERN SEAS
bore deeply into the tissues of their victims. The sea-lamprey (Petromyzon
marinus), like the rest of its kind, is a native of the North Atlantic, but the other
generic groups are restricted to the Southern Hemisphere. Hag-fishes have the
same distribution as the cod family, in the bodies of whose members they so fre-
quently take up their abode. The European Myxine glutinosa is confined to the
North Atlantic, where it is most common in the fiords of the Norwegian coast.
The tiny, transparent fish-like creatures commonly known as
Li.\IlC6l6tS. Till i*
lancelets belong to a group standing on the borderland between
vertebrates and invertebrates. In the common \a,nce\et(Branchiostoma lanceolatum),
which is between 2 and 3 inches in length, the body is laterally compressed and
pointed at the two ends. There are no paired fins, but the back carries a long
dorsal, supported at the ends by gelatinous rays, and there is also a tail-fin ; the
lower part is similarly strengthened. Lancelets often bury themselves in sand,
but also swim in long chains composed of numerous individuals united together by
their heads and tails.
THE LANCELET.
____ — ' '----'
?
EDIBLE CRAB.
CHAPTER VI
Lower Forms of Marine Life
Of the many forms of invertebrate life inhabiting the northern
seas, none are more noteworthy than the curious sea-spiders, some of
which live in the ocean-depths,
while others are found within
the tide-range, where they move
about slowly, creeping or climb-
ing over plants and stones. Of
the latter section of the group a
not uncommon representative is
the slender sea-spider {NympJton
gracile).
Crabs, Lobsters, The crabs, lob-
Sbrimps.etc. sters, shrimps, and
their allies, constituting the
Crustacea, abound in all seas.
2QQ
SLENDER SEA-SPIDER.
3°°
LOWER FORMS OF MARINE LIFE
Among the short-tailed group, the common edible crab {Cancer pagurus) is to
be met with in large numbers at low water on the coasts of Europe, while still
more abundant is the familiar shore-crab {Carcinus mamas), which is eaten in
Italy and elsewhere. The thornback crab (Maia squinado) is easily recognisable
by the peculiar form of the shell, which is broad behind and narrow in front,
where it terminates in a spine between the eyes. This crab is common in European
seas, especially the Mediterranean. In this species the upper surface is thickly
overgrown with seaweeds, but that of the woolly crab (Dromia vulgaris) is
3 '^A^^ur^h^-^.
I'RIDEAUX S HERMIT CRAB.
generally covered with sponges, which are held in position by the hind-legs, and
carried about as a means of concealment. Of the long-tailed group, the hermit-
crabs form a remarkable section distinguished by the soft-skinned abdomen,
which is protected within the empty shell of some univalve mollusc. One species,
Prideaux's hermit-crab (Eupagurus prideauxi), sometimes met with in European
seas, almost without exception carries on the annexed shell a sea-anemone
(Adamsia palliata). How the crab selects the particular kind of anemone, or the
anemone the particular kind of crab, is quite unknown.
The crayfish, as exemplified by the common Palinurus vulgaris, are specially
CRABS LOBSTERS, SHRIMPS, ETC — BARNACLES 301
characterised by the length and stoutness of the feelers or antennae, and the small
size of the claws. In the lobsters, on the other hand, of which Adacua gammarus
is the familiar representative, the antennae are shorter and more slender, and the
claws of the first pair of limbs are much larger and more powerful. The Norwegian
lobster {Nephrops norvegicus) has the large claws longer, more slender, and
covered with tubercles. Prawns (Pakemon) differ from lobsters in having the first
pair of limbs no larger than the three hinder pairs, while it is the second pair
which is the largest, although, like the latter, the first pair is armed with pincers.
In the brown shrimps of the genus Crangon the last joint of the first pair of limbs
is capable of being folded back on the next joint, and there is no long spine on
the head extending beyond the middle pair of antennae.
To another group of crustaceans belong the mantis-shrimps, so called on
account of the resemblance of their enlarged pair of limbs to those of the mantises
or praying-insects. The common Sqtt,illa mantis of the Mediterranean, occasionally
met with in British waters, measures about 7 inches, and in some countries is used
o*..^^,;\0r
MAXTIS-SHRIMP.
as food. As a well-known representative of another group, the rattle-spider
(Idotea tricuspidata), the sheep-worm of the Baltic fishermen, may be briefly
mentioned. This species is specially remarkable on account of the variability of
its markings, and the changes of colour it exhibits within extremely restricted
areas. Sometimes it is pale yellow, and at others pale brown, green, or red, while
in other cases it is spotted or striped longitudinally or transversely. Those individuals
which live near together, are, however, invariably alike, and in colour and markings
are perfectly adapted to their environment. On green seaweeds they are green,
while if the seaweeds are brown or red the rattle-spiders are coloured to match,
as they also are when living upon decaying vegetable matter.
Omitting mention of the smaller forms of crustaceans, a short space
BcirTici cIgs
may be devoted to barnacles, which in the adult state are so unlike
ordinary crustaceans that few persons will believe that they belong to the same
class. When, however, the valves are open, the delicate organs from which they
derive their name of cirrhipeds will be seen to correspond to the limbs of crustaceans,
and in the young state they are free-swimming. They attach themselves head
downwards to rocks, piles, ships' bottoms, seaweeds, or the shells or bodies of
3o2 LOWER FORMS OF MARINE LIFE
animals ; some affixing themselves to mussels, others to corals or crabs, and a few
to the bodies of whales. Of the commoner kinds, the stalked barnacle (Lepas
anatifera), which has the body compressed laterally, is furnished with a long
naked stalk, upon the extremity of which are carried the several shelly valves.
Acorn-barnacles (Balanus), which live within tide-range, have no stalk to
the shell but resemble the stalked forms in general structure, although the base of
the shell is welded into a solid cone resembling a miniature volcano, at the summit
of which are the movable valves. These barnacles affix themselves to rocks, piles,
snells, or seaweed, but never to coral-reefs. They are widely distributed, their
range extending from latitude 74° 18' N. to Cape Horn, although they are
rather more abundant in temperate waters than elsewhere. Such of the allied
forms as attach themselves to floating objects are frequently modified to suit the
special conditions ; the whale-barnacles of the genus Coronula having, for
example, flattened crown-shaped shells.
Cuttles and No group of animals is more abundantly represented in the ocean
Squids. than that of the shell-fish, or molluscs, and in none is the distribution
more dependent on depth and temperature, wThile in none are different regional
marine faunas more clearly differentiated. Of the four main divisions, the one
which includes the cuttles and squids is exclusively marine. One of the most
familiar in this group is the octopus or kraken (Polypus vulgaris), of the
Mediterranean and west European seas, wThere it lurks in rocky clefts or other
hiding-places, and feeds voraciously and indiscriminately on all kinds of animal
substances. To the same section belongs the paper-nautilus, the females of which
exhibit the peculiarity of secreting the well-known delicate shell as a protection
for their eggs, this shell being unattached to the body and capable of being dis-
carded. Of the four kinds of paper-nautilus, which are found in all the warmer
seas, the common Argonauta argo is Mediterranean, while A. tuberculata, distin-
guished by the knotted ribs and tubercles on the shell, inhabits the Indian Ocean.
In a second section of the group, distinguished by the presence of ten, in place
of eight, tentacles around the mouth and the horny nature of the internal skeleton,
or pen, mention may first be made of the genus Ommastrephes, in which the body
is cylindrical and pointed behind, and furnished with two terminal fins. These
short-armed gregarious cuttles, which swim very fast and follow shoals of young
mackerel, form the principal food of several kinds of dolphins. One of the most
abundant species (0. sagittatus) inhabits the Mediterranean and Atlantic, and is
largely used as bait in Newfoundland, where it is occasionally eaten as food.
The giant cuttles (Architeuthis), which belong to the same family, attain a
length of from 40 to 50 feet, and are occasionally met with on the coasts of Ireland,
Japan, New Zealand, and Newfoundland. The calamaries are also long in shape,
but the pen, instead of being narrow with a hollow cone at the hind-end, is
broadly lanceolated and pointed in front, with the shaft keeled on the lower side.
These calamaries are cosmopolitan in distribution, the best known being perhaps
the common squid (Loligo vulgaris), so abundant in the Mediterranean and Atlantic.
In these squids the pen is as long as the body, whereas in the allied Sepiola it is
but half this length and proportionately narrower. In the Mediterranean and
Atlantic the latter group is represented by Rondelet's calamary (Sepiola rondeleti).
CUTTLES AND SQUIDS — GASTROPODS
3°3
Belonging to the same family (Sepiolidw) is another British genus, Rossia, which
differs in having the dorsal surface of the investing " mantle " strengthened by a
ridge instead of being united with the head by a band.
In the true cuttles of the family Sepiidcv the pen is replaced by the so-called
" cuttle-bone," which has a thin horny margin, is oval in shape, thick in front
with the hind-end hollow and furnished with a spine. The common cuttle (Sepia
officinalis) of European seas is notable on account of the unusual beauty of its
THE OCTOPUS.
Gastropods.
coloration, the back being generally brownish spotted with white, while the under-
pays are paler and the sides violet, with the arms or tentacles greenish.
In the northern seas, as elsewhere, the gastropods or univalves
are more numerously represented than any other class of the Mollusca,
but a mere list of their genera would occupy so many pages that we must restrict
our remarks to a few of the more familiar or those of interest from our special
point of view. The common whelk (Buccinum undatum), for instance, ranges
from the coast of Norway to the east coast of the United States north of Cape Cod
Bay. The family (Buccinidai) is widely dispersed in the northern and Antarctic
seas, and one representative, Euthria cornea, affords a striking instance of discon-
3°4
LOWER FORMS OF MARINE LIFE
tinuous distribution, being found in the Mediterranean and on the coast of New
Caledonia.
The red whelk or buckie (Fusus antiquus), the largest of the British univalves,
ranges through the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and Arctic Oceans, the family
(Fasciolariidai) occurring in every sea. Another common British gastropod, the
dog-whelk (Nassa reticulata), resembles the last in belonging to a widely spread
genus ranging from the Arctic to the Antarctic in both hemispheres. In the same
group are included the murices (Maricidai), of which the wide-mouthed Purpura
patula is a well-known Mediterranean representative ; in this the ovate, blackish
brown diagonally furrowed shell is about 3 inches long. From its name it might be
supposed that the famous Tyrian purple was a product of this species, but this is
not the case, the dye being yielded by two species of the typical genus Murex.
One of these is
the fire-horn (M.
brandaris), of the
shells of which
there is a vast
accumulation on
the site of the
ancient dye-works
atTarantoin Italy.
In length this shell
measures about Si-
inches, and the
colour is pale ashy
grey.
The iridescent
N*.
X
\ • '.- i . ' "V-
A NAKED-HILLED GASTROPOD.
..' ear-shells or or-
mers of the family
Haliotidce are the
representatives of
a group of uni-
valves distinguished from all the foregoing by the structure of the heart. Ear-
shells, which take their name from their enormous apertures, are iridescent
only on the inside, the outer side being rough so as to harmonise with the
rocks to which they cling after the manner of limpets, from which they may
be distinguished by their form and the row of perforations in the shell. The
common ormer (Haliotis tuberculoid), of the Channel Islands and the Mediter-
ranean, is offered for sale in the Italian fish-markets. Equally edible, but far
larger, is the giant ear-shell (H. tub if era) of the eastern Asiatic and Australian
coasts, the wrinkled shell of which is 6 inches or more in diameter and of a reddish
colour externally. Even more widely distributed are the limpets (Patellida), which
are found on the coasts of northern Europe, where ormers are unknown. The simple
unperforated conical form of the limpet-shell is sufficient to distinguish the group,
the members of which live between tide-marks and have one particular spot to which
they return daily after their wanderings in search of food.
GASTROPODS— PTEROPODS— BIVAL VES 305
Quite different from all other gastropods are the chitons (Chitonidce), which
have the habits of limpets, but in external appearance look more like huge wood-
lice, the shell consisting of a number of movable transverse plates, and the
animal having the power of rolling itself up into a ball. Ranging in size from half
an -inch to 6 inches, they arc found in all seas, generally near the shore but
sometimes at great depths. They are never very abundant, although there are no
less than eleven species on the British coasts, the largest of these being Chiton
discrepans, in which the length of the shell is about 1^ inches.
An important group of gastropods characterised by the backward position of
the gills have the shell either wanting or more or less completely enveloped in the
body. Among the latter section of the group are the so-called bubble-shells, typified
by Bulla ampulla of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. In this species the shell is
smoothand globose, marked with brown specklings upon ayellowish ground. Another
type is presented by the globe-shell ( Acera bullata) of European seas, which swims
by means of the side-lobes which envelop the rounded shell. A second section, in
which the shell is small or occasionally absent, includes the miscalled sea-hare
(Aplysia depilans) of the Mediterranean, in which the shell is arched and flat and
measures no more than a couple of inches, although the length of the entire animal
is 9 or 10 inches. The naked-gilled gastropods, which include some seventeen families,
have no shells in the adult state and differ in many other respects from the fore-
going. One of the most striking forms is Dendronotus arborescens, of the seas of
northern Europe, which is covered with such a mass of tentacles as to resemble a
moving bunch of seaweed, this structure being intended for its protection.
Among the pelagic molluscan fauna of the sea — that is to say the
Pteropods. «' . . .
free-swimming forms found on its surface — none are more important
than the pteropods, so called from the pair of fin-like structures into which the
lateral portions of the foot have been modified. By their aid these small molluscs,
which often occur in countless millions, rise at the approach of night from the ocean
depths to the surface, where they swim about for several hours in search of food.
When satisfied they again sink to the depths, contracting their fins and withdrawing
the body into the shell or mantle. Pteropods inhabit every sea, not even excepting
the Arctic Ocean ; and in many regions the ocean floor is strewn with their
empty shells for acres. One of the northern forms constitutes a large proportion
of the food of the Greenland whale. In one group the shell persists throughout life,
whereas in a second it disappears before maturity is attained. The members of the
shelled group subsist on algae and animalcules, and themselves yield the chief
food-supply of their naked relatives.
„. , Far more numerous, and therefore of more importance to the
Bivalves. ^. ■ *■
student of distribution, are the bivalve molluscs, or relecypoda, among
which are included certain modified forms, like the so-called ship-worms, whose
shell, although starting with two valves, eventually assumes a tubular form. These
ship-worms (Teredinidw) bore only in wood, where their tunnels take all
sorts of directions. In the common European Teredo navalis the pair of long
siphons, which when at rest are included in the tube, do not exceed 8 inches in
length, whereas in T. arenaria, of the Indian Ocean, they may grow to a couple of
feet. In the piddocks or pholases, on the other hand, as typified by the common
vol. 11. — 20
3o6 LOWER FORMS OF MARINE LIFE
European Pholas dactylics (which is also South African), the two valves remain
separate throughout life, and are supplemented by additional valves. Piddocks
form vertical tunnels in rocks varying in hardness from mud to limestone. The
common European gaper (Mya arenaria) typifies another group of boring bivalves,
which dig a foot or so deep into sandy or muddy sea-bottoms. The shell, which is
ovate and inequivalve, gapes at both ends, and the siphons are long and united.
Four other genera are included in the Myidce, but the common European rock-
borer (Saxicava rugosa) typifies a second family, whose members range down to
a depth of 550 fathoms and bore only in soft stone. In the European species the
shell does not exceed 1£ inches in length, and is abruptly truncated at the hinder end.
Between this family and the one previously mentioned come the razor-shells
(Solenidce), which bore vertically into sand, and have shells resembling a scabbard,
either curved or straight, open at the two ends, and united for a part of one side
by a horny ligament. Ensis siliqua is a well-known species common to Europe
and North America. The tellins (Tellinidai) are distinguished by having the shell
compressed, with the valves equal and the ligament external. In the European
Tellina balthica the shell is pointed at the hinder end, with the margin rounded in
front and the hinge-line curved, the colour being reddish or yellowish banded with
white. Two of the North Atlantic tellins, T.fabula and T. tenuis, are also found in
South African waters. In the Venus-shells {Veneridce) the hinge has usually
three long diverging teeth, the ligament is external, while the muscular scars in the
interior are oval and distinct, and the impression formed by the margin of the
lobes of mantle is curved. A well-known form is the clam (Venus mercenaria)
of the west shore of the North Atlantic, whose heart-shaped, straw-coloured shell
is spotted internally with violet. Clam-shell discs strung together were formerly
used by the Indians for currency and other purposes, under the name of wampum.
The scallop-shells (Pecten) as a rule swim freely and strongly by flapping the
valves of their shells together. They have a more or less circular equilateral shell,
with prominent ears, and when the valves are not equal rest on the bottom with
the flatter one uppermost. Two of the common British species — P. maximus, the
scallop, and P. opercularis, the quin — are edible. The pilgrim-shell, P. jacobceus,
famous as having been worn in the hats of the pilgrims to the Holy Land, resembles
P. maximus generally, but has the ribs of the lower valve angulated instead of
rounded. The file-shells (Lima) form a closely related family, in which the valves
are equal and compressed and the shell is obliquely oval with the anterior side
straight and gaping. It is nearly always white. Some of the species build nests
of broken shells and other fragments in which they become enclosed and anchor
themselves by the byssus ; but other species are free. The commonest British
species (L. hians) is conspicuous for the bright orange colour of its mantle lobes.
In the next family (Spondylidai) there is no byssus, but the foot has an ap-
pendage, the shell is usually spinose, and there are two cardinal teeth in each valve.
The red oyster of the Mediterranean (Spondylus gcederopus) is perhaps the best
known representative of the family. The oyster-family also belongs to this order ;
one of the most familiar species in Europe being the common oyster (Ostrea edulis),
which is confined to the eastern side of the North Atlantic and most numerous in
the North Sea, though there are about seventy other species distributed through-
WORMS
3°7
out the tropical and temperate seas. In 0. edulis the sexes are united in one
individual, but in another European species, 0. angulata, as in the American oyster,
0. Virginia, they are separate. Two other Atlantic species of the American coast,
0. concophila and 0. lurida, are both edible ; and the edible species of the Pacific
are all different in widely separated localities.
HERMIONE HYSTRIX.
Worms.
In the large group of worms or annelids the members of the
many-bristled section are exclusively marine. Conspicuous among
these is the sea-mouse (Aphrodite aculeata), whose body is covered with iridescent,
fringe-like bristles glittering like gold. In this form the fifteen pairs of so-called
ORANGE COMB-STAR.
elytra are hidden beneath a felting of hairs ; but in the allied Hermione, which is
also European, the felting is absent and the elytra are exposed. In another group
of bristle-bearing annelids, which live in tubes and burrows, is included the lug-
worm (Arcnicola marina) so common on the flat sandy shores of Europe between
3o3
LOWER FORMS OF MARINE LIFE
Echinoderms.
tide-marks. Nearly allied are the sabellas and serpulas, the former of which make
tubes of sand and fragments of shell aggregated into rock-like masses, while the
latter secrete stony tubes, from the summits of which are protruded clusters of
graceful tentacles. One of the most beautiful is Spallanzani's tube-worm {Spiro-
graphis spallanzanii), of the Channel Islands and the Mediterranean, which has
an upright spiral tube and unsymmetrical white, violet, or brown gill-plumes.
Another is the common tube-worm
(Serjnda vermicularis) so abundant
on oyster, scallop, and other shells.
A third type, which lives on sea-
weed as well as on shells, is Spiror-
bis, in which the tube is coiled into
a flat spiral one-eighth of an inch or
less in diameter.
Grouped in an-
other sub-kingdom, the
Echinodermata, are the starfishes,
sea-urchins and their allies. The
starfishes of the present day, of
which there are at least five hundred
species, are cosmopolitan. Among
(.hose which inhabit the North
Atlantic is the red starfish (Asterias
subens), found from within the tide-
range to a depth of 50 fathoms.
It has five rays, averages about
6 inches in diameter, occasionally ex-
ceeding 9, and in colour is generally
reddish, yellowish, or brownish. As
it is destructive to oysters, it is
caught in great numbers on the
west coast of France, where it
is used as manure. A starfish
distinguished by its size, which
sometimes approaches 18 inches in
diameter, and by living at a depth
of from 10 to 100 fathoms in the Mediterranean, and all around the British Isles,
from which the preceding species is absent, is the orange comb-star (Astropecten
aurantiacus), which on both sides of its five arms has a row of upper and under
edge plates and also has flat spines. Its food-canals terminate blindly.
The brittle stars (Ophiuroidea) differ from the sea-stars chiefly in the pos-
session of a central disc, sharply defined from the arms, and in other features. They
crawl chiefly by means of their arms, which wind about in so snaky a fashion that
the animals are frequently called snake-stars in consequence. In many species
they can be turned upwards, and are very strong and branched, as is the
case with the tree-shaped Medusa's head Gorgonocephalus arborescens of the
POSTOLE STAR.
ECHINODERMS
3°9
Mediterranean. Among those having unbranched arms is the pustule star
(Hemieuryale pustulata), which lives on corals, and clasps its arms round the
branches as shown in
the illustration. It is
remarkable for the fact
that its arms resemble
coral-branches in form
and colour, a similarity
which undoubtedly pro-
tects it from many
enemies, and is a strik-
ing instance of mimicry.
The feather-stars
resemble the starfish
and brittle stars in
having arms, but differ
from them in being
permanently or tempo-
rarily attached to a
jointed stalk. Moseley's
sea -lily {Metacrinus
moseleyi) may be taken
as an example, and has
forty arms which are
all studded with small
feelers, instead of tiny
feet. The comatulids
differ from the other
feather-stars in discard-
ing their stalk after a
time and thenceforth
leading a free life.
One of the best known
species of this very
numerous family is the
rosy species of the Medi-
terranean and Atlantic
coasts of Europe {Ante-
don rosaceus), which
has a diameter of about
6 inches, and lives at
a depth of 30 fathoms,
where it is very com-
mon, clinging to coral-branches, worm-tubes, and the like.
The sea-urchins (Echinoidea) have prickly bodies and no arms, and move by
means of their long tube-feet or their spines. Their size may have given rise to
MOSELEY S SEA-LILY.
3io
LO WER FORMS OF MARINE LIFE
the belief that they live upon large animals, but their food consists partly of small
organisms and partly of animal and vegetable matter. A common species of the
European seas is the edible
urchin {Echinus esculen-
tus), which is about 6 inches
across, and has a scarlet or
brownish shell, and short
spines, which range in
colour from white to purple.
Its shape is almost circular,
but that of many other
species is oval. Another
noteworthy species is the
sea-porcupine (Echinothrix
calamaris), so called from
the alternately light and
dark rings on its longspines.
The vast majority of ccelenterates inhabit the sea, those restricted
to fresh water being very few. There are three classes in the sub-
kingdom, and an excellent example of the first is afforded by Syncoryne sarsi, which
in its free state is known as Sarsia tubulosa, one of the Hydromedusse. In shape
SEA-POECUFINE.
Ccelenterates.
.
SAILING JELLY-FISH.
this resembles a club with from twelve to sixteen tentacles, and is about half an
inch high. It grows in colonies which fasten themselves to wood-work, seaweed,
and the like, in the North Sea and Baltic, at a depth of from 2 to 8 fathoms, and
the free form buds forth from the club-shaped body. This attains a breadth across
CCELENTERA TES
3ii
the bell of three-eighths of an inch, which has four long tentacles on the margin
set at equal distances.
Representing the Siphonophora we have the sailing jelly-fish (Velella) with a
flat disc-shaped body, on the upper side of which is an upright crest, acting
as a sail, and on the under side a large polyp, surrounded by circles of smaller
ones, those near the edge having tentacles. One of the best known species is
V. spirans, often met with far from land, driven along by the wind actincr on the
sail-like crest.
Of the Scyphomedusse a common repre-
sentative is Aurelia aurita of the European
seas, which often appears in swarms, and is
well known on the shores of
the North Sea and the Baltic.
In colour it is
blue, but another
common species,
Cyanea capillata,
is yellowish
brown, or yellow,
and sometimes a
yard wide, the
filamentary ten-
tacles being over
2 yards in length.
A third species
(C. arctica) is
the largest of all known
jelly-fish, its disc exceeding
6 feet in diameter and its
filaments extending for 120
feet or more. To the same
group belongs the Mediter-
ranean Cotylorhiza tuber-
culata, which has tentacles
in the shape of long
suckers, the prevailing colour being yellowish often spotted with white on the
disc, amber on the arms, and violet or blue on the suckers. Another curious
form also frequent in the Mediterranean is Charybdea marsupialis, one of the
Conomedusae with well-developed eyes.
In the stationary group the best known is Lucemaria quadricornis, which
measures nearly 3 inches across and is greyish or yellowish brown in colour, and
generally found on red seaweed in the North Atlantic, the North Sea, and the
Baltic. It connects the free jelly-fish with the anemones and corals.
The sea-anemones and corals belong entirely to the sea, and reach their greatest
development and variety of form in the warmer waters, where they are generally
attached to rocks or other substances, including the shells of living crustaceans.
ACTINIA EQUINA.
312
LOWER FORMS OF MARINE LIFE
Among the anemones is the red Actinia equina, which occurs in European
seas in great variety of colour. It lives at depths varying from tide-range to
20 fathoms, and attains a breadth of 2f inches. Another abundant European
species, Actinoloba dianthus, attains 6 inches in height and nearly 3 inches in
breadth, and lives at a depth of from 1 to 16 fathoms.
The reef-building corals of the warmer seas are included in the same group
as the anemones, though their tentacles are not always in sixes. To the other
group, in which the tentacles invariably number eight, belongs the red coral of
commerce (Corallium rubrum). In this the stock, which may reach a height of
12 inches, is of a branching type, and has a rose-coloured or more or less whitish,
calcareous skeleton and a red or orange crust in which are the small white polyps.
This coral lives in the Mediterranean, and in the Atlantic along the north-west
coast of Africa, and the coasts of the Cape Verde Islands, being generally found at
a depth of from 40 to 100 fathoms attached to the under side of overhanging rocks.
RED COKAL.
AMERICA
■■
■'
MUSK-OX.
CHAPTER I
The Animals of Arctic America and Canada
The extreme north of America — the Western Arctic province — much resembles
the tundra of Siberia in its physical features and the types of animal life by
which it is inhabited. Among the mammals this area has, however, several forms
now unrepresented in the Old World, as well as distinct local races of Asiatic or
European species.
Barren-Ground ^^e remdeer or caribou of the so-called Barren-Grounds of Arctic
and Greenland America (Rangifer tarandus arcticus), and also the one inhabiting
Reindeer. Greenland (R. t. grcenlandicus), are markedly distinct from the
typical Scandinavian animal, as they are from the woodland reindeer of lower
American latitudes. A feature of the antlers of both the Barren-Ground and
Greenland races of the species, is the great length of the main beam and the
excessive development of one of the brow-antlers, which terminates in a paddle-like
expansion. In size the Barren-Ground reindeer is much inferior to the woodland
race, although its antlers are absolutely larger. In Newfoundland, the group is
represented by the light-coloured R. t terrce novce.
315
3i6 THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC AMERICA AND CANADA
Unlike the reindeer, the musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus), which takes
Musk -Ox
the first half of its name from its musky smell, is no longer represented
in the Old World. Although called the musk-ox, this animal has no intimate
connection with the true oxen, nor, for that matter, with the sheep. Standing about
40 inches at the shoulder, it is a very short-tailed and broad-headed animal, with
small pointed ears and a long shaggy coat of a woolly nature. The profile of the
face is decidedly sheep-like, but the broad muzzle is hairy. In old bulls the
peculiarly bent and fibrous horns are very broad and flat at the bases, where they
almost meet on the forehead. Below this they curve at first downwards, then
sharply forwards and upwards, tapering gradually throughout their length until
the twisted tips terminate in front of the eyes. At the base they are yellowish
brown and very rough, becoming gradually smoother and darker until at the
points they are quite black. In the cows and young bulls, the horns are much
smaller and widely separated at the bases. The legs are short and sturdy, the
feet being particularly worthy of notice, as the outer half of the hoof is rounded
and the inner half pointed, while between the two hoofs a growth of hair prevents
the foot slipping on the ice. The coat of the musk-ox is very thick, and causes
the animal to appear larger than is really the case. The dark brown hair — which
is lighter in the spring — is long and close, curly and matted on the back, straight
on the throat and sides, and hanging half-way down the legs ; the paler under-
fur is soft and woolly, and the two coats afford an efficient protection against the
bitter winter cold of the home of this Arctic ruminant, where even in summer the
ground hardly thaws on the surface. The typical race inhabits the mainland
between 60° and 80° N. latitude, as far east as the Mackenzie River. Greenland
is the home of a second race of the species (0. moschatus wardi), distinguished
by the partially white face and the narrower horns of the bulls ; and other races
have been named. In past times the musk-ox inhabited the greater portion
of North America and northern Asia, as well as Europe as far south as the Alps
and the Pyrenees ; but as the climate became milder it seems to have withdrawn
to the north, although it is difficult to account for its total disappearance from
Europe and Asia. At any rate, it is evident that cold is necessary to its existence,
for it does not migrate in winter towards the south, and it has been met with in
Grinnell-land in 83° N. latitude in the month of March, when the cold is most
severe and the snow deepest, while it lives in Greenland the whole year round.
These animals know well how to protect themselves from the cold by huddling
together ; and this herding in masses is also advantageous to them when attacked
by their one savage enemy, the northern wolf, at whose approach they betake
themselves to the nearest elevated spot, where, with their heads turned towards
the foe, they form a single line, which instantly becomes a ring should the attack
be delivered on several sides at once. Of late years a considerable number of the
calves of the Greenland race have been brought alive to Europe,
other Arctic Another type of mammal characteristic of Arctic America is the
Mammals, polar hare (Lepus arcticus), of which several local races extending as
far south as Nova Scotia are recognised. On account of its more protruding
incisor teeth and certain peculiarities in the skull, the Greenland hare has been
referred to a distinct genus, under the name of Boreolepus groenlandicus. The
ARCTIC BIRDS — WOODLAND REINDEER 317
polar species becomes white in winter, and remains active during the whole year,
living chiefly on arbutus and the bark of dwarf willows.
Like the reindeer, the lemming of the Old World has a representative in
Arctic America known as Lemmus trimucronatus ; in addition to this being
Dicrostonyx hudsonianus. There are also representatives of the stoat or ermine,
the glutton or wolverine, the wolf, and the Arctic fox. In the wolverine and fox no
racial distinction appears to exist between the Old and the New World forms.
The birds of Arctic America belong in great part to the generic
Arctic Birds. 001 »
types characteristic of the Siberian tundra, and therefore need no
special reference in this place. There are, however, of course a certain number of
species or races peculiar to the western tract. A notable fact is the occurrence in
this tract of such familiar European types as the raven and the grey stone-chat.
Woodland Leaving the animals of Arctic America with the foregoing brief
Reindeer, mention, we pass on to those of the Canadian province of North
America, where we still find a number of local representatives of Old World types.
Foremost among these is the woodland reindeer or caribou (Rangifer tarandus
caribou), which attains a height of 55 or 56 inches at the withers, and inhabits the
forest-zone from Labrador and northern Canada southwards to the northern part
of the State of Maine, being met with on both banks of the St. Lawrence, whence
it ranges west as far as Lake Superior. In this race the antlers are of a much
shorter and more massive type than in the Barren-Ground reindeer. The pairing-
season of this race takes place in September, and the one or two young are born
in the following May. In December the stags cast their antlers, but those of the
hinds are retained till the spring. In winter the woodland reindeer retires to the
upper forest-tracts, whence it migrates south in herds of sometimes 500 head.
Other local forms of reindeer have received separate names.
The North American elk or moose (Alces machlis americanus)
American Elk. . .
differs so slightly from the typical Old World representative of the
species, that it is doubtful whether it is really entitled to rank as a race apart. Its
colour is, however, slightly different, and there are said to be characters by which
the antlers of the Old and New World forms can be distinguished. Elk, as a rule,
are not found beyond the northern limit of forest, although they have been met with
north of the Mackenzie, while southwards their range extends as far as Ohio.
The largest elk in the world are found in Alaska, and on this account they are
reckoned to form a distinct race {A. machlis gigas). In that district elk are still
comparatively common; but from many districts where they were formerly
abundant, they have now almost entirely disappeared.
The favourite summer haunts of the American elk are the marshy lands in
the vicinity of rivers or lakes, where there is plenty of long grass. In winter these
animals seek higher ground, amid the primeval forest, where they collect in parties,
often consisting only of an old bull and cow and the young born in the two pre-
ceding years. In such situations they make a so-called moose-yard in some spot
where young saplings of birch, poplar, ash, maple, and juniper grow in sufficient
profusion to afford them nourishment. Very old bulls appear to have a " yard "
to themselves, where during the winter they remain entirely alone. In January the
3*8
THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC AMERICA AND CANADA
adult elks cast their antlers, which are fully developed by the month of August.
While the antlers are covered with velvet the bulls spend most of their time in
marshes and bogs, where they feed on the leaves of the yellow water-lily, and
stand up to their necks in water as a protection from the bites of insects. In
October begins the pairing-season, when, and during the following month, resounds
the long-drawn whistle or bellowing call uttered by the old males. During the same
WAPITI.
periods combats for the possession of the females are common among the old bulls,
which in this respect resemble the majority of the deer tribe. Before the birth
of the calves, the cows withdraw to some convenient spot, either an island in a
lake or river, or a swamp or a prairie occasionally flooded, where they are likely
to be little subject to the attacks of wolves and bears.
A third type of circumpolar deer found in America is the wapiti
(Cervus canadensis), unfortunately miscalled elk in the land of its
birth. Athough the wapiti is essentially an Old World form, it is only compara-
Elk or Moose.
WAPITI— BIGHORN SHEEP 319
tively recently that its Asiatic representatives have been recognised, and the
American animal is the type of the species. Next to the elk, the various races
of the wapiti are the largest representatives of the deer tribe now living. The
antlers are of the same general type as those of the red deer, from which they
are distinguished by their greater flatness and smoothness, and, above all, by the
great relative size of the fourth tine, and the circumstance that this tine and the
ones above it are placed in the plane of the face. Wapiti have a large straw-
coloured patch on the rump, which embraces the whole of the very short tail, and
are dark brown on the under-parts and much lighter coloured on the back. Indeed,
after the storms of winter the coat on the back of a wapiti becomes bleached
nearly white. Wapiti were formerly distributed over British America south of
the 60th degree of N. latitude, and almost all the United States as far as Mexico ;
they have, however, been exterminated from many districts by the advance of
civilisation, and are now found only in the forests of Canada and some of the
mountain districts west of the Missouri. The habits of wapiti much resemble those
of red deer, although these animals differ from the majority of deer in that they
never feed by night. At the end of December or beginning of January, the old
stags cast their antlers, and in March or April the new ones begin to grow. In
May the wapiti living in the mountain regions withdraw to the higher districts,
without leaving the forest-zone, but approaching as nearly as possible to the snow-
limits. At this time the hinds leave the herd to give birth to their young in the
most secluded thickets, the mothers defending their fawns — usually one, but occa-
sionally two — with great courage from the attacks of pumas, bears, and wolves.
Very often at such times a hind may be heard calling for help, when all the
members of the herd in the neighbourhood will at once hasten to her assistance
and unite in driving off the enemy. In the middle of August, when the new antlers
are completely developed, the old stags — which during the greater part of the year
live by themselves, and during the pairing-season collect around them a herd of
hinds — commence to utter their call, which is a long-drawn whistle, quite unlike
the cry of the red deer. Combats between rival stags take place almost daily
during the pairing-season, but as a rule do not prove fatal, although they result
in the loss of portions of the antlers and very often in serious wounds.
A fourth circumpolar type of ruminant — this time belonging to
Bighorn Sheep. , „ l J £, ., . i ■ . ,_ it ,1
the hollow-horned group or Bovidce — is typically represented by the
Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis), an animal somewhat inferior
in size to the Asiatic argali, with horns of a smoother and more sharply angulated
type. The typical bighorn is a fawn-coloured sheep, with a white rump-patch,
fair-sized ears, and somewhat stout horns, of which the tips are nearly always
broken. The coat in winter is thick and close, with a woolly under-fur at the
base. On the Stickine River the typical form is represented by a much darker race
— the north-western bighorn, or so-called black sheep (0. canadensis stonei), in which
the ears are smaller and the horns are more slender, with their tips usually
unbroken. Still farther north, in Alaska, this race is replaced by a third form,
the beautiful white Alaskan bighorn (0. canadensis dalli), whose structural
characters are very similar to those of the north-western race ; these two being
connected by an intermediate grey race of the species (0. canadensis fannini).
:20
THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC AMERICA AND CANADA
In the old World the species is represented by the Kamchatkan bighorn
(0. canadensis nivicola) of Kamchatka and Clifton's bighorn (0. c. borealis) of
north-eastern Siberia, which are closely allied to the Alaskan sheep, although
dark-coloured. It should be added that the Mexican and Sonoran big-horns form
other local races of this variable and wide-spread species, distinguished by their
unusually large ears. Inclusive of the above variations, the bighorn ranges in
America from Mexico in the south to Alaska in the north, and from the valleys
of the Missouri and Yellowstone to the Pacific, though in many localities within
these limits it has never been known.
Q
' t4fec /
-y:0
ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT
White Goat.
With the white or Rocky Mountain goat (Oreamnus americanus),
we come to an exclusively North American type of hollow-horned
ruminant, of which four local races have been named. The range of this animal
extends from about latitude 36° in California to Alaska, British Columbia being
perhaps the country in which it is most common. Probably the white goat is
related to the Asiatic serows rather than to the true wild goats. It has pointed
ears, and black horns from 6 to 10 inches long which curve slightly backwards
and are ringed to about half-way up and smooth towards the tips. In size it is
about the equal of ordinary sheep, but with the shoulders much elevated. The
body is covered with long hair, nearly straight and pendent on the sides and
WHITE GOAT— SQUIRRELS — SUSLIKS 321
legs, but erect along the line of the back, making the animal appear as if it had
two humps. It is one of the few ruminants whose thick woolly coat is white all
the year round, and it is consequently almost invisible in the snow-covered regions
it inhabits, though conspicuous enough among dark rocks and green mountain
meadows. The white goat lives a solitary life, and is only social in winter and
at the pairing-season, which takes place in November. Sometimes when driven
by stress of hunger it will descend to the woods, but it rarely comes down to the
sea-level, though it has been seen swimming across rivers or their estuaries.
Throughout Canada, as in the rest of North America, rodent
mammals literally abound, both in individuals and species. Among
the squirrel tribe a familiar form in the country is the chickari (Sciurus
hudsonianus), which is generally of a grey colour, with a more or less yellowish
or reddish tinge, and white below, with dusky markings on the back and some-
times on the under-parts. It is small and short-tailed, and in winter develops
short tufts of hair on the ears. By no means sensitive to cold, it does not
hibernate, but is active all through the severest weather, burrowing at times into the
loose snow so that it entirely disappears for some distance, and when again visible
shaking itself and frisking away with the same appearance of pleasure as if it had
taken a refreshing bath in the heat of the summer. The chickari differs in manv
respects from the common European squirrel in its habits, spending most of its
time on the ground and not leading an arboreal life. It in fact makes its home
frequently in holes in the earth, where it can find a safe refuge ; although it has
a partiality for timber-heaps, the stumps of trees, and piles of brushwood, over which
it climbs with activity.
One of the most familiar representatives of the pretty little striped ground-
squirrels is the common chipmunk {Tamias striatus), whose range (inclusive of its
subspecies) extends from Canada and Manitoba to Georgia and western Missouri.
