Leo Baeck
Institute
William Nussbaum
Collection
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l^omment
comments
Page 26
[eculates on
i. Page 36
aks of seat
letc. Page 36
fyesv
iarity "ha!
^he City for
Ishe noted that
_rT-time and over
,^r:> university staft
Jould benefit. i
traham's Hebron
^Will Be Excatatei
By 1/.S. Expedition
Special to The New York Times
PRINCETON, N. J., Sept 11
—Hebron, the traditional burial
place of Abraham and his sons
Isaac and Jacob, will be ex- ,
cavated by American archeolp-
gists next summer, it was an-
nounced here tcjday.
Prof. Philip C. Hammond of
the Princeton Theological Semi-
nary will direct the expedition
at the Site 25 miles south of
Jerusalem in Jordan. Other
participating organizations in-
clude the University of South-
ern California, the Southwest
Baptist Theological Seminary,
the American Council of Learned
Societies the American Friends
of the Middle East.
The last major Biblical site
in the Holy Land still unex-
cavated, Habron was the ürst
to Hel5ron that Josliua sent his
men to "buy up land" in Canaan|
The Roman Emperor Hadrian
established a major market near
the City and Emperor Constan-
tine later built Christian
churches around it. With the
rising influence of Islam in the
Middle East, Hebron became
revered as the burial place of.
the Biblical Patriarchs. "*
Pretimlnary preparations for
the expedition were completed
this summer by Professor Ham-
mond. The Government of Jor-
dan will provide transportation
to the Site and a Government
school building for housing the
expedition staff.
■•;[
The genealogy of the Bible:
earliest Hebrew to latest American versions
OLD TESTAMENT
BASIC SOURCES
NEW TESTAMENT
BASIC SOURCES
Flnt Hebrew textt
tet down on pspyrut
and leaCher scrollt
between 1300- 165 B.C
Texts edited
into present-day form
by Jewish scholar«
called Massoretes,
7th-9th centuries A.D.
First printed
Hebrew text, 1488 A.D.
Dead Sea Scrolls,
oidest available texts,
»ome dating to 300 B.C.,
ditcovered 1947 and slnce
DOUAY, 1582-1610
English translation for Catholics
brought to America by Lord Calvert
CONFRATERNITY, 1952-
First U. S. Catholic version
entirely from basic sources
SEPTUACINT, 250- 50 B.C
First translation
from Hebrew to Creek
ST. JEROME'S VULCATE
ABOUT 400 A.D.
Latin translation, Catholic Standard
WYCLIFFE'S BIBLE
ABOUT 1382 A.D.
First English translation
TYNDALE, 1525-30
First printed English translation
from basic sources
CREAT BIBLE, 1539
First English translation
authorized by Church
KING JAMES, 1611
Translated by 47 scholars,
most famous English Bible
REVISED STANDARD
VERSION, 1952
Newest U. S. Protestant Bible
CUTENBERG, ABOUT 1455
First printed Bible,
used Vulgate text
GENEVA BIBLE, 1560
Published by English exiles,
brought to America by Pilgrims
ALGONQUIN BIBLE, 1663
Translated for Indians,
flrst Bible printed in America
written in Creek
on papyrus
between 50-100 A.D.
Earliest complete texts
on parchment,
around 350 A.D.
First printed Creek text
edited by Erasmus, 1516
Codex Sinaiticus,
oidest complete text
dating to about 350 A.D.
found on Mt. Sinai, 1859
Papyrus fragments,
dating to Second Century,
discovered 1930 and since
137
v^
'4
MÜM
mttt^m
mtm
kAMMAMiH
Reviews
Abstracts
^
Edited hy
LOUIS M. HELLMAN, M.D
Reviews of new books
Heredity Counseling. Edited by Helen G. Ham-
mons. 112 pages, 1 figure, 4 tables.
New York, 1959, Paul B. Hoeber, Inc.
$4.00.
It can hardly be doubtcd today that the young
science of genetics is rapidly reaching niaturity,
nor can the importance of its contributions and
its Potential to the Solution of difficult medical
Problems be denied any longer. In this rather
sniall book based on a Symposium sponsored by
the American Eugenics Society in 1958, genetic
counseling, as one aspect of the relationship of
genetics to medicine, is discussed by 17 well-
kiiown leadcrs in the field.
The content is divided into two parts. Part I —
Genetics in Medical Practica— is concerned with
the need for genetic counseling in pediatrics,
dentistry, and Pu))lic Health nursing. Part II—
Heredity Counseling— discusses the structure of
heredity counseling Services, referral procedures,
lypos of advicc givcn by heredity counselors and
the dangers of inadcquate counseling.
It is regrcttable that the discussions do not go
far enough to satisfy more complctely the desire
for a long sought aftcr and much needed guide
to this increasingly important subject. Quite
properly, counseling by those not trained in
genetics is discouragcd, but despite these ad-
inonitions it would appear that a more detailed
discussion of vital problems encountercd and
the advicc ßiven in spcc ific instances drawn from
the undoubtedly vast experiences of this clite
group of aulhors would have enhanced the value
of the book. For its size, nonethcless, it does
contain much useful and timely information,
especially for those not genetically trained and
who arc intercstcd in becoming acquainted with
the problcm of heredity counseling as it is today.
Therapeutic Radiology. By William Moss. 403
pages, 146 illustrations. St. Louis, 1959,
The C. V. Mosby Company. $12.50.
Dr. Moss has described the contents of his book
in its preface. It is not a recipe for radiotherapy
nor is it an encyclopedia. But it is an introduc-
tion to selected clinical problems in therapeutic
radiology, and it expresses a philosophy of
radiotherapy intended to improve patient care.
The introductory chapter Stresses the clinical
nature of radiotherapy, wherein the patient and
his disease comprise the ultimate reality. To cope
with this reality the therapist combincs his clini-
cal oxperience with the disciplincs of radiation
physics, surgical pathology, and radiobiology.
Each patient must be treated with an individual-
ized technique and dosage, but general treatmcnt
policy is based on the end results that have becn
reported from major Cancer treatment centers.
The remaining chapters discuss the tumors of
the various major anatomic regions of the body.
The natural history of the tumor and the efTects
of radiation on the normal tissues of each region
are described. End results of various modalities
of treatment arc tabulated. The author then
proposrs treatment policy and technique based
on the rational evaluation of these factors of
tumor history, radiation tolerance of normal
tissues, and end results.
Dr. Moss is a therapeutic radiologist and
Assistant Professor of Radiology at Northwestern
University School of Medicine. His text is in-
tended for the Student of radiotherapy. Its"
brevity, emphasis on major issues, excellent
bibliography, illustrations, and tables arc all
assets. A general discussion of clinical Staging
and methods of presentation of end results would
be useful additions to the book.
1218
^■»
^'
Volume 80
Number 6
Book reviews 1219
.1
•
I
i
I
•>Fernicntc— Hormone— Vitamine, Vol. 2, Hör-
mone. By R. Ammon and W. Dirschcrl.
Third cdiiion. 897 pagcs, 144 figures,
88 tablcs. New York, 1960, Intcrcon-
linontal Modical Book Corp. $35.25.
Tho trtMncndoiis aminuilaücm of facu in the
field of hornioncs has madc nccossary an cntirc
volumc dcvotcd to a subject whicii in 1948
fillcd only thc middlo part of thc second cdition
of Fcrynentc— Hormone— Vitamine. Written by
lu'o cxperts in biocheniistry, in rollaboration
wiih aiithors rontribiiting chaptors on zoology
ai.id imtany, ihis book ronrcrns itself with a de-
scription and disrussion of the chomistry of
horinonrs, iheir physiology, and thcir role in
niammals, vcrtcbralcs, invcrtcbratcs, insorts, and
plants. This is truly an interdisciplinary en-
dcavor, an cxrcllcnt guide in thc biorhemistry of
hormoncs and related problems, pointing out the
significanre of horniones with referenre to en-
zymes and vitaniins. A clcar and roncise style
and an enij)iia.sis on rhcniistry contribute to a
niore fundamental understanding of the new
research problems.
The obstetrician and gynecologist now has the
benefit of an up-to-date book for reference and
a systemic presentation, authoritative and criti-
cal, of the most advanced knowledge in the field.
He should not, hovvever, expect to find a clinical
endocrinology, although clinical problems are
deait with briefly.
Of special interest are chapters on sex hor-
moncs, the relationship between female and male
hormones, and the influence of the sex hormones
on the embryo.
An index of authors at the end of each chap-
ter and one of subjects at the end of the book
add to the practical vahie of this basic work, for
which the authors as well as the publisher are
to be highly commended.
Trends in Genetic Analysis. By G. Pontecorvo.
145 pages, 18 tables. New York, 1958,
Columbia University Press. No. XVHI
of thc Columbia Biological Series.
Pricc $4.
The conccpt of thc" gene as a simple entity with
thc simultaneous propertics of indivisibility in
hcredity, specificity of function, and ability to
mutate is no longcr satisfactory as a working
model for an understanding of the fme structurc
of thc genetic material. Above all othcr recently
dcvelopcd techniqucs, those of microbial genetics
have enormously incrcascd what the author re-
fers to as thc "resolving power of genetic
analysis." Thc essential j)rocess on whirh gcneiic
analysis is based is recombination, i.e., the ap-
parent exchangc of genetic material (informa-
tion) between chromosomes. Hence, the discus-
sion is ceniered about this powerful l)ut littie
understood genetic tool and its use in one of the
most exciting developments in genetics, the
Splitting of thc functional unit of inheritancc,
previously calied a gene, into subunits. By re-
combination, these subunits can be distinguished
within thc functional organized structurc now
refcrrcd to as the cistron. References are madc
to various works with microorganisms and
fungi, particularly neurospora and aspcrgillus, to
illustrate the text.
Thc six chapters that make up thc book are
cntitled: I. Genetic Analysis and Its Resolving
Power, H. Allelism, HI. Structurc and Function
of the Genetic Material, IV. Recombination, V.
Mapping Chromosomes via Mitotic Recombina-
tion, and VI. Novel Genetic Systems. Based on
a series of lectures delivered by Professor Ponte-
corvo to the Department of Zoology of Columbia
University in 1956, the scope of which was a
reappraisal of the theory of the gene in the light
of the prcscnt knowledge, the text is concerncd
with only those avenues of dcvclopment in ge-
netics with which the author is most conversant
from firsthand cxperience.
Quite clcarly, the book is intendcd for the
geneticist and hence may at times be difficult
for the novice since a more than cursory knowl-
edge öf thc subject by thc rcader is assumed.
For the geneticist and those in related ficlds
familiär with classical genetics the book ofTers a
concise and clcarly written discussion of the
prcscnt conccpt of the gene as dcvelopcd from
the work of Benzer, Watson and Crick, Levin-
thal, Plaut and Mazia, Kacser, Pritchard, and
others, including those of the author.
Clinical Endocrinology. Editcd by Edwin B.
Astwood. First edition. 724 pages, illus-
trated. New York, 1960, Grüne & Strat-
ton, Inc. $18.75.
This 724 pagc book is editcd by one of the fore-
most cndocrinologists of this country. Fle has
gathered together 82 contributors most of whom
are well known in thcir various ficlds.
As its title would indicatc, it is primarily
devoted to the clinical aspccts of the subject
although by nccessity the research and laboratory
components are discnssed in many areas.
i
•mm
mm
mm
i«a
J
,-i«?JJ.:-..V«»U-
/
/
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/
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1220 Book reviews
IW
Karh \op\c is i)r('scnt('d in a concise nianncr
with oiily ihc niost iinportaiu points discusscd.
Tliis is roiiducivL' to .sliort cliaplcrs ihat aic
roadablc and thc iiKUerial casy lo dig('si uiihoiit
gctling lost in a mass of words. As far as ])ossiblc
only matrrial tiiat is fairly >vrll nrfrptrd i" givon.
Tlic lack of ihc iheorcliial niakos thc book prac-
tica! for ihc ( linirian.
C()nsid(;rabl(,' spacc is dcvotod to thc ab-
nornialitios of sex and thus cmphasizcs thc
progrcss that has bccn niadc in rcccnt ycars in
knoNvlcdgc of thcsc i)rol>hMns.
Thc last scction of thc I)ook is dcvoicd to
hormonc assays and special tcsts. This is a valu-
ablc portion for it brings togcthcr in onc place
thc varions tcsts for all thc hormoncs and should
provc to bc a vahiablc rcfcrcnce.
Thc rcvicwcr cnjoycd thc book and found it
not only informative, but casy reading. It can
bc rcconimcndcd for all interested in endo-
crinology.
/hrbuch der Gynäkologie. By Heinrich Martins.
Sixih cdition. 447 pagcs, 476 fignrcs.
New York, 19G0, Intcrcontincntal Med-
ical Book Corp. $12.85.
Heinrich Martins is no stranger to thc inter-
national Community of anthors and teachers in
gynecology, and his works cxcel in snbstance
and clarity. This sixth cdition, bringing nj) to
datc his textbook, originally pnblishcd in 1946,
is no cxccption. Intcndcd for thc German stndcnt
of gynecology as well as for thc practicing
gynccologist, it prcscnts 12 chapters in pleasant
style. In gcneral, thc prcsent Status of gyneco-
logical knowlcdge and practice in Germany ap-
pcars to bc on a level with that in this country,
but a few difTcrences deserve mention.
It was surprising, for cxamplc, to Icarn that
in cascs of diflicult dilatation, laminaria is still
being used in Germany, while that instrument
is taboo in the United States. Rubin's insuflla-
tion test, an ofTicc proccdurc here, is rccom-
mendcd for hospital treatment only; colposcopy,
however, is advocated as a must in ofTicc gyncc-
■ ology. Surprising also was a report that treatment
of sterility by artificial insemination ab alieno
was rejectcd by the Sixty-second Convention of
thc German Medical Society in 1955.
For Cancer of the cervix the gynccological dc-
partmcnt of thc Woman's Hospital in Göttingen,
under thc author's directorship, has dcvelopcd
intravaginal radiation of thc paramctrium by
mcans of a special tubc. No rcfcrcnce is madc
Dcccinl>rr, i960
Am. J. Obst. & Gyncc.
to thc selcction of cascs for operative and non-
operative treatment on thc basis of SR and RR
cytotechnique of Graham and Graham.
In paticnts with severe amenorrhea, whcn thc
funrtioning cndomctrium no longer exists be-
« uu««7 of ijiditnnnaiinn, ihcinileal cauierlzation,
or too vigorous curcttage, Martins transplants
cndomctrium.
Also of intcrest arc observations concerning
so-callcd "grippe Salpingitis," aftcr which the
Salpinx frcqucntly heals without dcfect, regaining
its patency, and hypoplasia of thc uterus duc to
mental and physical strain during war.
The chapter on gynccological urology calls
attention to the pedunculatcd muscle fat trans-
plantation from the musculus bulbocavcrnosus
for Support aftcr urcthroplastic.
A prescntation of hormonc therapy bascd on
thc most rcccnt rescarch in thc ficld makes this
text worthy of a place on cvery gynecologist's
Atlas der gynäkologischen Operationen. By O.
Käser and A. Ikle. 451 pagcs, 720 fig-
nrcs. Stuttgart, 1960, Georg Thieme
Verlag. $35.25.
This splendid atlas, in thc opinion of thc re-
viewer, is the cqual, if not the supcrior, of any
rcccnt gynccological surgical atlas.
In gcneral it follows the form of similar
atlascs, with illustrations and division into thc
appropriate sections. It has an cxcellent scction
on minor operative proccdurcs, particularly ring
biopsy. It shows marsupialization of the Bartho-
lin gland, a rclatively new proccdurc. It has, in
addition to thc usual Standard Operations in thc
gynccological ficld, a scction on nrological and
proctological proccdurcs and radical and ultra-
radical proccdurcs for Carcinoma, as well as
intestinal Operations.
In gcneral this is a most complete and beauti-
fully illustrated atlas, which the rcvicwcr believcs
is thc finest he has ever seen.
High Blood Pressure and Prcgnancy. Lance
Townsend. 115 pagcs, 22 figures, 26
tables. New York, 1960, Cambridge
University Press. $8.50.
This thesis, submitted for a doctoratc in medi-
cine, is a detailcd analysis of the pregnancics of
109 hypertensivc women sccn in 1956, which is
compared with an analysis of the pregnancics of
1 1 1 hypertensivc women sccn in thc same clinic
in 1946 ^nd 1947. In the 1956 series, all patients
\
l
■^iBim«*««ii«MP«*«H«m«ip^in^OT
!
w>m
i\
VOL. LXm, Articles 192-217
OCTOBER, 1963
M
N
A Monthly Record of Anthropological Science
Structure of Personal Names on Tory Island
(with two tables)
J. R. Fox
Obituary
K. P. Chattopadhyay: 1898-1963
Professor J. H. Huttoti, C.I.E.
Shorter Notes
A Terra-Cotta Hcad in the Ife Style from Ikirun, Western Nigeria (with five text figures)
P. A. Allison
Some Kaguru Riddlcs
Dr. T. O. BciJclman
* Negative Wishing ' aniong the Slavs and Western Peoples
Professor P. A. Radwanshi
The Third Edinburgh Conference on Minoan and Myccna;aa Writing, 13-14 June, 1963
Correspondence
RevicwjSu^
America a Asia ,
Puhlished hy
THE ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE
21 Bedford Square, London, W.C.I
Each Issue 3s.
Annual Subscription 36s.
CONTENTS
The numbers refer not to pages but to articles, by which references are maäe in Man itself to matter published in Man; when
Man articles are quoted by number elsewhere, it is suggested that the number be preceded by the word 'artick:
OcTOBEU, 1963
MAN
No. 19-
Structure of Personal Names on Tory Island. J. R. Fox. With two tables
OBITUARY
K. P. Chattopadhyay: 1898-1963. Professor}. H. Hutton, C.I.E.
CORRESPONDENCE
Moslem Prayer Places. J. H. Chaplin. With a textßgttrc
The'Determinants of Differential Cross-Cousin Mairiage. Dr. A. D. Coult
Confusion Worse Confounded: Mrs. Seligman's Birthday
REVIEWS
AMERICA
Ancient America: The CiviUzations of the New World. By H.-D. Disselhoff and S. LinnL Dr. G. H. S. Bushnell
Les Incas. By A. M^traux. Dr. A. J. Butt
Maya Archaeologist. ByJ. E. S. Thompson. Commander G. A. Bateman
Prehistoric Rock Art of Nevada and Eastern California. By R. F. Heizer and M. A. Baumhoff. Dr. R. Gruhn
The HäsiHic Community of Williamsburg. By S. PoILDr. P. S. Cohen
West Indian Migrants. By R. B. Dauison. Dr. F. Henriques
TraU to California: The Overland Journal of Vincent Geiger and Wakeman Bryarly. Edited by D. M. Potter.
G. E. S. Turner
ASIA
Ainu Creed and Cult. By N. G. Munro. Dr. E. M. Mendelson •
The Mongols of Afghanistan: An Ethnography of the Moghols and Related Peoples of Afghanistan. By
H. F. Sckurmann. Dr. L. Krader
Social Structure of the Yami of Botel Tobago. By Wci Hwei-Lin andUu Pin-Hsiung. Dr. E. R. Leach
Himalayan Polyandry: Structure, Functioning and Culture Change: A Field Study of Jaunsar-Bawar.
By D. N. Majumdar. H.R.H. Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark
Gaste in Modem India and Other Essays. By M. N. Srinivas. Dr. T. N. Madan ....
The Hindu Family in its Urban Setting. By A. D. Ross. Dr. Ram P. Srivastava
Gopalpur: A South Indian Village. By A. R. Beals. Dr. T. N. Madan
Myth and Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian Culture. By D. D. Kosambi. Lord Raglan
Indian Anthropology: Essays in Memory of D. N. Majumdar. Dr. D. F. Pocock .
Mesopotamia and the Middle East. By L. Woolley. T. C. Mitchell
19a
193
SHORTER NOTES
A Tcrra-Cotta Head in the Ife Style from Ikirun, Western Nigeria. P. A. Aluson. Withfive textßgures . 194
Some Kaguru Riddles. Dr. T. O. Beidelman ^95
•Negative Wishing ' among the Slavs and Western Peoples. Professor P. A. Radwanski . . . .196
The Third Edinburgh Conference on Minoan and Mycenaean Writing, 13-14 June, 1963. Communicated by
W. C. Brich
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
'20?
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE
President:]. S. Weiner, M.A., M.Sc, P/i.D., M.R.C.S.
Hon. Secrctary : A. H. Christie, M.A. Hon. Treasurer : H. E. Wadsworth
Hon. Editor of the Journal : G. W. B. Huntingford, B.Sc, D.Litt.
Hon. Editor o/Man ; W. B. Fagg, M.A. Hon. Assistant Editor o/Man : D. Af. Boston, M.A,
Hon. Editori al Advisers to Man :
Dr.J. H. M. Beattie, W. C. Brice, D. R. Brothwell, Professor]. Euans, R. H. Robins
t
fr
STRUCTURE OF PERSONAL NAMES ON TORY ISLAND*
By J. R. Fox, London School of Economics and Political Science
min The Aran Ishmds ' Syngc niakcs the foUowing
observations 011 the System of personal names
thcn in usc (1898-1902):
Whcn a child begins to wander about the Island, the neigh-
bours speak of it by its Christian name, foUowcd by the
Christian name of its father. If this is not enough to identity it
the fathcr's epithet— whether it is a nicknanie or the name of
liis own father — is added.
Sometimes when the fuher's name does not lend itselt, the
mother's Christian name is adopted as epithet for the childrcn.
Üccasionally the surname is employed in its Irish form, but
I have not heard them using the 'Mac' prefix when speaking
Irish among themselves; perhaps the idea of a surname which
it gives is too modern for them, perhaps they do use it at tnncs
that 1 have not noticed. .
Sometimes a man is named from the colour of his hair. 1 here
is thus a Seaghan Ruadh (Red john), and his children are
'Mourteen Seaghan Ruadh,' etc. .
The schoohnaster teils nie that when he reads out the roll in
the morning the children repeat the local name all together in
a whisper after each otficial name and then the child answers.
If he calls, for instance, 'Patrick O'Flaharty,' the children
murmer, 'Patch Seaghan Dearg' or some such name, and the
boy answers. • 1 1 •
If an islander's name alone is enough to distinguish him it is
used by itself, and I know one man who is spoken of as Eamonn.
There may be other Ednmnds 011 the island, but it so they have
probably good nicknames or epithets of their own.
While on Tory Island (Oiledn Thoraighc), Co. Donegal
in 1962, I coUectcci the names of all living adults and found
the System to be basically that reported by Synge for the
Aran Islands, with enough chstinctiveness to be worth a
separate analysis.-
Kinship terms are rarely used among the islanders except
bctween voung children and their parents and parents
sibhnes. Cousinship is nuhcated by saynig of a person
somethmg like 'his mother and my father were the
children of two brothers' {Bhi a mhdthair a^iis m nthnir
claun na hcirtc dcarbhrntliar), or 'we are children ofbrother
and sister' (rdmind claun dcarhlirdthar agus dcirhhshcatiar).
But in a small Community where the genealogical hnks
between persons are common knowledge, such descriptivc
explanations are rarely called for. Personal names are used
instead and in themselves help to indicate a person s
Position in the kinship structure by showing his linc ot
descent for up to four generations.
A person will in fact have three sets of names: a Gaclic
'ceremonial' set; an English 'practical' set, and a Gaelic-
Endish 'personal' set. A man's füll Gaelic name will
consist of bis baptismal name foUowed perhaps by his
'cpitbet' such as Ög (young-usually means youngest of
several brothers), Bdn (fair), Mor (big , Beag (smal -wee),
followed by bis surname. Such a combmation might yield,
for example, 'Pddraig Ög Mac Ruadhraigh. A woman
strictly speaking, retains her family name on marriage and
addsthedescriptivephrase'wifcof (hterally woman of )
* With two tabh's
and the names of her husband, c.^^k 'MAire Ni Dhiibhghain
bean Sheamuis Mhic Ruadhraigh '-hterally, Mary,
daughter of Doohaii, wife of James the son of Rory. A
nuinber of circumstances will determine whether or not
her husband's name will 'stick' as a surname or whctlier
she will go on being known by her maiden name. These
names in their fuirforms are only used on ceremonia
occasions such as dances— when a man or woman is called
upon to sing or step-dance— , or for prayers in churcli
during a serious illness, or for calling the roll in school, or
for putting on a tombstone.
The practical names are the rough English equivalents
of the Gaelic names, used in dealing with English-speakers
generally and particularly for use when working in England
and Scotland. The Government is usually dealt with in
Enghsh for several reasons, mainly because although the
islanders all speak Gaelic as their native tc^ngue, the
language they read and write is English— a Situation
brought about by the pattern of migrain labouring which
forced literacy on them when working in Britain. Also
they find 'Dublin' or 'civil service' Irish diftkult to foUow.
Most islanders, thcn, have an 'Enghsh' name. Our examples
would be ' Paddy Rogers' and ' Mary Doohan' to the out-
side World. Sometimes these names stick and are used
amongst the islanders rather like nicknames. Usually the
English Version is a rough phonctic equivalent of the
Gaelic— Ö Duibhir beconies Diver, Ö Dubhgain becomcs
Doogan or Duggan, Mac Fhlaithbheartaigh becomes Mac-
Glafferty, etc. Sometimes this is abaiidoned and an English
name taken for its 'hkeness' to the Gaelic as with Mac-
Ruadhraigh and Rogers— Roger being the English name
most like^'Rory.' The name Fioruisce is sometimes hope-
fuUy rcndered Whorriskey, but mostly this is not cvcn
tried and the simple 'Waters' is substituted. Those going
to England for work are particularly inclined to pick an
'Englidi' name, i.e. one the foreman will recognize.
The third set of names, used for reference, consists of
two or more Christian names, either Gaelic or English or
both, 'strung' together in the manner described by Synge
for Aran. Some people have as many as five or six names
and 'epithets' strung together in this fashion. These names
are the names of lineal ancestors either on the mother's or
the father's side of the family. A person will take as many
names as is necessary to distinguish him from all other
persons, the surname System being inadequate for this task.
(Four surnames cover 80 per cent. of the population.) He
does not, however, pick these names arbitrarily but inhcrits
the whole string. He can stop at any point m the string.
Thus if a man was called 'Jimmy-Dhonnchadha-Mhuire-
Mhici,' his father must have been ' Donnchadh-Mhuire-
Mhici',' his paternal grandmother 'Maire-Mhici" or maybe
'Mairc-Mhici-Tom.'"' '^ Thus if our man wanted to add to
his names, he would have to add 'Tom.' Usually one or
at most two names are enough to distinguish a person, in
153
SECOND INTENTIONAL EXPOSURE
CONTENTS
The numbers refer not to pages but to articles, by which references are made in Man itself to matter publisheä in Man; when
Man articles are quoted by numbcr clsewhere, it is suggestcd that tlie number be preceded by the ivord 'arttde.
Structure of Personal Names on Tory Island.]. R. Fox. With two tabks
OBITUARY
K. P. Chattopadhyay: 1898-1963. Professor J. H. Hutton, C.I.E.
CORRESPONDENCE
Moslem Prayer Places.J. H, Chaplin. H^if/i <i rcx/^^igurc
The T5etemunants of Differential Cross-Cousinl^^
Confusion Worse Confounded: Mrs. Seligman's Birthday
REVIEWS
AMERICA
Ancient America: The Civilizations of the New World. By H.-D. Dissellioffand S. UnnL Dr. G. H. S. Bushnell
Les Incas. By A. Mctraux. Dr. A. J. Butt
Maya Archajologist. ByJ. E. S. Thompson. Commander G. A. Bateman
Prehistoric Rock Art of Nevada and Eastern California. By R. F. Heizer and M. A. Baumhoff. Dr. R. Gruhn
The'HasiHic^Comniunity of Williamsburg. 'BfS.Poll. Dr. P. S. Cohen
Westlndian Migrants. By R. B. Davison. Dr. F. Henriques
Trail to California: The Overland Journal of Vincent Geiger and Wakeman Bryarly. Edited by D. M. Potter
G. E. S. Turner .....•••
192
193
SHORTER NOTES
A Terra-Cotta Head in the Ife Style from Ikirun, Western Nigeria. P. A. Allison. Withßve textßgures . 194
Some Kaguru Riddlcs. Dr. T. O. Beidelman ^^5
•Negative Wishing ' among the Slavs and Western Peoples. Professor P. A. Radwanski . . . .196
The Thu-d Edinburgh Conference on Minoan and Mycenaean Writing, 13-14 J«ne, 1963. Communicated by
W. C. Brich
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
207
ASIA
Alna Creed and Cult. By N. G. Munro. Dr. E. M. Mendelson
The Mongols of Afghanistan: An Ethnography of the Moghols and Related Peoples of Afghanistan. By
H. F. ScUurmann. Dr. L. Kräder
Social Structure of the Yami of Botel Tobago. By Wei Hwei-Un and Liu Pin-Hsiung. Dr. E. R. Leach
Himalayan Polyandry: Structure, Functioning and Culture Change: A Field Study of Jaunsar-Bawar.
By D. N. Majumdar. H.R.H. Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark
Gaste in Modem India and Other Essays. By M. N. Srinivas. Dr. T. N. Madan ....
The Hindu Family in its Urban Setting. By A. D. Ross. Dr. Ram P. Srivastava
Gopalpur: A South Indian Village. By A. R. Beah. Dr. T. N. Madan
Myth and Reality: Studies in the Formation of Indian Culture. By D. D. Kosamhi. Lord Raglan
Indian Anthropology: Essays in Memory of D. N. Majumdar. Dr. D. F. PococK .
Mesopotamia and the Middle East. By L. VVoolley. T. C. Mitchell
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE
President:]. S. Weiner, M.A., M.Sc, Ph.D., M.R.C.S.
Hon. Secretary : A. H. Christie, M.A. Hon. Treasurer ; H. E. Wadsworth
Hon. Editor 0/ f/ic Journal ; G. W. B. Huntingford, B.Sc, D.Litt.
Hon. Editor o/Man ; W. B. Fagg, M.A. Hon. Assistant Editor c/Man ; D. M. Boston, M.A.
Hon. Editorial Advisers to Man ;
Dr.J. H. M. Beattie, W. C. Brice, D. R. Brothwell, Professor]. Evans, R. H. Robins
(^( TOBP.R, T963
MAN
No. 192
STRUCTURE Ol PERSONAL NAMES ON TORY ISIANP
By J. R. Fox, London Sihool of Fcononiics and PoUtical Science
mlii The Aniii Ishiiids ' Syngc niakcs tlic folUnviug
ohscrvatioiis on rhc systcm o( personal naiiics
tlicu in usc (1898-1902):
Whcn a child bcgins to wander about the island, the neigh-
bours speak of it ^iy its C:hristiaii naine, tollowed by the
Christian nanie of its fither. If this is not enough to identity it,^
the father's epithet— whether it is a nicknanie or the nanie ot
his own father — is added.
Sonietinies when the tather's nanie does not lend itselt, the
niother's C:hristian nanie is adopted as epithet for the clnldren.
Occasionallv the surnanie is eniployed in its Irish torni, but
I liave not heard tlieni using the 'Mae' prefix when speaking
hish among theniselves; perhaps the idea ot a surnanie which
it gives is too modern for theiii, perhaps they do use it at tiines
that 1 have not noticed. .
Sonietinies a man is nanied from the colour ot his hair. 1 here
is thus a Seaghan Ruadh (Red John), and his ehildren are
'Mourteen Seaghan Ruadh,' etc. .
The sehoohiiaster teils nie that when he reads out the roll m
the morning the ehildren repeat the local nanie all together in
a wliisper after eaeh otiicial nanie and then the ehild answers.
If he ealls, tor instanee, 'Patrick CVFlaharty,' the ehildren
niurmer, ' Riteh Seaghan Dearg' or some such name, and the
ho\ answers. 11
If an islander's name alone is enough to distmgmsh him it is
used by itself, and 1 know one man who is spokeii ot as Eamonn.
There may be other Edmunds 011 the island, but it so they have
probably good nieknames or epithets of their own.
Whilc on Tory Island (Oilcan Thoran^hc), Co. Ooncgal
i,i kX)^ 1 collcctcd the names of all livniir adiilts and Kniiul
the svstem to he hasically that reported hy Synge h^r the
Aran' Islands, with enoui^h distinctiveness to be worth a
separate analvsis.-
Kinship terms are rarelv used among; the islanders except
hetween voun- ehildren and their parents and parents
sihlm-s. Cousinship is mdieated hy saynig ot a pcrson
somediiiu^ like 'his mother and my huher were the
ehildren \^( two hrothers' {Bhi a mhäthair a^us ni athm
,l,„n ua hcirtc dcarhhräthar). ov ' we are ehildren othrother
ind sister' (Tüniiiid chwn dcarhhräthar a^us dcirbh^hcothar).
But m a small eommunity where the geiicalogical links
hetween persons are commcMi knowledge sueh deseriptive
cxplanations are rarely ealled for. Personal names are nsed
instead and m themselves help to indieate a person s
Position m the kmship strueture by showin- his line ot
dcscent for up to foiir ireneratic^ns.
A person will in t^iet have three scts ot names: a Caelie
'ceremonial' set; an En-hsh 'praetieal' sef and a Gaelic-
EnM.sh 'personal' set. A man's tt.ll Gaehe name vviU
consist o{ his baptismal name tollowed perhaps by his
'epithet' snch as Ög (yonng-nsnally means yonngest ot
several hrothers), BAn (tair), Mor (big , Beag (smal l-wee ,
tollowed bv bis surname. Sueh a combmation might yield,
for example, ' PAdraig Ög Mae Ruadhraigh. A woman
strictlv speakmg, retains her fl^nnly name on marriage and
adds the deseriptive phrase ' wite ot (hterally vNcnnan ot )
* With two tiihlcs
and the names of her htisband, c.o. 'Maire N( i:)luibhghain
bean Sheamuis Mhie Riiadhraigh'- hterally, Mary
daughter of Doobaii, wife of James the son o{ Rory. A
number oi circumstances will determine whether or not
her husband's name will 'stick' as a surname or whetiier
she will go 011 bemg known by her maiden name. These
names in thcir fuir forms are only used ou eeremoma
occasions such as daiices— when a man or woman is ealled
upon to sing or step-dance— , or tor prayers m churcii
during a serious illness, or for calling the roll m school, or
tor putting on a tombstone.
The practical names are the rough English eciiiivalents
of the Gaehe names, used in dealing with Enghsh-speakers
<rencrally and particularlv for use when w orking m Eng and
and Scodand. The Government is usually dealt with m
Eiiirlish fc^r several reasons, mamly because althcmgh the
islanders all speak Gaelie as their native tongue, the
language they read and write is English— a Situation
bro'Iight about by the pattern o\ nngram labouring whieli
forcexl literacy c^n them when working in Britain. Alsc^
they find ' i:)ublin' or 'civil service' Irish difficult to follow.
Most islanders, then, have an 'English' name. Cur examples
would be ' Paddv Rogers' and ' Mary Ooohan to the out-
side World. Sonietinies these names stick and are used
amongst the islanders rather like nieknames. Usually the
English Version is a roui^h pluvnetic ecjuivalent ot the
CJachc— Ö Ouibhir becomes Diver, Ö Hubhgain becomes
i:)oogan or Ouggan, Mac Fhlaithbheartaigh becomes Mac-
Clatferty, etc. Sometimes this is abandoned and an English
name taken for its 'hkeness' to the (iaelic as with Mac-
Ruadhraigh and Rogers-Roger being the English name
most likc^'Rorv.' The name Fioruisce is sometimes hope-
fullv rendcred Whorriskev, but mosdy this is not cvcii
tried and the simple 'Waters' is substituted. Those going
to England for work are parncularly inclined tc^ pick an
'Engli^sh' name, i.e. one the foreman will recognize.
The third set o^ names, used for reference, consists ot
two or more Christian names, either Gaelic or English or
both, 'strung' together in the manner described by Synge
for Aran. Some people have as many as five or six names
and 'epithets' strung together in this tiishion. These names
are the names of liiieal ancestors either o\\ the mother s or
the flither's sidc of the family. A person will take as many
names as is nccessary to disdnguish him trc^m all other
persons, the surname wstem being inadequate tor this task.
(Four surnames cover'8o per cent. ot the population ) He
docs not, however, pick these names arbitrarily but inherits
the wholc string. He can stop at any point in the string.
Thus if a man was ealled 'Jimmy-Ohonnchadha-Mhuire-
Mhia" his tather must have been 'Donnchadh-Mhuire-
Mhici!' his paternal grandmother ' Maire-Mhici' or maybe
'Maire-Mhici'-Tom.'"' ^ Thus if our man wanted to add to
his names, he would have to add 'Tom.' Usually one or
at most two names are enough io distinguish a persc^n, in
153
No. 192
MAN
OCTOBER, 1963
additioii to his own. As Syngc obscrves, if a maus namc is
unique in some way hc may bc known by it alonc, althoiigh
on Tory he will usually havc a 'latent' string of namcs
which he never actually uses but which could be uscd if
his Christian nanie were to crop up again. If any of the
ancestors in the 'string' had epithets (using this to mcan
descriptive terms), thesc are included. But therc is a tendency
to usc only the epithet of the last person in the string.
Sometimes, if an ancestor was firmly known by his sur-
name (if, say, he was an inmiigrant and the first of bis
name on the island) then this is added also. 4 Below are
some examples of these names :
Eoghan-John-Doolcy-Mhalainnc
Mary-John-Doolcy-Mhalainnc
Katc-Doolcy-Mhalaiiinc
Jimmy-Mhuirc-Bhilli
Pcggy-Phaidi-Shcamuis-Dhonihiiaill
Padraig-Hughdic-Dhuibhir
Paddy-Johnnic-Fhlaithbhcartaigh
Dooley was a man from
Malin in Co. Donegal.
Eoghan's sister.
His patcrnal aunt.
Jimmy-Mary-Willy
(Billy)
Pcggy-Paddy-Jimmy-
Donal
Patrick Hugh Divcr
Paddy John (Mac)-
Claffcrty ^
An alternative type of name— and a man may havc two
or three alternative types — consists of the addition of the
Christian name of a parent to the surname. Thus two
paternal first cousins might be respcctivcly 'Jimmy Diver
Nancy' and 'Jimmy Diver Madge.'
The segmentary process in the cognatic dcscent groups
on the island affects this naming mcchanism. This is ilhis-
trated ni the following diagram :
Ncllic (Eibhlin)
Liam-Ncllic
Eoghan-Ncllic
Ncllic-Liaim-
Ncllic
Liam-Liaim-
Ncllic
Doohan
John-Eoghain-
Nellic
Anabclla-John John ?
(Nabla) |
This is an actual dcscent group tracing its ancestry to a
widow, Ncllic Doohan. The first foiir gcnerations of the
group are shown here, thcre being eight altogcther. Nclhe's
descendants, 'Clann Nclhc,' are dividcd mto the Liam-
NcUies and the Eoghan-Ncllics. Clann Liaim-Ncllie are
subdividcd into the Ncllic-Liaim-Ncllics and the Liam-
Liaim-Ncllics. The descendants of Eoghan-NeUie are
segmented into the John-Eoghain-Ncllies and another
group known as the Doohans. Thcre havc only been sons
in this latter group, and they havc tcndcd to be kncwn by
the 'John Doohan Nancy' type of namc. The four or five
gcnerations below those shown on the diagram are not
clearly scgmcntcd as yet. Amongst thesc, the name con-
tinuity is not so strong, but they all regard thcmsclves as
'Liam-Ncllies' or 'John-Eoghain-Nclhcs' or Doohans'
according to the Icvcl of segmentation relevant to their
various collective activitics.^ The degrce to which the
name continuity of such a group can be maintained, con-
verging on the foundcr's name as in our cxample, is some
measure of the continuing sohdarity of the group. This
tends to weaken after about six gcnerations and the dis-
integration of the group is rcflectcd in the native com-
mentary— Trt na h-ahwuicacha cailltc, 'the names is lost.'
The attempt to keep the namc continuity often conflicts
with the desirc to distinguish person from person, hcnce
the existence o( alternative name types.
The following formula shows the ideal structure of the
Tory namc using the following symbols: C = Christian
name, S = surname, E = epithet, Fa = father's Christian
namc, Mo = mothcr's Christian namc. A symbol in the
lower case indicates that the item can be omittcd from the
progrcssion of names.
Gciwrathu
+ 1
+ 2
Patrilateral
Ce
+ <
Matrilatcral
Fa
fa
S
mo
c
CS
s
+ <
e
FaFa es
s
e
FaMo es
L
Mo es + <(
s
e
MoFa es
s
e
MoMo es
s
The columns rcprescnt the alternative possibilitics, the
row^s the matrilatcral and patrilateral 'progrcssion' of
namcs. The formula can be expandcd according to the
same rules.
To see how this basic choice between matrilatcral and
patrilateral 'progressions' worked out in practicc I tabu-
lated instances of cach type o{ namc progrcssion in my
collection, distinguishing by sex of nomince (m and f )
but ignoring the optional epithets and surnames (Table I).
I collcctcd thesc names separatcly from the two Settle-
ments on the island. Hast Town [Bailc Thoir) and West
Town {Bailc Thiar), and they are so listed on the table. It is
commonly bclieved that the East is more traditional than
the West, but this does not show up in any differences
in the naming Systems.
What emcrges from this table is the ovcrwhclming
prcfercnce for taking the father's namc (and his father's)
by both men and women, and the fact that for both scxcs
onc possible combination does not occur — m/f+Mo+
MoMo. I am told that this has occurred in the past, but
infrequcntly. The fourth clustcr of namc types in the table
is a group of residual types. The odditics here are the girl
who'took her father's brother's name and the rest which
skip a gencration and Start with the grandparental namcs.
These cases usually rcsult from an uncle or grandparents
bringing up children in the absence of parents. If thesc
relatives are seen as /// loco parcutis then the pattern remains
the same as for the majority.
154
OcTOBER, 1963
MAN
Nos. 192, 193
Table I
m + Fa
f+ Pci
m + Mo
/+ Mo
in + Fa+FaFa
J + Fa + FaFa
in + Mo + MoMo
f + Mo -{-MoMo
in + Fa-\-FaMo
f + Fa-\-FaMo
in + Mo -\- MoFa
f + Mo + MoFa
Namc type
in
in
+
+
/ +
/" +
/ +
/// +
./" +
MoMo
MoFa
MoFa
Fa + FaFa + FaFaFa
FaFa + FaFaFa
FaBro
MoMo-\- MoMoFa-\- MoMoFaMo
MoMo -\- Mo MoFa -\- MoMoFaMo
West
Town
24
26
13
6
15
13
o
o
o
2
o
o
2
3
I
3
o
o
3
I
East
Town
25
16
4
4
5
4
o
o
3
I
3
I
I
I
o
o
I
I
o
o
Total
49
42
17
IG
20
17
O
o
3
3
3
I
3
4
I
3
I
I
3
I
112
70
182
Table II summarizes the 'latcrality prcfercnce' as it
aft'ccts men and women respcctivcly.
Table II
Patrilateral Matrilateral
Total
m
f
Total
72 (70-6 per Cent.) 30 (29-4 per cent.) 102
67 (83-75 per cent.) 13 (i6-25 per cent.) 80
139 (76-4 per cent.) 43 (23 -6 per cent.)
182
The ji^mes in parenthesis are percentages of the row totals.
The Overall prcfercnce is, as wc havc seen, patrilateral,
but thcre is an intcresting minority prcfercnce amongst
malcs for matrilatcral namcs. Practically a third of the men
and less than a sixth of the women havc matrilatcral namcs. 7
Thcre are several cxplanations for this trend amongst
malcs. It may stein from the largc number of widows with
sons, or from the namc continuity of the dcscent System.
In a number of cases it foUows from the fact that a man is
given his father's Christian namc as his own and hcnce
takes his mothcr's name to distinguish him, although this
is not all that common.
Such a highly pcrsonalizcd naming system only works
within the particularistic boundaries of a small Community.
The World at largc is not interested in the particular antc-
cedents of a man and the islandcrs recognize this in their
usc of surnames with the outside world. The old 'family
or clan names placcd a man in his wider kinship group in
the days when this was important — it no longcr matters
today. Within the conmumity the naming system dcs-
cribcd above distinguishes a man from othcr men and
places him in his immediate kin group. It hclps to cstabhsh
his dcscent. Research in small connnunitics in Western
societies may reveal similar Systems serving similar ends
but based on different diacritical criteria.^
Notes
• J. M. Synge, Fonr Plays and The Aran Islands, Oxford, 1962,
pp. 263 f
2 Brief ethnographical details of Tory Island can be found in
J. R. Fox, 'The Vanishing Gael,' New Society, Vol. I, No. 2, 1962.
3 The second and subsequent names, when in Gaelic, are in the
genitive. Some English names are Gaelicized and given a genitive
form. I make no claims for the correctness of the spelling of the
names given here (Irish spelling is pretty fluid), except that they are
the forms recognized by literate islanders. I could not have made
any headway with the Tory naming system and genealogies with-
out the patient help of Mäire Nie Fhlaithbheartaigh bean Aodha
Ui Dhubhghain, Padraig Ög Mac Ruadhraigh, and Aodh O
Dubhghain.
4 See Synge's comment on the use of the surname and the 'Mac'
prefix. In the 'ceremonial' names on Tory both Mac and O are
used, but when a surname is included in the 'personal' set, these
prefixes are not usually used.
5 This could be Paddy-John Ui Fhlaithbheartaigh— roughly
Paddy John O'Flaherty. The pronunciation would be the same.
'' A fuller analysis of the structure and functions of these dcscent
groups is in preparation. They seem to be mainly concerned with
landholding — as a consequence of the equal division of land amongst
all a man's (or woman's) heirs, and the system of keeping land in
trust for migrants. Their other functions lie mainly in the sphere of
mutual Support amongst members in times of crisis.
7 This distribution could only occur by chancc in one sample out
of 20: x\i) = 4-30: p = <-05.
^ The Wclsh system of stringing ancestral names together with
'ap' is obviously similar to the Tory method, but the Welsh, I
believe, used only male names. Mr. Andrew Dunsire teils me that
in some Scottish coastal villages a man will be known by the boat
he owns, his children inheriting this epithet. In some working-class
communities which I know in England a system similar to that on
Tory operates. A man may be known as 'Mary 's Tom' and his son
as 'Mary's Tom's Johnnie,' etc. Syngc notes the use of occupations
as marks of distinction in Wales and comments on the lack of
occupational difirrentiation on the Aran Islands which makes this
method impossible. In some rural communities a man is known by
the name of his farm. W. M. Williams in The Sociology oj an English
l'illage (Routledge, 1956) gives examples of this. See also his fasci-
nating discussion of Naming and Family Continuity, pp. 79-82 and
229f. The contrast with the Tory system is markcd, however, in
that one can, in Gosforth, move from 'side' to 'side' in choice of
names — both surnames and Christian names being used.
OBITUARY
K. P. Chattopadhyay: 1 898-1963
The ncws from Calcutta of the dcath of Professor
TQIJ K. P. Chattopadhyay at the untimcly agc of 65,
^-^^ just when hc was planning a visit to this country
carly ncxt ycar, will bc rcccivcd with grcat rcgret.
Professor Chattopadhyay started his career as a physicist, and
having takcn a first class in physics in Calcutta came to this
country to work undcr J. J. Thompson, but turned from physics
to anthropology, in which his tcacher was W. H. R. Rivers, and
his son teils mc that Rivers Icft to him in his will the ms. of his
Social Organization. After returning to India Chattopadhyay
icctured on anthropology in the Univcrsity of C.i.lcutta for a
time, but when the Congrcss capturcd the Calcutta Corporation
he was appointed, through the influencc of C. R. Das and Subhr
lias
155
Nos. 193, 194
MAN
OCTOBEU, 7963
Chandra Bosc, to bc its chicf caucation ofticcr. Towards die ciu
of thc diirtics hc rcturncd to die Univcrsity as Professor, aiid Head
ofdie Department ofAiidiropology, a post wliidi lie lield tili Ins
retirement last March, after wliich he went on working tor tlie
hidian government's Council on Scientific and Indiistrial Research.
Apart from his acadeniic work he was always active in pro-
moting the welfarc of his fellovv nien. As a Student in England
hc had workcd among seamen in the East End of London; in
hidia thc free primarv education system in Calcutta was largely
his work; as Treasurer of the People's Relief Comniittee, faniine
relicf and rehabilitation work in the rural areas ot Bengal owed
much to him, and during the comnninal riots of 1946 he organized
a 'Peace Corps' to restore order.
He was a Fellow o\ the National Institute oi Sciences oi india,
an Honorarv Fellow of the Sanskrit College and a meniber ot
th- Ecole Fran^aise d'Extrenie-Orient; he had been president of
the Arclia-c^loi;ical and Anthropc^logical Section ot the Indian
Science Congress, oi the All liulia Education C:oiilereiice and of
the andiropological section of the All india Sociological Associa-
tion He was a Vice-l^resideiit of thc International Congress of
Anthropologv, and a meniber of scveral governing bodies and a
Irustee of the Vidvasagar Institute, being a descendant of l>andit
Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar as well as of Raja Rani Mohan Roy,
whose nanie is more familiär in this country.
He sat for a tinie as an independent member of the West
lieiigal State Legislature, and being a man with the courage of
his convictions he suhfered imprisonmeiit more than once during
the civil disobedience movement in die thirties.
His death is a serious loss to India and to aiithropology.
J. H. HUTTON
SHORTER NOTES
A Terra-Cotta Head in the Ife Style from Ikirun, Western
Nigeria. By P. A. Allisoii, Dcpürtment of Antiquitics,
IQ-^- Ni<^criih IVith fii'c tcxt ßi^un's
■^ burini> thc carlv vears of die Century, die British
Museum acquired a plaster cast ot a terra-cotta head ni the Ite
style wliich was published by Sir Hercules Read in 1910 as a
refutatioii of claiiiis bv Leo Frobenius to be the first discoverer of
thc art of Ife.' Frobcnius's Gernian Inner Atrican Expedition ot
T910-12 reported and acquired a number ot lieads and tragnients
of tcrra-cotta figures from Ifc- and since tliat timc inany more
cxamples of this naturalistic style of sculpture liave coiiie to light,
cithcr in liithcrto unreported shrincs or as a result ot excavations
such as diosc at Ita Yenioo in 1957 wherc tragnients ot at least
sevcn figures of about two-thirds life sizc were discovcred.3
So far all thc cxamples of tliis particular style have been reported
from the vicinity of Ifc itself, but in October, 196], I photo-
graphed thc head illustrated in figs. i and 2 at the Yoruba town
of Ikirun, somc 30 miles north ot Ifc.
Thc total height of the head is 15 inclics, of which 6^ inches
comprisc thc clongatcd neck wliich is scorcd around with six
inciscd lincs; a siiiall, pointcd, bib-like proccss is indicated on
die neck bclow the cliin. Thc face is covcrcd with parallel inciscd
striations. Thc wholc head is liollow with an aperture running
through from the base of thc neck to thc top ot thc head, which
is surroundcd by a brimmed licaddrcss. The aural aperturcs are
pierced through to thc hollow intcrior.
An claborate tasselled ornament is suspendcd troni the headgear
by two cords, which converge to a point below the right car
wherc tlicrc arc tour circular bosses; bclow diis die three-tiered
ornaiiicnt is moulded down thc right side o{ thc clongatcd neck.
Thc siiiall objects suspendcd from the ornament niay represent
bclls. The inciscd rings round thc neck niay be intendcd to
represent thc crcascs to bc sccn round the neck of a healthy
full-bodied pcrson, which arc much admired, as a sign of physical
wellbcing, particularly in womcn, in West Atrica today.
Thc facial striations, the aperture at thc top of thc head and
thc rings round the neck arc all teatures appearing frcquently in
thc Ifc bronzcs and terra-cottas but the clongatcd neck and thc
tasselled ornament arc unusual.
Thc rcar and lett-hand side ot thc brimmed licaddrcss are
slightly damaged but the tcrra-cotta is otherwise in a good statc
of prcscrvation and appears to have been modellcd as a head and
not to bc a fragment broken troiii a wholc figure. Thc wholc is
covcrcd widi a shiny, purplish patina, prcsumably thc result of
rcpcatcd anointing with blood and oil.
The head is sacred to thc cidt of Irunmalc, which secnis to be
peculiar to the town of Ikirun, akhough dicrc is a class of Yi^rub.i
cardi spirits referred to generali y as hwwiale or IinonIcA Thc head
is displaycd on thc Irunmalc shrinc only at thc aiinual festival in
Dcccmbcr or at tiiiies wlicn thc town is in necd ot cspccial
156
Fig. 1. TERRA-COTTA HEAD AT IKIRUN
Plwto\iriipli : P. A. Allison, 1961
OCTÜBER, 1963
MAN
No. 194
protection from war, pestilence or orlier disasters; odicrwise it is
kept by thc Olu Awo Onishegun, the priest of thc cidt, together
with die other cult objects mentioncd bclow.
Fig. 2. FURTHER VIEWS Ol THE IKIRUN TERRA-COTTA
Photo^raph : J. Picton
These ccMisist of six carvcd stone figures (which arc sliown
in figs. 3-5) which are considercd to bc inferior in importance
to tlie tcrra-cotta. They arc carvcd in soft stone, probably steatite,
and represent: a Standing woiiian fiftcen inches high; a knccling
woman fourteen inches' high; a scated woman fourtcen inches
high with a child on her 'back and another in her arms (from
which the head is broken otf ) ; two kneeling womcn cach 7^ inches
high and a plaque, fourteen inches by ten inches, carvcd widi a
crudc male figurc in low relicf All thesc objects are of rclativcly
crude execution in a stvle similar to recent Yoruba wood-carving.
Fig. 3. louR stone figures at ikirun
Photoiiniph: P. A. AUison, 1961
Thc Olu Awo could not give mc aiiy information as to thc
origin of any of these objects. Historically, Ikirun is connected
with Oyo and Ibadan ratlicr than with Ifc and, durnig die latter
half of thc ninctccnth Century, scrvcd as a war camp from which
thc Baloguns of Ibadan carricd out raids castwards iiitc^ Ekiti
and Ilcsha and opposcd thc incursions of the Iloniis from thc
north. ^ , . ^1
A few ycars ago, a fragment of a tcrra-cotta head was reported
from Ire, about thrcc milcs north-east of Ikirun, which is con-
sidercd to have stylistic at^initics with thc art of both Itc and
Nok.^ This head also sliows a pointcd 'bib' bclow thc cUin
similar to that noted 011 thc Ikirun tcrra-cotta.
Fig. 4. TWO stone figures at ikirun
One (//X'/zO ''/>" ^UW'T'-' '".^A'- 3- Photoi^raph: P. A. Allison, i^^n
Fig. 5. stone plaque at ikirun
Plioh\{:riiph: P. A. All hon, 1961
Notes
■ Frank Willctt, 'Ifc and its Arch;vology,' J. Aß. Hist., Vol. I,
No. 2 (i960). The original camc to light a few ycars ago, and is
now in a New York private coUcctioii (scc E. Elisofon and W. B.
Fagg, The Scnlpture ofAßica, 1958, fig. 4)-
2 Leo Frobenius, the Voke oß Africa, London, 1913.
i Willctt, op. cit.
4 R. C. Abraham, Dictionary oß Modern Yoriiha, London, 1958,
S.l'.
^ B. E. B. Fagg, *The Nok Culturc in Prchistory,' J. Hist. Soc.
N/.ucrkJ, Vol. I. No 4 (i959).
T57
No. 195
195
Some Kaguru Riddles. By Dr. T. O. Bcidclman, Harvard
University
In prcvious articlcs publishcd clsewhcrc ' I prcscnt
tcxts in Chikaguru, thc languagc spokcn by thc
Kaguru of Kilosa and Mpwapwa Districts of cast central Tangan-
yika. These texts appear to be the only publishcd cxamplcs of
this languagc. hi view of the comparativcly small amount of
matcrial publishcd on Bantu languagcs of Tanganyika and, in
particular, on thosc of thc matrilineal peoples of castern Tangan-
yika, I hopc to continuc publication o{ further texts in thc
Kaguru languagc. These niay be of some usc to linguists and to
those intcrestcd in the socioloev of thc Bantu of East Africa;
they may also aftord some plcasurc and entcrtainment in their
own right as cxamplcs of East African traditional literaturc.
The prcscnt texts illustrate a far diffcrent aspcct of Kaguru
literaturc from that of thosc previously publishcd, even though
all of these arc merely ternied siino, story, by the Kaguru. Most
of thc prcvious tcxts arc tales or fablcs illustrating certain values
held in Kaguru society. Thc prcscnt texts arc riddles which
teach no nioral, but which arc intendcd solely to amuse and to
demonstrate the superior wit of thc person setting thc problenis.
Riddles may be posed by any Kaguru, but they tend to be
espccially populär among young pcople. The most connnon
occasions for riddlc-tclling arc the gatherings of adolcscents at
night when boys and girls often competc against one another in
demonstrating thc superior mtclligcncc of thcir respective sexes.
In this articlc I have followed the same procedure which I used
in presenting other Kaguru tcxts. I prcscnt thc riddle first in
English and then in Chikaguru with a litcral English translation.
I then do thc same with thc riddle's answer. I provide supplc-
mentary information in focnnotcs. Further sociological informa-
tion on thc Kaguru is publishcd clsewhcrc. 2
1. I am grccted by thc dead while the living rcmain silcnt
(Nilamusi^wa na woßlc aiinmii waiii uyatualila, I am grccted by dcad
hving arc silcnt). A. ]:)ricd pigcon-pcas (Sinihanirc sinyalilc, pieeon-
peas dricd (sc. not silcnt, rattling)).
2. I hcrd my cow by its tail {Nina n^y'onihc yan(;n nidima^a umukila
I havc cow my I hcrd by tail). A. Yams and potatocs {Dilomho na
inandolo, yams and potatocs).
3-1 have childrcn all of onc agc {Nina wana^yn wamulioano I
have my childrcn arc of onc agc). A. Black ants (or) mkomba trccs3
{Masalasa, black ants; niakoniha, mkomba trccs).
4. I havc cut sugar canc with only thc top and bottom parts
swcct {Nhcma mn(;iwa wan^u kwisina wamiililc hwisohwa, I have cut
sugar canc my at bottom swcct at top). A. Thc sun4 {Dijuwa thc
sun). -^
5. Dig at thc top! Dig at thc bottom! {Kulan^^c nya^cmhc hau
nya^^cmhc, upward with hoc downward with hoc). A. Thc ditnoa
vinc^ {Ditn^a, thc ditu<;ia vinc).
6. I stood on thc mountain and rccognizcd by fathcr's cow
{Nnna kwitnnda nhan^^a ini^'omhc ya haha, I stood on mountain I
rccognizcd thc cow of fathcr). A. Ashcs in a rcfusc hcap'- (Difn
wastc ashcs). r v ./ .
7. Stccp until thc coast {Cha hata mhwani, stccp until coast)
A. Thc way, thc path {Njila, path).
8 I cat and am satisficd and then I play with grandmothcr
[Ndiya ni^nta sn^^ih' mama, I cat satisficd play grandmothcr) A A
bcd7 {Disasi, bcd).
9. Thc mousc's child atc and slcpt on thc trip {Mwana mhchi
kadiya ka_(^ona mn mnlila, child mousc atc slcpt on animal track or
path). A. Thc tonguc^ {Dilimi, tonguc).
10. C:hinguhi passcd along thc hiil {Chin^rnhi kakola mwitonoo <>
a personal namc givcn to a short woman passcd alone thc hill)
A. A razor {uhmio, razor). "
11. I cultivatc a largc gardcn but harvcst littlc {NHima mnounda
nmkulu ntfiola mun^anja, I cultivatc gardcn largc I harvcst not niuch)
A. Hair (plural) {Sinywcli, hair).
12. I wcnt to my gardcn and killcd a Baraguyu with his skin
158
MAN OCTOBER, 1963
garmcnt'" {Nduta kwihh'' n<^homa miihiimha'^- na makopc (raku'e
I wcnt to rivcr-valley gardcn I killcd Baraguyu with skin garmcnt
his). A. A banana {Im^liowo, banana).
13. I cat husks cvcrywhcre I go {Ndia^^a mhumha lioiwsc honikuhtta
I cat husks cvcrywhcre I go). A. Laughter > ? {Luscko, laughtcr).
14. Thc mwiiio bird cried from night until dawn (A/j/z/^om
kalilila usiku kucha, munj^o bird cried night to dawn). A. A rooster
{Dijo^oh, rooster).
15. My grandmothcr's Walking stick was washed away by thc
rivcr {Pando dya mama dihita no huanda, Walking stick of grand-
mothcr wcnt with rivcr). A. Sweat {Dikwe,'^ sweat).
16. Thc small bird fought for thc mnkwanihc ^'' fruits, but it did
not eat any {Chide^c chikwda mukwamhc no mnkwamhc chisindiilc
small bird fought mnkwamhc fruits and mnkwamhc fruits it did not
eat). A. A hoc {Dii^cmhc, hoc).
17. Grandmothcr died and Icft a stench behind her {Mama kafa
kandckcla dihofn, grandmothcr died Icft behind stench). A. Beer '7
{Uj^imhi, millet beer).
18. We are everywhere {Chili hwee, we arc cvcrywhcre). A.
The Stars '"^ {Shiyclesi, stars).
19. My eider childrcn sit on thc ground while the younger oncs
sit on stools {Nina wanan^n awaknhi wckala hasi awadodo wckala
nmmaj^oda, I havc my childrcn cldcr they sit down younger oncs
they sit on stools). A. Calabash vinc"' (or) A type of cggplant
{Amayuni^n, calabash vines; Singoi>wc, cggplant vincs).
20. No matter what is dropped into it, it never fills up {Tnhwi
n^rliamcma, dropping into it it is not being fiUed up). A. A termitc
hill {Isn(^n}n, termitc hill).
21. You Step on my belly {Kandwata nninda, You step on me
bclly). A. The overhead granary within a house-" {Ikano, granary).
22. A Baraguyu stood 011 onc leg-' {Imnhnmha kcnia mniinhi
nmwc, Baraguyu stood leg one). A. A mushroom {Uyo<^a, nmsh-
room).
23. A Baraguyu feil down throwhig off his headdrcss" {Imn-
hnmha koi^wa kataj^a in^ah, Baraguyu feil down throwing off hcad-
drcss). A. A type of rat trap-? {Diliwa, type of rat trap).
24. At thc same timc that it is laying eggs, it bears childrcn {Akn
diknta^a, akn diknwan^nla, while it lays eggs while it bears offspring
(or childrcn)). A. Thc cucumbcr v'mc-^ {Ditan^^a, cucumbcr vine)\
25. Which things.are similar ? {Fana n^ilnifanc? similar when
(or which) similar). A. Honcy and oil (or) milk and thc juicc of
thc cuphorbia trcc-5 {nki na mafnta, honcy and oil; mck na nsnh,
milk and juicc of thc cuphorbia trec).
26. I bcat a drum and make Sagara tribcsmcn come {Nitowa
n^ omamnanf^a wasa^^^ala, I bcat drum I make come Sagara pcople).
A. l)cfaTation or thc latrinc-^' {Mntala, Dcfxcation (or fa.Tcs)).
, J-'^: ^^^ ^'O" of Mkata Piain ^ 7 is Walking about on four legs
{Simba sa mnkata si<;icndai^a ine ine. Hon of Mkata Piain is Walking
about four four). A. Thc legs of a bed^'^ {Matcn<^n, legs of a bcd).
28. Thc pcstlc-'» kecps bouncing as it strikes the stone {Dandala
iiandaUi mutwani^o wima mwiwc, bouncing bouncing pcstlc Standing
on stoiic). A. Thc mswaki plants^" {Masheyn, the mswaki plants).
29. Drop to the rivcr valley ! {Bnn kwihh ! Drop to the rivcr
Valley .)^A. A type of rat-trap ^^ {Diliwa, a type of rat trap).
30. Who never shows his footstcps ? {Nolwncka h'ayo? Never
Shows footstep). A. A fly {N^hosi, fly).
31. Make a hcadcloth for carrying a load! I make onc and carry
Makutwi rock^^ on my head {Sin^^a m^ata nani sin^a nf^ata chikcnnlih-
atwc Makntwi, make hcadcloth for carrying a load and I make
ncadcloth WC lift stone Makutwi rock). A. thc moon n {Dimwcsi,
thc moon).
32. I told him to go ahead, but he refused {Nimn^amha hn^ola,
i^^cina,l told him to go ahead, he refused). A. Thc back of thc head
{Un^osij;>osi, thc back of thc head).
33. My fathcr's cldcr brother bcat mc and Icft me crying; my
ratner s younger brother bcat mc and then made mc not cry {Baha
niK'nm kanhowa kandcka niknlila Baha mndodo kanhowa kaninyamasa,
ratner cldcr bcat mc Icft I am crying fathcr younger bcat me made
mc not cry). A. Thc specics of becs which do not produce honcy
aiid thc specics of becs which produce honcy 34 {dihndoh, bee
wnicn docs not produce honcy; njnki, bee which produccs honcy).
34. 1 wcnt to find thc mwcngcle plant 35 and could not scc it
OcTOBER, 1963
MAN
No. 195
<-
{Nigcnda nihai^Q^a nm>c)\gck no mcwn^ick sinn>cnc, I go I scck mwcni^ch'
plant and mwcngck plant I do not scc). A. Fa,*ces of a snakc {Mntala
WC dijoka, fa.Tes of snakc).
35. In the forest there is a tail trec on which no bird cver perches
{Knmnhnlo kwina ihiki itali disikngwa ndcj^c. In forest is trec tail it is
not rcsted upon bird). A. A spcar {Mn^^oha, spcar).
36. It flows and flows; it remains and rcmains {Kapilima kapilima
kahandama kahandama). A. The rivcr and thc sand in its bcd {Ltranda
no disanga, rivcr and sand).
37. In thc forest thcrc is a largc pot which says, 'Munycsi!
Munycsü' {Knmnhnlo kwina injnngn di(iand)ai^a Mnnycsil Mnnyesi!
In forest there is largc pot it says Munycsi Munycsi (a woman's
namc). A. White ants (termites) 3'' {Mnsnwa, white ants).
38. I havc a child which crics through thc soft spot on the top
of its head {Nhia nnrananj^n kililih{>a kwidosi, I havc my child it crics
soft Spot on the top of an infant's head). A. A hubbly-bubbly pipe
{diptindc, pipe).
39. My house is not opcn {Nynmba yrt/;ij// yachililija, house my
it is not opcn (its doors arc shut)). A. An egg {ditatii, egg).
40. I havc thrcc childrcn. If onc gcts tircd, thc othcr two cannot
work {Nina wanangn wadatii. Yiimofi(^a yat^hasoka aitwli nao n'asma
mulimo, I have my childrcn thrcc. Othcr if tircd two thcir they do
not havc work). A. Thc thrcc hearthstoncs of a Kaguru house 37
{Mafiga, hearth-stones) .
41. The mousc's childrcn arc pattcring on the ground {Wana
mhcln wasalalika, Childrcn mousc they make a pattcring sound).
A. Simsim 3>< {mnhcja, simsim).
42. Lct US pass around the hut to kill thc mousc {Chistuij^uhitc
chikomc chipnknmwikondc, Let us pass around lct us kill a type of
mousc). A. A serving of ngali porridgc39 {Isima yo ngali, serving of
ngali porridge).
Notes
^ T. ü. Bcidclman, 'Hyena and Rabbit: a Kaguru Representa-
tion of Matrilineal Rclations,' Africa, Vol. XXXI (i9^>i), PP- 61-74;
'Further Advcnturcs of Hyena and Rabbit: Thc Folktalc as a
Sociological Modcl,M/nV<j, Vol. XXXIII (1963), PP- 54-^9; 'Thrcc
Kaguru Tales,' Afrika und Uebersee, in press; 'Four Kaguru Tales,'
Tanganyika Notes and Records, in prcss; 'Thc Blood Covcnant and
thc Concept of Blood in Ukaguru,' Africa, forthconnng; ' A Kaguru
Version of thc Story of thc Sons of Noah : An Examplc of thc
Inculcation of the Idca of Racial Superiority,' Cahiers d'etudes
africaincs, in prcss.
^ Ibid. and T. O. Bcidclman, 'Kaguru Justice and thc Concept of
Legal Fictions,' >Mr/;rt/ of African Law, Vol. V (1961), pp- 5-2o;
' Right and Left Hand among thc Kaguru : A Note 011 Symbolic
Classification,' Africa, Vol. XXXI (1961), pp. 250-7; 'Withcraft 111
Ukaguru,' in Withcraft and Sorcery /// Hast Africa, cditcd by J.
Middlcton and E. Winter, London, 1963-
3 Thc offspring of black ants arc thought to hatch all at onc
timc. Thc mkomba trec {mbambakoß, Swahili; Af::elia qnanzensis)
bears fruit all of which is said to maturc at thc same timc.
4 Thc warmth of thc morning and evening sun is plcasant, but
the heat of thc midday sun is not.
5 Thc ditni^a vinc produccs cdiblc fruit and cdible roots, but thc
stem and leavcs havc 110 usc. I could not securc thc scientific namc
for this plant.
<• If onc Stands on a mountain top, onc can scc white objects
bclow quite distinctly, such as a white cow or thc ashcs from a dry
season grassfirc. In this riddle, thc whitencss refers to the ash hcaps
of villagcs. In thc past, when Kaguru had larger Settlements than
they havc today, these ash hcaps used to be quite conspicuous.
7 After a person cats, hc is tircd and lies down. Thc rcfercncc to
grandmothcr indicates bcd, sc. sexual intercoursc. Thcrc is a sexual
ioking relationship between persons of altcrnatc generations; onc
can slccp with and marry classificatory grandmothers not of onc's
own clan.
8 After onc cats, onc is silcnt, sc. slecps.
9 This is probably an allusion to thc fact that most Kaguru hills
and mountain tops are wooded.
10 This riddle clcarly expresscs thc great hostility bctwccu thc
Bantu Kaguru cultivators and thcir neighbours, the Nilo-Hamitic
Baraguyu pastoralists. For an account of the traditional hostility
between Kaguru and Baraguyu, scc T. O. Bcidclman, 'Becr-
Drinking and Cattlc-Thcft in Ukaguru: Intcrtribal Rclations in a
Tanganyika Chiefdom,' Amer. Anthrop., Vol. LXIII (1961), pp. 534-
549.
' ■ One of thc most frequent situations in which Baraguyu and
Kaguru fight is when Baraguyu lead thcir herds to water in the
rivcr Valleys whcre Kaguru have some of their best gardens which
are often tramplcd by Baraguyu livestock.
'2 Mnhnmba is an insulting word used by Kaguru to refer to
Baraguyu, scc T. O. Bcidclman, 'Thc Baraguyu,' Tanganyika Notes
and Records, Vol. LV (i960), footnote on p. 246. Baraguyu warriors
used to wear skin, shcath-like garments and thc term mnhnmba is
undoubtcdly hcrc a pun on mhnmba, husk, which here refers to the
pccl of a banana, the subjcct of this riddle.
'3 Laughtcr is somcthing external, like a husk, and it is, like
cating, performed by thc mouth.
14 I could not obtain thc scientific namc for this type of night
bird.
'5 A pcrson's sweat is washed away in the rivcr water hi which
onc bathcs. The rcfercncc to grandmothcr is made because of thc
jokhig relationship with such a person (scc riddle 8), hcrc an im-
polite rcfercncc to thc more unplcasant aspects of thc human body.
■(> I could not obtain thc scientific namc for this fruit-bearing
trec.
17 After one drinks beer, it is gonc, but thc smcU remains on
onc's breath. Again thc rcfercncc to grandmothcr in an impolite
and hostile tone involves thc joking relationship (scc riddles 8 and
15). A beer club is a place of jocular rclations and sexual liaisons.
Beer may only be made by women.
18 Pcrhaps this may also refer to quartz gravel (also callcd nyelesi)
which is found cvcrywhcre in Kaguruland.
19 These vincs creep along the ground. In their carly stages, their
fruits are held aloft but as they increase in size and weight, they lie
011 the ground.
-" In Order to take food out of such a granary, one must climb
up into it.
- 1 A rcfercncc to the celcbrated Nilotic staiicc which is character-
istic of Baraguyu warriors.
22 This refers to the ostrich-plumc headdress which was some-
times worn by a Baraguyu warrior in thc past. As in riddle 12, the
text expresscs intcrtribal hostility.
-3 This type of rat trap consists of a stone propped up by a stick.
When the stick is sprung, thc stone falls down 011 the rat. Some
Kaguru, espccially childrcn, still hunt wild rats to eat.
24 Both flowers and fruits may be found at thc same time on the
same cucumbcr vinc.
->' Honcy and oil arc both yellowish, viscous and semi-opaquc.
Milk and cuphorbia juicc arc both white, liquid and opaque.
-<• This obsccne riddle refers to the noises of defvcation. When
one uses thc latrinc, flies and other insects come out. Thc Sagara
arc a matrilineal Bantu pcople inhabiting the area bordering
Kaguruland on thc south. As thc riddle indicates, the Kaguru do
not hold thc Sagara in much respect.
-7 Thc Mkata Piain lies to thc cast of Kaguruland.
•^ I could not dctcrminc thc reason Kaguru considcr a bcd
similar to a lion.
-'» A wooden pcstlc used in pounding maize or millet.
^" Thcrc arc a number of plants which arc callcd mswaki in
Swahili, bccausc they are used for toothbrushes. Thcrc are sevcral
allusions involved in this riddle. A toothbrush bounces on the teeth
as a pcstlc bounces on a mortar. Thc tecth may be compared with
stoncs. Mswaki plants tend to grow in very rocky arcas.
3' See riddle 23.
32 Makntwi rock is a famous stone formation which is located
near Idibo in northern Kaguruland. It is said to be shaped like
makntwi, cars.
3 3 The riddle tries to convey the idca of somcthing of fantastic
weight. Thus, one might as easily carry Makutwi rock as the moon.
The riddle has diffcrent forms depending upon whcre it is told in
Kaguruland. I collccted the riddle in Idibo whcre the largest stone
159
Nos. 195, 196
formation is Makutwi rock. In other arcas, difFcrcnt stoiic forma-
tions arc mcntioncd.
34 Both typcs of bccs sting, but onc type compensatcs for this by
producing honcy.
3 5 This is a plant collcctcd for usc in various nicdicincs. (Fcrhaps
it is iiscd as a laxativc.) I could not tlnd thc scientific tcrm for this
plant, but it is said to havc Icavcs rcscmbling thosc of a yani and
to bc a trce-clinibing vinc.
B*" Tcrmitcs live in a grcat hill which niight bc coniparcd to a
largc pot; thcy arc said to makc a sound siniilar to thc nanic
'Munycsi.'
3 7 All thrcc hcarthstoncs arc rcquircd to providc a proper rcsting
place for a cooking pot.
38 This refers to thc sound of sinisini grains bcing shaken froni a
stalk.
39 Housc micc arc killcd in a hut by having persons stand inside
the hut, along thc sidcs of thc circular hut's walls, and then driving
thc niicc out froni thc walls and towards thc hut centrc. Pcople sit
around a serving of tiiiali porridge and take their portions from thc
cdgcs, cating towards thc centrc of thc serving.
* Negative Wishing' among the Slavs and Western Peoples.*
By Pierre A. Radwanshi, Professor of Aiithropolo^iy and
I ^K\ Slavouic Ethnolo^iY at the University of Montreal
In comparing thc lifc of civilizcd and of primitive
man wc find that thc chicf diffcrenccs arc conccrncd with magic.
Civilizcd man, living in a world in which most things can bc
rationally cxplaincd, has largcly climinatcd magical clcmcnts
from his lifc. Magical bclicfs and practiccs hc in gcncral rcgards
as supcrstitions and, vcry oftcn, is ashamcd of thcm.
In spitc of thc cxtcnt of this climination of thc magical clcmcnts
from lifc, thcrc is onc ficld of magic which has rcmaincd quitc
untouchcd, that of wishing. Onc can say without fear of cxaggcr-
ation that this ficld has bccn cntircly conscrvcd by civilizcd man.
Dcspitc his rationalism, man bclicvcs, somctimcs profoundly, in
thc forcc and power of wishing, that is, in thc words of thc wishes
Coming true. Wishes arc nevcr considcred to bc supcrstitions.
Thcy arc somctimcs cven obligatory, for instance on New Year's
Day and similar occasions. Everyday grectings such as 'Good
morning,' 'Good evcning' or 'Good night' arc actually wishes.
Civilizcd man, as well as primitive man, thus attachcs importance
to thc magical value of words. Likcwisc, both fear the unknown.
Whilc ncarly everyonc likcs good wishes, thcrc arc occasions on
which some pcople dislikc thcm. For example a racing driver or
a pilot may dislikc such wishes as 'Havc a good trip.'*^ Similarlv,
some hunters do not likc to bc wishcd 'Good hunting.' A. S.
Rappoport' writes: 'The fishcrman is firmly convinccd that if
someone speaks to him or cven wishes him good luck, hc is
sure not to catch any fish. In Portcssic fishcrmcn cven wcnt so far
as to beat the cnquirer and to "draw blood," so as to turn thc
ill-luck.'
In Order to find an cxplanation, wc must first take into con-
sideration thc universal dement which is rootcd decply in the
tradition of all pcoplcs, namely thc belief that caution must be
exercised in saying certain words, as thc attention of evil spirits
may bc attracted. Above all, it is forbidden among some tribes
to speak onc's own name. Some members of priniitivc socictics
actually havc two names, onc for oBkial usc, thc other (thc real
name) kept secret and known only to thc immediate family.
Thc purposc of this is protection against cvil spirits, who arc
trickcd through ignorancc of thc identity of thc owner of the
real namc(J. G. Frazer,^ G. L. Gommc,3 m'. Mauss,4 A. Mctraux^).
Among other tribes onc must also avoid speaking the namcs of
* Presenfcd to thc Amiual Mcct\n<^ of thc Canadian Association of
Slavists, 13 June, 1961
MAN OCTOBER, 1963
ancestors, as thcy might comc back and take rcvcnge. According
to populär Slavic (espccially Polish) bclicfs, onc has to keep
secret until the day of baptism thc forcnamc choscn for a new-
born baby so that bad spirits, ignorant of it, may bc unable to
härm him (J. St. Bystroii^). In thc linguistic ficld, thc gcncral
problcm of forbidden words is discusscd by A. Mcillct. 7 In the
purcly Slavonic ficld wc owc a vcry dctailcd piccc of rcscarch to
1). Zclenin.^
From a psychological Standpoint, certain abstcntions in spcccli
somctimcs stein not only from a fear of cvil spirits, but also from
simple caution ; for it is better not to aroils^lfc intcrest of some
spirits or divinitics — Quieta non movere. Divinitics and spirits arc
somctimcs capricious: some of thcm do good, but thcy can act
badly too. In view of their capriccs, it is somctimcs better to
avoid their attention. For instance, wishing somconc 'Good luck'
mav havc the oppositc cffcct, by arousing thc attention o{ a
divinity whilc momentarily in a bad mood, For this reason, thc
Polish mountain dwellcrs from Tatra, Goralc, somctimcs do not
answer when askcd about their childrcn, as thcy do not likc to
arousc the attention of thc spirits.
In thc magic of modern pcoplcs, espccially among thc Slajf«,
thcrc arc cven some practiccs aimed at countcracting spirifs or
demons. For instance, among the Poles of any social class, when
speaking about personal or fainily good hcalth, onc knocks on a
wooden objcct (which according to thc magical rulcs must bc
unpainted), or simply says 'to knock' [odpukac), in ordcr to
ncutralizc thc dangcrous forccs. Again, in abstaining from saying
certain words, onc may bc influenced by a fear of charms or
spells which may bc cast by other persons. The populär bclicf in
charms is universal. Wc find it in abundancc among thc cxotic
pcoplcs as well as among thc Slavic, Latin, Tcutonic and other
civilizcd pcoplcs. In populär bclicf, almost cvery negative cvent,
and above all sickncss, is associated with charms. Somctimcs thcy
arc duc to somcbody's look, 'a bad look' ('niaUoccio' of the
Italians, 'jettatore' of the Spaniards, ' zaziory' of the Poles). Somc-
timcs thev rcsult from somconc's bad intcntions; onc fears bad
wishes, belicving that thcy can bring bad luck. Thcy can resuit
also from somconc's cvil powers provoking misfortune (|.
Mellot9), At thc same time, bclicf in charms suggests discretion
in social lifc: keeping secret all that is of vital importance to thc
individual, such as his projects, plans and actions, so that 110 onc
will bc ablc to cast charms on thcm,
Poles of all social classcs in speaking about personal or family
good hcalth gcncrally add thc words 'Na psa iwokj 'May thc
charm fall on the dog,' that is 'not on nie.' This expression is so
decply rootcd in thc everyday languagc ofjJip Poles that, ignoring
its magical significance, onc can considcr-it an inscparablc clcmcnt
of the Polish languagc. — ^
According to R. H. Robbins,i*» 'Protection against thc
malicious charms and harmful amulets of witchcs could bc
secured by counter charms.' Among thc Slavic pcoplcs, espccially
the Poles, a red ribbon is somctimcs attachcd to thc neck of a
ncw-born baby in ordcr to protcct it against charms. According
to Bulgarian peasants, thcrc arc brilliantly colourcd flowers
which turn away a 'bad look.''' Thcrc arc also magical practiccs
which aim at ncutralizing charms or thc diseases causcd by thcm
(J. Manninen, '2 J. Zacharievn).
Thcrc is also a sociological clcmcnt in thc bclicf in charms.
Pcople gcncrally havc some idea of their ncighbours' thoughts,
and know vcry >yjdLtliat their expressed wishes arc not always
frank owing to^jcalousv; or(cnvyj thus onc can wish a person
good orally, at thc same timr wrshing him cvil mentally. This is^
clcverly expressed irPT^popular Polish anccdote: two Jcwishjl
pcople, afier bcing angry at cach other all ycar, madc up on thcA
Day of Atoncmcnt, in accordance with thc principlcs of thcir|
OCTOBER, 1963
MAN
No. 196
rcligion. One said to thc other, *I wish you whatevcr you arc
mvvishing me.' Thc sccond becamc angry and yellcd, ' You arc
/ 1 Hfstarting it again.' Thus, man usually does not havc much confi-
dcncc in thc wishes of othcrs.
Thc facts so far presentcd constitute an cthnological parallelism,
bcing vcry casily cxplicablc by thc common psychological
clcmcnts of human nature, manifesting themsclves in populär
traditions. Ncvcrthcless thcrc arc clcmcnts in the ficld of wishes
which suggest cthnical specificity. This scems to bc linkcd with
'negative wishing.' Onc wishes a person aloud the oppositc of
what onc rcally wishes him. Before an examination, Polish
students usually wish cach other: 'Break your neck!' or 'Break
your jaw ! ' or 'Break your arms and Icgs ! ' (Zlani kark, zlani pysk,
ziam recc i tio<^i). Onc also hcars the same wishes on other occasions
of vital importance. Wc find the same among the other Slavic
groups likc the Czechs ('Break your neck,' ' zhmi vdz!'). Among
thc Russians onc finds in similar situations the expression, 'May
you havc ncithcr fcather nor down ! ' (M puha, ni pera!). According
to Professor R. Pletnev'4 this is a vcry archaic expression, applied
originally only to hunting, and then extendcd to apply to all
situations in lifc. Similar wishes can somctimcs also bc found in
thc Western countrics as in Germany {'Hals und Bein bruch!,'
Break your neck and Icgs), or in England ('Break your neck!').
Thc psychological motive behind this kind of expression is to
producc the oppositc resuit, that is fulfilmcnt of the true wishes
of good luck. Their aim is to trick the *cvil spirits' which makc
cvcrything turn out to thc contrary.
All sorts of 'negative wishes,' found among the Western
pcoplcs, scem to bc duc only to Slavic influencc, since it is in
populär bclicfs of the Slavic pcoplcs that the dement related to
thc tricking of divinitics or spirits is most strongly rcprescntcd.
Wc do not find it to such a degree in Western populär bclicfs.
In Grcat Russia, peasants suffering from fever change their
clothcs and paint their faces black ; guests at a wcdding somctimcs
do the same thing. On New Year's Eve Russian girls, going to
hcar fortunc-tclling, makc masks out of dough and put thcm on
their faces to cheat the spirits (K. Moszynskiv=^).
Many magic practiccs connected with thc tricking of die
spirits arc conccrncd with the time of birth, since in Slavic
populär bclicfs demons arc then most active. Thcy can kill,
devour, kidiiap or exchange thc child. An cxchange is particularly
feared. If the ncw-born baby is crippled or sick, this is said to bc
duc to demons which stolc the child and left their own child in
its place. Oftcn this is attributed espccially to aquatic demons. In
Bulgaria it is bclicved that the spirits visit thc child 011 the third
day afier birth to determinc its fatc. Therefore, thc period
between birth and baptism is espccially important, calling for
sevcral vcry intense magical effc^rts to ncutralizc the spirits. Such
magical practiccs arc thus found among all Slav groups, Eastern,
Western and Southern.
Among thc Eastern Slavs (K. Moszyiiski'^) whcrc prcvious
childrcn m a family havc died, certain fictitious transactions arc
madc, such as a pretence of selling thc ncw-born baby to a relative,
a fricnd or any passerby (this is supposed to bc most effective).
Sonictimes in Grcat Russia thc child is given to a beggar instead
of alins; later, the child is taken back and the beggar is given
ordinary alnis. Thc peasant wonicn of Western Ruthenia put thc
child's clothcs on a rolling pin and place it beside the mother, and
thc child is transferred to another place. Among thc Kashubes
the coiifincd woman wcars nicn's clothing to trick the evil spirits.
In Bulgaria thc child in thc same Situation is transferred to a
friend's honic and a tadpole is placcd in the child's clothing
instead of the child. Another Bulgarian method of tricking
demons is to give thc childrcn special forenames likc 'Znajda,'
'Najden,' 'Najda,' which mcan 'Found.' Sometime a child is left
ncar a road. The first person to pass (knowing this custom) takes
the child to his liome and gives him back to thc parcnts latcr
(D. Marinov'7).
Among the Southern Slavs childrcn are oftcn given thc forc-
namc ' Vuk' (Wolf) to protcct thcm against witchcs, which would
not bc bold enough to attack a 'wolf In thc Balkans (Bulgaria,
Serbia, Montenegro, Herzegovina), according to F. Krauss,'^
thcrc is a custom that when a boy is born into a family, thc oldcst
woman of thc family runs in front of the house and shouts in
ordcr to ncutralizc the demons : * News for all and hcalth for thc
child. The she-wolf gave birth to the wolf!'
Whilc thc tricking of demons is found evcrywhcre in thc
Slavic countrics, comparative study shows that it is not cxclu-
sivcly Slavic. It is also found among some non-Slavic pcoplcs of
Asia (Caucasia, among thc Yakuts) and Europe (Finland). Among
the Yakuts (E. Pickarski and N. Popov,i9) if a prcvious child in a
fainily has died, onc makes an agreement with friends to steal thc
ncw-born baby. Immediatcly aftcr thc birth, when thc mother falls
aslccp, the grandmother gives thc child to thc friends and puts
beside the mother a puppy or a sniall cat wrapped in rags. Somc-
timcs the child stays away from honic until he is sevcn ycars of
agc and somctimcs thc parcnts do not cven know whcrc he is.
Wc may concludc that 'negative wishes,' derived from custonis
of tricking divinitics or demons, are a Slavic pcculiarity, since
WC do not find thcm in that form in Asia (which is charactcrizcd
rather by ' Superlative wishes'). 'Oppositc mcanings' contained
in some Asiatic expressions, may arisc from thc same psycho-
logical reason as 'negative wishes,' but thcy concern not so much
thc wishes as thc State of possession. For this reason a Chinese
millionairc may, in speaking about himsclf, say that hc is a vcry
poor man, not so much from modesty as from fear of cvil spirits.
As for thc Finns, who share many bclicfs with Slavic pcoplcs,
thcy do not scem to be the creators of 'negative wishes.' According
to Stith Thomson and J. Balys,2'> thc Finns havc bccn most
influenced in their bclicfs and supcrstitions by other Europeans,
and above all, according toj. Jakobson,-' by thc Slavs.
The Slavs thus scem to havc bccn the originators of 'negative
wishing'; thc Germans, as dieir nearest ncighbours, may havc
bccn thc intermcdiarics who intrt^duccd it to thc Western world.
This conclusion is confirmed by comparative analysis of cthno-
logical traits such as thc vampire concept (A. Taylor-).
Notes
I A. S. Rappoport, Supcrstitions of Sailors, London, 1928, p. 256.
- J. G. Frazer, The Golden Boui^h, London, I954-
3 G. L. Gomnie, The Handhook of Folklore, London, 1890.
4 M. Mauss, Manuel d'ethno^raphie, Paris, 1947.
=: A. Metraux, South American Indian Folklore, in Funk t\ Wag-
nall's Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythohiiy and Le^^ends, New
York, 1950, p. 1057.
*^ J. St. Bystroii, Enu\{iraßa Polski, Warszawa, 1947.
7 A. Mcillct, Quelques iiypothcses sur les interdictions de vocahulaire
dans les lani>ues indo-europeennes, Chartrcs, 1906.
^ D. Zelcnin, Tabu Slor, Shornik Muzeja Anthrop. i Etnof^r.,
Vols. VIII, IX, 1929, 1930.
9 J. Mellot, La superstition ersatz de foi, Paris, 1959, p. 47.
'" R. H. Robbins, Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Denionology,
New York, 1959, p. 87.
" Izpcstija na NarodnijaEtm\^rafski Muzej w Sofija, Vol. XI (1921). '
I- I. Manninen, Die dämonische Krankheiten imßnnischen Volksaber-
^lauhen, 1922.
'3 J. Zachariev, Kjustendilso Krajscc, Sofija, 191 8.
'4 R. Plctncv, Oral information.
15 K. Moszynski, Kultura Ludowa Slowian, Krakow, 1934.
''' Ibidem.
17 D. Marinov, Narodna vera i reli(iiozni uarodni obicai, Sofija, 1914.
^8 Fr. Krauss, Volksglaube u. religiöser Brauch der Südslauen, 1900.
160
161
Nos. 196-199
MAN
OCTOBER, 1963
19 E. Pickarski and N. Popov, quotcd in K. Moszynski, Ktiltma
Ludowa Slon'ian, Krakow, i934-
^-" Stith Thomson and J. Balys, Finuish Folklore, m Funk &
Wagnall's Standard Dktionary, 1950, p. 387.
2« R. Jakobson, Slavk Folklore, in Funk ^ Wagnall's Staudard
Dutionary, 1950, p. 1019.
22 A. Taylor, Gmiiaiiic Folklore, in Funk & Wagnall's Standard
Dictionary, 1950, p. 445.
The Third Edinburgh Conference on Minoan and Mycen-
sean Writing, 13-14 June, 1963. Conuminicatcd hy
107 IV. C. Brice, Manchester University
This mccting, arrangcd by thc Department o^
Grcck at thc University of Edinburgh, survcyed a wider ränge
of topics than its precursors. Now that the basic principles o^
Minoan writing are becominq clearer, notablv in the recurrence ot
certain combinations of signs, sometimes written separaten- and
sometimes in ligature, it seemed that a useful further step would
bc to study the significance o^ thesc features when they occur in
other Scripts. Dr. fe. A. E. Reymond therefore presented a survey
of the earliest Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions, from Abydos,
Sakkara and Hierakonpolis. They contain a strong ideographic
element, and often display a rigid formulaic arrangement, with
repetition and inversion oi signs, which is reminiscent of certain
Minoan texts. Dr. J. Eric S. Thompson gave a lucid analysis of
the naturc of Mayan writing. Though there was of course no
question of any historical link between the two cultures, Dr.
Thompson's demonstration of the wide ränge of expression
possible in a script which was basically ideographic, cspecially
by the varied use of ligatured combinations or 'Compounds,
threw much fresh light on the question o'i how the Minoan
Scripts may liavc opcrated. The Mayan signary was perhaps four
times as large as that of the Minoan linear Scripts, but at the same
time the ränge of topics which it was uscd to express may have
been much wider.
There were also three papers on Minoan topics. Dr. Jane E.
Henle gave reasons why she considered that no simple systcm of
open sVllabic signs, of the type proposed by Ventris, could bc
accepted in any' deciphermcnt of Linear B into Greek. She was
inclined on archcxological grounds to accept the language of this
Script as Greek, but argued that a proportion ot the signs at least
must have expressed closed syllables. Professor A. J. Beattie listed
a number of 'inflectional endings' in Linear B, of the type which
Dr. Kober collected in her studies of the nature of this writing.
He showed that the phenomenon now seems, through the dis-
co very of further texts since Dr. Kober's work was done, to bc
much more complex than she supposed, and certainly not cxplic-
able in terms as simple as those chosen by Ventris. Certain texts
of the Ta scrics involved an apparent use of claborate prefixes
and infixes as well as of suffixes, and in some cases at least an ideo-
graphic interpretation of individual signs might be preterable to a
phonetic interpretation. Mr. W. C. Brice dealt with the 'Libation
Formula,' well known on some six vesscls inscribed in linear
Script, and on two hieroglyphic seals, and already subjected to
fourteen differcnt interpretations, including five as the names of
goddesses. From a study of similar inscriptions and of artistic
evidence, he concluded that this group o^ signs appears to be an
ideographic formula rather than a word speit phonetically; and if
this Were so, there was a strong presumption that the remainder
of the linear inscriptions in which it occurred should be under-
stood in a like fashion.
Moslem Prayer Places. With a text ßf^ure
Sir, — During April of last year, I was passing by road
TQQ through thc arca north-wcst of Nok-Kondi in Balu-
^ -^^ chistan (f. 29 North, 62° East). Thc track is the onc
followcd by most vchiclcs travclling bctwccn Pakistan and Iran,
and has for a long time been uscd by thc nomads 011 their journcys.
Fig. I. MOSLEM prayer ilace in baluchistan
Photoj^raph: J. H. Chaplin, 1962
The land lies about 1,000 nictrcs abovc sca Icvcl, thc surfacc .„
stoiiy dcscrt, with low dry hills as a background. Thcrc is no Vege-
tation.
Thc purposc of this notc is to rccord thc prcscncc along thc road-
way of prayer places, mnsallä (fig. i). Their simple form is thc b
CORRESPONDENCE
of all Islamic architccture; this is thc fundamental unit that undcr-
lics thc splcndours of thc Umayyid Mosque of Damascus, thc
Sultan Ahmed of Istanbul, thc Shah of Isfahan. While other world
religions cvolve into complexity, and their basic activities rcquirc
buiidings of some size or pcoplc set apart, it has been thc strength of
Islam that thc basic unit of thc individual and his prayer place have
been retained. It is perhaps worth considering that stonc-surroundcd
Spaces found in archxological contexts may also indicatc places set
apart rather than rcsidcnccs.
London J- H. CHAPLIN
The Determinants of Differential Cross-Cousin Marriage.
Cf. Man, 1962, 47, i79, 238; 1963, 11, 87
TQQ Sir,— In his latcst comment on my theory of cross-
^^ ^ Cousin marriage, Dr. Leach puiports to disprove my
arguments by rcferencc to his K achin data. I do not understand his
logic since it is very clcar from his analysis that the Kachin do not
practicc any form of cross-cousin marriage. Dr. Leach maintains
that a Kachln may marry a girl junior to himself who is a nicmbcr
of a wifc-giving lincagc. From his description it appears that rhe
girl need have no particular gcncalogical rclationship to her husband.
hx. Leach cxplicitly statcs that since thcrc are a number of witc-
giving lincagcs thc girl will probably not belong to her husband s
mother's lincagc or cven to his mothcr's clan.
Now thc usual iiotion of cross-cousin marriage cntails that a
person marry a woman who is related to himself in onc or anothcr
of a limited number of ways. If, for cxamplc, matrilatcral cross-
cousin marriage is practiscd among patrilineal descent g^oups thcii
this mcans that a man will marry his MBD, or MBSD, or MBSbU
or MFBSD, or MFBSSD, etc. Marriage with thc MBD is rcgardcd
as truc cross-cousin marriage; marriage with any of thc rcmainmg
kin typcs as marriage with a classificatory cross-cousin.
If unilineal groups, not having any past rclationship, bcgan a
IS
asis
OcTOBER, T9<^3
MAN
Nos. T 99- 202
162
systcmatic cxchangc of women, of cithci thc symmetrical or the
asymmetrical variety, it is clcar that this would lead ovcr a short
period of time to a high incidence of marriage with truc or classifi-
catory cross-cousins. If thc groups were patrilineal, then mcn would
marry members of their mothers' lincagcs or morc inclusive descent
groups.
Among the Kachin, a wifc-giving group is apparently any group
from which anothcr group has taken a wifc. Thcrc sccms to bc no
necessity to take wives with rcgularity from any particular group.
This practicc will therefore not lead to cross-cousin marriage as
defined abovc. If my theory of cross-cousin marriage docs not
apply to the Kachin, it is simply because thc Kachin do not practise
cross-cousin marriage.
Although I have rcplied herein to Dr. Lcach's criticisms, this note
in 110 way endorses his practicc of dismissing thcorctical arguments
by reference to a siiiglc cthnographical source. In the final analysis
no theory can be a match for the awcsomc and far-ranging memorics
of individual ethnographers. ALLAN D. COULT
Department of Anthropoloiiy and Geofiraphy, University of California,
Davis, Calif.
Confusion Worse Confounded: Mrs. Seligman's Birthday. Cf.
Man, 1963, 112, 158
O (^(^ Thc Honorary Editor wrotc his note on Mrs. B. Z.
^^^^^ Scligman's birthday on the basis of information
supplicd to him that it would occur on 28 June. It would appear
that a well mcaning person who saw the page proof in the Insti-
tute's Office corrcctcd onc, but not thc other, of thc two references
to thc datc in thc notc, by informing the printers, but not thc Hon.
Editor, that 28 should bc changed^ to 26. Whcn thc June issuc
appcarcd, a sharp-cycd reader pointcd out to thc Hon. Editor the
discrepancy bctwccn thc two references to thc date, and he, still
rclying on thc original information and wrongly attributing the
discrepancy to a printcr's error, therefore inserted his 'correction'
in the August issuc. Whcn this in turn appcarcd, Mrs. Scligman
hcrsclf was kind enough to tclcphone him to say that her birthday
was indccd 011 26 June (thc day before thc Annual General Meeting
of thc Institute). Thc 'correction (1963, 15«) should therefore be
ignored, and thc Hon. Editor can only cxprcss his regrets to Mrs.
Scligman and oMicrs for his contribution to this sorry confusion
by not vcrifying his facts with thc only unimpeachable source.
REVIEWS
AMERICA
Ancient America: The Civilizations of the New World. By
H.-D. Disselhoff and S. Linne. Art of the World Series.
^/^T London {Methnen), 1961. Pp. 274, 60 plates, 148 text
^^^ ^ fi^s., 2 tahles. Price £2 ss.
The market for art books shows no signs of diminishing, and
they are even being imported. This cxamplc cmploys a somcwhat
unfamiliar method of production, since thc colourcd plates, most
of which are very good, are pasted looscly into blank spaces which
have been Icft for them in the text. They includc some littlc-knowii
objects which well deservcd illustrating, including a finc feather
shield and an impressive statue of thc Aztec god Xolotl, both now
in the Lindenmuseum, Stuttgart, and a very nice nuimmy mask
from Pachacamac, now in Berlin. On thc other hand, thc bowl
from Code, Panama, is neither particularly attractivc nor rcally
typical of thc style. In the list of plates and maps, thc publishcrs
have uncomprehendingly inserted topographical hcadings which
have produccd absurdides like listing Sacsahuaman and onc view
of Pisac under Border Provinces of thc Inca Empire, anothcr vicw
of Pisac under Ecuador, and a second view of Sacsahuaman under
the Lastern lowlands; wrong 011 all four counts! In addition to thc
plates, thcrc are numerous linc drawings in the text, many ot them
placcd in the margin. In general thesc convey a good Impression
but thcrc are some exceptions among thc serics illustrating Hart 1,
for instance fig. i which docs not give a good idca of a Folsom
Point even if it is after Covarrubias, and hg. 28, a palma ^omc,
c.e. figs. 41, 42 and 47, are copied, with duc ackiiovv cdgment,
from Vublished sourccs, but not too accuratcly. An O incc jaac
from thc British Museum, fig. 37, drawn from an Illustration
published by Krickebcrg, has at some point suftercd some quitc
astonishing modifications. In thc map of Colombia, ChibUia is
misplaccd- it IS cquivalcnt to Muisca which is corrcctly placcd near
Bogota. , 1 u 1 ;..
In a ficld unfamiliar to most of thc public to whom thc book is
addrcssed, it is incvitablc that the comnientary should be more ot
an archa>ological account than an artistic critique. Linnc s part
which covcTs Mexico and Central America, presented a greatcr
Problem to thc author than Dissclhot^'s, which covcrs thc Andcan
Lands, by reason of thc greater divcrsity ot thc known high eil urc
in thc former arca. I disagree with some points of detail, bu both
parts are adequate for thc purposc for which they ^^•■^' '"^^ ^^cd
and Dissclhotf 's account of Peru shows a particularly good g asp o
thc present State of arch.Tological knowlcdge, although I fi d it
surprising that he is givcn credit by his co-author tor »^^^ving es ab-
hshed the affinity bctwccn thc pottery of Tlatilco and that of
Chavin. As regards the arcas in South Ameria. outsidc Pc u, hc
seems to have missed the important work of Evans and Mcggcrs
163
on Marajo Island, although hc rcfcrs to their latcr work on thc Rio
Napo. The allocation of a separate chapter to San Agustln, giving
it equal prominence to that on Colombia whcre it belongs, is not
justificd. I find it cqually unjustifiable that Disselhoff, in his account
of archivological exploration (p. 141), givcs credit to German,
Pcruvian and French archcxologists for work in Peru, with no
mention of thc Americans whose contributions have been at least
as great as anyonc's, although references to them cannot but slip
out latcr in thc text. (Onc of thesc Germans is givcn credit for work
which hc did 30 ycars ago and is about to pubhsh!)
Some slips in translation could have been avoidcd by Consulting
someonc familiär with thc subjcct. ' Etflorcscencc ' may be strictly
correct for a period of flowering, but whcn uscd for what is called
'Florcsccnt' in some American publications, as it is many times, it
sounds rather chemical. 'Clay tilcs' is not a good cquivalcnt for
adobes (p. 161). Thc coastal Valleys of Peru were not inhabited by
many differcnt 'races' (p. 172). For 'roundcd' lines (p. 185) read
'curved.' Black wäre dccoratcd with 'polishcd finc-linc incision'
is what is called 'pattern-burnished,' or by American archcX^ologists
'linc lustrc,' and incision is not involved (p. 186). Thc translation
may perhaps also bc rcsponsible for the use of the word 'knotted'
in connexion with Preccramic textilcs (p. 148), when 'twincd' is
correct, and for a confusion on p. 185 whcre a resinous binder is
Said to bc uscd in painting bcforc firing instead of after. 'Cursory'
on p. 210 should bc 'cursivc' Finally a 'loin board' (caption to
flg. 67) sounds like a more uncomfortable garment than the well-
knowii but curious objcct illustratcd. G. H. S. BUSHNELL
Les Incas. By Alfred Metranx. Paris {Editions du Senil), 1962. Pp. 192
This is a small book presenting a complcte account
^ C^^ of thc most important dctails of Inca conquests, their
^^<J ^ State Organization, religion and culture at the time of
the Spanish Conquest. It includcs a chapter on Andcan prehistory,
showing how important features in tcchnology, art and govern-
ment were inherited by thc Incas. Anothcr discusses the local
Organization of Andcan peasant communities on which the Inca
State was superimposed. The book concludes with a brief survey
of thc pcoplcs of thc Empire after thc Conquest and their position
today in conthiuity with thc past and in thc grip of present change.
It is abundantly illustratcd with some striking photographs and has
appendcd a useful assessment of major sourccs as well as a guiding
chronology of events.
No new facts are incorporated, but thcrc is a mature consideration
of some of the wcll-known data and related problems which raises
thc book abovc that of a merc compendium. For example, Dr.
Nos. 202-205
MAN
OCTOBER, 1963
Metraux applies his extensive ethnological cxpcriencc of Aniazoiiian
tribcs to Andcaii historical and archxological, niatcrial with
intcrcsting and uscful rcsults. This has produccd a notable chaptcr
on Inca religion and also an intcresting account of contact bctwcen
forest Indians and how thcir trading and raiding for mctal goods
gavc rise to stories of a kingdoni of fabulous wealth. Such accounts
began the myth of E/ Dorado which lasted long aftcr thc conqucst
ofPcru. .- . r
Dr. Metraux considers the vexed problem of the Classification ot
the hica State and compares it to Dahomey, bureaucratic, totali-
tarian — an ancient civilization without writing.
The careful assessnient of well chosen material, the application
of ethnological experience, the simple, direct and elegant style of
writing make this a niost uscful book for students and for all who
wish to possess a reliable and readable account of the Incas.
AUDREY J. BUTT
Maya Archseologist. ByJ. Eric S. Thompson. London {Haie), i(X)3-
Pp. 208, 16 phitcs. Pricc onc <^uinca
O (^"^ This lighthearted account of 35 years' work in the
^^^^ ficld of Maya research is intended for the ordinary
reader. Those who look for hair-raising adventures with wild
aniinals and still wilder men in any book about the lesser knowii
parts of America will be disappointed. There are no wild animals
larger than ticks to be vanquished: the Jaguar, spotted in the distance,
always has disappeared before the writer can reach the place where
it was seen. The men, the Maya, are offen intelligent and hard
workers and we are introduced to two of them who became
valued friends of the author.
Of particular interest are the brief sketches of archa?ologists at
work in the same field. Sylvanus Morley, known to all Maya
students by his books, but rather a hazy figure, suddenly becomes
a real person, and how different from the preconceived idea !
The most important feature of the book is the description ot
travel in Yucatan, the Peten and British Honduras under conditions
not so very different from those described by Stephens in 1S41.
Villages had little contact with towns; travel was often by mule or
011 foot and, on the rivers, by canoe. These conditions are rapidly
changing: heavy lorries with equipment for oil wells are pene-
trating the forests of the Peten; air Strips are cut out of the forest
and journeys that used to take many days are now accomplished in
a few hours; and in reniote villages the juke box has arrived. Still
unchanged, however, are the ticks, the red bugs and the fleas,
which though mentioned frequently are not stressed as the trials
and discomforts that they undoubtedly are.
The reader who is not well acquainted with the work of archivo-
logists in this area will find much that is ditficult to follow. The
reading of glyphs and the correlation of the Maya calendar with
our own are discussed, but, in a book of this kind, written quite
briefly and for those with little previous acquaintance with the
subject, the enormous contribution made by the author to our
knowledge on these matters will not be appreciated.
There are a few errors in the printing: on p. 27, Chichen Itza is
translated as 'the month of the well of the Itza' and this may cause
confusion in the mind of the reader who will meet many references
to months but 110 other to the mouth. Also the references to plate
numbcrs in the text are not all correct. G. A. BATEMAN
Prehistoric Rock Art of Nevada and Eastern California. By
Robert F. Heizer and Martin A. Baiunlioff. Berkeley and
O (^ A Los Ansieks (L7. Calif. P.) {London: C.U.P.), 1962.
^^^ ^ Pp. 412, 2.\p\ates, 201 textßgs., 15 tables. Price £3 4s.
This large volume presents the results of an extensive survey and
a stylistic analysis of the rock art in the western part of the Great
Basin of North America. All known petroglyph and pictograph
sites in this area are systematically tabulated and described, and the
Clements at each site are fully illustrated by photographs or drawings
made from photographs. This corpus of materials was classified
into 58 design Clements according to an intuitively derived typo-
logy; thc authors wisely did not become involved in attempts to
Interpret the numerous non-representational symbols. The geo-
graphical distribution of each of the design Clements is shown 011 a
series of maps. A nuinbcr of stylcs are dcfmcd— Pit-and-Groovc ;
Puebloan Painted (largely limited to thc southern part of the area);
Great Basin Painted; Great Basin Scratched; and Great Basin
Pecked which is further divided into Great Basin Rcpresentational,
Great Basin Rectilinear Abstract, and most important, Great
Basin Curvilinear Abstract. , , , 1 • , ,
hl the concluding chapters of the study the chronological and
geographical distribution of each style is discussed in terms of
culture-historical significance and as cvidence for a hypothesis of
thc use of petroglyphs as elements of hunting ritual. The authors
-ire able to demonstrate a high correlation between the location of
petroglyph sites and known or probable game trails, the petro-
glyplis usually bemg placed along cliffs, in narrow canyons, near
waterholes, and at other places favourable for ambush. It will be
intcresting to see if this correlation holds in the neighbouring semi-
arid arcas'with rock art yet to be carefully studied, in Utah, Idaho,
Oregon and Washington. Conclusions regarding the dating and
cultural associations of the various styles are much less secure, since
cases of superposition of styles are relatively few, direct association
of petroglyphs with dated occupation sites is rare, and diagnostic
artifacts are not illustrated in the art. The Pit-and-Groove style is
believed primarily on the basis of relative weathering to be much
older than thc other styles, and is estimated to date bctwcen 5000
and 3000 B.c. in the Great Basin. The Great Basin Curvilinear style
is equated with the Lovclock culture, dated bctwcen 1000 b.c. and
A.D. 1500. The other styles are believed to have begun much later
tlian the Curvilinear style. Since representations of figures demon-
strably historic are rare and the local Numic-speakers disclaim any
knowledge of the petroglyphs, the authors assume that the practice
virtually ceased before thc historic period.
This volume is an outstanding cffort in the analysis of a ditficult
subject. In many areas of western North America petroglyphs and
pictographs are present in such number and variety that local
archa.'ologists for thc most part have avoidcd tackling thc problem s
which they pose. Thc authors have shown what can be accomplished
by a systematic recording of sites and a distributional analysis of
styles; thcir work Stands as a challenge to archcTologists in neigh-
bouring areas to report thcir data as fully. RUTH GRUHN
The Hasidic Community of Williamsburg. By Sohrnon Poll.
Glencoe {Free Press), 1962. Pp. ix, 308. Price $5-50
^ r\ r The Hasidim are distinguished from other ultra-
^Vy J orthodox Ashkenazi Jews by ccrtain featurcs of thcir
culture and social structure, and are renowned for thc tenacity with
which they cling to them. Dr. Poll's study deals with a group of
Hungarian Hasidim who settlcd in Brooklyn shortly aftcr the last
war; his primary aim is to show how various internal rclationships
valu'cs and practices serve one principal goal— the prescrvation of
Hasidic identity. .
In the tirst, shorter part ot' this book, thc author givcs an outline
Sketch o{ the relationship between the commumty and the wider
society, as well as of thc internal structure of thc conimunity and
of its System of values. He shows how the family, the social strati-
fication and thc mechanisms of social control all contnbute to the
maintenance of Hasidic values, and he analyses the way in which
the Community combats thc threat of assimilation to the values ot
the wider society, particularly thc wider Jewish society with its
compromises and accommodations. In thc second part, the author
discusses the economic activitics of thc commumty, and his atten-
tion to these is fully justified: for it is thc pccuhar form ot these
activitics which enables the Community to survive in its present
environment: though the author does point out that this cnviron-
ment does favour these activitics. Of particular interest here is thc
author's discussion of thc way in which various commodities, like
refrigerators, bccomc gradually transformed into 'rchgious objects
and of how this transformation fulfils a number of economic and
other social functions. . r
This book is a valuablc contribution both to the socioiogy ot
immigrant communities and to thc socioiogy and ethnography ot
thc Jews. The author's insight is at its sharpest when analysing thc
Problems of social and cultural identity and of the group mechan-
isms of defence against any threat to it; his interpretations are well
164
OcTOBER, T963 MAN
illustrated by reference to incidcnts and to Statements by informants.
Hut the stuciy as a whole exhibits a number of niarked defects: the
first part contains no description and analysis ot actual networks
)f relationship; both parts lack demographic and other Statistical
material; there is no evidcnce concerning the alleged typicality of
attitudes, values and norms.
Dr. Poll readily accepts the Durkheim — RadclitTe-Brown —
Kingsley Davis theory of religion. And why not? This theory
woiild seem to have been tailor-madc to fit thc Jewish case. (Was
Durkheim not the descendant of rabbis ?) And yet one is bound to
cxpress dissent. For in his last chapter, in which he brilliantly sums
up his analysis, as well as in those in which he provides his evidcnce,
the author of this book has convinced at least one reader that the
Durkheim theory can be stood on its head; it can be argucd that
many or most featurcs of social life in this Community perform
thc function of maintaining Hasidic rcligious values.
^ PERCY S. COHEN
Nos. 205-209
West Indian Migrants. By R. B. Davison. London (O.U.P.), i9^>2.
Pp. xix, 89. Price 7s. 6d.
This is a most uscful compilation of flicts and figurcs
concerning the migration of West Indians to this
country Its publication is timely in view of the recent legal re-
strictions imposed. The author has attempted to fnid reasons for
206
the differenccs in thc rate of emigration from the various Caribbean
tcrritories. Hc catcgorically dismisses an Interpretation in terms ot
a Malthusian forinula— that population pressure 011 thc land is
responsible. He suggests that a possible explanation lies in the
relationship between thc per capita national income and the pressure
of migration. This is a uscful hypothesis which sheds considerable
light on the discrepancy between Jamaican and Trinidadian statistics
of immigration. The real contribution that Mr. Davison has made
is to have charted a field of enquiry in which a great deal more
research needs to be done. FERNANDO HENRIQUES
Trail to California: The Overland Journal of Vincent Geiger
and Wakeman Bryarly. Ldited by David M. Potter.
^^^ ' 266, map. Price \2s. 6d.
The Charlestown, Virginia, Mining Company set out some 80
strong from St. Joseph in May, 1849, and reachcd the Cahtorman
goldficlds I IG days later, thcir daily progress logged first by Geiger
and then by Dr. Bryarly. The few Indians encountered wcre mamly
sightscers or wayside pilferers and so the narrative is i^ot f J^^j^^';
rJading for anthropologists-who, nevertheless, may well find it
absorbing. Mr. Potter's editorial contributions are admirably füll,
and espJcially informative on the log.dcs of t a^vd by wa|on
train. yj^^
ASIA
Ainu Creed and Cult. By Neil Cordon Munro, editcd hy B. Z.
SeU^iman. London {Routlediic & Ke^^nn Paul), u/'^-
9OÖ P/j-'a-ci/i, 182. Price £1 I5>\
— - The Ainu are knowii to the general reader, if at all,
for thrce things: thcir 'hirsute' appearance (T'ang records speak of
beards four fc^^t long), thc bear ceremony (^"^.^^'^'^^^'^V^ ,.^' ^i; \,,^
Kitagawa should be read in a recent issue of Hisory of Reh^wns) and
L so-called n.oustache sticks. Havmg always been :^ ;ttle w-^^^^^
by the dcvoting of so much art to such a trivial object I was glad
o learn in this book that these iknbaslmi are really prayer or
' toLn wands,' important instrumenta of coiri^vuiicaUo
between Amu and thcir gods. Today, most Ainu ^- ^ '^;? ^^^^^
scmi-Japanesc-sty le houses, to intermarry -:-^-^'!^l^^^
and to be givcii a Japanese education. They also providc, ratner
::^;^s ds^here in Lch cases, one ofthe l-ding^trac^ ^
tourists on the island of Hokkaido. Tantalized by he '"^"7;^^^;^^
correspondences between Aniu and Japanese ^f^^^^J^^
Munro's descriptions thc ritual of the tea ^7,^''"^'"^ ^\ ^'^ ^Ij o
to my mind-the ethnographer may well bc^constantU ^^ P^^^^ ^^
lurn to historical source^. Alas, despite the ^^-;^^^^X^^nl
Chiri, Kindaichi and Takakura, these remain obstinatcly turgid^-.^ _^
controve
to j. ^. , .
Ainu society feil apart too soon for 1
in thc roster of 'our primitive ^^^'''^''';';'^^ ^^,,,,,: ,, consists
The present book is a rescue Operation "^/^^ /''Xcted at the
of documents by a doctor, Neil Gordon ^^^^^'^^,,,,,
cnd of thc last Century and m ^>-\f-V,om bv it c^ev t d friend
one and now cdited, after many ^"^f ^^;";' ^j^,,^^^^^^^^^
Mrs. Brenda Sehgman with the help of a ^«"' "'^ ^/^J;,^,, ,t piece
scholars. Apart fron, a courageous ^^^^-^^^^Z book is
together im.dcquatc material of ^«^^^^ "'^^^^ ^^'^^^^^^^^^^ descriptions,
nJmly made up of straightforvvard ^^ »^ ^ ^"^^^^^^^^^^^^ „ny uscful
first of basic concepts and of ritual P'^^^^P^!^" " ^^^J^^ „'^^^^ with
photographs), later of leading ^^'^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
die house, with ancestors, with cxorcism, hu ting d
Reminiscent of Shmto in thcir "-^--^^^ Zpu^,^. atten-
httle can be said about these beyond """"^ \' ^ ^j^^^, ^,,0 have
tion to detail and faithfulness to t^cd ob. aU^ • Tha^^^^ ^^^
seen Munro's finc bear ^-^•'"^'"^""y/^^ " J ^ook is Hkely to remain
Problems it raised m these P^^S"..^^ .^;' ^"^^^ery speciahzed field
principally as an important ^^^^"^^ ^^nuL between its
and as a tribute to the long and P'^^^' ' ^^^l MENDELSON
author and the Scligmans. ^' -^^
The Mongols of Afghanistan: An Ethnography of the Moghols
and Related Peoples of Afghanistan. By H. 7 .
"1 C\Q Schnrmann. Central Asian Stndies, IW The Ha^^ine
^yj y {Mouton), 1962. Pp. 435, P^'^f^'-'^ Indexes, maps
Migrations of peoples and herds during the Chingiside period of
CYMitnü Asian history introduced Mongolic-speakers mto Iran and
Afghanistan. The presence of descendants of these herding popu-
lations has been adumbrated in western literature with thc publica-
tuMi of Leech's vocabulary of Moghol in 1838. Further attempts
have been made during the intervening Century to make prccise the
cthnic and Imguistic aftiliations of the contemponiry Mongols of
Afghanistan by von der Ciabelentz, Ramstedt and Ligeti. Schur-
numn made field trips m 1954 and I955 to investigatc these prob lems.
The results have been combmed with study of library materials. In
fut this IS two books, the one a series of brief charactenzations of a
dozen "major peoples of Afghanistan; the other an extensive
ethnography of the Moghols. The first provides context for thc
sec
ond.
rn üo nisu)iicai 5\juh.vo. — r , ^- ,„.,,]., r,,rtTirl and
.iri, Kindaichi and Takakura, these remain obst atcly t ir Md^ d
.uroversy rages against an insurmountable l^;;^ ^^^.^ ^^^^^^^^^^^
J. E. Kidder, at some three centuries ^^«"/^ "'J, ',;!,, jed
■,L .ori.rv feil aoart too soon for it ever to be fruitfullv includcu
The Moghol habitat today is the Ghorat region of wcst-central
Afghanistan. According to Schurmann they ^;;'\^''''f'^'''
part from a nomadic group, Nikudäris, of generally Mongol atfilia-
non who came to Ghorat in the fourteenth-tiftecnth centuries
fVoin Persia, where they had nugrated in the thirteenth Century.
The move to Afghanistan was dissident to the Ilkhamde Chingi-
side) rule. This view, while speculative, conforms more closely to
known data than any other.
The ethnography of the Mongols Covers social Organization,
both kinship\ind pohty, law, religion, trade, agnculture and its
technics, and habitations. It is systematic, accurate and well pre-
sented. The entire work is an cncyclopxdic compendium of greatest
Utility in arrangement. , . . 1 /
The author assumes incorrectly that the Mongols proper (pre-
sumably in the Classical period) possessed an Omaha kinship
terminology. It is equally untenable to assert that the process of
development of their current System out of the (erroneous attribu-
tion of thc) earlier Omaha was subject to thc coursc of social
evolution. By his own description it is clear that non-evolutionary
culture contact or acculturation played a part in thc development of
the present System. This System is generally found among Islamic
peoples of north-eastern Africa and south-western Asia, and is
distinct from that of Central Asia (where in fact Omaha is repre-
sented among contemporary Kalmuks and Kazakhs)
Some attention is paid to the process of formation of thc Moghols,
but the main focus is on ethnographical description. This somewhat
165
Nos. 209-212
MAN
OCTOBER, 1963
old-fashioncd intcnt is cxccllcntly well achicvcd.lt is a plcasurc to
rccommcnd this book for thc acconiplishincnt oi its task.
LAWRENc:H KRAPIR
Social Structure of the Yami of Botel Tobago. By IVci Hwci-
Liii atiii Uli Piti-Hsiuii<^. Inst, l-thiiol., AciUÜ'iiiiü Siiiiüi
^ ir^ A/()//OA'r(j/)// No. I. NivikiViii, Taipci, Taiwiiii, Rcfuihiii
^^-^^ of China, 1962. 7V.\7 //; Chinese irifh hricf ahstuut in
Enj^lish. Pp. 285, platcs, (//<J.e''"">"
in a review of thc rcviscd cditioii ofKaiio and Scgawa's lUnstratcd
Ethno(^raphy of thc Forniosan Ahori^^incs: I'o/. /, I1ic Yanii (Man,
1959, 342) I notcd with rcgrct that a dctailcd sociological study ot
this fascinatiiig socicty was rulcd out by the circunistance that thc
island of Botel Tobago had become a political conccntration camp.
I spokc too sooii. Thc ficldwork on which this present cxtrcnicly
impressive monograph is based had alrcady becn coniplctcd in
July, 1957, and the 'sonic hundred innnigrants' did not bcgin to
arrive until I95^-
Messrs. Wei and Liu have tackled their work with truly Tcutonic
thoroughness. The Japancse-Chinese bibliography runs to 239 items
with an additional 29 items in European languagcs. The text
includes dctailcd gcncalogies of every living Yami. There is massively
dctailcd information concerning kin corporations, marriages, kin-
ship terminology, tcknonymy, labour Organization, and property
categorics, with a final rather more cursory chaptcr on legal
procedures.
Thc authors themsclvcs consider that their most important
fmding is that the Yami have a prcviously unrecordcd patrilincal
lincacre system, but more fundamental is thc tact that now tor
the first timc wc have the kind of dctailcd cthnographical evidence
which can fit the Yami in the wider pattern of Formosan and
Northern Luzon societics.
The research was financed by the Asia Foundation and the
Harvard-Yenching histitute and it is very much to bc hoped that
thc gencrosity of thcse foundations can bc stretched to cover a
translation of thc whole work, tables, charts and all.
EDMUND LEACH
Himalayan Polyandry: Structure, Functioning and Culture
Change: A Field Study of Jaunsar-Bawar. By
O TT D. N. Müjinndar. London {Asia Pnbl. House), 1962.
^-^^ Pp. 389, 19 platcs, 4 niaps, 5 charts, index. Pricc £4
The late Professor D. N. Majumdar was, until his suddcn
demise in i960, Hcad of the Department of Anthropology
at Lucknow Univcrsity. He was an M.A. and Ph.D. (Cantab.)
(thcse titles appcar nowhcrc in his book), and a fcllow Student of
ours at Professor Br. Malinowski's seminars at thc London School
of Economics in 1935-36. This is therefore a posthumous publica-
tion, which all those who knew him arc happy to sec at last come
out in print.
Wc have been looking forward a very long timc to reading this
book because of our common anthropological intercst in polyandry;
cspecially as our studics, madc principally in hidia and in the Himr-
layan region among Tibetans, purposely did not include the
Jaunsar-Bawar area which wc thought best to Icavc to our hidian
collcagues under the guidance of Dr. Majumdar, hi recent years,
many articlcs and dissertations on thc polyandry of this particular
region have been published by thcse research workers, all of whom
have givcn us considerable insight into thc form which this matri-
monial practice takes in this area.
That is why it is disappointing to have to admit now that Hima-
layan Polyandry does not, unfortumtcly, come up to cxpectation
as it does not teil us anything rcally ncw about the polyandry of
Jaunsar-Bawar.
For a book of this length (389 pagcs) with thc title which it bears,
there is relativcly little about polyandry in it. Thc last sub-titlc
should rcally have becn used as thc principal one, because this is
actually, for all practical purposes, ' A Field Study of Jaunsar-
Bawar,' and a very complete and dctailcd one at that. hi Part I,
thc Analysis, there is a very good topographical description of thc
environmcnt of the three villagcs chosen: Lohari, Baila (speit Bayla
on thc map) and Lakhamandal, in the C:hakrata tehsil of thc Dehra
Dun district, U.P. The historical account too is very thorough and
well donc.
Polyandry cnters thc picture in C:haptcr IV of Part II, whcrc
Kinship Structure and its Dynamic Functions arc discussed. But in
our opinion, thc analysis of thc polyandrous unit is quite insufficient:
no kinship terms arc givcn, it is not said who constitutes thc unit,
there is no mcntion of ideas about incest, etc. Only thc eldcr son
in a family actually marrics thc common wife and wc should bc
indincd, in thc circumstances, to agree with Fischer here when he
calls this practice 'polvkoity' rather than polyandry. Majumdar
coins a ncw tcrm for what is gcncrally callcd conjoint marriage:
'polygynandry,' for familics in which a number of women arc
shared by brothers. And he is very sweeping when he attributes
polyandry to geo-economic causes and leaves it at that (p. 75).
It is incorrcct to say that there is polyandry in Kulu. There is
what it has becn agreed to call 'cicisbeism' in that area, but it does
not involvc marnagc. This applics to Malana too, whcrc it is not
right, surcly, to look upon the concubinagc which exists as neccs-
sarily a rcmnant of polyandry.
Thc most intcresting fact reported by Dr. Majumdar is the
behaviour of thc common spouse, thc ryanti, when she is at homc
with her parents and changes her kinship Status to dhyanti (kins-
woman). In thc parental house, her promiscuity is tolcratcd and
she appears to indulgc in it frecly as an escape valve for the othcr-
wise sevcrely restraincd behaviour expccted of her as a spouse. This
is something which wc have never encountcred elscwhcrc bcfore,
neither in the field nor in anybody's writings, and for this reason,
WC think that this is thc main contribution to the knowledge of
polyandrous pcople which Dr. Majumdar has made.
PETER, PRINCE OF GREECE AND DENMARK
Gaste in Modern India and Other Essays. By M. N. Srinivas.
London {Asia Pnbl. House), 1962. Pp. 171- Pricc £1 lOs.
^ TO Sincc the publication of his famous work on thc
^^^ Coorgs in 1952, Professor Srinivas has written a
number of highly germinal essays. Sonic of thcse are devoted to
the analytical ethnography of rural Mysore; in others he discusses
more gcneral themes (like 'Gaste in Modern India' and 'Hindu-
ism'), or analyses various concepts, problcms and processes (such
as 'Varna and Gaste,' 'Gastes: Gan they Exist in the India of To-
morrow?,' and 'A Note on Sanskritization and Westernization').
The II essays includcd in the present volume, most of theni wcll-
known to Indianists, fall into the second category. Except for some
'verbal altcrations,' thc essays arc reprinted here as originally
published. However, the author provides an Introduction in which
he briefly discusses some of them. He also refers to 'a certain amount
of change' which his views have undergone during the eight-year
period to which the essays bclong. The reader would have got a
better idea of this change had the original dates of publication
becn mentioned.
Sincc limitations of space preclude a Icngthy review, we will
comment only on two topics. First, (what Srinivas calls) the '"book-
view" of Indian socicty and culture' More than once he rightly
wams against the dangers of a preoccupation with traditional
texts; in the past it has led to an ovcrsimplification, and even
falsification, of thc social reality. Apparently there arc scveral
important areas of sociological research in India which the ficld-
worker can tackle adequately without referencc to thcse texts.
However, when the pcople under study themsclvcs refer to the
Contents of thcse traditional sourccs, in cxplanation or justification
of their behaviour, it is difficult to ignore them. Srinivas's comments
draw attention to an old but still unresolvcd problcm : the proper
cstimation of thc place and valuc of traditional textual sourccs in
sociological studics of Hindu India.
Second, Sanskritization as a two-way process. As is well known
the concept of Sanskritization and thc process that it describes werc
first discussed by Srinivas in thc Goorgs book itsclf. Therein the
Clement of imitation was emphasized: how the members of a low
caste try to improve their Status by 'thc adoption of the Brah-
minic way of lifc' In the essay on Hinduism he explains that
166
Nos. 215-217
MAN
OCTOBER, 1963
there. In the course of it he says: VBcing the first male child in thc
direct line after thc death of my grandfathcr, I automatically
inherited his soul, nickname, was givcn his actual namc on the
twelfth day and though my widowed grandmothcr's tavourite
grandson, had to bc addressed by her in the indircct discourse
necessary for every modest woman of thc class, so real was thc
transmigration of the soul' (p. 158).
Though some of his theories are open to criticism, Professor
Kosambi'sjDook is very well written and intcresting. It is also well
produce^I notcd but three trivial shps. RAGLAN
Anthropology: Essays in Memory of D. N. Majumdar.
London {Asia Puh\. House), 1962. Pp. 000. Pricc £3
^ T/T These essays, originally intendcd to form a prescn-
-^ -^ ^ tation volume for Professor Majumdar's sixticth birth-
day, have become a memorial volume. He died in i960.
Such volumes inevitably present a problcm for thc reviewer, a
problcm not unconnected with thc intentions of those who have
contributed to them. It is an unfortunate fact that the contributions
to many such compilations arc lost to thc mainstream of scholarship.
A namc as the solc link between thc essays is not enough to cnsure
a wide or lasting circulation. Such considerations cannot bc present
in the minds of contributors.
There scem to bc two possible Solutions which can producc not
only a memorial but a living one. Either the essays are important
cxegeses of one man's thought— T/u- Phihsophy of Ernst Cassircr is
an example — or, as in Hoinnia{Jcs ä Gcori^cs Dinnc::il, they arc the
products of research on themes inspired by or closely associated
with thc work of thc man honoured.
In thc volume under review the presence of essays by archivo-
logists, physical anthropologists and social anthropologists tcstihes
to Professor Maiumdar's wide ränge of intcrcsts and to his immense
cncrgy. But thcse essays by spccialists show, for thc grcatcr part,
how'clcar arc thc divisions which have come about sincc Protessor
Majumdar cntcred thc hcld of anthropology. Most apparent is the
Separation of physical anthropology rcprescntcd here by seven
essays. It is a pity that thcse authors did not take thc opportunity
otlcrcd to demonstrate thc rclevancc of their enquirics to thc
intcrcsts of their associatcs.
Thc archivology section secms thc most fitting to a book of this
naturc. Thc essays are complete in themsclvcs and arc not mcrcly
intcUigiblc to non-arch;vologists but intellcctually open to tindings
in othcr ficlds. The authors' cnthusiasm for their subjcct is con-
tagious and at least the social anthropologists of India must bc gratc-
ful for thcse glimpses of their mcticulous restoration ot history.
Among thc social anthropologists, Professor von Fürcr-Haimen-
dorf's essay 'Moral CxMiccpts in Three Himalayan Societics' secms
the most suitablc. The remaining authors, with the partial exception
of Dr. Meyer, write in gcneral terms about gcneral problcms ot
their subjcct. Precise cxamplcs of the kind of work which social
anthropologists are doing in India might more fittingly have com-
bincd piety with scholarship. It is a great pity that thc longest essay in
this section, and the one which claims to make a particular contri-
bution, Professor Ranikrishna Mukhcrjce's 'On Glassification of
Family Structures,' should bc a disastrous example of pretentious
sDccialization in a volume dedicated to a pioneer of the scieiices of
man m India. 1^- F- POGOGK
Mesopotamia and the Middle Hast. By Leonard Woolley. Art of
the World, 17/. London {Methuen), 1961. Pp. 259,
917 Ullis- Pricc £2 5S.
^L i ji-,is^ oiie of the last works of the late Sir Leonard
Woolley, forms part of a scries of regional histories of thc visual
arts a fact which is reflected in its scope. It is clcar that the organizing
cditor has decidcd that ancient Persia should bc givcn a volume to
itself (to bc contributed by Dr. Edith Porada, as wc learn from
p 41 note 3), but while this is admirable it is uttcrly out of scale
to squeeze the whole of Sumerian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Hittite
and scveral other Icss well rcprescntcd arts into an equivalent
amount of space. The book sets out to deal with the art of western
Asia from prehistoric timcs to thc Islamic conquests, and thc
yawning gap Icft by thc Omission of Persia is very obvious. In thc title
of Ghaptcr III, 'Elam bcfore the C:oming of thc Indo-Europcans,
one can almost sec the words of thc organizing editor anxious to
gct this inconvenient loosc end out of the way for the volume on
Persia, and thc Icap from Ghaptcr VIII, 'Assyria and Neo-Baby-
lonia,' to Ghaptcr IX, 'Gnvco-Roman Art in thc Middlc Last,
gives thc lattcr thc air of a sort of appendix atterthought. In
planning thc scrics it would have becn bcttcr, if Persia was to bc
treated \eparately, to allow also a separate volume for Anatoha
and the Hittites, and to have permitted a brief chaptcr on Persia in
its right place here, even at thc risk of overlapping within the scrics.
Apart from this it is a very good idea to include a discussion ot
(;nvco-Romaii art in thc area, instead of hnishing with Alexander
thc Great as is usually donc, turinng point though this was When
this is said, however, the rest of thc book does not proyidc any-
thing which has not been givcn just as well in Frankfort's Art and
Architecture of the Ancient Orient, or now in Seton Lloyd's Art of the
Ancient Near Last, though this last was published at the same timc
as thc present volume.
It is not fair, however, to blamc this upon Sir Leonard Woolley,
who must have becn invited late in lifc to undertake an ill conceived
task. He will not bc remembercd for books such as this, but for Ins
achievements in the field, chiefly at Garchemish, Ur and Alalakh
whcrc he showcd himsclf to bc in thc heroic tradition of Layard
and Rawlinson. Likc them his prosc, in spite of certain signs ot
carclcssncss, is easy to read, and free of the Jargon which permeates
much of thc archxological litcraturc of today. Something of his
contribution to the study of thc ancient Near East may bc judged
from thc fact that 12 of the 60 colour platcs and 15 of the 73 text
figures illustrate objects whosc discovery was in whole or in part
duc to him. A good many of thcse arc of course from thc 'Royal
Tombs' of Ur,'but there are also such things as the rhyton of gold
and silver (p. 143) whosc acquisition is so amusingly narrated in
As I Seein to Reineinber, pp. 35f-
In the presentation of the historical setting, one or two points
call for comment. The Statements regarding the Hittites on pp. 24-
26 arc n^t entircly satisfactory. The author here assumes his theory,
by 110 incans universally accepted, that thc Khirbct Kerak pcople
werc thc ancestors of thc Hittites, and that the lattcr consequently
came to central Anatolia from the Araxes Valley i'ia north Syria.
This is presumably why the Hittites arc said to bc of 'Gaucasiaii
stock,' for this is not correct racially or linguistically, so must bc
meant geographically. The Statement that the Hittites werc ' Aryan-
spcakiiig' IS also of course incorrcct. Again the Statement on p. 30
that the Israclites arrived in Palestine ' with the Habiru in the timc
of Akhenaten' gives a view of thc Exodus now hcld by very few.
There would bc no profit in citing points of this kind through thc
whole book (except to mcntion a few, more obvious, errors: p. 32,
for Tiglath-pilescr IV read Shalmaneser V; p. 125, tbr 'Akkadian
merchants' read 'Assyrian merchants'; p. 226, there is no evidence
that Sargon and Ashurbanipal 'fought campaigns in the Yemen';
p. 224, fig. 73 caption, for b.c. read A.D.; p. 235, for Teil Uzair
read Teil Uqair), but they do serve to warn the reader that not all
Statements can bc accepted without question. In spite of this, how-
ever, many of the artistic judgments are just and illuminating.
In form thc book is mixed, Most of the colour platcs are exccllcnt,
but the text figures are poor. These are mostly peii sketches which
would adorn a dig note book but which are almost without excep-
tion quite unsuitable for a book of this kind. Thc text is clearly
printcd (in Holland), but causes a certain irritation in that none of
the Paragraph opcinngs arc indented. This may bc in keeping with
modcri/book design' but there secms little point in it. It is also
Strange that thc list' of platcs, figures and acknowledgments should
come bcfore the table of contents. There are a fair number of
misprints.
The shortcomings of the book must however be attributed to
the publishcrs rather than the author, as they acknowlcdgc them-
sclvcs in a preliminary note. One can appreciate that to deal with a
manuscript without the author to consult is no easy task, and there
arc many good things in the book to compensate for thc bad.
T. G. MITGHELL
Mcuk' and print ed in Great Br itain hy William Clowe.s and Sons, Limited, London and Beccles
OCTOBER, 1963
MAN
NOS. 2T2-2T5
'Bccause Sanskrit was thc language of thcsc highcst groups, this
process of cultural propagation is hcrc callcd ' Sanskntization
Hc furthcr points out that though Hinduism docs not sanction
prosclytisni, 'this docs not mcan that thcre is no convcrsion in it.
Various Factors, Hkc thc improvcmcnt of communications m
modern timcs and thc activitics of ccrtain sccts such as thc Lin-
gayat and thc Swaminarayan), also havc aidcd thc process ot
cultural propagation. Thc nnphcation of Snnivas s rcmarks sccms
to bc that two complcmcntary proccsscs-mimcsis./rom /h>/ou. and
propagation from ahovc-h^wc bccn at work To work out t 1
imphcation more fully, thc two proccsscs will havc to bc adcquatcl>
recognizcd and thcir mutual rclationship clanficd.^ ^ MADAN
The Hindu Family in its Urban Setting i3y .4,7crH D^ Ross
Toronto {U.P.) {London a^cuts: O.U.P.), 1961. Pp- 32$,
01^ avvcudiccs, tablcs, iudex. Pricc £2 ^
Z^ID This study is an outcomc of thc author s onc year
of rcscarch in hidia, and is bascd on thc data collcctcd by a 'rcscarch
team of six Hindus' who togcthcr spcnt a total of 31 mon hs
intcrvicwing 'fricnds or acquaintanccs' of thcir own choicc (p. 299).
The 157 interviewees consistcd of 84 nialcs and 73 Geniales. Among
thc malcs, all cxccpt six had univcrsity dcgrccs (including cight
Ph.Ds.) and among thc fcmalcs, all cxccpt ninc had more than a
High School education (p. 302). Thc sainplc is thus heav^y weigh cd
in favour of individuals who are highly cducatcd and, in a largc
mcasure, come from prosperous and sophisticatcd familics.
hidia has always bccn considcrcd to bc onc of thosc placcs whcre
the classical joint family has bccn thc rulc rathcr than the exccption
According to the author also, the nuclcar fannly is ^und mo c
often in largc towns and citics than in villagcs (p. 35), and tnc
small jomt family is now the most typkal form of family hfc amongs
the middlc and upper middlc urban classcs in hidia (p. 49, emphasis
added). In this study, carricd out mamly in Bangalorc, a city in
South hidia, thc author's mam objcctivc has bccn to analysc thc
Factors which are tending to break up the largc joint family, and
to seck out thc main ways 111 which thcsc changes are affecting thc
family roles' (p. 280). Thc structure of the family has bccn dcfincd
here to include sevcral sub-structurcs-a biological sub-structure of
age, sex and kinship, an ecological sub-structurc of houschold
g?oups, and sub-structures of rights and dutics, of authority and
sentimcnts— for purposes of analysis.
The author shows considcrablc insight m her undcrstanding,
analysis and Organization of the matcrial. Her typology of the
famihes has bccn carcfully evolvcd and her analysis of the sub-
structures of rights and dutics, and of sentimcnts, has bccn done
^^:i^^aglnatlo!l and ingcnuity. Thc nuances f ^-^-^/f^ ^"^^-;^^
and rcciprocal obhgations havc bccn clearly brought out with thc
heb of well documented case studics. •,• ,
Thcre are, however, a fcw points that may bc made in criticism
of this book. First, the all-inclusive title is somcwhat misleading in
V cw of thc fact that whilc hidia is a land of contrasts and regional
pecuharitics and divcrsitics, thc author's sample >s biascd highly
Sectivc and localizcd. Part of thc author's gencra izations, thereforc,
havc only a local or a regional validity. S-ondly, her assump tion
regarding thc distribution of nuclcar and joint-Fmuly typcs, 1
rufal and urban hidia, are not bornc out by othcr studics An
[ntercsting point which thc author could havc iiscfully brought out
i her dLussion is how thc old joint-family pattern gets rc-
estaWished in the 'urban sctting' in thc event of economic success.
?n thfauthor's sample, 33 nuclcar families changed to largc or
mall ioh^t familics (pp. 36f.), and 20 individuals livcd in joint
freier hroughout. A largc Joint family if economic rcsourccs
pcrmlt its smooth continuancc, is probably also a Status symbol
Tcterthd^cf rra"u'scful and a well written book which will
bc^cad " crest by sociologists and anthropologists. It provides
uLful IcTds for future work and somc of the hypothcscs advanced
usctul ^c^'f 7^ . ,, . clscwhcre in hidia 111 diffcrcnt regional
here may bc fruittully testca ciscw. ^^^^ ^ SRIVASTAVA
settings.
Gopalpur: A South Indian Village. By Ahm R. Bv.h. N n; York
^ (Höh, Rimlum & Winsun,), .962. Pp. .v. 100. Pruc lOs.
O T A Dr Bcals's book is onc of a serics of casc studics
-^^T" in cultural anthropology,' which 'are dcsig.icd to
brin, to studots, ,u bcginnm« and imcrn>cdiatc '°""« '" ^°™1
scicnccs. insights n,to thc richnc;ss and coniplcx.ty of human hfc,
as it is livcd in diffcrcnt ways and diftcrcnt placcs
Tic book cons>sts of cigh, chaptcrs dcvotcd to (, a gcncral
dcscription of Gopalpur, (ii) pattcrns of child-rcar„,g, (,„) marr.agc
6VW «tc U') religio.,, (vi) social control and fact.ons, (,'m) social
^c Inge nd l, 0 thc rcgion to which Gopalpur bclongs. Thc rcadcr
^c manv i itcrcsting glimpscs of social lifc in thc villagc, but not
ciVough nu lation! and is Icft with a fcchiig of want.ng n.orc
Twö cxamplcs should sufficc: (i) Thc chaptcr on j,«, castc) tc Is us
of hitcrcastc economic transactions rcma.n largely und.ffcrcntiatcd,
a, d I e significance of the difference between aniiual payments in
Cdand on-the-spot payments in cash is not touehed upon. {„)
T c ch Ptc o religioiUs so coneise as to make it hard for a bcginncr
to dcterm nc what applics to Hindus and what to Muslnns. Thus
Beal docs not makc it clcar that it is a Hindu, and not also a Muslim,
who may he iiamcd after Hanumantha, or that it is only thc Mus-
m who bury thcir dead. Onc of the real fasemations of Gopa pur
obviously lies in the mfluencc which thc Hindus and thc Muslims
have txcrted on cach othcr's ways of litc, but thc-^ author ,s tanta-
zh'gly brief on thc subject. One is not ask.iig for too much 111
wändng a fuUcr analysis of such curious situations as a Brahman
priest ceremomally washing a Mushm's tomb.
"^ Bcals succcssfully indicates 'the richness and complcx.ty of human
htV m Gopalpur, but, withiii the limits of the available spacc, s
ot always able to provide thc 'msights' promiscd at the outsct^
^rat hc is capablc of doing so is beyond doubt, and wc will look
forwardtoextcudedpubhcationofhis matcrial. ^ ^ ^^1-,^^,
Myth and Reality : Studies in the Formation of Indian Culture.
By D. D. Kosambi. Bonthiy (Popiil.n Pmhcislum), 1962.
OTC Pfi. .V, 187- PfiVc Rs 12.50 r u- u
AID This is a collcction of tivc cssays, four of which
havc beeil previously pubhshed. Professor Kosambi begins by
secking to cxplain ccrtain aspects of thc history of Hinduism, but
hesc cxplanations do not always carry conviction. Thus he says of
t e hccntious Holi festival that ' when food gathcring was thc norm,
w th a n,ost uncertain supply of food and nieagrc dict, a coiisidcr-
ablc Stimulus was nccessary for procrcation Obscemty was thc
cssentnl in Order to pcrpctuatc the specics p. 10). It is more
prob ble that, in thc words of Or. R. Patai, 'thc general Union of
fhc sexcs at the seasonal fertility feasts may bc regardcd as a de-
mocratization of thc originally aristocratic represcntation of the
"Ttt whh tl^^sacrcd marriagc that he is conccrncd m Chapter .1
in which he puts up a good casc for regarding thc myth of Urvas.
änrPururav.;s as an account of a sacrcd marriagc followed by thc
cril-icc oHhe bridcgroom. He holds that ^^^f-^'V^^^
for a matnarchal socicty such as that postulated by ^^ * »^^
Robert Graves, both of whom hc citcs with approval. It is unlikcly,
however, that thcre ever was such a socicty. ^^^ , ^_, ^hesc
In thc district of Poona thcre are many ancie.it trackways. These
are strcwn wi.h microhths, which are in placcs so numerous that
1 thc author's vicw they must have takcn 'ho--ds of ycars to
accumulatc. Bes.dc thcsc trackways are "'»"V ^^ are stTll wo -
stoiies which represent mother goddesscs, and vyhich are still wor
hk pcd and painted red, by the villagcrs. The v."ag^-'-"l»r°;;h,p
göds whose cult IS, m somc iiistanccs »' >-<• -»™"-d ^^'^ j ^^t
^ . 1 j _• ,.r imin-iii sTrnticc Thc autnor noias tnac
<;win(TinjT aiid traditioiis ot numan saLimc«.. x« • r j
he Ss caiuc m with thc Aryans and that thc marriagc ofa god
to prcvtm y umnatcd goddcss nidicatcd a fusion of eults (p. 86 .
Bu asacred marriagc caiinot bc a, thc -";""- .^,^°™ "^ ?"'
historic ritual and the rcminisccncc- of a,i '" " '^» ' Xl-r givcs
Professor Kosambi is a iiativc of Goa, and 111 the last chapter givcs
an aatunt of thc archa.c System of land tcnurc which obtaincd
ll
1,
i
!
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Pp. 64, with analytical tables and 34 figs. on 7 platcs.
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This report of a Symposium on domestication contains papers on genetical, hxmoglobin
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SECOND INTENTIONAL EXPOSURE
Octübi:r, 1963
MAN
NOS. 2T2-2I5
'Bccausc Sanskrit was thc languagc of thcsc highcst groups, this
proccss «f cultural propagation is hcrc callcd " Sanskntization .
Hc furthcr pomts out that though Hmduisni docs not sanction
prosclytisni, 'this docs not nican that thcrc is no convcrsion in it.
Various f\ictors, likc thc iniprovcmcnt ot connnunications m
modern tinics and tlic activitics of ccrtain sccts such as thc Lin-
gayat and thc Swaininarayan), also havc aidcd thc proccss ot
cultural propagation. Thc nnplication ot Snnivas s rcmarks sccnis
to bc that two coniplcmcntary proccsscs-nuincsis./ro/M /'c/ou' and
propagation from abovc-h.xvc bccn at work. To uork out this
iniplic'ition niorc fully, thc two proccsscs will liavc to bc adcquatcly
rccognizcd and thcir nuitual rclationship clanhcd.^ ^ MADAN
The Hindu Family in its Urban Setting By 4//cr;, D l^^s^.
Toronto (U.P.) {Lon^ion n^cnts: O.U.P.), nM. Pp. 32>,
0 T"^ üvpciidiccs, tahlcs, index. Pricc £} ^
jLIO ji,„ studv is an outcomc of thc author s onc ycar
of rcscarch m India, and is bascd on thc data collcctcd by a 'rcscarch
tcam of six Hindus' who togcthcr spcnt 'a total o 31 mon hs
intcrvicwing 'fricnds or acquamtanccs' o thcir own choicc (p 299
Thc IS7 intcrvicwccs consistcd of 84 malcs and 73 cmalcs. Aniong
thc malcs, all cxccpt six had univcrsity dcgrccs (including cigh
Ph.Ds.) and among thc fcmalcs, all cxccpt ninc had morc than a
High School cducation (p. 302). Thc sample is thus hcavily wcightcd
in favour of individuals who arc highly cducatcxl and, in a largc
mcasurc, comc from prospcrous and sophisticatcd tamihcs.
hidia has always bccn considcrcd to bc onc ot thosc placcs whcrc
the classicaljomt tlumly has bccn thc rulc rathcr than thc ^"xcc-p lon
Accordmg to thc author also, thc nuclcar tam.ly is ^ound ni
oftcn in iargc towns and citics than in viUagcs (p 35), and thc
small Joint fainilv is now thc most typiaü form ot tamily hfc amongst
thc middlc and uppcr middlc urban classcs m hidia (p. 49, cmphasis
addcd). hl this study, carricd out mainly in Bangalorc, Y^^Y ;"^
South hidia, thc author's mani objcctivc has bccn to analysc thc
factors which arc tcnding to break up thc largc joiiit tamily, and
to seck out thc maiii ways in which thcsc changcs arc at^ccting thc
familv rolcs' (p. 280). Thc structurc of thc timily has bccn dctincd
hcrc to includc scvcral sub-structurcs-a biological sub-structurc of
agc, sex and kinship, an ecological sub-structurc of household
groups, and sub-structurcs of rights and dutics, of authonty and
scntinicnts— for purposes of analysis.
■ Thc author shows considcrablc insight in her undcrstanding,
analysis and Organization of thc matcrial. Her ^?-^y ^ ^
famihes has bccn carefully cvolvcd and her analysis o thc ub-
structurcs of rights and dutics, and ot scntinicnts, has bccn donc
with Imagination and ingcnuity. The nuanc:es ot change in authority
and rcciprocal obhgations havc bccn clearly brought out with the
hclp of well documented case studics. -,- • ,
Thcrc arc, however, a few points that niay bc madc in criticism
of this book. First, the all-inclusivc title is somcwhat mislcadnig in
V cw of the flict that white hidia is a land of contrasts and regional
pccuharitics and divcrsities, thc author's sample is biasec , highly
sclcctivc and localizcd. Part of the author's gencr^i izations, theretore,
have only a local or a regional vahdity. Secondly, her assumptions
regarding thc distribution of nuclcar and joint-tnmly types, in
ruril and urban hidia, arc not bornc out by othcr studics. An
lUcrcs'nig poiiit which the author could havc usctully brought out
her dtussion is liow thc old joint-family pattern gets rc-
cstablishcd m thc 'urban sctting' in thc event ot economic success.
hl thc author's sample, 33 nuclcar flmulics changed to largc or
small ioiiit flmulics (pp. 36f.), and 20 individuals lived m joiiit
fäniies throughout. A largc jomt f^imily if economic resource
pcrniit its snu'oth continuancc, is probably also a Status synibol
cvcn in thc urban sctting. , , ...
NcvcrtlK-lcss, it .s . uscful and a well wnttcn book ulml: will
bc read with m crcst by socologists n„d a.uhropolot^jsts. It prov.dc^
uscful lc*ds for futurc work and so.nc ot tlic bypotbcscs advanccd
hcrc" nay bc fr.ntfully testcd CcwlK-rc i., 1,k1. -n «^.«"--^-'-^
scttings.
Gopalpur: A South Indian Village. By A\m R- Bc../.«. N<"' York
T IJ. nr licals's book is onc of a smcs ot casc stildics
Z,lT- ,„ ,,,hm.^\ antbropology; whicb 'arc dcs.gncd to
br,n.. to stndcnts, in hcsu.ning and intcrn.cdiatc courscs n, soaal
scil^lTccs, ,ns,ghts n„o tbc richncss and con.plcxity ot lunnan l,tc,
IS u is livcd in dificrcnt ways and diHcrcnt placcs
Tic book consists of csbt cbaptcrs dc-votcd to ,) a gcncral
dcscr.pt,on of Clopalpur, (,i) pattcrns of ch.ld-rcanng. („,) n.arnagc
t c stc (r) rcligun. (.',) social control and tactions, (.'") «'C-al
1 n;c;,d (.,..) .lic regio,, to wb,ch Gopalpur bclongs. Tbc rcadcr
c n a ,v , ntcrcst,,,^ glinipscs of socal l,tc ,„ thc v,llagc, bt,t „ot
c, t,g , k„n,„at,on-, and ,s Icft w„h a fcchng ot want.ng morc
Two'^^-xan^plcs sh<H,ld snfficc: (i) Thc chaptcr o„ .,,,. (-- ^^^ ^^ "
hardlv anvthing about thc ,ntcrnal strnctnrc ot castc. Var o , t es
of intcrca;tc cc^^noniic transactions rcn,a,„ largcly i,nd,rtcrcnt,atcd,
, d h sig,„f,ca„cc of thc d,rtcrc„cc bcwcc, a„nt,a payn.cnts
k.nd „,d on-tbc-spot pavn,cnts in cash ,s not tottchcd npon. (n)
Tl c ch ptcr on rcliU«nsso concisc as to n.akc it bard tot a bcg.nncr
u. d cnmnc what'apphcs to Hindus and wha. to M- -.. Thus
Bcals docs not ,nakc ,t dcar that u ,s a H.ndu and not also ^ Musin.
who n,ay bc nan,cd aftcr Hannn.antha, or that .t .s only thc Mus-
, who bury thcr dcad. Onc of tbc real tascu,a„o,,s "f (■"P^' P""-
vuntslv lies n, thc influcnee whuh the H.ndus and tbc Mushn s
h VC cxerted on eaeb othcr's ways ot htc, bu. tbc autbor ,s tanta-
zLlv bnef on tbc st.bjct. Onc ,s not ask.ng tot too mnch n,
« in'tin.. a fuller analysis of such curioiis s.tuations as a lirabnian
priest cercnionially washing a Muslnn's lonib.
^ B ,1s snccessfuUV n.dicatcs ' .he r,ebncss and e<„nplex,ty ot bun.an
l,t-c' ,n Ciopalpnr.bnt, w,th„, thc linuts ot thc av.ulable space ,s
„ot alwavs able to prov,dc tbc 'insights' prcmnscd at tbc ottset.
That he ,'s capable of do,ng so ,s beyond doubt, and wc w,ll look
forward to cxtcndcd pubbcat.on ot b.s ,nater,nl. ^ ^ ^^^DAN
Myth and Reality : Studics in thc Formation of Indian Culture.
By D. l). Kos.w,hi. Bomlnty (P,>;m/,/r l'ivl^itsluv,). iy62.
T T C /'/.. v, 1S7. Prifc Rs 12.50 .- , ,
Z,1J j|„s ,s a collcctioi, of f,vc cssays, tour ot wb,eh
|,ave bccn prev,«usly pubhshcd. Professor Kosa.nb, bcgn.s by
!^c'k,n« to exphun certa,,, aspects of the Instory of H.ndu,s,„, but
thcsc explanat o„s d<, „ot always carry co„v,et,on. Tbus bc says of
■ bccn ,ous Hob t-cst,val that 'wlicn food gatber,ng was tbc „or,,,,
w,th a ,nost nncerta,,, supply of fo<,d and .neagrc d,ct a cons,der-
ablc stnnnlus was „ecessary for proerca„o„ «^srnnty ssas
csscntial ii, .«der to pcrpcntatc the speccs p. lo). 1 .s ,"ore
probable tha,, „, tbc words of Dr-K. Pata,, tbc S^'"™' "»'"". f
he scxes at the seasonal fcrt,lity teasts ,nay he regardcd as a dc-
,nocTat,zat,on of the orig,nally aristocrattc rcprcscntat,o„ .^t tbc
s.icred ,narriage.' i ;., r l, ,„t..r II
It is with tbc sacrcd ,uarr,agc that he ,s coneetned i, Chapter
,n whieb bc puts np a good case tor regard.ng thc ,ny,b ot Urvas
"„d Pun,rav.« as an aceoun. of a sacrcd ,narr,agc foUowcd by tbc
„,f,ec c,f ,bc br,dcgroo„,. Hc holds that the 1-t "cn. .s cv,dc,,cc
for a n,atr,arcbal society such as .hat postulatcd by ^^ « '"'
|!.obcrt C.ravcs, bo.b of whom he c.cs w.tb approval. I. .s unbkely,
bowcvcr, tha. tbere ever was such a socicty.
h, tbc d,strict of Poo.,a thcrc arc n,a.,y a„c,e„t trackways Tl e
,re strewn w,th ,n,croh.hs, which arc n, placcs so ntnncrous tha
thc author's v,cw they nu.st have taken thousands of years o
ccu u'lue lics.dc tbese ttackways ue n,a„y shn,,cs of anteonR
töne wl eb rcprcscnt ntothcr goddesses. and w uch arc st.ll wor-
soncswnicii "•> hv the villa.'crs The vi lagers also worsbip
sbippcd, and paintcd red, by tlle vilia^crs. i ^ l,,>,,k-
godl wbosc cnlt IS, i„ sonic mstances »V l"--^««- "^"^V: tl 1 o ds that
swin 'ii.g and traditions of human sacnhcc. Tbc author hold that
he " ods came m with tbc Aryans and that die marriagc of a god
o \;:;iously unmated goddcss indicatcd a ttision ot ™ ts (^ 8.^
1hl. a sacrcd marriagc cannot bc at the same ' " "' P'^^
historic ntual and thc rcminisccncc- of an 1''^'" '^ f ^.^
|>rofess«r Kosambi is a nativc of Goa and i„ thc 1''^ P ',' h ^^^
;,„ aceoun. of .hc arcbaic sys.cm ot land .enurc which ob.amcd
<l
'
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No. 19 A Study in Ritual Modißcation — thc work of the Gods in Tikopia in 1929 and
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167
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Vol. 173, No. 13
1509
BOOK REVIEWS
Surgery as a Human Experience: The Psychodynamics «f
Surgical Practice. By James L. Titchencr, M.D., Assistant
Professor of Psychiatry, University of Cincinnati College of
Medicine, Cincinnati, and Maurice Levine, M.D., Professor
of Psychiatry and Director of Department, University of
Cincinnati College of Medicine. Cloth. $6. Pp. 285. Oxford
University Press, 417 Fifth Ave., New York 16, 1960.
With the grovving tendency of medical men to
specialize, it is no longer possible for any practi-
tioner to be all things to all patients, and the need
for an interrelationship of surgical and Psychiatric
Services becomes apparent. The authors of this
extremely vvell-written book have delved deeply
into the emotional problems of the surgical patient
which can aflFect bis recovery and adjustment to bis
altered condition.
Reporting the results of a two-year study of 20()
surgical patients selected at random, who were
followed up for six months after their Operations,
the authors have produced a text which is illumi-
nating to the surgeon, the general practitioner, and
the patient himself. They have investigated pre-
operative and postoperative depressions, the re-
action of patients with psychosomatic illness to
Operation, the influence of deep-seated emotional
stress on recovery, the personality changes that can
be expected after the patient has lost a body func-
tion or organ, adjustment problems of children and
the aged after surgery. Danger signals are pointed
out, and methods of psychological treatment and
guides for referral of the patient to the psychiatrist
are presented. Reports of surveys by other ps\'-
chiatric teams are evaluated. There is an impres-
sive bibliography and a comprehensive index.
The book is aimed at better understanding of the
surgical patient, and the authors plead for a closer
collaboration between the psychiatrist and the sur-
geon. They urge that some form of psychotherap)'
be made available during hospitalization for pa-
tients who show personality difficultics. This is a
fascinating text and a pionccring work in its field.
Philip Thorp:k, M.D.
Comprehensive Medical Insurance: A Study of Costs, Use,
and Attitudes under Two Plans. By Odin W. Anderson,
Ph.D., Research Director, Healtli Information Foundation,
New York, and Paul B. Slieatsley. Health Information Foun-
dation research series 9. Paper. Pp. 105. Healtli Information
Foundation, 420 Lexington Ave., New York 17, n. d.
The term "dual choice" as applied to health in-
surance is relatively new. It means that the persons
in an employee group may choose one of two alter-
native insurance plans. Sometimes the dual choice
can bc exercised only once— usually initially; how-
ever, in other instances employees are permitted, at
intervals, to transfer from one plan to the other.
Prior to the advent of dual choice Systems under
contributory group plans most employees had only
the alternatives of participation or nonparticipation
in a Single plan either oflFered by an employer or
negotiated by a union.
This publication is listed by Health Information
Foundation as Research Series No. 9 and described
as, "a study of costs, use, and attitudes under two
health insurance plans." The two original objectives
of the study were "(1) to analyze to what extent the
Provision of virtually complete hospital and phy-
sicians' Services through prepayment helps families
to pay for costs of all Services in two contrasting
methods of organizing physicians' Services, and
(2) to determine the attitudes toward and percep-
tions of medical practice that households had who
chose Group Health Insurance, Inc. (GHI) or
Health Insurance Plan of Greater New York (HIP),
as well as the reasons for their choice and the im-
pressions they gained of the plan they chose after
some experience with it." A third objective emerged
which was a comparison of utilization and cost
patterns between these two insurance plans which
have different methods of paying for the Services of
physicians. GHI pays for professional Services on
the basis of a benefit schedule whereas HIP uses
the so-called group practice approach where phy-
sicians are paid on a capitation basis.
Persons selected for interviews were members of
the Dress Joint Board of the International Ladies
Garment Workers Union, International Association
of Machinists and Office Employees Union. These
persons were drawn from a sampling of the sub-
scribers under the two insurance programs. To the
extent possible, these samples were matched with
regard to their socioeconomic Status. Of the 9(K)
persons selected, interviews were completed with
841. Each person in the survey sample was asked
what motivated him to select the plan he chose.
From among those enrolled in GHI, 72% cited "free
choice of physician." Of the HIP enrollees 40% gave
"nothing to pay" as their reason. The next reason
most frequently given by each group was "others
in the shop were joining." The foregoing were listed
as spontaneous responses. Later the interviewees
were shown a listing of reasons following which
"free choice of doctor" was checked as a reason by
88% of GHI subscribers and "nothing to pay'* was
a reason checked bv 61% of the HIP subscribers.
135
i
1510
BOOK REVIEWS
J.A.M.A., July 30, 1960
' 1
The study report indicates that niost enrollees in
both plans expressed favorable attitiides toward the
plan he selected and toward their physicians. Of
the CHI subscribers 90% and of the HIP enrollees
79% had favorable attitudes toward their chosen
plans. Of the HIP subscribers 12% and of the CHI
subscribers 3% expressed dissatisfaction with the
plan. Moreover, more HIP subscribers said, "doc-
tors don't let you explain troubles," and "you wait
too long in their offices" when citing dissatisfac-
tions regarding physicians. The report showed that
very few GHI subscribers changed doctors on join-
ing the plan while 46% of the HIP subscribers
did so.
The main portion of the text deals with costs of
health care Services, proportion of costs paid by
insurance, utilization of Services, background on
choice, attitudes, and experiences as well as sum-
mary and conclusions. The five appendixes discuss
methodology, estimates of sampling errors, compo-
sition of samples, costs for families, and costs for
three union groups. The study report indicates that
there were more hospital admissions, surgical pro-
cedures requiring hospitalization of the patient,
and nonhospital surgical procedures per 100 sub-
scribers for GHI than for HIP enrollees. Such data
seemingly are at variance with pronouncements of
certain protagonists for group practice coordinated
plans to the eflPect that other program benefits are
deterrents to the timely seeking of health care.
Enrollees under both groups had about the same
number of physicians' home, office, and hospital
calls, and about the same proportion of both groups
did not see a physician du ring the period of the
survev.
The book is well indexed. A number of the tables
presented relate to previous studies undertaken or
sponsored by the Health Information Foundation.
Some of the tables, however, are not explained
sufficiently to have much meaning to those who are
uninitiated in Statistical studies,
Howard O. Browkr
Principles of Aniinal Virology. By F. M. Burnot, Director,
Walter and Eliza Hall, Institute of Medical Researeh, Mel-
bourne, Australia. Second edition. Cloth. $12. Pp. 490. with
34 illustratioas. Academie Press, Inc., 111 Fifth Ave., New
York 3; Academic Press, Ine. (London), Ltd., 17 Cid Queen
St., London, S. W. 1, England, 1960.
Virology has advanced with unprecedented
rapidity in the last decade, making a second edition
of this book necessary. The author states, "the
etiologies are defined, the principles of immuniza-
tion are well known, the routine of diagnosis, of
Vaccine production, of public health action, can run
smoothly. . . ." The term "animal viruses" is used
to designate viruses found in the animal kingdom
as opposed to "plant viruses."
The first chapters on the history and general
Problems of animal virology are excellent as are the
succeeding chapters on cellular infection, patho-
genesis, and immunity. Other chapters discuss ac-
tive and passive immunity, latent infections, and
the ecological aspects of viral disease. The Variation
and evolution of the viruses are stressed, and the
author predicts there will be a new influenza A
virus within 20 years whereas another enterovirus
will become the major cause of poliomyelitis within
50 years. The final chapter is devoted to Classifica-
tion and nomenclature of viruses, presenting the
"official" Suggestion of four groups of pathogens in
humans and the "nonofficial" Suggestion of nine
groups. Another decade of investigation will show
great progress in these matters. The numerous ref-
erences at the end of each chapter represent excel-
lent background material on the subject of viruses.
Thomas G. Hüll, Ph.D.
Genetic Basis of Morphological Variation: An Evaluation
and Application of the Twin Study Method. By Riehard H.
Osborne and Franees V. De George. Study eondueted at
Columhia-Presbyterian Medieal Center under auspiees of
Institute for Study of Human Variation, Columbia Univer-
sity. Cloth. $5. Pp. 204, with illustrations. Published for
Commonwealth Fund by Harvard University Press, Cam-
bridge 38, Mass.; Oxford University Press, Amen House,
Warwiek Sq., London, E. C. 4, England, 1959.
This monograph presents a brief review of the
methodology of twin studies and the results of
applying some of these methods to a series of
measurements on a group of monozygotic and
dizygotic twins. In addition to containing variance
analyses for detecting genetic components in 62
classical anthropometric measures, the book in-
cludes analyses based on Sheldon's somatotyping
Scale and on a masculine-feminine body-build scale
devised by the authors. Unlike many previous twin
studies, the authors have wisely included the
variances of measurement errors (based on the dif-
ferences between two measurements of the same
dimension on a Single person). Both the foreword
(by Theodosius Dobzhansky) and the text empha-
size the importance of learning more about poly-
genic inheritance in man and the fact that twins
provide an excellent resource, not only for this
purpose, but also foT^the rix^mtlv important task of
assaying the role of environmental factors in man,
both in health and in disei\se. Although the book
does not quite reveal tbe "Genetic Basis of Mor-
phological Variation," it does provide methodologic
approaches for partitioning s.qurces of hiirnan Vari-
ation. It will be an important reference for anyone
planning a twinstudy and it may stimulate some
readers to recognize the applicability of the twin
study method to their own area of interest. J>
- — " C. N. Herndon, M.D.
136
S U RGE R Y
technic, about 82% of gallbladders
containing benign tumors can be
visualized. In 84% of the visualized
gallbladders, a radiolucent shadow
can be detected.
SURGICAL TREATMENT
Because malignant transforma-
tion may occur, cholecystectomy is
the preferred treatment even when
manifestations and roentgenologic
findings are slight. Carcinoma in
situ is completely cured by chole-
cystectomy, whereas advanced Car-
cinoma of the galibladder is usually
fatal.
Small, soft benign tumors often
cannot be palpated during laparot-
omy. In these instances, resection
on the basis of the roentgenologic
diagnosis is warranted.
PATHOLOGY
Excluding cholesterol polyps and
inflammatory polyps, 45 gallblad-
ders with benign tumors were re-
moved during a fifteen-year period.
Nonpapillary or glandulär adeno-
mas were found in 18, papillary
adenomas in 15, adenomyomas —
usually sessile and in the tip of the
galibladder fundus — in 9, Carcino-
ma in situ in adenomas in 2, and
fibroadenoma in 1.
Transplantation of Kidney to Nonidentical Twin
Functional survival of a kidney transplanted between fraternal
twins is possible, apparently through development of partial
immiinologic tolerance. Because of prolonged survival of a
first skin graft from the urcmic to the hcalthy brother and
consanguinity of the twins in 24 of 25 blood groups, kidney
transplantation was attempted, even though accelerated rejec-
tion of a second skin graft occurred. John P. Merrill. M.D., and
associates of Peter Bent Brigham Hospital and Harvard Univer-
sity, Boston, explain that subtotal whole-body irradiation was
given preoperativeiy to temporarily depress antibody forma-
tion in the recipient. The uremic State and size and position of
grafted kidney tissue also favored tolerance production. In the
recipient, the preoperative skin homograft was rejected eight
months after grafting. Urine contained erythrocytes and pro-
tein eight months after transplant, and renal biopsy findings in-
dicated that rejection of the transplant had begun. Urinary ab-
normalities disappeared after protracted low-dose irradiation
and corticosteroid therapy. Renal function was normal fourteen
months after kidney transplantation, and the urine was free of
protein.
New EiiHland J. Med. 262:1251-1260, 1960.
118 MODERN MEDICINE, Ocfohcr 1, 1960
S U RGE R Y
Benign Tumors of the Gallbladder
SEYMOUR FISKE OCHSNER, M.D., AND ALTON OCHSNER, M.D.
Ochsner Clinic, New Orleans
Benign neoplasms of the gallbladder
are often apparent on roentgenograms
and tvarrant cholecystectomyr'
Tumors of the gallbladder as small
as 2 or 3 mm. in diameter can be
demonstrated on cholecystograms.
The tumor appears as a fixed radio-
lucent defect in the opacified gall-
bladder.
MANIFESTATIONS
Benign neoplasms of the gall-
bladder produce no specific Symp-
toms. Most patients have gaseous
indigestion and upper abdominal
pain. Gallstones are often associat-
ed and may produce right upper
quadrant pain and biliary colic.
Biliary colic may also result from
a detached tumor passing through
the biie ducts. About a third of pa-
tients with benign tumors have
multiple growths.
ROENTGENOLOGIC DIAGNOSIS
The radiolucent shadow, which
may be between 2 and 10 mm. in
diameter, may resemble a gall-
stone. Differentiation is accom-
plished by roentgenograms made
Roentgenogram shoivs radiolucent shad-
ow oj adenonia of gallbladder.
with the patient in upright and de-
cubitus positions. Gallstones move
around, but tumors maintain a
constant position.
Gallstones may hinder recogni-
tion of tumor by producing othei
radiolucent shadows or by causini
Cholecystitis and, as a consequence,
nonvisualization of the gallbladder.
With good cholecystographic
Ann. Surg.
♦Beniyn neoplasms of the gallbladder: diagnosis and surgical iniplications
151:630-637, 1960.
MODERN MEDICINE, Octobcr 1, 1960 117
LDAY, FEBRUARY 18, 1961. ^1
L+ +
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prevented
le sport at
le of an in-
Electrical Waves of Identical
Pairs Calculated First
Time by Scientist
INHERITANCE IS IMPLIED
Biophysicists Get Report on
Experiments at M. I. T.
Employing Computers
\t he the
Wagner,
ly in the
IS trading
Page 25
tag proc-
Page 25
l^d by Gen-
Page 25
By JOHN A. OSMÜNDSEN
Special to The New York Times
ST. LOUIS, Feb. 17 — The
first quantitative evidence that
electrica! activity of the brain
may be inherited was reported
here today.
A young Massachusetts In-
stitute of Technology scientist
told of finding that brain waves
are more alike in identical
twins than in unrelated persons.
Although strong corrclations
between intelligence levels of
identical twins have been re-
ported, it has not yet been de-
termined whether similarities
between their brain waves are
responsible.
The new findings seem at
loast to suggest, however, that
closely related persons such at
twins might possess similar be-
havior patterns by virtue of th«
siniilarities between their neuro»
electrical activitics.
Language of Nervous System
The scientist who made th«
report during a meeting of the
Biophysical Society at th«
Chase Hotel this afternoon was
Stanley Levine of the institute's
Research Laboratory of Elec-
tronics.
His work was part of the
laboratory's broad program
aimed at learning something
about the language of the ner-
vous System. What the scien-
tists want to know is what the
spikes and wriggles on electro-
encephalograms mean IB t<<VBB
of bchavior.
To find out, they ar* aludy-
ing such things as eleetiiciü
pvotentials recorded from dM
round window of the inner eat
of anesthetized cats and re-
sponses to sensory Stimuli re-
corded from the scalp of awake
humans.
Taken one at a time, such
experiments disclose little about
the relationships between the
Stimuli, nerve responses and be-
havior of the animal or person.
And then it takes a trained ejr»
to distinguish between th« »lfl[-
'lificant and the meaningl««
^^uiggles that are recorded.
For this reason the scientisto
ui per the direction of Dr. WaK
ter A. Rosenblith process •
lar^-e number of experimental
runs with high-speed Comput-
ers. Their object is to develoy
mathematical formulas frotf
which' neuroelectrical activity
can be predicted, Dr. Rosenblith
explained during his symposlun»
this morning.
Computers Employed
Dr. Levine employed comput*
ers in this way to determln«
quantitatively whether similarl-»
ties between the electroenceplv-
alograms of idential twins ac-
tually exist.
He examined the alpha
rhythms in brain waves of five
pairs of identical male twins
between the agos of 18 and 21,
An alpha rhythm is a Signal
that can be recorded from the
Vear of the brain when a per-
son relaxes. .
Dr. Levine plotted the brain
wave recordings of each twin
on Charts according to various
Statistical factors such as the
amount of alpha activity a re-
cording, the length of the alpha
bur.st, its shape and the fre-
quency of the alpha rhythm.
He found that in every case
but one alpha rhythms of twins
were more closely related than
those of non-twins.
Slje ^'^w ^^^^ ®i^^^
Mav 2. 1965
Uli
agazxtte
SECTION 6
20 YCABS AGO:
THE END COMES TO THE THIRD REICH
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Tabie o/ Confeiit3>-Pa9e 22
1
THE WEIGHT OF THINGS
"S
IPORCE OF CIRCUMSTANCE. By Simon«
de Beauvoir. Translated by Richard How-
ard from the French, "La Force des
Chotes." 658 pp. New YoHi: G. P. Put-
nam's Sons. $10.
By BRIGID BROPHY
►INCE her conversatlon makes
lt8 polnts by way of ellipses,
allusions, impUcations and un-
flnished sentences, I always feit it
would be pedantic of me to finlsh
mlne, but I just couldn't get used to
breaking them off halfway through,
and always wound up unable to think
of anything to say."
Thus Simone de Beauvoir describes
her "rare meetings** with Frangoise
Sagan and Incidentally defines the
dlfference between her own and Sa-
gan's hterary personality. To my
mlnd, Sagan is the most underesti-
mated and Mlle. de Beauvoir the most
overestimated presence in postwar
French writing. Both are the result,
I believe, of a fundamental misesteem
of art. Our age has been bullied into
the misconception that the clumsy
and laborlous must somehow be
worthier than intellectual penetration
achieved by economy and with ele-
gance. Only in such a climate could
critical opinion have put the cart
horse before the race horse.
The more I read of Mlle. de Beau-
voir, the more I have the Impression
that I met her, under various mani-
festations, during my schooldays. No
doubt there is one in every education-
al establishment. She was the one in
the front row of the class whose high
marks led you to hope for an original
intelligence. Disappointed (quickly)
of that, you still looked for a reli-
able, academic mind. It tumed out to
be a mind capable of missing entire
Points, and incapable both of the pre-
cision of an artist and of the accur-
acy of a scholar. Not Inspired enough
to be slapdash, it was often slipshod.
In the end, you were obliged to admit
that the high marks reflected noth-
ing but obedient work, that what
seemed to be intellectual passion was
only a sense of duty — ^plus a devotion
to the Professor; in short, that you
were up against a plodder.
Mlle. de Beauvoir is a plodder par
exceUence and even, I almost suspect,
by wanton and perverse choice. Her
first novel, "L'Invit^" ("She Came
to Stay"), in-articulated as it was,
Mi88 Brophy, an Engliah novelist
a$td critic, ffubliahed two books last
yeoTf '*Mozart the Dramatist" and
the noveUa "The SnowbaU and
The Finishing Touch."
did generate an intensity of moral
atmosphere. It was a thunderous aft-
emoon from which something might
have flashed. Since then she has made
it piain that in her judgment the
flash of wit, irony or poetry is no
better than the flashy. Neither strat-
egy nor the tactics of her writing will
have any truck with metaphor. She
disdains — or does not command —
those moments of thought or lan-
guage which simultaneously fuse two
Images and illuminate or sear the
reader. Not for her the master stroke
which cuts a long story short; she
opts each time for the Long March —
the long plod.
Whereas her essay on the Marquis
de Sade approached the brink of in-
sights (though it promptly looked
away from them into an undergrowth
of irrelevant, and perhaps actually
factitious, metaphysical problems),
"The Second Sex" revealed her as a
Compiler of trees rather than a dis-
cerner of woods. The section she
boldly called "The Psychoanalytic
Point of View" betrayed (incredible
as it seems) that Mlle. de Beauvoir
had simply missed the point of Freud.
IyIoREOVER, unless the English
edition belies her utterly, she was not
to be depended on even as a reporter.
She could refer without explanation
to Freud's "later calling the femi-
nine form of the [Oedipal] process
the Electra complex." (What makes
me think an explanation necessary is
Freud's remark of 1920, "I do not see
any . . . advantage in the introduction
of the term 'Electra-complex,' and do
not advocate its use.") Indeed, she
could not teil chalk from cheese —
that is, in this case, Jungian from
psychoanalytical terminology; she
could speak of psychoanalysis doing
something or other "in the name of
the 'collective unconscious.' "
The thlrd and latest volume of her
autobiography is Mlle. de Beauvoir's
most pedestrian plod yet. It Covers
the years— 1944 to 1962 — in which
she was pretty much top of the class,
thanks partly, it seems fair to guess,
to her devoticm to the professor but
thanks also to the prevailing mysti-
cal belief that the tedious must be
profound. Her method here is simply
to amass: "Since June, my slster and
her husband had been living in
Casablanca . . . Sartre's thought, as
I have Said, was gradually Stripping
itself of all idealism; but he did not
reject the existential postulates and
continued to demand, withln the
realm of praocia, a synthesis . . . Sartre
Sinnone de Beauvoir with Jean-Paul Sartre, Paris, October, 1964.
also had personal troubles." A pr6cis
of the newspapers is piled on her
and Sartre's (separate) love affairs;
friends* names ring no more intimate
or vivid than those of politicians;
recording her love af f air in the United
States, Mlle. de Beauvoir jots down
the Population of Cincinnati.
It is a sheer heap. ("La Force des
CThoses" is the French title of the
book; should it not have been the
weight of things!) In it, intellectual
analysis and atmosphere are alike
suffocated. The political Vision is as
banal as a leader-writer's : there are
two power blocs in the world, and it
is hard for a Euroi>ean intellectual to
choose between them. Mlle. de Beau-
voir's account of her trip from a still
austere France to the luxuries of
Switzerland is less evocative than one
stylish nail-paring from Colette's aged
and arthritic band — the baroque paean
of gluttony, for instance, which (in
"The Blue Lantem" ) she made of her
postwar Visit to Geneva.
Mlle. de Beauvoir compiles away.
Sartre's magazine, Les Temps Mod-
ernes, is founded (who would have
guessed its name alludes to Charlie
Chaplin?); Sartre encouräges her to
work at, and (Continued on Page 24;
5'*^,*
Wirkungen
skeptische
nen Beitritt
ersten Stel-
regung, als
jnd Groß-
|er Vollmit-
[aftliche und
jm so mehr,
liten seines
jie Bindun-
lieitern der
In diesem
Frankreichs
[bereits ist,
futige Stel-
daß eine
Jen Partner
fie Ver mitt-
lrem guten
zu finden,
und Groß-
|e Mitglied-
kmillan bei
sich selbst
SED-Partei-
hs makabre
ler Verurtei-
^versitzende
ig, Belgrad,
IröfFnungs-
[in der Zone
1970 eine
onhört, wie
^•nsstandard
geduldiger
[rtg des Vor-
aus seinem
«um Vor-
reißig Jahre donocii
Die Fackeln in der Wiiheimstroße - Hitlers Machtübernahme am 30. Januar 1933 - Von Stefan Schnell
<" \ \
Mit der Miene von Leuten, die
es besser wissen, pflegt man heute
gern über den Staat von Weimar
zu reden, dessen fundamentale
Sdiwädien und Fehler ja zu gar
nidits anderem hätten führen kön-
nen, als zu dem, was am 30.
Januar 1933 geschah. In der Tat,
der Nationalsozialismus, sdion in
den ersten Jahren der ersten deut-
schen Demokratie zu einem politi-
schen Programm entwidcelt und in
das Sdiema einer ausgesprochen in-
tellektfeindlichen,kleinbürgerlichen
Partei gegossen, wurde mit
jedem Jahr stärker, in dem diese
Demokratie sdiwädier wurde. Als
lie Braunen triumphierten, wurde
.'iner lEpoctie te'^eul.sdlß» Ge-J
schidite die Tot^glodte^ geläutetli
)0 sdieint denn dieseTheorie s^
klar und eingängig, daß man sie
als einen wohlfeilen Beitrag zur
Bewältigung der Vergangenheit be-
nutzen zu können glaubt, insbeson-
dere dann, wenn man sie nodi mit
dem Bemühen verquickt, möglidist
viel Verantwortung auf die Alliier-
ten, den Vertrag von Versailles,
die Kriegsschuldfrage und die Re-
parationen abzuwälzen. Was bei
diesem Verfahren herauskommt,
Nicht die Demokratie als Form
eines deutschen Staatswesens war
so ungeeignet, nicht ihre Verfas-
sung war so schledit, daß mit Not-
wendigkeit der 30. Januar 1933
hätte folgen müssen. Zwar, der
erste Versuch, Demokratie in
Deutschland nicht mehr nur theo-
retisdi zu erörtern, sondern prak-
tisch zu erproben, hatte einen aus-
gesprodien schlei|iten Start. Der
Zusammenbruch einer Welt, die
1918 schon zu einer Traumwelt ge-
worden war »;ind die dennoch mit
seltsamer Hartnäckigkeit auch heu-
te noch manchmal als „gute alte
Zeit" gepriesen wird, hatte viele
Menschen /in Deutschland mehr als
in andere/n Ländern, die sich unter,
den Siegern befanden, mutlos ge
macht. Andererseits rief die bittere
Stunde« der Erkenntnis im Walde
von Cjbmpiegne jene Sdiaren auf
den Plfcm, die es immer und zu al-
len Zelten gegeben hat. Sie zeidv
nen siAi dadurch aus, daß sie die
Wahrhlit nit^jc_^wjJii»haben wollen
und aLegenHen" anhängen. Aus
ihnen llormierten sich die Kräfte
des ifchten Radikalismus, die,
wennBudi in manchem unterschie-
den. Bdi dennoch emig waren in
andere Chance- als unterzugehen. .
Hätte die Demokratie damals in
Deutschland gerettet werden kön-
nen, wenn es einen Vertrag von
Versailles wenigstens in dieser
Form nicht gegeben hätte, wenn
Deutschland nicht genötigt worden
wäre, die Schuld für den ersten
Weltkrieg auf sich zu nehmen? Die
Frage ist wie alle derartigen histo-
risdien Hypothesen spekulativ.
Aber man wird doch sagen kön-
nen, daß wir uns selber das schlech-
teste Zeugnis ausstellen, wenn wir
ständig nach der Verantwortung
der anderen sudien nicht um der
Objektivität, sondern um der Ent-
sdiuldigung willen. Brüning war
1932 in der Reparationsfrage
.hundert Meter vor dem Ziel",
wie er es in einem berühmt gewor-
' denen Ausspruch vor dem Reidis-
tag formulierte. Dennoch wurde
er gestürzt, und mit den kurzlebi-
gen Kabinetten Papen und Sdilei-
cher nahm das Verhängnis bereits
seinen Lauf. Audi die Weltwirt-
schaftskrise kann nicht als Ursache
für das Heraufkommen des Ter-
rors in Deutschland behauptet wer-
den.
All diese Ereignisse waren be-
nodi das Ziehen von Konsequen-
zen. Sie erledigten das allerdings mit
einer bis dahin für unmöglidi ge-
haltenen Grausamkeit. Der Glaube
der Papen upd Hugenberg, sie
nur eine Mmderheit im Kabinett
besaß, war ebenso unsiimig wie die
Annahme, man könne den Bau der
A u t obaJiag jUAndjdJ 6 _fia s ö f e n von
AusoiwTtzt rennen als zwei nicht
zusammengehörige Dinge. Wer
solchen Meinungen anhängt, ver-
steht nichts von der unheimlidien
Dialektik der Gesdiiditc.
Die Nazis hatten niemals vor
dem Ermächtigungsgesetz und der
Vernichtung der demokratischen
Parteien eine qualifizierte Mehr-
heit. Selbst am 5. März 1933, als
die braunen Schläger schon unge-
hindert die Straße beherrschten,
erreichte die Nationalsozialistische
Deutsche Arberterpai'tci nu
jl
Prozenfder Stimrnen und 2&8 Sit
ze im Reichstag. Erst mit ihren
„Koalitionspartnern", den Deu
nationalft^ zusammen vjjcTugt
sic'trHer eine knappe absolute
Mehrheit. Diese in vielerlei Hin-
sidit eindrucksvolle Tatsache, daß
die deutschen Wähler, solange sie
-«H(''#-
en y^
\
jfag wi«d«r
rortlich ge-
ist genug
ztrffören.
»nigffens in
|r wird, sind
rroBbritan-
Itich stärkste
ilidi klar in
ASZ
[esregierung
ir einer alliu
ISA glaubte
[jetzt als den
ler USA in
sehen Ge-
leipolitische
ler Bundes-
sachüche
[rteidigungs-
denn die
lie beste Lö-
mg der ge-
keineswegs
trteitaktische
hat ^er katholisSic^ubliilst Päül
Wilhelm Wenger gelegentlich sehr
treffend als „Autobahj^Na^j^ hc-
zeidinet. Er öiemF ^mlt diesCto
bildkräftigen Ausdruck jene Ty-
pen, die zwar die Gasöfen von
Ausdiwitz nidit billigen, und audi
sonst Hitler mandie „Fehler" an-
kreiden, im übrigen aber darauf
beharren, daß dieser Mann doch
audi manches Positive gesdiaffen
habe. Es ist allenfalls begreiflidi,
daß unter den Älteren soldie, die
eine nicht Leben rühmliche Rolle
gespielt haben, nun am liebsten auf
eine möglidist unauffällige Weise
damit fertig werden möditen.
Aber man darf es nicht zulassen,
daß den Nadifolgenden durdi
willkürliche Manipulationen der
geschichtlichen Wahrheit ein fal-
sches Bild der jüngsten dgu^si^»^
Vergangenheit übSfrHffteft wird.
leifi Ael, aur jea^SOSii «las r-^reuc^
das lieh mit dem Ausgang des
ersten) Weltkrieges auf tat, zu zer-
störenj In merkwürdiger Gemein-
schaft ifanden sich völkisch-altmo-
dischel Kleinbürger u. Spießer mit
großbirgeriichen und noblen Re~
aktiowiren zusammen. Aber das
Erstaunliche an diesem widerna-
türlicnrn Zweckbündnis ist viel-
leidit |ur, daß sie schließlich den
Sieg d»ontrugen über die linken
Radika^, die ebenfalls das Ziel
hatten, den erfolgreichen Aufbau
eines demokratisdien Rechtsstaa-
tes in DeutA-hland zu verhindern,
um statt des!5Cn eine kommunisti-
sche Diktatur cu erriditen. Unter
dem partikulariiJtischen Eigensinn
eines Volkes hemmungsloser In-
teressenten und den zielbewußten
Angriffen von rechts und links
hatte der Weimarer Staat keine
Hitler und Goebbels und den gro-
ßen wie kleinen Nazis landauf,
landab fanatisch hinausgeschrien
und in den Rang von Ursachen er-
hoben, die es in der Wurzel zu än-
dern gelte, als ob die Wiederher-
stellung der Ehre des Vaterlandes
nidit das Anliegen der großen de-
mokratischen Politiker gewesen
wäre, die Deutschland während
der zwanziger Jahre in Männern
wie Ebert oder Stresemann besaß.
Als SA und SS am Abend des 30.
(Januar 1933jnit Fackeln durch die
.tJTilhelmstraße zur Rdchskanzlei^
zogeiT'urtd-ihlTgn TaüTende frene-
tisch und enthusiastisch zujubelten,
war das Werk vollendet. Was Hit-
ler und den Seinen in ihrer nihili-
stischen Gesinnung während der
K ihnen noch zugedachten zwöl]^
A/lahre zu^ tun übrigblieb, ^^suf'imr
'ßen frei waren, Hitler niemals dc.i '
Triumph eines eindeutigen Wahl- '
sieges verschafften, ist eines der
wenigen minder schmerzlichen Er-
eignisse in unserer jüngsten Ge-
schichte. Aber es gewährt uns auch
keine ungeteilte Freude, denn es
stand zuviel Passivjtät und Un-
mut zur tiil!>Üiiudeiieii Abwehr der
Gefahr dahinter. Es war zuviel
politische und historische Unwis-
senheit dabei, zuviel Kritiklosig-
ikeit gegenüber dem vernebelnden
;'iGeschwätz jener, die seit Genera-
|tionen schon die deutsche Geschich-
I te dazu mißbrauchten, um Legen-
den und Verfälschungen zu kon-
struieren. So bleibt die bittere Ein-
sidit uns dreißig Jahre danach
nicht erspart, daß die W^iüiSÄir
Demokratie an uns selbst und mit|
uns selbst zugrunde gegaiT^n ist.'
|rde General-
Iren. Sie wis-
Jst? ich auch
lutsche Solda-
ein Informa-
sere Soldaten.
ien, wann im
ibiläumsflüge
Ae\ Orden —
lerKehen wur-
„Fuhrer und
gibt im Vor-
izu! HofTent-
Irerteidigungs-
immerhin ein
Fabian von
tut, nidit sei-
dazu gege-
lan es fast,
L9rgleich den
U 1963 des
imtes der
kht. Keine
|ilL seine Silbe
IhT f • „Reichs-
\h finstigen of-
ig^n zu diesen
Ing^n? Die „In- jjjjpjj— — — i^— ^— — ^— ^
tegenf „Dal Wangenkuß und gegenseitigen Beifall gaben sich N. S. Chruschtschow (links) und Walter Ulbricht bei der Ankunft der sowjetischen ^^'^^'^'^^^^^'.'^^^^J^^«
U« der Eile..." auf dem Ostbahnhof in Ost-Berlin. °^°' ^y^^°"^
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« *i<r-iiv;;;-^^5i.-
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iktdeii von
^! ««it acm
a^l^of f ilc» G^
Ä 4em, WÄ*
I BNJhen aus-
f*chausdrtik-
©««IfcJiteft.
61 Jahren
gfd; machte; SÄh
^ »>wgte Dr
Mötf freut sich
-**♦ ^^£^ TS'^v Ö**^' <*»e beson.
■^irt,,i^|Ä., ilti^c^^ad«'-. 'ich
i,7^^*l%^»^. d«W ich, wi(
^lü-
1^
Anthropology in Israel
by Harvey Goldberg
Department oj Sociology and Smql. Anthropology, Hebrew Uni-
versity, Jerusalem, Israel. 10 vi(75 y
Anthropology in Israel is a diversified set of activities, exhibiting
thc variety in the interests, training, and general background
•^f its practitioners. I will try to sketch briefly the major settings
'^n which anthropological studies have developed, relating
^ese to the present-day scene. The focus will be cultural and
^ial anthropology, with biological anthropology^ and pfe-
itistory reserved for another item.
• ■>.
\
The theme of the ''return^^to^ion,'' in its various versions,
h'is implied different conceptianTof Jewish life in the diaspora.
, In some cases the dominant attitude has been that of outright
^jr^cction (see Spiro 1958), but most views mix criticism with
some sort of positive attachment. The most politically active
Jewish Immigrant groups in Palestine combined Zionism with
socialism, which laid claim to a "scientific" understanding of
Society. Analysis of Jewish life abroad, therefore, was a logical
concomitant of the effort to reestablish a national homeland.
A well-known example of this combination is the work of
Arthur Ruppin, an economist-sociologist who directed Jewish
colonization activities in Palestine, dealing with the demog-
raphy and sociology of the Jews from an historical perspective
(Ruppin 1930-31, 1934). Culturally, we need only mention
Haiml^ahmart BäJÜc, best known for his role in the develop-
ment of modern Hebrew poetry, who was active in the prep-
aration of foüclofe anthologies. He was one of the editors of
Reshumot, an annual established in 1925 for the publication of
"memoirs, ethnography, and folklore in Israel."
Not only the "fends of exile," 'ßut the new homeland as well,
inspired Images which have their reflections in ethnologic work.
Here, both the Jews living in the Middle East and the Arabs
of Palestine took on significance. An oft-cited story concerning
Eliezer Ben Yehudah, one of the main figures in the revival of
spoTcerrTleHrew7~claims thal_he_ivas inspired by the Hebrew
pronuncTätion of thecJewsof_A]gier*. He considered it closer
to the "true" (Biblicai)T7ebrew and attempted to have Jews
from European countries alter their phonetic habits to con-
form with it (cf. Blanc 1968). The Jews oT^^emen, who began
to reach Palestine at the time of thel^rjt ZTönist immigj;ation
<;>in 1881, were enthusiastically received as represcntatives of an
^""inüientic Jewish culture. Their music, dance steps, and em-
broidervAvere consciously incorporated by European Jews into
the developing art forms of the Jewish Community. In addition,
archaeologists from many diflferent countries found that the
names of Biblical towns were often preserved in current Arabic
place^mes? The Finnish ethnologist Hilma Granqvist care-
fully scrutinized customs in a village near Bediiehem with an
eye to Biblical parallels (Granqvist 19M-35, 1965).
One major work on a Jewish group was produced in the
1930s, Rrauer's (1934) Ethnologie deLJmmäschen Juden. His
materials on the Jews of Kurdistan (Brayer 1947y~wefe edited
posthumously by Patai, who'alS^es a resume of the activities
of the Palestine Instrtute of Folklbce and Ethnolgg^in the
years before the establishment of the stät^^^^jail^^).^
Quite a diflferent ancestor of contemporaTyfsraeTi anthro-
pology is found in the person of Martin Buber. The orientation
^The overview that follows is descriptive rather than analytic
and the references cited representative rather than exhaustive.
Insofar as possible I have emphasized (a) monographs, {b) by
anthropologists, {c) in English, in the latter. Thc reader is directed
to the diseussion of social anthropology in Israel (Handelman and
Desher/1975) which appeared while this item was in preparation.
An eaiiirr survey is found in Weingrod (1968).
Vol. 17 • No. 7 ' March 1976
of his courses on the "Sociology of Culture" at the Hebrew
University was philosophical, histonpal, and comp^ative and
still characterizes woÄ in the D^artment of Sociology and
Social Anthropology at that Institution. Several of Buber's
students studied in London, where they came into contact with
lines of thought characterizing social anthropology in the late
'40s and early '50s. This influence was especially important in
the case of Yonina Talmon, as sketched by Eisenstadt's intro-
duction to her posthumous book on the kibbutz (Talmon 19224^
The three and a half years followmg tKe estaBÜshment of
the State witnessed a mass Immigration which doubled the
Jewish_po£ulation of tiTrTourüryTT^pproximately'Tialf of tKe
newcomers represented the remnants o^uropean Jewry, while
the other half came from the/lvliddle East ancH^orth Africa.
In addition to the immense pi^tical challengeVtt posed, this
Immigration raised questions about the best way to conceptual-
ize and study the processes of absorption, Integration, or the
lack thereof. The Department of Sociology at the Hj^w
University, then the only Institution of higher learning m the
country, consciously debated and carved out an approach to
this Problem. This approach is well formulated ,rn a^Daper by
Ben-David (in Eisenstadt, Bar-Yosef, and Adler (WOj) entitled
"EtTTmc^fiferences or S^ocjaL Change?" and uTTequivocally
opts for 'theTatter. It argues thaTthe immigrants have little
attachment to their traditional cultures and that their main
orientation is toward penetration of and acceptance in the
"old-timer," European-derived nucleus of the Jewish popula-
tion. Consequently, one need know only very general back-
ground Information concerning these groups, whose absorption
history is best understood in terms of the overall institutional
development of the country. The studies carried out within
this framework provided important insights into the bases of
many of Israel's institutions, seen through macrosociological
eyes. From the anthropologist's point of view, they do not give
detailed attention to behavioral forms, whether one is interested
in custom, social inter^ction, or the links between the two.
Thismay be seenm the literature on theCwojrAflJ, or small-
holder's co^er;ative, which is both an institutional form and
an ecolo^ical setting that has attracted Israeli social scientists
together with anthropologists from abroad. These new village
communities were particularly important in expanding the
agricultural base of a growing society after many of the Arab
villagers had fled during the 1948^ war. Some of the moshavim
(a minority) may be considered "transplanted communities,"
in which a group of people from one locale in the country of
origin continue to reside together in an Israeli village. These
cases naturally attracted anthropologists coming to do research
in Israel, who were trained to study situations in which culture
and Community neatly coincide. All of the researchers, how-
ever, quickly apprcciated that much of what happened in these
villages must be seen in terms of their relationship to central-
ized bureaus and national policies (Abarbanel 1974, Baldwin
1971, Kushner 1973, Shapiro 1971, Weingrod 1966, Weintraub
et al. 1971, VVillner 1969). At the same time, other studies
have shown that one ignores the history and culture_of_Uiese
groups at one's peril (H. Goldberg XTf2, Sholceid 1971).
The question of(cthnicit^ within the Jewish majority has
always been problcmatTTTfi. Cohen 1968, 1972; Patai 1953;
Strizower 1971; Weingrod 1965; Zenner 1967), at times lying
dormant and at other times bubbling to the surface. It is far^/
too simple to view ^^^ rvatt^r ^« F...rnpp;^ns vs Middle Eastern-'?! ^
jotrataf läb'el for threer ' i \
el^s . Th6 YemeTlIte JeWTMve'ehJöyed 3" popnta
quarters of a Century. The German immigrants of the late '20s ,
and~r50srwho brought important economic skills to the
country, were the object of brutal ethnic Stereotyping on the
part of the East Europeans who preceded them. I have men-
tioned Reshumot as one annual devoted to folklore; it was pub-
lished for four years and then discontinued (to resume, again
briefly, in 1945). About half a dozen other Journals of varying
emphasis and quality, devoted to similar ends, appeared for
119
ff
^
Short periods of time. While no less a figure than Ben-Zvi,
second prcsident of Israel, was personally active in pursuing
and^romoting researchQj[L_Palestine and on the Jews of the
Middle East (Ben-Zvi i957)i there remains a great deal of
ambivalence, and varied opinion, about the importance of
perpetuating c.ultural djffcxiences among various Jewish groups.
During the last five years or so there has been an ethnic cul-
tural revival (Deshen 1974). To vvhat extent this should be
Seen as the result of cultural inertia and in what ways it is
linked to other social, poliücal, and cultural developments is
a matter that awaifs detailed investigation.
A number of governmental and quasi-governmental agencies
have recognized the possible contribution of anthropological
study to their domains of concern. Two anthropologists have
served as directors of the Settlement Studv Center, concerned
with rurayevelopment (tVeingrod 1966, Wülner 1969), and
the Ministry^f Health has been utilizing anthropological find-
ings for many years (Orent 1974, Palgi 1963, 1970, 1973).
Recently, there has been some work on the Georgian immigrants
from Russia under the auspices of the Ministlyxif Absorption.
The administrative fate of research, and recommendations re-
sulting therefrom, is a topic unto itself.
The most recent input to Israeli anthropology has been a
research scheme organized at t>ie"Üniversity of Manchester
under the direction of the late Max Gtncicman (see his" Fore-
word to Deshen 1970). This scheme put ten. anthropologists
into the field, some of them Israelis whose mTtiaTtrarntng was
\ in sociology and others students from elsewhere. It is very much
to the credit of this project that it has concerned itself with
Veteran groups (Aronoff 1974, Baldwin 1971) as well as with
new immigrants and with Europeans__(Abarbanel 1974,
Aronoff 1974) as well as Mid^jeZUasterners (Deshen and
Shokeid 1974). Also, several of the studies were carried out in
development towns (Aronoff 1974, Deshen 1970, Marx 1972),
*1iot only in villages, and in institutional settings in largecities
V ^(Handelman n.d.). These works provide the etHnograp^ic
\\^concreteness often^missing in sociological studies ST parallel
'\^topIcs and relate ^ociirrenl cöTicerns In anthropology.
The Arab pppulation of Israel has also received considerable
attention,'^ocKWfflg*-mamiy"ofrvillages and Bedouin (A. Cohen
1965, E. Cohen 1974, Kressel 1975, Marx 1967, Nakhleh 1975,
Oppenheimer n.d., Zenner 1972). Some work has been done
on urbanization processes and urban influences (Kasdan 1971;
Rosenfeld 1964, 1968, 1972), and-tKiT is clearly an area de-
manding more research. The kibbutz has been a strong attrac-
tion for anthropologists (Diamofn!n957, Evans 1975, Kressel
1975, Shepher 1972, Shepher and Tiger 1975, Spiro 1958,
Talmon 1972), together with many other social scientists (E.
Cohen 1964; Shamir 1972). Compared to interest in the kibbutz,
yi interest in urban settings is relativelv me^^er (P. Cohen 1962,
Shai ISiTüTZenner 1967).
With regard to historically oriented studies, the Ben-Zy]
^itute in Jepj&akm contains a great deal of material relating
to the history of the Jews of the Middle East, but to date only
a few studies (Feitelson 1959, Goitein 1955, H. Goldberg 1971)
have attempted a social-historical_^analysis of a group's life
"lefore migration to TsräcTT^heToJklQrc^Res^arch Center (O.
Goldberg 1970, Noy 1963, Noy and Ben-Ami 1972) studies folk-
tales and customs from an ethnologic perspective (cf. Klein-
Franke 1967), while recently a structuralist point of view has
been brought to bear on oral literäture'Qason 1969, n.d.).
Linguists have analyzed the'lpölcen dialects of Jewish com-
mVmifies in their countries of origin (Blanc 1963, Garbell 1965),
as well as their traditional pronunciation of Hebrew (Morag
1963).
Anthropology is currcntly taught in allof Israel's universi-
ties, always in departrncnts including socioJQp^y. It wäT'first
established at Tel^^A^^UnivccsUvTsHaped bv participants in
the Manchtiiler research scheme. Most Israeli anthropologists
have studied some aspect of their own soctety, but there are
120
specialists in Africa as well (Almagor 1972, Eilam 1973, Orent
1970, Saltman 1975) — two of them at the Hebrew University
in Jerusalem. The Univer^it^j^of Haifa is the önl^ school to ' '
offer a course in general anthropology .'ÄhtEröpoIogy Ts tauglvP^ [1
in a behäyioral-sclence program m the Ben-Gurion University
of the I^egfi^'-fB^ef'^heba) and is included in the Sociology
Department of Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan (cf. Gunders
and Whiting 1968).
Ethnographie collections are found in museums in Jecusalem
(Lancet-Muller 19/4), H^tf^ymd 'T'eLAvLv. An^TsragfTVmhyo-
♦pölogic^Associatmp waf^^cently iSffiüd (see CA 16:182),
nd there is a Society for Ethnography. Anthropologists are
represented in the I^ra^lr^ocfeiögiöat-A^SSöcTation and in the
Association for Prehistory
#
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The Split Brain and the
Cuhure-and-Cognition Paradox
by ]. Anthony Paredes and Marcus J. Hepburn
Department of Anthropology, Florida State University, Tallahassee,
Fla. 32306, U.S.A. 21 vii 75
The following article was viewed by referees as presenting a con-
troversial viewpoint worthy of argument and discussion from
various subdiscipline perspectives. Debate and comment will ap-
pear in the June issue and subsequently. — Editor.
Preamble. The inspiration for this paper was a 1970 article in
which psychologist Gordon Bower used the dramatic results of
"split-brain" research to interpret his findings on the role of
mental imagery in memory. Although Bower's own findings
were powerfully interesting in their own right, it was his daring
Vol. 17 ' No.1 ' March 1976
linkage of those results to neuropsychology which Struck us as
having revolutionary implications for anthropology. In a gen-
eral way we sensed that here, perhaps, was the Rosetta Stone
by which such intriguing, yet troublesome, ethnographic curi-
osities as Trukese navigation and "non-lineal codifications of
reality" could be translated into general scientific terms. Al-
though neither of us is a specialist in neuropsychology or experi-
mental anthropology, we were sufficiently impressed by the
potentialities of split-brain research for resolving some long-
standing and fundamental problems in cultural anthropology
to venture to develop the ideas presented here. We hope they
will stimulate discussion in this exciting but controversial area
of inquiry. If our ideas and interpretations have merit, we hope
that specialists will translate them into testable hypotheses so
that the complementary perspectives of cross-cultural research-
ers and neurological specialists may jointly be brought to bear
on the understanding of human "thinking." We are aware that
since we first began developing this paper there have been
further advances in the understanding of lateralization of
cerebral processes and others have developed ideas similar to
121
ours on its implications (e.g., Marsh 1971, Bogen, Marsh, and
TenHouten 1971, TenHouten 1971).^ Nonetheless, we feel it
is worthwhile considering the split-brain idea from the stand-
point of the need for an adequate Interpretation of existing
ethnographic accounts of apparent differences in mental func-
tioning. In so doing, vve hope to have achieved some small
advance toward the understanding of a true synthesis of biology
and culture in the Operation of human minds.
One of the most fundamental intellectual contributions of
cultural anthropology is the Illumination of the role of cultural
patterning in human Cognition and problem solving. In brief
form, this anthropological insight is expressed axiomatically as
"what is rational in one culture is not necessarily rational in
another." In conjunction with the notion that human thought
processes are to a large extent culturally determined, this in-
sight has made anthropologists outstanding critics of intelli-
gence tests as culture-bound (Beals and Hoijer 1971:94). At
^ One of the reviewers of this paper directed cur attention to
these recent works on the cognitive implications of cerebral lateral-
ization. Although TenHouten and Kaplan (1973) have published
a book dealing with the subject — of which we were unable to
obtain a copy in time for incorporation into this paper — the first
reports appeared in government documents which we were able
to locate only with some difficulty.
The research of TenHouten et al. is a rather sophisticated
attempt, using a variety of instruments, to test for "right-brained"
("appositional") and "left-brained" C'propositional") differences
in thinking, and accompanying valuations, among male and female
rural and urban Whites, Blacks, and Hopi Indians within the
United States. Much of the work is guided by an attempt to under-
stand patterns of social discrimination in modern American society
and developed from the previous work of the researchers in, on
the one hand, cerebral lateralization and, on the other, stereo-
typing. In developing their theoretical framework, however, these
researchers articulated many ideas which are almost identical to
many of those expressed here. Our work and theirs appear to
represent a genuine case of independent invention. Nonetheless,
there are some important differences.
Although Bogen, Marsh, and TenHouten (1971) draw upon the
literature of anthropology, even citing some of the same sources
we have used, they neglect entirely the seminal works by Gladwin
(1964, 1970). Gladwin's speculations contain the core of the idea
of the propositional/appositional contrast, and it was his 1964
article which most quickly came to mind when we learned of the
split-brain research. Given such ethnographic problems as con-
tained in Gladwin's work, we "reasoned our way," in effect, to
many of the same conclusions arrived at by these workers. In so
doing we feel that we have constructed a more cross-cultural and
tempered paradigm for understanding the relationship of cerebral
lateralization and cognitive styles than theirs, a framework which
might be helpful for interpreting their sometimes ambiguous
empirical results.
The general thrust of their work tends toward the assumption
of a categorical and constant distinction between propositional
and appositional thinkers, although the authors do make observa-
tions to the contrary here and there. We, in contrast, worked in
terms of the idea of a gradient of differences between the two
"types of thinking" in the development of logical processes and,
at a higher order of taxonomy, cognitive strategies. Moreover,
largely as a result of the work of Cole et al. (1971) — which ap-
parently was unavailable to Marsh, TenHouten, and Bogen — we
allowed for the possibility of situation-specific differences in the
employment of particular cognitive processes, be those differences
panhuman or culturally determined. Related to this point, as
anthropologists we were sensitive to the apparent propositional
(left-hemisphere) identity of all languages at the grammatical-
code level and, thus, suspicious of ordinary, linguistically assisted
mental tests for more complex Operations of right-hemisphere
modes of thought. Finally, we have operated with the assumption
that while relatively appositional modes of thought are atemporal,
time is a critical dement in the analysis of such cognitive processes;
as Gladwin says, "thinking is continuous."
Despite our general differences with TenHouten et al., we must
acknowledge the major contributions they have made toward the
empirical verification of qualitative differences in human think-
ing, and we regret that their work has not been more widely known
among anthropologists — including ourselves. Working in Isolation
but having arrived at some startlingly similar conclusions, we hope
that our respective works will lend complementary support to the
ideas expressed.
the same time, anthropologists have been adamant that the
"average" human brain functions the same regardless of cul-
tural difTerences and have opposed views such as those of Levy-
Bruhl which suggest fundamental difTerences between the
mental functioning of primitives and our own (see Cole and
Gay 1972:1066-68). Likewise, although rejecting the extremes
of the notion of "psychic unity" manifested by the 19th-century
cultural evolutionists, as a rule anthropologists take it for
granted that human brains are governed by a single set of
neurological principles vvithout regard to time or place. Yet,
many anthropologists matter-of-factly discuss differences be-
tween "native thought" and that of their own society — indeed,
there appears to be high professional prestige value placed
upon being able to show just how far removed "the thinking
of the Such-and-such" is from our own ordinary modes of^
thought.
There seems to be a serious inconsistency in simultaneously
asserting that the human mind functions the same everywherfo
and that fundamental Operations of the brain differ radically
with cultural background. Such a position appears roughly
analogous to arguing that the human alimentary canal func-
tions the same in all individuals, but the constituent digestive
processes are altered by the particular species of plants and
animals consumed. We shall refer to these contrastive but
jointly held views of human mental functions as the "culture-
and-cognition paradox." Cole et al. (1971) have reviewed
various approaches to resolving the paradox and, on the basis
of their experimental studies of Kpelle, proposed a Solution:
"cultural difTerences in Cognition reside more in the situations
to which particular cognitive processes are applied than in
the existence of a process in one cultural group and its absence
in another" (p. 233). Thus, many of the problems in the cross-
cultural study of mental actlvity are recast from searching for
"culture-free" intelligence tests to a search for the proper con-
text in which to elicit a particular logical process and an under-
standing of the ways in which change in external circumstances
effects shifts in the selection of cognitive processes from the
cerebral repertoire to solve any particular type of problem.
The experimental anthropology of Cole and associates ap-
pears to have made considerable advances toward remedying
the lacuna noted by Gladwin (1964:176): "Anthropologists
stoutly defend the equality of all men, especially with respect
to intellectual potential, without any attempt to analyze or
document the nature of similarities and difTerences in thinking.
In this vital area we make no cross-cultural comparisons, and
indeed have no theoretical framework within which to make
them." The important contributions of Cole et al. notwith-
standing, their framework does not include consideration of
the organismic bases for the existence of plural cognitive pro-
cesses. Without at least a model of diflferent physiological loci
for difTerent cognitive processes, the crux of the culture-and-
cognition paradox remains: the human mind functions the
same everywhere, but the way it "behaves" in response to
any particular Stimulus is culturally determined.
Given current controversy over the resurgence of genetic
theories of intelligence difTerences, caution demands that we
make it clear from the outset that our exploration of a possible
physiological basis for cognitive difTerences is not intended to
Support such theories. On the contrary, what we shall propose
is a powerful argument against them, for our concern is physio-
logical difTerences within each human brain, not difTerences
between diflferent brains.
Apart from the absence of an operating model for the bio-
logical foundations of multiple cognitive processes, the Cole
et al. paradigm is weakened by the apparent assumption that
all cognitive processes are equally accessible to language.
Although the researchers conduct their experiments in the
native language, and many of the experimental tasks require
little or no linguistic Output from the subject, language plays
a critical role in the eliciting procedures for all the tests, even
122
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY
Wenn Dichter über Dichter urteilen..
Shakespeare ein ,tfunkener Wilder und roher Possenreißer« - Ibsen ein »nordisches Waschweib« - Von Helmut Diterich
Audi wenn man nidit gerade an Six-
tu$ Peckmesser denkt, den Kunst-
banausen aus „Die Meistersinger" von
Richard Wagner, bleibt das '_/rteiI über
Kunst und Kunstwerk problematisch.
Die Geschmäcker sind verschieden und
der Kunstrichtungen gibt e-; viele, an
denen Kritiker und Kritikaster ihr
Mütchen kühlen können. „Die Kritik
ht leicht und die Kunst ist schwer",
behauptete der 1754 verstorbene fran-
zösische Dichter Destouches in einer
seiner einst vicigespielter Komödien.
Die Nachwelt hat daraus den Satz ge-
prägt: „Kritisieren ist leichter als Bes-
sermachen".
Wo andere aus berufenem Munde
glauben, ein Werk loben zu können
oder aber den Stab darüber bredien zu
müssen, haben auch Fachleute geurteilt,
Männer, die es wissen müßten, weil sie
selbst jenem Fluidum ausgesetzt sind
oder waren, in welchem Kunstwerke
gedeihen. Vielleicht ist es gar kein Feh-
ler, daß sich im kritischen oder unkri-
tischen Urteil über Berufskollegen ein
Hauch jenes Profanen niederschlägt,
der den Abstand zwischen den großen
Künstlern und ihrer vergötternden
Nachwelt verkürzt und das beruhigen-
de Gefühl hinterläßt, daß auch sie nur
Menschen waren, irrende, fehlende
Menschen, die, von Neid und Miß-
gunst oft nicht frei, dem schreibenden
Nachbarn scheel über die Schulter blick-
ten.
Als Voltaire über Shakespeare ur-
teilte und ihn einen „trunkenen Wil-
den und rohen Possenreißer" nannte,
stian Dietrich Grabbe urteilte sarka-
stisch über Goethe: „Armes deutsches
Volk, das ist dein größter Mann!"
Nicht minder scharf, aber wortreicher
äußerte sich Ludwig Börne, der Revo-
lutionär aus der Zeit des jungen
Deutschland über Goethe, als er schrieb:
„Goethe hat eine ungeheuer hindernde
Kraft, er ist ein grauer Star im deut-
schen Auge ..."
Goethe und Börne waren keine K*--».
kurrenten auf dem Büchermarkt, denn
als der eine seine Bücher erscheinen
ließ, konnte er kaum hoffen, die des
anderen, des gewaltigen Dichterfürsten,
vom Markt zu verdrängen. Aber in
diesem Aufeinanderprallen dokumen-
tiert sich etwas, das zu allen Zeiten
typisch ist, wenn sidi eine Welt im Um-
bruch befindet und eine neu geboren
wird. Die großen Männer der Vergan-
genheit werden als Götzen abserviert,
die neue Zeit sieht mit anderen Augen,
wie die Jugend vort heute auch die gei-
stigen Ideale ihrer Väter und Groß-
väter niciit mehr billigt. Das Alte, das
überholt geglaubt wird, trifft das un-
geredite Urteil genau so, wie das Neue,
das um Anerkennung ringt.
Strindberg und Ibsen, in der glei-
chen Zeit lebend und dichtend, waren
einander fremd, obwohl sie eigentlich
in ihrer Geisteshaltung nahe Verwandte
waren. Strindberg nannte seinen Kol-
legen Ibsen ein „nordisches Wasch-
weib" und Thomas Mann erklärte
Jahrzehnte seinem Kollegen Jean Coc-
teau, „Sie gehören zu der Rasse jener
Dichter, die im Spital end*n . . .". Zeit-
weise sah es wirklich so aus, als habe
sich Orpheus in der Türe der Unterwelt
geirrt und betrete eine poetisch ver-
kleidete Opiumhöhle, wie Thomas
Mann weiter gemeint hatte. Doch Coc-
teau zeigte, aus welchem Holz er ge-
schnitten ist und endete statr — wie
prophezeit — im Spital, in der Acade-
mie franfaise. Friedrich Hebbel ging
die Stiftej-sche Kleinmäleei auf die
Nerven, weil sie seiner Anschauung
von Poesie nicht entsprach. Er verfaßte
einen Spottvers, der in mehreren Zei-
tungen erschien und in ironischer Form
Stifters Schilderung des Kleinen und
Kleinsten apostrophierte, eben deret-
wegen Stifters Werk berühmt wurde:
„Wißt ihr, warum die Käfer,
die Butterblumen so glücken?
Weil ihr die Menschen nicht k^nnt,
weil ihr die Sterne nicht seht!
Schaut ihr tief in die Herzen,
wie könntet ihr schwärmen für Käfer?
Säht ihr das Sonnensystem, sagt doch,
was war euch ein Strauß?
Aber das mußte so sein;
damit ihr das Kleine vortrefflich
Liefertet, hat die Natur klug
euch das Große entrückt."
Erstaunlich auch, daß zwei Männer,
die im Grunde derselben Geistesrich-
tung, der Romantik angehörten, Joseph
von Eidiendorff und E. T. A. Hoff-
mann, keine Brücke zueinander finden
konnten. Eichendorff sagte über den
Musikerdichter in völliger Verkennung
von dessen wirklichen Wesen und Wert
nur: ^Er schrieb, um zu trinken, und
trank, um zu schreiben".
Wie meint doch der französische
Diditer Francois Mauriac über die
Kritiker der Gegenwart? „Heute käme
niemand mehr auf die Idee, Manet
vorzuwerfen, daß er Manet gemalt
habe. Aber solange Manet lebte, mach-
te man ihm den Vorwurf Manet zu
sein."
Jiddisches Theater in Deutschland
Von Goldenfodim bis KEshon nur ein kleiner Schritt? - Von Gerhard Krause
ni(
im
, Sehe!
spiel«
bot ui
ihr Si
mit m\
den ZI
dieser
ein Ertl
ruter
bende,
Flair u|
Es ginj
strecke]
teraber
Kibbu2
ten si«
ein Ai
Typei
Goldej
fragte]
war.
Das
und f|
lagertll
so odei
nicht
Ich
die ja
Zugang
Stücke,]
auffühi
langer
Amandi
Mutteri
„Glasi
alles 11
der BüH
lern, ui
sem (%\l
gen) AI
Akr.ent
und Al
dieses
irrealitj
fällte er ein Urteil, das aus seiner Zeit
und seinen eigenen Werken zu verste-
heii ist. Der Aufklärer Voltaire wollte
mit dem Realisten aus England nichts
zu tun haben, dessen Leidenschaft und
ungebärdiges Maß den Schöngeist und
Philosophen abstieß.
Goethe hat einmal gesagt: „Man
k^nn in Deutschland oft bemerken, daß
derjenige, der einen sogenannten Lieb-
lingsschriftsteller der Nation strenge
tadelt, immer wegen eines bösen Her-
zens in Argwohn steht." Ob er dabei
aus eigener übler Erfahrung als Kriti-
ker sprach, weil sein eigenes Urteil bei-
spielsweise über Webers „Freischürz" —
„ein kolossales Nichts, aus dem Nihilo
geschaffen!" — auf den Widerspruch
der ZoH^etiossen stieß? A'u^'^tA 4Ah$i
gemünzt kann er ^diesen Spruch Wicht •
haben. Dertn Goethes Kritiker nahmen
sidi kein Blatt vor den Mund, wenn sie
gegen ihn zu Felde zogen. Etwa Karo-
line Herder, die Frau seines Freundes
und Gönners Johann Gottfried Herder,
die knapp und schnippisch erklärte:
„So brav und gut Goethe im Innern
ist, so hat er doch seinen Beruf als
Dichter verfehlt!" Der Feuerkopf Chri-
Der berühmte jüdische WynÄ „|)is
zu hundertundzWanzig JahreiWj hat
sich auch bei Abraham Goldf aden((Ori-
ginalname: Gojdenfodim) nicht etfüllt,
aber 120 Jahre und sogar noch eine
Kleinigkeit darüber sind es seit seiner
Geburt, genau fünfundzwanzig Jahre
seit seinem Tode her, und nichts rührt
sich mehr von ihm und seinem Werk,
in Polen vielleicht ausgenommen und
ein wenig in Israel, wo er noch gekannt,
wenn auch nur platonisch-historisch ge-
liebt wird. Hat ihn in der Popularität,
der lange ausgeklungenen, Ephraim
Kishon, der 1924 in Ungarn geboren
wurde und nun in Israel lebt, über-
troffen? Kennte man Goldfadens Werk,
sein Wirken als Theatermann wie als
Folkloristen im Sinne auch des Wöl-
wil Zbraraschher Ehrenkrani (1826 bis
1883), des Mark Warschawsky (184j
bis 1907), des EHakum Zunser, der 'j
einem Halbjahrhundert verstarb -J
alle waren echte Volkssängeij^
Volksliedersammler — man w
nicht so schmählich verkomi
und neu bearbeiten und rj
Ausdrudestypus einer
baren, mit Stumpf und Stil rabiat aus-
gerotteten Epoche jener scheußlich-
braunen Sintflut. War Goldfaden ein
jiddischer Bellrnann, ein slawischer Ne-
stroy? Eine nützliche literarisch« Lei-
stung, übrigens daß die Amadeo-LP
jetzt Nestroys Werke auf Langspiel-
platten herausgibt, und ich ergreife die
Gelegenheit beim Schöpfe: wie wäre es,
wenn sich die so aufmerksame und sich
so oft schon dem Individuellsten er-
schlossene Amadeo-LP- dem Gesamt-
werk eines Goldfaden zuwendete und
Spezialisten beauftragte, es zu rekon-
struieren, zu überarbeiten, um so zur
Ehre des austrocknenden Jiddisch eine
Kulturleistung ersten Ranges neu zu
schaffen? Oft kommt es ja nur auf
schreibt Szczepanski in s^tü
lung »Ein ausgezeichnetes Theater"
(nämlich das jiddische in der polni-
schen Metropole) über Goldfadens
Schauspiel „Der Traum von Goldfa-
den". Die Literaturwissenschcftler ha-
ben eine reiche Quelle zu erforschen.
Elh Wettlauf zu ihr wird kaum ein-
sehen; wir nehmen es erst gar nicht an,
aber es könnte ein paar Individualisten]
auf diesem Gebiet reizen, Neuland zu]
entdecken und das alte Land jiddischer
Theaters gründlich zu durchforschet
und zu durchforsten.
Kishon steht Goldfaden, was di^
Vielfalt der schöpferischen Leistui
angeht, kaum in etwas nach, aber
sdieint ihn auch gelegentl! h zu
26 September 1975
Volume 1 89, No. 4208
MERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
iiiiiiii,';;ff,"' I
l
Index Issue
IN
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Circle No. 22 on Readers' Service Card
1
I
When the name
of the game is value,
the name of the
balance is Sartorius.
A
SERIES 2400
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WITH WIDE CHOICE OF
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A comprehensive line of moderately
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Circle No. 145
SERIES 3500 ^
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TOP-LOADERS
Two modeis, each with dual
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electronic display of indicated
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Circle No. 146
Get the most value for your
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All-digital readout, ± 0.05mg precision,
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Circle No. 149
SERIES 1100^
COMPACT,
ECONOMICALLY-
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Choice of 3 modeis with capacities from 200 to
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Circle No. 147
SERIES 2250 ^
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Choice of modeis in 6
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Circle No. 148
26 September 1975
Volume 189, No. 4208
LETTERS
X YY Gejiülypi&: P A.Jacobs; E. B. Hook; Bicentennial Beils: D. C. Schmidt;
^^"Jöurnal Reviews: 7. F. Bunnett; Particle Discoveries at SLAC:
W. K. H. Panofsky; Promising Chimpanzee: G. M. Burghardt; D. Premack
1044
EDITORIAL
Social Determinism and Behavioral Genetics: Ä. Z). Z)flvw 1049
ARTICLES Energy Analysis and Public Policy: A/. W.Gilliland 1051
Technical Assistance and Foreign Policy: G. S. Hammond dnd W. M. Todd 1057
Psychobiology of Reptilian Reproduction: /). Crevv^ 1059
NEWS AND COMMENT Technoiogy Incentives Program: Success or a Phony Hard Seil? 1066
Medicine Without Frills: A Rural Hospital in Colombia 1067
Preventive Medicine: Legislation Calls for Health Education 1071
RESEARCH NEWS Astronomy from Space: New Class of X-ray Sources Found
Antibody Structure: Now in Three Dimensions
1073
1075
BOOK REVIEWS
Dynamics of Growth in a Finite World, reviewed by E. van de Walle; The Science
and Politics of I.Q., D. N. Jackson; Environmental Dynamics of Pesticides,
J. R. Roberts; The Mitochondria of Microorganisms, R. A. Butow; Homogeneous
Catalysis by Metal Comptexes^ G. M. Whitesides; The Coast and Shelf of the
Beaufort Sea,/. D. Milliman; Fossil and Living Dinoflagellates, W. R. Evitt;
Ice Physics, 5". /4. /?/ce; Books Received
1077
BOARD OF DIRICTOIIS
MAIRMCN AND
SIORITARIIS or
AAAt SBCTIONt
»IVItlONS
ROGER REVELLE
Retiring President, Chairman
MATHEMATICS (A)
Victor L. Klee
Truman A. Botts
PSYCHOLOGY (J)
Richard C. Atkinson
Edwin P. Hollander
EDUCATION (Q)
F. James Rutherford
Phillip R. Fordyce
MARGARET MEAD
President
PHYSICS (B)
Victor F. Weisskopf
Rolf M. Sinclair
WILLIAM D. MCELROY
President-Elect
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William E. Hanford
Leo Schubert
RICHARD H. BOLT
KENNETH B. CLARK
EMILIO Q. DADDARIO
EDWARD E. DAVID. JR,
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Seymour M. Lipset
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(K)
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ArloU.Iandolt
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Paul H. Robbins
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AND COMMUNICATION
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AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
REPORTS Paleociimatological Analysis of Late Quaternary Gores from the Northeastern Gulf
of Mexico: C. Emiliani ci'dl
Spatial Scales of Current Speed and Phytoplankton Biomass Fluctuations in Lake
Tahoe: T. M. Powell ei al
The Possible Role of Histones in the Mechanism of Chromosomal G Banding:
R. L. Brown, S. Pathak, T. C. Hsu
Goldfish Abducens Moloneurons: Physiological and Analomical Specialization:
P. Sterling and P. Gestrin
Nascent Stage of Cellulose Biosynthesis: G. G. Leppard, L. C. SowdenJ. R. Colvin
Incisor Size and Diet in Anthropoids with Special Reference to Cercopithecidae:
W. L. Hylander
Crustacean Intestinal Detergent Promotes Sterol Solubilization: R. Lester et al. . . .
Arteriovenous Anastoiiiosei^4fl-ih£^km of the \yeddell Seal, Leptonychotes weddelli
^üyS: MülVheux and M. M. Brvden
Color Vision and Brightness Discrimination in Two-Month-Old Human Infants-
D. R. Peeples und D. V. Teller >. rr.' 7 TT7 7 TT7".
Strange Females Increase Plasma Testosterone Levels in Male Mice: F. Macrides,
A. Bankers. Dalterio
Dystrophie Spinal Cord Transplants Induce Abnormal Thymidine Kinase Acliviiy in
>^ovmd\M\x^c\e^. M. P. Rathbone, P. A. Stewart, F. Vetrano
Conditioning and Reversal of Short-Latency Multiple-Unil Responses in the Rabbit
Hedvd\Gemc\x\dieNwc\eu^: I\4. Gabrielas. F. SaltwickJ. D. Miller
1083
1088
1090
1091
1094
1095
1098
1100
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1106
1108
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Female Weddell seal and her pup lying
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ly rangmg mammals and spend much of
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Lucia, Brisbane, Australia]
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,Q3jj Circle No. 338 on Readers' Service Card SCIENCE. VOL. 189
/:
New Lauda D3T
Constant
Temperature
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with dial-in
temperature
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Vour laboratory could be using a
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Lauda
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Circle No. 205 on Readers' Service Card
LETTERS
XYY Genotype
Barbara J. Culliton, in an article about
the Suspension of XYY Screening at the
Boston Hospital for Women (News and
Comment, 27 June, p. 1284), reports that
the original XYY study was "premature"
and that today "all responsible scientists
insist that the XYY chromosome is quite
innocent of causing any crime."
Let me attempt to set the record
straight. The first survey that demon-
strated an excess of men with an additional
Y chromosome in an institutionalized pop-
ulation was conducted by myself and my
colleagues (/) among a group of mentally
subnormal male patients in a State hos-
pital, an institution for patients "who re-
quire treatment in conditions of special
security on account of their dangerous,
violent or criminal propensities." We re-
ported our observations on 197 such pa-
tients, 266 randomly selected newborn
males, 209 randomly selected adult males,
and an additional 1500 males whose chro-
mosomes we had examined. We found
seven males with an XYY chromosome
Constitution in the patient population,
none in the 475 randomly selected males,
and only one in the remaining 1500 males
(X^ = 13.8, P = .0002). Our conclusion,
"the finding that 3.5% of the population we
studied were XYY males must represent a
marked increase in frequency by com-
parison with the frequency of such males at
birth," could hardly be considered pre-
mature by even the most conservative
Standards.
Further studies, both of men in mental
and penal settings and of control popu-
lations were undertaken. The results of
these investigations were excellently and
exhaustively reviewed by Hook (2). Con-
sideration of the facts show (i) that the
original observations have been amply
confirmed; (ii) that the excess of males
with an abnormal chromosome Constitu-
tion in mental-penal settings is not con-
fined to XYY individuals but also applies
to XXY men and, most dramatically of all,
to men with an XXYY chromosome Con-
stitution, who are found ICX) times more
frequently in mental-penal settings than
among the newborn; and (iii) that, while
the excess of men with an abnormal sex
chromosome Constitution is most marked
in mental-penal groups, it is also evident
among men in exciusively penal and exclu-
sively mental settings.
We know nothing as yet about the mech-
anism of action of the additional sex
chromosomes nor their effects, if any, on
the intelligence and behavior of the major-
ity of afTected individuals in the population
at large. It seems reasonable to suppose
that human behavior, like virtually all oth-
er human traits, is determined both by
genes and environment and that the pos-
session of an abnormal chromosome Con-
stitution may make its carrier particularly
susceptible to the effects of an adverse en-
vironment.
Those who consider "the attempt to de-
termine a genetic basis for antisocial be-
havior a diversion with harmful effects"
have succeeded in suppressing a research
project which was deemed by peer review
to meet the rigorous ethical and scientific
Standards rightfully required of all re-
search involving human subjects.
The suppression of this project denies to
XXY, XYY, and XXYY men, their fam-
ilies, and society the liberty to understand
and intelligently modify the behavioral ef-
fects of a high-risk genotype.
Patricia A. Jacobs
Department ofAnatomy,
University of Hawaii School ofMedicine,
Honolulu 96822
References
1. P. A. Jacobs, M. Brunton, M. M. Melville, R. P.
Brittain, W. F. McClemont, Nature (Lond.) 208,
1351(1965).
2. E. B. Hook,Science 179, 139 (1973).
3. P. A. Jacobs, M. M. Melville, S. Ratcliffe. A. J^
Keay, J. Syme, Ann. Hunt. Genet. 37, 359 (1974).
4. A. G. Bell and P. N. Corey, Can. J. Genet. Cytoß
16,239(1974).
5. W. M. Court Brown, Int. Rev. Exp. Pathol. 7, 31
(1969).
~*
Despite the implication in Culliton's ar-
ticle, there is a clear association of th^
XYY genotype with deviance, as judge
from the frequency of XYY men in securi
ty settings compared to the rates in new
born or adult populations. While the na'|
ture and extent of this association are stilji
not defined, the first report (/) has beeil;
amply confirmed and would be better d
scribed as "seminal" rather than "prema',
ture" [see (2) for review]. Those who deny
evidence for a "link" between this geno
type and criminality can only mean thai
there is still no direct evidence for a cau
connection between the two; there is n
question that there is an association. Bul
Culliton appears to endorse an eveii.|
.strenger view when she states "all respon
sible scientists insist that the XYY ehr
mosome is quite innocent of causing
crime." The issue is, however, a complex
one not subject to such simple gener-
alizations, and revolves about our under*;
Standing of causality and human behavior.'^
The XYY genotype may well contributetoj
the eventual problems of the affected mal?!
by resulting in patterns of neural organiz^*^
tion that affect cognitive function or pro^
duce other behavioral "difficulties" (of th^^
type Walzer and others have described)|
which tend to make it harder for such \nöH
viduals to cope with environmental stresS' j
SCIENCE, VOL. 1^^
«i-J
es. While there is no direct evidence for
this view, the data Ihat are accumulating
appear to make it increasingly plausible.
(Such a model does not assume that pre-
ventable or remedial environmental fac-
tors make no contribution to either be-
havioral difficulties in earlier life or de-
viance in later life.) The connection pos-
tulated between the genotype and devi-
ance is not an inevitable one; whether it is
"causal" awaits universal agreement on
the definition of the term as applied to hu-
man behavior genetics.
Statements such as Culliton's or debate
as to whether the XYY genotype is
"guilty" or "innocent" only polarize the
issues without addressing them. The im-
portant questions concerning the XYY,
XXY, and XXYY genotypes are what Fac-
tors—physiological, psychological, social,
and their interactions — are associated with
the increased frequency of affected males
in security settings and mental institutions,
and what we may learn about the possible
contribution of such factors to the ultimate
behavior of all individuals, irrespective of
genotype.
Ernest B. Hook
New York State Birth Defects Institute
and Albany Medical College.
Albany 12208
References
1. P. A. Jacobs, M. Brunton, M. M. Melville, R. P.
Brittain, W. F. McClemont, Nature (Lond.) 208,
1351(1965).
2. E. B. Hook, Science 179, 139 (1973).
Bicentennial Beils
. 'i
Constance Holden, in her article "The
Bicentennial: Science loses out" (News and
Comment, 8 Aug., p. 438), mentions the
American Revolution Bicentennial Ad-
ministration's plan for 4 July 1976: "The
afternoon is to be devoted to town meet-
ings and Speeches, and at 4 p.m. (II a.m.
Hawaii time) all the bells in the nation will
ring out simultaneously."
Has anyone considered what the effect
might be of all that simultaneous sound
Vibration?
Darlene C. Schmidt
Public Information Office,
American Society for Quality Control,
161 West Wisconsin Avenue.
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53203
somewhat analogous to the book review
sections that are so familiär.
Critical reviews of Journals would be of
interest to the scientists who read them or
publish in them. They would also be of
value to librarians and others who must
decide which Journals to take on subscrip-
tion. Librarians currently have little to go
on except citation counts, the significance
of which is controversial.
I would like to see a respected scholarly
or professional Organization, one free of fi-
nancial interest in the Journals that would
be reviewed, undertake to publish critical
reviews of scientific Journals at intervals of,
say, 5 years. The Organization that comes
immediately to mind is the AAAS, and
Science is the obvious publication in which
the Journal reviews should appear. If each
issue of Science carried reviews of 5 Jour-
nals, 260 Journals could be reviewed each
year, or 1300 in 5 years.
The scientist invited to review a Journal
obviously should be a person of distinction
and should not have an ax to grind. On the
other hand, complete innocence of in-
volvement with any Journal as an editor or
member of an editorial advisory or publi-
cation board is unlikely to be found in the
case of many persons of the requisite scien-
tific distinction. A Hsting of current or re-
cent connections of that type, following the
name of the reviewer, would make piain at
least some of his current entanglements.
The Journal review should include cer-
tain Standard information about the jour-
nal's history, sponsorship, size, circulation,
and cost, which should be furnished to the
reviewer by staff, but the heart of the re-
view would lie in quahtative assessment of
what function the Journal is serving, what
clientele it caters to, where it Stands with
respect to comparable Journals, and what
trends of emphasis or quality can be dis-
cerned.
Joseph F. Bunnett*
University of California.
Santa Cruz 95064
*The author is editor of Accounts of Chemical Re-
search, published by the American Chemical Society.
Journal Reviews
It has long Struck me as odd that scien-
tific Journals are not reviewed in "Journal
review" sections of scientific magazines
26 SEPTEMBER 1975
Particle Discoveries at SLAC
Martin Deutsch and Samuel C. C. Ting
wrote letters published in the 5 September
issue of Science (p. 750) with respect to
the exciting discoveries in high energy par-
ticle physics. These letters contain selected
references to conversations pertaining to
the history of the new particle discoveries,
reports of which were published in Physi-
cal Review Letters of 2 December 1974
{1.2).
CHARLES C THOMAS • PUBLISHER
MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY edited
by Robert A. Good and Stacey B.
Day, both of Sloan-Kettering Institute
for Cancer Research, New York, and
Jorge J. Yunis, Univ. of Minnesota
Medical School, Minneapolis. (52 Con-
tributorsj Presenting an interdisci-
plinary structure of concepts of dis-
ease at all levels of chemical and
cytological architectural structure, this
book discusses fundamental principles
and primary mechanisms which can
lead to enhancement of therapeutic
programs and more specific treatment
of disease states. The authors stress the
need for investigation and analyses of
disease processes at the subcellular
(molecular) level and the perturbations
of structure and function of organelles
in health and in disease. '75, 888 pp.
(6 3/4 X 9 3/4), 259 iL, 56 tables,
$67.50
NUTRITION AND OUR OVERPOPU-
LATED PLANET by Sohan L. Ma-
nocha, Yerkes Regional Primate Re-
search Center, Emory Univ., Atlanta,
Georgia. Attention is drawn here to
the intimate relationship between nu-
trition, population and the task of
feeding the masses. Directed toward
thinking people of all socioeconomic
strata in all countries, rieh and poor,
this book highliglits the nutritional
requirements of various age groups and
the relationship between the available
food supply and the number of
mouths which lay claim to it. Edu-
cated laymen as well as students of
sociology, anthropology, nutrition,
medicine, biology, political science
and history should find this book both
interesting and informative. '75, 488
pp., 6 iL, 11 tables, cloth-$24.50,
paper-$ 16.75
A STUDY GUIDE IN NUCLEAR
MEDICINE: A Modern Up-to-Date
Presentation compiled and edited by
Fuad Ashkar, August Miale, Jr., and
William Smoak, all of the Univ. of
Miami, Miami, Florida, (22 Contrib-
utors) Covered are such topics as
interaction of gamma rays with mat-
ter, control of radiation exposure to
man, basic mathematics of nuclear
medicine, electrolytes and body com-
position, and essentials of rectilinear
scanning. '75, 488 pp., 312 iL, 44
tables, cloth-$22. 75, paper-$l 7.50
Prepaid Orders sent postpaid, on approvai
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26Seplember 1975, Volume 189, Numbcr4208
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
Science serves its readers as a forum for the presenlalion
and discussion of imporlant issues related to the advance-
ment of science, including ihe presenlation of minority or
conflicting points of view, rather than by Publishing only
materiai on which a consensus has been reached. Accord-
ingly, all articles published in Science including editori-
als, news and comment, and book reviews are signed and
reflect the individual views of the authors and not official
points of view adopted by the AAAS or the institutions
with which the authors are affiliated.
Editorial Board
1975
H. S. Gltowsky Donai I) Lindsley
N. Bruce Hannay Ruth Patric k
Donald Kennedy Raymond H. Thompson
Daniel E. Koshland, Jr.
Ai ERED E. Brown
James F. Crow
Hans Landsberg
Edward Ney
1976
Frank Press
Frank W. Putnam
Maxinl Singer
Arthur M. Squires
Editorial Staff
Editor
Philip H. Abelson
Puhlisher
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M anaging Editor: Robert V. Orm ES
Assistant Editors: Ellen E. Mi rphy. John E. Ringle
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News and Comment: John Waish, Luther J. Carter.
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constan( e h<)l '>» n. barbara j. culliton, s( herraini
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Research News: Alien L. Hammond, William D.
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Social Determinism and Behavioral Genetics
The fusion of evolutionary theory with genetics has yielded several profound
insights into the nature of man. We now know that most traits are determined
by interaction between genes and the environment, rather than by either acting
independently. Moreover, the traditional view of race, as a set of stereotypes
with minor variations, has been invalidated by the knowledge that races differ
statistically and not typologically in their genelic composition. Finally, the rap-
id evolution of our species implies wide genetic diversity, with respect to behav-
ioral as well as to morphological and biochemical traits.
Unfortunately, the idea of genetic diversity has encountered a good deal of
resistance. Some egalitarians fear that its recognition will discourage efforts to
eliminate social causes of educational failure, misery, and crime. Accordingly,
they equate any attention to genetic factors in human behavior with the primi-
tive biological determinism of early eugenicists and race supremacists. But they
are setting up a false dichotomy, and their exclusive attention to environmental
factors leads them to an equally false social determinism.
Ironically, this Opposition parallels that of theologians a Century ago: both
saw the foundations of public morality threatened by an implication of evolu-
tion. But neither religious nor political fervor can command the laws of nature.
One might accordingly expect scientists, knowing this very well, to encourage
the public to accept genetic diversity both as an invaluable cultural resource
and as an indispensable consideration in any approach to social equality. Yet in
a recent "NOV.A" program on the Public Broadcasting Service a distinguished
Population geneticist denied the legitimacy of human behavioral genetics,
scorned the belief that musical talent is inherited, and even minimized the con-
tributions of genetics to agricultural productivity. Similarly, members of a
group called Science for the People, criticizing a study of possible behavioral ef-
fects of chromosomal abnormalities, wrote* of the "damaging mythology of the
genetic origins of 'antisocial' behavior," as though one must choose between ge-
netic and social causation rather than study their interaction.
To be sure, in behavioral genetics premature conclusions are all too tempting,
and they can be socially dangerous. Moreover, even sound knowledge in this
field, as in any other, can be used badly. Accordingly, some would set up lines of
defense against acquisition of the knowledge, rather than against its misuse.
This Suggestion has wide appeal, for the public is already suspicious of genetics.
It recognizes that earlier, pseudoscientific extrapolations from genetics to So-
ciety were used to rationalize racism, with tragic consequences; and it has devel-
oped much anxiety over the allegedly imminent prospecl of genetic manipula-
tion in man. Hence one can easily visualize an American Lysenkoism, pre-
scribing an environmentalist dogma and proscribing or di.scouraging research
on behavioral genetics. But such a development would deprive us of knowledge
that could help us in many ways: for example, to improve education (by build-
ing on the diversity of individual potentials and learning patterns), to decrease
conflicts, to prevent and treat mental illnesses, and to eliminate guilt based on
exaggerated conceptions of the scope of parental responsibility and influence.
In the continuing struggle to replace traditional myths by evolutionary
knowledge the conflict over human diversity may prove even more intense and
prolonged than the earlier conflict over special creation: the critics are no less
righteous, the issues are even closer to politics, and guilt over massive social in-
equities hinders objective discussion. What the scientific Community should do
is not clear. At the least we might try to help the public to realize the value of
scientific objectivity, separated from political convictions, in understanding hu-
man diversity. Long ago men began to understand chemical diversity when they
gave up the search for a philosopher's stone, which they had hoped would trans-
mute other Clements into gold. Today in human biology we face a similar prob-
lem in learning to build on facts as well as on hopes. Bernard D. Davis, Har-
vard Medical School. Boston, Massachusetts 02115
*J. Beckwith, D. Elseviers, L. Gorini, C. Mandan.sky, L. Csonka, J. King, Science 187, 298 (1975).
Why would a chemist
want an engineer's
liquid Chromatograph?
What you value in a liquid Chromatograph depends a
lot on your point of view. A salesman may be
proudest of a big name and classy styling; the
engineer is mainly concerned with specifications; but
the chemist first asks what it will do. Actually the
engineer and the chemist aren't far apart. Good
Performance can onlv follow sound design and the
right specifications.
Let's look at the pump first. Every basic discussion
of HPLC equipment points out the advantages of a
constant flow rate, free of pulsations and microscopic
noise. Yet most chromatographs only offer you
constant pressure, or "constant flow" from a more
or less damped reciprocating pump, unless you are
really ready to pay. The only HPLC pumps made by
ISCO produce a constant flow with rate Variation and
noise level so low you can't measure them. And they
do this over wide, accurately calibrated ranges in
both metering and gradient versions. You'll be
interested in the Dialagrad® multilinear pro-
grammed gradient pump; in its ability to generate
any shape gradient you'll ever need, and in its
reproducibility. It's what comes out that counts, and
a Dialagrad gradient will
seldom vary over ± y2% no ÄfT^TT*^
matter how many times you p -
run it. ^«4<*1
Sample application can mean
the difference between a
good Separation and an ex-
cellent one. A septum injec-
tor has three big advantages
(it's cheap, cheap, cheap)
but if you want perfect
uniformity over long periods
and from different Operators,
use a good 6 port sample
injection valve. It's Standard
onall ISCO chromatographs.
Another Standard, but unex-
pected, feature is a fast
purge System for one minute
washout.
There are many Performance points for the UV
detector which don't show up in the specifications,
but our engineers haven't ignored them. Like
reliability, and operating convenience such as the
quick changing of wavelengths or flow cells. You can
add other things that may mean a lot, such as
simultaneous two wavelength recording and auto-
matic Scale expansion; a preparative Peak Separator
which automatically collects different peaks in
different test tubes; and a built-in, 8 speed, 10 cm
recorder. You can even add an electronic digital
integrator which plugs directly into the detector
without any interfacing. But aside from these extras,
the dual beam ISCO detector is still unsurpassed on
specifications, and our specifications are real. Eight
füll Scale absorbance ranges from 0.01A to 2.0A (all
are linear), typical noise ± 0.00005 A, typical
overnight drift ± 0.002A,
13 wavelengths from 254 __^,
to 660 nm, and 90%
response in two seconds.
For some reason, that last
one is usually left out of
other people's spec
sheets.
These basic ISCO advantages are available on
chromatographs from most other manufacturers.
The main difference is what you have to pay for
them. An ISCO Model 1440 isocratic Chromatograph,
with a 10 cm recorder and all the Standard features
described here, costs only $5,275.00. The multilinear
gradient version with automatic scale expansion,
simultaneous two wavelength recording, 10 inch
recorder, digital electronic pressure control and
readout, and a couple of prepacked Reeve Angel
columns, still costs under $10,000.
Send for our free 56 page catalog and find out why
ISCO HPLC equipment appeals to both chemists and
engineers. Maybe even to salesmen too: Our styling
may lack a little pizzazz, but we have probably the
biggest name in LC absorbance detectors. At
least we've made more of them over the last 12
years than anyone eise.
BOX 5347
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SCIENCE, VOL. 189
Antibody Structure: Now in Three Dimensions
The structure of a protein is not com-
pletely known until the arrangement of all
of its atoms in space has been determined.
That goal is now in sight for antibodies, the
large, complex proteins that are critical
components of the body's defenses against
disease. X-ray crystallographers have
worked out the three-dimensional struc-
tures of portions of four different anti-
bodies from two species. The structures
they describe are remarkably similar to
one another and indicate that all antibody
molecules may fold in the same character-
istic way. The results of these investiga-
tions confirm the predictions made about
antibody structure on the basis of bio-
chemical and immunological studies and
should lead to a better understanding of
antibody evolution and function.
Crystallographers naturally need crys-
tals to study; normal antibodies, however,
can only be isolated as heterogeneous pop-
ulations of molecules that will not crystal-
lize and would not give usable data even if
they did. To get around this problem, the
four groups of investigators made use of
the fact that certain tumors of plasma
cells— the antibody-secreting cells— arise
from the multiplication of a Single cell and
thus produce only one kind of antibody or
immunoglobulin molecule, often in large
quantities. The tumors, which are calied
plasmacytomas, may occur in mice and in
humans who have multiple myeloma, a
Cancer of the bone marrow.
Although investigators have not yet
been able to obtain crystals suitable for
high-resolution x-ray studies of even these
homogeneous immunoglobulins, certain
portions of the molecules do form good
crystals. One such portion is the lighter of
the two kinds of Polypeptide chains that
make up immunoglobulins. Patients with
multiple myeloma may secrete large quan-
tities of light chains (known as Bence-
Jones proteins) in their urine. Two groups
of investigators have performed their x-
ray crystallographic studies on human
Bence-Jones proteins. One includes Allen
Edmundson, Marianne Schiffer, and Kath-
ryn Ely of Argonne National Laboratory
and Harold Deutsch of the University of
Wisconsin; the other includes Robert
Huber and his colleagues at the Max-
Planck-Institut für Biochemie in Munich,
Germany.
The portion of the antibody molecule
named the Fab (for fragment, antigen
binding) fragment, because it contains the
Site that binds the corresponding antigen,
may also form the kind of crystals needed
for x-ray crystallographic studies. Fab
fragments are obtained by enzymatic
26 SEPTEMBER 1975
cleavage of immunoglobulins (Fig. I).
Roberto Poljak and L. M. Amzel of the
Johns Hopkins University School of Medi-
cine obtained the Fab fragment they are
studying from the blood of a patient with
multiple myeloma, whereas a group of in-
vestigators at the National Institutes of
Health (NIH), including David Davies and
Eduardo Padlan of the National Institute
of Arthritis, Metabolism, and Digestive
Diseases and David Segal of the National
Cancer Institute (NCI), obtained theirs
from the antibody produced by a mouse
plasmacytoma.
The resolutions of the structures ob-
tained by the investigators ränge from
about 3 Ä to about 2 Ä. This is as good as
current techniques — and the quality of the
crystals examined— permit. With this de-
gree of resolution, the backbone of the
Polypeptide chain can be traced and some
side chains of the large amino acids can be
identified, but each atom cannot be distin-
guished. For this reason the investigators
have had to determine the amino acid se-
quences of their proteins in order to inter-
pret the x-ray crystallographic data and
build molecular modeis. At NIH, this was
done by Michael Potter and Stuart Rudi-
koff of NCI; Potter provided the antibody
being analyzed by Davies and his col-
leagues.
What is striking about the results of the
crystallographic studies is that all of the in-
Fig. I. Schematic diagram of an IgG molecule.
The variable and constant regions of the light
chain are represented by V^ and Gl, respective-
ly. The variable and constant regions of the
heavy chain are represented by V^^ and Ch
Ch2, and €^3, respectively. Certain enzymes
cleave IgG's in the vicinity of the "hinge" to
form two Fab fragments and one Fe fragment.
vestigators find almost the same folding
pattern in every region or domain of the
four antibody components they are study-
ing. As is known from the work of Gerald
Edelman of Rockefeller University, Rod-
ney Porter of Oxford University, England,
and the numerous other investigators who
contributed to the elucidation of the chem-
ical nature of antibody molecules, immu-
noglobulins of the G class (IgG's) consist
of two equivalent heavy chains, with a mo-
lecular weight of about 55,000, and two
equivalent light chains, with a molecular
weight of about 20,000. (The researchers at
Johns Hopkins, Argonne National Labo-
ratory, and the Max-Planck-Institut are
working with IgG components; those at
NIH are studying an immunoglobulin A,
or IgA. The overall structure of an IgA re-
sembles that of an IgG but the two classes
of immunoglobulins have different types of
heavy chains.)
Each heavy and light chain can be subdi-
vided into domains on the basis of its ami-
no acid sequence (Fig. I). A light chain has
two such domains, one variable and one
constant. The amino acid sequence of the
variable domain varies from one antibody
to another, whereas that of the constant
domain is the same for all chains of the
same type. An IgG heavy chain has one
variable domain and three constant do-
mains. The variable domains confer spe-
cificity on the antibody molecule, and two
of them— one from the light and one from
the heavy chain — form the binding site for
antigen. An IgG has two such binding sites.
The amino acid sequences of the four con-
stant regions display considerable similari-
ty with one another. Those of the variable
domains also have a number of similari-
ties. There is little resemblance between
the sequences of the variable and constant
domains; however, they all contain approx-
imately 1 10 amino acids and all have an in-
ternal disulfide bridge. Edelman hypothe-
sized that the domains, although having
different functions, would have similar
three-dimensional structures— and this is
what has now been found.
A Fab fragment, which consists of a
light chain plus half of a heavy chain, thus
contains four domains. In earlier studies,
Poljak and Davies each determined the
structures of the Fab fragments to a reso-
lution of 6 Ä. They found that the frag-
ments measure 40 by 50 by 80 Ä and con-
sist of two globular regions of approxi-
mately equal size (Fig. 2). One globular re-
gion contains the two variable domains
and the other the two constant ones, with
the four domains arranged in a roughly tet-
rahedral shape.
1075
Fig. 2. Molecular model of an IgG. The Fab fragments make up the arms of ihe "T." Fach can be
Seen lo consist of two globular regions. The arrows show the pari of ihe antibody that binds antigen.
The Fe fragment constitutes the leg of the "T." Since crystals suitable for determining the three-di-
mensional structure of this portion of the immunoglobuUn molecule have not yet been obtained, the
model was constructed by combining information about the known sequence of an IgG heavy chain
with the newly determined three-dimensional structures of the constant domains in the Fab portions
ofthe molecule. [Source: David Davies and Eduardo Padlan, National Institute of Arthritis, Metab-
olism, and Digestive Diseases]
The higher-resolution studies revealed
that both variable and constant domains
are cylindrical and that the antiparallel ß-
pleated sheet is the predominant structural
feature of both (Fig. 3). In this kind of
structure the backbone of the Polypeptide
chain is extended and the neighboring
chains run in opposite directions. The ami-
no acid side chains are oriented at right an-
gles to the direction of the Polypeptide
chain, with adjacent side chains appearing
on opposite sides of the backbone.
In each domain two layers of pleated
sheet fold into a sandwich-like structure.
One layer is composed of a four-segment
sheet and the other has three segments.
The disulfide bond is located between the
layers and connects the same segment of
the four-chain layer of all domains to the
same segment ofthe three-chain layer. Hy-
drophobie side groups flank the disulfide
bond and fiU the interior of each domain.
Variable domains usually have an addi-
tional loop that is not found in constant
domains and is not part of the sandwich
layers.
Despite the similarities in the three-di-
mensional structures of the variable and
constant domains, there is a major difTer-
ence in the way the variable domains asso-
ciate compared to the way the constant re-
1076
gions do. The former are in contact
through their three-segment surfaces,
whereas the latter associate through their
four-segment layers. This requires that the
constant domains rotate about 165° with
regard to the variable domains. There
is also a difference in the way the two
chains ofthe Fab fragments are bent. Both
bend in the area between domains but the
heavy chain bends more than the light one.
Although the Bence-Jones protein that
Edmundson and bis colleagues are study-
ing is equivalent to a Single light chain,
they found that it crystallized as a dimer.
Moreover, the dimer looks like a Fab frag-
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the three-dimen-
sional structure of a human Bence-Jones pro-
tein. The arrows represent the amino acid se-
quences forming the antiparallel /t^-pleated
Sheets. The dark bars represent the internal di-
sulfide bonds in the constant (C) and variable
(V) domains. [Source: Allen Edmundson, Ar-
gonne National Laboralory]
ment since one of the chains assumes the
same conformation as the heavy chain
does. This is surprising because the amino
acid sequence of a Polypeptide determines
its conformation, and yet here is a Situ-
ation in which two chains with identical se-
quences have different three-dimensional
structures.
Another important question about anti-
body structure that the x-ray crystallogra-
phers have answered concerns the nature
of the Site that combines with antigen. It
was known that the variable domains
formed the site and that certain segments
of amino acid sequences in these domains
were more variable than others. These
were calied hypervariable regions by Elvin
Kabat of Columbia University Medical
School and Tai Te Wu, now at Northwest-
ern University, who found that they gener-
ally center around amino acid residues 20,
50, and 90 (as counted from the end of the
Polypeptide chain that has the free amino
group). On the basis of their immuno-
logical and chemical studies, these investi-
gators predicted that the hypervariable re-
gions formed the antigen-binding site—
and the current studies have now con-
firmed this prediction. They show that the
variable regions of the light and heavy
chains fold and associate in such a way
that the hypervariable regions are brought
together to form a fairly large antigen-
binding surface. The hypervariable regions
are largely outside the regions constituting
the pleated sheet framework of the do-
mains.
The investigators were aided in their
analysis ofthe antigen-binding sites by the
identification of small molecules or hap-
tens that bind to them. Haptens, when
complexed to large molecules such as a
protein, will elicit the production of specif-
ic antibodies. The Bence-Jones dimer acts
like an antibody in that it too will bind
haptens.
The materials studied thus far have anti-
gen-binding sites of different shapes. In the
Fab fragment studied by Poljak and bis
colleagues, the site is a shallow groove. In
the one studied by the NIH investigators,
it is a wedge-shaped cleft. And the Bence-
Jones dimer has a conical site that termi-
nates in a bulb-shaped pocket.
None of the investigators observed a
change in the conformation of their mate-
rials as a consequence of hapten binding.
Such a change might be expected because
antigen binding to the variable domains in
effect turns on certain activities ofthe anti-
body molecule that are thought to be func-
tions of the constant domains. The investi-
gators point out that these experiments do
not ruie out the possibility of such a change
in shape. The haptens they use are small
(Continued on page 1 1 14}
SCIENCE, VOL. 189
-^heiKt»
DST of 30 mAf or greater. The Solutions
were Tyndall-negative, thermodynamically
Stahle, and Isotropie under crossed nicols
at a magnification of x 500. By extrapola-
tion, the data suggest that miceiles capable
of cholesterol solubilization begin to form
at 21 mAf DST, a figure similar to the crit-
ical micellar concentration (CMC) of
decanoylsarcosyltaurine as estimated by
surface tension under somewhat different
conditions (72). It can be calculated from
the slope of the solubility line and the
CMC under these conditions that 14 mole-
cules of micellar DST are necessary to so-
lubilize 1 molecule of cholesterol. In sim-
ilar experiments, it was possible to estab-
lish that 60 molecules of the bile salt so-
dium taurocholate (NaTC) and 100
molecules of the common paraffin chain
detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)
were required to solubilize 1 molecule of
cholesterol in mixed micellar Solutions.
In a series of emulsification experi-
ments, 0.5 ml of pure triolein was mixed
with varying amounts of aqueous DST,
NaTC, and SDS in water atpH 6.8, to give
2 ml of total mixture. After vigorous treat-
ment in a Vortex for 1 minute, the break-
ing times of the emulsions were measured
arbitrarily. DST and the bile salt were very
poor emulsifiers, the emulsions breaking
within 1 minute. However, SDS produced
a relatively stable emulsion which persisted
for several hours.
Cholesterol is mixed with lecithin in
both the crustacean and vertebrate in-
testinal luminal contents {12, 18). The
phase behavior of ternary Systems of mix-
tures of cholesterol, lecithin, and DST in
excess water was, therefore, determined
(Fig. 3). The single phase micellar zone
was defined and compared with that ob-
tained when NaTC and SDS were sub-
stituted for DST. The addition of lecithin
(egg yolk, grade 1, Lipid Products, Surrey,
U.K.) to each detergent increased choles-
terol solubilization. Maximum cholesterol
solubilization was 10 percent [percent =
(moles cholesterol solubilized divided by
the total moles of all lipids) x 100] for the
System containing DST and lecithin, 6 per-
cent for the System containing NaTC and
lecithin, and 4.5 percent for the System
containing SDS and lecithin.
The concentration of the constituents in
fasting intestinal juice of the crustacean
species Cancer borealis was determined.
The mean concentration of total solids
equaled 6.9 g/lOO ml with 40 percent acid
precipitable material. The total cation
concentration was 335 mM, and the elec-
trolyte concentrations resembled those in
seawater (79), with 91 mg/dl of Mg and 49
mg/dl Ca (20). The mean sterol concentra-
tion was 0.06 g/lOO ml, and was shown to
be exclusively cholesterol by hexane ex-
traction and GLC-mass spectroscopy. The
mean phospholipid concentration was 0.12
g/lOO ml, and, as shown by TLC, con-
sisted entirely of lecithin. Hydrolysis and
GLC of the lecithin fatty acids (as methyl
esters) established that approximately 50
percent were saturated and monounsatu-
rated C,4 to C20 even-chain fatty acids,
with the remainder being C22, C24, and C26
polyunsaturated fatty acids (27). A mix-
ture of C,o to C|4 yV-acylsarcosyltaurines,
lecithin, and cholesterol were the only
constituents of deproteinated fasting in-
testinal juice identifiable on TLC. No
measurable hydrocarbons, glycerides, or
free fatty acids were detected. When the
relative concentrations of detergents,
lecithin, and cholesterol from seven
samples of juice from different animals
were quantitated by conventional methods
{22) and plotted on triangulär coordinates,
all values feil within the predicted single
phase micellar zone (Fig. 3).
The results establish that crustacean in-
testinal detergent is a very poor emulsifier
^
1
I
1
I
I ■■
3
•
2 20
-
/• -
ivi
/
_j
y
/
CO
=3
./
— 1
/
0
/
<r>
/
ä '0
-
/
-
et
/
LU
^
»-
7
to
/
LU
/ ^
_J
/
' •
0
/
I
/
" 0
./
1
1
1
1
1
c
)
10
20
OST
30
(mM)
40
50
of triolein but solubilizes both lecithin and
cholesterol as mixed miceiles. The capa-
bility for cholesterol solubilization by DST
alone and in the presence of small amounts
of lecithin is not only in excess ofthat of an
analogous paraffin chain detergent (SDS)
but also exceeds that of the vertebrate
hepatic steroidal detergent taurocholate.
However, the maximum capacity of DST
for lecithin solubilization is much less than
that of the bile salt (Fig. 3). For these rea-
sons the shape of the micellar zone is sig-
nificantly different when compared with
that of taurocholate and SDS. The reasons
for the greater cholesterol solubilizing ca-
pability of DST as compared with SDS
and taurocholate are not entirely certain.
Superficially, both DST and SDS are
straight-chain detergents with identical
paraffin chains and acidic sulfate or sulfo-
nate head groups. The interposition of the
Peptide bonds and the carbon atoms of sar-
cosine and taurine between the fatty acid
and charged terminus makes DST a longer
and more polar molecule than SDS. These
Fig. 2. Cholesterol solubilization by DST. Dried
mixturesof DSTand l'^CJcholesterol, total lipid
concentration, 55 mA/, were hydrated in I ml of
0. 15A/ phosphate buffer, pW 1.4, mixed. equili-
brated for 24 hours at room temperature (23°C)
under N2, and centrifuged at 25,000 rev/min;
the cholesterol concentration was determined by
scintillation counting of the clear supernatant.
Cholesterol concentration in micellar Solution is
plotted as a function of the DST concentration.
Below an estimated DST concentration of about
21 mM, the amount of cholesterol solubilized is
unmeasurable. Once this concentration is ex-
ceeded, the Solution concentration of cholesterol
increases linearly. An estimate of the CMC of
the System is given by the DST concentration at
the intersection of the straight lines. The ratio of the number of DST to cholesterol molecules in
micellar Solution is obtained from the slope of the steep part of the curve with correction for the
concentration of DST molecules present as monomers.
80 70 60
DETERGENT %
Fig. 3. Lecithin (L)-cholesterol (C)-detergent (D)-water phase diagram. Total lipid concentrations
were 3 g per 100 ml in 0.1 5A/ phosphate buffer or 0.15A/ NaCl,/?H 7.4, 23°C. Mixtures of dried lipid
were hydrated, mixed, equilibrated for 24 to 96 hours under N^, and examined under a slrong point
light source by polarizing microscopy. The shaded area of the small triangle on the right shows the
relevant segmenl of the phase diagram. The triangle in the center shows this segment expanded, with
the Single phase micellar zone demarcated for the detergents DST (LI1--L]), taurocholate
( • • ), or SDS (A — A). The encircled insert on the left shows the relative concentrations of
cholesterol, lecithin, and DST in deproteinated, fasting C borealis gut juice (x). Note that all
values fall within the single phase micellar zone.
26 SEPTEMBER 1975
1099
properlies difTerentiale ihe physical chem-
ical characleristics of DST from SDS. The
CMC of SDS was 4 n\M under ihe condi-
lions of ihese experiments, whereas ihe
CMC of DST was 21 mA/, and choleslerol
was more efficienlly solubilized by ihe
longer DST molecule. The bulky hydraled
head group should slabilize ihe DST mi-
celle, and reduce ihe hydrophobic chain in-
leraclions, ihus opening ihe palisade layer
of ihe micelle for inleraclions wilh ihe
bulky, nonpolar parls of slerols. For ihe
same reason, ihe slrong, bulky, polar head
group may render ihe molecules so soluble
in waler ihal ihey are poor oil-waler emul-
sitiers. The rigidily of ihe sleroidal hydro-
phobic parls of simple bile sali micelles
reduces iheir efficiency for choleslerol
solubilizalion. However, once lecilhin is in-
corporaled inlo ihe micelles, ihe acquired
liquid hydrocarbon core increases choles-
lerol solubilily signiticanlly (Fig. 3).
Whalever ihe precise explanalion for
those differences, ihe resulls eslablish ihal
the cruslacean delergenl is nol an efficienl
emulsiher bul exhibils a marked capacily
to solubilize choleslerol and lecilhin as
mixed micelles. While furlher sludies will
have lo be performed lo see ihe effecl of
free fally acid and olher consliluenls of ihe
poslcibal inleslinal milieu on solubiliza-
lion, our resulls supporl our hypolhesis
thal ihese delergenls promole ihe in-
leslinal absorplion of ingesied slerol. The
high capacily of cruslacean delergenl for
choleslerol solubilizalion ensures ihe
mainienance of choleslerol in solulion in
the exocrine secrelion of hepalopancreas
even al low concenlralions of lecilhin, and
promoles ihe efhcienl solubilizalion of
dielary slerols prior lo absorplion. The re-
sulls also suggesl ihal DST may serve as a
model for delergenl replacemenl in bile
sali deficiency Syndromes in humans.
Roger Lester
Department of Meäicine. University
of Pittshurgh Schoul of Medicine,
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261
Martin C. Carey
Department of Medicine.
Peter Bent Brigham Hospital and
Harvard Medical School,
Boston, Massachusetts 021 15
JOANNA M. LlTTLE
Lawrence A. Cooperstein
Department of Medicine. University
of Pittshurgh School oj Medicine
Susan R. Dowd
Protein Research Lahoralory, University
of Pittsburgh School of Medicine
References and Notes
I. CR. Treadwell and C. V. Vahouny, in Handhook
of Physiology, C. F. Code, td. (American Physi-
ological Society, Washington D.C., 1968), vol. 3, p.
72; A. F. Hofmann, ibid.. vol. 5, p. 2507; M. C.
Carey and D. M. Small, Am. J. Med. 49, 590
(1970).
10.
12.
13.
14.
15.
H. Daniellson, in Bile Sali Melaholism, L. SchitT,
J. B. Carey, J. M. Dietschy, Eds. (Thomas,
Springlield, 111., 1969), p. 91; in The Bile Acids, P.
P. Nair and D. Krilchevsky, tds. (Plenum, New
York, 1973), vol. 2, p. 1; E. H. Mosbach. Anh. In-
tern. Med. 130, 478 (1972); G. A. D. Haslewood, in
Handhook oj Physiology. C. G. Code, Ed. (Ameri-
can Physiological Society, Washington, D.C.,
1968), vol. 5, p. 2375; M. C. Carey and D. M.
Small, Anh. Intern. Med. 130, .SÜ6 (1972).
H. O. Wheeler, Anh. Intern. Med. 130, 533 (1972);
S. Nilsson and T. Schersten, Gasiroenterologv 57,
525(1969); A. F. Hotmann and M. S. Mekhjian, in
The Bile Acids. P. P. Nair and D. Kritchevsky,
Eds. (Plenum. New York, 1973). vol. 2. p. 103; V.
L. Sallee and J. M. Dietschy. Science 174. 1031
(1971); W. G. M. Hardison and J. T. Apter. Am.
J. Phvsiol. 222, 61 (1972); H. O. Wheeler and K.
K. King, J. Clin. Invest. 51, 1337 (1972); R. H.
Dowling, E. Mack, D. M. Small. ihid. 50, 1917
(1971).
H. J. Vonk, in The Physiology ofCrustacea, T. M.
Waterman. Ed. (Academic Press. New York.
1960). vol. 1. p. 291; Arch. Int. Phvsiol. Bio-
chim. 70. 67 (1962); H. BrockerhotT, J. E. Stewart.
W. Tacreiter. Can. J Biochem. 45. 421 (1967); H.
BrockerhotT and R. J. Hoyle. ibid., p. 1365;
P. C. Hwang.y. Fish Res. Board Can. 27,
1357 (1970); A. H. A. van den Oord, thesis, Uni-
versity of Utrecht ( 1965).
Scientific Tables (Ciba-Giegy, Basle, Switzerland,
1970). p. 498; A. Kanazawa, N. Tanaka, S.
Teshima, K. Kashiwada, Comp. Biochem. Phvsiol.
37,211(1971).
A. H. A. van den Oord, Comp. Biochem. Phvsiol.
13, 461 (1964); D. \. Zandee, Nature fLond.) 202,
1335 (1964); Comp. Biochem. Phvsiol. 20. 811
(1967); Arch. Int. Phvsiol. Biochim. 74, 435 (1966);
L. Gosselin. ibid. 73. 543 (1965).
D. R. Idlcr and P. Wiseman, Comp. Biochem.
Phvsiol. 26. 1113(1968).
A. H. A. van den Oord. H. Danielsson, R. Rvhage,
Nature (Lond.l 203, 301 (1%4): D. A. Hol'werda
and H. J. Vonk. Comp. Biochem. Phvsiol. 45B. 51
(1973).
S. Teshima, Comp. Biochem. Phvsiol. 39B, 815
(1971); and A. Kanazawa, ihid. 38, 603
(1971); A. Kanazawa and S. Teshima, Bull. Jap.
Soc. Sei. Fish. 37, 891 (1971); M. Florkin and BT.
Scheer, Eds., Chemical Zoologv (Academic Press,
New York, 1970), vol. 5. pp. 24 j 242.
A. H. A. van den Oord, H. Danielsson, R. Ryhage.
J. Biol. Chem. 240. 2242 (1965).
Comp. Biochem. Phvsiol. 17. 715 (1966).
H.J. Vonk./^/V/. 29. 361 (1969).
S. R. Dowd. J. M. Little. R. Lester. in preparation.
E. KraiVl and H. Wiglow. Ber Deutsch. Chem.
Ges. 28. 2566 (1895); F. Lachampi and R. Perron,
in Tratte Chim. Organ., V. Grignard, G. Dupont.
R. Locquin, Eds. (Masson & Cie, Paris, 1953), vol.
22. p. 837.
The apparent pK of DST was calculated by taking
the pH corresponding to the point on the curve
where half an equivalent o'i the delergent was ti-
trated. The equivalent weighl was calculated from
the gravimetric weight and the formula molecular
weight of the delergent. Titration of the sulfonate
group of the detergent was assumed to commence
al the inllection point of the curve.
16. F. Rosevear. J. Am. OH Chem. Soc. 31. 628 (1954);
J Soc. Cosmet. Chem 19, 581 (1968); F. La-
champi and R. M. Vila, Rev. Fr. Corps Gras
(February 1969), No. 2, p. 87; J. M. Corkill
and J. F. Goodman, Adv. Colloid Interface Sei. 2,
297(1969).
17. D. M. Small. M. C. Bourges. D. G. Dervichian,
Biochim. Biophvs. Acta 125. 563 ( 1966).
18. B. Isaksson. Acta Soc. Med. Upsal. 56, 177 (1951);
ihid. 59, 277 (1953 54); thesis. University of
Gothenberg, Sweden (1954); W. M. Admirand and
S. M. Small. J. Clin. Invest. 47, 1043 (1968);
M. C. Carey and S. M. Small, in Bile Acids in
Human Diseases III, S. Matern and J. Hacken-
schmidt, Eds. (Schattauer Verlag, Stuttgart, in
press).
19. Handhook of Chemistry and Physics, R. C. West.
Ed. (Chemical Rubber Company, ed. 54. Cleve-
land.Ohio. 1973). F 186.
20. A considerable physiological advantage may be
provided by these straight-chain delergenls over
bile salts in the presence of high concenlralions of
divalent calions. K. Hofmann [thesis. University
of Lund. Sweden (1964)] demonstraled thal the
common vertebrate bile salts are readily precipi-
lated from Solution by calcium salts. whereas we
found thal synthetic DST in concenlralions found
in crab juice was soluble in artificially prepared
seawater. It is of inlerest thal better detergency in
washing is reputed to be associated with delergenls
with branched head groups [A. M. Schwanz and
J. W. Perry. Surface Active Agents (Inlerscience,
New York, 1949). pp. 102, 385], and a group of
industrial delergenls (Igepons) which are mixtures
of A'-acyl-A'-methyllaurines have been developed
for use in condilions of acidity and hard waler in
the lextile induslry [M. L. Kastens and J. J. Ayo.
Ind. Eng. Chem. 42. 1626(1950)].
21. Marine crustacea. like olher marine animals. have
high concenlralions of long-chain polyunsaturated
fally acids in both tissue triglycerides and phos-
pholipids [Fish as Food, G. Börgslröm. Ed. (Aca-
demic Press, New York. 1961). vol. 1. pp. 164.
213]. In the lobster hepalopancreas. these unsatu-
rated fally acids are located predominantly al ihe
2-posilion of triglycerides, phosphalidyl cholines.
and phosphalidyl elhanolamines [M. Brockerhoff.
R. C. Ackman. R. J. Hoyle. Arch. Biochem.
Biophvs. 100.9(1963)].
22. C. R. Bartletl, J. Biol. Chem. 234, 406 (1959); J. J.
Carr and I. J. Drekter. Clin Chem. 2, 353 (1956);
L. L. Abell, B. B. Levy. B. B. Brodie. F. E. Ken-
dall. J. Biol. Chem. 195, 357 (1952) (the concen-
iralion of delergenls was calculated by the ditfer-
ence between the deproteinized dry weighls and the
analytical sums of choleslerol. lecilhin, and elec-
trolvles in each sample).
23. Supported by PHS grants AMHD17847, HD-
08954, AM 11453. AM 18559. and AM01I28 and a
grant from the Medical Research Foundation.
Inc.. Boston. Massachusetts. Facilities of the Bio-
physics Division. Department of Medicine. Boston
University School of Medicine. and the Marine
Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole. Massachu-
setts, were used. We thank Drs. Klaus Hofmann
and D. M. Small for their advice. assistance. and
encouragemenl.
12 May 1975
Arteriovenous Anastomoses in the Skin of the
Weddell Seal, Leptonychotes weddelli
Abslracl. Arteriovenous anastomoses of epithelioid type were demonstraled in Wed-
dell seal skin. The majori ty occurred Just heneath the epidermis and among the hairfol-
licles. There was no significant Variation in density of these anastomoses between body
and ßipper skin. These observations suggest that arteriovenous anastomoses are impor-
tant in thermoregulation in the Weddell seal. particularly as heat dissipating structures
when the animal is out of the water, and thal the entire body surface is involved rather
than specific regions such as the flippers.
In ihis reporl we describe ihe slruclure,
dislribulion, and densily of arleriovenous
anaslomoses (AVA's) of epilhelioid lype
(/) in Ihe skin of ihe Weddell seal, Lep-
tonychotes weddelli. To our Knowledge,
AVA's have nol been described previously
in Ihe skin of marine mammals, allhough
iheir presence was suspecled in Iwo species
of seals {Callorhinus ursinus and Phoca
vitulina) by TarasotTand Fisher (2).
Skin samples of a 2-day-old female pup
and an adull female Weddell seal were
laken from ihe dorsal midline belween ihe
scapulae, and from ihe dorsal aspecl of ihe
100
SCIENCE, VOL. 189
carpal region in the foreflipper, and fixed
in 10 percenl neutral buffered formalin.
Serial sections (6 ^m) were stained with
hemaloxylin and eosin and examined to
delermine the size, slruclure, and distribu-
tion of AVA's. In the delermination ofthe
density of AVA's, each anastomosis was
identitied from its arterial origin through
its epithelioid segment to its venous termi-
nation, and its location was entered on a
diagram of the skin sample to insure that it
was counted only once.
Arteriovenous anastomoses in the body
and flipper skin of the Weddell seals re-
sembled the simple type of AVA's de-
scribed in the skin of other mammals (7).
In the seal the anastomoses were C-shaped
or slightly coiled vessels in which the char-
acteristic segments, artery, epithelioid seg-
ment, and vein could be recognized (Fig.
1).
Anastomoses occurred throughout the
dermis and hypodermis, the majority (65
percent) occurring superficially beneath
the epidermis and among the hair follicles.
In both the pup and the adult there was
no significant Variation in density of
AVA's between body and foreflipper skin
(Table I). In the pup the AVA's were
smaller, but of a higher density, than in the
adult. Assuming that the total number of
AVA's in the skin is established at birth,
these differences may indicate merely a
Table 1. Density of arteriovenous anastomoses
(AVA's) in Weddell seal skin.
Ani-
Re-
gion
Skin area
(cmO
AVA's
mal
m
{N/cm')
Pup
Pup
Adult
Adull
Body
Flipper
Body
Flipper
0.049
0.119
0.098
0.080
69
153
93
78
1408
1286
949
975
relationship between density of AVA's and
total skin area.
The structure, distribution, and density
of AVA's in the skin ofthe seal differ from
those in a terrestrial mammal, the sheep.
In the sheep, the majority of AVA's occur
at the dermal-hypodermal junction, and
the greatest complexity and density of
AVA's is found in forelimb skin (i), which
has been shown to have a thermoregula-
tory function (4). In contrast, our study has
shown that in the Weddell seal there is
no dilTerence in structure, distribution, and
density of AVA's in body and flipper skin.
All the AVA's are relalively simple in
structure, the majority are in a superficial
Position just beneath the epidermis and
among the hair follicles, and their density
is many times greater than that in the
sheep.
Weddell seals inhabit Antarctic coastal
waters associated with sea ice, where the
water temperature varies little from its
freezing temperature of 1.7°C (5). Heat
stress in the aquatic environment is ex-
pected to be virtually nonexistent, while
heat conservation is of major concern.
Seals are well adapted to conserve body
heat, having a heavy blubber layer which is
a most efl'ective insulator (6) and a vascu-
lar pattern in the flippers that suggests a
heat-conserving mechanism (2). It is un-
likely that AVA's are involved in heat con-
servation, as suggested by Tarasoff and
Fisher (2), because they are too superficial
to be efTective in this way. It has been dem-
onstrated that general peripheral vaso-
constriction in the extremities conserves
body heat (7). However, on the rocks or ice
where these seals haul out there is a wide
Variation in ambient temperature, and heat
stress can occur on occasions (<^).
The high density of the AVA's in Wed-
dell seal skin and their position superficial
to the blubber suggest that they are impor-
tant in dissipation of heat, particularly
when the animal is out ofthe water. Dila-
tion of AVA's accompanied by heat loss
has been described in the ear of the rabbit
(9). A similar relationship of AVA's to
heat loss in the leg of the sheep has been
suggested (i). In the seal, if the large num-
bers of AVA's present were to open there
would be a considerable increase in blood
V, -V , V ^ »■ \ '• ,,
« ^^'''A/-^' 0.5mm ,'"'
AX-
TT^p-:
itftfa
.:.•' •
-^"
*
. ,:■#*<%
./\
Fig. 1 . (a) Dermal A V A in 2-day-old Weddell seal pup. A , artery of origin; EP, epithelioid segment; K, collecting vein. (b) Arrows show AVA's in flipper
skin of a Weddell seal. Sections were stained with hemaloxylin and eosin.
26 SEPTEMBER 1975
1101
circulalion ihrough ihe skin, allowing heat
ioss. In this respect, our findings suggesl
that dissipalion of body heal may occur
from ihe enlire skin surl'ace or from local
regions of it, rather than from spejific pe-
ripheral areas such as thc flippers.
G. S. Moi.YNELX, M. M. Brvden
School of Anatomy,
University oj Queensland,
St. Lucia, 4067. Australia
References and Motes
1. S. von Schumacher, Anh. Mikrosk. Anal. Ent-
wicklunii.utiech. 71, 58 (1908).
2. F. J. TarasolT and H. D. Fisher, Can. J Zooi 4«,
821 (1970).
3. G. S. Molyneux, in Biology of ihe Skin and Hair
Growih, A. G. Lyne and B. F. Short, tds. (Angus
& Robertson, Syndey, 1965), p. 591.
4 M. t. D. Webster and K. G. Johnson, Nalure
f/,o/jJ.i 201, 208 (1964).
5. J. S. Hart and H. D. Fisher, Fed. Proc. 23, 1207
(1964).
6. M. M. Bryden, Nature iLond.llOX 1299(1964).
7. P. F. Scholander, Hvalradets Skr. 22 (whole issue)
(1940).
8. C. Ray and M. S. R. Smith, Zoologica 53, 33
(1968).'
9. E. R. Clark and F. L. Clark, Am. J. Anal. 54, 229
(1934).
10. This project was fmanced by a grant from the Aus-
tralian Research Grants Commiltee, with field
Support generously supplied by the National Sci-
ence Foundation. Washington, D.C. We ihank R.
A. Tedman Tor assislance with field collection of
tissue samples and L. Bell lor lechnical assist-
ance.
lüFebruary 1975
Color Vision and Brightness Discrimination in
Two-Month-Old Human Infants
Abstract. A red or white bar. emhedded in a white screen, was systematically varied in
intensity. Infants consistently located and siared at the white bar unless it closely
matched the screen in intensity. They also stared at all intensities ofthe red bar. presump-
tivelv including the red-white brightness match, and hence must have someform of color
Vision.
If an organism can discriminale a col-
ored light from a "white" lighl, solely on
the basis of their ditTerence in wavelength
composition, then the organism is said to
have color vision (/). In this report we
present evidence that 2-month-oid human
infants can make such a discrimination.
It has been demonstrated severai times
that infants can discriminate between ob-
jects or lights having different wavelength
compositions (2). The difficulty lies in
proving that the discriminations are being
made on the basis of wavelength (or chro-
matic) differences rather than just on the
basis of infant luminance (or brightness)
differences.
Infants' spectral sensitivity curves the
relative sensitivity to different wavelengths
of light— are known to be quite similar to
those of human adults, especially in the
middle- and long-wave regions ofthe spec-
trum (i). Hence a heterochromatic bright-
ness match made by a color-normal adult
provides a good first approximation to the
brightness match for an infant, but does
not guarantee the complete elimination of
brightness differences.
Our approach toward eliminating the
brightness cue was to use a long wave-
length (red) light and test the infant's ca-
pacity to discriminate it from a white light.
We Started from the adult red-white bright-
ness match, and explored a ränge of rela-
tive intensities centered around this match.
We explored this ränge in small enough
intensity 5/ep>9 to ensure that in at leastone
casethe red and white lights would have
to be indiscriminable in brightness for the
infant. If the infant could discriminate
1102
between red and white for all of the rela-
tive intensities used (including, then, which-
ever one is a brightness match), the infant
must have color vision.
It is extremely likely that, for red light,
the ränge ±0.4 log unit around the adult's
red-white brightness match will some-
where contain each individual infant's red-
white brightness match (i). Thus, we chose
intensities about 0.4 log unit above and be-
low the adult brightness match as the end
points of the ränge, for a total ränge of a
little more than 0.8 log unit.
In Order to choose the size of the in-
tensity Steps needed for detaiied exam-
c
80
o
o
£ "Oh
Q.
Wide
white bars
Karen (N 34)
• »Free (N 43)
V
% 80
O
White bar
"t
*Katrina (N 36)
t
J-
-04 -02 00 +02 +04
Log relative luminance of bar or bars
Fig. 1. (Top) Brightness discrimination func-
tions in Iwo 2-month-old human infants, Karen
and Free. Zero on the abscissa represents ihe in-
tensity at which a sei of wide white bars
matched a surrounding white screen. Both in-
fants are sensitive to very small intensity differ-
ences. (Boltom) Same as top, but the four wide
bars were replaced by a Single narrower white
bar, and a third infant, Katrina, was used. The
brightness discrimination funclion is broadened
somewhat. The plus marks (-}-) indicale data
collecled during ihe last day's session.
ination of the 0.8 log unit ränge, we de-
cided to leave color aside temporarily, and
find out how sensitive the infant is to small
brightness differences, using only white
lights.
In this experiment, each of two 2-
month-old female infants {4) was held 34.5
cm from a 0.1 log miam white screen of a
color temperalure of about 2650°K. An ob-
server watched the infant's face through a
peephole in the center of the screen. On ei-
ther side ofthe peephole (centered 1 6.5 cm,
or 24.2°, laterally) four vertical rectangular
openings (8.4 by 1.2 cm, or 13.9° by 2.0°)
were cut in the screen. The openings
formed four cycles of a square-wave grat-
ing of about 0.25 cycle/deg.
Diffusing screens were located about 10
cm behind the openings, and could be inde-
pendently back-illuminated. On every trial,
the back illumination was arranged to
make the light Coming through one set of
openings match the screen in brightness
and hue, so that the screen looked virtually
homogeneous (to us) on that side of the
peephole. The light from behind the other
set of openings could be set to a variety of
intensities, above or below that of the
screen, and formed (for us) a set of readily
visible bars. The intensity of these bars,
and the side on which they were presentcd,
varied randomly across trials.
When the intensity of the bars differs
enough from that of the screen, an infant
will Stare fixedly in the direction ofthe bars
(5), and this behavior forms the basis of
our response measure (6). The observer,
looking through the peephole, was not told
the Position or intensity of the bars. On
each trial, the observer was required to
judge the side on which the bars were lo-
cated by observing the pattern of the in-
fant's eye and head movements. If the ob-
server performs bettcr than chancc at judg-
ing the location of the bars, it follows that
the infant can see the bars. Thus, percent
correct on the part of the observer was our
dependent measure and above-chance val-
ues indicate that the infant sees the Stimu-
lus. When the intensity of the bars ap-
proaches that of the screen, the infant's
staring behavior becomes random and the
observer's Performance drops to chance.
Figure I (top) shows the observer's per-
cent correct in naming the position of the
bars, as a function of the log relative lumi-
nance ofthe bars. For intensity differences
of about 25 percent (0.1 log unit) and
above, the observer's Performance was al-
ways 90 percent or better. Of the in-
tensities we used, only the increment of 5
percent (0.02 log unit) above the back-
ground intensity was small enough that the
infants faiied to stare at the bars. Under
the Stimulus conditions of the experiment,
then, the U-shaped dip in the discrimina-
SCIENCE, VOL. 189
tion function ihe intensity ränge yielding
near-chance Performance -is remarkably
narrow. For example, the width at 65 per-
cenl correct in these data is only about 0.08
log Unit (7).
The very sensitive brightness discrimina-
tion shown here is sufficient to raise serious
doubts about previous studies claiming evi-
dence of color vision in human infants (2).
In those studies, if the slimuh were mis-
matched in brightness to the infant by only
a few percent, the infants may have re-
sponded on the basis of brightness and not
hue (or Saturation). These data then dem-
onstrate the need for rigorous brightness
controls in color vision experiments.
Next, we altered the Stimuli in a way
that we hoped would reduce the infants'
Performance on the brightness discrimina-
tion task. The four wide white bars were
replaced by a single narrow vertical white
bar (8.4 by 0.6 cm, or 1 3.9° by 1 .0°).
The data from one infant, Katrina, are
shown in Fig. 1 (bottom). With the narrow
bar, the bottom of the U-shaped brightness
discrimination function was made a little
broader. For the infant tested, the observ-
er's Performance remained at chance
across at least 0.075 log unit (from ^.015
to +0.06 log unit around the matching in-
tensity), and the width of the curve at 65
percent correct is about 0. 1 log unit.
In our third experiment, we replaced the
white bar with a red (Kodak Wratten No.
29; dominant A = 633 nm) bar. As dis-
cussed above, we assume that at some in-
tensity within ±0.4 log unit of an adult
brightness match, the infant's brightness
match should occur. If the infant has no
color vision, her Performance should drop
to Chance at her brightness match, and the
infant should generate a U-shaped func-
tion identical to her white-bar function.
Furthermore, if the infant has a brightness
discrimination function like that in Fig. 1
(bottom), then exploration of the 0.8 log
unit ränge of intensity of the red bar, in in-
tensity Steps of about 0.1 log unit or less,
ought to be sufficient to find the U, if it ex-
ists. If no dip to chance Performance oc-
curs, one can conclude that the infant has
color vision.
In the color vision experiment, 12 in-
tensities of the red bar were used (8). They
spanned the ränge around the adult hetero-
chromatic brightness match in steps of
0.085 log unit or less. In addition, four in-
tensities of white light were used, to estab-
lish the brightness discrimination function
(see Fig. I, bottom) for each individual in-
fant.
Figure 2 shows the data from two in-
fants. The lower graph shows the observ-
er's percent correct with the four white
Stimuli. The data are very similar to those
of Fig. I (bottom), and verify the adequacy
26 SEPTEMBER 1975
^ 80
o
«
o
u
T^
Red bar
TT
*
! •
S 40>
a.
o
80
40 ir
White bar
• Barbara,.. -,..
J_
-0.4 -02 00 +02
Log relative lummance of bar
J^^
+04
Fig. 2. (Top) Color vision in iwo 2-month-old
human infanls, Barbara and Lyndi. A red bar
replaced the white bar of Fig. 1 (bottom). Zero
on the abscissa indicales the log luminance of
the red bar needed for a (heterochromalic)
brightness match to the white screen, for two
color-normal adults. The above-chance Per-
formance al all poinls shows that both infants
could discriminate the red bar from the white
screen, across a wide ränge of luminances.
Hence both infants must have at least dichro-
matic color vision. For the plus mark (-}-), see
(9). (Bottom) Brightness discrimination func-
tions (as in Fig. I, bottom), for the two infants
whose color vision was tested.
of the 0.085 log unit step size for the red
Stimuli for these individual infants.
The Upper graph shows the data collect-
ed with the red bar. For all intensities, with
both infants, the observer's percent correct
remained clearly above chance (9). Both
infants can discriminate the red bar from
the white screen for all intensities tested,
providing very strong evidence that these
2-month-old infants have some form of
color vision.
If an organism can discriminate between
any single pair of lights (such as a red and
a white light) on the basis of a dilTerence in
wavelength composition, then the orga-
nism must have at least dichromatic color
vision. It follows that at least two receptor
mechanisms of differing spectral sensitiv-
ity, plus the neural circuitry necessary to
compare the Outputs of the two receptor
types, must be functional in that organism.
The data of Fig. 2 indicate that 2-month-
old human infants are at least dichromatic.
If an organism can discriminate every
wavelength of light from white light, then
the organism is at least trichromatic, and
must have at least three functioning recep-
tor mechanisms. Color-normal human
adults are trichromatic (/), as are 6-week-
old macaque monkey infants (/Ö). Clearly,
the present data do not establish whether
or not 2-month-old human infants are tri-
chromatic. Discrimination data using
wavelengths from all spectral regions will
be necessary to test this question.
The present data allow us to infer that
all of the neural Clements necessary for at
least dichromatic color vision, and for re-
markably sensitive brightness discrimina-
tions, are present in 2-month-old human
infants, and, conversely, that any Clements
of the System which are not yet present are
not necessary for these visual functions.
David R. Peeplhs, Davida Y. Teller
Psychology Department,
University of Washington. Seattle 98195
References and Notes
L T. Cornsweet, Visual Penepiion (Academic Press,
New York, 1970), pp. 155 267; G. Brindley, Phvsi-
ologv of the Retina and Visual Pathwav (Arnold,
London, ed. 2, 1970), pp. 199 259.
2. W. Chase, J. Exp. Psychol. 20, 203 (1937); M.
Bornstein, J. Exp. Chilä PsxchoL, in press; J
Eagan Hl, Science 183, 973 (1974). See also W.
Kessen, M. Haith, P. Salapalek, in Carmichael's
Manual of Child Psvchologv, P. Mus.sen. Ed.
(Wiley, New York, 1970), vol. 1, p. 287; B. Wooten
and J. Eagan \ll, Science 187,275(1975).
3. D. Trincker and L Trincker, in Behavior in Injancv
and Early Chitdhood, Y. Brackbill and G. Thomp-
son, Eds. (Eree Press, New York, 1967), p, 179; D.
Teller and D. Peeples, paper presenled at the
spring 1974 meeting of Association for Research
in Vision and Ophthalmoiogy, Sarasota, Elorida,
and report in preparation; V. Dobson. thesis,
Brown Universily (1975). Eor red light (about 635
nm) the latter iwo studies show that infants and
adults differ in relative spectral sensitivity by no
more than 0. 1 5 log unit.
4. Eemale infants were used in all experiments to re-
duce the probability that a color-blind infant
would be tested inadvertently. Sex and availability
were our only Screening crileria; no subjects were
discarded. The infants were run in five lo ten I-
hour daily sessions, within a 1- to 2-week period,
between the 58th and 75th postnatal days.
5. R. Eantz, J. Ordy, M. Udelf, J. Comp Phvsiol.
Psychol. 55,901 {\962).
6. This forced-choice preferenlial-looking. or "peep
and teil," technique is described fully in D. Teller
etal., Vision Res. 14, 1433 (1974). Typically one of
the authors was the observer, and the other held
the infant. A naive observer was used to generate
the data of Lyndi in Eig. 2, and in some instances
the infant's molher held the infant. The person
holding the infant could not see the Stimulus dis-
play and thus could not provide cues about the Po-
sition of the bar or bars. Corneal reflections of the
bar or bars were not visible to the observer.
7. The brightness discrimination functions are asym-
metrical, in the sense that both infants were more
sensitive to small decrements than lo small in-
crements of intensity. The asymmelry occurred
with all infants tested. This suggesls that the in-
fants' responses are not governed solely by the lo-
cal contrast between the screen and bars but
rather by some more global aspect of the overall
Stimulus configuration. The asymmelry in the in-
fants' behavior is similar to adult supra-threshold
responses: there is a greater subjective brightness
difference between a dim center and a bright Sur-
round than between a bright center and a dim Sur-
round [see E. Heinemann, y. Exp Psvchol. 50, 89
(1955); H. Wallach, ihid. 38, 310 (1948)]. The in-
fants in the first experiment reveal very high sensi-
tivities to brightness differences. The two infants
show a 67 percent correct discrimination at a 3
percent (0.015 log unit) contrast decrement. a level
of sensitivity higher than that of previous reports
[for example, J. Atkinson, O. Braddick, E. Brad-
dick. Naiure ILond.j 241, 403 (1974); J. Doris, M.
Caspar, R. Poresky, J Exp. Child Psychol. 5, 522
(1967)]. The plus marks ( + ) in Eig. 1, bottom, in-
dicate data collecled during the last day's session.
8. Eor each day's session six intensities of the red bar
and two intensities of the white bar were used. In
one type of session, the leftmost and every aller-
nate intensity in Eig. 2 (top) were used, plus the
0.19 log unit and the +0.06 log unit white in-
tensities. In the other type of session, the remain-
ing six red and two white intensities were used. The
type of Session was counterbalanced across days.
Within a session, the position, color, and intensity
of the bar were randomized.
9. With one of the infants, Lyndi, at one relative in-
tensity of the red bar (-»-0.365 log unit) the observ-
er's Performance feil to 70.6 percent. A retesling of
this value at the end of the experiment yielded a
percentage of 91.2, which is indicated by the plus
mark ( + ) in Eig. 2.
10. R. Boothe et al.. Vision Res., in press.
11. Supportcdby PMS grant EY00421 to D.Y.T. and
PHS postdoctoral fellowship EY04085 to D.R P
Wethank H. Lai, .1. Poli. and M. Bell for labora-
tory assistance. and Drs. .1. Schaller, V. Dobson, W.
Makous, N. Weisstein, D. Yager, T. Cornsweet, and
J. Eagan III for comments on the manuscript.
7 April 1975
1103
Strange Females Increase Plasma Testosterone Levels
in Male Mice
Abstract. Male house mice paired with a normal female for l week do not have higher
plasma testosterone levels than do males that remain in all-male groups, but paired males
have markedly elevated testosterone levels 30 to 60 minutes after the resident female is
replaced by another female. Elevation of testosterone levels in these males is similar to
that in isolated males paired with a female, does not depend on copulation with the
Strange female. occurs under housing conditions that permit continuous exposure to the
odors ofotherfemales and males, and does not occur when the resident female is replaced
by another male for 30 to 60 minutes. The elevation thus appears to be a specific endo-
crine response to an encounter with a stränge female. These results, along with previous
findings suggesting that stränge males affect endocrine function infemales, indicate that
bisexual encounters are likely to produce endocrine changes in members ofboth sexes.
Exteroceptive Stimuli from males can al-
ter endocrine function in females (7). Ex-
posure to the odor of males accelerates the
onset of estrus in female mice, and can
block pregnancy (implantation of fertilized
eggs) in mated females. Pregnancy block
does not occur when females continue to
be exposed to the odor of their individual
studs, and therefore the block has been
described as an endocrine response to a
Strange male. Pregnancy block by ex-
posure to Strange males also has been re-
ported in the nonmurid deermouse and the
vole. Recent studies indicate that sex-re-
lated Stimuli can affect endocrine function
in males as well as females. Exposure to
females or copulation (or both) have been
reported to elevate plasma testosterone (T)
levels in rats, rabbits, hamsters, rams,
bulls, monkeys, and men (2). In the studies
with rats, rabbits, hamsters, and bulls,
copulation is not required for a rapid in-
crease (within 30 to 60 minutes) in plasma
T levels. In male hamsters, rapid increases
in plasma T foUowing exposure to vaginal
odor can be comparable in magnitude to
those following physical pairing with
females. Thus the odors of the opposite
sex can be adequate Stimuli for altering
endocrine activities in both males and
females.
In this study we determined the short-
term effects of an encounter with a stränge
female on plasma T levels in male mice un-
der conditions intended to minimize such
possible general effects of female odor on
the male hypophysiogonadal axis. We re-
port that male mice paired for 1 week with
30 1—
25
20
E
n
c
15
10
Grouped
males
Paired 1 wk
with 9
Isolated
1 wk
P<05 — ' Paired with Paired with
Baseline (stränge) 9 (f
30-60 min 30 60 mm
Fig. 1 . Mean testosterone levels for six groups of male house mice; NS, not significantly differenl (4).
a female, and permitted continuous ex-
posure to the odors of other normal fe-
males and males in neighboring cages, ex-
hibit high T levels 30 to 60 minutes after
the resident female is replaced by another
female. The rapid T elevation does not de-
pend on copulation with the stränge fe-
male, and does not occur if the resident fe-
male is replaced by a male.
Subjects were random-bred house mice,
Mus musculus, more than 55 days old.
They were housed in stainless steel cages
(22 by 22 by 13 cm) with wire tops, in a
common room with a lighting schedule
of 14 hours light, 10 hours dark. Plasma
T levels were determined by radioim-
munoassay (3). The assay has a sensitiv-
ity of approximately 50 pg of T, and an in-
tra-assay coefficient of Variation of 8 per-
cent. Blood samples (one per subject) were
collected approximately at the middle of
the light period by cardiac puncture with-
out anesthesia. The housing conditions
permitted common exposure of subjects to
odors in the room, and only the number
and sexes of subjects in individual cages
were varied. Average T levels were deter-
mined for males that (i) remained caged in
all-male groups of three to five since wean-
ing, (ii) were removed from all-male
groups and paired with a normal female
for I week, and (iii) were isolated in a sepa-
rate cage for I week. For some of the
paired subjects, the resident female was re-
moved 30 to 60 minutes before blood col-
lections, and either another female was in-
troduced or male-male pairs were formed.
For some of the isolated males, single fe-
males also were introduced into the cages
30 to 60 minutes before collections. All fe-
males were caged in groups of four to five
prior to pairing with males. Weither males
nor females had previous sexual experi-
ence. The females that were presented to
the isolated males or replaced the resident
females of the paired males were not recep-
tive during the 30- to 60-minute exposures
and did not copulate. None of these fe-
males had vaginal plugs after their short
exposure to males.
Mean plasma T levels and Standard er-
rors for the six conditions are illustrated in
Fig. 1. Subjects that remained in all-male
groups had an average T level of 7.8 ± 2.2
ng/ml. The mean T level after pairing with
a female for I week was not different from
that of grouped males {P > .05), whereas
males that were isolated for I week did
have a higher mean T level {P < .05). As
expected from findings in other species (2),
isolated males exposed to a female for 30
to 60 minutes had a higher mean T level
than isolated males that were not present-
ed with a female {P < .01). Paired males
similarly had elevated T levels 30 to 60
minutes after the resident female was re-
1104
SCIENCE. VOL. 189
Coenzyme A
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Propionyl Coenzyme A [propionyl-1 -^^C] NEC-649
Stearoyl Coenzyme A [stearoy 1-1 - ^^C] NEC-573
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RESEARCH NEWS
(Cunlinued from page 1076)
(phosphorylcholine al NIH, a derivative of
Vitamin K at Johns Hopkins, and 2,4-dini-
truphenyl groups at Argonne) compared to
ordinary antigens, and they interact with
only a few residues in the combining site.
They might miss the ones involved in trig-
gering conformation changes. Further-
more, the antibodies were studied in the
crystalhne State, and the results may not be
appUcable to what happens when the pro-
teins are in Solution.
At least one group of investigators, in-
cluding 1. Z. Steinberg and J. Schlessinger
of the Weizmann Institute of Science in
Rehovot, Israel, has evidence that anti-
bodies in Solution undergo a conformation
change when they bind antigen. They
determined the elTect of antigen bindingon
the circular polarization of fluorescence of
antibodies. The investigators observed
changes only with large antigens and not
with phosphorylcholine.
The picture of antibody structure emerg-
ing from all this is one in which certain Seg-
ments of both variable and constant do-
mains form a structural framework that
has changed little throughout the course of
antibody evolution. Several investigators
pointed out that the resemblances in the
three-dimensional structures of the differ-
ent domains support the hypothesis that
they all originated from duplication of a
Single primordial gene. When changes in
amino acid sequences did occur in the
framework regions, they were such as to
not markedly disturb the basic folding pat-
tern. On the other band, alterations outside
of this framework, for example, in the hy-
pervariable regions of variable domains,
can give rise to antibodies with different
specificities, Alterations in the non-
framework sequences of constant domains
would permit the evolution of domains ca-
pable of performing different functions.
Because of the similarity between the
Bence-Jones dimer and the Fab fragments,
Edmundson thinks that the dimer may rep-
resent a prototype for a primitive anti-
body, and a possible intermediate in the
evolution of the four-chain immunoglobu-
lin molecule. He suggests that the rotation
of the constant domain relative to the vari-
able one was a critical step in the evolu-
tionary process because it means that dif-
ferent amino acid residues would be
needed for maintaining the association of
each domain pair. Those not involved in
the interaction would necessarily also be
different and hence the domains could
evolve to perform different functions. The
eventual result would be Immunoglobulins
with the structures and functions that we
know today.—jEAN L. Marx
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SCIENCE, VOL. 189
PROCEEDINGS
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CONTENTS
Edmund Leach. Melchisedech and the emperor: kons of Subversion and orthodoxy
(Presidential Address 1972)
Page
L, L. Cavalli-Sforza. Origin and differentiation of human races
(Huxley Memorial Lecture 1972)
• • • •
• • • •
15
Mary Douglas. Self-evidence
(Henry Myers Lecture 1972)
• • • •
• • • •
27
James Urry. Notes and queries on anthropology and the development offieldmethods in British anthropology, 45
1 870-1 920 (Hocart Prize Essay 1972)
List of Officers and Council of the Royal Anthropological Institute . .
59
Report of the Council for the year ending 31 December 1972
Accounts for the year ending 31 December 1972
• • • •
60
68
ORIGIN AND DIFFERENTIATION OF HUMAN RACES
Huxley Memorial Lecture, 1972
L. L. Cavalli-Sforza
Stanford University
Evolution is the transformation of species through
time; but it is also the formation of differences among
populations of the same species (or among species)
that occupy differing environments. The two pheno-
mena — differentiation in time and space — are naturally
complementary aspects of the same process. Palaeont-
ology has demonstrated that evolutionary trans-
formations take place slowly; genetics has shown why
this should be so. It is not at all surprising, therefore,
that in human evolution long periods of time can
elapse before substantial changes take place. Actually,
some of the transformations characteristic of the
evolution into Homo (such as the trebling in the capa-
city of the hominid skull in a coü^je^of million years) ^
are among the fastest evolutionary changes observed.
When we look at the Variation between the human
ethnic groups now living, we are amazed by the
magnitude of such Variation. In particular, skin
colour inevitably impresses us very deeply, being a
conspicuous, though in many respects superficial,
difference. Other traits, mostly facial ones, are well-
known aids in diagnosing the racial origin of an
individual. Even a child learns soon to distinguish a
white man from a black man or from an oriental. But
when many more 'races' are distinguished, assign-
ment of an individual to one of them on the basis of
his external attributes is usually less successful. A test
on this basis of the validity of taxonomies of human
races has not been done. Probably, if one tried to
allocate an individual, on the basis of his or her
external appearance, to one of theCthirty or so races^
which GaTn(19^D— dktinguishes, fbr inslariöe,^the
diagnosis woCflZTb&'in error relatively often. Most of
the difficulties for taxonomy of human races arise from
the fact that no matter how races are defined almostjQo
measurable trait shows really sharp discontinuities
from one^racej toTheoexEIÜn a map m'üsttrgiTs^^e
they ^nthropometrics or gene frequencies — show
gradual TfarisiTTSfi?~or patterns'^'öT'cfmaPvariation
This suggests that during human evolution the extent
of Crossing must have been fairly large. Naturally
ethnic maps will show this clinal behaviour if in our
analysis we concentrate on aboriginal populations
and avoid those known or suspected major dis-
placemerTfe' ovef^tHelasriwe^^Ruihdr^^ or so.
Otherwise we are confronte3~with extensive hetero-
geneities. There are many communities of blacks and
orientals and caucasians living ^de_by,si4e_irL_mail^
countries with \py little, if a;iy-4fttefmixtüre:^SocTäl
•DT
barriers^to interbreüdtng have^in some ^jases ^rviveü
over the short time elapsed since these migrations took
place.
The traits which the man-on-the-street recognises
overlap largely with those used in what might be called
classical physical anthro^ojogy, Many of these traits
are likely to represent an adaptive response to the
environment. Which of the many environmental
factors may have been important in shaping the
phenotype is still difficult to_ass£ss. However, it is
likely that climate has been a dominant factor. Even
if the evidence is incomplete, it seems reasonable that
skin colour, body build, hair colour and shape and
even some facial traits (eyelids, nose_sb^aj3£^ and
nostrils, etc.) all varied (Tnder climatic selecj
pressures. They all affect the* body ^gui {d^z "^Vmch is
the major physical Interface of the body with the
environment. But surface characteristics are also those
which are most conspicuousJlis no wonder that we
are impressed by the magnitude of ethnic differefree^
that we see. ^^T^^^ "
On the other band, the possibility should be kept in
mind that at least part of these superficial differences
may be simply the outcome of sexuaLsdectioru Dis-
crimination between the^clapta^ört and the sexual
selection hypotheses is ndreasy and must await more
detailed investigations of the physiology of these
traits than are now available.
There are various reasons why these 'conspicuous'
characters are not the best choice for an evolutionary
analysis of the origin and history of formation of
human races. The first is that, for the reasons just
stated, they are unlikely to be a random sample of
genetic differences existing between races. Only a
random sample would ensure that these differences
are^epresentative of the total genetic differences that
exist. The second is that^Mrc-^nHeritance of these
conspicuous traits is usually complex, with many
genes often determining a given trait; for instance,
skinjioleür differences between-Afncans and Caucas-
ians^&fe due to at least four gene fixations (Harrison &
Owen 1964; Stern 1970). The th1rd is that they are
often subject to phys^^ical or shortjgrm adapta-
tions, so that these traiTsmay vary durmg^e lifetime
of an individual as a function of the environment in
which he lives. Even if a high heritability has been
shown for some of these traits (e.g. s^^ikfre, or the
cephalic iodex) short-term changes d_ue,to environ-
mental effects canTioF'Be^excluHeHand have in fact
been demohsffäled.Thüs~, differences observed between
populations with respect to these traits do not neces-
15
V
sarily reflect genotypic differences. Finally, there is
reason to think that characters representing enyiron-
mental.^daßtations, evenTf inherited, may be of little
value for the purpose of evolutionary analysis. This
point will require some further explanation.
The main hope of reconstructing the phylogeny of a
group when palaeontological evidence is not available,
is to m^asure geneti.c_dj.fi£j:£nces that allow us to
evaluate flie^irne since Separation oftwo (or more)
populations. A tree ot descertt bäsed on times^since
Separation can then be built. There are, of course,
many limitations to the conclusions that can be
reached in this kind of analysis. The populations may
not be sharplyjeparated ; some intermigration may
have beerTToccurring and later fusions may blur the
picture. The rate of evolution must be constant for the
computation of Separation times from observed
divergences to be valid. This is not necessarily true
even if we consider a large sample of genes. But we
are more likely to satisfy the requirement that the
observed genetic^ißgrence is proportional to the time
since separationo£j^vo_^opiüations, iFwe consider
genes that' undergo a~M^an3om' type of evolution
(Cavalli-Sforza 1973). Random genetic drift and
selective drift (Kimura 1954) come closer to this
expectation, as I will discuss more fully in the next
section. The Situation beomes more complicated when
there is an adaptation to local environmental condi-
tions. For genes whose Variation is principally in
response to differpnt environmental niches, the rate
of change depend-^on the difference of the intensity of
selection in these niches: the phenotypic response will
reflect the environmental differences or similarities
rather than the Separation time.
It is known that fairly similar but geographically
separated ecological environments have been occupied
by populations of quite different origins. The tropical
forest in Africa was occupied by Africans, in India
and south-east Asia by people of Caucasian and/or
mixed or of Asian origin; in New Guinea by south-east
Asians, and in central and south America by American
Indians. Some Australian aborigines, Africans and
American Indians have occupied arid areas and savan-
nahs in their respective continents. There are some
phenotypic similarities in body build and pigmentation
of these widely different groups occupying similar
habitats, which can perhaps be viewed as examples of
convergent or parallel evolution.
It is likely that the simijarity of populations evolving
in similar, but geographically separated, environments
is higher at the phenotypic (anthropometric) than at
the genotypic levei; as d^flerent genes may have
brought about supe^Äqaljy simil^r^henotvmc re-
sponses to a common selective stiVnuTürinmnerent
populations. An example which may help to^nder-
stand this concept is that of res|stance_toj]ia]aria. It is
true that evolutionary convergence has occurred, as
one finds, for instance, in the case of sickle cell anaemia
in Asia^ Africa and Eurppe. But ma^^TaHaptatlbn
has ^olved'Tn other populations t^ouring thalas-
saemia (at two diff'erent loci) ipstead of^he sickle
cerräi^aemia genes and in other still uSPD, of which
there exists a great variety of .alleles with different
geographical distribution. This may reflect, but only in
part, diff'erences in the parasites against which resist-
ance is developedTTiTötTiersituations as well, genetic
analysis may indicate that there is agreatva£ig_
gengtig responses to similar envirdairTienlii Stimuli.
Tff^^a^ptaTions to similar environments may off'er
Problems of^y\^uiionßi^^.2^isA^^s^thai can be mor^^
easily understk^^'when genes rather than phenoti;^^2^
are studied. 'j^ C^^^^
These considerations on one hand generate the
desire to study evolutionary divergence between
human races at the level of smgje gene differences,
and on the other add interest to the understanding of
the relative role of evolutionary faciors, m particular
drift^and selection, in^determining chan^s in the
:enV frequencies of human pbpulationsl^We will
ortTy evaliiate tlie evidence on the latter problem.
Mechanisms of biological evolution in man
A first requirement mentioned for studying evolu-
tionary divergence between human races is the jglec-
tion of a random sample of genes. We come dosest
to this require^menl Tf we"select Polymorphie genes, i.e.
those for which more than one allele has been shown
to exist at a substalitlal trequency in at least one
Population. The choice of a 'substantial' level is
somewhat arbitrary, but in practice this usually means
that in addition to the most common allele there is at
least one other with a frequency of not less than 1 per
Cent. ' "~^ —
Our data on populations will then consist of
U/fre£uenciesof_^^ as many poly-
Vmorphic genes as possible. In the majority of cases,
the differericesjjetween races for frequency of alleles
of a gTven gene are moderate or ^mall. Only a few
J/loci— Gm and Fy— whtclT show an unusually high
^^^ariation between races, approach this limit. This
immediately indicates that thegenetic^iüfiGererices
jy between races cannot bejarge, br elseThere would be
' ^ such^dS^sT "^
Measures of genetic difference or distance will
therefore be based on diff'erences between the fre-
quency of the given allele between two (or more)
populations and usually averaged over all alleles and
loci. A number of logi-Cgenes) in man, above 50, has
been shown to be" polymorplTJc with a number of
alleles varying froni_2_t£LOver^30j)er locus. Data are
not yef ävailible for a sufficient variety of populations
for all the loci and analysis has to be restricted today
to polymorphisms, which are better known. A great
variety of measurements of * genetic j^ance' have
been suggested; the choice between them may diff"er
somewhat depending on the purpose (Cannings &
Cavalli-Sforza 1973).
We will here^^onsider- -die. Yajiance_o^fjj£queücies
of aiTaliele between racial gro^s^ncluding at least
16
e three major ones). This variance,( a^ djvided by
— p), where p is the mean fr^cmajcVnfthat allele
all groups, is a suitable measuTeTor comparing the
Variation of dififerent alleles. Calling it f = ^^/pCl -p)»
we expect this quantity to be the same for all alleles
for which random genetic drift is the main cause of
evolutionary divergence. If drift were the only cause,
the value of f could also be predicted on the basis of
demographic information or 'effective' population
sizes (Ne; for an explanation of Ng, see Cavalli-Sforza
& Bodmer 1971) and migration coefFicients between
populations (m). When studying the genetic Variation
between villages located at close distance, it is found
that drift (Cavalli-Sforza et al. 1964; Cavalli-Sforza
1969a; Bodmer & Cavalli-Sforza 1972) can account
essentially for all the Variation. Here, however,
environment is very similar and demographic data
for the last few generations may be adequate. When
comparing racial groups that occupy virtually the
whole World, environmental Variation and therefore
selection conditions are likely to vary considerably
over Space (and time). Demographic data would be
required for a very long period, but such data do not
exist and at most Orders of magnitude can be guessed.
For ethnic groups widely separated geographically, it
is likely that intermigration is close to zero and can be
neglected. The prediction of^^JLhen depends on
population sizes Ne^ and trme since Separation. Over
shoiTlHTies and^^FoT populations of equal size Ne, the
value of f is approximately equal to t/2Ne, where t is
the time of Separation in generations. Actually, the
times of Separation involved in racial differentiation
are too large for this simple formula to be valid.
Formulas covering less simple cases are given else-
whereby Cavalli-Sforza (1969b) and Cavalli-Sforza &
Bodmer (1971). If the ethnic groups whose Separation
is studied were of sizes Ne= 10*, 10^, the f values that
would be expected for various Separation times are
given in table 1 .
The ränge of population sizes chosen in table 1
derives from our present uncertainty as to the popula-
tion sizes of the major ethnic groups during most of
the history of human racial differentiation. Even if
Table 1
f value expected under random genetic drift for
various population sizes (Ne) and Separation times (t).
No intermigration.
Time t of Separation
Ne=10*
Ne=10^
in generations
in years
200
400
1,000
2,000
4,000
5,000
10,000
35,000
50,000
100,000
0-01
0-02
0-05
0-15
0-23
0-001
0-002
0-005
0-01
0-02
such estimates were known, however, we would not be
allowed to use them directly. If geneticjdivergence
were due mostW or entirely to dnlfTTweTcoüld expect
all f values to ße equal, or, m practlce, show a modest
degree of Variation, but this does not seem to be true
(Cavalli-Sforza 1966; Lewontin & Krakauer in
press).
Figure 1 shows that considerable variations in f
values are observed. Variouskinds of natural selection
may j)e responsible. We niay constder^as~exa!TrpTes :
(1) StaETlising selection (usually, selection in favour of
heterozygotes), which would lower f values with respect
to those due to drift but by an amount which is not
large; (2) Disruptive selection (selection different in
different environments); (3) 'Selective drift' (selection
varying at random in time and space). Both the last
two factors increase the f values above the level of
drift.
Because of these considerations and the uncertainty
of Ne values, an estimate of times of evolutionary
divergence is not possible. However, an alternative
possibility is available if one can use a time yardstick
for separations that have been dated by archaeo-
logical means. The amounts of evolutionary divergence
allocated to such separations can then supply an
estimate of rates of evolutionary divergence. If such a
rate is constant, it may be used for dating separations.
One time yardstick available is that of the migration
of Arnerican Indians into America, which has vari-
ously "BeerT placed between 10,000 and 25,000 years
ago. Using this as a rough yardstick, with all the
uncertainties that are associated with such an estimate,
the earliest^ssiün in human racial divergence (leading
to the two most widely different groups — Africans and
Eastern populations, the latter being the hetero-
geneous group formed by all populations living around
the Pacific, from Australian aborigines to Orientais
and American Indians) has been dated between
25,000 and 100,000 years ofage (Cavalli-Sforza 1969b).
Increased knowledge available today may permit us
to refine this estimate and reduce its wide ränge of
error. It is interesting that this estimate is not incon-
sistent with the notion that modern man appeared on
WORLD VARIATION QT GENE FREQUENCIES
0^
P4
0.5
Lm
I
O.M
0.3
«1
0.2
0.«
r
0.1
0. J
Kell
"^(Lv
Gc^
0
A
MS
B
Ns
Diego
HP^
*a
Figure 1 . World Variation of gene frequencies for some human
alleles. The measure of Variation given on the ordinate is the
V quantity f as explained in the text.
17
X
y \
the World scene, as judged from skeletal remains, at
least 50,000 years ago. The extension of modern man
to the Old World (mostly Asia and Africa) may have
been fairly rapid and the differentiation into major
races may have started soon thereafter.
If the Separation between races is of the order of
j)r50,000 years, as"tTie ^palaeontological'cfäta'would sug-
ge'st, then the median f välue^observed in fig. 1, which is
approximately 0-1, would be somewhat inferior to
that expected under drift alone if Ne=10^ and
definitely higher if Ne= 10^. If the first value is correct,
then selection forces of the stabilising kind must have
prevailed. If the second, higher value of Ne should be
accepted, then other kinds of selection (disruptive
selection or selective drift, or both) prevailed. All types
of selection are likely to be present, in any case,
considering the ränge of f values for individual
alleles. The lowest f values observed would correspond
then to genes mostly subject to stabilising selection
and the higher f values to genes subject to disruptive
selection.
Estimation of the effective population sizes Ng rele-
vant to racial differentiation in man would demand
much better archaeological knowledge than is
available today. An upper limit is fixed by using the
estimate of world population (perhaps 1-10 million)
during the last 50,000 years, before the onset of the
neolithic, which increased population sizes and thus
to some extent froze the effects of drift. The estimate
of 1-10 million people for the whole world has to be
decreased multiplying it, l)bya factor of 1/4 to 1/3 to
account for overlapping generations; 2) by a further
factor, which is most difficult to assess but may ränge
from 1/10 to 1/100. This second factor should take
account of the fact that the Ne being estimated is not
that of the model population, but a fraction of it,
namely the average for the ethnic groups being com-
pared. The problem of definition of 'groups' is com-
pounded by the difficulties of finding reasonably
Sharp discontinuity in gene frequencies between
groups, as mentioned earlier.
If the groups have had migratory exchanges of
some magnitude, f will be lower than the values
given in table 1, which are computed on the assumption
of no intermigration, and will not tend to 1 but to an
Upper limit smaller than 1, whose magnitude depends
on the amount of migration. In the simplest Situation,
with groups of equal size Ne and migration m, the
Upper limit of f is approximately l/(l+4Nem),
applying Wright's island model. The median value
(fig. 1) is f=OT ; for such a value of f, an upper limit
to the migration m must be of order 2/Ne, or eise f
could not reach a value as high as the observed one.
Migration of this magnitude is small, but it refers to
whole ethnic groups, which are usually sizeable. This
migration may be of two kinds: 1) migration of large
groups of people moving collectively from one terri-
tory to another in search of better environmental
conditions. 2) A short-range migration due to
exchange of individuals between neighbouring tribes,
which probably took place even across language
barriers. It is more difficult to anticipate the magnitude
of the collective type of migration; as to the latter, the
individual type of migration, it may be large between
nearest neighbours but it would be mostly restricted
to the periphery of large ethnic groups where they are
in contact one with the other. Thus, migration of the
individual type evaluated for a whole, large ethnic
group is likely to be small. The existence and extent
of intermigration in palaeolithic times should not be
underestimated, however, considering the surprising
homogeneity that can sometimes be seen in material
culture over wide ranges.
From the above considerations, the estimates of Ng
for an ethnic group between 10'* and 10^ are not
unrealistic, confirming that the observed mean f of OT
is not far from that expected under drift alone; but an
even more considerable uncertainty remains con-
cerning the effects that intermigration between groups
may have had on this quantity. Perhaps independent
approaches will help in the future to solve this
problem.
In an analysis of evolution of domestic cattle in one
specific instance, it could be shown that the f values
observed (between 0-03 and 0-07) are very close to
those expected under drift alone. The divergence
investigated was that between Norwegian and Ice-
landic cattle where the time of Separation is well
known (approximately 1000 years) and demography
relatively well known (Kidd & Cavalli-Sforza in press).
It should be noted, however, that the environmental
conditions in the cattle breeds being compared after
the Separation are relatively close, thus making the
expected contribution of disruptive selection, which
. would tend to inflate f values, relatively modest.
Moreover, under domesticjliün^natural selection may
' be less forceful than for wild populations. In the case
studied, the role of drift relative to natural selection
may have been higher than it would be in general.
Phylogenetic analysis based on genetic polynwrphisms
The usefulness of g£jifi^ic_polymr>rphisms for under-
standing human racial Variation was clearly recognised
laps for tMJxst-Uiae..byJjii:szljdd_.ajTd^^
'ho analysed ABO blood group frequencies
"variety of ethnic gfo^s. The information Coming
from the other polymorphisms that have since been
discovered were analysed and compared with classical
anthmpol^gical knowledge in Llie3k)neering efforts of
Bo)^(195^and of Mourant(0954ijThe monumental
wori^^sTMourant has been the greatest effort to date
to bring t^g^wra^very large body of information.
In collaboration with Anthony Edwards (1963;
1964; 1967), we tried the phylogenetic analysis of
/human races or th^jce^onstruction of a tree of descent
We worked out suitable
rorTand applied them to data on
^]/lJ2te24Si2ilPy^^^"^^ for a total of 20 alleles, from
fifteen populations chosen to \epreselit^~die whole
18
Origin —
• Australian (Central)
New Guincan
*— Korean
Venezuela Indian
Eskimo (Victoria 1)
- Arizona Indian
Maori
41
Gurkha (Nepal)
Veddah (Ceylon)
Swedish Läpp
"" South Turk
English
(- Tigre (Ethiopia)
c
Banlu
Ghanaian
FiGURE 2. Evolutionary tree computed from blood-group gene
frequencies. (From Cavalli-Sforza & Edwards 1963.)
worLirFigure 2 shows the results of this early analysis.
Irseparates clearly the three African groups from the
three European groups, with Asiatic, American
Indian and Oceanian representatives occupying the
other end of the tree and forming a more heterogen-
eous group. Coon (1963), commenting on our analysis,
thought it reached essentially the same conclusions
that he did, without using mathematjcal techni4mes.
The picture thus obtätiied didliot agree all that well
with a reconstcuclion attempted along similar lines
usi ngj£diropometric^^ta~aT^^
foT^nstance, populations as "diverse in origin as
American Indians^d Europeans. The analysis^ased
upoh anthropometric?~^ai^dmittedly carried out
with imperfect Statistical techniques due to a lack of
information on the correlations between characters,
but this shortcoming was not necessarily the major
cause of the discrepancy.
A related analysis was repeated ten years later by
JÜdiL> The tree shown in fig. 3 is based on a tree
obtained by him to which 1 have added (with the
collaboration of Sgaramella-Zonta) a few more
populations in order to increase comparability with the
earlier analyses. All these populations, and therefore
the data, are independent of those used in the first
analysis, but they were chosen according to similar
criteria. They represent aboriginal populations of the
five continents, all typed for a number of the best
known polymorphisms. In addition to the five loci
originally employed (ABO, MN, Rh, Fy and^ego),
four markers (Hp, Tf,'TCTVlirAlCy were add'ed? The
results are essentially the same. In addition, as noted
by Kidd, this tree shows even more clearly that the
control branches are shorter. It may be questioned
how any branch of a phylogenetic treecan be 'central',
as in a tree representation every node can be rotated at
will. We find it convenient, however, after a tree has
been generated to rotate its branches so as to maxi-
mise the correlation of the order of populations with
Simcku (Mclancsia)
■A
Malaq (Australian Aboriqine)
A\akir)tarc
^ CS. Am. Indian)
Chinese ^^^ \ \
^Cakchiq^uel (C.Am.Indian)
Läpp (Norway)
u^To^^'^l^nbal 'indian
Konda RcddiJ
Indian (Andhra Pradcsh)
Norwccjian
Irish
Towara (S.Sinai)
•4
/
ßushmcn
Bantu
Pyqmy (R.C.A)
FiGURE 3. A tree of 15 populations, 3 per continent, recon-
structed on the basis of 9 loci. Three populations were added
to the 12 used by Kidd (in press).
the first principal component. When this is done, the
central branches belong to populations which are
located more centrally also from a geographic point
of view. They have had, therefore, more chances for
admixture, which tends to reduce the length of the
branches. In addition, they have also undergone an
earlier increase in population size, mostly connected
with the development of early agriculture, which also
tends to decrease the rate of Variation due to drift.
In additionS^E3I(T97l> has carried oiiLaa^nalysis
of the crarnopietric ^^\^ collected by^jgwelis^ on a^
large sam'pleof skulls of diflferent racial groups. The
tree using craniorneTfic data shows one major differ-
ence with respect to the tree obtained for genes. The
general gradient is more along a north-south, rather
than an east-west axis. For instance the tig^rifrom
craniometry conjigcts Afncans with Atßtralians,
which m tTiegenetic tree tend to'WnTsTead at opposite
poles. Probably, the craniometric data indicate
adajgtations to climatic conditions. If this interpreta-
tion IS cöfrecf, TT shows at once that information
expressing adapt^tionJo_diQerent environments may
teil more about similarity of environments than
similarity of origin. The importance of u^ng *random'
19
Variation for phylogenetic purposes is further stressed
by this comparison.
Reconstruction of trees of descent is satisfactory if
certain postulates are met on which the estimation
methods depend (Edwards & Cavalli-Sforza 1963;
Cavalli-Sforza 1966; 1973). We cannot yet be certain
that such postulates are fully satisfied. The rnajor
postulate is that the measurement of g^n^tic distanj
employed is proportional to separati3ir--tnTr^rThis
can be more easily achieved if Wmajor source of
differentiation is random. Knowledge that drift is an
important part of the sources of Variation helps to
reinforce belief in the results. Even so, the precision
of the analysis depends on the number of independent
characters used. With the number of genes actually
employed, a tree with fifteen po£ulationsJias_aJairly
lar^geerrorj thre^ to five" exchänges between neigh-
bouring branches of the tree may be expected between
the tree inferred and the 'true' one. Increase in
available data on polymorphisms will undoubtedly
improve the accuracy of reconstruction.
The impact of plant and animal domestication on human
evolutioi
Th^eoHthi^arted aboij/tjen thousand yea^s ago,
j>hundredth
. Sil
beginning a period which i^ per
of the whole history of the genus
aps^
/
Jince that
time we have started growing in numbers and are
today over threebUHt
The inn^vaüonwhich initiated or at least made
possible this tremendous increase in population num-
bers was the domestication of plants and ammals.
Several centres of origin of domesticates are known
today, some more and some less accurately defined.
Figure 4 is slightly modified from Harlan (1971) who
has called centres those which are small and clear-cut
and non-centres those that appear to be broader. It
seems reasonable to assume that the 'centres' are the
better known ones, while poorly known ones are
'non-centres' in Harlan's terminology— most prob-
ably for lack of archaeological information. But even
for the best known 'centre', that of the Ne^t-^Eftst, in
which wheat-.i|arl£^ sheep and gpats were initially
domesticStedy^ffiepin^fJointing m a Single centre is
difficult, and the expectation of a Single centre com-
mon to all these is probably misleading.'-
The development of domestication has had a
considerable demographic impact. The carrying
capacity of the land may have increased, on average,
by a factor of at least 10 and possibly 50 or 100. A
number of demographic, ecological, social, economic
and genetic consequences were to follow. We are
primarily interested here in genetic consequences.
They are of two orders: 1) numlaei:§__of_people^
increased, and this may have determined considerable
1 :- öOö-^^J_
-a
r/.
J
Figure 4. The centres of origin of agriculture indicated in black and other less well-known centres indicated in the hachure areas
(after Harlan).
20
changes in gene frequencies as a form of intergroup
selection, by differential growth in different areas;
2) food and mode of life changed, and with them
selectivg pressures altered.
'he demographic changes accompanying plant and
anomal breeding have spread, along with farming,
from its centres of origin to almost all corners of the
earth, except for a few areas of mostly inhospitable
land, where hunters and gatherers still remain and have
so far resist«d-ftcculturation (or elimination).
For a^eneticistNone question of importance is: is it
farming'' that spfead or the farmers themselves? In
the first case we would be dealing with an expansion
of people who carried and spread their own genes
with them. We have called this 'demic dijfusion' in
contrast with cultural or Stimulus diffusion (the case
that farming rather than farmers, spread). The two
mechanisms, demic and cultural, are not mutually
incompatible, and a better way of phrasing this
Problem would be that of assessing the relative
importance of the two. It is clear, however, that
the first mode of spread, the demic one, has more
radical genetic consequences, even though the cultural
spread as well would not be without them (i.e.
through possible changes in selective pressures). But
there should be enough differences that the two modeis
should be kept distinct if possible. In fact, under
demic diffusion all genes may be influenced, while
only a few would be under the second model.
Archaeologists have gone for one or the other of the
two alternatives without exploring many aspects of
either of the interpretations. The accumulation of
evidence on the first appearance of early farming in a
number of locations, mostly in Europe but also else-
where, has made it possible to follow one type of
approach. This was done in collaboration with A.
Ammerman (1971 ; 1973) and consisted of measuring
the rates of spread of early farming using radiocarbon
estimates of the dates of its first appearance in various
parts of Europe.
An appropriate measurement of the rate of spread
was suggested by a study by Skellam (1951) who
extended to ecology a theory originally devised by
R. A. Fisher (1937) for the spread of advantageous
genes. The model prepared by Skellam provides an
analytical description of demic diffusion in that it
shows the spatial expansion of a population under the
combined action of growth and migration. In Skel-
lam's model, the former is assünted tt>-be logistic and
the latter analogous to Brownian motion. Under these
conditions, a frontier tends to form which moves
forward in all directions at an essentially constant rate,
which is a function both of growth and migration rates.
The rate of spread has been computed (Ammerman &
Ca vafc>t örza-497-!-r in press) to be approximately
(ne kmpervear and was found to be essentially
olTSTarfrov^r spa^re^afwhtime. The constancy of the
te is, of course/Ttot absolute, being subject to some
ocal fluctuations. Another way of evaluating the
(Constancy of the rate is to interpolate isochrones of
first arrivals by fitting with least Squares a surface of
sufficient flexibility to the data. If the simple hypothe-
sis of a constant rate were true, the surface fitted
would give isochrones circular around the central area
of origin, with a radius increasing proportionately
with time. The surface interpolated (fig. 5) shows
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FiGURE 5. The spread of early farming from the Near East
to Europe. A surface has been interpolated by least Squares to
first arrival dates obtained by radiocarbon (uncorrected).
The lines indicated are isochrones for the years before present
given in the figure. The data are the same used by A. Ammer-
man and L. Cavalli-Sforza (1971) but some new sites have been
added and a more general type of surface has been fitted, which
does not assume the hypothesis of the constant rate of spread.
The isochrones are limited to the ränge for which archaeological
data are available.
isochrones that do not dififer too much from this simple
expectation, reinforcing the notion that the rate of
advances has been by-and-large constant.
All these interpolations (some 70) were based on
)carbon values related to first appearance of early
Ihing in different ^parts of Europe. Radiocarbon
date?^5Te7iot corrected for the secular trends recently
shown by comparison with absolute dating from tree
ring data (see, e.g., Suess 1970; Dämon et al. in press);
but in the time ränge here considered, 8,000 to 5,000
B.c., the net eflfect would be essentially a shifting back
by an almost constant amount of about 800 years.
An exact evaluation of this correction is in progress.
Data from outside Europe, dating the expansion in
other directions (i.e. Asia and Africa) are too few to
be really useful, but are in general agreement with
ideas of an outward spread.
The discovery of a constant rate of expansion does
not in itself lead to an answer to the question of how
the spread of early farming took place. Mathematical
modeis and expectations could be employed if one were
looking at the question of the spread of an epidemic or
a rumour (Kendali 1948; 1965), or, in this case, of an
Innovation by Stimulus diffusion, that are fuUy similar
21
to those we have just seen for demic diflfusion. But
one possible method of testing the hypothesis suggests
itself, for the rate of advance can be predicted under
the model of demic diffusion, once its components
(i.e. growth and migration rates) could be measured.
In fact, the expected rate of advance of the front is
approximately proportional to the geometric average
of the growth and migration rates, suitably measured
(see Ammerman & Cavalh-Sforza in press). This
supplies a way of testing the relative importance of the
demic diffusion hypothesis, as one can, given suflficient
knowledge of growth and migration of early farmers,
predict the rate of advance and compare prediction
and Observation.
^ It is clear that early farming was accompanied by an
increase in population density and hence, by popula-
tiorPpowin; and that early rarming, as in cases of
swidden agriculture, often entails frequent short-range
migration. Thus, the farmers as such were likely to
spread, but was the rate of the farmers' spread
sufficient to justify the total rate of expansion observed
or is part of the expansion cultural? This question
den^ands^ greater knowledge of early farming than is
today availaBTe: Hints that the orders of magnitude are
compatible with expectation for demic diffusion are,
however, available from Ethnographie estimates.
The change involved in a7eTT?nTce--oft--dtTmesticates
for maintenance clearly cannot have occurred over-
night. It may have required a long period of transi-
tion which in a way has never been completed — we
all still depend to some extent on hunting, especially
fishing and even some kind of gathering as sources of
food. The transition to farming was no doubt asso-
ciated with changes in birth and death rates of early
farming populations: otherwise growth would not
hai:e occurred. Mos^hunters and gatlierers_living
^^a5^l^V£-50cialJ^ustams which keep their birth rates
ratfiier low and matching their death rates^with the
result that the net growth rate is close fo^zgro. A
similar Situation may have prevailed thfoughSm most
of the Pleistocene. Thus, at the time of growth
following the beginning of doj^i^ication of plants and
^y^'-Si^S^ls, something must have cfialtgkrx-eiTlTjflTfe
birth rate went up or the death rates went down or
both phenomena happened. Rirth pUtj>^ are largely
controlled in man by .social cusf^Tnrrmäior roles are
played by such thingsasag?^marriage and birth
intervals. From palaeo-antTiroptnugical ubServatj
(Angel 1969; 1971) it may be possible that th<^
between successive births among early farmürs' oi
Turkey was less than three years (Ammerman et al. in
press). But among hunters and gatherers living today
it is close to foür yeaTsJseeXavalli-Sforza 1972; Lee
1972). Perhaps^'öTfe'TyPthe most convincing rationales
for this behaviour is that among hunters and gatherers
who are nomadic, young children can be observed to
travel more or less continuously with adults. While a
child of three can follow the parents, a younger one
has to be carried and a mother cannot carry more than
one infant. This appears to increase birth intervals,
;
which in effect implies a lowering of fertility rates. It
is ^miUuipwn in_detail how a birth interval of four
yeaVs is obtainedin practice; proTö^ige^ lact^onTfray"
l/'contribute (Skolnick & Canning^ '1972]7^l5Ln~f^ not
^^ sufficient since even under extreme conditions of
'prolonged lactation, menstruations have practically
always resumed 2-3 years after pregnancy (Bonte &
van Baien 1969). Sex taboos, abortions, infanticide,
or perhaps other methods still are conscious or
subconscious factors potentially contributing to
birth ^2acii2g.Jhere is probably less need for such
Imitations to birth intervals among farming commun-
ities. Here a high fertility is usually desired on econo-
mic grounds, in order to increase m^npower availay
for farm work and as an insurance fm^ld age, "which
is perhaps reached more easily under a farming
rather than a hunting-gathering way of life. A decrease
in birth interval from four to three years can increase
the birth rate by a factor of almost one third, and the
net reproductive rate from nearly zero, which seems
to be characteristic of hunters and gatherers, to a
high value. In order to compute the intrinsic rate thus
achieved, however, one needs information also on age-
specific death rates, which of course may also have
been affected by the transition to agriculture. Espec-
ially away from tropical areas, the availability of
easily stored food may have contributed to lower
winter mortality. Available ethnographic data indicate
that human populations which occupy an empty land
can multiply at the rate of about 3 per cent. per year,
which reprt^spnts; roiighly a doiihlinp in population
size evefv generation o^ twenty-fivj
(Birdsell
1957; Roberts 1971).
One of the ways that populationjensity can be kept
from becoming ^x^essiye in tHecontext of population
growth is l^irpjjLglyTTTgrat]^. In addition to population
growth ratest migration rates are needed in order to
evaluate the expected rate of advance of the frontier
under the demic model. It is more difficult, but perhaps
still possible, to compute migration rates from
archaeological data, once the problem is clearly posed.
We have no figures to offer as yet; if we use instead
data from modern populations (e.g., African forest
farmers), it is interesting that the values obtained, in
conjunction with growth figures, yield very nearly
the observed rate of advance. This agreement may be
accidental, of course, and figures derived from direct
archaeological sources, if possible, are the only ones
that can be relied upon. Moreover, the approach
through comparison of observed and expected rates
(computed from demographic data on population
growth and niigfation)Tsm3treet>^or a more complete
Solution of uhe problem, genetjc^N^ata should be
analysed with\his problem in rrütRt:'^
UnfortunatelWihe ggll&tic ana-lyjis^ould seem to
be no less demanding. /Öne can expect deinicdjffusion
to determine circular/clines of genes, but such clines
can hardly be expected to be regulär. The expanding
farmers did not necissarily move into a vacuum, but
may, and certainly aid in many cases, encounter local
22
ith whom they may have
populations probably differed
hu
mix^ These
greatly in genetic composition from one place to the
other, and thus the postulated expansion may have
determined admixture with people of highly diflferent
background in the different direction of the spread. In
addition, later migrations may have ahered the pattern.
Some of these have taken place in historical times and
can be to some extent accounted for, but clearly there
is a grey area between the postulated expansion of
early farmers and the beginning of recorded history,
during which many largely unknown events may have
taken place. Thus the problem is especially complex.
Moreover, one can expect a circular cline of a given
allele with the peak at the centre of origin only for
alleles which the expanded population happened to
have at a frequency higher (or lower) than elsewhere,
because of drift or selection accidents.
Thus, in some especially fortunate circumstances,
one may expect to find circular clines of alleles with a
peak at the centres of origin of farming. One wonders
if this is the cause of some quasi circular clines
observed for genes such as Hb*^ in west Africa or Hb^
in south-east Asia (for geographic maps see Cavalli-
Sforza & Bodmer 1971).
Even if the hypothesis that centres of origin of
agriculture have acted as centres of demic dififusion
seems attractive, much work still remains to be done
to give them adequate credibility. No known allele
seems to show a circular cline with a centre in the Near
East, th^ best-known agricultural centre. Even so,
some alleles that show wide population differences —
Europeans, Africans — do give some support to demic
dififusion from the Near East. Thus the Rh° allele
FiGURE 6. Map of the frequencies of the Rh° in Africa and
central Africa; only aborigine populations are included.
Interpolations of surface by least Squares.
shows a fairly regulär increase in frequency from the
Near East where it is low (less than 10 per cent.) to-
wards the tropical belt where it reaches almost 100 per
cent. (fig. 6). Certain major deviations are easily
explained; the high frequencies of Rh° around the
Upper Congo are due to the fact that the groups
represented there in the map are Pygmies who have
had least admixture, while the belt of lower gene
frequencies around and south of them is largely the
outcome of what has been called the Bantu invasion,
which Started probably from Nigeria some thousand
years ago and is mostly responsible for the similarities
of West, Central (non-Pygmy) and southern (non-
Bushmen or Hottentot) Africans. The lower frequency
of Rh° among Bantus than among Pygmies (or Bush-
men) may represent the outcome of the partial ad-
mixture of them with farmer-pastoralists that had
spread across the then non-desert area of the Sahara.
Other markers (e.g. HLA-1, a typical Caucasian
marker found in low frequency among west Africans:
Bodmer, personal communication) are in agreement
with this hypothesis. For the spread towards Europe or
Asia, Rh diflferences may also be informative. The
finding of a high frequency of Rh negatives among
Basques has already long been considered a sign that
proto-Europeans might have been high in this allele
(Mourant 1954).
Naturally, no data based on single genes are suflFic-
ient to accept the hypothesis that present Europeans,
west Asians and north Africans are large descendants
from the early farmers of the Near East, even though
their blood may be more or less strongly diluted with
the blood of local pre-agricultural populations. All
the genetic information should be tested in a synthetic
fashion. The simplest way would seem to be that of
correlating the genetic distance between people from
Europe, west Asia and north Africa and the people
who today inhabit the Near East with the correspond-
ing geographic distance. A monotonic increase of
genetic with geographic distance from centre would be
expected. The power of this method is at present
being tested by a Simulation (Sgaramella-Zonta &
Cavalli-Sforza in press) of what might have been
the process of dispersion of an originally homogeneous
group of farmers growing, migrating and mixing with
a highly diversified background of hunters and
gatherers.
I have mentioned that, apart from this complex
process of inter-group selection, farming may have
had direct selective efifects. One of them has been
described in the recent literature: adult lactose
toleranc^--^his trait, which seems to be mheritt
fKTCtcmTieipl9TIT^is found in a high frequency only
among thos>&--gf<3Ups in which milk continues to be
consumed in some quantities by adults (Simons 1970).
An evaluation of the selection coefficient necessary to
give rise to the observed diflferences in gene frequency
indicates that values of the order of 2-4 per cent.
would be suflRcient to explain the high lactose toler-
ance of north Europeans. This is computed on the
23
assumption that this evolutionary change took place
within the last 10,000 years (i.e. since the domestica-
tion ofLcattic^ and^afting tröm a low (tO^^^^tcnTT^^
initiapTrequency for this allele.
Several other selective eflfects may have accompanied
the spread of agriculture, for instance, adaptation to
a low protein diet, which is customary for farmers,
especially when animals (wild or domestic) are
scarce. Kwashiorkor is a frequent disease in tropical
countries, mainly due to inadequate amino-acid
intake. Qualitative observations indicate that this
disease is even more frequent amongPygmies vylien
they live for prolonged periods alongside'Iarmers,
and have to accept a low proj£in_d4et to which they
are unaccustomed (Cav^Ht^^forza 1972). Finally, one
other possible selective consequence of agriculture, at
least in the northern part of the temperate zone is
white skin colour itself. It has been postulated that a
lower solar intensity at higher^lätltuSes is responsible
for insufficient Vitamin^ production, unless the skin
is unpigmented (Loomis 1967). When the supply of
animals and fish is abundant, hypovitaminosis will
not appear; there is no need for depigmentation of the
skin. Eskimos or Lapps live at high latitudes but their
skin haTTemgiJiedlSlItlY^y^ daiTc i heir to63"lTabits
very'^^robably involve high vitaiyu.a„P intake. But
where the staple food is cereals, there is a greater
Chance that at a high lajkude hypovitaminosis will
develop. If this line of reasornng~i5~corree4, we would
expect to observe rickets (a disease associated with
Vitamin D deficiency) among early farmers. Oniy
traces of this disease have been found in a few investi-
gations made so far, but in addition considerable
osteoporosis was noted whose origin could be due to
y possible causes (Angel 1969), including perhaps
an imbalance of calcium due to vitamin D dgfickiigy.
shoulaB^"-rTt5tedrTTowever,'that tiie~mcidence of
rickets needed to explain selection in favour of white
skin is quite low. It can be computed that one serious
case of rickets in every 200 people born would be a
sufficiently strong selection to make in 5,000 years the
average skin colour lighter by an amount equal to half
the present difference between Africans and English.
This computation is based on the assumption that all
the Variation between and within races as measured by
Harrison and Owen (1964) is genetic, that 'serious
rickets' means fatal for life or reproduction, and that
selection is by culling. Today, skeletons of early
farmers examined are still too few to confirm or
discard this postulated, relatively low incidence of
rickets, and thus to accept or reject the hypothesis. If
the development of white skin was not a selective
consequence of the transition to agriculture at Euro-
pean latitudes, the alternative explanation would be
that a white skin colour had already developed among
preneolithic proto-Europeans before the arrival of
farmers. Observation of rickets among early farmers
may help in throwing light on the origin of white skin.
I hope that archaeologists digging neolithic sites will
keep it in mind.
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rate of spread of early farming in Europe. Man (N.S.) 6,
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— & — in press. A population model for the diffusion of early
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— , — & D. K. Wagener in press. Towards the estimation of
Population growth in Old World prehistory. School of
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Angel, J. L. 1969. The basis of paleodemography. Am. J. phys.
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— 1971. Early neolithic skeletons from Catal Huyuk: demo-
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BiRDSELL, J. B. 1957. Some population problems involving
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BoDMER, W. & L. L. Cavalli-Sforza 1972. The analysis of
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Congr. hiim. Genet. Paris, 1971.
BoNTE, M. & H. Van Balen 1969. Prolonged lactation and
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BoYD, W. C. 1952. Genetics and t/jf rrua ff/ffTmr— Rnitnn • Little,
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C^alLT-Sforza_Is? L. 1966. Population structure and human
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— 1969a. Genetic drift in an Italian population. Sei. Am. 11\,
2, 30-7.
— 19696. Human diversity. Proc. XII int. Congr. Genet. 3,
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— 1971. Pygmies, an example of hunters-gatherers, and genetic
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animals. Proc. IV int. Congr. hiim. Genet. Paris.
— 1973. Some current problems of human population genetics.
Am. J. hum. Genet. 25, 82-104.
— , 1. Barrai & A. W. F. Edwards 1964. Analysis of human
evolution under random genetic drift. Cold Spring Harbor
Symp. quant. Biol. lA, 9-20.
— «& W. Bodmer 1971. The genetics of human populations. W. H.
Freeman.
— & A. W. F. Edwards 1963. Analysis of human evolution. In
Genetics today (Qd.) S. J. Geerts, vol. 3 (Proc. XI int. Congr.
Genet.). New York: Pergamon Press.
— & — 1967. Phylogenetic analysis: modeis and estimation
procedures. Am. J. hum. Genet. 19, 233-57.
CooN, C. S. 1963. The origin of races. London: Jonathan Cape.
Dämon, P. E., A. Long & E. I. Wallick in press. Dendro-
chronologic calibration of the carbon-14 time scale.
Proceedings, International Radiocarbon-dating Conference,
October 1972.
Edwards, A. W. F. & L. L. Cavalli-Sforza 1964. Reconstruc-
tion of evolutionary trees. In Phenetic and phylogenetic
Classification (eds). V. E. Heywood & J. McNeill. London:
The Systematics Association.
FiSHER, R. A. 1937. The wave of advance of advantageous genes.
Ann. Eugen. 7, 355-60.
Garn, S. M. 1961. Human races. Springfield: Thomas.
Harlan, J. R. 1971. Agricultural origins: centers and non-
centers. Science 174, 468-74.
Harrison, G. A. & J. J. Owen 1964. Studies on the inheritance
of human skin colour. Ann. hum. Genet. 28, 27-37.
Hirszfeld, L. & HiRSZFELD 191^. Essai d'application des
methodes serologiques au pröbleme des races. Anthropologie
29,505-37. ~--^ -::::ri:r— , r—-^
Kendall, D. G. 1948. A form of wave propagation associated
with the equation of heat conduction. Proc. Cambr. phil.
5or. 44, 591.
— 1965. Mathematical modeis of the spread of infection. In
Mathematics and Computer science in hiology and mediane.
London: Medical Research Council.
Kidd, K. K. in press. Genetic approaches to human evolution:
L'origine dell'uomo. Proceedings of Darwin Centennial
Symposium, Rome, 1971.
— & L. L. Cavalli-Sforza in press. The role of genetic drift in
the diflFerentiation of Icelandic and Norwegian cattle.
Symposium ofthe Icelandic Committee for Human Genetics,
Reykjavik, 1973.
KiMURA, M. 1954. Process leading to quasi-fixation of genes in
natural populations due to random fluctuations of selection
intensities. Genetics 39, 280-95.
Kretchmer, N. 1971. Memorial Lectures: Lactose and lactase:
a historical perspective. Gastroenterology 61, 805-13.
Lee, R. B. 1972. Population growth and the beginnings of
sedentary life among the Kung ßushmen. In Population
growth: anthropological impUcations (ed.) B. Spooner.
Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.
Lewontin, R. C. & J. Krakauer in press. Distributions of
genetic frequency as a test of the theory of selection
neutrality of polymorphisms.
LooMis, W. F. 1967. Skin-pigment regulation of vitamin-D
biosynthesis in man. Science 157, 501-6.
Mourant, A. E. 1954. The distribution of the human blood
groups. Oxford: Blackwell.
Roberts, D. F. 1971. The demography of Tristan da Cunha.
PopuL Stud. 24, 465-79.
Sgaramella-Zonta, L. & L. L. Cavalli-Sforza in press. A
method of the detection of a demic cline. Proceedings,
Workshop on Population Structure, Hawaii, 1972.
SiMOONs, F. J. 1970. Primary adult lactose intoleran£e_and the
milking habit: a problem in~biolüglC' and'Tiritural Inler-
relations. 2, A culture historical hypothesis. Am. J. Dig. Dis.
15, 695-710.
Skellam, J. G. 1951. Random dispersal in theoretical popula-
tions. ßiometrika 3S, 196-218.
Skolnick, M. & C. Cannings 1972. Natural regulations of
numbers in primitive human populations. Nature, Lond.
239, 287-8.
Stern, C. 1970. M(üa^est4«iales-o£-the number of gene pairs
/ involved in pigmentation variability of the Negro-American.
' Hum. Hered. 20, 165-8. ^ ^~" ^- ^^ '
SuESS, H. F. 1970. Bristlecone-pine calibration of the radio-
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variations and absolute chronology (ed.) 1. U. Olsson. New
York: Wiley.
25
) Sfee JJetu J}0rk Slme$ Jfaak äReUleUr
) ^"^ * FEBRUARY 7, 1976 SECTION 7
By THEODORE SOLOTAROFF
The first generation tries to retain
as much as possible, the second to
forget, the third to reniember. Little
wonfler that the outcr3pP!rig"of Ameri-
oan-Jewish writing in the past 30
years is so often a literature of memo-
ry, an attempt to recover the world
of childhood and adoiesccnce as the
last place the trail of Jewish identity
was Seen before it faded into the
lawns of suburbia and the bright corri-
dors of the professions. Why this
interest, though? "Why not stick to
the present," as my father would
say. "The farther back you go, the
more miserable it gets.*'
The main reason, I think, is Ihat
the third-generation Jew like myself
intermittently experiences himself as
Walking ^round in America with a
case ol^^tural amnesjjjt füll of ance-
stral promptings and'^murrers puls-
World of Our Fathers
By Irving Howe. -
With the assistance of Kenneth Liho.
lUustrated. 714 pp. New York:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. $14.95.
f
^odore Solotaroff is a senior edi-
tor ^f Bantam Books and the editor of
Arxierican Review.
ing away. That's why "Portnoy's Com-
plaint" rang bells like mad. But Roth's
novel was a two-generational psycho-
logical farce — t'reud played by the
Marx Brothers — which can only ex-
plore its point .by simplifying and
tickling it. The secret Communications
between the generätions are^^'ore
long-term arid bfoad änd vague, and
run through other switchboards be-
sides the Oedipal one. So one also
reads Bellow and Leonard Michaels.
Grace Paley and Malamud, Cynthia
Ozick and I. B. Singer, among many
others, looking for kinship and Instruc-
tion. Cr one can study Judaism, even
learn Hebrew, hoping to find the way
back to its shaping significance on
one's spirit that must have preceded
the tense, perfunctory bar mitzvah
lessons and seders of one's childhood.
However, contemporary fiction tends
to be too immediate and too stylized
to carry one back far enough, while
the covenants, principles and move-
ments of Judaism, like its warmmg
bui remote observances, are difficult
to carry forward (except perhaps for
Hasidism). Probably the most useful
contact is the fiction of Chaim Potok,
which is solidly plugged into the Jew-
ish tradition, though the messages
it delivers are a little too bland to
persuade, censored by their author's
hmh^iTl^ill^s, hisLede/te^^
^^So^the context of^lfiese^intuitions
of Jewish being, or these moral slants
and emotional tilts in the way you
do your work, relate to your children,
vote, justify your life, chase your
desires remains, elusive, füll of blank
Spaces and darkness. A temporal link
seems to be missing.
Jewishness, then, is like a language
in which one knows only a few words
and yet is thoroughly responsive to
its intonations and rh^hms, its lights
and darks of feeling. Like Russian,
as I found out on a recent visit.
And, more to the point, like Yiddish.
Yes! The dark language in which our
parents mainly kept their secrets from
US. What remains !s a few expressiöhs,
a coarseness to the ear which once
had a stigma attached, like slurping
soup; also a certain long breathing
frenzy underneath that makes it seem
a little dizzying; also a vibrant tone,
a mingling of laughter, heartfulness,
irony. So one puts tliese bits and
drops into one's English, now and
then, like salt and pepper and a touch
of horseradish. But one also does
.so because they feel right, confirm
something basic.
Of course, one says, hitting his
Continued on next page
1976, The New York Times Co. All rights reserved.
head at finding what was beforo (ho
eyes, or rather, on the tongue. Tho
missing linkjsjfiddish, and the rvasivc
context, as one recognizes and icrt>s
nizes in reading "World of Our \s\{\\
ers," is Yiddishkeit» the cuKuro of
our grandfathefs. "
Irving Howe has wrltten a gronf
c^ook, Tfiöse who are not Jewish nin
stlTTread a marvelous narrativo nbout
two generations of "bodraggUHl am!
inspired" Jewish immigrants on thi*
Lower East Side and beyond in virturtl
ly all of their social and riiltur;«!
bearings and in most of their (K>litii nl
and economic ones. A work of hislory
and of art, "World of Our Fathors'*
is brilliantly^jorganized and »vutsi l>y
brisk. pitKy^haplers that nuko up
large perspectives — the detonations of
newjioßes and renewgj Jc^v ThM
dr^'e the immigrant^out of the Rus-
sian Pale after the assassination of
Alexander II and the pogromST^Tfiat
f(5frowedrtlie"wretchedness and culture
sJTOcjc of the first two decades in
l^few York; the daily family and work
life in the filthy, noisy, flaring streets
off East Broadway; the dynamics of
the Jewish labor movement and of
the culture of Yiddishkeit and the
rapid, fated dispersion into America.
All of which is exhaustively researched
and documented, often in the words
of the peaple themselves. "World of
Our Fathers*' is also a complex story
of fulfillment and incompleteness, a
work of meditätiDn...^näLj^ion — the
eye of knowle<!ge and of imagijiation
seeing together. Finally, it is'^cidly
and sensitively written. A richness
almost ever^jithere. ""^
But if^you are Jewish you will
also realize that Howe has written
a necessary book, particularly for
those of you who need its blowop
the he0_^todeliveryou_frmju,^ur
^oar^gg^iaorTbetter, to help youbegin
'itorescue yourself. Not that Howe*s
pages are ever particularly startling.
Their effect is cumulative — the slow,
dawning realization that this world
is as familiär to you as it is fresh.
Howe's just, remarkably just, descrip-
tions and explanations, along with
the voices of bis sources, will minister
- to your residues of Jewish Intuition
and memory and cause them to unfold
and blossom like those Japj.^iese_pel-
»lets which^jBKljenputintjLwat£i_türn
[g flowers. Ai^^jTmT'fead'along, it
is often difficult to distinguish be-
tween what you are discovering and
what you are recollecting of this all-
but-vanished life. For this life, as
you will see, still lives — right behind
your sense of your own distinctive
mind and heart and face. And slowly
you will begin to understand.
A few examples — some almonds and
raisir.s and a bite of honeycake for
remembrance sake. Savor for a mo-
ment Howe's detail that the Yiddish
woixl t%n ox<'oininuni(,'ation, horom is
«Iso Uir >flükdLjor--.-AJiQycoFr Or
Mowo N Ima^o of Jacob Adler, the
mrttinno id<»l of the Yiddish theater,
lyins «»^ State, as he instructed, in
I nitlish morninK coat. Windsor cravat,
rtnd tiiUt. Or a sketch by Z. Libin — a
writer frt)m the terrible first years,
ftllfnvrpm' luonKrhon "
— aboul a woikor who
fears" that hei^ause a wall blorkinj?
bis Window has been torn down he
will bave to pay more rent. Or let
the follnwing words work on you
fmm an unpublished niemojr by David
GoldenbU^om, one of the seif educated
workers who become the composite
her« of Howe*s narrative:
"[When T was about 17] I began
to take an interest in books. Since
I had also gone a little to the Russian
school. \ Ix^gan to swallow — 1 mean,
really swallow — Russian books. . . .
Tuj;genev was my favorite, pcrhaps
IxMrauso thcre is such a sweetness
to his voice. And then Tolstgy and
Dosto^iifiky. I read, of course, Shojoiu
^Aleichem, who made the ugliest thines
oFJn jife seem beautifulC and Tqretz
wfio, in his own way, taught Tne
(Ä not to lnsf> rgtipect for qv^lf.'*
In Order to perceive the force of
the attitudes and values that Yiddish-
keit pumped through the generational
conduits, one often has to recover
the conditions that charged and
shaped them. It is a platitude, for
example, that Jews are mercenary be-
cause our forefathers were desperately
poor, that Jewish mothers dote on
and stuff, worry about their children
because of the immigrants' experience
of hunger, illness, self-sacrifice and
- hope. How banal, one says, until he
reads Howe's harrowing account of
the poverty of the Lower East Side
during the l^SaüIs^^andL^'s. "Have
you ever seen a hun^rvchiy^cry?''
asks the social woÄS^iiflianWaTS^
explakihig the dedication of her life.
By H^85j the crying was everywhere.
Wages in the garment industry — the
main source of Jobs — were cut in
half. The population jensity^of^ the
I Lower E^st; JÜdg-^aJUSoonJ greater
than in thie_worst_sections orBömBay,
the'^jaQrt^||^{!i^^t^wa>-'qmihiP that
of the re.st oElIhfi^city. Project these
figures into conditions^^nd you get
men working 70 hou^& a week in
the unspeakable swealshops and tak-
ing piecework home to scrape by,
of people sleeping five or six to a
room._with_ their hffgrders. of near
epidemics of dysentery, typboi^ fever,
and of course ful^erculosis, the **tSX:.
lors'^^^ease." For 20 years or so,
it was as though the fabled wretched-
ness of the steerage passage never
ended, that those dark packed ships
simply came upon land and turned
into factory lofts and tenements.
What was most traumatic was the
UniÄg£__daÖcnö^ Tot^lly_u£rooterf and
alien, driven by ~a TempotKey had
never known before, their austere,
decorous spirits assaulted and derided
by the br^tal^jjQg-eat-dog cSnditions
of their exisi^ce, their religious insti-
tutions in disarray, theimmlgMints
^ seemed-^tüJoseJheic^jna^jS^^
I the culture that had preserved s
i\ many "generations of the Pale d^spit
poverty and other oppressions. The'
collapse of its center, rabblFücal au-
thority, is brought home by the anec-
dote Howe teils of the attempt to
cstablish a chief rabbi to restore order:
soon there were three — a Lithuanian
and a Galician (traditional antagonists)
and a newcomer from Moscow. When
ts
asked who had made him the chief
rabbi, he replied "the sign painter."
"They were Jews without Jewish
memories or traditions," reports one
Yiddish writer. "With every day that
passed," recalls another, "I became
more and more overwhelmed by the
degeneration of my fellow-country-
men." And in the wordU-i^fJjie po^t,
Moshe^Lieb Halpern: "If a wolf stum-
bled in Tiere7He'd lose his wits/
He'd tear his own flesh apart." In
a radical newspaper of the day, Howe
teils US, "the word jij^t^rriish, dark-
nes^r^recurs again arid againT^ .
their lives are overcome by finsternish
and it is to escape from finsternish
that men must learn to act." So they
listened meekly to their flamboyant
agitators, went on bitter and usually
doomed strikes, saved their p»ennie^
for the Yiddish theater, but mamly
lived on their las^hope that "here
they might yet "S^^neir sons_and
daughters move on to something bet-
ter." "^
Finsternish didn't begin in the New
York ghetto. It came in the immi-
grants' luggage and dreams, the dark-
ness of being cooped up for centuries
in their decaying vttläges and 'prSyer-
houses and in their sustaining but
hapless messianism. But in the Russian
Pale it was already lifting, thanks
in good part to the Bund, the nascent
Jewish socialists from the cities. Here
is David Goldenbloom again:
"... just a few years before I
came [from Russia] people of my
generation became very restless. We
heard of the Bund, which had recently
been started, and to us it meant
not only socialism but the whole idea
of stepping into the outside world.
When a Speaker from the Bund came
to our town, we saw him . . . as a
new kind of Jew, someone with com-
bativeness in his blood and a taste
for culture on his tongue. ... He was
our lifeline to the outside world, and
that was enough."
In America, it was the distinctively
Jewish socialism developed by the
Bund that largely rebuilt the Communi-
ty and morale the immigrants had
lost. Indeed_jocialism, mostly through
the organj^iniljQf_the_^aTi2ien^ ,
provided a coliective enterprise. not
only as a consequence of despair but
also as a movement toward the vision
of a "normal life" at last, not merely
as a response to privation but also
as a recycled moral yearning. Jewish
socialisnijißpiv^d, as Howe shows,
froni Jewish messianism, in which
the worldly and other-worldly were
aspects of the same destiny, a tradition
that was quick to produce political
and social movements that had a
strong utopian, universellst east and
fervor. •" "
The radicals of the early Lower
East Side had been mostly Russian-
style anarchists to whom the benight-
ed workers were the shock troops
of revolution, good for strikes but
hardly worth organizing. The socialists
from Warsaw^ andj^ilna— who came
in droves afTer 1905 brought Organiza-
tion. They also brought the idea that
the Jewish trade unions should reorga-
nize the Jewish Community and bring
it into the 20th Century by replacing
the religious framework with rriore
adaptive^ and effecTiVe social and culj-
tural institutipws. The BuncTTeaders
saw the7ri>pening in the great strikes
of the shirtwaist-makers in l^OÖ. many
of them, like their leader, teen-age
girls and of the cloak-makers in 1910,
in which, as the writer Abraham Lies-
sen declared, "the 70,000 zerogs be-
came 70,000 fighftgs." Froififfiese
strikes rose th6 irfrense feeling?that
Continued on Page 28
How cän we seil the Protestant ethic at a psychedelic bazaar?
By RAYMOND WILLIAMS
Daniel Bell has a fine ear for titles.
To publish in 1960 "The End of Idgolo-
gy" and in 1976 "The CutturaTContra-
dictions ofCapitaji^ni^'^ir'ttr^its own
way remSTRatJly^nsitive. During the
1950's it was widely believed that
all reasonable men had come out on
the far side of "ideology," which in
context usuaily meantsocialis^^
Today the^pfirases, if not the sub-
stance, of socialist theory are the points
around which much contemporary ar-
gument turns. Bell, a professor of
sociology a^üarvard, is an' inffuglitiäi
pohtical^,^aZ^ftural_lhi»ker, and
we might pause to consider whether
these book titles are examples of
what he himself calls "Tendenz vend-
ing": the promotion of intellectual
fashions, within what he calls "cultur-
al mass production." ^^^"
YeflTfie^case is more subtle. The
key words — "contradictions," "capital-
jsm" — and some of the key questions
— notably those concerning the rela-
tions between an economic System and
an ideology — are taken from radi^ or
specifically3toi3cist argumeiltTThe an-
sw^ers are from quite another tradition.
The mix is not uniquc It can even
properly be called a tendency. Yet like
many other phenomena of its kind, in-
cluding intellectualjnovements ("fads")
of which Bell dfsapproves, it cannot be
reduced to "vending." The ränge that
matters, in cultural work of any kind,
is from descriptions of restlessness and
confusion to analyses dfthe same
statcsr* Bell, with some Consistency,
is seeking the recovery of order. His
specifications of disorder are excep-
tionally familiär, but it is always inter-
esting to see how a responsive order
is conceived and outlined.
This is a book of essays, with
some real if limited continuity of
theme. The argument which will prö-
bably be most widely quoted, and
which is indeed central to the book,
rests on an alleged contradiction be-
tween the prudential, cost-conscious
rationality of bureaucratic capitalism
>and the self-gratifyingr seif -seeking
mode of the actuaj Jives qf its Citizens,
jranging (in Bell's phrases agau^^from
rpop hedonism" to "the Dionysiac
pack?*"^ "~ — ^^
"■^fTiere is confusion here, as well as
some real Observation. In the sweep of
history it is easy to discern some sig-
nificant movement "from the Pcpje;^-
tant ethic to the psychedelic bazaar."
Raymond Williams is author of
"Culture and Society*' and "The Coun-
try an^^lKe-'^ty" and teaches at
Cambridge University.
The Cultural Contradictions
Of Capitalism
ßy Daniel Bell
301 pp. New Yorfe;
Basic Books, $12.95.
What is not faced is the possibility that ment, throughout the Industrial capi-
the mutation of ethics is itself a muta- talist societies, agaijjt-^iiftjvaste? and
tion n/ rap^talism as certäin of its (Y]y resses of a headlonTcdmpetitiye asd
features^^^iotably the extension and VI%roW-away economv. There is a grow-
propagation ofC^jS? for instant pur- ing public despair at the amount of
chase, IT'distinct froinolder proce-
dures of ßvinfe and ^Tccumulation —
would seem^viously to'mdicate. Bell
has read such arguments, but as a
matter of principle, which is related to
his whole intellectual method, he puts
his emphasis elsewhere. "Havejtjjpw,"
the central maxim of the supposed
new ethic, which many of us first
heard from the advertisers and the
credit houses, he traces to "cu^^iral
modefnism" and especially the con-
temporary "coujiteEifiuilure."
This decision has a curious effect.
"Bourg<»«i5 socjety" becomes the rela-
tiverjrstabter^latively orderly world
of the remembered past. InstabjJity
and disQrder become properties of
the anti-bourgeois-revolt. In this frame
only one view can be taken: a barely
sheer breakdown, or at least of chronic
Interruption, in the theory and practice
of public Service. Jogether, or poten-
tially together, these feelings outline
a constituency for certain kinds of
change.
Bell does not choose to consider
the important possibility that they
could be mobilized to Hmit "appeUte"
and JlsfilÜ^imess" by Impöfm^iew
discipliiresr The "Protestant ^thic."
which tends to function^^asTth^Ü-^*^
in Bell's book, has historicäHy support-
ed Srot-tJfily a publicconsciepce but
also public_ repression. and this has
especially been the case when its
enemies are identified as the heretical
and the licentious. This is where the
identification of "have it now" as
a cultural phenomenon of th^ ^tj-
controlled, pseudo-anstocratic__anger } bou^eois revolt is especially sig^S^
at each new sympf?5TTr-örconf usipn y
and degradatipn, coupled with a mrbral j
appeal for^llie recovery of a sense '
of Community. This is Bell's position,
yet the ifTterest of this book is not
so much in its reiteration as in the
addition of a tentative pragtical con-
clusion. The final moral appeaPIs
given an interesting procedural gloss:
a definition in broad fiscal terms of
the "public household," in which the
reconciliation of competing group in-
terests and appetites would be nego-
tiated by the organs of a new liberal
State. ,
This has an air of pracü^ality, and
it is much to Bell's credit that he
does not underestimate the difficulties.
Indeed he wavers, to the end, between
a belief in the possibility of such
procedures, based on a new "fiscal
sociology" (in effect the sociofeg^of
thj^ management^ of groups_ihrQHgh
taxation poUciesV and a moral skepti-
-.fcCism that the will to limi^^pfl^
v^tojjeeds, and jelf^nterggLjSI^^äSn
^ImferfiSt can come through and be
^made to stick.
This uncertainty is honest, but its
political dangers should not be over-
lookcd: there is a growing public senti-
cant and probably dangerous because
it ascribes to modernists and protest-
ers, in a prejudicial way, what can
as readily be seen as a general ethical
change in society. "T^^^^^
Take~four oBservable phenomena:
the withdrawal to personal satisfac-
tion and immediate human contacts
from the imperatives of a competi-
tive careerism; the public display not
simply of blatant nonconformity but
of deliberatelyi^selected yjplence and
peryecsityr the collabpxaUve — revoH
against a war, against fraud* and
against lies; the frenzied overreach
of Protest into a destruction which
aped its objects. Nobody, truly, can
make these into a culture, or a coun-
ter-culture, in Bell's restricted sense
of a System of meanings and values.
Such classifications are the work of
a sensibility requiring simplicity and
Order, but also, perhaps, of a mind
requiring a generalized disorder to
be able to project a contrasting sanity.
It is the generalization ^ disorder
that deceivejg^ Mych of ^he movernent
"against capitalism" was a movement
towards a new "lejsure" capitalism,
propagated and funded by some of
capitalism's most evident cultural
agencies — movies, television, advertis-
ing, etc. Much of the revolt "against
bourgeois society" was a mutation
within bourgeois society, cutting such
traditional ties as loyalty to family and
hometown, which had to an important
extent limited the availability and ex-
posure of individuals to a System that
would see them as no more than units
of production. New freedoms and new
kinds of exposure and availability ar-
rived together, and are still painfully
difficult to disentangle. '^ '
Yet, in his serious search for the eth-
ics of a public household, Bell cuts
himself off from the elements of radi-
cal Community and social participation
that were also there in the "counter-
culture" and which are the most evi-
dent signs, anywhere, of a will to a
new way of life. No new radical or
socialist ideas or proposals are serious-
ly admitted. Everything of this kind is
held within a frame of reference to the
Soviet Union, or to labor disputes as
merely "jlwniEtiye." Yet the revolt
against p^Jini*m>«md more generally
against j^^ate socijljgyi, was a key fac-
tor in th6 emergence of the real, and
not caricatured, NewLjft. The idea of
"worker's control. wmch is not only a
new sSckd. jfcthic, but in its »lore^devel-
oped forms a Key procedure ift any
serious "fiscal s5)ciology," Bell impa-
tiently brush^s^sid^.
Where then, in Bell's view, are
the probable components of a will
to public virtue? No answer could
be easy, but for all the sincerity
of his moral appeal, the mode of
Bell's analysis would make any answer
difficult. The real name of this mode
is criticism, which has dominated a
whole infellectual generation. The cen-
tral assumption in Bell's blend of
social history and cultural commenta-
ry is a confidence in the act of judg-
ment by reference to past Standards:
not^analysis, not ne^SL^irections, but,
worried as it IsT^cfiticism. This is
why he can seriously link the idea
of a new "public household'* with
"reaffirmation of our past," which
in fact destroyed the ethic he mourns.
His distaste for the_presentjs_genu-
another will
ine and in one way an
be widely shared. But only people
can create a new social order, and
they may find their task marginally
harder if they have to encounter — as
now they do so often — this kind of
blend of cultural conservatism and the
recommendation, in its name, of a pub-
lic Order that could well turn out to
be a more developed and more sophis-
ticated social engineering, expressed
/ primarily through fi§£^LpoUcies. The
\rnntriidirtinn<! pf rfip'tfljj^, mean-
fwhile, will omlinue. ""
s -
The New York Times Book Revlew/February 1, 1976
Lvndon B. Johnson and Juck Valenti, 1964.