Numerous species of chipmunks are now recognised by American naturalists, of
which, for the most part, the southern are paler in colour than those from the
north. The ground-colour of the common chipmunk is much the same as that
of its European relative, which this animal resembles in most points; but the
American species has on each side of the body a white, black-bordered stripe, and
a black white-bordered stripe on each side of the head, with a black stripe down
the back. This chipmunk prefers hiding-places from which it can watch the
passers-by, and consequently instals itself among piles of rubbish and brushwood,
or in the stumps of old trees, or burrows in the ground.
The susliks form another genus of the squirrel family common to
the two hemispheres, and are represented by a large number of !North
American forms. Of these latter may be mentioned the striped suslik or striped
gopher (Spermophilus tridecemlineatus), whose range extends through central
North America from Texas to the Saskatchewan plains of Canada. Another
northern member of the group, found in the vicinity of Bering Strait and Hudson
Bay, is Parry's suslik (S. empetra). The habits of these animals are, for the most
part, at any rate, very similar to those of their European relatives, all the
members of the group being sociable species which consort in colonies. The
generic name Citellus is now generally adopted for these rodents.
vol. 11. — 21
322
THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC AMERICA AND CANADA
Flying-Squirrels.
Of the three American representatives of the smaller flying-
squirrels perhaps the best known is Sciuropterus volans, which is
greyish brown above and yellowish white below, and, like the rest of its kind,
strictly nocturnal. These elegant little creatures glide so lightly, gracefully, and
swiftly through the air, that even persons not generally observant of the habits of
animals are moved to admiration. They live in the woods, and when moving from
place to place first ascend a tree, and then sail from the summit to the base of
a neighbouring tree, performing alternately these repeated climbs and leaps, and
always gliding upwards at the end of the flight so as to rest not on the ground
but on the stem. As mentioned in an earlier chapter, these flying-squirrels have
a European representative.
\
~wi~F^Z< .
AMERICAN FLYING-SQUIRREL.
Beaver.
The American beaver (Castor canadensis) differs chiefly from its
European cousin by the form and relations of the bones of the fore-
part of the skull. In habits the two animals are very much alike, but the
American species generally chooses well-wooded districts watered by small streams,
where its dams cause the formation of large pools. In these pools the beavers
build their lodges, which attain a considerable size, and in former times lay so close
together that they occupied a wide extent of land, as at Montreal, where the greater
portion of the city is built over a so-called beaver-meadow. At the, time of the
discovery of America the beaver had a wider distribution north of the equator
than any other American animal except the puma. Although it did not occur on
the prairies and desert regions of the interior of the continent, it ranged in the
JUMPING-MICE — VOLES AND MUSQUASH 323
north from Hudson Bay to Alaska, and southwards to Florida, Mexico, and
California. But the beaver is being steadily exterminated, and is now only fairly
numerous in the country along the watershed between the Hudson Bay rivers and
the St. Lawrence, in the upper courses of the Frazer and the Peace Rivers, and in
the Canadian portion of the Rocky Mountains.
Another widely distributed group of North American rodents are
the jumping-mice, which have one Asiatic representative, and in the
Western Hemisphere range through British North America from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, and from Hudson Bay and the Great Slave Lake in the north to Arizona
and Mexico in the south, although in the last-named districts apparently confined
to the mountains. The typical representative of the group is the Hudson Bay
jumping-mouse (Zapus hudsonianus), which in its summer dress is brown above,
yellow on the flanks, and white beneath. In appearance it is like a long-legged
mouse, with a long tufted tail. When in active movement it leaps along so quickly
that its hind-legs seem scarcely to touch the ground, and if suddenly disturbed
will spring a length of from 8 to 10 feet, although the length of its bounds soon
decreases to 4 feet or less. This jumping-mouse is by no means a strictly nocturnal
animal, being generally seen abroad early in the evening, and occasionally even
during the day. In this respect, as well as in its preference for damp wooded
situations, it differs from most other jumping-mice.
Voles and Voles of the European genera Microtus and Evotomys abound
Musquash. [n North America, a well-known northern form being the meadow-
vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus), a species, with several local races, worthy of
notice on account of its habit of forsaking its burrow in winter to build a nest on
the ground. An essentially American type is the musk-rat, or musquash (Fiber
zibethicus), another member of the vole group, ranging across the continent from
the Barren Grounds in the extreme north to as far south as the Rio Grande.
This rodent, whose body measures nearly a foot in length, is the largest of the
tribe, and: has a soft velvety coat of a dark brown colour, shading to grey on the
muzzle and under surface, with a number of long stiff hairs on the back and sides.
As in the typical voles, which it resembles in the structure of its teeth and skull,
the body is similar to that of a rat, but the head is broad with comparatively
small eyes, the ears are hardly seen among the growth of hair, and the muzzle is
entirely covered with hair save for a small spot round the nostrils. The legs of
the musquash are short, the first toe of the fore-foot being rudimentary, and the
toes being connected by a membrane which is not quite perfect. The soles are
quite bare, and the scaly tail, which is much compressed at the sides, has ridges
of hairs on the upper and lower edges, and only a few sparse hairs elsewhere.
Like the beaver, the musquash has a habit of striking the surface of the water
with its tail ; it is an excellent diver, and consumes a considerable number of fishes
and mussels, although its chief nutriment consists of the roots of grasses and water-
plants. These industrious little rodents make for themselves dwelling-places from
roots and bog-grasses, mixed with mud and sticks, sometimes heaped carelessly
together, but at others assuming the form of flattened mounds. Where the water
is deep these domiciles are sometimes placed on dry ground, but when possible
they are built in the water. Sometimes they are of great size, and are generally
324 THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC AMERICA AND CANADA
high enough to leave room for an air-chamber, usually connected with one or more
of the outlets which serve as exits for the owners when in search of food. To a
great extent these structures are used more as store-rooms than as dwelling-places,
but at times they contain the nest, though, as a rule, this is placed in a burrow.
Generally this burrow includes a single chamber, reached by a passage of a few
yards in length, which opens under water.
A distinctive group of North American rodents is formed
Pocket-Gophers. ^ ^ so-called pocket-gophers, whose range southwards does not
extend farther than Central America. They take their name from the presence of
a pair of cheek-pouches, which open outside the mouth on the lower edges of the
cheeks. Two well-known northern representatives of the group are the Hudson
v
CANADIAN PORCUPINE.
Bay pocket-gopher (Thomomys talpoides), ranging through Canada to the Missouri
district, and the common pocket -gopher {Geomys bursarius), whose habitat
extends from the Canadian border southwards to Kansas, Missouri, and Illinois.
In general form these gophers resemble ordinary mice and rats. There are,
however, other allied American rodents commonly known as kangaroo-rats, which
also have pouches, but hop on their hind-legs after the manner of the rat-
kangaroos and jerboas. Scientifically these are known as Dipodomys, Perodipus,
Heteromys, etc.
Canadian According to modern ideas of classification, another exclusively
Porcupine. American family of rodents is typified by the Canadian porcupine
(Erethizon dorsatus), which is widely distributed in North America, ranging as far
northwards as the limit of trees. On the eastern side of the continent it reaches as
CANADIAN PORCUPINE — LYNX — WOLVES 325
far south as Virginia, while on the western side it is met with from Alaska to Arizona
and New Mexico. It is true that American naturalists regard the western form as
specifically distinct, but this is a matter of little moment for our present purpose.
When excited, this rodent looks much larger than it really is, the quills being then
carried erect. These quills, which are attached loosely to the skin, and are slightly
barbed at the points, are very different in length, some measuring as much as
4 inches, while others do not exceed an inch. The short spines, which are white
tipped with brown, are nearly hidden by the long brown hair of the body. For
the purpose of climbing, the Canadian porcupine is provided with long powerful
claws ; it spends most of its life in the trees, many of which it completely strips of
their foliage. Although it appears difficult for such a large, awkward animal to
reach the outer leaves, this is effected by the creature distributing its weight upon
several boughs and bending the twigs with its claws until it can draw them
through its mouth. It is but seldom that these rodents can be observed thus
occupied, since they lead a partially nocturnal life, and in daylight are so noiseless
in movement that they have often been mistaken for a bird's nest.
The Canadian lynx (Felis lynx canadensis) may be looked upon
as a local race of the European lynx, to which it is very similar.
In length it measures about 30 inches, exclusive of the short tail, which is only
5 inches long. In colour it varies according to the district it inhabits, being some-
times almost white, but usually dark grey tinged with chestnut, the legs being
darker, the tips of the hair white, and the back and upper portion of the outside
of the legs spotted with indistinct dark patches. The lynx of Alaska has been
separated as a distinct form (F. I. mollipilosa). The Canadian lynx is a forest-
dwelling animal, which rarely ventures near the abodes of man, although it will
kill pigs and lambs when opportunity offers, and attacks fawns, hares, and other
small mammals as well as game-birds. It moves in a series of bounds, alighting
after each on all four feet at once. The range of this and the allied races in
America extends from the Mackenzie River in 66° N. latitude to Pennsylvania
and California. This is the loup-cervier of the French Canadians ; the chat-cervier
is the red lynx (F. rufa), which is not met with very far north of the Canadian
boundary, whose range extends into Mexico.
The North American representatives of the wolf, whose range
Wolves. .
extends from Mexico to the far north, so much resemble the typical
European form that they may be regarded as local races of that species, with the
names of Canis lupus occidentalis and C. 1. nubilus. In colour the former race
varies from all white through different shades of grey to all black, the majority
of individuals being grey and white tinged with brown. Its range extends
through western North America northwards to Greenland and south to Mexico,
Idaho forming its limits on the east. The second, or eastern race, extends from
the Great Slave Lake to Idaho, and southwards to perhaps California. - It is
locally known as the timber-wolf.
The North American representatives of the common fox (C.
FOXGS
vulpes) may likewise be regarded as local races of that species,
presenting considerable variation in colour. They range from Alaska, Hudson
Bay, and Labrador to Mexico. The largest is the Kadiak Island fox (C. v.
326 THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC AMERICA AND CANADA
harrimani) of Alaska, but the common form is known as C. v. fulvus, or the red
fox. The black or silver fox is, however, only a melanistic phase of the last, which
occurs in the north, and especially in the upper basin of the Mississippi, and north-
west of the Missouri. This beautiful animal, so much valued on account of its fur,
which, with the exception of the white tip of the tail, is nearly or entirely black,
derives its name from the grey rings on the black hair of the head, hinder-parts,
and thighs, which give it a silvery appearance.
Quite distinct is the kit fox (C. velox), which varies much in colour and is
of small size, the body measuring only 24 inches. It is characterised by short,
stout legs, and a short bushy tail, which, without the hair, measures about 9 inches,
by its comparatively small thickly-haired ears, and the great length and abundance
of the under-fur which is often visible externally, as well as by the long hair on
the soles of the feet. Typically from Nebraska, this species originally extended
from that state and Colorado northwards to the plains of the Saskatchewan and
Assiniboia, but it is now chiefly restricted to western Canada in the area under
consideration.
The American marten, or sable (Mustela americana), so closely
Martens. . v J f
resembles the European pine-marten and the Asiatic sable, that it is
doubtful if all these are anything more than local varieties of one and the same
specific type. In colour the American form is generally brown, with a yellow
patch on the breast, and a whitish or greyish head and ears. This marten ranges
from Labrador to Alaska, and is met with as far south as the Adirondack Mountains.
A second species of marten, commonly known as the pekan (M. pennanti), is
characterised by its large size, and stout build, attaining in some cases a length of
30 inches. It is distributed over the greater portion of the continent west of the
Mississippi from Texas to the Great Slave Lake and Alaska.
The Canadian otter (Lutra canadensis), of which several local
forms are recognised, is distributed all over North America, extending
nearly to the Arctic Ocean. It is distinguished from the European species by the
much larger extent of the naked patch on the tip of the muzzle, which is not
confined to the space between the nostrils entirely. As a rule, the colour is
purplish above, and paler on the under-parts ; specimens have been recorded
measuring 4 feet and over in length. In habits this otter resembles the
European species ; and like the latter at times amuses itself by sliding down steep,
smooth banks covered with mud or snow. It seems to be as partial to crayfish as
to fish, and in the Adirondacks the number of those crustaceans killed by otters is
considerable. Large numbers of otters are killed for the sake of their fur, which is
one of the most valuable in North America, but on account of their acute sense of
smell and sight the traps, which are of steel, are never baited.
Several forms of brown and greyish bears are met with in
Bears. . te J
North America, ranging from Alaska southwards to Mexico, several
of which may be regarded as local races of the brown bear (Ursus arctus) of
Europe, although some forms depai-t more widely from the latter than is the case
with others. The largest races are the Kadiak Island and the South Alaskan
brown bears (U. a. middendorfji, and U. a. dalli), which approximate very
closely to the great brown bear of Kamchatka. The Rocky Mountain grisly bear
BEARS — RA CCO ON
327
(U. horribilis) appears, however, to be a distinct species, characterised by its com-
paratively straight and whitish fore-claws, and the generally grey colour of the fur.
It is now nearly exterminated. An allied type is the Barren Ground bear (U. h.
richardsoni). Gribble Island, off the coast of British Columbia, is the home of a
white, or rather cream-coloured, bear ( U. kermodei), allied to the American black bear
noticed in the next chapter.
Raccoon.
RACCOON
With the rac-
coons we reach a
family of Carnivora all the
members of which, with the
exception of the two Asiatic
pandas, are exclusively Ameri-
can. The Canadian representa-
tive of the group is the common
raccoon (Procyon lotor), an
animal about 26 inches long,
exclusive of the 10- inch tail,
which is whitish with five black rings and a black tip. The general colour of the
coat is dark brownish grey, but it varies considerably in different localities. Such
local variations have afforded grounds for dividing the species into several races.
Inclusive of these local phases, the range of the species extends from Canada
through the United States to California on the west and Florida on the east. The
northern Pacific form, inhabiting the Cascade Mountains of Washington and
Oregon, is distinguished as P. /. pacificus, and the pale form from the Colorado
desert of California as P. I. pallidas . During the day raccoons for the most part
lie asleep in the hollows of trees, and it is not till the shades of evening begin to
fall that they descend from such shelter to the ground in search of food. Their
328 THE ANIMALS OF ARCTIC AMERICA AND CANADA
favourite hunting-grounds are on the banks of pools and narrow water-courses.
Fish forms the favourite food of these animals, but only such as have drifted
ashore or have been left in shallow pools are devoured, for although good swimmers
raccoons are unable to dive. Besides fish, molluscs, and crabs, raccoons eat insects,
frogs, fresh- water tortoises and their eggs, birds' eggs, and birds, especially
domesticated fowls. They also catch and kill mice, while their vegetable food
includes nuts, fruit, and corn.
Among other Canadian mammals, apart from those more
characteristic of the United States, a few bats deserve mention. One
of these, the silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans), is brown above with
silvery white tips to the hairs of the back, and has a white spot at the base of
each ear. This bat ranges from California to Hudson Bay in the north, and from
the Atlantic to the Pacific coast, while it extends farther north than any other
American representative of the order. In habits it is specially distinguished by its
predilection for the neighbourhood of large sheets of water ; and in some districts
keeps so exclusively over water, that of hundreds flying about perhaps only two or
three are seen beyond the limits of the lake or pool. Occasionally, however, these
bats are encountered in thick forest, busily hunting for insects in all directions. The
silver-haired bat is a migratory species, as is likewise the hoary bat (L. cinerea),
whose range extends from Nova Scotia to Chile.
The birds of the Canadian province belong partly to genera
Perching Birds. . . l ,,,.?.
represented in the north of Asia and Europe and partly to distinctive
American types, many of the species being more characteristic of the United
States, and therefore better referred to in a subsequent chapter. Among note-
worthy types, the ruby-crest or ruby-crown (Regulus calendula) breeds in the
forests of Arctic America as well as in those of the mountains of Arizona and
Colorado, and is famous for its song, which is said to equal that of the canary in
fulness of sound and to surpass it in variety and sweetness. The horned lark, a
bird likewise common to the Eastern Hemisphere, and inhabiting the higher
mountains, probably ranges as far south as the ruby-crest, although chiefly found
in more northern latitudes. The same is the case with two other birds of the Old
World, namely, the snow-bunting and the Lapland bunting, both of which extend
farther south on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. The white-winged cross-
bill (Loxia leucoptera) does not range quite so far north as its Old World relative,
from which it is distinguished by darker plumage and the broader white bands on
the wings. An Old World compatriot of the banded cross-bill, the pine grosbeak, also
belongs to the breeding-birds of North America. The Canadian linnets, like the
grosbeak, are identical with the European and Siberian species ; but the American
siskins are distinct. Of the latter, the pine-siskin (C/trysomitris pinus) resembles
the females of the European species. Another American finch, inhabiting the
higher north, is the shore-finch (Leucosticte littoralis), which belongs to a genus
comprising about half a dozen species, and also represented in the north of Asia.
The nutcrackers, again, are represented in the Eastern as well as in the Western
Hemisphere, their American representative, the so-called Clarke's crow (Nucifraga
columbiana), inhabiting the west side of North America, where it frequents the
BIRDS ■} 2 g
pine-forests of the higher mountains. From its relative of the Old World it is
distinguished by its less numerous spots.
The three-toed woodpeckers are another group common to the
Woodpeckers. *,,,„■,, ., , , , , , ~ , .
Old World on the one hand and the Canadian province and the
Rocky Mountains on the other.
Among the wood-owls, Tengmalm's owl of Europe is represented
in Canada by a local race (Nyctala tengmalmi richardsoni), and
farther south by the nearly allied Acadian owl (N. acadica), which is only 9 inches
long, and differs from Tengmalm's in having a spotted forehead and five white bars
on the tail. It is a remarkable fact that the Acadian owl, which feeds chiefly on
insects, sometimes lives in company with the chickari, or Canadian squirrel, in the
same hole in a tree. The great snowy-owl {Nyctea scandiaca), of the north of
Europe and Asia, is also common in North America. On the other hand the
European and Siberian Ural owl (Syrnium aluco) has a specifically distinct
Canadian representative in the form of 8. nebulosum. Another North American
member of the group is the widely distributed short-eared owl (Asio accipitrinus)
of the Old World.
Of birds-of-prey, the Greenland falcon is found in the north-east
of Arctic America, but the rough-legged buzzard is represented by
St. John's buzzard (Archibuteo sancti-johannis).
Passing on to the game-birds, we find the willow-grouse, or ripa,
Game-Birds. & & „ . .
of the Old World among the members of a family particularly well
represented in North America. Another member of the same group is the sharp-
tailed grouse (Pediocoetes phasianellus), a bird of dark plumage almost entirely
Canadian in its distribution, its range extending east to Hudson Bay and west to
the Rocky Mountains and no farther south than Lakes Superior and Winnipeg.
Other species are noticed in the next chapter.
Finally, among a totally different assemblage of birds, reference
Water Birds. , J' , & J ,„ , &. , . ... ' . , ,
may be made to the trumpeter-swan (Cygnus buccinator), distinguished
by its wholly black beak and twenty-four tail feathers. Although nearly related
to the European whooper, it is larger and faster on the wing, being indeed the
swiftest of all the swans. Many other kinds of European water-birds are either
common to North America or represented there by closely allied forms.
The cold-blooded vertebrates and invertebrates of the Canadian province either
do not differ from those of the corresponding latitudes of the Old World or else
belong to species more numerously represented in the United States.
■
. ■ -
RATTLE-SNAKE.
CHAPTER II
The Animals of the United States
The United States area, bordered by Canada on the north and by the acute angle
of the Mexican highlands on the south, may be divided into four zones succeeding
each other from east to west. In the first or Atlantic zone there is a copious rain-
fall at all seasons and the moist climate produces extensive forests. The second
zone, which occupies the area between the first and the foot of the Rocky
Mountains, has dry winters and moist summers, vast plains being clothed with
grass in consequence of the moderate rainfall, while the cold winter with its
northerly winds and sharp frosts prevents the growth of trees. This zone, which
includes the prairies, is followed by the table-land between the Rocky Mountains
and the Sierra Nevada, which has very little rain at all seasons and least of all
in summer, and thus is largely desert, with a corresponding type of vegetation.
The fourth zone is formed by the Pacific slope of the Sierra Nevada and comprises
the States of Washington, Oregon, and California. The rains, which are abundant
in summer in the north, decrease in quantity as we pass from north to south, the
southern part of California being very poor in moisture. Accordingly, in central
California we find hard-leaved trees characteristic of a climate with moderate
moisture, while the abundant rains of the north give rise to rich forests of
deciduous trees.
Corresponding to the more varied nature of its physical conditions, the area
of the United States has a richer fauna than that of Canada, and its animals bear
a decidedly American stamp.
330
BISON— WHITE-TAILED DEER— MULE-DEER 331
The largest mammal is the American bison (Bos bison) universally
known in America by the erroneous name of buffalo. It is less
well proportioned than its European relative, the hind-quarters being very weak in
comparison with the magnificent shoulders and the massive head. Two varieties
are recognised by American naturalists, the typical prairie race and the wood
buffalo (B. bison athabascce) of the north-west. Before the days of railways bison
existed in vast herds over quite a third of North America, but, with the exception
of some herds of the woodland race in the north-west, and those preserved in the
Yellowstone Park, the species has been practically exterminated in the wild state.
White-Tailed With the exception of the little pudu of South America, the
Deer. whole of the true American deer (that is to say those other than the
elk, wapiti, and reindeer, which are circumpolar types) may be included in the
single genus Mazama, of which there are no Old World representatives. The
members of this group are distinguished by the uniform colouring of the adults,
by the narrow bare muzzle, the presence of a gland on the inside of the hock,
but above all by the nature of their antlers. In those forms in which they are
branched, these latter differ from those of the typical deer of the Old World by
branching in a characteristic forked manner.
The most characteristic of all American deer is perhaps the white-tail
(Mazama [Odocoileus] americana), of which there are many races, the Virginian
race being the typical form. The antlers are characterised by the great develop-
ment of the front branch of the main fork, which carries several upright tines, and
by the presence of a conspicuous sub-basal snag. More characteristic still is the
long, bushy tail, coloured like the back above, but wholly white beneath. At all
seasons the Virginian white-tail (which is a comparatively large animal) has a
white throat, a white band above the muzzle, and white rings round the eyes, the
inner sides of the legs and under-parts, like the lower side of the tail, and buttocks,
being also white. There is a small circular white-rimmed gland on the lower part
of the outer side of the hind-leg;. The general colour in summer is reddish fawn on
the upper-parts, but in winter bluish grey.
The various local races of this widely spread species differ not only in details of
colour and marking, but also in the form of the antlers and in bodily size from
this typical form. The largest races, like the Virginian and the western M.
americana macrura, inhabit the north, but towards the south the forms become
smaller and smaller, and have simpler and simpler antlers, until in the neighbour-
hood of the Gulf of Mexico and in Central America they become so small that it is
difficult to believe they belong to the same species. Nevertheless the transition
from the larger to the smaller is so gradual that, although an actual gradation
does not take place, it is evident that they are all modifications of one vari-
able type. This is true even of the little Acapulco white-tail (M. americana
tolteca) of Yucatan, in which even the white-ringed gland on the outer side of
the hind-leg is absent.
An allied but very distinct type is represented by the mule-deer
(31. [0.] hemionus), which takes its popular title from the enormous
size of its ears. This species, of which there are likewise several local races, is
further distinguished by the form of its antlers, in which the sub-basal snag is
332
THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES
feebly developed, by the dark brown patch on the forehead, and above all by the
form and colour of the gland on the outer side of the hind-leg. In place of being
•
\ lliiilNIAN IJKEk.
circular, with a ring of white hairs, this gland is elongated and extends up the
greater portion of the lower segment of the leg, with which it agrees in colour.
Another distinctive feature is afforded by the tail, which is short with a black tip.
Although the mule-deer rivals the Virginian white-tail in height, the body is more
PRONGBUCK AND SQUIRRELS 333
compact and the legs are proportionately shorter. The progress of cultivation has
not yet diminished the distributional area of the mule-deer to the same degree as
that of many other animals, probably on account of the wilder nature of its home,
which is mainly the tract between the Missouri and the Sierra Nevada. The
survival of the species is also doubtless owing to the fact that it accommodates
itself more readily to the vicinity of human habitations than do other deer.
Biack-TaUed The black-tailed deer {M. [0.] columbiana), which accords in the
Deer. form of its antlers very closely with the mule-deer, is not only of
smaller stature than the latter, but has much smaller ears. Its name is derived from
the black upper surface of the moderately long tail, of which the lower side is
white. The gland on the outer side of the lower surface of the leg is of the same
type as that of the mule-deer but shorter. In winter the general colour of the
coat of this deer is brownish grey speckled with black on the upper-parts and
white below, but in summer the shade changes to yellowish red. British
Columbia is the home of the typical race of this species (for there are several),
which is unknown east of the Sierra Nevada. This deer seldom leaves the pine-
forests of its native hills in the neighbourhood of the Columbia River and the
Pacific Ocean, although when disturbed it will descend to the sea-shore to feed
upon seaweed.
North America possesses one very remarkable mammal, the
ong uc ^^ representative of its family, in the prongbuck (Antilocapra
americana), a ruminant resembling an antelope in general appearance, but with
an altogether peculiar type of horn. In addition to this feature it is remarkable
for its small hoofs, without any vestiges of the lateral hoofs possessed by most of
the ruminants. The hair, which on the hinder part of the neck is lengthened into
a mane, is chiefly bright chestnut-brown in colour, but becomes dark brown on the
face, while the chin, some bars on the throat, cheeks, the inside of the ears, and
under-parts are white. The horns of the bucks (for the females are generally horn-
less) are black in colour and laterally compressed, with a well-marked fork about
the middle of their length. They differ from those of other hollow-horned rumi-
nants not only by this forking but likewise by being annually shed and renewed,
the new horn growing up inside the old sheath, which it gradually replaces.
Although the prongbuck seems never to have ranged east of the Mississippi,
in former times it inhabited all the country now within the boundaries of the
United States west of that river, except the forests and the higher mountains.
Among the squirrels of the United States mention may be made
rey uirr . ^ ^e ^re^ SqUjrrei (Sciurus carolinensis), which seems to resemble
the European squirrel in its habits more than does the chickari. Typically an
inhabitant of the eastern United States, this squirrel, inclusive of its numerous
local races, ranges from Canada to Guatemala. It is almost entirely confined to
thick forests, where it lays up provision-stores beneath the surface for winter use.
Occasionally dark olive-brown above and grey below, it is generally pale grey
above, marked by a pale fulvous line on each flank. It is distinguished from the
chickari by the absence of ear-tufts, as wTell as by the longer tail, and its larger
bodily size. At least nine other species of squirrels are recognised in North
America, while there are many more in Central and South America, among which
334
JO
THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES
Marmots.
the fox-squirrel (S. rujwenter) of the United States may be specially mentioned
on account of its large size. The length is about 23 inches.
The marmots are represented by five North American species,
the largest of which has a total length of about 2 feet, and much
resembles the Alpine species. This is the hoary marmot (Arctomys 2^ruino8Us), so
named from its coloration. The second species, the yellow - breasted marmot
(A. flaviventer), is a smaller and longer-tailed animal, whose range extends from
western Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona northwards to about the 49th parallel.
FRONCBUCK.
This species lives to a certain extent in colonies, like the marmots of the Old
World. A third kind, the woodchuck (A. monax), like the yellow-breasted marmot,
has a tail half as long as the body, but only attains a total length of some 14
inches. The colour of the back is a mixture of grey, reddish brown, and black,
while the lower-parts are yellowish or brownish, some specimens being, however,
almost quite black. This marmot, inclusive of its local races, ranges from
Newfoundland, Labrador, and Bering Strait southwards to Georgia, and from New
York westward to Dakota. It is remarkable for its habits, which are not unlike
those of chipmunks.
MARMOTS— SUSLIKS— PRAIRIE-MARMOTS
335
In summer woodchucks live on open plains, in the Adirondack Mountains
chiefly in meadows or slopes of rocky hills close to cultivated country, where they
make their burrows in order to graze on the grass and clover. They feed by day
and night and at any hour of the day, according to the season, the weather, and
their feeling of security. In cultivated districts they appear abroad in summer
generally only in the early mornings, late in the afternoons, and on moonlight nights.
In autumn they venture out only in tine weather, and even then only during the
warmest hours of the day. About the 21st of September, woodchucks regularly
retire into their holes, unaffected by the warmth or other conditions of the weather,
or even the quantity of their food ; and in the middle or the second half of March
they leave them again, even though the ground be still covered with snow.
ar
PRAIRIE-MARMOTS.
Susliks.
The susliks or gophers of the United States all belong to the
long-tailed group. One of these, the long-eared gopher (Spermophilus
grammurus), which, inclusive of its subspecies, ranges from Colorado to California,
is not only distinguished by its long bushy tail, but also by its long hairy ears. The
most familiar American species is, however, the striped gopher (8. iridecemlineatus),
mentioned on p. 321, which, with its local races, ranges from Canada to Texas, and is
distinguished by its small ears and remarkable colouring. The back of this gopher
is dark rufous brown with from six to eight light stripes running along it, -and
alternating with from five to seven rows of light spots, the yellowish brown lower-
parts being edged by a narrow yellow-edged black stripe.
Another group of the squirrel family is formed by the prairie-
marmots, or prairie-dogs, which are common to North America and
Asia and intermediate between marmots and susliks in size, with small ears,
Prairie-Marmots.
336 THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES
moderately long tails, and much narrower cheek-pouches than susliks. The
common species is the typical prairie- marmot (Cynomys ludovicianus), which is
reddish brown with a grey tinge above, and yellowish or brownish white below, with
the tip of the tail brownish black. This species is an inhabitant of open plains,
and confined to the drier districts east of the Rocky Mountains, ranging from
western Texas to the 49th parallel, and from western Kansas to the eastern base of
the Rockies. The Mexican prairie-marmot (C. mexicanus) is distinguished from
its relative by its larger size, and much longer tail with more black at the tip.
Other species found in the United States are Gunnison's prairie-marmot (C.
gunnisoni) of Arizona and New Mexico, which is smaller than the type species.
Lewis's prairie-marmot (C lewisi) of Wyoming and the adjacent territories, and
the Arizona prairie-marmot (C. arizonensis) of southern Arizona. These rodents,
which associate in large colonies, live in separate holes, each having a small heap of
earth in front of the entrance. There are generally three or four entrances all
belonging to the same burrow, each burrow having perhaps ten or twelve in-
habitants. The common prairie-marmot is distinguished from some of the other
species by forming funnel-shaped entrances to its domicile from the earth thrown
out in burrowing, which is heaped up with the fore-feet, and pressed down in
damp weather with the nose.
North America is the sole home of a family of remarkable
Sewellels. . .
rodents, the sewellels, whose members are in habits half-beavers and
half-squirrels. They owe their scientific name (Haplodontidce) to the structure
of their cheek-teeth, which are without roots, and the first pair of which in the
upper jaws are extremely small. Speaking generally, sewellels are stoutly built
rodents, with a head somewhat recalling that of a pug-dog, the body cylindrical,
and the tail a mere stump. The Californian representative of the genus, the so-
called mountain-beaver (Haplodon rufus), is a fairly large rodent of about 16
inches in length, typically inhabiting the cascades of the Columbia River, but
represented by varieties in California and Washington. This rodent resembles
a squirrel in its climbing propensities, but in other respects is more like a
beaver, since it inhabits wet ground with plenty of running water, where it forms
small colonies and makes its burrows on sloping ground in such a manner that
water can pass through them.
Although the mouse tribe is abundantly represented in the
Mouse Tribe. ~ ,
continent of America from one extremity to the other, there are no
members of the true rats and mice indigenous to the New World. Their place is
taken by voles generically identical with the European forms and by a vast number
of forms more or less nearly allied to the hamsters of Europe and Asia. Many of
these cricetines are distinguished by white feet, and are therefore called white-
footed mice, but in shape and in the length of tail the group varies greatly. Some,
for instance, have long tails and resemble common mice ; others look like dormice ;
others again have short hamster-like tails and bodies like voles, and one species is
distinguished by spines growing among its hair. It is now the fashion to refer
these cricetines to quite a number of genera, of which the following are represented
in the United States : namely, Onychomys, Peromyscus, Sigmodon, Oryzomys, and
Rhithrodontornys. One of the most familiar species is the common deer-mouse
MOUSE TRIBE— POCKET-GOPHERS— KANGAROO-RATS 337
{Peromyscus americanus), which in some cases inhabits open fields, although it
apparently prefers forest, and does not, like the European hamster, hibernate. On
the contrary, it is often seen running about in the snow, on which its long tail
leaves a characteristic track. In the north of its habitat it nests in cavities of
trees, fallen trunks, or holes in the ground, while in the south it hangs its nest of
moss, grass, and leaves on a horizontal twig, this nest being always provided with an
entrance-hole below. Not only the natural gracefulness and vivacity of its move-
ments, but also its fine colouring make this mouse one of the most beautiful of the
smaller inhabitants of the North American forests. When very young this species
is of a dull grey, but later on it becomes of a bright fawn-colour, its snow-white
feet and under-parts being in strong contrast to the rest of its body. With its
pearl-like eyes, large ears, and long tail, this mouse in general appearance is not unlike
the European house-mouse, which it also resembles in size. To mention in detail
any other members of the group would be impossible in our space, but it may be
observed that the species of the genus Rhithrodontomys take their name from their
grooved front-teeth. An allied sub-group is represented by the Florida wood-rat
(Neotoma floridana), an agile climber found both in forests and on rocky ground,
which produces from three to six young twice a year. These, like certain young
opossums, cling to the sides and back of their mother, even when she is walking.
This species has a thin scaly tail, but the bushy-tailed wood-rat (N. cinerea), which
is confined to the north-western and western States, has a tail more like that of a
dormouse. Wood-rats have grooved upper incisors. The true voles are represented
in the United States by species belonging to the European genera Microtus and
Evotomys, as well as by others assigned to peculiar genera under the names of
Phenacomys and Synaptomys. The musquash (Fiber) has been already mentioned
in the chapter on the Canadian fauna, as have likewise the lemmings of the genera
Lemmus and Dicrostonyx.
Of the exclusively American family Geomyidce, to which allusion
Pocket-Gophers. \ f J3
has also been made in the chapter just referred to, the common
pocket-gopher (Geomys bur sarins), which inhabits the basin of the Mississippi,
whence it ranges as far north as the Canadian border, is about 8 inches long
and has a soft mole-like coat of a reddish brown colour above, and greyish
beneath, the feet and generally the tail being white. In habits it resembles a
mole, but feeds on roots, nuts, seeds, etc., and in cultivated districts on potatoes,
which it is said to carry away to its provision-stores in its pouches. The provision-
chamber is connected by a passage with the living habitation, which is generally
situated beneath the roots of a large tree, about 5 feet below the ground, and
lined with grass. When this chamber is inhabited by a female, it is generally
connected with a circular, horizontal passage resembling that of a mole's burrow,
which probably serves as a refuge.
The kangaroo-rats agree with the pocket-gophers in the posses-
Kangaroo-Rats. . & ° . . ,
sion of external cheek-pouches, as well as by their internal structure,
but are distinguished by their long hind-legs, long tail, large eyes, and well-
developed external ears, as well, moreover, as by their habits. They represent
in America the jerboas of Asia and Africa and the jerboa-rats of Australia,
inhabiting the very driest regions, where they live in holes dug by themselves
vol. 11. — 22
338 THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES
beneath rocks and stones. Apparently they drink nothing but the dew which
gathers on the cactuses, almost the only plants of their native home, and feed
on the roots, seeds, and leaves of the grass growing sparsely between the cactuses.
The common kangaroo-rat (Dipodomys phillipsi), which inhabits the deserts east
of the Rocky Mountains, is distinguished by four toes on the hind-feet, is mouse-
brown above, and tan-coloured on the flanks, with the under-parts, the tip of the
tail, and a spot over each eye whitish.
North America is the home of several kinds of hares, some of
which are locally known as " cotton-tails " and others as " Jack-
rabbits." The most northern of these, such as the polar hare, have been mentioned
in the last chapter. Of the others, two, namely the large prairie-hare (L. cam-
pestris) and the smaller varying hare (L. americanus), turn white in winter ; the
former having long ears and the whole tail white, whereas in the latter the ears
are shorter and the upper surface of the tail is dark. Among those which do not
change colour, the wood-hare, grey rabbit, or cotton-tail (L. sylvaticus) is a
^ery variable southern form, with numerous local races. Nearly allied to the
prairie-hare, or white-tailed Jack-rabbit, are several species distinguished by having
a more or less distinct black stripe on the upper surface of the tail. These include
a buff-bellied species found in California, Northern Mexico and South-western
Oregon (L. californicus), a large, long-legged hare from Southern Arizona and
Sonora (L. alleni), the Texan Jack-rabbit (L. texianus), and the black-eared hare
(L. melanotis) of the Great Plains, which differs from the third only by its shorter
ears and richer coloration.
The wood-hare and its relatives, forming the subgenus Sylvilagus, resemble
the rabbit to a certain degree in habits, since they often establish their abodes in
hollow trunks of trees, or in burrows abandoned by other mammals, while tb?
females, which produce from four to six blind and naked young three times a year,
scratch shallow holes in the ground, and line them with leaves, grass, and their
own fur. When leaving the nest, they cover their young so well that they are
completely hidden. The wood-hare does not occur farther north than the State
of New York.
The American " wild cat," or red lynx (Felis rufa), apparently
represents in the United States the European southern lynx. This
lynx is somewhat smaller than its Canadian relative, and has shorter and thinner
hair, and a more bushy tail. In many districts it is of a uniform reddish brown,
but in Texas and southern California it is represented by the handsomer spotted
variety (F. r. maculata), while in Washington and Oregon there is a striped phase
(F. r. fasciata) distinguished by dark cross-bars. Numerous other local modifica-
tions have been described. Inclusive of these varieties, the range of the red
lynx extends into Canada. The species is generally confined to rocky districts,
and differs from the Canadian lynx in having three, and sometimes four, instead
of only a pair of cubs.
The range of the largest North American cat, the puma (F.
Puma. ° fe ii
concolor), is perhaps more extensive than that ol any other mammal,
extending from Alaska to the extreme south of Patagonia, if not to Tierra del
Fuego. It is true, indeed, that by modern American naturalists the puma (of
PUMA
339
which the type locality is Brazil) has been split up into a number of so-called
species ; but it is from every point of view far preferable to regard such forms
as local modifications of one species, which from the extent of its range must
necessarily display a considerable amount of variation. These remarks will
apply with equal force to the case of the coyote, which comes later on in this
chapter.
Apparently the largest known specimen of this animal was one killed in
a
^
- - / r
■
^*T — i ■ - ii ■ —
rr.MA,
Texas in 1846, which had a total length of over 8 feet, with a tail of about
3 feet. The puma is a slender animal with a long body and short legs. In colour
it is a uniform reddish or brownish grey above and whitish below, with an
indistinct dark line running along the back, and the tail ending in a dark brown
tip, while the black outer sides of the ears are marked by a whitish spot in the
middle, and the white upper lip shows a black spot in front. It is distinguished
from other large cats by flesh-coloured nostrils, and is said in North America to
be redder in summer and greyer in winter : but some of the races are yellowish
34o THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES
grey, some dark brown, and others grey, or even whitish ; while, as an individual
variation, black pumas are met with in the tropical forest regions. A light-hued
race from Patagonia is characterised by the backs of the ears being pale-coloured
instead of black. Young and old animals are very different in colouring, newly
born pumas showing rows of large, oblong, blackish brown spots along the body,
and rings of the same colour round the tail. This marking remains distinct for
the first six months, and traces of it may be detected even in full-grown animals,
especially when seen in certain lights, and a few individuals retain this spotting
throughout life.
In South America the puma is found on the grassy, treeless pampas of
Argentina, as well as in the primeval forests on the Amazons ; and not only at
the level of the sea, but even up to heights of 10,000 feet, as is the case in the
Cordilleras of Chile. In the Peruvian highlands, where it inhabits the highest
forests, the puma is occasionally found up to the snow-line, and in the mountain-
forests of Central America it generally ascends to heights of 8000 or 9000 feet.
In the northern portions of its range the puma has to endure very severe winters,
and find its food in the snow ; but it is equally at home in the hot swamps and
reed-beds fringing the banks of the large rivers in the south. In the Rocky
Mountains it is said to range up to the heights inhabited by the bighorn
sheep, and on Mount Persephone in California it has been observed at a height
of 3000 feet above the sea. In Mexico it dwells in the most isolated spots among
impenetrable thickets or in caves, while in the pampas it probably hides among
the high grass or on the banks of the rivers. Here it feeds chiefly on the larger
animals such as guanaco, deer, tapirs, peccaries, and rheas. The number of
guanaco which fall a victim to the puma is evident from the skeletons of these
animals found on the pampas with the necks broken.
In North America, among the animals which the puma chooses for its prey,
deer are the largest ; but these form by no means its principal article of food in
other districts. In the forests of the Amazons and the Orinoco, for instance, the
puma is said to have accommodated itself to a more or less arboreal life, like so
many other mammals indigenous to these latitudes. It is stated to jump from branch
to branch, and from tree to tree, in pursuit of monkeys on which in those parts
it probably chiefly preys. The North American puma is, however, said to disdain
scarcely anything, and to devour mammals from the size of a deer to that of a
mouse, as well as fishes and even snails. Instead of the rhea, or American ostrich,
which it pursues in South America, in New Mexico and Arizona the puma stalks
the wild turkey. South American pumas are so partial to horse-flesh that in some
parts of Patagonia the breeding of horses is impossible, on account of all the colts
being devoured by these marauders. To some extent this also holds good for
the half-wild horses of South America. Not only colts, but also fully grown
horses fall victims to the voracity of the puma ; and, although calves are taken by
preference, cows are also killed and eaten. Pumas are likewise particularly fond
of sheep, which in many districts form their chief food. They generally wander
forth at night or in the morning and evening twilight, like other large cats, and
stalk their prey in the same stealthy manner. They slink up close to deer, and when
near enough advance in a series of leaps, if not able to reach them by a single
PUMA — COYOTE— RED AND CROSS FOX 341
bound from some elevation. If the attack fails after several attempts, pumas let
their victims escape, in spite of their wonderful leaping powers, which are such as
to enable them to jump on to branches 18 to 20 feet from the ground. In deep
snow pumas follow their prey much farther than at other times, and they have
then been seen chasing deer for considerable distances. When they overtake their
victims, pumas jump on the shoulders, and break the vertebrae of the neck with
their fore-feet. In South America the puma is said sometimes to jump on the
back of the jaguar, when it inflicts terrible wounds with its claws. And the same
story is told in North America with regard to the puma and the grisly bear. In
proportion to its size, the puma is undoubtedly one of the fiercest and most
courageous beasts-of-prey, and it is therefore all the more remarkable that it should
be such a coward in the presence of man. This appears to be especially noticeable
in South America, where for many years it has been known that pumas never attack
grown-up persons, children, or any sleeping human beings.
Among the members of the dog tribe inhabiting the United
States, the most characteristic is the coyote (Canis latrans), which
ranges from Manitoba to Costa Rica, and is particularly common in Texas and the
north of Mexico, as well as on the prairies. This species, which has been sub-
divided into a number of races (species of American naturalists), is easil}T
distinguished from the true wolves of North America, to which allusion has been
made in an earlier chapter, by its inferior stature and more bushy tail, as well
as by the closer and longer fur.
Compared with the various modifications of the wolf, the coyote is a slender,
lithe, graceful, and smaller animal. Except in the pallid desert forms, in which
the fulvous tints are replaced by buff, the muzzle, back of the ears, outer sides, and
in some cases the whole, of the limbs, and the terminal half of the lower side of the
tail are fulvous. The ground-colour of the back varies from buff", or even from
buffish white, in the desert forms, to dull fulvous in the South Mexican race ; the
relative preponderance of black-tipped hairs being usually dependent upon the
intensity of the ground-colour. The upper surface of the tail is coloured like the
back, but shows at about one-third the length from the root an elongated black
spot, marking the position of the gland situated here in all members of the dcg
tribe. The tail-tip is always black, although occasionally it may contain a tuft
of white hair. The male coyote is superior in size to the female.
Red and Cross The red fox (C. vulpes fidvus), representing the common
Fox- fox of Europe, inhabits the eastern States. In the same area occurs
the so-called cross-fox, which is a mere individual variety, not even entitled to
rank as a distinct race. Of a very different type is the Virginian or grey fox
(G. cinereo-argenteus), whose range, inclusive of the numerous local races, extends
from the United States to Central America. It is much smaller in size than the red
fox, and seems to be a transitional form between the latter and the fox-like dogs of
South America. Hence it is separated generically, under the name of Urocyon,
by those naturalists who refer to the true foxes as Vulpes. The typical race of the
species inhabits eastern North America from Georgia northwards to New England
and westwards to the valley of the Mississippi. Its habits are unlike those of the
common fox.
342
THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES
American Black The American black bear ( Ursus americanus), of which several
Bear. local forms have been described, is much smaller than the Alaskan
brown bears, and even inferior in size to the brown bear of Europe.
Originally this bear ranged from Labrador to the Gulf of Mexico and
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Now, however, it is mainly restricted to a
few of the mountain-ranees in the south of the St. Lawrence basin, to the
neighbourhood of the great lakes, and to some unsettled districts in the east of the
Mississippi basin.
The habitat of the typical race extends over the forest-covered districts of
North America to the northward of Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. Normally the
c
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"
'.
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t//. 4£g.£w^^<.. -
AMERICAN BADGER.
fur of this race is uniformly black throughout, except on the muzzle, where it is
tawny yellow. It is a comparatively small bear, with a short and wide skull, of
which the frontal region is usually moderately elevated, and with relatively small
cheek-teeth. The cinnamon-bear (IT. cinnamornus) of Audubon and Bachman
was based on an animal from the northern Rocky Mountains with small molars
like the common black bear of the United States, of which it would seem to be a
light-coloured phase. These bears are not only good swimmers but also excellent
climbers, and though avoiding the tree-tops, and thin branches which will
not bear their weight, climb even smooth and vertical stems to get at bees and
honey. They devour large quantities of ants and their so-called eggs, as well
as various kinds of fruits, leaves, and roots. They likewise catch fishes, frogs
tortoises, and small mammals, although they prefer domesticated calves and
AMERICAN BADGER — SKUNKS 343
sheep, and are particularly partial to pigs. The white Gribble Island bear is
referred to in the preceding chapter.
American The American badger (Taxidea americana), the only repre-
Badger. sentative of its genus, is characterised by the great width of the
hind part of the skull, the depressed body, which measures about 2 feet in length,
and the short tail, with a length of barely 6 inches. The cheek-teeth differ from those
of the typical badgers of the Old World by the large size of the flesh-tooth in the
upper jaw, and the long heel of the corresponding lower tooth. The fore-feet are
disproportionately large, the eyes are very small, the blunt and somewhat crooked
muzzle is haired down to the nostrils, and the short, broad, and rounded ears are
remarkable for the size of their apertures. In colour the American badger, of
which three local races are recognised, is hoary brown or greyish above, with the
under-parts and legs blackish brown. The head, which is a little darker than the
rest of the body, is marked with a white line down the middle, and a white patch
on each cheek, divided by a dark stripe. This badger ranges from Canada into
Mexico, where it is represented by a race (T. a. borlandieri) characterised by a
white stripe on the back.
Like its relative in Europe, the American badger is an exclusively nocturnal
animal, seldom seen in the daytime ; on the upper Missouri and its tributaries it
is so common that large tracts are undermined by its burrows, which may be dis-
tinguished from those of the equally numerous prairie-marmots by the absence of
the small mounds surrounding the entrances. The badger kills and devours
numbers of these marmots, as well as other small mammals, insects, snails, birds,
eggs, and honey. In the colder parts of its habitat this badger hibernates from
October till April.
Allied to the badgers are the skunks, a group confined to America,
Skunks. a . .
and distinguished by the large bushy tail, generally carried over the
back, and by the black-and-white coloration, in which the white is confined to
longitudinal bands of variable width on the back. The members of this noisome
group are split up into three genera, in the two first of which there are thirty-four
teeth. The typical representative of the group, the common skunk {Mephitis
mephitica), inhabits North and Central America from Hudson Bay to Louisiana and
Virginia, the Hudson Bay and the Mississippi forms being regarded as distinct
local races. Other forms, recognised as species, carry the genus as far south as
Guatemala. An ordinary skunk is about the size of a short-legged Persian cat,
and is a strongly built, small-headed animal, with a bushy tail almost as long as
the body, if the hairs at the tip be included. The long-tailed skunk (M. macrura)
of Mexico is distinguished by a longer and bushier tail, which in all cases equals
the body in length. The lesser skunks, as typified by Spilogale putorius, are very
different animals, inhabiting; the southern United States and Central America, and
not exceeding a foot in length. Typically the tail is shorter than the body, and
the back marked with white spots and four interrupted white stripes, while the
tail ends in a white tip.
Unlike the typical skunks, which are ground-animals, the lesser skunks are
active climbers. All skunks have the habit, when attacked or irritated in any way,
of ejecting an evil-smelling fluid secreted by two glands beneath their tail. Few
344
THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES
animals ever attack skunks, for their pernicious habits appear to be well known
to every species, and their striking coloration and waving tails render them ex-
tremely conspicuous at a distance. They behave, indeed, as if they were perfectly
aware of the power they possess, and were quite indifferent to other creatures.
They move about in a slow, deliberate manner, occasionally breaking into a kind
of trot, but never seem to really hurry themselves.
There are only two families of the Insectivora represented in
North America, namely, the shrews and the moles. In the former
group the short-tailed shrews are easily distinguished from other shrews not only
by their stumpy tails, but also by their ears looking as if the tips had been cut off.
The common Blarina brevicauda, of which there are several races, ranges over a
considerable portion of North America, extending as far south as Florida and
Shrews.
THE SKUNK.
California. Like others of its kind, this shrew seeks its food both by day and
night ; and spends the greater part of its life below the ground, or at least beneath
fallen wood and leaves, and under roots and trunks of trees. It may be seen in
daylight burrowing in the snow to reach tree-stumps in search apparently of grubs.
In addition to the latter, its food includes beech-nuts.
The Rocky Mountains are the home of the marsh-shrew (Sorex palustris),
which, like another member of the same group inhabiting the Aleutian Islands,
S. hydrodromus, is distinguished from other shrews by leading a partly aquatic
life, having long fringes on the feet to assist swimming. On account of these and
other differences these species are often regarded as representing a distinct genus,
Neosorex. The large Bendire's shrew (S. bendirei), again, is referred by
American naturalists to another genus Atopohyrax ; while the small S. hoyi is
made the type of the genus Microsorex. Other North American shrews agree,
however, closely with the typical European members of the group.
MOLES — BATS — OPOSSUMS 345
„ 1 The American moles are all generically distinct from the typical
European representative of the group, and, except in one case, do not
belong to Old World genera. The common North American mole (Scalops
aquaticus) is distinguished from its relatives in the United States by the presence
of a web between the toes of the hind -feet, as well as by its dentition. On account
of these webbed feet, it was formerly regarded as an aquatic animal, but it really
swims only in case of need, and instead of living near water, frequents dry places.
Like the European mole, it spends its life below ground, where it finds its food,
chiefly consisting of earth-worms, insects, and grubs.
Another well-marked type, the hairy-tailed mole (Scapanus townsendi),
resembles the common mole in external appearance, but has forty-four teeth like
the star-nosed mole. Several allied species are known in North America ; but
Scalops breweri is now separated generically by American naturalists as Para-
scalops. The curious star-nosed mole (Condylura cristata) derives its name from
the presence of appendages arranged in the shape of a star round the nostrils ;
while it is also distinguished from other moles by the length of its tail. This mole,
which is only 5 inches long, exclusive of the tail, lives entirely on worms and
insects, and resembles in habits the other American moles, but does not apparently
dig such long passages, although it throws up larger hills. A very noteworthy type
is Gibbs's shrew-mole (Neiirotrichus gibbsi), belonging to a group represented
elsewhere only by a single Japanese species. Some writers, however, regard
the American species as referable to the same genus (Urotrichus) as the
Japanese species.
The bats of North America are for the most part allied to species
inhabiting Europe and northern Asia. The European long-eared bat,
for instance, is replaced in the States by the closely allied Plecotus (or Coryno-
rhinus) macrotis, distinguished by the presence on the forehead of a thick ridge
ending in a club-shaped enlargement between the eye and the nostril. The
Californian cave-bat (Antrozous pallidus), although referred to a distinct genus, is
allied to the European barbastelle, from which it differs by the separation of the
bases of the ears. The spotted bat {Euderma maculata) is another peculiar North
American generic type. There are several representatives of the European genus
Myotis; and in the pipistrelle group the silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris
noctivagans) is notable on account of its high northern range, while the typical
pipistrelles (Pipistrellus) have two representatives. The genus Vespertilio is
represented by the large brown bat (V. fuscus), which used to be regarded as
nothing more than a local race of the European serotine ; but a very distinct type
is presented by the New York bat (Lasiurus borealis). Many other representa-
tives of the typical bats ( Vespertilionidos) occur in the States ; in addition to
which there are a few representatives of the vampire-family (Phyllostomatidce)
whose true home is Central and South America. Horseshoe-bats (Rhinolophidos)
are, however, entirely absent.
America is the only continent except Australia in which there
Opossums.
are marsupials, but the American species are few and included in
two families. Although the very distinct Australian phalangers have locally
usurped their name, opossums (which, it need scarcely be said, are marsupials) are
346
THE ANIMALS 01 THE UNITED STATES
restricted to America, although they are nearly related to the Australian family
Dasyuridoe. Opossums are distinguished by a clawless opposable first toe on the
hind-foot, which thus serves as a hand, by the long tail being generally hairless,
scaly, and prehensile, and by the incisor teeth comprising five pairs in the upper
and three in the lower jaw.
A few years ago only a single species of opossum (Didelphys marsupialis)
was recognised in the United States; but the one inhabiting north-western Mexico
adjacent to California is now regarded as distinct, under the name of D. californica.
Typically the common opossum is about as large as a cat, attaining a length of over
18 inches with
i a tail about an
1 inch shorter. In
colour it displays
considerable
variation, some
forms being
white, others
black, and others
of almost every
int er m ediate
hue. In districts
where it is very
common it not
only lives in
forests, but is
found in towns,
where it shelters
in drain-pipes and other hiding-places dur-
ing the day, and pays unwelcome visits to
fowl-houses at night. Besides birds and
other small animals, it feeds on eggs, roots,
and fruit, and more or less everything
eatable, even carcases. On account of its
pilferings. it is much persecuted; it has
great vitality and is an adept at feign-
ing death, as is exemplified by the many
amusing stories told about opossums believed to be dead which afterwards
escaped.
Comino- to the birds of the United States, mention may first be
perching Birds. ^^ rf ^ distinct,y American group of bluebirds, the best known
representative of which is the so-called blue robin (Sialia sialis). Somewhat larger
than a redbreast, this species is sky-blue above, and chiefly chestnut below. It
ranges from southern Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, and is one of the most popular
birds in the United States, owing to its graceful movements and pleasing song.
The true thrushes have numerous North American representatives ; and in another
family mention may be made of the beautiful ruby-throat. Among the wrens are
OPOSSUM.
PERCHING BIRDS — TYRANTS 347
the species known as Thryothorus ludovicianus and T. bewicki, called in some
districts mocking-birds, although this name is more usually given to the members
of the genus Miraus on account of their skill in imitating the human voice. One
species of the latter group, the common cat-bird (31. carolinensis), is moreover
renowned as a songster. In size it is somewhat smaller than a song-thrush,
and is bluish grey in colour with the head black and the under surface of
the tail chestnut. Although tits and creepers are fairly common in the United
States, but very few larks are present in America, where pipits are likewise
scarce.
Several kinds of bunting have their home in North America, where the
cardinals are conspicuous members of the finch group. One of these is the red
cardinal (Cardinalis virginianus) of the southern States and Mexico, a beautiful
scarlet bird with an agreeable song, commonly called the Virginian nightingale.
Another well-known species, the indigo-bird (Cyanospiza cyanea), of a deep blue
colour and about the size of a linnet, ranges from the United States into Central
America, its relative the nonpareil, or painted bunting (C. ciris), being confined to
the southern United States. The sparrow-buntings (Zonotrichia) constitute
another group restricted to North America.
The place of the weaver-birds and starlings of the Old World is taken in
America by the so-called hangnests, of which the purple troupial (Quiscalus pur-
pureas) is perhaps the best known member, at least on the Atlantic seaboard.
Another familiar representative of the group is, however, the Baltimore oriole
(Icterus galbula). Allied to these is the bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), which
builds a carelessly constructed nest on the ground, and thus departs widely in
habits from the others. The cow-birds (Molothrus), which also belong to the same
group, generally frequent marshy plains and pastures, where they pick the parasites
from cattle ; they lay their eggs in the nests of other birds, after the fashion of
the cuckoo.
Among the crow tribe, the raven is widely distributed in North America ; but
the carrion crow is represented by an allied species, as is also the magpie, whose
near relative the Californian magpie (Pica nuttalli) is distinguished by having a
yellow back. The crested jay (Cyanocitta macrolopha), so common in the extensive
coniferous forests of the western States, belongs to an exclusively American group.
On the other hand, the American shrike (Lanius borealis) represents the great grey
shrike of Europe, of which it is sometimes considered to be only a local form. With
the greenlets we come to another exclusively North American group, the best
known species of which is the white - eyed flycatcher ( Vireo novceboracensis).
Neither the flycatchers nor the waxwings are numerous in North America, although
the latter possess a noteworthy representative in the cedar-bird (Ampelis cedrorum).
The North American representatives of the swallow tribe include the European
sand-martin and the purple martin (Progne purpurea), the latter of which
is peculiar on account of its habit of nesting for the most part in hollow
trees,
Tyrants Passing on to a totally different group, mention may be made of
Humming-Birds, the pipiri (Tyrannus pipiri), a member of the group of tyrants
00 pec ers.e c. remark;ak]e on account of its unusually long and forked tail. The
343
THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES
\
other members of this group as well as the humming - birds are chiefly
characteristic of tropical America. One humming-bird (Ckcatura pelasgia) in-
habits, however, the eastern United States. The most noteworthy nightjar is
perhaps the piramidig (CJtordiles virginianus), which ranges as far south as
Brazil. The American kingfishers are mostly tropical. Among the woodpeckers
the so-called flicker (Golaptes auratus) cannot be passed over without mention,
this bird being a resident in the central and southern parts of the United States,
but also breeding in the far north.
It feeds chiefly on ants, and is not
so confined to forests as other wood-
peckers, making long journeys in
search of food through treeless
districts. In the west it is replaced
by the red - winged species (0.
mexicanus), with which it is con-
nected through an intermediate form
(possibly a hybrid) inhabiting the
central States. The so-called ivory-
bill (Campophilus principalis), a
black woodpecker larger than the
European species, now limited to
the southern States, some fifty
years ago ranged much farther
north.
The two species
of rain-cuckoos differ
from the cuckoos of the Old World
by building their own nests instead
of depositing their eggs in the
nurseries of other birds. Of these
the yellow-bellied Coccyzus ameri-
canus ranges as far south as lower
Brazil, although the black-bellied
C. erythrophthalmus has a more
northerly distribution, appearing
during the summer even in
Labrador.
The Carolina par-
rot (Conuropsis caro-
linensis) alone represents a group
otherwise restricted to Central and
South America. In the typical conures (Comtrus) the fourth primary feather
of the wing is attenuated and the nostrils are exposed ; in the Carolina parrot
the corresponding feather is not narrowed and the nostrils are concealed among
the feathers covering the cere. Formerly this parrot had a more northern
range than any other, extending to Iowa, the great lakes, and New York, but
Carolina Parrot.
THE PIPIIU.
OWLS AND BIRDSOF-PREY
349
it is now confined to the States bordering the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi
Valley, and is very local.
owls and Birds- Perhaps the most noteworthy owl of the United States is the
of-Prey. prairie-owl (Speotito hypogcea), which extends to Central America, but
is represented by a distinct species in South America. Most of the European and
north Asiatic owls have
American representatives,
among which it must suffice
to mention the American
eagle-owl (Bubo virgini-
anus). Among the falcons
are the American sparrow-
hawk (Falco sparverius), the
peregrine of the Eastern
Hemisphere, and the pigeon-
hawk (F. columbarius), a
bird smaller than the Euro-
pean kestrel. The golden-
eagle, otherwise known as
the Canadian eagle, is found
in the Rockjr Mountains, but
a much more common bird
is the white-headed sea-eagle
(Hali aetus leucocephalus),
which has been adopted as
the heraldic device of the
United States. The kites
have a conspicuous repre-
sentative in the swallow-
tailed Elanoides furcatus.
On the other hand, the place
of the vultures of the Old
World is taken in America
by the condors, of which,
in addition to the so-called
turkey-buzzard or turkey-
vulture (Cathartes aura),
the United States possses the
Californian condor (Pseudo-
gryphus calif 'ornianus), now
nearly exterminated.
.
SWALLOW-TAILED KITE.
Game Birds.
North America is the home of a very large number of game-
birds, among which the prairie-hen (Tympanuchus americanus) of
the Mississippi valley is a familiar type. The so-called partridges and quails of
North America form a group quite distinct from the one which includes the birds
properly thus styled ; one of the characters of the American group being the
35°
THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES
serration of the edges of the lower half of the beak. A well-known member of
the group is the Californian crested quail (Lophortyx calif ornicus), which owes
its name to the tuft of black feathers on the head. There are numerous other
generic representatives of the group, such as the bob- white (Colinus virginianus),
the ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), and the sharp-tailed grouse (Pedioccetes
phasianellus). North and Central America form the exclusive home of the
turkeys, of which two or three species are known. One of these, Meleagris ocellata
(often separated generically as Agriocharis), is confined to Honduras, Guatemala,
and Yucatan. The others, on the contrary, are North American, the typical
' CV- r-'-'-V. ■
\
' WW
*fc,'
■
■' ■'. "r":'' ■■ * ■■ *:'
MEXICAN TURKEY.
Pigeons.
Meleagris gallopavo inhabiting the south-western United States from western
Texas to Arizona and south to the Mexican table-land.
Of the pigeons the most, remarkable was the passenger-pigeon
(Ectopistes migrator ivs)y which formerly travelled across many of the
more northerly states, notably Michigan and Wisconsin, in flocks many miles in
length, but now appears to be extinct.
cranes Wading and water-birds abound in North America, especially in
and Ducks, winter, when the waters are crowded with ducks, geese, and swans,
but it is impossible to mention these in detail. By far the handsomest American
member of a stately group of birds is the whooping crane (Grus americana), whose
plumage is pure white, save for a patch of black down on the head. The most
REPTILES — FROGS AND SALAMANDERS — FISHES
35*
Reptiles.
brilliantly plumaged duck is the summer-duck (JEx sponsa), a member of the same
genus as the Asiatic mandarin-duck, and furnished with a similar long pendent crest.
Very few words, unfortunately, can be devoted to the reptiles of
the United States, although they are worthy the best attention of
the student of geographical distribution. Terrapins are numerous, very
characteristic being the box-tortoises, Cinyxis, in which the shell can be closed
by a movable flap. The snappers (Cicely dra and Macroclemmys), which com-
prise a few large aquatic species, are equally characteristic. There is also a
representative of the soft-tortoises (Trionyx ferox) in the southern United States.
The North American alligator (Alligator misvissippiensis) was, for a long time, the
only known living representative of its genus ; but, as mentioned above, it has a
cousin in China. Among snakes, the rattle-snakes, as typified by Crotalus durissus,
form a very distinctive American group, the common species living on sandy, stony
FLORIDAX EEL-SALAMAXDER.
ground among low bushes. Another well-known venomous snake is the water-viper
{Ancistrodon piscivovus), which dwells near water, in which it finds a safe refuge.
Frogs and Of the frogs the largest is the bull-frog (Rana catesbyana),
Salamanders. which may attain a length of some 7i inches. It takes its name
from its loud roaring voice : besides smaller animals it eats frogs, fishes, and birds.
In another group we have the eel-salamander of Florida (Amphiuma means), dis-
tinguished by its yard-long, eel-shaped body and small three-toed feet ; and the siren
salamander (Siren lacerjtina), which is of nearly the same length, but distinguished
by having no hind-legs. Both generic types are exclusively North American.
Very characteristic are the salamanders of the genus Amblystoma, of which an
outlying species inhabits Siam.
Four fishes alone can be mentioned. One is the blind-fish
(Amblyoj)sis spelwa) of the caves of Kentucky and Indiana, remarkable
for having no external eyes. The second is the curious bow -fin (Amia calva),
the sole living representative of an ancient type. It is a nest-building species,
352 THE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES
which occasionally comes to the surface of the water to take in large gulps of air.
Not less noteworthy is the bony pike (Lepidosteus osseus), one of the few
survivors of the enamel-scaled fishes so numerous in past epochs of the earth's
history.
The spoon-beaked sturgeons, Scaphirhynchus, of which two species inhabit
the Mississippi system, and the rivers and lakes of the western States, while the
others are restricted to Central Asia, are of special interest on account of their
presenting a geographical distribution very similar to that of alligators and several
groups of mammals.
It may be added that American waters are also inhabited by true sturgeons
{Acipenser). In the picturesque piece of water known as The Lake of the Woods
— which lies mainly in the British Province of Ontario, although its southern shore
is situated in Minnesota, and, therefore, belongs to the United States — and the
neighbouring waters, is found the species commonly known as the great lake
sturgeon (A. rubicundus), which attains very large dimensions. Till about 1892
sturgeon swarmed in this lake, but in that year the fishery began to assume con-
siderable proportions, while between 1893 and 1896 it had become of great
value. In 1893 the catch of sturgeon in American waters was no less than
1,300,000 lb., while Canada secured 350,000 lb., so that the total was 1,650,000 lb.,
the value of the American catch being estimated at $26,000. In 1909 the total
catch fell to 53,316 lb., although in the two preceding years it was three times as
large, Canada securing 83,900 lb. in 1907, against 80,122 lb. by the United States.
In spite of the diminished output in 1909 as compared with earlier dates, it is
reported that during the last few years the catch of sturgeon has been on the
increase, but this is probably due to closer fishing. In 1893 the American yield of
caviare was 97,500 lb., valued at 819,500; in 1909 it was reduced to 346 lb., valued
at $519 ; the Canadian caviare in the same year was 383 lb.
/
JAGUAR.
CHAPTER III
Tropical America and its Animals
Tropical America, in which may be included the southern half of the Florida
Peninsula, Mexico, Central America, and the northern half of South America, varies
greatly in its physical features, containing as it does a portion of the lofty chain
of the Andes, and the teeming forests of the Amazon and the Orinoco, together
with the open campos of Brazil. Its flora is perhaps the richest in the world ;
while its fauna is perhaps more peculiar and remarkable than that of any other
part of the globe except Australasia. This area is, for instance, the sole habitat of the
true edentate mammals, such as the sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos, together with
many other peculiar types of both mammals and birds. Formerly indeed, South
America, when it was cut off by sea from the northern half of the New World,
possessed an absolutely peculiar fauna ; but since the union of the two continents the
southern types have been introduced into North America, while the forms originally
characteristic of that area have passed south, so that the distinction between the
vol. ii — 23
354
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
two faunas has to a considerable extent become obliterated. What is perhaps more
remarkable is that types like the llamas, originally characteristic of North America,
have quite died out there and survive only in the southern continent.
In contrast to North America where there are none, South
America is rich in monkeys, which belong, however, to a group quite
distinct from the monkeys of the Old World, from which they differ by their
broad, expanded nostrils. No American monkeys have cheek-pouches or bare
callosities on the buttocks, and many are distinguished by their prehensile tails.
With the exception of the capuchins, none of them possess an opposable thumb.
WHITE-THROATED CAPUCHIN
Exclusively arboreal, these are restricted to the warmer countries of America, being
unknown beyond the tropic in the north or farther south than the 30th degree
of latitude.
Among the better known members of the group, the weeper-capuchin {Cebns
capucinus) ranges from Bahia north-westwards across Brazil to Colombia. Its
general colour is golden brown with pale yellow on the temples, cheeks, throat,
chest, and front of the shoulders, and a dark stripe down the middle of the head.
It owes its name to the whining whistle which forms its cry. From this species
the white-throated capuchin (C. hypoleucus) of Central America differs by its
colour being mainly black, with white on the cheeks, arms, and shoulders and
yellowish on the throat and chest, the bare face being of a pale flesh-colour. The
MONKEYS
355
woolly monkeys, as typified
by Lagothrix hiunboldti, are
distinguished from the last
by the longer tail, which is
naked on the lower side of the
pointed tip, and bears on its
gripping surface ridges and
furrows similar to those on
the human hand, so that it
does not easily slide off any
smooth object it may clasp.
They are likewise character-
ised by the woolly nature of
their coat, a feature to which
they owe their name. A
connecting link between the
woolly monkeys and the
spider-monkeys is formed by
the woolly spider - monkey
(Eviodes arachnoides), an
animal of much more slender
build than the former.
The spider - monkeys,
which are more thoroughly
adapted to an arboreal life
than any of the rest of their
kindred, take their name from
their long slender limbs and
thin bodies. Among the
numerous species ranging over
the country between Uruguay
and southern Mexico, one of
the best known is the red-
faced spider monkey or coaita
(Ateles paniscus), a native
of Guiana and the Amazon
valley. The tail measures
about 21 feet in length or
about 6 inches more than the
head and body.
Like the members of the
preceding group, the dourou-
colis have long tails, although
these are non-prehensile and
thickly haired. Among the
four species, all of which lead
/■>
WOOLLY SPIDER-MON'KBi.
356
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
a nocturnal life and are distinguished by the round whiskered face, short ears,
and exceptionally large, owl-like eyes, the most common is the three-banded
douroucoli (NyctipitJtecus trivirgatus), whose range extends from Venezuela and
Guiana to Brazil and Peru.
The little squirrel-monkeys
are specially characterised by
the great relative length of
the hinder part of the head.
Among them, the common
squirrel - monkey (Chrysothrix
sciurea), which inhabits Brazil
and the Orinoco valley, is one
of the best known. Not much
larger than a squirrel, it owes
its name of death's-head monkey
to the black-snouted large-eyed
face which bears some resem-
blance to a skull.
The titi monkeys of the
genus Callithrix, which greatly
resemble in some respects both
the squirrel-monkeys and the
douroucolis, have smaller heads
and eyes and long bushy tails.
- They range all over South
America but are principally
found in the Amazon basin.
The sakis, again, may be
recognised by their long thick
bushy tails, which are not pre-
hensile, and are further dis-
tinguished by the possession
of whiskers and long beards.
Among them, the red-backed
saki(Pithecia chiropotes), which
inhabits the valley of the
Amazon, the upper Orinoco,
and Guiana, is remarkable for
its way of drinking, as it does
not stoop down to the water, like other monkeys, but only bends its head and
lifts the water to its mouth in the hollow of its hand.
The hairy saki, or Humboldt's saki (P. monachus), restricted chiefly to the
north bank of the upper Amazon and ranging as far west as Peru, is well known
in captivity as an affectionate and intelligent companion.
Nearly related to the foregoing, the uacaris are broadly distinguished from
all other American monkeys by the shortness of their tails which never exceed
THREE-BANDED DOUROUO ILL
MONKEYS
357
one-third the length of the body. They are clothed with long silky hair, and
their beard is either very slight or absent altogether. The most remarkable is the
bald uacari (Ouacaria calva), a species of about 18 inches in length, conspicuous
on account of its brilliant red face which contrasts strongly with the pale
chestnut of the long hair. It inhabits a small tract bounded by the Japura and
the Amazon in the vicinity of Ega. Here these monkeys live in small troops
among the crowns of the taller trees, feeding on fruits of various kinds.
BALD UACARI.
Very different from all the foregoing are the howlers, distinguished not only by
their protruding muzzles and retreating foreheads, but likewise by the fringe of long
hair with which the naked face is bordered, this forming a well-developed beard
on the cheeks and chin and a thick tuft on the forehead. Their most noticeable
characteristic is, however, the enlargement of the upper part of the windpipe into
a hollow shell of bone. It is by means of this organ that these monkeys produce
the loud howls to which they owe their name. Howlers, which are "said to feed
exclusively on leaves, are numerous and widely distributed in Brazil, whence they
range northwards into Central America. One of the most familiar representatives
of the group is the red howler (Alouatta seniculus) a chestnut-coloured species
inhabiting Brazil, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela, the most southern species
358
TROPICAL AMERICA AND IIS ANIMALS
v
/
being the black howler (A. nigra). Nothing, it is said, sounds more terrible than
the howling of these monkeys, which, writh short intervals, lasts from eleven o'clock
at night until
daybreak. The
skulls of howl in cr
monkeys under-
go a kind of re-
trograde develop-
ment, in conse-
quence of which
. they assume a
form assimilat-
ing to that of
lower mammals,
such as Carniv-
ora, rather than
the type distinc-
tive of othermon-
keys. The em-
bryonic skull, on
the other hand, is
essentially of the
monkey type.
The degeneration
displays itself in
the leno-thenini'-
of the facial
region, so that
the skull gradu-
ally passes from
a short to a
medium, or even
long type ; thus
most of the ce-
phalic indices be-
come much lower
than in any other
monkeys, while
the hemispheres
extend to a smal-
ler degree over
the cerebellum in
the adult than
in the young.
Although the thry marmosets, which form a family {Hapalidce)
by themselves, resemble the other New World monkeys in their broad
RED HOWLEK.
MARMOSETS
3.59
and tlat noses, they differ by having their cheek-teeth numerically equivalent to
those of Old World monkeys, that is to say they have an extra pair of these teeth
in each jaw. They are further distinguished by having claws on all the fingers
and toes except the great toe, as well as by the frequent presence of tufts of
long hair on the ears. In appearance and habits marmosets are more like
squirrels than monkeys. They are divided into two generic groups according to the
length of the lower tusks or canines as compared with the incisors, the
short-tusked marmosets having
the lower canines not longer
than the incisors. The com-
monest of these is the ouistiti
(Hapalejacchus), which inhabits
the island of Marajo at the
mouth of the Amazon, and
belongs to a group of ring-
tailed species whose ears are fc
the most part bald, but provideu
on the front edge with a broad
tuft, the hair on both sides of
the upper part of the head being-
lengthened and the back being
marked with light and dark
cross-bands. Another marmoset
from the same district is the
black-eared H.penicillata, some-
times regarded merely as a local
race of the last, from which it
differs by the black ear-tufts
This marmoset is very common.
On the other hand the black-
tailed marmoset (H. melanura)
of Brazil and Bolivia is a very
rare form.
The long-tusked marmosets,
or those with the lower canines
taller than the incisors, are
generally known as tamarins.
One of the best known is the Negro tamarin (Midas ursulu.s) inhabiting
the valley of the lower Amazon near Para, where it is often seen in the
woods bordering the suburban streets. There are about twenty species of
tamarins, the most beautiful being the silky tamarin or marakina (M, rosalia),
which has a mane like that of a lion. In colour it is a rich glossy golden yellow
with purple hands, feet, and face. There are several varieties, the smallest of
which is only 7 inches long. It ranges from south-eastern Brazil through
Colombia to the isthmus of Panama. The recently discovered calimito has the
form of a marmoset with the teeth of a squirrel monkey.
SILKY TAMARIN
36°
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
Jaguar.
The order Insectivora is unrepresented in Central and South
America, the reported occurrence of a shrew {Blarina brevicauda)
in Costa Rica being incorrect. We accordingly pass on to the Carnivora, of which
the largest South American representative is the jaguar (Fells onca), which ranges
from Louisiana to the Rio Negro on the borders of Patagonia. Needless to say,
with such an extensive range, the species includes several local races. Although
with a relatively bigger head, the Brazilian jaguar may be compared in size to a
large leopard. The general type of coloration is also leopard-like, but the black
^WJu^rt^Jf^.
JAOT'ARONDI.
rosettes are larger and have a black spot in the centre of the enclosed light area;
a feature, sometimes at least, seen in Siamese leopards. The rosettes are generally
arranged more or less distinctly in seven or eight rows.
Jaguars are partial to the neighbourhood of water, and in forest-districts
frequent the wooded banks of rivers and the reed-beds of lakes. Being excellent
climbers they live among trees, which, in some districts, they never abandon even
during floods. They are also, however, equally at home on the Argentine pampas,
where the numerous rodents afford them abundant food. In tropical forest districts
jaguars prey largely on monkeys, and on the Orinoco they feed on tortoises and
JAGUAR — SMALLER CATS — MANED WOLF— FOXES 361
their eo-^s. Occasionally they will catch and kill an alligator ; and even fishes are
said to form an important item of their fare. Jaguars are near akin to leopards ;
their ancestors probably reached America by way of Bering Strait, and then died
off in the north. A similar relationship is presented by the ocelot of America to
the clouded leopard and allied Asiatic species.
The second largest cat of South America is the puma, to which
Smaller Cats
reference has already been made under the heading of North
America. A third and smaller species, the ocelot (F. pardalis), like the jaguar is
a native of the South American tropical tract, ranging from Paraguay northwards
to Arkansas, where it is represented by numerous local races not yet fully denned.
The most common form is tawny yellow or reddish grey marked by chain-like
streaks and blotches bordered with black, and spots and stripes on the head and
limbs, and imperfect dark rings on the tail. Ocelots vary in length from 3 feet to
4 feet, inclusive of the tail, which may measure from 11 to 15 inches. They seem
everywhere to be true forest animals, and are consequently not met with on the
pampas of the Argentine. Another very variable species is the margay or tiger-cat
(F. tigrina).
A very beautiful South American cat, the colocollo (F. colocollo), inhabiting
Chile, Bolivia, and other districts, is about the size of a large domesticated cat. In
one form the colour is pale gre}T, with dark spots and streaks, and a black streak
uniting the eye with the jaw. Two very remarkable types are the jaguarondi (F.
jaguarondi) and the eyra (F. eyra). The former, which inhabits Paraguay, Brazil,
Guiana, and north-eastern Mexico, is blackish or brownish ^rev in colour, without
spots or stripes. In addition to the elongated form of its body and tail (which
measure about 35 inches), the jaguarondi is characterised by the narrowness of its
nose — a feature noticeable even in the skull. Several local races or subspecies are
known. Still more elongated and slender is the eyra, which in form resembles
a weasel, and has a small, flat head, long neck, and short legs, standing much
higher behind than at the shoulders. In colour the eyra varies from reddish
yellow to chestnut-brown, without markings of any kind. Its range extends
from Paraguay to the Texan border ; like the jaguarondi, it is a forest animal
rarely seen in the open.