A Very Human
President
By Jack Valenti.
iHustrated. 395 pp. New York:
W. W. Norton & Co. $9.95.
By ERIC F. GOLDMAN
Back in the L.B.J. days, Washington
used to have a great time with the
subject of President Johnson's aide,
Jack Valenti. People analyzed, re-ana-
\yzed and re-re-analyzed Valenti's
idolatry of Lyndon Johnson. Did it
come from the assistant's bantam size
compared to the President's 6 feet
4 inches? Was it a result of his
being that none too comfortable com-
bination, a Texan Italian-American,
now bedazzled by his post as a key
aide to a Texan WASP President of the
United States? Whatever the stum-
blings of amateur psychiatry, the una-
bashed worshipfulness was there. In
1965 the whole nation learned the
extent of it — with loud guffaws — ■
when Valenti. went to a Boston adver-
tising Convention and delivered bim-
self of a description of L.B.J. as a
"sensitive," "c ultivated," "extraordi-
nary man," having "extra glands" of
energy and an "instinct for rightness.
... I sleep each night a little better
. . . because Lyndon Johnson is my
President."
Eric F. Croldman, Roll ins Professor
of Histor>^ at Princeton and Special
Consultant to President Johnson (1964-
66), is the author of "The Tragedy of
Lyndon Johnson."
Valenti's reminiscences of the John-
son years, "A Very Human President,"
have the authentic tone. He includes
a forthright chapter on L.B.J.'s im-
possible attitude toward the press and
here and there he drops a quick critical
or questioning word. But for the most
part the volume is still the Jack Val-
enti of the 1965 speech. He was,
Valenti writes, "in thrall continuously
to him," "this avalanche of a man."
And the adulation can become, like the
Boston speech, downright embarras-
sing, as when Valenti, meeting L.B.J.
for the first time, describes his feelings
as "somewhere between the fascination
of watching a great athlete in motion
and the half-fear, half-admiration of
seeing a panther ona cliffside, silken,
silent, ready to spring."
The Valenti attitude goes beyond
words. In 1975, press reports, later
ccnfirmed by the Senate Committee
on Intelligence, stated that President
Johnson had used the F.B.I. for im-
proper purposes. Discussing this, Val-
enti writes that he saw "every piece
of paper that crossed the President's
desk" and heard almost all his phone
conversations during the period in
question; no such F.B.I. Information
was included. He does not consider
the possibility that he did not see
or hear all materials that went to
Lyndon Johnson.
The Valenti worshipfulness is not
ccnfined to L.B.J. or even to his group.
Lady Bird Johnson, able and engaging
woman that she is, becomes an "in-
credibly warm . . . unduplicatable hu-
man being, an impossible target for
enemies." John Connally does things
"awesomeiy," a "prescient" man, who
"unfastens others' fears, dissolves all
hesitancies." Important -or at least
conspicuous people keep "mesmeriz-
ing" Jack Valenti until I stopped
counting at Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
I could hardly stop noting his many
references to imposing physical attri-
butes like Connally's "animal Charis-
ma" or his persistent reverence for
people of high social background and
for what he calls their "certainty of he-
redity." It is glaring in his treatment
of Joseph Alsop, McGeorge Bundy,
Senator Harry Byrd and Henry Cabot
Lodgc. In one particularly painful
passage he writes of Bundy, "He never
patronized me."
All of this moves along in the
Valenti style, for the most part a
kind of Texas baroque compounded
of clichös and homilies, phrases that
can soar high and flop hard, snippets
of Will Durant-ish learning, and efforts
at being ultra-modern or just-one-of-
the-fellows. "Every man must be par-
doned faults," we learn, "for there
is none without some." Power is "an
enchantment" and also "a mainline
fix every morning." J.F.K. "reminded
me of a Plantagenet captain, a wise,
brave, splendid knight"; so did L.B.J.,
and besides, Johnson had troubles with
the "Augean Stahles task of Hercules."
The "quiver of the ultimate question
. . . lay feathered against me," a
White House female aide was "an
emollient," bringing "sounds of soft-
ness patting one's ears," L.B.J. and
Hobby Kennedy had "the eccentricity
of their similarity." Amid the "epipha-
nies" of legend and personal slights
that "swelled into gargoyle masses"
comes the language, "it was a helluva
lunch" and "I wasted not one damned
second." L.B.J. "slotted in his mind"
what he proposed to do, murder hung
like a "miasmic mist," people played
on the White House "varsity," othe'-s
were "desking" in the West Wing,
and death "stalked'* Lyndon Johnson.
Yet it must be hastily added that
"A Very Human President" is anything
but an inconsequential book. After
all, Jack Valenti was President John-
son's dosest aide in the sense that
he was With him during countless
hours when the President was speak-
ing his private thoughts, attended
scores of Conferences of high impor-
tance, served as the main conduit
for much that happened in the Johnson
Administration. If the book contains
no startling revelations, page after
page provides fresh detail or revealing
context for major and minor events
of the Johnson years.
Both the general reader and the
public affairs specialist — with some
judicious skipping and necessary winc-
ing — will find rieh reading: added in-
stances of Johnson's shrewd barnyard
humor (alas, too few — one is decorous
in writing about a Plantagenet cap-
tain), as when L.B.J. defined a "brief"
15-minute appointment, "Hell, by the
time a man Scratches his ass, clears
his throat, and teils me how smart
he is, we've already wasted fifteen
minutes"; the scene late the first night
after the assassination, the new Pres-
ident in pajamas sitting upright in
his huge bed, declaring his determina-
tion to change things drastically for
the poor, the blacks, the aged; a
Jchnson soliloquy, in his rocking chair,
sipping one of his endless Frescas,
on how to get Congressmen to vote
with you, a little classic that is far
the best thing we have had on the
"Johnson treatment"; the eternal Sen-
ate maneuverer, who believed that
anything could be solved if men would
only "reason together," telling Valenti,
"Every night I try to put myself
in the shoes of Ho Chi Minh"; the
last period at the ranch and the L.B.J.
fury when, so he was sure, Richard
Nixon or his aides exploded an excel-
lent opportunity for a Vietnam cease-
fire in order to gain votes.
Naturally, most interest centers in
what Valenti has to say about the
Vietnam decisions, and here he is
plainly not at ease, seemingly wanting
to defend the L.B.J. policy all-out
but also affected by today's climate
of opinion and the knowledge that
the war ruined his hero. Many
thoughtful Americans have long won-
dered just how Lyndon Johnson got
himself so deeply into the Vietnam
mess. In the course of his reminis-
cences. Valenti includes a 37-page
section that is close to a verbatim re-
port on the Conferences in 1965 that
led, as Valenti puts it, to the choice
between the only two alternatives:
"get out or get in with more, much
more." It is all there, intimately por-
trayed, or at least all that Valenti con-
siders the essential story, written from
the point of view of the aide and
presumably of the President.
At the meetings Under Secretary
of State George Ball, greatly respected
by President Johnson, warned: "We
can not win, Mr. President." Most mili-
tary and civilian leaders argued that
letting Vietnam go down would weak-
en American security around the world
and added a variety of other points
to the case for large-scale Intervention.
Lyndon Johnson, almost physically,
twisted between his fear of being en-
meshed in an escalating Asian land
war and his concern that American
national interests were indeed threat-
ened.
In this part of the book, Valenti's
language is restrained. He is especially
mea^sured as he summarizes what he
bel'eves is the nub of the matter:
President Johnson came to his decision
for large-scale intervention "reluctant-
ly, stubbornly resisting all the way.
He had no illusions about a war. He
had no great faith in the predictions
of the military, but he had no sound
countervalling arguments." ■
A President, a general, a publisher
Gen. William C. Westmoreland.
A Soldier
Reports
By General William C. Westmoieland.
Jllustrated. 446 pp. f^ew York:
Douhleday & Co. , /
$12.95.
By WARD JUST
Tbis is the first full-fledged war
memoir by a senior member of the
American Government. "A Soldier Re-
ports," by the Commander of United
States forces in Vietnam from 19^ to
mid-19^ deserves to be reviewed on
its own terms, not as a literary docu-
ment but as a soidier's version of
events. Gen. William C. Westmoreland
does not explore the moral aspects of
the war and displays virtually no
understanding of the struggle as seen
from the United States. But therein lies
much of the book's value; this is the
view from inside the whale.
Some view. The Westmoreland
thesis is that the war was winnable,
and was lost only because civiiian
leadership in Washington failed to sup-
ply the necessary means. The United
States lost its last chance to "renege"
in 1965. Victory was at band in 1968,
but owing to Amf^rirnn timifUty was
lost forever. The tmns of the Paris
Agreement were disastrous. Failure to
resupply the Vietnamese at the end
guaranteed disaster.
No surprises so far. This is a classic
h%rd-fine account, not the first or the
last. It is when the General comes to
his own role that interest accelerates.
He writes that he was not truly in
Charge of the war; that what he
Ward Just was the Washington
Post's correspondent in Vietnam in
1966 and 1967.
wanted was to head e^outheast Aslan
Command, overseeing all aspects of the
war throughout Indochina. He portrays
him.self as a field Commander at the
end of a long string that wound back
to CINCPAC, Defense, State, the var-
ious embassies, the C.I.A. and finally
the White House. The civilians im-
posed the strategy of "graduated res-
ponse" on him and, when it failed,
blamed him.
Its priorities chronically askew,
Washington refused to supply West-
moreland with the ways and means to
train and equip the South Vietnamese
Army. Washington declined to dis-
patch additional American troops to
consolidate the aMied victory (sie) at
Tet, 1968. This was because the politi-
cians lost their nerve, having witnessed
the war for too long through the blood-
shot eyes of the American press. Ditto
the American public, which became
depressed and discouraged and quickly
lost heart and patience for a pro-
tracted struggle. Civiiian "field mar-
shals," "niggling officials" in the De-
partments of State and Defense,
harassed the American command with
witless requests and suggestions.
The "wily Vietnamese" themselves,
heirs to a Mandarin tradition of las-
situde and graft, were not always
eager to carry the battle to the enemy
— and Douglas MacArthur's injunction
("Treat them as you did your cadets,"
he told Westmoreland in late 1963)
was apparently meffective. There were
unfortunate conflicts within the Ameri-
can military, specifically between
Westmoreland and the proud and hide-
bound Marine contingent in the I
Corps. Finally, defeatist members of
Congress, Edward Kennedy in the van-
guard, used every opportunity to un-
dermine the allied effort. And by con-
trast, the enemy was fighting a single-
minded war.
Vo Nguyen Giap, for example, "was
apparently an influential member of
his government, [while] I was a field
Commander restricted to decisions and
actions within South Vietnam, subject
to the dictates of my country's govern-
ment, and influential in policy matters
only to the extent that Washington
chose to act on my recommendations."
-According to the General, Washing-
con didn't very often. "As American
Commander in Vietnam, I underwent
niany frustrations, endured much inter-
ference, üved with countless irrita-
tions, swallowed many disappoint-
ments, bore considerable criticishn. I
saw any number of my proposals,
which I was convinced \yere legitimate
and would speed the conclusion of
the American assignment, disapproved
— such matters as troop strength . . .
drives in Laos and Cambodia and so
on. I took issue with the strategy of
graduated response in the bombing of
North Vietnam, with bomb halts, with
holiday ceasefires. . . ."
a
he
In Short, almost nothing about the
conduct of the war met with the ap-
proval of the field Commander. But he
mounts a spirited defense of his
strategy of search and destroy, of the
defense of Khe Sanh, and of the con-
duct cf American troops. He concludes,
"A Commander must learn to live with
frustration, interfergrxce.' irrltätion. dis-
ppdTrifm^jjt. an3 "crjticisrn, a^long as
le can '^Tgüte they do not contribute
to f^ailure. I suffered my problems in
Vietnam because I believed that suc-
cess would eventually be ours despite
them, that they were not to be, as
Napoleon put it, instruments of my
army's downtali." Hence, no resigna-
tion; the General soldiered on.
Well. One hardly knows where to
begin. Throughout this sad and defen-
sive memoir there is an air of con-
fusion, bewilderment and pain. And no
wonder. Westmoreland was not in
Charge, though he was very much the
man out front. From the evidence pre-
sented here, he did not himself under-
stand what the American role was
meant to be — he did not see the war
as essentially a political struggle, and
his descriptions of the development of
American strategy and tactics are as
chaotic as the strategy and tactics
themselves. His accounts of meetings
with Washmgton officials are sketchy
and muffled, and occasionally incom-
prehensible. There is account of a
meeting with Lyndon Johnson in 1966,
Johnson seeming "intense, perturbed,
uncertain how to proceed with the
Vietnam problem, torn by the apparent
magnitude of it." L.B.J. alludes to
Truman's problems with MacArthur
and teils Westmoreland, "I hope you
don't pull a MacArthur on me."
Westmoreland's coinment: "Since I had
no intenlion of crossing him in any
way, I chose to make no response."
Hummm. —
He loves "my Army" and histributes
to it, officers and men, is one of the
attractive features of the book. It
seems evident to me that he was very
i)juch less concerned about the effects
of the war on Vietnam or on America
than on the Army. He is not ready to
propose a stab-in-the-back theory,
though he comes close and chooses to
end his book with these words: "Mili-
tary men must remember that to serve
as a scapegoat for one's government
is one of the wounds they must be pre-
pared to accept." He appears to be-
iieve that the civilians would have done
the right thing (i.e., widen the war)
had they been permitted access to the
real facts of the struggle; they were
denied these by cynical journalists. The
journalists are the true villains, their
defeatist influence never more ap-
parent than during the Tet Offensive,
described by the General as "a strik-
ing defeat for the enemy on anybody's
terms."
This judgment, quite simply, is cock-
eyed unless one places oneself in the
General's shoes. Then it becomes
plausible: 37,000^߻emy killed in ac-
tion, UDwa>tKm^ 50,000 wounded. no
general uprising among the"l>ej^lation,
and "for the South Vietnamese. . .a
kind of unifying catalyst, a Pearl Har-
bor." Given Westmoreland's cast of
mind, there is no other way to analyze
it. But that was not the view from
Washington, nor, I believe. will it be
the view of history.
He believes, with reason, that he
was badly used. But at no point in this
unhappy book is the American military
made to share in the blame for the
disaster. He is fascinated by blame,
and distributes it everywhere eise; I
suppose it's naive to expect otherwise.
William Westmoreland, a proud man
and a good soldier, has written a
petu'ant memoir. He deserves better of
himself. So do we. ■
1 ^K .#=>>':*>>. '.
^m
H^j^^^^HH 1
•1
=j
William Loeb.
W^ho the Hell
Is
William Loeb?
/
By Kevin Cash.
472 pp. Manchester. N. H.:
Amoskeag Press. Cloth, $8.95.
Paper, $5.95.
By MARTIN F. NOLAN
Perhaps we.have Orson Welles to
blame. "Citizen Kane" glamorized
cantankerous newspaper publishers,
and made attractive the life of a bully
protected by the First Amendment.
The remarkable thing about American
journalism is that it produces so few
William Loebs. whether out of pro-
.>
Martin F. Nolan is Washington bu-
reau chief of The Boston Globe and a
syndicated columnist.
The New York Times Book Heview/February 1, 1976
1
fessional piide or commercial re-
straint. This book is a portrait of
when, where, how and why — fairly
weak on the why — William Loeb came
to power.
Loeb's soapbox of power is the New
Hampshire Presidential primary, which
projects onto a national stage views
that would otherwise echo quaintly
from the slopes of the White Moun-
tains to the Massachusetts border.
With distorted news coverage and
front-page editorials, Loeb assaults
most public figures who wander into
the circulation area of The Manchester
Union-Leader and The New Hampshire
Sunday News. "Who the Hell Is- Wil-
liam Loeb?" seems an apt titie for non-
New Englanders who must endure the
publisher's shenanigans only quad-
rennially. The simplicity of the title
is reflected in the journalism-school-
textbook simplicity of the book's
Organization — five long chapters of
when, where, what, why and how.
An editor would have helped this
journalistic effort, but none seems to
have been available at the Amoskeag
Press, the Company Cash established
to publish his book. As a result, the
book seems a parody of a William Loeb
editorial — a longwinded, clich^-ridden
tirade of innuendoes and name-calling.
And yet the book is also as f ascinat- .
ing as a William Loeb editorial as
it slogs through the life of Loeb, from
his hoyhood spent in the Company of
Theodore Roosevek (whom his father
served as executive secretary), through
a succession of enough marital ad-
ventures to make a movie star bluL-h
(and to make anyone wonder how
he could have called Nelson Rocke-
feiler, as he did in 1964, a "wife swap-
per"), to his lively and successful cor-
respondence with the Selective Service
System that kept him out of uniform
in World War IL The peccadilloes of
Citizen Loeb receive far more attention
from Cash than the motivations of his
political philosophy. We are titillated
by a secondhand tale of how the pistol-
packin* publisher once shot the office
cat. No scrap of luridly litigious prose
escapes Cash's vacuum cleaner, includ-
ing accounts of an alienation-of-affec-
tion suit against Loeb, his own
mother's law suit against her son and
— after she disinherited him — Loeb's
suit against his mother's estate.
To sustain the reader*s attention
during these misadventures requires
a touch of the poet, which Cash lacks.
His prose isn't bad, but it isn't good,
either. A mercifully small sample on
the condition of the Republican Party
in the State in 1964: "When the smoke
had cleared it was a disaster. If the
New Hampshire G.O.P. had looked
like the Titanic before, it now looked
like the Hesperus. . . ."
Cash describes Loeb's corporate
moves in acquiring a commercially
successful newspaper: dealing with
the Ridder chain, meeting with Joseph
F. Kennedy to help finance the paper,
then, after that failed, courting James
R. Hoffa and the rieh pension funds
of the Teamsters Union to bail out
The Union-Leader. Cash also docu-
ments Loeb's political pow€?r: the de-
livery of an almost automatic 15 per-
cent or more of the electorate for can-
didates of what Cash calls "the Loeb
Party."
Sometimes Loeb finds Presidential
candidates instantly to his liking —
Robert Taft, Barry Goldwater, Sam
Yorty, Ronald Reagan. In State elec-
tions, however, precisely because so
many would-be candidates are ter- ,
rorized by the thought of sharing public
consciousness with William Loeb, the
publisher has to go and find them.
My favorite of these was Gen. Harrison
R. Thyng, an Air Force brigadier gen-
eral with Strangelovean views whom
Loeb propelled to victory in a five-way
Republican primary fight in 1966, only .
to see him lose to Democratic Senator
Thomas J. Mcintyre, one of several,
New Hampshire politicians who has
made a profitable career of "standing '
up to Bill Loeb."
The election statistics weighed by
Cash add up to "the inescapable con-
clusion that the Union-Leader and
Sunday News had a hard core of
readers who would follow the news-
papers' lead at election time, even if
it meant voting for Snow White and
the Scven Dwarfs." Another inescap-
able conclusion is the importance, de-
spite attempts by demographers to be-
little it, of the New Hampshire pri-
mary, still the first in the nation.
Every President elected since 1952 has
had to win the New Hampshire pri-
mary. Loeb's influence must be _
reckoned with, but how?
Kevin Cash is faced with the Prob-
lem of documenting his story, and .
there is no eye-catching way to do it.
The Single most useful section of the
book is a six-page glossary of Loeb's
attacks on public figures. This litany
of calumny is required because, in his
day-in, day-out prose, Loeb sates the
Imagination and dulls the senses, in-
cluding outrage. Cash, a newspaper-
man who used to work for Loeb, teils
his story exhaustively, if not en-
gagingly. But the question of why re-
mains, recalling the wise words of
two social commentators: one, Mary
McGrory, who wrote, "To be a celeb-
rity in America is to be forgiven
everything,"* and the other, Nora
Ephron, who finds herseif "continually
fascinated at the difficulty intelligent
people have in distinguishing what is
controversial from what is merely
offensive." ■
Four novels
Family Feeling
By Helen Yglesias.
309 pp. New York:
The Dial Press. $8.95.
By IVAN GOLD
Helen Yglesias's second novel begins
with Anne Goddard, its heroine and
sometime-narrator, meditating on her
earliest memories of her mother and
trying to piece together, from shards
of Information and misinformation,
her mother's European past. Anne
is the youngest of seven children,
born in her mother's middle-age, an
accident; she seems to recall being
carried "in a bushel basket from the
top floor of the tenement where we
lived to my father's grocery störe
a few blocks away," although one
of her sisters disputes that her memo-
ries could go back that far.
Anne's recollections of her immi-
grant mother are vivid, discrete, un-
chronological — in the space of a page,
and in that order, Anne is "in the
middle of a divorce," 10-years-old,
25, and 15. It becomes cl^ar early
that the mother is dead, and that
her death took place some time
ago. Anne sat shiva with the family
in the posh Westchester home of a
brother who has made it big in busi-
ness. ("How preposterous of me," she
says, "to have ever worried that Jew-
ish was not American.") She joins
her father and brothers in synagogue
(the only woman there), rushes past
that part in the service where she
thinks to herseif, "The men bless
God because He has not made them
women. The women, in smaller print,
bless God for having made them ac-
cording to His will," goes on to her
private Kaddish, says it, is comforted.
And from the present, the novelist's
slippery vantage point, we learn
that she has "other magic. . . . From
my garden I cut a spray of dill and
add it to the last cooking minutes
of the chicken soup and evoke her
in the delicate sharp scent. I insist
on her existence, and on my own."
Chapter Two foUows, and another
immediate dislocation, a half-step back
in time; we are in the original, vaulting
Penn Station, waiting to meet the
Silver Meteor, which bears her moth-
er's body north from Miami. Every one
is there, either waiting for, or aboard
the traih — Papa Goddard and Anne
and her six siblings and their mates,
and they come at you in a body; the
feeling is of having blundered into
a stranger's wedding or funeral, it is
not that easy for a time to teil ihe
folk apart. But by the end of "Family
Ivan Gold is a novelist who teaches
at Boston University.
Feeling" you know them — the old man
(and the garish second wife he takes),
brother Barry (Baruch), who straightens
out his father's financial affairs on his
way to the top, then lords it oyer
the rest, brothers Saul and Josh, who
make no great mark on the world,
sisters Connie, Jenny, Shana, the vari-
ous in-laws, and children, and grand-
children, and if you know some of
them more and some of them less,
why, so does Anne, and so do we
all have more knowledge of, and more
feeling for, some members of our
immediate and proliferating (and dy-
ing> families than others.
To my mind, this book is an ex-
ample of one kind of first-rate fiction:
the rcification and artful shaping of
the obvious and overlooked. For in all
her incarnations-^school-girl daughter,
dance-instructor, sister, political radi-
cal, wife, divorc^e, magazine editor,
mother, aspiring intellectual, grand-
mother, widow, and finally novelist —
Anne Goddard is defined and self-de-
fined against the matrix of blood and
other kin, exists chiefly as a member
of the family, and this, 1 venture, how-
ever much we may sometimes war with
the process, is one of the profounder
ways in which we see ourselves.
The story follows Anne from her
earliest memories of Brooklyn child-
hood on through her middle fifties,
and the death of her second husband
in a mugging in Central Park. Some-
times it comes at you in the third pcr-
son, sometimes in Anne's own voice,
almost always in the historical pres-
ent, and in that series of flashbacks
and fiash-forwards which seem to defy
ordinary notions of real or narrative
time. Yet the book is not "experi-
mental" (a despairing catchword,
nowadays, for lack of craft or lack of
substance), since the coexistence of
past, present and future in the inside
of our skulls is yet another truism, one
which mysticism on the one band and
physics on the other have lately been
helping to articulate. Her seeming arbi-
trariness is Helen Yglesias's art. She
commands, as well, a style of decep-
tive simplicity, a language pared of ail
frills and distractions, and as fine
an ear for the Speech rhythms of
her scores of complex characters as
I've lately encountered.
Anne, in her book-reviewing days,
has some trouble getting a notice
off the ground. What she wants to
say — ^This is a good book, reader,
read it — of course ". . . won't do.
A review must be clever to be
noticed and she wants her review
to be noticed — whether or not the
book is. That's what reviewing is all
about." Well, maybe so. But notice
"Family Feeling," and, if you do, you
might also wind up, as I did, discover-
ing Yglesias's fine first novel, "How
She Died." ■
6
i
The Gull
\A^all
By Clayton Eshleman.
Hl pp. Los Angeles:
Black Sparrow Press.
Cloth, $15. Paper, $4.
By PAUL ZWEIG
"The Gull Wall" is a sprawl-
ing, unwieldy book which al-
most repels the reader with its
broken syntax and deliberately
private Images. Despite Whit-
manesque invocations in sev-
eral titles, the energy of the
poems is strangely solitary, as
if it did not care to share itself.
The opening poeni, "To the
Creative Spirit," lets the reader
know what to expcct:
Guide her now, O great joy of
to live, who I do love more
than any other hegins to
hang
in thy sting, guide her,
assume in her perception . . .
relax her hefore the feared
ant
the spider on the hathroom
floor
Allow thy seif to he seen
thy seif the power to
see, if thy thorax be gold
& crimson before
her mind flees,
join with her ...
The "creative splriV spurts
forth, drenched »n body fluids.
But instead of gathering us into
its lap, as Whitman's limit-dis-
soWing expansiveness surely
does, Eshleman's "creative
spirit" seems isolated, a lone
performer, exuding a kind of
clammy narciss'sm:
I gnaw and tunnel, ^
feeling your living pressure in
their bodies' dents
l raise * '
through you into '-: ■
that Venus,
leaving my buttecks
as a fly's eyes. - l ^
the -earth is foetal ' "'
Lung Lunfi
'WU-HSIA is
a thoroughly
readable Chi-
nese Version of
the American
western." —
Fred Ferretti,
The New York
Times.
WU-HSIA is
fresh. fascinat-
ing and breath-
taking." — The
United Journal.
"WU-HSIA is
charming in its
öwn way." —
Joseph W. Hotchiss. Executive Edi-
tor, Readers Digest Condensed
Books.
$1.95/copy. Send order/check to
CHIN America, P.O. Box 1196,
Elmhurst Corona. N.Y. 11386.
■ Library Orders welcome ■
■ Sales agents wanted ■
■ Distributors wanted ■
swimming. with flippers,
face upward, lonely
l want to enter its cnthill. .
The impress'on, finally, is
less one of individual po^ms,
than ot a pressing flow of
Images, fragmentary scenes,
autobiographical recalls, sprin-
kled with cultural and historical
references which bob through —
Lascaux, Japanese movies,
medieval gargoyles — like faint-
ly glimpsed road-marks of the
Space Eshleman's "creative
spirit" gallops through.
Often the poems seem to out-
run their own words, as if
Eshleman believed that gram-
mar were too small and narrow
to accommodate the inner lava
which he Claims as his poetic
domain.
Yet, in the end, the unrelent-
ing intensity of the poems holds
one's attention. The Images
have a disturb'ng originality.
The reader seems to be witness-
ing the most private, most
tropical of obsessions revealed
to iiim in an exhibitionistic
dance. Eshleman's dance may
be grim and narcissistic, but it
contains all of a man's being;
it holds nothing back, and the
reader looks on, uncomfortable,
a little irritated, but still
looking.
The high point in the book
is a lucid prose meditation on
Eshleman's friendship with the
late Paul Blackburn. It is a
moving tribute to Blackburn,
and the presence of a mediating
subject matter brings out quali-
ties of grace and sympathetic
intelligence which the book
lacks elsewhere. The medita-
tion ends with a brooding poem
which gives a sense of what
Eshleman can do when he al-
lows himself time and restraint.
These lines in particular have
an eerie power: ,
Blackburn's presence was
now ^verywhere, about a
mile from the cavern
l could see the blue Mediter-
ranean waters, out on the
beach in solitude
a figure was seated on a little
wooden chair at a table
writing,
as I approached il turned and
watched me. its beah
closed. its eyes
heady, unmoving, at the hase
of its feathered neck were
human Shoulders,
from the freckles l knew, yes,
and from its short muscular
build—
Can you speak, I said,
the creature nodded yes
then shook its beak no. . .
For all its defects, "The Gull
Wall" is an intrigumg book
that repays the patient reader
with passages such as this. ■
Paul Zweig*s most recent
volume of poetry is "The
Dark Side of the Earth."
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Continued from Page 2
ttie Je WS had onee again fought
their way out of captivity and
darkness; this ölan, along with
the moral and psychic restless-
ness of believers who were
discardinp the reli^ii
w, was rapidly chan-
into'the I.L.G.W.U. and
Amalgamated Clothing
Workers. The socialists pro-
duced the major Yiddish news-
paper and set up organizations
such as the WojJLüoeiVsCircie,
which provided nealtJT'an^Iife
insurance, hospitals and sani-
tariums, schools that offered a
"seqülar Jewish education," a»
well as all manner oflectures,
courses and other cultural ac-
tivities, mostly in Yiddish. From
this example, all of Jewish
unionism would take its cue:
thus the communists would
challenge the socialists with
their own children's camp9i»and
schools, cooperative housing
projects, theater, dance, and
Choral groups, mandolin ensem-
bles and literary panels, as well
as an excellent newspaper. In
Short, in trying to revolutionize
the World that ground them
down, the immigrant Jews re-
vo^tionized themselves both
r^sfi
to
-and to help-fheir chil-
dren rise in it.
Reading Howe's pages on
Jewish socialism and the labor
movements — meticulously fair
and even-tempered, though
patently written by the editor
of Dissent, one of the remain-
ing few to whom socialism was
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a belief "to which they would
pledge their lives"— one can see
the powerful strains of Jewish
idealism and skepticism work-
ing away like yeast in bread.
Also in Howe's descriptions
of the intricate, shifting, but
always bitter struggle between
the left and right, of the slow
giving way of radical aspira-
tions to practical ambitions in
the rank-and-file, one can find
an evolving paradigm of the
political behavior of Jews in
America as well, perhaps, of
the ideological tensions that
mark one's own politics. This
comies home in Howe's argu-
ment with th^fe^^revku^nisj
that the Jew'lsn sociaHst move-w
ment was_ maia W^ amode jor
accylturaüpn insf5ad^eSrfoixe
dedfeate£-4cr a new society,
which was the way it mostly
saw itself and the way it ac-
tually transformed the con-
sciousness of masses of Jews.
The other powerful force that
brought the immigrant Commu-
nity together and* enabled it
even to flourish was Yiddish-
keit, also originally an'"^äjt
Eüföpean movement of the late
19th Century. Its mar row was
the vernacular of the Jews, "a
language crackling with clever-
ness and turmoil, ironic to its
bones.** Its substance was the
Jewish way of life, through
thick and thin, the "shared
experience, which goes beyond
opinion and ideology." Its func-
tion was to hold a people
together who were undergoing
one challenge after another,
including, after 1881, dispersion
and acculturation in a totally
Strange secular society. Its spir-
it was an ironic acceptance
of its role of straddling two
World views — the religioiis.4nd
.secuUir — which w5re slowly
Tovmg apart and one of which
ras withering.
Even so, it perforpied „won-
derswhile it lasted. It carried
tKeTfagmented, rivalrous S^
Euroßgftnjews into the modern
wofiS-It prövided an essential
network of Communications be-
tween the Pale and New York
that reached into their respec-
tive theaters, union halls, news-
paper Offices, poetry move-
ments, political cells, life-
styles, schools of fiction. It
also negotiated the uneven and
fateful tramsactions between
tradition and -modernitv. be-
twe^ communal and individual
expression, between its owji
survival and its peoplej ac^uj«
turation. In its ver^ premises
that the Jews could remain
Jews and yet regain their
worldly bearings and lead a
"normal life" in Russia and
America, laiy the sources of
its enormous encrgies^and^ con-
tradictronsTitS startHnglull life
and its inexorable destruction.
A few examples, necessarily
brief, that do little justice to
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THE ROCKEFELLER SYNDROME
by Ferdinand Lundberg
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^UBUSHED ir
TIMES MIRROR PRESS
TiMsa Mirmon
Howe's superb account of Yid-
dishkeit. In his chapters on the
Daily Foflyard> he describes
how this leading newspaper
functioned as a teacher of the
Iribe — a kindergarten that
taught new manners and a uni-
versity that explained the intel-
lectuals to the masses (and
vice versa); a counselor in all
manner of family, work and
personal problems; an organ
for high socialist essays and
lurid crime stories, for Yiddish
soap Opera on one page and
the fiction of I.B. Singer on
the next. In sum, as Howe
puts it, '*a large enclo5in&-«ur-
ror that refl^eeted th^g^-wh^le"
of tfie ~^¥orhl of Yiddish — its
best, its worst, its most in-
grown, its most outgoing, its
soarmß idealism. its -xrass
^Infe^alism, everything."**« — -H
wäsaft held together by the
remarkable Abraham Cahan,
wrho wrote the one distin-
guished novel in English about
the Immigrant experience,
"The Rise of David Levin-
sky," whose theme is the mel-
ancholy wages of success;
Cahan knew from the Start that
the mor£ the Forward built
a Kriijgp tn Am«>rira the more
of its readers would cross it.
At the same time, his newspa-
per held up the idea of the
underlying unity of a culture
that would strongly mark the
work of American Jews, from
the movies of Hollywood to
the pages of Commentary.
Yiddish theater began as the
one refuge in the years of
darkness, serving up lofty sen-
tentiousness, flooded emotiona-
lity and low pageantry: Moshe
Lieb Halpem called it a cross
between a synagogue and a
bawdy house. In the ^^.years
that foUowed it tried xiFinch
its way toward modern realism
and theatrical artT nespecIäUy
the Russian mod^el. But its au-
dience continued to clamor for
the warhorse»^ of historicsik
spectacle or^anniif^chmaltz/^
preferably a toucl or boin, ^cfi
as "Mirele Efros, first called
"The Jewish Queen Lear," in
which ungrateful, worldly sons
eventually retum to confirm
their mother's wisdom. Such
plays provided the audience
with what th'ey wanted: the
brilliant genre acting of Ad-
ler, Thomashefsky, Maurice
Schwartz, in the higher and
lower registers (the best acting
in New York, according to
Stark Young), and a plot that
confirmed the old wisdom that
La ppTgecu^ed pimontv Teguires
Mstrict _ family ^disciD]ine---i.e..
^arHina knows best? Yet it
was just this function that en-
abled Yiddish theater to flou-
rish, creating something akin
to Italian Opera, in Howe's
view, by tliie expressiveness and
vigor of its uncomplicated thea-
tricality. Perhaps in time, with
the development of more soph-
''I was shocM.
I had eanceif
With that discovery the exciting career of Gene
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Farne, seemed to have come to an abrupt end.
And on a dark day in 1972, radical surgery
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Doctors held little hope he would ever play golf
again. But incredibly, only 15 months and 19
days later he was back among the pros — and
winning a major tournament.
THE REAL SCORE is a shining story of the
incredible courage, hard work and quiet faith that
held Gene Littler together through the shattering
diagnosis, the trauma of surgery and the
tediously long recovery. -^ .. .
Gene Littler is professional golf s man of few
words. A very private person, he is rarely
interviewed. Yet, in THE REAL SCORE he lays
out his life "in the hope that others can find
strength in the midst of tragedy."
A
THE REAL SCORE
By Gene üttler with Jack Tobin
An unforgettable story for yourself . . . or a
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OENE LITTLER
WITH
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NORES •
The New York Times Book Review /February l, 1976 29
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isticated Yiddish audiences.
the theater wouid have caught
up with the aspirations and
abilities of its Joseph Ben Amis
and H. Leivicks. But there was
no tliTie: "a wink of history
and it was over."
«
I have not touched on Howe*s
chapter on Yiddish poetry — the
souI of Yiddishkeit and the
most highly developed of its
literary arts, leading the
rharmfid ^"d h^t,gr ''f^. aS l^Qf-
try usually does, of public ne-
glect. Nor have I indicated
Hcwe's treatment of the disper-
sion of the immigrant ethos,
through the comedians from
EddieCantor to Lenny Bruce,
the^pauKers such as lacob Ep-
stein and the Soyer brothers,
ortTe^American novelists from
Henry to Philip Roth. Here
Howe bears down on the point
I began with — the legacy of
Yiddish culture in the deeper
levels of consciousness and
mcral will: for example, the
abiding commitment to the es
thetic of Judaism itself — "bgau-
ty is a Quality. not a form;!
ä cODl^t. nbi an arrängerSenl
and estheti^"5^ong'
to the same realm. Or in recent
t
fiction, one sees the creation of j
a new American prose with a j
Yiddish flavor, and a carrying j
out of the strategy of the great
Yiddish actors — "realism with
a little extra," as Harold Clur-
man puts it. At the same time,
Howe observes the waning of
the Yiddish influence under
the same paradox that
governed its own rapid deve-
lopment and attenuation.
The sense of this rieh and
terrible brevity provides the
tone of "World of Our Fathers"
— the note of up-and-doing,
striving, even frenzy mingling
with the note of fru^itration,
sacrifjce.Jncomßlßteness. This
to^e^now bnsk, now elegiac,
also arises from Howe's feeling
for the tragic dialectic of his
Story — that the ^rrotmal life"
that thes6 self-educated work-
ers and their tribunes strove
to create proved to be but
a Staging area for their child-
ren's escape from the family,
Community and culture. Per-
haps the last word fittingly
belongs to David Goldenbloom,
whom Howe, like the world
he lived in, has rescued from
near-oblivion:
"What eise can I teil you.
Mv children went their own j
"arn proud ot mem, bui ^
are things we can't talk 1
about. Still, I have no com- j
plaints. My circumstances werc
what they were. Mvfamily
has been a wh^i«? <^n?re\ ya
fe!^ r still take pleasure in
tolom Aleichem, and to me
Bazarov and Raskolnücov are
like friends of myvyÖuth. But
to think of them is to be re-
mlnded that there was a door
which, for me, never opened." ■
•X-
Vexed again,
Perplexed again,
Thank God 1 can be
over-sexed again...
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speeded up by vascular, infectious,
id toxic factors, Dr. Barbeau believes
is conditioned by a hypothalamic de-
:iency in cells equipped with decar-
►xylases ncccssary for synthesis.
[cnce, Parkinson's disease is a form
|f cell dcficiency Syndrome.
The cells in question belong to the
-called APUD system, he said.
he acronym indicatcs their main char-
Icteristics— fluorogcnic Amine content
|catecholamine, Serotonin) and/or
inline Precursor Uptakc (dopa or sc-
[oionin precursor) with presencc of
imino-acid Dccarboxylases.
Dr. Barbeau noted that thcse cells
Ire found in the pituitary, thyroid,
Ind various parts of the digestive tract,
md "usually manifest their presence
[hrough hypersecretion." Examples of
ibnormal activity include the Zollinger-
[Ellison Syndrome and other secrcting
[tumors.
But the cells he considers of partic-
ular interest in Parkinson's disease and
aging are the pituitary "m" cells known
to produce melanocyte-stimulating hor-
mone (MSH) under the influence of
monoamines and the inhibitory con-
trol of an MSH-release inhibiting hor-
motion of lipofuscin storage at the ex-
pense of melanin accumulation in pig-
mented cells, Dr. Barbeau believes that
imDalance m neurotransmitter Sys-
tems within the basal ganglia, causing
the Symptoms of Parkinson's disease
and aging.
Academy of Pediatrics Favors Use of
Brand-Name Drugs in Children
Mcdical Trihune Report
EvANSTON, III.— Physicians treating
children should generally prescribe spe-
cific brand-name drugs, because "the
data which would allow the pediatrician
to prescribe generically and expect con-
sistent therapeutic results do not exist,"
according to the American Academy of
Pediatrics' Committee on Drugs.
"Few drug products have been ap-
propriately studied for bioavailability
or therapeutic equivalence in infants
and children," the committee said in
the February, 1976, issue of Pediatrics.
The committee "strongly supports
the use of the Icast expensive medica-
tion which provides effective therapy.
However, the physician's duty to the
patient is to prescribe reliable drugs
with reproducible therapeutic eflfects at
a given dose. Therefore, until suitable
bioavailability data in children are de-
termined and therapeutic importance
recognized, the physician should con-
tinue to prescribe the products which
have shown significant clinical ef-
fectiveness in his hands or in published
clinical trials."
Kidney Airlift
Medical Trihune World Service
Tokyo— Plans are underway to airlift
a kidney from New York to Tokyo for
transplantation into a Japanese patient,
according to Dr. Takeshi Koshiba, of
Kitasato Medical School near here.
The kidney will be kept at 4° to 8°C
during the 10-hour plane trip.
The New York phase of the project
will be supervised by Dr. Samuel
Kountz, of State University of New
York Downstate Medical Center,
Brookyln, Dr. Koshiba said.""'
Missing Enzyme Ted' to Tay-Sachs Cells
HPhe ENZYME lacking in patients with Tay-Sachs disease has been introduced
-*• in vitro into human Tay-Sachs cells. The enzyme, hexosaminidase A, was
dehvered to the leukocytes by antibody-coated Hposomes containing the en-
zyme Solution— a technique previously employed by Dr. Gerald Weissmann in
enzyme-deficient sharks. How to induce Hposomes to deliver their content to
critically affected tissues remains a problem. Also it is not known whether
treatment started after birth can stop progressive degeneration.
1,.^' C.Ü
Dr. Weissmann Oeft), Professor of Medicine at New York University Medical
Center, develop ed the technique whereby a primary lysosome of a Tay-Sachs
neutrophil fuses with a phagocytic yacuole containing an enzyme-laden li-
posome (center). The iiposome is then enclosed within the vacuole (right).
LBI NEWS
Page 3
\
mann, the statesman Walther Rathenau, and
the philosopher Martin Bvber, But there are
also letters from the English Prime Minister
Benjamin Disraeli, the French politician
Leon Gambetta, the Dutch painter Joseph
Israels, Afred Dreyfus, the French officer,
and Chaim Weizmann, the Zionist leader
and later first president of Israel. The
Weizmann letter, written in Cairo in 1925,
expresses his impressions of events in
Palestine at the time of the opening of the
Hebrew University. There is also a small
collection of prints, including portraits of
political leaders of the 1848 Frankfurt
Parliament, and depictions of Jewish cos-
tume from the 17th through early 19th
centuries.
The collection was purchased from Mr.
Sally Bodenheimer, administrator of the
Jewish cemetery in Frankfurt. Originally
from Rexingen near Stuttgart, he emigrated
to Palestine in 1935 and returned to
Germany in the early 1960's.
This newest acquisition was prominently
featured in the April 16th New York Times
in an illustrated article titled "German's
Collection of Old Jewish Documents Travels
to the New World." The article, which calls
the LBI "the outstanding repository of
material dealing with the distinguished and
long history of Europe's German-speaking
Jews," has brought more than 100 people to
the Institute to view a display of selected
items from the collection.
catalog will be of considerable assistance to
scholars. The eventual exhibition of portions
of the collection will benefit a wide ränge of
the public."
The Institute's holdings of paintings,
sculptures, engravings, lithographs, medals,
ceramics and ritual objects include works by
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT
BROADENS ITS SUPPORT
OFLBI
The National Endowment for the Arts,
one of the foundations established by the
Federal Government to support cultural
institutions in the United States, has
awarded the New York Leo Baeck Institute a
matching grant of $5,000 to catalog the
Institute's art collection.
While the government's National Endow-
ment for the Humanities has supported
important scholarly Institute projects for
some time, this grant represents the first
recognition of the LBI by the prestigious
Endowment for the Arts. An evaluation
report submitted to the Endowment at its
request by the co-chairman of the Conserva-
tion Center of New York University's
Institute of Eine Arts states: "I believe the
LBI art collection to be a significant resource
worthy of the attention of a visiting
specialist. The preparation of an adequate
Efraim Frisch, publisher of "Der Neue Mer-
kur." Oil painting by Suzanne Carvallo-
Schulein. (From the LBI Art Collection.)
such artists as Max Liebermann, Moritz
Oppenheimer, Hugo Steiner-Prag, Her-
mann Struck and Lesser Ury. Etchings and
engravings depicting aspects of Jewish
communal and religious life, some dating
back to the 17th Century, are especially
valuable as documentary sources of history
where other sources are rare. The large
collection of portraits and busts comprises a
veritable gallery of famous as well as less
prominent German Jews.
The Endowment grant, together with
matching funds to be collected from outside
sources, will be used to catalog the art works
at the Institute and then to produce slides of
each cataloged item, thus enabling the LBI
to show its art collection outside the Insti-
tute.
The six-month project, which began in
April, is being carried out by Aline Isdebsky
Pritchard, a Ph.D candidate at New York
University's Institute of Eine Arts specializ-
ing in European art of the 18th, 19th and
20th centuries. Mrs. Pritchard has held
positions at the art museum of Cornell
University, among other posts; and has
taught art history at Wells College, Elmira
College and Central Michigan University.
In a related area, as this issue went to press
the LBI received word that the chairman of
the National Endowment for the Humanities
has decided toallocate an additionalS 12,575
for the Institute's major project to complete
the cataloging of its 50,000 volume library.
FACULTY SEMINAR
CONCLUDES FOURTH
YEAR
The LBI Faculty Seminar program
continues to grow in scopeand membership.
Some twenty-five professors from the tri-
state area and Pennsylvania attended each of
six sessions which, this year, examined
"Methods and Perspectives of Historio-
graphy" as they relate to modern Jewish
history in Central Europe.
The intent of the 1976-77 program, stated
at the year's outset by seminar chairman Dr.
Uriel Tal, professor at Tel Aviv University
who is currently visiting professor at the
University of Pennsylvania, and a Fellow of
the LBI, was to reconsider several classical
methodological questions in the light of
current research, and to scrutinize the
applicability of new techniques to the study
of modern Jewish history. Professor Tal also
presented the first paper on the subject of
"Intellectual History."
Dr. Fred Weinstein of the State University
of New York at Stony Brook introduced the
second session with a talk on "Psycho-
History," one of the newer methodologies.
In January, Dr. Monika Richarz, LBI
research associate and editor of the recently
published volume of memoirs from the
Institute's collections, spoke about "Social
History."
A fourth paper, on "Economic History,"
delivered by Professor Lawrence Schofer of
the University of Pennsylvania, deah with
the interrelationship of Jewish and general
history.
At the April session on "Interdisciplinary
History," Professor Carl E. Schorske of
Princeton analyzed the profession of histori-
an today, at a time when history is increas-
ingly becoming a social science.
The final session, a discussion of external
and internal approaches to Jewish history,
was based on a paper presented by Professor
Ismar Schorsch of the Jewish Theological
Seminary.
At all sessions, stimulating discussions
among the participants followed the presen-
tation of introductory papers.
Page 4
LBI NEWS
TRACING YOUR FAMILY
The publication of Alex Haley's Roots
and the television broadcast of his bestseller
precipitated a tidal wave of American
interest in the field of genealogy. But as a
recent New York Times 2iVi\c\t, "The Search
for Roots, a Pre-Haley Movement," points
out, the roots movement had been growing
for some time. Earlier books undertook
genealogical excursions, ethnic magazines
had been launched prior to the current
upsurge, and the Ethnic Heritage Studies
Program Act, passed by Congress in 1974,
had funneled funds for roots research to
American universities.
Family research in German-Jewish circles
predates the current interest in genealogy.
Select Jewish families in Germany had
engaged in tracing ancestors and descend-
ants as soon as they had reached promi-
nence. Scholars began subjecting them, as
well as entire communities — or cemeteries —
to genealogical research during the last two
decades of the 19th Century. In 191^2J^x
Grunwald foun^ed theL^^hortdÜLvecT^^c/^
fuer juedische Familienforschung. Howjever,
in 19^4, when Arthur Czellitzer, an ophtlTaJ-
mologist and amafeur genealogist, founded
the Gessellschaft fuer juedische Familien-
Forschung, "ä~roClHTy"Whtch"published its
own Journal, hundreds of Jewish families
were stimulated to research their ancestry,
compile family trees and write family
IHtHetlunQen bet {BMeUdhoH fäi jübilthe f amtlien-f ocichung
Title design of German-Jewish genealogical periodical. (From the LBI Collections.)
Coat ofarmsofthe Kallir family, Vienna, 1869.
(From the LBI Kallir Collection.)
^
A
histories reaching even into the Nazi years.
While much of this material was lost or
destroyed during the Holocaust, many
records have fortunately survived.
Today, the Leo Baeck Institute is the most
important specialized depository of genea-
logical material pertaining to German
Jewry. Hundreds of family trees and family
histories, preserved in the LBI Archives,
some published and others in manuscript
form, trace ancestry to the 18th, 17th and
still earlier centuries.
Since the Institute's founding, a number of
Professionals and laymen have given their
research or family papers to the LBI. Among
the most recent acquisition in this field is the
large Rudolf Simonis Collection which
contains the family trees, related correspon-
dence and typed and mimeographed histo-
ries of several hundred Jewish families in
'Berlin, Northern Germany and Sweden. His
collection, like many others, is profusely
illustrated.
For the patient researcher the possibilities
for genealogical discoveries in the Institute
are endless. Family papers found through-
out the collections often include birth and
marriage certificates, testaments and land
deeds — all of them valuable sources for
genealogical study. Registers of vital statis-
tics and tax lists, compiled by Jewish
communities and town governments, some
dating back to the 18th Century, have also
been preserved. Especially notable at the
LBI are the considerable number of Mohel-
buecher (circumcision registers).
The amateur genealogist with family roots
in Worms, for example, will be directed to
the collection of Berthold Rosenthal (1875-
1957), which deals exclusively with the Jews
of Baden and the Palatinate. He will find 70
family trees; a 500-page listing of family
names adopted by Baden Jews in 1809, the
year in which Jewish last names were
officially fixed; and the unique Book of
Worms, copied by Rosenthal, which con-
LBI NEWS
Page 5
tains an extensive compilation of data about
the Jewish population of Worms from 1560
to 1812.
Numerous regions are represented in the
LBI collections. One collection contains
3,725 handwritten pages of documents from
the 19th Century for 150 Jewish communities
of Lorraine and Alsace, including the
general and Jewish census and population
statistics and other demographic informa-
tion.
A large portion of the newly catalogued
collection of Jacob Jacobson, the last chief
archivist of the Central Archives for German
Jewry, contains valuable birth, marriage and
death records. The Berlin Jewish Communi-
ty, for example, is covered from 1714 to
1855; many other cities and towns are also
represented. Of equal interest are the lists of
Prussian Jews taking last names during the
early 19th Century.
A discussion of German-Jewish genealogy
must mention the criminal abuse to which
such research was put by the Nazis. They
established a special office, the Reichsstelle
fuer Sippenforschung, to gather data which
were used to determine "Aryan" or "nop-
Aryan" Status. Ironically, some Jewish vital
statistics have survived as a by-product of
this Nazi pseudo-science.
Given the scope of available genealogical
material at the Institute, it is not surprising
that professional and amateur genealogists
number high among visiting researchers.
Dan Rottenberg, author of Finding Ow
Fathers: A Guidehook to Jewish Genealogy,
recently published by Random House, wasa
frequent visitor. Since his book appeared in
March (with a lengthy and favorable write-
up of the LBI as a valuable source for
genealogists), and was excerpted in the May
2nd issue of New York magazine, more than
50 New Yorkers in search of their Jewish
roots have come to the Institute. Letters of
inquiry from Florida, Los Angeles, Wa-
shington, D.C., Texas and the local area
have also been numerous. All inquiries are
carefully handled and even when the staff
archivists of the LBI cannot provide an
answer, they often can refer individuals to
other sources of information in the United
States, Germany and Israel.
The Leo Baeck Institute is eager to add to its
rieh holdings of genealogical material. Any
donation of family trees, family histories or
family papers will serve to make the LBI
collections more comprehensive and valua-
ble.
Coat of arms of Hermann Groedel, made a
Baron in 1905. (From the LBI Nussbaum
Collection.)
GERMAN-JEWISH
EMIGRATION ANALYZED
Herbert A. Strauss, professorof history at
the City College of the City University of
New York, also serves as director of the
Research Foundation for Jewish Immigra-
tion. At his March LBI lecture on "Nazi
Policies and Jewish Emigration from Ger-
many," Professor Strauss discussed two
areas of inquiry which, he stressed, are in
need of comprehensive scholarly analysis:
the social character of the emigration itself
and the meaning of the emigration expe-
rience.
To provide a framework, Professor
Strauss cited several sets of statistics. He
began with German census figures: in 1925,
568 j300 Jews lived in Germany; by 1933, that
fTgure had decreased to 503,000; by May of
1939to214,000;inOctober, 1941, 1 40,000 to
150,000 Jews remained.
While Jews over the age of fifty comprised
one-third of the Jewish population in 1933,
the same age group was represented by as
much as one-halfof the Jewish population in
1939. Children were the first to emigrate. In
1933 there werg,^2^|MKLJewish children in
Germany SLg0^ont to fifteen; in 1939 only
15,000 reuräined. ^- '" "
Analyzing the patterns of emigration is far
more complex, Professor Strauss stated.
Perhaps 270,q00 to 300,000 Jews left
Germany between the y^ar^^ lyf^ anrj IQIQ^
But an annual breakdown of this emigration
shows that the flow was not regulär but
rather a response movement taking place in
uneven waves. In 1933, for example, 3JJKK)
Jews left Germany, including repatriates
who went to Poland and later returned. In
1934, the figure dropped to 23,000 and in
1935 to 21,000. By 1936, the number
increased to 25,000, but in 1937 it agairrfell
• to 23,000. During 1938 and 1939, 118,000.
Jews "emTgrated and from 1940 to 1941,
.23,000 additional Jews were able to emi-
grate,
Detailed study of numerous factors is
necessary, Professor Strauss continued, to
determine why Jews emigrated at a given
time. Did the economic Situation and high
rate of unemployment, for example, also
play a role in the decision of the 37,000 Jews^
who epTi£r^Xed_iJi-i933? And, v^fiäTwäs the
time lag at different periods b&lween the
decision to emigrate and the actual depar-
ture?
Professor Strauss suggested various other
factors that influenced German Jews regard-
ing their decision to emigrate. An analysis of
the Nazi years shows recurrent cycles of
severe persecution followed by retreat —
what Professor Strauss termed "a forward
and backward movement" — in the Nazi
pattern of persecution. Thus, for example,
Julius Streicher unleashed a strong wave of
anti-Semitism in mid-193^^-fr^sud€lenly
eased in April of 1935, but in September of
the same year, the Nuernberg laws were
issued.
In terms of the actual experience of
emigration, Professor Strauss reported that
while 200 refugees have been interviewed for
his study project, it has been extremely
difficult to obtain accurate psychological
data. There is the fact, often overlooked,
Strauss stated, that after Hitler took over,
the Jewish authorities set up "communal
Systems" that brought about a measure of
internal normalcy. This success of Jewish
officialdom, he suggested, to some degree
involved a pattern of deception that had a
retarding effect on the Jews' capacity for
analytical foresight.
The Library and Reading
Room of the LBI are open
Monday through Friday
10 a.m. to 4:30 p.m.
Except in August
Page 6
LBI NEWS
Dr. Friedrich S. Brodnitz
ELECTED TO THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Dr. Brodnitz is an ear, nose and throat specialist. After graduating from the University of
Berlin in 1924, he practiced mediane in Berlin until 1933. For the next four years, before
emigrating to the United States in 1937, he served as press chief of the Reichsvertretung der
deutschen Juden and as chairman of the Central Committee of the Jewish Youth
Organizations.
Dr. Brodnitz is associate attending otolaryngologist at Mount Sinai Medical Center and
adjunct professor of Communications sciences at Hunter College of the City University of New
York. An authority on voice, he is the author of two books, Keep Your Voice Heahhy and
Vocal RehabiHtation, and of thirty scientific papers.
HOW THE GERMAN GOVERNMENT SUPPORTED ZIONISM: 1897- 1918
There exists abundant literature on
Germany's penetration of the Orient. But,
according to Professor Isaiah Friedman,
associate professor of modern Jewish history
at The Dropsie University, who delivered
this season's final LBI lecture, its Jewish
aspects are less well known.
Professor Friedman began his presenta-
tion with the year 1898, immediately prior to
Wilhelm II's departure for the Hast, when it
appeared that the Emperor intended to
declare his support of Jewish plans for
colonization in Palestine. Turkey, the
argument was, would benefit economically
from Jewish settlement in Palestine, and
Germany would gain a strong foothold in the
Orient. The Sultan, however, averse to
European powers gaining influence in
Turkey's internal affairs, brusquely rejected
the proposals and, as a reult, Wilhelm's
enthusiasm for Zionism waned.
Yet, interest in the Jewish settlement of
Palestine did not die down. By 1912, the
conviction had gained ground that the
Zionists would be able to do valuable work
for Turkey and this would benefit Germany
by strengthening her cultural and economic
influence in the Orient, thus balancing the
existing influence of the French.
Germany's sincerity was demonstrated
during World War 1 by her policy of
protection which proved invaluable for the
preservation of the existing Yishuv. Con-
cerned lest they be held responsible for the
persecution of the Jewish settlers in Palestine
initiated by Djemal Pasha, Commander of
the Ottoman IVth Army, the Germans
repeatedly intervened with the Turkish
government, their ally. But neither the
Turkish Minister of the Interior, who was
friendly to the Jews, nor the Grand Vizier
were able to curb Djemal Pasha.
In 1915, in spite of strained relationships
with the Turks, the German government
issued top secret Instructions to its consulate
in Palestine. These stated that it was
"politically advisable to show a friendly
attitude toward Zionism and its aims."
Obviously, the Germans had considered the
Potential Propaganda value, but the deeper
motive involved long-term considerations.
The German military conquests in the Fast
had created a Jewish problem. By the end of
1915, over five million Russian Jews were
under German domination. And as the resuh
of expulsions by the Tsarist regime, more
than one and a half million Jews were
uprooted from their homes. A serious
refugee problem emerged and it was feared
that many would migrate westward. Con-
fronted with this Situation, the German
government feit it should prevail on its
Turkish ally to remove immigration restric-
tions, after a victorious end of the war, and
let Zionism meet the refugee need.
According to Professor Friedman, it
would not be difficult to detectanti-Semitic
undertones in a number of memoranda, but
it would be incorrect to say that Germany's
policy toward Zionism was largely motivat-
ed by anti-Semitism.
In April, 1919, no longer inhibited by the
need to pay heed to Turkish susceptibilities,
the German government did come out
openly in support of Zionism, declaringitself
in "fundamental agreement" with its pro-
gram. While Germany was denied a say at
the Peace Conference, she should, Professor
Friedman believes, be given due credit. Had
it not been for Germany's persistent inter-
ventions with the Turkish government, he
stated, the Yishuv would not have survived.
Although the limelight was turned on Britain
following the Balfour Declaration, Germa-
ny's help was of no less Import. For, in a
judenrein Palestine, the later development of
the Jewish National Home would have been
unlikely.
Dr. Friedman's latest book, Germany,
Turkey and Zionism: 1897-1918, will be
published soon by Oxford University Press.
LBI WOMEN S AUXILIARY
The 1976-77 Women's Auxiliary season
was successfully launched with its annual fall
lecture, delivered this year by Ilse
Blumenthal-Weiss of the LBI. In her talk,
Begegnungen mit Else Lasker-Schueler.
Nelly Sachs, Leo Baeck und Martin Buber,
Mrs. Blumenthal-Weiss related the unfor-
gcttable impressions made on her by
personal encounters with these prominent
figures from the German-Jewish past.
The Institute wishes to thank Mrs. Edith
Brunner, vice president of the Women's
Auxiliary, whose generosity made possible a
been used to account for some impor-
tant recent experiments.
lew Doubts
^would seem, then, that the iniroduc-
of quarks and the penetration to a
i layer of reality would provide the
I justification of the Assumption of
Vlicity. Events in the last few years,
ever, have started to cast doubt on
Ji conclusion. The two major prob-
[ns with the quark model today are
[st, the Problem of quark confinement
Jid, second, the problem of quark pro-
I feration. Let's look at these separately.
Quark Confinement. As soon as
le quark model was put forward exten-
Ive attempts were made to "bring one
\ick alive" — to find an isolated quark in
Lture. Most of the attempts to do this
ive involved looking for a particle
[lose electrical charge is less than that
the proton or electron — a distinction
lieh would be easy to see with modern
[-thods. In spite of the importance of
\i question and the extreme ingenuity
the experiments involved, there has
?n no generally accepted claim for the
covery of the quark. (As of this writ-
r, there is only one candidate left in
[e ring — an experiment by a group at
' inford which is in the peculiar limbo
jserved for important discoveries
jiimed by one laboratory but not yet
»rified by any others). In view of the
l^ie which has elapsed since the
larches began, this raises very real
liestions about what it means to say
|at quarks "exist."
Most quark theories now take as
en the fact that although quarks may
rst inside of particles, they cannot be
-n in isolation. This is referred to as
luark confinement." Let's look at two
[iple pictures which illustrate how
arks may be said to "exist" and still be
; ifined to the interior of particles.
Suppose that the ultimate matter
[;ide of particles is analogous to an
tstic string, and what we identify as a
ark is actually the end of such a
I ing. If we were to reach inside of the
krticle and try to pull a quark out, we
[ild probably snap the string if we
\\\ed hard enough. But then we would
e extracted a shorter piece of string
ch had two ends. In the quark picture,
h a string would be a meson, and not
isolated quark. A little reflection will
vince you that in such a Situation it is
cally impossible to see one end of a
string by itself, so that confinement
would follow naturally.
Another example of the same effect
was cited recendy by Sidney Drell of
Stanford. We know that an ordinary bar
magnet always has a north and a south
pole. If we saw the magnet in half, how-
ever, we do not wind up with isolated
north and south poles, but with two
shorter magnets, each of which has two
poles. If we continued this cutting proc-
ess down to the atomic level, we would
find that each atom of iron can be
thought of as a tiny dipole magnet, simi-
lar in everything except size to the origi-
nal bar magnet. In this sense, we could
say that magnets "exist" inside of the
piece of iron: we can actually pull a
small magnet out and point to it. If we
continue the cutting process beyond the
atomic level, however, the picture
changes. If we take an atom apart and
lay the constituent protons, neutron,
and electrons out, there is nothing we
can point to and say, ''There is the thing
which makes the atom look like a mag-
net." The reason for this is that atomic
magnetism exists mainly because of the
motion of electrons around the nucleus.
An electron circling a nucleus consti-
tutes an electric current, and such a cir-
cular current produces a magnetic field.
(This is the operating principle of the
electromagnet.) So the fact that the
atom looks like a magnet is because of
the arrangement of its constituents, rath-
er than to the fact that any single con-
stituent may be a magnet in and of itself.
In the same way, elementary particles
may appear to be composed of quarks,
but these quarks may be the result of the
arrangement of matter inside of the
particles, rather than distinct entities
which can have a life of their own. Be-
cause of arguments like this most physi-
cists today would probably not accept
the failure of quark search experiments
as strong evidence against the quark
model, but there is an underlying un-
easiness about the whole business.
collision of a proton with a beryllium
nucleus, so there was no serious doubt
about the particle's existence. It was
called the ^ particle on the West Coast
and the J particle on the East Coast, and
its dual discovery is reflected in the cur-
rent usage, which is to refer to it as the
J/^.The particle was not stränge, but it
decayed slowly. From our discussion of
strangeness, we know that this can mean
only one thing: there must be a fourth
kind of quark in nature, a quark whose
existence has been unsuspected until
now.
Quark Proliferation. In the fall
of 1974, two Nobel Prize winners,
Burton Richter (working at Stanford)
and Samuel Ting (of MIT, working
at Brookhaven) simultaneously an-
nounced the discovery of a new kind of
particle. The Stanford experiment in-
volved producing the particle from the
collision of an electron and a positron,
while the MIT-Brookhaven experiment
produced the same particle from the
The new property associated with
the particle is given the name "charm,"
and the quark which carries this proper-
ty is called the charmed, or c quark. The
J/^is now known to be composed of a
charmed quark and its anti-quark (a
particle with the same mass as, but
opposite electrical charge from, the
charmed quark), so that the J/\^does not
itself possess charm in the sense that we
have been using the term. Although this
may seem to throw some doubt on the
existence of charm, the Situation has
been resolved by a recent experiment
which turned up particles that exhibit
charm explicidy. These particles contain
a Single charmed quark, and hence de-
cay slowly because of the need to con-
vert the charmed quark to an up or a
down quark.
By itself, the addition of a fourth
quark to the subnuclear zoo does not
seem to have much significance for the
Assumption of Simplicity. After all, we
can interpret four quarks as being "few"
as well as we can interpret three. The
real problem comes from the fact that
theorists have suggested that there
might be two more kinds of quarks,
called the t and b (for top and bottom,
or truth and beauty). And although
these new quarks have been in the air
for only a short time, there is already
evidence in an experiment carried out
by Leon Lederman at the Permi Nation-
al Accelerator Laboratory in Illinois that
a particle containing one of them has
been seen. So if we take this Suggestion
seriously, we now find that the number
of quarks has proliferated from three to
six in the last few years.
And if this were not enough, most
quark theorists now assume that each
type of quark that we have discussed so
far is actually three quarks which are in-
distinguishable to us, but which are in
fact different from each other. The rea-
(Continued on page 30)
THE SCIENCES FEBRUARY1979 9
How the Other Half Lives:
Twins and Science
by Richard D. Smiih
Collecting twins — or, more precisely, data about
twins — has been an occupation of scientists ever
since Sir Francis Galton published his paper, "The
History of Twins, as a Criterion of the Relative Pow-
ers of Nature and Nurture," just over a hundred
years ago. Twin studies are the oldest scientific
method of analyzing human heredity and today the
twin methodology is so much used that gemellology,
the science of twins, has spawned its own interna-
tional Society and scientific Journal.
The recently published proceedings of the Sec-
ond (1977) International Congress on Twin Studies
(AlaTi R. Liss, 1978) contains nearly a hundred pa-
pers, including" twin studies of sexual attitudes,
depression, socioeconomic success, birth defects,
Associate editor Richard D. Smith reports on biomedicine and
the behavioral sciences.
Thousands of pairs of twins
are under close scrutiny
by biologists and psychologists
heart-disease risk factors, albinism and the effects of
Vitamin C on colds, in addition to articles on the bi-
ology and genetics of the twinning process itself and
twin-research methods.
Around the world data on twins are being col-
lected and analyzed at a prodigious rate. Each of the
Scandanavian countries maintains a detailed twin
registry. The Swedes störe information on nearly a
hundred thousand pairs of Swedish twins, with
birthdates going back as far as 1886. In Rome. the
unique Gregor Mendel Institute for Medical Genet-
ics and Twin Studies provides free medical care for
life to more than fifteen thousand pairs of twins.
(The twins are seen together in the clinic for all ex-
aminations.) Although legal, political and logistic
considerations make the establishment of a national
twin registry in this country unlikely, the National
10
THE SCIENCES FEBRUARY 1 979
Academy of Sciences and the National Research
Council maintain a registry of sixteen thousand
pairs of twins in which both members have served in
the armed forces. The Kaiser-Permanente medical
group in California has recruited a cohort of almost
eight thousand pairs of twins from its subscriber-
ship. And all across the country Mothers of Twins
Clubs, groups with names like "Double Delights,"
cooperate with researchers on a variety of projects.
A "Natural Experiment"
Why twin studies? Gordon Allen, a medical statisti-
cian at the National Institute of Mental Health and
President of the International Society for Twin
Studies, sums it up succinctly: "Twins provide a
means of studying the effects of environment when
heredity is held constant, and of some environmen-
tal influences when others are held constant."
In animal research, such as the testing of cancer
drugs, hereditary factors can be controlled by exten-
sive inbreeding, producing strains of experimental
mice and rats that are genetically uniform. The only
Segment of the human population that offers re-
searchers comparable uniformity is the "natural ex-
periment" of identical twins. These twins, called mo-
nozygotic (MZ) because they develop from a single
fertilized egg that divides to produce two embryos
early in pregnancy, are virtually identical genetical-
ly— a "clone of two," aptly phrased by Yale biologist
Clement Markert.
\ The caiises of single-egg twinning are still large-
ly unknown. Such twins are born at a steady rate —
about one birth in two hundred fifty — that has re-
mained remar^ably uniform over a wide' ränge of
factors such as maternal age, size, social class or pre-
vious history of pregnancy. Although a recent study
at the department of human genetics at the Medical
College of Virginia found some slight Support for
the notion that identical twins "run" in families, the
researchers concluded that the causes of MZ twin-
ning in human beings "remain somewhat obscure
and it seems likely that most cases represent spora-
dic events."
Immunologically, the tissue of a pair of mono-
zygotic twins is interchangeable; a kidney or sample
of bone marrow from one twin will not be recog-
nized as foreign and rejected when transplanted to
the other. A striking example of this phenomenon
took place last year in Rochester, Minnesota. Sur-
geons transplanted a testicle from one identical twin
to his brother whose testicles had never developed.
The fact that the testicles of one twin devel-
oped, while those of the other failed to, demon-
strates why the term "monozygotic" is more accurate
than "identical." Actually, no monozygotic twins are
ever completely identical; any number of random
events while the f etus is in the Uterus can contribute
to creating large and small differences between the
twins. There have even been cases, extremely rare,
of "identical" twins who, because of chromosomal
abnormalities, were of opposite sexes.
Only about a third of twin births are of mono-
zygotic twins. Möt^ commonly, twinning occurs in
the*3izygotic form, usually called "fraternal" twins.
Dizygotic (DZ) twins arise from two separate fertil-
ized eggs and are therefore no more similar geneti-
cally than any two siblings from the same parents.
They may be of different sexes, coloring, even dif-
ferent gestational ages at birth. And unlike identical
twins, the rate at which fraternal twins are born var-
ies according to a number of known factors. Besides
running in families, DZ twins are also more likely to
be born to mothers who are taller, heavier, older,
and who have had more children. The rate of DZ
twinning is higher in underdeveloped countries,
and it can be affected by drugs, such as some used to
promote fertility, and even by diet. Very high DZ-
twinning rates in Nigeria — as much as one birth in
22— were recently demonstrated to occur in a demo-
graphic pattern that almost precisely matched the
pattern for consumption of a certain species of yam.
Before the nineteen-twenties, twins were often
categorized on the basis of whether or not they
shared the same circulation through a single placen-
ta during gestation. It is now known, however, that
not only fraternal twins, but most identical ones as
well, have separate circulations in the womb. Fewer
than a third of MZ twins share a circulation through
a Single placenta.
Today, the best method of determining into
which category a set of twins falls is a sedes of blood
tests that compares samples from each twin for bio*
chemical markers. Such tests are almost a hundred
percent accurate, but because they are expensive,
and relatively recent, they are not usually the basis
on which MZ and DZ twins are distinguished in the
large twin registries or in studies requiring many
subjects. For such purposes, it's often enough to ask
twins whether they were "as alike as two peas in a
pod" during childhood and whether parents,
schoolmates or strangers had difficulty telling them
apart. The answers given by the twins themselves
provide a sufficiently accurate diagnosis.
MZAs and Others
When most people think of "twin studies," what they
have in mind is the study of monozygotic twins
raised apart (MZAs in the Jargon of the field). This
type of study on a large Scale is actually quite rare.
Perhaps the best-known study of so-called "identi-
cal" twins raised apart is that of Sir Cyril Burt in
England. His analysis of separated identical twins
showed that genetic factors contributed a great deal
to "intelligence." But Burt's study has recently be-
THE SCIENCES
FEBRUARY 1979
11
come suspect. Several scientists, looking closely at
his data claim that Burt*s twins were fictions. (The
late James Shields of the Institute of Psychiatry in
London, one of the few scientists besides Burt who
carried out large-scale MZA studies, told the second
twin congress that "even if it is best to discount
Burt's data, if only because of the careless, casual,
and ca valier way it was presented, his conclusions
may not be incorrect. The planting of the Piltdown
skull did not disprove the theory of evolution.")
Unfortunately — although only from a research
perspective to be sure — the Separation of identical
twins at birth or in infancy, never a common event
to begin with, apparently occurs today with less fre-
quency than it did in the past. Factors that previous-
ly accounted for many separations — such as extreme
poverty and the social disgrace associated with ille-
gitimate birth — are no longer as significant. What's
more, it is the policy of most adoption agencies (at
least of those in most developed countries) to make
sure that twins are placed together, if at all possible.
As a result, while researchers may still occasionally
be presented with such a dramatic MZA scenario as
that described by Shields of twins whose biological
father, an "unstable" ship's carpenter in Scan-
danavia, kept one twin and sold the other to a doctor
in South America, more commonly, when twins are
separated at all they are placed with different mem-
bers of their own f amilies. The separate environ-
ments in which such twins grow up can be compared
with those of cousins.
Just because most identical twins grow up
together, however, doesn't mean they lose their in-
terest to science. One of the most populär forms of
twin research is the comparison of concordancy —
similarity — between identical twins of any back-
ground. Such studies are especially useful in un-
ravelling the cause of disease. The reasoning behind
them is that while similarities between identical
twins raised together may be caused by either genet-
ic factors or environmental ones, differences must
be the result of environmental influences. Thus,
when identical twins are found to be discordant for
a State or trait — when, say, one develops Cancer and
the other doesn't — that trait or State can be attribut-
ed, at least in part, to nongenetic causes. A typical
retrospective study of this kind might look at the
life-histories of a twin pair in which one member
contracted emphysema while the other didn't. A
prospective study might follow the medical history
of twins, when one is a heavy smoker or drinker and
the other is not, to evaluate the effects of such be-
havior when heredity can be ruled out.
In this kind of study, one twin serves as a natu-
ral control for the other, a circumstance that can
have tragic overtones. David A. Pyke of King's Col-
lege Hospital in London described such a Situation
at the second twin congress:
If one twin is diabetic and the other is not affected,
the affected twin has before him the living example of
what he might have been if he had not had diabetes. One
pair of twin girls is particularly poignant in this respect.
One twin developed diabetes at the age of four years,
which was always badly controlled and she was in poor
health; when she grew up she was 7.5 cm shorter than her
co-twin. She lost one child and then bore another, only to
die five years later at the age of 36 years from diabetic
complications. Her co-twin won a beauty contest at the age
of 21 years, had three children, and remains in perfect
health at the age of 37 years.
The co-twin control method of study is not lim-
ited to identical twins. Even though they are not as
close geneticaily, fraternal twins, because they are
the same age, often the same sex, and have shared
the same environment, are more like each other
than selected subjects in so-called "matching" stud-
ies that seek to compare effects of factors like alcohol
use or treatment techniques. Even more important,
a classic form of twin study requires dizygotic twins
as a means of Controlling for the experience of twin-
ship in studies employing data from both kinds of
twins.
The classic twin study compares the variance, or
difference, within the two types of twin pairs to de-
termine to what extent heredity can be counted as
the cause of the trait being studied. Researchers
know that fraternal pairs of the same sex share, on
the average, only half their genes, while identical
pairs share the füll complement. When they find a
greater resemblance between identical pairs than
fraternal pairs, measured for a particular trait (such
as height or intelligence), they assume genetic influ-
ences play a greater role. In other words, if a genetic
factor is determining the trait, identical twins should
be more similar than fraternal twins.
One of the assumptions underlying this classic
method is that both kinds of twins, identical and
fraternal, have comparably similar backgrounds,
that the experience of being a twin is the same for
both. Although there are still few systematic studies
of its validity, this assumption is often challenged.
Many researchers believe, based on case histories
and long-term Observation, that identical twins
spend more time together, are more strongly
identified with one another and are more similar in
stature and physique than fraternal twins. As a re-
sult, it seems likely that identical twins are more of-
ten treated alike or as a unit than are fraternal twins.
"We suspect," writes John Loehlin of the Uni-
versity of Texas at Austin, "that there is a law of least
parental effort in twin rearing, which, in the absence
of a specific policy to the contrary, ensures that un-
less twins act differently they will get treated pretty
much alike." Loehlin, who with Robert Nichols of
the State University of New York at Buffalo recently
completed a study of eight hundred fifty pairs of
12
THE SCIENCES FEBRUARY 1 979
teenage twins, concludes that "most probably, iden-
tical twins are treated more alike because they look
and act more alike."
Other assumptions about twin studies have also
been challenged, among them the fundamental idea
that twins — except for the obvious fact that they
come in twos — are essentially like the rest of the
Population. And while this assumption probably
holds quite well for most of the traits and conditions
that are examined in twin studies, there are none-
theless definite features that distinguish twins as a
group. According to Luigi Gedda of the Mendel In-
stitute in Rome, while more than ninety percent of
singletofts are born at term, the percentage for twins
is less than sixty. Because twins are more likely to be
prejnature and of lower birthweight than average,
they might also be more susceptible to the host of
developmental complications and vulnerabilities
that go along with those conditions.
Psychologically, too, there is evidence that the
twin experience has a profound effect on those who
undergo it. How profound? "To ask whether a twin
Personality exists is a question as laden with am-
biguities as to ask whether a Jewish personality or a
working class personality exists," writes Rene Zazzo
of the Laboratory of Child Psychology at the Ecole
des Hautes Etudes in Paris. Nonetheless, the fact
that most twins are very close in growing up, that
"the we is anterior to the I and determines it," may
produce what Zazzo calls "couple effects," a special
aspect of twinhood that has to be taken into account
in interpreting the results of many twin studies.
As a group, for example, twins do slightly less
well on intelligence tests than the general popula-
tion. This well-documented tendency is sometimes
attributed to minor brain damage resulting from the
low birth weight common in twins. But it may also be
the result of what Zazzo terms "cryptophasia," the
tendency of twins, at the beginning of language de-
velopment, to make use of sounds, words and syntax
that are not those of the common language. This
slower socialization of language in twins may pro-
duce deficits in the many intellectual and social skills
that depend upon verbal ability. Continued
Doubletalk
Grace and Virginia Kennedy are auractive eight-year-
old identical twins. In the summer of 1977 their par-
ents brought them for treatment to Children's Hospital
in San Diego, California. Their father is a native Speak-
er of English. Their mother speaks English with a
strong German accent. An^ their grandmother, who
raised them through infancy, speaks only German. But
the girls were speaking a stränge language that no-one
at the hospital tould identify. To the trained ears of the
speech pathologists who listened to it carefully, the
twins' speech feil into no familiär category of speech
disorder. Had the girls invented a new language?
Grace and Virginia posed more than just a chal-
lenge to their speech therapists. Leonard Newmark,
Professor of linguistics at the University of California
at San Diego, told a New York Times reporter that stud-
ies of the Kennedy twins* speech "may help us in re-
soiving one of the most intriguing and controversial
enigmas of linguistic and cognitive science."
That enigma is whether or not human beings have
an innate endowment for language, some kind of gene-
tically programmed neurological wiring that accounts
for the deep structural similarities that have been ob-
served among all known human languages. If the twins
could be shown to have invented an original language,
the nature of that language would provide either
strong Support, or a disturbing counter-example, for
structural linguistic theory.
The task of deciphering the twins' bizarre speech
feil lo Elissa Newport, a psycholinguist at UC San Die-
go. She and her colleagues spent hundreds of hours
painstakingly transcribing and analyzing tapes of the
twins, unravelling the mysterious language from with-
in. What did their structural study reveal?
"Our analysis suggests that it's English," Newport
says. "There are a couple of words that we can't identi-
fy, and there may be a very small number of construc-
lions that are not English, But it is not an invented lan-
guage." The tapes revealed that the twins' talk was füll
of phonological distortions such as the replacement of
fricative sounds like "f" and "s" with füll stops like "t"
and "d". But the girls tended to apply their ruies of dis-
tortion randomly rather than systematically.
"If you Start putting together enough deforma-
tions like that which operate only probablistically," ex-
plains Elissa Newport, "you get an output that's very
unintelligible."
After almost a year and a half of intense therapy at
Children's Hospital, Grace and Virginia have begun to
master recognizable English. They have been separat-
ed in school to encourage them to communicate with
others. But while they will talk to Outsiders in English,
they will still not use their twin speech with others.
Alexa Romain, the principal therapist, who works with
the Kennedy twins with co-therapist Anne Koenecke
told a reporter, "when Anne or I try to imitate their
language and talk to them in it, they look at us as if we
are crazy." R.D.S.
THE SCIENCES
FEBRUARY 1979
13
A further confounding aspectof twin
development is the eff ect of competition
and contrast. Twins may alter their per-
sonalities, or their descriptions of their
Personalities, in response to their part-
ners. Sandra Ganter of the Glasgow de-
partment of psychological medicine
found that twins raised apart had very
similar scores on the "extraversion
Scale" of a psychological test. Twins liv-
ing together, however, had very low cor-
relations for the same trait, suggesting a
high degree of contrast within the pairs.
"Genetic factors," remarks Rene Zazzo,
"appear to play a very significant role
when the twins live apart, but almost
completely disappear when the twins
live together. For this group of subjects
and for the trait extraversion, the twin
Situation apparently erased genetic
effects."
Glearly, then, the study of twins is
by no means a flawless way to reach con-
clusions about human heredity and en-
vironment. "The twin method is based
on many assumptions, some discredited,
some untested, and some untestable,"
according to G.E. Boklage and R.G. Ei-
ston of the University of North Garoli-
na. Like many researchers, they have se-
rious reservations about the use of the
twin method by itself to estimate genetic
variance or heritability. But the meth-
ods of analysis first worked out in twin
studies are being adapted to other kinds
of studies, such as those of adopted chil-
dren, and those studies may correct for
some of the inherent uncertainties or
biases of the twin method. ("It is a para-
doxical fact that there is now a great
deal more . . . information available for
twins than for ordinary brothers and sis-
ters, normal parents and their children,
or other relatives," comment Loehlin
and Nichols.)
In addition, twins themselves as
twins are receiving increasing attention
from researchers in all fields. New
findings will not only sharpen the meth-
odological tools of those using twin data
as a means to an end, they might also be
useful to the world's estimated 100 mil-
lion twins and tF^ose who serve them.
"Legends, populär traditions, and
romantic literature have always attribut-
ed unusual traits to twins," writes Rene
Zazzo. ". . . But our scientific evidence is
extremely scanty, andlhis is not because
of experimental difficulties, but because
twins have always served psychology,
whereas psychology has almost never
served twins." Q
14 THE SCIENCES FEBRUARY 1979
Equal
Rites
by Lilli S. Hornig
With men setting the ruies,
it's not easy for women to play
Let US look at some of the rules by which
the game of science is played. It is taken
as axiomatic that productive scientists
are young, highly motivated, energetic
and dedicated. They had better be, be-
cause there is a long, tough trip ahead.
They are expected to define their intel-
lectual interests in early adolescence in
Order to have enough time to learn all
they will need to master. They under-
take an arduous educational sequence,
which ideally is completed in the early
twenties. By the time that happens, their
mentors have made it clear to them that
the only good life is the academic one
and that theory is somehow a higher-
order good than application.
It is a curious contradiction that dis-
ciplines which deal in exploring the
physical world value most highly those
activities which don't get your hands
dirty. What follows from that, however,
is that one advances even in purely ex-
perimental fields by getting progressive-
ly farther away from the actual work,
becoming a producer of ideas and a
manager of the many young and pre-
sumably willing heads and hands who
test them. This leads quite naturally to
helping to manage the institutions nec-
essary for the conduct of most science
and, if at all possible, to shaping them in
one's own image.
None of this is necessarily bad, and
if it were demonstrably the only or best
Lilli S. Hornig is execulive director of
Higher Education Resource Services
(HERS) at the Wellesley College Center for
Research on Women, and a former chemistry
Professor. This is an excerpt from a talk de-
livered at the Academy's Conference on Ex-
panding the Role of Women in the Sciences
in March 1978. The complete text and the
other papers presented at the Conference will
be published in a volume of the Academy's
Annals.
way to do excellent work in science one
might accept it without further com-
ment. I would suggest that there are
other possible patterns.
Caricature
It is probably obvious, if only by associ;
tion, that the abbreviated caricature/
have drawn depicts a man, and only oi
kind of man at that — the successful aci
demic scientist who in bis middle an<
later years will accumulate a few prizes^
and medals, help to determine the poli-
cies which ultimately govern the educa-
tion and progress of more scientists, and
advise our government at some level.
He is not so much typical as exem-
plary — a model for us to emulate — and
therein lies bis importance.
Note that bis personal and physicaJ
characteristics have not been men-
tioned: but the Omission is not acciden-
tal. They are not of great importance to
his progress. Gharm and good looks are
an asset in any walk of life, but it is wide-
ly acknowledged that so long as he is a
good scientist he will get along fine with-
out them.
Many have shared my Observation
that prominent scientists are often
Short, fat, have had acne, wear glasses,
are patchily bald or excessively hairy, or
have as much personality as slugs. In
fact, these traits follow a normal distri-
bution curve among scientists. None of
these characteristics, singly or collective-
ly, have kept these men out of Berkeley
or Harvard either as students or faculty
members, significantly diminished their
eligibility to various honorary acade-
mies, or denied them access to the seats
of professional power. Yet recently the
Supreme Court upheld the right of a
medical school to dismiss a woman Stu-
dent in her last Semester on grounds of
an unattractive physical appearance and
a less than gracious bedside manner.
Although even a successful scientist
may worry about his looks at times, he is
seldom troubled by the view, widely
held by even his colleagues in other dis-
ciplines, that he is cold, unfeeling and
inattentive to the needs of others —
sometimes described as an "emotional
cripple." If he pays attention to this cri-
tique at all, it does not seem to trouble
him much, since he perceives it as clear-
ly unrelated to his chief mission in life,
the pursuit of objective truth. The dis-
cussion of whether perception of a phe-
nomenon may also constitute objective
truth is best left to the philosophers.
is commonplace in our culture to snipe
at the assumed mindlessness and fri-
volity of women. Quite frankly, when I
read Science I expect the analysis and
humor to be more sophisticated and
trenchant than the usual bland, stereo-
typed fare oflfered the mass audience.
Jean Leonard Elliott
Department of Sociology and
Anthropology, Dalhousie University,
Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
R. H. Shannon's letter castigating
the housewife and adolescent female
for their "unanalyzable, unscientific,
uncontrolled" consumption of power
is a frivolous attempt to escape accept-
ance of an equal share of the blame
for the westernized world's current
energy crisis. At the research labora-
tory where I work there is an equally
appalling waste of power. This in-
cludes everything from burning 200-
watt light bulbs and running radios
throughout the night when there is no
one in the building to neglecting to
completely shut off faucets after pre-
surgical scrubbing or washing of glass-
ware. After speaking with some of our
maintenance personnel, I find that this
is a universitywide Situation that exists
not because of housewives or nubile
daughters, but rather because Profes-
sors, technicians, and graduate students
— all supposedly rational women and
men — fail to conserve the energy that
appears so unlimited to them. Shannon's
indictment of only one segment of the
Population is therefore unfair and un-
scientific.
A. H. Katz
Falls Road,
Sunderland, Massachusetts 01375
Last night my husband handed me
the 6 April issue of Science and called
my attention to a letter by R. H.
Shannon concerning the energy crisis,
which he (Shannon) fears has been
precipitated primarily by the practices
of his wife and teen-aged daughters.
My husband has always been aware
of the careless use of our precious
natural resources and routinely snaps
off the porch lights which I have left
on for dinner guests or a late-returning
child. (Fortunately, all injuries so far
have been minor.) After reading Shan-
non's letter I realized that I too must
face the reality of our dwindling energy
supply and do what I can to conserve
it. Surely I can do without a washer or
dryer when a scrubboard and a clothes-
line will suffice. The refrigerator will
cause something of a problem because
I am having difficulty locating a man
to deliver ice. The electric stove must
also remain because I have not been
able to convince my husband to chop
wood for a woodburning stove. We will
fill the bathtub on Saturday and draw
lots for the order of bathing. Think
what fun that will be for the family.
Of course, the second car must go. I
plan a monthly trip to the market to
replenish the larder (sugar, flour, and
so forth). The rest of our food will
come from a home garden — perhaps I
can keep a few chickens and a cow.
When I consider how my husband
(already a careful consumer) can stave
off the energy flow, I meet with greater
difficulties. He, of course, must continue
to drive himself to work (the bus for
the laboratory leaves at an unconscion-
ably early hour, and car pools are so
inconvenient). It would be difficult for
him to perform his experiments with-
out the use of the cyclotron (that's
only a few million watts), vacuum
pumps, drying lamps, electronic coun-
ters and calculators (whatever happened
to the slide rule and a bit of paper?). He
could not be expected to work without
air conditioning in his office. I know
how uncomfortable he is when he leaves
the oflice to come home in the summer.
Since we cannot cut down (energy-
wise) in the laboratory, we must con-
centrate on the home, therefore today
I am placing an advertisement in the
paper offering for sale his power saw,
drill press, lathe, shop vacuum, several
power Sanders, and paint compressors.
Think how much fun he will have now
that he is back to basics with just a
band saw and a plane. I know that both
he, and Shannon, will be proud of me.
Betty G. Hulet
Calle los Collados,
Diablo, California 94528
Analy^s >6f Anthropological Data
7
/
For the last several years anthro-
pology has been undergoing evolution-
ary change. One used to be able to
analyze data in any way he saw fit,
but now it is considered useless to
perform an analysis simply because
one has available Computer time. Be-
cause of the debatable value of an-
thropological data, it is also desirable
that any problem-oriented analysis be
conducted within as rigorous a sci-
entific, methodological framework as
possible. Unfortunately, the article by
Alan Lomax with Norman Berkowitz
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(21 July 1972, p. 228) fulfills neither
requirement and is, therefore, less ac-
ceptable as anthropology. The follow-
ing points should be considered.
Lomax and Berkowitz add factors
to their analysis until the results con-
form to their model. One cannot help
but wonder what the results would
have been if one more factor had
been added, or if human communi-
cation had been the first factor to be
analyzed.
An alternate hypothesis for the sim-
ilarities found between cultures is that
they represent ecological adaptations
to roughly similar environments. This
hypothesis was not suggested, and cer-
tainly not tested. The climatic simi-
larities which exist between Patagonia
and the North American Plains would
certainly suggest to ecologists that
they look for similar adaptations. No
contact would be necessary.
An association of human subspecies
with culture types is unacceptable,
not simply because of sociological
pressures present today, but because
there is no support for the Statement.
Kenneth A. Wolfe
Departments of Anthropology and
Biology, LJniversity of Oregon,
Eugene 97403
Wolfe seems vaguely to resent the
use of Computers in our work, although
comparison and clustering of such multi-
parameter profiles (for example, the
sets of norms that structure culture)
is otherwise impractical. He doubts the
validity of anthropological data in gen-
eral, and our methodological rigor in
particular, without specifying his Stan-
dards of validity or rigor, or saying
where we failed. This seems an unfair
tactic.
He confounds our specialized use of
the term "factor" with vector (or in-
dex) when he charges us with adding
"factors . . . until the results conform
to their model." Actually, we discovered
the cultural "factors" (sets of similarly
acting vectors are indices of social and
communication structure), by means of
Cluster analysis of the reliable scalar
indices available to us for a large sam-
ple of World cultures. The results of
many other trial runs with somewhat
different groups of indices were strik-
ingly similar — about 14 main factors of
social and communication structure in-
volving the indices always showed up.
Our finding is that these 14-plus fac-
tors are sufficient to describe the main
variations in human culture patterns.
Operations with measures of other
kinds of human Performance (such as
dance, speech, and breathing rate) reveal
similar geographic distributions. It
seems likely that (i) every cultural
tradition consists of a stylistic core that
is reinforced in every aspect of cultural
activity; and (ii) these dynamic cul-
ture styles have continuous distribu-
tions. Ultimately these regional styles
are hooked into environment, but it is
eminently clear that environment biases
rather than forms culture style. The
successful interzone migration of cul-
tures is proof of that.
The environment, Barth, has not
changed drastically in the last 20,000
years, whereas in that time the human
race has developed many cultural styles
that differ from each other as pro-
foundly as do the subspecific habits of
other kinds of animals. Our finding
that these cultural styles have clear-cut
geographical distributions, which ac-
count for the fact of human history,
reinforces the main thesis of anthro-
pology. In man, culture (inherited,
learned norms and skills) replaces ge-
netic inheritance and enables human
societies to adapt more flexibly than
animal groups. In this (metaphorical)
sense, human subspeciation is cultural.
In fact the key dement seems to be
man's keen esthetic sense of the cul-
turally appropriate, which provides the
baseline for cooperative endeavor in all
human societies.
Alan Lomax
Cantometrics and Choreometrics
Project, Columbia LJniversity.
New York 1002 5
Doctorate Output
I wish to note for the record a re-
grettable error in my article "Shifts in
doctorate Output: History and outlook"
(9 Feb., p. 538). In table 2 of the article,
the University of Pittsburgh should
have been listed as a public university,
and among the 60 universities ranked
highest for the article.
The University of Rochester should
be counted as granting about 2.6 doc-
torate degrees in 1969 for every 1 in
1960, rather than the 3.6 multiple
shown in the article. The 3.6 figure re-
sulted from an unusually low number
of degrees granted in 1960 and an un-
usually high number in 1969.
Charles V. Kidd
Association of American Universities,
1 Dupont Circle, NW,
Washington, D.C. 20036
SCIENCE. VOL. 180
o
n
o
m
<:
o
o
I
üHIHROPOUCr
"^ ^nnumm pKinsnw
JUNE-OCTOBER 1972
rent Anthropology
A WORLD JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCES OF MAN
n
C
m
>
H
O
•TS
O
f
o
o
SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL CHANCE AMONC THE PORE OF NEW CUINEA
hy E. Richard Sorenson
WITH CAl^ COMMENT
PEASANTRIES IN ANTHROPOLOCY AND HISTORY
by George Dalton
WITH CA^ COMMENT
349
385
CONCEPTS AND METHODS FOR THE SECONDARY ANALYSIS OF
VARIATIONS IN FAMILY STRUCTURES
by Ramkrishna Mukherjee
WITH CAl^ COMMENT
COCNITIVE ASPECTS OF UPPER PALEOLITHIC ENCRAVINC
by Alexander Marshack
WITH CA'w' COMMENT
417
445
CAi^ Book Review of PROPER PEASANTS
by Edit Fei and Tamäs Hof er and
UNE C0MMUNAUT£ RURALE DE L'IRLANDE
by Robert Cresswell
IXth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological
Sciences.
(W-^i«^.V-v_.>',- " ■
f.- ^ - V ■ ttfi tf^^ ^ :» 4
.•SÄ
Srf?-"
.v:^ä)*.
DISCUSSION AND CRITICISM
On Firewalkers in Europe
On Thumb-Sucking . . .
479
498
384
384
CALENDAR . . . insidc back cover
CONFERENCE 444
EDITOR'S REPORT 347
FOR SÄLE 416
FREE MATERIALS 416
WANTED
INSTITUTIONS.
NOTES ON NEW BOOKS .
OUR READERS WRITE
PERSONAL OPPORTUNITIES
PRIZES
.... 443
416
501
345
443
443
Puhlished hy the university of Chicago press
Sponsored hy the wenner-gren foundation for anthropological research
Current Anthropology
is published five times a year by
The University of Chicago Press in
February, April, June, October, December.
Copyright 1972 by The Wenner-Gren Foundation
for Anthropological Research.
VOL. 13 . NO. 3-4 . JUNE-OCTOBER 1972
Second-class application pending at Chicago, III.
Printed in U.S.A.
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY, patrocinada pela The Wenner-
Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, e o docu-
mentärio de uma experiencia em comunica^äo, de uma
comunidade internacional de estudiosos, os Associados de
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY.^ Todos OS aspectos importantes da
politica editorial — taxas, formato, diferentes idiomas utiliza-
dos, criafäo ou extingäo de departamentos — so säo pro-
cessados apös consulta previa aos Associados, quer em
conferencias ou atraves o ''Editor 's Report," que vem im-
presso no comefo de cada edi^äo, para o quäl se solicita
resposta na "Reply Letter." Por este permanente diälogo,
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY funciona como um verdadeiro
orgäo centralizador e esclarecedor de noticias e ideias, um
indicador de tendencias e necessidades da profissäo, bem
como um instrumento de ayäo sobre estas, ä medida que se
evidenciem. O acentuado aspecto de ''foro aberto" que
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY possüi imprime caracteristicas
especiais ao processo editorial, como se pode verificar a
seguir.
PROCESSO EDI TORI A L
O trafo marcante da revista e o artigo com o "Comentario
CA-^." Tal como o titulo sugere, este tipo de artigo trata,
de uma rnaneira compreensiva, um topico de releväncia para
as ciencias do homem, com visäo larga, perfeitamente
documentado, e claramente delimitado em termos de tempo,
espago, dados disponiveis, metodologia, ou qualquer outro
criterio. Como tambem e dirigido a especialistas de outros
campos, deve o autor usar clareza e simplicidade na apresen-
ta<fäo, especialmente na terminologia e nos conceitos
empregados. Estes artigos consistindo, äs vezes, de contri-
bui^öes de dois ou mais autores, frequentemente atingem a
propor^-äo de uma apreciävel monografia. Antes de serem
aceitos para publicagäo, o artigo e submetido a um julga-
mento mültiplo.^ So depois que um manuscrito passa por
1. Depois de indica^äo e elei^äo pelos atuais Associados, estudiosos de
competencia em uma disciplina de um determinado pafs pode ser
convidado a se tornar Associado. Os Associados pagam uma con-
tribuifäo anual nominal, porque sua cooperagäo com current an-
thropology envolve gastos de tempo e dinheiro. Estudante, professor,
ou pesquisador em antropologia ou campo correlato que 6 recomendado
por um Associado pode tornar-se assinante a uma taxa especial igual a
dos Associado de seu pafs. Qualquer pessoa interessada pode assinar a
revista pelo preco comun assinalado na contra-capa de current
ANTHROPOLOGY.
2. Cöpias do manuscrito säo enviadas a cörca de 20 estudiosos cujas
fichas de inscrigäo revelem competencia no assunto do manuscrito.
Solicita-se-lhes que julguem o mesmo atendendo ä precisäo, importäncia,
e, de um modo geral, inter^sse para a profissäo, fazendo sugestöes para
o seu aprimoramento. Suas respostas, analisadas pelo corpo editorial,
fornecem uma base segura para a decisäo söbre o manuscrito — si aceito
corno estä, ou devolvido ao autor para que acate as sugestöes ou procure
revista mais apropriada para publicafäo. Uma descrigäo deste sistema
estä publicada na edigäo de fevereiro 1972.
esse processo e entäo impresso em sua forma final, da quäl
säo enviadas cöpias a 40 ou mais comentadores, que podem
ser autores citados no texto, especialistas sugeridos pelo
autor, pesquisadores que tenham respondido ao ''Editor's
Report," ou outros escolhidos por uma seleyäo. O ^'Comen-
tärio CA*^" assim elaborado, acrescido da replica do
autor, e entäo publicado simultäneamente com o artigo
original e, de certo modo, expressa uma "opiniäo da pro-
fissäo." Si, de tudo isto, surge concordäncia num deter-
minado assunto ou si, ao contrario, surge uma controversia
que, debatida, leva a um consenso, considera-se atingido o
aspecto de uma tomada de opiniäo. O ''CA'^ Book Review"
se processa, exatamente, dentro do mesmo espirito que a
revisäo de artigo. Um livro, em qualquer idioma, e escolhido
com base na qualidade^e no Interesse geral dos Associados e
enviado a 20 criticos para a aprecia^äo. Estas apreciagöes
säo entäo publicadas junto com a resumo do livro, feito pelo
autor, bem como sua replica äs apreciaföes dos criticos.
Esta revisäo critica pode incluir värios livros sobre o mesmo
assunto, de um ou de värios autores, mesmo que näo sejam
recem-publicados. current anthropology publica tambem
artigos de forma comun ä da maior parte de revistas tecnicas,
tais como exposifäo de uma nova teoria ou metodo, ou
mesmo um relatörio de pesquisa. Estes tambem säo sujeitos
a um previo julgamento, antes de serem aceitos para
publicafäo. Novos itens, material de referencia, corres-
pondencia de interesse para os Associados aparecem tambem
nas seföes publicadas regulär ou eventualmente. Destas
se0es, as de "Discussion and Criticism" and "Our Readers
Write," frequentemente abrem uma preveitosa discussäo
söbre um artigo ou livro recentemente publicado ou criti-
cado.
IDIOMA
Embora os Associados reconhegam vantajosa a publica^äo
de CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY em um ünico idioma (ingles), o
Editor aceita e julga o manuscrito, faz apreciagäo critica de
livros, e recebe comentärios tambem em tcheco, holandes,
frances, alemäo, italiano, japones, polones, portugues, russo,
espanhol, e linguas escandinavas. Isto diminüi, de cerlo
modo, as desvantagens da publica^äo em um ünico idioma.
O Editor coopera com os autores na preparafäo de traduföes,
proporcionando auxilio financeiro quando necessärio. Au-
tores fluentes na lingua inglesa recebem do Editor um
Modelo-esquema para a preparafäo de suas contribuiföes.
HISTÖRICO
CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY c, em todos OS scntidos, uma ex-
periencia de um tipo de cooperayäo e comunica^äo inter-
disciplinar, em nivel internacional. Um histörico minucioso
de tal empreendimento — funda(;:äo e precedentes, problemas
resolvidos ou ainda insolüveis, desenvolvimento da politica
editorial, dados estatisticos, e observaf^öes relativas aos
primeiros quatro anos de publica^-äo — podem ser encontra-
dos na edifäo de junho 1965.
■i
FOR THE ARABIC VERSION, SEE DECEMBER 1969; BENGALI, DECEMBER I 1968; CHINESE, JUNE 1%7; CZECH. DECEMBER II 1968; ENGI.ISH, FEBRIARY 1972
FRENCH. OCTOBER-DECEMBER 1971; GERMAN. APRIL 1972; HEBREW. APRIL 1971; HINDI. DECEMBER 1965; ITALIAN, APRIL 1970; JAPANESE. OCIOBER-
DECEMBER 1970; RUSSIAN. OCTOBER I 1969; SPANISH. JUNE I97I.
fliRMiccs inhcrcnl in thcir owii socicty.
K.g., \hv woicl "pcasanl" in ihe Knglish
language is of pejorativ c t hai acicr and
dcnolcs a rustic living in a Foreign
coinitry. ()n thc olhci band, in thc
L'.S.A. we still find thc cffect of poj^ul-
ism and of a iradition hasing thc na-
tional sclf-imagc on thc agrarian pop-
ulation (cf. Halpcrn and Brodc
1967:51, 57). Vicwing fioni Kurope
the Swing of thc anthiopological iniage
of pcasants froni idyllic to wholh neg-
ative, onc gcts thc imprcssion that it is
only partially niotivatcd by thc internal
dcvelopment of the sciencc and that in
part il is an expression of ideological
polcs. Pcasants are, by definition, j^art
of a complex socicty and a coniplex
cullurc. Ihc scholars of East-C.entral
Kurope and North America alike bc-
long to complex socicties which still
have, or had not long ago, a com-
ponent of agrarian-peasant characlei .
I hus the i'cscarcher's opinion of jx'as-
ants is j^robablv inHuenced to a largcr
cxtent by the self-imagc of bis oun
socicty than is bis view of primitive
sociclies.
Fei & Hofer: proper peasants and Cresswell: une communaute rurale de l'irlande
Tbc longish procedure of printing
our book has had a favourablc result
inasnuich as its publication comes ai a
time üben thc earlier totalh dark aegis
of "amoral familism" and "limited
good" is giving way lo a certain day-
break for the peasantry. We are glad
that Von Fhrenfels had plcasure in
reading about the pride of thc Atäny
pcoi3lc "at being peasants and having
horses" and that Freeman uelcomcd
thc usc of thc woid "peasantrv" in our
book in thc sense that it had "before
anlhropologists began to meddle with
it."
We are far from trying to maintain
that our dcscription of thc pcasants is
as objectivc as, or more objcctivc than,
that of onc or anotber anthropologist.
In a different social and ideological
context, in Hungary, too, therc is a
polari/.ation in the cvaluation of peas-
ants similar to the polai i/ation in thc
l'nited States. Wc can tracc a certain
"division of labour" among thc diffei-
cnt branches of knowlcdgc. While
cthnogiaphy as such has j3ortrayed
primarih thc harmonic aspects of
rural cultuic, history, sociograj)hy,
and literary village rcscarch (thc laltcr
mentioncd by Bodrogi) have concen-
trated primarih on poverty and con-
Hict. VVben our only Hungarian rc-
vicwei , Bodiogi, points out that Proper
Peasants actuallv dcals with peasants
who are landowncrs (and this is true),
he is trying to bring thc mainly positive
peasant-image in thc book into har-
mony with thc negative onc, which in
this context may refer simultancously
to the poor peasantry.
In thc course of the argumentation,
it has been suggcsted that it would bc
fruit ful to carry on, probably in thc
columns of CA, the cxchange of views
concerning the differences between
antbropologN and national ethnog-
raph\. Onc of the themes that could
bc discussed is thc comparison of dif-
ferent opinions, biases, and prejudices
concerning compatriot and stränge
pcasants, in thcir own social context.
References Cited
Arknsbkk(,, C M., and S. 1. Kimbai. r.
1940. Family and Community in Ireland.
(lanibridge: Harvard l'iiivcrsitx Press.
Basso, Rkhu H. H)7(). Commeiu oii: Kii-
culuuation — a lecoiisideraiion, by
Nohiio Shimahara. (aRRF.M amuro-
poKM.v 11:149. [l'RVK-j^]
Bk.rnoi, L., and R. Bi.ancard. 195,'i \on-
ville: in village fran^ais. liaxaiix et
Mcnioires de riiistiuii (rKthiiologie ()2.
[.S TK. HL-)>]
Bloch, Marc. 1940. Les caracteres originaux
de Ihistoire rurale franqaise. Paris: Albin
Michel [MIP(h^]
IHN HoiiANDKR, A.N. j. 1 967. "S(K lardc-
sci iption: 1 he piobk-in of reliabilit\ and
\ali(lit\," in Anthropologists in the field.
V.dwcd bv D. C jongmans and P. (iiit-
kiiul, jjp. 1-34. New ^'()lk: Huiiianities
Press. [HS-)^]
Dia/, May N. 1967. "Kcononiic lelaiions in
peasani s(Kiei\,"in Feasant society. Kdited
by Jack M. Potter, Mav N. Dia/, and
(ieorge M. Foster, jjp. 5()-3(v Boston:
Linie, Brown. [MK(h^]
Frixox, SuaRi). 1962. Folk-lifc- resiarc h in
our time. Cwerin 3:275-91. [R 1 A,^]
Glrvitch, (iroRCKS. Fdiioi. 1949. Indius-
trialisation et technocratie. Pai is: A. Colin.
Hai.pk.rn, joFi M., and John Brodf. 1967.
"Peasani so( ieiy: Fcononiic changes and
revoluiionaiN transforniaiion," in Bien-
nial review of anthropology. Kdited hv Bei-
naid J. .Siegel. Sianfoid: Slanloid l'ni-
versity Press.
Haipfrn, Jofi. M., and F. A. Hammfi..
1969. I he intelledual liistoiv of ethnolo-
U\ and othei social sdeiucs in ^'uur()-
slavia. (^mparative Studies in Society and
History 11.
HoFFR, 1 amAs. 1968. .Anthrojjologisis <nid
nali\t' eihnogiaphers in ("-enlial Fiirope-
an \illages: Coniparative notes on ilie
jirolessional personaliis of luo dis-
ciplines. ci rrfnt an ruR()POi.o(;v
9::ni-Hi.
. 1970. Anlhropologists and naiive
eihnogi<iphers at work in Central
Fmopean villages. Anthropologica. N. S.,
12(1): 5-22 . ( )t Kl wa . ' [MS V.-^]
Hri.iKRAMZ, .\kf. 19(>0. "Ceneral eihno-
logi(al coiuepts," in International dictio-
nar-y of regional European ethnology and
folklore, \()1. 1. Cojx'nnagi'n: Rosenkilde
and Bagger.
JAii.iN, RoBFRi. 1970. Fe droit desdvilisa-
lions a disposei (relles-ineines. Science et
Avenir, no. 278. [l'RVFi^]
loNFS, Dfi.mos |. 1970. Towaids a naiivc
anthropologv. Human Organization
29:251-59.
Kisi.iAKOV, N. A. Fditor. 1954. Kurtura i
b\i tad/hikskogo kolkho/.nogo krest'i-
anst\a. I'rudy Instituta Ftnograpi im. N. N.
Miklukho-Maklaia, N.S., 24^ [MSFi^]
Ffacu, f. R. 1961. Rethinking anthropology.
Fondon: .\thlone. " [ TB^^]
Ffwis, (). 19.')1. Life in a Mexican village:
lepoztlan restudiea. L'ibana: L'niversit\ of
Illinois Press.
MoRiN, FiKiAR. 1967. Commune en France:
La Metamorphose de Plodernet. Paris:
Favard. fMlP(h:^]
Nfmffh, F 1970. Die I ürkische Sprache in
l'ngarn. .Amsterdam: (iriiner. [FRVFi^]
()pi Fi<. Marmn K. 1967. "(ailiuial peispec-
tives in reseaich on schi/ophienias," in
Culture and social psychiatry, pp. 282-.303.
Neu York: Atheiton Press. fMKOi^]
Radci.ifff-Brown, .\. R. 1957. A natural
science of society, (ilencoe: Free Press.
Rfdfifii), R. 1930. Lepoztlan: A Mexican
village. Chicago: Universitx of C>hicago
Press.
. 1955. Lhe little Community. Chkdgo:
l'ni\c'isil\ ol Chicago Press.
Vara(.n.ac., Am>rf.. 1948 Civilisation tradi-
tionnelle et genres de vie. Pai"is:.-\lbin
Michel. ' [MlPQi^]
Warrinfr, Dorffn. 1939. Fconomics of
peasant jarming. Fondon, New Voik, Fo-
lonio: Oxfoid Fni\cMsit\ Press.
Woi F, Fric R. 1964. Anthropology. Fngle-
wood Clilfs: Prenlice-Hall.
Vol. 13 • So. :i-4 • June-Octoher 1972
497
IXth International Congress of Anthropological and
Ethnological Sciences
■ The IXth Iniernaiional Congress of
Anthropological and Ethnological Sci-
ences will convene in Chicago, U.S.A.,
August 27 - September 8, 1973.
Progress Report
Meeting in Copenhagen, May 1971,
the Permanent Council of the Interna-
tional Union of Anthropological and
Ethnological Sciences revised and ap-
proved plans of the Organizing Com-
mittee for the IXth International Con-
gress (see the minutes, to be published
in CA, December 1972). Accordingly,
the First Circular was sent by airmail
in July 1971 to some 24,000 names
drawn from lists of the VIth Congress
(Paris), Vllth Congress (Moscow), and
Vlllth Congress (Tokyo), checked
against the latest lists of current
ANTHROPOLOGY, the Amcrican An-
thropological Association, and the
Linguistic Society of America, both for
address corrections and to identify ad-
ditional scholars, particularly younger
persons. Despite great efforts to avoid
duplication, and to get correct ad-
dresses, possibly 4,000 circulars may
have been wasted; it is remarkable
enough that as many as 20,000 per-
sons could have been identified as an-
thropologisis and elhnologists for ihis
purpose.
This First Circular announced the
dates of the Congress, September 1-8,
1973, and the place, Chicago, U.S.A.;
stated the rules of membership; and
included the call for volunteered pa-
pers and subjects of Conferences for
consideration by the Program Com-
mittee.
Although a deadline of January 1
was set, the Organizing Committee
permitted the lists to remain open. By
April 24 there had been received a
total of 1,315 registrations, 850 pro-
posed papers, and 115 Conferences.
All persons whose papers were ac-
cepted by the Program Committee
were sent a style sheet ("Information
For Authors," p. 501, which gave in-
structions (in English, Prench,
German, Portuguese, and Spanish) for
the preparation of papers. After sev-
eral meetings, including the largesl in
February 1972, it was possible to syn-
thesize all proposals into a tentative
program, which was then included in
the Second Circular, sent by airmail
during June 1972 and reprinted here
for the benefit of interested persons
whose names are not on the Congress
mailing list.
IXth INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF
ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES
SECOND CIRCULAR - MAY 1972
DAXES: Monday, 27 viii-Saturday, 8 ix m£^
Research Sessions, 27-31 Augtist;
General Sessions, 1-8 September
PLACE: Conrad Hilton Hotel. ChiragoJTS A^
DEADLINE for completed papers: 1 xi 1972
DEADLINE for abstracts of newly proposed papers
for consideration by the Committe^r~fTirT972.
The Tentative Program belovv was derived from the
offers of 850 papers and 1 15 Research topics received
by 24 iv 1972. Every paper and absiraci will be
classified according to the numbered sessions listed.
Authors may indicate their Ist, 2nd, and 3rd choices.
TENTATIVE PROGRAM CONTENT
I. Nature and Development of Man, a
look at the species both developmentally and
in its present character and variety. From its
origins among the primates the character of
man is traced in all its dimensions — biological,
emotional, intelleclual, and "spiritual" — in-
sofar as such distinctions are tenable.
A. Body and Behavior
1. Man and the Primates. — Concerns the
comparison of Homo sapiens with non-
human primate species. Livingand fossil
forms are considered. An attempt at
understanding modern man's mind and
body through the study of his close rela-
tives is made.
2. Paleoanthropology: The Pleistocene. — Deals
with the physical and the material re-
498
mains of man's ancestors and covers:
paleoanthropology; origins of behavior
patterns; tool cultures; paleodemogra-
phy, and all related subjects. It provides
a unified review of the various areas of
study dealing with this time period.
3. Human Differentiation: Genetic and En-
vironmental Factors. — Encompasses both
coniemporary living men and the re-
mains of earlier peoples. It Covers
human variability as revealed by metric
and non-metric morphological traits; ef-
fects of drift and isolation upon the
genetic makeup of man; the influence of
human culture on the human body; and
the influence of the environment on the
human body, including pathological ef-
fects.
B. Mind and Culture
4. Language and Thought. — Analyzes cul-
ture via verbal and non- verbal expres-
sion of symbolic thought. This includes
all studies of communicative behavior:
language as a phenomenon and studies
of particular languages and language
groups; metacommunication, paralan-
guage, and semiotics; non-verbal sym-
bolic behavior, conceptual categories,
and Cognition; sociolinguistics and ap-
plied linguistics.
5. Science, Technology, and Invention.
— Studies man's attempts to deal ration-
ally with his environment. The emphasis
C U R R K N I A N r H R O P O L O G Y
is on pre-modern times, although con-
temporary topics are also included.
6. Sociological Innovation and Change.
— Includes changes in cultural patterns
and social Organization through evolu-
tionary processes or as a response to
stress.
C. Expression in Man
7. The Arts: Plastic and Graphic— Indudes
all material forms and color (two- and
three-dimensional representations of
thought and perception) viewed as affec-
tive responses from earliest times to the
present.
8. The Performing Arts: Music, Dance, and
Theater. — Viewed as affective response
influencing all the senses — as the re-
creation of social situations vvith the in-
tent of satisfying emotional as well as
intellectual needs.
9. Folklore: Oral and Written Literature.
— Encompasses the study and analysis of
myths, legends, fairy tales, riddles and
foiktales and creative oral and written
story-telling from the viewpoint of aes-
thetics, psychology, and anthropology,
and their social and cultural matrix.
10. Ritual, Cults, and Shamanism. — Includes
studies usually associated with religious
behavior (manifestations of a special
type of affective response, covering:
supernatural beliefs, deity worship, ob-
servance of ritual and ceremony, and the
manipulation of the social and the natu-
ral World through esoteric means).
II. LOOKING AT THE WORLD GEOGRAPHI-
CALLY, each of the areas first treats its an-
thropological whole from early to contempo-
rary times emphasizing the interchanges of
peoples and cullures and then selects one or
more particular problems which are central to
the study of the area. (The seven points of view
were seiected for freshness and promise of
international interdisciplinary interchange.)
D. The Circumpolar Regions, from the icecap
through tundra and taiga.
1 1 . General Anthropology.
12. Mans Adaptability to New and Difficult
Environments. — Including the first peo-
pling of and dispersion throughout the
Americas.
E. The Pacific Rim, from Japan and the main-
land northern coasts of Asia through the
Aleutians and Alaska and including the
mountains south to Tierra del Fuego.
13. General Anthropology.
14. Maritime Anthropology and Mans Relations
with the Sea.
15. Communications Along a Cordillera.
— Compared with relations to the plains
on one side and the sea on the other.
F. Asian - African Hot and Gold Desert and
Steppe, a belt comprising northern and
eastern Africa, the Middle East, and
Central Asia.
16. General Anthropology.
17. Relations Between Sedentary and Nomadic
Lifeways in the Context of Modernization.
G. The Indian Ocean Areas, including Mada-
gascar, the eastern seaboard of southern
Africa, the South Asian plains, and
Southeast Asia through Malaysia.
18. General Anthropology.
19. The Comparative Study of Post-Colonial
"New Nations."
H. Ghina to the Antipodes, includes the main-
land and.Oceanic peoples and cultures.
20. General Anthropology.
21. The Contrast of China as a ''Mother" Cul-
ture with Island Cultures as Historie Recep-
tors. — Using as examples the close Philip-
pines and relaiively isolated New
Guinea.
I. Europe, from the North Pole to the Mediter-
ranean and from the Urals to the Atlan-
tic.
22. General Anthropology.
23. Urbanization as a Central Historie Process.
J. The Atlantic, from the eastern shores of the
American continents east to the Europe-
an maritime nations and south along the
western shores of Europe and Africa.
24. The Afro- European Littoral. — Emphasiz-
ing north-south interrelations from ear-
liest times uniil 1500 a.d.
25. The South-Middle-North American Littor-
al.— Emphasizing north-south interrela-
tions from earliest times until 1500 a.d.
26. Northern Maritime Europeans (from both
shores) and the Development of an Interna-
tional Plantation Economy. — With its mov-
ing of populations from east to west thus
stimulating the emergence of new cul-
tures after 1500 a.d.
III. A & E SCIENCES: PROFESSIONAL CON-
CERNS, the intellectual enterprise of the
human sciences, including: philosophical and
methodological bases in relation to other fields
of knowledge; changing research methods and
techni(|ues; problems of communication be-
tween specialties and with other scholars and
the public; and worldwide problems of in-
formation control, of relating to political pow-
ers and the general public. It is here that all
methodological arguments within the dis-
cipline of "how scientists uncover knowledge"
are focused.
K. Theoretical Perspectives
27. Alternative Theoretical Orientations. — Re-
(juired for analysis of differences in eco-
nomic and socio-political development,
involving discussion of past and present
evolutionary and revolutionary changes.
28. Anthropology of Complex Societies. — Con-
cepts and methods retjuired in the study
of "macro-societies" in all their cultural
Vol. 13 ■ No. 3-4 • June-October 1972
499
compicxity; and ihc relalionships be-
tween "great" traditions and bciwecn
"great" traditions and "small" traditions.
29. Current Theories, Methods, and Techniques
of Research. — In biological anthropology,
cultural anthropology, archeology and
prchistory, and linguistics.
L. Data Storage and Retrieval
30. Bibliographie Resources, Museology, Car-
tography, and Visual-Aural Anthropology
M. History and Future of Anthropological Sci-
ences. I hc following arc vicvvcd in his-
lorical perspective:
3 1 . Ways of Overcoming Centrifugal Tenden-
cies. — Due to increasingly specialized
knou'ledge.
32. Difflculties of Communication. — Across
disciplines and across linguistic cultural
and national boundaries. Included are
Problems of iraining and establishing
ethical nornis on a worldwide scale.
IV. A & E SCIENCES: SOCIAL CONCERNS, the
uses of knowledge of the human sciences at all
levels — from deeper understanding to assis-
tance in solving specific social problems. On
the one band there is consideration of three
Problems affecting the species vvith varying
interpretations of their nature and possible
outcomes. On the other band there are the
specific Problems of modern urban societies, as
exemplified in selected cases in "aspects of
social life."
N. Species Problems seen in the broadest per-
spective
33. Population and Technological Increase.
— On a limited planet.
34. Colonialism, Power- Abuse, and War.
35. Systems of Injustice and Discrimination.
O. The Fates of Indigenous and Minority Peo-
ples seen throughout history by histori-
ans, anthropologists, and the survivors
themselves
36. Possibilities and Prospects of Cultural Plur-
alism. — Kxisting in an industrial age.
P. Aspects of Social Life, contributions of an-
thropological perspectives for under-
standing and improving
37. Mental and Physical Health.
38. Nutrition.
39. Reproductive and Early Childhood Behavior.
40. Kducation.
41. Lrban Life.
Q.The Future of the Species
42. I he Future. — As seen in the context of its
past.
Membership Fees and Payment: Payment of the fees
is accepted now .
US $25 for each Subscribing Institution. An Institution
paying this fee receives a copy of the Pro-
ceedings.
US $25 for each litular Member. 4 bis membership
fee entitles one to submit a communication;
receive a limited number of abstracts and
papers in advance of the Congress; partici-
pate in Research and General Sessions; re-
ceive a free copy of the Proceedings; receive
a post-Congress discount on all publications.
US $15 for each Associate Member. llie Associate
Member is a family member or an assistant
accompanving a " I itular Member." Payment
of the fee entitles an Associate Member to
Privileges during the Congress in Chicago.
US $15 for each Student Member. 4 bis membership
category is available for those who are stu-
dents at the time of the Congress and entitles
them to Privileges during the Congress and a
copy of the Proceedings. A Student should
register as a " I itular Member" if he wishes to
receive advance abstracts and papers and
post-C'ongress publication benefits.
Travel and Subsistence Expenses: It is assumed that
every regist rant pays bis own expenses, and indeed
established scholars usually obtain funds from their
institutions, and their own resources. 1 he Organizing
Committee is seeking funds to assist scholars from
outside the United States, particularly younger scho-
lars and those from the moredistant points, toattend
the Congress. We do not yet knovv the extent to which
help will be available, and we must distribute it widely
and wisely. Registrants who think the\ will need some
financial support should write at once to the Congress
office, providing information about their own and
institutional resources and a calculation of the subsidy
thev might need. 4he following information will
make this possible. A minimum estimate for food,
lodging, and incidentals in Chicago is $30 per day.
($360 for the entire 12 days of the Congress, includ-
ing both research and general sessions.) We hope to
reduce travel cosls for all by arranging charter or
group flights from the following cities:
London New Delhi Lima
Plague Svdney Caracas
Athens I okyo Mexico City
Naii obi Rio de Janeiro Lagos
Please teil us from which city you are likely todepart.
4 he examples of approximate round trip air fares
listed below are for illustrative purposes only, since
commitmenis have not yet been made.
4ourist Lxcursion C^roup Charter
London $674 $499 $360 $215
New Delhi $1,402 $1,337 $891 $556
It will be possible to achieve these economies only if
all those Coming from outside North America will
plan to use the charter or group flights as arranged.
I he savings should make up for the additional cost of
subsistence for the extra days in Chicago. The flights
will be scheduled to arrive in Chicago on M onday,
August 27, and to depart on Sunday, September 9.
Further information will be sent to registrants as
plans become more definite.
Address all commimications to: International Con-
gress of Anthropological and Kthnological Sciences,
1 126 Last 59th Street, Chicago, Illinois 60637, U.S.A.
Sol I ax, President
500
C l R R F. N r A N r H R () V () I. () (i V
INFORMATION FOR AUTHORS
Written Communications to thc IXth Congrcss are due in Chicago by
/ November 1972. These Communications will not be read aloud at the Con-
gress, but will be availablc to all members before and during the Congress.
They will be discussed in appropriate sessions of the Congress. These discus-
sions will have simultaneous translation into fivc (5) languages: English,
French, German, Russian and Spanish.
All papers will be reproduced in English. Papers submitted in French,
German, Portuguese and Spanish will be accepted and reproduced in the original
language as well as in English. (If possible the English translation should
accompany the original manuscript.)
Members submitting papers in any languages other than French, German.
Portuguese and Spanish must submit the original and an English translation. In
these cases, only the English translation will be reproduced.
An abstract should accompany each paper. Each abstract will be repro-
duced on a small sheet of paper for airmail distribution and must be limited
to 200 words. Underline a maximum of 10 key words (including important
concepts, geographic areas, tribes, languages etc.) by which your paper will
be indexed.
FoUowing the November Ist deadline, an INDEX to subject-matter will be
prepared (using the key words described above) and distributed to Congress
registrants, to enable them to order a limited number of abstracts and completed
papers.
All written Communications submitted in English, French, German, Portu-
guese and Spanish will be reproduced by photo-ofTset as they are received and
without re-typing, Every author must make his copy as legible as possible.
We ask therefore, that you follow the Instructions below in the preparation of
your manuscript.
1. Type double-spaced on one side of white paper.
2. The typewriter should have clean type and a good ribbon.
3. Leave adequate margins.
4. Tyj)e your last name and Initials on the top of every page.
5. Number the pages consecutively.
6. Footnotes, numbered in sequence throughout the paper, should be
gathered together at the end.
7. References should be citcd parenthetically in the text as per example
(Malinowski, 1940, pp. 70-90).
8. All references cited should be listed alphabetically by author at the end
of the paper.
9. Follow the bibliographic style used in CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY.
(See examples below)
a. Example of a Journal article:
SAPIR, EDWARD. Culture, genuine and spurious. American
Journal of Sociology 24: 410-12.
Note that: — there is a period, not a comma. aftcr thc author's name.
— there is a period after the date.
— only the first word of the title (as well as proper nouns)
should be capitalized.
— there are no Quotation marks or italics.
— the füll name of the Journal is underlined; that there is
no punctuation after the Journal; that only volume
number and page numbers are included, separated by a
Colon and followed by a period.
b. Example of a book:
RACE. R.R. and R. SANGER. 1962 4th edition. Blood groups in
man. Oxford: Blackwells.
Note that: — the first author's name has the surname first.
— the second author's name has the surname last.
— there is a period, not a comma, after the author's name.
— the title of the book is underlined; that only the first
word of the title (as well as proper nouns) should be
capitalized.
— the title of the book is followed by a period.
— the city where published appears first, then the pub-
lisher, separated by a colon.
c. Example of a seclion of a book:
POLLITZER. R., and F.F. MEYER. 1961 "The ecology of
plague," in Studies in disease ecology. Edited by J.M. May,
pp. 4.13-501. New York: Hafner.
Note that: — the first author's name has the surname first.
— the second author's name has the surname last.
— the title of the section of the book is listed in Quotation
marks, followed by a comma.
— the title of the book is underlined and followed by a
period.
— the city where published appears first, then the pub-
lisher separated by a colon.
For further examples consult any recent issue of CURRENT ANTHRO-
POLOGY.
10. Tables and drawinps should be made in black India ink only; num-
bered clearlv; provided with captions; cited in the text; and grouped
together at the end of the paper Photographs must be black-and-white
of Sharp Quality; include no color prints; scales where relevant should
be indicated on the photograph itself or in the caption.
1 1 . Abstracts should be typed single-snaced on a separate sheet of paper
and limited to 200 words. Include your name the title of the paper and
underline a maximum of 10 key words by which the paper will be
indexed.
Notes on New Books
■ Human Sexual Inadequacy, by W. N.
Masters and V. E. Johnson (Boston:
Little, Brown, 1970) icpresents a
major brcakthrough in the field of the
intcraction of biology and culture. It
throws lighl on Dollard's frustration-
aggression hypolhesis, on the postii-
lates of Freud, Rank, and Mead, on
violence, on differenlial fertility,
on demographic planning — in short,
on practically all aspects of that broad
Segment of human behaviour that has
to do with sex. Further, il provides
concrete and valid answers to Prob-
lems that are not much talked aboui,
but very important in people's lives,
such as premature ejaculation, secon-
dary impotence, clitoris caressing and
lubrication, oral and anal practices,
etc. By focusing on the couple, and not
on the male or the female as has been
done in all previous studies, the
authors have achieved scientific insighi
into what was formerly mystery, leg-
end, or erroneous hypolhesis.
Physical anlhropology has long
awaited such a breakhrough. Watson
and Crick's research of almosl iwo
decades ago greatly changed the ap-
proach and scope of physical anlhro-
pology. Simpson's and Mayr's work,
showing that anatomical traits can only
be understood in terms of behavioural
studies of man and other primates,
and the work of Washburn, Benoist,
Hiernaux, and others on human bi-
ology as a function of ecology have
had a positive but lesser effect. Physical
anlhropology continues to be the
study of human biological Variation
mainly in terms of biologically ex-
plained variants. Since sexual behav-
iour has little to do with penis or
vagina size, physical anthropological
studies of it have been totally lacking,
and at the same time research inieresl
in the subject on the pari of human
biologists has been virtually nonexis-
tent. ^ Fieud's work, dealing with the
psychological rather than the physical,
has remained outside our interest and
beyond our understanding. Kinsey's
research, though its iinportance was
recognized by individuals, was seen as
too descriptive by a profession shifting
from the study of the relation be-
iween, for example, nose breadth and
plaiymeria to more sophisticaied, but
somelimes e(|ually unjustified, genetic
comparisons.
' In my annotatcd bibliography (Gc-
noves 1%:^) I was only ablc to lisl 6 studies
(of a total of 744) dealing with sex and sex
ratio cai ried oiit in 1963 and recognized by
the field.
Maretl used to begin a lecture by
saying, "Anlhropology is the science of
man [pause] embracing woman." The
study of this embracing is essential for
those of US who do research on the
evolution and survival of the species.
Moreover, sexual behavioin , pervaded
by iradition and showing wide cullural
Variation, offers an unparalleled C3p-
portunity to study how biology and
culture interact. Lei us hope that
physical anthropologists, particulai-
ly well-ec|uipped inethodologically as
well as technically to follow up Maslers
and Johnson's ferlile apprc:)aches to
the understanding of a broad segment
of our field of research, will apply
themselves to the task.
Santiago Genoves
Mexico, D.F., Mexico
References Cited
Gknoves, S. 1963. "Studies and advances in
physical anlhropology during 1963," in
Yearbook of physical anthropolopy. Kdited
by J. Kelso, G. Lasker, an(l S. Y. Brooks,
vol. 2, pp. 1-100. Mexico: Instiluio Na-
tional de Antropologia e Historia and
Universidad National Autönoma de
Mexico.
Vol. 13- No. 3-4 • June-Odober 1972
501
Our Readers Write (continued from p. 346)
CA's most important Service is thc Provi-
sion of an international forum on sig-
nificant issucs. Ihc coninicnts on ar-
ticles arc often morc valuablc ihan the
articics. Space should be alloited wiih
this in mind.
Simon D. Mlssin(;
New Haven, Conn., U.S.A.
CA^ articles and letters are all I evcr
really pay miich attention to in CA. I
ihink the other stuff could be cut out.
The niore general kinds of review and
discussion articles are most consistent
wilh the raison d'etre of CA. The
directories are useful but perhaps
could be sold separalely.
David G. Epsthin
Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.A.
On quality control to reduce the mass of
published material in CA: One of the
most interesting and valuable features
of CA is that in reading it one is
exposed to schools of thought in an-
thropology that are not necessarily
very common in one's parochial tradi-
tion. This is especially true for readers
vvhose native language or principal
scholarly milieu is English. I suspect
that most Hungarians are familiär
uith ihe anthropology of the English-
speaking world, but those of us w ho do
not usually read Journals in languages
other than English are (]uite un-
familiar with Hungarian anthropology
except as \ve are exposed to it through
CA and a few other Journals. There-
fore, particularly in the case of arti-
cles by writers oulside the English-
speaking world, it would be advisable
to have the readers who recommend
publication or nonpublication come
from the traditions concerned, so that
an artide by a Japanese or a Soviel
anthropologist will be to some small
extent representative of what is ac-
ceptable and sensible in the context of
Japanese or Soviet anthropologv in
general.
David K. Jordan
La Jolla, Calif., U.S.A.
Lists of people to whom free books have
been sent and from whom reply letters
have been received are surely a waste
of money — of which CA is short.
H. Nkvillk Chittick
Nairobi, Kenya
On Köbben's letter {CA 12:417): I am in
agreement with his suggestions as to
policy changes. As an American an-
thropologist, I too am amazed! If ma-
jority reaction does not support the
suggested restrictions, I will be content
to tolerate personally nonielevant ma-
lerials out of respect for the need of
502
colleagues aroimd the world. Other-
wise, let's save funds and scrvc reader-
ship needs.
William W. Stein
Buffalo, N.Y., U.S.A.
Contrary to Köbben's Suggestion (CA
12:417), I strongly feel, as a profes-
sional anthropologist, that physical an-
thropology, linguislics, and archaeolo-
gy shoiild not be excluded from the
purview of CA.
Pranab Gan(;l'ly
Calcutia, India
I would like more articles on physical
anthropology, especially (a) an occa-
sional survey of body development in
connection with enviionment, particu-
laily in underdeveloped coiuitries,
and (b) short repoi ts on current paleo-
anlhropological discoveries. We also
nccd standardization in ontogenetic
research for a better evaluation of the
published data; for this purpose, dis-
cussion among anthropologists and
statisticians would be very useful.
JözLF Glinka
Suiabaja, Indonesia
1 he fewer papers in the style of Magu-
bane's (CA 12:419-30) the better.
Mich FL Panoff
Canberra, Australia
CA has become the only anthropologi-
cal Journal I look foi ward to receiving
and reading. It maintains, for the most
part, a good balance between im-
portance, relevance, and substance.
The CA'w' review still retains a high
degree of interest for me. Discussions
such as those between Magubane and
Van den Berghe (see CA 12:438,
441-43), while bitter, are nevertheless
impoi tant and should not be suppres-
sed in the interest of "dispassionate
research."
I would like to suggest that greaier
attention and several articles be de-
voted to the fate of the peoples of
Indo-(^hina. The AAAS research into
the effects of herbicides and chemicals
lipon Indo-(]hina was very important.
It is time that anthropologists devoted
more effort and attenticjn to the peo-
ples, particularly of Laos and Cambo-
dia.
William Dfrman
East Lansing, Mich., U.S.A.
Associates Suggest Articles
I suggested some time ago in CA a
review article to discuss changing pat-
terns of kinship and marriage in the
"Arab world" in response to local,
national, and international economic
and political change. May I repeat this
Suggestion? The Middle East appears
somewhat neglecled.
J. D. Seddon
London, England
[Suggestions are printcd lo encoinage ap-
propriaic people to submit uanied articles
to CA. Whcn a Suggestion includes the
nanie of a prospective author, he is ap-
prised of this at once; ihe letter is ihen
printcd for general information and to en-
courage interested volunteers. — Editor.]
I suggest a leview article or group
presentation of ideas on anthropology
and enviionmental pioblems. I'm
working in this field myself and would
like to take part.
Thomas J. Maloney
Ripon, Wis., U.S.A.
1 would strongly recommend the
tianslation and publication of "Or-
ganisation de l'ethnologie en France
en 1969," bv Veroni(jue Campion-
Vincent (L'Homme 1()[3]: 106-24).
Analogous articles on the oiganization
of anthropology (or some of its
bianches) in other countries would
also be very welcome.
William V. Dessaint
Coleraine, North Ireland
[CA policv, based on the responses of As-
sociates— sec CA 1:306 and Letter to As-
sociates No. 5 — has been to limit reprinting
to materials in languages that are not wide-
ly undersiood, and French does not (lualify
as one of these. — Editor.]
I would like to see a study of socializa-
lion that takes into account the in-
Huence of culture, geography, history
on the observer's own education. Is
such a study possible?
Jose Rafael Arboleda
Bogota, Colombia
A review article on the major projec-
tive techni(jues used in cross-cultural
reseaich would be welcome.
Jon D. Swartz
Austin, lex., U.S.A.
Farmer's Suggestion (CA 12:146) of a
typology of grinding implements of
the Middle East has my endorsement.
Studies of the food-grinding methods
and resulting stone forms in Australia,
New Guinea, and Souiheast Asia
might permit belter undersianding of
the Middle Lastern archaeology of
such implements.
Norman B. Tindale
Blackwood, Australia
current anthropology
Views on Proposais for Enlarging the CA Community
In Leiter lo Associates No. 56, As-
sociates were asked lo consider a
"levoluiionary" measure aiiiiecl al
reducing ihe cosl of the Journal and
thus coniribiiting lo ils survival:
Wc have long feit pressure lo expand ihe
idea of (>A lo scholars in related fields. VVe
have bioiogists, geographers, historians,
sotiologisls, econoinists, poiitical scientisls,
and oihers among our Associates. But they
are feu in number. At one lime we estab-
lished a category of "Associates of As-
sociates" to make pariicipation easier for
scieniists in other disciplines. If ue again
simplify talegories and invile related schol-
ars at all our "edges," we mighl add greatly
to our readership; and in the long run not
only be niore useful i)ui be economicallv
beller off. One uay lo do this is lo eni-
phasize "The Sciences of Man" rather ihan
"Anihropology" in our tiile. It has been
suggested ihai we tould change the naine
easily lo CA: A World Journal of the Sciences
of Man. Ihe word "anihropology" iiself
does noi evervwhere siand for an inlegrai-
ed sei of disciplines; and afier ten years
"CA" may have achieved ihe necessary
symbolic and anibiguous significance to
permii universal accepiance. VVe shouk)
also open again the matter of the words
which have appeared around the synibol on
the Cover: "Prehistoiy, Archaeology, Lin-
guistics, Folklore, F.ihnology, Social An-
ihropology, Physical Anihropology." These
words received considerable discussion in
our first year (CA 1:260 and 1:354). Ihe
first responses to a (|uestion as to ihe ap-
propriateness of these terms were so nega-
tive and produced so liitle agreement on
alternatives ihat I suggested (LT A No. 4,
May i960) ihat "the best Solution mav be lo
drop such names. Ihis Solution, or the
alternative [suggested bv the leadersj ot
using a proverb or moito insiead, is
attractive, and we mav in a few years come
lo thai as we come to agree upon the
tomposition of our subjecl matter. Ihe
best compromise seems to be lo general-
ize the traditional subdiseiplines; and my
own lentative suggeslion is to Substitute
for the names now on the symbol the terms
'Cultural, Social, Histoiical, Biological
Anihropology.'" When the responses to
this were unfavorable, I had to lespond
(LIA No. 6, September-November 1960)
ihat "ihere is no clear mandate to move in
any direction, so for ihe lime being we shall
leave the symbol as it is." Now, len years
laier, I hope thai Associates will take a fiesh
look at the (|uestion. Mighl we not omit all
names around the familiär CA map? Mighl
we encourage an enlargemeni of our Com-
munity by reducing "ctRRKNT anthro-
poLO(;v" lo "(]A" so as lo stress ihe subtitle
"A World Journal of the Sciences of Man"?
(Reply Letter, Ilem 4.)
Of the 273 Reply Leiieis returned,
214 included conimenls on ihe pro-
posed change of naine: 80 were for it
and 134 against. A closer look al the
responses shows, however, ihal the
Vol. 13 ■ No. 3-4 ■ June-October 1972
change of emphasis behind the naine-
change has niany respondenls' ap-
proval: of ihose who voied against ihe
nanie-change, 17 said thai ihe em-
phasis could be changed wiihoul
changing ihe naine, and 14 oihers
eil her suggested ivpogiaphic aids lo
accomplishing this oi offered alterna-
tive new, broad lilles. In addilion, 28
gave as reasons foi iheir "no" voles
objeclions lo the name iiself or lo ihe
idea of changing names of Journals in
general. If the former 31 aie con-
sidered pari of the group favoring a
change in emphasis, the vole may be
read as 108 for change and 100
against; and ihe "against" figure ma)
conceal soine simple rejeclions of ihe
name-change in iiself. (Only 30 le-
spondents argued specifically against
broadening CA's scope.)
Arguments against the name-
change have to do wiih bibliographic
difficuliies and wiih ihe ambiguilv of
ihe abbrevialion "CA":
VVhy not leave the naine as it is? We should
not succumb to ihe mania for abbieviations
thai no one undersiands. Besides, the
change poses serious bibliogiaphic prob-
lems. (Ciermany)
I do not like turning the name into a touple
of letiers. A Journal should have a füll title
to show whal it is about. Moreover, a
change to "C^A" is going to make library
caialoguers tear their hair. (South Afi ica)
The title seems all right to ine as it is.
"Anthiopology," in the sense in which it is
used in CA, is "science of man." What is the
problem? (Peru)
Ihe change could bring us tiouble, for in
the Soviel Union "CA" is the usual ab-
brevialion for Soviet Archaeology. Besides, it
Sounds Strange. It isn't the name t hat's
important, but ihe conients. (U.S.S.R.)
I here aie too many "science of man" Jour-
nals wiih ambiguous lilles alreadv! (U.S.A.)
"CA" alone on a bibliography or lisi of
1 eferences would be obscure, especially for
nonanthiopologisis. (U.S.A.)
Whal is the use of changing a füll title into
an abbrevialit)n with the same meaning?
Ihe subtitle gives sufhcient stress to whal is
meani by "anihropology." ((iermany)
"CA" has already been laken over by char-
tered accounianis. (Canada)
"CA" is the generally recognized abbrevia-
lion for Carcinoma or Cancer — is this ap-
propiiate for ciRRKNr anthrofolücv?
(U.S.A.)
In Iialian and Spanish, "CA" happens lo be
the initial symbol of e(|uivalenls of "four-
letter words" — better stick to "currknt
ANTHR()i'oi.()(.v"! (Italy)
I am definitely against d change of name. A
World Journal should be the last to express
ils essence in an algebraic formula of dete-
rioraiing civilization. Nor should Journals
of Standing change their names al all. An
ediior of Paideuma iried to do so; afier bis
deaih, the Journal received ils old, dis-
carded name again. Videant consules!
(Sweden)
Several other respondenls argued ihal
noihing would be accomplished simply
by changing ihe name in any case.
Typographie ways of bioadening
ihe appeal of the Journal wiihoul
changing the name were suggested by
some respondenls:
I am not in favor of dropping the spelled-
out "Anihropology"— but there mighl be
some value in enlarging the subtitle so ihal
it Catches ihe eye more. (U.S.A.)
I am alwavs against changing names, excepl
linder sirong pressure. "CA" would be one
more faceless affront in a world of initials.
(I have always ihoughi PMLA a hideosity,
especialh for literary scholars.) Why not
just prinl in bolder type "A World Journal
of ihe Sciences of Man"? (U.S.A.)
To reduce "current an thropoi.oc.v" to
"CA" is lo reduce il to a meani ngless
acronym. By all means stress the subtitle,
but do so by changing the typographical
design. (U.S.A.)
Extending the scope of the Journal
wiihoul doing anvthing lo ils name
was advocaied by many:
I consider ihat the name should not be
changed. We can and should open our
doors to related disciplines, but CA should
not change hands. If an anthropologisl
wams to coniribute to the American Psychol-
ogist or the American Journal of Medicine, he
is welcome, bui neiiher profession would
consider changing the name of ils Journal
— and right ly so. (Canada)
"CA" does not mean anylhing! "cirrent
anthropolo(;v" does — so do not leduce it.
By all means adinit bioiogists, geogiaphers,
historians, etc., as long as their works are in
some way related to "anihropology" in ihe
American sense of the woid. (Mexico)
II seems to me ihat scholars in other dis-
ciplines should be able to contribiüe to a
Journal on anihropology without undue
embanassment, and ihat any change of
name would be largely subjective in its
effecis. (U.S.A.)
Perhaps because I am getling old, I do not
like initials — there are so many setsof them
in use thai I cannot remembei what theV
mean. But I am all in favoui of extending
the scope of CA to covei all human sci-
ences, and I do realize that in some coim-
iries and languages "anihropology" does
not Cover all these. So expand scope, but
prefeiablv not bv forgeiling ihe origin of
the leiters"CA." (Kngland)'
503
"CA" is not sufficient as a title. Covcrage
can be expanded regardless of the jomnars
name. (Austria)
Let's keep "current anthropology," and
extend outward from there. (Mexico)
Alternative new litles — World Journal
of the Sciences of Man, World Journal of
Human Ecology, World Anthropology,
Current World Anthropology — weie also
suggested, and seveial respondenisof-
fered modifications of ihc subtil le — A
World Journal of the Science of Man, A
World Journal for the Sci( nces of Man,
A World Journal for the Human Sciences,
A World Journal of Anthropological Sci-
ences. At least the last of these sugges-
tions must perhaps be considered a
vote against broadening the scope of
the Journal:
It was a neo-encytlopedic error to in-
troduce, in a general sense, the term and
concept of "anthropology" into the Anglo-
Saxon countries and to abolish the in-
dependent activities and evolution of many
human sciences. It is a bigger error to try to
impose this concept on the rest of the
World, wheie "anthropology" simply means
"physical anthropology." It is more projDer
to speak of "anthropological sciences." Fur-
ther, it is absurd to dehne this so-called
anthropology as "the" science of man, as
the majority of American textbooks do. Are
there no other sciences, such as medicine,
pharmacy, law, economics, public adminis-
tralion, educaiion, history, etc., that could
be classified as "sciences of man"? Either we
must classify the greatest part of the sci-
ences of the World as "anthropology" or be
logical and free the anthropological sci-
ences from the "science of man" fallacy. I
suggest retaining the present title but sub-
stituting the subtitle "A World Journal of
Anthropological Sciences. " (Fi ance)
A number of respondents argued that
CA's coverage is broad enough — and
some Said too broad — already:
Stay wiih "current anthropoloc;y" —
there are too many "sciences of man" to try
to be all ihings to all scientists. (U.S.A.)
I am not certain that the idea of expanding
coverage too much is a good one. CA
should try to reach more readers within the
ränge of its present interests. (Israel)
I feel sure that more would be lost than
gained in obscuring the "anthropology"
emphasis. Whatever strength this term and
integrative entity does have, in many insti-
tutions, would be in danger of dissipation
through wider and (even) fuzzier focus. As
things are, nonanthropologists may indeed
continue to be welcomed for vigorous par-
ticipalion — but keep the center of gravily
anthropological! (Canada)
I would be disappointed to see the scope of
CA broadened more than it is. Ihe variety
of subjects already eligible for inclusion in
CA is very great, so that Associates continue
to clamor for articies in which they have an
interest. Broadening the guidelines would
only make this problem more acute. It
would also threaten CA, if the price is to go
up, foi readers to have less chance of
finding articies on topics they are interesied
in. (Mexico)
"Anthropology" in the Anglo-Saxon mean-
ing is broad enough. (Denmark)
By further extending the very wide cover-
age of current anthropolo(;y to any of
the sciences of man, the Journal may in the
end lose its usefulness. The Journal should
concentrate on review articies with good
bibliographies on fields of interest to most
of its present readers. (Germany)
I prefer "current anthropology" to "CA"
because anthropology is a broad field
covering various subfields and has always
been a science of man. What with recent
specialization and diversification in the
field, it is already difficult to keep up with
subfields other than one's own. I am reluc-
tant to broaden the coverage of the Journal
beyond anthropology. (Japan)
The "Sciences of Man" include medicine,
physiology, psy'chology, sociology, political
science, economics, and some aspects of
education, history, classics, etc. I still opt for
the present focus on anthropology, with
various "Associates of Associates" repre-
senting related disciplines. To open it up
could easily inundate the cross-cultural
viewpoint so valuable at present. (U.S.A.)
"Anthropology" is suflficiently "holistic" to
umbrella the other fields. I feel that to
broaden would tend to dilute. (U.S.A.)
I would prefer to keep the name as it is,
because the term "anthropology" seems to
ine sufficiently broad to include a vast array
of related and/or ancillary disciplines. "Sci-
ences of man" has, in our academic tiadi-
tion anyway, a diffeient, and too vague,
meaning. (Belgium)
To extend the scope runs the risk of too
much dilution of interest. We may become
all "fringe" and no "core"! (England)
In the light of these views, the remarks
of some of those who strongly favor
extension of CA's scope are of interest:
I feel that CA performs an important func-
tion in counteracting the tiend towards
specialization. Giving the Journal even
wider (theoretical) scope by changing the
title is, I think, in accord with CA policy,
and if it helps to increase synthesis, all the
better. (Austialia)
We can only benefit by allowing greater
participation from other disciplines.
(U.S.A.)
If by the inclusion of biologists, ge-
ographers, historians, sociologists, and oth-
eis the number of subsciibers can be in-
creased and CA's survival assured, these
other scientists should be invited to join;
but the Editor will have lo be doubly careful
in the selection of papers for publication if
CA is not to lose its chaiacter as an anthropo-
logical ]inivnd\. (India)
As a geographer, I'm not especially put off
by associating with anthrojxjlogy (indeed, it
is often preferable), but if it will encourage
wider participation in an extremely lively
academic Journal and thereby strengthen
its economic base as well, then change the
title. The suggested title is very appropriate
as we enter the age of concern for human
survival. (U.S.A.)
I strongly support emphasis on "Sciences of
Man." First, all Associates have the study of
man as a common goal; second, distinction
between the differeni fields will become
more and more hazardous, even with spe-
cialization; and third, "Sciences of Man" is
open to eventual new disciplines. Theie-
fore the new title seems indicated; enlarg-
ing the Community can only be of great
Utility to everybody. (Belgium)
Isn't "the Sciences of Man" in line with a
irend, visible in most sciences today,
towards iniegration of the many specialties
into a holistic scientific symbiosis? "The
Sciences of Man," then, could eventually
lead to "the Science of Man" (cf. Laura
Thompson, CA 8:67-77). Hasn't the cata-
strophic contamination of air, water, and
soil demonstrated the bankrupicy of our
highly specialized sciences? (Norway)
The wide geographic spread of opin-
ions on both sides of the issue that is
observable in the (|uotations above is
borne out by detailed examination of
the responses from this point of vievv.
There were 96 responses from ihe
U.S.A. and 118 from other countries;
the vote on the name-change proposal
is U.S.A. 40 for, 55 against, other
countries 40 for, 79 against, and the
vote on extending the scope withoul
changing the name is U.S.A. 52 for, 51
against, other countries 56 for, 49
against. Thus it seems that enthusiasm
for broadening the coverage of the
Journal is more or less independent of
whether "anthropology" is defined in
U.S. or other terms.
On the companion proposal todrop
the words surrounding the map sym-
bcil on the cover, somewhat fewer re-
spondents (166) had comments; 59
were in favor of dic3pping the words
and 59 in favor of leaving them as they
are, while 48 made alternative sugges-
tions. Two Associates (Sweden, Italy)
remarked that the words should be
omitted because they represent a spe-
cifically American understanding of
"anthropology," and from this one
might expect that respondents from
outside the U.S.A. would prove readi-
er to abandon them. In fact, the re-
verse seems to be the case: a greater
Proportion of respondents from other
countries — 37 out of 85, in contrast to
22 out of 81 for the U.S.A. — voied to
leave the words alone. Ihe reasons for
this difference are not apparent.
Where respondents elaborated on
their rejection of ihe proposal to drop
the names aliogether, they said ihings
like the foUowing:
504
current anthropology
The names shoiild bo rciaincd so as lo
maintain thc idcniiiy and individualiiy of
anthropology. (India)
Sincc by iniplication "scicnccs of man" in-
cludes economics, psychology, and cven
history — which, though langcntial, arc oiii-
side the scope of anthropology — I would
like the woids that embrace the world map
to remain as they are. (L'.S.A.)
Leave them as they are! (ieneialh speak-
ing, make thanges only uhere it is absolute-
ly unavoidable, e.g., for economic reasons.
(Sweden)
The terms should not be changed. New
terms iisually introduce thaos. (Poland)
Changing the first page in any way repre-
sents important costs. Aren't we talking
aboiit eeonomy and financial (hfficuhies?
(Canada)
1 vote for no change. These uords are a
good explanatory devite — and a leinforce-
ment. (Canada)
It will be in our interest to retain the names
around the map. Omission of them may
make the Journal rather too general. l'lti-
mately it suggests a sori of drift away from
the anthropological subdisciplines. (India)
The words arountl the m.ip svmbol miist
remain the same, in order that a delimita-
tion from soeiology, economics, historv, etc.
may be possible. (Romania)
The present words are the best known in-
ternationally. (Austria)
Symbols shoiild not altered. Psvchologicallv
they engender familiarity and loyalty. I'hey
are visibly expressed consiructs represent-
ing basic contents that have been accepted.
To name the subdisciplines as has been
done since the beginning is the best Solu-
tion. (Australia)
rhe words at least set certain limits to the
global tendencies of anihiopology. Ihe
map with C;.\ printecl on it will make no
sense whatsoever. ((iermans)
Significantly ciioiigh, 12 of ihosc whcj
voied lo rciain thc words around the
map Symbol at thc samc timc ap-
proved ihe reduciion of thc title lo
"CA"; ihe appareiii iiiconsisieiuy here
puls iheir previous responses in a neu
lighi.
Allernalives suggesied include pui-
ling ihe subiiile around ihe map (11
responses) or arranging ihe uhole liile
around it (3); subsiiluiing the sei of
words earlier suggesied by ihe Edi-
tor— "Culiural, Social, Hisiorical, Bio-
logical Anihiopology" (7); using a
moito insiead — and one suggesied by
several respondenis is Terence's "Nihil
humani a me alienum pulo" (6); find-
ing some new , broader sei of terms to
refleci the broadened scope (4); and
eliminaiing not only the words, bul ihe
Symbol iiself (2). Olher suggeslions are
ihe following:
Why not lump piehistoi v and archaeology
into "culture history," change "lingiiistics"
and "folklore" to "Cognition" and "expres-
sive culture," and sneak the woid "ethnog-
raphy" in somewhere? I especially miss the
latter term, foi it is what so manv of ns do
that distinguishes us fiom othei disciplines.
(U.S.A.)
Alternatives (assuming that is meaningfiil
to retain the map at all!) might include
eithei (1) the word "man," repeated in each
of the langnages in which the policv State-
ment appears from time to time; (2) "man:
biological, hisiorical, cultural, social."
(U.S.A.)
"Interrelationships of man-culture and
physical environment." (L'.S.A.)
"Archaeologv" and "prehistoiy" aie diipli-
cate teinis, at this level of consideration;
some Substitute might add to the scope.
How about "C-oinpaiative cultural, social,
biological, political, economic, histoiical,
etc." or "Comparative sociologv, political
science, economics, cultural geography,
etc."? (U.S.A.)
"Culture Societv History Biolog\ Humani-
t\" — tianslated foi each issue into the lan-
guage of the inside front covei . (L'.S.A.)
One respondenl suggesied leplacing
"phvsical anthropology" uiih "human
biology"; one reconmiended adding
"historv" (in bis view "the oldest sci-
ence of man"); one would add "cul-
iural" lo ihe lisl as il nou Stands.
Views on the Titling of Letters and Comments
The April 1971 issue induded a minor
slvlislic Innovation foi C>A, the "titling"
of lellers to the Kditor by ihe use of
iialics for ihe fiisl few words. I he
change was made, provisionalh , in re-
sponse lo a recjuesl from Leo S. Klejn
(see CA 12:170) for somelhing that
would make ii easier to refer lo lellers
when ciiing them elsewhere and easier
to find them for reexaminaiion. In
discussing ihe change (in Leiter to
Associates No. 58), ihe Ldiloi re-
poried a complainl from an anony-
mous Associale ihal the absence of
tilles on CA'w' comments makes il im-
possible to claim ibem as publicaiions
in the "publish-or-perish" sysiem. 1 he
Editor wem on lo say:
Heretofore people have leferred lo their
comments simpK as "Conuuents on . . . ,"
which can appear in theit bibliographies.
Authors who wish titles to their comments
(for whatevei reason) may hereafier in-
clude them; and we shall assess the editorial
and stvlistic pioblems that thev entail, par-
ticularlv if not all authors wish to include
titles. It would also appeat to be legitimate
for authois to use appropi iate titles in
bibliographies even if these weie not origi-
nally printed.
(-ommenl on the (|ueslion of titles was
inviied.
Of the 66 Reply Leiters retui ned, 18
included leinarks on the subjecl. Ap-
proval of the sysiem of ilalici/ing the
first word or phiase of a leitet was
expressed by nine lespondents. Ewo
others poinied out that lellers can
be leferred lo simply as "Letter to
the Editor"; one of ihese ciied a
bibliographic Convention lecjuiring
brackeis around these words lo show
that the title is not a printed one. One
argued, on ihe olher band, that "the
liile, if any, should be in block letters
and on a separate line." One feit that
the maller did not merii discussion.
Ehe rest of the respondenis addressed
ihemselves to the problem of titles for
CvA-M- comments. Ewo saicl that refer-
ring to these as "Comments on . . ."
was appiopriate and sufficieni; one
said that the problem was of im-
poriance onlv for ihose Americans
who had nol managed lo free ihem-
selves from ihe lyranny of "publish-
or-perish"; and ihree said ihai com-
ments should be given tilles by their
authors.
Vol. 13 • No. 3-4 ■ June-October 1972
505
AMERICAN MUSEUM
SOURCEBOOKS
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Paul Bohannan^ General Editor
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alie Aussicht i™^"'.'^'"' "»at
«uiker hegt daÄ-.?"' Ko-
der Vierer;^.? '^"''" ''««er
d'Estaing 7|9"PPf „«scard
Mitterrand '(itlis >«"')'
Chirac ri3~in d "ozent),
Marchais ns 5 Tl°''^*^ ™d
Das ist das>;*K?'"'''"'*^-
. ^'-uugsum^rage '^,t"' ^--'
dien de Paria" kI-^ _, ..Quoti-
erstenmal die K-'„ J], '''"' ^um
ehes in Eechn,!^"''""'' Colu-
de. Coluche S ?:T' """
lergunst weit vof a^der ' ^'^^■
»n .,RandkandMate„r'°'r"°-
nur um 2 Prozent q*' ''^''«''
teile vorausgesart w ''f""""*"-
politische Sprssm„.r'''''''- ^«r
sehöpft of fefs ett' ^'"•""'«
Beservoir komi • " ^us dem
testwähler 1^?""^ ""«^ P^"
an der sici, r^i f ^'»ehwahl.
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7
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Ine
lad
ee
King of Saudi Arabia Joins Nasseres Parley in Cairo
Associated Press Radiophoto
Premier Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, right, escorts President Shukri ^'-KuwaUy o^^^^^
left and King Saud of Saudi Arabia into palacc in Cairo, where the Arab lead^onlerred.
kl
ei
al
nj
i
t'
t
tl
By OSGOOD CARUTHERS
Special lo The New York Tim«.
CAIRO, March 6— King Saud
of Saudi Arabia came to Cairo
today to take part in ntajor
Idiscussions with Egyptian and
Syrian leaders regarding the
future of Jordan and United
Arab defense against Israel.
The dcscrt monarch and his
entourage of ministers and
aides arrived at the Cairo air-
port from Riyadh by a special
plane that had been escorted
all the way by a squadron of
Egyptian jet fightcrs pur-
chased from
Aside from a
Salute and the usuäl
ties attending the greetil
a visiting head of State, the]
was little of the pomp and
panoply that has attended the
Continued on Page 3, Column 5
i
.ATT STAATS - ZEITUNG UND HEROLD,
1 einer
litragödie
ir erschiesst
Mutter, Sohn
niedergeschossen,
»s Angeles erschlägt
int Matter
f(!)D|fcn, mö^renb i^r Onfcl, bcr 41i.
^ournalift 0quI 2u[tiq, Icbenlgefä^r*
lief) uetlelit mürbe. 5Dic ^oligci fuc^t
f^ranci§ SBroo!man, bcn 21 ^a^xt alten
So^n bet ©rmorbetcn, bcr box einiger
3eit bon bcr Butter qu§ bcm §aufc
gcmiejcn mürbe, ßuftig berichtete, ba^
er burd) Scf)ü|fe aufgcmecft mutbe, baä
2icf)t önbrcF)tc unb bann felbft öcrmun»
bei mürbe.
< • >
Skelett eines Zwillings
in Babys Bauchhöhle
fUl
Hopkins
Lösung
Untersuchnngsl
Jahresverdiecs^
$111
..Assurlated PretB")
^ja§, 22. Tlal (gini
lie| l^ier bier Opfer
[rbe bcrmunbct; ein ans
!orbe§ inhaftiert, ^er
Sampicr crfd^o^, mic
|cf)ter 3:)abib m. SDßliite
jtrigen IMbcnb guerft feine
fi^m tcbenbc i^iau, bann
^rau 2öm. ipelbig fr.,
^oui§ ^elbig, cl)e (oampicr
(fliam iQclbig jr. nicber^^e^
)e. 2)cffcn 'i^xüVi murbc
littclt merbcn !onnte, mar
[i §aufe bcr §clbtg§ geJcm^
le bte bciben grauen im S3ett
[£Dui§ !Ö^ihiQ, ber auf bie
^eiciltc, mürbe auf bcr 23e=
it unb niebergefnallt. (Sam*
mn jum -^au^ üon Ifflitliam
er ^rau ^dU(\ noii) öer^
inte, e^e .^clbig Ü^n mit einem
[bcrfd^ofe. SSor fecf)§ 3\)Dc^cn
(Gampier mit bcn fccf)§ .Rin=
jrer (5i)e fortgcjogen unb ^uni
fc guriicfgc{cl)rt.
riiualtbc nl§ ^cuttcrmürbcr
n g e l c §, 22. Wai. (Sin ^s"^
(c fici) ö!)ne 3i^onftu()l garnid)t
(cn fann, mirb qkx be§ 5Jiutter*
feefd)ulbigt. ©eoroe Jöidiam
[v. 41, fo'a feine 78iäf)rige UluU
[igen ^aben. (5r gab bereits gu,
Ic^ter 3fit biel Gtrcit mit ber
Jattc unb man fd^liepd) i^anb^
)urbe. "^'it ^Kutter f}atte an-
)af^ fic t(}m bell 9f?Dnitul)l fort=
[erbe, um itjn m SSctt 3U Ijal^
Inffnrfjcr 9)törbcr Iorf)t
.burgf), *;ia., 22. 5Jiai. ^ar=
iban, ein 73iäf)rigcr friif)erer
]nb ein .'oünc an ©cftalt, la:^tc
auf, al§ if)m ber 2:rb im clcf^
itu^I bcrüinbct murbc. ^ul^
te am 17. 2)egember bor. ^al)*
tncm SOßutanfall in ^uqueSne,
tf !Jlat^barn crfd^offcn. @:3 mar
(Umnacfitung bon ber SScrteibi^
fitcnb gemacht morben.
3ro3C^' murbc bon bcr ©taatSan*
[aft gcltcnb gemalt, bafe ©ulli«
\t fünf ßeute, brei grauen unb
länncr, crfd^o^ meit fie gefliiftert
'bafe er fid^ an einem jungen ^äb^
frgangcn ^aht, Sn aller 3lu!)C
^(Suriibon feinem ?Inmalt unb
bann abführen.
lörbcr Dom Wob ficbroljt
r c , S. 2)., 22. Vlal — 3it)el
lurfcf)cn au8 S^icago mußten
bcfonbcren poligcilidjen Srf)u^
[an befüriihtrtr aittJ^nrae^e
,,Teratoma" genanntes, seltenes
Phänomen soll in Portland, Ore.,
operativ beseitigt werden
(Meldung der „Assorinted Press")
^ortlanb, Orc, 22. ^^oi. (Sin
14 üJlonatc alte§ meiblicf)c§ S3abt) mirb
näd^fte 5öorf]e in 2)oernbcc^er§ Slinbcr*
«Qofpital operiert merben, um ba§ 6m*
brt)o eine§ Smilling?, ba§ ficE) in feiner
58aud^{)i5()lc cntmicfclt f)at, gu entfernen.
e§ ^anbclt fid) um ein§ ber fcUcnften
mcbiginifdien ^^änomene, ba§ in mebi*
ginifrfjcn 2el)rbüd^crn al§ „Keratoma"
begeic^nct mirb.
giöntgen^^ufnal^mcn geigten, ba^ ba§
Stelctt be§ (5mbrt)o§ im S3audE) be§ Sa*
bi^§ faft boüftänbig entmicfcU ift. 2)a§
58abt) mar au§ 2)ougla§ ©ounti) ^ier^cr
gebradjt morben, aU bic bortigen ^ergtc
fic^ feinen 9?at mußten.
5Dr. IRic^arb 93. 6iacf)unt, ber ßeiter
bcr mebigiuifdien ^afu^tät ber Uniberfiti)
of Sf)icago, meinte, ba^ fic^ ba§ ^^äno»
•nien burd^ eine 3föenfpaltung unmiteU
bar nac^ bcr ömpfüngnil erflären laffe.
^Jan miffe oon ?^äflen, in benen fici) ein
3mining teiliocife im .Körper beg anbe=
reu entmicfeltc; boci) feiten fei e§ gu einer
fo bonftänbigcn V(u^bttbung bc§ SIelett§
gelommcn.
5)a§ 5JJäbi^en ift in jcbcr anbcren Se-
giel)ung burc^au» normal, i|it unb fd^Iaft
ol)nc ©t-ijrungen.
.^inberfpegialiften au§ allen 5;eilen be§
2anbc§ merben ^ierl)er tommen, um bcr
Operation beigumoT^ncn. S^ir (Srfolg
f)(ingt bnbon ai, erflärte 2)r. 2)incf)unt,
ob interne SScrmad^fungen borliegen ober
nid^t.
< • »
SEC beschuldigt zwei
New Yoricer MaJclerfirmen
(Meldung der ..Assorlated Press")
^ßaf^ington, 22. ^lal TlanU
pulationen mürben beute gmei !ßem
^or!cr ^mallerfirmen, ' Abbott, giroctor
$aine unb Safer, 2öeefö & färben, bon
ber Sörfen* unb ^ertpapicrtommiffion
borgemorfen.
i)ic beiben f^^irmcn mürben bon bcr
S(5(5. aufgeforbert, bcn 5^attmeiä gu er*
bringen, mc§f^alb ftc nid^t bon bcn ame*
rifanifdf)en Sörfcn auigeftofeen merben
foflen. 2)ic Untcrncl^mcn fo&cn in bcn
5Ifticn bcr Sfloot Petroleum Sompa
bcrbotcnc ©cfc^äftc borgcnommcn l^ab.
ZEITUNG UND HEROLD, DEN 23. MAI
tschen V
int der
onvent
Teilen des
'an wichtiger
Igen
)ent§ bcs
bon bcr
Saöurg
;5IboIpf)
idfcrbcr*
fargatct
§berflcr,
lomber,
icjj, ber
•
[Romis
gc=
Ma!:f smmung wird heute im
N. Bergen-Park herrschen
2)er ^^orbkba« unb 2ßannasS3crctn
foltitc bie ^mt OtternbDtfcr Societt)
l^abcn ftd^ bcn heutigen f(f)bncn Wakn-
fonntag gcrabegu prärf)ttg au§gefuc^t, um
im ^^lattbcutfdien (Sd)ü^enpart bon
'Slotih Sergen, D?. %, iln ^idnicf ab=
Su^alten. (51 gie^t je^t mo^I jeben in
öiefer onfietmclnb = f)eimQtl!cf)cn ^a^n§==
jett mit i^rem Slütenteid^tum unb fri*
j(f)en @rün, an bcn (Sonntagen l^inaui
in§ O^reic. ©!*t)ife ift c§ bälget eine be^
[onberS glüdlic^e ^bec bon bem befanns
tcn plattbeutl(^en 2)reibunb, biefcn ^iai;
auSflug ins @rüne für feine 5}litglicbcr
unb biclcn O^reunbc mit einer fo feiten
fcf)önen @eIegenl)C(t gu bcrbinben, ouc^
in bcrtrautcm ^reunbee- unb 5lamcra=
benfreife teilen gu fönncn. t5^eftpräfi=
beut So^n Stegmann fann olfo geiüife
fein, ba^ c§ i)cute „InüppelboH" fein
mirb im ^Iattbcutfd)en ©(f)üfeenparf,
unb bie Vorbereitungen, bie er unb fein
©tob für ba§ ^idnidf getroffen baben,
werben öud) bie Ermattungen aller bi§
in^ fleinfte rcd^tfertigcn,
Literatur und Kunst
in deutschen Vereinen
Literarischer Verein
2)a§ bfutigc (Spagiergang§gicl bei
2iterarifrf)en ^creinl ift bie ißinbobona
in 3:brogg§ !Rcc!, 230 SSfair ^bc. Sßon
4 llfjr nad^mittaga an 5laffcetafcl unb
2an3, aurf) bei iRcgcnmettcr. ®ä[tc finb
n^ilKommcn.
9fm näd^ften tJ^rcitag, beu 28. Tlai,
fprid^t bor bem SSerein in ber ^(uftrian
^aU, 245 Oft 82. ©tr., ißcrr ögon
Steuer über „.^iporifdjeS Song S^Ianb".
^cr 53ortrag mirb burcb f^ilmftreifen in
nütürlidben färben illuftricrt hjerbcn, bie
ber 3f?cbner felbft bor furgem an Ort
unb Steße aufgenommen ^at. Scginn
biefe§ ?5=iImbDrtrageS 9 Ufjr abenbä —
©öftc finb miatommcn.
D.-Ai Forum
%U 5Ibf(f)Iufe ber SBtnterfoifon mirb
am O^reitag. ben 28. ^ai, bom 2).*2I.
iJfDrum ein „t5?ttmabenb" beranftaltct, bcr
ein abmed^fiung§reic^c§ Programm bie*
tet. (5ri5ffnet mirb ber ^bcnb burd^ ben
^ilm ber Stabt ^«em ^oiU „i^irft
Öoufe§." !Da§ 5ÖD^nung3e!cnb ber
(5Ium§ unb beren Sefeitigung burdj mD=
bernc unb billige 5DDl)nI)äufcr merben
gegeigt unb erläutert, ^^m gmciten 2:eil
geigt ©ibit.i) ÜJJorife, bcJTen ?ViIme mef)r=
fac^ bom „!Ü?obic Camera ß^Iub" prci§s
[cftönt mürben, ben ^\\m „^k micbcr
^ieg" (5:crror of ©or). 5tl§ britten
geigt §err ^UJorit; einen „^alä*
■t^'iim, ben er geiegentlid^ feiner
ireifc aufgenommen^ ^at unb ber
^imen geigt, bie man fonft nic^t
in befommt. — ^aä^ bem i5?ilms,
fi gcmüt
mt b.
Nächsten
Skagei'
Deutsclier Marine-V
York Icündigt grosser'
jälirliclien Ged(|
Ociegcntlid^ cine§
abenb^, ben ber 25eutfd^c
37. 2)v 3nc., in ber 5Tr
f^iclt, tonnte 5tommanb|
ißenbt betanntgcbcn, ba
Stab and) für bie bie§iäf)i1
®ebäcf)tni^ifeier, bcn 21.
I)iftorifd)cn Gecfc})Iad^t,
(Sametog, bcn 29. 5}lai,
Softno, 210 Oft 86. <B^
Söorbcrcitungcn für einen i]
einbrudöboflenSßcrIauf be§
obenbö getroffen Ijat.
5ßcrcin min mit ber iabrliij
rat^^cier nict)t nur ba§ iinh
fallenen !D?arincfamcrabcn ti
rat e{)ren, fonbern alle cbcmc
börigen ber beutfd^en .^riccj
mäbrenb be§ 5Be(t!riegeg au|
!IRccren ben .t)c(bcntob ftarbei|
.^on,^crt unb ^cbenfj
@inc bcfonbere Ucberraf'
aber borläufig ®e[]eimnig
bleibt, fofi in bicfem '^a'i)xt bi
beforation bilbcn, bie bemäbl
fcnte be§ 93crcin§ übcrne!)m>|
SRebeaft mirb bon einem g^oB^ii
fongcrt umrabmt, :)a§ bie W(\
pcfle in Uniform unb ber
Spielmann^gug gemeinfam
5)en 9(uftaft bilbet ber t^al)ncnc]
bcr beuti"d[)en 23crein»melt, beni
nad^ bcr ^^otencl^rung baS 2^0]
bc§ „groficn 3QpfcnftreidL)§".
"Der 5iamerab[c^aft§abenb
bie Icfjtc SSerfammlung im ^i\
®ebäd^tni§et)rung für bie „§t'
2oten, bie befanntlii^ am gleij
bie le^tc i^a^ü nad) bcr alten 4]
cnbeten. ^ommanbant ?paut '
nalim in feiner 5tnfprad^;e auf ^
fa(!^c S3egug unb befunbetc in
f^form bte enge S5erbunbcnl)cit 1
gen !0?flrinei!amctaben mit bei
gung§mitgliebern bcr bcutfc^cn]
Itne^ 5115 neue 5JlitgIteber hju^
5lamcraben S'^eobor 5tr?rncr, f1
Sordf), SRicf)arb ®Ieid^, §an§ ^)
i&ctmann §auf(f)i!b, lefeterct c
Vertreter bcr neuen bcutfd^cn St^
rine. eingefütjtt.
Wü bem Jtameröb[df)aft§abcr]
bte S5orfüf)rung cinc§ ^iimprofj
unter ber iRt(\k ^on 5Tom. W\\
berbunben. ©egetgt mürben 5Bii
bcr letjtiäfirigen ?8u§fal^rt bc8
bte le^te ^afirt bc§ „^inbcnbui
5Rcm ^orf unb bte 5tataftrop]^ d
^urft, [omic ein -lon ^errn 5/
brcbter (^ül^crftlm: „5)fc
[imm^m^^^m^^^mmm
By WILLIAM L. LAUBENCB
THE Fourth International Con-
gress of the International
Union for the Scientific In-
vestigatlon of Population
Problems, which opened In Paris
on Thursday and closes today, once
more focuae» attention on many
vital Problems concerning the life
of man on thig llttle planet in the
"back yard of the unIverse."
The purpoaes of the International
Union, which started with the
World Population Congress at
Geneva in 1927, may be best de-
scribed by quoting the opening
Paragraph of the announcement of
that congress as published in its
Proceedinga. It reads:
The World Population Confer-
ence represents a pioncer effort
on an international scale to
grapple with one of the most
fundamental problems which
mankind faces today. The earth,
and every geographica! division
of it, is strictly limited in size
and in ability to support human
populations. But these populat lons
keep on growing; and in so doing
they are creating social, economic
and political Situation» which
threaten to alter profoundly our
present civilization, and perhaps
ultimately to wreck it. What can
be done about It?
In the beginning the population
of the World, like Topsy, "just
growed" without giving the matter
any particular thought. But there
are indicatlona that even in very
early civilizations some kind of a
rudimentary census was taken, per-
haps as far back as 300O or 4000
B. C, in Babylonia, China, and in
Egypt. The first biblical account
of the enumeratlon of the people ia
found In Exodus, where it Is stated
that Moses was directed to number
the children of Israel and levy a
poll tax. It has been estimated that
the date of this event was about
1500 B. C. Modern censuses, how-
ever, are of relatively recent origin,
having been evolved essentially dur-
ing the nineteenth Century^
Modern Approach
But the mere counting of the pop-
ulation is a very small part of the
modern science of population anal-
ysis. Among the first to turn men'a
thoughts very seriously to the prob-
lems Involved was Malthus, who,
somewhat pesaimistically, pointed
out that human populations tend to
grow regardless of the threat of
shortage of food supply. The bogy
of Impending exhaustlon of our nat-
ural food supplies bobbed up from
Urne to time ever slnce, and at the
end of the last Century Sir William
Crookes, in particular, sounded the
alarm of a forthcoming shortage of
the stuff of brcad for large
become avallable for the ralslng of
crops for human consumptlon.
In 1920, Professor Raymond Pearl
of Johns Hopkins Unlverslty, at-
tacking the problem from a mathe-
matical standpolnt, brought for-
ward evidence that populations gen-
erally tend to grow less and leas
rapldly, and ultimately to approach
an essentially stable condltion with-
out further Increase In numbera.
FoUowing thls came a funda-
mental development ushered In by
Dr. Louis I. Dublin and Dr. Alfred
J. Lotka of the Metropolitan Life
Insurance Company. In a publica-
tion in 1925 they drew attention to
the fact that the commonly fol-
lowed method of gauging natural
population growth, by simply con-
sidcring the excess of the birth rate
ovcr the death rate, was very mis-
leading.
Age Group« Studied
In their study, Drs. Dublin and
Lotka, both of whom presented pa-
pers befora the Paris Congress,
showed that, with the constant.de-
cline in the birth rate that had
been characteri-stic of many yeais
past, there tends to he an accumu-
lation of'^persons in the reproduc-
tive ages. The result is a temporary
balance of births over deaths, which
will cease to appear when the pe-
culiar age disti4bution produced by
past high birth rates has waned.
Thus, for example, at the preaent
tlme the birth rate In the United
H.l ,
thcir
contaii
ible
whi(
to.
pared with the death rate^^hlc
must lead to a deterioratio* of th
population in quantity aArWell a
quality, because the so-calld^ "lowei'
classes" perpetuate theingelves at'
an alarmingly low rate. 7hi« school
seems to be currently inTvogue
There is a third scWoc^l, whicj|
holds that the world paäseö througtt
cycles of declining and ri/sing birth
rates, the end result bein^ a natural
balanco between the world's popu*.
lation on tho one band and the
means available for it.'3 support on
the other. This school^ which scoffs
at the pessimism of both the Mal-
thusians and the depopulationists,
was represented at the Paria Con-
gress by Dr. Norman E. Hirnes,
wßU-known sociologist of Colgate
University. He said:
"Population phenomena are equi-
librium phenomena. Overpopulatlon
.sets up social and economic forces
tending to check lt. Depopulatlon
does the same thlng. The current
birth £trlke is really a revolt
against eome of the anomalies of
capltalism. I predict that that re-
^ .-iiJl ' ^^
»vf*
[iF^^
and sugar it can aynlhesiz. in a fiven t,m« out «f *''™'' «"""„„"
numberg of people
Hls warning had one very Impor-
tant practical result. He had
pofnted out that the Chilean nitrate
bedfl, our main supply of nltroge-
noua fertilizer at the time, was ap-
proachlng exhaustion, and urged
chtimists to work on the problem of
Converting atmospherio nitrogen
into Compounds capable of being
used for fertilizer. The problem was
brilliantly solved by the late Fritz
Haber, and a large industry today
extracts nitrogen from the air and
converts it not only jnto fertilizer
but into other important industrial
products. Unfortunately, among
these products are war materials,
and the development of the new in-
dustry was hastened, at least in
part, by the desire of military au-
thorities to make themselves inde-
pendent of the Chilean nitrate de-
posits.
In 1923 Professor E. M. East of
Harvard University, in a note-
worthy work entitled "Mankind at
the Crossroads," made a careful
study of the land areas available
for raising foods and the possibili-
ties of finding sustenaxice for the
growing population of the world, a
book still inspired by pessimism as
regards our future food supply.
Since then a complete change in
polnt of view has occurred.
Food Snough for All
Today, it was emphasized at the
congress at Paris, there is no longer
any fear of shortage of food. We
have learned greatly to increase our
lagricultural yields, and still more
Ican be done in this way. The
fast-growing field of tray agricul-
Iture, namely, the raising of vege-
tables and other agricultural prod-
|ucts, in tanks containing Chem-
icals, without any soil whatsoever,
opens the posslbillty that the day
may come when man will no longer
idepend on the »oil for hls auste-
nance.
Again, the horse has been very
largely dlsplaced by the gasoline
lengine and, as a result, acres for-
merly^j^lanted for animal food have
fcSÄ-iSiijJÄ
States is about seventeen per thou-
sand and the death rate about ten
per thousand. This appears to give
a roargin of safety of seven per
thousand on the right aide of the
ledgcr. Actually, according to Drs.
Dublin and Lotka, computation
Shows that when the population has
settled down to the age distribution
corresponding to presfent fertility
and mortality, we shall be having a
deficiency of births and an excess
of deaths, unless the future should
see an increase over our presert
fertility or, to put it another way,
an increase in the average of our
families.
There is at present, Dr. Lotka
told the congress, no indication of
a trend toward increasing the size
of families, but quite the reverse,
and "the Situation at the present
time certainly looks critical." The
Problem, he added, is by no means
restricted to the United States, but
appears in greater or lesser degree
in all civillzed countries, and is re-
ceiving the very serious attention
of statesmen. In Germany and Italy
definite administrative steps are
being taken to try to arrest the
movement toward a declining popu-
lation.
It was with Problems of this kind
that the International Congress at
Paris concerned itself, though Its
field extended beyond the mere
questions of number, covering also
the questions of the so-called "qual-
ity" of population. In the latter re-
spect, however, there is no objec-
tive scientific basis to go on.
Three Schools
Population theories roughly group
themselves Into three main schools.
The Malthusians held that the
World must reach a stage of over-
population with not enough food to
Support the Inhabitants of the
earth. This »chool held sway until
recently.
The depopulationists hold that
present trends indlcate a decided
decllne in the Mrth rate as com-
volt ^K^'^ ^^^ cease until some r
tlonaj «goclal institutions are de-
velopedl
"No g\o?i purpose will be aerved
by populä^io^ authorities preaching
large famw^K^o the masses. Ex-
perlence hl^ cauRht the working
classes a difK^^^nt lesson. Certainly
experience lÄP^ b-^tter guide than
Statistical real^V'^ based on fal-
lacies." W^'^
LIGHT TOl
LP FISH
INFANT GARE
By ANGELO PATRI
Author of "OUR CHILDREN"
CHILDS RELATIONS TO ADULTS
WHEN the new baby arrives mother has a double job. She has to
bring up the baby and the grown members of the family at the
same time. Often it is easier to get along with the baby than it is
with the relatives. Grandparents want to help and they are very
sure they know more about the job than mother does.
Fond aunts and iincles are eager to lend a band. They are anxious
to see the child growing perfectly and like the rest of us, they are
inclined to think that perfect growth would be something in their
own likeness. So mother has to be a diplomat, a parent. and a stern
gnardian at one and the same time.
MOTHER'S COMMAND SUPREME
It is during infancy that mother has the best Chance to establish
her place as the one in supreme authority. She is the one to lay
down the law. In the early months a baby sleeps most of the time.
He is not to be disturbed. Strangers are not to be allowed in bis
room Close membera of the family must stay at a distance. They
may iook but not touch. The baby is not to be kissed. He is not to
be tossed up on Uncle Dan's Shoulder. He is not to be tickled b"/ bis
brothers. his sisters or bis aunts. He is not to be rocked by any-
body and that includes grandma. He is never to be shaken or scolded
or frightened. Anyone who is annoyed by the actions of the baby
must keep out of the way.
Sometimes there is among the relatives one who insists upon
taking the place of the mother. Usually it is an elderly relative who
longs to bring up this child in the right way, her way. When this
happens there is only one thing for mother to do and that is to say
nolitely, sweetly. firmly, "I am the baby's mother The responsibility
U mine. In the long run I must manage with him alone as best I
c^n No I cannot let anyone take my place." Say something like
this" and mean it and that will end the interference.
HEED DOCTOR'S ORDERS
Some of the friends and relatives will want tc give you adyice
about the child's food. Teil them you do not need their adv ce You
nre following the doctor's orders about the child's diet stnctly and
you don't want to spoil his work and waste time and money.
^nme will offer gifts to the baby and a mother must decide what
is to be done about that. Talk things over with these friends who
mean so well. Let mother show them that the gifts had better take
the form of some lasting benefit such as an insurance for the educa-
tion of the child. Don't shower money or useless gifts upon childrem
They need very little. Just food. clothes. toys and these all of the
simülest kind. Enough is enough. Waste, show are useless. Wise
pe^Se put their gifts into insurance funds for College, for travel.
for wedding gifts. for a rainy day.
PARENTS GIVE DIRECTIONS
Grownups should never tease the child They should not order
him abmlt He is to Iook to one person for directlon^-his mother.
CHILD'S RELATIONS TO ADULTS
Later father comes into the picture, but nobody eise is to say a word.
Too many words bring confusion and cause rebellion.
And yet mother must remember that her child is going to need
friends. She must be diplomatic and in that way keep the friends
and shut out the troubles. She must do the best she can ander dif-
ficult circumstances, but always she must protect her child.
That is the point I would leave with you. Protect the child from
grownups who mean well but who do not understand the Situation.
The child is the mother's responsibility, and mother is the flrst
authority.
(Released hy The Bell Syndicate, Inc.)
SEX INSTRUCTION
By ANGELO PATRI
SCHOOLMASTER TO MILLIONS
SEX is inherent in all healthy creatures. It is activ© in little
children as well as in older people and quite normal and decent
in both. To think otherwise is to deny one of the great forces or
life, if not the major one.
The manifestations of sex vary in individuals and 1? the different
spans of growth. Sex in an Infant has diff erent qualities f rom the
sex of a youth and sex in youth is different from sex in old age.
Yet sex is in all and blesses all life if rightly understood and ap-
preciated. v. * u*
This understanding and appreciation is what is to be taught
children and young people. Not the question of where the babies
come from Sex has broader implications than this one physlcal
aZct sets. It has power to raise man to the heights o glory and
the power to put an everlasting curse upon him and his children^
It is the great Creative force, the energizer, the life-giver It lä to
be reverenced and feared and honored. It is this tremendous force
^halwe are asked to teach children about so that they may not in
ignorance destroy themselves in learning its way with them.
GIVE PLAIN FAOTS
Who is to teach this? Mothers. in the beginning. They teach
thA PlPmentarv facts truthfully, briefly. without reference to thelr
mpUcXns'^The little ones ask questions about babies because
they are miellectually curious, not because they are interested in
sei nractices They will accept the simple fact as an answer. Ex-
n'LaUons will co/fuse them. They are not ready for them, can-
not use them do not want them. Give them piain facts. Any in-
Llligent pe^on, who can read the governmenfs Pamphlet can do
that and so set the stage for the later phases when personal interest
in sex is increasing.
The teachers of physiology and biology in high schools can and
do teach the physical facts of sex. But sex is not purely physical.
?.• ^ o^^ fhP soul if they can be spoken of as two qualities, are
Sy concernÄ^t^^^^^ The father and mother who in
love created This child. can best teach the spiritual psychic values
of the sex that Vs expressed in love, and the love that is expressed
?i «p^ Books cannot do this. Nor can the physician. the clergyman,
tL teacher alonT do the teaching. However silent parents may
be itistheir teaching, their way of living and loving, that does
this final bit of sex Instruction. , ^ ^ »,
Wp arP not doing our duty by the young people when we teach
here than in »ny other nem ^»[^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^i^k of actuality
;VJr': llXlt^VS lno:iXV7nL -There Stands the burning
^"^^- HELPFUL BOOKS
r. * «f« ,r„i«t hP taucht The pamphlet that is furnished by the
Sex facts must be Jf^fl';^ .g'^J^au, for ten cents and a stamped,
Department of ^ab«^' ^^{J^f^^^ fny mother needs for a beginning.
?fr'Tru\'nbTr;t'^'PaU's and' Sex^'s a good book for parents to
SEX INSTRUCTION
read. Dr. Roy Dickerson's book, "Growing Into Manhood" Is flne
for boys. So is the booklet, "In Training," send out by the American
Medical Association. There are many good books for girls which
can be had by asking the librarian for them.
Parents should read these books before passing them to the
children first, to know what is in them, next, so as to understand
the questions the children will ask concerning them.
Try to see sex as an element of life, a glorious fact to be accepted
and used for the growth, progress and development of mankind. It
is not to be isolated from the other facts of life, made a thing apart,
an end in itself. It is one of the cooperative forces of life that used
wisely leads to great happiness, unwisely, to great grief.
(Released hy The Bell Syndicate, Jnc.)
ork Wmt^
imm mim
Glueck Discovers the Ruins of
70 Viiiages of 3500 B. C. to
Twelfth Century A. D.
FARMS HIGHLY DEVELOPED
Discoveries Confirm Genesis
Narrative in Which Lot Teils
of Valley's Fertility
VVireless to The New York Times.
JERUSALEM, May 31— Recent
excavations in the Jordan River
Valley by Dr. Nelson Glueck, di-
rector of the American School of
Oriental Research of Jerusalem,
resulted in the discovery of the
ruins of seventy viiiages that
existed between 3500 B. C. and the
twelfth Century A. D.
Between the thirteenth and sixth
centuries B. C. there were about
thirty-five viiiages along thirty-
five miles of the eastern side of
the Jordan Valley. The inhabitants
then totaled 35,000 to 40,000, com-
pared with the 12,000 in Arab en-
campments today.
Explorations of Dr. Glueck con-
tradicted earlier authorities since
Sir George Adam Smith who <1«*-
giarden of the Lord."
Elephants roamed the Jordan area
area and the hills above and the
aoastal plains years ago. Among
the remains dug up from the an-
dient bed of the Jordan River was
in elephant's tusk two yards long,
rhe finds also included bones of
rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses and
jmaller animals.
The story of a culture starting
?rom the beginning of the fifth
Century B. C. until the present can
De clearly read along the banks
3f the river. It is now well known
that the earliest Settlements in
Palestine were on the coastal
plains and in the Jordan Valley.
What was not well known until
recently were the locations of num-
bers of the centers of the agricul-
tural civilization in the Jordan Val-
ley.
Dr. Glueck established that the
eastern side of the valley was
densely settled from earliest his-
torical times onward by a large
thriving permanent agricultural
Population dwelling in numerous
viiiages of considerable size. From
the area, however, must be ex-
cluded much of the western side
of the Jordan Valley where the
hills come so near the river that
little space is left and because of
the scarcity of water.
Large, permanently settled, high-
ly developed farming communities
dwelt here in ancient times under
climatic cönditions that geological
experts say were generally the
same as today. The reasons for
the richness of the eastern side of
the Jordan Valley, said Dr. Glueck,
were "a soil of exuberant fertility
plus the presence of plentiful
water."
One place had the greatest
masses of ancient pottery frag-
ments Dr. Glueck had ever seen in
any ancient site in Palestine or
Trans-Jordan. Inhabited about
3500 B. C, this site contained more
pottery than exists throughout the
whole Jordan Valley today.
The ancient civilization of the
Jordan Valley is ascribed by the
American archaeologist to Irriga-
tion. Undoubtedly tremendous res-
ervoirs of subsurface water exist
in this Valley. Only recently have
they been explored. The farmers
of ahtiquity made excellent use of
the rieh supplies of surf ace waters.
Prehistoric Race
of Araericans
Find "Missing Link"
in Utah Caves.
By DAVID DIETZ,
Scripps-Howard Science Editor,
Traces of an ancient American
race, a "missing link" in the story
of prehistoric America, have been
found in caves near Great Salt Lake
by Dr. Julian H. Steward, archeol-
ogist of the Smithsonian Institution
and former member of the faculty
of the University of Utah.
In one cave Dr. Steward found a
skeieton, a sharp bone dagger, ar-
row heads and knives of bone, and
fragments of charcoal that testified
to campfires that had been lit upon
the gravel floor of the cave. The age
of these f inds is tentatively estimated
at between 10,000 and 15.000 years.
This would fit the inhabitants of
these caves in between the hypothe-
tical Folsom men who are supposed
to have been the first inhabitants
of America, and the Basket Makers
of the Southwest who lived about
2,000 years ago.
* • •
The last glacial age came to an
end 25,000 years ago. Following this
a race of nomads are ' believed to
have ranged over the eastern foot-
hills of the Rocky Mountains. This
race is known only from certain
types of arrow heads or spear points
found by archaeologists and known
as "Folsom points." There is still
some argument about the antiquity
of these finds but many archaeolog/^
ists are now certain that.thev rep
sent fi
//-
America.
Until the announcement of Dr.
Steward, there was a complete blank
between Folsom men and the Bas-
ket Makers of the Southwest.
Great Salt Lake, according to ge-
ologists, was approximately 1,000
feet above its present level at the
end of the last glacial period. It
gradually contracted during the
centuries of drought which ensued.
As the lake grew smaller, caves
were cut into its bank. Some of
these caves, now high above the
water's edge, were once upon the
water's edge, as geological evidence
of the ancient shorelines testify,
By estimating the time it took the
lake to contract to its present size,
it is possible to date these ancient
shorelines.
These calculations show that the
caves belong to the period between
the Folsom men and the Basket
Makers, the period which had pre-
viously been a blank in American
prehistory. It is this fact which
lends particular importance to Dr.
Steward's Investigations.
* * *
Discussing the finds of the one
cave, which is now 364 feet above the
level of Great Salt Lake, Dr. Ste-
ward says that there can be no
question but that these finds ante-
date the Basket Makers by many
thousands of years.
The skeieton which Dr. Steward
found was that of an Infant. It
was buried only six inches below
the gravel floor of the cave. The
arrow heads and other artifacts
found In the cave differ In many
respects from the so-called Folsom
points.
There was evidence also that the
cave had been inhabited at a later
date for above the layer of debris
in which the very ancient artifacts
^ere found, other weapons, believed
;o be contemporaneous with the
lasket Makers, were discovered.
til
si
tl
fi
Wtmmmnm9mmmtw>. A\wti 1' «ihku'» » jwuwwjjw'Hpixwiixtuiiii/WBCcif»-^«'
■««?-,** I
Wie Goethe Uebrais^tmm
(Aus „Dichtung und Wahrheit", Erster Teil)
Indem ich mir das barocke Judendeutsch zuzueignen und es ebenso gut zu schreiben
suchte als ich es lesen konnte, fand ich bald, daß mir die Kenntnis des Hebräischen fehlte,
wovon sich das moderne verdorbene und verzerrte allein ableiten und mit einiger Sicher-
heit behandeln ließ. Ich eröffnete daher meinem Vater die Notwendigkeit, Hebräisch zu
lernen, und betrieb sehr lebhaft seine Einwilligung; denn ich hatte noch einen höhern Zweck.
V eberall hörte ich sagen, daß zum Verständnis des Alten Testaments sowie des Neuen die
Grundsprachen nötig wären. Das letzte las ich ganz bequem . . . Ebenso dachte ich es nun
auch mit dem Alten Testamente zu halten, das mir wegen seiner Eigentümlichkeit ganz
besonders von feher zugesagt hatte . . .
. . . Ich fand ein Alphabet, das ungefähr dem griechischen zur Seite ging, dessen Ge-
stalten faßlich, dessen Benennungen mir zum größten Teil nicht fremd waren. Ich hatte
dies alles sehr bald begriffen und behalten und dachte, es sollte nun ans Lesen gehen.
Daß dieses von der rechten zur linken Seite geschehe, war mir wohl bewußt. Nun aber
trat auf einmal ein neues Heer von kleinen Buchstäbchen und Zeichen hervor, von Punkten
und Strichelchen aller Art, welche eigentlich die Vokale vorstellen sollten, worüber ich mich
um so mehr verwunderte, als sich in dem größeren Alphabete offenbar Vokale befanden
und die übrigen nur unter fremden Benennungen verborgen zu sein schienen. Auch ward ge-
lehrt, daß die jüdische Nation, so lange sie geblüht, wirklich sich mit jenen ersten Zeichen
begnügt und keine andere Art, zu schreiben und zu lesen, gekannt habe. Ich wäre nun gar
zu gern auf diesem altertümlichen, wie mir schien, bequemeren Wege gegangen; allein mein
Alter (der Lehrer Rektor Albrecht J erklärte etwas, streng: man müsse nach der Grammatik
verfahren, wie sie einmal beliebt und verfaßt worden. Das Lesen ohne diese Punkte und
Striche sei eine sehr schwer^. Aufgabe und könne nur von Gelehrten und den Geübtesten
^,;-,;:-^-*-
geleistet \\\ / JJL . , rfilJü rn n f f ^ " '^-''*-* ' ' -^'— '*'^" auch diese kleinen Merkzeichen kennen-
'zuternen;'aRrdieS^e ward mir immer verworrener. Nun sollten einige der größern Ur-
zeichen an ihrer Stelle gar nichts gelten, damit ihre kleinen Nachgebornen doch ja nicht
umsonst dastehen möchten. Dann sollten sie einmal wieder einen leisen Hauch, dann einen
mehr oder weniger harten Kehllaut andeuten, bald gar nur als Stütze und Widerlage dienen.
Zuletzt aber, wenn man sich alles wohl gemerkt zu haben glaubte, wurden einige der großen
sowohl als der kleinen Personnagen in den Ruhestand versetzt, so daß das Auge immer sehr
viel und die Lippe sehr wenig zu tun hatte.
Ein Wort Sdhillcrs
l^iV danken der mosaischen Religion einen großen Theil der Aufklärung, deren wir unA
heutigen Tags erfreuen. Denn durch sie wurde eine kostbare Wahrheit, welche die sich
selbst überlassene Vernunft erst nach einer langsamen Entwicklung würde gefunden haben,
die Lehre von dem einigen Gott, vorläufig unter dem Volke verbreitet und als ein Gegen-
stand des blinden Glaubens solange unter demselben erhalten, bis sie endlich in den hellen
Köpfen zu einem Vemun iisbegriff reifen konnte. Dadurch wurden einem großen Theil des
Menschengeschlechtes alle die traurigen Irrwege erspart, worauf der Glaube an Vielgötterei
einst führen muß, und die hebräische Verfassung erhielt den ausschließlichen Vorzug, daß
die Religion der Weisen mit der Volksreligion nicht in direktem Widerspruche stand,
wie es doch bei den aufgeklärten Heiden der Fall war. Aus diesem Standpunkt betrach-
tet, muß uns die Nation der Hebräer als ein wichtiges universalhistorisches Volk erschei-
nen und alles Böse, welches man diesem Volke nachzusagen gewohnt ist, alle Bemühun-
gen witziger Köpfe es zu verkleinern, werden uns nicht hindern, gerecht gegen dasselbe zu
sein. Auf diese Art werden wir gleich weit entfernt sein, dem hebräischen Volk einen
Werth aufzudringen, den es nie gehabt hat und ihm ein Verdienst zu rauben, das ihm nicht
streitig gemacht werden kann, Schiller, Die Sendjmg Mosis^
ral Union of Jews
\r%fiem IPY ^^ Hitler
bam« ifnto Power.
T?.
BECAN ^hI ^^ "^^^ ^^^
First. Editor tf Newspaper of
Large Circul Uion Founded
3 lttfÄlcit^» Cause.
.H ;'. '?:~\:-^')''^--
^RLIN/vFeb; If <Jewish Tele-
,h. Agency)*---Bl{ö^8 HoUaen-
fprmep" direcioi |ö« the Central
löf Jewa iä Ge:|nany, died to-
\the ^g# of 59 ;^ter a long Ul-
ke had been fwced to retire
Reichsfuehrer P^tler ^ came
in Berlin, he bicame active
'tlng anti-Seinit|Bm in 1900,
became a leitder of the
nion's National Leag^e at
"^ollaenHer inaintained
ism and Jud|ism were
»tory but beWnged to-
>gically. i \^ -,
eapect we ;(\he Ger-
ful and worViy Ger-
ves US puat^ication
f attemptd iP jeop-
ty/' he ohcef Said.
illingtoteiTxour-
g to the ^ewish
are proud.^ But
^ewish natP^al-
ely."
1 about to 'om-
irk. "The ^er-
an Envüon-
hadjf,: gi'«n
• ten yetfs,
ihcellor. .?e
destroyd,
life. •'
if he fet
« Jew, h
*ovLlä ask
Other or
in Ber-
ed jur-
'f Mu-
ed aa
Ber-
the
a
le University MediJr School is spons.fing
;i.i;<' cQunseling clinic .Hhrough its Depai'tments of^ i
Italrj^ anlJ tjbsfetrTcs t tid Gynecology. The clinioj
'^erve couples in the Is >w Haven area and will
Trk in Cooperation with othe ? agencies that may wish
to refer'cases to it. It will also work witli the Yale
infertility clinic, now in its lifth year. The project will
be Ässisted by a grant froiti the Plajincd Parenthood
League of Connecticut and, if successtul, it is planned
to offer a course m counseling service at a professional
level.
^erage and the journ™ c!, Je "ostracteä. Tfil ^
Ind, appointed by the Excerpta Medica Foundation,^
fcet, ^ave about 40 members, 9 from the United States.
Committee for the Aging Expands.-The National
^he Committee for the Aging of the National Social Wei-
fare Assembly has reeeived a half-million-dollar grant
jFrom the Ford Foundation for the general support of
Ots activities. The fund will be used over a period of
[v (^^^^^^^^ y^^^s chiefly to establish and maintain an in-
LX^ formation and consultation service to organizations
and Community groups providing Services to older
persons. A central library of books and pamphlets on
aging will be established, with provision for loan,
folders for groups and exhibits for Conferences. Ai
national roster of Speakers and Consultants will be
assembled. The National Committee is made up oj
some 200 persons broadly representing interests coJ
cerned with meeting the needs of the aged. For infor^
mation write Geneva Mathiason, Secretary of th(
Committee, 346 E. 45th St., New York City.
World Health Assembly Budget.-The World
Assemblv a(
Mental Disorder in the Aged.— Such terms as senility and senile psychosis do not give a clear
Impression of what is going on, either anatomically or functionally. The extent of cerebral athe-
rosclerosis cannot be correlated with mental Symptoms. Evidence has been collected to show
that socio-psychologic stress is an important determinant in the initiation of mental deteriora-
tion in the aged. Mental deterioration, qualified as to mild, moderate or severe, would seem a
good working Classification for use in dealing with the aged. It should be recognized . . . that
the behavioral evidences of mental deterioration ebb and flow. We are too prone to hüstle the
mildly deteriorated patient off to a mental institution at the lirst aberrant sign. I was much im-
pressed, on a recent visit to a large London County Hospital, to see how they handle this Prob-
lem in England. There are special wards, as part of the general hospital, with especially skilled
attendants; the tempo is calmly geared down to the special wants of these patients. They are
kept in these wards for as much as a year, or longer. More than half of these people are able
to return to other wards in the hospital, or the homes of relatives when that can be arranged.—
W. Hammond, M.D., Common Disorders of the Aged, Journal of the American Geriatrics So-
ciety, March, 1956.
-^
Disaster Planning. The Preservation of Life and
Property. Harold D. Posten. Springer-Verlag, New
York, 1980. x, 276 pp., illus. $29.80. Springer Senes
on Environmental Management.
DNA Repair. A Laboratory Manual of Research
Procedures. Vol. 1, Part A. Errol C. Friedberg and
Philip C. Hanawalt, Eds. Dekker, New York, 1981.
XX, 274 pp., illus. $29.75. . .- ^ vi » i
Earthkeeping. Christian Stewardship of Natural
Resources. Loren Wilkinson, Ed. Eerdmans, Grand
Rapids, Mich., 1980. viii, 318 pp., illus. Paper,
$10 95
Fundamentals of Chemistry. James E. Brady and
John R. Holum. Wiley, New York, 1981. xvui, 798
pp., illus. + plates. $23.95.
Fusion Plasma Analysis. Weston M. Stacey, Jr.
Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1981. xviii, 376 pp.,
illus. $32.95. ^ _, * ,•
General Systems Thinking. Its Scope and Applica-
bility T Downing Bowler. North-Holland (Else-
vier), New York, 1981. xiv, 234 pp. $29.95. The
North-Holland Series in General Systems Research,
vol 4.
Hypnosis and Relaxation. Modern Verification of
an Old Equation. William E. Edmonston, Jr. Wiley-
Interscience, New York, 1981. xvi, 256 pp., illus.
•f 50. Wiley Series on Personality Processes.
Identical Twins Reared Apart. A Reanalysis. Su-
fan L. Farber. Basic Books, New York, 1981. xvi,
'384 pp., illus. $26.50.
Identification and Sjstem Parameter Estimation.
Proceedings of a Symposium, Darmstadt, Germany,
Sept. 1979. R. Isermann, Ed. Published for the
International Federation of Automatic Control by
Pergamon, New York, 1980. Two volumes. xlvi,
1348 pp., illus. $195.
Kimberlites and Their Xenoliths. J. Barry Dawson.
Springer-Verlag, New York, 1980. xii, 252 pp., illus.
$47.25. Minerals and Rocks, 15.
Lasers in Biology and Medicine Papers from a
Symposium, Camaiore, Italy, Aug. 1979. F. Hillen-
kamp R. Pratesi, and C. A. Sacchi, Eds. Plenum,
New York, 1980. xii, 464 pp., illus. $49.50. NATO
Advanced Study Institutes Series A, vol. 34.
Linear Programming and Extensions. Nesa Wu
and Richard Coppins. McGraw-Hill, New York,
1981. XX, 476 pp., illus. $27.95. McGraw-Hill Seri
in Industrial Engineering and Management Sei
Microprocessor System Debugging. Noordi-^
and Edward Farrell. Research Studies P-
ley), New York, 1981. xii, 144 pp
$43.50.
Mushrooms of Western Nort
Orr and Dorothy B. Orr. D
Schonewald and Paul Veg
*omia Press, Berkeley
Paper. S6.95.Califo "
Reprint of the V97
Neuroethoi
Halsted "
$24
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EDUARD SPRANGER
Über Gefährdung
und Erneuerung
der deutschen
Universität
Sonderdruck aus der Zeitschrift „Die Erziehung"
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:.U'(,A/> ■'''^l^vi^T-''
VERLAG QUELLE & MEYER IN LEIPZIG
EDUARD SPRANGER
Über Gefährdung und Erneuerung
der deutschen Universität
1)
Über Gefährdung und
Erneuerung der deutschen
Universität
Von
EDUARD SPRANGER
Sonderdruck aus der Zeitschrift
„DIE ERZIEHUNG"
9
VERLAG VON QUELLE & MEYER IN LEIPZIG
Alle Rechte vorbehalten
Buchdruckerei Oswald Schmidt G. m. b. H.
Leipzig
I
DIE deutsche Universität ist von sehr \delen Seiten
her gefährdet. Am meisten wird sie dadurch be-
droht, daß man ihren Sinn in weiten Kreisen des In-
lands nicht mehr versteht. Das ist an sich nicht ver-
wunderhck Denn die wesentUche Bestimmung der
deutschen Universität hegt eben darin, den Sinn, d. h.
das geistige Auge, für jenen ihren Sinn, d. h. ihre
geistige Funktion und Leistung, in Menschen zu er-
wecken, die bereit sind, sich dieser Umwandlung ihres
Wesens hmzugeben.i Wer sie nicht an sich selbst er-
fahren hat, kann die tiefere Absicht der Universität gar
nicht verstehen. Wenn ihr dies aber mit den eigenen
Jüngern einmal so wenig gelingen sollte, daß ihr nicht
mehr genügend Verteidiger zur Verfügung stehen, so
wäre das zwar keine Widerlegung ihrer Idee, gegen
deren Ewigkeit allenfalls eine noch höhere Idee anzu-
1 „Hieraus erklärt sich die kürzere Zeit, welche jeder auf der
Universität zubringt als auf der Schule ; . . . weil eigentlich was
auf der Universität erlebt wird, nur ein Moment ist, nur ein
Akt vollbracht wird, daß nämlich die Idee des Erkennens, das
höchste Bewußtsein der Vernunft, als ein leitendes Prinzip in dem
Menschen aufwacht." (Schleiermacher).
I
kämpfen vermöchte, wohl aher ein Anzeichen, daß es
ihr nicht mehr in ausreichendem Maße glückt, ihre
Idee in der Wirklichkeit wirksam zu machen.
Dieses Wirksammachen aber besteht jedenfalls im
Lehren und Bilden, im Eingreifen in die Tiefe persön-
lichen Lebens. Deshalb beschränken sich die folgen-
den Erwägungen bewußt auf die Universität als Lehr-
anstalt. Sie betreffen den Punkt, an dem die voraus-
gesetzte Idee zünden soll, und werfen die Frage auf,
infolge welcherUmstände das Überspringen des Funkens
ausbleibt. Alte Klagelieder sollen dabei nicht wiederholt
werden ; es kommt vielmehr auf eine möglichst richtige
Zeitdiagnose an.
Was der Organismus der deutschen Universität, der
vor I20 Jahren Gestalt empfing, in seinem Kern be-
deutete, muß für diesmal als bekannt vorausgesetzt
werden.2 Wir begnügen uns mit der kurzen Formel, daß
die Universität als Lehranstalt damals überzeugt war,
mit einer wissenschaftlichen Durchbildung zugleich per-
sönliche Weltanschauungsbildung zu geben und die
innere Bereitschaft der PersönUchkeit für höhere be-
rufhche Kulturfunktionen zu erzeugen. Der Wissen-
schaftsgodanke der Universität war so beschaffen, daß
2 Vgl. Fichte. Schleiermacher, Steffens über das Wesen der Univer-
sität, herausgeg. von Ed. Spranger (Philos. Bibl. Bd. 120) Leipzig igio.
— Ed. Spranger. Wandlungen im Wesen der Universität seit 100
Jahren. Leipzig igiS. — Das Sammelwerk „Das akademische
Deutschland". 3 Bde. Berlin igSo, herausgeg. von Scheel, Schlink,
Sperl, Spranger u. a. — Bd. 3 wird eröffnet durch einen Aufsatz
von mir über „Das Wesen der deutschen Universität".
er das Ganze der Persönlichkeit beleben und sie für
ihre geistige Sonderfunktion erwecken konnte.
Wenn wir heute in der Universität an diesem unserem
klassischen Gedanken festhalten, so bedeutet dies, daß
wir der entstandenen Wirklichkeit gegenüber mit drei
Fiktionen arbeiten, deren Undurchführbarkeit wir mit
jedem Tage schärfer spüren.
Die erste besteht darin, daß die Besucherzahl der Uni-
versität an ihrer Grundgestalt nichts Wesentliches habe
ändern können. Und doch weiß jeder, daß in der geistigen
Welt quantitative Verschiebungen notwendig mit quali-
tativen Wandlungen verbunden sind. Wir wollen keine
ausführliche Statistik geben, obwohl sie für Verwal-g\
tungsmaßnahmen entscheidende Aufschlüsse gewähren^
würde. Schalten wir die Verhältnisse nach dem Kriege,
die in jeder Hinsicht unnormal sind, aus, so ergibt ein
Blick auf die Zahlen von iSAo— 1910, daß sich schon
in diesem Zeitraum die Zahl der Studenten verfünffacht,
die Zahl der ordentlichen Professoren nur verdoppelt
hat. Die rein mathematische Berechnung, daß i84o
auf I Ordinarius 18 Studenten, 1910 43 Studenten
kamen, hat praktisch wenig Wert. Denn es gibt viele
Fächer, in denen die Studentenzahl nur unbedeutend
gewachsen ist, während sie in anderen Gebieten das
Zwanzig- und Vierzigfache beträgt. Diese Fächer aber
sind es zugleich, denen sich das gesellschaftliche Inter-
esse und also auch die öffentliche Kritik der Leistungen
am stärksten zuwendet. Solche „Notstandsgebiete" müs-
sen wir daher ausdrücklich ins Auge fassen.
Die Ursachen des erhöhten Andranges sind mannig-
fach und größtenteils bekannt. Abgesehen von der
allgemeinen Bevölkerungsvermehrung, der doch eine
größere Anzalil von Hochschulen einigermaßen ent-
spricht, sind zu beachten: i. Die veränderte Bedeutung
des Abiturientenexamens : es ist heute nicht mehr Kenn-
zeichen der Hochschulreife, sondern einer allgemeinen
Lebensreife für höhere Kulturfunktionen, wirkt aber
seiner Tradition nach immer noch als Saugapparat für
die Hochschulbildung. 2. Ungünstige Wirtschaftslage
hat immer eine Überfüllung der Universitäten zur Folge
gehabt, weil man auf ihnen manche Erleichterungen
findet und arm sein kann, ohne deklassiert zu werden.
Sozialistische Beurteiler sprechen daher von einem letzten
Rettungsweg vor dem Schicksal der Proletarisierung.
3. Von der Verwaltung wenig beachtet scheint der große
Umfang der „Mitbenutzung" der Universität zu sein,
die von selten anderer Bildungsinstitute stattfindet. Die
meisten Besucher von Sonderhochschulen, ja von Fach-
schulen, besitzen heute das Reifezeugnis; andere er-
werben den Gasthörerschein. Ihre Absicht ist in jedem
Falle ehrenwert: es treibt sie ein erhöhtes Bildungs-
bedürfnis. Aber sie rücken in ganzen Kolonnen in die
Universität an, und da sie sie doch nur „passieren",
bringen sie unvermeidlich einen anderen Geist mit als
den, der in der eigenthchen Universität heimisch war.
Sie suchen anderes und finden folgUch nur bedingt,
was ihnen helfen könnte. — Das alles aber ist noch
nicht das Entscheidende. Die wesentliche Umbildung
I
liegt darin, daß eine FüUe von Berufen entstanden ist,
für die niemand früher eine vollakademische Ausbil-
dung gefordert hätte. Diese Berufe brauchen wolil eine
höhere BUdung, aber sie brauchen nicht, ja sie ertragen
kaum eine tiefere wissenschaftliche Bildung. Schon da-
durch werden wir auf eine Feststellung geführt, die
für das Folgende ein leitender Gesichtspunkt bleiben
wird: Es enthüllt sich jetzt als ein Mangel die Tatsache,
die in der Zeit des Aufblühens unserer deutschen Bil-
dung ein Segen war: nämlich, daß es kein CoUege in
Deutschland gibt, sondern nur eine philosophische Fa-
kultät, keine Stätte für die Entfaltung derjenigen In-
tellektbegabung, die allgemeineren Kulturbedürfnissen
genügt. Für sie ist Fachschulung und Erweiterung des
Geisteshorizontes erforderlich. Sie verlangt aber nach
eigenlHcher WissenschaftUchkeit so wenig, wie die be-
treffenden Begabungen dafür zureichen.
Das führt unmittelbar auf eine zweite Fiktion, mit
der die deutschen Universitäten notgedrungen arbeiten.
Sie tun noch immer so, als ob ihre Schüler sämtlich
ein eigenüich wissenschaftliches Bedürfnis hätten. Wer
Menschen und Dinge sieht, wie sie sind, kann daran
nicht mehr glauben. Ich gehöre zwar nicht zu denen,
die von einer unbedingten Verschlechterung des Nach-
wuchses reden. Nach meinem Eindruck haben wir heute
zahlreiche junge Leute mit viel erweckterer Geistigkeit,
als sie vor 3o Jahren unter den Studenten vorkam; da-
neben freilich - entsprechend der absoluten quanti-
tativen Vermehrung - eine 2. und 3. Garnitur, die
8
'.i^/%^'-
•v*'«^'
^r
damals überhaupt nicht an den Universitäten zu finden
war. Aber in der geistigen Oberschicht haben sich die
Qualitäten nicht unbedingt verschlechtert. Man könnte
höchstens sagen, daß heute der bewegliche Geist, der
esprit, mehr kultiviert wird als die GründUchkeit selb-
ständigen Denkens. Dadurch verschieben sich die Auf-
gaben der Universitätsbildung, aber sie smken noch
nicht.
Mit dieser Veränderung des Menschen„materials" ist
jedoch eine ebenso tiefgreifende Veränderung der
Wissenschaftslage verbunden. Es gibt heute eine große
Zahl von Studiengebieten, die überhaupt nicht mehr in
streng methodischer Weise aufgebaut sind, sondern nur
die empirische Kenntnisnahme von komplexen Sachver-
halten fordern. Ohne Zweifel liegt hierin ein Absinken
gegenüber alten Idealen. Solche Fächer tragen den Cha-
rakter der „Kunde", nicht der methodisch durchdachten
Problematik und Systematik. Dahin gehört z. B. das Ge-
biet der W'ohlfahrtspflege, der Sozialpädagogik, der
Sprachen/tunde, Auslands/cunde, \o\ks>kunde, Kultur-
kunde — lauter Namen, über die der Gelehrte alten Stils
die Nase rümpft. Aber man frage ihn, loo man bei uns
in diese Dinge eingeweiht werden kann, es sei denn
nebenbei irgendwie auf der Universität l Wie viele suchen
heute, wenn sie Volkswirtschaftslehre studieren, die Ge-
rüste einer strengen Theorie? Sie streben aber nach
Wirtschafts/ciznrfe und Gesellschafts/c uncie. Und solange
Deutschland keine eigenen Stellen hat, wo man diese
„höhere Bildung" erwerben kann, müssen eben die Uni-
10
versi täten herhalten, mögen sie sich auch tausendmal
aus ihrer Auffassung von eigentlicher Wissenschaft her-
aus gegen diese Zumutung sträuben.
Zum zweitenmal also finden wir uns in der bezeich-
nenden Lage, gestehen zu müssen, daß Deutschland kein
College in amerikanischem Sinne hat, und daß dar-
unter seine angestammte Universitätsidee leiden muß.
Denn was leistet jenes College? Es leistet zweierlei, was
wir immer wieder aus den Vorwürfen der Gegenwart
gegen die Universitäten heraushören : Es gibt eine tüch-
tige, auf pr^tische Fachbedürfnisse gerichtete Aus-
rüstung mit Sachkenntnissen (oder „Kunde"), und es
gibt zweitens eine im mittleren Maß abgerundete allge-
meine Kulturbildung, wie sie einen geistigen Halt zu
bieten vermag für die vielen, die nicht aus dem letzten
Quell der Wissenschaft schöpfen können und wollen,
sondern die Zeitungskunde, Missionskunde, Gesell-
schaftskunde, ja wiederum Naturkunde, Bergwerks-
kunde, Landwirtschaftskunde treiben wollen.
Man lese die Kritiken gegen die deutsche Universität.
In seltsamer, aber doch nicht zufäUiger Gegensätzlich-
keit behaupten sie zweierlei: den Mangel an zielgerich-
teter Berufsbildung und die Überherrschaft des Spezia-
lismus — also durchaus Widersprechendes, wenn man
es nicht so deuten dürfte: es fehle da eine mittlere
Stufe, die von der Kulturlage gefordert wird, und diese
müsse eben zugleich direkt zielgerichtet und doch tota-
litätsbezogen sein. Die letztere Forderung, die vor zehn
Jahren in dem verfehlten, aber doch nicht grundlosen
II
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Plan einer humanistischen Fakultät zutage trat, ent-
hielt ein achtbares Teil guter alter deutscher Geistes-
tradition: man wollte sich im Ganzen orientieren. Aber
ebenso will man im Einzelnen und im Bestimmten
Kenner werden. Nicht mehr gibt man zu, daß dieses
Ziel allein auf dem Höhenwege über eine methodisch
streng gefaßte WissenschafÜichkeit erreichbar sei. Man
braucht heute wieder so etwas wie gesicherte und zu-
sammenfassende Tradition, im Ganzen wie im Einzel-
nen, und man kann sich in der Durchschnittslage den
Weg über die volle Spitzenbildung weder leisten noch
die Kraft dazu zutrauen. Das ist der Sachverhalt, der
zunächst einmal zur Kenntnis genommen werden muß.
Hinter ihm liegen noch wesentlichere Verschiebungen,
die das Verhältnis von Theorie und Praxis betreffen.
Man erwartet heute eine nähere Verbindung zwischen
beiden. Man hat — so scheint es — weder Kraft noch
Willen — die methodisch-philosophische Durchreifung
des Geistes anzustreben und abzuwarten, von der man
^früher die innere Freiheit der Person gegenüber der
nie ganz voraussehbaren Mannigfaltigkeit und Proble-
imatik der konkreten Aufgaben erhoffte. Das ist ein-
fach die selbstverständHche Folge der — Demokrati-
sierung der Bildung. Kulturfunktionäre, Gesellschafts-
funktionäre sind etwas anderes als die philosophisch
gebildeten „Regenten", von denen Plato oder Fichte
sprachen. —
Aus diesen Tatsachen ergibt sich die dritte Fiktion,
mit der wir arbeiten, von selbst. Sie besteht in dem
12
Glauben, daß wir, die Dozenten, bei alledem noch
wissenschaftliche Persönlichkeiten bleiben könnten. An
ganz kleinen Universitäten und in den „stilleren" Fächern
mag dies der Fall sein. In den Hauptfächern des Lehr-
betriebes zerreibt sich der Dozent zwischen der Fülle
seiner Pflichten: Anfängervorlesung, Spezialkolleg, Pro-
seminar, Oberseminar, Sprechstunde, Institutsverwal-
tung, Manuskriptlesen für Staatsprüfung und Doktor-
prüfung, Kulturverpf Uchtung gegenüber der Öffentlich-
keit und — eigener wissenschaf thcher Weiterarbeit, unter
der noch gar nicht einmal die selbständige Forschung,
sondern nur die Beschäftigung mit der neuen Forschung
anderer verstanden werden soll. Man mag es anstellen,
wie man will: auf irgendeiner Seite bleibt das Gewissen
schlecht und ein berechtigter Anspruch an uns unerfüllt.
Mit einem Wort: die Unterrichtsorganisation an den
deutschen Universitäten ist in den geisteswissenschaft-
lichen Fächern — in den Naturwissenschaften hat der
sichtbare Zwang der Sache längst reformierend gewirkt —
primitiv und naiv. Ein Amerikaner würde nach seinen
Vorstellungen von Wissenschaftsorganisation darüber
lächeln.
II
Nun tröstet man sich über diese Mißstände vielfach
damit, daß sie nur aus ungesunden Augenblicksverhält-
nissen stammten, die wieder verschwinden würden. Eine
besondere Rolle spielt in diesen Tröstungen der Hin-
weis auf die kommende Wirkung des Geburtenrück-
ganges im Kriege. Es ist an sich ein trauriger Behelf,
i3
/\
dUi^/j ^ ^^Uf-
wenn man der Krankheit eines Organs durch die Erwar-
tung abzuhelfen glaubt, daß sie unter den noch schlim-
meren Symptomen einer Gesamterkrankung nicht mehr
so fühlbar sein werde. Aber die Beurteilung der Sachlage
ist überhaupt falsch. Es handelt sich nicht um eine
vorübergehende Zeiterscheinung, sondern um eine Ver-
änderung der Gesamtverhältnisse, die man nicht recht-
zeitig erkannt hat. Jene Mittelschicht von Bildungs-
bedürfnissen, von der die Rede war, wird in der gegen-
wärtigen Kulturform dauernd bestehen bleiben. Und so
lange es keine Anstalten gibt, an denen sie sachgemäß
\ und — was in Deutschland sehr stark mitspricht —
„standesgemäß" befriedigt werden, wird sich der An-
I Spruch mit Recht auf die Universitäten richten, die
nun einmal aus öffentlichen Mitteln erhalten werden.
Es gehört zu ihrem Wesen, den Charakter einer plato-
nischen Akademie, die der reinen Wahrheit dient, mit
einer Reihe staatlicher und gesellschaftlicher Bildungs-
funktionen verbinden zu müssen, die durch die allge-
meine Zeitlage bestimmt werden. Beide Aufgaben liegen
nicht unmittelbar in einer Linie. Man könnte daraus fol-
gern, daß nun endlich der notwendige Operationsschnitt
geschehen und beides auch organisatorisch reinlich ge-
trennt, d. h. auf verschiedene Anstalten verteilt werden
müsse. Die Forderung nach der Trennung von For-
schung und Lehre (gedacht ist an Berufslehre) wird
immer lauter. Sie ist allerdings sehr auffällig in einer
Zeit, die für die vorangehende Bildungsstufe den Ar-
beitsschulgedanken entschieden fordert und durchsetzt.
i4
\i
Denn was bedeutet Verbindung von Forschung und
Lehre anderes als das Arbeitsschulprinzip auf der Hoch-
schulstufe? Manche scheinen zu glauben, in jedem
Seminar würden von jedem geradezu wissenschaftliche
Neuentdeckungen verlangt, während es sich doch im
besten Falle so verhält, daß der Student neue Methoden,
die meistens der Professor gefunden hat, selbsttätig auf
einen kleinen Ausschnitt von Gegenständen anwenden
soll. Der Name Forschung ist für diese Art zu arbeiten
in der Regel etwas hoch. Aber was wir über Aufgaben
und Möglichkeiten der Arbeit m der höheren Schule
hören, ist relativ mindestens in gleichem Maße zu hoch
gegriffen. Eine bloße Berufsbildung, die überall auf
das unmittelbar für den Verbrauch Notwendige zuge-
schnitten ist, bliebe nicht nur ein passives Lernen, son-
dern würde auch bald zu einer erstarrten Dogmatik füh-
ren, die sich ein einigermaßen lebendiger Kopf im Stu-
dienalter einfach nicht gefallen läßt.
Die Isolierung der wirklichen Forschung andererseits
von der MögUchkeit des Lehrens und der Nachwuchs-
schulung würde der Wissenschaft selbst den Lebens-
faden abschneiden. Die Geldmittel für solche proble-
matischen Studierstubenversuche würden vermuthch vom
Staate her spärlicher und spärlicher füeßen. Es würde
in vielen Fällen heißen: „Zeigt regelmäßig eure Resul-
tate vor." Das wissenschaftliche Leben verläuft aber nur
selten in einer unablässigen Folge von Neuschöpfungen.
Aus der Berührung mit Menschen, aus dem befruchten-
den Dialog des Unterrichts erwachsen neue Gedanken,
i5
r
und nur so behält die Wissenschaft jene Beziehungen
zum Leben, die heute auch in der öffentüchkeit ent-
schieden gefordert werden.
Der Grundgedanke der deutschen Universität ist also
nicht nur gesund, sondern er ist geradezu eine ewige
Wahrheit, deren Recht manche andere Nation erst unter
unserer Führung einzusehen gelernt hat. Wenn nun-
mehr Reformen notwendig werden, die die veränderte
Gesamtlage der Kultur und der Gesellschaft fordert, so
müssen sie so geleitet werden, daß jene Grundidee dabei
erhalten bleibt, und zwar nicht nur, weil es nicht rat-
sam ist, die Tradition der vom Volk geschaffenen gei-
stigen Formen einfach abzubrechen, sondern deshalb,
weil das Wesen der Sache es so gebietet und immer
gebieten wird.
Nach diesen Erwägungen hoffe ich nicht mehr miß-
verstanden zu werden, wenn ich um der Kürze willen das
Verfahren, das mir vorschwebt, in die Formel kleide:
In die deutsche Universität muß eine College-artige
Stufe so eingebaut werden, daß nicht nur im Oberbau
das Zusammenströmen von Forschung und Lehre er-
halten bleibt, sondern dieser befruchtende Strom auch
die Unterstufe erreicht und sie dauernd mit Leben und
Bewegung füllt. Damit ist eine Aufgabe bezeichnet, die
im wesentlichen auf didaktischem Gebiete hegt. —
Nur solche Reformen sind organisch und zukunft-
reich, die bewußt weiterführen, was sich aus der zwin-
genden Logik neuer Verhältnisse schon von selbst un-
merkhch angebahnt hat. In der Tat befindet sich die
i6
deutsche Universität längst ganz automatisch auf dem
hier angedeuteten Wege. Sie hat Veranstaltungen in sich
aufgenommen, die man mit dem College vergleichen
darf. Denn drei Funktionen könnten in Deutschland die-
sem Gebilde zugeschrieben werden: Nachschulung, ziel-
gerichtete Fachbildung und doch zugleich synoptische
Kulturbetrachtung.
1. Daß das Abiturientenexamen heut nicht mehr für
alle Studienfächer die notwendigen Vorbedingungen
sichert, ist bekannt und soll hier nicht noch einmal aus-
führhch beklagt werden. In der Hauptsache handelt es
sich um Sprachen (die eben nicht durch allgemeine
Denkbegabung ersetzt werden können), aber auch um
andere Gegenstände. So hat sich eine neue „facultas
artium" herausgebildet, deren Funktion je nach dem
Gesichtspunkt, den man wählt, als nachschulend oder
als für das eigentliche Studium propädeutisch bezeich-
net werden kann. Griechisch, Lateinisch, Hebräisch,
Englisch spielen als Vorstufe der geisteswissenschaft-
lichen Studien die Hauptrolle. Etwas Verwandtes könnte
man in den Gegenständen der vorklinischen Semester
bei den Medizinern und in den chemischen Studien, die
vor dem Verbandsexamen liegen, erbUcken. In all diesen
Fällen hat sich die Stufenbildung in der Universität ganz
automatisch eingestellt.
2. Die zweite Aufgabe besteht in der zweckmäßigen
Gestaltung der An/äTigfervorlesungen und -Übungen im
Fache selbst. Das Hineinkommen in sein Studiengebiet
ist heut für den Mittelbegabten äußerst schwierig. Die
2 Spranger, Cbcr Gefährdung
17
Kl
Fülle sich widersprechender Standpunkte und Systeme
muß den Anfänger erdrücken. Es gibt heut in keinem
Fach mehr jene „summa", wie sie das Mittelalter kannte.
Ein weiterer Mangel unserer Einrichtungen besteht
darin, daß die allgemein-notwendigen Einführungsvor-
lesungen nicht in jedem Semester wiederkehren. In
manchen Fächern muß der Anfänger wie beim Puff spiel
eine ganze Zeitlang warten, bis er „einsetzen" kann.
Darin äußert sich die ungünstige Kehrseite unserer ganz
freien Unterrichtsorganisation. Gewiß, dem führenden
Gelehrten ist nicht zuzumuten, daß er immer wieder
dasselbe liest. Sein Reichtum besteht in der immer-
währenden Neugestaltung des Stoffes. Aber jene Fein-
heiten, die gerade er gerade in die Einführungsvor-
lesungen hineinlegen möchte, werden von den Anfän-
gern als solche weder bemerkt noch geschätzt. Sie brau-
chen für ihre Wanderung zunächst eine ganz einfache
Landkarte. Nun haben wir in Deutschland bisher die
Einrichtung der sog. „Kurse" nicht gekannt, wie sie
in vielen ausländischen Hochschulsystemen gebräuch-
hch ist. Zu ihrem Wesen gehört, daß sie einen im gan-
zen feststehenden Stoff behandeln, daß sie ihn elemen-
tar behandeln, daß sie regelmäßig wiederkehren, und
vielleicht auch, daß ihr Besuch pflichtmäßig ist. Wir
brauchen die Bindungen nicht allzu fest zu machen;
aber das Bedürfnis nach Darbietungen, die in solchem
Sinne didaktisch gut sind, zugleich aber innerUch be-
leben und anregen, besteht bei weitaus den meisten Stu-
denten. In manchen Studienfächern wird es heut bereits
i8
■■ i
durch eine sorgfältig organisierte Unterstufe befriedigt.
In anderen fehlt es daran noch ganz. Wir dürfen uns
nicht schämen, auf diesem Wege weiterzugehen. Dabei
taucht dann auch die vielbehandelte Frage der Studien-
pläne wieder auf. In Wissenschaften, die selbst eine
strenge Systematik haben, ergeben sie sich von selbst (so
z. B. in den Anfängen des mathematischen und tech-
nischen, teilweise auch des juristischen Studiums), in
anderen Fächern wird mindestens eine sinnvolle Be-
ratung zu planmäßigem Aufbau des Studiums stattfin-
den müssen. Eine solche Planmäßigkeit aber ist nur
möglich, wenn auch die Darbietung von Vorlesungen
und Übungen planmäßiger erfolgt als bisher.
3. Die Aufgabe dieser einführenden Fachvorlesungen
wäre aber nicht im deutschen Sinne erfüllt, wenn sie nicht
zugleich in einem humanistischen Geiste den Blick wei-
teten für die größeren Zusammenhänge, denen sich das be-
grenzte Fachgebiet und Berufsstudium einordnet. In frü-
heren Zeiten hat man diese Leistung von der Philosophie
erwartet. Der philosophische Gesamtrahmen alles Wis-
sens war ja fast die Hauptidee der klassischen deutschen
Universität. Später verengte sich die Philosophie zu einer
allgemeinen Erkenntnis- und Methodenlehre. Das ist aber
nicht mehr das Ganze, was heut gesucht und gebraucht
wird. Vielleicht handelt es sich dabei überhaupt nicht um
eigentliche Philosophie, sondern um eine allgemein ge-
richtete Kultur- und Lebenskunde. Die Brücken zum Ge-
samtleben, vor allem auch zum praktischen Leben, müs-
sen sichtbarer gemacht werden. Der Plan der huma-
19
\ ^
nistischen Fakultät, den die studentische Generation von
1920 vertrat, lag wohl schon in dieser Richtung. Heut
erwartet man etwas Älinliches von der Soziologie. Wer
ihr diese Kraft nicht zutraut, wird lieher von inhaltlich
ausgemalter Kulturphilosophie reden. Irgendein Gegen-
gewicht gegen das Fachbanausentum aber vnup es geben.
Ich habe den Eindruck, als ob sich die Ausstrahlungen ins
Allgemeine, ins Methodische wie ins Weltanschauliche,
heut mehr vom Zentrum eines jeden Faches selbst aus
bildeten, als daß farblos neutrale pliilosophische Vor-
lesungen noch dieses Wunder wirken könnten. Der junge
Mann sucht Orientierung in der Welt, Durchblicke ins
Ethische und Metaphysische. Aber er steht an einer be-
stimmten Stelle, von der aus er seine Zukunft meistern
will, und er versteht das Allgemeine am besten, wenn
es zunächst in der Sprache vorgetragen wird, die man
in seiner geistigen Provinz zu reden pflegt. —
Dies alles aber wäre unvollkommene Hilfe für das
Leben wie die Wissenschaft, wenn nicht die ganze Unter-
stufe stets umweht würde von dem Hauch der vorwärts-
eilenden und produktiven Wissenschaft. Deshalb muß
die geschilderte Unterstufe mit der Gesamtuniversität in
organischer Verbindung bleiben. Es muß von Anfang an
dem Lernenden fühlbar sein, daß es über diese elemen-
taren Darbietungen hinaus ein Höheres gibt, zu dem er
sich emporarbeiten kann, wenn er das Zeug dazu in sich
hat. Er muß gleichsam aufgelockert werden, damit ein
geistiger Wille in ihm wird. Nicht die Trennung der ziel-
bewußten Berufsbildung von der wissenschaftlichen Uni-
20
versität \AÜrde dem deutschen Wesen gemäß sein, son-
dern nur der Organismus einer einheithchen Anstalt. Sie
hat, ganz im Geiste der ursprünghchen Universität, den
Sinn für die Bedeutung der Grade wieder zu beleben. Es
gibt ein Stufensystem von Weihen. Und es war verfehlt,
daß wir im 1 9. Jahrhundert diese Abstufungen fallen
ließen, unter der Fiktion, die Wissenschaft sei vom
ersten bis zum letzten Schritt in der gleichen, ganz freien
Weise, ohne eigentlich methodische Hilfeleistungen, zu
erobern.
Die Durchführung dieser Stufenbildung aber ist für
jedes Fach ganz individuell. Sie muß für jedes folglich
neu und originell durchdacht werden. Ich weiß, daß sich
da im einzelnen viele Schwierigkeiten entwickeln wer-
den, die meine Ausführungen noch nicht umfassen. Die
Hauptsache ist, daß der Aufbau und das Wachstum stän-
dig von dem produktiven Kopf des Faches überwacht
wird; der Idee nach soll es also der Ordinarius oder die
Ordinarien des Gebietes sein. Deshalb vollzieht sich das
Ganze im Rahmen der Institute oder Seminare; die
Fakultät als Ganzes tritt nur ein, wo ihre Arbeitsbereiche
sich berühren oder schneiden. Glückt ein solcher Auf-
bau, so muß er den wissenschaftlich führenden Haupt-
vertretern des Faches die Mögüchkeit liefern, nun mit
einer Elite zu arbeiten, d. h. mit denen, die aus der
Unter- oder Mittelstufe als erprobte Talente heraus-
gewachsen sind. Zu seinem eigenen Nutzen wird er von
Zeit zu Zeit (falls er es versteht) auch mit den An-
fängern arbeiten. Liegt aber die ganze Verantwortung
91
//
I '
für sie auf ihm, so muß notwendig seine Kraft für
Pflichten draufgehen, die ihm die Freiheit zu schöpfe-
rischem Weiterstreben nehmen.
Damit berühren wir f reiUch den schwierigsten Punkt
des ganzen Planes. Denn für diese Umstellung muß ein
Dozententypus geschaffen werden, den es bis heut nicht
gibt. Er müßte nämlich vom guten Assistenten, vom
guten Studienrat, vom guten Repetitor, aber auch vom
frei suchenden Gelehrten je eine Seite an sich haben.
Und damit ist unendlich viel verlangt. Vor allem sei be-
tont, daß der Privatdozent als solcher nicht der Mann
ist, an den hier in erster Linie gedacht wird. Der Privat-
dozent als durchaus freie, im Forschen wie im Lehren
ungebundene Person ist für das Gesamtgefüge der Uni-
versität zu wichtig, als daß man ihm die Bindungen zu-
muten könnte, die hier erwachsen. Er mag sich be-
teiligen, wenn ihm die Aufgabe Hegt. Aber selbst der
Lehrauftrag, den er etwa hat, darf nicht durch Fes-
selung an feste Linien des Lehrens beengt werden.
Andernfalls würden die Kräfte schon an der Wurzel
gehemmt, die wir für die Wipfelbildung inuner brau-
chen werden. Gerade im Augenblick ist es besonders
schwer, Lehrtalente, wie sie für die Unterstufe gebraucht
werden, in genügender Zahl zu gewinnen; denn die
zahlreich entstehenden Sonderhochschulen saugen ge-
^rade jetzt die Persönlichkeiten an sich, die durch beson-
dere Gabe wissenschaftlichen Lehrens ausgezeichnet
sind. Überhaupt wird das Ziel nicht mit einem Schlage
erreicht werden können. Die neue Form muß sich ent-
22
\
\
wickeln. DibeUus hat in seinem Aufsatz ,,Die Über-
füllung der Universität" (Deutsches Philologenblatt
igSo, Nr. i8, S. 266 ff.) Vorschläge gemacht, die mir
um so beachtlicher scheinen, als sie einen ständigen
Wechsel des Personals und damit die innere Lebendig-
keit und Fruchtbarkeit des Lehrbetriebes gewährleisten.
Aufträge für Lebenszeit würden jedenfalls etwas Be-
denkliches haben. Andererseits gehört zu erfolgreichem
Lehren eine Beherrschung des Stoffes und durchge-
bildete Erfahrung, die der wissenschafthch tüchtige,
junge Doktor noch keineswegs hat. Um im fruchtbaren
Sinne elementar zu sein, bedarf man der Kennerschaft.
III
Unter den Reformvorschlägen taucht immer wieder
die Forderung auf, die Vorlesungen abzuschaffen oder
sie doch zugunsten der Übungen in die zweite Linie zu
drängen. Es ist dies einer jener Gedanken, die jeder für
vernünftig halten muß, bis ihn die Erfahrung über die
Schwierigkeiten der Durchführung belehrt hat. Wir
sprachen schon von dem fruchtbaren Prinzip der Ar-
beitsschule. Wenn es sich aber um wirkUches Arbeiten
handelt, so ist es selbstverständlich, daß niemand mehr
als höchstens drei Arbeitsgemeinschaften im Semester
mitmachen kann. Mehr gibt die menschliche Natur ein-
fach nicht her. Und diese Gemeinschaften dürften
schwerlich mehr als 3o Teilnehmer haben, wenn jeder
zur Aktivität herangezogen werden solL Der Stab an
Übungsleitern müßte also ungeheuer erweitert werden.
23
1
(
1'/
I':
■ »
/ 1
) '!
Unsere heutigen Proseminare, die oft 3oo und mehr
Teilnehmer haben, gehören natürhch auch in den Be-
reich jener Fiktionen, mit denen die Universität sich
trösten muß. Es zeigt sich bald, daß die Mehrzahl in die
Passivität des Zuhörens versinkt.
Aber auch aus anderen Gründen ist die Vorlesung
unentbehrlich. Sie soll — der Idee nach — den neuesten
Stand der Wissenschaft in persönhcher Durchdringung
zeigen. Sie enthält folglich, wenn sie dieser Forderung
entspricht, etwas, das in keinem Buch zu finden ist.
Vielmehr ist sie gleichsam das Buch im Prozeß seiner
Entstehung, mit lebendiger Sprache vorgetragen. Schon
der Lautsprecher setzt diesen lebendigen Kontakt herab.
Von da ist nur ein Schritt bis zur Verbreitung durch
den Rundfunk. Es ist eigenartig, daß viele, die sich nicht
nur mit den Mängeln der Rundfunklehrvorträge ab-
gefunden haben, sondern diese neue Form geradezu be-
geistert begrüßen, nicht genug gegen die Vorlesungen
auf der Hochschule Sturm laufen können, weil diese
die Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst ignorierten. Mit
Recht kann gegen die Vorlesung gesagt werden, daß
sie oft schlecht ist, d. h. schlecht gehalten wird ; ebenso,
daß sie schlecht gehört wird (die Älehrzahl der Studen-
ten vveiß gar nicht, wie man von einer guten Vorlesung
Gebrauch macht und sich durch sie zur Aktivität an-
regen läßt). Schlecht ist die Stoff auf schwemmung in
manchen Vorlesungen, die zur Ausdehnung auf immer
mehr Stunden und gar Semester führt. Denn die Vor-
lesung bleibt Hilfsmittel zum Studium. Sie ist keines-
24
wegs schon selbst Studium. Für die Einführungsvor-
lesungen ist die Verbindung mit einem Kolloquium in
besonderen Stunden zu empfehlen. Auch dies aber setzt
eine mäßige Hörerzahl voraus. Und eine Täuschung wäre
es, zu glauben, daß ein Kolloquium schon den Namen
der Übung verdiente. Allerdings ist auch die heutige
Schule bisweilen nicht ganz frei von der Gefahr, einen
Debattierklub mit dem Prinzip der Arbeitsschule zu ver-
wechseln. Diese beginnt doch erst da, wo in heißer eige-
ner Mühe und in tätiger Berührung mit dem Stoff ge-
rungen wird, der seine strengen Forderungen stellt.
Das Arbeitenkönnen in diesem Sinne muß voraus-
gesetzt werden, wenn die höhere wissenschaftüche Ar-
beit einsetzt. Nach unseren Erfahrungen wird diese
Fähigkeit, ja schon die Fähigkeit verständnisvollen
Lesens und geordneter schriftlicher Gedankenäußerung,
nicht immer von der Schule mitgebracht. Es ist un-
denldiar, daß der Universitätsprofessor diese Dinge in
seinem Hauptseminar erst lehren soll. Deshalb muß ihm
eine „angelernte" Teilnehmerschaft zugeführt werden,
die bereits in den Anfängerübungen die allgemeinsten
Einstellungen und Handgriffe geübt hat. Ich gestehe,
daß ich mich unter diesem Gesichtspunkt mit einem
Gedanken zu befreunden beginne, den ich bisher aus der
alten Universitätsidee heraus entschieden abgelehnt
habe: nämUch mit der Einführung von Zwischen-
prüfungen. Sie haben nicht nur den Wert, die Tüch-
tigeren auszusieben und sie dem höheren „Grad" zuzu-
führen, sondern sie dienen auch der Selbstprüfung, zu
25
i
li
'i
i
der der Student bei dem heute herrschenden System
während eines langen Studiums viel zu selten Gelegen-
heil erhält. Die Folge ist, daß auch die Abstoßung der
Ungeeigneten zu spät erfolgt. Berufstragödien wie die,
daß jemand erst am Schluß der praktischen Ausbil-
dungszeit seine Unfähigkeit für den gewählten Beruf
einsieht, haben hierin ihre Wurzel. Der alte Liberalis-
mus unseres Verfahrens hatte Sinn bei einer überseh-
baren Zahl. Handelt es sich um Massen, die die Be-
rührung des Dozenten mit dem einzelnen nicht mehr ge-
statten, so muß organisiert werden.
Unter diesem Gesichtspunkt sind auch die sog. „gro-
ßen Vorlesungen" für Studierende sehr verschiedener
Fächer zu verwerfen. Sie stammen aus einer Zeit, wo
es dem Spezialisten noch möglich war, auch seine
Hilfswissenschaften von einem rein wissenschafthch-
systematischen Standpunkt aus in sich aufzunehmen.
Heute braucht der Mediziner, der Botaniker, der Apo-
theker einen Chemievortrag, der ihn auf die gerade
für ihn wichtigen Methoden und Resultate hinleitet.
Keine didaktische Kunst vermag selbst eine Philosophie-
vorlesung für all die verschiedenen Mentalitäten, die
sie treffen soll, gleichmäßig geeignet zu gestalten. Da-
her die viel bemerkte innere Unfruchtbarkeit der Be-
schäftigung von fachwissenschaftUch Interessierten mit
der Philosophie.
Wenn alle hier geäußerten Vorschläge in der Richtung
lagen, die Universität in einem guten und berechtigten
Sinne pädagogischer zu machen, so wird freilich auch
36
•
eine Abänderung der Staatsprüfungen damit verbunden
sein müssen. In vielen Gebieten kommt es noch heute
vor, daß über das Ergebnis eines vieljährigen Studiums,
über den inneren Berufswert oder -unwert eines Men-
schen nur auf Grund einer einstündigen Berührung,
ohne sonstige persönliche Kenntnis, entschieden wird.
Das ist für ein Zeitalter, das sich seines psychologischen
Verständnisses und seiner Auslesemethoden rühmt, ein
„Skandal der reinen Vernunft". Aber wir überschreiten
damit die Grenze unseres Themas. —
Der Grundgedanke, von dem meine Anregungen ge-
tragen sind, stellt sich im Rückblick dar als ein entschie-
denes Bekenntnis zu der Idee der deutschen Universität,
die in deutschen Formen nichts anderes ist als die Idee
der platonischen Akademie. Beide sind geboren aus der
Überzeugung, daß Menschen von höherer Kulturverant-
wprtun^ innerlich dazu erweckt sein müssen, aus der
Wahrheit zu leben. Der Wahrheitssinn ist nicht eine
der vielen mögUchen Ideologien, d.h. der Gedanken-
bildungen, mit denen man sich in der Welt durchsetzen
kann. Sondern die Wahrheit soll sich im Menschen und
durch ihn in der Welt durchsetzen; mit ihr die Ge-
rechtigkeit und das Gute überhaupt. Denn diese drei sind
untrennbar. Mag diese Wahrheit uns im Ergebnis nie
rein beschieden sein: wenn das Suchen nach ihr nicht
an der Wurzel des Bemühens gesessen hat, so ist es
nichts als Sophistik und geistige Klopffechterei, was
herauskommt. Wenn wir also unter diese Idee eines sich
selbstüberwindenden, der Sache und ihrem Gesetz die-
27
A
(
'.
;M
I ■
l
if
iS
1<
nenden Wahrheltsuchens herabsinken, so ist ein ewiges
Licht erloschen, das der Menschheit schon einmal sicht-
bar geworden war. Schwerlich wird jemand sich gegen
das Ziel der Wahrheit in den Naturwissenschaften ver-
härten. In den Geistes- und Gesellschaftswissenschaften
aber möchte man wieder in die Übersetzung zurück-
fallen, die das griechische xpeixxcov mit „mächtiger *
statt mit „besser" wiedergibt. Und damit wären wir wie-
der bei der Auseinandersetzung, die schon vor 2/^00 Jah-
ren gespielt hat und zu deren Trägern Plato damals
Sokrates und Polos-Kallikles machte. Wohin wir in die-
sem Streit gehören, ist uns keinen Augenblick zweifel-
haft.
Liegt also hier das Ewigkeitsmoment im deutschen
Universitätsgedanken, so bedarf es doch immer neuer
Formen, um die Erweckung dieser Idee dem Leben, der
wechselnden Geistesart der Menschen und den Besonder-
heiten der geschichtlich-gesellschaftlichen Lage anzu-
passen, zugleich aber auch den neuen Anwendungs-
bereichen gerecht zu werden. Dieses Wirksammachen
der Idee auf den besten uns möglichen Wegen, die päd-
agogische Besinnung über unser Verfahren mit den
Menschen, gehört auch zu unseren Pflichten. Und in
dieser Hinsicht dürfen die Formen nicht starr werden.
Vielleicht bedarf es ausdrücklicher Erwähnung, daß
die Hüter der deutschen Universität nicht im entfernte-
sten danach fragen, aus welchen gesellschaftlichen Schich-
ten ihre Jünger herkommen. Ja es ist ihr beglückendstes
Erlebnis, wenn der Funke der echten Wissenschaft, die
28
1
immer auch gestaltend ist, in solchen Seelen zündet, die
einer bisher unervveckten gesellschaftlichen Schicht ange-
hören. Man sende uns so viele von ihnen, als nur kom-
men können. Freilich haben wir ihnen nichts anderes zu
bieten, als unser eigenes Bemühen um Wahrheit und
Erkenntnis. Wer da meint, dieser Geist der Wahrheit
mache untaugHch zum Leben, mit dem werden wir ver-
geblich Verständigung suchen. Denn wir deuten Goethes
berülmiten Satz so, daß das Wahre immer fruchtbar ist |^
Aber wir können nicht zugeben, daß das Fruchtbare,
verstanden als das liier und jetzt NützHche, deshalb auch
schon immer im höheren Sinne wahr ist.
r
r
■^p*^
!
'I
I
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!l
1
VERLAG VON QUELLE & MEYER IN LEIPZIG
EDUARD SPRANGER
Psychologie
des Jugendalters
13. Auflage. 375 Seiten. In Leinenband M. 9. —
„Dieses Buch verdient die Beachtung, die es gefunden,
in vollem Maße. Rückt es doch eine Epoche des Menschen-
lebens, die ein jeder gelebt hat, und die nicht vielen be-
kannt ist, aus dem trügerischen Helldunkel in pracht-
volle Klarheit. Klug und verständig abwägend, weiß
es die heikelsten Probleme mit feinem Takt und warmem
sittHchem Empfinden darzustellen. Aber auch die Ab-
schnitte über die religiöse Entwicklung, die Weltanschau-
ung des Jugendlichen und viele andere greifen hinein ins
volle Menschenleben. Hier spricht ein Psychologe, der
mehr als Fachmann, der wirklich Seelenkenner
ist.*
Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift
Kultur und Erziehung
Gesammelte pädagogische Aufsätze
11.— 14. Tausend. 306 Seiten. In Leinenband M. 7.60
„Das Wesen des Erziehers Hegt in einem doppelten Eros;
in der Liebe zu den geistigen Werten und in der Liebe
zu den sich entwickelnden Seelen, in denen es produk-
tive Wertmöghchkeiten ahnt. Durch diese Formel läßt sich
auch Eduard Sprangers pädagogisches Wirken charakte-
risieren. Das vorliegende Buch, das einen ausgezeich-
neten Einblick in die gesamte Forschungsarbeit Spran-
gers gewährt, zeigt, wie er die Liebe zu den geistigen
Werten zu wecken vermag, wie er zugleich auch die Er-
zieher mit Verständnis und Liebe zu der heranwachsenden
Jugend erfüllt." Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie
'I I
I
VERLAG VON QUELLE & MEYER IN LEIPZIG
EDUARD SPRANG ER
Das deutsche Bildungsideal
der Gegenwart
^g
in geschichtsphilosophischer Beleuchtung
Sonderdruck aus „Die Erziehung"
2. Aufl. 75 Seiten. Geheftet M. 3.—. In Leinenbd. M. 4.—
„Verfasser behandelt hier die Kernfragen unseres geistigen
Daseins. Er untersucht die Kräfte unseres geistigen Le-
bens und kommt zu der Feststellung, daß kein Realismus
Bildung zu heißen verdient, der nicht aus einer Mensch-
heitsform heraus gesucht und gelebt wird, und daß kein
Humanismus in die Tiefe geht, der sich nicht am Ab-
soluten der ethischen Verpflichtung und der Gotteser-
fahrung entzündet hat." Archiv für Volksbildung
Die Verschulung Deutschlands
Sonderdruck aus „Die Erziehung"
2. Auflage. 16 Seiten. Geheftet M. 1.—
„Hier handelt es sich also um die Zukunft der Volksge-
samtheit, und daher kann allen gar nicht dringend genug
geraten werden, diese kleine Schrift recht eingehend zu
studieren und mit Worten und Taten einer Gefahr ent-
gegenzuarbeiten, der unser überorganisiertes Schulwesen
mit vollen Segeln entgegeneilt." Schulbote für Hessen
Gedanken über Lehrerbildung
2. Auflage. 76 Seiten. Geheftet M. 2.—
„Sprangers Schrift hat das Verdienst, eine
rege öffentliche Diskussion über die Frage der Lehrer-
bildung veranlaßt zu haben. Wie man sich zu seinen Vor-
schlägen auch immer stellen mag: sie sind der An-
stoß gewesen, daß die verschiedenartigen Ansichten
in dieser Frage sich deutlicher aussprachen, prinzipieller
wurden, so daß die Gegensätze schärfer hervortraten und
die Situation in dieser Frage eine geklärtere wurde."
Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie
J
M
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1. Jhdguosc der hJiiffkcit
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fast iihei'piiistiniinend; ( ■ ) iiiclit selir VfMscliieden.
17
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liiedeii;
Diese Zusanimenstellimg zeigt sehr schön in fast bildhafter
Form das Wesen und den Wert der Ahnliehkeitsdiagnose. Das
homogene l^ild der (Jleiehheitszeiehen bei den E. Z. wird nur an
wenigen Stellen unterbrochen durch kleine Verschiedenheiten. Bei
den Z. Z. dagegen ist kein Paar, das nicht in mindestens .") geniseh
bedingten Merkmalen Verschiedenheiten aufwiese. Von ernstlichen
Schwierigkeiten der Eiigkeitsdiagnose kann also bei diesen 20 Zwil-
lingspaaren nicht die Rede sein. Kleinere Schwierigkeiten sollen
immerhin erwähnt werden :
Bei J\aar 4 ist die Haut bei der im ganzen zarteren a etwas
gelblich-blasser als bei der robusteren b; auch ist der Gesichts-
ausdruck bei a zarter, nervöser als })ei b. Jk^ide haben aber eine
in Form und Ausdehnung cähnliche Rosacea und stimmen auch
in den übrigen Testmerkmalen völlig iiberein. einschließlich Fa-
])ilIarnHister. An der P^ineiigkeit dieses Paares würden wir nie
IJeiheft (>! zur Zoitscliiift für antrewandto Psycholos^ie 2
18
V. Ergebnisse. A. Allgemein' Zwillingsforsrhung
ZW
eifeln ; die kleinen Verschiedenheiten hissen sich um so eher als
modifikatorisch bedingt erklären, als diese Zwillinge recht ver-
schiedene innere und äußere Schicksak^ gehabt haben.
Die Irisfar])e bei Paar Nr. 7 konnnt bei beiden Zwillingen dem
Muster 1:5 der Augenfarbentafel von Martin am nächsten; die Ins
von b ist aber ganz leicht mehr pigmentiert als die von a. Auch
im T\a])illarnmsterbild sind kleine Verschiedenheiten, die zwar
nicht unbedingt gegen Eineiigkeit s])rechen. die aber doch bei E. Z.
selten sind. Nehmen wir hinzu, daü die Kör])ergröße und einige
sonstige anthropologische Daten recht verschieden sind, und daß a
intellektuell deutlich leistungsfähiger ist als b. so nmß in diesem
Falle die Frage der Eiigkeit doch etwas schwieriger erscheinen.
Die Entscheidung für Eineiigkeit stützt sich bei diesem Paare auf
die Tatsache, daß außer den 1) TestnuM-kmalen der Tabelle, in denen
diese Zwillinge übei'einstinnnen (was bei Z. Z. schon ganz auffallend
und ungewöhnlich wäre) genügend weitere Übereinstimnumgen
bemerkenswerter Art vorhanden sind (z. B. Vorhandensein und
Verteilung von Sonnners])rossen. Throraxform. Mammae. Nagel-
falzka])illaren usw.). Vielleicht haben bei diesem Paare schon in
utero besondere modifizierende Einflüsse vorgeherrscht. Es wurde
von der Mutter der Zwillinge nämlich angegeben, daß es sich eigent-
lich um Drillinge gehandelt hätte, von denen die eine Frucht als
verkiunmerte Totgeburt zur Welt gekommen sei. Auch sei hervor-
gehoben, daß die kleinere, intellektuell tief erstehende b als erste und
in Kopflage geboren wurde, a dagegen 7 Stunden sj)äter als Steiß-
lage.
Hervorzuheben ist schließlich das i^uir 1(1. Hier liegt eine
völlige Übereinstimmung aller vorwiegend genisch bedingten Merk-
male vor bei einer auffallenden Verschiedenheit des ganzen Habitus,
des Kräftezustandes und zum Teil auch des psychischen Verhaltens,
a ist ziemlich kräftig, hat gut ausgebildete Muskulatur und ge-
nügendes Fettpolster, b dagegen nuiß als asthenische Kümmerform
bezeichnet werden (s. Abb. 3 auf S. 23). Psychisch macht a einen
etwas ausgeglicheneren, b einen ges])annteren Eindruck; daneben
sind aber auch ])sychisch so auffallende und tiefgreifende Ähnlich-
keiten vorhanden, wie sie bei Z. Z. kaum beobachtet werden. Eine
Erklärung für die Verschiedenheit dieser E. Z. liegt nahe: b, der
von jeher kleiner und schwächer war als a, hat ein kombiniertes
Mitralvitium. Wie und wann dieses Vitium erworben wurde,
war nicht festzustellen. Daß es einen nachhaltigen und vielleicht
J
/, Piagfiose der Eiigkeit
h)
schon sehr fridien Einfluß auf die ganze Entwicklung des Knaben
ausgeübt hat (in utero i), muß als wahrscheinlich angesehen werden.
Bei den Z. Z. ist ein Zweifel an der Eiigkeitsdiagnose nirgends
zu erheben, da die festgestellten Verschiedenheiten sich größtenteils
auf Eigenschaften beziehen, deren überwiegend genische Bedingt-
heit nach allen Ergebnissen dei* Zwillingsforschung als gesichert
angesehen werden kann.
a
Abb. 1. Eineiige ZwiMinge
Wertvoll und unerläßlich ist es. bei allen Zwillingen die Blut-
gruppe festzustellen, da es sich hier um ein genisch bedingtes
Merkmal reinster Ausprägung handelt, von dem modifikatorische
Wandlungen bisher id)erhau})t noch nicht l)ekannt sind. Nach
allen bisher vorliegenden Erfahrungen nuiß Eineiigkeit als ausge-
schlossen gelten, wenn die Blutgrui)pen nicht übereinstinnnen.
Andererseits spricht die Gleichheit der Blutgruppenjillein genau so
wenig für Eineiigkeit, wie die Übereinstimmung in anderen ein-
zelnen Merkmalen. Die Eiigkeitsdiagnose ist eben immer eine
Gesamtbestimmung und darf sich niemals auf die Uberein-
stimniung in wenigen Merkmalen stützen. Da es sich bei den zur
Agglutination führenden Eigenschaften des Blutserums und der
Erythrocyten um Merkmale handelt, die einen einfachen domi-
nanten Erbgang zeigen, so entspricht es durchaus der Erwartung.
2*
1
(
20
r. luw^'nusse. A. AUgewcinv Zu'illing.sforschumj
(laß auch (Mu Teil der Z. Z. gleiche Blutgruppen aufweisen wird.
Das kommt bei unserem Material auch klar /.um Ausdruck : alle E.Z.
haben iil)eieinstimmen(le l^lutgruppen von den Z. Z. zeigt (he
Hälfte ri)ereinstimmung. die andere Hälfte Verschiedenheit der
Blut<nu|)i)e. Ks wäre nun interessant und aufschlußreich, zu unter-
suchen, ob die Übereinstimmung (\vv Blutgruppen bei den K. /.
eine vol 1 kommenere ist als bei den Z. Z. mit gleicher Blutgruppe.
n 1>
Ahl). -. Z\\'«'i(MiLr(' Zwilliiiuc'
Derartige Untersuchungen (piaiititativer Alt werden an unserem
Material von IhMiti Dr. l.\i i;k z. Z. durchgeführt. Die l)isherigen
(zahlenmäl.^ig noch ungenügenden) Hesultate scheinen in (kr Tat
(hifin- zu s|)rechen. dal.^ die l'bci-einstimmung der Blutgiuppe bei
den K. Z. übei- das (Qualitative hinausgeht und sich aucli ins
Quantitative hinein eistreckt. (Bei den K. Z. fand sich häufig
eine größere i'bereinstimmung des Titers als bei den Z. Z. mit
gleicher Bhitgruppi.)
2. Aii11in)|M)l<m:is(lH' Kr^cbiiissc.
a) K()r])erl)au. AHgemeinzustand
Das Problem (k's K(")r])erl)auty])us nimmt mit Recht in der
jiingeren Anthropologie einen breiten Pvaum ein. Viele Fi'agen
.
A nf/i rojx/hxfi.sr/ic hJr(/(htii,s.se
21
physiologischer, pathologischer und ])syehophysischer Art haben
eine einfacliere und biologisch tiefer l)egriin(lete Beantwortung
erfahren, seit wir es gelei-nt. oder besser gesagt: wieder gelernt
haben, das Morphologische und das Funkticjnale einander irgendwie
zugeordnet zu sehen, nicht im einzelnen. s(m(kM'n bezogen auf die
(Janzheit des lndivi(hiums. Wir dürfen aber nicht vergessen, daß
alle diese Bemühungen von den Typusbildungen eines Akisto-
TFj.Ks. !*()!{ lA und Thi:()i>hrast an bis zu den bahn])rechen(len Auf-
stellungen Krhtscilmeks an der Unvollkommenheit kranken, daß
sie noch nie mit strengen erbbiologischen Maßstäben gemessen
worden sind. Ks ist wiederum ihr Zwillingsfoi'schung vorbehalten,
durch umfangreiche rntersuchungsreihen aus den bisher ge-
schaffenen Typisierungen (bis herauszuschälen, was wirklich
genoty])iseh l)e(lingt ist. Es sei nur an die durchaus ungeklärte
Problematik des sogenannten asthenischen oder lei)tosomen Ty})us
erinnert. Ob es sich hierbei wirklich um einen einheitlichen Ty])us
handelt, oder ob nicht vielmehr unter dem gleichen Namen geno-
ty})isch und modifikatorisch bedingte ..Schmalformen'" nebenein-
ander laufen, wird sich in Zukunft zu erweisen haben.
Wenn es auch nicht eigentlich im Rahmen dieser Arbeit liegt,
so soll doch zum Zwecke späterer statistischer Verweiuhmg einiges
über den Kör])erbautypus unserer l^robanden mitgeteilt werden.
Eine zahlenmäßige Verarbeitung wird erst l)ei der Zusammen-
stellung eines größeren (k^rartigen Materials mögUch sein. Noch
aus einem anck'ren (Jrunde müssen wir uns davor hüten, aus dem
vorliegenden Material Schlüsse auf die genische Bedingtheit des
Körperbautypus zu ziehen: unsere Probanden stehen in der über-
wiegenden Zahl noch im Entwicklungsaltei'. in dem es zuweilen
schwer ist. die"^Zugeh()rigkeit zu einem bestinnnten Typus festzu-
stellen.
Unter vorwiegender Benutzung der Einteilung und Nomen-
klatur von Khf.tschmkr (192()a) können wir unsere Probanden in
folgender Weise eingru])])ier(Mi (s. Tabelle 3 auf S. 22):
Unter den E. Z. ist bei 7 Paaren (Nr. 1. 2. 5. 0. 7. S. 9) eine
Übereinstimmung des Korperbautypus v(m a und b festzustellen.
Zweimal finden sich kleine Unterschiede des Habitus: Bei Paar
Nr. 3 ist a fast rein pyknisch. während bei b an eine leichte le])to-
some Legierung zu denken ist. Und das Paar Nr. 4 ist insofern
. «~.«i^v|#n-:wikw-
0')
l ' . Enjvhnlssv . A. A Uge meine Zwillinysforsch v hu
Tabelle .S. Körperbautypus der Probanden
2 . A nth ropolog isch c Erffchnisse
•2H
Nr.
a
A
b
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Leptosom = Leptosom
Astheuiscli = Astiiem'scl»
Pykiiiseh (=) Pykniscli (letzieit Icplosoi
Asthenisch (=) Asthenisch (legiert athh>t
(' berw ie^^end astheniscli = i'heiwiejzcMul astlienisch
Le])tosom =
Pyki lisch -athletiscli =
Asthenisch =
Leptosom =
Athletisch(-Ieptosom) ( x ) Astlienisch
l'vknisch x Astlienisch
nY)
isch ?)
Le))tosom
Pvkniscli-atiih'tiscli
f.
Astheniscli
Le])tos()m
Le|)tos()m =
I\vknisch(-atliletiscli) ( x)
Asthenisch (=) J^e]")tosoin
l*yknisch(-leicht asthenisch) (=) Pykniscji
Asthenisch = Asthenisch
Pykiiisch-athletisch x Asthenisch
Athletisch = Athletisch
Le])tos()in
Pvknisch( -leicht asthenisc
h)
Asthenisch x
Athh'tisch-astluMiiscli ( x)
Athletisch
Asthenisch
(,, leptosom": reiner Pi'oportioiishejirift' tili' Schmalw iichs:
,,asthenisch"': enthält danehcii den \Vei'tl)egriff ..Kiimmerwuchs'
•)•
verschieden, als a rein asthenisch erscheint, (be im ganzen rol)ustere
b a])er etwas ins Athletische hinüberspielt.
Bemerkenswert verschieden sind die Zwillinge Nr. 10 (s. Abb. 3).
]^ei aller morphologischer Ähnlichkeit der meisten Einzebnerkmale
sind die rroportionen des Längen-Dicken-Wachstums bei a und b
verschieden, a stellt einen vorwiegend athletischen Typus dar,
dem leptosome Züge ])eigesellt sind, während b als reiner Tyi)us von
Asthenie anges])rochen werden nmü. Daü bei b modifikatorische
Kinflüsse einschneidende!' Art (vor allem ein schweres Vitium
cordis) eine Rolle spielen, wurde schon im vorigen Abschnitt betont.
Wir wissen bei den gerade im Beginn dei- Pubertät stehenden
Kna1)en noch nicht, wie sie nach 5 Jahren aussehen werden. Sollten
beide — was nicht unwahrscheinlich ist — ihren jetzigen Tvdus
bei})ehalten. so würde dieses i^aar einen wertvollen Beleg für die
Existenz einer modifikatorisch bedingten Asthenie abgeben.
Und es würde sich durch eine größere Reihe derartiger Paare (zu
denen in geringerem Ausmaße auch Paar Nr. 4 zu rechnen ist)
beweisen lassen, daß Le])t()somie und Asthenie etwas durchaus
Verschiedenes darstellen, klinisch sowohl als erbbiologisch.
Unter den Z.
Z. findet sich eine
fast vollkommene
Ubereinstinnnung
des Kör])erbauty-
^^ns nia* dreimal
(Paar Nr. 12. l(i
und IS). Bei 4
Paaren finden sich
mäßige Unterschie-
de (Paar Nr. 18.
14. IT) und 20).
wählend :\ Paare
(Nr. 11.17 und 19)
einem deutlich ver-
schiedenen Tv])us
zu gehören.
Weitergehende
»Schlüsse können
und sollen aus die-
sen Ergebnissen .
wie schon betont,
nicht gezogen wer-
den. Nicht nur
die kleine Zahl
hält uns davon ab.
sondern auch die
Tatsache, daß ju-
gendliche und weib-
liche Individuen sich in den nicht extremen Fällen oft sehr
schwer in die richtige (Jru])])e einordnen lassen.
b) Die anthropologischen Maße
Zur Bestimmung des Umwelteinflusses auf die Körj)er'inaße ist
ein sehr großes, völlig unausgewähltes Material notwendig. Über
größere Zahlen verfügen in dieser Hinsicht vor allem Weitz (1924)
und V. VERSciirER (1927). die eine große Zahl von (größtenteils
Abh. 3. K. Z. 10
I
PI '
/
4
\
24
r. tJn/chnissc. A. Alhjcnir'nx' Zirilll nc/.sfor^rhiUKj
jugendlichen) Zwillingen gerade in anthropologischer Hinsieht ein-
gehend hearheitet hahen. Es ist aher ert'oi'derlich. daB hei allen
weiteren Zwillingsuntersuchungen die P'eststellung der wichtigeien
anthropologischen Maße genügend berücksichtigt wird. Wenn
sich auch aus den einzelnen derartigen Beitrcägen keine Regel
ableiten läßt, so geben sie doch die Möglichkeit einer s[)äteren
größeren Zusannnenfassung mit dem Material anderer Untersucher.
Darüberhinaus gewähren sie aber auch häufig trotz der relativ
kleinen Zahlen einen Einl)lick in den generellen Unterschied
zwischen den Verschiedenheiten der E. Z. einerseits uiul denen der
Z. Z. andererseits. Die Mitteilung eines großen und zunächst etwas
langweilig erscheinenden Zahleinnaterials läßt sich hierbei ebenso
wenig vermeiden, wie die Errechnung der notwendigen \'ergleichs-
zahlen.
Die Tabellen 4 und .")' geben zunächst das ermittelte Material
an anthropologischen Maßen wieder, soweit sie in der nachfolgenden
Verrechnung berücksichtigt werden. Einige gebi'äuchliche Maße
(Ohrhöhe des Kopfes. Breite der Hand und des Fußes) wurden aus
der statistischen Verarbeitung fortgelassen, da sie bei einigen
Zwillingspaaren nicht aufgenommen wurden, wodurch der ..Fehler
der kleinen Zahl" unvei'hältnismäßig vergrößert würde.
Zur vergleichenden Bearbeitung der absoluten Zahlen l)e-
dienten wir uns der von v. Vkusciuhk (192r)c) angegebenen mitt-
leren prozentualen Abweichung. Es wurde also bei jedem
l*aare für jedes Maß dvr Mittelwei-t festgestellt und dann die Ab-
weichung vom Mittelwert in l^iozenten des Mittelwertes ausge-
drückt. Diese Rechnung ergibt die ..durchschnittliche prozentuale
Abweichung' für jedes Zwillingsi)aar. Die ..mittlere })rozentuale
Abweichung ' stellt nun (\vn Mittelwert aus den durchschnittlichen
prozentualen Abweichungen dar. Diese Form der Verarbeitung
wurde gewählt, da sie bei relativer Einfachheit für die meisten
Vergleichszwecke genügt. Außerdem ermöglicht sie den Vergleich
mit den Resultaten anderer Untersucher, die größtenteils diese
Methode angenonnnen haben. Zur Kritik der ..mittleren pro-
zentualen Abweichung" ist nur zu sagen, daß sie dem wichtigen
Faktor des ..wahrscheinlichen Meßfehlers" nicht Rechnung trägt
wodurch die Abweichung bei den meisten kleinen Maßen (z. B
Gesichtsmaße) relativ zu groß erschenit. da hier der prozentuale
J Siehe Anhang' S. KU u. 102.
2. Anthropolo(fische Ergebnisse
25
Meßfehler viel größer ist. als bei den gi()ßeren KörjUMinaßen. Eine
ents})rechende Korrektur dei- Formel für die mittlere |)r()zentuale
Abweichung wäre also für die Zukunft zu erwägen, könnte aller-
dings nur von anthro})()logischer Seite vorgenommc^n werden, die
in der Lage ist, den durchschnittlichen Meßfehler an sehr großem
Material zu ermitteln.
Die durchschnittliche prozentuale Abweichung der
einzelnen Maße ist aus den Tabellen (> (E. Z.) und 7 (Z. Z.)' zu
ersehen.
Ermitteln wir nun aus diesen Werten die mittlere })rozentuale
Abweichung fiu' die einzelnen Maße, so wird ein direkter Vergleich
der entsprechenden Zahlen der E. Z. mit denen der Z. Z. möglich.
Diese vergleichende Aufstellung l)ringt die Tabelle S-.
Ein Verizleich dieser Zahlen mit denen von v. VERscurKH wäre
sinnlos, da unser Material (bei dem die Bearbeitung der anthi'o-
pologischen Daten nicht im Mittelpunkt dei- Aufgabe stand) viel
zu gering ist. Unter unseren E. Z. sind einige i*aare (besonders
Nr. 7 und Nr. 10), bei denen modifikatorische Einflüsse in be-
sondei'em Ausmaße wirksam geworden zu sein scheinen. Derartige
Fälle belasten eine kleine Statistik sehi* nach dei" Seite dei" Diver-
genz, während sie in einem großen Material viel mehr ausgeglichen
würden. Es wurde daher bei den Werten für die E. Z. in Tabelle S
immer in Klammern der entsprechende Wert eingesetzt, der sich
ergibt, wenn das sehr aus dem Rahmc^i noinialer Entwicklung
fallende Paar 10 nicht mit berücksichtigt wird.
Trotz der erwähnten Belastung der Statistik der E. Z. zeigt
die Zusammenstellung in fast allen Maßen eine größere mittlere
prozentuale Abweichung bei den Z. Z. gegenüber den E. Z. Nur
bei 8 Maßen (Länge der vorderen Runi{)fwan(l. iJinge der rechten
Hand und physiognomische (iesichtshöhe) ist der Wert bei den E. Z.
größer als bei den Z. Z. Die physiognomische Gesichtshöhe erweist
sich auch hier als ein unzuverlässiges Maß; der wahrscheinliche
Meßfehler ist bei diesem Maße schon so groß (infolge Verschieden-
heit des Haaransatzes), daß es aus einer sinnvollen (Jegenid)er-
stellung fortbleiben nniß. Bezüglich der anderen beiden Maße
muß der Fehler der kleinen Zahl für das Resultat verantwortlich
gemacht werden. Nach den Untersuchimgen von v. VEHsciirEH
kann es keinem Zweifel unterliegen, daß die mittlere ])rozentuale
1 Siehe Anhaim S. 103.
2 Siehe Aiihan^r S. 104.
\
26
r. Ergebnisse. A. All</emeine ZwiUingsforscJnmff
2. Anthropologische Ergebnisse
27
Abweichiuig der Länge der vorderen Riunpfwand und der Länge
der rechten Hand bei Z. Z. deutlich größer (etwa doppelt so groß)
ist. als bei E. Z.. wenn ein sehr großes, ziemlich homogenes Material
der Berechmuig zugrunde gelegt wird.
Irgendwelche Schlüsse auf die Modifikationsbreite der einzelnen
Maße lassen sich aus unseren Zahlen noch nicht ziehen. Hier wird
die Zusammenstellung mit weiteren, im Gange befindlichen Unter-
suchungen al)zuwarten sein.
Li der Tabelle O' werden schließlich noch einige Index-
werte angegeben.
Der Index H ( Kuinpflaiijz*' in Prozent (Ua- Körpergröße) enthält den
erwähnten Fehler iK^zü^lieh der Länge der vorderen Hnnipfwand in ahge-
.selnväehtein (Jrade. Die anderen beiden Indizes zeigen die gioüere Ab-
weielnnig der Z. Z. gegenüber den K. Z. deutlieh. Dies ist um so eher als
branc]i])ares Resultat zu werten als unsere Zahlem'eihe der K. Z. Jiaeh der
Seite der Divergenz unverhältnismäßig stark belastet ist.
Es sei nochmals betont, daß das gesamte hier mitgeteilte
Zahlenmaterial niu' einen Überblick tuid eine Handhabe zur
s])äteren J^earbeitung in gr(")ßerem Rahmen gewähren soll. Alle
Schlüsse über die Modifikationsbreite der einzelnen Merkmale
müssen hier noch unterbleiben.
c) Sonstige Eigenschaften
Im Anschhiß an die ^Ltteilimg der anthropologischen Maße
seien einige weitere körperliche Eigenschaften bezüglich ihrer
Konkordanz oder Diskordanz bei den Zwillingspaaren aufgeführt.
Dieser Abschnitt soll in keiner Weise Vollständiges bringen; schon
deshalb nicht, weil ein großer Teil gei'ade der wichtigeren Merknuile
(Papillannuster. Ka})illarf()rmen. Stigmata) in besonderen Ab-
.schnitten behandelt werden. Die meisten Pigment- und Jk4iaarimgs
merkmale wurden außerdem schon im Abschnitt 1 dieses Kapitels
(s. Tab. 2. S. 17) genannt.
Fürdie folgenden Mitteilungen gelten im allgemeinen folgende,
in der Zwillingsforschung eingebürgerte Zeichen:
+ + = positive Konkordanz: +( + ) = das Merkmal ist bei
einem Träger schwächer, beim anderen deutlich; H Diskordanz :
( + ) — = bei einem angedeutet, beim anderen fehlend: ( — ) — = bei
einem s})in'weise; = negative Konkordanz.
Bei Merkmalen, für die nicht so sehr das Vorhandensein oder
1 Siehe Anhang S. 105.
Nichtvorhandensein in Frage kommt, sondern die (Qualität, wird
folgende, von Lknz (1 1)2(5) vorgeschlagene Bezeichnungsweise be-
nutzt: -- = Ähnlichkeit; x = Unähnlichkeit : (^) = bei beiden
vorhanden, aber in verschiedener Stärke; (x) = bei einem an-
gedeutet, beim andern fehlend.
\Virl)el- und Scheitelbildung des Kopfhaares:
K.Z. S -. 2 (-). (I ( ; ). 0 >:.
( Doppelw irl)el tand sich eiiunal u)id zwar bei K. 7j. ++)
Z. Z. 1 -. 2 (-). 2 ( ■ ). r> V.
Begrenzung des Ko])fhaares:
K. Z. <) -. 1 (-). U ( ), 0 ...
Z. Z. 2 -. 2 (-). 3 ( ■ ). :i X.
E X t r e m i t ä t e n b e h a a r u n g :
IvZ. :) ++.4 (+)(+), 1 (— )~, 2 .
Z. Z. I ++, 1 (+)(+). 2 ^-(+). 2 (+)-. 2 (— )— . 2 .
S c h a m b e h a a r u n g :
1. Stärke:
K. z. n ++, 3 (+)(+), 1 ( ")— .
Z. Z. 3 +-I-. 2 (+)(+), 3 +(+). 1 (+)--, 1 (— )— .
2. Form:
K. Z. 10 -.
Z. Z. 4 -. :i ( -). 2 ( ). 1 .
Ausbildung der Mammae:
K. Z. 4 -f-+, 1 (+)(+). 1 ( +)— •
z. z. :i ++, 0 (+)(+). .") +(+).
Hochstand der linken Mamma:
K. Z. l{ )( — ). H ,4 ; (Hoelistand dei- reehten Mamma : I t 4).
Z. Z. 1 ++,1 (—)(--). 2 +— , 4 .
Form des Mundes:
i^:. z. 7 --. :i (^). 0 ( > ), 0 ■ .
Z. Z. 0 -. 2 (-). 3 ( ■, ). ö ■, .
H a 1 1 u X V a 1 g u x :
K.Z. 2++, 5 (4-){+), 1 (—)(), 2 (also alle konkordant).
Z. Z. 2 ++, 3 (+)(+), 2 +(4-), 1 +— , 2 .
Pedes plani:
P:.Z. 2 +4-, 2 +(+),() . y
Z. Z. 2 ++, 1 +{+). 1 -f— /l (+)—, 5 .
Cubita valga:
E. Z. 3 4-+. 6 (+)(+), 1 +(+).
Z. Z. 2 -f +. 3 ( 4-)(+). 4 +(4-). 1 (4-)-.
Linkshändigkeit:
fand sieh unter unseren Probanden nur einmal, nämlich bei Nr. 4b.
(4a ist Heelitshänderin).
■ 0mt » iw*
'■yF*»»
28
r. Ergebnisse. A. AUgcnwinv ZirilllHUsjorschung
o. Die rupilUirniusler der Fingerheeren
9()
Hüdeiistellung:
K. Z. la reclits tief(n- als links. 11) ( ilriclistaiid.
Da ,, .. . !ll) links tiefer.
Kla ., .. . lol) links tiefer.
/. /. IS und lUa und 1) links tiefer.
E]) he Helen :
i:. z. 1 ++,9 .
Z. Z. l +(+), 1) .
Akne rosacea:
Iv Z. 1 +(+), 1 (+)—, 8 .
Z. Z. 1 +— , 1) .
Akne vulgaris:
K. Z.
Z. Z. 1 + +, 2 +— .
Seborrhoe des behaarten Kopfes:
K. Z.
Z. Z. 1 +( +). 2 +— .
Seboi ihoisehes Ekzem des (Jesiclites:
K. Z. 1 -r^
Z. Z. .
Wangenrötnng:
K.Z. 2 ++, .S (+)(+). 4 -f(+). 1 (-)(--).
Z. Z. I +-f, 3 (+)(+)-•">+( + ). • + (- )•
Form i\vv Ohren:
K. Z. 10 -. 0 ( -). 0 ( ■ ), 0 X.
Z. Z. 2 -, :i ( -). :M ■ ). 2 X.
Stellung der Ohicn:
K. Z. !)-.!( -), 0 ( ). 0 ■;.
Z. Z. 7 -. :M -). <» ( ). 0 ■;.
VergroÜerung dei' K aehentonsi 1 len :
K. Z. :i r +, 1 ( -r)(+), 2 (darunter I*) 4-(^t-), 1 "( +)— , 1 +— , 2-
Z. Z. 0 -f+, 0 (+)(+), :i (darunt(>r I*) +(+), 0 (+)— , 1 • —
* -^ bei einem früiier ektomicit ;
0 = ,, l^eiden früher ektoniiert.
1)1 utd ruck :
K. Z. :i -. 4 ( -), 1 ( ). I X.
Z. Z. I -. .-) (^), 2 ( ,■ ), 2 X.
Pulszahl :
K. Z. 2 -. 4 (-). 2 ( X ), 2 X.
Z. Z. I -.()(-). I ( - ). 2 X.
Anliang:
Beginn der Menses:
E.. Z. 2 --, :J (-),!( X), 0 X.
Z. Z. 0 -. 1 (-), I { ■ ), 4 X.
Stärke der Menses:
K. Z. 4 -. 1 ( -). «» ( ). 1 X.
Z. Z. 1 -, 0 (-),!(•). 2 X.
Regelmäßigkeit der Menses:
i:. z. :i + +, 3 .
z. z. :i + +, 1 +— .
Stimmbrueh: (ö mänidiche Paare)
\\. Z. 2 --. I noch nicht.
Z. Z. 1 ( -). I X.
:i Die Papinanmisler der Finnerheereii
Die IVdeutung der l*a])illarmuster der Einger als feinste,
während (\i^^ ganzen Lel)ens unveränderliche Jndividualeigen-
schaften wurde von (Jamon (ISI)I. 1S92. iSiKi) erkannt. Die Zwil-
lingsforsehung und die Erforschung i\vv Papillarnnister siiul also
gewissermaßen ( Jeschwister. Abkömmlinge desselben Sch()])fers.
Schon (J ALTON selbst brachte diese seine beiden geistigen ..Kinder"
in P>eziehung zueinander, indem er die Pa])illarmuster der Einger
von Zwillingen als ein besonders geeignetes Objekt der Erblich- /
keitsforschung bezeichnete (1S1)2). Dei' amerikanische Eorscher I
Wii.DKK hat dann eine Pveihe von Zwillingspaaren daktyloskopisch
untersucht (HMI2. DM)4. HM)S) inid hat festgestellt, daß die t'ber-
einstinnnung der Muster bei E. Z. eine bedeutend größere ist als bei
Z. Z. Diese Untersuchungen blieben noch beim Studium des rein
Mor])hol()gischen. also bei der Feststellung der Art imd des Aus-
maßes der Verschiedenheiten und Übereinstinuninigen stehen, ein
Standi)unkt. über den beis])ielsweise Ekvkn im Jahre 11)24 iu)ch
nicht hinausgekommen war. Inzwischen (1914) hatte jedoch Poll
eijie große Zahl von Zwillings])aaren auch bezüglich ihrer Pa])illar-
muster studiert und die Ei'age der Erblichkeit der Muster von neuen
Oesichtspmikten aus in Angriff genonnnen. Ergab sich nicht mit
der der Feststellung der großen Übereinstimnnmg der E. Z. in ihren
Papillarmustern zufrieden, sondern er glaubte gerade in den Ver-
schiedenheiten noch Verwandtschaften zu entdecken, die in der
Ähnlichkeitsbestimmung weiterführen kramten. Diese Ansicht hat
sich durch weitere, seit DUS planmäßig fortgeführte Studien (vor-
läufig mitgeteilt von Vom. und LAn-u 1929) bestätigen lassen und
steht in prinzipieller Beziehung in Übereinstimmung mit Bonnhvh:
(192:5. 1924. 1929). die eine der besten Kennerinnen der Erblich-
keitsverhältnisse der l»ai)illarmuster ist. Entgegen der Ansicht von
■•••**«fe.
k
Hi)
V. Ergebnisse. A. Allgemeine ZwiUüujsforschun{f
\
Leven. daß die Papillarmiister rein genisch bedingt seien, die E. Z.
also regelmäßig Verschiedenheiten der Erbmasse haben müßten,
kann heute als sichere Erkenntnis gelten, daß mir bestinnnte
(.^rundeigenschaften dei- Pa])illarnuister genisch ])edingt sind. Es
scheint, daß feinere modifikatorische Einflüsse schon in einem sehr
frühen Stadium der Entwicklung der Mu.ster wirksam werden und
zu Verschiedenheiten der Muster führen können, die mm keineswegs
willkürlich sind. Es scheint daher geboten, mehr als es bisher ge-
schehen ist. bei Zwillingsuntersuchungen auch die LVpillainuister-
befunde einer eingehenden erbbi()k)gischen Analyse zu unterziehen,
oder besser: sie von besonders geschulten Kennern der ganzen
Fragestellung l)earbeiten zu lassen. Das bei den Hamburger Zwil-
lingsstudien gewonnene und laufend zu vermehrende daktylo-
skopische Material wird von Voll und seinem Schüler Laihu ver-
arbeitet. Hier sollen die von mir erhobenen Befunde deshalb nur
in gröberen Umrissen und ohne sj)ezialistisches Eindringen be-
arbeitet werden, und zwar lediglich unter dem (Gesichtswinkel der
Eiigkeitsbestimmung.
Nach der Ansicht von Bo.n.nhvii:. die übrigens die Funde von
PoLL (H)14a) nicht richtig gedeutet hat. sind nicht die Muster
selbst (Wirbel. Schleife. Jk)gen) und ihre Richtung (ulnar oder
radial) genisch bedingt, sondern die Form (Verhcältnis von Breite
zu Höhe, also: elliptische oder circuläre Form) und die Quantität
(Leistenzahl). Diese AniuUime stinnnt gut zu der Auffassung von
PoLL und Lauer (und wird durch sie auf eine natürlichere, inhalts-
vollere Formel gebracht), daß nämlich zwischen Bogen und Schleife
einerseits und zwischen Schleife und Wirbel andererseits Zwischen-
formen bestehen. Deren verwandtschaftliche Nähe kann be-
stinnnt werden durch einen ., Maßstab", der etwa folgendermaßen
aussieht (Abb. 4):
Bogen (a) und Wirbel (e) stehen an den beiden Enden des
Maßstabes und sind als hochgradig unv^erwandt anzusehen. Das
Schleifenmuster (c) steht in der Mitte und steht durch die Zwischen-
formen (b und d) in einer verwandtschaftlichen Beziehung zu den
beiden Polen, wobei der Grad der Verwandtschaft mit der Ent-
fernung vom Mittelpunkt des Maßstabes abnimmt. Die Auf-
deckung dieser Zusammenhänge gestattet nun bei erbbiologischen
Untersuchungen an Papillarmustern ein sinnvolleres und weniger
mechanisches Vorgehen, als es bei rein diskriptivem Vorgehen bisher
möglich war; es bringt einen klaren Zusammenhang in Tatsachen-
3. Die Papillarnu ister der Fingerheeren
31
komplexe, die bisher als einfaches Nebeneinander dastanden.
LTnd es gestattet vor allem eine tiefer reichende Erfassung des
genisch Bedingten, eine Tatsache, die uns schon bei Zwillings-
untersuchungen zugute kommt.
Es wird in folgendem versucht, die Papillarmuster von Zwil-
lingen zu vergleichen unter Wahrung der (Gesichtspunkte, die sich
aus der von Pull ermittelten ,,Äquivalenzbreite'* der einzelnen
Muster und Finger ergeben. Die Untersuchungen von Poll und
Laikk (1029) zeigten u. a.. daß nicht nur unter korrespondierenden
Fingern der rechten und lijiken Hand \\ echselbeziehungen be-
stehen, sondern besonders auch zwischen Mittelfinger und Ring-
^',*:ii
m
a
Abb. 4
finger. Ringfinger und Kleinfinger der gleichen Hand, selteii zwi-
schen Daumen oder Zeigefinger und einem der übrigen Finger,
während Daumen und Zeigefinger unter sich wieder enger zu-
sammenhängen. Ich habe nun diese Tatsachen mit dem erwähnten
,,Maßstab"" zusammengefaßt zu einem Zählsystem, das beim
Vergleich der Papillarmuster von Zwillingen die Differenzen
quantitativ bestimmen läßt. Vergleicht man gleichnamige
Finger von Zwillingen, so kann man die Differenz der Papillar-
muster nach Punkten werten. Die Differenz beträgt, je nach der
Bewertung derselben, i/4, 1 oder 2 Punkte nach folgender Wertskala:
Art der Differenz: Punkt-
zahl :
Schleife — Wirbel oder Schleife — Bogen 1
l^ogen — Wirbel
Schleife, Wirbel oder Bogen — entsprechende Zwischenformen . ^2
Vertauschiing von ulnar und radial 2
Svininetrietansch zwischen rechter und linker Hand 2
Mustertausch zwischen 3. und 4. oder 4. und 5. Fniger .... 2
Mustertausch zwischen 1. oder 2. und einem der übrigen Finger . 1
Mustertausch zwischen 1. und 2. Finger 2
1
82
\U
Hl
1'. Ergebnisse. A. Allyernehte ZwUlin(jsjorschun<j
3. Die Papillarmuster der Fi tigerbeeren
33
1
Biese Skala stellt einen ersten Veisueh dai'. beim X'crgleieh dvr
gleichnamigen P^inger von Zwillingen vom Äußerlichen und Mecha-
nischen loszukommen. Die einzelnen Werte können allmählich
vei'feinert und korrigiei't weiden. Auch sollen die genannten
I'unkt/ahlen mn- gelten, wenn die Form der Muster (zirkulär oder
elliptisch) gleich ist: im anderen Falle ist die Differenz viel höher
zu l)ewerten. was inan vielleicht durch Multij)likation mit einer
Konstanten ausdrücken k()nnte.
Folgende Beis[)iele m()gen das geschilderte Zählsystem ver-
deutlichen:
'•"1^^= Vergleicht
man hei diesem
i^aaredicMustcj-
gleichnamiger
Finger, so findet
^^^' ^^^^^^ man an 2 Stellen
Differenzen dei'
Muster, die he-
weitet wei'den
müssen. I^.j trägt
l)ei I) ein hohes
Bogennuister.
hei a dagegen
eine Zwischen-
form im Sinne
des Einl)aues
einer kleinen
Schleife in den
iiii übrigen
gleichgeformten
Bogen. Punkt-
zahl dieser Diffe-
renz: >^. Eine
ganz ähnliche
Differenz findet
sich am 4. Finger
der rechten
Hand: auch hier
findet sieh bei
b ein Bogen (in
ivclits :
Abb. r>. Pnpillannuster vo.i K. Z. (i. a oben, h uutvu
links
s:
o
3
dem die Schleifenbildung gerade angedeutet ist, aber noch nicht
durchdringt), bei a dagegen ist es schon zu einer eingebauten
Schleife gekommen. Wieder eine Zwischenform, die mit H zu
bewerten ist. Alle übrigen Finger stimmen genügend überein; es
handelt sich fast überall um Ulnarschleifen. Nur R., trägt Bogen
mit angedeuteter Schleifenbildung, aber bei a und b ziemlich
übereinstimmend (vielleicht doch als 1/2 I'"»^!^^ zu bewerten, da
bei b die Schleifenbildung fast durchgedrungen ist ?). Die Summe
der Differenzen beträgt also bei diesem Paare 1 (1 ^2?) Punkt.
Vergleichen
wir die Finger
dieses Paares
von links be-
ginnend, so er-
geben sich fol-
gende Differen-
zen :
L4 zeigt bei
a einen Wirbel,
bei b eine Schlei-
fe; 1 Punkt. L3
hat bei a eine
reine Schleife.
beibeinenBogen
(mit ganz gerin-
ger Andeutung
einer Schleifen -
bildung ? ) ; 1
Punkt. L2 zeigt
bei a ein Bogen-
muster . bei b
eine Schleife,
die aber bei der
Übereinstim-
mung der Form
des dar überlau-
fenden Bogens
mit dem von a
noch als Zwi-
schenform be- Al)b. 0. Papillarmuster von Z. Z. 20. a oben, b unten
o
Beiheft (11 zur Zeitschrift für antrewandte l'sycholoi^ie o
rechts:
2
i)
w
34
V. Ergebnisse. A. Allgemeine ZwiUinnsjorsehumj
zeichnet werden kann; '2 l'»iikt. Lj führt bei a ein Bogennnister,
bei b ein Schleifenmuster; l I^mkt. Rj hat bei a eine Schk'ife, bei
b als gut passendes Zwischennnister eine Do])pelschleife : \^ Punkt.
Und schließlich steht noch bei R4 dem AN'irbel bei a eine Schleife
bei b gegenüber 1 Punkt. Die übrigen Muster stimmen gut ül)er-
ein. Summe der Differenzen: 5 Punkte.
Der Vergleich der Papillarmuster aller Paare ergab das in
Tabelle 10 wiedergegebene Resultat:
Tabelle 10
Paar Nr
ruiiktzalil
Paar Nr.
Punktzahl
Der Unterschied der Differenzen bei den E. Z. gegenüber denen
der Z. Z. springt in die Augen. Die Gesamtabweichung aller E. Z.
beträgt zusammen 12 Punkte, die der Z. Z. 47I/2 l'imkte. also fast
viermal soviel !
1 Paar der Z. Z. liegt unterhalb des Mittelwertes der E. Z.
Dieses Paar (Nr. 18), ein Paar jüdischer Knaben, ist somatisch
von großer Verschiedenheit neben einigen konstitutionellen
Übereinstimmungen. Das Paar 12 der Z. Z. liegt nicht weit über
dem Mittelwert der E. Z. Diese Schwestern zeigen auch sonst
somatisch große Übereinstimnunigen, müssen aber als sicher
zweieiig angesprochen werden. Verschiedenheiten der Form des
Musters (Verhältnis der Höhe zur Breite) fanden sich bei den E.Z
niemals, bei den Z. Z. aber auch nur zweimal in geringem Umfange,
einmal in deutlicherem Grade.
Sichere gesetzmäßige Folgerungen lassen sich aus diesen Er-
gebnissen noch nicht ziehen. Sollten sich jedoch bei großen Unter-
suchungsreihen die Abweichungen der E.Z. stets in so engen
Grenzen halten, wie wir es hier gefunden haben, so würde diese
4. Die Form der N agelfahka ])i Ilaren
35
Tatsache eine gewichtige Stütze für die Eiigkeitsdiagnose abgeben.
Wenn man aus großer Ü bereinst innnung der Papillarmuster auch
nie folgern kann, daß Eineiigkeit vorliegt, da auch Z. Z. gelegentlich
derartige Ähnlichkeiten aufweisen, so kann man doch in Zweifels-
fällen Eineiigkeit mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit ausschließen,
sobald eine gewisse Punktzahl von Differenzen überschritten ist.
4. Die Form der Nai^elfalzkapillareii
Die von O. MCllkr (1922) und seinen Mitarbeitern in die kli-
Jiische Arbeit eingeführte Kapillarmikroskoj)ie hat in den letzten
Jahren ein besonderes Interesse beans])rucht. vor allem durch die
Arbeiten von W. Jaexsch (1921. 192(). 1929). Wittneben (1925,
1927, 1929), HuEi'FNEH (192S. 1929) u. a. Die letztgenannten Au-
toren vertraten ziemlich übereinstimmend die Ansicht, daß die
Struktur der Nagelfalzkapillaren ein wichtiges Symptom sei, aus
dem sich Schlüsse über konstitutionelle Abartigkeit verschiedener
Art. über vegetative imd endokrine Stimnuuig des Organisnnis
ziehen ließen. Diese Ansichten sind von vielen Seiten bestritten
worden, besonders den Zusammenhang bestimmter Ka})illarformen
mit dem Schwachsinn betreffend (Doxiades und Hirschfeld 19.S0,
Ubenauf 1929. Kreyenber(; 1929): zum großen Teil fordern sie
durch ihre leichlich sj)ekulative mid hyi)othetische Begründimg
zu kritischer Stellungnahme heraus. Eine imglückliche und recht
eigenwillige Terminologie hat ein übriges dazu getan, daß dieser
ganze Fragenkom])lex eigentlich noch als Objekt des Kampfes der
Meinungen dasteht und einer soliden Verankerung entbehrt.
Erst die letzte Arbeit von W. Jaensch (1930) enthält zur Frage der
Terminologie einige Reformvorschläge. die vielleicht in dieser
Hinsicht eine gewisse Besserung bringen werden.
Es ist weder beabsichtigt noch möglich, hier in diesen Kampf
einzugreifen. Es soll nur betont werden, daß es sich wohl verlohnen
würde, wenn durch regelmäßige Beobachtung des Kapillarbildes
bei allen Zwillingsuntersuchungen allmählich ein fester Grund
für die Frage der erblichen Bedingtheit der Kapillarformen ge-
schaffen würde. Die Form der Nagelfalzka])illaren stellt ein so
feingefügtes und so gut zu beobachtendes Sym])tom dar. daß es
durchaus zu begrüßen wäre, wenn wir in diesem Symptom einen
einigermaßen zuverlässigen Indikator für die psychosomatische
Struktur des Individuums besäßen. — '
3*
\ii
■V
\}
■ I
m
m
V. Ergebnisse. A. Alluettiehie ZiriUhxjsjnrsclmnfi
Die ersten und wohl auch einzi^ien Mitteihuigen üIht die Foi'ni
der Hautkapillaren bei Zwillingen verdanken wi?- M \vi:u-Lis i und
HÜBENKR (192')). die bei einem Teil der von \Vi:nz untersuchten
Zwillinge die Ka})illarforni festgestellt hal)en. Sie fanden bezüglich
des Auftretens von ..Vasoneurosefornien" unter 27 E. Z.- Paaren
22mal Konkordanz, öuial Diskoi'danz. untei* 21} Z. Z. -Paaren
dagegen nur 3 mal Konkordanz und 2(hnal Diskordanz. Sie
schlössen hieraus mit Recht, daß das ..vegetative Syndioin" geno-
typisch bedingt sei.
Wir haben bei allen untersuchten Zwillingen die Xagelfalz-
kapillaren photographieren lassen (dieser Arbeit unterzog sicii
freundlicherweise Herr WoLFCiANu Trattmann unter Benutzun<'-
(kn- ZKissschen Ka])illarmikrosko])iereinrichtung ..Foku"): lun- vom
Paar Nr. 1 wunk^i die Bikk^r nicht duivh JMiotographie. sondein
(hn-ch Zeichnung festgehalten. Untersucht w urde stets der 4. Fin<^er
beider Hände. Eine Beschränkung auf (k'ii sonst als Testfinc^er
angesehenen linken Ringfinger schien uns Glicht statthaft, (ki gerack'
bei Zwillingen eine Seitenverkehrung nicht selten sein soll. Es
ergaben sich im einzelnen folgende IMunde.
Der Übersichtlichkeit halber werden folgende Abkürzungen
benutzt :
A.K. H.
J.M. F.
H. ]>. F.
V. N. F.
S]). H. N. F.
= Archi kapilläre Hemnunu^
= Intermediärformen
= Hypoplasieformen
= Vasoneuroseformen
= S])astisch-hypoi)lastische Neurose-
formen
Paai- 1 a L: A. K. H. ^-
R: = L
2 a L: A.K. H. (+)
K: des^rl. etwas mehr als b
i L:|
R:| ^^•^-"- +
R:n-^-- "••( + )
5 a L:|
^^, V.X.1-. ,+)
0 a L: V. X. F. -|-
R: V^ N. F. { +)
7 a L:|
' \ X V
I R:| '-^•'
wie l)ei a
(+)
b L: A. K. H. +
H: z.T. normal, z. T. \ . X. F
( + )
•> 1^: wie l)ei a L
^^' .. ,. a H
b L:)
R:l
b L:|
R:| ^'-NF- +
b L:|
H:| V.X. F. ((+))
b b: .1. M. F. +
R : V. X. F. +
b L:|
R:| ^^N.F. (+)
!'
fmm
4. Die Fortti der Nagelfalzk'dpillaren
37
IG
I I
i a L: A.K.H. 4- (mit V. X. F.)
H: V. X. F. -f
> a L:l
R:| ' -^- '^•
^ !l'] V.X. F.
+
(+)
+
K:|
a L: Si). H. X. F. +
H: H. P. F. -f
12 a L:|
H : j ' -^ • '^
a L: V. X. F. ( +)
K: V. X. F. +
a L: .). M. F. (+)
K: .1. M. F. -I-
a L: .1. M. F. + +
K: J.M. F. -f
a L: V. X. F. +
R: V.X. F. {+)
a L:|
K:(
a L: W X. F. +
R: V. X. F. ( -f)
i:j
14
l.j
1()
17
IS
J9
20
V. X. F. (+)
(+)
h L
R
b L
R
b L
R
b L
R
b L
H
b L
R
b L
R
b L
H
1) J.
R
1:) L
R
li L
H
b L
R
1) L
H
I
wie a L
V. X. F. (+)
Sp. H. X. F. -f
V. N. F. +
V.X. F. ((-f))
V. X. F. +
V. X. F. 4-
A.K.H. -t-
.j. M. F. {+)
V. X. F. +
A. F\. H. +
^ Sp. H.X. F. +
normal
V.X. F. (4-)
normal
))
I
l
f
I
)
)
I
I
f
V.X. F. ((
normal
Die wichtigsten und bekanntesten Formen der Störung sind
die a r c h i k a ]) i 1 1 ä r e H e m m u n g und die von ( ) . M ü ller so genannte
Vason e u r os e-
form^ Das Vor-
konnnen dieser
beiden Formen
beiden Zwillingen
soll nun bezüg-
lich seiner Kon-
kordanz oder
Diskordanz ge-
piiift werden.
Das luiterschied-
liche Vorkommen
einer Form an
der rechten oder
^ »^!
^-*i
Abli. 7. F. Z. 3. .Arcbika])illäre Hemmung bei
a oben und I) unten
' Den von .Iaknsch eingeführten .Ausdruck .,Xeurosetorm*' vermeiden
wii- aiisdrüeklicli, da er die an sieh ungliiekliehe Wortbildung „Xeurose",
';is
\\ £/-v( />/n.v.s, . ,1. Alhjrmdtu ZtriHiHOsforsrhunfj
linken Han-l winl nur da lu'incksichtiut . u(, es uns benierkens-
weit ci-eheint.
Die airliikapillän' Hcniniunü tritt Ix'i den K. Z. viermal
aut. nanilich l.ri .Im i'aaren 1. iV '-Umd S. Sie ist hei diesen 4l*aaren
stet- l)ei iM-id.-n Zw illiiiL^en. alx» konkordant vorhanden. — Tiitei-
den Z. Z. winde >ie mn- zweimal heohaehtet. nämlich hei Xr. I :i h
und Xr. i:»h. iM-idc Male i>t der andere Zwilling- fiei. die Str.innj:
i-t in diex'ii Fallen aUo diskordant. Zusanunenstellnng :
kdiikordaiit diskordant
K.Z.
Z. Z.
4 Paare
2 Paare
'J'rotz dei- kleinen Zahl wird man hei der Kindeutitikeit dieses
Resultats doeh an i'ine
m ■ ^ _^ Bfc» ' üi)ei\viegend genoty-
1^1^. . , . j ^B»i» \ piseh hedingte Ent-
^K^ ^^ ^Bl' ' ' .i^H Stellung der ai"c-hikaj)il-
^H. ^ IJhI^I ^Ki V "^i i^^l lären Hemnuing (lenken.
DieX'asoneurose-
f orm (gemeint ist immer
mn- die der Xeo-
Sehieht!) tritt hei 7
E. Z. -Paaren auf (Xr. 4.
"). <). 7. S. \) und ]()).
und /,\\ai' ist sie stets
hei heiden Zwillingen zu
finden. Die Konkoidanz
ist eine vollkinnmenc^
(d. h. auch hezüglieh dvs Crades) hei den Paaren (). 7 nnd \).
Viermal dagegen ist der Crad ein verschiedener: Xr. 4: zu ( • ):
^^^'- 'r. { ^ ) YAi ({ ■ )): Xr. s H (hei hVu\vu nur am rechten Ring-
finger): - zu {- ): Xr. 10: ( - ) zu (( • )).
Die Z. Z. zeigen hei U Paaren (alle außer Xr. IC.) mindestens
an einem Einger eines Zwillings X'asoneurosefoi-men. Xui- zweimal
findet sich Konkordanz, nämlich hei Paar Xr. 12 ( h : -j ) und
Xr- 1« [( • ) : ( )|. Die ührigen 7 Paare sind diskordant. und zwar
fünfmal im Sinne völliger Diskordanz (4-:__) „nd zweimal als
unvollkonnnene Diskordanz: J^ei Paar Xr. 11 steht der V. X. F.
die z. I^ heute etwas ganz anderes hedeutot als vor 20 .lalnvn. in uanz niil.^
verständlielici' A\ ciso ins l\Foi-|)liologisc-lio einführt.
.\l)l). 8. a (oben) X'asoneuroseforni
h (unten) la>t normal
7. Derfenerative und neurojxtthiscln' Stiyniata
89
bei 1) eine 8j)astisch-hy|)oplastische Neuroseform bei a L gegenüber;
und hei Paar Nr. 20 liegt ein so erhehlicher Gradunterschied der
Vasoneuroseformen vor. daß von Konkordanz nicht gesprochen
werden kann, wählend auch keine reine Diskordanz voiliegt.
Z u s a m m e n s t e 1 1 u n g :
Konkordanz
- (-)
Diskordanz
X (X)
E.Z.
Z. Z.
3
2
Auch hier ist das Resultat eindeutig genug. (hiB man eine über-
wiegend genotypisch bedingte Natur (kn* ..Vasoneuroseformen''
vermuten möelite. Die Tatsache, daß unter 7 E. Z.- Paaren viermal
deutliche (Jradverschiedenheiten zwischen den I^irtnern gefunden
wurden, (knitet al)er mit ziemlicher Sicherheit darauf, daß bei der
Ausbildung der ..Vasoneuroseformen" modifikatorische Einflüsse
nennenswert beteiligt sind. Als rein konstitutionelles Stigma kann
die ..Vase neuroseform" also nicht gelten. Auch muß hei der außer-
ordentlichen Häufigkeit dieser Form, die von vielen Autoren be-
stätigt wird, gefordert werden, daß auch der Ausdruck ..Vaso-
nem-oseform" aufgegeben wird. Es nniß initer allen Umständen
widersinnig erscheinen, ein Merkmal, das in leichterem (Irade bei
mindestens dreiviertel aller gesunden Normalmenschen gefunden
wird, mit einem Krankheitsnamen zu l)ezeichnen. Wie weit die
schwereren Grade dieser Form als neuro])athisches Stigma gelten
können, wird im folgenden Ka])itel zu ])rüfen sein.
B. Spezielle Zwillingsforschung
1. I)('i»:eiiera1ive iiimI iieiiropalliisclie Slii^niata
Die Lehre von den degenerativen Stigmata hat seit dem Aus-
gang des vorigen Jahrhunderts, besonders seit den Arbeiten von
CUARCOT über die Hysterie und den Verbrecherstudien von Lüm-
HKoso. in der klinischen Medizin großes Interesse gefunden. Glaubte
man doch, mit Hilfe dieser leicht feststellbaren körperlichen
Symptome die Diagnose auf psychische Abnormität rasch und
sicher stellen zu können. Die Erfahrung brachte dann innner mehr
die UnZuverlässigkeit dieser ..Methode" an den Tag. Es folgte
bei den meisten erfahrenen Klinikern eine Zeit weitgehenden
u^
40
r. Ergehnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillirigsforsclunig
Skeptizismus, der sich etwa in dem Satz kund tut ..Nichts anzu-
fangen ist mit den Stigmata degenerationis" (Krais in Mkkin(;-
Krehls Lehrbuch). Und doch hat wohl niemand in der klinischen
Arbeit die diagnostische Verwertung der Stigmata ganz auf-
gegeben, in der richtigen Erkenntnis, daß auch in dieser Frage
zwischen verkehrten Extremen eine brauchbare W'ahr-heit liegen
muß. Das immer weitere Vordringen einer saldieren erbbiologischen
Denkweise hat auf diesem Gebiete wie auf so vielen anderen Teil-
gebieten der Konstitutionslehre den Fehler aufgedeckt, der in der
Verwechselung der Anlage (des (ienotypus) mit den manifesten
Eigenschaften (dem Phaenotypus) begründet war. Gilt doch
gerade im Psychischen die Tatsache, daß das Konstitutionelle
immer nur eine Möglichkeit, manchmal eine Disposition und nur
in einer bestimmten Zahl der Fälle die Teil Ursache zu einer Krank-
heit abgibt. Die seelischen Inhalte, deren Kenntnis durch alle
Arten der ..verstehenden Psychologie" in den letzten Jahrzehnten
so sehr gefördert worden ist, entscheiden darüber, ob bei den ver-
schiedenen Formen seelischer Überdifferenzierung ..psychopathi-
sche Reaktionen" oder aber hohe geistige oder willensnicäßige
Leistungen resultieren. Wenden wir diese (Gesichtspunkte auf
unser Gebiet an. betrachten wir also die Stigmata zunächst nur
als den Ausdruck bestimmter psychosomatischer Konstitutionen,
so können wir voreilige und oft unzutreffende Urteile, die den
Phaenotypus betreffen, vermeiden, ohne den Wert dieser Sym])-
tome aufgeben zu müssen. Vorerst gilt es aber, die Modifi-
kationsbreite der sogenannten ..Stigmata degenerationis" zu
bestimmen, wozu angesichts der Manifestationsschwankungen, die
diese Bildungen zu haben scheinen/wohl nur die Zwillingsmethode
in Frage kommt.
Es sei ausdrücklich vorausbemerkt, daß unsere Erhebungen
an nur 40 Probanden zunächst nicht viel mehr bringen können
als eine Einführung in die I^roblemstellung, und daß es nicht berech-
tigt wäre, aus diesen Resultaten schon weitgehende Schlüsse zu
ziehen .
Die Tabelle 11> enthält eine Aufstellung der bei den
untersuchten Zwillingen gefundenen ..neuro].athischen" „der
«legenerativen Stigmata". Es wurden außer den bekanntesten
Degenerationszeichen die wichtigsten vasomotorischen und ..vege-
1 Siehe Anhang S. 106 — 107.
1. Degeneratice und neuropathische Stigmata
41
tativen'' Stignuita berücksichtigt, denen einige ananmestische
Daten von psychopathischer Bedeutung (Stottern. Enuresis noc-
turna, ausgesprochene Dunkelangst) beigefügt wurden. Außerdem
wurde das Vorhandensein deutlicher Anomalien der Nagelfalz-
ka])illaren (deutliche ,,Vasoneuroseform", archikapilläre Hem-
mung) angegeben. Daß diese Aufstellung heterogene und in ihrer
Bedeutung zum Teil noch durchaus zweifelhafte Symptome enthält,
liegt in der zuzugebenen Verschwommenheit des ganzen Problem-
kreises begründet und kann bei Versuchen, die der Klärung dieser
Fragen dienen sollen, nicht vermieden werden. Über die Rubrik
..nervöser Ghaiakter" ist zu bemerken, daß dieser Ausdruck ziem-
lich weitgefaßt gemeint ist und alle bemerkenswerten Züge von
psycho])athischer Reaktionsbereitschaft. Aufgeregtheit, Reizbar-
keit, Unruhe u. dgl. umfassen soll.
Abstehende O h r e n (sog . Henkelohien ) :
K. Z. 4 ++, 0 +—
Z. Z. I ++, 1 (+)-^, 1 +(+)
Helixrand ungesäumt:
E.Z. l (+)(+). 1 (+)—
Z. Z. 1 +( +). 4 ( +)—
A n g e w a c h s e n e s O h r 1 ä p ]) c h e n :
E.Z. 4 ++, 4 (+)(+)
Z. Z. 2 +4-, 2 + — . 1 +(+). 1 (+)— = 2
Zusammengewachsene Augen brauen (Morsupilie) :
E.Z. 1 ++, 1 (+)(+), 1 (+)- , 2 ((+))- = 2 konkonl.. 8 diskord
Z. Z. 2 (+)(+), 1 (+)((+)), 1 +--
Prognathia su})erior:
E.Z. 2 ++, 1 (+)(+)
Z. Z. 2 -f— , 1 ( + )—
Hoher, spitzer Gaumen:
E.Z. 2 ++, 2 ( + )(+), 2 (+)—
= 4 konkoid., 0 tliskord.
= 1 ">
= 1 konkord., I diskord.
^^ '' 9 9 9 O ,.
= 8 konkord.
^) diskord.
4
= 2
2
= 3 konkord., 0 diskord,
= 0
= 4 konkord
1 -f(+) = 2
3
2 diskoj'd
Z. Z. 1 ++, 1 (+)(+). 4 +-
Stark asthenischer Hal)itus:
E.Z. 2 4- +, 2 (+)(+), 1 + — = 4 konkord., 1 diskord.
Z. Z. 2 +^, 3 (+)— , 1 +(+) =0 „ ,6
Diese rein morphologischen Merkmale zeigen also fast durch-
gehend eine ganz überwiegende Konkordanz bei den E. Z. und
eine überwiegende Diskordanz bei den Z. Z. Bemerkenswert ist
aber doch, daß kleinere Verschieden hei t.(^n aiu'h bei E. Z. vor-
kommen, vor allem bei der Morsuj)ilie. seltener bei der Form des
Gaumens und einmal bezüglich der Umsäunnmg der Ohrmuschel.
U'
II
I
>^
II
I
42
1'. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle ZiHIIingsforschiwrj
= 4 konkord.. 2 diskord.
= 2 ,, . H ,,
= 4 koiikord.. 0 diskord.
^= ^ ^? . •) ..
= 1 konkord.. 2 diskord.
= 1 2
Dies Resultat iil)ei'rascht keineswegs, da ja gerade an der Kon-
figuration und Ausbildung des Schädels oft grobe niodifikatoi-isehe
Einflüsse (intrauterine Lage. (Jeburt) mitwii'ken. Bezüglich des
diskordanten Auftretens von Asthenie ])ei dem eineiigen Paar
Nr. 10 sei auf die Erörterung dieses Punktes im Abschnitt A 2
(8. IS) verwiesen.
Es folgen die Stigmata, die das Verhalten der Reflexe l)e-
t reffen :
Fehlender Würgreflex :
E.Z. 4 +-f, 1 + — , 1(4-)—
Z. Z. 2 ++,7 +— , 1 (+)—
Lebhafte Patellarref lexe :
\:. Z. 3 4- +, 1 ( + )(+). 0 + —
Z. Z. 2 4-+. 4 4-—, 1 (4-)—
Lei) h a f t e A c h i 1 1 e s s e h n e n r e f 1 e x e :
E.Z. 1 +4-, 1 +— . 1 (+)—
Z. Z. l +4-, 1 +( + ). 1 (+)—
Auch hier ist die Diskoidanz der meisten Z. Z. augenfällig
gegenüber der überwiegenden Konkordanz der E. Z. Die Ver-
schiedenheit der Achillessehnenreflexe kann l)ei dem Paar Nr. 2
wohl mit der besonders schwei-en E])ilepsie der einen Partnerin in
Zusannnenhang gebracht werden (die andere l*artnerin leidet an
einer viel leichteren Form von E])ile|)sie); l)eim Paar Nr. 10 kann
das verschiedene Verhalten bezüglich des Wih'greflexes und der
Achillessehnen reflexe wohl kaum mit der exogenen ( ?) Asthenie des
einen Partners in I^eziehung stehen, finden sich doch beide Stigmen
in schwacher Form gerade ])ei dem nicht asthenischen Paitnei' a.
Die cardiovaskulären und sonstigen vegatativen Stigmata
verteilen sich in folgender \\ eise auf die Paare :
Feuchte Hände:
IvZ. 4 ++, .3 (+)(4-). 1 (4-)— =7 konkord
Z. Z. 2 4--f. 2 (+)+, 2 (4-)— =2
Feuchte Füße:
E.Z. 1 4-4-, 3 (4-)(4-). 2 (4-)— = 4 konkord
Z. Z. 1 -f4-. 1 4-(+), 1 (4-)((-^)). 3(+)— = 1
1) e r m o g r a ]) h i s m u s :
E.Z. 4 -f +, 4 (+)(4-), 1 4-(4-) = 8 konkord
Z. Z. 4 4-4-, 3 4-(+), 1 4-((4-)). 2 (+)— =4
Cutis marmorata:
1 diskord.
4
2 diskord.
1 diskord.
E.Z. 1 +4-, 1 (4-)(4-), 1 (4-)-
Z. Z. 0 4- 4-, 1 4-—, 1 (4-)—
= 2 konkord
= 0
I diskor<l.
2
1. Deyetterat i re und t)enrop((tJiiscJie Stigwftta
43
= 2 konkord., i) diskord.
= 0 .. .1
>>
= 2 konkori
= 0
., 1 diskord
, 2
= 4 konkord.. 1 diskord.
Akroc yanose:
K. Z. l 4-4-, 1 ( +)(+)
Z. Z. 0 4- 4-, 1 ( +)--
Paukende Herzaktion:
v:. Z. I 4-4-, 1 (-f )(+), 1 ( 4-)—
Z. Z. 0 4-4-, 2 4- -
Starke respiratorische Arhythmie:
E. Z. 3 4-+, 1 (4-)( + ), 1 4- —
Z. Z. 1 4-+. 1 (4-)(4-), T) 4- —
Es ergibt sich bei all diesen Merknuden (hi.sselbe Bild : fast
reine Konkordanz der Eineiigen bei überwiegender Diskordanz der
Zweieiigen. Trotz der zahlenmäßigen Kleinheit des Materials wird
bei der relativen Gleichmäßigkeit des Resultats in allen Gru])pen
der Schluß ei'laul)t sein, daß es sich bei allen bisher genannten
Stigmen um vorwiegend genisch bedingte Merkmale handelt. Das
wenn auch seltene — Auftreten von Diskordanz bei Eineiigen
erinnert aber daran, daß auch diese Eigenschaften in ihrer Mani-
festation von modifikatorischen Einflüssen nicht unab-
hängig sind. Diese Feststellung ist um so mehr hervorzuheben,
als "es sich durchweg um :\lerkmale handelt, die als tiefverankert
in der ganzen somatischen Konstitution gelten.
Es folgen einige Eigenschaften, die schon mehr in den Bereich
der ])sych()])athischen Reaktionen geh()i'en. teils anamnestisch,
teils bei der Untersuchung festgestellt:
Aufgeregtheit oder Zuckungen während der Unter-
suchung:
E.Z. 2 4-4-, 1 (-f)(+). 2 4-(4-)
Z. Z. 0 4-+, 1 (4-)—
..Facies neuro])athica" :
VI. Z. 3 4-4-. 1 4-(4-). 1 4- —
Z. Z. 0 4--f, 2 {(4-))—
Enuresis nocturna in der Kindheit:
y y^ 1 ++ 2 4 = 1 konkord.. 2 diskord
= 3 konkord.. 2 diskord.
= 0 ,, , 1
= 3 konkorck. 2 diskord.
= 0 „ , 2
0
()
1 konkord., 1 diskord,
Z. Z. () + —
Stottern in der Kindheit:
E.Z. 1 -f -H, 1 + —
z. z. —
Dunkelangst als Kind:
E.Z. 2 4-+, 0 + —
Z. Z. 3 4-4-, 3 4-(+), 3 4- —
Vergleicht man die Verteilung von Konkordanz und Dis-
kordanz in diesen Chuppen mit den Verhältnissen bei den vorher
= 2 konkord.
= 3
0 diskord.
()
»>
I
j
i
\f
\
r
44
1'. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwilli ngsjorsclmng
1. Degeneratire vml nenropathische Stigmata
45
erwähnten Merkmalen, so fällt auf. daß die bei den mehr somati-
schen Stigmen immer wieder hervortretende Regel (deutliches
Überwiegen der Konkordanz bei den E. Z.. der Diskordanz bei den
Z. Z.) hier nur noch gerade erkennbar bleibt. Sie wird abgeschwächt
durch die relative Zunahme der diskordanten Paare unter den E. Z.
Sollten sich bei einer größeren Anzahl von Paaren ähnliche Ver-
hältnisse wie die hier festgestellten finden, so würde man daraus
mit Recht den Schluß ziehen dürfen, daß bei diesen ins Psvcholo-
gische hineinreichenden Stigmata das genisch Bedingte mehr in die
Rolle einer bloßen Disposition zurückgedrängt wird. Eine solche
Auffassung würde durchaus der immer mehr durchdringenden
klinischen Erfahrung entsprechen, daß das Zustandekommen
psychopathischer Reaktionen nicht einfach konstitutionell erklärt
werden kann, sondern der Mitwirkung (mehr oder weniger exogener)
psychogener Momente bedarf. Mag das Vorhandensein derartiger
psychopathischer Stigmata auch den Schluß auf eine Konstitution
zulassen, die für psychogene Störungen disponierend wirkt, so
spricht doch ihr Nichtvorhandensein nicht für das Fehlen einer
solchen Disposition. Und umgekehrt s])richt das Vorhandensein
somatischer Stigmata degenerationis nicht für das Vorliegen einer
Psychopathie, sondern für eine Konstitution, die zu psycho-
]iathischen Reaktionen disponieren mag.
Diese Tatsachen kommen bei dem vorliegenden Material auch
deutlich zum Ausdruck, wenn wir die Belastung der einzelnen
Probanden mit Stigmata zahlenmäßig erfassen. Rechnen wir zu
allen bisher genannten Stigmata probeweise auch die deutlichen
..Vasoneuroseformen" und die archika])i]läre Hennnung der Nagel-
falzkapillaren hinzu und zählen jedes volle Stigma als einen, jedes
angedeutete als einen halben Punkt, so ergibt sich (unter Nicht-
mitzählen des ,, nervösen Charakters) folgende Aufstelhmg:
Nr.
a
A
Nr.
a
A
1
2
121.
41.,
3
8
V2
4
8^2
IV2
6
81..
0
6
3
3
7
3
0
8
12
2
9
10 i
0
10
7
0
131..
1 1
51.,
12
7!2
13
7
14
81.
15
()
l<)
3
17
10 1
18
10
1!)
: 7
20
TA.-n = 'O,^
4^2
T) 1 ..
10
2^2
4
«14
()
'^
«1/,
8
24
5 Y,
4'2
2
014
0
2
4
9
V2
8 14
.5
V2
4^2
7
K
7^2
-)'.
^%
10
LA:ti
= 2,25
Wenn diese Auszählung auch den Nachteil hat. daß sie nur
die Quantität, nicht aber die Qualität der vorhandenen Stigmen
vergleicht, so ergibt sie doch einen gewissen Überblick über den
Grad der ..Stigmatisation" der einzelnen Probanden. Addieren
wir die jeweiligen Differenzen zwischen a und b. so ergibt sich bei
den E. Z. die Differenzsumme von 9 gegenüber einer solchen von
2214 bei den Z. Z. Trotz der Grobheit der Methode kommt also
die größt^re Verschiedenheit der Z. Z. deutlich zum Ausdruck.
Obwohl es außerhalb der Zwillingsmethode liegt, so soll doch
die Korrelation zwischen ..nervösem (Jharakter'' und Grad der
Stigmatisation kurz erwähnt werden. Auf die nicht ])sycho-
]mthisch erscheinenden Probanden konnnen durchschnittlich
7,1 Punkte, auf die leicht ])sychopathischen Probanden 5.S Punkte
und auf die deutlicher ])sychopathischen S.4 Punkte. Hierin konnnt
also die schon erwähnte mangehide Berechtigung, von der ..neuro-
pathischen Stigmatisation'' direkt auf Psychopathie schließen
zu können, klar zum Ausdruck. Es bestätigt sich das. was unvor-
eingenommene klinische Beobachtung schon immer ergab : bei fast
allen Menschen finden sich bei eingehender Prüfung einige der
..neuropathischen" oder ..degenerativen" Stigmata. Die Über-
schätzung des diagnostischen Wertes dieser Symptome liegt nicht
nur in der eingangs erwähnten Verwechslung von Disposition und
Krankheit l)egründet. sondern ebenso stark in der Tatsache, daß
man bei manifesten Psycho])athien unwillkürlich mehr nach
vStigmen sucht als bei psychisch Gesunden.
Versuchen wir schließlich, die Korrelation der ..Vasoneurose-
formen" der Nagelfalzkapillaren zur übrigen Stigmatisation zu
bestimmen, so zeigt sich, daß auf die Prol)anden ohne Vasoneurose-
formen durchschnittlich 7.4 Punkte entfallen, auf diejenigen mit
leichter ..Vasoneuroseform' 7,S Punkte und auf diejenigen mit
deutlicher ,,Vasoneuroseform" nur 6,6 Punkte. Hier kann also
von einer Korrelation nicht gesprochen werden Der entsprechende
Wert für die Probanden mit deutlicher archikapillären Hennnung
ist 8,3. derjenige für die Probanden ohne dieses Merkmal 7.0. Dieser
Befund, der für einen gewissen Wert der archikai)illären Hennnung
als Stigma degenerationis sprechen würde, steht immerhin im Ein-
klang mit der Vorstellung der Kapillarforscher, daß die archi-
kapilläre Hemnnnig auf eine tieferliegende Entwicklungsstörung
des betreffenden Organismus schließen läßt, während die — zu
Unrecht so genannte — ..Vasoneu roseform*' lun- einen relativen
Differenzierungsgrad anzuzeigen scheint.
1
\u
46
V. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillingsforschung
2. Charakterologische Beobachtungen
47
'ili
)!
2. Charakterologisclu' H(M)ba(liluiii;eii
a) Einführung
Der Frage nach der Vererbung geistiger und seehscher Eigen-
schaften gebührt innerhalb des ganzen Bereiches der ErbHchkeits-
forschinig ein besonderer Platz. Lag es für eine naturwissenschaft-
liche Denkweise von jeher nahe, daß es im Reiche des Somatischen
weitgehende ,, Erdgebundenheiten" gibt, ein Abhängigsein von
Herkunft und biologischem Gesetz, so standen die entsprechenden
Meinungen über Seele und Geist des Menschen weit mehr unter
der Herrschaft traditioneller, ])hiloso|)hischer. weltanschaulicher
und religiöser Ansichten oder Vorurteile. Die Denkakte und IHum-
tasieschöpfungen des Menschen stehen weiter entfernt von Kritik
und Beweispflicht, als die Beobachtung von Tatsachen. Dem
Geistigen im Menschen wohnt unzweifelhaft ein Hang zur Emanzi-
pierung von biologischen (Gebundenheiten inne. Man denke nur
an die geistreichen, über den Tatsachen schwebenden Gedanken-
gänge der Empiristen wie Locke oder Rousseau. Ja. jedem Ein-
zelnen wohnt auch heute noch etwas die Erwartung oder Hoffnung
inne. daß nicht etwa nur das Cieistige selbst, sondern auch die
geistige Betätigung eines Jeden souverän sei. Es liegt eine nur
durch Gradunterschiede gekennzeichnete prinzipielle Ähnlichkeit
zwischen dem Gedanken des einfachen Mannes, daß es ja ganz
in seiner Macht und Willensfreiheit läge, ob er einen Gegenstand
für eine Mark kaufe oder nicht, inid dem (iedankenbauwerk eines
Denkers, der die Meinung vertritt, man könne aus jedem Menschen
jedes machen, es läge nur an den äußeren Bemühungen und Mög-
lichkeiten. In diese oft zu Weltanschauungen verdichteten An-
sichten hat die Erblichkeitsforschung eine Bresche geschlagen,
nicht selten begleitet von den Bestürzungen imd Enttäuschungen
derer, denen diese Rückbeziehung der geistigen Sj)häre in die Welt
der natürHchen, lebendigen Verbundenheiten und Gesetzmäßig-
keiten ungelegen kam.
Es ist nicht beabsichtigt, an dieser Stelle die Geschichte der
aufs Seelische und Geistige gerichteten Vererbungsforschung dar-
zulegen. Außerordentlich mühevolle Forschungen, die vor allem
an die Namen Galton, Pearson, Heymans und Wiersma, Esta-
BROOK, Davenport uud W. Peters geknüpft sind, haben den CJrund
gelegt zu dem Wissensschatz, der dieses Gebiet heute beherrscht
und der im letzten Jahrzehnt in hervorragender Weise von medi-
zinischer Seite (Kretsciimer, Hoffmann u. a.) befruchtet und be-
reichert wurde. Es war selbstverständlich, daß die Zwillings-
forschung bald nach ihrem Aufblühen auf diesem Kampfplatz
eingesetzt wurde. Die psychologische Erblichkeitsforschung steht
einer solchen Fülle von methodischen und sachlichen Schwierig-
keiten gegenüber, daß sie des Einsatzes ihrer ..Elitemethode*' —
als solche muß man die Zwillingsmethode bezeichnen — gerade
auf diesen Gebieten nicht entraten kann. Es zeugt von der Klug-
heit und dem naturwissenschaftlichen Mute Galtons (1870). daß
er seine Zwillingsforschungen, und damit die Zwillingsforschung
überhaupt, begann mit einer Studie, die die Vererbung geistiger
und charakterlicher Eigenschaften zu bestimmen suchte. Die un-
ähnlichen Zwillinge seiner Beobachtung blieben im Leben seelisch
ungleich, auch wenn sie lange Zeit ähnlichen Umwelteinflüssen
(z. B. Waisenhaus) ausgesetzt waren; und umgekehrt verwischte
sich die seelische Ähnlichkeit der körperlich übereinstimmenden
Zwillinge auch dann nicht, wenn sie verschiedene Schicksale durch-
machten, es sei denn, daß sie durch Unfälle oder Krankheiten in
ihrem ganzen Organismus tiefergreifend gewandelt wurden. Tiiorn-
dike (1903) nahm zuerst eine Zwillingsuntersuchung mit psycho-
logischen Meßmethoden vor. Seine Resultate, die für überwiegend
genische Bedingtheit der untersuchten psychischen Leistungen
sprachen, verlieren dadurch allerdings an Wert, daß er eineiige und
zweieiige Zwillinge bei der Auswertung nicht trennte. Berechtigtes
Aufsehen erweckte die Mitteilung von Popenoe (1922) über ein Paar
eineiiger Zwillingsschwestern, die schon im Alter von wenigen
Wochen getrennt wurden, um dann in ganz unterschiedlichem
Milieu, bei verschiedener Schulausbildung und Berufstätigkeit
groß zu werden. Die von dem Zoologen Muller (1925) angeregte
und mitgeteilte psychologische Untersuchung dieser Schwestern
ergab eine überraschende Übereinstimnuuig der intellektuellen
Leistungen bei tiefreichenden Ähnlichkeiten und oberflächlicheren
Verschiedenheiten der charakterlichen Sphäre (Wille, Gefühls- und
Temperamentsgestaltung. Interessenrichtungen). Ähnliche LTnter-
suchungen an 8 E. Z. -Paaren, die ebenfalls lange Zeit getrennt
gelebt hatten, hat Newman (1929) angestellt. Seine Resultate
weichen in bemerkenswerter Weise von denen Mullers ab : Newman
fand bei einem Paare (,,A und O"), das bei gleicher Erziehung in
einem sozial recht verschiedenen Milieu groß wurde, deutlich
verschiedene Leistungen bei der Intelligenzprüfung bei auffallender
I
48
V. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillings jorschung
2. Charakterologische Beobachtungen
49
Ähnlichkeit der Charalitereigenschafteii. Ein ganz ähnlicher Ausfall
der Untersuchung ergab sich bei dem Paare ..E und CV. das jedoch
bei großer Ähnlichkeit des familiären und sozialen Milieus eine
verschiedene Erziehung genossen hatte. Mir ist bei der Durchsicht
der einzelnen von Newmax angewandten Tests aufgt^fallen. daß
sowohl ..A und O" als auch ..E und G" bei den verschiedenen Prü-
fungen ein bemerkenswert verschiedenes Verhalten an den Tag
legten, sei es. daß der eine Zwilling rascher imd fester zufaßte bei
den Aufgaben, daß einer befangen und zaudernd war. der andere
nicht, daß der eine in bezug auf Überlegung. Sorgfalt und Aus-
dauer dem Durchschnitt entsprach, der andere aber deutlich dar-
über stand luid ähnliche Unterschiede mehr. Handelt es sich da
wirklich noch um reine Intelligenzprüf ungen und nicht viel-
mehr um die Prüfung geistiger Funktionen, die in der Leistung
(nicht in der zugrunde liegenden Fähigkeit) in weitem Umfange
von charakterlichen, emotionalen und erlebnisgebundenen Ein-
flüssen abhängig sind ? Es wird bei der Besprechung unserer
eigenen Beobachtungen noch auf diese Fehlerquelle zurückzu-
kommen sein. Das dritte von Newmax ge})rüfte Paar {..C und 0")
zeigte bei großer Ähnlichkeit des sozialen Milieus und der Er-
ziehung nahezu gleiche Leistungen auf intellektuellem Gebiet bei
ziemlich deutlichen Unterschieden der Persönlichkeitsstruktur.
Es entsprach also bezüglich des erhobenen Befundes noch am
meisten dem Resultat von Miller. Weitere Test})rüfungen wurden
an einer großen Zahl (204 l^aaren) von Zwillingen von Merriman
(1924) angestellt. Er teilte nicht nach E. Z. und Z. Z., sondern
nach gleichgeschlechtigen und ungleichgeschlechtigen Paaren
ein imd fand die Ähnlichkeit der intellektuellen Leistungen bei
Gleichgeschlechtigen viel größer als bei den Pärchen. Eine
stärkere Mitwirkung der LTmwelt nimmt Merriman für den Grad
der Intelligenz nicht an. Zu ganz ähnlichen Resultaten kommt
Lauterbach (1925). der fast 200 Paare durch Intelligenzprüfungen
nntersucht hat. Wichtiger sind die Resultate von Winofield (1928),
vor allem deswegen, weil er unter den gleichgeschlechtigen wieder
die kör})erlich ähnlichen, also größtenteils E. Z.. aiissonderte. Er
fand folgende Korrelationskoeffizienten der Intelll^enzleistungen :
Ähnliche ZwiHijige + 0,!K)
(illeichgosehlec'htige ZwiMiuf^e . . + 0,82
Verschiedengeschlechtige Zwillinge + 0,5*)
Geschwister + 0,50
^.k
Ki
Diese Zahlen sprechen für den ausschlaggebenden Einfluß der
Anlage für die Intelligenzleistungen. Weitere Intelligenzprüfungen
an Zwillingen hat in jüngster Zeit v. Verschuer (1930a, b) vorge-
nommen und zwar mit Hilfe der BiNET-SiMONschen Methode
(modifiziert von Terman) und unter Ausführung des Rorschach-
schen Formdeute Versuchs. Es ergaben sich durchgehend geringere
Unterschiede zwischen den Partnern bei den E. Z. als bei den Z. Z.
Bei der Intelligenzprüfung nach Binet-Simon ist dieser Ausfall
deutlich, beim RoRscHACHschen Versuch nicht sehr groß. Wenn
V. Verschuer schließlich zu dem Resultat kommt, daß „die durch
den Versuch zum Ausdruck kommenden psychischen Eigenschaften
von der erbUchen Veranlagung mitbestimmt sind", so ist damit
eigenthch gar nichts gesagt, denn Eigenschaften, die nicht irgend-
wie von der erblichen Veranlagung „mitbestimmt'* sind, dürfte es
kaum geben. ^
1 Anmerkung bei der Korrektur: Es sollen hier noch zwei
zwillingspsychologische Arbeiten Erwähnung finden, die nach Abschluß
dieser Arbeit (Juli 1930) erschienen sind. W. Köhn hat kürzlich
{ArEaBi 25, 62; 1931) „Vorfrüchte aus einer psychologischen Reihen-
untersuchung an Zwillingen, Geschwistern und nicht verwandten Schul-
kindern" mitgeteilt. Es handelt sich um experimentalpsychologische
Untersuchungen, nämlich um die Deutung von stufenweise unvollständigen
Zeichnungen und um die Fortführung einer abgebrochenen Märchen-
erzählung. Die sehr komplizierte und dadurch doch wohl recht proble-
matische Auswertung des Deutungstests ergibt fast durchgehend eine
stärkere Korrelation der E. Z. gegenüber den Z. Z. und den übrigen Ver-
gleichspersonen. Das gelegentliche stärkere Divergieren der E. Z. gegen-
über den Z. Z. usw. deutet u. E. auf eine Überspitzung der Methode bzw.
ihrer Auswertung. Der in dieser Hinsicht einfachere Märchentext gibt
dann auch ein eindeutigeres Resultat. Es ist zu begrüßen, daß Köhn selbst
vor der Kraftvergeudung an ungeeigneten psychologischen Zwillingsunter-
suchungen warnt und auf den Nutzen charakterologischer Beobachtungen
hinweist. — Frischeisen-Köhler {ZAngPs 37; 1939) hat die Schulzeugnisse
einer größeren Anzahl von E. Z." und Z. Z. verarbeitet. Wie zu erwarten
ergab sich durchweg eine größere Übereinstimmung der E. Z., wenn auch
trotz des relativ großen Materials einige paradoxe Resultate (z. B. im
Rechnen) zutage traten. Daß Schulzeugnisse ein sehr problematisches
imd durch viele Fehlerquellen belastetes Material darstellen, wird von der
Verfasserin selbst betont. Uns scheint, daß man sich deshalb mit einer
relativ groben Auswertung eines solchen Materials zufrieden geben sollte.
Die feinere Bearbeitung dieses Zensurenmaterials entspricht gewiß nicht
mehr der großen Fehlerbreite und führt daher bereits in Scheinexaktheit
hinein. Es kommt hinzu, daß Zwillingszeugnisse noch problematischere
Entstehungsbedingungen haben als gewöhnliche Zeugnisse, was in der be-
üeiheft 61 zur Zeitschrift für angewandte Psycholosie
4
!l
1,
!l
50
F. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillingsforschung
Bezogen sich die bisher erwähnten Arbeiten vorwiegend oder
ausschließlich auf Intelligenzprüfungen und ähnliche Tests, die an
Zwillingen angestellt wurden, so finden sich Beobachtungen über
das charakterliche Verhalten der Zwillinge in vielen der neueren
Zwillingsstudien. Siemens teilt in der ,, Zwillingspathologie" (1924)
mit, daß die von ihm untersuchten E. Z. größtenteils charakterlich
sehr ähnlich waren oder aber geringe Unterschiede (z.B. ein Partner
scheu und empfindlich, der andere kouragierter und starrköpfig)
zeigten, von 24 Z. Z. -Paaren dagegen waren 22 deutlich verschieden.
sonderen Psychologie und Soziologie der Zwillinge, insbesondere der E. Z.,
begründet liegt. Für sehr beachtenswert halte ich die folgende Stellung-
nahme zu dieser Frage von Poll, die er mir freundlichst zur Verfücune
stellte : ^ ^
„Bei der Untersuchung von Schulzeugnissen von Zwillingen muß ein
Gesichtspunkt beachtet werden, der gewölmlich vergessen wird. Es gibt
bei Zwillingen, wie jeder weiß, der mit Zwillingen lebt und sie nicht nur
untersucht, keine „gerechten" Schulzeugnisse; ja, nur sehr selten „gerechte"
Noten. Das Urteil der Lehrenden wird von der höheren pädagogischen
Aufgabe zwangsweise außerordentlich stark gefärbt, zu starke Ähnlich-
keiten bei Zwillingen herabzumindern, zu starke Unähnlichkeiten auszu-
gleichen. Sogar bei der Frage der Versetzungen spielt dieses Rücksicht-
nehmen auf die Soziologie der Zwillinge eine oft entscheidende Rolle Er
sieht man aus dem Verhalten der beiden, daß eine Trennung voraussichtlich
von außerordentlich schädlichen psychischen Folgen wäre, so wird der
Ausgleich entweder durch Heben des Schlechteren oder durch Senken des
Besseren herbeigeführt. Und bei der umgekehrten Sachlage, bei der Er-
kenntnis psychischer übler Nachwirkungen des Getrenntbleibens während
der Schule, erfolgt ebenfalls der Ausgleich durch irgendeine „ungerechte"
Zensur. Diese Erfahrungen bestätigen jedem, der das Vertrauen eines
Zwillingspaares durch längeren Verkehr gewonnen hat, nicht nur die
Zwillingspaare selbst, sondern auch einsichtige und überlegene Pädagogen
die das zweifelhafte Vergnügen gehabt haben, während des Durchlaufens
durch eine Schule ein eineiiges Zwillingspaar pädagogisch zu betreuen. Die
fabelhafte Begabung einer großen Anzahl von Zwillingsgeschwistern sich
- volhg unbemerkt von einem Dritten - zu helfen, kommt hinzu, um
die Unsicherheit in der Beurteilung der Schulleistungen außerordentlich
zu vermehren. In ihre Begabungsrichtung und ihren Begabungsgrad mehr
einzudringen, gehngt gewöhnlich, wenn die Zwillinge als reifere Menschen
etwa die Universität beziehen. Da sich die Zwillinge im allgemeinen außer-
ordentlich gut kennen, gelingt es dann leicht, durch gemeinsame Besprechung
durch das Lrteil jedes über den anderen, Unterschiede und Ähnlichkeiten
festzulegen, die in den Schulzeugnissen ihren Niederschlag niemals emp-
fangen konnten. Diese Bemerkungen beruhen zum größten Teil auf An
gaben und Beobachtungen von vier eineiigen Studenten-ZwülinesDaaren
drei männlichen und einem weiblichen."
}
2. Charakter ologische Beobachtungen
51
Ähnlich, wenn auch nicht ganz so ausgeprägt, fanden sich die Ver-
hältnisse bezüglich der Schulleistungen. Weitz (1924) berichtet,
daß er Charakter, Temperament und Begabung bei fast allen E. Z.
außerordentlich ähnUch fand; oft fanden sich gleiche Neigungen
in bezug auf Lieblingsbeschäftigungen, Musik, Vereinszugehörig-
keit. Bei der Untersuchung verhielten sich die E. Z. meist ganz
ähnlich, entweder beide offen oder verschlossen, beide dreist oder
ängstlich usw. Oft erwiesen sich die E. Z. -Partner in einem Grade
als unzertrennlich, der bei gewöhnhchen Geschwistern kaum vor-
kommt. Daneben erwähnt aber Weitz auch leichtere Verschieden-
heiten einiger E. Z. -Paare in bezug auf Schulbegabung und Tem-
perament. Auch Paulsen (1925) findet die geistige Begabung und
die Charaktereigenschaften bei E. Z. einige Male konkordant, bei
einigen Paaren aber auch diskordant und schließt daraus auf
die Abhängigkeit dieser Eigenschaften von äußeren Umständen.
Eine ganze Reihe von Mitteilungen aus der Zwillingspsychiatrie
enthalten Hinweise auf das charakterliche Verhalten der Zwillinge.
Erwähnt seien die Mitteilungen von Schulte (1922, 1929a),
BosTROEM (1924), Gordon (1925), Grote und Hartwich (1925),
JoHNSTON (1925), Burkhardt (1929), J. H. Schultz (1929),
Smith (1930), Hartmann und Stumpfl (1930), die alle über Psy-
chosen berichten. Die in diesen Arbeiten enthaltenen Hinweisen
auf das charakterliche Verhalten der Zwillinge wird man nur sehr>
bedingt auf die Frage der Erblichkeit der normalen Charaktereigen-
schaften anwenden können, wenn auch der Übergang vom Nor-
malen zum Psychotischen oft ein fließender ist. Eine besondere
Hervorhebung verdienen die Mitteilungen von Hahn (1926),
der ein in manchen körperlichen Zügen sehr ähnliches, in anderen
wieder nicht übereinstimmendes, im ganzen Aussehen doch recht
unähnHches Zwillingspaar beschreibt. Es handelt sich um früh-
zeitig getrennte und in verschiedenem Milieu großgewordene Mäd-
chen, die bei einem leichten Grad von Schwachsinn eine auffallende
Hypermotorik und Lebhaftigkeit zeigten und deshalb in psychia-
trische Beobachtung kamen. An diesem Paare konnte nun verfolgt
werden wie anscheinend tiefgreifende Persönlichkeitsunterschiede
zwischen den beiden Mädchen schwanden unter dem Einfluß eines
bestimmten Erlebniskomplexes, dem das eine Mädchen ausgesetzt
war. Dieser wertvolle, fast experimentellen Charakter tragende
Fall von exogener Persönlichkeitsänderung unter Annäherung an
das Wesen des Partners leidet sehr an der mangelnden Eiigkeits-
4*
ir
it
I
52
F. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillingsjorschung
bestimmung. Hahn selbst vermutet, daß die körperlichen Ver-
schiedenheiten der Mädchen durch eine viel stärkere Rhachitis des
einen Partners bedingt sein könnten. Er würde sich sicher den
Dank aller Zwillingsforscher erwerben, wenn er eine nochmalige,
genaue anthropologische Untersuchung (unter Beifügung von
Photographien!) dieses psychologisch so sorgfältig studierten
Paares veranlassen könnte. Eingehende psychologisch-charaktero-
logische Studien an 2 E. Z. -Paaren hat Hedwig Meyer (1929) mit-
geteilt. Wieder muß dem charakterologisch eingestellten Leser
auffallen, daß die Intelligenz -Tests zum großen Teil charaktero-
logische Tests sind. Man mißt bei derartigen Prüfungen nicht
eigentlich die Intelligenz, sondern eine Intelligenzleistung in
einem bestimmten Augenblick und in einer bestimmten Situation,
die für den Untersuchten stets mehr oder weniger etwas Un-
natürliches darstellt. Kann man noch von einer Reinheit der Auf-
gabe sprechen, wenn man hört, daß der eine Zwilling scheu wird
und stammelt, der andere zwangloser reagiert; hat es einen Wert
für die Bestimmung der Intelligenz, wenn man die Leistungen
eines bei der Prüfung ängstlichen Kindes mit denen eines nicht
ängstlichen vergleicht ? Und muß man nicht solchen experimen-
tellen psychologischen Untersuchungen noch skeptischer gegen-
überstehen, wenn man nachher hört, daß das Kind, das sich bei
verschiedenen Tests scheu, stammelnd oder ängstlicher zeigte,
,, gleichgültiger gegen unbehagliche Situationen" sein soll ? Die
ausgiebigen und übereinstimmenden Erfahrungen, die uns die
letzten Jahrzehnte durch den Aufschwung der Tiefenpsychologie
und der medizinischen Charakterologie (Freud, Jung, Adler,
Kretschmer u. a.) gebracht haben, sind die wichtigste Ursache für
den Abbau von psychologischen Leistungsprüfungen der er-
wähnten Art. Sei es, daß andere und neue Prüfungsmethoden ge-
schaffen werden müssen, die die Errungenschaften der Charaktero-
logie mehr berücksichtigen, sei es, daß man solches Experimentieren
und ,, Prüfen" als Mittel der psychologischen Diagnostik wegen
seiner Fehlerhaftigkeit und Scheinexaktheit noch mehr einschränkt :
eine Verwendung überspitzter Methoden sollte aus der Zwillings-
forschung fortbleiben, da sie zu Trugschlüssen Anlaß geben.
Demgegenüber haben die mannigfachen Zwillingsstudien von
Lange (1928a, b, c, 1929a, b) den Vorzug, daß er die einfache und
natürliche Beobachtung zur Grundlage seiner Arbeiten machte.
Seine sorgfältigen und methodisch vorbildlichen „Studien an
2. Charakterologische Beobachtungen
53
kriminellen Zwillingen" haben ebenso wie seine Mitteilungen über
hysterische und psychopathische Zwillinge zu der ziemHch ein-
heitlichen Erfahrung geführt, daß bei E. Z. die tiefer verankerten
Grundzüge des Wesens genotypisch bedingt sind, daß daneben
aber für die Gestaltung des Oberflächenbildes modifikatorische
Beeinflussungsmöglichkeiten bestehen, deren Eindringlichkeit unter
Umständen eine recht große und praktisch bedeutungsvolle sein
kann. Zu einer ähnlichen Auffassung kommen Holzinger (1929)
und Löwenstein (1929), die u. a. auch die pädagogischen Folge-
rungen aus diesen Tatsachen ziehen.
Fassen wir die bisherigen Erfahrungen der Zwillingspsycho-
logie zusammen, so hat sich ziemlich übereinstimmend die Er-
kenntnis ergeben, daß die Rolle und die Auswirkung des Geno-
typischen wichtiger ist und weiter reicht, als es alle nicht biologisch
orientierten psychologischen Richtungen früherer Jahrzehnte er-
warteten und annahmen. Daß innerhalb der charakterlichen
Sphäre, der Gestaltung von Temperament und Emotionalität
modifikatorische Einflüsse einen breiteren Spielraum zu haben
scheinen als innerhalb des Bereiches der intellektuellen Fähigkeiten,
konnte wahrscheinlich gemacht werden. Nicht übereinstimmend
sind die Erfahrungen über die Modifikabilität der Intelligenz;
hierbei spielen aber Mängel der Methodik und der individuellen
psychologischen Beobachtungs weise sicher eine große Rolle. Es
fehlt bis heute noch an serienmäßigen Zwillingsuntersuchungen
über die Charaktergestaltung der Normalen, und es fehlt vor allem
an einer einheitlichen, auf einer brauchbaren Systematik aufge-
bauten Methodik hierfür, die gerade die Zwillingspsychologie nicht
entbehren kann, weil sie Qualitatives quantitativ verarbeiten muß.
Beide Lücken sollen die nachfolgenden Studien aus-
füllen helfen.
b) Material
Es entspricht dem Plan der vorliegenden Untersuchungen,
nicht von Begabungsprüfungen oder sonstigen quantitativen Me-
thoden psychologischer Diagnostik auszugehen. Der Grund hierfür
wurde bereits im vorigen Abschnitt angedeutet und liegt vor allem
darin, daß wir den bisher auf diesem Gebiete in der Zwillings-
psychologie benutzten Methoden nicht das nötige Vertrauen ent-
gegenbringen können. Erbbiologische Untersuchungen müssen auf
dem Gebiete der Psychologie danach trachten, soweit wie möglich
!
54
V. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillings jorschutig
an die Elemente der seelischen Äußerungsformen heranzukommen.
Demgegenüber ist nun her vorzugeben, daß die allermeisten Formen
der Intelligenzprüfungen ihren großen Wert im rein Utilitaristischen
haben. Sie bestimmen die Leistungen und können dadurch
praktisch wichtige Fingerzeige für die Verwendung bestimmter
Personen in bestimmten Berufszweigen oder für ihre Unterbringung
in bestimmten Schulgattungen geben. Sie bestimmen aber oft
nur sehr bedingt die Fähigkeiten. Ein so sicherer und erfahrener
Gewährsmann wie William Stern betont selbst ausdrücklich, daß
für die Intelligenz nicht so sehr ausschlaggebend seien die Denkakte
als solche, sondern ihre Verwertung, daß es sich nicht so sehr
handle um die Fülle der Möglichkeiten, sondern um die Auswahl
und Einsetzung der geeignetsten Möglichkeit. Es handelt sich
bei den Funktionen der Intelligenz also sicher um komplizierte und
komplexe Vorgänge, deren Messung nur einen sehr bedingten
Wert haben kann, sobald man sich ausdrücklich auf dem Gebiete
biologischer Diagnostik bewegen will. Oder um es an einem
konkreten Beispiel zu verdeutlichen: Wenn eineiige Zwillinge von
40 Jahren, die sehr verschiedene Lebens- und Ausbildungswege
hinter sich haben, bei einem bestimmten Test verschiedene Lei-
stungen zeigen, so ist daraus über die den Intelligenzleistimgen
zugrundeliegenden Anlagen noch keineswegs ein bindender
Schluß zu ziehen. Es ergibt sich vielmehr die Aufgabe, aus den
IntelHgenzleistungen die charakterlichen, erlebnismäßig bedingten
^ und durch die individuelle Reaktion auf die Prüfungssituation
gegebenen Einflüsse zu eliminieren. Dieser Forderung entsprechen
die bisherigen zwillingspsychologischen Untersuchungen keineswegs.
Wir halten es auch vorderhand für sehr schwierig, bei Serien-
Untersuchungen eine Methodik einzuführen , die der geschilderten
Sachlage gerecht werden könnte und kommen deshalb zu folgendem
Schlüsse : So sehr es gerade bei Zwillingsuntersuchungen erwünscht
ist, zu zahlenmäßigen, meßbaren Resultaten zu kommen, so sehr
müssen wir uns doch von einer Scheinexaktheit fernhalten, die
in dilettantischer Weise Leistungen und Fähigkeiten ver-
wechselt. Es erscheint uns dringender und vor allen Dingen mög-
licher, zwillingspsychologische Untersuchimgen vorerst im Be-
reiche des Charakterologischen durchzuführen, und wir gehen
deshalb, wie es Lange für das Gebiet der Charakteranomalien
bereits getan hat, beobachtend und beschreibend und nicht
messend vor.
r^a^.«* «..«4 «>^ j» «^ ^T . f^ %
'••»•-'*-
2. CharaJcterologische Beobachtungen
55
Eine Methode, wie die hier gewählte, wird schließlich auch für
die experimentalpsychologischen Leistungsprüfungen einen ge-
wissen Nutzen abwerfen. Die Experiment alpsychologie hat sich
in den letzten Jahren in lebendiger Wandlung mehr und mehr auf
die Berücksichtigung charakterologischer Beobachtungen umge-
stellt. Intelligenzprüfungen ohne genügende Berücksichtigung der
Gesamtpersönlichkeit, ihrer Situationsgebimdenheit usw. werden
von fast allen Psychologen als ungenügend und fehlerhaft ver-
worfen. Umso wertvoller muß es für diese Arbeitsrichtung sein,
die Modifikationsbreite der einzelnen Charakteranteile möglichst
genau bestimmt zu sehen.
Die nachfolgenden Schilderungen bringen in kurzen Zügen
ein charakterologisches Bild von den Probanden. Vollständigkeit
in irgendeiner Richtung wurde absichtlich nicht angestrebt. Es
wurde vielmehr immer das vermerkt, was für die betreffende
Person weseüÜIotL-erschien, und was sie auf den Hauptgebieten
des Lebens an Verhaltungsweisen und -rjchtungen zu zeigen pflegt.
Eineiige Zwillinge
Paar 1. 18jährige Akademikersöhne, die gerade ihre Reifeprüfung
auf dem Gymnasium gemacht haben. Es handelt sich um ein Paar typische
Leptosome, die die Untersuchung mit einem gewissen trockenen Humor,
öfter leicht ironisierend, beobachtend, aber durchaus verständnisvoll über
sich ergehen lassen. Sie haben nach Angaben der Mutter erst spät sprechen
gelernt, unterhielten sich bis dahin in einer ,, unverständlichen Sprache"
und speisten ihre Angehörigen ,,mit ganz vereinzelten Wortbrocken ab".
Beide lutschten als Kleinkinder gern. B. war Bettnässer bis zum 6. Lebens-
jahre, A. scheint auch etwas über die gewöhnliche Zeit eingenäßt zu haben.
Als Kinder sollen sie lebhaft, gutmütig und folgsam gewesen sein. Beide
hatten stets gute Schulzeugnisse. Nach der Meinung der Mutter sind sie
jetzt noch recht lebhaft (objektiv nicht erheblich), haben beide rasche Auf-
fassung, beobachten scharf. A. ist aufgeschlossener, anhänglicher, hat einen
stets frischen Humor und Witz. B. ist ,,viel verschlossener", zurückhalten-
der, sensitiv. Sie musizieren ganz gern: auf Wunsch der Eltern lernte A.
Klavierspiel, B. Geigenspiel. Sie spielen beide ,,ganz gut", halten sich
nicht für übermäßig talentiert, gehen gern ins Konzert. Für die Schule
haben sie sich nie sehr begeistert, betrieben mit mehr Vorliebe Segelsport,
haben ein eigenes Boot und ,,pütjern" gern daran herum. Sie sollen beide
gut skifahren. Besonders gesellig waren sie nie, hatten nicht viel Freunde,
waren sich meist selbst genug. Anscheinend bildeten sie eine Clique für sich
und brauchten keine anderen dazu. Sie sind beide skeptisch, beobachtend,
ruhig. B. soll früher aufgeregter gewesen sein als A. Bemerkenswerte reli-
giöse Neigungen haben sie nicht, sind ziemlich nüchtern und realistisch
eingestellt. Politisches Interesse ist deutlich bei beiden vorhanden, aber ohne
• to «* ».» ' A- r^mA'
56
F. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Ziuillingsforschung
ö
Anhängerschaft an eine Partei. Mädchenfreundschaften liegen ihnen fern;
natürhche SinnUchkeit ohne Drang nach Auswirkung. Beide betonen, daß
sie großes Selbstvertrauen haben. Sie sind korrekt gekleidet, sind nicht
bemerkenswert eitel. Schlaf und Appetit gut. A. ist etwas lebhafter, kecker,
B. etwas stiller, kommt aber doch auch oft mit interessierten, manchmal
etwas spöttelnden Bemerkungen heraus. Der Unterschied in der Aufge-
schlossenheit ist wohl feststellbar, erscheint aber bei der Untersuchung ge-
ringer, als er von der Mutter empfunden wird (eine Beobachtung, die wir
bezüglich der verschiedensten Eigenschaften bei vielen Paaren machen
konnten; Überschätzung der Unterschiede scheint bei E. Z. infolge der
Herausforderung zum Vergleichen ebensosehr vorzukommen wie das Gegen-
teil. Differenzen und Ähnlichkeiten werden oft gleichsam durch eine Lupe
gesehen). Beide sind in bezug auf Berufsfragen ziemlich nüchtern und rea-
listisch eingestellt, haben praktische Neigungen mit leicht wissenschaftlichem
Einschlag. A. will Ingenieur-Kaufmann werden, B. Diplom-Kaufmann oder
kaufmännisch tätiger Jurist.
Paar 2. 28jährige, unverheiratete Mädchen, leiden beide, wie auch
eine 1 Jahr ältere Schwester an genuiner Epilepsie i. Die Anfälle traten bei
beiden im 9. Lebensjahre auf, bei A. ein Vierteljahr früher als bei B. Beide
hatten die Anfälle zuerst alle 6 Tage; nach einem halben Jahr blieben die
Anfälle aus, um bei beiden nach 3 Jahren, während des Krieges wiederzu-
kehren. Menarche bei beiden mit 17 Jahren, bei A. erste Regel 2 Tage
später als bei B. Seit der Zeit hat A. die Anfälle alle 3—4 Wochen, meistens
kurz vor der Regel, B. alle Vierteljahr. Die Anfälle sollen bei beiden leichter
geworden sein. B. machte mit 17 Jahren einen schweren Status epilepticus
durch, war darnach 8 Tage „völlig von Verstand", glaubte, man wolle sie
begraben, sah wilde Tiere. A. machte 1928 eine Reihe schwerer Dämmer-
zustände durch, war 1/2 Jahr in Friedrichsberg. Im April 1930 war sie
wiederum wegen eines rasch abklmgenden Verwirrtheitszustandes in Fried-
richsberg.
Beide lutschten als Kind gern, B. war Bettnässerin bis zum 7. Jahre.
Sie waren als Kinder ruhig, folgsam und gutmütig, waren außer Kinder^
krankheiten und Mandelentzündungen nicht ernstlich krank. Beide haben
nach Angabe der Mutter gute Schulleistungen gezeigt, B. vielleicht etwas
besser als A., gingen aus der 1. Klasse ab. A. lernte als Schneiderin, war
3 Jahre als Regenmäntelnäherin tätig, wurde 1928 nach den schweren
Dämmerzuständen invalidisiert, ist seitdem zu Hause, hilft der Mutter
B. ist Kontoristin und hat seit dem 18. Jahre regelmäßig gearbeitet, außer
2 Perioden von monatelanger Arbeitslosigkeit. Einmal verlor sie ihre Stel-
lung wegen eines im Geschäft aufgetretenen Anfalles. Seit 3 Jahren ist
sie bei der gleichen Firma tätig.
A. ist im Laufe der Jahre immer eigensinniger geworden, ist umständ-
lich und langsam, hört öfter nicht auf Mahnungen. Manchmal soll sie wenn
sie in Stimmung ist, bei der Arbeit schneller sein. Im ganzen schwerfällig.
1 Eine ausführliche Publikation dieses Paares mit eingehender Berück
sichtigung der Epilepsie erfolgt an anderer Stelle. Hier soll nur das Charak-
terologische erwähnt werden.
N
2. Charakter alogische Beobachtungen
57
Sie hat sich nie an Freundinnen angeschlossen, hält sich nur an die Zwillings-
schwester. Sie redet nach Angaben der Mutter „nicht so ganz normal, ist
nicht ganz intakt". Sie näht ganz gern, macht dabei öfter Fehler, zerriß
dabei neulich vor Wut ein Hemd. Sie sei nicht besonders musikalisch, hätte
ihre ganze frühere Begabung (Schulzeit) verloren. Sie redet wohl einmal
so vom Heiraten, gibt sich aber in keiner Weise mit Männern ab. Sie ist
eigen mit ihren Sachen, packt viel umständlich herum. Nicht religiös.
B. ist nicht eigensiimig nach Ansicht der Mutter (objektiv doch etwas)
auch nicht langsam. Sie soll sehr sparsam, knickerig sein. Ist ziemlich
ruhig, zielstrebig, resolut, führt durch, was sie wül. Früher „saß sie auch
oft in der Ecke", seit Jahren ist sie freier und lebhafter geworden, seit sie
weniger Anfälle hat. Sie geht gern ins Geschäft, man ist dort angeblich sehr
zufrieden mit ihr. Ebensowenig musikalisch wie die Schwester, treibt keinen
Sport. In letzter Zeit hat sie Interesse für Photographie bekommen, hat sich
einen Apparat gekauft, zeigt stolz einige ganz nette Bilder. Sie ist wie A.
sehr eigen mit ihren Sachen, näht gern alles selbst, ist sehr geschickt dabei.
Früher war sie wie A. still und zurückgezogen; jetzt hat sie eine Freundin.
Geht gern ins Freie. Nicht religiös. Keine literarischen und sonstigen
geistigen Interessen. Keine Herrenbekanntschaften. B. zeigt bei den üb-
lichen klinischen Prüfungen mittlere Intelligenz. Merkfähigkeit leicht
herabgesetzt, Kopfrechnen gut. Sie ist, wie ihre Schwester, sauber gekleidet,
beide halten offenbar auf ihre Sachen. Etwas umständlich und geistig em-
geengt ist sie auch, nimmt alle Dinge, die mit der Untersuchung zusammen-
hängen, sehr genau und mit Pflichtbewußtsein. A. ist deutlich beschränkt,
klebrig, umständlich, schüttelt lange und mit Nachdruck die dargebotene
Hand, wiederholt sich bei ihren Versprechungen, ist sehr dankbar und an-
hänglich, nur weil man Interesse an ihr nimmt. Freut sich in naiv dementer
Weise darauf, „bald ganz gesund" zu sein. Sie schließt sich ohne Konkur-
renzgefühl an ihre Schwester an, folgt ihr willig. Beide wirken kmdlich, A.
mehr als B. A. rechnet schlecht. Merkfähigkeit etwas schlechter als bei B.
Trotz des Gradunterschiedes hat man das Empfinden, daß die leichte psy-
chische Veränderung bei B. verwandt ist mit der schweren von A.
Paar 3. 19jährige, große, kräftige Mädchen von nahezu pyknischem
Habitus. Töchter eines Feinkosthändlers. Sie sind ohne ernste Erkrankungen
komplikationslos groß geworden, lernten fast gleichzeitig laufen und sprechen.
Menarche mit 14 Jahren. A. 2 Monate später als B., beide im ersten Jahr
mit Rücken- und Kopfschmerzen, von da ab ohne Beschwerden, gleich
stark und lange. Seit dem 16. Jahre sind sie beide ziemlich rundlich ge-
worden. Die Mutter gibt an, daß sie immer ein „heiteres, sonniges Wesen"
gezeigt hätten (das ist sehr laienhaft gesehen und stimmt nicht ganz). Sie
hätten viel Sinn für Musik ( = Klavierspiel der höheren Tochter) und seien
fügsam und gutmütig. Sie unterscheiden sich in „fast nichts", wurden von
jeher bis heute leicht verwechselt. Aus den Angaben der Mädchen selbst
ist zu entnehmen, daß sie mittelgute Schulleistungen zeigten, beide Vorliebe
für Mathematik und Musik hatten, dagegen mäßig zeichneten und kein
Sprachtalent besitzen. Sie mochten von jeher gern turnen, gehen gern zum
Schwimmen. B. turnt etwas besser, hat mehr Mut. Sie hatten als kleine
Mädchen schon Klavierunterricht auf Drängen der Eltern, allmählich be-
^1
amm>'m0-^ ••iiMi» '
I
1!
i
)
m
58
F. Ergehnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillin^sforschung
kamen sie Lust dazu. Sie halten sich für musikalisch, behalten Melodien
gut, singen nicht besonders gut, aber richtig. Ihr Klavierspiel ist gleich
gut; sie spielen gern vierhändig, abwechselnd Baß und Diskant. Sind beide
gern mit Freundinnen zusammen, sind gern lustig. Vertragen sich gut
untereinander und auch mit anderen, sind nicht rechthaberisch. Sie haben
gemeinsam eine enge Freundin. Eine Anführerin gibt es unter ihnen nicht.
Im allgemeinen sind sie ziemlich ruhig, werden in Gesellschaft lebhaft, be-
sondere Ausgelassenheit liegt ihnen nicht. Sie waren im vorigen Jahre je
^ Jahr in Pension zu verschiedener Zeit und an verschiedenen Orten. Jetzt
arbeiten sie beide im Hause mit; und zwar sind sie immer sich gegenseitig
abwechselnd im Geschäft (Delikatessenladen) und im Haushalt tätig. Ihr
Geschick als Verkäuferin ist gleich. B. hat etwas mehr Freude am Deko-
rieren des Schaufensters, verziert auch gern Kuchen und Torten; A. liegt
das nicht so. Sie gehen beide gern ins Theater, tanzen gern, sind gern mit
jungen Leuten zusammen, haben reges erotisches Interesse. Besonders
religiös sind sie nicht. Lesen ganz gern mal einen Roman, sonst keine gei-
stigen Neigungen. Besonderes Nähgeschick haben sie nicht, häkeln ab und
zu einmal, halten sich aber nicht lange damit auf. Auf ihre Kleidung halten
sie sehr, sind sauber und ordnungsliebend. Sie behalten sowohl Namen wie
Gesichter gut, Gedächtnis auch für Zahlen und geschäftliche Dinge gut.
Bei der Arbeit ausdauernd. Bei der Untersuchung sind sie nett, natürlich,
interessiert, machen den Eindruck geistiger Einfachheit, kehren gern hervor,
daß sie die höhere Schule bis zur mittleren Reife besucht haben, sind sonst
nicht auffallend eitel. Vorwiegend synton, nicht sehr lebhaft.
Paar 4. 39jährige, ledige Fabrikantentöchter aus angesehener west-
preußischer Familie. Die Mutter gibt an, daß die Gravidität ungewöhnlich
beschwerlich war; die Geburt verlief rasch und normal, B. kam 20 Minuten
nach A. zur Welt. B. wurde 1/9 Jahr gestillt, bekam dann Beikost; A. war
schwächer, litt unter Ernährungsstörungen, bekam länger Brustnahrung.
A. hatte leichte Rhachitis, B. nicht. Beide sprachen früh, bekamen zugleich
die ersten Zähne und liefen erst mit 1% Jahren. A. schrie viel, hatte viel
Durchfälle, war ein „kranker, elender Säugling", B. war nach Ansicht der
Mutter ziemlich normal. Beide litten unter Dunkelangst. Sie machten
Keuchhusten und schwere Masern, beide mit Otitis durch. Als Kinder
waren beide still, nervös, eigensinnig. A. deutlich mehr als B. Sie besuchten
eine ländliche Töchterschule, waren gute bis mittelgute Schülerinnen, B.
etwas besser als A. A. hatte Drüsenschwellungen mit Nasenpolypen, schlief
mit offenem Munde. Menarche: B. mit U% Jahren, A. mit 15 Jahren. Die
Periode war zuerst sehr unregelmäßig, wurde nach Jahren, bei B. früher
als bei A., ziemlich regelmäßig. Beide hatten von jeher starke dysmenor-
rhoische Beschwerden, auch jetzt noch, B. schlimmer als A. B. wurde des-
wegen 1911 an einer Retroflexio uteri operiert. Während der Pubertätszeit
waren beide reizbarer, leichter gekränkt. Mit 15 Jahren wurden die beiden
getrennt. A. blieb zunächst im Hause, B. ging aufs Lehrerinnenseminar.
Sie hatte immer mittelgute Zeugnisse, sie „haßte Zeichnen und Französisch"!
A. bezog mit 19 Jahren eine Handelsschule, war dort ein Jahr lang, hatte
mittlere bis schlechte Zeugnisse. Dann nahm sie eine Stellung als Kontor-
istin an, wechselte nach 1^^ Jahren die Stellung und ist seit 18 Jahren bei
2. Charakterologische Beobachtungen
59
einer Firma als Stenotypistin tätig. Ihre Tätigkeit besteht in Stenographie,
Maschinenschreiben und Buchführung. Sie hat kein Interesse an ihrem
Beruf, ist nach 5 Stunden Tätigkeit „erledigt". Alles geht ihr auf die Nerven,
der Betrieb ist ihr zu unruhig. Sie ist sehr empfindlich, hat keine eigent-
lichen Konflikte mit anderen, übt mehr stille Kritik. Sie hat Sinn für ruhige,
eigene Häuslichkeit, für eigene Möbel, hält auf Sauberkeit, ist eigen mit
ihren Sachen, liebt Behaglichkeit. Sie ist nicht besonders ordentlich, verlegt
leicht etwas. Ihr Appetit ist ganz gut ; sie ist aber empfindlich mit demMagen,
kann Saures und Fettes nicht vertragen. Hat öfter unter Kolikschmerzen
und Blähungen zu leiden. Ab und zu Hinterkopfneuralgien. Sie ist interes-
siert an netter Kleidung, gibt gern etwas dafür aus, hat aber einen einfachen
Geschmack. Freundinnen habe sie früher öfter gehabt, es ist damit aber
immer weniger geworden. Früher sei sie aufgeschlossener gewesen; sie
wurde jedoch durch böse Erfahrungen (Klatsch) immer vorsichtiger: „Je
weniger man von den Menschen sieht, um so besser". Sie geht selten aus
Im allgemeinen ist sie sehr still, kann aber lebhaft werden, wenn sie auf
Sympathie und Verstänchiis stößt. Früher sei sie gern in Gesellschaft ge-
wesen, war sogar manchmal tonangebend; allmählich wurde sie immer
zurückhaltender. Politik findet sie gräßlich. Nicht kirchlich. Bedürfnis
nach Männerfreundschaften hat sie immer gehabt, hat auch jetzt einen
Frevmd. Wenn sie jemanden wirklich liebt, ist sie aufgeschlossen und hm-
gebungsvoll. - B. war nach dem Abgang vom Seminar Hauslehrerm,
3 Jahre in der Großstadt, dann auf dem Lande. Mit 28 Jahren ging sie ms
Ausland als Hauslehrerin, sie machte dort nach privaten Aufregungen eine
Herzneurose durch; sonst hat es ihr draußen gut gefallen. Nach b Jahren
kam sie zurück und ist seitdem als Lehrerin in klemen ländlichen Orten
tätig gewesen. Sie möchte gern in der Nähe der Großstadt sein wohnt aber
lieber auf dem Lande. Ihr Beruf gefällt ihr; sie geht gern mit Kindern um,
wenig gern mit Vorgesetzten. Sie ermüdet leicht, hat mittags genug von
der Arbeit. Sie ist in der Schulklasse sehr energisch, hält auf strenge Zucht
Sie hatte öfter Konflikte, „wahnsinnige Krache" mit Vorgesetzten, geht
kräftig und energisch drauflos; Durchsetzungsdrang. Empfindlich oder
leicht gekränkt will sie nicht sein. Sie gibt sich ganz gern einmal mit haus -
liehen Dingen ab, liebt gutes Mobiliar. Handarbeiten „haßt sie, ist aber
auch Handarbeitslehrerin. Kicht sehr eigen, nicht ordnungsliebend Sie
hat gute Freundinnen, die aber weit von ihr entfernt wohnen; im übrigen
schließt sie sich nicht leicht an, ist wählerisch, ist dann schon lieber allem,
„kann es allein ganz gut aushalten". Der Appetit ist gut, Essen ist im
übrigen „Nebensache" („hält zu lange auf"); bezüglich der Kost ist sie mcht
wählerisch. Etwas empfindlich mit dem Magen, leidet unter Blähungen,
kann fettes Fleisch und saure Sachen nicht gut vertragen (die Anamnesen
von A. und B. sind getrennt aufgenommen!). Sie liebt nette Kleidung,
mag sich nur nicht lange damit befassen, ist ungeschickt im Nahen. Ist
gern mit Männern zusammen, hatte immer einen Freund, „wählerisch, aber
nicht knauserig" in Liebesangelegenheiten. Für Politik sei sie zu dumm,
schätzt so etwas nicht. Religiös sehr frei, geht nur zur Kirche, wenn es ihr
Beruf erfordert. Moralisch ziemlich frei eingestellt, nicht konventionell.
Sie ist meist ruhig, kann in geeigneter Umgebung lebhaft werden. Nicht
v:tir_
> ■*
!
!
l\
I
M
60
V. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillings forsckung
besonders anpassungsfähig, etwas schon, z.B. mit den Leuten auf dem Lande.
Sie kann dickköpfig sein, wenn ihr etwas nicht paßt. — Die Mutter gibt an,
daß beide nervös seien. A. sei „gutmütig bis zum Fehler", sie sei fleißig
imd treu, könne nicht gut mit Geld umgehen. B. wird als gewissenhaft und
sehr wahrheitsliebend geschildert, sie fährt unbedenklich und nicht immer
sanft mit allem heraus. Oft sei sie sehr imentschlossen. Bei der Unter-
suchung sind beide aufmerksam, sensibel. B. ist aber viel frischer, „wur-
stiger", scheint alles leichter zu nehmen. A. ist von der ganzen Unter-
suchung und Befragung etwas peinlich berührt, macht aber alles entgegen-
kommend mit. Beide „pflaumen" sich fast unaufhörlich an, necken sich,
fordern, wenn eine etwas gefragt worden ist, die andere zum Antworten auf.
Nach der einige Stunden dauernden Untersuchung sind sie recht erschöpft,
A. viel mehr als B. Sie erzählen ihre Lebensgeschichte beide mit Freimut
und verständnisvoller Offenheit, wenn man A. auch anmerkt, daß es sie
Überwindung kostet. A. gibt später brieflich zu verstehen, daß ihr das
ganze eine Tortur war. B. bleibt auch in Briefen freundlich und entgegen-
kommend. Man erfährt, daß A. immer überaus empfindlich sei; eine ältere
Schwester meidet sie deswegen, obwohl sie am gleichen Ort wohnt. Einige
Wochen nach der Untersuchung erlitt B. (!) einen Nervenzusammenbruch
infolge einer Enttäuschung und schrieb einen recht verzweifelten Brief. —
Dieses Paar war im uimiittelbaren Eindruck ungemein interessant. Man
hatte bei diesen beiden Frauen das Gefühl, daß B. bei ganz ähnlichen, z. T.
bis in die Einzelheiten übereinstimmenden Grundeigenschaften das aktive
Kompensat von A., der leidensbereiten hyperästhetischen Ressentiment-
Natur, darstellte. Beide zeigten ganz gleiche psychopathische Reaktions-
typen in verschiedener Ablaufsform, unter verschieden starker Selbst-
behauptung st endenz .
Paar 5. 15jährige Mädchen, Töchter eines Eisenbahnlademeisters.
Die Mutter starb vor 1 Jahre, seitdem führen die beiden Mädchen den Haus-
halt. Soweit die Mädchen orientiert sind, kamen sie ohne Schwierigkeiten
zur Welt. Beide wurden 9 Monate gestillt, sollen als Säuglinge sehr viel
geschrien haben. Die Sprachentwicklung setzte ziemlich spät, mit 2 Jahren
etw^a, bei beiden gleichzeitig ein. Sie haben als Kinder gestottert, bis zum
10. Lebensjahre, kamen deshalb erst mit 7 Jahren zur Schule. Seit 5 Jahren
sprechen sie normal. Auch das Laufen lernten sie etwas verspätet, mit 2
Jahren, gleichzeitig. Beide machten die Kinderkrankheiten gemeinsam
durch, haben beide große Mandeln und halten den Mund gewöhnlich etwas
geöffnet. Sie besuchten die Volksschule, hatten mittelgute Zeugnisse, A.
etwas besser als B. Für Sprachen und Zeichnen sind sie nicht begabt, inter-
essieren sich für Musik, A. auch für Mathematik. Menarche mit 14 Jahren,
A. 2 Monate später als B. A. hat die Periode alle 28 Tage, B. alle 22 Tage,
beide mittelstark und ohne Beschwerden. Seit 1 Jahre sind sie beide etwas
dicker imd rundlicher geworden. Die Mädchen machen bei der Unter-
suchung einen mäßig intelligenten, etwas ungeweckten Eindruck. Enger
Gesichtskreis. Sie machen gemeinsam den Haushalt, werden gut damit
fertig. Das Kochen besorgt allerdings der Vater. B. ist ziemlich für den
Haushalt interessiert, mag gern kochen, weniger gern reinmachen. A. hat
keine besondere Neigung zur Hausarbeit. Seit der Schulentlassung vor
\
'A
2. Charakterologische Beobachtungen
61
1/ Jahr besucht A. die Handelsschule; sie will Kontoristin werden. B. hat
sich noch zu keinem Beruf entschlossen und besucht die Haushai tvmgsschule.
In der Freizeit lesen sie gerne, meist gute, ruhige Lektüre: Storm oder dgl.,
keine Reisebeschreibungen. Bis zur Schulentlassung spielten sie gern auf
der Straße, mochten gern Ballspiele; jetzt kommen sie nur noch selten dazu.
Sie gehen gern zum Schwimmen, betreiben sonst keinen Sport. Sie haben
jede eine Freundin, schließen sich nicht besonders schwer, aber auch nicht
leicht an. Für die Kleidung sind sie nicht besonders interessiert, wenn sie
auch alles sauber und in Ordnung halten. Sind beide nicht sehr eitel. Im
Wesen sollen sie immer sehr gleichmäßig gewesen sein, immer ruhig, nicht
schwierig, nicht leicht aufgeregt. Sie sind für Tagesfragen und P-olitik nicht
interessiert, nicht kirchlich. Die verstorbene Mutter soll sie immer für ganz
ähnliche Charaktere gehalten haben. In letzter Zeit sei wohl B. etwas leb-
hafter als A. Beide machen gern Ausflüge. Sie erscheinen beide recht un-
differenziert, haben aber auch wenig Anregung gehabt. A. ist ein wenig
geweckter, gibt mehr Antworten, wenn beide gefragt werden. Als man auf
die verstorbene Mutter zu sprechen kommt, fangen beide still an zu weinen.
Paar 6. 16jährige, kecke, sehr geschickt und adrett angezogene Mäd-
chen, Töchter eines Betriebsleiters. Die Mutter litt während der Gravidität
sehr 'an Hyperemesis, machte außerdem eine Schwangerschaf tsnephritis
durch. B. war eine Querlage, wurde in Kopflage durch Zange geboren, war
sehr schwächlich und kam auf 3—4 Wochen in den Brutofen. A. kam 10
Stunden später als Steißlage zur Welt, war etwas kräftiger. Sie wurden
beide künstlich ernährt, hatten keine Ernährungsstörungen, bekamen gleich-
zeitig die ersten Zähne, liefen mit 1 Jahr, A. 14 Tage später als B. Mit
34 Jahren fingen sie an zu sprechen. Die Mädchen waren zunächst folgsam,
ziemlich lebhaft, B. mehr als A. B. soll einmal einen Wutanfall gehabt
haben, von dem sie jetzt noch reden. Keuchhusten und Masern machten
sie gemeinsam durch; B. mit Otitis media rechts, A. ohne solche. B. litt
außerdem an Drüsenschwellungen und großen Mandeln. Die Madchen be-
suchten die Volksschule, kamen nach 4 Jahren in die Oberrealschule, kamen
dort im Rechnen und Englisch nicht mit, wurden nervös, unruhig, magerten
ab, wurden ängstlich und kamen deswegen auf die Volksschule zurück, wo
sie sehr gut mitkamen. Schulleistungen bei A. wenig besser als bei B.Me-
narche: B. vor 34 Jahren, A. vor 1/4 Jahr. A. hat die Regel mittelstark,
B. ziemlich stark und lange, hat dabei Kopfschmerzen (A. nicht). — Die
Mutter gibt an, daß die Mädchen als Kleinkinder lebhaft, aber nett im Um-
gang waren. Sie malten und zeichneten gern, spielten gern mit Puppen und
kleinen Kindern. Sie waren körperlich zart, schlechte Esser. Auch in der
späten Schulzeit spielten sie gern, hatten Freundinnen, waren keine Stuben-
hocker. In den ersten Schuljahren schloß sich A. weniger leicht an als B.
Letztere war jedoch immer etwas nervös, weinte viel, fühlte sich öfter
zurückgesetzt, die Mutter weiß eigentlich nicht, weshalb. B. ging weniger
aus sich heraus. A. turnte gern, B. weniger gern. Handarbeiten und Eng-
lisch hätten sie gut gekonnt. Rechnen weniger gut, alles übrige ganz gut.
Seit dem 14. Lebensjahre hätten die Mädchen sich geändert. Es begann
schon während der Schulzeit. B. hatte damals eine Freundin, A. nicht;
sie wurden aufgehetzt, vertrugen sich schlecht, stritten viel. A. hatte meist
\
!(:!
II
' HÜ
62
V. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillings forschung
die Oberhand, hatte die „glücklichere Natur". Jetzt hat A. auch wieder
eine Freundin. Vorübergehend waren sie sehr verschlossen, in letzter Zeit
wieder etwas weniger. Vor allem aber wurden sie unzufrieden, ungefällig,
in alledem war A. gleich B. Im ganzen ist sonst A. ruhiger, harmonischer,
tiefer, B. oberflächlicher, unruhiger. Beide gehen zum Schwimmen und
Turnen. A. ist im Schwimmen etwas ängstlicher, turnt lieber. Die Mädchen
besuchen jetzt einen Jahreskursus der Haushaltungsschule. Zur Hausarbeit
müßten sie immer angehalten werden; nörgeln darüber. Sie sind aber beide
peinlich sauber. Sie machen ganz gerne Handarbeiten, B. weniger aus-
dauernd als A. Musikahsch sind sie beide nicht; B. singt vielleicht etwas
besser. Sie haben jetzt beide guten Appetit, schlafen gut. Im Wesen sind
sie sprunghaft, lebhaft; sind gern außer dem Hause, poussieren ganz gern,
A. mehr als B. A. möchte Kinderfräulein oder Säuglingspflegerin werden,
B. Drogistin oder Laborantin. — Die Mädchen selbst geben an, daß B. ganz
gern mal Hausarbeit macht, A. weniger gern. Sie seien ordentlich. Die
von der Mutter geklagte Charakteränderung erklären sie damit, daß die
Mutter sie zu viel ,, begängelt" und beaufsichtigt; sie möchten mehr Freiheit
haben. Mögen gern sich fein anziehen, spazieren gehen mit Freundinnen.
Sprechen frei darüber, daß sie gern poussieren, A. mehr als B. Sie sind jetzt
gute Esser, sind aber wählerisch. Interessieren sich sehr für ihre Kleidung,
sind ausgesprochen eitel, kommen zur Untersuchung zweimal in feinen,
auf Wirkung berechneten Kleidern. Sonntags gehen sie ganz gern hinaus
auf Wanderungen, meist mit dem Turnverein, in dem sie viel mit jungen
Männern zusammenkommen. Tanzen tun sie nicht gern. Auf Befragen
wird B. als die Anführerin angegeben. Objektiv macht A. einen frischeren,
harmonischeren Eindruck, reagiert mehr adäquat. B. ist sensibler, unaus-
geglichener. Beide sind sehr geweckt, aufmerksam, scharfsinnig, ganz auf
Wirkung eingestellt. Sie erscheinen sehr selbständig und drängen nach
Unabhängigkeit. Die fürsorgliche Mutter ist ihnen lästig. In Briefen be-
dienen sie sich einer gewandten, manchmal etwas affektierten und geschro-
benen Ausdrucksweise.
Paar 7. 15jährige, stämmige Mädchen, unintelligente Gesichtszüge,
besonders bei B. Diese ist fast 7 cm kürzer als A. Die Mutter gibt an, daß
die Gravidität normal verlief. B. wurde als erste in Kopflage geboren,
A. 7 Stunden später in Steißlage. Es waren eigentlich Drillinge; die dritte
Frucht war tot, verkümmert. Die Mädchen wurden 4 Wochen gestillt. B.
nahm zeitweise schlechter zu als A. Sie bekamen gleichzeitig mit 5 Monaten
die ersten Zähne, liefen mit 1 14 Jahren. In die Schule kamen sie im Alter
von fast 7 Jahren. Die Mädchen waren als Kleinkinder ruhig, folgsam und
gutmütig. B. wird als etwas nervös geschildert. Sie war immer etwas zarter,
aber durchaus nicht zimperlich; B. war von jeher kleiner als A., aber nicht
schwächlicher. Mit ^ Jahr machten beide eine Lungenentzündung durch,
später hatten sie (alles gleichzeitig bei A. und B.) Masern, Keuchhusten,
Diphtherie. Sie hatten beide große Mandeln, atmeten zeitweise durch den
Mund. Bei A. wurden die Mandeln vor 2 Jahren entfernt. Anginen hatten
beide öfter. B. machte mit 5 — 6 Jahren eine Otitis media durch. Die erste
Regel hatten sie beide im November 1929, seitdem unregelmäßig und ziem-
lich stark bei beiden. Seit 1 Jahre stärkerer Fettansatz bei beiden. — A.
' i.
2. Gharakterologische Beobachtungen
63
soll immer etwas verständiger, selbständiger. n.i,tterl eher. "^ 'egen^r ge
wesen sein. In der Schule war A. von vornherem v.el besser als B B ver
rZirl Rechnen und Deutsch; die Differenz wurde .mmer starker. D.e
MutL sagt B. sei „von Natur weniger begabt", bei der Geburt schon sei
^^TgL blau gewesen. A. hätte sie wohl ..verdrängt". A. ze.gte mittlere
»eltungen. war nur im Kechnen und Deutsch etwas schwach, aber v.el
besser I BB blieb im 2., 3. und 5. Schuljahre sitzen. Gut war s.e nur
L Geographie und Turnen, schlecht in allen theoretischen Fächern sow.e
n ReXn und Deutsch. Handarbeiten machte sie ganz gut, -* - - A
Beide sind sportlich interessiert, turnen und schwimmen gut. S.e smd be.de
SusUch mlchen alle Hausarbeiten gern, B. nicht schlechter als A v.elle.cht
etwas langsamer. Sie sind ordmmgsliebend u..d halten .hre Sachen gut .n-
Tn. A möchte Verkäuferin werden; B. hat das Bestreben, .hr nachzu-
e fern möchte Packerin oder Strickerin werden. Sie haben Interesse an
me d^nTstopfen alles Schadhafte sofort, shul etwas eitel. S.e haben be.de
gar kehfe Freundhmen. schließen sich schwer an. S.e s.nd v- - Ha e
fesen gern machen Handarbeiten. Sie wollen jetzt .n den Juge..dbu.id
ntret'en um etwas hinauszukommen, haben Lust ms Frc.e zu wanc^ern^
Beide waren leicht erziehbar und sind auch jetzt noch g"* '«f ^;;^^'j"^ ^^^^^
noch ganz gern Märchen. Ab und zu gehen s.e ...s K.no. ^^^J^T^^^^l
ten n!t jungen Männern steht ihr Sinn nicht, reden auch me über De art.ges
sind noch sehr kindlich. Sie singen ganz gern, aber n.cht g^J^fs^
Musik (Radio). Sind beide gute Esser, nicht wähler.sch. ^^^Tl^Z
beide sehr ruhig, gleichmäßig, wenig temperamentvoll. B-^^^-^J'XTn
wegs empfindlich. Bei der Untersuchung machen be.de ^^^'^^^^^^
ziemlich gleichmütigen, unbeweglichen, le.cht beschrankten &ndmck^
Llteres tritt bei B^mehr hervor. Bei der Blutentnahme -«;*--
ängstlich, im übrigen nicht schwierig. Ihren Lebenslauf schre.ben
'"at^"f5jl'rige:Tchlaffasthemsche Mädchen. Kutschertöchter von
neurop^hisheL undtschränktem Aussehen. Sie wurden nach „.er
Gravidität im 8. Monat geboren, beide ohne ««"^-^f «■*;" ti^^^^H
Sie wurden % Jahr lang gestillt; B. war etwas schwacher und kleiner a s A
wurde später die kräftigere. Erste Zähne gle.chze.t.g "^^ ^ J«^"^^
Gehen mit 2 Jahren, Sprechen mit etwa 1% Jahren Zur ^"»"'e kamen «^
mit 63/4 Jahren. Sie machten die Kinderkrankhe.ten geme.nsam durch.
": ten beide Drüsenschwellungen ; bei A. wurden Nasenpolypen entfent^
Beide atmen viel durch den Mund. A. mehr als B. ««e waren be.de öfter
erkältet (Schnupfen). A. wurde 1925 wegen B'-^Warmentzundung openert
B 1929. B. machte 1926 eine Otitis media durch. D.e Per.ode haben be^le
!och nicht gehabt. Als Kleinkinder haben "eide viel geUUscht waren sei.
ängstlich, waren zeitweise unruhig, eigensinnig, hielten den ^»"^ ^»'- 2'
A. war Bettnässerin bis zum 4. Jahre. Allmählich wurden s.e ™h.g, olg-
fam gutmütig. In den letzten Jahren sind sie viel vernunftiger geworden.
Im 3 Schuljahr blieben beide sitzen, kamen dann immer so S^r^'^J^t
Sie schrieben schlecht. Diktat schlecht, lernten Lesen, ^^f''^''^'i^~
„ganz gut", waren im ganzen schwache Schülermnen. B. etwas besser a^^
A kein großer Unterschied. Sie turnten ganz gern, s.nd aber steif. Schw.m
■{:
I
li
[
64
F. Ergehnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillings forschung
men haben beide gelernt und gehen gern zum Baden. Die beiden Mädchen
sind nach Ansicht der Mutter ziemUch still, sind meist für sich, schließen
sich schwer an, haben wenig Freundinnen gehabt. Sie sind jetzt in der
Fortbildungsschule, interessieren sich sehr für den Haushaltungsunterricht.
Sie sind überhaupt häuslich interessiert, mögen gern kochen. Sie machen
ganz gern Handarbeiten, B. lieber als A.; A. muß mehr dazu angetrieben
werden. Die Mädchen lesen gern, gehen öfter zum Baden, sind immer noch
recht still. Sie gehen öfter zur Kirche (auf Wunsch der Mutter), sind im
kirchlichen „Freundschaftsbund", gehen ganz gern hin. Im ganzen Wesen
sind sie gleichmäßig, nicht sprunghaft. Mit ihrer Kleidung sind sie sehr
eigen, wohl ein wenig eitel. Beide singen gern und richtig, keine besonders
schöne Stimme, hören auch gern Musik. Sie werden von der (engstirnigen,
herrschsüchtigen, von Moral triefenden) Mutter zur Hausarbeit angehalten,
dürfen nicht viel ins Freie. Möchten gern Plätterin werden, sind aber zu
schwach dazu. Jetzt sollen beide als Hausmädchen in Stellung. Sie sind
noch sehr kindlich, lassen keine erotischen Regungen erkennen, gehen nicht
ins Kino. Die beiden Mädchen waren von jeher sehr ähnlich und sind es
jetzt eher noch mehr als in der frühen Kindheit. — Bei der Untersuchung
machen sie einen sehr ungeweckten, unselbständigen und kindlichen Ein-
druck. Intellektuell unbeweglich, naiv. Dabei sind sie sehr zappelig, zucken
dauernd mit den Armen und Beinen, können keine Minute still halten, sind
auch darin ganz gleich. Lebensläufe kurz, in unbeholfenem, langweiligem
Stil, fast der gleiche Wortlaut bei A. und B.
Paar 9. 29jährige Leptosome, neuropathischer Gesichtsausdruck,
B. mehr als A., Beamtensöhne. Der Vater ist eine pedantische, bürokra-
tische Natur, scharfe Gesichtszüge, Flügelohren ohne Saum, asthenischer
Habitus. Die Zwillinge sind nach normaler Schwangerschaft rechtzeitig
durch Zange geboren, Geburtslage unbekannt. Die Mutter starb mit 55
Jahren an Gallenstein- und Nierenleiden. Die Zwillinge wurden 2 — 3 Monate
gestillt. B. hatte zeitweise sehr viel Durchfälle, war sehr schwächlich da-
durch, deswegen notgetauft. Sie bekamen gleichzeitig die ersten Zähne,
liefen mit IVa Jahren, lernten sprechen mit iy2— 2 Jahren. Als Kinder
waren beide zunächst ruhig; B. war zeitweise Nachtwandler; er war sehr
empfindlich, wurde als Schüler bald nervös. A. nahm die Schule leichter,
war aber reizbar, jähzornig und etwas lügenhaft. A. war nach seinen An-
gaben immer zart, aber zähe, nicht ängstlich oder nervös. In der Schule
(Gymnasium) war er gut in Griechisch und Naturwissenschaften, hatte be-
sonders Lust zu letzteren. Weniger gut in Deutsch und Aufsatz, schlecht
in Mathematik. Er schloß sich als Kind leicht an, hatte Freunde, war nicht
sehr lebhaft. Stimmung schon als Kind wechselnd, sprach immer sehr auf
Gefühlseinflüsse an, sonst nicht besonders sensibel. Er blieb in der Ober-
tertia einmal sitzen infolge Umschulung, machte die Kriegsreifeprüfimg
(Mathematik ungenügend, das übrige genügend bis gut). Zeitweise war er
faul, experimentierte viel für sich. Betrieb viel Sport: Rudern, Schwimmen,
Turnen. Er war 9^4 Monate Soldat, nach dem Kriege noch einige Monate
beim Militär geblieben. Er wollte Medizin oder Chemie studieren, der Vater
wollte nicht wegen der Kosten. A. ging darauf, wenn auch ungern, ins Bank-
fach. Als er in der Inflationszeit viel verdiente, gefiel es ihm besser. Ernst-
2. Char akter ologische Beobachtungen
65
lieh krank war er nie. Seit 2 Jahren hat er ein „nerv^öses Magenleiden", das
ihm besonders nach Aufregungen Beschwerden macht. 1923 will er einmal
4 Wochen die Gelbsucht gehabt haben. Zur Zeit ist er kaufmännischer An-
gestellter, ist nicht gern bei seiner Firma. Die Arbeit und der ganze Betrieb
sind ihm zu ,,grob". Er hat immer noch wissenschaftliche, vor allem natur-
wissenschaftliche und medizinische Interessen, ist künstlerisch uninteres-
siert. Hört ganz gern mal Musik, singt nicht gut. Für Sport hat er leider
keine Zeit mehr. Politisch interessiert, national gesinnt, nicht radikal.
Nicht kirchlich. Er sei in letzter Zeit sehr stül, sei bedrückt wegen seiner
schlechten finanziellen Lage. Ist nicht lebensfroh, hat viel Ärger. Er gibt
sich ganz gern mit Frauen ab, ist jedoch ,, nicht sehr stark sexuell veranlagt".
Meist habe er ein festes Verhältnis gehabt. Mäßig ordnungsliebend, penibel
in Kleidung. Er ißt gern und gut, ist wählerisch, trinkt gern eine gute Flasche
Wein, kein Bier. Neigt ganz allgemein zur Reflexion, zum Grübeln, habe
viel Pech gehabt (es handelt sich um Schulden, wie der Bruder angibt). —
Objektiv macht A. den Eindruck eines schizoiden Psychopathen. Er hat
etwas Verschwommenes, Unauf gedeckt es im Wesen. Durchaus unharmo-
nisch.
B. gibt an, daß er körperlich etwas schwächlicher war als sein Bruder.
Die Schulleistungen seien zuerst ziemlich gleich gewesen, B. las schlechter
als A. In der Obertertia blieben beide infolge Umschulung sitzen. A. war
fauler als B., wurde aber doch leichter mit den Anforderungen der Schule
fertig, da er weniger nervös und erregbar war. Die Zeugnisse von A. waren
aber nicht viel besser als die von B. 1916 vor dem Einjährigen erlitt B. den
ersten ,, Zusammenbruch". Die Eltern vertrugen sich nicht; B. litt mehr
darunter als A.; außerdem bekamen sie schlechte Kost in der Kriegszeit,
er hätte dadurch die Schularbeiten nicht leisten können. Da er den Zwang
auf der betreffenden Schule „nicht vertragen" konnte, wurde er umgeschult.
Einmal verprügelte er einen Mitschüler, der ihn hänselte. Nach der Um-
schulung hatte er gute Zeugnisse in Sprachen und Mathematik, schlechte in
Deutsch und Geschichte. Er hätte ein schlechtes Gedächtnis gehabt. Im
Mai 1918 wurde er eingezogen, hatte beim Müitär keine Schwierigkeiten,
der Schliff fiel ihm nicht schwer. Er war allerdings nur garnisondienst-
verwendungsfähig — Heimat. Nach der Entlassung machte er einen Kriegs-
teilnehmerkursus durch und bestand im Sommer 1919 die Reifeprüfung
(Sprachen und Mathematik gut, Geschichte und Deutsch genügend). B.
studierte dann auf der Technischen Hochschule Berlin Schiffbau. 1923 vor
dem Vorexamen Nervenzusammenbruch, hatte Examensangst, Geldsorgen,
Schulden, Angst vor dem Vater, auch eine Liebesenttäuschung war dabei.
Erholte sich in den Ferien zu Hause. 1928 vor dem Hauptexamen wieder
Nervenzusammenbruch, Examensangst, hatte etwas gebummelt, nicht viel
getrunken. Vom Vater zur Erholung in den Harz geschickt. Wollte dann
ins Examen gehen, brach wieder zusammen, traute sich nichts zu. Im März
1929 machte er endlich das Examen, fiel in einzelnen Teüen durch, wurde
auch damit im Herbst 1929 fertig. Seit November 1929 arbeitete er als
Arbeiter auf einer Werft, fand keine Stellung als Diplom-Ingenieur. Von
Anfang Mai bis Ende Juni 1930 lag er in unserer Klinik wegen eines erneuten
„Zusammenbruches", war überarbeitet, schlaflos, konnte das Gehämmer
Boilieft 61 zur Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie 5
66
V. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillings jorscliung
auf der Werft nicht vertragen, redete in verträumter, wirklichkeitsfremder
Weise am Tage der Aufnahme davon, daß er sich mit einer Werftbesitzers-
tochter verloben wolle. Machte einen schwer schizoiden, entwurzelten, ver-
träumten Eindruck, konnte sein erneutes Abgleiten in Krankheit nicht recht
begründen, kam dauernd mit merkwürdigen Fragen zum Arzt: ob er nun
gesund sei, ob er wohl entlassen werden könne, ob er weiter zur Erholung
bleiben könne usw. Keine Halluzinationen oder Wahnideen. Im Laufe von
Wochen wurde er verständiger, verhielt sich vernünftiger, adäquater, war
höflich und korrekt, aber entschluß- und energielos. Unsere Diagnose
lautete: Schizoider Psychopath, präpsychotisch? Inzwischen hat B. noch
keine Arbeit wieder gefunden, blieb geordnet und etwas disziplinierter, ver-
sucht, auf irgendeine Weise wieder in die Kinik zu kommen; ist sehr an-
hänglich, anscheinend aber auch etwas aus egoistischer Berechnung. —
B. gibt an, daß A. 1926 auch einen „Nervenzusammenbruch" erlitten
hätte, nach einem Krach mit der Haushälterin des Vaters ; er sei damals sehr
aufgeregt imd nervös gewesen und sei einfach von Haus und Beruf weg-
gefahren. A. sei überhaupt sehr reizbar und aufgeregt. Der Vater gibt an,
daß beide Söhne die Beciuemlichkeit lieben; sie seien nicht besonders eifrig
und fleißig. Sie seien leicht erregbar; die Mutter hätte sie reichlich verwöhnt.
B. sei verschlossen, schwerfälliger, schwermütig, halte wenig auf sein Äuße-
res, sei wenig gewandt im Auftreten, eigensinnig. A. sei etwas lebhafter,
begabter, gewandter, er halte mehr auf sein Äußeres, sei sehr jähzornig.
Wir hatten A. von auswärts kommen lassen, da B. hier i^ngegeben hatte,
er hätte einen Zwillingsbruder, der ,,ganz anders" sei als er, obwohl sie
körperlich zum Verwechseln ähnlich seien. Die Untersuchung ergab in
selten eindrucksvoller Weise, daß beide avis „demselben Holz geschnitzt"
sind, große grundlegende Ähnlichkeiten im Wesen haben bei bemerkens-
werten Verschiedenheiten des äußeren Bildes von Lebensweg und Lebens-
inhalt. —
Paar 10. 13jährige Kaufmannssöhne, die erst vor kurzem nach Ham-
burg gezogen sind und hier das Realgymnasium besuchen. Die Mutter gibt
an, daß die Knaben nach normal verlaufener Schwangerschaft geboren
wurden, Geburt ohne Schwierigkeiten, A. in Steißlage, B. Y2 Stunde später
in Kopflage. A. wurde J Monate gestillt, der schwächere B. 9 Monate.
Ernährungsstörungen traten nicht auf. Die ersten Zähne bekamen beide
mit 1 Jahre, laufen vind sprechen lernten sie mit 1^ Jahren. Besondere
Kinderfehler sollen beide nicht gezeigt haben ( ?). Beide Knaben machten
sehr viel Erkältungen, Husten, Schnupfen und Mandelentzündungen durch.
A. soll im Alter von 2 — 3 Jahren öfter hohes Fieber gehabt haben, das nach
einem Ciebirgsauf enthalt wegblieb. B. hatte als kleiner Knabe einen doppel-
seitigen Leistenbruch, war deswegen in einer Klinik; trug längere Zeit ein
Bruchband, bis die Brüche verschwanden. Als kleine Kinder w^aren beide
etwas eigensinnig, A. war im ganzen aber mehr gutmütig, B. reizbarer,
nervöser und manchmal jähzornig. Im ganzen war B. lebhafter als A. B.
ist nach Aussagen der Mutter jetzt noch sehr nervös und reizbar, im übrigen
sind aber beide folgsam und fleißig. Die Knaben besuchten zunächst 4 Jahre
die Volksschule, dann 3 Jahre das Gymnasium. Seit 14 Jahre sind sie auf
einem Realgymnasium. Beide turnten von jeher gern; B. muß sich jetzt
1
i:
3. Charakterologischc Beobachtungen
67
wegen eines schweren Herzfehlers (kombiniertes Mitralvitium unbekannter
Herkunft) mehr davon zurückhalten. A. ist im ganzen etwas besser m den
Sehulltturen Er ist gut in Turnen, Keehnen, Zeichnen, Erdkunde, ge-
nfgend n Ssch, Latel, Musik und Englisch; 13 ist nur im Turnen gut;
genügend in Zeichnen, Erdkunde, Rechnen, Deutsch, Englisch; nicht ganz
genüLnd in Latein. Beide sind keineswegs schüchtern. Sie sind unmusika-
hsch singen beide schlecht. A. war früher etwas änsgtlich; B litt noch
bs vor kurzem ausgesprochen unter Dunkelangst. Beide sine, ziemlich
lebhlft B etwas mehr, er spielt mehr, läuft mehr herum, ist wilder, beide
stndti'cht erregbar, B. mehr als A. B. ist besonders aufgeregt wem. er
etwa Verbotenes angestellt hat; bei Ärger ist er gereizt, boxt leicht drauflos.
E?hatkeü.e Angst vor Größeren. Auch A. rauft ganz gern einmal. Beide
^nd beetflußbaf durch Stimmungen, sind aber nie lange traurig A. ha
beseren Appetit als B., beide sind nicht wählerisch. 8ie halten beide viel
aSIL Kleidung, sind eitel, bürsten ihr Zeug oft ab. ^^^^;f'Zl
sich stundenlang". Beide ziemlich ordnungsliebenu. 8ie spielen gern
draußen tob n'herum, spielen Handball oder Fußball. K-rüher machten
"el Kriegsspiele, sind viel mit gleichgesinnten Freunden zusammen,
hrhebster Sport ist Baden; sie körnten schon lange schwimmen, sind sehr
d i ir^ efen Wasser. Sie sind ganz allgemein lieber draußen als im Hause
Sehr artig sind sie nach ihren Angaben nicht, müssen öfter geschimpft
werden. Li Spielen mit Freunden lassen sie meist einen andern vorgehen
damit sie nicht gefaßt werden. Sie ärgern gern andere Leute, B. ist hienn
^Anführer. 5. wurde längere Zeit von den Eltern vorgezogen, weil
er der Kleinste ist". A. liest ganz gern einmal, meist Indianergeseh.chten ;
B «ndet kein Vergnügen am Lesen. Sie spielen öfter Karten ( Schaf skop);
Ska haben sie schon vom Zusehen gelernt. Alle 3 Wochen werden sie m che
Kirche geschickt, langweilen sich dort. - Objektiv erscheinen beide Jungen
sehr zappelig, sensibel, nervös; sie siml motorisch recht unruhig, zucken
viel Im Wesen lebhaft und äußerst pfiffig. B. ist noch etwas kecker und
pfiffiger als A., paßt „wie ein Schießhund" auf. A. ist etwas ausgeglichener,
selbstsicherer, m'üheloser, B. aufmerksamer, gespannter. J™ 8--" ^^^^J
sich Unterschiede, die vor allem auf eine größere Erregbarkeit und Selbst-
unsicherheit mit überkompensienmg bei B. hinauslaufen. Daneben bestehen
aber ganz erhebliche Ähnlichkeiten in den Grundzügen ihres Wesens.
Zweieiige Zwillinge
Paar 11. 14 jährige Mädchen, Vater im Krieg gefallen. Die Mutter
ist eine geweckte, saubere, für das Fortkommen ihrer Töchter 'ntere-ierte
Frau. Die Gravidität war durch ziemlich starke Hyperemesis komphz.ert.
Die Zwillinge wurden in einer Entbindungsanstalt ^^^°';'^ .''%^~
monatskinder, A. als erste in Kopflage, B. 10 Minuten spater m Steißlage
Beide mußten einige Wochen in der Wärmzelle gehalten werden, B. langer
als A Die Kinder wurden 14 Monate genährt. A. erhielt vom 7. Monat
^ Beikost, die zartere B. vom 9. Monat an. Beide erbrachen in den ers en
Monaten öfter, waren sehr empfindlich mit der Ernährung. B«'^--«"
viel wund, hatten Kopfausschlag. Im ganzen zeigte A. eine bessere Ent-
y
!'■'
68
F. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillings forschung
Wicklung als B., die mit 3 Jahren einmal körperlich sehr herunter war. Die
ersten Zähne bekam B. mit 1 Jahre, ohne Beschwerden, A. mit 11/4 Jahr,
mit viel Schmerzen und „Krämpfen". Laufen lernten beide mit 13/4—2
Jahren. In der Sprachentwicklung war B. weiter als A., sprach besser und
mehr. A. war als Kleinkind sehr ängstlich, B. nicht. Dafür schrie B. sehr
viel, lutschte stark, kaute die Nägel ab, pflückte viel an den Haaren, war
in Vollmondnächten unruhig, schrie laut, war Bettnässerin bis zum 5. Jahre;
Enuresis kommt noch jetzt manchmal vor. B. war unruhiger, nervös,
reizbar, A. folgsamer, gutmütiger, ruhiger. Gemeinsame Kinderkrankheiten.
Beide hatten große Mandeln; bei A. wurden sie entfernt. Später waren
beide oft erkältet, A. hatte öfter Leibschmerzen, B. einmal eine Blasen-
und Nierenbeckenentzündung. A. soll mit 10 Jahren einen Lungenspitzen-
katarrh gehabt haben. Die Tuberkulinprobe sei bei ihr +, bei B. 0 gewesen.
Mit 12 Jahren machte A. eine Lungenentzündung durch, angeblich auch
Herzmuskelschwäche. B. hatte vor 1 Jahre einen Stirnhöhlenkatarrh.
Menarche bei A. mit 11 Jahren, bei B. mit 13 Jahren, Periode bei A. regel-
mäßig, stark, alle 3 Wochen, beiB. regelmäßig, weniger stark, alle 4 Wochen.
Die Mutter gibt an, daß A. feinempfindend, leicht gekränkt sei, sie käme
mit allem nicht so leicht zurecht, sei mehr „Prinzessin" -Typ. B. ist resolut,
weiß was sie will, ist energisch und zielstrebig. Sie ist allerdings auch
zappeliger, redet schnell und viel, ist temperamentvoll. A. erlahmt in allem
leichter. Sie betreibt gern Handarbeiten, Zeichnen und Malen, ist im ganzen
ruhiger, seßhafter. B. ist vorwiegend für praktische Arbeiten, geht lieber
auf die Straße, schließt sich leicht an andere an, während A. sich viel für
sich hält. Musikalisch sind beide, B. singt besser als A. A. sitzt am liebsten
zu Hause; sie ist geistig deutlich zurück gegen B. Besonders einige Tage
vor der Periode sei sie leicht beschränkt; nachher würde es dann wieder
besser. Freundinnen hat A. nicht; B. dagegen hat immer welche gehabt.
A. möchte Reklamezeichnerin werden; dafür reicht die Begabung aber
nicht aus; nun wolle sie Kinderpflegerin werden. Sie lese alles, was sie be-
kommen könne, besonders gern Reisebeschreibungen. Früher hätte sie sehr
viel mit Puppen gespielt, Puppenzevig genäht. Sie bastelt und modelliert
gern. In der Schule zeigte sie mäßige Leistungen, rechnen fällt ihr heute
noch schwer. B. war in der Schule viel besser. Zuerst wollte sie immer
schreiben; später hatte sie besondere Neigimg für Rechnen, Turnen, Eng-
lisch, Physik und Mathematik. Im übrigen war sie ein lebhafter ,,Deuber',
war auf der Straße, sobald sie Zeit hatte, hatte immer Lust zum Streiche
machen. Sie möchte Kontoristin werden, am liebsten Privatsekretärin. —
Die Mädchen sind körperlich und geistig sehr verschieden, A. ungeweckt,
aber freundlich -harmonisch, B. sehr lebhaft und geweckt, kompliziert, be-
wvißter. A. ist wenig unternehmend, beschaulich, etwas bequem, B. ener-
gisch, aktiv, ehrgeizig.
Paar 12. 18jährige Akademikertöchter, schlank, gepflegt, geweckt.
Sie wurden nach normal verlaufener (Gravidität ohne Schwierigkeiten ge-
boren, A. 1% Stunden früher als B. Über eine sichere Anamnese der frühen
Kindheit verfügen sie nicht, da wir die Mutter nicht selbst sprechen konnten.
Die Mädchen geben an, daß sie komplikationslos groß wurden, keine be-
sonderen Schwierigkeiten boten und nicht ernstlich krank waren. Eintritt.
2. Charakterologische Beobachtungen
69
Dauer und Abstand der Menses sehr ähnlich. Die Mädchen besuchten das
Lyzeum, gingen mit dem Zeugnis der mittleren Reife ab, besuchen jetzt auf
Wunsch' der Mutter die höhere Handeslschule. Beide sind sehr musikalisch,
A. spielt Geige, B. singt gut. A. zeichnet gut, B. ist hierin mittelbegabt.
A. ist besonders sprachlich interessiert, hat auf diesem Gebiet gute Schul-
leistungen. B. etwas weniger gut, nicht dafür interessiert. Beide sind
literarisch interessiert, spielen in einer Schülerschauspielergruppe. B. ist
schauspielerisch talentiert, A. weniger, kommt nicht so aus sich heraus.
Beide sind sportlich sehr interessiert, spielen viel Tennis. Beide spielen gut,
B. mit mehr Ausdauer. Im Schlittschuhlaufen hat B. einmal einen Preis
errungen; A. läuft weniger gut. Beide schwimmen gern. A. ist mehr geistig
eingestellt, B. dagegen „Sporttyp". B. macht ganz gern häusliche Arbeiten,
ist im ganzen fürs Praktische; A. hat wenig Neigung zur Hausarbeit. Sie
halten beide auf gepflegte Kleidung, B. ist etwas eitler als A. Der Appetit
ist bei B. besser, auch ist sie weniger wählerisch als A. B. interessiert sich
für junge Männer, A. etwas weniger. Im Wesen ist A. mehr still und ab-
wartend, B. impulsiver, temperamentvoller, beide sind nicht launisch oder
reizbar, haben eine gute, gleichmäßige Stimmung. Die Schulzeugnisse
waren bei A. etwas besser, besonders in Sprachen und Deutsch. Im Zeich-
nen, Turnen und Singen waren beide sehr gut. A. möchte am liebsten
Bibliothekarin werden, B. technische Assistentin oder Sportlehrerin. Kauf-
männisch ist B. nicht sehr interessiert, A. etwas mehr. Beide besuchen
nicht aus eigenem Antrieb die Handelsschule. — Der objektive Eindruck
entspricht durchaus der Schilderung der Mädchen. Beide zeigen ein aus-
geglichenes, gepflegtes Verhalten; A. ist entschieden intellektueller, tiefer,
B. unmittelbarer, weniger abstrakt.
Paar 13. 18jährige, adipöse Mädchen, Vater Arbeiter; die Mutter
hat ein Konfitürengeschäft. Die Zwillinge wurden nach normaler Schwanger-
schaft in Kopflage geboren, A. als erste; B. 12 Stunden später als Zangen-
geburt. Beide wurden 4 Wochen gestillt, keine Ernährungsstörungen. B.
hatte Ausschläge, A. nicht. Beide hatten leichte Rhachitis, krumme Beine.
Erste Zähne A. mit 8, B. mit 9 Monaten, freies Gehen A. mit 14, B. mit
16 Monaten. Sprechen: beide mit 2 Jahren. Beide lutschten viel. A. war
immer lebhaft und gutmütig, B. stiller, verschlossener, nervös. Die Mutter
nennt die Zwillinge „in jeder Beziehung unähnlich". A. machte keine
ernsteren Krankheiten durch, war immer robust, widerstandsfähig; B. ist
schwächlich, nicht sehr ausdauernd, war skrofulös, „lungenschwach", mußte
öfter auf Erholung geschickt werden. Menarche: A. mit 13^4 Jahren, B.
mit 15% Jahren. Bei beiden Periode alle 4 Wochen, A. mittelstark, B.
schwach! keine Beschwerden. B. leidet seit der Schulzeit an Kopfschmerzen.
A. war mittlere Schülerin, gut in Rechnen und Diktat; Interesse hatte sie
für Zeichnen, Turnen, ( Jymnastik, Diktat und Biologie. B. war in der Schule
etwas schlechter; mochte auch gern Zeichnen, Turnen und Biologie. Beide
sind zur Zeit Packerin. A. würde gern im Kontor arbeiten; B. möchte
schneidern und handarbeiten, ist darin geschickter als A. Beide treiben
gern Sport: Schwimmen, Wanderungen. B. ist unmusikalisch, A. etwas
musikalisch. Sie gehen gern ins Kino, tanzen gern, haben keine Herren-
bekanntschaften, sind beide gern mit Freundinnen zusammen. A. ist häus-
11 V
T.
: I i
I
i
1
i I
»
70
V. Ergehnisse,, li. Spezielle Zwillings forschung
lieh interessiert, Kochen, Reinmachen; \^. ^ar nicht. JJeide halten ihre
Kleidung in Ordnung. ]>>. ist etwas eitler als A. Sic sind beide gegen auf-
fällige Menschen, Jugondhündlor usw. Appetit bei A. gut, bei B. maßig,
beide sind wählerisch, mögen keine Milchsuppen, keine „Haut". B. ist
ziemlich still, nervös, aufgeregter, reizbar; A. ist lebhaft, lustiger, nicht sehr
laut oder tonangebend, sie ist etwas träumerisch, gleichmütig. Besonders
temperamentvoll sind beide nicht. A. ist kinderlieb, B. weniger, wird
leichter ärgerlich. A. ist mutiger, B. ängstlicher. Als Kleinkinder waren sie
wohl beide ängstlich. Sie lesen beide nicht viel. A. singt ganz gern, B. nicht.
A. war nicht gern in der Reformschule, vermißte die Zeugnisse, B. dagegen
gefiel es besser dort. Von Politik verstehen sie beide nichts; von kirchlichen
Dingen wollen sie nichts wissen.
Paar 14. 15 y^ jährige Kaufmannstöchter. Nach normaler (Gravidität
(etwas Hyperemesis) geboren als Zangengeburt. Beide wurden künstlich,
ohne Störungen ernährt; A. lernte mit 11 Monaten, B. mit 13 Monaten
laufen, beide sprachen mit 18 Monaten. Sie lutschten viel, A. schrie nachts
öfter auf. B. war bis zum 7. Jahre Bettnässerin. A. war als Kleinkind leb-
haft, eigensinnig und nervös, B. dagegen ruhig, folgsam, gutmütig. Die
üblichen Kinderkrankheiten machten beide gemeinsam und gleich schwer
durch, beide hatten geschwollene Mandeln und Nasenpolypen. Ernstlieh
krank sind sie beide nie gewesen; die Periode haben sie noch nicht gehabt. —
Nach Ansicht der Mutter ist A. naiver, kindlicher, schließt sich leicht an.
B. ist verschlossener, wenig anschlußbereit. B. ist häuslich interessiert; A.
spielt lieber mit kleinen Kindern. Beide sind nicht musikalisch. B. ist
mit ihren Sachen eigener, ordentlicher, A. gleichgültiger. In den Schul-
leistungen waren sie nicht sehr verschieden. Sie besuchten eine Privatschule.
A. rechnete besser als B., ist wohl im ganzen etwas geweckter. B. ist ver-
träglich, A. hingegen oft rechthaberisch. Beide essen gut, sind aber wähle-
risch. Das Temperament von A wird als lebhaft angegeben, das von B.
als ziemlich phlegmatisch : A. ist besonders in Gesellschaft ziemlich munter,
B. weniger. Beide geben sich nicht mit jmigen Leuten ab, sind erotisch noch
unentwickelt. A. ist kaufmännisch interessiert, möchte Kontoristin werden.
B. hat Lust zum Haushalt, möchte sonst Säuglingspflegerin w^erden. — A.
hat immer Freundinnen gehabt, schließt sich leicht an; B. ist meist für sich,
hat keine feste Freundin. Bei der Untersuchung macht A. einen kindlicheren,
geweckteren, lebhafteren Eindruck, mehr Intellekt, wenn auch noch un-
entwickelt. B. ist ungeweckter, ruhiger, weiblicher, harmonischer. A. ist
ein Spaßvogel und Pfiffikus, B. langweiliger, weniger Äußerungsbedürfnis.
Paar 15. 16^2 jährige Töchter eines Kaufmanns. A. kam als erste
zur Welt, B. 3 Stunden später als Zangengeburt. Beide wurden nur kurze
Zeit genährt, sollen keine Ernährungsstörungen gehabt haben. B. lernte
mit 10 Monaten laufen, A. mit 1^ Jahren. Sprechen lernten sie zur ,, nor-
malen Zeit", B. etwas früher als A. Beide waren als Kleinkinder ängstlich.
B. war bis zum 9. Jahre Bettnässerin. In ihrem Verhalten waren sie nicht
sehr schwierig, A. war ein wenig lebhafter und nervöser als B., im ganzen
waren sie sehr ruhig und folgsam. Masern und Keuchhusten gemeinsam. A.
hatte Drüsenschwellungen, beide waren ,, lungenschwach" wie die Mutter.
Mit 6 Jahren machte B. Scharlach durch, A. lag dagegen 14 Jahr mit einer
2. CharaJcterologische Beobachtungen
71
Meningitis epidemica im Krankenhause. Später war A. öfter erkältet.
Beide galten als schwächlich und anfällig. Menarche: mit 14 Jahren, A.
etwas früher als B.; beide haben die Periode regelmäßig, A. alle 4 Wochen,
B alle 3 Wochen. B. leidet dabei an leichten Kopfschmerzen. Die Mädchen
besuchten die Volksschule, zeigten beide mittlere Leistungen, keinerlei
hervorstechende Begabung. A. mochte am liebsten Geschichte und Religion,
Turnen Zeichnen, Singen; alle intellektuellen Gebiete lagen A. besser als B.
A ist unmusikalisch, B. durchschnittlich musikalisch. Beide sind häuslich
einc^estellt. B. möchte immer gern Sport treiben, hat nur zur Zeit keine
Möglichkeit dazu. Beide waren nach der Schulentlassung als Tagmädchen
tätig- B ist zur Zeit stellungslos. B. schwimmt und turnt gern, A. weniger.
Im gLnzen mag B. lieber praktische Arbeit, bei der sie sich bewegen kann;
sie hilft der Mutter im Haushalt. Nähen, Handarbeiten oder Lesen liegen
ihr nicht 4. hingegen näht und liest gern, geht nicht so gern spazieren
wie B und hilft, sobald sie Zeit hat, gern beim Kalenderkleben in einer
Fabrik Beide achten auf ihre Kleidung, A. ist aber eitler als B. Im Essen
sind sie beide nicht wählerisch. B. ißt mit mehr Appetit als A. In den
Schuljahren hatten sie beide gern Freundinnen, in letzter Zeit wenig. Sie
schließen sich nicht leicht an, haben auch keine Neigung zu Herrenbekannt-
schaften. B. tanzt ganz gern, A. weniger, wird zu leicht schlapp. Politisch
oder religiös sind beide nicht interessiert. A. ist die gewecld:ere Natur, ist
auch lebhafter und ausdauernder als B. Beide sind recht primitiv, un-
intellektuell, B. mehr als A., sie sind aber fleißig und sorgfältig, schreiben
auch ihre Lebensläufe sauber und ausführlich.
Paar 16. 1414 jährige Tischlermeisterstöchter, die nach normaler
Schwangerschaft ohne Schwierigkeiten zur W^elt kamen, B. als erste, A.
1/1 Stunde später. Die Zwillinge wurden 1/4 Jahr gestillt, machten keine
Ernährungsstörungen durch. B. hatte als Säugling Ausschlag; A. machte
eine ziemlich schwere Rhachitis durch, von der B. angeblich verschont blieb;
sie hatte krumme Beine und lernte erst mit 4 Jahren Laufen, B. dagegen
schon mit knapp 2 Jahren. Als Kleinkinder waren beide ängstlich, A. mehr
als B. A. war lebhaft, B. sehr ruhig. B. war bis zum 5. Jahre Bettnässerin.
Im übrigen boten sie keine großen Erziehungsschwierigkeiten. Beide mach-
ten Masern durch; B. hatte mit 1 Jahr eine Nasendiphtherie, A. hatte
Drüsenschweilungen am Halse, w^ar skrofulös. Sonst waren sie nicht ernst-
lich krank. Die Periode hat B. vor 14 Tagen zum erstenmal gehabt, A. noch
nicht. B. ist körperlich zäh und widerstandsfähig, A. nur mittelkräftig.
In den Schulleistungen sind die Mädchen recht verschieden. A. ist im
Rechnen gut, B. schlecht, in Deutsch sind sie beide mäßig, sprachlich un-
begabt. Turnen, Handarbeiten und Zeichnen mag B. gern, ist gut in diesen
Fächern; A. turnt schlechter, handarbeitet und zeichnet schlechter. Geo-
graphie bei beiden gut, CJeschichte schlecht. 13. singt ganz gut, A. schlecht;
beide hören gern Musik. A. hat schwimmen gelernt, wenn auch nicht mit
guten Leistungen; B. schwamm schlecht, ist nicht frei geschwommen. Im
ganzen waren beide mittelmäßige Schülerinnen, A. etwas nach der besseren,
B nach der schlechteren Seite hin. B. blieb einmal sitzen, während A.
immer glatt mitkam. — B. ist für Handarbeiten interessiert, A. dagegen
gar nicht. Beide sollen ordentlich und sauber sein; sie machten bei der
f
'f
72
V. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillingsforschung
Untersuchimg jedoch einen ungepflegten Eindruck. Handarbeiten, Sticken
und Häkeln mögen beide jetzt ganz gern. Sie turnen beide im Turnverem,
B. ist geschickter; A. mag lieber Ballspiele als B. B. hatte die Absicht,
Hausangestellte zu werden, sie soll aber ins elterliche Möbelgeschäft. A.
will Verkäuferin werden. Beide gehen gern ins Freie, lesen wenig, haben
keine geistigen Interessen. Ins Kino gehen sie nicht (kirchlicher Einfluß).
Beide schließen sich leicht an, sind am liebsten mit Freundinnen zusammen.
In der Stimmungslage sind sie ziemlich gleich, meist lustig aber auch leicht
vorübergehend verstimmt. B. ärgert sich leichter, ist auch leichter auf-
geregt. Politisch sind beide nicht interessiert. Alle 2—3 Wochen gehen sie
zur Kirche, sind vor 2 Monaten konfirmiert. Objektiv machen beide INIädchen
einen wenig differenzierten, wenig kultivierten Eindruck, sie haben anschei-
nend einen engen Horizont, sind durchaus ungeistig, an die engen persön-
lichen Interessen gebunden. A. ist jedoch deutlich lebhafter, etwas geweckter
und beweglicher. Sie ist aufmerksamer und hat auch entschieden mehr
geistiges Fassungsvermögen. Äußerungsbedürfnis bei A. etwas größer als
bei B.; Äußerungsvermögen deutlich verschieden, bei B. geringer.
Paar 17. IGi/o jährige Kaufmannstöchter, die nach normaler Schwan-
gerschaft, allerdings 4 Wochen zu früh, geboren worden, A. als erste in
Kopflage, B. 1 Stunde später als Steißlage. Beide wurden von vorn herein
künstlich ernährt, keine Ernährungsstörungen. Die ersten Zähne hatte
A. mit 4, B. mit 5 Monaten. A. lief mit I14 Jahren, B. 3 Wochen später.
Sprechen lernten beide gleichzeitig mit II/2 Jahren. Beide hatten Masern
und Keuchhusten, B. außerdem Diphtherie und Mandelentzündungen. Die
Periode hatte A. zuerst mit 141/2 Jahren, seitdem unregelmäßig, B. seit dem
15. Jahre regelmäßig. Beide gelten als körperlich zäh und widerstandsfähig.
Beide Kinder waren zunächst gutmütig und nicht schwierig. Die zartere B.
war immer lebhafter und etwas nervös, A. im ganzen ruhig, aber leicht
emjjfindlich. A. litt zeitweise an Dunkelangst, B. wenig, letztere war aber
leicht aufgeregt. In der Schule (Mittelschule) gehörten beide zu den besten
der Klasse. Sie waren in fast allen Fächern überdurchschnittlich ; B. rechnete
nur etwas schlechter als A., schrieb dafür etwas besser. Singen können
beide nicht, sind unmusikalisch, spielen jedoch auf Wunsch der Eltern
Klavier. Schwimmen liegt beiden nicht. Im Turnen ist B. gut, A. schwer-
fälliger. B. ist im ganzen sportlich interessierter als A. Auch im Zeichnen
ist B. besser als A. Von der Mutter wird angegeben, daß beide Mädchen
fleißig und aufgeweckt seien, beide seien gleich begabt. A. liest gern lange
Erzählungen, Romane, B. dagegen kurzweiligere Sachen. B. ist in der
Freizeit lieber draußen als im Hause. Sonst gehen aber beide in der Freizeit
gern hinaus. Sie sind seit einem Jahr zum Erlernen des Haushaltes in einem
Krankenhaus tätig, arbeiten dort geschickt und fleißig, wie die leitende
Schwester berichtet, sind von allen gern gesehen, besonders B. A. ist im
ganzen mehr häuslich interessiert als B. In Handarbeiten sind sie gleich
geschickt. B. ist nach ihrer Ansicht mehr praktisch eingestellt als geistig;
A. ist für beides gleich interessiert. Beide haben immer Freundinnen gehabt,
schließen sich leicht an. Mit Herrn haben sie keinen Umgang, keine Neigung
zum Poussieren. A. ist nicht leicht aus der Ruhe zu bringen, mittellebhaft,
ist friedlich, kaum jemals zornig. A. ist lebhaft, leichter aus der Ruhe zu
i
2. Charakterologische Beobachtungen
73
bringen. Mit den Eltern stehen beide gut, sind überhaupt sehr verträglich.
\n ihrer Kleidung sind beide „normal" interessiert, etwas eitel, beide
ordentlich mit ihren Sachen. Appetit bei beiden gut; B. ißt mehr, beide
sind nicht wählerisch. Die beiden Mädchen waren bisher immer zusammen.
Anführerin war manchmal A., manchmal B. B. will Säuglingspflegerin
werden A will sich weiter im Kochen ausbilden. Objektiv erscheint A.
unbewegter, ungeweckter, phlegmatischer, besinnlicher, „vernünftiger"; B
dagegen lebhafter, beweglicher, anpassungsfähiger, reagiert starker, ist
aufgeschlossener. - Ein Paar wie dieses demonstriert sehr schön, daß zwei-
eiige Zwillinge in bezug auf Fähigkeiten und Interessen sehr ähnlich er-
scheinen können (eigentlich nur „auf dem Papier"), dabei aber doch von
Grund aus verschieden sein können in ihrer tieferen Persönhchkeitsstruktur.
Paar 18 ITjährigo Akademikersöhne jüdischer Abkunft, die zur
rechten Zeit ohne Schwierigkeiten geboren wurden, Kopflage. Sie wurden
gut 3 Monate gestillt, keine nennenswerten Ernährungsstörungen. Sprach-
entwicklung normal, gleichzeitig. Laufen mit knapp 2 Jahren, auch gleich-
zeitig. Kinderfehler werden nicht angegeben. A. war als Kleinkind etwas
nervös, aber folgsam und gutmütig, B. ruhig, heiter, manchmal eigensinnig
A. war nie ernstlich krank, B. hatte öfter Anginen, hatte Scharlach imd
Mumps sowie 1 Jahr lang CJesichtsneuralgien. Stimmwechsel bei beiden
mit 15 Jahren, erstes Rasieren: A. 15 Jahre, B. 16 Jahre. Körperlich sind
sie zäh und widerstandsfähig. Schon vor der Schulzeit wurde B. etwas
lebhafter, aktiver als A. Beide waren immer gute Schüler, besuchen eme
deutsche Oberschule, sind jetzt in der Oberprima. Beide sind sehr gut in
Kulturkunde, B. außerdem in Sprachen, Physik, Mathematik, Erdkunde,
Zeichnen. A. ist etwas schlechter in Englisch und Mathematik, viel schlechter
im Zeichnen (eigentlich ungeschickter, bei mehr Phantasie). Turnen bei A.
mäßig bei B. gut. Beide Knaben sind sehr musikalisch, B. spielt Geige,
\ bei dem das Gehör nicht so genau ist, Klavier. Sie gehen gern ms Konzert,
haben den gleichen Geschmack, bevorzugen die gleichen Komponisten. In
Handfertigkeit (Holzschnitzerei, Plastik) ist B. deutlich geschickter als A.
B liest „furchtbar viel", alles, was er bekommen kann, am liebsten moderne,
psychologische Romane. A. liest mit mehr System, gründlicher. Sie treiben
crem Sport (Wassersport, Leichtatheltik, Schwimmen, zeitweise Tennis);
B ist in allem geschickter. A. wird als ruhiger, aber erregbarer, leichter
aus der Ruhe zu bringen, bezeichnet. Er kann gelegentlich (selten) aufgeregt,
wütend, eigensinnig sein. B. ist lebhafter, beweglicher, weniger erregbar,
nicht so leicht aus der Ruhe zu bringen. Er ist durchaus anpassender.
Beide haben nie viel Freundschaften gehabt, schlössen sich nicht leicht an,
kapselten sich aber auch nicht ab. Im ganzen sind beide vorwiegend prak-
tisch konkret, materiell eingestellt, A. etwas idealistisch. Kein Interesse
an Mädchen, lesen Romane nicht der Liebesgeschichten wegen B. ist nach
seiner Ansicht egoistischer, künstlerisch etwas begabter, viel eicht etwas
frecher draufgängerischer; A. sei freundlicher, hilfsbereiter, altruistischer.
A. hält sich für erregbarer, gründlicher, dringt tiefer in die Dmge em; welt-
anschaulich sieht A. mehr die andern, B. ist „Macchiavellist . B. will
Katmann werden, Lebensziel „materieller Art". A ist noch nich^zu e n
Beruf entschlossen, will vielleicht studieren, vielleicht auch Kaufmann
*
y
r.'
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74
F. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Ziuillin-gsforschung
werden. — Objektiv ist A. still, komplizierter, wenig lebhaft, kontem])Iativ,
besinnlich; empfänglicher, im ganzen wohl schwieriger. B. ist kecker, har-
monischer, flotter, redet frei und gern; er zeigt mehr praktische {Sicherheit,
ist die unmittelbarere, glücklichere Natur.
Paar 19. 15 y^ jährige Kaufmannssöhne, ohne Schwierigkeiten nach
normaler (jiravidität geboren, A. 14 Stunde vor B. Sie wurden 4 Monate
genährt, keine Ernährungsstörungen, A. etwas Ausschlag. Gemeinsame
Masern, B. machte außerdem Scharlach durch sowie vor 1 Jahr eine Appen-
dicitis. Beide hatten öfter Mandelentzündungen. Stimmwechsel: B. 14
Jahre, A. noch nicht. Erstes Rasieren: B. vor kurzem, A. noch nicht.
Beide lernten schon im ersten Jahre laufen, sprechen mit 1 Yo Jahren. Die
Mutter gibt an, das beide als Kleinkinder ruhig waren. Allmählich wurden
sie lebhafter, besonders A. Bis zum 9. Jahre war A. geweckter, war stärker,
tonangebend, in der Schule besser. Seit dem 9. Jahre wurde B. stärker und
überholte A. bald. Dieser mußte ,, abdanken"; B. übernahm die Führung.
Sie vertragen sich gut, streiten sich wohl einmal, aber nicht gehässig. A.,
der viel kleiner und zarter ist als B., möchte diesem gern nacheifern, ebenso
kräftig werden. Beide Knaben sind lebhaft, A. entschieden zappeliger. B.
litt als Kleinkind an Dunkelangst; er war Bettnässer bis zum G. Jahre.
Beide sind mittlere Schüler. A. ist gut in Sprachen, genügend in Mathematik
und Naturwissenschaften sowie in Aufsatz. B. ist in Geschichte, Deutsch
und Naturwissenschaften gut, genügend in Englisch und Mathematik, un-
genügend in Französisch. Beide sind sehr sportliebend. B. turnt etwas
besser als A., A. spielt besser Tennis, B. schwimmt besser, A. wandert gern,
B. nicht. A. singt gut, B. singt verkehrt. Sie hören beide gern Musik. Beide
spielten kurze Zeit Klavier, A. mehr als B. Sie lesen gern, A. am liebsten
Karl May, B. klassische Romane. Mittlere Ordnungsliebe. Keine besondere
Handfertigkeit. A. ist sehr lebhaft, ist viel mit Freunden zusammen, ist
in einer Jugendgruppe, geht gern auf Wanderungen. B. ist ruhiger, aber
aufregbarer, leichter aus der Ruhe zu bringen, ärgert sich leichter als A.
Er ist auch gern mit Freunden zusammen, gehört aber keinem Verein an.
Beide halten auf saubere Kleidung, sind nicht besonders eitel. Kein Mädchen-
interesse. Nicht religiös. Beide sehr politisch interessiert, lesen die Zeitung.
Appetit gut. B. ißt mehr als A. Sie wollen beide Kaufmann werden, wollen
ins väterliche Geschäft eintreten; einer soll im Ausland arbeiten, der andere
hier. — Objektiv ist A. sensibler, lebhafter, reagiert stärker; er ist geweckter,
aber auch gespannter, mehr intellektuell eingestellt, kecker. B. ist sicherer,
ruhiger, phlegmatischer, verschlossener.
Paar 20. 15jährige Polizeibeamtentöchter, nach normaler Schwanger-
schaft ohne Schwierigkeiten in Kopflage geboren, A. als erste, B. 1.^ Stunde
später. Die Kinder wurden nicht gestillt, hatten keine Ernährungsstörungen.
A. litt zeitweise an Ausschlägen, beide machten Rhachitis durch, und zwar
B. in viel stärkerem Grade. Bei B. mußte die erhebliche X-Bein- Stellung
mit 10 Jahren operativ beseitigt werden. Masern und Keuchhusten wurden
gemeinsam durchgemacht. A. litt außerdem an Drüsenschwellungen, mußte
am Halse geschnitten werden. Die ersten Zähne bekamen beide gleichzeitig;
A. lief mit 14, B. mit 16 Monaten, beide sprachen mit 1 Jahr. Besondere
Kinderfehler sollen nicht bestanden haben. A. war als kleines Kind lebhafter.
2. Charakter ologische Beobachtungen
75
erregbarer, B. war gutmütig aber empfindlich, beide waren folgsam. Sie
waren im Dunkeln ängstlich, waren nicht schwierig oder eigensinnig. A.
wird als zappeliger bezeichnet. In der Volksschule kamen beide gut mit,
sie waren in fast allen Fächern guter Durchschnitt; A. im Rechnen etwas
schlechter, B. gut. In Handarbeiten ist A. geschickter und interessierter
als B. Beide sind nicht besonders geistig eingestellt. Sie gehen gern ins
Freie, sind keine Stubenhocker, lesen nicht viel. Hausarbeiten mögen beide
gern,' sowohl Kochen als Reinmachen. B. ist im Turnen und Schwimmen
geschickter als A. A. schließt sich leichter an, hat mehr Freundinnen; B.
ist still, mehr für sich, hat nur eine Freundin. A. ist unmittelbarer im Wesen,
lustiger, lebhafter, kommt mehr aus sich heraus. B-. ist ruhiger, gleich-
mäßiger, empfindlicher und ernster. Sie ist im ganzen komplizierter, denkt
mehr als A., die die Sachen einfach nimmt, wie sie sind. Beide halten ihre
Kleidung sauber, sind etwas eitel, haben kein Interesse an Herren; A. hat
wohl etwas mehr Sinnlichkeit als die in dieser Hinsicht noch unentwickelte
B. A. will Friseuse werden, B. Kontoristin. Objektiv erscheint A. aufge-
schlossener, freier, ungehemmter. Sie wirkt natürlicher und niedlicher, aber
auch oberflächlicher als die besinnliche, schizothyme B., die stiller und
ernster und sicher intelligenter, geistiger ist. B. geniert sich bei der Unter-
suchung mehr als A.
c) Auswertung
Der Charakterologie fällt die schwierige Aufgabe zu, die Ge-
samtheit psychischer Eigenschaften von einheitlichen, syste-
matischen Gesichtspunkten aus zu erfassen. Sie stellt die grund-
legende und wichtigere Forschungsrichtung dar gegenüber der
Begabungsforschung, die nur ein Teilgebiet der Charakterologie ist.
Es ist nun eine große Schwierigkeit in die Bearbeitung dieser Ge-
biete dadvuxh hineingetragen worden, daß die psychologische For-
schung sich seit Jahrzehnten ganz überwiegend auf die Begabungs-
forschung eingestellt hatte, während die Charakterologie lange Zeit
ein Stiefkind der Wissenschaft war. Man darf heute ohne Über-
treibung sagen, daß eine umgekehrte Entwicklung gesünder und
fruchtbarer gewesen wäre. Erst die letzten zwei Jahrzehnte haben
zu einem Wandel geführt, einerseits durch das Aufblühen der mehr
Charakter ologisch orientierten medizinischen Psychologie, das
vor allem den Arbeiten von Kretschmer, H. Hoffmann, Ewald,
Freud, Jung, Adler, Kunkel, Häberlin u. a. zu verdanken ist
und andererseits durch die Schaffung einer groß angelegten und
streng wissenschaftlich durchgeführten Charakterkunde durch
Klages. Die ,, Prinzipien der Charakterologie" von Klages (1910,
1926) sind nach einer anfänglichen Latenzperiode in den letzten
Jahren mehr und mehr in die psychiatrische, medizinisch-psycho-
i
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76
F. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Ztüillingsforschwig
logische und rein psychologische Literatur eingegangen und haben
wesentlich dazu beigetragen, die Psychologie auf eine lebendigere
Grundlage zu stellen. Wenn beispielsweise Homburger (1926),
Jaspers (1923), Kretschmer (1926) und Hoffmann (1930) dem
Werke von Klag es Anerkennung zollen, so glauben wir, ihnen
darin nur folgen zu können. Wer die fast beispiellose Un-
ordnung und Systemlosigkeit der älteren Charakterologie und den
Mißbrauch so vieldeutiger Begriffe wie etwa ,, Wille" und „Gefühl"
genügend ausgekostet hat, der muß in der Systematik von Klages
einen ganz bedeutenden Fortschritt sehen. Schwierig wird die
Charakterologie immer bleiben; das liegt in ihrer Materie. An
Klarheit und festem Boden hat sie aber bedeutend gewonnen.
Klages hat die Eigenschaften des menschlichen Charakters
eingeteilt in 3 große Gruppen, denen noch einige kleinere Gruppen,
die wir hier vernachlässigen können, zur Seite stehen. Er unter-
scheidet die Materie, die Qualität und die Struktur des Cha-
rakters und hat 1926 vorgeschlagen, diese Bezeichnung durch die
mehr ausdrückenden deutschen Wörter Stoff, Artung und Ge-
f üge zu ersetzen. Der Stoff (die Materie) des Charakters umfaßt
seine elementaren Gegebenheiten an Vorstellungsinhalten, deren
Reichtum oder Armut an Gehalt, Tiefe oder Flachheit, Aufnahme-
fähigkeit, Gedächtnis usw., kurz die Bausteine, ,, Anlagen" im
weiteren Sinne, Fähigkeiten, deren sich jedes charakterhche Ge-
schehen bedienen muß. — Die Artung (Qualität) des Charakters
enthält alle Richtjingsgrößen, Triebfedern, Interessen. Die
Eigenschaften dieser Gruppe bestimmen also, in welcher Richtung
eine Strebung eingesetzt wird, welchen Zielen oder Maßstäben
jemand folgt. Eine der Hauptunterteilungen dieser Eigenschaften
ist die nach den Tendenzen der Selbstbehauptung und der Selbst-
h^ngebung. Die Artung eines Charakters gibt also Aufschluß über
die Ziele und Interessen einer Persönlichkeit, vor allem auch über
(| ihr Verhältnis zu Ichgefühl, Egozentrizität, Selbstentäußerung u. ä.
Im Gefüge (der Struktur) der Persönlichkeit schließlich sind
alle Eigenschaften zusammengefaßt, die über die Ablaufsformen
des seelischen Geschehens Auskunft geben, z.B. über die Schnellig-
keit oder Langsamkeit, über die Gleichmäßigkeit, den Grad und die
Art der Gehemmtheit, die Stimmungseinflüsse usw. Die ganze
Lehre von den Temperamenten ist in dieser Gruppe aufgegangen.
Dieses System, das hier nur in den gröbsten Zügen angedeutet
wurde, stellt in seiner Wohldurchdachtheit und relativen Einfach-
H
I
)
2. Char akter ologische Beobachtungen
11
heit eine große Verbesserung und Erleichterung für psychologische
Untersuchungen dar. Es ist streng genug, um eine klare Klassi-
fizierung für jede nur denkbare Eigenschaft zuzulassen, und es ist
vor allem frei von jeder künstlichen Einteilung, die in der älteren
Charakterologie so viel geschadet hat. Für biologische Probleme
ist die Einteilung von Klages deshalb besonders brauchbar, weil
sie einer durchaus natürlichen und von keinem intellektuellen
Programm beeinflußten Betrachtungsweise entstammt. Stoff,
Artung und Gefüge des Charakters sind natürliche Gruppen,
die weit mehr als eine äußerliche Ordnung darstellen. Deshalb
dürfen wir uns von der Verwendung dieser Systematik in der psycho-
logischen Erblichkeitsforschung einen großen Nutzen versprechen.
Im Anhang Seite 108 bis 122 findet sich eine Aufstellung der
Charaktereigenschaften unserer Zwillingspaare unter Aufteilung
in die Eigenschaften, die dem Stoff, der Artung und dem Gefüge
der Persönlichkeit zugehören. Zugleich sind die Eigenschaften
geordnet nach Konkordanz oder Diskordanz, wobei folgende, schon
früher benutzte Zeichen gelten:
= heißt Übereinstimmung beider Partner (Konkordanz)
(=) kleine Verschiedenheiten (un vollst. Konkord.)
( X ) deutliche Verschiedenheit (un vollst. Diskord.)
X Diskordanz.
Soweit sich eine Eigenschaft auf das Verhalten in der Kindheit
bezieht, wurde ein (K) hinter die betreffende Bezeichnung gesetzt.
Einzelne Eigenschaften, die nicht zu den eigentlichen Charakter-
eigenschaften gehören, die vielmehr einem komplizierteren psychi-
schen Inhalt zugehören (z. B. Bettnässen), wurden erwähnt, da
sie auf wichtige Charaktereigenschaften deuten; sie wurden in
Klammern gesetzt. Daß die Zuteilung zu der betreffenden Gruppe
bei einigen Eigenschaften recht schwierig ist, liegt schon an dem
Umstand, daß die Eigenschaften der Artung und des Gefüges zum
Beispiel immer auch Eigenschaften des Stoffes in sich fassen (z. B.
die zum Gefüge gehörige Entschlossenheit enthält die zum Stoff
gehörende Willenskraft usw.). Kleinere Fehler der Einordnung
müssen daher von vornherein als möglich bezeichnet werden.
Die genannten Tabellen enthalten nur die Eigenschaften
unserer Probanden, die uns bei der Untersuchung und der Auf-
nahme der Anamnese bekannt wurden, und mit deren wirklichem
Vorhandensein wir rechnen konnten. Von einer Vollständigkeit
der Charakter beschreibung kann also keine Rede sein. Schon aus
!
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78
F. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillingsjorschung
diesem Grunde, aber auch wegen der relativen Kleinheit der
Zahlen, kann die folgende Auswertung nur mehr als ein tastender ,[|
Versuch betrachtet werden, wenn wir auch glauben, daß er einen
systematischen Ausbau dieser Methode einleiten kann.
Ein Überblick über sämtliche Tabellen zeigt sehr deutlich,
daß die überwiegende Mehrzahl aller ermittelten Eigenschaften
bei den E. Z. in den links gelegenen Spalten der vollkommenen
oder fast vollkommenen Konkordanz liegen. Schon viel geringer
und ungleichmäßiger ist die Besetzung der 3. Spalte, während reine
Diskordanz (Spalte 4) bei den E. Z. überhaupt bei keiner Eigen-I^
Schaft gefunden wurde. Vergleicht man diese Tatsachen unter An-
wendung der ,, zwillingsbiologischen Vererbungsieger' mit der weit
stärkeren und größtenteils überwiegenden Besetzung der Dis-
kordanz spalten (3 und 4) bei den (gleichgeschlechtigen!) Z. Z.,
so wird man trotz aller Vorsicht der Auswertung zu dem sicheren
Schluß kommen müssen, daß in allen 3 charakterologischen
Bereichen das genisch Bedingte den überwiegenden
Anteil ausmacht.
Wenden wir uns nun den einzelnen Gruppen zu, um das Aus-
maß der Modifikabilität in ihnen gesondert zu bestimmen.
Zur Erleichterung des Überblicks haben wir den Inhalt der
im Anhang befindlichen Tabellen der Charaktereigenschaften in
den Abbildungen 9 — 11 graphisch zusammengefaßt. Die Zahl der
Eigenschaften in den verschiedenen Gruppen und Spalten wurde
jeweils als Fläche dargestellt. Hierdurch wird ein unmittelbarer
Vergleich der einzelnen Gruppen ermöglicht, wenn auch diese Me-
thode der Darstellung nur eine relativ grobe Annäherung an die
tatsächlichen Verhältnisse zur Anschauung bringen kann. Ins-
besondere stellt es nur einen technischen Behelf dar, alle einzelnen
Charaktereigenschaften quantitativ gleich zu werten, da doch in
Wirklichkeit eine durchaus verschiedene Ausdehnung und Durch-
schlagskraft der verschiedenen Eigenschaften angenommen werden
muß. Da jedoch imsere Tabellen ein ziemlich gleichmäßiges Ge-
misch von quantitativ verschiedenartigen Eigenschaften darstellen,
so ist dieser Fehler nicht allzu groß und wird durch die Vorteile
dieser Darstellungs weise reichlich aufgewogen.
1. Für den Stoff (die Materie) des Charakters ergibt sich eine
ganz überraschende Eindeutigkeit in Richtung auf fast völlige
Konkordanz bei den E. Z. Kleinere Unterschiede finden sich zu-
nächst bei den Paaren Nr. 1, 4 und 9. In allen drei Fällen handelt
2. Char akter ologische Beobachtungen
79
es sich um sensitive, schizothyme bzw. schizoide Persönlichkeiten, t*^
Paar 4 und 9 zeigen deutliche psychopathische Züge, stehen in
höherem Alter als die meisten übrigen Probanden ; auch haben bei
ihnen die Partner verschiedene Berufe und Lebenswege durch-
gemacht. Trotzdem sind die ermittelten Unterschiede sehr gering;
die rein konkordanten Eigenschaften sind durchaus in der Überzahl.
a
Abb. 9. Stoff des Charakters, a E.Z., b Z. Z
Die geringen Unterschiede beziehen sich vor allem auf die Schul-
begabung, das Gedächtnis und die Gewecktheit, also Eigenschaften,
von denen es wohl immer schon feststand, daß sie durch Übung,
Gewohnheit oder störende Erlebniseinflüsse in lej^chj^m Umfange
modifizierbar sind. Daß die dem Stoff zuzurechnenden Fähig-
keiten überhaupt einer gewissen Modifikabilität ausgesetzt sind,
weiß jeder unbefangene Beobachter und kann nur von ErbHchkeits-
fanatikern (für das Gebiet der Fähigkeiten war Schopenhauer
einer) geleugnet werden. Erinnert sei an Goethes Ausspruch:
^^^'
fl tf .
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80
V. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillings forschung
*
«
„Fähigkeiten werden vorausgesetzt, sie sollen zu Fertigkeiten A^
werden" (Wahlverwandtschaften) und an die Problematik der
Begabungsprüfungen. Zugleich aber wird aus unserer Aufstellung
klar — vor allem durch Vergleich mit der vorherrschenden Dis-
^9£4.?£Ll>,g.den Z. Z. — , daß die erwähnte Modifikabilität d^es
i
Stoffes der Persönlichkeit nur ganz gering sein kann. Die
Paare Nr. 2 und Nr. 7, die einige deutlichere Verschiedenheiten
bezuglich des Stoffes aufweisen, müssen aus der Betrachtung
ausgeschaltet werden. Bei Paar Nr. 2 handelt es sich um Epi-
leptikerinnen mit verschiedener Schwere der Erkrankung und
verschieden starker epileptischer Charakterveränderung- die deut-
lichen Unterschiede (Auffassungsvermögen, Gedächtnis,' Enge de.
Gesichtsfeldes) liegen durchaus in der Richtung dieser patholo^i-
sehen Veränderung. Und das Paar Nr. 7 wurde schon in dem
Kapitel über die Eiigkeitsdiagnose besonders erwähnt. Hier legen
verschiedene anamnestische Umstände in Verbindung mit einigen
auffallenden körperlichen und psychischen Unterschieden die
Vermutung nahe, daß B vor oder bei der Geburt einer organischen
Schädigung ausgesetzt war, so daß man auch dieses Paar wird aus-
schalten müssen.
2. Eine etwas deutlichere „Rechtsverschiebung" (d h in der
Richtung nach der Diskordanz hin) findet sich für die Eigenschaften
der Artun^^Qualität) des Charakters. Hervorzuheben ist daß
auch hier die^^^lTfeonimene und die unvollkommene Konkordanz
bei allen E Z.-Paaren noch ganz augenfällig ist; an einer ganz
überwiegend genisch bedingten Natur auch der Eigenschaften dieser
Gruppe kann also gar kein Zweifel sein, wenn wir die deutlichen
Diskordanzanteile bei den Z. Z. wieder als „Hintorgrund" benutzen
Bemerkenswert ist aber, daß bei einer Reihe von Paaren unvoll-
kommene Diskordanz bereits in viel höherem Grade hervortritt
als bei den, Stoff-Eigenschaften. Sehen wir aus den bereits
genannten Gründen wieder von dem Epileptikerpaar Nr 2 ab so
sind es vor allem die Paare Nr. 4, 6, 9 und 10, bei denen die Rechts-
verschiebung deut ich ist, in geringerem Grade auch bei dem Paar
Nr. 1. Dies Resultat zeigt zunächst die charakterologisch nahe-
liegende Tatsache, daß die Interessen und Neigungen und die
qualitative wie quantitative Ausgestaltung des Selbstgefühls
eine nicht geringe Modifikationsbreite zeigenr^Jelraucl
das Genotypische die breite Grundlage beherrscht. Unser Material
zeigt aber, wie wir glauben, noch mehr: Die Paare Nr. 1, 4, 6. 9
'i
2. Charakterologische Beobachtungen
81
und 10 umfassen unter unseren Eineiigen interessanterweise die
differenzierten, intellektuell beweglichen, komplizierten oder dochfil^
zum mindesten sensiblen Naturen. Es sind fast ausnahmslos
Leptosome oder Astheniker , und es sind ausnahmslos Schizo-^
thyme. Diese Tatsache soll hier zunächst nur vermerkt werden;
a
Abb, 10. Artung des Charakters, a E. Z., b Z. Z.
wir kommen bei der Besprechung der dritten Gruppe auf sie zurück.
Werfen wir noch einen Blick auf die Artungstabellen der Z. Z., so
fällt immerhin auf, daß die Eigenschaften recht gleichmäßig über
das ganze Feld verteilt sind; die Diskordanz ist weniger stark als
bei den Stoff eigenschaften der Z. Z. Daß hierbei vielleicht die
Milieugleichheit zu der nicht geringen Konkordanz beigetragen
Beiheft 61 zur Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie 6
V
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l
V. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zivilli^tgsforschung
^{ .^H haben mag, kann nur als Vermutung geäußert, an unserem Material
uV aber nicht bewiesen werden. Eine gewisse gegenseitige und ge-
meinsame Milieubeeinflu ssung der Neigungen und Interessen (man
nehme nur: Ordnungssinn, Interesse an Kleidung usw.), ist aus
rein charakterologischen Gründen zu erwarten und kommt viel-
leicht in der teilweisen Z. Z.- Gleichheit zum Ausdruck.
3. Eine noch stärkere ,, Rechtsverschiebung" findet sich bei
\^"
NV'v den E. Z. nun hinsichtlich des Gef üeres des Charakters. Wenn auch
IM V"^\ . . . .
^\y\ ^ \^ :^^^ dieser Gruppe die reine Konkordanz noch sehr häufig ist, so
N^ Oy/^j" '^©igt doch eine Reihe von Paaren eine ganze Anzahl von Eigen-
vj^chaften, in denen der eine Partner sich deutlich anders verhält als
^^^jt"^ der andere. Man bekommt den Eindruck, daß die kleinen Diffe-
renzen des Stoffes zu den etwas deutlicheren der Artung addiert,
ungefähr den Grad von Diskordanz ausdrückt, der im Gefüge des
Charakters gilt. Man wird diese Tatsache nicht überraschend
finden, wenn man bedenkt, daß die Eigenschaften, die das Gieüjge
y des Charakters ausmachen, zweifellos die kompliziertesten sind,
I , daß sie außer den TemperÄmentsanlagen die dem Stoff., ange-
' hörenden Fähigkeiten und die der Artung entstammenden Stre-
bungen und Interessen mit enthalten. Besonders zu unterstreichen
f ist nun die Tatsache, daß es (außer dem Epileptiker-Paar Nr. 2)
wieder ganz deutlich die schon erwähnten Paare Nr. 1, 4, 6, 9 und 10
sind, die die meisten diskordanten Eigenschaften aufweisen. Die
Grade und Arten der ,, nervösen Reaktionen", die IJarmonie oder
Wideistandskrait, Energie und Entschlossenheit, Frische und
Äußeiamgsvermögen : diese und mancEe^ähnlichen Eigenschaften,
von denen wir nach dem Gesamtergebnis annehmen müssen, daß
«sie tief im Genischen wurzeln, sind doch einer bemerkenswerten
Modifikabjlität fähig. Sie können — anscheinend besonders bei
diHerenzierten, komplizierten und vorwiegend schizothymen Na-
turen — bei dem einen Partner ein ganz anderes Verhalten hervor-
rufen als bei dem andern, wenn nur die Lebens- und Erlebnis-
vorgänge zu einer Modifikation führen. Immer haben wir bei den
E. Z. jedoch auch bei solcher relativen Diskordanz noch eine
große innere Ähnlichkeit der betreffenden Eigenschaften finden
können und haben uns in keinem einzigen Falle berechtigt gefühlt,
von einer absoluten und reinen Diskordanz zu sprechen. Oder
konkreter ausgedrückt: bei einem E. Z. -Paare, das eine bemerkens-
werte Verschiedenheit beispielsweise in der Energie des Auftretens
zeigte, fanden wir doch noch immer eine genau herauszufühlende
f
A
2. Charakterologische Beohachtungen
83
Verwandtschaft der betreffenden divergierenden Eigenschaft,
wie sie bei den unähnlichen Z. Z.-Paaren nur selten angetroffen
wird. Wir müssen uns bei der relativen Kleinheit unseres Materials
zunächst noch von Schlüssen zurückhalten, die ins Einzelne gehen,
können vor allem nicht die Feststellung wagen, welche Eigen-
schaften des Gefüges der Modifikation mehr zugänglich sind und
welche weniger. Zu der allgemeinen Feststellung aber fühlen wir
uns berechtigt, daß das Gefüge des Charakters zwar über-
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Abb. 11. Gefüge des Charakters, a E. Z., b. Z.Z.
wiegend genisch bedingt und bestimmt ist, daneben
aber eine nicht zu unterschätzende Modifikabilität
aufweist. Vermutungsweise können wir hinzufügen, daß die
schizothymen, die komplizierten und die psychopathischen Cha-
I räHerTeiner solchen Modifikabilität besonders ausgesetzt zu sein
scheinen. ~ ""
Alle festgestellten Modifikabilitäten berechtigen jedenfalls zu
der Feststellung, daß den erziehenden, vorbeugenden und ,|
heilenden Einflüssen auf psychischem Gebiet bedeutende Auf-
gaben zufallen, trotz der starken genischen Verankerung
& 6*
V
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■• I
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IM
i
äi
F. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillingsforschung
aller Eigenschaften. Gilt dies schon für den Stoff des Charak-
ters, also vorwiegend für die Fähigkeiten , die ja nur durch Übung
und Anstrengung zu „Fertigkeiten" werden können, so gilt es in
viel hervorragenderem Maße für 4£tung und Gefüge. Die richtige
Leitung und Erziehung gerade der differenzierten Naturen erweist
sich auch von diesem Standpunkt auTgesehen als eine dringende
und lohnende Aufgabe. Und ferner: die psychotherapeutischen
Bemühungen der letzten Jahrzehnte, die von Freud aufge-
deckten psychischen Mechanismen können in weitem Ausmaße
^fruchtbar sein innerhalbdes Bereiches der modifikatorischen Ver-
\ änderungen. Mit besonderer Sorgfalt sollte in Zukunft die Zwillings-
psychologie der „nervösen Charaktere" gefördert werden, um zu
erweisen, wieviel an neurotischen Erkrankungen unabwendbares
Schicksal darstellen, und wieviel durch falsche Denk- und Lebens-
weise und durch äußeres Erleben bedingt, also prinzipiell „heilbar"
sind (LoTTiG 1931). Daß die schon früher erwähnten" Studien
von Lange an psychopathischen und kriminellen Zwillingen die
wertvollsten Ansätze zu einer derartigen erbpsychologischen
Neurosenforschung darstellen, sei nochmals erwähnt. Unsere
Ermittlungen über die Modifikations breite der einzelnen Bereiche
der menschlichen Persönlichkeit stimmen noch am besten mit den
Anschauungen von Lange überein.
Daß die Modffikabilität von Artung und Gefüge des Charakters
einen nicht unerheblichen Einfluß auf die intellektuellen Lei-
stungen ausüben muß, sollte für jeden charakterologisch Denken-
den eine Selbstverständlichkeit sein. Wenn einige der NEWMANschen
Paare eine Verschiedenheit der intellektuellen Leistungen auf-
weisen, so ist daraus — um es nochmals deutlich auszusprechen —
nicht so sehr ein Urteil über die genische Bedingtheit der geistigen
Fähigkeiten abzuleiten, als vielmehr ein solches über die geistigen
Leistungen; zwischen diesen beiden aber liegt die ganze
Schicht der Artung und des Gefüges des Charakters, die durch
verschiedene Lebensschicksale zu großen Unterschieden auch bei
eineiigen Zwillingen geführt haben kann. Und umgekehrt: wenn
bei dem berühmt gewordenen Paare von Popenoe-Muller trotz
verschiedenster Schulbildung eine gleiche intellektuelle Leistungs-
fähigkeit resultierte, so sollte als wesentlich hervorgehoben werden
daß beide Partnerinnen (auch die mit der geringen Schulbildung')
in ihrem Berufsleben Gelegenheit hatten, die ihnen gegebenen An-
lagen („Fähigkeiten") zur vollen Entfaltung zu bringen
3. Zur Frage der Zwillingsgraphologie
85
Wir müssen auf Grund unserer Mitteilungen über die fast aus-
schließliche genische Bedingtheit des Stoffes des Charakters an-
nehmen, daß das Paar von Popenoe-Muller eine größere Beweis-
kraft hat als die diskordanten Paare von Newman.
Unsere Resultate enthalten zum mindestens den Nachweis
und die Aufforderung, daß wir in der nächsten Zukunft Zwillings-
charakterologie in größerem Umfange treiben müssen. Nach
genügender und grundlegender Ermittlung der Modifikationsbreite
der einzelnen Schichten und Eigenschaftsgruppen des Charakters
wird es dann möglich sein, die bisher sich widersprechenden Re-* '
sultate über Begabungsforschungen an Zwillingen richtig zuX
deuten und von ihren Fehlern zu reinigen.
8. Zur Frage der Zwillingsgraphologie
Die nachfolgenden Ausführungen verfolgen den Zweck, die
Aufmerksamkeit der Zwillingsforscher auf ein Gebiet zu lenken,
das bisher noch keine systematische und wissenschaftliche Be-
arbeitung erfahren hat. Gemeint ist die Frage, ob und wieweit sich
aus der Betrachtung und Vergleichung der Handschrift von
Zwillingen wichtige Tatsachen gewinnen lassen. Die Bemerkiuig,
daß das eine oder andere eineiige Zwillingspaar unter anderem
auch eine große Ähnlichkeit der Schriftzüge aufwies, findet sich
an einzelnen Stellen der Zwillingsliteratur (z. B. Weitz 1924).
Andererseits bemerkt Lange (1929), daß er die Handschriften bei
E. Z. ,, meist verschieden" fand. Auch H. Meyer (1929) hat bei den
beiden von ihr eingehend studierten E. Z. -Paaren gewisse Unter-
schiede in der Schrift der Partner gefunden (Ursula und Babette B. :
U. schreibt sorgfältiger, mit zartem Druck, B. ganz unordentlich,
rücksichtsloser im Druck ; Pauline und H^rmine A. : P. nachlässiger,
aber flüssiger, H. sorgfältiger, steifer, breiter); With (1930) bringt
ebenfalls Schriftproben eines E. Z. -Paares, die sich ,,im äußeren
Bilde sehr wenig ähneln". Diese gelegentlichen Bemerkungen
gehen alle von der Beobachtung in die Augen fallender äußerer
Züge aus. Eine Untersuchung auf einzelne Schrifteigenschaften
oder gar auf den Zusammenhang zwischen bestimmten Schrifteigen-
schaften und Charakterzügen findet sich bisher nichts.
1 Eine Arbeit von Thorndike: The resemblance of young twins in
handwriting (1914) enthält keine im heutigen Sinne des Wortes grapho-
logischen Gesichtspunkte, sondern nur äußerhche Schriftvergleiche, dazu
noch bei mangelnder Eiigkeitsbestimmung der ZwilHnge.
w
H
V' f^«
86
T'. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle ZvMllinrjsforschung
Es muß nun darauf hincrewiesen werden, daß die Psychologie
der Handschrift, die noch im vorigen Jahrhundert mehr einer
dunklen Deutungsmystik als einer Wissenschaft glich, in den
letzten Jahrzehnt<rn eine entscheidende Befruchtung und. man
darf wohl sagen. Neuschaffung erfahren hat durch die gründlichen
Arbeit'Cn von Klages (1913. 1916. 1924). die die Graphologie zu
einer exakten Wissenschaft von hohem Niveau gemacht haben. Die
von Klages gefundenen Gesetze der Ausdruckspsychologie haben
es möglich gemacht, eine Handschrift auf ihre einzelnen Merkmale
hin eingehend zu untersuchen mit dem Ziel, die in den einzelnen
Schrift merkmalen zum Ausdruck kommenden Charakterelemente
rückschließend zu erfassen. Die Schwierigkeit eines solchen Unter-
fangens liegt auf der Hand ; sie kann nur durch sorgfältigste Kennt-
nis und große Übung auf diesem Gebiete überwunden werden. Sie
bietet aber in der Hand des Kundigen die Möglichkeit psycholo-
gischer Forschung an Stellen, an denen die bloße Beobachtung des
Menschen nicht ausreicht. Für die Verwendung der Graphologie
in der Psychiatrie hat sich Blume (1926, 1929) warm eingesetzt;
seine Mitteilungen über graphologische Untersuchungen bei einem
Fall von induziertem Irresein (1929) sind ein gutes Beispiel für den
Wert dieser Methoc[e?"TJrr'Zwillingspsychologie sollte um so eher
Gebrauch von diesem ausgezeichneten Hilfsmittel machen, als sie
bei großen Untersuchungsreihen von Zwillingen meist auf die
Schwierigkeit stößt, daß der einzelne Proband nicht lange imd
eingehend genug charakterologisch untersucht und beobachtet
werden kann.
Eine serienmäßige Untersuchung von Zwillingshandschriften
ist im Rahmen einer vielseitig eingestellten Untersuchung nicht
möglich ; sie erfordert ein(i ganz eingehende und spezielle Bearbei-
tung. Die Prinzipien einer derartigen Untersuchung lassen sich
jedoch auch in engerem Rahmen darlegen, und das soll im folgenden
an einigen Beispielen geschehen.
Von 19 unter unseren 20 Paaren verfügen wir über Schrift-
proben, die den Voraussetzungen für eiijf graphologische Be-
arbeitung entsprechen, d. h. sie sind zwanglos, in natürlicher
körperlicher und seelischer Verfassung mit Tinte geschrieben. Wir
greifen nun aus den mannigfachen Schriftmerkmalen 4 heraus, um
das vorliegende ^chriftenmaterial auf sie hin zu untersuchen: Die
Regelmäßigkeit, das Ebenmaß, das Formniveau und den
Schriftwinkel.
3. Zur Frage der Zwillingsgraphologie
87
Die Regelmäßigkeit der Schrift ergibt sich aus dem Grade der
mathematischen Gleichheit gleicher Schriftelemente. Sehr regelmäßig ist
also eine Schrift, wenn alle Abstriche im gleichen Winkel laufen, wenn alle
Großbuchstaben gleich hoch sind, ebenso alle Oberlängen, alle Unterlängen;
wenn alle Druckbildungen gleichmäßig sind, wenn alle Zeilen gerade laufen
Es darf als sicher gelten, daß die Regelmäßigkeit der Schrift ein Aus-:
usw
druck ist für das Verhältnis der Willensstärke zur Gefühlslebhaftigkeit. i{
Sehr regelmäßig ist also eine Schrift, wenn bei ihrem Urheber die Eigen-
schaften, die der W^illensstärke entstammen, dominieren über diejenigen
der Gefühlslebhaftigkeit, sei es weil die Wjllgnsgtärke besonders groß oder
aber die Gefühlslebhaftigkeit besonders gering ist. (In diesem Zusammen-
hange sei S5isc!ruc5TTcn hervorgehoben, daß hier nur die generelle Be-
arbeitung der ausgewählten 4 Schrifteigenschaften beabsichtigt ist; die
spezielle Feststellung, welche einzelnen Charaktereigenschaften bei einer
bestimmten Handschrift z.B. durch die Regelmäßigkeit ausgedrückt werden,
ist nur durch Mitberücksichtigung aller übriger Schrifteigenschaften mög-
lich und würde in diesem Rahmen zu weit führen.)
Das Ebenmaß drückt den Rhythmus des Schriftbildes aus; es gibt
an, in welchem Grade ein Schriftbild (abgesehen von der Regelmäßigkeit!)
harmonisch gegliedert ist, eine natürliche, fließende Bewegungsverteüung
aufweist. Kann die Regelmäßigkeit in gewissem Umfange durch Absicht
und Aufmerksamkeit erhöht werden, so ist das Ebenmaß einer solchen will-
kürlichen Beeinflussung fast völlig entzogen. Durch das Ebenmaß der
Schrift wird der Grad der Gefühlserregbarkeit (z. B. Affizierbarkeit, Emp-
fänglichkeit, Reizbarkeit) angezeigt.
Das Formniveau ist eine der wichtigsten und für den Anfänger am
schwersten zu beurteilenden Schrifteigenschaften. Es drückt die Originalität
und produktive „Echtheit" der Formgestaltung einer Schrift aus und darf
nicht etwa verwechselt werden mit der Ausschmückung einer Schrift. Eine
sehr einfache Schrift (z. B. Nietzsche) kann also ein höheres Formniveau
haben, als eine sehr auf Effekt eingestellte (z. B. Richard Wagner). Das
Formniveau einer Schrift drückt das ^eigügsSßelische Wertniveau ihres
Inhabers aus, zeigt also seine qualitative Lebensfülle oder Ärmlichkeit,
seine eigentliche produktive Begabung.
Der Schriftwinkel (schräge, steil, linksschräge) schließlich gibt
Aufschluß über das Verhältnis der Verstandesauswirkung zur Gefühlsaus-
wirkung, wobei es wieder der weiteren Schriftanalyse überlassen bleiben
muß, über die nähere Bestimmung und die Ziele der resultierenden Haltung
zu entscheiden.
Wir beabsichtigen also zunächst nicht die feinere Charakter-
analyse aus unseren Zwillingshandschriften, sondern nur eine vor-
bereitende Untersuchung über die Konkordanz oder Diskordanz
der genannten 4 Grundeigenschaften. Diese Eigenschaften lassen
sich gut in Ziffern von 1 — 5 ausdrücken nach der Art, der Schul-
O ^_ I II HL I I ~
zeuj^i§.§ßr-wenn auch hier mit einer solchen Klassifizierung kein
Werturteil verbunden ist (mit Ausnahme des Formniveaus). Die
l
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88
F. Ergehnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillingsjorschwu)
Ziffer 1 bedeutet große Regelmäßigkeit bzw. großes Ebenmaß
bzw. sehr hohes Formniveau, bzw. geringe Neigung (Steilheit) der
Schrift. Die Ziffer 5 zeigt entsprechend große Unregelmäßigkeit,
sehr geringes Ebenmaß, niedriges Formniveau und starke Nei-
gung (Schrägheit) der Schrift an. Die Linksschrägheit einer
Schrift (\) kann man durch —1 oder —2 (je nach dem Grad) be-
zeichnen .
Die nachfolgende Tabelle enthält die entsprechenden Werte
für unsere Probanden. (Da eine derartige Bearbeitung von Hand-
schriften nur dann wissenschaftlichen Wert haben kann, wenn
jahrelange graphologische Erfahrung vorausgesetzt werden kann,
ist wohl die Bemerkung notwendig, daß der Verfasser sich seit etwa
10 Jahren eingehend mit graphologischen Studien befaßt hat, also
einige Übung auf diesem schwierigen Gebiet besitzt).
Tabelle 12. Punktwertung der vier wichtigsten Schrift-
eigenschaften
Paar
Regelmäßigkeit
Ebenmaß
Formniveau
Schriftwinkel
Nr.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
A.
B.
1
3
3—4
4
4
2
2
2
3
2
3-4
2 3
4
2—3
4
3
2
2 3
3
2 3
3
2—3
2 3
3
3
2 3
3
4
3
3
3—4
3—4
2 3
2 3
2
Vi
5
2 3
2 3
3
3
3
3
1
0
6
1—2
1—2
3
3
2 3
2 3
V2
1
7
3
3 4
3—4
4
3 4
4
- V2
Vi
8
2—3
3
4
4
3 4
3—4
- Vi
Vi
9
2—3
3
2—3
2—3
2
2
Vi
Vi
10
2
3-4
3
3 4
2 3
3
0
1
11
i 1 2
2 3
2 3
3
2 3
2
0
- Vi
12
3
2 3
3
2 3
2
2 3
Vi
1
14
3
3
2 3
3
3
2 3
1
Vi
15
3
2—3
3
2—3
3
3
2
1
16
2 3
2—3
3
3
3
3
0
0
17
3
2 3
3
2—3
3
2
1 2
2
18
4
3
3 4
2—3
1—2
2
0
- Vi
19
2 3
3
3
3—4
2
3
0
1
20
3
3—4
2—3
3
2—3
3
Vi
2
Sehen wir von dem Epileptikerinnen-Paar (Nr. 2) wiederum
ab, da es sich hierbei nicht um normale, sondern um pathologische
Modifikation handelt, so stehen sich zum Vergleich 9 eineiige und
9 zweieiige Paare gegenüber.
V
^
3. Zur Frage der Zwillingsgraphologie
89
Es fällt nun beim Betrachten der Tabelle auf, daß im Bereich
der Regelmäßigkeit und des Schriftwinkels Differenzen
zwischen den Partnern eines Paares ziemUch häufig sind, sowohl
bei den E. Z., als auch bei den Z. Z. Besonders deutlich sind
die Unterschiede bezüglich des Schriftwinkels ; und hier findet sich
dazu noch die Tatsache, daß die E. Z. eine deutlichere Diskordanz
aufweisen als die Z. Z. Wenn dies letztere auch gewiß der Wirkung
des Zufalles und der kleinen Zahl zuzuschreiben ist, so unterstreicht
dieses paradoxe Resultat doch die Tatsache, daß die E. Z. bezüglich
des Schriftwinkels keinesfalls mehr konkordant sind als die Z. Z.
Etwas geringer ist die Diskordanz im Bereiche der Regelmäßigkeit,
aber auch hier ist zwischen den E. Z. und den Z. Z. kein nennens-
werter Unterschied festzustellen. Addieren wir die Punktdifferenzen
zwischen den Partner jeden Paares und teilen durch die Zahl der
Paare, so erhalten wir die mittlere Abweichung zweier Partner von-
einander :
Regelmäßigkeit j ^Schriftwinkel
E.Z.
Z. Z.
0,44
0,50
0,89
0,67
Die Modifikabilität ist demnach ziemlich groß für die Regel-
mäßigkeit, und sie ist bemerkenswert groß für den Neigungswmkel
der Schrift; hier wird bei den E.Z. eine durchschnitthche Ab-
weichung von fast Vio Punkt erreicht! Das Resultat ist m zwei-
facher Hinsicht interessant. Es stimmt sehr gut mit der grapho-
logisch bekannten Tatsache überein, daß die Regelmäßigkeit und
der Neigungswinkel der Schrift zu den EigenschIT!in gehören, die
einer Beeinflussung in höherem Grade zugängig sind. Die Ver-
schiebung des Schriftbildes nach der Seite der regelmäßigen Ge-
staltung und der Aufrichtung der Schrift zur Steilheit oder Links-
schrägheit ist ein typischer Zug der „erworbenen" (im Gegensatz
zur ursprünglichen) Handschrift und kündet die Mitwirkung mehr
oder weniger bewußt oder willensmäßig gestaltender Faktoren an.
Und zweitens: die Charaktereigenschaften, die durch die Regel-
mäßigkeit und den Neigungswinkel der Handschrift zum Ausdruck
kommen (das Verhältnis der Willensstärke zur Gefühlslebhaftigkeit
und das Verhältnis der geselligen Gefühle zur verstandesmäßigen
Zurückhaltung), gehören zu den Anteilen der Artung und des Ge-
füges der Persönlichkeit, die ebenfalls einer bedeutenden modi-
fikatorischen Beeinflussung zugängig sind. Es sei nur daran er-
•I»
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II
r
'ii
I 1
)
'■ .1
90
V. Ergebnisse. B. Spezielle Zwillingsjorschung
innert, daß die Aufrichtung der Schrift zur Steilheit bei gleich-
zeitig unrhythmischem Schriftbild einen Kompensierungsakt des
Willens gegen die Anstürme der zu großen Gefühlserregbarkeit
darstellt und z. B. in Pubertätsschriften oft zu finden ist.
Ganz anders steht es nun mit den beiden anderen Schrift-
eigenschaften, dem Ebe.nmaß (= Rhythsj^s) und dem Form-
niveau der Schrift. Hier findet sich nämhch eine fast durch-
gehende Konkordanz bei den E. Z. bei deutlicher Diskordanz der
Z. Z. Die mittlere Abweichung bringt dies zahlenmäßig klar
zum Ausdruck:
Ebenmaß
Formniveau
E. Z.
Z. Z.
0,11
0,50
0,11
0.50
Ja, es zeigt sich sogar, daß unter den Eineiigen die einzigen
Differenzen des Ebenmaßes und des Formniveaus sich bei den
Paaren Nr. 7 und Nr. 10 finden; für diese beiden Paare wurde
aber schon früher mehrfach die Auffassung geäußert, daß die großen
körperlichen und z. T. auch seelischen Verschiedenheiten der
Partner durch eine gröbere somatische Beeinträchtigung des einen
Partners bedingt sein dürfte. Alle übrigen E. Z. -Paare zeigen
völlige Konkordanz in bezug auf Ebenmaß und Formniveau. Hier
dürfte also der Schluß erlaubt sein, daß der Rhythmus und das
Formniveau einer Schrift ihre Entstehung solchen Eigenschaften
verdanken, die in fast reiner Weise genisch bedingt sind. Und
auch hierfür gibt die charakterologische Kontrolle einen weiteren
Beleg : Das Ebenmaß drückt den Grad der Gefühlserregbarkeit aus,
das Formniveau die produktiven Gestaltungskräfte; beide Eigen-
schaften gehören dem Stoffe des Charakters an und wurden
bereits als fast ausschließlich genisch bedingt erkannt.
Schon die Untersuchung der hier bearbeiteten 4 Schrifteigen-
schaften zeigt deutlich, daß man bei Handschriftsvergleichungen
nicht von ,, Ähnlichkeit" oder ,,Unähnlichkeit" schlechthin sprechen
sollte. Einen wirklichen Sinn haben solche Vergleiche nur, wenn
man sie nicht auf die Schrift als Ganzes, sondern auf ihre einzelnen
Merkmale anwendet. Dann zeigt sich, daß sehr ,, unähnlich" er-j
scheinende Schriften doch sehr ähnliche Merkmale enthalten!
können, die nur auf den ersten Blick nicht so stark hervortreten!
Wenn die Handschriften eines eineiigen Zwillingspaares eine unter-
schiedliche Regelmäßigkeit und verschiedene Steilheit aufweisen,
1
5. Zur Frage der Zwillingsgraphologie
91
''
SO erscheinen sie dem Laien als ,,sehr unähnlich", und erst der
graphologisch geschulte Blick erkennt in ihnen die wichtigen und
z. T. vollkommenen Übereinstimmungen (vgl. z. B. die von With
(1930) publizierten Schriftzüge eines E. Z.-Paares!)
Weiterhin aber sollte nachdrückUch auf den diagnostischen
Wert graphologischer Hilfsmittel für die Zwillingscharakterologie
hingewiesen werden. Sollte sich die Zuverlässigkeit der grapho-
logischen Methodik weiterhin erhärten lassen, so würde sie für die
Entscheidung der Frage, ob eine bestimmte Eigenschaft bei einem
Probanden angenommen werden kann oder nicht, unter Umständen
sicherer sein, als die direkte Beobachtung.
i
ii
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1^
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VI. Schlußbemerkung
Die vorstehenden Zwillingsstudien wurden mit Absicht aus-
gedehnt auf die verschiedensten, z. T. heterogen erscheinenden
Gebiete. Und doch ist es gerade der tiefere Sinn einer derartigen
Untersuchung, zu zeigen, daß es eigentHch Heterogenes in dem Er-
scheinungsbilde eines Individuums nicht gibt. Die eingehende
und möglichst vielseitige Erforschung der anthropologischen und
somatisch-pathologischen Grundlage einerseits und das Studium
des psychischen Geschehens in seinen Formen und Ausmaßen auf
der anderen Seite — diese Versuche, von zwei Seiten an die Auße-
rungsformen menschlichen Lebens heranzukommen, führen doch
immer mehr und unabweisbarer zu der Erkenntnis, daß Psyche
und Soma aus denselben Wurzeln entstehen und gespeist werden.
Kaum eine Forschungsrichtung vermag das eindrucksvoller zu
erweisen als die Zwillingsforschung. Geben schon die mitgeteilten
Schilderungen, die sich der Worte und Zahlen bedienen müssen,
einen guten Einblick in diesen Zusammenhang, so zeigt er sich doch
weitaus am deutlichsten — und auch für den, der viele Zwillinge
gesehen hat, immer aufs Neue — bei der direkten Betrachtung der
Zwillinge selbst. Deshalb fühlten wir uns eingangs berechtigt,
die isocygoten Zwillinge als ein Forschungsobjekt von außer-
gewöhnlicher und besonders reizvoller Art zu bezeichnen.
Daß die mitgeteilten Ergebnisse unserer Untersuchung diese
Tatsache zu beweisen imd zu illustrieren geeignet sind, ist sicher.
Wären eineiige Zwillinge in ihren phänotypischen Merkmalen völlig
und ununterscheidbar identisch, so würden sie nur ein auffallendes,
aber kaum ein interessantes Phänomen darstellen. Das was in
Wirklichkeit den Blick und den Forschungssinn bei den E. Z. fesselt,
ist ihre eigentümliche Ähnlichkeit, ihre Vereinigung von Gleich-
heit und Verschiedenheit. Anlage und Umwelt, die in allen
Lebewesen untrennbar verkettet sind, lassen sich durch die Zwil-
lingsmethode so weit voneinander lösen, daß wir ihr beiderseitiges
Ausmaß mit immer größerer Genauigkeit abschätzen können. Darin
VI. Schlußbemerkung
93
liegt der Wert der Zwillingsforschung für alle Gebiete menschlichen
Lebens, seien es nun medizinische, soziologische, psychologische
oder pädagogische Belange, die durch sie gefördert werden. Daß
das Zwillingsproblem auch in der schönen Literatur eine große und
besondere Rolle spielt, sei nur kurz erwähnt und wurde erst kürzlich
in einer sehr reizvollen Arbeit von Poli (1930) dargetan.
Mehrfach mußte in diesen Studien darauf hingewiesen werden,
daß zur Erlangung von Resultaten, die auch im Bereich des Quanti-
tativen Geltung haben sollen, eine viel größere Anzahl von Pro-
banden nötig ist. Diese Tatsache sei zum Schlüsse nochmals aus-
drücklich unterstrichen. Wir haben den Versuch gemacht, die
Zwillingsmethode auf Gebiete auszudehnen, für die es bisher an
brauchbaren Methoden noch durchaus mangelte. Dieses Ziel
schrieb uns von vornherein vor, bei unseren Untersuchungen mog-
£t eingehend und vielseitig zu verfahren, wodurch wiederum
die Zahl der Paare in gewissen Grenzen gehalten werden mußte.
Die mitgeteilte Methode ermöglicht nun eine Ausdehnung der
Untersuchungen auf ein großes ZwiUingsmaterial. Besonders die
n^rologische'und die charakterologische Zwillingsforschung wer ^n
im Rahmen des Hamburgischen Zwillingsarchivs von uns fort-
gesetzt. Für derartige Untersuchungen d-J '";*h^;
dischen Untergrund zu schaffen, war das Ziel dieser
Arbeit.
1/
IV'
i
r'ii
1
1 1
1':
/JX
I i!
1,
Schrifttum
(Arbeiten, die im Original nicht zugängig waren, sind durch R gekenn-
zeichnet.)
Adler, A., Über den nervösen Charakter. 4. Auflage. München 1928.
Bauer, J., KIW, S. 1223 u. 2150. 1924.
Blume, ZNPt 103, 1926.
Blume, ZNPt 123, 1929.
BoNNEVlE, Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, S. 1059, 1919.
— , Hereditas (Lund), Bd. 4, S. 221, 1923. R.
— , Journal of Genetics 15, 1, 1924. R.
— , ZAhstLe 50 (2), 219, 1929.
BosTROEM, ZhN 38, 478, 1924.
BURKHARDT, ZNPt 121, 1929.
Cohen, KIW 1924, 2150.
CuRTius, ZAbstLe 54, 278, 1930.
DoNFORTH, JHer 10 (9), 1919. R.
Davidenkow, ZNPt 108, 408, 1927.
Doxiades und Hirschfeld, KIW (1) 20, 1930.
Freud, S., Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse. Wien 1920.
Friedemann, AgZPt 90, 221, 1929.
Galton, Fr., Journal of the Anthropological Instituts 1876. R.
— , Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 182. 1891 R.
— , Finger prints, London 1892. R.
— , Finger prints directories, London 1893. R.
Gesell u. Thompsen, Genetic Psychology Monographs 6, 1, 1929. R.
Gordon, ArN 13, 636, 1925.
Grote u. Hartwig, Zeitschrift für Konstitutionslehre 10, 567, 1925.
Grüneberg, ZAbstLe 50, 76, 1929.
Hahn, ZKi 32 (6), 1926.
Hartmann u. Stumpfl, WienMdW 911, 1928.
— , ZNPt 123, 251, 1930.
Herrmann, MdKl (41), 1928, 1919.
Herz, ZNPt 116, 251, 1928.
Hoepfner, Die Strukturbilder der menschlichen Nagelfalzkapillaren, Berlin
1928.
— in W. Jaensch u. Mitarbeiter: Die Hautkapillarmikroskopie. Halle 1929.
Hoffmann, Über Temperamentsvererbung. 1923.
— , in Just, Vererbung und Erziehung, Berlin 1930.
Holzinger, Journal of Educational Psychology 20, 241, 1929.
Schrifttum
95
Homburger, Psychopathologie des Kindesalters, Berlin 1926.
Jaensch, W., Kongr. f. innere Med., Wiesbaden 1921.
-1, Grundzüge einer Physiologie u. Klinik der psychophysischen Per-
sönlichkeit, Berlin 1926.
— Die Hautkapillarmikroskopie, Halle 1929.
_', Handbuch d. biolog. Arb.-Meth., Abt. IX, Teil 3, H. 5, 1930.
Jaspers, Allgemeine Psychopathologie, Berlin 1923.
Johnston, Journal of nervous Diseases 62, 41, 1925. R.
Kalmus, AgZPt 79, 496, 1923. (a)
— , ZbN 34 (4), 1923. (b)
Keyes, ArN 21, 219, 1929.
KiFFNER, Archiv für Gynäkologie 136, 1929.
Klages, Handschrift und Charakter, Leipzig 1916.
-, Einführung in die Psychologie der Handschrift, Stuttgart -Heilbronn 1924.
— ' Die Grundlagen der Charakterkunde, Leipzig 1926. (a)
_', Ausdrucksbewegung und Gestaltungskraft, Leipzig 1926 (b)
Kraus, in Mering-Krehls Lehrbuch der inneren Medizm, 14. Aufl., Jena
1922
Kretschmer, Körperbau und Charakter, 5. Aufl., Leipzig 1926. (a)
— , Medizinische Psychologie, 3. Aufl., Leipzig 1926. (b)
Kreyenberg, ArPt 88, 545, 1929.
Kückens, KIW 4, 2289, 1925.
Lange, Bumkes Handbuch der Geisteskrankheiten 6. Teil 11, U^»- {^)
— , ZbN 48, 507, 1928. (b)
— , ZNPt 112, 253, 1928. (c)
— , ZKi 34, 377, 1928. (d)
— , AgZPt 90, 122, 1929. (a)
— , WienMdW (38/39), 1929. (b)
— , Verbrechen als Schicksal, Leipzig 1929. (c)
Lauer u. Poll, Kriminalistische Monatshefte 3, (10), 1929.
Lauterbach, Genetics 10, 525, 1925. Zit. n. v. Verschuer 1930.
Leavitt, ArN 19, 617, 1928.
Lenz, MünchenMdW 993, 1924.
-, in Baur-Fischer-Lenz, Menschliche Erblichkeitslehre, München 1J27.
Lenz u. v. Verschuer, ArRaBi 20, 425, 1928.
Leven, KIW 1817, 1924.
Löwenstein, Monatsschrift für Pstjchiatrie 70, 35, 1928.
— , AgZPt 90, 220, 1929. (a)
— , CgHeilpd 4, 1929. (b)
Lottig, Reichsgesundheitsblatt (43), 1926.
— , DZN 117/119, 277, 1931.
LuxENBURGER, ZNPt 116, 297, 1928. (a
— , ZNPt 112, 332, 1928. (b)
— , AgZPt 90, 209, 1929. (a)
— , FsNPt 1, 82, 1929. (b)
_, FsNPt 2, 1930. (a)
— , Nervenarzt (7), 385, 1930. (b)
— , ZbN 56, (3/4), 145, 1930. (c)
»^'
J
i
; I
■;!
1
i :'
i
96
Schrifttum
Martin, MünchetiMdW (11), 1922.
Mayer-List u. Hübener, MimchenMdW (51), 2185, 1925.
Merriman, Psychological Monographs 33, Nr. 5, 1924. R.
Meyer, Hans, Zur Biologie der Zwillinge. Dissert. Stuttgart 1917.
Meyer, Hedwig, ZNPt 120, 501, 1929.
Müller, O., Kapillaratlas, 1922.
Muller, JHer 16, 433, 1925.
Newman, The Biology of Twins, 2. Aufl., Chicago 1924. R.
— , JHer 20, (2, 3 u. 4), 1929.
Nonne, DZN 83, 263, 1925.
Paulsen, ArRaBi 17, 165, 1925.
Peters, Die Vererbung geistiger Eigenschaften, Jena 1925. Aus diesem
Werke wurden auch die Arbeiten von Pearson, Davenport, Heymans
und WiERSMA, EsTABROOK u. z. T. vou Galton referiert.
Poll, ZEtJm (1), 1914. (a)
— , Grenzbote, Heft 19/20, 1914. (b)
— , ZbN 27 (6), 415, 1922. (a)
— , ZbN 29 (5), 320, 1922. (b)
— , AnaiAnz 66, Ergänz. -H., 8. 18, 1928.
Poll u. Blümel, MdKl (37), 1928.
PoLL u. Lauer, siehe unter Lauer.
Poll, ZNPt 128, 423, 1930.
Popenoe, JHer 13 (3), 1922.
RiEBELiNG, ZbN 51, 831, 1929.
Schulte, ZbN 33, 128, 1923.
— , AgZPt 90, 220, 1929. (a)
— , Psychiatrisch- Neurologische Wochenschrift 31 (30), 375, 1929. (b)
Schultz, ZNPt 123, 1929.
+ Siemens, Die Zwillingspathologie, Berlin 1924. (a) Hierin ziemlich vollstän-
diges Literaturverzeichnis aller bis 1923 erschienenen Zwillingsarbeiten.
— , MünchenMdW 1924. (b)
Smith, ZNPt 125, 678, 1930.
Stern, W., Die menschliche Persönlichkeit, 3. Aufl., Leipzig 1923.
— , Die Intelligenz der Kinder und Jugendlichen und die Methoden ihrer
Untersuchung. 4. Aufl., Leipzig 1928.
Sternberg, L., ZEthn 61 (1—3), 1930.
S tiefler, Journal für Psychologie und Neurologie 37, 362, 1928. R.
Thorndike, Columbia University Contributions to Philosophy, zitiert nach Lenz
1927, 1903.
— , American Naturalist 49, 377, 1914.
übeNauf, ArPt 88, 511, 1929.
V. Verschuer, MünchenMdW (5), 184, 1925. (a)
— , ZAbstLe 41, 1925. (b)
— , ArRaBi 17, 149, 1925. (c)
— , MünchenMdW 1562, 1926.
— , Erg. inn. Med. u. Kinderhlkd. 31, 35, 1927.
— , ZAbstLe. Supp. 2, S. 1508, 1928. (a)
— , Anthropologischer Anzeiger 5, 244, 1928. (b)
Schrifttum. Abkürzungen
97
V. Verschuer, ZAbstLe 54, 280, 1930. (a)
— , Beitrag in Just, Vererbung und Erziehung, Berhn 1930. (b)
v/ Verschuer u. Lenz, siehe unter Lenz.
Walcher, MünchenMdW. 134, 1911.
Weitz, Zeitschrift für klinische Medizin 101 (1/2), 1924.
Wilder, AmJAnat 1, 423, 1902.
— , AmJAmt 3, 387, 1904.
_, AnatAnz 32, Nr. 8, S. 193, 1908.
Wilson u. Wolfsohn, ArN 320, 1929.
Windt u. Kodicek, Daktyloskopie, Wien und Leipzig 1904.
WiNGFiELD, Twins and Orphans, London 1928. Zit. n. v. Verschuer 1930. (b)
WiTH, Uhu, Juliheft, Berlin 1930.
Wittneben, CgHeilpd 2, 1924, Berlin 1925.
— , CgHeilpd 3, 1926, Berlin 1927. • „ ii. 1Q9Q
_, in Jaensch u. Mitarbeiter, Die HautkapiUarmikroskopie, Halle 1929.
II
Beiheft 61 zur Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie
. ' . '
f
tl
im
\
I
' i
I 1
Abkürzungen
AgZPt = Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie
AmJÄnat = American Journal of Anatomy
AnatAnz = Anatomischer Anzeiger
ArN = Archives of Neurology
ArPt = Archiv für Psychiatrie
ArRaBi = Archiv für Rassenbiologie
CgHeüpd = Kongreß für Heilpädagogik
DZN = Deutsche Zeitschrift für Nervenheilkunde
PsjSfPt = Fortschritte der Neurologie und Psychiatrie
JHer = Journal of Heredity
KIW = Klinische Wochenschrift
MdKl — Medizinische Klinik
MünchenMdW = Münchner Medizinische Wochenschrift
WienMdW = Wiener Medizinische Wochenschrift
ZAhstLe = Zeitschrift für Abstammungslehre
ZAngPs = Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie
ZEthn = Zeitschrift für Ethnologie
ZKi = Zeitschrift für Kinderforschung
Z^Pi _ Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie
ZhN = Zentralblatt für Neurologie.
I f
^
f
Anhang:
Tabellen
(I
:.T
r • -.- •
Anhang: Tabellen
101
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Anhang: Tabellen
103
Tabelle 9y Durchschnittliche prozentuale Abweichung
/ bei den Eineiigen
1
6
8
9 ! 10
Körpergewicht
Körpergröße
Länge der vord. Rumpf wand
Länge des rechten Beines . .
Länge des rechten Armes . .
Schulterbreite (Akromien) .
Beckenbreite
Länge des rechten Fußes .
Länge der rechten Hand .
Mittlerer Brvistumfang . .
Taillenumfang
Kopflänge
Kopfbreite
Jochbogenbreite
Unterkieferwinkelbreite . .
Kopfumfang
Physiognom. Gesichtshöhe .
Moipholog. Gesichtshöhe
Höhe der Nase
Breite der Nase
Breite der Mundspalte
1,09 2,64 0,63 1,42 2,04 0,00
0,35 0,80 0,70 0,06 0,59 0,20
12,86 5,28 1,87 — j — 1,43
1,412,95 3,04 0,19 1,33 2,16
'o,54 0,42 1,10 0,35 1,03 0,52
1,13 0,93 0,87 0,29 0,16 1,31
1,75 0,92 0,90 0,00 1,59 1,01
1,50 1,10 1,96 1,47 0,64 1,11
2,45 4,43 1,45 2,56 1,75 3,30
0,06 1,36 0,57 0,29 0,94 0,68
0,64 1,112,07 1,04 1,39 0,39
0,00 0,28 0,00 1,69 2,09 1,14
0,00 0,64 0,00 0,99 0,00 0,70
1,63 0,79 0,74 1,12 2,95 0,00
0,00 3,55 1,45 5,56 1,00 1,52
0,26 0,00 0,92 0,87 0,47 0,28
,0,74 1,86 3,23 2,35 2,82 0,29
'6,61 1,26 0,43 0,41 1,77 2,39
;0,81 0,93 1,03 0,95 1,92 0,95
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,59
1,05 1,03 1,18 5,59 0,00 1,15
5,26 0,510,58 15,62
2.09 0,93 0,72 3,49
7,07 0,42 3,77 3,28
1,610,43 0,36 3,39
1,15 0,37 0,07 2,92
0,910,32 0,42 6,89
1,53 1,43 0,37 3,84
1,05 1,06 0,40 2,03
1,42 3,64 0,53 2,97
1,910,69 0,30 4,89
0,72 1,96 1,75 7,94
1,810,56 2,02 3,60
1.10 0,33 0,31 2,80
2,810,39 0,76 2,11
0,00 0,49 2,83 3,45
0,97 0,00 0,46 2,75
2,62 0,56 2,36 3,41
0,93 0,41 1,75 0,00
3,03 2,86 0,99 1,08
3,45 1,64 0,00 3,45
0,00 3,53 0,00 5,26
Tabelle 7. Durchschnittliche prozentuale Abweichung
bei den Zweieiigen
11 12 13 i 14 1 15 ; 16 17 18 19 20
Körpergewicht
Körpergröße
Länge d. vord. Rumpf wand
Länge des rechten Beines
Länge des rechten Armes
Schulterbreite (Akromien)
Beckenbreite
Länge des rechten Fußes
Länge der rechten Hand .
Mittlerer Brustumfang . .
Taillenumfang
Kopflänge
Kopfbreite
Jochbogenbreite
Unterkieferwinkelbreite
Kopf umfang
Physiognom. Gesichtshöhe
Morpholog. Gesichtshöhe .
Höhe der Nase
Breite der Nase
Breite der Mundspalte . .
11,58 0,09 4,80
0,16 0,03 0,13
0,49 0,84 1,66
1,09 1,06 2,91
1,40 2,82 0,66
1,610,540,43
4,67 4,93 2,19
1,103,330,00
2,94 0,84 0,55
0,74 0,85 0,00
5,19 0,37 2,67
1,37 0,26 1,37
0,00 1,70 0,67
0,00 3,91 2,57
2,56|5,38 2,70
1.85 0,90 0,90
3,70 3,23 2,45
3,09 3,54 1,30
2.86 4,95 0,00
0,00 3,23 1,64J
7,50 2,33 7,32
2,04 5,20 7,06
1,02 1,16 3,52
3,46 1,19 0,44
1,33 1,67 4,73
1,23 1,44 2,81
|1,19 2,02 2,07
0,86 2,33 5,05
1,61 1,710,65
0,52 1,710,59
2,84 0,11 3,68
3,29 3,90 6,98
1 1,3710,532,56
:0,32 0,00 1,99
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0,89
0,30
0,00
0,00
4,35
6,93
0,440,28
3,83 0,29
4,19 1,83
3,230,00
4,48 6,67
7,69 1,11
9,09 0,49
0,09 0,29
3,35 2,88
1,72 4,13
2,33 2,88
4.26 0,28
0,00 3,10
1.58 2,45
2.59 4,00
5,88 2,41
8,57 1,68
3,33 1,93
3,40 1,00
2.27 0,38
2,91 3,23
1,37 0,18
0,841,09
1,80,0,44
3,090,93
0,00|3,13[
2,181,10,
19,36 2,27
3,66 0,06
3,87 1,15
1,00 2,94
2,56 3,61
6,35 2,09
4,54 2,50
2,32 1,24
1,79 3,54
7,72 2,19
6,32 4,72
2,03 1,14
1,32 2,10
4,76 0,39
7,11 1,52
1,31 0,00
1,65 0,86
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1,03
5,41
7,87
0,00
4,62
6,25
*\'
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104
Anhang: Tabellen
Tabelle 8. Mittlere prozentuale Abweichung der Ein
eiigen und der Zweieiigen
'E
Körpergewicht
Körpergröße
Länge der vorderen Rumpfwand
Länge des rechten Beines . .
Länge des rechten Armes . . .
Schulterbreite (Akromien) . .
Beckenbreite
Länge des rechten Fußes . . .
Länge der rechten Hand . . .
Mittlerer Brustumfang ....
Taillenumfang
Kopflänge
Kopfbreite
Jochbo genbreite
Unterkieferwinkelbreite ....
Kopfumfang
Physiognomische Gesichtshöhe .
Morphologische Gesichtshöhe .
Höhe der Nase
Breite der Nase
Breite der Mundspalte ....
2,98 (
1,57)
0,99 (
0,72)
3,25 (
3,24)
1,69 (
1,50)
0,84 (
0,61)
1,32 (
0,70)
1,33 {
1,06)
1,23 (
1,14)
2,45 (
'2,39)
1,17 1
[0,76)
1,90
(1,23)
1,32
(1,07)
0,69
(0,45)
1,33
(1,24)
1,98
(1,82)
0,70
(0,47)
2,02
(1,87)
1,60
(1,77)
1,46
(1,50)
1,01
(0,74)
1,88
(1,50)
£jr = mittl. proz. Abweichung der Eineiigen
Ey^ = mittl. proz. Abweichung der Zweieiigen
Z
6,20
1,01
1,93
2,26
2,17
2,08
3,02
1,60
1,91
2,64
4,37
1,59
1,25
2,11
3,06
0,81
1,82
1,71
1,61
3,35
5,03
Anhang: Tabellen
Tabelle 9. Indexwerte
105
R
U
M
iE
'Z
Rumpflänge in Prozent der Körpergröße
Mittlerer Brustumfang in Prozent der Körperlänge
Morphologischer Gesichtsindex
mittlere Indexabweichung der E. Z.
mittlere Indexabweichung der Z. Z.
' I
i
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.»„K.>-,«kll%A.-- — — ~
106
Anhang: Tabellen
C CO
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108
Anhang: Tabellen
Tabellarische Zusammenstellung der Charaktereigenschaften
Zeichenerklärung :
= vollständige Konkordanz ( X ) unvollständige Diskordanz
( = ) unvollständige
»>
X vollständige
>>
A. Stoff (Materie)
Nr.
(=) (X)
X
1
1
Mittl. Musikali-
tät
Mathemat. Be-
gabung
Rasche Auffas-
sung
Achtsamkeit
Besonnenheit
Talent z. Skilauf
Vielseitigkeit
Gutes Gedächt-
nis
(Späte Sprach -
entwicklung)
Aufgeschlossen- 1
heit
mehr extensiv
nicht sehr tief
A. mehr Witz
2
Unmusikalisch
Manuelle Ge-
schicklichkeit
Naivität
Zartfühlend
Besinnlichkeit
Willensstärke
Auffassungsver-
mögen
Beobachtungs-
gabe
Gedächtnis
Enge d. Gesichts-
feldes
3
Musikalisch
Gedächtnis
Willensstärke
Kein bes. Näh-
geschick
Mathemat. Be-
gabung
Auffassiingsgabe
Vorstellungsrich -
tung
Extravertiert
Achtsamkeit
Geschick als Ver-
käuferin
Turnerische
Fähigkeit
Anhang: Tabellen
109
A. Stoff (Forts.)
I
Nr.
(=)
(X)
X
(Frühe Sprach-
entwicklung)
Keine manuelle
Geschicklichk.
unmusikalisch
Gedächtnis
Auffassungsgabe
Gedankenreicht .
wenig Ordnungs-
sinn
Mittl. Phantasie
Zart besaitet
Geistige Begab.
Willensstärke
Kritisches Wesen
Selbständigkeit
des Urteils
(Späte Sprach-
entwicklung)
Spät laufen gel.
( Größtenteils
gleiche Schul
leistungen)
Musikalisch
Ungeweckt
Undifferenziert
Gedankenarmut
Ungeistig
Enger Gesichtskr.
( Sprachentwick-
lung)
Schlechte Rech-
ner
Geringe Sprach-
Begabung
Begabung für
Zeichnen
Spieltrieb
Manuelle Ge-
schicklichkeit
Sauberkeit
Ordnungssinn
Musikalität
Schmucktrieb
Aufmerksamkeit
Scharfsinn
Verstandesaus-
bildung
Gewecktheit
B. oberfläch-
licher
-.!0-..*A^
i
k»
110
Anhang: Tabellen
A. Stoff
(Forts.)
Nr.
(=) (X)
X
7
Prakt. Begabung
Ungeweckt
Besonnenheit
Handarbeit
Begabung im
Verstand
Turnerische
Rechnen und Selbständigkeit
Fähigkeiten
Deutsch
Theoretische Be-
Ordnungssinn
gabung
Kindl. Gemüt
Langsame ero-
tische Entwick-
lung
Musikalität
8
Langsame Ver-
nunftentwick-
lung
Kindlich
Schulbegabung
Steif b. Turnen
Auffassungsgabe
Musikalität
Erotisch unent-
wickelt
Ungeweckt
Unselbständig
Geistiges Fas-
sungsvermög.
j
9
( Sprachentwick-
1
Schulbegabung ; Schulbegabung
lung)
z. T.
z. T.
Unkünstlerisch
Gedächtnis
Musikalisch nicht Gewecktheit
begabt
Findigkeit
Introvertiert
Willensschwäche
Träumer
Grübler
Zartfühlend
,
Oberflächlichkeit
10
Musikalität
Sprachenbega-
Spieltrieb
bung
Gewecktheit
i Pfiffig
.' .
Motor. Anlage
Auf f assungsbe -
gabung
Achtsamkeit
ii
4
Anhang: Tabellen
A. Stoff (Forts.)
111
:'i Nr.j
(=)
(X) X
'k 11
Musikalität
Sprachentwick-
Geschicklichkeit
lung)
Gewecktheit
"fr
Feinfühligkeit
Verstandesbegab.
■ rf
*(*•■ '■,
Manuelle Ge-
Seelische Kom-
schicklichkeit
pliziertheit
1 , (, 1
■>. ■'•
Fassungskraft
'i-i
Selbständigkeit
J
des Urteils
:i
Rechenbegabun g
1 12~
Musikalität
Zeichnerische
Sprachenbegab .
Geistesrichtung
1
Begabimg
Schauspielerische
Begabung
Geschick im
(nach innen-
außen)
1
Schlittschuh-
laufen
Konkret -abstr.
13 i
Denken nicht tief
Abstrakte Begab.! Auffassungsgabe
Manuelle Ge-
Fassungskraft
schicklichkeit
Gewecktheit
Musikalität
Träumerei
14 !
Musikalität
Erotisch unge-
Intellektuelle Be-
Naivität
weckt
gabung
Gewecktheit
Kindl.Gemüt(A.)
Aufgeschlossen-
heit
Witz (A.)
Pfiffigkeit (A.)
15~
( Sprachentwick-
Intellektuelle
Musikalität
lung)
Regsamkeit
Manuelle Ge-
Keine hervorste-
Gewecktheit
schicklichkeit
chenden Bega-
Primitivität
Sportliche Ver-
^
bungen
Auffassungsgabe
anlagung
Geistige Fas-
>
1
sungskraft
16
Sprachenbega-
Geistesrichtung
Körperl. Ge-
Rechenbegabun g
•
bung
Ü ndif f erenziert
Enge des Ge-
sichtsfeldes
schicklichkeit
Manuelle Ge-
schicklichkeit
Gewecktheit
Geist. Beweg-
lichkeit
Aufmerksamkeit
Geist. Fassungs-
vermögen
Musikalität
1
..^ Vc*- *»4^k
'SM
•^tm^ne, '"-'
('
fl
ii I
ü
j
112
^nfeans; Tabellen
A. Stoff (Forts,)
Nr.
=
(=)
(X)
X
17
( Sprachentwick-
Konkret-abstr.
^ 1
Turngewandtheit
Besinnlichkeit
lung)
Willensstärke
Z eichenbegabung
Intellektuelle Be-
Gewecktheit
Feinfühligkeit
gabung
Geistesrichtung
Musikalität
Besinnlichkeit
MJanuelle Ge-
schicklichkeit
18
( Sprachentwick- Intellektuelle B e -
Phantasie
Manuelle Ge-
lung)
gabung
Turnerisches Ge-
schicklichkeit
Gedächtnis
Musikalität
Willenskraft
schick
Gründlichkeit
Tiefe
Besinnlichkeit
Denkweise (in-
tensiv-extens.)
19
( Sprachentwick-
lung)
Gewecktheit
Sprachenbega-
bung
Turngeschick
Spielgeschick
(Tennis)
Entw. d. Intel-
lektes
Feinfühligkeit
Verstandesaus-
bildung
Schlagfertigkeit
Musikalität
20
( Sprachentwick-
Schulbegabung
Rechenbegabung Manuelle Ge-
lung)
Sportl. Geschick-
lichkeit
Denkbegabung
schicklichkeit
Geistesrichtung
Unmittelbarkeit
Aufgeschlossen-
heit
Besinnlichkeit
Geistige Einfach-
heit (A.)
Tiefe
Seehsche Kom-
pliziertheit
Anhang: Tabellen
B. Artung (Qualität)
113
Nr.
(=)
Gutmütigkeit
(K.)
Anhänglichkeit
Skeptizismus
Folgsamkeit (K.), nicht sehr gesel-
Wenig Freunde j lig
Keine Mädchen- Berufswahl
f reundschaf ten Wissenschaf tl .
Sportliches In-
teresse
Politisch interes-
siert
Nicht religiös
Großes Selbst-
vertrauen
Selbstgenügsam-
keit
Nüchternheit
U nabhängigkeit
Neigungen
Kein Sportinter- Sparsamkeit
esse I (Knickerigk.)
Sehr eigen mit
Kleidung
Nicht sehr eitel
Nicht religiös
Wenig Freun-
dinnen
Schwache Libi-
do
Sport
Dekorationsnei-
gung
(X)
X
Eigensinn
B eruf sinteressen
Naturliebe
Nebenbeschäfti-
gungen
Interessen ;
Musik
Mathematik
Geschäft. —
Gutmütig, füg-
sam
Gern in Gesell-
schaft
Gern mit Freun-
dinnen
Tanz, junge Män-
ner,
Libido
Kleiderlieb
Etwas eitel
Wenig religiös
Theater, Kino
Nicht rechthabe-
risch
Beiheft Gl zur Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie
8
I
1
Im
4''
(1
('S)«?'
114
Anhang: Tabellen
B. Artung (Forts.)
Nr.
(=)
(X)
X
Anhang: Tabellen
B. Artung (Forts.)
115
Dvinkelangst (K.)
Vorliebe für gu-
tes Mobiliar
Sinn für nette ;
Kleidung ]
Nicht sehr eitel
Kein politisches
Interesse
Nicht kirchlich
Erotik
Auf geschlossen u.
hingabefähig b.
Vorhand. Sym-
pathie
Wählerisch
Moralische Ein-
stellung
6
Sinn für Häus-
lichkeit
Durchsetzungs-
drang
Freundschafts-
fähigkeit früher
Anschlußbereit-
schaft
Selbstgenügsam-
keit
Dickköpfigkeit
Gutmütigkeit
Pflichtgefühl
Neigung zu
Neckereien
Verträglichkeit
untereinander
Freimut beim Er-
zählen
Typus der Be-
rufswahl
Berufsinteresse
Freundschafts-
fähigkeit z. Zt.
Kränkbarkeit
Nr.
(=)
(X)
V
Beschäftigung in
der Freizeit
Spielneigung
Schwimmen,
sonst wenig
Sport
Freundschafts-
fähigkeit
Anschlußbereit-
schaft
Interesse f. Klei-
dung
Keine Eitelkeit
Uninteressiert f.
Politik u. Ta-
gesfragen
Nicht kirchlich
Interesse für den
Haushalt
Berufswahl
Folgsamkeit (K.)
Kinderspiele
Puppen
Ängstlichkeit n.
d. Umschulung
Drang ins Freie
Handarbeiten
Geltungsbedürfn.
Etwas affektiert
Anschlußbereit-
schaft
Zeitweise Ver-
schlossenheit
Sportliche Nei-
gungen
Hausarbeit
Neigung z. Pous-
sieren
Empfindlichkeit
(B.)
Berufswahl
B. Anführerin
8
Auflehnung geg.
die Mutter
Selbständigkeit
Unabhängig-
keitsdrang
Eitelkeit
Kleidung
Tanzen nicht
Folgsam
Gutmütig
Sportsinteresse
Häusl. Arbeiten
Pflege ihrer Sa-
chen
Interesse an Klei
düng
Etwas eitel
Anschlußbereit-
schaft
Selbstgenügsam-
keit
Meist im Hause
Benutzung der
Freizeit
Naturliebe
Nicht empfindl.
Berufswahl
Eigensinnig (K.)| Handarbeiten
Sehr ängstl. (K.);
Später gutmütig I
Folgsam
Schwimmen gern
Wenig anschluß-
bereit
Wenig Freund-
schaften
Häuslich interes-
siert
Kochen gern
Lesen gern
Kirchlich
Eigen mit Klei-
dung
Wenig eitel
Berufsabsichten
8'
tmt^
\f
:\
Ml
is
116
Anhang: Tabellen
B. Artung (Forts.)
Nr.
( = )
(X)
X
9
Nicht kirchlich
Politisches Inter-
esse
Erotik
Egoistische Be-
rechnung
Verschlossenheit
Eigensinn
Empfindlichkeit
jetzt
Aufrichtigkeit
Schulneigungen
z. T.
Anschlußbereit-
schaft
Naturwissen-
schaftlich in-
teressiert
Ordnungsliebe
Kleidung
Wählerisch
Empfindlichkeit
(K.)
Schulneigungen
z. T.
Nebeninteressen
(K.)
Berufswahl
Anpassungsfähig-
keit in der
Kindheit
Selbstvertrauen
Skrupellosigkeit
Zeitweise Wirk-
lichkeitsent-
fremdung
Anhang: Tabellen
B. Artung (Forts.)
117
10
11
12
Sportliebend ' Draufgängertum Gutmütigkeit
Nicht schüchtern Kleidung
Drängen ins Freie Eitelkeit
Gerissenheit Mäßig folgsam
N*icht kirchlich , Aggressiv
(K.)
Neigung zum
Lesen
Selbstsicher
Ängstlichkeit
(K.)
Folgsamkeit
Gutmütigkeit
Leicht gekränkt
Handarbeiten
Angriffslust
Ehrgeiz
\
Dunkelangst (K.)
Häusliche Be-
schäftigung
Drang ins Freie
Anschlußbereit-
schaft
Freundschaften
Berufsneigungen
Benutzung der
Freizeit
Puppenspiel
L^nternehmungs-
geist
Sportsinteresse
Tennisspiel
Schwimmen
Gepflegtheit
Nicht launisch
Selbständigkeit
Literarische
teressen
In-
Spracheninter-
esse
Häusl. Interessen
Eitelkeit
Wählerisch
Interesse f. junge
Männer
Kaufmännisches
Interesse
A. Geistige Ein-
stellung
B. „Sporttyp"
Berufswahl
Nr.j
=
(=) I (X)
X
13
Sportinteresse
Erotik
Anschlußbereit-
Gutmütigkeit
Tanzen, Kino
Freundinnen
schaft
Verschlossenheit
Kleidung
Wählerisch
Eitelkeit
B eruf sneigungen
Lesen nicht viel
Häusl. Interesse
Politisch und
A. kinderlieb
kirchlich un-
1
i
B. leicht geärgert
interessiert
!
Ehrgeiz
14
1
Ordnungssinn
Eigen mit Klei-
dung
Eitelkeit
Verträglichkeit
Eigensinn
Folgsamkeit
Gutmütigkeit
Anschlußbereit-
schaft
Begeisterungs-
vermögen
Kaufmännisches-
häusl. Inter-
esse
Berufswahl
15
Ängstlichkeit(K.) Leitbarkeit (K.)
Hausarbeit
Nähen
Politisches und
Folgsamkeit (K).
Sportinteresse
Handarbeit
religiöses In-
Ordnungsliebe
Eitelkeit
Lesen
teresse
Anschlußbereit-
schaft
Tanzen
Lust am Aus-
gehen
Träge Erotik i
16
Ordnungssinn
Sauberkeit
Ängstlichkeit(K.) Sportinteresse
Keine größeren
Hausarbeit
Berufswahl
Anschluß bereit-
Erziehungs-
schaft
schwierigkeit.
Freundinnen
Interesse an Mu-
Politisch uninter-
sik
essiert
Interesse an
Handarbeit
Unkultiviert
17
■. Anschlußbereit- Nicht schwierig
1
'' Empfindlichkeit
Schaft
(K.)
Dimkelangst
Freundinnen
Friedlich einge-
Sportinteressen
Keine Herrenbe-
stellt
Lesestoff
kanntschaften
Verträglichkeit
Benutzung der
Kleidung
Führung
Freizeit
Häusl. Interesse
Ordnungssinn
Eitelkeit
Berufswahl
Nicht wählerisch
L
Offenheit
m.t t^tKiMiM-^t^t^^ti^^^^fi^m/m^m»
f^i^mtßi^^^m^
^t^*■•^01^ ..-^ ■ "»^ -^ «
»•»«#««'**'*••».•*** «r'««* .^w"»#*49.
¥
H
118
Anhang: Tabellen
B. Artung (Forts.)
Nr.
=
(=)
(X)
X
18
Musikinteresse
Sportinteresse
Lesestoff
Freundlichkeit
Freundschaften
Anschluß bereit -
Schaft
Praktische Ein-
stellung
Konkret
Materiell
Erotik
Begeisterungs-
Anpassungsfähig-
keit
Idealismus
Egoismus
Draufgängertum
Hilfsbereitschaft
vermögen
19
Verträglichkeit
Musikhören
Führung
Dunkelangst (K.)
Ordnungsliebe
Leselust
Ehrgeiz
Wanderlust
Kleidung
Anschluß bereit-
Keckheit
Lesestoff
Eitelkeit
schaft
Offenheit
Sehr politisch in-
Freunde
teressiert
Erotik
Nicht religiös
Berufsabsichten
20
Dunkelangst (K.)
Empfindlichkeit
Anschluß bereit-
Leit barkeit (K.)
(K.)
schaft
Geistige Interes-
Interesse an
Freundinnen
sen
Handarbeit
Berufswahl
Keine Herrenbe-
(Sinnlichkeit)
kanntschaften
, »Vernünftigkeit' '
fr
i
C. Gefüge (Struktur)
Nr.
(=)
(X)
Mäßiges Äuße- | Lebhaftigkeit
rungsbedürfnis Etwas Steifheit
Willenstypus
Widerstands-
kraft
Entschlossenheit
Sensibilität
Empfindsamkeit
Frische
Aufgeregtheit
(K.)
Äuß erungsver-
mögen
2
Empfindsamkeit j Erregbarkeit
Stimmungsbe-
reitschaft
Beharrlichkeit
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Lebhaftigkeit
Langsamkeit
Tatkraft
Energie
Äußerungsfähig-
keit
Klebrigkeit
Affektlabilität
ti
Anhang: Tabellen
119
C. Gefüge
(Forts.)
Nr.
=
( = )
(X)
X
3
Fröhl. Naturen
Meist ruhig
In Gesellschaft
lebhafter
Nicht ausgelas-
sen
Mäßig erregbar
Nicht sehr sen-
sibel
Nicht sehr äuße-
rungsbedürf ti g
Tatkräftig
Mittlere Wider-
standskraft
B. manchmal
ernsthafter
B. mehr Mut b.
Turnen
4
Stimmungsab-
Pubertätskrise
still, nervös
hängigkeit
Geringe Aus-
dauer
Mangel an Wi-
derstandskraft
Ruhiges Wesen
Werden i. Gesell-
schaft lebhaft.
Neigung zu Zu-
sammenbrü-
chen
Ermüdbarkeit
Fleiß. Äuße-
rungsbedürfnis
Reagibilität
Eigensinnig (K.)
Empfindlichkeit
Aktivität
Initiative
Energie des Auf-
tretens
Äußerungsver-
mögen
L^nentschlossen-
heit
Frische
5
Ruhig
Geringes Ein-
drucksver-
mögen
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
„Langweiligkeit"
(Stottern)
Äußerungsver-
mögen
Wenig lebhaft
6
Nervosität
Lebhaftigkeit
Reizbarkeit als
Unruhe
(K.)
Kleinkind
Pubertätskrise
Ausdauer
Nervosität vonB.
Sprunghaftigkeit
Frische
A. größere Har-
Äußerungsver-
Sensibilität
monie
mögen
r/
u -
p
I
i(;|
120
Anhang: Tabellen
C. Gefüge (Forts.)
Nr.
(=)
(X)
Ruhig
Widerstands-
fähig
Erziehbarkeit
Leitbarkeit
Wenig Tempera-
ment
Gleichmut
Äußerungsver-
mögen
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Schnelligkeit bei
der Arbeit
B. etwas nervös
(K.)
8
Unruhig (K.)
Später ruhig,
still
Gleichmäßig zap-
pelig
Motorisch un-
ruhig
Äußerungsver-
mögen
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
9 Unharmonisch
Erregbarkeit
Lebhaftigkeit
Stimmungs-
bereit Schaft
Jl^'illenstypus
^ (Magenneurose)
Empfindsamkeit
Zügellosigkeit
Bequemliclikeit
(Gesichtsaus-
druck)
Nervosität jetzt
Reizbarkeit
Verschwommen-
heit des Cha-
rakters
Fleiß
Stimmungslage
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Außerungsfähig-
keit
Ner\^osität (K.)
,, Zusammen-
brüche'*
Widerstands-
kraft
Entschlossenheit
Energielosigkeit
10
Stimmungs-
bereitschaft
Affekte nicht
nachhaltig
Jetzige Ner\'osi- Reizbarkeit
tat
Lebhaftigkeit
Erregbarkeit
Zappelig
Sensibel
Ner\-osität und
Jähzorn (K.)
Wildlieit
Jetzige Reizbar-
keit
Ausgeglichenheit
X
Anhang: Tabellen
C. Gefüge (Forts.)
121
(X)
Energie
Zielstrebigkeit
Zappeligkeit
12 I Nicht reizbar
13
14
15
16
Ausgeglichenheit
Gleichmut
Eindrucksver-
mögen
Stimmungslage
Nicht tempera-
mentvoll
Äußerungsver-
mögen
Äußerungsfähig-
keit
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Reagibilität
Lebhaftigkeit
Gleichmut
Entschlossenheit
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Frühpsychopa-
thische Züge
(B ettnässen ), son-
stige frühpsy-
chopath. Züge
Nerv.Unruhe (K. )
Langsamkeit
W ededrang
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
„Temperament'*
Aktivität
Lebhaftigkeit
Erregbarkeit
A. still, abwar-
tend
B. temperament-
voll
Impulsivität
Nervosität
Widerstands-
kraft
Ausdauer
Reizbarkeit
Stimmungslage
Lebhaftigkeit
Nervosität
B. phlegmatisch
Beweglichkeit
Ausgeglichenheit
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Fleiß
Sorgfalt
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Stimmungslage
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Willenstypus
Sensibilität
' Lebhaftigkeit
,,Ner\'osität"
Ausdauer
Äußerungsver-
mögen
Eindrucksver-
mögen
Lebhaftigkeit
Aufregbarkeit
Ärger
Äußerungsver-
mögen
Eindruckver-
mögen
(Bettnässen)
Bewegungsdrang
(Bettnässen)
122
Anhang: Tabellen
C. Gefüge (Forts.)
Nr.
17
(=)
Fleiß
18
19
Äußerungsver-
mögen
Tatkraft
Energie
20
(X)
X
Nervosität
Beweglichkeit
Eindrucksver-
mögen
Äußerungsver-
mögen
Nervosität (K.)
Eigensinn (K.)
Harmonie (K.)
Beweglichkeit
Gründlichkeit
Gleichmut
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Lebhaftigkeit
Erregbarkeit
Phlegma
Beschaulichkeit
Reagibilität
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Erregbarkeit
Innere Spannung
Sicherheit
Äußerungsbe-
dürfnis
Ablenkbarkeit
Eindrucksver-
mögen
Stimmungslage
Erregbarkeit
Gleichmut
Natürlichkeit
Ernst
Lebhaftigkeit
Zappeligkeit
(Bettnässer)
Sensibilität
Reagibilität
Phlegma
Gleichmut
Lebhaftigkeit
(K.)
Erregbarkeit (K.)
Zappeligkeit (K.)
Empfindsamkeit
Außerungsbe-
dürfnis
Äußerungsver-
mögen
Lebhaftigkeit
Gehemmtheit
^
■f=--^ C
Handschrift und Charakter
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grüßen sind die einleitenden Ausführungen, welche teils ausführlichere Anleitungen zum Deutungsverlahren bieten, teils sich mit
den Ansichten anderer Autoren, welche im Laufe der letzten )ahre grophologische Arbeiten geliefert haben, kritisch auseinandersetzen.
Wir stehen nicht on zu sagen, daß die Veröffentlichung das Wertvollste darstellt, was seit langer Zeit erschienen ist, und holten
^s für notwendig, daß jeder, der die Graphologie mit Ernst betreibt, sich in dieses Werk vertieft. K. B.
Die Grundlagen der Charakterkunde
Von LUDWIG KLAGES.
238 Seiten mit H Ausschlagtafeln. 1928. gr
5. — 6., ergänzte Auflage. X,
8"\
RiM. 8.—, geb. RM. 10.—
Zeilschrift für Menschenkunde: So ist, wie wir abschließend sagen dürfen, mit den „Grundlagen" ein Werk geschaffen,
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<^
Ausdrucksbewegung und Gestaltungskraft
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II
Philosophie, Psychologie, Pädagogik 10. Jahrg., 1934^ Nr. 11
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Sind psychische Eigenschaften erblich? Von I. H. Schultz, Berlin .. . 125
Vom Handeln. Von Karl Fahrenkamp 131
V^esen und Berechtigung der Tierpsychologie. Von Priv.-Doz. Dr.
J. A. Bierens de Haan, Amsterdam * . . . 136
I. Geschichte und Systeme der Philosophie 126
n. Logik und Erkenntnistheorie, Metaphysik . 127
III. Ethik, Kulturphilosophie, Religionsphilosophie 128
IV. Allgemeine Psychologie 129
V. Angewandte Psychologie 130
VI. Entwicklungspsychologie und Psychologie der Kultur . . . .132
VII. Geschichte der Pädagogik, Schulorganisation 133
VIII. Allgemeine Unterrichts- und Erziehungslehre 134
IX. Volksschule 135
X. Höhere Schule 135
XI. Berufsschulwesen 135
XII. Psychologie des Jugendlichen 135
Konstitutions-
uiid Erbbiologie
in der Praxis der Medizin. Vorträge eines Inter-
nationalen Fortbildungskurses in der Berliner Akademie
für ärztliche Fortbildung im Frühjahr 1934. Heraus-
gegeben von Prof. Dr. Walther Jaensdh, Berlin
Mit einem Vorwort von Stadtmedizinalrat Dr. Klein,
Berlin. VT, 385 S. mit 21 Abb. i. T. 1934.. sr.S«. Kart. RM. 19.60
Die Mitwirkunj^r führender Männer aus Wissenschaft und Forschuni^
gibt dieser Sammlung ihr Gepräge. Jeder einzelne von ihnen: Diepgen,
Rössle, von Bergmann, von Verschuer, I.enz, Gross, Bommer, Frieboes,
Jaensch, Kohlrausch, Hoske, Gebhardt u. a., gab aus seiner reichen Er-
fahrung das Wesentliche und Wissenswerte. Diese Darstellung der Erb-
biologie unter medizinischem Gesichtswinkel bringt völlig neue Ausblicke
von gemeinwichtiger Bedeutung.
JOHANN AMBROSIUS BARTH • VERLAC ■ LEIPZIG
Philosophie, Psychologie, PSdagogilt 10. Jahrg., 1934, Nr. 11
III
Zeitschriffen gehen mit der Zeit
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Hrsg.: Prof. Dr. O. Klemm, Leipzig, Priv.«Doz. Dr. Philipp Leridi^Dresden
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andere Arbeiten.
Zeitschrift für Psychologie und
Physiologie der Sinnesorgane
I. Abteilung:
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Diese älteste psychologische Zeitschrift ist bestrebt, die Erforschung der geistigen Vorgänge
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II. Abfeilung:
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Verlangen Sie bitte ein Probeheft kostenlos
JOHANN AMBROSiUS BARTH - VE R L AG - LE iPZI G
IV
Philosophie, Psychologie, Pädagogik 10. Jahrg., 1934, Nr. 11
BIOS
Abhandlungen zur theoretischen Biologie und ihrer Ge-
schidite, sowie zur Philosophie der organisdien Natur-
wissensdiaffen
Herausgegeben von 26 deutschen und ausländischen Gelehrten
BAND I:
Ideen und Ideale
der biologischen Erkenntnis
Beiträge zur Theorie und Geschichte der biologischen Ideo-
logien. Von Prof. Dr. ADOLF MEYER, Hamburg. XIII,
202 Seiten. 1934. gr.8«. RM. 9.75
Berichte über die wissenscliaftliche Biologie, Heft 9/10, 1934:
Als Ganzes gesehen ist das Buch ein großer Wurf mit vielen neuen
Gesichtspunkten, welche auch den experimentell arbeitenden Forscher
^. angehen, denn die Analyse der Begriffe, die Herausarbeitung der Prin-
zipien und Axiome ist für die Biologie ebenso wichtig wie die Ver-
besserung der technischen Methoden und die Verfeinerung der
Apparate. Friedrich Brock, Hamburg
BAND II:
Die tierpsydiologisdie Forsdiung
Ihre Ziele und Wege. Von Priv.-Doz. Dr. I. A. BIERENS
DE HAAN, Amsterdam. XI, 96 Seiten mit 34 Abbildungen
im Text. 1934. gr.8^ RM. 6.60
Trotzdem die Tierpsychologie in den letzten Jahrzehnten beacht-
liche Fortschritte erzielt hat bestehen doch immer noch Zweifel und
Unsicherheiten über ihr Wesen und ihre Ziele. Der Verfasser gibt
deshalb eine iCinführung in die Tierpsychologie, er erörtert das Wesen
dieser Wissenschaft, inwieweit sie überhaupt möglich ist und wo die
Grenzen ihres Arbeitsfeldes liegen. Das Buch erweist, daß alle biologisch
Interessierten sich mit der Tierpsychologie beschäftigen sollten.
Verlangen Sie bitte meinen Prospekt „Bios"
JOHANN AMBROSIUS BARTH ■ VERLA«» . LEIPZIG
Ve™n,wo«Hch_für^den^Ä„«,j.n,en: B«„h.rd v. ^--^/^'P'« C_.._S,,„™„,,,,. ,8„.
Sind psychische Eigenschaften erblich?
Von I. H. Schultz, Berlin
Bei der Frage, ob „psychische Eigenschaften erblich sind'*, interessieren
den Arzt zwei große, nur teilweise verbundene Gebiete. Zum ersten, ob
normale, zum anderen, ob krankhafte psychische Eigenschaf-
ten erkennbar erbgesetzlichen Regeln folgen. Da in den vorangehenden Dar-
legungen von Creutzfeldt und P o h 1 i s c h der Stand spezieller psychia-
trischer Konstitutionsforschung behandelt und von Heun das Problem Konr
stitution und Psychotherapie erörtert wurde, soll im folgenden die Frage
nach der Erblichk eit normal er seelischer Eigenschaften
mehr in den- Vordergrund gestellt werden. Auch die Frage nach der Erb-
bedingtheit krimineller Reaktionen soll hier nicht erörtert werden.
Nicht als wenn die Verhältnisse im Normalen durchsichtiger liegen wür-
den. Viel eher ist das Gegenteil der Fall, indem auch im Problemgebiet der
Vererbung krankhafter seelischer Eigenschaften, wie so oft im Pathologischen,
Zusammenhänge klarer erkannt werden können, als im Normalen. Ein kurzer
Ueberblick über unser heutiges Wissen von der Vererbung normaler seelischer
Eigenschaften erscheint aber wesentlich, weil er einerseits die allgemeinen
Schwierigkeiten des Begriffes einer „psychischen Eigenschaft" deut-
lich werden und andererseits eben aus diesen Schwierigkeiten die richtige Ein-
stellung zur Lebendigkeit seelischer Verhaltungsweisen ge-
winnen läßt. Lebendiges aber ist bildsam. Je schärfer wir erkennen,
wie weit der Weg von den primitiven, genotypisch festgelegten, schicksalhaft
gegebenen Urreaktionen zum Erwachsenden oder gar Erwachsenen ist, um so
kritischer werden wir gegenüber vorschnellen Festlegungen von „Eigenschaf-
ten", die das lebendige Ganze gleichsam als starres Skelett begrenzen oder
gar als festes Mosaiksteinchen zusammensetzen. Ein kritisch begründeter
Wille zur tätigen, behandelnden Arbeit darf und muß so erwachsen, kein be-
quemes Schematisches Einordnen und Verwahren in handliche und sauber
etikettierte Zettelkästchen.
Erbwissenschaftlich unterliegt die Entscheidung, ob und nach welchen
Gesetzen normale psychische Eigenschaften erblich sind, so großen Schwierig-
keiten, daß Eugen Fischer, der bekannte Berliner Erbforscher, unlängst
meinte, die ganze Frage sei noch so verwickelt, daß kaum etwas Sicheres aus-
zusagen sei.
Unter voller Anerkennung dieses theoretischen Bedenkens sollen doch
einige Gesichtspunkte und Ergebnisse kurz angedeutet werden.
Voraussetzung jeder Bearbeitung der Frage, ob „psychische Eigenschaften
erblich sind", ist eine Bestimmung dessen, was unter „psychischer Eigen-
schaft" zu verstehen sei und welche Methoden zu ihrer Unter-
suchung zur Verfügung stehen.
Es ist ohne weiteres einleuchtend, daß die meisten Eigenschafts-
bezeichnungen der Alltagspsychologie wohl sehr anschaulich
— 126 —
und zur praktischen Verständigung geeignet, aber in ihrem inneren Gehalt
sehr mannigfaltig und oft widerspruchsvoll sind. Nehmen wir etwa das All-
tagsurteil, ein Mensch sei „fleißig-, so ist dami nur gesagt daß dieser
Mensch sich, soweit ihn andere kontrollieren, als ein „Viel-Tuender , als em
Viel-Arbeitender" zeigt. Ob aber diese Verhaltungsweise irgendwie semem
inneren Wesen, einem naturhaften Tätigkeitsdrang entspringt, oder ob sie
Ausdruck einer Angst vor Verlust an Ehre, Besitz, Genuß usw. oder einer
besonderen Gier nach solchen Gütern ist; ob sie ein Dressur- oder Erziehungs-
produkt darstellt; ob sie getragen ist von inneren seelischen Drangen ganz
anderer Art etwa seelischer Not, Triebzwang und dergleichen, also einen neu-
rotischen Fleiß, etwa eine Art „Arbeitssucht" bedeutet; ob sie einem Mangel
an anderen Erlebnisweisen, also einer seelischen Armut entfließt, oder ob sie
tiaturhafter Trägheit abgerungen wird in innerer Verpflichtung durch ethische
und soziale Forderungen - alle diese und sehr zahlreiche andere Möglich-
keiten bleiben bei der Feststellung „X. ist ein fleißiger Mensch" völlig offen
Man könnte sich nun helfen, indem man von einem echten ursprunghchen )
1440 *) Entnommen aus: Konstitutions- und Erbbiologie in der Praxis der
Medizin. Vorträge eines Internationalen Fortbildungskurses in der Berliner
Akademie für ärztliche Fortbildung im Frühjahr 1934. Herausgegeben von
Dr med Walther Jaensch, a. o. Professor an der Universität Berlin, Leiter des
Ambulatoriums für Konstitutionsmedizin an der Charite Berlin. Mit einem Vor-
wort von Stadtmedizinalrat Dr. med. W. Klein, Berlin. VI, 385 Seiten mit
21 Abb. i. T. 1934. gr.80. Kart. RM. 19.60.
I
i
— 127 —
1313. Londhe, D.: Das Absolute (The Absolute, dt.). Ein Entwurf zu e
Metaphysik des Selbst. 1934. (V, 130 S.) 80. RM. 6.—
1314. Mettler, A.: Max Weber und die philosophische Problematik in unserer
Zeit. Mit e. Bibliographie d. Arbeiten über Max Weber 1934 (162 S)
gf-8'- 'RM.4.50
1315. Meyer, H.: Die Wissenschaftslehre des Thomas von Aquino 1934
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1316. Nietzsche, F.: Vom Nutzen und Nachteil der Historie für das Leben
^ Neue AufL 1934. (VII, 98 S., 1 Titelb.) kl.S«. RM. -.75; Lw. 1.—
1317. Philosophie, Deutsche systematische, nach ihren Gestaltern. Unter Mitw.
von . . . hrsg. von H. Schwarz. Bd. 2. 1934. (301 S.) gr.S«.
\ ^ , Lw. RM. 14.—
l3>«r Rickert, H.: Grundprobleme der Philosophie. Methodologie Ontologie»
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1319. Schopenhauer, A.: Aphorismen zur Lebensweisheit. Mit 1 Bildn Ueber-
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1934. (231 S., 1 Titelb.) kl.80. Lw. RM. 1.75
1320. Silentio, J. de: Die Lüge der Anthroposophen Rudolf Steiner's. Eine
experimentierende Voranzeige. 1934. (39 S.) 80. RM. 1.—
1321. Steiner, R.: Bauformen als Kultur- und Weltempfindungsgedanken.
Worte Rudolf Steiners am 3. Jahrestag d. Grundsteinlegung d. ersten
Goetheanum in Dornach am 20. Sept. 1916. Hrsg. von M. Steiner. (16 S)
^^- RM. 1.90
1322. Wolff, E. G.: Grundlagen einer autonomen Musikästhetik 1934 095 5^
4'- ■ RM. 8.-
1323. Zeitschrift für Aesthetik und allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft. Hrsff. von
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I. Geschichte und Systeme der Philosophie
1308 Cameades, D.: La materia, lo spirito ed il vivo intelletto. In stretto
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sofia della storia, della religione, del monismo, del dualismo, pleiadismo
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1310 Gentile, G.: Philosophie der Kunst. Uebertr, aus d. Ital. von H. Langen.
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iW^Hellpach, W.: Heilkraft und Schöpfung. Aus d. Welt d. Arztes u. vom
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1312 Idealismus. Jahrbuch für die idealistische Philosophie. Bd. 1. 1934.
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11. Logili und Erkenntnistheorie, Metaphysik
1324. Chappuis, A.: Der theoretische Weg Bradleys. Die Hauptgedanken d.
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Bradley 1846-1924. 1934. (138 S.) gr.80^ fr. Fr. 12.-; schw. Fr 2 50
1325. Donat, J.: Ontologia. Ed. 8. emend. 1935. (VII, 292 S.) 8^. RM. 3.60
1326. Erkenntnis. Zugleich Annalen der Philosophie. Bd 12 H 4 Im Auftr
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Inhalt :K Ajdukiewicz: Das Weltbild und die Begriffsapparatur. - G. Mannoury
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ternat. Kongreß für Philosophie in Prag vom 2.-7. IX. 34.
1327. Fuchsmeyer, J.: Das Gesetz der Einheit der Kraft. Neue Anschauungen
über Bewegungsvorgänge in d. materiellen Welt. 1934. (74 S m Abb )
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1328. Kuhin H.: Sokrates. Ein Versuch über d. Ursprung d. Metaphysik.
1934. (161 S.) gr.80. ^^ RM. 6.-
1329. Raphael, M.: Zur Erkenntnistheorie der konkreten Dialektik 1934
(263 S.) 80. ..fr. Fr. 15.-
— 128 —
III. Ethik, Kulturphilosophie, Religionsphilosophie
1330. Broderick, J.: The economic morals of the Jesuits. Doli 2.25
1332. Grünagel, F.: Rosenberg und Luther Rosenberg's Mythus d 20_Jh.
u d. theol. Probleme. 1934. (Vll, Mb.) gr.ö .
1333. Häberlin P.: Wider den Ungeist. Eine ethUd. Orientierun^g.^
{(Ä nL u. sign. Exempl. auf Japanpap., Hperg. schw. Fr. 18.-
1334. Handbuch der Kulturgeschichte Lfg.l3, 14. E. Ermatinger: Dt KuUur
im Zeitalter d. Aufklarung. H. 2, J. ■»
1335. Handbuch der deutschen Voiliskunde. Hrsg. von W. Peßlerj^jLfg.4.
1336. Karutz, R.: Vorlesungen über moralische Völkerkunde. l-fg^43,^44/45,
46/47 • '
(Di pag. XXII, 212.) 160. •-'« i"-
1339.Knuth, W.: Vom Wandel des religiösen Bewußtseins. Ein Wort zum
Glaubensproblem unserer Tage. 1934. (//i>.) 0.
1340. Koch, W.: Mathematicus. Die 4. der 19 SJ^f ßf^^«?,,^^^^^^
Quintilian. Eine Unters, zur Geschichte d. Willensfreiheit. iyJ4^ ^ ^^
1341. Kühler, O.: Sinn, Bedeutung und Auslegung der Heiligen Sch^^^^^^^^
Hegels Philosophie. Mit Beiträgen zur Bibliographie über dbteiiun^^
Heieis (u. d. Hegelianer zur Theologie, insbes.) zur Hl. Schritt 1 w.
(XII, 110 S.) 40. 0
1342. Ludewigs, W.: Von der sozialen zur politischen Ethik. 1934. j^^^.^S^o.
1343. Margolius, H.: Vom Wesen des Guten. Prinzipien d. Ethik. 1934.
(95 S) 80. ^^■^-
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tilduT Christentum. Nach d. Tode d. Verf. im Einvernehmen mit d.
Familie Martensen-Larsen aus d. Dan. übers, u. f. d- ,5%^'- ."^^^ 4 ^
bearb. von Gräfin C. Wedel. 1934. (182 S.) 8«. RM. 3.-, Lvv. 4.
1345. Noldin, H.: Summa theologiae moralis. Scholarum usui accommodaviit
H. Noldin, ab ed. 17: A. Schmitt. 1. De pnncipiis. Scholaruni usm
accommodaverat H. Noldin. Recogn. et emend. A. Schmitt. n.a^j
1935. (Vni, 358 S.) 8«. *^^^- "•
1346. Rausch, J.: Zum Problem des Primats. Studie zum Charakter d. Sitt-
lichkeit u. ihrer Stellung im Wertreich. 1934. (121 S.) ^^-^^-^ 5 _
1347. Simon, P.: Mythos oder Religion. 1934. (107 S.) 80. R^. 1.60
1348. Strauß, D. F.: Der alte und der neue Glaube. Ein Bekenntnis. Neue
Aufl. 1934. (296S., ITitelb.) kl.80. Lw. KM. i-o
— 129
IV. Allgemeine Psychologie
1349. Biere^s de Haan, J. A.: DJe tierpsychologische Forschung. Ihre Z:iek
und Wege. 1934. (XI, 96 Seiten mit 34 Abb. 1. T.) gr.S". KM. o.ou
(Bildet: Bios, Abhandlungen zur theoretischen Bi?J°f « "J^ '^''^H^rautÄ
zur Philosophie der organischen Naturwissenschaften, Band 2. Herausgegeoen
26 deutschen und ausländischen Gelehrten.) . , , ^ lur i-v^^a^
Inhalt : Wesen und Berechtigung der Tierpsychologie (Objekt, ^^ufgabe und Methode
der Tierpsychologie - Das Erkennen des Psychischen in den Tieren und die Kenn-
zeichen der,!verhaitens'' - Verschiedene Auffassungen über das Vorkommen von
ptych'chen Erscheinungen bei den Tieren _ Neue Untersuchungen ^e^ Jrage nach
dem Vorkommen von psychischen Erscheinungen bei den ^eren - ^^^^^^^^^^^
der Protozoen - Das Arbeitsfeld des Tierpsychologen). - Methodik der Tierpsycho-
- iogie (Die Entwicklung - Die anekdotische Methode - Die Methode der Enquete --
SacMung und Experiment - Das analytische Experiment " ^^^^/^f^^f^^^^^^
Experiment). - Die Interpretation des tierischen Verhaltens. - Zwei Betrachtungen
speziellerer Art (Reflexbewegung und Handlung - Das Bewußtsein der Tiere).
Siehe auch 4. Umschlagseite dieses Heftes !
1350 Brugger, C: Medizinisch-biologische Grundlagen der »"odernen euge-
Sfn Bestrebungen. 1934. (19 S.) gr.80. RM. 1.20
1351. Bühler, K.: Sprachtheorie Die Da^!tf/""f/""%M " 20 -'1^^ 2?^5^6
JXVI, 434 S. m. 9 Abb. 1. T. u. auf 1 Tat.) gr.8". KM. ^u. , lw. zi.au
NLaa^riedrich Wilhelm, Prinz zur Lippe: Rassenseelenkunde ^ür's Dritte
X^* Reich. 1934. (29 S.) gr.80. R^- — ^
1353 G^rard, W.: Stereophänomene in vergleichender Darstellung. 1934. (in,
' 107 S. m. Fig.) 80. »^^- ^•
1'^^4 Groeben M. v. d.: Konstruktive Psychologie und Erlebnis Studien z.
^^^ Lo^k d'. Diltheyschen Kritik an d. erklär. Psychologie. 1^34 (VU^^j
173 S.) gr.80. • •
1355.
1356.
1357.
1358.
1359.
1360.
1361.
1362.
— 130 —
Hoppe, E.: Liebe und Gestalt Der Typus d. Mannes in d Dichtung d.
Frau 1934. (304 S., mehr. Taf.) 8«. KM. 4.5U lw. o.
io..rn;,l für P^^vcholoöie uttd Neufologie. Mitteilungen aus d. Oesamt-
S der Tn^tomk^ Physiologie und Pathologie des Zentralnerven.
Systems sowie der medizinischen Psychologie. Organ des Kaiser-Wilhelm-
Ss f H rnforschung, Berlin, des Instituts ^ "^''"t^^'lf «' ^^f^^"'
Mitgegründet von A. Forel u. K. Brodmann. Hrsg. von C. u. a Vogt.
Red von M. Vogt. Bd. 46, H.4 u. 5. 1934. 40. ^^'T^r'
Kaßner, R.: Betrachtungen über den Ruhm, die Nachahmung und das
Glück. 1934. (46 S.) 80. .... io^.
Koninski, K.: Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Entoptischen Erscheinungen 1934
(57 S. m. 50 Fig.) 8«. ,..,.. cj
Müncker, T.: Die psychologischen Grundlagen ^erkathohschen bitten-
lehre. 1934. (340 S.) 4». RM. 10.80, geb. 12.ÖU
Vauquelin, R.: Les origines de la psychologie pedagog. de Ro^^^^eau^
Zeddies, A.: Wörterbuch der Psychologie. 1934. (^^^ ^'^^w "^RM 4 70
Zeitschrift für Psychologie und Physiologie rfer Sinnesorgane Gegr von
H Ebbinghaus u. A. König, hrsg. von F. Schumann, E R. Jaensch,
": Kroh, M. Gildemeister. Abt. 2^ Zeitschrift für Sinnesphysiologie. In
Gemeinschaft mit ... hrsg. von M. Gildemeister. Bd. 65, H 5. u ö. 1934.
gj.go Der Bd. RM. 22.—
V. Angewandte Psychologie
1363.
1364.
1365.
1366.
1367.
1368.
1369.
1370.
1371.
^:
1374.
Feige, K.: Präzisionsleistungen menschlicher Motorik. Beitrage zur
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(Bildet: Beiheft 69 zur „Zeitschrift für anfiewandtc Psychologie".)
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Präzision. — Untersuchungen der Leistungsprazision. — Folgerungen aus unseren i^r
gebnissen.
Firth, L. E.: Testing advertisements. Doli. 2.50
Hellmut, M.: Menschenerkenntnis aus der Handschrift. 12 Hefte Hl
-12. 1934. (286 S. mit Hs.-Proben.) 8». In Hülse RM. 5.40
Hermanin, I.: Die Psychoanalyse als Methode. 1934. (113 S.) 4«^ ^^
Kogerer, H.: Psychotherapie. Ein Lehrbuch f. Studierende u. Aerzte.
1934. (V, 167 S.) gr.80. Lw. RM. 10.—
Luhde, E.: Die gute Schrift. Ein Ratgeber f. d. Unterricht in zeit-
gemäßer Schriftpflege. 1934. (112 S.) gr.8«. RM. 1.95; Seh. 2.90
McLachlan, N. W.: Loud Speakers, theory, Performance testing and
design. - Doli. 13.50
Murchison, C: Psicologia del potere politico. Traduzione e introduzione
del M. F. Canella. 1935. (Di pag. LVI, 262.) 16«. Lire 10.—
Plate, R.: Zur historischen und psychologischen Vertiefung der eng-
lischen Schulsyntax. Ein Hilfsb. in Frage u. Antwort. 1934. O^'^^-'^kq
Vauquelin, R.: Les aptitudes fonctionnelles et l'education. fr. Fr. 35.—
Verweyen, J. M.: Praktische Menschenkenntnis und richtige Menschen-
behandlung. Neue charakterkundl. Anweisungen mit Bildern u. P^'^'l^
Beispielen. 1934. (IIOS.) 8^». RM. 2.50; Lw. 3.80
Viteles, M. S.: The science of work. lUustr. Doli. 3.75
Fortsetzung Seite 132.
li
1
- 131 —
Vom Handeln
Von Karl Fahrenkamp
Von den Quellen des Lebens weiß der Mensch nichts. Viel älter als die
von dem Propheten mit einer bestimmten Einstellung geprägte Schöpfungs-
geschichte, von der wir als Kinder erfuhren, ist seit Menschengedenken die
gleichnishafte Vorstellung aller Völker in ihren Schöpfungsgeschichten über
den Sinn des Daseins.
Andern Völkern, durch die Fügung dem Lichte inniger verbunden, ver-
blieb in ihren Religionen, in Ihrem Suchen nach Gott ein Wissen und Glauben
an den Baum des Lebens und die HeiHgung der Quelle. Dieser Glaube prägte
östliche Religionen und bewirkte, daß Völker dieses Glaubens dem Wissen
allen lebendigen Seins nahe blieben und alles lebendige Sein ihnen heilig ward.
Weit mehr zugewandt allem lebendigen Sein erwuchs eine Abkehr vom
eigenen Ich und dem wachsenden Drang eines tätigen Handelns.
Diesem Wissen vom Baum des Lebens und der Quelle des Daseins ent-
sprang die Gewißheit um die ewige Wiederkehr allen lebendigen Seins mit
der östlichen Völkern eigentümlichen Haltung zu Leben und Tod.
Anders prägte ein Wissen vom Baume der Erkenntnis das Sein und
Handeln der westlichen Völker. Wir aber lernten in der Kindheit die Schöp-
fungsgeschichte des Alten Testamentes kennen.
Das Wissen eines erkenntnisgeprägten Handelns überwucherte em Wissen
um die Hilflosigkeit eines duldenden untätigen Seins.
Erst Jesus von Nazareth brachte ein neues Wissen um die Hilflosigkeit
menschlichen Seins.
Unter der Wucht seiner Offenbarung durften die westlichen Volker er-
kennen, daß neben dem Baum der Erkenntnis immer wieder im Kinde die
Quellen des Lebens lagen. In seinem Tode wurde uns der Glaube zur Gewiß-
heit, daß Jesus von nun ab in seiner Verbundenheit mit Gott für uns der
Baum des Lebens wurde.
Zweitausend Jahre wurden die Evangelien sinndeutend für unser Dasein
und gaben dem Handeln die Richtung.
Heute erwacht im eigenen Volke ein Suchen nach dem Wissen um die
Wahrheiten des Daseins und Handelns.
Nach zweitausend Jahren sind die Völker Europas - die Kluft zwischen
Sein und Handeln, Handeln und Sein der Menschen wuchs ms Uncrmcß iche —
plötzlich vor eine neue Wahl gestellt: der Baum der Erkenntnis, sinndeutend
für das Handeln des Menschen, der Baum des Lebens, die Wahrheiten des
Seins offenbarend, stehen im neuen Lichte in unserer Bewußtheit.
Schon beginnen Millionen Menschen, trotz allem Wissen, Forschen und
Erkennen, zu begreifen, daß der Glaube Berge versetzen kann
Leistungen und Handlungen, die dem kritischen Intellekt des Menschen
unmöglich erschienen, stehen als Wahrheiten der Wirklichkeit vor uns.
Wer wird siegen? .... i- n /.
Siegen wird in der Entwicklung des McnscIuMigeschicchtes nur (lir Ma^ht
in der Hand des Menschen, die in ihrem Wissen um das Mandeln dem unnij^
stößlichen Wissen um das Sein in gerechtester Weise iolgt. Aut die Dauer )
1441.*) Aus: Sein und Handeln. Von Karl Fahienkanip. 1
von Albrecht Dürer. 1<J3L l". RM. 1.80, geb. RM. ().-.
115 Seiten m. 1 Bild.
— 132 -
VI. Entwicklungspsychologie und Psychologie
der Kultur
1375. Delius, R. v.: Die Weltmächte des Geistes. Zum Endkampf d Kulturen
1934. (130 S.) gr.80. KM. 4.4U, lw. d.du
1376. Dolberg, R.: Theorie der Macht Die Macht als soziale G/""f ^^sach^
u. als Elementarbegriff d. Wirtschaftswissenschaften. 1934. (^VI^ ™^^^
gr.80.
1377. Gercke, A.: Das Gesetz der Sippe. 1934. (63 S.) 80. • RM. -.70
1378 Gesundheit und Erziehung. Neue Folge der Zeitschrift für Schulgesund-
"''• Snege. Hrsg. von H.^HosKe. 47. Jg^N^ll. November. ^.34. ^gr.SO.
Tagungen.
1379. Goldbeck, G.: Technik als geistige Bewegung in den Anfängen des
deutschen Industriestaates. 1934. (85 S.) 8«. KM. 4.
1380. Ihde, H, u. A. Stockfisch: Vom Vater hab» ich die Statur .^-^ E^-b-
gesundheitspflege für Schule u. Volk. 11. Aufl. 1934. (59S. m. ADD
ITaf.) kl.80.
1381. Konstitutions- und Erbbiologie in der P^-^xis der M^^dizin. Vo^^^^^
Internat. Fortbildungskurses in der Be»■l,V".^^^^^'^^*^ M?f /vnrw^^^^^^
bildung im Frühjahr 1934. Hrsg. von W Jaensch. Mit e. Vorwort von
W. Klein. 1934. (VI, 385 S. m. 21 Abb. i. T.) gr.80. Kart. RM. 19.60
Mitarbeiter- P Diepgen, R. Rössle, G. v. Bergmann, O. v Verschuer. F. Len»,
Mitaroeiter. r. xyicy««", ^ > Petow, S. Bommer, W. Fneboea, Gottron,
L D^Ss k lohSsch,' SwSdt H GutVmann. W. Jaensch H Helmchen E Heun.
W zSler H OpHz F. Rott, Kühne, M. Jung, E. Philipp, Kohlrausch. H. Hoske.
K. Gebhardt, Schuster, Wiethold.
Siehe auch 2. Umschlagseite dieses Heftes I
1382. Karutz, R.: Die Ursprache der Kunst. 1934. (221 S m. 8 Kunstdr u
225Zeichn. auf Taf.) gr.80. RM. 6.-; Lw. 7.50
1383. Kronacher, C: Genetik und Tierzüchtung. 1934. (VI, 280 S. m. 61 Abb
u. Kurven.) 40. R^- ^^-^^
1384. Nachrichtenblatt für deutsche Vorreit. Mit Unterstützung <Ies Preuß.
Minist, für Wissenschaft, Kunst und Volksbildung. Hrsg. von M Jahn.
Jg. 10, H.5. 1934. Jährl. ersch. 12 Hefte. Jahrg. RM. 5.-
1385. Riehl, W. H.: Die Naturgeschichte des deutschen Volkes. In^Ausw
hrsg. u. eingel. von H. Naumann und R. Haller. 1934. (407 S. m. 16 Bild.)
gr.go. RM. 4.— ; Lw. 6.50
1386. Selchow, B. v.: Der bürgerliche und der heldische Mensch. 1934. (41 S.)
go RM. 1.—
1387. Sondermann, H.: Die Welt als Gegenwille. Für alle Zeiten unumstößl
.naturwiss. Begründung d. völk. Idee. Buch 1. (Erstmalig hrsg. 1920.)
3., verb. u. erg. Aufl. 1934. (70 S.) 80. RM. 1.50
1388 Spieß, K. v.: Deutsche Volkskunde als Erschließerin deutscher Kultur.
" 1934. (268 S. m. 54 Abb. i. T. u. auf Taf.) kl.80. Lw. RM. 4.80
1389. Stürzenacker, E.: Geschichte, Siedlung, Rasse. 1934. (58 S. m. Fig) 8^-
RM. 1.5Ü
1390 Volkskunde, Die deutsche. Hrsg. von A. Spamer. 2 Bde. Bd. 1. Textbd.
1934. (631 S.) 40. , ^, ^^
Lw. RM. 17.50; Vorbestellpr. 15.— ; Hldr. 22.50; Vorbestellpr. 20.—
Der Vorbestellpreis erlischt mit Erscheinea voa Bd. 2. Der Bezug vou Bd. 1 ver-
pflichtet zur Abnahme des gesamten Werkes.
— 133 —
Bestellungen
wollen Sie bitte an die auf der 1. Umsctilagseite
angegebene ßuc/ihandlung richten!
1391. Zeitschrift für deutsche Kulturphilosophie. Neue Folge d. Logos. Unter
Mitw von ... hrsg. von H. Glockner u. K. Larenz. Bd. 1, H. 1. 1934.
(118 S.) 40. H. 1: RM. 5.60; Abonn.-Pr. RM. 5.—
Inhalt : Zur Einführung. — H. Glockner: Deutsche Philosophie. — K, Lareuz: Volks-
geist und Kecht. Zur Revision der Rechtsanschauung der historischen Schule. — W.
Schönfeld: Rechtsphilosophie, Jurisprudenz und Rechtswissenschaft. — H. Schrade: Die
Abstimmungsurnen des Deutschen Reichstags. Ein Beitrag zum gegenwärtigen Problem
der künstlerischen Aufgabe.
VII. Geschichte der Pädagogik, Schulorganisation
1392. Allen, R. D.: Organization and supervision of guidance in public educa-
tion. Doli. 3.65
1393. Brücke, Die. Monatsschrift ins neue Studententum. Forts, von: Neues
Studententum. Hrsg.: H. v. Ackeren. Jg. 14. 1934. 12Hefte. Hl. Juli
1934. (32 S.) gr.80. Viertel]. RM. 1.50; Emzelh. —.50
1394. Cobban, A.: Rousseau and the modern state. sh. 19.—
1395. Deffke, P.: Die nordische Lehrerpersönlichkeit. Untersuchungen über
den wissenschaftl. Lehrer an d. höh. Schulen Schwedens. Laroverks-
Lehrer. 1934. (116 S.) gr.S«. RM. 2.80
1396. Feld, F.: Hochschule und Arbeitsdienst. 1935. (40 S.) kl.80. RM. — 50
1397. Gruppenarbeit. Werkblatt f. d. Führerinnen in d. kath. Kindergruppen
Nr. 6/7. Mai. ^^- ~'^^
1398. Hadley, A. T.: Education a. government. sh. 11.6
1399. Jahrbuch für katholische Erziehung ui Oesterreich. Hrsg. von B. Reetz
Bd.l. 1933. 1934. (XV, 262 S.) 8". bcn. y.^u
1400. Kallus, J., H. Käfer, W. Katzenbeißer: Lehrbuch der Geschichte für
Lehrer- und Lehrerinnenbildungsanstalten. Tl. 2. Für d 2- Jg. Mittel-
alter seit d. Aussterben d. Karlinger u. Neuzeit bis zum Beginn d Jranz^
Revolution. 1934. (316 S. m. Abb.) gr.80. Hlw. RM. 4.65; Seh. 6.90
1401. Lehrplan für Volksschulen. Schulaufsichtsbezirk Kreis Kempen-Kref eld 2
1934. (74 S.) 80. *^^- ^■
1402. Macadam, E.: The new philanthropy. ' ^^- "^'^
1403. Meissner, K.: Nationale Erziehung in Japan. Vortr., geh. in d. Dt.-Japan.
Ges. E. V., Berlin. 1934. (48 S.) gr.S«. ^^- ^'
1404. Pharus. Katholische Monatsschrift für Orientierung in der gesamten
Pädagogik. Hrsg. von der Pädagogischen Stiftung Cassianeum Donath
wörth. 25.Jg. H.H. 1934. gr.80. »^Ibj. RM. o.
— 134 —
1405. Rapport au Canseil de la Soci^te^desNattas sur Ja s^^^^^^^
Conseil d'administratian. Tenue a Stresa le 25 juin 1934. Institut inter
.national du Cinema educatif. 1934. (HS.) 40. RM.-.4Ü
Scholtz-Klink, G.: Aufbau des deutschen Frauenarbeitsdienstes Hrsg
2.Aufl. 1934. (27S.,3S. Abb.) kl.80. • u/7^
Soencer H.: Die Erziehung, intellektuell, morahsch und physisch (Edu-
cS Intel ectual moral and physical, dt.). Uebertr u. eingel von
H SchmTdt.""/.^^^^ 1934. '(xV, HS S. m. 1 Bildn. Spencers^)^kl.8^
1408 Haupt- und Mittelschulgesetz 1934, Das neue. Verordnung der Bundes-
reeierunrvom 23. März 1934, womit einige Bestimmungen des Reichs-
XssSge^tzes vom 14 Mai 1869 R.-O -Bl. Nr. 62 - der F^sung
des Bundesgesetzes vom 2. August 1927, B'-ö-f| ^r /45, ,^^^^^^^
werden. Verordnung der Bundesregierung vom 23. März 1^34, /)etr di.
Mittelschulen. Hrsg. vom o.-ö. Landesschulrate in Linz. Nebst Nachtn
1934. (45; 16 S.) kl.80. n uV*..
1409. Volkserzieher, Der neue. Hrsg. von E. Bargheer^ i^''fä^4n5^T2 Hefte"
. Schaft Volksschule im Nat.-Soz. Lehrerbund Jg. 1. 1^34/35^ 12 H^tte
H.l. Okt. 1934. (56S.) gr.80. Viertel]. RM. 2.-, tinzein. ./^
Vin. Allgemeine Unterrichts^ und Erziehungslehre
1410. Allers, R.: Sexualpädagogik. Grundlagen u. Grundlini^en. J934. ^(270^5^)
1411. Bartsch, M.: Erbgut, Rasse und yoik. Ein L^s^" ^- ^^^^^^^^^jf^" ^ f{
Schulgebr. 2., verb. Aufl. 1934. (16 S. m. Abb.) 80. RM. .u
1412. Erziehung, Weibliche, im NSLB. Vorträge d \^ Erf;^herinnen^agung d
NSLB. in Alexisbad am 1., 2. u 3. Jum 1934. Hrsg. ^on^ Reber
Gruber. 1934. (VHL 130S.) ^r.^^^^^^^ , ^,^, ,^^ ^|-^; ^^: {^
1413 Feld, F.: Deutscher Arbeitsdienst als Volkserziehungsproblem 1934
' (46 S.) kl.80. RM. -öU
1414. Gundermann, O.: Beitrag zur schulärztlichen Praxis auf dem Lande.
1934. (18 S., 4S. Anl.) gr.80. ^^! o^
1415. Heinen, A.: FamiHenpädagogik. 1934. (86 S.) gr.80. Lw. RM. 3.60
1416. Herrera Oria, E.: Educacion de una Espana nueva. Pes. 5.
1417 Hiller F.: Deutsche Erziehung im neuen Staat. Lf g. 3. RM. 2.25
1418*. Hörburger, F., u. A Simonie: Lehrbuch ^^^^dag^^^^^^^
schule: Philos. Einführungsunterricht. 1934. ^^^^^^^ '4^05:^5 eh. '6. 90
1419. Musikerziehung, Völkische. Monatshefte f^ '\rHekf ^uT^ki ^mX
bildung. Hrsg.: E. Bieder. Jg.l. ^934/35- ^^ Hefte H l.Ukt iv^^^
(67S., ITaf.) gr.80. Viertel]. RM. 2.-, Einzeln. —W
1420 Schaefer D.: Liturgischer Religionsunterricht nach dem neuen Lejirplan.
Mit e Geleitw. von G. Götzel. 1934, (325 S.) gr.80. Lw. RM. 6.-
1421. Trillhaas, W.: Von der Uebung des Gehorsams. 1934. /^"^ ^'^ p|J[-^J. qq
1422. Vorwerck, E.: Kulturelle Erziehung. 1934. (24 S.) 80. - RM. -.30
1423. Weber, W.: Methodik des Deutschunterrichts mit J^usländern. Tl. 2
1934. (IV S., S. 141-294 m. Fig.) 8«. RM. 4.50; geb. 5.50
1424. Wißmann, E.: Religionspädagogik bei Schleiermacher. Lfg.4^^^__
i
V
— 135 — -
IX. Volksschule
1425. Alnor, K.: Vergleichende Geschichtszahlen der letzten 50 Jahre für den
völkischen Geschichtsunterricht.. 1934. (48 S., 7 S. Fig.) 25x34,5 cm.
RM. 3.50; Hlw. 4.80
1426. Bauer, J., u. E. Leitl: Fertige Sprachübungen f. d. 3. Klassen d. Baye-
rischen Volkshauptschulen. 1934. (40 S.) 80. RM. — .35
1427. Dieterich, J.: Zum Unterricht im ersten Schuljahr. Zugl. e. Wort zur
Fibelgestaltung im Blick auf d. geschichtl. Entwicklung d. ersten Lese-
unterrichts. 1934. (32 S.) gr.80. RM. — .70
1428. Monsheimer, O.: Schule und Boden. Lehrplan, Methode, Arbeitsblätter
zum gartenbaulichen Gesamtunterricht. In Verb, mit C. Müller und
Rohrbach hrsg. Lehrerheft. 1935. (114 S. m. Abb.) 40.
In Mappe RM. 3.80
1429. Tuschnig, J. H.: Papp- und Buchbin^erarbeiten für Schule und Haus.
Ausführl, Anleitung zur Herstellung versch. praktischer Pappgegen-
stände u. einfacher Bucheinbände. 1934. (48 S. m. 25 Abb.) 80.
Seh. 1.20
X. Höhere Schule
1430. Schoenichen, W.: Der lebenskundliche (biologische) Unterricht an den
höheren Schulen. 1934. (7 S.) kl.80. RM. — .15
XI. Berufsschulwesen
1431. Ehm, M.: Das Gastgewerbe. Lehrbuch f. d. fachkundl. Unterricht in
Kellner- u. Köcheklassen d. Berufsschule. Tl. 2. Speisenkunde. 2. Aufl.
1934. (96 S.) gr.80. RM. 1.70
1432. Stecher, M.: Wirtschaftliche Bildung auf der Grundlage hauswirtschaft-
licher Erziehung. 1935. (52 S.) gr.80. RM. 1.20
XII. Psychologie des jugendlichen
1434. Das Buch der Hitlerjugend. Die Jugend im Dritten Reich. Hrsg. von
U. Uweson u. W. Ziersch. 1934. (XV, 318 S. m. Abb., zahlr. S. Abb.)
gr.80. Lw. RM. 4.80
1435. Hanselmann, H.: Sorgenkinder daheim und in der Schule. Heilpädagogik
im Ueberblick für Eltern u. Lehrer. 1934. (140 S., 16 S. Abb.) kl.SO.
Lw. RM. 2.40
1436. Jugend, Franziskanische. Relig. Monatsschrift. Werkblatt f. Jung-
terziaren u. d. franziskan. Jungvolkgruppen. Schriftl.: E. Schiprowski.
Jg. 4. 1934. 12 Hefte. H. 8/9. Aug./Sept. 1934. (S. 57— 88 m. Abb.) gr.80.
Jährl. RM. 1.— ; Einzelh. —.10 u. Porto
1437. Jugendfreund-Kalender, Christliclier. Hrsg. von J. Josten. Jg. 39. 1935.
1934. (48 S. m. Abb.) 80. RM. —.20
1438. Kampf. Lebensdokumente dt. Jugend von 1914—1934. Mit e. Geleitw.
von Reichsminister W. Frick. Zsgest. u. hrsg. von B. Roth. 1934. (323 S.,
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1439. Mutter und Kind. Jahrbuch f. Kinderpflege u. Familienglück. Hrsg.
unter Mitarb. erster Aerzte, Erzieher, Schriftsteller u. Künstler. Jg.l.
1935. 1934. (114S., 7B1. m. Abb.) gr.80. schw. Fr. 1.—
— 136 -
Wesen und Berechtigung der Tierpsychologie
Von Priv.-Doz. Dr. J. A. Bierens de Haan, Amsterdam
Es gibt wohl keinen anderen Zweig der biologischen Wissenschaften,
wo es so sehr not tut, wie bei der Tierpsychologie, daß ein jeder, der sich
mit dem Studium derselben beschäftigt, sich von vornherein klar macht, was
er eigentlich mit diesen Studien bezweckt, ob dieses Ziel wirklich zu erreichen
ist, und in welcher Weise er sich ihm dann am besten nähert. Während den
Morphologen oder Physiologen solche Fragen gemeinhin nur wenig Sorge
machen, hat man bei den Arbeitenden auf dem Gebiete der Tierpsychologie
bisweilen das Gefühl, daß sie selbst noch nicht immer die richtige Klarheit
über diese Fragen gewonnen haben, und wenn sie sich darüber aussprechen,
stimmen ihre Meinungen öfters recht wenig überein. Es scheint darum in
dieser Zeit, wo sich ein vielseitiges Aufblühen einer kritisch gearteten tier-
psychologischen Forschung an verschiedenen Orten bemerken läßt, nicht über-
flüssig, einmal auseinanderzusetzen, was das Wesen dieser Wissenschaft ist,
inwieweit sie überhaupt möglich ist und wo die Grenzen ihres Arbeitsfeldes
liegen, insbesondere zum Behuf der Biologen, die in den letzten Jahren je
länger je mehr anfangen, sich mit tierpsychologischen Studien zu beschäftigen.
Wenn wir uns dann zuerst die Frage stellen, was die Tierpsychologie
will und erstrebt, so wird eines sofort deutlich sein, nämlich daß die Tier-
psychologie dasselbe für die Tiere, was die menschliche Psychologie, die ihr
Prototyp war, für den Menschen erstrebt. Es liegt darum wohl die Antwort
auf der Hand, daß die Tierpsychologie die Wissenschaft von der
„Tierseele** sei, wie man wohl ihrem Namen nach geneigt ist, die mensch-
liche Psychologie als die Wissenschaft von der „Seele" des Menschen zu
definieren.
Nun sind aber gegen diese Definition der Psychologie als „Wissenschaft
der Seele** ernste Bedenken anzuführen. Der Begriff der „Seele** ist sehr alt,
und hat im Laufe der Zeiten beträchtliche Verwandlungen durchgemacht.
Er entstand als Ausdruck der uralten Auffassung, daß die menschliche Persön-
lichkeit aus zwei verschiedenen und relativ unabhängigen Teilen bestehe, die
als „Körper** und „Seele** unterschieden wurden. Ueber die Frage, was
diese „Seele** sei, und wie sie mit dem Körper zusammenhänge, liefen aber
die Auffassungen auseinander. Ursprünglich dachte man sich die Seele von
fein materieller Art, wie ein gasförmiges Duplikat des Körpers; später wurde
sie immateriell gedacht. Während die älteren Griechen sie sich als einen
„Gegenstand** dachten, war sie für Aristoteles ein Komplex von vitalen
Funktionen, und für Descartes wieder mehr oder weniger identisch mit
unserem Begriffe des „Geistes**. Bei dem Wechseln dieser Vorstellungen
wurde die „Seele** mit verschiedenen Eigenschaften bekleidet, die den reli-
giösen und metaphysischen Bedürfnissen der Menschheit entsprachen, wie z. B.
die ihrer Unsterblichkeit nach dem Tode des Körpers, ihres Vermögens in
andere Körper überzugehen usw. So ist im Laufe der Zeiten der Begriff der
„Seele** zu einem komplexen und vieldeutigen Begriffe geworden, einem
Resultat mehr der Spekulation als der wissenschaftlichen Beobachtung*)
1442.*) Aus dem Werk: Die tierpsychologische Forschung, ihre Ziele und
Wege. Von Dr. J. A. Bierens de Haan, Priv.-Doz. an der Universität Amster-
dam. XI, 96 Seiten mit 34 Abb. i. T. 1934. gr.SO. RM. 6.60.
(Bildet: Bios, Abhandlungen zur theoretischen Biologie und ihrer Geschichte,
sowie zur Philosophie der organischen Naturwissenschaften, Band 2. Heraus-
gegeben von 26 deutschen und ausländischen Gelehrten.)
Bücherzettel
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A STUDY
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POLYANDRY
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This thorough study of polyandry, wliich has been undertakeii in order to
obtain greater anthropological knowledge of a little known custom, is the
result of several years o^ field-work. Tn the examination of the theoretical
background, four primary questions are asked: 1) Does polyandry really
exist? 2) If so, what are the distribution and incidence of polyandry? 3) How
does polyandry function? 4) What are the reasons for (or correlates of)
polyandry? A comparative review of the existing material available on the
subject is given.
The ethnographic study begins with a summary of people& reportedjoly-
androus and only briefly investigated by the author, in india and Ceylon.
There are more detailed accounts of the polyandry of the TKSf'ndans C^l^s),
Kammalans and other artisan castes of Kerala, of the Todas of the Nilgiris,
and especially of the Tibetans, both of Western Tibet and of Tibet proper.
The resultant conclusions provide the answers to the questions initially
asked in the examination of the theoretical background. These replies are
obtaincd by a comparative analysis of the evidence, from both the existing
material on the subject and from the material supplied by the ethnographic
study.
In the final chapter, an anthropological theory of polyandry is presented, a
working hypothesis which attempts tö account for the emcrgence of poly-
andry among the peoples studied.
This is followed by some theoretical considerations embodied in a conclusion,
by two appendices — which contain, the one, a narrative of the journeys made
by the author, the other, acknowiedgements -, and by a bibliography.
Photographs, taken in the main by the author, genealogical tablcs, and maps,
serve to illustrate the work throughout.
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Table of Contents
List of Illustrations.
Introduction.
I. The Theoretical Background:
1. The Anthropological Problems of Polyandry. A: Does Polyandry really exist?
ß: What are the Distribution and Incidence of Polyandry? C: How does Polyandry
function? D: What are the Reasons for, or at least the Correlates of, Polyandry?
2. Comparative Review of Some of the Existing Material available on the Subject.
A: The Distribution and Incidence of Polyandry in Mythology, History and
Geography. B: Anthropological Theories concerning Polyandry.
JI. The Ethnographic Study:
1. Summary Account of Peoples Reported Polyandrous and Only Briefly In-
vestigated in India and Ceylon. A: Peoples which proved not to be Polyandrous.
B: Peoples which proved to be Polyandrous or to practise Cicisbeism. Addendum:
Recent legislation designed to bring Kandyan marriages into line with general
marriages.
2. The Polyandry of the Thandans (Tiyas), Kammaians, and Other Artisan Castes
of Kerala. A: Kerala, a Description. B: Polyandry in the Walluvanad Taluk of
South Malabar and in North Cochin: Personal Observations. C: Polyandry in a
Thandan Family of the Walluvanad Taluk of South Malabar. D: Polyandry and
Social Change in Kerala. Addendum: Act XVII of 1 115, the Cochin Makkathayam
Thiyya Act.
3. The Polyandry of the Todas of the Nilgiris. A: General Study: the Todas of the
Nilgiris. B: Special Study: Melgarsh. Addendum: Observation of the children's
behaviour.
4. The Polyandry of the Tibetans. Part 1 : The Polyandry of the Tibetans of
Western Tibet. A: Polyandry in Lahul. B: Polyandry in Rupchu (Rup-ch'hu) and
Ladak (La-Dwags). Part 2: The Polyandry of the Tibetans of Tibet Proper. A:
Polyandry in Ü (dbUs), Tsang (gTsang), Kham (K'hams) and other Provinces of
Tibet, as investigated from Kalimpong, West Bengal, India. B: The Polyandry of
Fathers and Sons in Central Tibet. Addendum: Effects and Aims of the Chinese
Communist occupation of Tibet.
III. The Resultant Conclusions:
1 . Comparative Analysis of the Evidence. A : Answer to Question 1 : Does Poly-
andry really exist? B: Answer to Question 2: What are the Distribution and Inci-
dence of Polyandry? C: Answer to Question 3: How does Polyandry function?
2. An Anthropological Theory of Polyandry. A: Reasons suggested by the
Existing Material and by the Ethnographic Study. B: Critical Analysis of the
Reasons suggested. C: The proposed Anthropological Theory of Polyandry.
Conclusion. — Appendices. — Bibliography.
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Reprinted from
American Anthropologist
NEW SERIES
Vol. 42
APRIL-JUNE, 1940
No. 2, Part 1
^'
CHANGES IN BODILY FORM OF DESCENDANTS
OF IMMIGRANTS
<
)
By FRANZ BOAS
MESSRS. G. M. MORANT and Otto Samson have published in Bio-
metrika, Vol. 28 (1936) pp. 13 et seq., a detailed discussion of my
report on Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Tmmigrants, 1912.
Although I believe that the question of stability or instability has been
definitely settled by the experiments of Eugen Fischer on rats and by the
results obtained by H. L. Shapiro in a study of the changes in bodily form
of Japanese immigrants, the disinclination of many to accept the legitimate
demand_that the stability of anthropometnr tmifn in difpfirrnt t}^pp^i of
enyironilient should be in\;^stigated before it can be assumed as seif-
evident makes a reply to the new criticism desirable.
The complaint that the method of taking the measurements of length
and breadth of head and of zygomatic diameter has not been described is
irrelevant because there is complete agreement among anthropologists in
regard to this method: maximum length is the distance from glabella to
occiput, transversal diameters are maxima. The difhculty is rather that
notwithstanding detailed Instructions, personal equations are not ncgligi-
ble. Differences in the amount of pressure, failure in obtaining complete
symmetry, failure to move over a sufhciently wide area in transversal
measurements are all sources of error which can be obviated in a staff of
^observers solely by constant mutual control. Although Dr. Fishberg, whose
book is discussed in the same paper, was instructed by me, thercwasno
rnrmfapt fnntrpl and for this reason slight differences between his results
and those of my observers are likely. For this reason also I did not use his
data in a detailed comparison with mine.
The authors lay particular stress upon the point that East European
Jews are not homogeneous as indicated by Fishberg's and my own tables.
In Order to strengthen their point the authors have calculated with un-
necessary exactness the Standard deviations of the data given by me on
pp. 247-249 of my report. Since the approximate value of the Standard
error can be told at a glance from these tables and since this approximation
183
184
AMERICAN ANTHROFOLOGIST
[n. s., 42, 1940
is sufficient to form a judgment of the significance of the difference, I did
not print them.
However, an important theoretical auestion is involved. The authors
seem to think that the Statistical error of the average of a sample has a
meaning except for that sample and that it is the same as the variability
that would be obtained if more samples were taken. This would be true
if it were possible to collect identical samples, or if the whole of Galicia,
Poland and so on were each absolutely homogeneous. Actually, taking into
consideration the shifting centers from which emigration proceeds no two
series would be composed in an identical way, so that, besides the Statistical
error, this Variation must be taken into account. I have shown that the
Standard variability of family lines for the cephalic index of East European
Jews is +2.29. The most closely inbred group I have been able to find are
the South African Bastards with a family line variability of ± 1.26. Euro-
pean groups, like Bohemians or Scotch have a family line Standard vari-
ability of more than ± 2.00. The lowest European value is the one obtained
from Frets' Dutch series 1.95.^ On account of the irregulär distribution of
family lines, a shifting of the areas from which immigrants proceed, and
the differential effects of causes of selection of immigrants, we are not
allowed to assume that the Statistical error is equal to the variabilityof the
immigrating groujis. "" -^ -
Ä3ded to this is the dißiculty of a satisfactory Classification of areas of
provenience. I stated in my report that on account of intermarriages of the
immigrants from Eastern Europe, regardless of their provenience from
Galicia, Poland, White Russia, etc., the Classification was unsatisfactory.
I do not see why the authors should consider this Statement as obscure.
There are also many for whom the only Information available is that they
were born in Russia.
In my report (p. 65) I have shown that the head measurements of im-
migrants for quinquennial periods from 1880 to 1909 show no appreciable
difference and this justifies our method of treating them all as a unit. The
corresponding table given by the authors (Table VII) adds nothing new.
In their further discussion of the homogeneity of the material the au-
thors say that *'of the total of 799 adult Jews measured for the Immi-
gration Commission 733" (according to Table XVII, p. 373 of Final
Report, 730) '*are known to have been born in Eastern Europe, 39 were
born in America and some of the remaining 27" (34 according to my count)
''may have been born in Germany." This is an error. Those simply marked
1 (American Anthropologist N. S, Vol. 18, 1916), p. 9; (Anthropologischer Anzeiger, Vol.
7, 1931), pp. 207, 208; The Cephalic Index in Holland (Human Biology, Vol. 5, 1933), p. 592;
The Miftd qf Primitive Man, Revised Edition (1938), p. 61.
BOAS]
CHANGES IN BODILY FORM OF IMMIGRANTS
185
Russia or Eastern Europe could not be included in the classified table of
East European countries (p. 373 Final Report, hereafter calied FR).
In regard to the 39 American born adult Hebrews the authors suggest
that they must have been descendants of German Hebrews because they
had arrived here before the influx of East European Jews began. According
to my records there are, among these 39, one whose father is from Saxony,
motherfrom France, and two whose ancestry could not be ascertained. The
rest are descendants of East European Jews from Lithuania, Poland,
Galicia, White Russia, Ruthenia, Hungary, Roumania. A few are simply
marked ''Russia."
In the discussion of the actual measurements the authors lay much
stress on the influence of the changes of the cephalic index in adult life,
and on the problem in how far it is possible to reduce the observed index
of children and of females to adult male Standards.
The age factor in adult life is not negligible. The authors call attention
to the greaterlength of head of the older Jewesses (p. 18). A. Hrdlicka finds
for "Old American" men a length of head of 197.1 mm. for 91 men 22-29
years old; combining his group of 156 from 30 up we find 198. 3^; for women
the corresponding values are 185.5 and 186.6. My own material coUected
for the Immigration Commission gives the following results:
Males
Females
20-25
26 +
20-25
26 +
Hebrews
Foreign born
187.0
(187)
187.5
(573)
177.7
(168)
179.8 (628)
American born
188.4
( 27)
189.7
( 12)
178.8
( 27)
180.1 ( 15)
Sicilian
Foreign born
191.8
(175)
192.3
(667)
183.5
(242)
184.8 (705)
Neapolitan
Foreign born
189.9
( 79)
189.1
(433)
179.3
(104)
181.7 (528)
Bohemian
Foreign born
188.7
( 47)
189.8
(450)
178.2
( 76)
180.7 (598)
American born
188.6
(56)
188.0
( 60)
178.7
( 96)
178.7 ( 71)
Slovak and Hungarian
Foreign born
188.0
( 21)
186.8
(143)
177.6
( 26)
179.6 (161)
Poles
Foreign born
190.1
(30)
189.3
(113)
179.6
( 30)
181.2 (134)
(The last four groups
combincd)
188.8
(154)
189.0
(766)
178.5
(228)
180.4 (964)
The question is, in how far these increases may influence the results. The
width of head does not show appreciable changes so that the cephalic
2 The Old Americans (Baltimore, 1925), p. 133.
186
AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST
[n. s., 42, 1940
index for the older group must be slightly lower than that of Ihe younger
group.
The various series published in FR give for the cephalic index of two
age groups the following results, the difference meaning the excess of the
younger group over the older one:
20-25
82.8 (214)
84.0 (195)
Jcws, Male
Fcmale
Bohemian, Slovak, Hun-
garian and Pole, Male
Female
Sicilian Male
Female
Ncapolitan Male
Fcmale
83.2 (155)
84.9 (230)
77.9 (177)
78.1 (249)
80.8 ( 79)
26 +
Difference
82.9 (584)
-.1
83.3 (643)
+ .7
83.6 (767)
-.4
84.1 (965)
+ .8
77.7 (666)
+ .2
77.8 (707)
+ .3
80.8 (433)
.0
80.6 (530)
+ .6
81.2 (104)
or, on the average +.29 units of excess for the younger group over the eider
group. Since the parents of adults ränge around 45 years of age and the
length of the head seems to increase slightly even after 26 years while the
width of head remains constant, a comparison between parents and their
own adult children would be expected to show a lower value for the cephalic
index of the parental generation. My Table XXIX (pp. 485 et seq.) shows
this phenomenon. The values for women have been made comparable with
those for males by subtraction of .6 units
Father — Son>20yrs. — .5 ( 69) corrected —.5
Father— Daughter>18 yrs. -1.0 (120) corrected -.4
Mother— Son>20 yrs.
Mother — Daughter>18 yrs.
+ .2 ( 76) corrected -A(
— .5 (127) corrected — .5j
-.5
This is the '^unexpected conclusion" reached by the authors (p. 29).
They continue: 'The American-born adult Jewish children measured for
the Immigrant Commission had a lower cephalic index than their parents,
but the difference need not be considered significant, while the foreign-
born Jewish adult children tended to have higher indices than their parents,
and the difference in this case appears to be statistically significant." It
is curious that the authors do not apply their own argument regarding
the changes of head-measurements in adult life to these findings. I regret
that I did not lay more stress on this point, which strengthens the validity
of my data. The data given above show that we must expect a difference
between parents, on the average 45 years old, and their adult children who
will be slightly more short-headed. This will be true for both American-
born and foreign-born. When we compare the foreign-born parent with
his or her American-born adult child we have to deduct a certain amount,
between .3 and .5 units from the cephalic index of the American-born child,
BOAs]
CHANGES IN BODILY FORM OF IMMIGRANTS
187
so that the differcnce between parent and child is still further increased.
For foreign-born parents minus their own American-born adult children,
we obtain the following values:
-j- .3 (18) corrected + .3
— .7 (36) corrected — .1
+ 3.1 (15) corrected +2.5
+ .6 (31) corrected + .6
Father — Son>2() yrs.
Father — Daughter>18 yrs.
Mother— Son>20 yrs.
Mother — I)aughter>18 yrs.
on the average +.56.
If we allow for the decrease of cephalic index between 20 and 45 we
have to add a value of from .3 to .5 to the difference of .56 and find the
difference between parent and American-born adult child between .86 and
1.06.
The comparison of foreign-born and American-born children of the
same age classes, from 5 to 15 years gives an average difference of about
1.8 Units. If there were no actual difference, the probability for every year
of finding a positive or negative difference would be equal. Here we find
for 16 entries for corresponding agcs every time the foreign-born consider-
ably more round-headed than the American-born. The authors may calcu-
late the probability of this being due to chance. If the probability of a
difference were variable, why should it always be negative?
The discussion on p. 26 et seq. of the authors' review is based on a care-
less reading of my report. On pp. 1 17 FR, I explain the meaning of the table.
"If d expresses the difference between parent and his own child of a certain
age, if the particular age is indicated by <, and / indicates foreign-born, and
„ American-born, then the figures entered in our table signify
dt,f — dt,n'
The Claim that table XXIX (p. 485 FR) requires corrections is wrong. The
table gives the average difference between the parent and his or her own
child for every year of the age of the child, first for American-born, then
for foreign-born. The differences between these values are used as criteria.
The summary given on p. 124 FR shows that for every single age the differ-
ences between parents and their own American-born children are consider-
ably greater than the differences between parents and their own foreign-
born children — without any reduction. The use made of this material by
the authors necessitates reductions while mine does not. If the authors had
looked at the tables of absolute measurements on pp. 479 et seq. FR, they
would have seen that no reductions are involved. I chose this method be-
cause a direct comparison between siblings without reductions is impossible.
The differences between parents and children refer, of course, to every set of
parent and child that I had, so that there are included parents who had both
American-born and foreign-born children, as well as those who had only
188
AMERICAN ANTIIROPOLOGIST
[n. s., 42, 1940
American-born or foreign-born children. The same parents and the same
children appear wherever they belong according to the Classification of
father or mother and son or daughter.
The authors discuss in detail the troublesome question of the reduction
of the cephalic index of children to the adult type which is unavoidable in a
direct comparison between parents and children. I have discussed this mat-
ter in detail (pp. 137 et seq. FR) and have shown that the rates differ for
different series. The authors here overlooked that, as explained on p. 140,
the values for groups 26 years and over in Tables 59 and 60, pp. 145, 146,
were not obtained by Observation but calculated by applying the total ob-
served increments in Table 54 to the available observations on children of
various ages, and that I have shown that the same rates cannot be applied
to different series (p. 139). In a recalculation of Dr. G. P. Frets' materiaP I
pointed out that the reduced values obtained from children give too high
variabilities due to the errors introduced by the assumption that all chil-
dren grow in the same way. Since the average decrease per year for male
Hebrews was found to be .15 units, for females .14 units (p. 139 FR) while
the average for all available series is about .12, the corrected values will give
a better picture than uncorrected values. I presume on account of the un-
certainty of reductions the authors disregard the observations on children.
On p. 67 FR I give observations for each year of immigration from 1870 to
1909 for reduced values of the cephalic index for foreign-born and Ameri-
can-born. The two groups always rcfer to the immigrants themselves and to
the children of immigrants who arrived in that particular year. On p. 108
an additional correction is entered in which account is taken 6f the gradual
decrease of cephaHc index according to the time elapsed between the immi-
gration of the mother and the birth of the child. On the average this indi-
cates a decrease of .77 units for the cephalic index for American-born, born
at the time of immigration. The authors do not pay any attention to this
decrease which shows in reduced values the cephalic index of foreign-born
to be 1.2 units over the general average; of those born less than ten years
after the arrival of mother .2 under the general average and of those born
more than 10 years after arrival of mother 1.0 under the general average.
Admitting the uncertainty of the small values involved in the reduction
of children and females to male adults, it must be borne in mind that the
same kinds of errors are made by using inaccurate reductions for both,
American-born and foreign-born.
To sum up the claims made in the conclusions presented by the authors
(pp. 31, 32):
3 The Cephalic Index in Holland and its Ileredity (Human Biology, Vol. 5, 1933), pp. 587
et seq.
*
BOAS]
CHANGES IN BODILY FORM OF IMMIGRANTS
189
*'
)
IV.'* The categorical Statements '*that the data for unrelated adults pro-
vide no evidence for the effect of environment" (p. 23) and that "they show
some differences between means for different age groups and between
groups arriving in New York at different periods"; that '*by pooling to-
gether all the immigrants, Professor Boas lessens the chance of reaching any
exact conclusions regarding modification of types from measurements of
adults" (pp. 30, 31) are not justified. I have explained before that no de-
gree of subdivision according to geographical areas could improve to any
appreciable extent the homogeneity of the series. I have shown that the an-
nual changes in composition of the immigrants are slight and irregulär and
have tried to obviate this influenae by comparing the immigrants of one
year with their descendants of the same year. The consistent differences
between American-born and foreign-born children of the same ages have
not received any attention on the part of the authors.
V. It is incorrect that "a comparison of the adults born in the United
States with all the immigrants is primarily one between Jews of German
and 'Russian' origin, in all probability." It is also against all reasonable
procedure to claim that "nothing can be inferred from comparison of the
adult series of unrelated individuals with regard to possible modification of
type due to changing environmental conditions." By showing the persist-
ence of the same type of difference for all ages a problem is set that is in it-
self highly suggestive, if not conclusive, and which I tried to support by the
study of families.
VI. Granting the uncertainties of age corrections, the authors overlook
•that the inferences drawn from series with age corrections are corroborated
by other series, in which no correction is used. The decrease of cephalic in-
dex of the adult which continues after the 26th year brings it about that the
adult foreign-born child of the foreign-born immigrant is more short-
headed than his parents. Since the same condition prevails among the
American-born, the cephalic index of the American-born adult has to be re-
duced by the same amount when comparing it with that of his parent. Thus
the difference in favor of the long-headedness of the American-born is in-
creased by the difference between the cephalic index of the older parental
group and the descendant groups as determined by their difference in age.
This additional correction makes the results for Sicilians and Neapoli-
tans more doubtful. However, I cannot enter into this subject at the present
time.
Columbia University
New York, N. Y.
♦ Nos. I-III refer to the Fishberg series which is irrelevant in the present consideration.
VOL. 36
NOVEMBER 1960
KO. II
BULLETIN
OF THE NEW YORK^
ACADEMY OF MEDICINE
C^Oc'U^-^t^rrrCi 'IS?
örisi
ginaX Artides b:y/
FRANCIS O. SCHMITT
PHILIP LEVINE
H. D. KRUSE
LAURENCE FARMER
E
NEW YORK PATHOLOGIOAL 800IBT7
NEW YORK HEART AS800IATI0N
>
II
h
lor imme
and 22H/ö
hma relief
tal capacity
AvallabI« with «Ither of the two
outstandIng bronchodllators
Medihaler-EPI®
Epinephrine bitartrate, 7.0 mg. per cc., suspended in inert, nontonc
a«"sol vehicle. Contains no alcohol. Each automaticaUy measured
dose contains 0.15 mg. epinephrine.
Medihaler-ISO
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tt
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SKCOND SERIES NOVEMBER i960 VOL. 36, NO. I I
BULLETIN OF THE NEW YORK
ACADEMY OF MEDICINE
CONTENTS
Conrrihurions of Molecular Biologv to Medicinc . .
Francis O. SchiJiitt
725
Rccenr Ohscrvarions on rhc Lewis System
rh'iUp Lcvhie
• •
75^>
(>hallengcs in a Changing World .
H. D. Kruse
56
The Early Directors of the Medical Services of the
American Rev^olutionary Army
Lauren ce Farmer
7^5
New York Pathological Society: Abstracts . . . . 777
New York Heart Association: Abstracts— Part 1 . . . 782
AUTHORS ALONE ARE RESPONSIBI.E KOR OPINIONS EXI'RESSKIi IN THEIK ( «)N TRI HL T lü.\ S
UoHKKT L. Ckaio, Editor
Cb'E5H5HEE5H5iL5H5H5H5H5H5E5B5HSHSZ5H5H5Z5B5H5H5H5H5ZSZSH5Z5H5HSZSH5H5H5B5HSZSZSH.ti
rublished Monthly by The New York Academy of Medicine
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OFFICLRS AND STAFF ÜF THE ACADEMY- i960
Ar.HKirr H. AimnnoE
RoHKKT L. Lew, President
Vice-Presidents
G. Jarvis Coffix
SiiKi'Ani) KuKcii, Treasurer
FuKDKuicK H. Wii.KK, HecordiiHf Secrefarif
Frank Gi.dxk
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Haroi.i) Hrown Kkvks
*SlIKl'ARI) Krkc'h
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Trustees
*H<)hert L. Lew
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Orrix S. Wujiitmax
*FrEDERICK IL WiLKE
Robert H. Wvme
The President
The Treasurer
CoancU
The Vice-Presidents The Trustees
The Kecording wSecretary
The Chairnien of Standing Connnittees:
A XTiioN Y C. Cii'OLLARo, Admissioii William C. White, Library
MiLTON J. GooDFRiENi), PubUc Heolth JoHx L. Madoex, Medical Education
Arthur M. Master, SperinI Studies G. Jarvis Coffix, Sectious
HowARu Keh) Crahi, Director
Gertrude L. Axxax, Lihrarian
Harry I). Kruse, Executive Secretary, (■ommlffee on Public Tle<dth
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Ia<;o Gaihstox, Executive Secretary, Committee on Special Sfudiex
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* Ex Officio
BULLETIN O F
THE NEW YORK A CA DE AI Y
OF MEDICINE
I
^^()L. 36, NO. I I
NOVKAIHKR i960
C O N T R 1 B U T I O N S () F M () L E C U L A R
BIOLOGY TO M EDI CIN F*
The Ludwig Käst Lecmre**
Francis O. Schmitt
Jtistitutf IVofessor. Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Teclinology
Cambridge, Massachusetts
^2SH5ZSESZ5i.^g()i i.x;lt.ah biology niav be characterized as that brauch of
K rhc life sciences in which the attempt is niade to investi-
^4 S ^'^^^ biological proccsses at or near the molecular or
G niacroniolecular level. The conceptualization of the
iq'HSHSHSHScIShS problenis and the design of experiments are largely bio-
physical and biocheniical in nature. Molecular biology represents by
far the niost highlv^ developed segnient of biophysical science at the
present tinie (see, for exaniple, the recent study prograni in biophysical
science)'. The widespread inipact of molecular biology on bioniedical
science compares vvith the fundamental advances that follovved the
discovery and exploitation of the role of ionization in biomolecules
during the early history of physical chemistry near the turn of the
Century.
* Presented at tlie Third Annual Postgraduate Week. replacing the Craduate Fortnight of former
years, of The New York Academy of Medicine, Octül)er 5, 1959.
Original investigations reported in this paper were supported by research grant E-1469 from the
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases of the IJ.S. Public Health Service to the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
** In honor of Dr. Ludwig Käst, who first suggested the Craduate Fortiiight.
726
F. o. scHMirr
Basic to molecular biological research is the attempt to isolate, purify,
and characterize the macromolecular species responsible for function at
the various levels of complexity, e.g.^ cells, tissues, and organisnis. This
rcquires appHcation of the entire battery of biophysical, physicochcm-
ical, and biocheniical methods. Sometimes it is necessary to refine or
niodify existing methods to make them more appHcable to the coniplex
biological material under study and occasionally to invent and develop
entirely new techniques. The molecular biologist's task is the analytical
one of disentangling the complex aggregates of protoplasm into their
respective "molecular" entities, whose constituent atoms and chemical
groups are held together primarily by covalent forces, or into macro-
molecular entities, in which a few covalent chains are linkcd firmly bv
secondary bonds to form biologically, physically, and chemically char-
acteristic arrays. After the molecular or macromolecular entities have
been isolated in relative purity, the analysis proceeds to the investiga-
tion of the chemical composition and the physicochemical properties
that emerge from each complex array of constituents.
Particularly in the biomedical area the temptation arises, even before
the analysis has progressed much beyond the crude beginnings of a
characterization of the macromolecular entity of interest, to be diverted
into an investigation of the role of the supposed entity in normal or
abnormal function. This is understandable in view of the human suffer-
ing that would be alleviated by a breakthrough in an understanding of
underlying molecular mechanisms. Experience has clearly demonstrated
that advance will be most rapid if the Situation in normal cells and
tissues is investigated before, or at least concomitant with, the attempt
to unravel the more intricate complexities of the pathological Situation.
Similarly, it is most rewarding in the long run to persevere in the
physical and chemical characterization of the molecular entities before
attempting to explain how alterations and interactions of these entities
producc normal function. Frequently the complexity is such that direct
frontal assault on the problem Stalls, and new leads must be uncovered
by empirical investigations or by the refinement of techniques. The
examples we have chosen to illustrate molecular biological research will,
I hope, heavily emphasize the importance of this ceaseless urge to iso-
late, analyze, identify, and characterize.
However, the isolation, identification, and characterization of the
molecular or macromolecular entities in a biological process are of
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
MOLECULAR BIOLOG Y
7 2 7
Uv
\
?•
limited biomedical significincc unlcss followcd by an investigiition of
the manner in which function is siibserv^ed by the molccular cntity, and
in particular how the biological System succceds in attaining that homeo-
static control of events that pcrmits it to respond adaptively to each
Situation. This second type of activity is far morc complex and demand-
ing on the paticnce and dedication of the invcstigator than the first.
Correspondingly, the differentiation bctween the more physically or
chemically oriented investigators on the one band and those more
biologically or medically oriented on the other band is more clcarly
cvidenced at this level of activity.
Having demonstrated and defined the fundamental importance of
the investigations of the biophysical and biochemical analyst in molecu-
lar biology, we shall documcnt the cqually significant contributions of
the molecular wte^ratiomst who studies the over-all, highly regulative
reactions by which the molecular entities play their rolc in the har-
monious interplay of the protoplasmic microcosmic mechanisms.
Finally, we shall add a practical note by making a case for giving
appropriate professional encouragement, support, and Status to the
investigators of the second type-the molccular integrationists-who,
because they operatc mostly between or at the periphery of traditional
university-established disciplines, may fail to achieve the stable Status
enjoyed by their colleagues in the more sharply defined areas of bio-
medical science.
SoME Gase lIisroiuEs ok AIolecular Biolcka
I . Genctics, Molccular Coding, Vintses,
and the Mechamsvi of hifcctiov
The discovery of the molecular nature of the genetic code that
determines heredity and of the manner in w hieb this code directs the
biosynthesis of protoplasmic constituents represcnts the most dramatic
chapter in present-day molecular biology. The genetic problem also
serves to iUustrate both the power and the hmitations of the investi-
gation of the molecular basis of a complex biological process.
Mendel's cxperiments in iS66 demonstrated a (]uantitative rclation-
ship between genetic characteristics of parents and offspring. I Iis
fundamental discovery was lost on the naturalistic, description-minded
biologists of the day. However, at the turn of the Century, descriptive
cytological studies succceded in demonstrating that the genetic deter-
Vol. 36, No. 11, November i960
728
F. O. SCHMITT
miners are in the nucleus of the cell and, more precisely, in the chromo-
somes, whose contortions and maneuvers during mitosis and meiosis
seemed designed to provide precisely the quantitative genetic regulation
demonstrated by Mendel.
The chemical assault on the problem begins with the work of
Miescher, who isolated and crudely characterized nucleic acid, and
P. A. Levene", who brought chemical precision to the analyses and
focused attention on the tetranucleotide, containing one or all four of
the known types of nucleotides, as the "molecule" of nucleic acid.
To those of US who were students during those early formative days
of the Story of genetics, the gaps between the tetranucleotide, the
chroniosomes, and the complex regulativ^e mechanisms of embryo-
genesis, growth, and development were wide indeed; few aspired to an
integrated physical and chemical attack on the fundamental genetic
problem. It is hard to say whether the revelation of the macromolecular
nature of deoxyribonucleic acid (dna) in the mid-'zos would have been
recognized as a fundamental discov^ery or whether, like Mendel's dis-
covery, it would have had to wait a generation or two for the flower-
ing of its füll significance.
What actually provided a powerful forward thrust to genetics was
not molecular biology, but a highly perccptivc utili/ation of rather
empirical data on the efFect of x-rays and high-energy radiation on
unitary genetic characters. The big push in genetics was not yet ready
to be focused on the molecular basis of the process. Although the
analytical biologists were beginning to "zero-in" on the nature of the
irene, nucleic acid and nucleoproteins were too complex to appeal to
many of the pure chemists and biochemists of tlic day. In fact, physico-
chemical discoveries indicated that the true molecule is not a tetranu-
cleotide of about 1,200 molecular weight. AMicn the chromosomal mate-
rial was extracted with milder methods, the nuclcic-acid molecule was
shown to be gigantic in size, having molecular weight in the millions.
This was one of the early contributions of macromolecular biophysical
chemistry.
Even then, with fairly good evidence that the substance of the nu-
cleus that is concerned with genetic coding must be a giant linear
macromolecule, it was not obvious how such molecules could serve as
the physical basis of genetic phenomena; few biophysical or biochemi-
cal recruits were attracted into the field. The fundamental nature of the
V
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
730
F. O. SCHMITT
pieces that mighr fit into the currently prevailing pattern for the genetic
Jigsaw puzzle.
The ultiniate biological problem of the nature of the positive and
negative feed-back control mechanisnis by which the multitudinous re-
actions are channeled along lines required to produce the niature organ-
ism involves complex patterns of interactions. The discovery of the
nature of the priniary, but not the onlv, directive code (üna) is a neces-
sary, though not sufficient, eine. Alany biologists beHeve that a larger
pattern of determination which is highly dynamic and partakes of
"field" properties is in Operation. To what extent such organizing
processes may involve physical and cheniical processes not presently
definable will not be known until more inforniation is gained about the
Parameters which deterniine the interacting and evolving morpho-
dynaniic fields.
The case history of genetic coding includes further chapters of
great nicdical significance. These deal with the niolecular niechanism
of virus replication and the light this throws on the nature of infection.
One reason why this area of niolecular biology progressed rapidly after
application of electron-niicroscopic techniques is that all the actors in
the drania— the invading viruses and the microorganisms— are small
enough to be seen in their cntirety in the field of the electron niicro-
scopc, which, at high resolution, can reveal details down to niolecular
size {ca. lo A),
It now appears that in the bacterial virus (bacteriophage) the dna
genetic determiners are conipactly coiled in the "head"; when the virus
fixes itself onto the bacteriuni, the dna is injected through its hollow
''tail" into the protoplasni of the bacteriuni. There the invading dna
code proceeds to coniniandeer the chcniical econoniy of the invaded
cell bv directing the biosynthetic processes of the latter to produce
many replicas not only of the invading code, the dna Strand, or
"chromosonie," but also the accessory parts of the virus "body": the
head menibrane, tail protein, tail Strands, and screw thread. The invaded
cell is converted into an assenibly plant in which, after fabrication in its
protoplasni, the various parts are asseiiibled into coniplete viruses (Fig-
ure I B, taken froni the excellent paper of II()rsfall)^\ The invaded
cell, now packed with viruses, ruptures its menibrane and disintegrates.
This process dramatically illustrates the fundamental nature of infec-
tion and exposes the various aspects, particularly the biosynthesis of the
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
73 I
A. Myoglobin Molecule 1 B. Bacterial Virus Reproduction
Injection
cO
DNA
3)jrection
< »Hill
nthesis
c
•r-^
9
o
Assenibly
1^ (-JOO)
Yield
Fifr. 1
A. ,„tr„„,o.e<.ul,,r struCure „f ^yf!^t^tj::v:::^^^£^ --'"-
bacterial cell. (Atter liorstaii; .
components of the infecting agent, to the scrt,tiny of the '^-ch'.mist
who may honefuUy be able to disco^ er ineans by vvh.cli essentuü Steps
l che synthetic reaction chain n.ay be blocked by chenucal agents
which vvill not interfere with the norn,al metabohc processes of the
■"" AT!'more fundamental level of molecular biology the experiments
of Avery, Macleod, and McCarty''^ had demonstrated that dna could
b tVed from one strain of bacteria and, after -jeftd punfi-on,
combined with a different strain, whose nat.ve dna had also been re-
Zed with the result that the heredity of the recons.uuted receptor
ba« Hun is thereby detennined by the dna of the donor-cell type.
Thrdemonstration of the "transforming", heredity-determ.nmg poten-
Vol.36,No. 11, November 1960
7 32
F. O. SCHMITT
tialities of DNA opened up a vast new field of biomedical research of far
more profound significance than was realized at the time: genetic deter-
mination and infection itself can be produced by a purified chemical
substance, dna*. This poses the significant possibility that certain
degenerative diseases, such as Cancer, may result from the effeas of a
DNA Code made mahgnant possibly by endogenous reactions** in the
host cells as well as by virus-like invaders such as are known to cause
certain types of Cancer in rabbits and chickens^^ We know now that
large macromolecules gain entrance into cells by an infolding of the
surface membrane. Foreign and possibly malignant dna that might be
so admitted would presumably encounter, as a first powerful hne of the
cell's defense, DNA-depolymerizing enzymes which would disrupt the
invading code and add the resulting nucleotides to its own metabolic
pool. However, if such defenses are not adequate, it is possible that such
foreign dna might produce serious pathological changes.
In this case history of molecular genetics, emphasis has been placed
on DNA. Its close counterpart rna is also vitally involved, presumably as
an intermediate between dna determincrs and protein-catalytic ef-
fectors When the detailed structure of rna is revealed, new secrets will
doubtless suggest other ways in which the inherited, preformed code
determines not merely the symhesis of cell constituents in the adult
organism, but also the Steps in diff erentiation, axial symmetry detemiina-
tion, and other field-like characteristics of growth and development.
2. Protein Structure
The significance of an understanding of the detailed structure of
proteins has long been appreciated. The development of biophysical
and biochemical tools by which such knowledge may be gained has
now reached a level where crucial data are rapidly accumulating. The
following examplcs illustrate important consequences of such dis-
coveries.
X-ray-diffraction techniques, painstakingly developed, particularly
by Kendrew and Perutz in Cambridge, have revealed the contour of
the Single polypeptide-chain which, when folded in a specific manner
and associated with the physiologically active heme group, constitutes
myoglobin. This was accomplished by Kendrew with a resolution of
"^TTTThouch such DNA may be very pure, the possibility that very small amounts of protein or other
^mmrity'' are'^s'm present, possibly as an intrinsic const.tuent, cannot be excUu ed
.• Snrh reactions may of course, be responsive to genetic factors in the host wh.ch are evoked
fftä a cer afn sTag'L' has been reached in the life history of the cell or orgamsm.
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
f,
MOLECULAR BIOLOG Y
733
6 Ä. Having pushed the resolution to 2 Ä, Kendrew and associates
have recently detected the «-helix in the polypeptide chain (Figure
I A). When it is remembered that the myoglobin molecule consists of
153 amino-acid residues with a molecular weight of 17,000, the magni-
tude of these contributions is better grasped. Perutz and associates^'* have
succeeded in "seeing" the four globular particles of hemoglobin con-
stituting an aggregate of two half-molecules, four polypeptide chains,
and four heme residues, totaling 67,000 in molecular weight. With such
detailed infomiation it may become possible to discover the way in
which the protein moiety determines the combining characteristics of
the heme for oxygen, a process of vital importance in the biochemistry
and physiology of respiration and in the catalytic and electron-
transporting properties of the heme-containing enzymes and carriers
(cytochromes).
At a somewhat grosser level, HaU's^' method of depositing macro-
molecules on a freshly cleaved mica surface before shadowing with
heavy metal atoms has permitted direct electron-microscopic visualiza-
tion of macromolecules of molecular weights down to about 50,000
(Figure 2). This has been of enormous value not merely as an inde-
pendent check on the conclusions of the indirect methods of physical
chemistry^', but in revcaling structural details not readily deducible by
indirect means; this is well iUustrated in the case of fibrin, discussed
below.
Analytical biochemistry has also been a major contributor to mole-
cular biology. The method of determining amino-acid sequence in native
polypeptide-chains, pioneered by Sänger^« in the case of insulin, is now
being routinely employed in the analysis of proteins and peptides
generally. .
The case of sickle-cell anemia iUustrates admirably the significance
of the finest details of molecular structure, not only for the organism,
but for whole populations. In sickle-cell anemia the red cells, when in
the venous circulation, assume irregulär, elongated shape (like little
sickles), impeding circulation and leading to an acute hemolytic anemia.
Birefringence changes suggest that underlying these phenomena is the
tendencv of the hemoglobin molecules to aggregate in elongate columns
to form' paracrystalline arrays which change the shape of the erythro-
cytes into elongated sickles. . , , .a 1
Applying his Chromatographie ''fingerprint" method, Ingram- dem-
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
V
/
•^ *.
-.;
'«*»f^'«*H;M(#;^**'.
1
:->■*•♦'♦♦:. ^"O;^,..,..- ■.•;■
Y\cr, 2 Electron niicrofiniphs of protein nioleeules (eourtesy
of Dr. C. E. Hall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
a Bovine fibrinogen. Intact nioleeules are triads (3). Fraginents produced by dis-
ruDtive forces during drving form monads (1) or diads (2). Magniücation
^ * 1,5(),()()().
1) Interniediate polvniers; linear aggregation of fibrinogen molecules produced by
"fiction of thronibin. Magniücation 1()(),()()().
c Fibrin fibril stained with phosphotungstic acid. Axial period = 230 Ä. Magnifica-
tion 2()(),0()().
d. Alkaline phosi)hatase, froni /'J. coli Magnification 150,000.
e. Normal rabbit gamma globidin. Magnilication 100,000.
f. Pepsin. Magnilication 150,000.
g. Polyglutainic acid. Magniücation 135,000.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
7 35
onstrated that sickle-cell henioglobin differs from nornuil heniogiobin
by a change in but one amino-acid (of the 300 aniino-acid residues
the half-molecule); valine is substiriircd for gluraniic acid. -Ingram also
suggestcd how a single genc altcration niight cause this siibtle change ii
the henioglobin inolecule, leading in turn to serious consequences, \^
the organisni and to vast sociological changes in African populatichs
(the genetic defect is foiind almost exclusively in the Negro).
This is a prinie exaniple of what Fauling-*'- -' calls "niolecular dis- -
ease", i.e., a disease produced by an alteration in a particular niolecular
species. Ingrani's elegant experimental work has dcnionstrated the nature
of that change. I Iowever valuable as a niilestone in niolecular biology,
this information in itself is of little clinical aid to sufferers of the disease.
But, hopefully, subsequent investigation will soon reveal the biocheniical
mechanisnis by whicli the defect in henioglobin biosynthesis occurs.
This niay lead to a niethod by w hich the abnormal synthetic processes
may be blocked or caused to produce a less noxious rcsult.
3. Protein Fibroirenesis and its Hovieostatic Control
The foUowing two case histories are presented because they illustrate
Problems of vast medical significance in which are well represented
both aspects I wish to emphasize: the importance (a) of identification
and characterization of the molecule involved and (b) of determination
of the complex homeostatic processes that reguläre the generation and
ordering of these molecules adaptively to the needs of the organisni.
These are blood dotting and coUagen fibrogenesis.
A. Blood Cjottijig. The basic reaction in blood clotting is the con-
version of soluble fibrinogen macromolecules into insoluble fibrin clot
fibers. It has been known for more than a Century that this process is
mediated by an enzyiiie, thronibin, the formation of which, from its
precursor prothrombin, is under the control of a highly complex System
of enzymes and anti-enzymes, kinases and anti-kinases, factors, co-
factors, specific ions, inhibitors, et cetera. Because the clotting process
can be'readily studied in a rough way without detailed knowledge of
the structure and composition of the structural unit (the fibrinogen
macromolecule), investigation of the regulatory mechanisms received
far heavier cmphasis in the early development of the field than did the
frontal attack on the probleni of the fibrinogen molecule. Perhaps this
helps e^plain the rather controversial and confused State of clotting
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
-.)
J
>^^i^-:*r •■■•^ *' '-^ ^'- -^ v' : ■'■■•^' * :-
'-^r
.»•^.J^^^^äßl'
fhsf^
Fie: 2— Electron niicrojrraplis of protein nioleeules (eonrtesy
of Dr. C. K. Hall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology).
a Bovine Übrinotten. Intact niolecules are triads (3). Frapnents produced by dis-
" ruDtivc forccs during drying form nionads (I) or diads,(2). Magnilication
^ ir)(),()()().
b Intennediate polvniers; linear aggregation of übrinogen niolecules produced by
action of thronii)in. Magnilication 100,000.
V Fibrin fibril stained with phosphotungstic acid. Axial period ^ 230 Ä. Magnilica-
tion 200,000.
d. Alkaline i)hosphatase, froni E. coli. Magnification 150,000.
e. Normal rabbit gamma globulin. Magnilication 100,000.
f. Pepsin. Magnilication 150,000.
g. Polyglutamic acid. Magnilication 135,000.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
■- 7 3 5
onstrated that sickle-cell hemoglobin differs froni normal hemogiobin
by a change in but one amino-acid (of the 300 aniino-acid residues in
rhe half-molecule); valine is subsritutcd for glutamic acid. Ingram also
suggested how^ a single genc altcration might cause this siibtle change ii
the hemoglobin molecule, leading in turn to scrious consequences. *^
the organism and to vast sociological changes in African populaticns
(the genetic defect is found almost exclusively in the Negro).
This is a prime example of what Fauling-"- -' calls "molecular dis- -
ease", i.e., a disease produced by an alteration in a particular molecular
species. Ingram's elegant experimental work has demonstrated the nature
of that change. I lowever valuable as a milestone in molecular biology,
this information in itself is of little clinical aid to sufferers of the disease.
ßut, hopefully, subsequent investigation will soon reveal the biochemical
mechanisms by whicli the defect in hemoglobin biosynthesis occurs.
This mav lead to a mcthod by which the abnormal synthetic processes
may be blocked or caused to produce a less noxious rcsult.
3. Protein Fibro^eiiesis and its Honieostatic Contvol
The follovving tvvo case histories are presented because they illustrate
Problems of vast medical signihcance in which are well represented
both aspects I wish to emphasize: the importance (a) of identification
and characteri/ation of the molecule involved and (b) of determination
of the complex homeostatic processes that regulate the generation and
ordering of these molecules adaptively to the needs of the organism.
These are blood clotting and coUagen fibrogenesis.
A. Blood Clotting. The basic reaction in blood clotting is the con-
version of soluble fibrinogen macromolecules into insoluble tibrin clot
fibers. It has been known for more than a Century that this process is
mediated by an enzyme, thrombin, the formation of which, from its
precursor prothrombin, is under the control of a highly complex System
of enzymes and anti-enzymes, kinases and anti-kinases, factors, co-
factors, specific ions, inhibitors, et cetera. Because the clotting process
can be readily studied in a rough way without detailed knovyledge of
the structure and composition of the structural unit (the fibrinogen
macromolecule), investigation of the regulatory mechanisms received
far heavier emphasis in the early development of the field than did the
frontal attack on the problem of the fibrinogen molecule. Perhaps this
helps ejcplain the radier controversial and confused State of clotting
\
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
/
/
/
/
736
F. O. SCHMITT
rheory, though the over-all proccss is doubtless sufficiently complex to
require niany years of patient research, whichcver aspect was stressed
first. A clear exposition of the essential features of the homeostatic
^A mechanisms of blood clotting is given by Waugh--.
^ Physicochemical investigations have revealed the size and shape of
the elongate fibrinogen macromolecules and have suggested the mannet
in which, after enzymatic activation, they may aggregate to form inter-
mediate polymers; after a critical size is reached, these spontaneously
aggregate end-to-end to form the polymeric fibrin. End-to-end and
lateral aggregations apparently are facilitated by enzymatic splitting-out
of two Peptides from particular regions of the native monomer.
Karly large-angle x-ray-diffraction studies^"^ showed that fibrinogen
and fibrin are members of the so-called k-m-e-f class, or, as we now
say, the polypeptide chain is wound in an «-helix configuration. How-
ever, little x-ray work with modern methods has been done on this
protein, and, so far as the author recalls, no small-angle studies have
been published. This is regrettable in view of the fact that, when pre-
pared under appropriate conditions, fibrin fibrils manifest an axial repeat
period of about 240 Ä as seen in the electron microscope-^ and therc
is intra period banded fine striicture-\
Recently HalP^ has applied his technique for visualizing macro-
molecules with the electron microscope to the study of fibrinogen and
the mechanism of the clotting process. Certain of his results, shown in
Figure 2, a-c, could hardly have been discovered by the use of any
other biophysical method. His electron micrographs portray fibrinogen
not as a simple rodlet, but as three spheres connected by a thin Strand
near the limit of resolution. The axially periodic band structure pre-
sumably results from an aggregation of such molecules after an apparent
contraction of the axial connecting thread. If this contraction is not an
artifact, these results suggest that two constituents are present in the
''molecule". The individual three-lobed fibrinogen molecules and poly-
meric aggregates thereof (fibrin) are shown in Figure 2.
It seems apparent that if the details of intramolecular structure and
amino-acid composition of fibrinogen and fibrin* were known, much
of the controversy and confusion among investigators of the clotting
* For purposes of simplification the discussion has beeti Hmited to fibrinogen and fibrin with little
reference to other essential components such as Prothrombin, thrombin, et cetera. However. the
main line of the argument probably applies also to them, namely that progress would be faster jf
more emphasis were placed on determining thetr fundamental biophysical and biochemical
properties.
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
737
mechanism might have been avoided and real progress accelerated.
Blood clotting serves as a prototype of complex regulative homeo-
static mechanisms by which vital processes of structuration can be
adapted to the immediate and long-range needs of the organism. Wheth-
er other types of fibrogcnesis will be found to foUow this pattern re-
mains to be seen.
B. Collagen Fibrogcnesis. Progress in the investigation, at the mo-
lecular level, of connective tissue, especially coUagen fibcrs, has probably
been more extensive in the last quarter Century, and particularly in the
last decade, than in all previous time combined. The key to this advance
has been the isolation and idcntification of the unit of coUagen struc-
ture, the soluble "tropocollagen"* macromolecule, and the determina-
tion of the intramolecular architecture of the constituent polypeptide
chains. " ~^ ^
When the insoluble, seemingly inert coUagen fiber was the only
material with which to work, the investigation of coUagen attracted
meager interest among biophysicists and physical chemists. The char-
acteristic large-angle x-ray pattern of the coUagen class had been identi-
fied, and efforts had been made to deduce the configuration of the
constituent polypeptide chains'-'' -^ but the relationship between such
data and the c()llagen vwleaile was unexplored. Little was known at
the molecular level as to how coUagen, presumably synthesized in fibro-
blasts, becomes incorporatcd into stout fibers of high tensile strength.
Less was known about the complex regulatory processes by which, for
example, in wound repair, coUagen fibrils are laid down in the precise
amount and pattern appropriate to the site at which the wound occurred.
The coUagen case is the reverse of that of blood clotting; in the
latter the regulatory processes were widely investigated before much
detailed knowledge\vas obtaincd about the structure and properties of
the fibrinogen and fibrin molecules. As a rcsult of the recent substantial
advances in its biophysical and biochemical analysis, coUagen has be-
come probably the best known of fibrous proteins. — "
When treated with phosphotungstic acid (pta) as an '^electron
stain", coUagen fibrils present a banded appearance in the electron
microscope. The axial repeat is of the order of 700 Ä, and some 10 to
/ .
@
^ T,, _,„hip collacen macromolecules were termed "tropocollagen" because they are capable pf
The soluble coUagen macr^ ^^_^^.^^ collagen structure with its charactenstic 640 A axial
'"'■'V:^''Tl?e term also helps to distinguish this macromolecule from other_ Collagen fract.ons and
avoids uncertlin or e?roneous conclusions concerning precursors implied in names such as pro-
collagen or precoUagen.
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
738
F. O. SCHMITT
4TP
1 2 intraperiod bands may be observed in high-resolution electron micro-
graphs, each band having characterisric posirion and intcnsity (Figure
3). It was carly assunicd that such structures resulr froni a parallel
packing of protofibrils--', i.e., coUagcn linear polyniers, the bands indi-
cating side-chain loci which combine preferentially with rhe pta and
which form regions of relative disorder as conipared with the poorly
staining interband, ordered regions-^ By a conibination of electron-
niicroscopic and chemical-analytical studies it has been shown'"*' '^^ that
it is the basic, specifically the arginine, side-chains that are thus stained
with PTA. The axial repeat observed in the electron niicroscope corre-
sponds well with the period deduced from sniall-angle x-ray diff raction
(640 Ä in dried preparations, 700 A in undried preparations). Therefore
it was generally supposed that the coUagen niolecules have this length,
ca. 700 Ä.
From improved large-angle x-ray-diffraction data. Rieh and Crick**-
deduced that coUagen is a three-strand moleciile, the constituent poly-
peptide-chains describing a rather la/y helical course (Figure 3).
Though this structure has not yet been definitively proven, it is con-
sistent with all available data.
It had long been known that certain types of coUagen (c^^., rat-tail
tendon, fish swim-bladder) are soluble in dilute acid and that collagen
fibrils can be reconstituted from such acid Solutions by elevation of pH
and adjustment of the ionic strength. Fibrils thus reconstituted from
acid-soluble collagen have the same band structure as native collagen
fibrils^^. - —• - —
Collagen in various types of tissues was later demonstrated to be
soluble in acid citrate solutions'^'\ When such Solutions, after dialysis
against water, were examined in the electron microscope, a new, so-
called "fibrous long-spacing" (fls) type was discovered"*\ I1ie tentative
conclusion was drawn that the repeat period observed in this new "long-
spacing" modification of collagen represents the true length of the
collagen macromolecule. It was subsecjuently demonstrated that a second
isomorphic modification of collagen, with similar long-spacing but with
non-fibrous character, could be produced simply by adding adenosine
triphosphate or certain types of negatively charged polyelectrolytes to
acid Solutions of collagen'^\ This so-called "segment long-spacing"
(sLs) type has a characterisric, asymmetric band-pattern when stained
with PTA. At high rcsolution this band pattern (Figure 4) provides a
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
PHASES OF COLLAGEN INVESTIGATION
It
I
I. STRUCTURE
A. PHYSICAL
I. X-roy Diffraction
I
Intromoiecular Structure
2. Light and Electron Microscope
»!
i
8. CHEMICAL
I. Ämino Acid Analysis
2 Anrtlno Acid Sequence Deternninat ion
i::<*>:w:- ^f5*M*(xS •ii
Fig. 3
First phase of collMgcn iiivestijrntion: dpsrri])tive ]>hy.sical and cheiTiical niorphology. X-ray
ditTraction natterns are: (left) larjre-anjrle pattern of stretehed rat-tail-tendon collagen
from Handall"; (center) sinall-angle patterns of kangaroo-tail-tendon collagen (orders
niarked) nioist preparation; (right) after brief exposure to water and drying linder
tension (from Hear, Boldnan, and Salo'"). Diagram of helix stnictnre (courtesy of A. Rieh).
Electron microgra])h of calf-.skin collagen fibril reconstituted from Solution, stained with
phosphotungstic acid. Magnilication 97,000 (courtesy of A. J. Hodge).
740
F. O. SCHMITT
"molecular fingerprint" of rhe collagen molecule or macromolecule,
i.e., since the thin elongate macromolecules are all oriented in the same
direction and since their ends are in exact register, the band structure
of SLS observed at high resolution in PTA-stained preparations indicates
the location of the basic, particularly the arginine, side-chains. Recently
it has been found^'^ that after staining with cationic uranyl salts, by
which presumably only the glutamic-acid and aspartic-acid residues are
stained, the bands occur at the identical levels as those observed in pta
preparations, though the intensities of the bands linder the two condi-
tions of staining are quite different (Figure 4). This result is consistent
with the view that lateral interaction is primarily through elcctrostatic
bonds between acidic and basic side-chains, and with the "qiiarter-
stagger" hypothesis, i.e., that adjacent protofibrils are out of register
with each other by one-quarter of a macromoleciilar length, giving risc
to the characteristic 700 Ä repeat pattern of native collagcn='^ It was
postulated that the soluble macromolecule, called tropocoUagcn, has a
length four times that of the axial repeat observed in native fibrils.
The hypothesis of a soluble tropocollagen molecule was confirmcd
by Boedtker and Doty'^^ from physicochemical measuremcnts on Col-
lagen Solutions prepared by a method which removes the longer poly-
meric protofibrils. Macromolecules of tropocollagen having the pre-
dicted lengths were subsequcntly observed directly in the electron
microscope by HalP"^' ^^.
In investigations of sonically irradiated Solutions of collagen, Hodge
and Schmitt^^ observed dimeric and polymeric forms which led them
to hypothesize the existence of peptide end-chains extending one from
either end of the tropocollagen macromolecule. One of these chains
(the A chain) is ca. 100 Ä long and is thought to contain acidic and
possibly tyrosine residues, while the other (the b) end-chain is some-
what longer, 180-200 Ä, and is thought to contain some basic residues.
Polymerization of tropocollagen presumably occurs by intertwining of
A and B end-chains in a two-chain helix (Figure 4).
The above hypothesis was supported by results obtained in a study
of the effect of protcolytic enzymes on soluble collagen^\ It had long
been supposed that proteolytic enzymes (other than coUagcnases) have
little or no effect on collagen. However, it was found that trypsin and
certain other proteases reduce the viscosity of collagen Solutions, pre-
sumably by depolymerization of the polymeric protofibrillar Strands.
//
\
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
MOLECULAR BIOLOG Y
741
PHASES OF COLLAGEN INVESTIGATION
-'' 11. mÖlECULAR BIOPHYSICS ÄND BIOPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
jCharacterizotion of the
'Molecule (Tropocollagen)
Macromoleculor Interaction Properties
NATIVE
r H P I H H I % l % 1 X
1"^
iMiini.iiui=//:L:\
FLS
V
SLS
'I
1;
\
\\{
^'
N
Molecular Fingerprint ot Tropocollogen
A-*— — — «<B
Cotions Stained (Arg.)
Anions Stomed (Glu., Asp.)
; \ i • « f *
Polymerization Mechanisms
Fijj. 4— Second (current) i)hase of collagen investifration: molecular biopliysics and
biophysical cheinistry; characterization of the soluble macromolecule and its linear
and lateral aggregation properties.
Vol.36, No. 11, November 1960
742
F. O. SCHMITT
Moreover, trypsln-treated tropocollagen is no longer able to polymerize
on dialysis against water or to reconstitute native-type fibrils on dialysis
against sah in the cold, suggesting that the proteolytic enzyme affects
one or both end-chains, so that normal polynierization is impossible.
This conclusion was supportcd by the dcnionstration of the presence
of Peptides in the en/yme-treated preparation. The supposition that
tyrosine nvay occur in one or both of the end-chains was borne out by
observing high specific radioactivity in an acid fraction after labeling
with 1^^^
In the skin of most aninials, particularly in growing aninials, tropo-
coUagen mononiers and polymers exist in a form readily extractable in
the cold with neutral salt sohition of about 0.2-0.5 n; when such Solu-
tions are heated to 37", a gel of native-type fibrils is formed^-. Gross*^
has found that salt-soluble collagen disappears from the connective
tissue in scorbutic guinea pigs and reappears shortly after ascorbic acid
is administered. Apparently the extractable collagen, produced by the
fibrocytes and dissolved in the ground substance of connective tissue in
normal growing animals, is incorporated into the fixed fibrils by poly-
meri/ation and tjuarter-staggered lateral aggregation.
The tropocoUagen macromolecule has becn characteri/ed only in
roughest outline. AUich remains to b- dctcrmined, particularly concern-
ing the structure, composition, and properties of the end-regions, which
are especially critical in the process of polymeri/ation and fibrogenesis.
Changes in these crucial areas that may seem trivial in nature, for they
involve but few of the more than 3,000 amino-acid residues of the
whole molecule, may profoundly influence the properties of the macro-
molecule. When only a few peptide-bonds are broken in the critical
end-regions by proteolytic en/ymes, the tropocoUagen macromolccules
may lose their ability to polymeri/e and form fibcrs".
Suflicient information is probably now known about the tropocol-
lagen monomer to justify making a cautious beginning in the invcstiga-
tion of the complex homeostatic-mcchanisms that reguläre the laying
down of fibrous collagen in growth and development and in the repair
of wounds or experimentally produced defects. Investigations have
already been undertaken on certain pathological states. One of the most
dramatic of these is lathyrism, a condition which can be produced ex-
perimentally by injection of any of a series of homologous Compounds,
the one usually employed being ^-aminopropionitrile. According to
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
AlOLKCULAR BIOUKJY
743
Levene and Gross *\ the coli igen from animals so treated is essentially
normal in all respects except that the tensile strength of the coUagenous
fibcrs is very low; in extreme cases the integrity of the connective tissue
is not maintained. The results suggest that some substance, possibly a
Protease, produced in the organism as a result of ingestion of the
lathyritic agent or injection of the reagent in experimental cases, may
affect end-civains in a manner such as to prevent end-to-end polynieriza-
tion and to depolymerize collagen fibers already formed^\
As in the case of blood clotting, the formation, from soluble pre-
cursors, of collagen fibers and their deposition in the connective tissue
in appropriate aniount and pattern of Organization and at the proper
timc, is essential for life; dcrangement of the pattern of collagen fibro-
genesis may lead to serious pathological conditions, some of which are
usually grouped under the hcading of aging proccsscs. One niight expect
that, as in the case of blood clotting, the reactions involved in the vari-
ous Steps of collagen fibrogenesis may be under rigid homcostatic con-
trol bv mcans of complex positive and negative feedback mechanisms
implicatintr cnzymes, pro-cnzymes and anti-cnzymcs, factors and co-
factors, kinases and anti-kinases, specific ion effects and probably also
hormones.
Given a working knowlcdge of the niain features of the soluble
tropocollao-en macromolecule and its interacting end-chains as a Standard
point of control reference, the investigator is in a position effectively to
search for the regulatorv mechanisms, to discover both the chemical
composition and structure of the precursor tropocoUagen as produced
by the fibroblasts and also the subtle chemical alterations that change
this soluble precursor macromolecule to one capable of polymerizing
and aggregating in characteristic manner to form stable fibers of high
tensile strength.
In Figures 3 to 5 is depicted the type of information obtained in
three phases of collagen investigation. The first of these (Figure 3) was
concerned primarily with structure, both physical and chemical. X'alua-
blc as they were in revealing the nature of the collagen helix and the
Organization of the native fibrils as seen with high-resolution electron
microscopy, such structural studies gave no direct information about the
Status of the molecule itself. \Ve now understand why this is the case
and indeed why the structural evidence was actually misleading in this
respect (c.g., suggesting that the molecule is 640 A long). Many bio-
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
744
F. O. SCHMITT
PHASES OF COLLAGEN INVESTIGATION
III. MOLECULAR PHYSIOLOGY, PATHOLOGY AND HOMEOSTASIS
A. Formation of Precursor Tropocollagen
B
B. Conversion to Tropocollogen (Homeostotic Control)
^ Enzymes Anti-enzymes
Hormones 4
A,^
Kinoses Antikinoses
B
Precursor Tropocollagen
Tropocollagen
C. Polymerizotion and Aggregation of Tropocollogen (Fibrogenesis)
•«p
B
B
^mE
B
usoc
jiat=)
A A A
Tropocollagen Monomers Tropocollagen Polymer (Protofibril)
D. Molecular Pottiology
B
B
B Depolymerose
^^ » E
A A
Tropocollagen Polymer
Nonpolymerizoble Monomers
-\«^
B
-* ,«^
B
6
Tropocollagen Monomer
A A "A
Degroded (Pothologicol) Tropocollagen
Fi^. 5 — Third (near futiire) })hase of collagen investigation: molecular ])hysiolo^ry,
patholo^y, aiul homeostasis; characteri/.ation of enzyinatic, hormonal, aiid ionic
control mechanisms.
nicdical prohlems seein to get srallcd in this first phase of descriptivc
morphology; the analyses may be sophisticated froni the biophysical
and biocheniical viewpoint, but they do not Icad to an understanding
of the nioleculc itsclf. In the second phase (Figure 4) the macromolecu-
lar entity is isolated and its interaction properties, with niolecules of its
own kind and with other large and small niolecules and with various
factors in the cheinical environnient, are detennined. The effective and
creative developnient of the third, contemporaneous, phase (Figure 5),
involving the quest for the control enzymes and cofactors, requires not
only a good grasp of the vast literature of histology, physiology, bio-
chemistry, and pathology, but also the ability to select from this vast
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
MOLECULAR BIOLOG Y
745
welter of information the leads that will prove most fruitful. The Sys-
tems and partial Systems in such homeostatic control mechanisms are
unquestionably complex; all manner of immediate and remote "controls" p^iv^"^^
must be devised to avoid being misled by correlations that are more
apparent than real.
Professional Stabilization Needed
With the aid of a few case histories, I have attempted to document
the critical importance of this level of investigation, which must be
actively developed if the concepts and methods of the basic sciences
are to be fruitfully applied in biomedical research. For competent, well-
trained investigators to be attracted to such research, and to prove
effective in it, requires a mental set strikingly different from that of the
analytical scientist in the simpler "basic" fields of the life sciences, and
also from that of the clinical scientist, whose investigations involve
responsibility for the human beings the eure of whose ills is bis primary ^
interest. The manner in which he poses his questions and frames bis
Strategie research plans is totally different from that of his coUeagues
at the "lower" and the "higher" levels. He must be aware of the content
and of the new ideas in the basic biophysical and biocheniical disciplines,
yet he cannot afford to indulge in extensive inquiries into such "clean
and decent" matters himself; his proper sphere is in the higher reaches
of organizational complexity. He must be aware of the pressing problems
of human disease and be warmly, if not passionately, desirous of con-
tributing to the abolition of human suffering resulting from these dis-
eases. Yet he dare not yield to the temptation of indulging in a super-
ficial attack at the level of the whole organism by methods that are
seldom better than pscudo-scientific.
In general, individuals attracted to this intermediäre zone in the
hierarchy of biomedical research have been traincd in medicine and
have received some years of postdoctoral training in the more basic
fields of the natural and life sciences before settling down to careers of
research in a medical school, hospital, or research institute. It is becom-
ing fairly common to add a Ph.D. in biochemistry or biophysics to the
M.D. To a lesser extent, individuals with professional training in bi-
ology, biochemistry, or biophysics find their way into the field.
Funds in fairly generous amounts and with long-term commitments
are available from federal and private granting agencies to defray the
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
74^
F. O. SCHMITT
MOLKCULAR FilOLOGY
747
costs of biomedical research, including the salaries of the principal in-
vestigarors. However, thcrc is urgent need to provide adequate profes-
sional Status and economic stability for those attempting to span the
gap between basic science and clinical research. Fretjuently such in-
dividuals, gifted and productive though they niay be, are not easily
fitted into classically defined disciphnes or departnients of nicdical
faculties. They cannot aspire to chairs or even tenure positions in cHni-
cal departnients (except in those rare institutions which maintain depart-
nients of experiniental niedicine or experiniental pathology) bccause
they do not wish to undertake patient care or the teaching of cHnical
subjects. They do not fit into the progranis of the natural sciences and
philosophical faculties of universities because their conipetence and
interests lie in areas of the life sciences that overlap and interdigitate
with traditional university disciplines, but do not coincide sufficiently
with these to meet the acadeniic requirenients in the teaching of estab-
lished acadeniic curricula. They are professional pioneers and as such
wander far froni the sheltered pools of establishcd acadeniic Organization.
Such progranis of applied niolecular biomedical research are of in-
calculable valuc to teaching hospitals, particularly those which function
as the clinical teaching service of medical schools and universities, which
have strenc^th in basic and preclinical science. Clinicians and clinical
investigators gain much from easy contact with the stafi^ of basic-
research groups. The latter also profit greatly from the insight and
experience of their clinical colleagues and from invaluable research
material that niay be obtained in hospitals.
Few teaching hospitals or medical schools can afford, in addition to
all their other commitments, to support from endowed funds a sub-
stantial number of life-tenure appointments for such progranis inter-
-)^ mediate between basic and clinical research. Mowever, if there is strong
conviction of the intrinsic value of such work and of the synergistic
role the investigators play in connection with the other two functions
of the hospital— teaching and the care of the sick— ways can be found
to meet the need. In the belief that the present strong financial support
from governmental and granting agencies is not a temporary but a
permanent program that is likely to be further increased in depth and
scope, the Massachusetts Cieneral T^ospital has recently comniitted itself
to the establishment of a substantial number of life-tenure positions on
its research statf. The cost of insu ring such permanent positions can be
« •
met by the establishment of a permanent fund from contributions of a
small fraction of the professional salaries. It seeiiis probable that this
cost may also be assumed by governmental agencies as a proper cost of
the Operation, a kind of 'Intellectual overhead" given without strings
to the institution to help provide essential stability. It goes without
saying that in selecting investigators for such life-tenure appointments
the same rigorous care must be exercised as is usual in the filling of
university chairs.
iVIention should also be iiiade of the importance of encouraging, by
whatever mcans may serve, the easy communication between research
staff and the other professional hospital personnel. Failing this, the
research staff may bcconie segregated by a kind of professional coacer-
vation, tluis defeating the purposc for which the research center was
cstablished in the context of the teaching hospital.
The points we have attempted to iiiake, aided by a few case histories,
may be summarized as follows: In the attack on problems of niolecular
biology and niolecular diseases, the molecules or macromolecules of
interesr must first be isolated and characterized as completely as possible.
The biophysical and biochemical sophistication required for this is
frequently such as to iiiake its prosccution most profitable in a univer-
sity department or laboratory of basic science. But even complete suc-
cess in characteriziiiii the moleculc of interest constitutcs only the first
phase of the campaign. This must be followed by a study of the
homeostatic mechanisms by which the molecule is synthesized, modified,
and adapted to the needs of the organism and of the alterations of the
System that produce disease. Without the second phase the triumphs
of niolecular biology will be meaningless to the clinician and to the
patient. The second phase, requiring an interdisciplinary approach, in-
volves considerable postdoctoral training. In spite of this formidable
obstacle, an evergrowing pool of dedicated investigators exists. How-
ever, scant Provision has been niade to assure these investigators pro-
fqssional Status and economic stability. One reason for this is that the
investigations cut across traditionally establishcd lines of acadeniic de-
partnients. There are few departnients or professorships of niolecular
biomedical research. A few institutions are meeting the problcm by
establishing a substantial number of life-tenure appointments, every
safeguard being taken to assure the highest quality of appointees. If the
large costs of the total program, supported primarily by governmental
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
Vol.36, No. 11, November 1960
748
F. O. SCHMITT
and granting agencies, are justified, as we fully believe, then the rela-
tively small additional cost of this contribution to institutional stability
through tenure appointments to a limited number of highly competent
investigators is fully warranted, and would do much to ensure the un-
interrupted flow of information from the basic level of the molecule to
the clinical level of the patient.
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formation of pneuniococcal types,
J. exp. Med. 79.137-58, 1944.
13. Fürth, J. and Metcalf, D. Appraisal of
tunior-virus problems, /. chron. Dis.
6' .-88- 112, 1958.
14. Kendrew, J. C. and associates. Struc-
ture of njyoglobin, Nature 185:122-27,
1960.
15. Perutz, M. F. and associates. Structure
of haenioglobin, Nature i<§J .4 1(5-22, 19()0.
1(). Hall, C. E. Method for the Observation
of macromolecules with the electron
niicroscope illustrated with niicrographs
of DNA, /. biophys. biochem. Cytol. 2:
()25-28, 195G.
17. Hall, C. E. and Doty, P. Coniparison
between the diniensions of some macro-
molecules determined by electron micro-
scopy and by physical chemical meth-
ods, /. Amer. chem. Soc. .§0 ; 1209-74,
1958.
18. Sanger, F. wStructure of insulin, in
Currents in biochemical research. D. E.
Green, edit. New York, Interscience
Publ. Inc., 1956, pp. 434-59.
19. Ingram, V. M. Chemistry of the ab-
normal human haemoglobins. British
med. Bull. i5 .27-32, 1959.
20. Pauling, L. Hemoglobin molecule in
health and disease, Proc. Amer. phil.
Soc. 96? .-556-65, 1952.
21. Pauling, L. Abnormality of hemoglobin
molecules in hereditary hemolytic ane-
mias, Harvey Lectures, Ser. ^9, 1953-
1954, pp. 216-41.
22. W^augh, D. F. Blood coagulatlon — a
study in homeostasis, in Biophy^ical
science — a study pro gram. J. L. Oncley,
edit. New York, John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1959, pp. 557-62.
23. Bailey, K., Astbury, W. T. and Rudall,
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
749
26.
K. M. Fibrinogen and fibrin as mem-
bers of the keratin-myosin group, Na-
ture 151:716-17, 1943.
24. Hawn, C. V. Z. and Porter, K. R. Eine
structure of clots formed from purified
fibrinogen and thrombin: a study with
the electron niicroscope, /. exp. Med.
56.-285-92, 1947.
Hall, C. E. Electron microscopy of
fibrinogen and fibrin, J. biol. Chem.
i 79 .-85 7-64, 1949.
Hall, C. E. and Slayter, H. S. Fibrino-
gen molecule: its size, shape, and mode
of polymerization, /. biophys. biochem.
Cytol. 5.-11-16, 1959. ^--^
27. Astbury, W. T. Molecular structure of
the fibres of the coUagen group, ./. int.
Soc. Lenth. Chem. 24:69-91, 1940.
28. Bear, R. S. Structure of coUagen fibrils,
Advanc. Protein Chem. 7:69-160, 1952.
29. Schmitt, F. O., Hall, C. E. and Jakus,
M. A. Electron niicroscope investiga-
tions of the structure of Collagen,
J. cell. comp. Phy.iiol. 20:11-3^, 1942.
30. Kühn, K., Grassmann, W. and Hoff-
mann, U. Die elektronmikroskopische
"Anfärbung" des Kollagens und die
Ausbildung einer hochunterteilten Quer-
streifung, Z. Naturf. i,y;154-60, 1958.
31. Kühn, K. Über die Ausbildung einer
hochunterteilten Querstreifimg des
Kollagens nach Gerben nnt Phospho-
wulframsäure imd basischer Chrom-
salzlösung, Das Leder 9:217-22, 1958.
32. Rieh, A. and Crick, F. H. C. Structure
of Collagen, in Recent advances in
gelatin and glue research. G. Stainsby,
edit. New York, Pergamon Press, 1958,
pp. 20-24.
.33. Orekhovitch, V. N., Tustanowski, A. A.,
Orekhovitch, K. D. and Plotnikova,
N. E. Procollagen of hide, Biokhimija
13:55-60, 1948.
34. Highberger, J. IL, Gro.ss, J. and
Schmitt, F. O. Interaction of nnicopro-
tein with soluble collagen: an electron
niicroscope study, Proc. nat. Acad. Sei.
37:286-91, 1951.
35. Gross, J., Highberger, J. H. and
Schmitt, F. O. Collagen structures con-
sidered as states of aggregation of a
kinetic unit. The tropocollagen partide,
Proc. nat. Acad. Sei. 40:679-88, 1954.
36. Hodge, A. .L and Schmitt, F. O. Charge
profile of the tropocollagen macro-
molecule and the packing arrangement
in native-type collagen übrils, Proc.
nat. Acad. Sei. 46:186-97, 1960.
37. Schmitt, F. O., Gross, J. and High-
berger, J. H. Tropocollagen and the
properties of fibrous collagen, Exp.
Cell Res. (Suppl. 3): 326-34, 1955.
38. Boedtker, H. and Doty, P. Native and
denatured states of soluble collagen,
J. Amer. chem. Soc. 78:4.267-80, 1956.
39. Hall, C. E. Visualization of individual
macromolecules with the electron niic-
roscope, Proc. nat. Acad. Sei. 4^:801-
06, 1956.
40. Hodge, A. J. and Schmitt, F. O. Inter-
action properties of sonically frag-
mented collagen macromolecules, Proc.
nat. Acad. Sei. 4^:418-24, 1958.
41. Hodge, A. J., Highberger, J. H., Deff-
ner, G. G. J. and Schmitt, F. O. Effects
of proteases on the tropocollagen macro-
molecule and on its aggregation proper-
ties, Proc. nat. Acad. Sei. .^6:197-206,
1960.
t2. Gross, J., Highberger, J. IL and
Schmitt, F. O. Extraction of collagen
from connective tissue by neutral salt
Solutions, Proc. nat. Acad. Sei. ^i:l-7,
1955.
43. Gross, J. On the significance of the
soluble collagens, in Connective tissue,
thrombosis and atherosclerosis. I. H.
Page, edit. New York, Academic Press,
1959, pp. 77-95.
4t. Levene, C. I. and Gross, J. Alterations
in State of molecular aggregation of
collagen induced in chick embryos by
jg-aminoproi)ionitrile (lathyrus factor),
./. e.vp. Med. 110:771-90, 1959.
45. Randall, J. T. Ob.servations (m the col-
lagen System, J. int. Soc. Leath. Chem.
38 :'.i62-87, 1954.
4(». Bear, R. S., Bolduan, O. E. A. and
Sah), T. P. Model for collagen fibril
structure derived from small-angle x-ray
diffraction, /. Amer. Leath. Chem.
Assoc. 46:107-23, 1951.
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
7 5^
P. LEVINE
RECENT OBSERVA TIOXS ON TUE
LEWIS SYSTEM*
Philip Levine
J)irector, Division of lnununoIiematoloj.y, Ortho Researcli iM.iin.latioii. Raritan. Xcw Jersey
gSHSHSHSHSaSE.^ ADDifioN t() hereditary variations that occur in individual
S proreins of human seriiin, rhere is anothcr hcrcditary**
T . g property of normal serum which is probably a polysac-
S charide bound to a glycoprotcin. 1 am refcrring to the
QESHSH5Z5Z5HSÜ soluble Lewis substances in human plasma and anah)gous
substances in animal plasma-J substance in cartle and R substancc in
sheep. Characteri/ation of these marcrials as glycoprorcins is bascd on
studies of J substance in beef plasma by Bednekotf et al? The sub-
stances in human saliva which have inhibitory characteristics are similar
to plasma mucopolysaccharides. Fincr biochcmical studiis of these sub-
stances were carried out by Annison and Alorgan-, using ps2ud(>mu-
cinous ovarian cyst fluid, which is rieh in blood group substance. Saliva
contains larger quantities of Lewis substances than does plasma. 1 he
Lewis substance, Le", is prcscnt in largcst amounts in those individuals
who are nonsecretors of abh substances. The Lewis story cannot be told
without referring to another substance, Le'', which is closely associated
with the H substance found in all sccrctors of abh. Onlv individuals
whose red cells are of type Le(a— b— ) fail to secrete any Lewis sub-
stances.
The heredity of the Lewis property can be undcrsrood only if one
considers secretion of the substance in saliva rather than agglutination
reactions of red cells. As will be shown below, the reacrions of red cells
with anti-Le" and anti-Le'' are secondary effects resulting from their
exposure to plasma containing the substances. The story is a complicated
one and there are a numl)er of theories. Available evidcnce supports the
views of Grubb" and Ceppellini^ that abh and Le" secretion are geneti-
cally independent, but some interaction must occur in order to explain
* Prese-.ited at the nieetiiifi of tlie Section on Microbiolosy. Tlie New York Academy of Medicine,
Noveniher 12, 1959.
**Reference is made here to the preceding paper delivered at the sanie nieeting hy Dr. Oliver
Sinitliies, ("ontiaught Med cai Research Laboratories, University of Toronto, (anada.
Bull. N.Y.AcEd. Med.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE LEWIS SYSTEM
75 J
Taiu.e I— PHENOTYPES
MODIFIED AFTER CEPPELLINI — SCIIEME OF THE LEWIS SYSTEM
AND S FC RET ION OF AlUI*
Sali V a
Red Cells
AHH
Le'i
Le"
SeSe LIO
SeSe LI
Sese LL
Sese I-I _
+
+
+ +
Le(a^b+)
sese LL ^
sese LI J
o
+ +
o
Le(a-l-l) ")
SeSe 11
Sese 1 1
+ +
sese 11 o
**with selected sera.
(>
(>
ir
o
,. Le(a — b — )
Se and se represent jjeiies for secretion and nonseeretion of AlUI.
L and 1 represent genes for secretion and nonseeretion of Le».
By permission of the authors. K. U. Kace and R. Sanier, Blood Croup Research Unit, The Lister
Institutf. London, KnRland. By i.ermission of the i.ublisher, C. C Thomas. Si-rin^field, 111.
why more Le' substance is produced by nonsecretors of abh. These
findings are summari/.ed in Table I.
This theory is strongly supported by several examples of the so-called
"Bombay" blood, which is characteri/ed by suppression of abh antigens
on the red cells and in the secretions. All bloods tested-more than a
dozen-were shown to be Le(a+). Genetically, these findings can best
be explained by a suppressor gene, j, at an independent locus, which
(when homozygous) suppresses production of abh on the red cell and
in the secretions. Blood group Substrate is thus available only for produc-
tion of Le" substance. In the family presented in Figure i, which I
studied several years ago\ blood group B and salivary secretions of B
and W are suppressed by xx.
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
752
P. LEVINE
THE BOMBAY TYPE ÜF FAMILY OF LEVINE ET AL.
II
m
0
Se
Le(a-b+)
iD 2O
— €)2
B
se
Le(a-^b-)
5Q
B B Oh Oh Ai
Se Se se se se
le(a-b-^) Le(a-b-) LeCa+b-) Le(Q-^b-) Le(Q4b-)
.i
I^^ Ä
Oh B
se Se
I.e(a-»b-) I.e(Q-b?)
l
AiB 0
se Se
Le(Q+b-) Le(Q-b+)
By permission of Grüne & Stratton, Inc., publishers
Fig. 1. complete shading — homozygous for rare gene
partial shading — heterozygous for rare gene
Se: secretor of ABH substances
se: nonsecretor of ABH substances
The blood of II-7 was not tested with anti-Le^
OBSERVATIONS ON THE LEWIS SYSTEM
753
The phenotypic mating in Generation II, shown in Figiire 2, A non-
secretor by apparent O nonsecretor, resiilts in what appear to be two
violations of the rules of heredity. But the appearance of factor B in the
group AB in III- 1, and secretion in the group O, III-2, can be readily ex-
plained on the basis of suppression by two doses of the suppressor gene
X in the propositus and the faikire to suppress when xx segregates in
Generation III. The iinusual property in the blood of the propositus
ternied by the author as Oh is most readily recognized by the presence
in the seruni of anti-H as well as anti-A and anti-B.
I should now like to refer to several lines of evidence which support
the view that the three types of Lewis reactions given by red blood cells
are artefacts resulting from exposure to Lewis substances in their own
plasma. This had already been shown for the J substance in cattle blood
by Stormont as far back as 1949^.
In 1955 Sneath and Sneath^ succeeded in transforming Le(a-) red
cells to Le(a+) by exposure to Lewis-containing plasma. These findings
are summarized in Table II.
III
ABO, SECRETION AND SUPPRESSOR GENOTYPES IN THE
BOMBAY TYPE OF FAMILY OF LEVINE ET AL.^
— €)2
B ?
X X
se se
0 0
X X
? Se
II 5D
Ai 0
X X
se 36
.^
0 B
X X
5e se
l
AiB
0
0
X X
X
X
se se
Se
se
By permission of Grüne & Stratton, Inc., publishers
Fig. 2. The schematic arrangement of the genes as given above does not imply linkage.
In the propositus, II-6, the blood factor B and secretion are suppressed in the phenotype
so that the blood behaves like a group O and the individual appears to be a nonsecretor.
I
♦ m^
Taiuf II— 7.Y VJTRO TRANSFORMATION OF THE LEWIS RED CELL
PHENOTYPE WITH PLASMA— AFTER SNEATH AND SNEATH^
Red Cells
Plasma
Le(a-fb— )
Le(a-b+)
Le(a— b— )
Le(a4-b— )
Le(a— b+)
Le(a+b+)
Le(a+b— )
Le(a-f-b-l-)
Le(a— b+)
Le(a— b— )
Le(a-fb— )
Le(a— b+)
Reniarkably enough, this transformation could not be induced by ex-
posure of normal red cells to saliva, which is far richer in soluble Lewis
substances. However, we succeeded recently' in transforming
Le(a-b+) red cells to Le(a+) by employing the tanned red cell
method of Boyden'* (Table III).
It is beyond the scope of this paper to speculate on the changes in-
duced in the red cell by exposure to tannic acid. Suffice it to say that
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
754
P. LEVINE
Tahle III— /.Y vitro TRANSFORMATION OF TANNED Le(a— b-f)
RED CELL WITH SALIVA
L€(a—b-\-)
y umher of
S<iliv(( Specimens
Tested
Avti-Le-i
Tanned only
Tduued c^ coatfd icith salix'd
Le(a-fl)-)
Le(a— 1)-^)
Le(a— b— )
('(Hitrol ri'd cfll Le(a-^l) )
11
4
2
5
0
1-+ ^ + + +
+ -+ +
0
only minute quantirics of Le" substance in the saliva become fixed to the
tanned red cell, and that the saliva when coated onto tanned rabbit red
cells produces saline-agglutinating anti-Le" in the rabbit.
The transformation by plasma could also be demonstrated in trans-
fusing a patient possessing Le(a— b+) with Le(a+b— ) blood. On
separating donor Le(a+) red cells by differential Rh agglutination, the
bloods differing in some Rh antigens, we noted that the transfused
donor's red cells had become Le(a+b+). The donor's red cells niust
have absorbed Le'' substance froni the recipient's plasma. But the most
convincing experiment on transformation was carried out by nature in
the rare human chimeras resulting from placental anastomosis in twin
pregnancies. Of the three such examples reported in the literature, the
twin cases of Nicholas, Jenkins and iMarsh^" differed in several blood
group antigens and also in their Lewis reactions (Table IV).
/
Thus, Twin i, whose blood (group ()) contained 51 per cent of his
co-twin's group A, Ns/Ns and R-R- red cells, did not retain the
Le(a+b— ) red cells of the latter. Instead, they were transformed to the
host's Le(a— b4-). The host group O twin failed to produce anti-A.
Similarly, Twin 2 was Le(a+b— ) and his plasma converted the co-
twin's Le(a— b+) red cells to conform to his own Le(a+b— ) type.
Within the limits of the time allotted to me, it is not possible to
refer to the several other theories on the heredity of the Lewis System
/V\
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE LEWIS SYSTEM
755
Table IV— CHIMERA FAMILY OF NICHOLAS, JENKINS & MARSIL»
TRANSFORMATION OF LEWIS REACTIONS
Twin 1 Host
C<)-tX0ln
Twin 2 HoH
Co- twin
49
51
(n
39
0
A
A
0
Anti-B
Anti-B
Ms/Ns
Ns/Ns
Ns/Ns
Ms/Ns
R-r
R-R-
I^R-
R^r
Le(a— b-f.)
Le(a— b-|-)
Le(a+b— )
Le(a+b— )
Se(H)
se
LI
LL or LI
which are briefly reviewed elsewhere^\ The subject is very complex;
and in closing I should like to quote from Race and Sanger, who write
as follows: "Pettenkofer has a theory but it is in German and it beats us.
Lewis theories are difficult enough in English!"
R K P E R E N C E S
1. BednekoflP, A. G. aiul others. Cheniioal
studies on tbe J substance of cattle
senun, Proc. X Int. Con<fr. Qenet.
(nhsfr.) ,?.T9, 1958.
2. Annison, E. F. and Morjran, W. T. ,1.
Lewis (Le») human blood-frrou]) sub-
stance, liiochem. J. ^f^.xxiv, 1951.
3. CJrubb, R. Observations on the human
prroup System Lewis, Acta jmth. mirro-
hiol. xnnid. :?S:(n-Sl, 1951.
i. Ce])pellini, R. On the genetics of secretor
and Lewis characters: a fainily study,
/Vor. l^th Int. Cotxjr. Jilood Tran.tf.,
Paris, 207-11, 1955.
5. Levine, P. and otliers. Gene interaction
residtin^ in suppression of blood grou})
substance B, Blood 7^.1100-08, 1955.
('}. Stormont, C. Acquisition of the J sub-
stance by the bovine erythrocyte, Proc.
vnt. Acad. Hei., Wash. 35:232-37, 1949.
7. Sneath, .1. S. and Sneath, P. H. A.
Transformation of the Lewis groups of
human red cells, Xature 176:172, 1955.
8. Levine, P. and Celano, M. Antigenicity
of Lewis (Le*>) substance in saliva
coated onto tanned red cells, Vax Hang.
In press.
9. Boyden, S. \'. Adsorption of proteins
on ervthrocytes treated with tannic
acid and subsecjuent hemagglutination
by anti-protein sera, ./. exp. Med. 9-i:
107-20, 1951.
10. Nicholas, J. W., Jenkins, W. .1. and
Marsh, W. L. Human blood chimeras,
study of surviving twins, Brit. med. J.
7; 1458-00, 1957.
11. Race, R. R. and Sanger, R. Blood
(jroups in man. Springüeld, 111., C. C.
Thomas, 1958, 3rd ed., ])p. 200-14.
VoI.36,No. 11, November i960
756
H. D. KRUSE
CHALLENGES IN A CHANGING WORLD
#
H. D. Kruse
Executive Secretary, Committee on Public Health,
The New York Academy o£ Medicine
f»
'X
gwo TRANSCONTiNENTAL TRAINS bound in oppositc dircc-
tions stopped on adjacent tracks of a Station in the mid-
dle west. Passengers from both trains used the same plat-
form for an interludc of Walking. Unexpectedly, one
^ J^ man from New York met a friend from Los Angeles
who suggested that they talk over old times in the club car of his tram.
About 20 minutes later one of them became conscious that the car was
moving. So impressed was he by the marvel of what was apparently
happening that he exclaimed: "Ain't science wonderful? Here you are
going to Los Angeles and I am headed for New York and we are both
on the same train."
It is possible to draw several lessons from this story but I shall con-
tent myself with one: ain't science wonderful? Whether it be in the
realm of the very large or the very small, could any other age claim
such a dazzling and spectacular succession of achievements? New tech-
niques have greatly extended man's observations and speculation in as-
tronomy. I have read and reread the hypothesis of an ever-expanding
universe and it is still almost beyond comprehension. No less over-
whelming is the latest thought on the creation of the earth. This colos-
sal convulsion is now viewed as a series of chemical and physical reac-
tions which has even been repeated on a model scale in the laboratory.
It must have been an astounding and awe-inspiring spectacle. But these
are not man's accomplishments; rather they are instances of his new
and larger understanding of nature's mysteries. On the still wonderful
but lesser level of man-made events may be mentioned the successful
orbiting of satellites. At this moment nine man-made satellites are
zooming over us in outer space. Now for the first time we may even
look at photographs of the far side of the moon. And men are being
readied for a thrilling and adventurous trip to that planet.
Man's conquest of the very small has been no less overwhelming.
* Presented to the Committee on Public Health on January 4, 1960.
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
>^v
\.
777
NEW YORK PATHOLOGICAL SOCIETY
ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS AND DISCUSSION
Presented at the Meeting on January 28, 1960, at The New York Academy of Medicine
Studies on the Phagocytic Fiinctiojj of the Reticuloendothelial System
Baruj Benacerraf
Department of Pathology, New York University College of Medicine
A technique has been described to assay
the phagocytic activity of the reticulo-
endothelial System (RES) in various aninial
species by measuring the rate of clearance
from the blood of a colloidal carbon Sus-
pension of known particle size (250 Ä),
which is phagocytized with great efficiency^
by the cells of the RES in contact with the
blood, Under these experimental conditions
about 90 per cent of the injected carbon
is recovered from the Kupffer cells of the
liver and the reticuliim cells of the spieen.
The blood concentration decreases as an ex-
ponentlal function of the time according to
equation 1, Log Ci — Log Ca
= k
Ta-Ti
where Ci and Ca are carbon concentrations
at the times Ti and Tg respectively. The
rate of clearance k has been called the
phagocytic index and is a nieasure of the
phagocytic activity of the RES if a sufü-
cient dose of carbon is injected to challenge
all the phagocytic cells with an excess of
particles. In this dose ränge, the rate of
clearance k has been found to be inversely
proportional to the dose of carbon injected,
D: k X D =r constant (equation 2). This
behavior, which expresses the saturating
effect of the phagocytized particles on the
RES, characterizes the kinetics of phagocy-
tosis of homogeneous particulate suspen-
sions by the cells of the RES in contact
with the blood.
This technique has been extensively used
to assay the phagocytic capacity of the
RES in various pathologic processes studied
in animals, such as experimental infections
of niice with Salmonella, Bacillus Calmette
Guerin (BCG) or virulent tubercle bacillus.
It was found that the RES responded to
these bacterial infections with an increased
phagocytic activity, wliich oould reach very
high values in the case of infection with
avirulent organisms such as BCG. This
hyperactive phase was soon followed by a
severe depression of the phagocytic function
shortly before death in the case of infection
with virulent organisms such as Salmonella
enteritidis^.
With Drs. Old and Clarke the response
of the RES to the Implantation of trans-
plantable tumors was investigated by the
same methods.^
Tumors which have been repeatedly trans-
planted, such as Sarcoma 180, Carcinoma
755, Ehrlich carcmoma ascites. and Sf^coiHa
180 ascites, induce chaj;acteristic alterations
in"~feTiculoendothelial activity. During the
early phase of tumor development, clearance
rates are maximally elevated and remain
increased throughout the period of rapid
tumor growth, With progressive deteriora-
tion of the tumor-bearing host, reticulo-
endothelial activity returns to normal or
below normal levels. A slight elevation in
clearance rates has been observed during
the growth of spontaneous mammary tumors
in Swiss mice. Striking reticuloendothelial
hyperplasia, following a brief phase of de-
pressed carbon clearance, accompanies de-
velopment of a reticulum cell leukemia in-
duced by the Friend vinis.
Vol.36,No. 11, November 1960
778
NEW YORK PATHOLCXnCAL SOCIEIT
In addition, the effect of treatinent with
a^ents such as zymosan, BCCl, aiul otlicr
products of inicroorfianisins on the jirowth
and h'thality of various experiniental tumors
has l)('(Mi investiji:ated. 'l'lu'se agents, in ad-
dition to their ability to inchice reticulo-
endothclial hyper])la.sia, enhancc the ca-
paoity of the host to produee antibody and
deerease host susceptihility to haeterial ehal-
h'nge. Swiss niice, infeeted with IKXl or
treated with zyrnosan, have been found pro-
teeted a^^ainst ehaUen^e with Sarconia ISO.
Survival tinie is inereased twofold in IKXJ-
infeeted hosts inoeulated with Khrlieh
aseites.
R R F R R E N C H S
1. ßenacerraf, B., Biozzi. (;., llalpern. B. X. aiid
Stiffcl, C. Fhysiopatholociy of the RliS (Svm-
posium). Oxford, Blackwell Sei. Puhl. Ltd.,
1957.
2. Biozzi, r,.. Hal])ern, B. N., Benacerraf, B. and
Stiffel, C. IMiagocytic activity of the reticulo-
endothelial System in expcrimental infections.
In Sxmpositim, ref. 1, p. 204.
3. Old, I.. J., Clarke. D. A., Benacerraf, B. and
Goldsmith, M. Reticulo-endothelial system and
the iie()i)lastic process, Ann. j\ . Y. Acad. Sei.,
1960. In press.
n j s c u s s 1 () N
TIHOK BARK.\: The topie of T)r. Ben-
aeerraf's exeellent leeture, (piantitation of
tlie activity of HKS, encourafres ine to brinjr
to yonr attention soine of onr observations
on fiie acid ph;»sphatase activity of HE cells.
I'sing a niodified azo-dye method, we found
that the RE eells ( Ku])ffer_j:£lls_ül_Ii^'er,
reticula r"Cells aTid t7iacro})hajges of jjplcen,
thynnis aiul lyrn^rh node) contain lii^h ads.!
{ ijii Li pljufcj-wie n et i V i t y . and they are ehar-
acteristically stained by this teehnicjue. The
acid phospliatase activity is localized in the
form of jrr.ajm^es, which störe vital dyes
also. These jrrarndar structures are })robably
identical with the Ivsosoines, as sufj^ested
i)y_Ni)yiko#, Followinfr^üiTTFie ehan^es of
acid Phosphatase activity cheniically and
histoeheinically in ditferent conditions known
to inHuenee the activity of the RES (injec-
tions of vital dyes, Thorotrast, typhoid Vac-
cine, seruni), we caine to tlie conclusion
that the ineasurement of acid phospliatase
activity, especially in the .sj2leen, thyinus
and lymj)h node, ean he used as a (|uantita-
tive Parameter t(> characterize the activity
of tlie RES in various orfi'ans.
BAR IM BENACERRAF: 1 think this is
a nice presentation i)y Dr. Barka of a beau-
tiful Observation. In our laboratory I)rs.
'i'horbecke and Old made a similar study
where they also found a hifrh level of acid
Phosphatase activity in the macr(»phajre
Clements of the liver. They correlated these
observations with carbon clearance studies
in various expcrimental conditions such as
BCCir infection and tumors.
Iscbc'in'ic Ivfcirctiov and SivcU'w{r w the Rat Bra'w
Seymour Levine
Department of Patholony, St. Francis IIosi)ital, Jersey City, N. j.
]^iUit.'ral cacujid artery lifration was per-
formed on 200 rats, of which l.'Jf) died dur-
injr the first two days with massive cerebral
infrMTttrmr-- Gross and microscopic study of
the entire brain within the intact (decal-
cified) siuill revealed anatomic evidences
of brain swellinir analo<j:()us to those fa-
miliär from human autopsy material. There
were curved ^rooves on the posterior as-
])ects of the cerebral hemispheres due to
pressure of the swollcn infarcted forebrain
against the rijrid bony aiul dural tentorium,
with herniation of brain substance around
the teidorial ed^^e. 'I'he medial cortices of
the two hemisjiheres were closely apj>osed
ajrainst each other, thus obliteratinj; the
median lon^ntudinal fisstire. 'l'he pineal was
coni))res?xCiLJiilü_^i trian,ü:ular_slia])e. The
tectum of the midbrain was narrowed. The i
basilar and posterior conummicatin^ arteries/)
had indcnted the brain substance.
Focal ischemic lesions were found in only
•_H of the ()1 rats that died or were sacrilieed
two to six days after sur^ery. The lesions
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
NEW YORK PATHOI.OGICAL SOCIETY
779
usually involved gray matter (cerebral cor-
tex, corpus striatuiu, aiul hippocanipus),
but a few rats had white matter lesiojis
(corpus callosuni and callosal radiation).
Most of the lesi<ms were sinall. The i)aucity
of lesions of intennediate severity sufrgested
the Operation of a vicious circle niechanisin
whcreby lesions beyond a certain threshold
of severity are associated with so nmch
swelling as to coiupress vessels and cause
inore infarction, and so on, leading to early
(leath with massive infarction.
It was found that the mortality following
bilateral carotid ligati<m depended on the
environmental temperature. In four experi-
nients on w,um^iumid days, the mortalitv
among control rats w^})I \)ercp;^, where-
as the mortality amonjp^l^Q^pt in an air-
conditioned room was <)ni;^^irr'per centXThe
c(Mitrol rats left in the wann, humid at-
mosi)here had no ciiange or an increase of
body temj)erature, while those in the air-
conditioned room had a fall of 1 to 4° in
body temperature. The beneficial effect of
air-conditioning may be due to increased
^0>f<fanc"e to" cciclU'ul aiTTT^ri« consetpient
upon lowered body temperature. The de-
trimental effect of warm atmosphere may
depend, in part, on a drop in blood pressure
with resulting failur6 of collateral circula-
tion. ^=^r-_-r^^
These results indicate that bilateral caro-
tid ligation in rats may prove to be a use-
ful method for evaluating therapy for brain
swelling associated with infarction. Cold
injury has been used to produce brain
swelling for therapeutic experiments on
larger animals'; the lesions dilfered in be-
ing hemorrhagic and unilateral. Possible ad-
vantages of the method presented here in-
clude simplicity of the operative procedure,
low cost of rats sis test animals, and easy
recognition of swelling by gross and micro-
scopic criteria.
DI SCUSSION
JAMES I. BEHKMAN: May I asl< a
(juestion, Dr. Zimmerman? Dr. Levine has
l)een studiously avoiding the term cerebral
edema in talking about brain swelling. Will
he teil US why?
SEYMOUR LEVINE: As is well known,
Ihc terms edema and swelling are based
on Die ])renuse of excess^jiccuinuliliii^^
fluid 4u_JLl2<l_JHNiin, which may be extra-
ccllular or intracellular. In view of the
observations of Torack, Terry and Zim-
merman-, and others, that there is ahuost
no interstitial ()r Jntercellula_r Space in the
rat brain, tiie distinction between these
terms has now become (juestionable, and
perhaps old-fashioned, so I avoided this
Problem. Obviously my ex])eriments were
in no way designed to siied any light on this
problem, but I would refer von to the
paper by Drs. lorack, Terry and /inuner-
man.
HANS POPPER: Is the increase of the
brain weight the result of Imbibition of
serum or of water? Do you find an increase
of protein in the brain?
SEYMOUR LEVINE: 1 have not
measurcd thesc things; I cannot give you
any direct answer, but 1 think one can
suspect there is an exudation of protein;
increase of capillary permeability has been
demonstrated rei)eatedly under similar cir-
cumstances. I am sure the vessels are
necrotic, and I have no doubt there is an
increase in protein as well as in water.
HANS POPPER: Your experiment is an
excellent model to study experimentally the
nature of the increased protein.
SEYMOl'R LEVINE: 1 am sure what
you Said is correct; it is a very simple tech-
ni({uc; nothing is involved but ligation of
the carotids in tlic rat, and it is quite easy
to recogni/,«' fhe swelling.
H. M. ZIMMERMAN: I take it we shall
all go back and talk to our deans and lios-
pital administrators about air-conditioning
our Offices'
REFERENCES
1. Rainiondi, A. J., Clasen, R. A., Beattie, E. J.
and Taylor, C. B. Effect of liypothcrniia and
Steroid tlierapy on experimental cerebral in-
jury, Sunj. Cyucc. Obstet. 108 :ii},-S^, 1959.
2. Torack, R. M., Terry, R. I). and Zinnnerman,
H. M. Eine structure of cerebral fluid accuniu-
lation. I. Swelling secondary to coid injury,
Amer. J. Path. i5 .1135-47, 1959.
Vol. 36, No. n, November 1960
7 8o
NEW YORK PATHOLOGICAL SOCIETY
The Effect of Parabiosis on the Developinent of hmminity
to the Novikoff Hepatoiim m Rats*
Kurt Lange, Gerhard Treser, Stephen E. McPherson and
Eugene J. Wenk
From the Department of Medicine, New York Medical College-Metropolitan Medical Center,
New York City
Rats of the Sprague-Dawley strain and
rats of the related Charles River strain
(derived nine years ago from Sprague-
Dawley rats) were joined in diffeient coni-
binations by a technique of ^rabiosij^which
did not create a copi»oQnentmieal_cayi^
The Novikoff (iiepatomty originally pro-
duced bv^ iniecCToir oT^-dimethyl-amino-
azobenzene ^(butter yellow) into Sprague-
Dawley fatT, was transplanted without dif-
ficulty into Sprague-Dawley rats but could
not be carried in Charles River rats for
more than five successive transplants.
The development of a tumor by inocula-
tion of the secondary member of a para-
biotic pair of Sprague-Dawley rats is not
prevented by the successful Implantation of
a tumor in the primary member 11 days be-
fore.
The development of a tumor in the second-
ary member of parabiotic pairs of Charles
River rats is not prevented by the success-
ful implantation of a tumor in the primary
partner six days before the secondary mem-
ber is inoculated. It is prevented, how-
ever, in 9 out of 12 instances when the in-
terval between the inoculation of the pri-
mary and the secondary partner is 11 days
or more, thus permitting development of
antibodies in the parabiotic pair.
If, in a combination of Charles River
rats with Charles River rats, the primary
partner is immune to the tumor, as in two
out of 12 instances cited, the secondary
member takes the tumor.
The development of a tumor in para-
biotic pairs of Charles River rats with
Aided by Grant A-302 of the Institute of Ar-
thritis and Metabolie Diseases, National Institutes
of Health.
wSprague-Dawley rats is prevented by the
successful implantation of tumor in the
Sprague-Dawley partner U days prior to
the implantation in Charles River rats.
If the Sprague-Dawley partner did not take
the tumor, the implantation took in the
Charles River rats.
The development of a tumor in a para-
biotic pair of Sprague-Dawley and Charles
River rats was prevented in 10 out of 15
instances when the Charles River animal
received the inoculation as the primary
member. Subse(|uent tumor inoculations in
the primary partner led to a rapid anaphy-
lactic death in many of the pairs, while
survivors showed necrosis of the parabiotic
connection, an eifect never encoimtered ex-
cept in this instance. Four pairs in which
the primary Charles River rat survived
without take showed a take in Sprague-
Dawley rats after subsequent inoculations
when the parabiotic connection had be-
come necrotic.
It is suggested that the Charles River
rats form antibodies against the tissue of
the related Sprague-Dawley strain, but
that these antibodies are not directed
against the tumor, but against the hetero-
genic Sprague-Dawley protein.
DI8CU88I0N
ALEX B. NOVIKOFF: I am pleased to
see that this tumor is being used to such
good advantage. I would like to ask Dr.
Lange about spontaneous regression. This
concerns the experiments in which the pri-
mary menibers of the parabiotic pairs were
given intramuscular transplants. In our ex-
perience about 40 per cent of the animals
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
NEW YORK PATHOLOGICAL SOCIETY
78.
with intrainuscular turnor transplants show
spontaneous regression. VV'hat was the in-
cidenoe of such rejrression in your aninials?
KURT LANGE: All of the primary
mernbers of the parabiotic pairs were in-
jected intranmscularlv witnme tiiinor. We
have not seen spontaneous regression, but
this may very well be due to the fact that
our animals were sacrificed within a short
period of tinie, usually less than 20 days,
so that they did not have nuich chance to
show a regression.
MAX WACHSTEIN: Dr. Lange was
talking about antibodies. Did vou do anv
direct antibody studies?
KURT LANGE: Yes, we did. We used
for this purpose the technique of fluorescejiu
labelled antibodies^ While these experi-
nients are not sufficiently advanced to niake
a definite Statement, we can say that it
appears that a gamma globulin of resistant
Charles River rats acts as an antibody to
the tumor, staining the tumor masses spe-
cifically.
HANS POPPER: Wliat is the behavioi
of skin transplants under these circuni-
stances?
KURT LANGE: I do not know. We have
not tried to transplant skin from one para-
biont to another between related strains.
It would be necessary that the tissue graft
takes initially in order to stimulate suffi-
cient antibody formation for later rejection.
If it does not take for technical reasons,
the small amount of tissue implanted usual-
ly does not suttice to produce enough anti-
body formation to lead to a rejection of a
later graft.
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
-82
NEW YORK H E A R T ASSOCIATION
Scientific Session Held ;it 'Die New York Acjiderny of Medicinc, April 20, HXiO
AHSTKA('I\S OF I\\PKUS SrnMIiri^:!) VOM i'RKSKN TAIION
(Part 1)
The Reteinion of Sodin/// by l'revioiisly Eda/mtoiis Ciirähics*(Ahstract)
Hl(;h J. Carkoll and Saul J. Farhi r
Department of Medicine, New York L'niversity Scliool of Medicine,
and the Third Medical Division, Bellevue Hospital, New N'ork.
Edeniatous cardiacs have an elevated total
l)o(ly sodiuni. This level falls when they be-
conie edenia free, but in over half of the
cases the ratio of body sodivmi to body
weiiilit and to total bodv vvater reinains ele-
v;dcd. 'riiis study was inidertaken to deter-
iiiine whethcr the body sodiuni content even-
lually returns to normal.
In 18 previously edeniatous cardiacs
ineasurenients were niade of body weight,
total body water (antipyrine space, A.S.),
and total exchangeable sodiuni (Na 24 Space,
THNa). In seven patients, studies were re-
peated at intervals for periods of two to
five nionths foHowing coinpensation.
In 18 patients, the niean ratio of ex-
* l'resented at the Scientific Session of tlie New
^'ork lleart Association, lield at Tlie New ^'ork
Academy of Medicine, April 20, 1 •)()().
clian^eable sodiuni to body water (TENa/
A.S.) was <)H.;J niK(|. /Liter (normal, 81.3).
The ratio of exchanjreable sodium to l)ody
weiji-hl ('l'KNa/Hwt.) was 52.7 niKc^/Kfr.
(normal, W.7). Three patients showed a fall
in TENa over a period of months without
a fall in body weight or body water. 'l'heir
ratios of TENa/A.S. and TENa/Bwt re-
turned to normal. Four jiatients showed no
loss of excess body sodium du ring a siinilar
period, their ratios remaining high.
There is evidence to suggest that this
excess sodium may be bound in an osmotical-
ly inactive form in the body, and the nature
of this binding is under study. The reason
for the prolongcd retention of sodium excess
by sonie dry cardiacs, and not by olhers,
remains to l)e determined.
Cardiac Nticleotidcs and Derivatives in Acute and Chronic
Ventricnlar Failiire of the Dog Heart* (Abstract)
N. M. BUCKLEY AND K. K. TsUBOI, Ph.D.
Department of Physiology, Albert S^instein College of Medicine, and Department of Pediatrics,
Cornell IJniversity Medical College, New ^'ork.
The myocardial nuclcotides and their de-
])hosphorylate^l (TerivaTives were determined
Presented at tlie Scientific .Session of tlie New
^'ork lleart Association, lield at Tlie New York
Acaclemy of Medicine, April 20. VibO.
in samples from dog hearts subjected to
acute or chronic hemodynamic overloading
of the left ventricle.
Acute experiments consisted of evalua-
tions of ventricnlar fimction in the three
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
NEW YORK HEART ASSCKJA TION
783
isolated dog hearts during a control period
and after acute left veiitricular failure had
beeil prodiiced. Chronic experiinents con-
sisted of weekly studies of ventricular func-
tion in four dogs in wliicii aortic regurgita-
tion was j)r()duced surgically, followed by
evaluations in isolated lieart pre})arations
niade froni theni after presuinptive evidence
of ventricular inadequacy had a})peared.
Control experiinents consisted of two freshly
excised dog hearts, and freshly inade isolated
heart pre])arations.
Muscle Strips were excised froin the ven-
tricles of all hearts, honiogeni>ced and
analy/.ed by ultrijjik4et-_aj3sorpiiim. Nucleo-
tides and their dermitives were igoliitecl and
separated by chroinatography and identified ^i
by their specific ultraviolet absorption char- ^
acteristics. '
The residts include the amount and dis-
tribution of nucleotides, nucleosides and
their bases in the right and left ventricles
of each heart. There was no difference in
amount or distribution of these Compounds
in right and left ventricle. There was a treiid— /
towar(],j4-w«ailüjr4)r()portion of dephosjjhox^^- jL
lated derivatives in myocardium from acute ^^
or chronicallv failed hearts.
Dir e et Studies of the in Situ Speeialized Coiiduetiug System* ( Abstraet)
Paul F. Cranefield, Brian F. Hoff.man and Jackson H. Stuckey
Departments of PhysioloKy and Surgery, State University of New York
Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York.
Contiguous bipolar electrodes have been
attached to the endocardium of the canine
heart during total cardiopulmonary by-pass
by use of a pump-oxygenator, Electrodes
have been ])ositioned over the atrioventric-
ular node, the bündle of His, the right or
left bündle branches and the peripheral
junctions of Purkinje fibers with ventricular
muscle. Simultaneous records from these
Sites, and also from the right and left atria
and right and left ventricles, have been
recorded at the same time as a Standard
electrocardiogram.
Electrograms recorded in this manner
have been employed to study the setpience
of activation of the speeialized conducting
System during normal activity and during
* Presented at tlie Scientific Session of the New
York Heart Association, lield at The New York
Academy of Medicine, April 20, 1960.
disturbances of rhythm and conduction.
Records obtained perinit subdivision of the
P-R interval into intervals representing
conduction from atriiun to His bimdle, His
to bündle branches, bündle branches to
peripheral Purkinje fibers and Purkinje
(ibers to ventricular muscle. Each of these
sub-intervals can prolong independently of
the others. Block in the speeialized conduct-
ing System thiis can be thought of as de-
pending on several dissimilar Clements ar-
ranged in series. Records from the spe-
eialized conducting System also indicate the
Site of Initiation of activity in rhythms orig-
inating in areas other than the sinus node.
The results of these studies are in dis-
agreement with certain conclusions reached
on the basis of Interpretation of Standard
electrocardiograms.
Vol.36,No. 11, November 1960
7^4
NEW YORK HEART ASSOCIATION
Purification and Properties of a Pituitary Component ivhich
Produces Lipe?nia in the Rahbit* (Abstract)
Daniel Rudman, Mario Di Girolamo, Floyd Seidman
AND Maria B. Reid
Columbia University Research Service, Goldwater Memorial Hospital,
and Department of Medicine, College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York.
Our previous studies showed that a single
subcutaneous injection of an a(jueous extract
of anterior pituitary glands produces lipe-
mia in the rabbit. Comparable lipemia is
not produced by purified preparations of
any of the recognized anterior pituitary
hormones. Fractionation of the crude pitui-
tary extract has now yielded a fraction
(labelled "Fraction H") which produces
lipemia in the rabbit. Bioassays have shown
that Fraction H contains 0,07 per cent
TSH, 0.002 per cent Oxytocin, and no de-
tectable amounts of the six other pituitary
hormones.
The injection of as little as 0.25 mg. of
Fraction H in the rabbit causes an increase
in seruni NEFA concentration from 200
IJieq./lj. to 2000 fieq./l,. within one hour. This
effect is not suppressed by intravenous in-
* Presented at the Scientific Session of the New
York Heart Association, held at The New York
Academy of Medicine, April 20, 1960.
fusion of ghicose. The period of elevation of
serum NEFA concentration varies from 2
to 24 hours, depending on dose of Fraction
H. The rapid elevation of serum NEFA level
is followed within 12 hours by a two- to five-
fold increase in seruni total lipid concentra-
tion. The increment of serum lipid has the
following average composition: 85 per cent
triglyceride, 10 per cent phospholipid, 5 per
cent cholesterol.
F'raction H has the following properties:
non-dialyzability; precipitation by 40 per
cent (NH4)oSO, or 5 per cent CHClaCOOH;
solubility in the presence of high concentra-
tions of ethanol or acetone; weak affinity
for anion and cation exchange resins; stabil-
ity of the biological activity to i)artial
hydrolysis by HCl or pepsin; disappearance
of the biological activity following partial
hydrolysis by NaOH or trypsin. Inactiva-
tion by trypsin jiroves the presence of pep-
tide bonds in the hormone molecule.
Objective Evaluation of Myocardial Blood Snpply In Vivo Through
Observation of Acute C banges in Myocardial Teinperature* (Abstract)
Edward I. Goldsmith and Harry J. Mayer, A.B.
Department of Surgery, The New York Hospital-Cornell Medical Center, New York.
These^experiments were_designect~^ esti-
mate th\sJjefnic"peffiision of asmall periph-
eral mass of myocardium in living experi-
mental animals with normal coronary ar-
teries and following coronary arterial oc-
clusions.
Modern Instrumentation made it [)ossible
to observe and record very slight and
transient temperature changes with a micro-
probe small enough to be embedded in the
• Presented at the Scientific Session of the New
York Heart Association, held at The New York
Academy of Medicine, April 20, 1960.
myocardium without significant damage to
the tissue. A continuous record of the
temperature of the surrounding cylindrical
mass of myocardium was obtained. The
temperature of the blood perfusing the
myocardium was acutely reduced by the
rapid injection of a Standard dose of iced
saline into the root of the aorta. The blood
eventually reaching the myocardium was,
thereby, "labeled" by its decreased tem-
perature and was observed arriving and
perfusing the region under study.
In normal animals, individually character-
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
NEW YORK HEART ASSOCIATION
785
istic temperature curves were observed in
the myocardium of the left and right ven-
tricles following the injection of_coId salinj?.
In the ^l ventriouliic myooncdiiim th£_i£m-
perature decline was abrupt, rapid and
deep and recovery was prompt. In the right
ventricular myocardium the fall occurred
later, was not as sharp and recovery was
slower. The order of magnitude of the de-
cline was in the ränge of 0.5 °C. The time
response of the total event was in the ränge
of two seconds.
In animals which had undergone slowly
developing Corona ry occlusion and myo-
cardial infarction, consistent deviations from
the normal patterns were observed. In in-
farcted myocardium, temperature declines
were slight or absent. In adjacent grossly
normal areas of right ventricular myo-
cardium, the temperature decline was more
pronounced than normal and assumed the
characteristics of normal left ventricular
curves. These changes correlated with the
State of vascularity, as interpreted by cor-
onary arteriography and by microscopy.
These observations suggest the possibility
of developing a quantitative method for
measuring myocardial perfusion.
Collateral Piibnoiiary Blood Flow After Ligation of the Left
Main Fulmonary Arter y* (Abstract)
R. H. GoETz, M. RoHMAN, R. Dee, J. D. Haller and David State
Department of Surgery, Albert Einstein Collepe of Medicine, New York.
There is considerable controversy con-
cerning vasomotor control of the pulmonary
circulation, the existence of reflex control
being denied by some, whereas others feel
that pulmonary vascular reflexes affect the
clinical picture, limit surgical operability
and influence postoperative results. It is
well known that certain congenital cardiac
and pulm(mary lesions are associated with
marked increase in bronchial flow, which
may reach 25 per cent of the total cardiac
Output. Knowledge regarding the influence
of increased bronchial circulation on pul-
monary hemodynamics is still incomplete.
This report presents the residts of ex-
perimental evaluation of factors modifying
bronchial arterial flow in dogs using a tech-
nique of separate perfusion of the pul-
monary and systemic circulations.
High bronchial flow rates were induced by
ligation of the left main pulmonary artery,
and development of increasing bronciiial cir-
culation was documented by special angio-
graphic techniques, results of which will be
shown.
It was demonstrated that, everything eise
* Presented at the Scientific Session of the New
York Heart Association, held at The New York
Academy of Medicine, April 20, 1960.
being equal, the volume of bronchial flow
varies directly with the systemic-pulmonary
artery pressure gradient, below a certain
level of which bronchial flow is abolished.
Bronchial arterial flow was demonstrated
to be markedly increased with deflation, and
decreased with Inflation of the lungs.
Increasing the left auricular pressure re-
sulted in a decrease in bronchial arterial
flow, out of Proportion to that expected
from the decrease in systemic-pulmonary
artery pressure gradient resulting from the
increase in pulmonary artery pressure.
Alteration in temperature of the sys-
temic and/or pulmonary perfusion aflfected
bronchial arterial flow and the pulmonary
flow-pressure relationship. The results will
be presented.
It could be demonstrated that these and
other procedures (including the eflFect of
drugs) have a more pronounced efl'ect on
])ulmonary hemodynamics in dogs with high
bronchial flow than in normal animals;
indeed, changes resulted from experimental
procedures which were ineffectual in nor-
mal dogs.
The application of this data to certain
thoracic and cardiovascular surgical prob-
lems will be discussed.
Vol. 36, No. 11, November 1960
786
NEW YORK HE ART ASSOCIATION
Altered Relatiovship hetweeji the Fuhnojiary Resistance and the
Lung Vohinie in Variotis Cardiopiilnwnary Disorders* (Abstract)
TsuN(; O. Cheng
Cardiopulmonary Laboratory, the Brooklyn Hospital, and the Department of Medicine,
State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York.
That the })ulni()nary resistance varies with
the State of Inflation of the lungs has been
previoiisly reportecl (./. appl. Phyaiol. 1/^:
727, 1959). Piünionary resistance was nieas-
iired diiring botli expiration and Inspiration
throughout the vital capacity, using the
multiple interrupter technique originally
described by Clements and Elam and modi-
fied by Cheng, Godfrey and Shepard. The
pattern of pulmonary resistance versus lung
volume varies verv little in normal subjects.
At and near maximal Inspiration tiie re-
sistance has a low value and remains low
throughout most of the vital capacity until
near the maximal expiratory level, where it
changes rather al)ruptly to very high
Submitted for presentation at the Scientific Ses-
sion of the New York Heart Association, held at
The New York Academy of Medicine, April 20,
1960.
values. Inspiratory and expiratory resist-
ances are practically identical in normal
subjects, although the former is frecjuently
lower than the latter, at a given lung vol-
ume. Ilowever, in patients with various
cardiopulmonary disorders this normal re-
lationship between the pulmonary resistance
and the lung voliune is altered. Further-
more, the changes in the pulmonary resist-
ance during Inspiration do not always fol-
low those during expiration. The manner in
which the pulmonary resistance-lung volume
relationship is altered in asthma, emphy-
sema, sarcoidosis, clironic pulmonary con-
gestion and other cardiopulmonary disorders
will be described. The type of alteration in
the relationship between resistance and lung
volume appears to depend on the pathophys-
iology of the various disorders.
Hypergiiajiideviia and Hypoglyceviic Unresponsiveiiess in Renal Disease'
(Abstract)
BuRTON D. Cohen, Norton Spritz, Albert L. Rubin and
E. Hlkjh Luckey
Second Medical (Cornell) Division, Bellevue Hospital, and the Veterans Administration Hospital,
New York.
Because of the occurrence of hypo-
glycemia in uremic patients during insulin
and glucose treatment for hyperpotassemia,
a group of 20 patients with renal disease
was studied with the Standard insulin toler-
Submitted for presentation at the Scientific Ses-
sion of the New York Heart Association, held at
The New York Academy of Medicine, April 20,
i960.
ance test. These were matched with 19
comparably ill patients free of renal disease.
Although the initial hypoglycemia was iden-
tical, a significantly delayed blood sugar re-
covery was noted in the kidney disease
group. A similar group of 19 patients and
18 Controls was given epinephrine followed
by periodic blood sugar determinations. The
response showed a diminished glycolysis in
Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med.
Michelson, Nicholas
1943. Investigations in the physical development of Negroes:
I. Stature.
Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., N.S., v. 1, no. 2, June.
Physical anthropology
Physiology — growth
Negro
• i
PBBSS OF
THB WISTAB INSTITUTE
OF ANATOMY AND BIOLOGY
PHILADBIiPHIA, PA., U.S.A.
Be„Hn,ed fron. '^^-^-^'^^l^^o^l^-^SL^ir'' '^-"»"™'"''''
INVESTIGATIONS IN THE PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF NEGEOES
I. STATUEE
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
Department of Anthropology. Columbia Umversity. New York'-
INTRODUCTION
The aim of tliis study was to investigate the tempo of
phvsical growth of the American Negro and simultaneously
to "carry out a comparative racial study. To this end I as-
sembled data - ehietly at the Riverdale Orphanage Hai^lem
Clinics and Public School no. 136, all in or near New York
Citv, on stature, weight, cephalic index, onset of puberty and
env-ironmental trends. The entire material was reviewed
f rom the standpoint of the relative qualitative weight of the
two basic Clements - heredity and environment-wh.ch
affect the process of growth; and their relation to the Ute
f*vclo
Tlie data are restricted largely to females because in them
the age at sexual maturity - a land mark in the cycle ot
,,,.owth — can be determined with accuraey.
" Unfortunately, thcrc is no way of detennining exactly ho
doo-ree of White adniixture in this Negro material. In the
studv of puberty, subjeets were included only whon it was
established by questioning tliat there were no known white
parcnts or grandparents. The same holds for the study ot
cephalic index. As for the study of stature, neither m the
cross-sectional nor the follow-up data could this control be
definitely applied.
' The invostisntion was oanied out un.ler tho nuspioes of the Columl.ia UmvcrsitJ
Council for Rosoarcl, in the Soeinl Seieucos nncl wns (lireeted by the late Prof.
''Trarknowlodgnient to the persona nnd iustitutions whose kin.l Cooperation made
thi8 study p->88ible, will nppeur at the end of the author'ä entire report.
101
V
l'Jf 'i '/ ",A',;Tti;
•
V
192
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
193
Although my single measurements merely Supplement those
reported by others, my consecutive measurements on Negroes
are perhaps unique and have an intrinsic value in so far as
such follow-up data are of great value in the study of rates
of growth.
Eeference will be made in the text to data which Prof. Franz
Boas put at my disposal; and, unless a publication is men-
tioned where such data have been utilized previously, the
figures cited by me are to be eonsidered as original.
^ Attention should be called to the changing type of popula-
tion in those institutions where consecutive observations on
growth were obtained in the past. In former years orphan
asylums admitted the children because they were destitute,
but now the main premise for admission is the existence of
behaviour problems; and it is the policy not to place the
balanced children in the Institution proper for any length of
time. An institution which until now has yielded a random
Population whose main characteristic was its state of poverty,
in the future will not segregate a similar series. Theref ore, it
will hardly be possible again to obtain a '^normal/' i.e., un-
selected sample, in Riverdale Orphanage where I had the
privilege to collect consecutive data for the study of growth
and the onset of puberty.
^ In view of the fact that my observations pertain to f airly
distinct phases of growth, it is convenient to report them
separately. The part presented first, deals with stature. The
Problems pursued in this section are:
1. How does the tempo of growth of the American Negro
eompare with that of Whites ?
2. Is there a secular increase in stature among Negro
children similar to the phenomenon observed among Whites?
3. Does the adult stature of the most recent generation of
Negroes show an excess over that of earlier generations?
Wherever necessary, the data of Melville J. Herkovits ( *30)
will be included in the study for the purpose of comparison.
The criteria for comparability will be discussed in the text.
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194
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
195
onNe<n-on,ales l>o 1 91^'' °^ '''^' '"^ ^^'^ measurements
of the orphanage d.ildren ca be'eTpla Jd bvT ''''""
socio-economic background. ^^-^P'-^m^d by their poorer
The childreii betwooii 10 .m/^i i <
Public Scbool have a He' s ature Z",:'' ""'' '™'" ""
Herskovits { '30, table XVIinw '" '"P""'*"'^ '^^
School with tho oon-P^r...., r \. ^ ^^^^ Public
vaine.winbe^r;?i;r:;::«x:;lt^^
growth dunng childhood or adolesee^ i '^adet teT,;!
a slow increase in lieiglit towards tho o,,.! t- 7. ^ . ^
frs;,-:r-' - --' =■ "."f ;„/i™
results a senes of 6326 measurements on nCÖ feiles w.'" ?
are shown in table 2. ^^^^^o lemales, whicli
From this table it appears thaf ih^
increment in stature shortl .• e eonticior'" '"'l''"""'""-«'
the first between 2i and 3i Cs ^ .Je h ^*=^'^''^:«*i''"« -
4i and 5i, the thi.-d between-luLd m ^^ tI fi r^"
,A..;. , -2 y^ars. iliefirsttwo
Additional measurements (289) made hv «.^ i.t
are discussed in the text. ^ °" ^^«^'^ '"^^"'t females in 1941
4
aecelcrutions must be considered as accidental and caused by
the scantv material between 2 and 5 years. Tlüs Interpretation
is substantiated by data obtained by Woodbury ('21) on a
verv much lari-er population, for the eorresponding age groups
New data comMned icifh
TABLE 2
those of M. J. HersTcovits: Negro females.
AGE
21- 89 days
90-179 days
180-269 days
270-359 days
12- 17.9 months
18- 23.9 months
MEAN IN
CENTIMETKKS
SIGMA
INCREMENT
56.0
64.1
68.4
72.0
77.0
81.9
3.6
4.5
8.1
2- 2.9 years
3- 3.9 years
4_ 4.9 years
5- 5.9 years
6_ 6.9 years
7- 7.9 years
8- 8.9 years
9- 9.9 years
10-10.9 years
11-11.9 years
12-12.9 years
13-13.9 years
14-14.9 years
15-15.9 years
16-16.9 years
17-17.9 years
18 years
19 years
20-24 years
26
53
64
142
207
284
333
358
398
472
610
703
690
511
361
142
85.3
93.0
97.8
106.0
112.5
118.1
122.6
127.7
133.0
139.8
147.8
152.7
155.7
157.3
157.9
158.2
± 3.0
4.2
± 2.8
3.4
±5.1
4.9
±5.8
4.9
176
155
248
159.2
159.9
159.4
7.4
6.9
7.4
7.3
6.9
7.0
7.0
:7.6
: 8.4
: 8.4
: 7.4
: 6.8
:6.5
: 6.2
: 6.5
5.6
6.4
7.3
7.7
4.8
8.1
6.5
5.6
4.4
5.1
5.3
6.7
8.0
4.9
3.0
1.5
.5
.3
of bis material do not show any excessive mcrenient com-
pare Woodburv's fignres which I have ineluded m table .)).
The third acceieration (lü to 12i years) is genuine and cor-
responds to the premenarcheal spurt in growth occurnn- one
year prior to sexual maturity. That spurt is preceeded and
from 12^ years on followed by a diminution m tempo ot
196
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
inclnding data fron, tli. Rr,.!,!? i ^'P"'«''«" " genepal and
In view of tho ffioi fhof ^i.
tion eoineides ito^Zl^I^Zwvf ^""*^ ^^^^'--
Boas ('40a) has showit it wiür 5 W ' ""^ ^*^^™««' «'^
intensity of the spurt i. nI -5 '"*'''^'* *° «°°iPare tlie
weight derived from m tes .''a In i"f ""''"^ °" ^^'^'^^ «'^d
-^ People"), and „,ad ove • a Srtd / °' """^"^'^ ^P^^^^"
each individual. It must be noted Cthi T'-'f ^'''' ''''
a rather small group and thp .n. V "''*^"^' represents
not iave been carried out f or ZTr ™^««"rements could
nished by the autbors. However «; f '^'^''^ "«^ f"»--
tallies with my f5ndin<., «T ' ' "'^ ^«^^ «*" a^celeration
increment seei perSiSe'T,?"^ "^^ '''' Pre^enareheal
the above inentioned au ttors 7Z^ at', '"''''''' ^^^ulated by
of 10.9 cm. for girls at th. V^ f . ^^ ""' ^"^ «" inerement
Unless we are df at^lltl^lL'^Zlf ^ ^"' ^^J ^^^
this high figure would su-^est thrtT "" ""''" S'"»"?-
-turity is not a raeia, crarräfc^eTsr "" ^^"'"^ '^'^^^'^
use'd're S^VrtXSarV'^^^' ^^ ^^«"1^^)
anotherphysioloo-iephenoSn „L:/"r'''*' ^''^ «»- 22
of growth among tbe indivS / ^ *^^ ^""^^^er intensity
SECULAB CHANGES IN STATrTPP »„^
JN bTATURE AMONG NEGRO CHILDBETSr
Averagestaturenowavailablaf. a • "^^^ben
US to approach the prob W lel "^r'''" ""'^^''^ «"«^e
of this race partakes in thrinerlat ^fV r'"' ^'"''■^"°"
white popuiations in those se follf 7 ' "'^'^ ^"«"-" ^^e
■ T. "eciions of Amenea and Eurono
The purpose and technique of eorrecti«» u ^UIOpo
dotaU in the section on p„berty. '"''"« P"""*^ ^ata will be discussed i.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
197
where the Standard of living has improved.^ However the
question to what degree the level of existence of the Negro
has changed during the past two decades, cannot yet be
answered conclusively, since we have no comprehensive survey
on this Problem. (A few relevant faets which were furnished
by cooperating agencies will be cited in the section on environ-
mental trends.)
Data obtained in the Riverdale Orphanage for the years
1900 to 1935 disclose that the children of that Institution have
reached a higher stature during the more recent years than
two and three decades earlier. Moreover, the increase m
height took place among all the age groups.
Table 3, for the prcparation of which I am indebted to
the late Professor Franz Boas, shows averages for the stature
of the Riverdale Orphanage children arranged according to
the date of birth in quinquennial intervals.' From these fig-
ures we ean see that this population underwent a marked
increase in stature.
The secular height changes in the Negro population of the
Riverdale Orphanage between the years 1900 and 1935 m-
clusive, are in need of an explanation. The first question is:
Is there any relationship between the age of the child and
year of birth? Table 4 answers this negatively by showing
that the average year of birth is about the same for all age
groups.
The second question is : How does the length of stay in the
orphanage affect stature? An analysis of annual measure-
ments shows that there is an influence of the environment on
stature until the Mth year of the children's sojourn m the
orphanage: a definite improvement in growth is noticeable.
.Hebrews of New York, measured in 1909 and also in 1935-1936, showed the
foufwanrpercentual increase in stature, taking the earlier measurements as
t~: Males plus 6.5, Females plus ..6 (Boas, '«'')^j;;--- "'—
on and also for a diseussion of the increasmg stature see Stewart, 43.
. Comparative graphs for various populations have been published by Boas
( .40 a page 122. fig 15)> i-luding a graph for the Riverdale Orphanage materral.
198
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGUOES
199
Stature in centimeter, at ennh ^^f^^ ^
. TABLE 4
AGIO ^ umaren at various aqes
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
NO.
81
12()
184
246
296
314
295
AVERAOB YKAR OF BIRth
1921.0
1920.6
1920.5
1920.2
1919.6
1918.6
1917.3
IjENGTH
OF STAY
0-
- .99
years
1-
-1.99
years
2_
-2.99
years
3-
-3.99
years
4-
-4.99
years
5-
-5.99
years
6-
-6.99
vears
-7.99
years
However, it levels off with the Prolongation of stay in the
orplianage. Apparently the children entering' the orphanage
are niarkedly undersized; and the ßrst few years of institu-
tional care increase their stature to the norm of their age
group. This is shown in table 5.
TABLE 5
Eifect on stature of length of stay in Biverdale Orphanage.
MEAN DEVIATION IN CENTI-
METERS FROM MEAN STATURE
OP ORPHANAGE POPULATION
— 1.4
+ .2
+ .1
+ 1.3
-f 1.9
+ 1.2
+ 1.0
-f 1.2
The third qnestion is : Have there been any improvements
in the general hygienic and nutritional policy of the Riverdale
Orphanage since 1900 ? I could not obtain any evidence along
these lines. However Boas ('35) was able to determine that
the reorganization of the Hebrew Orphan Asyhim in New
York City was followed by a general improvement in the
development of the children therein.
The fourth qnestion is: Was there during the more recent
vears an accidental or preferential admission of children f rom
better economic levels f We have no positive evidence on this
point. So far, only one fact, though of nnknown cause, can be
pointed out, namely, the higher initial stature at entrance of
the Riverdale Orphanage during the more recent years. This
uninterrupted upward trend is illustrated by table 6.
TABLE 6
Initial stature in centimeters of 11-year-old girls on entrance into the
TIME OF ADMISSION
1915-1924
1924-1929
1929-1941
Biverdale Orphanage.
NO. MKAN
28 136.5
16 138.5
39 142.0
SIOMA
± 7.4
± 7.3
± 7.7
200
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
hafaraXl^eSr-n^lSro^n"^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^o 1941
group^admitted in the years lfl5 1 liT' "" ^'^ ^^"'^ '^'
d-ing the paJt decenl^Xerth 1??' ^'^ ^"^"^"^-"
to 1934, was wÄ c„ CoZa„n'Vh f '' '" ^'^^ ^^^^ ^^^O
had had the benefit ofins [t„tS"^ ''' ^'"""^ "^° ^Jreadv
1914 (thirty-seven girls s 1 Im! .?'' '". '''' ^^^""^ ^^^ to
7.1c,n.forthosead^itted2L!:des'Le? '"' ^" ^"'^^^^^^ »^
-irr„^rsra?drwe;rr;/-"^ --'^ «pp--
Unfortunately, suppIe^t^rT^/, ::': «^JY '", ^'^ ''"'''■
on girls 6 years of age (table 77^1 , ^'^ obtamed onlv
" ^ table 7). They show also an increase
TABLE 7
>^^rt^wr^5 0/ ^regro femalcs, 6 vear. nf n
TIMK OF ADMISSrON ^^ mkai. m
CENTIMETEBS
1915-1919
1920-1924
1925-1929
1930-1934
1935-1939
11
18
31
34
8
110.8
113.1
118.0
116.7
117.2
in stature on enterin^- the RivovcUU n i
conseeutive quinquennium. It ^;t ,?7'??? ^"^^^^-^ ^^^h
were lower than in the preeedinc. oi " '''' '^'' ^^^^"^^s
M this Point I wish to e L TZTr
obtamed by Ale.s Hrdlicka >oiU i« "^T ^' ^^^^^^^'^-
Colored Orphan asylum. The\^^ Jf ^Vo) •/" "^'^^ ^^^^'^^
IS very small, but thev indicate W v i ^^"^""^ nieasured
those obtained during the following d^des'i T""^'^ ^''^'
Orphanage. ^ ^^cades m the Riverdale
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
201
Continuing with our questions (fifth) : Has the particular
social group from which the Riverdale Orphanage received
the children undergone a betterment of its economic status, in
spite of the seemingly low Standard! Since this aspect can-
not be analyzed on account of lacking data, the question iimst
be left open.
TABLE 8
Statures (centimeters) of Negro girls in the New York
Orphan Asylum (HrdlicTca, 1899).
AGE
NUMBER
MKAN
3
2
83.9
4
2
90.6
5
4
98.5
6
o
109.1
7
9
112.7
8
5
126.0
9
10
125.7
10
8
129.5
11
9
130.7
12
3
146.7
13
1
147.7
14
2
155.9
15
2
154.5
Another issue nmst be clarified, namely, whether the
composition of the racial stock in the population of the River-
dale Orphanage has undergone any changes. In general, the
same type entered the institntion. Recently, however, there
was a slight increase of admissions of children who had come
from the Soutli in early cliildhood. This increase of children
with a Southern ascendancy set in about the year 1930. But
it must be emphasized that if the place of nativity were a
factor determining the height values, then it would not explain
the progressive increase in stature from 1900 imtil 1929 as
shown in tables 3 and 6.
Additional material of previous investigators can be used to
study secular changes in stature of Negro children. In table 9
I compare measurements, obtained in 1919 by R. M. Woodbury
with the data obtained by M. J. Herskovits between the
years from 1923 and 1926, and with my series, partially ex-
202
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
203
!
tracted in 1935 froni tl,e reports of the Riverdale Orplmna^e
and partially consistino- of niy measurements at the Depart-
Kar 1936 "" '" ''"^'™' ''''' ^'''"^ «t^' '" «-
TABLE 9
Stature (centimeters) of Nearo nirU hu ih^.^ j.
j uj i\tgro giris by three observers in differcnt years.
AGE
1- 2.9inonths
3- 5.9 months
6- 8.9 months
9-11.9 months
12-17.9 months
18-23.9 months
2-2.9 years
3-3.9 years
4-4.9 years
5-5.9 years
MICHKLSON
1935-1936 1
-^"0. Mean
woonnuRY
1919 2
70
82
68
41
54
30
5
18
41
82
56.0
64.1
68.4
72.0
77.0
81.9
82.8
87.6
96.3
103.2
No.
201
254
179
167
245
200
361
379
337
187
Mean
54.7
61.4
66.1
68.9
73.8
79.3
86.8
94.8
102.2
107.8
HERSKOVITS
1923-1926='
No.
Mean
21
35
23
60
85.9
95.8
100.6
109.8
the leg, wero hehl in extension. 0„e side ofthe fr! ** "" '*" ^''^'
so as to pern,it tl,e eontact between tl s w" 1 ^/m 7ir^' "'«" ™'"'«"
board was moved foward the i„fam"s föet Tl. f . '"..'' ''™"- ^ '"«^"'^
to a possible .„inimu,, since the eontaot lithn i ""'■•" '"''"" "" '"'"'"'
n>arks o„ the fa-ne. longitudl,,:, 1 ^ „C Z ^ ^'L : ^^'^^ "»'> ">«
who were able to stand, were moasured wit^ .L T ^ ' °'''" '^'^'^""
were measured without shoes »'.tlnopomete,-. All i,,dividuals
'1921, table 18, p. 104.
•1930, p. 101.
The 1936 seriös of the Department of Health Clinies reveals
a higher average stature for the age group from T Zote
months than the eorresponding 1919 ^er es ofV X
For the age groups between 2 and 5.9 ^ea" the 1935 R?; IT
Orphanage series sliows the lowest meJlH ^'//'-dale
.^' matoriai (1923 to me;':::^^^::^' ^^
Woodbury 15 years earlier. ^ö.strved by
Thus wo see tliat the Nesro infiTif« .,ri.^
« A discussion of the nutrition of the inf int« «nr.« • ^ ,
Health of New York Citv, will be giv n i n t h e l r"^ ' ''' ''" Department of
given in the section on environmental trends.
j
f
stature over the preceding Negro generation. The Riverdale
Orhpanage ehildren, as may be observed for the group
between 5 to 5.9 years of age (eighty-two measurements) are
still undersized. . .
For white ehildren the smaller bodily size of the less privi-
leged social classes has been pointed oiit by Franz Boas.
Paralleling table 5 b on page 315 of Professor Boas' ^'Stndies
in Growtli'' ('32) with my mean statures for the Negroes
(table 1), we note that the latter are smaller^ than the
Hebrew and Gentile better-to-do class and taller than the
Hebrew orphans and general Hebrew population of either
American or European birth. This applies to all age groups
from the sixth vear on.
Through the conrtesy of Dr. Nellie Marmor who obtained
measurements on White infants brought up on the same diet
as the Negro series from the Department of Health, we can
compare the stature of White and Negro ehildren born since
1935. Moreover, we can compare the White infants of this
generation with those measured in 1919.
^ Table 10 a shows that the Negro boys and girls of the
years 1935-1936 are taller than the Negroes measured in
1918-1919. For the girls this Observation has been recorded
already. ' White male and f emale infants of this generation
likewise are taller than the Whites measured in 1918-1919.
The White ehildren of the present generation are taller
than the Negro ehildren born in the same year. Woodbury 's
data from 1919 showed a similar excess in. favor of the
AVhites.«
' As alreadr mentioned, an apparent growth acceleration of the Negroes between
2 and 3 years and between 4 and 5 years is presumably due to Chance, \he series
for these age groups being very small.
« One must keep in mind that the relative greater length of the extremities m
Negroes than in Whites affects the comparability of the stature of the two races.
If the Proportion between the length of the lower extremities and the spine follows
a different racial pattern, that factor might influence the amount of the excess
in height of the White over the Negro child belonging to the same age group.
However, the problem of the eonsecutive changes in the bodily proportions as th^y
may occu'r during the growth cycle, could not be investigated in the present study;
nor could morphological racial differences in the curvature of the lower spine and
the tilting of the pelvis be considered here.
I
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Q
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
205
It is interesting to note that the Negro children up to two
years of age who were under the dietary and general super-
vision of the Department of Health of the City of New York
in the years 1935-1936, are taller than the children of the
general White population measured in 1918-1919.
Table 10 b presents a 1940-1941 series of White f emales
resembling in its composition Marmor 's males and f emales
of 1935-1936, and a 1941 series of Negro females, resembling
my series of 1935-1936. This control study, although based on
TABLE 10 b
Comparative heiglits of White anä Negro female infants: 1D40-1941.
AGE IN DAYS
360-449
450-')39
540-629
030-719
MAUMOR. 194U-1941 1
NEGRO
MICHELSON/ MARMOR, 1941 ^
Mean ' Sigma
EXOESS OF
WHITE
OVER
NEGRO
78
43
26
11
79.2
83.0
85.5
85.8
-H 2.8
23
78.4
+ 0.7
-H 3.5
19
82.2
± 2.4
+ 0.7
±3.5
30
83.5
± 2.8
+ 2.0
-H3.7
17
86.1
± 2.9
0.2
^Low income group; same care as in Department of Health Clinics, New York
Citv Total of 164 measurements on 96 children.
»Mt. Morris Park Station, Department of Health, New York City; Single
observations.
insufficient numbers, bears out the findings of the years 1935-
1936 As a matter of fact, the series of 1941 shows for Negro
female children a further slight increase in stature during the
most recent quinquennium.
THE STATURE OF THE ADULT FEMALE NEGEO
I have tried to get Information on the problem of whether
the present adult female Negro generation which has just
complcted phvsieal growth, is taller than the preceding gen-
eration I have made measurements on female Negroes whose
average year of birth is 16* years later than that of the group
measured bv Herskovits. My series embraces a population
o-rown up iii the North ; however, many individuals are not
of local origin, but have migrated f rom the South or the West
Indies to New York during ehildhood.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
207
206
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
^ I
In table 11 are listed height measm-ements obtamed m 1941
on 289 f emales, 16 to 24 years cid, representmg a cross section
of various socio-economie groups. The entire f ™^ ^^ ^;
considered as an unselected series of the general aduVt female
Population of New York City. From table 12 it is evident that
the series measnred in 1941 has exaetly the same average
statnre as that obtained for the corresponding age gronp by
Herskovits in 1923 to 1926.
TABLE 11
Statiire of adult female Negroes of New Yoric City in 1941.
AGE NO.
16years-16 years, 11 months 13
17 years-17 years, 11 months 28
18 years-18 years, 11 months 37
19 years-19 years, 11 months 40
20 years-24 years, 11 months 171
MEAN
159.3
160.1
158.4
158.8
159.8
SIGMA
±4.6
±3.8
±5.1
±6.8
±6.4
TABLE 12
Comparison of adult female Negro statnres: 1941 vs. 1923-1926
AGE
MICHEUSON, 1941
Jfo. Mean
HERSKOVITS. 1923-1926
No. Mean
18 years to 24 years, 11 months
20 years to 24 years, 11 months
248
171
159.4
159.8
579
248
159.5
159.4
The apparent stability of the stature of the female Negro
adnlt is in striking contrast to the secular increase in stature
of the Negro children from 1900 to 1941. This can possibly be
explained"" by the unfavorable circumstances in which the
Negro grows up. We know of environmental improvements
reeently introduced in behalf of infants and school children,
but \ve^ do not know of any permanent, systematic care ex-
tended to the Negroes during the period of the entire growth
cvcle.
However, in evaluating what appears to be a secular in-
crease in stature among Negro children from 1900 to 1941 and
also what seems to be a stability in stature among Negro
adults between 1923 to 1941, one has to take into account the
uncertainty of the provenience of the population. The compo-
sition of tbe various series may be quite different. For ex-
ample, we know that Negroes from Cuba and those from Porto
Rico are not derived from the same African sources. Un-
fortunately, the material on band precludes a clarification as
to the racial comparability of the various series.
In my opinion the criteria for comparability of Herskovits'
and my data, established both before and after my study are :
1. Homogeneity of overt physical characteristics.
2. Wide geographic heterogeneity of birth.
3. Situs of the studies : New York City.
4. Cross section of all social and economic groups repre-
sented.
5. Relative secular stability in regard to the subsistence
level, in comparison to other population sectors.
6. Great instability of residence in any given locality.
7. Apparent lack of Infiltration of white blood.
The favorable Intervention of philanthropy and public
health have not as vet eifected any secular stabilization up-
ward of the final stature of the Negro. Secular stability of
final stature could be deduced from the data on band, pro-
viding further rationale for comparability, although this a
posteriori reasoning may also be interpreted from the pomt
of view of coincidence.
In interpreting the rhythm of growth as a phenomenon ir-
respective of racial considerations, the essential point is the
diiferentiation between two aspects of growth. On the one
band there are the effects of acceleration of development.» On
the other band we know from studies of various investigators
on Whites that the total adult population has increased in
stature. In other words, there must be one factor which is
due to acceleration and which has no effect upon the final
stature and another dement which leads to the general in-
crease in stature regardless of acceleration.
As far as the Negroes are concerned, the present material
does not suggest a physiologically determined increase of the
» Boas '3" page 324, points out that individuals of the same social environment
Show quite different rates of growth due to acceleration and retardation which
lead to the same adult stature.
I»
N
IHK^
NUMUn AS MU'IIKLSON
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
209
final staluro iluriiiu' tho most rivtMil pcriod ol* tirrio. It seems
to be satV Xo com'liuio that tlio iiuToasc in stature of the Xegro
cluklren wlio lia\ o booii mulcv llic liy,i»i('Tiic and nutritional
nianauviuoiit o( tlio nopartinriit o\' llcaltli, caii at least in part
be attributod to this ouviroiuiu^ilal facloi- and that we are
possibly doaliug- with au aocolorated growth. Whether the
samo individiials will at tlio ond of tlieir growth cycle excel in
heiülit ovor tho adult staturo ot" provious generations, is an
open quostion.
A complicatod aspoct would be the probable stifling of an
initially favorablo develo]nnent on account of a lack of lasting
beneiicial environmental factors, since deprivation during the
years of adolescenee or later, may possibly annul the ad-
vantage gained in infancy or childhood. All these issues need
further clarifieation, which eannot be done without long-rancre
consecutive Observation? and control studies.
A NOTE ON THE ADULT 8TATURE OF THE MALE AMERICAN NEGRO.
WITH SPECIAL REFEREXCE TO ARMY ANTHROPOMETRY
In view of the seeming lack of secular change in the adult
female Xegroes I tried to utilize the statistics of the AVar
Department on the statures of the Civilian Conservation
Corps in order to obtain an answer to the question of whether
the present adult male stature differs from that of previons
generations. The data are given in table V,].^''
The enrollees of Ihr- CCC rcrircscnt schvted material in
view of restrictions as to tbe stature prior to eurollment.
Moreover, tbe present tabubition of the (HV fmure^ doe^ not
separate the Southern l'rom tbe Nnyihvm population and
apphes to Negroes fro.u ail scctioris ol* tli(> United Stato< a^
was pointed out to tbe aulbor in n counnunicaliou from'the
War Dejjartmcnt.
The cxelusion In.i.i 1l„. CCC. «.Tics „f n,i.l..rsi/.,>,l mon -uul
the comhinatio.i of .la(,-. ..I.Ijhm.mI „i, „„.„ „r .liiiVrouI -.oo
-raphicon^nn,m,<h.,s,M.,,n,.,ris.M, h..|w..n, (l,is..on.nilation
and older studies uni-cbabb».
"I am iiidebted to Col. Ino W. M<r|i;,„ ,,1' ili,. tuw. ,• .1 .,
these data. ' >'^'- '•MI... SmKoon Gouoral for
The validity of a comparison of the measurements which
Gould (1869) obtained on Colored soldiers of the Civil War
with Herskovits' measurements in the years 1923 to 1926,
depends on several criteria. The men of the Civil War were
admitted without limitation as to height and represent a
northern Negro population. How^ever, the generation meas-
nred by Herskovits is a population of a more homogeneons
nature than that of their ancestors of the Civil War period.
TABLE 13
Negro enrollees in Civilian Conservation Corps: mean heigliis ly age group at
entrance into the Corps (men äischarged between April 1, 1938
and March 1, 1940).
ACE
URBAN
RURAIj
No.
Mean
No.
Mean
17
579
170.3
229
171.3
18
1001
171.1
678
171.5
19
919
170.9
747
172.2
20
649
171.9
660
172.2
21
432
172.0
519
172.8
22
379
171.5
405
173.0
. 23
218
172.0
227
171.9
24
65
172.6
52
172.6
25-28
40
169.9
23
174.0
Total
4282
171.3
3540
172.2
Note: Urban is defined by Bureau of the Census as that population residing in
a closed Community of 2,500 or more persons, the remainder being classified as rural.
There were more pure Negroes, more first generation mulat-
toes and more people with a greater admixture of Indian
blood in the earlier than in the later period. Additional
factors are continuous migrations from the South of the
United States, from the West Indies, and from South Amer-
ica, to the North of the United States; the influx of rural
inhabitants to the northern urban regions and the fusion of
the nügrant populations w^ith those already settled in the
North. How^ever, the nineteenth Century northern* urban Com-
munity had a higher rural character than that of the twentieth
Century and this environmental f actor may have had a bearing
on the population, including stature. •
210
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
211
11'
Witli all the above mentioned reservations in niind, one may
compare Gould's and Herskovits' lieight measurements. For
the age group 20 to 24 years old, Gould obtained the average
of 66.81 inches, i.e., 169.74 cm. Herskovits obtained 171.1 cm.,
wliich amomits to an increase of 1.4 cm. in favor of the later
born generation. It is an open question whether that figure
has any real meaning.
The height measurements made by Davenport and Love on
6454 Xegro recruits of the First World War can, unfor-
tunately, not be conipared with the 7822 Negroes of the CCC.
Even assuniing that the exclusion of too small or too over-
sized men applied equally to ])oth series, there still remains
the fact that the series of Davenport and Love contains mainly
men belonging to the southern popnlation while the CCC series
is a combination of southern and northern Negroes, their
distribution not being specified in the statistics on band.
At this time we lack a sufificient number of comparative data
enabling us to determine whether there is a recent increase in
stature of the male adult Negro. Any conclusions in this
respect can be arrived at only by indirection.
Melville J. Herskovits, as it was already mentioned, ob-
tained for male Negroes, 20 to 24 years old (286 cases), the
average height of 171.1 cm., ± 6.3. This value, obtained li
decades ago, corresponds to the average height of the urban
CCC Population 18 years of age. Does this signify a real
excess in stature in favor of the later born generation wbich
has not as yet finished its growth cycle? Cross-sectional
measurements to be performed on unselected populations, mav
answer the question whether a secular increase in the Negroes'
adult stature is occurring in our era. With the iniprovement
of environmental factors such a physiological change is a
possibility.
It is obvious that the War Departments statistics on
stature, cited in this paper, are not conclusive on account of
the height limitations which determine the type of the source
material. A comparable norm representing the average
stature of the southern as well as the northern Negro popuia-
tion was not furnished by Love and Davenport nor by the
Civilian C^onservation Corps. It appears that, from the point
of view of obtaining valid statistics on stature, the method-
ology of Army Anthropometry is in need of revision.
This can be realized by an improvement in the practice of
assembling data and by more rigid Statistical methods. One
procedure would be to induce the Draft Boards to record the
measurements of the rejected, undersized individuals. Cor-
rections of the data as given now can be made, allowmg for
the failure to report on the rejected material, provided their
total number is given ; but such corrected values will never be
quite satisfactory.
As far as the tabulation of the statures of draft recruits
is concerned, a temporary Variation of height Standards oc-
curring during one and the same war must be heeded ; and it
goes without saying that the source material must be classi-
fied in accordance with the place of nativity of the subjects
nnder studv.
In my opinion, the minimal prerequisites for Classification
of source material are: separate tabulation of statures of
Negroes born and remained in any given locality; migrants to
that localitv classified as to age at migration ; place or places,
if any, of ' intervening migration and length of stay; life
history of the individual with respect to participation in social
and economic groups, public health and philanthrophy. It
must be noted here that the above prerequisites somewhat
overstep the limits of Army anthropology, which nevertheless,
might possibly reorient itself in terms of the program out-
lined herein.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
1 A correlation between the rhythm of growth and the
onset of puberty of Negro females is in conf ormity with sim-
ilar observations made on Whites by other investigators.
2 Negro children measured in the Riverdale Orphanage,
New Yo^'rk, showed an increase in stature between the years
1900 and 1940. The cause of this could not be determmed.
r
I
o-j.)
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
I '
t I
I:
3. Xegro infaiits who bave been under the dietary regime
of the Department of Health, New York City, showed an in-
crease in stature as compared with corresponding age groups
stndied two decades prior (K. M. Woodbury). It is probable
that the increase fomid in the later born series is due to the
environmental factor. The higher statures of the supervised
group may be the result of accelerated growth. It cannot be
predicted whether an increase in the adult stature, i.e., a
physiologieal change, will take place in the supervised groups
at the completion of the growth cycle.
4. In spite of the recent increase in stature of Negro
children, the latter are smaller than the corresponding age
groups of Whites of the same generation.
5. The present adult female Negro population in New York
City appears to be of the same stature as the adult female
Negro Population measured in New York City during the
years 1923 through 1926 by M. J. Herskovits. fhis is in con-
trast to the secular increase in the final stature of female
Whites of New York City as observed for the corresponding
generation.
6. In interpreting the components of growth factor s as a
whole, two aspects must be differentiated. First, factors
which lead either to retardation or acceleration of growth,
neither exerting any infiuence on tlio final stature. Second,'
another dement which effects an increase in the adult stature
among succeeding generations, regardless of retaixlation or
acceleration during the process of growth.
7. It Stands to reason that the lack of an inci-ease in the
adult stature of the Negro may be due to a lack of long lastino-
environmental improvenients. However, this ]iv])otlierical con"^
sideration must also be weighed against another, as yet not
clarified factor; namely, in the Negro the stabilitv in lihvsical
characteristies might possibly be greator llian in' AVliites
8. Army anthropology could conti-ibnio to n study of the
adult male Negro stature provided an adequatc niethodoloo-v
IS used. This has reference to selection and classific.ition of
materml, Statistical approach and evalnation of d^ta
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
LITEEATURE CITED
213
BALDWIN, BIKD T., LAURA M. BUSBY AN. H^EN Y^ GAKSII>E ^^f ^—
growth of children. Univ. Iowa Studies, First Senes, ^o 164 88 pp.
BOAS, FRANZ 1932 Studies in growth. Human Biology, vol. 4. pp _307-3oO
__:__ 1935 The tempo of growth of fratermties. Proc. Nat. Acad. bei.,
vol. 21, pp. 413-418.
1940 a Race, Language and Culture. New York.
. . 1940 b Age changes and secular changes in anthropometric measure-
ments. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., vol. 26, pp. 63-68.
DAVBNPORT, CHARLES B., AND Albert G. Love 1921 Army anthropology. Wash
GO.I., B. TTm^' S^nitary Memoirs of the War of the Eebellion. U. S. Sani-
fnrv Kommission, New York. ,
H.asKOV,TS M."vT..K .1. 1930 The anthropometry of the A.er.can Negro.
STEWART, T. D. 1943 Food and phj-sique. Ann. Am. Acad. Poht. Soc. Sei.,
WOODBVRV "f'Z 1921' ■ Statures and weights of children under 6 years of age.
'coinity Child Weltare. Ser. 3, Children 's Bureau Publ., no. 87,
117 pp.
Michelson, Nicholas
1943. Studies in the physical development of Negroes. II. Weight.
Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., N. S. v. 1, no. 3, September. .
Physical anthropology
Physiology — growth
Negro, White
PBISS 07
THB WI8TAB INSTITUTE
OF ANATOMT AND BIOLOaT
PHIIiADBIiPHIA, PA.. U.S.A.
Reprinted from the American Journal of Physica^ Anthropology
Vol. 1. N.S.. No. 3, September, 1943
m
STUDIES IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF NEGROES
II. WEICHT
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
DeparUnefit of Anthropology, Columbia üniversity, New YorTc
INTRODUCTION
Weight, a commonly iised measure of the nutritional status
and geiieral well-being of the Infant, can be accurately and
conveniently obtained at early ages. Snrveys on older indi-
viduals are often complicated by the f actor of clothing. More-
over, when evaluating the average weight of a series derived
from adults, one encounters a variability of rather wide ränge,
and this necessitates a very great number of cases in any com-
parative investigation. Therefore, the present report is re-
stricted to observations made on infants under two years of
age.
My data represent consecutive observations on Negroes and
Whites. The measurements on Negroes were obtained in the
Harlem clinics of the Department of Health, New York City.
The data on Whites were furnished by Dr. NelUe Marmor
from her ofifice records. In view of her long affiliation with
these clinics and knowledge of their dietary regime she could
apply the latter to the children seen in her private practice.
Thus, at least one common factor, the mode of nutrition, en-
hanced to a certain degree the comparability between the ma-
terial on both races.
All weights were taken without clothes.
I have compared the material assembled by myself in 1935-
1936 with that collected Ih decades prior by R. M. Woodbury
('21), and I have arranged the latter 's figures in the same
289
h- '■
290
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
manner as my own, using intervals of 3 months for successive
age groups. By this procedure tlie averages calculated trom
the older study were r endered comparable witli tliose of my
spriGS
The f ollowini>' problems are being dealt with in this section :
1 Seasonal Variations in birth weights. This problem is
linked with the question of whether, or to what degree, the
maternal organism responds to natural environmental condi-
tions which could possibly modify the birth weight.
2 The Problem of the smaller birth weight of the Negroes,
relative to the birth weight of Whites. Such aspects as possible
racial differences in size or position of the pregnant uterus,
birth Order, immature birth, age of the mother and economic
Status are included in the discussion.
3. The secuta r increase in weight among White and Negro
children.
4. Comparison of weight increment between mfants ot both
races raised on an identical diet.
A note regarding rickets among Negroes m New York ( ity
is appended.
THE PROBLEM OF SEASONAL VARL^TION AS EXPRESSED
BY THE WEIGHT OF THE NEW-BORN
In view of the acceleration of growth in winter, it is interest-
ing to see whether children born in different seasons of the
year show a different birth weight. It is usually assumed that
the more rapid growth of children during the winter months
is caused by the cumulative effect of sun exposure during the
preceding season. Therefore the question arises whether the
growth Stimulus exerted by sun radiation is transmitted
through the expectant mother to the unborn child.
To Investigate this problem T availed myself of a uniform
sample of children born to mothers living in Hartem, New
York City, and having the same prenatal care at the same De-
partment of Health district, all belonging to a homogenous
colored stock. This study showed the weight of children born
in each of the four seasons to be the same (table 1).
GROWTH IN NEGROES. II WEIGHT
TABLE 1
Weight in Miogram at birth according to season: Female Negro infants}
291
TIME OF BIRTH
Dec, Jan., Feb.
Mareh, April, May
June, July, August
Sept., Oct., Nov.
NO.
157
106
94
93
MEAN
VARIABILITY
3.17
± .47
3.12
± .52
3.20
± .56
3.12
± .45
» These data cover a period of several years leading up to 1936.
The literature on seasonal birth weights contains contra-
dictory reports. Brenton ('22), Hellmuth ('28), Bakwin and
Bakwin ( '29, '34) found a seasonal stability in birth weight.
In contrast to the findings of these investigators and those re-
ported in the present study, Adersen (1899) observed higher
birth weights in infants born during the cold months; Hansen
( '13) in those born in the fall ; Abels ( '26) in those born during
the summer; and Li ('36) in those conceived in the autumn.
Peterson and Mayne ( '43) concur with Li 's opinion.
On the basis of their material, Peterson and Mayne con-
cluded, among other things, the following: first, that the per-
iods of lesser or greater sun spot activity influence seasonal
Variation of birth weight, the variability in habitus (weight to
length ratio) showing crests corresponding to periods of
greater sun spot activity; second, that climatic conditions of
Short duration, such as warm temperature at the time of con-
ception, will cause relatively heavy and sliort offspring re-
gardless of season.
In Order to support the first hypothesis, one would have to
obtain seasonal birth weights for successive years covering
many decades, with the view to demonstrating a consistent
correlation between stability in seasonal birth weights and
periods of lesser sun spot activity, on the one band ; and be-
tween seasonal variations in birth weights and periods of
greater sun spot activity, on the other. Tlie second finding by
Petersen and Mayne cited herein and presented by them as a
cause and effect relationship, is open .to criticism since the
authors admit the lack of dietary records at the time of con-
ception. Moreover, the possible effects of diet during preg-
292
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
GROWTH IX NEGROES. II WEICHT
293
nancy has apparently not been evaluated statistically f or tlieir
entire study (wliicli was carried out in Chicago on infants born
froml928to 1939).
If the views of Petersen and Mayne can be substantiated by
further investigations, there arises the question whether
habitus as influenced in utero (eithor by long-range events
such as periods of solar turbulence alternating with decreased
sun spot activity, or by short-range cosmic events such as
changes in temperature and barometer pressure) will be fol-
lowed by a corresponding trend in body proportions later
in lif e.
Probing into problems of this kind would necessitate con-
sideration of the habitus of the offspring in relation to that
of the family type, and this is not possible without measuring
several successive generations.
In principle, one particular methodological aspect must be
heeded when interpreting those findings which do present sea-
sonal variations, namely, although a Statistical examination
of such material may not preclude a mathematical correlation
between seasonal variability in birth weight and cyclic solar
events or meteorological data, the latter should not injudici-
ouslv be incriminated as causative factors of the former. In
other words, a clear distinction must be maintained between a
quantitatively correlatable set of figuies (a Statistical pro-
cedure) and a qualifying conclusion deduced from them (an
evaluating process). This line of reasoning is being stressed
because the problem of seasonal Variation in birth weight
ought to imply the possibility of uncorrelated factors which
must be accounted f or. It would be enough to ignore one single
factor of that kind (for example, the influence of diet which
may be operative in affecting birth weight) and a correlation
between hypothetical factors of an entirely different order
(solar phenomena or atmospheric fluctuations) and birth
weight variabilities could accidentally yield a semblance of
Statistical validity. However, calculations of that sort, if used
to characterize a causal relationship, can become not only in-
conclusive but may serve to propound debatable conclusions.
{
Therefore, one must be cautious with assertions that a dem-
onstration of seasonal differences in birth weights and their
Statistical relation to solar and terrestrial data prove a pre-
natal modification of genetic trends by such environmental in-
fluences as sun spot turbulence and weather conditions. By
inadvertently linking that which appears to be a mathematical
relationship with a biological conjecture the investigator may
miss the point which he set out to ascertain.
To sum up, Statistical procedures which tend to reveal cor-
relations more or less carefully established, must be clearly
and sharply distinguished from the demonstrations of causal
relationships. A correlation however carefully and thoroughly
grounded can never be completely freed of the charge of coin-
cidence. Considerations of probability can not be admitted
side by side into a discussion of causal relationships because
of the exclusive character of causal thought procedure, where-
as probalistic statements always permit of alternatives.
These remarks are intended neither to prove nor refute the
ideas of Petersen and Mayne: '^Modification of the condition
of the maternal body fluids and tissues in which the early de-
velopment of the embryo takes place leads to the realization
of tho importance thorein implied in modifying genetic trends
during the early and very critical stages of development";
and again: ''The environmental impacts at the approximate
time of conception can modify tlie physical characteristics of
the newborn."
A confusion of terms is evident here. "Genetic" implies
that which is inherited. If these trends are to be modified,
then it must be shown secularly over a period of many genera-
tions. If, on tlie other band, by modification of genetic trend is
meant change in one individual cyclo, thon at least two genera-
tions of unitary origiiimust be studied.
Petersen and Mayne have nsod only cross-sectional moasure-
ments in connection with the thesis which tho title of their
papor iiulicates; and in my opinion their investigation on
seasonal variations in birth weight has not clarifiod the en-
2.94
^'ICHOLAS MICHELSO.V
vironnieiit-]ieror],-f,.
^erhaps aJI the 7\«n.
TOB „,,,,, „,,^^^ ^^
those nf Wu; , ^ °'*. '"3 930-1 ')•.'! ^eights of
oft LI Mvfi">™ ^" ^i-«^ -^«^ City a„J •'" f «'»^•^'y bolow
a rac ,ai eharacteri.stie ' ^"*''' "'="3 of the lYeoro
\» Order to come neare,- t'
-»^ö Liio Uterus nf ih
"aiiev? Ha« H , '"*^ woman at Hm .., "*' ''anie
- ""«:«■: ::'^; '»- 4t.:'::, %s::;'7 »r
index for tho 7, . '^ '^°"''' ^'•"'1 tho 2Tfn ' "'"''"'''tal
-^- fc>ince birth weio-),+.. •
«nd decrea.se thereafte rf""'''^ "^ *» tbe sivt), ,.,.
'n the pubJioatio,, b R 'l ^ '"' ''•'f^'-^'H.e.s see tJ e n r ''"'"'^
J-acial study ou."h '''''"" ""^I Bakwin '^4 '"''''"^'-«Pliy
^ ^ ou^htto parallel weig],t.sofi;.,'t^''""'"'Parative
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r
GROWTH IX XEGROES. II WEIGHT
295
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NiCHcLAS MlCHKLyoN
GROWTH IN NEGROES. II WEIGHT
297
I
ot • 2 '^ "7.- -lH..ns ,„• tlH> o,l,o,- .-aee (as Bakwin and
flHs p.oeedan.. „, cdor to ),o .om-lusive, .sbo„ld .u.t l.o eon
3. Tbe pi-obability of a bigh ineidence of immature births
weit! r,,r'\ rf ' ^'""P««'^--'' '-aeial study on birth
rrSi asneft : r '■' "! "^J '^^ ^'^•^ ^° «^^^ain „Material
"11 ima aspect ot the present study.
4. Social faetors have to be "Jonsidered. The American
wellTo TZlr "" t^--"^^-l socio-economie cTass A
wun lo-cio Population will exooll in «fofi^r^^ xi
tacke,, .,,v„j„,„e„, ,,„, ,,„„ „„„„,,. n,n.,4if;; ,'^;
write. as folLu?- "öf\V »'»f/-""f ««on Tandy ('37)
>ear> of ajfe, n< comparod witb 17 7. nf ihi i / ?
55% of thc. mothers of .Ve.ro infa„,r J 7 t "'"*'•'''•^•
'^aWi. a,. tban a.on. Wbi.es, i^uX^ifuSlVlV;
Tbw was a national «unvv of 240 7rifi v
.'"•^^.'i!. - ^^''^'^ '^"«'■^ "'^'♦'x-'-s nnd 1,844,446 White
i
more reeent, thougli smaller, inquiry made in Birminoliam
and Jefferson County, Alabama, in 1940. Of 887 Negro
mothers 41.8% were tinder 20 years of age, and of 35o white
mothers 25% weve under 20 years of age.
6. Since the Negro population is poorer than the white,
there also arises the question about the nuniher of children in
a family in relation to social condition and to the weight at
birth. As a rule, there are more first-born children among the
well-to-do, more later-born among the poor. A higher propor-
tion of later-born children among the Negroes should result
theoreticallv in a larger number of high birth weights. How-
ever one must also consider the decline in birth weights he-
ginning with the seventh pregnancy (cf. Bakwin and Bakwin,
"^34, pp. 616, 625).
All the above mentioned points are enumerated here for
the mere purpose of showing the limitation of data when they
are collected from a single point of view. Many different as-
peets must be balanced when correlating material dealmg
with a study of birth weights as a possible clue to racial differ-
ences This criticism applies as well to may own data already
referred to in table 2 in which the birth weights are not sepa-
rated aecording to the criteria just mentioned, due to the faet
that the necessary Information was lacking. New-born mtants
of Whites and Negroes are here juxtaposed withont any tur-
ther dilTerentiation, and therefore the results of the conipari-
son are of limited value. However, the lighter birth weight of
the Negro new-borns as compared with white new-borns seems
to be an unchallenged faet, at present.
SECULAB INCEEASE IX WEICHT AMOXG CIIILDKEX
A comparison of the data contained in table 2 with those
-iven in the section on stature shows that these two n.easnres
behave very much alike in infants up to 2 years of age. In
-eneral, children of the 1935-1936 series are heavier, as well
as taller than those measured in 1918-1919. Similarly, Negro
children of 1935-1936 are heavier than white clnldren of New
298
^^C^OhAS MICHELSON
• ^ ^^"^ ^i^v measurod in 1918-1 Qi o a i ^.
tl.at the infa ": ;:/ t r "h ' '^ ^°"^ ('27)-showe"
venera] A.noncan io pop!h " n^T ''"■''^^•- ^^^^ «-
62 montlKs, the Hebrew ehü " f o ^^«»^"'" •■.-)• From 34 to
f-ts of poor ho„.e e^to.« 1' /"f "".^ f-" the ef-
eare of the Institution for n Tl . ^'""''"'^ *"^^» "' the
passed the avorao-e oJ tL ' ^"""^ ""^•^- «^^^ht up and
of the fi...st 2 ve^:- . 't ^tl^N: ^^^^f ^'°"- ^ -™PaH.so
«l'ows that the Ne^^r ei d^f:',? Z"/""'' '' '''' '^ ^^^6
•"ent of Health, New Yo k Cu" T /'^ '''' «^ ""^ ^epart-
of 1927. ^' 1 Ol k C itj , exceeded the Hebrew ehildren
Weights obtained in the vears 1935 igo. , ^
Marmor from white infant« :^'''\y'"'~^^^(^ hy Dr. xVeOie
the Negro series fmm tl n ^''* "P °" *''^ ««me diet as
the highest vlSr^h rehnZlTT "^^ ^'^" ^""^^ '^^^
elass whose parents are be tt to 1 t^ ''" '°"*^'- "^'^'^"^
and Neg,o i„f,„,t.s. (Jt was men *''" V''"^^' «^ ^''*^ hebrew
fants of mi.x-ed white deslent T T'^ ^'^'^'^ that these in-
"'-' in 1919 by /oodb" ■ The " ''""; *'"•'" "'°- ™--
D.-. Marmor 's series mav J "'""""' "^""''^ ^'«h^es of
deucy to increase sSture am?";!'^' '"•■' ''''' '^>' *'- te
eo.nn.ttant with th^^-™ If^' til: ''"'^•"•^^'"" --
sta u.s ; secondly, by the additional f-,eto. nf f^^o-eeonomie
regime as advoeated by the De - f ? '' '"'"*'«'" ^««^tarv
Jo.-kCity. Third,y,anL:iTerar :: ;;"^"^^ ^^ ^^^w
the fnture final stature, must be kep in J ' '"'''^''''''''-'^ ot
expect larger weights in ehild.on .,f fi . " "'"^^'^ """^ ^av
ated growth. This eons d ratiön V , "'' "' ''''''■ ''<--'-•-
-easured dnring the niore rte't peS"^ ^" •^" ^'^ --«
OROWXH IN NEGEOES. 11 WEICHT
THE WEIGHT INCREMEXT
299
Comparing the increment pattern for the white serx3s of
Dr. Marmor with that of the Negro series from the Harlem
clinics, a marked similarity is notieeable (table 2). Apparently
we are dealing liere with an aiialogous ten.po of growtli in
Mants of both raees. Moreover, it is probable that the same
dietary regime mav have been eausative in effeeting a syn-
chronous acceleration in growth among both eontemporary
populations.
THE 1X(^II)ENCE OF RICKETS
In 1936, in conjunction with Dr. Herbert R. Edwainls, Di-
reetor of the Bureau of Tuberculosis, Department ot Health,
New York Citv, some Negro infants of the Harlem ( luucs
were studied by Dr. Jacque M. Lewis from the point ot view
of riekets. There were few cases of rlckets detected, about
2% The author was given the privilege of examinmg about
lüOÜ roentgenograms of the hands of Negro ehildren previous-
Iv studied bv Dr. Lewis, and can confirm Ins fmd.ngs. AMnle
the elimination of riekets by the administered v.tamm is a
well known faet, its possible responsibility for an excess of
o-rowth is still a matter of researeh, and I reiterate that T am
not prepared to render any opinion on any smgle factor as to
its deeisive effect on the rhythm of growth.
SI'MMARY AMI OONOHTSIONS
1 The average birth wcight of Negroes born in New York
City was one and the same for the different seasons of the
^ ""in view of the absenee of seasonal variations in the birth
weights, a solar influenee on the unborn, via the expeetant
mother appeared to be improbable in the series studied.
2 The birth weight of Negroes is smaller than that ot
AVh'ites This corroborates the findings of other investigators.
3 Neo-ro infants who have been nnder the dietary regime
of'the Department of Health, New York City, showed an in-
crease in weight (and stature) as compared with eorrespond-
f
I
;3()0
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
iiig" age groups nieasured two decades prior (by R. M. Wood-
bury). It is probable that the increase found in tbe later boni
series is due to tbe environmental factors. Tbe bigber weigbts
(and statures) of tbe supervised gronps may be tbe result of
accelerated growtb.
4. Tbe increment pattern for weigbt is very similar for
Wbites and Negroes brougbt np on tbe same dietary regime.