_ By far the largest South American representative of the dog tribe
Maned Wolf. . r &
is the so-called maned wolf (Canisjubatus), a long-haired, red-coloured
species, in which the hair attains its maximum development on the neck, although
it does not form a distinct mane. In size it is about as large as the common wolf,
but is longer in the legs and has a shorter tail. In colour it is bright yellowish
red with the front of the legs and the ears black. Rare on the pampas, it ranges
from Paraguay and northern Argentina to Brazil, everywhere leading a solitary
existence, and preferring swampy to dry localities. The food of this wolf consists
chiefly of the flesh of rodent mammals, although birds, reptiles, insects, and even
fruit, are eaten, while occasionally sheep-folds are raided. Although called a wolf,
the species is an overgrown type akin to the other South American Canidce.
The other members of the dog-family inhabiting the continent
are smaller and more fox-like in appearance, although they are really
quite different from the true foxes. One of the most common is Azara's fox
362
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
(C. azarce), which has several local races, and apparently ranges from Brazil to
Patagonia. On the west side of the Andes it is represented by a closely allied
form. Like the aguarachay, as Azara's fox is locally called, the crab-eating fox or
carasissi (C. thous) is very similar in appearance to a fox. Somewhat larger than
the aguarachay, it is generally brownish grey in colour. Its range is commonly
said to extend from Guiana to Argentina, although it is unknown on the pampas.
Like its kindred, it feeds on rodents and birds, as well as on crustaceans, and
r
MA>"ED WOLF.
is generally a forest animal, although also met with in the open country. There
are several other more or less closely allied species which demand no special
notice on this occasion.
A very remarkable member of the family is the bush-dog (Speothus venaticus),
of the Guianas and Brazil, which differs from other Canidce both in appearance
and dentition. On each side of the upper jaw it usually has only one true molar
tooth, and only two pairs of lower true molars, the first of which (the flesh-tooth)
has no cusp on the inner side of the blade, and a sharp edge to the heel behind the
same. In size the bush-dog is somewhat inferior to an ordinary fox ; it has very
-* ?*i"
*',
WW***
^ '-'■■>,: .
Red Coati.
SPECTACLED BEAR — SMALLER CARNLVORA 363
short ears, a long body, and short legs. In colour it is dark brown. A second
species, 8. rivetti, inhabits Ecuador.
The only member of its tribe, inhabiting South America is the
spectacled bear (Ursus ornatus), of the Chilian Andes, a black
species marked on the face with spectacle-like brownish yellow rings. It is
a relatively small animal, apparently allied to the Malay species. In Bolivia
it is represented by a distinct race {U. ornatus majori). This bear is clearly an
immigrant from the north.
Raccoon and South America abounds in members of the raccoon group.
cacomisties. Among these a representative of the typical genus, the crab-eating
raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus), inhabits Colombia and Guiana and, in the form of
a dark-footed race, Brazil and Paraguay. Somewhat larger than the common
raccoon, it has bigger teeth and shorter fur, but seems to be of similar
habits.
The cacomisties are nearly related to the raccoons, but of slighter build, with
more pointed muzzles and longer tails. One species is limited to Central America,
the second (Bassaricus astwtus), of which several local races are recognised, ranges
through Mexico into the United States.
Nearly related to the cacomisties are the coatis, easily recognised
coatis. J > j o
by their extremely elongated and somewhat up-turned muzzles, com-
pressed bodies, and long tails, as well as by their long and powerful claws. Of the
numerous species, the white-nosed coati (Nasua nasica), which inhabits Mexico
and Central America, is reddish brown in colour with a white nose and upper lip ;
while the red coati (N. rufa), said to range from Surinam to Paraguay, is
a brighter red, and has the tail ringed with rufous. Both feed on fruits, insects,
birds' eggs, young birds, and lizards.
The last representative of the group, the kinkajou (Cercoleptes
caudivolvulus), is about the size of an ordinary cat, and specially
distinguished by its prehensile tail and its unusually elongated tongue. In colour
it is yellowish brown. Inhabiting the mountain-forests which extend from
central Mexico to the Rio Negro in Brazil, the kinkajou is a nocturnal and arboreal
creature, feeding on fruits, honey, birds and their eggs, and small mammals.
Of the aquatic Carnivora, the Brazilian otter (Lutra brasiliensis)
is far the largest of its genus, measuring over 40 inches in length,
exclusive of the tail, which is 23 inches long. This species is characterised by the
presence of a ridge along the upper and lower border of the tail, and, unlike other
otters, hunts entirely by day. In contrast to the last, the pigmy Chilian otter
(L. felina) is one of the smallest of its tribe, and peculiar from the circumstance
that it passes the greater portion of its time in the sea. Common on the west
coast of Chile, this species extends northwards into Peru and Ecuador, and
southwards to the Strait of Magellan, where its range meets that of the
Brazilian otter.
Skunks of the genus Conepatus abound in South America,
Skunks
among them being the large and heavily built white-backed
C. mapurito. The species are chiefly distinguished from one another by the
extent of white on the back, which is otherwise dark brown or black.
364
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
Grisons.
The grisons, which form an exclusively American group of the
weasel tribe, are distinguished by the dentition, their broad flat heads,
small rounded ears, nearly plantigrade feet with bare soles, and dark under-parts.
■' The largest of the group is
the tayra (Galictis bar-
bara), a species measuring
about 3 feet in length,
blackish brown in colour,
with the ears and soles
occasionally white. Its
range apparently extends
from Mexico to the Argen-
tine pampas.
The grison (G. vittata)
is a smaller animal than
the tayra, from which it
differs in coloration, having,
like many other members
of the weasel tribe, the
under-parts darker than
the back. It has a con-
siderable range in South
America. A third repre-
sentative of the group is
G. allemandi,
Although
Weasels.
there are no
martens in tropical America
the weasels are represented in Brazil by
Mustela frenata or a nearly allied species,
while Patagonia possesses a peculiar type
known as Lyncodon patagonicus.
South and Central America
are poor in hoofed animals, the
most numerous group being the deer. Among
these, the whiteTtailed deer is represented by
a small form from Colombia and Ecuador,
characterised by its nearly naked ears, and
known as Mazama [Odocoileus] americana
gymnotis, if it be regarded as entitled to
specific rank. The Costa Rica deer (M.
americana truei) may be regarded as another local form of whitetail, charac-
terised by its simple spike-like antlers. The brockets, the typical representatives
of Mazama, are an exclusively tropical American group, readily recognised by
their small stature, simple spike-like antlers, and the reversal of the direction of
the hair of the face. The most familiar representative is the red brocket (M.
KINKAJOU.
DEER
365
rufa), of Brazil, replaced in Central America by M. mrtorii. The wood-brocket
(M. nemorivaga) is a greyer South American species. Allied to the brockets is the
pudu (Pudua pudu), the smallest of all deer, which inhabits the Chilian Andes
and has very small, spike-like antlers.
Another group of exclusively South American deer is that of the guemals, in
which the antlers are usually simply bifurcate. Of these, the Chilian guemal
(Mazama [Xenelaphus] bisulca) ranges from Santiago to the Straits of Magellan,
but is more common in the south than elsewhere, while the Peruvian guemal (M.
[X] antisiensis) inhabits the highlands of Peru. Yet another group, with a much
more complicated type of antlers, is represented by the pampas and the marsh deer,
CHILIAN PUDU.
both of which are confined to the eastern side of the continent. The smaller of the
two is the pampas-deer (M. [Blastoceros] bezoartica), a species with a shoulder-
height of about 30 inches, ranging from Paraguay and Uruguay through Argentina
to northern Patagonia ; it is the largest and commonest ungulate of the pampas.
The second and larger species is the guazuti or marsh-deer (M. [B.] dichotonia ),
which inhabits south Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, where it frequents the
vicinity of marshes and lakes. In addition to its superior size, it differs from the
pampas-deer by the bright red colour of the hair, relieved by black on the front of
the limbs. Both the marsh-deer and the pampas-deer differ from the other
American members of the family by the reversal of the direction of the hair on
the withers and neck.
:6t>
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
Guanaco and Although originally a northern type, the guanaco and vicuna —
Llamas. ^he New World wild representatives of the camels — are now charac-
teristic South American ruminants restricted to the western and southern districts,
and thrive only in temperate climates. The larger of the two is the guanaco
(Lama guanacus), whose range extends from the mountains of Ecuador and Peru
to the plains of Patagonia and the islands of Tierra del Fuego. Guanaco are not
infrequently seen in large herds numbering up to five hundred, and though they
seem here and there able to exist without fresh water altogether, they take to
water without hesitation, and are excellent swimmers, having been seen swimming
in the sea from island to island.
A HEliD OF ALPACAS.
Young guanaco are easily tamed, and easily breed in captivity, which explains
the fact that from this species have originated the two domesticated breeds known
as the llama and alpaca. The alpaca (L. pacos) is kept the whole year round in
large herds in the highlands of Bolivia and southern Peru, and only driven into
the villages to be shorn. It is bred for the sake of its, generally black or blackish
brown, wool, which is so long that in some cases it reaches the ground. The coat
of the alpaca is long all over the body, and in many cases there are none of the
bare patches on the legs characteristic of the guanaco, but not of the vicuna, these
being overgrown with wool.
The llama (L. glama), on the other hand, is used as a beast of burden, its
hair being comparatively short, and hanging but a little way down the flanks.
In colour it is much more varied than the alpaca, being seldom entirely brown or
Llama.
GUANACO AND LLAMAS— PECCARIES
367
black, but usually spotted with white, or totally white, while on its knees are
always found the bare patches already mentioned. It is a long-necked and long-
legged animal, even larger than the wild guanaco, and thus considerably taller
than the alpaca. At the time of the conquest of Peru by the Spaniards there
were said to be more than 300,000 llamas used for transporting the silver from
Potosi, but at the present day in consequence of the introduction of horses and
mules — and railways — the llama has almost ceased to be employed as a pack-
animal.
The second wild species, the vicuna (L. vicuna), is confined to the mountains
0U. !L"4ua*4,£*
■, _
.■s*«0- ~<4Kf
i *"
VICUNAS.
Peccaries.
of south Ecuador and central Bolivia. Above it is uniform light brown, paler
below and on the legs, and on the shoulders it has long white hair.
True pigs do not exist wild in America, where they are repre-
sented in Central and South America by the allied group of peccaries,
which are small hog-like animals, with a gland on the middle of the back, the
tail rudimentary, and the upper tusks directed downwards instead of upwards.
The collared peccary (Dicotyles tajagu), the smaller of the two best defined species,
is blackish brown in colour marked by a yellowish white collar running down from
the shoulders across the chest. The distributional area of this and an allied species
(D. angulatus), a rare species, extends from the Rio Negro in Patagonia to Texas,
Arkansas, Arizona, and Sonora ; but there are several local races of these animals
368
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
in this extensive tract. Many naturalists substitute the barbarous name Tajagu
for the appropriate Dicotyles.
The white-lipped peccary (D. labiatus) is a somewhat larger animal; the
northern boundary of whose habitat is formed by British Honduras, while Paraguay
constitutes its southern limits.
COLLARED PECCARIES.
Tapirs.
The only other group of South American hoofed animals is that
of the tapirs, which, like the guanaco, are originally immigrants from
the north. The Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris), when adult, is dark brown,
or blackish in colour, as are the other three American species, and its ears
have white edges. Its range includes Brazil, Paraguay, and northern Argentina,
TAPIRS — RATS AND MICE — PORCUPINES
569
but the animal is everywhere confined to the forest tracts, and is entirely
nocturnal.
On the highlands of Ecuador and Colombia this species is replaced by Roulin's
tapir (T. roulini), which has a rounder neck and a long white spot on the chin. The
other two species are from Central America, where Baird's tapir (T. hnirdi) ranges
from Panama to Mexico, while Dow's tapir (T. dowi) is confined to Guatemala,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
South America absolutely swarms with rodents, although many
well-known northern types such as jumping-mice, dormice, and
beavers are want-
/ *
Rats and Mice.
ing. Squirrels, on
the other hand, are
represented by a
certain number of
species. The great
majority of the
South American
mice belong to the
cricetine group, and
include representa-
tives of the genera
Onychomys, Rhip i-
domys, Tylomys,
Holochilus, Oryz-
omys, Rhithrodon-
tomys, Eligmodon,
Neotomys, Rh ith-
rodon, Phyllotis,
Scapteromys, Ich-
thyomys, Acodon,
0 x y m y c t e r u s,
Blarinomys, Not i-
omys, etc. ; several
of these being
peculiar to Central
and South America.
Among them, the
fish-eating rat (Ich-
thyomys stolz-
nianni), of the
mountains of Peru, is an aquatic species of the approximate size of a water-rat,
with fringes of hair to the feet.
In another group, the South American porcupines, which are
classed with the Canadian porcupine in the family Brithizontidce,
have short spines, in some cases almost hidden in the hair, but very numerous and
occasionally provided with small barbed hooks. One of the most common is the
vol 11. — 24
rr-^
TREE-PORCUPINE.
Porcupines.
370 TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
Brazilian tree-porcupine (Synetheres prehensilis), of Brazil, Guiana, and part of
Bolivia. A second is the long-haired Mexican porcupine (S. novce-hispanice),
which looks, when in repose, like a knot of a lichen-covered branch. The bristle-
spined porcupine (Chcetomys subspinosus) of central and northern Brazil, is rather
larger than either of the preceding, from which it is distinguished by its bristle-
like spines, the absence of prehensile power in the tail, and the fact that it is not
exclusively arboreal in its habits. Coendou, the native name of the Brazilian tree-
porcupine, has of late years been adopted as the name of the genus, in place of
Synetheres.
Another family of rodents, whose distribution is confined to
Africa, the West Indies, and Central and South America, is typified
by the degu (Octodon degus), a species resembling a rat in size and general appear-
ance, but with a shorter tail, tufted at the tip and often bent backwards in squirrel-
fashion. The degu, which is a good climber, and stores up provisions like a
squirrel, inhabits Peru and Chile, other species of the group being found in Chile
and Bolivia. A Bolivian species has been described as Octodontomys, or Neoctodon.
The members of the allied genus Aconcemys are found in parts of the southern
Andes, which are covered with snow for several months of the }Tear.
In the sandy districts of the Ai-gentine pampas may be heard all day and all
night the ringing cry of a member of the same group, which in large numbers leads
a subterranean life. The sound of the tuco-tuco, as the animal is called, much
resembles the blows of a hammer, first strong and measured, then lighter and in
quicker succession. Tuco-tucos burrow long passages at no great depth beneath
the ground, their course being marked by small mounds on the surface. The red
incisor teeth of these rodents are very broad, and the fore-feet have long curved
claws. There are several species, of which Ctenomys brasiliensis is confined to
Brazil, while C. magellanica is restricted to southern Patagonia. To the same
group belongs the genus Habrocoma, which, like the preceding and the following,
is exclusively confined to Central and South America. The coypu (Myopotamus
coypw), inhabiting both sides of the Andes from Peru southwards, resembles a
beaver in general appearance and habits, living on the banks of rivers and lakes,
and feeding on the leaves, roots, and seeds of aquatic plants. In the banks of its
native rivers it forms burrows, consisting of a passage some 3 or 4 feet long ending
in a chamber 2 feet in diameter ; but when the bank is not high enough to admit
of this, the eoypu builds a fiat nest among reeds and rushes. The coypu seems to
accommodate itself to different conditions according to locality. In the Chonos
Archipelago, for instance, where it lives exclusively in the bays among the small
islands of the group, and where it is said to feed partly on molluscs, it establishes
itself in the forest at some distance from the water. Again, in parts of Argentina,
where it was formerly dying out in consequence of constant pursuit, but began to
increase when its destruction was prohibited, it is said to have forsaken an aquatic
life and become a migratory land-animal, till it was almost exterminated by an
epidemic. In Argentina it is known as nutria, under which name its fur is an
important article of commerce.
To another section of the same family belong the spiny rats of the genera
Dactylomys, Loncheres, Echinomys, etc., all of which are long-tailed rodents, with
CHINCHILLAS — VISCA CHA 3 7 1
a number of stout spines mingled with the hair of the back. They are quite
peculiar to Central and South America.
The typical representative of an exclusively South and Central
American family is the beautiful little chinchilla (Chinchilla
lanigera), a squirrel-like, large-eared rodent, about 10 inches long, with a tail of
half that length, remarkable for the softness of its pearl-grey fur. It inhabits
the higher Andes between southern Chile and the north of Bolivia, living in
large colonies amid scant vegetation, and digging its own burrows, which it
leaves during the day, when, however, it keeps in the shade of l^ocks. The short-
tailed chinchilla (C. brevicaudata) is a much larger and still little-known species,
inhabiting Peru. Still larger is Cuvier's chinchilla (Lagidium cuvieri), which
CHINCHILLA.
has only four toes on each foot, and inhabits the Andes of Chile, Peru, and
Bolivia, up to heights of 16,000 feet.
To the same family belongs the viscacha (Lagostomus tricho-
dactylus), a large rodent with only three toes on the hind- feet.
A heavily built animal, with strong legs, rather short ears, and a bushy tail about
one-third longer than the body, the viscacha measures about 20 inches in length.
The short-haired fur is principally grey above, and white or yellowish beneath ;
but a black stripe, with a white one above it, runs from the point of the nose
to each cheek, and there is a russet-coloured band across the forehead. This
rodent ranges through the open pampas from the Rio Negro to Uruguay, and
during the dry season has nothing on which to feed save withered grass and thistles.
It generally congregates in " viscacheras " — collections of mounds formed by the
earth thrown out from the burrows. Each viscachera may contain from twenty
to thirty viscachas, and has at least a dozen galleries leading into chambers
372
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
Agutis.
Paca.
|&*
which are sometimes as much as a yard in diameter, and communicate by similar
galleries with each other.
Another family of rodents, peculiar to the typical American area,
comprises a number of short-tailed species with high-arched backs,
known as agutis. Ranging from Paraguay through the greater part of South
and Central America, agutis are represented by one species in the West Indies.
They are distinguished by having live toes on the fore-feet and three toes to the
hind-feet, as well as by their coarse hair, which is somewhat longer on the hind-
parts than elsewhere. The common aguti (Dasyprocta aguti), which ranges over
Guiana, Brazil, and northern Peru, is about 19 inches long, and olive-brown in
colour, with a yellow stripe on the back, and bright orange hind-parts.
The paca (Ccelogenys paca), a heavily built rodent about 2 feet
lone, with tive-toed feet and bare soles, a wart-like stump of a tail,
and a broad head
with a blunt nose,
is a member of the
same family. In
colour it differs
from the agutis by
the presence of
from three to five
rows of whitish
spots along the
sides of the reddish
brown body. Pacas
inhabit the greater
part of South
America down to
Paraguay, alt hough
unknown west of
the Andes, and they
are also found in
Tobago and Trini-
dad. On the high-
lands of Ecuador
the common paca
is replaced by Taczanowski's paca (C. taczanowskii), whose burrows, unlike those,
of the common paca, have two entrances. Branick's paca (Dinomys branicki),
which probably inhabits some part of upper Amazonia, represents a distinct
type, and has a remarkable history, having for many years been known only by
a single specimen taken in a Peruvian courtyard.
The cavies, another family restricted to the South American
Cavies.
region, comprise very short-tailed or tailless rodents, with four toes
on the fore-feet and only three on the hind-feet, all of which are provided with hoof-
like claws. In the typical or true cavies the tail is absent, the body short, the
ears small, and, except in the domesticated guinea-pig, the colour quite uniform.
VISCACHA.
CAVIES — CARPINCHO— HARES— ARMADILLOS
373
One of the most noteworthy species is the Peruvian cavy (Cavia cutleri), which
may very probably have been the ancestor of the guinea-pig. Another species
(C. porcellus), distributed through Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay, is found
exclusively in marshy places on the forest borders. The Bolivian cavy (C. boli-
viensis), which is smaller than the last, lives in large colonies, and in many
districts completely undermines the ground. Among other species, the small
rock-cavy (0. rupestris), which is remarkable for its exceedingly short claws,
inhabits certain parts of Brazil, and does not dig a burrow.
The largest member of the Cavidce, and, indeed, of all living
rodents, is the carpincho, or capivara (Hydrochcerus capivara), a
species measuring about 48 inches in length, with brown bristly hair and webbed
Carpincho.
PACA.
feet. It ranges from Argentina northwards over the east of South America,
occurring also in the plains of Bolivia and Peru. An exclusively aquatic animal,
it swims and dives excellently. Carpinchos wander about in herds, probably
having no fixed abode, though visiting more or less the same places on the river
banks, where they lazily spend their time eating and resting.
The widely spread group of hares is represented in South
America by several species, among which the tiny Brazilian hare
(Lepus brasiliensis) is a near relative of the North American wood-hare.
South and Central America form the exclusive home of the more
typical groups of edentate mammals, with the exception that one
armadillo has wandered into Texas. With the aforesaid exception, armadillos are
more or less confined to the warmer countries of Central and South America, gener-
ally living in dry districts in the forests and pampas, where they dig their burrows
Hares.
Armadillos.
374
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
so rapidly that a man cannot dismount in time to catch one before it disappears.
By means of their strong claws armadillos dig for their food, which consists of ants,
termites, and other insects, as well as worms and snails, and occasionally carrion.
Ants and other insects cling to the sticky, protrusile tongue, and are drawn with it
into the mouth. Armadillos are protected from their enemies by means of a cuirass
of bony plates covered with horny shields arranged in such a way as to leave
room for hairs to grow between. The more typical armadillos are characterised
CARPINCHOS
by having a number of movable rows of plates between the front and hind part
of the cuirass, as well as by their large ears, standing well apart from each other,
and by the slenderness or absence of claws on the first and second fore-toes. In
the typical genus the number of movable bands is usually six or seven but some-
times eight. Perhaps the most remarkable species is the peludo, or hairy armadillo
(Dasypus villosus) of Argentina, on account of the variety of its diet and the way in
which this is obtained. The peludo searches for insects, which form its principal
food, by running along with its nose close to the ground, like a dog, and when
hunting for larvae or worms some inches below the surface, burrows nearly circular,
ARMADILLOS
375
funnel-like holes with its wedged-shaped head, hundreds of these holes occurring
on the pampas. As these holes are somewhat dangerous to the horsemen, the
armadillos are sometimes poisoned with strychnine. Both this species and the
weasel-headed armadillo (D. sexcinctus) are, however, also hunted with clogs. The
last-named species, which is about 16 inches long, replaces the peludo in Brazil and
Paraguay. Argentina is the home of the pichi or pigmy armadillo (D. minutus)
as well as of the woolly armadillo (D. vellerosus). The pigmy armadillo is much
smaller than either the peludo or the weasel-headed species, and inhabits dry ground,
especially sand-dunes on the shore, where it does not obtain water for months.
Like most of its relatives, it is a diurnal animal, which, when pursued, tries to
escape by pressing its body close to the ground.
; • % -> • -4»
-;
>
PEBA ARMADILLO.
Next to the great armadillo, the tatouay (Lysiiirus unicinctus) is the largest
representative of the family, and belongs to a genus distinguished by the presence
of twelve or thirteen movable bands. It inhabits Surinam, Brazil, and Paraguay.
The great armadillo (Priodon gigas), of the forests of Surinam and Brazil, is, as
its name implies, the largest representative of the famil}-, and is almost a yard long
from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, which is about the same length as
the body.
Of quite a different type is the apar (Tolypeutes tricinctus) of the Argentine
pampas, which, together with two other species, forms a genus distinguished by
three movable bands. The tail, which is covered with angular tubercles, is
retractile, as is the long narrow head, within the cuirass, so that the creature is
able to roll itself into a ball, in which state it is completely protected from attack.
In colour the apar is dark brownish grey above and russet below, with the spaces
between the three movable bands white. Like others of its kindred, it is remark-
376 TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
able for its manner of walking, the fore-legs touching the ground only by the tips
of their claws, a circumstance all the more singular since the toes are of unequal
lengths. The third toe is even more strongly developed than that of the great
armadillo, while the first and fifth have either very small claws or none at all.
Very different from all other armadillos is the peba (Tatusia novemcincta)
conspicuous on account of its closely approximated mule-like ears, and further dis-
tinguished by certain peculiarities connected with its dentition and other parts of
its structure. The range of this species extends from Paraguay to Texas ; an allied
form is the mulita (T. hybrida) of Argentina and other parts of South America,
and another is the shaggy armadillo (T. pilosa) of Peru, in which the whole body,
except the head, is so densely covered with light brown hair that it looks like an
ordinary soft-skinned animal.
More remarkable than all is the fairy armadillo or pichiciago (Chlamydophorus
truncatus), distinguished not only by its diminutive size but by the peculiar form
and structure of the cuirass. In conformity with its burrowing habits, the pichi-
ciago has the body much narrower in front than behind. The broad disk-like
hinder end of the body, which seems to be used for ramming down the earth to
stop the entrance of the hole, is formed of bony plates closely joined in rows of
different sizes, and covered with thin horny shields, these making an almost per-
pendicular buckler, at the lower corner of which is situated the stumpy tail. Besides
this posterior buckler, the pichiciago carries on its back a mantle-like cuirass
commencing at a point close above the nose and gradually widening as it extends
backwards. This mantle is fastened to the skull, but is connected with the body
merely down the middle of the back so that it only loosely covers the hairy sides.
Pichiciagos inhabit sand-hills covered with cactus plants or thorn-bushes in
western Argentina, and are most common in the neighbourhood of Mendoza, although
seldom seen. The larger pichiciago (C. retusus) is an even scarcer species, inhabiting
Bolivia, and distinguished from its smaller relative by the mantle being completely
joined to the body, a circumstance which has led to its being regarded as the
representative of a second genus.
The sloths, which form the second family of edentates, inhabit
those parts of South and Central America in which the moisture of
the air, and accordingly the development and abundance of vegetation, are at
their highest. The darker and more impenetrable the forests, the more are they
inhabited by sloths, which are so thoroughly arboreal that they never, or only in
case of need, descend to the ground. They are indeed able to touch the ground only
with the outer edges of their feet, and are hopelessly awkward out of their native
trees. Some travellers describe these animals as comparatively agile, and during the
twilight and at night, when they are most lively, they may perhaps travel some
distance, yet they are regarded as types of laziness by the natives, although their
exceedingly slow movements are very likely due to extreme caution. A sloth
moving slowly from branch to branch is a most peculiar sight. It never leaves
go one branch before it has firmly clutched the next, and for a long time fumbles
about in the air with its feet in order to get a firm hold for them. When asleep,
sloths roll themselves up into a ball, and cling to the branches, with the head
between the front-legs, and the legs in a position similar to that of the potto, a
SLOTHS
377
West African lemur, which also lives exclusively in trees. In this position they
are able to fast for a month or longer. This sluggishness probably accounts also
for their immunity to large doses of poison, and their power of resistance in the
case of serious wounds, for they are not able to escape poisonous snakes, or beasts-
of-prey. Their favourite haunts are the cecropia trees so abundant in the South
American forests, whose large leaves and milky sap afford them abundant food. They
seldom leave their own tree, and
on account of the moisture in its
leaves, twigs, and fruit, which
form almost exclusively their nutri-
ment, these animals need no water,
and are thus not compelled to
descend to the ground even during
© ©
a protracted period of drought.
Like other vegetable-feeders, sloths
are provided with a stomach con-
sisting of several compartments so
as to get the full benefit of their
©
food. Their extremely long front-
legs, which far surpass the hind-
legs in this respect, have elongated
slender feet and strong hook-like
claws enclosed, as in a glove, by
a common skin. Owing to the
strength of their claws, these
claspers serve their purpose so well
that sloths when feeding hang
from branches with their backs
downwards, and even when killed
by a shot do not drop to the
ground until the stiffness of death
has relaxed. In accordance with
this strange hanging attitude is
© © ©
the flexibility of the neck, which
enables them to turn the face com-
pletely round. Never very con-
spicuous, they are even less so when
asleep, for the body is covered
with long, coarse, somewhat brittle hair of brownish or dull ashy grey colour
tinged with green, this green tinge being due to the growth in the grooves of the
pithy hair of an alga allied to the green water-weeds of our pools, which, owing to
the moist atmosphere of the forests, flourishes luxuriantly. Between the shoulders
male sloths show a patch of short under- fur marked with bright brown and orange
stripes. Young sloths, which are born completely developed, but with
short hair, clasp their mother's neck with their arms and cling to her long hair.
The female has two teats, but gives birth only to one young at a time. The
UNACT.
378 TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
internal structure of sloths is in many respects as remarkable as their external
appearance. The windpipe is apparently too long for the neck, which accounts for
the facility with which they turn their heads, and, as in some birds, forms a loop.
The neck does not contain the same number of vertebrae in all the sloths. Most
mammals have only seven neck-vertebrae, but the three-toed sloth possesses nine,
although the ninth, and sometimes also the eighth, is provided with a pair of small,
independently moving ribs not joined to the breast-bone. It might have been
thought that this extra number of vertebrae had something to do with the flexibility
of the neck of the sloths, were it not that the two-toed sloths have the ordinary
number of seven vertebrae sometimes reduced to six.
Besides the number of the vertebras of the neck and the number of toes on
the feet, the three-toed sloths are distinguished from the two-toed species by the form
of the first upper tooth. One species of the former group (Bradypus tridactylus)
inhabits the drier parts of the forest, while a second, distinguished by a long, tan-
coloured stripe between the shoulders, prefers permanently flooded areas. The
latter species (B. infuscatus), called by the natives the sloth of the flooded country,
is distinguished by being able to swim. The two-toed sloths, which have only
two toes on their fore-feet but three on their hind-feet, are distinguished by their
long, thick, and almost tusk-like first upper and lower teeth. One of these,
Hoffmann's unau (CJiolaepus hoffmanni), has been heard to utter various sounds such
as a sheep-like bleating and a loud snorting. This species, which has only six
vertebras in the neck, is confined to Brazil, while the common unau (C. didactylus),
which has seven neck-vertebrae, inhabits Ecuador and Costa Rica.
The ant-eaters, which form the third family of edentates, although
Ant-Eaters. . J ~
very different from the sloths in external appearance, are yet closely
allied. They live, however, exclusively on insects, and are adapted in a remarkable
way for that sort of nourishment. They have unusually elongated heads with
tube-like mouths, through the small aperture of which they protrude and with-
draw the long, sticky tongue. The large, bent claw of the long middle toe of
the fore-feet serves for scratching up insects buried in the ground or hidden beneath
the bark of trees, while the long viscid tongue conveys them into the mouth.
Compared with this large middle toe, the other toes are small and in some cases
rudimentary. But while the toes of the fore-feet are irregular, the four or five toes
of the hind-legs, which are as long as the fore-legs, are of more or less equal size,
and provided with claws of equal length. One species of ant-eater has feet
somewhat like those of a sloth, adapted for climbing trees. The second also climbs,
and, like the first, has a long prehensile tail. The third and largest species, on the
other hand, lives entirelj* on or in the ground, and its tail though long is non-
prehensile.
The great ant-eaters Myrmecophaga, locally known in Paraguay as yurumi,
and in Surinam as tamanoir, inhabit the tropical regions of South and Central
America, where they live either in river-marshes or forest-swamps, and are nowhere
numerous. They are the largest members of the family, attaining a length of about
48 inches exclusive of the tail, which may be 3 feet in length. The position of the
toes and the powerful claws might lead to the belief that these ant-eaters, which
generally move at a trot and, when pursued, at an awkward gallop, are burrowing
UJ
Z
<
W
O
ANT-EATERS 379
animals. This, however, is not the case. The long claws of the fore-feet only serve
their owner to tear up ant-hills, whose alarmed inhabitants cluster in masses and
stick in hundreds to the slimy tongue as it is alternately darted out and withdrawn
as quick as lightning. This process, as well as the cleaning of the mouth from earth
and saliva, is but seldom observed, since the great ant-eater is rarely visible, being
a nocturnal animal and sleeping throughout the day in high grass or other covert.
Here it lies on one side, with the head buried in the long hair of the chest, the legs
drawn close to its body, and the back covered by the bushy tail. On awaking,
it leisurely gets its limbs into their usual position, first sitting up on its hind-legs,
and then stretching its fore-legs and slowly moving its head to and fro. Except
during pairing-time, males as well as females live alone ; the lair of the female
generally contains a single young one, which is born in spring, and after having
been suckled for several months remains with the mother until she is again far
advanced in pregnancy. The typical M. jubata, or M. tridactyla, of tropical South
America, is replaced in Central America by M. centralis, mainly distinguished by
skull-characters.
The tamandua or lesser ant-eater (Tamandua tetradactyla) is scarcely half the
size of the preceding species, and has a shorter head, longer ears, and a prehensile
tail. The hind-feet resemble those of the great ant-eater, but the fore-feet are
rather stronger and somewhat different in structure. The middle toe has the
strongest claw, but the claws on the second and fourth toes are fairly strong,
while the first toe carries only a small claw, and the fifth, which is hidden in the
skin, has none at all.
The tamandua, which inhabits South and Central America, is much more
common than the larger species, and generally found on the edges of the forests,
where it lives principally in trees, often climbing to the top of the highest. Here it
finds the greater part of its food, which consists of ants and perhaps also of honey.
In all its movements it is more lively than the great ant-eater and tries to escape
when pursued, but if hard pressed will sometimes sit down like the other species
and attempt to hug and wound its enemies with its claws. Although chiefly
nocturnal, it is sometimes seen about by day. Tamanduas generally sleep with
the head sunk on the breast and covered with the fore-paws, and the tail drawn
close to the side.
The third species, or two-clawed ant-eater (Cycloturus didactylus), is confined to
the hottest countries of South and Central America, inhabiting the north of Brazil,
Peru, and Guiana, and not found more than 2000 feet above the sea. It is not
much more than 6 inches long, the tail being rather longer and prehensile. The
hind-feet have four toes of almost equal length placed close together and used like
those of the sloths as claspers, the same being the case more or less with the fore-feet,
which have four toes but only the third and the fourth clawed. This animal has
the same way of hanging on trees and the same slow movements as the sloths, and,
like them, is exclusively arboreal. It sleeps among the branches in the deepest
parts of the forest all day long, and on account of its nocturnal habits is rarely
seen even by the natives. Apparently never uttering a sound, it climbs about
in a quiet, circumspect way in search of food, which includes ants, bees, wasps, and
their larvae. It eats its food like a squirrel, holding it between the fore-feet.
38o TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
Although, as already stated, North America has but one or two
marsupials, in South America the order is well represented. The
opossums of the area under consideration are, however, much smaller than the
common species of the north, of which local races are met with. One of the
South American opossums found in Guiana and in southern Brazil and Argentina
is the thick-tailed opossum (Didelphys crassicaudata), distinguished by the tail
being thickly haired along its basal half and thinly haired almost to the tip.
As in the rat-tailed opossum (D. nudicaudata), which ranges from Costa Rica to
Brazil, its pouch is rudimentary or absent. Unlike the latter, the Quica opossum
(D. opossum) has a tail bare of hair except at the base, and a well-developed pouch.
All three are of medium size with long tails and short crisp fur. On the other
hand, in the philander opossum (D. philander) of Guiana and north-eastern Brazil,
the fur is woolly and soft. Another species, ranging from Mexico to Paraguay, is
the woolly opossum (D. lanigera), which is of somewhat larger size and is the
common opossum of tropical South America. Neither species has a pouch, the place
of which is taken by two large folds on the skin, and consequently the females have
to carry their young, sometimes twelve in number, on their backs, a load which does
not hinder them from climbing trees with great quickness. The philander opossum
is distinguished by a narrow brown line down its pale grey face, and a brown ring
round each eye, its general colour being reddish or yellowish grey above and
yellowish below. The murine opossum (D. mwrina), which has the dark eye-stripes
very noticeable, ranges from central Mexico into Brazil, and somewhat resembles a
bright red mouse. Another group of opossums is composed of still smaller species,
the smallest being the pigmy opossum (D. sorex) of Rio Grande do Sul, which is
less than 3 inches long. It should be added that by many modern zoologists
the ai'boreal opossums are divided into several generic groups such as Philander
and Marmosa. Whether such subdivisions are altogether advisable may be an
open question, but there is no doubt as to the right of the yapock, or water-opossum
(Chironectes minima), to rank as a genus by itself. Its range extends from
southern Brazil to Guatemala. In colour it is greyish white curiously marked and
marbled with dark brown, four broad saddle-like patches extending from the dark
line on the back down the sides. In habits and mode of feeding the yapock so
closely resembles an otter that it was at first regarded as a diminutive member of
that group. In length it measures about 14 or 15 inches.
Although described in two papers, one written in 1860 and the
other in 1863, the marsupials known as selvas long escaped full
recognition. In external appearance, and especially in their long, sparsely haired
tails, they resemble rats, and have almost rat-like incisors. The larger species
(Ccenolestes fuliginosus) is a dark brown animal of the approximate size of a rat,
with a small and undeveloped but distinct pouch, and all the habits of an opossum,
although not closely related to the latter. This species and its Bogota relative,
C. obscurus, were at first referred to the diprotodont section of the marsupial order
(see the section on Australia in vol. iii.), but it was subsequently pointed out that
they showed so many polyprotodont resemblances as to preclude their reference to
the former group, and C. fuliginosus was made the type of a new sub-order,
Paucituberculata. Still later, the diprotodont lower dentition (like the front teeth
SEL VAS — DOLPHINS— BA TS 381
of the aye-aye) was regarded as of no taxonomic importance, and consequently
the genus has been placed in the Polyprotodontia, and regarded as a specialised
relative of the American opossums. Selvas belong to a family (Epanorthidce) of
which the existence was first made known by the evidence of specimens from the
Tertiary deposits of Patagonia. Both species are very rare, and their habits are prac-
tically unknown. The larger species, known by the name of " raton runcho " in its
native country, lives in large forests, and is said to eat birds' eggs and small birds.
Fresh-water The larger rivers of South America are the habitat of two
Dolphins. remarkable fresh-water dolphins belonging to a distinct family, the
Iniidte. One of these, the inia (Inia geoffroyensis), of the Amazon, has no
distinct back-fin, and attains a length of about 7 feet. The second, Pontoporia
blainvillei, which frequents the lower reaches of the Plate River, is much smaller,
and has a well-developed back-fin, and a sharper beak. In colour it is brown,
lighter below than above. The inia has from twenty-six to thirty-three pairs of
teeth, which show distinct tubercles at the inner sides of their crowns in the
posterior part of the series. A few hairs occur on the body. These dolphins are
commonly seen in pairs, and this fact, combined with their peculiar movements in
the water, makes them at once recognisable. When coining to the surface, the inia
first shows the crown of the head, after which it " spouts," and then descends
head-downwards, so as to show the back in what looks like a somersault.
In addition to the foregoing, true dolphins occur in the larger
True Dolphins. . ' , . . .
South American rivers. Among these is the Amazonian tucuxi
(Sotalia tucuxi), which differs from the inia in generally swimming about alone,
and in showing its back-fin when rising to the surface. Besides the tucuxi, which
is very common in the mouth of the Tocantins during the dry season, the Amazon
is inhabited by another species, the pale river-dolphin (S. pallida), distinguished
by the pale flesh colour of its back and tail-fin, and the white of its under-parts.