Tbis may be deduced from tbe follow-up material embracing
tbe period from birtb to tbe second year of life.
5. A survey on rickets nndertaken in 1935 by tbe Depart-
ment of Healtb, New York City, disclosed tbat tbis defieiency
disease bad been reduced to about 2%.
LITERATURE CITED
Study of Records of Cases Discharged from Maternity Clinics in Birmingham
AND Jefferson County FOR 1940. p. 3. (Compiled by the Division of
Child Hygiene and Pu])lic Health Nursing).
aBELS, H. 1926 Weight at birth and vitamins, according to piiblications from
years 1923-1925. Arch. f. Kindern, vol. 78, p. 187.
Adersen, H. 1899 Nord. Med. Ark., N. F., vol. 10, p. 24.
Bakwin, H. 1932 The Negro infant. Human Biology, vol. 4, pp. 1-33.
Bakwin, H., and R. M. Bakwin 1929 Seasonal variations in the weight loss of
new-borns. Am. J. Obstet, and Gynec, vol. 18, p. 863.
1934 Body build in infants. V. Anth'roponietry in the new-born.
Human Biol., vol. 6, pp. 612-626.
Boas, Franz 1927 Eruption of deciduous teeth among Hebrew infants. J. Dent.
Res., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 245-253.
Brenton, H. 1922 Climate and raee as factors influencing the weight of the
newborn. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., vol. 5, pp. 237-249.
Hanson, J. H. 1913 Meddel f. Anthrop. Kom. Copenhagen.
Hellmuth, K. 1928 Sind jahreszeitliche Schwankungen der Geburtsgewichte
statistisch nachweisbar? Ztschr. f. Geburtsh. u. Gynäk., vol. 93, pp.
147-166.
Li, T. A. 1936 Seasonal Variation of birth weight of newborn. J. Pediat., vol.
8, pp. 459-469.
Petersen, Wm. F., and Alvin Mayne 1943 Cytoplasmic modifications of genetie
trends. J. Am. Med. Assoc, vol. 121, pp. 929-930. (Also reprint with
additions, 32 pp.)
Tandy, Elizabeth G. 1937 Infant and mate'rnal mortality among Negroes.
U. S. Department of Labor, Children's Bureau, Publication no. 243
Washington, D. C, 34 pp.
Woodbury, R. M. 1921 Statures and weights of children under 6 years of age.
U. S. Department of Labor, Community Child Weifare Series no. 3
Children's Bureau Publ. no. 87, Washington, D. C, 117 pp.
II
Michelson, Nicholas
1943. Studies in the physical development of Negroes.
III. Cephalic index.
Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., N. S. v. 1, no. 4, December.
Physical anthropology
Anatomy — skeletal System
Negro
PBMSS OIP
THK WIBTAR INSTITUTE
OV ANATOMY AND BIOI.Of»T
pwTT.AnniT.PHTA. PA.. U.« A.
Reprinted from the American Journal of Physical Anthropolooy
Vol. 1. N.S.. Xo. 4. Deceinhcr. 194:!
STUDIBS IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF NEGROES
III. CEPHALIC INDEX
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
Department of Anthropology, Columbia TJniversity, New York
INTRODUCTION
The cephalic index (breadth X 100/length) measures the
shape rather than size of the head. However, the g-rowth in
shape is of considerable anthropological interest. In point
of fact, there does not exist as yet a statistically valid foUow
up series on adults remeasured over a protracted period of
time up to old age and permitting a conclusive answer to the
question of whether the size and shape of the head do change
during the entire life span.
All my data on this index represent single measurements.
I made head measurements on Wliites^ and Negroes in
New York during 1935 and again on Negroes in 1941. The
material of my older Negro series, representing an unselected
Population, was obtained from the foUowing sources : The
Colored Orphans Asylum, Riverdale, New York; the clinics
of the Harlem Health Center and Harlem Hospital; two
public schools ; such organizations as the Y.W.C.A., the Urban
League and Girl Scouts ; and the Municipal Lodging House, all
of New York City. Visits were also made to Negro homes in
a study of siblings.
The series of 1941 includes only individuals who were under
the dietary regime of the Plealth Department of New York
City, from birth to 4 years of age and over. The idea under-
^ The findings on Whites are not tabulated in the present study. See Boas,
('35, '40).
417
TABLE 1
Average cephalio index of Negroes by age.
418
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
lying this selection was the view, held by iiiany observers,
that not until 4 years of age do the head proportions become
fairly stabilized.
The observations of 1935 are giveii in table 1 both compared
and conibined with those of Melville J. Herskovits ('30) ; and
my findings of 1941 are compared with Herskovits' material
in table 3.
In the present study, the following problems receive atten-
tion: (1) The change in the cephahc index from infancy to
adulthood; (2) the difference in sex; (3) general comparison
between Whites and Negroes; (4) attempts to determine
whether secular changes ean be noticed in niy material of 1935
and 1941 by comparing these series with Herskovits' measure-
ments of 1923 to 1926.
AGE, SEX AND KACE DIFFEKENCES IN THE CEPHALIC INDEX
By eombining my 1935 data with those of Herskovits the
average cephalic index by age of the Negro can be shown for
the whole life span from early infancy to adult age (table 1).
Here the gradual decrease of the cephalic index is apparent.
The sexual dilferentiation of the index among Negroes is
about the same as among Whites. For Negro adults there is
an excess of the cephalic index in females as compared with
males, amountmg to .7. For white adults the difference is .6
in favor of the females (Boas, '10).
SECULAR CHANGES
In 1941 the author took head measurements on ninety-three
Negro children between the ages of 4 and 7 whose diet since
their infancy had been supervised by the Department of
Health Clinics in Harlem, New York City. All of these chil-
dren were born in New York City, and 47 7© of their parents
had migrated to New York from the southern states. The
parental composition as to the place of nativity is given for
the entire series in table 2.
d
ü
AGB
4- 5
5- 6
6- 7
7- 8
8- 9
9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18 overl
MIOHEI^SOX
1935
N
Mean | Sigma
HERSKOVITS
1923-1926
N Mean Sigma
MICHEIjSON &
HERSKOVITS
COMBINED
EIXOES8
OVER
SIGMA
N
Mean Sigma
Male
Days
1- 89
13
80.7
• • • •
• • • •
• • ■ •
13
80.7
■ • ■ •
90-179
62
84.2
±5.95
• • • •
• • • •
• • • •
62
84.2
±5.95
180-269
38
84.3
±5.46
• • • •
• ■ • •
• • • •
38
84.3
±5.46
270-359
33
83.5
±4.33
• • • •
• • • •
• ■ • •
33
83.5
±4.33
Years
1- 2
56
80.4
• • • •
11
81.2
±4.11
67
80.53
....
2- 3
• • •
• • • •
• • • •
24
79.3
±3.22
24
79.30
±3.22
3- 4
• • •
• • • •
■ • • •
31
78.5
±4.16
31
78.50
±4.16
4- 5
• • •
• • • •
• • • •
54
78.4
±4.22
5i
78.40
±4.22
5- 6
39
79.42
±3.76
52
79.0
±3.69
91
79.18
±3.73
6- 7
41
78.55
±3.65
138
79.1
±3.98
179
78.97
±3.91
7- 8
25
76.94
±8.14
168
78.2
±3.60
193
78.04
±3.57
8- 9
19
79.29
±3.72
175
78.3
±3.86
194
78.40
±3.86
9-10
25
77.98
±3.96
1 166
78.2
±3.72
191
78.17
±3.75
10-11
29
77.05
±4.80
; 16 ^
78.1
±3.58
193
77.9-
±3.72
11-12
28
77.15
±4.91
206
77.7
±3.37
234
77.63
±3.59
12-13
33
77.62
±4.13
232
77.9
±3.60
26".
77.87
±3.67
13-14
38
78.08
±3.71
301
77.6
±3.42
339
77.65
±3.46
14-15
41
77.60
±3.32
! 257
78.1
±3.55
298
78.03
±3.52
15-16
28
75.39
±3.56
192
77.8
±3.12
320
77.49
±3.21
16-17
5
76.50
• • • •
68
77.3
±3.27
73
77.25
• • • •
17-18
9
77.00
• • • •
47
76.9
±3.59
1 ^^
76.90
• • • •
18 over
57
76.87
±2.59
1060
77.04
±3.44
! 1117
77.03
±3.40
Female
Days
1- 89
6
90-179
63
180-269
51
270-359
36
Years
1- 2
65
2- 3
...
3- 4
1
...
32
31
25
21
23
23
23
21
8
15
10
8
3
409
81.7
. . • «
• • • •
83.1
±5.13
....
• • • •
84.2
±5.66
. . . •
• • • •
• • . .
82.5
±4.14
....
• • • •
• • ■ •
81.4
• • • •
5
80.5
• • • •
• ■ • •
19
77.9
±3.38
■ • • •
36
80.0
±4.27
• • • •
• • • •
23
78.3
±3.27
79.81
±4.07
62
78.7
±3.83
78.40
±4.23
78
78.55
±3.33
79.66
±4.84
96
78.9
±3.56
77.78
±4.31
78
78.55
±3.95
78.76
±3.18
55
77.4
±3.13
77.94
±2.86
52
77.4
±3.49
76.59
±3.06
52
77.35
±2.52
77.65
±3.82
61
77.4
±3.01
77.12
• • • •
44
77.7
±3.27
78.37
• ■ • •
50
77.3
±3.79
77.20
• • • •
69
77.5
±3.13
77.87
• • • •
104
77.4
±2.94
77.17
• • • •
125
77.6
±3.26
77.51
±2.88
1260
77.73
±3.04
6
63
51
36
70
19
36
23
94
109
121
99
78
75
75
85
52
6")
79
112
128
1669
81.7
83.1
84.2
82.5
81.34
77.9
80.0
78.3
79.08
78.51
79.06
78.39
77.80
77.57
77.12
77.-^6
77.61
77.55
77.46
77.43
77.59
77.68
±5.13
±5.66
±4.14
±3.38
±4.27
±3.27
±3.95
±3.61
±3.87
±4.04
±3.16
±3.37
±2.72
±3.23
3.00
+ .8
— 1.4
-f-l.'')
- .1
— .1
— .5
+ 1.1
0
— .4
— .3
— .5
— .5
— .1
— .4
0
+ .1
+ .7
+ .7
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
TABLE 2
Birthplace of parents producing series measiired in 1941
Botli parents borii in North
One born in North, one in South
One born in North, one in West Indies or Virgin Islands
One born in North, one in Central or South America
Both parents born in South
One born in South, one in West Indies or Virgin Islands
One born in South, one in Central or South America
Both parents born in Central or South America
13
9
6
1
38
2
4
20
No. of cliildren 93
TABLE 3
Average cephalio index hy age of Negroes from Neic YorTc on
three different examinations.
AGB
'lERSKOVITS-l
No. Mean
923-26'
Sigma
Mal"
MIOHEIjSON
No. Mean
-1935
Sigma
MlCHELiSON-1941
No. Mean Sigma
4 y.-4 y. 11 m.
5 y -^ y. 11 m.
6y.-6y. lim.
'54
52
138
78.4
79.0
79.1
± 4.2
± 3.7
±4.0
39
41
79.4
78.6
• «
± 3.7
± 3.6
20
16
9
81.4 ± 5.1
79.8 ± 4 2
81.0 ± 2.7
Female
4 y.-4 y. 11 m.
5 y.-5 y. 11 m.
6y.-6 y. 11 m.
23
62
78
78.3
78.7
78.6
±3.3
± 3.8
± 3.3
32
31
79.8
78.4
± 4.0
± 4.2
19
17
12
80.8 ± 4.1
79.9 ± 2.8
81.0 ± 3.7
»From tables on pp. 113, 118 and 124.
Table 3 sliows an increase in tlie average ceplialic index for
tliese cliildren as compared witli tlie nieasurements wliieli
Herskovits niade in 1923 to 1926; and also as compared with
measurements whicli the author made in 1935. Tlie series of
1941 has, all in all, a smaller average lengtli^ and a greater
average widtli of the liead than was found in tlie unselected
Population prior to 1941.
On acconnt of the small nuinber of cases present in my 1941
series exaggerated conclusions should be avoided. I do not
^ An irregularity will be found for the age group 5 years to 5 years eleven
months among males and females. However, this does not affect the general
trend. My measurements are comparable with those of Herskovits since the same
method was used by both.
4
!
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
421
venture more than to state that the particular group of chil-
dren which was selected for a study of possible environmental
influences on headform, show a tendency toward a plasticity
of the head. So far, we know that they were provided with an
optimal type of food; and beyond an assertion of this fact
we cannot undertake any speculative Interpretation of the
phenomenon observed.
As a matter of fact, the significance of these findings be-
comes doubtful wlien tested by rigid Statistical criteria. I
have used as a test the Standard error of the ditference be-
tween two means, according to the formula :
in which
. D = ± V|;' + J = ± V E=. + E=,,
(Tj = Standard deviation of first sample,
0-.J = Standard deviation of second sample,
Nj = number of items in first sample,
Nj = nuniber of items in second samjtle;
and I have regarded the differences between the means as
significant only wlien they exceed tliree tiiiies their respective
errors.
' .)4
To illustrate;
+
5A^
20
= ±1.27 and 78.4 81.4 = —3.
The results of this test are given in table 4 and show that
the difference between mv series of 1941 and that of Hersko-
vits is too small to be considered significant. Therefore, that
which might be a change in the Negro's head form (as brought
TABLE 4
Standard error of difference and difference between the means of
Herskovits ('23 to '26) and Michelson ('41) for the
cephalie index.
ACE IN YEARS
STANDARD ERROR
OF DIKFKRENCK
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
MEANS
Male
4
± 1.27
— 3.0
5
± 1.05
— 0.8
6
± 0.96
Fem die
— 1.9
4
± 1.17
— 2.5
5
± 0.83
1.2
6
± 1.13
— 2.4
ri
I
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
out by table 3) could be due to a factor of chance inhevent in
the series of 1941. „ .„.i :, inadequate to decide
Evidently my niaterial of 1941 is "a^equaie i
whether any kind of change in the cephahc index o/ ^e ^e^ o
has taken place. My reasons for presentmg these data " ^ome
detail, although they are not convincmg, is to draw attention
to the methodological aspeet of the study.
THE CEPHALIC INDEX IN SIBLINGS OF DIFFEEENT NATIVITY
I have investigated also whether environmental factors as
expressed by different birth places, exert an influence on the
cephalic index of the American Negro. The problem ^vas
f ormulated as f ollo^^■s : Is the transplantation of the southern
Negro to the North -for example, to New York City -
accompanied by a change of the head form m the offsprmg
born in the North?
This study, it will be recognized, is akin to those made by
Boas and others on Hebrew immigrants 1-1909 and 1910
Boas ('10) found an average cephahc index of 83.0 tor li.as
European Hebrew immigrants and an average mdex ot 81.4
for their American descendants. In 1935 I found an index of
78 7 for the descendants of American born East European
Jews (Boas, '35). Recently, Dornfeldt ('41) has published a
study on East European Jews and their descendants m Berlm,
Germany, corroborating the Undings of Boas in America.
The present study was carried out on a group of Negro
children of the same parentage,^ but some of the children born
in the South and others in the North. The data on the cephahc
index of these fraternities were corrected to adult, by fittmg
a straight line ' to the averages of each age group. Only chil-
dren over 4 years of age were used for comparison.
= Homo Visits to the rcspective families nnd frank talks with the parents enabled
mo to exclude children of different fathers. •.,.,,,„
* A straight line mav mathematically be fitted to a senes of values if they in-
cr.aso roughly at the ;ame rate from year to year. This is done by the method
of least Squares, ^vhich eonsists of finding that straight hne for wh.ch the sum
of the Squares of the deviations of all the values in the senes .sa mimmum. The
formula is in the form y = ax + b; and a and b are found by «dving sinjul-
taneously the equasions 2fy = Na + bSfx and 2fxy = aSnx - b2fx^ where f is
the number of cases at any one year, and N is the total.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGKOES
423
The results are given in table 5 and show a slightly higher
index in the case of the northeni born males and the reverse
in the case of southern born females. Tims the fraternities
who were born after their parents liad migrated from the
South to the North fail to disclose any difference in the shape
of the head. Though my series is small it indicates that the
new environment did not affect the head form.
The question arises whether the socio-economic status of
the migrated Negro was not a sufficiently potent factor to j
cause a change in headform. Altliough the American born %
descendaiit of tho European immigrant grows up under a very
TABLE 5
Average cephalic iudices (corrected to adult) of Negro children from same family,
some born in North, others in South: Series of 1935.
GROUP
Northern born
Southern born
NO. DP CASES
Males
30
32
OEPHAIilO INDEX
76.77
76.28
SIGMA
±4.18
± 3.03
-
Differenee
-(- .49 (S.E. ± 0.93)
Femolea
Northern l)orn
31
76.60 ± 3.74
Southern hörn
38
76.66 ± 2.8Ö
Differenee — .06 (S.E. ± 0.81
much better envii-omiciit tlian bis paioiits, tlio migrated Negro
is known to be in a less advantageous position. Does the sta-
bility of the poor socio-economic environment express itself
in the stability of the head form!
We do not know which particular environmental factors
are responsible for head plasticity. Tliere are indications,
however, that the tempo of growth is accelerated in any popu-
lation that receives marked improvement in its housing and
feeding. As far as the Negro is concerned, the environmental
improvement may be insufficient in degree or not attainable up
to those years when the cephalic index becomes almost stable,
namelv at about 4 years of age.
\
\
/
424
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
Perhaps oiilv bv coniparing larg'e numbers of Negro chil-
dren who had tlie benefit of special care with those who did not
ean we discover wliether we are dealing with an hereditary
stability of the Negro 's head form or with an artificial sta-
bility accounted for by a lack of fundamental improvement m
environmental factors. The present study uses this approach,
but because of inadequate samples, can be considered only a
beginning.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
1. The decrease of the cephalic index from birth to adult
age is shown for the American Negro.
2. The excess of the female over the male Cephalic Index
is about the same for Whites and Negroes.
3. For the general population of the American Negro the
head form was found to be stähle. Measurements made by the
author in 1935 tallied with those obtained by M. J. Herskovits
in 1923 to 1926.
4. A possible tendency toward a change in the head form
could be detected in 1941 among a group of Negro children
which had been on a scientific dietary regime since early in-
fancy. This suggestive plasticity of the head represents a
deviation from the dolichocephalic and mesocephaUc toward
the brachycephalic type. However, these findings were de-
rived from a small series and tlie results are subject to an
Clement of chance. A control study on a large scale is indi-
cated.
LITERATUKE CITED
Boas Franz 1910 Changes in bodily form of descendants of immigrants. State
Doc. no. 208, 61st Congress, 2nd Session, Washington.
, 1935 The temi)o of growth of frateinities. Proc. Nat. Aead. Sei.,
vol. 21, no. 7, p. 418.
1940 Age changes and secular changes in anthropometric measure-
ments. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., vol. 26, pp. 63-68.
DoRNFELDT WALTER 1941 Studien über Schädelform und Schädelveränderung
von Berliner Ostjuden und ihren Kindern. Zeitschr. f. Morphol. u.
Anthrop., vol. 39, pp. 290-372. (Reviewed in Zentralb. f. ges. Neurol.
u. Psych., vol. 99, 1941, pp. 679-680.)
Herskovits, Melvtli.e J. 1930 The Anthropometry of the American Negro.
New York.
Michelson, Nicholas
1944. Studies in the physical development of Negroes
IV. Onset of puberty.
Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., N. S. v. 2, no. 2, June.
Physical Anthropolog-y
Negro
i
PRBSS OF
THB WISTAB INSTITUTE
OF ANATOMY AND BIOLOGY
PHIIiADKLPHIA, PA., U.S.A.
Reprinted from the American Journal, of Physical. Anthropology
Vol. 2, N.S., No. 2, June, 1944
STUDIES IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
IV. ONSET OF PUBERTY
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New Yorlc
\\
Ir, .
ONE FIGURE
INTRODUCTION
For obvious reasons the study of puberty liad to be confined to
observations on females.
Though the main purpose of the present study was to determine the
time at sexual maturity in Negroes, data on an other race were needed
in Order to Interpret the Negro material. Therefore, Whites were
included in the investigation.
The data on Negroes were collected from 1935 to 1940 at the follow-
ing places, all in or near New York City: St. Benedict 's Home, Rye,
New York ; Colored Orphan Asylum, Riverdale, New York ; clinics of
Harlem Hospital and also of Harlem Health Center ; Harriet Beecher
Stowe Junior High School ; Y.W.C. A., Urban League and Girl Scouts ;
Sunday Schools in Harlem. Visits to Negro homes supplemented the
survey. Of this material only that from Riverdale Orphanage repre-
sents consecutive observations.
The data on Whites were collected in 1938 in the Abraham Lincoln
High School, Brooklyn, New York, and represent single observations.
To these I have added older consecutive observations on Whites ob-
tained by Franz Boas ( '32) from the Horace Mann School and Hebrew
Orphan Asylum, both of New York City. However, I have re-arranged
his data in accordance with my classificatory System. In this procedure
the original records were used.
Information on the time at sexual maturity was considered adequate
only if the interviewed person could remember the month during which
her first menstruation occurred. Many girls knew the week or the day,
so that their age at puberty could be determined. The Colored Orphan
Asylum, Riverdale-On-Hudson, N. Y., furnished records containing
entries made on the day on which puberty set in. All other data have
an error not exceeding 1 month. Every person underwent a cross-
examination by myself and a female or male assistant. The subject's
151
152
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
\
■^
date of birth was checked and she had to give her reasons why she
remembered the calendar dav, the week or the month on wbich she
entered womanhood. This scrutiny accounts for the fact that out of
about 7000 individuals questioned but half that number could supply
satisfactory Information.
The youngest age group interviewed was 11 years old. However,
among this particular group were so few who had entered puberty
that their number can be neglected in a Statistical summary.
The study of these data offers answers to certain specific questions,
namely,
1. How does the age at sexual maturation of Whites and Negroes
compare when corresponding socio-economic strata are investigated ?
2. Is the onset of puberty influenced by race or climate per se?
3. Is there a secular acceleration in maturity among Negroes siniilar
to such a phenomenon noted among Whites I ^
4. How is the onset of puberty related to the premenarcheal accelera-
tion in growth of the general Negro population?
In view of the interrelation of factors determining the age at puberty,
these basic themes recur in the various sections of the present report,
one consideration being weighed against another; all of them finally
leading up to the problem of environment versus heredity.
CLASSIFICATORY METHOD
In Order to avoid the errors due to the fact that many of the younger
children become mature later than indicated by the age of Observation,
or — in the case of continuous Observation — of last Observation, the
material was separated according to the age of the individual at the
time of inquiry. As might be expected, such a Statistical consideration
which heeds the age of the Informant, reveals that the average age at
puberty changes with the age composition of the group: the older the
age group is at the nioment of investigation the higher will be the
figure expressing the average year of maturity for that age group.
I have tabulated single observations by arranging them according
to their ages at the time of Observation, and consecutive observations
according to their ages at the time when they passed out of the series
of those who were observed continuously. The values given in table 1
represent the averages for the total material as calculated on the basis
of this procedure.
* A preliminary report of my findiiifrs on srcular acceleration in the onset of puberty among
Whites (1930 to 1938) was published by Boas ('41).
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
153
Since the present paper was conceived as a comparative racial study,
as pointed out in the introduction, the values derived from Whites
which form the basis for comparison will be discussed first. The data
on Whites are presented in table 2 and those on Negroes in table 3.
At the bottom of each column of table 2 and 3 the reader will find next
to the average age of maturity the Standard deviation for the respective
racial or socio-economic group. These total averages can be used as
comparable figures for the separate strata of population, both Whites
and Negroes. It must be emphasized that the uncorrected total averages
correspond to the data as usually given in which the age of the in-
formants at the time of Observation is not specified. As has been shown,
however, the correction for age of Observation is necessary because
when the observations include many young girls, all those with late
maturitv are excluded.
TABLE 1
Puberty data of comhined Whites and Negroes (3846 cases) with correction for
age groups urider 16 years.
AOE AT TIME OF
OBSERVATION
XUMBER OF CASES
UNCORRECTED VALUES FOR
MEAN AGB AT ONSET OF CORRECTION
PUBERTY ^0 ^^ YEARS
12 to 12.9
13 to 13.9
14 to 14.9
15 to 15.9
16 and over
107
438
852
761
1688
11.97
12.47
12.84
13.04
13.24
4- 1.27
+ .77
-\- .40
+ .20
0
Table 2 includes averages of puberty dates for 527 cases collected
by Franz Boas about the year 1930 (Boas, '32, '33). The new material
(3319 cases) collected by the author about the year 1938 occupies the
reniainder of table 2 and all of table 3. Of the total of 3946 cases
2449 are Whites and 1397 Negroes.
THE ONSET OF PUBERTY IN WHITES
The records of the Horace Mann School (table 2) show that there
is no difference in menarche between non-Hebrew (13.09 ±: 1.3) and
Hebrew girls (13.08 zb 1.2) of the same social class (corrected: 13.28
versus 13.21). This has been pointed out repeatedly by Boas ('40).
One must keep in mind that these figures are based on material
assembled 8 years prior to that obtained by the writer. This fact is
important on account of secular changes in maturity to be discussed
hiter.
154
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
155
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The values for tlie Hebrew Orphan Asylum were also obtaiiied by
Boas about the year 1930. This Jewish group has a higher average age
of maturity than the better-to-do Jewish (and gentile) chiklren of
the Horace Mann School, namely, 13.44 ± 1.2 (corrected: 13.62). The
poorer socio-economic status of the orphan children explains their
later development. Here is an example of a different mean age of
puberty aniong two groups of similar descent caused by a different
income level, i.e., environmental factors.
The similaritv of values obtained in the Horace Mann School for
non-Jewish and Jewish girls has its analogy in the results arrived at
in the Abraham Lincoln High School. The latter material represents
native descendants of Hebrew and Italian immigrants. The average
age at maturity for the Hebrews is 12.85 ± 1.04, and for the Italians
12.93 =b 1.07 (corrected: 13.08 versus 13.11). Again we find no marked
racial difference for a population having a similar socio-economic
background.
Since all the Jewish series are comparable on racial grounds and
since the different values for the Jewish girls of the Horace Mann
School and of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum have been attributed to socio-
economic factors, tliere arises the question of why the Abraham Lincoln
High School girls had an earUer average age at puberty than those
of the Horace Mann School. As a matter of fact the students of the
Horace Mann School are children of wealthier homes than those attend-
ing the Abraham Lincoln High School, which is a public school. Why
then do the girls of the Abraham Lincoln High School, being an eco-
nomically less privileged group than those of the Horace Mann School,
show an earlier maturity than the former!
The answer to this question is to be looked for in the time interval
between the two surveys. The study at the Abraham Lincoln High
School was completed about 8 years later than that in the Horace
]\Iann School. During this period the tempo of growth has been
accelerated in the population of New York and puberty has set in
earlier. This secular change in the rate of development is also borne
out by total averages: the mean value for all white girls studied in
1930 is 13.21 ± 1.26 (corrected: 13.38), whereas for all the white girls
investigated in 1938 it is 12.86 d= 1.04 (corrected: 13.08).
THE ONSET OF PUBERTY IN NEGROES
Data from the Colored Orphanage, Eiverdale-On-Hudson, were ob-
tained between the years 1935 and 1940. The mean age of maturity
156
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
is 13.07 dz 1.1 (corrected: 13.46). This value resenibles ^ the averages
of the white children obtained at the Horace Mann School 10 years
earlier. The Negro orphans, though being a sheltered group, are from
a very poor stock as compared with the white children attending a
private school. How do we explain this almost identical puberty age?
Comparative growth curves have shown that the time of adolescence
and of the period of maximum rate of growth practically coincide
among both races in New York, if they are under similar environmental
influences, and that under these conditions the averages of the time of
maturity coincide. The premise of the same environmental influences,
however, is not present for the Horace Mann children and the children
of the Colored Orphan Asylum. It is, therefore, safe to assume that
the latter, having been studied about 8 years later than the Horace
Mann children, display a secular acceleration of maturity.'^ This in-
terpretation becomes still niore convincing on examining the other data
on Negro girls investigated about 1938.
Though the Information for the poorer class was obtained from girls
attending a public school and women attending dispensaries, one must
not, a priori, assume that we are dealing with a population belonging
to the same socio-economic status. Those raised in the South of the
United States (by '' South'' I mean the states located south of Wash-
ington, D. C.) lived under more unfavorable circumstances than those
who grew up in the North where welfare agencies could provide for
the poor to a greater extent. Furthermore, the series from the North
is mainly an urban population while that from the South is pre-
dominantly country folk. The Negroes from the West Indies and the
Virgin Islands live under the worst conditions from the point of view
of nutrition.
Those Negresses who entered womanhood in the South have a later
puberty (13.68 zb 1.40) than those born and grown up in the North
(12.94 ±: 1.10, uncorrected, and 13.35, corrected).-* Those who reached
maturity in the West Indies have the latest average puberty age (13.99).
The series for the Negresses from the West Indies is, unfortunately,
very much smaller numerically than the others and contains both the
poor and better-to-do-class. Nevertheless, the differences between the
ages at puberty are so marked that the maximal maturity age for the
West Indies is likely to be significant. As a matter of fact, of the forty-
' The corrected value for the Negro orphan children is greater than that of the Horace
Mann series.
' This can be substantiated by investigations made two and a half decades ago. The girls
of the Riverdale Orphanage matured at the average age of 14.3 years between 1910 and 1914
(See Boas, '40, p. 122).
*0r, comparing the age group 20 years and over: 13.68 years versus 13.30 years. '
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGKOES
157
two cases thirty poor individuals had an average of 14.15 ± 1.37 (un-
corrected value).
The nine cases born in the West Indies and reaching puberty in the
North do not lend themselves to a convincing interpretation of any
sort. However, the late maturity of this small group (14.13) makes a
follow up of this type of population desirable as this may contribute
to our insight into the effects of environmental factors.
The data on those born in the South but reaching puberty in the
North suggests that migration from the South to the North, wliich
means transplantation of a rural population to urban life, renders the
rate of developnient of the migrants similar to that occurring in the
North: 12.99 ± 1.16 (corrected: 13.34) ; versus 12.94 ± 1.10 (corrected:
13.35).
As it is improbable that migration by itself would exert a beneficial
physiological influence on all the migrants, I have used an additional
Statistical approach to these data. I have compared the values for all
women 16 years and over, excluding all children. Thus for 107 cases
born in the South and matured in the North, the mean puberty age is
13.49 dz 1.25 (Standard error ±: .12) ; and for 149 cases born in the
North and matured in the North, the mean is somewhat earlier, i.e.,
13.28 ± 1.35 (Standard error it .11).
Does the complexity of circumstances connected with migration exert
a retarding influence on the rate of developnient? Such a phenomenon
has been observed among Whites by Schaeffer ('06). Unfortunately,
my present material is too small to permit a consideration of the age
at the time of migration prior to maturity.
My data on the better-to-do Negro class are scanty ; eighty-nine cases
altogether. However, the series is statistically valid. The wealthier
Negro class shows for all the age groups studied an earlier average
than the material obtained from the poorer class of Negroes. The
mean average for the total group of the better-to-do Negroes is
12.85 =b 1.14 (corrected: 13.06); and this value matches the figure ob-
tained for the Whites of the Abraham Lincoln High School; namely,
12.86 ±1.04 for 1922 white individuals (corrected: 13.08). The sig-
nificance of this similarity will be discussed below.
SECULAR ACCELERATION IN THE ONSET OF PUBERTY
I have compared the Whites studied in 1930 with the Whites investi-
gated in 1938. The former, 527 cases, yield an average puberty age
of 13.21 rb 1.26 (corrected: 13.38) ; the latter, 1922 cases, 12.86 i 1.04
(corrected: 13.08). The Standard error of the difference is ± 0.02 (for
the uncorrected values: ±: 0.06), so there cannot be any doubt that we
158
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
are dealiiig with a faster rate of development amoiig tliose studied
more recently. Thus, duriiig tliis period of 8 years tliere was for tbe
White Population of New York City an acceleration in menarche
amonnting to 4 months (imcorrected; and 3.6 months, corrected).
The Negroes show a siniilar acceleration. During the past 25 years
(1910 to 1914 versus 1935 to 1940) the sexual maturity of the girls
at Riverdale Orphanage has speeded up hy 1 year and 2i months
(uncorrected; and 10 months, corrected).
RACIAL COMPARISON
AVhen we compare all the Negroes (1397 cases) and Whites (1922
cases) studied recently, we get a mean of 13.09 dz 1.2 (corrected: 13:40)
for Negroes as against 12.86 ±1.04 (corrected: 13.08) for Whites.
Thus we see that Negroes mature later than Whites.
It must be emphasized that this dilference should not be attributed
to a racial characteristic per se, for the following reasons: (1) My
Negro material, though including one series froni the better-to-do class,
is derived from strata which are as a whole socio-economically less
privileged than the White population. (2) A time factor may, at least
theoretically, have influenced the results of the comparison: My Negro
material includes women 20 years of age and over at the time of
Observation in contrast to the series of Whites which does not ; in other
words, the Negro material represents an earlier born population than
the White one and may possibly be less affected than the latter by a
recent secular acceleration in sexual maturity. Nevertheless, the
poorer socio-economic background of the general Negro population is
most probably a decisive elenient among the causes contributing to
the later sexual maturity of Negroes than Whites.
This contention is borne out by the fact that when chronologically
as well as socio-economically similar populations of Negroes and
Whites are being compared with each other, there is found one and the
same average age at onset of puberty. It has been mentioned already
that both the better-to-do Negro series and the Whites of the Abraham
Lincoln High School (which is a public school) yielded the identical
value of 12.8 years, uncorrected, and 13 years, corrected.'^
« As a whole, the living Standard of the better-to-do Negro class (a selected group) approaches
that of the general white population used here for compari-on. The corrected values eliminate
anv discrepancy caused by the inclusion of oM-r individunls in the Negro series at the time of
Observation. The birth dates of eighteen girls of the Negro series antedate those of the Wliite
series however. A lesser recent secular acceleration in sexual maturity for the Negro series
may therefore be considered. Whether this unknown factor has affected the average for the
cighty-nine Negro cases and thereby impaired the validity of comparison with the average of
the White series, is an open question. The time of the survey for this Negro series was 1935
to 1936 ; for the White series 1938.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
159
SEXUAL MATURITY AND THE TEMPO OF GROWTH
A note on familial heredity factors which might affect the onset of
puberty among sisters, is appropriate. Boas ( '32) has shown that there
is a fairly strong positive correlation between the dates of first menstru-
ation of sisters. This correlation may, of course, be in part due to
similarity of family environment but probably contains also an heredi-
tary element. The same consideration applies to the rate of growth
of siblings. In his study on ^^The Tempo of Growth of Fraternities"
Boas ('35) has given proof for the heredity of the tempo of growth;
and in that investigation he also stated: ^^t might be suspected that
similar home environment is a contributory cause to the similarity of
the growth curve of members of each fraternity."
Correlating the average age at puberty of the 1397 Negresses dis-
cussed here (13.09 dz 1.2, uncorrected; and 13.40 corrected) with aver-
age height values, it can be shown that the premenarcheal acceleration
in growth occurs 1 year prior to sexual maturity. This agrees with
Boas' findings ( '32) on white girls.
Figure 1 represents the annual increment of growth from 9 years
on. Curve a was obtained from the Riverdale Orphanage and is based
on consecutive measurements ; curve h, a combination of data from
that Institution and Public School 136, is based on single measurements.
The mean height is tabulated for füll year intervals, viz. 11-11.99 years.
The mean itself therefore falls at 11.5 years. Increments are calculated
between points at which the mean falls, viz. 11.5 to 12.5 years. Thus,
the point at which the actual increment is assumed to occur would be
at the year point, viz. 12 years.
DISCUSSION OF THE LTTERATURE
The bibliography on the puberty of Negroes is very small, Roberton
(1851) found the mean age at puberty for eighty-six Negroes from the
West Indies to be 15 years 7 months, 8 days. He comments: ''The
black peasant females of the West Indies, and the manufacturing
females of Manchester (England) arrive at puberty about the same
period of life, namely, soon after completion of the fifteenth year.
The more opulent classes of society menstruate at a somewhat earlier
age, on the average; which is to be ascribcd to no natural difference,
but to circumstances."
Roberton was carefully selective in using reliable data sent to him
from the West Indies by a group of conscientious investigators ; never-
theless, neither the date of birth nor the exact age at first menstruation
of many of the individuals studied, could be given with perf ect accuracy.
l
160
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
161
Engelmann ('02) published series containing data on 12402 Negress-
es. His mean for the poorer class is offered as 14.05 years. He found
identical values for the average age at puberty in the poor Negro popu-
lations of St. Louis, New Orleans and Baltimore. To the better-to-do
school girls Engelmann ascribes summarily in an appendix : 13.20 years.
Stature
IT» CentiTnelorS
l^^ Stiavjre — >
10
J>
iZ
-Avet-acje euje of pobertv:
15.0<1 ^t-s.l la.uncorrectcd;
li.'lO 'yt-s; cor re et od
ii
yea.r*
Fig. 1 Relationship of the maximuni increment in stature to the average age of puberty in
Negro females. Solid curvc (a) = Riverdale Orphanage; broken curve (b) = Riverdale
Orplianage and Public School 136 combined.
Thus, both of these authors concur in the opinion that a better socio-
economic baekground will cause earlier niaturity and that the age at
puberty is independent of climate. These conclusions tally with my
own. It is highly probable that my averages are earlier than those
which Engelmann obtained because the conditions of Negro life have
improved since 1902. However, it is an open question whether an un-
even age distribution of his informants yielded a spurious average or
whether the degree of error of his material (which, in my estimation
is about 1 year) accounts for the discrepancy.« Perhaps both of these
f actors have affected his results.
Engelniann undertook also a comparison between the onset of puberty
among Whites and Negroes in the United States. Comparing the poor
class of the two races he found no decisive diff erence, namely, the mean
age of 14.05 years for Negroes and 14.2 years for Whites. Comparing
better-to-do school girls he found 13.2 years for Negroes and 13.8 years
for Whites. It is stränge that his average for poor Whites and Negroes
is analogous while that for the better-to-do school girls should show a
later onset (0.6 years) for the Whites. Most probably the Statistical
shortcomings of his method of research, either unverified statements,
unequal age distribution of informants, or possibly unaccountable fac-
tors of Chance, are responsible for the contradiction. In contrast to
that of Engelmann our material did not show an earlier puberty of
Negroes than that of Whites in the corresponding socio-economic class
studied in the same period of time. The reader may compare our total
average from the Abraham Lincoln High School (12.86 years for
Whites) with the total from the better-to-do Negro class (12.85 years).
By paralleling literature on the puberty of Europeans with that of
their offspring Engelmann found an earlier puberty for the latter.
Whereas the average was 15.5 and 15.3 years for Germany and Ireland,
respectively, the mean in the United States sank to 14.5 vears. In
France it was 14.5 and in North America 13.4 to 13.7 years. Gould and
Gould ('32) confirmed this phenomenon. It is not very far fetched to
assume that the improvement of the socio-economic Standard of the
American born may have caused an acceleration of maturity.
From this point of view it might be interesting to compare European
Jews with their American, born off spring who belong to the same stock.
I quote from Frommolt ('36) some of the averages obtained for East
European Jews :
COUNTRY
Wilna
Ukraine
South Ru'^sia
Al'THOR
JEWS
No. of cases Average
Luzyski, '33
Gurewitsch, '29
Weissenberg, '09
127
56
1273
14.17
14.71
14.15
" To illustrate the blurring out of finer distinctions caused by inaccurate inf ormation : if the
index or accurraey of a set of puberty dates is, let us assume, 12 montlis, then a possbile
acceleration or retardation of maturity by 3 months might not be discerned. In this event an
investigator may fail to find existing influences of the environment ou the tempo of development.
162
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
The average obtained by Boas ('32) for American born descendants
of East European Hebrew ünmigrants is 13.1 ± 1.2 years (HG cases)
for the well-to-do class and 13.5 ±1.1 years (185 cases) for the Hebrew
Orpban Asylum ehiklren. Both series embraee the age groups from
less than 10 years, 3 months to 16 years, 9 nionths and represent chil-
dren continuously observed during the entire time. Engle and Sheles-
nyak ('34) found for American Jews the average 13.5 (250 cases). As
was pointed out beforc, the uneorrected average for the Jewesses of
the Abraham Lincohi High School was 12.8 for the year 1938.
Thus we see that the same racial group develops m America much
earlier than in Europe ; and the acceleration is the more strikmg the
more recent the observations.
Tlie acceleration of the tempo of development of the Negro girls in
the Riverdale Orphanage is demonstrated by the f ollowing figures :
AVERAGE AGB AT MENARCHE
14.3 years
13.3 years
13.07 years
IN THE PEBIOD OP
1910-1914
1920-1924
1935-1940
The acceleration of development of a population whicli has an oppor-
tunity of o>rowing up in a better environment than the preceding-
generation'is a universal phenomenon. Wretholm (Ploss and Bartels,
'27) observed that when the nomadic Lapps migrated from their
mountainous place of origin to the Swedish towns the average age of
puberty became earlier and similar to that of the Swedish girls. iMorro
(1897) noted that country girls around Turin reached puberty about
a vear later than those in the city.
It is not surprising that recent investigators have observed a gen-
eral tendency toward an earlier appearance of puberty during the past
decades. I give the f ollowing data from G.-Frommolt ('36, pages 8,
13, 14, 91) : Skerlj obtained in 1935 for Norway the average of 14.39
(in Oslo) and A. Schreiner in 1924 the average of 14.57 while Schjoen-
berg in 1897 found the mean to be 15.4 in urban and 15.9 in rural popu-
lations. Bolk, whose data were not given in round years but considered
the months and therefore are more accurate than most, found in the
Netherlands that the daughters had their puberty 1 year, 3 months
earlier than their niother. Stein found that women who entered
puberty before 1880 yield the average of 15.7 and those born after
1900, the average of 14.8 years.
In this connection I should like to quote C. H. Stratz ('22) whose
correlation between onset of puberty and socio-economic level shows
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
163
for Bavaria strikingly dissimilar averages, namely, for the upper class,
12.9; for the middle class, 14.4; and for peasants, 16.4.
In view of all these findings we must attribute the accelerating tempo
of bodily development to the improvement of socio-economic condi-
tions.
This analysis of the literature does not make any claims of bemg
an exhaustive review of all available references. On account of faulty
methods of collecting data, in view of inadequate methods of Statistical
arrangement, and also for the reason that the socio-economic Standard
at the places of gathering data is nowhere exactly the same, there are
many contradictory figures on the onset of puberty. We are mainly
concerned liere with basic, unchallengeable facts in so far as they are
brought out by the study of the material under discussion.
In Order to support the unfounded contention that inherent racial
peculiarities might account for the difference at onset of puberty some
authors ' point to the earlier age of maturation of Jewesses as compared
with the respective ^^host nations.'' In America such a difference does
not exist. A sociological Interpretation may help us to comprehend
this issue. In the United States the modes of life of native Jews and
gentiles resemble each other much more than that in Eastern Europe
of the past decades. AVhen comparing the onset of puberty between
Jews and Russians, Weissenberg ('09) emphasized the predominance
of urban individuals for the Jewish series. Moreover, it is a tradition
of Jewish parents all over the world to afford their children the best
possible home care even at the expense of self-deprivation. Therefore,
one might assume a somewhat better nutritial status in Jewish homes
than in those of their gentile neighbors. It seems to me scientifically
unjusified to underestimate this environmental factor and to credit
its effect to an illusory racial disparity.
The f ollowing bears repetition: any comparison between older and
more recent studies is complicated by two factors; first, the dement
of accelerated development in the series investigated more recently,
and second, the difference in the socio-economic character of the vari-
ous populations. To illustrate this I cite data from three additional
American investigations on Whites. Abernethy ('25) in the Chicago
Laboratory Study obtained the mean of 13.5 ± 1.1 (487 girls) ; Shuttle-
worth ('37) in the Harvard Growth Study the mean of 13.0 ± 1.1 (248
girls) and Simmons and Greulich ('43) in the Brush Study the mean
of 12.6 zb 1.1 (200 girls). The girls from the Brush Foundation Regulär
'See Frömmelt, '30, p. 16, and Klincberg, '3ö, p. 106, for statistics and comments. From-
molt offers a comprehcnsive bibliography on the menarcheal age.
164
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
Series beloiig to families described as being above the average in
economic status.
Thus it becomes evident that the average age at sexual maturity is
a Statistical concept which has no actual reality and merely serves
(among other criteria) to express the rate of development of a specific
generation in a particular environment.
SUMMABY AND CO^XLUSIOXS
1. A critical review of the methods applied in collecting and discussing
puberty data has shown that, unless the number of observations is very
large which makes the use of longer intervals permissible, no data
should be used in which the data of maturity cannot be accurately
determined within the limits of 1 month, and that for children up to
at least 16 vears a record of the date of Observation is essential: for
the younger age groups corrections must be made; and the correction
for the youngest group exceeds 1 year.
2. Corrected as well as uncorrected values show the following:
(a) The Xegro population as a whole has a later onset of puberty than
Whites. This may be attributed to the lower living Standard of the
former. (b) In the North of the United States the Negroes'mature
earlier than in the South. In the West Indies puberty occurs later than
in the South of the United States. ,
3. The higher average ages at puberty in the more southern Negro
populations may possibly be explained by the type of nutrition which
is poorer in the South than the North and poorest in the West Indies
in so far as the Negro is concerned.
4. The age at puberty is not a chronologically stable phenoinenon in
a population subjected to environmental changes. The age of maturity
is linked with the socio-economic status of the respective population and
shows similar values for Whites of different origin as well as for
Negroes belonging to analogous income groups. The ecoiiomically
privileged strata mature earlier than the underprivileged, irrespective
of race or climate. These conclusions are based on an analysis of exacl
data derived from 2,449 white and 1,397 colored indivdiuals, their
totality representing twelve separate population groups.
5. Comparison of earlier records with those presented here corrol)o-
rates the Observation of other investigators that there exists a secular
acceleration of the age of maturity. During the past two and a half
decades the onset of puberty was accelerated in Negroes by 10 months
and from 1930 to 1938 in Whites by 3.6 months. It is possible that
such an acceleration in physical development indicates an improve-
PHYSICAL ÜEVELOPMENT OF NEGROES
165
ment of environmental factors. However, the Clements that cause
acceleration are still unknown.
6. The niaterial here presented indicates that in large populations
no relation can be established between the time of the onset of maturitv
and racial descent, but that the environmental conditions exert a strong
influence. It nmst be understood that this does not mean that indi-
vidually hereditary influences are insignificant. The hereditary Consti-
tution of the body is a determining factor in the development of the
individual. However, in the large mass of individuals contained in a
population so many distinct constitutional types occur that the average
constitutional types of populations of varying descent show but very
slight diiferences which are entirely outweighed by the influence of
environmental conditions.
7. In the general Negro population the relation between the pre-
menarcheal acceleration in growth and the time at onset of puberty is
the same as among Whites.
8. The average age at onset of puberty has only a meaning in rela-
tion to a specific type of population within a definite period of time
and in a particular environment.
LITERATURE CITED
Abernethy, E. M. 1925 Correlations in Physical and Mental Growth. J. Ed. Psych., vol.
16, p. 458.
Boas, Franz 1082 Studies in growth. Human Biology, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 307-350.
■ 1933 Studies in growth II. Human Biology, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 429-444.
1935 The tempo of gro^vth of fraternities. Proe. Nat. Acad. Sei., vol. 21, pp.
413-418.
1940 Race, language and culture. New York.
1941 The relation between physical and mental development. Science, n.s., vol.
03, pp. 339-342.
Engelmann. George G. 1902 Age of first menstruation on the North American eontinent.
N. Y. Med. J., vol. 75, no. 6, pp. 221, 270; also under the same title in Trans. Mer.
Gyn. Soc, vol. 26.
Engle, E. T., and M. C. Shelesntak 1934 First menstruation and subsequent menstrual
cycles of pubertal girls. Human Biology, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 431^53.
Frommolt, Guenther 1936 Rassefragen in der Geburtshilfe und Gynaekologie. Leipzig.
GOULD, H. N., AND M. R. GouLD 1932 Age of first menstruation in mothers and daughters.
J. Am. Med. Ass'n., vol. 98, pp. 1349-1352.
Klineberg, Otto 1935 Race differences. New York and London (Harper & Brothers).
MORRO, A. 1897 liE Puberta. Turin.
Ploss, H. IL, AND M. 0. Bartels 1927 Das Weib in der Natur- und Voelkerkunde. Ed.
by F. von Reitzenstein. llth ed., vol. 1.
Roeerton, John 1851 Essays and notes on the physiology and diseases of women. London.
Schaeffer, R. 1906 lieber Beginn, Dauer und Erloeschen der Menstruation. Monatsschrift
Geburtsh. und Gynaek., vol. 23.
166
NICHOLAS MICHELSON
Shuttleworth, f. K. 1937 Sexual maturation and the physical growth of girls age 6 to 19.
Mon. Soc. Res. Child Dev., vol. 2, iio. 5.
SiMMONS, Katherine, AND WILLIAM WALTER GREULICH 1943 Menarclieal age and the
height, weight and skeletal age of giils age 7 to 17 years. J. Ped., vol. 22, no. 5,
pp. 518-548.
Stratz, C. H. 1922 Der Koerper des Kindes und seine Pflege. Stuttgart. 9th ed.
WEISSENBERG, S. 1909 Menarche und Menopause bei Juedinnen und Russinnen in Suedruss-
land. Zentralb. f. Gyn. 33ster Jahrg. no. 11., pp. 383-385.
- ..iij
STUDIES IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
V.
THE OSSIFICATION TIME OF THE OS PISIFORME
BY NICHOLAS MICHELSON
REPRINT FROM
HUnAN
BIDLDfiy
a record of
research
May, 1945
Vol.
17
No.
PubUshed Quarterly by
Th« Johnt Hopkini Preat, Baltimore,
Maryland. U.S.A.
[Reprinted from Human Biology, May, 1945» Vol. 17, No. 2]
ja
^
STUDIES IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
V.
THE OSSIFICATION TIME OF THE OS PISIFORME
BY NICHOLAS MICHELSON
Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New York
T seems that the variability for the appearance of the
ossification centers of the carpals has not been f ully explored
as yet on the basis of a large body of follow-up material
^„ according to race and socio-economic Status. In point of
fact, a different mean age at appearance is being reported by various
investigators for one and the same ossification center. This can be il-
lustrated by selecting one Single carpal bone, for example, the pisiform.
According to Flory ('36) a child who is accelerated in skeletal de-
velopment is more likely to become pubescent early than an individual
who is retarded in bony development ; and, according to the same in-
vestigator, the appearance of the pisiform occurs eight years before
skeletal maturity, the appearance of the pisiform constituting a better
predictor than either the ossification ratio or the total carpal area. For
this reason more knowledge on the appearance of the pisiform is espec-
ially indicated.
My Negro materiaP is scanty, and the age distribution of the cases
in that series is uneven ; theref ore I have not calculated the mean age
at appearance of the pisiform for Negroes. The earliest case among
Negro girls occurred at 6 years and 9 months, and no absent os pisiforme
was observed at 13 years of age.
I have tabulated material obtained on economically underpnviledged
white girls, foUowed up from I935 to 1938 at the Mott Haven Clinic,
New York City. Table i shows the results obtained on 180 cases.
I found the appearance of the pisiform on the roentgenogram at
the age of 5 years and 9 months in the earliest case; and at 12 years
of age there was no absent ossification center among the white girls.
» From the Harlem Hospital and the Mott Haven Clinic, New York City, N. Y.
144
HUMAN BIOLOGY
TABLE I
Percentages for the presence and dbsence of the os pisiforme according to age,
white females, i8o cases
AGE
PKESENT
ABSENT
5 yrs. to
5 yrs. 9 ms.
4-55
95.45
5 yrs. 10 ms. to
6 yrs. 9 ms.
541
94.59
6 yrs. 10 ms. to
7 yrs. 9 ms.
21.62
78.38
7 yrs. 10 ms. to
8 yrs. 9 ms.
45.95
54.05
8 yrs. 10 ms. to
9 yrs. 9 ms.
70.27
29.73
9 yrs. 10 ms. to
10 yrs. 9 ms.
94.28
5.72
10 yrs. 10 ms. to
II yrs. 9 ms.
96.55
3.45
II yrs. 10 ms. to
12 yrs. 9 ms.
100.00
0
The actual time of appearance of the pisiform was calculated from
consecutive plates taken about one year apart, on the same child. Straight
line Interpolation was used to determine the actual time of appearance.
The first plate did not show the pisiform, and the second did. Twenty-
one white girls showed the observed appearance of the pisiform, and
the mean of these cases is 8 years and 7 months.
Baldwin et al. ('28) stated that for white girls ossification was first
found "at 7 years" and that all white girls showed ossification of the
pisiform at 12 years. Baldwin's material was obtained from a "good
class." Thus we see that the poor white population studied recently,
shows about the same tempo of calcification of the pisiform as the
economically better-to-do Iowa children had shown prior to the year
1928.
It seems that the caiculation of the variability of the time of ossi-
fication of the pisiform can only serve a useful purpose when we con-
APPEARANCE OF THE PISIFORME
145
sider it as a Standard for one and the same type of population or, in a
stricter sense, for a given series under study.
In comparing my findings with, for example, those of Flory ('36)
we note that he, too, found the presence of the pisiform among all the
white girls at 12 years of age. However, the percentages show that the
age of appearance of the pisiform is decidedly earlier in my series.
I have applied the normal probability curve^ to my material, to
Flory's material and, finally, to his and my data treated together. The
results obtained are shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2
Mean age and Standard deviation for the appearance of the
OS pisiforme, white girls
MICHELSON
8 years 6 months
± I year 5 months
FLORY
9 years
± I year 3 months
MICHELSON AND FLORY
COMBINED
8 years 9 months
± I year 3 months
SUMMARY
The mean age at appearance of the os pisiforme among economically
underprivileged white girls who were observed from 1935 to 1938 in
New York City, was 8 years 6 months zt i year 5 months.
The technical procedure of applying the normal probability curve consists
of plotting the percentages on probability paper and fitting a straight line to the
Points expressing the trend. On the 50% line the mean age is read off, on the
84% line the age one Standard deviation above the mean, and on the 16% line
the age one Standard deviation below the mean. In subtracting the mean age
from the age one Standard deviation above it, or by subtracting from the mean
age the age one Standard deviation below it, the Standard deviation for the en-
tire frequency distribution is obtained.
The mathematical basis for this procedure is explained in a publication by
Palmer, Klein and Kramer ('38) who determined by the application of the
normal probability curve the mean age and Standard deviation for the eruption
of permanent teeth ; and it is noteworthy that their results resemble those obtained
by Hellman ('43) who derived his data from follow-up material and calculated
the mean age and Standard deviation by the traditional Statistical method.
The above described method of applying the normal probability curve yields
valid results only when dealing with a normal frequency distribution.
146
HUMAN BIOLOGY
The presence of the pisiform was 100 per cent at 12 years of age.
However, the percentages show the age of appearance of the pisiform as
earlier in the present series than in the populations studied by previous
observers. This may be interpreted as a sign of accelerated physical de-
velopment in the recent series.
By applying the normal probability curve to my material combined
with that of Flory, there was obtained for white girls the following
mean age and Standard deviation for the appearance of the os pisi forme :
8 years 9 months ± i year 3 months.
LITERATURE CITED
Baldwin, Bird T., Laura M. Busby, and Helen V. Garside. 1928. Anatomie
Growth of Children. University of Iowa Studie s, Vol. IV, No. i, p. 24, Oct. l.
Hellman, Milo. 1943. The phase of development concerned with erupting the
permanent teeth. American Journal of Orthodontics and Oral Surgery, Vol.
29, No. 9, pp. 507-526, September.
Flory, Charles D. 1936. Osseous Development in the Hand as an Index of
Skeletal Development. Mon. Soc. Res. Child Devel. Vol. i, No. 3, Table V,
P. 35-
Palmer, Carroll E., Henry Klein, and Morton Kramer. 1938. Studies on
dental caries. III. A method of determining post-eruptive tooth age. Growth,
Vol. II, No. 2, pp. 149-158-
Human
Biology
a record of research
Volume 17
MAY, 1945
NUMBER 2
CONTENTS
On THE Interval between Successive Births and
Its Effect on Survival of Infant. I. An In-
direct Method of Study. /. Yerushalmy 65
The Metopic Suture and the Metopic Syndrome.
Leo Hess 107
Sex Differences in Pubic Hair Distribution. C.
W. Dupcrtiiis, William B. Atkinson, and Herbert
Elftman 137
Studies in the Physical Development. V. The
Ossification Time of tue Os Pisiforme. Nicholas
Michelson 143
Studies in the Physical Development. VI. The
Chronology of Physiologic Events. Nicholas
Michelson 147
Recent Literatur!-: 151
THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS. Publishers
Baltimore — 18, Maryland, U. S. A.
STUDIES IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
VI. THE CHRONOLOGY OF PHYSIOLOGIC EVENTS
B^ NICHOLAS MICHELSON
REPRINT FROM
HUnflN
BIDLDfiy
a record of
researcb
May, 1945
Vol.
17
j
No.
Published Quarterly by
Th« lohnt Hopkins Press, Baltimore,
Maryland, U.S.A.
[Reprinted from Human Biology, May, 1945, Vol. 17, No. 2]
^
H
STUDIES IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
VI. THE CHRONOLOGY OF PHYSIOLOGIC EVENTS
BY NICHOLAS MICHELSON
Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New York
HE rapid increase of the variability in physiologic events
from the period of pregnancy up to death was pointed out
by Boas ('35, '40). The aim of this paper is to present the
chronology and variability of physiologic events in terms of
years. While it was intended to cover the entire life cycle, the data had
to be selected from the point of view of important land-marks occurring
between birth and the time of senile decay. Since only statistically
valid material could be considered herein, some of the consecutive phases
of growth and aging could be shown for merely one sex. In general,
the list of items compiled in this investigation discloses many a gap
which must be accounted for by future research.
The scanty data which are available for the American Negro were
included in the table.
SU M MARY
The chronology of physiologic events and their variabilities in terms
of years are presented. While listing the consecutive phases for the
period between birth and death, the few available comparable data for
the American Negro were also cited.
TABLE I
Chronology and variability^ of physiologic events in years
■ FEATURES
MEAN AGE
VARIABILITY
■ I Period of gestation (from Anderson et al. '43)
0.0
± «.^ 0.06
B 2 Appearance of the os capitate, girls
■ (Pyle et al. '43)
0.19
± 0.17
1 3 Appearance of the os capitate, boys
B (Pyle et al. '43)
0.2
±. 0.15
H 4a Eruption of deciduous Upper lateral mcisors.
W boys (Boas '27)'
1.33
± 0.28
S 5a Eruption of deciduous Upper lateral incisors,
& girls (Boas '23)
1.4
± 0.37
148
HUMAN BIOLOGY
TABLE I
Chronology and variability^ of Physiologie events in years
FEATURES
MEAN AGE VARIABILITY
4b Eruption of deciduous upper lateral incisors,
boys (Rabinow '42)'
5b Eruption of deciduous Upper lateral incisors,
girls (Rabinow '42)
6 Total deciduous dentition, boys (Doering and
Allen '42)
7 Total deciduous dentition, girls (Doering and
Allen '42)
8 Eruption of left permanent lower central
incisor, boys (Hellman '43)
9 Eruption of left permanent lower central
incisor, girls (Hellman '43)
10 Appearance of os pisiforme, white girls (Author)
11 Maximum rate of growth, girls (Boas '40;
Standard variability)
12 Appearance of pubic hair, boys (Boas '40;
value of probable variability)
13 Eruption of left upper second molar, girls
(Hellman '43)
14 Puberty, white girls (Author '44)
15 Eruption of left Upper second molar, boys
(Hellman '43)
16 Puberty, Negro girls (Author '44)
17 Maximum rate of growth, boys
(Boas '40; Standard variability)
18 Eruption of left lower third molar, females
(Hellman '43)
19 Eruption of left lower third molar, males
(Hellman '43)
20 Appearance of grey hair, white males
(Boas and Michelson '32)
21 Calcification of first costal cartilage 60%,
males (Boas '40)'
22 Calcification of first costal cartilage 60%,
females (Boas '40)
23 Appearance of grey hair, Negro males
(Boas and Michelson '32)
24 Menopause (Boas '40; Standard variability)
25 Death due to arteriosclerosis, males
(Steinhaus '32)
26 Death due to arteriosclerosis, females
(Steinhaus '32)*
0.87
±
0.2
0.99
±
0.23
2.33
±
0.36
2.25
±
0.33
6.29
±
0.77
6.29
H;
0.88
8.5
±
1.42
12.0
±
1.2
12.7
±
1.60
12.86
Hh
1.67
130
Hh
1.04
13.03
±
1.59
134
±
1.2
14.4
Hh
i.i
20.09
±
2.52
20.34
Hh
2.63
34.2
±
8.6
36.0
±
8.6
38.0
» ±
8.6
43.9
±
10.3
44-5
±
3.9
64.0
±
5.5
64.0
±
5.47
PHYSIOLOGIC EVENTS CHRONOLOGY
149
* The variabilities listed in Table i are expressed as Standard deviations, unless
stated otherwise. When a.ii item is given together with the note "the value of the
probable variability," one-half of the cases falls within the period limited by the
average, minus and plus the amount which expresses the variability. When the
term "Standard variability" is mentioned, the variability is expressed as the mean
Square deviation from the average age. (Boas '40) gave for the gestation period
the following figures: Standard deviation: .06, the value of the probable variabil-
ity: .09, and the Standard variability: .04.
* It will be noticed that there is a striking difference between the data of Boas
and Rabinow for the deciduous dentition. Boas obtained his material from a
poverty-stricken population (Boas '2^^ '27) and noted the developmental retarda-
tion in that series.
" The variability for the calcification of the first costal cartilage was calculated
by Boas from the material presented by Michelson ('34).
Boas ('40) obtained in males for death due to arterial diseases the average
age of 62.5 years ± 8.80 (value of the probable variability). He also stated that
death by arteriosclerosis had a variability exceeding seven years. However, in a
private communication he expressed dissatisfaction with the type of source material
available at the time when these calculations were made.
There is a need for new data to be established in the light of research which
must define the concept "Death due to arterial diseases" in strict scientific terms;
and the average age and variability for death caused by arteriosclerosis must be
itemized as due to sclerosis of the coronary arter ies or other arteries.
LITERATURE CITED
Anderson, Nina A., Estelle W. Brown, and R. A. Lyon. 1943. Causes of
prematurity. HL Influence of race and sex on duration of gestation and
weight at birth. Am. J. of Diseases of Children, Vol. 65, Tables i and 3,
PP. 523-534, April.
Boas, Franz. 1923. The growth of children as influenced by environmental and
hereditary condition. School and Society, Vol. XVH, No. 429, pp. 305-
308, March 17.
. 1927. The eruption of deciduous teeth among Hebrew infants. /.
of Dental Research, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 245-253, Sept.
. 1932. Studies in growth. Human Biology, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 345-
349, September.
-,and NiCHOLAs Michelson. 1932. The graying of hair. Am. J. Phys.
Anthrop., Vol. 17, No. 2, Oct.-Dec.
Boas, Franz. 1935. Conditions Controlling the tempo of development and decay.
46th Annual Meeting of the Assn. of Life Ins. Med. Directors of America,
Oct. 17-18.
. 1940. Race, language and culture. Pp. 98 and 112. New York
(Macmillan Co.)
Doering, Carl R., and Margaret F. Allen. 1942. Data on eruption and caries
of the deciduous teeth. Child Development, Vol. 13, No. 2, p. 120, June.
Hellman, Milo. 1943. The phase of development concerned with erupting the
ISO
HUMAN BIOLOGY
permanent teeth. Am. J. of Orthodontics and Oral Surgery. Vol. 29, No.
9» PP- 507-526, Sept.
MiCHELSON, NiCHOLAS. 1934. Thc calcification of the first costal cartilage among
whites and Negroes. Human Biology, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 543-557, Sept.
. . 1944. Investigations in the physical development of Negroes. IV.
Onset of puberty. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., (N. S.) Vol. 2, No. 2, p. 154, June,
Pyle, Idell, and L. W. Sontag. 1943. Variability in onset of ossification in
epyphisis and short bones of the extremities. Amer. J. of Roentgenology,
Vol. 49, No. 6, pp. 795-798, June.
Rabinow, M., T. W. Richards, and M. Anderson. 1942. The eruption of
deciduous teeth. Growth, Vol. VI, No. 2, pp, 127-133, June.
Steinhaus, Heinz. 1932. Untersuchungen über den Zusammenhang von Pres-
byopie und Lebensdauer. Arch. Augenheilk., Vol. CV, pp. 730-760.
Hunian
Biology
a record of research
Volume 17
MAY, 1945
NUMBER 2
CONTENTS
On THE Interval between Successive Births and
Its Effect on Survival of Infant. I. An In-
direct Method of Study. /. Yerushalmy 65
The Metopic Suture and the Metopic Syndrome.
Leo Hess 107
Sex Differences in Pubic Hair Distribution. C.
W . Diipcrtuis, William B, Atkinson, and Herbert
Elftman 137
Studies in the Physical Development. V. The
OssiFicATioN Time of the üs Pisiforme. Nicholas
Michelson 143
Studies in the Physical Development. VI. The
Chronology of Physiologic Events. Nicholas
Michelson 147
Recent Literature 151
THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS, Puhlishers
Baltimore — 18, Maryland, U. S. A.
STUDIES IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
VII. ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS AMONG THE
AMERICAN NEGRO
BY NICHOLAS MICHELSON
REPRINT FROM
HUnflN
BIDLDfiy
a record of
researeh
September, 1945
Vol.
17
No.
Published Quarteriy by
Th« Johni Hopkins Preit, Baltimore«
Maryland. U.S.A.
[Reprinted from Human Biology, September, 1945. Vol. 17, No. 3]
f
1 .
I
4
I
1
ff
|ö
STUDIES IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
VII ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS AMONG THE
AMERICAN NEGRO
BY NICHOLAS MICHELSON
Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New York
INTRODUCTION
HE present paper was conceived as a general background
for the other parts in this series. It goes almost without
saying that since the advent of the war the conditions re-
^ ported herein have been influenced by many factors among
which changing employment opportunities on the home front rank
high.
In trying to evaluate the significance of the findings detailed in the
previous sections, I should Hke, first, to make a brief reference to a
theoretical consideration, namely to the problem whether the secular
increase in height and weight and also the acceleration of the onset of
puberty detected among children of the poor Negro population of New
York City might possibly have taken place irrespective of environmental
factors. However, the difficulty in answering this question in favor of
heredity lies in the fact that a hypothetical intrinsic tendency towards
an increase in stature or speeding up of sexual maturity cannot be ap-
praised unless environmental factors are ruled out as a potent cause.
We are in no position to rule them out. On the contrary, a survey of
the socio-economic Status of the Negro population ought to disclose im-
provements in their mode of living.
Such changes have occurred with the progress in the fields of nutri-
tion, health education, public health and sanitation, and of public wel-
fare.
The aim of the present paper is to describe some of the important
socio-economic events in the Negroes' mode of life.
As to the source material, the bulk of the data was extracted from
recent publications and supplemented by information emanating from
208
HUMAN BIOLOGY
the Department of Health of New York City and that of the Jefferson
County Board of Health, Birmingham, Alabama.
The report dealing with the nutritional regime in the clinics of the
Department of Health of New York City was prepared by Dr. Nellie
Marmor.
In reviewing those environmental trends which represent a tangible
progress in the Negroes' mode of life, the time period embracing the
last two and a half decades was considered; however, the most recent.
decade received special attention. This investigation is very fragmen-
tary, and the reasons f or it are being explained in the text.
Three items, nutrition, health and public assistance, are the basic
themes of the study. An attempt was also made to use the Prolongation
of the life span in a Southern and Northern city as a hypothetical indicator
of environmental changes as a whole, including improvements. The
rationale of the procedure employed is stated in the text.
In the section dealing with health, two diseases have been singled
out, tuberculosis and Syphilis. It has been known for a long time that
the mortality rate f rom tuberculosis for the Negro is considerably higher
than that for the white (though the ratio between both races is not one
and the same among the comparable age groups and varies in different
localities). Studies in epidemiological trends have brought out the
fact that tuberculosis mortality can in most areas be correlated with
socio-economic conditions. In view of the greater poverty of the Negro,
it was interesting to examine the facilities available to the latter in the
field of tuberculosis control.
As far as Syphilis is concerned, its prevalence in this country has
been clarified so recently that the inclusion of this subject matter in the
discussion of environmental factors seems to be timely.
The present investigation intends to elucidate the followin^ ques-
tions:
■ First, how is the nutrition of the Negro children being attended to?
Second, what progress can be recorded in the general health of the
Negro for the past quarter of the present Century?
Third, what is the Status of the Negroes' two main disease scourges
tuberculosisandsyphilis, from the pointof View oftheir control? '
Fourth, through what means is the progress" in the Negroes' livinff
conditions being enhanced ?
NEGRO ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS
209
I
Fifth, can one evaluate the totality of environmental changes, in-
cluding improvements, among whites and Negroes for the decade pre-
ceding the present war, by using the life span as a yardstick?
NUTRITION
The distribution of free food by municipal and federal subsidy con-
stitutes a major effort to meet the needs of the underprivileged, white
and colored. The Annual Report of the Department of Weifare, New
York City, ('39 -'40) records the distribution of free milk to 133,000
children under sixteen in relief families; and this program is supple-
mented by other programs which provide free milk in schools and also
permit buying milk in the schools at one cent for half a pint. Under this
plan 715,000 city children are buying milk daily.^
The assistance given to the infants of the poor population by the
Department of Health clinics Warrants a detailed report. I have al-
ready mentioned that this care suggests a correlation between the nutri-
tional aspect and an increase in height values in children. While voic-
ing such an opinion, I unreservedly admit that none of the specific fac-
tors which have caused an increase in stature or acceleration in growth
during the more recent period can be identified. All that can be said is
that nutrition seems to play an important role.
The following is an account of the supervision by the Department
of Health of New York City over the impecunious children of the Har-
lem District. This nutritional regime, crystallized about 1934, has a
special interest for the present study because that care was foUowed
through in dealing with those children whose average stature surpassed
that attained by the same age groups measured in 191 9.
* An example pertaining to the South is of interest. The Birmingham Nnvs
reported ('42) : "Free lunches, prepared from surplus commodities distributed
by the State Department of Public Weifare, are being provided for some 67,300
Alabama school children." However, the same paper reported ('43) : "After
April recipients of public assistance in Alabama will not have their monthly
grants supplemented by surplus foods from the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture. The Weifare Commissioner of Alabama cited food shortages, closing of
State WPA projects that furnished personnel for distribution, and transporta-
tion difficulties as reasons for closing the service, which had been handled through
the Weifare Department. Since the program's inception in October, 1933, ap-
proximately $22,000,000 worth of commodities have been distributed to needy
Alabamians."
mm
2IO
HUMAN BIOLOGY
I quote f rom a communication by Dr. Nellie Marmor :
In conducting our clinic we endeavored to attain the best know-
ledge in the principles and ideas on the proper growth and development
of babies, and to transmit our concepts in as simple a form as possiblc
to the mothers.
The white babies came from seif sustaining but fairly poor homes,
families where pennies counted.
The colored babies came from families of subsistence level, 80 per
Cent of which were carried by one or another of the relief agencies.
They lived in more crowded homes than our white babies and ran the
risk of more health hazards. They were referred to us by hospitals
and other agencies. Some of the babies' mothers came of their own
accord.
In 1934, we sent out a field worker to visit 200 families. She jotted
down the mothers' report on the feeding of the baby on that day. This
was then compared with her instructions as given by the doctor. In
91 per cent of cases the mother at least understood our instructions and
in all probability carried them through.
In the spring of 1934 when irradiated evaporated milk first appeared
on the market, we placed a number of babies on formulae prepared
with the same. A nurse visiting the homes of each of these mothers
found the prescribed brand in each and every home. The grocers in the
neighborhood (Harlem, New York City) carried the irradiated brand
because the mothers demanded it. A check up in other neighborhoods
proved that it was as yet unknown there.
A study of 1000 new admissions for the year 1935 in Harlem
furnishes the following data on Negroes:
82 came in very poor physical condition
215 came in fair physical condition
703 came in good physical condition
379 were first babies
621 were not first babies
Age groups on admission:
Up to I month 198
1 month but not 2 mos 482
2 mos. but not 3 mos 123
3 mos. but not 4 mos 48
4 mos. but not 5 mos 31
5 mos. but not 6 mos 12
. , 6 mos. to 12 mos 47
1-2 years 57
A study of 1,000 white babies on admission furnishes the following
data:
74 admitted in poor condition
177 admitted in fair condition
NEGRO ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS
749 admitted in good condition
520 were first born babies
480 were not first born babies
Age groups on admission:
Up to I month 3I4
1 month but not 2 mos 335
2 mos. but not 3 mos. ^'S
3 mos. but not 4 mos 78
4 mos. but not 5 mos 32
5 mos. but not 6 mos 3i
6 mos. to 12 mos 81
* 1-2 years 24
There were many more first-born babies in our white than in our
Negro group, and more white babies were placed under supervision at
a younger age.
In both groups of babies we carried on the following program : Up
to three months of age we asked the mothers to bring the baby to the
clinic every 2 weeks ; from 3 months to i year once a month ; and
from then on once in 2 months.
Instructions were given by the doctor and checked by the nurse.
By these frequent check -ups and visits we made sure that Orders
were properly understood, that sufficient cod liver oil was given and
retained, that the baby was progressing properly.
Physical examinations were made on admission to the clinic.
Babies with gross pathologic conditions were referred to the proper
agencies for care. The babies were re-examined at stated intervals
and when necessary.
Wherever possible we kept the babies breast fed. We impressed
the mother with the fact that this was the cleanest, the safest, the
cheapest, and best protective food for the baby. We checked to see
how this was carried through. We found that in Harlem, where
some of the mothers go out on part time Jobs, 51 per cent of the
Negro 5-months-old babies were breast fed. Among the whites some
of the mothers came to us because they no longer had breast milk;
and 32 per cent of the white 5-months-old babies were breast fed.
All babies were weaned at 7 or 8 months of age.
Where breast milk was impossible, we ordered irradiated ev-
aporated milk diluted with water, cane sugar or karo syrup added.
Each formula was prescribed according to the age, weight and con-
dition of the baby. If evaporated milk was not tolerated, other
formulae were ordered.
Orange or tomato juice was prescribed on the first day of regis-
tration.
Cod liver oil was prescribed on the first visit. We ordered füll
amounts of cod liver oil for our colored babies during the summer
211
I
212
HUMAN BIOLOGY
months- whereas for the white babies we reduced the amount of c<«i
«:^ ^ii during the summer. We ordered cod liver 0,1 wh<rever ^os^
sible. Where it was not tolerated or counter-indicated, we prescr.bed
other Vitamin D products.
Supplementary Vitamin-rich foods were added as the bahy was
old enough to assimilate the same. At the request of the chn.c the
Red Gross printed slips for the preparation of the supplementary
*°°We kept an eye on the market and ordered the foods in season;
those cheapest at the time; for pennies are of vital importance to
Ihese mothers. No expensive drugs, etc. were ordered .f cheaper ones
could do as well. . . , ^. -'
Practically all the babies in both groups were vaccinated and in-
oculated against diphtheria during the first year. Schick tests were
performed during the second year.
About 50 per cent of our colored babies had had at least one
Wassermann test. The second year babies had had a Mantoux test
the year before. .
Mothers in both groups were instructed to permit their children
to develop according to their individual patterns, psychologically and
physically. No constrictions or bands of any kind were permitted.
The aim was as much freedom of motion as possible. AU^ babies
were allowed to sleep in any position they chose to assume;' to sit
up when ready to sit up, to walk when ready to walk.
In 1935 it was found that of the babies who had reached one year
of age. 83 per cent had not had one day of fever, except following
vaccination.
The morbidity among the colored babies was higher than that
of the white babies, easily explained by their crowded home con-
ditions.
The colored group presented less behavior problems than the
white babies. In general, there was a very happy relationship be-
tween babies and mothers.
From all the forementioned it becomes evident that the existence
of environmental improvements in the mode of life of the Negroes
cannot be discounted in considering influences which aflFect physical
development.
It remains to be seen whether, or to what degree, a possible food
shortage due to the present war, may aflfect physical growth. Experts
on nutrition^ hold the opinion that at present rickets leads among the
• This Statement is noteworthy in view of the fact that Negro children supcr-
vised in the described manner, were discussed in the section dealing with the
ccphalic index. See: Am, J. Phys. Anthrop. (N. S.), 1943, V. i, No. 4, Dec.
• These opinions were expressed during a Conference devoted to deficiency
diseases, held in the Hillman Hospital, Birmingham, Alabama, June 1943.
NEGRO ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS
213
deficiency diseases diagnosed in Negro children of the South, this
malady being less prevalent among whites of the same area. On the
other band, the totality of deficiency diseases observed in whites, both
children and adults, is said to amount to 95 per cent as against 5 per
cent in Negroes. It is still an open question whether the deficiency
diseases, except for manifest rickets, are more difficult to diagnose in
the Negro than in the white or whether whites have a greater racial
vulnerability to the effects of food deficiency. Possibly other still
unknown factors partake in this perplexing racial distribution of de-
ficiency diseases as ascertained thus far.
HEALTH
Organized health education among Negroes took a definite form
when the Public Health Service issued "The National Negro Health
Week Bulletin." I quote from the United States Public Health Service
('40) :
"The National Negro Health Week Bulletin has been issued by
the Public Health Service since 192 1. Since 1932 the Service has
furnished quarters and operating facilities for this office, and since
1934 a director and clerical assistant have been provided. Each year
a National Negro Health Week is observed, during which Community
educational programs are presented. Health lectures, sermons, and
radio talks are given; demonstrations, pageants, and motion pictures
presented; physical examinations, health instructions, and medical
Services given. A poster and school leaflet are also published each year
in connection with the Health Week. Civic leaders and others are en-
couraged to promote a year-round follow-up of Health Week plans.
The National Negro Health News, a quarterly bulletin of health In-
formation for racial and interracial groups, published by the Office
of Negro Health Work, has a wide distribution and stimulates con-
tinued interest in health and Community sanitation.
"The field Service, advice, and health publications provided by the
Public Health Service through the Office of Negro Health Work
contribute in large measure to the health consciousness of the Negro
and his integration in the health programs of his particular State and
Community."
The improvement in the Negroes' mortality rate has been demon-
strated by Dublin and Lotka ('37). I quote:
"A remarkable declinc in the mortality of the American Negro
has taken place in a little less than two decades. In 191 1, the stand-
ardized mortality rate of the colored industrial policyholders of the
i
214
r
HUMAN BIOLOGY
Metropolitan was 18.5 per i.ooo. In I935 the death rate of these in-
^^r^d Negroes had declined to 11.8. which represents a drop of 36
^^^?^ i:::^^ne ■. du. lor the .ost P-, - in^.en.s i.
the death rates from tuberculosis. pneumonia. malaria. typhoid fever,
diphtherl diarrhea and enteritis, and pellagra Partien arly note-
woX h;s been the great development of health activities in the
lou h^nd Southwest. The betterment has been a broad one affect-
fng virtually all areas, with scarcely a State failing to show a decid d
dechne in the total death rate. While it is true that the mortality
amtng Negroes is still high, reflecting marked deficiencies in the hea h
Tovisions for them. we cannot but conclude that the public heahh
movement is making a favorable impress upon our colored PoPulation.
"The general improvement in the death rate is, of course, reflected
in the figures for expectation of life. In the two years 191 1 - 1912 the
expectation of life for Metropolitan colored male policy-holders at
age 10 was 41.32 years; in 1935 the expectation was 46.97 years, an
increase of almost 6 years, or 14 per cent. The expectancy of Negro
females at age 10 was 41.30 years in 1911-1912 as compared with
49 38 in 1935. This is a gain of 8 years, or 20 per cent, which is a
better record than the increase of 7 years, or 14 per cent for msured
white females. There can be no mistake in the conclusion that the last
25 years have seen a pronounced improvement in the health Situation
of the colored people ; and this, despite the f act that these years in-
cluded the periods of the war, of the influenza epidemic, and of the
recent economic depression, as well as an immense migration to North-
ern cities, often undertaken under the most unfavorable conditions."
Comparing Negroes with whites, Dr. Louis I. Dublin states:
"At every age period, from infancy to old age, and for each sex,
the death rate for colored persons is in excess of that for whites.
"The Negro death rates for practically all diseases in which care
and sanitation are of paramount importance are much higher than
among whites. It is probable that their higher death rate is due more
than anything eise to ignorance, poverty, and lack of proper medical
care. Pulmonary tuberculosis, typhoid fever, pellagra, malaria, and
puerperal conditions are examples of such diseases in which the mor-
tality rates are much affected by unfavorable or insanitary environ-
ment— or by low economic Status— and all of them have higher death
rates among Negroes.
NEGRO ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS
215
* On May I4th, 1942, the Alabama State Department of Health reported:
"The 1930 death rate for Negroes was 15.2 per 1000 population and that for
1940 14.1 per 1000. The 1940 Negro typhoid death rate dropped 78.2 per cent
below that of 1930; the whooping cough rate was 46.3 per cent lower than
1930, and the diphtheria, 64.3 per cent lower. The fatality rate for tuberculosis
among Negroes was found to be 38 per cent less than the 1930 rating ; for malaria,
33.2 per cent less, and for pellagra, 67.8 per cent less.
"I doubt whether we really know just what part of the higher mor-
tality of the Negro is attributable to racial susceptibility and what part
to the effects of racial customs and environmental conditions."
Through the courtesy of Mr. Thomas J. Duffield, Registrar of Re-
cords of the Department of Health of New York City, I obtained In-
formation on the death rate for four decades and the median age at
death among Negroes in New York City from 1920 to 1940. Table i
shows that in 1920 the median age at death was 29.2 years, and two
decades later 45.6 years. The same table shows also that the death rate
for all causes was 30.1 per 1000 population in 1901, and 12.2 four de-
cades later. It must be remembered that the age distribution of a popula-
tion is an essential dement in the total death rate. The figures in Table
I were not corrected in accordance with that consideration, as this ap-
proach was beyond the scope of the present investigation.**
The decrease of the general death rate in the more recent epoch
is due mainly to the reduction of acute infectious diseases. However,
during the same period of time the mortality from chronic diseases has
risen, accounting for one-half of all deaths occurring at present.
The decrease in all kind of infectious diseases and also a diminished
birth rate have caused an aging of the population. Since the turn of
the Century the population above 45 years of age has more than doubled ;
and this increase of the older age groups^ is one of the reasons why
more persons are afflicted with chronic diseases. Though chronic disease
affects all age groups — one-half of the persons afflicted are under 55
years — its prevalence increases with age.
Thus the increase of longevity has presented medicine with a new
challenge, namely, to find the means of reducing chronic diseases. The
trend toward a population of old people and the concomitant increasing
mortality from Cancer, the degenerative diseases of the circulatory Sys-
tem and the kidneys, are focusing the physicians* attention more and
more on geriatrics, i. e., the care of the aged (Boas and Michelson '29;
Boas '40; Stieglitz '43).
The correlation between illness and economic Status was shown by
Holland and Perrott ('38). Among other things, they found that the
" A discussion of the median age at death will be found in the last part of
the present paper.
' In 1900, 44 per cent of our entire population was under 20 years of age;
and in 1940, 34 per cent. Quoted from : Facts about Child Health, U. S. De-
partment of Labor.
/ \
2l6
HUMAN BIOLOGY
TABLE I
NEGRO ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS
21
Population, deaths and death rate front all
causes* and the median age at
death among
Negroes in New
York City, 1901-J940
DEATH
■
NUMBER
OF DEATHS
RATES
MEDIAN AGE
YEAR
POPULATION
ALL
CAUSES
ALL
CAUSES*
AT DEATH
I9OI
63,961
1,927
30.1
1902
67,117
1,997
29.8
24.8
1903
70,273
1,744
1904
73,430
2,376
32.4
1905
76,586
1,997
26.1
1906
79,742
2,056
25.8
1907
82,898
2,319
28.0
1908
86,054
2,212
25.7
1909
89,210
2,176
24.4
I9IO
93,013
2,303
24.8
I9II
99,271
2,370
23.9
I9I2
105,529
2,497
23.7
I913
111,788
2,417
21.6
I914
118,046
2,631
22.3
I915
124,304
2,681
21.6
I916
130,563
2,628
20.1
I917
136,821
2,875
21.0
I918
143.080
3,674
25.7
I919
149,338
3,203
21.4
1920
161,015
3,214
20.0
29.2
I92I
178,112
2,901
16.3
32.0
1922
195,208
3,143
16.3
33.2
1923
212,305
3,408
16.1
34.5
1924
229,401
3.649
15-9
32.9
1925
246,498
4,093
16.6
♦*
1926
263,594
4,415
16.7
33-7
1927
280,691
4,372
15.6
34.8
1928
297,787
5,221
17.5
34.4
1929
314,884
4,926
15.6
35.8
1930
330,932
5,265
159
36.3
I93I
343,833
5,583
16.2
36.9
1932
356,735
5,293
14.8
38.5
1933
369,637
5,517
14.9
39.0
1934
382,539
5,548
145
41.1
1935
395,441
5,760
14.6
40.7
1936
408,343
6,092
14.9
41.3
1937
421,245
5,969
14.2
42.4
1938
434,147
5,554
12.8
43-6
1939
447,049
5,632
12.6
43.8
1940
459,951
5,616
12.2
45.6
Source: Bureau of Vital Records and Statistics, Department of Health, City
of New York
♦ Rate per 1,000 population ** Not available
amount of disability per person due to illness which incapacited for a
week or longer was 43 per cent higher in the Negro than in the white
population ; that the higher disability rate for Negroes was due chiefly
to the chronic diseases; and that the average Negro in the nonrelief
class experienced only one-half as much disability per year (in a twelve
month survey made during 1935-1936) as the average Negro on relief.
I quote f rom Holland and Perrott :
"Low economic Status, rather than inherent racial characteristics
in the reaction to disease, thus appears to account in large measure
for the higher disability rate observed among Negroes. From this fact
it follows that the health problems of Negroes are more serious
than those of the average white population since they represent in the
mass a low-income group, unleavened, as in the white population, by
any considerable number in the higher income ränge."
SYPHILIS
Recent surveys stimulated by the war eflfort have furnished a clue
to the prevalence of this preventable illness. Results of serological tests
performed on 1,895,788 selectees and volunteers (Vonderlehr and Usil-
ton *42) yielded the folowing estimated rates of Syphilis prevalence: for
the entire male population of the United States between the ages of 21
and 35, 47.7 per thousand; for Negroes, 272, and for whites, 23.5 per
thousand; for the rural population, 49.4, and for the urban, 46.5 per
thousand. The highest Syphilis prevalence rates are encountered in the
Southeastern states.
I quote from a subsequent publication by Vonderlehr and Usilton
(•43) :
"Syphilis shortens life expectancy between the ages of 30 and 60
by 17 to 30 per cent.
"In the five-year period from 1936 to 1941 the chance of acquiring
Syphilis has registered a significant drop.
"A new rate of prevalence was calculated. We shall take 'rate of
prevalence' to mean that fraction of any population group alive at any
given time who have Syphilis detectable by the serological blood test."
The results shown in Table 2 were obtained by Vonderlehr and
Usilton by using the calculated prevalence rate as the rate which would
prevail if all Syphilis up to 1936 had been acquired at the 1936- 1937
attack rates and from 1936 to 1940 at the mean of the 1936-1937 and
the 1 940-1 941 attack rates.
<
2l8
HUMAN BIOLOGY
TABLE 2
Calculated Syphilis prevalence rate per woo
NEGRO ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS
219
ACE CROUP
WHITE MALES
COLORED MALES
21-25
26-30
31-35
13-8
32.6
530
I79.I
326.8
431.0
Gill et al. ('43) found that in Alabama 19.8 per cent of the colored
and 1.5 per cent of the white registrants had positive tests for Syphilis/
There is a higher syphilis attack in Negroes than whites anywhere in
one and the same area which can be explained by the Negroes' lower
Status of health education and general indolence in regard to venereal
disease control in the past era.
The present appraisal of the syphilis Situation is that for the en-
tire country the problem is about ten times greater for Negroes than
for whites.
From the geographical point of view the prevalence is greater in
areas with a high proportion of Negro population ; and in those locali-
ties where the Negroes have an especially high percentage of syphilis,
its prevalence is, as a rule, in whites also above the average national
prevalence for whites. Though that tendency is consistent, this relation-
ship, however, is not a constant proportion (Vonderlehr and Usilton
'42). Nevertheless, certain regional environmental conditions in which
both races share, are suggested by the concomitant high rates where they
prevail.
At this point it may be appropriate to mention a new sociological
phenomenon which can be attributed to the efFects of the war. Public
health workers dealing with the control of vencreal diseases observed
that whilc professional Prostitution did not exist to any noticeable de-
gree, if at all, among Negroes in the South, monetary renumeration for
sexual Services is becoming a frequent practice at present. ** While it
* It must be noted that estimated rates based on correction for agc would yield
higher values for that State.
" Prostitution must be sbarply differcntlated from non-marital relations lead-
ing to a high proportion of illcgitimacy among the Negroes. Beforc the outbreak
of the war, the illegitimacy rate for the colored population in Jefferson County,
Alabama, was sixteen times higher than for the white population, namely, 16.7
per 1000 f amilies (Housing Authority of the Birmingham District '43).
would not be prudent to cite herein the percentage of infections detected
in Negro soldiers and classified as paid exposures, it may be stated that
the figure is not negligible in one of the Southern states. At the same
time it is interesting to note that thus far no procurers in the sense of
professional facilitaters were used by those Negroes.
These observations on behaviorism are included in my study because
they present a facet presumably not encountered until very recently,
as far as the Negro is concerned. Moreover, during the post-war re-
construction period the interrelation between health and mores, the prob-
lems of social adjustment and leisure time activities, will require ever-
increasing attention.
TUBERCULOSIS
The relative frequency of disseminated forms of tuberculosis is
considerably higher in Negroes than in whites and the decrease of dis-
seminated forms during the last 1 7 years is much smaller in Negroes than
in whites (Pinner '40). In 1942 the tuberculosis mortality rate for
Negroes was more than three and one-half times larger than for whites
(Metropolitan Life Insurance Company '43). From this it follows that
especially vigorous steps must be undertaken to conquer that plague in
all areas where the Negro constitutes a large proportion of the general
population. This applies specifically to the Southern states, irrespective
of the fact that due to some still unknown reasons the tuberculosis rate
for Negroes is higher in Northern and Western cities than in Southern
cities, in analogy to a higher rate in the Northern and Western cities
among whites (National Tuberculosis Association '41).
Tuberculosis death rates are considerably higher in urban than rural
communities, and it is noteworthy that the rate declined from 42.2 to
41.7 per 100,000 from 1940 to 1941 in 18 large cities among whites,
while it rose among Negroes in the same localities during the same time
from 199.1 to 203.3 (National Tuberculosis Association '41).
My discussion of the availability of tuberculosis control measures
concerning the Negro needs a few introductory remarks. It has been
estimated that in the population as a whole there are ten active cases
of tuberculosis for each death and that a minimum of two hospital beds
for each annual death is needed where a good case-finding program is
carried on and well-equipped institutions are available (Chadwick '40).
220
HUMAN BIOLOGY
I ■<
I
What is the relation between existing needs and available f acilities ?
Hospital provisions for Negroes vary greatly from State to State. For
example, for tuberculous colored patients there were 699 hospital beds
in North Carolina and 187 in Alabama, in 1942. In North Carolina
there were (in 1940) 1783 deaths from tuberculosis in the entire popula-
tion and a ratio of 1.5 hospital beds for tuberculous patients per death;
in Alabama 1499 deaths from tuberculosis (in 1940, also in both races)
and a ratio of 0.3 hospital beds (National Tuberculosis Association '42).
Ratios as low as these are not only too low for the respective populations
as a whole (by way of illustration I restricted myself to figures for two
States), but they indicate a special scantity in hospital f acilities for
tuberculous Negroes in view of the high incidence of tuberculosis in
that race and also the large proportion of the Negro population in the
South.
The South, which has the smallest per capita income, provides
fewest beds per unit of population (Mountin et dl. *39). The greater
failure in the South than in the North, to reach the minimum Standard
of two beds needed per annual death from tuberculosis is also apparent
from the study of Dempsey ('43).
At present there are no data allowing a conclusive comparison be-
tween public health measures apportioned to Negroes and whites. Fed-
eral grants to State Health Departments do not specify to what extent
each race is to be aided by such assistance.
A study of State Health Departments undertaken by the U. S.
Public Health Service revealed, among other things, that the per capita
expenditure among individual states ranged from $1.68 to 13.4 cents and
that Federal grants represented about ''one third of the total amount
expended" (The Military Surgeon '43).
A comparison of some health Services available to Negroes and
whites, specifically, in 96 Southern counties, during 1930 to 1939, has
been carried out by Cornely ('42). It was noted that most of the health
Units did not tabulate their essential data according to color, but certain
trends could be observed. I quote from Cornely's investigation which
included 12 states with only 3 of the Southern states (Texas, Arkansas
and West Virginia) not participating in the survey and Alabama having
the largest representation of counties in the study :
"Although tuberculosis is the foremost plague of the Negro, yet
in this group of counties, he has available less clinic Service and fewer
beds per death (than whites).
NEGRO ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS 221
"In the venereal disease field the Negro fares better— most likely
as the result of the recent Crusade— since he has twice as many clinic
hours allocated to him per week as do his white brethren ; but even this
is not in proportion to the disparity existing between the incidence in
the two races. The same outlook is to be found in the maternal and
child health sphere. This study showed alarming neglect in the health
supervision of Negro school children. In 1939, eleven of the 58 counties
reported no examination of Negro school children, while only one re-
ported this deficiency for white school children."
Cornely's entire analysis brought out that there is "a dire urgency
for the development of a comprehensive approach to the manif old health
Problems of the Negro.'
»
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE
It is impossible to appraise to what extent improvements in the mode
of life of the Negro were enhanced by all kinds of philanthropy.
In a letter addressed to the author on July 8th, 1941, Mr. Henry J.
Rosner, Assistant to the Commissioner of Weifare of New York, draws
attention to the fact that relief to veterans and their families was first
established in 1886 and was originally given through veteran organiza-
tions. "Recently," writes Mr. Rosner, "veteran relief has been given
through the Department of Weifare, and is, in fact, an integral part of
Home Relief.
"Public assistance given outside of institutions were Widow's Pen-
sion, now known as Aid to Dependent Children given through the
Board of Child Weifare and established in 1915.
"Home Relief was first given to the unemployed in December 1931.
"While the Department of Weifare does not maintain Statistical in-
formation concerning the number of Negroes receiving Home Relief,
we have made several estimates since 1936. At the end of June, 1936,
it was estimated that there were approximately 42,250 Negro cases
on the Home Relief rolls, with approximately 105,600 persons. In
March, 1939, it was estimated that there were approximately 43»6oo
such cases, with approximately 110,550 persons. An estimate of the
number of Negroes on Home Relief in Harlem as of mid-May, 194 1,
indicated a total of 26,250 such cases with approximately 62,800 persons.
"Today, it must be remembered that WPA is also aiding Negroes
through public funds for work projects."
It would be beyond the scope of the present study to compare the
public relief funds spent in different localities. As already pointed out,
n
222
HUMAN BIOLOGY
NEGRO ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS
223
1!
!l '
the size of the problem is greater in the South than the North, and with
a higher percentage of Negro population the amounts needed for all
health and welfare Services are larger in the South.
For 34 urban areas with a population of 17,243,294 (whites and
Negroes combined) public responsibilities which were met in 1940 by
Federal sources amounted to 45.7 per cent of the funds derived from
all sources, and 37.5 per cent were supplied by the Government for
wage programs such as WPA, CCC and NYA (U. S. Department of
I^bor '41). With the discontinuation in 1943 of such Federal projects.
relief problems will have to be met to a greater extent by local and State
funds if possible. A single example suffices to illustrate the issue. In
1940 Federal funds contributed to the public needs of JeflFerson County,
Alabama, 73.4 per cent out of all available resources (Birmingham
Housing Authority '43) as against 45.7 per cent for 34 urban areas as
mentioned above. In that particular Southern area the bulk of Federal
assistance was in the form of wage programs. While some of the in-
dividuals formerly employed by the WPA can find adequate positions
with a sufficient amount of earning, others will need support by welfare
agencies.
At the time of this writing expenditures for public assistance can-
not be conclusively used to determine the quantity nor the quality of
environmental improvements as they pertain to the Negro. There are
no data available in order to establish to what degree the Negro popula-
tion has benefited by a wage program as gigantic in scope as the WPA
because this as well as other projects sponsored by the Government show
total expenditures without giving separate figures for whites and
Negroes.
In the face of this handicap I did not include in my study of environ-
mental trends, details as to housing. However, the following remarks
seem to be pertinent. In the experience of many observers there exists
a high Proportion of problem families in areas with substandard hous-
ing ; and, as a rule, populations living in such districts must receive sub-
stantial financial assistance, a large amount of health Service, much at-
tention as to social adjustment, and it is particularly in these under-
privileged groups where leisure time service is being rendered in in-
verse proportion to the actual needs. All this applies especially to the
Negro (Birmingham Housing Authority '43), and the Situation is more
acute in the South than the North.
A correlation between improved housing and physical growth of
the Negro will become possible in those sections of the country where
slums have been converted into up-to-date neighborhoods, provided a
given population remains in one and the same environment long enough
in order to enable a protracted follow-up. In this connection the fol-
lowing Observation is of interest: I found that in Smithfield Court,
Birmingham, Alabama, which is an all- Negro housing project® con-
taining over 500 units, an average of 17.8 per cent of dwellers left
annually (calculated for the period from July i, 1939 to June 30, 1941).
However, it was mainly the unattached person who left while families
showed a definite tendency to remain stationary in the new environment
whose characteristics are: low rent, wholesome quarters, spacious play-
ing grounds and an atmosphere of respectability. Settlements of this
kind, all of very recent origin, display a certain socio-economic homo-
geneity and typify a new environmental trend among the Negroes of
the South. First, personal and financial qualifications (the latter being
more modest and flexible than in analogous housing projects for whites)
which must be met prior to admission to such a Community, enable
only a definite class of people to join the latter ; second, in view of tra-
ditional racial restrictions in the South, no better housing accommo-
dations are accessible to the Negro regardless of financial resources.
Thus, while living in a housing project signifies for the white his be-
longing to a limited wage bracket, it means something entirely diflFerent
to the Southern Negro; namely, his inclusion in a selected group
carries a definite prestige. There is an outspoken sense of civic pride
and personal self-respect among the inhabitants of a southern Negro
housing project.
It remains to be seen to what degree the new southern Negro neigh-
borhoods characterized by those locally determined marks of distinc-
tion^^ will influence the physical development of the generation grow-
ing up there.
" Created by the U. S. Housing Authority and promoted by local Housing
Authorities, durable dwellings were set up to liquidate themselves financially in
60 years and then to become the property of the respective cities.
" The qualitative appraisal of the role of a southern all-Negro housing project
is included herein because it demonstrates the relativity of values in regard to be-
havioristic attitudes.
'.I
I
4-
II', P''
n
224
HUMAN BIOLOGY
THE PROLONGATION OF THE LIFE SPAN FOR WHITES AND NEGROES IN
A NORTHERN AND A SOUTHERN CITY
How does the progress in environmental improvement for whites
and for Negroes compare? We do not have any exact knowledge in
Order to answer this question. If we were able to draw comparable
graphs, we might possibly come to the conclusion that the Negroes*
upward curve begins its ascent from a level lower that that of the
whites and falls short of the summit which the corresponding line of
the whites has already reached.
I have used the Prolongation in the life span as a hypothetical index
to evaluate the totality of environmental improvements ; specifically,
I have utilized the increase in the mean age at death^^ in order to in-
dicate the existence of such improvements ; and I know that in doing so,
my procedure as well as its results may be challenged.
In principle, the following objections may be voiced. I quote from
Vital Statistics by Newsholme ('24) :
"In contrasting diflferent communities the mean age at death is a
most fallacious test, owing to variations in the birthrate and in migra-
tion of Population.
"In the comparison of different classes of society, and those en-
gaged in different occupations, serious errors have arisen by the use of
the mean age at death to determine their relative vitality."
I do share these objections. However, the totality of environmen-
tal conditions includes the variations in birth-rate and in migration of
Population, occupational health hazards to which are exposed certain
age groups engaged in the respective occupations, social-economic
fluctuations in given territories, nutritional opportunities or a lack of
them in accordance with the state of wealth or poverty, and the
effects of public welfare and public health.
It was not my aim to utilize the mean age at death to contrast dif-
ferent communities nor to determine the relative vitality of the Negro
and white populations. Something eise was intended, namely, in con-
sidering the average age at death as the sum total of numerous en-
vironmental factors, I could not ignore the increase in the average
" Mean age at death =
sum of ages at death
number of deaths
This corresponds to expectation of life at birth.
NEGRO ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS
225
age at death, as a general indicator of environmental changes, includ-
ing improvements.
Environmental conditions have also an effect on the proportion
of the age groups in a population and that proportion will affect the
total death rate as well as the mean age at death.^^
I cannot itemize the very many factors which have engendered an
improvement in the Negro's longevity. The answer would have to
be looked for in an all-inclusive historical survey on public health ac-
tivities and socio-economic adjustments, including their limitations;
and the results of private philanthropy as well as of public welfare
would have to be weighed, too. Various sciences would have to be in-
tergrated in order to approach a project of such magnitude adequately.
To what degree will general environmental changes exert their
beneficial influence on the white and Negro populations in one and the
same territory ?
I may cite some figures for Birmingham, Alabama, and New York
City, New York, analyzing separately data for the Southern coal, steel
and iron center and for the North-eastern metropolis in Table 3.
Table 3 demonstrates that during the decade 1930 to 1940 the
average age at death has increased equally for whites and Negroes of
the Birmingham population, the extension of the life span in both races
being 5.7 years.
In 1930 the average life span of the colored population of Birming-
ham was by 9.2 years shorter than that of whites, and in 1940 the same
diflference prevailed.
During the same decade the average age at death has increased about
equally for whites and Negroes of the New York City population, the
" The rates for infant and maternal mortality show marked differences for
different localities. Comparison of the infant mortality rate for I93i-I935 with
that for 1936-1940 reveals a percentage decrease of 21.0 for New York and 2.2
for Alabama; and comparison of the maternal mortality rate for the same period
shows a percentage decrease of 34-2 for New York and 9.2 for Alabama. In
Negroes the general improvement in maternal mortality was less than in whites:
from 1930 to 1940 the maternal mortality rate became 48 per cent lower in whites
and 34 per cent lower in Negroes (Yerushalmy '42).
The increase of the old age group, i. e. the population 65 years old or over,
during the preceding decade shows also different trends in difTerent localities. The
increase for that group in the country as a whole was 35 per cent; however, in
New York City the increase was 57 per cent comprising 5.6 per cent of its total
population in 1940 (Welfare Council New York City '43).
1
226
HUMAN BIOLOGY
TABLE 3
Average age at death (in years)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
WHITE
NEGRO
WHITE AND NEGRO
IN
LIFE SPAN
Birmingham,
Alabama*
1930
45-3
36.1
9.2
1940
Increase in
51.0
41.8
92
one decade
57
5.7
New
York
City,
New York**
1930
1940
Increase in
49.0
58.0
36.3
45.6
12.7
12.4
one decade
9.0
9.3
* Jefferson County Board of Health, Birmingham, Alabama, '40.
♦* Dept. of Health, New York City. Personal communication.
extension of the life span for whites being 9 years and for Negroes 9.3
years.
In 1930 the average life span of the colored population of New York
City was by 12.7 years shorter than that of whites in the same city ; and
in 1940 about the same difference prevailed.
Of course, none of the figures for these two cities are comparable.
Moreover, though each city, taken separately, discloses one and the same
phenomenon, namely, a parallel extension of the life span for whites
and Negroes in one and the same locality, the analogy of the figures is
deceiving, deceiving because in terms of percentages the Prolongation
of the life span is greater for Negroes than whites.
From this fact one may deduce that during the last decade the totality
of environmental changes, including improvements, occurred in no less-
er degree among Negroes than whites.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The nutritional regime applied to infants under care of the Depart-
ment of Health of New York City is reported. This dietary and general
supervision introduced about one decade ago in behalf of indigent in-
NEGRO ENVIRONMENTAL TRENDS
22y
./
rv
I ,<
I r\
fants, both white and colored, has benefited their growth as shown in
previous papers of the present series.
Manifold improvements can be recorded in the Negro's general health
during the past quarter of the present Century. However, the Negro's
greater illness than that of the white is striking. This can be linked with
the former 's poorer economic Status.
Health facilities available to the Negro are not on a par with those
available to the white, for the country as a whole. Especially inadequate
are facilities for tuberculosis control. This applies also to venereal disease
control, though to a lesser degree, due to the program accompanying the
war efTort.
To a great extent progress in the Negro's living conditions was en-
hanced through the aid of public agencies.
It seems that during the last decade the effects of the totality of en-
vironmental changes, including improvements, were sufHciently potent
among whites and Negroes as to cause an upward extension of the aver-
age life Span in both races.
The use of the life span as a criterion for environmental changes is
only permissible when heeding the necessary reservations.
LITERATURE CITED
Alabama State Department of Health. 1942. Negroes in State improve in
health. Press release. The Birmingham Neivs, May 14.
Alabama State Department of Public Welfare. 1942, 1943. Press releases.
The Birmingham News, Jan. 31, '42; March 28, '43.
Boas, Ernst P. 1940. The Unseen Plague. New York (J. J. Augustin).
Boas, Ernst P. and Nicholas Michelson. 1929. The Challenge of Chronic
Diseases. New York (Macmillan Co.).
Chadwick, Henry. 1940. Tuberculosis Abstracts, Nat. Tuberc. Assn., Vol. XIII,
No. IG, Oct.
CoRNELY, C. 1942. Trends in public health activities among Negroes in 96 South-
ern counties during the period 1930-1939. Am. J. of Public Health, Vol. ZA
No. IG, pp. II 17-24, Oct.
Dempsey, Mary. 1943. New cases of tuberculosis discovered by case-finding sur-
veys. Am. Rev. Tuberc, Vol. 48, pp. 58-63.
Dublin, Louis I. and Alfred J. Lotka. 1937. Twenty-five Years of Health Pro-
gress. New York (Metropol. Life Ins. Co.).
Dublin, Louis I. 1937. The Health of the Negro. New York (Metropol. Life
Ins. Co.).
Gill, D. G., W. H. Y. Smith and S. R. Dämon. 1943. Syphilis in Alabama as
revealed by a Serologie survey of Selective Service registrants. Venereal
Disease Information, Vol. 24, No. i., pp. 6-11, Jan.
228
HUMAN BIOLOGY
Holland, Dorothy F. and George St. J. Perrott. 1938. Health of the Negro.
Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly, Vol. XVI, No. i, pp. 5-38, Jan.
HousiNG Authority of the Birmingham District. 1943. Works Projects Ad-
ministration Official Project No. 365- 1-6 1-3. Social and economic survey of
the Birmingham District. Pp. 18, 53 and 56.
Jefferson County Board of Health, Birmingham, Ala. 1940. Annual Re-
port, Bureau of Records and Vital Statistics. Table 22, p. 33.
Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. 1943. Wartime trends in tuberculosis. Stat.
Bull., Vol. 24, No. 5, May.
Military Surgeon. 1943. U. S. Public Health Service, State Health Departments,
Vol. 93, No. I, p. loi, July.
Mountin, Joseph W., Elliot H. Pennel and Kay Pearson. 1939. Nat. Tuberc.
Assn., 35th Annual Meeting, p. 223.
Nat. Tuberc. Assn. 1941. Statistical Service. Tuberculosis Mortality among
Residents of Large American Cities, pp. 7-8.
. 1942. Tuberculosis Sanatorium Directory, pp. 175-6.
Newsholme, Sir Arthur. 1924. Vital Statistics. New York (D. Appleton and
Co.). P. 244.
New York City, Welfare Department. 1939-1940. Annual Report. Public As-
sistance in N. Y. C. Pp. 16 and 17.
Pinner, Max. 1940. Epidemiological trends in tuberculosis. Am. Rev. Tuberc,
Vol. 42, Sept.
Stieglitz, Edward J. [Ed.] 1943. Geriatrie Medicine. W. B. Saunders Co.
U. S. Department of Labor. 1941. Facts about child health. Children's Bureau,
Washington, D. C, p. 2, March.
. 1941. The Community welfare picture in 34 urban areas 1940, fig. 2,
p. 7, June.
U. S. Public Health Service. 1940. Supplement No. 152 to the Public Health
Reports. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 40 and 41.
Vonderlehr, R. A. and Lida J. Usilton. 1942. Syphilis among men of draft age.
/. Am. Med. Assn., Vol. 120, No. 17, pp. 1369-1372, Dec. 26.
• 1943- Symposium on venereal disease in the Armed Forces. New York
State J. of Medicine, Vol. 43, No. 19, pp. 1825-1829, October.
Yerushalmy, J. 1942. The 1940 record of maternal and infant mortality in the
United States. The Child, Vol. 6, No. 8, pp. 199, 200 and 204, February.
r
M
\
■ '
f
I
Human
Biology
a record of research
Volume 17
SEPTEMBER, 1945
NUMBER 3
CONTENTS ,
The Law oe Evolution as a Maximal Principle.
Alfred J. Lotka j^^
The Rh Blood Factor among Twins. Hcrliif IL
Strandskov and Gcrtrudc Wylic Dicdcrich 195
Studies in THE Physical Development. VII. En-
vironmental Trends among the American
Negro. Nicholas Michclson 207
Studies in the Physical Development. VIII.
Resume and Goals for Further Research.
Nicholas Michelson
Regent Literature ..
243
THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS. Publishers
Baltimore— 18, Maryland, U. S. A.
STUDIES IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
VIII. RESUME AND GOALS FOR FURTHER
RESEARCH
BY NICHOLAS MICHELSON
REPRINT FROM
HUnAN
BIDLDfiy
a record of
researcta
September, 1945
Vol.
17
No.
PubliBhed Quarterly by
Th« Johnt Hopkim PreM. Baltimore.
Maryland, U.S.A.
i
\'\
(Reprinted from Human Biology, September, 1945» Vol. 17, No. 3]
la
>ft d^f^
^
STUDIES IN THE PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
VIII. RESUME AND GOALS FOR EURTHER
RESEARCH
BY NICHOLAS MICHELSON
Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New York
INTRODUCTION
N THE present paper the period of gestation, the tempo of
growth, and the desirability of obtaining consecutive observa-
tions in order to investigate those f actors which may possibly
____., influence the individual's natural life span are discussed.
liT^pi^aising the life cycle as a whole, reference is made to some as-
pects of heredity and environment.
THE PERIOD OF GESTATION
Anderson, Brown and Lyon ('43) drew attention to that which seems
to be a diflFerence between gestation periods of white and Negro infants,
as shown in Table i.
TABLE I
Mean gestation period, made and Standard deviation jor white and Negro
Single live-born infants*
RACE
MEAN MODE
NUMBER (indays) (indays)
STANDARD DEVIATION
(in days) (in years)
White
Negro
2948
1895
279.4
274.0
283.6
277.0
20.6
21. 1
.06
.06
♦ Calculation based on the frequency distribution contained in
Table 3 of Anderson et al. ('43)
It would be of interest to determine whether or to what degree there
can be demonstrated a shorter gestation period of Negroes than whites
among infants of multiple birth order and excluding premature infants.
230
HUMAN BIOLOGY
Duffield, Parker and Baumgarten (*4o) have shown that there is a
very much larger percentage of infants with birth weight less than 2500
grams among the plural-born than single-born infants in whites as well
as Negroes. From this it follows that prematurity is relatively more f re-
quent in plural-born than single-born infants. However, the incidence
of prematurity appraised from the point of view of birth weight cannot
be evaluated in the same manner f or whites and Negroes due to the lower
birth weight of the latter. Anderson et al. ('43) suggested separate birth
weight Standards f or the white and Negro races : 2500 grams to be con-
sidered the lower limit of normal for the white infant and 2300 grams as
the lower limit of normal for the Negro infant.
Anderson et cd. ('43) obtained for 1144 single-born Negro males a
mean birth weight of 3154 grams ± 541; and for 11 53 single-born
Negro f emales 3053 grams ±: 539. These means resemble those reported
for Negroes by the author ('43) and are for each sex smaller by about
100 grams than the latter's figures which, however, were calculated with-
out considering birth order. In the material of Anderson et al. the varia-
bility of the birth weights of whites and Negroes was practically the same
for the comparable Cincinnati populations (irrespective of the higher
means for whites in the corresponding sex), and the frequency distribu-
tion by gestation period presented by Anderson et al. and used herein
embraces data with known last menstrual period. These aspects enhance
a high degree of reliability as regards the material of Anderson et al.
With a normal variability of about ±21 days for the gestation period,
there arises the question whether there is a correlation, in the sense of a
causative relationship, between the normal length of time spent in utero
and the individual's natural life span; and, furthermore, whether the
shorter gestation period of the Negro (provided it be not merely a Statis-
tical phenomenon) has any influenae on the shorter life span of Negroes
than whites. At present no data are available to attempt a probing into
these purely hypothetical questions.
Similarly, we lack any consecutive observations in order to clarify
the Problem whether the individual's tempo of growth as affected by
genetic or environmental factors, exerts an influence on his duration of
life. Of special value would be an ans wer to the problem whether the
tempo of growth due to hereditary determinants has a bearing on the
length of the natural life span.
!• ^
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT SUMMARY 231
ENVIRONMENT AND PHYSICAL DIVERGENCES
Burke, Harding and Stuart ('43) ^ave shown that the amount of
protein contained in the prenatal diet may influence the size of the infant.
Less than 75 grams of protein daily during the latter part of pregnancy
was found to result in infants of light weight and short stature while
both of these measurements reached higher figures, irrespective of the
mother's height, when the prenatal diet was well supplied with protein.
Burke, Beal, Kirkwood and Stuart ('43) have also shown that the
mode of nutrition during pregnancy may prof oundly affect the condition
of the infant at birth. I quote :
"A statistically significant relationship has been shown between the
diet of the mother during pregnancy and the condition of her infant at
birth and within the first two weeks of life.
"If the diet of the mother during pregnancy is poor, she will un-
doubtedly have an infant whose physical condition will be poor. In the
216 cases considered in this study, all stillborn infants, all infants who
died within a few days of birth except one, most infants who had mark-
ed congenital defects, all premature, and all functionally immature in-
fants were born to mothers whose diets during pregnancy were very
inadequate.
"If the mother's diet during pregnancy is good or excellent, her in-
fant will in all probability be in good or excellent physical condition.
It may, however, happen rarely that a mother whose diet during preg-
nancy is good or excellent will give birth to an infant in poor physical
condition (i out of 216 cases in this study)."
A recent study carried out on a series of Negro infants by Bakwin
and Patrick ('44) merits special attention. That Negro group is unique
in that it is made up of private patients in contrast to dispensary material
observed previously. The infants of the new series were supervised by
Patrick since their birth. Bakwin and Patrick have compared the weight
curves of those private colored patients with the data obtained from a
group of white infants supervised at the Fifth Avenue Hospital (Bakwin
and Bakwin ('36). Bakwin and Patrick conclude:
"There is no significant difference in the weight gain of white and
Negro infants during the first year of life. It seems likely that the
slower growth observed in earlier studies was due to differences in
socio-economic Status rather than to differences in the nature of the
germ plasm. Given the opportunity of proper medical supervision,
Negro infants from moderate income f amilies grow as well as white
infants."
232
HUMAN BIOLOGY
A particularly timely issue is the eugenic question dealing with genetic
versus environmental disturbances. Hale's ('35) experiments as well
as those by Warkany et al. ('43) demonstrate that unfavorable prenatal
nutrition can cause familial, though not hereditary, congenital malform-
ations. I quote from Warkany et al.:
"Studies in human twins and in strains of mice with a hereditary
tendency to harelip and cleft palate have led to the conclusion that non-
genetic factors modify the manifestations of the pathological tendency
to a great extent.
"Harelip (studied by Haie) and cleft palate have been produced by
maternal nutritional deficiency in strains of animals which were free of
these malformations under adequate nutritional conditions.
"There seems to be no reliable method available at the present time
to ascertain in a given case whether the anomaly is due to genetic or to
environmental disturbance."
In a discussion of environmental factors one might cite the hypothet-
ical role of climate which in the opinion of some authors has a decisive
eflFect on birth weight, the onset of sexual maturity, and height. How-
ever no consistent nor significant seasonal Variation in birth weight could
be demonstrated in a recent study by Meredith and Brown ('39).
Similarly, Gadgieva ('41) established for about 31,000 children born in
Baku from 1930 to 1936 inclusive, the lack of any dependence of the
birth weight on the season of the year.
From the author's study (Michelson '44) one may deduce that the
time at onset of puberty is not infiuenced by climate. As far as stature
is concerned, one may point out that no stifling eflFect due to a warmer
climate could be observed in New York among American-born oflfspring
of groups of East European Jews who have come to this country from
colder climates ; on the contrary, an increase in stature could be shown.
Moreover, if climate were a potent factor and a colder climate had the
specific efTect leading to an increase in adult stature, one would expect
such a result among Negroes growing up in New York. However, no
recent secular increase in adult stature could be demonstrated for them.
The notion that a hot climate must result in small stature and a cold
climate in tall stature is also contradicted by the well known fact that
some of the tallest men are found among the Soudan Negroes and that
the average height of the Scandinavian Lapps is about only sixty inches.
Thus it seems that the eflFect of climate on physical development is a
highly contestable idea.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT SUMMARY
233
Shapiro C39) has demonstrated that selection may constitute an im-
portant issue when comparing emigrants with the general population
from which they are derived. Equally significant is the following con-
TABLE 2
Average statures and annual increment (in cm.) of girls hetween 11 and 13
years of age among various populations
White
BRUSH FOUNDATION
REGULÄR SERIES
SIMMONS AND
GREULICH ('43)
CALIFORNIA GEN-
ERAL POPULATION
U. S. DEPT OF
AGRIC. ('41)
UNIV. OF IOWA
STUDIES
BOYNTON ('36)
TENNESSEE GEN-
ERAL POPULATION
U. S. DEPT OF
AGRIC. ('41)
Age Stature Increment
Stature Increment Stature Increment
Stature Increment
II 148.57
la 155-16
13 160.03
11-13
6.59
4-87
11.46
146-85
152.29
156.48
14362
5.44 150.28
4-19 155-96
9.63
•
6.66
5.68
12.34
142.09
148.62 6.53
153-87 5-25
11.78
Negro
RIVERDALE ORPHANAGE P. S. I36,
NEW YORK NEW YORK CITY
MICHELSON ('44) MICHELSON ('44)
Age Stature Increment Stature Increment
11 137-4 146.4
12 143-3 5-9 152.1
13 148.7 5.4 154.9
11-13 "-3
6.3
2.8
9.1
clusion of Shapiro: "Not only may migrant populations undergo modifi-
cation when transposed to a sufificiently diflFerent environment, but phys-
ical changes may also occur in fixed populations if their environments
alter in the course of time."
The average speed with which premenarcheal growth in stature man-
fests itself in diflferent populations merits a detailed discussion.
<l
234
HUMAN BIOLOGY
A comparison of six different populations f or which data are present-
ed in Tables 2 and 3 reveals :
First, there occurs a greater spurt in stature between 11 and 12 years
of age than between 12 and 13 years. From 12 to 13 years of age growth
in height is already decelerating.
Second, for the two f ollow-up series f or which the age of menarche
is known (Brush Foundation Regulär Series, white well-to-do girls:
TABLE 3
Increment between ii and 13 years of age expressed as percentage
of stature at 11 years
Brush Foundation (f amilies above the average in economic Status) 7.67%
California 6.56%
Iowa (above average in economic Status) 8.59%
Tennessee 8.29%
Riverdale Orphanage 8.22%
P. S. 136 6.22%
12.6 years ±: i.i ; and Negro orphanage girls: 13.5 ±: i.i) one notices
that (a) although the Brush Foundation Regulär Series has the menarche
one year earlier than the Negroes of the Riverdale Orphanage, the differ-
ence in the intensity of the increment does not appear to be significant as
regards the time interval between 11 and 13 years of age ; (b) both groups
diff er by eleven centimeters at 1 1 years of age and still differ by the same
amount at 13 years of age; and (c) both groups show an increment of
approximately 8 per cent in relation to the stature at 1 1 years of age.
Third, in all six populations compared, even though they differ mark-
cdly from the Standpoint of economic Status and race (color), still their
increments in stature between 11 and 12 years of age are similar. The
increment for the interval between 11 and 13 years of age, expressed as
percentage of stature at 11 years, ranges from 6.2 per cent to 8.6 per
cent.
In terms of the problem of the relation between sexual maturation
and increment in stature, the above data would indicate that the incre-
ment in height is more definitely related to age than to the onset of
puberty or socio-economic Status, in so f ar as this applies to a large popu-
lation. It should be realized, however, that this general conclusion does
not apply to selected groups nor to each individual contained in a group.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT SUMMARY
235
il
For example, a series of girls representing a well-to-do group is expected
to contain a relatively large proportion of individuals with accelerated
growth in stature and an acceleration of the onset of puberty ; and such a
group may show a more intensive premenarcheal spurt in stature be-
tween IG and 1 1 years than later on. This did actually occur in the Brush
Foundation Regulär Series.
Individual divergences due to an interrelation between the onset of
puberty and the tempo of growth in stature show in most cases these
characteristics : girls with an early menarche have the greatest accelera-
tion f ollowed by the greatest deceleration ; girls with a late menarche ex-
perience the least acceleration f ollowed by the least deceleration (Sim-
mons and Greulich, '43). Or, in other words, the intensity of growth
during the period of growth is the less the later adolescence sets in.
(Boas '32)
Assuming that nutrition is one of the factors forming a part of en-
vironmental changes and influencing the tempo of growth, and assuming
also that nutrition influences mature physique, are we dealing with a
Single nutritional factor, namely, (a) a factor which leads to accelerated
growth; or with an additional nutritional factor, namely, (b) a factor
that effects a secular increase in adult stature?
If in one given locality there should occur (i) an accelerated tempo
of growth; (2) accelerated onset of puberty; (3) an increase in the
linear type, that is to say, a growing proportion of individuals with slen-
der build ; and (4) an increase in adult stature, one may be tempted to
ascribe the concurrence of all of these physical changes to one single
hypothetical cause. For example, one may raise the question whether
there is occurring a possible increase of iodine entering the food, as it is
believed by some investigators that thyroid Stimulation may affect the
individual in this manner. However, thus far, there is neither evidence
of a consistent concurrence of those four phenomena in all population
groups of the same locality, nor has a greater consumption of iodine (in
terms of food) during the past decades or centuries been demonstrated.
It seems that an explanation for secular bodily changes is not to be
sought for in any single cause but in a combination of several concurrent
or interacting factors— all unknown at present and probably including
variables not sufficiently appraised.
236
HUMAN BIOLOGY
THE TEMPO OF GROWTH AND OF SENILE DECAY
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT SUMMARY
23:
Sherman and Campbell ('37) demonstrated that rats whose basal
ration was f ortified with skim milk powder grew very much faster than
a control series not receiving the supplemented diet. The supplemented
animals showed an earlier sexual maturation, a grater duration of the
reproduction period and a longer life span. As far as humans are con-
cerned, there do not exist any data disclosing a similar correlation be-
tween environmentally caused growth acceleration and Prolongation of
longevity.
The proof that longevity of the parents influences that of their chil-
dren was established by the study of Bell ('18) whose analysis of the
genealogy of the Hyde family showed that four times as many indivi-
duals attained old age when both parents lived 80 years or more than
when neither parent reached that age. Among other things, he also
found that the first-born lived as long as subsequent children. However,
the latter Observation does not agree with the results obtained by Beeton
and Pearson (*oi) who found that older children had longer lives than
the younger ones of the same family :
"The eider adult sister and adult brother live on an average four
years longer than the younger adult sister or brother."
No attempt is being made herein to explain the diflferent results on
this issue as obtained in Bell's investigation and in that of Beeton and
Pearson. It is clear, however, that in addition to Statistical investiga-
tions of the duration of lives, studies are needed in order to identify the
type and developmental tempo of separate physiological events possibly
bound up with hereditary determinants of longevity. This might clarify
the role of the tempo of growth as well as the role of the tempo of aging
in relation to longevity.
Let US review a f ew relevant observations on the tempo of growth as
brought out in the present study in order to discuss the problem of the
tempo of growth in relation to the life span, later on.
I wish to refer back to the basic concept of physical growth (as ex-
pressed by stature) which was already formulated. One must strive to
identify the factors which influence the individual's tempo of growth and
to distinguish them f rom those which are instrumental in causing a change
in the adult stature of successive generations. The rhythm of growth is
determined by a combination of two elements, namely, the effects of
heredity and of environment. Adult stature does not seem to be influenc-
ed by acceleration or retardation of growth occurring within the same
social group (Boas '32). The increase in the adult stature of whites
which has been noted by many investigators must be considered a non-
hereditary, physiologic manifestation brought about by long-lasting en-
vironmental improvements. In view of the fact that no increase in the
final stature of the Negro could be demonstrated in the present investiga-
tion (Michelson '43), we may conclude that the environmental conditions
under which this race grew up during the last few decades, have not as
yet improved to a degree (either quantitatively or qualitatively) which
could bring about an increase in the adult stature.
The following also bears repetition: Although it has been shown
(Michelson '43) that Negro infants and children supervised by the
Clinics of the Health Department of New York City have made an as-
tounding recent increase in stature and that this may possibly be attri-
buted to the effects of environmental improvements (presumably the
increase is due to acceleration in growth), only a follow-up of these
Negro children until the termination of their growth cycle would dis-
close whether the adult stature will excel that of previous generations.
It was brought out (Michelson '44) that among both white and col-
ored girls of the present generation puberty sets in at an earlier age than
it did during preceding decades. However, it must be underscored that
the cause of the concurrence of accelerated growth and accelerated sexual
maturity is not as yet understood.
The relation of both of these phenomena to longevity ought to be a
subject matter of research.
So far, we lack any knowledge about a relationship between the indivi-
dual's tempo of growth and longevity. An investigation of this problem
would have to deal with two questions : first, the correlation between a
hereditary tempo of growth and the natural life span ; and, secondly, a
correlation between environmental effects on the rate of growth and a
possible modification by such extrinsic factors of the natural life span.
In order to come nearer to an answer to these problems, a Separation
between hereditary and environmental factors, in so far as they form
independent components of the growth cycle, would be the first step.
Obviously, their recognition and f ormulation in quantitative terms is very
difficult (see Boas, '32, pp. 345-349)-
In this connection, it is important to keep in mind that the correlation
coefficient for the resemblance of f raternities is merely an expression for
the dissimilarity of the family lines and does not possess any biological
238
HUMAN BIOLOGY
significance. In a population in which the variability of the f raternities is
very much greater than that of the families, there is much inbreeding
(Boas '31).
Since the growth cycle as expressed by stature is only one of the many
biologic phenomena which might possibly be linked with longevity, a
differential analysis of intrinsic (hereditary) and extrinsic (environ-
mental) factors would have to be made for all physiologic manifesta-
tions expressing the tempo of physical development as well as that of
senile decay.
The premise to an enquiry of such a large scope is an Organization of
continuous observations to be carried out from birth to death of the
populations under study.
The Problem of a possible relationship between the tempo of growth
and longevity culminates in the question "whether the characteristic
tempo of the individual extends over later periods of life; whether a
rapid tempo of growth will also be associated with rapid decay and ear-
lier death, or whether other types of relation exist" (Boas '35).
We do not know whether acceleration or retardation in physical
development which takes place during an individual's earlier part of life is
followed by a similar tempo of physiological changes throughout life. If it
could be determined whether the tempo of development and that of senile
decay fall into one and the same pattern during the entire life of the in-
dividual and if such a supposition could be shown to be true, the indivi-
dual's natural life span might become predictable. At present we have
no data which might prove the existence of a correlation between, let us
assume, a slow tempo of development and a slow tempo of aging. How-
ever, the f ollowing is suggestive : in the sequence of events which occur
during the processes of growth and senile decline one can note that the
later the chronological order of appearance of a physiologic stage is,
the greater is its variability (Boas '40, pp. 98 and 112) in terms of years.
The demonstration by Bernstein ('31, '32) and Steinhaus ('32) that
those individuals who become f ar-sighted prematurely are apt to succumb
to arteriosclerotic changes of old age earlier than those who become f ar-
sighted late in life, merits special attention because this Observation would
permit some kind of prediction of an individual's probable natural life
Span.
It is interesting to note that the individual's life span has shown only
a minimal change for the age group seventy years and over, since 1876 to
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT SUMMARY
239
► «
1937 (Wolflf '43), the increase amounting only to 0.4 years for the male
and 0.8 years for the f emale.
The f act that there is a progressive increase in variability for the time
of onset of the consecutive physiologic events, starting with ± 21 days
for the gestation period and ending with ± 8 years for death from arter-
ial diseases ; and also the f act that there appears to be a Prolongation in
the life span amounting for the older age groups to a f ew months during
the last six decades of Observation— these two circumstances give rise
to the f ollowing questions : (a) Has a speeding up of physical growth
caused by environment (for example, accelerated sexual maturity) any
subsequent efTect on longevity? (b) Are the hereditary factors potent
to such a degree that the natural life span will not be prolonged beyond
the average already attained by the human species, irrespective of envir-
onmental improvements ?
I may briefly refer to another subject of great interest, namely, the
relation between skeletal and mental development. It would be enlighten-
ing to investigate whether there exists a relation between the tempo of
skeletal development and the intelligence quotient of the Negro. Boas
('41) reported a correlation between the stature of white children and
the tempo of ossification of the radius. A correlation was also found
between the rate of development of the radius and the intelligence
quotient. Children short for their age had a low I. Q. and a slow
tempo of ossification of the radius. Such correlations could not be stud-
ied for adults due to lack of f ollow-up material ; and for Negroes a sim-
ilar study could not be undertaken at all, for the same reason.
In so far as non-adults are concerned, a concurrence of a relatively
high stature, an advanced stage of ossification of the radius and a high
I.Q. may be explained by an acceleration of physical as well as mental
development. Since the final stature does not depend on acceleration nor
retardation of growth, it would be logical not to expect a correlation be-
tween the adult stature and the I.Q.
SUMMARY
This study presents an interpretive resume on growth as well as on
questions pertaining to heredity and environment, whereby the d.scuss.on
is chiefly focused on problems considered in the previous papers of the
present series. In addition, some other aspects, in need of further re-
search, are touched on.
240
HUMAN BIOLOGY
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT SUMMARY
241
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The investigation was begun under the direction of the late Professor Franz
Boas and was sponsored by the Columbia University Council for Research in ihc
Social Sciences.
Dr. William Nussbaum participated in securing puberty data at the Abraham
Lincoln Ölgh School'andTn taking band roentgenograms at the Waiden School aml
the Lincoln School, New York City.
The War Department generously supplied the statures on Negroes of the Civilian
Conservation Corps.
The Statistical work was done by Mrs. Hertha Edel, Mr. Max Jacobs and Dr.
Dusya Trachtenberg, of the Department of Anthropology, Columbia University.
Additional calculations were made by Mr. Geo. V. Truss and Mr. Charles W.
Craven, of the Bureau of Records and Vital Statistics of the Jefferson County
Health Department, Birmingham, Alabama.
I am indebted to Dr. T. D. Stewart for editing the manuscript of Parts I to IV
which appeared in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology in 1943 and
1944-
I wish to express my gratitude to the department heads of those institutions who
made the inquiry possible and to the many individuals, colored and white, who coop-
erated with me:
To Dr. Gabriel R. Mason, Mr. Andre Fontaine, Mrs. Jeanette Stewart and Mrs.
L. Shugerman, of the Abraham Lincoln High School, Brooklyn, New York; to
Sister Carmelita, of the St. Benedict's Home, Rye, New York ; to Dr. Mason Pit-
man, Mr. Henry R. Murphy and Miss Anne Wanderman, of the Colored Orphan
Asylum, Riverdale-On-Hudson, New York ; to Dr. Eugenie Chinnock, of the Har-
riet Beecher Stowe Junior High School, New York City ; to Mrs. Cecelia Saunders,
of the Y. W. C. A. ; to the Urban League and the Girl Scouts Organization ; to Miss
Zora Neale Hurston ; to the late Dr. S. S. Goldwater ; to Dr. John L. Rice, Dr.
Herbert R. Edwards, Dr. Margaret Witter Barnard, Dr. A. L Blau, Dr. John B.
West and Irving Crain, of the Department of Health of New York City ; to the
Board of Education of New York City ; to Dr. Gustav Aufriebt, New York City ;
to Miss Loraine G. Dennhardt and Miss Mary Burr, of Lincoln Hospital, New
York City ; to Reverend John Johnson of St. Martin's Church ; to Reverend Adam
Powell Junior ; to Father Shelton Haie Bishop and Father C. Edward Harrison, of
St. Phillip's Church, and to Miss Ruth Sutton, all of New York City.
Thanks are also due to all other individuals and institutions mentioned in the text.
The willingness with which the populations of both races facilitated the investiga-
tion was most gratifying, and I am expressing my sincere appreciation to the many
thousands of persons measured, questioned or consulted.
. LITERATURE CITED
Anderson, Nina A., Estelle W. Brown and R. A. Lyon. 1943. Causes of pre-
maturity. III. Am. J. of Diseases of Children, Vol. 65, pp. 523-534» April.
Bakwin, H., and R. M. Bakwin. 1936. /. Pediat., Vol. 8, p. 177.
Bakwin, H., and Thomas W. Patrick, Jr. 1944.' /. Pediat., Vol. 24, pp. 405-407,
April.
Beeton, M., and K. Pearson. 1901. On the inheritance of the duration of life.
Biometr'ika, Vol. I, Part i, pp. 50-89.
Bell, Alexander Graham. 1918. The duration of life and conditions associated
with longevity. A study of the Hyde genealogy. Genealogical Record Office,
Washington, D.C.
Bernstein, Felix. 1931. Zukunfsaufgaben der Versicherungsmathematik. Zeit-
schrift für die gesame Versicherungs-Wissenschaft, Vol. 31, pp. 141-151.
. 1932. Alterssichtigkeit und Lebenserwartung. Forschungen und
Fortschritte, 8. Jahrg., No. 21, pp. 272-273, July 20th.
Boas, Franz. 1931. Die Variabilität von Volksgruppen. Anthropologischer
Anseiger, Jahrg. VII, Heft ^, pp. 204-208.
. 1932. Studies in growth. Human Biology, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 345-349,
September.
1935- Conditions Controlling the tempo of development and decay,
46th Annual Meeting of the Assn. of Life Insurance Medical Directors of
America. Oct. 17-18.
. 1940, Race, Language And Culture. New York (Macmillan Co.),
pp. 98 and 112.
. 1941. The relation between physical and mental development.
Science, Vol. 93, No. 2415, pp. 339-34^. April 11
BoYNTON, Bernice. 1936. The physical growth of girls. University of Iowa
Studies, Vol. XII, No. 4, Table i, p. 12, September.
BuRKE, Bertha S., Vernette Vickers Harding, and Harold C. Stuart. 1943-
Nutrition studies during pregnancy. IV. /. Pediat., Vol. 23, pp. 506-515.
November.
BuRKE, Bertha S., Virginia A. Beal, Samuel B. Kirkwood and Harold C
Stuart. 1943. The influence of nutrition during pregnancy upon the condition
of the infant at birth. /. Nutrition, Vol. 26, No. 6, pp. 569-583. December.
Duffield, Thomas J., Sylvia L. Parker and Leona Baumgarten. 1940. Birth
weight and its relation to neonatal mortality. The Child, Vol. 5. Nos. 5 and 6,
Table 4, p. 128, November-December.
Gadgieva, S. 1941. Progress in the physical development of new-borns in Baku.
Pediatria, Moskva, 6, pp. 91-94-
Hale, Fred. 1935. The relation of vitamin A to anophthalmos in pigs. Am. J.
Ophth., Vol. 18, p. 1087, December.
Meredith, Howard V., and Addison W. Brown. 1939. Growth in body weight.
Human Biology, Vol. 11, No. i, pp. 71-72. February.
MiCHELSON Nicholas. 1943- Investigations in the physical development of Ne-
groes. L Stature. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., N.S., Vol. i, No. 2, pp. 205-208,
June. ,, o . L
1943. n. Weight. Idem, Vol. i, No. 3, P- 295, September.
1944. IV. Onset of puberty. Idem, Vol. 2, No. 2, p. 154.
Shapiro H L 1939. Migration and Environment. Oxford University Press.
Sherman, H. C, and H. L. Campbell. 1937- Nutritional well-being and length of
life as influenced by different enrichments of an already adequate diet. /. Nu-
trition, Vol. 14, No. 6, pp. 609-620, December.
(.
242
HUMAN BIOLOGY
SiMMONs, Katherine, and William Walter Greulich. 1943. Menarcheal age
and the height, weight and skeletal age of girls age 7 to 17 years. /. Pediat.,
Vol. 22, No. 5, pp. 518-548, May.
Steinhaus, Heinz. 1932. Arch. Augenheilkunde. CV, 730-760.
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1941. Body measurements of American boys
and girls for garment and pattern construction. Miscellaneous Publication No.
366, Table 40, p. 97.
Warkany, Joseph, Rose C. Nelson and Elizabeth Schraffenberger. 1943.
Congenital malformations induced in rats by maternal nutritional deficiency. IV.
Cleft palate. Am. J. Diseases of Chüdren, Vol. 65, pp. 882-894, June.
WoLFF, George. 1943. (Discussion of "Neue Schweizerische Sterbetafeln. Bern:
Beiträge zur Schweizerischen Statistik. Heft 10. 1942. 56 pp.") /. Am.
Statistical Assoc, Vol. 38, pp. 125-126, March.
I
Human
Biology
a record of research
Volume 17
SEPTEMBER, 1945
NUMBER 3
CONTBNT6
The Law of Evolution as a Maximal Principle.
Alfred J, Lotka 167
The Rh Blood Factor among Twins. Hcrluf H.
Strandskov and Gertrud c IVylic Diederich 195
Studies in the Physical Development. VII. En-
vironmental Trends among the American
Negro. Nicholas Michelsott 207
Studies in the Physical Development. VIII.
Resume and Goals for Further Research.
Nicholas Michelson 229
Recent Literature 243
THE JOHNS HOPKINS PRESS, Publishers
Baltimore — 18, Maryland, U. S. A.
ANNALS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOLUME 65, Art. 1 Pages 1-32
Editor in Chief
Kenneth T. Morse
EFFECTS OF NATURAL SELECTION ON HUMAN GENOTYPES
BY
L. D. DuNN, Howard Levene, R. B. McConnell
/8I"7
NEW YORK
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY
June 18, 1956
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
(Founded in 1817)
COUNCIL, 1956
President
WALTER S. RCX)T
President-Ele et
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Vice-Presidents
E. J. KEMPF
Recording Secretcry
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BORIS PREGEL
Corresponding Secretary
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IL J. KOPAC
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Elected Councilors
1954-1956
1955-1957
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PastPresidents
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The Sections and the Division hold meetings regularly, one evening each month, during
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m
%
I
ANNALS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Volume 65, Art. 1 Pages 1-32
June 18, 1956
Editor in Chief
Kenneth T. Morse
EFFECTS OF NATURAL SELECTION ON HUMAN GENOTYPES*
Contents^
Selection Genetics in Man. By HOWARD Levene 3
Selection and the ABO Blood Group Locus. By R. B. McCONNELL 12
Selection in Relation to Race Formation and Evolution. ßyL. D. DUNN 26
/8|-7
NEW YORK
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY
*These papers were delivered at a Joint program arranged in Cooperation with the
Institute for the Study of Human Variation, Columbia University, New York, N. Y., and the
Section of Biology, October 10, 1955, at The New York Academy of Sciences.
+Ruggero Ceppellini, of the Institute of Genetics, Milan, Italy, also presented a paper,
"Selection and Hereditary Anemias," at the meeting upon which this publication is based.
The material presented by him, an abstract of which appeared in the Transactions of The
New York Academy ol Sciences for November 1955, is to be published in Cold Sprtng
Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, vol. 20, 1956, as a contribution to the dis-
cussion of the paper "Aspects of Polymorphism in Man" by A. C. Allison.
SECOND INTENTIONAL EXPOSIJRE
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
(Founded in 1817)
COUNCIL, 1956
President
WALTER S. ROOT
P resident' Ele et
ROSS F. NIGRELLI
Vice-Presidents
E. J. KEMPF
Recording Secretary
CHARLES W. MUSHETT
BORIS PREGEL
Corresponding Secretary
FREDERICK C. NACHOD
Treasurer
RICHARD O. ROBLIN
Elected Councilors
1954-1956
JOHN M. CONVERSE
RANDOLPH T. MAJOR
B. M. DUGGAR
ABRAHAM SLAVIN
M. J. KOPAC
C. P. RriOADS
DONALD B. KEYES
WARREN O. NELSON
1955-1957
LLOYD C. MILLER
ELMER S. SEVERINGHAUS
1956-1958
CHARLES D. MARPLE
FREDERICK Y. WISELOGLE
Finance Committee
HARDEN F. TAYLOR, Chairman
GORDON Y. BILLARD ROBERT F. LIGHT
Executive Director
EUNICE THOMAS MINER
SECTJON OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY
M. HALL TAYLOR, Chairman ANASTASIA VAN BURKALOW, Secretary
SECTION OF BIOLOGY
HILARY KOPROWSKI. Chairman DANIEL LUDWIG, Secretary
DIVISION OF MYCOLOGY
JOHN a ROUTIEN, Chairman KARL MARAMOROSCH, Secretary
SECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
ALBERTA S. GILINSKY, Chairman RALPH F. HEFFERLINE, Secretary
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY
JOHN F. LANDGRAF, Chairman HAROLD C. CONKLIN, Secretary
SECTION OF PHYSICS AND CHEMSTRY
FRANK C. COLLINS, Chairman ROBERT NEILSON BOYD, Secretary
SECTION OF OCEANOGRAPHY AND METEROLOGY
JEROME SPAR, Chairman EDWIN L. FISHER, Secretary
SECTION OF MATHEMATICS AND ENGINEERING
NICHOLAS V. FEODOROFF, Chairman SEBASTIAN B. LITTAUER, Secretary
Post Presidents
WILLIAM K. GREGORY VICTOR K. LA ME R
HORACE W. STUNKARD *^;.bis, ?2S- vIm
HARDEN F. TAYLOR JO»N TEE-VAN
M. L. TAINTER
The Sections and the Division hold tneetings regularly, one evening each month, during
the academic year, October to May, inclusive. , ». ,j . .,. u. ,^1
Two-day Conferences are held at irregulär intervals. All meetings are held at the buüding
rf The New York Acaderay of Sciences, 2 East Sixty-third Street, New York 21, N. Y.
r.
Fl «
I t'
!
V
ANNALS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Volume 65, Art. 1 Pages 1-32
June 18, 1956
Editor in Chief
Kenneth T. Morse
EFFECTS OF NATURAL SELECTION ON HUMAN GENOTYPES*
Contents^
Selection Genetics in Man. By HOWARD LEVENE
Selection and the ABO Blood Group Locus. By R. B. MCCONNELL
Selection in Relation to Race Formation and Evolution. ßyL. D. DUNN....
3
12
26
/sn
NEW YORK
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY
*These papers were delivered at a Joint program arranged in Cooperation with the
Institute for the Study of Human Variation, Columbia University, New York, N. Y., and the
Section of Biology, October 10, 1955, at The New York Academy of Sciences.
+Ruggero Ceppellini, of the Institute of Genetics, Milan, Italy, also presented a paper,
"Selection and Hereditary Anemias," at the meeting upon which this publication is based.
The material presented by him, an abstract of which appeared in the rransactions of The
New York Academy of Sciences for November 1955, is to be published in Gold Sprmg
Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology, vol. 20, 1956, as a contribution to the dis-
cussion of the paper "Aspects of Polymorphism in Man" by A. C. Allison.
Copyright, 1956, by The .Vew York Acndemy of Sciences
SELECTION GENETICS IN MAN
By
Howard Levene*
Institute lor the Study of Human Variation, Columbia University,
New York, N. Y.
Iniroduction
Every individual has developed from a fertilized egg. This fertilized
egg carries the entire hereditary potentiality of the future individual. The
hereditary corrplement consists primarily of genes located on the chromo-
somes, one complete set of chromosomes being contributed by each
parent. Each set contains many genes, each located at a definite locus
on the chromosome. Each gene may exist in a number of alternative forms
or alleles. The complete specification ,of the alleles present at each
locus of both sets is the genotype of the individual. The result of this
genotype interacting with the environment during the development of the
individual gives all the physical characteristics-morphological, physi-
ological, and psychological-that we call the phenotype of the individual.
In practice, neither the complete genotype nor the complete phenotype of
any individual is ever known. Normally, geneticists consider only one
aspect, or a relatively few aspects of the phenotype at a time, referring
to the aspects in question as traits and to the specification of just these
traits as tne phenotype, for convenience. Similarly they will speak of the
genotype as simply the specification of one or more loci where alternative
alleles influence the trait in question. For example, one will talk of the
recessive gene for albinism, a, and its normal allele, A, and of the three
genotypes aa, aA, and AA, the first of which produces the albino pheno-
type while the other two are normal. Actually, the gene A may have other
functions essential to life, but we recognize its existence only by the
changes produced by its allele, a. In fact, complete loss of any gene
usually prevents development, and even the changes produced by an
allele are often quite varied, the most striking being recognized and
giving the name to the locus.
On the other hand, there is not always (nor perhaps even usually) a
direct 1:1 relationship between genotype and phenotype. The genotype
produces simply a certain developmental potential or "norm of reaction'*
that in turn produces given results in given circumstances. Thus the
phenotype produced depends on the environment provided. As an example,
we may take the recessive trait, Xeroderma pigmentosum. Persons with
*This work was partially sponsored by the Office of Naval Research under Contract
Number Nonr- 266( 33), Project No. 042-043. Reproduction in wdiole or in part is permitted
for any purpose of the United States government.
4 Annais New York Academy of Sciences
this condition are abnorm ally sensitive to sunlight, developing severe
freckling and often skin cancer, but they can enjoy fairly normal lives if
they avoid strong sunlight. Again, diabetes mellitus is a hereditary trait
whose precise mode of inheritance is not known with certainty. Those
cases of the disease developing early in life were formerly usually fatal.
Now the Provision of an environment that includes insulin injections
enables these people to live nearly normal lives. In fact, if we imagine
an environment where all adults were given insulin injections, the
diabetics would be normal, while what we call the norm als would be sub-
ject to the "disease" of insulin shock. Pursuing the subject further,
some persons with a genotype predisposing to diabetes may remain nor-
mal in most environments, but may develop the disease in an environ-
ment where they overeat. It should be made clear that for a given com-
pletely specified genotype, the phenotype depends only on environment;
but if by genotype we mean only the Situation at those few loci that have
been shown to affect a given trait, then the expression of that trait may
also be affected by the residual unspecified genotype.
Finally, it should be noted that the "environment" refers not only
to gross, obvious differences in environment, but also to subtle and un-
specifiable differences. The result of the many undetectable differences
in environment and residual genotype is that frequently we can talk only
about the probability of expression of a trait in a given partial genotype.
Such probabilities appear in our discussion of natural selection and in
our discussion of the accompanying paper of McConnell.
Genes in Populations
An important aspect of genetics is the study of genes in populations.
Let US concentrate our attention on a Single locus at which, for the sake
of simplicity, we consider only two alleles, A and A\ In a given popula-
tion the three possible genotypes may appear in the relative proportions
bAA: cAA": dA'A", where 6 + c + cf = 1. Then the proportion of A genes in
this Population is {2h + c): (26 + 2c + 2d). Call this proportion q, and let
p = 1 - q be the proportion of ^4' genes. We say there is random mating if
an individual has equal chances of mating with every individual of the
opposite sex. Under these conditions the chance of any given sperm
being A is q, and the chance of the ovum with which it unites being A is
also q. Consequently, the three genotypes in the next generation would
have the relative frequencies q^ AA : 2pq AA' : p^ A'A\ as shown in
TABL F. 1. These frequencies are known as the Hardy- Weinberg equilibri-
um frequencies. While the above conditions for random mating are never
fulfilled, the conclusion is still valid if there is no tendency for males
of a given genotype to mate preferentially with females of any particular
Levene: Selection Genetics in Man
Table 1
Genotypes Resulting from random Combination of Gametes
^"^^^ eggs
sperm ^"^^^^^
A
A'
Total
A
q'
q(l-q)
Q
A'
q(l-q)
(1-q)'
(1-q)
Total
q
1-q
genotype and no tendency for an excess of matings between relatives.
While there is probably some preferential mating for the genotype as a
whole, these latter conditions hold to a good degree of approximation for
such things as the blood-group genes, and the Hardy-Weinberg frequencies
hold in practice for these and many other loci.
Even for the blood-group genes, however, there must be a proviso.
We must be dealing with a homogeneous pooulation. For many purposes,
the white population of a city such as London may be sufficiently homo-
geneous to allow the Hardy-Weinberg law to hold. On the other hand, it
would not hold if we took the average q for blood type A or thalassemia
in Sardinia. Here it would hold only within a village, since intermarriage
between villages is infrequent enough to have allowed considerable dif-
ferences in gene frequency to develop between them (see Ceppellini ' ).
Natural Selection
In the long run, not all genotypes are equally successful. Some are
favored and some are opposed by natural selection, with resulting changes
in gene frequencies. From the point of view of natural selection and in
respect to gene frequencies, the only thing that matters about a geno-
type is the number of offspring its possessor may be expected to produce.
It is essential that this figure be calculated over a complete life cycle;
thus we may consider a newborn child and its expected number of live-
bom children, or an individual who has just reached reproductive age
and the expected number of his children who also reach reproductive age,
etc. Fortunately for us, it is not necessary to know the absolute number
of off spring expected for a given genotype, but only its ratio to the value
for some other genotype taken as the Standard. This ratio may often be
estimated when neither individual value is known. We shall refer to these
ratios as selective values. Let us take as an example the case where a
6 Annais New York Academy of Sciences
recessive dies before reproductive age, or is sterile, or is prevented
from finding a mate, or is legally prevented from reproducing by steriliza-
tion or other means. Mathematically these are all the same. We may take
the selective value of aA and AA as one, and the selective value of aa
must be zero. This Situation is represented in table 2. As a result,
the frequency of the a gene in the offspring will be
Jl jpg g(l-g) , _g
2 1-9^ (l+q)(l-q) 1+9
Repeating the above process, if q, is the gene frequency in the first
generation and q„ in the nth generation, we find (?„ = q i/[ !+(«-!) qil-
Letting r„ be the frequency of the recessive individuals at birth in the
nth generation, table 3 gives the values of q„ and r„ for certain values
of n if initially q^ = 1/2. It will be seen that even this total selection is
not very rapid in reducing the frequency of rare recessive traits and that,
consequently, sterilization is not very effective in eliminating rare re-
cessive diseases.
If, on the other hand, the carriers or Aa individuals could be identi-
fied and sterilized also, we would have all the a genes eliminated in
one generation. The desirability of taking so drastic a step is doubtful
at best and becomes even more so in the light of two further considera-
tions: (1) Many deleterious recessive genes may be advantageous in the
heterozygous State. (For example, individuals heterozygous for the gene
for sickle cell anemia or for Cooley's anemia are apparently more resist-
ent to falciparum malaria. See, for example, Ceppellini.^'^) (2) Müller^
has estimated that each of us is, on the average, the carrier of about
eight deleterious genes in heterozygous condition, so it might not be ad-
visable to sterilize the human race to eliminate a few rare diseases.
Table 2
COURSE OF selection AGAINST A RECESSIVE LETHAL GENE a
Genotype
aa
aA
AA
Total
Frequency at birth
q'
2p q
P'
1
Selective value
0
1
1
Frequency in
reproducing
Population
0
2p q
P'
1-q^
0
2pq
l-q'
P'
1
Adjusted frequency
l-q'
Levene: Selection Genetics in Man
Table 3
VALUES OF GENE FREQUENCY q„ AND FREQUENCY OF RECESSIVE
Homozygote r« after n Generations of Selection Against a
RECESSIVE LETHAL
n 1
2
3
4
5
6
9
13
19
31
44
99
qn 1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
10
1
14
1
20
1
32
1
45
1
100
ih% 25
11.1
6.25
4
2.78
2.04
1
0.51
0.25
0.10
0.05
O.Ol
Genetic Equilibrium
Turning our attention from sterilization to purely natural forces, we
see that where the recessive dies before reaching reproductive age, even-
tually the recessive gene will be completely eliminated, barring other
forces. Let us examine some of these forces. The first to be considered
is a selective advantage for the heterozygote.
The most general case of selection for a locus with two alleles that
are not sex linked, and where the selective values are the same in both
sexes, can be represented by assigning selective values as indicated in
T ABL E 4. Since selective values are ratios, that is, are relative to some
Standard, we take that of A'A' to be 1. The frequency of gene A in the
generation after selection will be
W, g^ + W, pq
92
i'/i q^ + 2W. pq + p
It can be easily shown that if Wj is greater than both W^ and 1, there
will be a stable gene frequency, q, which is called the equilibrium fre-
quency. If q is less than q it will increase, if greater than q it will de-
crease, and if equal to q it will remain unchanged. The value of q is
q = (wj - 1)/(2W2 - Wi - 1).
Table 4
SELECTION FOR TWO ALLELES IN THE GENERAL GASE
Genotype
AA
AA'
aW
Frequency before
selection
<f
2pq
P'
Selective values
Wi
Wi
1
Relative frequency
after selection
W,q^
2W,pq :
P'
8
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
1 70.18 W2 \
, — ( = 1 = 0.10.
' 2 \0.81 +0.18!^
Let US take the example considered by Ceppellini.''' He supposes
for thalassemia that all mm individuals have the disease and have selec-
tive value zero, and that the equilibrium frequency of heterozygotes
among adults is 0.20. Since each of these carries one a gene, ^ = O.lO in
adults. Table 5 shows what will happen. Since we are supposing we
are already at equilibrium, we must have the final^ frequency of the m
gene the same as the initial frequency; that is
Solving, W2 = 0.162/(0.180-0.036) = 9/8 = 1.125. 'Substituting q = 0.2,
Wi = 0, W2 = 1.125 in TABLE 4, we can verify that q will remain con-
stant. We thus see that the frequency of 20 per cent for heterozygotes
can be explained by assuming that homozygotes do not reproduce, but
heterozygotes have a selective advantage of 12.5 per cent over "normal"
homozygotes, due to superior survival, fertility, or other causes.
Of course there are other ways in which genetic equilibrium may be
brought about. For example, we may have mutation. Referring to table 5
and assuming the heterozygote has no advantage, that is Wj = 1, we see
that for every 100 genes, one a gene will be lost. If one of the 90 A
genes mutates to a, the loss will be exactly compensated. Mutation is a
well-known phenomenon, but from our knowledge of lower organisms and
our limited knowledge of man, it seems that mutation rates are usually
of the Order of 1 in 50,000 to 1 in 1,000,000 or less, and the required
mutation rate of 1 in 90 is extremely unlikely.
Another possible factor in causing equilibrium is compensation.
Under some circumstances, parents of a child who dies of a hereditary
or other disease compensate by having another child to take its place.
Table 5
Proposed Course of Selection in gase of Thalassemia
Genotyps
tnm
mW
MM
Total
Frequency after
selection
0
.20
.80
1
Frequency at birth
in next generation
.01
.18
.81
1
Selective values
0
W,
1.
Relative frequency
after selection
0
.18W,
.81
.81 +.18W,
0
.18W,
.81
1
Adjusted frequency
.81+ .18lf,
.81 + .181^,
Levene: Selection Genetics in Man 9
It is well known that there is often overcompensation, so that such
f amilies ultimately have more than the normal number of children. Since,
for a recessive disease, affected children can be bom only to two hetero-
zygo'is parents, one third of the genes in the normal children from such
a marriage will be of the recessive type, and the excess children will
tend to increase the gene frequency. In Africa the ultimate reproductive
Potential has probably been reached, so that no compensation is possi-
ble. There is some evidence for compensation in thalassemia, but it is
probably insufficient to have a large effect on the gene frequency.
Relative Risks
R. B. McConnell^ discusses a type of data which should become
more frequent as time goes on. One considers the frequency of some
easily detectable genotype in persons with a certain disease, and com-
pares this frequency with that in the general population from which these
patients come. If the genotype is more common among persons with the
disease than among the general population, the assumption seems justi-
fied that persons with the genotype in question must have a greater
probability of developing the disease. McConnell discusses the problem
of defining the population, or populations, trom which the diseased
individuals come, and of then obtaining a suitable control sample. We
shall suppose that all patients come from one population, which is known
and, ignoring questions of sampling error, estimate the relative risks of
the disease in carriers and noncarriers of the genotype in question. A
further treatment, with Standard error formula, is in Woolf (1955).
For concreteness, let us consider diabetes in persons of blood
groups A and AB versus O and B. Let A denote A and AB, A (not A)
denote O and B; D denote diabetes, and D denote no diabetes. Let P(A)
denote the frequency of A in the general population, or the probability
that a person selected at random i^ A or AB, and let P(/4), P(D), P(D)
be the probabilities of Ä, D, and D. Finally, let P(A \ D) be the proba-
bility that a person is A, given that he is diabetic (that is, the frequency
of A in diabetics), P{D \ A) be the probability of diabetes in an A individ-
ual, etc., and let P(AD) be the probability that a person is both A and D.
' The probability that a person is both A and D is equal to the proba-
bility that he is A, times the probability that he is D if he is already A,
or in Symbols,
P(AD) = P(A) ' P{D I A)
By the same reasoning,
P{AD)
= P{D) 'P{A\D)
(1)
(2)
10
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
Equating the right hand sides,
P(A) ' P(D I A) = P(D) • P(A I D),
and dividing both sides by P(A) ' P{D),
P(D I A) P(A I D)
(3)
(4)
P{D) P(A)
The right side of this last equation is the ratio of the A frequency in
diabetics to the A frequency in the controls, and is known. The left side
is the ratio of the probability of an A person developing diabetes to the
probability of a person in the general population developing diabetes,
and is hence known, even though neither of these probabilities of devel-
oping diabetes is itself known.
Similarly we have
P{D\Ä) P{Ä\D)
'(D)
PiÄ)
(5)
Again the right side is known, so we have the ratio of the chances of a
not-A person developing diabetes to those of the population in general.
Dividing equation (4) by (5), P{D) cancels out, and we have
P{D I A) _ P{A I D) I P{A\Ü)
(6)
P{D\A) P{A) ' P{A)
We thus have the ratio of the risk of diabetes in A to that in not-i4, in
terms of the known quantities on the right. Apptying this to the data
quoted by McConnell, we have P{A | D) = A + AB in diabetics = 0.5268,
P{A) = A + AB in controls = 0.4501, P(^ | D) = 1 - 0.5268 = 0.4732,
P{A) = 1 - 0.4501 = 0.5499. Hence
P{J) 1 A) 0.5268
P{D\A) 0.4501
0.4732
0.5499
= 1.1704/0.8605 = 1.36,
(7)
or, on the face of these data, persons of types A or AB have a 36 per cent
greater risk of developing diabetes than do persons of types O or B.
Strictly speaking, the calculations should have been done separately for
the different geographic localities with different A frequencies and the
resulting ratios combined, but this would make only a minor change in
the result. At first sight, it is surprising that the difference of only
0.0767 between A + AB frequencies in diabetics and controls corresponds
to a difference of 36 per cent in the risks, but this emphasizes the im-
portance of the findings.
i?e/erences
1. CEPPELLINI, RUGGERO. 1955. Selection and Hereditary Anemias. Trans
N. Y. Acad. Sei. Series II. 18(1): 31.
2. CEPPELLINI, RUGGERO. 1955. The distribution of thalassemia, blood
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
11
groups and malaria in Sardinia. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia Quant. Biol.
20: (In press).
3. Dahlberg, GUNNAR. 1947. Mathematical Methods for Population Genetics.
S. Karger. Basel, Switzerland, and Interscience. New York, N. Y.
4. Li, C. C. 1955. Population Genetics. Univ. Chicago Press. Chicago, 111.
5. Mcl.ONNELL, R. B. 1956. Selection and the ABO locus. Ann. N. Y. Acad.
Sei. 65(1):
6. Muller, H. J. 1950. Our load of mutations. Am. J. Human Gen. 2: 111-176.
7. Neel, J. V. Ö6 W. J. SCHULL. 1954. Human Heredity. Univ. Chicago Press,
Chicago, 111.
8. Sinnott, E. W., L. C. DUNN & Th. Dobzhansky. 1950. Principles of
Genetics. (4th ed.) McGraw-Hill, New York, N. Y.
9. Stern, Curt. 1949. Principles of Human Genetics. W. H. Freeman, San
Francisco, Cal.
10. WOOLF, Barnet. 1955. On estimating the relation between blood group and
disease. Ann. Hum. Gen. 19: 251-253.
^«mhMi
\
SELECTION AND THE ABO BLOOD GROUP LOCUS
By
R. B. McCONNELL
Heredity Clinic, David Lewis Northern Hospital, Liverpool, England
There have been many attempts to investigate possible selective
advantages or disadvantages of the ABO blood groups, but most of the
investigations have given negative or inconclusive results. A great
Stimulus to this work has been given, however, in recent years by the
demonstration that persons with different ABO blood groups almost cer-
tainly have different susceptibilities to at least two diseases.
For a long time many workers have considered that the polymorphism
of the blood groups must be maintained by a balance of selective agen-
cies different environments favoring different balances between the
genes The frequencies of the ABO groups vary widely over quite smaJl
areas suggesting to Mourant (1954) that the genes at the ABO locus may
be much more intensively subject to natural selection than are the genes
at other blood group loci.
Fertility and Longevity
Though the evidence available may not yet be regarded as conclu-
sive. it suggests that there is quite marked selection against heterozy-
gous' fetuses and infants when the mother is group O and the father is
group A or group B.
Isoimmunization of a group O mother by a heterospecific fetus that
is a secretor does occur, and many cases of hemolytic disease of the
newbom due to anti-A or anti-B have been reported. The condition is
usually milder than when due to anti-Rh, but it is sometimes fatal (Levine
et al., 1953).
That there may also be intra-uterine selection against the hetero-
zygote is suggested by the data of Sjöstedt et al., (1951), who investi-
gated infertile marriages, and Matsunaga (1955), who studied the fre-
quency of miscarriages in different matings.
Whether or not there is a deficiency of group A children from the
mating of 0% x AcT is still undecided, and the collection of a single large
series giving the blood groups of children and both parents is needed
before the question of differential fertility of those of different ABO
groups can be regarded as settled.
The strength of selection to which the Rh genes are subjected is
dependent to some extent on the ABO gene frequencies. Levine (1943)
noticed, and it has since been well established, that the parents of
12
McConnell: ABO Blood Group Locus
13
cases of hemolytic disease due to anti-Rh are more often compatibly
mated on the ABO system than are unselected matings. Thus incompatibi-
lity of ABO mating seems to confer a definite protection against hemo-
lytic disease due to Rh incompatibility, and the work of Grubb and
Sjöstedt (1954) suggests that it may also be giving protection against
intra-uterine deaths due to Rh.
Association with Disease
Not long after the discovery of the blood groups, data began to be
published giving the blood groups of patients with various diseases. In
most of the series the numbers involved were small. In patients suffering
from mental diseases large numbers of groupings were reported, but the
remarks of Neel (1955) with regard to genetic homogeneity of material
are very pertinent when considering not only these data but also those
data published in recent years.
The first demonstration of a statistically significant association of
an ABO blood group with a disease was made by Struthers (1951).
Struthers studied the blood groups of 400 children at autopsy and found
that, compared with controls, there was an excess of group A in the 148
who had post-mortem evidence of bronchopneumonia. The difference was
very highly significant (P <0.001), and the results of a similar investiga-
tion in another area are eagerly awaited. If Struthers' findings are con-
firmed and the association can be regarded as proved, a strong negative
selective value of the A gene will have been demonstrated, bronchopneu-
monia being one of the most important of the killing diseases of infancy.
Carcinoma of Stomach
A great Stimulus to other investigations into possible relationships
between blood groups and disease was the finding of a significant asso-
ciation between blood group A and Carcinoma of the stomach by Aird
et al. (1953). The blood groups collected from 3,632 cases of Carcinoma
of the stomach showed a highly significant increase of group A over the
A frequency in control series of other patients from the same hospitals.
The seven different areas in Great Britain where data were collected
were homogeneous in showing this association, and an equally signifi-
cant excess of group A in 704 cases in Switzerland was also reported.
The same association has also been found in 413 cases in Denmark
(Kfzister et al, 1955).
One point that may be of Import ance emerged from the further analy-
sis by Aird et al. (1954). Sex had been recorded only in 1,000 of the
cases, but these showed a marked though statistically insignificant dif-
ference between the blood-group distribution of males and females with
■i
14
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
McConnell: ABO Blood Group Locus
15
.astric Carcinoma. The 633 men showed the excess of group A whereas
the 367 women had almost nornial blood-group trequencies. There is need
for further investigation of this point, especially in view of the finding
of a sex difference in the blood groups of patients with diabetes mellitus,
which will be described later in this paper.
Peptic Ulcer
Aitd et al (1954), a year after publishing their findings on Carcinoma
of the stomach, reported data showing an association between blood
eroup 0 and peptic ulcer that was even more marked than the association
between group A and gastric Carcinoma. In 3,011 cases from three centers
in England the percentage increase of group O over the O frequency in
blood-donor controls was 17.9 per cent, and the three areas were homo-
geneous in this respect. These investigators did not find a significant
difference between the frequencies in duodenal and gastric ulcer, al-
though their data did suggest that there might be a real difference between
them. f
Aird et al. considered that, if their series were typical, persons ot
group O are 35 per cent more likely to develop peptic ulceration than
are persons of other groups. This association of blood group O with
peptic ulcer has also been found in Norway (Westlund and Heistö, 1955)
and in Denmark (K^^ster et al., 1955).
Duodenal Ulcer and Gastric Ulcer
C. A. Clarke and his coUeagues in Liverpool, while much impressed
with the findings of Aird et al. (1954), considered that it was probably
unjustifiable to add duodenal ulcer data to gastric ulcer data and to
analyze the combined data as -peptic ulcer." With such marked dif-
ferences as regards sex and social distribution, age at onset, precipi-
tating factors, and gastric acidity levels, it seemed likely that the two
types of ulcer have different genetic backgrounds. Doli and Kellock
(1951) had shown that the two diseases are probably inherited in-
dependently. Clarke and his coUeagues therefore decided to make an
investigation similar to that of Aird et al. and to differentiate carefuUy
between duodenal and gastric ulcers (Clarke et al., 1955).
They studied the records of 1,237 macroscopically proved ulcer
patients blood-grouped in three Liverpool hospitals, and rejected all
cases in which the exact site of the ulcer was uncertain (mainly juxta-
pyloric) and all cases in which both duodenal and gastric ulcers were
found. They were left with 860 duodenal ulcers and 377 gastric ulcers.
As controls, they used the 15,377 other patients who had been grouped
in the same hospitals. Their findings are in agreement with those of
4
Aird et al. (1954) in that there is a very large increase in the frequency
of group O in the duodenal ulcer patients compared with the controls. In
the gastric ulcer patients, however, there is a normal blood group dis-
tribution and, in this, the data differ from the previous series.
Aird et al. (1954) analyzed their data in such a way that new in-
form ation, as it is obtained, can be combined with theirs. When this is
done with the data of Clarke et al. (1955) there is still no significant
heterogeneity between different areas for any of the comparisons made.
The difference between duodenal ulcer and the controls becomes even
more highly significant, and there is still a significant difference between
gastric ulcer and the controls, although the x^ has been reduced. The
addition of the new data makes the difference between the blood-group
distributions of duodenal ulcer and gastric ulcer highly significant. The
details of these comparisons in the combined data are shown in table 1.
From the new investigation the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) There is a highly significant increase in the frequency of blood
group O among duodenal ulcer patients when compared with that in the
general population from which the patients came.
(2) There is a significantly higher group O frequency in duodenal
ulcer patients than in gastric ulcer patients.
(3) Though gastric ulcer patients may have a higher group O fre-
quency than that of the general population, the difference cannot yet be
regarded as definitely established, and there is a Suggestion that gastric
ulcer patients may have normal blood-group frequencies.
Diabetes Mellitus
After it became known that there is a significant relationship between
blood group O and duodenal ulcer in England, it was decided to in-
vestigate the ABO groups of patients with diabetes mellitus. It has been
suspected that the frequency of duodenal ulceration is considerably lower
Table 1
A
TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE RATIO JX+O)
COMBINING THE DATA OF CLARKE ET AL . (1955)
WITH THOSE OF AiRD ET AL. (1954)
Comp ari son
D.U. —controls
G.U.— controls
G.U.-D.U.
Weighted
mean
difference %
-9.69
-3.99
+ 5.61
X'for
difference
(D.of F.=l)
92.74
7.89
10.68
<0.001
<0.01
<0.01
X'for
heterogeneity
of areas
(D. of F. =5)
7.59
6.45
4.55
>0. 1
>0.2
>0.3
_ L
16
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
McConnell: ABO Blood Group Locus
17
in diabetics than in the general population Qoslin, 1947), and it was
thoug^t that a possible reason for this might be that diabetics have a
low group O frequency.
A grouping was made of 833 patients attending the Diabetic Clinic
of the David Lewis Northern Hospital, Liverpool, England.
Blood-donor data showed that the Liverpool region, from which the
patients came, is not homogeneous with regard to blood-group frequencies,
and it was necessary to consider those patients who lived in West
Cheshire separately from those who lived elsewhere in the Liverpool
region. There had been 500 diabetics blood-grouped in Oxford, and it
was decided to make an analysis of the diabetics from the three areas,
each area having a different control series. This analysis (McConnell
et ed., 1956) has shown a very remarkable homogeneity in the three areas,
whatever subdivisions of the data were analyzed.
The main finding is that, compared with control s, there is an in-
crease in the frequency of group A in the male diabetics, whereas the
females have a normal blood-group distribution. This is shown in
TABLE 2.
Table 2
Group percentages in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus
484 Males
849 Females
Blood
group
Weighted
control
Disease
% increase
or decrease
on control
Weighted
control
Disease
% increase
or decrease
on control
O
A
B
AB
46.12
42.01
8.87
3.00
40.29
49.17
7.03
3.51
-12.6
+ 17.0
46.26
41.98
8.80
2.97
45.23
42.17
8. 13
4.48
-2.2
+ 0.5
The examination of the differences in the proportions of those who
possess gene A, and of the homogeneity of the areas gives the following
results:
Diabetic males— controls
Diabetic females— controls
Diabetic males— diabetic
females
Per Cent difference in
(A+ AB)
(O+A+B + AB)
+7. 17
+ L70
+5.91
difference
(D. of F. =1)
11.04
0.93
4.33
y^^ for hetero-
geneity of areas
(D. of F. =2)
0.69
0.31
0.60
The relative increase of gene A in the men is thus fairly significant
(P = 1 in 1,120). The finding of a sex difference could hardly have been
I
f
f
anticipated and is peculiar, though there is a possibility that it also
exists in relation to Carcinoma of the stomach. A direct comparison of
the men and women patients also yields a significant difference.
Various other subdivisions have been analyzed, but without reveal-
ing any further significant differences. The excess of group A in the
males is found at all ages, there being a significant difference from the
controls both in those with onset of diabetes before 30 years of age and
in those with onset after 30 years of age. There is no significant dif-
ference in the blood-group distribution of either the males or females
having insulin compared with those controlled without the use of insulin.
A similar investigation has been carried out in Glasgow, Scotland,
(Craig and Wang, 1955) in which no excess of group A has been found in
276 male diabetics. If Glasgow is considered a fourth area and the data
from that region is added to that of the other three areas, x^ ^^^ ^^^
combined weighted mean difference in the proportion of those with gene
A is reduced from 11.04 to 6.77; x^ ^^r heterogeneity of areas is in-
creased from 0.69 to 4.96, a figure not significant at the 5 per cent
level. Hence, the findings in Liverpool and Oxford are not positively
contradicted by the Glasgow data, but the probability that the finding
of an excess of group A was due to chance has been increased from 1 in
1,120 to 1 in 110.
Are the Associations Merely Etnnological?
What has been demonstrated thus far is that, in certain racially
mixed populations, patients with some diseases have higher frequencies
of certain blood groups than those found in the general populations in
which the patients live. This is what would be expected if the popula-
tions had in them racial groups that happened to have a high suscepti-
bility to the diseases and blood group frequencies different from those
of the rest of the population. Can we say that the associations found are
due to such racial stratification, or are they etiological, certain of the
ABO alleles conferring selective advantages or disadvantages with re-
spect to certain diseases?
One way this question could be answered would be by an investiga-
tion of the blood groups of the sibs of affected individuals. If the as-
sociations found are merely due to high-incidence strains in the popula-
tions, then there should be the same blood-group frequencies in the un-
affected sibs as in those affected with the diseases. On the other hand,
if the associations are due to a direct etiological relationship, the blood-
group frequencies of the affected individuals should be different from
those of their unaffected sibs. In the case of an indirect etiological re-
lationship, such as a maternal effect, the blood-group frequencies of af-
fected and unaffected sibs would be similar. This type of investigation
I
18
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
McConnell: ABO Blood Group Locus
19
would appear to be particularly suited to countries with racially mixed
populations and where the blood donors may not represent a good cross
section of the population.
A sibship investigation of the ABO groups and duodenal ulcer has
been in progress in Liverpool for over a year. Sufficient numbers have
not yet been coUected to make a definite conclusion possible, but the
results so far do not contradict the existence of a relationship between
duodenal ulcer and blood group O within the sibships.
An investigation of this type has the difficulties often encountered
in a pedigree study but on a much larger scale. While there is no shortage
of duodenal ulcer propositi, it is not always easy to contact their sibs
and persuade them to cooperate. Long periods of time are therefore
needed in order to obtain sufficient numbers for analysis. It is to be
hoped, however, that similar investigations, if they are not already in
progress, will be carried out, especially in the United States.
Table 3 shows the numbers and percentages of propositi, affected
and unaffected sibs, with the different blood groups, in the first 168 sib-
ships coUected. The figures in this table indicate a higher group O fre-
quency in the propositi and the affected sibs than in the unaffected sibs.
In view of the unequal numbers of sibs in different families, however,
these figures cannot be analyzed as they stand. The whole point of this
investigation is to get a control that cannot be criticized on the grounds
that it is not from the same population as the ulcer patients. Analysis,
therefore, has to be made within families which segregate for blood group.
When this is done with the data available so far, a group O individual
does not appear to be any more likely to have an ulcer than his sibs of
the other ABO groups.
Although this sibship investigation has not yet progressed far
enough to give an answer to the problem of whether or not the associa-
tion between blood group O and duodenal ulcer is causal, it is described
Table 3
NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES IN 168 DUODENAL ULCER SiBSHIPS
Blood
Propositi
Affected sibs
Unaffected sibs
group
Number
7o
Number
%
Nuinber
%
O
A
B
AD
99
47
16
6
58.9
27.9
9.5
3.5
30
14
3
0
o3.8
29.8
6.3
0
161
91
30
11
54.9
31.0
10.2
3.7
i
1
1
1
at this stage in order to give the background to some secretor/non-
secretor data described later in this paper.
Possible Mechanisms ot a Causal Relationship
If the relationship of the ABO groups to duodenal ulcer and Carci-
noma of the stomach is of a causal nature, the mechanism may be due to
the action of the blood group antigens or may be due to a pleotropic
effect of the ABO genes. Sheppard (1953) suggested that whether or not
a person was a secretor of his blood group antigens might be an im-
portant factor in the susceptibility to gastric Carcinoma. An investiga-
tion of the secretor Status of patients with Carcinoma of the stomach has
been carried out since that time and, later, those with duodenal ulcer
were included in the work. n -j • •
The ability to secrete blood-group antigens in body fluids is in-
herited as a dominant character. Blood group A secretors have group-
specific substance A in their body fluids, and blood group B secretors
have group-specific substance B. The body fluids of blood group O
secretors contain H-substance, which is not group-specific but is also
found in secretors of groups A and B. Eel serum has been used as a
source of anti-H, and all the tests have been carried out on saliva. It
will be Seen in table 4 that in the control series of students and
soldiers there is a much higher percentage of group 0 persons scored
as nonsecretors than are scored by controls of the other S'°;P- J'''^
has been found by previous workers, and Race and Sanger (1954) con-
sider it to be an expression of technical difficulties. Since the inc.dence
Table 4
NUMBERS OF CONTROLS AND PATIENTS SCORED AS SECRETOR
OR NONSECRETOR
Secretor
Status
Controls
Duodenal
( ulcer
Gastric
Blood
group
(^
?
<^
?
Carcinoma
O
S
SS
92
51
22
20
120
86
15
25
23
17
A
S
SS
98
32
28
9
64
33
5
6
35
14
D
AB
S
SS
S
SS
29
10
7
0
10
2
4
1
21
11
6
5
1
1
0
0
6
0
1
0
Symbols: S= secretor; ss= non secretor.
20
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
McConnell: ABO Blood Group Locus
21
of Le(a+b-) in England is about 22 per cent, whatever the ABO group,
the incidence of nonsecretors should be only slightly over this in per-
sons of all four ABO group s.
The difference from the expected nonsecretor incidence in the
group O of the control series may be due to the fact that diluted saliva
had been tested. It has only recently been reaÜzed that an appre-
ciable number of group 0 secretors [as shown by having Le(a-b+)
red cells and by Inhibition tests with other kinds of anti-H sera, for
instance those of human or vegetable origin] are able to inhibit eel serum
only if three voiumes of undiluted saliva to one volume of calibrated
antiserum are used (Ceppellini, personal communication). Ceppellini
estimates that with the usual technique, 10 to 30 per cent of group O
secretors, depending upon the particular batch of eel serum used, may
fail to show any Inhibition and, in this series, they will have been
scored as nonsecretors. An extract of the seeds of Ulex europeus is a
much more satisfactory source of anti-H than is eel serum and will be
used in the future. In the data presented in this paper, however, all the
patients were tested, using the technique with eel serum that gave 38
per cent nonsecretors in the controls of group O.
In this investigation of secretor status, therefore, the results in
persons of group O should be considered separately from those of groups
A, B, and AB in whom the technique used is apparently satisfactory,
there being no heterogeneity between the frequency of nonsecretors of
these groups either in the controls or in the disease series.
Secretion in Carcinoma of Stomach and Duodenal Ulcer
Saliva has been collected from a series of unrelated cases of
Carcinoma of the stomach and duodenal ulcer. The results of the secretor
tests in the control series and in the patients are given in tables 4
and 5.
The number of carcinoma-of-the- stomach patients tested is too small
to make any conclusion possible but, so far, their nonsecretor incidence
is very similar to that in the control series. The proportion of non-
secretors in the duodenal ulcer patients of all four blood groups and in
both sexes is higher than that in control series. Table 6 shows the
results of comparisons made. In each comparison the difference is in the
same direction, and the sum of the y^s shows that the probability of
getting this result by chance is between 1 in 20 and 1 in 50.
Secretion in Duodenal Ulcer Sibsnips
Saliva specimens have been collected whenever possible in the
previously described investigation of the blood groups of duodenal
Table 5
Percentages of Nonsecretors
Blood group
Controls
Duodenal ulcer
Gastric Carcinoma
O
A, B
and AB
38.3
23.4
45.1
36.6
42.5
21.4
ulcer patients and their sibs. In 129 of the sibships, data are available
on the secretor Status of the propositus and of at least one sib, and are
given in table 7.
As found in the comparison between duodenal ulcer patients and
controls, there is a higher incidence of nonsecretors in the duodenal
ulcer patients than in their unaffected sibs. The percentages of non-
secretors are shown in table 8.
As previously explained, these figures cannot be analyzed as they
stand, owing to unequal numbers of sibs in different families. Analysis
has to be made within families and, when this is done with the sibship
secretor data, a significant association between nonsecretor and duo-
denal ulcer is found. No definite conclusions should be drawn at this
stage, however, because of the error in the scoring of the group O mem-
bers of the sibships.
Discussion of Secretor Findings
It is considered that these data strongly suggest a relationship
between duodenal ulcer and nonsecretion. Though by no means con-
clusive, the differences found are sufficient to make it worth-while to
Table 6
Comparisons of
SIGNIFICANCE OF NUMBERS OF SECRETORS AND NONSECRETORS
Blood group
A. B
and AB
Comp ari son
</ D. U. — c/* control
? D. U. - ? control
(^ D. U. - (^ control
? D.U.-? control
X'for
difference
(D. of F. = 1)
1.07
1.28
4.19
3.72
Total X^ (D- of f'- ="*) 10. 25
22
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
McConnell: ABO Blood Group Locus
23
continue the investigation. It would be of great benefit if the secretor
tests could be accompanied by tests for Le^ and it is hoped that similar
investigations will be carried out at other centers.
Owing to the probability that the technique used in testing the
saliva of group O persons has been faulty, it would be unwise to compare
the secretor frequencies in those of different blood groups. Aird (1955)
has suggested that the high incidence of blood group O in duodenal
ulcer patients might be due to all the antigens, which are mucopoly-
saccharides, giving protection against ulcerogenic agents affecting the
gastroduodenal mucosa, the H substance of group O persons giving less
protection than A or B substance. The results of this investigation
would Support Aird's theory in that there is an increase in the non-
secretor frequency in ulcer patients of all four blood groups, but the
question of relative increase in those of different blood groups cannot
be answered. If the sibship investigation of blood groups should result
in the conclusion that the associations already found in various areas
are due to racial stratification in the populations, it would be difficult
to understand why there should be a relationship with nonsecretion. It
seems very unlikely that the disease, duodenal ulcer, could modify the
secretion of blood group antigens.
The results of the secretor tests in the small group of patients
having Carcinoma of the stomach are inconclusive. Aird (1955) postulated
that the antigens secreted might give protection against carcinogenic
agents, but the present data do not support that theory. Much larger num-
bers of patients with gastric Cancer will have to be tested before any
conclusions can be drawn.
Selection, Duodenal Ulcer, Gastric Carcinoma,
and Diabetes Mellitus
It is difficult to estimate the strength of the selection against the O
gene if it really predisposes to duodenal ulceration. On the data that we
have, it is probable that persons of group 0 are about 37 per cent more
likely to develop duodenal ulcer than are persons of the other groups.
In the past few decades duodenal ulcer has been a common disease,
often having its onset between 15 and 25 years of age. Though its in-
cidence is difficult to assess accurately, probably about 5 per cent of
males in England are affected, and its death rate in males is 80 to 90
per'million population. It affects males about six times more frequently
than females, not infrequently causes early death (5 per cent of deaths
due to duodenal ulcer are before 35 years of age), and probably has
slight effects on the reproduction of those affected. There is, how-
ever, a great deal of evidence that duodenal ulcer is a disease of civili-
zation and, particularly, of modern civilization. In the African Negro
Tabl e 7
SECRETORS AND NONSECRETORS IN 129 DUODENAL ULCER SIBSHIPS
Blood group
O
A, B
and AB
Secretor
Status
S
SS
S
SS
Propositi
39
39
33
18
Affected
sibs
11
9
9
4
Unaffected
sibs
78
36
71
23
duodenal ulceration is very rare among those living under tribal condi-
tions, while it is not uncommon among those who lead a European type
of life in the cities. The weight of evidence is in favor of the view that
duodenal ulcer was an uncommon condition in England up to the latter
part of the last Century. In generations prior to that time, therefore,
selection against the O gene because of duodenal ulceration must have
been very slight.
Carcinoma of the stomach also affects males much more frequently
than females. Until 10 years ago it was the most common Cancer in men
in Great Britain, but it only rarely occurs before 40 years of age and its
effect on reproduction must be even less than that of duodenal ulcer. It
seems likely that group A persons are about 20 per cent more likely to
develop Carcinoma of the stomach than are persons of the other group.
Diabetes mellitus, however, often occurs in childhood and, in 20 to
25 per cent of diabetic males, the onset of the condition is before 30
years of age. Before the discovery of insulin, diabetes in the young was
nearly always rapidly fatal, and an association with the disease would
be quite strongly selective against the A gene.
Table 8
PERCENTAGES of NONSECRETORS IN 129 DUODENAL ULCER SIBSHIPS
Blood group
O
A, B
and AB
Propositi and
affected sibs
48.9
34.3
Unaffected sibs
31.6
25.5
24
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
Sumtnary
(1) It is probable that the polymorphism of the ABO blood groups in
particular environments is maintained by a balance of selective forces.
(2) There is evidence öf selection against ABO heterozygotes in
intra-uterine and neonatal life.
(3) It is still uncertain whether the associations found between the
ABO groups and duodenal ulcer, Carcinoma of the stomach, diabetes
mellitus, and bronchopneumonia of infancy are causal or merely due to
racial stratification in the population investigated. The associations with
gastric Cancer and duodenal ulcer have been found in so many different
areas, however, that it seems likely that they are due to etiological re-
lationships.
(4) The data suggest that persons of blood group O are about 37 per
cent more likely to get duodenal ulcer than are persons of the other ABO
groups, while persons of blood group A are about 20 per cent more likely
to develop Carcinoma of the stomach than are those of the other groups.
(5) The physiological explanation of the relationships is more likely
to be due to an action of the blood-group antigens than to a pleotropic
effect of the ABO genes. In duodenal ulcer, at least, there may be a
relationship with nonsecretion, which may be of more importance than
the relationship with group O.
References
AIRD, I. 1955. Discussion on the ABO blood groups and disease. Proc. Roy.
s'oc. Med. 48: 139-140.
AiRD. L, H. H. BENTALL. J. A MEHIGAN & J. A F. ROBERTS. 1954. The
blood groups in relation to peptic ulceration and Carcinoma of colon, rectum,
breast and bronchus. Brit. Med. J. 1954(ii): 315-321.
AIRD, L, H. H. BENTALL 06 J. A F. ROBERTS. 1953. Relation between Cancer
of the stomach and the ABO blood groups. Brit. Med. J. 1: 799-801.
CEPPELLINI, R. Personal communication.
CLARKE, C. A., W. K. COWAN, J. W. EDWARDS, A. W. HOWEL-EVANS, R. B.
MCCONNELL, J. C. WOODROW Ö6 P. M. Sheppard. 1955. The relation-
ship of the ABO blood groups to duodenal and gastric ulceration. Brit Med.
J. 2: 643-646.
CRAIG, J. & I. Wang. 1955. Blood and groups in Diabetes Mellitus. Glasgow
Med. J. 36: 261-266.
DOLL, R. & T. D. KELLOCK. 1951- The separate inheritance of gastric and
duodenal ulcers. Ann. Eugen. 16: 231-240.
GRUBB, R. & S. SJÖSTEDT. 1954. Blood groups in abortion and sterility. Ann.
Eugen. 19: 183-195.
JOSLIN, E. P. 1947. The treatment of Diabetes Mellitus. 8th ed. Kimpton,
London, England.
K0STER, K. H., E. SINDRUP & V. SEELE. 1955. ABO blood groups and gastric
acidity. Lancet 1955(ii): 52-55.
LEVINE, P. 1943. Serological factors as possible causes in spontaneous abor-
tions. J. Heredity. 34: 71-80.
LEVINE, P., P. VOGEL 8& R. R. ROSENFIELD. 1953. Hemolytic disease of the
newbom. Advances In Pediat. 6: 97-156.
McConnell: ABO Blood Group Locus
25
MATSUNAGA, E. 1955. Intra-uterine selection by the ABO incompatibility of
mother and foetus. Am. J. Human Genet. 7: 66-71.
MCCONNELL, R. B., D. A. PYKE &. J. A. F. ROBERTS. 1956. Blood groups in
Diabetes Mellitus. Brit. Med. J. 1956 (i): 772-776
MOURANT, A. E. 1954. The Distribution of the Human Blood Groups. Blackwell,
Oxford.
NEEL, J. V. 1955. On some pitfalls in developing an adequate genetic hypothe-
sis. Am. J. Human Genet. 7: 1-14.
RAGE, R. R. & R. Sang ER. 1954. Blood Groups in Man. 2nd. ed. Blackwell,
Oxford, England.
SHEPPARD, P. M. 1953. Letter. Brit Med. J. 1: 1220.
SJÖSTEDT, S., R. GRUBB & F. LiNELL. 1951. Blood group incompatibility and
sterility. Acta path. microbiol. scand. 28: 375-387.
STRUTHERS, D. 1951. ABO Groups of infants and children dying in the west of
Scotland. Brit. J. Prev. Soc. Med. 5: 223-228.
WESTLUND, K. &, H. HeistÖ. 1955. Letter. Brit. Med. J. 1: 847.
SELECTION IN RELATION TO RACE FORMATION AND EVOLUTION
By
L. C. DUNN
Institute for the Study of Human Variation, Columbia University,
New York, N. Y.
The last 20 years have seen a great upsurge of interest in the
mechanism of evolution, and this has led to improved understanding of
the meaning of evolution and to renewed hopes of elucidation of the
evolution ary forces acting on human populations. The reason for this is
not difficult to identify. It is the effect of the disclosure of the trans-
mission mechanism of heredity and of the successful application of the
ideas and methods of genetics to the problem of how observed changes in
the genetic constitutions of experimental populations of animals and
plants have come about. Some of the agencies leading to alterations in
the relative frequencies of the variety of genotypes that occur within
each cross-breeding population have been identified and subjected to
analytical study.
This phase of the modern study of evolution was ushered in by the
appearance in 1930 and 1931 of two seminal publications: R. A. Fisher's
book The Genetical Theocy of Natural Selection,^ and Sewall Wright's
classic paper "Evolution in Mendelian Populations.*'^^ Its climax was
foreshadowed in T. Dobzhansky's Genetics and the Origin of Species
in 1937/ and was confirmed in the subsequent revisions of this book in
1941 and 1951. Its maturity is witnessed in two books that appeared in
1955: C. C. Li's Population Genetics,^^ E. B. Ford's Mo^/is ^ (which con-
tains a summary of recent work on animal populations) and, in 1954, in
Genetic Homeostasis, by I. M. Lernet.^ G.G. Simpson's Meaning of Evolu-
tion^^ shows how these ideas have been used by a paleontologist in a
masterly synthesis, for the general reader, of the whole ränge of evolu-
tionary biology.
Evolution can now be viewed both as a process by which species
and higher categories differentiated and developed in the past (which
was the classic meaning given to it by Charles Darwin), and as a con-
tinuous and continuing process acting today to produce and maintain the
adaptation of populations to their environments, which is so marked a
feature of successful species. This can be seen today in the great
divexsity of the human populations in different parts of the world. We
know that the major groups, such as the races into which mankind can be
classified by anatomical features, differ from each other genetically.
This genetic diversity can be described when we can identify specific
hereditary elements, such as the genes determining different antigens or
26
Dünn: Selection in Race Formation
27
other properties of the blood, and when the frequencies of the same
genes can be shown to be statistically different in different populations.
Evolutionary changes can be said to have occurred when such Statistical
differences are regularly found in adequate samples. The justification
for regarding such changes as constituting steps, albeit perhaps small
ones, in evolutionary change is the experience of the past 20 years that
such Steps are necessary in the origination of wider diversity.
Our Problem with human populations then, is to identify and study
the causal factors responsible for diversity. The elementary step by
which changes in genes occur is mutation: the process by which an
existing form of a gene gives rise to another form or allele of the same
element. Since the chemistry and physics of this change are not known
(although this change is nonetheless an observable fact) we may view
mutation as an accident in gene reproduction by which an imperfect copy
rather than, as is usual, a perfect one is made when the cell multiplies
during growth or at the maturation of the reproductive cells. Once a
variety of gene alleles has arisen, these varied alleles are brought into
a great variety of combinations in bisexual reproduction. The agencies
that change the frequencies of these genes within a population are the
evolutionary forces for which we seek.
Natural selection, to judge by the observations on nonhuman popula-
tions, appears to be the most universal of these agencies. Even though
migration and accidents of sampling in small populations may cause
local changes in the frequencies, the assemblage of genes must still be
such as to permit successful occupation of an environment. As yet, there
has not been much progress in connecting specific human genotypes with
specific selective agents. That is why the material presented in this
Symposium is of such importance for future work. We may therefore con-
sider for a moment the way in which this material bears on problems of
human evolution.
A question of perennial interest is how the races of man were formed.
It is a fact that major racial complexes of Continental dimensions, such
as African, White European, Australian, Asiatic, and American Indian
show marked differences in the frequencies of certain blood-group genes.
Europe is distinguished from all other continents by a relatively low fre-
quency of the Rh-positive reaction, which in the Basques (whom some
anthropologists regard as the prototype of the Europeans) reaches its
lowest World frequency of less than 70 per cent, while elsewhere it is
almost universally present. In most of Africa south of the Sahara, one
particular Rh-positive gene (cDe) is very common, even characteristic.
Elsewhere it is rare. American Indians are distinguished from their
putative ancestors in Asia by having no blood-group B allele while, in
28
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
Dünn: Selection in Race Formation
29
Asia, B reaches its highest world frequency. On the other band, most
American Indians are of blood group O with a lower frequency of A, while
in Europe and Africa all three forms of this gene are more evenly mixed
in the population. On a smaller scale, we find in the island of Sardinia,
as R. Ceppellini^ has pointed out, a frequency of MN genes sharply
different from that of any neighboring area. Long-separated Jewish com-
munities in Tripolitania, Iraq, and South India (Cochin) have markedly
higher B frequencies than the populations within which they live. (Gure-
vitch et al, 1955).^ The newest antigen to be described (V) seems to be
present in 25 to 30 per cent of African Negroes but in only .02 per cent
of the English population-a 150-fold difference (De Natale et al.).^ How
do such differences come about?
Folio wing earlier unsuccessful attempts to find connections between
blood antigens and disease, which might alter the prospects for passing
such genes to descendant generations, the view gained currency that
such genes were selectively neutral. This left as an alternative the
Chance factor of random drift of frequencies through accidents of sampling
in small populations. Those who sought in the blood-group genes tools
for tracing racial affinities and phylogenies saw in the assumed selective
neutrality and stability of these elements (no case of recent mutation in
a blood-group gene had been proved) advantages as ethnographic criteria.
The proof of connection between the Rh genotypes and erythro-
blastosis fetalis dealt the first blow to this view, and a mechanism was
clearly shown by which fairly rapid changes in the relative frequencies
of Rh-positive and -negative genes could occur when one of the alleles
was infrequent. A similar but less drastic effect of selection on the al-
leles of the Kell-Cellano blood factor and, possibly, on other alleles is
indicated.
As we have seen, there is direct and convincing evidence that in
England and Scandinavia and, probably, in similar societies, persons of
blood-group O run a markedly greater risk of developing duodenal ulcer
than those of groups A, B, or AB, while group A people run a lesser but
still appreciable risk from gastric Carcinoma. It seemed at first as though
these risks might be chiefly determined by Single genes, but such views
in genetics usually prove to be illusory, and such was the case here.
The genetically determined secretor Status, the environmental pre-
disposing factors such as those found in Western industrial societies,
and possibly others also are involved. Consequently, if the relative fre-
quencies of the ABO genes are altered, it will be through the interaction
of genetic factors during development and through the reaction of these
with the environment. This is probably true of selective effects in
general.
Other effects of selection on the ABO frequencies are to be inferred
from the marked heterogeneity of these genes as we pass from one Com-
munity to another within the same geographic or ethnic group. Thus the
increase in the frequency of blood group O from south to north in Britain
cannot be used, by itself, as a criterion of ethnic differences until it is
shown that the same selective or other causes of alteration play upon all
areas. Similarly, when nearby villages agree in the frequency of one
pair of genes, as M and N in Sardinia, but disagree in another, as in the
case of the ABO genes, we have to conclude that the latter cannot be
used, by themselves, as a part of the racial diagnosis of the Sardinian
population. A. E. Mourant,^^ after a survey of the world distribution fre-
quencies of the ABO genes that are subject to extreme geographic
fluctuations, has already expressed his doubts as to their usefulness by
themselves in ethnography.
Some of the limitations of the gene- frequency method in anthropology
are well illustrated by the cases of the sickling and thalassemia genes.
High frequency of the sickling genes has been regarded as characteristic
of Africa, and that of the thalassemia genes as characteristic of certain
Mediterranean peoples. Now there is reason to believe that both may be
subject to alteration by environmental factors peculiar to certain areas,
such as the distribution of a malarial parasite and its insect vectors.
This does not alter the fact that sickling and thalassemia are inherited.
It does suggest that the importance of other components of the nature-
nurture complex that jointly determine the outcome of the gene-trans-
mission must be estimated before the ethnographic usefulness of the
genes can be evaluated. In the case of these two hereditary anemias,
another problem arises. In certain areas-in eastern Sicily, for example-
both genes have rather high frequencies, and the likelihood has to be
reckoned with that some people will be heterozygous for both. If, as
E. Silvestroni" has suggested, these double heterozygotes (or some of
them) suffer from anemias with morbidity rates comparable to those of
either of the homozygotes, then the frequency of one gene will be a
factor in reducing the frequency of the other. This is another aspect of
the genetical environment of the gene to be taken into account in evalu-
ating its ethnographic usefulness. If the two genes react to different
degrees with the malarial component, then a more complex Situation
arises, but one that, as Howard Levene^^ has shown, can be dealt
with mathematically when the several parameters can be estimated.
It is evident that future research on the effects of selection on
human genotypes must be planned with these situations in mind. Very
little is known, for example, about the interactions between the different
blood-group Systems. It is probable, on the basis of the observations of
R. Grubb^ and R. Ceppellini, for example that the ABO and Lewis groups
30
Annais New York Academy of Sciences
and the secretor Status are parts of an interacting complex. There are
indications from observations of P. Levine, R. Grubb, and others that
Rh and ABO genes interact. The future of such work is now fraught with
hope. The evidence of greater complexity is itself an augury of progress,
since it means that some of the elements in the complex can be recog-
nized. It is of great importance that the attention of those engaged in
medical practice and research is now alerted to these possibilities, and
the clinical significance of human genotypes will be increasingly recog-
nized. Perhaps it is not too much to expect that those interested in
actuarial work and vital statistics may turn some part of their attention
to the relation between genotype (in respect to the blood-group Systems,
for example) and life expectancy.
While work of this sort is proceeding, we may perhaps suspend
judgment on the ethnographic position of the genes involved. Surely
evaluation of the effects of selection on human genotypes should be an
important, even a prime desideratum in the development of racial anthro-
pology. A recognition of this view and a discussion of its prospective
relation to studies of human evolution has recently appeared, in fact, in
a paper by C. S. Coon (1955).^ It is safe to predict that attempts to as-
sess the Status vis-a-vis natural selection for many human variations
heretofore considered normal will become a part of the work of students
of anthropology. Here, once again, the study of abnormal or pathological
States points the way to more general views of the meaning of human
variety and its corollary, evolution.
References
1. CEPPELLINI, R. 1956. Thalassemia and malaria in Sardinia, comments on
paper of W. A. Allison. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia Quant. Biol. In Press.
2. COON, C. S. 1955. Some problems of human variability and natural selection
in climate and culture. Am. Naturalist. 89: 257-279.
3. DE NATALE, A., A. CAHAN, J. A. jACK, R. R. RAGE 06 R. SaNGER.1955.
V, a "new" Rh antigen, common in Negroes, rare in white people. J. Am.
Med. Assoc. 159: 247-250.
4. DOBZHANSKY, T. 1951. Genetics and the Origin of the Species. 3rd ed.
Columbia Univ. Press. New York, N. Y.
5. Grubb, R. 1951. Observations on the human blood group System Lewis.
Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 28: 61-81.
6. FISH ER, R. A. 1930. The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Clarendon
Press. Oxford, England.
7. FORD, E. B. 1955. Moths. Macmillan. New York, N. Y.
REVITCH, L,. et al. 1955. Blood groups in Jews from Cochin, India, Iraq,
Tripolitania. Ann. Human Genetics. 19: 254-261.
9. LERNER, I. M. 1954. Genetic Homeostasis. John Wiley. New York, N. Y.
10. LEVENE, H. 1956. Selection genetics in man. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sei. 65(1).
11. Li, C. C. 1955. Population Genetics. Univ. Chicago Press. Chicago, 111.
12. Mourant, A. E. 1954. The Distribution of the Human Blood Groups. Black-
well. Oxford, England.
13. SiLVESTRONI, E. & I. BlANCO. 1953. Genetic aspects of sickle cell
anemia and microdrepanocytic disease. Blood. 7(4).
Dunn: Selection in Race Formation
31
14. SIMPSON. G. G. 1949. The Meaning of Evolution. Yale Univ. Press. New
Haven, Conn.
15. WRIGHT, S. 1931. Evolution in Mendelian populations. Genetics. 16: 97-159.
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SCIENCE DIGEST
November 1958 volume 44 number 5
i
I
\
I
a// ai^öiii
by David Gunston
Condensed from the Unesco Courier
MARRiED woMEN bctweeii 35
and 39 with a family of eight
are the most likely women
in the world to have twins. The next
most likely mother of twins is the
woman between 35 and 39 who al-
ready has seven children, then the
woman of the same age who has six
children. and so on.
The woman between 30 and 35
who has eight children comes next,
then those of that asie with seven,
six, five children. and so on. For
women outside the 30-39 age Sfoup,
or who have more than eisjht single
children already, the chances of hav-
ing twins decreases considerably.
These facts emerge from a recent
close study of some 3.000 twin cases
The Unesco Courier (Jiily '58). published by
the United Nations Ediicational. .Scientifir and
Cultural OrKanization. Editorial Offices: 19 Ave-
nue Klel)er, Paris 16, France. American edition:
801 Third Ave., New York 22, N.Y.
and birth statistics over the past ten
years. The findings apply only to
fraternal, or dissimilar twins, how-
ever. Identical twins occur about
once in every three sets of twins. and
most mothers have a roughly equal
Chance of having them at any child-
bearing age.
The ratio of the occurrence of
twins to Single children is the same
as the ratio of triplets to twins. Quad-
ruplets. in turn, appear in the same
ratio to triplets as triplets to twins.
and so on.
At the end of the last Century, the
French geneticist, Hellin, discovered
the Proportion of these ratios, and
the biological law now known as
''Hellin's Law" summarizes his find-
ings. Twins of either kind, fraternal
or identical, occur about once in
every 87 normal births. Triplets ar-
SCIENCE DIGEST
November
rive about once every 87 x 87 births,
quadruplets once every 87x87x87,
and so on.
American Negroes seem to have
the highest twin-birth rate of any
civilized racial group, and the Japa-
nese the lovvest, at only 35 pairs of
twins, on the average, to every 10,-
000 Single births. In the United
States twins are born once in every
86 to 88 deliveries, and 1 out of
every 44 Americans is a twin.
In very hot countries the twin
rate tends to be lower than the aver-
age, and in colder northern lands the
number of twins becomes greater —
the further north, with people like
the Eskimos and the Lapps, the
higher the percentage. This would
seem to be nature's way of safe-
guarding the population of the arctic
regions, where conditions of survival
are less favorable than elsewhere.
THERE ARE NORMALLY tWO WayS in
which twins may be born. If two
separately-prodiiced eggs are ferti-
lized together, they may develop side
by side in the mother's womb and
be born as two ordinary children.
This is the commonest kind of twin-
ning, when fraternal twins result.
Identical twins, on the other hand,
are the result of a single egg divid-
ing into two embryos after fertiliza-
tion.
It is not known just how often
this Strange division occurs, since we
only become aware that it has hap-
pened when the surviving embryos
are born together as twins. It may
be that such a division takes place
more often than is supposed, and
that the stronger of the twins sup-
presses the life in its fellow-embryo,
which eventually vanishes, absorbed
by the blood stream.
' Occasionally the suppressed twin
is not absorbed but is found on de-
livery of the live child, a stränge,
paper-thin mummy.
When this Splitting is incomplete,
which happens perhaps once in 10
million births, the two babies are
born as Siamese twins joined to-
gether at the trunk. Of these, fewer
than one set in five survive, and even
today fewer still can be surgically
separated and live.
As is well known, twins are not
always born very close together.
There are many instances of one or
two whole days separat ing the birth
of twins, and several (most excep-
tional) cases of as much as a month
intervening. The longest proved
time-lapse between the arrival of
twins was that of a Bengali woman
in India some years ago, whose
babies were born 45 days apart.
Fraternal twins can usually be
told at a glance from the always
uncannily similar identical twins.
Two-egg twins are invariably two
completely independent individuals
whose only common endowment is
that they had the same mother and
developed at the same time in her
womb. They may be, and frequently
are, of different sexes, and as we have
just Seen, their birthdays may not be
on the same days. Theoretically, too,
they could have different fathers.
The tendency towards fraternal
twinning is directly inherited solely
through women, and never through
1958
All About Twins
men. A woman who is herseif a fra-
ternal twin is much more likely to
have fraternal twin babies than other
mothers who are not twins. But a
man who is such a twin is no more
likely to father such a pair than any
other man.
Many women have had three sets
of fraternal twins, and not long ago
an Italian mother gave birth to her
sixth set. JMany years ago a Sicilian
woman made obstetric
history by producing ""—""""
the amazing total of 1 1
sets of fraternal twins
in that number of years.
In 1929 an American
mother had two sets of
fraternal twins in that
year. Another woman,
with no other children,
had two sets of these
twins in 15 months,
while an English mother has had
three sets in just over three years.
All these cases show that in some
women there is a marked tendency
for producing two-egg twins.
In contrast, one-egg twins are
really people in duplicate — duplicate
creations of one and the same person.
It is on identical twins that most
of the fascination — and most of the
age-old lore — of this subject is cen-
tered. A newly-fertilized egg, or an
embryo not more than a few days
old, splits itself into two halves, and
these halves then reform themselves
as complete, if closely-related, per-
sons.
Identical twins must therefore be
of the same sex, and although they
• Each Science confines It-
self to a fragment of the evi-
dence and weaves its the-
ories in terms of notions sug-
gested by that fragment.
Such a procedure is neces-
sary by reason of the limita-
tions of human ability. But
its danger should always be
kept in mind.
—Alfred North Whitehead
birth, they always develop along
parallel lines and are usually so alike
that strangers and sometimes even
their own friends, find difficulty in
telling them apart.
Identical twins can exchange roles
or places without others being aware
of it, whereas fraternal twins can
never boast sufficiently similarity to
do this. Therefore, when Shakes-
peare in Tweljth Night made \'iola
masquerade as her twin
brother Sebastian, he
erred, for identicals are
invariably of the same
sex. The stränge kin-
ship that keeps identi-
cal twins together does
not usually weaken
as they grow older.
Sir Francis Galton,
-^_^^.^ the famous heredity ex-
pert, who founded the
modern science of eugenics. and who
made a lifelong study of twins, con-
firmed that it is not uncommon to
find sets of identical twins practi-
cally impossible to teil apart. It is
not often that the twins themselves
get confused, yet Galton cited an in-
stance where a girl identical twin had
actually spoken to her own reflection
in a mirror, thinking she was ad-
dressing her twin sister!
No matter how closely allied iden-
tical twins may be, physically and
mentally, they possess different fin-
gerprints and. in most cases. easily
distinguishable handwriting. Galton
found only 1 pair of twins among 85
who themselves could not teil their
handwriting apart.
may not invariably look alike at The remarkable affinitv between
SCIENCE DIGEST
November 1
identical twins has been proved time
and again. One of the most interest-
ing cases was that of a pair of iden-
tical boy twins in America who were
adopted as very young babies by
two different and entirely uncon-
nected families.
At the age of eight, one of the
foster families. moved away from
town so both boys were then sepa-
rated by over 1,000 miles. They did
not see each other again until they
had reached their early 20s. Yet
they had both married girls of a very
similar type of the same age; they
had both become electricians and
were actually working for different
branches of the same large firm; and
they both had pet terriers with the
same name!
Tdentical twins often contract the
same illnesses at the same time. even
when separated, and sometimes their
teeth decay at the same time. A
Paris doctor, Dr. J. Moreau, teils of
an extreme case of male twins who
although not living together were
both certified for monomania at the
same time. They both had the same
persecution mania, the same halluci-
nations and other Symptoms, al-
though they never communicated
during this time.
This affinity rarely lessens throiigh-
out life, even in old age. One of the
many facts that emerged from Dr.
F. J. Kallman's study of over 1,000
New York identical twins aged 60
or more was that even when the pairs
had lived most of their lives under
totally different circumstances and
surroundings, they continued to be
closely alike in the physical and psy-
chological changes that accompanied
their growing old. Some, indeed,
tended to become even more alike
in old age.
While there may be minor psycho-
logical differences and dissimilar in-
terests between identical twins, they
invariably tally in their outstanding
Personality characteristics. Thus a
neurotic, an artistic, or a mentally
immature identical twin will be
found to have a partner with similar
traits. Observations on twins seem
to suggest that our psychological
makeup is in many important re-
spects genetically determined.
THE TYPE OF TWINS who are. liter-
ally, dosest together are Siamese
twins, whose horrible fate seems to
catch populär fancy most. The name
was originally given to the male
twins born of a Chinese mother in
Slam in 1811, Chang and Eng. They
were joined by a thick fleshy band
extending between their breastbones
and their hips. Their mother sold
them as freaks to a showman, who
exhibited them in Europe.
They eventually passed into the
hands of Phineas T. Barnum, and
traveled in his shows for many years.
They settled down in North Caro-
lina, married two sisters, and be-
tween them had 22 children. all nor-
mal, save that two were deaf and
dumb.
Thev lost their property in the
Civil War, and died in 1874. One
died from the effects of drink, and
the other expired, apparently from
shock, 2-1/2 hours later. When they
were about to be exhibited in France,
7958
All About Twins
the authorities refused, believing
that any expectant mothers who saw
them might have similar babies!
A later pair of female Siamese
twins, the English Hilton sisters,
were refused permission by the au-
thorities to marry when they wanted
to. But neither of these pairs were
the first twins to be so joined. There
is plenty of evidence to show that in
the Middle Ages, in the tiny village
of Biddenden, Kent, England. Eliza
and Mary Chulkhurst, were born
joined together at the hips. They
lived until their 30s, and did good
works about the place, leaving lands
and accruing income for an annual
gift of cakes to the poor, a ceremony
still observed.
Twins are not always regarded as
a blessing. Many primitive tribes
have never been able to understand
the phenomenon of multiple births.
In some communities a mother of
twins is branded as unfaithful and
the babies may be put to death, since
it is believed that the husband can-
not have fathered two children at
the same time.
In several East African tribes vari-
ous weird purification rites have to
be endured by every mother of twins
before she can be accepted back as
a respected and healthy member of
the tribe. There have been cases
where a mother has been killed as a
witch for producing duplicate babies.
On the other hand, history is füll
of examples where other, more intel-
ligent peoples have regarded twins
with wonderment and awe, admired
especially for their great similarity.
The mythology of many races is rieh
in tales of wonderful, heroic and re-
vered twins.
M ANKIND has always found a
peculiar fascination in twins,
and indeed, the idea of human be-
ings in duplicate, as it were, does stir
the imagination. For centuries this
interest has operated on two levels,
the populär and the scientific; and
nowadays the two usefully converge.
Twin associations help in medical
investigations by offering abundant
material in all age groups and walks
of life. The Soviet Government, for
example, runs a Twins Institute in
Moscow for research into the genetic
and eugenic problems raised by the
incidence of twins.
The study of twins indicates that
we owe more to heredity and the cir-
cumstances of birth than to any ex-
ternal conditions later in life. While
we cannot. in any balanced view, af-
ford to neglect environment, hereditv
holds the key to our early fates.
Another striking fact is that twins
very rarely, if ever, achieve any great
distinction in life. This is largely
because, it is thought. the presence of
a twin brother or sister makes each
overdependent upon the other. A
twin partner seems to be a handicap
to great success in any sphere. Indi-
vidual initiative tends to be lacking
among twins: by their very existence
they rely upon and support each
other too much for one to be person-
ally well above average.
Reprinted froin American Journal of Human Genetics
Vol. 9, No. 3, September, 1967
Printed in U.S.A.
The Mathematical Rektions Among Plural Births
GORDON ALLENi AND I. LESTER FIRSCHEIN2
In 1895 Hellin reported that the ratio of single births to twin births was almost
the same as that of twins to triplets and triplets to quadruplets. The relation was
discovered independently by Edgar (1916) and by Zeleny (1921), but it is generally
known as Hellin's law. Many writers have shown that Hellin's law falls to fit Ob-
servation in a Statistical sense, but its usefulness as a rule of thumb cannot be denied.
Actually, the findings to be reported here suggest that the agreement of Hellin's law
with birth statistics is not entirely coincidental, and that it fits the data partly because
of underlying truth and partly because its two major defects tend to cancel each other.
Hellin's law was derived without reference to the zygosity Classification of multi-
ple births. The existence of two kinds of twins precludes any meaningful treatment of
twin frequency as a single datum, and Jenkins (1929) showed that the distribution
of sex-concordance in higher orders of plural birth eliminates any simple explanation
of Hellin's findings. Jenkins divided the frequency of twins into its two components,
monozygotic (here designated by a) and dizygotic (b), and expanded the resulting
binomial to obtain the frequencies of zygosity types in triplets, a^, lab and b^. The
a priori relation of zygosity to sex-concordance in twins and triplets had been recog-
nized by Bertillon (1874): the probability that a second zygote will have the same
sex as the first is J ; the probability that second and third zygotes will both have the
same sex as the first is J. Jenkins combined the binomial expansion with Bertillon 's
triplet rule and found very poor agreement with birth statistics. This discrepancy is
illustrated in table 1 with recent data for U. S. Whites, in which the relative^ twin
frequencies were .3757 for MZ (a) and .6243 for DZ (b). This comparison of observed
with expected yields a chi-square of 22. In an attempt to reconcile the observations
with Hellin's law, Jenkins and Gwin (1940) applied fractional coefficients to all three
terms of the expansion.
It appears that Hellin's law might logically apply to Ovulation. If extra Ovulation
occurs at random once in every 156 times (the frequency of DZ twins among U. S.
White births, 1952-1954), two extra ovulations would coincide once in every 156
squared, three once in every 156 cubed. This assumes that at all stages in the genesis
of multiple embryos by extra Ovulation the probability of another Ovulation is con-
stant. But for zygotic division it would be more logical to assume that the probability
of division per gesiation depends upon the number of embryos. Thus the simplest
hypothesis, mathematically, is that at any stage in the genesis of multiple embryos the
Received April 20, 1957.
' Laboratory of Socio-environmental Studies, National Institute of Mental Health, National
Institutes of Health, Public Health Service.
2 Institute for the Study of Human Variation, Columbia University.
3 Except in computation of the expected total frequency of triplets or quadruplets, relative fre-
quencies of MZ and DZ twins among twin births give the same results as the respective frequencies
among all births. The relative values are a little more convenient to work with, and will be used
throughout this paper when applicable.
181
182
ALLEN AND FIRSCHEIN
Table 1. Zygosity and sex-concordance in triplets as calculated from the binomial
EXPANSION OF HELLIN's LAW
One-egg
Two-egg
Three-egg
Total
General Formulas
Zygosity Types
a*
2ab
1
Probability of Sex-
1
i
i
concordance
U. S. Whites Ex-
Zygosity Types
137
457
379
973
460.5
pected (for 973
Frequency of Sex-con-
137
228.5
95
triplets born
cordance
1952-1954)
U. S. Whites Ob-
Frequency
of Sex-concordance
533
served
probability that a division will occur is the individual probability of division multiplied
by the number of embryos. Thus if the probability of division of one embryo is one in
260 (MZ twins among U. S. White births, 1952-1954), the probability for division of
either of two embryos would be one in 130, and that for any of three embryos would
be one in 86.7. This will be referred to as the hypothesis of proportional probability
of embryonic division. The underlying principle was assumed by Das (1953, 1955) m
the derivation of his triplet formulas.
The hypothesis can be expressed graphically and algebraically. Figure 1 diagrams
the processes of embryo multiplication. Twins may result from the release of two ova
or from primary division of one ovum. The probabilities of these events among all
pregnancies are represented by b and a, respectively, and should be nearly equivalent
to the frequencies of the two types of twins at birth. One-egg triplets are derived
from one-egg twin embryos by secondary division of either of the two products of the
first division. The probability of secondary division in such a half-embryo may be
taken as a' . Since there are two such embryos, the ratio of one-egg triplets to one-egg
twins should be 2a'. Similarly, two-egg twin embryos can give rise to triplets by
primary division of either, with a frequency of 2a. A small proportion, b\ of double
ovulations will be accompanied by an additional Ovulation, resulting in three-egg
triplets.
One-egg quadruplets may be derived from one-egg triplet embryos in two ways.
There are two embryos that could undergo a tertiary division, each with probability
ö", and one embryo that could undergo a secondary division with probability a' .
Jenkins (1929) noted this, but confused monozygotic and tetrazygotic sets and over-
looked the unequal probabilities of the two monozygotic types. The derivation of
two-egg quadruplets beyond the twin stage is exactly analogous to that of one-egg
sets but the divisions are secondary and primary, respectively, instead of tertiary
and secondary. Three-egg quadruplets may occur by primary division of any of the
three embryos. Four-egg quadruplets will be related to three-egg triplets by the ratio,
b" the frequency of a fourth Ovulation following three. In similar fashion one can
derive the types of quintuplets and higher orders of birth.
In Order to simplify the algebraic expressions it is very helpful to assume, as a first
approximation, that a, a\ a\ etc., are all equal, and similarly for b, b\ b\ etc. Then
PLURAL BIRTHS
GENESIS OF MULTIPLE EMBRYOS
ZYGOTE S
EMBRYOS
A
2a'
2 11 I
a -T- a
2i"
4 11
a
II
2a
2 11
a
4a'
b'
ÖÖÖ
3a
1
öö
b"
oooo
183
2a'
2a
4a
Fig. 1
Table 2. Approximate expectation of plural embryo frequencies based on the hypothesis
OF proportional EMBRYONIC DIVISION
Zygotes
lui/ua
1
2
3
4 5
2
a
b
S
2a2
2ab
b2
%
6a3
6a2b
3ab2
b'
5
24a^
24a3b
12a2b2
4ab3 b
the frequency of each zygosity type can be derived from the one above it by a factor
of a multiplied by the number of embryos that could divide. Under these assumptions,
monozygotic plural births would have a frequency of a for tvvins, la^ for triplets, 6a^
for quadruplets, and 24a'' for quintuplets.
Table 2 shows the results of this simplification, together with other simplifications
to be discussed below. If n is the number of embryos, then (n — 1) appears in each
term both as the sum of the exponents of a and b and as the ratio of the coefficient to
that of the term above it. The terms on the right, plural births resulting only from
multiple Ovulation, are successive powers of b without any coefhcients, relics of
Hellin's law.
The simplifications upon which table 2 is based require some discussion. Chief
among these is the assumption of equality among a, a\ etc., and among b, b\ etc. It
seems likely that primary division of an embryo should have the same probability
regardless of the number of other embryos in the Uterus, and this istrueforall secondary
divisions and all tertiary divisions. It is not so safe to assume that all these different
Orders of division have one common probability. The probability might be greater
for secondary and tertiary divisions if each division occurred selectively in those
embryos with the greatest tendency to divide, but this trend might be compensated
or reversed by diminishing size of the divided embryos and by physiological devel-
opment with passage of time. Likewise, successive probabilities of multiple Ovulation
might either increase or decrease.
A second important simplification in table 2 is the Omission of all factors in the
form (1 — a) or (1 — b). Table 2 applies, strictly, only to stages of embryo multi-
184
ALLEN AND FIRSCHEIN
Table 3. Exact frequencies of gestations by plurality and zygosity after completion
of embryo multiplication
Zygotes
Embrj'os
1
2
3
(1 - a)(l - b)
a(l - b)(l - a')2 b(l - b')(l
2aa'(l - b)(l - a')(l - a'O^ 2ab(l - b')(l
a)2
a)(i _ a')2 bb'(l - b")(l - a)^
plication and not to plural gestations at term. All multiple pregnancies have passed
through the one-egg stage, and were removed from the total of single births either by
division of the embryo, with frequency a, or by the addition of another egg, with
frequency b. The probability of a gestation remaining at the one-embryo stage is
therefore (1 - a)(l - ^>). Table 3 includes in every term a correction for those gesta-
tions that go on to a higher order of pluraUty, so that each term represents the ex-
pected relative frequency at birth. From the table it is clear that the parameters a
and b, which represent probabiUties of embryonic division and extra Ovulation, would
be underestimated by the frequencies of MZ and DZ twins at birth even if there were
no fetal losses. Better estimates would result if these frequencies were divided by
(1 — b){\ — ay, in which as a first approximation a and b are the frequencies of MZ
and DZ twins among all births.
If the first of the above approximations is accepted, then the second does not affect
the relative frequencies of zygosity classes, but only the total numbers in each order
of birth. The estimate of triplets from table 2 would be too low by (1 — a)(l — b),
and that of quadruplets by (1 — a)^(l — by. For precise estimation of the theoretical
total of plural births, an adequate adjustment is provided by the use of MZ and DZ
twin frequencies in these corrections. For maternal ages 35 to 39, where twin births
are at a maximum, the data of Waterhouse (1950) yield corrections that increase the
estimate of triplets by 2.1 per cent and that of quadruplets by 3.5 per cent. In popula-
tion data the error is trivial.
Another assumption throughout this analysis is that male and female zygotes or
embryos have equal twinning tendencies and similar survival to birth. Survival of
the sexes is of course not equal, and equality of the twinning tendency has often been
questioned. Das (1953, 1955) has recently explored some of the consequences of a
difference in twinning tendency, but his otherwise precise formulas did not allow for
the very important possibility of interaction between plural gestation and differential
survival of the sexes. Actually, the deviation from the normal sex ratio is downward
in twins and triplets, but upward in quadruplets (Hamlett, 1935) and quintuplets
(MacArthur and Ford, 1937). At this stage of knowledge, the complication and spec-
ulation introduced into the formulas by adjustment for sex ratio would not seem to be
warranted by the very small possible gain in precision.
In its simplified formulation, the hypothesis can be tested both against the relative
proportions of sex-concordance types and against the absolute numbers of plural
births in available birth statistics.
A prediction of sex-concordance requires a hypothesis about the relation at each
order of plural birth, between zygosity types and sex-concordance. In the case of
triplets this is simple. It was recognized by Bertillon (1874) and Weinberg (1902),
PLUR.\L BIRTHS
185
from elementary probability considerations, that same-sex sets should comprise half
of all dizygotic triplets and a quarter of all trizygotic triplets. Half of the dizygotics
and three-quarters of the trizygotics should be of mixed sex. For quadruplets and
higher orders the calculation becomes more complicated, because mixed sets are of
two or more types (e.g., 3:1 and 2:2) and because division may occur either in a
product of the preceding division or in one of the other embryos. Table 2 implies that
division occurs at random (i.e., with equal probability) in single and divided embryos.
This is not inconsistent with our present knovvledge of twins, for in other respects both
types of embryo manifest similar developmental potentialities. Computed on this
basis, table 4 shows the expected relative frequencies of sex-concordance types within
each zygosity class. Jenkins (1929) attempted to formulate such a rule for quadru-
plets, but he assumed that the two dizygotic types of quadruplets would be equally
frequent.
Application of the fractions in table 4 to the zygosity-class frequencies computed
from table 2 yields estimates of sex-concordance classes that can be summed for each
Order of multiple birth. Since total numbers of sets are not here in question, relative
frequencies of ]\IZ and DZ twins can be used instead of absolute frequencies. Table 5
Table 4. Probabilities of sex-concordance types within each zygosity type if embryonic
division and extra ovulation combine at random
Zygotes
Embryos
Sex
Same
Opp.
Same
Mixed
Same
3:1
2:2
Same
4:1
3:2
1
3
1
1
0
1
3
1
1
'2
0
1
2
1
1
1
i
0
1
3
i
0
1
6
f
1
I
5
\
Ä
0
1
*
A
0
1
4
t
i
f
Table 5. Prediction of sex-concordance in plural births. present hypothesis (1) compared
WITH BINOMIAL EXPANSION OF HELLIN's LAW (2).
Triplets
Observed
Expected (1)
Expected (2)
Quadruplets
Observed
Expected (1)
Expected (2)
Quintuplets
Observed
Expected (1)
Expected (2)
Same-sex
1437
1398
1242
Same-sex
20
17.0
11.9
Same-sex
16
15.7
8.0
(hamlett)
Mixed
1346
1385
1541
1:3
12
14.7
17.8
1:4
9
11.1
13.8
2:2
8
8.4
10.3
2:3
15
13.2
18.2
Chi2
2.2
55.3
1.0
8.1
0.6
10.2
>.10
<.01
>.50
<.05
>.50
<.01
186
ALLEN AND FIRSCHEIN
compares expected and observed frequencies of sex-concordance classes in triplets
and quadruplets for U. S. White births from 1915 to 1930 (data of Hamlett, 1935),
and in quintuplets collected from the literature by MacArthur and Ford (1937).
Since the population source of the quintuplets cannot be identified, but is probably
mainly Caucasian, values of a and b for this calculation were based on the twin data
of Hamlett, a = .336 and b = .664. In all three tests the proposed formulas satisfac-
torily predict the frequencies observed, while the simple binomial expansion of
Hellin's law, shown for comparison, is significantly in error.
A more crucial test is provided by populations with diverse frequencies of dizygotic
twinning. In table 6, triplets of three populations are compared with the predictions
of sex-concordance given by the proposed formula. The first row, U. S. Whites for
1952-1954 (a = .3757, b = .6243), is expected to fit about as well as Hamlett's older
data, and it fits somewhat better, with a chi-square of only 0.3. The second row shows
U. S. Negroes, who have a higher frequency of DZ twinning {a = .2783, b = .7217).
The last row shows Tokyo Japanese (data from Inouye, 1956), in whom the fre-
quency of dizygotic twinning is very low (a = .644, b = .356). The predictions prove
accurate for all three populations. It is however noteworthy that, except for the
Japanese, all examples in tables 5 and 6 show a non-significant excess of same-sex sets.
The hypothesis does not appear to yield such accurate predictions of the total
numbers of triplets and quadruplets. As Hellin's law has always emphasized, the
ratio between successive orders of reported plural births is nearly constant, but the
hypothesis of proportional probability of division implies an increasing ratio. The
excess in table 2 over Hellin's law is a^ for triplets and 5a^ + Sa^b for quadruplets.
Necessarily, therefore, the resulting estimates exceed reported plural births. This is
apparent in table 7, whether data are based on total reported births or on live births
only. However, the tabulation of plural stillbirths in Vital Statistics of the United
States (National Office of Vital Statistics) is evidently incomplete, probably because
an estimated gestation age below 20 weeks takes reports out of the stillbirth category.
For example, in the eight years 1947-1954, 23 sets of quadruplets were reported with
all born alive, four with one stillborn, and none with two or more stillborn. This
stillbirth rate is lower than that reported in triplets. The close agreement with ex-
pectation in the Japanese data may tend to indicate the efifect of more complete
reporting of stillbirths, or it may be entirely due to the small sample size.
In addition to the algebraic simplifications already discussed, the calculations
represented in tables 5, 6 and 7 contain two major sources of inaccuracy. First, they
are based on pooled data for all maternal ages. In order to evaluate the magnitude of
Table 6. Sex-concordance among triplet births in three populations
Population MZ/DZ Ratio Same-sex Mixed Chi»
U. S. Whites .60 Obs. 533 440
1952-1954 Exp. 524 449 0.3
U. S. Negroes
1952-1954
Tokyo Japanese
1950-1951
.39
1.81
Obs.
118
125
Exp.
110
133
Obs.
15
6
Exp.
16.2
4.8
1.1
0.4
PLURAL BIRTHS
187
Table 7. Total frequency or triplets and quadruplets compared with the hypothesis
Observed Expectcd Rati«
U. S. White Triplets
1952-1954
total:
973
1234
.79
live births only:
822
1062
.77
U. S. White Quadruplets
1947-1954
total:
27
43
.63
live births only:
23
34
.68
U. S. Negro Triplets
1952-1954
total:
243
341
.71
live births only:
187
272
.69
Tokyo Japanese Triplets
1950-1951
total:
21
21.6
.97
live births only:
5
11.8
.42
Twin frequencies used in these calculations were as follows: White, total, a = .003853, b =
.006403; live births only, a = .003447, b = .006196. Negro, total, a = .003903, b = .01012; live
births only, a = .003420, b = .009330. Japanese, total, a = .00451, b = .00249: live births only,
a = .00345, b = .00196.
this error, the New York State data of Yerushalmy and Sheerar (1940) were analyzed
in 5-year maternal age groups. The age-specific data gave a lower prediction of same-
sex sets than did the pooled data. The difference was less than three per cent of the
same-sex sets, but in a direction that would increase the discrepancies in tables 5 and
6. These authors gave no triplet data for comparison with the predictions, and differ-
ences among the populations would vitiate any correction of our other estimates on
the basis of the New York statistics.
Finally, many pregnancy terminations are not reported or even reportable. There
is always some error in the assumption that reported plural births are representative
of all multiple gestations, whether in sex-concordance, in zygosity, or in plurality.
The data for recent U. S. births cited here were taken from Vital Statistics of the
United States, which lists some incomplete plural birth reports. For the present
calculations these incomplete reports were assumed to involve stillbirths and were
added pro rata to the appropriate categories of race and sex-concordance. This ap-
peared to be better than omitting them altogether, although they probably have a
different distribution than fully reported stillbirths. Unreported fetal losses may be
still less representative and are certainly more numerous (Guttmacher, 1953). Pref-
erential survival of polyzygotic sets or more careful reporting of same-sex sets of
stillbirths, for example, might distort the true proportions significantly.
To the extent that these distortions occur in twins, they would be incorporated and
hence compensated in predictions of the higher pluralities. This ''automatic" correc-
tion will be further discussed below.
DISCUSSION
The hypothesis of proportional probability of embryonic division as represented in
table 3 may be viewed tentatively as a complete description of the genesis of plural
embryos, within any homogeneous group of mothers. This requires, however, that the
large deficiency of U. S. triplets and quadruplets shown in table 7 be explained mainly
188
ALLEN AND FIRSCHEIN
in terms of unreported intrauterine mortality. Comparison with the Japanese data
may shed some light on the problem. In Tokyo, stillbirths were reported for 8 per
Cent of Single births, for 29 per cent of twin pregnancies and for 76 per cent of triplet
pregnancies. The corresponding stillbirth rates for U. S. Whites are 1.6 per cent, 6
per cent and 18 percent; for both populations the stillbirths are approximately in
the ratio of 1:4:10. While stillbirth rates are undoubtedly higher in Japan, it seems
likely that part of this difference is due to more complete reporting in Tokyo, and the
low stillbirth rate already cited for U. S. quadruplets supports this belief.
Since stillbirths are much more frequent in tvvins than in single births, live birth
statistics show lower relative frequencies of tvvins than do total birth data. The dec-
rement is magnitied in the resulting estimate of triplets. Consequently, if stillbirths
are uniformly underreported, even total births of singletons and twins will give a low
estimate of total triplet births, but this deficiency may be matched or exceeded by
high mortality and underreporting in triplets. When unrecognized or unreported
intrauterine deaths are considered in addition to reported stillbirths, it appears that
the calculated estimate of triplets may always be low, and that any close correspond-
ence between this automatic correction and the actual underreporting of triplet
gestations, as apparently occurred in the Japanese data, must be mainly coincidental.
In Short, much more Information will be needed about fetal losses before total plural
births can be used either to refute or to confirm our hypothesis. Nevertheless, close
agreement of the hypothesis with sex-concordance data for three pluralities and three
(or four) populations would seem to offer strong support. If so, some of the consequen-
ces of the hypothesis deserve exploration.
By comparison with predictions from twin data (table 7) it appears that the pro-
portion of U. S. White triplets lost or reduced to a lower order of birth between con-
ception and reporting is approximately 20 per cent. For Negroes the loss is 30 per
cent and for White quadruplets it is nearly 40 per cent. These figures are minimal
estimates of unreported losses in triplet and quadruplet pregnancies if the hypothesis
is valid. The losses may be considerably greater if unreported terminations are much
higher in twin than in single gestations. However, the close conformity of sex-
concordance types to expectation implies that, whatever their nature may be, the
excess losses in the highest orders of multiple birth depend on the number of fetuses
present and are almost independent of zygosity types.
Examination of table 2 reveals that, in each order of plural birth, the terms for
monozygotic and dizygotic sets, respectively, are in the ratio a:b. In fact, this follows
logically from the assumptions, since these two zygosity types are derived from the
respective types of twin embryos by exactly parallel processes of division, and there-
fore have initial relative probabilities of a and b. If the MZ/DZ ratio is found to
change in successive orders of multiple birth, it will afford a means of evaluating the
respective probabilities of division: primary, secondary, tertiary, etc. In that case,
the ratio would be virtually a'/b for triplets, giving a direct measure of a\ If the
change in probability of division is regulär, that is, if the values of a, a! and a" form a
geometric progression, then the MZ/DZ ratio should be {alb)x in triplets and {alh)x^
in quadruplets, where x is the ratio of a! to a. Both a and b can be accurately estimated
from twin data, and no zygosity class in figure 1 except trizygotic quintuplets com-
V
I
PLURAL BIRTHS
189
»
k
bines a', a", b' or fe" with unknown forms of the other parameter. Although rather
large numbers of plural births would have to be classified by zygosity to reveal dif-
ferences among a, a! and a", or among ft, V and \/\ the efficient utilization of such
zygosity data to this end should be easy.
On the other hand, the agreement between Observation and hypothesis in tables 5
and 6 suggests that a, a! and a" are nearly equal, and hence that the MZ/DZ ratio is
nearly the same for all orders of plural birth. This should be very useful for the Solu-
tion of zygosity problems involving triplets, quadruplets or quintuplets. Newman
(1940) assumed that nearly all same-sex sets of quadruplets and quintuplets were
derived from single zygotes, but according to the present formulas less than half of
such sets are monozygotic in the U. S. population. When blood factors are alike in a
same-sex set, three or more zygotes can usually be excluded by probability calcula-
tions, and the problem reduces to that found in twins, a decision between one zygote
and two. Under our hypothesis, the relative probabilities in this Situation are ap-
parently the same as those for twins.
It should be recognized that rather large errors can be introduced into zygosity
diagnoses by disregard of the effect of maternal age on the frequency of extra Ovula-
tion. This figure is important in computations of the relative probability that twins
are monozygotic either by the method of Sutton, Clark and Schull (1955) or by that
of Smith and Penrose (1955). The MZ/DZ ratio varies as much among mothers of
dififerent age-groups as among races. According to Waterhouse (1950) it ranges in the
British population from .28 in mothers 35 to 40 to four times this figure in the young-
est mothers. Maternal age is easily ascertained for most cases of plural birth, so that
there is generally no excuse for basing zygosity computations on the average MZ/DZ
ratio for the population. The necessary Information has been published for several
Caucasian populations, and it is to be hoped that collection and publication of data
on plural births by maternal age will become a more general practice.
The effects of parity on twinning are at present neither sufficiently striking nor
sufficiently well documented to be taken into account in zygosity calculations.
i
SUMMARY
Hellin's law can be translated into powers of a binomial based on the population
frequencies of the two types of twins. The terms of this binomial, expanded to any
Order, give expected frequencies of all zygosity classes in the respective order of mul-
tiple birth. These predictions prove incompatible with the observed distribution of
sex in triplets, quadruplets and quintuplets.
Good agreement, however, is obtained on a hypothesis of proportional probability
of embryonic division based on the additivity of independent probabilities. According
to this, any kind of plural birth should be numerically related to the next higher order
derived from the same number of zygotes by the probability of embryonic division
multiplied by the number of embryos capable of dividing. Each order of plural birth
adds a new term representing the maximum number of zygotes: trizygotic triplets,
tetrazygotic quadruplets and pentazygotic quintuplets and these terms, starting with
the frequency of dizygotic twins among all births, form a geometric series like Hellin's
law.
»;
190
ALLEN AND FIRSCHEIN
Sex-concordance types can be predicted for each zygosity class. The sums of these,
within any order of plural birth, can be compared with observed sex-concordance
types. When this is done, excellent agreement is obtained for triplets of three diäerent
races and, in Whites, for quadruplets and quintuplets also. The total numbers of
triplets and quadruplets predicted, however, are considerably above those given by
available ü. S. statistics. This suggests relatively high prenatal mortality, nearly
independent of zygosity, in the higher orders of plural birth.
The proposed formulas dehne a number of biological parameters so that these
should eventually be measurable. The monozygotic-dizygotic ratio would seem to be
nearly the same for all orders of plural birth, but the dependence of this ratio on
maternal age should be recognized in every zygosity problem.
REFERENCES
Bertillon, M. 1874. Des combinaisons de sexe dans les grossesses gemellaires de leur cause et de
leur caractfere ethnique. Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris 9: 267-290.
Dahlberg, G. 1926. Twins and Tuin Births from a Hereditary Point of View. Stockholm: Tidens
Tryckeri. , , . , i k- fi.
Das, S. R. 1953. A mathematical analysis of the phenomena of human twms and higher plural birtns.
Part I: Twins. Metron 17 (1, 2): 65-88.
Das, S. R. 1955. A mathematical analysis of the phenomena of human twins and higher plural
births. Part II: Triplets and the application of the analysis in the interpretation of the twin
and triplet data. Metron 17 (3, 4): 67-91.
Edgar, J. C. 1916. Practice of Obstetrics, ed. 4. Philadelphia, Pa.: Blakiston's Son & Co.
GuTTMACHER, A. F. 1953. The incidence of multiple births in man and some other unipara. Obst.
Gyn. 2: 22-35.
Hamlett, G. W. D. 1935. Human tvvinning in the United States: Racial frequencies, sex ratios, and
geographical variations. Genetics 20: 250-258.
Hellin 1895. Die Ursache der Multiparität der uniparen T liiere überhaupt und der Zwillingsschwan-
ger Schaft beim Menschen insbesondere.
Inouye, E. 1956. Personal communication.
JENKINS, R. L. 1929. Twin and triplet birth ratios. A further study of the interrelations of the fre-
quencies of plural births. /. Hered. 20: 485-494.
JENKINS, R. L. AND J. GwiN 1940. Twin and triplet birth ratios. Rigorous analysis of the interrela-
tions of the frequencies of plural births. /. Hered. 31: 243-248.
MacArthur, J. W. AND N. H. C. Ford 1937. A biological study of the Dionne quintuplets— an
identical set. Collected Studies on the Dionne Quintuplets. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.
Newman, H. H. 1940. Multiple Human Births. Twins, Triplets, Quadruplets and Quintuplets. New
York, Doubleday Doran.
Smith S. M. and L. S. Penrose 1955. Monozygotic and dizygotic twin diagnosis. Ann. Hum.
Genet. 19:273-289.
SuTTON H. E., P. J. Clark and VV. J. Sciiull 1955. The use of multiallele genetic characters in the
diagnosis of twin zygosity. Am. J. Human Genet. 7: 180-188.
Waterhouse, J. A. 1950. Twinning in twin pedigrees. Brit. J. Social M. 4: 197-216.
Weinberg, W. 1902. Beitrüge zur Physiologie und Pathologie der Mehrlingsgeburten beim Men-
schen. Arch. ges. Physiol. 88: 346-430.
Yerushalmy, J. and S. E. Sheerar 1940. Studies on twins. I. The relation of order of birth and age
of parents to the frequency of like-sexed and unlike-sexed twin deliveries. Human Biol. 12:
95-113.
Zeleny, C. 1921. The relative numbers of twins and triplets. Science 53: 262-263.
i
SCIENCE
9 May 1958
Volume 127, Number 3306
i
j
Editorlal No Spouting Fish^^ l 1089
ArtIcIesV Evolution at Work: T.\X)obzhanskj . . .^.?. A i091
The pressing problcms oF loday center on the mechanisms of evolutionand the
biological uniqueness of man. ~"
University of Michigan Radiocarbon Dates II: H. R. Cranc and /. B. Griffin 1098
News of Science NSF Appropriation; other reccnt events 1106
Book Reviews W hat's Happened to Our High Schools?; other books 1110
Reports Do the Nurse Honey Bees Recognize the Sex^jöf-lhe Larvae?: M. H. Haydak 1113
Upstream Bottom Currents in New York Harbor: H. B. Stewart, Jr 1113
EflFect of Trypsin Inhibitor on Passage of InsuUn Across the Intestinal
Barrier: M. Laskowski, /r, et al 1115
Iproniazid Treatment and Metabolism of Labeled Epinephrine in Schizophrenics:
O. Resnic/c^ei a\ < 1116
Electrical Activity of Isolated Single Electroplax of Electric Eel as
AflFected by Temperature: E. Schoßeniels 1117
Circulating Antibody Directed against Penicillin: A. B. Ley et al 1118
Color Coding of Stroboscopic Multiplc-Image Photographs:
F. P. Jones and D. N. O'Connell 1119
Departments Letters; Meetings; Equipment 1120
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
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I
9 May 1958, Volume 127, Number 3306
SCIENCE
Evolution at Work
The pressing problems today center on the mechanisms
of evolution and the biological uniqueness of man.
Theodosius Dobzhansky
When hunger and other elemental
needs are satisfied, people are apt to ask
questions about human nature, about
man's origins, and about his place in the
scheme of things. Some people ask such
questions even when hungry and suffer-
ing. It would be naive to claim that an
evolutionary approach supplies all the
answers, but it is relevant to these ques-
tions and may profitably be used as a
guiding light in the quest for some of
the answers. Accordingly, the two short
papers by Darwin and by Wallace, read
before the Linnean Society of London in
1858, mark a watershed in the intellec-
tual history of mankind. These papers
contained the essentials of the theory of
biological evolution. They did not ex-
plicitly deal with man; but, in 1871,
Darwin showed that man is a part of
nature and a product of the evolutionary
process.
The theory of evolution has not only
become a focus of biology but has influ-
enced human thought in much wider do-
mains. Many people who are not biolo-
gists are at least dimly aware of this. By
way of Illustration, permit me to recount
some reminiscences. A few years ago, as
I stepped ashore from a small launch in
a village on one of the tributaries of the
Amazon River, I was met by a man who
proved to be the local agronomist. His
first question was, what influence might
Lysenko's discoveries (of the spurious
nature of which he was, of course, un-
Dr. Dobzhansky is professor of zoology at Co-
lumbia University. This article is adapted from a
paper presented 27 Dec. 1957 during the Indian-
apolis meeting of the AAAS.
9 MAY 1958
aware) have on our ideas about evolu-
tion. In Egypt, a friend translated for me
parts of a book recently written by a
Coptic hermit who lived for many years
in one of the desert monasteries. The
book contained a very fair exposition of
evolutionism, followed by a refutation
on what, to the author, seemed sufficient
theological grounds. Punta Arenas claims
to be the southernmost city in the world;
the region of the Straits of Magellan
where it is located is sometimes described
as the "Uttermost Part of the Earth." A
Chilean friend and I were asked to give
public lectures on evolution in the hall
of the Punta Arenas City Library. We
complied, and found that a part of the
audience was not unfamiliar with the
topic.
Historical Background
The idea of evolution in the broadest
sense of universal and all-pervading
change and development is with many
of US a habit of thought. We take it for
granted because in our lifetimes we have
Seen so many innovations — telephones
and radios, automobiles and airplanes,
plastics and antibiotics, atomic bombs
and artificial satellites. Things were not
always changing so fast. Lucretius, one
of the most lucid thinkers of antiquity,
was able to write that "all things remain
the same even if you should outlast all
the ages in living; and still more would
you See them the same if you should
never come to die."
Christianity is implicitly evolutionistic;
it posits a historical process which moves
from the Creation to the Fall, the Re-
demption, the City of God. However, it
took some fourteen centuries to make it
explicitly evolutionistic — from Saint Au-
gustine in the 5th Century to Vico in
1725, Condorcet in 1793, Darwin and
Wallace in 1858, 1859, and 1871, and
Marx in 1859 and 1867. Condorcet held
that the history of mankind was a grad-
ual but steady ascent from a primitive
savagery to ever higher states: man is
bound to reach perfection in a not too
distant future. This cheerful view might
sound almost too smug did we not know
that it was written while its author
awaited execution as a counter-revolu-
tionary.
The idea of progressive evolution in
human affairs reached the acme of popu-
larity during the Victorian era. Civiliza-
tion was supposed to bring ever more
material and spiritual comforts, very
quickly to some but, in the long run, to
almost everybody. Those who were re-
ceiving the comforts readily believed
that this admirable prospect would be
realized most expeditiously through pri-
vate enterprise and free competition.
Marx recommended rather different
methods, which he believed to be some-
how deducible from Darwin's discov-
eries. He proposed to acknowledge his
indebtedness by dedicating Das Kapital
to Darwin — an honor which Darwin po-
litely declined. Marxism is sometimes
dubbed a Christian heresy; it promises
a socialist City of God but is curiously
vague about just what this blessed State
will be like.
The favorable intellectual climate of
the last Century speeded up the accept-
ance of the discoveries of Darwin and
Wallace. In turn, biological evolution-
ism exerted ever-widening influences on
the natural and social sciences, as well as
on philosophy and even on politics. Not
all of these extrabiological repercussions
were either sound or commendable. Suf-
fice it to mention the so-called social
Darwinism (/), which often sought to
justify the inhumanity of man to man,
and the biological racism which fur-
nished a fraudulent scientific sanction
for the atrocities committed in Hitler's
Germany and elsewhere. But these are
1091
merely perversions of Darwinism. In the
words of Paul Sears (2), "Charles Dar-
win did not kill the faith of mankind.
He wrought mightily, and others witli
him, for a newer and greater faith —
faith in universal order, whose secrets
open themselves to men truly free to
question, to comnnunicate, and to arrive
at agreement as to what they have seen."
One problem took precedence in biol-
ogy during the latter part of the 19th
and the early years of the current Cen-
tury. This was the Validation of the evo-
lutionary interpretations of the facts of
zoology, botany, and anthropology. I
have no wish to dogmatize, but this
problem appears to have been defini-
tively settled. The occurrence of the
evolution of life in the history of the
earth is established about as well as
events not witnessed by human observers
can be. The evidence has not satisficd
quite everybody; a few people who are
not Ignorant of the pertinent facts are
nevertheless antievolutionists. However,
biological research directed towards pro-
ducing more evidence that evolution has
taken place is no longer urgent.
Guessing where new discoveries are
likely to be made is a risky venture in
science. And yet, a scientist is constantly
forced to take this risk; the success of his
work depends on the perspicuity of his
guesses. With this reservation, it may be
Said that the most pressing problems of
evolutionary biology seem at prescnt to
belong to two groups — those concerned
with the mechanisms of evolution and
those dealing with the biological unique-
ness of man.
Factors of Evolution
Darwin did not eschew making hy-
potheses concerning the forces which
bring evolution about. Without a plaus-
ible explanation of how evolution might
happen it would be hard to accept the
idea that it did happen. The theory of
natural selection was Darwin's answer,
and from the vantage point of modern
knowledge it can be seen that the an-
swer was substantially correct. But Dar-
win was fully aware that, given the State
of biology in his day, a causal analysis
of the evolutionary process was unattain-
able. A number of discoveries in our
time made possible at least a start in this
direction. The chief one was the dis-
covery and the rediscovery of Mendel's
laws; then came the unraveling of the
chromosome behavior in cell division,
fertilization, and meiosis; the finding of
mutations by de Vries and their study
by Morgan and his school; the induction
of mutations by x-rays and other agents,
first revcaled by Muller; and the foun-
dation of population genetics by Hardy,
Weinberg, and Chetverikov.
The dates of most of these discover-
ies fall between 1900 and 1930. Strange
to say, it was during this period that
some biologists professed much skepti-
cism about the feasibility of explaining
evolution in terms of the processes then
being discovered. Bateson, one of the
leaders of genetics in its formative years,
was the foremost skeptic, This attitude
is still lingering in some places, espe-
cially in continental Europe. New and
unassimilated information has evidently
acted like the proverbial trees which hid
the forest.
A most creative phase of modern evo-
lutionism opened around 1930. Perhaps
for the first time in the history of biol-
ogy, the leading roles in the develop-
ment of a field passed to theoreticians
using the tools of mathematical analysis,
and their analysis far outdistanced the
observational and experimental work.
Fisher, Wright, and Haidane developed,
almost simultaneously, a mathematical
theory of Mendelian populations, The
fundamental component of evolutionary
changes was perceived to be the altera-
tion of the frequencies of genic and
chromosomal variants in living popula-
tions. Mutation, natural and artificial
selection, random drift, and gene dif-
fusion between populations are the
agents known to bring about such alter-
ations. These are, then, the causative
factors of evolution.
The logical step towards a satisfac-
tory theory of evolution should now be
to study quantitatively the factors of
evolution and their interactions in free-
living, domesticated, and experimental
populations. This is an exciting but diffi-
cult task; so great is the complexity of
most evolutionary patterns that precise
measurement is rarely attainable. Deter-
mination of the Orders of magnitude of
some of the forces may, however, be
within the ränge of what is possible;
even such rough approximations will
shed needed light on the mechanisms of
evolution.
Natural Selection and
Balanced Polymorphism
It is not my purpose here to review
the field of quantitative studies on the
factors of evolution. I choose rather to
consider some illustrative examples.
For many years natural selection was
somcthing which biologists frequently
discusscd but scldom did anything about.
To Darwin, natural selection was an in-
ference from a mass of indirect evidence;
he argued that it should occur, but he
did not claim to have directly observed
natural selection acting to produce
changes in free-living populations. This
he could not do because the selective
advantages and disadvantages which
slowly change natural populations are
mostly too small to be readily detect-
able. To be sure, one can observe elimi-
nation of victims of heritable malforma-
tions and diseases. Natural selection is,
accordingly, often compared to a sieve,
which lets some particles pass but Se-
questers others. Such a process can pre-
vent the accumulation of hereditary dis-
eases and consequent degeneration of a
species. It is less easy to see how it may
lead to adaptive improvements.
Studies on microorganisms have
changed the Situation considerably. In
1943, Luria and Delbrück (3) analyzed
the origin of bacterial strains resistant
to destruction by bacteriophages, and
their type of analysis was rapidly ex-
tended to explain the origin of bacterial
resistance to antibiotics and similar phe-
nomena. Mutants which confer upon the
bacteria their resistance to phages, or to
antibiotics, arise from time to time in
most or in all cultures. However, such
mutants are too rare to be noticed un-
less a selective or Screening agent is ap-
plied. When a Suspension of phages is
added to a bacterial culture, all the bac-
teria except for the few phage-resistant
mutants are killed; when an antibiotic is
added, only the resistant mutants sur-
vive. Ingenious methods have been de-
vised for estimating how often the re-
sistant mutants arise. For example, the
frequency of the mutation for the phage
resistance in the colon bacteria, Esche-
richia coli, is of the order of 10~'^ to 10~^
per cell generation.
The selection of resistant mutants in
bacteria is a process which resembles the
sieve in the above analogy too closely to
be a good model of the selective proc-
esses in higher, sexually reproducing, or-
ganisms, including man. Materials more
suitable for the study of these processes
have been found. Fisher [4) showed in
1930 that if the heterozygote for two
genetic variants, A^Ag, is superior in fit-
ness to both corresponding homozygotes,
AjAj and AgAg, the natural selection
will, in an outbreeding sexual popula-
tion, act to maintain both A^ and Ag
with frequencies that may readily be
computed. Some twenty years ago, Ford
(5) discovered this Situation, known as
1092
SCIENCE, VOL. 127
balanced polymorphism, in nature in
some butterflies. More recent studies
show that balanced polymorphism is
more frequent than was formerly sus-
pected. Natural populations of the flies
Drosophila have yielded some beauti-
fully clear examples. Moreover, the se-
lective pressures acting on some Poly-
morphie natural populations are, as will
be shown below, astonishingly great.
This is a boon to the experimental evo-
lutionist, for natural selection becomes
at last observable and its magnitude
measurable.
Here we may digress to consider the
possibility that balanced polymorphism
may occur in human populations. The
problem is of more than academic inter-
est, since balanced polymorphism has a
property which is at first sight astonish-
ing. Provided that the heterozygous car-
riers of hereditary defects or diseases are
superior in fitness to the noncarriers, nat-
ural selection will maintain these defects
in the populations. The work of Allison
(6) on the sickle-cell anemia, and that
of Ceppellini on the Mediterranean ane-
mia, have yielded at least presumptive
evidence of balanced polymorphism.
The homozygotes for the respective mu-
tant genes usually die of severe anemias,
but the heterozygotes may not only be
healthy but, at least under certain con-
ditions, may be relatively immune to
some malarial fevers as compared with
the normal homozygotes. Carter, Pen-
rose, and Wallace (7), among others,
have considered the possibility that
many genetic variants in man which are
deleterious when homozygous may be
beneficial when heterozygous. This pos-
sibility has often been studiously ignored
or dismissed on insufflcient grounds. It
would greatly complicate several impor-
tant issues, among them that of the
genetic effects of atomic radiations on
human and other populations. However,
it is becoming evident that the oversim-
plified modeis of the genetic population
structure are proving inadequate if not
positively misleading. Since I recently
had an opportunity to discuss this mat-
ter in Science (8), I leave it here with
the remark that the need for a better
understanding of the genetic processes
taking place in living populations is now
feit more keenly than ever.
Natural Selection in Experimental
Populations of Drosophila
The trait which proved to be highly
favorable for experimental studies on
evolution is a cryptic one. Many natural
9 MAY 1958
populations of most species of Drosophila
are Polymorphie for variations in the
structure of certain chromosomes, due to
so-called inversions of blocks of genes.
These variants of the chromosome struc-
ture are inherited as simply as are the
genes that determine the blood groups
for which human populations are Poly-
morphie. A further similarity is that the
flies which carry different chromosomal
types are externally as indistinguishable
as are people with different blood
groups. The chromosomal types may,
however, be diagnosed easily and pre-
cisely in stained preparations of the
salivary glands of the fly larvae. Every
race or population of a given species of
Drosophila may be characterized in
terms of the relative frequencies of the
different chromosomal types which it
contains (9), just as human populations
can be described in terms of the rela-
tive frequencies of the different blood
group genes.
But here the analogy ends, since the
chromosomal types which a Drosophila
carries may easily be shown to influence
its fitness, while the problem of the
functional significance of the blood
groups in man is still füll of uncertain-
ties. The experiments with Drosophila
are arranged as follows. We collect a
sample of the population in some nat-
ural locality where the flies occur;
place the females singly in laboratory
culture bottles and allow them to pro-
duce progenies; examine the chromo-
somes in these progenies and pick out
the strains which carry the desired chro-
mosome types; and make up a mixture
of flies carrying certain chromosome
types in known proportions. This mix-
ture is placed in specially constructed
population cages in which the flies will
brecd freely for as many generations as
the experimenter may allow. These
populations are kept under controlled
conditions which can be varied at will,
and at desired time intervals we take
samples of eggs which the flies in the
cages deposit and investigate the chro-
mosomes in the larvae which grow from
these eggs.
Such experiments show that the fly
which is Attest in most environments
usually turns out to be a heterozygote.
A fly in which the two chromosomes of
a pair differ in structure, say A^Ag, en-
joys hybrid vigor, heterosis, as compared
with the homozygotes, A^A^ and AgAa-
There is every reason to think that this
heterosis occurs in the environments in
which the flies live in nature as well as
in the laboratory. The chromosomal poly-
morphism is balanced polymorphism.
Furthermore, at least some of the chro-
mosomal heterozygotes are favored by
amazingly powerful selective forces.
The magnitude of the selection can be
estimated from the speed with which
the frequencies of the different chromo-
somal types undergo changes in the ex-
perimental populations, and from the
equilibrium proportions that are eventu-
ally reached. Thus, in a certain experi-
ment with Drosophila pseudoobscura,
the following Situation was observed:
Taking the fitness of a heterozygote,
AjAo, to be unity, the fitnesses of the
homozygotes, A^A^ and A^Ag, proved to
be 0.90 and 0.41, respectively (9).
Consider the meaning of these figures.
The adaptive value of the homozygote
A._,A2 is less than one-half of that of the
heterotic type, A^Ag. Taking the hetero-
zygote as the Standard of fitness, the
homozygote, AgAg, having less than 50
percent of the Standard fitness, must
technically be classed as a semilethal.
Or one may say that the homozygote
AoAg is afflicted with a hereditary dis-
ease, or a constitutional weakness. Now,
this would not greatly surprise us if Ag
were a mutant obtained in the labora-
tory, under the influence of, say, x-ray
treatments. But Ag is a permanent com-
ponent of many flourishing populations
of Drosophila in nature. The AgAg ho-
mozygotes are not laboratory artifacts:
they occur abundantly in nature.
Seasonal Genetic Changes in the
Make-up of Drosophila Populations
Not enough is known about the adap-
tive functions which the chromosomal
polymorphism performs in nature. Quite
possibly these functions are different in
different species of Drosophila. Obser-
vations on populations of Drosophila
pseudoobscura in some parts of Cali-
fornia furnish a clue for this species. In
these populations, the relative frequen-
cies of different chromosomal types
change with the seasons; some chromo-
somes are more common in spring than
in Summer or in fall, while other chro-
mosomes show the reverse seasonal
trends (Fig. 1). Drosophila produces in
nature several generations per year — we
do not know just how many. At any rate,
natural selection is so intense that the
populations undergo genetic reconstruc-
tions which fit them to seasonal changes
in their environments. Here, then, are
evolutionary changes, microevolutionary
ones to be sure, which are observable
directly in nature in a free-living animal
species.
1093
Further light on these evolutionary
changes comes from laboratory experi-
ments, The seasonal genetic changes in-
dicate that the adaptive values of the
chromosomal types vary in different en-
vironments. The carriers of some of the
chromosomes are relatively fitter in
spring and those of others are superior
in Summer or in fall. Experiments bear
this out; the adaptive values of the chro-
mosomal types are exquisitely sensitive
to environmental modification. The se-
ries of adaptive values of three chromo-
somal types cited above (1:0.90:0.41)
was observed in experimental popula-
tions kept at 25 °C. Lowering the tem-
perature by 9°, to 16°C, makes the
adaptive values uniform, or so nearly so
that no differences can be detected in
our experiments within the limits of
resolution. The genotype which causes a
hereditary infirmity at 25° is completely
"cured" at 16°C. This emphasizes how
meaningless may be the distinctions be-
tween "superior" and "inferior" heredi-
tary endowments if the environment is
not specified.
The seasonal genetic changes in Dro-
sophila pseudoobscura, observed in na-
ture in the population of Pifion Fiats,
Mount San Jacinto, California, have
been reproduced rather fuUy in experi-
ments (9). In nature, a certain chro-
mosome type increases in frequency at
the expense of another type between
March and June, the changes are re-
versed between June and September,
and the frequencies remain static from
September to March. The kind of ge-
netic changes which occur in nature dur-
ing the summer months have been easily
imitated in experimental population
cages kept at 25 °C. The winter stability
is reproduced if the same population
cages are kept at 16°C. All attempts to
duplicate the spring Situation in popula-
tion cages were unsuccessful. The ex-
periments of Birch [10) showed why this
should be so; the changes which occur in
nature during spring can be copied ex-
perimentally only if the fly larvae do not
live in crowded conditions (as they al-
ways do in population cages).
Alteration of Drosophila Populations
in California (1940-1957)
The seasonal genetic changes observed
in nature in Drosophila pseudoobscura
are evolutionary changes by definition.
However, because of their cyclic char-
acter, the alterations induccd at one sea-
son are reversed at the next season. The
1094
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40
30
20
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MARCH APRIL MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST SEPT
OCT
NOV
Fig. 1. Seasonal genetic changes in a population of Drosophila pseudoobscura inhabitmg
a certain locality in California (Pifion Fiats on Mount San Jacinto). The heights of the
columns indicate the average percentages of three different chromosomal types in differ-
ent months in samples taken from 1939 to 1954. (Data of Dobzhansky, Epling, et al.)
biological significance of the chromo-
somal polymorphism lies evidenty in
that it confers a marvelous adaptive plas-
ticity upon the populations. The popula-
tions are able to respond by adaptive
genetic changes to temporary, and even
to seasonal, shifts in their environments.
This is, of course, a kind of evolutionary
luxury which only a rapidly breeding
animal, like Drosophila, is able to af-
ford.
The genetic plasticity also permits,
however, rapid modifications in response
to more lasting alterations in the en-
vironment. This creates an opportunity
for the direct Observation of these evo-
lutionary changes in nature. Changes in
the relative frequencies of chromosomal
types lasting for several years have been
recorded in some populations of Dro-
sophila pseudoobscura. Some of these
changes may have been caused by suc-
cession of droughty and wet years, but
this is not established securely. Recently
it was discovered that still another, and
apparently more enduring, change is
going on in certain populations of the
same species.
Reference has been made above to the
fact that populations or races of a Dro-
sophila species may be described in
terms of relative frequencies of different
types of chromosomes in their chromo-
some pools. Such a description was made
in 1944 for Drosophila pseudoobscura,
on the basis of samples of the popula-
tions of this species collected in western
United States and in Mexico, chiefly dur-
ing the period 1938 to 1940. This study
showed that a chromosome type, de-
noted as PP, is the dominant form (oc-
curring in more than 50 percent of the
chromosomes) in Texas and also along
the eastern face of the Rocky Moun-
tains. The PP chromosomes wane in fre-
quency as one proceeds westward. Among
the approximately 20,000 chromosomes
scored from populations of California,
only four PP chromosomes were found,
in three different localities. This is a
very low frequency, 0.02 percent (Fig. 2) .
The first intimation that the popula-
tions were changing came in 1946 and
1947, when the population of Mather, in
the Sierra Nevada of California, was
found to contain about 0.5 percent of PP
chromosomes. None were found there in
1945. However, in 1950 the frequency of
PP stood at 2.8 percent, in 1951 at 4.5
percent, in 1954 at 11.1 percent, and in
1957 at 10.0 percent. Similar changes
took place on Mount San Jacinto, where
C. Epling found the first PP chromo-
some in 1951. By 1955 the frequency had
risen to 7.7 percent.
In an attempt to elucidate the nature
of these changes, in the summer of 1957
I sampled the populations of ten locali-
ties in California and of ten in Arizona
and Utah (//). More or less adequate
population samples had been taken in
or near all these localities in 1940, 1941,
or earlier. The striking fact which this
study has revealed is that, between 1940
and 1957, the PP chromosomes have be-
come fairly common in every one of the
California populations sampled. Their
frequencies now ränge between 5.0 and
12.0 percent (Fig. 3). Furthermore, the
waxing of PP chromosomes has taken
place chiefly at the expense of another
chromosome type, denoted CH, the fre-
quencies of which have markedly waned
in most California populations.
In contrast to the genetic upheaval in
the California populations, no spectacu-
lar changes were found in Arizona and
Utah. In 1940 as well as in 1957, some
PP chromosomes (fewer than were found
in California in 1957 but more than in
1940) and some CH chromosomes
(fewer than in California) occurred in the
SCIENCE, VOL. 127
populations of Arizona and Utah. This
is important, since a conjecturc which
had to be excluded was that the sharp
rise of PP in California might have been
due to a westward migration of the east-
ern (Texan) populations, in which PP
chromosomes are predominant.
The rise of PP chromosomes in Cali-
fornia represents a more impressive evo-
lutionary change than appcars at first
sight. The average frequency of PP in
California populations was close to 0.02
percent in 1940 and 8 pcrcent in 1957.
This is a 400-fold increase. The estimated
mean number of fly generations in natu-
ral habitats over a period of 17 years is
probably of the order of 100 (more than
twice this number could be obtained in
the laboratory). A 400-fold increase in
the frequency of a genetic variant in
100 generations bespeaks a quite consid-
erable magnitude of the adaptive ad-
vantage, and hence of natural selection.
In fact, the only comparable evolu-
tionary change ever observed in free-
living animals is the development of the
so-called industrial melanism in England
and in some localities on the continent
of Europe. Dark variants, due to single
dominant mutant genes, appeared in sev-
eral species of moths approximately one
Century ago. Now these variants have be-
come frequent in populations of locali-
ties in which the Vegetation is polluted
by industrial fumes. This has been
brought about by the action of natural se-
lection, since the dark variants appear to
be protectively colored on polluted, and
the light ones on unpolluted, Vegetation
( // ) . The spread of the melanic variants
in moths is thus caused by human inter-
ference (industrial poUution) with the
habitats of certain free-living species,
The cause which has brought about the
rise of PP chromosomes in the Califor-
nia Drosophila pseudoobscura is, un-
fortunately, unknown. There is, however,
some circumstantial evidence that this
cause is not man-made. If this is so, the
genetic alterations in these Drosophila
populations represent the greatest ob-
served effect of natural selection in an
animal species not appreciably influ-
enced by man.
Microevolution, Mesoevolution,
and Macroevolution
It is needless to labor the point that
the evolutionary changes described above
are small compared to those which led
from the eohippus to the modern horse,
or from an australopithecine-like animal
to man. The former are microevolution-
ary and the latter macroevolutionary
changes. Nevertheless, microevolution
and macroevolution are parts of a single
tontinuum, and studies on the former
help to elucidate the latter. After all, the
knowledge of the atomic fission and fu-
sion reactions gained in laboratories
helps in understanding the evolution of
stellar Systems, although even the biggest
hydrogen bombs generate amounts of
energy which are puny compared to
those produced in the sun or in stars.
This argument is not meant to imply that
studies on macroevolution may be dis-
pensed with. The evidence of paleontol-
ogy, while not completely clear and
consistent, is in favor of the view that
macroevolution is compounded of mi-
Fig. 2. The Status of populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura in the southwestern United States according to samplings made chiefly
in 1940 and carlier. The diameters of the black circles are proportional to the frequencies of a certain type of chromosome (PP) in the
populations of different localities. Open circles indicate populations in which this type of chromosome was not encountered.
9 MAY 1958
1095
croevolutionary events. The problem of
macroevolution is, then, essentially that
of the patterns of microevolutionary
events which yield macroevolutionary
changes of different kinds.
This problem is beyond the confines
of the present discussion: macroevolu-
tion cannot be observed at work; only
the end-products of its action on our time
level can be studied. However, we have
recently succeeded in producing in ex-
periments some genetic changes which
seem to transcend the limits of micro-
evolution, and for which I have sug-
gested a tentative label of "mesoevolu-
tion" (/5).
Reference has already been made to
natural selection in experimental popu-
lations of Drosophila. A mixture of flies
with chromosomes of different types, but
derived from a natural population of the
same geographic locality, is introduced
into a population cage; the proportions
of these chromosomal types may change
from generation to generation, until
equilibrium frequencies are attained. The
Position of the equilibrium depends upon
the environment in which the population
is kept. The changes observed are micro-
evolutionary ones; the experiments have
bccn rcpeated many times, and, if rea-
sonable precautions are taken, the re-
sults of the selectional changes are pre-
dictable and repeatable.
Evolution as a Creative Process
Now, something eise is observed if
what may appear to be a minor Variation
is introduced into the experimental pro-
cedura An experimental population is
made up in which the different types of
chromosomes are derived from natural
populations of different geographic
regions; for example, one kind of chro-
mosome may come from California and
the other from Texas or from Mexico.
In many populations of such geographi-
cally mixed origins, natural selection
produces alterations in the proportions
of the different chromosome types. How-
over, the course which the selection
takos in geographically mixed popula-
tions is remarkably erratic. Replicate
experiments, with the same genetic ma-
terials and conducted in similar environ-
ments, often give significantly divergent
results. In some populations the changes
may be rapid and in others sluggish; in
some, balanced equilibria may be estab-
lished and in others, one of the chromo-
somal types may be lost {13).
This may seem to be a stränge and
even disconcerting Situation. Is it not the
1096
criterion of validity of a scientific ex-
periment that its results should be repro-
ducible? Yet in these experiments we
face a real biological indeterminacy, and
this fact is fraught with implications.
Evolutionists, particularly those who
work with fossils, long ago pointcd out
that the evolutionary transformations
which occur in a group of organisms aro
unrepeatable and irreversible. The ma-
croevolutionary changes represent uniquc
and nonrecurrent evolutionary histories.
Notwithstanding many instances of
parallel or convergent evolution, we
have no reason to think that any form
of life has arisen two or more times in-
dependently.
The experiments on Drosophila popu-
lations of geographically mixed origin
throw some light on this Situation. The
key to the problem lies in the prodigious,
and indeed prodigal, efficiency of sexual
reproduction in the creation of novel
genetic endowments. It is easy to show
that with n genes each represented by m
variants (alleles), the number of poten-
tially possible gene combinations is w".
An estimate of 1000 for the number of
genes [n) and of 10 for the number of
alleles per gene [m) would be very con-
servative, at least for higher organisms.
But the number lO^^oo {^ ^q great that
only a negligible fraction of the poten-
tially possible gene combinations can
ever be realized.
These apparently fanciful calculations
bear directly on the experimental find-
ings. Although we do not know just how
many genes segregate and recombine in
the populations of geographically mixed
origins, the numbers must be fairly
large. Some of the many possible dif-
ferent gene patterns that confer high
fitness upon their bearers in the experi-
mental environments arise in different
populations; whichever of these patterns
happens to arise first is picked out by
natural selection and serves as the start-
ing point of subsequent evolutionary
changes. The replicate populations,
though originally alike genetically and
exposed to like environments, follow dif-
ferent evolutionary paths. Perhaps no
two experimental populations of this sort
will have identical histories, any more
than two evolutionary lineages in nature
will have.
Evolution is not striving to achieve
some foreordained goal; it is not the un-
folding of predetermined episodes and
situations. Macroevolutionary, and to
some extent also mesoevolutionary,
(banges are unique, nonrecurrent, and
creative. It is necessary to make quite
clear what is meant by crcativity of bio-
logical evolution. This is a creative phe-
nomenon because evolution brings about
novel and harmonious genetic equip-
ments which enable their carriers to sur-
vive in some environments. These genetic
equipments are mostly new combinations
of genes. But the process of formation
of new gene combinations is not of the
kind to which one can apply the French
saying that "the more it changes the
more it remains the same thing." Or-
ganic development is not gradual accre-
tion of traits produced by the genes in-
dependently of each other; the adaptive
value of a genetic equipment is a func-
tion of all the genes which in the organ-
ism are acting in concert.
Man as a Product of Evolution
Man was not programmed in biologi-
cal evolution, because evolution has no
program. In one sense, man, Drosophila,
and all other forms of life are evolu-
tionary accidents. If slightly different
environmental opportunities had been
ofTered to their far and near ancestors,
quite different creatures might have
arisen as a result of evolutionary trans-
formations. Even with similar oppor-
tunities, the formation at critical times
of gene combinations different from
those which actually were formed also
could have turned the evolutionary
changes to different paths.
But, in another sense, man is not a
product of a chance concatenation of
lucky throws of the genetic dice. The
old analogies purporting to describe the
fortuitous nature of evolution are
wrong. The genetic equipment of the
human species is not like a watch which
arose by the accidental coming together
of disjointed parts of the mechanism,
nor is it like a poem accidentally typed
out by a monkey pounding the keys of
a typewriter. Such analogies overlook
the fact that natural selection introduces
an antichance quality in evolution. The
bodies of our animal ancestors were
going concerns and not merely human
bodies under construction; these ani-
mals were as fit to live in their environ-
ments as we are in ours.
Evolution is a response of living mat-
ter to the challenges of environmental
opportunity through the process of natu-
ral selection. The response of the human
species, or rather of the species ancestral
to man, was a unique one — it developed *
the genetic basis for the accumulation of,
and for the extragenic transmission of.
a bodv of learned tradition called cul-
ture. The relations between culture and
SCIENCE, VOL. 127
its genetic basis are all too often mis-
understood. This topic is too complex
and important to be dealt with lightly,
but the basic facts are simple enough.
Genes determine the possibility of cul-
ture but not its content, just as they
determine the possibility of human
speech but not what is spoken. The cul-
tural evolution of mankind is superim-
posed on its biological evolution; the
causes of the former are nonbiological
without being contrary to biology, just
as biological phenomena difFer from
those of inanimate nature but are not
isolated from them {14).
Human Evolution at Work
The genetic equipment of our species
was molded by natural selection; it con-
ferred upon our ancestors the capacity
to develop language and culture. This
capacity was decisive in the biological
success of man as a species; it enabled
man to acquire unprecedented powers to
change and control his environment
at will. The very success of culture
as a nonbiological adaptive Instrument
means, however, that man has crossed
the Rubicon — he has become spccialized
to live in man-made environmcnts.
Some Strange conclusions are some-
times drawn from the above facts. One
is that human biological evolution has
ended and has been replaced by evolu-
tion of culture. Another is that all men
are uniform in their genetic equipment,
at least insofar as the latter conditions
the capacity to undergo socialization and
acculturation. Another is that man's
"intrinsic" intelligence (whatever that
may mean) has not changed since the
times of the Cro-Magnon, or evcn of the
Java man. Still another is that natural
selection no longer operates in -modern
mankind, since men live in such hope-
lessly unnatural environments.
All these notions overlook ihe simple
fact that it is precisely because the ca-
pacity to create, absorb, and transmit
culture is so decisive in the success of
man as a species that natural selection
works not only to preserve but also to
augment this capacity. Human biologi-
cal and cultural evolutions are not sepa-
rated in watertight compartments. They
are interacting processes. All men are
equal in rights, but they are most cer-
tainly not biologically uniform. Our ge-
netic diversity does influence our tastes
and aptitudes for different occupations
and professions. But this does not make
some of US superior and others inferior;
no human being should ever be used as
a means to an end.
All human societies, the civilized even
Fig. 3. The Status of populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura in the southwestern United States in 1957. The diameters of the black
circles are proportional to the frequencies of a certain type of chromosome (PP). Although the scale of the map is larger than that of
the map in Fig. 2, the scale of the black circles is the same in both figures.
9 MAY 1958
1097
more tYCan the primitive ones, have nu-
merous vocations to be filled. Natural
selection has made all healthy human
beings trainable for the Performance of
diverse duties. This is, then, a biological
adaptation which makes people multi-
form, not uniform as is sometimes sup-
posed. Educability, the ability to be
trained, is consistently fostered in man
by natural selection. And yet, the car-
riers of certain specialized genetic equip-
ments, such as musicians or poets, may
excel in the Performance of some spe-
cialized functions.
Natural selection is active in all human
societies, including the most advanced
ones {15). It must be understood that
there is nothing esoteric about the "natu-
ralness" of natural selection. All that
"selection" means is that the carriers of
different genetic equipments contribute
unequally to the gene pool of the suc-
ceeding generations. If the relative con-
tributions are decided by human choice,
the selection is artificial. If not, it is
natural. Natural selection usually main-
tains or enhances the Darwinian "fit-
ness" or "adaptedness." But "the fittest"
is nothing more spectacular than the
parent or grandparent of the greatest
number of surviving descendants.
It is erroneous to equate Darwinian
fitness with excellence in human estima-
tion. Reproductive success may favor
genetic equipments which we may hold
to be undesirable on other grounds. Se-
lection does not even guarantee that the
species will ondure; most biological spe-
cies of the past have bccome extinct,
without issue, and yet their evolution
was controlled by natural selection. This
is because selection promotes what is im-
mediately useful, even if the change may
be fatal in the long run.
The biological evolution of our species
continues to be at work. Pcrhaps no
other problem of science is more chal-
lenging than the undcrstanding of the
biological and cultural evolutions of
mankind in their interactions. As pointed
out above, evolution in general has no
program, and the evolution of man is no
exception. No biological law can be re-
lied upon to insure that our species will
continue to prosper, or indeed that it
will continue to exist. However, man is
the sole product of evolution who knows
that he has evolved and who has con-
tinued to evolve. It is up to man to sup-
ply the program for his evolutionary de-
velopments which nature has failed to
provide. He has gained some knowledge
which is a basis of hope that the prob-
lem is not impossible of Solution.
This is an inspiring task but also a
crushing responsibility. Albert Schweitzer
once wrote that "our age has discovered
how to divorce knowledge from thought,
with the result that we have, indeed, a
science which is free, but hardly any
science left which reflects" {16). I hope
that these angry words do not accurately
describe the Situation. We need and
we have at least some science which is
free and which reflects. It is our primary
responsibility as scientists to see to it
that such science prospers and bears
fruit. Moreover, such science ought not
to be a monopoly of some kind of tech-
nological elite. People at large, and par-
ticularly men of action who make the
decisions which control so much in our
lives, need not be as woefully Ignorant
of even the simplest principles of science
as they are. At least some of the ideas
which guide our work as scientists are
not beyond the undcrstanding of people
of average intelligence who are not scien-
tists professionally. The idea of evolu-
tion is one of them. As expounded by
Darwin, it is one hundred years old, but
we have barely begun to understand its
füll consequences {17)-
References and Notes
1. R. Hof stadter, Social Darwinism in American
Thought (Beacon, Boston, 1955).
2. P. Sears, Charles Darwin. The Naturalist as
a Cultural Force (New York, 1950).
3. S. E. Luria and M. Delbrück, Genetics 28
(1943).
4. R. A. Fisher, The Genetical Theory of Nat-
ural Selection (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford,
1930).
5. E. B. Ford, Biol. Revs. Cambridge Phil. Soc.
12 (1937).
6. A. C. Allison, Ann. Human Genet. 19 (1954).
7. Effect of Radiation on Human Heredity
(World Health Organization, Geneva, 1957).
8. T. Dobzhansky, Science 126, 191 (1957).
9. , Evolution 1 (1947); Proc. Intern.
Congr. Genet. 8th Congr. Stockholm (1949). .v
10. L. C. Birch, Evolution 9 (1955).
11. Unpublished data.
12. H. B. D. Kettlewell, Heredity 10 (1956).
13. T. Dobzhansky, Atti congr. intern, genet. 9th
Congr. 1 (1954).
14. , The Biological Basis of Human Free-
dom (Columbia Univ. Press, New York,
1956) .
15. T. Dobzhansky and G. Allen, Am. Anthro-
pologist 58 (1956).
16. A. Schweitzer, An Anthology (Beacon, Boston,
1947).
17. I wish to thank my coUeagues Drs. J. A.
Beardmore, L. C. Dünn, and J. A. Moore
for critical readings of the manuscript of this
article.
University of Michigan
Radiocarbon Dates II
H. R. Crane and James B. Grifiin
A list of 109 radiocarbon dates ob-
tained since the time of the last report
(/) is presented in this paper (2). The
technical method by which the dates
were measured has not been changed in
any essential way. Two complete counter
Systems are in continuous Operation. The
1098
counters are Geiger counters, filled with
carbon dioxide and carbon disulfide at
approximately atmospheric pressure. At
present the background counting rate is
6.5 counts per minute, and eight addi-
tional counts per minute are obtained
from carbon of zero age. The duration
of the count on each sample is at least
48 hours, and in many cases it is 72
hours. Approximately every fourth sam-
ple placcd in each counter is of known
C^^ content: CO^ derived either from
200-year-old wood (by ring count) or
from petroleum. There is no detectable
secular change in the results of the cali-
bration runs.
The calibration figures used in calcu-
lating dates are "moving averages" based
upon the last several calibration runs.
For this reason, in the calculation of the
Standard deviation, the calibration fig-
ures are treated as if they contained four
times as many counts as would be ob-
tained in a 48-hour run. Therefore the
major part of the contribution to the
Standard deviation comes from the run
Dr. Crane is professor of physics at the Uni-
versity of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Dr. Griffin is
director of the Museum of Anthropology at the
University of Michigan.
SCIENCE, VOL. 127
prints, Woods Hole Oceanog. Inst. Contrib.
627 (1952); D. W. Pritchard, /. Marine Re-
search {Sears Foundation) 13, 1 (1954);
. , Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Engrs. 81 (1955);
, /. Marine Research (Sears Foundation)
15, 1 (1956); G. L. Pickard, /. Fisheries Re-
search Board Can. 13, 4 (1956); E. A. Schultz
and H. B. Simmons, XIX Internati. Navigation
Congr., Sect. II, Commun. 3 (UNESCO,
1957).
4. Totais compiled from daily values at individual
gaging stations listed in U.S. Geol. Survey
Water Supply Paper No. 1232 (1955).
5. J. C. Ayres, Cornell Univ. Status Rept. No. 2
Contr. N6 onr 264, T. 15 (1951).
29 January 1958
EfTect of Trypsin Inhibitor on
Passage of Insulin Across
the Intestinal Barrier
The finding of trypsin inhibltor in
Colostrum led to tiie hypothcsis that the
physiological role of the inhibitor is to
protect the antibodies of Colostrum from
bcing digested and thus to facilitate their
absorption ( / ) . Some circumstantial evi-
dence confirming this hypothesis has
bcen accumulatcd {2, 3). For a direct
experimental assault, insulin was chosen
as the test protein, because its passage
into the blood stream is reflected by the
blood sugar level.
Early attcmpts to administer insulin
through the gastrointestinal tract have
been reviewed by Jensen {4). It is inter-
esting to note that Murlin and Hawley
(5) and Eaton and Murlin (6) used
blood plasma as a source of "antitryp-
sin," whereas Harned and Nash (7) used
an extract from Ascaris. The quantities
of the inhibitor present in such prepara-
tions were, however, much lower than
those used now. The maximal positive
effect reported was a temporary disap-
pearance of glycosuria in depancreatized
dogs, with (6) or without a significant
(7) lowering of the blood sugar level.
HOURS
Fig. 1. Effect of intraintestinal administra-
tion of insulin on the blood sugar level.
Open circles, cxperimcnts in which 6 units
of insulin (40 units/kg) plus 40 mg of
pancreatic inhibitor worc injected. Solid
circlcSj control experiments, in which 6
units of insulin (40 units/kg) (no inhib-
itor) were injected.
9 MAY 1958
A systematic study of different trypsin
inhibitors has revealed striking difTer-
ences with respect to their susceptibility
to peptic digestion (2) and to their abil-
ity to inhibit chymotrypsins (8). When
these properties were taken into account,
only Colostrum inhibitor and pancreatic
inhibitor were indicated for further
study. Pancreatic inhibitor was more
easily obtained and thus was used. Once-
crystallizcd inhibitor was prepared ac-
cording to the method of Kunitz and
Northrop (9) from "fraction E" {10).
The regulär zinc insulin used was a com-
mercial product (//).
Male Sprague-Dawley rats, weighing
about 150 g each, were fasted over-
night and were anesthetized with Pento-
thal (thiopental sodium, 40 mg/kg of
body weight). The Solutions to be inves-
tigated were mixed and injected into a
loop of jejunum 20 cm long, ligated on
both ends. Blood was obtained by clip-
ping ofT the tip of the tail. Glucose con-
tent was determined by the Nelson-
Somogyi method (12).
Ten experiments in which insulin and
inhibitor were injected together were
performed. In all ten, a significant drop
in blood sugar was observed. Figure 1
illustrates the experiment in which the
lowest, and Fig. 2, that in which the
highest, dose was used. In other experi-
ments, intermediate doses were used.
Ten control experiments were performed
by injecting insulin without inhibitor
(Figs. 1 and 2); all results were nega-
tive. Two control experiments in which
the inhibitor alone, and an additional ex-
periment in which insulin plus an excess
of Protamine, was used, also gave nega-
tive results. None of the ten experimen-
tal animals died of insulin shock. The
highest dose (Fig. 2) produced an efTect
approximately equivalent to 8 units/kg
injected intraperitoneally, suggesting
that, at the most, 3 percent of the in-
jected insulin was absorbed.
Substitution of soybean inhibitor for
pancreatic inhibitor, in amounts equiva-
lent with respect to trypsin inhibiting
power, resulted in very small and non-
uniform responses. Since about 80 per-
cent of each inhibitor remained in the
loop after 4 hours of exposure, the dif-
ference cannot be ascribed to the insta-
bility of soybean inhibitor but suggests
that pancreatic inhibitor partially pro-
tects insulin against destructive agents
other than trypsin, whereas soybean in-
hibitor does not.
It had not yet been established that pan-
creatic inhibitor protected insulin from
destruction. Inactivation in vivo occurred
too fast for convenient measurements —
that is, in the presence of 40 mg of in-
hibitor, of 35 units of insulin injected into
the loop, only 5 percent was recovered
after 3 minutes and less than 1 percent
after 30 minutes; the absence of inhibi-
tor did not influence the recovery of in-
sulin after a short exposure, and barely
a trace was recovered after 30 minutes.
It was decided, therefore, to measure the
rate of destruction of insulin in vitro,
.•100
2 3 4 5
HOURS
Fig. 2. EfTect of intraintestinal administra-
tion of insulin on the blood sugar level.
Open circles, experiments in which 35
units of insulin (250 units/kg) plus 100
mg of pancreatic inhibitor were injected.
Solid circles. control experiments in which
35 units of insulin (250 units/kg) (no in-
hibitor) were injected.
_l
D
CO
V
6 9
MINUTES
12 15
Fig. 3. Rate of destruction of insulin in
vitro. Enzymes for the top curve (Q)
were obtained by injecting into a jejunal
loop 1 ml of saline, allowing it to remain
10 minutes, excising the loop, and com-
bining the contents with a 0.5-ml saline
washing. Enzymes for the bottom curve
( # ) were obtained by the same proce-
dure, except that saline containing 40 mg
of pancreatic inhibitor per milliliter was
used. The incubation mixture consistcd of
0.4 ml of enzyme, 2.6 ml of saline contain-
ing O.OlAf Phosphate {pK 7.3), and 1 ml
of insulin, 80 units/ml, at temperature of
37 °C. At indicated times aliquots were
withdrawn and diluted. In our control ex-
periments, subcutaneous injection of 0.6
units/kg decreased the blood sugar level
35 to 45 percent, when the 1-, 2-, and 3-
hour values were averaged and expressed
as a percentage of the zero time value.
Only dilutions of the in vitro enzymc-in-
sulin mixtures which led to responses in
this ränge were used to calculate percent-
age of inactivated insulin. Solid trianglc,
enzymes A to which pancreatic inhibitor
was added before the addition of insulin.
1115
and to slow the rate by dilution of the
enzymes. The results are presented in
Fig. 3 and show that inclusion of pan-
creatic inhibitor decreased the rate of
insulin destruction.
The hypothesis that trypsin inhibitor
is of physiological significance in facili-
tating the intestinal absorption of pro-
teins (insulin) has been confirmed by a
direct experiment {13).
M. Laskowski, Jr.*,
H. A. HAESSLERf,
R. P. MiECH, R. J. Peanasky,
M. Laskowski
Department of Biochemistry,
Marquette University School of
Medicine, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
References and Notes
1. M. Laskowski, Jr., and M. Laskowski, /. Biol.
Chem. 190, 563 (1951).
2. B. Kassell and M. Laskowski, ibid. 219. 203
(1956).
3. M. Laskowski, B. Kassel!, G. Hagerty, Bio-
chim. Biophys. Acta 24, 300 (1957).
4. H. F. Jensen, Insulin, Its Chemistry and Phys-
iology (Commonwealth Fund, New York,
1938).
5. J. R. Murlin and E. E. Hawley, Am. J. Phys-
lo/. 83, 147 (1927).
6. A. G. Eaton and R. J. Murlin, ibid. 104, 636
(1933).
7. B. K. Harned and T. P. Nash, Jr., /. Biol.
Chem. 97,443 (1932).
8. F. C. Wu and M. Laskowski, ibid. 213, 609
(1955).
9. M. Kunitz and J. H. Northrop, /. Gen. Phys.
iol. 19, 991 (1936).
10. The "fraction E" used in this study was pur-
chased from Pentex, Inc., Kankakee, 111.
11. The product, supplied by Eli Lilly and Co.,
is called Iletin.
12. P. B. Hawk, B. L. Oser, W. H. Summerson,
Practical Physiological Chemistry (Blakiston,
New York, ed. 13, 1954), p. 573.
13. This study was supported by grants from the
National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolie
Diseases, National Institutes of Health, U.S.
Public Health Service, and from the National
Science Foundation.
* Present address: Department of Chemistry,
Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind.
t Present address: New England Center Hospi-
tal, Boston, Mass.
11 December 1957
Iproniazid Treatment and
Metabolism of Labeled
Epinephrine in Schizophrenics
Previous work in this laboratory [1, 2)
showed that when epinephrine labeled
with carbon-14 in the beta position was
infused into Schizophrenie patients and
normal subjects, essentially all of the ra-
dioactivity was recovered in the urine.
When epinephrine labeled with carbon-
14 in the methyl group of the side chain
was infused, approximately one-third of
the radioactivity was recovered in the
urine. In both cases, the excretion of
biologically active material reprcsented
only 1 to 5 percent of the infused epineph-
rine. A total of 14 infusions were per-
formed. The urine of patients infused
with beta-labeled epinephrine was selec-
tively extracted and subjected to paper
Chromatographie analysis. A major ra-
1116
dioactive metabolite was obtained, which
possessed the solubility properties of a
phenolic acid and had the same Rf val-
ues as authentic 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-
mandelic acid (3-5). This radioactive
metabolite could not be demonstrated in
the urine of patients infused with epi-
nephrine labeled with carbon-14 in the
methyl group of the side chain (2).
These data suggest the following hy-
potheses concerning the metabolic trans-
formations of epinephrine: (i) The beta
carbon atom remains attached to the ben-
zene ring, and (ii) approximately two-
thirds of the molecules of epinephrine
lose the methyl group of the side chain.
If one assumes that the methyl group of
the side chain is lost, together with the
amino group, under the influence of
amine oxidase, then iproniazid treatment
should result in more molecules of epi-
nephrine retaining their methyl groups
in the side chain. If this is the case, then
more radioactivity should be recovered in
the urine of patients receiving iproniazid
and infused with methyl-labeled epi-
nephrine.
Three female, chronic Schizophrenie
patients were placed on iproniazid, 100
mg/day, on 20 June 1957. The dosage
was increased to 150 mg/day on 12
August. The first patient was infused with
0.5 mg of methyl-labeled cf/-epinephrine
on 3 September, the second on 18 Sep-
tember, and the third on 9 October.
Fifty-nine, 74, and 63 percent of the in-
fused radioactivity was recovered in the
urine of these three patients, respectively.
This is in contrast to 34 ± 3 percent re-
covered in the urine of four non-iproni-
azid-treated Schizophrenie patients in-
fused with the same amount of methyl-
labeled ^/-epinephrine. Both types of
patients demonstrated typical cardiovas-
cular responses to the infused epineph-
rine.
Two to 3 weeks after the cessation of
iproniazid treatment, the first and sec-
ond patients were again infused with
methyl-labeled epinephrine. Fifty and 43
percent of the infused radioactivity was
recovered in the urine of these two pa-
tients, respectively. This indicates that
approximately half of the effect of iproni-
azid on monamine oxidase activity, as
reflected by the metabolism of exogen-
ously administered epinephrine, was still
evident 2 to 3 weeks after the cessation
of iproniazid therapy. Thus, approxi-
mately twice as many molecules of in-
fused epinephrine retain the methyl
group of the side chain when the patient
is under iproniazid treatment in the dos-
ages mentioned above as when he is not.
These three patients varied in their Psy-
chiatric responses to iproniazid therapy.
Nevertheless, all three patients showed
a remarkably similar alteration in the
metabolism of exogenously administered
epinephrine.
The question then arose whether the
increase in number of molecules retain-
ing the methyl group following iproniazid
treatment represents nondegraded, bio-
logically active epinephrine or a stage
in metabolism prior to amine oxidase ac-
tion. Recently, Axelrod (6) reported the
presence of methoxyepinephrine in the
urine of rats, which was found in a
greater amount following the intrapcri-
toneal administration of iproniazid and
epinephrine.
The following experiments were per-
formed in our laboratory. The urine from
patients was collected following the In-
fusion of either beta-labeled or methyl-
labeled epinephrine. The urine samples
were lyophilized and stored at 0 to 5°C.
The lyophilized urine was reconstituted
with water and extracted for phenolic
acids, according to the procedure of
Armstrong et al. {4). The extracts were
concentrated down to a small volume, in
vacuo, at 45 °C. An aliquot of the con-
centrated extract was chromatographed
in the butanol : acetic acid : water System
(4:1:5). Another aliquot was chromato-
graphed in the two-phase solvent Sys-
tems of Armstrong et al. {4). The phe-
nolic acids were visualized by spraying
with diazotized /?-nitroaniIine reagent.
Autoradiograms were made from the
chromatograms, in order to visualize
these metabolites, which were derived
from the infused labeled epinephrine.
The urine which had been extracted for
phenolic acids was hydrolyzed and selec-
tively extracted for methoxyepinephrine
in accordance with the procedures out-
lined by Axelrod (6). The extracts were
concentrated down to a small volume,
in vacuo, at 45 °G and subjected to
paper Chromatographie analysis, as out-
lined above.
The following results were obtained.
The urine of non-iproniazid-treated pa-
tients infused with beta-labeled epineph-
rine consistently showed a major radioac-
tive metabolite, which was a phenolic
acid having the same R^ value as au-
thentic 3-methoxy-4-hydroxymandelic
acid. Very little methoxyepinephrine
could be extracted from the urine of
these patients. The urine of iproniazid-
treated patients infused with methyl-
labeled epinephrine consistently showed
a major radioactive metabolite, which
was a phenolic amine having the same R.
value as authentic methoxyepinephrine
(6). The increase in excretion of radio-
activity by the ipronized-treated patients
infused with methyl-labeled epinephrine
could be accounted for by the accumula-
tion of methoxyepinephrine with a de-
crease in formation of 3-methoxy-4-hy-
droxymandelic acid.
The autoradiograms of urine obtained
from patients infused with beta-labeled
epinephrine showed the presence of an-
other phenolic acid metabolite of epi-
SCIENCE, VOL. 127
nephrine. This metabolite occurred in
very much smaller concentration than
3-methoxy-4-hydroxymandelic acid and
has the following Rj values: isopropyl
alcohol ammonia, 0.22; benzene pro-
pionic acid, 0.12. Authentic dihydroxy-
mandelic acid (5) has Rf values of 0.25
and 0.19 in the afore-mentioned solvent
Systems. This radioactive metabolite, oc-
curring in trace quantities, is tentatively
considered to be 3,4-dihydroxymandelic
acid.
The results of these experiments (7)
clearly indicate that iproniazid treatment
in man inhibits the action of monamine
oxidase, but does not influence those en-
zymes which are responsible for the
O-methylation of epinephrine.
Oscar Resnick, Jane M. Wolfe,
Harry Freeman, Fred Elmadjian
Worcester Foundation for
Experimental Biology, Shrewsbury,
Massachusetts, and Dementia Praecox
Research Project, Worcester State
Hospital, Worcester, Massachusetts
References and Notes
1. O. Resnick and F. Elmadjian, Am. J. Physiol.
187, 626 (1956); Federation Proc. 16, 106
(1957).
2. , /. Clin. Endocrinol. and Metabolism
18, 28 (1958).
3. The 3-methoxy-4-hydroxymandelic acid and
dihydroxymandelic acid used in this study were
generously supplied by Dr. M. D. Armstrong.
4. M. D. Armstrong, K. N. F. Shaw, P. E. Wall,
7. Biol. Chem. 218, 293 (1956).
5. M. D. Armstrong and A. McMillan, Federa-
tion Proc. 16, 146 (1957).
6. J. Axelrod, Science 126, 400 (1957).
7. This study was carried out under Atomic En-
ergy Commission license No. 20-1225-2 for clin-
ical investigations of labeled epinephrine in
man. The investigation was aided in part by
a grant from the Army Medical Research and
Development Board, contract No. DA-49-007-
MD-438, and by the Ford Foundation.
16 December 1957
Electrical Activity of Isolated
Single Electroplax of Electric
Eel as Äff ected by Temperature
In the last decade it has been shown
that the permeability characteristics of
the nerve membrane change during ac-
tivity; the resistance decreases, and the
electric currents propagating nerve im-
pulses are carried by movements of Na+
and K+. Whereas there is little disagree-
ment about this aspect, there are strongly
opposing views about the mechanism by
which these ion movements are con-
trolled. Nachmansohn has persistently
maintained the view that chemical proc-
esses must control this permeability
change, and he and his associates have
accumulated evidence that the acetyl-
choline System is inseparably associated
with the elementary processes of nerve
function — that is, the generation of bio-
electric potentials (/). Support in favor
of his views is the recent demonstration
that lipid-soluJDle analogs of acetylcholine
9 MAY 1958
produce a depolarization of the active
membrane (2).
On the other hand, purely physical
processes are assumed by many leading
physiologists to be responsible for the
action potential; chemical reactions are
considered to provide only the energy
for restoring the ionic concentration
gradients in the recovery period [3).
The small initial heat production has
been attributed to the mixing of Na+ and
K+. Only a few measurements of tem-
perature coefficients have been reported
in the world literature (for reference,
See 4).
In view of the gcneral interest in the
Problem whether or not the generation
of bioelectric potentials requires chem-
ical processes, and in view of the scarcity
of data on temperature coefficients of
conduction, we have evaluated the Q^^q
and the energy of activation over a wide
ränge of temperatures on a recently de-
veloped preparation, the isolated single
electroplax of the electric organ of Elec-
trophorus electricus [5, 6). These organs
are the most powerful electric generators
created by nature, and they are highly
specialized in their function; moreover,
the preparation ofTers a favorable mate-
rial for these studies. The duration of
(i) the action potential, (ii) the latency
period, and (iii) the postsynaptic poten-
tial has been studied as a function of
temperature.
The duration of all three phenomena
decreases with rise of temperature,
whereas the amplitude of the spike and
the postsynaptic potential remain un-
changed (Figs. 1 and 2). Since there is
a marked transitory change of perme-
ability (7) during the action potential,
the duration of the spike is a good meas-
ure of this change and pertinent for the
question whether or not chemical reac-
tions are involved in the process. If the
logarithm of the reciprocal of the half-
width of the spike is plottcd against the
reciprocal of the temperature according
to Arrhenius, a straight line is obtained.
This enables us to assign the energy of
activation to the rate-controlling step in
these processes.
The action potential elicited with di-
rect Stimulation has been studied at tem-
peratures between 9° and 39°C. The
(2,0 has been found to be around 3.6,
the energy of activation to be 21.000
cal/molc. The Qio's of the latency pe-
riod and of the postsynaptic potential are
very close to 2.6, and the energy of acti-
vation is around 16.000 cal/mole. An in-
teresting Observation in these experiments
is the fact that it is impossible to elicit
a postsynaptic potential and an indirect
spike at temperatures above 32°C. This
may indicate that the nerve action po-
tential must have a certain duration
above a critical level in order to be able
to transmit the message across the Syn-
apse. The data support the conclusion
that the three phenomena are dependent
on chemical reactions. This conclusion
is consistent with A. V. Hill's recent Ob-
servation on the initial heat in nerve
fibers (ö). The latency period is fre-
quently considered to be the result,
partly at least, of the diflusion of a
chemical transmitter from the tip of the
axon to the postsynaptic membrane. Dif-
fusion cannot have a Q.10 of much greater
than 1. Therefore, the high Q^q indi-
cates that, if a diflusion process occurs,
it is not the rate-limiting factor, but that
chemical processes are responsible for
the synaptic delay.
The Qio found in the electroplax for
the action potential is very close to that
found in other conducting tissues. From
the results published by Nastuk and
Hodgkin (9), it is possible to calculate
the Q^Q for the duration of the action
potential in the frog sartorius; its value
is about 3.
The generation of bioelectric currents,
the primary event in nerve conduction,
is the only manifestation of living cells
for which at present a purely physical
Fig. 1. Spike elicited by direct Stimula-
tion recordcd with extracellular electrodcs
from a single isolated electroplax {Elec-
trophorus electricus) at various tempera-
tures. From Upper left to lower right:
12°; 24°; 39°C; calibration, 50 mv, 2
msec.
r
Fig. 2. Postsynaptic potential recorded
with extracellular electrodes from a single
isolated electroplax (Electrophorus elec-
tricus) at various temperatures. From
Upper left to lower right : 15°;25°;32°G;
calibration, 5 mv, 1 msec.
1117
process is offered as explanation and
strongly supported by leading biologists.
I consider the high values of the energy
of activation reported here as incompati-
ble with this view and as a support for
those theories which postulate chemical
processes as being responsible for the
specific changes in permeability of con-
ducting membranes during activity.
Ernest Sghoffeniels*
Department of Neurology,
College of Physicians and Surgeons,
Columbia University, New York
References and Notes
1. D. Nachmansohn, Harvey Lectures 1953-54, 57
(1955); I. B. Wilson and D. Nachmansohn, in
Ion Transport across Membranes, H. T. Clarke
and D. Nachmansohn, Eds. (Academic Press,
New York, 1954), p. 35; D. Nachmansohn and
I. B. Wilson, in Currents in Biochemical Re-
search, D. E. Green, Ed. (Interscience, New
York, 1956), p. 628.
2. E. Schoffeniels, I. B. Wilson, D. Nachmansohn,
Biochim. et Biophys. Acta 27, 629 (1958).
3. A. L. Hodgkin, Biol. Revs. Cambridge Phil.
Soc. 26, 338 (1951); A. F. Huxley, in Ion
Transport across Membranes, H. T. Clarke and
D. Nachmansohn, Eds. (Academic Press, New
York, 1954), p. 22; A. L. Hodgkin, Proc. Roy.
Soc. B148, 1 (1958).
4. A. L. Hodgkin and B. Katz, /. Physiol. (Lon-
don) 109, 240 (1949).
5. E. Schoffeniels, Federation Proc. 16, No. 497
(1957); E. Schoffeniels and D. Nachmansohn,
Biochim et Biophys. Acta 26, 1 (1957); E.
Schoffeniels, ibid. 26, 585 (1957).
6. I am indebted to Dr. L. P. Hinterbuchner for
his help in performing the experiments. This
work was supported in part by the Division of
Research Grants and Fellowships, National In-
stitutes of Health, U.S. Public Health Service
(grant B-400) and by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission [contract AT(30-1)-1503].
7. K. S. Cole and H. J. Curtis, /. Gen. Physiol.
22, 649 (1939).
8. B. C. Abbott, A. V. Hill, J. V. Howarth,
Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) B148, 149 (1958).
9. W. Nastuk and A. L. Hodgkin, /. Cellular
Comp. Physiol. 35, 39 (1950).
* Fullbright fellow from the U.S. Educational
Foundation in Belgium.
30 January 1958
Circulating Antibody
Directed against Penicillin
Detection, by in vitro serological tech-
niques, of circulating antibodies directed
against penicillin has not been reported.
In the past few months, hovvever, sera
from certain individuals have been en-
countered which appear to react specifi-
cally against penicillin. It is the purpose
of this report to describe the System in
which this reaction is demonstrable and
to report studies on the charactcristics
and specificity of the antibody.
Addition of penicillin to crythrocyte
suspensions is frequently a routine pro-
cedure in the preparation and preserva-
tion of red cells used in specificity panels
in blood-bank laboratories. In August
1957, during routine testing, the serum
of a prospective transfusion rccipient was
found to agglutinate all of such a pancl
of erythrocytes prepared with penicillin;
if the same erythrocytes were not ex-
poscd to penicillin, this serum caused no
1118
agglutination. Furthermore, the expo-
sure of the patient's own erythrocytes to
penicillin made them agglutinable by his
own serum.
On further study it was found that
human erythrocytes of all blood groups,
by exposure to appropriate concentra-
tions of penicillin G, O, or K, could be
sensitized to react with this serum, and
with sera of similar charactcristics later
discovered in other individuals. Once the
erythrocytes were sensitized, they re-
maincd sensitized as long as they re-
mained useful for testing — that is, until
they began to show marked hemolysis —
usually after at least 2 or 3 weeks. The
.sensitization was not affected by addi-
tional exposure of the sensitized cells to
pcnicillinase for periods up to 4 hours,
nor was it altered by exposure of the
cells to 0.5-percent papain or 0.1-percent
ficin.
Thus far, no human red cells have
been shown to resist this "penicilliniza-
tion."
Substitution of pcnicillinase, papain, or
ficin for penicillin in the sensitization
procedurc gave negative results. Further-
more, in an attempt to see whether other
antibiotics would sensitize erythrocytes
for this reaction, approximately cqual
weights (about 10 mg) of the following
antibiotics (/) were each dissolved in
1 ml of phosphate buffer (final pH 7.2
to 7.4) and then incubated wtih crythro-
cyte suspensions: streptomycin, dihydro-
streptomycin, polymyxin B, bacitracin,
neomycin B, ristocetin, viomycin, ole-
andomycin, synnematin B, and the peni-
cillins G, O, and K. The only prepara-
tions which sensitized the red cells to re-
act with the particular sera were the
Penicillins G, O, and K and synnematin
B, which is another penicillin deriva-
tive.
Penicillin which had been inactivated
by the addition of pcnicillinase (2) was
no longer able to produce sensitization
of erythrocytes.
Studies on the effects of varying the
time of the exposure of the erythrocytes
to varying concentrations of penicillin G
were performed. It was found that the
degree of sensitization of the red cells, as
measured by their agglutinability by
weakly reacting sera, varied directly with
the time of exposure of the cells to peni-
cillin and with the concentration of peni-
cillin in the incubation mixture. For ex-
ample, a 25-percent Suspension of eryth-
rocytes could be sensitized to approxi-
mately the same degree either by incu-
bation for 24 hours with a concentration
of penicillin of 3000 units/ml or by incu-
bation for 10 minutes with a concentra-
tion of penicillin of 50,000 units/ml.
Concentrations of penicillin of less than
3000 units/ml produced weak and ir-
regulär sensitization. Incubation times of
more than 24 hours enhanced the sensi-
Table 1. Inhibition of hemagglutmation
by prior addition of penicillin to reactive
serum. (i) Penicillin + reactive serum -
mixture; (ii) mixture + sensitized red
blood cells — » agglutination.
Conen, of penicillin
added to reactive
. serum
Agglutination
(units/ml)
0
2 +
100
2 +
370
2 +
750
2 +
1,500
+
3,000
6,000
12,000
25,000
50,000
±
t
0
0
0
100,000
0
200,000
0
tization to a slight or negligible degree.
As a matter of convenience, therefore,
the usual method of preparing "penicil-
linized" cells for the study of reactive
sera has been to add about 8 ml of an
equal-part mixture of whole blood and
Alsever's Solution directly to a vial con-
taining 200,000 units of powdered peni-
cillin G. After incubation at 37°C for 1
hour, an aliquot is withdrawn from the
vial, the erythrocytes are thrice washed
with isotonic saline and made up to a
4- to 10-percent Suspension in saline.
Since the sensitization proceeds at all
temperatures from 6° to 37 °C, the tem-
perature of exposure does not seem to be
critical.
Certain sera can be shown to react
with erythrocytes prepared in such a
fashion. With some sera the reaction can
be demonstrated only by the antiglobu-
lin technique. More strongly reacting
sera, however, may agglutinate the sen-
sitized erythrocytes directly from a saline
Suspension in a test tube, or even on a
slide.
Sensitized cells exposed to thcse sera
have been heated for 15 minutes at 54°C
in saline to elute the antibody. The con-
sequent eluate was demonstrated to react
with other penicillinized erythrocytes.
This antibody is stable for at least sev-
cral weeks at ordinary refrigeration tem-
peratures and resists degradation by a
temperature of 56°G for 2 hours.
Additional demonstration of the speci-
ficity of these sera was obtained by In-
hibition tests. In these, an attempt was
made to see whether prior incubation of
a reactive serum with penicillin would
so bind the presumed antibody that the
serum would no longer react with sensi-
tized erythrocytes.
Solutions of penicillin G were made
up in AB serum in concentrations from
100 to 200,000 units/ml. Equal volumes
of each penicillin Solution were added to
SCIENCE, VOL. 127
• V
REPRODUCTION
RANGE AND RELATIONSHIP
r
ECONOMY
Breeds in late winter or early spring.
Lays 1 to 3 eggs, less than 1 inch long,
in nest of damp Vegetation 2 weeks to
1 month later. Eggs adhere together.
Incubation period about 10 days.
Young, poorly developed at birth, ma-
ture at 1 year. Life span to 10 years.
Found in eastern Australia and Tas-
mania, in almost any aquatic habitat
from clear mountain streams to muddy,
sluggish, coastal streams, ponds, and
lakes. Its burrows in banks can be 15
to 60 feet long. Hibernation, or inac-
tivity, occurs briefly in winter.
Piatypus has virtually' no natural ene-
mies, with the possibla exception of 1
or 2 snake species. Serious drought,
water pollution, or failure of food sup-
ply could affect population. Although
formerly it was widely sought for its
otter-like pelt, animal is now protected.
To 18 honeybee-sized young born 11
to 13 days after mating, each Vi inch
long. Twenty can fit in a teaspoon.
Those not finding teats die outside
pouch. Attached to nipples for 70 days,
suckle for month more. Independent at
3 months after birth. Females breed at
1 year. Life span about 2 years in wild.
Common in wooded areas, or in or-
chards and other woods near centers of
human habitation. Usually inactive in
cold spells. Found New York to Colo-
rado, south into South America, and in
California and Washington, where in-
troduced and established. Range spread-
ing to north; numbers increasing.
Hardiness, variety of diet, fecundity,
and general availability of adequate
food supply guarantees survival and ex-
panding population in spite of man's
predation, some value of pelt as a für,
and some edibility of flesh. Feigning
death may aid in survival, as"dead" ani-
mal is unattractive to many predators.
Tiny, pink, wrinkled young number 3
to 9, born in hidden nest. Length about
1-1/5 inches at 1 day and 3-4/5 inches
by 3 weeks. Nursing stops in 3 to 4
weeks when length about Vi adult size.
Several litters yearly. Mature at 6
months; probably dead at 30 months.
Mating occurs in autumn, but sperm is
stored by female until spring, when fer-
tilization takes place followed by ges-
tation of about 50 days. Often also
breed in spring. Usually only a single
young, weighing about 1/20-ounce at
birth; about once in 100 births, twins
are born. Flight begins at 3 weeks.
Present world population of approxi-
mately 3 billion, increasing at a rate
that could double the number of people
in 40 years, is due to many factors, in-
cluding improved health care and in-
genuity in environmental control. As
result, present arable land may be un-
able to produce suflficient food.
Female bears single young (more
rarely 2) from January to March.
Young stays with mother for a consid-
erable length of time. It may be carried
by clinging to mother's back or tail. For
protection, adult may roll up with the
young curled inside body. Scales are
soft at birth, but harden soon after.
Breeds commonly July through August,
with fertilization delayed. Embryos be-
gin to grow in November. Develop in
about 120 days. Identical young, usual-
ly 4 of same size, developed from 1
fertilized egg. Eyes are open at birth.
Plates of "armor" not completely de-
veloped and hardened until adulthood.
Breed 4 or more times a year, according
to the weather conditions. 2 to 8 young,
each weighing to Va ounce, born naked
and helpless in fur-lined nest. Gestation
period is 28-40 days. Young nurse for
about 2 weeks, then leave nest. Females
defend territory in breeding season.
Norway rats in wild may produce 6 lit-
ters of 1 to 15 young a year, and be old
at 3 years. Females breed at 4 months
and, in laboratory, cease breeding at
18 to 24 months. Young, born 22 days
after breeding, are blind, naked, help-
less, and weigh about 1/5 ounce. Eyes
are open in 14 to 17 days.
Ranges through eastern half of the
United States and southeastern Canada,
in fields, orchards, woodlands, and
sometimes in buildings. May live in
granaries and may eat both plant and
animal matter. Signs are tunnels under
leaf mold, in decaying logs, or in snow.
Musky odor is noticeable in spring.
Short life span and inroads of its nu-
merous enemies, including cats, dogs,
owls, snakes, weasels, and other small
predators, keep population in check. Is
valuable to gardeners as a destroyer of
mice and of insect pests. Tunnels they
dig in forest floor or field litter aid in
the formation of the soll.
M. lucifiigiis ranges over most of the
United States and much of Canada.
Other species are more localized. Each
has its own flight pattern. Females roost
gregariously in summer, males usually
solitary. Most Myotis migrate to caves
in local hibernation patterns.
Myotis have few enemies, so life expec-
tancy can be to 10 years or more. They
are of value to man in the vast numbers
of insects they eat while on their us-
ually nocturnal flights. Can be nuisance
in houses or barns because of unpleas-
ant, musty odor and droppings.
Range is virtually anywhere on earth's
surface. Has ventured into seas and out-
side earth's atmosphere. Intelligence
has allowed man to become world's
dominant animal. Relationships with
others of own kind show a history of
great variability and inconsistency.
Only serious "predators" are other men.
Man's control of own environment has
permitted, in many cases, devastation
of great areas, waste of natural re-
sources, disregard for future genera-
tions. With extremely careful manage-
ment, species may be preserved.
M. pentadactyla occurs in India and
Ceylon. Related species are found in
Borneo, Java, Formosa, South China,
and Burma in Asia; other species are
indigenous to Africa south of the Sa-
hara. Some pangolins are arboreal. M.
pentadactyla is largely terrestrial.
Pangolins are of little economic impor-
tance, as insects do not constitute any
threat in areas animals inhabit. Its bur-
rowing may be a nuisance locally. Are
regarded as palatable, and are sought
for food in certain areas. Scales used
for Ornaments and charms. Preyed on
by various carnivores, including man.
Ranges from S.E. New Mexico through
Louisiana and S. Texas into South
America. Found from sea level to
10,000-foot elevations where soil is
suitable for burrowing and food is
available. Can swim well by swallowing
air to inflate itself, or can walk under
water for brief periods.
Armadillos are extending their ränge
and in many places increasing their
numbers, and are not in danger of ex-
tinction in most areas, despite fact that
meat is excellent eating. They submit
to captivity and may do well on horse
meat and dog food. Consumption of
destructive insects is beneficial.
Normal ränge of S. floridanus in North
America is mostly south of Canadian
border, east of Wyoming, and south in-
to Mexico. Prospers on borders between
open fields and woodlands or where
food supply and suflficient protective
Cover are available. Lagomorphs have
a nearly world-wide distribution.
Eflficient predators include man, foxes,
weasels, coyotes, hawks,owls, and dogs.
May die of tularemia, which may be
fatal to men who handle the dead rab-
bits. Millions are shot annually, but
harvesting is relatively inefTective. Lo-
cal overpopulation is serious problem.
Are valued as pets, food, für bearers.
R. norvegicus, introduced from Europe,
is found nearly everywhere man is
found, although temperature of — 40°F.
is critically low, and 104°F. is critically
high. Can live in buildings or out; home
ränge varies considerably according to
available food supplies and number of
other rats in same area.
Of danger to man in transmission of
bubonic plague, typhus, and many other
diseases carried by its fleas. Destruction
costs man untold millions of dollars
yearly. Laboratory animals, however,
are of tremendous value to science in
the investigation of many diseases.
Gray Whale
Eschrichtiiis glaucus
Order Cetacea
Collie
Canis f amiliar is
Order Carnivora
DESCRIPTION
Length to 50 feet. Weight to 20 tons.
Females longer than males. Color a
mottled gray, but individuals ränge
from light gray to black. Has small
humps on back, but no dorsal fin. 2
to 3 grooves, 6 feet long and about
15 inches apart, on each side of throat.
Has whalebone, or baleen, in mouth.
Males 22 to 24 inches at Shoulder,
female slightly smaller. Weight from
50 to 60 pounds. Slender, tapering
head, clear eyes, arched brows. Deep,
moderately wide ehest, sloping Shoul-
ders, Long, heavy coats are black, tan,
and white in various combinations,
with white collar frill.
DIET
Tiny marine animals, strained from
sea water through baleen, make up
food of this whale and such species as
finback, humpback, blue, and right
whales, while related sperm whale and
dolphins — including narwhals and
killer whales — are toothed and prey
on larger animals.
Like earliest man, to whom dog was
probably a companion, animal is basi-
cally carnivorous. Domestication has
led to concern about diet, and today's
pets are also fed vegetables, eggs, and
milk to fill nutritive needs and to
affect cleanliness and odor in a way
that equips them to live with man.
Northern Für Seal
Callorhinus ursinus
Order Pinnipedia
Bulls to 7 feet long; weight to over 600
pounds. Cows smaller. Adult bulls dark
gray to brown above, usually gray
on Shoulders. Cows grayish brown.
Mouth, teeth, and jaws developed for
grasping and tearing. Hind limbs can
turn forward to Support body weight.
Voice a roar or bark.
Food is entirely flesh, including some
30 kinds of marine organisms. Havc
been known to swallow stones. Much
feeding is done at night, and most
animals eat about 1/15 of their weight
daily. Harem bulls do not eat during
breeding season, when they live off
subcutaneous blubber.
Aardvark
Orycteropiis afer
Order Tubulidentata
Indian Elephant
Elephas maxitniis
Order Proboseidea
Hyrax
Procavia capensis
Order Hyracoidea
Sea Cow or Manatee
Trichechus manatus
Order Sirenia
Tapir
Tapirus terrestris
Order Perissodactyla
White-tailed Deer
Odocoileus virginianus
Order Artiodactyla
Short-legged, thick-tailed, piglike
mammals. Length to 6 feet, including
the 2-foot tail. Weight to 140 pounds.
Color, yellowish to brown-gray. Tip
of tongue highly tactile. Forefeet 4-
toed, hind feed 5-toed. Claws resemble
both nail and hoof, and are adapted
for swift digging.
Size, massive. Weight of males to 8,000
pounds, smaller than African species.
Color grayish. Ears large. Nose ex-
tended into flexible proboscis with
nostrils at end, and finger-like projec-
tion at tip. Legs pillar-like. Skin thick
and thinly haired. Incisors continue to
grow, are tusklike, in upper jaw only.
Like tailless rabbits in appearance,
with small ears and short, sturdy legs.
To 22 inches long and to 9Vi pounds.
Für thick; eyes small; sight and hear-
ing good. Toes have hoof like nails.
Front feet and, to some degree, hind
feet have pads capable of clinging to
smooth tree trunks or rocks.
Large aquatic animal to 12 feet long
and to 1,300 pounds in weight. Some
sex differences in size, with male
larger. Color lead-gray. Short bristles
Cover body. Fore limbs are flippers.
No rear limbs; flat, whalelike tail.
Head and eyes small, upper lip over-
hangs the lower.
Heavy-bodied animal with short, stout
legs. Tail short and thick. Feet hoofed,
with middle digit longer than others.
Skin thick. Brownish to grayish hair
smooth and sparse. Height at Shoul-
der to over 3 feet. Weight to 500
pounds. Fine swimmers. Nocturnal.
Upper lip elongated into proboscis.
Shoulder height to 4 feet; length to 6
feet; tail to 11 inches. Bucks, which
can weigh to 300 pounds, have antlers
thai are shed yearly. Color, reddish
in Summer, grayish in winter, white
beneath. Fawns white-spotted. When
frightened, raises tail, snorts, and leaps
in 10- to 20-foot bounds.
In the wild, feed almost wholly on
ants, termites, or sometimes on beetle
larvae, or other insects. Powerful legs
and strong claws are capable of open-
ing hard-packed anthills or burrowing
into termite colonies. Insects gathered
on sticky tongues. Use feeding area to
rest, as are immune to insects.
Elephants are strictly vegetarians, de-
vouring leaves, fruit, bamboo shoots,
grass. May eat Vi ton of forage daily.
Feed actively most of day. May push
down trees as they feed. Rolling or
hilly forests and areas of bamboo and
tail grass are preferred browsing sites.
Travel in herds of from 30 to 50.
Food is herbaceous, including leaves,
grasses, bark. In captivity may eat
bread, vegetables, and sugar. Although
jaws are worked as if chewing a cud,
are not ruminants. Feed in the daytime
or evening, spending much of remain-
ing time in rocky crevices where they
are safe from their many predators.
Food is exclusively plants growing un-
der water or along shores. Taste is
well developed, and they will select
green, but reject brown, seaweed. Up-
per hp maneuvers food into mouth.
Nostrils have valves permitting animals
to feed under water, where they may
remam submerged for 15 minutes.
Tapirs both browse and graze, using
broad, sharp incisors, and extremely
mobile hps to eat low-growing plants,
twigs, the foliage of various kinds of
Ixfu^ ^"d shrubs, fruit, and grass.
When the opportunity presents itself,
will eat cultivated crops.
Feed on many plants, including aquatic
yarieties, on mushrooms, nuts, grass,
leaves, gram crops, truck gardens. In
Winter browses on deciduous twigs, on
eyergreens and lichens. Heavy snow
that Covers Vegetation and makes
movement difficult presents hazards.
REPRODUCTION
■! $
RANGE AND RELATIONSHIP
In January or February, about 1 year
after mating, single young about 16
leet or longer is born in quiet cove in
shallow water. Nurses for 6 months,
when it reaches 25 feet in length. Sex-
ual maturity may be reached in 2
years. Females probably breed only
in alternate years.
Found in Arctic Ocean in summer. In
Winter migrates down U.S. Pacific
shores to Baja California in Mexico
when breeding takes place. Some also
in northwest Pacific. Ranges in shallow
waters where small invertebrates
abound. May gather in groups.
Collie litters are usually large— from
9 to 10 puppies being born after 60 to
65 days gestation. Eyes open in from 9
days to 2 weeks. Usually are sexually
mature at 8 months. Can have 2 litters
yearly. Longevity is mainly dependent
on care, and large dogs are, in general,
not as long-lived as small ones.
Like other domestic dogs, collie ranges
\yherever man wants to have an intel-
ligent, courageous pet or work dog.
Origin of this breed is unknown. Made
show debut in England in 1860. Be-
came very populär in the United States
20 years later. Good with children.
Bulls establish home territory and
defend harem of up to 40 cows. Breed
in summer and fall. Cows give birth
to 11-pound, shiny black pup 8 to 12
months after mating. Learn to swim at
6 to 8 weeks; nurse until about 4
months, when they take to the water
where they spend most of their lives.
C. ursinns travels in oceans and,
during breeding season, comes ashore
in U.S. on the Pribilof Islands in the
Bering Sea, rarely elsewhere in Alaska.
During migration, the longest of any
member of this order, is dispersed over
North Pacific, Bering Sea, Sea of Japan,
Sea of Okhotsk, to San Diego.
From May to July usually single young
is born, more heavily haired than spar-
sely haired adults. When about 2
weeks of age, may follow mother in
nocturnal food forays. Home burrows
usually slope 4 or 5 feet into ground,
then may run parallel to the surface
for some distance.
Aardvarks ränge through Africa, south
of the Sahara Desert, from Senegal,
central Sudan, and Abyssinia, south
to Cape of Good Hope, on open plains,
savannas, and Clearings where many
termites and anthills exist. Occasional-
ly found in brush or, rarely, in forests.
Single or, rarely, 2 young, weighing to
200 pounds at birth and Standing to
3 feet high at Shoulder, are born to a
cow about 18 to 24 months after mat-
ing. Shed milk tusks at about 5 months,
suckle for 2 years, and reach puberty
in about 14 years. Female may bear
5 calves in life. Life span to 60 years.
Indian elephants occur south of
Himalayas, in India, Ceylon, Assam,
Burma, Thailand, S. Vietnam, Malay
States, and Sumatra. Introduced in
Borneo, where they aid in teakwood
forestry, hauling lumber to waterways
to be floated to mills often located
many miles downstream.
Young, born about IVi months after
breeding, usually number 2 or 3 (may
be 1 to 6). At birth they are fully
haired and their eyes are open. They
reach puberty at 2 years. In captivity
they have been known to live to 7
years. During breeding season, un-
pleasant odor is secreted.
P. capensis, like other terrestrial species
of hyrax, lives in cliffs, scrub, or rare-
ly in grasslands, from sea level to
15,000 feet, in colonies of from 6 to
50. Various species are found through-
out Africa and the Arabian Peninsula,
Syria, and Israel. The related arboreal
species are nocturnal.
Breeding begins when manatee is 3
to 4 years old. Gestation period not
definitely known, but probably over 5
months. Single calf born under water;
weight to 40 pounds, length to 3 feet.
Calf probably stays with mother for
about 2 years. Breeds any season.
Range is coast of southern Atlantic
States, around Florida and Gulf coast,
the Caribbean Islands, down eastern
shores of Mexico. Often travel in small
herds; migrate slightly to north during
summer. Other species are found on
South American and African coasts.
After a gestation period of from 392
to 405 days, 1 or, occasionally, 2 young
are born. Unlike solid-colored adults,
young have whitish spots and longitu-
dinal stripes on dark hair. When about
6 months old, adult coloration has
developed, at about which time young
may permanently leave parents.
T. terrestris ranges from southern
Mexico to southern Brazil. They prefer
grassy swamps, savannas, dense jungles,
and forested hills near water, from
sea level to high in mountains. Other
species are found in Burma, Thailand,
Indo-China, Malay States, Sumatra.
One bück may breed with several does
in November, in North, to January in
South. Usually 2 and rarely 3 or 4
fawns are born some 6V2 months later,
each weighing 3 to 5 pounds. Nurse
about 4 days before grazing begins.
Weaned at 4 to 6 weeks. Most does
breed at 1 year.
Range from Washington, Oregon, and
southern Canada east to Atlantic,
south into South America. Prefer water
to be accessible. Once near extinction
in certain areas, now increased to
nuisance point in many places. Home
ränge only about a mile in radius.
ECONOMY
In 1853, Population estimated at be-
tween 30 and 40 thousand. Almost
extinct in 1925, it is now rigidly pro-
tected internationally, and population
is about 5,000. During migration-the
longest of any mammal— thousands of
spectators gather to watch as whales
pass San Diego, California.
From earliest times, C. familiaris,
which is considered to be one species,
although number of breeds is enor-
mous, has been man's companion,
protector, and hunting aid. Collie is
still shepherd's helper in Scotland,
northern England, and Wales, where
a dog can do field work of 12 men.
Once threatened by extinction, the seal
is now internationally protected, and
the Pribilof summer population is es-
timated at 600,000 newborn and twice
that many adults, About half of young
die each year from storms, starvation,
crowding, and predation. Enemies in-
clude sharks, walrus and parasites.
Flesh is high in fat, and is prized by
many, but it is not regarded as a game
animal. In some areas, aardvarks are
considered a nuisance to horsemen and
farmers, as burrows make riding hazar-
dous and can cause crop damage.
Predators are most large flesh eaters.
Economically is important as a work
animal and beast of bürden. Indian
elephants are not sought as game ani-
mals as much as the African species.
Ivory of tusks is also important to
economy of countries it inhabits. Man
is almost its only natural enemy.
Natural enemies are primarily eagles
and large members of the cat family.
Because of dietary habits have become
pests in some agricultural areas. Ar-
boreal species of hyrax tame easily.
Terrestrial species, including P. capen-
sis, are not so gentle. Despite low re-
productive rate, seem well established.
Manatees are often shot illegally, or
are killed by pollution in shallow
waters. Although protected, stringent
enforcement of laws needed. (Steller's
sea cows became extinct about 1768
because of excessive hunting.) Flesh is
delicious, and oil is valued in cooking.
Activities center near water, where
animals can feed, bathe, and escape
from external parasites and predators.
Jaguars, perhaps pumas, and man are
the principal enemies of the tapirs.
They are shy animals that may occa-
sionally cause some local damage to
gardens in isolated jungie Clearings.
Legal protection and reduction in num-
bers of natural predators has allowed
deer to increase at such a rate that
they create economic Problems for
farmers and foresters in many areas.
Although widely hunted legally, hetd
management remains vital problem for
both man and animals.
1
nature
IN THE SCHOOL
IN SCANNING THE PAGES of our daüy ncwspapcrs, one
is quickly aware of the pressures that have been
exerted on the schools of our nation by the tremendous
"explosion" of our human population. This phenomenal
increase in human mammals has forcibly brought the
subject of general animal abundance ,into the classroom
itself, so that a study of it seems worth while. The chart
section that accompanies this educational insert briefly
considers the effect of mammal abundance on representa-
tives of eighteen living mammal groups, not including the
flying iemurs of the Order Dermoptera.
Members of each group mentioned in the chart have
certain similarities in their basic anatomies, so that if a
member of one group is well understood, the essential
qualities of the other members may be estimated.
The Student should famiUarize himself, through Obser-
vation and reference to appropriate texts, with the repro-
ductive capacities of as many mammals as he can.
How many young are there in the litters of a particular
mammal? How many litters are produced in a season?
What is the length of the mammal's reproductive life?
There is a tremendous Variation in these factors among
different creatures. For example, a shrew's life span may
be only two years or so; in the elephant, the gestation
period alone lasts from 18 to 22 months, or nearly as
long as the shrew's entire lifetime. In the opossum, a
dozen young may be suckled by the female only two
weeks after mating, and the youngsters are wholly inde-
pendent at 16 weeks; the elephant may produce only
four or five young during a whole lifetime. The significant
data of the mammalian reproductive story are available
in a number of current texts and fieldbooks.
The Student should familiarize himself with the rea-
sons underlying the game law provisions of his State.
Local hunting regulations may forbid the killing of one
or the other sex of certain mammals, or it may allow
only the killing of animals of certain age groups. Why
should this be so? The Student should also be familiär
with the reasons behind the complete protection of cer-
tain species; those whose numbers are either at a dan-
gerously low level or are composed of a proportionately
high percentage of older indiyiduals.
Game management practices that are directed toward
influencing the total population of any given mammal
must take into account a number of different factors —
the mammal's value, living or dead; the value of its pelt
at different seasons of the year; the need for managing
its food supply; the importance, .if any, of the part the
creature plays in the food cycles of its associates. The
snowshoe rabbit, to name an example under the last
category, is remarkable for its abundance cycles, and the
rise and fall in its numbers is refiected in a corresponding
rise and fall in the numbers of its archenemy, the lynx.
The availab.ility of nesting sites or dens also may ac-
count for the abundance or scarcity of a mammal.
Human foibles, too, may affect the total population
of a mammal species at a given time. When College stu-
dents favor blue jeans instead of coonskin coats, the
raccoon population is likely to rise, other factors being
equal. At one time, the für of a certain species of monkey
was considered fashionable, and the species bearing the
für was nearly exterminated in the name of fashion.
The little mammal known as the copyu, or nutria, was
at one time listed as in danger of extinction. In 1952,
the nutria was introduced into the southern part of
the United States, and since that time has multiplied so
greatly as to become a pest and a menace to native animal
species. Ten years after its introduct.ion, some fifty thous-
and nutria were taken by trappers in the lower Mississippi
Delta region, and their abundant presence had affected
the prosperity of such wild animals as wild ducks and
muskrats, to say nothing of farmers in the area. The
introduction of wild mammals — and plants, insects, and
birds, for that matter — into new areas is likely to have
a serious impact on the native fauna and flora. Not al!
introductions are successful, but those exotics that flour-
ish, often do so both explosively and disastrously.
The change in mammal abundance is often a local
phenomenon rather than one of general significance. In
my home locality, the white-tailed deer is now abundant,
although several decades ago it was not to be found.
Opossums have made their appearance during the course
of the same time span. Gray squirrels have returned. In
the last decade I have seen a porcupine in its free and
wild condition within a hundred yards of my home, and
coyotes have been seen within a mile. The raccoons that
rattle my garbage cans nightly in season announce the
Coming of spring. A few years ago the discovery of a
raccoon in my locality was an event that warrantcd
at least some mention in the local paper.
THE Student, through his own research supplemented
with Information gathered from older relatives and
friends, might try to investigate the changes in mammal
populations that have taken place in his own vicinity.
The local newspapers of "earlier days" may sometimes
reveal valuable Information toward this end; old text-
books and other literature may fumish valuable clues.
I always have on my desk a list of mammals indigenous
to my local watershed — a list that was prepared and pub-
lished fifty-two years ago. It reports a male opossum
being captured fifty-eight years ago, an event that would
ccrtainly not be news today. It makes no mention, how-
ever, of beaver, black bear, porcupines, or coyotes, which
have been seen in the vicinity during recent years. It
reports a Canada lynx taken fifty-six years ago, but does
not mention the presence of bobcats, which have been
reported in the area in later times.
In summary, there is often a temptation to dwell on
the "good old days" when we discuss the abundance of
mammals, and to ignore the fact that the present is not
wholly bad. In some respects it actually may be better
than the past. Most important, however, is the recogni-
tion that what we do in the present will determine^the
course of the future. We know how to save and control
our present mammal populations, both wild and domes-
tic, and we should probably not spend much time regret-
ting the fact that wild buffalo no longer roam our plains.
We should rather plan constructively in order to protcct
and preserve the species that exist today.
Thisisthe 114th
of Nature Magazine's
special educational inserts
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Gray whale
MAMMAL ABUNDANCE
Extinction or overexpansion of species can be controlled by man
By E. Laurence Palmer
Among THE MANY DiFFicuLTiES confronting man to-
J-\^ day is a serious and somewhat paradoxical problem
that might best be summed up under the general term
"mammal abundance," which is concerned with two di-
verging tendencies. First, certain mammals multiply to a
possibly disastrous extent; second, certain other mammals
disappear entirely from the face of the earth. Mammal
abundance, or lack of abundance, has become a critical
subject — a problem for which a Solution must be found
if man and his fellow mammals are to continue into the
distant future in a relationship remotely approximating
that existing today. All of us, if we so desire, may make
some sort of contribution to the Solution of the mammal
Population problem; but to do so intelHgently, we must
first recognize its nature and its challenge and follow
recognition with the adoption of sensible mammal prac-
tices throughout the world.
This article was originally planned to deal solely with
those mammals in immediate danger of extermination,
and to provide some ideas for discussion topics at meet-
ings of the International Union for the Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources. This session was sched-
uled to be held in Africa during 1963. However, the social
and political convulsions currently besetting the great
African continent have made cancellation of the meetings
necessary, and it is to be feared that by 1963 at least
some mammals of great scientific and aesthetic interest
may no longer be found in their free and wild State.
But the mammalian problem does not lie solely in the
extmction of current species. Paradoxically, in the ab-
sence of atomic warfare or some other catastrophe, an
equally grave difficulty is presented in the need for rea-
sonable limitation of mammal numbers. Here we will
present a sketch of the problems associated with mammal
scarcity, overabundance, and normal balance, consider-
mg both man and his domestic mammals, and not Umiting
ourselves to free wild mammals or to those of any par-
ticular geographic area. ,
OVER the centuries man has associated himself with
the "lesser" mammals. The domesticated zebu,
one well-known example, is a creature that has in certain
parts of the world been the servant of man since perhaps
4000 B.c. Saddled, a zebu can carry a man for some
fifteen hours at the rate of six miles per hour and can
haul a carriage th.irty miles in a Single day. As a draft
animal, its movements can be controUed even by a child;
it furnishes milk and meat, and is adaptable to regions
of drought and sparse Vegetation.
Zebus were introduced into the United States in 1853,
and again in 1906. At about this latter time, they were
used in evolying certain desirable qualities in our own
Western ranch cattle. One zebu bull, over the course of
his lifetime, sired no fewer than 150 other zebu buHs,
which were the basis for the establishment of the Santa
Gertrudis breed of cattle, officially recognized in 1940.
This line of stock now produces buUs that weigh as much
as 1 ,800 pounds, and cows that weigh up to 1 ,200 pounds.
A four-year-old steer of the breed may weigh as much
as 1,400 pounds. The mammals are mild-tempered, ga.in
weight on grass alone, can travel long distances with but
little water, and are resistant to ticks and the Texas fever
that is associated with these insects. The ab.ility of the
breed to thrive on land that will not support other do-
mestic cattle has meant, in some parts of the world, meat
for men who might otherw.ise have been without it. In
this respect, the advent of the Santa Gertrudis breed has
impinged somewhat on the field of sociology, since hun-
gry people are also, not infrequently, dangerous people.
Americans like to feel that they can be of assistance
to other peoples of the world. The United States record
of agricultural production — and especially the improve-
ment per acre on f arm lands that have been under culti-
vation for a long time — has not, we think, been matched
or even approached by any other nation possessing lands
of equal or higher potentials. Our discovery and under-
standing of the process of artificial Insemination has made
it possible for a Single bull of demonstrated superior
qualities to fert.ilize 200 cows at a single service, and to
father 6,000 calves a year rather than the normal 30.
Such calves reach a marketable condition more quickly,
at less expense, and bring a higher market price than do
those not subjected to mammal management.
We know how to produce more domestic mammals
more quickly and economically than ever before. If we
can spread this knowledge into the parts of the world
that still face periodic starvation and resulting tragedy,
there may well be no need whatsover for destroying
jungles for grazing lands — jungles that support the rela-
tively few remaining gorillas, or the lands that are now
habitats for the lion, zebra, giraffe, rhinoceros, and other
great mammals. Unless the human mammal can demon-
strate in Africa and Asia — and, for that matter, in North
America — that he can make the maximum use of lands
already in cultivation, it will be difficult for him to ex-
plain to future generations why it was necessary to
despoil other land areas that had for untold years been
the habitat of great herds of wild mammals. In the
United States, we have demonstrated that we can, if we
have the will, save representative groups. We have done
it with pronghorns, deer, and smaller mammals. It has
been accomplished through wise legislation at federal and
State levels that resulted in the establishment of a system
of parks, refuges, and other nationally owned and pro-
tected properties, together with sensible hunting laws.
In some other parts of the United States it has also
been shown that an abundance of wildlife can be com-
patible with a large domestic mammal population. The
writer lived the first part of his life in the great agricul-
tural State of New York without ever having glimpsed
a deer in the wild. In recent years he has seen the deer
population on his own lands build up — somewhat to the
detriment of plants he wished to grow — and then be
reduced to a normal herd through wise supervision and
the harvest of surplus mammals that would otherwise
pose a threat to orchards, gardens, and forests, as well
as to ground cover needed for the herd's own existence.
OUR agricultural Colleges have increased the pro-
ductivity of our lands so greatly that we can better
face the prospect of exploding mammal populations,
both wild and domestic, and even that of man himself.
A CaUfornia farmer is reported to have said that there
was no need for him to learn more about making his f arm
increasingly productive because: 'T got more knowin'
now than I does, and until the doin' I does catches up
with the knowin' I has, I can't see no reason for knowin'
no more." Obviously, the farmer was only partly right.
It seems apparent that if we use wisdom in the manage-
ment of our lands and of the plants and animals that live
upon them, Americans might never have to face some
:^iil
Duck-billed platypus
-t»;
Virginia opossum
Big short-taiied shrew
of the economic upheavals that have so frighteningly
afflicted other parts of the world.
It is interesting to survey a few of the uses to which
man puts other mammals, both domesticated and wild,
aside from their obvious use as food. Mammals have
long been, and probably will long continue to be, used
as reliable draft animals for special purposes, such as
the exploration of very rough terrain. They are workers
that do not depend upon the gasoline pump, but instead
can largely live off the land. Traditionally they are pressed
into Service as replacements for the gasoline engine dur-
ing times of war or natural disaster. Some of the basic,
materials of industry are derived from mammals, includ-
ing the leather of our shoes or the casein that is widely
used in plastics and other materials. Orchestras will, so
far as we can guess, continue to scrape on the intestines
of mammals to produce sounds. These are only a very
few of the more obvious uses.
Mammals will certainly continue to be utilized in
muhiple ways in the science of healing. In addition,
certain mammals are constitut.ionally so similar to man
himself that much knowledge can be acquired from
studying them. Living "lower" mammals will certainly
be employed in place of man in some of our explorations
of Space. The psychological and behavioral studies of
other mammals give man an insight into his own nature.
Many people find difficulty in understanding the con-
centrated efforts of scientists, conservationists, and others
to preserve at least a representation of our threatened
mammal species. They do not realize how much is still
to be learned about every mammal, and forget that once
a species is extinct most of the opportunity for leaming
has vanished with it. As an example, the blood of some
lemurs has a peculiar coagulative property that might
well be useful in cases involving the treatment of human
blood; we could hardly afford not to explore such a pos-
sibility. But aside from studies directly affecting man's
health and well-being, there are those basic researches
that help to explain the world around us — as it was, is,
and might be. Such studies will not necessarily make the
world a better place in which to live, but it is certain
they will make it a wiser place.
IN evaluating the position of threatened species, a wider
understanding of the use of other mammals in rela-
tion to humans is necessary, notably on the African
continent. For instance, it is very likely that one of the
factors that will hasten the extermination of the rhinoc-
eros is the belief, held by some Africans, that rhinoceros
*'horns" have a high aphrodisiac value. This conviction
Man
Eastern cottontail
«>
is so firmly established that powdered rhinoceros homs
currently seil for prices extraordinarily high for the econ-
omy. However, it would be diflEicult, and perhaps unwise,
for sophisticated societies to attempt to change basic
convictions of newly emerging civilizations, no matter
how contrary to the.ir beliefs contemporary medical evi-
dence might be.
The relations between man and many mammals are
mutually beneficial. Dogs, to use the most obvious ex-
ample, have been man's hunting assistant since time im-
memorial. They have helped their masters by protection,
guidance, and companionship, and have become indis-
pensable in many areas of occupat.ion. Man, in tum, has
provided dogs with shelter, food, and admiration. There
is Httle danger of the dog becoming extinct.
It is just as likely that the horse will survive the mech-
anizations of the human mammal, if for no other reason
than to provide recreation and a chance to lose the local
medium of exchange. In New Zealand, where valuable
agricultural lands are severely limited by the sea and
mountains, farmers have resented the use of prime agri-
cultural land for the support of race horses. So strong,
however, is the national interest in "the races" that farmer
protests are futile — apparently many New Zealanders
prefer betting to eating!
In discussing mammals not so closely associated with
man, it is helpful to know the principles that determine
mammal scarcity or abundance. Only then will we be in
a Position to exert some influence on populations. Some
factors are Uttle understood, and some may be wholly
beyond our abihty to control; few will be found to apply
equally to all mammals.
One of the basic factors influencing mammal abun-
dance is that of food, the demands for which vary greatly
from species to species. The problems of mammals with
specific food requirements will quite obviously be differ-
ent from those faced by mammals capable of changing
their diets. A duck-billed platypus, which has a daily
food requirement of at least one-half its own weight in
invertebrates such as crayfish, would quickly starve in an
area that would amply support a gray whale. Not only
must the food be suitable to needs of a particular mam-
mal, but it must also be abundant when needed.
Dr. E. Laurence Palmer, for many years director of
Nature Magazine's educational program, continues bis
special inserts in the pages of the combined magazines.
MANY mammals travel great distances in the course
of a year in following their food supplies, or in
obtaining new ones. Seals, for example, foUow their
supply of fish; when the American bison was in its free
and wild condition, it moved north or south over the
Great Plains according to grazing conditions. Some mam-
mals meet the seasonal Variation in food supply simply
by suspending their eating programs and going into hiber-
nation. Others, like the wolf, gorge themselves with food
when it is available, and go without when it is not. The
human has eliminated mammal species in various parts
of the World solely by destroying their food sources.
Fire is of great importance in regulating mammal pop-
ulations. A large forest fire, for example, may eliminate
the breeding stock of many different sorts of mammals
over a considerable area. Ordinarily, the only avenues
of escape open to most mammals during a forest fire are
accidental ones; a fleeing mammal may tumble into a
pond or lake, or find an unused burrow. However, even
such accidental havens may be only temporary; the fire
will probably have destroyed the mammal's normal food
supply in any case, and the creature then will face the
prospect of starvation.
Mammalian survival also depends upon a suitable
supply of water. Waterholes the world over are the gath-
ering places for mammal populations. Mammals that are
able to dig into the earth for the.ir water frequently sur-
vive conditions that would be fatal to others. Some desert
animals, like kangaroo rats, are able to derive enough
water from their food to satisfy their needs. The engineer-
ing skills employed both by man and by other mammals
in securing water supplies are noteworthy. Man himself
has been experimenting with methods by which he can
derive fresh water from the seas, with an eye to almost
inescapable future shortages.
Many mammals are quite specific in their temperature
tolerances, and extremes of temperature have a consid-
erable effect on the local abundance of the mammal pop-
Nine-banded armadilio
Pangolin
Aardvark
Hyrax
ulation. Only man has developed artificial means for
living comfortably in areas that were formerly proscribed
to him. The development of central heating and the air
conditioner, however, means that man will occupy new
territory, to the possible detriment of mammals that are
better equipped by nature to survive hostile conditions
of extreme temperatures.
Floods, also, greatly influence the abundance or scarc-
ity of mammals. Most vulnerable to flooding are, per-
haps, those mammals that live Underground; great popu-
lations of these latter are regularly drowned during times
of high waters. Also, flooded lands tend to bring predator
and quarry together, so that danger to the latter is not in
floodwaters alone, but also in more imminent attack.
Some people think that predation is a major factor in
mammal abundance. Others, with some reason, point out
that few mammals are ever completely driven from any
particular area by any of their natural enemies except
man. Populations of predators and prey usually rise and
fall without the complete destruction of one or of the
other, although man himself has destroyed, in some
areas, the predators that kept many animals at a comfort-
able Population level. To understand the rise and fall of
mammal populations, an understanding of the nature
of individual species is necessary.
MAMMAL individuals originate with the meeting of
a male and a female of a given species. The ges-
tation period of the female varies greatly; for example, in
the Opossum the young may be bom only twelve days
after copulation, while the Asiatic elephant may carry
her young for as much as eighteen months. There is also
a tremendous disparity in size between the young at birth
in these two examples. The newly bom opossum is the
size of a honeybee; the newly bom elephant may stand
three feet in height and weigh 200 pounds.
Many male mammals never see their young, going
their ways as soon as they have mated. Others remain
Northern für seal
Norway rat
Seacow
with their families for years. The nature of the individual
is often reflected in the length of time it takes for its
offspring to reach maturity, and these facts are eventually
reflected in the numbers of a given species that reach ma-
turity. It has been recorded that a single bück deer and
three does were given complete protection from natural
enemies for a period of eleven years, and in that time the
resulting herd numbered 250 animals — some of which
had to be killed to ensure that an adequate food supply
would be available for the remainder.
Some kinds of mammals require more living Space
than others. Rabbits, for example, may develop warrens,
where the burrows crowd closely together. Under such
conditions the Uttle mammals can hterally eat themselves
— and their mammal associates — "out of house and
home." Other mammals cannot tolerate such crowding.
The pronghom antelope, to name one species, falls to
prosper on a circumscribed ränge; it is possible, although
perhaps doubtful, that disease may play a part in the large
territorial requirement of the pronghorn. Most mammals,
in common with birds and other animals, possess an in-
stinct for territorial defense, and will thus to some degree
affect their numbers in a given area. The territory of such
an individual mammal may vary greatly, being exception-
ally large at the time a new mate is being sought and
smaller during the time that the young are not able to
move about in safety.
Disease is frequently an important factor in Controlling
the abundance of mammals, and some of the phenomena
that may be presumed associated with its avoidance are
most .interesting. Cattle, for example, will seldom feed
on grasses that grow from their own düng, but will feed
on grasses whose growth has been stimulated by the man-
ure of horses. The reverse is also true, in that horses will
eat grasses growing from cow-droppings, but will estab-
lish their own midden areas in which they usually avoid
feeding. Perhaps this behavior is in some way connected
with parasites that occur in mammalian feces, and ac-
cords some protection to a mammal from its own para-
sites. It is quite likely that the greatest single influence on
the abundance or scarcity of mammal life is human ac-
tivity. There is little doubt that, were the human mammal
to will it, most or all animal forms could be exterminated
from the face of the earth — including man himself . Ex-
cessive hunting, the use of biological poisons, over-
crowding, fire, disease, and the general upsetting of mam-
mal ecologies have already accomplished much toward
the extinction of many species. The interested reader may
wish to explore the subject of threatened or vanishing
mammal species further through reading of such publica-
tions as Extinct and Vanishing Mammals of the Western
Hemisphere, by G. M. Allen, published in 1942 as Spe-
cial Publication # 1 1 of the American Committee for In-
ternational Wildlife Protection, headquarters of which
are in Washington, D.C.; or Special Publication #12,
written by Francis Harper and entitled Extinct and Van-
ishing Mammals of the Old World. This volume was
broughtoutin 1945.
THERE is abundant literature dealing with the various
mammals that face extinction throughout the world,
and it would be desirable if other studies appeared deal-
ing with mammals whose great numbers and voracious
appetites put them in direct competition with man. Let
US recognize that danger lies not only in mammalian
scarcity, but also in its superabundance; and that it will
be man's task so to set the stage that the populations of
lesser mammals will neither unduly diminish nor expand.
Because man has become the dominant animal, ruling
the rest of the kingdom by direct or indirect action, he
must now take füll responsibility for control and pres-
ervation of all other species. Any living thing that dis-
appears through man's stupidity, procrastination, care-
lessness, avarice, or indifference will be moumed in gen-
erations to come, as today we moum the passenger
pigeon, the great auk, or Steller's sea cow.
Tapir
White-tailed deer
DUCK-BILLED PlATYPUS
Ornithorhynchus anatinus
Order Monotremata
Virginia Opossum
Didelphis marsupialis
Order Marsiipialia
Big Short-tailed Shrew or
Mole Shrew
Blarina brevicauda
Order Insectivora
LiTTLE Brown Bat
Myotis liicifugus
Order Chiroptera
Man
Homo sapiens
Order Primates
Pancoi.in or Scaly Anteater
Manis pentadactyla
Order Pholidota
NiNE-BANDED ArMADILLO
Dasypäs • HUVi^niH
Order Edentata
lADILLO^
'ItlVlUs
Eastern Cottontail
Sylvilagus floridanus
Order Lagomorpha
Norway or Brown Rat
Rattus norvegicus
Order Rodentia
DESCRIPTION
About 2 feet long. Male larger than
female. Slender body, leathery, duck-
billed snout, broad feet modified for
swimming have five strong claws. Für
dark brown above, lighter beneath. Tail
flattened. Semiaquatic. Eyes and ears
closed by fold of für when diving.
Females to 3 feet long including tail
to 13 inches. Weight to 14 pounds.
Males smaller. White face; naked,
scaly, prehensile tail; black feet, each
foot 5-toed, first rear toe opposable;
grayish-white für; black, naked ears,
Mainly nocturnal. Are fine climbers.
Large shrew, length to 6 inches with
1-inch tail. Weight to 1 ounce. Sexes
about same size. Very small ears. Eyes
tiny, see only light and dark. Nose
pointed. Für short and soft, silver-gray
in North, darker in West and South.
Both sexes have scent glands.
One of 5 species of Myotis in N.A. Us-
ually to 41/2 inches long, including 1-
inch tail. Weight from 1/7 to 1/3 ounce.
Forearm has digits connected by flight
membrane. Eap&, if laid forward, reach
to nostril. Color varies, according to
ränge, from dark brown to pale tan.
Most abundant, successful, and intelli-
gent of all Primates. Walks erect. Eye-
sight good. Hearing average. Sense of
smell poor. Taste glands well developed.
Size and weight extremely variable, ac-
cording to ränge, genetic variations,
and the available food supply.
Heavy-bodied animal, whose body and
tail are covered with large, overlapping,
hard scales, between which grow coarse
hairs. Length to 3 feet, half of which is
tail. Legs short and strong. Claws
heavy. Head small and tapered. Ears
small. Mouth is toothless. Nocturnal.
Length to 32 inches, including tail 14
to 15 inches long. Weight to 17 pounds.
Nine movable plates cover back and
sides. Usually does not curl up for pro-
tection, hiding in brush or holes in-
stead. Tail and head reasonably pro-
tected by scales. Ears and underparts
naked. Strong claws aid swift digging.
Hind limbs longer than fore limbs. 4
incisors in upper jaw, 2 in lower. Length
to 18 inches, including 2-inch fluffy tail.
Females larger than males. Weight to 4
pounds. Ears 3 inches long. Eyes lat-
eral. Fluffy für, shed twice a year, varies
in color, according to the animal's
ränge, from brown to grayish brown.
At 1 year, length to 19 inches, including
long, slender, scaly tail to 8V2 inches.
Ears naked. Weight to 1 Vi pounds, but
usually smaller. Für coarse, grayish
brown on the back, paler beneath.
Sometimes blackish. Laboratory ani-
mals Vary in color from white to black.
DIET
Eats aquatic insects, their larvae,
Worms, crustaceans, mollusks, aquatic
Vegetation. Food is gathered at eve-
ning, night, and dawn. In captivity it
will accept earthworms, frogs, and cod-
dled eggs, and it is not unusual for it
to eat half its own weight every day.
Omnivorous, feeding freely on fruits,
vegetables, poultry, reptiles, amphi-
bians, mushrooms, insects. They may
rob the nests of hole-dwelling birds and
mammals. Eggs and persimmon fruits
are highly favored. Often act as scaven-
gers of Carrion and other wastes.
Food primarily insects, small mollusks,
earthworms, spiders, Salamanders, mice,
Carrion, nuts, fruit. Saliva contains sub-
stance causing bite to be painful, al-
though not dangerous, to humans.
Snails and worms paralyzed by poison
may be stored for future eating. Has
huge appetite in proportion to size.
Eats insects taken in flight, assisted by
"sonar" sounds issued at the rate of up
to 60 pulses per second, each pulse con-
taining waves of 40 to 80 kilocycles in
frequency, on the average. These ema-
nations make it possible for bat to avoid
striking objects, and to locate food.
Omnivorous, food including other
mammals, fish, a wide variety of her-
baceous plants, nuts, fruits. Can de-
velop, cultivate, and improve own food
sources. Despite this ability, some V2
of Population is either starving or suf-
fering from a degree of malnutrition.
Eat ants and termites, captured on ex-
tremely long, wormlike tongue, which
is coated with saliva from greatly en-
larged salivary glands. Dig into anthills
and termite mounds to reach tunnels.
Valves on ears and nose exclude insects.
Can press scales together, killing insects
crawling between them.
Feeds largely on terrestrial insects and
other arthropods such as tarantulas and
scorpions, which it can locate surpris-
ingly well by scent, even to 6 inches
Underground. Also feeds on bird's eggs.
Has good sense of smell and of hearing,
but poor eyesight. Usually is abroad
only at dusk or at night.
Food primarily plants of almost any
sort, including grass, garden vegetables,
cattle forage, bark of orchard trees. Can
be most destructive to crops. May eat
own feces excreted during day. In many
areas contend with man and hoofed
animals for available plant supply.
Food is almost any organic matter,
plant or animal, including birds, grain,
soap, garbage, eggs, Carrion. May eat
1/3 of its weight daily. Damage to un-
eaten but fouled foods is enormous
Need quantities of water and will chew
through pipes to reach it. Will gnaw
through wiring, often causing fires.
M loifß
%
^
/^/i^/k/^ J
Das Weset^Ms Jc/Jei
'e/tf£^t^s
-^ ^itT'
I
i^i
Leo
BaecK wollte sich nicht retten
Deportation nach Therosionstodt
ruvrrl«..«iK«'n JT A - MeL -Lesern Monat wiede.
ver.schärfl
Zürich zuUIk«.. \-i der;auf»feno.nmen würden, wurde er
/.uruh K^^^ rKolmit lausenden anderer deutscher
Riner
lunf au*«
0-jähri«e Kahbiner
JiAECK aus Berlin von den Na/i-
lehörden nach Theresienstadt de-
»ortiert worden.
Dr. Baeck. Vorsitzender der
.Ju<l('n nach dem bei üchti^ten Kon-
zentiationsia^rer in der Tschecho-
slowakei verschickt.
Noch im Dezember 1939 wurde,
Uichsv.reini^unK Her .I^.'""*'''':-:" i ^l^;,,, . ^,f,,„, m. .„hen. H., hie
'Ührende Persönlichkeit (
ichen Judentums, war wegen seine:
heldenmütijren Kintrelens zukfun
sten »einer verfolgten Brüder und : diu
der ?"hrenprä5ident der B'nai
r hie-
Baeck
fuden und seit vielen .lahren d»»* , „..L-ia.t I)r
ies deul-'^i^en Presse erklait, l)i
t«ine Stellung als Associate Kabbi
am Kockdale Avenue Tcmple in
•innati angeboten. Kr lehnte
weil er "sein Volk nicht in der
Schwestern wiederholt von der (le- ab.
Stunde der X.»t allem las.<en. son
V-— --1 -t:. '";„"i: ' a:::; .. sj.:.:;:r .1..^- .
der Ma.ssendeportationen. di-
ollU
1'
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BAECK
DAS WESEN DES JUDENTUMS
i
■■ m 1 1 » 1 ■ 1 I — w»^»
^ 1.1 IMI«*! I
SCHRIFTEN
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON DER GESELLSCHAFT
ZUR FÖRDERUNG DER WISSENSCHAFT
DES JUDENTUMS
DAS WESEN
DES JUDENTUMS
DAS
WESEN DES JUDENTUMS
I
\
VON
LEO BAECK
DRITTE AUFLAGE
C/
VON
LEO BAECK
DRITTE AUFLAGE
19 2 3
J. K AUFFMANN VERLAG
FRANKFURT a. M.
19 2 3
J. KAUFFMANN VERLAG
FRANKFURT a. M.
Alle Rechte, besonders das der Übersetzung vorbehalten.
Copyright 1922 by J. Kauffmann Verlag, Frankfurt a. M.
MEINER LIEBEN FRAU
./
Druck von M. Lehrberger & Co., Frankfurt a. M.
/
III II I ■>
Inhalt
I. DerCharakterdesJudentums .
1. Einheit und Entwickelung
2. Die prophetische Religion und die Glaubensgemeindc
3. Offenbarung und Weltreligion
II. DieldeendesJudentums
1. Der Glaube an Gott
2. Der Glaube an den Menschen . . .
a) Der Glaube an uns ......
b) Der Glaube an den Nebenmenschen .
c) Der Glaube an die Menschheit ....
III. Die Erhaltung des Judentums ....
Anmerkungen
Register
Seite
1
1
26
56
83
85
164
164
210
251
285
313
317
'
Vorwort zur zweiten Auflage
Es ist ein altes Buch — fünfzehn Jahre sind seit seinem
ersten Erscheinen verflossen — , und es ist ein neues Buch,
das jetzt vor die Leser tritt. Der Grundriß ist geblieben, aber
was ihn ausfüllt, ist heute anders als damals. Nicht nur die
Zahl der Seiten ist gewachsen, aufs Doppelte fast; der Inhalt
vor allem hat auch wachsen wollen. Besonders der zweite
Hauptteil, der von den Ideen des Judentums, hat es so erfahren;
er ganz eigentlich ist in dem alten das neue Buch geworden.
Vielleicht ist manchem Leser zu raten, mit ihm zu beginnen.
Wer das Wesen erkennen will, bemüht sich, etwas als
Ganzes zu sehen. Er will zusammenschauen, auf das Offen*
barende und Bestimmende, auf das Organische den Blick
richten, auf das, wovon alles Wachstum, alle Entwicklung
kommt, und was in allem Wachsen und aller Entwicklung
sich entfaltet; er will das Treibende, die Grundkraft erfassen,
die in den einzelnen Erscheinungen eines großen geschieht?
liehen Lebens wirkt. Die Einheit und damit der Zusammen*
hang in einem geistigen Geschehen, sein Prinzip soll dar*
gelegt werden. Das Historische und das Systematische, das
Wissen von den Tatsachen und die Erkenntnis der Ideen,
verbinden sich hierzu mit einander und führen einander. Es
ist die Geschichtspsychologie, die sich an dieser Aufgabe er*
weisen will. Dem Ganzen, das sie mit ihrer Methode zu er*
schließen sucht, kann irgend ein Einzelnes, irgend eine Zeit
oder irgend eine Gestaltung, widersprechen, so wie ein
Schritt oder auch ein Pfad der Richtung widersprechen kann,
die zuletzt doch festgehalten bleibt und weiter geht. Aber
das wahrhaft Geschichtliche ist immer nur das Ganze, das
vor seinen Teilen ist und trotz manchem Teil an seinen
Teilen; das Einzelne hat seine Historie, seine Chronik, die
Geschichte ist allein die des Ganzen. Denn schöpferisch,
also geschichtlich ist allein das, was seine innere Einheit hat.
X
Vorwort
Ihr gegenüber hat daher die Intuition auch ihr Recht. Diese
Einheit, diesen Lebenszusammenhang im Judentum, in der
Fülle seiner Gestalten und der Weite seiner Tage, zu finden,
ist hier die Aufgabe gewesen — die geschieht spsychologische
Aufgabe, den jüdischen Geist sich selbst darstellen zu lassen.
Die Erkenntnis eines Ganzen, die Erkenntnis von sich
selbst ist immer ein Urteil auch, eine Kritik; sie legt den
Maßstab an, der das Wesentliche von dem Unwesentlichen,
das Wesen vom Wesenswidrigen scheiden soll, das Bleibende
vom ZufäUigen. Sie läßt den Zusammenhang sehen, und wie
dieser das Vergangene mit dem Gegenwärtigen eint, so das
Gegenwärtige mit dem, was werden soll. Wie das Frühere
mit dem Jetzigen, so wird dieses mit dem Kommenden zn^
sammengeschaut. Das Wesen aufzeigen, bedeutet daher zu:*
gleich, den Weg aufweisen, der allein der Weg der Zukunft
sein kann. Jede Selbsterkenntnis befaßt auch immer eine
Forderung an sich selbst, sie spricht das Gebot des Lebens,
das Gebot der Geschichte aus; ein Erinnerndes, ein Vor*
wärtsführendes ist in ihr. Das gilt vom Individuum, und es
gilt von allem großen geistigen Leben, von der ReUgion auch,
wenn anders sie ihr Wesen, ihr Schöpferisches hat. Auch
darin will diese Psychologie der Religion das Offenbarende
begreifen machen; die Wahrheit der Religion und damit ihre
Bestimmung soll hervortreten, die Gedanken sollen nicht
nur dargestellt, sondern geleitet, ja geschaffen werden. Jede
Darlegung des Wesens will, mehr oder minder, klären und
gestalten, nicht nur die rückwärtsgewandte, sondern die vor^
wärtsgerichtete Prophetie sein, sie will den großen Zug
wahren und gewähren.
Vielleicht hat, zu seinem kleinen Teil, auch dieses Buch
hier und dort auf seinem ersten Wege es so vermocht. Möge
ihm sein neuer Weg so gegeben sein!
Berlin, September 1921
L. Baeck
Der Charakter des Judentums
V
>^..
/
1
)>■
Einheit und Entwicklung
H.n^r-^"J^'p"*r ^""l"* ''"^ ^^"^ Geschichte von Jahrtausen.
den zurück. Es hat in dieser Zeit viel gelernt und viel erfahren,
in seinen Gedanken lag immer der Zwang des Weiterdenkens,
ct£r_gebietende^ der Bewegung. Zudem sind seine Be,
kenner durch die-SFralSen der Welt gegangen, durch die.
''^'^^^ sie gehen wollten^ und durch die. welche sie gehen
mußten, und ihr W^gTSTauch der seine geworden. Wie sie
und mit Ihnen hat das Judentum die Geschichte der Welt und
Ihrer Kultur an sich selber erlebt. Denn ein Seelisches schwebt
nicht als reiner Begriff über den Köpfen; es besteht auch in
dem Dasein und der Art der Menschen, die es zu eigen
nahmen. Mit den Völkern zieht ihr Gedanke durch die Zeiten
und durch die Länder; ihr Los, ihr Haben und Sollen be=
stimmt auch das seine. — —
So hat das Judentum seine Wanderungen und damit
seine Wandlungen gehabt; das Schicksal seines Volkes ist
auch ihm zum Geschicke geworden. Eine Fülle verchieden=
artiger Erscheinungen undFormen wohnt daher in dem weiten
Lande seiner Geschichte. Sie sind nicht alle von gleichem
Maß und gleichem Wert, und nichts wäre leichter, als sein
Bild aus allerlei zusammenzusetzen, was sich im Niederen
begeben hat. Die Welt des Lebens hat ihr Steigen und Fallen. /
f;L!^2Ilkeine^tltige Ebene sein, und daru-HTH^gf das Eigen/
tumhche, das Besorideire und Persönliche, in der Höhe die
erreicht worden ist, wofern sie nur immer wiedergewonnen!
< rj \ ,? uvT '^''■'^ ^"'"^ '^^^' ^^^ ^"""Sen worden ist
^< und erhalten blieb, bezeichnet. Ein solch Bleibendes
: ?f e n 1 1 1 c h e s hat das Judentum, trotz seinen vielge.
staltigen Gebieten, trotz seinen schwankenden Zeiten. Sie
alle besitzen darin ihr Gemeinsames, sie haben eine Einheit
. ^ ^ L ^^i Denkens und Empfindens und damit die innerliche Ver,
*^^ bii^g m ihrer Existenz. Das Bewußtsein,-imF eigene Welt '
zu besizen, diese seelische Kraft, welche die zerstreuten Tage
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
m
2 Verbindendes und Trennendes
zusammenhält, war in ihnen immer rege. Sie alle haben ihre
religiöse Heimat, in der sie leben.
Einen sicheren geschichtlichen Boden hatte diese Einheit
schon in dem Volkstum, aus dem das Judentum emporge^
1^ Nvachsen ist, und m dem es seine starken Wurzeln behalten
hat. Dem Juden, der daran dachte, daß er nicht von gestern
war, erzählte die Vergangenheit, daß sein Leben von den
Männern herkam, die seinen Glauben geboren hatten. Die
Väter seines Stammes standen als die Väter seiner Religion
vor ihm; er sprach das Wort von dem Gotte der Ahnen, dem
\^ Gotte Abrahams, Isaaks und Jakobs, mit dem Tone des
Kindes, ifTclessen HandT^as Erbe gelegt ist. Und der Ge?
danke an die Zukunft sagte ihm, daß die kommenden Tage
durch ihn leben würden, daß sein eigenes Dasein und seine
Zukunft das Dasein des alten Gottes auf Erden seien.
V^ Cjie se Stimm en waren die des Blutes, das in allen strömte.
Die Welt ringslmTherrnT der man leiste, redete anderes. In
ihr waren die Kinder der Ahnen sehr bald zerstreut und von
einander getrennt worden, und dieses Schicksal hat vielfach
nicht nur scheidend, sondern^auf lösend gewirkt. Zudem
wurde und bTiefe es die Eigenart der jüdischen Gemeinschaft,
daß sie abseits von den Mitteln und Hilfen war, die sonst über
die trennenden Räume und Zeiten hin den Zusammenhang
stützen. Denn weder hat sie sich in Pessimismus und Kultur*:
Verneinung von den Menschen und Gedanken neben ihr ab«
zuwenden gesucht, noch auch hat sie dem eigenen Geist durch
starre verpflichtende Grenzen den Kreis abgesteckt, in dem
er verharren sollte, um gesichert und beruhigt zu wohnen.
j! Wenn sich das Judentum seine Einheit gewahrt hat, so ge?
U schall es doch weder in jener Einsamkeit eines weltfremden
Daseins noch durch diese zusammenhaltende Macht einer
• ^kirchlichen Glaubensverfassung.
Es hat zwar Zeiten gegeben, und es sind gerade die, welche
der Erinnerung und damit auch dem Urteil nahe liegen, in
denen die jüdische Gemeinde ringsum umrnauert zu sein
schien. Aber diese Abschließung ist bloß eine räumliche ge«
wesen, ganz abgesehen davon, daß sie eme^erzwunjgene war
und in ihr die Teile der Gesamtheit im Schicksal von einander
jt getrennt blieben. In einem geistigen Ghetto waren nur seltene
ifB Zeiten und nur vereinzelte Gebiete der jüdischen WeffTIDie
Der Geist der Wenigen 3
Verbindung mit dem, was die Jahrhunderte bewegte, hat der
Judengasse nie ganz versperrt werden können; aus ihr drangen
die Blicke immer wieder injiie große Welt Jiinaus. Es genügt,
auf das hinzuweisen, was jüdische Denker und Forscher im
Mittelalter von der allgemeinen Wissenschaft empfangen und
v/as sie ihr gegeben haben. Und noch eines ist kennzeichnend:
keiner anderen Religion ist der gebildete und der gelehrte
Glaubenszeuge so eigentümhch wie dem Judentum. Unter den
Zahllosen, die treu an ihm festhielten unter dem Martyrium
des Lebens und im Martyrium des Sterbens, sind wohl sehr
wenige nur gewesen, die, in ihre Ueberlieferungen ein«
gesponnen, von den Gedanken, die draußen herrschten,
nichts gewußt hätten.
Es hätte kaum anders sein können. Die Wirklichkeit, von
der man sich umringt sah, sprach zu deutlich, und sie hatte
eine zwingende Logik. Aus der langen Beweisreihe, die die
harten Tatsachen aufstellten, und zu der jede neue Verfolgung
und Bedrückung ein weiteres Glied hinzufügte, wollten ebenso
viele bündige Schlüsse gegen den Weg des Judentums und
gegen seinen Anspruch hervortreten. Zwischen dem, was die
alte Verkündigung zugesagt hatte, und dem, was jede neue
Gegenwart auflegte, blieb denn doch der Zwiespalt allzu
spannend, als daß man sich einfach auf sich selber hätte
zurückziehen können. Der Hintanstehende und Unterliegende
wird immer an sich glauben können, er wird es oft müssen,
wenn er nicht verloren sein will. Aber sich bloß mit dem
Kreise seiner Vorstellungen zu umgeben, von sich allein zu
wissen und auf sich nur hinzublicken, das ist ihm, solange er
inmitfen der Welt steht, nicht gewährt. Erst dem glücklichen
Erben der Herrschaft ist dies verstattet.
^^^|. Die Juden sind zudem stets dieWenigen gewesen, und
'^'^Billluleine Minderheit ist immer zum Denken genötigt; das ist der,
Segen ihres Schicksals. Das Bewußtsein der Wahrheit, das
lem Gebietenden und der Menge hinter ihm durch seinen
Erfolg und seine JVlacht genügend gesichert wird, muß sie
immer neu mitkämpfenden GedarTPcefhbehaupten. Die Über«
Zeugung der Vielen^hat das Schwergewicht des Besitzes, die
der Wenigen, allzu Wenigen hatdafür die Spannkraft des
Erwer!2pxxs. Diese innere Bewegung wuchs in das^JudentiTm
hinein; die Ruhe der fertigen Welt lag fern von ihm. An
1*
iii
4
Die Religionsphilosophie
¥
sich zu glauben, war hier nicht von vornherein geschenkt,
sondern bUeb die immer erneute Forderung, von der alles
abhing, und je enger der Daseinsplatz war, um so entschie^^
dener mußtö diese Gewißheit der Daseinspflicht errungen
werden.
Dei' jüdischen Glaubenslehre, sowohl der auf Einzelwegen
dahingehenden der älteren Zeit wie der planmäßigen deß
Mittelalters, merkt man es deutlich an, daß sie aus diesem
Kampfe um die Selbstbehauptung geboren ist. Sie ist weder
eine bloße Schulphilosophie geworden, die nur den gefordert
ten Beweis zu führen hat, noch auch jene Tagesphilosophie,
die der gesichertea Macht ihre Zierrate herstellt. Da sie im
stetigen Ringen ums geistige Dasein erarbeitet werden mußte,
ist sie Religionsphilosophie geblieben. Sie war das
ideelle Dasein der Gesamtheit, die Angelegenheit aller, die
das Bewußtsein hegten, zur Gemeinde zu gehören, aller, die
gebildet sein wollten, und im ReHgiösen wollte zumeist jeder
es sein. Ein jeder fast wollte mit seinen Gedanken die Welten
befragen, die um ihn waren. Weniges ist für die jüdische
Gemeinde während ihres Weges durch die Jahrhunderte so
kennzeichnend geworden wie dieses Philosophieren. Dieses
Suchen und Forschen, das Sinnen und Grübeln, das nie
beendet sein will, liat dem Juden^seinen Ausdruck, den
sprechenden Zug seines<;g^gTsHgen Antlitz^ gegeben.
Im Prüfen und Wägen wurde dann Said dieser bald jener
Gedanke herausgehoben, in Streit und Abwehr jetzt der eine
und dann der andere Begriff weiter in den Vordergrund
gerückt, und die Linien der Lehre schienen oft zu wechseln
und zu schwanken. Länder und Zeiten gaben dazu ihre Ver^
schiedenheit. So sehr die Grundsätze der Religion feststehen
und im Gemeindebewußtsein gesichert bleiben, so wurde
doch nicht immer dasselbe gleich stark und als gleich not^^
wendig' empfunden. Etwas Wogendes, ein Auf und Ab kommt
damit in den jüdischen Gedankenkreis; er zeigt die Mannig:^
faltigkeit der Gesichte. Man hatte die Philosophie, aber man
mußte dafür ein anderes entbehren: die Bestimmtheit einer
umschriebenen und stetigen ülaubenslehre, den sicheren
Aufbau der Bekenntnisformel. "~ '"
^^AVofern man dieses Wort nicht allzu weit faßt, kann sogar
gesagt werden, daß das Judentum überhaupt keine Dogmen
t^
Das Dogma 5
hat und infolgedessen ja auch eigentlich nicht eineOrthodoxie.