Reverting to land mammals, some mention must be made of the
Bats
South American bats, of which a large proportion belong to the
vampire group. Among the typical bats a notable species is the tri-coloured bat
(Tltyroptera tricolor) of Brazil, which carries on the lower surface of the thumb,
as well as on the side of each foot, a disc-like sucker, for the purpose of enabling
it to cling to the smooth surfaces of trees and large leaves. This bat is further
distinguished by the possession of three joints to the middle finger. Its nearest
relative lives in Madagascar. Equally remarkable are the pouch- winged bats of
Central and South America, distinguished by a glandular pouch on or near the
elbow. One of these, the thin-tailed bat (Saccopteryx leptura), of British Guiana,
has a frill-like fold of skin which it can protrude from the gland-sac, the use of
which is as yet unknown. The white bat of Central and South America is remark-
able as being the only species of that colour, except albinos. This bat (Diclidurus
albus) is creamy white on the body and pure white on the wing-membranes, and
has a peculiar pouch between the legs on the under side of the membrane.
Another curious species is the hare-lipped bat {Noctilio leporinus), which takes its
name from the form of the muzzle, and eats cockroaches, sucks the bodies of small
birds, and catches not only fresh-water shrimps, but also small fishes.
Another characteristic group is that of the mastiff-bats, distinguished by their
382 TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
thick-lipped muzzles which enable them to catch the hard, round beetles on which
they feed. Although they fly well in every way, they are better adapted for walk-
ing on the ground than any other bats on account of their stout limbs and large
flat feet, which are free of the membrane. A well-known species is the red mastiff-
bat (Molossus rufus).
The vampire bats, an exclusively New World group, range over the West
Indies, Central America, and South America as far as the 30th degree of south
latitude, but live apparently only in the forest regions. Their scientific name,
Phyllostomatidce, is derived from a leaf-like, skinny flap borne by most of them on
the nose, some of the species having warts, or skinny folds on the chin instead.
Such chin-flaps are found, for instance, in Blainville's chin-leafed vampire
(Mormops blainvillei), a bright orange -coloured species, so fragile in structure
that its head is translucent.
Vampires differ greatly in the nature of their food ; a few species with a well-
developed tail and a large membrane between the hind-legs being exclusively
insect-feeders, but some subsist solely on fruits, some both on fruits and insects,
while others occasionally suck blood, and two or three are entirely blood-
suckers. The common vampire (Vampyrus spectrum), a gigantic bat of some 28
inches in expanse of wing, which inhabits parts of the Amazon valley, is an ugly
but harmless species, feeding chiefly on fruits, although it sometimes eats insects,
and visiting villages only in search of shelter. The large-eared vampire ( V. auritus)
of the same tract is rather smaller, and distinguished by possessing a short tail, the
common vampire being tailless.
Another group is represented by the well-known javelin-bat (Phyllostoma
hastatum), a species almost as large as the common vampire, which, together with
two or three other Brazilian bats, has the reputation of occasionally sucking blood.
The long-tongued vampires take their name from their long narrow muzzles, and
elongated protrusile tongues; the latter organ, which has warts at the tip, being used,
not for injuring the skin, but for licking up the juices of soft fruits. The common
long-tongued vampire (Glossophaga soricina) has a well-developed membrane
between the hind-legs which enables it to make sudden changes in the direction
of its flight, thus indicating that the chief food of this species consists of insects,
bats with less largely developed hind-membranes not feeding on insects alone.
For example, this hind-membrane is but feebly developed in the short-nosed
vampires, which live chiefly on fruits, although one of them, the flat-nosed vampire
(Artibeus planirostris), was formerly accused of blood-sucking. Of the undoubted
blood-suckers only two genera are known, one represented by two species and the
other by one. The common blood-sucking vampire (Desmodus rufus), which is
about 3 inches in length and ranges from Central America to southern Brazil
and Chile, has no cheek-teeth, whereas the smaller tailless species (Dijihylla
ecaudata) possesses a single rudimentary pair. The last-named vampire is
apparently confined to Brazil.
As mentioned in an earlier chapter, the birds of North America
' are more or less closely related to those of the Old World, but in
Central and South America, as well as in the West Indies, the bird-fauna is of a
PERCHING BIRDS — TANA GERS— FINCHES
383
Tanagers.
much more peculiar type, singing birds being remarkably few. There are, however,
a few representatives of Old World or northern types, South America being the
home of some species of thrushes, while mocking-birds, their allies, range all over
South America as well as the West Indies and the Galapagos Islands. Very
characteristic of tropical America are the warbling wrens of the genus Gyphorhinus,
or Leucolepia. On the other hand, the creeping tits (Psallriparus) of California
and Mexico are represented in Central Asia and India by the closely allied ASgi-
thaliscus. Tropical America is the home of many species of sugar-birds, so called
from their frequenting sugar-
factories in search of flies;
one of the best known being
Dacnis cay ana, of which the
male is turquoise-blue and
black, while the female is
grass-green.
The tanagers,
so characteristic
of South America, are finch-
like birds of gorgeous colora-
tion, with a notch at the tip
of the beak. The typical
group comprises about sixty
species, the majority of which
are smaller than the European
chaffinch. Among them, the
superb tanager (Calliste, or
Calospiza, thoracica) inhabits
south-eastern Brazil. On the
other hand the true tanagers,
which range into North
America, are somewhat less
varied in coloration, blue and
red being the prevailing tones.
A well-known species is the
sky-blue tanager (Tanagra coelestis) of eastern Brazil. The velvet tanagers, again,
are distinguished by their velvety red and black plumage ; the tapiranga {Rhampho-
ccelus brasilius) of southern Brazil being blood -red with black wings and tail.
The piping tanagers form a sombre-coloured group, the male of the mourning
tanager {Tachyphonus luctuosus) being black, except for certain small white
feathers in the wing and the upper wing-coverts, while the females are olive-
yellow. The organ-tanagers, again, are worthy of mention, their well-known
representative, the violet tanager (Euphonia violacea), being one of the most
beautiful birds of tropical South America.
The shrike-finches form another New World group, chiefly
Finch-Tribe. . . ...
characteristic of the tropics. Among these the Brazilian shrike-
finch (Arremon fasciata) is a light grey bird of the size of a chaffinch, with a
GLOSSY TANAGER.
3§4
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
broad black band along the sides of its head. Another handsome finch is the
red-beaked Pitylus fuliginosus of Brazil.
The cherry-finches are confined to the South American region, among them
being the monk-finch (Sporophila nigro-aurantia) of Brazil. The siskins have a
representative in the red siskin (Chrysomitris, or Spinus, cucuUata) of Venezuela
and Trinidad, which is grey above and white below, with a red throat and head,
and a pointed crest. The bird is rather larger than a chaffinch, but the glossy,
bluish black satin-finch (Volatinia splendens) of tropical America is much smaller,
and belongs to a genus with one other species. One of the sparrow buntings, the
morning-finch (Zonotrichia
pileata), is South American,
as is also the saffron-finch
(Sycalis flaveola), which
is confined to the eastern
side of the continent, and
belongs to a group all of
whose members are South
American.
Among the troupials,
the South American repre-
sentatives of the starlings
of the Old World, the com-
mon Icterus vulgaris of
Colombia and Venezuela, is
black, white and orange-
yellow in colour. Nearly
allied is the Brazilian silky
cow-bird (Agelceus bonari-
ensis), a glossy black bird
with violet or greenish reflec-
tions. Among the cassiques,
distinguished by a rounded,
horny shield at the base of
the upper half of the beak,
it will suffice to mention
the crested Cassicus cristatus. The black starlings again, also distinguished by a
shield on the head, are confined to the north of South America; the common
black starling (Cassidix ater) being of the size of the European missel-thrush,
with a pale violet gloss on the head and throat. Another group of glossy black
plumage is represented in South America by the mourning-bird (CJtalcopltanes
lugubris).
In the crow family the Urraca jay (Cyanocorax chrysops), a bird of the size of
a jackdaw, inhabits southern Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay. It is easily
recognised by its large head-crest, and the white of the under-parts below the
upper portion of the breast.
In the American greenlets, Cyclorhis guianensis, of Guiana and northern
GREY CARDINAL.
TREE-PECKERS
3*5
Brazil, is notable from the circumstance that it whistles like an oriole, both sexes
singing together, and the female always having the last note. The crested fly-
catchers form a group indigenous to Central America, the grey crested species
(Ptilogonys cinereus) being pale grey in the male sex, and pale brown in the
females.
The swallows are represented in the region by the purple martins, of which
there are several species.
Passing on to another group, the piculets, or tree-peckers
(Dendrocolaptes), of which there are a large number of species, are
ORANGE TROUPIAL.
very similar in habits to woodpeckers. This is also the case with the sickle-beaked
tree-peckers, distinguished by the strongly bent, thin, and sickle-shaped beak. The
common species {X iphorhynchus procurvus), which is confined to the tropics and
is about the size of a hoopoe, is brown in colour, streaked on the head, neck, and
lower-parts with white.
The tree-runners are easily distinguished by the pointed shafts of the feathers
extending beyond the webs, these shafts being soft. In this group the tregadors
are creepers of thrush-like or nightingale-like appearance, which climb trees like
tits in search of insects and grubs ; a well-known representative being the russet-
coloured tregador (Philydor rufus) of Brazil.
VOL. II. — 25
3«6
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
Spine-Tails.
Oven-Birds.
Another group, the spine-tails (Synallaxis), includes rather smaller
birds resembling reed-warblers, all of which, like the foregoing, are
exclusively South American, and live in low bushes, or reeds. These birds, which
always support themselves on their tail-feathers when perching on branches, are
remarkable for the construction of their nests, which are club-shaped and covered
with twigs projecting on all sides. The structure is of considerable size, a tube
leading from above to the interior, which is lined with leaves and plant-wool.
These nests are always built
in open situations, where they
look like heaps of sticks.
Resembling
thrushes in their
habits, the oven-birds (Fur-
narius) comprise about thirty
species, of which more than half
are confined to the temperate
regions of South America
They are often seen on the
ground, searching for food,
which consists chiefly of insects,
but are also very active in their
movements in trees. These birds
prefer the open plain to the for-
est, and often appear in the
neighbourhood of human habi-
tations. They live mainly on
beetles and berries, and derive
their name from the nests they
build on branches ; these being
made of clay, and shaped like
a baker's oven, with the open-
ing always directed towards
the east. In Brazil the natives
believe these birds keep Sun-
days, and therefore protect
them carefully as sacred.
Tyrant- The tyrant-flycatchers, comprising about four hundred and fifty
Flycatchers, species, are almost confined to the tropical regions of America, only
a few ranging into temperate latitudes, and none known elsewhere. Except
in the pairing-season, they live like tits, frequenting bushes and tree-tops, in
small parties, and feeding upon beetles and berries. Culicivora is a well-known
genus of these birds.
The fork-tailed tvrant-birds are distinguished from the true
tyrants by their forked and generally very long tails, as is well shown
in the common fork -tailed tyrant (M'dvulus tyrannus). The small tyrant birds are
about the size of small warblers, and in shape resemble tits. The golden-headed
FRRACA JAV.
Tyrant-Birds.
TYRANT-BIRDS — PLANT- CUTTERS
387
species, Tyrannulus elatus. inhabiting the north of South America, is but little
larger than a gold-crest, and of similar colour and marking. The flycatcher-tyrants
resemble flycatchers in appearance; one of them, the crown-tyrant (Myiobius
swainsoni), which inhabits south-eastern Brazil, being distinguished by a red, fan-
like crest tipped with blue.
•
SICKLE-BEAKED TREE PECKER
Plant-Cutters.
The plant-cutters are included in a single genus, with four
species, found mostly in cultivated districts. These birds, which are
named from their habit of biting off the young shoots of plants with their short,
thick, finch-like beaks, inflict much damage in this manner, as well as by their
partiality for ripe grapes. The best known is the rarita (Pltytotomus vara), of
388
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
Chile, a bird about the size of the European corn-bunting, which the females
resemble in plumage, although the males are redder.
The gorgeous chatterers, yvvhich are not unlike crows in shape
and size, form a loud-voiced group peculiar to the region, one of the
best known species being the umbrella-bird (Cephalopterus ornatus) of Brazil.
Black in colour, this bird carries a curious umbrella-like crest of feathers on the
Chatterers.
COSTA RICAN HAMMERER.
head. Nearly allied are the bell-birds, which make the South American forests
resound with their loud ringing calls, sounding at a distance like bells. The common
bell-bird (Chasmorhynchus nudicollis) is nearly as large as a missel-thrush, and
lives almost exclusively on berries and other fruits, as indeed do all its kindred.
A native of Brazil, it is white in colour, with a bare face and throat. Another
bell-bird is the Costa Rican hammerer (C. tricaruncidatus), the males of which are
reddish brown with the exception of their white heads, while the females are olive-
green above and yellow streaked with brown below. The male has a long horny
CHATTERERS
389
appendage at the base of the upper half of the beak and at each corner of the
mouth, the female having shorter appendages to the mouth and only a small tuft
on the forehead. The cocks-of-the-rock, which are even more gorgeous than their
relatives the bell-birds, are spread over the north of South America, and remarkable
for their helmet-like crest-feathers, and for their splendid red and orange colouring.
Feedino- on fruits and inhabiting the mountains, these birds dwell on moss-<nn\vn
and fern-covered rocks, and breed in rocky clefts, the cocks performing the most
extraordinary dances
during pairing-time. In
Guiana and on the north
bank of the lower
Amazon the only species
is Rupicola croceus,
which is a little smaller
than a jackdaw, the
males being mainly of
a pale orange red, and
the females dull reddish
brown. Peru and Bolivia
are inhabited by the
somewhat larger and
darker Peruvian cock-
of- the -rock (R. peru-
vianus), and in Ecuador
lives the scarlet R.
sanguinolentus, which
closely resembles its
Peruvian relative, but
is a darker and brighter
red. The closely allied
hangmen-birds, also dis-
tinguished by their pre-
dominantly red plumage,
are not quite the size of
a thrush, and have only
a small crest, while the
fourth quill of the males ends in a very narrow point. They are indigenous
to the north of South America, the black-necked hangman (Phcenicocercus
nigricollis) being found near Para, and the russet-winged hangman (P. earnifex)
near Cayenne and in Amazonia. The cotingas, or true chatterers, are small birds
with thrush-like beaks, but otherwise resemble starlings. They inhabit the
tropical forests of South America, where they feed on fruits, and are much
sought after by the natives on account of their flesh, and their beautiful feathers,
which are used for ornamental purposes. The gorgeous cotinga {Cotiruja
maynana), a pale blue bird with a violet spot on the throat, is indigenous to
Ecuador and the upper valley of the Amazon.
JJJ/j^k^ujL-
£2-
PERUVIAN COCK-OF-THE-ROCK.
39°
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
False Tyrant- The false tyrant-birds, or Lipanginoe, in habits are partly like
Birds. shrikes, and partly like tyrant-birds, and their food is chiefly insects.
The becards resemble tyrant-birds in the shape of the beak, and partly also in
colouring. A well-known representative is the inquisitor (Tityra cayana), in-
digenous to the north of South America, a bird about the size of the great grey
shrike, which it resembles in coloration and markings.
Many kinds of picarian birds are characteristic of South America,
especially the tropical districts, among which are some allied to the
European nightjar. Of these so-called wood-nightjars there are half a dozen species,
confined to the tropics; one of them, the great wood-nightjar (Nyctibius grand is),
which is as large as a wood-owl, ranging from Cayenne to south-eastern Brazil
Wood-Nightjars.
RIBBON-TAILED HUMMING-BIRD.
Humming-Birds.
The most characteristic birds of South America, and more
especially the tropics, are, however, the humming-birds (Troc hit idee),
the largest of which are the size of a swallow, while the smallest scarcely exceed
a humble-bee in bulk. Humming-birds have thin, and in many cases disproportion-
ately long beaks, with narrow tips, and long tongues with which they suck in
their food. This tongue is extensile like that of a woodpecker, and cleft at the tip
into two flat strips. The food of these birds consists chiefly of the small insects
living in flowers, and also nectar sipped from blossoms. Those humming-birds
which visit open blooms have short beaks, while those frequenting funnel-shaped
or tubular blooms are provided with long beaks. When on the wing, humming-
birds dart from flower to flower, hovering in the air over each for a few moments.
Occasionally they may peck an insect from a leaf or a. spider's web, but their
slender beaks are not adapted for catching insects on the wing. Their beaks are,
however, of great use in building their nests, which are generally placed in the
H UMMING- BIRDS — OIL -BIRD
39 1
forks of branches, and interlaced with soft plant-wool and covered with lichen and
moss, although in some cases consisting of lichen and moss alone. In spite of their
diminutive size, humming-birds are very bold and quarrelsome, fighting with their
fellows, and also defending themselves against large birds, although they are really
safe from attack owing to their rapid flight. Certain species are restricted to
particular areas, according to the presence of their respective food-plants. Although
<r-
most are indigenous to the
American tropical area, some
visit the temperate zones, and
in summer range as far north
and south as Labrador and
Tierra del Fuego. Some even
ascend to the snow-line in
the mountains, and others are
restricted to certain mountain-
peaks. They are divided into
various groups, the two prin-
cipal divisions being those
with straight beaks, and those
with arched beaks. Among
the latter is the ribbon-tailed
humming-bird (JZthurus
polytmus) of Jamaica, dis-
tinguished by its very long,
ribbon-like tail-feathers. To
mention other kinds is impos-
sible here.
One of the
Oil-bird.
most remarkable
types is the oil-bird, or gua-
charo (Steatornis caripensis),
which represents a family by
itself. This bird has rather
short legs in comparison to its
long body, and is therefore
unable to run, and can only
push itself forward along the
ground by the aid of its wings.
It finds shelter and nesting-
places in the deep rocky clefts of the mountains of Peru, Colombia, Venezuela,
and Trinidad, where it lives in large numbers, and lays its white eggs in cracks
and crevices, without apparently constructing a real nest. In habits it is entirely
nocturnal, and it feeds solely on fruit. Sleeping in their hiding-places during
the day, these birds fly abroad with loud cries as night comes on, and in their
thousands, especially on moonlight nights, make so loud a tumult in the mountain
valleys as to drown the voices of all the other animals.
GUA( HARO.
392
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
Motmots.
Motmots are entirely restricted to tropical America, a repre-
sentative species being the red-bearded Urospatha martii of the
district around Veragua. These birds have the strange habit of removing the
vanes of the middle pair of elongated tail-feathers for a certain distance, so as to
give them a racket-like form very similar to that which occurs naturally in
certain kingfishers and humming-birds. Recent observations have shown that the
length of feather thus
devaned is invariably
constant, even when
the adjacent pair of
feathers, which might
serve as a guide, has
been removed. Fur-
ther, the portion des-
tined to be stripped
has the vanes mark-
edly narrower than
in the rest of the
feather, while the
component barbs and
barbules are much
weaker and less co-
herent than elsewhere,
so that their removal
is a comparatively
easy matter. Conse-
quently, in the course
of the preening to
which these birds
subject all their tail-
feathers, the weak area in the vanes
of the middle pair becomes stripped,
resulting in the production of the
symmetrical pair of terminal rackets.
The original cause of the narrowing
and degeneration in the affected area
is still unknown, but it does not ap-
pear to be a case of the inheritance
of an acquired character.
Motmots represent a family (Momotidce) by themselves, which contains eight
generic groups, of which the typical Momotus has about sixteen species.
Kingfishers and Among the kingfishers the handsomest species is perhaps the
woodpeckers, glossy kingfisher (Ceryle amazona) of Brazil, Bolivia, and the
Argentine, which is about the size of the green woodpecker, with a metallic
green plumage. There are several other South American species of Ceryle, such
as the Peruvian C. cabanisi, but the genus itself has a very wide geographical
RED-BEARDED MOTMOT.
,;.V;/>,..
mi
Giant Toucan.
KINGFISHERS AND WOODPECKERS — TOUCANS 393
distribution, being represented in North America as well as in Asia and Africa.
No other kingfishers are found in South America.
One of the woodpeckers indigenous to the region is the white-headed
Leuconerpes candidus of Brazil, a species remarkable for being chiefly white in
colour. The white-headed bright-shafted woodpecker (Colaptes formicivorus) of
Central America is another species remarkable for the manner in which it stores up
provisions by drilling small holes into the bark of trees sufficiently large to be just
filled by an acorn each. The leaf -woodpeckers of the genus Dendrobates are common
to tropical America and Africa ; but the crested woodpeckers (Celeus) are confined
to tropical America, as are also the genera Cerchneipicus and Crocomorphus.
In addition to the above, South America possesses two species of the so-
called sapsuckers (Sphyropicus), the remaining two species being North American.
Unlike insect-eating woodpeckers, which are in the main beneficial, although
certain species do much harm to telegraph-posts and other timber in the United
States, the sapsuckers are exceedingly mischievous birds. In fact the case against
the sapsuckers, whose main food consists of the soft fluid layer, or cambium,
beneath the bark of trees, is so strong that the owners of forests and orchards in
the United States where the two most destructive species abound are justified in
destroying them by every available means, taking care, of course, to identify the
two species, namely, the yellow-bellied sapsuckers (Sphyropicus varius) and the
red-breasted sapsuckers (S. ruber). The annual loss in the United States due to
sapsuckers is estimated at no less than $1,200,000 (£240,000).
Another family of picarian birds confined to the tropics of
Toucans. . ,
America are the toucans (Rhamphastidce), so often confounded by
non-scientific people with the hornbills of the Old World. Toucans are easily recog-
nisable by their enormous and gorgeously coloured beaks, which are mostly toothed
at the edges. Although awkward in their movements, these birds are nevertheless
active in the branches where they dwell. When asleep they always hold their tails
straight up ; and they breed in holes in trees, hardly ever coming to the ground.
By the natives they are eagerly sought after on account of their flesh, as well as
for their many-coloured plumage. A well-known species is the giant toucan
(Rhamphastus magnirostris), a bird of the size of a crow, indigenous to Central
and South America.
Five generic types of toucans are recognised, namely, the typical Rham-
phastus, Andigena, Pteroglossus, Selenidera, and Aidacorhamphus ; between them
they include at least sixty species, of which a few range into Mexico. In addition
to their monstrous beaks, toucans are characterised by the tufted oil-gland, and
the presence of ten feathers in the tail. The Brazilian forests absolutely swarm
with toucans, which are highly esteemed as food by the natives of South
America. They fty with an easy and graceful flight, and associate in large flocks,
which will sometimes venture to mob intruders on their domain. Their cry,
which varies according to the species, is loud, short, and harsh.
Jacamarsand The jacamars (Galbulida*) present us with a very different type
Trogons. 0f foa^ which is slender and slightly curved, instead of thick and
heavy as in the toucans. These birds are likewise exclusively confined to the
South American region, and in the north of South America are represented by the
394
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
red-tailed jacamar (Galbula ruficauda), a member of the typical genus, which
contains about ten other species. The remaining genera are Urogalba, with two
species, Brack ygalba, with half a dozen, and Jacamar nicy on, Galbalcyrhynchus, and
Jacamerops, with one each. Jacamars are characterised by the fourth toe being
turned backwards parallel with the first, so that the foot has two toes in front and
two behind. The beak is characterised by its length and straightness, and the
feathers of the body are provided with after-shafts, a feature by which jacamars
are readily distinguished from the undermentioned pulf-birds. Usually the tail
RED-TAILED JACAMAR.
is provided with a dozen feathers, but in two of the genera (Brachygalba and
Jacamaralcyon) the number is reduced to ten.
In Tobago, at any rate, jacamars breed in holes in the mud-cliffs on the banks
of rivers, in which, like nearly all birds nesting in similar situations, they lay
pure white eggs, nearly round in shape. In these respects jacamars resemble their
relatives the motmots.
One of the most beautiful of all birds is the quezal (Pliaromacrus mocinno)
of Guatemala, a species about the size of a jackdaw, of a magnificent violet
and metallic green colour above and red below. It is a member of a genus
containing five other species, and belongs to the tropical family of trogons
JACAMARS AND TROGONS — PUFF-BIRDS
395
(Trogonidw), represented by eight other genera, of which Ewptilotis, Tmetotrogon,
Prionotelus, and the typical Trogon (with some five-and-twenty species) are ex-
clusively tropical American, where some of the species range so far north as Mexico.
The remaining genera are found in the tropical parts of Asia and Africa.
The quezal, which at one time tigured on the postage-stamps of Guatemala,
ranges as far north as Panama, but, owing to incessant persecution for the sake
of its beautiful plumage, has now become very scarce in its more accessible haunts.
The cock, whose head is ornamented with a large comb-like crest of feathers, has
the two middle feathers of the tail so elongated as to be fully four times the length
of the head and body, while
the lateral feathers are like-
wise of considerable length.
The general colour of this
maonihcent bird is bright
metallic green, but a consider-
able portion of the under
surface of the body is blood-
red. The female lacks a crest,
and has a much shorter tail 't
than her partner.
In Guatemala the quezal
feeds on certain black fruits,
which communicate to its flesh
an odour of marjoram. Like
so many of the so-called
picarian birds, quezals, in com-
mon with other trogons, breed
in holes, but are reported to
lay pale blue eggs.
An exclusively
South American
group is formed by the puff-
birds (Bucconidie), which re-
semble kingfishers in appear-
ance, habits, and size. Among
them may be mentioned the russet-throated Bucco ruficollis, which, like the
others, has a disproportionately large beak, and when perching puffs out its
feathers till it resembles a ball ; the latter feature giving rise to the popular
name of the family. Puff-birds are represented by seven genera, of which the
typical Bucco contains by far the largest number of species, no less than twenty-
one being recognised by naturalists in 1900. They are connected with the
cuckoos by means of the two species of swallow-winged puff-birds (Chelidoptera).
None of the puff-birds ranges northward of Central America ; the distributional
area of the group extending in the opposite direction to Bolivia and the south of
Brazil. Resembling jacamars in the conformation of their feet, puff-birds are
distinguishable by the absence of after-shafts to the feathers of the body, and are
Puff-Birds.
RUSSET-THROATED PUFF-BIRD.
396 TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
further characterised by the bare oil-gland and the presence of six pairs of tail-
feathers.
These birds are essentially arboreal in their habits, generally perching on
the topmost or outermost branches of the trees they frequent, and usually selecting
those devoid of leaves, in order that they may dart without impediment on their
insect prey. They are usually found solitary or in pairs, and appear to be
sluggish and stupid in demeanour. Those species of which the breeding habits
are known nest in holes in mud-banks, where they lay white eggs.
As already mentioned, puff-birds are connected with cuckoos by
the swallow-winged Chelidoptera. The cuckoos themselves are repre-
sented in the South American region by the two rain-cuckoos, which live on the
ground and run so quickly that a horse can scarcely overtake them. The typical
species is the Mexican road-runner (Geococcyx mexicanus), a bird about as large as
a magpie, blackish brown above and white below. The double-tailed cuckoos are
considerably smaller, and remarkable for their long upper tail-coverts, which more
or less resemble the feathers of the tail. One kind, the lark -cuckoo (Diplopterus
ncevius), derives its name from its lark-like plumage, and is the only member of its
genus ; the allied Dromococcyx being represented by two species. The savana
cuckoos, which are confined to the American tropics, differ from other members of
the family in that they inhabit open country and pastures, where they peck the
ticks from the backs of cattle, and also feed on small vertebrates. Their bluish
green eggs, covered, sometimes completely and sometimes in a net-like way, with
white chalk, resemble those of other cuckoos. Several females use one large nest,
and incubate in company. The ani (Crotophaga ani), one of these birds, ranges
from Peru and Colombia, into the south of the United States and the West Indies.
Another, the guira cuckoo (Guira cristata), has a pointed crest on the head, and is
like a partridge in colour. The last-named bird is the sole representative of its
genus ; but there are two species of Crotophaga in addition to the ani, namely,
C. major, ranging from Colombia and Ecuador to Brazil, and C. salcirostris, with
a distribution extending from Texas and Ecuador to Peru. Crotophaga and Guira
represent by themselves one subfamily (Crotophagince), and Diplopterus and Dromo-
coccyx a second (Diplopterince) ; each of these groups being thus characteristic of
tropical America. A third subfamily group, Neomorphino3, is, however, only in part
tropical American, where it is represented by the genera Neomorphus, Geococcyx (with
two species, of which G. mexicanus ranges from Mexico to California and Texas,
and G. affinus from Mexico to Guatemala), and Morococcyx, with a single Central
American species. The remaining genus is restricted to tropical eastern Asia.
Of the third subfamily of cuckoos, the Phoznicophaince, the majority of the
genera are also found in tropical Asia, but there is one genus, Piaya, in tropical
America, where it ranges from Mexico to Brazil, while there are two others in the
West Indies. In the more tropical cuckoos constituting the subfamily Guculino3
the genus Coccyzus is wholly New World, and includes a considerable number
of tropical American species.
The tropical American area is very rich in parrots of peculiar
generic types, the largest and most gorgeous being the macaws. Most
of the smaller sharp-tailed species belong to the genus Conurus, but the MexicaD
Blue Macaw.
PAR R O TS — BIRDS- OF- PRE Y 397
Rhynchopsittacus pachyrhynchus is distinct; it is chiefly green, but marked with
red, and in its powerful beak approaches the macaws. The latter, which are the
biggest of all parrots, are distinguished by their very large beaks and long tails.
The largest is the cobalt-blue hyacinthine macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus)
of Brazil, the blue and yellow macaw (Ara ararauna) being considerably smaller.
The latter is blue above and golden yellow below. Besides the macaws and conures,
the family is represented by the thick-beaked parraquets, one species of which,
the monk-parrot (Myopsittacus monachus), inhabits Bolivia, Argentina, Uruguay,
and Paraguay. In colour it is green, with a grey breast. Unlike all other parrots,
it places its nest in the open, the nest consisting of a large number of dry twigs
twisted together, with an entrance-hole at the side. Some years ago one of these
parrots built in the open in the New Forest, near Lyndhurst. The nest, which was
of large size, was constructed in the angle of the roof of a house. The parrotlets
are distinguished by their diminutive size, and differ from other wedge-tailed groups
by their short, almost straight tails. Their best known species {Psittaculu
passerina), the blue-winged parrotlet, inhabits Brazil.
Among the square-tailed parrots are the Amazons, of which the red-breasted
Amazona (or Chrysotis) cestiva is indigenous to Brazil and Paraguay ; it has a
blue crown and red-edged wings. The hawk-billed parrot (Deroptyus accipitrinus)
of Guiana and Brazil is distinguished by the neck-feathers forming a collar. As
an indication of the enormous development of tropical American parrot-life, it will
be well to give a list of the genera restricted (with the exception of one or two
species which range so far south as northern Patagonia) to the region under review
and the West Indies. In the first place, all the members of the family Conurince,
about one hundred and fifteen in number, belong to the South American region,
and are represented by the genera Anodorhynchus (hyacinthine macaw and its
relatives), Cyanopsittacus (blue macaw), Ara (blue-and-yellow macaw and fourteen
other kinds), Rhynchopsittacus (with one species), Conurus (with over thirty
species), Conuropsis, Cyanolyseus, Leptosittaca, Gnathosittaca, Henicognathus,
Microsittaca, Pyrrhura (with over twenty species), Myopsittacus, Bolborhynchus,
Psittacida (parrotlets), and Brotogerys. Of the ten genera of the subfamily
Pionince all but one are tropical American ; they include Amazona or Chrysotis,
with five-and-forty species, Pachynus, Pionus, Deroptyus, Triclaria, Piono-
psittacus, Gypopsittacus, Urochroma, Pionites, and Pyocephalus ; the total number
of specific representatives of the group being over one hundred.
, , , Coming to the birds-of-prey, the first on our list are the hook-
Birds-of-Prey. to f j >
beaked kites (Rostrhamus), a small group of tropical American birds
resembling crows rather than true birds-of-prey, having slender, rather straight,
claws, and long, and in some cases very thin, beaks with which they extract
molluscs from their shells. They also feed on lizards and fishes, and are sociable
birds, flying about in parties and nesting in colonies.
The pigmy kite (Gampsonyx swainsoni), the only representative of its genus,
inhabits the north of South America, and is of the size of a thrush and thus one of
the smallest birds-of-prey. In contrast to this is the harpy (TJirysaetus harpyia),
the largest and strongest of all South American true birds-of-prey, distinguished
by its exceedingly powerful legs. Of the chanting hawks (Asturina) the majority
398
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
are South American and the rest African. Very characteristic of South America
is the group represented by the carancho (Polyborus tharus), which ranges all
over South America. It is black on the back, lower-parts, and legs, but the breast is
THE HARPY.
brownish white marked with black cross-bands or spots. This hawk eats all
kinds of small animals, as well as carcases ; when excited the flesh-coloured skin
of its face turns yellow. Another caracara is the chimachima (Milvago chima-
chima), whose range extends from Brazil northwards to Panama, the allied
M. chimango ranging from south-eastern Brazil and Chile to the Straits of
CONDORS— O WLS
399
Condors.
Magellan. The third genus of the group is Ibycter, with seven species, of which
one inhabits the Falkland Islands.
Perhaps the most common South American condor (as it is
best to term the so-called American vultures) is the turkey-vulture
(Cathartes, or RliLnogryphus, aura), which, like its relative the black condor
(Catharista atrata, or Catharistes urubu), inhabits not only South and Central
America but the south of North America. The largest of all is the true condor
(Sarcorhamphus gryphus), which chiefly inhabits the Andes of Peru and Chile,
whence it ranges down south to Patagonia. A near relative of this species is
S. aiquatorialis of Ecuador ; while a more distinct type is represented by the king-
condor {Cathartes papa)
of Mexico and tropical
South America, a bird
the size of a hen-turkey,
mainly black and white
with brilliant colours on
the bare parts of the head
and neck. The condor is
becoming very rare, owing
to its being slaughtered
for its quills, which are
used for millinery pur-
poses.
The condors form
the exclusively American
family Cathartidai, all
the members of which
are distinguished, among
other characters, from the
vultures ( Vulturidaj) of
the Old World by the
absence of a median verti-
cal partition between the
two apertures of the nos-
trils. The marked super-
ficial resemblance existing between condors and vultures may, doubtless, be
explained by the similar habits of these birds; just in the same way as swifts
resemble swallows, to which, however, they have no near relationship.
Of the South American owls the most remarkable is the little
burrowing owl (Speotito cunicularia), individuals of which may be
seen at any hour of the day sitting in front of their burrows, greeting the passers-by
with a nod of their heads, and when disturbed flying screaming around the head
of the intruder. The chief haunts of the burrowing owl in North America are the
prairies, and in South America the pampas. In the latter these birds associate
with viscachas, while in North America they are generally found in parts
inhabited by prairie-marmots.
THE CONDOR.
Owls.
400
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMAIS
The Striges are also represented by several species of horned owls belonging to
the widely distributed genus Asio, as well as by an eagle-owl (Bubo nigrescens)
peculiar to Ecuador, and by two North American species, which range respectively
as far south as Mexico and Costa Rica. The genus Pulsatrix, with two species, is
peculiar to the region, and there are
likewise representatives of the widely
ranging genus Scops. Lophostrix and
Psiloscops, each with two species, are
other genera restricted to tropical
America, while Cicaba, with at least
eight species, forms a fourth genus
peculiar to the area. There are also
representatives of the wood-owls (Syr-
nium). In another group the genus
Gisella, with one Colombian and one
Brazilian species, is solely tropical
American ; and the north Acadian owl
(Nyctala acadica) of North America
ranges as far south as Mexico. The
pigmy owls of the European and
Asiatic genus Glaucidium are fairly
well represented in the area, and the
two species of the allied North Ameri-
can genus MicropaUas enter Mexico.
Finally, there is a representative (Strix
contempta) of the cosmopolitan barn-
owls in Ecuador.
Curassows and The game-birds known
Guans. as curassows and guans
form a family (Cracidce) restricted to
Central and Southern America. One of
the commonest species, whose plumage
is dark green above and white beneath,
is the Mexican curassow (Crax globi-
gera), easily identified by the presence
of a large yellow knob at the base of
the upper half of the beak. Its range
extends from Honduras to western
Mexico. Some of these large and hand-
some birds are ornamented with head-
crests, and in most of them the dark
green or blackish plumage shows metallic reflections. There are eleven genera
of the family, among which the typical Crax has twelve, Penelope fifteen, and
Ortalis nineteen species; the total number of species recognised in 1900 being
fifty-nine. These birds may be regarded as occupying in South America the
position held in Malaya by the megapodes.
rURKEY-VULTURE.
King Vulture.
HOATZIN
401
Hoatzin.
A very remarkable and primitive type of bird is the hoatzin
(Opisthocomus cristatus), whose affinities are still doubtful. It is
the only representative of its family, and noteworthy, among other peculiarities,
on account of the presence of claws on the first and second digits of the wings in
the young birds, by means of which they hold on to the branches or bark as they
climb in the trees. Among other peculiarities of this bird, it may be mentioned
that the crop is unique on account of having assumed the structure and function
■
MEXICAN CURASSOW.
of the gizzard of other birds, being much larger than ordinary, with the walls
thick and muscular instead of thin and flabby. Despite this specialised feature,
the primitive character of the hoatzin is indicated by many points, the vestigial
claw of the third digit of the wine linking it with the extinct lizard-tailed bird
(Archceopteryx), while another claim to primitiveness is apparent in the quadrupedal
habits of the young. Thickly wooded river-valleys form the haunts of the hoatzin,
of which Lower Amazonia may be considered the centre, the distributional area,
according to our present information, being in several instances discontinuous.
The bird has a peculiarly disagreeable odour of its own, which is, however, less
vol. it. — 26
402
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
powerful than commonly reputed, and, at all events, insufficient to render it
immune to the attacks of parasites. In general character the nest and eggs are
very similar to those of the Guiana green herons (Butorides), but are placed higher
above the water. Both sexes assist in nest-building, and two eggs seem to be the
usual number in a clutch. There is no foundation for the assertion that these
birds are polygamous, or for the old legend as to their snake-eating habits.
If they can possibly avoid it, hoatzins never resort to flight or descend to the
ground, their method of locomotion being to creep from branch to branch of the
mangrove and other trees to which they resort in the river-valleys of Guiana,
/. >
/
HOATZIN.
Venezuela, and Brazil. When the foliage and creepers are unusually dense the
wings are used, either alternately or in unison, to push aside obstructions, and to
aid the birds in preserving their balance until a firm grip has been obtained with
the feet. In consequence of this habit the primary quills become much frayed and
worn by friction with the branches. The crest, like that of the cock-of-the-roek, is
permanently erect.
Conspicuous on account of their gorgeous coloration are the red
flamingo (Phmnicopterns ruber), the red spoonbill, or ajaja (Platalea
rosea), and the red ibis (Plegadis rubra), all of which are common to Central and
South America. Two other South American birds of this group are the jabiru or
giant stork {Mycteria americana) and the maguari (Dissura maguari), which is
Waders.
WADERS — COURLANS AND SERIEMAS
4°3
nearly related to the white stork of Europe. The sun-bittern {Eurypyga
helias), which inhabits wooded banks of rivers, where it lives mostly on the
ground in pairs and flies in an uncertain fluttering way, represents the family
Eurypygidcv in Brazil, Amazonia, Bolivia, Guiana, and Venezuela; the only other
member of the group being En. major, of Central America, Colombia, and Ecuador.
Sun-bitterns, which are classed as a suborder of the crane-like birds, are character-
ised by the naked oil-gland, the presence of powder-down patches and a notch on
each side of the lower border of the breast-bone, but have no bare areas on the
sides of the neck. The feathers of the upper parts are beautifully barred with
fl^^t4Z¥A^C_ * -_
SERIFMA.
brown, black, and white, in marked contrast to which are the red eyes, the waxy
yellow beak, and the straw-coloured legs. These birds, which go about either alone
or in pairs, derive their name of sun-bittern from their habit of basking, with out-
spread pinions, in the full glare of the tropical sun. Insects form their staple food,
and in capturing them sun -bitterns display remarkable activity. They breed in
bushes or trees at a height of only a few feet above the ground, laying two greyish
eggs, mottled and speckled with rufous, in a clutch.
Courians and The Brazilian courlan (Aramus scolapaceus) and the Florida
seriemas. courlan (A. giganteus), which ranges from Florida to Central
America and perhaps Ecuador, have been regarded as large relatives of the rails,
but are now placed near the sun-bitterns. On the other hand some doubt still exists
4°4
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
with regard to the affinities of the serieraas, tall greyish-brown birds, which fly seldom,
but run with great speed. They roost and nest on trees, and lay eggs resembling
those of birds-of-prey ; while they make their presence known by their loud voices.
The Brazilian seriema (Cariama cristata) of Brazil and Paraguay, is a light brown
bird marked with narrow dark undulating lines, and is about the size of a heron,
and is the sole representative of its genus. It is easily "recognised by the plume
of feathers rising from the root
of the beak, which are much less
developed in the smaller Bur-
meister's seriema {Chunga bur-
meisteri) of Argentina, the only
other living representative of
the family Cariamidce. That
these birds are related to the
cranes seems practically certain,
their curious superficial resem-
blance to the secretary-bird, or
secretary -vulture, of southern
Africa (to which they also
approximate in habits), being
connected with the similarity
of the conditions under which
they live. The group is evi-
dently an ancient South Ameri-
can type, for it appears to be
akin to a gigantic extinct bird
(Phororhachus) of which the
remains occur in the Tertiary
deposits of the Santa Cruz dis-
trict of Patagonia. Large as it
was, this bird had a proportion-
ately big head, its skull being
nearly equal in size to that of
a horse.
Another inter-
Trumpeters.
estmg group in-
cludes the trumpeters, forest-
birds which take their name
from their peculiar, subdued,
trumpet-like sounds. The typi-
cal species is Psophia crepitans of Guiana and Amazonia, but the family
Psophiidce includes half a dozen other species, of which the united distri-
butional area extends from Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru to Amazonia. The
trumpeters are now classed as a subordinal group, placed between the sun-bitterns
and the seriemas. They are long-legged and long-necked birds, without plumes
or crests on the head, somewhat resembling big blackish guinea-fowls with abnor-
TRUMPETER.
TR UMPE TERS — SCREAMERS — MUSK-D UCK— TIN AM US 40 5
mally long legs ; the beak being short, stout, and slightly bent down at the tip. In
the oval shape of the nostrils they resemble seriemas, from which they differ by
the absence of notches in the lower border of the breast-bone. Trumpeters are poor
flyers, and congregate in immense troops, which utter their trumpet-like cries in
chorus. To produce this volume of sound, the windpipe is of unusual length, extend-
ing backwards beneath the skin of the abdomen. The cry, which is uttered with the
beak wide open, lasts about one minute. There can be no reasonable doubt that
trumpeters, like screamers, form part of the indigenous fauna of South America,
dating from the period when that continent was isolated from North America.
The three species of so-called screamers, forming the family
Palamedeidce, are the sole representatives of an ordinal group related
to the water-birds and flamingoes, although differing from both, as well as from all
other birds, by the absence of the narrow projection arising from the middle of the
hind border of each rib to overlie the one next in the series. The typical or horned
screamer (Palamedea cornuta) of Guiana and Amazonia is a somewhat turkey -like
bird, easily recognised by the slender horn-like projection arising from the crown
of the head and curving forwards over the short and stout beak, the puffy neck, and
the two powerful spurs with which each wing is armed. These last at once proclaim
the screamer to be a fighter. In habits these birds are mainly terrestrial ; but at
least one of the other two members of the group, namely, the chaja, or crested
screamer (Chauna, chavaria) of Argentina, has much the habits of a goose, to
which it also approximates in size. The third member of the group is the Derbian
screamer (C. derbiana) of Colombia, which agrees with the last in the absence of
a " horn " on the forehead.
• One remarkable South American duck, the only representative
Musk-Duck. . ....
of its genus, is distinguished by the presence of bare tracts round the
eyes and at the sides of the neck, and of warts at the base of its beak ; from the
musk-like smell of a fat secreted bv this bird it takes its name of musk-duck
(Hyonetta moschqta). Besides South America the musk-duck inhabits Central
America, where it lives chiefly in swamps among the forests, being less fond of
water than other ducks, and finding its food on the ground like geese. It often
perches on trees and always nests in branches. A domesticated breed is known
by the name of Turkish duck.
Another very remarkable group of birds known only from the
Tinamus. * .
South American region are the tinamus. In structure they con-
nect the game-birds very closely with the ostrich group, with which they are
sometimes classed. In shape they are very like partridges, and have short wings
and tail. Living chiefly on the pampas and campos, they fly heavily, but run
quickly. One of the largest is the solitary tinamu (Tinamus solitarius) of Brazil,
which is of the approximate size of a guinea-fowl, and belongs to a genus with ten
other species, ranging, collectively, from southern Mexico to Amazonia and the
south of Brazil. The genus is one of seven in which the first toe is well developed.
To the same section belong the genera Nothocercus and Crypturus, the former con-
taining five species, with a range extending from Central America to Colombia,
Venezuela, Ecuador, and possibly Chile, and Crypturus with over thirty species,
of which the collective distributional area reaches from northern Mexico to north-
406
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
eastern Argentina. The banded tinamu (0. noctivagus) is a well-known repre-
sentative of the second genus. These and the other smaller representatives of the
group are commonly known in South America as partridges, but the great tinamu
or martinetta (Rhynchotus rufescens) of Brazil and Argentina, together with the
Bolivian R. maculicollis, is designated a pheasant, on account of its greatly superior
size. In common with the other members of the family Tinamidce, this bird
lays beautifully glazed and porcelain-like eggs. These are of a wine-red colour in
this particular species, but in Nothurus they are purple-red or wine-colour, while in
some of the other species they are blue. The other genera of the four-toed section
are Nothoprocta, with eight species, and ranging from Bolivia, Ecuador, and Chile
to north-western Argentina ; Notlmra, with seven species, of which the collective
range extends from Bolivia and southern Brazil to Patagonia ; and Taoniscus,
represented only by
the dwarf tinamu (I7.
nanus) of eastern
Brazil and Para-
guay. Of the second
genus the spotted
tinamu (Notlmra
maculosa) of Argen-
tina and southern
Brazil, and Darwin's
tinamu (X da r-
wini) of Argentina
and Patagonia, are
two of the best
known representa-
tives.
Of the three-
toed tinamus there
are two genera, Calo-
vezus, with a single
species from Argen-
tina and Patagonia, and Tinamotis, in which Pentland's tinamu (T. pentlandi),
is a native of Ecuador, Peru, and Chile, while T. ingoriji is a native of eastern
Patagonia.
Tinamus are essentially ground-birds, showing a great disinclination to fly,
and when on the wing flying with a slow and heavy flight. They have plaintive,
flute-like notes, that of the martinetta being especially loud.
The rheas, or American ostriches, form a special group of the
ostrich-like, or flightless, birds. They are most familiarly known by
the typical Argentine species, or nandu (Rhea americana), formerly abundant on the
pampas of Uruguay and Argentina. Here they live in family parties comprising a
cock, which attends to the incubation and nursing of the young, and about half a
dozen hens which lay their yellowish-white eggs, some twenty in number, in the
same nest. Rheas are caught by the bolas from horseback, or hunted with dogs
SOLITARY TINAMU.
Rhea.
Crested screamer.
RHEA
407
for the sake of their feathers, which are not, however, particularly valuable,
although still forming an important article of trade. Sometimes rheas are kept in
a domesticated state. The smaller Rhea darwini inhabits Patagonia between the
_^>
'-.
^'. //^•^vu4<^
^SSL
-
*3£>
■
.
RHEA OR NANDU.
Rio Negro and the Straits of Magellan, while a third kind, the long-billed rhea
(R. macrorhyncha), lives in northern Brazil. Rheas, which constitute an exclusively-
South American family (Rheidce), differ from ostriches in that they have three, in
place of only two, toes to each foot, which terminate in claws instead of nails;
4o8 TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
and are further distinguished by the longer wings, the fully feathered head and
neck, and the absence of a tail. On the other hand, they resemble their African
relatives in the superior size of the cock, as compared with the hen, and likewise
in the presence of after-shafts to the body-feathers.
From their large size, rheas are the most distinctive birds of the campos, or
plains, of Brazil and the pampas of Argentina. It has been considered that these
ostrich-like birds form an essentially southern group ; but against this view is the
fact that they are represented in the upper Tertiary deposits of northern India,
as well as in the lower Tertiaries of Egypt.
Among South American reptiles particular interest attaches to
River-Tortoises. . ° r r .
the river-tortoises, or terrapins, all or which belong to the group in
which the head and neck are moved sideways in place of being retracted with the
S-like flexure characteristic of the tortoises and terrapins of the Northern
Hemisphere. The largest is the great aru tortoise of the Amazon (Podocnemis
expansa), whose shell may be close on a yard in length. These tortoises are taken
by the natives for their flesh, while their eggs yield a kind of oil. The matamata
(Chelys fimbriata), which has irregular processes of skin on its head and neck and
a much corrugated shell, is the sole representative of its genus. Podocnemis, on
the other hand, occurs elsewhere in Madagascar at the present day, while it is also
represented in the Tertiary formations of the Northern Hemisphere, a circumstance
indicating apparently that the Pleurodira, as the side-necked tortoises are technically
termed, originated in the north, and made their way southwards during the
Tertiary epoch.
None of the families of these tortoises is peculiar to South America, the
Pelomedusidce being represented at the present day in Ethiopian Africa and
Madagascar by the genera Pelomedusa and Sternothcsrus, and in South America
and Madagascar by the above-mentioned Podocnemis.
The second family, Chelyidce, on the other hand, is partly South American
and partly Australasian ; the American genera being the above-mentioned Chelys,
together with Hydromedusa, represented by one species from Brazil and a second
from southern Brazil and Argentina, Hydrastis with some seven species, Platemys
with two, and Rhinemys with a single representative. The Australasian genera,
which range into New Guinea, are three in number.
The absence of fresh- water tortoises of the family Trionychidce from South
America is a fact in geographical distribution almost as important as the presence
of the aforesaid side-necked tortoises, especially when it is borne in mind that the
former group is well represented in North America.
crocodiles and Crocodiles are represented in South America by the sharp-nosed
Caimans. Crocodilus americanus, while the caimans (Caiman), which differ
from alligators in having bony plates on the lower surface of the body, are peculiar
to the region. Caimans, frequently called alligators, include five species, of which
the black caiman, or black jacare, is the largest, growing to a length of about
13 feet. In colour, it is black above and yellow beneath ; and it is further
characterised by the upper eyelid being flat and finely striated, with a small bony
plate on the inner side. In another species, C. solerops, the upper eyelid is
prominent and tuberculated, one of the tubercles sometimes forming a small horn.
CROCODILES AND CAIMANS— LIZARDS
409
Another type of eyelid is presented by C. palpebro&us, in which it is flat and
entirely bony, the bone consisting of four separate pieces.
An imperfectly known caiman from the Magdalena River, Colombia, on
account of certain alleged structural peculiarities, has been made the type of a
distinct genus under the name of Perosuchus fuscus.
In general habits caimans are very similar to crocodiles and alligators.
Of lizards, one species (Heloderma horridum) of the family
Helodermatidce is a native of Mexico; the other, commonly known as
the Gila monster (H. suspectum), inhabiting the deserts of Arizona, These lizards,
which are poisonous, are very brilliantly coloured — orange or red with black
markings; and, although it has been stated that this colouring harmonises with
the colour of the sand on which these reptiles delight to bask, it is more probably
Lizards.
o < ^Vt
HELODERMA
of the " warning " type, that is to say, it serves to proclaim the dangerous nature
of these lizards.
Considerable difference of opinion has been expressed in regard to the character
of the bite of these lizards, some naturalists maintaining that it is more or less
completely innocuous, while others state that it is intensel}7 poisonous. As regards
frogs, mice, rabbits, dogs, pigeons, poultry, etc., experiments leave no doubt that
the fangs are venomous. As regards the effects on the human subject, a statement
was made in 1882 to the effect that a bite in the thumb by a Gila monster was,
after severe local pain, followed only by great weakness and perspiration. On the
other hand, in 1888, a case was cited in which death is stated to have occurred a
few hours after the infliction of the bite ; this being the third or fourth case of a
fatal result attending the bite of these lizards in Arizona. In 1911 a lady was bitten
in the index finger of her right hand while holding a Gila monster. By prising open
4io
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
its mouth, the reptile was removed without injury, when it was found that one of the
lower venom-teeth had penetrated the nail, two others had compressed the nail
sufficiently to produce extravasation beneath, and two of the solid upper teeth
were fixed in the tissues of the finger. The finger became swollen and discoloured,
the swelling and discoloration extending some way up the arm. Soon after the
HORNED IGUANA.
bite the lady was affected with severe headache, accompanied by pallor of the face,
perspiration, and sensations of vertigo. A short fainting fit also ensued. These
effects continued for about a week, after which they gradually disappeared. This
experience proves that heloderm-poison has severe effects on the human system.
' The large lizard known as the teju (Tubinambis ter/uexin) is the typical
representative of the New World family Tiipinambidce, to which also belong the
exclusively South American genera Dracaena and Centropus, as well as several
412
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
South America (in addition to a host of species to which no reference is here
possible) possesses a representative of the blind snakes in Typltlops reticulatus ;
the group having a very wide geographical distribution.
The above-mentioned bushmaster differs from most other pit-vipers in lay-
ing eggs instead of producing living young; a similar peculiarity occurring in
Tremeresaurus monticola of the Himalaya, as well as in the tropical African
vipers of the genus Atractaspis.
The boas of South America are particularly interesting on account of present-
ing a remarkable parallelism in their geographical distribution to that of the pleuro-
diran or side-necked tortoises, the genera Corallus and Boa being common to tropical
America and Mada-
gascar. On the
other hand, Epi-
crates, Trachyboa,
Ungalia, Ungali-
ophis, and Eunectes
are restricted to
the region under
©
consideration, in-
clusive of the West
Indies.
Although the
anaconda is ad-
mitted to be the
largest of living-
snakes, consider-
able diversity of
opinion obtains
with regard to its
maximum dimen-
sions. Naturalists,
for instance, mostly
refuse to believe
that this snake ever
exceeds a length of about 30 feet, but travellers report much larger dimen-
sions— in one instance a length of no less than 65 feet. Till tangible evidence
of the existence of such monsters is forthcoming, naturalists will, however, be
well advised in maintaining their attitude of reserve.
©
Among the frogs and toads of the South American region the
most remarkable are the brilliantly coloured horned toads of the genus
Ceratophrys, the Brazilian representative of which is a huge creature. The
"jackie-toad" (Pseudis paradoxa), a Surinam species, is peculiar on account of its
very large tadpoles, which before they throw off their gills are almost the size of
the adults. The southern Brazilian pigmy frog (Paliidicolafalcip>es), which makes a
noise like a cricket, is one of the smallest of all frogs, being only about half an inch
in length. The large Darwin's frog (Rhinoderma darivini), of Chile, has a
SURINAM WATER-TOAD.
Frogs and Toads.
Horned Frog.
FROGS AND TOADS— AXOLOTL 413
curious mode of bringing up its family, the male depositing the eggs laid by the
female in a pouch on its throat, where they develop. The pouched frogs, on the
other hand, as represented by Nototrema marsapiatum of Mexico and Peru, pass
through all the stages of their development in a pouch in the back of the female ;
while those of the Surinam water-toad (Pipa americana) develop in the skin of
the back of the female, which forms a cell round each egg.
All the above-mentioned genera, together with many others, such as Phyllodes
among the Ranidce and Leptodactylus, Paludicola, and Hylodes among the
Cystignathidce (in which group Pseudis is included), are restricted to the South
American region. It is, however, noteworthy that Pipa has a near relative in the
tropical African Xenopus ; these two genera constituting the family Xenopodidw,
or Dactylethridce, which is distinguished from all other batrachians by the absence
of the tongue. Two families, namely the Amphignathodontidce, with the species
Amphignathodon guentheri of Ecuador, and perhaps the imperfectly known
Grypiscus umbrinus of Rio de Janeiro, and the Hemiphractidce, with the genera
Hemiphr actus, Ceratophyla, and Amphodus, are peculiar to the present region.
Some of the strange " nursery " arrangements of South American frogs have
been already mentioned ; it may be added that certain tree-frogs of the genus
Phyllomedusa (which is another of the types peculiar to the region) spawn in
nests of froth made in the leaves of trees overhanging water. The tadpoles hatch
in the froth, in which they move freely for a few days till their external gills are
shed, when they drop into the water beneath, there to complete their development
into frogs. Several kinds of Hylodes, such as the well-known cogni (H. martinensis)
of the West Indies, spawn in damp moss or under stones, laying unusually large eggs
in which the tadpole undergoes practically its full development, coming forth with
a mere rudiment of a tail, which probably served as a breathing organ during its
incarceration. Other small South American frogs, pertaining to the genera
Dendrobates and Phyllobates, have been observed to go about with their tadpoles
adhering to their backs by means of the sucker-like structure of their lips and the
flattened surface of the belly.
A dark-coloured salamander, furnished with external gills, and
measuring about ten inches in length, which inhabits the lake
surrounding the city of Mexico, is of special interest on account of being the
permanently immature form of a species, Arablystoma tigrinum, ranging from
New York southwards to California and central Mexico. Normally this species at
the close of its aquatic existence develops lungs, sheds its external gills, and takes
to a life on land. The axolotl, as its Mexican representative is called, is, however,
under normal circumstances aquatic throughout its existence, breeding in this
permanently immature condition. Axolotls when kept in confinement will,
however, sometimes develop into adult salamanders, which leave the water and
take to a life on land after the manner of the rest of their kind. The reason
for the arrested development is not definitely known.
As mentioned in the chapter on the fauna of North America, the salamanders
of the genus Amblystoma are mainly characteristic of that continent, where they
are represented by about sixteen species. Very interesting is the occurrence of a
representative of this otherwise American genus in Siam, as it affords another
4^4
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
instance of the community of t}*pe between the animals of Eastern Asia and
North America.
One South American cat-fish, known as the sheath-fish (Aspredo
Fishes. . . .
batrachus), has breeding habits somewhat similar to those of the
•:<*
PIRAYA.
Surinam toad, although in this instance the eggs are attached to the loose and
spongy skin of the female's abdomen, instead of being embedded in her back.
<
s
^
THE DODBLE-EYED FISH.
FISHES
4i5
To the same group belongs the giant piraiba (Piratinga piraiba). Another fish,
the haimora {Macrodon trahira), is appreciated on account of its savoury flesh, but
dreaded on account of its sharp teeth. The piraya {Serramlmo pi r<< ya), although
-ftr-fr^
ARAPAIMA,
only a foot in length, attacks animals of every kind with great ferocity, and is
dangerous even to the larger mammals and man. Like the haimora, it belongs to the
family of the Characinidce, which replaces the carps and salmonoids in South America.
LEl'IDOSIREN.
In the family of toothed carps (Cyprinodontidce) the double-eyed fish {Anableps
tetrophthalmus) is unique in that its eyes are divided into two halves, of which
the upper one is adapted for vision in air and the lower one to see in water. The
416
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
largest of fresh-water fish, not only in America but elsewhere, is the Arapaima
gigas of Guiana and Brazil, which attains a length of more than 15 feet and
a weight of over 400 lbs. It belongs to a family, Osteoglossidce, almost
peculiar to the Southern Hemisphere, and is the only representative of its kind.
The electric eels are confined to the American tropics, the best known species
(Gymnotus electricus) inhabiting the rivers of Guiana, Venezuela, and northern
Brazil. It has been known to attain a length of 6 feet, and feeds on other fishes
and f roo-s. This fish is provided with a pair of electric organs on the back of the tail,
and another pair along the base of the anal fin, with which it gives shocks powerful
enouo-h to be dangerous to man. A species of lung-fish {Lepidosiren paradoxa)
inhabits the rivers of South America from Brazil to Paraguay, and is akin to the
'•.^ v
HERCULES BEETLE — MALE AND FEMALE.
West African genus Protopterus, and more remotely to the Australian Ceratoclus,
or, as it is also termed, Neoceratodus. Like its African and Australian relatives,
this fish breathes atmospheric air by means of its swim-bladder, although it can
likewise make use of its gills. Some very remarkable forms of armoured cat-fish
(Loricariidce) are also met with in the South American rivers. These include the
typical genus Loricaria, the members of which are small fishes specially abundant in
Amazonia, and Acestra, in which the muzzle is much elongated.
The insects of the South American region, like those of other
tropical countries, include many large and strange types, such as, for
instance, the Hercules beetle (Dynastes hercules), the males of which are over
5 inches in length, and the Surinam lantern-bearer {FvZgora la nternaria), one of the
cucujas which measures some 2 \ inches in length and bears a bladder-like expan-
Insects.
INSECTS
4i7
sion on the head resembling a lantern. Tropical American butterflies are specially
notable on account of their numbers, their beauty, and in many cases their Large
size. They are further remarkable for the number of families by which they are
represented ; no less than thirteen families out of sixteen recognised in one of the
older classitications occurring in the region, to which three of them, namely the
Brassolidce, Heliconiidoi, and Eiirygonidai, are entirely restricted, while a
fourth, the Eurycinidoe, is found elsewhere only in North America. Moreover, in
families occurring in other parts of the world, the South American forms are
often quite different from the rest, as in the case of the Danaidce, which are
brightly tinted instead of being of a sombre type of colour. Some of the
iV
SURINAM LANTERN-BEARER.
Heliconiidce mimic species of the Danaidce, which are believed to be unpalatable
to birds. Very striking are the large and handsome butterflies of the exclusively
tropical genus Morpho, the typical representative of the family Morphidce, of
which the other genera are Indo-Malay. The species of Morpho are conspicuous
on account of the splendour of the blue on the upper surface of the wings of some
of the species, such as M. rhetenor of Amazonia, which looks almost like a bird
when on the wing, and M. cypris of Colombia. Other species displa\', however,
a different coloration, M. hecuba of Guiana, represented in the annexed illustration,
being brown and tawny : its expanse of wing is 7 or 8 inches.
Among moths it must suffice to refer to the magnificent diurnal species of the
genus Urania, which are specially interesting on account of being represented by
vol. n. — 27
4i8
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
an allied species in Madagascar, thereby presenting a remarkable parallelism in
development to the side-necked tortoises and boas.
Ants are strongly represented in the region, many of them being remarkable
on account of their habits. The parasol-ants, well exemplified by the South
Brazilian Atta hystrix, move, for instance, in troops like a green river across the
forest-paths, each worker carrying on its head a circular piece of leaf half an inch
across, which it has cut out from some leaf close by. Others exhibit the slave-
C
MORPHO HECUBA.
<.
e
making habit in great perfection. In the case of an Amazonian species, Polyergus
rufescens, it seems that new colonies are formed by one or more fertilised females
effecting an entrance into a nest of a species, Formica fusca, belonging to a totally
different group. The intruding female, unless she be stopped by hostile workers,
immediately makes her way to the domicile of the reigning queen, \ hom, when
found, she attacks and finally kills with her powerful jaws. During the contest
the attendant workers remain stupefied with fright, but at the death of their
legitimate queen quickly receive the foreign female in her place. In the second
INSECTS
419
year the new queen lays eggs, from which emerge Polyergus workers, and these
eventually obtain the mastery of the nest.
The great majority of the numerous kinds of ants inhabiting the flooded lands
of the valley of the Amazon make their nests in trees, so as to be above the water
level. Among these some of the most remarkable are the long, pendent, skein-like
nests of Azteca barbifex, the torpedo-like structure formed by a species of Campo-
notus, and the sheet-like papier-mache nest of A. trigona. Fungus-growing ants
are very abundant, their presence being generally indicated by the crater-like
elevations leading to the subterranean chambers in sandy districts of certain parts
of the country. To these the ants bring fragments of leaves from long distances,
and, after storing them in the subterranean chambers, use them as hot-beds for the
LONG-ARMED WHIP-SCORPION.
cultivation of the mycelium stage of the fungns Rhozites gongulophora. Whether
the fungus, in its fully developed state, ever reaches the surface through one of the
entrance-tubes is a point which has not yet been definitely determined.
Whip-scorpions Among the Arachnida of South America is the curious long-
and Spiders, armed whip-scorpion (Tarantula, or PJ/rynus, reniformis), armed
with pincers an inch in length. It belongs to a family, Tarantulidce, of which the
typical section, containing three genera, is exclusively tropical American and
West Indian, while the other two sections are Old World. The spiders include
the large bird-catching forms, such as Avicularia, or My gale, vestiaria, whose
bodies are clothed with coarse hairs and bristles. The members of the genus
Avicularia are exclusively tropical American, as ai*e those of the allied Eury-
pelma. Their nearest relatives are the Indian Poecilotheria, and the West
African Scoclra.
Although the fact that these giant spiders ascend trees at night to suck the
420
TROPICAL AMERICA AND ITS ANIMALS
eggs and drain the life-blood of the young of humming birds was recorded many-
years ago by two French travellers, the report was generally discredited in
Europe; and it was not till the naturalist-traveller H. W. Bates brought home
corroborative evidence, that the story received credence. On one occasion Bates
saw one of these spiders, which was nearly a couple of inches in length of body,
and covered a space of about seven inches when the legs were spread out. Bates
" was attracted by a movement of the monster on a tree-trunk ; it was close be-
neath a deep crevice in the tree, across which was stretched a dense white web.
The lower part of the web was broken, and two small birds, finches, were
entangled in the pieces."
..--■
<
BIRD-CATCHING SPIDER
^
THE MARA.
CHAPTER IV
The Animals of Patagonia and Chile
The fauna of the Patagonian and Chilian province is closely related to that
of the tropical districts of the South American region, but includes a few-
peculiar, or almost peculiar, tvpes, and is therefore deserving of a separate section.
The area embraces a large part of Argentina as well as Tierra del Fuego, and is
inhabited by guanacos, pampas deer, guemal, and rheas.
One of the most characteristic mammals of the open districts of-
Argentina and Patagonia is the pampas cat (Felis pajeros), a species
about the size of the European wild cat, but stouter in build. In colour it is
yellowish grey, striped obliquely with yellow or brownish bands, with the tail
and legs ringed, and the cheek marked by two dark streaks extending from
the eyes to the throat. Another species is Geoffroy's cat (F. geoffroyi) of the
Argentine pampas.
4*i
Pampas Cat.
422
THE ANIMALS OF PATAGONIA AND CHILE
Colpeo.
Very characteristic of the province is the colpeo (Canis magel-
lanicus), a large and handsome fox-like species, whose range
apparently extends from the damp beech-forests of Tierra del Fuego to the
deserts of northern Chile.
The most interesting rodent of this province is the mara
(Dolichotis patagonica), an ally of the guinea-pig. Maras abound
on the vast plains of Patagonia, where they appear in parties of from four to
thirty or forty in number, running in single rile. They stand about 13 inches at
Maras.
■
SLENDER-BEAKED PARAQUET.
the shoulder, and are a little under 3 feet in length ; the head is hare-like, and
the colour approximates to that of a hare or a roe. In length of leg maras
resemble deer, as they also do in the white patch on the rump, which is always
wider than the short stumpy tail, and in one race is edged with a black line above,
which is, however, absent in a second variety. The eyelashes of these rodents
are strongly developed to protect the eyes from the glare of the noonday sun,
the mara being a diurnal mammal which enjoys basking in the full sunshine.
A second and smaller species of mara (J), salinicola), which has no light rump
patch, inhabits the salt-tracts, or " salinas," of the Argentine.
BIRDS
423
Birds.
Among the more characteristic birds of the province under
consideration are the so-called rail-creepers, which somewhat resemble
wrens, but are almost as large as fieldfares. They hop on the ground, where they
hide among grass and bushes, flight being difficult to them owing to their heavy
bodies and short wings. They breed in holes in the ground, which they probably
dig themselves with their long claws. A well-known species is the turco
{Hylactes megapodius), whose colour is chiefly brown. Another bird living in
holes excavated by its own exertions is the slender-beaked paraquet (Heni-
s
WL /,
U/>
/y^^-^Z^^^^-j;
r|£~«
UNDULATED SEED SNIPE.
cognathus leptorhynchus), which inhabits the beech-forests of Chile, and migrates
northwards in winter. The deserts of the Chilian Andes are inhabited by the
undulated seed-snipe (Attagis gayi), a species not unlike a sand-grouse in
appearance, though very different in structure. Of the water-birds the most
noteworthy are the black-necked swan {Cygnus nigricollis) and the small
Coscoroba swan {Coscoroba Candida), the former being white, with black head
and neck, and red beak, and the latter white, with black tips to the wings.
The upland or Magellanic goose (Cloephaga magellanica), of the Falkland
Islands, visits Patagonia in winter, where, as previously stated, Darwin's rhea is
a common bird.
CUBAN SOLENODON.
CHAPTER V
West Indies — Galapagos Islands
Solenodon.
Animals of the West Indies
The most remarkable mammals of the West Indies are the
solenodons, inhabiting Hayti and Cuba, whose nearest allies are,
undoubtedly, the tenrecs of Madagascar. These curious Insectivora are charac-
terised by the prolonged cylindrical muzzle, long, tapering, scaly tail, large strong
claws, especially on the fore-feet, and coarse shaggy hair. The Haytian species
(Solenodon paradoxus), which is the size of a very large rat, is brown above,
black on the thighs, and pale brown on the sides of the head and under-parts.
In the Cuban species (S. cubanus), on the other hand, the general colour is some
shade of tawny or rufous, with a variable amount of black on the back and throat,
and a pale nuchal spot. The two species were long believed to be distinguished merely
by colour, but it is now ascertained that there is a difference in the number of the
vertebrae. As regards habits, these nocturnal insectivores assume a characteristic
pose when feeding, throwing the body backwards, with the full length of the soles
of the hind feet applied to the ground, and the strong tail serving as the third leg
of a tripod. In this posture one or both of the fore feet can be raised from the
ground. In walking the toes only are in contact with the ground, the greater
part of the soles of the hind pair being elevated. Captive specimens fed greedily on
chopped meat, but would also eat lettuce leaves. Usually they appeared peaceful
enough, but occasionally one would seize its companion by its long snout and
inflict a severe bite. Very rarely they uttered a shrill cry, but they were
constantly sniffing with a kind of explosive snort, and they emitted a disagreeable
odour, somewhat between that of a goat and that of a porcupine. How these aber-
424
HUTIAS — TODIES
425
rant and primitive Insectivora reached their present isolated habitat is a mystery,
seeing that there are no members of the order in either Central or South America.
Hutias The roclents are represented in the West Indies by the hutias,
which appear to be more or less intimately allied to the South
American coypu, but are more rat-like and mainly arboreal in their habits.
The hutia-couga (Capromys pilorides) represents the genus in Cuba, to which
island it is confined. It has a total length of about 22 inches, and is clothed with
long coarse hair yellowish
grey and brown in colour.
Its smaller relative, the
hutia-carabali (C. prehen-
silis), is distinguished by
the tip of its tail being
prehensile. Living in the
tree-tops, it is much more
wary than the hutia-couga,
and defends itself just as
fiercely. Jamaica and the
Bahamas each possess a
separate species of these
rodents. Jamaica and
Hayti are likewise inhab-
ited oy the closely related
Plagiodon cedium, distin-
guished from the hutias by
the zigzag enamel folds of
the cheek-teeth.
The todies are
characteristic West
Indian birds, entirely confined to
those islands ; the}7 are diminutive
in size, with long, narrow and flat beaks, whose
edges are finely serrated. Todies feed on small
insects, which they capture in much the same way
as flycatchers, darting down on them as they pass
the bough on which the birds are perching. Todies
nest in tunnels made in the sides of ravines and high banks, and even in deeply
cut ditches. The green tody of Jamaica (Todus viridis) is perhaps the best
known species of the family Todidce, which contains only the one genus with
five species.
In Martinique is found a curious tree-frog (Hylodes martini-
censis), already referred to in an earlier chapter on account of the
circumstance that within ten or twelve days the eggs, which are laid on the leaves
of plants near the coast, develop into the adult animal without the intervention of
a gill-bearing tadpole stage. The four legs appear simultaneously, and a short tail
is retained when the frog leaves the egg, although it soon withers.
Todies.
GREEN TODY.
Tree-Frog'.
426 WEST INDIES— GALAPAGOS ISLANDS
The Animal Life of the Gaiapagos Islands
The Galapagos Archipelago, consisting of fifteen small islands
situated on the equator, derives its name from the gigantic land-
tortoises by which it is inhabited, the nearest relatives of these reptiles living
on the isle of Aldabra near Madagascar. Four islands of the Galapagos group
have each a different species of tortoise, while Albemarle Island possesses two.
The latter, which is the lai-gest island of the group, is divided by a lava-flow
into two districts, each of which has its own species of tortoise. The Galapagos
tortoises feed chiefly on a juicy cactus, which serves not only as food, but likewise
as drink. Nevertheless these reptiles are fond of water, and in the larger islands
traverse long distances to reach the springs. Their journeys occupy two or three
days, even when the tortoises travel day and night, and regularly trodden paths
lead in all directions from the springs to the coast. In past times these tortoises
were probably found in large numbers on all the islands of the group ; but as
early as 1846 they were extinct on Charles Island and in 1875 only a few were
left on some of the others. At the latter date seven men were still occupied in
making tortoise-oil on Albemarle Island, of which they obtained 3000 gallons a
year. Dogs introduced by settlers were largely instrumental in the destruction
of the tortoises, by killing not only some of the full-grown individuals, but
numbers of the young. At the present day the tortoises are much smaller than
formerly. In 1888 most of them weighed little more than 20 lbs. and only one
reached 44 lbs., while in 1835 tortoises of 220 lbs. were not rare, and sometimes
it required six or eight men to lift the largest. The diminution in weight is
due to their being killed before they are fully grown, for tortoises grow all
through life and live to a great age. All the Galapagos species, like those of
the Mascarene Islands, belong to the typical genus Testudo.
The two noteworthy species are the flightless cormorant,
Naunopterum harrisi, and a penguin, Spheniscus mendiculus, the
latter, which is by far the most northern member of its kind, being regarded as a
relic of a former extension of the southern ice. This tends to confirm the view as to
the continental origin of the Galapagos group, and suggests that its union with
the mainland lasted until North and South America were themselves connected by
land, but at a period when there was a temporary sundering by means of an arm
of the sea, thereby permitting the influx into the Galapagos area of forms from the
Caribbean coast and the Antilles. Some writers are, however, of opinion that the
Galapagos are " oceanic " islands, that is to say, islands which have existed as such
from a very remote epoch.
INDEX
VOL. II
Abadavat, 185.
Acanthomys dimidiatus, 47.
Accentor montanellus, 25.
Accipiter virgatus, 155.
Acera bullata, 305.
Acipenser rubicundus, 352.
Acodon, 369.
Aconaemys, 370.
Actinia equina, 312.
Actinoloba dianthus, 312.
Adamsia palliata, 300.
Adjutants —
Indian, 199.
Javan, 199.
A\gialiiis, 100.
jEgithaliscus, 383.
ASluropus melanoleucus, 226.
Mlurus fulgens, 172.
AZthurus polytmus, 391.
J5z, 237, 351.
Agama sanguinolenta, 101.
Agelceus bonariensis, 384.
Agriocharis ocellata, 350.
Aguarachay, 362.
Agutis, 372.
Ajaja, 402.
Alactaga, 48, 87.
Alozmon desertorum, 61.
Alagdaga, 87.
Alauda gulgula, 153.
4fca, 257, 283.
Alcedo ispida bengalensis, 155.
Alces machlis, 317.
^4?/e nigricans, 283.
Alligators, 237, 351.
Alophonerpes pulverulentus, 218.
Alouatta, 357, 358.
Alpaca, 366.
Amandavat, 185.
Amazon Parrots, 397.
Amblyopsis spelcea, 351.
Amblystoma, 351, 413.
Amia calva, 351.
Ammodytes, 293.
Ammotnanes phcenicura, 153.
Ammoperdix, 69.
Ampelis, 29, 347.
Amphisbaina cinerea, 81.
Amphiuma means, 351.
Amphodus, 413.
Anabas scandens, 221.
Anableps tetrophthalmus, 415.
Anaconda, 411.
Anarrhichas, 291, 292.
Anaslomus oscitans, 199.
Anchovy, Common, 293.
Ancistrodon piscivorus, 351.
Andigena, 393.
Anemone, Red Sea, 312.
Ani Cuckoo, 396.
Anoa, 214.
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus. 397.
Ant-Eaters, 151, 353, 378, 379.
Antedon rosaceus, 309.
Antelopes —
Four-Horned, 45, 110.
Saiga. 87.
Tibetan, 231. _
Anthocincla phayrei, 188.
Anthropoides virgo. 98.
4n<Aus cervinus. 26.
richardi, 90.
rupeslris, 26.
Antilocapra americana, 333.
Antilope cervicapra, 110.
Antrozous pallidas, 345.
Ants, Parasol, 418.
Apar Armadillo, 375.
Ape, Black, 210.
Apes, Man-like, 209.
Aphrodite aculeata, 307.
Aplysia depilans. 305.
Aquila clanga, 94.
heliaca, 93.
nipalensis, 93.
vindhiana, 155.
.4ra ararauna, 397.
Arachnothera longirostris, 183.
.4ramws, 403.
Arapaima gigas, 416.
Archceopteryx, 401.
Archibuteo, 15, 329.
Architeuthis, 302.
Arctictis binturong, 169.
Arctogalidia leucotis, 168.
Arctomys bobas, 21.
dichrous, 46.
fiaviventer, 334.
hodgsoni, 121.
monax, 334.
pruinosus, 334.
Arctonyx, 173.
Ardea purpurea, 72.
sumatrana, 198.
Ardeola ralloides, 74.
^IrenicoZa marina, 307.
Argalis, 229.
Argonauta, 302.
Argusianus argus, 197.
Armadillos, 353, 373-376.
Arremon fasciata, 383.
Artibeus planirostris, 382.
427
Aru Tortoise, Great, 408.
^sio, 329, 400.
Aspredo batrachus, 414.
Ass, Asiatic Wild, 45.
.dstacus gammarus, 301.
Asterias rubens, 308.
^rfropeden auranliacus, 308.
Asturina, 397.
Ateles paniscus, 355.
Atherura macrura, 180.
Atlas Moth, 222.
Atopohyrax, 346.
Atractaspis, 412.
Attacus atlas, 222.
.4 Ma^is <7ayi, 423.
.4/ta hystrix, 418.
Auk, Crested, 285
Great, 257.
little, 283.
Rhinoceros-Billed, 285.
Aulacorhamphus, 393.
Aurelia aurita, 311.
Avicularia vestiaria, 419.
Avocet, 249.
Axolotl, 413.
^2<eca, 419.
Babblers, 181, 182.
Babbling Thrushes, 181.
Babirusa alfurus, 216.
Badgers, 24, 53, 213, 343.
Ferret, 173.