Allerdings ist es selbstverständlich, daß sich in einer posi^
tiven Religion klassische Sätze von Geschlecht zu Geschlecht
forterben als die alte heilige Kunde der Glaubenswahrheit.
Überall, wo es ein Glaubensgut, ein depositum fidei, gibt, hat
es seine ehrwürdigen Worte, in denen der Klang von Offene
barung und Geschichte singt und schwingt. Aber ein Dogma
im genauen Sinne ist das noch nicht. Dieses ist erst vor^
banden, wenn in festen Begriffen die bestimmte Formel ge:=
prägt und diese dann von einer eingesetzten maßgebenden
Autorität für verbindlich erklärt wird, um den Heilsbesitz zu
bezeichnen, in dessen Annahme die Rechtgläubigkeit und die
Seligkeit bedingt sind.
Alle diese Voraussetzungen fehlen im Judentum. Man
brauchte hier nicht die gesicherte, unverbrüchliche Formel;
denn sie ist nur dort notwendig, wo im Mittelpunkte der
Religion ein geheimnisvoller, weihender Glaubensakt steht,
der allein das Tor der Erlösung öffnet, und der darum seine
begriffliche, überlieferbare Darbietung verlangt. Das Juden^
tum kennt solche Heilstatsachen und Gnadengaben nicht; es
hat keine wirksamen Han^dlungen, die den Himmel zur Erde
herniederbringen sollen. Es hielt sich immer in einer ge^:
wissen Nüchternheit und Strenge^ die mehr fordern als geben
will. Darum hat es die Fülle der Gebote gesucht, aber die
Sakramente und ihre Mysterien abgelehnt; soweit Ansätze
zu ihnen vielleicht vorhanden waren, sind sie schon früh^
zeitig überwunden worden. So war kein Erfordernis dazu
vorhanden, die entscheidende Formel, dieses Symbolum, das
den Besitz verbürgt, zu schaffen und weiterzugeben.
Ebensowenig verlangte die Notwendigkeit einer ganzen,
ungekürzten Erkenntnis, daß der völlige Glaubensinhalt ein
für allemal begrifflich umfriedet werde. Das Bedürfnis da^
nach stellt sich dort ein, wo die Erleuchtung und die Erlösung
einander gleichgestellt werden, wo nur das ganzö Wissen, die
Gnosis, zum Heile führt, und jeder Mangel und Irrtum den
Weg versperrt. Wenn so der rechte Glaube zur Gabe wird,
von der alles abhängt, dann bedarf er in der Tat seiner Ge^
schlossenheit und Endgültigkeit, in der alles enthalten ist,
dann muß sein Ausdruck vom Anfang bis zum Ende fest:=
gefügt und gesichert bleiben; jede Lücke und jede falsche
taUit'CÜ^i*^. .'^^MBf
«tWaÄi^ .
J
ß Geheimnis und Glauben
Linie würde ein Verhängnis sein. Im Judentum haben die
Glaubenssätze nie diese Bedeutung gehabt; sie galten nicht
als die Bedingung der Sehgkeit, noch standen sie daher unter
dem Zeichen des Alles oder Nichts.
Schon der Gedanke des Geheimnisses, in der Be^
deutung, welche es hier hat, war dem entgegen. Während es
in der Kirche etwas Reales ist, etwas, was im Sakrament
greifbar wird, ist es im Judentum ein Ideelles. Es bezeichnet
hier das Unerforschliche, das, was Gottes und nicht des
Menschen ist, das, was nur geahnt werden kann. Vor dem
Wesen Gottes breitet sich das Dunkel der Ferne, durch das
kein Sterblicher hindurchschaut, und nur die Andacht mit
ihrem Sinnen und ihrem Schweigen kann ihm nahen. In die
• Welt des Menschen treten hier die G e b o t e ; das Gute tun,
\4as ist auch aller Weisheit Anfang. Die Menschenpflicht
steht vor dem Wissen von Gott, und dieses selbst hat weniger
den Sinn des Besitzens als den des Suchens und Forschens.
Was die Gottheit vom Menschen f o r d e r t , darin hat er den
Lebenskreis, in den sie ihn hineingestellt hat; es ist für ihn
das Gegebene. „Prinzipien der Thora ' sind daher, wie der
Talmud sagt, die Grundsätze des frommen Handelns. Sie
sind religiös festgelegt, und sie haben ihre bestimmten Ant^
Worten. Dem gegenüber bleibt die Glaubenslehre in vieler
Hinsicht frei, sie verzichtet auf ihre einmaligen endgültigen
Abschlüsse und Bindungen. So fehlt eine weitere wesentliche
Bedingung der Dogmatik.
Es gibt sogar kaum ein stärkeres Hemmnis gegen sie als
diesen Platz, den die fromme Tat im Judentum einnimmt.
Die bestimmte, begriffliche Feststellung des religiösen Gutes
setzt am ehesten dann ein, wenn der Glaube als Wissen auf^
gefaßt wird und dieses Wissen dann als Glaube wieder dem
Volk dargereicht werden soll. An vielen Beispielen zeigt es
die Geschichte der Kirche: Väter des Dogmas sind vor allem
die Männer geworden, die von der Philosophie zur Religion
herkamen und sie eines Tages in ihr wiederentdeckten. In
ihrer Philosophie hatten sie ihre Wahrheit, die alte und jetzt
die neue; nun sollte dieselbe in fertiger Form auch dem Volke
als seine Glaubenslehre gewährt sein — als die Wahrheit für
den Armen im Geist, j^a£LQjigen£LS..^iaJjenerint, und wie im
Grunde auch Hegel sie noch versteht. Die Religion der
i
Geistliche Aueoritäten 7
Wissenden und die der Unwissenden sollten im Dogma eins
werden. Im Judentum war dieses Verbindende die Forderung
des religiösen Handelns, sie erging von vornherein an alle, an
\ die Großen wie die Kleinen, und forderte von ihnen das
' Gleiche; sie wollte „das Reich von Priestern und. das heüige
' Volk" schaffen. Ihr Raum und auch ihr Eifer dehnten sich
so weit aus, daß für eine Dogmatik wenig oder nichts mehr
übrig blieb. . , cj. j
Dazu kommt, daß die jüdische Glaubensgememschatt des
Subjektes, welches Dogmen schaffen kann, entbehrt, zum
mindesten seit sie die Zusammenfassung der Autorität ver»
loren hat, die sie eine Zeit lang im Synhedrium und danach,
innerhalb gewisser Grenzen, durch das sogenannte Gaonat
besessen hatte. Verbindliche Bekenntnisformeln kann nur
eine geistliche Behörde feststellen, die im Namen der Ge.
samtheit spricht und Gehorsam heischt und auch über die
Mittel verfügt, sich gegen Widerstrebende durchzusetzen.
Wer die Macht besitzt, bestimmt hier auch über^dieV^hr»
. hdt.Tn~iH?er ganzen harten Folgerichtigkeit zeigte sich diese
ßSimenbildung in den ersten Jahrhunderten der Kirche bei
den Parteien, die mit kaiserlichen Edikten oder mit den
Waffen die Geltung eines Glaubenssatzes durchführten, und
dann später nach der Reformation, als das Prinzip aufgestellt
wurde, daß der Landesherr auch der Glaubensherr sei. Uie
kirchlichen Gewalten, sei es Bischof, Papst und Konzil oder
ein weltliches Kirchenregiment, sind das Entscheidende, bie
hat es für das Judentum nicht gegeben; man hatte hier eine
sichere Ueberlieferung mit ihrer Sukzession der Lehrer, aber
keinerlei geistliche oder, staatliche Jliejarchie. Wenn zu
maJTciTeiTZMten elng'esetzte Autontäten bestanden, die freu
lieh immer sehr bald wieder schwanden, so haben sie doch
nie Befugnisse besessen, die sich auf die Glaubensbegriffe er<
streckten. So fehlten die Vollmachten, kraft deren ein Dogma,
wofern das Bedürfnis nach ihm vorhanden gewesen wäre,
hätte festgelegt werden können. Keine Behörde konnte für
alle maßgebend die Grenzen abstecken. Der Wille und die
Überzeugung, dem Judentum zuzugehören, blieb das Eigent^
liehe und Bestimmende.
Bisweilen sind zwar trotzdem Versuche gemacht worden,
feste Formeln zu schaffen. Im Talmud steht an wichtiger
I
mtmmm
»ttiwtimt
8
Die Glaubenslehre
Stelle ein Satz, der das ewige Leben denen abspricht, welche
gewisse Lehren leugnen; bezeichnender Weise hält er sich im
Negativen zurück. Im Mittelalter haben karäische Lehrqr
unter der Einwirkung des Islam Glaubensartikel aufgestellt.
Wohl unter dem gleichen Einfluß haben Jann auch einige
andere der religiösen Denker dieser Zeit, unter ihnen einer
von dauerndem höchstem Ansehen, es unternommen, den
Lehrinhalt des Judentums in eine Anzahl von Sätzen festzu?
legen. Aber zu Dogmen haben diese nie zu werden ver^:
mocht. Die suchende Religionsphilosophie hat sich immer
ihren Platz gewahrt, und selbst sie hat eigentlich stets mehr
ine Methode als ein System ^egej^n. Wichtiger als die Er?
gebrnssenSfiSKiTirnrneirclie Frinzipien. Gegen den Ausdruck
war man duldsam und fast gleichgültig, und nur die-J^^^
hielt man fest. Das Judentum und mit ihm der Jude behielten
ihren unorthodoxen Zug; sie haben nie im Frieden des Dog?
mas ausruhen können noch wollen.
"Es hat manchem darum hier etwas gefehlt, so sehr, daß
draußen bisweilen die Meinung ausgesprochen worden ist,
das Judentum sei alles, nur eben nicht eine Religion. Man
sah sie hier nirgends, weil man die festen Begriffe, den be^
stimmten Wortlaut desi Bekenntnisses nicht fand. Und auch
drinnen, in der jüdischen Gemeinde, ist nicht selten, beson?
ders in Übergangszeiten, dieses selbe als ein Mangel emp?
funden worden; man vermißte das Gefüge der Sätze, an das
man sich halten konnte. Ohne das Dogma schien der Glaube
seiner Sicherung zu entbehren, in der er deutlich dargestellt
und überliefert werden konnte. Unzweifelhaft liegt darin auch
manch Richtiges. Aber zum Wesen des Judentums gehört,
daß diese Stütze und Bindung fehlt; ein Stück seines histo^
rischen Charakters ist ihm damit gegeben. Ursprung und
Geschichte haben ihm zu eigen werden lassen, daß es nicht
das Dogma hat, aber dafür die JMißioilSBÜbdklSonhie. Sie sollte
das Giife bieten und die Gefahren vermeiden. Sie stand
unter dem Gebot^den reHgiösen Besitz immer neu zu
schaffen, und darniFTst er schliel51ich doch am besten geT
sichert worden und zugleich davor bewahrt, daß dieEaancl
uoiLdas Systeni ihn umklamnierten. Vor die Stelle der ab==
geschlossenen Begriffe trat immer die Forderung der unabg
lässißejuGedankfinaibeit. '""""" """"^
i
i
Der Kampf ums geistige Dasein 9
Schon hierdurch hat sich das Judentum eine geistige Be?
weglichkeit und Frische erhalten. Das Dogma ist durch seinen
fest umschriebenen Ausdruck einer bestimmten Wissens^ und
Kulturperiode verbunden, und damit verstrickt es sein
Schicksal schließlich doch in das ihre. Von dieser Verquickung
konnte sich das Judentum immer wieder frei machen, und es
stand darum viel seltener als andere Religionen in einem
Zwiespalt zwischen Glaubenslehre und Glaubenswahrheit.
Weil sich seine Gedanken keiner Zeit bleibend zugesagt
hatten, konnten sie vor die fordernde Gegenwart empfangend
oder verweigernd hintreten und für den Geist der Zukunft
dann wieder offen sein.
Von der israelitischen Religion war der Kampf um "41^
das ideelle Dasein von früh an verlangt worden, und
er'Kat diese Fähigkeit, das eigene Leben immer wiederzu?
gewinnen, in ihr entwickelt. Ihre Glaubenswelt stand in dem
Widerspruch gegen den Glauben aller der anderen; sie konnte
existieren nur vermöge eines Glaubens an sich selbst, der von
neuem errungen wurde. Jedes Paktieren hätte einen geistigen
Fall und schließlich einen Untergang bedeutet. Aus diesem
Sollen ist das Wollen geworden. In dem gebietenden Erfordere
nis^eelischen Ringens erwuchs die EntschlosseBheit, sich
niemals den Gedanken deFl^ächr öder der Zeit zu untere
werf enr^r Wille, immer den eigenen We^ zu gehen. Der
Mut zu sich. selber wurde das Daseinsgesetz, er hat der|
israelitischen Religion das persönliche Leben gegeben.
Bereits die ersten israelitischen Jahrhunderte waren vor
diese Aufgabe gestellt. Tage der Väter, Tage des früheren
Lebens mußten verworfen, der Widerspruch gegen sie mußte
durchgekämpft werden. „Schafft die Götter weg, denen eure
Väter gedient haben jenseits des Stromes und in Ägypten,
und dient dem Ewigen.'* Und wie von dieser Vergangenheit,
mußteTnan SlclT ViSn-der Gegenwart befreien. Von allen
Seiten zog eine siegreiche Kultur die Kreise ihrer Macht und
ihrer Lockung; man mußte ihr entgegen sein und mußte
dennoch mit ihr und in ihr leben. Das israelitische Volk, der
Träger der Religion, war nicht an einem Tage geworden, es
wohnte nicht auf einer abgeschiedenen Insel, wie der philo?,
sophus autodidactus, der rein aus sich selbst werdende Weise,j
den das Mittelalter ersonnen hatte. Wie die Nation die Luft
10
Die fremden Kulturen
■J
r .'
des Gebietes atmete, innerhalb dessen sie wohnte, so hatte
sie an seiner Geschichte, der äußeren und der inneren, ihren
Teil. So mußte der fremde Einfluß zu allen Toren hereintreten.
Es zeugt von der gestaltenden Kraft des israeU?
tischen Genius, wie vielerlei Kulturelemente er im Wechsel
V..
der Tage aufnehmen konnte; er erwies sich als fähig, sie in
sich zu verarbeiten und sich zu assimiUeren. Nur selten ver^
lor er sich zunächst an sie, zuletzt setzte er an ihnen immer
sein Freies, PersönUches durch und formte sie mit seiner
eigenen Prägung. So wurden schon früh Worte übernommen,
aber mit völlig anderem Inhalt erfüllt; sie begannen ein Neues
zu benennen. Wenn zwei dasselbe sagen, ist es nicht dasselbe.
Es braucht nur daran erinnert zu werden, daß das Wort, mit
welchem die Bibel den Propheten bezeichnet, auf fremden
Ursprung hinweist. Und was ist aus diesem Worte in Israel
geworden! Welch persönhchen Klang, welche originale Kraft,
welchen Gedankenbesitz hat dieser Namen hier erhalten!
Was in ihm wertvoll geworden und ein Besonderes geblieben
ist, hat ausschließlich israelitische Herkunft. Für die Ge*
schichte der religiösen Sprache, auch für die Wege der Volks*
Jcultur, nicht aber für den Sinn der israelitischen Religion
bedeutet es etwas, woher dieses und woher manches andere
viel umstrittene Wort stammt.
Auch diese und jene fremde Vorstellung fand mit und
neben dem Worte Eingang; sie wurde entlehnt und doch
wurde ihr schließlich nichts zugestanden. Wenn sie eingelassen
wurde, so wurde sie doch auch früher oder später über::
wunden; sie hat ihre Stelle im israelitischen Denken erst da*
durch gefunden, daß sie einer höheren Auffassung unter?
worfen und damit umgestaltet und umgeprägt wurde. Das
Minderwertige blieb schHeßlich am Wege liegen, oder es wurde
unschädlich gemacht, indem es in die ganz andere Sphäre hin?
versetzt wurde. Nur das, was israelitisch werden konnte,
wurde zum Eigentum. Wie vielem so auch die Religion im
Laufe der Zeiten ihre Gedanken geöffnet hat, sie hat ihren
Ch a r a k t e r damit nicht geändert, sich selbst nie verloren.
Schon die eine Tatsache, daß das Judentum seinen Monotheis*
mus streng und rein bewahrt hat, spricht deutlich genug.
Was das besagt, können Vergleiche mit vielen Erschein
nungen der Religionsgeschichte lehren. Rehgionen, die in
Die Eigenart
11
I
neuen Ländern, gewonnenen oder eroberten, ihr Heim auf?
schlugen, sind dort auf Sitten, Gewohnheiten und Gedanken
gestoßen; sie haben diese angenommen, ohne sie jedoch in
sich zu überwinden, oft ohne sich auch nur mit ihnen aus?
einandergesetzt zu haben. Sie haben sich mit den Vergangen?
heiten, die sie antrafen, einfach abgefunden oder sich zur Not
i; begnügt, die äußere Hülle derselben umzuändern.^uf Kosten y/
'A 4£?™Q^^-^kters ha^^ sie es leicht, Siege zu erringen. Daßy\^
z. B. der Buddhismus sHneiTT^nliangern 'äTTes zugesteht und
auch jeder niecirigsten Glaubensform ein ungestörtes Dasein
läßt, liegt schon in dem Wesen dieser ReUgion und ist ein
Grund für ihre Ausbreitung gewesen. Von dem Islam haben
seine besten Kenner gesagt, daß er ein Mantel ist, der vieles
bedeckt, unter dem sich heidnisches Denken und Handeln
bequem bergen kann. In ähnlicher Weise ist die griediisch?
katholische Kirche dahin beschrieben worden, daß sie das
Gewand der alten griechischen ReÜgion, das nur mit einem
christlichen Einschlage versehen sei, trage. Und ließen sich
nicht diese Beispiele vermehren? Es ist immer so gewesen,
^daß Massenerfolge einen Abzug von der Eigenart verlangten. 5
jRasche äußere Gewinne bedingteii einen inneren Verlust.
Für die israelitische Religion blieb allem Fremden gegen?
über eine Grenze vorgezeichnet, die nicht verrückt wurde.
Sie zu verteidigen, hat oft einen schweren und langen Kampf
erfordert; er ist auch nicht immer und überall von vorn-
herein mit gleichem Erfolge geführt worden. Aber die Ent?
Scheidung um den Charakter wurde immer aufgenommen
und wurde bestanden. Gerade in den Zeiten größter Ver?
suchung und Gefahr wurde die religiöse Eigenart am sichersten
erfaßt, am bestimmtesten ausgebildet. Ebendort, wo das
Judentum dazu hingetreten war, sich mit alten und neuen
Kulturen zu verbinden, deren Einfluß andere Religionen zer?
setzte, hat es am treuesten an sich festgehalten. Der Erfolg
wurde in der Dauer des Charakjers gewonnen. Eine lange
Geschichte geistiger Mühen weiß von diesem Ringen um
sich selber zu berichten; denn es war ein eigenes Wollen, eine
bewußte Arbeit. Keine bloße Fügung der Umstände, kein
bloßer natürlicher Prozeß wirkte darin. Das spricht sich
schon darin aus, daß historische Persönlichkeiten, Propheten,
Reformatoren, religiöse Denker das alles geschaffen und ihm
■f
^mmi"'^^^
^1
\%
"'flSf-
\ ,'
^
Die Selbständigkeit
ihr seelisches Merkmal aufgeprägt haben. Sie haben der
ReUgion Weg und Stellung gewiesen.
Damit ist auch bereits gesagt, worin sich die Selbständige
keit Israels zeigt. Die Originalität besteht nicht in der Ur^
sprünglichkeit jedes geistigen Elementes, in einer Art von
adamitischer Vergangenheit slosigkeit; eine solche Ursprung:^
lichkeit wäre gleidibedeutend mit Vereinsamung und Besitz,
losigkeit. Worauf es ankommt, ist allein difiXraft-dßSÄdsÜ^en
Emog^ns^und der Auseinandersetzung, die Fähigkeit des
Kampfes um die seelische Individualität, durch welche das
Gegebene erst gestaltet, erst wahrhaft geschaffen wird. Das
Eigene, Originale liegt in der Energie, in der Stärke der Selbst,
fbehauptung; auch alles Genie der Persönlichkeit ist imGrupdel
^ine große GcM.4 die ^ht müde ^\rc\:^ Nichrin den Kei J
men, sondern in der produktiven Kraft, in der Fähigkeit des
Bildens und Zeugens, offenbart sich die Selbständigkeit und
Eigenart. Hierin hat sie ein Goethe gefunden, dem selbst bis.
weilen Zweifel an seiner Unabhängigkeit aufgestiegen waren.
Er sagt es: „Das schönste Zeichen von Originalität ist es,
wenn man einen empfangenen Gedanken dergestalt fruchtbar
zu entwickeln weiß, daß niemand leicht, wieviel in ihm ver.
borgen Hege, gefunden hätte.'' Diese Originalitätdes
G e s t a 1 1 e n s , diese Dauer der Persönlichkeit — um von
den prophetischen rehgiösen Entdeckungen zunächst ganz
abzusehen — ist Israels nicht unwesentlichste Selbständic^.
keit. Seme Eigenart ist nicht zum mindesten eine Eigenart
der Geschichte.
Was unserem Leben seinen Wert gibt, ist das, was wir
geworden, nicht das, was wir von Hause aus sind. Gabe
und Mitgift sind viel und sind nichts; das Entscheidende ist ^
was wir aus ihnen erwachsen lassen. Nicht die Eigenschaften
und die Gedanken machen den Menschen, sondern dieser
macht erst etwas aus seinen Erkenntnissen und aus seinen
Vorzügen. Das gilt vom Einzelnen und gilt von ganzen
Volkern. Auch bei ihnen gibt die P e r s ö n 1 i c h k e i t die
T'l?/'niTT'S ^ben, den Ausschlag. Weil dieses
„höchste Gluck der Erdenkinder^ der israditischen Religion
m Ihrem Trager zu eigen geworden ist, darum besitzt sie ihre
unvergleichliche Ursprünglichkeit und ihre einzigartige Ge^
schichte, deshalb ja auch die Fülle des Genialen, das sie ge^^
^
# 1-
Die Ursprünge
boren hat. Dadurch erst erhielten Leistung und Wort ihren ori
ginalen Gehalt und ihre originale Kraft, die ganz
enss
auffassun^ und WelthenrtpiliTng ihren überlegenen Ernst.
Dies ist nicht selten außer acht gelassen worfen-. So oft
man Beziehungen zwischen der Bibel und alten religiösen
Zeugnissen anderer Völker auffand oder aufzufinden glaubte,
aisgleich wollte man der israelitischen Religion ihr Autoren,
recht und ihren Eigenbesitz absprechen. Immer war es die
letzte Entdeckung, die den Anfang aller Wahrheit, den bis.
her ungekannten Vater der Erkenntnis aufweisen sollte. Es
ist eine echt menschliche Neigung, alles, was plötzlich aus
geheimnisvoller Ferne hervortritt, in ungeahnter Gestalt, in
ll wundersamen Umrissen zu erblicken. Erst der Fortgang der
Tage pflegt dann die richtige Schätzung zu lehren. Wie häufig
hatte man es nicht in unserem geschichthchen Zeitalter z. B.
versucht, die Eigenart der griechischen Kultur von dem gerade
neuesten Altertum abhängig zu setzen, ihr einen fremden \]x^
Sprung zuzudiktieren. Der Bibel gegenüber schien es zudem
ganz vornehmlich von voraussetzungslosem, kritischem Geiste
zu zeugen, wenn man ihre Gedanken mehr und mehr dem
Sonder dasein zu entreißen unternahm, das sie bisher hätten
führen wollen. Es sprechen dabei Tendenzen mit, wie sie
sich oft auch anderwärts gezeigt haben. Als im siebzehnten
Jahrhundert die neuen philosophischen Systeme in die Welt
eintraten, war es eine beliebte Beschäftigung, jedem der
großen Denker seine angeblichen Vorgänger entgegenzuhal.
ten, um ihn dadurch von seinem Throne zu stoßen. Mit einem
Aufwände an Gelehrsamkeit sammelte man die „Cartesianer
vor Cartesius", die „Spinozisten vor Spinoza", und man
glaubte damit dem Genie seine Genialität genommen zu
haben. Über der unwesentlichen Gleichheit übersah man die
wesentliche Verschiedenheit. So hat man auch die I s r a e 1 i .
ten vor Israel immer wieder entdeckt, bald in Ägypten
oder in Syrien, bald in Arabien oder in Babylon. Und die
Welt ist noch nicht verteilt; die neueste Erforschung braucht
nicht die lezte zu sein. ~^ _
Für die Einsicht in diCsE n t s t e h uji^, für die religions.
geschichtliche Embryologie haben die niedrigen und rudimen.
tären Formen ihren Wert. Für die B e u r t e i 1 u n g , für die
richtige Erkenntnis de<^ e s e nj? einer 'geschichtlichen Er.
\-
I \ I
-m^tMMbefAi^
iAii^itm
14
Die Entwicklung
Autorität und Freiheit
15
1
3
i
*T
I '
scheinung kommen nur die eigentümlichen, die klassischen
Formen in Betracht. Was in einer Religion ihr Besitztum,
was in ihr wahrhaft wirksam ist, vermag erst durch den Lauf
ihrer Entwicklung festgestellt zu werden. Gerade das, was
ursprünglich Ausnahme war, kann sich oft im Fortgange der
Geschichte als das Wesentliche, als die Hauptsache erweisen.
Das Bezeichnende tritt in dem Zuge durch die Jahrhunderte
hervor. Es ist wahr: „Das Kind ist der Vater des Mannes";
aber was an dem Kinde eigenartig war, lernen wir erst ver?
stehen, wenn wir sein Fortschreiten zum Mannesalter hin
kennen. Die wahre Bedeutung der israelitischen Religion
liegt in dem Wege*, den sie aufwärts gegangen, in der Höhe,
die sie erreicht und festgehalten hat, nicht in den Ansätzen^
von denen sie aufgestiegen ist.
Das Einzelne erhält hier seinen Charakter dadurch, daß
es zu diesem Gipfel hinaufführt oder ihn an seinem Teile
darstellt. Jeder bestimmte, individuelle Gedanke, jede Fordest
rung und Verheißung ist in dieser Religion Teil eines großen
Ganzen, tragend und getragen, während die Worte und die
Sätze, die man bei den Israeliten vor Israel gefunden hat, im
besten Falle bloße Einzelheiten sind. Es ist nicht dasselbe, ob
wir ein Sittengebot in der Bibel oder auf einem Keilschrift^
ZyHnder lesen. Auch in manchen Bildern aus den Tagen
ferner Stämme finden wir bisweilen diesen und jenen schönen
Zug, aber es ist ein Unterschied, ob wir ihn dort oder an -
einer Statue des Phidias, in einem Gemälde des Apelles be*
trachten und bewundern könnten. Man weise eine Bibel ,
man weise eine Propheten reihe auf, eine R el i gToiTs^ J/^
geschichte wie die israelitische oder ihr gleichwertig.
Bis dahin werden wir Israel seine einzigartige Bedeutung,
n\ oder um es theologisch auszudrücken, den Besitz der Offeii:^
vMbarung zusprechen müssen. "^^
Alles in der HeiHgen Schrift weist auf den Weg hin, den
der Glaube Israels zurücklegen mußte — von Abraham zu
Moses, von Moses zu Jeremias, von Jeremias zu dem Ver:^
fasser des Buches Hiob. Der Begriff derEntwickelung,
und zwar einer durch Persönlichkeiten hei ^
stimmten Entwickelung, ist unentbehrlich für die '^
Einsicht in das Entstehen und Werden der israelitischen
Religion. Und das nämliche gilt für das. Verständnis ihrer
I
■5|
■j
späteren Schicksale. Nicht eine innere Gleichheit der Zeiten,
sondern ein stetiger Zusammenhang, eine Kontinuität ver*
schiedener Epochen gibt der Geschichte des Judentums ihren
einheitlichen Charakter. Man hat diesen begreifen gelernt,
erst als man das Prinzip der Entwickelung erkannte, vermöge
dessen er sich gestaltet. Jedes S y s t e m der jüdischen Reli^
gion ist notwendig auch eine Geschichte der jüdischen
Religion. Nur in seiner historischen Totalität kann das Juden^ ^
tum wahrhaft erfaßt werden. So sehr ist ihm das Prinzip der
Entwickelung wesentlich, daß dasselbe ja auch den Bekennte
nissen, die aus der israeUtischen Religion mittelbar und
unmittelbar hervorgegangen sind, kraft dieser ihrer Herkunft
mehr oder minder eigentümlich geblieben ist. Von dem
Christentum ist besonders gerühmt worden, daß es „das
allerveränderlichste ' ist. Aber mit Recht hat einer der Be^
gründer der modernen ReHgionsgeschichte es nachdrück*
lieh betont, daß es diesen Vorzug hat, nur weil es seinen Zu>
sammenhang mit dem Judentum besitzt.
In jeder Entwickelung gibt es die r u h e n d e n Elemente,\
die das Gleichgewicht in allem Wandel sichern, und die t r e i*|
b e n d e n Kräfte, die zu dem weiteren Fortschritt vorwärts
drängen. Man kann den Unterschied zwischen ihnen auch als
den des autoritativen und des freiheitlichen
Faktors in der Religion bezeichnen. Allerdings wird oft das,
was im Vorwärtsdringen erreicht worden ist, schließlich zu
einem Elemente des Beharrens. Was anfangs eine kühne Frage
gewesen ist, hat nicht selten dem folgenden Geschlecht als
zweifellose Klarheit gegolten. Di6i<,Autithesis des einen Zeit^
alters ist die Thesis des anderen. Gerade hierin offenbart sich
meist der gesetzmäßige Zug der Entwickelung. Der Weg des
1 Fortschritts geht vom Paradoxon zum Gemeinplatz, von dem
(roßen Widerspruch zur großen Selbstverständlichkeit.
Im Judentum Hegen die ruhenden Elemente ganz vornehm*
lieh in dem Dasein eines heiligenBuches. Schon jede
bestimmte religiöse Habe, jede Glaubenstradition hat ihr be*
harrendes Schwergewicht. Bereits mit der alten ÜberHeferung
Israels, die an die Stammväter anknüpft und sich in Moses
zusammenschließt, war eine geschichtliche Grundlage ge*
geben. Um wie viel mehr sodann mit dem Buche, das als
das Buch die Erzählungen aus den Tagen der Vorfahren,
aasssszs
♦ii r ^ • < <t 't^IJAit
^•■■W ip«
16
Prophetismus und Thora
Bibel und mündliche Lehre
/
die Worte der Gottesmänner, die Reden der Propheten zum
Zeugnis von Gott vereint, um sie für alle Geschlechter aufzu^
bewahren. In der Bibel hat das Judentum sein sicheres, un==
verrückbares Fundament. Sie ist das Ruhende in dem Wechsel
de/ Erscheinungen. Nicht mehr von den Wegen, zu denen
der Gang des Schicksals führt, war das Leben der alten
Glaubensgedanken bedingt und gefügt; sie haben jetzt den
festen Boden ihres Daseins, ein geistiges Fundament ihrer
Geschichte. Es hat erkämpft werden müssen, aber es ist
darum um so entschiedener zum Eigentum geworden.
Der historische religiöse Besitz war so nicht nur erhalten,
sondern er wurde zur Autorität für die wechselnden
Zeiten. Prophetismus und Lehre waren keine vorübergehen^
den Erscheinungen, keine entschwindenden Geschichts?
Perioden. Was sie geschaut und erstrebt, blieb das Ideal, was
sie gefordert hatten, die religiöse Pflicht. Es ist eine häufi/^e
Darstellung, der israelitische Prophetismus sei durch die so?
genannte Gesetzesreligion des Judentums abgelöst worden,
und sie werden als zwei gegensätzliche Epochen von einander
getrennt. In Wirklichkeit darf man so sehr und so wenig
wischen ihnen scheiden, wie zwischen der Zeit, wo um eine
ahrheit gekämpft wird, und der, wo diese Wahrheit an?
genommen ist. Nicht eine Ablösung, sondern eine An?
erkennung hatte statt. Die Propheten wurden für die Schrift?
gelehrten nicht zu überholten Vorgängern, nicht das für sie,
was eine alte Schule für.jiie neue ist. Vielmehr wurden und
blieben sie ^3Te Verkünderder ewigen Wahrheit. Männer, die
hierzu erhoben werden, deren Worte zur Heiligen Schrift —
nicht etwa zu bloßer Literatur — geworden sind, werden
nicht abgelöst un^ smd keine bloßen Männer früherer Zeit.
Die Bibel ist das wichtigste autoritative Element im Juden*
tum. Aber nicht das einzige. Wie ihr einst die Überlieferung
vorangegangen war, so folgte ihr bald die Überlieferung: die
„mündliche Lehr e", die darum ringt, das Schriftwort
seelisch zu durchdringen, es auf alle Vorkommnisse des Da?
seins zu beziehen, alle Lebensverhältnisse religiös zu regeln
und zu versittlichen, das Ideal durch die ganze Gemeinde zu
verwirklichen. Auch diese Tradition, die im Talmud
schließlich festgestellt worden ist, hatte sich im Kampfe
durchsetzen müssen, und auch sie ist dann zu einer konser?
17
vativen Macht geworden. An religiösem Einfluß, an inner?
lieber Kraft und Wirkung steht, wie kaum erwähnt zu werden
braucht, der Talmud hinter der Bibel zurück, die auch als
göttliche Offenbarung ihre unvergleichliche, klassische Stel?
lung besaß. Aber als Faktor des Beharrens hat er sie oft
übertroffen. Absicht und Schicksal hatten ihm die Bedeutung
eines schützenden Zaunes für das Judentum zugewiesen. Und
als solchen haben ihn die langen Zeiten der Bedrängnis ganz
besonders geehrt und gehegt. Sie wußten sich durch ihn ge?
wahrt, und darum wahrten sie ihn. Nach und neben der
HeiUgen Schrift hat er es verhütet, daß sich die Religion
Israels auf fremdes Gebiet verirrte. Beides, der kanonische
Charakter, den: die Bibel erhielt, wie die maßgebende Autori?
tat, die der Talmud erwarb, ist für das Gleichgewicht in der
Geschichte des Judentums, für ihre sichere Stetigkeit ganz
wesentlich gewesen und geblieben.
Allerdings hätte sich beides bloß als Macht des Bestandes
bewiesen, wenn nicht auch die treibenden Kräfte der Ent?
Wickelung vorhanden gewesen wären. Ein fortwirkendes Ele?
ment Hegt schon in dem, was die Bibel für den Glauben
ist. Sie enthält das Wort Gottes, und dieses muß das
Wort aller Zeiten sein, jede muß ihr Gegenwärtiges, ihr
Eigenes in ihm finden können. Die göttliche Verkündigung
ist notwendig an den Menschen schlechthin gerichtet, nicht
nur an den, der einst lebte; sie muß uns allen von uns er?
zählen. „C)u bist der Mann" ist das Motto, das ihr vorgesetzt
ist. Man sagte es sich und dem anderen: „Gott hat diese /
::jtWunder auch an dir getan", „Du auch bist aus Ägypten ge^
^^'^zogen", „Auch du stehst vor dem Sinai, um das Wort de
/
Offenbarung zu empfangen". Jedes Geschlecht hörte aus
der Bibel seine Wünsche, seine Hoffnungen und seine Ge?
danken heraus, ein jeder seines Herzens Sehnen und Sinnen.
Sie stand so nahe, daß es ihr gegenüber nicht den historischen
Gesichtspunkt gab. Sie wurde im Judentum nie ein altes
Buch, das von den Epigonen gelesen wird; sie blieb die Schrift
des Lebens, die Schrift des Tages.
Jeder Tag brachte aber neues, neue Sorgen und ^|i
auch neue Erfordernisse mit ihren sittlichen und
reUgiösen Ansprüchen, ihren Beziehungen und Hinweisen.
Für jene sollte die Bibel ihren Trost bieten, für diese ihre Be?
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums 2
'xAl^^ifMi; '•»^LOhJ.
^^mmm
18
Besitz und Geschichte
9
iK
friedigung geben; alles sollte in ihr zu finden sein. Und nicht
zum mindesten neue Wahrheiten lehrte der Tag, und auch an
sie mußte die Heilige Schrift herantreten. Sie mußte sich mit
jeder Idee, die ihre Herrschaft besaß, auseinandersetzen, sich
mit jedem wichtigen Gedanken vergleichen und, wenn mög^
lieh, verbinden. War eine andere Weltbetrachtung gewonnen,
so wollte auch die Bibel wieder ein anderes aussprechen, das
alte Wort bewies die Kraft und Fülle der Bedeutung. So
schritt die Bibel selber fort, jede Zeit erwarb ihre
igene Bibel. Welch bezeichnender Unterschied ist zwi:*
sehen dem, was ein Philo, was ein Akiba, was ein Maimonides,
ein Mendelssohn aus der Schrift erfahren hat. Sie haben das
gleiche Buch, und doch ist es jedem von ihnen in vielem ein
anderes. Wie es schon der Talmud des öfteren sagt: jede Zeit
hat ihre eigenen Erklärer der Schrift. Und wie es vor allem
, ausgesprochen ist in jener wundersamen Legende von Moses,
"der den Rabbi Akiba die Thora des Moses erläutern hört
und seine eigene Thora nicht wiedererkennt. Man war sich
bewußt, die Bibel immer neu zu schaffen. "
Zudem liegt es in jeder wahren, großen Idee, daß sie sich
zu immer größerer Bestimmtheit und Klarheit durchzuringen
sucht. Sie trägt die gebende und die fordernde Kraft des
Weiterwirkens in sich. Unbeendet und unbegrenzt tritt jeder
schöpferische Gedanke aus dem Menschengeiste unter die
Menschen, und er vermag es so, immer von neuem und von
überall her das Denken an sich zu ziehen. Er stellt immer von
neuem das Problem, sich mit ihm zu beschäftigen. Man kann
der Bibel nicht nahe sein, ohne diese Aufgabe wie ein seeli.
sches Bedürfnis zu empfangen. Und nur wer es empfunden
hat, hat etwas von der Größe dieses Buches in sich ein:=
kehren lassen.
Was so der Charakter der HeiUgen Schrift und der Wandel
der Tage als notwendig beanspruchten, wurde im Judentum
bald auch als r e 1 i g i ö s e P f 1 i c h t erfaßt. Man begriff die
Notwendigkeit und nahm sie dadurch frei in sich auf. Das
Verständnis dafür erwachte, daß „die Gotteslehre kein Erbe
ist, welches in den Schoß fällt", daß man das Ererbte er.
werben müßte. Man empfand der Religion gegenüber die
?n\rh^m\ rrriritirrn,£i:sitzes. Der Wahrheitsgehalt der Schrift
ßalt nicht! als dargeboten, sondern er sollte ihr erst abgewon*
Das Gebot des Forschens
19
>^, (
*^i
1
nen, erst errungen werden. Es wurde ein Gebot, das über
vieles ging, dieSchriftzu erforschen. Forschen, das
heißt: etwas weniger als Gegebenes denn als Aufgeggjj^nes
ansehen. Damit vereinigt sich keine Starrheit7 keirTZwang,
keine Gebundenheit, keine Unveränderlichkeit der Uebers:
lieferung. Der bloße Autoritätsglaube ist damit ausgeschlos;?
sen. Die Pflicht des Forschens gebietet das Weiterdenken
tmd Vorwärtsschreiten. Sie macht das Ende immer wieder
zum Anfang, die Lösung immer wieder zum Vorwurf . Sie
hat es im Judentum gefordert und bewirkt, daß der über^
kommene Lehrinhalt nicht als ein fertig Abgeschlossenes
übernommen wurde, sondern sich beständig im Bewußtsein
der Gemeinde erneute. Daher auch der Wunsch, das alte
Wort immer wieder zu erfassen und zu erklären, immer
wieder den anderen Standpunkt, auch den des Widerspruches,
zu ihm zu gewinnen, das Gefühl ihm gegenüber, nie fertig
zu sein, als ein Suchender ihm immer nachzugehen.
Begünstigt wurde dies dadurch, daß im Judentum, be^
sonders späterhin, der Autor meist hinter sein Werk zu?
rücktrat, ja über ihm oft außer acht gelassen wurde. Wo die
Person allein gehört wird, wo sie im Mittelpunkte bleibt,
kann es leicht so empfunden werden, als stehe sie gebietend
und beschränkend bei ihrem Wort. Gilt die Idee mehr als der,
welcher sie verkündet hat, dann kann ihr eine größere Frei?
heit nahen. Allein mehr noch bedeutet in dieser Hinsicht die
F p r m der Bibel, die ganze Beschaffenheit der biblischen
Darstellung. Die Heilige Schrift ist als Ganzes gewisser?
maßen unausgearbeitet, unbeendet und systemlos, sie gibt
ic^ nur ^^Bruchstücke einer ^rnß^n KnnfpBFiimi" Sie läßt vieles
offen, sie bleibt fragenreich, und auch dadurch gebietet sie
das Weiterdenken. Was sie bloß andeutet, konnte und mußte
weiter ausgeführt werden. Was in ihr zwiespältig schien,
mußte man auszugleichen suchen, was sie freigab, auszufüllen
trachten. Die HeiHge Schrift ist im Judentum das Be?
ständigste und das zum weitesten Hinausführende. In ihrer
Eigenschaft als Kanon ist sie das Element des Beharrens —
denn es ist dasselbe Buch, das immer wieder alles reli?
giöse Sinnen und Forschen an sich zieht. Aber eben so sehr
ist sie der wirksamste Faktor des Fortschritts durch das, was
sie dem Glauben ist, durch die schöpferische Kraft, die in
»»— »— »— 1WW»!
/ «
?'
l»H«| I. . . - 1 . ..IAI"«[»
20
Die religiöse Selbstgewißheit
ihren Ideen lebt, durch die ganze Art ihres Stiles. Ein ahn»
hches gilt von der mündlichen Lehre, welche das von der
Bibel geforderte Weiterdenken aufnimmt. Schon in ihrem
Begriffe liegt es, wie mit Recht hervorgehoben worden ist,
daß sie keinen Abschluß finden kann; sie ist nirgends fertig.
Sie konnte niedergeschrieben, aber nicht eingegrenzt werden.
Auch sie wirkte fort als ein wichtiges Element der Freiheit
und der Entwickelung.
So vermochte man allem Ueberlieferten, auch dem Bibel»
wort, mit einer Selbständigkeit gegenüberzutreten,
die in ihrer Bestimmtheit oft unterschätzt wird. Es wird zu
wenig beachtet, wie sicher z. B. die mündliche Lehre Ge»
ringeres in der Bibel dem Höheren unterordnet. Die bibli»
sehen Gebote wurden verglichen und gegen einander abge=
wertet. Man bemühte sich, tragende religiöse Grundgedanken
festzustellen. Sie wurden bald in diesem, bald in jenem
Worte der Schrift gefunden: in der Forderung der Nächsten»
hebe und in der Lehre von der Gottesebenbildlichkeit des
Menschen, in der frommen Gewißheit des Vertrauens auf
Gott und in der durch das Leben betätigten Gotteserkennt»
ms. Neue Maßstäbe wurden an das heiUge Buch angeleör
man begann es zu prüfen und zu beurteilen.
Das „ich aber sage euch" ist kein neues Wort einer späte»
ren Zeit; es läßt sich schon bei den Propheten und Psalmisten
vernehmen. Wir hören es klar in dem Worte, daß der Mensch
sein Herz beschneiden solle, daß er sein Herz zerreißen solle
und nicht sein Gewand, in dem Worte vorLjdsr, Liebe, die
Gott wohlgefälliger ist als Opfer, von dem zerschlagenen Ge»
mute. das Gott dargebracht werde, von der Lehre, welche
Gott in das Innere des Menschen legen und in sein Herz
schreiben wird. Diese freie Gewißheit des religiösen Empfin»
dens hat dann auch weiterhin ihren Ausdruck gefunden; sie
ist nicht dem Evangelium bloß eigentümlich geworden. Aus
dem Talmud klingt uns der gleiche Ton deutlich entgegen-
wir brauchen ihn nur in seine Form, die er verlangt, zu
tassen, um ihn so zu uns sprechen zu lassen. Wir hören ihn
dann mannigfaltig: „Ihr habt gehört, daß zu den Alten ge»
sagt worden ist: du sollst nicht ehebrechen; ich aber sa'e
^euch: wer auch nur die äußerste Ferse eines Weibes ansieht
|m seinem Gelüste, der ist. als hätte er mit ihr die Ehe «e»
f\}
^
Die Wege zur Bibel
21
brochen „Ihr habt gehört, daß sechshundert und dreizehn
Gebote dem Moses verkündet wurden; ich aber sage euch:
durchsuchet nicht die Thor a, denn so spricht der Ewige
zum Hause Israel: suchet m i c h , und ihr werdet leben".
..Jiure Lehrer zählen euch auf. wie vieles die Thora gebietet-
n ""^^l ^""^l ^"''''•' das Weik der LjeheJ«t«n viel wertwi^ ^J^
aUeG^te der LehreT ..ihVFrol^SiSSnnBirraSS-EHtÄen ^"^
und geht dem Erschweren nach - habt ihr denn aber nicht
an dem genug, was die Thora verboten hat, daß ihr auch
noch verbietet?" „Es ist zu den Alten gesagt: wer des Ge»
richtes schuldig ist. denn soll das Gericht töten. Ich aber
sage euch: ein Gericht, das in siebzig Jahren einen tötet,
selbiges Gericht ist ein Rat der Mörder". „Ihr wißt, daß in
der Ihora gesagt ist: wer gesündigt hat, der bringe ein Opfer
und er ist gesühnt; ich aber sage euch: Gott spricht: derA/i-
^— p^nOeLtue .Buße, dann ist er versöhnti" „Ihr habt gehörF'^'^
5^0" sucht dJe Schuld der Väter heim an Kindern und Kindes»
kindern. Ist nicht aber nach Moses ein anderer Prophet auf»
gestanden in Israel und hat das Wort gesprochen: Nur die
Seele, die sündigt, stirbt!" Also selbst zu einem Satze der
Zehn Gebote setzte man als bestimmende Wahrheit ein
anderes Bibelwort!
Diese Beispiele lassen den Weg erkennen, auf welchem
religiöses Denken und Fühlen damals seiner bewußt ge»
worden ist. Sie zeigen es, wiei das eine Mal einem Worte der
Bibel ein anderes, das Tieferes und Innerlicheres zu bedeuten
schien, entgegengeführt wird, um die bestimmende Antwort
zu geben, bald wieder das sittliche Empfinden um seine Ent»
Scheidung angerufen wird, bald wieder das Wesen des Gottes
der Liebe, als das oberste Gesetz, welches den Spruch fällt
vor den suchenden Sinn hintritt. Und das alles ist nichts
Vereinzeltes, nicht gelegentliche Äußerung eines Allein»
stehenden bloß, sondern Lehre von Männern, die als ..die
Weisen" geltende dem Volke seine Meister und Führer ge»
worden sind.
Daß es nichts Zufälliges und nichts Vorübergehendes war,
ergibt sich daraus schon, wie vieles sich zu einer Richtung
vereint. Alle die menschlichen und körperlichen Eigen»
Schäften, welche die Sprache der Bibel Gott beizumessen
schien, wurden mit stetiger Absicht in die geistige Sphäre
^r^-.:. ^A.a^^ ^^silAj^iktl..-'
:<
»
'■*" ■ "■ »■» ■
llf
22
Die neue Bedeutung
erhoben. In dem Wesen und der Bedeutung alter Feste
wurde ihr reUgiöser und sittlicher Charakter entschiedener
hervorgehoben, sie wurden fortgebildet und ein Weg weiters=
geführt, den die alten Satzungen der Heiligen Schrift bereits
erkennen lassen. Viele alte Begriffe wurden mit bestimmterem
und reicherem Inhalt erfüllt. Aus dem Gottesnamen, den die
Bibel zumeist gebraucht, begann man so die Betonung „der
Allbarmherzige*' herauszuhören; überall, wo man ihn ver?
nahm, erfuhr man jetzt von der Liebe des Ewigen. Man
konnte fast jedes Satzes entraten, der von dieser göttlichen
Eigenschaft besonders sprach; schon dieser Name kündete
J^ es auf jedem Blatte der Schrift, daß wie ein Vater sich seiner
KmdßX..£lb.armt, so der Ewige sich derer erbarmt, die ihn
fürchten, daß er im Zorn der Liebe nicht vergißt. In dem
Worte der Bibel, das ursprünglich die Gerechtigkeit benennt,
Q wurde die Bedeutung der BilUgkeit und der Güte gefunden,
die der Gerechtigkeit ihr Maß geben sollen, um sie zur
lebendigen Gerechtigkeit zu machen, und diese strenge
Tugend wurde so schließlich in ihrem Begriffe zur Mildtätig.^
keit. Wenn die Bibel ihre Verkündigung an den Menschen
schlechthin richtet, so entdeckte man darin die Rede von
dem Menschentum, das alles Trennende, alle Unterschiede
der Abkunft überbrückt, so daß „ein Heide, der nach der
Thora trachtet, so hoch steht wie ein Hoherpriester in
Israel'*. Wenn der Psalm von der Vernichtung der „Sünder"
redet, so wurde der Charakter des betreffenden Wortes da^:
^.^^^^^^ hin gefaßt, daß es von der Vernichtung der „Sünden" spricht.
L_ ^-Nicht der Böse, sondern das Böse wird verdammt. „Mögen
die Sünden von der Erde schwinden, und es wird Frevler
nicht mehr geben."
^ Auch die spätere Zeit hat im Judentum diese Frische und
Selbständigkeit gewahrt, mit der das religiöse Erkennen und
Fordern dem UeberUeferten gegenübertreten will. Ein Mann
von einer so strengen Festigkeit des Glaubens wie Maimoni::
des war bereit, auch eine Weltewigkeit, wenn anders sie be*
wiesen würde, mit seinem bibUschen Monotheismus zu ver:^
binden; „die Tore der Erklärung", so sagte er, „sind nicht
geschlossen". Er war ein Mann, der in seinen Gedanken
weiter ging als mancher neben und nach ihm. Aber die ge*
samte jüdische Religionsphilosophie zeugt doch von einer
^
I ■">
i.
\
Die stetige Renaissance
ähnlichen Freiheit und Fähigkeit eigenen Denkens, und das«
selbe gilt von den mannigfachen Wegen der Bibelerklärung,
und es gilt auch, freilich in gewissen Grenzen, von der reli«
tionsgesetzlichen Forschung. Man blieb zumeist seines reli*
giöserTRecHfes'bewußt. Das jüdische Mittelalter hat darin
einen charakteristischen und unterscheidenden Vorzug
empfunden. Es ist eine Stimme der Zeit, wenn ein Streitbrief
aus dem vierzehnten Jahrhundert die Meinung, daß „die
Kammern des menschlichen Verstandes dunkel seien, und er
mit seinen Beweisen und Schlüssen nichts zu erhellen ver«
möge", als die Lehre hinstellt, welche der jüdischen gegen*
überstehe. Tatsächlich sind im Judentum damals auch die
Kräfte der Selbständigkeit, der geistigen Unabhängigkeit^ so
lebendig gewesen, wie wohl nirgend anders im religiösen
Leben jener Tage.
Sie sind es schon deshalb stets gewesen, weil hier eben
auch in den Elementen der Autorität die bestimmte Voraus«
Setzung weiterer Entwicklung enthalten ist, weil die alte
Schrift nicht alt werden konnte, da das Gebot, in ihr zu
forschen, sie immer wieder zur Gegenwart hinführte. Auch
die Autorität war undogmatisch. Der Kampf um den rieh«
tigen Gedanken, um das richtige Gebot, um die richtige
Satzung, diese hundertfältige Frage ohne die endgültige Ant«
wort hat immer wieder eingesetzt. So ist die Bibel Bibel
gebheben und nach ihr der Talmud entstanden, so nach ihm
und neben ihm die Religionsphilosophie geworden, so nach
ihr und bei ihr die Mystik erwachsen, und so fort in stetem
Leben ein Bleiben und neues Werden. An keines ihrer Zeit«
alter hat sich die Religion angeheftet, um mit ihm abzu:»
schließen; sie ist nie ganz fertig. Die Aufgabe steht fest,
nicht aber die Lösung. Die alte Offenbarung wird immer zu
Neuem; di£..£digion erfährt ihre s ^ ^ ^ ^ f^ ^ ^ ^ n a i -. -, g n ? r
Diese wiederkehrende Renaissance, diese Kraft der Er«
neuerung gibt dem geschichtlichen Leben des Judentums
seinen Charakter; es ist immer wieder erwacht und «hat die
Augen aufgeschlagen. Es hat seine Epochen erhalten durch
diese Zeiten, welche so in der Welt, in der sie lebten, ihre
eigene Welt entdeckten und sie besitzen wollten. Der Drang,
den Gedanken und das Gebot zu verwirklichen, hat zwar
auch dazu gebracht, daß man sich ruhelos in das Über«
mtmti^ißl)f
m
I
I
24
Die Vergangenheit
lieferte immer tiefer hineingrub, Schacht um Schacht an^
legte, aber zuletzt hat er stets dazu doch geführt, hinaufzu*
steigen und zu suchen, um den eigenen Geist und das eigetie
jCa^z in der alten Religion zu" erleb elir "Die Geschichte ge^
*^ winnt so, wie den Wechsel der Plätze, so den Anbruch der
Zeiten. Das Geistesleben im Judentum hat, seit es von
Palästina fortzugehen anfing, seine Wanderung gehabt von
Gebiet zu Gebiet; es hat sich nach alten Stätten andere und
wieder andere bereitet. Aber ebenso gibt es hier die Wanden
rung der Zeiten, den Aufgang der Epochen; Tage beginnen,
in denen die Idee ihren Weg nimmt. Das Wort von „dem
i^euen Himmel und der neuen Erde" ist in der Geschichte des
Judentums immer wieder wahr geworden.
Nur wenige Zeiten, nur Übergangsperioden sind es im
Judentum gewesen, die an einer Bürde religiöser Ver?
gangenheit trugen. Man war dessen bewußt, eine unver^^
gleichliche Geschichte mit all dem Segen, den sie schenkt,
zu besitzen; man fühlte sich erhoben und getröstet durch die
Jahrhunderte göttlichen Waltens im Leben des jüdischen
Volkes. Aber als ein Hemmnis der Gegenwart wurde die
religiöse Vergangenheit selten empfunden. Fast jede Zeit war
überzeugt, ein eigenes Glaubensdasein zu haben, eine
lebendige Wirklichkeit in der Religion zu besitzen. Die Mänj^
ner, die hier neue Wege des Denkens betreten haben, blieben
dessen gewiß, damit auf dem sicheren Boden des Judentums
zu stehen. Weniges drängt sich in der religiösen Literatur des
Judentums so sehr auf, wie diese ihre Vergangenheitslosig^
keit. Zwischen der alten Lehre und dem neuen Begreifen hat
es Spannungen zwar oft gegeben, aber es sind zumeist die
^gj2flpmingAn gf?Wf.Sf", i" rlpnpn Qirh Aas. T^gj^ien WCJten wiU.
Die Geschichte behielt ihre Gegenwart.
Es ist selbstverständlich, daß manche Zeiten, und es sind
bisweilen lange Zeiten gewesen, müde waren, und in ihnen
das Leben stille zu stehen schien, daß nicht selten Gedanken
führen .wollten, welche bald matt am Wege zurückblieben.
Nichts leichter, als in irgend einem Jahrhundert des Juden?
tums, in irgend einer seiner Urkunden etwas zu finden, was
nicht zum Ideal hinaufleitet. Gegen das Judentum und seine
Geschichte ist damit nichts dargetan; denn das Judentum
hat sich immer wieder erhoben. Es hat sich immer wieder
Die erneute Geschichte
-r^'
entdeckt und seinen Weg gesehen. ^^tr.o w|^|^rp Opq^
ist eine Geschichte (|er Repaissance.^on manchen Völkern
und Gemeinschaften ist gesagt worden, sie hätten eine zu
große Vergangenheit, als daß sie eine Zukunft noch haben
könnten. Auf die israelitische Religion und ihre Bekenner
hätte dieses Urteil, wenn anders es gegenüber einer Religion
überhaupt statthaft wäre, schon darum nicht seine An?
v/endung, weil hier die Geschichte sich immer wieder erneut
hat — ganz zu schweigen von dem großen GedankgQ der
Zukunftj^wieerim Judentum geschaffen worden ist. Die alten vjs^
ProphetengeEen in lebendigem Genius wiedererwachend An
von Geschlecht zu Geschlecht durch die Welt des Judentums. ^
< »
niVifAafMMil li<r> Yt m 1
-i-t JftbHt^0^m»,iU
mm
mmm
m^mmfmr
Prophetisches Erkennen
27
xx>^
Die prophetische Religion und
die Glaubensgemeinde
Das Wesen der Religion kann am ehesten an dem religiösen
Genie erforscht werden, ganz wie das Wesen der Kunst m
den großen Künstlern und ihren Werken faßlich wird. Wenn
wir das Judentum begreifen wollen, müssen wir daher seme
Propheten verstehen lernen. Es ist umsomehr erfordere
lieh, als Israel durch die Arbeit seiner Propheten in jähr,
hundertelangem Ringen gebildet und gestaltet worden ist.
Sie haben in seinem Leben Recht behalten; sie haben ihm die
^eeTj,sche Richtung gewiesen, der es zwar bisweilen ent.
fremdet ward, zu der es sich aber immer wieder zurucktand.
^JiJl"1!^I1J!£!L£-^^^^^^^^ geprägt. Was ihrem Wollen und
Glauben eigentümlich war, daslst das Israelitische geworden
und gebUeben; zu ihnen sollte gehören, was die Auslese der
Pjr.f^nHpn IHiiternden^Zeit Übrig ließ. In ihren Gedanken
hat das Volk seine Bestimiriung gewonnen, seine Wahrheit
erworben. Sie haben die Geschichte Israels geschaffen.
Bezeichnend ist für die Propheten Israels vor allem der
intuitive, praktische Charakter ihrer Erkenntnisse.
Ihre Gedanken entsteigen, um ein Wort Vauvenargues zu
gebrauchen, dem Herzen. ,Xes grandfi^j g^nsees viennent du
Keine Philosophie und keine Theologie wollen sie
coe
bieten, weder um eine scharfsinnige Beweisführung noch um
eine gelehrte Lösung reUgiöser Probleme ist es ihnen zu tun.
Nichts ist das Ergebnis irgend welcher Forschung. Sie wollen
nicht ergründen, welches die ersten Bedingungen alles Seins,
die letzten Prinzipien alles Geschehens sind; jede Speku^
lation liegt ihnen unsagbar fern. Sie haben überhaupt keine
vorgenommenen Aufgaben des Denkens, keine vorgesetzten
rA Ziele des Nachsinnens. Ein sittlicher^wang macht sie
y /denken, ein Gewissensdruck heißt sie sprechen; di^junwider^
x/«;fph1inhe Wahrheit überwindet-sie. Das gibt ihnen etwas
Natürliches; alles AbsichtHche und Reflektierte bleibt ihnen
\\l
i
^^^^' Nicht sie reden, sondern eine höhere, übermächtige
Gewalt redet in ihnen. „Was in mir ist, pocht in mir, zer^
springen wollen die Wände meines Herzens, mir tobt mein
Herz, ich kann nicht schweigen." „Du hast mich überredet,
o Gott, und ich ward überredet; du hast mich erfaßt, und du
überwältigtest mich . . . Und dachte ich, ich will des Wortes
des Ewigen nicht mehr gedenken, ich will nicht mehr reden
in seinem Namen, da ward es in meinem Herzen wie lodern*
des Feuer, eingeschlossen in meinen Gebeinen. Ich mühte
mich ab, es auszuhalten, und ich vermochte es nicht.'' Sie
sprechen^ weil sie sprechen mügsen, und darum lassen sie so
überzeugend die Sprach'e "Hei Gewissens, so innig die Sprache
des rehgiösen Gemüts vernehmen. Gott gab es ihnen zu sagen.
Deshalb ist ihnen ihre Prophetie auch so durchaus selbst*
verständlich: „Der Löwe hat gebrüllt, wer sollte sich nicht
fürchten? Gott, der Herr, hat geredet, wer sollte nicht weis*
^ sagen?" „Der Ewige nahm mich hinter der Herde weg, und
'' der Ewige sprach zu mir: „gehe hin und weissage meinem
Volke Israel." „Ich bin voll der Kraft des Geistes des Ewigen,
des Geistes des Rechts und der Stärke, daß ich Jakob seine
Missetat, Israel seine Sünde kund tue." Alles, was sie aus*
sprechen, hat Gott zu ihnen und in ihnen gesprochen; es ist
ein spontanes, innerliches Erfassen, tiefste religiöse Er*
fahrung. Worin diese besteht, ist nicht zu zerlegen und aus*
einanderzusetzen. Könnten wir es definieren, so wäre es eben
nicht das, was es ist, so wäre es keine prophetische Offen*
barung. Das Genie, das Göttliche ist undefinierbar.
In diesem Uttenbarungsbesitz, in diesem Geheimnisvollen,
Divinatorischen hat das Wirken und das Leben der Propheten
ein seeHsches Eigentum. Die Propheten sind nicht bloß Lehrer
ihres Volkes gewesen, Männer, die in einer Zeit der Ver*
kehrtheit zum Rechten mahnten, Lehrer von Gedanken, zu
denen sie oder andere gelangt waren. Sie sind mehr; sie sind
dessen inne, daß Gott spricht, sie sind „voll der Kraft des
Geistes des Ewigen". So klar, so begrifflich bestimmt das ist,
was sie verkünden, so klar, daß es zur Klarheit für alle Zeiten
geworden ist, der Quell, in dem es hervordringt, entspringt
jener unergründHchen seelischen Tiefe, wo das Menschliche
vom Göttlichen aufgenommen wird. Ihr Geist «^hrr^^^ "^^^^
^ zur Wahrheit hin, sondern die Wahrheit Icommt iihpr sie; ihre
1 :-.--.-
/f
'mrmfy:
■#•
^-^
2© Prophetisches Erkennen
Erkenntnis ist nicht erschlossen oder ergrübelt, sondern sie
steht offen, für sie aufgetan. Aber in alle dem bleibt doch
wieder ihr menschlich Persönliches, ihr wollendes Ich mit
seinem steten Suchen und Zagen, seinem Kämpfen und
Widerstreben. Sie fühlen sich nicht, wie es einen anderen,
späteren Glauben erfaßt hat, bloß passiv, als bloßes Objekt
einer her nieder steigenden Gnade; ihr Eigenes, ihrjifiihfiits*
empfinden begehrt seinen Weg. Beides verbindet sich m
ihneh^ars" gottliche GeheimnisT das in sie eintritt, und das
menschliche Sinnen und Sehnen, das aus ihnen hervordrangt.
Deutlich erleben sie das eine wie das andere. Sie wissen um
das Wunderbare, um das, was über ihre Kraft ist, an sie
heran tritt die Zukunft, sie erschauen und vernehmen, was
über den Kreis des irdischen Auges, des irdischen Ohres
hinausgeht. Aber ebenso wissen sie um das Selbst ihrer
Seele, sie tragen an der Entscheidung, die von ihnen gefordert
wird, ihr Gewissen ringt in seinen Kämpfen, vor ihnen sind
die Wege, zwischen denen sie wählen sollen. Zusammen
wirkt es so in ihnen: sie offenbaren sich Gott, und Gott
offenbart sich ihnen; Gott heißt und zwingt sie, zu sprechen,
und sie sprechen und streiten mit Gott. Sie sind^die
Männer Gottes.
Nichts ist darum bei ihnen ins Allgemeine verflüchtigt,
alles ist wirklich, persönlich und bestimmt,
persönUch oft bis zur Härte, bestimmt oft bis zur kantigsten
Schroffheit. Das gilt von ihrer Forderung, und es gilt von
ihrem Worte. Man merkt es den Prpoheten an, wie sie, im
Ringen mit sich, um den Ausdruck ringen, wie sie mit der
Sprache kämpfen, damit Ha^^^IH^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ aussprechbar
werde; die Fülle des Inhalt" if.hfi^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^-" erdrücken.
Aber nie suchen sie eineiT Ausdruck etwa zu erklären oder
zu rechtfertigen, nie empfinden sie ein Bedürfnis nach einer
begriffUchen Auseinanderlegung und Feststellung. Denn es
ist das Wort Gottes, das aus ihnen spricht und das sich
ihnen aufzeigt; dgs Denken ist in ihnen zum Hören und zum
Schauen geworden, das Sinnbild mit seinem Gleichnis gibt
ihnen die letzte Antwort.
Gleichgültig stehen sie daher dem überlieferten Worte
gegenüber, mochte es auch das Heihgste bezeichnen, miLun*
verhohlenem_WiderwüleiL_d^ Phrase, die alles verstanden zu
•#
Die Erkenntnis Gottes
29
haben meint, wenn sie es unter die tönende Benennung ein*
ordnet. „Ich bin kein Prophet", ruft der Prophet Amos
denen zu, die ihn begriffen haben wollen, wenn sie nur sagen
können, er sei ein Prophet. Mit welchem Ingrimm wendet
sich nicht J e r e m i a s gegen das Wort vom Tempel des
Herrn, gegen das Wort von der Bundeslade, vom Auszug aus
Ägypten, Wo*rte, die ihm im Munde des Volkes wie ge*
sprochene Götzen sind, Götzen, fast schlimmer und gefähr^
lieber als die aus Holz und Stein. Die Propheten schwören
auf keinen Begriff und begnügen sich mit keinem Begriff,
sie hassen jeglit-he Redensart und jegliche Deklamation,
alles, was schon fertig zu sein scheint. Auch ihr eigenes Wort
ist ihnen nur ein Wort, das sie sprechen. Dadurch sind sie
so unvergleichlich mehr als ihre Rede; größer als ihr Wort
ist die Persönlichkeit, die hinter dem Worte steht, der Geist,
der in dem Worte seinen Ausdruck sucht. Sie haben mit
Gott gekämpft und Gott mit ihnen. Es ist die Offenbarung
Gottes, die über aller Form und aller Formel steht, nicht ein
Satz ihres Denkens, wovon ihre Lippen Kunde geben wollen.
Die Erkenntnis Gottes ist so für die Propheten nicht das
Snhluß^lipH ^\^^j Gedankenreihe, pir>ff rla<^ Frgphnig einer
Verstandeserwägung. Da sie es empfinden, wasTjott ihnen
ist, so tragen sie Gott in sich. Und daher ist er ihnen so
durchaus sicher, so unanzweifelbar gewiß. Einen Gottes*
beweis zu geben, würde ihnen ein Zeichen völligen Unglau*:
bens, eine Bekundung der Gottesverlorenheit und Gottver?
lassenheit gewesen sein. Das Dasein Gottes und das gött*:
liehe Walten erst darzutun, liegt ihnen so fern, wie wenn sie
sich selber, ihr eigenes Lebensbewußtsein durch Gründe erst
hätten beweisen sollen. Die Religigji ist ihnen der Sinn, der
innerste Kern ihres eigenen Daseins, nichts Äußerliches und
nichts Hinzugekommenes, nichts Erworbenes und nichts Gc*
lerntes. Sie ist Leben vom" Leben der Seele und als das außer
den Bereich jeder Kontroverse gestellt. Immer wieder wird
es betont: sie wohnt im Herzen, sie ist die innerste Natur
des Menschen. Und das ist den folgenden Geschlechtern
in Wesen und Seele übergegangen. In manchen Psalmen, im
Buche Hiob, im Buche Kohelet und an so manchen Stellen
des Talmuds sind Worte der Verneinung gesprochen, wie sie
der Atheismus nicht entschiedener gefunden hat; die Wider*
o^xA-k^l
«aiB
««■•■P
30
Gott und der Mensch
Der Weg zu Gott
31
f
I
Sprüche und Unbegreiflichkeiten, die Rätsel und Mißklänge
des Menschenschicksals werden in ihrer ganzen quälenden
und verletzenden Schärfe aufgedeckt. Aber das alles etwa
gegen Gott und die sittliche Weltordnung, gegen die Religion
zu kehren, ist für die Männer, die jenes gesprochen, ein
unvollziehbarer Gedanke, ganz so unvollziehbar, wie daß sie
sich selber verwerfen sollten.
Weil so der Glaube seelisches Leben war, weil er so seine
Sicherheit und seine Rechtfertigung in sich trug, von^ jeder
fremden Stütze unabhängig, darum vermochte er uner schütter j:
li(3rTmTTerzeir ziT wwzHi^^ Die Propheten wollen nur dars
sagen, was sie selber erfahren, was Gott ihnen allezeit ist,
und dieses können sie dafür aus der unüberwindlichen Ge?
wißheit des klaren Gefühls„heraus sagen. Sie haben die KraTt,
diese ihre seelische Sicherheit allen vermeintlichen Tat?
Sachen entgegenzusetzen und gegenüber allem, was wirklich
sein will, mit der machtvollen Paradoxie der Glaubenszuver?
sieht ihr „und dennoch** zu sprechen; sie haben die Menschen
gelehrt dieses „und dennoch" mit dem Leben zu bezeugen-
An sich halten die Propheten fest; sie verhandeln nicht und
paktieren nicht, sie lassen von ihrer Forderung nichts fort:*
nehmen und nichts abziehen. „Sie sollen sich nach dir um?
wenden, du aber sollst dich nicht nach ihnen umwenden.'*
Damit haben sie der Religion die sieghafte Selbständigkeit,
das Offenbarungsgepräge gegeben.
In dieser freien Gewißheit, innerlich mit Gott verbunden
zu sein, ist der sittliche Charakter begründet, der dem Worte
der Propheten sein Wesen gibt, und der für das Judentum
bestimmend geblieben ist. Nicht sowohl was Gott an sich
ist, als vielmehr was erfürdenMenschen bedeutet, was
er für die Welt ist, wollen sie sagen. Sie analysieren
nicht die Natur Gottes und ebenso wenig die Natur des
Menschen. Die menschliche Willensfreiheit, die Verantworte
lichkeit und das Gewissen sind ihnen, als Prinzip ihrer seeli?
sehen Erfahrung und ihrer sittlichen Forderung, gleicher*
weise selbstverständlich wie das göttliche Dasein und die
göttliche Heiligkeit. Sie wollen kein Weltproblem lösen,
sondern nur das Verhältnis Gottes zur Welt, die göttliche
Güte und den göttlichen Willen, kund tun. Sie wollen kein
seelisches Problem beantworten, sondern nur von der Be?
"~ 1
<
< V
Ziehung der Seele zu Gott, von dem Menschenadel, der
Menschenpflicht und der Menschenhoffnung sprechen.
Gottes Wesen erkennen, das heißt für die Propheten:
wissen, daß er gerecht und unbestechlich, daß er barmherzig,
gnädig und langmütig ist, wissen, daß er das Herz des Men?
sehen prüft, wissen, daß er den Menschen zum Guten be?
stimmt hat. Die Erkenntnis Gottes belehrt über das, was
der Mensch sein soll; das Göttliche sagt, was menschlich ist.
Die Wege Gottes sind die Wege, die der Mench gehen soll
— „sie sollen den Weg des Ewigen wahren: zu üben Ge?
rechtigkeit und Recht'*. Und den Menschen begreifen, das
heißt daher, einsehen, was Gott ihm gibt und ihm gebietet,
einsehen, daß er geschaffen ist, um gerecht und gut zu sein,
heilig wie der Ewige, sein Gott. Die Offenbarung Gottes und
die Offenbarung des Sittlichen im Menschen kommen so zu?
sammen. Nicht eine Offenbarung über Gottes Natur wird
dem Propheten und wird durch ihn zuteil, sondern die Offen?
barung über Gottes Willen und Walten. In dem, was wir
von Gott erfahren, lernen wir, uns selber verstehen, lernen
wir es, wahre Menschen zu sein. „Er hat dir verkündigt,
o Mensch, was gut ist.*' Was Gott zu uns spricht, ist das
Gute, das um unseres Lebens willen von uns gefordert ist.
Auf dem Pf adö des Rechten allein gelangen wir so zu unserem
Gotte hin. Je mehr wir wahre Menschen sein wollen, desto
näher sind wir ihm, desto näher ist er uns. Gott suchen, das
ist: nach Gutem streben; Gott finden, das ist: Gutes tun.
Übe, was Gott dir gebietet, dann weißt du, wer er ist. Das
ist das Begreifen Gottes, wie die Propheten es erfahren und
lehren, der Weg, welcher zu Gott führt. „Auf allen deinen
Wegen erkenne ihn." „Kehre um zu deinem Gotte, wahre
Liebe und Recht und harre stet s^^n§f> -Gottes**. „Suchet den
E w i g^e n , so werdetihr leben; suchet das Gute
und nicht das Böse, daß ihr lebet; dann wird der Ewige, der
Gott der Heerscharen, bei euch sein, wie ihr gesagt habt.'*
Dieser Sinn, in welchem die Propheten das Wort vom
Erkennen Gottes gebrauchen, ist für ihr Denken besonders
bezeichnend. Alles, was dieser Begriff in sich beschließt, bleibt
für sie im Kreise des Menschlichen, seines Lebens, seines Seins
und Werdens. Die Gotteserkenntnis ist nicht ein Wissen von
dem, was, abseits und getrennt, im Jenseitigen ist, sondern sie
^il
32
Gott erkennen
! :*^-
bleibt im Religiösen und Ethischen; als das Wissen um Gottes
Gebot und der Wille zu ihm wurzelt sie im Menschen. Sie
wird zur Bezeichnung für die Sittlichkeit, die in jeder Seele
als ihr Gesetz leben kann. Nicht als ein Geschenk des
Gnadenwunders kommt sie über diesen und jenen, sondern sie
gehtauTger^Freiheit des Menschen hervor, so frei, wie seine
Liebe zu seinem Gotte. Diese beiden, die Erkenntnis Gottes
und die Liebe zu Gott, stehen beieinander, auf gleichem Grund
und in gleichem Sinn. Wie es gesagt ist: hebe den Ewigen,
deinen Gott, ganz so ist auch das ein seeUsches Sollen: du
sollst ihn erkennen. So sehr wurzelt es in der sittlichen Frei,
heit, daß im Namen seiner Gotteserkenntnis der Mensch
seinem Gotte gegenübertritt. Das sittliche Gewissen, dieses
innerste Erkennen, darf an Gott seine Forderung stellen,
die Forderung des Erkennenden. „Von dem, was das Recht
gebietet, muß ich mit dir reden, o Gott!" „Der Richter der
ganzen Erde sollte nicht Gerechtigkeit üben!"
Von Gott wissen und das Rechte tun, das Wort Gottes
und das sittlich Gute sind so für die prophetische Rede gleich,
bedeutende Begriffe geworden, das eine wie das andere ein
Gebot. „Liebe verlange ich und nicht Schlachtopfer, und Er.
kenntnis Gottes mehr als Ganzopfer". „Es ist keine Treue
und keine Liebe und keine Gotteserkenntnis im Lande".
„Voller Trug weigern sie sich, mich zu erkennen, ist der Spruch
des Ewigen." „Dein Vater aß und trank ja auch, aber er übte
Recht und Gerechtigkeit; da war^s ihm wohl.^^haffte Recht
,^)fef: dem Bedrückten und Armen; da war es wohl. Heißt nicht
das: mich e r k e n n e n , ist der Spruch des Ewigen." „Also
spricht der Ewige: nicht rühme sich ein Weiser seiner Weis,
heit, und nicht rühme sich der Starke seiner Stärke, und nichts
rühme sich ein Reicher seines Reichtums, sondern dessen
rühme sich, wer sich rühmen mag, zu begreifen und mich zu
erkennen, daß ich, der Ewige, Liebe, Recht und Gerechtigkeit
auf Erden übe, und daß ich an denen mein Wohlgefallen habe
ist der Spruch des Ewigen". „Sie werden nicht Böses tun und
nicht verderben auf meinem ganzen heiligen Berge, denn voll
ist die Erde der Erkenntnis des Ewigen, wie Wasser das Meer
bedecken". So ist dann dem Volke gepredigt worden: der
Grund für die Einsieht ist die rechte Tat, in ihr wird die Er.
kenntnis gegeben; der gerade Lebensweg führt zum geraden
f
..JüidK^i
Religion und Leben
33
Denken. „Die Furcht des Ewigen ist Anfang der Erkenntnis".
„Zum Menschen sprach er: siehe, Furcht des Herrn, das ist
Weisheit, und vom Bösen weichen, das ist Vernunft^\
Das ist Anfang und Ende, Lehre und Ziel der jüdischen
Religion gebheben; es ist zum sicheren Besitz der Glaubens,
gemeinschaft geworden. Weise ist, wer in den Wegen Gottes
wandelt, wer das Gute tut so wiederholt es im Judentum die
Überzeugung aller Jahrhunderte; so hat es hier auch die Mystik'
gesagt. Religion und Leben werden damit aufs innigste
verbunden, die Religion, welche bewiesen werden soll durch
das Leben, das Leben, welches erfüllt werden soll durch die
Religion. Diese wird zur Erde hingeführt, jenes zu göttlichem
Inhalt erhöht. Dem Zwiespalt zwischen Glauben und Tun ist
damit der Platz genommen: keine rrömmigkeit gibt es als die,
welche durch die Lebensführung bewährt wird; keine Lebens,
führung kann gelten als die, in welcher sich die Religion y
verwirklicht. ^
Hierdurch wird die Religion aller Phantastik und allem
Geheim werk entzogen. Die Gedanken Gottes sind uner.
gründlich, sie sind erhaben über die Gedanken des Menschen,
so hoch der Himmel über der Erde ist. Aber die Gebote
Gottes sind „dir nicht verborgen und nicht fern", sie sind dir
heute geboten, und sie sind gerade und sind lauter; es gibt einen ^
Bund zwischen dem Menschen und Gott. Die Bahn seines ^
Lebens ist dem Frommen deutlich bestimmt, weil er erkennt,
was er t u n s o 1 1 ; das Kommende spricht zu ihm, weil er um
seine Pflicht weiß, die der morgende Tag ihm bringen kann.
Da er begreift, was Gott ihm allezeit ist und Gott ihm gebietet,
so blickt er in die Zukunft hinein, die sein Leben sein wird.
Durch das Licht der Religion erhellt, liegt der Weg, den er
gehen wird, klar vor ihm; denn es ist der Weg, welchen er gehen
soll, der Weg, der ihm verheißen ist. „Die den Ewigen suchen,
sehen alles ein". So gibt es nur e i n e Vernunft und nur eine
Gottesnähe: die, welche durch die rechte Tat erworben wird.
Es ist bemerkenswert, wie entschieden der Religion hier
der besondere, ihr eigentümHche Charakter gewahrt wird.
Nicht eine neue Weltanschauung, sondern ein neues
religiöses L^ben soll geschaffen und durchgesetzt wer^
den. In der prophetischen Schöpfung ist es das Unwesent.
liebste nicht und nicht das Geringste, daß die Religion rein als
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums i
i'j^ife^
>*>
Die Autonomie der Religion
Religion gefaßt, daß sie von Jedem fremden StoH^jn aller
naturphilosophisehen oder gnostischen B^^^J^^^^^Jj^^^^^
halten worden ist. Die Propheten haben der Religion ihic
Autonomie gegeben. Man möchte fast sagen n.ht so ^^^^^^ d
Monotheismus maeht die wehgeschichthche Bedeutung der
Bibel aus, als vielmehr seine r e i n r e 1 1 g i o s e B c g r u n^
düng. Alles, was bloße metaphysische Frage werden konnte
und in die zerfließende Unbestimmtheit der Spekulation fort^
zuführen droht, wird auf dem festen Boden des sittlichen
Empfindens und des religiösen Lebens sichergestellt. Uie
Fragen der Ueberweltlichkeit setzen sich um in Gewißheit des
Gemütes, in Forderungen des Gewisseiis. Das All mit den
Giu^den seiner Erscheinungen wird weder begrifflich erklart,
noch wird es mythisch gedeutet, sondern ausschHelHich religiös
beurteilt. Auch auf dem Platze des aufbauenden Begriffesund
des dichtenden Mythus stehen das sittliche Gebot und die
fromme Zuversicht. Dies sind die Schranken des Propheten,
aber es sind die Schranken, die den Meister machen.
Es ist der Wesensbesitz des israelitischen Denkens, aus
dem die Propheten geboren sind und das sie dann wieder ge*
staltet haben, daß das Sinnen und Suchen dem Menschen zu-
gewandt ist; von ihm fühlt es sich ergriffen. Die Frage, was
ihm not tut, diese Frage, die in dem Rufen und Hören des
Menschenherzens hervortritt, hat den israeUtischen Genius
erfaßt und gezwungen; über sie allein verlangte und erfuhr er
die Offenbarung von Gott. Darum steht er ja auch unter der
starken Empfindung innerlichen Müssens, unter diesem Pro::
phetischen, dessen gleichen die anderen nicht gekannt haben.
|,j| Er ist nicht von der Natur zum Menschen gekommen, wie
i|ll später dig^rieche^^ sondern er kommt vom Menschen zur
»»i Natur. Selbst die Natur spricht zu ihm vom Menschlichen
nimmt teil, jubelnd, klagend, an der Gottesnähe und der Sünde
des Erdensohnes, an seinen Freuden und seinem Leid- die Sehn-
sucht des Menschen atmet in ihr. Die Rätsel der Welt werden
auch hier vernommen, aber sie bilden nur den Unterton zu den
Ratsein des Menschenlebens. Am Menschen ereignet sich die
Welt; von semer Seele geht alles aus, und zu seiner Seele
geht alles hin. Die Welt ist die Welt Gottes, und S/ist d
Gott des Menschen. So wird es hier empfunden und e gri^en
und darm hat der israelitische Genius sein Besonderll
Das Wesen Gottes
35
'):
•i\
W
• • •
s. :
\
Wie Gott Himmel und Erde geschaffen hat, ist für den
Propheten eine Frage von geringerem Betracht. Bedeutungs?
voll ist nur, zu wissen, daß von dem allmächtigen Gott, der
voller Liebe ist, die Welt in ihren Höhen und Weiten zeugt,
daß seine Herrlichkeit sie erfüllt. Die Tatsache, daß die
Schöpfungsgeschichte so isoliert in den biblischen Büchern
steht, spricht deutlich, und in ihr selbst läßt das siebenmal
wiederkehrende Wort: „Gott sah, daß es gut sei*^icht miß*
verstehen, welche Erkenntnis als die entscheidende angesehen
wird. Das Bild von dem Fortleben nach dem Tode, diese
Welt der Phantastik, spricht zu dem Propheten nicht. Wenn
sein Ahnen zu dem Lande ohne Wiederkehr hinzieht, den
Vorstellungen, die es schauen und schildern wollen, bleibt er
fern. Das Gebot des Menschen, das Gebot: du sollst leben,
tritt für ihn vor alle Fragen des Jenseits.
DieseCinperlirhp Rez^^hung zum Lebei?)hat dann auch der
entgegengesetzten Gefahr enthoben, der Gefahr der begriff*
liehen Versteinerung. Ihr kann zumal die Darlegung der gött*
liehen Einheit und der göttlichen Eigenschaften anheimfallen,
indem sie das Göttliche zu einem bloßen Sammelbegriff
idealer Beschaffenheit werden läßt. Für den religiösen Zusam*
menhang mit Gott tritt dann die wissensmäßige Erforschung
der göttlichen Vollkommenheit ein, und die Religion wird durch
das Denken über die Religion oder schließlich durch den Glau^
ben an diese Gedanken abgetan. Die Propheten halten daran
fest, daß sie nur davon Zeugnis ablegen,wovon ihre Seele zeugen
kann, von dem, was Gott für ihr Leben in seinem Innersten
bedeutet. Sie lehren, was sie erfahren haben: den Gott, den
der Mensch suchen soll und der sich von ihm finden läßt.
Schon in der Art, wie die Einheit Gottes aufgewiesen wird,
zeigt sich dies. Den Propheten liegt es fern, etwa aus dem
Zusammenhang der Natur logisch die Existenz einer ersten
Ursache zu erschließen. Wohl aber wird ihnen die göttliche
Einheit unerschütterlich gewiß Hnryh die innere Erfahrumj.
daß es nur eine Gerechtigkeit, eine Heiligkeit gibt. Gott
isrdeTEinzige, weil er der Heilige ist. Die Ueberzeugung von
der Einzigkeit Gottes hat so im religiösen Bewußtsein ihre
Wurzel. Und deshalb ist es auch ein Religiöses, was aus ihr
folgt. Gott ist einzig, darum „sollst du ihn lieben mit deinem
ganzen Herzen, mit deiner ganzen Seele und mit deiner
)(!^
I
X
36
ganzen
Die Eigenschaften Gottes
en Kraft." Der Ewige ist „der Gott im Himmel droben
und drunten auf Erden, keiner sonst, so sollst du denn seme
Satzungen und seine Gebote beobachten/'
Die göttlichen Eigenschaften sind in gleicher Weise gefai5t,
nicht begrifflich ausgebaut, sondern zum Menschen hingeführt,
zu bestimmter sitthcher Forderung und zu immer neuer Kräf^
tigung des Vertrauens. So die Allmacht Gottes: der Ewige ist
Der biblische Stil
37
<<
o 11111111.V.X oxtcx^wxx^. ^ V. Kräfi
ng des Vertrauens. So die Allmacht Gottes: der Ewi
der Herr des Alls, darum sollen wir auch den Fremdling heben.
Er hat Himmel und Erde geschaffen; so wird er denn „Treue
in Ewigkeit wahren. Recht schaffen den Gedrückten, Brot
geben denHungrigen". Er gibt allem, waslebt, den Odem. Israel,
das ihn erkannt, ist daher berufen „zum Bunde der Menschen, ^\MQ
zum Lichte der Völker, blinde Augen aufzutun, aus dem ^
Kerker den Gefangenen zu führen, aus dem Hause der Haft,
die im Finstern sitzen*'. Ebenso wird die Ewigkeit auf den
Grund der Religion gestellt, in das Menschenleben hinein. Von
Ewigkeit zu Ewigkeit ist Gott, darum ist er uns „Zuflucht für
und für". Gott war und wird sein, so wird er denn „seinem
Volke Kraft geben, er wird sein Volk mit Frieden segnen."
Gott bleibt immerdar; daher darf die Hoffnung auf seine
Gerechtigkeit nie verzweifeln, er ist „eine Burg für den Unter,
drückten, eine Burg für die Zeiten der Drangsal". In der.
selben Weise sind alle göttlichen Eigenschaften mit dem seeli.
sehen Leben und seinem Gebote verbunden. So nahe bei
manchen von ihnen die Versuchung zu grübelnder Speku.
lation hegt, so wird ihnen der religiöse Charakter hier doch
immer gewahrt Mit bestimmter Sicherheit hütet ihn dann
Bot \'!'''f't "^'^''^ ^"^^"^ ''' ^- P->blem auf d n
herz ; ^'r. "h'^'^uT '''''''' "°" -^^■^^•- Gott ist barn"
he zig und gnadig; wohlan, so sei auch du barmherziii tue
Gutes selbstlos und öeeen ipHpn n ^arnmtrzig, tue
sei auch du gerecht nf . r^ ""^"^"^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ '^o
was er tut so sef Ln^^ ^'\\ ''' --"^^ ^ebe in allem
nur, so sei denn auch du voller Liebe "
Boden „ich. 8eg.b»L. so^I^t ,h? d'/n Klt^i""" '"
GlaubenundWissen ic* '" '""^ '^f" "^ampf zwischen
die Religion durch das Leben Ir' ^ "''"]' ^'"'•^'«"den, weil
er hier nicht, weil dich d's W ffsen Z R 1-^ ""• ^ '^^'^'^
wiesen zu werden vermaß DieR.lf^ die Religion nicht bc
mag. Uie Religion gliedert sich keinem
V
•:1
\z:v
bestimmten Wissen ein, und deshalb kann sie auch durch
keines in Frage gestellt werden. Da sie sich auf keinen Lehr^^
satz stützt, so kann auch keiner sie untergraben. Ihre Freiheit
bleibt gewahrt, und sie ist unangreifbar für die Wandlungen
der forschenden Erkenntnis. Bezeichnend ist, daß das astro-^
nomische Weltbild der neuen Zeit ohne jeden Einspruch, ja
selbst ohne die Empfindung einer Gegensätzlichkeit im Juden^
tum aufgenommen worden ist. Man sah die ajten Syslepifi.
falkn, ohne selbst bewegt zu werden; man hatte sich für
keines haftbar gemacht. Dje R e 1 i ^ i o n b 1 i e b R e 1 i g i o n ,1
darin Kpc,tph±-ihi:^JJnabhängigkeit. Diese Selbständigkeit Tst]
)heten.
das E
ihren Zügen zeigt es die israelitische ReHgion, daß
sie eine prophetische Schöpfung ist, daß nicht der Begriff in
seiner Bedeutung, sondern der Mensch mit seinem Leben, mit
seinem Gewissen ihren Charakter ausmacht. Die religiösen
Denkmale der Bibel sind, so sehr in ihnen der Autor hinter
seinem Werke zurücktritt, nicht eigentlich Bücher, sondern Be^
kenntnisse, Zeugnisse individuellen reUgiösen Suchens, Offene:
barungen bestimmtester Persönlichkeit. Ein Stil der Religion
ist in ihneh^gcschaffcn worden, und wenn irgendwo gilt es
hier, daß der Stil der Mensch ist. Wer dieser Mensch war, wird
oft wenig beachtet, aber wo immer undwie immer persönlichste
Persönlichkeit hervorleuchten kann, tritt sie hier hervor. Da^
her ist die Bibel so fragmentarisch, so undogmatisch und
systemlos; keine Schlußreihe und kein Ergebnisausweis ver^
knüpft die einzelnen Glieder, keine fertigen Formeln schHeßen
zusammen; sie ist so systemlos, wie eben d e r M e n ^ c h es ist. >^
Daher ist sie auch so unabgeschiossen, so fragenreich und
übriglassend; manches ist nur angedeutet, an deresnur gelegent-
lich ausgesprochen, dieses oder jenes scheint ganz zu fehlen;
sie ist so unabgeschlossen, wie eben der rechte Mensch es ist.
Daher hat sie auch ihren unzerlegbaren Rest, ein Etwas, das
nicht ausgebreitet und nicht in Sätzen eingefangen werden
kann, das nur m heiHger Scheu zu erfassen und zu empfinden
ist, wie jene Musik, die kein Ohr vernommen. Es ist der über
a\{^f^ Wissen umj^allct^^ erhabcii£„£isst, worin jeder
wahre Mensch sein innerstes Persönliches hat. Daher hat
/\ie schHeßlich ihre dauernde Frische und ihre Jugend, ein Un.
NVerwelkbares und Unvergängliches, ein immer Neues, das
l«»l' — — — —
38
Das Wort
jeder Zeit zum Erlebnis wird; denn „die Menschheit schreitet
immer fort, und der Mensch bleibt immer derselbe".
Die Religion der Bibel ist so gewissermaikn mehr als die
Bibel, das Judentum mehr als seine religiösen Denkmale. Die
Worte der Schrift, und wie sie auch die Worte der mijnd^
liehen Lehre lassen Stimmen aus einer großen Fuge vernehmen,
oder, um mit dem, was Goethe von seinem Lebenswerk aus^
1 sagte, zu sprechen, „BrucKsHicke einer großen Konfession".
' Aber unter dem allen liegt die ganze Fuge, das ganze Bekennt?
nis: die Religion. Wer hören will und hören kann, hört auch sie.
Man hat die Bibel noch nicht verstanden, wenn man Sätze
zusammensucht und neben einander stellt. Nicht Worte sind
zu erklären, nicht Sätze auszulegen, sondern Menschen zu be^
greifen. Darum bleiben, um von den Auffassungen der münd?
liehen Lehre ganz zu schweigen, manche Bibelerklärungen
der Bibel unsagbar fern, weil sie ihr gegenüberstehen, als wäre
sie nur eine Sammlung von Schriften zur Übung von Gram,
matik und Philologie. An das Beste in ihr führen kein
Scharfsinn und keine BelQseuhdt und auch keine Formel
heran, sondern nur^iie Ehrfurcht und die LiebÄ"— ■•''''*^'
In gewissem Sinne ist die Bibel und ist iE Judentum
sa./ tl"^ ' ^^^^^nd oft, wie die Heilige Schrift es von Moses
sagt, „schweren Mundes und schwerer Zunge" Nicht durch
das was sie sprechen, erhalten sie ihre volle^Bedeu tung £
mit dem^echen S :'d^ »^--^ht;
Herzen als auf den Lippen und find . *"''" ""'^^ ""
vor den Meistern der ZaW !„ T t^ 'T ^^""««^ ^'"^^^e
Das Judentum hat sfch „Li w'*'^"^" ^" ^'^''>i'on.
manchen Zeiten - und es war. • u""'"' '"'"'^^'P^'- ^.u
wurde in jedem SchrifttortlrnT.l"-'^' t ^^'^'^'^htcstcn -
außergewöhnücher Inhalt gefundÄ '".^'^' "^'^ ^'^ ^'^^^
Persönlichkeit und Geschichte
39
'i::
f
(
••• _
m
\
\
■I
I
tiefen Grund. Der Begriff, das Wort, der Satz ist schulmaßig
zu itbedief ern. aber mit dem Persönlichen, mit dem Menschen
muß ene innerliche Berührung und Verbindung statthaben;
Jas Per" nSe muß in der Seele wie durch eine seelische
W ederg'burt neu erstehen. Jed^aSystcm ist unduldsam und
IXiiduldsam. weil es selbstgerecht und -Ibstzujried^
ma'di^.aua.dem Kreise der Systcmatacer ^»"^ ^a die har o
sten Inquisitoren hervorgegangen. Es stellt den Blick in feste
Enlfernung ein und scheidet als ^bß^ß-nzter Besitz, m dem
die Grenze leicht zur Enge wird, von allem anderen ab. esbe
schränkt damit die lebendige Gestaltung der eigenen Wahr,
hdt Dagegen besitzt die prophetische Rede, als lebendiges
wieder zum Leben der Gegenwart zu werden . . . , „
drücklich ab. wie es mit keinem ^"^^-^^^^1;^^^^^^^^^^
^värtsweisend und hinausweisend erschemt der israeimsc
ProTeSrut. Bestimmend ist schon, 'daß Israe nicht .^
Propheten", sondern ..djp Propheten" hat Das ist em wesent^
Hcher Unterschied gtfen andere Religionen de in dem
einen Gotama Buddha, in dem e i n e n Z«>:^*"^*"'7^X
e nen Muhammed ihren Prophetismus beginnen ""d ende"
einen i AU 1 ..^^4.^ Fnfwipkelunö so bereits am /\n-
sehen, und d-en wichtigste Entwick^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^
fang wieder aufhört. In Israel tolgt au Ebenbürtigen.
„ie d„ Mensch. O^LS^S^^^^^^ '^
'^
40
Der prophetische Genius
Die Stufen der Frömmigkeit
41
i
fruchtbar werden kann und werden soll. Was sie i^eleistct
haben, ist, wie bereits gesagt, nie zu einer überwundenen
Stufe oder auch nur zur Vergangenheit geworden und kann
nie dazu werden. Auch wir sehen zu ihnen empor. Seit sie über
die Erde gegangen, ist jedes Erleben der Religion ein W'i e d e r ^
erleben dessen, was jene Männer erfahren haben. Sie haben
gefunden; und wer nach ihnen kommt, kann nur wiederfinden.
- Von dem Augenblicke an, wo das Genie aufgetreten ist, gibt
V es fast nur Schüler und Aneignende. Man kann die alte Ent-^
deckung in neuen Formen wiederentdecken, aber was in ihnen
lebendig wird, ist der alte Geist, und was daran neu ist, zeugt
von der siegreichen Lebenskraft jenes ersten Vollbringens.
Ob die Propheten mit vollem Bewußtsein das alles in ihrer
Rede gedacht haben, was wir dabei denken, denken kcinnen
und sollen, ist eine Frage von geringem Belang. Es kommt
nicht darauf an, was in ein Wort hineingelegt war von dem,
der es sprach, sondern was in ihm liegt. Das ist gerade die
,/^,Macht des Genius in seiner Gestaltungskraft, daß er fast
ulunbewußt Wahrheiten schafft, die weiter tragen als er selbst
^gemeint hat. Seine Wirkung ist immer grölkr als seine Ab^
sieht; was er sagt, immer mehr, als was er sagen will. Was ihm
ein endliches Bild war, kann uns zum ewigen Symbol werden,
uns vielgestaltig, was ihm eindeutig war. Das unterscheidet
das schöpferische Genie von dem sammelnden Talent. Auch
hierin offenbart es sich wieder, daß die Propheten mehr sind
als ihr Wort. Vielleicht erscheint dies und manches andere
hier apologetisch. Aber man versuche es einmal, über L!e=
wisse Tatsachen anders als apologetisch zu sprechen So
manches verstehen heißt: es bewundern
Was die Religion der Propheten aufweist, blieb dem Juden,
tum eigen; wir finden hier die bestimmenden Elemente seLs
Wesens^ Charakteristische Grenzlinien lassen sicf. X
Das Judentum ist eine Religion, die ihre Bewa rutg ^•
Leben sucht und in der Verbindung des Lebens ZTrZ
ihre Antworten findet Die Reli^inn n ^'''^^
gleicher Weise eri^riffen .. u^ '''" '^ ''^" ^^^^'" in
werden. F omm Tc^J 'Ler "' " T" ^'^"^^^^^" ^^i^^^-^
,^il^eich voTpr e^ e^^^^^^^^^ T^' ^^^ "^i^^^^^' -ndern
Wohl lebt in demCSen se^ ^''^ ^'^^^ ''' ^- Ideal.
1
m
U
. .im
•.:j1
:i^!
^%« ■
»mm 1
^
;r'
»
■2
l> ■
anderen ein Verschlossenes oder ein Nichts bleibt. Aber das
Eigentum und das Recht, das er darin besitzt, ist ihm nur eine
Pflicht, die Gabe und das Gebot, zu verkünden, was er vor
{Cttfen anderen hört, zu sagen, was er vor ihnen allen sieht. Als
eine besondere Frömmigkeit, die ihm zuerkannt und vorbe'
halten ist, hat es nie gegolten. Er hat seine Sendung, zu der
Gott ihn geschaffen und ihn berufen hat, aber keine eigene
Stufe der Religion, auf der er stände. Er ist der Prophet, aber
nicht der HeiHge. Und der Gottheit ins Antlitz hat auch er nicht
geschaut. Dem Ewigen gegenüber sind zuletzt alle im Lande
doch gleich. So sehr das Erkennen verschieden ist und so ver?
schieden das Ahnen, das über das Erkennen hinausträgt, die
Unergründlichkeit und die Unendlichkeit stehen vor jedem
und erschließen sich vor keinem. Aber die Religion, die Gabe
und Habe, fromm zu sein, ist allen zugewiesen. Jeder kann sei?
nem Gotte nahe sein, der Weg zu Gott geht von JederbeeleausT
Eint öuil"3erungr in Geweihte und Profane, in Innen? und
Außenstehende, in Besitzende und Beteiligte der Religion
kann so im Judentum sich nicht gestalten; das Fehlen jedes
Sakramentes hat dem auch schon entgegengewirkt. Ander?
wärts hat es sich vielfach und mannigfaltig so herausgebildet.
In überschwenglichen Erlebnissen, in besonderen Gnaden?
erfahrungen, in einer außerordentlichen Verbindung mit Gott
hat sieh dort eine exklusive Religion, eine eigentlichste Heilig?
keit, nicht eine offenbarte Kunde vom Ewigen nur, dartun
wollen. Damit ist die Glaubensgemeinde schlielMieh immer in
zwei Klassen und Grade geschieden worden. Vor denen, die
nur das alltägliche Gebiet der Frömmigkeit bewohnen können,
stehen in der besonderen Welt die Hervorgeholten, die den
wahren Verkehr mit Gott genießen; sie sind die Eigentümer
der Religion. In dieser oder jener Form ist daher dort immer
ein geweihtes Priestertum, ein Ordenskreis, ein Mönchtum
entstanden, über das Daseinsfeld der anderen hinausgehoben,
durch das Privilegium des „religiösen Lebens ' ausgezeichnet.
So ist es im Buddhismus geschehen, so in den Geheimkulten
der griechischen Welt, so im Katholizismus, so gewissen
Sinnes im Pietismus, und selbst im Judentum haben sich ge?
legentlich in den Bezirken seiner alten und neuen Mystik
Wege geöffnet, die hierzu führen können. Am bestimmtesten
zeigt es der Buddhismus, wo die Sangha, die Gemeinde, aus?
42
Die zwiefache Religion
schließlich aus den Mönchen besteht und das ganze übri.i^e
Gebiet der Gläubigen bloß als deren Anhang erscheint. Und
wo ein besonderer Gnadenbesitz hienieden Heilige schafft,
dort treten die „HeiHgen" auch in die Himmelshühcn ein;
Mönchtum und Heiligenverehrung gehören zusammen.
Auf so manche Gestalten der vita religiosa, zumal im
Katholizismus und ebenso in der buddhistischen Welt blickt
ein berechtigter Stolz hin. In der reinen Höhenluft der .Seele
wie in ihrer inbrünstigen Glut sind wundersame Formen der
Frömmigkeit erwachsen, die weiße Lilie wie die duftende Rose.
In einem Gotama Buddha drüben, einem Franziskus und einer
Katharina von Siena hüben besitzt das Glaubenslcben Mcn^
sehen, in denen ein Ideal wirklich geworden zu sein scheint.
Wer wollte sie in der Geschichte der Religion missen! Aber
dieses Ideal will doch nicht a u f a 1 1 e a n g e w a n d t sein ; es
lehnt es ab, ein allgemeines zu werden. Es bietet doch nur
em religiöses Uebermenschentum, das die Menschheit bloß
dazu da sein heißt, daß bisweilen Heilige aus ihr hervorgehen
um als Wundergestalten vor ihr zu stehen und die Verehrung'
an sich zu ziehen. Die Menschheit bleibt im Grunde ver=
gessen Und was in jenen Heiligen als die webende Poesie
des Glaubens und der Sehnsucht lebte, hat zur kirchlichen
Emrichtung erstarren müssen; es ist zum Orden, urttf
tragten Verwaltung von Gnadengaben geworden An
Stelle des Ideals ist der Standescharakter 27,, .''
zu einem bestimmten Kreise gelten Das de^r.'^u
eine Weihe, ein Sakrament erworben Ak H ''^ "^""''^
liehe Ergebnis bleibt, daß die echte ßan.p p ""vermeid^
Besitze einer abges;nderten Gruppe "^LT" '" ""'="
wissem Maße durch Gnadenstücke unHrVu'^ ""■■ '" «'^^
bar allen den anderen 'u t:^' rTefi^^sf ''^f ^ ^^^'^
Religion in eine zwiefache Relieinn o . ''''^''^^^ ^»e
tritt bald die doppelte Wahrheh T. ^"«"nander. und damit
■ die doppelte Frömmigkdfi. ^k ein f''' v ^^^^^tigkeit,
prophetischen Lehre ist damif ! u u '" ^^*=^^"tlichcs der
Propheten wilHnihremWes'ndieewt"-,,^" '''^'*«'"" ^^^
d.e gleiche Forderung wie d gfdehe Ve"h « "'"' ''" ^'^ '»"«^
"- — "■ - iede xz^::^;^^^
■••I
tnmf
•••ll
■«•«■
a
•^mmmmm
Die Wege zur Einsamkeit
43
V'
alltägliche Betätigung als ein Nichtheiliges und darum Neben?
sächliches und Gleichgültiges in geringem Betracht steht oder
schließlich als ein UnheiHges verworfen wird. Die reine
Geistigkeit und die reine Empfindsamkeit, in der jene abge*
sonderte Religion existieren w^ill, verläßt oder ver>yirft alles
Sinnlich^. Die Welt des Natürlichen und Leiblichen wird
zum Uebel oder zum Trug, entweder als Gebiet einer gott?
feindlichen Macht verdammt oder als sündhafter Schein
Völlig verneint. Die Trennung des Lebens und der
Religion ist damit vollzogen. Gott und die Welt stehen
im Gegensatz zu einander; nur wer sie verläßt, kann ihm
nahe sein. Die Konsequenz führt der Buddhismus wieder ans
Ende; seine alte Beichtformel spricht „den Mönch, welcher
die Erde gräbt oder graben läßt, der Buße schuldig.''
Es gibtim Leben müde Zeiten, Zeiten zumal, wo der Ge?
danke m der Stimmung schwindet, wo der Wunsch, sich von
der Welt, von ihrem Staub und ihrem Gestein, abzukehren,
das Empfinden beherrscht. Nicht nur im romantischen Ge=
mute erwacht unendliche Sehnsucht nach einem Leben, ganz
\om Tage abgewendet, von seinem Drängen und Wollen los?
gelöst und nur dem frommen Sinnen, dem Beten und Träumen
der Seele hingegeben. Besonders wenn Stunden kommen, wo
sich der Mensch innerlich einsam, einsam inmitten der Men?
sehen fühlt, möchte er, daß er nur sich gehöre, daß die Ein*
samkeit auch sein Auge und Ohr umfange. In den Glauben
wie in den Unglauben kehrt es so verlangend ein. Und so
manches Leid kann seine Linderung finden, wenn die Mühen
der Welt versinken, wenn seins^&QJ^" verklingen. Ein Heil?
mittel der Seele kann es so sein — aber soll es darum für das
Mittel wahren Lebens, ja für den Zweck des Erdendaseins
erklärt werden? Es eignet dem Schmerze der Stunde — aber
soll es darum zum Inhalt aller unserer Tage bestimmt werden?
Die Geschichte jeder Religion erzählt von den Pfaden zur
Einsamkeit; die, welche sich und ihren Gott wieder ent?
deckten, haben dort ihre Seele gefunden. Nicht zum wenigsten
das Judentum weiß von der Wüste, in der die Propheten zu
sich kamen und die Seher schauen lernten, von den stillen
Tälern und den Bergeshöhen, wo die Stimme Gottes vom
Menschenohre vernommen ward; es hat auch seine Einsam?
keit des Lehrhauses, das Schweigen über den Büchern be?
*
44
Die Mystik
Die Teile der Gemeinde
45
sessen. Wege zur Menschenferne sind in der Welt des Juden,
tums immer wieder gesucht worden; es waren seine dijrren
Zeiten, in denen man sie nicht kannte- Das Vertrauen auf
das, was bleibt, die Kraft nach Tagen der Schwäche und der
Mut nach den Stunden des Zagens, die Gotteserkenntnis und
die Zuversicht, ist dort immer wieder gefunden worden. So
vieles war es, was man dort erwarb oder wiedergewann, nur
eben nicht die andere, die separate Frömmigkeit, die bcson?
dere Religion. So sehr man es vermochte, sich von der Welt
fortzuwenden und ihr zu widersprechen, um Gottes gewiß zu
werden, so blieb man doch dessen auch bewußt, daß die Bahn
zu Gott, die sich in jeder Seele öffnet, vorerst zu dem Mcn^
sehen neben uns hinführt. Schon darum konnte die bloße
Sorge um die eigene Seele, in der sich der Suchende für
immer zu sich selber zurückziehen will, im Judentum keine
Geltung gewinnen. Die Einsamkeit war hier eine Zeit im
Leben, eine oft .so nolwen4ige, aber nicht das Leben.
Auch davon erzählt das Judentum, wie das Verlangen
nach den Freuden der Entrückung und Entzückung in Gott,
die Sehnsucht nach dem wogenden Gottesgeheimnis die
Seelen gefaßt hat; die Zeiten der Bedrängnis vor allem be^
richten davon. In ihnen ist die Mystik erwachsen, und sie
hat über die ausgetrockneten Straßen des Daseins und über
seine Engen und Ängste hinausgehoben, sie hat die wunder,
same Stille der Ferne, die herniedersteigende Welt des Sab.
bats zu schenken vermocht. Auch zu einer Art von Ordens-
kreis haben dann Menschen sich zusammengefunden von
den Essaergenossenschaften an bis zu den Feiertagsver-
Sammlungen, diesen Feiertagsklöstern, an den Mittelpunkten
des Chassidismus. Aber auch dort, wo manches Fremdartige
eindrang hat die jüdische Mystik ebenso wenig zu ei^fr
bloßen Einsamkeitsfrömmigkeit wie zu einor L i
Ver^pnl'iinrt ir. r- *x r-f ' J"*^ ^" Girier wesenlosen
Versenkung m Gott gefuhrt. Das Offenbarte das Fnt
scheidende war auch für sie der göttliche Wille der jeden
••I
v4 •«
r
en.
/
Es hat im Judentum immer Nuancen der Frömmigkeit
gegeben. Neben enthusiastischen Naturen standen Scho^
lastiker, neben den Ernsten und den Schwermütigen die
lebensfrohen Wohltäter, neben den Denkenden gedanken.
lose Menschen hergebrachter Frömmigkeit. Aber eine Fest,
legung von Stufen in der Religion, eine Abgrenzung von Bc
sitzenden und Unmündigen, von Schauenden und Zu.
schauenden, eine Annahme ganzer Priesterfrömmigkeit und
ausreichender Volksfrömmigkcit blieb dem Judentum fern.
Nicht_einmaL.die^jciLeidii^^ zwischen Geistlichen und Laien
ist in^ihm vorhanden. Nur aus Lehrenden und Lernenden Q
sief7.f fsicph dir rirmringvb^ft zusammen. Wer den WandeM^/
und das Wissen hat, ist zum geistlichen Führer berufen, olinc
aber deshalb eine bescmdere Weihe zu genießen oder eine
besondere Stufe der Religion einzunehmen.
Es gab einst eine Priesterschaft, jedoch was sie besaß,
war nur ein Adelserbe, ein Priestertum der Geburt, das zum
gottesdienstliehen Amte berechtigte und eine Rangeswürde
gab; aber eine gr()ßcre Gottesnähe wurde ihm nicht zu.
gesprochen und w^urde von ihm auch nicht beansprucht.
Die Priester waren niemals Besitzer oder Verwalter von
Gnadengaben, niemals Darreicher des Heiles. Auch die
Sprache wachte eifersüchtig darüber; wo sie den kultuellcn
Beitrag zur Sühne von einem Subjekt aussagen will, dort
redet sie lieber von dem neutralen Altar als von dem Priester.
Und selbst diesem Standespriestertum hat der geschieht^
liehe Verlauf ein Ende bereitet. In einer der wichtigsten
Perioden des Judentums nannten sich viele im Volke die
„Abgesonderten**, „die „Pharisäer"; aber das sollte, wie die
klassische Erklärung dafür lautet, nur bedeuten: „abgeson.
dert von den Sünden und den heidnischen Gräueln". Im
Sittlißiieii -fühlten sie sich getrennt und \Yolltcn sie gßUjpnnt
sein und anders sein, und ohne den Willen, anders-za^^in, ^
giETes in dieser Welt keine Entscheidung für das Sittliche.
. .änner, die es mit den Satzungen der religiösen Gemein.
Schaft peinlich genau nahmen, haben sich damals als die
„Genossen", die Gemeinschaftsleute, bezeichnet, und sie
haben sich damit über die Menge hervorheben und oft zu
ihr in Gegensatz stellen wollen; aber wo das eigentliche Ge.
biet der Religion begann, gab es auch für sie nur den einen
^'-ym'^.
A^ Die Einheit der Gemeinde
Grundsatz: „alle Israeliten sind Genossen". Die Meister des
Talmuds, auch die Märtyrer und die Mystiker unter ihnen,
waren zumeist Männer der bürgerlichen Arbeit und auch
sozusagen der bürgerlichen ReUgion; desgleichen waren die
hervorragendsten und einflußreichsten Theologen des Mit.
telalters nicht Theologen von Stand und Beruf. Es gab zwar
in alter Zeit die sogenannte Handauflegung, die Semicha,
durch die der Richter und der Lehrer des Gesetzes mit
seinem Amte betraut wurde; aber sie war keine Mitteilung
einer Gnadengabe, die einen Besitzenden schafft, sondern
nur ein Symbol dessen, daß eine Befugnis übertragen wurde.
Jedoch auch dieser Brauch hat dann, als er anderwärts jenen
sakramentalen Charakter gewonnen hatte, im Judentum
aufgehört, und der Versuch, ihn zurückzuführen, der mehr
als ein Jahrtausend später unternommen wurde, hat nur
einen kurzen, vorübergehenden Erfolg gehabt. Die Einheit
der Glaubensgemeinde ist im Judentum nicht in Frage ge^
stellt worden. Daß die Religion ganz die Habe aller sein
soll, und daß alle unvertretbar zu ihr berufen sind, ist hier
ein grundlegender Satz geblieben.
In einem bezeichnenden Begriff tritt dies auch hervor.
Im Judentum ist die ReUgion in ihrem Wesentlichen als Lehre
der Tat und der Entscheidung oder, um es mit dem alten
bibUschen Worte zu benennen, als Thora erkannt worden.
Dieses Wort hat sich zu einem Grundsatze gestaltet. Mit
ihm schon ist gesagt, daß die ReUgion allen als dieselbe Auf.
gäbe gestellt ist, daß sie von jedem erworben und besessen
werden kann, daß sie sich jedem öffnet und für jeden be.
stimmt ist. Eine Thora kann nur die eine sein, die des
ganzen Volkes, der Weg, den alle gehen sollen.. Ein gleicher
Zug bekundet sich hier, wie ihn dann in Griechenland die
sokratische Philosophie aufwies; auch sie wollte gewisser-
maßen eine Thora sein eine Thora der Philosophie, sie er',
klarte die Tugend als lernbar, als das Gebot, das jeder zu
erfassen vermag. Ganz so ist im Judentum die Thora die
Forderung, daß, was die Propheten predigen, allen Tu Jln
gemacht werde, daß der Geist und der Wille dnes eden "
m sich aufnehmen soll Sie steht damit als das Un vc seUe
und Humane jener anderen, partikularistisehen, sonS,r^
liehen Auffassung gegenüber, die anderwärts die en;:
Das Ideal
47
i
vi
?
"1
scheidende geworden ist, daß das Wesentliche der Religion
die Gnosis sei, jene Erleuchtung, die durch das Wunder des
Glaubens, durch das Geschenk der Gnade gebracht ist und
die darum nur den wenigen Auserwählten zuteil werden kann.
Man kann vielleicht meinen, daß durch diese Richtung
der israelitischen Religion Hg«^ Tde^l zu sehr popularisiert sei,
daß seine Höhe beeinträchtigt werde, weil es in der ganzen
'J Breite der Glaubensgemeinde seine Verwirklichung sucht.
Und auch das könnte scheinen, daß damit dem religiösen
Erlebnis^ in dem der Einzelne seinen neuen Weg zu Gott
sucht, viel von seiner Bedeutung und seinem Platze genom^
men sei. Aber im Judentum braucht dieses Eigene, Per^^
sönliche nicht zu fehlen, noch hat es gefehlt. Das Be?
stimmende, das Grundgefühl, das die Religion geben will, ist
hier, daß der Mensch empfinde, was ein jeder vor dem
Ewigen und was der Ewige für ihn ist, daß er Gott nahe, mit
Gott vereint ist. In diesem allgemein Menschlichen, diesem
Bunde jedes Menschen mit Gott wurzelt die Religiosität des
Judentums. Aus diesem Boden, diesem Bewußtsein der
Gottesnähe, wie es jedem Menschen gewährt ist, nicht aus
einer Sonderstellung zu Gott, die die Gnade schenkt, wiU
hier das Individuelle, das reUgiöse Erlebnis erwachsen. Das
Wesentliche ist, daß hier nichts zum Ideale wird, was nicht
zum sittlichen Gebote, zura Gebote der Entscheidung wer^
den kann, und es gibt kein wahres sittliches Gebot, das nicht
um alle seinen Kreis zöge und ziehen müßte. Der Vorzug, der
hierin befaßt ist, steht vor jenen Nachteilen, mit denen die
Weite des Ideals seine Erhabenheit zu bedrohen scheint. „Ihr
sollt mir sein ein Reich von Priestern und ein heilig
ges Volk'*, dieser Satz ist hier ein religiöses Bekenntnis
geworden. Keinem wird zugeteilt und zugestanden, w^as
nicht auch auf aUe seine Anwendung hätte, und was von
einem verlangt wird und verlangt werden muß, das wird
von allen gefordert.
Zu dieser Richtung hat im Christentum die Reformation
zurückführen woUen. Die alte Lehre des Judentums ist anr
erkannt, wenn hier wieder das allgemeine Priestertum der
Gläubigen verkündet wird, und damit die innere Einheit der
Gemeinde hergestellt werden soll. Aber selbst hier, wo so
eine gesonderte Priester^ und Volksfrömmigkeit nicht mehr
Das Wissen
48 ,
1 . u ^.rf ist es doch wieder zu einem Nebeneinander
bestehen da , st ^^^^' ^^^ ^^Hgion gekommen,
^'"•enrS Si^S^^^^ überall sehlieiMieh eintritt, wo
'dJe^RelX^^^^^^ b-^^^^^ ^''\^'' A'"T
wesentlS; Punkte hat es sieh so herausgebildet. Durch
rRe ormation wird nämlich das „Wort Gottes zum Mi .
tel des Heiles erklärt; im Worte wirkt die ubernaturhche,
ß(3rtliche Kraft, in ihm wird dem Menschen cc Guade ^e.
bracht, der Glaube und der Verlaß sind in ihm ^ei^cbcn. Das
Wort ist so nicht Thora, sondern etwas Sakramentales; es
steht neben den Sakramenten, wie sie nicht etwas, was er.
füllt werden soll, sondern etwas, was dem Glaubenden ^e^
schenkt wird. Davon, daß es in der richtigen Weise dar.
geboten, daß es der Gemeinde richti.q geprediat wird, häni^t
das ab, was alles bedeutet, hängt die Erleuchtung und
Gläubigkeit, hängt das Erlebnis der „Rechtfertigung*' und
Erlösung ab- Die richtige Theologie wird zur Bedingung des
Heils. Und sie verlangt ihre Träger und Verwalter; die be«
sondere Gruppe der Besitzenden, der Glaubenshiiter wird in
der Gemeinde geschaffen, Theologen und Laien, Mündige
und Unmündige stehen einander gegenüber. Die Religion
selbst erhält dadurch ihr lehrhaftes, wissensmäßiges Ge^
präge; die Theologie steht in ihrem Mittelpunkt.
Auch dem Judentum ist eine ähnliche Gefahr nicht fern
geblieben. Immer wenn sich einem Glauben neue Erkennt?
nisse eröffnen, kommt es leicht dazu, daß das Wissen s?
dement in der ReHgion überschätzt wird. Einer der besten
Männer des Judentums, einer, der neue Wege imVerständ?
nis der Schrift aufzeigen wollte, Hillel, hat das Wort ge*
sprochen: „Kein Unwissender ist fromm." Aber diese Mei?
nung wurde alles eher als maßgebend, wenn sie auch die eines
Hillel gewesen war. Wir können es noch verfolgen, wie sich
der Einspruch dagegen immer schärfer geltend gemacht hat
und wie er endlich siegreich geblieben ist. Die schlicßliche
Antwort auf yi]fcl&.§Mz ist: „Das Bestimmende ist die Tat "
.Wessen Weisheit mehr ist als seine Taten, der ist wie ein
Baum, dessen Zweige viele sind und dessen Wurzeln wenige«
es komm em Wmd und reißt ihn aus und wirft ihn um ^ Als
im Mittela her die Lehre des Aristoteles in den GeTanken
icreis des Judentums eintrat und unter ihrem Einfluß ene
Die Lehre
49
1
m
>1
T
m
d
neue Theologie entstand, wiederholte sich jene Gefahr. Die
aristotelische Philosophie legt zudem ausdrücklich auf das
Erkennen den Wert; ihr Ideal, das in die jüdische Religions^:
Philosophie Eingang fand, ist die „Theoria", die reine Be?
schaulichkeit des Weisen. Auch hiergegen hat sich dann der
Widerstand erhoben, obwohl er sich, wie einst gegen die
Autorität des Hillel, so jetzt gegen die des Maimonides
kehren mußte- Einer der Lehrer des Judentums hat es da^
mals betont: „Jene Ansicht haben fremde Philosophen aus^
geklügelt, und leider haben sich auch jüdische Denker für
sie gewinnen lassen, ohne es ernstlich zu überlegen, wie sie
damit die Eigenart der Religion zerstören, die Gren?
zen der Religion verrücken — ganz abgesehen davon, daß
jene Lehre in sich durchaus falsch ist." In dem Widerspruch
gegen jene Richtung hat auch die Mystik ihren Weg im
Judentum gewonnen. Als die Kodifikation des Religions:^
gesetzes dazu führte, daß wieder Lernen und Wissen als
das Entscheidende gelten w^ollten, hat sie dem gegenüber die
Bedeutung des Religiösen vertreten. Sie hat wesentlich dazu
beigetragen, daß der jüdischen Frömmigkeit ihr erstes Recht
gewahrt worden ist. Leben ist mehr als Lehre, das ist so
trotz allem im Judentum feststehend geblieben.
Im Protestantismus hat das lehrhafte Element seinen
Platz behalten. Weil hier das Verständnis des Wortes das
eine und erste geworden ist, was not tut, darum hat jene
Sonderung in der Glaubensgemeinde eintreten müssen. Der
Stand des Laientums ist auch hier geschaffen worden. NebenT
den Berufenen und Beamteten, denen sich Wort und Lehre
erschlossen hat und der heilige Geist darin bezeugt, stehen
die vielen, denen sie das alles in irgend einer Form dar*
reichen, um ihnen damit erst den Glauben und die Frömmig^
keit zu eröffnen. Hierfür hat der Inbegriff des Wortes auch
maßgebend als Bekenntnis festgesetzt werden müssen,
und dieses ist zu einer Art von Sakrament und Gnadenstück
geworden, das die Unmündigen mit jenen Erleuchteten ver*
bindet. Dem weiten Gebiet der Gemeinde ist damit auch
hier wieder ein Teil des Ideals vorenthalten. Daß eine relis:
giöse, sittliche Tat geübt werde, das soll und kann von jedem
gefordert werden, denn es ist Sache des Willens. Aber daß
eine Lehre verstanden werde, kann nicht von jedem verlangt
Bacck, Wesen des Judentums 4
r=^Trr
r
CQ Die Konfession
und kaum jedem verheißen werden, denn es ist Sache des
Intellekts oder der Gnade,
"n^ie Einheit der ReHgion wie der Glaubens^^ememde mul3
so im Protestantismus durch die äußerliche Einheit des Hc^
kenntnisses gewährleistet werden. Um dieses bewegen sich
daher die rehgiösen Kämpfe, in dieses wird die heran,
wachsende Jugend in der Katechismusschule eingeführt,
dieses gibt den Gradmesser der Zugehörigkeit zur Gemein.
Schaft. So wird die Religion zur Konfession, welche die
Theologen umgrenzen; die „Rechtgläubigkeit" wird zum
wichtigsten „guten Werk", das nur allzu leicht zu erfüllen
ist. Vor den reHgiös vorangehenden Gegensatz von Gottes,
fürchtigen und Gottlosen rückt der theologische Gegensatz
zwischen Orthodoxen und Nichtorthodoxen, zwischen den
Bekenntnisstarken und den Bekenntnisschwachen. Auch in
die Ethik selbst rückt die Scheidung hinein. Wie der Katholi.
zismus seine besondere Laienmoral lehrt, die für den weiten
Kreis der Gemeinde gelten und genügen soll, s^o'wird hier
für das weltliche Berufsleben seine geringere, ausreichende
^ Sittlichkeit zugelassen; ein Laientum der Moral wird auch
hier aufgerichtet. Man merkt es dem Protestantismus in
vielen seiner wichtigen Züge an, daß ihm Theologen zu Bc
ginn seine Richtung gewiesen haben.
Theologische Lehrsätze verbinden sich aber notwendig,
und wie in der katK^lischen Welt ist es so in der protestanti^
sehen geschehen, mit den Erkenntnissen einer bestimmten
Epoche und, als Dogmen in den Mittelpunkt der Religion ge-
tragen, beharren sie über diese Zeit hinaus. Der Kampf
zwischen Glauben und Wissen ist dann unausbleibHch und
irA T ^^^M "'^T^''' ^'"^ ^^^"^^" der Kirche und
dem G auben des Menschen, der zu ihr gehört. Das Dogma
braucht ferner eine stützende Macht, die ihm seinen Tn
erkannten, maßgebenden Charakter verbürgt, "ndXse ha
der Protestantismus nicht, wie die katholische Ki he L
emer festen Organisation hinter sich So hat er f /J
mehr noch als der Katholizismus, Anlltg'a'^^^^^^^^^
hche Gewalt gesucht. Er wurrfe nft „ „ , ^^''
unausgesprochen, zur Staatsl" che t:., ^''''T^'" ''^''
schichtlichen Voraussetzr^rt Sen^^ Tnf f" K '^^^
fessln erh.lt so einen politischen Eins^hhg Auch im
Das Bekenntnis
51
• ; J
1
■••1
•■i
:>1
3
?
L
protestantischen Staat und im staatlichen Protestantismus
ist viel von dem rein religiösen Charakter verloren ge?
gangen, ohne den die Religion ihre unerläßliche Selbständige
keit und ihr unangreifbares Daseinsrecht einbüßt. Religion
kann Sache des Volkes sein, aber sie darf nicht Sache des
sTaates werden, wcAtl äriüerj^ sie in Wahrheit Religion heißen
will. Ein Zwiespalt zwischen Glauben und Leben ist dann
unausbleiblich, und dieser ist denn, ganz wie der Zwiespalt
zwischen Glauben und Wissen und die Scheidung in der
Glaubensgemeinschaft, immer wieder aus jener Stellung her^
vorgegangen, welche Wort und Bekenntnis im Protestantis^
mus erhalten haben.
Hierzu kommt, daß ein Bekenntnis, wenn ihm diese Be^
deutung eignet, ausgesprochen w^erden muß, um der
2vUgehörigkeit zur Konfession Ausdruck zu verleihen. Damit
ist die Gefahr verbunden, daß in die Religion ein Sprechen
über die Religion hineinkommt. Bezeichnend für den Protei
stantismus ist das sogenannte_^^^^ugi^^
aber nicht jener alte Weg^'^uS^IüSyxium verstanden ist,
sondern nur noch der gefahrlose BrusttoiL,-der Lieber^
Zeugung, mit dem vom sicheren Platze aus die satzreichen
Erklärungen hinausgesandt werden, — eine neue Form der
Glaubenszeugenschaft. Sie kann gern und leicht geübt
v/erden. Neben der aufrichtigen, gesunden und volkstünv
liehen Frömmigkeit, welche die lutherische Kirche besitzt,
findet sich in ihr nicht selten eine Wortreligion, die Herr.
Schaft der gottesfürchtigen Redensart, die sich bald in
schwulstreicher Deklamation mit dem eigenen Salbungs^
tonfall, mit dem besonderen Inbrunstlexikon kund tut, bald
in virtuoser Fähigkeit, hinter klingenden Ausdrücken die
unbestimmten und unbestimmbaren Gedanken zu ver^
stecken. Und zu der Kunstfertigkeit der stets bereiten
Glaubenssprache tritt leicht die Selbstgerechtigkeit der
Habenden. In der religiösen Tat liegt -ein. -Ideal, das nie
völlig verwirklicht sein kann, aber das Wort und zumal das
Bekenntnis kann man bald meinen ganz zu besitzen. Die
Wortkünstler der Frömmigkeit werden rasch zu versicherten
Erbpächtern der Religion.
Auch das innere Erlebnis, das dem Worte entsprechen
soll, um ihm seinen besten Gehalt zu geben, das „inwendige
4*
JSät.
»II I ■ ■ I '
mm
msm
-es
ss:
Das religiöse Erlebnis
Gefühl", auf das der ^^^^^^Z^^^^^^^
wird auf diesem Wege "^^^ ^.^l^^nund seelische Er.
Religion zu brennen werden St — Selbstbcspicge.
fahrungen bekannt. Wie leicht ^ "^"J "" , ^.j^^n viele
lung, ein Prunken -^^ *^"'^""' Ki c e S^^^^ -ahr.
Beispiele in der Geschichte d;^^^;^^^^;^ -.^^^^^^ steht
Viflften Gottvertrauen und dem autncnn.^tu ^la
S oft c^^^^ Gefallsucht ^ie^^^^^^-- f/VS;'
imgkeit. Das Pharisäertum, in dem Smne, wie die Sprache
"war nicht geschichtUch richtig, aber für so manche L ^^
scheinung bezeichnend diesen Ausdruck geprägt hat, ist
etwas spezifisch Protestantisches.
Es hat ja überhaupt etwas sehr Bedenkhchcs der rcli.
giösen Erfahrung den entscheidenden, maßgebenden
Glaubenswert beizulegen. Die Religion kann auf sie nicht
aufgebaut werden, ebensowenig wie auf das Gebet; sie ist
ein Mittel, der Religion gewiß zu werden, aber nicht ReHgion.
Das religiöse Leben wird dieser Erfahrung zwar nie entraten
können; in ihr erhebt sich der Glaube, wenn auch nicht zu
seinem Gipfel, doch zu weihevoller Höhe. Aber sie ist eben
etwas, was von der Stunde abhängt, etwas Gelegentliches.
Der Mensch lebt nicht für Stimmungen und nicht von Stim?
mungen. Mit ihnen hat sich die entgegengesetzte Tat auch
Q\ noch immer gut vertragen. „Andächtig schwärmen ist leichter
\y als gut handeln." Sie können zu dem Gedanken verleiten, daß
sie schon Religion, ganze Religion sind, daß diese in gehobe*
nen Augenblicken ihr Ziel, ihre Verwirklichung gefunden hat.
Im Judentum soll die Religion nicht nur erlebt, sondern
i;gelebt werden, sie soll nicht eine bloße Erfahrung des
/ Lebens sein, sei es auch seine tiefste, sondern seine Erfüllung.
Das erscheint vielleicht nur als eine Trennung von Worten,
aber es ist ein Unterschied im Seelischen. Die rechte Tat
allein stellt den Menschen zu jeder Zeit vor Gott, sie kann
zu jeder Stunde und von jedem Menschen gefordert werden.
Sie allein bewirkt darum wie die innere Einheit des Men-.
sehen, in der er sich mit Gott verbunden weiß, so jene
andere, daß Menschen von einer bleibenden Gemeinsamkeit
ihres Lebens wissen. Wenn das Ideal alle umfaßt und ihnen
allen in gleicher Weise gebietet, dann werden Menschen zur
Gemeinde_Gottes, zu einer Lebensgemeindc zusammen.
Wort und Tat
53
A
+
gefuhrt. Die fromme Tat gibt dem Bekenntnis sein tragendes
Fundament. Sie bietet erst der Liebe zu Gott, der Zw-
versieht, dem Glauben und der Verheißung die sichere und
allen gleiche religiöse Grundlage. Wir können nur
ler Glaube wurzelt im Willel
glauben, was wir tun;,
Wer nicht im guten handeln' (Jettes gewif? geworden'' ist'
wird auch durch kein innerliches Erlebnis je Gottes Wesen
dauernd erfahren. In der Tat offenbart sich Gott dem
Leben; sie ist das Bestimmende für den Menschen, dessen
Dasein Gott sucht. Wie der alte Satz der Offenbarungs.
geschichte es in seiner Bedeutung, die über ihn noch hinaus,
tragt, besagt: „Wir wollen tun und dann vernehmen." Und
wie danach das talmudische Wort es gesagt hat: „Nimm dir
die Gebote Gottes zu Herzen, dann erkennst du Gott und
hast du seine Wege gefunden." Auch das Erkennen geht aus
dem Willen hervor, aus dem Willen zum Guten. So hat auch
ein Mann später Zeit, Hebbel, es in das Buch von seinem
Leben geschrieben: „Es gibt keinen W^eg zur Gottheit als
durch das Tun des Menschen." "
Auch das Judentum hat sein Wort, aber es ist ein Wort,
„zu tun". „In deinem Munde und in deinem Herzen ist das
Wort, es zu tun." Die Tat wird hier zum Beweise der Ueber.
Zeugung. Auch das Judentum hat seine Lehre, aber es ist
eine Lehre, die zu erfüllen ist, eine Lehre, die den Lebensweg
bestimmt. Sie soll erforscht werden, damit sie in allem und
jedem geübt werde. Keine andere Lehre gibt es darum hier,
als die, welche Ausdruck des Gottesgebotes ist. „Das Ver.
borgene ist dem Ewigen, unserem Gotte, und das Offenbare
ist uns und unseren Kindern bis auf ewig — alle die Worte
dieser Lehre zu üben." Religiosität ist hier das Entscheidende
und Schaffende in der ReHgion.
Der Religion Israels ist es so von Anfang an eigentümlich,
und es ist so ihr Besitztum geblieben. Es läßt sich nicht ver^
kennen, daß das Anwachsen der sogenannten zeremoniellen
Satzungen, die der Erhaltung der Gottesgemeinde dienen,
auf diese Stellung zurückzuführen ist, die der Tat im Juden:*
tum gewiesen ist. Sie ist darin nicht selten zur bloßen Tradi^
tion geworden. Aber was besagt das gegenüber dem reli^
giösen Werte, der in der wesentlichen Bedeutung des sitt^
liehen Tuns gegeben ist, gegenüber der religiösen Bestimmt:*
54
Das Sittliche
w
heit, die darin liegt? Dem Judentum ist dies so tief zum
Charakter geworden, daß sich selbst alle Rclißionsphilosophie
in ihm auf die Tat hin richtet. Wie sehr Philo seiner cigcnt«
liehen Absicht nach Moralist ist, haben Kenner seiner Ge=
dankenwelt oft hervorgehoben. Von den führenden Denkern
t des Mittelalters, vor allem von Maimonides, gilt dasselbe.
I Und wenn Spinoza seine Philosophie „cthica" nennt und ihr
letztes Ziel die Ethik sein läßt, so erscheint dies fast wie ein
Erbe des jüdischen Geistes. Am bezeichnendsten ist es, daß
hier auch die Mystik deutlich diesen Zug aufweist. Auch für
sie erschheßt sich der Sinn des Lebens in der Tat; der gött=>
Hebe Wille ist es, der sich dem Menschen offenbart, die
Kräfte, die in der Welt wirken, sind sittliche Kräfte. Auch
sie bewahrt damit das jüdische Eigentum.
Wo immer das Judentum seines Widerspruchs gegen das
Heidentum bewußt geworden ist. dort hat es ihn vor allem
als einen Gegensatz des Tuns und Lebens als
einen sittlichen Gegensatz empfunden und hervorgehoben.
Man hat den Proselyten, die „unter den Fittichen des Gottes
Israels sich zu bergen kamen", die zeremoniellen und got es!
dienstlichen Ansprüche zu erleichtern kein Bedenken S
Punkt^" '" f T^" Anforderungen hat man um k in;n
hörte jedes Paktieren auf ZMUteklter lirr'""*^ ^'
Worte der Schrift ili- 'acuten nnik'uu^ '"^" '^^^ ^'<=
gewöhnliehe Schriften Taltak, . '" "^^"'''' ^"
lieh. Aber vor de Tatsache dt ^^.'"^'""1 ""'^ '^"'"'"^-
gorie und jede Auslegung 4k hfehTb'f'n ^'^' ^"-
Tifteln still. Wenn die Hnf n "^ ^^^"^ ^'^"fe'" ""d
Menschheit, die Zukunft de R^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ie Zukunft der
war dieses Ideal immer ein Idea^Z' \^'''^^^' ^^"^den. so
sittlichen Vervollkommnu:g.defve;^^^^^^^ Handelns, der
die messianische Zeit wird gekommir ""^ desGuten:
sehen das Böse meiden und daV? . . "' ''^"" '»"^ ^^n.
Zusammenhang wird es darstellen ' '""• ^"'^ '^'^ ^"derer
wesentliche Mission, die das S^' ^'' ^''' ^'"''^ ^'^
der guten Tat erblickt wird 1^''^^ ^''''''^ habe, in
Die Hoffnung
55
Tat hat das Glauben und Hoffen gegeben. Auch die Ge«
schichte schon hat dahin geführt, diese Geschichte um des
Ewigen willen, mit all ihrer gebietenden Not. die es ergriff
und fast erzwang, zu beten und zu vertrauen. Wenn die
jüdische Frömmigkeit es nicht unlösbar in sich schlösse, so
hätten die Geschicke des Judentums schon diese Gewißheit
Gottes, diese Erhebung zu ihm immer wieder den Gemutern
gebracht. Diese prophetische Sicherheit, die es vernimmt,
daß Gott gesprochen hat, daß er gebietet und verheißt, mit
all ihrem Pathos blieb der Besitz des Judentums. Diese
Stärke des Glaubens gegenüber allem, was den Menschen als
Erfahrung und Tatsache gilt, hat seiner Geschichte den WiU
len zur Dauer stets wieder erneut, diesen Willen, welcher
Leben schafft, ^rh^nkte, die Tat den Lebensinji^lt. so
gab der Glaube die Lebenskraft. Das Geheimnis des Le.
b^ns. dieser Weg von Gott zum Menschen, und die Klarheit
des Lebens, dieser Weg vom Menschen zu Gott, kamen zu
inander.
m\
Das Neue
57
ll
Offenbarung und Weltreligion
Der ethische Charakter, die grundsätzliche Bcdcutunfj
der sittlichen Tat, ist für die israelitische Religion ursprüna«
lieh. Wie immer man ihre zeitliche Hntstehung ansetzen und
wie immer man sieh zu der Fräße nach ihrem W'citcrschrcis
ten stellen mag, das eine steht doch fest, daß von Anfang an,
seit die eigentliche israelitische, prophetische Religion vor^
handen ist, für sie das Sittengesetz den Angelpunkt bildet.
Das Judentum ist nicht nur ethisch, sondern die Ethik
macht sein Prinzip, sein Wesen aus. Den Mono«
theismus hat die Einsicht in die Unbedingtheit der sittlichen
Forderung geschaffen, das sittliche Bewußtsein belehrt über
Gott. Wo dieses Prinzip anhebt, dort beginnt die israelitische
Religion; ihr Leben hat diesen grundlegenden Gedanken
dann ausgestaltet.
Der bestimmte ethische Charakter bezeichnet so die
Schöpfung der israelitischen Religion, den neuen Weg der
gefunden ward. Under ist durchau s neu, nicht etwa'bloß
die veränderte Fortführung eines alten. Der ethische Mono,
theismus war nicht das Ergebnis einer bisherigen, zu diesem
Ziele gelangten Entwickelung, sondern er ist ein bewußtes
Verlassen derselben. Denn es gibt keine Entfaltung der
N a^ u r r e 1 1 g 1 o n . das heißt der Religion, welche die Natur-
tMsrhen"R'r^''°"^^ ^'^ ^''^^--" ^^^^^^^^^'^
Urheber d. SittlLhkS,^"^;!^^^^^^^^ 'lf"'% '^'
dies gehört zu den gesicherten E gebmssen de R^l•^'"'=
geschiehte. Naturreligionen können wl ethische 7 f"""
wmnen, in die Beziehung zu dem M? i u ^"*^^ ^'''■
verbinden sich mit diesem Lh. ^^ ^"'''''" *''^*^"; «'^
Hütern der bür S^ G^ltha^f T "r"''*^'^*' -
JjAber niemals haben sich N^u^Sf ^""^'^^ ''"'^'•d«^"-
^ll|ethischen Religion, in welch^ÄSf
l'cher Inhalt der Religion istl^^S
ZU einer rein
]5£J^t.3Liaßent::
TJieseTUeber.
jjanß wird stets durch einen Bruch, durch eine Revolution
vollzogen. Er ist das Werk von eingreifenden Persönlich?
keiten, von Relii^ionsstiftern, und er bedeutet so eine Ent^^
deckun^*, er ist eine Tatsache, die ihren Grund in sich trägt.
Der ethische Monotheismus Israels ist nicht eine aus natürs:
licher Entwickelung hervorgegangene, sondern eine ge*
stiftete Religion. Der „eine Gott" Israels ist nicht das
letzte Wort eines alten bis dahin gelangten Denkens,
sondern das erste Wort eines neuen Denkens, einer
neuen, der sittlichen Logik. Insofern diese Form der Rchgion
derart eine Schöpfung, ein durchaus neues, fruchtbares Prin?
zip darstellt, können wir sie in geschichtlicher Beziehung —
von jeder supranaturalistischen Auffassung ganz abgesehen
— eine Offenbarung nennen; ein Sonnenaufgang war
mit ihr der Weltgeschichte beschieden.
Wir können es um so mehr, als sie eine durchaus e i n z i g^
artige Erscheinung gebHeben ist. Es gibt in der Geschichte
der Menschheit kein Zweites, das ihr gliche, nichts, was der
Entstehung des Monotheismus, so wie er in Israel aus dem
sittlichen Bewußtsein, aus der sittlichen Forderung geboren
ward, entspräche. Ob und wie er auf anderem Boden und
unter anderen Bedingungen hätte erwachsen können, ist
darum eine müßige Frage. Geschichtliche Tatsache ist, daß
er durch Israel, und nur durch Israel, der Menschheit ge^
geben worden ist. Wir haben ihn nicht erst zu schaffen und
zu konstruieren, er steht als reale Erscheinung, als Offene
barung vor uns.
Darin, daß die israelitische Religion als Offenbarung be:*
zeichnet wird, liegt aber auch ein Werturteil. Wenn es
sich in der Religion wesentlich um die Stellung des Men^
sehen zur Welt handelt — und diese alte prophetische An-
schauung wird heute wieder anerkannt — so gibt es nur
zwei bestimmende Grundformen der ReHgion, die
israelitische und die buddhistische. Die erstere
heißt dieses Verhältnis zur Welt durch denWiJkji unS die
TarSittlkh bejahen, sie zeigt in der Welt den Acker der
Lebensaufgaben; die letztere stellt als Ziel hin, es zu ver.
neinen, in der willenlosen Selbstbetrachtung nur an sich
selbst hingegeben zu sein. Diese ist der Ausdruck des Ge^^
botes, zu wirken und zu schaffen, jene der des Ruhebedurf.
*
58
nisses
Israelitische und buddhistische Religion
. Diese leitet zu dem Wunsche, für die Geltung Gottes
zu arbeiten, das Reieh Gottes, in dem alle sieh fmden sollen
aufzubauen, jene zu dem Verlangen, in das Eme, das Nichts
zu versinken und darin dem Ich seine Errettung und sem
Heil zu gewinnen. Diese fordert ein Hinauf, em\\ erden,
den weiten Zug zur Zukunft, jene verkündet das Zurück,
das Aufhören, das zukunftslose Sein im Schweigen. Diese
will die Welt mit Gott versöhnen, jene will nur von der \\ elt
erlösen. Diese verlangt Gestaltung, neue Menschen und
eine neue Welt, jene „Verlöschen", Auszug aus dem Alen-.
sehen, Auszug aus der Welt. Die eine ist die Religion des
Altruismus, da sie das Streben nach Vollkommenheit dem
Menschen zuspricht, der seinen Weg zu Gott gefunden hat,
indem er den Menschenbruder sucht, durch Gerechtigkeit
und Liebe gegen ihn Gott dient. Die andere ist die Religion
des Egoismus, da sie die Vollkommenheit dem Menschen
beimißt, der von den Menschen fortgegangen ist, um den
ausschließlichen Weg zu sich zu entdecken und in sich selber
zu bleiben.
Zwischen diesen beiden Formen der Religion gilt es zu
entscheiden; die eine oder die andere ist die religiöse Offene
barung. Alle Geschichte der Religionen neben ihnen be^
steht darin, daß zu der einen oder der anderen mehr hin::
gelenkt worden ist, daß in der Mischung, zu der die breiten
Schichten des Lebens werden, die eine oder die andere
stärker hervortritt. Man kann ReHgion von vornherein über::
haupt abweisen und sich auf die objektive Beobachtung und
die gedankenmäßige Erforschung des Kosmos zurückziehen,
wie sie die Griechen gelehrt haben. Wer aber Religion nicht
entbehren will und in ihr die entschiedene religiöse Be^
Ziehung zu einer wirklichen Welt begehrt, der wird die
IsraeHtische Religion als Offenbarung ansprechen müssen.
Mit diesem Worte soll es also auch gesagt werden, daß sie
die klassische Erscheinung der Religion ist, trotz alW
EntWickelung, die der Weg von ihrem Beginne war doch
nicht nur ein Anfang, sondern ein Ideal. Denn jede 'wahre
Idee ist ein Ganzes, sie stellt ein Ziel dar, das jede Zeit
wieder neu vor sich sieht.
Nur in Israel hat es einen ethischen Monotheismus ge.
geben, und wo er späterhin anderwärts zu finden ist, dort
I
• 0
1 •
I ::
m
4
'Xil
W.
a
Auserwählung
59
ist er mittelbar oder unmittelbar von Israel hergekommen.
Die Existenz dieser Religionsform war durch die Existenz
des israelitischen Volkes bedingt, und Israel war damit eine
der Nationen geworden, die einen Beruf zu erfüllen haben.
Das ist es, was die Auserwählung Israels genannt
wird. In diesem Worte liegt sonach zunächst nur der ein^
fache Ausdruck einer geschichtlichen Tatsache, die Fest=
Stellung einer bestimmten, wesentlichen Eigenart, die hier
hervorgetreten ist. Die Tatsache, daß diesem Volke seine
besondere Stelle in der Welt zugewiesen war, daß es etwas
vollbrachte, wodurch es sich von den anderen unterschied,
ist damit bezeichnet.
Aber zugleich soll doch auch mit diesem Worte ein zu^
sprechendes Urteil gefällt werden. Die Verschieden^
h e i t soll als eine berechtigte, die Eigenart als eine
wertvolle erklärt werden, die vorhandene Scheidung als
eine solche, die durch einen klassischen, bleibenden Besitz
begründet ist. Sie soll als das anerkannt sein, was dem
Leben dieses Volkes seinen Sinn gibt, und worin es sich erst
findet, als ein gegenseitiges Verhältnis zwischen Gott und
ihm, als der Bund, zu dem der Ewige es aus dem Dunkel
einer schweigenden Vergangenheit herausgeholt hatte, und
in dem allein es seinen geraden Weg und seine verheißende
Zukunft entdeckt, als dieser Bund, der das Gegebene und
das Fordernde des Daseins von Geschlecht zu Geschlecht
weiterführt. Das Leben senkt darin seine Wurzeln in die
Tiefen, in denen das Menschliche vom Göttlichen getragen
wird, und es erschaut über sich seine Höhe, in der das GötU
liehe dem Menschlichen seine Zuversicht schenkt; das
Recht, anders zu sein, erhält seinen Grund und seine Ge^
wißheit. Ein Bedürfen der Seele findet darin seine Ant*
wort. Jeder, der eine Wahrheit hat, erfährt um sie als sein
Eigenes, das ihm aufgetragen ist, erfährt um das, was ihn
von den Menschen trennt. Der Berufene ist immer ein Aus^
erwählter, einer, der das Wort Gottes vernommen hat,
welches ihm den besonderen Weg weist. Offenbarung und
Auserwählung sind Begriffe, die einander verlangen. Wer*
einer Religion die klassische Bedeutung zuspricht, der hat
auch ihrem Träger die Stellung zuerkannt, die er und er
allein hat.
«7^'
"ir^
60
Das Wahrheitsbcwußtscin
Die innere Unabhängigkeit
61
Die geschichtliche Tatsache ist von dem Volke, dem sie
den Platz und die Bedeutung seines Lebens aufzeigte, immer
bestimmter erfaßt worden; sie wurde ihm zum seelischen
Eigentum, zum Wissen um sich selbst, zur fordernden Selbst^:
erkenntnis. Man ergriff den Besitz der Religion. Damit
wurde der Mut zu sich selber, die Kraft des Eigenen ge^
schaffen; der Gedanke der religiösen Habe erhielt seine
Energie, das Wahrheitsbewußtsein, das ideelle Persönlich«
keitsgefühl wurde angespannt. Das Volksleben konnte die
Botschaft des Ewigen immer wieder vernehmen, der Glaube
an sich wurde ihm gegeben. In dieser Selbstgewil?.heit ist
die ReHgion ihrem Bekenner zur bleibenden Wahrheit, zur
^Wahrheit seiner Gemeinde geworden, so daß er sie als die
Religion seiner Ahnen und seiner Nachkommen in sich trug.
Fehlte dieses starke Empfinden, so litt darunter alsbald die
Stetigkeit des Glaubens und seine Sicherheit. Jedwedes
Seelische wird zum Besitztum, erst wenn wir dessen inne
geworden sind, wie wir und die, die neben uns stehen, darin
unsere besondere Gabe, die uns kennzeichnet, und unsere
Eigenart finden. In dem Gedanken der Auserwählung ist
die Gememde erst zum Bewußtsein ihrer selbst gelangt
In emem mannigfach wiederholten Worte, das die
Spruche der Väter überliefern, preist Akiba die große gott.
hche Liebe daß Gott den Menschen in seinem Ebenbilde
^schaffen hat, und als die größere, die eigentliche Liebe
Gottes rühmt er es, daß dem Menschen das B e w u ß t s e i n
Bzu^;/^^^^ verliehen ist. in
S^df'dl S^T ""T t ''''''''' '''''' --den. Sie
nat lebendig die Seelen durchdrungen, sie hat ^e^iVctf ^^^
Erst durch das BeTr ^^^"^V'""^^'' deutlicher wurde.
rehgiösetetl'irclTlIdl'^Di^^^^^^^ *«* die
den deutlichen Bevveis- dTe Prn.l. ? ^ .''''^'' "^"""t
Religion an, sichersten er ßfhaberhah" ''"u'^"" ^^'
schiedensten die Auserw/m i i '^^^^'^ ""'^h am cnU
es auch späterhin stets t:"^^^ "^T^^- ^"d so war
druck immer durch die Männl ^.^^'^".•^^^^tvollsten Aus=
Wesen des Judentums am rueste"nV".v'? ^"*^"' ^'^ ^as
-Oedanke der Ause:S£nlSt;'i anderes als
die lebendige Gewißheit, in der sich die Glaubf^nsgemeipde
dessen klar wird, daß sie die Lehre der Wahrheit, die gött^
liehe Offenbarung besitzt. Hiermit war ihr die innere Un.
abhängigkeit gegeben worden, die Fähigkeit, nur aus sich
selbst heraus zu handeln. In dem Bewußtsein von dem Eige::
nen des Daseinsbesitzes, von dem Bunde mit Gott gewann
sie die Kraft, anders zu sein, den Willen, sich zu untere
scheiden und gegen Zahl und Erfolg gleichgültig zu bleiben.
Die seelische Selbständigkeit lebte durch diese Entschlossen^
heit zum eigenen Gewissen und zum eigenen Herzen, durch
diesen Mut, ihm mehr zu glauben als den vielen. Nur hier^
durch hat die Gemeinde vermocht, was so manche harte
Zeit von ihr beansprucht hat, einer ganzen Welt entgegen^
zustehen, die Gemeinde zu sein, die keine Konzessionen
macht. Die Geschichte hat es hier immer wieder verlangt,
gering unter den vielen und klein unter den Mächtigen zu
sein und trotzdem zu fordern, daß sie seien wie die Wenigen,
und Schwachen. Immer wieder war es hier die Daseins?
Pflicht, gedrückt und gedemütigt zu sein und doch die
Überzeugung in sich zu tragen, daß man eine erhabene, ja
-^die erhabenste Geschichte lebe. Ohne die Idee der Ams>/
crwählung wäre es nicht möglich gewesen.
Seinen übertriebenen, aber wohl packendsten Ausd:uck
hat dieses Wahrheitsgefühl, von dem das Judentum beseelt
war, darin erlangt, daß man biblische Weisheit in der griechi?
sehen Philosophie, griechische Wahrheit in der Heiligen
Schrift zu finden meinte. Es war ein naiver Glaube, und so
manche ihre Objektivität preisenden Geschichtsschreiber
haben es denn auch leicht, auf ihn entrüstet oder spottend
hinabzusehen. Aber „der Verständige verlacht alles, derVer=
nünftige nichts". Nichts ist bequemer, als von dem Stand?
punkt Tier Tegenwärtigen geschichtlichen Erkenntnis aus
mehr oder minder barmherzig über die Einfalt abzusprechen,
welche die griechischen Denker zu Schülern der Propheten
hat machen wollen. In Wirklichkeit hat es etwas Ergreifen?
des, wenn einsichtsvolle, denkende Männer, denen mancher
Tag sein Wissen gegeben hatte, so tief von der Wahrheit
ihrer ReUgion überzeugt waren, daß sie gar nicht zu der Vor?
Stellung hingelangen konnten, es gebe noch einen anderen
Besitz des Erkennens als die Offenbarung Gottes an seine
,' rtr
.AÜftSS.
h'
;;
ti
4
Der geschichtliche Erfolg
pLpheten, daß sie dazu hinke— - f^^^^^^ ^^
„ph,. ihre RdiSion .« , ™ ^'^^ «„ , °^lS«c„cbc„,
'Trm t'L t;^^^^^ h^tte stehen wollen, und
:: dem s1 Son Jedem K^am p f e zwischen Glauben und
Wslrso auch von jeder Ver mischun ß des Gkubens
L de; Wissens frei und gesichert geblieben war. Aber es
"sVdoch auch etwas Großes um die Kraft der religiösen
Selbstgewißheit, die die Seelen so ganz erfaßt, daß ihnen alle
Wahrheit Geist vom Geiste ihrer Religion wird.
Ein Glaubenszeuge ist immer nur der geworden, der von
der reügiösen Idee so ganz erfüllt war und so durchaus in ihr
lebte, daß er gegen den geschichtlichen Erfolg und gegen die
sogenannten geschichtlichen Ergebnisse gleichgültig blieb. Nur
wer diesen zu widersprechen und sie gering zu schätzen im^
Stande ist, hat die Sicherheit des Ueberzeugungsmutes, die
auch in den Tod führt. Durch historische Forschung wird
man nicht zum Märtyrer. Was zum Märtyrer macht, ist in
gewisser Hinsicht der ungeschichtliche Sinn. Jedes Genie ist
ungeschichtlich, und jede Wahrheit ist es, da sie die be^
gangene Straße verlassen, die gewohnte Bahn der Entwickc-
lung verwerfen heißen. Es gibt nichts „Ungeschichtlicheres",
als für eine Wahrheit zu sterben; denn man opfert sich nur
für eine Wahrheit, die anders sein will als die bloße Ge^
schichte. Renegaten und ihresgleichen haben sich immer
ihres Geschichtsverständnisses zu rühmen gewußt. Was seit
langem gegen das Judentum ins Feld geführt wird, sind ja
auch allem voran die sogenannten Ergebnisse der Rehgions?
geschichte. Nur das lebendige Wahrheitsbewußtsein kann der
Aufgabe gewachsen sein, ihnen gegenüber seiner selbst sicher
und standhaft zu bleiben. Irrtum und Fehlpfad, halbe Er^
kenntnis und Umweg haben ihre oft ausgedehnte Historie,
aber die Wahrheit als solche ist ein Ziel und insofern gc^
schichtlos. Wer die innere Gewißheit hat, die Wahrheit zu
besitzen, wer dem Ideal und zumal dem religiösen Ideale
lebt, darf und muß gegen die geschichtUchen Erfolge, die ihm
gegenüberstehen, unempfindlich sein, auch wenn sie von dem
Siege über Jahrhunderte zeugen.
Den Männern, die in den griechischen Denkern Juncker der
Propheten verehrten, gebrach es an der rechten geschieht-
Der Pragmatismus
63
<i
S
n
r
f
liehen Einsicht. Aber dieser Mangel war der Schatten des
Lichtes, der Fehler ihrer Tugend; es war eine Einseitigkeit,
aber es war die Einseitigkeit des Vorzugs, der sie auszeichnete,
des starken Wahrheitsbewußtseins. Sie lebten für das Ewige
hienieden, und darum haben sie den Lauf der Tage und der
Geschehnisse sub specie aeterni gesehen. Wie ihre eigene
Vergangenheit, so haben sie die der anderen Völker als rück?
wärts gewandte Propheten betrachtet. Wir würden diesen
großartigen religiösen Pragmatismus nicht missen wollen; wir
würden ihn nicht einmal dafür hingeben wollen, daß jener
Zeit ein besseres historisches Verständnis geschenkt gewesen
wäre. Der unvergleichliche seelische Ernst voll tiefer religiöser
Bedeutung, der darin lag, daß man in den Gedanken der
Heiden ein Suchen des Göttlichen sah, hat diesem Wahrheits^
bewußtsein noch sein ganz besonderes Gepräge gegeben. Und
auch dieser Ernst wiegt schwerer als manche historische
Erkenntnis.
Noch das ganze Mittelalter hindurch glaubte man in der
wahren Philosophie den richtigen Inhalt des Bibelwortes zu
finden; aber trotz Plato und Aristoteles und wohl auch durch
Plato und Aristoteles wurde der Gedanke der Auserwählung
Israels immer entschiedener erfaßt. Ang_Hgr großen Aus?
einajidersßtzun^mitjder ^riechisch^arabischen Philosophie und
Natur wissenschaftjst das Judentum'nur neuge^rafti^iiervor?
gegangen. Weil jene Zeiten ihrer ReligiorTso völlig und deuU
lieh gewiß waren, darum konnten sie den Fortschritten des
Denkens so bereitwillig und unbefangen entgegenkommen.
Beides wurde hierdurch den lebenden und den nachfolgenden
IGeschlechtern erhalten : d i e AchjUin g vorjier Wi s s e n ?
Ischaft und d ie Sicherheit d ex. _ r _e_Li_iI i o sen
\) b e r z e u ^u n g.
Uns ist eine klarere geschichtliche Einsicht in das Wesen
der israelitischen Religion und in den Sinn des Bibelwortes
gegeben, als sie jenen Tagen gewährt war; wir haben auch ein
besseres Urteil über die Grenze zwischen Glauben und
Wissen. Aber nur, wenn wir auch das sichere, kraftvolle
Wahrheitsbewußtsein besitzen, das sie hatten, wird dieses
Verständnis für die Religion wirksam werden. Erst hierdurch
wird uns die Religion, der wir durch unsere Geburt ange^^
-itei
64
Die Exklusivität
Di© Würde
65
Sl
f:[
hören zu unserer Religion, die uns die Relißion ist Hier,
durch aMn wird sie auch das rechte Verhältnis zurNV.ssen»
Sft unserer Tage gewinnen. Wo die- "ich^ v'^^^^^^^^^^^
ist dort liec^t der Grund, %venn auch oft in dem Man.qel eines
beimte; wissenschaftlichen Standpunktes, doch noch
häufiger darin, daß die feste reU^iöse Grundlage fehh. W er j
f von ganzer Seele den Gott Israels als den wahren Gott bc
1 kennt, wird dessen gewiß sein, daß die Religion in ihrem
: Wesen, wie von keinem Ergebnisse der Geschichte, so von
keiner naturwissenschaftUchen Entdeckung und von kemem
s philologischen oder archäologischen Funde berührt wird.
' Mit dem Gedanken der Auserwählung ist selbstverstand^
lieh eine gewisse Ausschließlichkeit verbunden. Denn eine
, Wahrheit anerkennen, heißt zugleich: den Irrtum fernhalten;
// den eigenen Weg gehen, heißt: den W^eg der anderen ver^
"^ werfen. Jeder sittliche Fortschritt, jedes neue Leben hat da^
mit angehoben. In dem G eg ensat z zu den Völkern rings
umher hat Israel seinen Glauben immer deutlicher begriffen,
ihn immer sicherer erfaßt, im Widerspruch zu ihnen hat es
sich selber entdeckt. Dadurch, daß es allein und gegen alle die
anderen zu sein vermochte, hat es der Schöpfer seines persona
liehen Lebens werden können, ist es das „eine Volk" ge?
worden. „Siehe ein Volk, das besonders wohnt und zu den
Nationen sich nicht rechnet."
Mit der Betonung der Sonderart hat daher die Religion
Israels immer wieder beginnen müssen; die prophetische Pre^s
digt mußte die Scheidung von dem Leben der Nachbarvölker
fordern, die mündliche Lehre den „Zaun um die Thora" er*
richten. Die Exklusivität ist, wie mit Recht gesagt worden ist,
die „negative Seite der Bekenntnispflicht". Es kann hinzu?
gefügt werden, daß sie die notwendige Konsequenz des Satzes
ist: „Du sollst keine anderen Götter neben mir haben". Sie
entspricht ihm ebenso, wie das Bekenntnis dem ersten Satze
der Zehn Gebote entspricht, und darum fehlt sie ja dem Poly?
theismus vöUig. Sie ist für die Gesamtheit das, was für den
Einzelnen die absondernde Heiligkeit, das Gebot, sich für Gott
zu entscheiden, ist; sie bedeutet in ihm wie in ihr jene
religiöse Wahrhaftigkeit, die sich dem fremden Gotte nicht
beugt noch unterwirft. Wo es an dieser idealen Abschließung
gebricht, dort ist der Synkretismus, ist das Eindringen der
M
■m ■
Geister aus allen Niederungen, wie die Geschichte an vielen
Beispielen zeigt, die^baldige Folge.
Es ist dem Genius der israelitischen Religion gemäß, daß
dieser Partikularismus bald seinen bestimmten ethischen
Ausdruck erhalten hat; jede recht verstandene Tatsache
ist ja eine Aufgabe, jede Wirklichkeit des Menschenlebens
eine Bestimmung. Die gebotene nationale Exklusivität wurde
zur Forderung der sittlichen Exklusivität gestaltet,
die Besonderheit der geschichtlichen Stellung als eine Be*
Sonderheit religiöser Pflichten erfaßt. Das Gefühl der Würde
erwachte, der Bund zwischen dem Volke und Gott wurde auf
den Boden des Gebotes gestellt. Die Aristokratie des Ge^.
wissens^erhob sich, dieser Adel, der alfe fordert. Israel ist
auserwählt, wenn es sich selber auserwählt. „Der Ewige wdrd
dich zu einem heiligen Volke für sich aufrichten, wie er dir
verheißen, wenn du die Gebote des Ewigen, deines Gottes,
wahrst und in seinen Wegen wandelst." „Ihr sollt mir heilig
sein, denn heiHg bin ich, der Ewige, und ich habe euch abge*
sondert aus den Völkern, daß ihr mir gehöret." „Wenn ihr
nun auf meine Stimme hört und meinen Bund wahrt, so
werdet ihr mir ein Eigentum sein aus allen Völkern; denn
mein ist die ganze Erde." „Dies ist mein Bund mit ihnen,
spricht der Ewige: Mein Geist, der auf dir ist, und meine
Worte, die ich in deinen Mund gelegt, sie sollen nicht weichen
von deinem Munde, noch von dem Munde deiner Kinder, noch
von dem Munde deiner Kindeskinder, spricht der Ewige, von
nun an bis in Ewigkeit." Die Auserwählung wird so zu der höhe,
ren Aufgabe, der das Volk und in ihm der Einzelne treu sein
sollen. Und ihr entspricht denn auch der strengere Maßstab, der
darum an Israel angelegt werden muß. „Von allen Geschlecht
tern des Erdbodens habe ich nur euch erkannt, darum ahnde
ich an euch alle eure Missetaten." „Bei der Stadt, über der
mein Name genannt ist, will ich anheben, Unheil zu verhängen."
Dieser Gedanke durchzieht die prophetischen Reden: Israel
ist von Gott auserkoren, darum ist Gott sein Richter. Israel
ist von Gott dazu bestimmt, daß es das Rechte tue, und nur
I wenn es das Rechte übt, kann und darf es, als das auserwählte
' Volk, bestehen; durch die Sünden wird es von Gott getrennt
und geht es seines Wertes verlustig. Sema^Existen^l^^i^^
eine religiöse sein; es wird sein, wie es vor Gott seiiTSöftr^er
■ — ■ 5
Baeck. Wesen des Judentums
ill
pt;
i
fi
Der geschichtliche Beruf
1 Wird nicht sein. Aus di-er Gewißhdt ist J^^^^ IJe
von dem w e 1 1 g e s c h i c ^ ^ ^ -^^ant^^tU^^^^ die es
Mission Israels erwachsen, von f ^^J/^^;^ ,vird als
vor Gott und den Menschen hat^D^^^ e^St S^^^^^^^^^^ in i^m
ein Prophetentum des ganzen Volkes ertam. ^ic
u einem Glauben an eine Sendung über ^^-\^^^^^^^^^
ein Auserwähltsein um der anderen ^^^^^"^^^^^^^^^ ^j^^
Bote des Herrn, der Messias, der Knecht Go tes der die
Religion für alle Lande hüten, von dem das Licht zu allen
Völkern ausstrahlen soll. „Ich, der Ewige habe dich in Ge.
rechtigkeit gerufen, ich erfasse deine Hand, ich bewahre dich
und setze dich ein zum Bunde der Völker, zum Lichte der
Nationen, blinde Augen zu öffnen. Gefesselte aus dem Ge.
fängnis herauszuführen, aus dem Kerker die, welche im
Finstern wohnen." Das ist ein klassischer Gedanke geworden,
und die späteren Zeiten haben festgehalten, was sein Wesent^
liches, Kraftvolles ist. Nur aus dem Bewußtsein der Aus.
erwählung vermochte er hervorzugehen. Aus dem Glauben
an sich konnte dieser Glaube an die Verantwortlichkeit auf -^
wachsen, diese fordernde Zuversicht, für die Welt da zu sein.
Nur ein Volk, das sein Eigenes in seiner Seele fühlte, konnte
empfinden, wie viel es den anderen allen zu bedeuten hätte.
Die Idee der Auserwählung erhält so zu ihrem unbedingten
Korrelat die Idee der Menschheit, der zur wahren
Religion berufenen Menschheit. Wenn einem Volke die Auf.
gäbe zugewiesen wird, den einen Gott, der der Herr der
ganzen Welt ist, auch für alle Welt zu verkünden, so ist mit
dieser Betonung der Pflicht gegen alle Mensehen zugleich auch
der Gedanke der Gemeinschaft mit ihnen, der Gedanke einer
Gotteskindschaft und Gotteszugehörigkeit aller deutlich aus?
gesprochen. Wenn Israel als Träger der Religion der „erst,
geborene Sohn Gottes" ist, so ist damit gesagt, daß alle Völker
Gottes Kinder sind, saß sie in der Liebe zu ihm und in dem
Gehorsam gegen sein Gebot mit Israel geeint sein sollen; das
Band der reUgiösen Bestimmung verknüpft alle Menschen.
Der religiöse Begriff „alle Völker" wird gebildet, er wird zu
einem steten Worte der Propheten. Der Glaubensgedanke
von der Menschheit, der religiöse Universalismus, wird so hier
ein Grundlegendes, Wesentliches der Religion, er wird zum
Prinzip der geschichtlichen religiösen Auf.
Der Universatismus
67
!/
c
gäbe. Als Religion, die vor sich die Menschheitszukunft als
die Vollendung ihres eigenen Weges erblickt, ist die Israeli,
tische Religion zur Weltreligion geworden. Ja sie könnte die
, Weltreligion genannt^ercten, insofern alle die Religionen, die
^ im Universalismus ihres Zieles bewußt werden, aus ihr her.
vorgegangeiTsma, und kraft dessen, daß sie aus ihr hervor,
gegangen sind, dieses Ziel sich setzen.
Dieser universalistische Zug, der Charakter der Welt.
religion, ist der israelitischen Religion nie ein Zufälliges, Hin.
zugekommenes gewesen. Es konnte so nicht sein, da er schon
in ihrer Lehre von Gott, in dem ethischen Monotheismus be.
gründet ist. Er liegt in dem Begriffe des Ethischen, denn das
Ethische w^ill die allgemeine Gesetzgebung sein; seine For.
derung richtet sich in gleicher Weise an alle Menschen und
soll durch alle Menschen, durch die Menschheit, verwirklicht
werden. Ein Glauben, der als Wesensmal der Frömmigkeit die
sittliche Tat erkennt, ist universalistisch, seine Gedanken und
seine Verheißungen sind die einer Weltreligion. Und ebenso
ist es im Begriffe des Monotheismus enthalten: dem einen
Gott kann nur die eine Religion entsprechen, zu der
alle Menschen berufen sind, und die darum ihre geschichtliche
Erfüllung erst dann gefunden haben kann, wenn sich alle
Menschen in ihr vereinen. Ihre Predigt wird zur Verkündi.
gung der „kommenden Tage", in ihnen soll ihre Geschichte
sich vollenden und verwirklichen. Ihr entscheidendes Wort
gilt der Zukunft, der erschauten Zeit, durch die das Fernste
zum Nahenden wird, das Verhüllte zum Gewissesten, und
der menschliche Gesichtskreis sich zur Welt dehnt, welche
alle umschließt. Auch der biblische Gedanke des einen Ge^
heimnisses, des Ewigen, das,.all£&Jxägt, der Gedanke der
Schöpfung befaßt dieses seibein sich. Die Weltschöpfung
ist hier die Menschheitsschöpfung; mit der einen Welt ist die
eine Menschheit geworden. Der eine Gott, der das AU ins
Dasein rief, hat von Anbeginn her alle zu dem einen Dasein
berufen. „Der da rief die Geschlechter von Anfang, ich, der
Ewige, der Erste und bei den Letzten derselbe". Das Uni.
versum ist die große Vorstellung des Anfangs und wird zur
großen Idee der Zukunft.
Daß in dem Bilde der Zukunft auch nationale Vorstel.
lungen und Erwartungen ausgemalt worden sind, ist selbst.
lJ
<mmm
;1
% t
i
h '.
68
Das Besondere
verständlich. Die höchste VerpfUchtunß ist immer zugleich
die höchste Verheißung. Wie sollte das, was von Israel Hc^
sonderes forderte, ihm nicht auch Besonderes zusprechen?
Die Existenz des Monotheismus war zudem ja an das Be*
stehen der Gemeinde Israels geknüpft; die Zukunft Israels
war die Zukunft der ReHgion, und umgekehrt war auch
das Schicksal der Religion und damit das Schicksal der
Welt zugleich das besondere, eigentÜche Geschick Israels.
Weil für die Propheten die ReHgion das Wesentliche, der
Angelpunkt der geschichtlichen Wendungen ist, steht für sie
das Geschick Israels notwendig im Mittelpunkt der Welt?
geschichte. Und sie hätten nicht Menschen, denen ihr Blut
in den Adern rollt, sein müssen, um die verheißenen Tage
nicht vor allem auch als Tage der Anerkennung, des Ge?
deihens und des Glückes für ihr Volk zu erwarten und zu er:=
sehnen. Sie sprechen zu ihm, zu ihm auch von der Mensch?
heit, und darum mußten sie von ihm auch sprechen.
Die Verkündigung der Propheten und derer, die nach
ihnen kamen, hat so den doppelten Ausblick. Die Hoffnung
für die Menschheit ist die Hoffnung für Israel. Das Wort
Gottes an die Menschheit ist kein anderes als das Wort Gottes
an sein Volk. Der Weg zu dem Ziele, das Gott den Jahr.
tausenden setzt, geht von der Erwählung Israels aus. Es ge.
hört zum Leben der Nation, in welcher und durch welche die
messianische Religion geschaffen ward, wenn die messianische
Zeit für alle Welt sich vorbereitet und anbricht. Wenn der
ganzen Menschheit das Heü beschieden sein wird, so wird es
kern anderes sein als das, welches von Zion ausgegangen und
, ^^^pneien, die das eme nachdrürWlipV. \^\.
Gedanke de^großt^ttws^le^H ^^^^^^^ ^cit der
klar hervorgetreten ist. dann hat au'h t ^" Tu ^'^' *^"*'
von Israels persönlichem BesUz vi '' ß^^^"ßtsein
Verhältnisse zur Religion STTI "^^'l, ^^'"^"1 einzigartii-en
Die historische tSZ£^.lt:T::jf^^- «^^-den.
^ war so zur Idee geworden.
I ;
ü
l
P
Israel und die Menschheit
69
das Sonderdasein Israels zum Bewußtseifl des Dienstes um
der Zukunft der Menschheit willen. Es stimmt, wie bereits
angedeutet, in bemerkenswerter Weise mit dem wesentlichsten
Zuge der israelitischen Religion zusammen, daß auch hier
wiederum der Gedanke des Gebotes, der Pflicht entscheidend
hervortritt. Die Eigentümlichkeit des Berufes wird
gefordert, aber keine Exklusivität des Heils ver^^
kündet. Das Judentum blieb davor bewahrt, in die religiöse
Enge des Begriffes einer alleinseligmachenden Kirche hinein*
zugeraten. Wo nicht der Glaube, sondern die Tat zu Gott
hinführt, wo die Gemeinde ihren Kindern als seelisches
Zeichen der Zugehörigkeit das Ideal und die Aufgabe dar?
bietet, dort kann der Platz im Bunde des Glaubens noch nicht
das Heil der Seele verbürgen. Und eben so wenig kann es
dann an sich den Verlust des Heils bedingen, wenn das
Schicksal der Geburt den Menschen in einen anderen Kreis
des Bekenntnisses hineingestellt hat. Durch die Bibel klingt
leise, aber deutlich vernehmbar die Rede hindurch, daß alle
Menschen Gott suchen: „vom Anfange der Sonne bis zu
ihrem Untergange wird der Name des Herrn gepriesen";
auch die Heiden trachten fromm zu sein; auch sie finden die
Umkehr von ihren Sünden und können die göttliche Ver?
gebung erlangen. Immer mehr wird der Gegensatz zwischen
Gottesfürchtigen und Gottlosen einzig maßgebend, er läßt
jede andere Scheidung zurücktreten. Und „gottesfürchtig'* in
der betonten Bedeutung dieses Wortes ist ein jeder, der an
den einen Gott glaubt und das Rechte tut. Eigenschaften, wie
die des Chassid, „des Frommen", und des Zaddik, „des Ge^^
rechten**, Worte, die den Besten unter den Juden
kennzeichnen sollen, beginnen auch dem Heiden beigelegt
zu werden, bis schließlich die sittUche Gleichberechtigung
aller Menschen ihren klaren und entschiedenen Ausdruck
findet in dem Satze, der ein klassischer geworden ist: „Auch
die Frommen, die nicht Israeliten sind, haben an der ewigen
Seligkeit teil'*. Man braucht ihm nur Dantes Schilderung des
Ortes der Verdammnis, der Schicksalsstätte auch der Besten
in dem Heidenvolke, gegenüberzustellen, mit all der Fülle
ihrer grausen Bilder, die den kirchlichen Vorstellungen der
Jahrhunderte vorher und nachher entsprechen, um den Kon:*
trast in seiner ganzen Schärfe zu empfinden.
/
70
liM
Der Mensch
Das Judentum* spricht von dem gu ten Men seh cn ;
. „ein guter Jude ', das bleibt den Worten der Schrift und der
jfimündUchen Lehre fremd. Der Mensch ist vor Gott hmgcstcllt.
Mit sicherer Entschiedenheit wird dieser Gedanke erfaßt.
und er wird immer wieder, in immer neuer Beziehung, her^
vorgehoben: „Ihr habt in der Schrift gelesen, daß Moses zu
den Kindern Israel also geredet hat: „Wahret meine Satzung
gen und meine Rechte, die der Mensch üben soll, daß er
durch sie lebe, ich bin der Ewige". Und ihr wißt es auch, daß
David gebetet hat: „Dies ist die Lehre vom Menschen,
ewiger Gott*'; aber er hat nicht gesagt: „Dies ist die Lehre
von den Priestern, den Leviten, den IsraeUtcn". Und hat der
Prophet etwa gesprochen: „Offnet die Tore, daß die Priester,
die Leviten, die Israeliten eintreten!" Ist nicht vielmehr das
sein Wort: „öffnet die Tore, daß einziehe ein gerechtes
Volk, das die Treue wahrt?" Und ebenso habt ihr gehört:
„Dies ist das Tor zum Ewigen, die Gerechten ziehen da
hinein"; oder habt ihr es etwa so vernommen: „Dies ist das
Tor zum Ewigen, die Priester, die Leviten, die Israeliten
ziehen da hinein". Singet ihr vielleicht: „Tue Gutes, o Herr,
den Priestern, den Leviten, den Israeliten"? Stimmt ihr nicht
vielmehr das Lied der Wallfahrt an: „Tue Gutes, o Herr, den
l Guten und denen, die in ihrem Herzen gerade sind!" Und
auch das hört ihr in eurem Psalm: „Jubelt, ihr Gerechten,
in dem Ewigen, den Redlichen ziemt Lobgesang"; nicht
aber spricht er zu euch: „Jubelt, ihr Priester, ihr Leviten, ihr
Israeliten in dem Ewigen". Darum sage ich euch: EijiJH[eide
der das Rechte übt. ist so viel wert wie ein Hoherprieste*r in
Israel." Vor dem Bunde, den Gott mit den Stammvätern und
durch sie mit ihren Nachkommen geschlossen, steht der
S J'^ ^^'l ^7'^ N o ah mit der ganzen Menschheit ge.
stiftet hat. Sind die, welche den Dienst des einen Gottes auf
sich nehmen, um seine Zeugen vor aller Welt zu sein die
Kinder Israels, so sind die Heiden, die sich von un
diesen universellen Charakter "de's L.hLh n ' ^"^ "*=
Die nationale Begrenztheit
71
\'
nale Beschränktheit, in der man einen Mangel der Religion
Israels zu sehen vermeinte, die aber in Wahrheit eine not»
wendige Grundlage ihrer Daseinskraft gewesen ist. Nur im
Reiche der Engel kann es die abgezogene reine Idee geben;
bei uns Menschen unter dem Monde, wo jede Seele ihren
Körper und ihre Individualität hat. ist der Glaube nur jn
konkreter Form daseinsfähig; er muß in der sicheren
Eigenart eines Volkes oder einer Gemeinde wurzeln; er muß
düFciraSs THs'dirmid das seelische Eigentum seiner Be.
kenner sein Leben, seine bestimmte, persönliche Dasems»
form, seinen Ausdruck gewinnen. Alle menschlichen Ideale
sind durch eine geschichtliche Existenz bedingt, mit ihr ver.
wachsen und von ihr umschlossen. Wäre der Monotheismus
nicht die Religion Israels geworden, hätte er nicht als dessen
Volkseigentum seine Sicherheit besessen, nicht in dem Be»
wußtscin der Auserwählung dort die seelische Kraft ge»
Wonnen, die ihn trug, so wäre er vielleicht die verborgene,
rätselreiche Lehre eines geheimnisvollen Kreises geworden,
und irgend eine alte Schrift hätte von ihm Kunde gegeben.
Aber er hätte nie den Wandel der Zeiten zu bestehen ver»
mocht. um zur Religion der Zeiten zu werden. Die nationale
Enge die man dem Judentum zum Vorwurf zu machen liebt,
ist nichts anderes als die Entschiedenheit des per.
sönlichen Verhältnisses, dieser eigene Boden, der
allein die Dauer verbürgt. Es gibt im Religiösen kein Leben
und keine Individualität, die nicht auch national bestunmt
und insofern beschränkt wäre. ,. , ^ ■ u
Mit der Ausbreitung und Zerstreuung Israels ghedert sich
dann freilich diese nationale Begrenztheit. Trotz aller
grundsätzlichen religiösen Einheit war einst das alexandru
nische Judentum ein anderes als das palästinensische, und
dieses wiederum nicht dasselbe wie das babylonische Und
durch das Mittelalter zieht sich ein Gegensatz hindurch zwi»
sehen den spanisch^portugiesischen Juden, den Sephardnn,
und den deutschen, den Aschkenasim. ein Gegensatz, der
nicht bloß in der VerschiedanTeiT der Schicksale, sondern
ebenso, vielleicht infolge dieses anderen Geschickes m einer
Besonderheit der Denkweise, des geistigen Charakters be,
stand und als solcher auch stets empfunden ^^'o^f "»^J J-^
hat kaum eine Zeit gegeben, wo das Gebiet des Judentums
■i»»M II I
m>'W V
n-T"
■iHi
M '"
Hi« <
1*! I
Vi- ■
V'',
i
li'.
I"
72
•4
Das persönliche Verhältnis
ein
durchaus gleichartiges Ganzes gebildet hätte. Die Juden
aller der Länder zeigten immer eine unverkennbare Mannig==
faltigkeit der religiösen Auffassung, des ganzen seelischen
Ausdrucks. Selbst die nordfranzösischen Juden sind z. B.
nicht die gleichen wie die südfranzösischen, die norddcut^^
sehen Juden nicht dieselben wie die süddeutschen. Es ist
die nämliche Verschiedenheit zwischen ihnen, wie sie über:^
haupt zwischen Nord^ und Südfranzosen, zwischen Nord^»
und Süddeutschen hervortritt. Alle Religionen sind derart
national beschränkt; das Christentum, der Buddhismus, der
Islam ist es. Der deutsche, der spanische, der italienische
Katholizismus, die russische, die armenische Kirche, der
englische, der schweizerische, der nordische Protestantismus,
der türkische und der indische Islam, der tibetische und der
japanische Buddhismus — und wer kann die Besonderheiten
innerhalb aller Religionen aufzählen — , sie sind samt und
. sonders national bestimmt und national begrenzt.
Wenn die Propheten in ihrem Worte vor allem und oft
ausschließlich von Israel sprachen, so war es jedenfalls weise
Beschränkung. Sie wußten und fühlten es, daß die Religion
erst hier begründet sein müßte, ehe sie der Welt verkündet
und gebracht werden könnte. Hier sollte das Gute zuerst
verwirklicht werden, das wahrhaft Menschliche sollte im
Jüdischen seinen Ausdruck finden. Auch dort, wo die Rede
für die Menschheit bestimmt war, mußte sie sich zu Israel
hinwenden. Die Stärke der Wirkung war hierdurch auch
bedmgt. Sie hätte viel verloren ohne diese persönliche
Innigkeit, die zu denen und von denen spricht, zu denen
das Herz zunächst sprechen heißt. Wie der, welcher von
ganzem Gemüte betet, zu seinem Gotte fleht, wenn
immer er ihn auch als den einen Gott, den Gott aller Men.
sehen weiß, ebenso konnten die Propheten gerade ZZ
wenn sich ihr Empfinden am tief sten' regte, nur von In
ie^r'^^'S""''^''^ '''''' ^^^-^ wie sehr s e es aucS
begriffen, daß es eine Rede an alle Menschen ist Ganz so
sprachen sie dann auch von dem GnH Tc i ,
das Gebot des Herrn der Weh an alk ^Ä
w*». Es w., die We uJihrv„* IT^' S'™
mm, die dann ihren Ausdrnrlr fo«^ j , . , ^"^
».«.».n de.e„, ^ „m^rvS el^h« .^„t
1
1
' i
r
\
Der Platz in der Welt
73
stehen konnte, der die Aufgabe der Welt begriff. Ihr Volk
gab ihnen den sicheren Platz, um die Menschheit zu sehen
und zu erfassen, ganz wie die Menschheit es ihnen zeigte,
welches der Platz ihres Volkes war. Der Gedanke des
Eigentums und der der Verpflichtung trugen einander, und
d^Sinn für das Besondere stand darum auch nicht ge^cn
den für das Ganze. So wenig Familientreue und Menschen^ j
nebeneinander ausschließen, so wenig sind der Universalfs^ j^
mus und jene Begrenzung in Lehre und Verkündigung!
einander entgegengesetzt.
Es zeugt von der Kraft der Rede Jesu, nicht aber von
einer Enge des Gesichtskreises, wenn er sein Wort nur an
Israel ergehen lassen will und seinen Jüngern diesen Weg
nur weist. Aber es ist gut, daß diese seine Mahnung nicht
im Alten Testament, geschweige denn im Talmud steht;
denn sonst würde sie geringe Gnade gefunden haben vor
den gestrengen evangelischen Herren von der alt^: und neu^
testamentlichen Wissenschaft, sie würde sonder Erbarmen
versetzt worden sein unter die Bekundungen der engherzigen
jüdischen Volksreligion. Die Propheten sprechen von der
Welt und ihrem Heile, aber sie sprechen zu Israel; nur
die farblosen Epigonen fordern immer die ganze Mensch:^
heit zum Hören und Bewundern auf.
Um seinen sicheren Boden zu gewinnen und seine^ielle
in Aer WelTseelisch zu erringen, hat sich das"Juaentum Jin
KAT^pje durchsetzen müssen, und Worte des Kampfes be^^
gegnen uns darum nicht selten in dem religiösen Schrifttum
zumal der älteren Zeit. Es finden sich bei den Propheten,
in den Psalmen und noch späterhin auch manche Satze, die
mit heftigen Wünschen und schroffen Erwartungen das gott.
liehe Strafgericht auf die Heidenwelt herabsehnen, Sätze, in
denen manches, wie sehr ein heiliger Zorn es gesprochen
hat, unserem Ohr und unserem Empfinden verletzend ist.
Aber wenn es auch nicht mehr unser Wort, der Ausdruck
unseres Hoffens ist, so können wir es doch innerlich mit.
fühlen und es verstehen. Es darf dabei auch nicht vergessen
werden, daß sich solche Erbitterung nicht nur gegen die
gottlosen Heiden wandte, sondern eben so sehr gegen die
Sünder in Israel kehrte. Weniger ein Haß gegen die Völker
rings umher, als vielmehr der Haß gegen die Sunde
74
Der Kampf
iH
P:.
bricht darin mit aller Wucht der Empörung hervor. Selbst
für Israels Feind ergreifen deshalb die Gottesmänner Partei,
wenn ihr sittliches Bewußtsein es fordert. So wenig sind sie
.national befangen, daß sie in den fremden Nationen das
fti strafende Werkzeug Gottes erblicken. Der Glaube an das
unverrückbare, unantastbare Sittengesetz erfüllt sie so sehr,
daß das Letzte, das die Antwort gibt, das eigentliche Ende
der bösen Tat für sie erst dann gekommen sein kann,
wenn dem Frevel, wo immer er sich trotzig erhebt, das
, rächende Verderben gefolgt ist. Das war in den harten
Tagen, in denen sich der Gedanke der unbegrenzten, weit»
beherrschenden Gerechtigkeit durchringen mußte, eine
Existenzfrage für das Bewußtsein vom Recht. Das eifernde
Bangen und Hoffen, das mit allem Vermögen der Zuversicht
an dem unbestechlichen, ewigen Richter festhielt, sich mit
allen Fasern der Seele an den gerechten Gott anklammerte,
konnte nicht immer geduldig harrend dem sündhaften Hoch»
mut drinnen im Lande und draußen zusehen, ohne den
strafenden Tag des Herrn schauen zu wollen. Nur Gott ist
geduldig, weil er ewig ist. Ganz so hat im Buche Hiob der
yerzweiflungsvoUe Kampf, den der sterbliche Mensch, dessen
.Leben keine Zeit hat, zu warten, in seines Herzens Not um
ittan?.'«'''' Gott kämpft, bisweilen Worte, die an Gottes»
ksterung grenzen. Aber es ist in dieser Gotteslästerung mehr
Gottesfurcht als in mancher sänftiglichen, frommen Demut
Wer m semer Tugend gesichert, sich fromm hinab
blickenden Auges über jenen „Rachedurst" erhebt und 1.
wehmutsvolle, absprechende Wort für ihn berdt hat der ha
str jr siSherG?a"b n ^^"^^^-^- s?er:
Gewalt de; TZ^:^£^t^^^^^-;;^^n
Existenz erfährt, wi; schme tol'es sd T"" ''^'^^""<^hen
Martyrium ist leichter zu erduld.n ^^''.^'^T P^^^n^che
hinzunehmen. Man muß es erShK ™'^ stiller Vergebung
können: „Warum d^rfL d v^it'^^" «'^f ^^ nacherleben
ihr Gott?"; man muß es fsH xTf'^^"= ^° «^t "un
es mitgefühlt haben: , Witwe ünH?./""'^""^^" «'J"
und morden die Waisen uS^i^ ^n^c ^7^^
Die Hoffnung
75
und nicht achtet es der Gott Jakobs'* — um auch den dis^
harmonischen Aufschrei der seeUschen Not zu verstehen
und das Gebet zu begreifen: „Gott der Rache, Ewiger,
Gott der Rache, offenbare dich; erhebe dich, Richter der
Erde, bring Vergeltung über die Hoffärtigen!" Als das
Christentum unter, iiie. Völker hinaustrat, besaß es in Israels
(]^^ Psalmen und Prophetenbüchern bereits den reichen Schatz
<^der Tröstung und der Gewißheit gegenüber aller Prüfung
durch die Macht der Welt. Israels ReUgion hatte sich ihn
erst erstreiten müssen, und von den Wunden dieses Kampfes
zeugt so manches zuckende Wort.
Es darf auch nicht vergessen werden, daß den letzten
Ausspruch die Liebe tut. Nach allem Stürmen und Ringen
erhebt sich in immer neuen Tönen der milde Abgesang: „Sei
stille dem Ewigen und harre auf ihn". „Steh ab vom Zorn
und laß den Grimm fahren, und ereifere dich nicht, es ist
nur zum Bösen." „Befiehl dem Ewigen deinen Weg und vers^
traue auf ihn, er wird es machen und wird deine Gerechtig=j
keit aufgehen lassen wie das Licht und dein Recht wie die
Mittagshelle." „Denn Recht muß doch Recht_bleibfin, und
folgen werden ihm alle, die redlichen Herzen sind." Und
machtvoll klingt die Hoffnung für die Heiden hervor: „Es
werden dir danken, Gott, die Völker, es werden dir danken
die Völker alle. Frohlocken und jubeln werden die Nationen,
denn du richtest die Völker recht, und die Nationen auf
Erden leitest du." Der religiöse Begriff „alle Völker", wie
das prophetische Denken ihn geschaffen hat, wird zu dem
betenden Worte der Erwartung für alle Weh: „Sprechet
unter den Völkern!" „Verkündet unter den Nationen!"
„Erzählt unter den Völkern seine Herrlichkeit, unter allen
Nationen seine Wunder!" Aus aller innerlichen Not und
Pein tritt immer wieder diese Sehnsucht, die von der Zu^
kunft nicht läßt, hervor. Und kein Zug bezeichnet Men^
sehen und Völker in ihrer Seele so sichtlich, wie dieses Ver^
langen und Dichten, das nach der Ferne hinauszieht.
Nicht von Anfang an ist dieser universelle Charakter der
israelitischen Religion völlig ausgebildet gewesen, wenn er
auch, wie gezeigt, von Anfang an in ihrem Wesen enthalten
.ist. Wie so vieles im Judentum hat er sich allmählich zu
"seiner klaren Entschiedenheit entwickelt. Die Bibel läßt es
■■«WMWi
[ '
76
Der Horizont
erkennen; sie zeigt auch hier nicht allein die Frucht, sondern
den tief wurzelnden Baum, der die Frucht bringt, sie zeii,t
die Entwicklung. Vor allem mußte der geschichtliche Be.
griff der Welt gewonnen sein, ehe es zu verständlichem Aus.
|l druck gebracht werden konnte, daß die Religion zur Religion
11 der ganzen Weh bestimmt sei. Damit der Universahsmus
darstellbar werde, hat sich der geschichtUche Horizont er*
weitern müssen. Dieselben Männer, die die Idee der Welt*
religion klar aussprechen, haben zuvor den Gedanken der
Weltgeschichte — die sich ihnen als dasWaUen des
Gottesgebotes in der Welt, als die Verwirklichung eines er*
habenen ewigen Planes darbot — gestaltet. Der über die
Nation und ihr Land hinausführende Begriff der Welt, der
andere Völker ihres religiösen Fundaments zu berauben,
ihre Götter, die sie besaßen, zu entthronen schien, stellte in
Israel die religiöse Wahrheit erst in ihre umfassende Weite
und zeigte erst wahrhaft die Gedanken und Wege Gottes.
Bei den anderen Völkern hat dieser AusbHck in die Ferne
des Neuen, in der sich der Gesichtskreis dehnte, ja auch das
sittliche Urteil irre werden lassen, bei den Israeliten ist es
dadurch nur gefestigt worden. Schon das läßt erkennen, wie
die israelitische Religion im Universalismus ihren klassischen
Ausdruck hat.
Dem gegenüber bedeutet es für die Beurteilung des Juden*
tums wenig, wenn seine zu beziffernde Ausbreitung — aus
Gründen, die später zu erläutern sind — immer gering ge*
blieben ist. Weltkirche und Weh religion sind nicht
identisch, und noch viel weniger Weltreligion und AUerwelts*
religion. Der wahre Universahsmus ist ein solcher der I d e e
^^aber nicht ein Universallsmus der Zahl. Nicht die Aus-
dehnung, sondern der Charakter ist maßgebend; denn sonst
wurde das mannigfaltige Heidentum in alter und neuer Zeit
der universellste Glaube, die eigentliche Weltreligion sein
Wenn so manche Bekenntnisse ihr Gebiet rasch und bei
trachtheh erweitert haben, so darf dabei auch nicht über-
sehen werden, daß vieles davon, und oft das mei e in d e
Geschichte der PoHtik, aber nicht in die der Relig on Z
hört; es ist unter die Erfolge der Schlachten und Ser Staats-
kunste zu setzen, aber nicht unter die des GottesworJes'
Wer also danach seinen Spruch fäUt, läßt über das We'
■•I
u.
tz:
I ^
m
Die Aufgabe
77
n
sen
eines Glaubens die Errungenschaften der Gewalt entscheiden
und legt das Schwert in die Wagschale des Wertes der
Religionen.
Von Gewicht ist es allein, ob eine ReHgion den Universalis*
mus zum bestimmenden Merkmal ihres Lebens, zur klar er*
schauten Idee, zum bewußt vorgesetzten Ziele hat. Vom
Buddhismus z. B. gehen Wege aus, die zu den Menschen
überall hinführen, er hat auch die Grenzen des Landes, in
dem er entstand, weit überschritten, aber ihm ist die um*
fassende Allgemeinheit nie zur Aufgabe, zum deutlichen
Kennzeichen seiner Zukunft geworden. So ist es allein vom
Judentum erfaßt worden, das erst in dem universellen
Gottesreich, welches alle Menschen umschließt, seine ge*
schichtliche Erfüllung erblickt und erwartet. Ihm ist der
Universalismus eine wesentliche Eigenschaft, ein charakte*
ristischer Inhalt. Ganz ebenso ist er es danach im Christen*
tum und auch im Islaxn. Auch sie sind daher Weltreligionen ;
sie sind es, insofern sie aus dem _Judentum_ hervorgegangen .,
sind, und soweit sie mit ihm zusammenhängen. Es ist Glaube V
von Israels Glauben, wenn sie die religiöse Zukunft der \
Menschheit im Lichte der eigenen Religion schauen und so S
in ihrer Religion die Religion sehen.
Das Judentum hat denn auch das Gebot des Weges zur
Menschheit, der Mission, die der Besitz der Religion
fordert, erzeugt. Es ist nicht die Mission, die aus dem
natürlichen Expansions* und Herrschaftsbedürfnis hervor*
geht, worin sich jede Kirche zu entfalten sucht, sondern sie
erwächst aus dem innersten Glaubensbedürfnis, die Men*
sehen zu belehren und zu bekehren, auf daß sie in der Wahr*
heit sich finden und sich zusammen finden. Schon aus
dem Gedanken der Auserwählung, in dem das Besitztum zur
Pflicht gegen die anderen wird, hatte es sich ergeben. Man
hatte das Bewußtsein, gesandt zu sein — dieses Wort „sen*
den" ist eines der eigensten, bezeichnendsten der Bibel —
dieses Bewußtsein, nicht nur ein Dasein zu haben, sondern
den anderen etwas zu bedeuten; die Existenz hatte ihre be*
stimmende Idee erhalten. ITT dem Gedanken von der Mensch*
heit und ihrer Geschichte vertiefte es sich dann. Je mehr
man in der Religion, in der man lebte, den Sinn alles Lebens,
der Schritte und der Bahnen, der Anfänge und der Ziele er*
78
Die Mission
Die siebzig Völker
79
M
I''
11.:'
I
Q
faßte, desto gebietender stand die Aufgabe da, dieser W ahr.
heit ihr Recht zu bereiten, die Völker der Erde zu ihr hin^
zurufen. Man wußte darum, wie das, was man als Gewiß,
heit und als Sehnsucht in sich trug, aus den Tiefen mensch,
liehen Wesens hervorkam, aus dem seeüschen Grunde, der
aller Menschen Grund ist. Wohin man schaute, man er.
bHckte überall den Menschen, überall das Menschliche.
Woher immer die Stimmen herüberklangen, man vernahm
aus ihnen ein gleiches, wie man es im Empfinden und im
Ringen selber erfahren hatte, überall das Suchen und das
Irren des Menschen, sein Schicksal und seine Bestimmung;
wohin immer man hinaushorchte, überall hörte man das
Wort, das im eigenen Gewissen laut geworden war, das
Wort Gottes an den Menschen. Ueberall sah man die Wei^e
Gottes und die Wege zu ihm. Durch alle die Wolken hin.
durch, die über den Völkern lagen, wollten die Strahlen der
Offenbarung dringen, deren Licht in Israel aufgegangen war,
der Offenbarung Gottes an die Menschen und seiner Ver.
heißung an sie. „Wendet euch zu mir, daß euch geholfen
werde, alle Enden der Erde." In aller Weisheit, die in Israel
erkannt und verkündet ward, hörte man das Wort, das for.
dernd und mahnend von ihr zum Menschen gesprochen war;
man verstand, wie sie in die Welt hinausrief: „Euch, ihr
Männer, rufe ich zu, und meine Stimme ergeht an die
Menschenkinder.'' Man wußte, was man allen zu sagen hatte
und wußte, daß das Judentum von ihrem Innersten Person'
liebsten zu ihnen sprach. Der Gedanke der Mission bedeutot
hier im Eigentlichsten, daß das Jüdische in seinem Grunde/?)
aas Menschlicjhe ist. ^ " "^ \y
^-^önJn-dtn^nhng von Israels Religion wurde diese
Missionsverpfhchtung gesetzt: schon an Abraham ist die
mahnende Verheißung ergangen: „Durch dich sotn ,es^^g^
werden alle Geschlechter der Erde" Und vv^Tr • li^
in der Heiligen Schrift gedeutet wird aVs ,'vrr'drvSkr
fulb , so horte die fromme Überlieferung das Wort he^a^^^^^
daß er zum Vater des HHIpq f,;,. «n \/i ^ . neraus,
de, d,e„ "beH,i™„ttVp™t tot'Gedf r' "'^
nommen. Siebzig Völker ,ihUM.c-?' '^"'''"I'™ cnt,
Sehnt, .„( .,, l :pt„:"^„', t d»" tr '" ,^"'«"
■•I
"a
••»■,1
bezeichnen, redet daher die mündliche Lehre von den siebzig
Völkern, von den siebzig_Sprachen; sie hat damit den
knappen Namen für den Begriff der Menschheit gewonnen.
In ihrer bilderreichen Sprache sagt sie, in siebzig Sprachen
habe sich Gott am Sinai offenbart, in siebzig Sprachen habe
Moses die Worte des Herrn auf den Altar schreiben sollen;
man konnte sich die Religion nicht anders denken, als in
ihrem Urspung bereits zur Religion der Welt geschaffen.
Als die Bibel ins Griechische, in die Bildungssprache der
Länder des Mittelmeeres, übertragen wurde, nannte sich
diese Übersetzung — so scheint die richtige Erklärung dieses
Namens zu sein — die Bibel der Siebzig, der siebzig Völker,
und die Missionsbibel ist sie ja in der Tat gewesen. Am
Hüttenfeste brachten Israels Priester siebzig Opfer dar zur
Sühne für alle Völker auf Erden, der Altar zu Jerusalem sollte
für die ganze Welt ein Altar sein; der Gedanke, für das reli^
giöse Ergehen der Menschheit verpflichtet zu sein, sprach
darin. Auch die Zerstreuung Israels wollte man um der Welt
willen als ein Werk der Vorsehung betrachten. Israels Zer*-
.-'•'Streuung, so sagte man mit einem nicht übersetzbaren Wort:^
^ spiele, ist eine Aussaat über alle Lande hin, durch die Gottes
x. Wort überall erwachsen soll.
^ Das Judentum war die erste Religion, die im Dienste
einer Idee Mission trieb, und jüdische Propaganda hat dem
Christentum den Boden für seine Ausbreitung gegeben.
Nicht religiöse, sondern politische Gründe sind es vor allem
gewesen, welche dann dies^emT^rebcn/das Reich der Gläubig»
-. gen auszudehnen, im Judentum allzufrüh Schranke und Ende
v\ bereitet haben. Aber das Bewußtsein des Missionsrechtes
und der Missionspflicht ist darum nicht gesehwunden. In
welcher Weise es sich späterhin offenbart hat, wird ein
anderer Zusammenhang dartun; als wesentlicher Teil des
Daseinsrechts und der Daseinspflicht ist es immer festge?
halten worden.
Durch die prinzipielle und tatsächliche Erweiterung der
Glaubensgemeinschaft hat das alte nationale Wort, das „Volk
Israel", zugleich seine religiöse Bedeutung empfangen; zu
dem Begriffe des Volkes trat der von der Gemeinschaft
vor Gott. Seinen klaren Ausdruck hat dies in dem Grund?
s'atze erhalten: „Jeder, der dem Götzendienste abspricht,
i
80
Die Menschheitsreligion
1'''
LI
n 1
iii''
BJ
heißt ein Jude". Jeder, der an die Einheit Gottes glaubte,
wurde als Proselyt anerkannt. Und wer die Rehßion Israels
angenommen hatte, durfte und sollte als Sohn Abrahams an.
gesehen werden; so war es nicht etwa nur die Ansicht eines
Philo, sondern eine Entscheidung des Talmuds. Moses Mai^
monides wies dementsprechend einen Proselyten autoritativ
darauf hin, daß er die Stammväter auch als seine Väter be^
zeichnen und die Auserwählung Israels auch auf sich hc-^
ziehen sollte. „Auch dich hat Gott erwählt und aus*
erkoren .... Abraham ist dein Vater, ganz wie er der unsere
ist; er ist der Vater aller Frommen und Gerechten". „Der
Glaube", so sagt er ein andermal, „ist der Vater aller".
Den Anspruch, Weltreligion zu sein, hat das Judentum
nie aufgegeben. Seine ganze Geschichte würde kleinlich, ja
unverständlich werden, sie würde zu einer „großen Schrulle",
wenn dieses ideale Bewußtsein sie nicht erfüllte. Erst darin
besitzt sie ihren heroischen Zug. Für einen beschränkten
Gedanken von engem Bedeutungskreis zu leiden, braucht
bloß ehrenvolle Hartnäckigkeit zu sein; nur wenn eine über*
Zeugung ihre weithin weisende Grölk hat und um ihres
Wertes Erhabenheit weiß, ist es Heldenmut, für sie des Da*
Seinsgebotes gewiß zu sein. Indem das Judentum seinen
alten Besitz gewahrt hat und wahrt, ist es des unerschütter*
liehen Glaubens gewesen, wie immer, so noch heute, daß
es damit auch die Religion der Menschheit behütet.' Die
Propheten, die den Gedanken der WehreHgion geschaffen
haben, sahen, wie gezeigt, in Israels wechselvollem Dasein
keine abgegrenzte Sonderexistenz, sondern einen wesent*
liehen, ja, insofern die ReHgion für sie das wichtigste ist
den wichtigsten Teil des Gemeinlebens aller Völker. Unter
den Denkern und Dichtern des späteren Judentums gibt es
kernen, der nicht dieselbe Gewißheit gehegt hätte Ein
Romantiker wie Jehuda Halevi und ein Siona fst wie
n^dt^und"^^^^^^^ ^'^'^^^^ ^^-»^^ wieLetigerT !
mdes und em Schwärmer wie Isaak Lurja, um nur Männer
des judischen Mittelalters zu nennen, sie alle haben dieL
Gedanken immer neu durchdrungen und gestaL und^^
Die Religion der Zukunft
81
h
j
»ml
■•4
W
i }9
t
bis zum heutigen Tage im lebendigen Bewußtsein der Gq*
meinde erhalten. Die Tatsache schließlich, daß in allen den
11 grofkii,_entscheid£ndca.HPistige.n Re^e^ungen seit zwei Jahr^ jft
Tausenden Israels religiöse Ideen gewirkt haben, — es sei nur
auf die religiöse^rneuerung in der Zeit der Renaissance und^f»^
auf den Sozialismus hingewiesen — , die Tatsache, daß inner:!
halb der beiden großen Glaubensformen, die auf Israel zu?
rückgehen, die jüdischen Gedanken kämpfen und jede
bleibende religiöse Wandlung dort zugleich, beabsichtigt oder
nicht, eine Wiederkehr zu alten israelitischen Glaubenswegen,
eine Abkehr von späteren, anderswoher stammenden Ele?
menten ist — es sei nur an die Reformation, an das Täufer?
tum und an die unitarische Richtung im modernen Prote?
stantismus erinnert — , die Tatsache, daß das Judentum ^
immer einen Orientierungspunkt der Religionen uncTder reli*
giösen Beurteilung gebildet hat, das alles gibt schließlich auch
dem Blick in die Geschichte ein bestätigendes Zeugnis für^
jenen Anspruch und jene Erwartung.
Gegenüber der ablenkenden Indifferenz, die von einer ^
unreligiösen Ethik und einer unreligiösen Kultur alles erhofft, /
gegenüber der frommen Machtverehrung, der die äußeren
kirchlichen Erfolge den Wahrspruch fällen, hält das Juden?
tum daran fest, daß sich die religiöse und die sittliche Zu?
kunft der Menschheit auf den Glauben an den einen Gott
gründet, wie ihn Israel gelehrt hat und lehrt, an den Ewigen,
der den Menschen ins Leben führt und seinen Weg von ihm
fordert. Nicht, daß einst der Glaube aller durchaus ein?
förmig und gänzlich gleichgestaltet sein sollte; dazu ist die
Besonderheit und Mannigfaltigkeit dessen, was im Eben?
bilde Gottes geschaffen ist, zu groß und zu inhaltsvoll, dazu
reicht die Religion zu tief in das Individuellste und Person?
liebste am Menschen hinein. Aber alle wird es e i n e s Glau?
bens machen, wenn sie alle das aufnehmen und erfüllen,
worin einer der Propheten zusammengefaßt hat, was von den
Gottesmännern vor ihm erkannt worden ist: „Er hat dir ver?
kündigt, o Mensch, was gut ist, und was der Ewige von dir
fordert: nichts anderes als recht zu tun, Liebe zu üben und
in Demut zu wandeln mit deinem Gotte." Dieser Glaube
an den einen Gott wird alle verbinden können.
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
?:' f
{
Die Ideen des Judentums
- '.;»
\
m
:5n
ti '
ic^'^
tl.
\
Der Glaube an Gott
In aller Religion handelt es sich nicht um Beobachtung und
Erforschung der Welt, — denn das ist Sache der einzelnen
Wissenschaften — sondern um eine Beurteilung, um
die persönliche Stellung, die wir zur Welt einnehmen. Alles
das, was wir in uns und um uns her erfahren, soll in der
Religion nicht erkannt und erklärt werden, dadurch, daß wir
gesammelte Tatsachen anordnen und im Denken verarbeiten
— denn die Weltanschauung ist Sache der Philosophie — ,
sondern es soll seinem idealenWerte nach begriffen wer^
den. Nicht die Flächen der Welt, ihr Gewordenes, sondern
ihre Tiefen, die Seele, die Geschichte des Lebens, werden
hier erfaßt. Maßgebend sind in der Religion die Gedanken
von „gut" und „böse*, von Wahrem und Wesenlosem, vom
Schicksal, von der Bestimmung des Daseins, des ganzen
Lebens, das in dem eigenen Leben erlebt wird. So geht jede
Religion auf das Grundproblem von Optimismus und
Pessimismus zurück, auf die Grundfrage, ob das Dasein
einen Sinn hat, ob es eine Weltordnung gibt, die zum Guten
ist, oder nicht. Der Glaube an das eine und das andere
macht den wesentlichen Unterschied, den Gegensatz zwi^
sehen Religionen aus. Und der wehgeschichtliche Charakter
einer ReUgion gründet sich auf die schlüssige Entschieden^
heit, mit der dieser eine oder dieser andere Glaube erfaßt
und durchgeführt wird.
Eine solche Bedeutung der Welt, ein solch bleibendes Ge^:
setz und Ziel, das ihr zuerkannt wird, kann in dem allein
gefunden werden, was anders und mehr ist als sie, anders
und mehr als alles Äußerliche und Greifbare, als alles Werden
und Vergehen, in dem allein, was sich nicht in ihrer Ursäch^^
lichkeit. sondern in der Gewißheit seines Wertes erweist.
Nur etwas, was nicht bloß im Bewirkten und Gebunden en^'
steht, sondern im Gegenteil darüber erheben und davon be^^
freien will, etwas, was nicht von den bloßen Geschehnissen'
'■M
I'''
'^ijr=^
I
;! i
vi
/
86
Das Gute
und Erfolgen abhängig ist, sondern im Gegenteil gegen i^
ankämpft und sie überwindet, nur das also, was nicM ^^^^
natürlich und tatsäehlich ist, kann diesen Smn in sich tragen
und diesen Sinn geben. Einen Wert kann nur ein Dasein
besitzen, das nicht genug daran hat, da zu sem. Ein solcH
Anderes, das nicht bloß existiert, sondern eine Bedeutung
und Ordnung in sich schließt, ist allein das Gute, das
Sittliche, das sich jedem Menschen in seinem Eigensten,
in seiner Wahl und Entscheidung offenbart, diese Welt des
-' Persönlichen, die sich über die des Tatsächlichen aufrichtet.
Das Gute bezeichnet das Bejahende, das Fordernde in der
Welt. Es ist das Unbedingte, weil es immer und überall
seine Geltung hat, es ist das Allgemeine, weil es von jedem
verwirklicht werden soll, und es ist darum das wahrhaft
Wirkliche, die Bedeutung der Welt. Der Glaube an den Sinn
von allem kann nur der Glaube an das Gute sein. Es gibt
nur einen ganzen, geschlossenen Optimismus, den ethischen.
Der Ursprung dieses Guten, dieses Sittlichen kann nicht
in dem endlichen, begrenzten Menschen gefunden werden;
es erfordert seinen unbedingten, absoluten Grund, welcher
der Grund von allem ist, wie sein Sinn der Sinn von allem
ist. Sein Grund kann daher allein in dem einen Gotte sein,
aus dessen Wesen das Gesetz des Sittlichen folgt. In ihm hat
dieses seine Bürgschaft, die Gewißheit für seine ewige Wirk:»
lichkeit. Und das Gute wird so aus dem Ursprung alles Da^
seins her vorgeführt; sein forderndes, zurufendes Gesetz
steigt nun aus jener Tiefe empor, in der das Geheimnis befaßt
ist. Die Welt, in deren Leben das Dasein des Menschen
hineingestellt ist, und deren Leben und deren Sinn er erlebt,
hat beides, ihre Verborgenheit und ihre Bestimmtheit, ihr
Schaffendes und ihr Gebotenes, das Ewige und das Sittliche,
und in dem einen Gotte ist dies beides eines. Er ist der
Schluß für alle Klarheit und die Antwort auf alles Rätsel
Der Bund zwischen Geheimnis und Gebot ist in diesem
Grunde und diesem Sinne der Welt, aus dem alles Dasein
und alle Bedeutung hervorkommen, geschlossen. Ihre Ein.
heit wird begriffen: das Geheimnis gehört zum Gebote und
das Gebot zum Geheimnis. Das Gute ist Gottes und ist des
Menschen von Gott vor den Menschen hingestellt; es ist
das Wirkliche, und dem Menschen ist gegeben, daß er es
Der Optimismus
87
•m
••I
verwirkliche. Die Klarheit wird ganze Gewißheit, weil sie
aus dem Grunde des Verborgenen hervorwächst. So besteht
nur ein Optimismus, der alles befaßt, der, welcher auf dem
einen Gotte beruht, der ethische Monotheismus. Es
ist daher nur innere Folgerichtigkeit, wenn die Religion des
konsequenten Pessimismus, die buddhistische, eine Religion
ohne Gott zu sein vermag, und wenn dann auch das Sitt*
liehe in ihr nicht eine Bedeutung des Lebens, sondern nur
etwas ist, was der Mensch tut oder nicht tut, ohne daß es
seinem Dasein ein^ Entscheidendes, gäbe oder nähme.
Die Eigenart des Judentums, die es besitzt und die es der
Menschheit gegeben hat, gründet sich darauf, daß es die
Religion dieser sittlichen Bejahung der Welt, die Religion
. ^des sittlichen Optimismus ist. Dieser Optimismus ist alles
I ^^eher als die selbstzufriedene Gleichgültigkeit dessen, der
erklärt, daß die Welt gut sei, deshalb, weil es ihm selber in
ihr gut ergeht, alles eher als das gedankenlose Spiel, das die
Leiden leugnet oder hinwegdeutet und die beste aller Welten
lobt — la rage de soutenir que tout est bien quand on est
mal. Auf diesem oberflächlichen Wege kann kein religiöser
Mensch Optimist sein. Nichts liegt denn auch der israeli*
tischen Religion mehr fern. Sie weiß vom Leben zu viel, als
daß sie seine Not und seine Qual nicht Not und Qual
nennen sollte. Häufiger und bewegter als ein Ruf der Freude
am Dasein wird in ihr die Klage erhoben, daß diese unsere
Welt eine Stätte des Elends und der Bedrängnis sei, daß
alles Erdenwallen schließlich nur sein Armutsgliick habe.
,J)ie Tage unserer Jahre — ihrer sind siebzig Jahre und,
wenn es hoch kommt, achtzig Jahre, und ihr Gepränge ist
IMühsal und Nichtigkeit". So sagt es das Gebet Moses, des
iGottesmannes, und die ganze Bibel läßt es so widerklingen.
Sie ist ein Buch von Seufzern und Tränen, von- Sorgen und
Kummer, ein Buch von seelischem Druck und Gewissens^
pein. Alle die Leiden des Menschen erheben in ihr und dann
in den Liedern nach ihr, die das Judentum Jahrhundert um
Jahrhundert gesungen hat, ihre Stimme. Und deutlich ver.
nehmbar ist hier der die Welt verachtende, fast möchte man
sagen, pessimistische Ton auch, wie er aus allem Ernst und
darum auch aus allem Optimismus so oft spricht, in ihm wie
ein dunkler Unterton mitschwingt. , ^ ^
\\
— itr — jT-
gg Das sittliche Empfinden
Er klingt hier besonders mit in der seelischen Bewegtheit,
die um die Niedrigkeit des Niedrigen und die Verworfenheit
des Verworfenen erfährt, in dem Gefühl, das verletzt ist von
der Macht des Irdischen und Gemeinen, von dem Zwie^
spalt, der die Welt entzweit, in dem auf das alles antworten^:
den Willen, sich abzuwenden von dem Schlechten und dem
Bösen, das die Länder der Erde erfüllen will. Jedes lebendige
sittliche Empfinden, dieses Empfinden für das, was wahrhaft
wirklich ist, bekundet sich so. Es wird immer wieder zum
Widerspruch und zur Anklage gegen das, was nur herrschen
will, zur Leugnung dessen, was bloß gelten soll, es ruft sein
lautes Nein hinaus. Es muß verneinen, um bejahen zu
können; es muß herabzublicken und zu verwerfen imstande
sein, um dessen immer gewiß zu bleiben, was das Hohe und
aufwärts Gerichtete ist. Der Optimismus, der um das Ideal
weiß, wird von den Tatsachen pessimistisch denken. Gegen^
über der Größe der Bestimmung wird das Kleine immer noch
kleiner. Es gibt ja auch keine ausharrende Güte ohne die
Gabe, gering zu schätzen, keine wahre Menschenliebe ohne
diese Fähigkeit der Menschenverachtung. Und das Eigene
tümliche des Judentums, sein Optimismus, ist, daß es trotz
allem gegenüber dieser Welt, in der das Schlechte sich w^eitet,
nicht resigniert noch ihr gegenüber gleichgühig wird. Sein
Ideal ist nicht jener antike Weise, der, seiner Weisheit und
ihrer Ruhe froh, durch all das Treiben und Drängen nicht
mehr bewegt wird. Hierin war das Judentum inmitten der
alten Zeit so unantik, in seinem Lebenswillen und seinem
Charakter so unterschieden von dem, was in Hellas wie in
Indien vor den Menschen stand. Es tritt der Welt gegenüber
mit dem Willen, sie umzuwandeln, mit dem Gebote in ihr
versieht, die dem kommenden Tage entgegengeht weil sk
Ihn fordert. Der antike Weise kennt nur seinen ^tz seine
Wet^^^^^^^ tl^'^'' ^- Judentums ist dak^om
Das Tragische
1^
8
■\\
1
des Erfolges, zum Spruch gegen das Breite und sich Dehnende
auf Erden. Er stellt die Wahrheit und ihre Wirklichkeit dem.
was gelingt, entgegen. In ihm ist darum die Kraft des
Tragischen, die aufrechte Sicherheit des kämpf enden
lenschen, der. weil er die Zukunft anzurufen vermag, im
Unterliegen triumphiert, diese tragische Kraft, die dem Wi en
zur letzten Antwort und zum endlichen Siege, dem Willen
zum kommenden Tage innewohnt. Auch darin ist das Juden,
tum so ganz anders als das antike Denken, das nur die
Schicksalstragödie, die Tragödie des Leidenden kennt -
nicht die des Menschen, an welchen das Wort von Gott er»
gangen ist: „Wohin ich dich schicken werde, sollst du gehn.
und was ich dir gebieten werde, sollst du reden: fürchte dich
nicht vor ihnen!" Von allem Orient und allem Occident unter,
schieden war dieses jüdische Drama des Menschen, der seine
sittliche Gewißheit, seinen Charakter dem Heute und dem
MSiii^entgegenstellt und über das Morgen und das Über,
morgen hinausblickt, der an die Welt seine Forderung richte.,
die er in seinem Innern erfahren hat, und dessen gewiß ist.
daß sie die letzte, die entscheidende Antwort gibt, der damit
die Versöhnung vernimmt nach dem Leid, die Harmonie
über allem Mißklang. Das sittliche und das tragische Pathos
werden hier eines. Eine Welt dieser aufrichtenden dieser
optimistischen Tragödie ist die Bibel, und als ein Erleben
von ihrer Wahrheit hat die Geschichte des Judentums für
die Propheten und ihre Nachkommen den Sinn gewonnen.
Daher ist dieser Optimismus im Judentum zum Gebote
geworden; der sittliche Wille und sein Kampf, der. Heroismus
L Menschen wird gefordert. Er ist der Optimismus, der
SS entscheidet, der zur Geltung bringen, umgestalten und
durchsetzen will, der den Weg betritt, den er bahnen soll
Er ist daher nicht eine Lehre von Lust und Leid mit ihren
Fragen an das Schicksal und ihrem Warten auf Antwort
. sondern die Lehre von dem^Gu?^ das den Menschen fragt
und in seinem „du sollst" ihm die unbeirrbare Antwort gibt
Er ist nicht die Zufriedenheit des Z"^l\^"«'^.^f"', ^" .^!
seinejMimhegten^tille genug hat. sondern der f «f ^^'^^
düS^irdiTÄr^ottes gewiß, beginnt und schafft um
Menschen zu bilden und die Welt zu erneuern, de-: f^^ f/^
antiken Ruhe entbehrt, aber dafür den Frieden des Kampfes
|i
. \
p
^m
m
tu
■'' '
I
V'
90
Der Glaube an das Gute
für Gott erlebt. Dieser Optimismus ist der Wirklichkeits^
sinn, welcher in dem Guten, das sein Dasein gewmnen soll,
das Wirkliche entdeckt; er ist das ^ewaltiße prophetische
„Und dennoch^ Der große Stil der Moral dieser ^^roße Stil
des Lebens, ist in ihm geschaffen worden. Für ihn ist das
Wort gesprochen, daß die Religion die „heidenmäßige Form
des Daseins" ist.
In dem wollenden Glauben an das Gute besteht so
der Optimismus des Judentums. Er ist der Glaube an Gott
und der daraus folgende Glaube an den Menschen, an
Gott, durch den das Gute seine WirkHchkeit hat, und an
den Menschen, der das Gute zu verwirkUchen vermag. Alle
Ideen des Judentums lassen sich hierauf zurückführen. Der
Glaube an den Menschen gewinnt nämlich seine dreifache
Beziehung. Zunächst ist er der Glaube an uns selber:
unsere Seele ist im Ebenbilde Gottes geschaffen; sie hat ihr
Ursprüngliches und hat darin ihr Eigenes und Pers()nliches,
sie hat ihre Reinheit und ihre Freiheit, ihr Geheimnis und ihr
Gebot, sie hat ihren Weg zu Gott, der von ihr ausgeht, und
in der Versöhnung mit Gott kann sie zu diesem ihrem Wege,
zu dieser ihrer Freiheit immer wieder zurückgelangen. Er
ist sodann der Glaube an den Nebenmenschen: jeder
Mensch neben uns, jedes andere Ich, hat sein Besonderes,
ganz wie es uns gegeben ist, auch er hat von Gott seine Men^
schenseele, seine Reinheit und seine Freiheit; er ist im Tief sten
derselbe wie wir, im Innersten uns verwandt und darum
neben uns gestellt, er ist unser Nächster, unser Bruder. Und
schließlich ist es der Glaube an die Menschheit- alle
Menschen sind die Kinder Gottes, und aller Leben hat den
gleichen Sinn; es gibt darum eine Aufgabe, die alle eint, ihre
Zukunft ist die Zeit, in der sie sich zusammenfinden. Wissen
um die seelische Wirklichkeit des eigenen Lebens, um die des
Lebens des anderen neben mir, um die, in der sich alles Men.
schenleben einen kann das ist der Ausdruck dieses Optimis.
mus, je nachdem er auf uns, auf den Mitmenschen oder auf die
Menschheit gerichtet ist. Er ist die bejahende Idee vom eLenen
Dasem, vom Dasein des anderen und vom ganzen Menschen
dasein, gegründet auf den Grund und die Idee aL^Da e^^^^^
Diese Richtungen, in die sich der Glaube an dl. r ?'
erstreckt, sind in ihrer Forderung nicht von einigt
^1
/
Die Verbundenheit und Verantwortlichkeit
91
trennen, ebenso wenig, wie sie von ihrem Grunde, der in dem
einen Gotte gegeben ist, loszulösen sind. Man kann das eine
hiervon nicht betonen und bewähren, ohne den Willen zu dem
anderen zu beweisen, und ohne den Ursprung von dem allen
zu erfahren; sie hängen in ihrer Kraft und ihrer Bestimmtheit
von einander ab. Erst das Wissen um unsere Seele, um ihr
Persönliches und Entscheidendes, um die Tiefe ihres eigenen
Wesens gibt unserer seelischen Beziehung zu dem Dasein
neben uns und zu den kommenden Tagen ihre Sicherheit und
Freiheit, gibt uns wahrhaft unser Leben in der Welt; der Glaube
an den anderen bedarf des Glaubens an uns. Und wiederum
erst in dem Wissen um die Seele des anderen, in dem Bewußt»
sein davon, daß dieses unser Eigenes auch in dem Neben»
menschen ein Eigenes ist, gewinnt unser Besonderes seme
stete Aufgabe und sein Gebiet, gewinnt es die Welt seines
Lebens; der Glaube an uns bedarf des Glaubens an den
anderen. Und schließlich erst in der Idee davon, daß alles
Menschenleben seine Einheit hat und darin sein letztes Gebot
und seine Verheißung findet, erlangen das eigene Ich und das
Ich des anderen ihren wahren Zusammenhang, die Welt des
Lebens und das Leben in der Welt ihre weite Geschlossenheit;
der Glaube an mich und den anderen bedarf des Glaubens an
die Menschheit. Und das alles streckt dann seine Wurzel in
die Gewißheit, daß dieses Leben aus dem Grunde alles Lebens
hervorkommt und zu ihm hin gerufen ist, daß es seinen Weg
hat von Gott her und seinen Weg zu Gott hin. Aus dem
Glauben an Gott zieht der Glaube an den Menschen seme
Kraft und sein Recht, das Recht zu diesem dreifachen Urteil:
über den Wert, den jede einzelne Seele hat, über den, der dem
Nebenmenschen gebührt, über den, der der ganzen Mensch»
heit zuzusprechen ist.
Es ist das Besondere und Schöpferische des judischen
Optimismus, daß jeder Glaube hier als V e r a n tw o r 1 1 1 c h »
k e i t begriffen wird; der Gedanke von ihr ist als der judische
Gedanke in die Welt getreten. Und so bezeichnet dieser auf
den Menschen gerichtete Glaube auch eine dreifache Verant»
wortlichkeit, und wie er aus dem Glauben an Gott hervor»
geht so gründet sie sich auf die Verantwortlichkeit gegen ihn
Es ist die Verantwortlichkeit, die der einzelne gegenüber sich
selbst vor seinem Gotte empfinden soll: wir sollen heilig sem,
Ji
\h
VI
92
Die Verwirklichung
denn heilig ist der Ewige, unser Gott. Es ist die Verantworte
lichkeit vor Gott gegen den Nebenmenschen: wir sollen seine
„Seele kennen", die Gott ihm gegeben hat, und das Ebenbild
Gottes in ihm ehren, er soll mit uns leben, und wir sollen ihn
lieben, denn er ist wie wir. Es ist endlich die Verantworte
lichkeit vor Gott gegenüber der Menschheit: wir sollen die
Zeugen Gottes auf Erden sein, in der Welt, in die wir hinein^
gestellt sind, seinen Namen heiUgen und so den Weg dazu gehn
und führen, daß sie neu geschaffen werde als ein Reich Gottes.
So hat der Optimismus des Judentums seine Begründung
und seine Geschlossenheit. Das Gute, an das er glaubt, hat in
Gott seine unbedingte Gewißheit, und es findet im Menschen
seine bestimmte, absolute Aufgabe. Es ist von Gott als sitts
liehe Forderung in die Welt des Menschen hineingestellt, und
der Mensch vermag darum, es zu seinem Besitztum, zu seiner
Welt zu machen. „Das Leben und den Tod habe ich vor dich
hingetan, den Segen und den Fluch, und du sollst das Leben
wählen, auf daß du lebest, du und deine Nachkommen!" Das
Judentum zeigt, daß das Gute eine ReaHtät ist, nicht insofern
es ein für allemal verwirklicht ist, sondern insofern es von
jedem verwirklicht werden soll und kann. Das Heil ist nicht
als ein fertiger Besitz hingestellt, als ein wundersamer
Schatz, den die göttliche Gnade dem Menschen geschenkt
hat, daß er hierdurch gerettet sei und selig werde. Hier ist
das Heil eine von Gott gesetzte Aufgabe, die der Mensch er.
füllen soU, „auf daß er lebe". Diese Aufgabe eben ist das Heil-
denn er kann sein Leben wählen, er kann es zum Leben
machen, mdem er es zum Guten bestimmt und gestaltet es
zu semem sittlichen Eigentum werden läßt. Das Leben selber
wird so zum Gebote. Was Gott von dem Menschenleben
Äb\\ '" T'^ f'\l' ^'"^ ^^^^^^^^' -- So"- ui d
HW P I '. ^^^^-^^l^^^hbedeutend. Es ist dem Wesen
dieser Religion gemäß, daß auch der Optimismus die Form
Pfl ^;^'''''J'^-^^'^ hat, daß er von dem Sinne der
Pflicht zum Menschen redet.
eigentliche Mythologie geschaffen und zw. S
lonen keine
und zwar deshalb, weil
es derselben grundsätzlich wide spricht Di .M I , '' "^'^
1- nicht erwachsen können.tf 1 L^l^! .^'^^ '^^^
die Religion sich hier auf
Die Mythologie
93
l
i
(
' :r..
die Religiosität, auf die Sehnsucht nach Gott und den Willen
zu ihm gründet, weil sie also hier vom Menschen, der von Gott
sein Dasein und sein Gebot hat, ausgeht, seinen Weg aufzeigen
und bestimmen will, auf dem er zu Gott hingelangt, um ihm
nahe zu sein, hineingestellt in die Welt, um zu wählen und
sich zu entscheiden, zu werden und zu wachsen, von Gott ge^
rufen und ihn rufend. Hierin liegt der Gegensatz zur Mythe*
logie. Denn diese will eine Kunde vernehmen und gestalten
nicht vom Menschen, von seinem Leben und Erleben, sondern
von dem Leben und Erleben des Gottes oder der Götter, eine
Kunde von ihrer Geburt und ihrem Tod, von ihrem Werden
und Vergehen, ihrem Kämpfen, Siegen und Unterliegen. Das
Schicksal der Götter ist hier das Entscheidende, ihr Los ist ^^
die Geschichte der Welt. Nicht eine Schöpfung von Himmel
und Erde gibt ihr den Anfang, sondern eine Geburt von
Göttern. Sie werden geboren, und sie zeugen, und die Jahre
die ihnen beschieden, sind Flut und Ebbe der Zeit. Alle
Kosmogonien sind hier Theogonien; die Geschlechter der
Götter sind die Epochen des Geschehens, und die Dämme:=
rungen, die über sie hereinbrechen, sind die Tage des Endes.
Ihr Glück und ihr Fall, ihr Erringen und Erleiden, ihr Be*
gehren und Neiden ist das Fatum für Erde und Mensch, für
das Firmament und seine Gestirne. Als Zufallsgewalten und
Schicksalsmächte, Schicksal empfangend undSchicksal gebend,
vom Zufall geführt und ihn aussendend, wohnen sie über der
Welt, und dem Menschen bleibt als sein Platz und seine Be^
Stimmung nur das eine, in Würde oder in Würdelosigkeit da*
zustehen und hinzunehmen. Darum ist die Tragödie vom
Menschen hier, auch auf ihrer Höhe, nur die Schicksals*
tragödie, dieses Drama vom Menschen, der nur da ist, um
das Fatum zu erwarten und ihm stille zu halten — dieses
mythologische Drama; nicht das „du sollst", sondern das
„du mußt" steht über ihm geschrieben. Im Judentum ist sie
die Willenstragödie, die vom Menschen, der sein Leben wählt
und durch die Tage, die zu ihm kommen, seinen Weg geht und
in ihnen allen vor seinen Gott hintritt im Namen des Ge*
Wissens, des Gebotes und der Zukunft — dieses ^rama des^ y
menschlichen Ringens, des Innerlichen, das gegen das_Äußer* ^^
liehe JkamT5^rl^,^fif^ WiHp.rsppiches gegen das Mythische. I
as Mythologische hat überall seine Entwicklung gehabt
i£aaki>
94
^4"
Das Schicksal
/
von
der phantastischen, dichtenden Furcht vor den schwirrcn>
den Dämonen und den greifenden Seelen der Toten, vor den
vielgestakigen, unberechenbaren Geistern und Göttern, deren
so viele sind wie die Fügungen der Natur und die Tücken der
Stunde, bis hin zu dem Glauben an das eine Gottesschicksal,
dasFatum für alle Welt. Auch die Form, in der es sich bildete,
hat ihr Mannigfaltiges von der wuchernden Sage bis hin zu
dem aufgerichteten Begriffsgebäude. Aber es ist darin immer
dasselbe, immer eine Geschichte der Götter oder der Gott?
heit, eine Geschichte von ihrem Leben und ihrem Los, ihrer
Geburt und Wiedergeburt, ihrem Kommen und Gehen; was
sich den Göttern ereignet, das Geschick, das sie erfahren, ist
der Inhalt des Mythischen. Es ist darum ja auch das ge*
schlechtliche Schicksal, die geschlechtliche Differenzierung,
die hier überall in das Dasein der Gottheit eintritt. Und
weniges ist so bezeichnend für das Eigene, das Unmytho.'
logische des Judentums, wie dies, daß es hiervon fern ge/
bheben ist, daß seiner Sprache, so gestaltungsreich sie ist,
schon das Wort Göttin ein Unbekanntes, ein UnvoUzieh*
bares geworden ist. In ihm weiß der Glaube nicht von Schick,
salen der Gottheit, sondern von Offenbarungen Gottes, von
semem Walten und seinem Willen, von seinem Geiste, der
sich in allem kundtut und allem seinen Sinn gibt. Nicht von
einem Lebensgang und einem Erlebnis der Gottheit, das den
Weltengang bestimmt, wird hier erzählt, sondern von dem
„lebendigen Gotte^ der in allem wirkt und aus allem spricht
und dem wir Menschen antworten sollen. Denn sein Wort ist
nicht em Orakel, sondern das Gebot und die Verheißu.ic
seine Wege smd nicht die des Zufalls und des Verhängnisi's
- dieses beides ist ja dasselbe: der Zufall das Verhängnis des
Augenblicks und das Verhängnis der Zufall der Dau^r
' M u ''^ "^""^ ^'' ^^'^^^ ^^^ G^t^n» die Wege welche dem'
Mensehen auch gewiesen sind, daß er auf ihn^n eSe u"
Gott nahe zu sein. Am Anfang des Judentums ^f.hlA
' mythologische Wort- Jnh u u ^ ,^'''' "^^^^^^^^^ steht das un?
*n W.« des Ewigen. .„ üben g" hdS " d Zlf!'""
.. so .™ .„*«™ r:;ää:i?;Ä.t "Jjs
Das Menschenleben
95
\ dj
r
L
in dem Fatum, sondern in der Gabe und unter der Aufgabe
steht das Dasein; es hat sein Verborgenes und hat sein Klares,
und beides verbindet sich zu einer Gewißheit. In diesem seinem
Persönlichen, in seiner Wahl gewinnt der Mensch sein Leben;
er wird Subjekt, er ist es auch gegenüber seinem Gotte, ge?
schaffen und doch ein Schaffender, ein Verwirklichender, und
damit ist er wie aus allem bloß Natürlichen und bloß Not*
wendigen, so aus aller Mythologie herausgehoben. Das Recht
des menschlichen Willens, das Recht seiner Tat und seiner
Jijkunft, diese Geschichte, die der Mensch verwirklicht und
bringt, tritt in die Welt ein und damit der Gegensatz gegen
dasMythische. Damit ist dem Leben auch sein Eigenes gegeben,
sein innerer Zusammenhang, in sich und mit allem, mit dem
Verborgenen wie dem Gebotenen; es besitzt sein Werden und
seine Richtung, im tiefsten Sinne seine Geschichte, die sich
dem Glauben an das Gute erschließt, diesem Blick, der durch
alle Oberfläche und alles Hervorgerückte zur Bedeutung von
allem hindurchdringt. Das Leben ist nicht mehr bloß Summe
von Einzelheiten oder Gefüge des Schicksals oder bloßes Glied
in der Reihenfolge, wie immer dies alles auch heißen mag, ob
nun Zufall oder Vorherbestimmung — auch dieses beides ist ja
dasselbe; denn Vorherbestimmung, Prädestination bezeichnet
nur die harte Form des als bewirkt gedachten Zufalls, des als
^.ewoUt gedachten Grundlosen. An die Stelle des Zufalls tritt
die Bedeutung, der Grund, der in ihr liegt. Das Schicksal der
Welt gestaltet sich zum Sinne der Welt, den der Mensch in
seiner Seele als den Sinn auch seines Daseins erlebt, zu dieser
absoluten Ordnung, diesem Gesetze, das alles trägt und
emporhebt, das unter und über aller Reihe von Ursachen und
Wirkungen steht. Alles spricht hier von diesefm Wirklichen,
vom Göttlichen und Ewigen; alles in der Welt und der Ge?
schichte, die auf ihr wächst, ist eine Offenbarung Gottes
7- Offenbarung und nicht Schicksal, nicht Mythologie. Nicht
dasMythische gibt die Antwort auf das Rätsel, sondern das
Vertrauen, dieses Bewußtsein, mit Gott verbunden, ihm immer i
nahe zu sein. Während jede Mythologie in einem Pessimismus f
endet, in der Ergebung in ein Fatum, sei es das der Zufalls:^
laune oder der Prädestination, hat hier der Optimismus seine I
Bahn, diese Gewißheit, daß alles, was das Leben umschließt,
seinen Sinn und seine Aufgabe hat.
..'S
i
P'-^— ■^'-
SECOND INTENTIONAL EXPOSURE
1
r,-.
u
t
ißi
^■^.
/
M^
Das Schicksal
von der phantastischen, dichtenden Furcht vor den schwirrcn>
den Dämonen und den greifenden Seelen der Toten, vor den
vielgestaltigen, unberechenbaren Geistern und Göttern, deren
so viele sind wie die Fügungen der Natur und die Tücken der
Stunde, bis hin zu dem Glauben an das eine Gottesschicksal,
das Fatum für alle Welt. Auch die Form, in der es sich bildete,
hat ihr Mannigfaltiges von der wuchernden Sage bis hin zu
dem aufgerichteten Begriffsgebäude. Aber es ist darin immer
dasselbe, immer eine Geschichte der Götter oder der Gott^
heit, eine Geschichte von ihrem Leben und ihrem Los, ihrer
Geburt und Wiedergeburt, ihrem Kommen und Gehen; was
sich den Göttern ereignet, das Geschick, das sie erfahren, ist
der Inhalt des Mythischen. Es ist darum ja auch das ge*
schlechtliche Schicksal, die geschlechtliche Differenzierung,
die hier überall in das Dasein der Gottheit eintritt. Und
weniges ist so bezeichnend für das Eigene, das Uttmythoi»
logische des Judentums, wie dies, daß es hiervon fern ge^
bheben ist, daß seiner Sprache, so gestaltungsreich sie ist,
schon das Wort Göttin ein Unbekanntes, ein UnvoUzieh^
bares geworden ist. In ihm weiß der Glaube nicht von Schick,
salen der Gottheit, sondern von Offenbarungen Gottes, von
seinem Walten und seinem Willen, von seinem Geiste, der
sich in allem kundtut und allem seinen Sinn gibt. Nicht von
einem Lebensgang und einem Erlebnis der Gottheit, das den
Weltengang bestimmt, wird hier erzählt, sondern von dem
„lebendigen Gotte^ der in allem wirkt und aus allem spricht
und dem wir Menschen antworten sollen. Denn sein Wort ist
nicht em Orakel, sondern das Gebot und die Verheißu.ic,
seine Wege smd nicht die des Zufalls und des Verhängnisse's
- dieses beides ist ja dasselbe: der Zufall das Verhängnis des
Augenblicks und das Verhängnis der Zufall der Dauer
Das Menschenleben
95
4
in dem Fatum, sondern in der Gabe und unter der Aufgabe
steht das Dasein; es hat sein Verborgenes und hat sein Klares,
und beides verbindet sich zu einer Gewißheit. In diesem seinem
Persönlichen, in seiner Wahl gewinnt der Mensch sein Leben;
er wird Subjekt, er ist es auch gegenüber seinem Gotte, ge?
schaffen und doch ein Schaffender, ein Verwirklichender, und
damit ist er wie aus allem bloß Natürlichen und bloß Not^
wendigen, so aus aller Mythologie herausgehoben. Das Recht
des menschlichen Willens, das Recht seiner Tat und seiner
Zukunft, diese Geschichte, die der Mensch verwirklicht und
bringt, tritt in die Welt ein und damit der Gegensatz gegen
dasMythische. Damit ist dem Leben auch sein Eigenes gegeben,
sein innerer Zusammenhang, in sich und mit allem, mit dem
Verborgenen wie dem Gebotenen; es besitzt sein Werden und
seine Richtung, im tiefsten Sinne seine Geschichte, die sich
dem Glauben an das Gute erschließt, diesem Blick, der durch
alle Oberfläche und alles Hervorgerückte zur Bedeutung von
allem hindurchdringt. Das Leben ist nicht mehr bloß Summe
von Einzelheiten oder Gefüge des Schicksals oder bloßes Glied
in der Reihenfolge, wie immer dies alles auch heißen mag, ob
nun Zufall oder Vorherbestimmung — auch dieses beides ist ja
dasselbe; denn Vorherbestimmung, Prädestination bezeichnet
nur die harte Form des als bewirkt gedachten Zufalls, des als
gewollt gedachten Grundlosen. An die Stelle des Zufalls tritt
die Bedeutung, der Grund, der in ihr liegt. Das Schicksal der
Welt gestaltet sich zum Sinne der Welt, den der Mensch in
seiner Seele als den Sinn auch seines Daseins erlebt, zu dieser
absoluten Ordnung, diesem Gesetze, das alles trägt und
emporhebt, das unter und über aller Reihe von Ursachen und
Wirkungen steht. Alles spricht hier von diesetn Wirklichen,
vom Göttlichen und Ewigen; alles in der Welt und der Ge^^
L schichte, die auf ihr wächst, ist eine Offenbarung Gottes
— Offenbarung und nicht Schicksal, nicht Mythologie. Nicht
dasMythische gibt die Antwort auf das Rätsel, sondern das
Vertrauen, dieses Bewußtsein, mit Gott verbunden, ihm immer .
nahe zu sein. Während jede My^ttlplogie in einem Pessimismus
endet, in der Ergebung in ein Fatum, sei es das der Zufalls^:
laune oder der Prädestination, hat hier der Optimismus seine j
Bahn, diese Gewißheit, daß alles, was das Leben umschließt,
seinen Sinn und seine Aufgabe hat.
1
•;t.
»r
g^ Die Dichtung
Der alte Schicksalsgedanke aus Tagen der Kindheit mit
seinem Glauben an Laune und Zufallsschuld hat allerdings
im israelitischen Volk bis in Tage der Erkenn nis hmem ort^
gedauert. Wie ein grauer FindUngsstein, em Febblock inmitten
einer anderen Welt, liegt er hie und da im biblischen Schrift.
tum, ein Zeuge der Vergangenheit. Und dies ist nicht das
einzige. Das Gewinde mythologischer Ranken schlmgt sich
mannigfaltig um die Säulen des Stils in der Heiligen Schrift
und den ihr folgenden Büchern. Es konnte kaum anders sem.
Die Propheten, die Sänger, die Erzähler der Bibel und die,
welche "von ihnen herkommen, waren Schauende, sie waren
Poeten; sie haben auch von dem Werden und Wogen in der
Natur, von den Strömen und den Gluten der Geschichte ge^
dichtet. Alles war ihnen eine Offenbarung Gottes, desUnsicht*
baren, des über alles Bild Erhabenen. Aber ihr dichtender Geist
zog dazu hin, sehen zu wollen, wie das Unsichtbare in die Er^
scheinung trat, wie das Bildlose bildete und schuf, ihre hinaus?
blickende, hinausgreifende Phantasie wollte erfassen, wie diese
wirkende, gebietende Kraft insMenschHche hineintritt, und so
ist ihnen das alles oft, besonders wenn sie es in seiner Plötz?
lichkeit, in seinem Hereinbrechen erfuhren, zum Bilde, das sie
schauten, geworden. Und wie sie in der Umwxlt lebten, zu
deren Gebieten ihr Auge hinschweifte, so lebten sie in deren
Bildern, inmitten der Geschöpfe, der Gestalten und Formen
4: ¥^^ Assurs, Babels und Ägyptens, inmitten der Mythologien,
deren dieseXander vollwaren; im Leben der Sinne zumal ist
♦r^^ V. der Mensch ein Kind seiner Tage und seiner Welt. So haben
sie das. was sie schauten, in diesen Zügen und Linien auch ge.
schaut, mit diesen mythischen Bildern von dem gedichtet, was
aller Mythologie widerspricht und über allem Bilde steht, in
ihnen das dargestellt, von dem sie wußten, daß es anders ist
als alles Darstellbare. Und in diesem Gegeneinander von Gc
danke und Gebilde, von Idee und Gestalt, von der Einsicht in
das Unsinnliche und diesem Blick in das Sinnliche gewinnt
der bibhsche Stil oft einen eigenen Reiz
Das alles hat aber seine tiefe Wurzel. Dieses Gestalten,
dieses Dichten kommt aus einem Drange religiösen Suchens
und Smnens hervor. Die Geschichte der Rdigion ist immer
auch eme Geschichte der Sprache; sie ist es in der ndirchen
und der griechischen Welt, in der Chinas und des Trans
1/
I
■
!
/
Die Sprache der Religion
/'
ebenso gewesen wie in der Palästinas. Ueberall dort haben
Menschen danach gerungen ,daß sie in immer neuen Vergleichen,
in immer neuen Bildern und ihren Worten das darstellbar und
aussprechbar machten, was über den Bezirk alles Wahrst
nehmcns und Zeigens hinausgeht. Dazu hat die Sprache an
sich schon ihr Metaphorisches und Mythisches, so daß von
der Mythologie gesagt worden ist, daß sie der Schatten sei,
den die Sprache auf den Gedanken werfe. Alles Sehen und
Hören gibt sein Unmittelbares, es läßt die Dinge in den Sinn
des Menschen eintreten. Das Wort führt nur einen Weg zu
ihnen hin; es ist nur eine Hilfe, ein Zeichen und ein Symbol, es
hat sein Hinweisendes und Hindeutendes; zwischen ihm und
dem, was es benennen will, liegt das nur Mittelbare der
Gleichung. Und vor allem erstreckt sich dies eben dort, wo
die Sprache zu dem hinleiten will, wohin kein Sinn hinzuziehen
vermag. Vom Unendlichen und Ewigen, vom Göttlichen kann
der Mensch nur im Gleichnis reden; es ist das Unsagbare und
Unnennbare, und von ihm vermag er daher, wenn er es künden
will, nur zu dichten — auch wenn die Wissenschaft zu ihren
letzten Gründen herniedersteigt, bleibt ihr nur dieses Sym^»
bolische, bleibt ihr nur das Gleichnis und seine Dichtung.
Alles Suchen, in dem der Gedanke mit seinem Worte bis hin
7u Gott gelangen will, wird zur Glaubenspoesie, zur Hagada,
wie sie in der mündlichen Lehre des Judentums heißt. Wann
immer das Verborgene, Unergründliche erfahren wird, der
Sinn von allem berührt und erlebt, dann ist es entweder die
Andacht des Schweigens, jenes innigste Gefühl vom leben^
digen Gotte, jene tiefste Kraft religiösen Empfindens und
Ahnens, die den Menschen ergreift, oder dieses andere regt
sich in ihm, dieses Aufwärtsschwingen zu dem Gleichnis hin,
zu seiner Poesie, die vom Unfaßbaren dichtet und betet. Daher ^
ist ja auch die Mygük, in der dieses Verlangen seine Ueber^ t^ f^fH
schwenglichkeit ha^'zumeist so wortreich und so wortfreudig,
so voll vom Schwelgen in der Beredsamkeit des Dichters.
Sie baut für das ferne Unnennbare die Fülle der Bilder des
Nahen auf.
Es ist immer eine Jugend to der Religion, ein quellender w
Lebensdrang_in ihr, we*nn sie sich auch diese dichtende K^ratt,
diese Kraft des Gleichnisses wahrt; ist sie in Sätzen oder in [q^
Gesetzen erstarrt, so ist ein Bestes in ihr erkaltet. Sie hat ihre
7
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums «
1^1
U
/<.
1?
^
Die Glaubenspoesie
^
Stetige Frische darin, daß sie es vermag, zu vernehmen, wie
Himmel und Erde ein Wort des Ewigen sind, zu empfinden.
vZ Himmel und Erde ein Wort des Ewigen sind, zu empfinden,
wie in allem das Göttliche ist, wie es sich in allem, im Dasein
er Natur und im Wogen der Geschichte, offenbart und alles
arin seine Wirklichkeit erhält. In diesem Ahnen und Ericbon
nat die Religion immer wieder einen Frühling. Aber hier bc;:
stimmen sich ihr dann auch Charakter und Entwicklung. Es
ist ein Entscheidendes, ob in ihr stets das Gefühl dafür lebt,
wie in aiiem UaS VJULLIIUIIC Ibl, wie C» aicu m ain-m, m* i^c*c.v,*t*
der Natur und im Wogen der Geschichte, offenbart und alles
darin seine Wirklichkeil
hat die Religion immer
Es
ist em untscneidendes, ob m ihr stets das Uetuiil datur lebt,
wie alles, was sie vom Göttlichen meint und sagt, nur eben ein
Gleichnis ist zwischen Gott und der W elt, zwischen Gott und
dem Menschen, nur eine unvollkommene Gleichung, in der das
Unlösbare, das Unaussprechbare bleibt. Solange das Gleichnis
nur Gleichnis ist und das Göttliche unvergleichbar erhaben
über alles Bild und alles Wort von dem, „was im Himmel
droben und auf Erden drunten und im Wasser unterhalb der
Erde ist", so lange hat die Religion ihre Poesie, aber nicht die
^ Mythologie. Sobaldihr aber ihre Bilder beantwortende Formen
sein wollen und ihre Gleichnisse Aussagen, die von der „g(itt.
liehen Natur" oder einem göttlichen Schicksal und Erlebnis
berichten, Satze, in denen das Leben und Wesen der Gottheit
bezeichnet und dargestellt sein soll, sobald das, was der
suchende Sinn dichtete, füi^ ein Reales, Benanntes genommen
wird, für den Ausdruck der Art göttlichen Daseins, und so
die Symbole zu Gestalten oder Begriffen wenden, dann hat das
/Ethische seinen Platz in Besitz genommen, au dem es sete
Gebilde bereitet. Zum Menschlichen, zu seinem Erfahr n und
Denken seinem Leiblichen und seinem Geschick ist dann die
Gottheit herniedergezogen Und es iQf ^in n\ • u ,
, nun die dichtende lag/ihre clhitL^^dt^^^^^^^^
Dichtungen philosophischer Begriffe sind It^ a r^ ? •-
nis des göttlichen Wesens beS:^"^'';, n i' l^'^'^^''"'
wie in dem anderen ist die Dichtung 7um Mvth. T'"
Der Bahn, die dahin führf • 7 .^"'",^\^t'^o« «^worden,
blieben, so sehr die Geschiehtei . '■■ •'"'^'"'"'" ^"" ^^"
Denkens in ihm fhr Wechse,^^^^^^^^^^^
Tage gehabt, die Jsehend dt 5 • ^.^iJ^^^^^tum hat seine
nahmen, welche dieTrag^jLär-'^/':,''" '^''«^" ^-"^
Tönen vom Wunder der^l hSr^^^^ clxeses Singen und
voll ist, und dann wieder^vS•n dir ^''; ^''"" '^'^^''^'t
1
(f
Das Irrationale
99
Stunde sind, diese Macht der Gebote Gottes, die vor jedem
Menschenschritte stehen. Bald wurde das, was den Menschen
umfängt, bald das, was von ihm fordert, stärker erfahren.
Und dieses Letztere, dieses Deutliche, dieses zu Erwählende
und zu Verwirklichende, ist hier nicht selten so ganz
empfunden worden, daß es das Bestimmende, bisweilen das
allein Bestimmende der Religion wurde, und ihr Genius hat
dann, seinem Zuge gemäß, die Fülle der Gebote gestaltet.
Der Sinn für das Unauflösbare, das Irrationale schien dann
darunter zu erblassen und zu ersterben. Aber das Judentum
hat danach seine Zeiten stets zurückgefunden, in denen das
göttliche Geheimnis wieder die Gemüter ergriff und über?
wältigte und die einen zu den Tiefen jener betenden oder .^
schweigenden Andacht führte, die anderen zu den Höhen
hin, wo sie die Größe Gottes schauen wollten, von ihr zu
dichten begannen; die Hagada hat ihre Geschichte behalten.
Das Bewußtsein vom Symbol w urde dann immer wieder
lebendig, dieses Empfinden davon, wie unter dem, was wir
erfassen, das wohnt, was uns ergreift, wie alles Denken und
Dichten in seinen Gründen zum Denken und Dichten vom
Gleichnis, alle letzte Antwort zum Sinnbilde wird. So hat das
Judentum seine Zeiten gehabt. Und ihnen allen ist es gemein?
sam, daß sie sich am Scheidew^ege vom Mythologischen ab?
wandten; der Weg des Menschen wurde immer erblickt und
erwiesen. Auch die Dichtenden sind sich dessen, was das
Eigene im Judentum ist, bewußt geblieben. Sie haben das
Menschenleben als den Bund von Geheimnis und Gebot
erlebt; auch sie erkannten daher das Recht und die Pflicht
menschlichen Willens, diese seine Wahl und Entscheidung,
zu der ihn Gott in seine Welt hinein gestellt hat.
Das Judentum ist damit seinem Geiste treu geblieben. Es
war das Besondere der Propheten gewesen, daß sie nicht
darauf ausgingen, die göttliche Natur zu malen oder zu de*
finieren; sie wollten nur so, wie ihre Seele es erfahren hatte,
zeigen, was Gott für den Menschen ist und der Mensch vor
seinem Gotte sein soll. Von der Offenbarung Gottes und von
der menschlichen Persönlichkeit, die diese erlebt, sprechen
sie darum; der lebendige Gott, dessen Wesen keines Menschen
Sinn erfaßt, und dessen Gebot jedes Menschen Wille ergreifen
soll, war ihnen die Wahrheit ihres Daseins. Wie die Hagada
■ I
100
Dte vielen Götter
]
■'*rt*^:
J^-^
X
hat auch die Philosophie des Judentums daran festgehalten.
Auch für sie lag das große Ja im Gebote Gottes; der „Natur"
Gottes gegenüber sprach auch sie nur jenes Nein der Demut,
die Gott als den verehrt, zu dem kein Begriff und kein Wort
hinanreicht. Nur daß Gott der lebendige und gebietende Gott
ist, war ihren Gedanken das Gegebene; alle Wesensattribute,
die das Denken ihm beilegen will, bedeuteten ihr bloß Nega^
tionen, welche das Göttliche abheben wollen von allem
Irdischen und seiner Natur. Und auch die jüdische Mystik
wandte sich diesem Entscheidenden zu. Auch für sie steht
Gott über allem menscliHchen Vorstellen und Urteilen, so daß
alle Spekulation ihm fern bleiben soll, und nur der göttliche
^ Wille, wie er in der idealen, sittlichen Ordnung der Welt sich
kundtut, ist es, der sich dem Menschen erschheßt, und der
menschliche Wille ist es, der in der freien, guten Tat zu
seinem Gotte hintritt. So zieht es sich bestimmend durch die
Geschichte des Judentums. Der Platz und die Aufgabe, die
, dem Menschen gewiesen sind, lassen der Mythologie — ähn^
lieh wie dem Dogma, das ja im Grunde nur ein Dogma vom
Mythos ist — keinen Raum. '
Seinen Ursprung und seinen Boden hat der Mythos dort,
.wo das Sittliche noch nicht im Mittelpunkte der Religion
steht, noch nicht in seiner Absolutheit und Einheit erkannt
ist. und darum auch jene Aufgabe noch nicht begriffen wird,
die alles beschließt, welche dem Menschen sagt, daß er sein
Leben erwähle. Der Mytnos ist in seinem Wesentlichen poly.
theistisch. Da er die Vielheit der Natur und das Werden des
Schicksals in die Gottheit hineinträgt, so hat er die Götter
oder zum mindesten die Gestalten in der Gottheit; als Per.
sonen des Schicksals und Personen der Natur stehen sie vor
efne eLTthl "vt "^ ^ ^'' Polytheismus hat darin
M
tische Erkenntnis Gottes geht aus dem religiösen Grund^
erlebms hervor dafi Cch o«j„ • ^ i '^-''K'^jscn orund;
Welt und N.Vnr a . ^'^ "* ^'^ «"^^' ^"ders als alle
all» erhaben. „deVlTe M™ thSr''"''™- "•"" ""
uic neinge bchrift es nennt, er ist der
V
' ^^\
Der heilige Gott
101
Heilige. Und er ist darum der Eine, der Einzige, der,
dem keiner und I^eines gleicht. „Wem wollt ihr mich ver?
gleichen, daß ich ihm ähnlich sei, spricht der Heilige!" Er
ist der Eine, und darum soll der Mensch sich für ihn, gegen*
über allem und gegen alles, entscheiden, und darum darf der
Mensch ihm allein, und keiner Kraft der Natur und keiner;(^ ^
Gestalt des Schicksals, dienen. In diesem Gedanken von dem,
der anders ist, diesem Gedanken von demEinen, dem „Heiligen
Israels", hat sich der Seele zum ersten Mal die gebietende
Pflicht des religiösen Entschlusses und der religiösen Oberes
Zeugung ausgesprochen; der Sinn für die einzige. Wirklichkeit
und die eine Wahrheit wurde wach, diese religiöse Wahrhaftig;:^
keit, diese Frömmigkeit des Gewissens, die den Willen und den
Mut zu dem Einen, zu dem Einzigen hat gegenüber dem Viel::
fältigen und den Vielen. Dies ist die Seele des Monotheismus.
Dem, der der Heilige ist, entspricht das Heilige, das Gute
und Sittliche, dem, der der Eine ist, das Eine, dieses Eine, das
Gott „dem Menschen verkündet und von ihm fordert." In
ihm eröffnet sich der eine Weg, der Weg vom Menschen zu
dem einem Gott. Etwas, was anders ist, ein nicht bloß Natura
haftes, ein Nichtweltliches wird im Guten, im Sittlichen erlebt.
Das Gute ist das Andere, anders als Natur und Schicksal, und ;(^ ^t'
darum wird ja auch alles Seelische, alles Sittliche zum Protest,
zum Gefühl, anders zu sein. Im Sittlichen, wie es dem
Menschen in seinem Innersten, Persönlichsten zu eigen wird,
fühlt er das, was unterschieden ist, fühlt er sich von dem
Einen, von Gott gerufen und zu dem einen Gott herangeführt.
Darin erfaßt er, was als Göttliches vom Menschen erfaßt und
festgehalten werden kann, das Gebot, das aus dem GeheiniJ!
nis heraustritt, um das Gebot für den Menschen zu sein, sein
Deutliches, sein Aufgegebenes zu werden. Es ist das Eine, das,
was einzig gut und wahr ist und darum allein dem Menschen
not tut, damit er sich zu ihm hinwende und um seinetwillen
abwende von allem sonst. Die Einheit dessen, was anders
ist, und worin alles seinen Sinn und Wert erhält, dieses eine
Heilige, Göttliche wird auf diesem einen Wege der Seele er*
fahren. Darin hat der Monotheismus sein Leben gefunden.
^ 1 In der Unteilbarkeit der Gewissensforderung h.aL-fijC_^einen \L
^1 seelischen Ursprung, aus ihr ist seine Gew^ißheit erwachsen./^ •
Und darum findet er seinen klaren Ausdruck nicht nur in
:t
i
102
Der eine Gott
Der Gott des Glaubens
Jf
\
i<^ilr>k^
£
r
T 1 ^.r Fwiöe ist unser Gott, der VM^o
dem Satze: „Höre, Israel, der f ^\^^^;;;T^ folgenden Ge.
ist einzig", sondern ebenso f ^ ^^^/^^^^^^^^ ^^it deinem
böte: „Du -Ust Hebe^ d^^^^^^^^^^ ,,, ,,,,,,
ganzen Herzen und - t ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ . ^
ganzen Kraft . Mit allem. Dadurch, dal>
können wir nur dem einen Gotte dicntn
Menschen im Innersten ihres Wesens sich an ^^^^^^/f J'
'^ZtZnä.s. unverbrüchliches Gesetz f -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Gottes Gebot als das wahrhaft und emz g Gc setz geben üc
Ipfanden und den Sinn ihres Lebens daran ent^^^^^^^^^^^^
dadurch erkannten sie ihn als den Emzigen, als den Heiligen.
. Dadurch, daß die sittliche Einheit im Menschen zum
, Bewußtskn kam, wurde hier die E i n h e i t G o 1 1 e s erfaßt^
^^ Es ist also dasselbe, was von aller Mythologie schied, und
was den Monotheismus gründete.
Der Unterschied zwischen den vielen Göttern und dem
einen Gotte ist so nicht etwa ein Unterschied der Zahl
ein ärgeres Mißverständnis könnte es nicht geben — sondern
ein Unterschied des Wesens; es handelt sich nicht um eine
rechnerische, sondern um eine inhaltliche, eine religiöse und
ethische Abgrenzung. In manchen heidnischen Religionen,
besonders bei den Griechen, hat sich die Mehrheit der Götter
dann und wann zu einer Art von Einheit, einem sogenannten
Henotheismus zusammengezogen. Er entstand, bald indem
ein allgemeines Göttliches angenommen wurde, das in den
vielen Göttern wirkt und lebendig ist, bald indem ein be^
stimmter Gott, mit einer Fülle von Macht und Wirksamkeit
ausgestattet, „momentan statt aller anderen" galt. Aber nichts
ist weniger darin enthalten als Israels Monotheismus oder
etwas, was ihm gleichzusetzen wäre. Es sei davon ganz ab-
gesehen, daß alle die anderen Götter neben jenem „einen
Gott", der, wie Xenophanes ihn nennt, „unter Göttern und
Menschen der größte ist", immer als Götter, die ihre Ver?
ehrung heischen, anerkannt und angebetet bleiben. Aui»^
schlaggebend ist das andere: jener „größte Gott" und jenes
universelle Göttliche sind deshalb dem einen Gotte Israels
nicht vergleichbar, weil sie nicht das sind, was der Heilige ist,
weil nicht das Sittliche ihr Wesen bildet, das sich dem Meni
sehen kundtut, nicht das ist, worin sich ihre Gottheit aus dem
Verborgenen hervor dem Menschen offenbart, und darum
ä
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nicht als die wahre Verehrung Gottes, die dem Menschen
ziemt, die sittliche Tat gefordert ist.
Der religiöse Wert des Monotheismus besteht so nicht in •
der Einheit der Zahl, sondern in dem Grunde, aus dem diese
Einh^eiTher vor geht, in dem Inhalt der Gottesidee. Der Gott
Israels ist der Einig.Einzige nicht dadurch, daß er allein das
ist und das tut, was alle die Götter der Heiden zusammen tun
und zusammen sind, sondern dadurch, daß er anders ist
als sie alle und a n d e r e s tut als sie alle. Das Wesen Gottes
ist dem der Götter durchaus entgegengesetzt; er ist nicht
etwa bloß mehr als sie und erhabener als sie, er steht ihnen
unvergleichbar gegenüber. Denn er allein ist der Lebendige,
der Schaffende und Gebietende, der das Eine, das geboten ist,
kundtut; ihm allein ist es eigen, daß der Mensch ihm wahr:^
haft dienen kann nur durch Erfüllung sittlicher Forderungen.
Darum war es, wie schon dargetan, keine bloße Entwickelung,
sondern es war der große Widerspruch, das andere Prinzip,
es war eine neue Schöpfung, eine Offenbarung, als die Lehre
von dem einen Gotte in Israel verkündet ward. „So spricht
der Ewige, der König Israels und sein Erlöser, der Ewige der
Heerscharen: Ich bin der erste, und ich bin der letzte, und
außer mir ist kein Gott, und wer ist mir gleich!"
Mit einem paradoxen Worte ist behauptet worden, daß die
Gottesidee an und für sieh nicht reUgiöser sei als z. B. die
Idee von der Schwerkraft. Es liegt hierin etwas Wahres. Die
Existenz eines Gottes kann aus philosophischen Gründen an.
genommen werden, um so das Bestehen der Weltordnung er.
klären zu können, um eine erste Ursache des Naturgeschehens
zu haben. Und in Bezug darauf hätte jenes Wort recht. Der
philosophische Gottesbegriff, diese letzte Formel der Welt,
anschauung, ist in der Tat an und für sich nicht reicher an
religiöser Bedeutung als irgend eine andere philosophische
Formel. Die Wissenschaft von der Religion wird auf ihn wohl
hinweisen, als auf ein Ergebnis des Naturbegreifens, aber der
Glaube findet seinen Grund und seine Stärke dann noch
nicht. Diese religiöse Gabe und Gewißheit wird allein durch
das gegeben, was Gott unserem Dasein, unserer Seele ist,
durch den inneren Zusammenhang, den unser Leben da.
durch gewinnt, durch alles das, was ihm darin an sittlicher,
heiligender Kraft, an Antwort auf seine Fragen und Forde.
^^4
i
^■i ^W^p^ipW^iw^^
i;
/
1/
:-,r
•IQ4 Unser Gott
rungen gewährt ist, durch alles das, worin unsere seelische
Welt ihre Beziehungen zu dem Göttlichen, ihre Bedeutung
und Bestimmung findet, durch dieses Ahnen und Hören, das
es vernimmt, wie mit jedem unserer Tage an uns der Ruf
von Gott ergeht: „Wo bist du?"
Religion, die der Mensch besitzt, besteht so nicht darin,
daß er erkennt, daß es einen Gott gibt. Unsere Religion haben
wir vielmehr erst damit, daß unser Leben sich an ein Ewiges
geknüpft weiß, daß wir uns mit Gott verbunden fühlen, daß
er unser Gott ist. Und er ist unser Gott, wenn wir, wie das
alte Wort es nennt, ihn lieben, wenn wir durch ihn unser
Vertrauen und unsere Demut, unseren Mut und unsere Stille
haben, wenn wir uns zu ihm erheben und zu ihm beten
können, wenn sich unserem Innersten seine Offenbarung und
sein Gebot erschließt. Wie wir diese Verbundenheit fassen
und aussprechen, ist immer ein Gleichnis nur und nur ein
Ausdruck menschlicher Seele. Unser Sagen und Singen von
Gott, welches das Ich und Du spricht, gestaltet die Züge des
Persönlichen, unser Sinnen über Gott, welches das Er spricht,
bildet die Idee von ihm. Aber ob der Mensch nun mit dcni
innigen Worte der Nähe sich zu Gott hinwendet, oder ob er
in dem reinen Gedanken zu Gott hinziehen will, ob das
Persönliche oder die Idee sich stärker auszusprechen sucht
es ist im Wesentlichen das Gleiche, wenn nur jenes Ent.*
scheidende zu eigen ist, daß er uns der Eine, daß er unser
Oott ist Von unserem Gotte kann unser Geist seine Ge.
danken und seine Begriffe bilden, und unser Herz kann zu.
gleich zu Ihm beten: „Du, Ewiger, bist unser Vater, der uns
i erlost von jeher, ist dein Name''. „Wer könnte m r Tn den
Hmimeln sein? und bin ich mit dir, so frage ich nicht nach
der Erde^Ware gleich mein Fleisch und mein Herz vlrLin
meines Herzens Hort und mein Teil ist Go i^X^^
Darum redet das Judentum nur wenig von Religion Tf k *
Bekenntnis. Aber dafür spricht es von dem wa '^1^^
spricht es von dem lebendigen Gotte vo^ Ihm "f !f^^
Menschen sein Gott kf VinA i, - ^' ^^^ ^^^^^
religiös das e^sVibM ^'^^^ ^'^ Gottesidee
einen rnff' / ^ ^' '^'^ religiöse Kraft. Von diesem
1
^^M 1
, t.
1
1
-Das Geschaffene
105
I
( \
Pf
1,1
\t
' ('
i
t1
gelehrt, das ist der Monotheismus, den Israels Propheten der
Welt gegeben haben.
Das Bezeichnende im Judentum ist so das Verhältnis des
Menschen zu Gott. Ein Bewußtsein ist darin ein wesent?
^1 liches, das Bewußtsein, geschaffen zu sein. Begriff
und Wort hiervon sind als ein Besitz des Judentums in die
Welt getreten, sie sind seinem Glauben an den einen Gott
eigentümlich. Gegenüber dem Schicksal und der Natur und
ihren Göttern fühlt sich der Mensch abhängig, von den
Göttern abhängig in den Ereignissen, den Zufällen seines
Lebens, schlechthin abhängig von dem Fatum und auch dem
Universum; er fühlt sich hier gezwungen und getrieben,
schlechthin erwählt oder verworfen. Dem einen Gotte gegen;:
über empfand dagegen der israelitische Mensch etwas ganz
anderes: er wußte sich von Gott geschaffen, selbst geschaffen,
W'ie alles geschaffen ist. Sein Leben und alles Leben rings
umher wurde ihm damit zur Offenbarung des einen Gottes;
^^^ Offenbarung und Schöpfung ist im religiösen Sinne dasj^
selbe. Es ist das Bewußtsein, das hier den Menschen
erfüllt hat, mit dem Einen, mit dem, der anders als alles
ist, verbunden zu sein, von ihm umfaßt und gehalten zu
werden, in ihm für das Geheimnis des eigenen Ursprungs
und des Ursprungs von allem, des Lebens von allem Lebens
den, des Daseins von allem Daseienden die Antwort zu
wissen. Der Mensch erlebt in sich den Sinn der ganzen Welt.
Mensch und Welt und ebenso Beginn und Zukunft werden
damit zu einer Lebensgewißheit zusammengeschlossen, zur
Gewißheit dessen, daß alles Leben gegeben ward und bewahrt
ist und geborgen bleibt. Der eine Gott ist der Gott der Welt,
er ist der Gott von Anfang und Ende und ist mein Gott. „Des
Ewigen ist die Erde und was sie füllt, der Erdkreis und die
auf ihm wohnen'*. An die Stelle der Sagen von Entstehung
und Vernichtung, wie die Mythologie sie hat, tritt hier der*^
( Schöpfungsgedanke, dieses seelische Erlebnis von der Be^^'v
Ziehung alles Menschlichen und aller Welt und aller Zeit zu
dem lebendigen Gotte. An die Stelle des Fatalismus, der nur
die Ketten und die Abgründe des Unabwendbaren zeigt, tritt
der Gedanke der göttlichen Allgegenwart, der Gegenwart
Gottes in seiner Schöpfung. Das Dunkel des Werdens wird
so zur Gewißheit des Ursprungs und des Lebens. Nicht das
ii
A
\A
106
Das Unendliche
bloße Geschehen, sondern das Schaffen, das göttliche Wirken
bezeichnet das Prinzip der Welt.
Mit diesem Bewußtsein, geschaffen zu sein ^ommt in da
Dasein des endUchen, vergänglichen Menschen das Gefühl
der Unendlichkeit und Ewigkeit. Das Wesen des schaffenden
Gottes geht über alles menschUche Erkennen und Ahnen
über alle irdischen, natürlichen Grenzen hinaus - darin lic^
die Empfindung von seiner Unendhchkeit und Ewigkeit -.
aber unser Dasein stammt von ihm, so daß wir ihm verwandt,
ihm vertraut und nahe sind, er uns gegenwärtig, bei uns ist.
Wir sind ihbi gegenüber wie „Staub und Asche" und gehören
doch zu ihm; er ist der Unergründliche, Unausdenkbare, und
wir sind dennoch von ihm her. Damit wird das Gefühl des
dunklen Geheimnisses zum Gefühl unendHcher Geborgen^
heit; das tief Verborgene und das, worin wir tief geborgen
t . sind, ewiges Geheimnis und ewige Hut ist in der Sprache der
/' ^ Bibel ein Wort. Alles Dasein gewinnt seine Beziehung zum
' Unbedingten, zum Unendlichen und Ewigen, es erhält seine
bleibende Antiwort. Das geschaffene Leben ist das Leben,
das seine Bedeutung von Gott her hat. Alle W' elt, dieser Bc^
zirk des Irdischen, ist doch die Welt Gottes; er ist der Heilige
und ist doch der Gott der Welt. „Heilig, heilig, heilig ist der
Ewige der Heerscharen, voll ist die ganze Erde seiner Hcrr^
lichkeit". Es ist so das Erlebnis des Menschen, der es er:?
fährt, daß der eine Gott sein Gott ist, und der damit den
Sinn alles Lebens in seinem Leben erfaßt. Das Vielfältige ist
nun mit dem Einen verbunden, das Vergängliche mit dem
Ewigen, das vor uns Liegende mit dem Unergründlichen; der
Zusammenhang von allem und mit dem Einen ist gegeben.
Das Gleichniswort, voll tiefer SymboHk, von dem Bunde,
den Gott mit dem Menschen und mit der Welt und mit aller
Zukunft schließt, konnte hier als das W^ort von der Sch()pfung
gesprochen werden. Zwischen Gott und dem Menschen und
zwischen Gott und der Welt ist der Bund; die Welt ist wie
der Mensch in die ReHgion hineingestellt.
Alles Religiöse hat seine Par adoxie, und es ist darum
ja auch kein bloßes Postulat, sondern eine unbedingte Gewiß-
heit. Es lebt in ihm eine Einheit des scheinbar Unverein-
baren em Ineinander des Gegenüber, und auch in diesem
Bewußtsein, geschaffen zu sein, ist das äußerlich Gegensät/-
I
^^
I
Die religiöse Paradoxie
107
liehe seelisch eins. Das Gefühl des Abstandes und das der
Zugehörigkeit, Jenseits und Diesseits schließen sich darin
zusammen; beides ist darin: die Empfindung des Fernen und
des Nahen, des Erhabenen und des Vertrauten, des Grenzen^
losen und des Eigenen, des Unendlichen und des Innigen,
des Geheimnisses und des Offenbarenden, die Zuversicht
des Wunders und des Gesetzes. Gott ist der Unnennbare,
der nicht zu Erfassende und nicht zu Erreichende, und er
hat doch mein Leben geschaffen; er ist der Unergründliche,
Verborgene, Unsagbare, und doch kommt alles Dasein von
ihm her; er ist der Wunderwirkende, der, vor welchem nichts
zu w^underbar ist, und doch hat alles Leben seine Ordnung
und Satzung von ihm. Die israelitische Religiosität empfindet
die Einheit von diesem beiden. Alles, was die Worte Jen?
seitigkeit und Innewohnen, Transcendenz und Immanenz
ausdrücken wollen, ist nur ein begriffliches Gleichnis für die
beiden Seiten dieser Paradoxie. Es bezeichnet die beiden Pole
dieser einen religiösen Empfindung, der Stimmung des Men?
sehen, der dessen gewiß ist, daß er in dem einen Gott seinen
Gott besitzt. Wenn jene Worte mehr sein wollen, wenn sie
als allein bestimmende, ausschließende Begriffe auftreten, so
reißen sie das auseinander, was als die eine religiöse Empfin?
düng in dem Menschen lebt, der das Wunder der Schöpfung
der Welt in sich erfährt.
Wird so auch beides, das Ferne wie das Nahe, als eines
ergriffen und gefühlt, so kann doch darin bald das eine bald
das andere sich in dieser Stunde und jener und in diesem und
jenem Menschen stärker betonen und hervorheben. Die eine
Empfindung hat ihre Abschattungen, ihre Accenteund darum
auch ihre Spannungen. In der Bibel und dem folgenden
Schrifttum hat denn auch das eine wie das andere seinen
eigenen, mannigfachen Ausdruck gefunden. Zunächst ist es
die absolute Erhabenheit Gottes, diese Größe, welche nicht
bloß groß ist, welche im Geheimnis ragt, die hier erlebt und
verkündet wird. Der eine Gott ist hoch über aller Erde und
aller Welt, völlig unterschieden von allem Irdischen und aller
Natur, er ist der „in_der HöheWohnende", wie der Prophet
ihn nennt, „der Hellige", wielene^^ete Wort es sagt, er ist
der Erhabene. Alle Religion spricht von dem, was größer und
mächtiger ist als der Mensch, sie fühlt und sucht es, furch»:
ii
i^^ff
Jiil
108
P
/
*
\
Das Erhabene
tend oder strebend. Aber alle die anderen Religionen haben
nur von dem Großen und Mächtigen gewußt, und es ist ihnen
^ darum auch zum Grausigen und Entsetzenden geworden. Erst
'der Glaube an den einen Gott hat das Gefühl für das Er.
habene, für das Hohe in seiner Einzigkeit, in seiner Reinheit,
fast könnte man sagen: für das Hohe und Tiefe in seiner
Einheit, gewonnen; dieses Gefühl hat hier sich erst selbst
gefunden. Das Eine, das allein erhaben ist, d a s E r h a b e n e
ist hier entdeckt worden. Alles Erhabene der Kunst hat
seinen Grund und seine Bedeutung darin, daß es Symbol und
Gleichnis des Göttlichen sein will. Und erst, als das eine
Göttliche, das, was über allem und anders als alles ist, er?
kannt worden ist, hat daher diese Empfindung ihren ganzen
Inhalt und ihren idealen Ausdruck erlangt. Der eine Gott
ist der Erhabene.
Er ist der Erhabene, und alles Irdische tritt unter diesem
Kontraste vor den Blick. Alles, so wiederholt es die Bibel
immer wieder, liegt unaussprechbar tief unter ihm. Was
Menschen das Größte, das Weiteste und Gewaltigste dünkt,
bedeutet ihm gegenüber ein Nichts. „Alle Völker sind wie
ein Nichts vor ihm, für weniger als Nichts und Leeres sind
sie ihm erachtet." Sie sind nur „wie der Tropfen am Eimer",
wie „das Stäubchen an der Wage", die Erdteile „wie ein Sand.'
körn". Tausend Jahre sind in seinen Augen „wie der gestrige
Tag, wenn er vergeht". Daher ist er dem Menschen der
Unfaßbare, Unendliche, das Dunkel des Geheimnisses dehnt
sich zwischen ihm und dem Sterblichen. In aller Relicion
wohnt dieses ahnende Bewußtsein vom Verborgenen Fernen-
m dem Glauben an den einen Gott wird es zu dem eigenti
r tr-5^ w ^'' Geheimnisses, zum Gefühl seiner Unend.
Sl^ : ^-kindliche Wort es sagt: „Gott wohnt im
Dunkel und wie das grübelnde Sinnen es ausspricht- tZ
uns kund, was wir ihm sagen sollen wir reichen nX' Ä u
vor Finsternis" v^ir. \\7 ^ j -i reicnen nicht dahin
A„d.ch, schließlich »mSäTdie Tl ceTrs« l'" '"
Die Schöpfung
109
»
I
V
Sinnen des Gleichnisses und seiner Dichtung sich geregt. Die
Bibel hat immer wieder versucht, von der Erhabenheit Gottes
auch zu sprechen. Alles, was Hoheit und Unendlichkeit, All^
macht und Ewigkeit darstellen kann, wird von ihr, die sonst
so oft „schwerer Zunge" ist, mit der ganzen Fülle des Wort?
reichtums ausgemalt. Sie hat ihre Hymnen von der Erhaben^
heit Gottes, von seiner „Ehre" und Herrlichkeit gesungen.
Und das alles w^urde dann zum Gesang von der Schöpfung.
Denn diese Gewißheit mit der Paradoxie, die sie trägt, daß
die Welt, über der Gott so „hoch wohnt", doch von ihm ge^:
schaffen, daß sie die Welt Gottes ist, blieb lebendig und gab
erst das Ganze. Gott ist anders als alles, aber alles hat sein
Leben von ihm, der Name Gottes ist darüber genannt. So
wurde das All zur Botschaft von seiner Größe, ihr weiter,
vernehmbarer Ausdruck, ihr machtvolles Wort; die Offen*
barung von dem einen Gotte sprach aus ihm, die Einheit und
der Zusammenklang der ganzen Welt war entdeckt. Die Vieb
beit hienieden und droben hatte ihre Beziehung zu dem
Einen gewonnen, und das All erhielt damit seinen Ausdruck
und seine Bedeutung, ihm ward ein Ideales, ein Gepräge, ein
Lebenscharakter verliehen, Seele und Sprache wurde ihm ge*
geben. Die göttliche Poesie vom Himmel und Erde war er*
faßt, und es wurde die tausendstimmige Kunde vernommen,
in der alles Geschaffene die Herrlichkeit Gottes preist. Die
große Harmonie der ganzen Welt ergriff die Seelen; die Welt
begann, zu sagen und zu singen, zu jubeln und zu klagen.
Dem Empfinden und seinem Dichten war nun ein neues Ge* ^ ^
biet erobert, einer der Wege des israelitischen Genius. Eine^Jp^
neue Poesie öffnete ihre Weiten und Fernen. Jetzt sprach
auch in der Welt die Religion zum Menschen. „Die Himmel
erzählen die Ehre Gottes, und seiner Hände Werk verkündet
die Feste". „Ewiger, unser Gott, wie mächtig ist dein Name
über die ganze Erde, der du offenbarst deine Herrlichkeit am
Himmel."
Noch lebendiger konnte diese Beziehung zu Gott, dieses
Geschaffensein im eigenen Leben, im Menschendasein em*
pfunden werden. Hier hatte dieses Gefühl auch sein Inniges,
seinen vertrautesten Sinn; denn hier ist es die Nähe Gottes,
die vor allem erlebt wird. Alles, was Verbundenheit und Zu* .
gehörigkeit benennen kann, gab hier seinen Inhalt, sein Wort .
I
110
Nähe und Ferne
und seinen warmen Klang. Hort und Zuflucht, Schutz und
Beistand, alle Gaben von Güte und Treue, alles, was der
Mensch von dem, bei welchem er ist, erfahren kann, wurden
zum Ausdruck dessen, daß Gott, der Eine, der Heilige und
Erhabene, unser Leben bereitet hat und in ihm sich offenbart.
Mit der ganzen Selbstverständlichkeit seelischer Gewißheit
werden Jenseits und Diesseits hier zumal neben einander ge=?
stellt, wird die Einheit von ihnen als Antwort vernommen.
Wo dieBegriffeundWorte nur ein Außereinander aussprechen
wollen, da erlebt und erfaßt das religiöse Empfinden den tief
innerlichen Zusammenhang. Hier vor allem wird dieses
Wundersame, Bedeutsame einer Einheit von Gegensatz und
Grund erfahren. Gott ist „der Höchste", und dennoch und
darum „wohnt der Mensch in seinem Geheimnis, in seiner
f J.Z ' V'" , '^""'^'''*'«""' ""'J d«""och und darum
„findet der Mensch Ruhe in seinem Schatten"; er ist von
Ewigkeit zu Ewigkeit", und dennoch und darum ist er "un
Se dalf , ""' '''"■ ''^^^^ ^-- ^- J-'"- des Talm.S
S i v\ '""Sr'"'""' '"'^ ^'^ ßibel dieses beides die
Fern td'^ste r f ""' '" Zugehörigkeit zu ihm ;eh e
daß Gott der Hödilte ktH . "" '''' '^'^''°" ^P^^^he,
Nächste istL^r/u ^ •"■* ^^'^^ ^'^ '^"■"'eich, daß er der
der große, allmächtige,' ehrfurlZbStendeGotT "" ""^'
schafft Recht der Waispimr^w. ^^ ""'^f "^^ ^^^t ; er
„Also spricht drH" he und Eh'.?"' 'f' ''^" F-mdling".
und dessen Name der Heilige ist trVf' '^"'""^'^ ^'"""^
throne ich, und bei dem, Sfb^^^^^^^^^
mütes ist, bin ich, um zu beleben d^r "^ f ^^'^"«ten Ge.
-u beleben das Herz der Bedrückten" '^^ ^'^'"^"«t^'WN
Da beides, die Nähe wie HiV v^ * i i ^^
beides sich betont, so wohn dtsem Si - '"'i? '''''^' ''''^^'
Herziehendes und Hinziehendes Ine r^'^ Empfinden ein
der es sieh dehnt und sehnt in h/'c*" ^ P ^ n n u n g , in
Siöse Erleben, wie es in der -"aettr. "'.""? "^ ^'' «^^ '<^^-
ein Eigenes und Besondere Sil .'" ^''^' «^^^«^den ist.
schaffen zu sein, unabtrennbar Dfe r" -ar. ^^^"'''- ^'-
besitzt, ist Wie eine Kraft, die in de'm G^^^m^t JS!
Die religiöse Sehnsucht
111
F
!
m
einander ersteht, sie erwächst in dem Bewußtsein, verbunden
und doch getrennt zu sein. Ein Dorthin und Hierher, ein
Zaßen und ein Verlangen, ein Suchen und ein Haben ist so
darin, ein Zagen ob der Ferne Gottes und ein Verlangen nach
seiner Nähe, ein Suchen, das ihn erreichen will, und ein
Haben, das ihn zu eigen weiß. Bangen und Zuversicht
schwingen zusammen, so, wie von einer ähnlichen Empfin?
düng der Prophet einmal sagt: „und es engt und weitet sich
das Herz**. Die Gewißheit, so gewiß sie bleibt, erhält ihren
besonderen Ton, sie wird zur Sehnsucht, die ja in aller
Gewißheit, die ein menschliches Gemüt hat, mitkHngt, zu
diesem hoffenden Fragen, diesem fragenden Hoffen, daß das
Erlebte stets auch Leben sei. Es ist die Sehnsucht des Erdens
sohns zu dem Unendlichen und Ewigen hin, das in sein Leben
eingetreten ist und doch in der Weite des UnendUchen und
Ewigen bleibt, zu seinem Gotte hin, mit dem er sich vereint
und von dem er sich doch wieder geschieden weiß.
Diese Sehnsucht ist der Ton, in welchem das Bewußtsein
des Menschen, daß er geschaffen ist, erklingt, jene Spannung
in seiner Seele, jene drängende Regung des Ich, das die
Empfindung der Ferne durch die der Nähe überwinden will,
um dort zu sein, wohin es zugehört, jene innere Bewegtheit
des Menschen, der nicht in seiner Endlichkeit stille stehen,
sondern über sie zu dem Sinne seines Lebens hinausgehoben
sein will, der danach verlangt, das Gefühl der Gegenwart
Gottes, die ihm gewährt ist, ganz zu besitzen, im Odem der
Unendlichkeit und Ewigkeit, die sein irdisches Dasein um?
fängt, zu atmen. „Und ich — die Nähe Gottes ist mein Gut,
in dem Herrn, dem Ewigen, fincTe ich meine Geborgenheit**, sq
singt diese Sehnsucht. In ihr ist darum nichts von dem bloßen
romantischen Begehren, diesem Begehren nach dem Ver?
sagten und Unmöglichen, sondern die Gewißheit des Ver?
trauens spricht in ihr, das seiner selbst sichere Verlangen der
Seele, alles, was von Gottes wegen ihr gegeben ist, auch wahrst
haft zu besitzen, im Diesseits ihr Jenseits, im Lebenstage ihr
Ewigkeitsempfinden zu haben. Nur wo die Paradoxie vom
erhabenen und gegenwärtigen Gotte ergriffen wird, wo die
der Gottesferne bewußte Seele doch zugleich in dem Bewußt?
sein der Gottesnähe ihr Dasein hat, wird die Sehnsucht nach
Gott sich regen. Wo diese Spannung nicht erfahren wird, wo
»I
^1 111^ III -mm^^m
l
112
Der betende Mensch
alles Gegenüber sich aufhebt und das Ich sich im Unendlichen
auflöst, wo der Mensch, im Ekstatischen versinkend, spricht:
„ich bin Gott, und Gott ist ich", dort fehlt der religiösen
Sehnsucht ihr Grund und ihr Raum.
Nur wo der Mensch nach seinem Gotte ruft, vermag* er
ihn auch anzurufen — jene Mystik, die den Menschen mit
der Gottheit eins werden läßt, hat darum kein Gebet, sondern
nur Versunkenheit, Kontemplation. Das Gebet zu dem einen
Gotte dringt aus dieser Spannung, aus dieser Sehnsucht her?
vor, aus ihrem Zagen und Wissen, dieser Sehnsucht des Ver?
trauens, diesem Vertrauen der Sehnsucht. Hier wendet sich
der Mensch zu dem erhabenen Gotte, zu dem, der „in der
Höhe wohnt", aber er kennt ihn als den Nahen. Er ist der
Gott der fernsten Fernen und doch der, der bei dem Menschen
ist, und zu dem dieser sprechen darf: erhöre mich! „Nahe
ist der Ewige allen, die ihn anrufen, allen, die ihn in M^ahrheit
anrufen". „Suchet den Ewigen, da er sich finden läßt, rufet
ihn an, da er nahe ist". Sehnsucht und Gebet, sie haben beide
dieses Wort von der Nähe, von dieser ihrer Gewißheit, ganz
wie sie ihr Wort des Bangens haben: „sei nicht ferne von
mir", ganz wie sie die kummervolle, fast verzweifelnde Fra^e
kennen: „mein Gott, mein Gott, warum hast du mich ve'-.
lassen! ' ~ auch hier, in allem Fragen und Zweifeln, bleibt
doch dieser Ruf der Nähe: mein Gott! Was immer im Gebete
sich ausspricht, ob Verlangen nach der Erhebung der Seele zu
Ihrem Gott, nach einem reineren, freieren Leben, ob Ver.
langen nach der Errettung aus Not und Gefahr oder nach der
Erlösung von Sünde und Schuld, ob Verlangen nach den
Gutern des Lebens und nach dem Wege des Segens, immer
ist es diese Spannung zwischen dem Gefühl der ErhabeTei
der": S ™ ^^^™^' -raus die Empfindung desse;^
Wundersame 7on^^^^^^ ^""'"'j ^^^^*' hervorquillt. Jene
yvunaersame von Geheimnis und Gewißheif icf o^ •
darin. Stimme des Irdischen und Stim^l L^gen ™rZ
dann eins; es ist. wie wenn Himmel und FrHr i, "> T.
rührten: der Gott der Ferne w^ d Zi cl H kI'u ^^'rl'' ^'"
hat das Gebet bald seine StilTe seSen ^Ta ^f'. ^'''''^
Das persönliche Gebet
113
Tragisches. Auch im Gebete will das Lebensgefühl des
Menschen, der sich geschaffen weiß, sich dorthin richten und
dehnen, wo es den Grund seiner Wirklichkeit, den Grund
seines Daseins hat. Zu dem lebendigen Gott wendet sich der
lebendige Mensch, dessen innerstes Wesen sich erhöhen und
erfüllen, sich stärken und steigern will, über die Engen des
Irdischen hinausgelangen möchte. Darum ist ein eigentliches
Wort des Gebetes das von der Erweiterung des Lebens.
„Aus der. Jjige habe ich Gott angerufen; er hat mich erhört,
indem er mich in die Weite geführt."
In dem allen, in dem Gefühl, geschaffen zu sein, der Sehn?
sucht und dem Beten regt sich ein Innerstes und Tiefstes, ein
Individuelles des Menschen. Die Empfindung von dem Sinne
des Lebens, das jedem gegeben ist, das Eigenste seines Da?
seins, jdie^ Bejahung seines Grundes spricht sich darin aus.
Das Persönliche^ Menschliche des Menschen erlebt dies alles,
und nur in den Formen und Worten menschhcher Erfahrung,
menschlichen Vertrauens und Zagens, menschlicher Bangig?
keit und Zuversicht kann es sich darum kundtun. Jede
Empfindung und Schwingung, worin es sich bewegt, kann
nur den persönlichen Charakter und Ton, der persönliche
Rede haben. Es ist das Ich des Menschen, welches das alles
erfährt, mit Gott sich verbunden weiß, das Ich, welches sein
Du verlangt und darum seine Zwiesprache mit Gott hält, sich
zu Gott emporheben will und darum sein Du zu ihm spricht,
Du zu dem Ewigen, Unendlichen, Geheimen — das Ich und
sein Gott stehen einander gegenüber. „Ich bin sein, und er
ist mein", so sagen es die Gebete des Judentums, er ist mein
Gott, nicht nur Er, sondern Du für mich. Der Gott der Ferne,
^f der als der Gott der Nähe erfaßt wird, ist diese Einheit von
I Er und Du. Daher wechselt beides in der Bibel so oft fast in
r^'dem gleichen Satze mit einander ab. Er und Du werden un?
'^^ mittelbar von dem Redenden an einander gefügt; alles Denken
von Gott wird immer alsbald zum Worte, das sich an ihn
richtet, zum Ausdrucke persönlicher Vertrautheit undVer?
bundenheit. „Der Ewige wird Zuflucht dem Bedrängten, eine
Zuflucht in Zeiten der Not, daß auf dich vertrauen, die
deinen Namen kennen; denn nicht verlassest du, die dich
suchen, o Ewiger". „Mit seinem Fittiche deckt er dich, und
unter seinen Flügeln bist du geborgen, Schild und Schirm ist
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
8
II
— "-••ij^
114
Der persönliche Gott
seine
o^xii^ Treue; .... denn du, Ewiger, bist meine Burg, den
Höchsten hast du zu deiner Stätte gemacht". „Gut ist es, dem
Ewigen zu danken, deinem Namen, du Höchster, zu singen".
„Kehre nun wieder, meine Seele, zu deiner Ruhe, denn der
Ewige hat dir wohlgetan, denn du hast meine Seele vom Tode
befreit, mein Auge von den Tränen, meinen Fuß vom Sturze".
Immer neu steigt es so in der Bibel auf und nieder. F^s ist wie
ein Herankommen und Ergreifen in diesen Wellen des Ge^
fühls, wie ein Sichüberholen der Stimmen, ein Suchen, Heran?
ziehen und Festhalten in den Klängen der Gewißheit. Das
Er wird immer wieder zum Du.
Seinen persönlichen Gott erlebt so das Sehnen und Flehen
des Menschen, und alle die Eigenschaften persönlichen
Wirkens und Waltens werden darin empfunden. Der Mensch
erfaßt mit ihnen seinen Gott. Es ist der Zug seiner Seele, der
in ihnen Gott sich zu eigen macht, mit ihnen Gottes gewil^
wird; das Wissen von dem Wege, der von Gott zur Menschen.
Seele führt und von ihr zu ihrem Gotte, tut hier in Worten
sich kund. Nicht eine begriffliche Bestimmung der gött.
liehen Natur will in ihnen gegeben sein. Sie bezeichnen nicht
sowohl die Attribute des göttlichen Wesens - auch die alte
judische Religionsphilosophie hat dies hervorgehoben — als
^^lelmehr Formen menschlichen Erfahrens, die Formen in
V^denen sich ihm da sJTeb endige Göttliche erschließt. Der Gott
des Judentums ist nicht jener Gott, der sich aus Eigenschaften
zusammensetzt er ist kein bloßer Begriff, nicht der Gott der
Philosophie und des Dogmas; auch für die jüdische Religions.
Philosophie war er es nicht, dazu war in ihr der Zusam^rn
hang mit der Bibel zu innig, das alte bibHschfLpS^^^^^^^^
ak T 1t' .^"'^"^ ""'''' ^^^^^ -l^^i-e ErlebnL weU
als der lebendige Gott vom Menschen erfaßt ist, w rd er al
der persönliche empfunden. Das Erhabene H.. r l
welches alles trägt, dringt in dem 're StS S^^
Menschen, in seinem Eigensten hervor TmPr-iu'' "^"^
darum als Persönliches wird es ve nor^n^e^^ ^de^'S T'
Menschenseele lebt und wächst da^ pZ\ u ^^^ ^^^
ihrem Ich steht der e^I Go vor^hr da^ ' ^^ '""'^ ^^^
der persönliche Gott. Ihn finr/drs^ ^ ''' ^"^ ""^^'^
des Menschen ganz so w 1 ^ Sehnsucht und das Gebet
Grübeln die GoUes i d erei^^^^^^^^ T "''^ P^ '^^"^" -^
eintritt. Zu jener Paradoxie des
t
Die Worte der Religion
115
I
i
M
1
1
1
Geschaffenseins gehört auch diese, daß das Leben des
Menschen den Unendlichen, Unfaßbaren als seinen persona
liehen Gott besitzt.
Die Fülle des Empfindens von Gott sucht daher den
immer neuen persönlichen Ausdruck. Er war schon in dem
Worte „mein Gott" gegeben; dieses Wort hatten bereits die
bah^bnischen Bußpsalmen gekannt, aber erst als es von dem
einenGotte gesprochen ward, erhielt es seinen ganzen, seinen
eigentlichen Inhalt. Doch der innigen Gewißheit, in der das
religiöse Gefühl lebt, ist es nicht genug. Sie läßt sich in immer
neuen Klängen des Herzens vernehmen: Gott ist Vater —
den Gebeten der alten, schon der primitiven Religion war
dieses Wort in seinem mythologischen Sinne zu eigen; hier,
von dem einen Gotte gesprochen, gewinnt es seine andere
Bedeutung, die Antwort von dem Sinne jedes Lebens — , Gott
ist Retter und Hort, Helfer und Beistand, Hirte und Hüter,
er ist Arzt, Erbarmer und Erlöser, er ist Schutz und
Schirm, Zinne und Schild, Licht und Heil, er ist Hoffnung,
Trost und Leben. Der religiöse Genius hat hier seine Sprache
geschaffen; er hat sie dem frommen Empfinden aller späteren
Geschlechter bereitet, sie haben darin ihr Innerstes sprechen
hören. Wenn das Gefühl sich offenbaren, wenn es nicht nur
empfangen, sondern sich erheben will und damit schöpferisch
wird, so beginnt es die Worte zu gestalten, altem Inhaljt^den
neii^flc^Ton zu schenken. Es ist jenes Dichten, däsin aller
Religion ist. Die"Menschen, die den Sinn ihres Daseins innig
erleben und davon zu reden begehren, sind die Dichter von
Gott geworden. Dichter von dem Einen, Ewigen. Sie haben
die Worte von Gott gefunden, die Worte ewigen Gleichnisses;
sie haben um die Nähe Gottes wissen dürfen, und die Musik
ihrer Seele hat davon zu künden vermocht. Ein Lied der
ReHgion ist darin geschaffen worden, die Lyrik, in der das
Gemüt von dem Tiefsten, dem Persönlichsten singt, das es
I erfährt, zu erzählen beginnt, „was alles Gott ihm getan hat".
Es ist eine Sprache, die seitdem eine Menschheit^gRxache
geworden ist. "^ ""^
Diese schöpferische Sprachkraft, von der die Bibel zeugt,
ist dann weiterhin lebendig geblieben. Was die Seele erlebt
hat, und was sie in den alten Worten wieder endeckt, an
ihnen immer neu erlebt, will sie immer wieder selbst ergreifen
8*
4
1
i
fi
i
T'^^^.JR.'i*"."*» \^'t
Die Unmittelbarkeit Gottes
und saßen. Und auch das Hingen afriiiu^i «„^u^n und
Nvird in ihr seiner bewußt. Auch
sein,
Finden der Rede, zum
Send! gehegt und hat darin iene Einheit ^^Jf^^^^^
und Innigkeit empfunden, und auch sie hat es im L^^^,^^^
ausgesprochen. Sie hat, besonders in ihren Gebeten, ein \V ort.
gefüge dafür gestaltet, in dem beides enthalten sein, beides
sich zusammenschUeßen sollte. Bald lautet es , unser Vater,
unser Herr'' bald „unser Vater im HimmeV' bald „hwiger,
unser Gott, Herr der Welt"; das ist zu einem, untrennbaren
Ausdrucke, wie zu einem, unzerlegbaren Worte geworden: er
ist im Himmel und doch unser Vater, er ist der Welten ,
Herr und doch unser Gott. Auch die Parabel, wie die Hagada
dieser Zeit sie dichtet, ist aus dem Verlangen hervorgewachsen,
die Einheit von beidem zu benennen. Hier ist Gott dem
Könige verglichen, und der Mensch ist das Königskind. Gort
ist der König, aber er ist zugleich der Vater, er ist der Er*:
habene und doch zugleich der Nahe. Das Bild von Hoheit
und Innigkeit in einem war darin gegeben.
Wo das Persönliche so betont wird, dort ist die eine Ge?
fahr allerdings vorhanden, daß etwas Vermenschlichendes in
die Gottesvorstellung eintritt, und um das von ihr fernzu.
halten, ist damals auch die ÜberweltHchkeit Gottes sehr be^
stimmt hervorgehoben worden. Mit welcher Entschiedenheit
es geschehen ist, zeigen die Bibelübersetzungen Palästinas
und Babylons, die sogenannten Targumim. Aber die Gefahr,
die man bannen wollte, trat damit an einer anderen Stelle
wieder hervor. Die Gottheit konnte hier nämlich leicht zum
Abstrakten, zur bloßen Idee, zum platonischen Gotte w^crdcn,
und das seeUsche Bedürfnis nach dem Gegenwärtigen,
Lebendigen bereitete sich dann sein Näheres und Nahes: die
Phantasie des Volkes stellte zwischen den fernen Gott und
den Menschen die Mittelwesen, seine Boten und Diener, und
die Philosophie gestaltete, um die Verbindung zwischen
Himmel und Erde herzustellen, die Personifikation der Welten,
kraft, den Helfer Gottes, den Logos. Immer erst, wenn jene
Paradoxie wieder erfaßt wurd^HrTaer die religiöse Gewißheit
lebt, daß der erhabene Gott doch unser Gott, der gegen.
Die Liebe Gottes
M^
gooo
I
wärtige Gott ist, konnte das alles wieder überwunden werden.
Aus~"3enr~Gottesbegriff wurde dann wieder der lebendige
Gott, unser Vater, und alle die Wesen zwischen ihm und dem
Menschen, sie, die einer Mythologie die Wegebereiten konnten,
sanken in ihr Nichts zurück. Die Unmittelbarkeit Gottes
wurde damit wieder erfahren, diese Vertrautheit des Herzens
mit ihm, dieses Eigene der jüdischen Religiosität; nichts mehr
konnte zwischen ihm und dem Menschen stehen, nichts den
Menschen von seinem Gotte fortdrängen. Als jüdisches Wort
blieb, was nach der Zerstörung des Tempels, mit einer Be.
kümmernis anhebend und in die ruhige Sicherheit ausklingend,
so daß hinter ihr alles schwindet, gesprochen wurde: „Für
uns steht keiner ein, für uns tritt keiner vor Gott hin — auf
wen sollen wir uns stützen? Auf unseren Vater im Himmel! *
Die Poesie vom persönlichen Gotte blieb so auch in den
Gemütern und schuf sich immer neu. All den Inhalt, den für
sie. Gott dem Menschen bedeutet, all den Klang und Wert,
welchen das Menschenleben hierdurch besitzt, haben die
Propheten und Psalmisten mit dem Worte von der Liebe
benannt, der Liebe, die das Menschendasein von Gott erfährt.
Dieses Wort ist ein Accent der jüdischen Religion geworden.
Das Gefühl, geliebt zu werden, ist das Gefühl von der Zu:s
sammengehörigkeit, welche nicht im Errechenbaren und Be*:
stimmbaren liegt, das Gefühl, umfaßt, getragen und empor^
gehoben zu sein; ihr Wort ist der Ausdruck für das, was aus
Verborgenem hervorsteigend doch als das Unzweifelhafteste,
als die Habe und Kraft der Seele erlebt wird, der Ausdruck
für die Tiefe innerlicher Ruhe und Verbundenheit, für alles,
was den anderen zum Eigenen, das Er zum Du, das Ich zum
Dein, das Getrennte zum Geeinten, das Ferne zum Besitztum,
das Geheime zum Gewissesten macht. Auch die Mythologie
hatte dieses Wort gehabt, sie hatte von einer Liebe der Götter
gesprochen; jedoch es war die Liebe als Schicksal, die Liebe
von Göttern zu einigen Auserkorenen, zu den Günstlingen
auf Erden, nicht aber das, was sie hier ist: die göttliche Liebe
als das Gegenwärtige und der Sinn jedes Menschenlebens,
als das, was in allem lebt, als der Ton, in welchem jedes Da?
sein erklingt. Gott liebt den Menschen, das bedeutet hier:'
Gott ist unser Gott, wir sind von ihm geschaffen und gehören
zu ihm, das Verborgene, das unser Leben in seinen Tiefen
I
Die Worte von der Liebe
umfängt, ist zugleich der Wert ^' ^^^'::^^^
das, worin es beantwortet und bejaht ^^^/^^'^^j^'^^^^^j,
an unser Dasein glauben können Es ''[^^'^^^^^^
empfinden der ReUgion, das sich in diesem W «f f.^^^^^^^^^^^
will und darum ist es eine Fülle des Mannigfal igen sorin
dieses eine den Reichtum dessen, was es besagt, m seiner
Macht wie in seiner Zartheit, verkünden will. Keine über.
Setzung kann ganz die Wellen der Stimmen, in denen dieses
eine Wort in der Bibel laut wird, wiedergeben. Was immer
das Menschenherz an Geheimnis der Gewißheit besitzt was
ein Leben an BeseUgendem empfängt und in sich schlieft,
dient der Botschaft von der göttUchen Liebe.
Oft ist es die milde, sorgende, Hndernde Elternliebe, die
das Wort des Gleichnisses darbieten soll. „Wie sich ein Vater
über Kinder erbarmt, so erbarmt sich der Ewige über die, die
ihn fürchten". „Wie ein Mann seinen Sohn zurechtweist, so
weist der Ewige, dein Gott, dich zurecht". „Kann ein Weib
ihres Säuglings vergessen, daß sie sich nicht erbarmte über ihr
leibliches Kind! Und ob diese auch vergäße, ich werde deiner
nicht vergessen." „Mein Vater und meine Mutter haben mich
verlassen, aber der Ewige nimmt mich auf". „Gleich einem,
den seine Mutter tröstet, also tröste ich euch". Dann
wiederum läßt die siegreiche Liebesgewalt, die nicht beengt
und nicht begrenzt und nicht bezwungen werden kann, die
„stark ist wie der Tod", ihre Laute vernehmen — diese
Stimme, die alles schweigen heißt, die das letzte Wort trotz
allem spricht: „Mit menschlichen Banden ziehe ich sie, mit
Seilen der Liebe . . . Umkehrt sich mein Herz in mir, all
mein Empfinden reget sich. . . Denn Gott bin ich und nicht
ein Mensch, der Heilige bin ich in deiner Mitte, ich komme
nicht, um zu vernichten". „Denn nicht auf ewig verstößt der
Herr; wenn er betrübt hat, so erbarmt er sich nach der Fülle
seiner Liebe". „Im Wallen des Zorns habe ich mein Angesicht
einen Augenblick vor dir verborgen, aber mit ewiger Liebe
habe ich mich dein erbarmt, spricht dein Erlöser, der Ewige.
Denn mögen auch die Berge weichen und die Hügel wanken.
Das Erbarmen
119
WXXXX.X. xx^ftwiL^xiviv Ywi viii vciuui^cii, auer mii ewiger Liebe
habe ich mich dein erbarmt, spricht dein Erlöser, der Ewige.
Denn mögen auch die Berge weichen und die Hügel wanken,
so wird doch meine Liebe nicht von dir weichen, und der
Bund meines Friedens nicht wanken, so spricht dein Er::
barmer, der Ewige". Und ebenso ist es die geduldige, lieb,
reiche Treue, die nimmer müde wird und nimmer rastet,' diese
&
«23
Kraft des Wohltuns, diese immer gleiche und doch immer
neue, nie versagende, unendliche Güte, worin das fromme
Sinnen und Suchen den Ausdruck und das Bild gefunden hat:
„Die Liebe des Ewigen, sie hört nicht auf, sein Erbarmen hat
kein Ende. Jeden Morgen sind sie neu, groß ist deine Treue''.
„Der Liebe des Ewigen ist die Erde voll". „Gütig ist der
Ewige gegen alle, und sein Erbarmen ist über alles, was er
geschaffen hat". „Groß über den Himmel hinaus ist deine
Liebe und bis zu den Wolken deine Treue". „Wenn ich
sprach: es wankt mein Fuß — deine Liebe, Ewiger, stützt
mich". „Wie köstlich ist deine Liebe, o Gott, und die Men^
schenkinder, im Schatten deiner Fittiche sind sie geborgen".
„Mächtig ist über uns seine Liebe, und die Treue des Ewigen
währet ewiglich". „Ich schließe mit ihnen einen ewigen Bund,
daß ich nicht von ihnen lassen werde, ihnen wohl zu tun".
In den meisten dieser Sätze wird das Wort von der Liebe
auch als das vom Erbarmen laut. In der Sprache der Bibel
nimmt dieses Wort seinen Ton her von der Liebe der Mutter
zu dem Kinde, das sie geboren, dieser natürlichsten, dieser
gegebenen Liebe, dieser Liebe, die nicht erst erwachsen ist
noch sich erst entfaltet hat, sondern so alt ist wie das Leben,
dem sie sich schenkt. Sie kann darum zum Gleichnis für die
Liebe Gottes zu seinem Geschöpfe werden. Daher spricht
auch in diesem Worte nichts von dem, was in anderen
Sprachen aus ihm hervorklingen kann, nichts von dem bloßen
Mitleide, nichts von der gefühlvollen Herablassung, in der ein
Stärkerer dem Schwächeren spendet. In ihm ist hier nur der
Ausdruck der Liebe, welche immer gewesen ist und immer
bleibt. Und es ist so darin auch das „Und dennoch", welches
das Bewußtsein, geliebt zu werden, hegt, diese Gewißheit, die
trotz allem keinen Zweifel kennt, die Gewißheit des Bundes,
der nie gelöst, des Bandes, das nie zerrissen werden kann,
dieser Glaube an das Göttliche, das nie verloren sein wird,
mag unser Leben uns auch bisweilen leer und verlassen
dünken. Das Erbarmen wird darum immer wieder das„großc",
das unermeßliche, unvergängliche genannt. Wie mit dem Ge^
fühl des Geschaffenseins in die Seele des Menschen die
Stimmung des Unendlichen und Ewigen eintritt, diese Stim^
mung von dem, was über alle Schranken und Linien des
Menschlichen hinausgeht, so gewinnt auch die Empfindung
120
Die Gnade
1 ,
von der göttlichen Liebe diesen selben Ton der Uncndid k^^
und Ewigkeit. Die Liebe Gottes wird als die göttliche
Gnade empfunden, als die Gabe des Unbedingten und Ln.
begrenzten, als das Besitztum, das durch nichts erworben ist
und durch nichts beengt wird, als das, was jedem Leben zu
teil geworden ist, von ihm erlebt werden kann. Und auch
dies alles gewinnt wieder den persönlichen Ausdruck, es wird
dem Menschen zur Erfahrung von seinem eigenen Dasein, es
redet zu ihm von alle dem, was seine Tage als ihre besonderen
' Wege und Schicksale gehabt haben, von den Niederungen, die
sie durchschreiten mußten, von den Höhen, die sie ersteigen
durften. Auch hier steht das Ich des Menschen vor seinem
Gotte und findet sein Wort vom Du. Wie Jakob spricht:
„Ich bin zu gering aller der Liebe und Treue, die du an deinem
Knechte getan hast". Wie David spricht: „Wer bin ich,
Ewiger, und was ist mein Haus, daß du mich bis hierher ge?
bracht hast?" Und vor allem das Psalm wort, das alles besagt:
„Lobe den Ewigen, meine Seele, und alles, w^as in mir ist,
seinen heiligen Namen; lobe den Ewigen, meine Seele, und
vergiß nicht, was er dir alles getan hat, der alle deine Sünden
vergibt, der alle deine Gebrechen heilt, der dein Leben vom
Verderben erlöst, der dich krönt mit Liebe und Erbarmen,
"^ der mit dem Guten dein Alter sättigt, daß sich erneut gleich
dem Adler deine Jugend."
Diese Gewißheit von der Liebe Gottes hat sich so in
menschlichen Worten dargestellt; in ihnen allein kann die
Seele hier reden. Es ist ihr Persönliches, ihr tiefstes Atmen,
worin dies alles erfahren wird; nur in den Formen des Per?
sönlichen kann es sich ihr offenbaren und aus ihr hervor?
treten. Je inniger sie dies alles, was dem Leben gegeben ist,
empfindet, desto menschlicher muß sie davon sprechen. Liebe
können Menschen nur in die Weise menschlicher Liebe fassen
sie können hier nicht denken, ohne zu dichten. In Begriffeir
kann man nicht beten, in Definitionen und im Abstrakten
nicht die Sehnsucht künden, die über die Enge des Daseins
emporheben will. Wenn Gottes Liebe uns zum Gleichnis für
die Bedeutung unseres Lebens wird, immer tritt dann der
persönliche Gott an uns heran. Von seinem Erbarmen und
seiner Gnade können wir singen, davon erzählend, wie sich
die Wege vom Himmel zur Erde, von der Unendlichkeit und
I
Die „dreizehn Eigenschaften"
121
• ii
fi
Ewigkeit zum Menschendasein öffnen. Von ihm können wir
sagen: „Wer ist wie der Ewige, unser Gott, der da hoch thronet,
der da tief herabschaut, im Himmel und auf Erden!" „Der Ewige
blickt vom Himmel zur Erde, daß er das Seufzen des Ge?
fesselten höre, daß er frei mache die Kinder des Sterbens."
Ganz wie in der Bibel ist auch im talmudischen Schrifttum
die Liebe zum Ausdruck des religiösen Grunderlebnisses, wie
der geschaffene Mensch es hat, geworden. Die „Eigenschaften"
Gottes findet der Talmud in einem Satze der Bibel befaßt,
von dem diese selber sagt, daß in ihm ausgesprochen sei, wie
der Mensch die „Herrlichkeit Gottes" erfahre: „Ewiger,
Ewiger, Gott, barmherzig und gnädig, langmütig und reich
an Liebe und Treue, er bewahrt die Liebe bis ins tausendste
Geschlecht, er vergibt Schuld und Fehl und Sünde und läßt
nicht ganz ungestraft". Und in diesen „dreizehn Eigene
Schäften", wie sie genannt werden, wurde vor allem die
mannigfaltige Bezeichnung der göttlichen Liebe gefunden —
denn das beginnende Wort „der Ewige" hat nach der alten
Auffassung sie zum Inhalt, und auch aus dem letzten Worte,
dem vom Strafenmüssen, wurde sie herausgehört. Dieser
Bibelsatz ist ein Symbol geworden, er hat als ein Spruch des
Glaubens seinen Platz im Gebetbuche gefunden. Zwei
Schriftworte haben diese Bedeutung erhalten, sind für die
Gemeinde Worte des Bundes, Ausdruck des Bekenntnisses
geworden: das eine, das Wort von der Gotteseinheit: „Höre
Israel, der Ewige ist unser Gott, der Ewige ist einzig", und
das andere, unser Satz von der Liebe Gottes. Ein Pathos der
Geschichte spricht in ihnen beiden.
Das Gefühl, geschaffen zu sein, dieses Gefühl von der
göttlichen Liebe, erhält seinen besonderen Ausdruck dann
noch, wenn es in die Selbsterkenntnis des Menschen eintritt.
Es wird hier zum Gefühl der D e m u t. Auch die Demut ist
in ihrem Grunde das Bewußtsein von dem, was dem
Menschen durch Gott gegeben, das Bewußtsein davon, daß
er durch Gott allein ist; s;ie ist ein Weissen um das Geheimnis,
um die Tiefe. Auch in ihr ist darum jenes Doppelte, jenes an
sich Gegensätzliche: die Empfindung des Abstandes und die
der Verbundenheit. Wie es sich in dem Gedanken von Gott
eint, daß er als der Erhabene und der Nahe begriffen wird, so
lebt in der Selbsterkenntnis des Demütigen mit dem Bewußte
-m
mm
■ n III, 1,1— f»j
/
122
Die Demut
Das Rätsel
123
i
i
in unzuländich und ohnmächtig, nur ein Geschöpf zu sein.
ali:^^^^^ auch, V o n G o 1 1 ins Dasein .^-^^n durc^
ihn bewahrt und ^i^ebor^^en zu sein, das Ewi^e »" ch /
tragen, unsagbar gering vor ^^^j ^t ^ w'Tlo^^^^
durch ihn, irdisch und nichtig und doch ein kind Gottes. In
ihrem WesentHchen bedeutet so die Demut, xvie sie in der
israelitischen Seele erwachsen ist, das Wissen um den l latz,
den der Mensch in der Unendlichkeit und liwigkeit hat; sie
ist das reügiöse Lebensgefühl des geschaffenen Menschen.
Daher hegt in ihr nichts Gewolltes und nichts Beabsichtigtes,
kein Beugendes und Drückendes; sie ist nicht eine Selbst^
demütigung, sondern sie ist die Einsicht in das eigene Dasein,
die Einsicht darein, daß es ein von Gott gewordenes ist. In
ihr spricht die Stimmung, die das Leben umschwingt, wenn
es seiner Tiefe bewußt wird, wenn es in sich selber hinein^
horcht, der Klang, in welchem die Harmonie der großen
Schöpfung, fast möchte man sagen, die Sphärenmusik in der
Menschenseele hervordringt. Sie eignet als seeHsche Haltung
dem Menschen als solchem, daher nicht zu besonderer Stunde,
sondern immer, dem Endlichen gegenüber dem Unendlichen,
von dem er geworden., dem Geschaffenen gegenüber dem
einen Gotte; daher ist sie nur dort, wo das Bewußtsein der
Schöpfung im Menschen lebt.
In dieser Demut wohnt damit das Gefühl von dem Werte,
der dem Leben dadurch, daß es eine Gottesschöpfung ist,
gegeben wird, das Gefühl dafür, daß das All, in welches der
Mensch hineingehört, ein von Gott gewordener Kosmos ist.
Sie ist daher ein durchaus optimistisches Gefühl, das Be^
wußtsein der ewigen Bedeutung und Ordnung, in die das
eigene Dasein hineingefügt ist. Nur, w^o das Leben seinen
Sinn gewonnen hat, kann sie sich entfalten. Die bloße
Empfindung der Abhängigkeit würde sich mit dem Schicksals^
gedanken und seinem Pessimismus auch einen, ja ihn fast
verlangen; sie würde gegenüber einer Welt ohne Wert, einer
Welt des Chaos erwachsen. Es ist mit Recht gesagt worden
daß das Schicksal das Gegenstück des Chaos ist; das eine
^ wie das andere bedeutet die Sinnlosigkeit. In der Demut lebt
dagegen der Glaube an das Gute, und sie ist darum auch so
sehr sie die allgemein menschliche Empfindung ist, eine ganz
persönliche Empfindung des Einzelnen, die Empfindung
f
#
1
seines Lebens; denn er hegt sie gegenüber seinem Gotte,
ihm gegenüber, zu dem er sprechen kann; sie ist ein Selbst :=
bewußtsein des Menschen. Als sein eigenes, sein individuelles
Dasein erfährt er es, daß sein Leben geworden und endlich,
begrenzt und abhängig ist, und daß es doch aus der Ewigkeit
gekommen und mit ihr verbunden ist, daß es seine Enge und
doch seine Würde hat. Jene Paradoxie vom fernen und nahen
Gott tritt durch die Demut in das Wesen des Menschen ein.
Die Frage seines Erdendaseins erhält eine Antwort in der
Einheit des Widerspruchs, daß das Leben so gering und doch
so groß ist, daß es begrenzt und doch von der Ewigkeit ge^
tragen, daß es endlich ist und doch sein Unendliches hat.
Auch hier will die Religion das Rätsel nicht auflösen, sie be^
wahrt die Ehrfurcht vor ihm. Aber sie sagt, daß das Rätsel
seine Antwort besitzt, daß der Gegensatz doch seine Har#
monie hat, daß sich ein Sinn des Lebens, des Daseins eines
jeden, in ihm erschließt. Durch die Paradoxie erhält das
Leben seine Gewißheit wieder.
Im Menschlichen läßt so die Demut das Persönliche und
im Persönlichen das Menschliche empfinden, und die Rede
von ihr hat so zum Liede werden können. Durch die Bibel
ist dieses Lied den Suchenden und Fragenden geschenkt
worden. So ergreifend wie kaum irgend anders wird hier die
Schwäche des Menschen geschildert und so herrlich wie kaum
irgend anders seine Größe besungen. In gleicher Stärke er^
klingen die beiden Töne, meist unmittelbar, ohne jeden Über^
gang, neben einander gestellt, um die ganze Bestimmtheit
der Paradoxie hervortreten zu lassen: „Was ist der Mensch,
daß du sein gedenkest, das Erdenkind, daß du seiner achtest.
Und hast ihn doch wenig geringer gemacht als Gott und mit
Ehre und Herrlichkeit ihn gekrönt." „Der Mensch — wie
Gras sind seine Tage, wie eine Blume des Feldes blüht er;
wenn ein Wind über ihn hinfährt, so ist er nicht mehr, und
nicht erkennt ihn mehr seine Stätte. Aber die Liebe des
Ewigen währt von Ewigkeit zu Ewigkeit über die, so ihn
fürchten, und seine Gerechtigkeit für Kindeskinder denen,
die seinen Bund hüten und denken an seine Gebote, daß sie
danach tun*'. „Du lassest den Sterblichen zum Staube zurück^
kehren und sprichst: kehret wieder, Menschenkinder!" Die
Lyrik der Religion hat hier ihre Vielstimmigkeit gewonnen,
t
^24 Das Leiden
das Lied vom Menschenleben entfaltet seine kontrapunk.
tische Fülle. ^ ^ jt t
Es ist das Lied von dem Sinne aller unserer Tage Und
die seelische Sicherheit, die darin lebendig ist, wird auch
durch das Leid, das über den Menschen kommt, nicht zer.
stört; sie kann bleiben, weil hier Gewißheit und Geheimnis
einander bedingen und einander tragen. Wenn sich das Gott^
liehe in seiner Ferne und seiner Nähe den Menschen offene
bart, so steht immer dieses Zwiefache in der Seele, das Gefühl
der Verborgenheit und das der Geborgenheit; sie beide er^
fassen und durchdringen einander. In der Not und dem Elend
des Menschea werden diese beiden, Geborgenheit und Ver?
borgenheit, zum Kontraste, sie werden zu Stimmen, die mit
einander kämpfen. Das Rätsel dringt laut fragend in das
Leben ein, es steigt aus der Tiefe zum Tage empor, es will zu
dem großen Widerspruche des Daseins werden. Aber auch er
wird in der israelitischen Seele nur der Kontrapunkt, der die
höhere Harmonie trägt; die Stimmen von droben und drunten
kommen in ihr wieder zusammen. Die Einheit bleibt in allem
Gegensätzlichen, in all seinem Kontrast, die Einheit Gottes
und damit die Einheit des Lebens, dieser sein Sinn und Wert,
in welchem die Antwort, die Gewißheit gegeben ist. Von
dem einen Gott ist das Leben geworden, und von ihm ist es
getragen, auch in allem Leid und trotz allem Leid. Auch in
der Not bleibt die Demut, sie bleibt als die Ergebung in
die Liebe Gottes. — "
Auch unter dem Drucke des Leides wird darum dieses
rehgiöse Empfinden nicht zum bloßen Gefühl der Abhängig»
keit mit seinem Schicksalsglauben und seinem Pessimismus.
Die optimistische Sicherheit spricht auch hier ihr bejahendes,
persönliches Wort. Diese Ergebung hat nichts von dem
Fatahsmus, der in dem Gedanken von der unendlichen
Bestimmung sich müde beruhigt, noch von der Resignation
die m dem lähmenden Bewußtsein von der Unabänder-
lichkeit alles Geschehens und der Vergeblichkeit alles
Wollens erstarrt, nichts auch von jener grübelnden Medi.
tation, die sich in das Zwingende der Welt versenkt um
das Fragen zu verlernen. Und noch weniger ist sie die
Abgestumpftheit dessen, der sich ergeben hat. der unter
den Schlägen des Schicksals, die ihn zusammenbrechen lieSln
?
Die Ergebung
125
empfindungslos geworden ist. Die Ergebung in die Liebe
Gottes, wie sie hier erlebt wird, ist nicht „Philosophie" und
nicht Kontemplation und nicht Erstorbenheit. In ihr auch ist
nichts anderes als jene Sehnsucht, die das Gefühl der Ferne
durch das der Nähe überwinden will, die sich über die Engen
und Schranken des Daseins emporzuschwingen vermag. Auch
sie ist Andacht, ist Gebet — sie betet fragend, und auch
wenn sie fragt, betet sie. „Das Gute wollen wir von Gott an^^
nehmen, und das Böse wollten wir nicht annehmen?" Ein
Wort, das sich ihr immer wieder entringt, ist das Wort
„Warum?", eines jener eigenen Worte der Bibel, aber auch
ihr Warum bleibt immer ein Wort des Gebetes. Von so
manchem Empfinden anderwärts, das ihr zu ähneln scheint,
unterscheidet sie sich gerade darin, daß sie Gebet ist. Und
deshalb ist ihr Tiefstes auch jenes Schweigen der Andacht.
„Gestillt und geschweigt habe ich meine Seele". „Ich ver*
stumme, tue meinen Mund nicht auf, denn du hast es getan".
„Gut ist es dem Manne, . .• . . wenn er einsam sitzt und
schweigt, weil er es auf sich genommen hat."
Ein Satz der Ergebung ist zum Spruche des Volkes gQ^
worden, der Satz aus dem Buche Hiob: „Der Ewige hat ge^
geben, und der Ewige hat genommen, der Name des Ewigen
sei gepriesen". Das Wort „Gott preisen", das er enthält, hat
schon früh seinen bestimmten Platz und Ton gewonnen; es
ist zum steten Präludium und dann wieder zum Ausklang der
Gebete geworden, in denen die Demut mit ihrer Empfindung
von der göttlichen Liebe spricht. Das Gefühl der Erhaben^
heit und Einheit Gottes klingt in ihm, dieser in Gott ge^
gründeten Einheit von allem, durch die auch das Leben seiner
Einheit in allen seinen Tagen und Geschicken bewußt wer:=
den kann. Schon in der Bibel vernehmen wir es so: „Ge^
priesen sei der Ewige, Tag für Tag trägt er uns, der Gott, der
unsere Hilfe ist!" Den einen Gott allein kann der Mensch
preisen, und nur der Mensch vermag es, welcher Gott als den
Gott aller Zeiten, den Gott der Väter und der Kinder, und
ebenso als den Gott aller Stunden, der trüben wie der hellen,
erfährt. Auch das Gebet des Leidenden hat darum dieses
Wort dann zu eigen nehmen können. Besonders im talmudi«:
sehen Schrifttum tritt es uns so entgegen: „Der Mensch
preise gegenüber seinem Leiden Gott so, wie er angesichts
P
«
M
^HM I I PXH«>»«
124
Das Leiden
Die Ergebung
125
rj.
das Lied vom Menschenleben entfaltet seine kontrapunk^
tische Fülle.
Es ist das Lied von dem Sinne aller unserer Tage. Und
die seelische Sicherheit, die darin lebendig ist, wird auch
durch das Leid, das über den Menschen kommt, nicht zer^
stört; sie kann bleiben, weil hier Gewißheit und Geheimnis
einander bedingen und einander tragen. Wenn sich das Gött^
liehe in seiner Ferne und seiner Nähe den Menschen offen*
bart, so steht immer dieses Zwiefache in der Seele, das Gefühl
der Verborgenheit und das der Geborgenheit; sie beide er*^
fassSi und dür eindringen einander. In der Not und dem Elend
des MenschcÄ werden diese beiden, Geborgenheit und Ver*
borgenheit, zum Kontraste, sie werden zu Stimmen, die mit
einander kämpfen. Das Rätsel dringt laut fragend in das
Leben ein, es steigt aus der Tiefe zum Tage empor, es will zu
dem großen Widerspruche des Daseins werden. Aber auch er
wird in der israelitischen Seele nur der Kontrapunkt, der die
höhere Harmonie trägt; die Stimmen von droben und drunten
kommen in ihr wieder zusammen. Die Einheit bleibt in allem
Gegensätzlichen, in all seinem Kontrast, die Einheit Gottes
und damit die Einheit des Lebens, dieser sein Sinn und Wert,
in welchem die Antwort, die Gewißheit gegeben ist. Von
dem einen Gott ist das Leben geworden, und von ihm ist es
getragen, auch in allem Leid und trotz allem Leid. Auch in
der Not bleibt die Demut, sie bleibt als die Ergebung in
die Liebe Gottes.
""Auch unter dem Drucke des Leides wird darum dieses
religiöse Empfinden nicht zum bloßen Gefühl der Abhängig*
keit mit seinem Schicksalsglauben und seinem Pessimismus.
Die optimistische Sicherheit spricht auch hier ihr bejahendes,
persönliches Wort. Diese Ergebung hat nichts von dem
Fatalismus, der in dem Gedanken von der unendlichen
Bestimmung sich müde beruhigt, noch von der Resignation,
die in dem lähmenden Bewußtsein von der Unabänder*
lichkeit alles Geschehens und der Vergeblichkeit alles
Wollens erstarrt, nichts auch von jener grübelnden Medi*
tation, die sich in das Zwingende der Welt versenkt, um
das Fragen zu verlernen. Und noch weniger ist sie die
Abgestumpftheit dessen, der sich ergeben hat, der unter
den Schlägen des Schicksals, die ihn zusammenbrechen ließen.
^
empfindungslos geworden ist. Die Ergebung in die Liebe
Gottes, wie sie hier erlebt wird, ist nicht „Philosophie' und
nicht Kontemplation und nicht Erstorbenheit. In ihr auch ist
nichts anderes als jene Sehnsucht, die das Gefühl der Ferne
durch das der Nähe überwinden will, die sich über die Engen
und Schranken des Daseins emporzuschwingen vermag. Auch
sie ist Andacht, ist Gebet — sie betet fragend, und auch
wenn sie fragt, betet sie. „Das Gute wollen wir von Gott an.
nehmen, und das Böse wollten wir nicht annehmen?" Em
Wort, das sich ihr immer wieder entringt, ist das Wort
„Warum?", eines jener eigenen Worte der Bibel, aber auch
ihr Warum bleibt immer ein Wort des Gebetes. Von so
manchem Empfinden anderwärts, das ihr zu ähneln scheint,
unterscheidet sie sich gerade darin, daß sie Gebet ist. Und
deshalb ist ihr Tiefstes auch jenes Schweigen der Andacht,
„Gestillt und geschweigt habe ich meine Seele". „Ich ver.
stumme, tue meinen Mund nicht auf, denn du hast es getan".
„Gut ist es dem Manne, . .• . . wenn er einsam sitzt und
schweigt, weil er es auf sich genommen hat."
Ein Satz der Ergebung ist zum Spruche des Volkes ge*»
worden, der Satz aus dem Buche Hiob: „Der Ewige hat ge.
geben, und der Ewige hat genommen, der Name des Ewigen
sei gepriesen". Das Wort „Gott preisen", das er enthält, hat
schon früh seinen bestimmten Platz und Ton gewonnen; es
ist zum steten Präludium und dann wieder zum Ausklang der
Gebete geworden, in denen die Demut mit ihrer Empfindung
von der göttlichen Liebe spricht. Das Gefühl der Erhaben,
heit und Einheit Gottes klingt in ihm, dieser in Gott i|e.
gründeten Einheit von allem, durch die auch das Leben seiner
Einheit in allen seinen Tagen und Geschicken bewußt wer.
den kann. Schon in der Bibel vernehmen wir es so: „Ge.
priesen sei der Ewige, Tag für Tag trägt er uns, der Gott, der
unsere Hilfe ist!" Den einen Gott allein kann der Mensch
preisen, und nur der Mensch vermag es, welcher Gott als den
Gott aller Zeiten, den Gott der Väter und der Kinder, und
ebenso als den Gott aller Stunden, der trüben wie der hellen,
erfährt. Auch das Gebet des Leidenden hat darum dieses
Wort dann zu eigen nehmen können. Besonders im talmudi.
sehen Schrifttum tritt es uns so entgegen: „Der Mensch
preise gegenüber seinem Leiden Gott so, wie er angesichts
tiniit* liiii
^y.^ ,: ;■ ■ i
126
Das Gottvertrauen
seines Glückes ihn preist". „Seid nicht wie der Götzendiener
einer: ergeht es ihm gut. so ehrt er seine Götter, und er flucht
ihnen, wenn das Unglück über ihn kommt. Nicht so die
Israeliten; wenn Gott ihnen Gutes schickt, so preisen sie ihn,,
und wenn Gott Leiden über sie verhängt, so preisen sie ihn".
Dieser letzte Satz, der in solcher Einheit der Lebensempfin?
düng das Monotheistische, den bezeichnenden Unterschied
von dem Heidnischen fand, steht in einer Rede des Rabbi
Akiba. Er hat auch den Spruch geprägt: „Was Gott tut, ist
zum Guten getan". Es war so das Bekenntnis seines Lebens;
er hatte das Leid in allen Tagen, die es bringen kann, kennen
gelernt. Er durfte dieses Wort sprechen, ohne daß es in seinem
Munde wie ein Spott auf das Unglück klang. Es war nicht
bloß gedachte Weisheit, es war Religiosität, welche dies und
manches ähnliche Wort gefunden hat. Das Eigene des Juden?
tums offenbart sich darin, diese Kunde vom Höheren, dem
Bleibenden und Ewigen, welche die Seele vernimmt, so daß
sie ihre Gewißheit besitzt und behält, die über allen Gegen?
Sätzen, die sich beweisen wollen, steht.
Ergebung und Zuversicht sind so hier eines; die eine wie
die andere „preist Gott". Mit der Frage des Leides spricht
immer zugleich die Antwort der Gottesliebe; jedes empor*
steigende Gefühl einer Verlorenheit und Verlassenheit wird
alsbald von dem Bewußtsein, getragen und geborgen zu sein,
umfaßt, von den „Armen der Ewigkeit", wie das Gleichnis
im alten „Segen des Moses" sagt, umfangen. Die Demut ist
in ihrem Persönlichen immer zugleich Vertrauen auf
Gott. Auch hier ist wieder jene Spannung zwischen dem
Fernen, dem Jenseitigen und Verborgenen, und dem Nahen,,
dem Diesseitigen und Gewissen, zwischen der Unbegreifbar?
keit und der Verbundenheit, zwischen dem Empfinden des
Abstandes und dem der Zugehörigkeit. Jenes sich Dehnende^
jenes Fragende und doch zugleich Antwortende, Bangende
und doch zugleich Besitzende, wie die Sehnsucht es hat,
spricht auch hier wieder. In der Ergebung steht die Frage vor
der bleibenden Antwort, die nicht schwanken noch wanken
kann, im Gottvertrauen steht die Antwort vor jeder Frage,
woher sie auch kommen mag. Auch hier ist wieder die Ein?
heit von beidem, von Suchen und Finden; es gibt hier kein
Finden, das nicht stetes Suchen wäre, und kein Suchen, das
„Meine Seele*
127
nicht die Stetigkeit des Findens hätte — die Ergebung bleibt
Vertrauen und das Vertrauen Ergebung. Es ist die Einheit
von Unruhe und Stille, von Warten und Erwarten, von Frage
und Antwort. „Der Ewige ist mein Licht und mein Heil; vor
wem sollte ich mich fürchten? Der Ewige ist meines Lebens
Schutz; vor wem sollte ich zagen?" „Was bist du gebeugt,
meine Seele, und erregt in mir? Harre auf Gott, denn noch
werde ich ihm danken, der meines Angesichtes Hilfe und
mein Gott ist". „Ja, zu Gott sei stille, meine Seele, denn von
ihm ist meine Hoffnung. Ja, er ist mein Fels und meine Hilfe,
meine Burg — ich werde nicht wanken". „Kehre wieder,
meine Seele, zu deiner Ruhe!" „Preise, meine Seele, den
Ewigen!"
Zu allem Persönlichen ist hier das Ewige getreten, alle
Zwiesprache des Menschen mit sich ist zur Zwiesprache mit
Gott geworden, die Frage des Monologs zur Antwort des
Gebetes. Das Wort „meine Seele" ist hier entdeckt worden,
dieses Wort, in welchem der Mensch des Ichs und seines
Platzes im All, seiner Stelle in der Ewigkeit bewußt wird, in
welchem er aus der Ewigkeit zu sich selber kommt, in sich
einkehrt, in welchem das Gebet in sein Leben einzieht, und
dieses Wort hat seine Bedeutung durch das andere erhalten,
welches sich mit ihm eint, jenes erste der Religion, das Wort
„mein Gott". „Meine Seele" und „mein Gott", in diesen bei?
den sind Geheimnis und Gewißheit, Frage und Antwort zu?
sammengeschlossen, der Bund zwischen Gott und dem Men?
sehen ist darin befaßt — die Seele, welche Gottes ist, und Gott,
welcher der Gott der Seele ist. Das „Wenn", wie es aus der
Seele des Menschen immer wieder hervorruft, gewinnt sein
erwiderndes „Dennoch", wie es aus der Gottheit hervor?
spricht, und unerschüttert kann dieses Dennoch allen Wechsel
und Wandel der Tage mit all seinem Wenn herankommen
lassen. „Wenn sich ein Lager wider mich lagert, fürchtet sich
mein Herz nicht; wenn sich wider mich Krieg erhebt, auch
dann vertraue ich". „Und dennoch, auch wenn sie im Lande
ihrer Feinde sind, habe ich sie nicht verworfen und nicht ver?
stoßen, daß ich sie hinschwinden ließe, daß ich meinen Bund
mit ihnen bräche; denn ich bin der Ewige, ihr Gott". „Auch
wenn ich wandle im Tale des Schattens, fürchte ich kein
Böses; denn du bist bei mir." Gegenwart und Zukunft wer?
-I ^'
128
Die Zuversicht
Der Glaube
129
I
%
i
den darin in all ihrer Spannung ^"«^'"'"^."^"f ^^vP^S
an die Zukunft besitzt ihre Antwort in der Gewißheit
relct die Gegenwart erleben läßt, - J ^^^^ ^eU auf dfe "
Gegenwart stellt, ihre Lösung durch die Gewißheit, auf die
Se Zukunft gebaut ist. Die Zukunft wird -' -ehsch^'^
Gegenwart, in die Dunkelheit, die im Kommenden hegt, tr tt
das\icht des Vertrauens. „Ich hebe -eine^Augen - t^
Bergen auf: von wannen kommt meine Hilfe? Meme Hilte
Lmmt von dem Ewigen, der Himmel und Erde ge-cht Ji^^^^^
Er wird deinen Fuß nicht wanken lassen mcht schlummern
vird, der dich behütet. Siehe, nicht schlummert und nicht
schläft der Hüter Israels". „Die mU Tränen säen, werden
mit Jubel ernten". • r^^f*^
Diese Zuversicht verbindet die Seele mit >h'«"^ ^otte
mit dem Bleibenden, Ewigen. Sie ist darum nicht durch den
Tag bedingt und nicht von seinen Erfolgen abhangig, ihre
lee ische Wirklichkeit ist eine andere als d^e. welche der
Mensch sich selber beweisen und gewähren will S e ist nichts
Sger als bloße Lebensweisheit. Es gibt auch - Zeichen
der Religion, Lebensgrundsätze, die nur die Rechtfertigung
des Weges s nd, den einer gegangen ist, die "-«^htragliche
Entschuldigung für das, was er getan hat, diese Philosophie de^^
Bedarfs, der Notbehelf der Seele gegenüber ihren Schwachen.
Und es gibt, auch im Zeichen der ReUgion, eine noch bedenk»
Uchere Leb;nsphilosophie. die Apologie ^^f^f^^^^^:;
sitzenden, die nur die Ruhmeskunde für sein Gewinnen ist
das Gott;ertrauen des Habenden, der sich versichert halt
daß GoHit dem Siegenden ist. Die Relig on Israels hat
tedeVmr diese satte Predigt der Macht noch für Jenen f er ti.
Ten Spruch des Vollführten je das Wort ^^^l^^^^.Z^^^'
Wort hergdiehen. Wo sie von ihrer Gewißheit redete do t
war es nie weil das irdische Geschick für sie sprach oder sie
für das irdische Trachten sprechen wollte. Immer geschah es,
obwohl der Weltenlauf gegen ihr Vertrauen zeugen wollte
und sVe gegen das Vertrauen der Welt zeugen mußte. In ihrer
Zuversicht bleibt immer die Spannung ^^^«^^en ^ler ^^J!
fahrung des Lebens und seiner Bedeutung sie hat ihre Kraft
' nicht aus den Ergebnissen, sondern aus dem Geheimnis ge.
zoeen'iiriiraäHSnSmer. Sehnsucht zugleich gewesen.
Im' jüdischen Schrifttum wird das Gottvertrauen auch
\ !
/ t
als der Glaube bezeichnet. Dieses Wort hat hier nichts von
der dogmatischen und konfessionellen Bedeutung, die ihm
anderwärts eigen ist. Es bezieht sich hier nicht auf Erkennt^
nisse und Sätze, in denen ein Wissen vom Jenseitigen durch
die Gnadengabe dargeboten sein will, es stellt nicht Güter
und Autoritäten als Glaubensgüter und Glaubensautoritäten
hin, es ist von keiner Theorie und keiner Scholastik umgeben.
Darum hat sich hier ja auch kein festes Glaubensbekenntnis
aufgerichtet, kein Dogma mit seinem Gedankenbau, diesem
stolzen Turm, der in den Himmel ragen will. Glaube ist im
Judentum nichts anderes als das lebendige Bewußtsein des
Allgegenwärtigen, der Sinn für die Nähe Gottes, für seine
Offenbarung, die sich in allem kundtut, für das Schöpferische,
das in allem lebt. Er ist die seelische Fähigkeit, die im Ver^
gänglichen den bleibenden Grund, im Sichtbaren das Un^
sichtbare, im Geschaffenen das Geheimnis erfaßt und so mit
dem Ewigen verbunden und seiner sicher ist — diese Gewiß^
heit, die nicht von Spekulation und Gnosis und nicht von
Tatsachen und Beweisen nur lebt. In diesem Glauben ist
darum nichts Ergrübeltes, nichts Demonstriertes und nichts
Dargelegtes. Er ist im Gegenteil der Widerspruch gegen das,
was dargetan sein will, sei es durch Schlüsse, sei es durch
Siege; er bedarf nicht der Sätze und dessen, was sie ver^
nehmen lassen, und nicht des Tages und dessen, was er ge^
lingen läßt. Das bibHsche Wort, das den Glauben benennt,
bezeichnet im eigentlichen die innere Festigkeit und Ruhe
des Menschen, die Kraft seiner Seele und ihre Stetigkeit —
nicht sowohl etwas, was der Mensch haben soll, als vielmehr
etwas, was er besitzen darf, nichts Fertiges, sondern ein
immer Neues und Werdendes, die Sehnsucht der Gewißheit
und die Gewißheit der Sehnsucht. Gläubig ist, wer immer
wieder erlebt, was wahre Wirklichkeit ist. Daher sagt die
Heilige Schrift: „Der Gerechte lebt durch seinen Glauben".
„Glaubt ihr nicht, so bleibet ihr nicht". „Ich glaube, wenn
ich auch spreche: ich bin sehr gebeugt". Diesen Glauben
rühmen auch die späteren Zeiten; der Talmud nennt die
Israeliten „Gläubige, Kinder der Gläubigen". Auch dieser
Glaube ist im Grunde nur das, worin das religiöse Erlebnis
des Judentums anhebt, das Bewußtsein, von dem einen Gotte
erschaffen zu sein; er ist die Bejahung des Sinnesund Wertes
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums O
130
^eiclo|i1
Der schaffende Mensch
des Lebens, dieSicherheit und Zuversicht dessen, dem das Ge?
heimnis, welches alles befaßt, zur Bedeutung seines eigenen,
persönlichen Lebens geworden ist, der darum weiß, daß er
der Mensch Gottes ist. Für einen der alten Meister hat dsi^
her alles, was die Bibel verkünden will, in diesem ihrem
einen Satze beschlossen sein können: „Der Gerechte lebt
durch seinen Glauben". In seinem Glauben besitzt der
Mensch sein Leben; er sagt ihm, was sein Leben ist, daß es
von dem Ewigen, dem Einen, dem lebendigen Gotte, kommt.
In dem Gefühl, geschaffen zu sein, ist der Religion aber
erst ihr Anfang gegeben. Mit ihm vereint sich ein Anderes,
Wesentliches, worin sich die jüdische Religiosität erst
vollendet, wodurch sie ihr Ganzes erst besitzt: das Bewußt:^
sein, schaffen zu können und schaffen zu sollen.
Geschöpf und doch Schöpfer zu sein, beides zusammen ist
hier die Welt der Religion, ihr Eines und Alles. Der Wille mit
seinem Gebot, das an ihn ergeht, gewinnt seinen Platz.
Ahnung und Aufgabe, Sehnsucht ^nd Pflicht, Geheimnis des
j Ursprungs und Bestimmtheit des Weges schließen sich zu^
* sammen und durchdringen einander.
Der Mensch erlebt die Wirklichkeit des Guten; es ist das
I große sittliche Erlebnis, wie es in seiner^ganzen Gewalt die
U Propheten ergriffen hat. Er erfährt, wie er dadurch, daß er
das Gute übt, etwas zu gestalten vermag, wie er dem Guten
ein Dasein gibt, wie er dadurch sein Leben zu formen und
zu bilden, es zu seinem Leben zu machen imstande ist; er
erlebt die Schöpferkraft und das Schöpfungsgebot seiner
Seele. Das Fordernde und Gebietende, das Mahnende und
Drängende seines Daseins offenbart sich ihm; er vernimmt
nicht nur, wie vorher, was sein Dasein ist, sondern nun auch,
was alles es sein kann und sein soll. Hatte er zunächst sein
Leben als Objekt, als Bewirktes und Gewordenes empfuns:
den, so fühlt er es jetzt als Subjekt, als Wirkendes und
Werdendes. Vorher hatte er gewußt, daß er ins Leben ge?
führt ist — „trotz deiner bist du gebildet, trotz deiner bist
du geboren, trotz deiner bist du im Leben — "; jetzt ist er
dessen auch bewußt, daß er sein Leben führen kann — „die
Freiheit ist gewährt — ", daß er von Gott geschaffen ist, um
selber zu schaffen, und daß er schaffen kann, weil er von Gott
geschaffen ist. Aus der Ewigkeit kommt das Leben hervor,
Geheimnis und Gebot
131
in die Ewigkeit zieht es hinein, gegeben und getragen, so
hatte er das Geheimnis, das ihn umfängt, erlebt, und jetzt
erlebt er, wie er selber auch sein Dasein trägt und es selber
sich gibt, wie er es von Stunde zu Stunde leitet. Als die Auf:s
gäbe, die ihm gestellt ist, erfaßt er jetzt sein Leben; von einer
höheren Macht ward es bereitet, und doch ist es da, daß er
selber es bereite, es ist aus dem Dunkel des Rätsels und doch
im Lichte des Gebotes. Beides ergreift und hält nun einander:
Tiefe und Ziel, Ursprung und Richtung, die Gottesschöpfung,
durch die unser Dasein geworden, und die Menschehtat,
durch die es immer wieder wird, das, was Gottes ist, und
was des Menschen ist, das Verborgene und das Offenbare.
„Das Verborgene ist des Ewigen, unseres Gottes, und das
Offenbare ist unser und unserer Kinder ewiglich, daß wir tun
alle Worte dieser Lehre".
Es ist so das zweite Grunderlebnis der Israeli:»
tischen Religion. Zu dem Rätsel tritt das Klare, Deutliche,
zu dem Unergründlichen das Aufgegebene, zu dem, was den
Menschen umfaßt, das, was er erfassen soll, zu dem Geheim:»
nis seines Ursprungs die Forderung seines Weges, zu der
Wirklichkeit, welche Gott geschaffen, die, welche der Mensch
bereiten soll, zu der Gewißheit, die das Verborgene gibt, die
andere Gewißheit, die das Gebot gewährt. Stellte das erstere
Empfinden den Menschen in das All hinein, so daß er um
die Welt erfährt, der er zugehört, so hebt ihn dieses andere
aus dem All heraus, so daß er um die Welt erfährt, die ihm
gehören soll. Hatte sich in dem ersteren Empfinden das
Leben alles Lebens betont, der Sinn, welcher der Sinn von
allem ist, so hier der besondere Platz und Wert des Men?
sehen, die Bedeutung, die nur ihm eignet. War es zuerst die
suchende Frage mit ihrem Woher, Wohin und Warum, die
den Menschen ergriff, so ist es jetzt die bestimmende Ants:
wort mit ihrem Du sollst und Du kannst. Wies die Religion
zu Beginn den Weg von Gott zum Menschen, so nun den
Weg vom Menschen zu Gott. Geheimnis und Gebot schließen
sich zusammen; beides zusammen gibt erst die ganze Bedeu^
tung unseres Lebens. Die Einheit von beidem ist die Reli^
gion, wie das Judentum sie besitzt.
Damit tritt in die Religion die zweite große Paradoxie
mit ihrer Spannung und mit ihrer Gewißheit, die durch nichts.
»• I
Glaube und Tat
Der gebietende Gott
was bloß tatsächlich' wäre, bedingt ist. Ein neuer Sinn spriclit
aus dem Gegensatz. Ein neuer religiöser Einklang dringt aus
diesem Gegeneinander hervor, daß der Mensch ein Gebilde
ist und doch ein Bildner, ein Gewordener und doch ein Ver=:
wirkHchender, Werdender, daß er zur Welt gehört und doch
' über der Welt ist, daß sein Leben nur durch Gott besteht
und doch sein Selbständiges haben soll; eine seelische Ein^
heit, eine Lebensantwort erhebt sich aus diesem Gegenüber
von Wunder und Freiheit, von bindender Unergründlichkeit
und hinausweisender Forderung. In dieser Paradqxie mit
\^^^ihrem höheren Ja, welches sie spricht, hat das Judentum sein
'^ ^ ^ Besonderes, das, worin es von Rehgionen neben ihm untere
• schieden ist. Diese erleben es nur und lassen nur erleben,
daß der Mensch geschaffen worden, aber nicht, daß er dazu
da ist, selber zu schaffen. Sie haben und pflegen jenes erste
Empfinden der Religion, das der Abhängigkeit vom Ewigen
und Unendlichen, und da das eine ihnen alles bedeutet, so
kommt alsbald der Schicksalsgedanke, der Gedanke des Ver^
hängnisses, welches alles festhält, in die ReHgion hinein; das
Wunder will hier alles besagen und ihm gegenüber die Tat
zu wenig oder nichts. Der Glaube weiß hier nur darum, daß
das Leben sein ihm gefügtes Los hat, zu welchem der Mensch
erkoren oder verworfen wird, aber nicht, daß er selber das
Leben erwählt und fügt und sich selber damit die Bestimm
mung gibt. Im Judentum erhält mit dieser Aufgabe des
Weges, mit diesem Gebote der Tat alle ReUgiosität ihren
Rhythmus, ihre stetige Bewegung; das Mahnende und
Fordernde spricht hier in der Religion ganz so lebendig wie
das Gefühl des Gewordenen und Gebildeten. Die Welt er^
faßt hier den Menschen mit ihrer Unendlichkeit und Ewig«:
keit, aber er selbst soll sie auch erfassen, ein Unendliches,
Ewiges in ihr verwirklichen. Glaubend erfährt er den Sinn
der Welt, und handelnd will er ihr den Sinn geben. Er hat
sein Leben empfangen, und er soll es erfüllen. Mit dem Er::
lebnis der Seele eint sich das Leben und sein Gebot. Die-
Einheit von beidem mit all ihrer Parado^ie, ihrer Spannung
und ihrer Gewißheit ist die Religiosität des Judentums.
Die Beziehung des Menschen zu Gott erhält jetzt ihre
volle Bedeutung. Der Mensch, der es erlebt, daß er das Gute
verwirklichen soll, erfährt, wie Gott als der Gebietende ihm
' ^
T
133
gegenübersteht, als der Sprechende, Richtende, Gerechte; er
erfährt, wie Gott die sittliche Tat von ihm verlangt, das Ge?
bot vor ihn hinstellt, damit er es erfülle. „Er hat dir ver=*
kündigt, o Mensch, was gut ist, und was der Ewige von dir
fordert.*' „Und nun, Israel, was verlangt der Ewige, dein
Gott, von dir . . .!'* Der Gott der schaffenden, schenkenden
Liebe ist zugleich der heilige, sittliche Wille, er ist der Gott ^
des Gebotes, der Gott der fordernden Gerechtigkeit. Wie ""
die göttliche Liebe gegeben und gebildet hat, trägt und um*
faßt, so gebietet die göttliche Gerechtigkeit, sie stellt die^
unbedingte Pflicht in das Leben des Menschen hinein. Sagt
ihm die Liebe, was er durch seinen Gott ist, so die Ge^
rechtigkeit,was er vor seinem Gotte sein soll. Beides zu.
sammen erst ist die Offenbarung von dem einen Gotte, beides
erst tut den Sinn des Menschenlebens kund; der tiefste Ge*
halt der Einheit Gottes spricht in dieser Einheit. Und es ist
ihr eigener Klang, daß das Verborgene, Unergründliche unse.
res Lebens um die Liebe Gottes uns wissen läßt und das Deut^
hche. Bestimmte unseres Daseins um seine gebietende Ge*
rechtigkeit. Und auch das alles erfährt das PersönHche des
Menschen; zu seinem Ich spricht das Gebot. Er hört von dem •
Ewigen sich gerufen, er mit seinem Leben, er vernimmt die
Frage Gottes, die an ihn ergeht: „wo bist du?" Im Person,
liehen, als der persönliche Gott steht Gott vor ihm. Aller Gc-^
danke von Gott wird hier zum Worte, das Gott an uns richtet,
das uns gilt, uns allein oder uns vorerst, zum Ausdruck unse.'
rer Verpflichtung, die mahnend von ihm kommt, damit wir
wir auf unserem Platze, sie erfassen. Hatte die Sehnsucht
ihre Zwiesprache mit Gott begonnen, indem ihr Ich fragend
und hoffend sich ihm zukehrte und zu ihm sprach: , mein
Gott", so vernimmt jetzt die Seele des Menschen, wie sie Gott
antworten soll, wie sich Gott zu ihr hinwendet verlangend
und erwartend. In das Leben des Menschen tritt jetzt das
Gotteswort ein, das von ihm die Entscheidung fordert, das
^Wort: „Ich bin der Ewige, dein Gott, du sollst."
Je lebendiger der Mensch dies erfährt, daß Gott ihm ge.
bietet, desto stärker wird er dessen bewußt, daß das Gute
Sache seines Willens ist, daß er frei ist, zur Freiheit ge.
schaffen, frei auch gegenüber Gott, daß er, wie der Prophet
es sagt, „den Willen Gottes wählt". Die selbständige Kraft
^uaidi^MiikAiMM
i
t 'S
134
Die Freiheit des Menschen
H
!■
^!
seelischen Eigentums, die lenkende, leitende Persönlichkeit
ist ihm von Gott zugesprochen, die Kraft, sein eigenes Leben
zu schaffen. Als sittliches Wesen steht er seinem Gotte gegenj^
über, so daß er, nach dem bezeichnenden Gleichnis der Bibel
„im Angesichte Gottes** durchs Leben geht; er kann vor Gottf
[hin treten, um sein Gewissen und sein Werk reden zu lassen.!
'Alles, was unser Dasein empfängt und erfährt, so erlebt es
unsere Demut, ist uns von Gott gewährt. Aber eines, so läßt
der gebietende Gott es uns wissen, gehört uns, eines vermag
von uns selber aus, kraft unser, uns einen Inhalt und Wert zu
^ ^^ ^ verleihen, das ist die freie, sittliche Tat. Alles haben wir Gott
beizumessen, nur sie dürfen wir uns zuschreiben; sie gibt
uns einen von uns bestimmten Platz vor dem allmächtigen
Gotte. Wie Rabbi Chanina es in den epigrammatischen Satz
faßte: „Alles ist in Gottes Hand, nur nicht des Menschen
Gottesfurcht.*' Oder wie Rabbi Eleasar es sagte: „Nichts in
seiner Welt wird Gott zuteil als des Menschen Gottes^:
furcht.** Dichtend hat dann die mündliche Lehre und ihr
folgend besonders die Mystik diesen Gedanken weitergeführt;
sie sprechen davon, wie der Wille des Gerechten gewisser^
maßen auch für Gott entscheidend sei und der Mensch zum
Erhalter und Erneuerer der Welt werde, wie er der Welt
alles das erst gebe und wiedergebe, um dessentwillen sie da
sein dürfe, wie durch ihn Gott ihr nahe, durch ihn Gott ihr
ferne sei. Und um den ganzen Widerspruch gegen die Mytho*
- logie hervorzukehren, für die ein Schicksal, das die Gottheit
trägt, die Geschichte der Welt ist, wird hier in immer neuen
Formen das Gleichnis des Entgegengesetzten gebildet, daß
vom Menschen die Geschicke des Alls ausgehen, daß er ins
UnendUche hinein ein Schicksal schafft, daß seine Lebens?
geschichte zum Lose der Welt wird. ^Die Poesie der Men*:
schqnfreihejt, der Schöpf erm^fht ^ dps, Guten tat 'liier ihre
Bilder gestaltet.
Für das Judentum steht so der handelnde Mensch in der
Welt, die Gott geschaffen hat und in der auch er geschaffen
ward, als Subjekt, herausgehoben aus dem bloßen Kreis der
j/J^*4f Objekte; er hat sein Eigenes, er wählt seine Welt, in der
^n /\er leben will. Das Gute ist klar und bestimmt vor ihn hin»»
gestellt als das Gebot seiner Tage, als das, was er verwirkst
liehen und besitzen, worin er sein Eigenes bewähren soll, und
* H
Die Einheit im Menschen
135
Ci 1
wenn er es zu seinem Werk und seinem Leben gemacht hat,
so kommt in sein Dasein die Klarheit und Bestimmtheit
hinein. Das Verborgene, Unergründliche und das Deutliche,
das zu Erfüllende werden im Menschen eins. In der ewigen
Tiefe ist das Ich des Menschen gegründet, und in der sitU
liehen Tat tritt es hervor, um offenbar zu werden; diese Ein?
heit von Geheimnis und Gebot gibt ihm seine wahre Einheit.
In ihr erhält der Sinn des Lebens seine Pflicht, und die
Pflicht des Lebens ihren Sinn; der Ursprung des Daseins ge?
winnt seinen unbedingten Weg, und der Weg des Daseins
hat seinen unbedingten Ursprung. Die Antwort, welche die
Ewigkeit dem Menschen gibt, und die Antwort, welche er
an die Ewigkeit richtet, klingen zusammen zum Leben des
Menschen. Der Glaube an ihn hat seine ganze Sicherheit,
da beides darin ist, der Glaube an seinen Grund und der
Glaube an sein Gebot. Diese Einheit, in der beides sich
gleich betont, ist das Besondere und Unterscheidende der
jüdischen Religion geblieben. Ihr gegenüber ist es der be?
zeichnende Mangel, um dieses eine zu erwähnen, in Schleier?
jnjijjaers vielgenanntem Begriff der Religion, daß er ihTWesen
nur in dem tiefen Gefühl unendlicher Abhängigkeit findet
und das Fordernde in ihr, das Freiheitsgebot außeracht läßt
— ein Mangel, der auf dieses Denkers Mißverhältnis zum
Alten Testament zurückgeht.
Der Mensch, wie er im Judentum sein Menschliches er?
lebt, vernimmt, wie er, der von Gott Geschaffene, Wirklich?
keit schaffen soll, wie er, der Mensch, vor Gott seine Be?
deutung haben darf. Das Gebot des Werdens steht in seinem
Leben, die Geschichte seines Daseins soll von ihm gestaltet
werden. Es ist ihm aufgegeben, sich zu entscheiden, für oder
wider Gott zu sein. Er kann sich Gott zuwenden und sich
von Gott abkehren. Gott ist mit dem Menschen, aber ebenso
können wir Menschen mit Gott sein. Gott ist uns nahe, aber
wir selber können und sollen auch ihm nahe kommen. Unser
Leben, das uns gegeben, ist der Bund Gottes mit uns, und
es soll ein Bund zwischen uns und Gott doch auch erst wer?
den, wir sollen den Bund Gottes hüten und wahren. In aller
Endlichkeit tut sich die Ewigkeit kund, und wir Menschen
können doch auch unsere Endlichkeit zur Ewigkeit erheben
— wie das Wort des Talmud sagt: wir können „Ewigkeit mit
£3äS^
V0*
Ij^.f --^ -nn{i||,i |l^&t,fy..
■ ^^■... - ,^ ■■'■■- ■ ^
136
„Gott dienen"
Das Reich Gottes
137
t
der Stunde gewinnen." Die Erde ist „der Ehre Gottes voll",
und wir vermögen es und uns ist geboten, sie der Ehre
Gottes voll werden zu lassen; wie sie eine Offenbarung des
Ewigen, seine Schöpfung ist, so soll sie eine Offenbarung des
Menschen werden, von seinem Schaffen zeugen. Gott offene
hart sich dem Menschen, und der Mensch offenbart sich
seinem Gotte. In der guten Tat tritt er vor seinen Gott hin,
in ihr findet er Gott immer wieder, er macht nun Gott erst
zu seinem Gott; das Wort „mein Gott", das am Anfange der
ReUgion steht, wird nun zur Aufgabe des Menschen. Es ist
wieder die große Paradoxie mit ihrer Gewißheit. Das Leben
des Menschen hat sein Geheimnis und seinen Weg, alles Ge^
heimnis ist eine Frage von uns, aller Weg eine Frage an
uns; in Gott hat das Leben auf sein Geheimnis die Antwort
und für seinen Weg das Gebot, alle Antwort wird zum Gc==
böte und alles Gebot zur Antwort.
Für das Eigene, Freie des Menschen, der das Gute er^
wählt, gebraucht die Bibel oft das Wort: „Gott dienen".
Es will sagen: wir können der Gottheit gegenüber etwas tun
— nicht nur in Demut etwas empfinden; wir können ihr
etwas gewähren durch das, worin wir selbständig sind, durch
die Erfüllung des Sittlichen, durch die Verwirklichung des
Guten. Das, was uns gehört, das Unsere, das, was wir nicht
bloß von Gott empfangen haben, sondern was w i r schaffen,
I unser Wirken und Vollbringen geben wir ihm; wir schaffen
P^es vor ihm und für ihn. Im Dienste des Freien wenden wir
uns zu ihm hin, um sein Gebot auf uns zu nehmen. Wir ver:=
mögen es, ihm etwas darzubringen, aus unserer Kraft ihm zu
danken, ihn anzuerkennen durch die Entscheidung, die wir
treffen, durch die Pflicht, der wir uns zuwenden. Alles Be^
Ikenntnis zu Gott ist im Judentum ganz wesentlich diese per^
sönliche Leistung des Menschen, die Tat, die er vollbringt,
und durch die er zu seinem Gotte hintritt, die Bahn, die er
beschreitet, um vor seinem Gotte zu wandeln. Gottes^
bekenntnis und Dienst Gottes ist hier dasselbe, das eine wie
das andere ist der Entschluß, in welchem der Mensch das
Gute beginnt und bewährt. Bloß den Götzen dient man,
indem man sich vor ihnen bückt. „Dienen und sich bücken"/^
ist in der Bibel ein ständiger Ausdruck für den Götzendienst.
• Indem der Mensch dem einen Gotte dient, indem er so,
m-
}\\
^^i
ii ii
mit dem alten Gleichnis zu sprechen, „ein Helfer Gottes im J^.^
Werke der Schöpfung" wird, bereitet er ein Gebiet für Gott,
er bewirkt und verwirklicht eine Stätte des Ewigen. Durch
seine Geburt hat der Mensch seinen Platz, den er nicht ge^
wählt; in den Bezirk seines Daseins ist er hineingestellt,
hineingeschaffen worden, aus seinem Boden ist er heraus::
gewachsen. Er hat die Heimat seines Lebens, die Bestimmung
seines Anfangs, aus dem heraus er wird. Jeder Mensch er^
fährt um das alles, was er nicht gemacht, um dieses Gebilde
seines Daseins, um das alles, was ihn umgrenzt und umkreist.
Gott hat ihn hierhin und nicht dorthin eingepflanzt. Aber
es gibt auch ein Gebiet seines Lebens, in das er von Gt)tt
nicht hineingesetzt worden ist, in das er vielmehr gleichsam
Gott hineinführt, ein Gebiet, in das er hineintritt, für das er
sich als ein Freier entschieden hat, damit es sein werde und
durch ihn Gottes sei. Er kann eine Welt des Lebens, wie das
alte Wort sagt, „zu der seinen nehmen", eine Welt des Guten,
des Göttlichen, eine Welt, welche Gott dient, in welcher
allein das Gebot Gottes herrscht. Für sie hat die mündliche
Lehre den sprachlichen Ausdruck geformt, sie spricht vom
„Reiche Gotte s". Es ist das Reich dessen, der „Gott ers;
wählt", der „Gottes Willen zu dem seinen gemacht" und da?
durch sich mit Gott verbunden hat, das Reich, welches nicht
durch die Fügung von Geburt und Beginn allein, sondern
durch den Willen des Menschen erlangt wird, nicht ge^
schenkt, sondern errungen. Es ist darum im besonderen
Sinne dem Proselyten zugehörig, ihm, den sein eigenster Ent^^
Schluß zu Gottes Gebot hingeführt hat. Das Reich Gottes
bedeutet hier nichts Überschwengliches, nichts Jenseitiges
und Überweltliches nur; es bezeichnet nichts anderes als das
Dasein des Menschen, der sich in bereitem, freiem Gehorsam
zu Gott und seinem Dienste hingewandt hat, so daß er darin
sein Leben gestaltet, in der Welt lebt, in welcher das ewige
Sittengesetz, das Gottesgebot waltet, in welcher durch die
Tat des Menschen das Jenseits ins Diesseits hineingeführt
wird, Jenseits und Diesseits wie zu einem werden. In das
Reich Gottes eintreten, das heißt, sich über die bloße Gc?
bundenheit des Daseins und ihr Schicksal erheben und das
Leben erwerben, zu welchem Gott den Menschen empor^:
gerufen hat, in welchem er Gott nahe, bei Gott und vor Gott
138
Die Gottesfurcht
Die Religion der Ehrfurcht
139
4
»
ist. In dem Werke des Menschen wird das Reich Gottes er*
schlössen. So sagte die mündliche Lehre: „Gott spricht:
nehmt mein Reich und nehmt meine Gebote zu eigen. „Als
Israel sprach: alles, was der Ewige geredet hat, wollen wir
tun - da war ein Reich Gottes." „Höre, Israel, der Ewige ist
unser Gott, der Ewige ist einzig — das ist das Wort vom
Reiche Gottes." Es ist im Grunde dasselbe, wie das, worin
die Heilige Schrift die Aufgabe des Volkes benennt: „ein
Reich von Priestern und ein heiUges Volk" zu sein. Das Reich
Gottes ist die sittliche, ideale Wirklichkeit, die der Mensch
schaffen soll. ^
Die Empfindung von dem allen, diese Empfindung, die
gegenüber dem gebietenden Gotte den Menschen erfaßt, ist
die fromme Scheu der Gottesfurcht, der Ehrfurcht
vor dem Ewigen. Ehrfurcht können wir nur vor dem fühlen,
was höher ist als wir, aber doch uns verwandt oder ver^
bunden, und wir können sie fühlen, nur wenn es als sittlich
Hohes vor uns als sittlichen Wesen steht. Es gibt darum eine
Ehrfurcht vor den Erziehenden und Führenden, vor Mutter
und Vater, Ehrfurcht im Grunde vor allem Menschlichen, in
dem wir das Göttliche, das darin webt, ahnen, eine Ehrfurcht
daher zumal vor Gott — sie ist die eigentlichste Ehrfurcht —
aber keine Ehrfurcht vor dem Schicksal oder der Natur.
Auch das Erhabene flößt an sich noch nicht die Ehrfurcht
ein. Gegenüber dem erhabenen Gotte, der uns geschaffen
hat und vor dem das Größte auf Erden so klein ist wie alles
Kleine, erfüllt uns die Demut; erst wenn wir den erhabenen
Gott als den gebietenden, gerechten, heiHgen erleben, als den,
der zum Menschen das „du sollst" spricht, so empfinden wir
die Ehrfurcht. Wen in seinem Arbeiten und Ringen die Ge^
wißheit erfüllt, daß er dem Ewigen, dem heiligen Gotte dient,
vor wessen Seele diese Ewigkeit und Unendlichkeit der
mahnenden, fordernden Pflicht steht, den ergreift die Ehr^
furcht vor Gott, die Gottesfurcht. „Und fürchte deinen Gott"
ist daher das Wort, mit welchem das „du sollst" aufrufend
schUeßt — das Amen des sittlichen Gebotes. Der Ehrfurcht
fähig zu sein, ist das Adelszeichen der Seele, sie ist die vor^
nehmste unter den menschlichen Regungen — das Fühlen
des Freien, der emporzuschauen vermag, der um die Größe
des Sittlichen, um das Gebot der Freiheit und ihre Ver^
^
^
antwortlichkeit weiß. (iDer Knechtsinn ist ehrfurchtlos.
Gottesfurcht ist eines der betonten Worte der Bibel; sie
bedeutet hier „aller Weisheit erstes", sie wird zur Bezeich^
nung der ReUgion. Mit gutem Grunde; denn das, was ein
Charakteristisches des Judentums ist, dieses Gefühl des
Menschen, daß er, der von Gott Geschaffene, ein Schöpfer
ist, spricht in ihr; das Judentum ist ganz eigentlich die Reli*=
gion der Ehrfurcht. Wo die ReUgion bloß das Gefühl der
Abhängigkeit, bloß das Bewußtsein, daß Mensch und Welt
geschaffen sind, besitzt, dort ist sie die ReUgion der Demut
nur; wo, wie im Judentum, das Gebot der Entscheidung auch
erfahren wird, dort aUein kommt die Ehrfurcht hinzu. Diese
ist hier das reUgiöse Grundgefühl neben und mit der Demut,
mit ihr in der Einheit des Menschen zu einem verbunden, so
daß er in der Einheit von beiden seine Einheit erlebt. Sie ist
die Demut des vor Gott freien Menschen, des Handelnden,
Gestaltenden, durch sie gewinnt die ReUgiosität ihr Aktives,
Motorisches; sie ist darum weit geschieden von der bloßen
Furcht, dieser Furcht vor dem Schicksal, sie ist der bewußte
Gegensatz zu ihr. „Wer bist du, daß du dich fürchtest !"
Ahnlich wie die Demut hat auch dieses Empfinden des
freien Menschen seine Accente; auch in ihm ist bald ein
stärkeres Gefühl des Fernen bald ein stärkeres Gefühl des
Nahen, bald betont sich der Abstand des „du sollst", bald
das Gegenwärtige des „du kannst". Wie es das eine Mal die
emporhorchende, ehrfürchtige Scheu ist, in der unser Erleben
die Schwingung hat, so das andere Mal das hinauffassende Ge^
fühl unserer Hingabe an Gott. Für sie hat die HeiUge Schrift
das Wort gebildet: dieLiebezuGott. Auch sie ist ein
SeeUsches des Menschen, 'der um seine Freiheit weiß, sie ist
die Einsetzung seiner Freiheit und seines sittlichen Wesens,
die Entscheidung des Ich für denWiUen Gottes und sein
Gebot; der Mensch gibt seinem Gotte die Liebe. Daher
stehen in der Bibel nicht die Liebe Gottes, sondern das G e *
bot Gottes und die Liebe des Menschen zu ihm
bei einander; der schenkenden Liebe Gottes entspricht nicht
unsere Liebe, sondern unsere Demut mit ihrer Zuversicht.
Liebe zu Gott ist eins mit der Ehrfurcht vor ihm — „zu
lieben und zu fürchten" fügt sich in der HeiUgen Schrift wie
zu einem Worte zusammen — ; beide sind sie, ganz wie Vev^
f
r »'^ ■■j>^"iiY^'^^^r*»^'- ■
.
.140
',4 t. ^^v^ /U -
Die Liebe zu Gott
trauen und Demut, nur die verschiedenen Accente der
gleichen Empfindung. In der Ehrfurcht stand das Gebot vor
dem Willen, in der Liebe steht der Wille vor dem Gebot.
Wenn wir es erleben, daß wir Gott dienen, so fühlen wir
die Ehrfurcht vor ihm; wenn wir erleben, daß wir Gott
dienen, dann fühlen wir die Liebe zu ihm, wir fühlen, daß
wir uns Gott anschließen, uns mit Gott verbinden. Unser
Eigenes, unser Selbständiges offenbaren wir darin, nicht
einen Zug unseres Wesens nur, sondern unser Ganzes, unser
Persönliches und Freies, „unser ganzes Herz, unsere ganze
Seele, unsere ganze Kraft". Die Liebe zu Gott bleibt darum
hier nie ein Empfinden allein, sie gehört zum sittUchen Han*:
dein des Menschen hin, sie umschließt eine klare Aufgabe,
ein bestimmtes Gebot, sie bedeutet ein Ethisches, und es ist
darum das „du sollst", das an sie ergeht. „Du sdü^t lieben
den Ewigen, deinen Gott, mit deinem ganzen Herzen, mit
deiner ganzen Seele und mit deiner ganzen Kraft." In unserer
Tat spricht unsere Liebe zu Gott und unsere Ehrfurcht vor ihm.
Da beides sich so betont, Ehrfurcht und Liebe, so ist in
dieser Empfindung, ganz wie in dem Gefühl von Demut und
Vertrauen, eine Spannung, ein Drängendes und Dehnendes.