Sand, 173.
Balcena, 267, 271.
Balcenoptera, 247.
Balomys granti, 216.
Bandicoot-Rats, 47, 123.
Bantin, 109, 175.
Barasingha, 105, 175.
Barbastelle, European, 345.
Barbets, 190.
Barnacles, 301, 302.
Bara-Owl, 400.
Bass, 288, 289.
Bassaricus astutus, 363.
Batagurs, 159, 202.
Batrachostomus hodgsoni, 188.
Bats, 24.
Californian Cave, 345.
Canadian, 328.
Desert, 56.
Fruit, 146.
Short -Nosed, 148.
Small Long - Tongued,
164.
Hare-Lipped, 381.
428
INDEX
Bats — (continued).
Hoary. 328.
Indian Fox, 147.
Javelin, 382.
Kuhl's, 55, 146.
Large Brown, 345.
Long-Eared, 345.
Long-Tailed, 56.
Malay Fox, 163.
Mastiff, 381, 382.
Naked, 164.
North American, 345.
Painted, 146.
Plantain, 146.
Pouch-Winged, 381.
Silver- Haired, 345.
Canadian, 328.
South American, 381.
Spotted, 345.
Thin-Tailed, 381.
Tomb, 146.
Tri-coloured, 381.
Vampire, 382.
Wall, 146.
White, 381.
Wrinkled-Lipped, 146.
Bay a, Eastern, 185.
Baza lophotes, 195.
Bears, 226, 326.
American Black, 342.
Barren Ground, 327.
Blue, 226.
Brown, 140. 226, 326.
Cinnamon, 342.
Gribble Island, 327. 343.
Grisly, Rocky Mountain,
326.
Himalayan Black, 53, 140,
171, 226.
Himalayan Brown, 53.
Kadiak Island Brown, 326.
Kamchatkan Brown, 23.
Malay, 171, 226.
Polar, 268.
Sloth, 141.
Smooth-Coated Malay, 213.
South Alaskan Brown, 326.
Spectacled, 363.
Syrian Brown, 53.
Tian Shan, 226.
Beavers, 21, 46, 322, 336.
Becards, 390.
Bee-Eaters, 63, 154, 155, 188.
Bell -Birds, 388.
Beluga, 272.
Bharal, 229.
Bhringa remijer, 186.
Bighorns, 319, 320.
Binturong, 169.
Bison, 86.
American, 331.
Bittern, 33.
Little, 157.
Sun, 403.
Blackbird, 57.
Blackbuck, 45, 1 10.
Blackcap, 25, 57.
Black-Cock, 33.
Blackfish, 244.
Blarina brevicauda, 344, 360.
Blarinomys, 369.
Blastoceros, 365.
Blennies, 291.
Blind-Fish, 351.
Blind-Snakes, 205.
Bluebirds, American, 347.
Blue Rollers, 30, 154.
Blue-Throats, 24, 25.
Boa constrictor, 411.
Boars, Wdd, 45, 87, 116.
Boas, 411, 412.
Boboln.k, 34 7.
Bob-White, 350.
Bolborhynchus, 397.
Bonasa umbellus, 350.
Bony Pike, 352.
Boreolepus groenlandicus, 316.
Bos bison, 331.
bubalis, 108, 213.
depressicornis, 214.
gaurus, 107, 174.
grunniens, 226.
indicus, 109.
mindorensis, 213.
sondaicus, 109, 175.
Boselaphus tragocamelus, 111.
Bow-Fin, 351.
Box-Tortoises, 351.
Brachygalba, 394.
Brachyrhamphus marmoratus,
283.
Bradypterus cetii, 58.
Bradypus, 378.
Brambling, 27.
Branchiostoma lanceolatum, 298.
Branta, 272, 273.
Breams, Sea, 289.
Brill, 291.
Brittle Stars, 308.
Broadbills, 218.
Brockets, 364, 365.
Brosmius brosme, 293.
Brotogenys, 397.
Bubble-Shells, 305.
Bubo bengalensis, 1 55.
coromandus, 155.
ignavus, 155.
nigrescens, 400.
turcomanus, 23, 237,
virginianus, 349.
Bubulcus coromandus, 198.
Bucapra, 231.
Buccinum undatum, 303.
Bucco ruficollis, 395.
Buckie, 304.
Budorcas, 229.
Buffalo-
American, 331.
Asiatic, 108.
Bornean, 213.
Pigmy, 214.
Wood, 331.
Bulbuls, 56. 154. 184.
Bulla ampulla, 305.
Bullfinch, 27, 62.
Bull-Frog, 351.
Bullheads, 289.
Bungarus, 159, 204. 205.
Buntings —
Black-Headed, 61.
Cirl, 61.
Corn, 61.
Crested, 154.
Cretzschmar's. 61.
Lapland, 15, 26. 328.
Little, 26.
Buntings — {continued).
Meadow, 61.
North American, 347.
Painted, 347.
Pine, 26.
Reed, 61.
Rustic, 26
Snow, 15, 26, 328.
Sparrow, 347, 384.
Streaked, 154.
Yellow-breasted, 26.
Bush-Dog, 362.
Bushmaster, 411.
Bustard-Quails, 199.
Bustards, 33, 79, 99.
Buteo desertorum, 66.
Butter-Fish, 291.
Buzzards, 66, 155.
Honey, 33, 155, 194.
Rough-Legged, 15.
St. John's, 329.
Turkey, 349.
Caccabis, 69.
Cachuga, 159, 202.
Cacomistles, 363.
Ccenolestes, 380.
Caimans, 408, 409.
Calamary, Rondelet's, 302.
Calandrella brachydactyla, 60.
Calidris arenaria, 12.
Calimito, 359.
Calliope camchatkensis, 24.
Calliste thoracica, 383.
Calcenas nicobarica, 218.
Calopezus, 406.
Calornis calibeius, 186.
Calospiza thoracica, 383.
Calotes versicolor, 202.
Calyptomena viridis, 218.
Camels. 234.
Camponotus, 419.
Campophaga, 154, 187.
Campophilus j>rincipalis, 348.
Camplolcemus labradorius, 274.
Cancer pagurus, 300.
Canis anthus, 50.
aureus, 50, 139.
azarce, 362.
bengalensis, 53, 140.
canus, 52.
cinereo-argenteus, 341.
corsac, 89.
(Cyon) alpinus, 22.
famelicus, 53.
jubatus, 361.
lagopus, 5.
latrans, 341.
leucopus, 52.
lupaster, 50.
lupus, 138, 325.
magellanicus, 422.
pallipes, 50, 138.
primoevus, 226.
procyonoides, 225.
sumatrensis, 139, 171.
thous, 362.
velox, 326.
vulpes, 325, 326, 341.
Capercaillic, 33.
Capivara, 373.
Capra caucasica, 86.
cylindricornis, 86.
INDEX
429
Capra — (continued).
falconeri, 43.
hircus, 42.
nubiana, 42.
sibirica, 229.
Capreolus, 20. 232.
Capricornis argyroclicetes. 229.
crispus, 229.
sumatrensis, 115, 175.
Caprolagus, 125.
Capromys, 425.
Capuchins, 354.
Caracal, 49, 133.
Caracara, 398.
Carancho, 398.
Carasissi, 362.
Carcharias glaucus, 296.
Carcinus mamas, 300.
Cardinals, 347.
Cariama cristala, 404.
Caribou. 317.
Carp, 37.
Crucian, 37.
Chinese, 237.
Golden, 237.
Toothed, 415.
Carpincho, 373.
Carpodacus erythrinus, 27.
Carpomys, 216.
Carponycteris minimus, 1 64.
Carpophaga arnea, 198.
Cassicus cristatus, 384.
Cassidix ater, 3S4.
Cassiques, 384.
Castor canadensis, 322.
Cat, Bornean Bay, 212.
Civet, 212.
Desert, 50, 132.
European Wild, 48.
Fishing, 50, 132.
Flat-Headed, 168.
Fontanier's, 225.
Geoffrey's, 421.
Golden, 168, 225.
Jungle, 48, 133.
Leopard, 132.
Marbled, 167.
Pallas's, 22, 88.
Pampas, 421.
Rusty-Spotted, 132.
Waved, 132.
Cat-Bird, Common, 347.
Cat-Fish, 292, 414.
Armoured, 416.
South American, 414.
Catharista atrata, 399.
Catharisies urubu, 399.
Cathartes, 349, 399.
Catreus wallichi, 156.
Cattle, Humped, 109, 175.
Cave-Bat. Californian, 345.
Cavia boliviensis, 373.
cutleri, 373.
porcellus, 373.
rupestris, 373.
Cavies, 372, 373.
Cebus, 354.
Cedar-Bird, 347.
Celeus, 393.
Centronolus gunnellus, 291.
Centropus, 192, 410.
Cephalopterus ornalus. 388.
Ceratodus, 416.
Ceralophrys dorsala, 412.
Ceratophyla, 413.
Cerchneipicus, 393.
Cercoleptes caudivolvulus, 363.
Cerivoula picta, 146.
Cerorhyncha monoctrata, 285.
Cervulus bridgemani, 232.
jea>, 177.
lachrymans, 232.
muntjac, 103.
reevesi, 177, 232.
sclateri, 238.
Cervus albirostris, 231.
a//redf, 177, 215.
cms, 102.
canadensis, 20, 231, 318.
cashmirianus, 231.
duvauceli, 105.
eWi, 175, 176.
hippelaphus, 175, 214.
hortulorum, 231.
Icuhli, 215.
macneilli, 231.
mesopotamicus, 41.
porcinus, 104.
schomburgki, 177.
sica, 232.
taevanus, 232.
unicolor, 103, 175, 214, 215,
232.
wallichi, 231.
yarcandensis, 231.
Cen/Ze, 189, 392.
Cetorhinus maximus, 296.
Celupa ceylonensis, 193.
Ce?/x tridactyla, 189.
Chcetomys subspinosus, 370.
Chozlura indica, 188.
pelasgia, 348.
Chaffinch, 27, 62.
Chaja, 405.
Chalcococcyx maculatus. 191.
Chalcophanes lugubris, 384.
Chalcophaps indica, 198.
Chama, 222.
Chamceleon calcaratus, 203.
Chamaeleons, 203.
Chamois, 86.
Charybdea marsupialis, 311.
Chasmorhynchus, 388.
Chat-Cervier, 325.
Chatterers, 388, 389.
Chauna, 405.
Chelidoptera, 394.
Chelydra, 351.
Chelys fimbriata, 408.
CAen hyperboreus, 7.
Cherry-Finches, 384.
Chevrotains. 115, 177.
Chickari, 321.
Chiggetai, 235.
Chimachima, 393.
Chimara, 295.
Chimarrogale himalayica, 165.
Chinchilla, 371.
Chipmunk, 21, 321.
Chir, 156.
Chiromeles torquatus, 1 64.
Chironectes minima, 380.
Chiropodomys gliroides, 180.
Chiru, 45. 231.
Chital, 102.
Chiton discrepans, 305.
Chlamydophorus, 376.
Chloropsis aurifrons, 184.
Cholcepus, 378.
Chordiles, 188, 348.
Chotorhea versicolor, 190.
Chough, Alpine, 62.
Chough-Thrush, Pander's, 92.
Chousingha, 111.
Chow, 51.
Chrotogale owstoni, 226.
Chrotomys whiteheadi, 2 1 6.
Chrysocolaptes sultaneus, 189.
Chrysolophus, 237.
Chrysomitris cucullata, 328, 384.
pinus, 328.
Chrysonotus javanensis, 189.
Chrysolhrix sciurea, 356.
Chrysotis ozstiva, 397.
Chunga burmeisteri, 404.
Cicaba, 400.
Cinclus albicollis, 56.
Cinyxis, 351.
Circus swainsoni, 66.
Cissa, 154, 186.
Cisticola cursitans, 58.
CHtocincla macrura, 183.
Civets —
Banded, 212.
Tonkin, 226.
Burmese, 168.
Ceylon, 137, 168, 169.
Indian, 135.
Malabar, 136.
Palm, Hardwicke's, 169.
Himalayan, 168.
Indian, 137.
Jerdon's, 137.
Malay, 168.
Small -Toothed, 168.
Web-Footed, 170.
Clam, 306.
Clemmys caspica, 101.
CloSphaga magellanica, 423.
CZwpea, 294.
Coaita, 355.
Coal -Fish, 293.
Coatis, 363.
Cobegos, 166, 212.
Cobra, 159, 203, 204.
Coccystes, 64, 155.
Coccyzus, 348.
Cocks-of-the-Rock, 3S9.
Cod, 292.
Ccecilians, 221.
Cozlogtnys, 372.
Coendou, 370.
Cogta breviceps, 266.
Cogni, 413.
Cotaptes, 348, 393.
Colinus virginianus, 350.
Collocalia, 188, 218.
Colocollo, 361.
Colpeo, 422.
Columba livia, 70.
Colymbus, 281.
Comatulids. 309.
Comber, 289.
Comb-Star, Orange, 308.
Condors, 349, 399.
Condylura cristata, 345.
Conepatus mapurito, 363.
Conger Eel. 294.
Conomedusce, 311.
43°
INDEX
Conures, 397.
Conuropsis, 348. 349, 397.
Conurus, 397.
Coot, 33, 158.
Copsychus saularis, 183.
Coracias indica, 154.
Corallus, 411. 412.
Corals, 311, 312.
Coral-Snakes. 411. 412.
Cormorants, 36, 256, 267.
Flightless, 428.
Galapagos, 428.
Indian, 159.
Pigmv, 80.
Small", 159.
Corsac, 89.
Corvus dauricus, 29.
insolent, 186.
macrorhynchus, 154.
orientalis, 29.
pastinator, 29.
sharpei, 29.
splendens, 154.
umbrinus, 154.
Coscoroba Candida, 423.
Cosmonetta histrionica, 7.
Cotile rupestris, 62.
sinensis, 154.
Cotinga, 389.
Cotton-Tail, 338.
Cotton-Teal, 200.
Coitus quadricornis, 289.
scorpius, 290.
Coturnix coromandelica, 156.
Cotylorhiza tuberculata, 311.
Courlans, 403.
Courser —
Cream-coloured, 77.
Indian, 158.
Cow-Birds, 347, 384.
Co vote, 341.
Coypu, 370, 425.
Crabs —
Edible, 300.
Hermit, 300.
Prideaux's, 300.
Shore, 300.
Thornback, 300.
Woolly, 300.
Craits, 204, 205.
Cranes —
Demoiselle, 98.
European, 33.
Manchurian, 237.
Sarus, 158.
Whooping, 350.
Crateromys schatenbergi, 216.
Crax globigera, 400.
Crayfish, 300.
Creepers, 25, 347.
Cricetus {Cricetulus) phceus, 47, 88.
Crocidura, 145.
Crocodiles, 159, 206, 207, 408,
409.
Crocodilus americanus, 408.
palpelrosus, 409.
palustris, 159. 207.
porosus, 159, 207.
sclerops, 408.
Crocomorphus, 393.
Crossbills —
Larch, 27.
Pine, 27.
Crossbills — {continued).
Two-Barred, 27.
White-Winged, 27, 328.
Crotalus, 351, 411.
Crotophaga, 396.
Crow-Tits, 183.
Crows —
Burmese, 186.
Carrion, 154.
Siberian, 29.
Clarke's, 328.
Hooded, 62.
Siberian, 29.
House, 154.
Jungle, 154.
Crypturus, 405, 406.
Clenomys, 370.
Cuckoos —
Ani, 396.
Bush, 192.
Crested, 155.
Double-Tailed, 396.
Glossy, 191.
Great Spotted, 64.
Guira, 396.
Hedge, 192.
Lark, 396.
Rain, 348.
Savana, 396.
Spur, 191.
Cuckoo-Shrikes, 154, 187.
Cucujas, 416.
Culicivora, 386.
Curassows, 400.
Curlew, 33, 78.
Cursorius, 77, 158.
Cuscus, Black, 217.
Cuttles, 302, 303.
Cyanea, 311.
Cyanecula suecica, 24.
Cyanocitta macrolopha, 347.
Cyanocorax chrysops, 384.
Cyanolyseus, 397.
Cyanopica cyanea, 237.
Cyanopsittacus, 397.
Cyanospiza, 347.
Gyclemis, 202.
Cyclopterus lumpus, 291.
Cyclorhis guianensis, 384.
Cycloturus didactylus, 379.
Ci/gnopsi? cygnoides, 237.
Cygnus beirichi, 7.
buccinator, 329.
musicus, 6.
nigricollis, 423.
Cyncelurus jubalus, 133.
Cynogale bennetti, 170.
Cynomys, 336.
Cynopithecus niger, 210.
Cynopterus sphinx, 148.
Cyphocrania gigas, 223.
Cyphorhinus, 383.
Cypselus cinereiventris, 154.
melanocephalus, 154.
phoeocephalus, 154.
Cystophora cristata, 269.
Dacnis cayana, 383.
Dactylomys, 370.
Damonia, 150.
Daphnis nerii, 82.
Darters, 201.
Dasyprocta aguti, 372.
Dasypus, 375.
Daulias, 56.
Deer, 214, 231.
American, 331.
Bavian, 215.
Black-Tailed, 333.
Brocket, 364.
Costa Rica, 364.
Fallow, 41.
Guemal, 365.
Hog, 104.
Marsh, 365.
Michie's, 233.
Mouse, 115, 177.
Mule, 331.
Musk, 20, 233, 234.
Pampas, 365, 421.
Pere David's, 232.
Prince Alfred's, 177.
Pudu, 365.
Red, 41.
Schomburgk's, 177.
South American, 364.
Spotted, 102, 215.
Swamp, 105.
Tufted, 232.
Virginian, 332.
Water, 232.
White - Muzzled, Thorol d ' a,
231.
White-Tail, 331.
White-Tailed, 364.
Yarkand, 231.
Deer-Mouse, Common, 336.
Degu, 370.
Delphinapterus leucas, 272.
Delphinus delphis, 243.
Dendrobates, 393, 413.
Dendrocitta, 154, 186.
Dendrocolaptes, 385.
Dendrocycna javanica, 159.
Dendronotus arborescens, 305.
Dentex vulgaris, 289.
Deroptyus, 397.
Desmodus rufus, 382.
Devil -Fish, 297.
Dicerobatis, 297.
Dicer os bicornis, 189.
Diclidurus albus, 381.
Dicceum, 183.
Dicotyles, 367, 368.
Dicrostonyx, 6, 22. 317. 339.
Didelphys calijornica, 346.
crassicaudata, 380.
lanigera, 380.
marsupialis, 346.
murina, 380.
nudicaudata, 380.
opossum, 380.
philander, 380.
sorex, 380.
Dinomys branicki, 372.
Diphylla ecaudata. 382.
Diplogale hosei, 213.
Diplopterus ncevius, 396.
Dipodomys, 326.
phillipsi, 338.
Dippers, 24, 56.
Dipus jaculus, 48.
Dissura. 198, 402.
Divers, 280, 281.
Dogs —
Bush, 362.
INDEX
43*
Dogs — {continued).
Domesticated, 57.
Eskimo, 51.
Hunting, African, 22.
Prairie, 335.
Raccoon, 225.
Tibet, 51.
Wild, 226.
Indian, 139.
Malay, 171, 213.
Siberian. 22.
Dolichonyx oryzivorus, 347.
Dolichotis, 422.
Dolphins, 243, 244, 266.
Fresh-water, 381.
Gangetic, 153.
Inia, 381.
Irawadi, 179.
River, 381.
South American, 381.
Tucuxi, 381.
Dories, 290.
Dormouse, 46.
Persian, 46.
Tree, 21, 46.
Dotterels, 35, 100.
Douroucolis, 355, 356.
Doves —
Bronze- Winged, 198.
Golden Green, 198.
Ground, 218.
Malay, 198.
Ring, 33.
Rock, 70.
Turtle, 33, 72.
Collared, 72.
Dracaena, 410.
Draco volans, 202, 219.
Dried-leaf Insect, 223.
Dromia vulgaris, 300.
Dromococcyx, 396.
Drongos, 186.
Dryophis mycierizans, 204.
Ducks, 159.
Bramini, 100.
Comb, Indian, 159.
Eider, 274, 275, 276.
Golden-Eye, 35.
Harlequin, 7, 35.
Labrador, 274.
Long-Tailed, 8, 35.
Mandarin, 237.
Musk, 405.
North American, 350.
Sickle-Winged, 35.
South American, 405.
Summer, 237, 351.
Tree, Indian, 159.
Tufted, 35.
Turkish, 405.
White-Eyed, 80.
White-Headed, 101.
Wild, 35. 80.
Dunlin, 34, 35.
Dymecodon, 236.
Dynastes hercules, 416.
Eagle, Bonelli's, 155.
Canadian, 349.
Crested, 195.
Golden, 32, 65, 349.
Harpy, 397.
Hawk, Bonelli's, 65.
Eagle — (continued).
Hawk, Booted, 65.
Imperial, 93.
Monkey-Eating, 195.
Pigmy, 155.
Sea, 66.
Banded, 155.
Steller's, 32.
White-Headed, 349.
White-Tailed, 32.
Serpent, 66, 195.
Indian, 155.
Spotted, 94, 155.
Steppe, 93.
Tawny, 155.
Eagle-Owls, 237, 349, 400.
Ear-Shells, 304.
Echinomys, 370.
Echinoihrix calamaris, 310.
Echinus esculentus, 310.
Echis carinata, 159.
Ectopistes migratorius, 350.
Eels, 294.
Conger, 294.
Electric, 416.
Sand, 293.
Eel-Salamander, Floridan, 351.
Egrets, 73, 157, 198.
Elanoides furcatus, 349.
Elanus cceruleus, 66.
Elaphodus, 232.
Elaphurus davidianus, 232.
Flaps corallinus, 41 1.
Elephant, Indian, 117.
Elephas maximus, 117.
Eligmodon, 369.
Elk, 317.
Elvers. 295.
Emberiza aureola, 26, 61, 154.
ccesia, 61.
leucocephala, 26.
melanocephala, 61.
pusilla, 26.
rustica, 26.
striolata, 154.
Engraulis encrasicholus, 293.
Ensis siliqua, 306.
Epicrates, 412.
Equus, 45, 46, 117, 235.
Erethizon dorsatus, 324.
Erinaceus auritus, 54, 89.
collaris, 55.
jerdoni, 55.
macranlhus, 54.
megalotis, 55.
micropus, 145.
pictus, 55.
Eriodes arachnoides, 355.
Erismatura leucocephala, 101.
Ermine, 23, 53, 317.
Eryx jaculus, 82.
Euchoretes naso, 235.
Euderma maculata, 345.
Eudynamis honorata, 191.
Eulabes javanensis, 186.
Eunectes, 411, 412.
Eunetta falcata, 35.
Eupagurus prideauxi, 300.
Euphonia violacea, 383.
Euptilotis, 394.
Eurylmmus sumatranus, 218.
Eurypelma, 419.
Eurypyga, 403.
Euryslomus orientalis, 188.
Euthria cornea, 303.
Evotomys, 339.
Eyra, 361.
Falco candicans, 15.
cenchreis, 64.
columbarius, 349.
feldeggii, 64.
gyrfalco, 15.
islandicus, 15.
sparverius, 349.
vespertinus, 92.
Falconets, 193, 194.
Falcon-Kites, 194, 195.
Falcons, 14, 15, 92. 155, 329.
Father Lasher, 290.
Feather-Stars, 309.
Felis badia, 212.
bengalensis, 132.
caracal, 49, 133.
chaus, 48, 133.
colocollo, 361.
concolor, 338.
eyra, 361.
geoffroyi, 421.
jaguarondi, 361.
leo, 49, 129.
lynx, 325.
manul, 22, 88.
marmorata, 167.
nebulosa, 167.
onca, 360.
ornata, 50, 132.
pajeros, 421.
pardalis, 361.
pardus, 50, 129, 130, 225.
planiceps, 168.
rubiginosa, 132.
rufa, 325, 338.
scripta, 225.
temmincki, 168, 225.
tigrina, 361.
tigris, 22, 126, 225.
torquata, 132.
tristis, 225.
uncia, 225.
viverrina, 50, 132.
Fennec, Riippell's, 53.
Ferret-Badgers, 173.
Fiber zibethicus, 323.
Fieldfares, 24.
File-Shells, 306.
Finches, 184.
Cherry, 28.
Citril, 62.
Monk, 384.
Morning. 384.
Saffron," 384.
Satin, Bluish Black, 384
Shore, 328.
Finch-Larks, 153.
Fireflies, West Indian, 426.
Fire-Horn, 304.
Flamingo, 157, 402.
Flicker, 348.
Florican, Indian, 158.
Flounder, 291.
Flower-Peckers, 183.
Flycatchers —
Crested, 385.
North American, 347.
Paradise, 187.
43 =
INDEX
Flycatchers — (continued).
Red-Breasted, 29.
Spotted, 29.
Tyrant, 3S6.
White-Eyed, 347.
Flying-Frogs, 219.
Flying Gurnards, 290.
Flying-Lemurs, 166.
Flying-Squirrels, 322.
Formica fusca, 418.
Fowls, 156, 196.
Fox, 22.
Arctic, 5, 317.
Azara's, 361.
Bengal, 52.
Black, 326.
Crab-Eating, 362.
Cross, 341. "
Desert, 52.
European, 52.
Grey, 341.
Hoary, 52.
Indian, 140.
Kadiak Island, 325.
Kit, 326.
North American, 325.
Red, 326, 341.
Silver, 326.
Virginian, 341.
Fox - Squirrel, United States,
334.
Francolins, 69, 156.
Francolinus chinensis, 69, 156.
gularis, 156.
pictus, 156.
pondicerianus, 156.
vulgaris, 69, 156.
Fratercula arctica, 283.
Fringilla, 27, 28.
Frog-Mouths, 18S.
Frogs —
Bull, 351.
Darwin's, 412.
Edible, 36.
Flying, 219.
Borneo, 219.
Javan, 219.
Moor, 36.
Pigmy, 412.
Pouched, 413.
South American, 412.
Tiger, 219.
Tree, 37, 413.
Fruit-Pigeons, 198.
Fulgora lanternaria, 416.
Fuligula marila, 8.
Fulmarus glacialis, 280.
Funambulus, 46. 120, 121.
Furnarius, 386.
Furze-Chat, 153.
Fusus anliquus, 304.
Gadus, 292, 293.
Gadwall, 35.
GalbalcyrhyncMis, 394.
Galbula ruficauda, 394.
Galeodes, 83.
Galeopithecus. 166, 212.
Galeus vulgaris, 296.
Galictis, 364.
Gallinula phcenicura, 158.
Gallinules, 79, 157.
(.'nil us, 156, 196.
Gam.psonyx swainsoni, 397.
Gannet, 256.
Gaper, Common European, 306.
Garialis, 159. 206.
Garrulax, 181, 186.
Garrulus, 62, 154.
Garrulus bispecularis, 62. 154.
krynicki, 62.
lanceolatus, 154.
leucotis, 186.
syriacus, 62.
Gastcrosteus spinachia, 292.
Gastropods, 303, 305.
Gaur, 107, 174.
Gayal, 108, 174.
Gazella arabica, 45, 110.
bennetli, 45, 109.
dorcas, 45.
fuscifrons, 45, 109.
gutturosa, 231.
marica, 45.
muscatensis, 45, 110.
picticaudata, 231.
przeivalskii, 231.
seistanica, 45.
subgutturosa, 45.
yarcandensis, 231.
Gazelle, Baluchi, 45.
Dorcas, 45.
Goitred, 45, 231.
Indian, 45, 109.
Mongolian, 231.
Persian, 45.
Przewalski's, 231.
Saikik, 231.
Tibetan, 231.
Geckos. 202. 203.
Geese, 7, 45, 159, 272. 350.
Bernicle, 273.
Grey Lag, 80.
Magellanic, 423.
Snow, 7.
Swan, 237.
Upland, 423.
Gehyra mutilata, 203.
Gelochelidon, 253.
Genet, European, 54.
Geocichla, 181.
Geococcyx, 396.
GeoSmyda, 202.
Geomys bursarius, 324, 337.
Geopelia striata, 198.
Geotrygon, 218.
Gerbillus, 47, 88, 124.
Gerbil Rat, Indian, 124.
Gerfalcons, 14, 15, 32.
Gharials, 159. 206, 218.
Ghor-khar, 46.
Giant Storks, 199, 402.
Gibbons, 162, 163, 20U.
Gila Monster. 409.
Gisella, 400.
Glareola, 158, 159.
pratincola, 76.
Glauc'dium, 400.
Glis picta, 46.
.Globe-Shell. 305.
Globiocephalus, 244, 2(i(i.
Glossophaga soricina, 3S2.
Glutton, 23, 317.
Gnathoslttaca, 3!)7.
Goa, 231.
Goats, 229.
Goats — {continued).
Angora, 42.
Caucasian, 42.
Domesticated. 42.
Egyptian, 42.
Mamber, 43.
Rocky Mountain, 320.
Sudan, 42.
Syrian, 43.
Tibetan Shawl, 42.
White, 320.
Wild, 41.
Godwit, Bar-Tailed, 9.
Goldcrest, 25. 58.
Golden-Eye, 35.
Goldfinch, 27, 62.
Golunda ellioti, 47, 124.
Goosander, 36.
Gophers, 321, 324, 335, 337.
Goral, 114, 175, 229.
Gorgonocephalus arborescens, 308.
Goshawk, 66.
Crackles, 186.
Grampus, 245.
Grampus griseus, 244.
Grebes —
Black-Necked, 36.
Crested, 36, 81.
Eared, 36, 81.
Little, 81.
Red-Necked, 36.
Greenfinch, 27, 62.
Greenlets, American, 347, 384.
Greenshanks, 34, 100.
Griffon Vultures, 156.
Grisons, 364.
Grosbeaks, 27, 328.
Ground -Doves, 218.
Ground-Thrushes, 181.
Grouse, Ruffed, 350.
Sand, 79, 80, 97, 157.
Sharp-Tailed. 329, 350.
Willow, 33, 329.
Grus americani, 350.
ant.igone, 158.
viridirostris, 237.
Guacharo, 391.
Guanacos, 366, 421.
Guans, 400.
Guazuti, 365.
Guemals, 365, 421.
Guillemots, 281, 282, 283.
Guira, 396.
Gulls, 36,81,101,254,276,277,278.
Gulo luscus, 23.
Gurami, 221.
Gurnards, 289, 290.
Gymnotus electricus, 416.
Gymnura, 165, 212, 236.
Gyopsittacus, 397.
Gyps bengalensis, 156.
fulmis, 67.
indicus, 156.
tenuirostris, 156.
Haddock, 292.
Hcematopus oslralegus, 251.
Hag-Fishes, 297.
Haimora, 415.
Hakes, 293.
Halcyon fuscus, 189.
Haliaetus hucocephalus, 349.
leutoryphus, 155.
INDEX
433
Haliastur indus, 194.
Halibut, 201.
llalichcerus grypus, 243.
Jhiliotis, 304.
Hammerer, Costa Rican, 388.
Hanmier-Head, 296.
Hamsters, 21, 47, 88.
Hangman-Birds, 389.
Hangnests, 347.
Hanguls, 231.
Hanuman, 148,
Hapale, 359.
Haplodon rufus, 336.
Hardella, 159. _
Harelda glacialis, 8.
Hares — ■
Afghan, 47.
Black-Eared, 338.
Black-Naped, 125.
Brazilian, 373.
Buff-Bellied, 338.
Greenland, 316.
Long- Legged, 338.
Polar, 316.
Red-Tailed, 125.
Sind, 47.
South American, 373.
Spiny, 125.
Varying, 338.
Harpy, 397.
Harriers, 33, 66.
Hawfinch, 28.
Hawks —
Carancho, 398.
Chanting, 397.
Gos, 33.
Pigeon, 349.
Sparrow, 33, 66.
American, 349.
Besra, 155.
Hazel-Hens, 33.
Hedgehogs —
Afghan, 55.
Collared, 55.
Indian, 145.
Jerdon's, 55.
Large-Fared, 54.
Long-Eared, 89.
Long-Spin ed, 54.
Stoliczka's, 55.
Eelictis, 173.
Heloderma, 409.
Hemieuryale pustulata, 309.
Hemigale hardwickei, 169, 226.
Hemiphrartus, 413.
Hemitragus, 112, 114.
Henicognaihus, 397, 423.
Hercules Beetle, 416.
Hermione hystrix, 307.
Hermit-Crab, 30U.
Herodias, 73.
Herons, 33.
Nieht, 74, 157.
Purple, 72, 157.
Squacco, 74.
Sumatran, 198.
White, 73, 157.
Herpestes auropunctatut, 53.
fulvescens, 138.
fuscus, 138.
ichneumon, 53.
mungo, 54, 138.
tmithi, 138.
VOL. II. — 28
Herpestes — (continued).
una, 170.
viticollis, 138.
Herpetodryas fus :« 9, 411.
Herrings, 293, 294.
Heteromys, 326.
Hill-Tits, 181.
llimantopus Candidas, 78.
Hippoglossus vulgaris, 291.
Hirundo, 30, 62.
Hoatzin, 401.
Hobby, 32.
Hog, Pigmy, 116.
Holochilus, 369.
Honey-Buzzards, 35, 155, 194.
Hoopoe, 30, 63, 154.
Hombill, Great Pied. 189.
Horses, 235.
Hubara macqueeni, 99.
Hulok Gibbon, 162.
Humming-Birds, 348, 390, 391.
Hutias, 425.
Hycena, 54, 138.
Hydraspis, 408.
Hydrelaphus inermis, 232.
Hydrochelidon hybrida, 81.
Hydrochcerus capivara, 373.
Hydromedusa, 310, 408.
Hydro phasianus chirurgus, 200.
Hydropotes inermis, 232.
Hydroprogne caspia, 254.
Hylactes megapodius, 423.
Hylobates agilis, 162, 163, 209.
Hylodes, 413, 425.
Hylomys, 165, 236.
Hyonetla moschata, 405.
Hyperoodon rostratus, 246.
Hypolais, 57.
Hyrax, Syrian, 46.
Hystrix bengalensis, 126.
hodgsoni, 125.
leucura, 48.
longicauda, 180.
yunnanensis, 180.
Ibex, 41, 229.
Ibis, 75, 157, 402.
Ichneumon. 53.
Ichthyomys, 369.
Ichthyophis glutinosus, 221.
Icterus galbula, 347, 384.
Idotea tricuspidata, 301.
Iguanas, 411.
Ilysia sci/tale, 411.
Indigo-Bird, 347.
Inia, 381.
Inquisitor, 390.
Ivory-Bill, 348.
Jabiru, 402.
Jacamaraln/on, 394.
Jacamars, 393. 394.
Jacamerops. 394.
Jacana, Indian, 199.
Jacare, Black, 408.
Jackals —
Egyptian, 50.
Indian, 139.
North-West African, 50.
Jackdaw, 29, 62, 154.
Jack-Rabbits, 338.
Jacobin, 72.
Jaguar, 360.
Jaguarondi, 361.
Jararaca, 411.
Javs —
Black-Headed, 62.
Black-Throated, 154.
Burmese, 186.
Crested, 347.
Himalayan, 154.
Lancoolated, 154.
Siberian, 28.
Syrian, 62.
Urraca, 384.
Jolly-Fish, 311.
Jerboas —
Afghan, 48.
Egyptian, 48.
Five-Toed, 87.
Long-Eared, 235.
John Dorv, 290.
Jumping-Mouse, 22, 236, 323.
Jungle-Fowl, 156, 196.
Kakar, 106.
Kalong, 163.
Kangaroo-Rats, 324, 337, 338.
Karabau, 213.
Kehel vulha, 146.
Kestrels, 32, 64, 155.
Kiang, 23.~>.
Killers, 245, 266.
Kingfishers, 30, 63, 155.
American, 348.
Glossy, 392.
Peruvian, 392.
Pied, 189.
Oriental, 189.
Three-Toed, 189.
Wood, 189.
Brown Oriental, 189.
Kinkajou, 363.
Kites, 155.
Black, 33, 66.
Black-Winged, 66.
Bramini, 194.
Falcon, 195.
Hook-Beaked, 397.
Pigmv, 397.
Red, 33.
Swallow-Tailed, 349.
Kittas, 186.
Kittiwake, 278.
Knot, 11, 34.
Koels, 191.
Krait, 159.
Kraken, 302.
Labrax lupus, 288.
Lachesis. 159, 411.
Lagenorhynchus, 244.
Lagidium cuvieri, 371.
Lagomys rufescens, 48.
Lagostomus trichodactylus, 371.
Lagothrix humboldti, 355.
Lama, 366, 367.
Lampern, 37.
Lampreys, 297.
Lancelets, 298.
Landrail, 33.
Langurs, 148, 149, 160, 161.
Lanius borealis, 347.
Lanner, 64.
Lantern-Bearer, Surinam, 416.
Lapwing, 35.
434
INDEX
Lark-Cuckoo, 396.
Larks —
Black, 90.
Calandra, 60.
Crested, 61, 153.
Desert, 61.
Finch, 153.
Horned, 25, 323.
Shore, 26.
Short-Toed, 60.
Sky, 89, 153.
Steppe, 89.
Wood, 61.
Larus, 81, 101, 251, 276, 277.
Lasionycteris, 328, 345.
Lasiurus borealis, 345.
Latax lutris, 259.
Leaf-Birds, 184.
Leaf-Insects, 223.
Leguan, 410.
Lemmings, 6, 22, 236, 317, 339.
Lemurs, 163, 166, 211, 212.
Leopard-Cat, 132.
Leopards, 129, 212.
Clouded, 167.
Hunting, 50, 133.
Manchurian, 130, 225.
Persian, 130.
Snow, 22, 225.
Lepas anatifera, 302.
Lepidosiren paradoxa, 416.
Lepidosteus osseus, 352.
Leptodactylus, 413.
Leptoptilus, 199.
Leptosittaca, 397.
Lepus alleni, 338.
americanus, 338.
fircticus, 316.
brasiliensis, 373.
californicus. 338.
campestris. 338.
dayanus, 47.
melanolis, 338.
nigricollis, 125.
ruficaudatus, 125.
sylvaticus, 338.
lexianus, 338.
tibeta?ms, 47.
Leucolepiu, 383.
Leuconerpes candidus, 393.
Leucosticte littoralis, 328.
Lima Mans, 306.
Limosa lapponica, 9.
Limpets. 304.
Ling, 293.
Linnets, Canadian, 328.
Linota linaria, 27.
Linsanga, 168.
Lions, 49, 129.
Liothrix lulea, 181.
Lizards —
Agamoid, 202.
Eared, 101.
Flying, 202, 219.
Gila Mo ster, 409.
Mexican, 409.
Sand, 36.
South American, 409.
Teju, 410.
Thorny-Tailed, 81.
Variable, 202.
Llama, 300.
Loach, Spiny, 37.
Lobsters, 299, 301.
Locust, Migratory, 83.
Loligo vulgaris, 302.
Loncheres, 370.
Lophophorus impeyanus, 157.
Lophortyx californicus, 350.
Lophoslrix, 400.
Lophurarufa, 196.
Loriculus galgulvs, 193.
Loris, 151, 163, 211.
Loup-Cervier, 325.
Loxia, 27, 328.
Lucernaria quadricornis, 311.
Lug-Worm, 307.
Lula, 222.
Lump-Suckers, 291.
Lung-Fish, 416.
Lusciniola melanopogon, 58.