Es ist wieder jene Spannung zwischen dem Fernen und dem
Nahen, zwischen dem Bewußtsein des Geforderten und dem
des Getanen; auch hier sind es Jenseitiges und Diesseitiges,
die sich zur Einheit zusammenschUeßen, zwischen denen es
sich daher im Empfinden hebt und bewegt. Auch in der
Pflicht wird die Ferne zur Nähe und die Nähe zur Ferne;
in dem Bewußtsein, das Gebot Gottes zu vernehmen, tritt,
ganz wie in dem Gefühl, geschaffen zu sein, die Unendlich?
keit in die Seele des Menschen ein. Vom ewigen Gotte kommt
das Gebot, aber es ergeht an den Menschen, und vom Men?
sehen geht seine Erfüllung aus; das „Du sollst" ist ohne
Ende, ewig wie der ewige Gott, aber es hat immer wieder
einen Beginn in dem „Du kannst" des Menschen. Allem „Du
sollst", das Gott spricht, antwortet die Ehrfurcht, die Liebe
des Menschen, und aller Ehrfurcht und Liebe des Menschen
erwidert von Gott her immer von neuem das „Du sollst". So
ist in ihnen beiden ihre Spannung und mit ihr die Sehnsucht,
dieses antwortende Hoffen und dieses hoffende Antworten,
dieses fragende Wissen und dieses wissende Fragen. Auch in
Die Absolutheit des Guten
141
der Ehrfurcht wie in der Liebe klingt sie. Es ist dasVer=:
langen der Seele, daß das, was ihr geboten, von ihr zur Wirk=:
lichkeit geniacht werde, daß sie ihr Dasein zum GöttUchen
erhebe — 4iese Sehnsucht nach der Welt des Guten. Durch
alle Gewißheit vom Dienste Gottes und seinem Reiche, von
der Freiheit des Menschen und seiner Schöpferkraft dringt
sie und zieht sie; sie trägt das EndUche zum Unendlichen,
das UnendUche zum Endlichen hin.
Eines gibt diesem Sehnen den starken, kraftvollen Ton,
es ist der Glaube an die Realität des Guten, der darin spricht.
Aller gestaltende Wille ist immer zugleich ein Glaube, der
Glaube an die Wirklichkeit dessen, worauf sich der Wille hia?
richtet; darin unterscheidet er sich von dem bloßen Wunsche.
Der Mensch, der es erfährt, wie er ein Schöpfer des Guten
zu sein vermag, erlebt damit, wie das Gute eine Wirklichkeit
ist. Und als die bleibende, die ewige Wirklichkeit steht es
vor ihm, wenn es als das Gebot Gottes, des wahrhaft Seiend
den, sich ihm offenbart, wenn der Glaube des schaffenden
Menschen aus der Tiefe des Glaubens an den gebietenden
Gott emporsteigt. Aus dem Grunde und der Bedeutung alles
Daseins, aus dem Unbedingten kommt nun das Gute her?
vor, im Ewigen hat es seine Bürgschaft, seine Gewißheit. So
tritt im Guten das Reale, Bestimmte in das Leben des Men?
sehen als das Gebot des Unbedingten, als etwas daher, was
außerhalb jeder Kontroverse ist, als etwas, was die Ent==
schUeßung des Menschen verlangt, was er erwählen oder
verwerfen muß. Wie dadurch die Ethik mit der RelMon in
der Wurzel verbunden ist, so erhält zugTSich auch das&ebot
des Guten den Sinn der reinen sittlichen Verpflichtung des
Menschen. Die Idee des kategorischen Imperativs, der kate?
gorischen Verantwortung ist hier erwachsen. Der Moral ist
die Bedeutung des Absoluten gegeben. Die Scheidung zwi*
sehen dem Guten und dem Bösen wird zu einer schlechthin
bestehenden, zur Aufgabe der Entscheidung, die dem Men^
sehen gestellt ist. Nicht auf ein Herkommen und nicht auf
die Willkür und nicht auf menschlich weise Absicht kann sie
zurückgehen; sie ist im Wesen des einen Gottes gegründet.
Wir sind zu dem Guten verpflichtet, „so wahr Gott lebt".
Der Widerspruch gegen jeden ethischen Opportunismus
ist in diesem Glauben an den gebietenden Gott vor die Welt
QSH
142
Das Kategorische
Die Einheit des Sittlichen
143
if^
rA
hingetreten, der Widerspruch gegen jedes Erweichen und
Verwischen sittlicher Bestimmtheit, gegen jedes Verzagen an
der Realität des Guten, an seiner Absolutheit. Dieser Glaube
kann sich mit nichts abfinden, mit nichts paktieren, sich mit
nichts, was nicht das Gute ist, verbinden. Der gebietende
Gott spricht unbedingt „du sollst" und „du sollst nicht"; er
gibt Gebote, aber keine Ratschläge. Die Religion Israels hat
zuerst dieses große Entweder — Oder aufgestellt. Darin
auch Hegt ihr Unmythisches; durch die Unbedingtheit des
Gebotes, die das Unbedingte, Wirkliche in das Menschen^
leben hineinträgt, ist die mythologische Schicksalsvorstellung
ganz eigentlich überwunden. Und auch ihr Unantikes zeigt
sich darin. Was der griechischen Philosophie abgeht, ist vor
allem der starke Zug des Fordernden in der Ethik. So sehr
Plato das Gute als das ewig Seiende erkannt hat, so fehlt ihm
doch diese Idee des Gebotes, des Kategorischen; er ist der
Ahnherr der Kontemplation geworden. Die gesamte Antike
weiß nichts von diesem Ernstnehmen, wie es dem Judentum
eigen ist, nichts von der Entschlossenheit des Lebens, das es
vernimmt: „diene dem Ewigen, deinem Gottel", nichts von
der Unbedingtheit, die aus dem Worte spricht: „mit deinem
ganzen Herzen, mit deiner ganzen Seele und mit deiner
ganzen Kraft!" Der Antike mangelt der jüdische Gedanke
der Pflicht, der Gedanke von dem Wege, den der Mensch
bahnen soll. Sie hat den Idealismus der beschaulichen Bes:
trachtung, aber picht den Idealismus der ringenden Tat; sie
besitzt den sinnenden Optimismus der Philosophie, aber nicht
diesen gebietenden des sittlichen Kampfes.
Erst der Glaube an den einen Gott, das lebendige Bewußt^
sein der Zugehörigkeit zu dem Einen konnte vom Menschen
die Entscheidung fordern; hier erst ist das Eine und Not*;
wendige vor ihn hingestellt, das Eine, an dem alles gelegen
ist. Wie es neben dem einen Gotte keine anderen Götter
gibt, so neben seinem Gebot kein anderes Gebot. „Ganz
sollst du sein mit dem Ewigen, deinem Gotte!" Die Einheit
Gottes gewinnt für den Juden ihren bestimmenden Ausdruck
durch die Einheit des Sittlichen. Wer das Eine verwirklicht
und erfüllt, der erkennt Gott als den Einen an; so ist es hier
die fordernde, die vollendende Bedeutung des Monotheismus,
die menschliche Wahrhaftigkeit ihm gegenüber. Wie er das
» ■
Wort von dem einen Gotte ist, so das Wort von dem einen
Gebot, der einen Gerechtigkeit, dem einen Weg, der einen
Moral. Er ist die Ablehnung aller Gleichgültigkeit, aller
Neutralität und Indifferenz, alles dessen, was der Antike so
oft zum Ideal des Weisen geworden ist. Und er ist ebenso
der Protest gegen alle doppelte Moral, wie sie einstige und
neuere Jahrhunderte so oft verkündet und betätigt haben,
gegen diese besondere Moral für die Herrschenden und für
die Unterworfenen, für die Großen und für die Kleinen, für
die Starken und die Schwachen, seien sie nun die Starken
und Schwachen in der Macht oder die Starken und Schwachen
im Geiste. Der Satz des Psalms: „Lehre mich. Ewiger, deinen
Weg; ich will wandeln in deiner Wahrheit, laß mein Herz
eins sein, daß ich deinen Namen fürchte", dieser Satz hat für
das jüdische Denken der Jahrhunderte, nicht nur für seine
Philosophie und seine Mystik, sondern ebenso für sein volks^
tümliches Sinnen und Beten, den immer reicheren Inhalt ge^
Wonnen. Er sprach von dem einen Herzen, das sich den
einen Gott und das eine Gebot erschlossen hat. Wenn der
Mensch die Einheit des Herzens erlangt und in ihr den einen
Weg geht, so besitzt er die wahre Ehrfurcht vor dem einen
Gott, er verwirkUcht den Monotheismus; er läßt Gott so zu
dem Einen werden — wie das alte Morgengebet sagt: er
„einigt Gott" in der Liebe zu ihm. Das Schöpferische des
Menschen fand seinen starken Ton in diesem Verlangen :
„Gott zu einigen". Der Mensch schafft durch sein Tun die
Einheit Gottes auf Erden. Auch sie wird gleichsam die Auf:=
gäbe des Menschen.
In dieser Einheit des Guten spricht sich wie seine Un=:
bedingtheit so seine AusschUeßlichkeit aus. Das Gute ist das,
was allein der Mensch erwählen soll, so daß alles, was nicht
das Gute ist, von ihm verworfen werden soll. Alles Gebot ist
immer zugleich die Forderung, sich abzuwenden, anders zti
sein oder, wie das Wort der Bibel lautet, heiHg zu sein. Alle
Moral ist ein Widerspruch, ein Protest; das Gefühl des Gegen*=
Satzes, die Empfindung von etwas, was von Gott abgekehrt,
was gottlos ist, lebt darin. Da& Böse ist dieses Gottlose, es
ist das, was ohne Sinn, ohne Wert, ohne Realität ist; ihm
jW fehlt das Schöpferische und Freie, die Offenbarung des Gött^
' liehen. Es ist das, was nicht verwirklicht, sondern verleugnet
■-*t»
I1
t
144
Das Gottlose
It
I und vernichtet, und die Heilige Schrift nennt es darum „den
(|j|Tod". „Sehe ich habe vor dich heute hingegeben das Leben
und das Gute und den Tod und das Böse". Es ist ohne das,
wodurch der Mensch Gott zu seinem Gotte macht; es ist nicht
im Reiche Gottes, diesem Reiche des Lebens, sondern ist in
das Gebiet des bloßen Schicksals, dieses Gebiet des Toten,
dessen, was nicht schafft noch erfüllt, hinabgesunken. Es ist
das, was sich vom Göttlichen entfernt hat, durch sich selber
unheilig, leer an Göttlichem geworden ist. So erfährt es die
jüdische Religiosität, so erkennt sie den Ewigen. „Denn du
bist nicht ein Gott, welchem Frevel gefällt, nimmer kann
Böses bei dir weilen." „Du bist reiner Augen, so daß du nicht
auf Böses schaust, und auf Unrecht zu blicken vermagst du
nicht." Als die sittliche Erhabenheit, als die ewige Heiligkeit
steht Gottes gebietende Gerechtigkeit vor dem Menschen.
„Der heilige Gott erweist sich als heilig durch Gerechtigkeit."
Gottes Gebot ist der bleibende Gegensatz, der ewige Wider?
Spruch gegen alles Niedrige und Gemeine. Und dieses, insoj:
fern der freie Mensch sich ihm zuwendet und es übt, bedeutet
nicht nur den Kontrast zu Gottes HeiHgkeit, sondern die
Verleugnung derselben, einen Angriff gegen sie. Das Böse ist
das Gott Feindliche, das, was gleichsam Gottes Abwehr
aufruft. „Ihre Zunge und ihre Tat ist gegen den Ewigen."
Diese Reaktion des Göttlichen gegen das Gottlose, das
Unheilige wird in der Bibel als der Eifer Gottes, als sein
Zorn bezeichnet. Das ist ein menschliches Wort. Aber wie
der Glaube an die göttliche Liebe, wo er den innigsten
Namen sucht, den menschlichsten Ausdruck findet, so auch
der Glaube an Gottes Gebot, an seine Gerechtigkeit und
Heiligkeit. Man kann es nicht, daß Gott der Vater im Himmel
ist, preisen, und daß er der Zürnende genannt wird, tadeln.
Mit Recht hat die Sprache das Wort vom heiligen Eifer, vom
heiligen Zorn gebildet. Die bestimmte Exklusivität des Guten
wird darin ihrer bewußt, die Auflehnung gegen jedes Un>
recht, von wem immer es geschieht, diese Regung des Mensch?
heitsgewissens, das im Einzelnen lebendig wird. Auch das
gehört zur Ehrfurcht, daß der Mensch um den eifernden Gott
erfährt, daß er ihm sich nahe weiß. Das Gebot Gottes wird
darin mit seiner ganzen fordernden Kraft erfaßt, die Sache
Gottes als die Sache des Menschen erlebt in dem, was getan,
Der eifervolle Gott
145
und in dem, was verworfen werden soll. „Muß ich nicht
hassen, die dich, Ewiger, hassen, und Abscheu hegen vor
denen, die sich gegen dich erheben!" All das Unbedingte und
Ausschließliche, das Verlangende des Guten spricht in diesen
menschlichen Worten. Es ist das Zeichen des ethischen Monos:
theismus, daß ganz wie das Erbarmen Gottes zur Seele redet,
so auch sein Eifer. Er ist der machtvolle Ausdruck für das
Kategorische, für das Eine und Absolute, das eine Gebot des
einen Gottes. Mit dem eifervollen Gott vertragen sich die
Kompromisse nicht und nicht die Ausflüchte und Windungen
der doppelten Mgral^
Eine Gottheit ohne den Zorn, ohne den Eifer wäre eine
Gottheit, die über der Welt, über ihrem sittlichen Gebot und
ihrer sittlichen Not schwebte, eine Gottheit ohne den Men:*
sehen, ohne das „du sollst", das an ihn ergeht — der Gott
Epikurs, der fernab auf fernem Sterne thront. Auch mensch^s
^ liehe Tugend ohne den heiligen Zorn ist nur jene genügsame i(^
'^Tugend, für welche Sünde Sünde ist, bloß wenn sie gegen
einen selbst oder vielleicht gegen den Gefährten geschieht,
jene gefühlvolle Art, die das Böse auf Erden sieht, den
Kummer im Herzen, und in diesem ihres Gemütes Gram ganz
vergißt, daß es bezwungen und zunichte gemacht werden soll.
In der reinen Gelassenheit, wie weise und fromm sie ist, lebt
noch keine schaffende Kraft zum Guten und kein ringender
Wille gegen das Schlechte; alle Entscheidung hat auch ihre
'^^Leidenschaft, das Ethos sein inneres Pathos. Um achten zu?^
^ können, muß man auch zu verachten imstande sein, um sich
zum Rechten zu entschließen, auch zu zürnen vermögen. Die
Kämpfer Gottes wissen von Gottes Zorn. Das geringe Ver^
ständnis dafür, was er bedeutet, hat seinen eigentlichen
Grund oft in jenem Optimismus des Gewinnenden, der
seiner Wohlfahrt froh ist, und noch häufiger darin, daß die
sittliche Reaktionsfähigkeit fehlt, daß die Empfindung für die
Sündhaftigkeit jedes Unrechts auf Erden mangelt. Wessen
seelisches Gleichgewicht und wessen „Heilsbewußtsein" bei
so manchem Frevel gegen die Menschlichkeit ungestört blci^
ben, der hat es leicht, sich seines religiösen „Fortschritts" über
den Glauben an den eifervollen Gott laut zu rühmen.
Es gibt kein Unrecht, das bloß einem Einzelnen
angetan würde. Jeder Frevel „schreit zu Gotj", dem gt*
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
10
146
Der heilige Zorn
H
bietenden, eifervollen, oder wie das Wort des Talmud saßt:
„Nicht das Blut des einen Menschen nur ward vergossen, in
dem Blute des einen ruft das Blut einer ganzen Welt zu Gott
empor/' Jede Tat des Bösen ist eine Sünde gegen Gott und
gegen das Göttliche, gegen das Freie im Menschenleben. Wer
Gott fürchtet und Gott liebt, trägt den heiligen Eifer in sich;
er kann nicht nur dieses und jenes Böse, sondern muß das
Böse verabscheuen und hassen. „Die ihr Gott liebet, hasset
das Böse!** Wenn ein Unrecht, wo immer und gegen wen
immer es geschieht, nicht so unsere Seele erregt, als sei es
uns selber angetan worden, dann haben wir noch nicht den
gebietenden, eifervollen Gott erfahren, noch nicht seinen
Zorn gegen die Sünde begriffen. Mit dem Glauben an ihn
eint sich keine moralische Neutralität und keine moralische
Bequemlichkeit, keine Gleichgültigkeit und keine Trägheit
gegenüber irgend einem Unrecht auf Erden. Wenn die Ge*
schichte nur zu häufig ein anderes zu sagen scheint, so zeigt
es sich eben wiederum, womit sich die menschliche Meinung,
Religion zu besitzen, so oft vertragen hat. Und das Wort von
Gott, dem Vater, dem liebenden, hat dann immer dazu dienen
müssen, um Gott, den gebietenden, eifervollen, vergessen zu
lassen oder vergessen zu machen. Der Religion ist stets ein
Wesentliches dadurch erstorben. Ein Glaube, der die Ehr?
furcht einbüßt, welche auch um den Zorn Gottes weiß, muß
in seiner moralischen Kraft verkümmern. Die Religion kann
dieses Empfindens, in welchem der Abscheu gegen das Un^
sittliche. Ungöttliche lebendig wird und den Willen erfaßt,
nie entraten. In ihm wächst eine kämpfende Tat auf, in der sich
die Frömmigkeit aufrichtet und der Zukunft ihren Weg bahnt.
Das Eigene, das Prophetische des Judentums spricht hier
wieder: dieses Kategorische der Religion, dieses Gebot der
Entscheidung, das vor den Menschen hingestellt ist. Alles
Empfinden und alles Wissen, alle Versenkung und alle Er?
leuchtung erfüllen noch nichts und geben dem Leben noch
nicht seinen Sinn, wenn der Mensch nicht „das Leben er?
wählt", indem er das Wort Gottes verwirklicht. Alles Erlebnis
fordert die Tat; erst durch sie wird es im Judentum zum relS
giösen Erlebnis. Sie führt den Menschen zu Gott, um ihn mit
Gott zu verbinden; durch sie wird das Reich Gottes ge?
gründet und geweitet. Glaube und Demut sind an sich noch
Erlebnis und Tat
y/^
nicht fromm. Sie sind nur das Empfinden dafür, was Gott für
uns ist, und daher, was das Wesen des Menschen, seine Per?
iSÖnHchkeit anbetrifft, zunächst inhaltsleer; erst die Tat gibt
jihnen_de|i_Iiihalt. Sie sind eine Stimmung, um!" eine Sitim?
mung, besonders eine religiöse, welche Stimmung bleibt, hat
ihr Gefährliches, zumal wenn sie meint, schon ein gutes
3Verk zu sein, in sich schon Religiosität zu tragen. Eine Demut,
die nichts als Demut, ein Glaube, der nichts als Glaube ist,
I ein Erlebnis, das so zum Selbstzweck wird, ist vom Übel. Der
Mensch nimmt darin nur zu bald die Gewohnheit an, sich mit
seiner Demut zu befassen, sich mit seinem gläubigen Hangen
an Gott zu beschäftigen. Er ergrübelt und erkünstelt sich
schließlich seine religiösen Gefühle; das Unechte bemächtigt
sich des Glaubens. Es ist die Richtung, zu der Schleier?
machers Auffassung der Religion hinleiten konnte. Von dem
alles bedeutenden gläubigen Empfinden, wie er es lehrt,
führt ein Weg zu dieser Demut, die nichts als demütig ist.
Auch die Heilige Schrift fordert Selbstbeobachtung, aber
sie versteht darunter einfach die Besinnung auf das Gute, zu yf!^
dem wir berufen sind, das Bewußtsein, daß Gott uns auf
unseren Platz gestellt hat, daß er uns erkennt; sie fordert die
Prüfung jedes Tages an dem Maßstabe der Pflicht. „Unsere
Wege wollen wir prüfen und erforschen und zum Ewigen
zurückkehren." „Fürchte Gott und wahre seine Gebote; denn
das ist der ganze Mensch.** Womit auch Goethes Wort über?
einstimmt: „Wie kann man sich kennen lernen? Durch Be?
s
^ religiöse Selbstbetrachtung, die etwas anderes sein will, ist
zu allermeist nicht Selbsterkenntnis, sondern Selbstbespiege?
lung, und die Demut, die sich in ihr beweisen will, wird bald
entweder zu jenem frommen Dünkel, in dem des Menschen
Ich vom Glänze Gottes sich umstrahlt sieht, oder zu jener
1 gesuchten Zerknirschung, die so gebeugt dasteht und doch
\ \ die eitelste Eitelkeit ist. Es ist jene Demut, die sich nicht
genug daran zu tun vermag, vor Gott gering zu sein, um
^Xf I dafür desto selbstgefälliger und hochfahrender gegen die
^^Menschen zu werden, die sich so rührsam an den himmlischen
Vater anschmiegt, bis sie im Rate des Höchsten zu sein
10«
y^V. i,-* .Y«^LTfe-Jfcr-.f y^^ ^^ _.,
148
Demut und Tat
Glaube und Gebot
149
meint. Ihr Wort ist immer das von der Liebe Gottes, die
gebotlos alles besagen soll — anbeten ist leichter als ge^
horchen — , und^die sittliche TaKerscheint durch^ie sch^^
r\ gende Empfindsamkeit, durch die gefühlssehge Sentimental!:!
V^tät genügend ersefzTrÄlle diese beflissene Zergliederung der
gläubigen Seele, alle diese Darbietung der eignen Sündhaftig:«
keit und Unzulänglichkeit wird hier schließlich zur eigent?
Hchen Leistung des Menschen, zu seiner Frömmigkeit, die er
bewährt.
Mit der wahren Demut verhält es sich ganz wie mit der
entsprechenden Eigenschaft in dem Verhältnis der Menschen
zu einander, der Bescheidenheit. Es ist gar nicht so leicht,
bescheiden zusein; man muß schon etwas geleistet haben, um
bescheiden sein zu können. Auch um demütig, um gläubig zu
werden, muß man sich bewährt, muß man Gott gedient haben.
Rehgiosität schHeßt beides ein, Glauben und Handeln, und
^Handeln istoftjdasJUrsprü^^ es begründet oft den
Glauben; je mehr wir Gutes tun, desto mehr erfassen wir den
Sinn der Pflicht, den Sinn des Lebens, desto tiefer glauben
wir an das Gute, an das Göttliche. Und desto mehr zieht
dann auch das demutsvolle Gefühl in uns ein — mit dem,
was wir leisten, ganz wie mit dem Bewußtsein, daß wir ges^
schaffen worden — , wie gering wir vor Gott sind. Der sitt«:
liehe, sittHch arbeitende Mensch wird demütig und gläubig.
Und so, aber so allein, wird der Glaube auch zum Gebotenen:
Glaube immer inniger an Gott, indem du immer mehr des
Guten tust. Im Bereiche des SittHchen ist es ganz wie in dem
des Erkennens. Je mehr des Wissens wir erwerben, desto
mehr erfahren wir, was alles wir nicht wissen. Je mehr des
Guten wir tun, desto mehr drängt es sich auf, wie viel des
Guten zu tun bleibt, wie weit wir hinter dem Gebote Gottes
zurückbleiben. Der Dienst Gottes ist ohne Ende; „der Tag
ist kurz, und der Arbeit ist viel."
In seinem sittlichen Ringen und Mühen erlebt der Mensch
die eigentlichste Begrenztheit seines Daseins, daß es seinem
Streben nach dem Ideal so allzu eng und allzu bald die
Schranke setzt. Auch in diesem Sinne erfährt er um seinen
Platz inmitten der Unendlichkeit und Ewigkeit. E)£mut Jst
das Bewußtsein von unserem Platze in der Welt; aber diese
unsere Stelie^srmghTTmr die, welche-geschgffen worden, son^»
dern die auch, welche zu schaffen von uns gefordert ist. Es
ist darum keine wahre Demut, kein wahrer Glaube ohne die
Ehrfurcht, ohne das Wissen um das Gebot. Beides zusammen
bewirkt erst Selbsterkenntnis, läßt uns um das Ganze des
Lebens und seines Ichs erfahren, um Geheimnis und Pflicht,
um Tiefe und Klarheit; beides zusammen ist das religiöse
Lebensgefühl, das Gefühl von dem, was uns gegeben ist, und
von dem, was wir geben sollen. Der Mensch steht vor seinem
Gotte, und in allem, was er zu Gott spricht, vernimmt er
zugleich, wie Gott zu ihm redet; sein Gebet jiört immer zu^
sL gleich das Gebot, und das Bewußtsein seiner Pflicht wiederum
ist immer von der Andacht umklungen; das eine kann nicht
ohne das andere sein. Auch darin besteht die monotheistische
Frömmigkeit; dem Menschen ist seine innerliche Einheit,
seine Religiosität darin gegeben.
Die Heilige Schrift stellt darum den Glauben und die Tat
als eine religiöse Einheit zu einander. „Wahre Liebe und
Recht und harre beständig deines Gottes!" „Vertraue auf den
Ewigen und tue Gutes!" „Harre des Ewigen und wahre seinen
Weg!" „Opfert Opfer der Gerechtigkeit und vertrauet auf
den Ewigen!" „Gradheit und Redlichkeit werden mich be^
hüten, denn ich harre auf dich." „Suchet den Ewigen, all ihr
Demütigen im Lande, die sein Recht üben: suchet Gerechtig^
keit, suchet Demut!" „Er hat dir verkündigt, o Mensch, was
gut ist, und was der Ewige von dir fordert: nichts anderes,
als Recht zu tun, Liebe zu üben und in Demut zu wandeln
mit deinem Gotte." Die Demut ist hier, in diesem Satze des
Propheten, am Ende, als das seeUsche Ergebnis von dem
Recht, das getan, von der Liebe, die geübt wird, und sie wird
doch zugleich wieder der Anfang, denn sie ist die Demut, die
nicht stille steht, sondern mit Gott wandelt, die nicht nur
erfährt, daß Gott mit ihr ist, sondern ebenso weiß, daß sie
mit Gott sein soll. Aus dem sittlichen Flandeln erwächst die
Demut, und sie zeugt dann wieder das neue sittliche Handeln.
Auch das menschliche Leid gewinnt nun seine neue, seine
ganze Antwort. Auch in ihm wird die Stimme des gerechten
Gottes gehört, ihr Du sollst vernommen, und die menschliche
Entscheidung erwidert ihr; die seelische Ehrfurcht wendet
sich dem Großen, Bestimmenden zu, das auch in ihm vor dem
Menschen steht. In das Leid auch tritt das Gebot mit seiner
1-^^
150
Das Gebot im Leiden
Steten Forderung ein, daß der Mensch ein Schaffender sei,
daß jeder Tag ein Dienst Gottes werde — auch der Tag des
Leidens. Ohne den Willen des Menschen kommt es, wie
alles, was dem Leben gegeben und geschickt wird, aber er soll
• es als ein Freier gestalten und bilden, wie alles, was das Gebiet
seines Daseins geworden ist. Er soll den Bezirk, den es zu
eigen genommen hat, dem Reiche Gottes zugehörig machen;
W er soll es umschaffen, es sittUch überwinden, auch hier sich
uii yrüber das bloß Ursächliche erheben. Wie die Gewißheit, die
^ dem Geheimnis innewohnt, durch das Leid nicht verneint
und nicht vernichtet werden kann, so auch nicht der Sinn, den
die klare Pflicht in sich trägt. Beides klingt nun auch im
Leide zusammen, das Gebet und das Gebot, das Empfinden,
in Gott geborgen zu sein, und der Wille, seinen Weg zu
gehen. So gilt auch ihm gegenüber der Satz: „Du sollst lieben
den Ewigen, deinen Gott, . . . mit deinem ganzen Vermögen*'
— den alten Lehrern bedeutete er: „liebe Gott mit allem, was
er dir zumißt, mit dem Glücke und mit dem Leide". In den
guten wie in den bösen Tagen soll der Mensch ein Freier, ein
^fU Schaffender sein. Zu dem Leidenden spricht die Mahnung,
^4. Gott mit ganzer Kraft zu lieben, ihren eindringlichsten Ton.
Die Sprache jener Zeit hat ein besonderes Wort hierfür
auch gebildet als das Wort des Gebotes neben jenem anderen
von dem „Preise Gottes", in dem das Gebet des Leidenden
seine Bezeichnung gefunden hat. Es ist das Wort von dem
„Zidduk haddin", dem „Bekenntnis des Rechts", ein Wort,
das die Entscheidung des Menschen, der im Leiden das Ge^
bot Gottes zu eigen nimmt, benennen will; auch das Leiden
wird ja zum Bekenntnis, zur Antwort, die der Mensch seinem
Gotte gibt. Und wie von jenem anderen ist auch von diesem
Worte ein Ton auf das Leid gelegt, welches der Tod bedeutet.
Mehr als alles scheint der Tod Lebenswert zu vernichten und
Lebenswürde zu verneinen, er ist das Absurde, die Negation,
in ihm will die eigentliche Sinnlosigkeit den Glauben des
Menschen, der ihn erfährt und der ihn sieht, umklammern.
Aber auch ihm gegenüber bleibt das „du sollst" — über allem
,,du mußt" des Verhängnisses, — bleibt 3iesittliche Freiheit,
zu welcher der Mensch berufen ist, dieses „Bekenntnis des
Rechts" das Bekenntnis zu dem gebietenden Gotte. Seinen
ganzen Gehalt hat dieses Wort darum, wenn es von dem gilt.
iimim'-ai^wfc w* I
l
Das Bekenntnis im Leiden
151
der um des Gebotes willen, als sittlich Freier, den Tod ev^
wählt, von dem Märtyrer. Von ihm hat es das alte Schrifts>
tum zuerst gesagt, daß er das „Bekenntnis des Rechts" ablegt.
Es wird erzählt: Als Chananja ben Teradjon und seine Frau
als Glaubenszeugen zur Richtstätte geführt wurden, bekannt
ten sie das Recht: er begann das Wort aus dem Liede des
Moses: „Ein Fels ist er — vollkommen ist sein Tun; denn
Recht sind alle seine Wege", und sie fuhr fort: „Ein Gott der
Treue und ohne Fehl, gerecht und gerade ist er". Und ihre
Tochter, der auch ihr Los des Leides bestimmt wurde, betete,
wie zur Antwort, mit den Worten des Jeremia: „Der du groß
an Rat und mächtig an Tat, dessen Augen offen sind über
alle Wege der Menschenkinder, daß du gebest einem jeden
nach seinen Wegen und nach der Frucht seiner Taten!" — ^0^
mit diesem Du des Gebetes, zu dem das Er wird, diesem Du,
das alle Antwort und alle Gewißheit ist. Diese Sätze haben als
das „Bekenntnis des Rechts" ihren Platz im Gebetbuche ge*
funden, und es ist der Brauch geworden, sie über der Bahre
zu sprechen, die im „Hause der Ewigkeit" steht.
Die Ergebung wird so zum Dienste Gottes. Auch wo die
Leiden auf ihn eindringen, soll der Mensch seinen Weg haben,
für den er sich entscheidet, und nicht seine Enge nur, die ihn
umschließt. Das große Und dennoch des Willens zum Gebot
kann er hier bewähren, den großen Beweis der Ehrfurcht, der
schaffenden Freiheit geben; zu einer Höhe menschlicher Be^
deutung vermag er sich hier zu erheben. Er duldet nicht nur
das Schwere, — das erst machte es zum eigentlichen Lhi?
glück — sondern trägt und besteht es. Was er erfährt, hört
auf, ein bloßes Leiden zu sein und damit zum Schicksal zu
werden; in Wahl und Tat bezeugen sich auch hier seine freie
Persönlichkeit und seine Lebensbejahung. So wird das Leid,
wie das alte Wort des Judentums sagt, dem Menschen eia§ ^ ^^
Pj\if un^g. eine Erziehung zur Kraft des Uberwindens.J ) j /O
„Prüfungen aus der Liebe", diesen Ausdruck ITät die iiluhds: ^
liehe Lehre dafür gebildet; Zurechtweisung und Leid werden
hier durch ein Wort benannt. Schon die Bibel hatte dahin
deutlich gewiesen: „Heil dem Manne, den du zurechtweisest,
o Gott, und aus deinem Gesetze lehrest!" „Wen der Ewige
liebt, den züchtigt er wie ein Vater den Sohn, dem er wohl
wül." „Gut ist es dem Manne, wenn er ein Joch in seiner
i
--"-•^■-•*
_i j -*>
152
Die Prüfung
Jugend trägt." Besonders das Buch Hiob hatte es so aus^
gesprochen. „]Er rettet den Elenden durch sein Elend", so
lautet die Antwort, welche die Reden des Elihu auf all das
Rätsel und alle die Fragen geben, die sich im Leiden des Ge^
rechten dem Sinne des Lebens entgegenstellen wollen. Diesen
Gedanken hat der Talmund dann auch aufgenommen. „An
wem der Ewige Wohlgefallen hat, auf den legt er hart die /
Prüfung, ihn durch sie zu läutern." „Die Ehre Gottes naht
dem, über welchen Leiden kommen." „Wen Gott prüft, den
erhebt er." „Mehr als alle Opfer sühnen die Leiden." „Leiden
sind ein Weg des Lebens." „Das Beste, was Gott Israel ge^/-\
geben hat, hat er ihm durch Leiden gegeben." ^
Der auch, welcher dieses letzte Wort gesprochen hat,
Simon ben Jochai, war ein „Mann, der Elend geschaut hat
unter der Rute seines Grimms". Und dasselbe gilt von ihnen
allen, die das gleiche sagten, und es gilt zumal auch von den
Verfassern der mittelalterlichen Sitten? und Volksbücher,
die so oft voij dem Segen der Prüfung erzählen; sie predigen,
was sie selber bewahrt haben. Sie alle sind fern von jener
leichten Weisheit, die so befriedigt bleibt, weil sie mit einem
so großen Maße der Leiden anderer sich abzufinden versteht,
und so fertig ist, weil sie den Wert des Leidens nur so lange
preist, bis für sie selber der erste böse Tag einmal gekommen
ist. Die Weisheit im Judentum — schon seine Geschichte hat
es gefügt — ist die des erlebten Lebens, die das Leben als
Aufgabe erfaßt, welche Gott dem Menschen stellt. Zur Auf:!
gäbe des Lebens gehört sein Leid; iedfiiLWählende. Schaf ?
f ende £rfälirt^s. Er erfährt den Widerstreit, der dem Willen
zur Entscheidung und zur Erfüllung seine Tragik gibt. Aber
er erfährt es auch, wie die Tat, in der er zum Schöpfer wird
und der Befreier seines Lebens ist, den Widerspruch ent::
bindet und erlöst, den Zwiespalt zur Einheit und ihrem Ein*
klang emporführt.
Die jüdischeGeschichte hat darin ihre Tragik ge?
habt und hat darin ihren Sinn und ihre Würde immer wieder
gewonnen. Sie ist die Geschichte eines Erwählens, einer Ent*
Scheidung für Gott und schon darum eine Geschichte voller
Leid. Aber die Fülle der Not und der Frage, die über das
jüdische Volk gekommen ist durch seinen Weg und durch
die Wege der Menschen ringsumher, hat es nie innerlich
m
I
1
i i
4
9 '■'
^-^
u. ^
i A
ODer sittliche Adel
^nnpi"^ /m
herabzudrücken vermocht. Es ist nie zum bloßen Objekt der
Geschicke geworden; es ist Urheber geblieben, sich enu
schließend, seeUsch aufgerichtet auch im Elend — nie ein
Duldender bloß, sondern immer ein Tragender. In der Ge?
schichte, die das Geschehnis nur kennt, ist es das Umherr-
geworfene, ein bloßer Gegenstand, der Spielball der Völker, i
sein Dasein ein Dasein des Leidens; in der GeschicEfe, die
das seelische Vermögen und Handeln, die überwindenden
Ideen sucht, ist es ein Bestimmendes und Verwirklichendes,
eine Persönlichkeit, die ihre Bahn geht, sein Leben ein Leben
des Vollbringens. So spricht aus dieser Geschichte eine große
Ehrfurcht; sie besitzt ihren Adel, wenn anders wahrer Adel
die Einheit von Erbe und Leistung ist, von Glaube und Tat,
von Gewordensein und Erfüllen. Jedem Menschen weist die
ReHgion solchen Adel, solchen Sinn seines Daseins zu, dieses
Bewußtsein vom Eigenen und diesen Willen zum Eigenen.
Das, was Gott, der Schöpfer, gegeben, und das, was er, der
Gebietende, fordert, ist das Leben des Menschen. Durch
dieses Leben haben die Jahre des Judentums, auch die seines
Leidens, ihre Geschichte; Geheimnis und Gebot geben ihnen
die Lebensgewißheit, die Lebenswürde.
Liebe und Gerechtigkeit, Gebendes und Gebietendes, sie
sind die Offenbarung Gottes, die der Mensch erfährt. Gott
ist, wie die beiden alten Benennungen, welche die Bibel be?
sitzt, es sagen, das ewige Sein und das ewige Ziel, Jahwe und
Elohim; die alten Lehrer haben es erklärt: das eine bedeutet
die ewige Liebe und das andere die ewige Gerechtigkeit; in
Gott hat das Leben seinen Grund und seine Richtung. Es ist
"^der einige, einzige Gott, der sich darin kundtut, in dem einen
nie ohne das andere. Das eine haben und desanderen entraten,
hieße der Offenbarung Gottes und dem Glauben an ihn die
Einheit nehmen. In Gott, dem einigen, können wir unseren
Grund nicht finden, ohne unseren Weg vor uns zu sehen,
und wir können unseren Weg nicht erkennen, ohne um diesen
unseren Grund zu wissen; vor Gott, dem einigen, können
wir nicht demütig sein, ohne Gutes zu tun, und nicht Gutes
tun, ohne demütig zu werden. Unser Vertrauen sagt uns,
^iju^ /'l^^ ^^ü^/lJ>^J ^AA>«»*^^ J- '^^
l"S!»j^f4»*y^'"
■f
Spannung und Einheit
daß er ewig uns trägt, unsere Ehrfurcht, daß wir immer
wieder zu ihm uns erheben sollen, und nur durch die seelische
Einheit von beidem wird die Einheit in uns. Im Bewußtsein,
daß wir geschaffen sind, erleben wir, wie unser Ich zu Gott
sich wendet und das Du spricht, das Du der Zuversicht; im
Bewußtsein, daß wir schaffen sollen, erfahren wir, wie die
Gottheit ihr Ich verkündet und das Du zu uns sagt, das Du
des Gebotes — wir rufen Gott, und er ruft uns; beides zuf
sammen gibt uns erst ganz unser Ich. Beides in einem er*
fassen, das ist die jüdische Religiosität.
Diese Einheit hat darum auch wieder ihre Spannung, die
Spännung zwischen dem Nahen, dem Grunde, und dem
Fernen, dem Ziele, welche doch eines, der eine Gott, sind,
zwischen dem Gegebenen und dem Geforderten, welche doch
eines, das eine Menschenleben, sind, zwischen dem, wodurch
das Dasein ist, und dem, wodurch es sein soll, welche doch
eines, die eine Bedeutung des Daseins, sind. Es ist dieselbe
Spannung, wie sie allem religiösen Erleben im Judentum eigen
ist, und worin dieses sein Besonderes hat, das, wodurch es
von der bloßen Mystik und dem bloßen Rationalismus unter*
schieden ist, denen diese Polarität, dieses Ausein ander sein
und Sicheinen fehlt. Auch hier wieder spricht die Einheit
erst aus dem Gegensätzlichen hervor, die Gewißheit aus dem
Gegeneinander — diese Gewißheit des Wertes und diese
Sehnsucht nach dem Werte, diese Gewißheit der Wirklich*
keit und diese Sehnsucht nach der Wirklichkeit, diese Einheit
von Geheimnis und Antwort, von Fragen und Wissen, von
Zagen und Besitzen, von Hoffen und Haben, diese Endlosig*
keit der Tat und diese Tat der Endlosigkeit. dieses"2iel, das
immer wieder den Anfang, die Entscheidung verlangt und
nur dadurch zum Ziele wird, und dieser Anfang, dem immer
das Ziel verbürgt ist, und der nur dadurch zum Anfang, zur
Entscheidung wird, dieses bestimmte Gebot, das nicht ohne
den Zug zur Ferne, zum Absoluten sein kann und dadurch
sich erst als das Gebot Gottes erweist, und dieser Zug zur
Ferne, zum Absoluten, der nicht ohne das bestimmte
Gebot sein kann und dadurch erst sich als der Zug zu Gott
hin offenbart. Es ist diese Spannung, in der das Leben die
große Sehnsucht wird, die Sehnsucht der ..Tat und die Tat
der Sehnsucht, mit all ihrer Tragik auch wieder.
1
I
Der Sinn des Lebens
155
Die dritte große Paradoxie der Religion tritt
hier hervor: daß Gott, dessen Wesen die unendliche Liebe
ist, doch auch in der eifervollen Gerechtigkeit den bestimm*
ten Ausdruck findet. Wie die alten Meister das Wort der
Bibel gefaßt haben, daß Jahwe Elohim ist und Elohim Jahwe;
„der Ewige, er ist der Gott". Oder um es auf den Menschen
zu beziehen: daß unser Leben durch Gott seinen ewigen Wert
hat, und daß es doch ohne die menschliche Leistung wertlos
und gottlos ist. Gott gibt das Leben, und Gott fordert doch
auch erst das Leben. Der Mensch ist Mensch, weil der Ewige
ihn geschaffen hat, und er wird doch zum Menschen, nur
wenn er selbst durch das Gottesgebot sein Leben schafft. Die
Idee der Versöhnung bringt die Antwort hierauf: das Kapitel
vom Menschen wird sie aufzeigen.
Der Optimismus, in dem das Judentum sein Grund*
Problem hat, gewinnt schon hier seine deutliche Gestalt. Er
ist der Glaube an den Sinn des Lebens, an den Wert, den es
zu eigen hat, und den es zu eigen nimmt, an das Bleibende
und Gute, das ihm sein WirkHches und seine Verwirklichung
ist. Das Leben hat sein Woher — „bei dir ist der Quell des
Lebens". Und es hat sein Wofür — „nicht für das Brot allein
lebt der Mensch, sondern für alles, was aus dem Munde des
Ewigen hervorgeht, lebt der Mensch". Gott vernimmt jedes
Dasein, Gott spricht zu jedem Dasein. Wir können zu ihm
beten und die Ant\Yprt erfahren: „ich bin bei dir", „ich habe
dich gehört";'wir können ihm dienen, ihm erwidern: „rede,
denn dein Knecht hört!" Unser Leben hat seine Bedeutung
und seine Bestimmung; und diese Bedeutung und diese Be*
Stimmung lassen es zum Leben werden. Durch sie wird das
Lefen mehr^ls_seine„Teile und anders_ab_sein£j[]eile, al
seine. Jlage und Jahre, es wird zu einem Ganzen imd Einen.
Es hat nun seine Andacht und seine Aufgabe, denn es soll
Andacht und Aufgabe sein. Nicht nur andachtsvolle Stunden
will die ReHgion schenken, sondern unser Leben soll von der
Andacht erfüllt sein; Gott schaut auf uns allezeit. Nicht nur
einzelne Aufgaben will sie vor uns hinstellen, sondern unser
ganzes Leben soll unsere Aufgabe sein; Gott spricht jedes
Tages zu uns. Diese Zuversicht und diese Ehrfurcht geben
der Seele ihren Glauben. Die Religion tritt hier nicht neben
die Welt und kommt nicht zu dem Dasein hinzu; ihre Welt
'*
•^
a'.f.\^. ■
--Iiiiiiir^]^-i
1 _T'CZL?iIZr
J^
Die Kraft des Lebens
Die Einsamkeit
157
ist, was sich dem Leben offenbart, und was das Leben offen?
baren solL Das Leben besitzt in ihr sich selbst, es besitzt in
ihr seine Gewißheit, die von seinem Sinn und seinem Werte
zu ihm redet.
Es ist die innerste Erfahrung im Judentum, von den Pro?
pheten her, daß die ReHgion das Leben erfüllt, es ganz und
vollständig macht. In ihr hat das Leben das, wozu es ange?
legt ist, sein natürliches Wachstum, sein eigenes Werden,
sein Werden aus dem Boden hervor, aus dem es geschaffen,
zu dem Ziele hin, zu dem es gebildet worden ist. In ihr ge?
langt der Mensch zu sich hin, zu seiner Lebenswurzel undj/
j^ seinem Lebenszug, man könnte den alten jüdischen Ge?
danken mit dem modernen Worte benennen: zu dem Stil
seines Lebens. Die Propheten und Psalmisten sprechen von
diesem beiden, wie das Leben des Menschen in Gott seine
Sicherheit hat, und wie es durch das Vertrauen auf ihn seine
Schwingen regt. „Heil dem Menschen, der seine Stärke in dir
/■hat!** „Die auf den Ewigen harren, gewinnen neue Kraft,
\J heben empor die Schwingen Adlern gleich." „Der Ewige, der ¥^
Herr, ist meine Kraft, er macht meine Füße wie die der Hin?
dinnen, und auf meine Höhen läßt er mich steigen." Und sie
sprechen darum auch von der Armut des Menschen, der Gott
nicht kennt, von der Dürre der Seele, die fern von ihm bleibt,
die dem Baume gleicht, der „kahl in der Steppe steht". Und
vor allem erzählen sie von dem Verlangen des Herzens nach
der Wirklichkeit des Lebens, von seinem Verlangen nach
Gott. Nach Gott hungern, nach Gott dürsten — „meine
Seele dürstet nach Gott, nach dem lebendigen Gotte** — , so
ist es das wundersame Gleichnis der Bibel für diese Sehn?
sucht des Menschen, über sich selbst hinauszukommen, em?
porzuwachsen über all das Bedrückende, das nach ihm greift,
über die umklammernde Ursächlichkeit und Gebundenheit
der Welt, über die vernichtende, verzehrende Bedeutungs?
losigkeit seiner Enge, über das bloß Irdische und Menschliche
seines Daseins, über das Gewöhnliche und Dürftige des
Tages, der dem Tage folgt und in den Tag endet, sich zu er?
lösen von all diesem Vereinsamenden und Ängstigenden, das
den Menschen umfassen will.
Die Bibel spricht oft von diesem Alleinsein des Men?
sehen; „meine Einsame", so nennt der Psalmist die sehnende
Seele in ihm. Von überallher scheint es den Menschen zu um?
drängen. Inmitten der Welt, in dem endlosen Raum, inmitten
der Ewigkeit, in der endlosen Zeit, scheint er dazustehen,
verloren in dieser Unendlichkeit, die immer und allerwärts
die eine ist — nur ein Wort hat die alte Sprache des Juden?
tums für Welt und Ewigkeit — , mag sie in der Regungs*
losigkeit des Unbegrenzten ihn erstarren machen, mag sie
in dem Wirbel des nie Beendeten ihn versinken lassen. Und
aus der Einsamkeit, mit der sie ihn ängstigt, steigt die andere
empor, die Einsamkeit inmitten des endlosen Schicksals, in?
mitten des Unerbittlichen, das seine Kreise zieht, des Unab?
änderhchen, das seine Bahnen geht. Es ist die Einsamkeit des
vergänglichen, endlichen, vom Ursächlichen gezwungenen
Lebens, diese Verlassenheit und Verlorenheit, in der das
Dunkel des UnendHchen, diese Nacht der Welten und Zeiten
und Geschicke, den Menschen umfängt und erdrückt. Die
schwere, nächtige Finsternis, in der ein Mensch wandelt, wird
der Bibel immer wieder zum Bilde dieser Empfindung. Das
Leben ohne Gott ist das einsame Dunkel, ist es auch mitten
unter den Menschen, mitten in ihren Freuden und ihren
Gewalten. Es gibt ein Alleinsein dessen, den die Menschen
verstoßen oder den sie nicht begriffen haben, aber noch tiefer
ist das Alleinsein, das darin liegt, daß einer nur die Men?
sehen kennt und ganz an die Erde sich gebunden fühlt, diese
Einsamkeit dessen, der seelisch fern von allem WirkHchen,
. Ewigen, Erhabenen ist. Sie ist die eigentliche Verlassenheit,
Isieläßt den Menschen erzittern und verzagen, wenn er dann
^zu erwachen, zu fragen und zu suchen beginnt.
Aus~3iesem Bangen, dem Bangen vor der Nacht der Un?
endlichkeit, vor der Verlorenheit des bloß Irdischen und
Menschlichen, drängt die Sehnsucht hervor, die Sehnsucht
nach dem Lichte, das alles erhellt, und in dem alles sich
findet, nach dem Einen, von dem alle Endlosigkeit, alle Ewig?
keit eine Schöpfung ist, so daß die Himmel seine Himmel
sind, von dem alles Menschenleben eine Offenbarung ist, so
daß der Erdensohn ihm zugehört. Der Mensch, der es so er?
lebt in diesem Suchen, das zugleich das Finden bedeutet, ist
aus der Verlassenheit emporgehoben, seine Nacht ist erhellt
und seine Seele aus dem Versinken und Verzagen erlöst. „Du
bist meine Leuchte, Ewiger, der Ewige macht meine Finster?
n
■^is^
158
\AAjy'^'*^^^-^^^'^'<ÄJ
Der Frieden
-"Vu
I
I
nis hell/* „In deinem Lichte sehen wir Licht." Wer sich mit
dem Einen, dem Ewigen so verbunden weiß, kennt keine Ein*:
samkeit mehr, sein Leben ist nie allein. Mit Menschen be^^
rühren wir uns nur, wie eng und innig es sei — gegenüber
den Menschen ist im Innersten der Seele schließlich jeder
allein, jede Persönlichkeit ist einzig auf Erden, zur Indi*^
vidualität gehört eine Einsamkeit unter den anderen. Mit
Gott sind wir verwoben, mit ihm ganz zusammen. Unser
Leben hat in ihm seinen Frieden. Der Frieden — das ist
eines von den Worten, denen Israel ihren neuen Inhalt ge?
geben hat. All das Treiben und Drängen der Welt macht
ruhelos und müde, es ist ohne das Ziel, es hat nur seinen
Kampf und sein Ermatten; in der Einheit mit Gott findet der
Mensch seine Rast, sein Heil, seinen Segen, seinen Frieden.
') »»W£H2j£iL2H5 ^^^^ habe, so frage ich nichts nach Himmel
nd Erde . . . Die Nähe Gottes ist mein Gut." „Gesegnet Ist
der Mann, der auf den Ewigen vertraut, und dessen Zuver:?
sieht der Ewige ist." In den Frieden klingt der Segen aus:
„Er gebe dir Frieden!" „Friede, Friede dem, der fern, und
dem, der nahe, spricht der Ewige, ich heile ihn."
Um die Nähe Gottes zu empfinden, braucht unser Leben
seine Stunden, wo wir uns von den Menschen zurückziehen.
Um uns nicht in jene eigentlichste Einsamkeit, die der Gottes^^
ferne, zu verlieren, müssen wir Zeiten der Menschen^
f e r n e haben, Zeiten der Erdeneinsamkeit, wo unsere Seele
für sich ist. Nachdem wir Tage und Tage zu den Menscfien
gekommen waren, sollen wir zu uns kommen. Damit wir uns
nicht in der Welt verirren, isFes nötig, daß Wir in uns gehen
und uns auf unsere Seele und auf Gott besinnen. Dem er-
wachten, sich sehnenden Menschen wohnt im innersten Ge^s
ijmüte das Verlangen nach dieser Einsamkeit; die Askese hat
hierin eine ihrer starken Wurzeln. Die geschichtliche Leistung
Israels erzählt davon, wie es in seinem Gebete für dieses
menschliche Bedürfen, für diese religiöse Notwendigkeit die
Befriedigung geschaffen hat. Das Gebet will uns mit Gott
allein sein lassen, es ist dazu bestimmt, uns, von dem Kreise
der Menschen fort, zu Gott hinzuführen. Mitten in der Welt
will es uns eine Abgeschiedenheit geben. Auch im menschen*
vollen Gotteshaus sollen wir die Einsamkeit sucTien, auch dort
nur mit uns und unserem Gotte zusammen sein. Unser Leben
it
e
Der Sabbath
159
soll voller Andacht sein; darum müssen wir von Zeit zu Zeit
vom Wege der Welt fortgehen, um in der Gottesstille aus dem
Quell der Andacht neu zu schöpfen.
Das ist auch der Sinn des jüdischen Sabbaths, daß er
dem Menschen ruhevolle Stunden, die Stunden der völligen
Abkehr von dem Alltag gewähren will, eine Abgeschiedenheit
von der Welt mitten in der Welt. Darum ist die Mauer seiner
Satzungen so hoch aufgerichtet worden, damit in seinen
heiligen Bezirk kein Laut aus dem Werktagsdasein hinein:?
dringe. Das hat dem Sabbath seine unvergleichliche Poesie
gebracht, das hat über ihn den Frieden gebreitet, der ein
hartes, gedrücktes Dasein nicht nur ertragbar gemacht,
sondern es mit flutendem Sonnenscheine auch beschenkt hat.
Er ist der Tag „der Wonne", der Tag „des Seelenreichtums".
Das Judentum hat seine Sabbathlieder, die zu Familien?
liedern geworden sind — darin schon ist alles besagt. „Zu
Liedern sind mir deine Satzungen geworden im Hause meiner
ilgrimschaft". Der Gegenwart täte not, daß der alte Sabbath
jederkäme. Er ist, wie das biblische Wort sagfr^HasTZeichen
zwischen dem Ewigen und den Kindern Israel", der Wegs:
weiser, der zu dem alten Gotte hinzeigt. Der Kampf um den
Sabbath ist der Kampf um die Weihe des Daseins, der Kampf
gegen die Verweltlichung des Lebens. Wer ist so voller
Lebensandacht, daß er der allwöchentlichen Zeit der Gottes*
ruhe entraten dürfte! Und wenn der Kampf des Daseins so
manchem den Sabbath tag nicht gewährt, — wo sind die, !
denen die Sabbath stunden geraubt sein müssen!
Auch die bestimmten Stunden der Ehrfurcht hat
das Judentum geschaffen. Stunden, wo dem öffentlichen Ges:
wissen Worte gegeben werden, und der göttliche Wille sich
an die Seelen wendet. Auch diese Sitte, die der Verkündigung
und Erklärung des Gottesgebotes, seiner geistigen Erneuung
in dem Redenden wie in dem Hörenden, ist eine jener Gaben,
mit denen Israel die Menschheit beschenkt hat. An die An?
dacht wird die sittliche Forderung geknüpft, an die frohe Ge?
wißheit dessen, was wir sind, die Predigt von dem, was wir
sein sollen. Was einer dem anderen vielleicht nicht sagen
darf, — da wir ja allesamt Menschen sind — das kann und
soll das Gotteswort einem jeden vorhalten. W i r sollen nach?
sichtig sein, das Gotteswort hat das Recht der Strenge.
160
Das Gotteswort
Den gemessenen, begrenzten Gefühlen des Alltags, die sich in
den Rahmen der Rücksicht eingepreßt haben, kann es ent^^
gegentreten mit seinem großen Zug der Empfindung, mit
seinem gewaltigen Eifern für das Rechte und Wahre, mit
seinem lodernden Grimm gegen die Niedrigkeit und die Bos*
heit. Gegenüber der schwächlichen Konvention, die sich so
leicht mit allem abfindet, gegenüber all der glatten Klugheit,
die dazu da ist, um keinen Charakter zeigen zu müssen, ist
die harte, unnachgiebige Schroffheit des Bibelwortes von
nöten. Gegenüber alledem, was uns draußen richtet und be*
herrscht, brauchen wir die immer neue Erweckung des Be^
wußtseins, daß „der Ewige unser Richter, der Ewige unser
Gesetzgeber, der Ewige unser König" ist.
Mit den Sabbathen hat das Judentum die feierlichen
Zeiten geschaffen, die um das Jahr den wechselnden Hin*
weis auf die Bedeutung des Daseins wie ein heiliges Band
schlingen und so dazu helfen, unser Leben zusammenzufassen,
daß es nicht in seine bloßen Tage auseinanderfalle. Wir
sollen Zeit haben für unser Leben, Pausen der Arbeit und des
Weges, in denen der Sinn des Lebens, seine Wirklichkeit
wieder zu uns spricht. Zu Wesen und Inhalt der heiligen
Tage haben keine spätere Zeit und keine andere Religion
©etwas hinzuzuschaffen vermocht. Man hat für die äußere,
künstlerische Ausgestaltung dieses und jenes hinzugefügt,
aber nichts, was den Gedanken erhöhte. Die Schöpfung
Israels zeigt auch hier ihre bleibende Kraft.
Nach alledem, was schon mehrmals gesagt worden ist, bes»
darf es gewiß keiner besonderen Betonung, daß der Glaube
an Gott nicht vom ersten Anfang an in Israel seine letzte
Klarheit hatte. Und auch das braucht nicht erst nachdrück:»
lieh ausgesprochen zu werden, daß die erreichte Höhe darum
nicht minder bedeutungsvoll ist, weil sie erst hatte erstiegen
werden müssen. Es ist Aufgabe der ReUgionsgeschichte, die
einzelnen Abschnitte dieses Weges, diese fortschreitende Er?
füllung darzulegen. Nur das eine soll hervorgehoben werden,
daß alles darauf hinweist, wie schon in dem Patriarchen*
kreise eine religiöse Eigenart lebendig war, und wie die
/
<f
Die Sprache der Bibel
161
reine Gotteserkenntnis dann durch Moses ihre Gestaltung
gefunden hat. Auf ihn greifen alle die Späteren zurück. Er
ist der „Vater aller Propheten".
In aller Religion handelt es sich um einen Versuch, das
an sich Unaussprechhche irgendwie auszudrücken. Jede neue
Religion muß ihre neue Sprache schaffen. Aber die
sprachliche_Bestimmtheit f gj^t-nur . sehr allmählich^ der Ent?
schiedenheit des Gedankens. Dieser kann bereits seine deuts:
liehe Klarheit gewonnen haben, ohne daß das Wort schon den
entsprechenden Ausdruck bietet. Oder das Wort vermag
seine symbolische Kraft zu beweisen, durch die es über sich
selbst hinausgelangt, gleichsam mehr als sich selber besagt.
Darum führt es ganz besonders in der Bibel zu Fehlschlüssen,
wenn man sich nicht sowohl um Spannkraft und Tragweite
einer hervortretenden Idee bekümmert, um diese Seele des
Wortes als vielmehr das Körperliche, die Worte mißt und zu^
sammenzählt, in denen die Idee sich darstellt. Es geschieht
so nur allzu oft und zudem häufig im Dienste eines Materialist
mus, der biblische Sätze begriffen zu haben meint, erst wenn
er ihnen den niedrigsten Sinn, den sie irgendwie zulassen
könnten, erpreßt hat. Es ist staunenswert, wie viel tüftelnde
Schärfe — und auch wie viel Unverstand — aufgewendet
wird, um das Erhabenste zur Alltäglichkeit, die Poesie zur
prosaischsten Prosa, das Charakteristische zur Formlosigkeit
imizudeuten. Freilich, wer etwas nur im Hinblick auf ein
anderes, um einer Tendenz willen, betrachtet, der wird auch \/ ^
an dem Höchsten vor allem den Erdenrest, der ihm etwa noch 7\
anhaftet, sehen.
Ganz besonders ist das dem Namen widerfahren, der in
der Bibel am häufigsten von Gott gebraucht wird, dem
Namen Jahwe. Mag er, wie lange immer, ursprünglich einen
Gott neben anderen benannt haben, schließlich bezeichnet er
doch den einen Gott, der der Einzige ist, und von dem alle
Völker sprechen sollen: „Nur in dir ist Gott, und sonst gibt
es keinen, keinen Gott weiter". Zum mindesten von da an ist
das Wort Jahwe nicht mehr ein Eigenname, der einen Gott
von anderen Göttern unterscheiden soll, sondern das Wort
„Gott", „der Ewige", mit all seiner Symbolik, mit all seiner
Einzigkeit des Geheimnisses und der Gewißheit, gleicii*
sam der namenlose Name, und nur darin findet es seinen
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
11
.. , v.«t
162
Der Gottesglaube
Der eine Gott
163
\
-f
Sinn wieder. Wenn nun trotzdem moderne Bibelübersetzung
überall dort, wo in der Heiligen Schrift die Einheit und Einzige
keit Gottes klar erkannt und ausgesprochen ist, nicht von
der Liebe, der Gerechtigkeit Gottes, des Ewigen, redet,
sondern von der Liebe Jahwes, von der Gerechtigkeit
Jahwes, von der Heiligkeit Jahwes — wird damit nicht das
Bibelwort entgeistigt? Nur gedankenlose Pedanterie oder
wichtigtuende Selbstgefälligkeit kann es zu Wege bringen,
z.B. den Psalmisten beten zu lassen: „Jahwe, du hast mich
erforscht und kennst mich", „Jahwe behüte deinen Ausgang
und deinen Eingang von nun an bis in Ewigkeit", oder den
frommen Hiob sprechen zu lassen: „Jahwe hat gegeben, und
Jahwe hat genommen, der Name Jahwes sei gepriesen". In
solcher Übersetzung büßt das Wort der Heiligen Schrift sein
Eigentum ein.
Aber in ganz anderer, wesentlicherer Hinsicht noch wird
die Bedeutung des einen Gottes, den die Propheten Israels,
seine Psalmisten und Weisen verkündet haben, bisweilen,
auch innerhalb des Judentums selbst, verkannt. Es ist mit
Recht geklagt worden, daß sich, in ihm gelegentlich eine ge^^
wisse „freidenkerische Schlaffheit^ gegenüber der Gottesidee
zeige. Manche scheinen das Judentum in den Geboten der
Sittlichkeit, die es lehrt, schon ganz befaßt zu meinen und in
dem Glauben an Gott eine bloße schmückende Beigabe zu
erblicken. Eine ärgere Oberflächlichkeit kann unserer Reli^
gion gar nicht angetan werden. Es ist wahr, sie legt den
größten Wert auf das sittliche Tun, sie sagt von Gott nur
sittHche Attribute aus, der Gott des Glaubens ist für sie der
Gott des Sittengesetzes. Aber es gibt für sie k e i n e E t h i^k|^
ohne denGo t te s g 1 au b e n , keine Erfüllung der Pflicht, V
die nicht zum Dienste GotteT würde; erst in Gott hat die
Sittlichkeit ihren Grund und ihre Bürgschaft.
' Der Glaube an Gott ist hier nichts weniger als bloß ein
Teil der Religion, er ist der Quell ihres Lebens, er ist das
Wissen um die Wirklichkeit. Die Entscheidung, die das
Judentum verlangt, ist nicht eine ethische bloß, sondern eine
r^li^se, die Entscheidung eines Glaubens, einer Über^
Zeugung, die Entscheidung für den einen Gott. Seine Ethik
findet ihr Wesen erst darin, daß sie die des Gottesgebotes ist.
Sie kennt nicht das endliche Leben nur mit seinen Bindungen
]
und Satzungen — darin beständeJiaJaloßejyiQxd. — , sie
entdeckt und erlebt die Bedeutung des Daseins in dem
Glauben an den einen Gott, sie erfaßt das Leben in seiner /"^
Beziehung zu dem Einen, dem Ewigen, so daß die G e b un = I [J
d e n h e i t des Lebens zu sejncr V e r b u n d e nTLETTwIrily
Erst""Hadurch erwächst die' Religion, die ReUgion der Ethik,
und wird die Ethik zur Ethik der Rehgion, zum Gottes::=
gesetze. Das Deutliche, Bestimmte des Gesetzes, das in der
bloßen Moral nur seine Begrenztheit hat, dehnt sich nun in
das Unendliche. Das endliche Leben tritt in die Ewigkeit
ein, der Kreis des Gebotes in die Welt der Andacht. Mit der
Gewißheit des Weges eint sich das Geheimnis des Ur^^
Sprungs, mit dem sittlichen Gesetz der Glauben, um dem
Leben seine Einheit, seine Religiosität zu geben. In diesem
seinem Glauben an Gott Hegt der Charakter des Judentums,
der keine Zweideutigkeit und kein Schwanken, kein Hinken
auf beiden Füßen zulassen kann, sondern das offene, klare
Bekenntnis fordert. Wie sehr dieses Bewußtsein alles durchs
dringt, das ist der Maßstab der seelischen Zugehörigkeit
zum Judentum.
Für den einen Gott, den schaffenden und gebietenden,
sind die Märtyrer des Judentums in den Tod gegangen, um
ihres Gottes willen haben Tausende, als Zeugen ihrer Wahr^^ ^
heit, die irdische Habe fortgeworfen, Heimat und Haus auf ^ ^ /
gegeben unS Schmach und Verfolgung auf sich genommen.
Der Glaube an Gott gibt der Geschichte des Judentums ihre
Bedeutung, ihren heroischen Sinn. Nur wer den Grund und
die Bestimmung semfesT^aseins in dem einigen, einzigen
Gott erfaßt, hat sein Judentum erlebt. Nur der ist wahrhaft
ein Jude, der im Angesichte der Ewigkeit, wenn die Seele
sich zu ihrem Gotte gerufen hört und die Andacht des Un^:
endlichen sie umfängt, zu sprechen vermag so, wie der
Genius Israels den Stunden der Entscheidung und denen des
Scheidens das Wort gestaltet hat, es aussprechen darf als
das Ergebnis und das Bekenntnis seines Lebens: „Höre,
Israel, der Ewige ist unser Gott, der Ewige ist einzig!"
IV
!!■■■
~' i-t, A* ^». «...V'L
Mystik und Ethik
165
Der Glaube an den Menschen
Der Glaube an uns
Aus_demJ3lauben an Gott ergibt sich der Glaube an den
Menschen. Wir sind geschaffen, so wie"äIIer"von Gott ge^
schaffen"^ist, wir leben durch Gott und in Gott, aber als
freie, selbständige Wesen, zum sittUchen HandelnJ^erufcn
— hier scheidet sich das Judentum von der p a n t h e i s t i <
sehen Erlösungsreligion und der bloßen
Mystik, die Gott nur in allem und alles nur in Gott
fmden, denen die Schöpfung und der Schöpfer zu einem
werden. Wir sind frei und selbständig, aber nicht von Gott
völhg abgesondert und abgehoben, nicht nur jenseits von
ihm — hier scheidet sich das Judentum von der deisti^
sehen Tugendreligion und dem reinen Rationa?
1 i s m u s , die nur einen „Gott der Ferne", der dem suchen^
den Herzen entrückt ist, nur einen Gott der Idee kennen.
Das Judentum ist weder jener gebotlose noch dieser geheims:
nislose Glaube. Sein Gott ist weder der bloß transcendente,
der, welcher nur über uns ist, noch der bloß immanente, der
in den Dingen und Wesen Wohnende. Weder die Dies*
seitigkeit noch die Jenseitigkeit allein, mit all ihrer begriffst
liehen Logik, gibt hier die Wahrheit der Religion. In der Ein:«
heit von beiden erst hat der Gottesglaube des Judentums
sein Eigenes; aus ihr kann der Glaube an den Menschen
hier erwachsen, so daß der Mensch erfährt, daß er der
Mensch Gottes ist.
Auch der Glaube an den Menschen gestaltet sich so in
dieser Spannung, in dieser Paradoxie, welche die jüdische
Religiosität kennzeichnet. Wir stehen Gott gegenüber
— auf den Gegensatz zwischen Gott und Mensch gründet
sich hier zunächst alle Religion; Gott ist der Schöpfer, der
Heilige, der Andersseiende, geschieden von allem Irdischen
i •
und allem Menschlichen. Aber etwas ist in uns, was uns,
auch unsere Freiheit, mit Gott verbindet, von ihm
kommt und zu ihm geht und in ihm bleibt — aller Glaube ist
hier wiederum Glaube an eine Beziehung zu Gott; Gott er«:
faßt uns und ruft uns, zu ihm kann unser Wesen beständig
aufstreben. Unser Leben hat sein Diesseits, seinen bindenden
Erdenplatz, und es hat sein Jenseits, seinen erlösenden Zug
zum Ewigen hin. Es hat sein Dasein und das, was über sein
Dasein hinaus weist und aufwärts hebt. Es ist Tatsache, um:*
grenzte, bestimmte Tatsache, und es ist Aufgabe und Sehn*»
sucht, ins UnendHche hinausführende Aufgabe, zum Ewigen
emportragende Sehnsucht. Unsere Seele ist unser Indi^
viduelles, das, was von allem anderen ins Eigenste hinein
uns absondert, und in ihr ist unser Ewiges, das, was allem
Individuellen gemein ist und woraus alles Individuelle erst
aufsteigt. Sie ist der Ausdruck des Persönlichen, des Un*
mittelbarsten, und sie ist, wie die jüdischen ReHgionsphilo:«
sophen es bezeichneten, der Mittler zwischen dem Men:*
sehen und seinem Gotte. Sie ist das Göttliche in uns, von
Gott gekommen und mit ihiiTverwoben^^^ darin wurzelt
hier das Mystische, das der Religion eigen ist. Und sie
ist doch das Menschliche in uns, die freie Urheberin mensch^
liehen Geschickes — daraus erwächst das Ethische, das
hier der Religion das Ihre gibt. Ein Bund ist zwischen dem
Menschen und Gott, ein Bund zwischen der Freiheit und
der Ewigkeit, eine Einheit, die in dem Gegensatze lebt. Was
die ReHgion gewährt und zeigt, ist hier nicht nur eine Idee
vom Menschen mit ihrem Postulat und nicht nur ein
Schicksal des Menschen mit seinem Mythos. Sie gibt den
Glauben an den Menschen.
Die Heilige Schrift sagt, um dieses Wesen des Menschen
zu benennen: Der Mensch ist im Ebenbilde Gottes
geschaffen. Oder wie dafür auch gesagt werden kann: er
ist die besondere Offenbarung des Ewigen, ihm verwandt,
nicht der Mensch derzeit nur, sondern d^JVljaasclL-GjOttes.
I Sein Ich Imdei m viott den Grund und das Ziel, der Ewige
l ist das Ich und das Du des Menschen. In seinem Eigensten,
in seinem Individuellen und Persönlichen, in seinem Leben
kann der Mensch das Göttliche entfalten; es ist ihm ge?
geben, daß es werde. Sein Dasein ist von Gott und zu Gott
;i.
mmtifm
166
Das Ebenbild Gottes
hin, in Gottähnlichkeit geschaffen und dazu bestimmt. Das
ist wie alles, was das Judentum vom Ewigen spricht, ein
Gleichnis nur. Aber es ist ein ewiges Gleichnis, unausschöpf^
bar in seiner Bedeutung, ein Bild, das immer wieder zum
Bilde wird, — mögen immerhin der, der es zuerst gestaltet
hat, und lange Zeiten, die es von ihm empfingen, nicht alles
ganz ermessen haben, was darin liegt. Ein bleibendes Sym^
bol, ein Prinzip des Menschentums, das den reli^
giösen, sittHchen Begriff „Mensch", den Begriff der
Men sc hheits würde gibt, ist damit gewonnen. Wie
llftintJf der UÄfSi-scTiied von Mensch zu Mensch ist, die
Gottesebenbildlichkeit ist ihnen allen ihr Charakter, ist ihnen
allen gemeinsam; sie ist es, die den Menschen zum Menschen
macht, ihn als Menschen bezeichnet. Gottes Bund ist
mit allen Menschen, so wie er mit allen Welten ist. Nicht
bloß dieser oder jener kann das Ebenbild Gottes sein, sons=
dern der Mensch schlechthin ist es; denn darin ist der
Grund und der Sinn allen Menschenlebens. Ein jeder Mensch
ist, wie die HeiUge Schrift die Gottesebenbildlichkeit auch
umschreibt, „das Kind Gottes". Er ist es durch sein Men?
sehen tum und für sein Menschentum. In jedem ist das
^
n und Entscheidenden^^-sinth
ie'^Sufgtrtrer'smTTeHein zugewi(
er menschhche Adel ist in allen. Ihn einem absprechen,
hieße ihn allen rauben. Über jeglicher Abgrenzung von
Rassen und Völkern, von Kasten und Klassen, von Be?
zwingenden und Dienenden, von Gebenden und Empfangen«:
den, über aller Abgrenzung auch von Gaben und Kräften
steht die Gewißheit „Mensch". Wer immer Menschenantlitz
trägt, ist geschaffen und berufen, eine Offenbarung der^
»Ächheitswürde zu sein. ""^ /
Deutlicher und entschiedener kann auch die Einheit
des Menschengeschlechts nicht betont werden.
Schon in der Heiligen Schrift drückt sich dieser Zusammen?
hang aus. Sie schließt an die Erzählung von dem Anfang des
Menschengeschlechts alsbald jene große Völkertafel an, die
alle Nationen auf Erden, die „siebzig Nationen", zusammen?
fassen will, um sie alle aufzuweisen als Zweige eines großen
Stammes; die verschiedenen Völker haben sich nur getrennt,
die Einheit ist das Ursprüngliche und Wesentliche. Nur
Menschheit und Mensch
167
11
Israel kennt denn in alter Zeit eine Gesamtheit der Men?
sehen, Hi^g große Fgirjj]i£ au£-Erden. Schon mit dem Mono?
theismus war diese Idee gegeben: den vielen Göttern ent?
spricht die Teilung und Trennung der Erdenkinder; mit
dem einen Gott ist die eine Menschheit gesetzt.
Auch in dem Gedanken von der geschichtlichen Aufgabe
Israels war dieses selbe gebracht: die Sendung an alle be?
ruht auf der ideale nT^inheff^Uer. Aber ihre stärkste Wurzel
hat diese Einheit doch in der Gottesebenbildlichkeit des
Menschen, in dieser Gotteskindschaft aller. Und wenn
dieser Gewißheit so noch von hier und dort neue Sicherheit
zuwächst, so zeigt es sich, wie sie ein Eigentümliches des
Judentums ist. Sein Boden trägt die Erkenntnis von der
einen Menschheit, von der Einheit auch der Welt, in der
das Gebot sich verwirklichen soll, dieser Welt, in der die
Tatsache zur Aufgabe und damit zur Einheit wird.
Das Verständnis für die Menschheit als Ganzes und das
Verständnis für den Menschen als Einzelnen stehen immer
in einem gleichen Verhältnis. Wird das Menschliche be?
iriffen, dieses Ursprüngliche und dieses Aufgegebene, diese
Jewige Tiefe und diese unendliche Richtung, so ist damit in
Uen dieses Gleiche gefunden und in jedem dieses Ganze.
Wenn alle in dem Wesentlichen eins sind, so ist jeder alles.
Wo sich die eine Welt erschließt, welche die M^elt aller
Menschen ist, dort auch die Welt, welche die Welt eines
jeden Menschen ist. Es ist dasselbe, was die Menschheit
eint, und was dem Menschen sein Besitztum gewährt. Wie
die Gottesebenbildlichkeit von ihr spricht, so auch von
ihm, von dem eigenen Recht und dem eigenen
Wert jeder Menschenseele. Allerdings ist es allen
Religionen eigentümHch, daß sie das Individuum aus der
großen Menge herausheben. Am vernehmUchsten betont es
gerade der kindlichste Glaube: cura pii dis sunt. Und in
feinem wird der anthropozentrische Standpunkt immer
(1 bleiben, in dem Betenden. Wer betet, empfindet sich wie
^ einen Mittelpunkt der Welt. Zwar ist auch das schon das
Besondere des Judentums, daß hier der Mensch nicht vor
seinen kleinen Einzelgott hintritt, sondern vor dem Einen,
dem HeiHgen steht, dem Schöpfer des Himmels und der
Erde. Aber das Eigentlichste, was hier dem Menschen ge?
5E53CC
■^*'äi» ■" i'iiTM
;1
168
Die Menschenwürde
geben ist, worin er sein Unvergleichliches, das sittliche Be?
wußtsein seines Selbst, die Würde deslndividuellen
besitzt, ist diese Gottesebenbildlichkeit. Durch sie trägt er
das seelische Zeichen des Göttlichen und Freien, sein Per?
sönliches kommt hier aus dem Tiefsten und Letzten hervor,
es ist das Zeugnis dessen, was er von Gottes Gnaden ist.
Wenn der Mensch das Kind Gottes ist, so hat jede Seele ihre
ewige Bedeutung; es gibt keine Menschenmassen, sondern
nur den Menschen, der von Gottes wegen Mensch ist. Jede
Seele ist kraft ihres Wesens eine Welt im All. Wie der Tab
mud sagt: „Jeder Mensch wiegt die ganze Welt auf." „Wisse
es, um deinetwillen ist die Welt geschaffen worden." Das
Wort von der „einen Seele in Israel" hat hier gesprochen
werden können: „Wer eine Seele in Israel erhält, der hat
eine Welt mit ihrer Fülle erhalten"; denn er hat einen
Menschen bewahrt.
Jeder Mensch ist so als ein Einzigartiges, als Person*
lichkeit erachtet, jeder in dem bleibenden Werte seiner In?
dividualität anerkannt, jeder ist, wie das alte Wort sagt,
„für sich ausgeprägt"; er ist in seinem Eigensten eine Offen?
barung Gottes. Nicht vor dem Mächtigen und nicht vor den
Tausenden sollen wir Achtung hegen, sondern Respekt vor
dem Menschen, auch wenn er der Ärmste unS'Geringsfd
ist, mögen wir es sein oder ein anderer. Nicht nur zu den
Guten und Edlen sollen wir Vertrauen haben, sondern Ver?
^trauen zu allen, da sie die Menschenseele in sich tragen.
Wir sollen an uns und an jeden glauben; wir alle sind das
bcnbild^Gottejg. Hiermit ist über die Bedeutung des Men?
sehen das Höchste gesagt; ein edlerer Adel kann ihm nicht
zugesprochen werden. Mit Recht hat einer der Weisen Israels
hierin die eigenste ideale Schöpfung seiner ReUgion er?
blickt: „Simon ben Asai sprach: „Dies ist das Buch der Ge?
schichte des Menschen: Da Gott den Menschen schuf, schuf
er ihn im^Ebenbilde Gotfes" — hierin ist die S u m m e d e r
T h o r a enthalten
Das ist die Summe der Thora um so mehr, als in dieser
Verheißung zugleich die Forderung, in der Zusage die
Aufgabe ausgesprochen ist. Die Gotteskindschaft trägt
die ganze Fülle des Gebotes in sich; sie ist gewissermaßen
der Obersatz aller Gebote. Denn je größer die Gabe, desto
Reinheit und Freiheit
169
Ui
umfassender ist die Verantwortlichkeit, die aus ihr folgt. In
der unvergleichlichen Bedeutung unseres Lebens hegt seine
unermeßliche Bestimmung: Du bist götthch, also bewähre
dich auch als göttlich. Der Mensch ist im Ebenbilde Gottes
geschaffen, das heißt also auch: von jedem Menschen kann
das Höchste gefordert werden. ^A u f s i 1 1 1 i c h.^ m G e ? ^^
^M e t e s o 1 1 i e d c r c i n G e n i^e s e in: UirSittikhrAuf? ^
gäbe ist die Aufgabe aller Menschen. Die Heilige Schrift hat
dem seinen klassischen Ausdruck gegeben in dem Worte:
„Heilig sollt ihr sein, denn heilig bin ich, der Ewige, euer
Gott". Das ist das höchste Ideal, das vor den SterbHchen
hingestellt werden kann: Gott immer ähnhcher zu werden.
Die Kraft der Verwirklichung, die Kraft des Schöpferischen
ist damit dem Menschen im höchsten Sinne zugewiesen. Alle
die Nützlichkeiten des Daseins, alle die Werke der Macht
und des Vorteils stellt der Mensch her. Aber in der guten
Tat wird er ein Bildner und Gestalter, in ihr führt er ein
Zeugnis des Unendlichen und Ewigen in die Welt, in die
seine und in die des Alls. Die gute Tat geht aus dem
Eigenen und Ursprünglichen des Menschen hervor, und was
>rimmer aus dem Eigenen hervorkommt, ist eine Schöpfung.
Diese seeUsche Gabe des Schaffens wird im Judentum
auch als die R e i n h e i t der Seele bezeichnet. Wie das
alte Gebet, das eine Einleitung des Gebetbuches bildet, und
aus dem das Besondere des Judentums immer herausgehört
wurde, es sagt: „Mein Gott, die Seele, die du mir gegeben
hast,^ ist rein, du hast sie geschaffen, sie ist dein Odem in
mir." Das Schöpferische ist rein und frei; das Gewordene
ist irdisch und gebunden. Diese Reinheit der Seele, diese
Fähigkeit des Schöpferischen ist dem Menschen gegeben,
sie ist von Gott, sie ist die Form seines Lebens, er ist mit
ihr und zu ihr geschaffen, damit er ein Schöpfer sei. Kraft
ihrer kann er die Freiheit erwerben, indem er das Gute
tut; die gute Tat, die er übt, ist die Emporführung, die Be?
freiung, die Verwirklichung seines Lebens, sie ist das Er?
lösende seines Daseins. In der Reinheit liegt der Grund des
Schöpferischen, sie ist das Geheimnis, und in der Freiheit
ist der Weg des Schöpferischen, sie ist das Bestimmte und
«Geforderte. Aus der Gewißheit des Geheimnisse^, der
^ Reinheit, erwächst die Gewißheit des Deutlichen, der Frei?
IS*
i
.8
I:
170
Die Ehrfurcht vor sich
Die unendliche Aufgabe
171
heit und ihres Gebotes. Wenn wir die Tiefe, den Ursprung
suchen, so erleben wir die Reinheit; wenn wir die Richtung
und die Bahn, das Ziel und den Zweck erkennen, so erleben
wir die Freiheit. Sie ist die Aufgabe, die der Mensch er^
füllen soll, die er erfüllen kann kraft der Reinheit der Seele,
die Gott geschaffen hat. Sie ist kein Geschenk göttlicher
Gnade, kein Erfülltes, das ihm zuteil wird, und das sein
Wesen wandelt. Sie ist das große Gebot seines Lebens, wie
ein altes Wort sagt: das, was auf den zwei Tafeln vom Sinai
geschrieben steht. Sie ist das, was der Mensch verwirklichen
soll, so lange er lebt und damit er lebe, damit sein Leben
Wirklichkeit werde, das, worin sein Wesen sich erschafft.
„Beobachtet meine Satzungen und meine Rechte, die der
Mensch üben soll, daß er durch sie lebe; ich bin der Ewige.*^
Damit tritt in das Leben des Menschen dieEhrfurcht
vor sich selber. In seinem Leben steht das, was sein
Leben ist und doch größer ist als sein Leben, das, worin sich
sein Menschentum, sein Menschlichstes kundtut, und was
doch ein Göttliches ist; in seinem Dasein, das geschaffen
ist, steht das Schöpferische, im Bedingten das Unbedingte.
Und dieses Größere, Schöpferische ist das^ Sittliche, das
Fördernde inmitten des Gegebenen, das FuKrende, Befreiende
inmitten des gebundenen Daseins. Sein Leben ist sein Leben,
das ihm zugekommen ist, und es soll doch zu einem anderen
Leben werden; denn es soll heiHg sein, und heilig sein be^
deutet: anders sein, anders als das Irdische und das bloß
Menschliche. Es soll durch seine Freiheit über sich empor^:
getragen werden. Der Mensch ist zum Gesetzgeber gegen:?
über seinem Leben bestimmt, wie Gott es ist. Die Empfin?
düng des Freien gegenüber diesem sittlich Höheren, diesem
sittlich Gebietenden ist die Ehrfurcht; wir können sie nun
vor uns selber, vor unserem eigenen Dasein hegen — wir
hegen sie vor uns selbst, aber nicht die Demut, die das Ge-
fühl der Kreatur ist, das wir darum nur unserem Gotte
gegenüber haben können. Wir erfahren um den Platz unserer
Freiheit, um unseren Platz, den wir in der Welt des Sitt*
liehen, in ihrer Unendlichkeit und Ewigkeit haben, um diesen
unseren Platz, von dem wir in die Unendlichkeit und Ewiges
keit der Pflicht hineinschreiten sollen, immer wieder uns
entscheidend und immer wieder beginnend. Und wenige
i'PvH'
Worte klingen so durch das Judentum hindurch wie dieses
ehrfürchtige der immer neuen Forderung. Der Weg, den wir
gehen sollen, bleibt immer unser Weg, er hat seine unbe?
dingte, unendliche Richtung. Wir sollen heilig sein, wie der
Ewige, unser Gott, heilig ist.
Ein unendliches Streben, eine Verwirklichung und Ent^
Wicklung ohne Abschluß ist hiermit dem Menschen auf*
gegeben, ein zu Erfüllendes, das doch immer ein Unerfülltes
bleibt. Der Maßstab, der an ihn gelegt wird, ist der
höchste, er wird an Gott gemessen. Hier scheidet sich das
Judentum von der antiken, zumal auch von der griechischen
Anschauung. Daß der Mensch mit seiner Tugend zur
Gottheit emportrachte, zu ihr sittHch hinaufstrebe, liegt der
griechischen Weisheit fern, ganz abgesehen davon, wie
wenig die Gottheit hier überhaupt das sittliche Ideal bietet,
„gtrebe du nicht, Zeus zu sein", dieses pindarische
Wort steht gleichsam am Eingang der Religion. Infolge?
dessen fehlt hier dem sittlichen Ringen die unendliche
relipjiöse Hn|;]^gflrichhin0. Der an'fiken Leoensbetrachtung is
eine gewisse Selbstzufriedenheit eigentümlich; ihr fehlt das
Gefühl des Abstandes vom Ideal, diese heilige Uny.ii|^jp.dpTig
heit, weil ihr der Gedanke der unbedingten rtUcht fehlt.
Man vergleiche nur das echtTielTefiri&cTre^ des sterbenden
Julian : „Ich sterbe ohne Reue, wie ich ohne Schuld gelebt
habe** etwa mit der Erzählung vom Tode des Moses oder mit
dem Satze des Buches Hiob: „Siehe, seinen Heiligen traut er
nicht". Für die Religion Israels ist das Gute ohne Ende. „Eine
Pflicht erzeugt die andere*'. Das Sittengesetz, dessen „du
sollst*' nie aufhört, tritt vor den Menschen und fordert sein
Leben, damit es ein Teil dieser Unendlichkeit werde; bei dem
Gebote, das an ihn ergeht, steht das Wort: „ich bin der Ewige,
dein Gott!" Sein sittliches Bewußtsein ist das Bewußtsein
unendlicher Aufgabe, die seine Aufgabe auch ist; es wird zur
Ehrfurcht, die er vor sich selber, zur Ehrfurcht, die er vor
seinem Leben empfindet.
Aber diese unendlicheAufgabe vermag der Mensch
nur mit seinem endlich enKönnen zu lösen. „Der Tag
ist kurz, und der*^rbeit ist viel'*. Der Mensch wird immer^
hinter dem Ideale zurückbleiben. Seine ganze Schuldigkeit
kann niemand je getan haben. Ein Beispiel religiösen Schein*
'T'->'^-*f--—
172
Weg und Ziel
Besitz und Ideal
173
M
i
Wesens ist im Talmud der „Fromme", der selbstgerecht
spricht: „Ich habe alles getan, was mir aufgelegt ist; nennet
mir was ich noch tun soll". Gegenüber der Forderung, heilig
zu sein, wie Gott heilig ist, kann niemals eine Erfüllung mög^
lieh sein, geschweige denn der Anspruch, mehr geleistet zu
haben, als geboten ist. Vor Gott, so wiederholen es Lehre
und Gebet des Judentums, gibt es kein Verdienst. Wir
können strebende, ringende Menschen sein; fertig, vollendet
und vollkommen sind wir nie. „Es ist dir nicht gegeben, die
Arbeit zu vollenden, und du bist nicht befugt, dich ihr zu
entziehen".
Auch in die Ehrfurcht vor dem eigenen Leben tritt so diese
Spannung, wie sie aller Religiosität hier eigentümlich ist,
wie sie in der Gottesfurcht und der Liebe zu Gott, in der
Demut vor ihm und dem Vertrauen zu ihm lebt — diese
Spannung zwischen der Nähe und der Ferne, zwischen dem
Besitz und dem Abstand. Das Ziel, das dem Menschen ge.
setzt wird, ist das Ferne, und der Weg, den er gehen soll, ist
das Nahe, und es gibt doch keinen Weg ohne das Ziel und
kein Ziel ohne den Weg. Das Sittliche ist unsere Aufgabe, m
unser Dasein hineingestellt, und jede sittliche Aufgabe ist
doch ohne Abschluß, immer wieder zur Weite hinausgerückt.
Unser Platz ist ein endlicher, und das Gebot, das an uns er.
geht, ist ein unendliches, und es gibt doch keinen Platz ohne
das Gebot und kein Gebot ohne den Platz des Menschen. Es
ist die Spannung zwischen der Reinheit und der Freiheit,
zwischen der WirkUchkeit und der Verwirklichung des
Lebens. Nur weil die Seele rein ist, weil sie diese Göttlich*
keit, diese Wirklichkeit des Daseins besitzt, ist sie frei, kann
sie ihr Leben, ihr Göttliches verwirklichen, und doch
nur, wenn sie frei wird, wenn sie ihr Leben verwirklicht, b e *
sitzt sie ihre Reinheit, besitzt sie ihr Leben. Die Reinheit
ist uns gegeben, sie ist in uns, unsere seeUsche Wirklichkeit,
gleichsam die QeburtjunsßiÄJLSeele, und die Freiheit ist von
uns gefordert, sie steht vor uns, um erst verwirklicht zu
werden, das Wachstum der Seele zu sein. Das Eigene wird so
immer wieder zum Ziele, und das Ziel ist doch immer das
Ich, das Eigene. Und so kommt mit der Spannujig die Sehn*
sucht immer wieder, diese Sehnsucht nach sich selber, die
Sehnsucht des Reinen nach der Freiheit und die Sehnsucht
4
:l
^^
')
[\r<:
V '' '
- w ' >
des Freien nach der Reinheit, dieses Besitzen, das immer ein
Suchen ist, ein Suchen des Unendlichen, und dieses Suchen,
das doch immer um sein Besitztum weiß, sein Besitztum im
UnendHchen. Die Nähe kann auch hier nicht ohne die Ferne
sein und die Ferne nicht ohne die Nähe. Das Leben, das der
Mensch erwählt, ist sein Weg, der Weg, welcher zu Gott
führen soll, der ewige Weg der Unendlichkeiten, aber es ist
der Weg, der vom Menschen ausgeht, mit jedem Menschen?
leben, mit jeder seiner Stunden wieder beginnt — auch hier
wieder das Leben mit seiner Spannung und seiner Sehnsucht.
Die dritte, große Paradoxie des Glaubens
offenbart sich hier in ihrer ganzen Bestimmtheit: der Kontrast
zwischen unserer Bedeutung und unserer Begrenztheit,
zwischen dem Idealen und dem Tatsächlichen unseres Da*
seins, zwischen dem Vertrauen zu uns, das uns das Größte
gewährt sein läßt, und der Ehrfurcht vor uns, die in uns
immer ein Kleines gegenüber einem Größeren sieht, dieser
Kontrast mit all seinem Widerstreit undauchseiner Dissonanz.
Wir sind zu dem Höchsten berufen und sind doch nie im*
Stande, bis zu ihm hin zu gelangen. Wir^ollen immer an uns
glauben und können doch nie ganz an uns glauben. Oder um
es begrifflich auszudrücken: das Gute ist immanent, die Habe
und Kraft unserer Seele, und es ist transcendent, die endlose
Aufgabe unserer Seele. Gott hat uns in seinem Ebenbilde ge*
schaffen, und wir sind die Kinder Gottes, so ist es die Wirk*
lichkeit unseres Lebens; und es ist doch wiederum das Ziel
erst, das Ziel der Ferne, daß wir Gott ähnlich, daß wir Kinder
Gottes seien. Wir sollen heilig sein, aber es gibt keinen
Heiligen auf Erden. Auch Moses hat gefehlt undMigtjunpLjsjeiner
Sünde willen dahingegangen. Die Gegensätzlichkeit, daß die
Religion uns einen unvcTlierbaren Wert zusagt, und daß sie
doch einen unerfüllbaren Wert immer wieder von uns fordert,
scheint so unser Leben zu ergreifen, mit ihrer Tragik es zu
erfassen.
Es ist die letzte, die vollendende Paradoxie der Religion.
Die erste war die des geschaffenen Menschen mit
ihrem Gegeneinander der Empfindung, daß Gott der Fernste
ist, der in der Erhabenheit Wohnende, heilig, von allem
Menschlichen geschieden, und daß er doch der Gegenwärtige
ist, der Gott meines Herzens, allem Menschlichen in seinem
Hl» I I WH I I
174
Die Paradoxien
Die Verantwortlichkeit
175
:!■•
li
Tiefsten verbunden, daß er der Unergründliehe, Unnennbare
ist und doch der Grund meines Lebens, der Name meiner Ge.
wißheit, daß er der Ewige ist, von dem alles Leben kommt.
Die andere, weiterführende war die der men sc hlich e n
1- r e i h e i t , das Gegenüber dessen, daß der Mensch ein Gc
schaffener ist und doch ein Schöpfer, daß er in die Welt hm.
eingestellt und doch ein Selbständiger ist, daß sem Anfang
ihn bindet, und er doch seinen Weg gehen kann daß sein
Leben ein Beschiedenes, Bestimmtes ist und doch erwählt
und bestimmt werden soll, gegeben und doch geboten^ üie
letzte ist nun die des M en seh en wer t e s daß das
Leben, da Gott es geschaffen, sein Ewiges, seinen bleibenden
Sinn besitzt, und daß es, da wir Menschen es schaffen sollen,
ohne diese unsere Tat im Irdischen, Nichtigen, Sinnlosen
bleibt, daß es sein Göttliches hat und doch sein Göttliches
erst verwirklicht, daß es Gottesschöpfung ist und doch des
Menschen bedarf, um zum Gottesreiche zu werden — das
Leben des Menschen, der heilig werden soll. In dieser letzten
Gegensätzlichkeit verweben und beschließen sich die beiden
anderen, das Gefühl der Kreatur eint sich darin mit dem sitt^
liehen Gefühl. Die Paradoxie der göttlichen Nähe und Ferne,
wie der Mensch, der um seine Geschaffenheit weiß, sie er.
fährt, tritt nun auch in die Paradoxie seiner Freiheit, so daß
nun auch sein Handeln die Gegenwart wie die Erhabenheit
Gottes erlebt, in der Aufgabe des Lebens die eine, in dem
Zwecke seines Lebens die andere — die sittliche Nähe und
Ferne des Daseins. Der BundGotte§ mit dem Menschen und
der Bund des Menschen mit Gott, das Geheimnis des Ur.
Sprungs und die Klarheit des Gebotes klingen jetzt zusammen
zur Geheimnisklarheit des menschlichen Lebens, zu seiner
Bedeutung, zu diesem Geheimnis und dieser Klarheit, in denen
die gewisseste Gewißheit, die verbundenste Verbundenheit
wohnt, zu dieser Einheit, die aus dem Gegensatze hervor
spricht — eine religiöse WirkUchkeit darum und nicht ein
Postulat der Philosophie, nicht ein Satz des Glaubens nur,
sondern das Leben des Menschen.
Was diese dritte Paradoxie sagt, gewinnt den um so be.
stimmteren Accent, als im Judentum die stete persön.
liehe Verantwortlichkeit des Menschen, die
R e c h e n s c h a f t , die er Gott schuldet, betont wird. Die
UnerfüUbarkeit des Ideals wird durch diesen Gedanken des
Bekenntnisses vor Gott, der Prüfung vor ihm immer wieder
zum Bewußtsein gebracht. Der gebietende Gott ist der rieh,
tende, der allgegenwärtige und allwissende, der Gott der
Wahrheit, vor ihn ist die menschliche Freiheit hingestellt.
Gott ist „der Richter der ganzen Erde", „der kein Ansehen \
kennt und keine Bestechung nimmt". Der Ewige „erforschte
das Herz und prüft die Nieren, um jedem zu geben nach |
seinen Wegen und der" Frucht seiner Taten". „Wohin soll 1/
ich gehen vor deinem Geiste und wohin vor deinem Ange.
sieht fliehen!" In ähnlicher Weise spricht es die mündliche
Lehre aus: „Du wirst gerichtet jeglichen Tages". „Wisse,
was über dir ist: ein Auge sieht, und ein Ohr hört, und alle
deine Taten werden in ein Buch eingeschrieben." „Er ist \
Gott, er ist der Bildner, er ist der Schöpfer, er ist der
Wissende, er ist der Richter, er ist Zeuge, und er ist der
Kläger, er wird richten". Anfang und Ende des Lebens, Gc.
burt und Tod sollen an das Gericht gemahnen: „Wisse, woher
du gekommen bist, und wohin du gehst, und vor wem du Ver.
antwortung und Rechenschaft wirst abzulegen haben". Als
der Beginn aller Sünde gilt es, zu wähnen, daß es „kein Ge.
rieht und keinen Richter gebe". Diese Idee der Verantworte
lichkeit vor Gott ist dann auch zur Predigt des Jahres ge.
worden, zum Gedanken des{N e u j a h r sle^_e s:\ Seinen
eigentlichen Charakter, der ihm geblieben istJi^rdieses Fest
erhalten, indem es zum „Tage des Gerichtes" geworden ist,
zu dem Tage, an dem die Seele ihre Pflicht des Bekenntnisses
vor Gott wieder erlebt.
Es ist das Gebot der Gebote, daß wir unser Tun immer
von neuem an der Bestimmung prüfen, die Gott uns gesetzt
hat. Die Forderung, die an das menschliche Leben ergeht,
erhält damit ihr Maß, das Maß des nie Beendeten, nie
Fertigen, alle Aufgabe gewinnt die Weite des Ernstes und in '*
ihr den Sinn der persönlichen Lebensaufgabe. Der Mensch
wird gegenüber seinen Tagen zum Richter, der das Urteil
des Gottesgebotes spricht, erhoben über Menschenrücksicht
und Menschenmeinung. Seine Freiheit ist nun die der Gottes,
furcht; sie tritt in die Unendlichkeit und Ewigkeit ein. Seine
Selbsterkenntnis wird zum Blick auf das Ideal. Und dieses
Ideal ist das des Tuns, keiner bloßen Erleuchtung des Wissens,
i III" IT ' -iiiifaMr ['
176
Die Sünde
und diese Selbsterkenntnis darum die Prüfung des Menschen^
w eges mit seinem steten Anfang und seinem steten Abstand;
sie ist kein Ausruhen der Seele, die befriedigt ist, daß sie um
sich weiß, sondern in ihr ist das Drängende, der Antrieb der
Bewegung, die Mahnung zu immer neuem Beginnen, zu immer
neuer Entscheidung. Die Ehrfurcht vor dem Göttlichen lebt
in ihr. Sie ist die Selbsterkenntnis des Freien, der um seine
Freiheit weiß und in ihr die Absolutheit des Gebotes erlebt,
und nicht dessen nur, der um seine Geschaffenheit, um seine
schlechthinnige Abhängigkeit bloß erfährt; sie ist dieErkennt^
nis des Weges und nicht des Platzes nur. Und es ist der Weg
Gottes, der dem Menschen gewiesen ist.
So steht der Mensch in dem Gerichte des Ewigen, vor
ihm, vor welchem er nicht bestehen kann. Jede Pflicht
unseres Lebens, von der höchsten bis zur germgsten, ist
Gottes Gebot; alles.^mtundiiiimerbl_ejb_Qnj^^ schuldi^./>
Wir bleiben Gott schuldig, das ist das Menschliche unsQreäXjj
Wesens, sein Erdenhaftes, das Schicksal unserer Freiheit, ihrV
Geschaffenes; es ist so die Paradoxie des Gebotes. Aber
menschliche Selbständigkeit, diese Gabe des Weges, kann
auch Schuld und Schicksal bereiten, sie kann zur Unfreiheit,
dieser Freiheit des Schicksals werden. Der Mensch begeht
auch die Schuld, indem er gegen das ist, was Gott fordert,
und nicht nur dahinter zurückbleibt, indem er das Gebot
Gottes verläßt oder verwirft und so sich von der Freiheit ab^
kehrt, in welcher sein Ursprung, seine Reinheit sich verwirke:
liehen will. Seine Tat wendet sich von Gott ab und verneint
den Weg vom Menschen zu ihm; sie wird das Gottwidrige,
das Verleugnende undZiellüse oder, wie die Bibel es nennt,
d i e S ülTde. ISie en'Eerntihn von Gott zur Losgelöstheit und
Richtungslosigkeit, zur Einsamkeit hin. Es ist nicht jenes
Alleinsein, das in allem Menschlichen liegt, noch jenes
^ eigenere, in dem die Seele zu sich kommt und zu ihrem
Schöpfer gelangt, sondern es ist ein Alleinwerden, die Verein:«
samung und Heimatlosigkeit dessen, der sich verliert und
sich verläßt, seinem Ursprung, seiner Reinheit sich entzogen
"und entfremdet hat. Das Leben der Seele ist nun keine Ent^
faltung und Erfüllung, kein Wachstum mehr; das, was ihr
nicht zugehört, das Fremde, das Nichtreine tritt in ihr Dasein
ein. Sünde, so lehrt es die Bibel, ist Unreinheit, Abfall, nicht
Das Schicksal
177
ein Schaffen, sondern ein Sterben, ein Sinken und EnU
schwinden des Lebens. In der Sünde ist das Leben nur noch
Schicksal, Bedingtheit, der Mensch wird das Objekt seines
Geschickes, sein eigenes Objekt. „Seine Schuld macht den
Frevler zum Gefangenen, und in den Banden seiner Sünde
wird er gehalten."
Es ist seine Sünde. Er hat das Schicksal ergriffen und es
damit zu seinem Schicksal gemacht. Gott hatte „das Leben
und das Gute und den Tod und das Böse vor ihn hingelegt".
Es gibt für das Judentum nicht d i e Sünde, sondern nur die
Sünde des Menschen, die Sünde deslndivirs
d u u m s. Das Judentum kennt nicht den Mythos der Sünde,
diesen Schicksalsmythos — sein Prophetismus hat die An?
sätze dazu überwunden — , nicht die Urschuld, das Sünden*
e r e i g n i s , dessen Wirkung und Objekt der Mensch ist. Die
Sünde ist ein Schicksal, das der einzelne Mensch sich be?
reitet, indem er sich enteignet, sich zum Objekte macht. Er
ist nicht in der Schicksalssünde, sondern in seinem Sünden*
Schicksal. „Dejne Sünde", „dji hast gesündigt", „die
Seele, welche sündigt", so wird hier zum Menschen ge*
sprochen. Darin ist nicht vergessen, was alles den Menschen
faßt und seine Kreise um ihn zieht. Die Religion schweigt
auch hier nicht vom Menschlichen, noch redet sie hinweg
über die Gebrechen und die Gemachte seines Wesens. Sie
sagt immer wieder, daß alles Leben ein Zurückbleiben ist, sie
erzählt auch von der Versuchung, von dem „bösen Trieb^V
von „der Sünde Verlangen" nach dem Menschen, sie weiß
von den Zusammenhängen und Verschlingungen des Lebens,
von seinen Erbschaften und Abhängigkeiten, von alle dem,
was aus dem Boden aufwächst, auf den der Mensch hingestellt
ist, und was vor der Tür seines Daseins steht, sie weiß von
den Gewöhnungen, von den Gängen des Bösen, von der Er*
kältung und Erstarrung des Herzens, von „der Sünde, die die
Sünde nach sich zieht", sie spricht von „der Schuld der
Väter" und von „der Schuld des Landes". Aber sie weiß
nichts von einem Bösen, das mit der menschlichen Natur not*
wendig gegeben ist. Sie kennt keine Erbsünde. Das Wort
Sünde ist hier nicht ein Wort vom Fatum, sondern ein Wort
des Urteils, des Urteils über menschliches Tun. Der Mensch,
der für oder wider Gott sein kann, bewirkt die Sünde, sie
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums ^g
178
Die Umkehr
y .V
\/
bleibt im Felde seiner Verantwortlichkeit. Er übt sie und
wird damit Opfer seines Tuns, oder, wie dafür auch gesagt
wird, die Strafe trifft ihn, die Folge dessen, was er getan hat.
Der gebietende, richtende Gott ist der strafende.
Um so bestimmter erhebt sich die Frage des Glaubens:
der Mensch steht vor Gott, aber wie kann er vor Gott be?
stehen? In uns ist das GöttHche, das Wirkliche; — aber
scheidet uns nicht unsere Sünde von Gott, von dem Grund
alles Wirklichen? Wir sind das Kind Gottes — aber hören
wir nicht auf, es zu sein, wenn das Gottlose, die Sünde von
uns Besitz ergreift, so daß wir ihr zugehören? Unsere Seele
ist rein, aber kann sie nicht unrein werden, wenn sie unfrei
wird, wenn sie sich dem Bösen, dem Zerstörenden unterwirft
und damit ihre Welt verliert? Kann sich dann nicht eine
Kluft zwischen dem Menschen und seinem Gott auftun, so
daß kein Weg mehr ist vom Menschen zu Gott und von
Gott zum Menschen? In einer Gewißheit, die die jüdische
Seele erworben hat, ist die Antwort darauf gegeben, so daß
jener Gegensatz sich überwindet, sich zu seiner Einheit
emporführt. Es ist die Gewißheit von der Umkehr, von
der Versöhnung, die in ihr bewirkt ist.
Der Mensch, so ist es die Bedeutung dieser Gewißheit, der
Sinn, den sie dem Leben wiedergibt, kann umkehren. Er
kann zu dem Gebot und zu dem Ursprung seines Lebens,
zu seiner Freiheit und Reinheit zurückkehren, er kann zu
dieser Wirklichkeit seines Lebens zurückgelangen und damit
zu Gott immer wiederkehren. Er kann, wenn er gesündigt
hat, immer wieder anders werden, sich zu dem zurückfinden,
was das Andere, das Heilige, das nicht nur Irdische, nicht
nur Gebundene seines Lebens ist, er kann sich wieder heiligen,
sich läutern und sühnen. Er kann sich immer wieder ent:»
scheiden, immer wieder beginnen. Dem Leben des Menschen
wird der Anfang immer neu gewährt, der Anfang bleibt
ihm die stete sittliche Möglichkeit, sein sittliches Eigentum. ^^
Die Aufgabe der Wahl und Verwirklichung, der Freiheit und
ihrer Tat hört niemals auf. Kehret um! so spricht hier das
Leben zu den Menschen, so lange sie leben — kehret um, und
nicht, wie die Verkennung es irreleitend übertragen hat: tut
. Buße! „Kehre um einen Tag vor deinem Tode". Diese Unis;
kehr, die Teschuwah, ist die Versöhnung, die nie genommen
Das Bleibende
ist, in ihr kann sich das Leben des Menschen immer erneuen.
Als eine Offenbarung vom Leben ist es so im Judentum
erfahren worden: Der_Weg bleibt immer, der, der dem
Menschen gegeben, und der, der von ihm gefordert ist, der
Weg von Gott zum Menschen und der Weg vom Menschen
zu Gott. Wir sind von ihm abgewichen und in die Irre ge^
zogen, aber darum besteht er doch, zu uns hingehend und
yon uns ausgehend. Der Bund zwischen Gott und dem
Menschen ist ein ewiger Bund; er bleibt. Wir haben uns
ihm entfremdet und haben uns entweiht, aber darum bleiben
wir doch das Geschöpf Gottes, von ihm geschaffen, um
selbst zu schaffen. Unser Leben hat von Gott her sein Ge?
heimnis und sein Gebot, es hat seinen ewigen Grund und
sein ewiges Ziel. Auch wenn wir gegen Gott gesündigt
haben, bleibt doch unserem Leben dieser sein Grund mit
seinem Geheimnis, bleibt ihm dieses sein Ziel mit seinem
Gebot. In der Sünde wurde unser Leben verneint und ge?
spalten, es wurde mit sich selber entzweit. Aber die Kraft
der Bejahung und der Einheit ist in uns gepflanzt, uns ist
unsere Seele gegeben, und sie kann immer wieder die „ganze
Seele'* werden. Wir hatten uns enteignet, aber unser Eigen
bleibt. Wir stehen nicht unter dem Fatum, unsere Sünde ist
nicht die Sünde, sondern unsere Sünde, wir haben sie be*
gangen, und wir können umkehren, zurückkehren zu unserem
Ursprung und unserer Bestimmung, zu dem Sinn unseres
Lebens. Auch Sündenschuld und Sündennot sind hier nicht
Schicksalstragödie, sondern Tragödie des menschlichen WiU
lens, des Willens, der aus der Reinheit erwächst und in der
Freiheit wachsen soll, der in der Sünde sich entwurzeln will
und doch nie entwurzelt sein kann, der in der Sünde sich
zu krümmen und zu winden suchte und trotz allem sich
wieder aufzurichten vermag. Es ist des Menschen Sünde,
und er kann darum zu sich zurückkehren. Die Wurzel und
der Weg, die Reinheit und die Freiheit bleiben.
'Beides ist daher in der Gewißheit der Versöhnung: die
Tiefe und die Bestimmtheit, die Gewißheit dessen, was Gott
immer dem Menschen ist, und dessen, was der Mensch
immer vor Gott sein soll. Beides wird hier gleich erlebt, daß
der Mensch das Geschöpf Gottes ist und nie aufhört, es zu
sein, und daß er ein Schaffender sein soll und immer wieder
12*
180
Die Versöhnung
anheben kann, es zu werden. Die beiden religiösen Grunds:
erlebnisse des Judentums werden hier eins: das Ewige tritt
in das Menschliche ein und das Menschliche in das Ewige.
' Alle Versöhnung ist Versöhnung des Endlichen mit dem Un?
endlichen, Überwindung derjernejdurch die Nähe. Wie ein
alter Satz von derVersöhnung. der die \V ortender Bibel er^
klären will, es sagt: „Dein ist sie, o Gott, und unser ist si»^.;
so hat dein Prophet gebetet: „bringe uns. Ewiger, zu dir zu?
rück, wir kehren zurück!"; so hast du es geboten: „kehret
zurück zu mir, ich kehre zu euch zurück!" Zu einem Worte
des Bekenntnisses ist es von Rabbi Akiba ineinander ge?
fügt worden, er hatte darin das Eigenste seiner Religion bc^
zeugen wollen: „Heil euch, ihr Israeliten, vor wem läutert ihr
euch, und wer läutert euch? Euer Vater im Himmel ist es!"
Beides wird gleich stark empfunden. Zunächst das, was
der Ursprung seines Lebens dem Menschen kündet. Unser
Leben behält seine Bedeutung, selbst wenn es seine Bestimm
mung verlieren will. Wasjjns von_Gott.,gegjeb£n_ist^ann
uns nie genommen sein, selbst wenn wir dem, was Gott von
uns fordert, untreu geworden sind. Gott ist der Gott der
Nähe, der gegenwärtige^Gott, auch wenn die Sünde den
Menschen von ihm entfernt hat. Der Mensch ist von Gott
geschaffen; er ist das Ebenbild Gottes, das Kind Gottes
trotz allem. Er bleibt es kraft seines Ursprungs, mag auch
sein Tun es verleugnen. Rabbi Meir hatte so den Gedanken
der Versöhnung gefaßt: „Kinder seid ihr dem Ewigen, eurem
Gotte, auch wenn ihr nicht als Kinder Gottes euch bewährt.*'
Unser Leben, so wird es hier immer wieder erfahren,
kommt von Gott, dem Einig^Einzigen, und ist er auch der
gebietende, richtende, strafende, so ist er doch der Gott der
Liebe, der Gott, mit dem wir verbunden bleiben. Er ist unser
Gott, auch wenn wir gesündigt haben, und daher ist unsere
Sünde nicht allein das Entscheidende vor ihm; „nicht nach
unseren Sünden tut er uns, und nicht nach unserer Schuld
vergilt er an uns". Der Bund Gottes mit dem Menschen ist
nie zerrissen. Um ein Wort des Talmud anzuführen: „Gott
spricht gleichsam: „ich bin derselbe, ehe der Mensch ges;
sündigt, und nachdem er gesündigt hat", und darum hat einst
Moses gerufen: „Der Ewige, der Ewige!" — wir hatten ge?
sündigt, wir sind fortgegangen, Gott ist derselbe gebÜeben.
Die Vergebung
181
(
Und so heißt dann auch einer der alten Meister tröstend zu
den Sündern sprechen, die vor der Vergeltung bangen:
„Wenn ihr vor Gott hintretet, tretet ihr nicht vor euren
Vater im Himmel"? Gott bleibt uns nahe, auch wenn wir
uns von ihm abwendeten, von seinem Wege abwichen, wenn
unsere Sünde uns von ihm entfernte. Der eifervolle, ahndende
Gott hört nie auf, der liebende Gott zu sein, oder wie der
Prophet diese Paradoxie zu fassen suchte: Gott „denkt im
Zorn an das Erbarmen". So haben die alten Erzählungen es
von den Kindern Israel gesagt, die ihre Sünde von Gott fort^
geführt, von ihm vertrieben hat: Gott geht mit ihnen. So
singt auch einer der Dichter des Mittelalters, Salomo
Gabirol: „Ich fliehe vor dir zu dir" — seine Sünde verjagt
den Menschen gleichsam von Gott, und doch auch in dieser
Unstetheit verbleibt er mit Gott geeint, '^on Gott verbannt
und doch in ihm geborgen, vor ihm zu ihm hin fliehend.
Der Gott der Ferne bleibt unser Gott, der Gott der Nähe;
wir sind immer bei ihm, er immer bei uns.
Alle die Worte von der göttlichen Liebe und Q'vX^y von
seiner Barmherzigkeit und Gnade gewinnen nun diesen neuen
persönlichen Klang, den Ton der Milde und Vergebung, der
Langmut und Nachsicht. Gott „vergibt Schuld, Missetat und
Sünde", er ist „gütig und verzeihend, voll Liebe allen, die ihn
anrufen". Er ist der, der „sich finden läßt" von dem auch,
der gesündigt hat. Er richtet den Menschen empor, tröstet
ihn und nimmt ihn auf. Alle seine Erhabenheit offenbart
sich in dieser Erhabenheit des Vergebens, dieser Unendlich:^
keit des Verzeihens. Wie der Talmud sagt: „Das ist Gottes
Größe, daß er geduldig und langmütig gegen die Frevler ist".
Und wenn im Menschen die Sehnsucht zu dem göttlichen
Erbarmen hinzieht, die Sehnsucht nach der Nähe Gottes,
dieses Verlangen nach der Unendlichkeit, dieses hoffende
Fragen, so lebt in ihr jetzt dieses Neue auch, das Verlangen
nach dem Vergebenden, nach dem unendlichen Vergebenden,
dieses suchende Wissen darum, die Sehnsucht nach der Verj^
söhnung. Es ist das Heimweh der Seele, das darin spricht,
die Sehnsucht nach ihrer Reinheit und ihrer Freiheit — nicht
nach einer Exlösung yr>n Vy^^^ \x^^ Frd^nHfl^gi", sondern
na^hder^^ersöhijung, nach dieser vergebenden, befreienden
ewißheit, im Erdendasein die Nähe Gottes zu eigen zu
r)
,l.Oj
182
Der Weg zur Versöhnung
haben, den Grund des Lebens zu besitzen. In ihr versinkt
die Einsamkeit, welche die Sünde um die Seele gebreitet
hatte; nur der Sehnsuchtslose ist ganz allein. Und auch alle
die Tragik des Menschendaseins, das sich gebunden fühlt,
das mit einem Entfremdenden, Verneinenden immer zu
ringen hat, vor das immer das Gute und das Böse hingelegt
sind, findet nun ihre versöhnende Antwort; es weiß, daß es
ins Irdische hineingestellt, aber nicht im Irdischen beschlossen
und beendet ist. Gott tritt vor den Menschen hin, Gott
spricht zu ihm: „Ich habe vergeben". Sein Leben behält
seinen Ursprung.
Aber ebenso sehr soll es seinen Weg behalten. Ebenso
wie die Nähe Gottes betont das Judentum sein Gebot, die
Pflicht menschlicher Verantwortlichkeit, und gerade hierin
hat der jüdische Versöhnungsgedanke sein Eigentümliches.
Der Mensch soll umkehren. „Es verlasse der Frevler seinen
Weg und der Mann des Unheils seine Gedanken und kehre
um zum Ewigen, er wird sich sein erbarmen, zu unserem
Gotte, denn er ist reich an Vergebung". Versöhnung ist hier
nicht bloßes Werk der Gnade, ein Erlösungswunder, das dem
Erkorenen zu teil wird, sondern sie fordert den Menschen,
sie fordert seinen sittlichen Entschluß, seine freie Wahl und
Tat. Sie hat ihren Weg, der im Menschen beginnt. Auch in
ihr ergeht an ihn das Du sollst, auch in ihr ist als gebietendes
Wort zu ihm gesprochen: ich, der Ewige, bin dein Gott.
Ihm wird kein Unbedingtes schlechthin geschenkt, er soll
sich vielmehr für ein Unbedingtes entscheiden. Seine Tat
ist der Anfang der Versöhnung. Auch die Versöhnung ist
die des schaffenden Menschen. So sagt der Talmud es
wieder in seiner Gleichnisrede: „Zuerst spricht zu uns, die
wir gesündigt haben, der gebietende Gott, und erst wenn
wir ihn vernommen, spricht er zu uns als der Gott der Liebe;
darum heißt es im Psalm: „Gerecht ist Gott in allen seinen
Wegen und Uebevoll in all seinem Tun" — vorerst gerecht
und dann voller Liebe". In der Umkehr des Menschen
hebt es an. - —
Dem Verhältnis des Menschen zu Gott ist damit auch
hier seine sittlicheUnmittelbarkeit gegeben, der
ReHgiosität ihr Persönliches und Freies, ihr Ehrfurchtsvolles.
Der Sünder soll selbst sich zu Gott hinwenden, nachdem er
Die sittliche Erlösung
^
sich von ihm abgekehrt hatte; es ist seine Sünde gewesen,
und seine Umkehr, seine Umwandlung soll es sein. Niemand
kann ihn darin vertreten, niemand es ihm abnehmen, nie^
mand kann für ihn büßen und ihn rechtfertigen, niemand
von Gott die Sühne für ihn verlangen. Niemand ist zwischen
ihm und Gott, kein Mittler und kein Geschehenes, kein Er* t
löser und kein Sakrament. Er selbst muß sich reinigen, um *
wieder rein zu werden, er selbst frei werden, nachdem er
sich unfrei gemacht hatte. Vor ihm Hegt der Weg, den er
gehen soll. Nicht der Glaube und das Vertrauen allein ist
darum genug und ein Genugtuendes, nicht die gläubige Z\u
versieht auf Gott und noch weniger die gläubige Zuversicht
auf ein vollzogenes Heil. Auch hier können wir glauben, nur
wenn wir tun, was unser ist. Auch unser, unsere Aufgabe
und unser Weg ist die Versöhnung. Gegenüber der paulini::
sehen Erlösungslehre ist gerade dies zum Erkennungszeichen
geworden. Hier besonders wurde der Gegensatz empfunden.
Jenes Wort des Rabbi Akiba hat hier seinen anderen starken
Ton: vor eurem Vater im Himmel läutert ihr euch.
In dem Erlebnis von der Versöhnung schließt sich am
innigsten zusammen, wxxriaalle jüdische Religiosität lebt: Ges^t
heimnis und Gebot, Grund und Weg, Gewißheit der ge^'
währenden göttlichen Liebe und Gewißheit der gebietenden
göttlichen Gerechtigkeit. Beides ist hier zu einem See^
lischen geworden und gibt dem Menschen seine innere Ein*
heit, gibt dem Glauben, der ihn fragt und ihm antwortet, sein
Ganzes: das Vertrauen auf Gott mit seinem Besitz und die
Ehrfurcht vor Gott mit ihrer Forderung, beides in einem.
^ Die Versöhnung ist Andacht und Aufgabe, zu einem ge*
worden. Die beiden Grunderlebnisse der Religion, das vom
Geschaffenen und das vom Schaffenden haben hier ihren
alles befassenden Einklang und der Glaube an Gott damit
seinen abschließenden Ausdruck. Und mit ihm der Glaube
an den Menschen; auch er ist in seinem Letzten, Vollenden*
den Glaube an die Versöhnung, an diese sittliche Erlösung,
die eigene, die des Mitmenschen und die der Menschheit.
Das Judentum ist Versöhnungsreligion; dem Sinn
des Lebens gibt es damit seinen Schlußsatz. In einem alten
. Gleichnis ist dies gesagt: „Zweck und Ziel alles Werdens
ist die Versöhnung". „Es ward Abend und es ward Morgen
I
■V
«•^•»7"
»MI ■■ »» MI
184
Das Opfer
1^
— ein Tag, das ist der Tag der Versöhnung". Die aufbauende
Sitte des Judentums hatte diesen Gedanken auch gestaltet.
Der Versöhnungstag ist zum heiUgen Mittelpunkt des Jahres,
zum höchsten Fest geworden. Er ist zusammengefügt mit
dem Neujahrsfeste, dem „Tag des Gerichts", um, wenn das
Jahr beginnt, zum Menschen von seiner Verantwortung vor
Gott, von dem, was die Versöhnung fordert und gibt, zu
sprechen.
Solange der Opferdienst innerhalb des Judentums
bestand, oder wenigstens so weit er seine gläubige Anerkenss
nung fand, hatte die klare Bestimmtheit der Versöhnungsidee
allerdings eine gewisse Schranke. Als gottesdienstliches EIcj;
roent der Sühne schob sich das Sühnopfer, wie ein Mittler, —
der spätere Mittlerglaube knüpft darum an das Sühnopfer
auch an — zwischen den Menschen und Gott. Es sollte eine
Brücke sein zu dem versöhnenden Gotte hin, aber es trat da^s
mit doch zwischen den Menschen und seinen Gott. Ein
Mann aus der Zeit nach dem zweiten Tempel, Rabbi Eleasar,
hat das sichere, kühne Wort gesprochen: „An dem Tage, da
der Tempel zerstört ward, ist eine eiserne Mauer gefallen, die
sich zwischen Israel und dem Vater im Himmel erhoben
hatte". Es war das Wort eines Mannes, der der Lehrer vieler
war, und von dem wir es wissen, daß er auch sonst, immer
von neuem, es betonte, daß das Gebet mehr sei als das Opfer,
daß die Andacht, die innere Bewegtheit den Menschen erst
mit Gott verbunden sein lasse. Aus etwas späterer Zeit
stammt dann der Satz, daß die Thora gesprochen habe: „Der
Sünder bringe ein Schuldopfer, und er sei gesühnt", daß Gott
aber spreche: „erjvollbringe die Umkehr, und er ist gesühnt".
Und auch dieser Satz ist nicht vereinzelt. Etwas von der
alten eifervollen Rede der Propheten spricht darin, etwas
von ihrem sittlichen Kampf, den sie mit ungekanntem, offen?
barendem Pathos einst dagegen geführt hatten, daß in einem
ÄußerHchen ein Wesentliches bedingt oder gegeben sein
sollte, daß ein Opfer, geschweige eine „Gabe des Falschs",
zu Gott hinführen könnte.
Der Opferkult, das kann nicht geleugnet werden, war
lange Zeit für die Erziehung des Volkes von großer Be*|
deutung gewesen, er hatte in tiefsinnigen Symbolen, in gQf
heimnisvollen Formen so manchen religiösen Gedanken den
Die Sühne
185
Gemütern nahe gebracht; er hatte die Hingabe an Gott, den
Gehorsam gegen ihn und auch die Forderung der Sühne und
Buße eindringlich gepredigt. Aber von da an, wo die Idee
der Versöhnung zu ihrer Bestimmtheit durchgedrungen war
— und es ist kein Zufall, daß das in einer opferlosen Zeit ge?
schah — hatte sich das Sühnopfer, und damit der ganze
Opferdienst, überlebt. Er verliert seitdem denn auch tat*;
sächlich immer mehr von seiner alten Geltung, und als er
vermöge der Macht der geschichtlichen Geschehnisse schließss
lieh aufhört, begreifen und bekennen es die Besten in der
Gemeinde, wie wenig er für die Versöhnung wesentlich ge?
wesen sei. Mit neuer Kraft erwacht der alte prophetische Ge?
danke, daß Gott ,,Liebe_verlangt und_ni£]iLQpler", daß „das
Opfer Gottes eur'zerknirsditer Sinn ist", daß Gott nicht <fl
„Opfer geboten", sondern „Gerechtigkeit und Recht" und
„Gehorsam gegen seine Stimme"; und es wird wieder aus*
gesprochen, daß allein die freie sittliche Tat des Menschen
seine sühnende Leistung ist. „Mehr als alle Opfer ist Wohl?
tun, ist Andacht, ist Umkehr, sind die Worte der Thora."
„Umkehr und gute Taten", „Umkehr, Wohltun und Gebet", ^ ^^^"^
diese Begriffe werden jetzt zu einer religiösen Einheit gefaßt,
und ihre Verbindung wird ein dauerndes Gut der religiösen
Sprache. Was dem Opferdienst seine Idee und seine sittj^
liehe Bedeutung gegeben hatte, bleibt dadurch gewahrt, daß
die Forderung des Wohltuns, dieses Opfers der guten Tat,
dieses Gottesdienstes im Leben so den Platz zu eigen nimmt,
den das Opfer des Altars besessen hatte. Das Opfer tritt
aus dem Tempel, diesem Vorhof des Lebens, in das Lebenfn
eini die Sühne und Buße in ihr innerstes Heiligtum, in das\/
Herz des Menschen, wo die Propheten und Psalmisten ihnen
die Stätte aufgezeigt hatten. Dem Menschen wird die religiöse
Selbstgewißheit, diese seelische Freiheit damit gegeben. Und
in ihr ist es ermöglicht und bewirkt worden, daß das Juden*
tum den Opferkult schlechterdings hat abstreifen könne a,
ohne irgend welches Sakrament oder Mysterium als Ersatz
für ihn einstellen zu müssen.
Der Gedanke der Läuterung auch gewann nun seinen
klaren Gehalt. Auch er war durch das Opfer nicht selten ge*
trübt worden; das Wort: „Waschet, reinigt euch, schafft
fort die Bosheit eurer Taten mir aus den Augen, hört auf,
WBUXJC
l
186
Die Umwandlung
Die Wiedergeburt
187
Böses zu tun, lernt Gutes tun!" war ein stetes Thema prophe»»
tischer Predigt gegen das Opfer gewesen. Jetzt, wo das
Opfer aufgehört hatte, war der Forderung der Reinheit ihre
ganze Unmittelbarkeit, ihre Unbedingtheit gewahrt. Der
Mensch, welcher umkehrt, so wird es jetzt ganz ergriffen,
wird geläutert, gereinigt. Ein Verderbtes, Befleckendes in
seinem Leben ist beseitigt, und ein Echtes, Gesundes beginnt
wieder. Damit wird er wieder rein; alles Anfangende, Ein:*
setzende. Entscheidungsvolle im Sittlichen, im Religiösen hat
seine Reinheit, sein Schöpferisches. Der Begriff der Bessc:*
rung reicht nicht für das aus, was der Mensch hierin erfahren
kann und erfahren soll, ganz wie der Begriff der Verfehlung
nicht für das ausreichte, was er begangen hatte. Die Seele
erlebt eine Umwandlung, und es ist nicht eine sittliche
Umwandlung bloß, sondern eine religiöse. Geheimnis und
Gebot verwirklichen sich in ihr. Es ist ein Zurückkehren
in die Schöpfung, in den Ursprung; das Göttliche, das Reich
Gottes wird dem Leben wiedergebracht. Kein Einzelnes ge^
schiebt, sondern ein Ganzes, nicht ein Schritt nur, sondern
ein Weg ist es. In dem Innersten, dem Persönlichsten des
Menschen, in seiner Reinheit und Freiheit, seiner Ganzheit
geschieht es; alles Umkehren ist ein „Umkehren mit ganzem
h\ Kerzen und ganzer Seele". Es ist „ein Neubruch", wie die
'^ Propheten sagen.
Das Neue vollzieht sich so im Leben durch die Umkehr
— auch das Wort n e u in dieser religiösen Bedeutung ist
eines von denen, welche die Bibel gegeben hat; der Mensch
gewinnt ein neues Dasein oder, um mit dem Propheten zu
sprechen, „ein neues Herz und einen neuen Geist". „Werfet
von euch alle eure Missetaten, in denen ihr gesündigt habt,
und schafft euch ein neues Herz und einen neuen Geist!"
Diesen prophetischen Gedanken hat die Haggada aufgc:»
nommen. Der Mensch, so wird hier gesagt, wird durch die
Versöhnung neu geschaffen, er wird religiös wieder:«
geboren. Er erreicht das wieder, was die Liebe Gottes
ihm von Anfang an gegeben, die Gerechtigkeit Gottes ihm
von Beginn an geboten hatte; er gewinnt wieder die Reinst
heit und die Freiheit, er erlangt gleichsam seine Geburt
wieder. Die Sünde hatte ihn enteignet, ihn seinem Ge^
schaffensein, seiner Beschaffenheit entfremdet, ihn von
■» '•a
I
V.
•^!
seinem Wege, seiner Aufgabe fortgezogen; jetzt steht er
wieder in dem Eigentum seines Lebens, in dem, was sein
Leben von seinem Ursprünge her hatte. Die Sünde war das
Zerstörende und Vernichtende, die Krankheit seines Lebens;
jetzt ist er genesen, er ist wieder belebt, wieder in seinem
Leben. Die Schuld hatte ihn „gefesselt", ihn zum Knechte
gemacht; durch die Versöhnung wird er „ausgelöst", die
Ketten werden von ihm genommen; er ist befreit und er?
löst. Sein Leben hebt wieder an.
In dieser seelischen Erfahrung von der Wiedergeburt des
Menschen, von seiner Freiheit, die sich in seinem Neuwerden
offenbart, spricht jenes Eigentümlichste des Judentums. Die
Wiedergeburt wird als die Schöpfung, die der Mensch voll?
führt, hier erlebt. Seine Geburt war das Geheimnis, das, was
an ihm geschah; seine Wiedergeburt ist das, was er tut, seine
Entscheidung, sie ist seine freie Umkehr zum Ursprung, zum
Geheimnis. Ohne seinen Willen ward er geboren, durch
seinen Willen wird er wiedergeboren. Sein Dasein ward ge*
schaffen, und er selber schafft es neu; er gibt sich seinen An?
fang wieder. Es ist die Schöpferkraft des Menschen, die sich
darin verwirklicht — wie ein Wort des Rabbi Chanina es
sagte: „Wenn ihr die Gebote Gottes beobachtet und voll?
bringt, so ist es, als vollbringet ihr euch selbst, ajs schaf feUfar
euch selber": der Mensch bildet sich selber neu, wenn er zu
Gott zurückkehrt. Und dieser Gedanke setzt sich noch
weiterhin fort. Es ist ein Satz in dem alten Schrifttum: „Gott
hat an die Welt geglaubt und sie geschaffen; nicht böse zu
sein, sondern gerecht zu sein, sind die Menschen geworden"
— das Wort des Moseh wird so gefaßt: „er ist der Gott des
Glaubens, und es ist kein Fehl an ihm"; wenn der Mensch
umkehrt, so stellt er diesen göttlichen Sinn und Zweck der
Welt, welcher an seinem Teile zerstört war, wieder her, er
baut Leben wieder auf als Leben, wie Gott es geschaffen, so
daß Gott an seine Welt wieder glauben darf. Der Mensch
setzt die Welt in ihren Bestand wieder ein; seine Umkehr "y
Jgt_£ipe Redingung der Welt. Die sittliche Kraft iiTiKremTBe?
deutungsvollsten Sinn wird dem Menschen damit zuge?
sprochen, und der Talmud konnte darum die Hyperbel
wagen: „Dort, wo die Menschen der Umkehr stehen, ver?
mögen die vollkommenen Gerechten nicht zu stehen." Es
I
188
Die Verantwortung
Die unendliche Pflicht
«=-^
ist die entscheidende sittliche Freiheit, die sich in der Um:=
kehr erweist.
Wenn so der Mensch zu seiner Reinheit und Freiheit zu=
rückkehrt, so hört seine Sünde auf, zu ihm zu gehören; sie
hört auf, seine Sünde zu sein, sie hat nicht mehr den Platz
in seinem Leben. „So fern der Aufgang ist vom Untergang,
läßt er unsere Vergehungen ferne von uns sein". Oder wie
die Bibel auch sagt: Gott „löscht die Missetat des Menschen
aus", er läßt sie „wie eine Wolke, wie einen Nebel" schwing
den. Mit feinem psychologischen Blick bemerkt der Talmud,
daß des Menschen Schuld durch seine Umkehr den sünd*
f haften Charakter verliert; „was Absicht gewesen war, steht
nun als Versehen da". Es ist in der Tat so. Wer vom
i falschen Wege sich zum rechten zurückgefunden hat, war
' ^HL^^-O-Iriender, denn er hat wiedergefunden. Jetzt, wo er
umgekehrt ist,^licTcf"ermif-5eine-lSunde"aIs auf ein Fremdes. /
Sein Verhältnis zu ihr ist ein anderes geworden. Da er sich
frei zu Gott zurückgewendet hat, so ist die Sünde nun äußere f^,
halb seines Lebens, so wie der Irrpfad nicht mehr sein Weg ['
ist, wenn er die rechte Bahn wieder beschritten hat. Er ist
von der Sünde fortgegangen.
Dadurch, daß so die menschliche Freiheit zu einem
Wesentlichen der Versöhnung wird, ist die Gefahr der
„demütigen" Selbstgerechtigkeit und SelbstgefäUigkeit ver.
mieden, jenes Hochmutes des Büßers, der es meint, nun
fertig zu sein, da Gott vergeben habe. Gott kann alles ge^
währen, aber der Mensch kann nicht alles leisten. Für ihn
liegt auch in der Umkehr die unendliche Aufgabe. In der
wiedergewonnenen Freiheit ruht die neue Verantwor=:
t u n g , in der wiedererlangten Reinheit ist der neue Boden
der Pflichten geschaffen. Der Mensch hört nie ganz auf, der
VersQJmungbedürftig zusein. Dalier das mahnende Wort: v
„KehrTzu Ciott zurück einen Tag, ehe du stirbst"; „kehre
zu Gott zurück alle deine Tage". Zwar spricht sich auch,
besonders in den Psalmen, mit ergreifenden Worten das Ge^
fühl der Unschuld aus; doch was hierin zum Ausdruck
kommt, ist nur das starke Bewußtsein des Verfolgten und
Bedrückten, sjj^jiclijiöhei^zu stehen als seine Verfolger. Und
weit häufiger als^das"^vird im Judentum da^ Wort ver=:
nommen: „Um unserer vielen Sünden willen!", dieses Wort,
189
i
t
das immQr wieder das eigene Leben befragt und die Schuld
in der eigenen Brust sucht. In den Gebeten des Judentums
bildet es den eigenen Ton, der es kündet, wie innig das
seelische Bedürfnis nach der Versöhnung geblieben ist, wie
die Herzen voll waren der steten Sehnsucht, nicht nur von
den Sorgen und Nöten, von den Gefahren und Ängsten, son*
dern zumeist und vor allem von der Sünde erlöst zu werden.
Erst wenn die Versöhnung sich nicht an dem bloßen
persönlichen Heilsbewußtsein genügen läßt, trägt sie diesen
neuen sittlichen Antrieb in sich. Sie führt dann zur sittlioben
Vertiefiing. In der Läuterung, die der Mensch vollbringt, vev^
innerlicht sich sein Gewissen. Wenn eine Hemmung der
Gemeinschaft mit Gott überwunden ist, dann wird diese Ge*
meinschaft um so stärker empfunden; sie wird gesichert und
(j\ gefestigt. DieJVersöhnung mit Gott gewirkt eine Steiger\ing
N--der_sittlichen^raft; die Frucht der Versöhnung ist die Got^
/ tesfurcht. Das ist es, was das Psalm wort sagen will: „Bei
dir ist die Vergebung, auf daß du gefürchtet,
w e r d e s t". In der Ehrfurcht vor Gott ist der seelische Be^*
ginn aller Versöhnung, und in der Versöhnung wächst die
Ehrfurcht vor Gott mahnend und fordernd im Menschen auf.
Sehnsucht und Gebot werden auch hier eins. Ein Wort wie
dieses Psalmwort wäre im Buddhismus nicht möglich;
er findet sein Ideal in dem Menschen, der „sich selbst nicht
tadelt", und „wie ein schöner Lotus am Wasser nicht hängt,
so nicht am Guten und Bösen klebt", sondern „sowohl guter
wie böser Tat sich entwunden hat". Der Charakter der Ver*
söhnungsidee, wie sie das Judentum lehrt, ist es, — und das
stellt sie dem buddhistischen Erlösungsgedanken prinzipiell
gegenüber — daß für sie die Erlösung kein Ziel des
A usrj^h en s ist, sondern die Forderulig desTnimer
weiteren sittUchen Aufstiegs, dieMahnungandieend*
lose Lebenspflicht sein soll.
So führt denn auch die Versöhnung zu dem unendlichen
Gebote: „Heilig sollt ihr sein, denn heiHg bin ich, der Ewige,
euer Gott". Der Mensch wird heilig, wenn er sich als das
Ebenbild Gottes beweist, wenn er durch seine Tat das Gött^
liehe offenbart, durch seine Reinheit und Freiheit bewährt,
daß er Gott zugehört. Damit erkennt er Gott als den
Heiligen an, „er heiHgt Gott". Schon die Bibel hat es so be*
'>
iitinti "irWridiltfitiHywuJ
>^.^
mmmt^
190
Die Heiligung des göttlichen Namens
Der Märtyrer
191
• nannt. Und seine bestimmte und klare Ausprägung hat es
dann in der späteren Entwicklung erhalten: in dem wichtigen
Begriffe des Kiddusch haschem, der „H eiligu n g des
göttlichen Namen s", einem Begriffe, dessen volle Be^
deutung sich freilich erst in einem anderen Gedankengange
zeigen wird. Jede sittliche Tat, so wird es betont, jede Ent*^
Scheidung zum Guten, aber nur sie, nichts anderes als sie,
„heiligt den göttUchen Nanien"; sie ist eine Bekundung und
Verwirklichung des :^öttlichen, durch sie wird ein HetUgtum,
eine Stätte des Guten auf Erden gegründet, dem Gottesreich
ein Platz bereitet. Jede unrechte Handlung, jede unreine Ge*
sinnung, jede sittliche Schwäche ist eine „Entweihung des
göttlichen Namens"; durch sie wird ein Stück Welt entgött^^
Hcht, wie ein altes Gleichnis dichtet: Gott von der Welt und
die Welt von Gott entfernt. Der Mensch vollbringt es so.
„Wenn ihr euch selber heiligt", so heißt es im Talmud, „dann
habt ihr Gott geheihgt". „Wenn Israel den Willen Gottes
übt, so ist Gottes Name in der Welt verherrUcht, und wenn
Israel den Willen Gottes .nicht ühf; so* ist Gottes Name in
der Welt entweiht". Oder wie ein anderes Wort, das des
Simon ben Jochai, sagt: „Ihr seid meine Zeugen, spricht der
Ewige, und ich bin Gott" — wenn ihr meine Zeugen seid, bin
ich Gott, und wenn ihr nicht meine Zeugen seid, bin ich
nicht Gott." Der Mensch wird ein Zeuge dessen, daß es
einen Gott gibt; am Menschen wird Gott erkannt. Das
sittliche Tun wird zum Gottesbeweis. Weniges ist so
sprechend wie die Tatsache, daß gerade dieser Begriff der
„Heiligung des göttlichen Namensl', wie kaum ein anderer,
im Judentum volkstümRch gewox^d» :ist. In ihm wurde der
Inbegriff menschlicher" Verpfli^htUife vor Gott gefundöh. *
Die Konsequenz dieser Forderung ist das Mär*
tyrertum. Es ist die eigentlichste Heiligung des gött*
liehen Namens, der eigentliche Beweis, den' der Mensch er*
bringt, daß Gott ihm sein Gott ist; nicht über die Stunde nur-
wird hier beschlossen, sondern über das Leben, das Sein oder
Nichtsein wird zum Zeugnis von Gott. C^ Freiheit des
\j Menschen vor Gott, die reUgiöse Vettihrtwoftwi| hat hier ihr
^ Schlußwort, ihr letztes Ergebnis, d^v Heroisipu.s wird zum
Gebote. Wenn es die unbedingte Pflichfl^t, sich für Gott zu
entscheiden, dann ist die Grenze der menschlichen Existenz
keine Grenze der Pflicht. Alles Leben ist gegenüber der
Weite seiner Aufgabe gering, auch das inhaltvollste Dasein
bedeutet wenig gegenüber der unendlichen sittlichen Forde*
rung. Sie reicht über alle Tage des einzelnen Menschen
hinaus, und darum gehört es ihr zu, daß das Erdendasein für
sie eingesetzt und aufgeopfert werde; das Gebot ist mehrals^
alles Menschendasein^In ihm verwirBicht sich ersTaTles ^
Leben, und diese Hingabe des Daseins ist daher die wahre
Erfüllung des Daseins, oder wie das Wort Akibas, der selbst
ein Märtyrer geworden ist, es sagt: die Erfüllung des Ge*
botes, „Gott zu lieben mit ganzer Seele, mit ganzem Leben".
Der Mensch, der ein Märtyrer wird, richtet seine religiöse
Persönlichkeit, seine Liebe zu Gott über sein Dasein auf, er^Vv^
läßt den ewigen Wert seiner Seele sprechen. Das Erden*
dasein erfahrt, wie^esT)ezwungen und beendet wird, aber das
rehgiöse Dasein erlebt, wie es überwindet, wie das Gebot
Gottes in ihm siegt, das Gottesreich seinen Platz behäh. Es
ist die Freiheit des Menschen, die damit siegt. Der Mensch
bleibt auch gegenüber dem Toder qin Wählender, er erwählt
den Willen Gottes, er erwähh durch den Tod sein Leben.
Im Martyrium hört der Tod so auf, ein Schicksal zu sein,
er ist nicht mehr das bloße Ende des Lebens. Er wird eine
Tat, die der Mensch vollbringt, eine Tat seiner Freiheit,
seiner Liebe zu Gott — nicht nur, wie im Menschen, welcher
Hand an sich legt, ein, verzweifelter oder ruhiger, Verzicht
auf das Leben, das sich beugende Zugeständnis an das
Schicksal. Während sonst der Tod bindet und widerlegt, der
Widerspruch gegen das Schaffende ist, wird er hier zum Be*
weise des Schöpferischen, des Freien* im Menschen. Der
Mensch verwirklicht durch den Tod * das Gebot, und, wie
jenes alte Gleichniswort sagt, er schafft damit sich selber;
der Tod wirdso zur Bejahung, zur sittlichen Antwort, welche
die Seele gibt. Mit dem Geheimnis vereint sich nun in ihm
' das Gebot. Während er sonst, ganz wie die Geburt, das Da*
seinslos ist, wird er jetzt zur Entscheidung, zur Gestaltung
des Daseins, zuK Erfüllung dessen, worin alles Gebot befaßt
ist, Gott zu llgbfeh, seinen*Namen zu heiUgen. Der Tod tritt
in das „Du sollst" des Menschen, in die Ethik, in seine Frei*
heit ein; der Todesmythos — und alle Schicksalsmythologie
hat in ihm einen Anfang — ist damit überwunden. Auch der
Wt^^^^^"^
. iii^Mitiiii ( m I '<
l-fiWiHi
192
Das Geschichtsmartyrium
%
Sc
r-
Gedanke des Opfers erhält nun seinen tiefsten Gehalt, die
ganze Bedeutung der Freiheit, er wird autonom. Der Mensch
bringt sein Dasein dem Gebote dar, er „gibt seine Seele hin
für die HeiUgung des göttlichen Namens".
Es ist ein Stolz des Judentums, daß Idee und Forderung
des Märtyrertums von ihm geschaffen worden sind. Von ihm
ist es ausgegangen, daß Menschen gelernt haben, im Innersten
um die Zugehörigkeit zu dem Einen zu wissen und an ihm
festzuhalten, das Kategorische, diese Unbedingtheit des Ge^»
botes als die Satzung ihres Lebens zu vernehmen und darum
mit ihrem Leben ihr zu antworten. Im Judentum und an
ihm haben Menschen gelernt, dieses Eigentum ihres
Lebens gegenüber allen Tatsachen, den jähen des Zwanges
und den langsamen des Gelingens, zu behaupten, gegenüber
allem Schein, wie ihn der Erfolg leiht, das Zeugnis der Echt^
heit zu erbringen, wie nur das Opfer es ablegt, zu erfahren
und darzutun, daß dem Menschen sein Unbesiegbares ge«
geben ist. Dies alles ist hier eine stete Lehre des Lebens ge*
wesen, eine Lehre für alle, eine Thora, nicht bloß ein er*:
habenes Sonderideal für wenige und nie auch ein bloßes Lied,
in dem das Empfinden sich dem Großen darbringen will.
Die Geschichte des Judentums ist der Beweis dafür. Und
auch darum ist sie nie ein bloßes Schicksal gewesen, sie ist
immer wieder zur Tat geworden. Wenn die Gemeinden des
Judentums ihre „Memorbücher" haben, ihre Bücher des Ge*:
denkens, die geschriebenen und die ungeschriebenen, in
denen die Glaubenszeugen verzeichnet sind, namenreich und
leidvoll wie in dem Buche keiner anderen Gemeinde, so
haben, gewiß, Seite an Seite die Geschehnisse gefügt aus allen
den Tagen, in denen die Vielen gegen die Wenigen, die
Widersprechenden drängten, die Faust nach dem Geiste v
schlug und den Körper traf. Die Gewalt, die zu widerlegen
und zu überwinden meinte, hat die Reihen der Märtyrer
wachsen lassen. Aber das Entscheidende ist doch immer der
Wille gewesen, der in diesen Menschen lebte, der Wille zum
Martyrium, der Wille, zu Ende zu handeln und nicht nur zu
Ende zu denken, dieser Wille zu dem einen Gott. Die Kraft
stand dem Zwang gegenüber, diese Fähigkeit, Subjekt
gegenüber dem Schicksal zu bleiben, zu erwählen und nicht
nur geschehen zu lassen. Diese Kraft erst ist Judentum, und
-c n^
vAAu
Der Wille zum Martyrium
193
darum hat das Judentum die märtyrerlosen Zeiten nicht ge^
kannt, diese glücklich^^unglückHchen Zeiten. Wie keine
andere Religion hat das Judentum das Bekenntnis ablegen
können, das der Psalm ausgesprochen hat, und das dann
Jahrhundert um Jahrhundert hat wiederholen müssen, hat
wiederholen dürfen: „Das alles ist über uns gekommen, und
wir haben deiner nicht vergessen noch verleugnet deinen
Bund. Nicht abgefallen ist unser Herz, noch unser Schritt
gewichen von deinem Wege Wahrlich wir haben nicht
vergessen den Namen unseres Gottes noch unsere Hände
ausgebreitet zu einem fremden Gott. Gott ergründet doch
dies, denn er kennt des Herzens tiefstes Geheimnis. Denn
für dich werden wir hingewürgt jeden Tag, werden geachtet
wie die Schafe der Schlachtbank.'*
Dieser Wille zum Martyrium ist das letzte Wort eines
Menschenlebens, und es wird dort gesprochen, wo die
anderen Worte, die Worte der Entscheidung, vorangingen.
Vor dem Martyrium im Tode steht das Martyrium im Leben,
vor dem Todesmute der Gesinnung ihr Lejigjisßiut, d^roft
weit schwerere. Der Heroismus ist nur das abschließende li
Gebot der jüdischen Religiosität, der stärkste Ausdruck ihres l\
Ernstnehmens. Weil die Ethik im Judentum ihr Unbeugs:
sames hat, ihr Unnachgiebiges, durch das sie der Welt über:;
legen bleibt, darum hat sie die Forderung aufstellen dürfen,
für die Pflicht „die Seele einzusetzen". Darum hat es hier zur
steten Erbesaufgabe werden können, für die Wahrheit be*:
drückt und verfolgt zu werden und, was oft tiefer noch trifft,
, u ^ für sie verhöhnt zu werden, für sie den Menschen ein Tor
und Narr zu dünken, ihnen um Gottes willen „ein Spott und \1};»>>
Gelächter" zu sein. Das Leid wird hier zum Wege der Freiheit,
der Name Gottes wird in ihm geheihgt. Und auch das alles
ist nicht bloß eine Stunde der Seltenen und eine Stimmung
der Vielen geblieben. Auch davon spricht die Geschichte des
Judentums. Sie ist ein einziges, unvergleichUches Zeugnis von
dem Heldentum der Gewissen, von dem Ideahsmus der Ent=
Scheidung, ein Zeugnis davon, wie dem jüdischen Volke seine
ReHgion immer sein Leben, sein Bekenntnis der Tat gewesen
ist. Der Jude hat seiner ReUgion die fides obstinata, die/ ^
^ 4^ „starrsinnige Treue", von der Taciius spricht, diese großeTS^
Unverführbarkeit bewiesen. Er Tiatimmer vermocht, auch
^
i'inA
Bacck, Wesen des Judentums
13
194
Der Idealismus
11
das Leiden zu erwählen, und der Tod blieb die letzte Freiheit.
Wo ein Jude da war, stand immer die Tatsache da, daß ein
Seelisches mehr bedeutete als die Welt, als alles, was sie gab
und was sie ersparte; alle die Nützlichkeiten und Annehmlich,
keiten der Erde waren stets auf der anderen Seite. Ein Stück
IdeaUsmus von jenem echten IdeaUsmus, der ein Vermögen
des Märtyrertums ist, war so immer im Juden bis hin zu dem
sittlichen Hochmut, in dem der Bedrückte sich emporreckt,
und es konnte das Wort gesprochen werden: „Ob er gleich
' gesündigt hat, so ist er doch ein Israelit". Es wird bisweilen
von Ethikern bedauert, daß heute zu wenig davon noch ge^
wüßt werde, was Martyrium ist, was es heißt, für die Wahr,
heit zu tragen und zu dulden, und daß darunter die sittliche
^^Schwungkraft, die Größe des sittlichen Denkens leide. Auch
^ 'darin erlebt das Judentum ein Schicksal. Wenn das Juden,
tum so weithin nicht begriffen wird, so wirkt hierbei das eine
auch mit, daß die persönliche, seeUsche Erfahrung des Mar.
tyriums und damit die Fähigkeit, es zu verstehen und mit.
zuempfinden, in so manchem erfolgreichen Bekenntnis seit
langem abhanden gekommen ist.
Im Martyrium wird die Wahrhaftigkeit zur Tat,
die G e s i n n u n g zur sittlichen Leistung, die alles einsetzt.
' Alle Wahrhaftigkeit ist ein Zeugnis, das der Mensch von sich
selber und vor sich selber ablegt, etwas, was er mit seinem
Herzen redet. Sie hat ihre Wurzel in der Forderung:^ „mit
deinem ganzen Herzen und mit deiner ganzen Seele!" Ge.
sinnung, Aufrichtigkeit bedeutet Ganzheit. In dem Glauben
an den einen Gott, in der Beziehung zu seinem unbedingten
Gebot, zu dem Entweder.Oder, vor das es den Willen hin.
stellt, in dieser Ehrfurcht vor dem gebietenden Ewigen hat
sich dem Menschen offenbart, was religiöse Wahrhaftigkeit,
was Überzeugung ist, seelische und nicht geistige Über.
Zeugung bloß, persönliche Überzeugung, die den ganzen
Menschen erfaßt, ganz sein Leben ergreift und bestimmt.
„Ganz sollst du mit dem Ewigen, deinem Gotte, sein!", das
ist das Wort dieser Wahrhaftigkeit, so wie es das Wort von
der Gottesfurcht ist. Die Wahrheit und das ganze Herz und
mit ihnen die Ehrfurcht stehen in der Bibel bei einander:
„Weise mir. Ewiger, deinen Weg, ich will wandeln in deiner
Wahrheit, laß mein Herz eins sein, daß ich deinen Namen
Y
Oi
Die Wahrhaftigkeit
f^^^'^^^^^^'^ Die Wahrhaftigkeit 195
fürchte"! „Fürchtet den Ewigen und dient ihm in Wahrheit
mit eurem ganzen Herzen!" „Und nun fürchtet den Ewigen
und dient ihm in Ganzheit und in Wahrheit!" Daran hat sich
die sittliche Wahrhaftigkeit entwickelt.
Die Wahrhaftigkeit ist, wie die Bibel hier sagt, ein Dienst
Gottes, etwas, was nicht nur die Seele hegt, sondern etwas,
was der Mensch gibt, was er verwirklicht, was sich in seinen
Handlungen ausspricht. Erst in ihnen lebt die Wahrhaftigkeit,
durch^e fechte Tat wächst-dieLXCchte .Gesinnung. Im Auf.
bau der Ethik und in der Folge ihrer Begriffe ist die Ge.
-r sinnung das Vorangehende, im Werden des sittlichen Lebens
'^ / ist aber die Tat das Vorherige. Die Gesinnung wird durch
die sittliche Tat zum Dasein und zur Gestaltung gebracht.
Wie der Prophet sagt: „In meinen Satzungen wandelt er, und
meine Rechte hütet er, Wahrheit zu üben". Und wie der
Psalmist es rühmt: „Der da wandelt in Aufrichtigkeit und
übt das Recht und redet Wahriieit in seinenTHerzen!" Die
Wahrheit steht am Schluß; die Handlungen formen und be.
stimmen die Regung und Richtung der Seele. Eine gerade Tat
erzeugt einen geraden Gedanken, ein Werk der Wahrheit
/ schafft Wahrhaftigkeit, ganz wie,, umgekehrt, der krumme
^^nf\ Weg zum krummen Denken führt. Wir glauben zuletzt
> ipper an das, was wir tun. Soll die Gesinnung lebendig sein,
so muß darum die Beständigkeit der Tat vor allem verlangt
werden. Damit wird die Gefahr auch, die in der reinen Be.
tonung der Gesinnung Hegt, vermieden, daß die Gesinnung
bloße Gesinnung bleibt, daß der Mensch sich mit ihr begnügt
und die Tat nicht mehr von sich beansprucht, ähnlich jener
Demut, die nur Demut ist. Alle Gesinnung, die nicht in der
.j|Tat lebt, in ihr geweckt und durch sie wach erhalten wird,
' ^; erstarrt und verkümmert. Erst in der Wahrheit des Lebens
entfaltet sich die Wahrheit des Herzens.
Weil im Judentum so der Tat ihr Vermögen, ihr erfüllen,
der Wert zuerkannt wird, konnte die Gesinnung um so be.
stimmter gefordert werden als ihr Inneres, ihre Seele, als das,
wodurch sie erst zu einem Ganzen und zu einem Person,
liehen des Menschen wird. Der Mensch schafft und gestaltet
die Handlung, daher soll sie von ihm zeugen, der Ausdruck
seiner Gesinnung sein; erst dadurch erhält sie ihre volle Be.
deutung, wird sie im vollen sittlichen Sinne seine Tat. Wir
13*
'::i^«i.^.^.;^^_^'
- — -a^
196
Die Gesinnung
Die Herzenspflicht
197
I
handeln, nur wenn wir so handeln, wie wir denken; wir
sprechen — auch unsere Rede ist unser Tun — , wenn wir so
sprechen, wie wir empfinden. „Unser Inneres soll wie unser
Äußeres sein". Auch das ist immer unter das Gebot der
HeiHgung des göttHchen Namens gestellt worden, unter das
Gebot der Anerkennung des richtenden, prüfenden Gottes;
er wird verleugnet, wenn der Tat des Menschen ihre Wahr^
heit fehlt. Das ist es, wodurch, nach einem talmudischen
Satze, der Heuchler zum Sünder wird: der Name Gottes wird
durch ihn entweiht. Ein bezeichnendes Wort hat Jochanan
ben Sakkai zu seinen Jüngern gesprochen: „Wer einVer^
brechen im Dunkeln übt, der stellt die Menschen über Gott"
— er fürchtet sich vor den Menschen, aber er fürchtet nicht
Gott. Und ein Ähnliches sagte Rabbi Jizchak: „Wer im Ge^
heimen sündigt, der handelt, als wolle er die Gegenwart des
allgegenwärtigen Gottes verdrängen". Oder, wie ein anderer,
späterer Lehrer meinte: %,Er jv^rwirft „die^JEhre seines
Schöpfers".
Von dem, was der Mensch vor seinem Gotte tut, gilt das
gleiche, wie von dem, was er zu seinem Gotte spricht. Wie
das Gebet, so „verlangt auch das Gebot seine A n d a c h t".
Es ist für die religiöse Auffassung des Judentums kennzeich^
nend, daß hier in der Sprache der Religion Gesinnung und
Andacht in einem und demselben Worte ihren Ausdruck
haben. Besser kann in der Tat die Gesinnung nicht benannt
werden als dadurch, daß sie Andacht sein soll, daß auch sie
den Menschen vor Gott hinstellt; Gesinnung ist die Andacht
des Gebotes. Die eine erfährt den liebenden Gott, die andere
den gebietenden. Daher der Schluß so vieler Gebote und be^^
sonders derer, deren Erfüllung am meisten die Gesinnung
fordert: „fürchte deinen Gott". So will es ein talmudischcr
Satz erklären: „Alles Gebot, das dem Herzen übergeben ist,
klingt in dieses Wort aus: „und fürchte deinen Gott!" Gott
ruft im Gebote den Menschen, so wie im Gebete der Mensch
zu Gott ruft; wie es das Herz ist, welches hier betend spricht,
so soll das Herz das Wort der Pflichten vernehmen und ihm
antworten. Das Gebet ist „ein Dienst im Herzen"; „ein Ge^^
bet ohne Andacht ist wie ein Körper ohne Seele". Und ganz
so das Gebot; auch hier „will Gott das Herz". Alle unsere
Handlungen erhalten ihren inneren Wert erst durch die Ge^
sinnung, die sich in ihnen ausspricht, durch die Reinheit und
Echtheit des Willens, aus dem sie hervorgehen. „Frage nicht,
. ob er großes, ob er geringes leistet, aber frage, qbseinJHgrz
--T^Gott zugewendet ist". Auch die Empfindungen, die Wünsche,
'Sie Bilder des Herzens sollen heilig sein; auch der sündhafte
Gedanke, auch die Sünde der Phantasie, ist eine Sünde. Mit der
Warnung vor diesem Vergehen, das nicht zur Tat wird und
das vielleicht garnicht zur Tat werden soll, vor dem bösen
Begehren und Gelüsten schließen die Zehngebote ab; auch ihm
gegenüber wird das strenge „du sollst nicht" gesprochen.
Sei wahr gegen Gott! so ist es hier das Gebot aller Gebote
geworden, je länger desto mehr, je mehr die Religion hinaus?
^i-*^ wuchs aus den Kindheitstagen mit ihrer Freude an der List, if^-p^"^
In dem Gedanken von der Geradheit und Ehrlichkeit vor
Gott gewannen die vielen Pflichten ein Verbindendes, das
eine, aus dem sie nun alle hervorgehen. Die Wahr heit sfor des:
rung durchdringt sie und erfüllt sie und macht sie zum ein?
heitlichen Glaubensbesitze. Zumal das Denken und Fühlen
• des jüdischen Mittelalters atmet in der Luft dieser Über?
Zeugung, daß der Wert einer Handlung, der sie vor Gott be?
stehen läßt, so daß in ihr das Gottesgebot erfüllt wird, in der
Reinheit ihrer Gesinnung zu finden ist. Gesinnung und Tat
sind hier für die ReHgion untrennbar. Das Sprechende und
Entscheidende der Tat ist ihr Inneres, ihre Seele. Und die
Bedeutung der Tat ist wiederum nicht nur das, was sie voll?
bringt, sondern das, was sie dem Herzen gibt, wie einer der
Denker des Mittelalters, Abraham ihn Esra, sagte: „Aller
r Gebote Wesentliches ist, das Herz des Menschen gerade
^\ werden zu lassen." Das Wort, Gott zu lieben mit ganzem
^ Herzen, mit ganzer Seele und ganzer Kraft, hatte hier wieder
seinen Klang. In der Gemeinde des Judentums sind wenige
Bücher so volkstümlich geworden wie des Bachja ihn Pakuda
„Buch von den Herzenspflichten'\ DiesesWort von dem
v/ V„völHgen Herzen", diese Mahnung zur „Lauterkeit der Hand?
.^ lung" hat aus ihm zumal immer neu zu den Gemütern ge?
sprochen, ihnen gesagt, wie in der Gesinnung, in der Wahr?
haftigkeit die Handlung erlebt wird und in der Handlung die
Gesinnung zur Wirklichkeit wird.
Mit der Wahrhaftigkeit ist zugleich die Selbstlosig?
k e i t im Handeln, seine Verinnerlichung bestimmt gefordert.
p^^
198
Die Selbstlosigkeit
Der Lohn
199
Wahr sein, vor Gott wahr, und selbstlos sein, das ist im
Gründe dasselbe. Wir sollen das Gute üben, wie die beiden
immer wiederkehrenden, einander entsprechenden Ausdrücke
wnTln'^ w''i V"" ''?'* ^'"^""' """^ Gottes
willen. ..Was du leistest, leiste es um Gottes willen" Wer
wert?"S "i! t"t """„des Guten willen, ist des Lebens 'iicht''-
Furcht vnrVT '^','i ^^'^'"'^' ^"^ L°^" ""'l "''^l^t von der
Furch vor Strafe sollen wir uns leiten lassen, sondern aus
Liebe recht handeln. „Was ihr tut. tuet es kur aus Li^be-
£rT2nen' S*'? "^'r^": f'' "^^'^^ ^'^ Knecht^die dem
seS wie rnt^r ^^"'".G^d^'^ken. Lohn zu erhalten, sondern
seid wie Knechte, die dem Herrn dienen ohne den Gedanken
Hei" mm" d '-r^ '" ^'^■•*"''^^* ^- ««« - "ber euch?'
„Heu hm! das rühmet von dem, der Gottes Gebote HehV
aber nichj von dem. der den Lohn der Gebote l2r Fa/e
mcht nach dem Lohn für das alles, sondern wisse hdf dem
hlrtd; tl% f !; "■^'^ t'^ ^^'^--hn. der daran fe^"
und ihre Gen « '-^l' '«/ hiermit gesagt, findet ihren Dank
wlkend S Tcfh" 'f ''^'= ^"'■'^^ ^^" S^^^"' den sie fort,
sä z mit ir? ^"^'' ""'^i'"' "^'^ ''^^'^ ^"n» Lohne. Der
ist JicTdt T rT'^^**^^" ''^^'^^'■- "L>ie Glückseligkeiti.
^iTa^irdt T -^t ^^-rrng:"Ln^^^^^^
Pflicht £ die Pflir"'^/? ^'' ^^*^'" «t^l^t= "Der Lohn der
Freikht^r? r" u'^ ^' ^^""^^^ ^^^ Sünde ist die Sünde".
kennt, wird es befireUen n v^ ,<^eschichte des Menschen
Entwckelung im Jüdin.; ^ . t ""'^ «^^^ ^'^ebnis dieser
von der Tat iC ~^'^ '«* ^^er dieses bestimmte, daß
uZXJttrLlltZTä R "^'f ' ^^ Selbstlosigkeit
^ u -LT ^, *"^"^" ist, und daß in der Stetigkeit der Auf
gäbe Ihr Lohn gefunden wird. Wie dieser Gedanke da« Be
TT '/ '- ''^°'^'" ''*' **^"«" -eugt wiederum
die gesamte religiöse Literatur des Mittelalters, die e nst^
I
4
mig es sagt, daß als gute Tjit nur die gelten darf, die um ihr^r*
selbst willen gewollt und getan ist. Nur sie ist, wie das alte
Wort sagt, aus „Liebe zu Gott" geübt.
Auch das darf "nicht außer Acht gelassen werden, daß in
der Lohneshoffnung oft etwas ganz anderes enthalten ist als
das bloße ausschauende Verlangen, das die Hand, welche
arbeitet, sogleich auch ausstreckt, als dieses bloße Begehren
nach bestimmter Vergeltung, nach sicherem Dankesgut. In
der Vorstellung vom Lohn ist nicht immer das nur befaßt, in
ihr spricht oft die sittliche Forderung, die Idee von der Folge,
von dem Ergebnis menschlichen Tuns. Der Gedanke von der
Verantwortung und dem Gericht und dieser Gedanke vom
Lohn gehören zusammen. Es ist der Gedanke, daß jede
Handlung ihre Wirkung im Leben dessen hat, der sie übte,
daß sie mit ihrem Schlüsse noch nicht ihr Ende in seinem Da^
sein gefunden hat. Jede Sünde, die der Mensch begeht, ist
seine Sünde, und sie zieht deshalb sein Ich in ihren Kreis, sie
zieht die Strafe nach sich; Gott ahndet die Schuld. Und jede
gute Tat, die er vollbringt, ist ganz ebenso seine Tat, und aus
ihr wächst darum etwas in sein Leben hinein, sie führt den
Lohn mit sich; Gott lohnt die Treue gegen sein Gebot
„Siehe sein Lohn ist mit ihm, und seine Vergeltung ist vor
ihm her". In der Hoffnung auf den Lohn dringt so die Hoff^
nung darauf hervor, daß das Gute trotz allem seine Frucht
bringen, daß es seinen Segen für den haben wird, der es
leistet. Und wenn sie in Bildern des Irdischen sich ausgs*
staltet, so ist dies oft nur der Ausdruck für die Zuversicht,
daß auf Erden, im Erdendasein des Menschen, das Sittliche
siegen werde. Der Zukunftsglaube des Einzelnen, gewisser^
maßen seine individuelle messianische Gewißheit bezeugt
sich darin. Der Mensch macht sich zum Subjekt seiner
Lebensgeschichte. Er wird hier wie das Subjekt seiner Sitt^
lichkeit, so das Subjekt seiner SeUgkeit; er will Zukunft für
sein Leben schaffen.
Es ist die reUgiöse Sehnsucht der Seele, die sich auch darin
wieder regt, diese Spannung zwischen dem, was ist, und dem,
was sein soll, zwischen dem, was dem Menschen gegeben,
und dem, was ihm verkündet ist. Die Sehnsucht nach dem
Glücke ist dem Menschen eingeboren, seine Sehnsucht nac)i
einer idealen Welt offenbart sich darin. In seinem Streben
rl>^
200
Die Sehnsucht
Das ewige Leben
201
und Ringen, sein Leben zu schaffen, sich als Menschen, den
Gott berufen hat, zu bewähren, lebt doch zugleich das
Träumen und Sinnen davon, wie sein Leben erfüllt und be^
friedet sein wird, das Dichten von dieser Zukunft, in der sein
Eigenstes sich wird aufrichten können und seinem Besten
Recht gegeben sein wird. Es ist bezeichnend, daß in der
Heiligen Schrift für den l^lu;! so häufig das Wort J^jst ge^
braucht wird. Es ist dasselbe, was Kant „das Vertrauen auf
die Verheißung des morahschen Gesetzes" genannt hat. Jedes
Ziel stellt zugleich eine Verheißung dar, jede Forderung gibt
zugleich ein Versprechen. Von dem Streben, vollkommen
zu werden, ist das Streben nach S e Hgk e i t niSSffeKht ab.
zulösen; Vollkommenheit und SeligEHTverbinden sich zu
einem. Es ist eine echt menschliche Hoffnung, daß „djejmt
Tränen säen, mit Freuden ernten werden". Wir sollen fromm
sein um unseres Lebens willen, aber wer will nicht auch
leben, glücklich leben in seiner Frömmigkeit? Wo
das PfHchtgefühl nicht zum kalten seeHschen Mechanismus
erstarrt ist, dort regen sich diese Hoffnung und dieses Be.
gehren. „Der Mensch der Sehnsucht", um mit
Pascal zu sprechen, ist nicht notwendig ein anderer als
der Mensch des PfÜchtgefühls und des Gewissens; sie sind
meist ems. Und diese Sehnsucht ist es oft, die im Lohn,
gedanken zum Ausdruck kommt.
Sie ist es auch, die die Grenze des Erdenlebens über,
schreitet und jenseit der Mühe und des Scheines dieser Welt
die wahre Wirklichkeit findet. In der religiösen Gewißheit
*r^'" ^'^F^'^^'^^^^^^^i^ i^ das Leben des Menschen 'ein, m sein
Geschaffensein wie in sein Schaffen. Der Ursprung aus dem
Itwigen ist ihm gegeben, und dieser Ursprung entschwindet
nie, auch im Tode nicht, hört nie auf, sein Ursprung zu sein.
Der Weg zum Ewigen ist ihm gewiesen, und dieser Weg ver.
hert sich nie, auch im Tode nicht, hört niemals auf, sein Wep
zu sein. Die Richtung des Lebens wie seine Tiefe streckt sich
llLw ^r^.^^^,d^t Erdendaseins hinaus, über Anfang und
1. l ^-^ ^ ^J^ ^f ' Gottes,»bleibt der ewige Grund und
das ewige Ziel. Das Leben des Menschen ist mehr als die
Daseinsenge hienieden. Sie mit allen ihren Mängeln und
Schranken, ihren Nöten und Leiden ist, wie die alten Gleidv
nisse sagen, eine Stätte der „Vorbereitung- nur, „eine Voxl
*:
i
halle"; sie ist „das Leben der Stunde". Das wahre Leben ist
„das ewige Lebe n". Der Mensch ist bestimmt, anders
'^ als diese Welt zu sein, heilig zu sein. Als das Ebenbild Gottes
gehört er dem anderen, dem höheren Leben an; er ist „ein
Kind der kommenden Welt". Als die Kraft, als die Wirklich,
keit seines Daseins ist das Seelische, das Gute in ihn ge.
pflanzt, und dieses Wirkliche seines Lebens ist über Sterben
und Untergang erhaben. Sein Leben bleibt Leben auch über
den Tod hinaus.
' Von dieser Gewißheit des ewigen Lebens wird die Ein.
samkeit des Menschen überwunden, jene Einsamkeit dessen,
der anders ist, emporgehoben über die Welt, und doch sich
von dem Unendlichen ihres Geschehens und ihres Geschickes
umfaßt sieht. In dem Glauben an Gott hatte der Mensch
über das Alleinsein hinausgelangen können; in dem Ge.
danken der Unsterblichkeit, zu dem dieser Glaube wird, ge.
winnt die Zuversicht ihren neuen Klang, die Paradoxie von
der Ewigkeit des Sterblichen, von der Göttlichkeit des Men.
sehen ihre neue Bestimmtheit. Im Tode will die einsamste
Einsamkeit, das Schweigen der Antwortlosigkeit, ihre Pforte
vor dem Menschen auf tun, das Tor zu dem Wege hin, den er
für sich zu gehen hat, und von dem keiner, der ihn beschritten,
ihm kündet. Aber durch dieses Tor zieht er nun zur Ewig,
keit ein, der er angehört, zu der großen Antwort, in der die
Fragen seines Lebens, alle seine Paradoxieen beschlossen
sind. Mit dem ersten Menschen kam die erste Einsamkeit in
die Welt. Denn sie ist immer dort, wo einer verbunden und
doch anders ist. .Die Blume im Walde und das-Tier in dei^
Wildnis sind nicht einsam, und Gott in seinen Himmeln ist
es nicht. Erst der Mensch ist einsam, er, der geschaffen ist
wie die Welt und doch anders als sie. Die erste Einsamkeit w.
kam so, als die erste Sehnsucht kam, die Sehnsucht dessen,^^
der gebunden und doch emporgezogen ist. Und diese Einsam^»
keit und Sehnsucht des Menschen ist in seinem Sittlichen
auch, ist die Sehnsucht des seelischen Strebens und Ringen^
die Einsamkeit dessen, der nach dem Ideale sucht, das Ver.
langen in sich trägt nach der ewigen Bedeutung des Lebens,
nach seinem Hohen und 'Göttlichen, nach seinem ihm ge.
wiesenen bleibenden Wert. In der Gewißheit des ewigen
. Lebens, des Lebens bei Gott hat alle diese Sehnsucht ihr Ziel,
"'■» >-..■
202
Die große Versöhnung
Das Jenseits
203
alle diese Einsamkeit ihre Erfüllung. Die Spannung in der
Menschenseele, die von der Erde zur Höhe emporblickt, von
der Erde her sich zur Höhe emporgerufen hört, kann nun
sich befreien. Das Wort der Erlösung von der Einsamkeit,
^^-•^er Ruhe in der Sehnsucht, das Wort Friede i^t das Wort
C^Jrom ewigen Leben.
Des Menschen Geheimnis und sein Weg haben nun ihre
^ letzte Bedeutung. Verborgenheit und Geborgenheit in einem,
' diese bergende Tiefe des Daseins, das war das Geheim*
n i s , wie die jüdische Seele es erfaßt hat. Das ewige Leben
läßt jetzt das Verborgenste, des Dunkels Dunkel, den Tod,
zum Eingang werden in die Hut, die ewig i)ehütet — Ver^»
borgenheit und Geborgenheit in einem; Gott nimmt den
iVlenschen auf, den er geschaffen. Anfang und Endlosigkeit
in einem, diese stete Aufgabe des Daseins, das ist im Juden*!
tum der W e g des Menschen, die bleibende Bestimmtheit, die
von seinem Vollbrachten fordert und seinem Erreichten zeigt.
Das ewige Leben läßt den Beginn zur Dauer werden — An*
fang und Endlosigkeit in einem; in Gott findet der Mensch,
der zum Schaffen geboren ward, sein Ziel. Geheimnis und .
* Weg, sie hatten sich zur Versöhnung verbunden. Der
Mensch gelangt zur Tiefe seines Lebens, zu dem, was das
Heilige seines Daseins ist, wieder hin, er kehrt zu seinem
Gotte zurück; so war es der Sinn der Versöhnung gewesen.
Und ganz so ist es der Sinn der Unsterblichkeit. Die Ewig*
keit ist die große Versöhnung der Endlichke it.
Das Irdische versöhnt sich mit der Unendlichkeit. Alle Ver*
söhnung ist in ihrem Grunde dies: Versöhnung des End*
liehen mit dem Unendlichen. Als die Umkehr, die TeschuA
^^wah war im Judentum das Geheimnis, dSs~zum Wege wird,
-^^--«^der Weg, der zum Geheimnis wird, erkannt worden. Und
diese Teschuwah bedeutet der Tod. Er ist die große Rück*
kehr, die große Befreiung von dem bloß Irdischen und
Bindenden,^ die Erde schwindet und die Ewigkeit nimmt auf.
„Der Staub kehrt zur Erde zurück, wie er gewesen ist, und
der Geist kehrt zu Gott zurück, der ihn gegeben hat". Es
ist der eigenthche Sinn des Vergöhnunjgsgedank im Juden*
tum, daß das Leben des Menschen wieHeFBeginnen kann.
Mit dem Tode kommt der entscheidende, der beschheßende
Beginn, die letzte Wiedergeburt, die Neuschöpfung, die alles
befaßt — der ganze Weg und das ganze Geheimnis. Reinheit
und Freiheit in ihrer letzten Erfüllung, die große Versöhnung,
das ist das ewige Leben. Der große Sabbat vnvä^s darum
genannt, ganz wie der Versöhnungstag, „der Tag, der voUig
Sabbat ist und Ruhe des Lebens der Ewigkeit". Es ist der
große Friede. Der Lebende sucht und geht „zum Frieden ;
der, der heungegangen ist, so sagt der Talmud, ist „im
Frieden", er hat gefunden. Der Sehnsucht nach dem Voll*
kommenen ist eine Erfüllung gegeben: die höchste Vollendung
und die höchste Seligkeit, beides in einem. Das Leben ist
ganz geworden; der Tod wird zur großen Offenbarung. Da*
mit kommt das Versöhnende, das Offenbarende auch in das
Märtyrertum. Wo Gott die Hinopferung des Erdendaseins,
den Tod gebietet, dort verheißt und gewährt er zugleich die
Erfüllung, das ewige Leben. Der unendlichen Aufgaoe
entspricht die unendliche Zukunft; Gebot und Zuversicht
werden eins. .
In der Heiligen Schrift ist von der Fortdauer der Existenz
über den Tod hinaus wenig die Rede, ohne daß aber dieses
Weiterleben darum abgewiesen oder geleugnet wird. Es liegt,
wie früher gezeigt, in dem Charakter der prophetischen
Religion, die vor allem das Gebot eines neuen Lebens ver*
kündet, daß sie auf der sittlichen Beschaffenheit unseres
Erdendaseins, auf den Forderungen des Diesseits den ganzen
Nachdruck ruhen läßt. Jedoch hat jene Zurückhaltung
gegenüber dem Unsterblichkeitsglauben noch ihren beson*
deren Grund. Sie ist ein stiller Widerspruch gegen alle die
ausschweifenden, zügellosen Phantasien, mit denen die Natur*
religionen rings umher das Jenseits ausgestalteten, gegen alle
!\>Liiie Verwirrung der Geister, die daraus notwendig hervor*
TXging. Es war ein bedeutsames, ein beredtes Stillschweigen.
Das Verbot: „du sollst dir kein Bildnis machen und keinerlei
Gestalt" wurde, bewußt oder unbewußt, auch als ein Verbot
dessen erfaßt, daß die Bilder vom Totenreiche, die Gestalten
aus der Unter* und Überwelt in Israels Gedankenleben ein*
träten Auch die Ablehnung alles dessen war eine Ablehnung
des Heidentums und seines Bilderdienstes. Du sollst dir
keine Vorstellung machen von alle dem, das lag in der Linie
jenes Wortes aus den Zehngeboten.
Als dann der Götzendienst im jüdischen Volke über*
204
Der Geist
Beginn und Vollendung
205
1
wunden war, konnte darum von dem ewigen Leben freier und
bestimmter gesprochen werden. Vor den hoffenden Ge^
mütern steht es als ein geistiges Reich, als jenes Leben der
Seele in Reinheit, das dem Menschen hienieden versagt ist,
als „die geläuterte Welt", die ihn „an Gottes Glanz sich
erfreuen läßt". Was die HeiUge Schrift als den Lohn der
Frömmigkeit verkündet, wird jetzt in das Jenseits hinüber:^
getragen. Die „Länge der Tage", die sie verheißt, erscheint
als das „ewige Leben", aus der Glückesbotschaft, die sie
bringt, vernimmt man das Wort von „der ewigen Seligkeit".
Der Lohn wird damit vergeistigt, und der Gedanke des
Geistigen und Unvergänglichen gestaltet sich darin weiter.
Der Geist ist von Gott und kehrt wieder zu ihm. Er ver?
bindet den Menschen mit Gott; Gott ist Geist, und im Men^^
sehen ist Geist, Gott ist „der Gott der Geister in allem
Fleische". Der Begriff der geistigen Bestimmung entwickelt
sich daran, der Begriff des höheren Lebens, das hienieden bes^
ginnen soll, um sich im ewigen Leben zu vollenden. Und das
eigentümlich Jüdische, das Unterscheidende daran ist wieder,
daß dieses Geistige mit dem Sittlichen, dem sittlich Heiligen
verbunden wird. Es ist die Kraft des Guten, das Vermögen
der frommen Tat. In ihr offenbart sich das Göttliche, der
„heilige Geist". Wie ein feierliches Wort aus dem alten
Schrifttum es sagt: „Himmel und Erde seien Zeugen: Ob Heide,
ob Israelit, ob Mann oder Frau, ob Knecht oder Magd, auf
allen ruht der heilige Geist nach der Tat, welche sie tun."
Mit dem Eindringen eschatologischer, mystischer Ge?
dankenkreise gewinnt freilich bald auch die sinnliche Aus:»
malung des Jenseits, und zumal der strafenden Vergeltung,
ihren Platz; und die Geschichte des Judentums hat nicht nur
einmal von der Aufnahme solcher Spekulationen zu erzählen.
Aber es waren ihnen feste Grenzen gezogen; besonders einer
kxankhaften Ausschreitung graii^jjQ[ier^ Phantasie war der
RlelervorgeTegt durch den bestimmten Grundsatz, daß die
Zeit der büßenden Strafe im Jenseits ihre eng beschränkte
Dauer habe, ein Jahr oder ein Jahrsiebent, und nur der Lohn,
der Friede ewig sei. Und selbst dem steht als weit gej^
wichtiger gegenüber das oft ausgesprochene Wort, daß der
Tod sühne, oder ein Wort wie das, daß man das Paradies, das
ch die Menschen erdacht, anzünden und ihre Hölle aus^»
löschen sollte. Wo das Charakteristische zu suche^^^^^^^^^
nm deutlichsten die Stellung, welche fuhrende Geister des
Tdenturnfzu Jenem Materiahsmus des Jenseits emneh.en
Fs braucht nur daran erinnert zu werden, mit welch mit.
SdSm Spott ein Maimonides alle die phantastischen smn.
äen Vorstel ungen von der kommenden Welt abtut als ein
KtderlTel vergangener Zeiten. Die ^eijüge Meiose Au> K
Fassung de Unsterblichkeit bleibt der Besitz des Judentums.
sS das was keinerlei Gestaltung und kaum das Wort zu.
läßt .Die kommende Welt, kein Auge hat sie gesehen, nur
'"•sch'lnS::;;! ist es verhütet worden, daß das hackende
oder drohende Bild des Jenseits den ^^"hchen Ernst beem
trächtigte. daß das Gebot des Tages m seiner Bedeut^S ^e
«h0P.mindert die Erde der steten Bewahrung der Sittlichlceit
eSen wurde Als die verheißene Vollendung mensch,
heben Rii^Iens wird die künftige Welt das Ziel der Heilig,
keit und Vollkommenheit und damit zur Forderung sittlichen
S bens auf Erden. Dieses Leben hienieden ist der Begm
und darum gilt auch auf das ewige Leben hm das Wort m
welchem das Judentum sein Eigenes immer wieder spricht.
Wnden - zum Gebote, mit dem die Gewißheit des Lr-
wunaen ,^ Gewißheit der Versöhnung sich ver.
SV'r d m in Sen auch steht das Wort: Ich bin
der EwS. dein Gott, du sollst - Geheünnis und G_ebot
" Orreligiösen Erfahrungen, die der Menschenseele We.
nieden gegeben sind, die Erlebnisse des erfüllten Gebotes
^nd des widergefundenen Weges, und -r sie. sollen dahe
/^"^^"^^rdrBrkTns'eVgriirkNare^G:,
^-^wisVen'Tn Ss £ne reine Herz. Dem Menschen, der um
seinen Ursprung und seinen Weg weiß, offenbart sich ü
206
Die Seligkeit
Die beiden Welten
207
Ewigkeit. Die erhebende Seligkeit religiöser, sittlicher Ent#
Scheidung, rehgiöser, sittHcher Empfindung läßt ihn ahnen,
Was ewige Seligkeit gegenüber nur irdischer Freude ist. Die
Nähe Gottes, so predigt die jüdische Religionsphilosophiq
sie ist es. die wir Menschen hienieden erfahren können, und
nichts anderes als sie ist es, die unser Anteil in der Ewigkeit
sein wird. So hatte schon der talmudische Satz es gesagt:
„Die Heiligung auf Erden, sie ist ein Gleichnis der Heiligung
in der kommenden Welt; hienieden wie droben spricht Gott
zu uns Menschen: Ich, der Ewige, heihge euch". Und vor
allem sagt es so das wundersame Wort des Rabbi Jakob,
eines Mannes, der in Tagen lebte, wo die Geister ringsumher
wieder in Phantasien des Jenseits schwelgten: „Mehr ist eine
Stunde in Umkehr und guten Taten in dieser Welt als alles
Leben der kommenden Welt; mehr ist eine Stunde der Selige
keit in der kommenden Welt als alles Leben dieser Welt".
Dem entspricht auch jener andere Satz, daß wir „in der
Stunde die Ewigkeit erwerben können". Und ebenso jener
Abschiedsgruß der alten Weisen, der alles zusammen*^
schließen will, was einem Menschendasein WirkHchkeit und
Dauer gibt, die Erfüllung des Lebens mit ewigem Gut, die
Zuversicht der Seele auf Ewigkeit und das Bleiben mensche
liehen Segens auf Erden: „Deine Welt, deine Ewigkeit mögest
du finden in deinem Leben, deine Zukunft sei zum Leben der
kommenden Welt, und deine Hoffung sei von Geschlecht zu
Geschlecht!"
Auch hier ist wieder diese Spannung zwischen Ferne und
Nähe, wie sie der ReHgiosität des Judentums eigentümlich ist,
die Spannung zwischen dem Ziele des Menschen und seinem
Platz, zwischen dem ewigen Leben und dem Erdenleben,
zwischen der Gewißheit, die im Geheimnis Hegt, und der Ge^
wißheit, die im Deutlichen gegeben ist, diese Spannung mit
all ihrer Sehnsucht. Das Erdendasein geht in die Ewigkeit
über, das irdische Menschenfeld in das Reich Gottes, und die
Ewigkeit tritt in das Erdendasein ein, das Reich Gottes in
das irdische Gebiet. Die Nähe wird zur Ferne, die Ferne zur
Nähe. Diesseits und Jenseits schwingen in einander; sie sind
nur die beiden Pole in der einen religiösen Empfindung. Das
Leben hat die Ehrfurcht vor sich selber, das Gefühl für das,
was in ihm größer ist und heiliger, als es selber ist, das Gel
//
///
^
fühl für sein Jenseits in seinem Diesseits. Endliches und
Ewiges vereinen sich in der sittlichen Tat, im religiösen Er-,
leben und Hoffen. ' Es gibt für das Judentum nicht eine
pfhchtlose Sehnsucht noch eine sehnsuchtslose Pflicht. Die
Erlösung ist mit dieser Welt, mit der strengen Forderung,
welche sie stellt, verbunden und diese Welt, die bestimmte
Aufgabe in ihr mit der großen Versöhnung in der Ewigkeit.
Auch hier ist der Glaube zugleich ein Gebot, wir glauben an
das, was wir tun. Wie wir Gott durch unsere Entscheidung
und in unserem Erlebnis zu unserem Gott machen, so die
Ewigkeit zu unserer Ewigkeit. Gerade das ist für das Juden:*
tum kennzeichnend, daß ihm dieses beides nur eines ist, das
sichere Verhältnis zur Wirklichkeit dieser Welt und das
lebendige Empfinden für das Ungenügende, das Unbefreite
dieser Wirklichkeit. Die Einheit von beidem ist ihm ein
Eigenes. Wohl wurde bald das eine bald das andere je nach
der Art und der seeUschen Stimmung eines Mannes oder
einer Zeit entschiedener betont. Aber in dem Glauben des
Judentums sind beide eins. Ohne das eine und ohne das
andere und ohne die Einheit von beidem gibtes kein Judentum.
Man hat ihm oft vom Standpunkt eines einseitigen, pessi^
mistischen Erlösungsbegriffes ein allzu starkes Hangen an
dieser Welt, eine zu bewußte Diesseitigkeit vorgeworfen. Es
kann demgegenüber an das Wort eines religiösen Denkers
erinnert werden: „Wem dieses Leben nicht hoch und lebens^
wert erscheint, in dem kann sich auch kein wahres Verlangen
nach dem zukünftigen finden." Aber die eigentlichere Ant:*
wort ist darin enthalten, daß es für das Judentum keine
^^Glaubenslehre gibt ohne die Sittenlehre, kein^<^j%J
^ Geheimnis gibt ohne das Gebot, keine Ferne ohne die Nähe,
keine Bedeutung des Jenseits ohne die Bedeutung des Dies^
seits. Der Glaube an Gott wie die Gewißheit der Versöhn
nung bUebe leer, bliebe anfangslos ohne den bestimmten
Glauben an uns selbst, an unsere sittliche Persönlichkeit und
ihre Aufgabe. Und diese offenbart sich nur in dem Wirken
hienieden. Der Mensch führt Gott in die Welt, er heiligt die
Welt, indem er Gott in ihr heiligt. Er verwirklicht das Gute,
das, was sein soll. Dadurch wird das Leberi^ur^P|licht|^ 4 ^
s o 1 1 s 1 1 e b e n. Hier kann darum daTDasein nicht wertFos,
unnütz oder trügerisch sein, nicht dazu bestimmt, daß der
I
I II ^Wll ■
208
Das Leben
Der neue Wert
209
ft Mensch sich von ihm erlöse, aus ihm fliehe. Der große Ge.
* danke des Gottesreiches, der GedanTce, daß dem Ewigen
durch den Menschen seine Stätte auf Erden bereitet sem soll,
damit die Erde sein HeiUgtum werde, hat immer wieder seme
Gleichnisse gebildet. ^^
Man hat vom Standpunkte emer „hellemschen Welt,
anschauung, eines Optimismus, der den Tag der Erde nur
sucht und seine Stunden von ihm nur begehrt, das IJmge.
kehrte gegen das Judentum gesagt, daß es diese Welt zu
wenig bejahe und ien sehnsuchtsvollen Blick zu sehr über
dieses Leben hinausziehen lasse. Man könnte demgegenüber
auf das Wort hinweisen, das Goethe anführt, „daß alle^ die.
' jenigen auch für dieses Leben tot sind, die kein anderes
hoffen". Aber die eigentliche Antwort ist wieder die, daß es
Tür das Judentum keinen Glauben an uns gibt ohne den
sicheren Glauben an Gott, ohne die Gewißheit der Versoh.
nung die er gewährt, kein Gebot gibt ohne das Geheimnis,
keine Nähe ohne die Ferne. Mit anderen Worten: das Juden,
tumkennt keine Sittenlehre ohne die Glaubens.
1 Q h r e Der Glaube an uns bUebe grundlos und ziellos ohne
den Glauben an Gott, an Gott, der den Menschen in die Welt
führt, damit er in ihr sein Leben erwähle. Wir können an uns
glauben nur in der Gewißheit dessen, daß wir göttlich, das
Ebenbild Gottes sind, daß unsere Aufgabe unendUch ist, daß
wir hemg^n sollen wie der Ewige, unser Gott. Nur wer
über dasTrdendasein hinaussieht, sieht sein Dasein; nur wer
über sein Dasein hinausdringt, lebt in ihm, in seinem ganzen
Dasein und nicht nur in seinen Tagen und Jahren, lebt mit
der Ganzheit des Herzens, in der Ganzheit des Tuns. Nur
wer das Unbedingte vernimmt, in jeder Pfhcht das Wort
von Gott hört, sie übt aus der seeUschen Erfahrung vom
Gottesgesetz heraus, nicht nur „ein Volontär der Sittlidi.
(LO^
jvdt", sondern ein Mensch des GebotesTund^darum Gottlfe^
horcht mehr als den Menschen und mehr als den Geschehe
nissen, dem Einen mehr als den Vielen, und darum nicht um.
biegt und nicht abbiegt, sondern den Weg Gottes geht und
zum Wege Gottes umkehrt, nur wer so an Gott glaubt, der
glaubt an sich selber. E^t der Gedanke der Mi zw ah , der
Pfhcht, die das Gottesgebot ist, efTäBt das Leben von seinen
Tiefen bis zu seinen Enden in immer neuer Bestimmtheit.
1
Diesseit? und Jenseits versöhnen sich in diesem Glauben
an uns. Der Mensch weiß sich, als den Menschen Gottes. Das
Leben ist ihm ein Gut und ein Gebot, weil es von Gott ^
kommt, dem Schaffenden und GeFietenden. Der Sinn der
Lebenspflicht und die Pflicht des Lebenssinns, die Tiefe der
Aufgabe und die Aufgabe der Tiefe, das Deutliche, das immer
wieder zum Bedeutsamen, zum ewigen Sinnbild wird, und das
Bedeutsame, das immer wieder zum Deutlichen, zum steten
Gebote wird, das ist die seeUsche Sprache des jüdischen Op.
timismus. Des Geheimnisses bewußt und des Gebotes be*:
wüßt, des einen im anderen, das ist der Mensch der jüdi.
sehen Frömmigkeit. Durch das Judentum hat der Begriff des /. h L
Menschendaseins seinen n e u e n We r t erhalten, den er seit. ''/ ^
dem nicht mehr vtrlieren kann. In dem Glauben des
Menschen an sich, wie die Seele ihn hier gewonnen hat, er.
wirbt das Leben die Kraft, sich zu besitzen und sich zu er*
wählen, seine ewi^e Bedeutung und seine sittliche Freiheit.
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
14
l'V
Der andere
211
Der Glaube in den Nebenmenschen
In dem, was sich als der innerste Grund des Glaubens an
uns erwiesen hat, ist bereits das Charakteristische des Glau.
bens an den Nebenmenschen hervorgetreten. Den Menschen,
adel, den wir als unser ursprünghchstes Eigen wissen, können
wir uns nicht zusprechen, ohne ihn damit zujkich^chjll^
anderen -Menschen zuzugestehen. Käme erTtaefTiucht
^'sentlich zu, so würde er auch uns fehlen müssen. Wir smd
das Ebenbild Gottes, das Kind Gottes; wie wir es sind, so
sind sie es. Der Ursprung unseres Lebens wie der uns ge.
botene Weg ist auch der ihre. Uns anerkennen und sie an.
erkennen, das ist untrennbar, ist eines und dasselbe. Mit dem
religiösen Begriffe „M e n s c h" ist notwendig zugleich der
w Begriff „Nebenmensch" gegeben, auch er eme der
7\ großen EnTd^ckungen des isra^litisch^^ Dasjuden.
tum hat den ,,Mitmenschenl.^^M Und damit aucn
den BegrifraeTTISS'anität in ihrem wahren Smne, m dem
des Verständnisses für das Leben der Nebenmenschen, der
Achtung vor der Menschenwürde, der Ehrfurcht vor dem
Göttlichen in allem, was Menschenantlitz trägt.
Der „Mitmensch" gehört im Judentum unlösbar zum
„Menschen". Ich und der andere werden hier zu emer reh.
giösen, sittlichen Einheit. Es gibt im Grunde keinen anderen
Wieder, wie in allen den Ideen des Judentums, erhebt sich
die Einheit aus dem Gegensatz, die Einheit daher mit aller
ihrer Spannung, mit all ihrem Ineinander von Ferne und
Nähe. Er ist der andere und ist doch nicht der andere, er ist
unterschieden von mir und doch derselbe, von mir getrennt
und doch mit mir geeint; alles, was das Wort Dasein um.
faßt, Stätte und Bestimmung, Begehren und Verlangen, hat
ihn von mir gesondert, sein Leben von dem meinen, und
alles, was das Wort Dasein umschließt, Gehalt und Form,
• Grund und Ziel aller Tage führt ihn doch zu mir hin, sein
Leben in das meine hinein. Smn und Wert, Schöpfung und
Aufgabe seines Lebens und des meinen sind nicht zu
,1
I
scheiden. Er wie ich ist begriffen, nur, wenn er wie ich als
Ebenbild Gottes, als der Mensch Gottes verstanden ist. In
dem Glauben an den einen Gott erschließt sich die Be.
deutung seines Lebens wie des meinen. Er ist der andere,
aber der Bund Gottes mit mir ist zugleich der Bund Gottes
mit ihm, der Bund darum, der mich mit ihm zusammenfügt.
Es gibt hier keinen „Menschen" ohne den „Mitmenschen",
keinen Glauben an Gott ohne den Glauben an ihn wie an
mich. Als den großen Grundsatz der Thora hat daher einer
der Meister aus dem Geschlechte nach der Zerstörung des
Tempels, Ben Asai, den Satz bezeichnet, der von der Gottes,
ebenbildlichkeit aller Menschen spricht. „Ben Asai sagte:
„Dies ist die Geschichte des Menschen: als Gott den
Menschen schuf, machte er ihn in seinem Ebenbilde" — der
Satz trägt die ganze Thora."
Die Anerkennung, die wir dem andern schulden, ist dem.
nach unbedingt und unbeschränkt; denn sie beruht aus.
schließlich darauf, daß er ein Mensch und darum ein Mit.
^mensch ist, Wesen von meinem Wesen, Würde von meiner
Würde. Das Wort aus denT dritten Buche Mosis, welches
Akiba den bestimmenden Satz der Bibel genannt hat, das ge.
meinhin übersetzt wird: „Liebe deinen Nächstenwig^ich
selbst", bedeutet in der ganzenTreuedes^^m!^^
deinen Nächsten, er ist wie du." In diesem „wie d u" liegt
der ganze Gehalt des Satzes. Der Begriff Mitmensch ist da.
rin gegeben: Er ist wie du, er ist im Eigentlichen dir gleich,
du und er sind als Menschen eins. Und dieses Wort ist hier
vj;Ss^nicht bloß Philosophie und nicht nur schwärmerische Senti.
*^ mentalität, sondern unbedingtes Gebot, das Wort der deut.
Heben Forderung, daß wir in dem anderen den, der wie wir
ist, ehren sollen. Nicht weil er vielleicht dieses oder jenes
leistet und gilt, sollen wir ihn achten, sondern weil er Mensch
ist. Sein Wert besteht in e b e n dem, was unseren Wert aus.
macht; sein Wert ist in der Tiefe gegründet und zum Ziele
emporgewiesen, ist unendlich, wie der unsere. Wir können
vor uns Ehrfurcht haben, nur wenn wir vor ihm auch Ehr.
furcht hegen, Gott hat ihn wie uns gemacht. So hat es der
Prophet hergeleitet: „Haben wir nicht alle einen Vater,
hat uns nicht ein Gott erschaffen! Wie dürfen wir treulos
sein einer gegen den anderen, den Bund unserer Väter zu
■ ■ ^ ■^■— 1->
212
Der Menschenbruder
Das Menschengebot
213
entweihen!'* In ein kurzes Wort hat einer der alten Weisen
des Talmud, Ben Soma, es gefaßt: ..Ehre ist, die Menschen
^(('Qhrßji." AehnUch hat auch sein Zeitgenosse, jener Berntsai,
es gesagt, um das „wie du" der NächstenHebe zu seiner
Höhe emporzuführen: „Sprich nicht: weil ich gering bin, soll
auch mein Nächster gering wie ich sein; weil ich verachtet
bin, soll mein Nächster gleich mir verachtet sein." Und einer
der Lehrer nach ihm, Rabbi Tanchuma, fügte dem erläuternd
zu: „Wenn du so tätest, wisse, wen du verachten würdest:
ihn, den Gott in seinem Ebenbilde geschaffen hat."
Bedeutungsvoller kann sich die PfUcht gegen den
Nächsten nicht bezeugen, als hiermit, daß es sich um die
Ehre Gottes handelt bei allem, was wir den Menschen
tun. Schon der Spruch der Bibel hatte dieses Wort gebraucht:
„Wer den Geringen bedrückt, lästert seinen Schöpfer, und
ihn ehrt, wer sich des Dürftigen annimmt." Und dasselbe
ist nach der alten Erklärung der Schlußsatz des Gebotes der
"'; Anteilnahme am Nächsten: „Ich bin der Ewige, ich habe ihn
zu meiner Ehre erschaffen." Wir erweisen Gott Treue, „wir
hüten und bewahren sein Kind," so sagt es eine Parabel
Akibas. Gottes Kind steht in jedem Menschen vor uns.
Jeder ist, wie die Heilige Schrift es demgemäß mit dem
Worte benennt, das sie in dieser Inhaltsfülle gefunden hat,
„unser Bruder", „unser Nächster". Der Familiengenosse, der
Stammesgenosse, der Volksgenosse ist unser Bruder, und sie
werden in engerem Sinne als das bezeichnet; aber sie sind
es nicht allein, jeder Mensch ist es. Er ist es kraft
Gottes, durch Gott und darum unbedingt, so daß es von
keiner Voraussetzung abhängt. Nicht erst unsere Zuneigung
oder unsere Bereitwilligkeit macht ihn dazu, nicht erst eine
gesellschaftliche Einrichtung oder eine staatUche Verfassung
weist es ihm zu, sondern Gott hat ihn dazu gemacht, Gott
hat es ihm gegeben. Durch Gott ist jeder Mensch ein Mensch
neben uns. Wir müssen ihn als das anerkennen, wenn anders
wir Gott anerkennen. Er ist unser Bruder, unser Nächster,
selbst wenn er uns im Leben der Fernsten und der Frem*
desten einer gewesen ist. Darum kann die Heilige Schrift
von „deinem Bruder, den du nicht kennst," reden. Oder sie
kann in ähnlicher Weise sagen: „dein Bruder, er sei ein
Fremdling oder Beisaß". Der Arme, der vor dich hintritt,
ist „dein Armer", „dein Dürftiger"; der Fremdling, der bei
dir weilt, ist „dein Fremdling". Wir alle sind von Gottes
wegen miteinander verbunden, „der Schöpfer aller ist der
Ewige".
Gott hat uns so gemacht. Ein Mensch sein, bedeutet für
jeden, ein Mitmensch sein. Und im Judentum wird alles Ge»:
gebene zur Aufgabe, jede Tatsache zur Pflicht. So wird es
denn zum bestimmten sittlichen Gebote: Du sollst ein Mit^^
mensch, ein Mensch mit den Menschen sein. Das will zu mir
sagen, daß ich den Menschen neben mir, den Gott als meinen
Mitmenschen geschaffen hat, auch selbst, durch meinen
Willen und meine Entscheidung, durch mein Tun und VoU^^
bringen zu meinem Mitmenschen machen soll. Ich soll das,
was eiife Wirklichkeit von Gott ist, durch meine Wahl und
meine Pflicht verwirklichen. Es ist hier wieder eine jener
Paradoxien des Judentums, jene Einheit des Widerspruchs
zwischen Gehalt und Form, des Widerspruchs dessen, daß
^ etwas durch Gott ist und durch den Menschen doch erst ^^
^sein soH. So ist es hier: Der andere ist mein Mitmensch, weü
Gott ihn als den ins Leben gestellt hat; es ist sein Besitztum
von Gott, daß er es ist. Und meine Tat soll es ihm doch
erst geben, daß er mir ein Mitmensch ist, sie soll ihn dazu erst
werden lassen. Das Daseiende wird zum Gebote. Wir sollen
dem anderen alles das zugestehen und gewähren, wodurch
er der Mensch neben uns, der Mitmensch wird; unser Hans=
dein soll ihn als den anerkennen, den Gott neben uns ges:
setzt hat, zu uns hin, damit er mit uns lebe. Wir sollen ihn
in unser Leben eintreten lassen. Durch unsere Tat wird auch
hier die Einheit geschaffen, diese sittliche Einheit von
Mensch und Mitmensch.
Diese Achtung, die wir dem Nebenmenschen schulden, ist
nicht ein eTnTe 1 n e s G e b o t , nicKF'ein Gebot unter
Geboten. Sie stellt vielmehr den ganzen Inhalt der Sittliche:
keit dar, den ganzen Reichtum dessen, was Gott von uns verjs
langt. Sie bezeichnet den Inbegriff der PfUcht. Denn im
Judentum ist es der Inhalt aller Religiosität, daß wir Gott
dienen und ihn liebeh, von dem Unseren ihm geben. Und aus
unserem Eigenen können wir Gott geben in dem allein,
worin wir frei, worin wir entscheidend sind, in dem Guten
und Rechten, das wir vollbringen. Dieses Gute zu tun, ver*
'\
214
Der Einsame
Das Menschenrecht
215
ii
mögen wir immer nur in dem, was wir dem Mitmenschen tun
— wie ein alter talmudischer Satz es sagt: „Liebe Gott an
den Menschen, die er geschaffen hat." Am Mitmenschen
gewinnt unsere Freiheit die Fülle ihrer Aufgaben, unsere
Pflicht die DeutUchkeit ihres Ziels. Es ist ein Weg zu Gott,
wenn wir unseren Menschenbruder suchen; an ihm beweisen
wir unsere Frömmigkeit, unsere Gottesfurcht. Das Um^
fassende dieser Forderung hatte ein Führender unter den
talmudischen Lehrern, Hillel, ganz wie dann nach ihm
Akiba betont; er hatte diese innere Anerkennung des
Nächsten als den „Inbegriff der Thora ' erklärt, als das Ge.
bot, in welchem alles gegeben ist. Und dasselbe besagt jene
so oft wiederholte Mahnung, in welcher die mündliche Lehre
den Sinn der Pflicht gegen Gott hervorheben will, daß wir in
den Wegen Gottes wandeln sollen, indem wir Gutes üben,
indem wir gerecht, barmherzig und liebevoll zu sein streben,
wie der Ewige es ist. Wagjwnr^^am Mitmen tun, ist
J/Gottesdienst. Das SozialTist hierlReligiosität, und die Re^
lig"iositaFein Soziales
Im Judentum gibt es daher keine Frömmigkeit ohne den
Mitmenschen. Das Leben des lEinsamen gilt hier als ein
Stückwerk nur, als ein Leben, dem sein Wesentliches, die Ar*
beit für den Menschenbruder, abgeht; es hat seinen Platz,
aber nicht seinen Weg, seine Enge, in der es sich findet, aber
nicht seine Weite, in der es sich erfüllt. Wo „Gott und die
Seele, und nichts weiter", um mit Augustin zu sprechen, den
ganzen und eigentlichen Inhalt der Religion bedeuten soll,
dort ist die Religion bJofifiMösungsre^^ nur diese in
ihrem Grunde selbstischeJR^^ der allein sein
Ich und seinen^trTöser kennt, nur mit der Sorge für seine
Seele und ihre Rettung befaßt ist. Im Judentum hat dieser
egoistische Glaube sich nicht gestalten können; keine be*
seUgende Erkenntnis, keine entrückende Verzückung, keine
Gewißheit der Gnade kann hier das Gebot, den Menschen*
bruder zu eigen zu haben, ersetzen oder zurückstellen. Eine
Frömmigkeit dessen, der allein und für sich bleibt, ist hier ein
Widerspruch in sich; ein Einsiedler kann hier nicht heilig
heißen. Der religiöse Sprachgeist des Judentums hat diesen
Gedanken in den Worten, die er gebildet hat, ausgeprägt. Er
hat den Begriff des Frommen nur in den des Z^j^ik, des
(
„Gerechten", und des C h a s s i d , des „Liebevollen", hinein*
gelegt, in den Begriff dessen also nur, der die Pflicht gegen
den Nebenmenschen erfüllt.
Hiermit ist das, was wir dem Nebenmenschen leisten
sollen, herausgehoben aus dem Gebiete des bloßen Verhält*
nisses von dem einen Menschen zum anderen, das nach
Wohlwollen, Liebenswürdigkeit oder Zuneigung die Neben*
menschen gliedert und aussondert, und emporgeführt in die
Sphäre des gegebenen Verhältnisses zu Gott, das allen gleich
und gemeinsam ist und darum alle verbindet. Es ist nicht
dieser oder jener Mensch, den vielleicht dieses oder jenes
ZufälUge mit uns verknüpft, der zu uns hingestellt ist, son*
dern der Mensch schlechthin steht vor uns, jeder als
Mensch hat auf uns Anspruch. Keine Vorbedingungen
kommen dabei in Betracht. Auch unser Feind darf und soll
unsere Pflichterfüllung fordern. Wenn er unser Feind ist, so
hört er darum doch nicht auf, unser Mitmensch zu sein.
„Wenn,~der dich haßt, hungert, so speise ihn mit Brot, und
wenn ihn durstet, gib ihm Wasser zu trinken." „Wenn du
den Ochsen deines Feindes oder seinen Esel triffst, wie er
irre geht, so sollst du ihm denselben wieder zuführen. Wenn
du den Esel dessen, der dich haßt, siehst unter seiner Last
liegen, so hüte dich und laß ihn nicht dabei allein;
nimmt mit ihm zusammen die Last ab." Wer immer Menschen*
antlitz trägt, hat als unser Nächster ein Anrecht auf
unseren Beistand, auf unsere Barmherzigkeit, das Anrecht
darauf, daß er durch uns unser Menschenbruder wird. Nicht
auf das Ungewisse unseres Wohlwollens, sondern auf das
/y^estimmte Recht, das jeder Mensch kraft Gottes hat, gründet
sich, was wir ihm schulden, was wir ihm leisten.
Alle unsere Pflichten gegen den Mitmenschen fallen unter
das Gebot dieser Gerechtigkeit, in das Gebiet des un*
bedingt Geschuldeten. Die Gerechtigkeit, wie der Begriff sich
im Judentum gestaltet hat, besteht nicht nur darin, daß jeder
Eingriff in das Recht des anderen vermieden oder verhindert
v/ird. Sie ist hier mehr, sie ist hier ein durchaus positives, ein
soziales Gebot, sie ist die aufrichtige, tatbereite Anerken*
nung des anderen, die Verwirklichung seiner Gleichheit, die
Verwirklichung des Menschenrechts, das Gott ihm
gegeben hat. Menschenrecht ist hier nicht bloßes Eigenrecht,
■ ' I ■*■
-«re
216
Die Gerechtigkeit
Recht und Wohlwollen
217
sondern das Recht des anderen, des Mitmenschen, dasRecht,
_ das er auf UQ&.Jiat. Er hat den Anspruch auf uns; was wir
3im gewähren, ist unsere Schuldigkeit, ist sein Recht. Es ist
sein unveräußerliches und unverlierbares Recht, das über alle
geltenden „Rechte" hinausgeht, und das niemand ihm mehren
oder mindern kann, sein Menschenrecht, vermöge dessen er
von uns, von unserer Gesinnung und unserer Tat es ver::
langen darf, es verlangen soll, mit seinem Leben zu unserem
Leben zu gehören. Wenn wir es ihm so erweisen, so haben
wir Gerechtigkeit gegen ihn geübt, diese jüdische GerechtigsJ
keit. Auch hier bietet wieder die religiöse Sprache den
charakteristischen Ausdruck. Das Judentum hat das Wort
^ ^ „Z e d a k a h" geschaffen, ein Wort, das in seiner vollen
Bedeutung unübersetzbar ist, da es Gerechtigkeit und Güte
umschließt, sie beide zu einer Einheit "macht, oder genauer,
all unser Wohltun als das bezeichnet, was dem Nächsten gcs^
bührt, und mit dessen Erfüllung wir nur das getan haben,
was die Pflicht gegen ihn immer wieder von uns verlangt.
■ f Zedakah ist die positive, die religiöse, soziale Gerechtigkeit,
^ '^ diese Gerechtigkeit, die ihr Forderndes, ihr Vorwärtsdrän^^
gendes, ihr Messianisches hat. Der Gedanke von dem einen
Gott und von dem einen Menschengeschlecht und dem einen
bleibenden Menschenrecht hat diesen Begriff gebildet.
^ Durch die Betonung des Rechtes ist das, was wir dem
Nebenmenschen gewähren solIenTauch aus der Unstetigkeit
des Verfliegenden, aus der bloßen Gefühlswallung herausss
gehoben und auf den^jesteu Boden derklareB^Pflicht, der
nüchternen Tat gestellt. Warme Herzen sind immer zu
finden, die zeitlebens in heißer Regung eine ganze Welt he^
glücken möchten, aber noch nie den prosaischen Versuch
unternommen haben, auch nur einem M^nscht^r^ \Yahrl^«f^
Seg5lL.ziL_ber£iJ?®^- ^^ ^^* leicht, sich. an_Menschenliebe zu
egeistern, sich tränenfeucht in ihr zu ergehen! Irgend einem,
der nichts weiter als eben ein Mensch ist, Gutes zu tun, sein
Menschenrecht durch die Tat anzuerkennen, ist schwerer.
Wer im Namen seines Menschenrechts vor uns hintritt, for:*
dert damit die bestimmte sittliche Handlung, die nicht er^f
setzt sein kann durch das bloße allgemeine Wohlwollen,
^^ welche»-m-^entigientaler Ruhe""es^anzuschen imstande ist,
NLwie vor ihm Menschen zugrunde gehen, Menschen bedrückt
^^.
f
und unterjocht am Boden liegen. Womit hat sich nicht die
bloße Nächstenliebe schon abgefunden! Alle Menschenliebe
muß, wenn anders sie nicht unfruchtbare Gefühlsseligkeit
sein soll, im sittlichen, sozialen Willen, in der inneren An*
erkennung des MenscHeri^ m der lebendigen Achtung vor
seinem Rechte, in dem, was das Wort Zedakah meint, wur?
^ zeln. Sie ist das Primäre und Grundlegende. Sie allein gibt
die klare und unabweisbare Forderung, sie läßt keine Aus:*
flucht und kein Ausweichen zu. Es sei an ein Wort
Kants erinnert, das den Kern dieser Frage deutlich auf*
zeigt: „Beides, die Menschenliebe und die Achtung füi^s
Recht der Menschen, ist Pflicht; jene aber nur bedingte,
diese dagegen unbedingte, schlechthin gebietende Pflicht,
welche nicht übertreten zu haben derjenige zuerst völlig ver*
sichert sein muß, der sich dem süßen Gefühl des Wohltuns
überlassen will. Mit der Moral im ersteren Sinne (als Ethik)
ist die Politik leicht einverstanden, um das Recht der
Menschen ihren Oberen preiszugeben; aber mit der in der
zweiten Bedeutung (als Rpr.hts]p.hrp.\ vor der sie ihr Knie
beugen müßte, findet sie es ratsam, sich gar nicht auf Ver*
trag einzulassen, ihr lieber alle Realität abzustreiten und alle
Pflichten auf lauter Wohlwollen auszudeuten "
Es hat einer langen schicksalsvollen Zeit, einer Zeit Euro*
pas, den geschichtlichen Charakter gegeben, den Charakter,
der das Schicksal ist, daß in den Jahrhunderten der großen
mittelalterlichen Welt sich dieser Begriff der Gerechtigkeit,
wie das Judentum ihn geschaffen hatte, nicht hat gestalten
dürfen. Innere Gründe waren dafür bestimmend. Die Ge*
rechtigkeit wurde dort mit ihrem Wesentlichen in den
Glauben hineingestellt; durch Gottes Gnade „gerecht gemacht
werden", ist das, worauf alles ankommt. Das Recht, das dem
Gläubigen durch seinen Glauben von Gott zu teil wird, ent*
zog dem^_B££lite^^jdas_ der Mensch gewähren soll, viel von
seinem Sinn und Geha
'i
31 yw*
le
trat zurück hinter dem, was die
verwirklichen soll,
^ibt. Der Idee der
Gerechtigkeit war damit ihr Forderndes genommen oder
zum mindesten beeinträchtigt; ihr fehlte die Leidenschaft
und die Sehnsucht, die Weite der Aufgabe und der Ver*
heißung. Sie blieb bald im J^loß bürgerlich MoraHschen bald
im bloß Juristischen und Politischen und darum immer be»
SfeJTJ&JJSMiff^xJ^g?^
218
Das Wohltun
Der Fremdling
219
reit zu jedem Kompromiß mit dem Bestehenden, zu jedem
Zugeständnis an das jeweils Herrschende. Und dem Ver^»
hältnis von Mensch zu Mensch war sein Maß gewiesen in
jenem Wohlwollen und Wohltun, jener so inhaltreichen, aber
doch so „bedingten" und so leicht beruhigten Pflicht. In ihr
hat der Gedanke des Menschenrechts sich beschwichtigt und
sich verloren; die Beschwichtigung der Gerechtigkeit durch
das Wohltun ist immer deren Verhängnis gewesen. Die Idee,
W. daß Gott Recht und Gerechtigkeit auf Erden fordert und sie
dem Menschen zur Daseinsaufgabe setzt, diese jüdische Idee
der Gerechtigkeit, dieses bewegende, vorwärtstreibende
Prinzip hat sich nicht entfalten können. Und als ihm dann
Idie Zeit der Aufklärung |den Raum zu schaffen begann, hat
es sich zunächst langehin nur in der beschränkten Form der
Duldung, der Toleranz, diesem Zwitter von Gerechtigkeit
und Almosen, entwickeln können und erst späterhin allmäh*
. lieh in der Klarheit und Deutlichkeit des Gebotes, in der
i//K^ Entschiedenheit dieser inneren Anerkennung des andereij.
iJj^ In ihr erst liegt das Schaffende, welches das Leben gestaltet,
' in ihr ist die heilige Unzufriedenheit gegeben, der treibende
Sauerteig ^ndiermenschliclien Cieseirschaft.
Im Judentum können wir die Probe auf die Gestaltungs*
kraft dieser Gedanken vom Menschenrecht danach machen,
l wie sich dieselben inpositivenSatzungen ausgeprägt
haben. Wir sehen es zunächst an der Stellung, die der
Fremdling in der religiösen Pflichtenlehre einnimmt.
Überall, wo die Schuldigkeit gegen den Bedürftigen in be?
stimmten Gesetzen ausgesprochen ist, — und diese sind sehr
zahlreich in der Bibel wie im Talmud — dort ist ausdrücklich
der Fremde mit eingeschlossen. Er ist neben den Leviten, die
Waise und die Witwe gestellt. „Es soll kommen der Levit,
denn er hat keinen Anteil noch Besitz mit dir, und der
Fremdling und die Waise und die Witwe, die in deinen Toren
sind, und sie sollen essen und satt werden, auf daß dich der
Ewige, dein Gott, segne in allem Werke deiner Hand, das du
tust." „Du sollst dich freuen an deinem Feste, du und dein
Sohn und deine Tochter und dein Knecht und deine Magd
und der Levite und der Fremdling und die Waise und die
Witwe, die in deinen Toren sind." „Dem Fremdling, der
Witwe und der Waise soll es gehören"; das ist ein immer
S
s
\
]
V .
wiederkehrendes Wort, die Ausgestaltung des Wortes: „er soll
mit dir leben". „Ein Recht soll euch sein, wie der Ein*
heimische soll der FremdUng sein; denn ich bin der Ewige,
euer Gott", das ist der Schlußsatz der Warnung vor allem
Unrecht, die auch ihn, und ihn vor allem, schützen will; denn
gerade das Unrecht, das ihm, der sich nur auf das Menschen*
recht berufen kann, je zugefügt wird, ist am meisten ein
Frevel gegen die Menschheit. „Gott liebt den Fremdling",
damit ist dieses Eigene ausgesprochen, das, was er, der
Schutzbedürftige, um Gottes willen beanspruchen darf; den,
der von Gott geliebt wird, das Kind Gottes schützen wir in
ihm. Die Sätze der Pflicht gegen ihn fügen sich darum zuletzt
in das Gebot zusammen: „du sollst den Fremdling
lieben wie dich selbs t"; und auch hier wieder besagt
das Wort „wie dich selbst" in der ganzen Intimität seines
Sinnes: „er ist wie du!" Und um diesem „wie du" die ganz
persönliche Beziehung zu geben, wird sein Schicksal mit dem
eigensten israelitischen Geschick verknüpft: „Du sollst den
Fremdling lieben wie dich selbst; denn Fremdlinge seid ihr
gewesen im Lande Ägypten; ich bin der Ewige, euer Gott'*.
Das Wort Fremdling hat zudem in der Bibel den besonderen
Ton dadurch erhalten, daß der Mensch, dessen Erdendasein
kommt und geht, als der Pilgrim, der fremdling auf Erden
bezeichnet wird. Gott spricht: „Mein ist das Land,TreIiTdr-
linge und Beisassen seid ihr bei mir", und im Gebete des
Menschen antwortet es ihm: „Ein Fremdling bin ich bei dir,
ein Beisasse wie meine Väter alle". Und ein altes talmudisches
Wort hat dies dann so erläutert: „Fremdlinge seid ihr bei
I mir, das will sagen: macht euch zu Menschen nicht, die selbst
1 >■
« '
J^ alles gelten sollen."
In der Pflicht gegen den Fremdling ist die unbedingte
Menschenpflicht am bestimmtesten erfaßt worden. Der
Fremdling hat die Humanität gelehrt, an ihm ist der Mensch
als Glied der Menschheit immer wieder klar erkannt
und gewissermaßen aufgedeckt worden. Wie sicher dieses
Verständnis gewesen ist, zeigt sich daran, daß es einen polij:
tischen Begriff geschaffen hat, den der Noachiden, einen
Begriff, durch den Sittengebot und sittliche Ebenbürtigkeit
in ihrer Unabhängigkeit von allen nationalen und konfessio*
nellen Grenzen auch rechtlich dargetan werden. EinNoachide,
I
220
Der Sohn Noahs
^=W
ein Sohn Noahs. ist jeder im Lande, weß Glaubens und weß
Volkes er sei. der die elementarsten Pfl^'^ht«'^."!'*: ^f ^ J^l^'
aus der Menschlichkeit und der Landeszugehorigkeit ergeben.
Und jeder Noachide. so ist die Satzung, hat nicht nur
Duldung, sondern Anerkennung zu beanspruchen; er ist
1/ rechtlich jedem Staatsbürger gleichgestellt; er ist ..unser
Fremdling". Hiermit ist der staatliche Rechtsgedanke
emanzipiert, aus aller politischen und kirchlichen Verengung
herausgehoben und auf den rein menschlichen Boden gesteUt.
Ein Grundbegriff des Naturrechts ist damit gewonnen, und
die großen Forscherdü"iiiEiehnten Jahrhunderts, die dem
Völkerrecht neue Erkenntnis schufen. einHugodeGroot,
ein John Seiden, haben voller Bewunderung von ihm,
dem Fremdling aus dem Talmud, erfahren, und ihn dankbar
in ihre Systeme aufgenommen. In ihrem Natur» und Volker*
recht nimmt er einen wichtigen Platz ein.
Daß die Anerkennung des Menschen von anderem Glau^n
^ und anderem Stamm, so wie sie hier rechtlich festgelegt
^V^orden TstrOTCimlren eigentlich religiösen Ausdruck ge.
funden hat. ist schon früher gezeigt worden, wo es den
universalen, humanen Charakter des Judentums aufzuweisen
galt. Er bestimmt auch die innere Achtung vor dem Fremden,
die Achtung vor seiner Seele. Gegenüber dem Glauben des
anderen ist jenes Wort gesprochen worden, das vieles betaßt
und das wie ein Bekenntniswort geworden ist: „die From»
men unter den Heiden haben Anteil an der
ewigenSeligkei t". Die Frömmigkeit ist hier von der
Konfession unabhängig gemacht. Das Verständnis für das
Recht des Fremden erhebt sich zur Anerkennung des Sitt»
liehen, ReUgiösen, das in ihm ist, zur Anerkennung dessen,
was in jedem Menschen als sein Innerliches leben kann.
Jedem steht in seines Lebens und seines Glaubens Bezirk der
Weg dazu offen, daß er ein Frommer wird. Das Menschen»
tum wird zum Entscheidenden, es wird zum Bestimmenden
für diese wie für die kommende Welt. Im Leben der Ewig»
keit wird es keinen Platz des Fremdlings geben, sondern
nur den Platz des Frommen.
Das zweite, worin sich im Judentum die Tragweite
der Idee vom Menschenrecht offenbart, ist die Gestalt,
welche die S k 1 a v e r e i hier hat. Schon daß für den Ein«
Die Arbeit
221
/
\
s
I
heimischen mit dem siebenten Jahr und dem Jubeljahr die
Jahre der Befreiung eintreten, hat ihr hier ein verändertes
Gepräge gegeben. Ein Sklavenwesei^, wie es uns die Kultur^ '
geschichte der alten und neuerTZeit in einer Fülle trauriger
Bilder vorführt, ist dem Gebiete des Judentums fern ge*
blieben. Dies hängt bereits damit zusammen, daß die Lebens*
anschauung hier der Arbeit eine religiöse, sittliche Weihe ver*
Heben hat: der Mensch ist von_,Gplt zur Arbeit bestimmt.
Dem klassischen Altertum war dieser Wert der Arbeit unbe»:
kannt; den Griechen dünkte sie gemein und des freien
Mannes unwürdig. Es ist echt griechische Gesinnung, wenn
J^ Aristoteles die Sklaverei damit rechtfertigt, daß sie unbedingt
notwendig sei, um den Bürger dauernd der alltäglichen nieds^
rigen Tätigkeit zu entheben und ihm die edle Muße, dieses
wahre Leben, zu erschließen; erst wenn sich die Werkzeuge
von selbst bewegten, wie die Wundergebilde des Hephästos,
dann würde das Sklaventum überflüssig geworden sein. Das
Judentum lehrt den Segen der Arbeit; es klingt wie
ein Widerspruch gegen die griechische Geistesrichtung, wenn
einer seiner hervorragendsten Lehrer mahnt: „Ljebe_die
Arbeit und hasse das Herrentum". Wo die Würde der Arbeit
fiTegriffen und der als der GlückHche gepriesen wird, der
„seiner Hände Mühe genießt", dort ist der Fluch der Sklaverei
vernichtet. Für das Judentum gehört die Arbeit zum Men*
sehen. „Es geht der Mensch aus an sein Werk und an seine
Arbeit bis an den Abend", mit diesem Satze hat der Psalmist
den Platz des Menschen in der Schöpfung beschrieben. So
gibt es denn auch in der Sprache des Judentums, streng ge«
nommen, keinen bestimmten Ausdruck für den Sklaven. Das
Wort, das ihn benennt, bezeichnet jeden Arbeitenden und
Dienenden, auch den, der dem einen Gotte „mit ganzem
Herzen und mit ganzer Seele dient". Und auch daran ist zu
erinnern, welch Neues und Wirksames in der Nebeneinander*
Stellung liegt, welche die Thora so oft hat: „Du und dein
nSohn und deine Tochter und dein Knecht und deine Magd";
der große Gedanke der Arbeitsgemeinschaft aller ist darin
enthalten.
Jedoch noch sicherer stützt sich die Erhebung des Sklaven
eben auf den Glauben an den Menschen. Der Grundsatz,
daß wir alle einen Vater haben, gilt auch ihm und wird aus*
''-■"-"-'■• ■
'mmaüLt
t..^ . t, ^., ,^_ V Titr^'iim. .■
•aiitfto «"ri'n^'THTM ■ititlt
:«^o^^
222
Der Sklave
drücklich auf ihn ausgedehnt: „Wenn ich das Recht meines
Knechtes verachtete und meiner Magd, so sie mit mir stritten,
was wollte ich tun, wenn Gott aufstände, und, wenn er mich
vor Gericht forderte, was ihm antworten! Hat nicht, der
mich erschuf, im Mutterleib auch ihn geschaffen, und hat uns
nicht im Mutterschoße Einer bereitet!" Von dem, was jeder
Mensch, auch der Sklave, vor Gott ist, von seinem Menschen,
recht, ist hier gesprochen. Wo so alle Menschen vor Gott
gleich sind, dort bedeutet der Herr nicht m^hr als der Knecht;
wo kein Dünkel auf Barbaren, auf minderwertige, niedrige
Nationen herabblicken darf, dort kann es auch nicht, um es
wiedenurrniTeiner griechischen Vorstellung zu benennen,
y ..geborene Sklaven", „Sklavenvölker", geben. Einen Knecht
zu "versklaven, erscheint dem Israeliten wie eine Lästerung
der eigenen Vergangenheit, eine Verleugnung dessen, was
Gott einst an Israel getan hat, als er es aus^m Hausender
KneditscfeÄft, aus Ägypten herausführte. Ganz wie es um
- des Fremdlings willen zu Gemüte geführt wurde: „ihr seid
Fremdlinge gewesen un Lande Ägypten", so wird des Sklaven
wegen gemahnt: „gedenke, daß du ein Knecht gewesen bist
im Lande Ägypten". Schicksal und Würde der Väter sollten
es fordern, daß in ihm der Mensch, auf den Gott hernieder:^
schaut, geehrt werde.
Am bezeichnendsten sind immer die rechtlichen Begntte,
in denen irgendwo sich die Stellung der Sklaven kundtut. In
der griechischen und römischen Welt, um von den alten Des.
potenstaaten ganz zu schweigen, gilt der Sklaye^als S a c h c ;
er ist nicht Rechtssubjekt, sondern lediglich Rechtsobjekt.
Im corpus juris gehört er in das Kapitel vom dinglichen
Recht. Für das israelitische Gesetz ist der Sklave Rechts.
person, er steht seinem Herrn mit bestimmten Rechtga^.
Sprüchen gegenüber. Dieser wird darum nicht alsFig e n .
tunTTr des Sklaven angesehen, sondern nur als sein Be.
s i t z e r. Er hat über ihn nicht die volle, uneingeschränkte
Freiheit des Handelns, sondern bloß eine begrenzte und be.
dingte Verfügung. Die Knechtschaft, das ist hierdurch fest,
gelegt, ist kein Verhältnis, das in der allgemeinen Rechts.
Ordnung begründet wäre und sein anerkanntes Recht in sich
trüge, sondern bloß ein zeitliches Dienstv:erhältius._Das
Prir.'.in dpr Sklavcrci ist damit bereits gebrochen.
Das Sklavenrecht
223
It
Wie entschieden die Rechtspersönlichkeit des Sklaven ge.
sichert wird, zeigt sich am klarsten an dem Gesetze über die
Verletzung des Sklaven durch seinen Herrn. „So jemand das
Auge seines Sklaven oder das Auge seiner Sklavin schlägt
und es verderbt, so soll er sie als frei entlassen für
i h r A u g e. Und wenn er den Zahn seines Sklaven oder den
Zahn seiner Sklavin ausschlägt, so soll er sie als f r e i e n t .
lassenfürihrenZah n". Diese Bestimmung beruht auf
dem sogenannten jus tahonis, dem Gesetze der Vergeltung,
in der Form, wie es sich im israelitischen Recht ausgebildet
hat. Das heißt: sie gründet sich auf die Verpflichtung, einem
jeden, dem man einen körperlichen oder sonstigen Schaden
zugefügt hat, eine entsprechende Buße, einen g e *
bührenden Ersatz durch Geld zu leisten. So sagt es das
alte Rechtssprichwort: Bruch um Bruch, Auge um Auge,
Zahn um Zahn! Dieser Grundsatz de: ordnungsmäßigen
Vergeltung ist in seinem eigentlichen Sinne demnach der
Ausdruck für die Gleichheit aller, und er schließt darum auch
mit den Worten: „ein Recht soll euch sein, der Fremdling
soll wie der Eingeborene sein". So hoch wie die Wunde des
einen, sollte die des anderen geschätzt werden. Die Richter
sollten gemahnt sein, daß sie stets — so umschrieb der alte
Göttinger Professor Johann David MichaeUs unsere Verord.
nung: — „den Vornehmen und Geringen gleich machten und
den Zahn des Bauern mit dem Zahn des Adehgen gleich
hielten, sonderlich da der Bauer Rinde beißen muß und der
dhge Semmel haben kann". Nur für einen macht das Ge.
setz eine Ausnahme, eben für den Sklaven. Er ist seinem
Herrn nicht bloß gleich gestellt, sondern ihm vorgezogen.
Wenn ihm sein Herr das Geringste zufügt, ihm auch nur
einen Zahn ausschlägt, wird er dadurch sofort frei; so sagt
es das Sklavengesetz. Für den Herrn gilt bloß: „Zahn um
Zahn"; der Sklave hat den höheren Ersatz: F ^ ^ i ^, ? j ^ " ^
Z^b-n" Er wird ganz~1besoTi3ers berücksichtigt; an ihm
offenbart sich das Erfordernis des Rechtsschutzes am ein.
dringlichsten. Wie am Fremdling der Mensch als Teil der
Menschheit in voller Klarheit erfaßt werden konnte, so wurde
die Rechtspersönlichkeit eines jeden, wer immer es sei, in
aller Deutlichkeit am Sklaven begriffen.
Auch seine Ebenbürtigkeit erhielt, wie ihre rechtliche.
224
Der soziale Sabbath
SO ihre eigene religiöse Betonung. Der Sabbath, als Tag der
Kühe und der Erholung, ist um des Sklaven willen eingesetzt,
so sagt es die HeiHge Schrift wiederholt. „Der siebente Tag
ist ein Ruhetag dem Ewigen, deinem Gotte; da sollst du
keinerlei Werk verrichten, du und dein Sohn und deine
Tochter und dein Knecht und deine Magd und dem Ochs
und dein Esel und all dein Vieh und dein Fremdling, der m
deinenTorenist, — auf daß dein Knecht und deine
Magd ruhe wie du. Gedenke, daß du ein Knecht p*
wesen bist im Lande Ägypten, und der Ewige, dein Gott dich
von dort herausgeführt hat mit starker Hand und mit aus*
gestrecktem Arm. Darum hat dir der Ewige, dein Gott, ge*
boten, den Sabbathtag zu begehen". Also um des Sklaven .
willen gebietet Gott den Sabbath. Nicht sein Herr gewährt
ihm den Tag der Ruhe, sondern Gott hat ihm denselben zu*
geteilt. UmdesMenschenrechteswillenistder
allwöchentliche Sabbath da. Und ebenso ist das Fest der
Freude auch für den Knecht gegeben; „Du sollst dich freuen
an deinem Feste, du und dein Sohn und deine Tochter und
dein Knecht und deine Magd . . ." Wohl hatten auch die
Römer z. B. ihre gelegentlichen Sklavenfeste. Aber es ist ein
wesentlicher, tiefer Unterschied, ob dem Geknechteten in
einem Jahre voll des Druckes und des Elends zwei oder drei
kümmerhche Tage der Pause wie ein Almosen gewährt wer*
-den, oder ob die heihgste Institution des Jahres, „das Zeichen
izwischen dem Ewigen und den Kindern Israel", als ein unver*
'kürzbares, religiöses Recht des Sklaven, als ein
' Anspruch hingestellt wird, der ihm von Gott verUehen ist.
Das eine ist mit dem andern nicht zu vergleichen.
Wir begegnen in der griechischen und der römischen
Literatur mannigfachen Äußerungen zarter und inniger Rück*
sieht gegenüber dem Sklaven. Der humane Sinn, der dank
dem Einflüsse der stoischenPhilosophie unter den
Besten im Volke Boden gewann, hat auch hier seine segens*
reiche Einwirkung nicht verfehlt. Allein diese edlen Ge*
danken waren, ganz abgesehen davon, daß sie oft als bloße
Bucli^ und Modegedanken ein Gegenstand unfruchtbaren
Philosophierens blieben, doch nur das Besitztum eines engen
Kreises. Sie wurden nicht zu dem, was sie im Judentum
geworden sind; sie sind nicht zur „Thora" geworden. Und
Die religiöse Humanität
225
(1
darum ist es nicht zu verwundern, daß ihnen alle jene Bilder
des Entsetzens gegenüberstehen, der Greuel, worin ein frev*
1er Müßiggang seinen Übermut an den Unglücklichen aus*
läßt, die nach Juvenals Wort „ja keine Menschen sind". Was
Israels Bibel über den Sklaven lehrt, ist als Thora dem gan*
zen Volke zu eigen geworden, und darin haben die einzelnen
Gebote ihre Wurzelkraft und die Fähigkeit ihres immer wei*
teren Wachstums. Sie sind das reUgiöse Gemeingut, das sich,
wie ein BUck in die spätere Literatur zeigt, immer mehr ver*
tieft und veredelt hat. Sie haben das Leben gestahet: hier
offenbart sich der ganze Unterschied zwischen der bestimm*
ten Humanität der gebietenden Religion des Lebens und der
abstrakten Humanität einer Philosophie, wie erleuchtet diese
auch sei. In welcher Richtung sich das Verhältnis zu dem
Dienenden immer lebendiger entwickelt hat, dafür genügt
es gegenüber engeren Anschauungen auf wichtige talmudische
Vorschriften und, was noch mehr ist, auf manche Züge aus
dem täglichen Leben jener Zeit hinzuweisen. Sie zeigen,
welch schonende Rücksicht den Sklaven vor aller Kränkung
und Beschämung, vor aller erniedrigenden und auch vor aller
überflüssigen Arbeit zu schützen sucht. Von dem rechte
schaffenen Sklaven hat Rabbi Jose gerühmt, daß er der
„gute, treue Mann ist^der von seiner Mühe sich nährt". Eine
SIcIaverei in dem"' eigentlichen Sinne dfeses' Wortes hat es
unter den Juden nicht gegeben. Israel ist die einzige Gemein* ^^^^
Schaft gewesen, die eine Kultur, welche nicht auf dem NackenA j
der Sklaven ruhte, besessen und damit zuerst eine wahrhaf|^^
sittliche Kultur geschaffen hat.
Das Dritte, das von der lebendigen Kraft des Verstand*
nisses für das Menschenrecht zeugt, ist die soziale Ge*
setzgebung der HeiHgen Schrift. Sie geht von der Idee
der Z e d a k a h , der Gerechtigkeit aus. Der Grundgedanke,
auf dem diese Satzungen ruhen, ist, daß alle, die das Gebiet
eines Staates umfaßt, sittlich zusammengehören,
Glieder einer sittlichen Pflichtengemeinschaft sind. Alle
haben für das menschliche Bedürfen jedes Einzelnen, dem es
not ist, einzustehen; sie sollen um sein Bedürfen wissen. Wer
immer in unserer Mitte wohnt, soll nicht bloß räumlich neben
uns leben, sondern, wie das bedeutungsvolle, oft wiederholte
Wort lautet, „m i t u n s 1 e b e n": sittlich mit uns verbunden,
Baeck, Wesen des Ju?
1^
IM -|- --—----" -
1 »im" —
226
Die Gesellschaft
menschlich mit uns verknüpft. Der sittlichen Persönlichkeit
rts^rtht dTe sittliche Gemeinschaft. Neben und vor allen
den i^brigen Aufgaben im Staate stehen die menschlichen
dLsoziafen Aufgaben. Der gemdnsame Boden, dej "-u^d
den anderen trägt, ist auch der Boden unserer Verantworte
hchkek gegen ihn. Kein bloß äußerliches, sondern ein si t.
Ses Zusammenleben soll es sein. Das allein veremigt a^b.
bringt es ihnen, daß sie zusammengehören Der sitthche Zu.
sammenhang gewährt allen den menschlichen Gruppen und
Gefügen den Sinn ihres Lebens und ihres Zusammenlebens,
ihren Wert und ihren Zweck. Darin erst ist deshalb dem
Staate sein sittliches Dasein gegeben und damit sein Daseins,
recht vor Gott, der wahre Staat ist der Staat der Zedakah,
r diese wahrhafte Theokratie, diese civitas dei, in der jeder.
'weß Vaters er ist, "seln-en-Ptetz-lraben k«nn OTd haben soll
Jeder, der im Lande lebt, soll mit den anderen leben und
die anderen mit ihm. , , , ^ 1 1
Der ideale, w irklich e Beg riff de rG e selb
Schaft ist damit geschaffen. Alle menschliche Gesamthe^
ist eine sittliche Gesamtheit, jeder Einze ne ist als Glied
einer Menschengemeinschaft erachtet. Nicht staatliche und
wirtschaftliche Interessen vorerst, sondern vor allem mensch,
liehe Aufgaben und menschliche Leistungen sind das Band
das die Bewohner des Landes zusammenschheßt. Sie sind
nicht eine Gemeinschaft von Bürgern nur, nicht eine Ge.
meinschaft von Ständen, sondern eine Gemeinschaft von
Mensch^i^ind sie.Und darum erstrecken sich ja alle Ftlich.
ten auf den Menschen schlechthin, also auch auf den Frep
den Wer immer unter uns lebt, hat Anspruch au^ uns: be.
darf er unser, so sollen wir ihm zur Seite sein; ist er arm,
so sollen wir ihn erhalten. Das ist die Pflicht aller, so unab.
weisbar und ernst, wie irgend ein poUtisches und staatliches
Gebot Diese Aufgaben und Pflichten erst schaffen die
menschUche und darum auch die staatliche Gemeinschaft,
sind der Weg dazu, daß diese in ihrer Bedeutung, in ihrer
Daseinsauf gäbe erfaßt wird. Zum ersten Male in der Ge.
schichte der Menschheit ist hier das s o z i a 1 e V e r s t a n d^
nis erwacht und zur Tat geworden. Und an diesen Ideerl^
des Judentums hat sich der soziale, messianische Gedanke
dieser reUgiöse Gedanke von der menschlichen Gesellschatt
Die soziale Forderung
227
und ihrer Erfüllung immer wieder, mittelbar oder unmitteU
bar, genährt und belebt.
' Die soziale Forderung ist im Judentum ein Wesentliches
und Notwendiges der Religion. Schon als das Prinzip des
Glaubens an den Nebenmenschen hat es sich so dargetan:
unser Menschenbruder, und das ist ein jeder, hat ein Anrecht
jv^ auf uns. Der Arme ist, wie das Buch der Sprüche sagt, „der
V Eigentümer der Wohltat**, die wir ihm erweisen sollen; sie
ihm nicht gewähren, däfe heißt „sie ihm vorenthalten". Oder,
wie ein späteres Wort es noch entschiedener hervorkehrt, es
heißt „ihn berauben", was man dann auch in dem Bibelsatze
enthalten fand: „Beraube nicht den Armen, denn er ist arm";
ihm wird das genommen, was sein Besitztum von Gott ist,
das Recht, als unser Mitmensch da zu sein. Wer allein stehen
will, zwar für sich nichts verlangend, aber auch keinem etwas
leistend, der versündigt sich gegen Menschenrecht und Men^»
schenwürde. Ein alter talmudischer Satz urteilt über ihn:
„Zu sagen: das Meinige ist mein, und das Deine ist dein, —
das ist Sodoms Denkungsart". Hier ist in aller Bestimmtheit
ausgesprochen, was erst Gerechtigkeit ist. Der besitzt sie
noch nicht, der nichts Böses gegen den Nächsten tut, ihn
nicht bestiehlt, nicht betrügt, nicht verwundet, nicht schädigt.
Wer nichts anderes von sich aussagen könnte als das, der
stände vor Gott nicht anders da als die Leute von Sodom,
welches zerstört worden ist wegen seiner Sünden. „Siehe,
das war das Verschulden deiner Schwester Sodom: Hoheit,
Überfluß und ruhige Sicherheit hatte sie und hatten die
TK-enT^atTeTHieTHand d"es Armen^ürid Dürftigen stützte sie
nicht". Der erst ist gerecht, der für seinen Mitmenschen
etwas leistet.
Diese Gedankenrichtung ist es, die sich im Judentum seit
altem in einer Reihe von gesellschaftlichen Ge^
setzen ausgeprägt hat, welche in bestimmtester Form die
Gfirechtigkeit^gegen die Armen und Schwachen gebieten. Sie
wenden sich gegen alles VeFdranj^cnderfegen jede Gewalt
des Besitzes. Die prophetische Rede hat dagegen ihr „Wehe"
erhoben: „Wehe denen, die ein Haus an das andere ziehen
und einen Acker zum anderen bringen, bis daß kein Raum
mehr da ist, und ihr allein inmitten des Landes besitzet!"
Aus diesem Geiste haben die biblischen Satzungen ihre Kraft
15*
228
Der Besitz
genommen. Sie zielen vor allem darauf hin, die völlige und
dauernde Verarmung, die Entstehung einer durchaus besitz^
losen Klasse zu verhüten; wie sich Israels Kultur nicht auf
ein Sklaventum gestützt hat, so auch auf kein Proletariat.
Niemand, der in der Not das Erbe der Väter zu verkaufen ge^
zwungen war, sollte es für immer veräußern müssen; ein
„Freiheitsjahr", das Jubeljahr, war dazu bestimmt, stets von
neuem die gleichmäßige Verteilung, das Gleichgewicht der
wichtigsten Güter herbeizuführen. Auch dem Besitz, dem
Anteil am Boden sollte immer wieder der neue Anfang, gleichst
sam die Umkehr, die Teschuwah gewährt sein — der Tag
\^der Versöhnung im BesitzeT an dem alle Spannung, aller
Widerspruch sich wieder löst.
Aber so lange einer arm war, bÜeb er darum doch nicht
vergessen und verlassen. Niemand sollte sich eigentlich als
arm betrachten, da er ja einer menschlichen Gemeinschaft
zugehörte. Mit aller Entschiedenheit wurden die Pflichten
des-Besitzes eingeschärft; in ihnen sollte der Segen des Be*
Sitzes empfunden werden, in ihnen dem Besitz seine Weihe,
sein Sabbatliches gegeben sein. Zunächst ist es wieder der
Grund und Boden, den diese Vorschriften betreffen. Denn
der wahre Eigentümer des Bodens und alles seines Ertrag*
nisses ist Gott, und darum haben auch die Armen darauf
Anspruch. Sie sind die Schützlinge Gottes, sie sind „sein
Volk"; ein Teil der Ernte gehört ihnen. Aber ebenso gilt das
soziale Gebot jeder anderen Habe. Es ist Pflicht, dem
Bedrängten ein Darlehen zu gewähren und, wenn er es in
bestimmter Zeit nicht zurückerstatten kann, ihm die Schuld
zu erlassen. Es ist Pflicht, sich des Armen anzunehmen
und ihm darzubieten, was er braucht. Er soll alle unsere
Freude auch mit uns teilen und sie dadurch zur wahren
Freude machen. Wo immer einer frohen Zeit gedacht ist, sie
ist stets auch für ihn bestimmt.
Am Armen wird es klar begriffen, was der Mensch als
Glied der menschlichen Gesellschaft zu fordern berechtigt
ist; an ihm wird immer zuerst erfahren, daß das Gebot, ein
Mitmensch zu sein, ein Bestimmtes von uns beansprucht. Die
rmtrt isf der große soziale Vorwurf, der Widerspruch gegen
die Idee der menschlichen Gemeinschaft. In ihr ruft die
soziale UnvoUkommenheit, das soziale Übel uns an. Mit
^
I
ft
■llJi».i<!jWl
^■lir< tl> jNMMMlKfcjiittetlLfa
Die Armut
229
allem Leid tritt der Widerspruch in das Leben ein, mit unse*
rem Leid und unserer Not in unser Leben, mit der Not und
dem Elend des Mitmenschen in das Leben der Gemeinschaft.
Es ist das Gebot im Judentum, daß der Mensch dem Leide
gegenüber ein Schaffender und ein Umgestaltender sein soll,
einer, der nicht aufhört, Gott zu dienen. Er soll die Not
sittlich überwinden, die eigene und so nun auch die des
anderen. Das Elend auch des anderen sollen wir nicht als
ein bloßes Schicksal hinnehmen, uns nicht vor ihm be.
schwichtigen als vor einer verhängten Tatsache, vor der wir
das Antworten und selbst das Fragen verlernen, so wie vor
dem Gotama Buddha der Legende die Armut, die Krankheit
und der Tod stehen, diese Menschengeschicke. Wir sollen
jedes Leid des anderen zu unserer Aufgabe werden lassen,
unsere sittliche Freiheit an ihm bewähren. Auch im Sozialen
wendet sich das Judentum gegen die Vorstellung von einem
Fatum. Und gegenüber dem Elend vor allem gih es, das
wir in der Armut vor uns sehen. Nicht ein Schicksalswort
spricht in ihr zu uns, sondern das Wort einer bestimmten
Pflicht. Der Arme ist der Mitmensch im besonderen Sinne
des Gebotes. Er ist der, welcher des Platzes im Irdischen
und seinen Gütern entbehrt, aber seinen Platz von Gott her
hat, der Mensch, welcher schlechthin als Mensch da ist. In
ihm wendet sich das Menschentum uns zu, gewissermaßen
das nackte, bloße Menschentum, das nach dem Mitmenschen*
tum verlangt. Daher hat das Wort „Armut" in der Sprache
des Judentums den reUgiösen Ton — bezeichnend ist schon,
daß hier dej Ausdruck für den Bettler fehlt — ; der Klang
des Demütigen schwingt darin mit. Das Wort „Armer" ist
ein Wort, das die Bibel mit Andacht, mit Ehrfurcht aus*
spricht, wie in heiUger Scheu. Und auch am Armw, ganz
wie am Knechte und am Fremdling, wird Israel an sein eige*
nes Los gemahnt, an seine Gedrücktheit auf Erden. Das Leid
des Armen ist auch sein Leid, die Würde des Armen ist auch
seine Würde, der Trost des Armen auch sein Trost. „Die
Armen und Dürftigen suchen nach Wasser, und ist nichts
da, ihre Zunge ist im Durste vertrocknet. Ich, der Ewige,
erhöre sie, ich, der Gott Israels, verlasse sie nicht". „Ge*
tröstet hat der Ewige sein Volk, und seiner Armen erbarmt
230
Die Hilfe
Die Menschenerfüllung
231
er sich''. Auch im Worte vom Armen hat das Soziale seinen
messianischen Ton. -7 „„«nie nh
Die Geschichte des Judentums legt davon Zeugnis ab
daß diese Gedanken nicht stille standen. An dem, was das
lue Gesetz forderte, ließ man sich nicht genügen; man
suchte in immer neuen Satzungen dem Armen gerecht zu
werden. Denn das war es eben: nicht ein Almosen gewahrte
man ihm mit dem, was man ihm darbot sondern ^in
Recht wollte man ihm damit geben. Und damit sollte zu.
• iraarSuch G o 1 1 e s R e c h t anerkannt sein. Denn wer
dem Schwachen Gute^ erweist, zahlt damit nur eine Schuld
an Gott ^ Stautet in den Sprüchen der Väter das Gebot
der Pflicht gegen den Dürftigen: „Gib Gott von dem was
Gottes ist, denn du und was dein ist, sind sein . Das ist von
dem Propheten als der wahre Gottesdienst verkündet wor.
den: „Ist nicht das ein Fasten, wie ich es begehre: zu offnen •
die Stricke des Frevels, zu lösen die Bande des Jochs und
Vergewaltigte frei gehen zu lassen; jegliches Joch sollt ihr
brechen! Ist's nicht das: daß du teilst dem Hungrigen dein
Brot und Elende. Heimatlose ins Haus bringst; wenn du
einen Nackenden siehst, daß du ihn kleidest und dich deu
nem Fleische nicht entziehst." „Er übte Recht und Gerech,
tigkeit, ... er schaffte Recht dem Bedrückten und Armen . . .
Heißt nicht das: mich erkennen, ist der Spruch des Ewigen .
Die Fülle der Einzelzüge aus späterer Zeit braucht nicht
dargelegt zu werden; denn sie alle schließt ein Satz em, der
in den Kodex des öffentlichen Rechtes, in die Mischna, auf.
genommen worden ist: Wenn ein Mensch erschlagen auf
dem Felde gefunden wird, und man weiß nicht, wer ihn er.
schlagen hat. dann sollen, so bestimmt es die Thora. die
Ältesten der nächsten Stadt herantreten, und „sie sollen an.
heben und sprechen: „Unsere Hände haben dieses Blut nicht
vergossen, und unsere Augen haben nicht gesehen . Und
die Mischna fügt nun hinzu: „Sollen denn die Altesten der
Stadt bezichtigt sein, daß sie es waren, die das Blut ver.
gössen haben? AUein das Wort will anderes bedeuten.
Unsere Hände haben dieses Blut nicht vergossen", das will
sagen- Nicht ist dieser Mensch in unserer Hände Bereich
gewesen, und wir haben ihn hungrig ziehen lassen. „Und
unsere Augen haben nicht gesehen", das will sagen: Nicht
/
i
I i
■I
ist er in unserer Augen Umkreis gewesen, und wir haben
ihn allein gelassen". So meint es dieser tatoudische Satz:
wer des anderen sich nicht annimmt, der ist, als hatten seine
Hände Blut vergossen, als hätten seine Augen es mit an.
öesehen
Die einzelnen Bestimmungen aller jener Gesetze mögen
dem veränderten Bedürfen und der neuen wirtschaftlichen
Gestaltung späterer Zeit nicht mehr gemäß sem, aber das
mindert nicht den Wert dessen, daß in ihnen zum ersten
Male soziales Fühlen das Leben der Gesamtheit zu durch,
dringen gesucht hat. Die große soziale Aufgabe ist m ihnen
zum ersten Male begriffen worden. Gerade in der Gegenwart
vermögen wir ihnen besonders wieder nahe zu sein, denn
den sittlichen Begriff der Gesellschaft, wie er in ihnen sich ,
ausprägt, hat die Entwicklung unserer Tage nachdrücklich
aufgenommen. Zumal wenn immer entschiedener die Forde,
rung auftritt, daß man anfangen solle „praktische Rehgion
zu treiben, so ist damit nur der Weg wieder begangen, den
die soziale Gesetzgebung der Bibel eröffnet hat, und der im
Judentum nie verlassen worden ist - der Weg der „/^eda.
kah", der Gerechtigkeit", die vom Menschenrecht zur Men.
schenerfüUung hinweist, zur Verwirklichung des-RecWs am
anderen, vor allem am Knechte, am Fremdling und am Armen.
Zwei Wege hat im Zuge der Zeiten das soziale Denken
eingeschlagen. Der eine geht von dem großen Seher und
Künstler unter den mathematischen Denkern, von ?kto aus.
Der Glaube an die unfehlbare, alles bewirkende Macht des
Gesetzes, das die gesellschaftlichen Ordnungen schafft und
in sie hinein die Menschen zwingt, um sie zu erziehen und
zu beglücken, beherrscht hier alles. Er wird zum Glauben an
das Allvermögen des Staates; der absolute Staat, der alles
bedeuten kann, und dem darum die Allgewalt gegeben sein
soll damit er die Menschen und die Sitten gestalte, wird zur
Bürgschaft der VoUkommenheit. zum Bilde der ersehnten
Zukunft. Wenn er errichtet ist, dann ist die Zeit erfüllt und
die Idee zur Wirklichkeit hienieden geworden; die civitas dei.
der Gottesstaat auf Erden ist dann gegründet. Allles ist
darum hier auf den Gedanken des Staats und seiner Gewalt
und seines Zwangs aufgebaut. Ihm gegenüber bleibt dem
Gebot des Eigenen, das an das Individuum ergeht, kein
»i*i' ■••'I'
^^fe^^^^gng^^
232
Der soziale Staat
i^
^
/
!'•
Platz; der individuellen Sehnsucht und Liebe, dem Rechte
des Suchens wird der Raum versagt. Der Mensch ist ein
/ Wesen, das zur Vernunft und zum Glücke zu zwingen ist,
so wird es hier zum leitenden Satz, mit dem sich darum jede
[Hierarchie, jede politische wie jede kirchliche, immer gern
vertragen und verbunden hat. Die letzte Antwort ist hier
immer die Forderung der Diktatur, von der Diktatur der
Philosophen bei Plato oder bei Comte bis zur Diktatur der
Arbeitenden in neueren Tagen, von dem „Coge intrare", dem
„Zwinge sie einzutreten" in der alten Kirche bis zum „Cujus
regio, ejus religio", „Wessen Land, dessen Religion", im
evangeHschen und katholischen Staat. Und der Staat wird
schHeßlich, mit der Hyperbel des engHschen Philosophen zu
sprechen, zum Leviathan, zum Ungeheuer, das alles ver^
schlingt. Es ist ein Ideal, das dieser Richtung sozialen
Denkens vor dem Geiste steht, das Ideal, die Menschen
einem großen Ganzen einzugliedern, sie zu ihm zu erziehen.
Aber ein starker Pessimismus gegenüber dem einzelnen
Menschen steht dahinter: der Mensch bedarf des Zwanges
von der Geburt bis zum Tode; nur durch die zwingende [k,
Macht des allgebietenden und alles vermögenden Staates, H
des mathematischen Staates, kann der soziale Mensch ins
Dasein geführt werden.
Der andere Weg, der mit dem ersteren eigentlich nur den
Namen des Sozialen gemein hat, geht von der Bibel aus.
Hier ist alles durch den Glauben an den Menschen iS^estimmt,
durch die Ehrfurcht vpr seiner Freiheit und ihrem Schöpfer^
gebot, durch diese Gewißheit dessen, daß, über alle Un?
gleichheit hinweg, die Fähigkeit des Guten in jede Menschen?
seele gepflanzt ist und die sittliche Aufgabe einen jeden for?
dert, alle verbindend, sie alle für einander beanspruchend.
Der Optimismus gegenüber dem Menschen spricht hier, die
religiöse, soziale Zuversicht, die von ihm alles erwartet und
alles verlangt. Nicht der vollkommene Staat/mit seinem voU^
kommenen Gesetz ist hier das eine, dasliot tut; der Mensch
ist es mit seiner Tat, mit seiner Kraft, das Gute zu schaffen.
Auch im Sozialen ist er die stärkste, die eigentliche Realität,
die Wirklichkeit, durch die erst das Gesetz seine Wirklich:^
( i
%
I
H
keit erhält. Nicht so ist es, daß der neue Staat den neuen V/
Menschen bringt, sondern so, daß dufcIT den neuen Men? ^
Der soziale Mensch 233
sehen die neue Gesellschaft gestaltet wird, durch die sittliche .^ -^^
Persönlichkeit die sittliche Gemeinschaft. Es gibt kein ideales ^
Reich, das durch ideale Gesetze auf die Erde hingestellt wer.
den könnte; der Mensch erbaut das Gottesreich auf Erden
und dehnt ihm die Grenzen durch jede rechte Tat, die er
neu vollbringt. Das Göttliche tut sich in der Gemeinschaft
kund, wenn Menschen das Gottesgebot an einander erfüllen.
Das Wort vom vollkommenen Staat ist hier das Wort der
Forderung, das an alle Menschen in ihm gleich ergeht: „Ihr
sollt mir sein ein Reich von Priestern und ein heiliges Volk!"
Mehr afs das Gesetz, in dem der Staat die notwendigen Gren^
zen zieht und die notwendigen Ansprüche stellt, bedeutet
die Thora, das Gebot, in welchem Gott jeden einzelnen "^^»^
Menschen ruft. Die menschliche Tat bewirkt hier die mensch:=
liehe Gemeinschaft. Darum gründet sich das Soziale hier auf
das Menschenrecht und die aus ihm folgende Verantwortliche
keit des einen für den anderen, auf die Anerkennung des
Menschen durch den Menschen. Das Wort vom Sozialen ist ^
nicht das vom Staate, sondern das vom Bruder; sein Respekt ^^^
ist größer vor (!eiPKraft des Menschen äTs'vor der Macht
des Gesetzes. Der Staat ist hier ein Staat, nur wenn er ein
Staat von Menschen und nicht bloß ein Staat der Gesetze
ist. Und darum ist das Soziale hier ein Unendliches, ein
ewiges Problem und eine nie vollbrachte Aufgabe, ein Gc^
bot, das immer wieder seiner letzten Erfüllung harrt. Der
platonische Staat, und er ist immer neu erdacht worden, will
eine vollendete Gestaltung sein, er ist ein Anfang, der das
Ende in sich trägt — unduldsam, diktatorisch wie jede
Theorie. Die staatliche Gemeinschaft, wie der jüdische Ge^
danke sie fordert, ist kein Fertiges, denn es gibt keinen fertig:
gen Menschen, sondern ist ein immer wieder zu Verwirk*
liebendes — der Freiheit im Sittlichen zugewandt und den
Weg öffnend wie jedes Gottesgebot. Darum weist hier das
Soziale zum Messianischen hin. Vor seiner Gegenwart steht
immer mahnend die Zukunft, die ewige Aufgabe, die von
Geschlecht zu Geschlecht zu erfüllen ist, der Weg zu dem
Ziele, daß jede Tat des Menschen den Mitmenschen schaffe,
damit sich in ihrer Gemeinschaft Gott offenbare.
Wenn so die Anerkennung durch die bestimmte Tat,
welche die Gerechtigkeit fordert, das Unerläßliche und inso*
234
Die Nächstenliebe
I >
fern das erste ist, was wir dem Mitmenschen schulden, wenn
nichts, kein bloßes Wohlwollen, kein Herz voller Liebe und
Mitleid, sie ersetzen kann, so ist doch durch sie allein dem
Glauben an den Nächsten noch nicht Genüge geschehen.
Denn was der Nächste begehrt, sind nicht nur die Lebens?
erfordernisse jedes Tages, denen die rechte Handlung Ge?
währ geben will; er trägt auch sein Empfinden in sich, das
ebenfalls nach seiner Befriedigung verlangt, er hat sein
innerstes Geheimnis, sein Persönliches, ganz wie wir. Er
steht vor uns, auf daß wir, wie die Bibel mit einem ihrer
edelsten Worte sagt, „seine Seele kennen". Was immer wir
ihm tun, wir sollen es auch seinem Herzen tun, um seines
Herzens willen und aus unserem Herzen heraus. Wir sollen
^ ^)l die Gerechtigkeit üben mit dem Gemüte. Und wenn viel^
leicht sein leibliches Dasein unser nicht bedarf, so bleibt
doch diese Pflicht gegen die Seele. Das ist es, was
die Religion Israels als die Nächstenliebe bezeichnet:
^ „Liebe deinen Nächsten wie dich selbst". „Liebe den Fremd?
* ling wie dich selbst". Sie ist die notwendige Vollendung, die
Erfüllung der „Gerechtigkeit". Durch sie wird das, was wir
dem Nächsten tun, aus einer bloß der Pflicht entsprechenden
Handlung zu einer persönlichen Leistung, zu einer Tat, die
nicht bloß von Hand zu Hand, sondern von Seele zu Seele
geübt wird. Die Schuldigkeit erhält ihre Wärme, ihren inne?
ren Wert; wie es der Talmud sagt: „Die „Gerechtigkeit" gilt
so viel, wie Liebe in ihr ist". Und wo sich die Schuldigkeit
vielleicht erübrigt, dort bleibt eben die Liebe. Sie haben wir
auch dem zu erweisen, der unserer Tat entraten mag oder
entraten muß. Besser kann das, was in der Menschenliebe
noch zu der Wohltat — dieses Wort in dem Vollton der „Ge?
rechtigkeit" verstanden — hinzukommt, nicht gekennzeich?
net werden, als es wiederum in einem talmudischen Satze
geschieht: „Die Wohltat kann nur Lebenden erwiesen wer?
den, die MenschenUebe Lebenden und Toten; die Wohltat
wird nur dem Armen bezeigt, die MenschenHebe Reichen wie
Armen; Wohltaten vermag man nur mit seiner Habe zu
üben, die Menschenliebe wird geübt mit der Habe und mit
der Persönlichkeit".
Diesem Satze geht ein anderer voran: „Wohltun und
Menschenliebe wiegen alle Gebote der Bibel auf". Kaum
Die Anteilnahme
235
irgend ein anderes wird im tahnudischen Schrifttum so ein?
dringlich betont, zumal was die Nächstenliebe betrifft.
„Menschenliebe ist Anfang und Ende der Thora". „Wer dem
Menschenbruder die Liebe vorenthält, ist wie ein Götzen?
diener, wie einer, der den Dienst Gottes von sich wirft .
„Das ist es, was die Thora sagt: nehmet das Himmelreich an,
bescheidet einander in Gottesfurcht und handelt an einander
in MenschenUebe". „Das ist das dreifache Zeichen des
Israeliten: daß er barmherzig, schamhaft ist und Menschen,
liebe übend". „Liebe deinen Nächsten wie dich selbst", das
ist nach dem Worte Akibas „das große Gebot der
Thora, das alles in sich begreift".
Wie uns selbst sollen wir den Nächsten heben; er soll
uns das sein, was wir uns sind, seine Seele so bedeutungsvoll
und so der Rücksicht wert wie die unsere. Es ist nur die
Konsequenz dessen, daß wir seine Seele kennen. Sich in den
Mitmenschen hineinversetzen, sich in sein Hoffen und Seh.
nen hineindenken, die Bedürfnisse seines Herzens begreifen
und in das Wohl und Wehe seines Gemütes eindringen, das
ist die Vorbedingung aller Nächstenliebe und Barmherzig,
keit, aller Anteilnahme am Menschenbruder. Ihr innerstes
Wesen ist darum in dem Grundsatze enthalten, den Hillel
als den Inbegriff der Lehre, aus dem alles folgt, bezeichnet
hat: „Was du nicht willst, daß man dir es tue, das tue auch
keinem anderen". Mit Recht hat die alte erläuternde Bibel?
Übersetzung, das Targum des Jonatan, das Gebot der
NächstenUebe in diese Mahnung übertragen; das lebendige
Verständnis für den Mitmenschen gibt der NächstenUebe
erst ihre sichere Bestimmtheit.
Es hat auch seinen guten Sinn, wenn HiUel sein Wort in
negativer Form ausspricht. Denn in aller MenschenUebe
ist das der Anfang, daß man sich vornimmt, keinem wehe
zu tun. Das andere, das Positive folgt dann von selbst. Wenn
kaum eine Tugend so oft inhaltleer wird, wie die Nächsten,
liebe, so kommt es daher, daß sie es so häufig vergißt, was
üUes* nicht zu tun von ihr gefordert ist. Auf sittlichem Ge.
biete hat das Negative seine festesten Grenzen, seine be?
stimmtesten Forderungen; an dem, was wir nicht tun sollen,
lernen wir die sittUche Tat. Auf allem Wege zum Guten ist
es so; es beginnt damit, daß der Mensch sich vom Bösen
^
:'iitir'iiin"i tiriTi
ÄkssL
-♦y ;-^-=
mML..
236
Das Verbot
abwendet und gegen das Böse kehrt. Alle Liebe zum Großen
hebt mit dem Widerwillen gegen das Niedrige an, alle Arbeit
für das Edle mit dem Widerstand gegen das Gewöhnliche.
Kein Unrecht zu üben, ist der erste und entscheidende
Schritt auf der Bahn zum Recht. Was Gottes Wille nicht ist,
können wir auch immer am ehesten wissen, immer am deut*
liebsten, was Unreinheit, Unsittlichkeit, Ungerechtigkeit ist.
Alle Erziehung spricht darum zuerst ihr verbietendes Wort.
Erst, wenn wir erkannt haben, wovon wir fortgehen sollen,
können wir zu uns gelangen. „Vom Bösen weichen, das ist
Vernunft". Daher das stete, große „du sollst nicht" in der
Bibel. Wo dieses fehlt, und wie oft hat es gefehlt, dort ver^:
flüchtigt sich nur zu bald alles in die bloße Schwärmerei,
diese bloße Rede der Tat. Deshalb geht auch dem Gebote
der Nächstenliebe das Verbot voran: „du sollst dich nicht
rächen und nicht grollen den Kindern deines Volkes" — und
nach der alten jüdischen Anschauung ist es Rache schon,
wenn man einem eine Wohltat darum vorenthält, weil er uns
auch nichts Gutes getan hat, Grollen schon, wenn man dann
die Wohltat mit selbstgerechten Worten begleitet. Und vor
diesem Verbote steht das andere: „du sollst nicht hassen
deinen Bruder in deinem Herzen" — Haß ist nach der alten
Auffassung auch die feindhche Empfindung schon.
Hiermit ist die Nächstenliebe ausdrücklich auf den
Feind ausgedehnt. Daß die Pflicht der Gerechtigkeit un^^
bedingt gilt, also auch ihn einschließt, ist bereits gezeigt
worden: wir sollen ihm beistehen, so oft er unser bedarf. In
dieser Pflicht gegen den Feind tritt in die sittliche Beziehung
zum Mitmenschen die zerrende Spannung. Mein Mitmensch
ist mein Feind; er ist ein Mensch und darum mir nahe und
zu mir hingestellt, und er steht doch gegen mich, menschlich
mir ferne — ferne und nahe in einem. Er soll mir als mein
Mitmensch gelten, und er will doch mein Mitmensch nicht
sein — mir verbunden und von mir getrennt in einem. Und
daß er ein Feind ist, kann doch eine Gegensätzlichkeit im
Innersten auch bedeuten, die die Einheit von Mensch und
Mitmensch zu zerreißen droht. Als den Mann des Frevels
sehe ich den Feind mir gegenüber; das, was ich im Tiefsten
meines Wesens verwerfe, was ich bekämpfen soll, damit es
nicht siege, das Unmenschliche, das Gottfremde und Gott?
Der Feind
237
n
femdliche steht in ihm vor mir. „Soll ich nicht, die dich
hassen. Ewiger, hassen!" Und doch soll ich in dem Manne
des Bösen das Menschentum anerkennen, in dem Feinde
Gottes das Göttliche finden.
In der Forderung der Gerechtigkeit wird diese Spannung
überwunden. Wenn auch der andere ein Feind ist, kein Mit*
mensch, sondern ein Widersacher, ein Feind des Gebotes,
so darf ich es doch nicht sein; ich soll mein Leben durch die
Gerechtigkeit verwirklichen, die ich am anderen, an ihm
also auch, erfülle. Die Pflicht ist unbedingt, und sie ist mir
als meine Pflicht geboten. So bleibt der Feind auch, so sehr
er sich von mir scheidet, mit mir verbunden in der Einheit
von Mensch und Mitmensch. Gerade an ihm erfassen wir
die ganze Kraft des Gebotes der Menschlichkeit, und inso?
fern kann, wie eine alte Satzung bestimmt, die Pflicht gegen
ihn der gegen den Freund vorangehn. Böses mit Bösem ver.
gelten, das wäre die Verleugnung des Gebotes, das an uns
ergeht, und es wäre die Unterwerfung der Gerechtigkeit
unter die Anmaßung, unfehlbar strafen zu dürfen. „Bin ich
denn an Gottes Stelle!" „Sprich nicht: ich will Böses ver.
gelten. Hoffe auf den Ewigen, er wird dir helfen". Und es
wäre eine Vernichtung dessen, was unser wahres Leben ist
worm unser Leben sich erfüllen soll. Wie ein Gleichnis des
Talmud es sagt: „Wer sich rächt oder auch nur grollt, der
handelt nicht anders als einer, den ein Messer in die eine
Hand geschnitten hat, und der es nun zur Vergeltung in die
andere Hand hineinstößt". Mit gutem Grunde beginnt auch
das alles mit dem Negativen, mit dem „Du sollst nicht": Du
sollst dich nicht rächen, du sollst nicht vergelten. Mit ihm
allein wird dem Positiven der Weg geöffnet. Tu kein Unrecht
gegen den Feind, das ist hier der Anfang, der einzige An.
fang. Aus dieser Bestimmtheit heraus ergibt sich die be*
stimmte, die bezeichnete Tat, die Aufgabe der Stunde. Sie
allem ist die Feindesliebe, die nicht ins leere Gefühl ver.
fliegt nicht zum hohlen, tatenlosen und darum unwahren,
Gefühlsüberschwang wird.
Aber auch zu dieser Tat soll doch das Seelische, das
Empfinden noch hinzutreten, zur Gerechtigkeit gegen den
Feind das, was die innerliche Liebe fordert. Mit der Tat setzt
es ein; und in ihr wird das Empfinden geweckt, in ihr ent*
i
Xw
mmm
238
Die Feindesliebe
wickelt es sich. Und auch dieses dann läßt das Judentum
wieder mit dem Negativen, dem Verbietenden, diesem Siehe,
ren und Bestimmten beginnen. Liebe bedeutet hier vorerst
und vor allem: nicht hassen. Vor jeder gehässigen, lieblosen
Empfindung wird gewarnt; das ist ein Deutliches, nicht bloiS
ein übersteigertes Gefühl. „Wenn dein Feind fällt, so freue
dich nicht, und wenn er strauchelt, so frohlocke nicht dem
Herz". Wir sollen nicht hassen. Denn der Haß ist, wie mit
einem talmudischen Worte gesagt werden kann, „grundlos";
daß andere hassen, gewährt keinen Grund, daß auch wir
hassen. Er ist sinnlos, aus ihm wächst ein Vernichtendes auf.
Wie ein talmudisches Wort wieder sagt: „Wer haßt, steht
bei denen, die Blut vergießen". Hört dieser Haß auf, so wird
der Kampf gegen das Böse zur Sehnsucht nach dem Guten.
^.Der Abscheu gegen das Gottfeindliche kann sich mit der
Liebe zu den Menschen einen, er eint sich mit ihr zu dem
Gebete, daß das Böse vergehen und der Mensch, der es ge^
übt hatte, bleiben möge. So hat ein Gebet, von dem uns der
Talmud erzählt, das Gebet der Beruria, der Frau des Rabbi
Meir, den Satz des Dankpsalms gefaßt: „Mögen die Sünden
von der Erde schwinden, dann werden Frevler nicht mehr
sein — dann werde ich singen dürfen: Preise meine Seele
den Ewigen!"
Eines spricht in alle dem mit, der Gedanke von der Uiv.
endlichkeit des Gebotes. Das Gebot ist nie ganz verwirk^
licht; es trägt immer neue Forderung in sich, es weist immer
wieder über sich hinaus. Auch die Aufgabe, die wir am Mit.
menschen zu erfüllen haben, ist unendUch. Wie viel immer
i wir ihm vorwerfen könnten, das, was wir an ihm leisten
k sollen, ist doch noch mehr. Seine UnvoUkommenheit ist im.
^ler geringer als die Schuldigkeit unserer Liebe. Unser Weg
zu ihm ist dieser Weg der Pflicht. Aus dem Bewußtsein ihrer
Unendlichkeit heraus sollen wir am Nächsten handeln, oder
wie jenes alte Wort sagt: Wir sollen in den Wegen Gottes
wandeln; wie Gott barmherzig und gnädig ist, so sollen wir
barmherzig und gnädig sein. Das Erbarmen soll uns die
Richtung zum Mitmenschen weisen. Und auch unserem
Urteil soll es das Maß geben. Die beste Menschenkenntnis
J ist die. Jylilde, die beste Wahrheit gegen den Nächsten ist
"I die Gi^t£. Wie wieder ein talmudisches Wort es sagt: „Willst
Die Versöhnung
239
du das Gebot erfüllen: „Mit Gerechtigkeit richte deinen
Nächsten" — dann beurteile jeden Menschen zum Guten!"
So ist es die Gerechtigkeit gegen ihn, die Zedakah, aus der
die Liebe erwächst. In ihr werden wir vor der Selbstgerecht
tigkeit bewahrt und unserer Unzulänglichkeit dann bewußt,
so daß nicht, wie ein altes talmudisches Gleichnis meint,
„der Angeklagte den Richter richten muß, dieser zu ihm
sagt: „nimm den Splitter aus deinem Auge", und er ihm er.
widern kann: ,,nimm aus deinem Auge den Balken]" Eifer,
voll dürfte nur Gott, der Heilige, sein, er, der doch der
„Barmherzige, Gnädige, Langmütige" ist. Das Ziel, das er
uns Menschen steckt, ist die Umkehr, die Versöhnung, der
Friede zwischen den Menschen.''^" ^ "*~'
Versöhnung ist auch hier Versöhnung der Endlichkeit mit
der Unendlichkeit, der Endlichkeit des begrenzten, mangel.
haften Menschen mit der Unendlichkeit des Gebotes. Diese
Versöhnung kommt, das Unendliche tritt in das Endliche
ein, wenn der Feind zum Mitmenschen wird, wenn er um.
kehrt, wenn er zu sich selber wieder gelangt, zu dem Wege
und zu dem Ursprünge seines Lebens, und wir damit zu ihm
gelangen können, und er zu uns. Wer ihn dazu hinführt, der
hat die sittliche Kraft der Menschenliebe an ihm bewiesen.
„Der ist ein Held", so sagt ein Wort im Talmud, „der einen^
^ Feind zum Freunde macht". Und die Sehnsucht der Men.'
schenliebe, das Gebet für den Mitmenschen ist ihm erfüllt.
„Wenn der Ewige Wohlgefallen hat an eines Mannes Wegen,
so läßt er seine Feinde mit ihm Frieden machen". So hatte
die Bibel gesprochen, und die Meister der Lehre haben es
aufgenommen. Rabbi Jehuda betete: „O, möchten die Sünder
vollkommen werden, daß sie nie mehr Frevler seien!" Rabbi
Elieser betete: „Gib es. Ewiger, mein Gott, Gott meiner
Väter, daß in keines Menschen Herz Haß gegen uns auf.
steige, und gegen keinen Menschen Haß in unserem Herzen
aufsteige!" In dieser Sehnsucht ist aller Haß untergegangen,
und dem Frieden ist der Weg gezeigt, unser Weg in die Zu.
kunft. Auch hier ist der Friede die Überwindung der Ein.
samkeit — der . Einsamkeit auch dessen, der den Mit.
menschen sucht und ihn nicht findet. Wer den Mitmenschen
entdeckt und an ihm festhält, der ist trotz allem nicht mehr
allein unter den Menschen, der hat trotz allem den Frieden
«TT
240
Das Mittelalter
Die Aufrichtigkeit
241
mit ihnen. Auch der Glaube an den Mitmenschen wird so
zum Glauben an die Versöhnung, sie ist die verheißene Zu^»
kunft. Auch die Menschenliebe erhält den messianischen Zug.
Die gesamte religiöse Literatur des Judentums predigt es:
„Die gekränkt werden und nicht kränken, die ihre Be^
\ schimpfung hören und nicht erwidern, die aus Liebe handeln
und freudig die Prüfungen ertragen, sie sind es, von denen
die Schrift sagt: „Die den Ewigen lieben, sind, wie die Sonne
^ aufgeht in ihrer Kraft''. Aber das ergreifendste Kapitel von
der Feindesliebe hat die Geschichte der Glaubens*:
gemeinde geschrieben. Das Judentum hat von unsäglichen
Leiden, von den qualvollen Martern der Seinen zu berichten.
Aber kein Unrecht, keine Vergewaltigung hat die Menschen*
liebe in ihren Herzen zu ersticken vermocht, sie ist nicht in
^dem Strom des unschuldigen Blutes untergegangen. Gerade
aus jenen bösesten Tagen spricht die Menschenliebe am ver^:
nehmlichsten und innigsten zu uns. Wir besitzen aus der
Zeit der schwersten Verfolgungen Volksbücher, Sitten*
bücher, deren Verfasser allesamt, als sie ihre Worte nieder*
schrieben, überzeugt sein mußten, daß kein anderer als einer
ihrer Glaubensbrüder je sie lesen würde. Die intimsten
Stimmen sind es, die in diesen Büchern zu uns sprechen. Und
sie alle wiederholen dieses eine: Liebe den Nächsten, er*
barme dich auch des Feindes. Nathan^ der Weise, dem man
sein Weib und seine sieben Söhne an einem Tage gemordet
hatte, und dessen Herz doch nicht hart wurde, lebt nicht nur
im Ideallande der Poesie. Er hat in der Geschichte der
^Jüdischen Gemeinden seine Wirklichkeit. Dem JE 1 e a s a r
yTben Jehuda aus Worms erschlugen die Kreuzfahrer
\Weib und Kind, er selbst blieb todeswund am Boden liegen.
Und als er im Alter die Erfahrungen seines Lebens auf*
zeichnete, um sie den kommenden Geschlechtern zu hinter*
lassen, da hat sich kein Wort des Hasses gegen seine Feinde
ihm entrungen. Auch er kennt die eine Wahrheit nur: Besser
Unrecht dulden als Unrecht tun. Man muß diese mittelalter*
liehen Schriften, die in ihrer Zeit und noch lange späterhin
wenig ihresgleichen kennen, gelesen haben, um die Lehre des
Jkjdentums in ihrer ganzen Liebeskraft und Humanität, in
der ganzen Zartheit ihres sittlichen Empfindens verstehen zu
■ ti
i.
I I
f
.1 lernen. Sie nicht zum mindesten haben die Leidensgeschichte
I«" des Judentums zu einem Buche vom Adel gemacht.
In der Feindesliebe offenbaren sich die Lauterkeit
und die Aufrichtigkeit der Empfindung am
überzeugendsten. Sie ist die große Probe der Echtheit, auf
die bei der Liebe ja alles ankommt. Weit eher als die Ge*
rechtigkeit mit ihrer bestimmten Handlung, deren Gefahr
die Härte, die kalte Pflichtmäßigkeit ist, kann die Liebe un*
wahr werden. Neben dem leeren Gefühlsüberschwang, die*
ser Unwahrhaftigkeit des Hohlen, wird die Heuchelei, diese
Unwahrhaftigkeit des Scheines, ihr am leichtesten zu eigen,
und sie verliert sich darin. Sie ist entseelt, wenn sie entstellt
wird. Da in ihr die Seele sich öffnen soll, so bedeutet in ihr
die Aufrichtigkeit alles. Darum hat hier die Forderung der
Wahrhaftigkeit, der reinen Gesinnung ihren besonderen
Nachdruck. Für die Entwicklung im Judentum ist bezeich*
nend die Peinlichkeit des Urteils, gleichsam die Andacht
auch zum Kleinen, in der dieses Gebot sich hier gestaltet hat,
auch die geringste unechte Gefühlsäußerung wird davon er*
faßt. Wer Güte kundgibt, wo er sie nicht hegt, oder auch
nur liebenswürdige Freundlichkeit dort anbietet, wo er ge*
nau weiß, daß sie nicht angenommen werden wird, von dem
sagt das talmudische Recht, daß er „die Meinung der Men*
sehen gestohlen hat*'; er ist „mehr denn einer" wie ein Dieb
zu erachten. Und in ähnlicher Weise wird es schon als
['„Übervorteilung" bezeichnet, wenn einer Hoffnungen er*
^l)Ul weckt, ohne daß er die Absicht hat, sie auch zu erfüllen. Der
Widerspruch zwischen Empfindung und Wort gilt nicht nur
als eine Unwahrheit, sondern auch als eine Verletzung der
Rechtlichkeit, die der Nächste von uns zu beanspruchen hat.
In dieser Weiterführung des Gedankens der Schädigung
zeigt sich die ganze Strenge des sittlichen Maßstabes. Und
auch noch ein anderes tritt darin zu Tage, wie nämlich auch
die Wahrhaftigkeit hier den sozialen Zug hat. Sie wird unter
den Begriff des Geschuldeten gestellt. Gott verlangt sie,
und unsere Seele verlangt sie, aber auch unser Mitmensch
hat sie zu verlangen; sie ist unsere Schuldigkeit gegen ihn.
Die Zartheit wiederum in dem Gebote der wahrhaftigen,
selbstlosen Liebe offenbart sich darin, daß es sich auch des
Tieres annimmt. Hier ist die Güte ja am uninteressiertesten,
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
16
!lUt>^,
t
«MMmMm
■iiy <'
242
Das Tier
hier ist sie notwendig frei von aller Heuchelei und aller zur
Schau getragenen Absichtlichkeit, frei auch von der Hoff^
nung auf dankbare Vergeltung. Am Tiere, über das der
Mensch herrscht, beweist sich die Menschlichkeit um der
Menschlichkeit willen. Auch das Tier ist durch die Bibel
unter den Schutz des Gesetzes gestellt, in die mensch::
liehe Gesellschaft hineingeführt, etwas, was in der Welt der
Kultur ein Unvergleichliches ist; wir sollen auch dem Tiere
beistehen in seiner Not, auch für seine Arbeit gebietet der
Sabbat, der um aller Schwachen und Beladenen willen ein:^
gesetzt ist, die Ruhe. Der Gedanke der Arbeitsgemeinschaft
spricht auch von ihm. Auch hier steht die Gerechtigkeit mit
ihrer bestimmten Aufgabe vornan, und auch zu ihr tritt hier
die Forderung der Liebe; eindringlich und mit rührendem
Feingefühl wird das Tier auch ihr anempfohlen. Wir sollen
sie am Tiere üben wie eine Schuld gegen Gott; dieselbe
göttUche Güte, die uns Menschen nährt, läßt auch seinet^
wegen die Frucht des Bodens gedeihen. Wo die Schöpfung
spricht, um das Werk Gottes zu künden, dort ist mit dem
Menschen auch das Tier genannt und auch seiner gedacht.
„Singet um einander dem Ewigen mit Dank . . ., der dem
Tiere sein Brot gibt, den jungen Raben, die da rufen." „Er
läßt Gras hervorsprossen für das Tier und Saat zu Nutz
dem Menschen, hervorzuführen Brot aus der Erde." „Mensch
und Tier hilfst du. Ewiger." Die ReUgion hat hier gelehrt,
das Tier zu sehen und zu hören, diese Liebe, die mehr ist
als das bloße Mitleid. „Dein Tier", dieses Wort der Bibel,
ist nicht ein Wort des Besitzes nur, sondern das persönliche
Wort des Gebotes; es steht neben dem Worte: dein Armer,
dein Knecht, dein Fremdling. Über das Tier hinwegsehen,
es verstoßen, das ist, wie eine talmudische Legende sagt, die
Sünde, welche Gott straft. Zu dem Bilde des „Gerechten",
des Frommen, wie ihn das Judentum zeichnet, gehört es:
„Er kennt die Seele seines Tieres".
Jene Wahrhaftigkeit, die nicht scheint noch heuchelt, ist
aber nicht die einzige, die das Gebot der NächstenUebe in
sich schheßt. Die Wahrhaftigkeit, die mit ihm gefordert ist,
hat auch ihren bestimmten positiven Inhalt. Die Liebe zum
Ä Nächsten, die Liebe zu seiner Seele verlangt es, daß wir
l|ihm die Wahrheit darbieten. Wir sollen ihn, wenn
Die Zurechtweisung
243
)
i
\
l er irrt, auf den geraden Weg leiten, wenn er vor der Sünde
^steht, zurückhalten, ihn belehren und ermahnen. Es ist nicht
genug an der Güte, der Barmherzigkeit und der Vergebung,
„zurechtweisen sollst du deinen Nächsten". „Liebe die Mens:
sehen und führe sie zu der Lehre". Wie es im allgemeinen
ein Gebot der Wahrheit ist, daß wir sie nicht nur in uns
hegen, sondern offen für sie Zeugnis ablegen, so sollen wir
im besonderen gegenüber dem Nächsten, um des Nächsten
willen, f ür _sie. einstehen, so oft er von dem Pfade des Rech*
ten abweicht. Wir sollen den sittlichen Mut cTerf
Liebe besitzen: ohne ihn können wir der Seele des anderen
nicht das Gute tun, das wir ihr schulden. Der Glaube an den
Nebenmenschen leitet zur Versöhnung hin; aber zu ihr ge^^
hört nicht nur die Güte, sondern ebenso sehr diese Wahr?
haftigkeit, die dem Menschen das unbedingte und unverletzt
liehe sittliche Gebot aufzeigt. Es gibt keine Versöhnung, die
nicht auch die Rechenschaft vor dem gerechten, gebietenden
Gotte forderte; vor ihn sollen wir den Nächsten hintreten
heißen. Es ist Pflicht, daß wir dem Sünder verzeihen; jedoch
nicht minder ist es unsere Schuldigkeit, daß wir die Tapfer?
'-^^ keit der Wahrheit, diese Tapferkeit der Liebe beweisen, daß
wir die Sünde verdammen, vor dem Ohr und vor dem Ge?
wissen dessen, der sie begeht, sie verwerfen, um ihn dadurch
zu warnen und zum Gebote zurückzuführen. Auch das ist
das Bekenntnis zur Wahrheit, das Zeugnis, das wir für sie
ablegen, und es kann sein Martyrium haben, das die Liebe
zum Mitmenschen, die Liebe zu seiner Seele, fordert. Aber
allerdings ist es eben die Liebe, die die Zurechtweisung iox^
ir^-^ydevt, und darin findet diese ihr Maß. Nur der Nächstenliebe
wegen dürfen wir mahnen, zurechtweisen und tadeln, nicht
^aus Selbstsucht und Selbstgerechtigkeit. Wir sollen es „um
Gottes willen" tun, ehrfürchtig vor dem Gebot, wie die echte
Liebe es ist, die immer der Größe ihrer Schuldigkeit bewußt
bleibt. Darum knüpft der Talmud an unser Gebot die War?
nung, irgend einen Menschen zu beschämen. „Wer seinen
Nächsten beschämt, wer ihm das Blut aus der Wange treibt,
'auch der hat Blut vergossen". Aus dem Bedürfnis allein und
aus dem Gebote, dem Nächsten wohlzutun, darf die Zu?
rechtweisung hervorkommen.
Das Gebot der Liebe wird so zur Pflicht der S e e 1 s o r g e.
Nl
\
16*
mfriT»«Tn " — ■ -^^-^--^-^^^.-^
t,:
244
Die Bürgschaft
in ihm spricht die VerantwortUchkeit für die Seele des Men.
schenbruders. „Zurechtweisen sollst du deinen Nächsten, daß
1! du nicht seinetwegen Sünde trag est'*. Wenn einer
sündigt, und „du hast nicht gesprochen, daß du warnest den
Frevler vor seinem Weg, so wird dieser Frevler in seiner
Schuld sterben, und sein Blut werde ich von deiner
Hand forder n". Oder wie ein Wort des Talmud es aus^
spricht: „Es heißt in der heiligen Schrift: „Sie werden
straucheln einer durch den anderen — " das will sagen: sie
werden straucheln einer durch die Schuld des anderen, durch
die Schuld, daß der es hätte warnend wehren können und
es nicht gewehrt hat; sie alle sind Bürgen einer für
den andere n". Auch die Idee der Sünde erhäU damit
ihren sozialen Zug; ich und der andere werden sittlich zu
einem auch darin, daß seine Sünde zu der meinen wird, ich
mitschuldig an seiner Schuld. Das soziale Gebot, dieses Ge^
bot, dem anderen zu geben, daß er mit uns lebe, wird zum
Gebote, daß wir mit ihm zum Wege des Lebens gehen, daß
wir ihm die Umkehr, die Teschuwah gewähren sollen. Wie
die Freiheit dem Judentum die Aufgabe ist, die der Mensch
an seinem Leben lösen soll, in der er sein eigenes Leben
schafft, so wird sie ihm zur Aufgabe nun auch, die er dem
Leben des Mitmenschen zu erfüllen hat, in der er ein Schöpfer
am Leben des Mitmenschen wird. Ein Schöpfer und damit
wie ein Erlöser; es ist ihm gesagt, daß er den anderen be^
freien, ihn von der Sünde, die ihn fesselt, lösen soll. In die
Idee der Freiheit auch tritt das soziale Gebot.
Damit gelangt der Gedanke der Gemeinschaft, der mensche
liehen Gesellschaft zu einem vollendenden Sinn. Wir alle leben
in ihr zusammen auch dazu, daß wir einander vom Bösen be^
wahren und zum Guten führen. Wir sollen ein Bundjder
Teschuwah, der Umkehr sein, eine Gemeinschaft derVer^
§öhnung. Auch dazu gehören wir zusammen. Vor Gott hat
alle Gemeinschaft ihr Daseinsrecht allein in derVerwirk:^
lichung des Guten. So lange Menschen des Guten in ihr
leben, behäh sie dieses ihr Recht; mögen in ihr auch Sünder
sein, wenn neben ihnen der Gerechte ist, der Warnende,
Weisende, dann bleibt ihr vor Gott eine Zukunft, ein Weg,
diese Möglichkeit ihres Lebens. So wurde es schon in der
bibUschen Erzählung vernommen: um der zehn Gerechten
V
1
I
I
)
i
1
Die Gesellschaft
245
willen soll Sodom nicht zugrimde .gehen. Und ein talmudis^
sches Wort erklärt es bestimmter noch: „Gott spricht: »Gute
^ und Schlechte sind unter ihnen, so mögen sie denn zusams:
mengefügt sein zu einem Bunde, daß die einen den andern
Versöhnung schaffen. Und wenn es also geschieht, dann ist
mein Name an ihnen verherrlicht.' Und darum hat der Pro^;
phet Amos von Gott gesagt: „Der Herr, der Ewige der Heer^
scharen . ., der da baut im Himmel seine Herrlichkeit und
seinen Bund auf Erden gegründet hat"; denn dieses Wort
will bedeuten: Er im Himmel wird verherrlicht, wenn sie den
Bund auf Erden bilden." Das Gebot der Nächstenliebe auch
wird zum Gebote der „Heiligung des göttlichen Namens",
des Kiddusch Haschem. Der Mensch soll am Mitmenschen
den Namen Gottes heiligen'.
Die menschliche Gesellschaft steht hier als sittliche Ein*
heit da. Alle in ihr haben sittHch an jedem Anteil wie in
der Forderung, so in der Verpflichtung. Jede Schuld, die einer
begeht, belastet die ganze Gemeinschaft, sie wird für die
Seelen in ihr haftbar. Nicht allein, wenn in ihr einer vor
Hunger stirbt oder jemand erfriert, kann sie vor Gott dafür
verantwortlich sein, sondern ebenso sehr, wenn in ihrer
/[ Mitte einem Menschen die Seele erstarrt, das Gewissen er j» |[
' stirbt. Sie ist dazu da, daß das sittliche Dasein äer Menschen
in ihr geschaffen werde, das des einen durch das des ande*
ren. Es ist der jüdische Gedanke von der Erziehung, daß sie,
mit dem alten Gleichnis zu sprechen, ein „Aufbauen", ein
Verwirklichen ist. „Wer den Sohn seines Nächsten Thora
gelehrt, hat ihn gleichsam geschaffen"; er schenkt ihm Leben,
neues Leben. So soll die menschliche Gemeinschaft sein:
eine Gemeinsamkeit, um Leben zu verwirklichen, eine Be?
Ziehung unter den Menschen, die ihnen zur Erziehung wird,
damit in ihr EndUches das Ewige eintrete, in ihr Irdisches
das Reich Gottes. Nur dort ist Gemeinschaft, wo Gerechtigs:
keit und Liebe erfüÜt werden. Und sie ist darum ein nie Be*
endetes, etwas, was immer wieder werden soll, immer von
neuem sich beweisend, immer wieder ein Weg und ein G(^
bot, immer wieder eine Sehnsucht, die Sehnsucht nach dem
Frieden. Von Gottes „Wohlgefallen an seinem Lande" sagt
der Psalm: „Liebe und Treue begegnen einander. Gerechtig* |
keit und Friede küssen sich."
246
Die Widerstände
Die Sendung
247
u
Das ist also der Glaube an den Mitmenschen: er ist zu
unserer Aufgabe vor uns hingestellt, als die Forderung der
Pflicht, die Gott an uns richtet. Aus derselben Tiefe, aus
demselben Grunde kommt das Leben hervor, geheimnisvoll,
und kommt das Gebot hervor, gewiesen und deutlich; der
ewige Gott gibt das eine und gibt das andere, eines im ande*;
ren, und in beidem zusammen ist der Mensch. Kein Leben
ohne das Gebot, und jedes Gebot ist zum Leben; indem der
Mensch das Gute verwirkHcht, verwirklicht er sein Leben.
Und in diese Erfüllung des Lebens gehört der Mitmensch
hinein. Denn nur in der Welt können wir das Gute erfüllen,
und unsere Welt ist die, in der der Mitmensch lebt. Es gibt
für das Judentum keinen Glauben ohne diese Welt, ohne das
Gebot, welches ihr gilt, keine ReHgion des Einsamen, für den
die Welt versinkt, der sich ihr entrücktln das ScJxw^i^n der
Andacht und der Verzückung oder in die Gedanken des
Jenseits und ihren Pessimismus gegenüber dieser Welt. Die
Welt ist Gottes und seines Gebotes. Auch das Judentum
weiß von dem Gegensatz zwischen Gott und Welt, von dem
Gegenüber des Unendlichen und des Begrenzten, des Abso*
luten und des Gebundenen, es weiß von dem Kontrast zwi*
sehen dem Göttlichen und der Welt auch, welche die Welt
des Mitmenschen ist, von der Tragödie dessen, der in dieser
Welt steht, um zu finden und zu wirken. Aber das ist der
Kontrast, den alle Aufgabe hat, ja von dem alle Aufgabe
lebt, an dem alle Aufgabe sich entwickelt, der Widerstreit,
der immer bleibt zwischen dem Gegebenen und dem zu Er^
füllenden, zwischen dem, was ist, und dem, was sein soll,
dieser Kontrast, in dem sich alle ReHgiosität gestaltet. Es
ist dieser Kontrast, den allein die Tat des Menschen üheu
windet, indem sie in die Welt eintritt, um deren Endliches
zum Dienste Gottes emporzuführen, so daß das Göttliche
sich durch den Menschen offenbart, die Erde voll wird des
Gebotes Gottes. Und alle diese Tat ist die Tat am MiU
menschen, der Dienst Gottes findet hier sein Gebiet. In der
Arbeit am Nächsten wird das Gottesreich gebaut, es gibt
keinen Glauben ohne den Glauben an ihn.
Die Gewißheit, gesendet zu sein, diese Glaubensgewißheit
von den Propheten her, ist auch hier das Entscheidende; von
ihr her kommt die Kraft gegenüber jener Erfahrung vom
-i
.-^
Hemmenden und Widerstrebenden. In ihr behält das Ideal
seine Bestimmtheit, sein Gebot der Gerechtigkeit und der
Liebe, und "wird nicht zu dem wehmütigen Traume bloß, in
welchem der Mensch meint, Gott zu dienen und zu ihm sich
zu erheben, wenn er nur in sehnsuchtsvoller Reinheit träumt.
Wer es begreift, daß er gesendet ist, in die Welt hinein^
gesendet, der „genießt" nicht Gott, wie die Mystik es erleben
will, die ihren Traum genießt; aber er vernimmt Gott, wie
er ihn ruft, und er geht den Weg des Ewigen. Gerechtigkeit
und Liebe sind Worte, welche senden, sie sagen uns, was wir
tun sollen, und wie wir es tun sollen, sie zeigen uns die Wege
Gottes, die uns geboten sind, damit wir „mit Gott gehe
Gott sendet uns auf ihnen zum Menschenbruder. So kündet
uns der Glaube an Gott den Glauben an den Nächsten. Aus
der Gottesfurcht spricht zu uns die Ehrfurcht auch, die wir
ihm schulden; wir haben den Ewigen geehrt, wenn wir ihn
achten. In dem Dienste an ihm dienen wir Gott; was wir
an ihm tun, haben wir dem Ewigen dargebracht. Und auch
alle Sehnsucht umfaßt nun auch ihn, ja, die tiefste Sehnsucht
ist diese soziale, diese messianische. Alles Gebet schließt ihn
ein, gilt ihm. Er ist der Bruder, das Kind Gottes, von Gott
mit uns verbunden, im ewigen Ursprung, im gebotenen Weg
mit uns geeint. Auch dieser Glaube bedeutet die Tat, die
Tat der Gerechtigkeit und Liebe.
Es ist häufig unternommen worden, die Nächstenliebe
der Thora und der Propheten als eine niedrigere Stufe unter
die des Christentums zu stellen. Aber im Evangelium er*
,, scheint die Nächstenliebe nur als eine Lehre des alten
Bundes, als ein Zitat aus ihm; das besagt alles gegenüber
jenem Versuche. Wie sehr sie im Gegenteil hier, im Neuen
Testament, schließlich dadurch begrenzt und eingeschränkt
ist, daß die Erlösung und die Seligkeit von dem rechten
iGlauben und damit schließlich von dem (Dpgmsi und der
/TKpnfession abhängig gesetzt und so einem Teil auch der
nisten Menschenbrüder abgesprochen werden, bedarf nicht
erst einer weiteren Ausführung. In der Fassung des Ge*
dankens der Seligkeit prägt sich die Menschlichkeit, diese
innere Anerkennung des Mitmenschen, diese Bestimmtheit
der Gerechtigkeit und der Liebe am deutlichsten aus. Das
wesentliche religiöse Prinzip der Nächstenliebe kommt darin
fcpiTJL^Wti ' "^ ■ '^ 'mkt^ r* % m
ttmaäa
248
Christentum und Buddhismus
1
zum Ausdruck, wem der Weg zu Gott und zur Versöhnung
offen gehalten und wem er verschlossen wird, ob er der Weg
des Menschen oder nur der des Gläubigen ist. Und auch
darauf ist wieder hinzuweisen, wie es das allein Ent*
scheidende hier ist, das Wunder der Gnade zu erfahren und
dadurch erlöst zu werden, wie so im Mittelpunkt der ReU^
gion das Ich des Menschen für sich allein steht, das Ich ohne
den Mitmenschen. Es fehlt das Du, das allen gilt, das Du,
welches Gott zu jedem Menschen, ihm gewährend und ihm
gebietend, spricht, und das Du, in welchem der Mensch von
jedem Menschen gerufen wird, vom Mitmenschen, der ihm
gleich, vor Gott derselbe ist.
Auch die MenschenHebe des Buddhismus wird bisweilen
der des Judentums gegenübergestellt. Der Buddhismus hat
seine Lehre der Liebe, sie predigt innig das Mitleid und das
Wohlwollen gegen alles, was lebt. Aber diese ihre Innigkeit
ist im Eigentlichen die der Sentimentalität und Schwermut.
.|y Ihr fehlt, und das unterscheidet sie von der Lehre des Juden^
\jjtums, die Ehrfurcht vor dem Nebenmenschen;
es fehlt die Betonung der positiven Gerechtigkeit und damit
die klare Forderung, die Entschiedenheit der sittlichen Auf:*
^^ gäbe. Ihr fehlt das große „Du sollst", das Drängende und
>^^ Fordernde, das Soziale und Messianische, dieses Eigentums?
liehe des Judentums. Die buddhistische^ _M nr a 1 ist bei der
^■Empfindung stehen geblieben. Das gibt ihr das negative,
passive Gepräge, das für sie kennzeichnend ist; denn Wärme
des Gefühls ohne die bestimmte Pflichterfüllung ist in sitt^
lieber Hinsicht nichts anderes als Untätigkeit, als Müßig;?
<^ gang; bloß mit dem Gemüt am Schicksal des Nächsten An?
^ teil nehmen, heißt im Grunde teilnamslos sein. Der Buddhis*
mus ist die Religion der Trägheit genannt worden. Dies ist
. ein schroffes Urteil, aber das eine ist daran jedenfalls wahr,
daß er bei allen seinen idealen Vorzügen die Religion des
tatenlosen Empfindens, der sittlichen Trägheit ist. Und für
ihn auch bedeutet wieder das Erlöstwerden alles; die Frage
des Ich ist die eine Frage des Lebens.
Auch die griechischen, zumal die stoischen Philosophen
werden bisweilen genannt, um die geschichtliche Bedeutung
des Judentums einzuschränken. Der Name dieser Denker ist
ein Name in der Geschichte der Sittlichkeit. Ihre Humanität,
C
Die Stoa
249
die Weite ihres BHckes und die Hoheit ihrer Ideen, hat
immer wieder die Menschen ergriffen und hat so manchem
Geschlecht, das sich von ihnen erfassen ließ, eine Weihe
gegeben. Sie waren Philosophen, welche Lehrer der Philo??
Sophie geworden sind. Jedoch es war eben Philosophie,
die von ihnen verkündet wurde, darin liegt die Eigenart
dieser Gedanken, aber auch ihr Mangel und ihre Schwäche.
Sie atmen in der dünnen Luft der Schule, sie tragen die
.^-J^blasse Farbe der bloßen Weisheit. So sehr sie es vermocht
haben, vTele unter den Gebildetsten anzuziehen, so sehr sie
z. B. auch auf die großen römischen Rechtslehrer, einen
Ulpian, einen Julius Paulus, einen Florentinus Einfluß ge?
wannen, und auch späterhin führende Männer ihre Jünger
wurden, so haben sie doch auf das Volk, das Volksleben und
die Volkssittlichkeit, keinerlei dauernde Einwirkung ausüben
können. Keine ihrer Lehren ist zum Gebote, in dem strengen
Sinne dieses Wortes, und, wenn man so sagen darf, zur
„Thora" geworden. Die TatsächHchkeit des Lebens bleibt
von den Tugenden, die diese Philosophen preisen, geschieden.
Sie haben das Volk, die Gesellschaft nicht zu erziehen ver?
mocht. Ihnen fehlten vor allem auch die sittliche Leiden?
Schaft und der Enthusiasmus, der prophetiscTie Kampf gegen
die GeienWart und~die messianische Forderung der Zukunft.
Sie sind human, aber sie haben nicht den hinausweisenden
Glauben an die „Tage, welche kommen werden'*. Sie resig?
nieren gegenüber dem Leben und seinen Nöten. Ihnen fehlt
das gebietende und verheißende Wort: „Ich bin der^_Ewige,
dein Gott!" Ihre Gedanken haben Menschen erfaßt, aber
sind ihnen nicht zum Glauben geworden.
Das Besondere des Judentums ist der Glaube an den
Mitmenschen mit seiner Einheit von Forderung und Ver^
heißung, von Tat und Gewißheit. Aus dem Grunde der Reli*
gion kommt hier die Beziehung zum Nebenmenschen hervor.
Nicht um eine bloße Wohltätigkeit handelt es sich in ihr,
sondern in ihr beweist der Mensch seine Frömmigkeit, seine
Gottesfurcht. Die NächstenHebe ist hier der Inhalt des
Lebens, das, „was gut ist, und was der Ewige von dir for*
dert", und sie ist darum nicht ein Gelegentliches nur oder
auch ein Häufiges, sondern das Gebot des Lebens. Sie ist
die Entscheidung zum Mitmenschen, die immer
•^^sf—
V
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oftwa^i... ■.- «•>!«
250
Der Gerechte
wieder beginnt, die Entscheidung dessen, der Gottes Wort
vernimmt. Darum hat sie hier es vermocht, das ganze Denken
und Empfinden zu gestalten, die Tage des Daseins zu durchs
dringen. Daß sie hier nicht ein bloßes Wort und eine bloße
Rührung blieb, daß die prompta misericprdia, das tatbereite
Erbarmen, wovon schonTacFtus' spricht, nie geschwunden
oder beengt worden ist, haben selbst die Gegner und die
Feinde immer zugestehen müssen. Sie ist hier zur Lehre des
Lebens geworden, sie ist die Gerechtigkeit, in der der Mensch
sein Menschentum beweist.
Es zeugt von seinem klaren Verständnis für das Eigen:*
tümliche des Judentums, wenn Maimonides die „Gerechtig^
keit", die Zedakah, als die Tugend der Selbstverv'oirkomm^
nung hinstellt. Sich ausleben, sich betätigen, seine eigent*=
Hchste Individualität entfalten, das heißt: gerecht sein, den
Weg zum Mitmenschen gehen. In diesem Sinne ist der
Zaddik, der Gerechte im Judentum gepriesen worden. Durch
ihn wird das Leben wirklich. So hat die alte Bibelübersetzung,
das Targum, einen Satz des Spruchdichters gefaßt „der Ge^
rechte trägt die Welt". Oder wie Rabbi Jochanan es sagte:
„Wenn ein Gerechter da ist, ist der Welt ihre Existenz ge.
geben". Er ist es, welcher Menschenleben schafft. Die Fülle
dieses Lebens ist unerschöpflich; die Pflichten, in denen es
sich immer erneut, sind nie zu Ende, das Ziel dieser Auf^
gaben ist nie erreicht. Der Weg zum Mitmenschen ist der
Weg im Unendlichen der Sittlichkeit, ein Weg der Demut,
denn Demut ist das Bewußtsein des Unermeßlichen, in das
der Mensch hineingestellt ist, und ein Weg der Ehrfurcht,
denn Ehrfurcht ist das Wissen um das Sittliche, das erhaben,
unendlich vor dem Menschen steht — der Wille und der Weg,
dem unendlichen Gebote zu dienen. Wie unseFtTeben iiTdem
Glauben an uns seine Reinheit, seine sittliche Kraft hat, die
aus dem Grunde des Ewigen aufsteigt, so gewinnt es im
Glauben an den Nebenmenschen die Welt seiner Freiheit,
sein Leben, das immer wieder zum Leben wird. Das^e^
heimnis hat sein Gebot und das Gebot sein Geheimnis.
\
Der Glaube an die Menschheit
In dem gebietenden Glauben, dem der Mensch das Eben*
bild Gottes und das Gute das Wirklichste ist, wohnt zugleich
die Gewißheit, daß das Gute verwirklicht werden wird, daß
ihm die Zu k u n f t gehört. Was Gott in den Menschen ge*
pflanzt hat und darum von ihm verlangt, muß schließlich sich
entfalten können, muß alles Hemmende und Widerstrebende,
alles, was nicht Gott gemacht hat, sondern der Mensch
macht, zu überwinden vermögen. Was aus dem ewigen Grund
alles Menschlichen hervorkommt, hat das Leben, das leben
wird. Wer um das Ursprüngliche und Schöpferische im Men^:
sehen erfährt, um dieses Erste des Lebens, das von Gott
Gegebene und Geforderte, erfährt damit zugleich, daß es das
Bleibende ist. Die Schöpfung verbürgt die Zukunft. Man
kann nicht an den Anfang glauben und am Ende zweifeln,
nicht an den Weg glauben und vom Ziele nichts wissen. Das
Gottesgebot ist das Gebot, das den kommenden Tag besitzt,
/^,dsDJIjag-de£ __^ .
vAsrort, die die letzte Antwort sein wird. Hätte es sie nicht,
so wäre es nicht das Gebot von Gott. Das „Ende der Tage"
kann nur die Erfüllung des Guten sein. Ein altes Gleichnis
sagt, daß im Geiste Gottes das Ende schon bei dem Anfang
ist — „im Werke das Letzte, im Gedanken das Erste". In
allem Göttlichen, in allem, was das Seiende, das Wirkliche
ist, gehört die Vollendung zum Anfang, gehört zum Ursprung
die Zukunft. Wer an das Gute glaubt, wer es als das Gott«
liehe, das Gestaltende im Menschen erkennt, vor dem steht
es als die Realität, als das, was im Menschengeschlecht
dauern und bestehen wird. Im Glauben an Gott, in der
Gottesfurcht Hegt der Glaube an die Zukunft. Und alles
sittliche, reUgiöse Wollen ist in seinem Tiefsten eine Ehr*
furcht, ein Glauben; es ist damit eine Gewißheit dessen, was
sein wird. Wer das Gebot hat, hat die Verheißung. Der Sinn
der Zukunft ist der Sinn des Lebens.
Um diese Zukunft haben daher Menschen dann erfahren,
y
tf-^.^ -t..,^^ M-mar_,*7. c
252
wenn sie in
Zukunft und Erwartung
erst hat die Zukunft ihren Sinn, ^le Bedeutung der u
sehiehte erhahen, so daß sie meht bloß ^as letzte i^^^
der Tage ist, von dem der Mythos kündet, dieser Sehluß des
Zufalls' den das Sehieksal bringt, nieht ^^^^^^^^^^^^^
schehen, sondern das, was sie eben hier ist, die Ven^irk
lichung und Erfüllung, das Ziel, zu welchem der Weg hn^
leitet, der Tag, der kommen wird, weil er kommen soll, die
Verheißung dessen, was der Mensch schafft. In dem bloßen
Gefühl schlechthinniger Abhängigkeit hat diese Idee nicht
erwachsen können; jene reine Stimmung hat ihre tiefe An.
dacht, aber sie ist zukunftslos, geschichtslos, ganz wie sie
ehrfurchtslos ist. Auch der Gedanke der Zukunft ist ein be^
sonderer jüdischer Gedanke, ein Eigenes der jüdischen Reh.- ^
giosität. Und auch in ihm ist die Spannung, die aller jüdi^
sehen Frömmigkeit eigen ist, die Spannung mit all ihrer
Tragik auch, die Spannung zwischen der Nähe und der .
Ferne, zwischen der Nähe des Weges, der mit jedem Men^
schendasein beginnt, und der Ferne des Zieles, das über
jedes Menschendasein hinausreicht, zwischen der Forderung,
die vor jedem Einzelnen steht, und der Vollendung, die über
den Einzelnen hinüberweist, die Spannung zwischen der Tat
und der Sehnsucht, der Tat, die nicht ohne die Sehnsucht
sein kann, und der Sehnsucht, die nicht ohne die Tat sein
darf, zwischen dieser Gegenwart, die doch immer eine Z\u
kunft sein will, und dieser Zukunft, die doch immer eine
Gegenwart sein soll — diese Spannung, aus der sich die Ein^^
heit, die Ganzheit ergibt. Von den Propheten her ist es im
Judentum das starke Erlebnis: gesendet zu sein; mit ihm
verbindet sich nun zu einem das Erlebnis des Erwartens.
' {ti5/j W^ Es ist ein Erwarten; der Begriff des Hoffens wäre dafür ein
zu schwächer, dehn es ist hier nicht ein Wünschen und
Meinen nur, sondern ein Wissen, der Glaube dessen, der an
seine Tat und seinen Weg, den Gott ihm bestimmt hat,
glaubt. Von Gott gesendet zu sein und Gott zu erwarten,
so weiß es hier die Frömmigkeit. Die Spannung zwischen
diesem beiden und die Einheit von diesem beiden, das ist die
Zukunft, wie sie im Judentum erfahren wird, das Messi^
a n i s c h e , das ihm sein eigen ist.
Das Messianische
253
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In diesem Messianischen erhält das Gebot die Erfüllung
seines Sinnes. Das Gebot, die Aufgabe ist unendlich; eine
^Aufgabe, die beendet wird, ist keine Aufgabe. Und dieses
unermeßliche Gebot ist vor den Menschen hingestellt; er ist
berufen, den Weg, den es bedeutet, zu gehen. Er ist dazu be*:
rufen, und es bleibt ihm doch versagt; durch die Grenze
seines kurzen Erdendaseins ist ihm die Schranke gesetzt. Zu
seinem Kleinen, seinem Täglichen, zu den Aufgaben, die er
selbst sich gibt, kann er hingelangen, aber das Große, diej
Aufgabe, die Gott ihm stellt, zieht über sein Erdendasein j
hinaus. Alles Leben eines Menschen ist darin nur ein Teil;/
gorische der l'c das Land der Verheißung hineinschauen.
'^f^J^'wLnn es ihm geweigert ist, der Weg des Lebens, das
auch sein Leben ist, geht auf Erden weiter, von ihm aus, so
wie zu ihm hin. Sein Tag ist der kurze, aber der Tag der
Menschheit ist lang. In der Menschheit dehnt sich der Weg
des Gebotes, in ihr auch der Weg des Daseins, der Weg über
den Tag jedes Todes hin. Sie besitzt die menschliche Be*
Stimmung mit all ihrer Weite, in ihr ist dem Guten seine
ganze Verwirklichung gewiesen. Sie blickt auf das Ziel; ihre
Zukunft ist die eigentUchste menschliche Zukunft. Sie wird
das erreichen, wozu der Mensch gesendet ist und was er ev^
wartet; das Gebot, das an ihn immer neu ergeht, und in dem
aus jedem Gebot das Gebot wieder erwächst, kann in ihr
sich vollenden. In dem Glauben an sie gipfelt der Glaube an
uns, ihr gilt, wie ein talmudisches Wort sagt, die volle Kraft
der prophetischen Worte. Es gibt kein Gebot ohne die Ge*:
wißheit, und jede Gewißheit von ihm ist Gewißheit der Zu?
kunft. Sein Tag, der ist, erhält seinen ganzen Sinn durcTi
seinen Tag, der sein wird.
Auch die Idee der Menschheit gewinnt damit ihren
weiteren Inhalt. Die Menschheit hat nun auch ihre Ev^
Streckung in der Zeit, ganz wie sie ihre Erstreckung über die
Erde hin hat. Sie bezeichnet jetzt nicht nur die Einheit der
Völker, in der jedes einzelne vom Ganzen kommt und im
/ Ganzen seine Bedeutung findet, sondern ebenso die Einheit
^der Tage, in der jede einzelne Generation der Teil einer Ge^
schichte ist, ein Schritt auf dem Wege, an dessen Ende die
Erfüllung steht. Einheit der Nationen und Einheit der
Zeiten, beides zusammen ist die Welt des Menschen. Jahr^
I
254
Das Ganze
Die Völkermoral
255
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hundert folgt auf Jahrhundert und ^^^fj^^]^^^^
und sie alle kommen aus ^^^^if^^^^^^ h^O.
hervor und führen zu der großen Ertullun^, ;.,: ^..^h äffen
Auch diese Welt, die Folge der Tage ist -^ ^ott ^esehaHen
und auch sie erfährt von Gott ihr Du sollst. Das Leben ist
in der Reihe des Lebens nun nicht ein Gewordenes nur em
bloß Natürliches und Tatsächliches, ganz wie es nicht ein
Schicksal nur ist. Es ist nicht nur da, sondern es bedeutet
etwas; es ist ein Teil der Welt Gottes, die Gott zur Welt des
Menschen gemacht hat. Jede Generation hat ihren 1 latz^in
den Generationen, in dem großen Zuge der Geschichte. ^
/ Geschlecht geht, und ein Geschlecht kommtit [
f etwas, was „von Geschlecht zu Geschlecht" ist. ts ist*
Wort der Sendung und Verheißung, fordernd und zugleich
, tröstend, antreibend und doch beruhigend, dieses Wort:
Von Geschlecht zu Geschlecht, dieses Immer.
Das begrenzte Dasein des Einzelnen, des einzelnen Menschen
und des einzelnen Volkes, hört auf, nur begrenzt zu sein; es
ist begrenzt und ist doch unbegrenzt, da es zu seinem Teile
weiterführt zu den kommenden Tagen hin. Der Schritt er^
häh durch den Weg seinen Sinn, das Unendliche der Mensch^^
heit tritt in das Endhche des Menschen ein. Das Einzeln
dasein hat jetzt seine Bedeutung, in der es über sich selber
in die Weite der Zeiten hinausreicht; es steht in einem
Größeren, in dem Ganzen, worin das Gebot sein Dasein hat.
Wenn immer es von sich weiß, so weiß es in sich selber von
etwas, das mehr ist, als es selber ist. Wie es um seinen Platz
im Unendlichen, Unsichtbaren erfährt, und darin demütig
wird, so erfährt es jetzt um das Unendliche seines Platzes,
um das Unsichtbare, zu dem er sich erstreckt, und gewinnt
nun wiederum jene Empfindung für das Höhere, das im
Menschen ist, zu ihm selber gehört. Es gewinnt die Ehr*
furcht vor sich selbst, die messianische Ehrfurcht.
Hier hat die Geschichte ihre Seele, ihre Einheit dessen,
daß Gott sich der Menschheit offenbart und die Menschheit
sich Gott offenbaren soll, daß Gott ihr ihre Welt gibt und
sie Gott seine Welt bereiten soll. Es ist wieder die Einheit
der Paradoxie, die Einheit von Erleben und Leben, von Ge^
schaffensein und Schaffen, von Demut und Ehrfurcht. Auch
die Geschichte hat ihr Geheimnis, das Gottes ist, und ihr
\ ^
•t.
Deutliches, das der Menschheit ist, „zu erfüllen alle Worte
dieser Lehre". Das Messianische des Judentums, das Monos:
theistische, das hier in der Geschichte entdeckt worden ist,
spricht auch in dieser Einheit; in ihr hat sich der Geist
emporgehoben über das Demutlose, das nur vom Tage des
JgiL,~weiß, und über das Ehrfurchtlose, das nur das Ich des
Tages kennt, er hat den Blick gewonnen für das Verborgene
und das Gehör für das Gebot. Das Judentum hat gelehrt, .
vor allem dieses Gebot zu vernehmen; gegenüber aller ge^
schichtlichen Untat, die der Zweck und der Erfolg recht:*
fertigen und zur Geschichte machen sollen, hat es das Kate^
gorische der Forderung immer predigen müssen. Und es hat
das Urteil gesprochen über jene verhängnisvollste doppelte
Moral, in der für den Einzelnen und für die Völker eine be^«
sondere Sittlichkeit, ein besonderes Recht besteht, über jenen
Dualismus des Gebotes, der je eine Satzung für die Ethik
und für die Politik aufstellt, der den Staaten das gute Ge*
wissen geben will, wenn ihre Gerechtigkeit hinter der zu*
rückbleibt, die in ihnen von den Einzelnen verlangt wird,
jenen DuaHsmus, dem alles Sittliche schließlich zur bloßen
Fiktion werden muß, alle Moral nur noch die Verherrlichung n
einer Vergangenheit und den Ruhm einer Gewalt be^^^
deuten soll.
Erst durch die messianische Idee wird die Ethik zur Ethik
der Geschichte, das Gebot auch zum Gebot für die Nationen,
so daß die Moral des Volkes nicht nur die Moral der Flucht
und der Ausflucht vor dem Gebote ist, die Moral, die den
Völkern erlaubt, sich der Moral zu entziehen. Wenn Völker
die Politik zu ihrem Recht machen und jede Absicht der
Macht ihnen jedes Mittel der Macht gestatten soll, und wenn
dann Religionen dazu das Wort der Verteidigung sprechen
oder das ebenso sprechende Schweigen der Duldung ge*
währen, es ist immer das Reden und Schweigen der Reli?
gionen, die ohne den messianischen Gedanken sind, ihn
nicht haben oder ihn nicht mehr haben, denen auf dem Platz
des Kategorischen das Kompromiß wohnt und der zwie-
fachen und vielfachen Moral das Tor öffnet. Erst durch das A
Messianische kommt in das große geschichtliche Leben dief j
Kraft des sittlichen Wollens und des Ernstnehmens, die Kraft \\
des Festhaltens und des zu Ende Denkens. In ihm erst tritt
»m^-mmmmmmi^um
256
Die kommenden Tage
f
1^
Jf
in die Geschichte ihr sittUch Drängendes und Treibendes,
ihre große Sehnsucht und ihre Zuversicht, der große Hunger
nach der Gerechtigkeit, der die große Gewißheit der Ge«
rechtigkeit ist — diese Erwartung, die nicht nur wartet,
sondern sich gesendet weiß, diese Sendung, die nicht nur zu
gehen, sondern zu erwarten vermag.
Das Ziel der Geschichte ist so die Erfüllung des Guten.
Auch auf Erden ist dieses in seiner Verwirklichung über den
Gang der Tage, über Wandel und Sterben erhaben, es soll
hier auch zu seinem Letzten gelangen. Für den Einzelnen
liegt die Vollendung im Jenseits, und in ihr Land nimmt, im
dämmernden Ufer des Todes aufsteigend, das Gestade der
anderen Welt ihn auf; für die Menschheit liegt die Vollen,
düng im Diesseits, und der Weg der Geschichte ist der We«
zu ihr. So tritt das Jenseits in das Diesseits ein, die Ewigkei "
die einstige Welt steigt zur Erde hernieder, um die Zukunft
zu zeigen und zur Zukunft zu werden - das ewige Ziel
biemeden, das Jenseits auf Erden. Im Denken und' in der
Sprache des Judentums bedeutet das Kommende schon sehr
früh dieses Doppelte: die Zukunft des Jenseits und die Zu.
kunf t des Diesseits. Die k o m m e n d e n T a g e , sie sind die
kommende Welt auf Erden, die Tage, durch die das
Gute seine Unsterblichkeit hienieden hat. Die VoUendurg
des Guten auch hat beides: ihre Transcendenz und ihre
Immanenz; sie erstreckt sich in die Welt der Ewigkeit und
m die Welt derGesehicbte, gleichsam zum WriTmel hinauf
und zu den Erdenwegen hin. Sie ist das. was sich dort ers
erschließen und sie ist das, was hier gebracht sein wird Es
ist wieder das Besondere des Judentums, daß diese Polarität
hdfS' utd" 'Ti ^^-\-P^-d- wird, w? eint El':
iie t last. Und auch das ist hier darum wieder daß das Gp-
heimnis zugleich das Gebot in sich trägt, und das Gebot^m
SrundlS^ctttrl' 'r ^^"^'^'^"^'^^ ™ Gö«Hche"n
wonnt und das Gotthche das Menschliche -imdsct ~ Aic-
Einheit des Gegebenen und des Gebotenen IvFV ^
iSHOütlit^T^lehf to-amVer^Ä. .'?^^ "^^^' ^er
Linkehr in die Ewigkeit erftffn^ ^ . "''^"' ^■""^ ^^'
Aufgabe hier, ^r.n^ T^LS^^tZrl:^:: ^
fullung auf die Menschheit und in ih, T 1 »f ^ ^'''
Die Versöhnung in der Geschichte
257
N
kommenheit. Gottes und des Menschen ist das Reich der
Zukunft, von Gott gegeben und vom Menschen gefordert.
Wieder tritt hier der Gedanke, der im Judentum alles be?
schließt, der Gedanke der Versöhnung, hervor. Die Er^
Wartung der Zukunft sieht sie, sieht ihren Frieden, den Tag
der Freiheit vor sich. Zukunft und Versöhnung bedeuten in
ihrem Eigentlichsten dasselbe: Gewißheit des Neuen, Nähe
der Ferne. In aller Versöhnung ist der Weg der Zukunft;
denn in aller Umkehr ist ein Weitergehen. Sie ist eine Rück*
kehr zum Anfang, und aller Anfang ist ein Anfang der
Bahn zum Ziele hin, jedes Neuwerden ist ein Fortschreiten,
in der Geschichte hat diese Entscheidung, die sich zum An:;
fang entschließt, ihre Unendlichkeit, diese Wahl ihre Unbe^j
grenztheit. Die Menschheit besitzt ihre Geschichte, das will
sagen: in ihr ist das Vermögen, sich immer wieder zu er*
neuern, immer wieder geboren zu werden, immer wieder zu
beginnen, das Hemmende zu durchbrechen und das Zers
störende zu überwinden, der Versöhnung sich immer wieder
zuzuwenden. Denn der Weg der Geschichte bleibt trotz
allen Irrpfaden; trotz allen Sünden bleibt das Gute die Auf:?
gäbe der Menschheit. Wie ein altes Gleichniswort sagt: „Eine
Sunde loscht ein Gebot aus, aber sie löscht nicht die Thora
aus" — das „Licht" bleibt, in dessen Licht die Menschheit
ihre Zukunft findet. Der Tag der Versöhnung ist, wie
wieder ein talmudisches Wort sagt, „der Tag, der niemals
aufhört". Wenn die Geschichte ihn hat, diesen Tag der Um*
kehr, so hebt eine Epoche in ihr an. Sie hat dann ihr Wieder*
beginnen, ihren neuen Bund mit Gott; das Leben beweist
und verwirklicht sich in ihr, ein Sieg wird über die Ver*
gänglichkeit errungen. Die Menschheit kann sich immer neu
schaffen. Ihre Zukunft ist, wie alle Versöhnung, die Ver*
söhnung der Endlichkeit mit der Unendlichkeit, des Daseins
mit dem Gebote, der Gabe mit dem Ziel, dessen, was ist, mit
dem, was sein soll. Der Tag, der kommen soll, ist die Offen*
barung des Ewigen im Menschlichen, der Besitz des Friedens
auf Erden, gewissermaßen die Versöhnung der Immanenz
mit der Transcendenz. Ziel und Ursprung werden auch hier
u einem. Das Ziel ist die Teschuwah, die Rückkehr zum
rsprung, diese Rückkehr zum Reinen, zum Schöpferischen,
u sich selbst, das Leben in dem Reiche Gottes, das^er
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
17
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Der Trost
Mensch schaffen soll. Und den Blick auch in diese Zukunft
gewährt darum der Blick in die Reinheit und Freiheit, die im
Menschen ist. Was in uns gut ist, läßt uns erschauen, was
kommen wird, was der Menschheit ihre Zukunft ist.
So gibt es hier den großen Zusammenhang von Beginn
und Bestimmung, von Schöpfung und Ziel, den Zusammen?
hang, den nicht ein Besitz und nicht ein PoUtisches, Staat?
liches nur, sondern das Menschliche fügt. Es gibt das Leben,
das alles Menschliche umfaßt, in dem alle Geschlechter ihre
Vergangenheit, die eine Vergangenheit, und ihre Zukunft,
die eine Zukunft, haben. Das Einzelne in der Geschichte ist
hier nicht ein Einzelnes nur oder bloß ein Glied in der Kette
eines Fatums; es hat seinen Sinn und seinen Wert in dem
Ganzen, das Ganze gehört zu ihm, und es gehört zum
Ganzen. Der mythologische Schicksalsgedanke, für den es
nur eine Geburt, aber keinen Ursprung, nur eine Abhängigkeit,
aber nicht den Weg, nur ein beschlossenes Verhängnis, aber
kein zu erreichendes Ziel gibt, ist damit besiegt. Und auch
die Einsamkeit in der Geschichte ist damit überwunden,
dieses Alleinsein der Generation, die sich von dem Tren?
nenden umfangen sieht, von dem Gegensatz der Eltern und
Kinder, von dem Zwiespalt zwischen den Gehenden und den
Kommenden, zwischen den Habenden und den Suchenden,
zwischen den Ruhenden und den Drängenden, dieses Allein?
sein der Generation, die da stirbt und mit sich zu Grabe
geht. Jedes Geschlecht gehört nun in die Reihe der Ge?
schlechter, in die große Bedeutung der Geschichte hinein.
Das Fragment wird zum Teil, die Verlassenheit der Episoden
zum Bunde der Epochen, der von dem Bunde mit Gott
spricht. Das Wort „von Geschlecht zu Geschlecht", dieses
befriedende und gebietende Wort hat nun seinen ganzen In?
halt. Die Geschichte wird zur Antwort auf die bedrückende
Frage des Einzeldaseins, auf das UnerfüUte der Jahre, die
dem einen Geschlechte gegeben sind. Über allen Schranken,
welche Zeit von Zeit scheiden, steht die Einheit, über den
Generationen das Leben. Das Unerfüllte blickt in die Er?
füllung hinaus, der begrenzte Tag erhält die Rechtfertigung
die das Kommende gewährt, er wird gleichsam getröstet!
Das Wort Trost wird zum Worte für die Zukunft.
Beides ist auch in diesem Tröste vereint: Verheißung und
Ironie und Geschichte
259
(
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Forderung, Zuversicht und Gebot; die Verheißung ergeht an
die Freiheit. Der Glaube an das Kommende kann hier nicht
ohne den Willen zum Kommenden sein, nicht ohne die Ent?
schUeßung zur Pflicht. Die Zukunft steht als die Gewißheit
da, die von der Aufgabe verbürgt ist, und die Aufgabe als die
Gewißheit, die durch die Zukunft ihre Gewähr hat. Die
Aufgabe ist Aufgabe der Zukunft, und die Zukunft ist Zu?
kunft der Aufgabe. Ziel und Weg, das, was in der Ferne ist,
dieses Verkündete, und das, was in der Nähe ist, dieses Ge?
forderte, offenbaren einander und sichern einander ihr
Recht. Gerechtigkeit und Liebe sind auch hier in ihrem
Letzten eins; der-gewährende Gott ist der gebietende GottJ
Auch hier ist darum der Optimismus nicht die Predigt von
einem Heil, das der Menschheit durch die göttliche Gnade
schon zu teil geworden ist, sondern das Wort von dem
Leben, das ihr gegeben ist, und das sie schaffen soll, ihr ge?
geben, damit sie es schaffe. Das verheißene Heil der Welt
ist das Gebot, das an die Völker ergeht, die Richtung, die
ihrer Geschichte gewiesen ist. Und darum hat dieser Opti?
mismus sein Pessimistisches, in ihm spricht der Protest;
durch seinen Glauben an die Zukunft hat er die Verachtung
des Tages, den Spott gegen die. Stunde. Es gibt eine messi?
anische Weltverachtung, eine messianische Ironie, einen
Trost, der in dem Spotte erklingt — die jüdische Ironie, der
jüdische Spott hat dieses Messianische — und nur ^ie, die
diese Kraft dieses Pessimismus, dieses Spottes, dieser Ironie,
dieses Protestes haben, zu haben vermögen, sind die großen
Optimisten, die großen Gläubigen, die an der Zukunft fest?
halten und zu ihr hinführen einen Schritt des Weges weiter,
die Tröster im Volke, die. Menschen jder_j^^
Die Menschheit ist so dazu bestimmt, daß sie das Gute
immer mehr in sich verwirkliche. Das ist der wahre Inhalt
ihres Lebens; ihn zu erfüllen, ist der Zweck ihrer Existenz,
das Erhabene und Fleilige, das in ihr Dasein tritt. Die Ge?
schichte, in der dieses Leben dahinzieht, hat vielleicht nicht
ihi:eGesetzß,-aber ^ie hat ihre^Gebpte. Oder wie auch ge?
sagtwer3en kann: die Gebote, die ihr gegeben, sind die Gc^
setze, die in ihr walten. Mit der Idee des Guten verbindet
sich dadurch der Begriff dessen, was die Menschheit zu be?
währen hat, der Begriff der sittlichen Entwickelung — nicht
17«
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260
Die Weltgeschichte
immer als Tatsache, aber immer als Gebot von Generation
iZu Generation — , der sittliche Begriff der Weltj^
^/ geschieht e. Auch er ist von den Propheten gebildet
worden. Sie hatten die Einheit des Menschengeschlechts er?
kannt und die Idee der Menschheit geschaffen. Sie haben
dadurch das Problem der Weltgeschichte entdeckt, sie haben
den Gedanken des Bleibenden und Erneuernden in der
Menschheit, des Weges, der die Völker zu ihrem Ziele hin»
führt, klar erfaßt. Die Tage der Umwälzung, in denen sie
lebten, hatten die schöpferische Frage in ihnen wachgerufen
— in ruhigen Zeiten scheint das Daseiende und auch das
Morahsche sich von selbst zu verstehen, in bewegten Tagen
wird es zum Problem — ; das Stürzende hatte sie nach dem
Bleibenden fragen lassen. Wo andere den dumpfen Ton des
Schicksals, das sich vollendete, hörten, dort erlebten sie die
Offenbarung des Ewigen: nicht ein Schicksal, sondern eine
Offenbarung, eine Schöpfung ist die Geschichte. Daher er*
zählen sie nicht von dem, was geschieht, um es zu schildern,
sondern von dem, was sie wissen, um es zu predigen. Wie
sie von sich aus zur Welt der Natur gelangten, so von sich
aus zur Welt der Geschichte. Sie wollen nicht die Historie
der Volker schreiben, sondern alles Gehen und Tun an dem
Wege der Menschheit messen, dem Wege, von dem sie durch
ihr Gewissen erfahren und den ihr Glaube schaut. Jeder
Tag des Geschehens hat für sie sein Hinweisendes, er zei»t
ihnen nicht das allein, was er ist, was sich in ihm ereignest
sondern das vor allem, was er bedeutet, was in ihm sich
kundtut. Ihre Religion gibt ihrem Blick in die Geschichte
den Horizont und die Perspektive.
Beides, die Idee der Menschheit und die der Welt-
jeschic!ite,_JläGg^ durchaus zusammen. Denn wenn es die
> ".^.^"'^"'^'j.'^t^S'bt. wenn die Einheit das Wurzelhafte,
das Ursprüngliche ist so ist geschichtliches Leben das allein,
A M l!^' Emheitliche verwirklicht, das allein, was
in der Menschheit und für die Menschheit da isf nu das
?1 rah f f "''"'='^" ^'^^^^- ^- ^- erfüllt dann en
Volk wahrhaft was einen Bestandteil des Menschheitslebcns
s h2 r^ Charakteristisch und wertvoll an seiner Ge
" rd E s k ;;rr°" ''r^^ Zeitgeschichte beigetragen
^vlrd. Es kann keine Men schheit g eb en ohne
i
Das Göttliche
261
Menschheitsgeschichte. Die Einheit des Men^j
schengeschlechts beruht aber nur auf dem, was an ihm gött:^
lieh ist. Allen Menschen, welchem Volk und welcher Art sie
angehören mögen, ist das gemeinsam, daß sie das Ebenbild
Gottes sind, daß sie von ihm geschaffen sind, um zu schaffen.
Das bloß Menschliche trennt sie, das Gute und Göttliche ist
es, was sie alle verbindet. Das wahre, das eigentliche und in?
haltvolle Dasein in der Menschheit ist daher das Erfahren
dieses Einen, dessen, was gegeben ist und sein soll, dessen,
was alle eint, dessen, worin sich alle zusammenfinden
können. Die wahre Weltgeschichte ist die Ge?
schichte des Guten; sie hat sich verwirklicht, wenn es
von allen anerkannt ist. Die Einheit des Menschengeschlechts
wird zur sittlichen Forderung, zur Aufgabe alles Völker?
lebens auf Erden. Die Völker sollen die Einheit schaffen.
Wir endlichen Menschen können, wenn wir auch die Ge?
wißheit des Weges und des Zieles haben, den Gang der Ent?
Wickelung in seinen einzelnen Wendungen und Wandlungen
nicht verfolgen. Das ist das Vorrecht der göttlichen Weis?
heit, die „die Geschlechter von Anbeginn an ruft". Nicht
das Begrenzte, das vom Tage des Menschen kommt, sondern
das Göttli^l^p- TTiflcbt- ^ip. Gesnhinhte. Die Kräfte, die von ihm
kommen, sind in ihr die Lebenskräfte, sind ihre bestimmen?
den Realitäten. Der Geist Gottes offenbart sich in ihr, und
nur das, was diesen Geist und sein Gebot verwirklicht,
existiert nicht bloß in seinem kürzeren oder längeren Da?
sein, sondern lebt, als das Dauernde. Nicht die Pläne und
Absichten der Menschen schaffen daher ein Bleibendes.
Alles Sinnen und Trachten und Ringen der Völker ist ver?
geblich, wenn es gegen Gott ist. „Der Ewige hat den Rat?
Schluß der Völker zu nichte gemacht, vereitelt die Gedanken
der Nationen*'. Was nützen alle Gebäude der Macht, die die
Völker aufrichten? Gott läßt sie zusammenstürzen. Was
bedeuten alle die Gewalten der Welt? Gott läßt sie kommen
und läßt sie gehen; sie sind nur da, um überwunden zu
werden. Was sind alle die „Fürsten und Erdenrichter"?
„Kaum sind sie gepflanzt, kaum sind sie gesäet, kaum wurzelt
in der Erde ihr Stamm, so hat er sie angeweht, und sie ver?
dorren, und der Sturm trägt sie wie Spreu davon". Wer das
weiß, dem erscheint alle Hoffart, in der sich die Mächte der
->.*-..fc..,. ., % .
260
Die Weltgeschichte
Das Göttliche
261
immer als Tatsache, aber immer als Gebot von Generation
zu Generation — , der sittliche Begriff der Welt,
geschieht e. Auch er ist von den Propheten gebildet
worden. Sie hatten die Einheit des Menschengeschlechts er^
kannt und die Idee der Menschheit geschaffen. Sie haben
dadurch das Problem der Weltgeschichte entdeckt, sie haben
den Gedanken des Bleibenden und Erneuernden in der
Menschheit, des Weges, der die Völker zu ihrem Ziele hin*
führt, klar erfaßt. Die Tage der Umwälzung, in denen sie
lebten, hatten die schöpferische Frage in ihnen wachgerufen
— in ruhigen Zeiten scheint das Daseiende und auch das
Moralische sich von selbst zu verstehen, in bewegten Tagen
wird es zum Problem — ; das Stürzende hatte sie nach dem
Bleibenden fragen lassen. Wo andere den dumpfen Ton des
Schicksals, das sich vollendete, hörten, dort erlebten sie die
Offenbarung des Ewigen: nicht ein Schicksal, sondern eine
Offenbarung, eine Schöpfung ist die Geschichte. Daher er*
zählen sie nicht von dem, was geschieht, um es zu schildern,
sondern von dem, was sie wissen, um es zu predigen. Wie
sie von sich aus zur Weh der Natur gelangten, so von sich
aus zur Welt der Geschichte. Sie wollen nicht die Historie
der Völker schreiben, sondern alles Gehen und Tun an dem
Wege der Menschheit messen, dem Wege, von dem sie durch
ihr Gewissen erfahren und den ihr Glaube schaut. Jeder
Tag des Geschehens hat für sie sein Hinweisendes, er zeigt
ihnen nicht das allein, was er ist, was sich in ihm ereignet,
sondern das vor allem, was er bedeutet, was in ihm sich
kundtut. Ihre Rehgion gibt ihrem Blick in die Geschichte
den Horizont und die Perspektive.
Beides, die Idee der Menschheit und die der Welt^
geschichte^ „h^ngt durchaus zusammen. Denn wenn es die
e i'iTTMen'schh^ gibt, wenn die Einheit das Wurzelhafte,
^^. ^rsprun^icKe ist, so ist geschichtliches Leben das allein,
in dem sich dieses Einheitliche verwirklicht, das allein, was
in der Menschheit und für die Menschheit da ist; nur das
steht auf geschichtlichem Platze. Nur das erfüllt dann ein
Volk wahrhaft, was einen Bestandteil des Menschheitslebens
bilden kann. Charakteristisch und wertvoll an seiner Ge:=
schichte ist das, was von ihm zur Weltgeschichte beigetragen
wird. Es kann kein e M en schh ei t g eb en ohne
\
Menschheitsgeschichte. Die Einheit des Men^j
' schengeschlechts beruht aber nur auf dem, was an ihm gött:=
1 lieh ist. Allen Menschen, welchem Volk und welcher Art sie
angehören mögen, ist das gemeinsam, daß sie das Ebenbild
Gottes sind, daß sie von ihm geschaffen sind, um zu schaffen.
Das bloß Menschliche trennt sie, das Gute und Göttliche ist
I es, was sie alle verbindet. Das wahre, das eigenthche und in^
haltvolle Dasein in der Menschheit ist daher das Erfahren
dieses Einen, dessen, was gegeben ist und sein soll, dessen,
was alle eint, dessen, worin sich alle zusammenfinden
^^^ ! können. Die wahre Weltgeschichte ist die Ge==
"^ schichte desGuten; sie hat sich verwirklicht, wenn es
von allen anerkannt ist. Die Einheit des Menschengeschlechts
wird zur sittlichen Forderung, zur Aufgabe alles Völker?
lebens auf Erden. Die Völker sollen die Einheit schaffen.
Wir endlichen Menschen können, wenn wir auch die Ge?
wißheit des Weges und des Zieles haben, den Gang der Ent=
Wickelung in seinen einzelnen Wendungen und Wandlungen
nicht verfolgen. Das ist das Vorrecht der göttlichen Weis*
heit, die „die Geschlechter von Anbeginn an ruft". Nicht
das Begrenzte, das vom Tage des Menschen kommt, sondern
das Göttl^^lif^ TnfipVit ^ip. Geschichte. Die Kräfte, die von ihm
kommen, sind in ihr die Lebenskratte, sind ihre bestimmen?
den Realitäten. Der Geist Gottes offenbart sich in ihr, und
nur das, was diesen Geist und sein Gebot verwirklicht,
existiert nicht bloß in seinem kürzeren oder längeren Da?
sein, sondern lebt, als das Dauernde. Nicht die Pläne und
Absichten der Menschen schaffen daher ein Bleibendes.
Alles Sinnen und Trachten und Ringen der Völker ist ver?
geblich, wenn es gegen Gott ist. „Der Ewige hat den Rat?
Schluß der Völker zu nichte gemacht, vereitelt die Gedanken
der Nationen". Was nützen alle Gebäude der Macht, die die
Völker aufrichten? Gott läßt sie zusammenstürzen. Was
bedeuten alle die Gewalten der Welt? Gott läßt sie kommen
und läßt sie gehen; sie sind nur da, um überwunden zu
werden. Was sind alle die „Fürsten und Erdenrichter"?
„Kaum sind sie gepflanzt, kaum sind sie gesäet, kaum wurzelt
in der Erde ihr Stamm, so hat er sie angeweht, und sie ver?
dorren, und der Sturm trägt sie wie Spreu davon". Wer das
weiß, dem erscheint alle Hoffart, in der sich die Mächte der
262
Die Macht
Die Völker
263
<
Erde brüsten, all ihr Bilden und Türmen unsagbar des Ver^:
lachens, des Spottes, des Mitleids wert. Mit der Ironie des
Wissenden blicken die Propheten auf all das Hasten und
Treiben der Welt, das sich so wichtig dünkt: „So mühen sich
die Völker um ein Nichts, die Nationen umsonst und er^
matten." Und in ihren Gleichnissen von Gott steigt zu ihm,
dem Ewigeh, diese Ironie empor, die den Zweifel bezwingt:
„Der im Himmel wohnt, lacht, der Herr spottet ihrer, — bis
zuletzt er in seinem Zorn zu ihnen reden, in seinem Grimm
sie schrecken wird". Das ist der Schluß alles irdischen
Trachtens.
So erfahren es die Propheten immer wieder in der Welt^
geschichte: Die Macht, die im Irdischen aufgerichtet wird,
ist dazu da, um eines Tages zusammenzubrechen; der erste
Tag des Bauens läßt den Riß schon klaffen, der den Tag des
Sturzes kündet. E)as Stre]|p^p nach rl^^ blflß^" MJr^yjlt ^^^ am
letzten Ende Sell;;)fitvern ich tun ^. Bloße Macht ist Sinnlosig*:
keit, ist das Unsittliche, das Unwirkliche, das Widergöttliche;
sie ist jenes Böse, das, um mit einem Kantischen Worte den
prophetischen Gedanken auszudrücken, „die von seiner
Natur unabtrennbare Eigenschaft hat, sich selbst zuwider
und zerstörend zu sein". Die Geschichte ist das Trümmer^:
feld der Macht, die Arbeit für ihre Gewalt ist Arbeit für die
Ruinen. Gegen ihr Trachten richtet sich wie der ganze Spott,
so das ganze Pathos der Propheten, ihr „Wehe", in dem
Flehen und Drohen sich einen: „Wehe dem, der anhäuft,
was ihm nicht gehört — für wie lange!" „Wehe dem, der
bösen Gewinn für sein Haus gewinnt, auf daß er sein Nest
in die Höhe lege, daß er gerettet werde vor der Hand des
Unheils!" „Wehe dem, der die Stadt mit Blut baut und die
Burg mit Frevel gründet!" Der Glaube an irdische Macht ist
ihnen der eigentliche Unglauben, der Kampf dagegen ist der
Kampf der Gotteserkenntnis gegen das Heidentum; jeder
Bau der Macht ist ihnen wie ein Götzenbild. Sie haben dem^
gegenüber den Begriff des ewigen Rechtes aufgerichtet. Alle
Macht ist eine Macht für den Tag, und die Mühe darum ist
die Mühe um das Vergebliche, aber das Recht ist das Recht
für immer, der Weg zur Zukunft. Niclit M^cht ist darum
Recht — sie ist das Unrecht — , sondern^ RechMst Macht,
jene wahre Macht, die von Gott kommt. Ein talmudischer
A
>
V
\
'-^j
Satz hat so ein Psalmwort gefaßt: „Die Macht Gottes ist,
daß er das Recht liebt", und hat erklärend hinzugefügt: „Im
menschlichen Treiben wird die Macht zum Widerspruch
gegen das Recht; wer die Gewalt hat, schreitet über das
Recht hinweg. In Gott ist Macht allein das Recht. Darum
fährt das Psalmwort fort: Du, o Gott, hast RedHchkeit ge^
gründet. Recht und Gerechtigkeit hast du in Jakob ges;
schaffen". Nur diese Macht, die das Recht ist, wird bleiben.
Die Geschichte ist, so sehr Menschen ihren Verlauf zu
gestalten meinen, in ihrem Ergebnis daher durch Gott be^
stimmt. Sie ist ein Drama göttlicher Gedanken, göttlicher
Gebote, sie ist die Geschichte des Bundes Gottes mit der
Menschheit. Ergebnis, Wirklichkeit ist das allein, was diesen
Bund verwirklicht, die Gedanken Gottes, seine Gebote er?
füllt. Alle die Völker stehen im Dienste dieser Geschichte.
Das Gute und das Böse, das Leben und den Tod hat Gott
vor sie hingestellt, und auch an sie ergeht das Wort: „Du
sollst wählen." Keinem ist die Wahl abgenommen oder er?
spart — das ist das Gericht der Geschichte — , die Wahl, den
Weg des Lebens zu gehen, um weiterzuleben, oder den Weg
des Bösen, um das Trümmerfeld der Jahrhunderte zu dehnen.
Eine höhere Macht, die Macht der Gerechtigkeit, gebietet
den Völkern, bestimmt die Geschichte, bestimmt, was Ge?
schichte ist. Über sie ist das Wort gesprochen, das Jeremia
vernahm: „auszuroden und zu zerbrechen und zu verderben
und niederzureißen, und zu bauen und zu pflanzen." Die
Völker können sich der Entscheidung nie entziehen; so
selbstbewußt sie sind, und so sehr sie sich ihrer Taten
rühmen, sind sie damit doch nur wie ein Werkzeug
Gottes. Und sie können sich für das Gute entscheiden, den
Willen Gottes wählen, und damit sind sie ein Werkzeug
Gottes, besitzen sie diesen edelsten Adel des Mensch?
liehen. Sie alle gehören ihm, und sie alle können sein Volk
werden, von ihm zum Heil erkoren. „Habe ich nicht Israel
heraufgeführt aus dem Lande Ägypten und die Philister aus
Kaphtor und die Aramäer aus Kir!" „Der Ewige der Heer?
scharen spricht: Gesegnet sei mein Volk Ägypten und das
Werk meiner Hände Assyrien und mein Erbe Israel!" Das
ist auch der Trost für die Kleinen und Schwachen, sie sollen
nicht zagen noch verzweifeln. Die Gewalt des Frevels, so
. . ■^ .' i
jÄ '.•■I
7 n
%
F:^4:,^Uv>j.
X^ .. _W«1* t.
,-» t'i.^ I;
264
Das Geschichtsverständnis
Die Gewißheit
265
weithin er noch herrscht, wird sie nicht zu erdrücken ver^:
mögen. Denn wenn der Tag gekommen ist, dann „löst sich
vom Berge ein Stein, nicht durch Menschenhand", und zer^
. trümmert den ragenden Übermut. „Der Ewige richtet die
I Enden der Erde''.
Nicht durch die Wissenschaft vom Vergangenen, nicht
durch historische Einsicht ist das gelehrt worden. Es ist die
Überzeugung von der'Wirklichkeit des Guten, dieser prophe^^
tische WirkHchkeitssinn, der darin spricht, die Idee von der
Erfüllung des Erdenlebens, es ist der Glaube, der den Weg
alles Geschehens zeigt. Das Verständnis dafür, daß, wie das
Leben des Einzelnen, so das der Menschheit seinen Sinn und
seine Aufgabe hat, dieses Verständnis hat den Gedanken der
Weltgeschichte aus sich hervorgehen lassen. Die Sittlichkeit
gilt bis ans Ende der Welt und bis ans Ende der Zeiten, eine
Gerechtigkeit waltet auf Erden, sie ist überall und für alles
das Maß der Bedeutung; aus dieser Erkenntnis hat sich wie
der Glaube an den einen gebietenden Gott, so die Gewißheit
erschlossen, daß sich in dem Geschehen auf Erden eine
höhere Ordnung und ein erhabener Zusammenhang kund^
^Y tun. An der E in hei t de s S i tt lic he n , der Einheit der
U Gerechtigkeit wurde die Einheit der Geschichte er.-
I faßt. Es ist ganz eigentlich der Monotheismus, die Erkennt^
II nis von dem einen, gerechten Gott, wodurch die Idee der
' Weltgeschichte erzeugt worden ist. Und sie folgt hieraus mit
Notwendigkeit; es gibt keinen Monotheismus qhne die Welt^
geschichte. Sie ist damit zum Problem der Rehgion geworden.
Die Propheten lernen daher nicht Gott durch die Ge^
schichte der Welt begreifen, ganz ebenso wenig wie sie durch
die Betrachtung der Natur die Erkenntnis von ihm gewonnen
haben. Es ist umgekehrt. Der Begriff der Welt, den sie er^
faßt hatten, wird ihnen erst klar durch das Verständnis, das
sie von dem göttlichen Wesen besitzen. Sie sehen die *gött=:
liehe Weltordnung, das Gesetz der Gerechtigkeit ein, das
sich in allem Geschehen verwirklicht. Die großen Männer
der Weltgeschichte erscheinen ihnen jetzt wie die Vor.
kämpfer Gottes, wie die Gesandten Hp^ H...r. gleichsam "dfie
weltlichen Propheten, die Gott hat erstehen lassen. Die
großen Ereignisse und Umwälzungen auf Erden sind ihnen
wie Botschaften, die Gott an die Völker schickt. Alles, was
*■■>'?
I ^ §(
hienieden geschieht, steht für sie im Dienste eines heiligen
Willens und hat die Ehre Gottes, die „Heiligung des gött=:
liehen Namens" zum letzten Ziel.
Dieser reUgiöse geschichtliche Sinn war in Israel schon
früh durch das Leben geweckt worden. xMit einer schöpfe^:
Tischen, geschichtlichen Tat, die zugleich eine religiöse Tat
war, die das Befreiende und Erlösende, dieses wahrhaft
ReUgiöse und wahrhaft GeschichtHche, erleben ließ, mit der
\ Befreiung aus Ägypten hebt Israels nationale Existenz an;
V der Befreier des Volkes war sein erster und sein größter
( Prophet. Das erste, was das Volk Israel erfahren hatte, war
I so Gottes Walten in der Geschichte, und darauf weist darum
' der Anfang alles Bekenntnisses und alles Gebotes hin : „Ich
' bin der Ewige, dein Gott, der dich aus dem Lande Ägypteiw
i herausgeführt hat, aus dem Hause der Knechte". Dieses Ver^A^
ständnis für den innersten Gehalt der Geschichte wurde '
dann durch die Jahrhunderte, in denen Israel um seine
Eigenart kämpfen mußte, noch verstärkt. Durch seine poli=:
tische Geschichte, die dazu von den Propheten meist ver^
worfen wurde, konnte Israel alle diese Zeit hindurch nichts
bedeuten; es stand unter den Mächten dieser Welt, wo
Menge und Besitz den Wert verliehen, gering und armselig
da. Es konnte an sich glauben, nur wenn es eine Geschichte
gab, wo andere Güter galten, und jene andere Wahrheit
maßgebend war: „Nicht durch die Menge und nicht durch
die Macht, sondern durch meinen Geist, spricht der Ewige
der Heerscharen". Gegenüber der herrschenden Gewalt bHeb
nur die Berufung an die kommenden Tage, die Gewißheit,
daß dem Guten die Zukunft gehört, daß Gott jedes Volk
aus jeder Knechtschaft herausführen wird, daß der letzte
lag, auch er, ein Tag der Freiheit, der Erlösung sein wird.
Das Erlebnis des Anfangs sprach immer von diesem Ende,
sprach von dem „neuen Liede", das Israel werde anstimmen
können mit aller Welt. Man lebte zudem damals in einer
gährenden Zeit, man sah Weltreiche entstehen und vergehen
und von der Erde schwinden, als wären sie nicht gewesen.
Da mußte es sich dem religiösen Denken aufdrängen, daß
•die Bürgschaft der Existenz nicht in der Fülle dej^-fodeh:^
acht Hegt, daß allein ein anderes und WirkHcheres die
wahre Dauer verspricht.
m
266
Das Gesetz der Geschichte
Das ist der Grundgedanke der Propheten, daß es nur ein
Fundament des Daseins gibt: die Qerechtigkeit und ^iltÜch?
keit. Ohne ein gewisses Maß von Tugend kann kein Volk
bestehen. Sobald eine Nation dieser ersten aller Anforde^:
rungen nicht mehr genügt, muß sie untergehen. Auch das
Mächtigste muß schwinden, wenn es sich auf Sünde und
Frevel stützen will. Auch gegen Israel stehen die Propheten
nicht an, sobald es der Pflicht untreu wird, das Urteil zu
verkünden. Alle Völker sind vor den gerechten Gott hins=
gestellt; vor ihm steht ihre Freiheit, und er richtet über sie.
„Er richtet den Erdkreis in Gerechtigkeit und die Nationen
in Geradheit". Die Sittlichkeit ist die Weltenkraft, das Recht
ist das Weltgesetz. Es ist ein Gesetz, und es kennt keine Aus^
nähme, daß Sittenlosigkeit, Unrecht und Übermut zusam^:
menstürzen müssen und mit ihnen die, die auf sie ihr Dasein
gründen. Nur dem Guten bleibt die Dauer. Das ist die
Theodicee der Geschichte.
Jedes Volk muß sich demnach vor Gott seine Existenz^:
berechtigung erst erwerben; es steht vor ihm, um dar zutun,
daß es seines Daseins wert ist. Und wie wenige von denen,
die auf Erden sind, könnten jederzeit vor dem Weltenrichter
bestehen; wie viele müßten, wenn seine Gerechtigkeit, und
nur sie, jeder Zeit den Spruch fällte, dem Untergange be.
stimmt sein! Der gerechte Gott ist aber zugleich der Gott
der Liebe, er ist „der Allmächtige, und darum ist er ge.
duldig"; er ist „gnädig und barmherzig, langmütig und reich
an Liebe, und er läßt sich des Unheils gereuen". Er gibt die
Zeit zur Umkehr, die lange Zeit, denn er ist ewig; er spricht
immer wieder: „kehret zurück, ihr Menschenkinder". Erst
durch diesen Gedanken der Versöhnung wird der von einer
Weltgeschichte, die nicht nur ein Trümmerfeld ist, möglich.
Die verheißene Erlösung ist die Zukunft, auch wenn Ge*:
schlecht auf Geschlecht von der Bahn abweicht, die zu ihr
hinführt; der Weg zu ihr bleibt und ist vor keinem je ver^
schlössen. Was Gott dem Menschen gegeben und zugesagt
hat, wird nie genommen, so wie das, was er von ihm ge^
fordert hat, nie aufhört. Als letztes Ziel zeigt sich das Leben
der Menschheit. Die Zukunft ist die Zukunft des Guten, und
2u ihr wollen alle Tage hinleiten.
So ist die Strenge der Forderung in nichts beeinträchtigt.
Forderung und Erfüllung
267
k
)•
I
%
\
'Jw.
Unser, der Menschen Tun bewirkt es. daß die Zeit der Er.
füUung nahen kann. Sie wird gekommen sein, wenn sich
jedes Volk durch seine Taten das Recht der Existenz er»
Tungen haben wird und es nicht mehr bloß der göttlichen
Langmut verdankt hat. Gottes Gebot weist und verbürgt
das Ziel der Vollendung, dieses Gebot, das an uns ergeht,
und dem wir sein Leben und seine Zukunft geben sollen. Die
göttliche Stimme der Versöhnung schweigt nie. und sie ruft
zu uns, daß wir umkehren und beginnen, um neu zu werden.
Gott verzeiht und sühnt immer, denn wir sollen und können
uns immer vor ihm läutern. Es gibt für jeden Menschen und
jedes Volk nur das Ziel der Zukunft, zu welchem der Weg
von ihm selber ausgeht. Nur in der menschlichen Freiheit
und Verantwortlichkeit kann sich die Geschichte und kann
sich das^Heil erfüllen. Die Tage, die kommen werden, da
Gott sie verheißen hat, können uns Menschen nur ein Be=
sitztum sein, das wir erringen; sie sind das Ergebnis mensch--
licher Arbeit. Die messianische Verkündigung ist die Bot»
Schaft von der sittUchen Kraft, die in den Völkern ist, von
dem Eigentum am Guten, das jedem von ihnen zugehört.
Ihnen allen ist die Zukunft gewährt, weil sie ihnen allen an=
befohlen, ihnen zum Tage der Rechenschaft anvertraut ist,
und dadurch erst hat sie den Gehalt der Versöhnung, der
ihr Bestes bedeutet. Der Bund Gottes ist mit den Menschen,
wenn er zum Bunde der Menschen mit Gott verwirklicht
wird. Die Liebe Gottes gibt, und der Mensch empfangt,
wenn er Gott die Liebe mit ganzem Herzen, ihm dienend,
bringt. Nur wer sich von Gott gesendet weiß, erwartet ihn.
Die Gegenwart, die der Mensch erwählt, indem er sich für
Gott entscheidet, umfaßt die Zukunft, und er sieht dann
vor sich den Tag, durch welchen die Zukunft Gegenwart ist.
Wenn diese Tage erfüllt sein werden, dann wird die
eineMenschheit sein. Vor Gott kann die Menschheit
bestehen und ihr Daseinsrecht haben nur kraft des Gott*
liehen in ihr, und dieses, das Göttliche, das gegebene und ge.
bietende, ist das, was allen gemeinsam ist. Wenn die Men»
sehen den Weg zu Gott, den Weg Gottes finden, dann haben
sie den Weg zu einander entdeckt. Die Versöhnung der
Menschheit mit Gott ist zugleich die Vereinigung aller in
dem Bewußtsein -der Gleichheit und Zusammengehörigkeit.
^
1
iriiriiMii I
«l»»>**^«i^^i"«"^«~"«
i»i I iimaiiiiM
2^Q Das Zukunftsideal
Jede Scheidewand als dasVünstlichejund jedes Verbindende
als das Menschliche begreifen, es erkennen, daß der Mensch
dem Menschen Bruder ist, das ist eine Bedingung der Er.
lösung, die schon eine Erlösung selbst bedeutet, ist der
Weg, der ein Ziel ist. Es ist die Anerkennung Gottes im
Menschen. Die Tage werden es bringen, wo der Ewige, um
das Gleichnis des Propheten zu gebrauchen, „den Völkern
eine lautere Sprache schafft, daß sie alle den Namen des
Ewigen anrufen, ihm Schulter an Schulter dienen", die Jage,
wo „der Ewige König sein wird über die ganze Erde", wo
„der Ewige einer sein wird und sein Name einer." Das Wort
„alle Völker" wird dann den Sinn der Erfüllung besitzen.
Dann wird, so verkünden es die Propheten, nicht Zwang,
nicht Satzung mehr das Schlechte bannen müssen. „Denn
dies ist der Bund, den ich mit dem Hause Israel schUeßen
werde nach diesen Tagen, ist der Spruch des Ewigen: Ich
gebe meine Lehre in ihr Inneres und werde sie in ihr Herz
schreiben, ich werde ihnen zum Gotte sein, und sie werden
mir zum Volke sein. Und nicht mehr werden sie einer den
Nächsten und einer den Bruder lehren also: Erkennet den
Ewigen! Denn alle werden sie mich erkennen von klein bis
groß, ist der Spruch des Ewigen — dieweil ich ihre Schuld
verzeihen und ihrer Sünde nicht mehr gedenken werde."
Recht und Gerechtigkeit werden dann eine Wirklichkeit auf
Erden geworden sein. Alles Wilde und Rohe wird schwing
den, aller Frevel, der die beste Kraft der Völker verzehrt und
sie für das leere Nichts sich mühen läßt, vergehen. Nicht
blinder Streit und nicht blutiger Kampf wird mehr die
Länder verwüsten, keine Zwietracht die Menschheit aus-,
einanderreißen. „Sie werden ihre Schwerter zu PflugschareijL
umschmieden und ihre Lanzen zu RebrnB^sern. Nlcht^wrd
Volk gegen Volk ein Schwert erheben, und nicht mehr wer.
den sie einen Krieg lernen". Und in dieser Poesie des Frie.
dens verklärt und vereint sich dem Propheten alles, was
lebt, zum Bilde der Harmonie: „Es wird der Wolf beim
Lamme wohnen und der Panther bei dem Böcklein lagern
und Kalb und junger Löwe und Masttier zusammen, und
ein kleiner Knabe leitet sie. Und Kuh und Bär werden an
der Weide gehen, bei einander ihre Jungen lagern, und der
Leu wird wie das Rind Stroh essen. Und* spielen wird der
Der kommende Mensch
269
\>
I
/
/
f
Säugling am Loch der Otter, und nach der Höhle der Natter
das entwöhnte Kind seine Hand strecken. Sie werden nicht
Böses tun und nicht verderben auf meinem ganzen heihgen
Berge; denn voll ist die Erde der Erkenntnis des Ewigen so,
wie Wasser das Meer bedeckt". Das Unrecht meiden und
das Gute suchen, das heißt: Gott erkennen; mit dieser Ge.
wißheit hatte die prophetische Rede zur Mahnung des
Tages begonnen, und mit ihr schließt sie jetzt in der Hoff^
nung für die Zukunft ab.
/ y In jener heroischen Zeit der Geschichte, wo der führende
'yMann die Ereignisse "machte, wo'^der König noch ganz
^^ anders als späterhin das Schicksal eines Volkes war, mußte
auch jede Zukunftshoffnung an eine bestimmte beherrschende
Persönlichkeit anknüpfen. Ganz besonders gilt es für das
rrnrhytin^br P— ^— , ^^^ i^^^ ^b<.trakte Schüderung durchs
a^TTfernbleibt und dafür die Gestalt des wirklichen Men.
sehen mit seiner Gesinnung und seinem Handeln vor die
Seele tritt. Dii& Propheten sprechen weniger von der kom^
menden Zeit^ als von dem komm enden M ensche n.
Das Ideal der Zukunft setzt sich ihnen um in die Erschein,
nung der idealen Persönlichkeit. Ein Mensch von Gottes
Gnaden ist es, der es vollbringt, die entscheidenden Tage
heraufzuführen und das Reich der Erfüllung zu gründen,
ein Mann, wie ihre sittliche Hoffnung ihn vor sich erbhckt,
der nicht die Macht sucht, um durch sie zu herrschen, son.
dern die Demut und Gottesfurcht besitzt und durch sie die
Gemüter bezwingt. Ihre Erwartungen sind dabei durchaus
konkret und frei von aller Verschwommenheit; um das Ideal
zu zeichnen, betrachten sie die Menschen, die sie von An.
gesicht zu Angesicht und von Herz zu Herz kennen. Hier
regen sich ja auch ihr Empfinden und ihr Hoffen am per.
sönlichsten, hier die Liebe zum Kommenden, die Sorge um
das Werdende am innigsten; und hier spricht in ihnen auch
der Gedanke an den Geist der Menschheit, da Israels Ge.
schick, das äußere und das innere, für sie das Geschick der
Religion und damit das der Menschheit ist. Der ideale
Mensch der Zukunft kann sich ihnen nur im Bilde des
Frommen aus ihrem Volke darstellen, des Mannes, der den
einen Gott, den Gott Israels, erkennt und wahrhaft nach
dem Willen Gottes als ein Hirte vor den Seinen steht. Es
- HW—
270
Der Messias
/
^
I
ist die Gefahr jedes Ideals, daß es in das Allgemeine des
Menschlichen hinauszieht, sich in das Upgewisee <ler bloßen
Sehn£U£htj^xflÜG^ aufhört, verlangend und
drängend vor dem Platze des Menschen zu stehen, daß es
nur seinen BHck in das Dereinst hat und nicht seine Pflicht
des Jetzt, daß es bloß malt, was sein wird, und nicht fordert,,
was sein soll. Diese Gefahr ist hier dadurch vermieden, daß
die messianische Hoffnung in die Bestimmtheit des eigenen
Volkes und seiner Geschichte hineingestellt wird. Das Bild
des Deutlichen, des Bodens des Volkes Israel, besagt das Ge?
bot im Deutlichen, im Leben des Volkes Israel, das Gebot,
das zuerst von ihm die Entscheidung beansprucht. Es sagt
dasselbe, wie das Wort, mit dem Moses Abschied nimmt:
„Denn dieses Gebot, das ich dir heute gebiete, ist nicht im
Wunder vor dir und nicht in der Ferne. Nicht im Himmel
ist es, daß du möchtest sagen: wer steigt uns in den Him*
mel und holt es uns und läßt es uns hören, und wir werden
es tun. Und nicht jenseits des Meeres ist es, daß du möch:^
test sagen: wer zieht für uns jenseits des Meeres hin und
holt es uns und läßt es uns hören, und wir werden es tun.
Sondern gar nahe bei dir ist das Wort, in deinem Munde
und deinem Herzen, daß du es tuest." Das Menschliche be*
ginnt im Persönlichen, jeder Weg zur Weite hat seinen An^
fang in der Nähe.
Auf dieser Bestimmtheit der Verkündigung beruht die
persönliche Kraft auch dieser Worte, die die Propheten ver^^
künden. Und der Hirte in Israel hat für sie darum eine ge*»
schichtliche, gegebene und festumrissene, Gestalt; er ist der
Sohn des demütigen Gotteshelden, aus dessen Geschichte
der alte Glanz und die alte Herrlichkeit, alle die leuchten;:
den großen Erinnerungen des Volkes und der Religion in die
Gegenwart herüberstrahlen: er ist ein Nachkomme
Davids, ein König nach dem Willen des Herrn, ein Ge*
salbter, ein Messias. Der Sohn Davids ist der kom^
mende Mensch, er bietet für das Zukunftsideal die Person*
lichkeit von Fleisch und Blut, die es den Menschen lebendig
dartun kann, was sein soll und sein wird. Er ist der Messias
in der idealen Bedeutung des Wortes. So hat ihn der Pro*
phet Jesaias geschaut: „Es wird ein Reis aufgehen aus dem
Stamme Isais und ein Schößling aus seinen Wurzeln sprossen.
JsltA'^:^
•i^
.:>-^^- -"
Das Gottesreich
271
Und auf ihm wird ruhen der Geist des Ewigen, der
Geist der Weisheit und der Einsicht, der Geist des Rates
und der Stärke, der Geist der Erkenntnis und Furcht des
Ewigen; sein Atmen ist in der Furcht des Ewigen. Und nicht
nach dem Scheine seiner Augen wird er richten und nicht
nach dem Gerüchte seiner Ohren urteilen. Er wird mit Ge*
rechtigkeit die Armen richten und mit Geradheit über die
Demütigen im Lande urteilen; er wird das Land mit dem
Stabe seines Mundes schlagen und mit dem Odem seiner
\ Lippen den Frevler töten. Gerechtigkeit wird der Gurt seiner
\ Hüften sein und die Treue der Gurt seiner Lenden''.
Später hat dann in dieser Hoffnung sich das Gebietende
mehr betont; und jedes Gebot ergeht an alle. Nicht der
Glaube an den einen Menschen, der die Welt erneuen wird,
sucht nun seinen Ausdruck, sondern der Glaube an das neue
Leben, das auf Erden erwachsen soll. Zudem widerspricht es
dem Wege des Judentums, daß ein Mensch aus der Mensch:;
heit herausgehoben sein solle, um für sie alles zu bedeuten
und ihr alles zu geben und wie ihr Schicksal zu sein. Das
Wort von dem einen Manne tritt denn mehr und mehr hinter
das von der einen Zeit zurück, das vom Messias hinter das
von den „Tagen des Messias '. Und daneben steht dann ein
anderes, bestimmteres Wort noch, das vom „Gottes^ ]\
reich". Es ist jenes Wort, das der Glaube an den einen
Gott gebildet hatte. Mit ihm war das Ganze des Daseins
benannt, das der Mensch, seinem Gotte dienend, schafft, das
Gebiet Gottes, das er auf Erden bereitet. Es konnte darum
das Wort für das Ziel werden, für das Ganze der Aufgabe
und der Verheißung, die sich an das Volk und an die Mensch^
heit richtet, für alles, was durch die Zukunft, die nie auf^
hört, verwirklicht sein soll. Nicht ein bloßes Zukunfts:^
geheimnis, nicht die Kunde von etwas, was einst aus einer
anderen Welt zur Erde herniederkommen werde, spricht
darin, sondern die aus der Tiefe des Lebenssinnes auf*
steigende Forderung und Gewißheit dessen, was jeder
Mensch, jede Zeit beginnen soll, damit sich das Leben einst
erfülle. ' Das Reich Gottes ist die Welt des Menschen, wie
sie vor Gott sein soll, so wie die Wege Gottes die Wege
sind, die der Mensch gehen soll — das Dasein, das „in der
Gottesfurcht atmet", über das Niedrige und Staubige er*
-^fe ..^jXe/:». ^h1 .
mmm
■■M
■!JlMUj<«:«<ta&
272
Das Soziale der Zukunft
hoben, das Leben der Andacht und des Gebotes, das in der
Welt st und doeh anders als sie, in der Welt, aber nicht voa
Ter Weh. Nicht ein Reich über der Welt oder gegen sie
und neben ihr ist im Judentum das Reich Gottes. Es ist vieU
mehr die Antwort für sie, die Antwort, wie sie das Ziel
gibt, jene VSFs-oHHIIHriHfrs"-Xndhchen mit ihrem Unend.
liehen. Es ist nicht jene Zukunft, die nur Zukunft is , die
Zukunft des Wunders, deren der Mensch nur harren kann,
sondern es ist die Zukunft des Gebotes, die immer ihre
Gegenwart hat, immer den Anfang, die EntschUeßung des
Menschen fordert - die Zukunft des Lebens, das immer
wieder beginnt. In der Idee von ihm liegt die Erkenntnis
dessen, daß der Mensch ein Schaffender ist, hegt der Wider.
Spruch dagegen, daß er im Schicksal der Schuld befangen
bleibe, und nur ein Wunder dieses brechen könne. Im Juden,
tum ist das Gottesreich etwas, was der Mensch, wie das
alte Wort sagt, „auf sich nimmt", was er erwählt. Es ist das
Reich der Frömmigkeit, in das der Mensch eintritt durch
den sittlichen Dienst Gottes, durch den freien Gehorsam der
Gottesfurcht, dadurch, daß der göttUche Wille ihm nicht em
Fremdes ist oder neben seinem Leben nur einhergeht, son.
dem zur Erfüllung seiner Tage ihm wird. Wer Gott durch
. die nie beendete gut Tat erkennt und anerkennt, der hat den
Weg zum Reiche Gottes.
Wenn so das Gottesreich das Zukunftsziel, das
Ganze des Menschenlebens bezeichnet, so gewinnt es
damit zugleich die Bedeutung des Ganzen im Sinne der
Gemeinschaft, die alle umfaßt. Das Soziale und das
Messianische gehören zusammen; das Ganze der Zukunft
ist das, was alle eint, die Aufgabe des Lebens wird zum
Ideal des Einigenden: das Reich Gottes wird das Reich sein,
in dem sich alle Menschen zusammenfinden. Der Gedanke
des Reiches, des Staates ist damit versittlicht, der Begriff
des Herrschenden ist seines Materiellen entledigt, von der
ihm anhaftenden Vorstellung der bloßen Macht und des
bloßen Besitzes, des Zwanges und des Druckes befreit. Das
Reich Gottes ist das Reich, das nicht in der Gewalt ge.
gründet ist, sondern im Gebote Gottes, das Reich, in dem
die Freiheit regiert und die Freiheit gehorcht, weil Gott
herrscht und die Gottesfurcht dient. Allem Messianischen
Der Dienst Gottes
273
liegt der Gedanke zugrunde, daß des Menschen Seele sich
unter keinen stellen solle als unter Gott, den Einen; das
Reich Gottes ist das eine Reich, das Reich des einen Ge^
bietenden. Wer im Bezirke der Macht stehen will, hat das
Reich Gottes verworfen. So hat es schon das Wort der Bibel
gesagt, aus jenen Tagen, da das Volk Israel sein wollte „wie
alle Völker": „Der Ewige sprach zu Samuel: . . . Mich haben
sie verschmäht, daß ich nicht soll König über sie sein!" Und
wie der Gegensatz zur bjjßrn Mnrht zu dem Freiheitslosen
des Befghlens und Dienens, so ist der Gedanke vom Gottess^
reich der Widerspruch zum Anarchischen, das alles Ge^
bietende ablehnt, zu dem Freiheitslosen der Freiheit, die
nur um das Nein weiß. Im Reiche Gottes ist der allein, der
im Dienste Gottes ist; es^gibt keine Freiheit ohne die
Ehrfurcht, ohne die GottesfuTcBt. Daher verbindet sich mit
der Sehnsucht nach dem Gottesreich das Gebot der Heiligung
des göttlichen Namens wie zu einem. Vor dem Worte, daß
Gott sein Reich zum Reiche der Menschen möge werden
lassen, steht in dem alten Gebet, das wie wenige ein Volks^
gebet geworden ist, dem Kaddischgebet, das andere Wort:
„Geheiligt werde sein Name!" Wer den Namen Gottes
heiligt, arbeitet am Reiche Gottes. In allem Messianischen
bleibt die Aufgabe, die dem Menschen um der Menschen
willen gestellt ist. Wie wieder ein Gebet, das aus der
gleichen Zeit, der talmudischen, stammt, es ausspricht: „Wir
hoffen auf dich, daß .... wir eine Welt schaffen im Reiche
des Allmächtigen, und alle Menschenkinder dich erwählen".
Alles Hoffen auf Gott zeigt eine Aufgabe, die erfüllt wer:^
den soll, und jede Aufgabe, die erfüllt wird, zeigt den Mens
sehen den einen Weg, den Weg zu Gott, der sie einen wird.
Alle HeiUgung des göttlichen Namens ist, wie ein Beweis
von Gott, den der Mensch erbringt, so ein Beweis für die
kommenden Tage.
Wie mit dem Jenseits der kommenden Welt, so haben
sich auch mit diesem Jenseits der kommenden Tage sehr
bald mystische, oder wie man sie hier zu nennen pflegt,
eschatologische Vorstellungen verbunden. Ganz besonders
\var es in den Jahrhunderten der Bedrängnis der Fall; nur
dadurch, daß er die Fata Morgana vor sich sah, gewann so
mancher Tag die Kraft, in der Wüste, zu der ihm das Dasein
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
18
maggBpakßmKmmktm
7
1-^-
mm»
274
Die messianischen Feste
geworden war. wieder weiter - -^^r, J^^S tlt
ren Zeiten liebte man es wie der T« js ^^.^^^^^
„das Ende zu berechnen . Man ^J^*; « Jj^^^^^
;:irsrwr tbiet der ^^^^j^^^^^j:
Fülle solcher Bilder auf. Aber sie ^^^""J'^^^^iüber
Gedanken nie dauernd bestimmen können denn gegenu
ihrer^Sr^Sa^ineaeFsteigen^^^^^^
tum einen stetigen religiösen Besitz, der ™ .
wollen, sind zugleich die messianischen Feste _
niese beiden Feste sind die einzigen, die nicht mit be.
hin Und dieses, das allgemem Menschhche, ist «a^/l^" .
Menschen als Glied der Menschheit -'StV^^Xchen
sich daher am Feste der Blick auf sie. Dej Tag der Rechen
Schaft vor Gott verkündet «l-J;/. ^^ j^^St^^ ^^^^^^^
Völker- auch sie werden geprüft und gencfttet zu j s
?""" ^'nKi.» tSht r. d " SrÄ de, T«
dienen. Und ebenso spricui ut ganze
der Versöhnung: auch er sendet sem T":o,Tv,r d^n Sab.
Menschheit und fordert von ihr und v-hf t ihr ^^^^^ Sa«
r '^^'a'tntnV^^zu^dem^^^^^^^^ f-
Srzen" Weif sXn allTBlen'hinführen. Neujahr und Ve..
t^HnnnJsfest Stellten die Gemeinde immer wieder auf den
Str^Sen des messianischen Gedankens, des Glaubens
Tn deTeinen Gott, in dem der Sinn aller ZeUe. verbürgt .t
der richtend und liebend. heiUg und voller Gute auch m üer
*t.ÄS— UU,» A«sa™c. d.«sV„s«„d„U
h« zeigen die alten Gebete, die den Mittelpunkt des
Der geschichtliche Horizont
275
Gottesdienstes dieser Festtage bilden. Von Geheimlehre
und grübelnder Phantasie ist in ihnen nichts enthalten, son*«
dem alles auf den festen Grund der reUgiösen Gewißheit
von dem Wege der Weltgeschichte gestellt. In dem einfachen
großen Gedanken der Verantwortlichkeit aller Völker und
ihrer endlichen Versöhnung tritt die messianische Erwartung
vor die Gemüter. Diese Hoffnung bekennt die Gemeinde in
ihrem Gebete: „Ewiger, unser Gott, gib die Scheu vor dir
über alle deine Werke und das Erbeben vor dir über alles,
was du geschaffen, auf daß dich fürchten alle Werke und
sich vor dir beugen alle Geschöpfe, und sie alle zu einem
Bunde gemacht werden, deinen Willen zu tun mit vollst
kommenem Herzen. Denn so wissen wir es. Ewiger, unser
Gott, daß die Herrschaft vor dir ist, die Macht in deiner
Hand und die Kraft in deiner Rechten, und dein Name ist
erhaben über allem, was du geschaffen hast".
Die Weite des Horizontes ist damit dem Juden:*
tum gegeben. Da es über die Enge der Gegenwart hinaus den
BUck in die universelle Zukunft und damit auf die ganze
. Menschheit richtet, wird es davor bewahrt, in die kleinUche
k] Begrenztheit des geschichtlichen Urteils zu verfallen. Schon
der Charakter der Religion, die Betonung der sittlichen Tat,
hatte, wie früher gezeigt, dem entgegengestanden; auch be*
reits der alten heidnischen Weisheit hatte man die Achtung
entgegengebracht und über ihre Meister das Segenswort gQ^
sprochen: „Gepriesen seist du. Ewiger, unser Gott, der du
von deiner Weisheit dem Sterblichen gegeben hast!" Das
Judentum hat die Fähigkeit, anderen ReHgionen gerecht zu
werden, nicht verloren. Die Gewißheit des eigenen Wertes
und der eigenen Zukunft, der Wille zu den kommenden
Tagen, der Gedanke des Weges in der Geschichte gewährte
die seehsche Freiheit, allem, was weltgeschichtHche Be^
deutung besaß, sie auch zuzugestehen. Die messianische
Sendung des Christentums und des Islams ist im Judentum
anerkannt worden. Und die Einsicht wurde auch dadurch
nicht getrübt, daß es selten messianische Züge waren, die
man zumal vom Christentum erfuhr. Man begriff, welche
weltgeschichtliche Aufgabe diese Bekenntnisse zu erfüllen
haben, damit die Bahn der Tage bereitet sei, und man stand
nicht an, dem offen Ausdruck zu geben. Die reUgiöse Lite*
\
18*
7
, V''."'ii.|r'
SB3i
mmmm^-
276
Die messianische Aufgabe
ratur des Judentums legt von dieser Unbefangenheit des
Urteils Zeugnis ab. Die beiden hervorragendsten Denker
des Mittelahers, Jehuda Halevi und Moses Maimonides,
mögen vor allem sprechen. So selbstgewiß ihre Überzeugung
ist, und so entschieden ihnen ihr Glauben zum Glauben an
die Zukunft ihrer ReUgion wird, so betonen sie es doch nicht
minder, daß Islam und Christentum „für die messianische
Zeit vorbereiten und zu ihr hinleiten'', daß „sie den Beruf
haben, das Kommen des Gottesreiches anzubahnen", und
daß sie es vollbracht hätten „die Worte der HeiHgen Schrift
bis an die Enden der Welt dringen zu lassen".
Um so freier konnte dann das Judentum seine eigene
messianische Aufgabe hervorheben. Es blieb das
Bild von der Zukunft: „Es wird sein am Ende der Tage, fest=^
gegründet wird dastehen der Berg des Hauses des Ewigen
als der erste der Berge und wird erhaben sein vor den Höhen,
und hinströmen werden zu ihm alle Völker. Hinziehen wer=:
den viele Nationen und sagen: auf, laßt uns zum Berge des
Ewigen, zum Hause des Gottes Jakobs hinaufsteigen, daß er
uns belehre über seine Wege, und wir wandeln auf seinen
Straßen. Denn von Zion wird Lehre ausgehen und das Wort
des Ewigen von Jerusalem". Das jüdische Volk wurde dessen
bewußt, daß es in seinem Eigenen ein Besitztum der Welt
hütete, daß es in seinem Geschicke ein prophetisches Schicke
sal erlebte, das Schicksal dessen, der an der Zukunft festhält.
Seine eigene Geschichte wurde ihm zur Welt^
g e s c h i c h t e. In der Welt des Geschehens ist das Judens»
tum das einsame, in der Welt der Geschichte ist es mit den
anderen, in ihrer Mitte. In dem Ton, in dem ihm seine Seele
erklang, war der Ton der Seele der Welt. Das Judentum
kann die Menschheit nicht ohne sich und sich nicht ohne die
Menschheit denken. Das soziale Empfinden und Fordern
mit seiner Gewißheit, seiner Verantwortlichkeit und seiner
Pflicht dehnt sich ins Menschliche, ins Messianische.
Die alten Versöhnungsgedanken erwachten von neuem.
Wenn man den Frevel auf Erden sah, so trat es vor die
Seelen, daß der, welcher Gott erkennt, denen zur Sühne und
Versöhnung sein soll, die ihm fern bleiben. Das biblische
Wort von der Stadt voller Sünden, die nicht untergeht um
der zehn Gerechten willen, die in ihr sind, ergriff mit seiner
I
Der Knecht Gottes
277
tiefen Symbolik die Gemüter. So hatte es auch die alte ;b^
Weisheit oft ausgesprochen, daß die Welt auf dem Gerechten |
beruht; schon sein Dasein ist eine Sühne auf Erden. „Nur 1
wegen der Frommen, die in ihr sind, besteht die Welt". Einer
der Propheten hatte darin die große Antwort für die Ge^
meinde Israels gefunden, ihr darin den Sinn ihres Lebens
verkündet: ihr Leiden ist das Leiden um derVer^
söhnung der Welt willen. Für ihn ist Israel der
„K n e c h t d e s E w i g e n" — der Begriff des Gottesdienstes
personifiziert sich darin. Und diesen Gottesknecht zeigt er
als den, der, „nicht Gestalt noch Schöne hat, daß wir ihn ge^
sehen hätten, noch Aussehen, daß wir nach ihm verlangt -
verachtet und von den Menschen verlassen, ein Mann der
Schmerzen und mit Krankheit vertraut, und gleich einem,
vor dem du das Antlitz verhüllst, verachtet, und wir recli^
neten ihn nicht. Doch wahrlich, unsere Krankheiten trug
e r , und unsere Schmerzen, er lud sie auf. Und wir meinten
ihn einen Gestraften, einen von Gott Geschlagenen und Ge?
brochenen. Und war doch getroffen ob unserer Missetaten,
zerschlagen ob unserer Verschuldung; für unseren Frieden
war die Züchtigung auf ihm, und durch seine Wunde wird
uns Heilung. Wir alle, wie Schafe irrten wir umher, eines
Weges wandte sich jeder, und der Ewige Heß ihn treffen die
Schuld von uns allen .... Das wollte der Ewige, ihn krank
sein lassen, ihn schlagen — seine Seele ein Sühnopfer, so
wird er Nachkommen sehen und in die Dauer leben, und der
Wille des Ewigen wird durch ihn siegen. Ob der Mühe
seiner Seele wird er sehen, wird er satt werden, durch sein
Erkennen den Vielen Gerechtigkeit schaffen, er ist der Ge^
rechte, ist mein Knecht; ihre Schuld lädt er auf. Darum
wahrlich will ich ihm in die Weite sein Anteil geben, und
mit dem Starken wird er Habe teilen, dafür, daß er hinge^s
gössen hat dem Tode seine Seele und zu den Missetätern
gezählt worden ist, und hat doch die Sünde vieler getragen
und ist für die Missetäter hingetreten".
Es ist eine Wahrheit, die der Weg der Menschheit lehrt,
daß jeder Erkennende ein Erkennender ist um der Vielen
willen, jeder Schaffende ein Schaffender um der anderen
willen, und der Erkennende, der Schaffende darum ein Ver»».
antwortlicher ist, ein Belasteter, ein Dienender. Er ist der
llWi'.^ !•'-"'.'*" , ' I '-^^ ' ' j^
laateaiiMWBSlttftate-jjtfeste'fa-wi^i^^
•"fe(!
278
Das mcssianische Leiden
Der Überrest
279
^
Knecht Gottes, der die Sache und die Sühne der Vielen trägt.
Seinen Platz haben in der Menschheit, das heißt für sie da*
stehen, um ihretwillen den Druck aufladen. Das Gut der
Dauer ist immer durch dieses „Leiden des Gerechten" ge<
bracht worden. Wo der Sinn für das Große ist, ist auch die
Empfindung für das Niedrige und Kleine, für das Widers?
strebende ringsumher, eine Empfänglichkeit gegenüber dem
Schmerz. Alles Wollen, aller eigene Weg hat sein Leiden,
hat seine Tragik. Das Drama vom JQfiJiign-ist die Komödie,
Tragödie ist die Geschichte des Großen. Noch immer hat
der Besitz des Eigenen ein Dulden um des Eigenen willen
bedeutet, und dieses Martyrium für das Eigene ist immer ein
Martyrium um der Vielen willen. Das Gute, so ist es zuj=
meist und zuerst, zieht nicht an; es muß sich aufdrängen,
und die Menschen müssen zu ihm hingedrängt werden. Soll
ein Segen sich erweisen, so muß er mit der Trägheit und
Selbstgenügsamkeit der Vielen kämpfen, und darum ist die
Geschichte der Gedanken und der Gebote immer die Ge*:
schichte derer, die sich zum Opfer hingeben, die den Un^^
dank und die Ausstoßung hinnehmen, die mit ihren Tagen
zahlen — für die Seelen der anderen. Das Leid hat sein
Messianisches auch. Das alles ist, vom Anbeginn an, für das
Judentum kein bloßes Symbol und keine bloße Poesie gc::
wesen, sondern ist die Wirklichkeit seines Lebens, das
Thema seiner Geschichte, das Erlebnis der Tragik und der
Versöhnung. Man erfuhr das Schicksal des Eigenen. Sein
eigenes Schicksal wurde für das Judentum zur
messianischen Predigt. Man erfuhr, wie das Leiden
am Judentum ein Leiden am Ideal ist. Das Leid wurde aus
der Frage zur Antwort, aus dem Geschicke zum Gebote und
zur Verheißung. Das Wissen um die eigene Geschichte
wurde zum Wissen um das Versöhnende in der Welt. Das
Bereich des Judentums begann sich zu dem der Menschheit
hinaus zu dehnen. Das Elend des Tages und der Reichtum
der Erwartung versöhnten sich mit einander. Im Knechte
des Ewigen durfte man sich selbst erblicken und sich selbst
verstehen. Das Ewige trat in die Knechtesgestalt.
Es war so der mcssianische Trost mit seiner Spannung
zwischen dem Tag und der Wirklichkeit, und ein anderer
Gedanke sprach noch darin mit der gleichen Paradoxie: der
prophetische Gedanke vom „Überrest". Die alte Ver*
heißung, die aus der Fülle der Hoffnung geboren ward, hatte
die Zahl in der Zukunft geschaut: „Es wird die Zahl der
Kinder Israel sein wie der Sand am Meer, der nicht gemessen
noch gezählt wird". Aber dagegen trat nun die Erkenntnis,
die Geschlecht um Geschlecht brachte, daß es immer wieder
die Wenigen nur waren, die zu tragen und aufrecht zu sein
vermochten; neben dem Worte von der Zahl verkündet
sich eindringlicher das von dem Überrest. Es ist ein Wort
\on den strengen Gesetzen des Lebens wie das vom eifere
vollen Gott. Die Geschichte sondert, denn sie fordert die|
Entscheidung; sie wird zur großen Auslese unter den MenH'^«^
sehen. Das Leid vermindert, von ihm gehen die Menschen
fort, von dem Leide zumal, das vom Gottesknechte der Tag
erwartet. Der BHck in das Gewöhnliche zeigt die Ver*
mehrung, der Blick in das Große die Auswahl. Die Komödie
hat die vielen Personen, die Tragödie ist die Tragödie der
Wenigen, der Einsamen. Wo die große Treue verlangt wird,
dort sucht die Treulosigkeit alsbald das Tor, das zu den
Vielen hinausführt. Wo das große Gebot und die große Ge^
duld gepredigt werden, dort findet nur zu rasch die Philo^
Sophie der Flucht ihre Verkündiger. Auch in eine Idee, in
eine PfUcht wird der Mensch, als Kind seiner Ahnen, hinein*
geboren, und es gibt einen Abfall auch von diesem Tage der
Geburt. Wenn der harte Ernst die Menschen ruft, dann ^
bleiben oft nur die Wenigen; sie sind der Überrest. Aber es ^
liegt doch ebenso sehr das Tröstliche in diesem messianischen
Worte. Der Überrest ist die Rechtfertigung der Geschichte.
Sie ist nicht vergeblich gewesen. „Der Überrest kehrt um",
so hatte Jesaias zum Trost unter schwankenden, fUehenden
Menschen seinen Sohn genannt. Vielleicht nur wenige
bleiben übrig in den Stunden der EntschUeßung, aber sie sind
die Bleibenden, sie sind die Menschen für die kommenden
Tage, in ihnen ist die Kraft, die die Zukunft zeugt. Es bleibt
„der heihge Same" — „gleich einer Terebinthe, gleich einer
Eiche, in der, wenn sie Zweige auch abwirft, der Stamm
doch bleibt; heiUger Same ist ihr Stamm". Und die alte
Hoffnung von der Zahl behält damit doch schließlich ihr
Recht: die Wenigen, sie sind doch schUeßlich die Vielen,
denn sie sind die, deren die Zukunft ist. Das Judentum hat
■-t-'4-^ •'
A^-j^-^v--:;.-.-',' ^L^i-,-^.
280
Die Wenigen und die Vielen
es so erfahren, das Schmerzliche wie das Trostvolle, es als
sein Eigenstes erfahren. Es hat oft von denen berichten
müssen, welche schwankten und hinübergHtten, von denen,
die lieber unter den Vielen als gegen die Vielen standen, die
zur Menge gehören wollten, um in sicherem Lande zu sein;
es hat oft sprechen müssen, auch im Leide des Märtyrertums,
wenn die Vielen sich auf die Wenigen warfen, von dem
„Reste Jakobs". Aber es hat doch auch dieses andere ge:=
wüßt, und ist darum furchtlos geblieben, daß die wahre Ge^
schichte die Geschichte des Überrestes ist; es hat erzählen
dürfen von denen, die ihr Knie dem Baal nicht beugten, und
ist dessen gewiß gewesen, daß sie es sind, die Gott wird
leben lassen. „Es wird sein, was da übrig sein wird auf dem
Zion und überbleiben in Jerusalem, heilig wird es genannt
werden — jeder eine zum Leben geschrieben in Jerusalem'.
„Es wird, was vom Hause Juda gerettet ist, was übrigge^:
blieben, Wurzeln ansetzen nach unten und Frucht bringen
nach oben. Ja, von Jerusalem wird ausgehen ein Überrest
und ein Gerettetes vom Berge Zion; der Eifer des Ewigen
der Heerschaaren wird solches tun".
Das messianische Wort ist das Wort vom Leide wie vom
Tröste, weil es ein Wort vom Gebote ist. Es ist darum in
ihm nichts Sentimentales, Qicnts von der bloßen Stimmungs^;
musik, vmrfBloßen Schein. Es ist das Wort vom Leben, von
seiner Wirklichkeit, von seinem Geheimnis und seiner _Auf ^
g^^. Nichts ist darin vom bloßen Zukunftstraum, der im
Dämmerlicht des Erlebnisses seine Bilder zeugt, um dann
zum Alltag aufwachen zu lassen. Der Mensch solch bloßen
Erlebnisses ist der Mensch, der über die Zukunft sinnt und
der alte bleibt. Das Messianische des Judentums fordert den
neuen Menschen, den, der mit sich Ernst macht, den neuen,
wenn auch darüber die Vielen abfallen und schwinden, und
nur ein Überrest bleibt. Es spricht von dem Frieden der Zu^j
kunft, und auch dieser Frieden ist nicht der der Sentimen?
talität und der Romantik, sondern ist der des Gebotes. Und
auch in dieser Idee vom Frieden ist darum etwas Treibendes,
Stoßendes, etwas Aufrührerisches fast. Jeder große Ge^
danke, jeder Gedanke, der zu Ende gedacht wird zum Messi:=
anischen hin, ist ein Widerspruch; jedes Gebot wird zum
Proteste, da es nicht der Stunde gelten und helfen will,
Das Radikale
281
'
sondern den kommenden Tag und den ganzen Menschen
verlangt. Weil die Wenigen, diese Wenigen um der Mensch^
heit willen, die Wenigen sind trotz den Vielen, so sind sie die
den Vielen Widersprechenden, die Zurückweisenden und
Fordernden in der Menschheit. Weil in der messianischen
Idee der Zug des Unbedingten ist, so lebt in ihr der Angriff
gegen alle Trägheit und Selbstgenügsamkeit, das Andrängen
dagegen, daß das Bestehende Recht habe, weil es besteht,
daß das Kompromiß zur dauernden Wahrheit erklärt werde.
Jede Kultur, die geworden ist, will ein Abschließendes, etwas,
was hinzunehmen ist, bedeuten. Deshalb wird der messi^
anische Gedanke immer zum Widerstreit gegen die Kultur^
Zufriedenheit, ihr gegenüber ist ein Verneinendes, ein Radi»-
kales, ein Revolutionierendes in ihm. Er ist ein Sauerteig in
der Geschichte. Ein bekanntes Wort hat vom Judentum
spöttisch und verwerfend gesagt, er sei ein „Ferment der
Dekomposition" im Leben der Völker. Alles Messianische
ist solch rehgiöser Gährungsstoff, ist etwas, was die Zeit
aufwühlt, die fertig sein will. Die israelitische Religion hatte
einsr"HäLmit~Begonnen: mit diesem Revolutionierenden, mit
dieser Forderung, die neue Bahn zu wählen und anders zu
sein. Und diesem Anfang entspricht der Weg zu dem Ziele,
das sie zeigt: der Neubruch, das Gestalten und Verwirk^
liehen, das immer wieder Zukunft schafft. So ist es ihr
Leben und ihre Kraft, weil sie den Dienst des Ewigen, des
Einen gebietet gegenüber dem Dienste der vielen Zwecke,
das Reich Gottes gegenüber den Reichen der Macht. Ihr
Messianisches ist es so.
In der messianischen Gewißheit vollendet sich der Ver^
söhnungsgedanke; Leid und Trost, der Wille zum Kampf
und die Zuversicht des Friedens versöhnen sich. Ein Gut ist
tdärin der Menschheit geschenkt worden, ein Unvergleich::
|liches an ^]^rhRr Sp^nnkrnff und sittlicher Geduld. Die
mnere Verbindung mit der Zukunft ist darin gegeben; sie
wird deutlich, weil sie, wie alles, die Offenbarung Gottes ist.
Das große Vertrauen kommt damit in die Menschheit, die
tTewißheit dessen, was sein wird, und darin die Gewißheit
dessen, was wahrhaft ist. Hier zeigt sich wieder der Gegen^
satz gegen die buddhistische ReUgion. Ihr geht der Begriff
der Geschichte ab; die Zukunftshoffnung und das Ziel des
i.Li|. .i^mimpli«
282
Die Einheit der Moral
ii
■Jt
Gottesreiches sind außerhalb ihres Gesichtskreises. Sie
resigniert gegenüber den kommenden Tagen. Das ist es
auch, was den eigentUchsten Mangel der humanen griechi?
sehen Philosophie bezeichnet; ihr fehlt, wie mit Recht her:*
vorgehoben worden ist, der Enthusiasmus und damit die
große Sehnsucht; der Glaube, die Erwartung dessen, der
sich gesendet weiß, bleibt ihr fern. Und auch vor der christ^
liehen Religion darf das Judentum die Eigenart seiner messia*
nischen Idee betonen: die Bestimmtheit, mit der in ihm das
Gottesreich nicht als ein Gewordenes, sondern als ein Wer*!
dendes, nicht alseinGlaubensbesitz der Erkorenen, sondern
alscaie sittliche Aufsäbei aller erkannt worden ist. Hier
f
Der Sinn der Geschichte
283
■w
IMlpl
heiHgt der Mensch die Welt, indem er Gott in ihr heiHgt, in*
dem er das Böse überwindet und das Gute verwirklicht, das
Gottesreich steht vor ihm, damit er beginne, vor ihm, weil es
vor allen steht. Die ganze Menschheit ist auserwählt. Der
Bund Gottes ist mit ihr geschlossen, in ihr mit jedem. Des
Menschen Glaube ist, daß er an Gott glaubt und darum an
die Menschheit, nicht aber, daß er an einen Glauben glaubt.
Mit der messianischen Idee kommt der große Zug oder,
was dasselbe ist, die große Einheit in die Moral. Die Moral
hat hier ihr Monotheistisches. Und ebenso die Geschichte;
ihr Chaos wird zum Kosmos, der Geist tritt in sie ein. Wo
die messianische Idee fehlt oder verblaßt, dort bemächtigt
sich schHeßlich der Dualismus der Religion; das Reich des
Glaubens und das Reich der Werke trennen sich, weil das
Heil schon geworden und die Werke immer werden; die um*
fassende Einheit des Gottesreiches, sein Monotheistisches,
hört auf. Die werdende Welt, die vom Göttlichen erfüllt
sein soll, wird vom Göttlichen, da es im Gewordenen ruht,
entleert. Das Gottefereich oder, wie das alte Gleichnis sagt,
die Schechinah, die Wohnung Gottes, wird der Welt ent*
rückt, die Welt, die die Offenbarung des Ewigen sein soll,
wird zur bloßen Welt. Und deren Gebilde, die Staaten und
Gemeinschaften, alle die Werke der Welt, stehen nun neben
oder hinter der fertigen ReUgion, und in ihnen wird das Sitt*
liehe aus einem Menschlichen, das vom Göttlichen zeugen
soll, schließHch zu einem bloß Gesellschaftlichen, zur Züge*
lung der Welt; es wird zum Geltenden, dem Geschriebenen
und Eingesetzten. Die Moral wird politisiert, und der Dualis«.
19.-
i
mus, indem er den Bezirk des Glaubens von dem des Han*
delns scheidet, gibt den Raum und das Recht, mit allem in der
Welt zu paktieren und vor allem in der Welt zu kapitulieren.
Die Stimme des Gebotes, der Entscheidung und Erfüllung,
die vom Anfang der Tage bis zu ihrem Ziel zu allem in der
Welt hin rufen will, diese Stimme der großen Zuversicht ver*
stummt. Erst wenn das Messianische wieder zum Leben er*
wacht, erhebt sich diese gebietende, alles umfassende Ge*
wißheit, das eine Gottesreich wird begriffen oder, um mit
jenem Gleichnis wieder zu reden, die Schechinah in die Welt
zurückgeführt. Der Glaube an das Göttliche in allen wird
wieder gewonnen, dieser Glaube an den einen Gott; der
Religion und der Moral wirj das ^rnße Pathos^wiedpj ge*
geben, das messianische Vertrauen, das die Welt, ihre Zeiten
und ihre Lande, eint, jede Gegenwart mit der Zukunft aller
verbindet. Der Mensch wird aufgerufen, „den Weg des
Ewigen zu bahnen".
Darin allein hat die Menschengeschichte ihren Sinn, und
der Sinn des Menschenlebens seine Geschichte. Auch das
große Leben der Menschheit hat nun seine Andacht und
seine Aufgabe, seine Weihe und sein Gebot. Der Bund der
Generationen ist nun geschlossen in dem Bunde, den Gott
mit der Menschheit, der einen und ganzen, geschlossen hat.
Jede Generation erhält das Ihre, Verborgenes und Bestimm*
tes, von der vorangegangenen und kann es ihr nicht ver*
geltend abstatten; darum soll sie das, was sie der Ver*
gangenheit schuldet, erfüllt und vermehrt der Zukunft
weitergeben. So ist es im Leben des Einzelnen: wir zahlen
an unseren Kindern ab, was wir von den Eltern empfälig**ßn
haben. Und so soll es in der Geschichte der Menschheit
sein. Jede Zeit ist eine Zeit für die kommenden Tage, sie
soll das Gottesreich gestalten, Einheit herstellen und Zu*
kunft verwirklichen. Das ist die Bedeutung der Welt*
geschichte. Der Glaube an die Menschheit spricht darin.
Das Unendliche, Ewige tritt in die Geschichte, das eine Ge*
heimnis, das eine Gebot. „Es wird sein am Ende der
Tage r
^.
■w/i; „m .-^ -
Die Erhaltung des Judentums
. I "ftfi M' II ■ ,-
«»«<>««*i«l» ■»HFiii- « , II |i»i iiliii,.
'•«•»«■*>*M>i«)<«IMMiaiM«MrM*«aM«»i>«i^a^iMaMMw^
< ■
N
t
l
Die Geschichte und die Aufgabe
Alle Voraussetzungen und alle Ziele des Judentums
führen dazu, daß es die Welt zu sich zu bekehren sucht —
oder genauer noch: nicht sowohl sie zu bekehren als viel*
mehr sie zu belehren sucht. Sein Glaube an Gott wie sein
Glaube an den Menschen fordert es. Als der Kampf um die
religiöse Existenz zum ersten Male Zeiten der Ruhe Heß
und nicht mehr alle Kräfte in Anspruch nahm, begann in der
Tat auch alsbald die Predigt für die Völker. Mit dem Fort*
schreiten der Diaspora, die den Bezirk der jüdischen Ge*
meinde über die Grenzen des alten Heimatlandes ausdehnte,
hielt die Verkündigung und Mission gleichen Schritt, die das
Gebiet der Gläubigen über das jüdische Volk hinaus er*
weiterte. Und es war eine Predigt ohne das Kompromiß.
Von der SteTigkeiTlhres Vorwarfsaringens und der Größe
ihres Erfolges zeugen die Stimmen der Zeit. Die erste Aus*
breitung des Christentums ist qhne den vom Judentum be*
ai:beiteten heidnischen Acker und ohne den Stützpunkt der
jüdischen Provinzgemeinden überhaupt nicht denkbar. Ver*
heißungsvolle Aussaat harrte des Wachstums und der Frucht,
als eine Wende, die zu den Tiefen griff, den Tag der Ernte
zu nichte machte. Mit der Gewalt eines Erdbebens er*
schütterten zwei vergebliche Aufstände, Aufstände nicht der
Begierde, sondern des Geists und Willens, in denen sich .,
unter Trajan die Diaspora und unter HaSfnan das Mutter* i
land geg^ff^Sie römische Herrschaft erho"Be53^r^ den ^
Boden des jüdischen Lebens. Hunderttausende fielen zum
Opfer, kein Erbarmen kannten die Sieger. Es war ein Ader*
laß bis aufs Wfijße.
ie Folgen waren verhängnisschwer, sie wurden zu ge*
schichtHchen Folgen. Eine Fülle des Lebens war gelähmt und
1/ ertötet; alle Kräfte, die noch blieben, waren auf die Selbst*
^ erhaltung zurückgedrängt. Durch Verfolgungsmaßregeln
wurden selbst sie in die engsten Schranken geführt; die
offene Zugehörigkeit zum Judentum war damals Jahre hin*
'^■■t-'-^-
-*->• <"■*-
"»'^— •---'-■■■- -• ihjiLiMiini f n ■fcat.Jüati' j, ii
■fwl ^.''■.
288
Das Schicksal der Mission
durch ein Martyrium. Das eigene Gebiet lag wüst und in
Trümmern da; wer sollte daran denken, über die Grenzen
hinauszublicken? Das einst eroberte und reich bestellte
Land mußte fürs erste aufgegeben werden, und in die ver^
lassene Stätte zog das Christentum ein. Seine große Aus:^
breitung fällt in diese Zeit, zumal auch seine politische SteU
lung damals günstiger zu werden beginnt. Und noch ein
anderes tritt vor den Weg hin, der den jüdischen Gedanken
^ in die Ferne führen soll. Die Grausamkeit, womit der Sieger
das jlecht der SelbstheriMLkeit ausübt, trägt den schroffen
Widerwillen gegen seine Welt, die des römischen Reiches,
die des Heidentums, in die Gemüter; mit feierlichem Widern
Spruche wendet man sich von ihr ab. Der innerliche Gegen=
satz beginnt sich aufzutun. Das nationale Leid erweckt dazu
den nationalen Trotz und die herKe' Verurteilung der trem*
de7rÄrrT)re"raienistische Literatur, die ein so erfolgreicher
Apostel der Religion Israels gewesen war, wird aus den Toren
gewiesen. Die Rede Japhets verstummt in den Städten
Judas. Sie wird vergessen. Es ist ein Verdienst der Kirche,
welches dankbar anerkannt werden muß, daß sie, die den
Besitz der Mutter im Abendlande übernahm, den Schatz
jenes Schrifttums bewahrt hat.
Als später die alten Erinnerungen ihren Stachel verloren
hatten und die Wunde vernarbt war, hatte inzwischen die
neue Weltmacht das Erbe^Roms angetreten. Die Kirche
stan3"vorlIem*^üdenFum, und ihr Herrschaftsbedürfnis wie
ihr Besitzesstolz mußte in ihm den Stein des Anstoßes er*;
blicken. Das Heidentum konnte sie weit unter sich sehen;
seine Religion war eitel Wahn und Irrgebilde. Aber die
Juden mußte sie, gern oder ungern, ^nf^rVpnnftn, f^^ heA\n0fjl
es auch geschah; ihnen mußte sie ein Besitztum zugestehen.*
. Sie hatten ihr Gotteswort, das von der Kirche auch Offen*!
barung genannt wurde. Wenn sie von dem Neuen sprach,
das i h r zu teil geworden, so war damit immer zugleich von
dem Alten erzählt, das ihnen vor dem zugewiesen war; die
Verheißungen, deren Erfüllung sie predigte, waren einst
ihnen verkündet worden. Trotz allem und wider Willen
fühlte man, daß man ein Erbe war, ein Erbe von Lebenden.
Und noch mehr, diese Lebenden wollten nicht die Alten nur
sein, die Gewesenen, sie stellten vor sich die Zukunft hin, sie
Das Judentum und die Kirche
289
1
^
riefen gegenüber dem Gekommenen das Kommende an;
unterlegen standen sie doch als die Widerlegenden da. So
war das Judentum wie ein lebendiger Einspruch gegen die
allumfassende Geltung der Kirche. Und alle Bekehrungsver^
suche praUten an ihm ab. Wie ein Granitblock, der von den
Jahrtausenden der Vergangenheit zeugt und die Dauer der
Zeiten für sich fordert, ragte es inmitten der anderen Welt
empor.
So beginnt denn der große vergphlirhe K^mpf HerJu££h£_
und ihrer Völkerscharen gegen das Judentum. Die Leiden
der Väter waren in ihr gar bald zu Sünden der Kinder ge^*
worden; sie hat mit^okletianischer) Willkür, mit allen den
Künsten der ErdichtungTStternäeiTMaßregeln der Folter und
des Zwanges, die ihre eigenen Ahnen schmerzlich erfahren
hatten, das Judentum verfolgt. Erfinderische Kraft, die aus^
gereicht hätte, Wüsten zu Gottesgärten zu machen, wurde
dazu aufgewandt, die Juden zu quälen und zu bedrücken.
Mit allen Marterwerkzeugen arbeitete man und bemühte man
sich, sie zu verwerfen, um dann, wenn man sie im Elend, das
man ihnen bereitet hatte, sah, sich den beruhigenden Trost
zusprechen zu können, daß Gott sie verworfen habe. Zu der
Kränkung fügte man den Haß; die Geschichte dessen, was
durch Jahrhunderte dem Judentum angetan wurde, ist übers:
schrieben: proprium est humani generis, odisse quem laeseris. jl
Und es war der vergebliche Haß so wie der vergebliche
Kampf; alle Eroberungszüge mußten zuletzt doch an ihm
vorübergehen, sich mit ihm abfinden.
Ein Wall feindhcher Gesetze wurde denn errichtet, die
die jüdische Gemeinde absondern sollten, um den Anschein
zu schaffen, daß sie in der Welt nicht da war, nicht minder
aber auch deshalb, um ihr jede Möglichkeit des reHgiösen
Einflusses abzuschneiden. Und das gelang in der Tat. Die
|1 Zwangsmauern des Ghetto stiegen immer höher,.empiar, das
'5 Dasein der Juden wurde abgeschlossen. Die, die es lebten,
und alle dort lebten es mit, hatten ihr Eigenes, und sie
trugen das bestimmte Bewußtsein des Eigenen in sich. Aber
sie konnten nur zu sich davon sprechen, nicht es hinaus^
rufen. Wie hätten die, welche die Gefangenen in den Landen
waren, die von der Weh Abgesperrten, der Welt draußen
ihre Religion verkünden sollen — ganz zu schweigen davon,
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
19
290
Die Existenz
\\\
daß ein Übertritt zum Judentum damals der Weg dahin war,
dem Scheiterhaufen sein Opfer zu zeigen. Über die Juden
das Urteil sprechen, daß sie so lange ihre Religion nicht ge:*
predigt hätten, das ist, dem Gefesselten es vorwerfen, daß er
aus dem Kerker nicht hinausgehe. Aber die Gedanken zogen
immer hinaus. Und war einst irgend wo und irgend wann
der freie Atemzug vergönnt gewesen, so hatte sich die alte
Kraft des Belehrens und Bekehrens wieder geregt. Die Ge^:
schichte der Juden^in Arabien, die der Chazaren und manche
Einzelerscheinungen erzählen hiervon.
Jedoch das waren seltene Ereignisse gewesen. Die Not
der Zeit gestattete es kaum, sich daran auch nur zu erbauen.
Der harte Kampf ums rehgiöse Dasein forderte die ganze
iTraft Nur die vollkommene Hingebung und der stete Wille
zur Aufopferung konnten ihr Dasein im Judentum haben und
ihm das Dasein geben. Alles Vermögen mußte dem gelten;
die ideeUeSelbsterhaltung beanspruchte alles. Aber auch da:?
mir durfte^an überzeugt sein, in der Menschheit zu leben.
Die Gemeinde des Judentums wußte, daß sie in ihrem
religiösen Besitz die Verheißung hütete. Man begriff, daß
auch die Existenz eine Verkündigung sein
kann, schon das Dasein eine Predigt an die Welt. Man
hatte darin die Richtung der Geschichte gesehen, daß die
Völker der Erde zuerst in den Lebenskreis anderer Reii^
gionen treten sollten, man wußte, daß die Straßen zum Ziele
sich weithin winden. Um so mehr erkannte man im eigenen
Leben das, was allein die Zukunft sein kann; man erkannte,
daß sie festgehalten war, wenn man an sich festhielt. Schon
dadurch, daß man d^ war, war eine Bedeutung 4^egeben, und
wie die Ftlicht ohne Ende, so ist die Bedeutung ohne Schlui3.
Auszuharren und zu bleiben, als die Gemeinschaft, die keine
Konzessionen macht, in der Welt dazusein und doch anders
als sie zu sein, dazusein zum Gefäße der Kraft, das war die
Aufgabe, die ein unvergleiciiliclier Daseinsernst, ein uners«
schütterlicher Lebensmut alle die Jahrhunderte hindurch er:s
füllt hat. Und in aller Kraft schlummert das Wunder, das,
was über die Kraft ist. Die Selbsterhaltung erlebte man als
I Erhaltung durch Gott. Man bHeb sich treu und erfuhr darin,
daß Gott treu bleibt. Man las das Prophetenwort aus der
Zeit, da Mächte sanken und ihre Götzen stürzten, und die
Das Daseinsgebot
291
^
ihnen dienten, ^^^\\ püHp ar^ JllMffl ^tw&^xx: „Höret auf mich,
Haus Jakob, und du ganzer Überrest vom Hause Israel; die
ihr von mir getragen worden vom Mutterleibe an, empöre
gehoben vom Mutterschoße her. In euer Alter hinein bin
ich derselbe, und bis in eure späte Zeit werde ich so tragen;
ich habe geschaffen, und ich werde emporheben, ich werde
tragen und werde befreien!*' Vergangenheit und Zukunft
sprachen so immer wieder zu einander.
Die Selbsterhaltung erhielt so ihr ReUgiöses; etwas von
der Anerk^gBJiauig^GjQtte&JKj^r darin. Und sich selbst erhalten,
war auch wiederum wie eine Schuld an die Religion, fast wie
ein Dank, den sie forderte. Sie gab das Dasein, das wahre,
das innere; aber auch ihr galt es das Dasein zu geben. Das
Leben des Juden, das war das Leben des Judentums; wer
ihn bewahrte, bewahrte die Rehgion. In dieser Welt hier
drunten bedarf die Wahrheit, um zu existieren, der Existenz
des Menschen, der sie zu eigen nimmt — das Judentum zu^
mal, da es in keinem Gebäude der Macht wohnen soll,
sondern in denen nur, die in ihm leben. Um der Thora willen,
so sagt ein altes Wort, ist Israel zum Dasein gerufen worden;
aber auch die Thora kann hienieden durch ihr Volk allein
ihre Tage sehen. Nur in den Sphären der Idee könnte sie für
sich sein; von der Erde wäre sie geschwunden, wenn dieses
Volk nicht mehr bestände. Auf dieses Volk, das leben soll,
richten sich daher die Gedanken und die Mühen. Die Sorge
um das Judentum wurde auch die Sorge um den Juden. Alle
Erziehung sollte dieser Erhaltung auch dienen, der Erhaltung
der Menschen um der eigenen Art und des eigenen Besitzes
willen, um nicht nur da zu sein, sondern um im Judentum zu
sein. Denn man konnte sein, im Rechte vor Gott, nur wenn
man im Eigenen blieb, anders war als die Welt rings umher.
Alle Erziehung wurde die Erziehung hierzu. Sich unter:»
scheiden, das wurde zum Daseinsgebot. Es war nach der
alten Erklärung eine Überschrift in der Thora gewesen: „Ihr
sollt anders sein, denn ich der Ewige, euer Gott, bin anders
— wenn ihr euch unterscheidet, so gehört ihr zu mir, und
wenn nicht, so gebärt ihr zu dem großen. Eabel und seinen
Genossen." Ein Wesentliches des Gebotes der HeiHgkeit hatte
man so verstanden. Und so war in der Tat das Judentum ge*
wesen, um so allein weiterhin zu sein: dasUnantikein
19*
^
s
292
Die Selbsterhaltung
Das Leben der Gesamtheit
293
der antiken Welt, das Unmoderne m der
modernen Welt. So sollte der Jude als Jude sem: der
großeNonkonf ormistinder Geschichte ihrgroßer
D i s s e n t e r. Dazu war er da. Um dessentwiUen mußte der
Kampf für die Religion ein Kampf um diese Selbsterhaltung
sein. Kein Gedanke der Macht war darin, er wäre der W der.
Spruch dazu gewesen - n^chtMacht, sojidernlndividuahtat
PersönUchkeit um des g;äSSB ^i"^»^' '^ii^^ ^;^^4#|- 'J" n"
e'rn Kraft. "Als Kraft in der WeltT^t das judische Da>
sein. UnSntraft ist Größe.
So oft das Gebot des Kampfes für diese Selbsterhaltung
das Denken und Hoffen von neuem erfaßte, mußte sich auch
das Bedürfnis aufdrängen, für ihn gerüstet zu sem. Man
mußte die reUgiös gegebenen und geeigneten Mittel und
Ordnungen, die „Zeichen" zu Gott hin, zu finden suchen, um
den Sinn für die Eigenart zu wecken und immer wieder zu
verlebendigen und^aarin die Glieder der Gesamtheit seehsch
an einander zu knüpfen. Je mehr die Gefahren drohten von
draußen und ebenso bisweilen von drinnen, desto gebiete,
rischer war diese Notwendigkeit. Und um so wertvoller mußte
irgend etwas für die Gemeinschaft sein, je geeigneter es war.
sie widerstandskäftig zu machen und sie zu befähigen,
ihr religiöS^ BesitStoTi' zu wahren, je geeigneter es war, das
neue Geschlecht in das innere Leben der Gesamtheit hinein zu
erziehen, es in der Daseinswelt mit den alten Geschlechtern
zu verbinden und zu neuen hinzuführen. Nicht der rehgiosen
Idee und ihrem Ziel dient das alles zunächst, sondern dem
Träger der religiösen Idee, seiner Selbstbehauptung in derWelt.
Nicht sowohl auf das reUgiöse Ergehen und die rehgiose
Pflicht des Einzelnen kommt es hierbei vorerst an, als viel,
mehr auf die Sicherung des Eigenen durch den
Bestandder Gesamtheit. Es handelt sich darin nicht
eigentlich um die Religion zuerst, als vielmehr um die reli.
giöse Verfa s s u n_g , um die Gemeinsamkeit der Lebens.
.11 formen. Der"Gesam'theit soll ihr Zusammenhang, ihre Kon.
|1 tinuität im Lebensstil gegeben sein. Das muß erkannt wer.
<:
rf
den, wenn man die Mittel hierzu begreifen und würdigen,
will. Mehr noch dem jüdischfitLJ^^ke, dem Voj^e der
Rp1i0in|], das bleiben soll, ^UTalso hier zuerst' die Absicht, als
dem Individuum; denn zur jüdischen Individualität wird das
Individuum in diesem Volke der ReHgion. Auch auf die
Heiligung des Einzelnen ist immer der Blick gelenkt, aber sie
soll erreicht werden in der Herstellung und Erhaltung der
heihgen Gemeinde. Was diese Aufgabe erfüllt, gewinnt den
l^inn und die Kraft einer Pflicht der Gesamtheit und einer
Pfhcht gegen die Gemeinschaft. Ja diese Bedeutung dauert
in ihm bisweilen noch weiter, wenn auch sein ursprünglicher
Anlaß im Laufe der Zeiten fortgefallen, oder vielleicht seine
Wirkung eine andere geworden ist.
Ein ähnhches Bedürfnis hatte sich, um es des Vergleiches
wegen zu erwähnen, auch innerhalb der Kirche geltend ge^
macht, vor allem in den Zeiten der Kämpfe, die dort die
verschiedenen Bekenntnisse mit einander führten. Da dort
auf den Glauben der Nachdruck gelegt wurde, so waren es
Glaubenssätze, Dogmen, die dazu dienen sollten, die
Gemeinschaft zusammenzuschließen und sie zum Wider^^
Stande geeignet zu machen. Es ist, um ein Beispiel anzu*
führen, sicher kein bloßer Zufall, daß zur Zeit, wo die weit-,
liehe Macht des Papsttums ins Wanken geriet und damit dem
KathoHzismus Gefahr zu drohen schien, das Dogma neue
Kraft erhielt als schützende Waffe in diesem Kampfe. Ganz
so war es ja auch im Judentum kein Zufall gewesen, daß die
Sorge um jene „Zeichen" und Formen sich in den Zeiten am
entschiedensten zu regen begonnen hatte, in denen ein altes
Band sich löste, in denen die alte Heimat des Judentums, der
Staat, der bisher die einzelnen zusammengehalten hatte, ver^:
fieiunTunterging. Das braucht nicht erst hervorgehoben zu
werden, daß das Dogma in der christHchcn Kirche auch ab^
gesehen hiervon seine große mannigfache Wichtigkeit hat.
Aber es braucht darum nicht die Bedeutung außer Acht zu
bleiben, die es dort auch für jenen anderen Zweck besitzt.
Und es ist besonders von Wert, darauf hinzuweisen, damit
der oft verkannte Charakter der entsprechenden Gedanken
und Ziele im Judentum besser gewürdigt werde; gerade der
Gegensatz zwischen hier und dort läßt das Bezeichnende um
so klarer hervortreten.
i«MWtaMk~
294
Der „Zaun um die Lehre"
^1
Die Verschiedenheit ist allerdings eine durchaus wesent^
liehe. Im Judentum ist es, und das entspricht ja nur seiner
innersten Art, eine Forderung, die Forderung be.
stimmter Handlungen, worin die Sorge an der Er^
haltung der heiHgen Gemeinde zum Ausdruck kommt. Der
Einzelne ist auch hier als reUgiöse Persönlichkeit, an die das
Gebot ergeht, betrachtet; er soll die Gemeinde mitschaffen,
an dem Bande mitwirken, das sie zusammenfügt und be?
wahrt; er erhält die Gemeinde. Zu den Aufgaben, die der .
Glaube an Gott und der Glaube an den Menschen stellen, "-
treten so die PfHchten, die sich auf das Daseinsgebot der Ge^
samtheit und die Zugehörigkeit zu ihr gründen, und die ebenso
falls durch die Tat zu erfüllen sind. Wie es der Größe und
der Dauer des Kampfes, den das Judentum zu führen hatte,
gemäß ist, sind diese Pflichten sehr zahlreich. Es sind die
mannigfachen Satzungen, Formen, Bräuche und Einrichtung:
gen, wie z.B. die Speise:^ und Sabbathvorschriften, die alle
besonders im Talmud gestaltet und ausgebildet worden sind,
und die unter dem, freilich irrigen, Namen der Z e r e m o ^
)f nialsatzungen zusammengefaßt zu werden pflegen. Sie
dienen, wie gesagt, nicht der religiösen Idee selber, sondern
vorerst dem Schutze, dessen diese bedarf, der Sicherung
ihres Bestehens durch das der Glaubensgemeinde. Dies,
und dies allein, ist zunächst der Maßstab ihres Wertes.
Diese Bedeutung, die ihnen zukommt, ist in einem
charakteristischen Worte des Talmuds ausgesprochen, das
sie als »♦d.e-U--Z^JU.I)^jaJIl_die_,L eji r e'' bezeichnet. Sie sind
nicht die Lehre selbst, sondern die Schutzwehr für sie. Dieser
Unterschied ist im Judentum festgehalten worden; man hat
die Religion selbst nicht mit diesen Satzungen verwechselt,
sie beide nicht in einander gesetzt. Schon eines spricht klar
und bestimmt: als „gute Tat*' wird nie die Erfüllung einer
Zeremonialsatzung hingestellt; ausschließlich die religiöse,
sittliche Handlung^.^Lijd^so benannt. Abcr^-das ist-Tiicht'^s
einzige. Das große Sündenbekenntnis, das für den Versöhn
nungstag bestimmt ist, betrifft allein die_sittliche Lebens^
führung, sie in allen ihren Verzweigungen, aber nur sie. Ob?
wohr"es die weitesten Grenzen hat und die ganze Fülle
^ menschlicher Verfehlungen in sich zu begreifen sucht, kommt
\ doch nichts von einer Übertretung der Zeremonialsatzung j 1
;
U
«
Das „Gesetz'
295
darin vor; bloß das Vergehen gegen das Sittengesetz er?
scheint als die Sünde. Und was vielleicht am beweiskräftig?
sten ist: der Talmud steht nicht an, offen zu erklären, daß
einst alle diese Einrichtungen und Bräuche ihre verpflich?
tende Kraft verlieren werden, daß es ihre letzte Bestimmung
ist, sich selbst überflüssig zu machen. In den Tagen des
Messias, wenn also der Kampf um die Erhaltung der Ge?
meinde des Judentums sein Ziel des Friedens gefunden haben
wird, dann werden sie das Ende ihrer Gültigkeit erreicht
haben, sie werden aufhören dürfen. Schärfer, als es hier ge?
schiebt, kann zwischen den eigentlichen Pflichten, die die
Religion gebietet, und den Pflichten, die nur ihrer Erhaltung
dienen, garnicht geschieden werden.
'Wenn die Eigenart dieses „Zaunes" leider allzu oft, zu?
mal im Interesse konfessioneller Geschichtskonstruktion,
verkannt oder mißdeutet werden darf, so liegt das teils an
dem Mißverständnis einer alten Übersetzung, teils an der
Beirrung durch die alte Polemik. Die griechische Bibelüber?
Setzung, die Septuaginta, die erste, die überhaupt verfaßt
worden ist, gibt den Namen der Thora, der „Lehre", wieder
mit dem Ausdruck Nomos, „Gesetz". In der wörtlichen
Übertragung wäre ein Ungenügendes gewesen, da sich die
Begriffe in den beiden Sprachen nicht decken. Der Name
„Gesetz" erschien als der treffendere, da er für die Griechen
einen erhabenen, feierlichen und autoritativen Klang hatte,
der zudem einen religiösen Ton mitschwingen ließ; er war
geeignet, die Vorstellung von der göttlichen Lehre im Gegen?
satz zur menschlichen in dem hellenischen Geiste zu er?
zeugen. Aber dieses Wort konnte dann später auch wieder
mißverstanden werden, man konnte aus ihm die Bedeutung
des Bindenden, Zwingenden, ja des Despotischen heraus?
hören, dessen, über das die endliche Freiheit emporhebe. Be?
sonders die Polemik des paulinischen Schrifttums bedient
sich dieses Accents. Hier wird der neue Bund, als der des
Glaubens, dem alten, als dem des Gesetzes, gegenübergestellt.
Das Gesetz ist hier das Geringere und Niedrigere, das Einst?
weilige, das durch ein anderes nun überholt ist; das Juden?
tum, diese Religion des Gesetzes, ist überwunden durch die
der Gnade, welche von dem Wunder erzählt, das am Men?
sehen geschieht, und das alles bedeutet, so daß er nur seiner
>
•i
ifi^:-'
.-■>?. ..*^.
' .
0
296
Die Gesetzesreligion
harren kann, um es zu empfangen, dem gegenüber daher
alles menschliche Tun und Wirken verschwindet, belanglos
ist für das Verhältnis der Gottheit zum Menschen und des
Menschen zu Gott.
Es ist ein Richtiges, wenn im Gegensatz hierzu das Juden?
tum als Gesetzesreligion bezeichnet wird; denn es ist die
Religion des Gebotes, des Gottesgesetzes, die Religion, die
dem Menschen sagt, was Gott von ihm fordert, die ihm die
Entscheidung und EntschHeßung zuerkennt, von ihm ver?
langt, daß er den Willen Gottes, das Gesetz des Guten er?
fülle, und von dieser seiner Tat ein Bestimmendes erwartet.
Im pauHnischen Schrifttum ist denn auch Gesetz vor allem
dieses, das Gebiet der religiösen, sittlichen Gebote, das Ge?
biet des Kategorischen, das „du sollst", alles, worin der
Mensch ein Wählender, ein Verwirklichender sein will.
„Ehre deinen Vater und deine Mutter", „Nach Gerechtig?
keit, nach Gerechtigkeit sollst du streben", „Liebe deinen
Nächsten wie dich selbst" — alles das ist hier Gesetz. Aber
nicht das allein, sondern ebenso jenes andere; auch alles
das, was zu dem Zaun um die Lehre, zu dem Zaun um das
Gesetz gehört, ist hier in dem gleichen Sinne und mit dem
gleichen Namen das Gesetz. Beides ist hier unter den einen
Begriff gestellt, das Moralische init dem Rituellen wie in eins
gesetzt; beides ist in gleicher Weise das Geringere gegen?
über dem Glauben, das, was ihm gegenüber bedeutungslos
ist für den Bund zwischen Gott und dem Menschen.
In der Polemik gegen das Judentum, besonders in späteren
Zeiten, die ihres Glaubens unsicher geworden waren und
darum mühsam in der Geschichte das Eigene, das Neue ihres
Glaubens suchten, ist das oft verkannt oder auch vergessen
worden. Das Judentum sollte herabgezogen werden, indem
^man es als Gesetzesreligion, und darin sollte jene Eigene
Schaft des Starren und Äußerlichen liegen, hinstellte. Aber
je länger, desto mehr konnten die Gebote der Gerechtigkeit
und der Menschenliebe, die im pauHnischen Schrifttum doch
auch das „Gesetz" sind, nicht gut das Gesetz in dem tadeln?
den Sinne sein, den man damit verband. So mußten eben die
sogenannten Zeremonialsatzungen es sein; sie sind bis zum
heutigen Tage dazu da, um den Vorwurf der Gesetzesreli?
gion annehmbar zu machen. Und da es für das Judentum
Die Freude am Gesetz
297
wesentlich sein soll, daß es Gesetzesreligion ist, so
blieb nichts anderes übrig, als daß in ihm diese Zeremonial?
Satzungen das Wichtigste sein mußten: sie stehen auf einer
Stufe des Wertes mit dem Gebote der Liebe und der Ge?
rechtigkeit, wenn sie es nicht gar unter sich herabdrücken —
der paulinische Gedanke, der die Moral neben den Ritus
führt, wird in das Judentum hineingedeutet. Und dement?
sprechend wird dann, aus kirchlicher Auffassung heraus,
dieses Gesetz als bloßer Werkdienst bezeichnet, als etwas
angesehen, was als bloßes Werk schon seine Bedeutung,
seinen Wert an sich, hat, wie eine Art sakramentaler
Handlung. Es blieb nichts anderes übrig, da die Vorstellung
der eigenen Höhe nur durch die Herabsetzung des Tjeghers
ge'geben sicKTeiTL ~ ~— ~ —
miMmn.ti^n ■■^■<
>
Hierauf beruht auch der Vorwurf von der „Last des Ge?
setzes". Eine solche Bürde ist im Judentum wohl äußerst
selten empfunden worden, unvergleichlich weniger jeden?
falls, als in manchen christlichen Bekenntnissen die Last
ihres eigenen Gesetzes, des Dogmas. Die Geschichte des
Judentums legt vielmehr gerade davon Zeugnis ab, wie alle
diese Satzungen ein Element der Lebensfreude waren; man
durfte von der Seelenlust sprechen, die sie erwecken. Das
Wort von der „Freude am Gebot" wurde auch auf sie an?
gewandt, und die Erfahrung jedes Geschlechtes hat es
immer wieder bestätigt; nur immer die das nicht besaßen
noch kannten, die Außenstehenden, haben soviel von der
^Z „Last des Gesetzes" gesprochen. Die jüdische FrömmigkeitN^
haT~änez£it dieses Frohe g^.h^ht, so "sehr sie auch stets denl^^***
GeHanken des Gebotes und des Dienstes betonte; all diesem
Dienst gilt das alte Gleichnis von der Bundeslade: „Die
Bundeslade trägt die, die sie tragen". Jeder Gehorsam ^egen
ein Gebot, das der Mensch sich gibt, trägt ihn, hebt ihn in
ein Eigenes empor. Und nicht zum mindesten in der Treue
gegen alle jene Satzungen ist es so gewesen. Eine seelische
Welt voller Andacht und Aufgabe wurde in ihnen entdeckt,
und jeder Tag erneuerte sie. Die Freude erhiet ihre weite
Aktivität.
Es konnte nicht anders sein. Denn sie alle sind keine
gleichgültigen, neutralen Vorschriften. Sie gewinnen ihre
Eigenart und ihren religiösen Wert dadurch, daß sie das
'-^ --VV^^ -A^- _._-r^,.- yS.:
»^mHß^mmfm
mmtmk
298
Das Gesetz und der Alltag
Die Wissenschaft vom Gesetze
Leben mit unzähligen Banden, mit „Banden der Liebe", an
Gott zu knüpfen suchen. Vor ihnen allen soll der alte
Segensspruch gesprochen sein, daß GotJ; „uns geheiligt hat
durch seine Gebote*', und von ihnen'lauch ist "das Wort des
Weisen gesagt: „Gott. feat Israel|Würde1 geben wollen, darum
hat er ihm der Thora und der Gebc)te"\iel semlassen". Mit
immer neuen Zeichen wollen sie den Menschen vom Nied^»
rigen und Gewöhnlichen fernhalten und auf den göttlichen
Willen hinweisen, in ihm das ernste und doch freudige Be^
wußtsein wecken, vor wem er in jedem Augenblicke steht.
Sie wollen den Menschen nicht von seinem Boden iovU
führen, sie lassen ihn in seiner Arbeit und seinem Haus
und verbinden ihn dort und von da aus mit Gott. Sie for^
dern die Gesinnung, die Seele der Stunde, und wirken auf
sie ein. Jeder Morgen, jeder Mittag und Abend, jeder Be^
ginn und Abschluß hat seinen Gottesdienst; der Gottes^
dienst tritt wie in den Alltag, so in die Alltäglichkeit ein.
Die Stimmung des Gotteshauses, der Zauber religiöser
Innigkeit ist über das ganze Dasein ausgebreitet, jedem Tage
werden seine Mahnung und seine Weihe gebracht; das „Ge^
setz" hat dazu geholfen, daß die ReHgion hier nicht bloße
Sabbatreligion geworden ist. Und auch das Sakrament mit
seiner Scheidung vom HeiUgtum und Leben ist ganz eigent^
lieh dadurch überwunden worden, daß das Heilige so in das
Leben eingeführt wird.^ " ~
Vor allem das häusliche Leben hat es so erfahren. Innere
halb der jüdischen Gemeinde ist gewissermaßen jedes
Haus eine Gemeinde für sich, und alle diese Bräuche und
Ordnungen, die die Gemeinde erhalten wollen, zielen darauf
auch hin, das Haus zu schaffen und zu wahren. Sie werden
der „Zaun" um das jüdische Haus. Die Alltäglichkeit, die
Prosa des Hauses, hat durch sie ihre Weihe gewonnen; sie
haben es vermocht, das Irdische zu heiligen. Eine Fülle von
Symbolen wird zumal hier geschaffen, in denen die reügiösen
Gedanken ihre Sprache gewinnen. Sabbate und Feste er*
halten ihre Poesie, ihre Stimmung, in deren heiHgem Be*
zirke der Mensch, nach all dem Staubigen und Bedrücken*
den draußen, in reiner Luft Atem holen kann. Und wie ihnen
hat das Gesetz aller Freude ein Weihevolles, ein Geistiges
gebracht. Es hat der Erholung ihre Reinheit und hat dem
299
i
': t.
i
Abend seine Vornehmheit gegeben — der Erholungjand dem
Abend, diesen beiden, an denen sich der Charakter und di(
Freiheit des Menschen, sein Suchen und sein Wollen ai
deutlichsten offenbaren. Der Gottesfrieden herrscht inner*
halb des umhegenden „Zaunes"; der Zaun hat das Leben
nicht verengt, sondern es behütet und gefestigt. Nur um die
Religion zu schützen, waren alle diese Satzungen eingesetzt,
aber sie haben mehr vermocht, sie haben den religiösen Be*
sitz und die Frömmigkeit auch bereichert.
Es ist wahr, zu großer, und es will manchmal bedünken,
zu allzu großer Fülle haben sich diese Satzungen ausgedehnt.
Sie haben freilich nicht alle auf die gleiche Bedeutung An*
Spruch erhoben, man hat auch nicht Bedenken getragen, ein*
zelne unnötig und überflüssig gewordene Vorschriften auf*
zuheben. Aber meist hat man noch mehr es verstanden,
neue zu finden. Auch das ist wahr, daß die weitgehende
dialektische Behandlung, die sie alle durch die Wissenschaft
der Jahrhunderte erfahren haben, bisweilen den Zug ins
Kleinliche gehabt und viel geistige Kraft auf bloße Einöden
geführt hat, — und dem gegenüber gewann dann immer die
Mystik ihr Recht. Aber es darf, was zunächst diese Denk*
arbeit anlangt, nicht vergessen werden, daß sie, so gering
nicht selten ihr sachliches Ergebnis sein mochte, doch in
persönlicher Hinsicht von unvergleichlichem Segen gewesen
ist. In ihr auch ist jener Ernst des jüdischen Denkens und
Tuns, jener Zug zur Folgerichtigkeit, jene Energie, die das
ganze Herz und die ganze Kraft in alles legen will und sich
mit keineiTHalbheiL iiüfdeden geben mag; der Geist des]
Dürchdringens, der Zug zum Intensiven, der der jüdischen!
Religiosität eigen ist, hat auch in ihr sich betätigen wollen,
in ihr sich ausgewirkt. Und sie hat vor allem, als Arbeit am
religiösen Wissen, das Interesse der ganzen Gemeinde ge*
weckt und in der schwersten Zeit der Not, wo die Last der
Sorge um das Brot des Tages und um die Sicherheit der
I Nacht alles niederzudrücken drohte, eine lebendige geistige
ße^samkeit sich entfalten lassen. Sie hat das Denken ufidSin*
nen rein um des idealen Zweckes willen, das For<^chen gelehrt.
Durch diese selbstlose Bechäftigung mit der Thora ist die
verfolgte und umhergetriebene Gemeinde, die man gerji zu
einem Volk von Krämern herabgedrückt hätte, eine Gemeinde
m
■ *iw»|>in^« ,
V- 1 -^ iT-'i^ .^ liri«
Das Leben im Gesetze ^
vOvvX/^CSs|(
300
fvon Denkern geworden, in der es zur Wahrheit wurde: „An
der Lehre des Ewigen hat er seine Lust, und über seine Lehre
iy sinnt er Tag und Nacht", in der bis ins letzte auch geistig
Ernst gemacht worden ist mit dem Gebote: „Diese Worte,
die ich dir heute gebiete, sollen auf deinem Herzen sein,
und ... du sollst von ihnen sprechen, wenn du in deinem
Hause sitzest, und wenn du auf dem Wege gehst, und wenn
du dich niederlegst, und wenn du aufstehst". Aber ebenso
sehr ist sie, und das ist vielleicht bedeutungsvoller noch,
durch die Weite des Gesetzes zu einer Gemeinde von
Priej^^J^ geworden. Der Ernst zeigt sich darin auch, ""daß
mäÜTTOgriff, wie im Bereiche des Religiösen alles Erkannte
eine Forderung ist, wie die Konsequenz des Gedankens" die
gleiche Konsequenz von der Tat verlangt, wie etwas zur
Thora werden kann, erst wenn es von allen verwirklicht
wird. Auch darum sind diese Satzungen so zahlreich, und
bis aufs geringste im Leben erstrecken sie sich oft. Von
jedem wird alles beansprucht. Und darum auch ist durch
das Üben und Pflegen von alledem die sittliche Tatkraft, die
sittliche Pflichtbereitschaft nicht gemindert oder einge?
schränkt worden. Das Leben im Judentum zeigt, wie sie
vielmehr dadurch nur noch verstärkt und weitergebildet,
mannigfaltiger und gehaltvoller gemacht worden ist. Alle
diese Satzungen haben an den religiösen Willen appelliert,
und sie haben sich darum nie zwischen den Menschen und
seinen Gott gestellt, sondern bis in jede Stunde hinein an
Gott gemahnt. So wenig sie selbst als gute Werke galten, so
sehr haben sie doch das Wirken für das Gute zu ver?
lebendigen vermocht. Es ist dieselbe seeHsche Wurzel, aus
der der Wille zum Martyrium und diese Konsequenz im Ge^
setze erwachsen ist. Das Leben, und auch das Sterben,
wurde hier ein Gottesdienst.
Es braucht nur darauf hingewiesen zu werden, wie gerade
durch das „Gesetz" die Vorkommnisse des Daseins mit der
Nächstenliebe verknüpft worden sind. Was immer das
Leben brachte, jede Freude und jede Trauer wurde zum Ge^
böte der Mildtätigkeit ausgestaltet. Sie ist zur Satzung der
Sabbate und Feste geworden; die Tage der Gottesfeier wur^
den Mahner zum Wohltun. Alles Erbarmen, selbst gegen den
Unbekannten, erhielt seinen persönlichsten Charakter; der
i»J
^r^T
V
Das Leben im Hause
301
Fremde, der heis9hend ^r> dje Tür klopfte, war der^Gast.
dem der Platz am Tische bereitet sein sollte. Das „Gesetz"
auch ist im Judentum sozial. Und wie dem Lebenden, so hat
der fromme Brauch dem Toten die Barmherzigkeit bereitet,
sie ist, in dem alten Schrifttum schon, die „wahre Nächsten^
liebe" genannt, die wahre, weil sie die selbstloseste, die Liebe
ohne Dankeswunsch ist. Die Sorge für den Entschlafenen ist
nicht dem gedankenlosen Handwerk und Gewerbe über^
lassen; alles Bemühen um ihn ist der persönliche Liebes^
beweis, den ihm die Männer, die Frauen der Gemeinde
schulden — auch das wie ein Gottesdienst, den die Gemeinde
übt. Wie in so vielem offenbart sich hier der Gefühlsbesitz
des Gesetzes.
Ganz besonders ist es das Familienleben, das der
„Zaun" sorgHch umhegt hat, die Reinheit und die Wärme des
Hauses sind nicht zum wenigsten durch ihn gewahrt worden.
Die strenge, lautere Form der Ehe, die noch nicht in den An^
schauungen des Altertums, und zumal des asiatischen Alter::
tums, begründet war, hat sich innerhalb des Judentums in
freier Entwicklung durchgesetzt, und sie ist hier eine volle
Wirkhchkeit geworden. Sie ist es geblieben inmitten einer
Welt voller Sittenlosigkeit. Immer ist die treue Innigkeit des l
FamiHenlebens ein berechtigter Stolz der Glaubensgemeinde »
gewesen. Schon die alte Satzung sieht in der Ehe eine
„Heiligung" und damit eine zu erfüllende Pflicht, eine sitt^
liehe Aufgabe, die dem Menschen gestellt ist; erst Mann und
Frau vereint, fürs Leben zusammengeschlossen, führen den
Gottesgeist, den Geist der Heiligkeit, in das Haus. Dadurch
ist jene Familienzuversicht geweckt worden, die unter aller
Qual und Not nicht verloren gegangen ist, jener FamiHen::
mut, der in dem Heim, welches von der Stimme des Lebens
erfüllt ist, den Segen Gottes, der reich macht, findet. FamiHen::
sinn und religiöser Sinn gingen ihren Bund frommen Ver^
trauens ein. Und kindliche Ehrfurcht und kindliche Pietät
haben ihm immer von neuem seine Rechtfertigung gegeben.
Auch das alles hat nicht zum mindesten das „Gesetz"
vermocht.
In gleicher Weise hat es auf allen Gebieten des Lebens
eine Leistung vollbracht, von der die Geschichte erzählt. Es
hat die Dankbarkeit für die Stunden des Lebens gelehrt, im
.^^.LJLJlJIWiJliltil
302
Die Askese
i
^
]
Alltäglichen das Besondere, die Wohltat aufgezeigt, das Be:^
wußtsein des Segnenden gegeben. Und es hat den freien Ge^^
horsam und die Selbstzucht gelehrt, die Mäßigkeit und
Nüchternheit, die Abkehr und die Überwindung; in der
Fülle seiner Formen hat es das Gebot der Herrschaft des Gc^^
Hankgns über das Begehren ausgesprochen. Ohne die LeKens^
freude zu beengen, hat es die große Wahrheit gepredigt, die
die besondere Wahrheit aller derer ist, welche eigene Pflicht
ten auf Erden zu erfüllen haben: Lyme ^nts^en; es hat da^
mit der Freude ihre innere Freiheit und ihr Recht gegeben.
Die Religion kann nicht ohne ein gewisses Maß von Askese
sein, ohne das Vermögen, innerhalb des Alltags und seines
Verlangens zu verbieten. Das Gesetz hat dem die Grenzen
oft weit gedehnt, aber es hat darin dem Menschen die innere
Selbständigkeit und die Spannkraft gefestigt, ihn dazu be^
fähigt, daß er stärker sei als das nur Irdische. Es hat in alles
ein Geistiges hineinzutragen gesucht. Zumal dort, wo in dem
Unentbehrlichen des Tages, in des Körpers Notdurft, die
Unbeherrschtheit mit ihrer Versuchung vor dem Menschen
steht, hat es seine Satzungen aufgestellt — nicht zur
Kasteiung oder Abtötung des Körpers, dieser Askese dessen,
der nur sich etwas tut, sondern zur Disziplinierung des
Willens, dieser Askese dessen, der im Leben steht. Der
Forderung war viel, und ihrer wurde im Laufe der Jahr^
hunderte immer mehr, aber diese Fülle der Forderung hat
den sittHchen Willen genährt und den Boden geschaffen, aus
dem die Kraft des yMartyriumg^ diese Genialität, die kein
Geschenk der Gottheit, sondern die mögUche Aufgabe eines
jeden ist, immer hervorwachsen konnte. Die zahlreichen
Satzungen haben dazu beigetragen, die rechte Tat zur Selbst*
Verständlichkeit zu machen. Sie haben davor bewahrt, sich
an dem aufwallenden und dann wieder vergehenden Gefühl
genügen zu lassen; sie haben an das stille unverdrossene
ndeln um des Himmels willen gewöhnt. Damit haben sie,
außerdem daß sie den Bestand der Gemeinschaft gesichert
hatten, zugleich geholfen, die Gewissen zu erziehen. Das
„Gesetz". ist der große Pädagoge gewesen. '
Es ist eine bequeme Frage, ob denn dieser Zaun, der das
Judentum umgeben hat und umgibt, in der Tat auch nötig
gewesen sei. Aber Fragen werden hier leicht zur Undank:^
#
i
I
Die Heiligung des göttlichen Namens
303
barkeit. In der Geschichte ist alles, was eine bestimmte not*
wendige Aufgabe erfüllt, auch nötig; was irgend etwas
leistet, und innerhalb des Gebietes des Guten darin bleibt,
hat sein Recht. Das eine wissen wir in jedem Falle, daß sich
die Gemeinde des Judentums durch diesen Zaun inmitten
einer feindlichen wie einer freundlichen Welt in ihrem Eige*:
nen erhalten hat. Aber niemand weiß, wie ohne ihn ihre
Existenz gewesen wäre. Die einzige Antwort auf jene Fra^^e
ist darum die, daß wir mit treuer Dankbarkeit anerkennen
müssen, was er gewesen ist, und was er zu sein imstande
ist. Er ist nicht unwandelbar und nicht unabänderlich; er
hat trotz allem seine Elastizität. Wir müssen ihn, gemäß
dem Leben unserer Tage, weiter wahren, daß er die Existenz
t und damit die Aufgabe des Judentums schütze, so lange, bis
1 der Kampf beendet und die völlige Wahrheit des Sabbats der
Sabbate erfüllt ist, der nach denTaTten Worte „immernbleiben
soll". Dieser große Versöhnungstag, um dessentwillen das
Judentum sein eigenstes Dasein hütet, ist noch nicht ge^
kommen.
In dem Ernst der Selbsterhaltung, dem alles dieses dient,
erschöpft sich aber nicht die Aufgabe, die inmitten der Welt
auch heute dem Judentum gestellt ist. Sie tritt noch in anderer
bestimmter Form auf, in der sie jedem Einzelnen zur un^s
bedingten religiösen Pflicht gesetzt ist. Es ist bereits früher
gezeigt worden, wie im Judentum die sittliche Tat, aber nur
sie, das Gepräge der „H eiligung des göttlichen
Namen s", des Kiddusch haschem trägt. Jede rechte Hand*
lung, die aus reiner Gesinnung hervorgeht, heiligt den gött:»
liehen Namen, und jede Niedrigkeit entweiht ihn. Das Gute,
dai§.„eiaerüht,..ist . der klarste Gottesbeweis, das deutlichste
Zeugnis von Gott, das einer ablegen kann. Und das spricht
auch zu aller Welt; es ist zugleich die eindringlichste Predigt
von der Wahrheit der ReHgion, eindringlicher, als der
reichste Reichtum der Worte sie vernehmen zu lassen im?
Stande ist. An uns wird die Religion in ihrer ganzen Wirks:
lichkeit und Kraft offenbar. Jedermann, selbst wenn ihm das
Wort versagt oder verwehrt ist, kann so der Bote seines
Glaubens unter den Menschen sein, und jeder soll es sein.
Jeder Ju3e ist dazu berufen, durch seinen LCbenSWeg davon
Kunde zu geben, was seine Religion bedeutet. Er soll so
M
£S3fef
^^üü
304
Das Zeugnis vom Judentum
leben und wirken, daß alle es sehen, was sie ist, und was sie
vermag, wie sie den Menschen heiligt, ihn zum Menschen
des „heihgen Volkes" erzieht und erhebt. Das ist das M i s =*
sionsgebot, das jedem gestellt ist, und niemand
hat seine Schuldigkeit gegen die Gemeinschaft getan, so
lange er dem nicht gerecht wird.
Es ist so der innersten Art des Judentums gemäß: durch
unsere Tat vor allem sollen wir unsere Religion predigen, wir
sollen unser Leben von der Hoheit unseres Glaubens
sprechen lassen. Das wird darum ein Mai^stab der TIands
lung: welches Zeugnis vom Judentum wird sie ablegen, wird
sie sowohl vor Gott bestehen als auch die Menschen zur
inneren Anerkennung des Judentums, zur wahren Achtui^g
vor der Religiosität, die in ihm lebt, führen? Auch u m d e r
Ehre der Religion willen soll ein jeder das Gute tun,
auch um dessentwillen von der Sünde weichen, damit er
durch sie nicht zum falschen Zeugen werde über die Glau#
bensgemeinde, der er zugehört. Das heißt den Namen
Gottes heiligen, das heißt in allen Tagen das Judentum ver^
künden; „wenn Israel den Willen Gottes übt, dann wird
Gottes Name in der Welt erhöht". So durchzieht es wie mit
tausend Fäden die Lehre des Judentums, so wird es in jede
Mahnung und in jedes Gebot eingeflochten. Vor allem das
eine wird eingeschärft: das kleinste Unrecht gegen einen
Andersgläubigen wiegt schwerer als das Unrecht gegen den
Glaubensgenossen; denn es entweiht den göttlichen Namen,
denn es setzt die Würde des Judentums herab. An dem sitts:
liehen Maße gemessen, ist es dasselbe; nach dem Maße des
Gebotes der Mission bedeutet es mehr. Dieses Gefühl der
Verantwortlichkeit für das Ansehen und die Aufgabe der
Glaubensgemeinschaft, dieses Bewußtsein der sittlichen
Missionspflicht ist nie geschwunden. Es ist ein Band des Zu^
sammenhangs immer gewesen. Wenn eine Generation da?
hingegangen ist, soll die neue, indem sie die Aufgabe der
Vergangenheit antritt, mit den Worten des alten Kaddischs;
gebetes sprechen: „Erhoben und geheihgt werde der Name
Gottes in der Welt, die er geschaffen — nach seinem Wil?
len!" Geschlecht auf Geschlecht sollte durch die Tat das
Judentum predigen.
Nur durch diese persönHche Verbundenheit mit der Auf*»
1'^
;ii
•■1
i
Die Gemeinde
305
gäbe der Religion, durch dieses persönliche Wirken für sie y
wird der Einzelne in Wahrheit einGliedderGemeinde. p
Um ihr ganz anzugehören, muß er durch seine Tat den
Glauben bekennen und dadurch ein Zeuge für alle werden;
alles Bekennen hat seinen Wert nur als dieser Wille zur Er;:
füllung und Verwirklichung. So allein kann zumal eine
Minorität ihrer religiösen Aufgabe gewachsen sein, und es
ist darum begreiflich, und es ist auch von wesentlichem Wert,
daß das Gebot der Heiligung des göttUchen Namens einen
zentralen Platz im Judentum einnimmt. Jedem einzelnen ist
die ganze Fülle der Missionsverpflichung anvertraut; er hält
das Ansehen der Gesamtheit in seiner Hand; ihm gilt das
Wort, das Hillel sprach: „Bin ich da, so ist alles da *. Sein
Gebot und sein Bereich kommt jedem, auch dem geringsten
zu, ihm nicht nur als dem Menschen, als dem Ebenbild
Gottes, sondern ebenso ihm als dem Gliede der religiösen
Gemeinschaft, als dem Träger und Bürgen ihres Lebens. Und
deren geschichtliche Eigenschaft, eine stete Minderheit zu
sein, bringt damit die Verinnerlichung und Verstärkung der
sittlichen Aufgabe: jedem einzelnen ist es aufgegeben, so zu
leben, daß das „Reich von Priestern" da sei, daß die Wenigen
die Ganzen und dadurch mehr als die Vielen seien.
Jeder Einzelne wird so Schöpfer der Existenz und der
Bedeutung der keligion, Schöpfer der Gemeinde; auch hier
ist wieder dieses Eigentümliche der jüdischen Religiosität,
daß sie dem Menschen gebietet, ihm die Kraft des Schaffens
zuschreibt. In der Kirche wird der Einzelne durch die Kircho
getragen, sie ist vor ihm und mehr als er, er steht in ihrem
Glauben, er lebt mit seinem Glauben durch sie. Im Juden^?
tum^ fehlt die Kirche und ist ^fe Gemeinde. Und die Gc;*
meinde ist immer in dem Einzelnen, sie ist nach ihm und
besteht durch ihn, er ist bestimmt, sie zu tragen, in seinem
Gebete hat sie ihr Gebet. Wo Juden sind, das Gebot der
ReHgion erfüllend, wie wenige sie seien, dort ist die Ge*
meinde des Judentums; das ganze Judentum hat da seine
Existenz. Eine Kirche will immer eine Kirche der Vielen sein,
sie ergibt sich zuletzt immer dem Machtgedanken, noch keine
ist ihm bisher entgangen. Die Gemeinde kann stets eine Ge^
.meinde der Wenigen sein, der Wenigen, deren jedem das
Ganze geboten und auferlegt ist. Sie ist eine Verbindung der
Baeck, Wesen des Judentums
20
^.U^lUl-WWWB it ii'i^'iü
306
Die Minderheit in der Welt
Geschichte und Geist
<t
*^:
Kraft, der Heiligung des göttlichen Namens; sie will darum
auch eine kleine sein, um groß sein zu können.
In diesem Sinne kann das Judentum die Gemeinde
innerhalb der Welt genannt werden. Und es will oft scheinen,
als sei auch gerade das die x\uf gäbe des Judentums, die es auch
durch seine bloße Existenz schon zu erfüllen hat, in der
Weltgeschichte die Idee der Gemeinde, des AUeindastehens,
das sittliche Prinzip der Minderheit zum Aus^
druck zu bringen. Das Judentum bezeugt die Kraft des Ge*
dankens gegenüber der Macht der bloßen,_^hl und des
äußeren Erfolges, das Vermögen des Eigenen, des Anders^
seienden gegenüber dem Druck des Besiegenden und Gleiche
machenden; auch das ist eine stete Predigt an die Völker der
Welt, an alle, die zu hören v^ögen. Schon durch sein Da:*
sein ist das Judentum ein niTvg^tumm ender Widerspruch
dagegen, daß die Menge mehr sein will als das Recht, daß
die Gewalt Herrscherin sein will über die Wahrheit, daß in
dem Kampf zwischen dem Geiste und den Nützlichkeiten
der Nutzen das letzte Wort sprechen will. Solange es ein
Judentum gibt, wird man nicht sagen können, daß die Seele
der Menschen sich unterworfen habe. Seine Existenz schon
ist ein Beweis durch die Jahrtausende hindurch, daß die
Überzeugung sich nicht meistern läßt durch die Vielen. Da:=
durch, daß das Judentum da ist, ist dargetan, daß der Geist
nicht besiegt werden kann, und daß er unüberwindlich
macht, daß, ob er zwar bisweilen dünkt wie ein erloschener
Vulkan — das Bild des Judentums ist oft so in den Augen
der Menschen gewesen — , in ihm dennoch die Kraft wohnt,
die in der Ruhe sich sammelt, um hervorzukommen und zu
bewegen. Die Wenigen, die die Wenigen um Gottes willen,
Ium des Geistes willen sind, sind die Bleibenden, und von
ihnen gehen die großen, die entscheidenden Wirkungen aus,
die Richtungen in der Geschichte. Und allein im HinbUck
hierauf fühlt man sich oft versucht, nach einem bekannten
Worte zu sagen: wenn es kein Judentum gäbe, man müßte
s erfinden. Ohne Minoritäten besteht kein Weltgeschichte
liches Ziel.
Eben hierdurch ist das Judentum auch ein Grad^
messer für die Höhe der Gesittung auf Erden ge^
worden. Was seine Gemeinde durch die Völker erfahren hat.
I
I
V
■j
i
i
J^
unter denen sie lebte, ist immer ein Maßstab da ur gewesen,
wie weit Recht und Gerechtigkeit unter den Nationen Be.
hstand hatten, denn alle Gerechtigkeit ^^1^1^}^^^^^^
die Wenigen. Wie viel IsradT^ü^diT MSneiheit von sei.
ne-iTGiluren gegeben hat, von ihr an Religion, an religiöser
, Gerechtigkeit empfängt, darin offenbaren sich immer
-^\ Wandel und Entwickelung der Religion. An seinem Schicksal
kann man es ablesen, wie viel des Weges noch ist ^^^J^J^^
Tagen des Messias. Wenn Israel sicher unter den Volkern
wird wohnen können, dann hat sich die verheißene Zeit er.
fvUt, denn dann und daran' wird es sich erwiesen haben. dal5
der Glaube an Gott eine lebendige WirkUchkeit geworden
ist Nicht nur in seinem Charakter und seinen Ideen ist die
Bedeutung des Judentums enthalten, sondern ebenso sehr m
seiner Geschichte inmitten der Völker. Auch damit ist diese
Geschichte eine Tat. .. . i
Bis sie sich erfüllt haben wird, bis dahin werden die vielen
Tage, und in ihnen die vielen fordernden, prüfenden btun.
den, kommen und gehen, um zu fragen und zu antworten bs
gehört religiöser Mut, der Mut zu denken_und_zu_erwarten
dazu, einer Minderheit anzugehören, die es immer war und
weiterhin sein wird, zumal inmitten einer Mehrheit, die so
Fri oft die Macht über das Recht entscheiden laßt. Es gehört
B sittlicKSTCraft dazu, ein Jude zu sein, wo doch alle weit,
liehen Annehmlichkeiten, Ehren und Gewinne nach der
anderen Seite hinüber locken. Jeder Jude kämpft den Kampf
zwischen den Ideen und den Interessen, diesen Kampf des
Glaubens und des Unglaubens. Wenn es das Eigene des
jüdischen Geistes ist, daß er im Gewissen, in der Gottes,
furcht wurzelt, daß er nicht bloß sehen, sondern das Rechte
sehen, nicht nur erkennen, sondern das Gute erkennen will,
daß er darum das Vermögen ist, sich nicht dem Tage und
nicht dem Jahrhundert zu unterwerfen, die Kraft des Wider.
Spruchs ist gegen alle Gewalten und Mengen, gegen alles,
was nur herrschen und niederzwingen will, wenn es darum
sein Eignes ist, daß er das stete Suchen hat, das nie am Ende,
nie fertig zu sein meint, das stete Fordern, das sich nicht ab.
findet und nicht zufrieden gibt, wenn so der jüdische Geist
dieses standhafte Wissen um das Gebot ist, djeser,me er»
müdende Wille zum Ideal, diese Forderung, sich immer auf.
20*
..fjfms^f^ar:.
308
Glaube und Treue
^i^;
zuopfern und nie aufzugeben, wenn er so diese Gabe ist, die
Offenbarung des Ewigen zu erfassen und die Zukunft zu
sehen und zu ihr hinzurufen, diese Gabe, das Mannigfaltige
zur Einheit zusammenzuführen — wenn der jüdische Geist
darin sein Eigenes hat, so wirkt in dem allen das Eigene der
jüdischen Religiosität, aber es hat sich entwickelt in dem
Leben derer, die immer gegen die Vielen im Namen ihres
Gottes leben wollten und, um ihm nicht fremd zu werden,
Fremdheit auf Erden bestanden, denen ihr Bekenntnis daher
nie ihr Interesse bedeutete, deren Gemeinde nie der Platz
der Nützlichkeit gewesen ist, deren Glaube immer auch
eine Tat und ein Opfer war. Wer ein Jude ist, ist es seit
langem gegen seinen Vorteil und unter Erschwerungen seiner
Lebensbahn. Die Treue gegen die Religion kann für ihn nur
um der Religion willen da sein; auch die Überzeugung ist
hier gewissermaßen ein Vollbringen. Schgii..4xi, der Zu:»
1 gehörigkeit zum Judentum liegt ein idealer Kern; sie
vL bedeutet, — in all der Spannung un J all der Paradoxie im
*^ jüdischen Charakter — einen eigenen Stil in der Welt.
Das alles ist selten anerkannt worden, ^taat und Geselle
Schaft sind meist dafür verständnislos gewesen. Die Kinder
des Judentums haben für Zion und Jerusalem gebetet und
gehofft, aber sie haben ihre beharrende Treue auch gegen
Heimat und Vaterland immer tausendfältig bewährt, diese
Treue, die ihnen ein ReHgiöses schon ist, und die in ihnen
um so echter ist, als auch darin wohl nur selten einmal Aus^
sieht auf Nutzen und Lohn die Lauterkeit des seelischen
Grundes hat trüben können. Sie haben es immer gewußt und
bewiesen, daß Vndank und Verkennung, die man erfährt, kein
Recht geben, die Pflicht zu verletzen oder die Schuldigkeit
zu mindern. Sie haben die Verbundenheit und Pietät gewahrt
^ über alle erzwungencJvV^nderschaft hinaus. Wenn die Nach^
kommen der alten spanischen Tüden, und das ist nicht das
einzige Beispiel, vier Jahrhunderte, nachdem Glaubenshaß,
Beschränktheit und Neid die Ahnen aus dem Lande ver*^
trieben hatten, bis zum heutigen Tage sich Söhne dieses
Landes nennen und die alte spanische Sprache in ihrer
Mitte erhalten und pflegen — wie viel gibt es dessengleichen
in der Weltgeschichte! Staat und Gesellschaft sind oft als
Feind dem Judentum entgegengetreten, sie haben sich so
Der Staat und die Mission
309
oft ihm gegenüber zum Büttel konfessionellen Seelenfanges
herabgewürdigt; sie haben es vergessen, daß es kein Unrecht
gibt, daß bloß einem zugefügt würde, daß jedes Unrecht ein
Unrecht gegen alle, gegen die Gesamtheit ist, und daß es,
^vom Staate begangen oder geduldet, zuletzt gegen ihn selber
V^ich richten muß. Es gibt eine Geschichte des Judentums,
die eine Anklage gegeiTdie Menschheit ist. Aber die, die das
alles erlitten, sind die Gläubigen gebHeßen, die Eigensinnigen
des Optimismus; die Hoffnung ist unter ihnen in bitteren,
quälenden Tagen lebendig gewesen, daß die Pflicht und das
Opfer zuletzt doch alles Vorurteil und alle Engherzigkeit
überwinden werden. Und eine Pflicht, an ihnen geübt, ist
niemals ins Vergessene, ins Verlorene gesunken; Dankbarkeit
und Treue hat die Welt als jüdische Tugend immer erfahren.
Man hat „Siege" über das Judentum errungen, aber es
sind immer nur SiegederMacht gewesen, gefahrlos und
ruhmlos. Ä vaincre sans peril on triomphe sans gloire. Alle
Mittel haben dazu dienen sollen, Juden zum herrschenden
Bekenntnisse hinüberzuführen. Mit dem Eifer für die Relu
gion hat all dieses Trachten selten etwas zu tun gehabt, mit
dem Sinn für Rehgion kaum je etwas gemein. Allerdings gibt
es im strenggläubigen Protestantismus auch eine ernste,
ehrlich gesinnte Judenmission, die von aufrichtigem reli:»
giösen Streben getragen wird, sicher auch von einer innigen
Liebe zu Israel, welche von ihr seinen Feinden gegenüber oft
bezeugt worden ist. Wir alle gestehen dies gern und offen
zu, ganz wie wir freihch nicht minder ohne Scheu es aus^
sprechen, daß wir an unsere Bestimmung glauben, nicht be*
kehrten werden, sondern zu bekehren — „mein HauTwirä ]]]
einHaiis des Gebetes ^öftdflht werden für alle Völker". Der "'
lebendige religiöse Sinn, den diese Mission oft zeigt, steht
aber durchaus vereinzelt da; die Erfolge über das Judentum
sind rein weltHche Erfolge in der geringsten Bedeutung
dieses Wortes.
Wer sind die, die das Judentum verlassen, um der herr?
sehenden Konfession anzugehören! Es sind „Gläubige", die
zu einer anderen Religion übertreten, an die sie n i c h t glau:*
ben oder an die sie a u c h n i c h t glauben, Gläubige, die mit
den Lippen ein Bekenntnis sprechen, das ihrem Herzen
keine Wahrheit oder eine Unwahrheit ist. Und bedeutsam
:!.• •■OäaJBtiL.fia*.
310
Abfall und Feindschaft
f'l
daran ist: der, der sie aufnimmt, und die, die für sie die Vor^
teile aussetzen, zweifeln kaum je an der Unwahrheit der
Bekehrung, an der Unwahrhaftigkeit der Gesinnung. Wie
stark muß ein Glaube sein, der dem, der in seine Tore tritt,
jeden Glauben erläßt! Welche Selbstachtung muß ein Be*
kenntnis haben, das, um Proselyten zu machen, auf sich
verzichtet, sich selbst verleugnet und versteckt! Die
Seiten der Geschichte, die von den Judenverfolgungen er*
zählen, erfüllen mit Entsetzen vor menschlichem Wahn und
menschlicher Entartung. Das Blatt, das von diesem Seelen*
fang berichtet, wie er mit staatlichem Garn und Leim be*
trieben wird, um Charakterschwache, mögen sie auch un*
gläubig bleiben wollen, anzulocken und zu gewinnen, — da*
von wird das sittliche, das reHgiöse Empfinden sich immer
mit einem Gefühl des Widerwillens abwenden. Wann ist es
einmal die Überzeugung gewesen, derentwegen einer
dem Judentum den Rücken gekehrt hat, wann hat einmal der
Opfermut sich darin bewiesen! So gut wie immer stellt
der Übertritt einen Akt des Materialismus dar. Und es liegt
darin ein Tröstliches. Denn kann etwas mehr für eine Reli*
gion sprechen, als diese Tatsache, daß es fast nur ein Irdi^
sches, ein allzu Menschliches stets ist, das aus den Reihen
ihrer Anhänger hinausführt, daß ihr nur von der Ge*
sinnungslosigkeit der Abfall droht!
Auch sonst ist in all dem Schmerzlichen, das Israel er*:
dulden muß, das Erhebende doch zugleich enthalten. Es sind
zahlreiche Angriffe, neu und doch immer alt, die das Juden*
tum fast Tag um Tag erfährt; aber spricht nicht aus diesen
Angriffen etwas wie eine ergreifende Verteidigung hervor,
wie eine Lobrede vor dem Richter stuhle der Wahrheit! Denn
wenn man gegen das Judentum gekämpft hat, womit ist es in
alter und neuer Zeit geschehen? Von den einen geschah es
mit den Waffen der Bedrückung, der Entrechtung und der
Gewalttat, von den anderen mit den Werkzeugen der Ver*
kennung, der Entstellung und Lüge. Es gibt kaum einen
Frevel, der nicht, gegen das Judentum verübt, als herrschen*
des Recht erschien, kaum eine Erdichtung, die nicht, gegen
das Judentum gefügt, als Wort der Geschichte hertrat, kaum
eine halbe Wahrheit, die nicht, im Urteil über das Juden*
tum, die Wahrheit sein sollte. Wie gering muß doch das Ver.
Die Sache des Judentums
311
\.
J
//
trauen derer sein die solcher Mittel, fast immer nur solcher,
sich bedienen! Und welche Bedeutung welches Recht muß
Tu'\t!^!^ ^^'"' ^^^^" ^^^ ^°l'=he Waffen, fast immer nur
solche Waffen, sich kehren!
Die Geschichte der Völker hat dem Judentum die Apologie „
geschrieben Wo immer die Wahrheit gesiegt hat, die Ge. l)
Zuuu'^ ^'*^^^" ''"'■^*^' ^°'t hat das Judentum seine
Wohlfahrt, das Verständnis und die Anerkennung gefunden.
Wo das Gefühl für Menschlichkeit und Sittlichkeit lebendig
zu werden begann, dort konnte die Gemeinde Atem holen. ^
Uie Knechtung der Juden war nie eine vereinzelte Er.
schemung sondern nur ein Moment, freilich das traurigste,
in einer allgemeinen Unterdrückung. Und ebenso ist ihre
Emanzipation überall nur ein Teil, freilich ein sehr bedeu.
tungsvoller. in der Befreiung des ganzen Volkes gewesen.
Die Herrscher und Staatsmänner und die Völker, die für die
wahre Kultur gearbeitet haben, sie waren, ob sie es wollten
oder nicht, die Verteidiger undWohhäter der Juden. Wer
je für den Fortschritt der Gesittung einstand, ist. bewußt
oder unbewußt, für uns eingetreten. Wenn wir die Sicher.
heit und das freie Dasein des Judentums verlangen, wir
brauchen dann nichts anderes zu fordern als die Wahrheit
und die Geradheit im Lande. Eine bessere Rechtfertigung
gibt es nicht. Um es mit einem Worte iRankes /zu sagen:
„Das Größte, was dem Menschen begegnen kann, ist es
wohl, in der eigenen Sache die allgemeine zu ver.
teidigen".
Dies kann uns ein Trost sein gegenüber trüben Er.
scheinungen, und es bringt unserer Hoffnung auf die Zukunft
ein neues Recht. Nicht nur um uns handelt es sich, wo es
sich um uns handelt. Unsere Ansprüche sind die Ansprüche
des Gewissens, die des Gebotes. Wir verlangen" nichrHäff
man iins ehre, sondern nur, daß man das Recht und diej:
Wahrheit ehre. Wir begehren nicht, daß man s'icS" im Wohl.''^
wollen zu uns wende, sondern nur, daß man uns kennen
lerne, es erfahre, was wir sind, und weshalb wir es sind Vor
aller Augen liegt das Judentum, das religiöse Gut. das es
besitzt, das religiöse Ziel, das seine Zuversicht ist; wer
sehen will, kann sehen. Wir gestehen allen anderen Bekennt,
nissen ihre Reichtümer zu, vor allem denen auch, die aus
,t
e
■tmamsfan^sa-
Ml
S^imlmmimiimmmmmtM
*****<fe!..
.SSfiSIfci.-.
312
Besitz und Ziel
unserer Mitte und aus unserem Geiste hervorgegangen sind.
Wer Überzeugung hegt, achtet die Überzeugung. Wir sind,
voller Ehrfurcht vor der Aufgabe, die darin liegt, dessen be#
wüßt, was unsere Religion ist. Wir wissen, daß auch von
ihr das Wort gilt, das einer unserer Weisen gesprochen hat:
„Der Anfang zeugt für das Ende, und das
Ende wird einst für den Anfang zeugen."
Anmerkungen
Im folgenden werden die aus der biblischen und nachbiblischen Literat
tur angeführten Beweisstellen kurz belegt; daß die Citate aus dem tal*
mudischen Schrifttum besonders zahlreich sind, rechtfertigt sich auch
durch die Geschichte seiner Verkennung.
S. 6 Siphra zu 19, 18; Sabbat 31a; Makkot 23b; Berachot 63a. S. 7
Exodus 19, 6; Sanhedrin X, 1. S. 9 Josua 24, 14. S. 17 II. Sam. 12, 7;
Pesachim X, 5; Pcs. d. R. K. 102a, 105a, 107a; Siphre zu Deut. 6, 6 und
11, 32. S. 18 Ab. Sara 5a — Menach. 29b — Abot II, 12; Pea I, 1;
Kidd. 30b; Abot V, 22. S. 20 Deut. 10, 16; Jer. 4, 4; Joel 2, 13; Hosea 6,
6; Ps. 51, 19; Jer. 31, 32 — Kalla V f. S. 21 Makk. 24a; Tos. Pea IV, 19;
Jer. Nedar. 41b; Makk. 7a; Pes. d. R. K. 158b; Makk. 24a. S. 22 Gen.
r. 33; Siphra zu 18, 5; Ber. 10a — Maimonides, More Neb. II, 25. S. 23
Prophiat Duran bei Geiger, Wissensch. Zeitschr. IV, 452. S. 24 Jes. 66, 22.
S. 27 Jer. 4, 19; Jer. 20, 7; — Amos 3, 8 und 7, 15; Micha 3, 8. S. 29
Amos 7, 14; Jer. 7, 4; 3, 16; 16, 14 und 23, 7. S. 30 Jer. 15, 19. S. 31 Gen.
18, 19 — Micha 6, 8 — Prov. 3, 6; Hosea 12, 7; Amos 5, 6 und 14. S. 32
Jer. 12, 1; Gen- 18, 25 — Hosea 6, 6; Hosea 4, 1; Jer. 9, 5; Jer. 22, 15 f.;
Jer. 9, 22 f.; Jes. 11, 9. S. 33 Prov. 1, 7; Hiob 28, 28 — Jes. 55, 9; Deut. 30,
11; Ps. 19, 8 — Prov. 28, 5. S. 35 Gen. 1, 4 f f . — Deut. 6, 4 f. S. 36
Deut. 4, 39 f.; 10, 19; Ps. 146, 6; .Tes. 42, 5 f.; Ps. 90, 1; Ps. 29, 10 f.; Ps. 9,
10 — Siphre zu Deut, 11, 22. S. 38 Exod. 4, 10. S. 40 Exod. 19, 6. S. 45
Mechilta zu 19, 6 — Betr. der „Genossen" vergl. J. Lewy: Ritual des
Pessachabends 9. S. 48 Abot II, 5; Abot III, 9, 15 und 17; IV, 5; VI, 5;
1, 17; Sabbat 31a; Waj. r. 31. S. 49 Chasdai Kreskas, Or Adonaj II, 6, 1.
S. 53 Exod. 24, 7 — Siphre zu Deut. 6, 6 — Deut. 30, 14 — Deut. 29, 28.
S, 54 Ruth 2, 12.
S. 60 Abot III, 14. S. 64 Numeri 23, 9 — Exod. 20. 3. S. 65 Deut. 28,
9; Lev. 20, 26; Exod. 19, 5; Jes. 59, 21 — Amos 3, 2; Jer. 25, 29. S. 66
Jes. 42, 6, vergl. Siphre zu Deut 32, 9; Exod. 4, 22 und Jer. 31, 8 — Ps. 9,
12; 96, 3 und 10; I Chron. 16, 24. S. 67 Jes. 41, 4. S. 69 Malcachi 1, 11;
Ps. 113, 3 — Tos. Sanh. 13; Sanh. 105a. S. 70 Siphra zu 18, 5. S. 74 Ps. 79,
10 und 115, 2; Ps. 94, 6f. S. 75 Ps. 94, 1 — Ps. 37, 7 und 9; Ps. 37, 5 f.;
Ps. 94, 15; Ps. 67, 4 f.; Ps. 9, 12 und 105, 2; Ps. 96, 3 und 10. S.78 Jes. 45,
22; Prov. 8, 4 — Gen. 12, 3 — Jer. Bikk. I, 4; Sabb. 105a; Römer 4, 17.
S. 79 Targ. Jon. zu Gen. 11, 7 und Deut. 32, 8; Schek. V, 1; Jer. Meg. I,
9; Pes. d. R. K. 16b; Waj. r. 2; Pes. r. 32a und 105a: Sabb. 88b; Sota VII,
5 — Sukka 55b; Aboda Sara 3a — Pesach. 87b. S. 77 Meg. 13a; Siphre zu
Num. 15, 23 und zu Deut. 11, 28 — Jer. Bikk. I, 4. S. 80 Maimonides,
Kob. Tesch. I, 34a und Kommentar zu Eduj. VIII, 7. S. 81 Micha, 6, 8.
Es liegt nahe, daß Micha in diesem Worte die Grundgedanken des Amos
(Gerechtigkeit), des Hosea (Liebe) und des Jesaias (Demut) zusammen»
fassen will.
S. 88 Jes. 40, 3. S. 89 Jer. 1, 7. S. 91 Lev. 19, 2. S. 92 Exod. 23, 9 —
Deut. 30, 19; Lev. 18, 5. S. 94 Deut. 5, 23; Jos. 3, 10; L Sam. 17, 26;
ILKön. 19, 4; Jer. 10, 10 — Gen. 18, 19. S. 101 .les. 40, 25. S. 102 Deut. 6,
4 f. S. 103 Jes. 44, 6 f. S. 104 Gen. 3, 9 — Jes. 63, 16; Ps. 73, 25. S. 105
Ps. 24, 1. S. 106 Gen. 18, 27 — Jes. 6, 3. S. 107 Jes. 33, 5. S. 108 Jes. 40,
15 ff.; Ps. 90, 4 — 1. Kön. 8, 12; Hiob 37, 19 — l. Kön. 19, 12; Habakuk 2,
20. S. 109 Ps. 19, 2 — Ps. 113, 5; Ps. 8, 2. S. 110 Ps. 91, 1; Ps. 90, 1 f. —
Meg. 31a; Deut. 10, 17 f.; Jes. 57, 15. S. 111 Jes. 60, 5 — Ps. 73, 28.
— jStiiiN;
■"^■F".- •' „Ml
. Mmim I ..II ii, I ■ t
314
Anmerkungen
S. 112 Ps. 145, 18; Jes. 55, 6; Ps. 22, 12; Ps. 22, 2. S. 113 Ps 118 5
- Ps. 9, 10 f.; Ps. 91, 4 f. S. 114 Ps. 92, 2 f.; Ps. 116, 7f (verg eiche
Richter 5, 31; I. Sam. 2, 1; II. Sam. 22. 29 und 30; Ps. 25 7f und Of
und 15 f.; Ps. 44, 22 f.; Ps. 73, 26 f.; Ps. 76, 9 f.; Ps 84 Ps U6 15 f
Ps. 130). S. 115 Ps. 103, 2. S. 117 Sota IX, 15. S 118 Ps 103 13 Deut 8
5; Jes. 49, 15; Ps. 27, 10; Jes. 66, 13 - Hcsea II, 4f Kläael 3 31 f
ir-p'- l"« % "?,l^'rl- '■ 22: P»- 33, 5; Ps. 145 9; Ps. ofs; Ps 94,
18; Ps. 36, 8; Ps. 117, 2; Jer. 32, 40. S. 120 Gen. 32 11-11 .Sam 7 18
Rn Tu'"u ,fü ^2» ^'- "3, 5 f.; 102, 20 f. _ Exod '.i'lS und 34 6f •-
Rosch hasch 17b; Joma 87b; Pes. d. R. K. 57a. S. 123 Ps. 8, 5; 103, IS;
H^öh 1 21 P^'°oa^' ^n~F'- ,'^'-2; Ps- 39, 10; Klage!. 3, 28 -
Hiob 1, 21 -- Ps. 68, 20 — Berachot IX, 5. S. 126 Mechilta 7u 20 23
Berachot 60b Deut 33, 27. S. 127 Ps. 27, 1 f.; S 42 12 und' 43 J-
f-fsiL "'?,'' V/- P"- "ö' ^- P«- 103, If. und 104, _ Ps 27 3^
Jes 7 fpt-U6 ffl \ KK 'o^,* ^%>^i-„'Ä' P^- '26. 5. S. 129 Hab. 2. 4:
Deut 29 2R l'.l^-M-^l^I^t ^^ ""^n^K"* '^- 21= Abot III. 15. S. 131
Ueut. 29, 28. S. 133 Micha 6, 8; Deut. 10, 12 _ Jes. 56. 4. S 134 Gen 17
Q ^. l^'^f-J^^r' ^^^^"^ 31b _ Sanh. 65b. S. 135 Aboda saVa iob
unJ 5- ß'^nl^."' ^1,^^.24; Jer. 13. 10; 22, 9; 25, 6. S. 137 Berachot 112
und 5,- Rosch hasch. 16a; Tanchuma zu Gen. 12, 1; Mechilta zu 20 2 und
3; S.phrc zu Deut 32 29; Rosch hasch, 32b; Siphre zu Deut. 6, 4 S 138
k \ 'f' .'* e""'* 32; 25. 17 und 36 und 43. S 139 Jes 51 2 S 140
D^ü • V„^- "p^".- \ 2-„ S. 142 Deut. 18, 13. S. 143 Ps 86, 11. S. Ui
Ps 139 21 S~ir«\^' kU,"''- h -^^ - •'"'• ^' 'ö - J^^- 3. 8. S. 145
« 'i.iV i-i ■ °; .? ^.?"*'- 37a und Targumim zu Gen. 4, 10 — Ps 97 10
S.147 Klagel 3 40; Koh. 12, 13. S. 148 Abot II, 15. S 149 Hosea 12 7
Deul\\"%'UA\''' "h''?''«2- 3; Micha 6. S. s''l5oTphre zu
L üAif' n S'phre zu Deut. 32, 4; Jer. 32, 19 - Berach. 5a und b
- Ps. 94, 12; Prov. 3 12; Klagel. 3, 27. S. 152 Hiob 36, 15 - Siphre
Gen r 9- ' Kl- „^"f^ ^% llV' J" ■'"'• ^^- '»; Pes. d. R. Kah. 52b!
Oen r 9, Klagel. 3, 1. S. 155 Ps. 36, 10; Deut 8 3 _ Ie<! 41 in-
s'lsip'M'.^ V"''i^' '5. 20; Exod. 22, 26; ,Ier 29, 12; I. Sam 3 9
- Ps 22 21 Jr\,^V^'- ^'h^',}\- ■>"■ '7- 6; Jes- 41, 17; Ps! 42, 2
Ps 71 2Sf T ^V'^, x-, '" "• S""'- 22. 29. S. 158 Ps. 36, 10 -
Beza 16a k 119 '"^•4. 'p ^'l '^r,,^' ^V ^''- "' '^^ ». 159 Jes. 58, 13;
w^ni„ T k i ' ^^' ^™''- 31. 17 — Jes. 33, 22. S. 160 Jes. 45 14 Wie
rhweSeblo't. ^^'""''"'' '"'• "^"" ''"^ "'^''" ""^ der Verbindungsform
S-,nh^'37tf. ?^"- ^fi27 "nd 5 1. S. 166 Deut. 14, 1. S. 168 Berachot 6b;
Sanh 37b; Joma 38b und 69a; Abot d. R. Natan 31 _ Jer Ned IX 4
'^f ^P'/r.T.'^' '5v ^•,"'' L^^- 1^- 2- S. 170 Lev. 18, 5. S 171 Hiob 4
8 und 15 14 f. - Abot IV, 2 - Abot II, 15. S. 172 S^ta 22b _ Abot II
6a- Abot iPTiV 22' t'"*' }?' ''iJ^%,'7' '»• ^'- '^9. 7; Rosch hasc":
loa Abot 11 1; IV, 22; Taan. IIa; Abot III, 1; Jer. .Sota II 2- Nidda 3Ia-
2^'pcs'd™R''Kah''isVb''"s ^.'r-J^n^'i,'? '■" «^"- "• 8 RÖich hth 1:
A res d. K. Kah. 151b. S. 177 Prov. 5, 22 — Deut 30 15 Fv 32 W
Num. 32 23; Deut. 9, 16 und 18; Jer. 40. 3; 44. 23 Hosea lo""9 Hiob 35
2 'f^' on i A \a '? ","** 20 - Gen. 6, 5; 8, 21; Gen. 4, 7 - Abot IV
2 Ex. 20, 5 und 34, 7; Jer. 32, 18; Sach. 3, 9. S. 178 Aböt II 10 S 179
D:uf-32'T's''l''fin^J:i-H"' "'^V ^l"''- '^'''' J". Ben HI. "5; 's'iphrc "u
ijeut. j)z, 4. ö. 180 Midr. zu Klaöel 5 21 Tomo «t;k i -jj ^/c
Siphre zu Deut 14 1 und zu 32 5 - Ro^ch' h^^ch."^. '1 ül'^Be'th'^J
I^5^^^es'.- r^- llölf Ä^.^ 8;''E^x'"34^"7.'^Pe's ^6^%'- Itl '^t t "^ J^"''
69b; Aboda sara 4a; Git. 56b; Meek zu'i5r;^Sir''2,^8''^fÄVum'.74';
c .T. „ • ^^• ^ — 1*°*'='^ häsch. 17b. S. 183 Joma VIII 9- Ber r 2 und V
S 184 Berachot 32b _ Pes. d R. Kah. 158b - Jes. 1 ' 13 ' S."l85 Hosea 6.
1Ö1, lu," InV'- ^^.'"- '5' 22; Jer. 7, 21 ff ; Abot d. R. Natan 4- Berach
32b; Sukka 49b _ Jes. 1, 16 f. S. 186 Deut. 4, 29; Jer. 4, 3; Hosia l5 12
Anmerkungen
315
k
Ezech 11 18 und 18 31. S. 187 Lev. r. zu 26, 3 _ Siphre zu Deut 32
^0 41 Lv 22l2''s^l^on M ^^i/' ^' F' ^' ^- 189 Ps. 130, 4 _ Ezech.
87a ' S IQ^ P ^A'ii^i ^ """^ ^^P,^'^ ^" ^^"t- 6^ ^'^- S. 192 Pes. d. R. K.
20 8 S 1Q4 |- t^'i^"- - ^''^'^- 20^ - P«- 44, 14 und 79, 4; Jerem.
Jos 24 14 r^-K^'^l.-n^i"*- ^' 1^' P«- 86, 11; I. Sam. 12, 24 S. 195
Jos. 24 14 — Ezech. 18. 9; Ps. 15, 2. S. 196 Joma 72b- Berach 28a
95TVesa^him^Mb^ S^^^ ^'"^'oJ'^J ?^^-^^^^ ''' ~ Be-cl^'ua; Irub^
Ver'd ÄT.l ' R-fr ^ü ??',.^^' ^"'""^- 1^^' •'^^"^^- 106b; Taanit 2a.
Vergi Stemthal, zu Bibel und Rcligionsphil. I, 152 f. S. 197 Berach 5a-
I'l98 Ab' n rund n%'r'' ''^n- ^^^^^^"^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^eut 5, 'la
Seder EHi' r 7 W^ \V ^'^^l'' '" Ht"*' 1^' ^2; Nedarim 62a; Ber. 17a;
19a Mechil . ;„ ?r%«^' \P^! f^". ^'"^o ^1' ^^'^ ^^""^ I' 3; Aboda Sara
iVa, Mechilta zu 16 28 - Abot IV, 2. S. 199 Jes. 40, 10. S. 200 Abot
R ' ^u A?01 ^oed katan 9a. S. 202 Koh. 12, 7. S. 203 Tamid VII 4
?7a"und\4t'' K^;i^^o^"'\H^*^" 29a: Pes. 50a; Baba batra l"b^ Berachot
Mal 3 19 u'nd '^ • P^\7 ^T- \^^ - '^^^^ ^ El^i^h" 88 - J^lk. zu
Mal. 3, 19 und zu Ps. 68, 1; Berach. 60a - Edujot II 10 S 205 Mai-
monides Mischnakommentar zu Sanh. X, 1; Berach. 34b. S. 206 Mechilta
S ?l?S-nh ^^'^';o"i^«^' ^^i ^^^^ 1^' 1^' ^l^^d- «-^^ 10b; Berach 17b
TV 1 n l^u ? ^". ^' 18^- L^^- 19' 18 - Maleachi 2, 10. S. 212 Abot
ly 1; Bereschit. r. 24 _ Prov. 14, 31; Abot d. R. Natan XVI, 5; Buba
Exod 20' ?^. n'"'; ^^' ?i ^r- 2^'..^^-. \213 Exod. 2.3, 6 und Deut. 15, ll!
S6? ^' l' ^''"*i'n^'ii^'/r?'^- 22' 2- S. 214 Siphre zu Deut. 6, 5; Joma
S 9i7 ^'P/'n r ^.?' 18'. Sabbat 30b. S. 215 Prov 25, 21; Exod. 23, 4 ff.
1:1 II T ' Definitiyartikel zum ewigen Frieden, Anh. III. S. 218 Deut.
14, 29; Lev. 25, 35; Deut. 16, 14. S. 219 Lev. 24, 22 und 19 34- Num
15' l^cj ^i"."^.22; 20; Deut. 24, 17; Deut. 10, 18 - Le;. 19, 34 - Lev.' 2^ 2"'
t/^oh 'TT '. l'^^'^ooi" Fu 2^1 .^- 220 Tos. Sanh. 13; Maimonides Hilch
S 5^9 tV' u\^ ^1.221 ^bot 10; Ps. 128, 2; Ps. 104, 23; Exod. 20. 10.
S 222 Hiob 31, 15 - Exod. 22, 20 etc.; Deut. 5, 15 etc. S. 223 Exod. 21.
on in~i7 !i 24' 22; Michaehs, Mosaisches Recht V, 242. S. 224 Exod.
20, 10; Exod. 23 12; Deut. 5, 14; Masech. Awadim; Deut. 16. 14. S. 225
Berach. 16b -- Lev 25, 35 f. S. 227 Prov. 3, 27; Prov. 22. 22; Bemidbar
T. 5; Jebam. 63a; Abot V, 10 - Ezech. 16. 49 _ Jes. 5, 8. S. 228 Exod.
r. 31; Deut. 15, 1 ff.; Git. 36a; Mechilta zu 22, 24. S. 229 Jes 41 17-
i^^l' f^ ^i- I-.230 Abot III, 7; Jes. 58, 6 f.; Jer. 22, 16; Deut. 21, 'l ff.i
D TW 'in c^\234 Exod. 23, 9 — Lev. 19. 18 und 34 — Sukka 49b; Tos.
va^ vf'i '. ^""on 1^^' '^^P^""^ ^o" ^^"^- 15' 9 und zu 32. 29. S. 235 Jebam.
oo^'-.o T """"^^20^' ^'T^ 23a; Siphra zu 19, 17; Erachin 16b. S. 236 Hiob
28. 28; Lev. 19 17^ S. 237 Gen. 50. 19; Prov. 20, 22. S. 238 Prov. 24, 17;
Jer Ned. IX, 4; Derech erez r. 11; Sabbat 32b. S. 239 Siphra zu 19, 15«
^^o!n Q *ut ll^Ju'^c^^Ä S- ^^*^" 23; Prov. 16, 7; Jer. Berach. IV, 2.
S. 240 Sabbat 88b. S. 241 Mechilta zu 22. 3; Tos. Baba kama VII, 8; Tos.
Baba batra VI 14 - Baba Mezia IV, 10; Siphra zu 25, 17. S. 242 Exod.
23, 4; Deut 22. 4 und 6; 25, 4; Ps. 147. 7 und 9; Ps. 104, 14 und 27; Ps.
ä V'^ ~^ ^'^^'^ "J.^^- 84b; Prov. 12, 10. S. 243 Lev. 19, 17; Abot I, 12 —
f^^ba mez. 31a; Erachin 16b; Siphra zu 19, 17; Baba mez. 58b. S. 244 Lev.
A ' l'^' E^^ech. .3. 17; 33. 38; Lev. 26, 37; Sanh. 27b. S. 245 Wajikra r. 30;
Amos 9 6 - Sanh. 99b — Ps. 85. 11. S. 250 Targum zu Prov. 10, 25'
Joma 38b.
S. 253 Berach. 34b. S. 257 Sota 21a. S. 261 Jes. 41, 4 — Ps 33 10-
Jes 40, 24. S. 262 Jer. 51, 58; Hab. 2, 13; Ps. 2, 4 f. - Hab. 2, *6 und 9
und 12. S. 263 Midrasch zu Ps. 99, 4; Tanchuma zu Exod. 21, 1 — Jer
h 1^ T.^"™^^ ?' V ^^^' 19' ^^- S. 264 Dan. 2, 45; I. Sam. 2, 10. S. 265
Exod. 20, 2 — Sach. 4, 6 — Ps. 96, 1 etc. S. 266 Ps. 98, 9 — Joma 68b;
Joel 2, 13; Ps. 90, 3. S. 268 Zeph. 3, 9; Sach. 14, 9; Jer. 31, 33; Jes. 2, 4
und Micha 4, 4: Jes. 11, 6 ff.; Hab. 2, 14. S. 270 Deut. 30, 11 ff. _ Jes
11, 1 ff. S. 272 Mechilta zu Exod. 20, 2 und 3. S. 273 I. Sam. 8, 7. S. 274
T?-'^!r ifti;'..^i^.\*!t:i [ ['Vi"'
' -mUJT,iy^^ji.^i.ma »mrt
•tmummm
■«M»MWMM>BM*W<Ma<IM
M«i
316
Anmerkungen
Sanh. 97b. S. 275 Tephilla für Neujahr und Versöhnungstag — Ber. 55a.
S. 276 Kusari IV, 23; Maimonides, Hilch. Mel. XI, 4 — Jes. 2, 3 — Gen.
18, 32. S. 277 Targ. zu Prov. 10, 25; Joma 69a — Jes. 53. S. 279 Hosea
2, 1 — Jes. 7, 3 und 10, 21 f.; Jes. 6, 13. S. 280 Jes. 4, 3 und 37, 31 f.
S. 291 Jes. 46, 3 f. — Beresch. r. IV — Siphra zu 19, 2 und zu 20, 26.
S. 294 Abot I, 1; Moed katan 5a; Jeb. 21a — Nidda 61a; Joma 85a; Wajikra
r. 13; Jebam. 88; Ket. IIa; Ned. 76b; Git. 55b. S. 297 Sota 35a. S. 29»
Makkot III, 16. S.300 Ps. 1, 2; Deut. 6, 6 f. S. 301 Beresch. r. 8; Jeb. 62a.
S. 304 Mechilta zu 15, 2. S. 305 Sukka 53a. S. 309 Jes. 56, 7. S. 312 Kid.
duschin 31a zu Psalm 119, 160: „Der Anbeginn deines Wortes ist Wahr*
heit, und ewig währt alles Recht deiner Gerechtigkeit."
L
Register
(der dritten Auflage beigefügt)
Abend 299.
Abfall 176, 279. 310.
Abhängigkeit 105, 122, 124, 132,
135, 139, 176, 252. 258.
Absolut 86 f., 92, 100. 141 f., 145,
154, 176. 246.
Absonderung 289.
Abstrakt 116, 120, 269.
Achtung (s. a. Anerkennung) 145,
168, 211 ff.. 217, 220.
Adel 31, 65, 138, 153. 166, 168,
210, 241.
Aegypten 13, 29, 96, 218. 222, 265.
Ahnung 41. 97 f., 106, 130.
Aktivität 139, 176. 297.
Allgegenwart (Gottes) 105, 111,
116 f., 129 f.
Allgemein 86.
Allmacht (Gottes) 36.
Alltag 298 f., 302.
Almosen 230.
Altar 45, 79.
Altertum (s. a. Antik) 221.
Andacht 6. 112, 125. 149, 155 f.,
159, 196 f.. 229, 241. 252, 283,
297.
Andere, der, 210 f.
Andersgläubiger 304, 311 f.
Anderssein, A. Gottes 100 f., 103,
164 f.; A. des Menschen 45,
101, 143 f., 170, 281; A --'es
Judentums 291 f., 306. <
Anerkennung (s. a. Achtung) l3t>v
142 f.
Anfang 58, 67, 89 f., 105, 140, 149,
154, 170, 178 f., 186 f.. 200, 202,
205, 251, 312.
Antik (s. a. Altertum) 88, 89, 142.
143, 171, 291 f.
Antropomorphismus 21 f.
Antwort 23, 28, 74, 86. 89, 98 f.,
105 f., 123, 126 f., 132, 135 f.,
149 ff., 154.
Apologie 40, 310 f.
Arbeit 46, 160, 172, 221, 242, 298.
Arbeitsgemeinschaft 221, 242.
Armut (Arm) 6, 32, 156. 227 ff.
Askese 21, 158, 302.
Assimilation (s. a. Gestaltung) 10 f.
Atheismus 29 f.
Attribute Gottes 100, 114.
Aufgabe 23, 46, 65, 69, 77 f.. 90, 92,
95, 100, 130 f., 136, 152, 155 f.,
165 f., 168 f., 170, 172 f., 175 f.,
209, 210, 213, 246, 248. 253, 273,
283, 297.
Aufrichtigkeit (s. a. Gesinnung u.
Wahrhaftigkeit) 194 f., 241 f.
„Auge um Auge" 223.
Autonomie der Religion (s. a.
Selbständigkeit) 34.
Autor 19, 37.
Autorität 5, 7. 15 f., 19, 23, 129.
Babylon 13 f., 96, 291.
Barbaren 222.
Barmherzigkeit (Erbarmen) 36,
238, 250, 300; B. Gottes 22, 30,
36, 118 f., 145. 181.
Bedeutung (s. a. Sinn) 14. 85 f.,
95, 106. 122, 130 f., 154. 168,
173, 180 f., 201 f., 254, 290.
Bedingtes 217.
Begrenztheit 86, 122 f., 148 f.
Begriff (Gottesbegriff) 5, 8, 21,
28 f., 34 f., 37. 39, 94. 98, 100,
103 f., 107, 110, 114. 117, 120.
Bejahung 57 f., 86, 87 f., 90, 113.
124, 129. 132. 151.
Bekenntnis (s. a. Sündenbckennt*
nis und Konfession) 4 f., 8, 19,
26 f.. 37 f., 39, 47, 49 f.. 50, 51 ff..
64, 121, 126, 129, 136, 150 f.,
163, 175, 193, 243, 305, 308 f.
Bekehrung 287, 289 f., 309 f.
Beruf 50, 59, 66 f., 69.
Beschämung 225, 243.
Bescheidenheit 148.
Besitz (s. a. Eigentum) 3 f., 6, 16.
18 f., 38 f., 41, 46, 59 f., 77, 92,
117, 154, 167, 172 f., 222, 227 f.
Bestimmung 65, 78. 85, 88. 95. 124,
132. 137, 155, 169, 180 f.
Betrachtung (s. a. Kontemplation)
58. 124, 142.
Bettler 229.
SECOND INTENTIONAL EXPOSIJRE
nß'
316
Anmerkungen
Sanh. 97b. S. 275 Tephilla für Neujahr und Versöhnungstag — Ber. 55a.
S. 276 Kusari IV, 23; Maimonides, Hilch. Mel. XI, 4 — Jes. 2, 3 — Gen,
18, 32. S. 277 Targ. zu Prov. 10, 25; Joma 69a — Jes. 53. S. 279 Hosea
2, 1 — Jes. 7, 3 und 10, 21 f.; Jes. 6, 13. S. 280 Jes. 4, 3 und 37, 31 f.
S. 291 Jes. 46, 3 f. — Beresch. r. IV — Siphra zu 19, 2 und zu 20, 26.
S. 294 Abot I, 1; Moed katan 5a; Jeb. 21a — Nidda 61a; Joma 85a; Wajikra
r. 13; Jebam. 88; Ket. IIa; Ned. 76b; Git. 55b. S. 297 Sota 35a. S. 29»
Makkot III, 16. S.3G0 Ps. 1, 2; Deut. 6, 6 f. S.301 Beresch. r. 8; Jeb. 62a.
S. 304 Mechilta zu 15, 2. S. 305 Sukka 53a. S. 309 Jes. 56, 7. S. 312 Kid=^
duschin 31a zu Psalm 119, 160: „Der Anbeginn deines Wortes ist Wahr*
heit, und ewig währt alles Recht deiner Gerechtigkeit."
< \
vtmmk
OS
sagm^mKmemMmmmmmmBmmammmmmmmß
Register
(der dritten Auflage beigefügt)
Abend 299.
Abfall 176, 279. 310.
Abhängigkeit 105, 122. 124, 132,
135, 139, 176, 252, 258.
Absolut 86 f., 92, 100. 141 f., 145,
154, 176, 246.
Absonderung 289.
Abstrakt 116, 120, 269.
Achtung (s. a. Anerkennung) 145,
168, 211 ff., 217, 220.
Adel 31, 65, 138, 153, 166, 168,
210, 241.
Aegypten 13, 29, 96, 218, 222, 265.
Ahnung 41. 97 f., 106, 130.
Aktivität 139, 176, 297.
Allgegenwart (Gottes) 105, 111,
116 f., 129 f.
Allgemein 86.
Allmacht (Gottes) 36.
Alltag 298 f., 302.
Almosen 230.
Altar 45, 79.
Altertum (s. a. Antik) 221.
Andacht 6, 112, 125, 149, 155 f.,
159, 196 f., 229, 241, 252, 283,
297.
Andere, der, 210 f.
Andersgläubiger 304, 311 f.
Anderssein, A. Gottes 100 f., 103,
164 f.; A. des Menschen 45,
101, 143 f., 170, 281; A. des
Judentums 291 f., 306.
Anerkennung (s. a. Achtung) 136 f.,
142 f.
Anfang 58, 67. 89 f., 105, 140, 149,
154, 170, 178 f., 186 f.. 200. 202.
205, 251, 312.
Antik (s. a. Altertum) 88, 89, 142,
143, 171, 291 f.
Antropomorphismus 21 f.
Antwort 23, 28, 74, 86, 89, 98 f.,
105 f., 123, 126 f., 132. 135 f.,
149 ff., 154.
Apologie 40, 310 f.
Arbeit 46, 160, 172, 221, 242, 298.
Arbeitsgemeinschaft 221, 242.
Armut (Arm) 6, 32, 156. 227 ff.
Askese 21, 158. 302.
Assimilation (s. a. Gestaltung) 10 f.
Atheismus 29 f.
Attribute Gottes 100, 114.
Aufgabe 23, 46, 65, 69, 77 f., 90, 92,
95, 100, 130 f., 136, 152, 155 f..
165 f., 168 f., 170, 172 f., 175 f.,
209, 210, 213, 246, 248. 253, 273,
283, 297.
Aufrichtigkeit (s. a. Gesinnung u.
Wahrhaftigkeit) 194 f., 241 f.
„Auge um Auge" 223.
Autonomie der Religion (s. a.
Selbständigkeit) 34.
Autor 19. 37.
Autorität 5, 7, 15 f., 19, 23, 129.
Babylon 13 f., 96, 291.
Barbaren 222.
Barmherzigkeit (Erbarmen) 36,
238, 250, 300; B. Gottes 22, 30.
36, 118 f., 145, 181.
Bedeutung (s. a. Sinn) 14, 85 f.,
95, 106, 122, 130 f.. 154, 168,
173, 180 f., 201 f., 254, 290.
Bedingtes 217.
Begrenztheit 86, 122 f., 148 f.
Begriff (Gottesbegriff) 5, 8, 21,
28 f., 34 f., 37, 39, 94. 98, 100,
103 f., 107, 110, 114, 117, 120.
Bejahung 57 f., 86, 87 f., 90, 113,
124, 129, 132, 151.
Bekenntnis (s. a. Sündenbekennt*
nis und Konfession) 4 f., 8, 19,
26 f., 37 f., 39, 47, 49 f., 50, 51 ff..
64, 121, 126, 129, 136, 150 f.,
163, 175, 193, 243, 305. 308 f.
Bekehrung 287. 289 f.. 309 f.
Beruf 50, 59, 66 f.. 69.
Beschämung 225. 243.
Bescheidenheit 148.
Besitz (s. a. Eigentum) 3 f., 6, 16,
18 f., 38 f., 41, 46, 59 f., 77, 92,
117, 154, 167, 172 f., 222, 227 f.
Bestimmung 65, 78, 85, 88, 95, 124.
132, 137, 155, 169, 180 f.
Betrachtung (s. a. Kontemplation)
58. 124, 142.
Bettler 229.
318
Register
Bewegung 1, 3, 176.
Beweis 26, 53, 128, 129; Gottesb.
29 f.
Beziehung (Verhältnis) 30 f., 58,
105 f., 132 f., 165.
Bibel (Heilige Schrift) 13, 14 ff.,
17 ff., 20, 22, 23, 37 f., 63, 75 f.,
87, 89,96, 114, 115 f., 121, 161 f.,
223; B. und Glauben 16 f.
Bild (s. a. Sinnbild) 203.
Billigkeit 22.
Bleibende, das (Dauer) 1 f., 12, 23,
59, 260 f., 265, 306.
Böse (s. a. Sünde) 22, 85, 143 f.,
145 f., 237, 262 f.
Bruder (s. a. Nächster) 58, 90,
212 f., 233.
Buddhismus il, 39, 41 f., 43, 57 f.,
72, 77, 87, 189, 229, 248, 281 f.
Bürgschaft 244 f.
Bund (Verbindung mit Gott) 33,
47, 59, 65, 70, 106, 119, 127,
135, 146, 165 f., 174, 179 f., 211,
244 f., 258, 263, 267 f., 282 f.,
296; der alte, der neue B.
(altes, neues Testament) 73,
135, 247, 288, 295.
Bundeslade 28, 297.
Buße 21, 43.
Chaos 122, 182.
Charakter 11, 14, 30, 71, 76, 160;
' Ch. der Geschichte VII f.; Ch.
der Bibel 17 ff.; Ch. der Reli*
gion 10 f., 33, 36; Ch. des
Judentums (jüdischer) 4, 8, 10,
15, 23, 26, 54, 65, 88, 139, 163,
308.
Christentum 4 ff., 15, 47. 72, 75,
77, 79, 81, 247 f., 275 f.. 287.
Dankbarkeit 301 ff.
Dasein (Existenz, s. a. Leben) 1 f.,
4, 59, 65 f., 71, 77, 79 f., 155.
165; D. Gottes 28 f.; Religiöses
D. 191, 290.
David 270 f.
Dauer s. Bleibendes.
Definition 27 f., 99, 120.
Deismus 164.
Demut 74, 100, 121 ff.. 125, 134,
136, 138 f., 140, 146 f., 148 f.,
170, 195, 229. 250, 254, 269.
Denken 3 ff., 8. 10. 18 f., -23. 26,
28, 31, 35.
Deutlich (Bestimmt, Klarheit) 86 f..
95, 99, 101, 131 f., 135 f.. 149.
169 f., 174.
Dialektik 299.
Diebstahl 241.
Dienst (s. a. Gottesdienst) 58, 69,
102, 136 f., 138 f., 140. 142, 148.
246 f., 272 f., 277 f.. 297.
Diesseits 107, 110, 126, 137, 140,
164 f., 206 f.. 256 f.
Diktatur 232 f.
Divination 27.
Dogma 4 ff., 8 f.. 23, 37, 50, 100,
114, 129, 247, 293, 297.
Doppelt, D. Frömmigkeit, Gerechj:
tigkeit, Religion.Wahrheit 42 f.;
D. Moral 143, 145, 255 f.
Drama 89, 93, 112, 263.
Du (s. a. Er u. Ich) 104, 113 f., 117.
120, 151, 154, 165. 248.
Dualismus 255, 282.
Dulden 151, 153, 310 f.
Duldung (Toleranz) 39, 218, 220.
Ebenbild (Gottes) 20, 60, 90, 165 f.,
168 f., 180 f., 189. 201, 211 f.,
261.
Echtheit 241 f.
Ehe 20, 301.
Ehre 109, 136, 196, 212, 304.
Ehrfurcht 38, 138 ff., 143, 146, 149,
151, 155. 159 f., 170 f., 172, 176.
183. 194 f.. 210 f.. 229, 247. 248.
250. 251 f.. 254, 273.
Eifer 144 ff., 155, 160, 181. 279, 309.
Eigenart (das Eigene) 1 f., 11 f., 59,
73, 153, 289,' 292, 302; E. der
Religion VII f., 11, 49; E. des
Judentums 1 ff., 53 f., 72 f., 87.
91, 94, 99, 110, 117. 126. 139.
146, 167, 187, 252.
Eigenschaften 12; E. Gottes 21 f.,
35 f., 114, 121.
Eigentum (s. a. Besitztum) 10.
23 f., 60. 66, 116. 169, 172.
Eine, Das, 142 f.
Einheit. E. im Menschen 52, 80,
100, 102, HO, 123, 125, 131, 135.
139. 140. 143. 145, 149, 152.
153 f.. 155, 165, 166, 174, 179.
210. 245, 252 f., 256, 260. 264.
282 f., 308; E. Gottes (s. a.
Monotheismus) 35, 66, 67, 81.
86 f., 101 ff., 125, 133, 142; E.
der Religion 40 ff., 44 f.. 50 f.;
E. der Moral 102, 145, 282; E.
der Gemeinde 40 ff., 46; E. in
der Geschichte VII f.; E. des
Judentums 1 ff.
Einigung 142 f.
Einsamkeit 2, 43 f., 156 ff., 176, 182,
201 f., 214, 239. 246, 258, 276.
Einseitigkeit 63.
Einsiedler 40, 42.
Einzelne (s. a. Individuum) 145 f.
Register
319
Einzigartig 14, 57, 168.
Einzigkeit 35 f., 101 f.
Elohim 153, 155.
Emanzipation 311.
Empfindung (Gefühl) 43, 52, 140,
145, 146 ff., 149, 160, 192, 197,
216, 234 f., 237, 241 f., 248, 301 f.
Ende. E. der Tage 251, 256, 274,
312; zu E. denken 192, 255,
299 f.; zu E. handeln 192.
Endlichkeit 86. 111, 135 f., 171 f.,
200 f., 202 f., 206 f., 239, 245,
246, 256.
Energie 12 f.
Entdeckung 13 f., 115 f.
Enthaltsamkeit (s. a. Askese) 302.
Entscheidung 28, 46, 47, 64, 86, 93,
99, 101, 133 f.. 136 f., 139, 141 f.,
145, 146 f., 149 f., 152, 154, 162,
170, 176, 178 f., 182, 191, 193 f.,
205 f., 249 f., 256, 263, 296.
Entstehung 13 f.
Entweihung des göttlichen Namens
179, 190, 196.
Entwicklung 14 ff., 20, 23, 39, 56,
58, 76, 93 f., 103, 171. 198. 259 f.,
261, 302.
Epigonen 17.
Epochen 15 f., 23 f., 38, 93, 257 f.
Er (s. a. Du u. Ich) 104, 113 f.,
117, 151.
Erbarmen s. Barmherzigkeit.
Erbe 3, 18 f., 45, 153.
Erbsünde 177 f.
Erfahrung 52, 55, 128; religiöse E.
27, 31, 35, 41, 52.
Erfolg (Ergebnis) 3 f., 11, 62, 64,
81. 86, 89, 128, 192, 306, 309.
Erfüllung (Abschluß) 52, 67, 152 f..
156, 171, 172 f., 175, 176, 191,
203, 233, 246, 252 f.. 256 f.. 267.
Ergebung 124 ff., 151 f.
Erhabenheit 107 ff., 111, 116 f.. 121.
138. 144, 173 f., 181, 259.
Erholung 298 f.
Erkenntnis 5, 12, 22, 26, 27 f., 41,
53, 106, 129, 148, 277 f., 307;
E. Gottes 20, 29 f., 31 f., 262,
269.
Erleben (Erlebnis) 28, 38, 41, 45,
47, 51 f., 53, 93 f., 105 f., 129 f.,
146 f., 152, 154, 280.
Erleuchtung 5, 47, 48, 146, 175.
Erlösung 5, 48, 58, 164 f., 169,
181 f., 183 f., 187, 189, 202. 207.
214. 244. 247 f.. 265 f.
Erneuerung (s. a. neu) 89 f.. 92.
Ernst 13, 63. 87, 142, 175, 193, 205.
255, 280, 300.
Erwählung (Auserwählung) 59 ff.,
64, 65 ff., 68 f., 77, 80, 132, 182,
Erwartung 75, 127, 252, 256, 282.
Erziehung 151, 184. 198. 236. 245.
291, 302.
Eschatologie 204 f., 273 f.
Esoterisch 41 f.
Ethik (ethisch) 32, 36, 50, 54, 56 f.,
65, 67, 81, 86, 140. 141 f., 145,
162 f., 165, 191 f., 195. 217.
255 f.
Evangelium 20, 73, 247.
Ewig (Ewigkeit) 36, 63, 86 f., 106,
111, li9f., 122, 127, 130 f.,
135 f., 140, 148, 157, 163, 165.
170, 175, 206, 245, 256 f.; E. der
Welt 22; E. Leben 7 f., 201 f.
Existenz s. Dasein.
Exklusivität (Ausschließlichkeit)
41, 42 f.. 64, 65 f., 69, 144.
Extase 112.
Familie 301.
Fatum (s. a. Schicksal) 93, 95, 124.
177, 229, 258.
Feind 215, 236 f., 239.
Feindesliebe 236 f., 240 f.
Ferne 44, 67, 97, 108, 110, 112, 113.
124, 126, 139, 140, 154, 164,
172 ff., 180, 206, 210, 236, 252,
257 f., 259.
Fertig (abgeschlossen) 3, 19, 37,
129, 172, 175, 233, 245, 282, 307.
Feste 22, 160, 298, 300.
Finden 31, 126 f.. 157.
Finsternis (Dunkel) 108, 128, 131.
157 f.
Forderung 4, 30, 32, 34, 44, 46, 56,
86, 89, 92, 132, 135, 142, 155,
159 f., 168 f., 175 f., 191, 211,
217, 248, 252, 259, 266 f.. 307.
Formel (s. a. Glaubensartikel) 5 f.,
7 f., 29, 37.
Forschen 4, 6, 19, 23, 26, 53, 299.
Fortschritt 15, 19, 64, 145. 311.
Frage 15, 19, 23, 37, 89, 98, 123.
124, 126 f., 136, 140, 154, 157.
Freiheit 28, 32, 90, 132 ff., 134 f.,
137 f., 150f., 165, 169f.. 172 ff., 176,
178, 181 f., 190 f., 203, 213, 244,
250, 257 f., 265, 267, 272 f., 299;
Fr. des Willens 30, 188, 193,267;
Fr. der Religion 35; fr. im
Judentum 15 ff., 19.
Fremd (Entfremdung) 176 f., 182.
308.
Fremdling 36, 212, 218 ff.. 301.
Freude 297, 302.
"""""^tf^
320
Register
Friede 89. 112, 158, 202 f., 204, 239,
245, 257, 280. 299.
Frömmigkeit (Fromm) 33, 41, 42,
43, 49, 51, 69 f., 101. 146, 148 f.,
214 f., 220, 252, 297.
Furcht (s. a. Gottesfurcht) 94, 179.
Ganzheit VIT, 1 f.. 14, 15, 58, 130,
140, 142 f., 155, 186, 194 f., 252,
258, 272; G. des Gebotes 44,
46, 299, 305.
Gaonat 7.
Gebet 52, 80, 104, 112, 113 f., 116,
120, 125, 148, 149, 150, 155,
158 f., 167, 184, 196. 238, 239,
247 274 f.
Geborgen 106, 111, 122, 124, 126,
150.
Gebot (s. a. Forderung) 5 f., 20,
31, 33 f., 46, 47, 53 f., 65, 69, 76,
86 f.. 90, 93, 99 f., 101, 130 f..
132 f., 135, 140, 142, 148 f.,
150 f., 155, 172 f., 176. 179. 191.
196 f.. 211. 246, 250, 251 f.. 256.
259, 297 f.. 307.
Gebundenheit 85 f., 137.
Geburt 63, 69, 93, 130, 137, 172,
175, 187, 191, 257.
Gefühl s. Empfindung.
Geheimnis (Rätsel) 6 f., 27, 28, 33,
37. 40 f.. 44. 67, 86 f.. 90, 99,
101, 105 f., 107, 112, 121 f., 124,
129 f., 131, 135 f., 149, 150, 169,
174, 179, 202 f., 250, 254, 256.
Gehorsam 137.
Gegensatz 110 f., 121, 124, 131,
154 f., 165, 173 f.
Gegenwart 3, 9, 23 f., 39, 127 f.,
174. 252, 256, 267.
Geist 29, 94, 204 f., 302, 306; G.
Gottes (heiliger G.) 27, 49, 261;
jüdischer G. 307 f.
Geistigkeit 4, 21 f., 38, 43; geisti*
ges Dasein 4, 9, 11.
Gefehrte 3, 299 f.
Gemeinde (s. a. Gesamtheit) 41 f.,
47, 49 ff., 52 f., 69, 71, 298, 301,
305; jüdische G. 2, 4, 45, 60 ff .,
293 f., 299, 305 f.
Gemeinschaft 50, 52, 66 f., 79,
226 ff.. 233, 244 f., 282.
Genie 10, 12 f., 26 f., 40. 62, 169,
302.
Gerechte, der, 69 f.. 129 f., 134,
242, 244 f., 250, 277.
Gerechtigkeit 22, 31, 58, 74, 143,
215, 217 f., 227 f., 239, 245, 247,
248, 250, 266, 296, 307; G.
Gottes 35 f.. 133 f.. 144 f., 153.
155. 182, 259, 263 f.; doppelte G.
42 f.
Gericht 184, 274.
Gesamtheit, Jüdische, 4, 292 ff.,
305.
Geschaffen (s. a. Schöpfung) 117 f.,
122, 129, 132, 148, 155, 173 f..
176, 179, 254.
Geschichte (s. a. Historie u. Welt^
geschichte) 1, 5, 12, 14, 39,
60 ff., 65, 81, 85, 93 f., 95, 96 f.,
98, 146, 153, 252 f., 255 ff .,
258 f., 260, 263, 267, 275, 281 f.,
310 f.; G. als Ganzes VII, 1.4;
G. des Judentums 1, 4, 8, 11 f.,
15 f., 17, 24, 26, 40, 55, 61, 80.
89, 152, 163, 192, 193, 240 f.,
276 ff.
Geschichtspsychologie VII, 17 f.
Gesellschaft (s. a. Gemeinschaft)
212, 226 ff., 231 f., 244 f., 249,
308.
Gesetz 32, 86 f., 94 f., 107, 231 f..
233, 242, 295 f., 302 f.
Gesetzesreligion 16, 295 ff.
Gesinnung 193 f., 195 f., 241 f., 298,
302, 310.
Gestaltung 10 f., 12 f.
Gewalt 77, 192, 227 f., 231, 255,
306 f.
Gewissen 28, 30, 32, 34. 65, 78, 93.
101, 144, 189. 193. 205 f.. 302,
307.
Gewißheit 4, 20, 30 f.. 44. 59 f.,
62 ff., 75, 78, 86 f., 89, 92, 95,
101, 106, 112, 115, 118 f., 123 f..
126, 128, 129, 131, 136, 150, 154,
156, 185, 249, 251, 253.
Ghetto 2 f., 289 f.
Gläubig 248.
Glaube 5 f., 17, 30, 35, 41, 48, 49,
52 f., 54 f., 69. 80, 81, 85 f., 90 f.,
103, 129 f., 141, 146 f.. 148 f.,
153, 164 f., 174, 183, 195, 207 f.,
217, 247, 249, 251,259,262, 282,
295 f., 305, 307, 309 f.; Gl. an
Gott 141 f., 146, 162 f., 164; Gl.
an sich 3 f., 9 f., 60, 66, 173 f.;
Gl. und Tat 32, 132, 149 ff.. 153,
207 f., 247, 282, 296.
Glaubensartikel 5 f., 7 f., 129.
Glaubensbehörde 7.
Glaubensgemeinschaft siehe Ge«
meinde.
Glaubensgut 5, 31, 129, 282.
Glaubenslehre 4. 6, 9, 129, 207 f.
Glaubensverfassung 2, 293.
Gleichgültigkeit 87, 88, 145, 146.
Gleichheit 69, 222. 223, 248, 267 f.
Register
321
I
Gleichnis (s. a. Sy.mbol) 28, 97 f.,
107 f., 109, 115, 120. 134, 166,
208, 262.
Glück 68, 87 f., 93, 150, 200, 204.
Gnade (Gnadengabe, s. a. Heil)
28, 32, 42, 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 92.
120, 129. 170, 182, 214, 217. 248,
259, 295.
Gnosis 5, 34, 47, 129.
Götter 56, 76, 93 f., 102 f.
Göttin 94.
Götzendienst 29, 79 f.. 126, 136,
203 f., 262.
Gott, Mein, 72, 104, 112. 115, 127,
136; ohne G. 87; G. dcrVäter 2.
Gottesbeweis 29, 190, 273, 303 f.
Gottesdienst 136 f., 150, 246, 298,
300 f.
Gottesfurcht (s. a, Ehrfurcht) 33,
69 f., 74. 134, 138 ff., 175, 189,
194 f., 247, 251, 269, 273, 307.
Gottesgebot 162 f.
Gotteshaus 158 f., 298.
Gottesknecht 66 f., 277 ff.
Gottesreich (Himmelreich) 58, 77,
92, 137 f., 144, 146, 150, 174, 190,
191, 208, 231, 233, 245, 257,
271 ff., 274, 281 f., 283.
Gottlos 69, 143 f., 236 f., 238.
Gottvertrauen 20, 52, 126 ff., 183.
Griechentum (Hellenen) 11, 13, 34,
41, 46, 58. 61 f., 63, 88, 96, 102,
142, 171, 2ü8, 221 f.. 248 f., 282,
288 ^95
Grund 59, 78, 86 f., 90 f.. 95. 110,
113, 135, 153 f., 165, 179. 182,
200 f., 210, 25a.
Gut (das Gute) 31, 54, 85, 89 f.,
92. 101 f., 122, 130 f., 133 f.. 136.
141 f.. 143, 148, 263.
Güte 88, 110 f., 238, 242.
Hagada 97 f., 99 f.
Handlung s. Tat.
Haß 73 f., 145, 146, 236. 238, 239 f.,
289.
Haus (Familie) 298.
Hebräisch (s. a. Sprache) 221, 229.
Heiden 22, 63, 69 f., 73 f.. 76, 102 f.,
126, 203, 220, 262, 275, 288.
Heil 5, 39, 45, 48, 58, 78, 69, 92,
145, 183, 189, 259, 267, 282.
Heilstatsachen 5.
Heilig 41, 64. 65, 91 f., 101 f., 143 f.,
169 f., 171 f., 173 f., 178, 204,
259, 291, 298.
Heilige 40, 42, 43.
Heilige Schrift s. Bibel.
Heiligkeit Gottes 35, 56, 106, 164 f.
Baeck. Wesen des Judentums
Heiligung 178, 189 f., 206. 282. 293.
298, 301; H. des göttlichen
Namens 54, 92, 190 f., 193, 196,
245, 265, 273, 303 f f .. 305.
Heimat 308.
Heldentum (Heroismus) 80. 89 f.,
163. 190 f., 193 f.
Herz 20, 196 f., 205 f.
Heuchelei 171 f., 196, 241 f.
Hierarchie 7. 42. 232.
Historie (s. a. Gechichte) VII. 17,
62. 260. 295.
Hölle 204 f.
Hoffnung (Zuversicht) 31. 36. 39,
54 f.. 88. 140, 154 f., 199. 252,
273, 311.
Humanität 46, 210, 220. 224 f., 240,
248 f.
Jahwe 153, 155, 161 f.
Ich (s. a. Du u. Er) 58, 104, 113 f.,
117, 120, 133, 154, 165, 172, 248.
Ideal 16, 24, 42, 44, 47, 49, 51, 54.
.58. 69, 71, 85, 88, 138, 143,
148, 171 f., 173, 175, 192, 199,
201, 232, 247, 269 f., 278, 299 f.,
307.
Idealismus 142, 193 f., 299 f.
Idee 18 f., 34, 58, 68 f., 71, 76, 90,
96, 104, 114 f., 116 f., 153, 161,
164, 279, 294, 307.
Jenseits 31, 35, 107, 110, 126, 129,
137 f., 140, 164 f., 203 f., 205 f.,
246, 256 f.. 273.
Immanenz 107, 164, 173, 256.
Individuum 71, 81. 113, 123, 158.
165. 167, 177, 231 f.
Individualität 12, 47, 292 f.
Intuition VIII, 26 f.
Irdisch 88, 108, 113, 156, 170, 182,
202 f.
Ironie 259, 262.
Irrational 99.
Irrtum 5, 62, 64, 188.
Islam 8, 11, 39, 72, 77, 81, 275 f.
Israel (s. a. jüdisches Volk und
Volkstum)' 9 f., 26. 36, 57 ff ..
65 f., 68. 72, 79, 269 f., 306 ff..
309.
Jude 1 f., 8, 46, 69 f., 78, 80, 194.
Judentum 8, 15, 26. 40 f., 57 f.,
76 f., 80 f., 192, 291 f., 307 f.,
310.
Kaddisch 273, 304.
Kampf (Ringen) 3 f., 12, 16, 23, 28,
29, 73 f., 75, 89 f., 93. 142, 145,
146, 148. 158; K
Dasein 4, 9, llf
Karäer 8.
ums geistig©
287.
31
«ftw
Wiiltht
Hn'hmii uvnm^i
■»I ||»ii»i»iiw».
im
mfmm
322
Register
Kategorisch 141 f., 145 f., 192, 255.
Katholizismus 41, 50 f., 72, 293;
griechischer K. 11, 72.
Keuschheit 20 f.
Kind Gottes 66, 90, 166, 168 f.,
178, 180 f., 212 f., 218.
Kirche 2, 6 f., 42. 50 f., 69, 77,
288 f., 293, 305 ff.
Klarheit s. Deutlich.
Klassisch 14, 39 f., 58 f., 221.
Knecht (siehe auch Gottesknecht,
Sklave) 198, 221 ff., 265.
König 116, 269.
Komödie 278, 279.
Kompromiß (Konzession, Paktie*
ren) 9, 30, 54, 61, 142, 145, 218,
255, 283, 287, 290.
Konfession (s. a. Bekenntnis) 50 f.,
69, 129, 220, 247 f.. 295, 309 f.
Kontemplation 112, 125, 142.
Kontinuität 1 f., 15, 292.
Kontrast 108, 124, 173, 246.
Kosmos 58, 122, 282.
Kraft 12, 28, 44, 60. 89, 117, 129,
134, 145. 156, 192, 201. 290.
Kreatur 170, 174.
Krieg 268.
Kultur 1, 2, 9 f., 11 f., 81, 221, 225,
311.
Kultus 242, 281.
Kunst 108.
Läuterung 178 f., 185 f.
Laie 45, 48, 49, 50.
„Last des Gesetzes" 297 f.
Leben 17, 2Q, 30 f., 33, 38, 44, 54.
85, 91, 95, 130 f., 132, 135, 146 f.,
148 f., 152 f.. 154, 155 f., 170,
174, 191, 192, 193, 195, 201 f.,
203, 206, 207, 225. 237. 246, 251,
259; L. und Religion 33 f., 40,
43, 49, 51, 52 f., 207. 250, 298,
304.
Lebendig, Der 1. Gott. 94 f., 99,
104 f., 113, 117.
Lehre (s. a. Thora, mündliche
Lehre) 4, 8, 16 f., 19. 20 f^ 38,
46, 49 f.. 53, 192, 225, 295.
Lehrer 27, 45, 46.
Lehrhaus 43.
Leid 34, 74, 87 f.. 89. 124 ff., 149 ff..
193, 229, 240, 277 f.
Leidenschaft 145, 217. 249.
Leistung 136, 148, 153. 155.
Licht 128, 131, 157 f.
Liebe (s. a. Nächstenliebe, Fein*
deslicbe) 20 f., ?>1, 58, 75, 149,
153, 198 f., 239, 242 f.. 245, 247;
L. zu Gott 20, 32, 35, 52, 139 f.,
146, 150, 191; L. Gottes 22, 32,
.36, 38, 117 f., 125, 13.3, 146, 153,
155, 180 f.. 182, 242. 259, 267.
Lied 123 f.
Literatur s. Schrifttum.
Logik 3, 57, 164.
Logos 116.
Lohn 198 ff., 204 f.
Lust 89 f.
Lyrik 115 f., 123 f.
Macht 3, 7-, 9, 75. 81. 128, 169, 255.
261 ff.. 265, 269. 272 f., 291 f..
305 f.. 307, 309.
iMartyrium (Märtyrer) 3, 46, 51,
62, 74. 151. 163. 190 ff., 193 ff.,
203, 243, 278. 300, 302.
Materialismus 161, 205, 310.
Mehrheit 3 f., 307.
Menge (s. a. Viele) 3 f., 11, 167 f.,
265, 280, 307.
Mensch 17. 22, 30 f., 34, 37 f., 50,
69 f., 78 f., 86 f., 93 f., 123, 130,
134, 145, 155, 166 f., 210 f., 215,
232, 269.
Menschenferne 44, 158 f.
Menschenliebe 36, 73, 88, 217,
239 f., 296.
Menschenrecht 215 f., 217 f., 222,
224, 227, 233.
Menschentum (Menschlichkeit) 22,
166 f., 220, 242, 247 f.. 274. -
Menschheit 42, 66 f., 68 f., 72, 77,
90, 166 f., 253, 256 f., 260 f.,
267 f., 274, .283.
Messianisch (m. Aufgabe, m. Idee)
199, 21.3, 226, 230, 233. 239, 247.
248, 252 f., 255 f., 271 f., 274,
276. 281.
Messianische Zeit (s. a. Zukunft)
54, 271 ff., 295, 307.
Messias (s. a. David) 66, 270 f.
Metaphysik 34.
Mildtätigkeit 22.
Minderheit (s. a. die Wenigen) 3,
305 f., 307.
Mission 54, 66, 77 ff., 287, 290,
304 f., 309.
Mitleid 119, :ä34, 242. 248.
Mitmensch 210 ff.. 225, 227, 236 f.,
239 f., 246, 247 f.
Mittelalter 3, 8, 9, 23, 46, 48, 54,
63, 71, 80, 152, 197, 198 f., 217.
240.
116 f.
184.
Register
323
Mittelwesen
Mittler 183,
Mizwa 208.
Modern 292.
Mönch 41 f..
43.
Monotheismus (s. a. Einheit) 10,
34, 35 f.. 56 ff.. 67 f., 87, 100 ff..
105, 126, 142 f., 145, 149, 167,
255, 264, 282.
Moral (s. a. Ethik) 50, 90, 143, 146,
163, 217, 255, 260, 282 f., 296 f.
Moseh 14, 15. 18, 38, 161, 265.
Mündliche Lehre (Talmud) 6,
7 f., 16 ff., 20, 23, 29, 36 f., 38,
46, 73, 121, 294.
Mut 9, 101, 193, 243.
Mysterium 5, 185.
Mystik 23, 33, 41, 44, 46, 49, 54.
97, 100, 112, 134, 143, 154,
164 f., 204, 247, 273 f., 299.
Mythologie 92 ff., 95 f., 97 ff., 102,
105, 115, 117, 134, 142, 191, 205.
Mythos 34, 95 f.. 97 ff., 100 f., 165,
177. 191, 252, 258
Nächstenliebe 20, 92, 217, 234, 240,
247, 300 f.
Nächster (s. a. Bruder, Mitmensch)
90, 211 f., 227, 234.
Nähe 67, 97, 109 f., 112, 113, 116.
121, 124, 126, 129, 135. 139. 140,
154, 172, 180, 206, 210. 236, 252,
257, 259; N. Gottes 31, 33, 41,
42, 45, 47, 111, 115, 135. 137.
158 f., 181 f., 200 f.
National 65 f., 67 f., 70 ff .
Natürliches 11. 43, 95. 254.
Natur 34, 43, 94, 98, 101, 103, 105,
138, 260, 264.
Naturpoesie 109.
Naturrecht 220.
Naturreligion 56, 203.
Nebenmensch (s. a. Mitmensch)
90, 21Ö ff., 227.
Negation (s. a. Verneinung) 143 f.,
150 f., 235 f., 238.
Neu (s. a. Erneuerung) 19, 23.
37 f., 56, 57, 58, 129. 161, 186 f.,
257, 265, 281.
Neujahr 175, 184, 274.
Neutralität 143, 146.
Noah 70, 218 f.
Notwendigkeit 95 f.
Nutzen 169, 194, 306. 308.
Oberfläche (Oberflächlichkeit) 85,
87. 95.
Objekt 28. 130, 134. 153. 177.
Offenbarung 5, 14, 23, 27 f.. 29, 31,
34, 39, 54. 57 f., 59 ff., 78 f.,
94 f., 96. 99, 103, 105, 109, 129,
131, 133. 136, 143, 153, 156,
157 f., 165, 246, 254, 260, 282.
308.
Opfer 20 f.. 32, 79, 184 ff., 192, 203,
308 f., 310.
Opportunismus 141 f.
Optimismus 85 ff., 89 f.. 95, 122,
124, 142, 145. 155 f.. 208, 232,
259, 309.
Orden 41 f., 44.
Ordnung 30, 85 f., 95, 103, 107.
Organisch VII f.
Originalität 12 ff.
Orthodoxie (Rechtgläubigkeit) 5 f.,
8, 23, 50, 247 f.
Paktieren s. Kompromiß.
Palästina 24, 71, 308.
Pantheismus 164.
Paradies 173 f., 181, 204 f., 213, 278.
Paradoxie 30, 106 f., 111, 114 f.,
116, 123, 131 F., 136, 155, 164,
173 f., 176, 181, 201. 204 f., 308.
Partikularismus 46. 65 f.
Pathos 55, 89, 145, 262. 283.
Patriarchen 2. 14, 15, 69, 160 f.
Paulus 78, 183, 295 f.
Perioden (Zeitalter) 9, 15, 23, 25, 39.
Person 19.
Persönlichkeit 1 f., 9 f.. 11 f., 14 f..
28 f.. 37 f.. 39, 42, 47, 57, 60, 64,
71, 81, 85 f., 90, 95. 113 f.. 120 f..
122 f.. 124, 133 f., 135. 147, 151.
153, 158, 165, 168, 191, 233, 270;
Der persönliche Gott 104,
113 ff., 116 f., 123. 133 f.
Pessimismus 2, 85 f f ., 87, 95, 122.
124, 207, 232, 246, 259.
Pflicht 6, 31, 33, 69, 92, 130 f.,
133 f., 135, 138, 140. 142, 148 f..
171, 176, 189, 193, 208. 209. 213,
217, 228. 279, 290, 309.
Phantasie 33, 116, 197, 203, 204.
Pharisäer 45, 52.
Philosophie (s. a. Religionsphilo«
Sophie) 4, 6, 26, 34, 46, 49, 61 f.,
63, 85, 98. 103. 114. 116. 125,
128. 142, 143, 174. 211, 224 f.,
249. 282.
Pietismus 41.
Plato 63, 116, 142. 231 f.
Platz 4, 24, 73, 88, 122, 127. 137,
148 f., 166, 172 f., 176, 206.
Poesie (s. a. Naturpoesie) 96, 97 f.,
^ 99 f., 109. 115 f.. 117 f.. IH 161,
218.
Polarität 107, 154 f.. 256.
Polytheismus 64, 100 f., 102.
Postulat 106, 165, 174.
Predigt 48, 128, 159 f., 175, 278,
290, 303, 306.
Preisen, Gott pr., 125 f., 150.
Priester 6, 22, 41, 45. 47 f.. 70. 300.
Prinzip 4. 8. 20, 26, 46, 56 f.; Pr.
der Thora 4, 6, 20.
Problem 26, 30 f., 233.
21»
■NMifai
324
Register
Register
325
Profan 41» L >.
Prophet 10, II f.. 15, 20 f., 25,
26 ff., 31 it., 40 f., 43, 61, 66,
68, 72 f., 80, 89, 99, 130, 156,
161, 243, 247, 260, 264.
Prophetische Religion 37, 42, 56,
146.
Prophetismus 16, 39, 90, 177, 185,
227, 253.
Proselyt 54, 80, 137. 310
Protest (s. Widerspruch)
Protestantismus (Reformation) 7,
47 f., 49 ff., 72, 81. 309.
Prüfung 147, 151 f., 175 f.
Psalmen 20, 22, 29.
Psychologie VII, VIII, 26 ff.
Quietismus 57 f., 282.
Rache 74 f., 236.
Radikal 281.
Rätsel (s. a. Geheimnis) 30, 34, 86,
123 f.
Rasse 166.
Rationalismus 154, 164.
Real (Realität) 92, 141. 143 f., 232,
251.
Rechenschaft 174 f., 243, 267, 274.
Recht (s. a. Menschenrecht) 32,
149, 217, 230, 262 f., 307, 310.
Rechtfertigung 48, 258, 279.
Rechtgläubigkeit s. Orthodoxie.
Reformation s. Protestantismus.
Reinheit 90, 169 f.. 172 f.. 176 f.,
178, 181 f., 186 f., 203, 250,
257 f., 298 f.
Religion (s. a. Konfession) 6 f., 8,
10, 18, 23, 25. 29. 33 f., 36 ff .,
39. 41,51,58.63,66,76,77,81,85,
94. 103 f., 128. 131. 135. 139.
146. 153; R. u. Leben 33 f., 36.
Religionen 11, 58, 76 f., 81, 85, 102,
132, 255, 290, 311.
Religionsgeschichte 14 f., 23 f., 56,
62, 160.
Religionsgesetz 10 f., 23. 49, 292 ff.,
295 f.
Reiigionsphilosophie 4, 8, 54. 114;
jüdische R. 4, 23, 49, 100.
Religiosität 32, 41, 49, 51, 53, 93 f.,
104 f., 132, 147, 148 f.; jüdische
R. 47, 107. 117. 126, 130 f., 132,
135, 144, 149, 154, 163, 172 f.,
193, 207. 213 f.. 246, 299, 305,
308.
Renaissance 23 ff.. 38 f.
Resignation 88. 124. 249.
Reue 171.
Revolution 57, 281.
Richten 21. 32, 65, 74 f.. 133. 160,
175 f.
Ritus 296 f.
Römer 222, 224 f., 287 f.
Romantik 43, 280.
Ruhe (s. a. Sabbat) 3, 57 f.. 88,
89 f.. 112. 117. 129. 176.189.202;
Elemente der R. 15 ff.
Ruhm 32.
Sabbat 44. 159 203, 224, 228, 242,
294, 298, 300.
Sakrament 5, 6, 41, 42, 46, 48, 49,
183. 185, 297 f.
Schaffen 254, 277 f.
Schauen 27 f.
Schechinah 282, 283.
Schein 43, 171 f., 192.
Schicksal T Verhängnis, s. a. Fas
tum) 3, 16, 3(). 78. 85, 89 f.,
93 f., 95 f., 98, 100 f., 105, 117,
122, 124, 132. 1.34. 137, 138 f.,
142, 144. 150 f., 157, 165, 176.
177, 179 f., 191 f., 205, 229, 252,
258, 260. 272, 278.
Schöpferisch, Das Seh. im Mens
sehen (der Mensch als Schöp:?
fer) 95, 129. 130 ff.. 149 f.. 152,
155. 169 f.. 182. 186 f., 191. 205,
229. 244, 250. 251 f., 257 f.,
305; das Seh. in den Propheten
25 ff.; das Seh. in der Ge*
schichte VII f.
Schöpfung 35, 67. 86 f., 93, 105,
109, 136, 1.57, 164, 210, 242, 251,
260.
Scholastik 129.
Schriftgelehrte 46.
Schrifttum (Literatur) 18, 24, 128,
152, 240, 299.
Schuld 171, 176, 177, 187, 189,
244 f., 272.
Schuldigkeit 171 f., 176, 230, 234.
241 f.
Schwärmerei 211, 236.
Schweigen 6, 27, 43, 58, 97, 108,
125, 246.
Seele 28, 43 f., 91, 127, 133, 148,
157 f., 167 f., 172, 191, 193 f.,
197, 234.
Seelsorge 243 f.
Segen 302.
Segensspruch 275, 298.
Sehnsucht 34, 43, 75, 78, 93, 111 ff.,
114, 120, 125, 128, 129, 133,
140 f., 1.54, 1.57 f., 165, 172 f.,
181 f., 199 f., 201 f., 206. 217,
239, 245. 247, 252, 282.
Sein 26, 15.3.
Selbstbehauptung 4, 12, 116
I
Selbständigkeit 12, 20, 61, 132,
133 f., 140, 176; S. des Juden*
tums (s. a. Originalität) 12 f.;
S. der Religion 30, 36, 51.
Selbstbewußtsein 168, 171.
Selbsterhaltung 290 ff.
Selbsterkenntnis VIII, 31, 57, 60,
121, 147 f., 149, 175 f.
Selbstgefälligkeit 51 f., 147 t., 162,
188.
Selbstgerechtigkeit 39, 51, 188, 239,
243.
Selbstlosigkeit 197 f.
Selbstsucht 214.
Selbstzufriedenheit 87.
Selbstzweck 147.
Seligkeit (s. a. Ewiges Leben) 5 f.,
8. 69, 199 f., 203 f., 206, 220,
247 f.
Senden 40, 77, 89 f., 246 f., 252,
256, 267, 282.
Sentimentalität 148, 211, 216, 248,
280.
Septuaginta 79, 295.
Siebzig Völker 78 f.
Sinn (des Lebens) 29, 54, 59, 77,
85 f., 90. 92, 95, 101, 105 f., 111,
113. 115, 117 f.. 122, 129, 131,
135, 143, 148, 150, 152 f., 155 f.,
166, 174, 178 f., 209. 210, 254,
264.
Sinnbild (s. a. Symbol) 28, 40.
Sittengesetz 56, 74, 137, 162 f.
Sittenlehre 207 f.
Sittliche, das. 26. 31. 45, 54, 56,
86 f., 100 f.. 102 f., 134. 136. 138,
• 142 f.. 148. 169. 170 f.. 172 f.,
205, 207 f., 266.
Sittlichkeit 50, 266, 306.
Sklave 220 ff ., 223 ff.
Sozial 214, 216, 225 ff., 231 f.,
241 f., 244, 247, 248, 272, 276.
Sozialismus 231 ff.
Spannung 24, 110 ff., 126, 128,
13H., 140. 154 f., 164, 172 f.,
199, 202, 206, 210, 236 f., 252,
278, 308.
Speisegesetze 302.
Spekulation 26, 34, 36, 100, 129.
204.
Sprache (s. a. Wort) 10, 27, 28, 38,
45, 51, 96, 97 f., 115 f., 150, 161.
Staat 50 f.. 212, 226, 231 f., 233,
255, 258. 282 f., 308 f.
Stil 20, 37. 89. 156. 292. 308.
Stille (s. a. Schweigen) 44, 89, 159.
Stimmung 43, 52, 147, 193, 252.
Stoa 224, 248 f.
Strafe 73 f., 178. 180, 198 f., 204.
Streben 171 f.
Stufen der Religion 40 f., 45.
Subjekt 95, 130. 134. 192. 199.
Succession 7.
Suchen 4. 6. 19. 28, 44, 96, 126 f.,
154, 157, 173. 232, 307; S.
Gottes 21, 31, 33.
Sühne 178 f., 184 f., 276 ff .
Sünde 22. 34. 65. 145 f.. 148. 176,
177 ff.. 186 f., 188, 199, 244, 257,
266, 276.
Sündenbekenntnis 294.
Sünder 22, 73 f.. 244.
Symbol (s. a. Sinnbild) 40. 97 f.,
99 f., 108, 161, 166, 184, 276,
298.
Symbolum 5
Synhedrium 7.
System VII, 8, 15, 37. 39.
Tag 17 f., 128, 129, 156; kommende
T. 67, 88 f., 249, 251 f., 253,
256 f., 265, 269 f.
Talmud s. Mündliche Lehre.
Tapferkeit 243.
Targum 116, 235, 250.
Tat (religiöse) 6, 32 f.. 46, 49, 51,
52 f., 54, 57 f., 69, 95, 100, 103,
132, 136, 140, 142, 146 f., 148 f..
169, 175, 182, 191 f., 193, 195,
204, 213, 247, 252, 294, 300, 304
308.
Tatsache (Tatsächlichkeit) 3, 30,
55, 59, 65, 74, 85, 88, 129, 132,
1^5. 173, 192, 213.
Tempel 29.
Theodizee 266.
Theogenie 93.
Theologie 26, 46, 48, 49, 50 f.
Theorie 26 f., 28 f., 49, 129, 233.
Thora 18, 21, 46 f., 48, 168, 192,
211. 214, 224 f., 233. 247, 249,
257, 291, 295 f., 298. 300.
Tiefe 27, 59, 78, 86 f.. 91, 108,
121 f., 131, 149. 209. 246.
Tier 241 f.
Tod 93, 144, 150 f.. 175. 191 f.,
193 f.. 200 f.. 202 f.. 253, 256 f..
.301.
Toleranz s. Duldung.
Tradition (s. a. Überlieferung) 15.
53. 292.
Tragödie *89 f . 93, 113. 152, 154,
173. 179. 246. 252. 278 f.
Transcendenz 107, 164, 173, 256.
Traum 43, 247.
Treue 118 f., 279, 290. 297. 308 f.
Trost 75. 118, 200, 229. 254. 258 f.,
263, 278, 280 f.
Tugend 46, 145.
Typen der Frömmigkeit 45 f.
iMiii*«
^>u«
326
Register
Übel 228.
Überlieferung (s. a. Tradition) 3,
7, 15, 20, 22, 23 f.. 28.
Überrest 278 ff.. 291.
Übersetzung (s. a. Septuaginta,
Targum) 162.
Überweltlichkeit (s a. Transccn*
denz).
Überzeugung 3 f., 51, 53, 62 f., 80,
101. 194 f., 306, 308, 310, 312.
Umkehr 88, 178 ff., 184, 187 f.,
202 f., 206, 228, 239. 244. 257,
265 f.
Umwandlung 88 f., 186 f.
Unabhängigkeit 12, 23, 61 f.; U.
der Relii^ion 37.
Unaussprechlich 27, 28, 37 ff., 97,
107, 161.
Unbedingt 56. 86, 92, 120, 133,
141 f., 145, 170, 190 f.. 192, 217,
281.
Unendlich 41, 106, 108. 111, 115,
119 f., 122, 140 f., 148, 157, 16?,
165, 170 ff., 175, 180, 200 f.,
202 f., 205, 207, 233. 238, 239,
246, 253, 254, 257, 283.
Unergründlich (unerforschlich, un*
faßbar) 6, 41, 106 f., 115. 126,
- 131 f., 133.
Unglück 126.
Universalismus 46, 6o f., 68, 70 f.,
73 f., 75 f., 77, 220.
Universum s. Welt
Unmittelbarkeit 117, 165. 182 f.
Unrecht 145 f., 240, 262 f.. 304, 309.
Unschuld 188 f.
Unsterblichkeit 202 f., 205 f., 256 f.
Urheber (s. a. Subjekt) 153.
Ursache (ursächlich) 85 f., 95, 150,
156 f.
Ursprung 86 f., 105, 130 f., 135,
174, 176, 178 f., 180, 182, 186 f.,
200. 247, 251. 257 f.
Ursprüngiichkeit (s. a. Oriöinali*
tat) 8 ff., 90, 251. 260.
Urteil 13 f., 57. 59, 76. 85.
Vater, Gott als V.. 38, 115 f., 117,
146.
Verachtung (s. a. Achtung) 88 f.
Veränderung 15 f., 19.
Verantwortlichkeit 30. 66, 91 f.,
138 f., 141, 169, 174 f.. 178,
182 f., 184, 188 f., 190. 190. 233,
267, 275, 277 f.
Verborgen 86 f.. 95, 106 f., 108,
117 f., 124. 126. 131. 133. 202 f..
283.
Verbundenheit (mit Gott) 41, 52.
103 f.. 105 f.. 109 f., 113, 117,
121, 126. 158. 163. 165.
Verdienst 172.
Verfolgung 3. 163. 188. 193. 240 f..
289, 310 f.
Verganr 'heit 2, 9, 12, 24 f.. 40,
59, , 258. 283, 291.
Vergebt aji 74, 181 f.
VergeH' ig 223, 237, 242.
Verhuii IS s. Beziehung.
Verheißung 3, 68, 91. 200. 249,
251 f.. 258 f.
Vermittlung s. Mittler.
Verneinung 29. 57 f.. 88 f.
Vernunft 165.
Versenkung 44, 112, 124, 146.
Versöhnung 58, 89, 90, 155, 178 ff.,
181 f., 183 f., 189 f., 202 f., 228,
239 f., 243 f., 248, 257, 265, 267.
272, 276 f., 281 f.
Versöhnungstag 184, 203, 257, 274,
302.
Versuchung 177. "
Vertrauen (s. a. Gottvertrauen)
112 f., 139 f., 200, 281.
Verwirklichung 23, 33, 47, 52, 76,
86. 88. 92, 95, 132, 143 f., 146 f.,
153, 169 f., 171, 172, 191, 195,
213, 233, 244, 246, 251 f., 253.
272, 281 f.. 294.
Verzückung 214. 246.
Vielen, die (s. a. Mehrheit), 3 f.,
61, 192, 280, 305.
Volk 65, 71, 79, 260 f., 268.; jüdi.
schcs V. (s. a. Israel) 59, 64,
71 f., 79, 152 f., 291 ff.'
Völker 25, 64, 66 f., 73 f.. 75. 78 f..
166.
Volkstum 249; jüdisches V. 2. 26.
Vollendung (s. a. Erfüllung) 37,
172. 200. 203. 205. 252. 253.
Vollkommenheit 39, 58. 172, 200.
205. 257.
Wahl (s. a. Entscheidung) 86. 93.
95, 99, 133, 134 f.. 137 f.. 141 f.
Wahrhaftigkeit 64, 101, 142, 194 f..
197 f., 241, 242 f.
^^V?^*t?^' ^' ^' ^^' 26 f.. 59 ff..
o^x" ?^ ^^' ^^Ö' religiöse W.
27 f., 33, 39; doppelte W. 42.
Wanderungen 2, 24.
Warten 74, 89. 112. 127 f.
Warum i25.
^^8 (Richtung) 3, 9. 58 f., 88 f..
153 f., 171. 172 f.. 176; w!
Gottes 31, 33^ 78. 176.214,247,
283; W. zu Gott 31. 41. 44, 47]
'Ü
Register
327
i
.'•i I
55. 58. 78. 90 f., 93. 131, 179.
200. 214. 248. 272; W. des
Menschen 3. 9. 32 f.. 46, 58 f.,
88 f., 94, 130 f., 131, 135 f., 142,
150 f., 152, 153 f., 171, 172 f.,
176, 179, 182 f., 188. 202 f., 205,
239. 247 f.. 251 f.. 259 f.. 263 f.,
266 f. ; \V. zum Menschen 44.
58, 244. 245 f.. 247.
Wehmut 247 f.
Weihe 42. 45. 159.
Weise 9, 21, 88.
Weisheit 6. 32 f.. 78. 126. 128, 139,
152. 249.
Welt (s. a. Schöpfung. Univer*
sum) 1. 4, 30 f., 34, 43, 67, 72,
76, 85 f., 88, 91, 105, 109, 131 f.,
134, 155 f., 158 f., 187. 246. 260,
264, 272. 282.
Weltanschauung 33, 85.
Weltflucht 302.
Weltgericht 264, 266.
Weltgeschichte (s. a. Geschichte)
66, 68, 76, 85, 260, 264 f.. 275 f.
Weltkirche 76 f.
Weltlich 42 f., 282.
Weltreligion 67 f., 76 f., 80 f.
Wenigen, die (s. a. Minderheit),
3 f.. 61, 192, 279 f., 305 ff .
Werden 12, 14, 23, 58, 129, 130,
132 135 282
Werke, Öute, 50, 282, 294, 300.
Wert 12 f., 57, 65, 85, 91, 101, 122,
129, 131, 143, 150, 154 f., 173 f.,
191, 201 f., 209, 210 f.
Wesen 1 ff., 13 f.; W. Gottes 6,
21 f., 30 f., 53, 86f.; W. der Re==
ligion (des Judentums) 8, 26,
30, 34, 40, 42, 60, 63, 66, 69,
75 ff., 85, 92, 146, 297; W. der
Geschichte VII f., 1 f., 13 f.
Widerspruch 9, 15, 19, 29 f., 44,
64, 88, 101, 103, 124, 129, 142,
143, 152, 280 f., 289. 306 f.
Wiedergeburt 186 ff.. 202 f., 257 f.
Wille 49, 53, 57, 88 ff., 93, 100,
124, 130 f., 133 f.; 137 f., 140,
141 ;W. Gottes 30 f., 44, 54, 94,
100, 133. 137; W. zum Juden*
tum 7.
Wirklichkeit 24, 65, 86, 90, 95, 129,
130 f., 138. 141. 154, 156. 172,
174. 178. 201. 207. 263. 264.
Wissen 5. 6 f.. 9. 48. 49. 63. 140,
146. 148. 154. 175; W. und
Glauben 36 f., 48 ff., 62 f.
Wissenschaft 3, 36 f., 63 f., 85.
Wohlwollen 216 f., 234.
Wohltätigkeit 217 f.. 227. 234,
300 f.
Wort (s. a. Sprache) 5, 10, 19,
28 f., 38, 40, 49, 51, 53, 100.
115 f.. 161; W. Gottes 17, 28,
48. 68, 78, 133, 159 f.
Würde 65, 150, 152 f., 166 f., 168,
210 f.. 222. 227. 229.
Wunder 28. 32. 42. 47, 98. 107. 132.
248. 270, 272, 290, 295.
Zahl 76, 102. 279, 306.
„Zahn um Zahn" 223.
Zaun um die Lehre 17, 64, 294 ff.,
298 ff., 302 f.
Zedaka 216 f., 225 ff .. 231, 239,
250.
Zeichen 97, 159, 292 ff., 298.
Zeit s. Epoche, Periode.
Zeremonialgesetz 53 f.. .294 ff.,
300 f.
Zeugnis von Gott 51, 92, 190 f.,
194, 243, 303 f.. 308.
Ziel 58, 67 f., 77, 88, 131, 153 f.,
158, 165, 172 f., 179, 200 f., 206,
210, 251 f., 256 f., 266, 271, 295,
311.
Zion (Jerusalem) 68, 79. 276, 280,
308.
Zorn 73 f., 118, 144 f.. 160.
Zufall 93 f., 95 f., 105, 252.
Zugeständnis (Konzession, s. a.
Kompromiß) 10 f., 30, 160, 191,
218, 283, 287, 290.
Zukunft 2, 9, 25, 28, 33, 54, 58,
59, 67 f.. 75, 77, 81, 89, 90, 93,
95, 105, 127 f., 146, 233, 251 f..
256 f.. 266. 269. 272. 281. 283,
290 f.. 308. 311.
Zurechtweisung 243. '
Zweck 174, 281.
Zweifel (Zwiespalt) 3, 29 f., 88.
Zwiegespräch mit Gott (s. a. Ge*
bet) 104, 113 f., 154, 248.
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Library
Call No.
DS135G4
L84 C3a
Carlebach, Salomon, 1845-1919
Geschichte der Juden in Luebecl< und IVIoisling; dargestellt in 9 in dem Juenglings-
Verein (Chevras Haschkomoh) zu Luebecl^ gehaltenen Vortraegen. von S. Carlebach
Luebeck: 1899.
208, xviii p. 23 cm.
Freimann, p. 275.
Autograph inscription on endpaper signed by Simson Carlebach, son of the author.
LC Classification: DS 135 G4 L84 C3a
Subjects:
1 . Community, Jewish-Luebeck. 2. Luebeck--Jews-History. 3. Community, Jewish-
Moisling. 4. Moisling-Jews--History
iOi
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Library
Call No.
q
CS 629
F45F4
Feuchtwanger, Felix, 1867-1938
Stammbaum der Familie Feuchtwanger, 1786-1910. zusammengestellt von Felix
Feuchtwanger. Muenchen: 1911.
1 V., chiefly fold. geneal. tables. 17 x 28 cm.
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7
13
^
GUIDO KISCH
\
Tb c Tctü0
nn</
in
MEDIEVÄL
6ERMÄNY
Ä Study ofTheir Legal önd Sociol Stotus
.i "^A'i
In this book Guido Kisch traces the
history of the legal and social Status
of the Jews in medieval Germany.
Practice and theory concerning the
Jews in the medieval State were in di-
rect contradiction. Throughout the
Middle Ages the State was regarded as
a universal empire embracing all Chris-
tendom. The Jews, having rejected the
Savior, were outside this Community.
The medieval State, subordinate to the
omnipotence of the church, could not
extend its protection to a religious con-
viction different from the "true faith. ' '
Medieval society, church-controlled
and organized in fixed corporations
and guilds, also refused to grant the
Jews admission and thereby excluded
them from all legitimate occupations.
Christian theology and philosophy,
secular legislation, and legal theory
taught another doctrine: that Chris-
tian charity commanded respect for the
human dignity of the Jews. These con-
tradictory views called for reconcilia-
tion, especially with regard to medie-
val economic life. A compromise was
found in Jewry-law, a body of laws
relating specifically to the Jews.
The author has based his study on
comprehensive source material culled
from medieval lawbooks and court de-
cisions, a great number of the latter as
(Continued on back flap)
L^i. ^
T
(Continued from front ßap)
yet unpublished and neglected by re-
search. The individual cases brought
by or against Jews before the general
Courts display a manifold mosaic of
applied Jewry-law.
The Jews' position under the king's
peace and in public law, under the Ju-
risdiction of Christian courts, criminal
as well as civil, in legal procedure and
administrative law, offers a colorful
picture of Jewish-Christian relations in
the Middle Ages. The history of the
oath prescribed for Jews in general
courts, of the dress regulations, and of
the restriction of social intercourse
with Christians clearly demonstrates
medieval discrimination against the
Jews.
Nevertheless, their history does not
appear in this study as the uninter-
rupted sequence of persecutions and
sufferings described by the leading
Jewish historians of the nineteenth
Century. Mr. Kisch proves that for cen-
turies judicial decisions and legal doc-
trines did not allow anti-Jewish bias
any access into the realm of law but
granted law and justice to Jews and
Christians alike. The role played by
the church in particular appears in a
new light. The traditional picture of
the "Dark Middle Ages" is thus
changed or retouched.
JACKET DESIGN BY NORMAN R. WOLFE
The picture on the jackct is reproduced from an old
CUt in the Sachsenspiegel (Augsburg, 1516).
f
t
u
About the author
GUIDO KISCH held the chair of legal history in the unjver-
sities of Leipzig, Koenigsberg, Prague, and Halle successively
until he was dismissed by the Nazi government in 1933. In
1935 he came to the United States, where he has taught medie-
val and modern history. At present he is VisitingTroTessor of
History at the^ewish Institute of Religion and a lecturer at
the New SchoorfoTSocial Research. He has been invited to
serve as a visiting professor of medieval legal history at the
University of Lund, Sweden, in the fall of 1949. Mr. Kisch is
the author of eii^ht_books on the history of jaw and legal in-
stitutions, including Sachsenspiegel and Bible (1941), and has
also published nearly three hundred essays and reviews in such
leading scholarly Journals as S av igny -Zeit sehr ijt, Speculum,
American Historical Review, Art Bulletin, and Seminar.
lÜtf) ROSCOE POUND, Harvard University, says of
Thejetvs in Medieval Germany:
" It is an outstanding contribution to legal history and of im-
portance for medieval history, economic history and even for
sociology. It is an exceptionally fine bit of history writing.
Dr. Kisch has brought to bear a thorough historical scholar-
ship and an infinite amount of patientj^esearch with the
sources to produce what I think will prove a really great
work. There is really nothing to compete with it. Most that
has been well done on the subject was done long ago by
Stobbe, but Dr. Kisch has had access to a great deal that has
hitherto been unexplored and has made excellent use of it."
Tbcji
MED
GER/
I
Gl"'
Kl
f
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS
,y
CHI
Jlf.ll>7S-0
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V
BEIHEFTE
zur
Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie
herausgegeben von
WILLIAM STERN und OTTO LIPMANN
Beiheft 61
Hamburger
Zwillingsstudien
Anthropologische und charakterologische Unter-
suchungen an ein- und zweieiigen ZwilHngen
von
Dr. med. HEINRICH LOTTIQ
Privatdozent für Neurologie und Heilpädagogik
an der Universität Hamburg
Mit 11 Abbildungen im Text
und zahlreichen Tabellen
VERLAG VON JOHANN AMBROSIUS BARTH
LEIPZIG 1931
/
Alle Rechte,
insbesondere das der Übersetzung, vorbehalten
Copyright by Johann Ambrosius Barth/Leipzig/ 1931
Printed in Germany
V..
^^^ v
\
Vorwort
Die vorliegenden Zwillingsstudien stellen in wenig veränderter
Form die Habilitationsschrift des Verfassers dar, die er im Juli
1930 der medizinischen Fakultät der Universität Hamburg ein-
reichte. Die hier mitgeteilten Untersuchungen an Zwillingen ver-
folgten ausdrückhch das Ziel, körperliche und seelische Eigen-
schaften zugleich zu umfassen und in ihrer Zusammengehörigkeit
zu erkennen. Das von Herrn Prof. Poll begründete und ver-
waltete Hamburgische Zwillingsarchiv gab den organisatorischen
Rahmen für die Zwillingsuntersuchüiigen des Verfassers ab, aus
denen diese Arbeit einen Ausschnitt darstellt.
Meine Lehrer Herr Prof. Poll und Herr Prof. Nonne haben
mir bei der Durchführimg dieser Studien in entgegenkommendster
Weise Förderung und Unterstützung gewährt. Ihnen sei die Arbeit
in Dankbarkeit und Verehrung gewidmet.
\:
Hamburg, im April 1931
Dr. Heinrich Lottig
Li p per t & Co. G.m.b.H., Nauraburj? (Saalo)
!t
Ir
i
4,
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Seite
Vorwort HI
I. Einleitung 1
II. Die Zwillingsmethode 3
III. Ziel der vorliegenden Untersuchung 8
IV. Material und Methodik 11
V. Ergebnisse 16
A. Allgemeine Zwillingsforschung 16
1. Diagnose der Eiigkeit 16
2. Anthropologische Ergebnisse 20
a) Körperbau, Allgemeinzustand 20
b) Die anthropologischen Maße 23
c) Sonstige Eigenschaften 26
3. Die Papillarmuster der Fingerbeeren 29
4. Die Form der Nagelfalzkapillaren 35
B. Spezielle Zwillingsforschung 39
1. Degenerative und neuropathische Stigmata 39
2. Charakterologische Beobachtungen 46
a) Einführung 46
-b) Material 53
c) Auswertung 75
3. Zur Frage der Zwillingsgraphologie 85
IV. Schlußbemerkung 92
Schrifttum 94
Abkürzungen 98
Anhang (Tabellen) 99
it^
M
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabelle
Tabellai
Verzeichnis der Tabellen
Seite
1 Eiigkeit, Alter und Geschlecht der Probanden 10
2 Übereinstimmung und Verschiedenheit der Merkmale . . 17
3 Körperbautypus der Probanden 22
4 Anthroi)olog'ische Maße der Eineiig-en 101
5 Anthropologische Maße der Zweieiigen 102
6 Durchschnittliche prozentuale Abweichung bei den Ein- •
eiigen 103
7 Durchschnittliche prozentuale Abweichung bei den Zwei-
eiigen . . 103
8 Mittlere prozentuale Abweichung der Eineiigen und Zwei-
eiigen 104
9 Indexwerte 105
10 Vergleich der Papillarmuster 34
11 Neuropathische und degenerative Stigmatisation . . 106/107
12 Punktwertung der vier wichtigsten Schrifteigenschaften . 88
ische Zusammenstellung der Charaktereigenschaften .... 108
V.
• "11
I. Einleitung
Die Zwillingsforschung stellt den jüngsten, reizvollsten und
vielleicht einmal fruchtbarsten Zweig der selbst noch jungen
menschlichen Erblichkeitsforschung dar. Bedurfte es der ganzen
Fülle von Methoden, des gepflegten Stiles der neuzeitlichen Natur-
wissenschaft und — geistesgeschichtlich betrachtet — einer be-
sonderen Form von wissenschaftlicher Selbstbesinnung, um die
Erbbiologie auf den Menschen auszudehnen, so muß dieses Arbeits-
gebiet in methodischer Hinsicht doch noch als besonders schwierig
und mühevoll bezeichnet werden. Das willkürliche Zuchtexperi-
ment scheidet beim Menschen aus; die erbbiologische Familien-
forschung ist ein zwar wertvoller und ergiebiger, aber nur in langen
Zeiträumen zum Ziele führender Ersatz dafür, der dazu noch
erhebliche Fehlerquellen enthält. Diesen Schwierigkeiten gegen-
über ist nun die Zwillingsforschung berufen, eine Lücke auszu-
füllen und eine äußerst wertvolle Methode zur Erforschung der
Erblichkeit menschlicher Eigenschaften darzustellen. Ja, sie hat
darüber hinaus das Augenmerk wieder auf die Tatsache gelenkt,
daß das Vorkommen von erbgleichen menschlichen Mehrlingen
(eineiigen Zwillingen, Drillingen usw.) ein biologisches und psycho-
logisches Phänomen von ganz eigentümlichem Reiz darstellt. Wer
sich einige Zeit in das Studium von Zwillingen (insbesondere der Ein-
eiigen) vertieft hat, der wird eher oder später der eindrucksvollen
Erkenntnis begegnen, daß die Betrachtung dieser genischen Doppel-
gänger einen Einblick in die Geheimnisse der Naturgestaltung ge-
währt, wie man ihn unmittelbarer und reiner kaum an einer anderen
Stelle der Biologie gewinnen kann. Es wird am Schlüsse dieser
Studie Gelegenheit sein, an praktischen Beispielen aufzuzeigen,
wie bei den erbgleichen Zwillingen bemerkenswerte Gleichheit und
bemerkenswerte Verschiedenheit ineinandergefügt sind zu einem
Typus von Ähnlichkeit, der von gesetzmäßiger Eigenart ist. Diese
Zwillingsähnlichkeit, die also Gleichheit und Verschiedenheit leben-
dig vereinigt, ist gleichermaßen geeignet als Ausgangspunkt für
Beiheft 61 zur Zeitschrift für angewandte Psycholosio 1
t
2 /. Einleitung
exakte Untersuchungen, wie als unmittelbarer Zugang zu Ge-
heimnissen des Lebens, die nicht sowohl erkannt, als vielmehr er-
lebt und empfunden sein wollen. Diese Seite des Zwillingsproblems
kann nicht als nebensächlich betrachtet werden. Sie vermittelt uns
das Verständnis für einen Kreis von historischen Tatsachen, die
neben dem mächtig anwachsenden naturwissenschaftlichen Inter-
esse am Zwillingsproblem nur zu oft vergessen werden: Jahr-
tausende bevor es eine Zwillingsforschimg gab, spielte die Zwillings-
schaft im Kulturleben der Völker eine bedeutende Rolle. Zwillüigs-
götter und gottähnliche Zwillingsmenschen bevölkerten das Dies-
seits und das Jenseits, sei es, daß sie wie Isis und Osiris oder Yama
und Yami Zwillinge und Gatten zugleich waren, oder daß sie
in Freundschaft oder grimmiger Feindschaft dem Menschen Glück
oder Unheil brachten. Jedes Volk, jede Religion hatte mythische
Zwillinge : Ormuzd und Ahriman, Kastor und Polydeukes, Apollon
und Artemis, Minos und Rhadamantis, Baidur und Hödur, Hengist
und Horsa, Romulus und Remus : eine Reihe, die mit vielen zum
Teil unbekannteren Namen fortgeführt werden könnte. Es ist als
ethnologisch erwiesen anzusehen, daß die Entstehung von Zwil-
lingsmythen, die bei den verschiedenen Völkern bemerkenswerte
Übereinstimmungen aufweisen, mit der Auffassung der Primitiven
von dem Wesen und der Zauberhaftigkeit der irdischen Zwillings-
schaft in engem Zusammenhang steht (Sternberg). Im Rahmen
dieser Studien ist es unmöglich, auf diese Zusammenhänge näher
einzugehen ; es sollte der Mythologie der Zwillinge aber doch wenig-
stens gedacht werden, wenn wir in folgendem darangehen, die
Zwillingsbiologie nicht nur auf dem Gebiet des Somatischen zu
verwerten, sondern sie auch auf die Erforschung der Erblichkeits-
verhältnisse geistiger und seelischer Eigenschaften auszudehnen.
IL Die Zwillingsmethode
Wertvolle Beobachtungen über Zwillinge sind schon seit dem
Beginn des vorigen Jahrhunderts hier und da veröffentlicht worden.
Eine eigentliche Zwillingsforschung, als einheitliches Problem ge-
sehen, gibt es aber erst seit der denkwürdigen Arbeit von Galton
aus dem Jahre 1876. Mit genialem Blick hat Galton erkannt,
welche Förderung die menschliche Erblichkeitslehre aus der Ver-
wertung eines größeren Zwillingsmaterials zu erwarten hat. Seine
Arbeit über ,,The history of twins as a criterion of the relative
powers of nature and nurture" ist auch insofern hervorzuheben,
als Galton von vornherein keine Einzelkasuistik, sondern größere
Untersuchungsreihen verwertete und dazu noch seine Aufmerk-
samkeit nicht allein auf körperliche Merkmale, sondern auch auf
geistige und charakterliche Eigenschaften richtete. Thorndike,
Wilder und Newman sind vor allem von denen zu nennen, die die
Zwillingsforschung dann planmäßig fortgesetzt haben. Poll brachte
die Zwillingsforschung in Einklang mit der exakten Vererbungs-
lehre (Isocygotenlehre) Johannsens, gab strenge methodische
Richtlinien für Zwillingsuntersuchungen an und hat auch als
erster eine umfangreiche Serienuntersuchung selbst durchgeführt.
In jüngster Zeit haben sich vor allem Siemens, Weitz, von Ver-
schuer. Lange und Luxenburger durch die Sammlung umfang-
reichen Materials um den Ausbau der Zwillingsbiologie und -patho-
logie verdient gemacht.
Das Wesen der Zwillingsmethode ist gegründet auf die von
den meisten Forschern angenommene Erbgleichheit der ein-
eiigen Zwillinge. Eineiige Zwillinge (in der Literatur meist als
E. Z. abgekürzt) entstehen durch die Teilung einer von einem
Spermatozoon und einem Ei gebildeten Embryonalaulage in zwei
gleiche, sich selbständig weiterentwickelnde Hälften. Da es sich
hierbei um eine gewöhnliche Äquationsteilung handelt, so ist die
Annahme der im wesentlichen gleichen Erbmasse bei beiden
Zwillingen wohlbegründet, wenn auch als seltene Ausnahme geringe
1*
4 //. Die Zmllingsmethode
Ungleichheiten des Chromosomenbestandes vorkommen mögen.
Die Entstehung von zweieiigen Zwillingen (Z. Z.) ist hingegen
aus der Befruchtung zweier Eier herzuleiten. Hieraus erklärt
es sich, daß zweieiige Zwillinge sich in ihrer Erbähnlichkeit nicht
wesentlich näher stehen, als gewöhnliche Geschwister. Eineiige
Zwillinge sind stets gleichen Geschlechts, zweieiige können
gleichgeschlechtig oder verschiedengeschlechtig sein.
In der Methode der Feststellung der Eiigkeit gleich-
geschlechtiger Zwillinge hat sich in den letzten Jahren ein ge-
wisser Wandel vollzogen. Als der einzige sichere Weg zur Fest-
stellung der Eiigkeit wurde früher die Untersuchung der Nach-
geburtsteile der Zwillinge anerkannt. Zweieiige Zwillinge (Z. Z.)
haben in der Regel 2 gegeneinander abgrenzbare Plazenten sowie
2 Amnien und 2 Chorien; die Scheidewand zwischen den beiden
Fruchthöhlen wird daher durch 4 Blätter (2 Amnien, 2 Chorien)
gebildet. Eineiige Zwillinge (E. Z.) dagegen pflegen zwar jeder ein
eigenes Amnion, aber nur ein gemeinsames Chorion zu haben, so
daß die Scheidewand nur aus 2 Blättern (2 Amnien) besteht. Die
Untersuchung der Eihäute zur Bestimmung der Eiigkeit war früher
die Methode der Wahl. Sie wurde als sichere Grundlage für alle
Zwillingsuntersuchungen in der ersten Arbeit von Poll (1914a)
nachdrücklichst gefordert, der dann jedoch in der gleichen Ver-
öffentlichung für die allmählich ausgebaute heutige Methode der
, ,\ ; Vergleichung möglichst vieler polymer bedingter Merkmale den
Grund legte. Es zeigte sich nämlich, daß man der Eihautbefunde
nur bei einer relativ geringen Zahl von Zwillingen noch habhaft
werden konnte, und man hätte, wenn man sich auf diese Methode
versteifen wollte, auf den größten Teil des wertvollen Zwillings-
materials verzichten müssen. Ferner wurden Fälle bekannt, bei
denen Zwillinge, die auf Grund ihrer großen somatischen Über-
einstimmung als eineiig angesehen werden mußten, trotzdem
2 Chorien hatten (Siemens); und andererseits konnte 1925 v. Ver-
j^ scHUER (1925 a) zum ersten Male von einem sicher zweieiigen
Zwillingspaar berichten, dessen Eihäute nur ein Chorion aufwiesen.
In jüngster Zeit haben Curtius (1930) und Kiffner (1929) die
Sicherheit der Eihautdiagnose weiter erschüttert. Gleichzeitig
hat sich bei den ausgedehnten Zwillingsuntersuchungen der letzten
Jahre immer deutlicher gezeigt, daß die E. Z. von den gleichge-
schlechtigen Z. Z. lediglich durch den Vergleich bestimmter
körperlicher Merkmale mit einem so hohen Grade von Sicherheit
^
//. Die Zwillingsmethode
unterschieden werden können, daß die Eihautdiagnose an Bedeu-
tung abgenommen hat. Stimmen Zwillinge in etwa 10 erblich be-
dingten, wenig modifizierbaren Eigenschaften überein, so sind sie
mit einer Sicherheit, die sich aus der geringen Wahrscheinlichkeit
des zufälligen Zusammentreffens dieser Merkmale ergibt, ein-
eiig, eine Tatsache, die man überdies — wenn gelegentlich einmal
Zweifel auftreten — durch den Vergleich von weiteren 10 derartiger
Merkmale erhärten kann. Diese Methode hat sich rasch allgemein
eingebürgert und hat dazu noch den Vorteil, daß sie mit dem An-
wachsen unserer Kenntnisse über die erbliche Bedingtheit mensch-
licher Eigenschaften immer weiter kontrolliert und gesichert
werden kann. Die im folgenden mitgeteilten Zwillingsunter-
suchungen an E. Z. und Z. Z. haben diese Tatsache nur bestätigen
können. Es ist nicht zuviel gesagt, wenn wir feststellen, daß die
Diagnose der Eiigkeit für denjenigen, der genügende Erfahrung
in der Zwillingsuntersuchung hat, bei der größten Mehrzahl der
Fälle auf den ersten Blick gestellt werden kann. Selbstver-
ständlich hat dann in jedem Falle eine genaue vergleichende Unter-
suchung den Beweis für die Richtigkeit des Eindrucks zu erbringen.
Es mag schon an dieser Stelle betont werden, daß E. Z. sich
in der Regel, besonders in höherem Alter, durchaus nicht in so
hohem Grade ähnlich sind, daß man sie verwechseln könnte.
Sie entwickeln meist im Laufe der Jahre, besonders wenn sie
unter recht verschiedene Umweltbedingungen geraten, eine zu-
nehmende Verschiedenheit, die nur insofern charakteristisch ist
als gewissermaßen durch die Unterschiede hindurch eine
genische Übereinstimmung erkennbar bleibt, die sich nämlich auf
die wenig modifizierbaren Eigenschaften (Pigmentierung, Haar-
form usw.) bezieht. Wenn z. B. Lenz (1929) die Eineiigkeit der von
Lange (1929c) dargestellten Gebrüder ,, Heufelder" bezweifelt
auf Grund gewisser Verschiedenheiten der Gesichtsformen, oder
wenn Weitz (1924) die Eineiigkeit seines Paares 11 nicht für ge-
sichert hält, weil die beiden sonst ganz übereinstimmenden Mädchen
einige Verschiedenheiten der Gesichtsproportionen darbieten, so
kommt hierin u. E. eine Verkennung der Tatsache zum Ausdruck,
daß E. Z. natürlicherweise Verschiedenheiten aufzuweisen
pflegen, die auf modifikatorischen Einflüssen beruhen und die die
genische Übereinstimmung keineswegs verwischen.
Die Erbgleichheit der E. Z. berechtigt zu dem Schlüsse, daß
die Verschiedenheiten, die bei E. Z. gefunden werden — von
6
//. Die Zwillingsmethode
seltenen Ausnahmen abgesehen — auf modifikatorische Ein-
flüsse (die oft bereits in utero einzuwirken beginnen) zurückzu-
führen sind. Einen entsprechenden Schluß auf die genische Be-
dingtheit übereinstimmender Eigenschaften zu ziehen, ist nicht
statthaft, da gleiche modifikatorische Einflüsse auf genisch un-
gleiches Material zu dieser Übereinstimmung geführt haben können.
Um diese letzterwähnte Fehlerquelle auszuschließen, hat Siemens
(1924a) die methodische Forderung aufgestellt, daß man Kon-
trolluntersuchungen an Z.Z., die ja in der Regel auch in einem
sehr ähnlichen Milieu aufwachsen, vornimmt. Wird in einer
ui größeren Untersuchungsreihe ein Merkmal bei E. Z. um ein deut-
"Hliches Maß häufiger übereinstimmend gefunden als bei Z. Z., so
kann überwiegend genische Bedingtheit des Merkmals angenommen
werden. Das ist der Sinn der von Siemens so genannten ,,zwillings-
pathologischen Vererbungsregel".
Einige Verwirrung hat v. Verschuer in diese Tatsachen getragen, wenn
er schreibt: „Finden wir bei eineiigen ZwiUingen regelmäßig hochgradige
ÄhnHchkeit bezüghch eines Merkmales, dann können wir mit allergrößter
Wahrscheinlichkeit auf erbliche Bedingtheit desselben schließen . . . Der
umgekehrte Schluß, daß die Verschiedenheit eines Merkmales bei eineiigen
Zwillingen seine Nichterblichkeit beweisen würde, ist dagegen nicht ohne
weiteres zwingend." Der erste Teil dieser Ansicht ist geradezu verkehrt
und gewinnt nur bei sehr großen Zahlen einigen Wahrscheinlichkeitswert;
die SiEMENSsche Fassung verdient demgegenüber durchaus den Vorzug.
Und in dem zweiten Teil kommt v. Verschuer nur deshalb zu einer Ver-
neinung, da er das ,, Merkmal" und die ,, Verschiedenheit" verwechselt.
Durch N'ichtähnlichkeit bei E. Z. wird immer nur die nichterbliche Bedingt-
heit der Verschiedenheit der Merkmale, z. B. der Nasenlänge, bewiesen,
nicht aber der Merkmale selbst. Man kann, wenn man bei einer sauberen
Terminologie bleiben will, gar nicht die erbliche oder nichterbliche Bedingt-
heit von ,, Merkmalen" diskutieren, da alle ,, Merkmale" dem Phaenotypus
zugehören und als solche immer genisch und modifikatorisch Bedingtes in
sich vereinigen. Es ist demnach nicht die Aufgabe der Zwillingsforschung,
die Erblichkeit oder Nichterblichkeit von Merkmalen oder Eigenschaften
zu bestimmen, sondern Art^ Richtj^ng und Ausmaß der Modifika-
bilität zu erforschen, eine Fassung, die sich an die von Poll (1914 a)
gewählte eng anlehnt.
Die von Luxenburger (1930c) vertretene Forderung, weniger
Zwillingskasuistik und mehr Serie^u^ersjJi2.hungen zu ver-
werten, besteht durchaus zu Tlecht. Die bisherigen Zwillings-
kasuistiken stellen, auch dann, wenn es sich um Sammelkasuistiken
handelt, eine einseitige Auswahl dar, da man bei nicht syste-
matischem Vorgehen viel mehr konkordante Paare berücksichtigen
1
V:
•t
.i
II. Die Zwillingsmethode 7
wird, als diskordante. Demgegenüber verdienen Serienunter-
suchungen den Vorzug, bei denen entweder alle Zwillingspaare
eines bestimmten Beobachtungskreises oder doch wenigstens eine
möglichst große, nach keinerlei Gesichtspunkten ausgesiebte An-
zahl von Paaren bearbeitet wird. Langes Untersuchungen über
kriminelle Zwillinge (1929c) sind in dieser Hinsicht als vorbildlich
hinzustellen.
Die Methode der Zwillingsforschung ist seit ihrem Bestehen
weitgehend verbessert und von manchen Fehlerquellen gesäubert
worden. Luxenburger (1930c) drückt die beherzigenswerte Er-
wartung aus, daß die nächsten Jahre der Sammlung eines mög-
lichst umfangreichen Materials gewidmet sein mögen, aus dem
man nicht sogleich, sondern erst nach längerer „Lagerung" und
nach Zusammenfassung vieler Untersuchungsreihen weitergehende
Schlüsse ziehen möge. Die in dieser Arbeit mitgeteilten „Ham-
burger Zwillingsstudien" sollen der Durchführung dieses Planes
dienen.
i
i
!
I
}
III. Ziel der vorliegenden Untersuchung
Bei Zwillingsuntersuchungen, die ein zahlenmäßig verwert-
bares Resultat ergeben sollen, wird man sich immer bestimmte
Sonderziele setzen müssen. Das Material, das eine Zwillingsserie
dafbleliet, ist so vielfältig und bunt, daß man ins Uferlose geraten
würde, wenn man sich nicht auf die Untersuchung einzelner Aus-
schnitte oder Eigenschaftengruppen beschränken würde. Aller-
dings soll und muß jeder Zwillingsuntersuchung die Feststellung
eines bestimmten anthropologischen Materials zugrunde gelegt
werden, nämlich die Feststellung der allgemeinen Körperkonsti-
tution, der wichtigsten anthropologischen Masse und vor allem
der durch die bisherigen Untersuchungen als brauchbar erwiesenen
,, Testmerkmale", die zur Bestimmung der Eiigkeit unbedingt not-
wendig sind. Diesen ganzen Teil der Zwillingsforschung wird man
als allgemeine Zwillingsforschung bezeichnen können, wäh-
rend die darüber hinausgehenden Untersuchungen bestimmter
Teilgebiete der menschlichen Morphologie, Physiologie und
Pathologie am besten als spezielle Zwillingsforschung zu-
sammengefaßt werden. Eine genaue Trennung dieser beiden Ge-
biete ist in der Zwillingsforschung genau so wenig möglich, wie
etwa in der Chirurgie und Pathologie; die genannte Einteilung
erhält aber doch ihren Wert dadurch, daß die allgemeine Zwillings-
forschung als obligatorisch für alle Zwillingsuntersuchungen
angesehen werden muß.
Bezüglich des allgemeinen Teils ist nur zu erwähnen, daß
zu den oben genannten Feststellungen auch die Untersuchung der
Papillarmuster der Fingerund die Bestimmung der Blutgruppe
hinzugerechnet wurde. Diese beiden Merkmale sind noch nicht
von allen Autoren in die allgemeine Zwillingsforschung aufge-
nommen worden; sie verdienen es aber zweifellos, da sie für die
Bestimmung der Eiigkeit großen Wert haben.
Ferner wurde bei allen Zwillingen das Bild der Nagelfalz -
kapillaren photographisch festgehalten. Wir bezweckten damit
.1-
///. Ziel der vorliegenden Untersuchung
9
einerseits eine — außerhalb der Zwillingsforschung liegende —
Untersuchung über die Konkordanz von neuropathischer Konsti-
tution und Störungen der Kapillarbildung. Und andererseits
hoffen wir durch eine nach und nach zu erhaltende größere Unter-
suchungsreihe von Zwillingen Material zu gewinnen, an dem die
Modifikabilität der Kapillarbildung studiert werden kann.
Als spezielle Forschungsgegenstände sollen in dieser Studie
bearbeitet werden:
1. Die degenerativen und neuropathischen Stigmata.
Die genetische Untersuchung dieser Merkmale hat einen be-
sonderen Wert, da die Lehre von der Bedeutung der Stigmata nur
dann einen festen Grund hat, wenn wir wissen, ob und wieweit die
degenerative Konstitution und die Neuropathie genisch bedingt,
also ,, ererbt" sind, und wieweit sie eventuell modifikatorischen
Einflüssen ihre Entstehung verdanken.
2. Haut- und Sehnenreflexe;
und schließlich als Hauptgebiet:
3. Das charakterliche Verhalten.
Dieser Absatz soll in größerer Breite behandelt werden. Die
schon von Galton gepflegte Zwillingspsychologie ist in den
letzten Jahren von einer Reihe von Forschem wieder aufgegriffen
worden (z. B. Thorndike, Newman, Popenoe-Muller, v. Verschuer,
Lange). Manche psychologische und charakterologische Erkennt-
nisse sind bei den mit besonderem Eifer betriebenen psychiatrischen
Zwillingsuntersuchungen (Lange, Luxenburger, Schulte u. a.) ge-
wonnen worden. Es fehlt aber noch an serienmäßigen charaktero-
logischen Untersuchungen an normalen Zwillingen, die wie Lange
(1929 a) mit Recht betont, erst den Hindergrund für psychopatho-
logische Zwillingsstudien abgeben können.
Im Hinblick auf die Schwierigkeit einer einigermaßen objek-
tiven Erfassung der Charakterzüge (zumal an serienmäßig unter-
suchten normalen Zwillingen, die nicht Objekt einer wochenlangen
klinischen Beobachtung waren) wurde der Versuch gemacht, auch
graphologische Beobachtungen als Hilfsmittel der psycho-
logischen Diagnostik zu verwenden. Wert- und Verwendungs-
bereich dieser Methode werden sich erst zu erweisen haben. Die
Psychologie der Handschrift steht, vor allem durch die Arbeiten
von Klages (1916), auf einem so festen Grunde, daß sie in der
klinischen Psychiatrie zu verschiedenen Zwecken Verwendung
i
't'
I
i!
10
///. Ziel der vorliegenden Untersuchung
gefunden hat. So läßt sich erwarten, daß auch ihre Verwendung
in der Zwillingsforschung zu wertvollen Aufschlüssen führen mag.
Die Kenntnis der Modifikabiliät der Charakterzüge
ist von größtem Werte für die allgemeine Psychologie, für die
Charakterologie im engeren Sinne und vor allem für die Soziologie
und die Pädagogik. Daß die vorliegende Studie in dieser Hinsicht
nur einen Anfang darstellen kann, ist selbstverständlich und sei
ausdrücklich vermerkt. Gelingt es, durch weitere Serienunter-
suchungen Baustein auf Baustein zu setzen, so wird schon in
wenigen Jahren ein Gebäude entstehen, das auf festen Grund
gebaut ist.
IV. Material und Methodik
Das Material dieser Arbeit entstammt der eingehenden körper-
lichen und seelischen Untersuchung von 20 gleichgeschlechtigen
Zwillingspaaren . lOeineiigen Paaren stehen lOzweieiige Paare
zum Vergleich gegenüber. Die folgende Tabelle orientiert über
Eiigkeit, Alter und Geschlecht der Probanden:
Tabe
lle 1
. — .
Eineiig
Zweieiig
Nr.
Vorname
Nach-
name
Alter
Nr.
Vorname
Nach-
name
Alter
1 a
Arthur
F.
18
11 a Klara
Lo.
14
b
Robert
b
Beate
2 a
Alma
X.
28
12 a
Hertha
Lu.
18
b
Ottilie
b
Ilse
3 a
Anni
X.
19
13 a
Elisabeth
C.
18
b
Emmi
b
Karin
4 a
Alma
Ti.
39
14 a
Irmgard
To.
15 y2
b
Else
b
Rose
5 a
Gisela
To
15
15 a
Hilda
Ti.
161/2
b
Petra
b
Ingrid
6 a
Lenchen
j
16
16 a
Mathilde
Te.
141/2
b
Mathilde
b
Stella
7 a
Julie
Ca.
15
17 a
Hertha
Te.
I6I/2
b
Klothilde
b
Maria
8 a
Agnes
Ce
15
18 a
Karl
Ti.
17
b
Erna
b
Wilhelm
9 a
b
Karl
Werner
F.
291/2
19 a
b
Hugo
Johannes
K.
151/2
10 a
Albert
H.
13
20 a
Agnes
J.
15
b
Walter
b
Margarethe
Die Nummern 1 bis 10 bezeichnen also die eineiigen, die
Nummern 11 bis 20 die zweieiigen Paare. Der dem Vornamen
nach im Alphabet vorangehende Partner trägt immer die Be-
zeichnung a, der andere die Bezeichnung b. Das Alter der Paare
Il
la
12
IV. Material und Methodik
liegt zwischen 13 und 39 Jahren; 16 Paare sind 14 bis 19 Jahre alt,
je 1 Paar zählt 13, 28, 2914 und 39 Jahre. Unter den 20 Paaren
sind 5 Paare (3 E. Z. und 2 Z. Z.) männlichen und 15 Paare (7 E. Z.
und 8 Z. Z.) weiblichen Geschlechts. Die Paare wurden nicht nach
irgendwelchen psychologischen oder somatischen Gesichtspunkten
aus einer größeren Anzahl untersuchter Zwillinge herausgesucht,
sondern sie sind die ersten zwanzig einer größeren Untersuchungs-
reihe, die sich auf alle im Hamburgischen Staatsgebiet erfaßbaren
Zwillinge erstrecken soll. Bei der Bestellung der Zwillinge wurde
lediglich darauf gesehen, daß wir gleichviel eineiige und zweieiige
Paare bekamen. Auch wählten wir, soweit es möglich war, die
Paare mittleren Alters, da sie für charakterologische Untersu-
chungen entschieden brauchbarer sind als Kinder unter 14 Jahren.
Die Adressen der Zwillinge wurden zum Teil durch private Umfrage
ermittelt; zum größeren Teil verdanken wir die dem freundlichen Ent-
gegenkommen von Herrn Senator Krause und Herrn Landesschulrat Prof.
Dr. Umlauf von der Hamburgischen Oberschulbehörde sowie Frau Ober-
schulrat Dr. Essig von der Berufsschulbehörde, denen wir für ihre freund-
liche Hilfe zu großem Dank verpflichtet sind. Sämtliche uns durch die Ham-
burgischen Behörden übermittelten Adressen sowie das gesamte Material
an Befunden, Bildern, Fingerabdrucken usw. sind der Zentralisation
halber im Anatomischen Institut der Hamburgischen Universität nieder-
gelegt und zu einem „Hamburgischen Zwillingsarchiv" vereinigt, das
von Herrn Prof. Poll verwaltet wird. Auf diese Weise ist eine einheitliche
Erfassung und Verarbeitung eines sehr umfangreichen Zwillingsmaterials
gewährleistet, das zu speziellen Studien den verschiedenen Fachdisziplinen
zur Verfügung steht.
Bei der Untersuchung der Zwillinge wurden an anthro-
pologischen Maßen festgestellt:
Körpergewicht,
Körpergröße,
Höhe des oberen Sternalrandes über dem Boden,
Höhe des oberen Symphysenrandes über dem Boden,
Höhe des rechten Trochanter major über dem Boden,
Ganze Armlänge rechts,
Schulterbreite,
Beckenbreite,
Länge des rechten Fußes,
Länge der rechten Hand,
Breite der rechten Hand,
Brustumfang bei Ein- und Ausatmung,
Größte Länge des Kopfes,
Größte Breite des Kopfes,
Jochbogenbreite,
t
IV. Material und Methodik
13
Unterkieferwinkelbreite,
Horizontalumfang des Kopfes,
Physiognomische Gesichtshöhe (Stirnhaargrenze-Kinn),
Morphologische Gesichtshöhe (Nasenwurzel-Kinn),
Höhe der Nase,
Breite der Nase,
Breite der Mundspalte.
Bei dem größten Teil der Untersuchten wurde auch die Ohrhöhe des
Kopfes ermittelt. In der Meßtechnik richteten wir uns nach den von Martin
(1922) gegebenen Vorschriften. Es wurde dann ferner bei allen Zwillmgen
eine genaue Beschreibung der einzelnen Körperregionen registriert, wobei
der sehr ausführlich gehaltene „Konstitutionsbogen" von Hanhaä»--
(Zürich) benutzt wurde. Der genannte Konstitutionsbogen enthalt fast
alle Merkmale, die gerade für die Zwillingsforschung von Wichtigkeit sind;
darüber hinaus ergibt er eine recht eingehende Zusammenstellung wichtiger
anamnestischer, morphologischer und pathologischer Daten. Es wurden
auf diese Weise erfaßt und registriert:
Ernährungszustand: Fettverteilung, Muskulatur, Knochenbau.
Habitus nach Kretschmer.
Haut : Hautcharakter, Farbe, Pigmentbildung, Wangenrötung, Venen-
zeichnung.
Primärbehaarung: Haupthaar (Form, Begrenzung), Haupthaar-
farbe (bestimmt mit der Haarfarbentafel von E. Fischer), Brauen, Wim-
pern, Lanugo.
Terminalbehaarung: Bart, Bartfarbe, Achselhaar, Brusthaar,
Linea alba, Pubes, Extremitätenbehaarung, Lumbosakralbehaarung.
Irisfarbe (bestimmt nach der Augenfarbentafel von Martin).
Sklera.
Kopfform: Stirn, Scheitel, Hinterhaupt.
Gesichtsform : Physiognomie, Gesichtsausdruck, Sehvermögen,
Farbensinn, Hörvermögen, Stimme, Ohrmuscheln, Lider, Augenspalte,
Pupillen, Nase, Sulcus nasolabialis, Mundspalte, Kiefer, Lippen, Backen-
knochen, ry- c ■>
Mundhöhle : Zähne, harter Gaumen, Zunge, Gaumenbögen, Zaptchen,
Würgreflex, Tonsillen.
Hals: Thyreoidea, Struma, Lymphdrüsen.
Thorax: Form, Elastizität, Brüste, Rücken, Schultern, Hüften,
Taille, Gesäß.
Abdomen: Becken, Genitale.
Extremitäten: Proportionen, Form (Arme, Handgelenke, Hände,
Finger, Nägel, Beine, Waden, Füße, Knöchel, Schuhnummer).
Haut- und Sehnenreflexe, Klonus, Ataxie.
Puls, Blutdruck, respiratorische Arhythmie.
Dermographismus, Hyperhidrosis.
Ferner wurde stets die Blutgruppe bestimmt, eine Aufgabe, der sich
Herr Dr Lauer, Leiter des erbbiologischen Laboratoriums am Hafen-
krankenhaus, freundlichst unterzogen hat. Von allen Zwillingen wurden
Fingerabdrucke hergestellt. Und schließlich hatte Herr Wolfgano Traut-
14
IV. Material und Methodik
MANN die Freundlichkeit, von sämtlichen Zwillingen Photogramme der
Nagelfalzkapillaren der 4. Finger beider Hände aufzunehmen. Bei
der Aufnahme der Anamnese wurden vor allem berücksichtigt: Zwil-
linge in der Verwandtschaft, Verlauf der Schwangerschaft, Geburt, Stillzeit,
Ernährungsstörungen, Ausschläge, Zahnung, erstes Gehen, erstes Sprechen,
Kinderfehler (Schreien, Lutschen, Nägelkauen, abnorme Ängstlichkeit,
Wutanfälle, Nachtwandeln, Bettnässen), Charaktertyp in der Kindheit,
Schulleistungen, Krankheiten, Wachstum, Menses, Stimmbruch, Pubertät,
Berufsausbildung und Laufbahn.
Die Aufnahme des psychischen Status erfolgte:
1. Nach dem Eindruck bei der Untersuchung.
2. Nach Angaben der Mutter, zum Teil persönlich, zum Teil
durch Fragebögen.
3. Nach Angaben der Zwillinge selbst.
Es wurde versucht, vor allem über folgende Gebiete des see-
lischen Verhaltens ein Bild zu bekommen:
Verhalten in der Kindheit, zart oder robust, ruhig oder lebhaft, leicht
oder schwer erziehbar, Reizbarkeit, Nervosität, Dunkelangst, Verweich-
lichung, Schulleistungen in den Hauptfächern, Neigungen und Interessen,
Handfertigkeit, Zeichnen, Musikalität. Verhalten in der Pubertät. Jetziger
Charakter : Interessen, Tätigkeit, Ausfüllen der Freizeit, Häuslich oder nicht.
Praktische oder geistige Hauptrichtung. Lesen, Lesestoff, Theater, Kino.
Geselligkeit; Anschlußbereit oder Einspänner, Freunde, Freundinnen,
sexuelles Verhalten, Libido. Verhältniss der Zwillinge untereinander, zu
Eltern imd Erziehern. Körpertüchtigkeit, Sport; Interesse an Kleidung,
Eitelkeit. Eßlust, Geschmacksrichtung, wählerisch ? Politische oder soziale
Interessen, religiöse Einstellung. Temperament, Unternehmungsgeist, Leb-
haftigkeit, Stimmung, Erregbarkeit, Jähzorn. Aufrichtigkeit, Geschäfts-
gebaren, Materialismus, Idealismus, Selbstsucht, Willenskraft, Ausdauer,
Ablenkbarkeit. Evtl. Berufsabsichten, Begründung dafür.
Schließlich wurde von sämtlichen untersuchten Zwillingen
eine zwanglos mit Tinte geschriebene Schriftprobe (Lebenslauf,
Interessen, Berufsabsichten enthaltend) eingefordert zum Zwecke
graphologischer Bearbeitung.
Die hier geschilderte Untersuchungsmethode kann sicher nicht
als endgültig oder vorbildlich gelten. Sie stellt einen Ausgangs-
punkt für fernere Untersuchungen dar. An manchen Stellen wird
bei der Durchführung weiterer Zwillingsuntersuchungen einiges
hinzuzufügen sein. Vor allem aber muß der Status wohl in mancher
Beziehung gekürzt und vereinfacht werden, da er in der hier ge-
schilderten Form manchen entbehrlichen Ballast enthält. Es ist
beabsichtigt, auf Grund der bisher gemachten Erfahrungen einen
Beobachtungsbogen für Zwillingsuntersuchungen zusammenzu-
!
IV. Material und Methodik
15
I
stellen, der alles, aber auch nicht mehr enthält, was für die all-
gemeine Zwillingsforschung hinreichend und notwendig ist. Alle
speziellen Daten gehören auf Sonderbögen, die je nach der
Richtung der Sonderforschimg verschieden aussehen müssen. Diese
technischen Fragen sind für die Zwillingsforschung deshalb von
einiger Wichtigkeit, da es für die notwendige statistische Zu-
sammenfassung der gesamten deutschen und, soweit dies möglich
ist, internationalen Zwillingsbefunde wünschenswert ist, daß an
möglichst vielen Orten in einheitlichem Stil vorgegangen wird.
i
i
\\
\i'
V. Ergebnisse
A. Allgemeine Zwillingsforschung
1. Diagnose der Eiigkeit
Die Feststellung der Eiigkeit stellt die Grundlage für jede
Zwillingsuntersuchung dar und muß deshalb von möglichst vielen
Seiten her gesichert werden.
Über die Eihautverhältnisse konnte nur in 2 von unseren
20 Paaren etwas in Erfahrung gebracht werden. Bei Paar Nr. 1
konnte der Gynäkologe, der die Entbindung geleitet hatte, befragt
werden. Er gab an, daß die Eihäute und die Plazenta den sicheren
Schluß auf Eineiigkeit zuließen. Das Paar Nr. 11 kam in der Ent-
bindungsanstalt des Eppendorfer Krankenhauses zur Welt. Das
Geburtsprotokoll verzeichnet eine deutlich gegeneinander abge-
setzte Doppelplazenta und ein doppeltes Chorion.
Im übrigen wurde bei allen Paaren die Diagnose der Eiigkeit
durch die Ähnlichkeitsprüfung (Poll, Siemens, v. Verschuer) ge-
stellt. Es wurde bereits ausgeführt, daß diese Methode, wenn sie
sorgfältig und kritisch durchgeführt wird, bis zu einer beliebig
großen Sicherheit gesteigert werden kann. Sie gewinnt an Reiz
und an Wert dadurch, daß man bei zweifelhaften Fällen immer
weitere Vergleichsmerkmale zur Entscheidung heranziehen kann,
wodurch gewöhnlich die Zweifel bald beseitigt werden. Als haupt-
sächliche Testmerkmale wurden benutzt:
Haupthaarfarbe, Haupthaarform, Sekundärbehaarung,
Augenfarbe, Hautfarbe am bekleideten Rücken, Hautcharakter,
LJanugobehaarung, Form und Stellung der Zähne,
Gesichtsbildung, Blutgruppe,
Papillarmuster der Finger.
Die Papillarmusterbefunde werden in einem besonderen Ab-
schnitt bearbeitet. Über die Übereinstimmung oder Verschieden-
heit in den übrigen 10 Merkmalen gibt die nachstehende Tabelle 2
Aufschluß:
4ti 10 7SC>
%
]Hillm Nussbw»! ^fflmm Jl ' l^liinaC " L l^ejjj Uze
JrcS/i
i/es \
Mid75a
W/Ol<l
m?
^
.^£-
- •-- ~ --i*i«m^iiiiiia rii
sax.
. .1
Schriften des Deutschen Naturkundevereins / Neue Folge
Fortsetzung^ der Schriften des Deutschen Lehrervereins für Naturkunde, E.V.
Begründet von t Dr, K, G, Lutz, weitergeführt von Direktor J, Baß
Herausgegeben von Professor Dr. Georg Wagner
Stuttgart-N, Viergiebelweg 17
Bande
Zwillinge
Einführung in die Zwillingsforschung
Von
Dr. Reinhold Lotze
Stuttgart
Mit 101 Bildern
!
Verlag Hohenlohesche Buchhandlung Ferd. Rau, Oehringen 1937
Vorwort
lii
niiii.
<i
lillili
m
m
1
4
I
%
Vorwort
Die Erscheinung der Zwillingsbildung ist ein ungemein fesselndes Problem der
Biologie des Menschen; sie führt ganz unmittelbar und zwingend anschaulich an
grundlegende Fragen des Lebens heran. Die Zwillingsmcthode hat sich im letzten
Jahrzehnt zur erfolgreichsten und zuverlässigsten Methode menschlicher Erbfor-
schung entwickelt. Bei dem großen und weit verbreiteten Interesse, das auf Grund
hiervon allen mit dem Zwillingsproblem zusammenhängenden Fragen entgegenge-
bracht wird, ist es eigentlich verwunderlich, daß eine für einen breiteren Lese'rkreis
berechnete, allgemein verständliche Darstellung der gesamten Zwillingsforschung,
ihrer biologischen Grundlagen, ihrer Methode und ihrer Ergebnisse bisher noch von
keiner Seite gegeben worden ist. Das vorliegende Buch will diese Lücke ausfüllen.
Es versucht, ohne Vollständigkeit in der Aufzählung der Ergebnisse der Einzel-
forschung anzustreben, alle wesentlichen Fragen der Zwillingsforschung darzustellen
und auf diese Weise jedem, der sich mit ihr befassen will, insbesondere Ärzten und
Erbbiologen, eine erste Einführung in die Fragestellungen und die bisherigen Er-
gebnisse dieses so bedeutungsvollen Gebiets menschlicher Erbforschung zu ver-
mitteln. Allen denen, die Fragen der Erbbiologie lehrend zu behandeln haben,
möchte das Buch ein umfangreiches und anschauliches Material zur Darstellung des
Gebiets an die Hand geben. Über das Fachwissenschaftliche hinaus möchte es aber
die allgemein menschliche Bedeutung des Zwillingsproblems erkennen lassen, und
deshalb wendet es sich an jeden, den die hier vorliegenden Fragen fesseln. Zwillinge
sind der packendste Beweis für die Macht der Vererbung, und damit werden Grund-
fragen alles Menschlichen berührt. Die Darstellung des Buches setzt keinerlei Vor-
kenntnisse voraus; auf eine reiche und möglichst vielseitige Ausstattung mit Bildern
ist besonderer Wert gelegt worden. So wird auch der nicht biologisch Vorgebildete
dem Buch folgen können; Teile von mehr fachwissenschaftlicher Bedeutung können
ohne Gefahr für den Zusammenhang überschlagen werden.
Allen, die mich bei der Arbeit mit Material und Bildern unterstützt haben,
möchte ich an dieser Stelle warmen Dank sagen, insbesondere Herrn Professor
Dr. von Verschuer, der eine Reihe wertvoller Bilder aus der Forschungsarbeit seines
Instituts in entgegenkommender Weise zur Verfügung gestellt hat. Mein Dank ge-
hört auch Herrn Hauptlehrer Adolf Koch in Fischbach, der die Zeichnungen des
Buches gefertigt hat.
Druck: E. SchwendscheBuchdruckerei, Hall am Kocher
Die Druckstöckc wurden hergestellt von der Firma Graphia (Inhaber: Gustav Rößle). Stuttgart, Hcusteigstr. 57.
i
Stuttgart, im November 1937.
Dr. Reinhold Lotze.
1*
I
I* •
iill
üti
V'
'Itli
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Seile
5
Einleitung
I. Die Biologie der Zwillingsbildung ^
1, Die normale Keimesentvvicklung i' ' \. .=
2, Die Entstehung von Zwillingen und höheren Mehrlmgen 15
3, Menschliche Doppelmißbildungen
4, Zwillingsbildung bei Tieren und Pflanzen ^^
5, Die Erbgleichheit der EZ
II. Die Zwillingsmelhode in ihrer BedeulunS für die Erbforschunü beim Menschen . . 52
1, Erbgut und Umwelt
2, Geschichtliches
3, Methodik der Zwillingsforschung
„,,.,. DO
4, Zwillingsdiagnose
5, Erkenntnistheoretisches zur Zwillingsmethode
75
IIL Allgemeine Fragen der Zwillingsforschung
1, Die Häufigkeit von Mehrlingen
2, Die Frage der Erblichkeit der Mehrlingsschwangerschaft »-^
3, Die Symmetrieverhältnissc bei EZ
87
IV. Ergebnisse der speziellen Zwillingsforschung
A. Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
1, Körpermaße
2. Skelett ^^
3, Haut und Haare
4, Augen, Ohren, Nase
5. Innere Organe, ihre Tätigkeit und ihre Erkrankungen ^^^
1 08
6. Infektionskrankheiten
B, Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften ^^^
I.Intelligenz ^^^
a) Allgemeine Intelligenz, b) Sonderbegabungen
2. Temperament und Charakter ^^
a) Einzeluntersuchungen, b) Handschrift und Charakter
3. Die Gesamtpersönlichkeit ^^
a) Untersuchungen in Zwillingslagern, b) Lebensbewährung,
c) Veranlagung zum Verbrechen
4. Die Einwirkungen der Umwelt auf die Persönlichkeit nach Untersuchungen
an getrennt erzogenen EZ l'^^
5. Gleichheit und Verschiedenheit bei EZ ^^^
6. Nervenleiden und Geisteskrankheiten ^57
a) Nervenleiden, b) Schizophrenie, c) Manisch-depressives Irresein,
d) Epilepsie, e) Schwachsinn
V, Zwillinge in der Dichtung 166
VI. Die allgemeine Bedeutung der Zwillingsforschung l^^
Schrifttum .... 172
Namenverzeichnis . . 175
Schlagwörterverzeichnis 176
I
Einleitung
Wer ist wahrer Mensch und wer Erscheinung?
Wer entziffert sie?
Shakespeare.
Das Bewußtsein, daß das Naturgeschehen Regeln und Gesetzen folgt, ist tief im
menschlichen Geist verwurzelt. Daß beim Menschen die Frau jeweils nur einem
Kind das Leben schenkt, ist die Regel, das Gewohnte. Der primitive Mensch nimmt
das hin, ohne sich über die Regel weitere Gedanken zu machen. Die Wissenschaft
zeigt, daß die Regel insofern sinnvoll ist, als die Einfrüchtigkeit des Menschen auch
im natürlichen Lebenskampf völlig genügt, um die Art zu erhalten; so ist auch der
Organismus der Frau für die Einfrüchtigkeit eingerichtet. Nun weicht aber die
Natur nicht allzu selten von ihrer Regel ab und läßt immer wieder zwei oder gar
mehr Kinder gleichzeitig ins Leben treten. Beim primitiven Menschen erregt dies ein
tiefes Sich-Wundern; die Abweichung von einer so klaren Regel, daß eine Menschen-
frau nur ein Kind zur Welt bringe, kann er sich nicht anders als mit übernatürlichen
Ursachen erklaren. Die Völkerkunde zeigt, wie Menschen aller Erdteile in merk-
würdiger Übereinstimmung glauben, daß zum mindesten das eine der beiden Zwil-
lingskinder keinen menschlichen Vater habe, sondern göttlich-dämonischen Ur-
sprungs sei. Aus diesem Glauben erwachsen zwei gegensätzlich verschiedene Hal-
tungen zu den Zwillingen. Bei den einen Völkern und Stämmen schreibt man ihnen
auf Grund ihres Ursprungs übernatürliche Kräfte zu, hält sie heilig und erweist
ihnen und den Eltern höchste Ehren, Bei den anderen gilt eine Zwillingsgeburt für
ein schweres Unglück und eine tiefe Schmach für die Mutter. Das kann so weit
fuhren, daß die Zwillinge samt ihrer Mutter getötet werden. Beide Haltungen be-
rühren sich nahe, ja können einander übergehen.
Das Staunen über das Wunder der Zwillingsgeburt ließ Zwillinge in den Mythus
eingehen. Osiris und Isis sind Zwillinge und als solche schon im Mutterleib auch
Gatten Eine ganz besondere Bedeutung haben Zwillingsgötter in den Religionen
der indogermanischen Völker. Bei den alten Indiern genossen die Asvins, die himm-
lischen Reiter, vom Himmel gezeugte Zwillingsbrüder, höchste Verehrung. Ormuzd und
Ahriman in der Religion der alten Perser, die das Licht und die Finsternis, das Gute
und das Böse schlechthin verkörpern und in ewigem Kampf miteinander leben, sind
Zwillinge wie in der germanischen Mythologie der lichte, liebliche Baidur und der
blinde, häßliche Hödur, der ihm den Tod gibt. Zwillinge sind auch Apollo und Artemis
die Dioskuren Kastor und Pollux, Romulus und Remus, wie Hengist und Horsa.
Und heute? — Die alten Mythen haben ihren Zauber verloren. Unsere Zeit der
Naturwissenschaft will zuerst kühl, sachlich und unvoreingenommen die Wirklich-
keit sehen. Und eben in dieser Zeit und in diesem Sinn haben Zwillinge von neuem
eine ungeahnte Bedeutung gewonnen. Wir wollen in erster Linie sehen, richtid
sehen. Was wir nun an Zwillingen sehen können, ist folgendes:
Wir finden Zwillinge — sie sind immer gleichen Geschlechts — , die sich gleichen
,,wie ein Wassertropfen dem andern". Sie zeigen eine Ähnlichkeit, die bis zur rest-
osen Gleichheit, zur völligen Identität gehen kann. Die anderen Zwillinge — sie
können gleichen oder verschiedenen Geschlechtes sein — gleichen sich in dem-
selben Maß wie gewöhnliche Geschwister; sie können Familienähnlichkeit zeigen
oder so stark voneinander verschieden sein, daß niemand glauben würde, daß sie zur
gleichen Zeit von der gleichen Mutter geboren wurden.
!
.1
i:!l
;',:.l
.1
IS!'
m
> 'i'i
Einleitung
über das wundert sich nun auch der Mensch des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts Das
Sich Wundern ist aber noch immer der erste Anstoß zu geistigem Fortschritt ge-
wesen Was ist verwunderlicher? Merkwürdig und das Staunen herausfordernd ist
es daß zwei Kinder, die im Mutterleib vereint waren, später zu schärfsten Gegen-
sätzen sich entwickeln können. Noch stärker wirft uns aber die andere Art von
Zwillingen aus dem Geleise. Tausendfältige Beobachtung am Menschen lehrt uns
sonst daß jeder Mensch etwas Einzigartiges und Unwiederholbares ist, daß alle
Menschen ohne Schwierigkeit voneinander unterschieden werden können. Hier fuhrt
uns aber das Leben Wesen in den Weg, die oft nicht einmal von den ihnen am
nächsten verbundenen Menschen unterschieden werden können. Das erregt zunächst
unsere Heiterkeit und gibt zu den drolligsten Verwechslungen Anlaß; Zwillings-
witze sind uralt und unsterblich. Die restlose, verwirrende Ähnlichkeit zweier
solcher Menschen läßt aber auch ein Gefühl des Unheimlichen aufsteigen, weckt ein
instinktives, unerklärliches Schauern. Was für eine dunkle Macht hat die beiden
so ununterscheidbar gleich geprägt?
Dieser ganz unmittelbar sich einstellende, unerhört starke Eindruck hat nun
heute die Wissenschaft auf den Plan gerufen. Die von der Regel abweichenden Fälle
sind ihr noch immer die fruchtbarsten gewesen; an ihnen kann sie anpacken und
tiefer schürfen. Heute spielen Zwillinge in der Wissenschaft vom Menschen eine
ähnlich bedeutungsvolle Rolle wie einst Zwillingsgötter in den mythischen Vor-
stellungen altindogermanischer Religionen. Die Untersuchung und Vergleichung von
Zwillingen ist ein einzigartiger Weg geworden, um mit exakt naturwissenschaft-
licher Methode ins innerste Wesen des Menschen einzudringen, die Kräfte bloßzu-
legen, die sein Werden und Sein bestimmen. Es gibt heute in der Biologie des
Menschen kaum ein packenderes und erregenderes Gebiet als die Zwillingsforschung.
Vorurteilslose Wissenschaft führt hinein in tiefste menschliche Bezirke, nüchterne
biologische Forschungsarbeit vermittelt erschütternde Erlebnisse, die weltanschau-
ungsbildend wirken müssen.
L Die Biologie der Zwillingsbildung
1. Die normale Keimesentwicklung
Jede Beschäftigung mit einer Vielzahl von Zwillingen führt in kurzer Zeit zu der
Erkenntnis, daß zwei Gruppen von Zwillingspaaren unterschieden werden müssen:
Solche, die eine nahezu vollkommene Ähnlichkeit zeigen, und andere, deren Ähn-
lichkeit nicht größer ist, als sie auch sonst zwischen Geschwistern besteht. Die
beiden Gruppen sind klar voneinander geschieden, und es kann von vornherein kaum
ein Zweifel bestehen, daß sie verschiedenen biologischen Vorgängen ihre Entstehung
verdanken müssen. Auf welche Weise entstehen nun die beiden
Arten von Zwillingen?
Um die Entstehung von Zwillingen in ihrem Wesen verstehen zu können, ist es
notwendig, zuerst die normale Keimesentwicklung des Menschen kennen zu lernen.
Die Entwicklung des Menschen nimmt ihren Ausgang von der Vereinigung einer
männlichen Keimzelle, der Samenzelle (Spermatozoon, Spermium), mit einer
weiblichen Keimzelle, dem menschlichen E i. Die männlichen Keimzellen bilden sich
in der mannlichen Geschlechtsdrüse, dem Hoden. Die Samenzellen des Menschen
haben eine Lange von etwa V,„ mm; sie bestehen aus einem breiten, abgeplatteten
Kopf, einem kurzen Halsstück und einem langen Schwanz. Der Kopf enthält nur
Kernsubs anz; diese ist die stoffliche Grundlage der Vererbung. Eine Samenzelle
ist eigentlich nichts anderes als ein aktiv beweglicher Transportapparat für diese
ti
^4
I
i
Bildung der Geschlechtszellen
Bild 1. Chromosomen des Menschen. Zellteilung in
einer Gewebskultur (Milzgewebe aus einem Embryo).
Vergrößerung lOOOfach. (Nach Kemp 1929.)
Vererbungssubstanz; sie hat die
Aufgabe, die männliche Keimmasse
zum Ei zu bringen.
Im Kern der Geschlechtszellen
sind die Chromosomen die Träger
der Erbeinheiten. Die menschlichen
Körperzellen haben eine k o n -
stanteChromosomenzahl
von 48. Von ihnen haben immer
je 2 Chromosomen gleiche äußere
Form und gleiche Erbfunktion. Die
48 Chromosomen stellen also 24
Paare dar. Von jedem Paar hat der
Mensch einen Partner von seinem
Vater, den anderen von seiner
Mutter erhalten.
Die Samenzellen entstehen in
der männlichen Keimdrüse, dem
Hoden, aus den Samenmutter-
zellen. Aus jeder solchen Zelle bil-
den sich durch zwei kurz aufein-
anderfolgende Teilungen, die soge-
nannten Reifeteilungen, je vier
Samenzellen. Die erste dieser bei-
den Teilungen ist von den sonst im
Körper vor sich gehenden Zelltei-
lungen grundsätzlich verschieden. Bei einer normalen Zellteilung spaltet sich jedes
Chromosom der Länge nach; durch einen ungemein genau und zuverlässig wirkenden
Mechanismus wird jede der beiden Tochterzellen mit je einer Spalthälfte aller Chro-
mosomen versorgt. Die Zahl der Chromosomen bleibt damit die gleiche. Bei jener
ersten Reifeteilung geht aber etwas völlig anderes vor sich. Vor der Teilung legen
sich in der Samenmutterzelle (Samenbildungszelle 1. Ordnung) die Paarlinge aller
Chromosomenpaare zusammen; von jedem der 24 Paare wandert dann das eine
Chromosom in die eine, das zweite in die andere Tochterzelle, so daß damit jede
dieser beiden Zellen (der Samenbildungszellen 2. Ordnung) nur noch 24 Chromo-
somen besitzt. Durch diese Reduktionsteilung ist somit die Zahl der Chromo-
somen auf die Hälfte reduziert worden. Während die Körperzellen und auch noch
die Samenmutterzellen die volle Chromosomenzahl (48) und damit einen doppelten
Satz von Erbanlagen besitzen, haben die Geschlechtszellen mit ihren 24 Chromo-
somen nur einen einfachen, dabei aber vollständigen Satz von Erbanlagen. An diese
Teilung schließt sich bei den Samenbildungszellen 2, Ordnung sofort eine zweite
Teilung an, die wieder eine Gleichheitsteilung (Äquationsteilung) ist, bei der
die Chromosomen längsgespalten werden; ihre Zahl bleibt damit die gleiche. Durch
diese zweite Reifeteilung entstehen vier reife, befruchtungsfähige Samenzellen.*
Die Zahlenverhältnisse der Chromosomen bei den Reifeteilungen der männ-
lichen Geschlechtszellen sind damit zunächst allgemein dargestellt worden; bei dem
Vorgang ist aber eine wichtige Besonderheit zu beachten. Bei 23 Chromosomen-
paaren des Mannes sind die Paarlinge in erblicher Beziehung gleichwertig; sie ent-
sprechen sich auch völlig in Größe und Gestalt. Im Gegensatz dazu ist das
24. Chromosomenpaar nach Größe und Gestalt deutlich ungleich; auch nach ihrem
Erbwert sind die beiden Chromosomen verschieden. Das größere der beiden Chromo-
• Wegen der FrajSe der Reihenfolge der Reifeteilunßen vergleiche Anmerkung Seite 82 und 83.
:;"!
• "11
!;■
K'
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8
Die normale Keimesentwicklung
3f«
Bild 2, Die Chromosomenpaare des Mannes aus der
Reduktionsteilung (1, Reifeteilung), (Nach Shivvago
und Andres.)
somen wird als X-Chromosom,
das kleinere als Y-Chromosom
bezeichnet (Bild 2). Durch die Re-
duktionsteilung erhält die eine
Samenbildungszelle 2, Ordnung
das X-Chromosom, die andere das
Y-Chromosom, Von den durch die
zweite Reifeteilung entstehenden
vier Samenzellen haben daher
zwei das X-Chromosom, zwei das
Y - Chromosom, Mit diesen ver-
schiedenen Samenzellen hängt,
wie später noch darzulegen ist,
die Bestimmung des Geschlechts
zusammen.
Die weiblichen Geschlechtszellen werden in der weiblichen Keimdrüse, dem frei
in der Bauchhöhle liegenden Eierstock (Ovarium) gebildet. In ihm bilden sich
im Laufe der kindlichen Entwicklung bis zum 3, Lebensjahr Zellgruppen heraus,
die aus einer Ei an läge (Oogonie) und einer Schicht sie umhüllender Zellen be-
steht. Später wird aus diesen Zellen eine mit einer Flüssigkeit gefüllte Blase, der
Follikel; an einer stark verdickten Stelle der Blasenwand liegt die Eimutter-
zelle (Eibildungszelle L Ordnung) eingebettet. Aus dieser Zelle entsteht durch
zwei Reifungsteilungen die eigentliche Eizelle,
Die erste dieser Teilungen ist wie bei der Bildung der Samenzellen die Reduk-
tionsteilung, die zweite eine Äquationsteilung, Die Vorgänge bei der Verteilung
der Chromosomen sind die gleichen wie bei der Bildung der Samenzellen, In einem
Punkt aber besteht ein bezeichnender Unterschied: Schon bei der ersten Reife-
teilung erhält die eine der beiden sich bildenden Zellen, die Eibildungszelle 2. Ord-
nung, fast alles Protoplasma, die zweite Zelle (Polzelle, Richtungskörper-
chen) ist klein und nicht befruchtungsfähig. Bei der zweiten Reifeteilung geht
dasselbe nochmals vor sich; es entsteht das reife Ei und ein weiteres kleines Rich-
tungskörperchen. Da sich das erste abgeschnürte Richtungskörperchen seinerseits
auch nochmals teilt, bringen die beiden Reifeteilungen wohl auch vier Zellen her-
vor, von ihnen ist aber nur eine, das r e i f e E i , befruchtungsfähig. Dieses Ei hat
emen Durchmesser von 0,1 mm und ist damit gerade noch mit bloßem Auge sicht-
bar; es ist die größte Zelle des menschlichen Körpers.
Diese Reifeteilungen des Eis stehen zeitlich in Beziehung zu einem anderen Vor-
gang, dem P latzcndesFollikels, Einmal in der Menstruationsperiode der
1^ rau (um den 12, Tag dieser Periode) platzt ein reifer, an der Außenfläche des Eier-
stocks gelegener Fo likel. Das Ei tritt damit aus der Blase, in die es bisher ein-
geschlossen war, m die Bauchhöhle aus. Zur Zeit des Austretens ist die erste Reife-
tei ung abgeschlossen. Das Ei wird dann von dem Flimmertrichter des Eileiters auf-
fp/r"!.' Vh a'". r'" Elleiter hineingestrudelt; erst hier findet die zweite Reife-
l^Zi A^^.^'-^^d von Untersuchungen an einer Reihe von Säugetieren scheint
LTde?Fir T'. '^ die-weite Reifeteilung erst unmittelbar nach der Befruch-
2er Z Jt ab ' ^ '^'' ""^' ^^" ^^' ^^^ "^^^^ befruchtet wird, stirbt nach
Wenn das Ei aus dem Follikel ausgetreten ist cn icf ^ u j ir i i- u
nicht abgeschlossen. Der öeDlatztrFol ,l! 1 / u ^"^'^ ^^^^^"^ Funktion noch
färbter Zellen, dem G elb k ö fn e r fci ' T"^^^\^^^h ^^ ^^^er Gruppe gelb ge-
des Eis erfolg , so büde sfc^der GelbU •^''' TT^ ^"^' ^^^" ^^^"" Befruchtung
K , o Diiaet sich der Gelbkorper bald wieder zurück und die Periode
Befruchtung und Bestimmung des Geschlechts
der Frau beginnt von neuem. Wenn aber Schwangerschaft eintritt, so wächst der
Gelbkörper sehr stark an. Er bildet ein Hormon, das im Organismus der schwan-
geren Frau eine sehr wichtige Rolle spielt und vor allem während der ganzen Zeit
der Schwangerschaft und der Ernährung des Säuglings durch die Muttermilch das
Platzen anderer Follikel und damit das Austreten weiterer befruchtungsfähiger Eier
verhindert. Der Gelbkörper erhält sich in diesem Fall recht lange; es bleibt von ihm
an der Oberfläche des Eierstocks eine Narbe zurück, aus der ersehen werden kann,
aus welchem Eierstock und von welcher Stelle desselben das Ei, das zur Schwanger-
schaft geführt hat, ausgetreten ist.
Notwendig ist es noch, auf die Chromosomenverhältnisse bei den Reifeteilungen
des Eies einzugehen. Jede Körperzelle der Frau und ebenso jede Eimutterzelle hat
außer den auch beim Mann gleichwertigen 23 Chromosomenpaaren noch ein 24. Paar,
das im Gegensatz zum männlichen Geschlecht aus zwei gleichen Chromosomen,
nämlich 2 X-Chromosomen, besteht. Durch die Reifeteilungen erhält deshalb jede
Eizelle ein X-Chromosom. Im Gegensatz zu den zwei Arten von Samenzellen gibt
es also nur Eizellen von einer Art. Aus diesen Gegebenheiten folgt bei der Be-
fruchtung die Bestimmung des Geschlechts.
Die Befruchtung des Eies erfolgt im Eileiter. Die Samenzellen dringen auf Grund
ihrer kräftigen Eigenbewegung durch die Öffnung der Gebärmutter ein und bewegen
sich in ihr und in den Eileitern entgegen dem Flimmerstrom dieser Organe vor-
wärts. In der Nähe des befruchtungsbereiten Eis werden sie von chemischen Reizen
beeinflußt, die von diesem ausgehen. Der Kopf der Samenzelle dringt in die Eizelle
ein. Sofort nach diesem Eindringen stößt die Eihülle weitere Samenzellen ab; eine
Doppelbefruchtung wird dadurch verhindert. Das Wesen der Befruchtung
bestehtinderVer-
einigung der Kerne
beider Geschlechts-
zellen; damit ist die
Erbmasse des neuen
Wesens festgelegt.
Die Kerne von Ei- und
von Samenzelle legen sich
nebeneinander und ver-
schmelzen miteinander zu
einem größeren Kern, dem
Kern der befruchteten Ei-
zelle, der Zygote. Mit der
Verschmelzung der beiden
Kerne ist die volle Chro-
mosomenzahl von 48 wie-
derhergestellt. Im Augen-
blick der Befruchtung ist
auch die Bestimmung des
Geschlechts des neuen
Menschen vollzogen. Wenn
ein X-Spermium eine Ei-
zelle befruchtet, so ent-
steht eine Zygote mit dem
Chromosomenbestand 46
+ 2 X, d. h. ein weibliches
Wesen. Durch dieBefruch-
Ur^men^dle W) *X->-y j
5arnenmutter^elle\
1. Ordnung
Richtungskörper
5amenmutfer-\ o, ,,
S,eJle 2.0rdng\^ ^
^ jT/^ (^^^y) i^^^y) (^^^A ^A ^^^"^ ( 23 ,-x
Richf-ungskörper
Bild 3, Die Chromosomenverhältnisse bei der Reifung der
Geschlechtszellen und bei der Befruchtung, Bestimmung des
Geschlechts,
m
:'.M
'!>:!
11^
.11
i
10
Die normale Keimesentwicklung
tung der Eizelle mit einem Y- Spermium entsteht ein männliches Wesen mit dem
Chromosomenbestand 46 + X + Y. (Vgl, Bild 3.) Das Geschlecht wird also durch
die beiden verschiedenen Arten von Samenzellen bestimmt. Da bei der Bildung der
Samenzellen X-Spermien und Y-Spermien in gleicher Zahl gebildet werden, so wäre
an und für sich zu erwarten, daß gleichviele Knaben und Mädchen geboren werden;
in Wirklichkeit kommen auf 100 Mädchengeburten ungefähr 106 Knabengeburten.
Dies rührt wahrscheinlich davon her, daß die Y-Spermien etwas leichter beweglich
sind als die X-Spermien und deshalb größere Aussicht haben, zuerst zur Eizelle zu
gelangen und die Befruchtung durchzuführen.
a
.r:fXf' '
W/^'-^fv
rr^-r
a) Das E.. f a^o^tuI^llV^B" '"^^'""^^^^^^-^^ ^^ Kanincheneies.
EihüUe und Eizelle hat sich dn zlisl^nt^um .chiM ^'""!, ''"* '''^ '^^^^^ zusammenjjczoöen; zwischen
b) Der Beginn der ersten Teilung deutet sich H, ^^ ,' '" ^"""^ abgestorbene Samenzellen liegen.
c) Die erste Teilung ist beendet' Z^eiluettad :1^'"^ ''''''' Einschnürung an.
d) D.e zweite Teilung ist beendet. Vierzellenstadium.
(Aus dem Film der Reichsstelle für d TT t
des Kanincheneies". WissenschaftlicheTcitnnJp'^l'^'^"' ..Befruchtung und erste Teilungen
uicne Leitung Professor Dr. Frommolt, Halle.)
i
I
Furchung
11
Nach der Befruchtung setzt eine Teilung der befruchteten Eizelle ein, ein Vor-
gang, der als Furchung bezeichnet wird. Über den Verlauf dieses Vorgangs beim
Menschen liegen zwar keine Beobachtungen vor; er erfolgt aber wohl in ähnlicher
Weise wie bei anderen Säugetieren, bei denen er genau untersucht worden ist. Bei
der ersten Zellteilung ordnen sich die Chromosomen des Zellkerns wie bei jeder
normalen Zellteilung in der künftigen Teilungsebene an; sie spalten sich der Länge
nach; daraufhin wird durch einen außerordentlich genau und sicher wirkenden Ver-
teilungsapparat von jedem Chromosom die eine Spalthälfte zum einen Pol, die
andere zum anderen Pol hingezogen. Gleichzeitig bildet sich in der kugelförmigen
Zelle eine äquatoriale Furche aus; nach dieser Furche schnürt sich die Zelle durch,
so daß damit aus der einen Zelle zwei Zellen entstehen. Die Richtung, in der die
Anordnung des Chromosomensterns und später die Durchschnürung erfolgt, wird
durch das bei der zweiten Reifeteilung abgetrennte Richtungskörperchen bestimmt,
das eben daher den Namen erhalten hat. Aus der befruchteten Eizelle entstehen
durch die erste Teilung zwei Furchungszellen; durch weitere Teilungen erhöht sich
die Zahl der Zellen auf 4, 8 und mehr, (Bild 4 und 5,)
Bild 5, Furchung des Eies der Maus,
Von der befruchteten Eizelle (mit Richtungskörperchen) bis zur Morula, (Nach Broman,)
Bei niederen Wirbeltieren, insbesondere den Amphibien, bei denen die Verhält-
nisse am besten erforscht sind, bildet sich durch die wiederholten Furchungsteilungen
schließlich ein kugeliger Zellhaufen, die Morula, aus dieser eine hohle Zellkugel,
die B 1 a s t u 1 a , und aus ihr weiterhin durch Einstülpung die G a s t r u 1 a. Bei den
Säugetieren sind infolge der besonderen Verhältnisse der Ernährung des Keims im
mütterlichen Körper die Vorgänge der Entwicklung stark abgewandelt. Zuerst bildet
sich allerdings auch hier eine Morula aus. Durch die Zellteilungen des Furchungs-
prozesses wird zunächst nur die Zahl der Zellen vermehrt; die Größe der Einzel-
zellen verringert sich mit jeder weiteren Teilung, so daß die Morula kaum größer
ist als das Ei selbst. Während der Furchung durchwandert der menschliche Keim
im Zeitraum von einigen Tagen den Eileiter, bewegt von dessen Flimmerzellen, und
gelangt auf diese Weise in die Höhle der Gebärmutter, des Uterus. Hier setzt er
sich in der Schleimhaut fest, welche die Höhle innen auskleidet, ja er frißt sich
richtig in sie ein. Aus der Schleimhaut heraus erhält er reichliche Nahrung, so daß
er nunmehr wesentlich schneller zu wachsen vermag. Die Morula bildet sich dabei
zu einem Gebilde um, das zwar keine eigentliche Blastula darstellt, aber ihr doch
ungefähr entspricht und als Keimblase (Blastocyste) bezeichnet wird (Bild 6 b).
Außen bildet sich eine aus einer einschichtigen Zellenlage bestehende Wand, der
Trophoblast, aus; die Trophoblastzellen dienen ausschließlich der Ernährung
des Keims. Im Keim entstehen kleine Höhlungen; an der einen Seite bildet sich ein
kompakter Zellhaufen, der Embryonalknoten, aus, der ins Innere des Keimes vor-
springt (Bild 6 c), Aus ihm entsteht später der Embryo. Der Embryonalknoten zer-
legt sich im Laufe der weiteren Entwicklung in zwei Zellgruppen, ein Ektodcrm
und ein Entoderm (Bild 6d). Aus der tiefsten Schicht des Embryonalknotens
wächst das Dotterentoderm in der in Bild 6d und e dargestellten Weise aus; die
Zellen schließen sich zusammen und bilden einen Hohlraum, den Dottersack
(Bild 6f) ; er ist beim Menschen von vornherein nicht besonders groß und bildet sich
. . -'i'tfimiiwimpi
.11
I !
m
I 'Ml
Uli
12
Die normale Keimesentvvicklung
Die Bildung der Eihäute
13
Embryonal^
a
Trophoblia&t-
.Amnionhöhle
soder m
Entoderm
Troph
Beginn ende
^Dschn ünung
des Dottersack s
Embry ona lanlsge
i Embryonals dni/dj
Amnionhöhle
Mesoderm (T:
Amnion
Amnionhöhle
Hsffstiel
Bild 6. Die frühe Keimesentwicklung des Menschen.
(Gczc.chnct unter Benützung von schemalischen Büdcrn von C o r n , n a.)
^nolLTSb?^^^^^^^ den Dottersack und den ektodermalen Teil des Embryonal-
sack unV^^^^^^ ^^"' ^- ^"-h den Zwischenraum zwischen Dotter-
»dv-K una iropnoblast mit einzelnen Slränöen aiKitiilU I™ „i i j i c- ■ ■
knoten entsteht gleichzeitig durch A^^^tZr i. '"/»^'"dermalen Embryonal-
Amnionhöhle (Bild 6 e und t) dTw T/- " "^Y, ^""^" ^'"^ «°hle, die
l ua oe und t). Die Wand dieser Höhle wird zur inneren Ei-
\
i
I
Mesoderm
Hafhfie/ mit
Allantoisgang
Amnionhöhle
sgang
\mnion
Chorion
Chor/on^often
k
Bild 7. Die frühe Keimesentwicklung des Menschen (Fortsetzung von Bild 6).
(Gezeichnet unter Benützung von schematischen Bildern von Corning.)
haut, dem Amnion oder der Schafhaut, so genannt, weil sie beim Schaf zuerst be-
obachtet wurde. Die Art der Bildung des Amnions, wie sie in Bild 6 f und g dar-
gestellt ist, wurde zwar noch nicht unmittelbar beobachtet; es kann aber nach Unter-
suchungen bei anderen Säugetieren angenommen werden, daß sie in dieser Weise
vor sich geht.
■ > \
14
Die normale Keimesentwicklung
■■p - /ff. ^v ^^^VT'^^^^Hj^^F.fl ^^^ zwischen der Amnion-
IP*" mß ^4^ ^^« waV'^^^BP'^ W höhle und dem Dottersack lie-
gende mehrschichtige Zell-
masse, der Embryonalschild,
stellt die eigentliche Embryo-
nalanlage dar. Im Embryonal-
schild bildet sich der soge-
nannte Primitivstreifen
aus, in dem sich bald auch eine
Segmentierung zeigt und aus
dem sich dann allmählich der
Körper des Embryos heraus-
bildet (Bild 7h bis k). Der aus
Mesoderm bestehende H a f t -
stiel stellt die Verbindung des
Steißteils des Embryos mit dem
Trophoblasten her (Bild 6g und
7 h bis k) ; in ihn wächst auch
der später sich wieder rück-
bildende Allantoisgang*
hinein; eine eigentliche Allan-
tois wird beim Menschen nicht
gebildet.
Allmählich vergrößert sich
die Amnionhöhle immer mehr,
während sich gleichzeitig der
Trophoblast zur äußeren Ei-
haut, dem Chorion (Zottenhaut),
umwandelt. Vom Chorion wach-
sen Zotten in die Schleimhaut
des Uterus hinein und stellen
damit eine ungemein innige
Verbindung der beiden Häute
her. Die Amnionhöhle wird schließlich so groß, daß sich das Amnion der Innenseite
des Chorions anlegt (Bild 7 k). In der Amnionhöhle wird eine Flüssigkeit abge-
sondert, in der der heranwachsende Embryo schwimmt; ihre Bedeutung ist die, den
Embryo vor jedem harten Druck zu schützen. Mit der Vergrößerung der Amnion-
höhle wird der Dottersack immer kleiner. Der größer werdende Embryo hängt mit
dem Bauchstiel an der äußeren Wand der Fruchtblase; in diesem Stiel verlaufen der
zum Dottersack führende Gang, der rudimentäre Allantoisgang sowie die Blutgefäße,
die den Embryo von der Anheftungsstelle her ernähren. (Bild 7 k und Bild 8, das
emen Embryo in seinen Eihäuten zeigt.)
An der Einpflanzungsstelle des Keims wachsen das Chorion und die Schleim-
haut des Uterus (Membrana decidua) immer inniger zusammen; sie bilden schließ-
lich den Mutterkuchen, die Plazenta, über den ursprünglich ganz in die Schleim-
\lll l T ^^^^''f^^'' Keim geht zunächst sogar noch eine Schicht dieser
alt von ' %^r a""^ capsularis, hinweg. Der Keim ist damit einge-
äo ionlTdl '. ' "Z '\^,''^^'' ^-bildet sind (dem Amnion und dem
Chorion) und einer von der mutterlichen Seite her gebildeten Haut (Bild 1 1 a) Diese
plattet sich dann mit zunehmendem Wachstum des Keimes
Bild 8. Menschlicher Embryo, 19,5 mm lang, Vergröße-
rung 1'/ Jach, Alter etwa 45 Tage. (Nach Grosser.)
Das Chorion ist («cöffnct; die außen sitzenden Chorionzotten sind am
Rand zu sehen. Der Embryo ist vom Amnion umhüllt; er schwimmt in
der Amnionflüssigkeit, Neben dem Amnion liegt frei der Dottersack.
* .^/®,^,^ ^ ^ ^^ ° ^ s ist ein embryonah
immer mehr ab, wird
\
l
Erforschung der Keimesgeschichte
15
entwickelt ist, bei Säugern nur noch Vi^e "erfn^RolU t^Lu" ""^'"" Wirbeltieren stark
schließlich lückenhaft und geht gegen Ende des dritten Monats der Embryonalent-
wicklung zugrunde; sie ist dann nur noch auf der Außenseite des Chorions in ein-
zelnen Resten nachzuweisen.
Bei der Geburt reißen die Eihäute ein, das Fruchtwasser entleert sich und
das Kind wird ausgetrieben. Der aus dem früheren Haftstiel hervorgegangene
Nabelstrang, mit dem es nach seinem Austritt noch mit der Plazenta zu-
sammenhängt, muß abgebunden und durchgeschnitten werden. Einige Zeit nach der
Geburt des Kindes löst sich die Plazenta samt den Eihäuten als Nachgeburt los.
Was damit als Keimesgeschichte des Menschen in großen Zügen dar-
gestellt wurde, ist das Ergebnis einer langen Forschungsarbeit, die zu ganz ver-
schiedenen Zeiten an ganz verschiedenen Stellen des Entwicklungsgangs eingesetzt
hat, bis sich schließlich die Lücken in der Hauptsache geschlossen haben. Es ist be-
greiflich, daß über die spätere Keimesentwicklung und die Anatomie der Eihäute
von geburtshilflicher Seite her zuerst Klarheit geschaffen wurde. Erst eine viel
spätere Zeit hat dann die Entwicklung in ihren Einzelheiten aufgeklärt. Karl von
Baer hat 1827 als erster das menschliche Ei gesehen. Seit der zweiten Hälfte des
letzten Jahrhunderts haben wir dann Einblick in die frühen Stadien der Entwicklung
gewonnen. Die Entwicklung des Eis von der Befruchtung bis zur Einpflanzung im
Uterus ist bis heute noch nicht beim Menschen selbst beobachtet worden. Ähnliches
gilt für die Stadien der Entwicklung bis zur Bildung des Amnions und Embryonal-
schilds. Untersuchungen bei Säugetieren müssen und können hier die Lücken
schließen. Die Jahre nach 1875, in dem Oskar Hertwig als erster am Seeigelei den
Vorgang der Befruchtung beobachten konnte, haben dann weiterhin das Wesen dieses
für das Leben grundlegenden Vorgangs aufgeklärt, und nicht lange darauf ist die
Forschung auch auf die besondere Bedeutung des Zellkerns und der in ihm zu
beobachtenden Gebilde aufmerksam geworden. Im 20, Jahrhundert hat dann die
Einsicht in die Tatsachen der Vererbung, die zusammen mit den Beobachtungen
über den Feinbau des Kerns zur Chromosomentheorie der Vererbung geführt haben,
weitere Klarheit geschaffen, und erst die letzten Jahre haben uns in die besonderen
Chromosomenverhältnisse des Menschen tieferen Einblick gewährt.
So haben sich im Verlauf der Forschung die Erkenntnisse aneinandergefügt;
heute kann die Keimesgeschichte des Menschen in der Hauptsache als geklärt gelten.
2, Die Entstehung von Zwillingen und höheren Mehrlingen
Auf Grund der Kenntnis der normalen Keimesentwicklung ist nun auch ein zu-
reichender Einblick indieEntstehungvon Zwillingen möglich. Der Mensch
ist ein Lebewesen, bei dem die Einfrüchtigkeit die Regel ist. Schon die Form des
einheitlichen, nahezu kugelförmigen Uterus weist darauf hin. In regelmäßigen Ab-
ständen von 28 Tagen löst sich im Ovarium der Frau jeweils ein befruchtungs-
fähiges Ei los. Es ist aber im Ausnahmefall auch möglich, daß sich gleichzeitig
zwei Eier loslösen und zur Befruchtung gelangen. Nach ihrem Eintritt in den Uterus
können sich die beiden Keime mehr oder weniger weit voneinander entfernt in die
Schleimhaut einpflanzen. Falls die Einpflanzungsstellen erheblich auseinander
liegen, so bildet sich für jeden der beiden Keime, die je für sich völlig unabhängig
voneinander ihre Entwicklung durchmachen, eine besondere Plazenta aus (Bild 9a).
Falls die Einpflanzungsstellen nahe beieinander liegen, so entwickelt zwar auch
dann jeder Keim seine besonderen eigenen Hüllen; die von der mütterlichen Seite
her gebildeten Plazenten können aber weithin miteinander verschmelzen und zu
einer einheitlichen Bildung zusammenwachsen; beide Keime werden dann auch von
einer einheitlichen Decidua capsularis umhüllt (Bild 9b). Die Ursache der
*
16
Die Entstehung von Zwillingen und höheren Mehrlingen
Eineiige Zwillinge
17
li
Entstehung solcher Zwillinge liegt also in der Befruchtung
zweierEier. Diese können entweder aus zwei Follikeln eines Ovariums oder
aus dem rechten und linken Ovarium stammen. Es ist auch möglich, daß die beiden
Eier aus einem Follikel stammen; Follikel mit zwei Eiern sind schon hie und da
beobachtet worden. Auf welche Weise zwei Eier gleichzeitig ausgestoßen werden,
bleibt grundsätzlich gleichgültig; wesentlich bei der Bildung solcher Zwillinge ist
es daß zwei verschiedene Eier von zwei verschiedenen Samenzellen befruchtet
werden. Auf diese Art entstehen zweieiige Zwillinge. Mit der Loslösung zweier oder
mehrerer Eier aus den Eierstöcken (Polyovulation) geht beim Menschen in
Ausnahmefällen das vor, was bei vielen, ja den meisten Säugetieren die Regel ist.
Da jedes der beiden Eier für sich befruchtet wird, so wird damit auch das Ge-
schlecht jedes Keimes unabhängig vom andern für sich bestimmt; es können also
auf diese Weise sowohl
Pärchenzwillinge als auch
gleichgeschlechtige Zwil-
linge entstehen. Nach den
Regeln der Wahrschein-
lichkeit werden bei dieser
Art der Entstehung von
Zwillingen ebensoviel
gleichgeschlechtige als un-
gleichgeschlechtige Zwil-
lingspaare gebildet wer-
den. Derartige Zwillinge
zeigen eine Ähnlichkeit,
wie sie auch sonst Ge-
schwister aufweisen; sie
können sich mehr oder
weniger gleichen, unter
Umständen aber auch ganz
unähnlich sein. Das ist
nach der Art ihrer Entstehung unschwer zu verstehen. Die Geschlechtszellen eines
Menschen sind unter sich in ihrem Genbestand verschieden. Bei der Befruchtung
zweier gleichzeitig ausgestoßener, aber erbverschiedener Eizellen einer Frau durch
zwei erbverschiedene Samenzellen eines Mannes entstehen Zwillinge, die in ihrem
Erbgut genau so ähnlich oder so verschieden sind, als es sonst Geschwister sein
können (Bild 9) . Es handelt sich bei ihnen einfach um Geschwister, die nicht wie
sonst in zeitlichem Abstand gezeugt worden sind und sich entwickelt haben, sondern
die infolge der gleichzeitigen Loslösung zweier Eier auch zu gleicher Zeit ihre Ent-
wicklung im mütterlichen Körper durchgemacht haben. Sie sind Geschwister-
zwillinge.
Zwei Sonderfälle der Entstehung von zweieiigen Zwillingen wer-
den schon seit langem immer wieder diskutiert und sollen deshalb auch hier Erwähnung
finden. Es ist denkbar, daß die Befruchtung der beiden gleichzeitig ausgestoßenen Eier nicht
gleichzeitig, sondern in einem gewissen Zeitabstand erfolgt, unter Umständen auch durch
Samenzellen zweier verschiedener Männer, so daß dann die beiden Zwillinge in Wirklich-
keit nur Halbgeschwister wären. Ein solcher Vorgang wird als Überschwängerung (Super-
foecundatio) bezeichnet. Bei Tieren ist das Vorkommen einer solchen Überschwänge-
rung mit Sicherheit erwiesen. Es kommt häufig vor, daß Hündinnen, die während der Brunst-
zeit Hunde verschiedener Rassen zugelassen haben, gleichzeitig Junge verschiedener Bastard-
formen zur Welt bringen. Es ist auch schon beobachtet worden, daß eine Stute, die von
einem Hengst und einem Esel belegt wurde, gleichzeitig ein Pferde- und ein Maultierfüllen
warf. Zweifellos ist der entsprechende Vorgang auch beim Menschen möglich, wenn auch
Bild 9. Zweieiige Zwillinge, (Nach Lottig,)
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2 Zwillinge
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18
Die Entstehung von Zwillingen und höheren Mehrlingen
,
i:
t
der Beweis für sein Vorkommen natürlich nur sehr schwer erbracht werden kann. Es wird
von einem Fall berichtet, bei dem eine weiße Mutter, die mit zwei Männern verschiedener
Rasse verkehrt hatte, Zwillinge zur Welt brachte, von denen der eine rein weiß, der andere
ein Negermischling war.
Eine andere, an und für sich denkmögliche Art der Zwillingsbildung ist stark umstritten.
Es könnte sein, daß trotz der Befruchtung eines Eies und der damit beginnenden Schwanger-
schaft infolge Versagens der vom Gelbkörper ausgehenden hormonalen Hemmungsvorgänge
nochmals eine Menstruation eintreten würde, so daß in der folgenden Periode oder vielleicht
sogar noch später nochmals ein Ei ausgestoßen würde, das damit erst lange nach dem ersten
Ei zur Befruchtung käme. Daß ein solcher Vorgang, der als Überiruchtung (Super-
f o e t a t i o) bezeichnet wurde, tatsächlich vorkomme, wurde deshalb vermutet, weil Zwil-
lingsfrüchte oft sehr starke Größenunterschiede aufweisen und deshalb verschiedenes Alter
zu haben scheinen. Es ist aber durchaus möglich, daß ein solcher Unterschied von der un-
günstigen Ernährung und Lage eines der Zwillinge herrührt; starke Entwicklungsunterschiede
kommen sogar bei eineiigen Zwillingen, die ja sicher gleichalterig sind, häufiger vor als bei
zweieiigen Zwillingen, Im übrigen ist die Ausstoßung eines Eis nach Eintritt einer Schwanger-
schaft tatsächlich noch in keinem Fall einwandfrei beobachtet worden; das Gelbkörper-
hormon scheint mit völliger Zuverlässigkeit zu wirken. Nach WEBER läßt sich zwar „die
Superfoetation als Möglichkeit nicht leugnen; sie ist aber im höchsten Grade unwahrschein-
lich und bisher noch nicht bewiesen".
Wie steht es nun aber mit jenen anderen, unerhört ähnlichen Zwillingen? Ihre
Übereinstimmung, wie sie Bild 10 für 6 Paare zeigt, ist so auffallend und erregend,
daß ganz von selbst die Vermutung herausgefordert wird, sie müßten ihre Entstehung
einem Vorgang besonderer Art verdanken. Eine Beobachtung von geburtshilflicher
Seite fügte sich hier ein. In der Mehrzahl der Fälle entwickeln sich Zwillinge in
getrennten Eihäuten; die Nachgeburt läßt dann die getrennten Chorien und Amnien
ohne weiteres erkennen. Daneben kommen aber auch Zwillingemitgemein-
samen Eihäuten zur Welt. Die Zwillinge haben zusammen nur e i n Chorion;
innerhalb des Chorions kann aber jeder Zwilling ein besonderes Amnion haben, in
selteneren Fällen haben sie auch ein gemeinsames Amnion. Nun fand man schon in
der Mitte des vorigen Jahrhunderts, daß die in einem gemeinsamen Chorion ge-
bildeten Zwillinge immer gleichgeschlechtig sind, und später zeigte es sich, daß sich
solche Zwillinge immer auch durch die erwähnte außerordentliche Ähnlichkeit aus-
zeichnen. Auf Grund dieser Tatsachen erwuchs die Ansicht, daß sich derartige
Zwillinge aus einem einzigen Ei entwickelt hätten. Die Keimesgeschichte zeigt, daß
ein einheitliches Chorion, das ja aus dem Trophoblasten entstanden ist, nur aus
einem Ei hervorgegangen sein kann. Für die Bildung der ähnlichen Zwillinge
konnte angenommen werden, daß sich ein bis dahin einheitlicher Keim in einem
frühen Stadium der Embryonalentwicklung, aber nach der Bildung des Tropho-
blasten, in zwei gleiche Hälften gespalten hat; jede Hälfte hätte sich dann zu einem
selbständigen Wesen entwickelt. Es würde sich demnach um Zwillinge handeln, die
auf dem Wege der Spaltung aus einem befruchteten Ei entstanden sind, also um ein-
eiige Zwillinge,*
Diese Ansicht bildete sich schon zu einer Zeit, als über Befruchtung und Ver-
erbung erst recht ungenaue und dunkle Vorstellungen bestanden. Die Erklärung
ging von geburtshilflich tätigen Ärzten aus; der entscheidende und wesentliche Tat-
* In der Fachliteratur haben sich die Abkürzungen EZ für eineiige Zwillinge, ZZ für
gleichgeschlechtige zweieiige Zwillinge und FZ für ungleichgeschlechtige zweieiige Zwillinge
(Pärchenzwillinge) allgemein eingebürgert. Eine Abkürzung für zweieiige Zwillinge schlecht-
hin fehlt hierbei; recht häufig wird fälschlicherweise auch hierfür die Abkürzung ZZ ver-
wendet. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird für zweieiige Zwillinge die Abkürzung zZ benützt;
die schon allgemein anerkannten Abkürzungen werden auf diese Weise nicht gestört. Die
zweieiigen Zwillinge (zZ) gliedern sich in gleichgeschlechtige zweieiige Zwillinge (ZZ) und
Pärchenzwillinge (PZ). Es gilt also: zZ = ZZ + FZ.
Diagnose der Eiigkeit nach den Eihäuten und nach der Ähnlichkeit
19
bestand für die Ansicht von der Bildung solcher Zwillinge war das Vorhandensein
des gemeinsamen Chorions. Als dann das 20. Jahrhundert klare Einsichten in den
Vorgang der Vererbung brachte, wurde die Tatsache der außerordentlichen Ähnlich-
keit solcher Zwillinge die stärkste Stütze der Anschauung von ihrer Bildung aus
einem einzigen Ei. Die Erbmasse eines Lebewesens ist im Augenblick der Befruch-
tung durch die Verschmelzung der Kerne der väterlichen und der mütterlichen Zelle
testgelegt; in diesem Augenblick ist auch das Geschlecht bestimmt. Durch eine
spatere Teilung des Keimes erhalten somit die beiden Hälften einen völlig gleichen
Lhromosomenbestand. Damit müssen derartige Zwillinge völlig
erbgleich sein. & s
So bildete sich durch die Verarbeitung der verschiedenen Gruppen von Beobach-
tungstatsachen allmählich die folgende Anschauung heraus: Es gibt zwei Arten von
Zwillingen. Die eine Art, diezweieiigenZwillinge (zZ) , entsteht durch Be-
iruchtung zweier Eizellen durch zwei Samenzellen; sie werden immer in getrennten
hihullen geboren und können gleiches Geschlecht haben (ZZ) oder Pärchenzwillinge
(FZ) sein. Die andere Art von Zwillingen entsteht auf der Grundlage eines einzigen
betruchteten Eis durch eine spätere vollständige Spaltung des Keims; es sind e i n -
enge Zwillinge (EZ). Die beiden Paarlinge sind völlig erbgleich und damit
auch immer gleichgeschlechtig; sie werden immer in einem gemeinsamen Chorion
geboren. Ob es sich um eineiige oder zweieiige Zwillinge handelt, kann zwar nach
dem Grad ihrer Ähnlichkeit vermutet, mit völliger Sicherheit aber nur nach dem
Hihautbetund entschieden werden.
Als seit einem starken Jahrzehnt das Interesse für Zwillinge immer stärker
wurde und eine große Zahl von Zwillingspaaren zu Zwecken der Erbforschung unter-
sucht werden sollte, entstand das dringende Bedürfnis nach einem einfachen und
sicheren Kriterium, ob es sich im einzelnen Fall um EZ oder ZZ handle Die Dia-
gnose nach den Eihäuten konnte dabei unmöglich mehr genügen. Bei den meisten
Zwillingspaaren, die zur Untersuchung zur Verfügung standen, war der Eihaut-
befund überhaupt nicht mehr bekannt. Weiterhin zeigte es sich, daß es bei der Ge-
burt recht schwierig ist, die Eihautverhältnisse mit völliger Sicherheit festzustellen-
bei einer nicht ganz gründlichen Untersuchung können leicht Irrtümer vorkommen.
Uie Beschäftigung mit den Zwillingen war fast ausschließlich auf die Erbbioloöen
übergegangen, und damit bildeten sich die Erbforscher auch ihre eigene Methode zur
Erkennung eineiiger Zwillinge aus: Sie stellten die D i a g n o s e n a c h d e r Ä h n -
lichkeit. Die völ Ige Gleichheit zweier Zwillinge in einer Reihe sonst erblich
stark differierender Merkmale gab ihnen die Entscheidung. Zur Vergleichung und
Sicherstellung dieser Diagnose mußte natürlich die Vergleichung mit dem Eihaut-
befund nebenhergehen. Hierbei ergaben sich aber bedeutungsvolle neue Erkenntnisse
Schon 1924 hatte Lenz darauf hingewiesen, daß es nicht ohne weiteres selbstver-
ständlich sei, daß sich die aus einem befruchteten Ei entstandenen Zwillinge in
jedem Fall in einem gemeinsamen Chorion entwickeln müßten. Siemens und von
Verschuer verfolgten später gleichfalls diesen Gedanken. Durch fortlaufende ein-
gehende Untersuchungen welche im Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Anthropologie,
menschliche Erblehre und Rassenhygiene in Berlin seit 1929 durch Kiffner, CuRxrus
Lassen und Steiner durchgeführt wurden, ist nunmehr in der strittigen Fra^e Klar-
heit geschaffen worden. ^
Einige Beobachtungen deuteten darauf hin, daß Zwillinge, die offenbar völlig
erbgleich waren auch in völlig getrennten Eihäuten zur Entwicklung gelangen
können. Daraufhin wurden systematisch bei einer größeren Zahl von Zwillings-
paaren, die in Berliner Entbindungsanstalten zur Welt gekommen waren, sowohl die
tiihaute untersucht als auch die Ähnlichkeitsdiagnose gestellt. Die Eihautdiagnose
2»
20
Die Entstehung von Zwillingen und höheren Mehrlingen
Die Eihautverhältnissc der verschiedenen Arten von Zwillingen
21
erfolgte nicht bloß makroskopisch, sondern in zweifelhaften Fällen, wo eine Ver-
wachsung verschiedener Häute vermutet werden konnte, auch mikroskopisch. Außer-
dem wurden durch Injektion der Blutgefäße die Gefäßverbindungen in den Zwillings-
plazenten untersucht. Die Ähnlichkeitsdiagnose kann bei neugeborenen Zwillingen
noch nicht mit voller Sicherheit durchgeführt werden; die für die Untersuchung ge-
eigneten Merkmale sind erst etwa im 4. Monat so weit ausgebildet, daß sie eine
Entscheidung ermöglichen. Nachuntersuchung in späterer Zeit, bei vielen Paaren
über Jahre hinweg, suchten die Ähnlichkeitsdiagnose zu festigen. Die Ergebnisse
aller dieser Untersuchungen, die sich über die Jahre von 1928 bis 1935 erstreckten,
sind in der nachstehenden Zusammenstellung aufgeführt (nach Steiner).
Eihautbefund
Zahl der untersuchten
gleichgeschlechtigen
Zwillingspaare
Davon waren
nach der Ähnlichkeitsuntersuchung
erbgleich nicht erbgleich
2 Chorien
1 Chorion, 2 Amnien
1 Chorion, 1 Amnion
32
100
( 29
I 3
24
29
3
76
Aus den Zahlen geht also hervor, daß zwar alle erbungleichen Zwil-
linge in getrennten Eihäuten zur Welt kommen, daß aber nicht
alle dichorischen Zwillinge erbungleich sind ; unter ihnen findet sich
vielmehr ein recht erheblicher Bruchteil erbgleicher Zwillinge, Auf der anderen
Seite sind alle monochorischen Zwillinge auch erbgleich. Wenn die Erbgleichheit
der eineiigen, die Erbverschiedenheit der zweieiigen Entstehung entspricht, so wäre
wohl die Monochorie ein sicheres Kennzeichen für Eineiigkeit, dagegen nicht
Dichorie ein solches für Zweieiigkeit.
Damit wäre die frühere sogenannte , .klassische" Ansicht von
dem strengen Zusammenhang zwischen Eiigkeit und Eihaut-
befund klar widerlegt. Zweieiige Zwillinge haben auf alle Fälle zwei
Chorien; ob sie von einer gemeinsamen Decidua capsularis eingeschlossen sind und
scheinbar eine einheitliche Plazenta haben, oder ob ihre Plazenten völlig getrennt
sind, hängt nur von dem Ort der Einpflanzung des Keimes ab und ist von neben-
sächlicher Bedeutung. Dagegen sind drei Arten von EZ möglich: Solche mit zwei
Chorien, in derselben doppelten Möglichkeit wie bei den zweieiigen Zwillingen, eine
zweite Gruppe mit einem Chorion und zwei Amnien, und eine dritte Gruppe mit
einem Chorion und einem Amnion. Bisher sind 24 Fälle der ersten, 28 der zweiten
und 3 der dritten Art einwandfrei festgestellt worden. Dieses Zahlenverhältnis der
verschiedenen Gruppen von EZ kann sich natürlich mit wachsendem Material noch
etwas ändern. Die verschiedenen Arten der Zwillinge sind in Bild 11 dargestellt.
Im übrigen ist es unschwer möglich, die neuen Erkenntnisse über die Eihautver-
hältnissc bei EZ mit der Keimesentwicklung in Zusammenhang zu bringen. Wenn EZ
immer nur ein Chorion hätten, so müßte dies so erklärt werden, daß eine Spaltung
des Keims nie vor der Bildung des Trophoblasten eintritt. Es ist aber ebensogut
denkbar, daß die Spaltung bereits viel früher erfolgt. Daß dies tatsächlich der Fall
sein kann, beweisen die neuen Eihautbefunde. Auf Grund hiervon ist die Entstehung
der drei Arten von EZ (nach von Verschuer) folgendermaßen zu erklären: Die
TeilungdesKeimskannschonimStadiumdererstenFurchungen,
also vor seiner Einpflanzung in die Utcrusschleimhaut, erfolgen. Ob die Trennung
schon im Zweizellenstadium oder erst später eintritt, läßt sich nicht sagen; auf alle
Tuba uterina
Tuba uterina
mnion
PJacent^
Deciduö
ver<3
Chorion
idua
capsularis
Bild 11. Plazentation und Eihautbildung bei Zwillingen,
a) Placenta, Decidua capsularis, Chorion und Amnion getrennt.
b) Placenta getrennt oder scheinbar einfach, Decidua capsularis gemeinsam, Chorion und Amnion getrennt,
c) Placenta und Chorion gemeinsam, Amnion getrennt.
d) Placenta, Chorion und Amnion gemeinsam,
a und b können zZ oder EZ sein; c und d können nur EZ sein.
II
I«
22
Die Entstehung von Zwillingen und höheren Mehrlingen
Drillinge
23
1
I'.-. II ml I I 1 li ilinii^lli il I
Bild 12. Dreieiige Drillinge, (Nach Buschke.)
H«
Fälle können sich aber die beiden völlig getrennten Hälften des Keims an ver-
schiedenen Stellen des Uterus einpflanzen und ihre Entwicklung beginnen. Jeder
Keim macht völlig getrennt für sich seine Entv^icklung durch, hat also sein eigenes
Chorion.
Es ist aber auch möglich, daß die Spaltung des befruchteten Keims erst
später, im Stadium des Embryonalknotens (Bild ob oder 6c), erfolgt.
Das Ei ist zu dieser Zeit schon in die Schleimhaut eingewachsen; der Trophoblast,
der später zum Chorion wird, ist bereits ausgebildet. Dagegen ist im Embryonal-
knoten noch keine Dif-
ferenzierung eingetreten,
ein Amnion noch nicht
angelegt worden. Jede
Spalthälfte innerhalb des
gemeinsamen Chorions
bildet daher ihr eigenes
Amnion aus; auf diese
Weise entstehen EZ mit
einem Chorion und zwei
Amnien. Es scheint, daß
dieser Fall etwas häufi-
ger vorkommt als der
erste.
Schließlich ist es auch
möglich, daß die Spal-
tung des Keims erst
im Stadium des Em-
bryonalschilds er-
folgt (Bild 6 g oder 7 h,
Längsspaltung in Rich-
tung der Zeichenebene) .
Zu diesem Zeitpunkt der
Entwicklung ist die Am-
nionhöhle bereits ange-
legt; die beiden durch
die Längsspaltung des
Bild 13. Zweieiige Drillinge. Embryonalschilds entste-
(Univcrsitätsinstitut für Erbbiologic und Rassenhygienc, Frankfurt a.M.) hcndcn Kcimhälftcn ent-
I
wickeln sich daher in dem schon bestehenden Amnion; es entstehen auf diese Weise
EZ, die Chorion und Amnion gemeinsam haben. Dieser Fall der Entstehung von EZ
ist der wenigst häufige.
Damit wäre der verschiedene Eihautbefund bei EZ in sehr überzeugender Weise
erklärt; die Entwicklung des menschlichen Keims vermittelt das Verständnis für
die verschiedenen Möglichkeiten der Bildung von Zwillingen aus einer Keimanlage.
Die frühere Anschauung, daß EZ immer in einem gemeinsamen Chorion gebildet
würden, ist überholt und als zu eng erklärt. Ob Zwillinge aus einem Ei entstanden
sind, kann nur aus der Tatsache der Erbgleichheit erschlossen werden, nicht aus
dem Eihautbefund.
Auf Grund der Einsicht in das Wesen der Entstehung eineiiger und zweieiiger
Zwillinge ist die Entstehung höherer Mchrlingsgeburtcn unschwer zu verstehen.
Drillinge können auf dreierlei Weise entstehen. Die erste Möglichkeit ist die der
Bildung aus drei befruchteten Eiern; sie sind dann erbverschieden. Die
Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß dabei 3 Kinder gleichen Geschlechts entstehen, ist für
Knaben und Mädchen je ^/^. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß die Kinder verschiedenen
Geschlechts (2 Knaben und 1 Mädchen oder 1 Knabe und 2 Mädchen) ist je ^/^.
Drillinge können aber auch aus einem Ei entstehen; hierbei teilt sich die
eine der beiden durch Spaltung entstandenen Keimhälften noch ein weiteres Mal.
Solche Drillinge
können sich nach
demVorausgegange-
nen je nach dem
Zeitpunkt der Spal-
tung in einfachem,
doppeltem oder in
dreifachem Chorion
entwickeln. Schließ-
lich ist es aber auch
möglich, daß sich bei
der Bildung von
Drillingen die bei-
den Arten der Zwil-
lingsbildung kombi-
nieren. Die Drillinge
entstehen in diesem
Falle aus zwei
Eiern; bei dem ei-
nen Ei setzt Zwil-
lingsbildung durch
Spaltung des Keims
ein. Solche Drillinge
wären zweieiig ; zwei
der Drillinge sind
unter sich erbgleich.
Es gibt also drei-
eiige, zweieiige
und eineiigeDril-
linge. (Siehe zum
Vergleich die Bilder
12, 13 und 14.)
Bild 14. Eineiige weibliche Drillinge im Alter von 9 Jahren.
(Nach Sanders.)
Die Drillinge sind in Rotterdam geboren; sie sind schwachbegabt.
, . Der Körperbau zeigt vollkommene Gleichheit.
24
Die Entstehung von Zwillingen und höheren Mehrlingen
Menschliche Doppelmißbildungen
25
Bild 15. Eineiige weibliche Vierlinge. (Nach Clarke.)
Die amerikanischen Morlok- Vierlinge wurden 1930 in einem Chorion geboren. Das vierte Kind war bei der
Geburt wesentlich kleiner und leichter. Sein Haar war kürzer; deshalb erscheint es auf dem Bild weniger
lockig; später wurde es ebenso lockig wie bei den drei anderen.
Ähnliches gilt mit entsprechenden weiteren Möglichkeiten für die Entstehung
von Vierlingen. Durch wiederholte Spaltungen eines Eies können eineiige Vier-
linge entstehen (Bild 15). Daneben sind zwei Arten von zweieiigen Vier-
lingen möglich: entweder spaltet sich jedes der beiden Eier, so daß damit zwei
Paare von eineiigen Zwillingen entstehen (Bild 16), oder spaltet sich das eine der
beiden Eier in drei Teile, so daß ein solches Quartett gewissermaßen aus einem
Einling und drei eineiigen Drillingen besteht. DreieiigeVierlinge entstehen
dadurch, daß sich von drei gleichzeitig zur Entwicklung kommenden Eiern eines
noch spaltet. Schließlich kommen noch viereiige Vierlinge vor. Soweit
Vierlinge bekannt sind, scheinen tatsächlich alle genannten Möglichkeiten vor-
zukommen.
Es ist unschwer auszudenken, welche Möglichkeiten bei Fünflingen vorhanden
wären. Fünflinge sind aber so selten, daß diese verschiedenen Möglichkeiten noch
gar nicht zur Beob-
achtung gelangt sind.
Die einzigen bisher
überhaupt am Leben
gebliebenen Fünflinge
sind die 1934 gebore-
nen fünf Mädchen der
Familie D i o n n e in
Canada (Bild 17). Sie
sind zweifellos alle
erbgleich; es handelt
sich also bei ihnen um
eineiige Fünf-
linge. Sechslinge
sind nur in ganz we-
nigen Fällen, Sieben-
linge überhaupt erst
einmal (in Hameln^ im
Jahr 1600) beobachtet
worden. (Vgl. S. 77.)
Bild 16. Zweieiige weibliche Vierlinge. (Phot. Ebert-Berlin.)
D.e Derner-Vierlinge aus Beuthen im Alter von 3'/2 Jahren; das erste und dritte
sowie das zweite und vierte Kind sind unter sich erbgleich.
*
).
41
Bild 17, Eineiige Fünflinge.
Die canadischen Fünflinge Emilic, Annette, Marie, Cecilie und Yvonne Dionne, geboren im Februar 1934.
3. Menschliche Doppelmißbildungen
Die Erklärung, daß eineiige Zwillinge durch die vollständige Spaltung eines ein-
heitlichen Keims entstehen, ist durchaus einleuchtend. Dieser Vorgang ist aber
offenbar kein normaler; er stellt eine merkwürdige Abweichung der Natur von ihrer
eigenen Regel dar. Die Erklärung läßt damit aber sofort eine neue Frage aufsteigen:
Kommt es nicht auch vor, daß die Spaltung unvollständig
bleibt? Nun gibt es tatsächlich Bildungen, die auf einen solchen Vorgang zurück-
geführt werden müssen und die sich damit eng an die EZ anschließen. Es ist das
ganze große Heer der Doppelmißbildungen. Diese entstehen dadurch, daß die Haupt-
längsachse des Körpers ganz oder zum Teil eine Verdoppelung erfährt, ohne daß
eine vollständige Trennung eintritt. Die beiden Teilhälften können fast selbständig
ausgebildet und nur noch schwach miteinander verbunden sein. Die beiden Wesen
bestehen dann trotz ihrer Verwachsung je für sich, und ein solches Paar ist je nach-
dem sogar voll lebensfähig. Das sind die sogenannten ,, siamesischen Zwillinge".
Dann kommen aber immer wieder auch Mißbildungen zur Welt, die nicht lebens-
fähig sind, deren Auftreten die Menschen von jeher mit Grauen und Entsetzen er-
füllte und deren Ursprung das Mittelalter auf eine buhlerische Verbindung mit dem
Teufel zurückführte. Das sind die Wesen mit zwei Köpfen oder einem Kopf und
doppeltem Rumpf, Verwachsungen zweier Wesen übers Kreuz, Gebilde schauer-
lichster Art, die die tollste Phantasie weit hinter sich lassen und deren Geburt
früher mancher unglücklichen Mutter den Tod auf dem Scheiterhaufen gebracht hat.
Die ganze Formenmannigfaltigkeit dieser Gebilde läßt sich auf denselben Vorgang
zurückführen, dem auch die eineiigen Zwillinge ihre Entstehung verdanken: die
Spaltung eines Keims.
Den unmittelbaren Anschluß an die eineiigen Zwillinge bilden die „siamesischen
Zwillinge". Der Name geht zurück auf das im vergangenen Jahrhundert berühmt
gewordene Brüderpaar C h a n g und Eng. Die beiden sind 1811 in Siam als Kinder
eines Chinesen und einer Siamesin geboren. Sie waren an der Brust vom Nabel bis
zum Brustbein miteinander verbunden, so daß sie sich von Gesicht zu Gesicht gegen-
überstanden. Sie brachten es aber später durch eigene Anstrengung so weit, daß sie
seitlich aneinander stehen konnten. Bis zum 17. Jahr lebten sie in Siam und wurden
26
Menschliche Doppelmißbildungen
Chang und Eng
27
Bild 18. Die siamesischen Zwillinge Chang und Eng im
Alter von 18 Jahren. (Aus Holländer.)
dann zur Schaustellung nach
Amerika und Europa ge-
bracht. Von da kehrten sie
nach Amerika zurück, setz-
ten sich mit dem erworbenen
Geld zur Ruhe und verhei-
rateten sich dann mit zwei
Schwestern. Jeder der bei-
den Zwillinge wurde Vater
von 9 Kindern. Beide hatten
für ihre Familie ein eigenes
Haus; in der Bewohnung ih-
rer Häuser wechselten sie
nach festgelegtem Plan ab, so
daß jeweils immer der eine
beim andern zu Gaste war.
Ihr Verhältnis war durch-
aus nicht immer gut; ein-
mal gingen sie sogar gegen-
einander vor Gericht, Im
Charakter wiesen sie trotz
der Grundtatsache starker
Ähnlichkeit doch auch Ver-
schiedenheiten auf. Eng war
der geistig Interessiertere,
Chang hatte später einen
starken Hang zum Alkohol.
Vermögensverluste zwangen
sie 1869 nochmals auf Reisen
zu gehen. Aus jener Zeit
wird folgendes über sie be-
richtet: ,,Sie waren von un-
tersetzter Statur und etwas
schwächlich. Ihre einander
ß
I*'
zugekehrten Arme legten sie meist auf den Rücken. Die inneren Augen waren schärfer
als die äußeren; Chang war beiderseits schwerhörig. Eng nur auf einem Ohr. Sie
konnten gut gehen, laufen und schwimmen; ihre Bewegungen erschienen dabei so
harmonisch, als seien sie von einem Willen beseelt."
Das Verbindungsband der Brüder erstreckte sich vom unteren Ende des Brust-
beins bis zum Nabel; dieser war einfach. Nur in der Mitte des Strangs in recht
geringer Breite war das Gefühl für beide Brüder gemeinsam, 1870 zeigten sich die
siamesischen Zwillinge in Berlin und wurden hier von Virchow genau untersucht.
In dem Bericht, den er über seine Untersuchung gegeben hat, setzt er sich mit der
damals lebhaft aufgeworfenen Frage auseinander, ob eine vollkommene Einheit des
Lebens und des Geistes in diesen beiden Individuen vorhanden sei. Er gibt darauf
die für ihn selbstverständliche Antwort, daß es sich um zwei geistig völlig unab-
hängige Wesen handle, von denen jedes sein eigenes Leben führe. Dabei fiel ihm
allerdings aufs stärkste auf, wie gleichartig die Lebensäußerungen der beiden waren.
Er sagte von ihnen:
„Alles an ihnen ist harmonisch, nicht nur im Aussehen und Bau, sondern auch in den
Verrichtungen. Die Respiration, die Herzbewegung, die Bewegungen des Körpers überhaupt
?w n" u Ö^ewohnhch so übereinstimmend vor sich, daß es scheint, als ob sie nur durch einen
Willen bestimmt würden. Am meisten tritt dieser Eindruck bei schnellen und unerwarteten
Bewegungen ein. So erzählten sie mir, daß sie auch auf die Jagd gingen, und als ich sie
fragte, was sie da machten, erhoben sie beide zugleich ihre Arme in Schußstellung, so plötz-
lich, als wenn eine elektrische Bewegung in sie gefahren wäre. In derselben Weise erfüllt
sie gleichzeitig Freude, Aufregung, Zorn. Nichtsdestoweniger werden wir uns begnügen
müssen, diese Übereinstimmung, welche in der letzten Zeit nur dadurch etwas gestört wird,
daß beide anfangen, taub zu werden, und zwar der eine schneller als der andere, auf eine
Gemeinsamkeit der Keimanlage und auf lange, gemeinsame Übung und gegenseitige Er-
ziehung zurückzuführen. . . , Wir müssen ihre zum Teil gewiß nur gewohnheitsmäßige Har-
monie daraus erklären, daß auch ihre geistigen Apparate auf einer einzigen Keimanlagc be-
ruhen, wie das für den ganzen Körper der Fall ist. Da sie von einem Keim stammen, mithin
auch ihre Gehirne aus einer ursprünglich einheitlichen Anlage hervorgegangen sind, so be-
greift es sich, daß auch sie, wie die übrigen Körperteile, gleichartig beschaffen sind,"
Die frühere Ansicht über die Entstehung von Mißbildungen war, daß sie durch
die Verwachsung zweier verschiedener Keime zustande kämen. Demgegenüber trat
ViRCHow mit Entschiedenheit und Klarheit für die Ansicht ein, daß sie d u r c h d i e
Spaltung einer einheitlichen Keimanlage entstanden seien. Die
Gründe, die er gegen die Verwachsungstheorie anführt, sind folgende: Der Eihaut-
befund stimmt mit der Vorstellung einer Verwachsung verschiedener Keime nicht
zusammen. Mißbildungen werden immer in einheitlichem Chorion und Amnion ge-
boren; verschiedene Keime müßten ihre eigenen Eihäute haben. Es ist nicht vor-
stellbar, wie diese bei einer Berührung der Keime verschwinden könnten. Die Tat-
sache, daß Doppelmißbildungen immer gleichgeschlechtig sind, spricht gleichfalls
für die Entstehung aus einem Keim, ebenso die vollkommene Gleichheit im Körper-
lichen wie im Geistigen. Auch der Umstand, daß immer homologe Teile der beiden
Partner verwachsen sind, läßt sich nur aus der Spaltung eines Keimes erklären.
Schließlich weist er darauf hin, daß derartige Spaltungen bei Tieren auch schon
experimentell erzeugt wor-
den seien, und daß sich
durch die Theorie der Tei-
lung die Verdoppelung in je-
dem Fall erklären lasse, ein
doppelter Finger ebenso wie
ein doppeltes Wesen.
Virchow hat damit durch-
aus entscheidende Gründe ^k ^■^HfV^^ ^V ^1 ~\^m
angegeben; es ist beachtens- ^^ ^HK^aa^ w ^m' ^^
wert, daß er den Gesichts- ^^^^ m^^m f ^m / Wli
punkt der Erbgleichheit viel
schärfer und viel klarer er-
kannt hat, als seine Zeit
dies sonst tat.
Die Frage, ob eine ope-
rative Trennung der beiden
siamesischen Zwillinge mög-
lich sei, ist damals lebhaft
erörtert worden. Auch Vir-
chow hat sich mit ihr aus-
einandergesetzt und kam zu
dem Ergebnis, daß eine
solche höchstwahrscheinlich
tödlich verlaufen würde, da
die Bauchhöhle geöffnet wer-
den müßte; das bedeutete
aber bei dem damaligen
Bild 19, Chang und Eng im Alter von 59 Jahren.
I
28
Menschliche Doppelmißbildungen
I
Stand der Operationstechnik, die Antisepsis und Asepsis noch nicht kannte, in den
meisten Fällen den Tod an eiteriger Bauchfellentzündung. — Ihre letzte Schau-
stellungsreise überlebten die Zwillinge nicht lange. Eine starke Erkältung Changs
führte zu einer Lungenentzündung; etwa zwei Stunden nach Changs Tod starb auch
Eng. Die Sektion ergab, daß sich im Verbindungsstrang zwei Ausstülpungen der
Bauchhöhle befanden, außerdem ein Blutgefäß, welches die beiden Lebern mitein-
ander verband, und zwei Arterien, Dieser Befund bestätigte die Ansicht Virchows
von der Unmöglichkeit einer trennenden Operation.
Die siamesischen Zwillinge waren durch den Schwertfortsatz (Processus xiphoi-
deus) des Brustbeins miteinander verbunden. Die Wissenschaft, die ein System der
Doppelmißbildungen aufgestellt hat, bezeichnet sie damit als Xiphopagen. Gleich-
falls an der Vorderseite des Körpers miteinander verbunden sind die Stcrnopagcn,
bei welchen das ganze Brustbein (Sternum) gemeinsam ist, und die Thoracopagen,
bei denen Teile des Brustkorbs (Thoracus) der beiden Zwillinge miteinander ver-
wachsen sind. Einige Mißbildungen sind schon durch eine Operation getrennt
worden; die erste erfolgreiche Trennung bei einer allerdings nur geringen Verwach-
sung wurde sogar schon im Jahre 1689 durchgeführt. 1902 wurde in Paris das
Xiphopagenpaar Radica-Doodica getrennt, weil das eine der Ujähri^en
Zwillingsmädchen tuberkulös erkrankt war; es starb kurz nach der Operation an
jener Erkrankung. Ahnlich war 1900 die Operation bei dem brasilianischen Sterno-
pagenpaar R o s a 1 1 n a - M a r i a verlaufen; eines der Kinder starb an den Folgen
der Operation.
Bild 20. Die verwachsenen ungarischen Schwe-
stern Helena und Judith, das „monstrum
hungaricum". Nach der Dissertatio von Wil-
helm Hulderich Waldschmiedt, Kiel 1709,
Eine zweite Gruppe von verwach-
senen Zwillingen sind die Pygopagen
(griechisch pygos = das Gesäß). Die
Verwachsungen sind bei ihnen, die
meistens den unteren Teil der Wirbel-
säule gemeinsam haben, noch inniger
und weitergehend als bei der ersten
Gruppe, die anatomischenVerhältnisse
in der Verwachsungsgegend zum Teil
überaus eigenartig. Eine operative
Trennung ist bei Pygopagen noch nicht
durchgeführt worden. Der Wissen-
schaft ist eine Reihe solcher Doppel-
mißbildungen bekannt, die zum Teil
ein erhebliches Alter erreicht haben.
Aus dem Mittelalter wird von den
Biddenden Maids berichtet, die
im 12. Jahrhundert in England gelebt
haben und 34 Jahre alt wurden; sie
starben im Abstand von 6 Stunden.
Außerordentliches Aufsehen er-
regten die Schwestern Helena und
Judith, die 1701 in Ungarn geboren
wurden, das ,,monstrum hunga-
r i c u m". Sie waren im unteren Teil
der Wirbelsäule sehr weitgehend ver-
wachsen und scheinen auch eine Ver-
bindung im Gefäßapparat der benach-
barten Beine gehabt zu haben. In ihrem
12. Jahr wurden sie auf bischöfliche
Anordnung in ein Kloster gebracht, wo
I
Pygopagen
29
sie im Alter von 21 Jahren fast in der gleichen Minute starben. In einer ,, Disputation",
die über den merkwürdigen Fall veröffentlicht wurde, wird mit Ernst die Frage er-
örtert, ob die Seelen der beiden Schwestern wie ihre Körper eine Monstrosität dar-
stellten, ob es eine oder zwei Persönlichkeiten wären und ob deshalb beide zu tauten
seien, ferner wie die göttliche Gnade sich auswirken würde, wenn etwa eine von ihnen
ein Verbrechen begangen hätte und zur Höllenstrafe verurteilt würde. In einer anderen
Abhandlung wurde die Frage gestellt, ob die beiden Schwestern einst vereint oder
getrennt auferstehen würden, und diese dahin entschieden, daß ein Wiederaufleben
mit vereinten Körpern nicht notwendig sei. Das Zusammengewachsensein sei neben-
sächlich und noch kein Zustand der höchsten Vollkommenheit; diesen Zustand der
Unvollkommenheit werde daher Gott bei der Auferstehung auflösen.
Die Schwestern Millie und Chrissie, die sogenannte ,,zweiköpfige
Nachtigall", waren ein Pygopagenpaar, das 1851 in Nordkarolina geboren
worden war. Der Vater war ein Neger, die Mutter hatte Neger- und Indianerblut.
Nach den Worten Virchows, der sie 1873 untersuchte, kam dem Fall noch viel
größere Aufmerksamkeit zu als den beiden Siamescn Chang und Eng. Die beiden
Zwillinge waren bei der Geburt in der Größe sehr verschieden; von dem Gesamt-
gewicht von 15 Pfund wurden für die schwächere Schwester nur 3 Pfund geschätzt.
Ein kleiner Unterschied blieb zurück; im übrigen zeigte sich bei den Schwestern eine
geradezu vollkommene Übereinstimmung der Gesichtszüge. Der ganze untere Teil
1^ m
^..»^r
: :: ttt
.X,,.-V"
■4
..4 * ■
» *
.
. -
. 1 .
- •
4 *
t ♦
1
•% •
. ,
* M
.\-\
*■ -n
\w
.^
::X -_
w«,*,X*
(„yy^WVl ^'i
Bild 21. Die verwachsenen Brüder Lucio und Simplicio Godino mit ihren Frauen,
eineiigen Zwillingsschwestern.
'1
«I
I
I
■*l:
ilt
lilii
i;i'r
30
Menschliche Doppelmißbildungen
der Wirbelsäule erschien bei der Untersuchung als einfach; ein verhältnismäßig
großes Gebiet in den Beinen zeigte eine gewisse gemeinsame Empfindung. Von einem
Reiz, der bei einem Zwilling einwirkte, hatte der andere eine dunkle, örtlich nicht
klar bestimmte Wahrnehmung; bei den beiden lag wohl auch eine gewisse Ver-
bindung im Rückenmark vor, Ihre Bewegungen waren vollkommen einheitlich; sie
tanzten und sangen mit größter Zusammenstimmung aller Bewegungen. Geistig
waren sie sehr entwickelt, lebhaft und gesprächig.
Um die Jahrhundertwende zeigte sich das böhmische Schwesternpaar J o s e f a
und Rosa Blazek. Auch bei ihnen waren die Verwachsungen sehr stark und
weitgehend. Die 1877 geborenen Schwestern zeigten äußerlich und in ihrem Wesen
nicht unerhebliche Unterschiede. Josefa war gut genährt und phlegmatisch, Rosa
dagegen mager und lebhaft, beweglicher und intelligenter als ihre Schwester, 1910
bekam Rosa ein Kind. Die Schwestern starben 45 jährig. — Das einzig bisher bekannt
gewordene männliche Pygo-
pagenpaar waren die beiden
philippinischen Brüder S i m -
plicio und Lucio Godino.
Sie heirateten zwei eineiige
Zwillingsschwestern und
waren in ihrer Heimat als
rasende Autofahrer gefürch-
tet; Lucio soll seinerzeit nur
dadurch einer empfindlichen
Strafe entgangen sein, daß
der Richter sich scheute, den
unschuldigen Zwillingsbru-
der mit ins Gefängnis zu
schicken. 1936 erkrankte
Lucio an Lungenentzündung
und starb. Simplicio wurde
sofort von dem toten Bruder
getrennt. Der Ersatz des bei-
den Brüdern gemeinsamen
Teils des Mastdarms machte
aber Schwierigkeiten; einige
Tage nach der Operation
starb auch Simplicio.
Zurzeit lebt das 1908 in
Amerika geborene Pygopa-
genpaar Daisy und Violet
Hilton, Ihre Verbindung
scheint etwas weniger weit-
gehend zu sein als bei den
genannten anderen Pygo-
pagenpaaren; ihre Trennung
ist während ihrer Kindheit
von chirurgischer Seite als
möglich erklärt worden, Sie
genossen eine sehr gründ-
liche Erziehung; als Variete-
künstlerinnen spielen sie ver-
schiedene Musikinstrumente
Bild 22, Die verwachsenen Schwestern Daisy und Violet
Hilton.
I
4
Craniopagen
31
und tanzen geschickt. In ih-
rem Verhalten sind sie sehr
ähnlich, und erst bei näherer
Bekanntschaft zeigen sich auf
dem Grunde dieser Ähnlich-
keit leichte Unterschiede.
Ihre Handschriften sind nach
einer eingehenden grapho-
logischen Untersuchung im
Charakter verblüffend ähn-
lich (vgl. S. 128). 1936 wurde
Violet durch einen amerika-
nischen Standesbeamten ge-
traut, nachdem früher eng-
lische und amerikanische
Behörden die Eheschließung
nicht hatten zulassen wollen.
Sehr selten ist es, daß
Craniopagen, Doppelmißbil-
dungen mit Verwachsungen
des Schädels, längere Zeit am Leben bleiben. 1495 wurden in Birstattbei Worms
zwei Mädchen geboren, die an der Stirn untrennbar miteinander verwachsen waren,
so daß sie sich gegenseitig ansehen mußten. Die beiden unglücklichen Kinder er-
Bild 23. Die WormserZwillinge. Nach einer Flug-
schrift von Sebastian Brant, 1495. (Aus Holländer.)
^=^^'^^*^/'^ '^-'^^^^^''^ ^'V''^^''--^^
C\r^ fl' nJ^^^^!^ ^h>^/i- 9^c^ ^o^ft^ O*^^ 9».«^ ty^t^ ^vT^
Bild 24. Zeichnung einer Doppelmißbildung von Albrecht Dürer, (Original in Oxford.)
Dürer hat die Zeichnung wahrscheinlich nach einem Flugblatt gefertigt und die Kinder nicht selbst gesehen,
(Aus Holländer.)
32
Menschliche Doppelmißbildungen
Arten der Mißbildungen
33
> >
In
i
Uli'
li
)i
\
Bild 25. Doppelmißbildung.
(Nach Newman.)
reichten ein Alter von 10 Jahren. Von ihrem Tode wird
berichtet: ,,Da eines vor dem anderen starb, mußte man
das todte von dem lebendigen abschneiden, und da dem
lebendigen das Haupt bevornen offen stand, wards auch
krank und starb bald hernach." Die Ursache des Zu-
sammengewachsenseins wurde damals mit dem , »Ver-
sehen" erklärt, einem Aberglauben, der auch heute in
der Zeit der Erbforschung noch nicht ausgestorben ist.
,,Diß wunderbarlich Gewechs hat also erhebt, als die
Mutter dieser zweyen Kindern auff ein Zeit mit einer
anderen Frawen redte, kam einer ungewarneter Sachen
darzu und stieß den beyden Weybern die Köpff, wie
man sagt, zusammen, Darvon erschrack die schwanger
Fraw also sehr, daß es die Frucht im Leib entgelten
mußte. Welches wir zu dem end kürtzlich alhie melden
und anzeigen wollen, damit menniglich vor dergleichen
Unfällen sich wüste zu hüten."
Siamesische Zwillinge sind Doppelmißbildungen, die
noch lebensfähig sind. Außer ihnen gibt es aber Miß-
bildungen, bei denen die Spaltung so unvollkommen ist, daß diese Wesen überhaupt
nicht oder nur kurze Zeit leben können. Bei allen diesen Mißbildungen sind d i e
beiden Partner in gesetzmäßiger Weise nach einer bestimmten
II
I
Hl!
Bild 26. Doppclmißbildung. (Nach Vrolik aus Schwalbe.)
1, Verdoppelung des Vorder-
endes (duplicitas anterior)
nach der Körpersymmetric-
ebene.
2. Verdoppelung des Hinter-
endes (duplicitas posterior)
nach der Körpersymmetric-
cbene,
3. Verdoppelung mit ventraler
Gegenüberstellung der Part-
ner; letzter Zusammenhang
in der Körpermitte (Thora-
copagen usw.).
4. Verdoppelung mit ventraler
Gegenüberstellung der Part-
ner; letzter Zusammenhang
am Kopf (Craniopagen),
5, Verdoppelung mit dorsaler
Gegenüberstellung der Part-
ner (Pygopagen),
6. Verdoppelung mit qucr-
licgender Symmetrieebene
(Ischiopagen).
#^*-H
Bild 27, Morphologische Reihen von Doppelmißbildungen.
(Entworfen unter Benützung der Schcmabildcr von Wilder.)
Symmetrie miteinander verbunden. Mißbildungen nach der Längssym-
metrieebene zeigen die Bilder 24 — 26. Die beiden ersten Mißbildungen weisen eine
V e r d o p p e 1 u n g des vorderen K ö r p e r e n d e s (duplicitas anterior) mit
2 Köpfen, zwei einzelnen Armen und einem verwachsenen Doppelarm in der Mitte
auf, die dritte eine Verdoppelung des hinteren Körperendes (dupli-
citas posterior). Die Spaltungen können in allen denkbaren Graden vorkommen;
damit ist es möglich, die beobachteten Einzelfälle nach dem Grade der Spaltung in
morphologischen Reihen zu ordnen. Bild 27 zeigt eine Anzahl solcher
Reihen in schematischer Darstellung, So läßt sich für die Verdoppelung des Vorder-
endes eine Reihe aufstellen, die von der Einfachbildung über eine mehr oder weniger
starke Verdoppelung des Gesichts zu einem zweiköpfigen Wesen führt, von diesem
über eine Mißbildung, wie sie in Bild 25 dargestellt ist, zu einer Doppelbildung vom
Becken an und schließlich zu freien eineiigen Zwillingen. Die dritte dargestellte
Reihe ist die der Thoracopagen, Sternopagen und Xiphopagen; weiterhin folgen die
Reihen der Craniopagen, der Pygopagen und der Ischiopagen. Am Ende aller dieser
Reihen stehen jeweils freie eineiige Zwillinge.
Bei all diesen Reihen sind die beiden Partner gleich stark ausgebildet. Es ist
aber auch möglich, daß der eine nur unvollkommen ausgebildet ist, gewissermaßen
als Parasit an dem Teil hängt, der das bewußte Leben führt. So wird von einem
1617 geborenen Genuesen Lazarus Colloredo berichtet, der auf der Brust
einen kleineren Zwilling mit sich trug. Es war ein verkümmertes Wesen, das auf
den Namen Johannes getauft worden war. Sein Kopf hing schlaff nach unten, die
Arme waren klein und schwach und trugen nur je drei Finger an einer Hand; außer-
3 Zwillinge
It)l
34
Menschliche Doppelmißbildungen
Zeitlicher Eintritt der Keimspaltung
35
J
I <:
I"
Ti'i
V'
li I
i«
Bild 28, Der Genuese Colloredo, (Aus Schwalbe.)
dem hatte das Wesen nur
ein Bein. Ein selbständiges
geistiges Leben kam ihm
nicht zu; die Augen waren
gewöhnlich geschlossen, der
Mund stand offen. Es konnte
Arme, Ohren und Lippen be-
wegen; eine eigene Ernäh-
rung fand nicht statt.
Von solchen noch gestal-
teten Parasiten führt eine
Reihe von Übergängen zu
Bildungen, die nichts weiter
sind als große Geschwülste,
die in ihrem Innern unge-
staltet und ungeordnet Kno-
chen- und Muskelgewebe,
sowie Teile verschiedener
innerer Organe erkennen
lassen. ViRCHow, der bei dem
,,Schliewener Wunder-
kind" eine derartige, am
Rücken angewachsene Ge-
schwulst untersuchte, er-
klärte sie als nichts anderes
als einen in der Entwick-
lung zurückgebliebenen und
völlig gestörten Zwillings-
partner. Damit wäre eine
solche formlose Geschwulst
das extreme Ende einer
Formenreihe, die von völlig
getrennten und wohlgestal-
teten eineiigen Zwillingen
über verwachsene Zwillinge und gestaltete Parasiten bis zu solchen Gebilden führt.
Alle Doppelmißbildungen, wie sie im Vorstehenden geschildert worden sind,
entstehen aus einem befruchteten Keim. In jedem solchen Keim liegen Entwick-
lungskräfte beschlossen, die in geheimnisvoller Weise sein Werden und Wachsen
bestimmen. In ihrer harmonischen Auswirkung bildet sich das Wunderwerk des
Organismus. Es ist aber auch möglich, daß dunkle Ursachen diese Entwicklung
stören. Ein befruchteter Keim, dessen Entwicklungskräfte mit seinem Genbestand
gegeben sind, kann im Ausnahmefall einer Spaltung unterliegen. Jeder Teil trägt
dann auch noch einzeln alle Entwicklungskräfte in sich, und es kann der Fall ein-
treten, daß bei vollständiger Spaltung des Keims jeder Teil für sich noch zu einem
vollkommenen Menschenwesen heranwächst. Ein Mensch hat sich auf diese Weise
verdoppelt. Es ist aber auch möglich, daß die Spaltung nur unvollkommen erfolgt.
Die Entwicklungskräfte können sich dann nicht mehr geradlinig und harmonisch
auswirken; sie müssen sich vielmehr gegenseitig stoßen und stören. Ihr Wirken wird
dadurch in unnormale Bahnen gelenkt, unter Umständen in völlige Verwirrung ge-
bracht. Die Entwicklung verliert immer mehr Richtung und Harmonie; sie kann
sogar völlig anarchisch verlaufen. Das Ergebnis all dieser Störungen ist das Heer
der Doppelmißbildungen bis zu formlosen Geschwülsten.
Übersicht über die verschiedenen Arten von Zwillingen und ihre Entstehung.
(Nach von Verschuer mit teilweiser Abänderung und Erweiterung.)
Ursache der
Zwillingsbildung
Art der
Entstehung
Zeitpunkt
der Entstehung
Eihäute
Plazenta
Bezeichnung
PolyOvulation
2 Eier aus 2 Follikeln in
2 Ovarien, oder
2 Eier aus 2 Follikeln in
1 Ovarium, oder
2 Eier aus 1 Follikel
Befruchtung
zweier Eier
durch zwei
Spermien
Befruchtung
Chorion
und
Amnion
doppelt
doppelt
oder
scheinbar
einfach
(verklebt)
zweieiige
Zwillinge
(erb-
verschieden)
Spaltungstendenz
eines Keims
(echte
Zwillingsbildung)
Spaltung
des Keims
unter
vollständiger
Trennung
der beiden
Hälften,
Im Stadium der
ersten Furchungen
vor Differenzierung
in Trophoblast
und Embryoblast,
eineiige
Zwillinge
(erbgleich)
Im Stadium des
Embryonalknotens,
vor Bildung
des Amnions,
Chorion
einfach,
Amnion
doppelt
einfach
Im Stadium des
Embryonalschilds
oder Primitiv-
streifens, nach Bil-
dung des Amnions,
Chorion
und
Amnion
einfach
Spaltung
des Keims
unter un-
vollständiger
Trennung
der beiden
Hälften,
Im Stadium des
Primitivstreifens
oder später.
Doppelmiß-
bildungen,
Reihe von den
mehr oder weni-
ger stark ver-
wachsenen
Doppclwesen bis
zu parasitären
Bildungen und
Geschwülsten.
Eineiige Zwillinge gehören in die Reihe der Doppelmiß-
bildungen, Ihre Entstehung ist kein normaler, sondern ein regelwidriger Vor-
gang; er streift hart am Krankhaften vorbei. Eineiige Zwillinge sind nichts anderes
als glücklich abgelaufene Mißbildungen, Bei dem Spaltungsvorgang, der
all den geschilderten Bildungen zugrunde liegt, ist es von
grundlegender Wichtigkeit, wann er eintritt: je früher desto un-
gefährlicher. Es ist bereits dargelegt worden, daß die zu EZ führende Spaltung
schon im Stadium der ersten Furchungen oder des Embryonalknotens erfolgen kann.
Auch noch in einem frühen Stadium des Embryonalschilds oder des Primitivstreifens
kann eine völlige Spaltung des Keims eintreten; wenn sie später erfolgt, ist nur
noch geringe Hoffnung vorhanden, daß die Entwicklung zu fehlerfreien Zwillingen
führt. Daraus geht hervor, daß diejenigen EZ, die in einem gemeinsamen Amnion
gebildet werden, den Doppelmißbildungen entwicklungsmäßig am nächsten stehen.
Von Steiner ist nachgeprüft worden, in welchem Umfang abnorme Bildungen bei
den EZ-Paaren verschiedener zeitlicher Entstehung auftreten. Er fand bei 24 dicho-
rischen EZ-Paaren 1 Mißbildung, bei 32 monochorischen Paaren mit zwei Amnien
3 Mißbildungen, bei 3 Paaren mit einfachem Chorion und Amnion 2 Mißbildungen.
Die Zahl der untersuchten Fälle ist zwar noch nicht groß genug, um endgültige Er-
gebnisse bringen zu können, und die beobachteten Mißbildungen sind auch nicht in
allen Fällen besonders schwer; aus dieser ersten Untersuchung scheint aber doch
mit bemerkenswerter Deutlichkeit hervorzugehen, daß abnorme Bildungen um so
leichter und häufiger auftreten, je später die Keimspaltung eingetreten ist.
!
i\kä
36
Zwillingsbildung bei Tieren und Pflanzen
Zwillingsbildung bei Echinodermen und Arthropoden
37
1,1.
I
• I
II l:
1"
flll
i
Die damit gewonnene Einsicht in die Entstehung der verschiedenen Arten von
Zwillingen und in den Zusammenhang von EZ und Doppelmißbildungen erlaubt es
uns, diese Verhältnisse zusammenfassend zur Darstellung zu bringen. Die Über-
sicht auf Seite 35 ist auf Grund des bisher Dargelegten unschwer verständlich.
4, Zwillingsbildung bei Tieren und Pflanzen
Die Bildung der erbgleichen Zwillinge ist beim Menschen noch nie unmittelbar
beobachtet worden; die Ansicht, daß sie aus einem befruchteten Ei durch Spaltung
des Keims entstanden seien, ist deshalb zunächst nur eine Hypothese. Die Ge-
samtheit der Erscheinungen beim Menschen, insbesondere die Möglichkeit der
widerspruchslosen Einfügung der beobachteten Tatsachen in eine Reihe anderer Er-
scheinungen, wie sie im Vorhergehenden dargelegt wurde, machen es im höchsten
Grad wahrscheinlich, daß die dargelegten Ansichten der Wirklichkeit entsprechen.
Um sie noch stärker zu festigen, ist es aber nötig, über die Verhältnisse beim
Menschen hinaus im ganzen Reich des Lebens nachzuprüfen, ob sich derartige Vor-
gänge, wie sie für die Entstehung erbgleicher Zwillinge beim Menschen angenommen
werden, sonstwo beobachten und nachweisen lassen.
Tatsächlich ist dies auch der Fall. Neben der die Regel bildenden Entstehung
einer Mehrzahl von Nachkommen aus ebensovielen, je für sich befruchteten Eiern
kommt bei den verschiedensten Lebewesen echte Zwillingsbildung, die Entstehung
mehrerer Nachkommen aus einem befruchteten Ei, vor. Im Tierreich findet sie
sich vor allem bei Echinodermen, Arthropoden und Wirbeltieren.
Bei Echinodermen hat Driesch 1891 an den Eiern zweier Arten von Seeigeln
zum ersten Male nachgewiesen, daß bei einer Trennung des Keims im Zweizellen-
stadium aus jeder der beiden Zellen eine vollständige Larve hervorgehen kann. Auch
bei einer Trennung des Keims im Vierzellenstadium entwickelt sich noch jede Zelle
zu einer zwar etwas kleineren, aber vollständigen Larve. Es ist also möglich, beim
Seeigel sowohl eineiige Zwillinge als auch eineiige Vierlinge experimentell zu er-
zeugen. Driesch erreichte die Trennung der Zellen ursprünglich durch heftiges
Schütteln; später zeigte Herbst eine schonendere Methode der Trennung: Durch
Verbringen des Keims im Zwei- oder Vierzellenstadium in Ca-freies Wasser wird
eme Trennung der Furchungskugeln erreicht; in normales Seewasser zurückge-
bracht, entwickeln sich die Zellen dann wieder ungestört weiter. Mit dieser Methode
der Trennung wurden die für die Entwicklungsphysiologie des Echinideneis grund-
legenden Versuche Driesch's von einer Reihe von Forschern bestätigt und erweitert.
Die Versuche beweisen, daß nach der Trennung des Keims im Zwei- oder Vierzellen-
stadium jeder Teil so gut wie das ganze Ei die Fähigkeit (die „Potenz") besitzt,
em vollständiges Lebewesen aus sich entstehen zu lassen. Dasselbe gilt für einen
Vicrtelskeim Durch die Zellteilungen bei der Furchung haben ja die einzelnen
Zellen jeweils genau den gleichen Chromosomenbestand und damit je einen voll-
standigen Satz von Erbanlagen erhalten. Im Verlauf der weiteren Entwicklung wer-
den dann einzelne Zellen und Zellgruppen für die Erzeugung bestimmter Teile des
tertigen Organismus festgelegt; sie sind „determiniert" und können damit nicht mehr
einen vollständigen Organismus aus sich hervorbringen.
Es ist im einzelnen die Aufgabe der von Roux begründeten und insbesondere von
bPEMANN ausgebauten Sonderwissenschaft der „E n t w i c k 1 u n g s m e c h a n i k"
neuerdings richtiger En t w i c k 1 u n g s p h y s i o 1 o g i e" genannt), zu unter-
Tetiso l?lX d .^" T ^:' T'r Entwicklung erfolgt. Wie diese auch vor sich
geht so bleibt doch die Tatsache bestehen, daß in den ersten E n t w i c k 1 u n g s -
Bild 29. Mißbildungen beim Skorpion; Vordere Verdoppelung, hintere Verdoppelung,
kreuzweise Verwachsung. (Nach Brauer.)
Andere Versuche mit Echinodermen haben ergeben, daß die Bildung eineiiger
Zwillinge und die Entstehung von Doppelmißbildungen grundsätzlich dieselben
Vorgänge sind; die ersteren entstehen durch vollständige Trennung der ersten
Furchungszellen, die letzteren dann, wenn der Zusammenhang der Zellen nur ge-
lockert wird. Newman hat mit einem an der pazifischen Küste Nordamerikas vor-
kommenden Seestern (Patiria) experimentiert und bei ihm Larven beobachtet, die
Verdoppelungen am vorderen oder hinteren Körperende aufwiesen, andere mit Ver-
doppelung des Urdarms, kurzum eine vielgestaltige Reihe von Doppelmißbildungen.
Seine Beobachtungen beweisen ihm, daß
die Bildung getrennter eineiiger Zwil-
linge und die Entstehung von Doppel-
mißbildungen auf einer Linie liegen.
Bei Arthropoden sind Doppelbil-
dungen zwar nicht häufig; sie sind aber
doch schon einwandfrei beobachtet
worden. Beim Skorpion hat Brauer
auf verschiedenen Entwicklungsstadien
Doppelbildungen gefunden. Das Ei des
Skorpions furcht sich an seiner Ober-
fläche; dabei bildet sich eine kleine
runde Keimscheibe aus. Bei einzelnen
Eiern zeigten sich zwei voneinander
völlig getrennte Keimscheiben; die Dop-
pelbildung beruhte wohl auf einer Tren-
nung der beiden ersten Furchungszellen,
und so konnten völlig getrennte Zwil-
linge entstehen. Daneben fanden sich
als Mißbildungen Verdoppelungen des
vorderen oder hinteren Körperendes,
außerdem sogar eine kreuzweise Ver- -1
wachsung zweier Zwillinge (Bild 29) . Bild 30. Polyembryonie bei Schlupfwespen.
Bei Insekten ist eine sehr bemerkenS- Keime von Polygnotus minutus im embryonalen Gewebe
, T^ , . 1111. 1 eines Schmetterlinjjs. (Nach Marchai aus dem Hand-
Werte Erscheinung beobachtet worden. Wörterbuch der Naturwissenschaften.)
«mb
f»»*-»'»*r!!i:ir-ri""7"nn'
38
Zwillingsbildung bei Tieren und Pflanzen
■ i
Bei gewissen Schlupfwespen (z, B. Polygonotus minutus und Eucyrtus fusci-
collis), die ihre Eier in Schmetterlingsraupen ablegen, machen die Embryonen in
einem frühen Stadium der Entwicklung eine Teilung durch. Innerhalb der Außen-
haut des Keims bilden sich eine Anzahl embryonaler Kerne; um diese grenzen sich
Plasmabezirke ab, die zu morulaartigen Zellgruppen zusammentreten. Jede der-
artige Morula wächst für sich zu einem besonderen Keim aus (Bild 30). Auf diese
Weise geht aus einem Ei eine sehr große Zahl von Embryonen hervor. Diese „Poly-
embryonic" entspricht morphologisch nicht ganz der eigentlichen Zwillingsbildung,
da sie nicht eine Spaltung des Keims nach einer bestimmten Symmetrieebene, son-
dern einen anscheinend regellosen Zerfall des ersten Keims in eine Vielzahl von
Keimen darstellt; sie zeigt aber wie die echte Zwillingsbildung, daß einzelne Zellen
des Keims die Fähigkeit besitzen können, vollständige Lebewesen aus sich entstehen
zu lassen.
Bei den Wirbeltieren ist die Entstehung von eineiigen Zwillingen und Doppel-
mißbildungen in allen Klassen beobachtet worden. Bei den Fischen kennt man
solche schon seit längerer Zeit. So wurde beobachtet, daß aus Hechteiern, die nach
der künstlichen Befruchtung über eine weite Strecke weg in einem Topf getragen
wurden, eine große Zahl von Doppelmißbildungen hervorging, Ihre Entstehung
wurde mit der während des Transports
erlittenen Erschütterung in Zusammen-
hang gebracht. Bei der Forelle sind
Doppelmißbildungen verschiedenster
Art beobachtet worden. Bild 31 zeigt
eine Reihe von solchen, die durchaus
den beim Menschen beobachteten Bil-
dungen entsprechen: eine vordere Ver-
doppelung, die sich im Auftreten eines
dritten, in der Symmetrieebene liegen-
den Auges äußert, eine Doppelmißbil-
dung mit zwei Köpfen, ein Paar voll
ausgebildeter, nur noch durch eine
schmale Brücke verbundener Zwillinge
und eine junge Forelle mit einem
,, Parasiten" an der Bauchseite. Die
Reihe könnte durch weitere Formen
ergänzt werden; sie läßt deutlich er-
kennen, daß grundsätzlich dieselben
Verhältnisse wie beim Menschen vor-
liegen.
Klassische Objekte der Entwick-
lungsphysiologie sind die Eier der
Amphibien. Berühmt geworden sind
die Versuche von Spemann am Molchei,
dessen Größe (1,2 mm Durchmesser)
ein verhältnismäßig bequemes Arbeiten
erlaubt. Wenn die Furchung beginnt,
bildet sich eine um das Ei herum-
führende Rinne aus. In diese wird eine
feine Haarschlinge gelegt, die langsam
zusammengezogen wird. Jede Hälfte
des Keims furcht sich dann für sich.
Bild 31, Doppelmißbildungen bei der Forelle.
(Nach Stockard,)
Molchzwillingc
39
und durch weiteres vorsichtiges Zuziehen
der Schlinge läßt sich schließlich eine völlige
Trennung der beiden Hälften erreichen.
Wenn eine solche erfolgt ist, kann die
Schlinge wieder gelockert oder sogar weg-
gelassen werden; die beiden Hälften des
Keims vereinigen sich dann nicht mehr,
sondern entwickeln sich, jede für sich in
einer gemeinsamen Eikapsel, zu einer voll-
kommenen Larve (Bild 32). Wird die Ein-
Bild 32, Experimentelle Erzeugung ein-
eiiger Molchzwillinge durch Schnürung des
Keims. (Nach Spemann.)
Bild 33, Zweiköpfige Doppelmißbildung eines
Molches, durch unvollständige Schnürung ent-
standen. (Nach Spemann,)
schnürung nicht bis zur vollständigen Tren-
nung der beiden Hälften vollzogen, so bleibt
ein Teil des Zellmaterials beiden Hälften
gemeinsam und entwickelt sich einheitlich,
ein anderer Teil entwickelt sich gesondert.
Auf diese Weise entstehen Doppelmißbil-
dungen verschiedenster Art, zweiköpfige
oder zweischwänzige Larven. Bild 33 zeigt
eine auf diese Weise von Spemann erzeugte
zweiköpfige Larve; diebeidcnKöpfe fressen
je für sich und jeder sucht dem anderen das
Futter wegzunehmen.
Durch diese Versuche ist experimentell
in klassisch schöner Weise die Entstehung
eineiiger Zwillinge aus einer befruchteten
Eizelle und der Zusammenhang der ein-
40
Zwillingsbildung bei Tieren und Pflanzen
II
llii
eiigen Zwillinge mit den Doppelmißbildungen nachgewiesen worden. Weitere Ver-
suche Spemanns haben gezeigt, daß bei einer Trennung des Keims im Vierzellen-
stadium in vier Teile die einzelnen Zellen keine vollständigen Larven mehr ergeben;
nur die beiden ersten Furchungszellen sind ,,totipotent", d. h. befähigt, einen voll-
ständigen Keim zu erzeugen. Mit den weiteren Teilungen setzt die ,,D e t e r m i n a -
tion" ein; die einzelnen Zellen sind schon zur Bildung bestimmter einzelner Teile
des künftigen Organismus bestimmt. Die Entwicklungsmechanik hat in zahlreichen
Versuchen Art und Umfang der Determination erforscht. Aber auch aus der Gastrula
können noch zwei vollständige Larven erhalten werden, wenn die Trennung des
Keims haarscharf genau nach der Meridianebene erfolgt, AlleZellen dereinen
Hälfte zusammen sind also noch totipotent.
Von Eiern von Vögeln sind Doppelbildungen schon seit langer Zeit bekannt. Die
Eizelle des Vogels furcht sich nicht in ihrer Gesamtheit wie das Amphibienei; sie
macht eine sogenannte diskoidale Furchung durch, deren Ergebnis die „K e i m -
Scheibe" ist. Aus dieser Keimscheibe bildet sich der Embryo. Gelegentlich wurden
Bild 34, Hühnchenzwillinge und Doppelmißbildung, entstanden aus vor-
bebrütetem Ei durch Einführung toter Gewebsmasse eines Hühnchen-
embryos, (Nach Morita,)
hier Doppelbildungen beobachtet; zahlreiche Forscher (z. B, Dareste, Kästner)
haben versucht, die Entwicklung des Keims auf verschiedene Weise experimentell
zu beeinflussen; sie erhielten dabei Doppelbildungen, die sich zum Teil getrennt
voneinander entwickelt hatten, in der Mehrzahl der Fälle aber Mißbildungen dar-
stellten, die in der vielfältigen Art ihrer Verwachsungen dieselben Typen aulwiesen,
wie sie sonst bekannt sind. Neuerdings hat der japanische Forscher Morita Zwillinge
und Mißbildungen auf die Weise hervorgerufen, daß er kleine Gewebstückc von
Organen eines Frosches, eines Hühnchens oder einer Maus unter der Eischale bis
zur Keimscheibe heranführte. Die Reizwirkung des fremden Eiweißes bewirkte dann
eine Störung der Entwicklung, die sich in der Entstehung von Zwillingen, Drillingen
oder Doppelmißbildungen äußerte (Bild 34). Aus diesen wie aus den früheren
Untersuchungen geht hervor, daß auch aus einem Teil der Keimscheibe ein voll-
standiges Hühnchen hervorgehen kann.
Das stärkste Interesse gehört natürlicherweise den Verhältnissen bei den Säuge-
tieren. Für verschiedene Arten von Gürteltieren ist die Bildung von eineiigen Mehr-
lingen schon seit längerer Zeit bekannt. Diese Tiere, die zur altertümlichen Ord-
nung der Zahnarmen (Edentata) zählen, sind durch einen festen und widerstands-
fähigen Fanzer von Schuppen und Knochenplättchen ausgezeichnet. Die Gürteltiere
sind harmlose Erdwühler mit starken Grabkrallen, die sich hauptsächlich von
Insekten nähren. Schon 1885 war es dem deutschen Zoologen H. von Ihering auf-
«fflK'HWV'fliy,.
IHtitMU{!tjfi^*UÜi^iM*l*4l?MltMn^*^'**tM ''it i**'M**tf ' *M^M « tMi m •4ti)it4 i*u i> uu
Die Bildung der Vierlinge des Gürteltiers
41
gefallen, daß die südamerikanische Art Dasypus hyhridus durchweg 8 gleich-
geschlechtige Junge in einem gemeinsamen Chorion zur Welt bringt. Er schloß dar-
aus auf eine Entstehung der Achtlinge aus einem einzigen befruchteten Ei durch
nachträgliche Spaltung. Die seit 1909 durchgeführten Untersuchungen der amerika-
nischen Forscher Newman und Patterson an dem in Texas lebenden neunbände-
rigen Gürteltier (Dasypus no v emc ine tu s Texanus), das regelmäßig
gleichgeschlechtige Vierlinge hat, bestätigten jene Vermutung vollkommen. Ein
merkwürdiger Umstand erleichterte ihre Untersuchungen. Viele Tausende der harm-
losen Tiere werden alljährlich wegen ihres Panzers getötet. Zwischen dem ge-
schlossenen Schulterpanzer des Tieres und einem ebensolchen Panzer des Hinter-
körpers findet sich eine mittlere Region von schmiegsamen Gürtelreihen; Kopf und
Bild 35, Das texanische Gürteltier (Dasypus novemcinctus Texanus). (Nach Newman.)
Schwanz sind außerdem noch für sich gepanzert. Dieser Panzer wird dem Tier ab-
gezogen und als Körbchen verarbeitet: der Schwanz wird vorgebogen und in die
Schnauze gesteckt; er bildet damit den Henkel des Körbchens. Aus diesem Grunde
stand den Forschern für ihre embryologischen Untersuchungen ein Überfluß an
Material zur Verfügung, ohne daß sie selber Tiere töten und damit zur Ausrottung
des Tieres beitragen mußten. Die Entstehung der Vierlinge des texanischen Gürtel-
tiers aus einem Ei kann auf Grund der Arbeiten der beiden Forscher als völlig er-
forscht und aufgeklärt gelten; sie sei im folgenden an Hand der Zeichnungen von
Newman (Bild 36 bis 39) kurz dargestellt.
In den Eileitern und im Uterus des Tieres wurde nie mehr als ein Ei gefunden. Eibildung
und Reifeteilungen gehen ganz normal vor sich. Nach der Befruchtung setzt (wie dies auch
für verschiedene andere Säugetiere bekannt geworden ist) nicht sofort die Furchung ein;
diese beginnt vielmehr erst nach einem Ruhezustand des befruchteten Eies von ungefähr drei
Wochen, Die ersten Furchungsstadien zeigen nichts besonders Eigentümliches, Es bildet sich
«in Trophoblast (tr) aus; innerhalb der Keimblase entsteht ein Embryonalknoten, der sich
in Entoderm und Ektoderm (en und ec) differenziert (Bild 30 a, b und c). Von dem Pol des
Keims, an dem sich der Embryonalknoten gebildet hat, und an dem auch der Trophoblast
mit dem sogenannten „Träger" (Tra) an der Uterusschleimhaut angewachsen ist, lösen sich
42
Zwillingsbildung bei Tieren und Pflanzen
a und b
Tya
dir
g
Tr
II-
c am
Bild 36. Die Keimesentwicklung von Dasypus novemcinctus Texanus, (Nach Newman.)
uui^t4)UMUiMuirimnv4t^*t^*f*UUM^(*^it*UkkUlittUiiifEWiiMtutkii'*MULt>l^i(iVUUiiikulii4UL
Die Bildung der Vierlinge des Gürteltiers
43
Bild 37, Keimblase des Gürteltiers mit
4 Embryonen. (Nach Newman.)
Bild 38, Keimblase des Gürteltiers mit
4 Embryonen in weiter entwickeltem
Zustand. (Nach Newman.)
Bild 39. Querschnitt durch die Frucht-
blase des Gürteltiers mit 4 fertig ent-
wickelten Embryonen. (Nach Newman.)
aber dann Entoderm undEktoderm los und waridern
an den entgegengesetzten Pol des Keims. Dadurch
findet eine Umkehrung der Lage von Entoderm und
Ektoderm statt; jenes liegt außen, dieses innen.
Innerhalb des Ektoderms bildet sich eine Hohle die
Amnionhöhle (amc in Bild e und f). Schon bei die-
sem Stand der Entwicklung bereitet sich eine Aut-
spaltung der bis dahin einheitlichen Ektodermblase
durch zwei aufeinander senkrechte Tei ungsebenen
in vier Teile vor. Bild f zeigt den Anfang, Bild g
ein weiter vorgeschrittenes Stadium der Entwick-
lung. Vier deutlich getrennte Gruppen von Zellen
breiten sich an den Wänden der Keimblase aus;
zwei dieser Keimanlagen (II und IV sind in den
beiden Bildern von dem Schnitt getroffen; von dem
senkrecht dazu gelegten Längsschnitt würden die
Anlagen I und III getroffen werden. Das körper-
liche Bild eines etwas späteren Zustandes zeigt
Bild h. Die Embryonen sind in den Meridianen der
Keimblase in die Höhe gewandert. Am unteren Fol
der Zelle ist als kleine Blase die gemeinsame Am-
nionhöhle (cam) erhalten geblieben; von ihr aus
führen Kanäle zu den vier Embryonen die damit
ein einheitliches gemeinsames Amnion haben. Aut
der Wand der ursprünglichen Keimblase wachsen
dann weiterhin die Embryonen heran (Bild 37 und
Bild 38) ; ihre Entwicklung bietet von hier ab nichts
Besonderes mehr. Die fertig entwickelten vier Em-
bryonen liegen dicht gepackt in der gemeinsamen
Fruchtblase; ein Querschnitt (Bild 39) zeigt, wie
ihre Nabelschnüre mit den Plazenten zusammen-
hängen und wie scheinbar jeder Embryo in ein be-
sonderes Amnion eingehüllt ist; da di^ese vier Am-
nionhöhlen durch die erwähnten Kanäle mit der ge-
meinsamen Amnionhöhle zusammenhängen, so hegt
in Wirklichkeit doch nur ein einziges Amnion vor.
Durch die Untersuchungen der beiden ge-
nannten amerikanischen Forscher ist die Ent-
stehung der Vierlinge des texanischen Gurtel-
tieres vollkommen aufgeklärt worden; sie
entstehen aus einem e i n z i g e n b e -
fruchteten Ei durch nachträgliche
Spaltung der Zellmasse des Keims.
Die Spaltung geht nicht schon in den a ler-
ersten Stadien der Entwicklung (etwa im Vier-
zellenstadium) vor sich, sondern erst nach
Vollendung der — in besonderer Weise ab-
geänderten — Gastrulation. Die Untersuchung
der Jungen in einer Reihe von stark variieren-
den Merkmalen zeigt eine ungemein große Ähn-
lichkeit; dies und die Tatsache ihrer Gleich-
geschlechtigkeit beweist, daß «ic als erb-
gleich anzusehen sind. Ihre Erbgleichheit ist
auf die Entstehung aus e i n e m befruchteten
Ei zurückzuführen.
♦
44
Zwillingsbildung bei Tieren und Pflanzen
Bild 40. Eineiige Rinderzwillinge Annelore und Anneliese, (Nach Kronacher.)
Die Verhältnisse beim Gürteltier stellen einen merkwürdigen, einzig dastehenden
Sonderfall dar; die Bildung eineiiger Mehrlinge ist hier zur Regel geworden. Ge-
legentlich kommt aber die Bildung eineiiger Mehrlinge auch bei einer Reihe anderer
Säugetiere vor. Am besten bekannt sind die Verhältnisse bei den Haustieren des
Menschen. Schon die immer wieder vorkommenden Doppelmißbildungen, welche
die allerverschiedenstcn Grade der Trennung zeigen, deuten auf die Möglichkeit von
Spaltungen des Keimes hin und lassen erwarten, daß auch echte eineiige Mehrlinge
vorkommen. Solche hat nun Kronacher beim Rind nachgewiesen und damit eine
der menschlichen Zwillingsforschung entsprechende Zwillingsiorschung beim Rind
begründet. Die ganz überwiegende Zahl der Rinderzwillinge ist zweifellos zweieiigen
Ursprunges; sie haben gleiches oder verschiedenes Geschlecht,* Unter den gleich-
geschlechtigen Zwillingen fallen nun immer wieder solche auf, die weit über das
sonstige Maß der Geschwisterähnlichkeit hinaus einander ähnlich sind. Diese Ähn-
lichkeit geht zum Teil geradezu unerhört weit, bis in die kleinsten Einzelheiten
körperlicher Merkmale wie bis zu einer vollkommenen Übereinstimmung im physio-
logischen Verhalten. Die Bilder 40 und 41 zeigen derartige Zwillinge. Ihre restlose
Ähnlichkeit muß auf Erbgleichheit beruhen und aus dieser ist wie beim Menschen
auf eineiige Entstehung zu schließen. Eine starke Stütze für diese Erklärung liegt
im Ergebnis der Untersuchung der Eierstöcke der Mutterkuh auf die Zahl der vor-
handenen Gelbkörper. Nach der Geburt der Zwillinge ist durch Abtasten der Eier-
stöcke eine solche Untersuchung möglich. Sie ist zwar technisch nicht leicht, und
sie verbürgt beim sicheren Nachweis nur eines Gelbkörpers noch keine völlige
Gewißheit der eineiigen Entstehung, da auch die Möglichkeit des Vorkommens von
Verschiedengeschlechtige Rinderzwillinge zeigen eine sehr inter-
essante Erscheinung: Das männliche Kalb ist von normaler Beschaffenheit, das weib-
liche Kalb in den meisten Fällen ein Zwitter, Dies rührt davon her, daß
zwischen den Blutkreisläufen der beiden Zwillingsembryonen fast regelmäßig Verbindungen
bestehen. Nun wird die männliche Geschlechtsdrüse früher reif als die weibliche. Im Hoden
des männlichen Zwillings wird zu einer Zeit, da die weibliche Geschlechtsdrüse des anderen
Zwillings noch nicht tätig ist, schon männliches Geschlechtshormon erzeugt. Dieses geht durch
die Verbindung der Kreisläufe auch in den Körper des weiblichen Zwillings über, hemmt hier
die Entwicklung der Geschlechtsorgane und führt sogar zu einer zusätzlichen Bildung männ-
licher Organe. Dieses der Erbanlage nach weibliche Kalb wird dadurch zum Zwitter.
Eineiige Rinderzwillinge
45
&^«
j8HH| liMliifirtt
& Ä":
Bild 41. Eineiige Rinderzwillingc Lotte und Liese.
(Nach Kronacher.)
Im Profil, von vorne, von hinten. Zu beachten ist die rest-
los vollkommene Übereinstimmung in der Kopfstellunfi, der
Färbung, der Form der Hörner, der Bcinstellung usw. Die
quantitative und qualitative Milchleistung ist bei den beiden
Zwillingen genau dieselbe. Auch in ihrem psychischen Wesen
stimmen sie völlig übercin; sie halten sich auf der Weide
immer zusammen.
Follikeln mit zwei Eiern besteht; sie hat aber
in zahlreichen Fällen gezeigt, daß die voll-
kommene Ähnlichkeit zweier Zwillingskälber
mit dem Vorkommen eines Gelbkörpers
verbunden ist.
Die Bilder 42 und 43 zeigen Doppel-
mißbildungen beim Rind, eine hintere
und eine vordere Verdoppelung. EZ und
Doppelmißbildungen sind auch beim Rind
grundsätzlich gleiche Erscheinungen.
46
Zwillingsbildung bei Tieren und Pflanzen
Bild 42, Hintere Verdoppelung beim Rind.
(Nach Gurlt aus Schwalbe.)
Vollkommen erbgleiche und
damit sicher eineiige Zwil-
linge sind auch schon beim
Pferd, beim Schaf und beim
Schwein beobachtet worden;
ebenso sind Doppelmißbil-
dungen von diesen Tieren
bekannt. Bild 44 zeigt eine
solche Mißbildung (Verdop-
pelung des Gesichts) von
einer Katze.
Aus dem Vorstehenden
geht hervor, daß die Ent-
stehung getrennter tierischer
Lebewesen aus einem be-
fruchteten Ei in zahlreichen
Fällen beobachtet werden
kann; sie steht überall in
enger Beziehung zur Ent-
,, ,. stehung von Mißbildungen.
Meuerdings ist nun auch Zwillingsbildung bei einer Pflanze nachgewiesen worden.
Kappert fand, daß in der Folgegeneration einer Kreuzung von zwei erbver-
schiedenen Sorten des Leins (Linum usitatissimum) Zwillingskeimcr auftraten. Aus
einzelnen Samen, die äußerlich nichts Auffallendes zeigten, traten bei der Keimung
zwei Würzelchen aus; weiterhin entwickelten sich daraus zwei getrennte Pflanzen.
Im Samen mußten sich also zwei vollständige Embryonen befunden haben. In ein-
zelnen Fällen traten sogar Drillings- und Vierlingskeimer auf. Daneben fanden sich
Doppelmißbildungen nach Art siamesischer Zwillinge (Bild 45 und 46). Das alles
ließ vermuten, daß diese Bildungen durch Spaltung einer befruchteten Eizelle ent-
standen seien. Die mikroskopisch-histologische Untersuchung ergab, daß beim Lein
tatsächlich Spaltungen der befruchteten Eizelle vorkommen, die zur Entstehung
zweier selbständiger Embryonen führen können (Bild 47). Es handelt sich also bei
den untersuchten Pflanzen tatsächlich um die Bildung von echten eineiigen Zwil-
lingen und höheren Mehr-
ungen. Die Aufzucht solcher - . - ^
Zwillinge ergab, daß sich die
beiden Paarlinge in den zur
Beobachtung kommenden Ei-
genschaften außerordentlich
stark glichen, weit mehr als
beliebige Geschwister aus der-
selben Leinzucht. Dies be-
weist, daß die Zwillinge
vollkommen erbgleich
waren.
Kappert hat weiterhin eine
Untersuchung über die Ur-
sachen der Zwillingsbildung
beim Lein durchgeführt und
ir 1" f 'I Anschauung daß ßild 43, Vordere Verdoppelung beim Rind,
die Anlage zur Zwillings- (Nach Gurlt aus Schwalbe.)
Zwillingsbildung beim Lein
47
bildung eine Eigenschaft der
Mutterpflanze sei, und daß
die Neigung zur Mehrlings-
bildung durch mehrere Erb-
faktoren bedingt werde. Die
Zwillingsforschung beim
Lein zeigt also dieselben Er-
scheinungen, wirft genau die-
selben Fragen auf und kommt
zu ganz ähnlichen Ergeb-
nissen wie die biologische
Zwillingsforschung im Tier-
reich im allgemeinen und
beim Menschen im beson-
deren: die Art der Entsteh-
ung der Zwillinge und ihre
Erbgleichheit stehen im sel-
ben Zusammenhang ; Doppel-
mißbildungen und eineiige
Zwillinge sind grundsätzlich
dasselbe. Ja die Zwillings-
forschung beim Lein vermag mit Erfolg eine Frage anzupacken, die beim Menschen
zwar schon längst aufgeworfen, aber auch heute noch lebhaft umstritten ist: die
Frage der Vererbung der Anlage zur Zwillingsbildung (vgl. S. 82 und 83).
Die im Vorstehenden dargelegten Erscheinungen zeigen, daß eineiige Zwil-
linge und Doppelmißbildungen überall in einer Linie stehen,
im Grunde dasselbe sind. Die angeführten Beispiele lassen auch erkennen, daß
die Zwillingsbildung eine Erscheinung darstellt, die nicht
auf wenige Formen beschränkt, sondern weit verbreitet ist.
Aus der Fülle der Beobachtungen gewinnt man den Eindruck, daß sie so gut wie
bei allen Gruppen des Tierreichs vorkommt. Zwar ist sie nur in einem Fall, bei der
Fortpflanzung der Gürteltiere, zur Regel geworden. Ihr Vorkommen bei so zahl-
reichen tierischen Formen zeigt aber, daß sie mit grundlegenden Eigenschaften des
Lebenden zusammenhängen muß. Ihre Ursache liegt in der Spaltungstendenz, die
nach Heidenhain „eine immanente Potenz aller genetischen Systeme" ist. Teilungs-
erscheinungen der geweblichen Systeme sind nach ihm untrennbar mit dem Leben
Bild 44. Kätzchen mit doppeltem Gesicht.
(Nach Th. H. Bissonette 1933.)
Bild 45. Leinzwillinge, Die beiden
Würzelchen zeigen das Vorhanden-
sein zweier Embryonen im Samen.
(Nach Kappert.)
Bild 46. Unvollständig gespaltene
Leinzwillinge (siamesische Zwillinge).
(Nach Kappert.)
48
Zwillingsbildung bei Tieren und Pflanzen
Die Erbgleichheit der EZ
49
verbunden, Teilbarkeit schlummert überall in den lebenden Gebilden und kann zur
Verdoppelung kleinster organischer Einheiten, von einzelnen Organen (von Zahnen.
Findern Muskeln), des vorderen oder hinteren Körperendes und schließlich sogar
der ganzen Person führen. Die Tatsache, daß Zellen und Zellgruppcn in frühen
Entwicklungsstadien des Keims noch alle Möglichkeiten in sich tragen (totipotent
sind), erklärt zusammen mit der Spaltungstendenz die Erscheinung der Zwillings-
bildukg. Dieser Vorgang hat große Ähnlichkeit mit dem der Regeneration:
Jeder der beiden durch Spaltung entstandenen Teile ergänzt sich wieder zu einem
vollen Lebewesen. Damit ist eine besondere Art der Fortpflanzung gegeben, und
zwar eine solche ungeschlechtlicher Art, die dem entspricht, was bei niederen Tier-
kreisen als ungeschlechtliche Fortpflanzung durch Teilung und
K n o s p u n g bekannt ist. Aus der auf Grund eines geschlechtlichen Vorgangs ge-
bildeten Zygote entstehen durch Teilung, also einen ungeschlechtlichen Vorgang,
zwei Lebewesen, die sich ihrerseits wieder geschlechtlich fortpflanzen. Damit liegt
ein Generationswechsel vor: Auf eine geschlechtlich sich fortpflanzende Generation
folgt eine zweite Generation (die Zygote oder der Keim in seinen ersten Entwick-
lungsstadien), die sich durch Teilung ungeschlechtlich fortpflanzt; dadurch ent-
steht eine dritte Generation, die sich wieder geschlechtlich fortpflanzt. EZ als
Kinder stellen also eigentlich nicht die zweite, sondern schon die dritte Generation
dar; sie werden streng genommen von ihrer Großmutter zur Welt gebracht!
Die zu EZ oder Doppelmißbildungen führende echteZwillingsbildung
ist ein Teilungsvorgang, der nicht regellos, sondern nach
einer bestimmten Achse oder Symmetrieebene erfolgt. Dieser
Umstand zeigt, daß sich die echte Zwillingsbildung morphologisch wesentlich unter-
scheidet von der Polyembryonie bei den Schlupfwespen, bei der Zellgruppen regel-
los zerfallen. Newman schlägt vor, den Begriff der P o 1 y e mb r y o n i e für einen
solchen Vorgang, wie er bei den Schlupfwespen beobachtet worden ist, festzulegen,
und die Erscheinung bei den Gürteltieren, die schon häufig unter denselben Begriff
genommen wurde, auf keinen Fall damit zu bezeichnen. Bei diesen Tieren liegt
wiederholte echte Zwillingsbildung vor.
Die echte Zwillingsbildung ist also ein Vorgang, der zwar in Grunderscheinungen
des Lebens wurzelt, aber doch nicht regel-
mäßig auftritt. Damit ist die Frage aufzu-
werfen: Was fürUrsachenbewirken
die Auslösung dieses Vorgangs?
Die bisher durchgeführten Untersuchungen
in den verschiedenen Gruppen des Tier-
reichs haben zwar noch keine klare und ein-
heitliche Antwort auf diese Frage gebracht,
aber doch in einzelnenFälleneineLösung an-
gedeutet. Die Experimentaluntersuchungen
zeigen, daß mechanische oder chemische
Reizwirkungen eine Störung der Entwick-
lung verursachen und die Zwillingsbildung
anregen können. Stockard fand auf Grund
von Versuchen an Fischembryonen, daß jede
Umweltbedingung, die den Fortgang der
Bild 47, Zwillingsembryonen des Leins, Entwicklung an einem bestimmten kriti-
Der Embryoträger oberhalb des eigent- sehen Punkt aufhält, gleichzeitig auch zum
liehen kugelförmigen Embryos zeigt eine a fx i r\ «^^iu:i J,,«^«,« f;;Ur-t. or
yv , it^ ^, u-*T7* Auftreten von Doppelbildungen tunrt, er
Anschwellung, aus der bei weiterer Lnt- ._ ^ t • i \ -uajo
Wicklung ein zweiter Embryo hervorge- ist auf Grund hiervon der Ansicht, daß
gangen wäre. (Nach Kappert,) c i n e Unterbrechung o d e r Hemmung
des Entwicklungsvorganges zur Zwillingsbildung führt. Wenn
der Keim in seiner Entwicklung gehemmt wird, so bildet sich zum Ersatz und als
Ausgleich ein zweiter Keim.
Über derartige Vermutungen über die Ursachen der Zwillingsbildung ist die
Wissenschaft noch nicht hinausgekommen. Die Erkenntnisse, die im tierischen Ex-
periment gewonnen worden sind, genügen aber doch, um auch auf die Bildung von
EZ beim Menschen etwas Licht zu werfen. Auch im mütterlichen Organismus kann
der Keim irgendwelche Störungen der Entwicklung erfahren; denkbar sind Einflüsse
mechanischer oder chemischer Art. Solche in ihrem Auftreten rein zufällige Stö-
rungen wären für die Spaltung des Keims und damit für die Zwillingsbildung ver-
antwortlich.
5. Die Erbglcichheit der E Z
Die allgemeinen biologischen Untersuchungen über Zwillingsbildung im Tier-
und Pflanzenreich bestätigen in jeder Beziehung die Vorstellungen von der Ent-
stehung der verwechslungsähnlichen Zwillinge beim Menschen. Sie befestigen auch
in vollem Umfang die Annahme der Erbgleichheit solcher Zwillinge. Aus der Art
ihrer Entstehung folgt theoretisch, daß die beiden Partner eines EZ-Paares den
gleichen Genbestand haben und deshalb erbgleich sein müssen. Ihre unerhörte Ähn-
lichkeit bestätigt die Annahme der Erbgleichheit. Die beobachteten Tat-
sachen in ihrer Gesamtheit geben der Ansicht von der Art der
Entstehung und der Erbgleichheit solcher Zwillinge die Be-
deutung einer denkbar fest und gut begründeten Theorie.
Nun sind aber auch bei EZ Verschiedenheiten festzustellen. Es ist deshalb mehr-
fach die Frage aufgeworfen worden, ob nicht auch bei eineiiger Ent-
stehung von Zwillingen Erbverschiedenheit bestehen könnte. Zwei
Möglichkeiten sind erörtert worden: Es könnte vielleicht sein, daß die Äquations-
teilung der ersten Furchung infolge irgendwelcher Störungen in manchen Fällen
das Genmaterial nicht völlig gleich auf die beiden Zellen verteilen würde. Ein der-
artiger Fall ist theoretisch kaum möglich. Bei einer Äquationsteilung werden nicht
wie bei der Reduktionsteilung ganze Chromosomen verschiedener Herkunft auf die
beiden Tochterzellen verteilt; es findet vielmehr nur die Verteilung der Spalthälften
des Chromosomenbestandes statt. Wenn diese Verteilung nicht richtig erfolgt, er-
hält die eine der beiden Furchungszellen keinen vollständigen Genbestand, und in-
folge eines solchen Defekts wäre diese Hälfte überhaupt nicht entwicklungsfähig.
Daraus geht hervor, daß die Annahme einer erbungleichen Teilung nicht haltbar ist.
Weiterhin ist noch die Möglichkeit genannt worden, daß nach erfolgter Trennung
der beiden Hälften des Keims der Genbestand der einen durch Mutation ver-
ändert werden könne. Eine Auswirkung für den ganzen Organismus dieses Zwillings
könnte aber nur dann eintreten, wenn diese Mutation erfolgen würde, ehe die durch
Spaltung im Zweizellenstadium des Keims selbständig gewordene Zelle sich von
neuem teilt. Eine spätere Mutation in einer Zelle des Keims könnte sich nicht mehr
für den ganzen Zwilling auswirken. Mit diesen theoretischen Überlegungen scheidet
die Möglichkeit der Entstehung einer Erbungleichheit der Partner infolge von
Mutation aus; auch praktisch gibt es keine Anzeichen für das Vorkommen solcher
Mutationen. Die Ablehnung der beiden Möglichkeiten der Entstehung einer Erb-
ungleichheit führt zu dem Schluß, daß keinerlei Anhaltspunkte dafür
bestehen, an der Erbglcichheit eineiiger Zwillinge zu zweifeln.
Wenn EZ erbgleich sind, so ist damit allerdings eine andere Möglichkeit nicht
ausgeschlossen. Geschwister erhalten ihre Erbmasse von ihren beiden Eltern. Nach
den Regeln der Wahrscheinlichkeit werden Geschwister einen Teil ihres Gen-
4 Zwillinge
V
50
Die Erbglcichheit der EZ
bestandes infolge der Abstammung von den gleichen Eltern übereinstimmend haben;
die Erfahrung zeigt, daß sich auch gewöhnliche Geschwister recht stark gleichen
können. Wäre es nicht möglich, daß auch in einzelnen Fällen zwei Geschwister
und damit auch zweieiige Zwillinge bei ihrer Zeugung genau denselben Genbestand
erhalten würden, so daß es außer den EZ auch andere erbgleiche
Geschwister geben könnte?
Um diese Frage beantworten zu können, ist es notwendig, dieWahrschein-
lichkeit dafür zu berechnen, daß zwei Geschwister von ihren
Eltern einen völlig gleichen Chromosomensatz erhalten. In
Bild 48 ist für ein Lebewesen mit der Chromosomenzahl 6 die Entstehung ver-
schiedener Erbkombinationen bei den Nachkommen dargestellt worden. Die sechs
Chromosomen in den Körperzellen und den Geschlechtsmutterzellen von Vater und
Mutter stellen 3 Paare dar; je einen Partner dieser Paare hat das Lebewesen von
seinen eigenen beiden Erzeugern erhalten. In der Darstellung sind die Chromosomen
der 3 verschiedenen Paare nach ihrer Individualität durch Form und Größe, nach
ihrer Herkunft von den Erzeugern der vorhergehenden Generation durch die Art
der zeichnerischen Ausführung unterschieden worden. In den Körperzellen und in
den Geschlechtsmutterzellen der Eltern ist also jede der 3 Anlagengruppen doppelt
vorhanden; keines der 4 Chromosomen gleicher Individualität wird aber völlig
gleiche Erbqualität besitzen wie eines der anderen; die verschiedene Herkunft ist
in der Regel auch mit einer — wenn auch nur geringen — Verschiedenheit der Erb-
qualität verbunden. Bei der Reduktionsteilung findet eine Halbierung der Chromo-
somenzahl statt. Von jedem der 3 Chromosomenpaare erhält eine Geschlechtszelle
einen Partner; dabei ist es aber dem Zufall überlassen, wie sich die einzelnen, in
ihrer Herkunft verschiedenen Partner verteilen. Wie eine einfache mathematische
Überlegung ergibt, sind für die männlichen und die weiblichen Geschlechtszellen je
23 = 8 verschiedene Kombinationen von Chromosomen möglich. Bei einem Tier mit
3 Chromosomenpaaren erzeugen somit die männlichen Tiere 8 nach ihrem Erbwert
verschiedene Samenzellen, die weiblichen Tiere 8 verschiedene Eizellen. Dadurch,
daß eine Eizelle mit einer Samenzelle im Vorgang der Befruchtung zusammentritt,
wird ein neues Wesen erzeugt, das in seinen Körperzellen wieder die doppelte
Chromosomenzahl aufweist. Da 8 erbverschiedene Samenzellen mit 8 erbverschie-
denen Eizellen zusammentreten können, so sind 8 X 8 - 64 verschiedene Kombi-
nationen des Chromosomenbestandes in den Kindern möglich. Die Wahrscheinlich-
keit, daß zwei beliebig herausgegriffene Geschwister denselben Chromosomenbestand
aufweisen, ist 1 : 64.
Auf Grund hiervon läßt sich für den Menschen die Wahrscheinlichkeit
völliger Erbgleichheit zweier Geschwister errechnen. Bei einem Wesen mit 4 Chro-
mosomenpaaren ist die Zahl der Chromosomenkombinationen in den Geschlechts-
zellen doppelt so groß als bei einem solchen mit 3 Paaren; sie beträgt also 2\ Mit
jedem weiteren Chromosomenpaar verdoppelt sich weiterhin die Zahl der mög-
lichen Kombinationen; beim Menschen mit seinen 24 Chromosomenpaaren ergibt
sich damit für die Samenzellen wie für die Eizellen die ungeheuere Zahl von 2-^ =
16 777 216 Möglichkeiten verschiedener Chromosomenkombinationen. Zwei völlig
erbgleiche Geschwister könnten nur entstehen, wenn bei der zweiten Zeugung wieder
zwei Geschlechtszellen mit denselben Chromosomenkombinationen wie bei der ersten
Zeugung zusammentreffen würden. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß bei der Zeugung
zweier Geschwister zweimal Zellen mit gleichem Chromosomenbestand zusammen-
treffen, ist 1 : 16 777 216^ = 1 : 280 Billionen. Das heißt, daß es nach den Regeln
der Wahrscheinlichkeit in 280 Billionen Fällen einmal vorkommt, daß ein späteres
Kind zweier Eltern genau dieselbe Chromosomenkombination und damit den
gleichen Genbestand erhält wie das erste. Auch Wenn in einzelnen Fällen Chromo-
\
Die Erbgleichheit der EZ
51
Geschlechtszellen der Großeltern: Je
3 Chromosomen,
Körperzellen und Geschlechtsmutter-
zellen der Eltern: Je 6 Chromosomen
(3 Paare) und damit „doppelte Garni-
tur",
Reduktionsteilung: Von den 3 Chromo-
somenpaaren erhält jede Zelle einen
Partner, Nur je eine der vier verschie-
denen Vcrteilungsmößlichkeiten ist ge-
zeichnet.
Geschlechtszellen: Je 3 Chromosomen
(einfache aber vollständige Garnitur),
Vater und Mutter erzeugen je 2^ =
8 verschiedene Geschlechtszellen.
Befruchtung: Eine Samenzelle und
eine Eizelle treten zusammen; es be-
stehen 8 X 8 = 64 Möglichkeiten. Für
den Genbestand des Kindes sind 64
Kombinationen der elterlichen Anlagen
möglich; in der Zeichnung sind zwei
dieser Kombinationen dargestellt.