Lufra aureobrunnea, 145.
barang, 53.
brasiliensis, 363.
canadensis, 326.
civerea, 174.
ellioti, 53, 145, 173.
felina, 363.
leptonyx, 145.
sumatrana, 174.
Lycodon fascial us, 205.
Lyncodon patagonicus, 364.
Lynxes, 22, 325, 338.
Lysiurus unicinctus, 375.
Macacus arctoides, 225.
assamensis, 150.
cynomolgus, 161.
fuscatus, 225.
maurus, 210.
nemestrinus, 162.
pileatus, 151.
rhesus, 149.
silenus, 150.
sinicus, 150.
Macaques —
Crab-Eating, 101.
Japan, 225.
Pig-Tailed, 162.
Sze-chuan, 225.
Macaws, 390, 397.
Macroclemmys, 351.
Macrodon trahira, 415.
Macroglossus minimus, 164.
Macrorhinus leoninus, 260.
Magpie-Robin, 183.
Magpies, 62.
Blue-Winged, 237.
Californian, 347.
Ceylonese, 154.
Green, 154.
Indian, 154.
Maguari, 402.
Maia squinado, 300.
Malay Swift, 217.
Mango-Bird, 154.
Manis, 181.
Mansarowar, 231.
Mantis-Shrimps, 301.
Marakina, 359.
Maras, 422.
Margay, 361.
Markhors, 42, 43.
Marmosets, 358, 359.
Marmots —
African, 46.
Marmots — (continued).
American, 334.
Bobac, 21.
Hoary, 334.
Hodgson's, 121.
Prairie, 335.
Yellow-Breasted, 334.
Marsh-Deer, 365.
Marsh-Shrew, 344.
Martens —
American, 326.
Beech, 23, 53.
Pine, 23, 326.
Yellow-Breasted, 144.
Yellow-Throated, 53.
Martinetta, 406.
Martins, 29, 62, 154, 347, 348,
385.
Mastiff-Bat, 381, 382.
Matamata, 408.
Mazama, 331, 333, 364, 365.
Megaderma lyra, 146.
Megalobatrachus maximus, 237.
Megaptera boops, 248.
Melanocorypha, 60, 89, 90.
Meleagris, 350.
Meles, 53.
Melittophagus swinhoei, 188.
Mellivora indica, 145.
Melophus melanicterus, 154.
Melursus ursinus, 141.
Mephitis, 343.
Mergus albellus, 36.
Merlin, Little, 32.
Merluccius vulgaris, 293.
Merops, 63, 155.
Mesoplodon bidens, 246.
Metacrinus moseleyi, 309.
Metad, 123.
Metoporeros cornutus, 411.
Mias, 209.
Micro-hierax ccerulescens, 194.
Micropallas, 400.
Microsittaca, 397.
Microsorex, 346.
Microsticus fulvus, 218.
Microtus, 339.
melanogaster, 180.
ceconomicus, 22.
pennsylvanicus, 323.
raUiceps, 22.
Midas rosatia, 359.
Milvago, 398.
Milvulus tyrannus, 386.
Mimus caroliiiensis, 347.
Miniopterus schreibersi, 56.
Mink, Siberian, 23.
Mithan, 174.
Mocking-Birds, 347, 383.
Mole-Rat, 48, 236.
Moles, 24, 236.
American, 345.
Hairy-Tailed, 345.
Indian, 145.
North American, 345.
Quetta, 47.
Short-Tailed, 164.
Star-Nosed, 345.
Mole-Vole. 230.
.Molluscs, 302, 305.
Molossu-s rufus, 382.
Molra vulgaris, 293.
Monachus, 343.
INDEX
435
Monal, Himalayan, 157.
Mongooses —
Crab-Eating. 170.
Egyptian, 53.
Indian, 54, 138.
Small, 53, 54, 170.
Nilgiri, 138.
Ruddy, 138.
Sinhalese, 138.
Stripe-Necked, 138.
Monitor, Banded, 202.
Monkeys, 225.
Capuchin, 354.
Douroucolis, 355.
Golden, 231.
Howler, 357, 358.
Langur, 160, 161, 210.
Macaque, 149, 150, 151, 161,
225.
Moor-Macaque, 210.
Pig-Tailed, 162.
Proboscis, 210.
Saki, 356.
Snub-Nosed, 225, 229, 230.
South American, 354.
Spider, 355.
Squirrel, 356.
Titi, 356.
Uakari, 356.
Woolly, 355.
Monodon monoceros, 272.
Monticola cyanus, 56.
Moorhen, Indian, 158.
Moose, 317.
Morenia, 159.
Mormops blainvillei, 382.
Morpho, 417.
Moschus, 20, 233, 234.
Moiacilla borealis, 26.
maderaspatensis, 153.
Moths, 82, 222, 417.
Motmots, 392.
Mourning-Bird, 384.
Mouse, Dancing, Japanese, 236.
Deer, 336.
Field, 22, 46, 122.
Harvest, 22.
House, 22, 46. 122.
Jumping, 22, 236, 323.
Palm, 180.
Spiny, 47, 123, 125.
Wagner's, 236.
Mulita Armadillo, 376.
Munias, 184, 185.
Muntjacs, 106, 177, 232.
Murex, 304.
Mus arianus, 46.
bactrianus, 46.
buduga, 122.
concolor, 180.
metada, 123.
musculus, 122, 236.
platijthrix, 123.
rattus, 46, 122.
wagneri, 236.
Musk-Ox, 316.
Musk-Rat, 145, 323.
Musquash, 323.
Mustela americana, 326.
cathia, 144.
flavigula, 53, 144.
frenata, 364.
pennanli, 326.
Mustela — (continued).
sarmalica, 53, 89.
sibirica, 23.
zibellina, 23.
Mustelus vulgaris, 296.
Mya arenaria, 306.
Mycteria americana, 402.
Mydaus meliceps, 213.
Mygale vestiaria, 41 9.
Myiobius swainsoni, 387.
Mynas, Talking, 186.
Myopotamus coypu, 370.
Myopsittacus monachus, 397.
Myospalax fuscicapillus, 47.
Myotalpa fontanieri, 236.
My otis, 56, 146.
Myrmecophaga, 379.
Myxine glutinosa, 297.
Naia, 159, 203, 204.
Nandu, 406.
Nankin Nesumi, 236.
Nannosciurus whileheadi, 216.
Narwhal, 272.
Nasalis larvatus, 210.
Nassa reticulata, 304.
Nasua, 363.
Naunopterum harrisi, 428.
Nautilus, 302.
Neoceratodus, 416.
Neoctodon, 370.
Neomorphus, 396.
Neophron, 68, 156.
Neosorex, 346.
Neotetragus sinensis, 236.
Neotoma, 337.
Neotomys, 369.
Nephrops norvegicus, 301.
Nesocia, 47, 123.
Nesolagus, 125, 217.
Nettopus coromandelianus, 200.
Neurotrichus gibbsi, 236.
Nicoria, 159.
Nightingale, 56, 347.
Nightjars, 30, 62, 188, 348, 390.
Nilgai, 45, 111.
Nisaetus, 65.
Noctilio leporinus, 381.
Nolhocercus, 405.
Nothoprocta, 406.
Nothura, 406.
Nothurus, 406.
Notiomys, 369.
Nototrema marsupiahim, 413.
Nvcifraga caryocatactes, 28.
columbiana, 328.
Numenius phceopus, 33.
tenuirostris, 78.
Nutcrackers, 28, 328.
Nuthatches, 25, 59, 153.
Nutria, 370.
Nyctala, 30, 329, 400.
AT?/c<ea, 13, 329.
Nyctibius grandis, 390.
Nycticebustardigradus, 151, 163.
Nycticorax griseus, 74.
Nyciinomus plicatus, 146.
Nyctiornis amictus, 1S9.
Nyctipithecus trivirgatus, 356.
Nymphon gracile, 299.
Oceanodroma leucurrhoa, 255.
Ocelot, American, 361.
Ocholona alpina, 20.
rufescena, 48.
Octodon degus, 370.
Octodontomys, 370.
Octopus. 302.
Odobcenua rosmarus, 269.
Odocoilcus, 331, 334. 364.
(Edemia, 9.
Oil-Bird, 391.
Ommastrephes sagitlatus, 302.
Onager, 45, 117.
Onchorhynchus, 37.
Onychomys, 338, 369.
Ophiocephalus striatus, 222.
Ophisaurus apus, 81.
Opisthocomus cristatus, 401.
Opossums, 345, 346, 380.
Orang-Utan, 209.
Orca gladiator, 245.
Orcella, 179.
Orcamnus americanus, 320.
Orioles, 28, 154, 347.
Ormers, 304.
Orthotonus sutorius, 182.
Ortolan, 61.
Oryx- beatrix, 45.
Oryzomys, 338, 369.
Osmotreron, 157.
Osphromenus olfax, 221.
Osprey, 33, 66. 155.
Ostt-ea, 306, 307.
Ostriches, American, 406.
0*.<n'a, 261, 262, 264.
Otocompsa emeria, 184.
Otocorys, 25, 26.
Otters, 24, 259.
Brazilian, 363.
Canadian, 326.
Clawlcss, 145, 174.
Elliot's, 53.
Golden, 145.
Indian, 173.
Malay, 174.
Pigmy, 363.
Smooth, 145, 173.
Ouacaria calm, 337.
Ouistiti Marmoset. 359.
Ounce, 225.
Oven-Birds, 386.
Ovibos moschatus, 316.
Ofia ammon, 20, 229.
canadensis, 20, 319, 320.
ispahanica, 44.
orientalis, 44.
vignei, 44.
Owl, Acadian, 329.
Barn, 30, 64, 155, 400.
Burrowing, 399.
Canadian, 329.
Eagle, 32, 155, 237, 400.
Fish, 155, 193.
Forest, 155.
Grass, 193.
Hawk, 31.
Homed, 400.
Lapp, 31.
Little, 64.
Lonn-Eared, 32.
Masked, 155, 193.
North Acadian, 400.
Pigmy, 400.
Prairie, 349.
Scops Eared, 64.
436
INDEX
Owl — (continued).
Screech, 155.
Short-Eared, 32. 329.
Snowy, 13, 31, 329.
Tawny, 64.
Tengmalm's, 30, 329.
Ural, 329.
Wood, 329, 400.
Ox, Wild, 175.
Oxymycterus, 369.
Oyster-Catcher, 251.
Oysters —
American, 307.
Atlantic, 306, 307.
Common, 306.
Edible, 307.
Mediterranean, 306.
Pacific, 307.
Paca, 372.
Pachynus, 397.
Pachi/tylus migratorius, 83.
Pagophila eburnea, 278.
Pagrus auratus, 289.
Palceomis torquatus, 193.
Palamedea cornuta, 405.
Palinurus vulgaris, 300.
Paludicola, 412, 413.
Pampas Deer, 365.
Pandas, 172, 226.
Pangolins —
Chinese, 181.
Indian, 151.
Malay, 181.
Panlholops hodgsoni, 231.
Panurus, 25, 58.
Para, 104.
Paradise-Fish, 221, 238.
Paradise-Flycatchers, 187.
Paradoxornis favirostris, 183.
Paradoxurus, 137, 168.
Parraindica, 199.
Parrots, 396.
Amazon, 397.
Blue -Crowned, 193.
Carolina, 348, 349.
Common, 193.
Hanging, 193.
Hawk-Billed, 397.
Monk, 397.
Parraquets, 192, 397, 423.
Parrotlets, 397.
Square-Tailed, 397.
Partridges —
Bearded, 33.
Black, 69, 156.
Black-Headed, 69.
Chukar, 69.
North American. 349.
Sisi, 69.
South American, 406.
Wood, 195.
Parus camchatkensis, 25.
cyanus, 25.
lugubris, 58.
Passenger-Pigeon, 350.
Passer jlaveol us. 184.
Pastor roseus, 90.
Pava muticus, 198.
Pauo cristatus. 157.
muticus, 198.
Peacock-Killer, 195.
Peacock-Pheasants, 1 98.
Peacocks, 157, 198.
Pea-Fowl, 157, 198.
Peba Armadillo, 376.
Peccaries, 367, 368.
Pecten, 306.
Pedicula, 156.
Pedioccetes phasianellus, 329,
350.
Pekan, 328
Pelecanus philippensis, 200.
roseus, 200.
Pelicans, 200.
Pelomedusa, 408.
Peludo Armadillo, 374.
Penelope, 400.
Penguin, Galapagos, 428.
Perch, 37.
Climbing, 221.
Dusky, 289.
Labyrinth-Gilled, 221.
Perdix daurica, 33.
Peregrine, 32, 64, 349.
Perisoreus infaustus, 28.
Pernis ptilorhyyichus, 194.
Perodipus, 326.
Peromyscus americanus, 337.
Perosuchus fuscus. 409.
Petaurista, 121, 122.
Petrels, 254, 255, 279.
Petromyzon marinas, 297.
Phalacrocorax, 80, 159.
Phalanger ursinus, 217.
Phalaropes, 13.
Pharomacrus mocinno, 394.
Phasianus, 94, 97.
Pheasant, Water, 200.
Pheasants, 94, 97, 156, 157, 196,
197, 237.
PJienacomys, 339.
Philydor rufus, 385.
Phlceomys curningi, 216.
Phlogcenas, 218.
Phoca, 241, 242, 269.
Phoccena communis, 245.
Phodilus assimilis, 155.
Phcenicocercus, 3S9.
Phcenicopterus ruber, 402.
Pholas, 305, 306.
Phororhachus, 404.
Photodilus badius, 193.
Plxrynoceplialus mystaceus, 101.
Phrynus reniformis, 419.
Phi/Ilium siccifolium, 223.
I'ln/Uobates, 413.
Phyllodes, 413.
Phyllomcdusa, 413.
Phylloscopus borealis, 25.
Phyllostoma hastatum, 382.
Phyllotis, 369.
Phytotomus rara, 387.
Piaya, 396.
Pica nutlalli. 347.
Picas, 20, 48.
Pichi, 375.
Pichiciago, 376.
Piculets, 189, 385.
I'iciiHinus innominatus, 189.
Piddocks, 305.
Pi£con-Ha\vk, 349.
Pigeons, 71.
American, 350.
Bar I), 72.
Carrier, 72.
Pigeons — {continued).
Dragon, 72.
Fantail, 72.
Fruit, 198.
Green, 198.
Homer, 72.
Jacobin, 72.
Long-Tailed. 198.
Nicobar, 218.
Nutmeg, 198.
Owl, 72.
Passenger, 350.
Pouter, 72.
Runt, 72.
Snierle. 72.
Tumbler, 72.
Piss, 177, 215, 216.
Pike, 37.
Bony, 352.
Pilchard, 294.
Pilgrim-Shell, 306.
Pine-Marten, European, 326.
Pinicola enucleator, 27.
Pintail, 35.
Pionites, 397.
Pionopsiftacus, 397.
Pionus, 397.
Pipa americana, 413.
Pipiri, 347.
Pipistrelles, 55, 345.
Pipifrelus abramus, 55.
kulili, 55.
Pipits-
Meadow, 26.
Red-Throated, 26.
Richard's, 90.
Rock, 26.
Spurred, 90.
Tawny, 61.
Tree, 26.
Water, 26, 61.
Piraiba, Giant, 415.
Piramidig, 348.
Piratinga piraiba, 415.
Piraya, 415.
Pithecia, 35G.
Pithecophaga jefferyi, 195.
Pittas, 187, 188.
Pit- Vipers. 411.
Pitylus fuliginosus, 384.
Plagiodon aidium, 425.
Plaice. 291.
Plant-Cutters, 387.
Platacanthomys lasiurus, 125.
Platalea leucorodia, 76.
Platanisla gangetica, 153.
Platemys, 408.
Plalysternum megarrpimliun, 202.
Plautus impennis, 257.
Plecotus (Corynorhinus) mac~
rotis, \j'.~>.
Plectrophancs, 15.
Plegadis, 75, 402.
Pleuroncctes, 291.
Ploceu8 megalorhynchus, 185.
Plotus melanogaster, 201.
Plovers, 158, 250.
Golden, 35.
Grey, 9.
Little Ringed, 35.
Pochards, 35, 80.
Podicipes auritus, 36.
Podoces panderi, 92.
INDEX
437
Podocnemis expansa, 408.
Podogymnura, 165, 236.
Pcecilotheria, 419.
Pyocephalus. 397.
Polatoucho. 21.
Polecats. 23. 53, 89.
Pollack, 293.
Polyacanthus signatus, 221.
I ' 'h/borus tharus, 398.
Polyergus rufescens, 418.
Polyplectrum chinquis, 198.
Polyprion cernium. 289.
Polypus vulgaris, 302.
Ponloporia blainvillei, 381.
Porcupines —
Bengal, 126, 180.
Bristle-Spined, 370.
Brush-Tailed, 180.
Canadian, 324.
Giinther's, 217.
Himalayan, 125, 180.
Indian, 48.
Long-Haired. 370.
Long-Tailed, 180.
Sea, 310.
South American, 369.
Tree, 370.
Yunnan, 180.
Porphyria. 79, 157.
Porpoise, 245, 266.
Prairie-Dogs, 335.
Prairie-Hare, 338.
Prairie-Hen, 349.
Prairie-Marmots, 335, 336.
Prairie-Owl, 349.
Pratincoles, 76, 158.
Prawns, 301.
Priodon gigas, 375.
Prionotellus, 394.
Procavia syriaca. 46.
Procellaria pelagica, 255.
Procyon, 327, 363.
Progne purpurea. 347, 348.
Trongbuck, 333.
Protopterus, 416.
PsaUrvparus, 383.
Pseudis, 412, 413.
Pseudogri/phus californianus,
349.
Pseudorca crassidens, 266.
Pseudotantalus leacocephalus,
199.
Pseudovis nahura, 229.
Psiloscops, 400.
Psittacula, 397.
Psophia crepitans, 404.
Ptarmigan, 33.
Pterocles, 79, 157.
Pteroclurus, 80.
Pteroglossus, 393.
Pteropus, 147, 163.
Plilocercus loivi, 165, 212.
Plilogonys cinereus, 3S5.
Pudu. 331, 365.
Puff-Birds, 395.
Puffin, 283.
Puflinus anglorum, 255.
Pulsatrix, 400.
Puma, 338, 361.
Purpura patula, 304.
Pustule Star, 309.
Pyrotrogon casumba, 191.
Pyrrhula major, 27.
Pyrrhulaudn grisea, 153.
Pyrrhurn. 397.
Python molurus, 159.
reticulatns. 204.
Pythons, 159, 204.
Quails, 33, 69.
Black-Breasted, 156.
Bustard, 199.
Californian Crested, 350.
Island, 199.
Jungle, 156.
North American, 349.
Rain, 156.
Quezal, 394.
Quin, 306.
Quiscalus purpureus, 347.
Rabbits, 217. 338.
Raccoons 327 363.
Raia, 297.
Rail-Creepers, 423.
Rain -Cuckoos, 348.
Rana, 219, 351.
Rangifer tarandus, 315, 317.
Rnniceps raninus, 293.
Rarita, 387.
Rasse, 136.
Ratel, Indian, 145.
Raton runcho. 381.
Rats, 216.
Alexandrian, 46.
Bamboo, 180. 231.
Bandicoot, 47, 123.
Black, 122.
Brown, 22, 122.
Bush, 47, 124.
Cuming's, 216.
Field, 123.
Fish-Eating, 369.
Gerbil, 124.
House, 180.
Kangaroo, 324, 337, 338.
Lesser, 180.
Luzon, 21<>.
Musk, 14."., 323.
Roof, 47. 122.
Spinv, 370.
Tree.' Black, 122.
Water, 21.
Wood, 337.
Rattle-Snakes, 351, 411.
Rattle-Spider, 301.
Ratufa, 120, 179.
Ravens, 29, 154, 317, 347.
Rays, 207.
Razorbill, 283.
Razor-Shells, 306.
Recurvirostra avocclta, 249.
Redpoll, Mealy, 27.
Redshanks, 10, 34, 78.
Redstart, Black, 56.
Redwing, 24.
Regulus calendula, 328.
Reindeer, 315.
Rhachianectes glaucus, 266.
Rhacophorus. 219.
Rhamphastus magnirostris, 393.
Rhamphocozlus brasilius, 383.
Rhea, 406, 407, 421, 423.
Rhinemys, 408.
Rhinoceros —
Ch.ttagong, 178.
Rhinoceros — (continredV
Indian, 117.
Javan. 177.
I.' - • r One-Horned. 177.
Two-Homed Sumatran, 178.
Rhinoceros unicornis, 1 17.
sondaicus, 177.
sumatrehsis, 178.
Rhinoderma darivini, 412.
Bhinogryphus aura, 399.
Rhinopi't/iccus. 225. 229, 230.
Rhinopoma microphyllum, 56.
Rhipidomys, 369.
Rhithrodon, 369.
Rhithrodontomys, 338, 369.
Rhithrosciitrus macrotis, 216.
Rhizomys badiiis. ] 80.
pruinosus, 180.
sumatrensis, 180.
veslilus, 231.
Rh(.d / tethi i rosea, 278.
bus, 291.
Rhynchomys soricoides. 216.
Rhynchojisittacus pach yrhynchus,
397.
Rhyncholits, 406.
Rhytina gigas, 265.
Rice-Bird, Indian, 185.
Ping-Dove, 33.
Ripa, 331.
Rissa tridaclyla, 278.
Road-Runner. .Mexican. 396.
Robin, Blue, 346, 347.
Rock-Borer, Common European,
306.
Rocklings, 293.
Roebuck, 20, 41, 232.
Rollers —
Blue, 30, 62.
Indian, 154.
Broad-Billed, 188.
Wide-Beaked, 188.
Rollulus roulroul, 195.
Rook, 29, 62, 154.
Rorquals, 246, 247, 266.
Rostrhamus. 397.
Rotche, 283.
Ruby-Crest, 3:>.
Ruby-Crown, 3i'v
Ruby-Throat, 2-1, 347.
Ruff, 34.
Rupicola. 389.
Rusa, 175, 214.
Sabellas, 308.
Sables, 23, 326.
Saccopteryx leplura, 381.
Saiga, 45, 87.
Saladang, 175.
Salamanders. 237, 351, 413.
Salmon, 37, 293.
Sambar, 103, 175, 214, 215, 232.
Sand-Badgers, 173.
Sand-Eels, 293.
Sanderlinff. 12.
Sandpipers —
Broad-Billed, 11.
Curlew. 3-t.
Green, 34.
Purple, 11. 34.
Wood. 34.
Sank, 204.
Sankni, 204.
43«
INDEX
.Sapsuckers, 393.
Sarcidiornis melanonotus, 159.
Sarcorhamphus, 399.
Sardine, 294.
Sarsia tubulosa, 310.
Sasia ochracea, 189.
Satin-Finch, Bluish-Black, 384.
Saxicava rugosa, 300.
Saxicola melanoleuca, 56.
Scalops, 345.
Scapanulus oiveni, 236.
Scapanus, 236, 345.
Scaphirhynchus, 352.
Scapteromys, 369.
Scaptonyx, 236.
Scaup, 8, 35.
Scheltopusik, 81.
Sciuropterus, 21, 121, 322.
Sciurus, 179, 216, 321, 333, 334.
Scodra, 419.
Scops, 400.
Scorpions, 223, 419.
Scoters, 9, 36.
Scotophilus kuhli, 146.
Screamers, 405.
Scyllium, 296, 297.
Scypho medusae, 311.
Sea-Anemones, 300, 311, 312.
Sea-Bear, 264.
S sa-Breams, 289.
Sea-Cat, 295.
Sea-Cow, Northern, 265.
Sea-Eagles, 32, 66, 155, 349.
Sea-Elephant, 260.
Sea-Hare, 305.
Sea-Lion, Calif orni an, 262.
Sea-Lily, Moseley's, 309.
Sea-Mouse, 307.
Sea-Otter, 259.
Sea-Parrot, 283.
Sea-Porcupine, 310.
Sea-Spiders, 299.
Sea-Urchins, 308. 309.
Seals, 241, 242, 243, 269.
Seed-Snipe, Undulated, 423.
Selenidera, 393.
Selvas, 380.
Semnopithecus, 148, 149, 160, 161.
Sepia officinalis, 303.
Sepiola rondeleti, 302.
Seriemas, 404.
Serotine, European, 345.
Serows, 115, 175, 229.
Asiatic, 320.
Himalayan, 115.
Small, 229.
White-Maned, 229.
Serpent-Eagles, 66, 155, 195.
Serpula vermicularis, 308.
Serranus, 2S9.
Serrasalmo piraya, 415.
Sewellels, 336.
Sha, 44.
Shads, 294.
Shag, 36.
Shama, 183.
Sharks —
Basking, 296.
Blue, 296.
Hammer-Head, 296.
Hound, Nurse. 297.
Rough, 29(5.
Smooth, 296.
Sharks — {continued).
Tope, 296.
Shearwater, 255.
Sheath-Fish, 414.
Sheep, Bighorn, 319, 320.
Black, 319.
Cyprian, 44.
Gmelin's, 44.
Hausa, 42.
Marco Polo, 229.
Red, 44.
Urmian, 44.
Wild, 44, 229.
Sheep-AVorm. Baltic. 301.
Sheldrake, 252.
Shells, 306.
Shell-Storks, 199.
Ship-Worms, 305.
Shore-Crab, 300.
Shore-Finch, 328.
Shou, 231.
Shoveller, 35.
Shrew-Mole, Gibbs's, 345.
Shrews, 24, 344, 360.
Bendire's, 344.
Marsh, 344.
Musk, 24, 145.
Pigmy, 24.
Swimming, Himalayan, 165.
Tree, 165, 212.
Water, 24, 235.
Shrike-Finches, 383.
Shrikes —
American, 347.
Cuckoo, 187.
Grey, 29, 02.
Indian, 154.
Red-Backed, 29, 62.
Shrimps, 299, 301.
Mantis, 301.
Sialia sialis, 346, 347.
Siaman, 209.
Sicisfa subtilis, 88.
Signiodon, 338.
Sikas, 231, 232.
Simla satyrus, 209.
Simorhynchus crislatellus, 285.
Siphonophora, 311.
Siren lacertina, 351.
Sisis, 69.
Siskins, 27, 328, 384.
Sitta neumayeri, 59.
Skates, 297.
Skuas, 278, 279.
Skunks, 343, 363.
Skylarks, 25, 89, 153.
Sladang, 107.
Sloths, 353, 376, 378.
Smew, 36.
Sminthus, 88.
Snakes, Blind, 82, 205, 412.
Coral, 411.
Rat, 205.
Rattle, 351, 411.
Ringed, 36.
Tree 411.
Whip, Green, 204.
Snake-Stars, 308.
Snappers, 351.
Snipe, 33, 78, 158.
Snipe. Seed, Undulated, 423.
Snow-Bunting, 328.
Snow-Cocks, 94.
Solea vulgaris, 291.
Sohnodon, 424.
Somateria, 274, 275, 276.
Sorex, 344.
Solalia, 381.
Spalax typhlus, 48.
Sparrow-Buntings, 347, 384.
Sparrow-Hawk, American, 349.
Sparrows —
Hedge, 25.
House, 28, 62, 154, 184.
Rock, 62.
Tree, 28, 62, 184.
Speolhus, 362, 363.
Speotito, 349, 399.
SpermopJiilus eversmanni, 21.
gr.immurus, 335.
tridecemline tus, 321, 335.
Spheniscus mendiculus, 428.
Sphyropicus, 393.
Spider, Bird-catching, 419.
Spider-Hunters, 1S3.
Spider-Monkeys, 355.
Spiders, Sea, 299.
Spilogale putorius, 1543.
Spilcmis, 155, 195.
Spine-Tails, 386.
Spinus cucullala, 384.
Spirographis spallanzanii, 308.
Spizaetus caligatus, 195.
Spondylus gecderopus, 306.
Spoonbills, 76, 157, 402.
Sporazglnlhus, 185.
Sporophila nigro-aurantia, 384.
Sprat, 294.
Spur-Cuckoos, 191.
Squatarola helvetica, 9.
Squids, 302.
Squilla mantis, 301.
Squirrels, 46, 179, 216, 321.
Flying, 121, 122, 179, 211,
322.
Fox, 334.
Grey, 333.
Groove-Toothed, 216.
Ground, 21, 321.
Indian, 120.
Malay, 179.
Palm, 46, 120.
Pigmy, 216.
Sharp-Nosed, 216.
South American, 369.
Striped Jungle, 121.
Whitehead's; 216.
Starfishes, 308, 309.
Starlings, 28, 154.
Black, 384.
Common, 384.
Glossy, 186.
Rosy, 90.
Sardinian, 62.
White-Xecked, 217.
Steatornis caripensis, 391.
Stellio vulgaris, SI.
Stercorarius, 278, 279.
Sterna, 252, 253.
Sternothcerus, 408.
Stick-Insects, 222, 223.
Sticklebacks, 292.
Stilts, 78.
Stints. 10, 11,34.
Stoat, 317.
Stone-Bass, 289.
INDEX
439
Stoneehats, 56, 317.
Storks —
Asiatic, 157.
Black, 33.
Black-Xeckcd, 199.
European, 75.
Giant. 199, 402.
Shell, 199.
White, 33, 157.
White-Xecked, 198.
Wood, 199.
Strepsilas interpres, 251.
Streptocilta allizollis, 217.
Strix, 193, 400.
Sturgeons, 352.
Stumus unicolor. 62.
Sugar-Birds, 383.
Sula bassana, 256.
Summer-Duek. 351.
Sun-Birds, 183.
Sun-Bitterns, 403.
Surnia ulula, 31.
Surukus, 191.
Sus attila, 87.
barbatus, 177, 216.
celebensis, 216.
cristatus, 116.
ol, 216.
salvanius, 116.
scrofa attila. 87.
verrucosus, 177. 215.
vittahis, 177. 215.
Susliks, 21, 321, 335.
Susu, 153.
Swallows, 29, 62, 154.
Swan-Goose, 237.
Swans —
Bewick's, 7, 35.
Black-Xecked, 423.
Coscoroba, 423.
Mute, 35.
North American, 350.
Trumpeter, 329.
Whistling, 6.
Whooper, 6.
Swifts, 30, 62, 151, 188, 218.
Swine-Fish, 292.
Swine, Wild, 215.
Sycalis faveola, 384.
Sylvia, 57.
Synallaxis, 386.
Synaptomys, 339.
Syncoryne sarsi, 310.
Synetheres, 370.
Sypheotides, 158.
Syrnium, 31, 329. 400.
Syrrhaptes paradoxus, 97.
Tachyphonus luctuosus, 383.
Tadorna casarca. 100.
cornuta, 252.
Tahrs, 112, 114.
Tailor-Bird, 182.
Takins, 229, 231.
Talpa, 145, 164.
Tamandua, 379.
Tamanoir, 378.
Tamarao, 213.
Tamarins, 359.
Tamias. 21, 321.
Tanagers, 383.
Tanagra, 383.
Taoniscus nanus, 406.
Tapiranga, 383.
Tapirs, 179, 368, 369.
Tapirus. 179, 368, 369.
Tarantula renijormis, 419.
Tarsiers, 211.
Tarsius, 211.
Tatouay Armadillo, 375.
Tatusia, 376.
Taxidea, 343.
Tayra, 364.
Teal, 35, 200.
Teju, 410.
Tellina, 306.
Teredo, 305.
Terns, 252, 253, 254.
Black, 36, 81.
Whiskered, 81.
White-Winged Black, 81.
Terpsiphone affi/iis, 187.
Terrapins, 101, 202, 351, 408.
Testudo, 159, 202.
Tetraceros quadricornis, 1 10.
Tetracus nanus, 236.
Tetraogallus, 94.
Tetrastes severtzoivi, 33.
Thalassaetus pelagicus, 32.
Thamins, 175, 176.
Thelypkonus caudatus. 223.
Thicknee, 158.
Thomomys talpoides, 324.
Thrushes, 153.
Babbling, 181.
Burmese, 181.
Dark, 23.
Ground, 181.
Himalayan, 181.
Missel, 24.
North American, 347.
Pander's, 92.
Red-Xecked, 24.
Rock, 24, 56.
Siamese, 181.
Siberian, 25.
Song, 24.
South American, 383.
Thryothorus, 347.
Thrysaelus harpyia, 397.
Thyroptera tricolor, 381.
Tiger-Cat, 361.
Tigers, 22, 50, 126, 212, 225.
Timelia pileata, 182.
Tinamotis, 406.
Tinamus, 405. 406.
Tits, 153, 347.
Azure, 25.
Bearded, 25, 58.
Blue, 25, 58.
Coal, 25, 58.
Creeping, 383.
Crested, 25.
Crow, 183.
Great, 25.
Hill, 181.
Long-Tailed, 25.
Mandarin, 25.
Marsh, 25.
Siberian, 25.
Sombre, 58.
Tityra cayana, 390.
Tmetotrogon, 394.
Toads, 36.
Green, 37.
Horned, 412.
Toads — {continued).
Jackie, 412.
South American, 412.
Water, 413.
Todies, 125.
Tolypeules tricinctus, 375.
Tomisloma schlegeli, 219.
Took-ra, 185.
Tope, 296.
Torpedo nobiliana. 297.
Torek, 293.
Tortoises —
Am, 408.
Big-Headed, 202.
Box, 351.
Galapagos, 427.
Land, 159, 202.
Matamata, 408.
River, 408.
Soft, 159, 202.
Totai Ms, 10, 34, 100.
Totanus canescens, 34.
fuscus, 10.
stagnatilis, 100.
Toucans, 393.
Touktar, 203.
Trachinus draco, 291.
Trachyboa, 412.
Tragulus, 115, 177.
Tree-Creeper, 153.
Tree-Frog, Martinique, 425.
Tree-Peckers, 385.
Tree-Pies, 154, 186.
Tree -Runners, 385.
Tree-Sbrews, 165, 212.
Tree-Swifts, 188.
Tregadors, 385.
Treron, 198.
Trichys guentheri, 217.
Triclaria, 397.
Trigla, 290.
Trimeresaurus, 411, 412.
Tringa, 10, 11, 34, 35.
Trionyx, 202, 351.
Trogons. 190, 394.
Troupials, 347, 384.
Trout, Sea, 37.
Trumpeters, 404.
Trygon pastinaca, 297.
Tube- Worms, 308.
Tuco-Tucos, 370.
Tucuxi Dolphin, 381.
Tupaia, 165, 212.
Tupinambis teguexin, 410.
Turbot, 291.
Turco, 423.
Turdus naumanni, 24.
obscurus, 25.
ruficollis, 24.
sibiricus, 25.
Turkey-Buzzard, 349.
Turkeys, American, 350.
Turkey- Vulture, 349, 399.
Tiirnix pugnax, 199.
Turnstone, 251.
Turs. 86.
Tursiops tursio, 244.
Turtle-Dove, 33.
Turtur, 72, 157.
Twait-Shad, 294.
Tyloimjs, 369.
Tympanuchus americanus, 349.
Typhlops braminus, 82, 205, 412.
44o
INDEX
Tyran nulus elatus, 387.
Tyrannus pipiri. 347, 348.
Tvrant-Birds, 380, 390.
Tyrant-Flycatchers, 386.
Uakari, 356.
Umbrella-Bird, 388.
Unau Sloths, 378.
Ungalia, 412.
Ungaliophis, 412.
11 pupa indica, 154.
Urania, 417.
Urchin, 310.
Uria, 281, 282.
Urial, 44.
Urochroma, 397.
Urogalba, 394.
Urospatha martii, 392.
Uroiragus, 114, 175, 229.
Urotrichus, 236, 345.
Ursus americanus, 342.
arctus, 23, 53, 140, 326.
cinnamomus, 342.
horribilis, 320, 327.
kermodei, 327.
leuconyx, 226.
malayanus, 171, 213.
omatus, 3 >3.
pruinosus, 226.
for</uetfwa, 53, 140.
Vampires, 146, 345, 382.
Vandeleuria oleracea, 180.
Farawws salvator, 202.
Velella spirans, 311.
Fe»ras mercenaria, 306.
V espertilio fuscus, 345.
Vicuna, 366, 367.
Vipers, 36.
Mountain, 159.
Pit, 159,411.
Russell's, 159, 208.
Sand, 82.
Saw-Scaled, 159.
Water, 351.
Ftreo novozborQcensis, 347.
Viscacha, 371.
Ft'verra, 135, 136, 168, 212.
Volalinia splendens, 384.
Voles, 22, 180, 235, 323, 337.
Vultures, 66, 67, 68, 156, 349, 399.
Wagtails —
"Blue-Headed, 26.
Grey, 26, 61.
Grey-Headed, 26.
Pied, 153.
White, 26, 61.
Yellow, 61.
Walrus, 269, 270, 271.
Wapiti, 20, 231, 318.
Warblers —
Bonolli's, 57.
Cetti's, 58.
Eversniann's, 25.
Fan-Tailed, 153.
Garden, 25.
Olivaceous, 57.
Olive-Tree, 57.
Orphean, 57.
Savi's, 57.
Sedge, Moustached, 153.
Water-Pheasant, 200.
Water-Rail, 33.
Water-Toad, Surinam, 413.
Water- Viper, 351.
Waxwings, 29, 347.
Weasels,^, 53, 144, 213, 364.
Weaver-Birds, 154, 184, 185.
Weever-Fish, 291.
Whales —
Beaked, 246.
Bottle- NTosed, 246.
Fin, 246, 247, 266.
Grev, Pacifio, 206.
Hump-Backed, 248, 266.
Pilot. 244.
Right, 266, 267, 271.
Sperm, 246, 266.
Whalebone, 246, 247, 266.
White, 272.
Wheatears, 24, 56.
Whelks, 303, .304.
Whimbrel, 33.
Whin chat, 56.
White-Eyes, 183, 184.
White-Throats, 25, 57.
Whiting, 292.
Widow-Birds, 185.
Wigeon, 35.
Willow-Grouse, 329.
Wolf-Fish, 291, 292.
Wolverine, 23, 137.
Wolves, 22, 317.
Wolves — (continued).
American, 325.
European. 138.
Indian, 50, 138.
Maned, 361.
Timber, 325.
Woodchat, 02.
Woodchuck, 334.
Woodcock, 33. 78, 158.
Wood-Hare, 338.
Wood-Nightjars, 390.
Wood- Owls, 329, 400.
Wood-Partridges, 195.
Woodpeckers —
American, 329, 348.
Crested, 393.
Leaf, 393.
Powdered, 218.
Red- Winged, 348.
Stump, 189.
Sultan, 189.
Tiger, 189.
White-Headed, 393.
Wood-Rats, 337.
Wood-Storks, 199.
Worms, 307. 308.
Wren, 58, 153, 347, 383.
Wryneck, 30.
Xema furcatum, 277.
Xenelaphus, 365.
Xenopus, 413.
Xenorhynchus asiaticus, 199.
Xeromys silaceus, 210.
Xiphorhynchus procurvus, 385.
Yak, 220.
Yapock, 380.
Yurumi, 378.
Zamensis mucosus, 205.
Zanclostomus javanicus, 192.
Zapus, 22, 230, 323.
Zebu, 109, 175.
Zeusfaber, 290.
Ziphins cavirostris, 246.
Zoarces viviparus, 291.
Zokors, 230.
Zonotrichia pileata. 384.
Zoster ops, 183, 184.
Zygcena inallenj, 296.
Printed by Morrison & Gibb Limited, E'liiihurgh.
Ma
\f?h?
QL
L95
v.2
Lydekker, Richard
Wild life
BioMed.
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