Bild 48. Schematische Darstellung der Verteilung der Erbanlagen in den Geschlechtszellen
und ihrer Kombination bei der Befruchtung (für 3 Chromosomenpaare).
somen gleicher Individualität aber verschiedener Herkunft genau dieselbe Erb-
qualität besitzen sollten, wodurch die Wahrscheinlichkeit der E^bgleichheit sich
etwas erhöhen würde, so ist trotzdem die Wahrscheinlichkeit der völligen Erb-
öleichheit zweier Kinder derselben Eltern auf dem Wege der normalen Entstehung
so unendlich gering, daß sie praktisch der Unmöglichkeit gleichzusetzen ist. Daraus
folöt daß erbgleiche Geschwister einem besonderen Vorgang ihre Entstehung
verdanken müssen. Die angestellten Wahrscheinlichkeitsüberlegungen sind ein
schwerwiegender Beweis für eine besondere Art der Entstehung der so überaus ahn-
lichen Zwillinge, d.h. für ihre Entstehung aus e i n e m befruchteten ^^i- .^f.^/J^*.^
EZ sind erbgleich" ist damit dahin zu ergänzen: Eine andere Möglichkeit
der Entstehung von Erbgleichheit als die der echten Zwillingsbildung ist praktisch
ausgeschlossen ; nur EZ sind erbgleich.
In den bisherigen Ausführungen sind die Begriffe ..eineiige" und ..zweieiige"
Zwillinge benützt worden, ohne daß die Möglichkeiten anderer Bezeichnungen kri-
4*
[j^<tii«ivyti^iUMU*<wtitV*MtV*^yiUMt*I«Hi<it»n;^^hWj^>uttKh^^
52
Die Zwillingsmethode
tisch untersucht worden wären. Die nunmehr gewonnenen Einsichten erlauben es,
die Frage der richtigsten und zweckmäßigsten Bezeichnung der verschiedenen
Arten von Zwillingen zu überprüfen, Poll hat seinerzeit gegen die Bezeichnung ein-
eiige Zwillinge eingewendet, daß sie unbewiesen und hypothetisch sei und für die
beiden Arten von Zwillingen die Namen Homoeodidymi (ähnliche Zwillinge)
und Adelphodidymi (Geschwistcrzwillinge) vorgeschlagen, Der Einwand
gegen die Bezeichnung eineiige Zwillinge ist heute nicht mehr berechtigt; die An-
sicht von ihrer Entstehung, die sich in der Bezeichnung ausprägt, ist heute als völlig
gesichert anzusehen, ,,G e s c h w i s t e r z w i 1 1 i n g e" ist eine durchaus treffende
Bezeichnung, , .ähnliche Zwillinge" ist aber farblos und sagt zu wenig. In
der englischen Literatur wird vielfach das Begriffspaar identical twins und
fraternal twins gebraucht. Im Gegensatz zu der Bezeichnung als ,, ähnliche"
Zwillinge sagt nun aber „identische" Zwillinge zu viel. Eine völlige Identität der
beiden Partner gibt es auch bei einem EZ-Paar nicht; durch Umwelteinflüsse werden
sogar oft recht deutliche Unterschiede erzeugt. Die Bezeichnung d u p 1 i c a t e
twins (verdoppelte Zwillinge) ist sachlich nicht zu beanstanden; es fehlt ihr aber
ein geeigneter gegensätzlicher Begriff; durchgesetzt hat sie sich nicht. Die begriff-
lich einwandfreieste Bezeichnung wäre „monozygotische" und ,,dizy-
gotische" Zwillinge, da die Zwillinge nicht unmittelbar aus dem Ei, sondern aus
der Zygote, dem durch die Samenzelle befruchteten Ei, hervorgehen. Da aber von
der Bezeichnung „eineiige" und „zweieiige" Zwillinge ein ernstliches Miß-
verständnis nicht zu befürchten ist, so sind diese kurzen, rein deutschen Ausdrücke
die geeignetsten zu nennen; sie haben sich mit Recht in der deutschen Forschung
restlos durchgesetzt.
IL Die Zwillingsmethode in ihrer Bedeutung
für die Erbforschung beim Menschen
1. Erbgut und Umwelt
Das letzte Ziel naturwissenschaftlicher Forschung ist der Mensch. Wir treiben
Biologie, um dem Rätsel des Lebens näher zu kommen und damit dem Rätsel unseres
eigenen Seins, Jeder Einzelmensch ist zunächst das Endglied einer Kette unzähliger
Generationen, Er gibt das Leben weiter und ist damit Enkel und Ahnherr zugleich.
So gehört jeder Mensch einem größeren, umfassenderen Leben an; der Einzelne ist
nur ein Glied in einer höheren Lebenseinheit. In ihm wirken sich Kräfte aus, die
ihm als einem Glied jenes größeren Lebens eine ganz bestimmte Prägung geben. Die
beiden Zellen, aus denen ein Mensch entsteht, bringen Anlagen mit, die sich in seiner
Entwicklung auswirken und im Zusammenwirken mit den Reizen, die von außen
kommen, die Eigenschaften des Menschen zur Ausprägung bringen. Anlagen
sind Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten. Den Vorgang ihrer Über-
tragung von einer Generation zur anderen nennen wir Ver-
erbung. Wie das Zusammenarbeiten der experimentellen Erbforschung und der
Zellforschung gezeigt hat, sind die Anlagen als bestimmte Erbeinheiten (Gene) in
den Chromosomen des Zellkerns niedergelegt. Ihre Weitergabe zur nächsten Gene-
ration bewirkt die Erscheinung, daß ein Lebewesen seinen Vorfahren ähnlich ist.
Die Vererbungslehre weist die Gesetze auf, nach denen sich die Übertragung der
Erbanlagen vollzieht. Seit der Wiederentdeckung derMendelschenGesetze
um die Jahrhundertwende hat die Vererbungslehre einen Siegeslauf zurückgelegt,
der in der Geschichte der biologischen Wissenschaft einzig dasteht.
i
M;)'.iiiK;i»»i^^iiwauiiy»»KiJmifl
[j{i>;^^jit^jiijt(^'Mi|niii^«uiwn.,i^.iMiw^^^^
Methoden der Erbforschung beim Menschen — Erbgut und Umwelt
53
Ihre ganz besondere Bedeutung erhält die Vererbungslehre dadurch, daß wir
mit ihrer Hilfe unserem eigenen Wesen näher zu kommen vermögen. Gerade
beim Menschen ist aber die Wissenschaft von der Vererbung
in besonders ungünstiger Lage: Das Experiment scheidet aus; der Erb-
forscher ist darauf angewiesen, das zu beobachten und zu untersuchen, was die Ver-
bindungen von Menschen an Nachkommen gebracht haben. Dabei vermag er infolge
der langen Entwicklungszeit des Menschen nur ganz wenige Generationen zu über-
sehen, und die geringe Kinderzahl der Familien macht es sehr schwierig, allgemeine
Gesetzmäßigkeiten zu finden. Erbgesetze sind eben Wahrscheinlichkeitsgesetze, die
nur aus einer möglichst großen Zahl von Einzelfällen in zuverlässiger Weise er-
schlossen werden können. So ist die Erbforschung beim Menschen zunächst darauf
angewiesen, die von der experimentellen Erbforschung an Pflanzen und Tieren ge-
fundenen Gesetze am Menschen nachzuprüfen. Einen gewissen Ersatz für das
Kreuzungsexperiment gibt ihr die Untersuchung von Bastarden, die aus
der Paarung von Menschen verschiedener Rassen hervorgehen. Darüber hinaus hat
sie auch eigene Wege ausgearbeitet: Statistische Methoden, die aus der
Verarbeitung einer Vielzahl von Einzelfällen ihre Schlüsse ziehen, und die Fami-
lienforschung, die einzelne Erbanlagen durch möglichst viele Generationen
einer Familie hindurch verfolgt und auf diese Weise ihren Erbgang zu erschließen
sucht. Diesen Methoden hat sich nun die Zwillingsmcthodc angefügt, ja es kann ge-
sagt werden, daß sie seit etwa 15 Jahren zur wichtigsten und erfolgreichsten Methode
der Erbforschung beim Menschen geworden ist.
Worin liegt nun die besondere Bedeutung dieser Methode? Was an einem Lebe-
wesen beobachtet werden kann, das sind seine sinnlich in Erscheinung tretenden
Eigenschaften, sein Phänotypus. Der Entstehung dieses Erscheinungsbildes
liegen aber zwei große Gruppen von Ursachen zugrunde: die erblich gegebenen An-
lagen (genotypische oder idiotypische Faktoren) und die Einflüsse der Umwelt
(paratypische Faktoren, Peristase, peristatische Kraft). Die Erbanlagen entwickeln
sich nur, wenn bestimmte Umweltreize auf sie einwirken; je nach Art und Grad der
Einwirkung dieser Reize kann die Entwicklung der Anlagen gefördert oder gehemmt
werden. Daraus ergibt sich als grundlegende Erkenntnis für jede organische Ent-
wicklung: Erbanlagen und Umwelt lassen in ihrem Zusammen-
wirken das Erscheinungsbild eines Lebewesens entstehen.
Diese Erkenntnis führt aber sofort weiter zur nächsten Frage: Wie weit reicht die
Kraft der Erbanlagen, wie weit die der Umwelteinflüsse? Das ist nicht nur eine
allgemein biologische Frage, sondern in der Übertragung auf den Menschen schlecht-
hin die Grundfrage aller Menschenkenntnis, aller Menschenführung und Menschen-
behandlung. Es handelt sich um den Einblick in die Frage, was und wieviel beim
Menschen wesensmäßig gegeben ist und in welchem Ausmaß äußere Einflüsse den
mit den Erbanlagen gegebenen Kern des Wesens formen können.
Zur Abgrenzung der Einwirkung von Einflüssen des Erbgutes und der Umwelt
auf Lebewesen und zum Einblick in die Stärke ihres Einflusses führen zwei all-
gemein naturwissenschaftliche Methoden: Man kann Tiere oder
Pflanzen, deren erbliche Beschaffenheit unbekannt ist, unter völlig gleichen Umwelt-
bedingungen zur Entwicklung bringen; die sich ergebenden Unterschiede müssen
dann erbbedingt sein. Es ist aber auch der andere Weg möglich: Man läßt Lebe-
wesen, von denen man weiß, daß sie völlig gleiches Erbgut haben, unter verschie-
denen Umwelteinflüssen sich entwickeln; die Unterschiede, die sich ergeben, müssen
dann den verschiedenen Umwelteinflüssen zugeschrieben werden. Wenn versucht
wird, diese Methoden in der menschlichen Erbforschung anzuwenden, so ist es nicht
allzu schwer, erbverschiedene Menschen unter möglichst gleiche Umweltverhältnisse
zu bringen. Waisenhäuser und andere Erziehungsanstalten geben bis zu einem ge-
*
54
Die Zwillingsmethode — Geschichtliches
wissen Grad eine solche Möglichkeit. Dagegen wäre es unmöglich, den zweiten
Weg zu gehen, wenn nicht die Natur in dem merkwürdigen Sonderfall der EZ
Menschen völlig gleichen Erbgutes zur Verfügung stellen würde. EZ haben auf Grund
ihrer Entstehung genau denselben Genbestand. Die beiden Partner eines
EZ-Paares sind erbgleich; die Verschiedenheiten, die sie auf-
weisen, müssen deshalbEinflüssen der Umwelt zugeschrieben
werden. Dieser Satz ist die Grundlage der Zwillingsmethode.
2. Geschichtliches
Der erste, der die Bedeutung der Zwillinge für die Abgrenzung der Einflüsse von
Erbgut und Umwelt erkannte, ist Francis Galton gewesen, Galton, der 1822 geboren
wurde, war durch seine Mutter ein Enkel von Erasmus Darwin und damit ein Vetter
von Charles Darwin. Mit ihm, dem er an wissenschaftlicher Bedeutung kaum nach-
steht, hat er mancherlei gemeinsam. Beide gehören einem typisch englischen Forscher-
und Gelehrtentypus an. Einen geregelten akademischen Ausbildungsgang hat Galton
nicht mitgemacht. Sein medizinisches Fachstudium brach er nach zwei Jahren ab
und ging auf Reisen, die ihn nach Südeuropa und in die Türkei führten. Dann kehrte
er zum Studium zurück, ließ es aber, als er mit dem Tod seines Vaters wirtschaftlich
selbständig wurde, ein zweites Mal im Stich und unternahm weite Forschungsreisen
in Afrika. Er hat als erster den nördlichen Teil des späteren Deutsch-Südwestafrika
geographisch und naturwissenschaftlich erforscht. Diese Jahre der Forschung in der
weiten Welt waren für Galton eine unschätzbare Zeit des Sammeins von Eindrücken,
eine Zeit, die aus seinem Leben und seiner Entwicklung nicht wegzudenken ist. Als
er nach England zurückgekehrt war, zog ihn aber ein Gedanke in seinen Bann, der
ihn schon als 18jährigen Studenten in Cambridge gepackt hatte, und der ihn nicht
mehr loslassen sollte: Der Gedanke, daß der Mensch in allen seinen Eigenschaften,
den körperlichen wie den seelischen, letzten Endes durch seine Erbanlagen bestimmt
sei. Diese Idee beherrschte von jetzt an sein Leben, seine Arbeit, Das Werk seines
Vetters Charles Darwin über den , .Ursprung der Arten" gab dazu den zweiten großen
Grundgedanken, den Gedanken der Auslese, und auf dieser Grundlage entwickelte
sich nun Galtons Lebenswerk in wunderbarer Klarheit und Folgerichtigkeit. 1869,
also im Alter von schon 47 Jahren, ließ er sein erstes großes Werk über geistige An-
lagen und ihre Vererbung (Hereditary Genius) erscheinen. Seine Unter-
suchungen führten ihn dann von selber zu der Fragestellung weiter, in welchem Ver-
hältnis die Kräfte von Erbgut und Umwelt zueinander stehen. Ein bewundernswerter
Spürsinn führte ihn zu der Erkenntnis, daß Zwillinge eine Möglichkeit bieten, die
Wirkungen dieser beiden Kräftegruppen voneinander zu trennen. Auf seine Zwillings-
arbeit soll im folgenden näher eingegangen werden.
Aus der Erkenntnis heraus, daß das Erbgut das Wesentliche ist, und daß eine
Verbesserung des Erbgutes eines ganzen Volkes nur durch die Vorgänge der Aus-
lese erreicht werden könne, formte sich dann bei Galton der große Grundgedanke
der ,,Eugenik", deren Schöpfer er wurde. 1904, also im Alter von 82 Jahren,
faßte er sein überreiches Lebenswerk zusammen in einer Arbeit über ,,Eugenics, its
definition, scope and aims". Erst 1911 ist Galton gestorben. Er war ein Forscher,
in dem sich eine wundervolle Intuition mit zähester, folgerichtigster und ideen-
reichster Kleinarbeit verbunden hat; in seinen Fragestellungen ist er für seine Zeit
unerhört originell, völlig unakademisch. Er muß als Begründer der menschlichen
Erblehre und der Rassenhygiene einer der größten Geister des vergangenen Jahr-
hunderts genannt werden.
In dem geschilderten Zusammenhang eines genialen und einzigartigen Lebens-
werkes steht die berühmt gewordene Zwillingsarbeit Galtons aus dem Jahre 1875
Galton als Begründer der Zwillingsmethode
55
Bild 49, Francis Galton.
Nach dem Gemälde von C. W. Furze (etwa 1900) im Galton Laboratory der Universität von London.
über „The History oi twins as a Critcrion oi thc Relative Powers oi Nalurc and
Nurture" (dieGeschichtederZwillingealsPrüfsteinderKrafte
von Anlage und Umwelt). Der Titel knüpfte an den einer im Jahr zuvor
erschienenen Arbeit über „English Men of Science, their Nature and Nurture" an.
Die Wahl der Begriffe Nature and Nurture (Natur und Ernährung, Pflege)
mag wohl durch die Freude am Gleichklang der Worte mit bestimmt gewesen sein;
an ihrer Stelle werden heute im englischen und amerikanischen Schrifttum meist die
Begriffe H e r e d i t y und Environment verwendet.
Der Anstoß für die Entstehung der Arbeit ist Galtons Bemühung, eine Methode
für die Trennung der Einflüsse von Anlage und Umwel^t zu
finden. Wie er das tut, sollen die einleitenden Abschnitte der Arbeit zeigen.*
„Die außerordentlich große Ähnlichkeit, die man Zwillingen zuschreibt, ist der Gegen-
stand zahlreicher Romane und Schauspiele gewesen, und viele Menschen haben schon zu er-
fahren gewünscht, auf welcher Wahrheitsgrundlage diese Werke der Dichtung wohl ruhen.
Aber Zwillinge haben noch manches andere Anrecht auf Beachtung; einer dieser Ansprüche
wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit behandelt. Die Lebensgeschichte der Zwillinge gestattet uns
nämlich, die Wirkung jener Kräfte, die ihnen von Geburt an die Richtung weisen, zu trennen
von jenen, denen sie erst durch die Umstände des späteren Lebens ausgesetzt sind; mit
' Der hier und im folgenden abgedruckte deutsche Wortlaut ist der Übersetzung der
Arbeit Galtons durch Dr, Rolf Schleicher und Dr. Maria Schiller entnommen, (Er-
schienen in: „Der Erbarzt", Beilage zum Deutschen Ärzteblatt, 1935, Nr. 9,)
56
Die Zwillingsmethode — Geschichtliches
anderen Worten: zwischen dem Einfluß von Naturanlage und Umwelt zu unterscheiden. Bei
der Untersuchung über die Vererbung geistiger Fähigkeiten ist das ein Problem von be-
sonderer Wichtigkeit, und immer, wenn ich dabei war, abzuschätzen, inwieweit geistige Fähig-
keiten durchschnittlich vererbt sind, habe ich brennend die Schwierigkeit empfunden, diese
Trennung durchzuführen. Der Einwand gegen die Beweiskraft, den die Statistik für die Be-
jahung liefert, war immer der: , Mögen die Menschen, die Sie vergleichen, auch wirklich unter
ähnlichen sozialen Bedingungen gelebt und ähnliche Vorteile der Erziehung genossen haben,
so sind diese bedeutungsvollen Bedingungen doch nur ein kleiner Teil von jenen, die die
Entwicklung des Menschenlebens bestimmen. Hauptsächlich wird doch unbedeutenden, zu-
fälligen Umständen die Entwicklung von Neigungen und Erfolgen zugeschrieben, und gerade
diese lassen Sie ja außer Betracht! In der Tat lassen sie sich ja auch gar nicht registrieren,
und deshalb sind Ihre Statistiken, mögen sie auch auf den ersten Blick noch so einleuchtend
erscheinen, in Wirklichkeit nur von geringem Wert.'
Keine Untersuchungsmethode, die auszuführen ich imstande war — und ich habe viele
Methoden ausprobiert — , ist vollkommen gegen diesen Einwand geschützt. Deshalb habe ich
das Problem von der entgegengesetzten Seite angefaßt und eine neue Methode gesucht, die
CS ermöglichen sollte, in gerechter Weise die jeweiligen Wirkungen von Anlage und Umwelt
abzuwägen und ihre verschiedenen Anteile an der Gestaltung der Gemütsart und der geistigen
Fähigkeiten des Menschen zu bestimmen. Die Lebensgeschichte der Zwillinge bietet, was
ich wünschte.
Wir wollen mit der Untersuchung von Zwillingen beginnen, die sich während der Kinder-
und Jugendzeit ganz ähnlich waren und die viele Jahre zusammen erzogen wurden. An
diesen wollen wir beobachten, ob sie sich in der Folge ungleich entwickelten, und im ge-
gebenen Fall die Hauptursachen ergründen, die nach Ansicht der Familie die Unähnlichkeit
verschuldeten. So erhalten wir dann unmittelbare Beweise der Art, wie wir sie brauchen.
Hinwiederum bekommen wir vielleicht einen noch wertvolleren Beweis auf einem entgegen-
gesetzten Wege. Wir können die Lebensgeschichte von Zwillingen studieren, die in ihrer
Kindheit außerordentlich unähnlich waren, und beobachten, wie weit ihr Charakter unter
dem Einfluß gleicher Umwelt ähnlich wurde, da sie ja das gleiche Heim, dieselben Lehrer,
dieselben Kameraden und in jeder sonstigen Beziehung dieselbe Umwelt hatten."
Galton erkannte also in völliger Klarheit die beiden früher erw^ähnten natur-
wissenschaftlichen Methoden zur Abgrenzung der Einflüsse von Erbgut und Um-
welt: Menschen gleichen Erbguts lassen in ihren Verschiedenheiten den Einfluß der
Umwelt erkennen. Der Vergleich von Menschen, die unter völlig gleichen Umwelt-
bedingungen leben, zeigt Unterschiede, die erbbedingt sein müssen.
Das Material für seine Untersuchungen erhielt Galton durch die Versendung
von Fragebogen. Er erhielt dabei über 80 Antworten von Fällen mit großer
Ähnlichkeit, also wahrscheinlich eineiigen Zwillingen, außerdem 20 Fälle gleich-
geschlechtiger Zwillinge mit sehr starker Verschiedenheit. Galton weiß auch schon,
daß der Zwillingsbildung zwei ganz verschiedene Vorgänge zugrunde liegen, wenn
auch die Entstehung der außerordentlich ähnlichen Zwillinge damals noch nicht mit
voller Klarheit erkannt worden war. Er führt die Entstehung solcher Zwillinge auf
die Entwicklung eines Eies mit zwei Keimflecken (germinal Spots), d.h.
Kernen, zurück. Wesentlich ist, daß Galton die beiden Gruppen der Zwillinge, die
vollkommen ähnlichen und die mäßig ähnlichen bis unähnlichen, deutlich vonein-
ander trennt. Im einzelnen zählt er dann alle die Punkte auf, in denen die ,, iden-
tischen Zwillinge" übereinstimmen: Haar- und Augenfarbe, Größe, Gewicht, die Art
des Sichgebens, der Tonfall der Stimme usw. Er bringt dann weiter eine ganze Reihe
von Anekdoten, wie sie immer und überall von EZ erzählt werden. Einige von ihnen
seien im folgenden angeführt:
„Ich habe viele Beispiele von Erziehern, die nicht imstande waren, ihre Zwillingsschüler
zu unterscheiden. Zwei Mädchen pflegten regelmäßig ihren Musiklehrer zu täuschen, wenn
eine von ihnen einen freien Tag haben wollte. Sie hatten ihre Stunden zu verschiedener Zeit
und das eine Mädchen nahm aufopfernd 2 Stunden am gleichen Tag, während sich ihre
Schwester inzwischen vergnügte. Hierzu die kurze und eindrucksvolle Angabe: ,Sie glichen
Die grundlegende Zwillingsarbeit von Galton
57
sich in allem, ihre Lehrer konnten sie nicht unterscheiden, beim Tanzen konnten sie dauernd
ihren Partner wechseln, ohne daß es entdeckt wurde. Ihre außerordentliche Ähnlichkeit
wurde vom Alter kaum berührt.' Und nun folgt eine typische Schulbubengeschichte: ,Zwei
Zwillingsbrüder verübten gerne Streiche, fortwährend kamen Klagen, aber die Buben ver-
rieten nie den Schuldigen und die Kläger waren nicht sicher, welcher es nun eigentlich war.
Ein Schulvorsteher pflegte zu sagen: er würde nie und nimmer den Unschuldigen für den
Schuldigen schlagen, und ein anderer Schulmeister schlug beide,' Aus nicht weniger als neun
Anekdoten erfuhr ich, daß ein Zwillingspartner sein Spiegelbild im Spiegel sah und dieses
als die Person des Partners ansprach. Ich besitze eine ganze Reihe kleiner Geschichtchen
von Verwechslungen nahezu erwachsener Zwillinge, so z, B,: , Lustige Zwischenfälle er-
eigneten sich im College, wenn ein Zwilling seinen Zwillingsbruder besuchte. Bei einer
solchen Gelegenheit weigerte sich der Pförtner, den besuchenden Zwilling aus der Schule
herauszulassen, obgleich beide Seite an Seite standen, weil er nicht wußte, welchen er her-
auslassen durfte.' Ich habe vier oder fünf Beispiele von Verwechslungen während der Vcr-
lobungszeit, z. B.: , Zwillinge trafen eine Dame gemeinsam und verliebten sich auf der Stelle
beide in sie. A, der sie später heiratete, gelang es, sie nach Hause zu begleiten und ihre
Zuneigung zu gewinnen, doch B ging manchmal statt seiner, um ihr seine Aufwartung zu
machen, und weder die Dame, noch ihre Eltern konnten sagen, welcher welcher war.'
Die nächste und letzte Anekdote, die ich bringen will, ist vielleicht die bedeutendste von
allen, die ich habe. Sie wurde mir durch einen Bruder der Zwillinge zugesandt, die zur Zeit
der Begebenheit im mittleren Lebensalter standen. A kam auf Urlaub zurück von Indien,
das Schiff hatte einige Tage Verspätung, der Zwillingsbruder B war herbeigercist, um A zu
empfangen, und die alte Mutter war sehr aufgeregt. Eines Morgens stürzte A zu ihr herein
mit den Worten: ,0 Mutter, wie geht es Dir?' Und ihre Antwort war: ,Nein, B, das ist ein
schlechter Scherz, Du weißt doch, wie ängstlich ich bin.' Und es bedurfte einiger Zeit, bis A
sie überzeugen konnte, daß er der richtige Mann war."
Galton bringt dann weiter eine Reihe von Fällen, in denen Mißbildungen und
Krankheiten bei Zwillingsgeschwistern übereinstimmend auftraten und erzählt von
der Ähnlichkeit mancher Zwillinge in ihren Gedankenassoziationen, von denen eine
Geschichte erwähnt sei:
„Ein Zwilling A, der zufällig in einer Stadt in Schottland weilte, kaufte als Überraschung
für seinen Bruder B ein Service Champagnergläser, die seine Aufmerksamkeit erregt hatten.
Zur gleichen Zeit kaufte B in England für seinen Bruder A ein gleiches Service, Gläser von
gleichem Muster."
Schließlich weist Galton aber auch darauf hin, daß Neigung und Gemütsart der
Zwillinge mit größter Ähnlichkeit auch Verschiedenheiten aufweisen können; in
einer Reihe von Fällen werden diese den Einflüssen von Krankheiten oder des
Klimas zugeschrieben. Daneben aber gibt es „Beispiele einer offenbar so tiefgehen-
den Ähnlichkeit der Natur, daß äußere Einflüsse keine Unähnlichkeit bewirken
können". „Sie vollenden ihr Leben, gehen im gleichen Schlag wie zwei Uhren, die
nur durch einen materiellen Eingriff aus dem Einklang zu bringen sind."
Galton faßt die Eindrücke, die ihm die außerordentlich ähnlichen Zwillinge ver-
mittelt haben, in folgender Weise zusammen:
„Die Natur ist viel stärker als die Umwelt innerhalb des begrenzten Raumes, den ich ver-
sucht habe, zu umreißen. . . . Der feste und unerbittliche Marsch auf den Tod, wie ihn uns
die verborgenen Schwächen unserer Anlage durch Krankheiten führen, ist durch dieses
Zwillingsgeschichtchen schmerzlich deutlich enthüllt. Wir sind nur zu sehr geneigt, Krank-
heiten und Tod als Zufallsereignisse zu betrachten, ja, es gibt sogar Menschen, die beides
dem unmittelbaren Einfluß übernatürlicher Einmischung zuschreiben, während doch die Tat-
sache, daß Krankheiten bei Zwillingen gleichartig verlaufen, anzeigt, daß Krankheiten und
Tod mit Notwendigkeit eintretende Ereignisse sind, die in regelmäßiger Folge von konstitu-
tionellen Veränderungen bedingt werden, Ereignisse, auf die äußere Einwirkungen im großen
und ganzen nur geringen Einfluß haben. Dort, wo die Krankheiten der Zwillinge immer
gleich verlaufen, gehen die Uhren ihres Lebens im gleichen Rhythmus und im gleichen Maß,
von ihrem inneren Mechanismus geleitet. Wenn die beiden Zeiger die volle Stunde anzeigen,
gibt es plötzlich ein paar scharfe Geräusche, denen ein Knarren der Räder folgt. Wenn sie
58
Die Zwillingsmethode — Geschichtliches
Entwicklung der deutschen Zwillingsforschung
59
ineinandergegriffen haben, fällt der Schlag, Menschen, die Fatalisten sind, die die Freiheit
des Willens leugnen, können den Lebensgeschichten der Zwillinge neue Beweise für ihre
Meinung entnehmen."
Den außerordentlich ähnlichen Zwillingen stellt Galton dann die unähn-
lichen gegenüber, Er zählt eine Reihe von Beispielen stark verschiedener Zwil-
linge auf und kommt schließlich aus der Gesamtheit seiner Beobachtungen zur
nachstehenden Folgerung:
,,Es ist eine Tatsache, daß ausgeprägte Verschiedenheit, wie z, B. zwischen Esau und
Jakob, eine nicht weniger bemerkenswerte Eigentümlichkeit gleichgeschlechtiger Zwillinge
ist, wie außerordentliche Ähnlichkeit. . , , Der Eindruck, den alle diese Tatsachen der Ver-
schiedenheit hinterlassen, führt schließlich zu der Frage, ob Erziehung und Umweltbeding-
ungen überhaupt etwas anderes tun können, als Vorschriften geben und für einen Beruf ab-
richten. Diese Beweise bestätigen nachdrücklich die Folgerungen, zu denen wir bereits
durch die Fälle großer Ähnlichkeit gekommen waren, ja sie führen uns noch weit darüber
hinaus, ,,. Es gibt kein Ausweichen vor der Erkenntnis, daß die Anlage
der Umwelt stärkstens überlegen ist, wenn die Umweltbedingungen in ihren
Unterschieden gewisse Grenzen nicht überschreiten, die gemeinsam für Personen der gleichen
Gesellschaftsschicht und des gleichen Landes gelten. Meine einzige Sorge ist, daß mein
Beweis zuviel zu beweisen scheint, und daß er aus diesem Grund möglicherweise diskreditiert
werden könnte, da es nämlich aller Erfahrung zu widersprechen scheint, wenn Umweltbe-
dingungen und Erziehung so wenig gelten sollen. Aber oft irrt die Erfahrung, wenn sie
große Wirkungen geringfügigen Ursachen zuschreibt. Mancher hat sich schon damit unter-
halten, kleine Holzstückchen in einen winzigen Bach zu werfen, um ihren Weg zu verfolgen:
wie sie durch ein zufälliges Hindernis aufgehalten werden, dann durch ein anderes, und wie
ihr vorwärts gerichteter Kurs dann wieder durch eine ganze Reihe von Umständen erleichtert
wird. Jedem dieser kleinen Ereignisse könnte er große Wichtigkeit zuschreiben und dabei
auf den Gedanken kommen, wie weitgehend das Schicksal des Holzstückchens durch eine
Reihe geringfügiger Zufälle bestimmt worden ist. Nichtsdestoweniger kommen alle Holz-
stückchen die Strömung hinunter zum Ziel, und sie reisen auf dem langen Weg ziemlich
genau mit derselben Geschwindigkeit. So ist es auch im Leben mit den verschiedenen Zu-
fällen, die einen so großen Einfluß auf seinen Ablauf gehabt zu haben scheinen. Das einzige
Element, das bei verschiedenen Individuen zwar variiert, bei jedem einzelnen aber konstant
bleibt, ist die naturgegebene Richtung; sie entspricht der Strömung des Wassers und sie be-
hauptet sich unweigerlich."
Die Arbeit Galtons bringt alle grundsätzlichen Gedanken und Ergebnisse der
Zwillingsforschung bereits in vollkommener Klarheit. Es kann gesagt werden, daß
hier mit einem Wurf schon alles Wesentliche geleistet worden ist. Die Zwillings-
forschung seit Galton hat das Beobachtungsmaterial vergrößert,
die Begriffe geklärt und verfeinert; über die grundlegenden
Ergebnisse Galtons ist sie aber nicht weit hinausgewachsen.
Galtons Untersuchung hat zunächst nicht Schule gemacht; sie blieb 30 Jahre
lang überhaupt die einzige Zwillingsarbeit, ein deutlicher Beweis für die Originali-
tät, mit der sie ihrer Zeit vorauseilte. Die nächste Arbeit, die sich mit Zwillingen
befaßte, war eine experimentalpsychologische Untersuchung, die von Thorndike 1905
an New Yorker Schulkindern durchgeführt wurde. Sie arbeitete mit Tests und
statistischen Methoden, um die Zwillingsähnlichkeit zu messen. Seine Fragestellung
war folgendermaßen: Wenn geistige Ähnlichkeit eine Folge der Erziehung ist, so
müssen 13- und 14jährige Zwillinge einander ähnlicher sein als solche von 9 und
10 Jahren. Gewöhnliche Geschwister müßten dann dieselbe Ähnlichkeit zeigen wie
Zwillinge, da ihre Umwelt wie die der Zwillinge annähernd gleich ist. Die Zwillings-
ähnlichkeit in Zügen, die hauptsächlich durch Übung entstehen, müßte größer sein
als die Ähnlichkeit in solchen Fähigkeiten, die nicht auf Übung zurückzuführen sind.
Wenn geistige Ähnlichkeit vorwiegend auf vererbten Anlagen beruht, so müßte in
allen drei Punkten das Gegenteil zutreffen. Die Ergebnisse Thorndikes waren, daß
die Ähnlichkeit von Zwillingspaaren zweimal so groß sei als die beliebig heraus-
gegriffener Geschwisterpaare, bei den jüngeren Zwillingspaaren so groß wie bei den
älteren. Diese Ergebnisse kommen uns heute nicht überraschend vor; sie sind ge-
wonnen worden, obwohl Thorndike im wesentlichsten Punkt seiner Untersuchung
nicht klar sah und damit sogar hinter Galton zurückblieb. Seine Testuntersuchungen
ergaben bei den Zwillingen einen allmählichen Übergang von nahezu vollständiger
Gleichheit bis zur Unähnlichkeit. Daraus schloß er, daß keine zwei Typen von
Zwillingen angenommen werden müßten. Er konnte also noch nicht zwischen EZ
und ZZ unterscheiden. Seine Untersuchung ist damit ein Beispiel dafür, wie ein
natürlicher, offener, unvoreingenommener Blick mehr und Richtigeres zu finden ver-
mag als eine mit scheinbar exakten Methoden arbeitende Experimentaluntersuchung.
In Deutschland hat Poll als erster die Untersuchung von Zwillingen aufgenommen
und 1913 über seine Ergebnisse berichtet. Er erkannte, daß eineiige Zwillinge die
Möglichkeit geben, die Modifikationsbreite eines Merkmals zu erkennen. Als das
am stärksten individuell abändernde Kennzeichen sah er die Linienmuster der
Fingerbeeren an und begann deshalb mit seiner Untersuchung bei diesem Merkmal.
Auf Grund eines großen Materials (500 Paare gleichgeschlechtiger Zwillinge von
Berliner Lehranstalten) kam er zu wertvollen Ergebnissen; allerdings hatte er sich
mit der Untersuchung der Fingerleisten sofort an eines der allerschwierigsten Ge-
biete der Erblehre gewandt, auf dem ein voller Erfolg nicht auf den ersten Wurf zu
erzielen war.
Auch die Arbeit von Poll fand in Deutschland zunächst keine unmittelbare
Nachfolge. In Nordamerika war man im zweiten Jahrzehnt des Jahrhunderts nach
und nach in stärkerem Umfang auf die erbbiologische Bedeutung der Zwillinge auf-
merksam gemacht worden.* In Deutschland begann aber die systematische und seit-
her nicht mehr abgerissene Zwillingsforschung eigentlich erst mit den Arbeiten von
Siemens und Weitz im Jahre 1923. Siemens (damals in München, heute Professor
an der Universität in Leiden) stellte als Dermatologe ausgedehnte Untersuchungen
über Hautmäler und Hautkrankheiten an eineiigen und zweieiigen Zwillingen an;
darüber hinaus sammelte er alle ihm bekannt gewordenen Berichte über das Auf-
treten krankhafter Erscheinungen bei EZ. Er erkannte, daß die Untersuchung von
Zwillingen eine ungemein wertvolle und ergebnisreiche Methode menschlicher Erb-
forschung abgeben könne und faßte 1924 das Grundsätzliche dieser neuen Methode
in einer Arbeit „Die Z w i 1 1 i n g s p a t h o 1 o g i e" zusammen. Gleichzeitig mit
Siemens hatte Weitz (damals Professor an der Universität Tübingen, heute an der
Universität Hamburg) eine großzügige Zwillingsuntersuchung an einem breiten
Material in vielseitiger und gründlicher Weise durchgeführt. An dem Material von
Wehz begann von Vcrschuer in Tübingen seine Zwillingsuntersuchungen. In den
folgenden Jahren setzte er sie auf breiter Grundlage am Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut
für Anthropologie, menschliche Erblehre und Rassenhygiene in Berlin-Dahlem fort,
das damit in Deutschland zu einem Mittelpunkt der Zwillingsforschung wurde. Seit
1935 leitet von Verschuer das Universitätsinstitut für Erbbiologie und Rassenhygiene
in Frankfurt a. M. In ähnlicher Weise stellten sich die Forscher der Forschungs-
anstalt für Psychiatrie (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut) in München, vor allem Lange
(heute in Breslau) und Luxenburger, in ihren Dienst. Im Laufe der letzten 10 Jahre
hat sich die Zwillingsforschung verbreitert und vertieft; immer mehr Forscher be-
dienen sich der Zwillingsmethode als einer der wichtigsten Methoden menschlicher
Erbforschung.
* Vgl. das Zwillingsheft des Journal of Heredity vom Dezember 1919, in dem
das Zwillingsproblem durch eine Reihe von Verfassern (FairCHILD, DaNFORTH usw.) unter
Zuhilfenahme eines sehr reichhaltigen und wertvollen Bildermaterials zum ersten Male
einigermaßen umfassend in seiner großen allgemeinen Bedeutung dargestellt wurde.
60
Methodik der Zwillingsforschung
3. Methodik der Zwillingsforschung
Der Kernpunkt der Zwillingsforschung ist also das Problem von Erbgut und Um-
li e k" n ^"'""^'''""^ ''- Menschen wie überhaupt jedes Lebewesens wirken
die Kräfte der Erbanlagen und d i e E i n f 1 ü s se d e r Umweltzu-
sammen und bestimmen damit das Erscheinungsbild Es handpit
und ihr"' tir^'^T" ''r- '''"''" Kräftegruppen von'einander L trennen
bestimmen ""^^" ^"'"' '" ''^ Ausbildung des Erscheinungsbildes zu
W uTlTr'l^^^f"^ graphische D a r s t e 1 1 u n g des g 1 e i c h z e i t i g e n
mf H 1 f i b«' den Kräftegruppen gegeben, die ein sehr wertvolles
?e be^H r-ff' ^^"'^"''"'^ 'l- F"--«- darstellt (Bild 50a bis c). Die W rkung
f'L ff " ??r ^ V:^ ;" "'"''" rechtwinkeligen Koordinatensystem dargeste"h
Erbkraft und Umweltkraft wirken vom Ursprung des Systems aus in zwei aufl n
ande, senkrechten Richtungen, Der Ort des Tus dem ZusamZw^rLn enTs^ehetden'
Phanotypus :st der Eckpunkt des Parallelogramms der Kräfte. Bei wechselnder
veSr°" vy'f ""'' Vm^-^i-iniluß sind die Phänotypen über das ganze Feld
verterlt; zwei EZ die m völlig gleicher Umwelt aufwachsen, müssen ihren Ort in en
heL:T^yl T''\'^'\^''''''''''' •^^''^"' '^^ i^ beid; Kräftegrup'en ür d e
beiden Zwillinge die gleichen sind. Bei Lebewesen gleichen Erbguts, die unter ver!
schiedenen Umwelteinflüssen stehen, liegen die einzelnen Phänot^en auf einer
Parallelen zur Richtung der Umweltkraft. Bei EZ in verschiedenerTmwe It lieg
dieser Fal vor; aus der Entfernung der Partner im Kräftefeld kann auf dTe Stärke
verseht 4^',^'"'^°^^^" "^^''^"- Umgekehrte Verhältnisse haben Wesen
verschiedenen Erbguts in gleicher Umwelt; ZZ, die in genau gleicher Umweh auf
wachsen entsprechen diesem Fall. Solche ZZ haben ihren Platz auf einerPaallet
zur Richtung der Erbkraft; ihr Abstand läßt den erblichen UnterschieTerkeren
Phänotypen
Umi^eltKrsft-
Q) Verschiedene Fhänofypen
bei verschiedener £rb -
und Umi^/e/tkrsft
Um w e/A A re?//
b) Verschiedene Phänotypen
bei gleichem Erbgut
und \/ erschieden er Um^^eJt
'n
Umi^e Itk rsft
CJ Verschiedene Phänotypen
bei gleicher Unn^jelf-
und verschiedenem Erbguf-
m
o
o
o
tD
Umt^eltKreaft
!
Ir
I
I
U mt^eltkrä fi-
el )B7-P<3are gleicher Um^^)e/t
im Kräftefeld
Bild 50. Das Zusammenwirken der Kräfte von Erbgut und Umwelt
(a bis c nach vonVerschuer.)
CJEZ-Raare verschiedenen
Umt^eJt im Knsffefe/d
UmtMeJthrsft
fj ZZ-Rsare gleicher (Jmks^eJf-
im Kräflefe/d
EZ gleicher Umwelt
61
Bild 51. EZ gleicher Umwelt.
Die Zwillingsforschung hat sich demnach mit dreiArtenvonZwillingen
zu beschäftigen: EZgleicherUmwelt.EZverschiedenerUmwelt und
ZZ gleicher Umwelt.* Die Bilder 51, 52 und 53 wollen in drei Einzelbeispielen
diese Arten von Zwillingen zeigen: ein greises EZ-Schwesternpaar, das ein ganzes
Leben beisammen verbracht hat, ein EZ-Paar mit recht verschiedenen Lebensschick-
salen (vgl. die Erläuterung zu Bild 52) und ein ZZ-Paar, das in gleicher Familien-
umwelt aufwächst.
Bei Zwillingsuntersuchungen ist festzustellen, ob die beiden Partner des Zwil-
lingspaares in einer bestimmten zu untersuchenden Eigenschaft übereinstimmen
(konkordant sind) oder nicht übereinstimmen {diskordant sind). Um die
Ursache von Konkordanz oder Diskordanz zu erkennen, ist es nötig, die drei ge-
nannten Arten von Zwillingen (EZ in gleicher Umwelt, EZ in verschiedener Um-
welt, ZZ in gleicher Umwelt) zuerst je für sich zu untersuchen und dann die Gruppen
unter sich zu vergleichen. Es leuchtet ein, daß eine vierte Art von Zwillingen, die
ZZ verschiedener Umwelt, für solche Vergleiche sich nicht eignet, da für ihre Ver-
schiedenheit zweierlei Ursachen verantwortlich sind.
Das erste ist die Untersuchung von EZ gleicher Umwelt. Für sie gilt theoretisch,
daß sie dasselbe Erscheinungsbild aufweisen müssen, Was die Ursache ihrer Gleich-
* In der Zwillingsforschung werden zum Vergleich mit den EZ zweckmäßigerweise nicht
allgemein die zZ, sondern nur die ZZ verwendet. Bei den PZ werden durch den Geschlechts-
unterschied sehr viele Merkmale, besonders auch solche seelischer Art, sekundär so stark be-
einflußt, daß der Vergleich mit den immer gleichgeschlechtigen EZ dadurch gestört würde.
Der Vergleich von EZ mit zZ (also mit der Summe von ZZ und PZ) kann nur dann ertrag-
reich sein, wenn es sich um Merkmale handelt, die durch den Geschlechtsunterschied in keiner
Weise beeinflußt werden (z, B, Blutgruppen, Augenfarbe),
62
Methodik der Zwillingsforschung
EZ verschiedener Umwelt
63
heil in irgendeinem Merkmal ist, kann aber nicht ohne weiteres gesagt werden; da
bei ihnen Anlagen und Umwelt gleich sind, so kann die eine oder die andere Kraft
das Erscheinungsbild gleich gestaltet haben. Ein Beispiel: Wenn EZ im Auftreten
eines Kropfes konkordant sind, so kann daraus noch nicht auf die Erbbedingtheit
des Kropfes geschlossen werden. Tatsächlich hat sich nachweisen lassen, daß die
Entstehung des Kropfes auf Umwelteinflüsse zurückzuführen ist. Gleiche Umwelt-
einflüsse führen natürlich auch bei EZ zu konkordantem Auftreten des Kropfes.
Wenn EZ Unterschiede zeigen, so müssen sie Einflüssen der Umwelt zugeschrieben
werden. Allerdings ist es möglich, daß auch bei tatsächlich völliger Gleichheit
Unterschiede festgestellt werden. Bei Messungen an einem und demselben Menschen
zu verschiedenen Zeiten oder unter verschiedenen Bedingungen können ungleiche
Werte erhalten werden. Ähnlich wie mit diesem „S c 1 b s t u n t e r s c h i e d" eines
Einzelnen verhält es sich mit EZ: Auch bei völliger Gleichheit können sie bei einer
Messung verschieden erscheinen. Der Unterschied ist in diesem Fall gar nicht wirk-
lich, sondern durch Meßfehler bedingt, welche EZ immer verschiedener erscheinen
lassen, als sie in Wirklichkeit sind, im Gegensatz zu den erbverschiedenen ZZ, wo
Meßfehler in verschiedener Richtung die beiden tatsächlich verschiedenen Zwillinge
einander nähern und damit ähnlicher erscheinen lassen können, als dies tatsächlich
der Fall ist. (Vgl. S. 90.)
Die zweite große Gruppe der für die Zwillingsforschung wichtigen Zwillinge sind
EZ verschiedener Umwelt. Nach der theoretischen Grundanschauung der Zwillings-
forschung gilt ganz allgemein, daß Verschiedenheiten zwischen den
beiden Partnern eines EZ-Paares durch Umwelteinflüsse ver-
ursacht sein müssen. Es wird deshalb die Aufgabe des Forschers sein, bei
den Unterschieden zweier EZ die sie verursachenden Umwelteinflüsse festzustellen
und in der Art und dem Ausmaß ihrer Wirkungsmöglichkeit genau zu erfassen.
Dies ist nur dann in befriedigender Weise möglich, wenn eine größere Anzahl von
Paaren auf diese Einflüsse hin untersucht werden kann. Von Verschuer hat sein
großes Material von EZ nach einer Reihe von Gesichtspunkten geordnet: nach
Lebensalter, Beruf, Gewichtsdifferenz bei der Geburt, nach der Umweltähnlichkeit
im allgemeinen. Auf diese Weise ist es möglich geworden, den Einfluß einer Reihe
von Faktoren auf die Ausbildung der äußeren Körpermerkmale (Größe, Gewicht,
Brustumfang usw.) festzulegen. Es ergab sich hierbei, daß die einen Merkmale mehr,
die anderen weniger durch Umwelteinwirkungen beeinflußt werden können, z. B.
das Körpergewicht viel stärker als die Körpergröße. Mit Hilfe solcher Zwillings-
untersuchungen kann der Grad der Beeinflußbarkeit eines Merkmals durch Umwelt-
einflüsse festgestellt werden; dabei ergibt sich, daß es umweltstabile und
umweltlabile Merkmale in allen Abstufungen gibt. Die richtige Vorstel-
lung von der Wirkungsmöglichkeit von Umwelteinflüssen ergibt sich natürlich nur
dann, wenn EZ in verschiedener Umwelt mit EZ in möglichst gleicher Umwelt ver-
glichen werden. Ein Merkmal ist dann als vorwiegend umwelt-
bedingt anzusehen, wenn es bei EZ verschiedener Umwelt ver-
schieden, bei EZ gleicher Umwelt gleich angetroffen wird.
Die Wirkung von Umwelteinflüssen wird um so deutlicher werden, je ver-
schiedener die Umwelten sind, in denen sich die beiden Zwillinge befinden. Es ist
deshalb von ganz besonderer Bedeutung, solche Zwillinge zu untersuchen, die in
stark verschiedenen Umwelten aufgewachsen sind und leben. Insbesondere für die
Untersuchung über die Erbbedingtheit geistiger Eigenschaften, der Eigenschaften
der Intelligenz und des Charakters, ist es von höchstem Wert, EZ-Paare zur Unter-
suchung zu haben, die schon in früher Jugend getrennt wurden und in möglichst
verschiedener Umgebung aufgewachsen sind. Leider sind noch nicht sehr viele der-
Bild 52, EZ verschiedener Umwelt (65 Jahre alt). (Nach Weitz.)
(Paar 8 der Arbeit von Weitz, Studien an eineiigen Zwillingen. Zeitschrift für klinische Medizin 100, 1925.)
Die erste Schwester (Margarete Sch„ geh, K.) ist Frau eines Hausverwalters und lebt seit
40 Jahren in bequemem städtischem Haushalt, Die zweite Schwester (Anna K.) ist Fabrik-
und Landarbeiterin und hat stets schwere Arbeit getan. Die Verschiedenheit der Lebens-
schicksale prägt sich in den Gesichtszügen in sehr bezeichnender Weise aus. Die schwere
Arbeit hat in das Gesicht der zweiten Schwester tiefere Furchen gezeichnet als in das der
ersten, die es im Leben leichter hatte. Reizvoll ist es aber, hinter den zunächst ins Auge
fallenden Unterschieden dieselbe Anlage der Gesichtszüge zu erfühlen. Die Profillinie zeigt
deutliche Ähnlichkeit, Die Furchen des Gesichts haben zwar verschiedene Stärke, aber un-
verkennbar gleiche Lage und Anordnung, In verschiedenen weiteren körperlichen Merk-
malen zeigen sich trotz des vorgerückten Alters und trotz der verschiedenen Lebensschick-
sale außerordentlich starke Übereinstimmungen, Beide haben leichte Herzbeschwerden, beide
auch erheblich erhöhten Blutdruck, (Margarete 182 bis 175, Anna 178 bis 175,) Bei beiden
Zwillingen waren starke Krampfadern vorhanden, die nach Art und Ausdehnung viel Ähn-
lichkeit zeigten; bei beiden waren sie links viel stärker als rechts und ganz besonders stark
auf dem linken Fußrücken, Bei Margarete war die Pulszahl 84, bei Anna 78 (es ist nach-
gewiesen, daß durch schwere körperliche Arbeit eine Verlangsamung der Pulsfrequenz her-
vorgerufen wird). Beide zeigten gichtische Veränderungen an den Händen; es fanden sich
deutliche Bewegungsbeschränkungen an den Gelenken des 5. Fingers links und des 4. und
5. Fingers rechts bei beiden, während die Daumen in ihren Grundgelenken sogar überstreck-
bar waren. Sämtliche Fingergelenke sind verdickt. Beide Zwillinge haben seit etwa 15 Jahren
oft Ohrensausen und hören schlecht; bei Anna sind diese Erscheinungen stärker. Beide Zwil-
linge haben früher in einer Weberei gearbeitet, wo ein andauernder starker Maschinenlärm
war, Anna mehrere Jahrzehnte lang, Margarete nur bis zu ihrer Verheiratung.
64
Methodik der Zwillingsforschnng
ZZ gleicher Umwelt — Manifestation von Erbanlagen
65
m\
artige Fälle bekannt geworden, die meisten noch durch die Untersuchungen von
Newman (vgl. Abschnitt IVB 4), Ein unerhört interessantes Experiment wäre es,
EZ in frühestem Alter zu trennen und sie mit voller Absicht in möglichst ver-
schiedenen sozialen Umwelten erziehen zu lassen. Ein solches Experiment wird
nicht so leicht durchgeführt werden können; zunächst wird sich die Forschung da-
mit begnügen müssen, den Verschiedenheiten innerhalb von EZ-Paaren nachzugehen,
ihre Ursachen klarzulegen und daraus auf das Maß der Beeinflußbarkeit der An-
lagen zu schließen. Die Zwillingsmethode gibt damit eine einzig-
artige Möglichkeit, die Modifikationsbreite menschlicher
Erbanlagen zu erforschen.
Die dritte Gruppe von Zwillingen, welche für die Zwillingsforschung von Wich-
tigkeit ist, sind die ZZ gleicher Umwelt; ihre Verschiedenheit ist auf verschiedenes
Erbgut zurückzuführen. Das Ausmaß und die Art der Verschiedenheit werden aber
nur klar, wenn man die ZZ gleicher Umwelt mit EZ gleicher Umwelt vergleicht. Die
Unterschiede, die sich bei einem solchen Vergleich ergeben, müssen als erbbedingt
angesehen werden. Dieser Vergleich ist unerläßlich; erst aus dem Vergleich der ver-
schiedenen Gruppen von Zwillingen kann die Zwillingsforschung ihre Ergebnisse
gewinnen. Diese Methode des Vergleichs hat zuerst Siemens in seiner „zwillings-
biologischen Vererbungsregel" klar formuliert: Jedes Merkmal ist erb-
bedingt oder erblich mitbedingt, das bei EZ häufiger gemein-
sam angetroffen wird als bei ZZ. Wenn ein Merkmal bei EZ- und ZZ-
Paaren, bei denen die beiden Partner jeweils in genau gleicher Umwelt leben, gleich
häufig konkordant vorkommt, so ist daraus zu schließen, daß die Übereinstimmung
von der gleichen Umwelt herrührt.
Es handelt sich also bei der Zwillingsmethode grundsätzlich um zwei Me-
thoden des Vergleichs: Der Vergleich von EZ verschiedener Umwelt mit
EZ gleicher Umwelt ergibt den Einfluß der Umwelt, der Vergleich von ZZ gleicher
Umwelt mit EZ gleicher Umwelt ergibt den Einfluß des Erbguts.
Einzelfragen der Methodik der Zwillingsforschung (z. B. die Bedeutung des Meß-
fehlers, die Art der Festlegung der Begriffe Konkordanz und Diskordanz, die Be-
rechnung des Anteils von Erbgut und Umwelt usw.) sollen nicht theoretisch an dieser
Stelle besprochen, sondern später bei bestimmten Einzelfällen dargelegt werden.
Dagegen sei schon hier die besonders bedeutsame Frage der Manifestation von Erb-
anlagen behandelt.
Außer der gradweisen Verschiedenheit in irgendeinem Merkmal ist auch der
Fall möglich, daß der eine Partner eines EZ-Paares ein Merkmal aufweist, das der
andere überhaupt nicht oder in ganz anderer Ausprägung besitzt. Da infolge der
Erbgleichheit der beiden Zwillinge auch dieser Partner die gleiche Anlage für das
fragliche Merkmal besitzen muß, so muß angenommen werden, daß sich eine Erb-
anlage im einen Fall verwirklicht und damit in die Erscheinung tritt, „manifest"
wird, in anderen Fällen sich nicht oder in ganz anderer Form manifestiert- Eine
Erbanlage ist eben nichts Festes, Starres, sondern nur eine Entwicklungs m ö g -
lichkeit. Es gibt Anlagen, die sich mit 100% Wahrscheinlichkeit manifestieren
und damit eine absolute „Durchschlagskraft" (Penetranz) besitzen,
andere treten nur in verhältnismäßig seltenen Fällen in die Erscheinung.
Wie sich eine Erbanlage bei den beiden Paarungen eines EZ-Paares verschieden
manifestieren kann, zeigt ein sehr interessanter, von Lehmann und Witteler be-
schriebener und in Bild 54 ausführlich dargestellter Fall. Es werden immer wieder
Menschen gefunden, die einen 6. Finger oder eine 6. Zehe besitzen. Familien-
forschungen haben nachgewiesen, daß für dieses Merkmal der Vielfingerig-
k e i t (Polydaktylie) ein dominantes Gen verantwortlich ist, das sowohl an
l^.-:'-' :
Bild 53. ZZ gleicher Umwelt. (Nach Weitz.)
Die jjlciche Kleidung deutet auf jjleichc Familienumwclt der beiden Schwestern hin. Die körperlichen Merkmale
(v}5l. Kopfform, Nase, Mund, Ohren, Haarform) sind stark verschieden; Gesichtsähnlichkeit ist nicht vorhanden,
den Händen als an den Füßen ein 6. Glied hervorrufen kann. Nun zeigen in dem
erwähnten Fall die beiden Partner eines EZ-Paares in bezug auf Vielfingerigkeit
recht verschiedene Merkmale; die gleiche Anlage manifestiert sich bei ihnen in ver-
schiedener Weise. Es ist schwer, eine Ursache dafür zu finden; zufällige Einflüsse
während der Embryonalentwicklung der beiden Zwillinge werden verantwortlich
gemacht werden müssen. Nach Lehmann und Witteler unterliegt die Erbanlage für
Polydaktylie allem Anschein nach einer starken entwicklungsgeschichtlichen Be-
einflußbarkeit.
Das vorstehende Beispiel zeigt einen Fall, in dem sich eine krankhafte Erbanlage
nach Art und Grad verschieden manifestiert. In anderen Fällen kann sogar volle
Diskordanz bei EZ vorhanden sein: beim einen Zwilling manifestiert sich die Erb-
anlage vollständig (z.B. die Anlage zu Schizophrenie), beim anderen überhaupt
nicht. Es kommt natürlich auch bei Einzelmenschen vor, daß eine Erbanlage sich
nicht manifestiert ;Einzclmenschen mit nichtmanifesten Erbanlagen können aber nicht
als Träger des Erbmerkmals erkannt werden. EZ bieten die einzige Möglichkeit,
solche Schwankungen der Manifestation zu erfassen. Wenn von zwei Partnern eines
EZ-Paares der eine das krankhafte Merkmal aufweist, der andere nicht, so ist auf
Grund der Erbgleichheit der beiden Zwillinge sicher, daß auch der anscheinend
Gesunde ein Träger der Erbanlage ist; sie ist bei ihm nur nicht manifest geworden.
So ist es möglich, durch die Untersuchung und Auszählung von EZ-Paaren, die
in bezug auf das fragliche Merkmal konkordant oder diskordant sind, die Wahr-
5 Zw^illingc
•ill
66
Methodik der Zwillingsforschung
Manifestationsschwankung
67
I
I
scheinlichkeit für das Auftreten oder Nichtauftrcten des betreffenden Erbmerkmals
zu bestimmen. Mit „Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit" bezeichnet man die Wahr-
scheinlichkeit, daß eine Anlage in Erscheinung tritt, mit „Manifestationsschwankung"
die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß die Anlage nicht manifestiert wird. Wenn ein erb-
mäßig bestimmtes Merkmal tatsächlich nur in 75% der Fälle in Erscheinung tritt,
so beträgt die Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit 7,, die Manifestationsschwankung V,.
Die beiden Wahrscheinlichkeiten ergänzen sich zu 1. Wie die genannten Größen aus
einem Zwillingsmaterial errechnet werden, sei im folgenden dargelegt.
Für die Berechnung der Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit genügt es nicht, von den be-
kannten konkordanten und diskordanten EZ-Paaren die Merkmalträger und Nichtmerkmal-
träger zusammenzuzählen und etwa folgendermaßen zu rechnen: Wenn in einem Unter-
suchungsmaterial 24 konkordantc und 16 diskordante EZ-Paare festgestellt worden sind, so
hat sich das Merkmal bei 64 Personen manifestiert, bei 16 nicht manifestiert; also ist die
Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit «Vso = Vn. Wenn das Merkmal sich nicht in allen Fällen
manifestiert, so ist die Folge davon nicht nur die, daß es EZ-Paare gibt, die in bezug auf das
Merkmal diskordant sind; es muß vielmehr auf Grund der Gesetze der Wahrscheinlichkeit
auch EZ-Paare geben, bei denen sich das Merkmal bei keinem Partner manifestiert. Solche
Paare entziehen sich der Beobachtung wie nichtmanifeste Einlinge, Es ist aber mit Hilfe
mathematischer Methoden möglich, allein aus dem Verhältnis derkonkordanten
und diskordanten Paare die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Manifesta-
tionzuberechnenund damit auch die Zahl derjenigen EZ-Paare zu erschließen, deren
beide Partner manifestationsverhinderte Erbträger sind. Wie dies geschieht, sei im An-
schluß an VON VerSCHUER im nachfolgenden gezeigt.
Wenn allgemein die M a n i f e s t a t i o n s s c h w a n k u n g für den Einzelmenschen mit
bezeichnet wird, so ist die Manif estationswahrscheinlichkeit 1 — ^ — ^ .
3. . i *
Das Merkmal kann bei beiden Partnern oder nur bei einem oder bei keinem von beiden in
die Erscheinung treten. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß beide Partner eines EZ-Paares Merk-
. , . , a-1 a-1 _(a-l)-
maltrager sind, ist = • — o •
^ a a a-
Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß ein Partner Merkmalträger ist, der andere nicht, entspricht
dem doppelten Produkt von Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit und Manifestationsschwankung
und ist = 2 • • = ., •
a a a- 1 1 _ 1
Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß keiner der Partner Merkmalträger ist, ist — ^ • ^ — ^i'
Dieser letzte Fall kann nicht zur Beobachtung kommen; dagegen kann der Anteil der
konkordant-manifesten EZ-Paare an der Gesamtheit von konkordanten und diskordanten
EZ-Paaren festgestellt werden,* Dieses Verhältnis (die „K o n k o r d a n z z a h 1") werde
(a — 1)~ 2 a — 2 ., .. ,•.
mit k bezeichnet,** Nun gilt das Verhältnis ., : ., -^ k : [l — kj,
^ a- a-
mischt quadratische Gleichung kann nach a aufgelöst werden; hierbei ergibt sich a
Also: Manif estationswahrscheinlichkeit =
2k
1 + k
, Manifestationsschwankung
Diese ge-
1 +k
1-k •
1-k,,.
1 + k •
0,6
In dem erwähnten Fall beträgt also die Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit j ^ q ^ =" ^-'^^
Wenn von 100 EZ-Paaren 90 in bezug auf ein bestimmtes Merkmal konkordant, 10 dis
kordant sind, so ist die Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit
2-0,9
1 f 0,9
0,947 = 94,7%, wenn
2 0,5
die beiden Arten von EZ-Paaren gleich zahlreich sind, beträgt sie ' ^ -0,666 . . -" 66,6%.
* Es ist dabei notwendig, daß das Material genügend groß und unausgelesen ist (vgl. S. 68),
** Für das im Vorstehenden genannte Beispiel ist die Gesamtheit der Paare 24 f 16 -- 40;
die Konkordanzzahl k = -'*Uu = 0,6,
•** Diese Formeln sind bei VON VERSCHUER nicht angegeben und hier erstmals veröffentlicht.
riiM^
Paarung I. Linke Hand (von unten).
Am 5. Finger hänjjt mit kurzem Stiel ein verkümmerter
6. Finfjcr, der normale Naj^elbildung zeijjt und im Rönt-
(fenbild den Knochen des 3. Fingcrfjlicds erkennen läßt.
Die rechte Hand zeij^t eine warzenartij^c Erhebung am
5. Finger (Andeutung der Anlage zu Polydaktylie),
Paarung II. Linke Hand (von oben).
Die Hand zeigt volle Scchsfingcrigkcit. Vom 5. Mittel-
handknochen zweigen gabelförmig ein 5. und 6. Finger
(je mit 3 Gliedern) ab. Die rechte Hand zeigt ähnlich
wie bei Paarling I am 5. Finger einen kleinen Aus-
wuchs; sonst normal.
i
i&Mi
■ihi
Paarling II. Rechter Fuß.
Die auffallend starke Ausbildung des 5. Mittclfuß-
knochcns und des 1. Glieds der 5. Zehe deuten auf das
Vorhandensein der Anlage zu Polydaktylie hin; sonst
ohne Besonderheit. DcrlinkeFuO ist in derselben Weise
sechszchig wie die beiden Füße von Paarling I.
Bild 54. Manifestationsschwankung bei Polydaktylie, (Nach Lehmann und Witteler,)
Paarling I. Linker Fuß.
Voll ausgebildete Sechszehigkeit. Von dem auffallend
kräftigenS. Mittelfußknochen zweigen gabelförmig eine
5. und 6. Zehe ab. Der rechte Fuß ist genau so aus-
gebildet.
Die vorstehenden Darlegungen haben gezeigt, daß die Zwillingsmethode eine
einzigartige Möglichkeit bietet, die Manifestation von Erbanlagen sowohl in ihrer
allgemeinen Erscheinung wie auch zahlenmäßig zu erforschen. Die mathematischen
Überlegungen zeigen aber auch mit großer Klarheit, daß die Zwillingsfor-
schung nur dann brauchbare Ergebnisse liefern kann, wenn
größere Zahlen von Zwillingspaaren zur Verfügung stehen.
5*
I
*'!|
68
Methodik der Zwillingsforschung
Ähnlichkeitsprüfung
69
M!i
Wie bei allen Erscheinungen der Vererbung handelt es sich auch hier um Wahr-
scheinlichkeiten, um Gesetze großer Zahlen, für deren Ermittlung das Material nie
groß genug sein kann. . ,„
Das gilt ganz allgemein für die ganze Zwillingsforschung. Mit einzelnen Fallen
ist nicht viel anzufangen. Wohl kann die Übereinstimmung eines EZ-Paares in einem
sonst sehr selten vorkommenden Merkmal die Vermutung auslösen, daß dieses Merk-
mal erbbedingt sei. Ein sicheres Urteil wird aber erst durch die Untersuchung des
Merkmals an möglichst zahlreichen EZ- und ZZ-Paaren möglich. Die Sammlung und
Auswertung einzelner Fälle unterliegt immer der Gefahr, daß die konkordanten t alle
stärker auffallen und deshalb größere Aussicht haben, in die Untersuchung einbe-
zogen zu werden. Damit ergibt sich aber ein falsches Bild. Die Untersuchung be-
nützt dann ein M a t e r i a 1 , das i n f o 1 g e e i n e s A u s 1 e s e v o r g a n g s e i n -
seitigzusammengesetztist. Es leuchtet ein, daß z. B. eine Untersuchung
über die Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit von Erbmerkmalen nur dann einen Sinn
hat, wenn die konkordanten und die diskordanten EZ-Paare in ihrem tatsächlichen
Zahlenverhältnis erfaßt werden. Brauchbare Ergebnisse können nur dann gewonnen
werden, wenn entweder die Gesamtheit aller Zwillinge bestimmter Art für die
Untersuchung zur Verfügung steht, oder doch wenigstens keinerlei Auslesevor-
gänge die Zusammensetzung des Materials beeinflußt haben.
Vor allem LuxENBURGER hat auf die grundsätzliche Bedeutung der Art dcrMatcnal-
sammlung hingewiesen. Er unterscheidet die reine Kasuistik, die sich mit der Unter-
suchung von mehr oder weniger zahlreichen Einzelfällen begnügt, die Sammcl-
kasuistik, die durch Umfragen ein größeres Material zu erhalten sucht, und Serien,
denen für ein bestimmtes Merkmal ein möglichst vollständiges und auslesefreies
Material zugrunde liegt. Am besten ist es, wenn für einen begrenzten Bevolkerungs-
teil alle Zwillingspaare bestimmter Art restlos erfaßt werden. Wenn dies nicht mög-
lich ist, so muß wenigstens das Untersuchungsmaterial auf eine Weise gewonnen
werden, daß es als auslesefrei angeschen werden kann.
Wie stark die Art der Materialsammlung die Ergebnisse zu beeinflussen vermag,
wird aus folgendem Beispiel klar. Bei einem Material, das Luxenburger aus der
SammlungvonEinzelfällender Fachliteratur gewonnen hatte, ergab sich
aus der Gesamtheit der ermittelten EZ- und ZZ-Paare für die Häufigkeit der Kon-
kordanz in bezug auf Geisteskrankheit und Epilepsie 81,9%, für die Diskordanz
18,1%. Eine systematische Rundfrage nach konkordanten und diskor-
danten Paaren ergab 55,9% konkordante und 44,1% diskordantc Paare, eine
Serienuntersuchung an lückenlosem Material 18,8 % konkordante und 81,2 %
diskordante Fälle; das Verhältnis hatte sich damit völlig umgekehrt. Nur die letzte
Art der Untersuchung ergibt aber ein richtiges Bild der Wirklichkeit; alle anderen
Ergebnisse sind die Folge von Auslesevorgängen, die durch das stärkere Auffallen
konkordanter Fälle verursacht sind.
4. Zwillingsdiagnose
Voraussetzung jeder Erbforschung mit Hilfe der Zwillingsmethode ist es, daß
die beiden Gruppen von Zwillingen einwandfrei voneinander unterschieden werden
können, und daß jedes einzelne Paar mit Bestimmtheit einer der beiden Gruppen
zugeteilt werden kann. Damit liegt die grundlegende Frage vor: Wie können
EZ und ZZ in jedem Einzelfall als solche erkannt werden? Wie
schon dargelegt wurde, ist der Eihautbefund nicht ausreichend für die Diagnose;
zudem ist er in den meisten Fällen überhaupt nicht mit voller Zuverlässigkeit be-
kannt. Es besteht daher praktisch keine andere Möglichkeit, alsausdemGrad
der Ähnlichkeit der beiden Zwillinge auf die eineiige oder
zweieiige Entstehung zu schließen.
Schon Galton hat bei seiner Zwillingsarbeit erkannt, daß sich nach der Ähnlich-
keit zwei Gruppen unterscheiden lassen. Sichere Merkmale für ihre Erkennung
konnte er nicht angeben; er urteilte nach dem Gesamteindruck, und der ist aller-
dings meist ohne weiteres entscheidend. Auch ohne strenge fachmännische Unter-
suchung kann in der großen Mehrzahl der Fälle ohne besondere Schwierigkeit gesagt
werden, ob es sich um EZ oder ZZ handelt; so scharf sind die EZ mit ihrer voll-
kommenen Ähnlichkeit von den ZZ abgehoben. Daneben bleiben allerdings Fälle
übrig, bei denen Zweifel über die Zuteilung bestehen und nur eine eingehende Unter-
suchung den Entscheid bringen kann. Es ist nötig, eine einwandfreie Methode zu
besitzen, auf Grund deren sich die Entscheidung über die Eiigkcit in jedem Falle
mit höchstmöglicher Sicherheit treffen läßt.
Siemens war 1924 der erste, der eine solche Diagnose begründete; sie beruht auf
dem Vergleich einer Vielzahl von Merkmalen (polysymptomatische Ähnlichkeits-
diagnose). Er führt hierüber folgendes aus: , .Zwillinge, die nicht identisch sind, ver-
halten sich natürlich wie gewöhnliche Geschwister, und wir haben deshalb, wenn wir
eine größere Reihe als erblich bekannter Charaktere untersuchen, bei nichtidentischen
Zwillingen die ganz überwiegende Wahrscheinlichkeit, wesentliche Differenzen auf-
zufinden. In der Tat habe ich auch bei meinen Untersuchungen die Beobachtung
gemacht, daß man bei sorgfältiger Beachtung schon allein der Farben von Haut,
Haar und Augen sowie der Lanugobehaarung und der Gesichtsformen fast niemals
über die Eineiigkeit oder Zweieiigkeit im Zweifel sein, ja daß man eine Eineiigkeit
sogar noch in solchen Fällen mit hinreichender Sicherheit feststellen kann, in denen
auf Grund einer paratypischen Mißbildung eine Ähnlichkeit im gewöhnlichen Sinne
des Wortes gar nicht besteht. Der Diagnose der Eineiigkeit kommt also zwar keine
absolute Sicherheit zu, wohl aber ein hohes Maß von Wahrscheinlichkeit." 1932 gibt
Siemens als Merkmale für die Unterscheidung von EZ und ZZ folgende an: Haar-
farbe und -form, Lanugobehaarung, Irisfarbe und -struktur, Hautfarbe, Sommer-
sprossen, eine Reihe von sonstigen Hautmerkmalen und Krankheiten der Haut,
Zungenoberfläche und Zähne. Dies sind nach Siemens alles Merkmale, die bei EZ
fast immer, bei ZZ aber nur verhältnismäßig selten übereinstimmen. In zweiter Linie
nennt er solche, die ,, schon etwas häufiger Unterschiede bei EZ erkennen lassen,
andererseits aber bei ZZ meist erst recht differieren": Gesichts- und Schädelbildung,
Ohrform, Hand- und Nagelbildung und der ganze Körperbau.
Die auf dem Vergleich einer Vielzahl von Merkmalen beruhende Eiigkeits-
diagnose wird heute durchweg von allen Zwillingsforschern angewandt. Die aus-
führlichste Darstellung ihrer Durchführung hat von Verschuer (1933) gegeben. Im
Verlauf der von ihm seit 1925 durchgeführten Zwillingsuntersuchungen stellte er für
eine große Zahl von Merkmalen den Grad der Übereinstimmung bei EZ und ZZ fest.
Für die Eiigkeitsdiagnose nach der Ähnlichkeit eignen sich nicht alle Merkmale
gleich gut; für die Auswahl vonMerkmalenzur Diagnose gilt folgendes:
1. Sie sollen durch Umwelteinflüsse möglichst wenig beeinflußt werden. Ein
solches Merkmal wird bei EZ gleich auftreten; die Unterschiede bei ZZ können mit
hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit der Erbverschiedenheit zugeschrieben werden,
2. Die zur Ähnlichkeitsprüfung verwendeten Merkmale sollten womöglich erb-
lich polymer sein, d, h. auf einer Mehrzahl von Erbfaktoren beruhen. Je mehr Erb-
faktoren bei der Herausbildung eines Merkmals beteiligt sind, um so geringer ist die
Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß dieses Merkmal bei ZZ als erbverschiedenen Menschen in
gleicher Beschaffenheit auftritt.
3. Es sollten Merkmale verwendet werden, die in der untersuchten Bevölkerung
im ganzen und bei den Eltern der Zwillinge im besonderen in möglichst großer Ver-
schiedenheit auftreten. Wenn eine Bevölkerung in bezug auf eine bestimmte Erb-
anlage stark durchmischt ist, so ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Verschiedenheit von
!f
H!
70
Zwillingsdiagnosc
Ähnlichkeitsprüfung
71
TL viel größer als bei einem Merkmal, in dem die Bevölkerung nahezu erbgleich ist.
Damit ist es nötig, je nach der rassischen Zusammensetzung der Bevölkerung, inner-
halb der die Untersuchung vorzunehmen ist, verschiedene Merkmale heranzuziehen.
In der europäischen Bevölkerung, in der Augen- und Haarfarbe stark verschieden
sind, geben diese ein sehr gutes Merkmal für die Ähnlichkeitsprüfung von Zwillingen
ab In einer rassisch anders zusammengesetzten Bevölkerung mit einheitlich dunkler
Augenfarbe wären bei diesem Merkmal kaum Unterschiede zu erwarten und es hatte
damit keinen Wert für die Diagnose.
Von Verschuer benützt für die Ähnlichkeitsdiagnose 16 Merkmale; sie seien im
folgenden aufgeführt,
1 Blutgruppe (A, B, AB und 0). Dieses Merkmal hat den j^roßen Vorzug, sich lOOVoig
zu manifestieren, also völlig unabhängig von Umwelteinflüssen zu sein. Die Häufig-
keit der verschiedenen Gruppen in der deutschen Bevölkerung ist aber so, daß auch
fast -73 der ZZ in den Blutgruppen übereinstimmen. Die Übereinstimmung von Zwil-
lingen in der Blutgruppe erlaubt deshalb noch keinen sicheren Schluß; das Nicht-
übereinstimmen in der Blutgruppe ist ein völlig sicherer Beweis für ZZ.
2, Blutiaktoren (M und N). Die Verhältnisse sind dieselben wie bei den Blutgruppen.
3 Die Augenfarbe ist ein hochgradig polymeres Merkmal, an dessen Ausprägung min-
' destens 4 Erbfaktoren beteiHgt sind. Die deutsche Bevölkerung ist in bezug auf die
Augenfarbe weitgehend gemischt-erbig; die Ausbildung des Merkmals wird durch
Umwelteinflüsse nur sehr wenig beeinflußt. Damit wird die Augenfarbe zu emem der
wertvollsten Merkmale der Zwillingsdiagnostik. Bei EZ sind nennenswerte Unter-
schiede selten; ZZ haben häufig sehr große Unterschiede in der Augenfarbe, behr
häufig stimmt bei EZ die Augenfarbe auch in feinen Einzelheiten ganz überraschend
überein,
4 Die Haarfarbe ist aus ganz ähnlichen Gründen, wie sie für die Augenfarbe angeführt
' worden sind, ein sehr wertvolles Merkmal der Zwillingsdiagnostik. EZ stimmen in
der Haarfarbe meistens völlig überein.
5 Die Hautfarbe ist bei EZ durchweg sehr ähnUch, bei ZZ oft recht stark verschieden.
6 Die Haariorm (schHcht, wellig, mäßig und stark spiralgedreht) ist bei EZ durchweg
konkordant. Da dieses Merkmal in unserer Bevölkerung keine großen Unterschiede
aufweist sind allerdings auch 79»/« der ZZ konkordant, so daß die Haarform für die
Zwillingsdiagnose nur insofern von Bedeutung ist, als diskordante Haarform mit
Sicherheit für Zweieiigkeit spricht,
7 Die Augenbrauen sind ein Merkmal, das nach Form, Größe und Stärke in unserer
Bevölkerung starke Unterschiede aufweist, EZ haben durchweg ganz ähnliche
Augenbrauen.
8 Die Form der Nase ist hochgradig polymer bedingt und wird durch Umwelteinflüsse
kaum beeinflußt. Die hohe Übereinstimmung bei EZ und die überwiegende Diskordanz
bei ZZ verleihen dem
Merkmal einen hohen
diagnostischen Wert,
9. Die Form der Lippen
(dünn, fleischig, einge-
zogen, wulstig) ist bei
EZ durchweg sehr ähn-
lich,
10. Zungcnfalten sind zuerst
von Siemens als ein für
die Zwillings diagnose
brauchbares Merkmal
genannt worden (siehe
Bild 55); immerhinkom-
men bei EZ auch deut-
liche Unterschiede vor. Bild 55. EZ mit Zungenfalten. (Nach Siemens.)
11. Die Form des Ohres ist sehr bezeichnend und bei EZ oft bis in kleine Einzelheiten
völlig übereinstimmend. Für die Zwillingsdiagnose hat die Ohrform hohen Wert.
12. Die Hautgciäßc zeigen bei EZ sehr starke Übereinstimmung, bei ZZ nur sehr selten
vollkommene Konkordanz. Mit der Beschaffenheit der Hautgefäße hängt auch das
Merkmal der Wangenröte zusammen,
13. Form und Stellung der Zähne sind bei EZ sehr ähnlich, bei ZZ findet sich nur sehr
selten volle Übereinstimmung,
14. Für Sommersprossen besteht bei EZ fast vöUige Konkordanz, bei ZZ in nahezu der
Hälfte der Fälle Diskordanz.
15. Die Papillarlinien der Finger werden durch 3 unabhängige Gene bestimmt. Die Über-
einstimmung von EZ ist oft erstaunhch groß; manchmal zeigen sich aber auch er-
hebliche Unterschiede, Das Merkmal kann deshalb nicht allein für sich, sondern nur
im Zusammenhang mit anderen Merkmalen benützt werden.
16. Anthropologische Maße (Körpergröße, Brustumfang, Körpergewicht usw.) sind in
verschiedenem Maße durch Umwelteinflüsse beeinflußbar; EZ stimmen durchweg
viel stärker überein als ZZ,
In der nachstehenden Tabelle hat von Verschuer für die aufgeführten Merkmale
das Maß der Übereinstimmung bei den Partnern von EZ- und ZZ-Paaren zusammen-
gestellt. Der Vergleich der beiden letzten Spalten ergibt, wie stark die Diskordanz
der meisten Merkmale bei ZZ, wie gering sie bei EZ ist.
Nr,
Merkmal
Peristatische Variabilität bei EZ in %
,...,,. Gleichheit Größere
r>;°uu •. mit kleinen Unterschiede
Gleictineit ,. . .. .t-.. i ^ i„„.,i
Variationen (Diskordanz)
Empirische
Diskordanz-
häufigkeit
in % bei ZZ
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Blutgruppe
Blutfaktoren M und N
Augenfarbe
Haarfarbe
Hautfarbe
Haarform
Augenbrauen
Form der Nase
Form der Lippen
Zungenfalten
Form des Ohres
Hautgefäße
Form und Stellung der Zähne
Sommersprossen
Fingerleisten
100
100
86,5
75
87
99,5
98
80—85
85
84
77
80
70—75
81
?
?
13
22
13
0.5
2
15—20
15
11
21
15
25-
11
-30
0
0
0,5
3
0
0
0
0
0
5
2
5
0
8
36
38
72
77
55
21
49
65—70
etwa 35
40
80
etwa 30—40
45—50
60
Die Ähnlichkeitsprüfung erfolgt in der Weise, daß möglichst viele der
aufgeführten Merkmale bei den beiden Zwillingen untersucht werden; Diskordanz
bei Merkmal 1 oder 2 stellt von vornherein die Diagnose auf ZZ sicher; ebenso die
deutliche Diskordanz in mehreren anderen Merkmalen, hauptsächlich in den polymer
bedingten. Je mehr Merkmale herangezogen werden, um so sicherer wird die Dia-
gnose; für einen erfahrenen Untersucher bleiben nur in sehr seltenen Fallen Zweifel
übrig. Es können dies, wie Lemser darlegt, solche ZZ-Paare sein, die — wohl meist
infolge der Abstammung von genotypisch sehr ähnlichen Eltern — zufällig in den
zur Diagnose verwendeten Merkmalen erbgleich sind und deshalb für eineiig ge-
halten werden können, oder EZ-Paare, die infolge von besonderen Umweltwirkungen
m
72
Zwillingsdiagnose
i!
J!
i\\
stärkere Verschiedenheiten aufweisen. Es ist klar, daß auf Grund der Ähnlichkeits-
untersuchung die Diagnose niemals mit vollkommener Sicherheit gestellt werden
kann, sondern nur mit einer allerdings meist sehr hohen Wahrscheinlichkeit. Es
wäre von großem Wert, mit Hilfe mathematischer Methoden über das Maß dieser
Wahrscheinlichkeit genauere Vorstellungen zu gewinnen.
Die vollkommene Erbgleichheit zweier gewöhnlicher Geschwister ist unerhört
unwahrscheinlich; der Grad der Wahrscheinlichkeit läßt sich berechnen (vgl. S. 50).
In ähnlicher Weise kann bei Zwillingen, deren Art bestimmt werden soll und deren
allgemeine Ähnlichkeit die Eineiigkeit vermuten läßt, auf Grund der er-
hobenen Merkmale der Grad der Wahrscheinlichkeit berechnet
werden, daß die betreffenden Merkmale bei zweieiigem Ursprung der Zwillinge in
der beobachteten gleichen Art auftreten könnten. Im Anschluß an eine Arbeit des
amerikanischen Forschers RiFE soll eine Vorstellung davon gegeben werden, wie eine
derartige Berechnung durchgeführt werden kann.
RiFE legt seiner Zwillingsdiagnose die Untersuchung von 4 qualitativen und 4 quantitativen
Merkmalen zugrunde. Die ersteren sind 1. die Blutgruppen (A, B, AB und 0); 2, die Blut-
faktoren (M und N) ; 3. die Anwesenheit und Abwesenheit von Behaarung auf dem Rücken
der mittleren Fingerglieder, Nach DaNFORTH ist die Behaarung (H) oder Nichtbehaarung (h)
von einem einzigen Genpaar abhängig, Behaarung ist dominant; 4. die Fähigkeit oder Un-
fähigkeit, Phenylthiocarbamid zu schmecken. Auch dieses Merkmal beruht auf einem
Faktorenpaar; die Fähigkeit, den genannten Stoff zu schmecken (P), ist dominant über die
Unfähigkeit (p). — Die 4 quantitativen Merkmale sind 5. die Augenfarbe; 6- die Zahl der
Fingerleistenlinien; 7, der Intelligenzquotient (I.-Q,) und 8, die Körpergröße.
Für jedes einzelne Merkmal ist nun zu berechnen, wie groß der Grad der Wahrschein-
lichkeit ist, daß ZZ bzw. gewöhnliche Geschwister in der beobachteten Weise übereinstimmen
könnten. Es leuchtet ei-n, daß solche Wahrscheinlichkeiten in jedem einzelnen Fall nur dann
berechnet werden können, wenn bekannt ist, wie das fragliche Merkmal bei Eltern und Ge-
schwistern der Zwillinge auftritt. Dies sei unter Bezugnahme auf die nachstehende Zusammen-
stellung für das Merkmal der Blutgruppen erläutert. Die auf ihre Eiigkeit zu untersuchenden
Zwillinge zeigen beide Blutgruppe A, Die Eltern gehören gleichfalls beide der Blutgruppe A
an, eines der Geschwister aber der Blutgruppe 0, Daraus folgt, daß beide Eltern erbmäßig
A 0 sein müssen, keines von ihnen A A sein kann. Bei der Kreuzung von A 0 mit A 0 ist die
Wahrscheinlichkeit für die Entstehung des Phänotyps A (Genotyp A A oder A 0) nach den
Mendel sehen Gesetzen = "V4. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß zwei gewöhnliche Geschwister
oder ZZ beide der Blutgruppe A (A A oder A 0) angehören, ist deshalb Vi • ''U = " ui.
Da die Eltern und Geschwister der zu untersuchenden Zwillinge durchweg den Blut-
faktor M haben, so ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Übereinstimmung zweier weiterer Ge-
schwister in diesem Faktor von vornherein = 1; das Merkmal scheidet also praktisch für die
Zwillingsdiagnose aus. Dasselbe gilt im vorliegenden Fall für das Merkmal der Behaarung
des mittleren Fingergliedes, Wenn dagegen die Eltern in bezug auf die Fähigkeit, Phenyl-
thiocarbamid zu schmecken, verschieden sind und ein Geschwister p ist, so ist die Wahr-
scheinlichkeit, daß zwei Kinder (ZZ) in der Geschmacksfähigkeit P übereinstimmen, =
V2-V2= V4.
Für die übrigen Merkmale wird von RiFE auf Grund erfahrungsmäßig festgelegter Tabellen
über die Übereinstimmung bei gewöhnlichen Geschwisterpaaren bestimmt, wie wahrschein-
lich es wäre, daß zweieiige Zwillinge einen solchen Grad der Übereinstimmung aufweisen,
wie dies an dem zu untersuchenden Zwillingspaar tatsächlich beobachtet wird. Vor der
Wahl der für seine Methode verwendeten Einzelmerkmale wurde von RiFE vorher fest-
gestellt, daß zwischen ihnen keine Korrelation besteht, daß sie also höchstwahrscheinlich in
verschiedenen Chromosomen niedergelegt sind und unabhängig voneinander vererbt werden.
Die Wahrscheinlichkeiten für die verschiedenen Merkmale sind für das untersuchte Zwillings-
paar in der nachstehenden Tabelle eingetragen worden. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit der gleich-
zeitigen Übereinstimmung zweier Geschwister oder zweieiiger Zwillinge in allen untersuchten
Einzelmerkmalen ergibt sich aus der Multiplikation der Einzelwahrscheinlichkeiten für die
Übereinstimmung in den einzelnen Merkmalen je für sich. Im vorliegenden Fall ist die
Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß die beiden Zwillinge zweieiig sein könnten,
ungefähr 1:71 00 0.
Erkenntnistheoretisches
73
NM
=3 O C
^ y — C
0-1 •of
c u
cd »«r"
C N
• o a
•OD-- S
a «1 h
y 4) _
— o
y 3
T^ er
1^ "04
Vater
Mutter . . .
Geschwister
Zwilling A .
Zwilling B .
A
A
0
A
A
M
M
M
M
M
P
P
P
P
P
h
h
h
h
h
0
33
28
101
102
61"
61,5'
Wahrscheinlichkeit der beob-
achteten Übereinstimmung im
Falle zweieiiger Entstehung
9
16
1
1
4
1
60
3
10
1
10
1
5
Wahrscheinlichkeit der gleichzeitigen Übereinstimmung in allen Einzelmerkmalen
_91111311^ 27 ^1
- 16 * 1 ' 4 * 1 * 60 ' 10 * 10 * 5 "" 1920 000 71000
Die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Entstehung als zweieiige Zwillinge ist also im vor-
liegenden Fall außerordentlich gering; praktisch ist durch das Ergebnis der Unter-
suchung das Zwillingspaar als eineiig bestimmt.
Der Vorzug der Methode von Rife ist die Möglichkeit, eine mathematische Grund-
lage für die Diagnose zu gewinnen. Auch wenn die in der Untersuchung verwendeten
Einzelwahrscheinlichkeiten eine nicht geringe Fehlerbreite aufweisen, so gibt doch
die mathematische Erfassung der Wahrscheinlichkeit gleichzeitiger Übereinstimmung
in einer Reihe von Einzelmerkmalen ein recht klares Bild von dem Grad der Sicher-
heit einer polysymptomatischen Ähnlichkeitsdiagnose. Die Anwendung im Einzel-
fall ist natürlich dadurch erschwert, daß außer dem Zwillingspaar selber auch seine
Eltern und Geschwister für eine Untersuchung verfügbar sein müssen. Dies wird in
vielen Fällen nicht möglich sein und ist auf alle Fälle umständlich und zeitraubend.
5. Erkenntnistheoretisches zur Zwillingsmethode
Die bisherigen Darlegungen haben gezeigt, daß die Art der Zwillingsentstehung
aus einem bestimmten anatomischen Befund, z, B, den Eihautverhältnissen, nicht
mit Sicherheit erschlossen werden kann. Die Entstehung der vollkommen ähnlichen
Zwillinge aus einem Ei ist noch nie unmittelbar beobachtet worden; die Gesamt-
heit aller von Zwillingen bekannten Tatsachen macht aber im Zusammenhang mit
unserer Einsicht in die Erscheinungen der Vererbung und ihre stofflichen Grund-
lagen die Ansicht von der eineiigen Entstehung und der Erbgleichheit dieser Zwil-
linge zu einer völlig gesicherten. Nun schlägt die Zwillingsforschung folgenden Gang
ein: Auf Grund des Grades der Ähnlichkeit in einer möglichst großen Zahl von
Einzelmerkmalcn erfolgt die Feststellung, ob ein Zwillingspaar eineiiger oder zwei-
eiiger Entstehung ist. An den so bestimmten Gruppen der Zwillinge wird dann unter-
sucht, wie groß die Ähnlichkeit oder Verschiedenheit zwischen den Partnern bei
der einen Gruppe (den EZ) und der anderen Gruppe (den zZ) ist. I s t d a s n i c h t
ein vo 1 1 kommener Z irkel seh luß?
Daß ein solcher vorliegt, ist gar keine Frage. Das Wissen von der Ähnlichkeit
wird als Voraussetzung genommen; aus ihr wird die Zwillingsart bestimmt. Wenn
man so die Paare erkannt hat, dann werden sie auf das hin erforscht, was vorher
schon als Merkmal für ihre Erkennung gedient hat. Dieser Zirkelschluß prägt sich
11
nf I R
iP'i
li
I
74
Erkenntnistheoretisches zur Zwillingsmethode
Der Begriff der Erbanlage — Die Häufigkeit von Mehrungen
75
auch in der Anlage dieses Buches aus: In dem Abschnitt über Zwillingsdiagnose
werden die Merkmale aufgeführt, an deren Übereinstimmung man EZ erkennen kann.
In dem späteren Abschnitt über spezielle Zwillingsforschung wird ausgeführt, was
an den so bestimmten EZ über die Übereinstimmung der Merkmale festzustellen ist.
Ist ein solches D e n k v er f a h r e n nicht grundsätzlich unrichtig?
Der reine Logiker wird es beanstanden; in Wirklichkeit ist es aber gar nicht mög-
lich, aus dem Kreis der Schlüsse herauszukommen. Der Weg zu naturwissen-
schaftlicher Erkenntnis ist eben ein grundsätzlich anderer als der der reinen Logik,
der Mathematik. Aus einer Anzahl von Einzeltatsachen und -beobachtungen schließt
der naturwissenschaftliche Forscher auf ein ihnen zugrunde liegendes Allgemeines.
Es ist der Weg der ,,generalisierenden Induktion".* Wenn das Tat-
sachenmaterial für eine lückenlose Induktion noch nicht genügt, so kann trotzdem
zunächst einmal in kühner Schau ein Schluß auf das Allgemeine gemacht werden.
Galton erkannte als erster intuitiv, daß die außerordentlich ähnlichen Zwillinge
erbgleich seien und damit einen Prüfstein für die Macht von Erbgut und Umwelt
abgeben können. Mit der Fülle des Materials, das eine spätere Zeit brachte, erlangte
der auf dem Wege der generalisierenden Induktion gewonnene Satz immer größere
Sicherheit: ,,Die durch ihre außerordentliche Ähnlichkeit auffallenden Zwillinge
sind eineiiger Entstehung und deshalb erbgleich; ihre Unterschiede sind umwelt-
bedingt," Aus dieser allgemeinen Erkenntnis heraus kann dann deduktiv geschlossen
werden, was im einzelnen Fall die Ursache eines bestehenden Unterschieds ist; aus
der Ähnlichkeit, die eine Erbgleichheit ist, kann rückwärts auf die Entstehung ge-
schlossen werden. Induktion und Deduktion lösen einander in der
naturwissenschaftlichen Forschung dauernd ab; eine Deduktion,
die an Tatsachen ihre Bestätigung findet, bestätigt ihrerseits wieder die Richtigkeit
der induktiv erschlossenen allgemeinen Erkenntnis. Die Gesamtheit aller Beob-
achtungen und Schlüsse in der unlösbaren Verkettung und Verknüpfung von In-
duktion und Deduktion, von Analyse und Synthese gibt die Bestätigung des all-
gemeinen Satzes. Er bewährt sich damit, daß alle neuen Tatsachen sich wider-
spruchsfrei in ihn einordnen und alle Schlüsse in der einen oder anderen Richtung
an den Tatsachen ihre Bestätigung finden. Damit ist es möglich, ihn in der Gesamt-
heit der Erscheinungen als ein zugrundeliegendes Allgemeines festzuhalten und so
aus ihm die Einzeltatsachen zu ,, erklären". Aus diesen Überlegungen
folgt aber die e r k e n n t n i s t h e o r e t i s c h c Rechtfertigung des
VerfahrensderZwillingsforschung,
Die durch Induktion gewonnene Allgemeinvorstellung darf nicht im Gegensatz
zu naturwissenschaftlichen Tatsachen stehen; diese sind entscheidend. Wenn ein
Gegensatz auftritt, so muß aber daraus noch nicht mit Notwendigkeit auf die sach-
liche Unhaltbarkeit der Allgemeinvorstellung geschlossen werden. Oft liegt die
Schwierigkeit nur darin, daß die verwendeten Begriffe den Tatsachen nicht mehr
voll angemessen sind und deshalb in zweckmäßiger Weise geändert werden müssen.
Begriffe sind Schöpfungen des menschlichen Geistes, welche die Wirklichkeit
erfassen und ordnen sollen; sie sind nicht fest, sondern müssen sich immer von
neuem den Beobachtungen, der Wirklichkeit anpassen. Sie werden auf diese Weise
in der Regel nicht grundsätzlich geändert, sondern nur modifiziert, verfeinert. Da-
mit kann das Ganze, die beobachteten Tatsachen und die daraus gewonnene All-
gemeinvorstellung, wieder in sich widerspruchsfrei gemacht werden. Es ist natür-
lich auch möglich, daß im Laufe einer wissenschaftlichen Entwicklung allmählich
ein solcher Gegensatz zwischen dem Tatsachenmaterial einerseits, den verwendeten
* Vgl, hierzu Max Hartmann, Wesen und Wege der biologischen Erkenntnis (Natur-
wissenschaften, 1936, Nr, 45) und Philosophie der Naturwissenschaften (Berlin 1937).
Begriffen und den allgemeinen ordnenden Vorstellungen andererseits entsteht, daß
ein Bruch unausweichlich ist; alte Begriffe müssen dann völlig aufgegeben werden,
alte Vorstellungen müssen neuen Platz machen.
Auf dem Gebiet der Zwillingsforschung ist es bisher noch nicht nötig geworden,
die ihr zugrundeliegende allgemeine Vorstellung grundsätzlich zu ändern. Einige
Beispiele mögen das zeigen: In den Jahren 1923 bis 1925 wurde eine lange und zähe
Diskussion zwischen Leven auf der einen und verschiedenen anderen Zwillings-
forschern auf der anderen Seite geführt. Leven fand, daß die Fingerleistenmuster
bei EZ wohl sehr ähnlich, aber nicht vollständig gleich sind. Er zog daraus den
Schluß, daß EZ nicht völlig erbgleich seien. Mit den Mitteln der Logik laßt sich
dies nicht als unrichtig nachweisen; die Schwierigkeit liegt eben in der Festlegung
der Begriffe. Leven erwartete von einer Erbanlage, daß sie bei gleichem Vorhanden-
sein in zwei Wesen die Ausprägung des betreffenden Merkmals bis in die letzten
und feinsten Einzelheiten hinein gleich bewirken müsse. Da er Umweltemflussen
keine auch noch so kleine Abänderung des Leistenmusters zuerkennen wollte, schlolJ
er auch bei EZ auf Erbungleichheit. Die Entwicklung der Vererbungslehre im all-
gemeinen und der Zwillingsforschung im besonderen hat diese Auffassung abge-
lehnt. Es ist zweckmäßiger und deshalb richtiger, einer Erbanlage eine Moditi-
kationsbreite zuzuschreiben, innerhalb deren auch zwischen völlig erbgleichen Wesen
Unterschiede möglich sind. Ebenso bedeutet die Einführung des Begriffs der Mani-
festation einer Erbanlage und der Manifestationsschwankung nichts anderes als
eine Anpassung des früher wesentlich starrer gefaßten Begriffs der Vererbung und
der Erbanlage an neue Tatsachen, Ähnlich ist es mit den neuerdings von Bouterwek
vertretenen Anschauungen, über die an anderer Stelle (S, 86) berichtet wird, S o
haben viele wissenschaftlichen Gegensätze ihren Grund nur
in derFassung der verwendeten Begriff e, Diebish er alsrich -
tig angenommenen Grundlagen der Z w i 1 1 i n g s f o r s c h u ng haben
noch von keiner Tat Sache ernst lieh erschüttert werden können;
es ist vielmehr bisher immer möglich gewesen, scheinbar widersprechende Tatsachen
durch Anpassung und Verfeinerung der Begriffe mit der Grundanschauung in hm-
klang zu bringen.
III. Allgemeine Fragen der Zwillingsforschung
1 . Die Häufigkeit von Mehrlingen
Eine Zwillingsgeburt ist ein verhältnismäßig seltenes Ereignis. Die Statistik er-
mittelt die Häufigkeit der Zwillingsgeburten ; die Bearbeitung der Frage hat aber
nicht nur rein statistisches Interesse, vielmehr vermag sie auch allgemein wertvolle
Erkenntnisse über Zwillingsbildung zu vermitteln. ..•■••.
Im Deutschen Reich kommt nach statistischen Untersuchungen, die sich über
Jahrzehnte erstrecken, au f e t w a 85 G eb u r t e n e i n e ^ « ' j > ' " ^ ^ «, .f "/j '
das bedeutet, daß rund 1,2% der Geburten Zw.llingsgeburten sind. Wenn die Säug-
lings- und Kindersterblichkeit der Zwillinge dieselbe wäre, wie bei der Gesamtheit
der Geburten, so würde ihr Anteil an der Gesamtbevölkerung etwa 2,4% betragen;
da Zwillinge stärker gefährdet sind als Einlinge, so ist ihr Anteil nicht unwesent-
lich geringer. ... j -7 n- a
Die Häufigkeit der Drillingsgeburten steht hinter der,enigen der Zwillings-
geburten in demselben Maße zurück, wie diese hinter den Ein ingsgeburten; das-
selbe Verhältnis besteht zwischen den Vierlings- und Drillingsgeburten. Von Hellin
ist auf Grund hiervon (1895) folgende einfache mathematischeRegeluber
«I»l!)
76
Die Häufigkeit von Mehrlingen
Wl|
»
V
Bild 56, Frau Dionne mit ihren Fünflingen,
Sic heiratete schon mit 16 Jahren und hatte vor der Geburt der Fünflinj^e bereits sechs Kinder,
von denen fünf noch leben.
die Häufigkeit von Mehrlingsgeburten aufgestellt worden: Wenn 1 : a
die Häufigkeit der Zwillinge ist, so beträgt die Häufigkeit der Drillinge 1 : a-, die
der Vierlinge 1 : a\ Auf Grund der deutschen Geburtenstatistik eines Jahrzehnts
ist von Prinzing die Häufigkeit der Zwillingsgeburten zu 1 : 85,6, die der Drillings-
geburten zu 1 : 84- (1 Drillingsgeburt auf rund 7000 Geburten), die der Vierlinge zu
1 :92' (1 Vierlingsgeburt auf etwa 780 000 Geburten) berechnet worden. Das be-
deutet eine recht gute Bestätigung der genannten Hellinschen Regel, die einfach zum
Ausdruck bringt, daß es sich bei der Entstehung von Mehrlingsgeburten um ein ge-
wisses grundlegendes Wahrscheinlichkeitsverhältnis handelt, das sich bei der Ent-
stehung der höheren Mehrlingsgeburt nochmals mit der Wahrscheinlichkeit der vor-
ausgehenden kombiniert.
Während in Deutschland jährlich ungefähr 180 Drillingsgeburten ver-
zeichnet werden, sind Vierlingsgeburten überaus selten (im Durchschnitt
nicht ganz 2 Geburten im Jahr). Fünflinge sind entsprechend noch seltener;
zur Weltsensation wurden die 1934 geborenen Fünflinge der Familie Dionne in
Canada. Es ist ein Triumph neuzeitlicher Hygiene, daß alle 5 Kinder, die bei der
Geburt nur ein Gesamtgewicht von 6 kg aufwiesen, am Leben erhalten werden
konnten. Diese Fünflinge waren die ersten, bei denen dies je gelungen ist. Spenden
aus ganz Amerika für die sehr arme Familie brachten die Mittel zusammen, für die
Kinder ein eigenes Heim mit den modernsten Einrichtungen der Säuglings- und
Kinderpflege zu schaffen. Von Sechslingen sind bisher überhaupt erst 5 Fälle
Höhere Mehrlinge
77
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des her r n bürgermeister 1x»ieibr >der letzice
IVstÄERDIESEiiZ^AHLSR
Berichts schreiber hoppe. wieder erhalten
WD AVPGESTEU.ET IM lAHREJBäS •
Bild 57. Gedenkstein für die Siebenlingc von Hameln (1600).
in der Literatur erwähnt. Über eine Geburt von S i e b e n li n g e n im Jahre 1600
berichtet ein Denkmal in Hameln an der Weser, auf dem die sieben Kinder abge-
bildet sind. Es besteht wohl kein Anlaß, an der Wirklichkeit des Falles zu zweifeln.
Sonst ist kein Fall von Siebenlingen bekannt.
Nachdem die Einsicht in die Entstehung von Mehrlingsgeburten gezeigt hat, daß
EZ und zZ ihrem Wesen nach verschiedene Bildungen sind, ist es von besonderem
Interesse, den verhältnismäßigen Anteil der EZ und zZ an der
^.
78
Die Häufigkeit von Mehrungen
Gesamtzahl der Zwillingsgeburten zu kennen. Das wäre auf Grund
dessen, was wir heute wissen, auf völlig exakte Weise dadurch möglich, daß sämt-
liche gleichgeschlechtigen Zwillingspaare im Alter von mindestens 4 bis 6 Monaten
untersucht würden. Auf Grund der Ähnlichkeitsuntersuchung könnte dann bestimmt
werden, ob es sich um ZZ oder EZ handelt; bei den zweifelhaften Fällen müßten
später noch Nachuntersuchungen stattfinden. Aus der Summe der Einzelfälle würde
sich dann das Zahlenverhältnis der beiden Arten von Zwillingen ergeben. Daß ein
solches Verfahren sehr schwierig und umständlich wäre, ist leicht ersichtlich; im
Falle des Todes von einem Zwilling oder gar beider Zwillinge wäre eine Bestimmung
der Art der Zwillingsgeburt nicht mehr möglich.
Nun hat Weinberg 1902 eine Methode angegeben, nach der aus der Gesamtzahl
der Zwillingsgeburten und ihrer Aufteilung in verschiedengeschlechtige und gleich-
geschlechtige der Anteil der EZaufeinfacheWeiseberechnet werden
kann Der Berechnung liegt die — heute völlig gesicherte — Annahme zugrunde,
daß bei zweieiigen Zwillingen das Geschlecht bei der Befruchtung in derselben Weise
bestimmt wird wie bei einer Einlingsgeburt. Für die Entstehung zweieiiger Zwillinge
gibt es drei Möglichkeiten: Sie können Pärchenzwillinge, Knabenzwillinge oder
Madchenzwillinge sein. Da auf 100 Mädchengeburten 106 Knabengeburten kommen,
so ist bei Einzelgeburten die Wahrscheinlichkeit einer Knabengeburt 0,514, die einer
Madchengeburt 0,486. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß bei der Bildung von zweieiigen
Zwillingen Pärchen entstehen, ist daher 2 • 0,514 • 0,486 - 0,4996. Nach den Regeln
der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung müssen also bei der Bildung von zweieiigen Zwil-
lingen nahezu mathematisch genau die Hälfte der Fälle Pärchenzwillinge sein. Nun
sind aber nach der preußischen Geburtenstatistik für die Jahre 1826 bis 1896 nur
37,3% aller Zwillingsgeburten Pärchenzwillinge gewesen; sie sind nach ihrer Ent-
stehung auf alle Fälle zweieiige Zwillinge. Ihnen entspricht die gleiche Zahl
gleichgeschlechtiger zweieiiger Zwillinge; die zweieiigen Zwillinge betragen also
74,6% der Gesamtzahl. Der Rest von 25,4% müssen demnach die eineiigen Zwillinge
sein. Die damit gekennzeichnete Weinbcrgschc Differenzmethode besagt also, d^ß
man aus einer nach verschiedengeschlechtigen und gleichgeschlechtigen Zwillingen
aufgeteilten Gesamtzahl von Zwillingsgeburten die Zahl der EZ durch Subtraktion
der doppelten Zahl der PZ von der Gesamtzahl der Zwillinge erhalten kann. Für
Hundertzahlen gilt die Gleichung EZ =100 — 2 PZ. Zum gleichen Ergebnis kommt
man wenn man von der Gesamtzahl der gleichgeschlechtigen Zwillinge die Pärchen-
zwillinge abzieht. Damit ist eine einfache Methode begründet, die es erlaubt, aus
statistisch ermittelten Zahlen den Anteil der EZ zu berechnen.
Die Differenzmethode von Weinberg hat zuerst nur wenig Anerkennung gefunden •
sie führte in ihrer Anwendung zu einem Hundertsatz von EZ, der damals als un-
möglich hoch angesehen wurde. Insbesondere wurde von seiten der Geburtshelfer
widersprochen Soweit in jener Zeit in Entbindungsanstalten auf Grund des Eihaut-
befundes der Hundertsatz der EZ ermittelt wurde, blieb er ganz erheblich hinter
den von Weinberg errechneten Zahlen zurück. Gegen die Einwände von dieser Seite
verteidigte sich Weinberg damit, daß er auf Auslesevorgänge bei der Gewinnung des
tJeobachtungsmaterials hinwies, welche nach seiner Ansicht die Zahl der EZ kleiner
erscheinen ließ als sie tatsächlich sei. Erst die Erkenntnisse der letzten Jahre haben
aber den Unterschied zwischen den von geburtshilflicher Seite beobachteten mit den
von Weinberg theoretisch errechneten Zahlen völlig aufgeklärt: Nicht nur die Zwil-
linge mit einem Chorion, sondern auch ein Teil der Zwillinge mit 2 Chorien sind EZ;
nach dem Eihautbefund ergibt sich deshalb eine zu kleine Zahl von EZ. Heute kann
die Differenzmethode Weinbergs als völlig gesichert gelten. Wie schon erwähnt,
betragt auf Grund der Berechnung nach der Differenzmethode die Z a h 1 d e r EZ-
Gebur ten in Deu t seh 1 and r un d 25 v.H. der Gesamtzahl der Zwil-
Unterschiede der Zwillingshäuligkeit
79
lingsgeburten; das wären ungefähr 0,3 v, H. aller Geburten. Auf ungefähr
340 Geburten kommt demnach eine EZ-Geburt.
Wenn damit die allgemeine Häufigkeit des Vorkommens von Zwillingsgeburten
verschiedener Art bekannt ist, so handelt es sich weiterhin um die Untersuchung, ob
sich im einzelnen nach verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten Unterschiede der Zwillings-
häufigkeit nachweisen lassen. Solche Untersuchungen haben interessante Ergebnisse
gebracht.
Zwillingsgeburten sind nach dem Alter der Mütter verschieden
häufig. Ihre Häufigkeit nimmt von den jungen Müttern bis zu der Altersgruppe
von 35 bis 40 Jahren stark zu, um von da an wieder abzusinken. Die französische
Geburtenstatistik der Jahre 1907 bis 1910, die sich auf 3 218 547 Geburten, worunter
36 653 Zwillingsgeburten, bezog, zeigte nach Dahlberg für die verschiedenen Alters-
klassen der Mütter die nachstehend aufgeführten Häufigkeiten von Zwillingsgeburten,
getrennt nach zZ und EZ. Der Anteil der beiden Gruppen ist nach der Differenz-
methode berechnet worden.
Häufigkeit der Zwillingsgeburten in Prozenten der Gesamtzahl der Geburten
nach dem Alter der Mütter.
15 20
20 25
25—30
30 35
35—40
40 45
45—50
Im
Jahre
Jahre
Jahre
Jahre
Jahre
Jahre
Jahre
ganzen
EZ
0,31
0,31
0,34
0,38
0,38
0,36
0,35
0,34
zZ
0,25
0,45
0,73
1,06
1,44
1.12
0,34
0,80
Summe ....
0,56
0,76
1,07
1,44
1,82
1,48
0,69
1,14
Diese Tafel und noch sinnfälliger die graphische Darstellung der Zahlen in Bild 58
zeigen die sehr bemerkenswerte Tatsache, daß sich der Anteil der EZ durch
alleAltersstufenhindurch nur wenig ändert. Der sehr große Unter-
schied in den Gesamtziffern der Zwillingshäufigkeit rührt demnach fast ausschließ-
lich von der nach dem Alter wechselnden Häufigkeit von zZ-Geburten her.
Deutliche Unterschiede der Zwillingshäufigkeit bestehen nach ver-
schiedenen Ländern und Völkern. Am häufigsten sind Zwillingsgeburten
,o I i%
I
O, I.O %
"S 0,5%
■
A
/s
1
y
/
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/'
"^
S
w
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r
s
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2:Z
y
^
s
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— -
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y
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s.
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^
^
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ütf
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«•••
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—
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15 Jähre 20 J 25 J 5oJ :>5J ^J f5J ^H J
Alter der Mutter
Bild 58. Verhältnismäßige Häufigkeit der EZ- und zZ-Geburten nach dem Alter der Mütter.
80
Die Häufigkeit von Mehrungen
i
i
in Dänemark, Schweden, Norwegen und Finnland (1,4 bis 1,6 v, H. der Geburten,
davon EZ 0,3 bis 0,4 v. H,). Im Deutschen Reich und in Ungarn beträgt die Häufig-
keit etwa 1,2 V. H., in Frankreich und Italien 1,1 bis 1,2 v. H. Dabei ist es be-
zeichnend, daß die Häufigkeit der Zwillingsgeburten im Norden der beiden Länder
größer sein soll als im Süden. Noch geringere Häufigkeit weisen Argentinien,
Griechenland und Brasilien auf. Nach der offiziellen Bevölkerungsstatistik Japans
hätte dort die Häufigkeit der Zwillingsgeburten nur 0,33 v. H. betragen (auf 307
Geburten 1 Zwillingsgeburt). Komm und Fukuoka machen es aber wahrscheinlich,
daß die Häufigkeit nicht unerheblich größer ist; da Zwillingsgeburten als unheil-
verkündend gelten und deshalb unerwünscht sind, werden sie weithin, insbesondere
auf dem Lande, verheimlicht. Beobachtungen in den großen Städten lassen erkennen,
daß der wahre Häufigkeitswert etwa 0,57 v. H. beträgt. Dabei sind nur ^/,. aller
Zwillingsgeburten Pärchen, also ^/.j zweieiige Zwillinge, ^'/.t eineiige. Daraus be-
rechnet sich die Häufigkeit der EZ-Geburten auf 0,38 v. H. der Gesamtzahl der
Geburten und damit wären die EZ-Geburten beim japanischen Volk so häufig wie
bei der weißen Rasse; der bestehende große Unterschied in der Gesamthäufigkeit
rührt also ganz von den zweieiigen Zwillingsgeburten her, die nur etwa ^/.. bis ^/,
dessen der weißen Frauen betragen.
Es ist außerordentlich bezeichnend, daß die Häufigkeit der EZ-Ge-
burten bei allen Völkern die gleiche zu sein scheint, daß also die be-
stehenden Unterschiede durchweg nur von der Zahl der zZ-Geburten herrühren. Es
ist die Frage aufzuwerfen, ob die verschiedene Häufigkeit der zweieiigen Zwillings-
geburten bei den verschiedenen Völkern ursächlich mit verschiedenem Alter der
Mütter zusammenhängt. Es ist nicht ausgeschlossen, daß ein Teil der Unterschiede
damit erklärt werden kann; die Erklärung reicht aber auf keinen Fall aus. Es wäre
dann weiter zu fragen, ob die Verschiedenheit der Häufigkeit der zweieiigen Zwil-
lingsgeburten rassisch bedingt ist oder durch Umwelteinflüsse, ins-
besondere durch verschiedenes Klima zu erklären ist. In diesem Fall müßte an-
genommen werden, daß ein wärmeres Klima die Zwillingshäufigkeit herabsetzt. Das
vorliegende statistische Material ist nicht groß genug, um die Frage beantworten zu
können; die Annahme, daß der verschiedenen Häufigkeit der zweieiigen Zwillings-
geburten rassische Unterschiede zugrunde liegen, ist aber wahrscheinlicher als die
Erklärung durch Klimacinflüsse. Die nordische Rasse scheint innerhalb der weißen
Rasse die größte Zwillingshäufigkeit aufzuweisen; bei der gelben Rasse beträgt sie
nur einen Bruchteil der Häufigkeit bei der weißen Rasse.
Wenn die Statistik das Verhältnis der Zwillingsgeburten zu den Einlingsgcburten
feststellt, so ist damit die Häufigkeit der Zwillinge nur für einen Zeitpunkt ihres
Lebens erkannt: für den Augenblick der Geburt, den Zeitpunkt des Übergangs vom
Leben im mütterlichen Organismus zum Eigenleben. Es fragt sich, ob die Zwillings-
häuligkeit vor und nach der Geburt dieselbe oder eine andere ist. Zu diesem Zweck
ist die Gefährdung der Zwillinge während ihrer Entwicklung zu verfolgen.
Für das vorgeburtliche Leben der Zwillinge steht fest, daß Fehl- und Früh-
geburten bei Zwillingsschwangerschaften häufiger sind als bei Einlingsschwanger-
schaften. Das ist verständlich: Die Einfrüchtigkeit ist für den Menschen die Regel;
ihr entspricht der Bau des Uterus, der für die Entwicklung zweier Früchte nach
Form und Größe nicht voll geeignet ist. Er wird hierbei übermäßig gedehnt, und
trotz dieser Dehnung können Zwillinge nicht die durchschnittliche Größe der Ein-
linge erreichen. Unter solchen Umständen müssen Fehlgeburten häufiger
sein als im Normalfall der Einfrüchtigkeit. Es ist aus mancherlei Gründen schwer,
genaue Zahlen hierfür festzustellen; es kann aber angenommen werden, daß mehr
als 25% der ursprünglich angelegten Zwillingsschwangerschaften ein vorzeitiges
Zwillingshäufigkeit vor und nach der Geburt
81
Ende finden. Hierzu kommen noch diejenigen Fälle, bei denen einer der Zwillinge
in einem frühen Stadium im Mutterleib abstirbt und erst bei der Geburt des anderen
Zwillings in stark rückgebildeter und zusammengepreßter Form ausgestoßen wird.
Bei all dem werden EZ-Schwangerschaften wesentlich häufiger
gestört als zZ-Schwangerschaften; Fehlgeburten und Totgeburten sind
hier zahlreicher. Aus der bereits erwähnten französischen Statistik für die Jahre
1907 bis 1910 errechnet Dahlberg, daß unter den Totgeburten die EZ mit einem 6,7-
mal so hohen Prozentsatz, die zZ 3,7mal so stark vertreten sind als ihrem Anteil an
den Lebendgeburten entspricht.
Ähnliches gilt für die Sterblichkeit der Zwillinge bei der Geburt
und kurz nach der Geburt. Das erklärt sich zum einen Teil aus der stärkeren
Gefährdung des Zwillings beim Geburtsvorgang, zum anderen Teil daraus, daß ihre
Lebenskraft infolge geringerer Größe im Durchschnitt hinter der der Einlinge zu-
rücksteht. Dabei sind auch hier die EZ stärker gefährdet als die zZ. Die Sterblich-
keit der Zwillinge ist auch nach der Säuglingszeit in den ersten Lebensjahren noch
etwas höher als die der Einlinge, dann aber eher günstiger, weil die Auslese der
weniger Lebenstüchtigen bei ihnen schärfer gewirkt hat als bei den Einlingen.
Aus den angeführten Zahlen ergibt sich, daß die Geburtenstatistik der
Zwillinge in doppelter Beziehung kein ganz richtiges Bild
gibt, weder für verhältnismäßige Häufigkeit der Entstehung von Zwillingsbildungen
noch für ihr zahlenmäßiges Vorkommen in der Bevölkerung. Einesteils werden
wesentlich mehr Zwillinge angelegt, als lebend geboren werden ;
dies gilt für EZ in noch höherem Maß als für zZ. Dabei weist die Bevölke-
rung weniger lebende Zwillinge auf, als der Geburtenzahl ent-
spricht; die Zahl der lebenden EZ steht stärker hinter ihrer Zahl bei der Geburt
zurück als die der zZ, Das Ganze erklärt sich einheitlich aus der stärkeren Gefährdung
der Zwillinge als von der Regel abweichender Bildungen, wobei die EZ durchweg
ungünstigere Zahlen aufweisen als die zZ. Infolge der Fortschritte der Geburtshilfe
und der Senkung der Säuglingssterblichkeit wird sich allerdings der verhältnismäßige
Anteil der Zwillinge an der Gesamtbevölkerung nach und nach etwas vermehren.
Werden Zwillinge eines Paars während ihrer vorgeburtlichen Entwicklung
miteinander verglichen, so ergibt sich, daß bei EZ durchschnittlich größere Unter-
schiede gefunden werden als bei zZ. Dies erklärt sich nach von Verschuer daraus,
daß die gegenseitige Beeinflussung von EZ, die ja zum größeren Teil in gemeinsamen
Eihäuten heranwachsen, größer ist als bei zZ. Bei der Geburt sind die Unterschiede
etwas mehr ausgeglichen; dieEZ sind aber nach Länge und Gewicht keinesfalls ähn-
licher als die zZ. Störungen besonderer Art finden sich bei EZ häufiger als bei zZ.
So kommt es nicht selten vor, daß die Schädelformen von EZ recht erhebliche Unter-
schiede aufweisen (vgl. Bild 61), die so weit gehen können, daß einer der beiden
Zwillinge einen förmlichen Turmschädel aufweist, während der andere normale
Schädelform zeigt. Die Abweichungen können zweifelsfrei als Folgen gegenseitiger
Behinderung während des Heranwachsens im mütterlichenLeib nachgewiesen werden.
Wenn die Unterschiede im Zeitpunkt der Geburt bei beiden Arten von Zwillingen
etwa gleich groß sind, so ändert sich das nach den Untersuchungen von Verschuers im
Laufe der Entwicklung recht bald. Bei EZ werden die beiden Partner nach dem Aus-
gleich der ursprünglichen Größen- und Gewichtsunterschiede bis zum 2. Lebensjahr
immer ähnlicher, um von da an ungefähr gleich zu bleiben; bei zZ werden die Unter-
schiede mit zunehmendem Alter größer. Werden Zwillinge mit Einlingen verglichen,
so ergibt sich, daß sowohl zZ als EZ dann, wenn sie die Periode ihrer stärkeren Ge-
fährdung überstanden haben, weder in körperlicher noch in geistiger
Beziehung irgendwie hinter den Einlingen zurückstehen.
d Zwillinge
82
Erblichkeit der Mehrlingsschwangerschaft
1
^
ii
2. Die Frage der Erblichkeit der Mehrlingsschwangerschaft
Die Art, wie sich Zwillinge bilden, ist völlig geklärt: Entweder durch die Be-
fruchtung zweier Eier oder durch die Spaltung des aus einem befruchteten Ei her-
vorgehenden Keims. Eine weitere Frage ist es aber: Was sind die Ursachen,
daß sich im einen Fall zwei Eier aus dem Eierstock loslösen statt eines einzigen,
oder daß sich im anderen Fall der befruchtete Keim nachträglich noch spaltet?
Verschiedene Möglichkeiten lassen sich denken: Es wäre möglich, daß
die Zwillingsbildung erbmäßig bedingt wäre, entweder die beiden Arten der Zwil-
lingsbildung je für sich durch eine besondere Erbanlage oder durch eine gemein-
same Erbanlage für beide Arten der Zwillingsbildung. Es könnte aber auch sein, daß
die Möglichkeit der Entstehung von Zwillingen dieser oder jener Art in der Erb-
masse jedes Menschen beschlossen liegen würde, daß sich aber diese Möglichkeit
nur in seltenen Fällen manifestieren würde, ausgelöst durch irgendwelche äußeren
Einflüsse. Schließlich ist es möglich, daß für die eine der beiden Arten der Zwil-
lingsbildung eine Erbanlage maßgebend wäre, für die andere nicht. Für eine wirk-
lich fruchtbare Untersuchung der Erblichkeit der Anlage zur Zwillingsbildung muß
gefordert werden, daß die Fragen, um die es sich handelt, für die
beiden Arten von Zwillingen getrennt gestellt werden. Das bio-
logische Geschehen ist für die Entstehung von EZ und zZ völlig verschieden, und
damit ist es zunächst wenig wahrscheinlich, daß gemeinsame Ursachen für die ver-
schiedenen Arten der Zwillingsbildung bestehen.
Die Ansichten darüber, ob es eine Erbanlage zur Zwillingsschwangerschait gebe,
weichen sehr stark voneinander ab. Die Frage kann nur mit Hilfe genealogisch-
statistischer Methoden geprüft werden. Weinberg, der sie zuerst systematisch in An-
griff nahm, glaubte die erbliche Bedingtheit nachgewiesen zu haben und nahm an,
daß sich die entsprechende Anlage nur durch die Mutter vererbe. Davenport fand
später an seinem Material, daß die Neigung zu Zwillingsgeburten auch durch den
Mann vererbt werden könne. Die Ansichten der Forscher, die sich weiterhin mit der
Frage beschäftigten, gingen — zunächst ohne Unterscheidung von EZ und zZ —
meistens dahin, daß eine rezessive Erbanlage vorliege. Dahlberg, Curtius
und VON Verschuer schlössen dann weiterhin aus der statistischen Verarbeitung ihres
Materials, daß in Zwillingsfamilien EZ- und zZ-Geburten in größerer Zahl zusammen
vorkämen, als sich dies unter der Annahme der Unabhängigkeit der beiden Erschei-
nungen nach den Regeln der Wahrscheinlichkeit erwarten lasse.
Um diese Erscheinung zu erklären, stellte DahlberG eine Hypothese auf, die für
die Entstehung von EZ und ZZ eine gemeinsame Ursache annahm. In
ähnlicher Weise geschah dies später durch CURTIUS und VON VERSCHUER. CURTIUS ging von
der durch SOBOTTA am Ei der Maus gemachten Beobachtung aus, daß hier das zweite Rich-
tungskörperchen erst kurz nach dem Eindringen der Samenzelle in das Ei ausgestoßen wird.
Dasselbe ist wohl auch beim Menschen der Fall. Nun könnte nach CURTIUS angenommen
werden, daß eine Samenzelle bestimmter Beschaffenheit die Abschnürung des Richtungs-
körperchens, d. h, die letzte Reifeteilung, so abzuändern vermag, daß nioht zwei Zellen un-
gleicher Größe (Ei und 2. Richtungskörper) entstehen, sondern zwei ähnlich große, gleich-
wertige Zellen. In der einen der beiden Zellen, in welche die Samenzelle eingedrungen ist,
würde die normale Befruchtung erfolgen; aber auch die andere abgeschnürte Zelle wäre be-
fruchtungsfähig und könnte für sich von einer anderen Samenzelle befruchtet werden. Auf
diese Weise würden Zwillinge entstehen, die wohl aus einer Eimutterzelle 2. Ordnung (aus
Ei und 2. Richtungskörper) hervorgegangen wären, die aber infolge der Befruchtung durch
zwei verschiedene Samenzellen erbverschieden sein müßten.* Diese Art der Bildung crbver-
* Die beiden Zygoten wären von selten der Samenzellen auf alle Fälle erbverschieden; ob
dies auch von Seiten der weiblichen Geschlechtszellen der Fall sein würde, hinge davon ab,
ob die erste oder die zweite Reifeteilung die Reduktionsteilung ist. Ist es die erste (wie dies
Erblichkeit der Mehrlingsschwangerschaft
83
schiedener Zwillinge könnte nun aber mit der Bildung der echten EZ in Zusammenhang ge-
bracht werden. Für beide Bildungen könnte auf folgende Weise eine gemeinsame Ursache
bestehen: Eine Samenzelle kann je nachdem einen besonderen ,,S p a 1 1 u n g s f a k t o r" be-
sitzen, Falls beim Eindringen einer Samenzelle die Abschnürung des zweiten Richtungs-
körpcrchens schon erfolgt ist, kann sich der Spaltungsfaktor nur auf die reife Eizelle aus-
wirken und diese zur Spaltung und damit zur Bildung echter EZ veranlassen, Falls eine
Samenzelle mit Spaltungsfaktor schon früher eindringt, so vermag sie noch vor der Ver-
einigung mit dem Eikern die Eizelle so zu bseinflussen, daß sie sich in zwei ähnlich große
Teile spaltet und daß damit anstatt des befruchtungsunfähigen Richtungskörperchens eine
zweite befruchtungsfähige Eizelle entsteht. Dieser Spaltungsfaktor wäre also die gemeinsame
Ursache beider Bildungen, Damit würde es auch neben den bisher angenommenen Arten von
Zwillingen noch eine dritte Art geben, die wie die normalen zZ erbverschieden wäre, CURTIUS
bestreitet die Entstehung von zZ durch die Befruchtung zweier verschiedener Eier nicht; zu
dieser Art der Bildung würde aber die weitere hinzutreten; nach seiner Hypothese könnten
also erbverschiedene Zwillinge auf doppelte Weise entstehen.
Die Hypothese von CURTIUS hat sich nicht durchzusetzen vermocht. Es ist bisher noch
bei keinem Säugetier beobachtet worden, daß auf irgendeine Weise ein Richtungskörper zur
befruchtungsfähigen Eizelle geworden wäre. Die Hypothese wurde ohne die Grundlage ana-
tomischer Beobachtung nur deshalb aufgestellt, um auf diese Weise das angeblich gemeinsam
familiär gehäufte Vorkommen von EZ und zZ auf eine gemeinsame Ursache zurückzuführen
und damit erklären zu können.
Nun steht aber ein über die Wahrscheinlichkeitserwartung hinausgehendes Zu-
sammenvorkommen von EZ und zZ wohl noch kaum einwandfrei fest. Lenz, der die
Frage der Erbanlage zur Zwillingsbildung ausführlich diskutiert hat, kommt auf
Grund seiner Auffassung des vorliegenden genealogisch-statistischen Materials zu
der Ansicht, daß eine Erbanlage zur Zwillingsbildung, wie ein über die Zufalls-
erwartung hinausgehendes Zusammenvorkommen von EZ und zZ bisher überhaupt
noch nicht als nachgewiesen betrachtet werden könne, daß die Möglichkeit der ver-
schiedenen Arten der Zwillingsbildung in jedem normalen menschlichen Erbgut ge-
geben sei und durch bestimmte, aber noch nicht näher feststellbare Einflüsse zur
Auslösung gebracht werde. Von der angeblichen Häufung von Zwillingsgeburten in
bestimmten Familien glaubt er, daß das vorliegende Zahlenmaterial den Schluß auf
Erbbedingtheit nicht zulasse, daß vielmehr die beobachteten Häufungen ein Ergeb-
nis des Zufalls seien.
Die Frage der Erbbedingtheit der Z w i 1 1 i n g s s ch w a n g e r -
Schaft kann im jetzigen Zeitpunkt noch nicht als geklärt
gelten. Zur endgültigen Entscheidung muß das Material noch größer sein; ins-
besondere ist es nötig, für die Untersuchung ein völlig unausgelesenes Material zu
haben. Schließlich muß auch die Unterscheidung von EZ und ZZ noch zuverlässiger
durchgeführt werden als dies bei den Stammbäumen der bisherigen Untersuchungen
der Fall sein konnte. Dabei müßten die Untersuchungen getrennt für EZ und zZ
durchgeführt werden. Vielleicht trifft das Ergebnis der neuesten, von dem amerika-
nischen Forscher Greulich durchgeführten Arbeit über die Frage das Richtige: Er
findet in seinem Material wohl in der Verwandtschaft der zZ, nicht aber in der-
jenigen der EZ eine Häufung von Zwillingsgeburten und schließt daraus, daß die
Fähigkeit, zZ zu erzeugen, erblich bestimmt sei, sowohl von der mütterlichen als von
von der überwiegenden Zahl der Forscher angenommen wird und auch der Darstellung in
Bild 3 zugrunde gelegt wurde), so wäre die zweite Teilung eine Äquationsteilung und es
würden Zwillinge entstehen, die von mütterlicher Seite her genau gleiches und nur von väter-
licher Seite verschiedenes Erbgut hätten, Ist die erste Reifeteilung eine Äquationsteilung und
erst die zweite die Reduktionsteilung, so hätten Ei und Richtungskörper verschiedenen Chro-
mosomenbestand und damit würden die beiden Zwillinge völlig verschiedenes Erbgut er-
halten. Die Frage der Reihenfolge der Reifeteilungen ist noch nicht endgültig geklärt; viel-
leicht ist es so, daß die beiden Teilungen gleichzeitig Reduktions- und Reifeteilung sind, d. h.
daß die Reduktion teilweise bei der ersten, teilweise bei der zweiten Reifeteilung erfolgt.
6*
84
Die Symmetrieverhältnisse bei EZ
Die Symmetrieverhältnisse bei EZ
85
der väterlichen Seite her. Dagegen lasse sich für die Entstehung von EZ keine Erb-
anlage nachweisen. Die Entstehung von zZ und EZ wäre damit nicht der verschiedene
Ausdruck derselben Zwillingstendenz ; es würde sich vielmehr auch an-
lagemäßig um ganz verschiedene Erscheinungen handeln. Tat-
sachen wie das Schwanken der Häufigkeit der zZ nach dem Alter der Mütter und
nach verschiedenen Ländern und die durchweg gleichbleibende Häufigkeit der EZ
sprechen auch für diese Auffassung.
Wenn die Ansichten über die Erbbedingtheit der Zwillingsschwangerschaft da-
mit recht weit auseinanderzugehen scheinen, so muß dabei doch noch auf eines hin-
gewiesen werden: Wenn eine Erbanlage für die Entstehung von Zwillingsschwanger-
schaften besteht, so setzt sich doch diese Anlage auf alle Fälle nur verhältnismäßig
selten durch; von Verschuer rechnet mit einer Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit von
etwa 6%. Zwischen der Annahme einer Erbanlage mit so schwacher Durchschlags-
kraft und der Ansicht, daß die Möglichkeit der Zwillingsbildung bei jeder normalen
Erbmasse gegeben sei, besteht aber kein so großer Gegensatz, als dies bei der Auf-
stellung des Gegensatzes , .erblich" oder ,, nicht-erblich" zunächst scheinen möchte.
3. Die Symmetrie Verhältnisse bei EZ
Der Mensch ist ein zweiseitig symmetrisches Wesen; rechte und linke Körper-
hälfte sind spiegelbildlich gleich. Bei genauerer Betrachtung zeigen sich aber doch
Abweichungen von der strengen Symmetrie, die im folgenden dar-
gestellt werden sollen.
Regelmäßig bestehende Asymmetrien sind äußerlich der linksseitige Hoden-
tiefstand des Mannes sowie der Haarwirbel (im Uhrzeigersinn oder entgegengesetzt gedreht) ;
stark unsymmetrisch ist die Lagerung der inneren Organe (Herz, Lunge, Magen, Darm, Leber,
Milz usw.). Daneben bestehen regelmäßig noch gewisse Asymmetrien im Gebrauch
einzelner Organe, Fast immer wird eine Hand stärker gebraucht und ist geschickter
als die andere; Rechtshändigkeit ist die Regel, Linkshändigkeit die Aus-
nahme. Die Bewegungen der rechten Körperhälfte werden durch die linke Großhirnhälfte
gesteuert und umgekehrt. In der Hirnhälfte, welche die Bewegungen der bevorzugten Hand
zu lenken hat, wird auch das Sprachzentrum angelegt, so daß dieses beim Rechts-
händer, dem Normalfall, in der linken Großhirnhälfte sitzt. Eine ähnliche unsymmetrische
Bevorzugung wie bei den Armen findet bei den Beinen statt (Rechts- und Linksfüßigkeit),
ebenso bei der Benützung des einen oder anderen Auges, Außerdem ist die Art des Hände-
faltens (rechter oder linker Daumen über dem anderen) oder des Armkreuzens bei jedem
Menschen in besonderer Weise asymmetrisch festgelegt.
Bei allen diesen Asymmetrien gibt es einen Regelfall; dieser kann sich aber umkehren in
den spiegelbildlichen Fall, Ganz außerordentlich selten ist die Umkehrung der asymmetri-
schen Lage der inneren Organe (der sogenannte situs inversus viscerum), verhältnismäßig
häufig die Umkehrung der Rechtshändigkeit, die zugleich eine ,,Linkshirnigkeit" ist, in die
Linkshändigkeit, die mit „Rechtshirnigkeit" verbunden ist. Diese Asymmetrieumkeh-
r u n g e n sind Erscheinungen, die von jeher ein starkes Interesse auf sich gezogen haben,
Abweichungen von der normalen Symmetrie des Körpers kommen
sehr häufig vor; fast jeder Mensch weist sie in kleinerem Maße auf. Sehr oft ist der Schädel
unsymmetrisch gebaut; die Nase kann unsymmetrisch im Gesicht stehen, die beiden Ohren
können nach Form, Größe und Stellung erhebliche Unterschiede aufweisen; die Länge der
Arme kann verschieden sein; die Haut kann an den beiden Körperhälften verschiedene Pig-
mentverteilung aufweisen, Finger und Handflächen können rechts und links verschiedene
Muster der Papillarlinien zeigen. Schließlich treten auch krankhafte Abweichungen, wie
angeborene Hüftverrenkung, Klumpfuß, Hasenscharte und Leistenbruch häufig nur auf einer
Körperseite auf.
Wie steht es nun mit den genannten Verhältnissen der Sym-
metrie bzw. Asymmetrie bei den beiden Partnern eines EZ-
Paares? Es kann vermutet werden, daß eine Untersuchung der Symmetriever-
hältnisse bei EZ einen tieferen Einblick in das Wesen und die Ursachen tun läßt,
insbesondere eine Antwort auf die Frage zuläßt, ob die verschiedenen Asymmetrien
erblich oder umweltmäßig bedingt sind.
Die Symmetrieverhältnisse eines Einzelwesens sind bei EZ in eigenartiger Weise
kompliziert. Da EZ durch die Spaltung eines Keims entstanden sind, und der ein-
zelne Zwilling für sich eigentlich nur einer Körperhälfte entspricht, so ist das gegen-
seitige Symmetrieverhältnis der beiden Zwillinge eine Frage für sich. Zwischen
den beiden Partnern eines EZ-Paares besteht eigentlich eine
Symmetrieebene höherer Ordnung, die bei unvollständig getrennten
Mißbildungen noch sichtbar in die Erscheinung tritt (vgl. Bild 25 und 26). Daneben
hat jeder Zwilling für sich seine eigene Symmetrieebene.
Am einfachsten liegen die Verhältnisse bei einem Merkmal, das nur einseitig oder
einfach auftreten kann, wie zum Beispiel die ,,H ä n d i g k e i t" (Rechts- oder Links-
händigkeit) oder die Drehung des Haarwirbels. Hier sind drei verschiedene
Möglichkeiten des Auftretens dieser Merkmale bei EZ denkbar:
1. Beide Zwillinge können im gleichen Sinn asymmetrisch sein; beide Zwillinge wären
dann immer entweder Rechtshänder oder Linkshänder, beide hätten gleichgerichtete Haar-
wirbel, Dies würde darauf schließen lassen, daß die Händigkeit und der Drehsinn des Haar-
wirbels erblich auf eine bestimmte Körperseite festgelegt wäre; beides müßte als streng erb-
lich aufgefaßt werden.
2. Es wäre auch möglich, daß sich EZ in derartigen Merkmalen spiegelbildlich verhalten
würden, so daß z, B. regelmäßig der eine Zwilling ein Rechtshänder, der andere ein Links-
händer wäre. Dies müßte aus dem Vorgang der Zwillingsbildung, der Spaltung des Keims er-
klärt werden: der aus der rechten Längshälfte des ursprünglichen Keims entstandene Zwilling
könnte eine stärkere Entwicklung seiner rechten Körperseite aufweisen und umgekehrt. Dar-
aus würde sich eine verschiedene Händigkeit bei den beiden Zwillingen erklären,
3. Es könnte auch sein, daß sich die einen Paare gleichsinnig, andere spiegelbildlich ver-
halten. Auf Grund des Zahlenverhältnisses der einzelnen Fälle müßte dann nach einer Er-
klärung gesucht werden. Die nächstliegende wäre wohl die, daß das asymmetrische Merk-
mal „zufällig", d, h. durch nicht erkennbare Ursachen festgelegt wird und dadurch die ver-
schiedene Verteilung des Merkmals auf die beiden Partner verursacht wird.
Alle genannten Erklärungsmöglichkeiten sind schon vertreten worden; insbe-
sondere wurde mehrfach ein besonders häufiges Vorkommen der spiegelbildlichen
Verteilung asymmetrischer Merkmale behauptet und von Newman auf die bei Fall 2
genannte Weise zu erklären versucht. Die Entscheidung kann nur durch eine genaue
statistische Erhebung gebracht werden. Eine Verarbeitung des gesamten bekannten
Materials über die Händigkeit durch von Verschuer hat folgendes ergeben:
Von der Gesamtzahl der eineiigen Zwillinge waren 80,7% Rechtshänder und
19,3% Linkshänder. Bei 66,6% der EZ-Paare sind beide Zwillinge Rechtshänder,
bei 5,1 % beide Linkshänder, bei 28,4% ist der eine Zwilling Rechtshänder, der andere
Linkshänder, Diese Zahlen schließen die Erklärung nach Fall 1 und Fall 2 ohne
weiteres aus. Wenn unter Zugrundelegung der prozentualen Gesamthäufigkeit der
Linkshändigkeit für die EZ-Paare berechnet wird, wie sich Rechts- und Linkshändig-
keit nach den Regeln der Wahrscheinlichkeit bei den beiden Zwillingspartnern zu-
fällig kombinieren würden, so ergeben sich Zahlen, die unter Berücksichtigung des
mittleren Fehlers fast genau den in Wirklichkeit beobachteten entsprechen. Das-
selbe gilt für die ZZ. Daraus geht hervor, daß eine einheitliche Ursache
für die Festlegung der Händigkeit nicht vorhanden ist, daß
unter der Annahme eines bestimmten Hundertsatzes von Linkshändern die Verteilung
auf die beiden Zwillingspartner rein zufällig erfolgt. Eine ungelöste Frage bleibt
es dabei, warum nicht 50 v. H., sondern ein wesentlich geringerer Hundertsatz der
Menschen linkshändig sind.
86
Die Symmetrieverhältnisse bei EZ
Körpermaße
87
m
Für die Entstehung der verschiedenen Händigkeit gibt nach dem Vorstehenden
auch die Untersuchung von EZ keine klaren Anhaltspunkte, Das mag zunächst ent-
täuschend sein; aber auch ein solches Ergebnis hat seinen Wert: Eine allem Anschein
nach „zufällige" Verteilung der Händigkeit zeigt, daß weder eine Erblichkeit im
strengen Sinn noch eine auf den Spaltungsvorgang zurückgehende Spiegelbildlich-
keit für die Entstehung der verschiedenen Händigkeit verantwortlich zu machen ist.
In der Erbmasse ist allem Anschein nach sowohl die eine wie die andere Möglich-
keit beschlossen; es sind unbekannte, wohl äußere Ursachen, die
denMenschenzumRechts-oderLinkshänderbestimmen. '
Was das Merkmal der Haarwirbeldrehung betrifft, so ist hier die Häufig-
keit der Kombination Rechts-Links (RL) bei EZ wie bei ZZ wesentlich niederer als
die Zufallserwartung, Die größere Zahl der RR- und LL-Fälle könnte von einer Erb-
bedingtheit des Wirbeldrehsinns herrühren; die vorliegenden Zahlen sind aber nicht
genügend gesichert, um diesen Schluß zwingend zu machen.
Das Asymmetrieproblem muß auch heute noch trotz mannigfacher Bemühungen als wenig
geklärt bezeichnet werden. Zwei Versuche, in der wichtigen Frage weiter vorzustoßen, seien
noch genannt. Spiegelbildliche Symmetrie läßt sich zwar bei der Händigkeit
nicht nachweisen; es ist aber nicht ausgeschlossen, daß sie bei anderen Merkmalen doch eine
Rolle spielt. Spemann hat gezeigt, daß Tritonkeime, welche erst in einem späteren Entwick-
lungsstadium durch Durchschnürung zur Spaltung veranlaßt wurden, eine Verkümmerung der
Innenseiten und eine entsprechende Einkrümmung nach innen zeigen. Die eine Hälfte zeigt
hierbei die volle Umkehrung der Lage der inneren Organe, so daß die beiden Hälften in dieser
Beziehung vollkommen spiegelbildlich symmetrisch werden. In derselben Weise zeigen auch
menschliche Doppelmißbildungen, wie die in Bild 25 dargestellte, einen solchen situs viscerum
inversum. Es wäre denkbar, daß bei einem erst in verhältnismäßig spätem Stadium zur
Trennung gelangten EZ-Paar die äußeren Körperhälften der beiden Partner schon so in der
Entwicklung bevorzugt gewesen wären, daß sich hieraus spiegelbildliche Asymmetrie ergeben
würde. Wenn ein solcher Ursachenzusammenhang tatsächlich besteht, so müßten die in
einem Amnion gebildeten EZ mehr Merkmale mit spiegelbildlicher Symmetrie aufweisen
als andere EZ-Paare. Leider liegen Beobachtungen hierüber noch nicht vor.
Von den Erscheinungen der Asymmetrie aus will BOUTERWEK in neueren Arbeiten die oft
beobachteten Unterschiede der beiden Partner eines EZ-Paarcs er-
klären, auch Unterschiede seelischer Art. Er geht davon aus, daß in der Bildung und Ent-
wicklung des menschlichen Körpers (wie z, B, des Schädels usw.) die Asymmetrie, also die
Ungleichheit der beiden Körperhälften, die Regel sei und erklärt, daß solche Ungleichheiten
nur erblich bedingt sein könnten, da sich Umwelteinflüsse als Ursache der Ungleichheiten nicht
nachweisen ließen. Für die EZ nimmt er an, daß die beiden Zwillinge der rechten und der
linken Hälfte eines Einzelwesens entsprechen; damit müßten sie ebenso verschieden sein wie
die rechte und die linke Körperhälfte, Die an EZ beobachteten Unterschiede in körperlichen
Eigenschaften und noch mehr in Begabung, Charakter und Temperament könnten deshalb
auch nicht als nur durch die Umwelt verursacht angesehen werden; sie wären vielmehr wie
die Ungleichheiten der Körperhälften auf Unterschiede im Erbgut zurückzuführen.
Diese Ansichten BOUTERWEKS sind nicht haltbar. Für die beiden Körperhälften ver-
schiedene Erbmasse anzunehmen, widerspricht grundlegenden Erkenntnissen der Erblehre.
Es ist schon kaum denkbar, daß bei der ersten Furchungsteilung die Erbmasse auf die beiden
Zellen verschieden verteilt würde (vgl, S. 49), und noch unmöglicher ist die Vorstellung, daß
von da an der Genbestand der einen Zelle für die linke, derjenige der anderen Zelle für die
rechte Körperhälfte verantwortlich sei. Gilt dies für das Einzelwesen, so läßt sich weiterhin
die Ansicht klar widerlegen, daß der eine Zwilling der linken, der andere der rechten Körper-
hälfte entspreche (vgl. S, 101), Damit brauchen auch EZ nicht als erbverschieden angesehen
werden. Gewiß können sie im Erscheinungsbild in derselben Weise verschieden sein, wie
die linke und die rechte Körperhälfte; sie sind aber ebenso erbgleich wie diese. Die Grund-
anschauung der Zwillingsforschung, daß EZ erbgleich seien und ihre Verschiedenheiten als
umweltbedingte Modifikationen anzusehen seien, wird dadurch nicht erschüttert, daß in vielen
Fällen die Art der wirkenden Umwelteinflüsse noch nicht klar erkannt werden kann.
IV. Ergebnisse der speziellen Zwillingsforschung
Nachdem im Vorstehenden die allgemeinen Grundlagen der Zwillingsforschung
und ihrer Methodik dargestellt wurden, soll im folgenden von den Ergebnissen der
speziellen Zwillingsforschung berichtet werden. Seit den ersten grundlegenden
Arbeiten von Siemens und Weitz ist eine Unmenge von Einzelarbeiten erschienen,
aus deren Fülle im folgenden nur eine kleine Zahl derer erwähnt werden kann, die
sich mit besonders bedeutungsvollen und interessanten Fragen der menschlichen
Erblehre befassen und die klar heraustreten lassen, wie mit der Zwillingsmethodc
gearbeitet wird und was gerade sie Besonderes zu leisten vermag.
A. Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
L Körpermaße
Eine vergleichende Untersuchung von Zwillingen wird in der Regel mit der ge-
nauen Aufnahme ihrer Körpermaße beginnen. Die an Zwillingen vorgenommenen
anthropologischen Messungen haben ein sehr großes Material ergeben, das Dahlberg
und vor allem von Verschuer bearbeitet haben.
Bei allen Messungen von Zwillingspaaren handelt es sich um die zahlenmäßige Festlegung
des Unterschieds der beiden Partner, Daß es hierbei nicht auf die absolute, sondern auf die
verhältnismäßige Größe des Unterschieds ankommt, ist einleuchtend, VON VERSCHUER hat
für die Auswertung der Zwillingsuntersuchungen die Berechnung der prozentualen Ab-
weichung vorgeschlagen; man erhält sie, indem man zuerst den Mittelwert der beiden Maße
des Zwillingspaares und dann die Abweichung des Maßes von diesem Mittelwert in Prozenten
des letzteren berechnet. Ein Zahlenbeispiel soll dies deutlich machen: Wenn der eine Partner
eines Zwillingspaares 168,4 cm, der andere 170,2 cm mißt, so ist der Mittelwert 169,3 cm, die
Abweichung jedes Zwillings vom Mittelwert (= der halben Größendifferenz) ist 0,9 cm. Die
0,9 • 100
prozentualeAbweichungdesZwillingspaaresvomMittelwert beträgt daher '^^^^ % =0,53%.
Für eine Vielzahl von Zwillingen wird die mittlere prozentuale Abweichung
(£) als Durchschnitt der für die einzelnen Paare ermittelten Abweichungen errechnet.
Auf diese Weise wurden
durch VON Verschuer für eine
Reihe anthropologischer Maße
die mittleren prozentualen
Abweichungen berechnet, und
zwar getrennt für EZ, ZZ und
PZ. Die Ergebnisse der Unter-
suchungen sind in der neben-
stehenden Tabelle zusammen-
gestellt.
Der Vergleich der Zahlen
zeigt, daß die Abweichung bei den EZ durchweg wesentlich geringer ist als bei den
ZZ; es ist dies eine Folge der Erbverschiedenheit der letzteren. Noch größer sind
dieAbweichungen bei denPZ; die Verschiedengeschlechtigkeit verstärkt die anderen
Unterschiede.
Die Häufigkeit des Vorkommens der einzelnen Unterschiede der Körpergröße
ist für EZ, ZZ und PZ in Bild 59 dargestellt. Auf der waagrechten Achse sind nach
rechts und links die prozentualen Abweichungen, also die Abweichungen vom Mittel-
wert nach oben und unten, abgetragen. Die Höhe des Kurvenpunkts jeder Differenz-
klasse wurde durch die Anzahl der Paare (ausgedrückt in Prozenten der Gesamt-
summe) bestimmt. Für die Körpergröße zeigt es sich, daß bei den EZ die kleinen
prozentualen Abweichungen die weitaus häufigsten sind, so daß die Kurve der Varia-
Mittlere
Untersuchte
prozentuale Abweichung der
Körpermaße
EZ(£e)
ZZ(£z)
PZ(£p)
Körpergewicht ....
2.24
4,89
6,53
Körpergröße
0,54
1,63
2,04
Länge des Kopfes . .
0,84
1,52
1,92
Breite des Kopfes. .
0,79
1,39
2,06
Jochbogenbreite . .
0,71
1,37
11
88
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
Das Kräfteverhältnis von Erbgut und Umwelt
89
f.6 93 U.O 17 3.U 31 28 25 22
EZ
ZZ
PZ
19 1.6 13 1,0 07 Wt 0/ 00/ OM
■ L-fz ;-
I* Co >k
0,7 10 13 /^ 19\ 22 25 28 31 3.'f 37 i^O US tS
-€p
*proz. Abu/
prozÄb>^/ * '^
Bild 59. Häufigkeit der prozentualen Abweichungen der Körpergröße bei EZ, ZZ und PZ.
(Nach von Verschuer,)
bilität bei 0 ein hohes Maximum hat. Bei den ZZ ist ein solches Maximum nicht
vorhanden; am häufigsten ist bei ihnen eine Differenz von ungefähr 1,3% ; die mitt-
lere prozentuale Abweichung beträgt bei ihnen schon 1,63% gegenüber 0,54% bei
den hZ. Noch flacher verläuft die Kurve der PZ.
Ein interessantes und zunächst rätselhaftes Bild zeigt die Häufigkeitskurve der
JJifferenzklassen der K o p f 1 ä n g e (Bild 60). Die Kurve der EZ hat hier bei 0%
Abweichung einen Tiefpunkt, bei ± 0,4% Abweichung zwei Hochpunkte. Die Kurve
erweckt den Eindruck, als ob die normale Verteilungskurve eine Störung besonderer
Art erfahren hätte. Von Verschuer erklärt die Erscheinung in der Weise, daß bei
Zwillingen ganz allgemein eine Ursache vorliegen müsse, welche die sehr ähnlichen
bchadelformen verhindere, — eine Ursache, mit der bei Nichtzwillingen nicht zu
rechnen sei. Diese Ursache kann wohl in nichts anderem gesucht werden als in der
gegenseitigen Behinderung der beiden Zwillinge während ihrer vorgeburtlichen Ent-
wicklung (vgl. Bild 61). Das drückt sich auch darin aus, daß EZ und ZZ bei der
Geburt gleiche prozentuale Abweichungen aufweisen; erst später treten die erb-
bedingten Unterschiede in Erscheinung.
Aus den in der Tabelle verzeichneten Zahlen geht deutlich hervor, daß die ein-
zelnen Körpermaße bei EZ und ZZ verschieden starke Abweichungen zeigen. Am
größten sind sie beim Körpergewicht, am geringsten bei der Körpergröße. Aus dem
Verhältnis der Zahlen geht
hervor, daß Umweltein-
flüsse die einzelnen
Körpermaße verschie-
den stark beeinflussen
können. Am geringsten ist
die Beeinflussungsmöglich-
keit bei der Körpergröße,
weniger stark bei den Maßen
des Kopfes, am stärksten beim
Körpergewicht. Die Körper-
größe istalso recht umwelt-
stabil, das Körpergewicht
umweltlabil, eine Fest-
stellung, die durchaus den
Erfahrungen des täglichen
Bild 61. Verschiedene Kopfform bei EZ. (Nach We i t z.) Lebens entspricht.
%t
30
.
/\ ^
r\
i
r ya»
1 \
r
^'S ^3 'tO 37 3t 31 28 25 22 1)9 7.6^ 13 10 \07 0.t 01 Q 0.1
Qt Ö7\ 10 13 t1.ß l\9 22 25 28 3.1 3't 3.7 f.O «i <jtf
\ 1
1 1
U *■ •i
■^-^ 1 i
* tt ^ '
EZ 1 ' I
ZZ 1 ^ — ^^ '^■
1 1
€z J I
P2 ■■ 1« — :— /p ^
fp W
proz
now -^
^ groz fi
urr
Bild 60. Häufigkeit der prozentualen Abweichungen der Kopflänge bei EZ, ZZ und PZ.
(Nach von Verschuer.)
Es ist schon versucht worden, aus dem Vergleich der mittleren prozentualen Abweichungen
bei EZ und ZZ auf den Anteil von Erbgut und Umwelt an den Ursachen der Verschieden-
heit der ZZ zu schließen. LENZ und VON VERSCHUER haben ursprünglich folgendermaßen über-
legt; Der Unterschied der EZ (^e) ist ausschließlich durch Umwelteinflüsse hervorgerufen,
der Unterschied der ZZ (^z) aber sowohl durch die Verschiedenheit der Erbmasse als durch
Umwelteinflüsse bedingt. Es kann angenommen werden, daß der umweltbedingte Unterschied
der ZZ so groß ist wie bei den EZ. Der erbbedingte Anteil des Unterschieds entspricht da-
her der Differenz von ^z und ^E. Wenn man diese Differenz zu dem Gesamtunterschied der
ZZ in Beziehung setzt, so ergibt sich daraus der erbbedingte Anteil des Unterschieds der ZZ-
Ein Zahlenbeispiel möge dies noch klarer machen; Für die Körpergröße ist die mittlere pro-
zentuale Abweichung der EZ = 0,54, die der ZZ = 1,63, Der Anteil der Wirkung des Erb-
guts an der Verschiedenheit der Körpergröße wäre dann — r-v^ % = 66,9%, der
Anteil der Umwelt = 33,1%. Entsprechend bemäße sich für das Körpergewicht der Anteil
j 17 ui u r (4,89 — 2,24) • 100 ^. _ . . ^ ,
der Erbkraft auf „ qq % "" 54,1%.
4,07
Lenz hat später (1935) erkannt, daß die dieser Berechnung zugrunde liegenden Über-
legungen aus mehreren Gründen irrtümlich sind. Der erste dieser Gründe liegt darin, daß
die Kräfte von Erbgut und Umwelt sich in ihren Wirkungen nicht
addieren, sondern binomisch kombinieren. Wenn das Erbgut für sich einen
Unterschied u hervorrufen würde und die Umwelt für sich denselben Unterschied, so er-
geben nach Lenz die beiden Kräfte zusammen nicht einen Unterschied von 2 u, sondern nur
— /£ZV
von V2 • u = 1,41 u. Allgemein ergibt sich, daß der Erbmasse mindestens das \^ ) — 1 fache
des Einflusses der Umwelt zuzuschreiben ist. Für die Körpergröße würde sich daraus er-
geben, daß der Einfluß des Erbguts das ( q 54)'- ^ ^^^^^' ^^'° ^^" ^'^ ^^^^^ ^"^ Einflusses
der Umwelt beträgt. Dabei ergibt sich bei dieser Rechnung nur ein Mindestwert; der Ein-
fluß der Umwelt ist in Wirklichkeit noch größer.
Der Grund hierfür liegt darin, daß der unvermeidliche Meßfehler bei EZ viel stärker in
die Erscheinung tritt als bei ZZ, Jede Messung unterliegt einem bestimmten Fehler, Deshalb
können sich auch für einen und denselben Menschen bei Messungen, die zu verschiedener
Zeit ausgeführt werden, verschiedene Werte, ein „S e 1 b s t u n t e r s c h i e d", ergeben; die
Körpergröße wird z, B, bei mehr oder weniger straffer Haltung verschieden groß gemessen.
In derselben Weise kann bei der Messung zweier EZ, die in Wirklichkeit
völlig gleich sind, ein scheinbarer Unterschied entstehen. Anders
liegen die Verhältnisse bei Menschen verschiedener Eigenschaften, wie sie die ZZ sind. Bei
ihnen ist es auch möglich, daß die Meßfehler den vorhandenen Unterschied über das Tat-
ächliche hinaus vergrößern; ebensogut kann es aber bei ihnen vorkommen, daß der metho-
sa
90
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
dische Fehler bei den beiden Paarungen in entgegengesetzter Richtung wirkt und der Unter-
schied deshalb geringer erscheint als er tatsächlich ist. Während also Menschen völlig gleicher
Eigenschaften infolge des Meßfehlers nur unähnlicher erscheinen können als sie sind, können
Personen verschiedener Eigenschaften durch den Meßfehler ebensogut ähnlicher werden als
unähnlicher. Bei der Durchschnittsbildung aus einer genügend großen Zahl von Einzelfällen
werden sich die Fehler verschiedener Richtung gegenseitig aufheben.
Die nachstehende Zeichnung (Bild 62) soll diese Verhältnisse veranschaulichen. Gezeichnet
sind 3 Fälle: Je zwei durch ausgefüllte Kreise dargestellte Untersuchungsobjekte ohne wirk-
lichen Unterschied, solche mit einem wirklichen Unterschied von 1 Maßeinheit und solche
mit einem wirklichen Unterschied von 2 Maßeinheiten. Der Meßfehler betrage jeweils immer
1 Maßeinheit. Dieser Fehler kann auf jedes Paar in viererlei Weise wirken: Er kann beide
Objekte um 1 Einheit kleiner erscheinen lassen (in der Zeichnung Verschiebung nach links),
beide größer erscheinen lassen (Verschiebung nach rechts), das eine größer und das andere
kleiner, oder das eine kleiner und das andere größer erscheinen lassen. Dadurch werden die
Dermethod Fehlen
von 1 Einheit NirKt
iweimal positj v
Gemessene Differenz
Me/hodi scher Fehler
^Neimal negati v
6 em essene Differenz
Methodischer Fehler
posihv u. negativ
Gemessene Differenz
Mefhodischer Fehler
negahv u. positiv
Gemess ene Differenz
Durchschnitt
der gemessenen
Differenzen
l^öfnre Differenz
'0
cf-0
cT-o
S-2
o<-
->o
Cf=2
l^<3hre Differenz
= 1 Einheif
->o
o<-
0<r-
cP-
^O
O^
cf-l
o<-
cP=5
-^ = 15
Nähre Differenz
= 2 Einheiten
o<-
0<r
cP-.2
d'-o
o^
<f-¥
8_
Bild 62. Wirkung des Meßfehlers bei verschieden großen wahren Differenzen.
Objekte verschoben; die Orte, wo sie erscheinen, sind durch unausgefüllte Kreise angedeutet;
ihr Abstand ist die scheinbare Differenz. Die Darstellung läßt erkennen, daß der Meßfehler
voll in Erscheinung tritt, wenn die Paarlinge in Wirklichkeit völlig gleich sind: bei einer
wahren Differenz von 0 ist die durchschnittlich gemessene Differenz == 1. Wenn die wahre
Differenz das Doppelte des methodischen Fehlers beträgt oder noch größer ist, so gleichen
sich die Meßfehler im Durchschnitt wieder aus, da keine Fälle des gegenseitigen Überschneidens
mehr möglich sind. In den Fällen, in denen die wahre Differenz kleiner ist als das 2fache des
methodischen Fehlers, tritt dieser abgestuft in Erscheinung, und zwar um so stärker, je kleiner
die wahre Differenz ist.
Diese Überlegungen zeigen, daß sich der methodische Fehler bei EZ in viel
stärkeremMaßegcltendmachtalsbeiZZ. EZmit völliger oder annähernder
Gleichheit können bei Messungen nur unähnlicher erscheinen, als sie in Wirklichkeit sind,
während bei den ZZ, die meistens eine erhebliche wahre Differenz aufweisen, die Meßfehler
sich im Durchschnitt der Fälle ausgleichen. Die für EZ durch Messungen festgestellte mittlere
prozentuale Abweichung erscheint also größer, als sie in Wirklichkeit ist.
Die beiden dargelegten Umstände wirken demnach dahin, daß bei einem Versuch der Be-
rechnung des Anteils von Erbgut und Umwelt an der Herausbildung einer Eigenschaft die
Der Meßfehler — Das Wachstum
91
Kraft des Erbgutes geringer erscheint als sie tatsächlich ist. Bei dem oben durchgerechneten
Beispiel der Körpergröße müßte die für die EZ berechnete mittlere prozentuale Abweichung
infolge des methodischen Fehlers niedriger eingesetzt werden, als sie sich aus den Messungen
ergibt. Damit würde sich bei der Berechnung des Verhältnisses der Kräfte von Erbgut und
Umwelt (unter Berücksichtigung der binomischen Kombination der Kräfte zu 8,1 : 1 berechnet)
ein noch höherer Anteil der Kraft des Erbgutes ergeben. Ohne genaue Zahlen berechnen zu
wollen, ergibt sich mit voller Deutlichkeit, daßderEinflußdesErbgutesumein
hohes Vielfaches stärker ist als der der Umwelt.
Diese Überlegungen sind von grundlegender Bedeutung für die ganze Zwillingsforschung.
Sie lassen erkennen, daß vielen bei EZ gemessenen Unterschieden überhaupt kein wahrer
Unterschied zugrunde liegt; die Unterschiede liegen durchaus innerhalb des Meßfehlers. Sie
zeigen auf diese Weise auch, wie problematisch es ist, genaue Zahlen für den Anteil von Erb-
gut und Umwelt an der Herausarbeitung des Erscheinungsbildes berechnen zu wollen.
Dazu kommt noch eine weitere Schwierigkeit grundsätzlicher Art für die Zwillingsmethode,
eine Schwierigkeit, die auf die Fassung des Begriffs der „Erblich-
keit" z u r ü c k g e h t. Es ist das Verdienst von LENZ, hierauf zuerst hingewiesen zu haben.
In einer Bevölkerung, die in bezug auf ein bestimmtes Merkmal völlig erbgleich ist, sind die
Unterschiede der ZZ nicht größer als die der EZ. Die vorhandenen Unterschiede der ZZ
wären damit auch umweltbedingt. Nach der oben erwähnten Methode der Berechnung des
Anteils von Erbgut und Umwelt würde der Anteil der Umwelt als 100% ig erscheinen. Dabei
ist es klar, daß die Körpergröße ebenso wie in einem anderen Fall in erster Linie erbmäßig
bestimmt wäre, LENZ führt noch ein anderes Beispiel an: In einer in bezug auf die Haut-
farbe gleicherbigen Bevölkerung erscheinen die Unterschiede nach der Zwillingsmethode als
umweltbedingt, in einer Mulattenbevölkerung ergibt dagegen die Zwillingsmethode, daß die
Hautfarbe überwiegend erbbedingt ist. Dabei ist aber die Hautfarbe doch offenbar im einen
wie im anderen Fall gleich stark durch Vererbung bestimmt. Wir erkennen, daß hier eine
verschiedene Fassung des Erblichkeitsbegriffes vorliegt. Er ist bei den bisherigen rechne-
rischen Untersuchungsmethoden immer auf die tatsächlich in einer Bevölkerung vorkommen-
den Unterschiede bezogen worden und geht damit von der Tatsache aus, daß Vererbung für
die vorhandenen Unterschiede verantwortlich sei; sie ist aber eine Grundkraft der organischen
Entwicklung und als solche die Ursache für die gesamte Gestaltung, mag sie nun bei einem
Vergleich als „ähnlich" oder „verschieden" bezeichnet werden. Diese Überlegungen, die hier
nicht weiter verfolgt werden können, lassen die Methoden der Berechnung des Anteils von
Erbgut und Umwelt an der Herausbildung einer Eigenschaft auch von anderer Seite her ge-
sehen als sehr fragwürdig erscheinen; sie haben tatsächlich nur begrenzten Wert. „Ohne
Beziehung auf eine bestimmte Bevölkerung und ihre Lebenslage
hat die Bestimmung des Ausmaßes der „Erblichkeit" einer Eigen-
schaft keinen Sin n." (LENZ.)
Im bisherigen wurden die anthropologischen Maße als etwas Festes behandelt.
Nun sind die Werte der Erwachsenen nichts anderes als das Endprodukt einer Ent-
wicklung, des Wachstums. Die Zwillingsmethode macht es möglich, die Variabilität
der einzelnen Körpermaße für verschiedene Altersstufen gesondert zu untersuchen.
Aus der Aneinanderreihung der Altersstufen ergibt sich dann für die verschiedenen
Arten von Zwillingen, wie sich ihre Variabilität während des Lebens verändert; die
Größe der Variabilität ist jeweils ein Maß für die verhältnismäßige Stärke der Um-
welt, Die Kurvenbilder in Bild 63 sind durch von Verschuer in der Weise gewonnen
worden, daß zunächst für verschiedene Altersgruppen die mittlere prozentuale Ab-
weichung des Maßes berechnet wurde. In der Mitte jeder Altersstufe wurde dann
von der 0-Linie aus nach rechts die mittlere prozentuale Abweichung der betreffenden
Altersgruppe für die verschiedenen Arten von Zwillingen eingezeichnet; die so er-
haltenen Punkte wurden miteinander verbunden. Je näher eine Kurve an der senk-
rechten 0-Linie liegt, desto größer ist die durchschnittliche Ähnlichkeit der Zwillinge,
je weiter sie sich nach rechts entfernt, um so verschiedener sind die einzelnen Zwil-
lingsgruppen.
I
92
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
Skelett
93
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Hcrperjewic/ir
Ml*
//
/>/
Umfang (fer Bruif
EZ
ZZ
• na
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t-ti
+
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n-rj
t
t-'l
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B nt*
>o V ?» II xt «0 f* <« ii st fg
0 t» 1$ tl u II 2« it S.2 iS
Jetm
Länge des Hoptis
EZ
ZZ
PZ
Hörpergrasse
Die Betrachtung der
Kurven zeigt zunächst
sinnfällig, daß beim
Körpergewicht bei allen
Arten von Zwillingen
die größten, bei der Kör-
pergröße die geringsten
prozentualen Abweich-
ungen vorliegen; die
Stärke der Umwelt-
beeinflussung ver-
ringert sich stufenweise
von den Merkmalen des
Körpergewichts über die
des Brustumfanges und
der Kopflänge bis zu
dem der Körpergröße.
Damit wird das veran-
schaulicht, was bereits
oben über Umweltstabi-
lität und -labilität der
einzelnen anthropologi-
schen Maße ausgeführt
wurde. Für die Entwick-
lung ergibt sich, daß bei
fast allen Maßen die
EZ in der jüngsten
Altersklasse und zu
Beginn der Pubertät
am verschiedensten
sind. Für die ursprüng-
Bild 63. Variabilität der Körpermaße während des Wachstums, ^i^h so großen Unter-
(Nach von Verschuer.) schiede sind die beson-
deren Verhältnisse der
Zwillingsschwangerschaft verantwortlich ; die „P u b e r t ä t s z a c k e n" der Kurven
zwischen dem 12. und 15. Lebensjahr (von Verschuer) rühren wohl daher, daß der
Eintritt der Pubertät, der das Körperwachstum in seinem Tempo stark verändert,
auch bei EZ kleine zeitliche Schwankungen zeigt. Auf diese Weise kommt es zu
vorübergehenden Verschiedenheiten. Die Unterschiede von EZ im Körpergewicht und
im Brustumfang werden mit zunehmendem Alter etwas größer, bei den Kopfmaßen
und der Körpergröße bleiben sie oder werden eher noch etwas geringer.
Die Kurve der Körpergröße der ZZ zeigt einen bezeichnenden Verlauf: Zuerst ist
der Unterschied nicht größer als bei den EZ; er muß deshalb als umweltbedingt an-
genommen werden. Dann nehmen die Unterschiede bis ins Pubertätsalter deutlich
zu; aus dieser Erscheinung muß auf erbliche Unterschiede im Wachstumstempo ge-
schlossen werden. Das hauptsächliche Manifestationsalter für diese individuellen
Wachstumsgene liegt also zwischen dem 3. und 13. Lebensjahr. Überraschend ist es
nun, daß die Unterschiede zwischen den ZZ-Paarlingen im wei-
teren Leben wieder kleiner werden. Die Erklärung sieht von Verschuer
darin, daß „die Erbanlagen, welche Unterschiede im Wachstumsrhythmus oder im
Wachstumstempo bedingen, nicht auch Unterschiede im Wachstumserfolg, d. h. in
der schließlich erreichten Körpergröße, bedingen. So kann es z. B. vorkommen, daß
U
I
4
T
+
+
1-5
9
•« u u u u t* tt
der eine Paarling erst rasch und dann langsamer wächst, während der andere das
etwa gleiche Ziel in längerem, langsamem Wachstum erreicht. Ein solches Zwillings-
paar ist zunächst sehr verschieden, später wird es ähnlicher. Solche Fälle scheinen
so oft vorzukommen, daß sie dem Durchschnitt das Gepräge geben." Zusammen-
fassend schließt VON Verschuer, daß die Beeinflußbarkeit des Körpers
durchUmwelteinflüsse zwar während des ganzen Lebens ziemlich konstant,
aber kurz nach der Geburt und zu Beginn der Pubertät am stärksten
ist; bei umweltlabilen Merkmalen (Körpergewicht und Brustumfang) zeigt sich das
deutlicher als bei dem umweltstabilen Merkmal der Körpergröße. Bei diesem äußern
sich die Erbanlagen vor allem im Tempo des Wachstums zwischen dem 3. und 13.
Lebensjahr. Diese Erbunterschiedc treten stärker in Erscheinung als diejenigen,
welche sich als Größenunterschiede unter Erwachsenen äußern. So kann durch ver-
gleichende Altersuntersuchungen von Zwillingen die zeitliche Manifestie-
rung der Erbanlagen zur Darstellung gebracht werden.
Mit diesen Untersuchungen zeigt sich eine besondere Leistung der Zwillings-
methode: Sie ist nach von Verschuer in ganz besonderer Weise die Methode der „erb-
biologischen Entwicklungsphysiologie". Sie vermag nicht nur die Endzustände eines
Merkmals zu erfassen, sondern durch die Verfolgung eines Zwillingspaares über die
Jahre seiner Entwicklung hinweg oder durch den Vergleich von Zwillingspaaren ver-
schiedener Altersklassen zu zeigen, wie sich die Gene im Laufe der individuellen
Entwicklung manifestieren, und in welchem Maß diese Entwicklung in ihrem Verlauf
von Umweltkräften beeinflußt werden kann.
2. Skelett
Die Maße des Körpers werden zum großen Teil von den Verhältnissen des Ske-
letts bestimmt. Körpergröße und Schädelmaße sind nichts anderes als Maße des
Skeletts, Die Zwillingsforschung macht es als Methode der erbbiologischen Ent-
wicklungsphysiologie möglich, die Entwicklung dieser Skelettmaße, d, h. das Wachs-
tum, zu verfolgen und dessen erbmäßige Bestimmtheit nachzuweisen. So gut dies
rein nach den Maßen geschehen kann, läßt sich die Entwicklung auch nach der
Reihenfolge der Anlage der Knochen und an der Gestaltung ihrer Form nachweisen.
Über die Entwicklung des Gliedmaßcnskeletts ist von Buschke mittels der Zwillings-
methode eine sehr wertvolle Arbeit durchgeführt worden. Hierbei wurden röntgen-
photographisch am Hand- und Fußskelett von 25 EZ-Paaren, 18 ZZ-Paaren, 7 PZ-
Paaren sowie von Drillingen und Vierlingen Form und Struktur der Knochen und
die Reihenfolge der Verknöcherung untersucht.
Für die Form und Struktur der Knochen ergab sich hierbei bei den
EZ eine nahezu vollkommene, bis in die kleinsten Einzelheiten gehende Überein-
stimmung, bei den ZZ oft erhebliche Verschiedenheit. An den einzelnen Teilen von
Hand und Fuß, insbesondere an den Hand- und Fußwurzelknochen wurde die
ReihenfolgederVerknöcherung festgestellt, Die Verknöcherung erfolgt
bei einem Teil der Knochen bei allen Menschen nach derselben Regel, bei anderen
werden die Verknöcherungskerne nicht überall in der gleichen Reihenfolge angelegt.
Diese Reihenfolge ist weithin erblich bestimmt, bei EZ in der Regel voll überein-
stimmend. Es finden sich zwar auch bei EZ hie und da Verschiedenheiten der Reihen-
folge, viel größere aber beiZZ. DasTempoderVerknöcherung zeigt bei EZ
ausgesprochene Übereinstimmung, bei den ZZ Unterschiede, die allerdings nicht sehr
groß sind. Das Reifungstempo scheint dem Alter und dem Geschlecht entsprechend
allgemein ziemlich gleich festgelegt zu sein; Mädchen haben eine schnellere Ent-
wicklung als Knaben. Der Reifung der Verknöcherung gegenüber zeigt das allge-
meine Wachstum eine viel größere Variabilität.
'■«I r, 1
iPtf
94
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
I
1
jllllilllj
£
%
in
Bild 64. Hand- und Fußskelett von 33^ jährigen männlichen EZ. (Nach Buschke.)
D.c Entwicklung von Hand- und Fußskelett ist völlig konkordant. insbesondere auch die Reihenfolge in der Ver-
knocherung der Hand- und Fußwurzelknochen. Die Übereinstimmung geht bis in die feinsten Einzelheiten.
Die Röntgenbilder des Hand- und Fußskeletts eines EZ- und ZZ-Paares (Bild 64
und 65) zeigen bei genauer Betrachtung sehr deutlich, wie sich die Entwicklung des
Hand- und Fußskeletts bei EZ in restlos vollkommener Übereinstimmung vollziehen
kann, und wie ZZ deutliche Unterschiede in Form und Reifungszustand aufweisen.
Es ist nach diesen Bildern verständlich, daß Buschke vorschlägt, die Untersuchung
des Hand- und Fußskeletts für die Zwillingsdiagnose zu benützen.
Von weiteren erbbiologischen Untersuchungen über die Ausgestaltung einzelner
Teile des Skeletts sind die außerordentlich gründlichen, bewundernswerten Arbeiten
von Kühne über die Wirbelsäule zu nennen. Sie ist wohl derjenige Teil des Skeletts,
der die stärkste Variabilität aufweist; das bedeutet einen besonderen Anreiz für ihre
Untersuchung.
n XY?'! «'N o r m a 1 f o r m" der W i r b e 1 s ä u 1 e ist folgende: Auf die Halswirbelsäule mit
7 Wirbeln (Nr. 1—7) folgt die Brustwirbelsäule mit 12 rippentragenden Brustwirbeln (Nr. 8
bis 19); die Lendenwirbelsäule zählt 5 Wirbel (Nr. 20--24), im Kreuzbein sind 5 Wirbel
(Nr. 25—29) verwachsen; an die Kreuzwirbelsäule schließen sich noch 4 Steißwirbel (Nr. 30
bis 33) an. Nun kommt es immer wieder vor, daß auch der erste Lendenwirbel (Nr. 20) eine
Hand- und Fußskelett — Wirbelsäule
95
! i 1 1 1
Bild 65. Hand- und Fußskelett von 2K» jährigen weiblichen ZZ. (Nach Buschke.)
In der Entwicklunj« des Handskclctts ist Zwilling b etwas voraus. Die Form der Mittclhandknochcn zeigt deut-
liche Unterschiede. Beim Fußskelctt ist der Reifungsgrad völlig diskordant. Bei Zwilling a sind nur Würfclbein
und Keilbein 3 angelegt, bei b außerdem Keilbein 1 und 2 sowie das Kahnbein (links größer als rechts), b zeigt
grolien Vorsprung vor a. Die Form der Knochen zeigt grobe Unterschiede.
Rippe trägt, oder daß der letzte Brustwirbel (Nr. 19) keine Rippe mehr trägt. An der Grenze
zwischen Hals- und Brustwirbelsäule können ähnliche Verschiebungen vorkommen: der 7. Hals-
wirbel kann noch ein (verkümmertes) Rippenpaar tragen, oder dem ersten Brustwirbel (Nr. 8)
können die Rippen fehlen. Schließlich ist es an der Grenze zwischen Lenden- und Kreuz-
wirbelsäule möglich, daß der letzte Lendenwirbel (Nr. 24) in das Kreuzbein aufgenommen
wird, oder daß der 1. Kreuzwirbel (Nr, 25) noch frei ist und damit den Charakter eines
Lendenwirbels zeigt.
Alle diese Einzelabweichungen von der „Norm" konnten zunächst erbbiologisch
nicht erklärt werden; sie scheinen wahllos und rein zufällig aufzutreten. Nun gelang
es Kühne auf Grund von 10 000 Röntgenaufnahmen der Wirbelsäule und eingehenden
Stammbaumuntersuchungen an 23 Familien mit 121 Personen eine klare Ordnung in
die Menge der Erscheinungen zu bringen.
Alle Varietäten lassen sich in zwei Gruppen ordnen: Solche, die eine
Verschiebung der Grenzen der einzelnen Wirbelsäuleabschnitte in der Richtung nach
oben (kopfwärts), und solche, die eine Verlagerung der Grenzen in der entgegen-
96
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
gesetzten Richtung, also nach abwärts (steißwärts), bedeuten. Erscheinungen der
ersten Art sind das Auftreten von Rippen oder verlängerten Querfortsätzen am
7. Halswirbel, die Verkümmerung der Rippen am 12. Brustwirbel und die Aufnahme
des letzten Lendenwirbels in das Kreuzbein. Varietäten der zweiten Richtung sind
die Verkümmerung des ersten Rippenpaares, das Auftreten von Rippen am ersten
Lendenwirbel, das Freibleiben des ersten Kreuzwirbels und die Verwachsung des
ersten Steißwirbels mit dem Kreuzbein. Bei der systematischen Verarbeitung des
Materials zeigte sich nun, daß immer nur Varietäten derselben Richtung gleichzeitig
an einer Wirbelsäule beobachtet werden können, niemals Varietäten, die den beiden
verschiedenen Richtungen angehören würden. Daraus schloß Kühne, daß sich nicht
die einzelne Varietät (z. B. ein überzähliges Rippenpaar oder eine Verwachsung am
Kreuzbein) als solche vererbt, sondern nur die Richtung im Auftreten der Ab-
weichungen von der Regelform. Kühne nennt dies die „Tendenz"; sie kann kopf-
wärts oder steißwärts gerichtet sein. Er nahm an, daß ein einziges Paar von
Erbeinheiten („T endenz kopfwärt s" und ,,Tendenz steißwärt s")
die ganze Vererbung der Wirbelsäulenvarietäten beherrsche
und vermochte zu zeigen, daß die „Tendenz kopfwärts" dominant, die „Tendenz
steißwärts" rezessiv auftritt. Personen mit Varietäten der Wirbelsäule in der Rich-
tung kopfwärts können deshalb in bezug auf das Merkmal reinerbig oder mischerbig
sein; Menschen, welche Wirbelsäulevarietäten der Richtung steißwärts zeigen, müssen
reinerbig sein. Auf diese Weise ließen sich die vorliegenden Erbgänge restlos und
ohne Widerspruch erklären.
Bei diesen Untersuchungen blieb aber eine Frage offen: Wenn auch die ,, Tendenz"
in der Variabilität der Wirbelsäule als das entscheidende Merkmal erkannt worden
war, so zeigte es sich doch, daß die Einzelmerkmale der „Tendenz" in
ganz verschiedener Art und Stärke ausgeprägt sein können. Die
Erbanlage kann sich offenbar in verschiedener Weise manifestieren und damit ver-
schiedene Erscheinungsbilder verursachen. Die Zwillingsmethode vermochte
hier weiterzuhelfen. Ein Material von 53 EZ, 35 ZZ und 20 PZ brachte Kühne zu-
nächst die vollkommene Bestätigung seiner Schlüsse aus den Stammbaumunter-
suchungen: bei sämtlichen EZ war die Richtung der Varietät die gleiche; eine Reihe
von ZZ und PZ wiesen verschieden gerichtete Tendenz auf. Damit war die Annahme,
daß sich die Vererbung der Varietäten auf ein einziges Genpaar (Allelenpaar) zu-
rückführen lasse, voll bestätigt. Dagegen ließ sich zeigen, daß die Einzelvarietäten
innerhalb der betreffenden Tendenz bei den beiden Paarlingen eines EZ-Paares häufig
ungleich sind. Die Erbanlage , .Tendenz kopfwärts" oder ,,T e n d e n z
steißwärts" manifestiert sich also in verschiedener Weise;
sie kann sich an verschiedenen Stellen und verschieden stark ausprägen. Diese
Unterschiede in der Manifestation des Erbmerkmals sind als umweltbedingt anzu-
nehmen. Bestimmte Ursachen sind schwer zu nennen; es sind wohl Einflüsse wäh-
rend der vorgeburtlichen Entwicklung (verschiedene Lage und Ernährungsverhält-
nisse), die derartige Unterschiede hervorrufen.
Das, was man bei der Wirbelsäule bisher die „N o r m" hieß, erhält durch diese
Untersuchungen Kühnes ein ganz neues Gesicht, ja dieser Begriff löst sich völlig auf.
Die ,,Norm" der Wirbelsäule ist nicht etwas, was als Regel gesetzmäßig festgelegt
wäre, so daß die im einzelnen beobachteten Abweichungen als regelwidrig zu gelten
hätten. Erbbiologisch gesehen existieren nur die zwei verschiedenen Anlagen „Ten-
denz kopfwärts" und ,, Tendenz steißwärts". Das „normal" genannte Erscheinungs-
bild beruht darauf, daß die eine oder die andere dieser Erbanlagen keine genügende
Durchschlagskraft gezeigt hat, oder daß die Ausprägung der Variabilität so schwach
erfolgt ist, daß sie nicht mehr erfaßt werden kann.
Wirbelsäule — Zähne
97
L Fall (EZ)
Zwilling 1:
a) Die Rippen des 19. Wirbels sind
sehr stark entwickelt. Wirbel 20
trägt ein verkümmertes Rippen-
paar. Die Brust-Lenden-Grenze
erscheint somit um ein Segment
steißwärts verschoben.
b) Wirbel 25 zeigt den Charakter
eines Lendenwirbels. Auch hier
ist die Grenze steißwärts ver-
schoben.
c) Wirbel 30 ist ins Kreuzbein auf-
genommen.
Zwilling 2:
a) Das Rippenpaar des Wirbels 19
ist sehr stark entwickelt.
b) Wirbel 25 ist rechts rein lenden-
artig, links noch unvollkommen
mit dem Kreuzbein verbunden
und am Tragen des Beckens be-
teiligt.
c) Wie bei Zwilling 1.
Beide Zwillinge zeigen
Verschiebungen der Grenzen
nach unten (,, Tendenz steiß-
wärts"),
2. Fall (EZ)
Zwilling 1:
a) Wirbel 19 trägt links eine stark
rückgcbildetc Rippe, rechts so-
gar nur noch einen lendenartigen
Seitenfortsatz.
b) Wirbel 24, der letzte Lenden-
wirbel der Regel, ist rechts len-
denartig, links unvollkommen
ins Kreuzbein aufgenommen,
c) Wirbel 29 ist ganz aus dem
Kreuzbein ausgeschieden.
Zwilling 2:
a) Die Rippen von Wirbel 19 sind
sehr stark rückgebildet.
b) Wirbel 24 ist ganz ins Kreuz-
bein aufgenommen.
c) Wie bei Zwilling 1.
Beide Zwillinge zeigen
Verschiebungen der Grenzen
nach oben („Tendenz kopf-
wärts").
Bild 66, Varietäten der Wirbelsäule von EZ,
(Nach Kühne.)
Die Untersuchungen Kühnes zeigen überaus eindrucksvoll, wie das phäno-
typische körperliche Merkmal und das erbbiologische Merk-
mal etwas ganz Verschiedenes sind. Das von einem Genpaar bestimmte
erbbiologische Merkmal umfaßt einheitlich alle Arten der Varietäten der Wirbel-
säule in derselben Richtung, dazuhin noch die Verteilung der den Wirbeln ent-
sprechenden Nerven, Muskeln und Gefäße, ist also für eine Vielheit von phäno-
typischen Merkmalen verantwortlich. Die Untersuchungen zeigen auch, wie die
Stammbaumforschung und die Zwillingsforschung erfolgreich
zusammenwirken können: Die Ergebnisse der Stammbaumforschung konnten
durch Zwillingsuntersuchungen bestätigt und endgültig gesichert werden; dazuhin
vermochte die Zwillingsforschung in der Erkenntnis der Manifestation der Erb-
anlagen tiefer zu führen.
Die Zähne, ein besonders spezialisierter Teil des Skeletts, sind schon eingehend
mit Hilfe der Zwillingsmethode untersucht worden; besonders zu nennen sind die
Arbeiten von Korkhaus. Die Zahnstellung erwies sich hierbei in der Haupt-
sache als erblich bedingt; sie findet sich bei EZ regelmäßig übereinstimmend. Raum-
7 Zwillinge
98
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
Papillarlinien
99
Bild 67, Zähne eines EZ-Paares,
(Phot. Universitätsinstitut für Erbbiologic und Rassenhygienc Frankfurt a. M.)
Form und Struktur der Zähne stimmen völlig überein. Beide Gebisse zeigen im Oberkiefer den
gleichen Raummangel, der zu zufällig bedingten Verschiedenheiten der Zahnstellung führt,
mangel hat unregelmäßige Zahnstellung zur Folge; diese kann dann bei EZ zufällig
bedingte Verschiedenheiten zeigen (siehe Bild 67). Die F o r m der Zähne zeigt nach
Korkhaus oft eine verblüffende Übereinstimmung bis in die kleinsten Einzelheiten
hinein. Die Verhältnisse beim einen Zwilling sind oft ,,eine fast genaue Kopie des
anderen". Im Gegensatz dazu finden sich bei den zZ wohl auch gewisse Ähnlich-
keiten, nie dagegen eine völlige Übereinstimmung.
3. Haut und Haare
Die Hautfarbe ist bei EZ sehr ähnlich, bei ZZ häufig recht verschieden. In dem
durch VON Verschuer gesammelten Material des Berliner Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instituts
erwiesen sich unter 135 EZ-Paaren 117 als völlig konkordant; die übrigen Paare
zeigten Unterschiede, die durch äußere Einflüsse erklärt werden konnten. Eine Dis-
kordanz fand sich in keinem einzigen Falle; dagegen waren von 103 ZZ-Paaren 57
diskordant. Sommersprossen treten bei EZ fast durchweg völlig konkordant auf, so
daß sie für die Ähnlichkeitsdiagnose verwendet werden können (Siemens und von
Verschuer), Die Gleichheit von Sommersprossen kann bis in lächerliche Einzel-
heiten gehen: Bei einem ununterscheidbaren EZ-Schwesternpaar freute sich die
Lehrerin, in einer stark ausgeprägten Sommersprosse an der Nasenspitze schließ-
lich ein Unterscheidungsmerkmal gefunden zu haben; 14 Tage darauf wies auch die
Zwillingsschwester an derselben Stelle eine genau gleich große Sommersprosse auf.*
Eine besondere Rolle in der Anthropologie wie in der menschlichen Erbforschung
spielen seit langem die auf der Haut zu beobachtenden Papillarlinien. Die Haut der
Finger und des Handinnern sowie der Fußsohle trägt beim Menschen ein feines
System von Leisten, das ganz bestimmte Muster aufweist, Galton war der erste, der
ihre Erforschung in Angriff nahm. Die Tatsache, daß diese Linienmuster während
des ganzen Lebens unverändert dieselben bleiben und praktisch bei keinem Menschen
vollkommen gleich gefunden werden wie bei einem anderen, hat ja bekanntlich dazu
geführt, daß sie (besonders die Muster der Fingerendglieder) beim kriminalistischen
Erkennungsdienst verwendet werden (Daktyloskopie), Seit Galton haben diese
Linienmuster aber auch die Erbforscher beschäftigt, und es ist begreiflich, daß auch
mit Hilfe der Zwillingsmethode an die Frage ihrer Erbbestimmtheit herangegangen
wurde. Von dem Versuch Polls in der von ihm durchgeführten ersten deutschen
Zwillingsarbeit wurde schon berichtet. Während der letzten 15 Jahre ist nun die
Frage der Vererbung der Fingerleisten insbesondere durch die bedeutenden Arbeiten
* Mündliche Mitteilung von Studienrat Dr. P. Müller (Urach).
".#r-. .^
Bild 68. Fingerabdrucke eines EZ-Paares, rechte Hand,
der norwegischen Forscherin Kristine Bonnevie geklärt worden. Es gelang ihr, über
die Vielgestaltigkeit der Formen hinaus zur Erkenntnis der sie bedingenden Erb-
faktoren vorzudringen. Die Fingerleisten entstehen dadurch, daß sich schon im
zweiten Monat der Keimesentwicklung die Haut der Fingerkuppen in Falten legt;
von Bonnevie sind drei unabhängige Gene für die Bildung dieser
Falten festgelegt worden. Die Linienmuster (Bogen, Schleife, Wirbel) sind nicht
als solche erblich; die der ganzen Entwicklung der Hautfalten zugrunde liegenden
Bild 69, Fingerabdrücke eines ZZ-Paares, rechte Hand,
(Phot, Bild 68und69 Universitätsinstitut für Erbbiologie und Rassenhygiene Frankfurt a.M, Aus „Umschau" 1937.)
7'
100
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
Papillarlinien — Haare — Augenfarbe
101
,-V *. ■
T^
Bild 70. Abdrücke des linken Ringfingers von Zwilling C und des rechten Ringfingers von O
(vgl. Bild 89). Die Muster sind sehr ähnlich; in den minutiae zeigen sich Verschiedenheiten.
(Nach Newman.)
Erbfaktoren bewirken aber, daß die Muster bei EZ tatsächlich weitgehend, wenn
auch nicht vollständig übereinstimmen. Wie weit die Übereinstimmung in den Mustern
gehen kann, zeigt das Bild der Fingerleisten der beiden rechten Hände eines EZ-
Paares im Vergleich mit denen eines ZZ-Paares (siehe Bild 68 und 69). Bei dem
EZ-Paar ist die Übereinstimmung in den Mustern nahezu vollkommen; nur beim
4. Finger zeigt sich eine nicht sehr große Verschiedenheit. EZ können aber wesent-
lich größere Verschiedenheiten aufweisen. Stocks nimmt an, daß bei gleichgeschlech-
tigen Zwillingen Eineiigkeit vorliegt, wenn bei mindestens 7 Fingern entsprechender
oder spiegelbildlicher Hände gleiche Muster auftreten. In einzelnen Fällen treten
allerdings auch bei sicheren EZ noch mehr Diskordanzen auf. Dies zeigt, daß die
Untersuchung der Fingermuster wohl in einer großen Zahl von Fällen die Zwillings-
diagnose allein für sich erlaubt, daß aber auch Zweifelsfälle übrig bleiben, bei denen
die Entscheidung über die Eineii^keit erst nach Heranziehung weiterer Merkmale
getroffen werden kann.
Zu der Gleichheit der Muster ist noch zu bemerken, daß sie nicht bis in die alier-
feinsten Einzelheiten geht. Die „minutiae" sind bei allen Menschen verschieden.
In welcher Art dies der Fall ist, zeigt Bild 70 an Fingerabdrücken der von Newman
beschriebenen Zwillinge C und O (Fall 3, Bild 89). Die Übereinstimmung im Muster
ist so groß, daß sie nach Newman allein schon für sich kaum einen Zweifel an der
Eineiigkeit übrig läßt; trotzdem sind bei genauer Betrachtung der feinsten Einzel-
heiten die beiden Fingerabdrücke sehr wohl unterscheidbar.
Höheren Wert als die Feststellung der Muster hat der Vergleich des „quanti-
tativen Wertes" der Papillarlinien. Er entspricht der Zahl der Leisten, die
von einer nach bestimmter Regel durch das Muster gelegten Geraden geschnitten
werden. In dieser Zahl prägen sich die drei von Bonnevie erkannten Erbfaktoren un-
mittelbarer aus als in den Mustern. Von Verschuer berechnete für einen bestimmten
Finger den durchschnittlichen Unterschied der quantitativen Werte zwischen den
beiden Händen einer und derselben Person, ebenso zwischen der rechten Hand des
einen und der linken Hand des anderen Paarlings, und schließlich zwischen den
beiden rechten oder den beiden linken Händen der beiden Zwillinge. Er kam zu
dem sehr interessanten Ergebnis, daß der Unterschied zwischen den entsprechenden
Händen der beiden Zwillinge geringer war als zwischen der rechten und der linken
Hand eines einzelnen Zwillings. Dieser Unterschied war genau gleich groß wie der
zwischen der rechten Hand des einen und der linken Hand des anderen Paarlmgs.
Die beiden entsprechenden Hälften zweier EZ gleichen sich
also in den Fingerlcisten mehr als die rechte und linke Körper-
hälfteeinundderselbenPerson. Es ist schon die Anschauung vertreten
worden, daß der eine Zwilling der linken, der andere Zwilling der rechten Körper-
hälfte eines ursprünglich einheitlichen Wesens entspreche; die geschilderte Erschei-
nung ist ein klarer Beweis gegen diese Annahme.
Auch die ganze Handflächeläßt bestimmte Muster von Papillarleisten erkennen.
Amerikanische Forscher (Wilder und Newman) erklären, daß die Handabdrücke für
die Diagnose der Eiigkeit geeigneter seien als die Fingerabdrücke. Eine sehr ein-
gehende neue Untersuchung von Meyer-Heydenhagen stellte fest, daß die Ähnlich-
keit stark, doch nie exakt sei. Die Vererbung legt mit beachtenswerter Genauigkeit
die Häufigkeit und Anordnung der Muster und anderer großer Züge fest; dagegen ist
die Ausführung der einzelnen Leisten individuell. In etwa 90% der Fälle kann allein
schon auf Grund der Muster der Handfläche die Eiigkeitsdiagnose gestellt werden.
Haare sind Bildungen der Haut. Die H a a r f a r b e zeigt bei EZ meist eine sehr
große Übereinstimmung; manchmal kann sogar die völlige Gleichheit der abweichen-
den Färbung einzelner Strähnen festgestellt werden. Nur bei 10,6% der EZ-Paare
fand VON Verschuer verschiedene Haarfarbe, bei den zZ in 77,5% der l^alle. Da
unsere Bevölkerung in bezug auf die Erbanlagen der Haarfarbe stark durchmischt
ist, ist dieses Merkmal für die Zwillingsdiagnose gut geeignet. Anders steht es mit
der H a a r f o r m. Wohl wird bei EZ die Haarform durchweg konkordant gefunden,
ebenso aber bei 79% der zZ. Dies rührt daher, daß die Erbanlage für schlichtes Haar
in der Bevölkerung dieErbanlagcn für andere Haarformen zahlenmäßig weit überwiegt.
Die Augenbrauen zeigen in unserer Bevölkerung erhebliche Unterschiede
nach Lage, Breite, Höhe, Wölbung des Brauenbogens, Abstand in der Mitte, Art und
Länge der Haare und Wirbelbildung. EZ stimmen in den Augenbrauen so gut wie
immer vollständig überein, ZZ nur in der Hälfte der Falle.
4. Augen, Ohren, Nase
Die Augenfarbc ist ein Merkmal, das bei den meisten EZ außerordentlich stark
übereinstimmt. Von Verschuer fand bei 86,7% völlige Übereinstimmung bei 12 9/^
Ähnlichkeit mit kleinen Abweichungen und nur bei emem einzigen von 256 Paaren
eine Verschiedenheit. Eine spätere Nachuntersuchung zeigte aber daß der Unter-
schied sich fast völlig ausgeglichen hatte. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigten nur 13/. der
zZ-Paare völlig gleiche Augenfarbe, 18% wiesen kleine Abweichungen auf und 72/
waren verschieden. Wenn EZ in seltenen Fällen verschiedene Augenfarbe zeigen, so
muß dabei bedacht werden, daß auch die beiden Augen einer und derselben Person
Verschiedenheiten aufweisen können. Bild 71 zeigt den bemerkenswer en Fall zweier
EZ von denen der eine zwei blaue, der andere ein braunes und ein blaues Auge be-
St Das eine braune Auge beweist, daß neben der Erbanlage ^^r blaue Augen^ar^^^
auch eine solche für braune Augenfarbe vorhanden sein muß. Diese Anlage mani-
festiert sich aber nur in der geschilderten Weise; ein interessantes Beispiel für eine
bei einem Partner einseitig auftretende Manifestationsschwankung
In der Frage der erblichen Bestimmtheit der B r e c h u n g s e i g e n s c h a f t e n
des A u g e s haben die Arbeiten des holländischen Augenarztes Waardenburg wert-
voTle Ergebnisse gebracht. Von der Regel abweichende Brechungs- und Langenver-
häl nisse des Auges führen zu Weitsichtigkeit und Kurzsichtigkeit, eine anorma e
Krümmung der Hornhaut verursacht Astigmatismus. Besonders stark hat von jeher
102
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
Auge — Ohren — Herz
103
Bild 71, Der erste Partner des EZ-Paares hat
zwei blaue Augen, der zweite ein braunes und
ein blaues Auge. (Phot. M, Schiller,)
die Frage interessiert, ob Kurzsichtig-
keit durch äußere Einwirkung, insbe-
sondere durch langandauernde ange-
strengte Naharbeit erworben werde,
oder ob sie erblich bedingt sei. Früher
war die erste Ansicht allgemein herr-
schend. Kurzsichtigkeit galt als eine
,, Kulturkrankheit"; insbesondere die
Schule wurde für ihre Entstehung ver-
antwortlich gemacht. Dann wiesen aber
die Häufung der Kurzsichtigkeit in
einzelnen Familien sowie eingehende
Stammbaumuntersuchungen recht deut-
lich auf eine starke erbliche Bedingt-
heit hin ; eine Bestätigung dieser Ansicht
haben Zwillingsuntersuchungen ergeben. Nach Waardenburg, der alle bekannten,
von ihm selber und von anderen Forschern untersuchten Fälle zusammengestellt hat,
ergab sich bei 137 EZ-Paaren nur 9mal eine stärkere Diskordanz der optischen
Leistungsfähigkeit an einem oder zwei der vier Augen des Zwillingspaares; in etwa
•^/^ aller Fälle bestand fast völlige Übereinstimmung. Soweit bei den beiden Partnern
von EZ-Paaren Unterschiede in den Brechungsverhältnissen gefunden werden, liegen
diese innerhalb der Modifikationsbreite des Merkmals. Wenn auch beim Einzel-
menschen Unterschiede in der Brechungskraft seiner beiden Augen vorhanden sein
können (sogenannte ,, Anisometropie"), so spricht das Vorhandensein von Unter-
schieden derselben Größe bei den Partnern eines EZ-Paares auch nicht gegen die
erbliche Bestimmtheit des Merkmals. Soweit eine Diskordanz in den Brechungs-
eigenschaften der Augen von EZ vorkommt, bezieht sie sich meist auf unterschied-
lichen Astigmatismus. Im ganzen konnte aber festgestellt werden, daß stärkere Unter-
schiede der Gesamtbrechungskraft des Auges bei EZ eine Seltenheit sind. Im Gegen-
satz dazu zeigen zZ zu einem erheblichen Teil recht deutliche, in einzelnen Fällen
sogar sehr große Unterschiede. Nach Waardenburg kann auf Grund der oft vor-
kommenden Diskordanz der zZ und der stark überwiegenden Konkordanz der EZ an
der überwiegenden Bedeutung der Vererbung für die Brechungs-
verhältnisse des Auges nicht mehr gezweifelt werden. Daß oft gerade im Ent-
wicklungsalter ein starkes Fortschreiten der Kurzsichtigkeit erfolgt, ist nicht auf das
Lesen und Schreiben in der Schule, sondern auf innere Gründe, die gerade in diesem
Alter einsetzende Manifestation einer vorhandenen Erbanlage, zurückzuführen.
Für gewöhnlich finden bei der Erfassung des Erscheinungsbildes eines Menschen
die äußeren Ohren keine besondere Beachtung; sie zeigen aber ungemein bezeich-
nende, individuell stark verschiedene Formen und sind damit ein sehr ergiebiger
Gegenstand der Erbforschung. Die Gestalt des äußeren Ohres wird in ihrer charak-
teristischen Ausprägung durch eine größere Anzahl von Erbanlagen bedingt. Aus-
gedehnte Untersuchungen über die Vererbung der Formen des Ohres sind vor allem
von QuELPRUD durchgeführt worden. Die Ohren von EZ sind fast durchweg außer-
ordentlich ähnlich; bei etwa ^/,, der Fälle finden sich kleinere Variationen; kaum je
kann ein größerer Unterschied festgestellt werden. Bei einem Vergleich der Ohr-
maße einer größeren Zahl von EZ fand Quelprud, daß die Unterschiede zwischen den
gleichseitigen und den spiegelbildlichen Ohren zweier EZ im Durchschnitt nicht
größer sind als der Unterschied zwischen den beiden Ohren einer und derselben
Person. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigen zZ recht erhebliche Unterschiede in den Formen
und Maßen ihrer Ohren; unter 80 Paaren fand Quelprud nur eines mit großer Ähn-
lichkeit; mehr als ^/. erwiesen sich als erheblich verschieden.
Zwilling I links
II links
I rechts
II rechts
Bild 72, Oben: Ohren eines EZ-Paares, Unten: Ohren eines ZZ-Paares,
Die rechten Ohren sind spiegelbildlich kopiert, um den Vergleich der Formen zu erleichtern.
(Phot, Universitätsinstitut für Erbbiologie und Rassenhygicne Frankfurt a. M.)
Ähnliches wie für das äußere Ohr gilt auch für die Nase. Sie zeigt besonders in
ihren fleischigen Teilen eine sehr große Variabilität nach Maß und Form der ein-
zelnen Teile (Länge, Breite, Höhe, Nasenwurzel, Rücken, Nasenflügel, Nasenscheide-
wand, Form und Stellung der Nasenlöcher) . An dem Bau der Nase sind mindestens
5 verschiedene Erbanlagen beteiligt. Aus der Mitwirkung so zahlreicher Gene er-
klärt sich die sehr weitgehende Übereinstimmung der Nase bei EZ und die weit über-
wiegende Diskordanz bei zZ.
5. Innere Organe, ihre Tätigkeit und ihre Erkrankungen
Das Blut wird durch dieOrganedesKreislaufsden verschiedenen Teilen
des Körpers zugeleitet, Weitz berichtet, daß das Herz bei EZ nach Größe und Ge-
stalt im allgemeinen eine geradezu verblüffende Ähnlichkeit zeige; die Querdurch-
messer entsprechen sich nach seinen Untersuchungen meist bis auf den Millimeter.
Bestimmte Herzformen wie das „Tropfenherz" werden konkordant gefunden (Bild 73) .
Dagegen treten Herzfehler auch bei EZ recht häufig diskordant auf. Die Höhe
des B 1 u t d r u c k s ist stark erbbedingt; sowohl Überdruck als Unterdruck sind bei
EZ fast durchweg konkordant, auch wenn die Lebensweise der beiden Zwillinge
recht verschieden ist. (Vgl. Erläuterung zu Bild 52.)
Besonders eindrucksvoll sind die Ergebnisse der Zwillingsforschung am Capillar-
system. Die Capillaren sind die letzten und feinsten Verästelungen der Blutgefäße,
welche die Gewebe mit einem überaus engen Netz durchdringen. In diesen letzten
Verzweigungen finden der Gasaustausch und die Verbrennung der Nahrungsstoffe
104
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
Capillarsystem
105
statt. Die Eigentümlichkeiten
des Capillarsystems sind zu-
erst von Otfried Müller ein-
gehend und zusammenfassend
beschrieben worden, Diemikro-
skopische Untersuchung der
Capillaren kann an verschie-
denen Stellen der Haut erfol-
gen; am einfachsten geschieht
sie an dem Häutchen des Nagel-
falzes. Die zu untersuchende
Stelle wird mit einem Tropfen
Cedernöl benetzt und stark be-
leuchtet; bei etwaSOfacherVer-
größerung treten dann die Ca-
pillaren deutlich heraus. Bei
verschiedenen Menschen zei-
gen sie ganz verschiedene
Form und Stärke. Man ge-
winnt den Eindruck, daß das
Capillarsystem in seiner Aus-
prägung erblich festgelegt ist
und wird weiterhin zu der Ver-
mutung geführt, daß die Art
dieser Ausprägung mit anderen
Zuständen des Gesamtkörpers
zusammenhängt. Zweifellos
kommt dem Capillarsystem im
Organismus eine hohe Bedeu-
tung zu. Regelmäßige Formen
der Capillaren und eine harmonische Beschaffenheit des ganzen Körpers entsprechen
einander in der Regel; unregelmäßige Formen können auf eine unharmonische Per-
sönlichkeit hindeuten. Wenn auch von einzelnen Forschern zuviel aus dem Capillar-
bild herauszulesen versucht wurde, so ist es doch auf alle Fälle von großem Reiz,
den eigentümlichen, verschiedengestaltigen Formen der Capillaren nachzugehen.
„Ein Miniaturporträt der gefäßlabilen Persönlichkeit hat die Natur im Capillarbild
mit feinen oder groben Linien in tausendfältiger Abart auf den Untergrund der
Gewebe gezeichnet." (M. Schiller,)
Die starke Variabilität im Capillarsystem ließ es besonders interessant und er-
giebig erscheinen, auch Zwillinge auf ihr Capillarbild hin zu prüfen. In neuerer Zeit
hat M. Schiller an Stuttgarter Zwillingen eine eingehende Untersuchung des Capil-
larbildes durchgeführt. Ihr Eindruck ist: „Es gehört mit zu den größten Über-
raschungen, die der Untersucher der Capillaren erlebt, wenn er die ganz gleichen
Bilder der EZ neben den oft total verschiedenen der ZZ betrachtet." Das Capillar-
bild erwies sich bei sämtlichen 80 untersuchten EZ-Paaren als gleich. Die Formen
in ihrer normalen Beschaffenheit wie in der Art und dem Grad der unregelmäßigen
oder gar krankhaft veränderten Bilder waren bei EZ immer bei beiden gleich zu
finden. Auch in der Funktion ergab sich die größte Übereinstimmung; es zeigte sich
der gleiche unruhige oder ruhige Ablauf der Blutbewegung. Im Gegensatz hierzu
war das Capillarbild bei den ZZ niemals völlig gleich, zwar öfters mehr oder weniger
ähnlich, sehr häufig aber auch ganz unähnlich. Die in Bild 74 wiedergegebenen
Capillarbilder von EZ und ZZ lassen Gleichheit und Unterschiede in eindrucksvoller
Bild 73. Gleiche Herzform bei EZ, Unteres Zwillingspaar
mit ,, Tropfenherz". (Nach von Verschuer und Zipperlen,)
1. Capillarbilder von EZ:
a) Bei beiden sehr regelmäßiges
Capillarbild; „Haarnadelform",
b) Bei beiden stark gestörtes Bild;
fast keine Capillare entspricht
der Haarnadelform; Kaliber der
Gefäße verdickt.
c) Bei beiden stark ausgeprägtes
Grundnetz, leicht unregelmäßige
Formen, starke Füllung der ve-
nösen Schenkel.
2. Capillarbilder von ZZ:
a) Beim einen Zwilling größere und
weitere, beim anderen kleine,
enge und gewundene Capillaren,
b) Beim einen Zwilling lange und
schlanke, meist gut geformte
Capillaren, beim anderen Küm-
merformen.
p.
c) Der eine Zwilling zeigt starke
Knäuelbildung an fast jeder
Capillare; der andere zeigt die
gleiche Anomalie, aber viel ge-
ringer ausgebildet.
Bild 74, Capillarbilder von EZ und ZZ. (Nach M. Schiller,)
Weise erkennen. Während bei den EZ in 100% der Fälle absolute Konkordanz be-
stand, zeigten nur 27,7 v. H. der ZZ mäßige Konkordanz, 72,3% waren diskordant.
Lehmann und Hartlieb kamen (1937) zu etwas anderen Ergebnissen: Von 50 hZ-
Paaren fanden sie nur 42 (-^ 84%) ganz gleich, von 37 ZZ-Paaren 1 (- 2,7%). Der
Betriff der völligen Übereinstimmung ist von Lehmann und Hartlieb wohl etwas
strenger gefaßt worden als von Schiller. Für die Unterschiede bei EZ konnten sie
in mehreren Fällen besondere Umweltverhältnisse (z. B. verschiedene Kost, korper-
i
106
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
liehe Arbeit, den Zustand des Herzens) verantwortlich machen. Im wesentlichen
stimmen aber die Ergebnisse der beiden Arbeiten durchaus überein; sie zeigen, daß
die Ausprägung des Capillarsystems ganz vorwiegend erblich
bestimmt ist. Als ein sehr stabiles Merkmal eignet sich das Capillarbild auch
gut für die Eiigkeitsdiagnose.
Daß die Zusammensetzung des Blutes in einer Reihe von Einzeleigen-
schaften erbmäßig bestimmt ist, haben Zwillingsuntersuchungen klar ergeben, am
deutlichsten für die sogenannten „Blutgruppen'', Nach den Verballungserscheinungen
an den roten Blutkörperchen unterscheidet man 4 Blutgruppen: A, B, AB und 0
(Null). Der Zugehörigkeit zu den verschiedenen Gruppen liegen drei verschiedene
Erbeinheiten zugrunde, die zueinander im Verhältnis der multiplen Allelie stehen,
zusammen eine Serie bilden. Von diesen drei Erbeinheiten kann ein Mensch in dem
entsprechenden Chromosomenpaar jeweils nur zwei besitzen. Von Verschuer und
Schiff haben an einem Material von 446 Zwillingspaaren die Blutgruppeneigenschaft
nachgeprüft und hierbei alle EZ konkordant gefunden. Da auch etwa -/., der ZZ
Konkordanz zeigt, so ist es klar, daß die Übereinstimmung in den Blutgruppen bei
zwei Zwillingen für sich noch keinen diagnostischen Wert hat; dagegen schließt die
Nichtübereinstimmung die Eineiigkeit mit voller Sicherheit aus.
Die vollständige Übereinstimmung beweist, daß alle EZ-Paare in den Blut-
gruppeneigenschaften erbgleich sind. Bei anderen Eigenschaften, die nicht in allen
Fällen bei den beiden Partnern eines EZ-Paares übereinstimmen, muß zur Wahrung
der Annahme von der Erbgleichheit der Zwillinge angenommen werden, daß sich
die gleiche Erbanlage nicht in allen Fällen gleich manifestiert. Wenn EZ in den
Blutgruppen immer konkordant sind, so folgt daraus, daß die Ausprägung der
Blutgruppeneigenschaften unabhängig von jedem Umweltein-
fluß erfolgt, daß also in ihnen ein Erbmerkmal mit einer Manifestationswahrschein-
lichkeit von 100% vorliegt.
Untersuchungen über die Beschaffenheit der einzelnen festen Bestandteile des
Blutes und des Hämoglobingehalts zeigten durchweg bei EZ die stärkere Überein-
stimmung; auch gewisse gefährliche Blutkrankheiten sind schon mehrfach bei EZ
konkordant beobachtet worden. So wurde bei einem EZ-Paar perniziöse Anämie
konkordant beobachtet, beim einen Zwilling im 57., beim anderen im 58. Lebensjahr.
Ebenso ist von EZ die übereinstimmende Erkrankung an Leukämie berichtet
worden; zwei jüdische Schuhflicker erkrankten hieran im Alter von 56 Jahren und
starben an der Krankheit im Abstand von zwei Monaten; auch die Art, wie sich die
Krankheit äußerte, war bei beiden sehr ähnlich.
Von den Organen des Stoffwechsels ist der Magen nach Form und
Größe wie in seiner Funktion erblich bestimmt. Alle seine Funktionen verlaufen bei
EZ ähnlicher als bei ZZ; dies ist z.B. für die Säureabscheidung nachgewiesen worden.
Weitz berichtet vonEZ, die beide einen schwachen Magen hatten und schwere Speisen
in ganz derselben Weise nicht ertragen konnten, besonders kein neugebackenes Brot
und keinen Kuchen. Neigung zu Verstopfung kommt bei EZ viel häufiger überein-
stimmend vor als bei ZZ. Untersuchungen über Einzelvorgänge des Stoffwechsels
wie über den Blutzuckerwert oder den Eiweißumsatz ergaben bei EZ durchweg
größere Übereinstimmung als bei ZZ.
Besonders deutlich hat sich schon durch Zwillingsuntersuchungen die Erb-
bestimmtheit von Stoffwechselkrankheiten nachweisen lassen. Die nach-
stehende, von Michaelis (1904) berichtete Krankengeschichte eines Falles von
Zuckerkrankheit mit einer Reihe bezeichnender Folgen der Störung des Zuckerstoff-
wechsels zeigt dies mit großer Eindringlichkeit.
Blutgruppen — Stoffwechselkrankheiten
107
Von zwei EZ wurde der eine höherer Beamter und stand als solcher zuletzt an der Spitze
einer großen Verwaltung. Er lebte in der Großstadt und war unverheiratet geblieben. Sein
Zwillingsbruder lebte als Gutsbesitzer, war verheiratet und hatte Kinder, Als Sechziger er-
krankten sie beide an Zuckerkrankheit, die zu Gehstörungen und großer psychischer Erreg-
barkeit bei den sonst vornehmen und ruhigen Naturen führte. Im weiteren Verlauf der Er-
krankung stellte sich bei beiden Brüdern auch noch Eiweißabscheidung im Harn und im
Zusammenhang damit eine Netzhautentzündung ein, die sie beide ohne Wissen voneinander
zunächst ohne sachverständige Beratung durch starke Konvexgläser auszugleichen versuchten.
Weiterhin trat bei beiden ein offenes Geschwür an einer Zehe auf; innerhalb weniger Wochen
starben dann beide an Urämie,
Die bisher bekannt gewordenen Fälle von Zuckerkrankheit bei Zwillingen zeigen,
daß EZ meist gleiches Verhalten aufweisen, während zZ sich fast immer verschieden
verhalten. Die Entstehung der Zuckerkrankheit ist also erbbedingt;
dafür, daß die Anlage sich manifestiert, können aber Umwelteinflüsse von Bedeutung
sein. So berichtet Umber von einem EZ-Paar, von dem der eine Zwilling, der als
Gastwirt reichlich aß und trank, eine manifeste Zuckerkrankheit hatte, während der
andere, mäßigere, gesund blieb; seine pathologische Blutzuckerkurve bewies aber,
daß auch er die Anlage zur Zuckerkrankheit besaß.
Auf einer krankhaften Störung des Kalkstoffwechsels beruht die Rachitis (Eng-
lische Krankheit), Sie tritt insbesondere bei Kindern des 1, und 2, Lebensjahres aut
Bei den Erkrankten verkalkt der Knochen nicht rechtzeitig, sondern bleibt weich
und biegsam; schon gebildeter Knochen wird oft wieder entkalkt. Die Folge davon
können allerhand Deformationen des Knochensystems sein. Es ist von jeher bekannt,
daß äußere Einflüsse (unzweckmäßige vitaminarme Ernährung, unhygienische Wohn-
verhältnisse, Mangel an Luft und Licht) für die Entstehung der Krankheit von Be-
deutung sind. Daß die Erklärung durch solche Umweltverhältnisse nicht ausreicht,
geht aber daraus hervor, daß viele Kinder trotz solcher Einflüsse gesundbleiben
andere in günstigsten Umweltverhältnissen erkranken. Außerdem ist schon seit
längerer Zeit eine Häufung der Rachitis in bestimmten Familien nachgewiesen wor-
den. Eine Klärung der Frage haben erst Zwillingsuntersuchungen gebracht Lehmann
hat an einer auslesefreien Serie von 60 rachitischen EZ-Paaren und 74 solchen zZ-
Paaren nachgewiesen, daß die EZ in 88,5% der Fälle gleiches Verhalten zeigten, die
zZ nur in 22,4% der Fälle. Diese Zahlen beweisen einwandfrei die m a ß g eb e n d e
Bedeutung der Erbanlage für das Entstehen der Rachitis. Bei
den meisten diskordanten EZ konnten bestimmte Umweltverhältnisse für das ver-
schiedene Verhalten verantwortlich gemacht werden. Lehmann nimmt mit anderen
Forschern nicht eine allgemeine, sondern eine spezifische Disposition zur Rachitis
an. Diese Anlage manifestiert sich bei den meisten Trägern; aus den oben ange-
führten Zahlen (k = 0,885) ergibt sich eine Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit von
2 k ^ 1,77 _ 0 939 ^94%,
1 + k 1,885
Für die Entstehung des Kropfes, der eine krankhafte Vergrößerung der Schild-
drüse darstellt, sind von jeher in erster Linie Umwelteinwirkungen verantwortlich
gemacht worden; daneben wurde aber immer wieder die Frage aufgeworfen, ob nich
auch Erbfaktoren daran beteiligt seien. Eine schlüssige Antwort hierauf konnte erst
in neuester Zeit mit Hilfe der Zwillingsmethode gegeben werden. Eugster sonderte
in einer großzügigen Arbeit aus einem Material von nicht wemger als 520 Zwillings-
paaren 107 Paare mit vollkommen gleicher Umwelt aus und fand bei den EZ-Paaren
in 71 V H der Fälle gleiches Verhalten gegen Kropf, bei den zZ-Paaren in 70 v. 11.
derFäile Es ergab sich also, daß EZ und zZ keine Unter schiede im Ver-
halten gegenKropf zeigen. Nach der zwillingsbiologischen Vererbungsregel
108
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
r_ ^^^^^ ist hieraus zu schließen, daß
^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ die Entstehung des Kropfes
^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^ besondere
anläge zurückgeht, Die Mög-
lichkeit der Kropfbildung
ist bei jeder Erbmasse ge-
geben; ob sie erfolgt, hängt
lediglich von bestimmten
Umwelteinflüssen ab. Über
deren Art ist bisher noch
nichts Sicheres bekannt, In
der Art, wie der Kropf
auftritt, macht sich dann
allerdings die Veranlagung
geltend. Wenn beide Part-
ner eines EZ- Paares einen
Kropf haben, so sind die
äußere Form und die innere
Beschaffenheit fast immer
sehr ähnlich (Bild 75) ; bei
zZ sind sie oft recht ver-
schieden. Mit diesem Er-
gebnis der Zwillingsforschung ist die immer noch ungelöste Frage nach der Ursache
des Kropfes insofern einen erheblichen Schritt weitergekommen, als das Vorhanden-
sein einer Erbanlage ausgeschieden werden konnte.
6. Infektionskrankheiten
Daß die Zwillingsforschung sich auch mit den Infektionskrankheiten befaßt, mag
zunächst überraschen. Sie entstehen durch die Übertragung eines Krankheitserregers,
der den Organismus befällt, und scheinen damit rein umweltbedingt zu sein. Eine
nähere Überlegung läßt aber bald erkennen, daß die Krankheit eine Auseinander-
setzung des Organismus mit dem Erreger darstellt, und daß diese Auseinandersetzung
je nach der Beschaffenheit des befallenen Organismus einen ganz verschiedenen Ver-
lauf nehmen kann. Es ist von jeher bekannt gewesen, daß nicht jeder Mensch auf
eine bestimmte Infektionskrankheit gleich reagiert, daß für die Entstehung und den
Verlauf der Krankheit eine gewisse Bereitschaft des Organismus, eine ,,D i s p o -
s i t i o n", vorhanden sein muß. Damit sind auch für das Befallenwcrden von einer
Infektionskrankheit erbliche Faktoren wirksam, und die Zwillingsmethode gibt eine
einzigartige Möglichkeit, die Bedeutung der erblichen Disposition
für dieEntstehung und
Bild 75, EZ mit konkordantem Kropf. (Nach We i t z,)
Die Entstehung des Kropfes ist nicht erbmäßig, sondern durch Umwelt-
einflüsse bedingt.
den Verlauf einer In-
fektionskrankheit er-
kennen zu lassen. Weitz hat
auf Grund eines großen, von
Camerer und Schleicher be-
arbeiteten Materials für das ge-
meinsame oder nicht gemein-
same Auftreten einer Reihe
von Infektionskrankheiten bei
EZ- und ZZ- Paaren die im
Nebenstehenden verzeichneten
Zahlen mitgeteilt.
Krankheit
Hundertsatz der gemeinsamen
Erkrankung (Konkordanz)
bei EZ bei ZZ bei PZ
Masern
Keuchhusten
Wasserpocken
Scharlach
Diphtherie
Mittelohrentzündung
Lungenentzündung . .
Blinddarmentzündung
98,6
96,2
91,5
62,7
47,2
40
38,5
28,6
93,5
93,7
84,3
44,4
30,4
25
22,9
15,8
94,1
91,2
86,4
43,3
37,5
17,9
34
0
Kropf — Infektionskrankheiten
109
Aus diesen Zahlen geht hervor, daß dieKonkordanzbeiEZ durchweg
größeristalsbeiZZ. Es könnte vermutet werden, daß dieser Unterschied von
EZ und ZZ darauf zurückzuführen sei, daß EZ in engerer Gemeinschaft miteinander
leben als ZZ, und daß deshalb die gegenseitige Ansteckung leichter und häufiger bei
ihnen erfolgt als bei den ZZ. Das mag zum Teil zutreffen, vermag aber sicher nicht
bei allen aufgeführten Krankheiten den Unterschied zu erklären. Die aufgeführten
Zahlen erlauben vielmehr den Schluß, daß bei Infektionskrankheiten neben der durch
die Umwelt hervorgerufenen Ansteckung die erblich gegebene Konstitution von Be-
deutung ist. Im einzelnen zeigen sich dabei bezeichnende Unterschiede. Je leichter
die Ansteckung erfolgt, um so höher ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit des gemeinsamen
Befallenwerdens; Masern, Keuchhusten und Wasserpocken sind solche Krankheiten.
Der Unterschied der Konkordanzziffern bei EZ und ZZ läßt erkennen, wie groß der
Einfluß der Konstitution für das Entstehen der Krankheit ist.
Von ganz besonderer Bedeutung sind nun in neuerer Zeit Zwillingsuntersuchungen
über die Erkrankung an Tuberkulose geworden. Daß Umwelteinflüsse für die Ent-
stehung und den Verlauf der Tuberkulose von erheblicher Bedeutung smd, ist von
jeher bekannt gewesen und noch nie bestritten worden. Die erste und bedeutungs-
vollste Umweltwirkung ist natürlich dieÜbertragungdesErregers, des
Tuberkelbazillus; dieser ist so außerordentlich weit verbreitet, daß so gut wie jeder
Mensch von ihm angesteckt wird. In den meisten Fällen wird der Organismus in
kurzer Zeit Herr der Infektion; wenn aber die Krankheit doch Fuß gefaßt hat so
haben Klima, Beruf, Wohnungsverhältnisse und Ernährung Einfluß auf ihre Ent-
wicklung. Da die Tuberkulose deutlich familiär gehäuft auftritt, muß aber weiterhin
angenommen werden, daß eine erblich gegebene Beschaffenheit des Körpers, eine
bestimmte „K o n s t i t u t i o n", für die Entstehung und den Verlauf der Krankheit
von Bedeutung ist. Die meisten Menschen überwinden die Ansteckung ohne daß
ihnen eine Erkrankung überhaupt zum Bewußtsein kommt; andere, der Ansteckung
auch nicht mehr Ausgesetzte, erkranken unter denselben äußeren Bedingungen
schwer, ja tödlich, Aufgabe der Tuberkuloseforschung ist es das Krafteverha tnis
von erblicher Konstitution und Umwelt zu erfassen, so daß damit eine Vorstellung
davon gewonnen werden kann, wie groß der Einfluß der Konstitution gegenüber dem
der Umwelt ist. Erst die Zwillingsforschung hat in dieser Frage wirklich Klarheit
zu schaffen vermocht. Diehl und von Verschuer haben ein großes Material von
Zwillingspaaren gesammelt, bei denen beide Paarlinge oder der eine Paar ing tuber-
kulös erkrankt waren, außerdem auch solche Zwillingspaare, die trotz starker Ge-
fährdung in tuberkulöser Umgebung beide gesund geblieben waren. Die Ergebnisse
ihrer Untersuchung seien im folgenden im Anschluß an die grundlegenden Arbeiten
der beiden Forscher dargelegt.
Die Untersuchung, die in den Jahren 1929 bis 1936 durchgeführt wurde, erstreckte
sich auf ein unausgelesenes Material von 239 Zwillingspaaren^ von denen bei 205
mindestens der eine Paarling an Tuberkulose erkrankt war. Bei sämtlichen Zwil-
lingen wurde auf Grund einer Ähnlichkeitsprüfung bestimmt, ob es sich um EZ oder
um ZZ handle. Die weitere Untersuchung beschäftigte sich mit dem tuberkulösen
Geschehen. Alle Zwillingsuntersuchungen gehen darauf aus, auf Grund der Be-
schaffenheit und des Verhaltens der beiden Zwillinge festzustellen ob Konkordanz
oder Diskordanz vorliegt. Bei einfachen morphologisch-anatomischen Befunden ist
dies ohne weiteres möglich; viel schwieriger ist es für das vielgestaltige Geschehen
einer tuberkulösen Erkrankung. Nach bestimmten Regeln wurden der Zustand der
beiden Paarlinge (gesund, krank oder verstorben), die Form und die Intensität der
Erkrankung, ihr zeitlicher Ablauf, ihre Lokalisierung und ihre quantita ive Aus-
dehnung erfaßt und einzeln in die Bewertung eingestellt. Nach Abwägung aller
110
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
Tuberkulose
111
■|
Gesichtspunkte wurde
dann entschieden, ob der
Fall als ausgesprochen
konkordant (K) , schwach
konkordant (k), schwach
diskordant (d) oder aus-
gesprochen diskordant
(D) zu bewerten sei.
Auf Grund einer genau
durchdachten Methodik
wurden so die genann-
ten Zwillingspaare ein-
gehend untersucht; bei
jedem einzelnen Fall
wurden das Verhalten
gegenüber der Tuberku-
lose und die Umweltver-
hältnisse festgestellt. Die
einzelnen Krankheitsge-
schichten sind sehr auf-
schlußreich; einer der
interessantesten und ein-
drucksvollsten Fälle ist
in den Bildern 76 und 77
dargestellt. Die beiden
Zwillinge erkrankten trotz ihrer Trennung zu gleicher Zeit in derselben Weise an
Tuberkulose, So stark schon eine Reihe solcher Einzelfälle wirkt, so tritt doch die
Abhängigkeit des Geschehens von den verschiedenen Kräftegruppen erst bei einer
statistischen Verarbeitung der Ergebnisse mit voller Deutlichkeit in Erscheinung.
Die Gesamtheit der Zwillingspaare, bei denen wenigstens ein Partner erkrankt war,
ergab die folgenden Zahlen:
Bild 76. Tuberkulose bei EZ, Paarling 1.
Gleiches j Verschiedenes
Tuberkuloseverhalten
bei 80 EZ-Paaren
bei 125 ZZ- und PZ-Paaren
52mal - 65%
31mal = 25%
28mal
94mal
35%
75%
Da gegenüber jedem nicht völlig auslesefrei gewonnenen Material große Vor-
sicht geboten ist, so wurden die aus den auslesefreien Serien gewonnenen Fälle
statistisch für sich verarbeitet. Dabei ergaben sich die folgenden Werte:
Gleiches Verschiedenes
Tuberkuloseverhalten
bei 45 EZ-Paaren
bei 118 ZZ- und PZ-Paaren
31mal = 69%
27mal = 25%
14mal = 31%
81mal = 75%
Diese Zahlen bekräftigen das an dem Gesamtmaterial gewonnene Ergebnis: Bei
den EZ überwiegen weitaus die konkordanten Fälle, bei den ZZ
ebenso die diskordanten Fälle. Noch schärfer tritt der Unterschied her-
aus, wenn die Fälle schwacher Konkordanz und Diskordanz (k und d) weggelassen
Die beiden Zwillinge (weib-
lich) waren bis zum 15. Le-
bensjahr beisammen, Paar-
ung 1 blieb als Schneiderin
zu Hause in Ostpreußen,
Paarling 2 ging als Stütze
und Verkäuferin nach Ber-
lin. Nach 9 Jahren der
Trennung erkrankten beide
unabhängig voneinander.
Bei beiden Zwillingen flä-
chenhafte, teils fleckigeVer-
schattung des linken Lun-
genflügels mit Aufhellung
unterhalb des Schlüssel-
beins (Hohlraum durch Ein-
schmelzung von Lungenge-
webe). In der rechten Lunge
einige entzündliche Herde
(Fleckschatten), Die beiden
Zwillinge leiden in ganz
ähnlicher Weise an einer
ausgedehnten tuberkulösen
Entzündung der Lunge.
Bild 77, Tuberkulose bei EZ, Paarling 2. (Nach Diehl und von Verschuer.)
und nur die Fälle ausgesprochen konkordanten und diskordanten Verhaltens (K
und D) miteinander verglichen werden. Unter 45 EZ-Paaren fanden sich 15 mit K,
5 mit D (Verhältnis 3:1). Dagegen fanden sich unter 188 ZZ-Paaren 1 K und 46 D
(Verhältnis 1 :46). Bei den EZ ist also ein vollkommen gleiches Verhalten recht
häufig, ein ausgesprochen ungleiches Verhalten selten, während bei den zZ ein aus-
gesprochen gleiches Verhalten gegenüber der sehr häufigen Zahl völlig diskordanter
Fälle überhaupt kaum vorkommt.
Was sich in der Gesamtheit der angeführten Zahlen ausdrückt, kann nicht anders
erklärt werden, als daß die starke Übereinstimmung im tuberkulösen Geschehen bei
den EZ eine Folge ihrer gleichen erblichen Veranlagung ist, und daß der Grund des
verschiedenen Verhaltens der ZZ in ihrer Erbverschiedenheit gesucht werden muß.
„Der Unterschied im Tuberkuloseverhalten ist so groß, daß damit der eindeutige
Beweis erbracht ist, daß die erbliche Veranlagung von maßgebender Bedeutung für
die Entstehung und den Ablauf der Tuberkulose ist." (Diehl und von Verschuer.)
Bei der weiteren Untersuchung auf Grund dieses ersten allgemeinen Ergebnisses
konnten vor allem diejenigen Fälle weiterhelfen, die im Gegensatz zu der allge-
meinen Regel stehen: die diskordanten EZ und die konkordanten ZZ. Diese beiden
Gruppen von tuberkulösen Zwillingen waren genauer zu untersuchen. Dabei zeigte
es sich, daß die d i s k o r d a n t e n E Z - P a a r e mit tuberkulösen Veränderungen
bei nur einem Paarling sich ganz wesentlich von der entsprechenden Gruppe der ZZ
unterscheiden. Während bei den letzteren nur in 33% der Fälle bei dem kranken
Paarling die Tuberkulose ausgeheilt wurde und in 27% der Fälle der eine Paarling
starb, wurde bei den entsprechenden EZ in 69% der Fälle bei dem kranken Paarling
die Tuberkulose ausgeheilt und nur in einem von 16 Fällen starb ein Paarling. Diese
Zahlen zeigen, daß die an und für sich schon seltene Diskordanz der EZ sich bei
näherer Betrachtung auch qualitativ als entfernt nicht so stark erweist wie bei den ZZ.
112
Zwillingsforschung an körperlichen Eigenschaften
Das häufige Abheilen der Tuberkulose bei dem einen Paarling des diskordanten EZ-
Paares vollzieht sich offenbar auf Grund einer natürlichen Widerstandskraft gegen
die Krankheit, die bei dem anderen Paarung die Krankheit von vornherein nicht
zum Ausbruch kommen ließ.
Die diskordanten EZ geben die beste Möglichkeit, die B e d e u t u n g von Um -
Welteinflüssen für die Entstehung und den Verlauf der Tuber^
k u 1 o s e zu erkennen. Die Untersuchung der einzelnen Paare dieser Art ergab, dali
bei allen besondere Umwelteinflüsse als Grund des verschiedenen Verhaltens nach-
gewiesen werden konnten. Es zeigte sich, daß die allgemeine Umwelt (z. B. An-
steckung, Wohnung, Arbeit, Ernährung) einen Teil der Verschiedenheiten zu er-
klären vermag; in einzelnen Fällen konnten besondere Umstände oder Vorfalle als
Ursache des verschiedenen Verhaltens nachgewiesen werden. Als tuberkulosefordernd
erwiesen sich Verletzungen, Keuchhusten, Grippe, Lungenentzündung, Nierenent-
zündung, Geburt und Wochenbett. Im Vergleich mit den diskordanten EZ wiesen
die diskordanten zZ eine viel größere Verschiedenheit im tuberkulösen Geschehen
auf. Dabei war es in den meisten Fällen nicht möglich, besondere Umwelteinflüsse
als Ursache des verschiedenen Verhaltens nachzuweisen; das beweist daß die
„häufigere und größere Tuberkulosediskordanz nicht durch Umweltbesonderheiten,
sondern durch die verschiedene Erbdisposition zustande kommt .
Die Untersuchung der k o n k o r d a n t e n zZ (Paare mit gleichen oder ähnlichen
tuberkulösen Veränderungen bei beiden Paarlingen) ergab, daß bei ihnen - von
ganz wenigen Ausnahmen abgesehen - das Krankheitsgeschehen stets grundsatz-
lich verschieden ist. Insbesondere zeigte sich das bei den Spatformen der Tuber-
kulose. Bei ihnen wies kein einziges zZ-Paar ein wirklich als ähnlich oder gar gleich
erscheinendes Tuberkulosebild auf. Umgekehrt ließ sich bei den Spatformen der EZ
kein Paar nachweisen, das nicht das gleiche Krankheitsbild zeigte.
Die Untersuchung derjenigen Gruppen, die der Regel zu widersprechen scheinen
(diskordante EZ und konkordante zZ) zeigt also; Die diskordanten EZ sind weit-
aus nicht so verschieden wie die diskordanten zZ. Andererseits weisen zZ auch in
den zunächst als konkordant zu zählenden Fällen starke Verschiedenheiten auf.
Damit verstärkt sich ganz bedeutend das Gewicht der zunächst nur aus statistischen
Tatsachen gewonnenen Erkenntnis; EZ sind im Hinblick auf das tuberkulöse Ge-
schehen ganz überwiegend konkordant, zZ ganz überwiegend diskordant. Dies macht
es zur Gewißheit, daß der Entstehung und dem Ablauf der Tuber-
kulose eineerbliche Veranlagung zugrunde liegen muß.
Wenn dieses Ergebnis der Zwillingsforschung als gesichert gelten kann so erhebt sich
weiUrhin die Frage nach dem Wesen der erblichen Veranlagung zur Tuber -
kulose. DlEHL und VON VERSCHUER diskutieren sie eingehend und nennen für sie drei
MögUchkeiten: g^tanlagen sind die Ursache einer spezifischen Disposition zur
Tuberklse Das Eindringen des Erregers in den Körper als "»'--^.'^'p t"" k ."rrfol/t
Erkrankung findet in unserer Bevölkerung praktisch allgemein stat ; die fj^^ra^^kung er o g
aber nur dann, wenn die Erbanlage „Tuberkulosedisposit.on vorhanden ist. Die Art dieser
Anlage und ihr Erbgang müßte dann weiter erforscht werden. , . ,• ^, v^.^.r
2 Die erbliche Disposition zur Tuberkulose könnte mit bestimmten erbbedingten Korper-
zuständen zusammenhängen, die auch bei Nichttuberkulösen vorkommen, d-e aber «■„« E
krankung an Tuberkulose erst möglich machen; dies wäre eine unspezil.sche Disposition zu
'""3"E?g"bt''weder eine spezitische noch eine unspezifische Disposition zur Tuberkulose
EZ sind in ihrem Tuberkuloseverhalten deshalb ähnlicher als zZ, weil sie infolge ihrer viel
größeren Ähnlichkeit häufiger in gleicher Weise der Ansteckung ausgesetzt sind.
Wenn diese drei Möglichkeiten überprüft werden, so ist bald klar daß die dritte tr
kläS nicht ausreicht. Die Umwelt von EZ ist wohl im allgemeinen ähnlicher als die von
Tuberkulose
113
zZ; dieser Unterschied reicht aber entfernt nicht aus, um die beim Krankheitsgeschehen
heraustretenden großen Unterschiede zu erklären, zumal sich EZ auch in ganz verschiedenen
Umweltverhältnissen gleich verhalten können. Die zweite Erklärungsmöglichkeit ist auf jeden
Fall sehr ernst zu nehmen. Es ist schon oft angenommen worden, daß ein bestimmter Körper-
typus (asthenische Konstitution, flache Brust) die Entstehung der Tuberkulose begünstige.
DiEHL und VON VerscHUER haben durch Vergleich und mit den Methoden der Korrelations-
rechnung die Beziehungen einer Reihe von konstitutionellen Merkmalen zum Tuberkulose-
geschehen untersucht, Sie kamen dabei zu dem Schluß, daß die Unterschiede im Körperbau,
insbesondere des Brustkorbs, n i c h t die Ursache für die Verschiedenheit der zZ in ihrem
Verhalten gegenüber der Tuberkulose sein können. Ein schwacher Brustkorb ist nach ihnen
wahrscheinlich nicht die Ursache, sondern eine Folge der Erkrankung an Tuberkulose. Diese
Ansicht ist allerdings nicht unbestritten; auch LENZ glaubt nach wie vor an eine Korrelation
zwischen Tuberkulose und Asthenie,
Nach DiEHL und VON Verschuer bleibt nur die Annahme einer spezifischen
Tuberkulosedisposition übrig, „Eine oder mehrere Erbanlagen bewirken, daß
ihr Träger mit überdurchschnittlicher Wahrscheinlichkeit an Tuberkulose erkrankt und eine
größere Hinfälligkeit gegenüber der Tuberkuloseinfektion zeigt," Ob es sich hierbei um ein
dominantes oder ein rezessives Gen handelt, oder ob mehrere Genpaare der Tuberkulose-
bereitschaft zugrunde liegen (Polymerie), kann heute noch nicht mit Bestimmtheit gesagt
werden; Polymerie ist nach den beiden Forschern recht unwahrscheinlich. Auf alle Fälle
unterliegt aber die phänotypische Manifestierung nicht unerheblichen Schwankungen, Aus
dem Hundertsatz der konkordanten EZ-Paare (k = 0,69) läßt sich eine Manifestationswahr-
scheinlichkeit von etwa 81% errechnen; etwa Vr. der Menschen mit Disposition zur Tuber-
kulose würden demnach gesund bleiben.
Die überaus gründlichen Zv^illingsuntersuchungen von Diehl und von Verschuer
haben auf die geschilderte Weise eine klare Einsicht in die Ursachen des Tuber-
kulosegeschehens vermittelt. Das Ergebnis ihrer Untersuchungen fassen sie folgen-
dermaßen zusammen: „Unser Bild zeigt, daß die Tuberkulose eine Stellung zwischen
den eigentlichen Erbleiden und den Infektionskrankheiten einnimmt, daß sie aber
doch den ersteren näher steht. Von den Infektionskrankheiten — sow^ohl den hoch-
infektiösen (Masern, Keuchhusten) v^ie den geringinfektiösen (Scharlach, Lungen-
entzündung) — ist die Tuberkulose in ganz v^esentlichen Punkten verschieden, . . .
Vor der Entdeckung Robert Kochs galt die Tuberkulose als ein .familiäres' Leiden.
, Innere' Krankheitsursachen wurden als die wichtigsten angesehen. Diese Ansicht
hat sich in der Ärztewelt nicht ausrotten lassen, wenn sie auch ein bescheidenes
Dasein fristen mußte. Wurden doch nicht nur der Bazillus, von dessen alleiniger
Bedeutung schon Robert Koch nicht überzeugt war, sondern auch die zahlreichen
anderen äußeren Bedingungen durch offensichtliche Beweise so klar in den Vorder-
grund gerückt, daß daneben .konstitutionelle' und ,erbliche' Ursachen in den Hinter-
grund treten mußten. Die Komplexheit der Vorgänge hat eine klare Analyse der
erblichen Ursache erst mit Hilfe der Zwillingsmethode möglich gemacht. Wir hoffen,
daß nunmehr der erblichen Disposition neben Infektion und sozialen Faktoren der
ihr gebührende Platz unter den Ursachen der Tuberkulose zuerkannt wird."
B. Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Die Vererbung seelischer Eigenschaften nachzuweisen und zu erforschen ist in
jeder Beziehung schwieriger als bei körperlichen Eigenschaften. Das Körperliche
ist verhältnismäßig einfach faßbar; die einzelnen morphologischen oder physiolo-
gischen Merkmale können isoliert und je für sich einer gesonderten Untersuchung
unterworfen werden. Viel schwieriger ist dies im Gebiete des Seelischen. Gewiß ist
es auch schon bei einer ersten Beschäftigung mit den Fragen der Vererbung seelischer
Eigenschaften klar, daß das Wesen der Persönlichkeit erbmäßig bestimmt ist. Wenn
sich aber die Forschung über den ersten Gesamteindruck hinaus mit Einzelerschei-
8 Zwillinge
I
114
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
nungen zu befassen sucht, so taucht die schwierige Frage nach den ge.stig-seehschen
Grundfunktionen auf, nach den seelischen „R a d i k a 1 e n , Es ist schlüssig
nachgewiesen, daß die Blutgruppe eines Menschen durch zwei in einem Chromo-
somenpaar niedergelegte Gene bestimmt ist, daß die Augenfarbe von anderen Genen
bestimmt wird als der Bau der Wirbelsäule. Was sind aber entsprechend die auf
genische Grundlagen zurückzuführenden geistig - seelischen Grundanlagen? Wir
kennen nur das Handeln der einheitlichen Gesamtpersönlichkeit und sind noch längs,
nicht so weit, die seelischen Grundfunktionen aus ihr herauslösen zu können. Alle
seelischen Funktionen sind in der Persönlichkeit auf das innigste miteinander ver-
woben, wechselseitig durcheinander bestimmt. Trotzdem muß versucht werden, see-
lische Eigenschatten auch mit den Mitteln analytischer Forschung zu untersuchen.
Schon seit alter Zeit werden Denken, Fühlen und Wollen als drei Seiten seelischen
Lebens unterschieden; diese Aufteilung seelischer Funktionen in Verstand, Gefühl
und Wille oder Intelligenz, Te m p e r ame n t u n d Charakter soll auch
im folgenden benützt werden.
1. Intelligenz
a) Allgemeine Intelligenz
Was mit Intelligenz" bezeichnet wird, ist zweifellos etwas sehr Zusammen-
gesetztes; eine größere Zahl von Erbeinheiten liegen den intellektuellen Leistungen
Lgrunde. Da es aber bei ihnen leichter als bei anderen Seiten des Psychischen mög-
lich ist, sie versuchsmäßig hervorbringen zu lassen und in bestimmte Maßstabe em-
zutang;«, so hat sich die experimentelle Psychologie in ihrer Entwicklung zuerst aui
dieses Gebiet geworfen. So ist auch die erste ZwiUingsarbeit nach Galton de
Arbeit von Thornd.ke (1905, vgl, S. 58), eine Intelligenzuntersuchung. Weitere Ar-
beiten experimentalpsychologischer Art wurden von den Amerikanern Merr.man
(1924) , Lautebbach (1925) und W.ngf.elo (1928) durchgefi^hrt Diese Untersuchungen
arbeiteten alle mit dem Begriff des Intelligenzquotienten (I.-Q.). Merriman verglich
die geistigen Leistungen von gleichgeschlechtigen Zwillingen, verschiedengeschlech-
tigen Zwillingen und Geschwistern je unter sich auf Grund der für sie ermittelten
I. Q. und fand, daß die Unterschiede bei der ersten Gruppe am f ""^f^" 7X
Eine Unterscheidung von EZ und ZZ wurde von ihm noch nicht durchgeführt; die
groLre Ähnlichkeit der Gruppe der gleichgeschlechtigen Zwillinge rührt natürlich
davon her, daß in ihr alle EZ enthalten sind. Eine Aufteilung der Zwillinge nach
AUersgruppen ergab, daß bei den gleichgeschlechtigen Zwillingen die Ähnlichkeit in
der höheren Altersgruppe nicht geringer war als in der jüngeren. Da bei vo wiegen-
der Wirksamkeit von Umweltfaktoren die Unterschiede mit dem Alter -"nahmen
müßten, so ist aus dem Gleichbleiben der Unterschiede zu schließen, daß der Ein-
fluß der Umwelt gegenüber dem Einfluß der erblichen Anlagen genug zu veran-
schlagen ist. Auch die ähnliche Arbeit von Lauterbach wird, wie die vorstehend
genannte, in ihrem Wert dadurch erheblich beeinträchtigt, daß zwischen EZ und LL
nicht unterschieden ist.
""^rliüelligenzquotient (I.-Q.) wird dadurch bestimmt, daß dem zu Prütenden eine An-
zahl von Fragen und Aufgaben (Tests) vorgelegt werden, die auf Grund vielfacher Erfahrung
so zusammengestellt sind, daß sie von einem Menschen dieses Alters von normaler Intelh
genz geTösl werden können. Nach der Art und der Vollkommenheit der ^M ^f^-^
Inte 1 1 i g e n z a 1 1 e r" des zu Prüfenden ermittelt. Bleibt er mit seinen Losungen hinter
den Normalforderungen zurück, so ist sein Intelligenzalter geringer als das Lebensaller. Wer
auch schwierigere Aufgaben zu bewältigen vermag, als sie der Altcrsstu e entsprechen, er-
hält ein entsprechend höheres Intelligenzalter. Durch Division des Intelhgenzalters durch
das Lebensaller wird der I.-Q. (meist ausgedrückt in P-zenlen) erhallen. Em I.-Q. über 1
(100%) bedeutet überdurchschnittliche, ein solcher unter 1 unterdurchschnittliche Begabung.
Intelligenz
115
WiNGFiELD, der an ,,orphans and twins", an Waisen und Zwillingen, Untersuch-
ungen anstellte, unterschied bei den gleichgeschlechtigen Zwillingen seines Unter-
suchungsmaterials die extrem ähnlichen und die wenig ähnlichen Zwillinge, ohne je-
doch eine exakte Eiigkeitsdiagnose durchzuführen. Dieser Mangel ist zu bedauern;
es ist aber anzunehmen, daß die beiden Gruppen ziemlich genau den EZ und ZZ
entsprechen, Wingfield untersuchte seine Zwillinge mit den modernsten amerika-
nischen Testmethoden und verglich die Zwillinge der einzelnen Gruppen je unter
sich. Das Maß der Ähnlichkeit errechnete er nach den Methoden der Korrelations-
rechnung.* Für die ähnlichen Zwillinge errechnete Wingfield einen Korrelations-
koeffizienten von 0,90, für die gleichgeschlechtigen Geschwisterzwillinge 0,70, für
die Pärchenzwillinge 0,59. Die Abstufung dieser Zahlen zeigt, wie die geistige Ähn-
lichkeit der körperlichen parallel geht; das ist ein Beweis für die Vererbung der
intellektuellen Begabung.
Die erste Intelligenzuntersuchung von Zwillingen auf Grund einer einwandfreien
Eiigkeitsdiagnose wurde 1929 durch von Verschuer durchgeführt. Im Kaiser-Wil-
helm-Institut für Anthropologie, menschliche Erblehre und Rassenhygiene in Berlin
wurden für 30 EZ- und 27 ZZ-Paare die I.-Q. bestimmt. Hierbei zeigte sich, daß bei
den EZ die niederen Unterschiede vorwiegen, bei den ZZ die mittleren und größeren.
Für die EZ-Paare ergab sich ein durchschnittlicher Unterschied von 4,2 Punkten, für
die ZZ ein solcher von 7 Punkten. Dieses Ergebnis zeigt, daß die Intelligenz
vorwiegend durch Erbanlagen bestimmt ist.
Über die Bestimmung der I.-Q. hinaus suchte von Verschuer mit einer weiteren
Methode noch in tiefere Schichten der Intelligenz einzudringen. Er untersuchte über
100 Zwillingspaare mittels des Rorschachschen Formdeutversuchs,
bei dem zufällige Klecksfiguren zu deuten sind. Bei einer Anzahl solcher Figuren
wird der Prüfling gefragt, was es wohl sein könnte. Die Antworten geben inter-
essante Aufschlüsse über die Vorstellungswelt der zu prüfenden Person, ihre Phan-
tasie, ihren Reichtum an optischen Erinnerungsbildern und die Fähigkeit, Bilder zu
verknüpfen. Damit werden gewisse Komponenten der Intelligenz erfaßt, darüber
hinaus aber auch schon Eigenschaften des Temperaments und des Charakters. Die
Unterschiede bei den ZZ-Paaren erweisen sich als wesentlich größer als bei den EZ-
Paaren. Die seelischen Eigenschaften, die durch den Versuch erfaßt werden, müssen
also weithin erbmäßig bestimmt sein.
Eine eingehende Zwillingsuntersuchung über die Vererbung der Kombi-
nationsfähigkeit und der Phantasie wurde von Köhn durchgeführt
(1933), Er benützte hierzu eine Reihe von Tests, welche diese Fähigkeiten erkennen
lassen sollten: Zeichnungen mit abgestufter Unvollständigkeit sollten erkannt und
gedeutet werden; ein verdecktes farbiges Kunstblatt sollte auf Grund einer stufen-
weisen Aufdeckung einzelner Bildteile erkannt werden; einfache geometrische
Figuren mußten durch Zusammenfügung ihrer Bruchstücke gebildet werden; Reime
waren zu finden, ein unvollständig erzähltes Märchen zu Ende zu führen usw. Der
psychische Bereich der Testserie war damit recht weit gesteckt; die intellektuelle
Kombination spielte bei den verschiedenen Einzelaufgaben die Hauptrolle, Es ist
natürlich nicht möglich, aus jeder Teiluntersuchung bestimmte Erkenntnisse abzu-
• Das Maß der Übereinstimmung wird hierbei durch den „Korrclationskoeffizicnten" aus-
gedrückt. Bei ausnahmslosem Zusammenvorkommen des Merkmals bei zwei Merkmalsträgern
beträgt der Korrelationskoeffizient 1, bei einem gegenseitigen Sichausschließen — 1, bei rein
zufälliger Verteilung der beiden Merkmale 0, Bei einem überwiegend gemeinschaftlichen Auf-
treten des Merkmals liegt also der Korrelationskoeffizient zwischen 0 und 1; er drückt das
Maß der Bindung und damit der Gleichheit in dem betreffenden Merkmal aus. Je mehr er
sich der Zahl 1 nähert, um so größer ist die Übereinstimmung.
8*
116
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Intelligenz — Sonderbegabungen
117
t
leiten. Die Tatsache, daß sich in allen Einzeluntersuchun|en d^ LVJlle'd'il te-
licher erwiesen als die ZZ, führt aber zwingend zu dem Schluß, daß al e die see
sehen Erenschaften, welche für die Lösung der Aufgaben maßgebend s.nd m der
Hauptsache erbbedingt sein müssen, Köhn folgert aus der Art. w.e erbgle.che Zwil-
linge zu gleichen Lösungen der Aufgaben kommen, daß diese „recht unmittelbar em
Ausfluß der genotypischen Wesenheit" sein müssen.
Eine wertvolle Arbeit von J. Meumann (1935) stellte sich zur Aufgabe, zu unter-
suchen ob neben der Gleichheit des Intelligenzniveaus auch ^le qu a 1 1 1 a 1 1 ve n
B fs o n d e r h e i t e n d e r 1 n t e 1 1 i g e n z durch die Erban age bedmgt smd. Die
Untersuchung wurde mit je 10 Paaren von EZ und ZZ durchgeführt,
D e Prüflfnge hatten eine Reihe von Tests zu lösen (Gruppieren von verschieden-
artig n Gegenständen, Erschließen von Vorgängen und Zustanden, F-den von Übe -
Schriften zu verschiedenen Bildern, Verarbeitung einer g>-°tesken Behauptung Be
schreiben eines Bildes, Deuten von Zufallsformen), Die verschiedenen Tests gaben
den Ve Suchspersonen Anlaß zu ganz verschiedenen Verhaltensweisen. Sie zeigten
nicht bloß die Intelligenz im engeren Sinn, sondern auch die Phantasie wie den In-
halt der Vorstellungswelt, Aus der Art, wie sich die Versuchspersonen bei der
Lösung der Aufgaben verhielten, waren auch Eigenschaften von Temperament und
Charakter zu erkennen. Bei allen Einzeluntersuchungen ergab sich dasselbe Bild^
eine durchweg größere, oft bis in lächerliche Einzelheiten gehende Übereinstimmung
der EZ deöenüber den ZZ, Die EZ zeigten meist eine v o 1 i g g 1 e i c t,
Tr f Tö e deisti^e Haltung, während sich bei den ZZ-Paaren starke Intelligenz-
und PerÄnlichkeit^unter^chitke offenbarten. Als Ergebnis ihrer Untersuchungen
stellte die Verfasserin folgendes fest: j. c^ i * a
Das was von allen Umwelteinflüssen am wenigsten berührt wird, ist d^^S^^-^^f ^^i" f/
Perf ^Uch^t a. au. ein O^ü.e Jo™ia.r -nk^.nse.e^^^^
bei einem Zwillingspaar von 50 ^ ^^"!," ..^^^ J^'^^' !,^. ^. dchemmt zeigte und darum die
suchungen haben sich diese qualitativen Besonderheiten als erblich angelegt und
Welteinflüsse kaum modifizierbar erwiesen.
Neben der Untersuchung mittels Tests gibt es noch eine andere Möglichkeit die
geisUgen Le!Itungen von Zwillingen zu vergleichen: die Untersuchung ihrer Schul^
Ludnisse Fr.sche.sen-Köhler erfaßte die Schulzeugmsse von ^0 Pa^"^^" '^'^..""^
41 Palren ZZ aüe aus Berliner Schulen, Die Schulzeugnisse der beiden Paarlinge
fn Betragen und Aufmerksamkeit sowie in allen Einzelfächern wurden verg ichem
Dabei erlab sich daß bei den EZ die Leistungen der beiden Partner in sämtlichen
fächern (mit der stcher nur zufälligen Ausnahme des Englischen «--"der we
ähnUcher Id als bei den ZZ, Die Unterschiede bei den ZZ sind im D^-h^^J" "
etwa zweimal so groß als die der EZ; sie sind am stärksten bei den Knaben im
74 bis 1^6 Lebensjahr, bei den Mädchen im 13, bis 16, Lebensjahr den Jahren der
Jeginnelden R "e Das ist dieselbe Erscheinung, wie sie auch beim Körperwachstum
beobachtet wurde („Pubertätszacken", vgl. S.92). Die größere Ähnlichkeit der EZ
beobachtet wuro,,, einzelnen Schulfächern zu einem großen Teil erb-
trbi\immts!nd Zugrunde liegen ihnen nicht nur Eigenschaften der Intelligenz,
londern auS solche von Temperament und Charakter. Po., vertritt allerdings die
Ansicht, daß die Zeugnisse für zwei EZ von den Lehrern ähnlicher erteilt würden,
als dies bei getrennter Beurteilung erfolgen würde; das Urteil der Lehrer werde von
der Überzeugung, daß die beiden Zwillinge in ihrem Wesen überaus ähnlich seien
und daß sie deshalb auch gleiche Schulleistungen hervorbringen müßten, sehr stark
psychologisch beeinflußt. Das mag zum Teil zutreffen, kann aber das klare Gesamt-
ergebnis der berichteten Untersuchung nicht entkräften.
Mit den für die Arbeit in der Schule wesentlichen seelischen
Eigenschaften beschäftigt sich noch eine Untersuchung von L Paetzold. Sie
versuchte folgende Dinge zu erfassen: Aufmerksamkeit, Merkfähigkeit für Zahlen
und Formen, Finden des Wesentlichen, Kritikfähigkeit, Satzbildungsvermögen, Be-
obachtung, Konzentration, zeichnerisches Vorstellungsvermögen, moralische Ein-
sicht, Wortschatz, Eintritt und Stärke der ersten Ermüdung. Alle diese Eigen-
schaften wurden durch verschiedene Tests geprüft, die Aufmerksamkeit z. B. da-
durch, daß in einem Text alle a-Buchstaben durchgestrichen werden mußten. Bei
allen Einzelaufgaben erwiesen sich die EZ als viel ähnlicher als die ZZ. Aus dem
Unterschied der mittleren Abweichungen bei EZ und ZZ versuchte Paetzold den ver-
schiedenen Grad der Umweltbeeinf lußbarkeit der einzelnen genannten Eigenschaften
zu errechnen. Die hierzu benützten Methoden und damit auch das Ergebnis der Be-
rechnung sind wegen der Verschiedenwertigkeit der bei den einzelnen Tests be-
nützten mathematischen Maßstäbe zweifellos nicht haltbar; die Arbeit hat aber
trotzdem den qualitativen Nachweis dafür erbracht, daß alle genannten Eigen-
schaften in erheblichem Maße erbbedingt sind.
b) Sonderbegabungen
Unabhängig von der allgemeinen intellektuellen Begabung gibt es Sonderbe-
gabungen auf bestimmten Gebieten (Begabung für Musik, Mathematik, bildende
Künste usw.). Beobachtungen über das gleichzeitige Auftreten solcher Begabungen
bei EZ seien im nachstehenden aufgeführt.
Daß die musikalische Begabung erbmäßig bedingt ist, beweisen Familienunter-
suchungen mit voller Klarheit. Das eindrucksvollste Beispiel ist von jeher der
Stam.mbaum des Geschlechts der Bach gewesen, der eine schlechthin einzigartige
Häufung musikalischer Begabungen aufweist. Eben dieser Stammbaum bringt aber
auch ein sehr interessantes Beispiel musikalischer EZ. Johann Ambrosius
Bach, der Vater von Johann Sebastian Bach, hatte einen Zwillingsbruder Johann
Christoph Bach, von dem Johann Sebastians Sohn, Philipp Emanuel Bach,
folgendes erzählt:
, .Diese Zwillinge sind vielleicht von dieser Art die einzigen, die man weiß, Sie liebten
sich aufs äußerste, Sie sahen einander so ähnlich, daß sogar ihre Frauen sie nicht unter-
scheiden konnten. Sie waren ein Wunder für große Herren und für jeden, der sie sah, Sprache,
Gesinnung, alles war einerlei. Auch in der Musik waren sie nicht zu unterscheiden. Sie
spielten einerlei, sie dachten ihren Vortrag einerlei. War einer krank, so war es auch der
andere, Sie starben bald hintereinander,"
Ähnliche musikalische Zwillinge sind in der Gegenwart die Kapellmeister Wolf
und Will Heins, von denen zuerst von Verschuer berichtet hat. Die beiden zeigten
schon in frühester Jugend außerordentliche Ähnlichkeit in körperlicher und seeli-
scher Beziehung, Wolf Heins erzählt davon folgendes:
„Früh offenbarte sich unsere musikalische Begabung. Uns beide beseelte der Wunsch,
Musiker zu werden. Dabei war das Merkwürdige, daß wir uns nie über unsere Berufswahl
und Ziele miteinander ausgesprochen hatten. In einem rein instinktiven Handeln äußerte sich
unsere Seelenverwandtschaft, Der Besuch einer Freischütz-Aufführung war entscheidend für
unser Leben. Während der Vorstellung reifte bei uns beiden endgültig der Entschluß, Diri-
gent zu werden. Aber keiner berichtete ihn dem andern. Jeder trug sein stilles Sehnen für
118
Zwillingstorschung an seelischen Eigenschalten
Sonderbegabungen — Temperament und Charakter
119
Bild 78. Die Kapellmeister Wolf und Will Heins. (Aus der J. Z. 1935.)
sich im Herzen. Dann, als ich mich einmal allein fühlte, baute ich mir auf der Nähmaschine
ein provisorisches Dir igenlenpult, und ein kleines Taktstöckchen half m.r dabe., emer stillen
Hoffnung Ausdruck zu verleihen. Hierauf schlich ich mich heimlich zu W.ll ""d erwischte
ihn im stillen Kämmerlein bei derselben Handlung. Als ich ihm dann von meinem Dirigenten-
komplex erzählte, guckten wir uns gegenseitig an und lachten über das Wunder unserer
Gleichheit." ,1.1 • t.
Beide Zwillinge wurden Schüler von Max Reger, der die beiden ^H^^^^^^''
scheiden lernte. Später wurden sie Kapellmeister. Von Verschuer erzahlt 1930 von
ihrer Tätigkeit:
„Im letzten Winter studierte jeder an seiner Bühne dieselbe "^"^OP^^'"' .^'^,";"7':
lische und darstellerische Auffassung war bei beiden Brüdern so ähnlich, daß sie ohne vor
erige Probe die Sänger der Hauptrolle austauschen konnten. Weiterhin konnten die Zw.l lings-
brüder s ch gegenseitig beim Dirigieren des Orchesters vertreten, ohne daß nur ein Mitglied
des Orchestert geschweige denn die Zuhörerschaft den Wechsel des Dirigenten bemerkte,
Mjöen führt in einer Untersuchung über die Vererbung der musikalischen Be-
gabung zwei Beispiele musikalischer EZ an, bei denen sich bezeichnende Einzelzuge
dieser Begabung in interessanter Weise als gleich erwiesen:
In einem Gesangverein in Brooklyn wurden bei einem Zwillingsschwesternpaar der btimm-
um'iang dir Fähigkeit, eine zweite Stimme zu lernen, zu halten und zu improvisieren, sowie
Tch ein absolutes Tongehör als gleich festgestellt. Die beiden Schwestern wurden in zwei
Familt n großt^ogen, die in Beziehung auf musikalische Veranlagung sehr verschieden waren
In der einen Famüie befanden sich zwei ausübende Künstler, in der anderen keine .Au^
Umweltfaktoren kann die große Übereinstimmung zwischen den Schwestern also wohl kaum
^"tZn anderen Fall eineiiger Zwillinge hatten wir in einer Schule in Norwegen Gekgen-
heit zu beobachten. Bei zwei Zwillingsschwestern, die sich gesanglich so glichen daß me der
Lehrer an der Stimme nicht unterscheiden konnte, wurde «"tS"'«'"' ''^1 f ^''"^l^ ""/!!
oberen Lage in der gleichen Weise unrein sangen, daß sie ein wenig .schwebten . we man zu
sagen pflegt. Besonders interessant war, daß diese Unsicherheit im Treffen bei beiden auf
die obersten 3 Töne begrenzt war.'*
Aus den erzählten Beispielen geht unwiderleglich die erbmäßige Bedingtheit
dessen hervor, was als „musikalische Begabung" bezeichnet wird, in Wirk-
lichkeit aber einen verwickelten Komplex einzelner besonderer Anlagen darstellt.
Von Verschuer erzählt weiterhin von einem erbgleichen Zwillingspaar, das neben
überdurchschnittlicher musikalischer Begabung noch eine andere hervorragende
Sonderbegabung aufweist, die Begabung für Schachspiel. Die beiden Schwestern
Käthe und Wally H, erhielten vom 7. Lebensjahr an Klavierunterricht. Die etwas
größere Begabung von Wally führte dazu, daß sie in einem Konservatorium eine
Ausbildung als Gesang- und Klavierlehrerin erhielt; Käthe spielte eine Zeitlang
Klavier und ist wohl stimmlich ebenso gut veranlagt wie ihre Schwester, hat sich
aber im Gesang nicht ausbilden lassen. Eine Prüfung der musikalischen Leistungen
der beiden Schwestern zeigte selbstverständlich ein überlegenes Können der musi-
kalisch ausgebildeten Schwester, ließ aber doch erkennen, daß die grundlegenden
Fähigkeiten sehr ähnlich waren. Dazuhin sind die beiden Schwestern hervorragende
Schachspielerinnen. Das ist um so bemerkenswerter, als die für dieses Spiel ent-
scheidenden geistigen Anlagen sich bei Frauen wesentlich seltener finden als bei
Männern. Von Verschuer erzählt von ihrer Betätigung folgendes:
„Mit 13 Jahren fingen beide an, Schach zu spielen. Sie haben diese Begabung von ihrem
Vater ererbt, der schon als junger Mensch im Hamburger Schachklub als einer der besten
Spieler galt. Die Mutter und eine ältere Schwester zeigen keine besondere Schachbegabung.
1922 trat Käthe, ein Jahr darauf auch Wally in den Schachklub ein. Sie sind im Klub ziem-
lich gleichmäßig in höhere Klassen hinaufgerückt; gelegentlich war die eine, dann wieder
die andere etwas besser. Seit zwei Jahren spielen beide in der ersten Klasse, Zum inter-
nationalen Schachturnier 1930 wurden die Zwillingsschwestern zur Ausscheidung zugelassen.
Wally kam dabei an die dritte Stelle, hat aber als einzige Dame in einer Partie gegen die
Weltmeisterin gesiegt. Die Schachstärke wird von den Zwillingen als die gleiche angegeben;
nur ist Käthe durch die anstrengendere Berufsarbeit häufiger ermüdet. Mit der Theorie des
Schachspiels haben sich beide noch wenig beschäftigt. Ein geringer Unterschied in der Art
der Schachbegabung zeigt sich bei beiden Zwillingsschwestern darin, daß Käthe mehr nach
einem Plan spielt, während Wally mehr gegebene Situationen auszunützen versteht. Der
Vater der Zwillinge besiegt zu Hause noch seine Töchter, während er in Turnierspielen mit
zeitlicher Begrenzung ihnen unterlegen ist."
2. Temperament und Charakter
a) Einzeluntersuchungen
Eine verhältnismäßig einfach zu erfassende Erscheinung ist das, was als „persön-
liches Tempo" bezeichnet wird. Frischeisen-Köhler hat hierüber eine Zwillings-
untersuchung durchgeführt. Jeder Mensch hat ein ganz bestimmtes Tempo, das in
allen seinen Handlungen, im Gehen, Sprechen, Schreiben usw. zum Ausdruck kommt.
Er reagiert auch in bestimmter Weise auf ein von außen an ihn herangebrachtes
Tempo: Irgendein Tempo, wie das Schlagen einer Uhr, kann uns zusagen oder uns
stören, weil wir es unangenehm — zu langsam oder zu schnell — empfinden. In
diesen Erscheinungen tritt eine Grundlage dessen in Erscheinung, was wir Tem-
perament heißen. Um das persönliche Tempo zu erfassen, ließ Frischeisen-Köhler
die Versuchspersonen mit dem Finger oder der Hand in dem Tempo an den Tisch
klopfen, das ihnen am meisten zusagte. In einem zweiten Versuch wurde ein Metro-
nom bald schneller, bald langsamer in Bewegung gesetzt und durch Abänderung der
Geschwindigkeit bestimmt, welches Tempo von der Versuchsperson am angenehmsten
empfunden wurde. Die Versuche führten zu dem Ergebnis, daß das persönliche
Tempo bei jedem Menschen sehr konstant ist; Veränderungen der Versuchsbeding-
ungen rufen beim einzelnen Menschen kaum eine Veränderung des Tempos hervor.
Im Gegensatz dazu bestehen große Unterschiede zwischen verschiedenen Menschen.
120
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Solche Unterschiede wurden zwischen EZ, zwischen ZZ, zwischen zwei Geschwistern
und schließlich zwischen zwei zufällig zusammengestellten, nicht verwandten Per-
sonen bestimmt. Dabei zeigte sich, daß die Unterschiede des Tempos bei den beiden
Partnern eines EZ-Paares nicht größer sind als sie auch bei ein und derselben Person
zu verschiedenen Zeiten gemessen werden können („Selbstunterschied"). Die Unter-
schiede, die ZZ aufweisen, sind etwa doppelt so groß, ebenso die Unterschiede
zwischen verschiedenalterigen Geschwistern. Noch größer sind die Unterschiede
zwischen nicht verwandten Personen. Durch diese Untersuchungen wird schlüssig
bewiesen, daßdaspersönlicheTempoinstarkemMaßedurchdie
Erbanlagen bestimmt wird.
Mit der Frage der Vererbung sozialer und sittlicher Charakteranlagcn beschäftigt
sich eine Zwillingsuntersuchung von Therese Lassen, die an Schülern auf Grund einer
^ragebogenerhebung bei den Lehrern durchgeführt wurde (1931). Gegen eine solche
Methode bestehen natürlich allerhand Bedenken, da eine durchweg gleichmäßii^-
Beurteilung der Schüler nicht
Eigenschaft
EZ
ZZ
FZ
Selbstbewußtsein
Einstellung zur Leistung
Selbstbeherrschung ....
Selbstsucht
Stellung zu den Eltern
Stellung zum Mitschüler
Stellung zum Lehrer . .
Behandlung von Tieren
und Pflanzen
Sachbehandlung
Arbeitswille
Beharrlichkeit
Arbeitsfreude
Beeindruckbarkeit ....
Interessengebiete
0,71
— 0,01
0,38
0,67
0,35
0,44
0,71
0,27
0,30
0,63
0,62
0,49
0,96
0,47
0,85
0,86
— 0,03
0,29
0,84
0,36
0,21
0,98
0,44
0,54
0,79
0,53
0,65
0,86
0,49
0,36
0,67
— 0,08
0,04
0,66
— 0,17
0,18
0,92
0,42
0,42
0,91
0,12
0,15
zustande kommen kann. Das
Ergebnis an insgesamt 226
Zwillingspaaren ist aber trotz-
dem sehr bemerkenswert; es
ist in der nebenstehenden Ta-
belle zusammengestellt. Für
jede der in den Fragebogen
erhobenen Eigenschaften ist
für die verschiedenen Arten
von Zwillingen je besonders
einKorrelationskoef f izient für
das Zusammenvorkommen bei
den Partnern errechnet wor-
den.
Es zeigt sich, daß in allen
Eigenschaften die EZ
außerordentlich viel
ähnlicher sind als die
ZZunddiePZ. Es überrascht sogar, wie wenig ähnlich sich die ZZ erweisen;
ihre Korrelation bleibt sogar in der Mehrzahl der Fälle hinter derjenigen der PZ
zurück. Auch wenn auf die errechneten Zahlenwerte kein besonderer Wert gelegt
wird, so ist doch auf alle Fälle mit der Untersuchung der qualitative Nachweis er-
bracht, daß alle die genannten, im einzelnen sicher sehr komplexen Eigenschaften
eine erbliche Grundlage besitzen müssen.
Ausführlicher berichtet sei noch über zwei charakterologische Arbeiten von
LoTTiG und KöHN. Diese beiden Arbeiten gründen sich in ihrer Anlage und Frage-
stellung nicht auf die Einteilung der älteren Psychologie in Intelligenz, Temperament
und Charakter, sondern legen ihren Untersuchungen die Begriffe von Klages zu-
grunde, der unter Charakter die Gesamtpersönlichkeit versteht, so daß
Verstand, Gefühl und Wille in diesen Charakterbegriff eingehen.
Klages unterscheidet Stoff, Artung und Gefüge des Charakters. Der Stoff
umfaßt die elementaren Gegebenheiten von Verstand, Gefühl und Wille gewisser-
maßen als Mengeneigenschaften, die Bausteine, das Material, womit die Persönlich-
keit arbeitet. Die A r t u n g des Charakters umfaßt die Triebfedern und Interessen;
diese geben die Richtung an, der die Persönlichkeit folgt, die Ziele und Maßstäbe.
Bei der Artung des Charakters handelt es sich damit um Richtungseigenschaften.
|lf
Charakter
121
Das G e f u g e des Charakters faßt die Eigenschaften zusammen, die die Ablaufs-
formen des seelischen Geschehens bestimmen, z. B. die Schnelligkeit oder Langsam-
keit, die Gleichmäßigkeit, Art und Grad der Gehemmtheit. Was man mit „Tempera-
ment" bezeichnet, geht in dieser Gruppe auf.
LoTTiG hat seinen „Hamburger Zwillingsstudien" (1931) je 10 EZ-
und ZZ-Paare zugrunde gelegt. Er geht bei ihnen in der Erfassung des Charaktero-
logischen nicht messend auf Grund von Testuntersuchungen vor, sondern beob-
achtend und beschreibend. In welcher Weise er die Persönlichkeit zu erfassen sucht,
sollen die nachstehenden Beispiele (2 EZ-Paare und 1 ZZ-Paar) zeigen.
Paar 1 der Untersuchung (EZ). 18jährige Akademikersöhne, die gerade ihre
Reifeprüfung auf dem Gymnasium gemacht haben. Es handelt sich um ein Paar typische
Leptosome, die die Untersuchung mit einem gewissen trockenen Humor, öfter leicht ironi-
sierend, beobachtend, aber durchaus verständnisvoll über sich ergehen lassen, Sie haben
nach Angaben der Mutter erst spät sprechen gelernt, unterhielten sich bis dahin in einer
„unverständlichen Sprache" und speisten ihre Angehörigen „mit ganz vereinzelten Wort-
brocken" ab. Beide lutschten als Kleinkinder gern. B, war Bettnässer bis zum 6. Lebens-
jahre, A, scheint auch etwas über die gewöhnliche Zeit eingenäßt zu haben. Als Kinder sollen
sie lebhaft, gutmütig und folgsam gewesen sein. Beide hatten stets gute Schulzeugnisse. Nach
der Meinung der Mutter sind sie jetzt noch recht lebhaft (objektiv nicht erheblich), haben
beide rasche Auffassung, beobachten scharf. A. ist aufgeschlossener, anhänglicher, hat einen
stets frischen Humor und Witz, B. ist „viel verschlossener", zurückhaltender, sensitiv, Sie
musizieren ganz gern; auf Wunsch der Eltern lernte A. Klavierspiel, B. Geigenspiel. Sie
spielen beide „ganz gut", halten sich für nicht übermäßig talentiert, gehen gern ins Konzert.
Für die Schule haben sie sich nie sehr begeistert, betrieben mit mehr Vorliebe Segelsport,
haben ein eigenes Boot und „pütjern" gern daran herum, Sie sollen beide gut skifahren.
Besonders gesellig waren sie nie, hatten nicht viel Freunde, waren sich meist selbst genug.
Anscheinend waren sie eine Clique für sich und brauchten keine anderen dazu, Sie sind beide
skeptisch, beobachtend, ruhig. B, soll früher aufgeregter gewesen sein als A. Bemerkens-
werte religiöse Neigungen haben sie nicht, sind ziemlich nüchtern und realistisch eingestellt.
Politisches Interesse ist deutlich bei beiden vorhanden, aber ohne Anhängerschaft an eine
Partei, Mädchenfreundschaften liegen ihnen fern; natürliche Sinnlichkeit ohne Drang nach
Auswirkung. Beide betonen, daß sie großes Selbstvertrauen haben. Sie sind korrekt ge-
kleidet, nicht bemerkenswert eitel. Schlaf und Appetit gut, A, ist etwas lebhafter, kecker,
B. etwas stiller, kommt aber doch auch oft mit interessierten, etwas spöttelnden Bemerkungen
heraus. Der Unterschied in der Aufgeschlossenheit ist wohl feststellbar, erscheint aber bei
der Untersuchung geringer, als er von der Mutter empfunden wird. Beide sind in bezug auf
Berufsfragen ziemlich nüchtern und realistisch eingestellt, haben praktische Neigungen mit
leichtem wissenschaftlichem Einschlag, A. will Ingenieur-Kaufmann werden, B. Diplom-
Kaufmann oder kaufmännisch tätiger Jurist,
Paar 6 der Untersuchung (EZ). 16jährige, kecke, sehr geschickt und adrett
angezogene Mädchen, Töchter eines Betriebsleiters. B. wurde in Kopflage durch Zange ge-
boren, war sehr schwächlich und kam auf 3 bis 4 Wochen in den Brutofen; A. kam 10 Stunden
später als Steißlage zur Welt, war etwas kräftiger. Sie wurden beide künstlich ernährt, hatten
keine Ernährungsstörungen, bekamen gleichzeitig die ersten Zähne, liefen mit 1 Jahr, A, 14
Tage später als B. Mit ^V4 Jahren fingen sie an zu sprechen. Die Mädchen waren zunächst
folgsam, ziemlich lebhaft, B, mehr als A. B. soll einmal einen Wutanfall gehabt haben, von
dem sie jetzt noch reden. Keuchhusten und Masern machten sie gemeinsam durch; b'. mit
Mittelohrentzündung rechts, A. ohne solche, B, litt außerdem an Drüsenschwellungen und
großen Mandeln. Die Mädchen besuchten die Volksschule, kamen nach 4 Jahren in die Ober-
realschule, kamen dort im Rechnen und Englisch nicht mit, wurden nervös, unruhig, magerten
ab, wurden ängstlich und kamen deshalb in die Volksschule zurück, wo sie sehr gut mit-
kamen. Schulleistungen bei A, weniger besser als bei B. Erster Eintritt der Regel: B vor
•V* Jahren, A. vor 'U Jahr. A, hat die Regel mittelstark, B, ziemlich stark, dabei Kopf-
schmerzen (A, nicht), — Die Mutter gibt an, daß die Mädchen als Kleinkinder lebhaft aber
nett im Umgang waren, Sie malten und zeichneten gern, spielten gern mit Puppen und kleinen
Kindern, Sie waren körperlich zart, schlechte Esser. Auch in der späten Schulzeit spielten
fi
122
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
sie gern, hatten Freundinnen, waren keine Stubenhocker. In den ersten Schuljahren schloß
sich A. weniger leicht an als B. Letztere war jedoch immer etwas nervös, weinte viel, fühlte
sich öfter zurückgesetzt, die Mutter weiß eigentlich nicht, weshalb. B. ging weniger aus sich
heraus. A. turnte gern, B. weniger gern. Handarbeiten und Englisch hätten sie gut gekonnt.
Rechnen weniger gut, alles übrige ganz gut. Seit dem 14. Lebensjahre hätten die Mädchen
sich geändert. Es begann schon während der Schulzeit. B. hatte damals eine Freundin, A.
nicht; sie wurden aufgehetzt, vertrugen sich schlecht, stritten viel. A. hatte meist die Ober-
hand, hatte die „glücklichere Natur". Jetzt hat auch A. wieder eine Freundin, Vorüber-
gehend waren sie sehr verschlossen, in letzter Zeit wieder etwas weniger. Vor allem aber
wurden sie unzufrieden, ungefällig, in alledem war A. gleich B. Im ganzen ist sonst A, ruhiger,
harmonischer, tiefer, B. oberflächlicher, unruhiger. Beide gehen zum Schwimmen und Turnen.
A. ist im Schwimmen etwas ängstlicher, turnt lieber. Die Mädchen besuchen jetzt einen
Jahreskursus der Haushaltungsschule. Zur Hausarbeit müssen sie immer angehalten werden,
nörgeln darüber; sie sind aber beide peinlich sauber. Sie machen ganz gerne Handarbeiten,
B. weniger ausdauernd als A. Musikalisch sind sie beide nicht; B. singt vielleicht etwas
besser. Sie haben jetzt beide guten Appetit, schlafen gut. Im Wesen sind sie sprunghaft, leb-
haft; sind gern außer dem Hause, poussieren ganz gern, A. mehr als B. A. möchte Kinder-
fräulein oder Säuglingspflegerin werden, B. Drogistin oder Laborantin. — Interessieren sich
sehr für ihre Kleidung, sind ausgesprochen eitel, kommen zur Untersuchung zweimal in
feinen, auf Wirkung berechneten Kleidern. Sonntags gehen sie ganz gern hinaus auf Wande-
rungen, meist mit dem Turnverein, in dem sie viel mit jungen Männern zusammenkommen.
Tanzen tun sie nicht gern. Auf Befragen wird B. als die Anführerin angegeben. Objektiv
macht A. einen frischeren, harmonischeren Eindruck, reagiert mehr adäquat. B. ist sensibler,
unausgeglichener. Beide sind sehr geweckt, aufmerksam, scharfsinnig, ganz auf Wirkung ein-
gestellt. Sie erscheinen sehr selbständig und drängen nach Unabhängigkeit. Die fürsorgliche
Mutter ist ihnen lästig. In Briefen bedienen sie sich einer gewandten, manchmal etwas affek-
tierten und geschrobenen Ausdrucksweise.
Paar 11 der Untersuchung (ZZ). 14jährige Mädchen, Vater im Krieg gefallen.
Die Mutter ist eine geweckte, saubere, für das Fortkommen ihrer Töchter interessierte Frau.
Die Zwillinge wurden in einer Entbindungsanstalt geboren als Siebenmonatskinder, A. als
erste in Kopflage, B, 10 Minuten später in Steißlage. Beide mußten einige Wochen in der
Wärmzelle gehalten werden, B. länger als A. Die Kinder wurden 14 Monate genährt. A. er-
hielt vom 7. Monat an Beikost, die zartere B. vom 9. Monat an. Beide erbrachen in den
ersten Monaten öfter, waren sehr empfindlich mit der Ernährung. Beide waren viel wund,
hatten Kopfausschlag. Im ganzen zeigte A. eine bessere Entwicklung als B., die mit 3 Jahren
einmal körperlich sehr herunter war. Die ersten Zähne bekam B. mit 1 Jahr, ohne Be-
schwerden, A. mit IV4 Jahren, mit viel Schmerzen und „Krämpfen". Laufen lernten beide
mit l"i bis 2 Jahren. In der Sprachentwicklung war B. weiter als A., sprach besser und
mehr. A. war als Kleinkind sehr ängstlich, B. nicht. Dafür schrie B. sehr viel, lutschte stark,
kaute die Nägel ab, pflückte viel an den Haaren, war in Vollmondnächten unruhig, schrie
laut, war Bettnässerin bis zum 5. Jahre; auch jetzt noch kommt manchmal Einnässen vor.
B. war unruhiger, nervös, reizbar, A. folgsamer, gutmütiger, ruhiger. Gemeinsame Kinder-
krankheiten. Beide hatten große Mandeln; bei A. wurden sie entfernt. Später waren beide
oft erkältet, A. hatte öfter Leibschmerzen, B. einmal eine Blasen- und Nierenbeckenentzün-
dung. A. soll mit 10 Jahren einen Lungenspitzenkatarrh gehabt haben. Mit 12 Jahren machte
A. eine Lungenentzündung durch, angeblich auch Herzmuskelschwäche. B. hatte vor einem
Jahr einen Stirnhöhlenkatarrh. Erster Eintritt der Regel bei A. mit 11 Jahren, bei B. mit
13 Jahren. Periode bei A. regelmäßig, stark, alle 3 Wochen, bei B. schwächer, alle 4 Wochen.
Die Mutter gibt an, daß A. feinempfindend, leicht gekränkt sei, sie käme mit allem nicht so
leicht zurecht, sei mehr „Prinzessin"-Typ. B. ist resolut, weiß was sie will, ist energisch und
zielstrebig. Sie ist allerdings auch zappeliger, redet schnell und viel, ist temperamentvoll. A.
erlahmt in allem leichter. Sie betreibt gern Handarbeiten, Zeichnen und Malen, ist im ganzen
ruhiger, seßhafter. B. ist vorwiegend für praktische Arbeiten, geht lieber auf die Straße,
schließt sich leicht an andere an, während A. sich viel für sich hält. Musikalisch sind beide,
B. singt besser als A. A. sitzt am liebsten zu Hause, sie ist geistig deutlich zurück gegen B.
Besonders einige Tage vor der Periode sei sie leicht beschränkt; nachher würde es dann
wieder besser. Freundinnen hat A. nicht; B. dagegen hat immer welche gehabt. A. möchte
I
Charakter
123
Reklamezeichnerin werden; dafür reicht die
Begabung aber nicht aus; nun wolle sie Kinder-
pflegerin werden. Sie lese alles, was sie be-
kommen könne; besonders gern Reisebeschrei-
bungen. Früher hätte sie sehr viel mit Puppen
gespielt, Puppenzeug genäht. Sie bastelt und
modelliert gern. In der Schule zeigte sie mäßige
Leistungen, Rechnen fällt ihr heute noch schwer.
B. war in der Schule viel besser. Zuerst wollte
sie immer schreiben; später hatte sie besondere
Neigung für Rechnen, Turnen, Englisch, Physik
und Mathematik. Im übrigen war sie ein leb-
hafter „Deubel", war auf der Straße, sobald sie
Zeit hatte, hatte immer Lust zum Streiche
machen, Sie möchte Kontoristin werden, am
liebsten Privatsekretärin. — Die Mädchen sind
körperlich und geistig sehr verschieden. A. un-
geweckt, aber freundlich-harmonisch, B. sehr
lebhaft und geweckt, kompliziert, bewußter.
A. ist wenig unternehmend, beschaulich, etwas
bequem, B. energisch, aktiv, ehrgeizig.
LoTTiG verarbeitete nun die Charakter-
bilder seiner 20 Zwillingspaare nach dem
Klages sehen Charakterschema. Das Er-
gebnis dieser Verarbeitung ist in den Bil-
dern 79, 80 und 81 niedergelegt. Die Eigen-
schaften wurden geordnet und dabei fol-
gende Zeichen angewandt:
= für Übereinstimmung beider Zwillinge
(Konkordanz),
( = ) bei kleinen Verschiedenheiten (unvoll-
ständige Konkordanz),
(X) bei deutlicher Verschiedenheit (unvoll-
ständige Diskordanz),
X für Diskordanz.
In den tabellenmäßigen Darstellungen
sind die bekanntgewordenen Eigenschaften
eingetragen, jede Eigenschaft mit einer be-
stimmten Breite. Da die Zahl der erfaßten
Eigenschaften und ihre Verteilung auf die
verschiedenen Gruppen und Spalten bei
den einzelnen Untersuchungspersonen je-
weils verschieden war, sind auch die für
die einzelnen Paare verwendeten Räume in
den Spalten verschieden hoch. Ein Über-
blick über die drei verschiedenen Bilder
zeigt, daß sich bei den HZ die festgestellten
Eigenschaften gegen die linke Seite, die
Seite der Konkordanz, zusammendrängen,
während bei den ZZ die Diskordanzspalten
stark besetzt sind.
Für den Stoff des Charakters
fand LoTTiG bei den EZ eine fast völlige
Konkordanz, bei denZZ dagegen eine recht
große Streuung, Daraus würde folgen, daß
EZ
Bild 79. Stoff
(Nach
ZZ
des Charakters.
Lottig.)
Bild 80. Artung des Charakters.
(Nach Lottig.)
Nn
H
iiiiiiir
lllllllil
M
10
nmmi
Nn
=
H
rx)
X
11
JlHllllI
12
lllllllil
HUITTTl
13
rmniii
III
n
15
lllllllil
miiiiü
16
{llllllll
17
1 1
18
iiiiiiii;
19
Mmm
20
T
i
KZ
ZZ
Bild 81. Gefüge des Charakters.
(Nach Lottig,)
124
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Handschrift und Charakter
125
der Stoff des Charakters ganz vorwiegend erblich bestimmt ist; die Möglichkeit
der Abänderung durch Umwelteinflüsse ist nur gering. Bei der Artung des Cha-
rakters zeigt sich auch bei den EZ eine leichte Verschiebung in der Richtung nach
der Diskordanz. Die Konkordanz ist zwar noch weit überwiegend und damit auch
die vorwiegende Erbbedingtheit der Artung des Charakters außer Zweifel; die Inter-
essen und Neigungen zeigen aber doch eine stärkere Modifikationsbreite als der Stoff
des Charakters. Noch stärker ist die Verschiebung in der Richtung der Diskordanz
beim G e f ü g e des Charakters. Lottig sagt: ,,Die Grade und Arten der nervösen
Reaktionen, die Harmonie oder Widerstandskraft, Energie und Entschlossenheit,
Frische und Äußerungsvermögen, diese und manche ähnlichen Eigenschaften, von
denen wir nach dem Gesamtergebnis annehmen müssen, daß sie tief im Genischen
wurzeln, sind doch einer bemerkenswerten Modifikabilität fähig." Damit kommt
Lottig zu dem Schluß, daß das Gefüge des Charakters zwar auch überwiegend
genisch bedingt sei, daneben aber doch in einer nicht zu unterschätzenden Weise
durch Umwelteinflüsse modifiziert werden könnte.
KÖHN führte eine ganz ähnliche Untersuchung wie Lottig an 24 Paaren EZ und
37 Paaren ZZ aus, von denen 19 Paare EZ und 27 Paare ZZ genau analysiert wurden.
Auch nach seinen Untersuchungen spielt in dem Zusammenwirken zwischen Anlage
und Umwelt das Erbgut die führende, die Umwelt die dienende Rolle. Aufs Ganze
gesehen fand er die Hälfte der
EZ charakterologisch konkor-
dant, die andere Hälfte vor-
wiegend konkordant, bei den
ZZ dagegen rund 50% mäßig
diskordant, die andere Hälfte
stärker diskordant. Für Über-
einstimmung der Zwillinge in
den einzelnen Gruppen des
Charakterschemas von Klages
fand er nebenstehende Zahlen:
=
( = )
(X)
X
Stoff [
EZ
ZZ
58%
38%
8%
4%
54%
38%
Artung
EZ
ZZ
54%
38%
8%
62%
38%
Gefüge 1
EZ
ZZ
33%
58%
3%
9%
35%
62%
Auch KöHN findet damit die gleiche Abstufung in den drei Eigenschaftsgruppen
des Charakters wie Lottig, allerdings nicht in derselben Stärke wie dieser. „Anhalts-
punkte dafür, daß die Variationsbreite für die drei Eigenschaftsgruppen des Cha-
rakters wesentlich verschieden sei, bieten die Tabellen nicht."
b) Handschriit und Charakter
Seelische Eigenschaften werden natürlicherweise aus seelischen Äußerungen er-
schlossen. Es ist aber auch möglich, aus körperlichen Ausdrucksbewegungen auf
seelische Eigenschaften zu schließen, insbesondere auf solche des Temperaments und
des Charakters. EZ sind in ihren Ausdrucksbewegungen oft außerordentlich ähn-
lich; dabei ist es natürlich sehr schwer, solche Dinge exakt zu erfassen und für ver-
gleichende Untersuchungen niederzulegen. Am einfachsten gelingt dies für die Hand-
schriit, die nichts anderes als eine fixierte Ausdrucksbewegung ist. Mit diesem
Gebiet befaßt sich schon seit langem die G r a p h o 1 o g i e, Sie schließt aus den
Formen der Handschrift auf die seelischen Eigenschaften des Schreibers.
Wenn sich tatsächlich die seelische Wesensart eines Menschen in der Handschrift
ausprägt, so muß die Untersuchung von Zwillingshandschriften von ganz besonderem
Interesse sein. Schon Galton hat sich mit den Handschriften von Zwillingen be-
schäftigt. Er findet, daß merkwürdigerweise in diesem Punkt die Ähnlichkeit sehr
selten sei. ,,Ich habe nur einen einzigen Fall, in dem niemand, nicht einmal die
Zwillinge selbst, ihre Notizen unterscheiden konnten; kaum zwei oder drei, bei denen
die Handschrift durch andere nicht unterscheidbar war, und nur ein Paar, bei denen
sie als ganz ähnlich bezeichnet werden konnte. Andererseits habe ich viele Fälle,
bei denen sie als unähnlich bezeichnet, und einige, bei denen sie als einziger Punkt
der Unähnlichkeit hingestellt wird. Daraus würde also hervorgehen, daß die Hand-
schrift ein sehr feiner Gradmesser für Verschiedenheiten in der Wesensart ist; eine
Folgerung, die ich den Enthusiasten empfehle, die sich mit der Kunst der Enträtse-
lung des Charakters aus der Handschrift beschäftigen." Weitz berichtet im Gegen-
satz dazu von recht ähnlichen Handschriften seiner EZ. Lange sagt wieder, daß
äußerst selten die Handschriften gleichartig seien. Dagegen berichtet in neuester
Zeit Hartmann, daß er einem Schriftsachverständigen unter 13 Handschriften 10 von
5 EZ-Paarcn vorgelegt habe, ohne daß dieser gewußt hätte, von wem die Schriften
seien. Bei vier Paaren von Schriften wurde von ihm die Frage aufgeworfen, ob sie
vom gleichen Schreiber seien, und auch beim fünften Paar sei eine weitgehende Ähn-
lichkeit aufgefallen.
Die Angaben über Ähnlichkeit und Verschiedenheit von Zwillingshandschriften
gehen also sehr weit auseinander. Es handelt sich offenbar darum, was als „ähn-
lich" oder „verschieden" bei Handschriften zu bezeichnen ist.
Die schon erwähnte Arbeit von Lottig war die erste, die über einen rein äußer-
lichen Vergleich der Handschriften hinaus zu einer wissenschaftlichen Behandlung
der Frage vorstieß. Lottig vertritt die Ansicht, daß die von Klages gefundenen
Gesetze der Ausdruckspsychologie es möglich gemacht haben, aus einzelnen Merk-
malen einer Handschrift die darin zum Ausdruck kommenden Charakterelemente zu
erfassen. Das Schriftenmaterial seiner EZ wurde von ihm auf die vier nach Klages
wichtigsten Merkmale einer Schrift hin untersucht: Die Regelmäßigkeit der
Schrift ergibt sich aus dem Grade der mathematischen Gleichheit gleicher Schrift-
elemente; das E b e n m a ß drückt den Rhythmus des Schriftbildes aus; im F o r m -
n i V e a u spricht sich die Originalität und produktive Echtheit der Formgestaltung
einer Schrift aus; der Schriftwinkel bezeichnet die Richtung der Schrift (rechts
schräg, steil, links schräg). Nach einer Wertung dieser Schrifteigenschaften in
Punkten wurde für sie der mittlere Unterschied zweier Partner bei EZ und ZZ be-
rechnet. Hierbei ergab sich folgendes:
Regelmäßigkeit
Ebenmaß
Formniveau
Schriftwinkel
EZ
ZZ
0,44
0,50
0,11
0,55
0,11
0,55
0,89
0,76
Die Unterschiede sind somit für die Regelmäßigkeit und den Schriftwinkel bei
EZ und ZZ ziemlich gleich groß, für den Schriftwinkel bei den EZ sogar größer als
bei den ZZ. Dagegen stimmen im Ebenmaß und im Formniveau die EZ viel stärker
überein als die ZZ; hier findet sich bei den meisten EZ-Paaren eine nahezu völlige
Konkordanz. Im System der Charakterkunde von Klages wären Ebenmaß und Form-
niveau einer Schrift dem Stoffe des Charakters zuzuordnen, Regelmäßigkeit und
Schriftwinkel der Artung und dem Gefüge. Damit würde sich das Ergebnis der
Untersuchung der Handschriften gut in das allgemeine Ergebnis der Lottig sehen
Untersuchungen einordnen; nach ihnen ist ja der Stoff des Charakters so gut wie
ausschließlich erbmäßig bedingt, während Artung und Gefüge stärker modifiziert
werden können.
Die Untersuchung zeigt damit, wie durch den Vergleich von Zwillingshand-
schriften das Wesentliche, erbmäßig Bedingte einer Handschrift herausgeschält wer-
126
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Handschrift und Charakter
127
1 'li
I. I
[(
*^'
Bild82, Handschriften der 24jährigen EZ-Schwestern Ursula (oben)
und Erika (unten), (Nach Mierke.)
den kann. Schriften,
die dem ungeschulten
Beobachter zunächst
als sehr unähnlich er-
scheinen, können in
Wirklichkeit in den
wesentlichen, erbbe-
dingten Zügen völlig
übereinstimmen.
Eine solche Über-
einstimmung in den
Handschriften zeigt
das Beispiel Bild 82.
Es sind Handschrift-
proben zweier 24 jäh-
riger EZ-Schwestern,
die beide die Reife-
prüfung abgelegt ha-
ben. Ursula ist im
elterlichen Haushalt
tätig, Erika Assisten-
tin eines Zahnarztes.
Mierke beurteilt die
Schriften wie folgt:
,,Die Handschriften der Schwestern glichen sich früher absolut und hätten selbst einen
geübten Graphologen täuschen können. Jetzt bieten sie auf den ersten Blick ein durchaus
verschiedenes Bild; U, schreibt eine wenig zügige Steilschrift, E, eine flotte Schrägschrift.
Trotzdem sind beiden Handschriften viele Wesenszüge gemein. Beide sind verhältnismäßig
klein, dabei von gut durchschnittlichem Formniveau und Ebenmaß, Die Druckverteilung ist
ausgeprägt, klar und regelmäßig. Die Unterlängen sind größer als die Oberlängen, Die Zeilen-
führung ist gerade. Ausgeprägte Winkelbindungen, Weite, Rechtsläufigkeit und schlichte und
knappe Einzelformen sind ihnen eigentümlich. Die Verbundenheit ist nach Setzung der Ober-
zeichen gelegentlich gestört, im allgemeinen jedoch gleichmäßig gewahrt. Eine graphologische
Deutung in knappestcr Form läßt insbesondere auf Gesammcltheit und Sachlichkeit, Gewissen-
haftigkeit und pedantische Sorgfalt in der Kleinarbeit schließen, daneben auf energisches und
zielstrebiges Wollen, auf eine gewisse Schwerblütigkeit, sowie auf ausgeprägten Ordnungs-
sinn, An diesen Grundmerkmalcn hat auch die Verschiedenartigkeit des Arbeitsmilieus nichts
ändern können. Dessen Einfluß zeigt sich graphologisch eigentlich nur im abgeänderten Rich-
tungscharakter und in der flotteren und mageren Schreibweise von E. Das bedeutet in der
Hauptsache, daß durch das Losgelöstsein von der gewohnten häuslichen Umwelt und durch
die erhöhte Selbständigkeit dem Betätigungstrieb eine größere Entfaltungsmöglichkeit ge-
geben worden ist. Verbunden damit ist eine Steigerung des Selbstbewußtseins und der kri-
tischen Entschiedenheit,"
Eingehende und ergebnisreiche Untersuchungen von Zwillingshandschriften sind
weiterhin noch von Saudek und Seaman durchgeführt worden. Einige Beispiele ihrer
Untersuchungen mit ihren Ergebnissen seien im folgenden angeführt:
„Die Handschriften der beiden Zwillingsschwestern Corinne und Anna sind nach dem
allgemeinen Eindruck sehr unähnlich, Corinncs Schrift ist stark schräg, natürlich, schnell
und fließend, weit, mit leichtem, aber etwas unregelmäßigem Schreibdruck, mit klaren, ein-
fachen Buchstabenformen, leicht labil, Annas Schrift dagegen ist schwungvoll, auffällig an-
spruchsvoll, bewußt geformt, unnatürlich und künstlich, mit originellen Formen mancher
Buchstaben, steil mit starkem Schreibdruck. Den beiden Schriften entspricht sehr deutlich
der Charakter der beiden. Beide sind leicht reizbar, intelligent und klug, obwohl etwas
oberflächlich. Beide sind gesellig und haben Freude an freundschaftlichem Geplauder und
angenehmer Kurzweil, Dabei leiden beide an leichten Minderwertigkeitsgefühlen, Die Ver-
schiedenheiten ihres Lebensschicksals haben die beiden zu einer verschiedenen Reaktion ge-
führt, Corinne hat sich mit einem ruhigen Familienleben abgefunden und ist natürlich, an-
spruchslos und bescheiden, Sie ist mit wenigen verständnisvollen Freunden zufrieden und
wird nur nervös, wenn sie sich durch Schroffheit, Ironie oder Ränke verletzt fühlt, Anna hat
sich dagegen nicht mit ihrem Lose abgefunden, sie bäumt sich dagegen auf und sucht ihre
Minderwertigkeitsgefühle dadurch loszuwerden, daß sie sich und anderen beweist, daß sie
sich von ihrer Umgebung wesentlich unterscheidet, Sie will die Führerin ihres Kreises sein
und ist immer bestrebt, ihren Wert zur Schau zu tragen. Diese ganze seelische Haltung zeigt
sich auch in ihrer Schrift, Die Modifizierbarkeit übereinstimmender seelischer Anlagen, wie
sie die beiden Schwestern in ihrem Wesen zeigen, tritt in ganz entsprechender Weise auch in
ihrer Schrift in Erscheinung,"
Neben diesem Fall entsprechender starker Verschiedenheit im seelischen Wesen
und in der Handschrift haben Saudek und Seaman Fälle außerordentlicher Ähnlich-
keit beschrieben. Diese kann bis zur völligen Identität zweier Hand-
schriften gehen. Bild 83 zeigt ein solches Beispiel, Saudek sagt von ihm:
„Es ist eine natürliche, schnelle, spontane und geläufige amerikanische Schrift, die, neben-
bei bemerkt, jene besonderen , schwingenden' Bewegungen aufweist, die in amerikanischen
Schulen geübt werden. Jeder Sachverständige würde darin die Handschrift eines intelligenten,
jungen, amerikanischen Mädchens erkennen, und selbst wenn er die Schrift gründlich unter-
suchte, würde er keine Inkonsequenz im Stil, im Schreibdruck oder in den Formen wahr-
nehmen. Diese Schriftprobe, die nichts Problematisches an sich zu haben scheint, ist aber
nicht die Handschrift einer Person, sondern zweier Menschen, Vor zehn Jahren hätte kein
Sachverständiger auch nur die theoretische Möglichkeit zugegeben, daß verschiedene Teile
dieser Schriftprobe von verschiedenen Menschen geschrieben wurden, und es ist undenkbar,
daß ein Gericht das Gutachten eines Sachverständigen berücksichtigt hätte, der trotz der
vielen, offenkundig unwiderlegbaren Ähnlichkeiten bei schneller, natürlicher und geläufiger
Schreibbewegung behauptet hätte, daß sie nicht von einer, sondern von zwei Personen ge-
schrieben wurde."
Bild 83, Die Schrift zweier gemeinsam erzogener amerikanischer EZ (20 Jahre alt). Die
ersten sechs Zeilen der einen Schwester sind von den folgenden Zeilen der anderen kaum zu
unterscheiden, (Nach Saudek,)
128
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Zwillingslager
129
^.
Vir U" f;^ cinri riprartidc Fälle wie der hier berichtete? Saudek fand bei der
Ti . " h'^^^d^r Lndsch^^^^^^^^ EZ-Paaren, daß in ungefähr 5% der Fälle
Verhalten beim Schreiben erzählen die Verfasser folgendes: ,
Di SchreibschnelUgkeit dieses Zwillingspaares ist so vollständig äl-ch daß .e b e-
trenntl D.ktat desselben Textes auf die Sekunde f "^ "! jf ^'^Tti rt mt Thne'n t^l
.eitig fertig werden. ^fJ^-^'^r^^:tV.tTM^^^^^^ «^^ Belehr Los!'
zeitig, so wenden s.e, als f ''%l"';'^^JZTkrJ^^^ das rechte Knie über das linke
l'^u^^rh^trld^Jar dfn s'^hlÄtüt^en sich auf den rechten Unterar. und
<:pt7Pn den Bleistift zur selben Sekunde auf das Papier.
" WL und S..M.. haben scbUeßUch noch die Schriften des Pygo^^^^^^^^
? V ^ \rittl;t°ieVre"ci: tlrH^nrrJlidll'scti^tl'n s^Tun^chst nicht sehr
htuÄ^ntrstildfs'i^d aber in der «-ptsacj. au^ die V^r^^^^^^^^^^^^
schiedenen Hände zurückzuführen. Un|eme.n be--h-n J^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^
Saudek und Seaman den Umstand daß beide ^"""^^^^^"'.'^ Merkmal Folgerichtig-
auf weisen, d.h. weder im Gesamtduktus noch 'Xt"ften eTn reSäßiger leichter
keit zeigen, wobei aber trotzdem in beiden «^'"dschritten e n regelma g
Druck wahrzunehmen ist. Das Z"«r"M"\°rrLi die beiden Verfasser außer-
und sich sonst immer ausschließenden Merkmale fmdend.ebe den Verla
ordentlich bemerkenswert; sie stellen fest, daß ^\""!^^ IX^^^^^k^ale begegnet
Schriften nie einem Zusammenvorkommen d'e««>- b^' J^" ^chr ftm^^^^ 8 8^^_
seien. Es erscheint ihnen als ein schlüssiger B^^^^' ^„"J^'^'^.f jf/Beurteilung der
lagung der beiden Zwillinge; ,a sie «^l''"^"/*'l'^"f." ^Is die ähnlichsten er-
Handschriften und von Zeichnungen die beiden Zwillmge als
schienen, die ihnen begegnet seien.
Damit wäre über die wichtigsten bisher erschienenen A^^^^^^^^^
von Zwillingen berichtet. Wenn ihr Ergebnis festges^eU w-^-^ f^ ^ ^^ ,^ aer
voller Deutlichkeit ein Problem heraus, das in ^^ff^f^j^^^ Regeln
Zwillingsforschung auftritt: Soll -^ .^X^^^^^^^^^^
der Graphologie auf die geistig-seelische Ähnlichkeit oder V^^^^^ geistig-seelischen
linge geschlossen werden, oder soll aus der als gleich anzusehende^^^^^ Handschrift
Beschaffenheit von EZ auf Regeln und Gesetze in ^^l'^^l^^^^^^^
geschlossen werden? Beide Schlüsse ^^"^ ."^f 1;^;.^!^. ^e den kann und anderer-
Beschaf fenheit der Zwillinge auch sonstwie ^^stge teilt ^™ ^^^ ^^ ^^g^ die
seits graphologische Methoden oft --^f^r mangelhaf begr^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^
Bedeutung der EZ-Handschrif ten vor aHem d-n daß ^ ^^^^^^^^ ^and-
keit bieten, das Wesentliche in einer Handschrift ^^ ^^f^^^^^^be bilden. Wenn
Schriften kann die Graphologie ihre Gesetze finden ".'^^/^^^^^^^^^ sich für
EZ nach ihren seelischen Eigenschaften hervorragend ahnl^h «^^J' ^« ^^^ ^^^^_
die Graphologie aus dem Vergleich der vielleicht ^^ß^'^^^^^,;^"^^"/'^.
Schriften die einzigartige Möglichkeit, das zu erkennen -s ah^^^^^^^^^^ ™, al-
lst, d. h. was die wesentlichen ^f-'--^'^^"^^''^^^^^^ Zwillingen zu
fikatorischen Änderungen von Temperament und Charakter, aie
beobachten sind, werden sich auch in einer Verschiedenheit der Handschrift aus-
prägen; es muß möglich sein, diese Verschiedenheiten zu erfassen und auf die ent-
sprechenden charakterologischen Unterschiede zu beziehen. Die Untersuchungen von
LoTTiG geben eine erste Vorstellung davon, in welcher Weise Zwillingshandschriften
der graphologischen Erkenntnis dienstbar gemacht werden können. Es kann gesagt
werden, daß die Untersuchung der Handschriften erbgleicher Zwillinge das beste und
zuverlässigste Material für die Begründung einer wirklich ernst zu nehmenden
Graphologie zu liefern vermag.
3. Die Gesamtpersönlichkeit
a) Untersuchungen in Zwillingslagern
Testuntersuchungen leiden immer darunter, daß sie nur das Verhalten in einer
künstlich herbeigeführten Versuchssituation erkennen lassen; dabei wird selten der
ganze Mensch erfaßt. Einen großen Fortschritt bedeuten demgegenüber charaktero-
logische Untersuchungen, wie sie von Lottig und Köhn durchgeführt worden sind;
sie geben ein richtigeres und umfassenderes Bild der Persönlichkeit, sind aber auch
noch dadurch in ihrem Wert beschränkt, daß der Untersuchende zum großen Teil
auf Aussagen dritter Personen angewiesen ist und nur schwer zu einer solchen per-
sönlichen nahen Vertraut-
heit mit den zu Untersuchen-
den gelangen kann, wie sie
für das volleBegreifen einer
Persönlichkeit nötig ist.
Eine Weiterbildung der ver-
schiedenen Methoden zur
Erfassung der Persönlich-
keit, ihre harmonische
Durchdringung und Ergän-
zung ist nun neuerdings in
,, Zwillings 1 ag er n" ver-
sucht worden. Die erbpsy-
chologische Abteilung des
Kaiser - Wilhelm - Instituts
für Anthropologie, mensch-
liche Erblehre und Rassen-
hygiene in Berlin - Dahlem
hat 1936 zwei Zwillingslager
eingerichtet. In dem einen
unter der Leitung von Gott-
scHALDT stehenden Lager
auf Norderney wurden 48,
in einem anderen an der Ost-
see 26 Zwillingspaare — un-
gefähr je zur Hälfte EZ und
zZ — während einer Reihe
von Wochen beobachtet. Die
Kinder lebten in kleinen
Gruppen, In dem ersten La-
ger wurde das ganze Tages-
erleben der Zwillinge von
früh morgens bis zum Zu-
9 Zwillinge
Bild 84. Drei EZ-Paare des Zwillingslagers Norderney 1936.
(Nach Gottschaldt.)
mammmm^'
■■'■'^'ilWtWii'lllli;
KlinltlinTnilt tiilHilrn n
130
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Bild 85. Ein EZ-Paar des Zwillingslagers Norderney 1936 bei einem Arbeitsversuch.
(Nach Gottschaldt.)
Holzzvlindcr sind in Formen einzuordnen. Auch nach mehreren W.ederholun^en ergibt die Prüfung immer noch
volle über'nsUmmung in Leistung und Verhalten. Das Büd zeigt den ganz gleichen Ausdruck der Madchen.
bett^ehen, der tägliche Lebensrhythmus, der Stimmungsverlauf, die Auseinander-
setzung mit Schwierigkeiten, Erfolg- und Mißerfolgerlebnissen und Konflikten genau
verfolgt. Über all das wurde ein ausführliches Protokoll aufgenommen. Das nahe,
familienmäßige Zusammenleben mit den Zwillingen gab den Untersuchenden unge-
mein günstige Beobachtungsmöglichkeiten. Es war hier die volle personliche Nahe
verwirklicht, die für das wirkliche Begreifen einer Persönlichkeit nötig ist. Auf diese
Weise war es möglich, über die Vcrgleichung einzelner Charakterzüge auf Überein-
stimmung und Verschiedenheit hinauszukommen zu einer Erfassung der Gesamtper-
sönlichkeit. Jede Handlung kann dann unmittelbar aus ihr heraus verstanden werden.
Diese Art der Beobachtung wurde ergänzt durch nebenhergehende, ohne Störungen
in den Tageslauf eingesetzte experimentelle psychologische Untersuchungen, wobei
keine Testmethoden angewendet, sondern Versuche angestellt wurden, die unmittel-
bar an konkrete Lebenslagen anknüpfen.
In dem zweiten Lager wurde (durch Geyer) hauptsächlich der Nachtschlaf unter-
sucht, Schlafstellungen, Schlaftiefe und Schlafstörungen verfolgt und vorwiegend
erblich bestimmt gefunden. 1937 wurde auf Norderney durch Gottschaldt em wei-
teres Zwillingslager durchgeführt, in das zwei große Gruppen von Zwillmgspaaren
aus rassisch verschiedenen Gebieten aufgenommen worden sind. Auf diese Weise
sollten auch rassenpsychologische Fragen in Angriff genommen werden.
Auf Grund dieser drei Zwillingslager ist ein außerordentlich großes, "i^/^ssend
zu nennendes Material gewonnen worden, das dadurch dauernd erweitert wird, dalJ
dn den 1936 in die Lager aufgenommenen Berliner Zwillingen dauernd Nachunter-
suchungen angestellt werden. Die Verarbeitung wird noch längere Zeit m Anspruch
nehmen; die Methode der Zwillingslager verspricht aber auf alle Fälle sehr wert-
volle Ergebnisse zu liefern.
i
1
Lebensbewährung
131
b) Lebensbewährung
Alle zeitlich begrenzten Untersuchungen, mögen sie noch so vollkommen durch-
geführt werden, haben den Mangel, daß sie die Persönlichkeit nur in einem be-
stimmten Zeitpunkt erfassen. Noch wesentlicher ist es, Zwillinge über das ganze
Leben hin, also nach ihrer Lebensbewährung, miteinander zu vergleichen.
Die Art, wie das Leben im ganzen angepackt wird und wie sich die Persönlichkeit
in den Anforderungen des Lebens bewährt, ist letzten Endes das Entscheidende.
Über den Verlauf derLebenslinie vonEZ sagt Lange: ,, Wichtig ist es,
zu sehen, wie entweder beide Zwillinge zielsicher ihren Weg verfolgen, wenn auch
in verschiedenen Berufen, oder wie sie beide scheitern, wie sie beide tastend und
ohne klares Ziel beginnen, um dann in plötzlichem Aufschwung ihre Lebenslinie
bergan zu führen, wie sie beide glänzend anfangen, um dann in einem Knick lahm
zu werden," Für ihren sozialen Entwicklungsgang fand Lange fast aus-
nahmslos in grundsätzlicher Übereinstimmung: ,,Geht ein Partner den einfachen
Weg des Durchschnittsmenschen, dann tut es der andere auch. Steigt einer hinauf
in der Stufenleiter, weiter, als ihm seine Herkunft versprach, dann finden wir den
anderen auch oben, und auch das Herabsinken ist beiden gemein, Unterschiede im
Grad des Auf- und Abstieges kommen vor, aber das Oben und Unten selbst, die
stimmen überein. Dem entspricht auch die größere oder geringere Stetigkeit der
Lebensführung, die zum Teil überraschende Übereinstimmungen zeigt,"
Die schon erwähnten Kapellmeisterzwillinge Wolf und Will Heins
zeigen eine solche völlig gleichartige Lebensbewährung (S, 117). Lange erzählt von
zwei Zwillingsgenerälen, die seinerzeit in England Aufsehen machten. Sie traten am
gleichen Tag in die Armee ein, wurden am gleichen Tag kommandierende Generale
und zeichneten sich in derselben Weise schriftstellerisch aus.
Sehr eindrucksvoll ist das Beispiel der beiden Brüder August und Jean
Piccard, Ihre Ähnlichkeit in der Jugend und während des Studiums war ganz außer-
ordentlich; sie fielen um so mehr auf, als sie es in originellem Auftreten darauf an-
legten, miteinander verwechselt zu werden, Ihre wissenschaftlichen Interessen waren
dieselben; daß sich August schließlich der Physik, Jean der Chemie zuwandte, be-
deutet keinen Wesensunterschied, Später wurde August Professor in Brüssel, Jean
Professor an einer amerikanischen Universität. Als August im Jahre 1930 den ersten
Stratosphärenflug durch-
geführt hatte, wagte Jean
nicht lange darauf in
Amerika dieselbe Fahrt.
Seither lösen sich die bei-
den Brüder nacheinander
in Erfolg und Mißerfolg
mit ihren Aufstiegen ab.
Die Zähigkeit und Kühn-
heit, mit der sie ihre
Ballonfahrten durchfüh-
ren, verbindet sich bei
ihnen mit einem Hang
zum Absonderlichen, den
sie schon in ihrer Jugend
gezeigt haben. Wissen-
schaftliche Begabung,
Charakter und Lebensbe-
währung sind bei beiden
Brüdern völlig gleich.
Bild 86, Die EZ-Brüder August und Jean Piccard,
■m
^tummmm
''^^>^^mmwWS&tl^
132
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Verbrecherische Zwillinge
133
1^
Unmittelbar aus dem Wesen der Gesamtpersönlichkeit heraus bestimmt sich die
S t e 1 1 u n g zu S e X u a 1 i t ä t und E h e. Sie ist bei EZ meist überraschend gleich.
Lange und Kranz berichten von Fällen, in denen das Eheschicksal zweier Zwillinge
völlig übereinstimmend war. Sie scheiterten in der Ehe an den gleichen Konflikten
oder überwinden Schwierigkeiten in derselben Weise. In einem Fall wurde die Braut
des einen die Frau des zweiten; in einem andern Fall war ein Mädchen zunächst
die Freundin des einen, bekam dann mit dem andern ein Kind, um in der Folgezeit
mit beiden ein inniges Freundschaftsverhältnis weiterzuführen.
c) Veranlagung zum Verbrechen
Mehr als von Zwillingspaaren mit normaler Lebensbewährung ist von der Lebens-
geschichte solcher Zwillinge bekannt, die mit der Gesellschaftsordnung in Konflikt
gekommen sind. Von unerhörter Eindruckskraft sind die von einer Reihe von
Forschern angestellten Untersuchungen über das verbrecherische Verhalten von
Zwillingen, Berühmt geworden ist die von Johannes Lange 1928 zum Abschluß ge-
brachte erste Arbeit dieser Art über ,, Verbrechen als Schicksa 1". Außer
einer Veröffentlichung des holländischen Forschers Legras erschienen in letzter Zeit
als Abschluß langjähriger Untersuchungen zwei größere Arbeiten über kriminelle
Zwillinge von Stumpfl und Kranz, die sehr viel neues wertvolles Material brachten.
Bei allen drei angeführten deutschen Arbeiten ist das Material in der Weise gewonnen
worden, daß unter Mitwirkung der Justizverwaltung bei den Gefängnisinsassen eines be-
stimmten Gebietes erhoben wurde, ob sie als Zwillinge geboren seien. Wenn dies bei einem
Gefangenen zutraf, so wurde sein Zwillingspartner ermittelt und die Lebensgeschichte beider
Zwillinge, insbesondere unter dem Gesichtspunkt des sozialen Verhaltens, so genau als mög-
lich aufgenommen. Die Untersuchung von LANGE, die seinerzeit an der Deutschen Forschungs-
anstalt für Psychiatrie (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut) in München durchgeführt wurde, trägt den
Charakter einer kasuistischen Arbeit und beschreibt nur EZ-Paare; sie berichtet aber von
ungemein interessanten Einzelfällen allgemeiner und bleibender Bedeutung, Die Arbeit von
Stumpfl, die gleichfalls an der Münchener Forschungsanstalt entstand, fußt auf einem
Material von 550 kriminellen Paaren, die als lückenlose Serie aus dem Bestand nichtpreußi-
scher Gefängnisse ermittelt wurden; aus ihnen wurden 18 EZ- und 19 ZZ-Paare nach reisc-
technischen Gesichtspunkten ausgewählt und genau beschrieben. Die Arbeit von KRANZ wurde
am Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Anthropologie, menschliche Erblehre und Rassenhygiene in
Berlin-Dahlem begonnen und später an der Psychiatrischen und Nervenklinik in Breslau
weitergeführt. Sie verarbeitet das Material sämtlicher preußischer Gefängnisse und bringt
mit den ausführlichen Lebensbeschreibungen von 31 EZ- und 43 ZZ-Paaren das bisher größte
Material von kriminellen Zwillingen.
Bei der Feststellung des kriminellen Verhaltens zweier Zwillinge ist zuerst fest-
zustellen, ob beide im Laufe ihres Lebens gerichtlich bestraft worden sind oder ob
bloß ein Partner straffällig wurde. Nach diesem Begriff der Konkordanz und Dis-
kordanz sind im folgenden alle EZ- und ZZ-Paare der genannten Arbeiten zusam-
mengestellt. Die PZ sind von allen genannten Forschern nicht eingehender unter-
sucht, sondern höchstens gestreift worden, da die Verschiedenheit des Geschlechts
von vornherein einen so großen Unterschied im kriminellen Verhalten mit sich bringt,
daß brauchbare Einsichten in dessen Ursachen nicht erwartet werden können.
Die Zusammenstellung aller ausführlich beschriebenen Fälle auf Seite 132 zeigt,
daß Lange und Legras die EZ-Paare fast durchweg konkordant, die ZZ-Paare fast
durchweg diskordant gefunden haben, während nach dem Material von Stumpfl und
Kranz die Unterschiede in der Straffälligkeit der EZ und ZZ weitaus nicht so groß
sind. Im übrigen weist Stumpfl auch darauf hin, daß 2 bis 3 der von Lange be-
schriebenen konkordanten EZ eigentlich als diskordant gezählt werden müßten.
Aus der Gesamtheit aller Fälle ergibt sich so oder so durchaus klar das Bild,
daß sich dieEZ dem Verbrechen gegenüber überwiegend kon-
EZ
ZZ
K D
K
D
Lange
Legras
Stumpfl* ....
Kranz
10
4
13
20
3
0
5
11
2 15
0 5
7 12
23 20
47
71%
19
29%
32 52
38% 62%
kordant, die ZZ überwiegend
diskordant verhalten. Daraus kann
der Schluß gezogen werden, daß das
Kriminellwerden vorwiegend erbmäßig
bestimmt ist. Mit den Ziffern, die aus
der statistischen Zusammenstellung der
beschriebenen Einzelfälle folgen, ist
aber in Wirklichkeit noch recht wenig
gesagt. Das Bestraftwordensein ist nur
ein äußerliches, manchmal sogar nur zu-
fälliges Merkmal. Erst aus der genauen
Kenntnis der Zwillingspersönlich-
keiten und ihrer Lebensschicksale heraus ergibt sich ein klarer Eindruck davon,
wie Übereinstimmung und Unterschied bewertet werden müssen. Es seien daher im
folgenden aus dem Material der genannten Forscher eine Anzahl der aufschlußreich-
sten Fälle (konkordante EZ, diskordante EZ und konkordante ZZ) wiedergegeben.
Die von Lange berichteten Fälle konkordanter krimineller EZ sind auch heute
noch, nachdem sich das Material wesentlich vergrößert hat, zu den aufschluß-
reichsten zu zählen. Mit vollendeter Meisterschaft weiß Lange in das seelische
Gefüge der von ihm untersuchten Zwillinge einzudringen und das Zusammenwirken
von Anlage und Umwelt in ihrem Handeln bloßzulegen. Keine Wiedergabe vermag
die Darstellung der Originalarbeit Langes zu ersetzen; ihr eingehendes Studium ist
für jedes gründliche Eindringen in die vorliegenden Fragen unentbehrlich. Trotzdem
sei über eine Anzahl dervonLANGE untersuchten FällekonkordanterEZ kurz berichtet:
Die beiden Zwillingsbrüder August und Adolf Hcufcldcr,** die in ihrer Jugend nicht
einmal von ihrem Vater unterschieden werden konnten, waren beide schon in der Schulzeit
sehr schwierig, rechthaberisch, erregbar und streitsüchtig. In der Schule und in der Lehre
machten sie dieselben Schwierigkeiten, Mit 14 Jahren wurden die beiden Brüder zum ersten
Male bestraft, der eine wegen Holzfrevels, der andere wegen eines kleinen Diebstahls; mit
16 Jahren folgen schwerere Eigentumsvergehen und schließlich wurden beide zu Gewohn-
heitsverbrechern, die nach kurzer Zeit der Freilassung immer wieder straffällig werden. Jeder
von ihnen hatte gegen das 40, Lebensjahr schon gegen zwei Jahrzehnte hinter Gefängnis-
mauern zugebracht. Im Charakter sind wohl gewisse Unterschiede zu erkennen; im Grund-
zug ihres Wesens sind sie aber völlig gleich. Auf die Haft reagieren sie im ganzen beide
ganz ähnlich, sie sind ungemein schwierig, nörgeln, querulieren und hetzen. Zusammenfassend
spricht sich LANGE über die beiden wie folgt aus:***
,, Adolf und August sind einander körperlich ähnlich wie ein Ei dem andern; aber auch
seelisch gleichen sie einander bis in viele Einzelheiten hinein. Ein Unterschied besteht wohl
im Grunde zunächst nur im seelischen Tempo bzw, im Temperament, Adolf ist lebhafter, un-
ruhiger, weniger ernst und etwas mehr nach außen gerichtet, und davon hängen eine Reihe
sekundärer Unterschiede ab. Im Charakter sind sie fast ganz gleich, beide explosiv erreg-
bar, zu Primitivreaktionen geneigt, aber doch auch paranoid, ja paranoisch, dabei leichtfertig,
humorlos, egozentrisch. Nur ist Adolf wohl gefühlskälter und nahezu ganz ohne Menschen-
liebe, während August viel mehr Raum für andere Menschen in sich hat. Es lohnt sich zu
verfolgen, wie die Gleichartigkeiten sich durchsetzen, wie aber doch durch die geringfügigen
Charakterunterschiede manche recht erheblichen Verhaltensunterschiede bedingt werden, zum
Teil freilich in deutlichem Zusammenhang mit eingreifenden äußeren Einwirkungen.
* Zwei bei Stumpfl aus rein formalen Gründen als diskordant geführte EZ-Paare sind
als konkordant gezählt,
** Hier wie bei allen folgenden kriminellen Zwillingen handelt es sich ausschließlich um
Decknamen,
*** Die im folgenden wiedergegebenen Berichte sind zum Teil leicht gekürzt. Die Sperrungen
rühren vom Verfasser dieses Buches her.
i!
134
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Im kriminellen Verhalten der Zwillinge fehlen wesen hohe Differenzen. D.e Bruder s,„d
„och dazu unabhängig voneinander zu ihrem antisozialen Handeln f konimen. Adolf .st
roher; aber auch August zeigt als Jüngling schon in seinem sexuellen Angr.ff, daß .hm d.ese
Register auch zur Verfügung stehen. j ir u .,=„ b,™ ArKoit«.
Es ist müßig, festlegen zu wollen, wie es im einzelnen zu den Verbrechen kam. Arbe.ts
scheu m "ngeren Sinne sind beide nicht gewesen; sie haben draußen zum Te.l ungemem
ÄTearbltet, Wirkliche Not hat sie zum mindesten anfangs n.cht getr.eben - das s.eht
man schon an den straffreien Geschwistern. Erwähnenswert .s , daß Adolf aus der langen
KrTegsge°ängenschaft ein großes Maß von Gewissenlosigkeit und Brutal.talm. gebracht hat,
da ihm vorher nicht eignete. Hier machen sich wohl die Spuren äußerer E.nflusse bemerk-
bar Es darf allerdings nicht vergessen werden, daß diesen Einwirkungen gew.sse ursprung-
liche Neigungen Adolfs entgegenkommen, die ihn von August untersche.den, vor allem se.ne
viel größere Gefühlskälte. . \v/„co„t1i/-V.<.
So sehen wir gerade bei diesen beiden Brüdern e.ndr.ngl.ch, w . e d a s W e s e n 1 1 . c h e
offenbar ganz von innen her bestimmt wird, aus einem angeborenen
Gesetz herauswächst, wie aber die Umwelt mit .hren versch. eden-
artig e n E i n w i r k u n g e n a u s d e m g 1 e i c he n r o h e n M a t e r , a 1 d . e O b e r -
flächenbildcr verschieden gestaltet.
J o s e f und W i 1 h e 1 m Rieder stammen aus geordneten Verhältnissen haben in der
Schule zwar ordentlich gelernt, waren aber der Schrecken ihrer Lehrer Ihr Betragen .n der
Schü e war „nicht zu beschreiben". Schon 13jährig fangen sie mit D.ebstahlen an Be.de
kommen doch in die Lehre, halten sich zuerst ordentlich, um dann davonzulaufen. Josef er-
hält später Strafen wegen Diebstahl, Hehlerei, Sachbeschäd.gung, Korperverletzung, Bettel,
W der'stand. Später hat er dann eine sehr ordentliche Frau geheiratet und .s ,etzt unbe-
anstandet in ei'nem guten Angestelltenverhältnis. Wilhelm h.clt s^h zunächst Ä-z raf-
frei, heiratet früh, verliert aber seine treffliche Frau .m f"'^%^°=''«;''thm das Leben
rasch wieder, und zwar eine schon geschiedene Frau, e.n böses We.b das 'hm das Leben
schwer mach . Er tröstet sich mit einer jungen Kellnerin, die m.t ,hm herumz.eht und durch
dk er in schlimme Kreise kommt: Schieber, Dirnen, Diebe, lockeres Volk In d.eser Um-
gebung kommt er nacheinander zu allerhand Diebstählen und --"^-/-fV^' ^^^3 '^^
öfters ins Gefängnis bringen; auch eine Strafe wegen Kuppele, tragt er davon. LANGES zu
sammenlassendes Urteil über die beiden Brüder lautet f<''f"'|","'f'^"- ,..,.. ^ -^^e be-
Die beiden Brüder Rieder sind einander offenbar sehr ahnl.ch, gutmut.ge, «'««:''«, be
einfiußbare Leute, mit der Neigung zum Trünke, und allen Einflüssen von au enpre.sgegebn^
Sie sind keine aktiven Bösewichte, im Gegenteil. Haben s.e von außen Halt dann .st ke.ne
Gefahr daß sie entgleisen, ohne daß sie doch dadurch anders würden. Kommen s.e .n
fch^^chte Gesellschaft, dann erliegen sie auch den ungünstigen E.nflussen »^ne W.derstand.
Ihr Grundzug ist ihre B e e i n f 1 u ß b a r k e i t und d.ese macht »"cW.e Grund
läge ihrer Kriminalität aus - sie sind typische exogene "Verbrecher auf der Gr^^ age
ihrer Veranlagung, die nicht wegzudenken ist. In anderem w.rtschaftl.chem M.l.eu wurden
sie schwerlich so entgleisen, wie sie es tun. Man ^ » " " eb e n s o w o h 1 '»«-"•<'-
Anl age sei die Hau pt Sache, wie umgekehrt. Be. des wäre falsch und
richtig. DieAnlageistebennichtsohned.eUmwelt,
Die extreme Beeinflußbarkeit ist es auch, welche die Untersch.ede .m kr.m.ne len Ver-
balten bestimmt. Josef erscheint unter dem Einfluß seiner tücht.gen F^?»" ''°"^°''f '"'j^X
Wilhelm dagegen ist es ein Unglück, daß er seine erste brave Frau verliert und daß .hm d^
zweite durch fbre „Zangenhaftigkeit" das Haus verekelt. So w.rd er dem W.rtshau dem
ITer und schließli<;h auch der neuen Frau in die Arme getrieben, d.e ,a an s.ch nett und
gutmütig ist, aber einen allzu schlimmen Anhang hat und in der Kr.m.nal.tat des Mannes
höchstens insofern Schlimmes sieht, als er sich gelegentlich erw.schen laßt.
Bei Wolf gang und Herbert Lauterbach handelt es sich uij. zwei Betrüger von
Format, deren Vorgeschichte recht dunkel ist. Wolfgang war nie im Feld, erzahlt aber trotz-
dem von Heldentaten als Flieger. Nach dem Krieg macht er angebl.ch ,«■»« E"-''"«^""« ' ^'*
beim Gelingen außerordentliche Bedeutung gewinnen würde. Er we.ß m.t »'"« f "", ^ f".
zenden Auftretens und seiner suggestiven Redegabe eine Menge von Leuten für ^.^h und
seine Erfindung einzunehmen und gewinnt einen Geldgeber nach dem anderen, darunter
höchst angesehene Persönlichkeiten, trotzdem der Apparat, um den es sich handelte, nie r.cht.g
i
Verbrecherische Zwillinge
135
funktionierte. Das Geld, das für die Erfindung einging, gebrauchte er zu einem Leben auf ganz
großem Fuße. Erst als er auch Scheckschwindeleien beging, wurde er gefaßt; vor Gericht
hielten aber Leute, die er um Hunderttausende geschädigt hatte, immer noch fest zu ihm.
Während Wolfgang in Untersuchungshaft war, begann sein Bruder Herbert einen gleich-
artigen Apparat zu bauen, angeblich um die Realität der Erfindung zu beweisen. Er weiß in
derselben Weise wie Wolfgang andere Menschen von der Bedeutung der angeblichen Er-
findung zu überzeugen, die Prüfung durch Sachverständige zu vereiteln und Gelder über
Gelder für die Erfindung und damit für sich zu gewinnen, bis er wegen Betrug verhaftet
wird. Vor Gericht verhielten sich beide völlig gleich, Sie wissen mit unerhörter Gewandt-
heit immer das Günstigste herauszukehren und damit zum Teil auch das Gericht zu gewinnen.
Ihre Strafe fällt unverhältnismäßig niedrig aus. Auch im Strafvollzug sind sie merkwürdig
gleich behandelt worden. In der Haft verhielten sich beide ganz ähnlich und wußten aller-
hand Vergünstigungen herauszuschlagen.
Über die Lebensgeschichte Wolfgangs seit seiner Entlassung aus der Strafhaft wurde 1936
von Kranz berichtet. Einige Zeit nach der Entlassung hat Wolfgang seine Betrügereien wieder
aufgenommen und genau wie früher wieder Gläubige zu gewinnen verstanden. Dabei wurde
er noch zweimal in ein Strafverfahren verwickelt. Die Spur von Herbert ist verloren gegangen.
Lange urteilte zusammenfassend über die beiden Zwillinge folgendermaßen:
„Es bedarf keines näheren Nachweises, daß die beiden Zwillingsbrüder Wolfgang und
Herbert zum mindesten in zahlreichen grundlegenden Charaktereigenschaften einander wie
ein Ei dem andern gleichen. Sie sind beide geltungssüchtige, im Grunde kalte, herzlose
Menschen, deren üppige Phantasie und deren erstaunliches Schauspielertalent ihresgleichen
suchen, Sie sind im tiefsten Grunde ihres Wesens unfähig zur Wahrhaftigkeit und zur Treue.
Ihr gesamtes Handeln und ihre Reden formen sich unter dem Gesichtspunkte ihrer ego-
zentrischen Ziele ganz nach dem Augenblick und nach der jeweiligen Umgebung. Mit der
größten , .Treuherzigkeit" bringen sie ihre phantastischen Aufschneidereien an den Mann.
Ein gewisser Unterschied besteht insofern, als Wolfgang brutaler und kälter ist als Herbert,
daß er sich noch wesentlich mehr zutraut und daß er nicht bloß auf einzelne, sondern auf
ganze Gruppen von Menschen irreführend einzuwirken versucht und einwirkt. Herbert ist
der weniger sichere, der ängstlichere, der sich lieber an einzelne heranmacht. Herbert nennt
sich selbst den ,, idealeren" — aber sein Ideal ist höchstens ein gedachtes, nicht einmal ein
gewolltes — , ja, es ist mehr in seiner Rede, kaum in seinen Gedanken.
Im Grunde ist Herbert doch der genialere Schwindler, und zwar deshalb, weil er offenbar
mehr noch als sein Bruder imstande ist, vorübergehend an seine Schwindeleien selbst zu
glauben oder doch die Wirklichkeit so weit hinauszuschieben, daß er sie nicht mehr so deut-
lich sieht wie seine Phantasiegebilde, Diesen Eindruck hat man bei dem skrupelloseren
Wolfgang kaum; bei ihm fehlt das, was bei Herbert sich immer noch an Gewissen regt und
zum Verdrängen zwingt. Es macht ihm nichts aus, neben der Lüge die nackte Wirklichkeit
klar im Auge zu behalten. Er ist zweifellos der bewußtere Schwindler.
Daß bei beiden die Kriminalität aus ihrem tiefsten Wesen herauswächst, kann nicht frag-
lich sein. Dennoch wird man im Zweifel sein können, ob sich ihre Schwindeleien ohne die
besonderen Verhältnisse der Nachkriegszeit in der gleichen Weise entwickelt hätten. Wahr-
scheinlich nicht; aber bei beiden sehen wir doch schon in der Vorgeschichte, vielleicht schon
vor dem Kriege, die Anzeichen der beginnenden Entgleisung, Die allgemein unsichere, geld-
und genußhungrige Menschheit nach dem Kriege, die blinde Leichtgläubigkeit, ja fast der
Wunsch, Sand in die Augen gestreut zu bekommen, mußten den beiden Hochstaplern weit-
gehend entgegenkommen."
Die beiden Brüder Ferdinand und L u i t p o 1 d Schweizer wurden durch den Tod
ihrer Mutter schon mit 8 Jahren getrennt und gerieten unter ganz verschiedene Erziehungs-
einflüsse, Ferdinand wurde streng und lieblos angefaßt, rückte bald aus und ging auch nicht
mehr zur Schule, Bald verübte er mit anderen jungen Burschen eine Reihe von Diebstählen,
Zu Beginn des Krieges wurde er zuerst wegen Fahnenflucht verurteilt, bekam aber Straf-
aufschub und machte dann den Krieg bis zum Ende straffrei mit. Nachher wurde er Händler
und geriet an eine sehr unerfreuliche Frau; seine Wohnungs- und Eheverhältnisse waren
schauderhaft. Wegen erschwerter Kuppelei erhielt er ein Jahr Zuchthaus. Nach der Ent-
lassung knüpfte er zahlreiche andere Verhältnisse an, aus denen eine ganze Reihe unehelicher
Kinder hervorging. Außerdem erhielt er noch Strafen wegen Beihilfe bei einem Einbruch.
136
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
II
Luitpold ging es im ganzen besser. Wegen Schulversäumnis wurde er mit Haft bestraft;
mit 16K' Jahren erhielt er eine Strafe wegen Körperverletzung, Nach dem Krieg, in dem er
schwer verwundet wurde, heiratete er, ließ sich aber dann wieder scheiden und hatte daneben
wie sein Bruder noch zwei Verhältnisse, von denen er je ein Kind bekam. Dann heiratete
er eine äußerst tüchtige Frau, die ihn fest an die Zügel nahm. Er muß sich nunmehr lenken
und leiten lassen wie ein Kind und macht alles, was sie haben will, Sie läßt ihn nicht allein
ausgehen, denn in schlechter Gesellschaft ist er nicht zu halten. Er muß mit in die Kirche
und Mission, wo er so weich ist, daß er oft weint. Er darf nicht mehr trinken und tut dies
auch tatsächlich nicht mehr, LANGE urteilt über die beiden Brüder folgendermaßen:
„Das spätere äußere Schicksal der Brüder scheint verschieden genug und man könnte zur
Erklärung an die verschiedenartigen Erziehungseinflüsse in den Kinder jähren denken. Den-
noch geht das schwerlich an, und ein näherer Einblick zeigt, daß beide ganz aus dem gleichen
Stoffe, vor allem ganz ohne Willensfestigkeit sind, und daß sie jeweils zum Produkt der
Umgebung werden, in der sie sich, mehr oder weniger zufällig, befinden.
So führt die Gesellschaft schwerer Jungen den Ferdinand zu seinen ersten Straftaten,
Nach der Fahnenflucht führt sich Ferdinand im Felde so gut, daß ihm seine Strafe erlassen
wird. Unter dem Einfluß seiner üblen ersten Frau und der neuen Geliebten und späteren
zweiten Frau, die ihn offenbar mit festen Banden hält und dirigiert, bleibt er auf deren
tiefem Niveau, Daß aber auch Luitpold dauernd entgleisungsbereit ist, weiß niemand besser
als seine jetzige tüchtige Lebensgefährtin,
Es ist ein scheinbar himmelweiter Unterschied zwischen dem biederen Handwerker und
Pantoffelhelden, der in der Kirche Tränen vergießt, und dem verkommenen Mann, der immer
wieder betrunken auf der Straße liegt und in Gemeinschaft eines üblen Frauenzimmers auf
Handelschaft zieht. Aber es ist der gleiche Stoff, aus dem verschieden-
artige aktuelle A u ß e n e i n f 1 ü s s e diese voneinander abweichenden
Bilder formen. Eigene erworbene Entwicklungsgesetze haben da-
mit nichts oder wenig zu tun. Auch der jetzige Pantoffelheld war ja wenige Jahre
zuvor völlig .verkommen', .heruntergerissen', der Eckensteher und Säufer von heute aber
vor kurzem noch nach seiner ersten Entgleisung lange Jahre hindurch ein tadelloser un-
beanstandeter Soldat,
Im ganzen wird man sagen können, daß bei den Brüdern Schweizer äußere Einflüsse zu
einer klaren Wirkung kommen. Es liegt dies aber nicht an diesen äußeren Einflüssen selbst
als vielmehr an der angeborenen Artung, die beide Brüder jeweils den stärkeren Einflüssen,
guten oder schlechten, hemmungslos preisgegeben sein läßt. Das Entscheidende bleibt also
auch hier mit größter Wahrscheinlichkeit die anlagegemäße seelische Beschaffenheit,"
Von den durch Stumpfl in „Ursprünge des Verbrechens" (1936) mit-
geteilten Fällen konkordanter HZ sei nachstehend einer wiedergegeben.
Franz und Karl Niederhauer (32 Jahre alt). Der Vater besitzt ein Anwesen, ist ein
guter Mensch, aber willensschwach. Weil er als Kind angeblich immer schwach war, konnte
er die Bauernarbeit nicht verrichten und wurde Forstaufseher, Daß er keine sehr hohe Auf-
fassung von seinem Beruf haben konnte, zeigte sich darin, daß ein Teil seiner Söhne hervor-
ragende Wilderer gestellt hat. Die Mutter ist schwach begabt, aber sehr arbcitssam. Unter
den Geschwistern der Zwillinge befinden sich zwei vielfach vorbestrafte Brüder; einer von
den beiden ist ein gewiegter Wilderer,
In der Schule war Franz von seinem Bruder Karl nicht zu unterscheiden. Beide waren
verlogen; sie konnten nicht einmal bei der Schlußprüfung dreizifferige Zahlen anschreiben.
Obwohl in einem, allerdings verkommenen, landwirtschaftlichen Betrieb aufgewachsen, können
die Zwillinge weder mähen noch ackern noch die Felder richtig bestellen, Sie sind keine
ausgesprochenen Einbrecher, aber sie wildern mit Vorliebe, räumen auch mal die Felder ab,
handeln mit Autoreifen und basteln an ihren Motorrädern herum. Dem Dorf gegenüber
schließen sie sich vollkommen ab, lassen sich nicht in die Karten sehen. Im Stall haben sie
nur noch zwei Kühe stehen. Im Ort selbst stehlen sie nicht, nur auswärts. Nachts brausen
sie auf ihren Motorrädern herum. Bei allen Unternehmungen war Karl von Kindheit an mehr
der führende Teil. Das erwies sich schon bei den beliebten Raufereien in der Schule, es
kommt aber auch in der Kriminalität zum Ausdruck. Während Franz wegen fahrlässigem
Falscheid, Betrug, Privaturkundenfälschung und Meineid bestraft ist, ist Karl einmal wegen
Diebstahl, einmal wegen Jagdfrevel und mehrfach wegen Körperverletzung und Hausfriedens-
-'»(lii'|('t!ii((;ii;;fHHf>i
Verbrecherische Zwillinge
137
bruch bestraft. Insgesamt ist Karl neunmal, Franz nur viermal vorbestraft, doch hat Franz
als Höchststrafe 1 Jahr und 6 Monate Zuchthaus, Karl nur ein Jahr Gefängnis, Der Gesichts-
ausdruck bei den Zwillingen weist nicht unerhebliche Verschiedenheiten auf: Bei Karl ist das
Willensmäßige und das Brutale sehr stark ausgedrückt, demgegenüber zeigt Franz eine größere
Aufgeschlossenheit und Weichheit. Karl arbeitet derzeit in einer Fabrik in einer Großstadt,
Franz hält sich im Hause seines Vaters auf. Doch sind beide wöchentlich einmal beisammen
und hängen aneinander in einer Weise, wie man es bloß bei eineiigen Zwillingen beobachten
kann, Franz berichtet spontan, daß er vor kurzem erst im Zuchthaus gewesen sei, ,für meinen
Bruder', wie er mit sichtlicher Genugtuung hinzufügt. Er behauptet, zu Unrecht verurteilt
worden zu sein. Er wollte ihn durch seine Aussage vor der Überführung eines Diebstahls
schützen. Bei allen Unterschieden zwischen den beiden Zwillingen überwiegt doch der Ge-
samteindruck einer charakterologischen und konstitutionellen Ähnlichkeit, die, von Fein-
heiten abgesehen, einer vollständigen Gleichheit entspricht, Ihre antisoziale Betätigung ist
eine viel ähnlichere, als es den Straflisten nach zu sein scheint. Wenn Karl einmal wegen
Jagdfrevel bestraft wurde und mehrfach wegen Gewalttätigkeiten, wobei er einmal zusammen
mit einem anderen Bruder einen Bauern und seine Frau, die dem Vorbeifahrenden unter
spöttisch-verächtlichen Gesten nachblickten, heftig verprügelte, so hat auch Franz zweifel-
los mehrfach gewildert, nur vielleicht etwas vorsichtiger, und er hätte in einer ähnlichen Lage
der Verspottung durch Bauern nach Ansicht von Personen, die ihn seit vielen Jahren kennen,
ganz ähnlich gehandelt wie sein Bruder, So berichten verläßliche Auskunftspersonen, daß
jeder Nachbar, der etwas über die Familie sagt, unerbittlich verprügelt wird, woran sich auch
Franz herzhaft beteiligt. Die ganze Familie lebt nach Art von verarmten und etwas epigonen-
haften Raubrittern, Diebsgesindel aller Art findet in ihrem Haus, in dem in sexueller Be-
ziehung vollkommene Promiskuität herrscht, Unterschlupf, Bei Gericht sind sie frech und
sprechen in herablassendem Ton zu den Beamten. Niemand im Ort zweifelt daran, daß es
sicher 100 Fälle gibt, wo sie nicht bestraft wurden und doch hätten bestraft werden sollen.
Gemütsrohe, unterdurchschnittlich begabte, etwas hemmungslose Persönlichkeiten, dabei
überquellende Vitalität. Im Elternhaus sittlich verwahrlost, Charakterologisch
vollkommen gleich, im sozialen Verhalten auch nur an der Ober-
fläche ungleic h,"
Aus den von Kranz dargestellten ,,Lebensschicksalen krimineller
Zwillinge" sei im folgenden ein Fall nach der Zusammenfassung der ausführ-
licheren Lebensgeschichte wiedergegeben:
Die beiden Brüder D o r i a n und Reinhard Nanuk stammten aus angesehener Familie
und sind in ihrer Kindheit verwechselt worden. Der eine Bruder (Reinhard) erzählt hiervon
folgendes: „Als Säuglinge wurden wir von der Amme, die uns badete und die uns dabei das
zur Erkenntnis am Arm getragene blaue und rote Bändchen abnahm, verwechselt. Nachdem
sie einen Augenblick das Zimmer verlassen hatte, konnte sie nachher nicht mehr feststellen,
wer der Reinhard und wer der Dorian sei, Amme, Pastor, Arzt und Eltern kamen dann zu
der Entscheidung, daß ich wohl Reinhard getauft und der andere Dorian, Mit Bestimmtheit
ist dies aber, so sagte mir meine Mutter jetzt noch, nie mehr klargestellt worden."
Als sie nach der Rückkehr aus dem Feld in das väterliche Geschäft eintraten, wirt-
schafteten sie dort in unglaublicher Weise, richteten es völlig zugrunde und kamen durch
Betrugsmanöver, durch die sie sich zu retten versuchten, ins Gefängnis, KRANZ urteilt über
sie folgendermaßen:
,,Das Kriminalitätsbiogramm der Zwillinge Nanuk bietet wie das ganze Leben so außer-
ordentliche Ähnlichkeiten, daß man geradezu von einer photographischen Treue
der beiden Lebensbilder sprechen muß, bis erst etwa vom 30, Jahre ab die Wege
auseinandergehen. Während es nämlich von da ab Reinhard gelingt, sich zu resozialisieren,
findet Dorian aus seiner kriminellen Laufbahn nicht mehr heraus. Bis dahin aber verläuft
das Leben durchaus parallel, nur mit geringen zeitlichen Verschiebungen. Beide gehen zu
gleicher Zeit ins Feld, werden dort gleichmäßig befördert, übernehmen zusammen das väter-
liche Geschäft und ruinieren es in gleicher Weise. Dorian beginnt mit 23 Jahren, Reinhard
4 Jahre später mit seinen Vergehen. Und diese sind bei beiden völlig übereinstimmend; in
der Hauptsache handelt es sich um Betrügereien, Unterschlagungen und Urkundenfälschungen,
die in ganz gleicher Weise angelegt sind und aus der gleichen Motivierung stammen. Leicht-
fertiger und verschwenderischer Lebenswandel verschlingt Gelder, die auf unrechtmäßige
138
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Verbrecherische Zwillinge
139
H 1)1
Weise eingebracht werden müssen. Beide treten mit ihren Damen großartig auf. Zeitweise
Zerwürfnisse mit den Eltern ergeben neue Notsituationen. So löst ein Betrug den andern ab.
Nicht die fraglichen Verschüttungen im Kriege sind schuld an Dorians späteren Entgleisungen:
beide sind psychopathische Menschen hyperthymen Schlages. Ganz gleich auch verläuft
beider Eheleben. Beide heiraten, aber schon nach kurzer Zeit können die Frauen, die vor-
her vergöttert, nun aber im Stich gelassen werden, das Zusammensein mit ihnen nicht mehr
ertragen und lassen sich scheiden. Dorians Frau endet auf ungeklärte Weise im Kanal. —
So bietet sich in dem Leben dieses Zwillingspaares ein Bild tragischer Schick-
sal s g 1 e i c h h e i t. Es ist von tiefer Bedeutung, daß beide nicht einmal mit Sicherheit
wissen, ob sie nicht vielleicht den Taufnamen des anderen bekommen haben. So sehr hat
man sie als Kleinkinder verwechseln müssen."
Einen ganz besonders merkwürdigen Fall der Übereinstimmung an EZ erzählt
Kranz von zwei Brüdern, die beide unabhängig voneinander dieselbe perverse Trieb-
richtung (Wäschefetischismus) aufweisen und deshalb vor Gericht kommen. Beide
Brüder versuchen, ihre unglückselige Neigung zu überwinden und unterliegen doch
immer wieder der Gewalt ihres Triebes; er bricht in genau der gleichen Weise bei
beiden Brüdern immer wieder durch.
Im vorstehenden sind Fälle konkordanter EZ wiedergegeben worden. Wenn
Konkordanz auf Grund gleicher Anlage die Regel ist, so ist es klar, daß die diskor-
dantcn EZ besondere Aufmerksamkeit verdienen. Sie können unter Umstanden
zeigen wie besondere Umweltverhältnisse bei gleichen Erbanlagen verschiedene Ver-
haltungsweisen hervorrufen können. Im folgenden soll ein von Kranz berichteter
Fall zweier diskordanter Zwillingsschwestern wiedergegeben werden.
„Die Schwestern H e r m i n e und H e n r i e 1 1 e Eikclow (24 Jahre alt) sind ganz gleich-
artige Persönlichkeiten. Ihr Leben verläuft auf niedriger sozialer Ebene^^ Ihre Herkunft aus
Arbeiterkreisen und ihre mäßige Intelligenz prädestinieren sie dazu. Die mangelhatte Er-
ziehung in der Kindheit war sicher von ungünstigem Einfluß. Von dumpfen Trieben sind
beide beherrscht, die sie ziemlich hemmungslos ausleben. Ungefähr gleichzeitig mit 16 oder
17 Jahren, beginnen ihre sexuellen Beziehungen, bei denen sie keineswegs wählerisch sind.
Henriette torkelt, noch nicht 19 Jahre alt, in die Ehe mit einem psychisch kranken primi-
tiven Menschen, der schon nach kurzer Zeit durch Selbstmord endet. Ihr neues Eheverhalt-
nis, das sie eben zu legalisieren im Begriffe stand, nachdem sie schon lange mit dem neuen
Bräutigam die Wohnung teilte, stand wieder unter ungünstigsten Vorzeichen. Auch dieser
Mann ist ein Psychopath, ein degenerierter Trinker mit Anfällen, vielleicht ein Epileptiker.
Nebenbei soll sie aber auch mit Herminens Mann angebandelt haben. , , •
Diese hat sich gleich mit mehreren Männern eingelassen. Mit 19 Jahren durch eine
Schwangerschaft in die Enge getrieben, macht sie in ihrer Not einen mißglückten Abtreibungs-
versuch, und als das Kind geboren ist, verfängt sie sich unter dem Kreuzfeuer der Manner
die sich alle um die Verantwortung drücken wollen und sie bedrängen in unüberlegte und
verworrene Widersprüche, die sie schließlich als Meineidige ins Zuchthaus bringen. Es ist
eine tragische Verkettung von Umständen, die das unglückselige Wesen in diese verzweifelte
Lage bringen. Hinterher geht auch sie dann eine völlige Fehlehe ein. Sie gerat an einen herz-
losen Menschen, der sie nicht liebt und ihr ihre Vergangenheit ewig vorhält, der sie brutal
behandelt und ihr nicht treu ist. Die neuerliche Überführung ins Zuchthaus setzt den vor-
läufigen Schlußstrich unter ihr verpfuschtes Leben, , . , j
Neben der Kritiklosigkeit und ungehemmten Triebhaftigkeit gibt es aber noch viel anderes
Gemeinsames im Charakter der Schwestern. Beide sind frech, zänkisch, unreife, mtanti-
listische Naturen. Aber auch in den Lichtseiten ihres Charakters sind sie sich ähnlich, bo
haben sie ohne Zweifel viel und fleißig gearbeitet, haben, wenn das Leben ihnen wieder ein-
mal Übel mitgespielt hatte, immer wieder versucht, sich durchzuschlagen, )a der Rampt, den
Hermine in verzweifelter Situation um ihre Existenz geführt hat, entbehrt nicht heroischer
Züge. Sie hat sogar den Mann, der an ihrem Unglück schuld war, nicht verraten! beide
hängen an ihren Kindern mit großer Liebe. . , , « i -,<]• u
Gerade aus ihrer charakterlichen Gleichartigkeit heraus ergibt sich, daß der ursprünglich
gute Zusammenhalt bald einem gegenseitigen Feindschaftsverhältnis Platz machte.
Daß Hermine einmal kriminell wurde und ihre Schwester nicht,
ergibt sich lediglich aus der besonderen Situation, in die sie hinein-
geriet. Beide sind haltlose primitive Naturen, aber Hermine hat von beiden das größere
,Pech' gehabt."
Neben den diskordanten EZ verdienen die konkordanten ZZ besonderes Inter-
esse. Von einem solchen, durch Stumpfl beschriebenen Paar sei im folgenden be-
richtet:
„Zwischen B 1 a s i u s und C y p r i a n Mistclbachcr (34 Jahre alt) besteht eine ausge-
sprochene Familienähnlichkeit. Beide sind breit und untersetzt, muskulös und zugleich auf-
geschwemmt, im Gesicht schwammig. Dennoch sind die Unterschiede so erheblich, daß von
einer Verwechslung niemals die Rede sein konnte: der eine hat hellblaue Augen, der andere
schwarze, der eine ist blond, der andere dunkelbraun bis schwarz. Auch die Gesichtszüge
zeigen sehr wesentliche Abweichungen. Blasius ist bereits 15mal vorbestraft. Er wohnt in
derselben Stadt wie sein Bruder, ist dort seit mehr als 30 Jahren bekannt und gilt als aus-
gesprochener Lump. Schon in der Schule hat er nichts getaugt. Er erlernte das Handwerk
seines Vaters, ist verheiratet, aber schon seit langer Zeit arbeitslos, ohne sich ernstlich um
eine Arbeit zu bemühen. Er wohnt in einem Hinterhaus in einer verwahrlosten Stube, von
deren Fenster aus er tagsüber in halbdösendem Zustand die Vorgänge auf der Straße be-
obachtet. Seine Strafen erhielt er überwiegend wegen Diebstählen. Meist mehrmonatige Ge-
fängnisstrafen, einmal schon 1 Jahr 8 Monate Gefängnis. Auch wegen Körperverletzung und
wegen kleineren Übertretungen ist er vielfach vorbestraft. Überwiegend handelt es sich um
Holzdiebstähle und um Diebstähle von biergefüllten Fässern, Nur ein geringer Teil dieser
Taten konnte ihm nachgewiesen werden, obwohl man wußte, daß er oft Trinkgelage ver-
anstaltet, ohne über Geldmittel zu verfügen.
Sein Bruder macht schon rein äußerlich einen wesentlich besseren Eindruck, Er hat das
Geschäft seines Vaters übernommen und genießt einen guten Ruf. Er ist humorvoll und bei
seinen Arbeitgebern als fleißig bekannt. Auch kommt er mit sogenannten besseren Leuten in
der Stadt zusammen. Daß er es mit seiner Ehrlichkeit nicht so genau nimmt, hat er wohl
von seinem Vater, Das Strafregister enthält vier Einträge: einen wegen Diebstahls in der
Nachkriegszeit, zwei wegen Körperverletzung und einen wegen öffentlicher Beamtenbeleidi-
gung und Widerstands, Doch handelt es sich durchweg um kleine Geldstrafen bzw, höchstens
um 10 Tage Haft. Auch hat er sich nun bereits seit mehr als 5 Jahren vollkommen straffrei
gehalten, im Gegensatz zu seinem Bruder, der seit seinem 14. Jahr bis auf heute eine un-
unterbrochene Kette von Straftaten aufweist und seiner ganzen Wesensart nach minderwertig
und sozial haltlos ist.
Der eine Zwilling zeigt starke Charakterabnormitäten, der andere nicht."
Die im vorstehenden wiedergegebenen Lebensschicksale krimineller Zwillinge
haben über die Erfassung des Straf fälligwerdens hinaus tiefer geführt; sie zeigten
in ihrem Ablauf die gesamte Lebensbewährung und machten es damit
möglich, den Charakter in einer Weise zu erfassen, wie dies bei irgendeiner Teil-
untersuchung niemals möglich ist.
Aus diesen Lebensgeschichten geht klar hervor, daß der rein formale Konkor-
danzbegriff nicht ausreicht, das Wesentliche zu erfassen. Die konkordanten
EZ bieteneinvöllig anderes Bild als die konkordanten ZZ: Bei
den EZ wächst die oft unerhörte Übereinstimmung im kriminellen Verhalten aus der
charakterologischen Gleichheit der Persönlichkeit heraus; bei den (viel selteneren)
konkordanten ZZ zeigt sich fast in jedem einzelnen Fall, daß die straffällig ge-
wordenen Zwillinge in ihrem Charakter eigentlich recht verschieden sind und auch
in ihrem strafbaren Handeln große Unterschiede zeigen. Daß sie beide straffällig
werden, erklärt sich zureichend aus der Erbveranlagung der Familie und aus dem
Familienmilieu. Wie die konkordanten EZ zeigen aber auchdiediskordanten
EZ oft eine restlose Übereinstimmung im Charakter, und man
gewinnt aus ihren Lebensgeschichten den Eindruck, daß es in vielen Fällen reiner
Zufall war, daß nur ein Zwilling straffällig wurde,
ümS^
■yrr-^m
140
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Verbrecherische Zwillinge
141
Auf Grund der Einsicht in die größere charaklerologische Ähnlichkeit der EZ gegenüber
den ZZ haben sowohl KRANZ als StuMPFL eine vertiefte Bewertung der Konkordanz durch-
zuführen versucht, KRANZ berechnet aus 3 Hauptfaktoren der Kriminalität (Häufigkeit der
Vergehen, Art der Vergehen, Strafhöhe) einen „krimincllenÄhnlichkeitswert"
und findet, daß unter den konkordanten EZ 52% stark ähnlich und 19% nur wenig ähnlich
sind, während bei den nur etwa halb so häufigen konkordanten ZZ die entsprechenden Zahlen
22 und 34% sind. Die von KRANZ angewandte Methode der Vergleichung ergibt also, daß
konkordante EZ sehr viel ähnlicher sind als konkordante ZZ.
Stumpfl unterschiedet 5 Stufen der Konkordanz und setzt als erste Stufe die
Tatsache, daß bei beiden Zwillingen eine Strafe ins Strafregister eingetragen worden ist, als
2. bis 4, Stufe die Gleichheit der Schwere der Kriminalität, der Begehungsart und der all-
täglichen sozialen Verhaltensweisen, als 5, Stufe die Charaktergleichhcit, Bei der Bearbeitung
seiner EZ-Fälle fand er, daß in den höheren Stufen die Konkordanz immer größer wird, so
daß bei der 5. Stufe bei allen Fällen volle Konkordanz festgestellt werden kann. Im Gegen-
satz dazu fand er bei den ZZ-Fällen in der ersten Stufe die höchste Zahl von Konkordanz-
fällen, in der 5, Stufe überhaupt nur noch Diskordanz,
Als das Wesentliche erscheint somit nach den Untersuchungen von Stumpfl nicht
die äußerliche Übereinstimmung im Straffälligwerden, sondern die Gleichheit
desCharakters. Seinen Eindruck von den Lebensschicksalen der von ihm unter-
suchten EZ faßt er in folgenden Worten zusammen:
„Wenn man sich in die Lebensläufe vertieft, so ist der stärkste und immer
wiederkehrende Eindruck der einer schlechthin vollkommenen
Wesensgleichheit erbgleicher Zwillinge in allen Grundzügen des
Charakters. Dieser Eindruck kann sich selbst in ausführlichen Darstellungen nur un-
vollkommen widerspiegeln, denn viele entscheidende Momente wollen im persönlichen Um-
gang mit den Zwillingen miterlebt sein. Feinheiten, die sich nur im Zusammenspiel der Aus-
drucksbewegungen, der Art, wie etwas gesagt, verneint oder bejaht wird, erkennen lassen,
kleine Vorlieben, Abneigungen, Empfindlichkeiten, innere Schwächen und Stärken können
nur schwer in Worte gefaßt werden und sind dennoch entscheidend für die Beurteilung und
Deutung grob faßbarer Tatsachen und Zusammenhänge. Es wäre verfehlt, hierin eine Un-
vollkommenheit wissenschaftlicher Methodik zu erblicken, die zu beseitigen die Aufgabe
künftiger Forschung sein müsse. Denn es handelt sich hier um ein Geheimnis der Menschen-
erkennung, das nie beseitigt werden wird, wie die feinsten Analysen des Laboratoriums und
der vollkommenste Körperstatus, von einem anderen Beobachter vorgenommen, niemals den
Gesamteindruck ersetzen werden, den der Arzt im persönlichen Gespräch und bei der per-
sönlichen Untersuchung von seinem Kranken gewinnt.
Im Gegensatz zu den Erbverschiedenen besteht hinsichtlich aller Wesensmerkmale des
Charakters, hinsichtlich Gefühlsanlagen, Willensanlagen, Temperament, Begabung, eine Über-
einstimmung, die so weit geht, daß man bei aller Verschiedenheit des sozialen Verhaltens im
Vergleich zu den zweieiigen Zwillingen von vollkommener Ähnlichkeit, ja Gleichheit des
Charakters sprechen muß. Es besteht Gleichheit des Temperaments, der Interessen, der
Willensanlagen. Gleich sind die Vorlieben für dieselben Betätigungen, für bestimmte Arten,
sich zu unterhalten, für bestimmte Getränke und Speisen, gleich ist die Art, auf bestimmte
Erlebnisse zu antworten, von bestimmten äußeren Schicksalen beeindruckt zu werden, gleich
ist der Geschmack an bestimmten Dingen, etwa die Art sich zu kleiden, gleich sind Vorliebe
und Abneigung gegenüber bestimmten Persönlichkeiten. Die Unterschiede bleiben immer so
gering, daß es nicht möglich ist, erbungleiche Zwillinge oder Menschen überhaupt nach Be-
gabungsunterschieden und Charakterunterschieden in verschiedene Gruppen zu teilen, welche
geeignet wären, die bei crbgleichen Zwillingen auftretenden Unterschiede zu erfassen. Ebenso
wie hinsichtlich der normalen Charaktereigenschaften vollkommene Konkordanz herrscht,
sind auch die Charaktcrabnormitäten und Psychopathieformen bei eineiigen Zwillingen gleich.
Unterschiede in der Ausprägungsform und in den Äußerungsweisen sind, wie noch im ein-
zelnen ausgeführt werden wird, durchaus peripherer Natur."
Wenn EZ in ihrem Charakter nahezu völlig übereinstimmen, so müssen die in
ihrem kriminellen Verhalten diskordanten EZ besonderem Interesse begegnen. Was
ist die Ursache ihres verschiedenen Verhaltens? Zunächst zeigt sich, daß sie im
i
i
t
ganzen die leichteren kriminellen Fälle darstellen. Neben den Fällen, in denen sich
das verschiedene Verhalten auf eine frühere exogene körperliche oder seelische
Schädigung des einen Zwillings zurückführen läßt, sind es vielfach einmalige und
nicht besonders schwere Vergehen, die unter dem Druck besonderer Verhältnisse
zustandegekommen sind. Man möchte sagen, daß die Unterschiede im Verhalten
solcher EZ weithin im Rahmen des Sclbstunterschieds bleiben. Bei welchem durch-
aus ehrbaren und straflos gebliebenen Menschen wäre es nicht möglich, daß er unter
dem Druck außergewöhnlicher Verhältnisse eine strafbare Handlung begangen hätte?
Bei den diskordanten EZ hat man in vielen Fällen den Eindruck, daß der straflos
gebliebene Partner genau so gehandelt hätte wie der bestrafte, wenn er in dieselbe
Lage geraten wäre. Es ist keine Frage, daß zwischen Verbrechen und Verbrechen
unterschieden werden muß.
Stumpfl hat auf Grund ausgedehnter Sippenuntersuchungen an Verbrechern und
seiner Zwillingsuntersuchungen zwei Hauptgruppen von Verbrechern
unterschieden: die S c h w e r kr i m i ne 1 1 e n , die regelmäßig rückfällig werden,
und die Konfliktkriminellen und Spätkriminellen, die er als L e i c h t -
kriminelle zusammenfaßt.
DieSchwcrkriminalität entspringt einer erbmäßig bedingten Charakterabnormität.
Schwerverbrecher sind meist Psychopathen. Ihre Anlage bringt gewohnheitsmäßige
Verhaltensweisen mit sich, die in der Regel bald nach der Schulentlassung und so
gut wie immer vor dem 25. Lebensjahr zu strafbaren Handlungen und später immer
wieder zu Rückfällen führen (Rückfallverbrecher). EZ mit Schwerkriminalität
verhalten sich dem Verbrechen gegenüber durchweg konkor-
d a n t. Dagegen zeigen leichtkriminelle und weibliche EZ verhältnismäßig oft ver-
schiedenes Verhalten. Das gilt besonders für die sogenannte „Koniliktkriminalität".
Diese Form der Kriminalität entspringt einem inneren Widerstreit oder einer starken
Notlage, die gegebenenfalls in jedem Menschen zur Tat führen können.
Aus diesen Erkenntnissen heraus ergeben sich nun aber auch ganz klare
Forderungen für das Verhalten der Gesellschaft den Verbrechern
gegenüber. Die Zwillingsforschung zeigt mit stärkster Eindringlichkeit, daß es
Verbrecher gibt, für die ihr Verbrechertum ein reines Erbschicksal ist. Für sie gilt
das, was Lange ausgesprochen hat: „Ist die Rechtsbrechung, wie wir eindringlich
gesehen haben, ganz wesentlich eine Folge des Gesetzes, nach dem wir angetreten,
dann hat es keinen Sinn, zu vergelten und zu strafen im engeren Sinne. Sicherung
d e r G e s e 1 1 s c h a f t , das ist freilich auch das Ziel der Vergeltungsstrafe. Aber
die Sicherung als Absicht tritt doch allzu sehr hinter dem Mittel zurück. Heute
müssen wir die Sicherung der Gesellschaft als alleiniges, aber ganz klares Ziel vor
Augen haben und wirklich entsprechend handeln. Wir müssen auch dem allgemeinen
Rechtsbewußtsein diese Richtung geben."
Damit sind die unbeeinflußbaren Schwerverbrecher gemeint. Sie können mit recht
großer Sicherheit schon verhältnismäßig früh erkannt werden und sind der Zwangs-
verwahrung zuzuführen und zu sterilisieren, so daß sie der menschlichen Gesell-
schaft nicht mehr schaden und ihre verbrecherische Veranlagung nicht weiter ver-
erben können.
Anders ist mit den Leichtkriminellen zu verfahren. Sie werden nach wie vor eine
Strafe auf sich zu nehmen haben, mag nun diese als Sühne oder als Abschreckung
begründet werden. Im Strafvollzug müßte aber, worauf Stumpfl und der Jurist
ExNER mit Nachdruck hinweisen, eine Trennung von Schwerkriminellen
und Leichtkriminellen eintreten, damit nicht die letzteren, wie dies
bisher manchmal vorgekommen ist, durch das jahrelange Zusammensein mit Schwer-
verbrechern ganz verdorben werden.
'I 11 1
142
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
4. Die Einwirkungen der Umwelt auf die Persönlichkeit
nach Untersuchungen an getrennt erzogenen EZ
Der Einfluß der Umwelt auf die Ausbildung des Erscheinungsbildes muß sich bei
den Partnern eines EZ-Paares um so stärker geltend machen, je verschiedener die
Umweltverhältnisse sind, unter denen sie leben. Die Wirksamkeit geistig-seelischer
Umwelteinflüsse kann deshalb am besten an EZ erkannt werden, die während ihrer
ganzen Jugendzeit getrennt voneinander erzogen worden sind; spätere Trennung hat
entfernt nicht denselben Einfluß. Getrennt erzogene EZ sind naturgemäß sehr selten;
bisher sind solche fast nur aus Amerika bekannt geworden. Der erste Fall dieser
Art wurde von Popenoe 1922 berichtet und von Muller zusammen mit der Psycho-
login Koch 1925 eingehend untersucht. Später hat Newman das Problem aufgegriffen;
von 1929 bis 1934 gelang es ihm, nacheinander 9 Fälle ausfindig zu machen. In
neuester Zeit (1937) konnte er diese einzeln beschriebenen Fälle in einer zusammen-
fassenden, gemeinsam mit dem Psychologen Freeman und dem Statistiker Holzinger
durchgeführten Untersuchung durch 10 weitere Fälle ergänzen. Damit liegen aus
der amerikanischen Fachliteratur 20 gut beschriebene Fälle vor; einige englische
Paare getrennt erzogener EZ sind von Saudek beschrieben worden. In der deutschen
Zwillingsliteratur ist ein seit frühester Jugend getrenntes EZ-Paar noch nicht be-
schrieben worden. Im folgenden sei über die MuLLERSchen Zwillinge und die 9 ersten
Fälle von Newman berichtet.
Die von MULLER und KoCH beschriebenen, getrennt erzogenen EZ-Schwestern sind am
bekanntesten geworden. Nach MULLER beschäftigte sich auch noch Saudek mit dem Paar.
Die beiden Schwestern Bessie und Jessie sind 1893 geboren; sie wurden schon im Alter
von 2 Wochen voneinander getrennt und von verschiedenen Pflegeeltern aufgezogen. Die
Zwillinge kannten sich nicht bis zum Alter von 18 Jahren; damals lebten sie einige Monate
zusammen. Dasselbe war 1913 und 1914 der Fall; dann sahen sie sich wieder 7 Jahre lang nicht.
Ihre Jugend verbrachten die Zwillinge im Nordwesten der Vereinigten Staaten in ver-
schiedenen Umweltverhältnissen, Bessie lebte mit ihrer Familie bis zum Alter von 5 Jahren
auf einer Farm; dann wechselte sie mit ihren Pflegeeltern, die nacheinander in verschiedenen
Bergwerksbezirken arbeiteten, sehr oft den Wohnort. Sie wuchs fast ganz ohne Spielgefährten
unter Erwachsenen, Bauern, Fuhrleuten, Grubenarbeitern und Cowboys auf; von einem älteren
Sohn ihrer Pflegeeltern wurde sie oft bis aufs Blut gequält. Sie lernte ganz von selbst lesen
und wurde bald eine leidenschaftliche Leserin; die Schule besuchte sie im ganzen nur 4 Jahre
lang einschließlich einer Handelsschulzeit von 9 Monaten. Vom Alter von 15 Jahren ab
arbeitete sie auf einem Kontor; sie war sehr eifrig und fleißig und hatte dementsprechend
eine erfolgreiche berufliche Laufbahn, die sie durch ganz USA, führte. Während des Welt-
krieges und nachher war sie mit dem amerikanischen Heer in Frankreich,
Ihre Schwester Jessie wuchs in wesentlich angenehmeren und ruhigeren Verhältnissen
auf. Ihre Pflegeeltern adoptierten nach dem Tod ihrer Mutter auch ihre ältere Schwester
und zwei Brüder, so daß sie im Kreis ihrer eigenen Geschwister aufwuchs. Die Familie liebte
Unterhaltung und Vergnügen, und so sah das Mädchen immer viele Leute, Ähnlich wie Bessie
wuchs auch sie als richtiger Wildfang auf; die Schule konnte sie vom 7. Jahr ab wesentlich
länger als ihre Schwester, aber auch nicht ganz regelmäßig besuchen. Trotz unvollkommener
Vorbereitung hatte sie an der High School und später an einem College sehr guten Erfolg.
Nach Abschluß ihres Studiums wurde sie Lehrerin, bis sie dann heiratete, Sie bekam ein
Kind, führte aber später ihren Lehrberuf wieder weiter. So sind die Lebensumstände der
beiden Schwestern, trotzdem sie in ähnlichem sozialem Milieu aufgewachsen sind, mit der
Zeit doch recht verschieden geworden.
Bei der Untersuchung der beiden Schwestern ergab sich eine ganz auffällige Überein-
stimmung in den körperlichen Eigenschaften. Körpergewicht und Größe sind fast ganz die-
selben; die Iris stimmt in fünf Eigenschaften bei beiden Schwestern vollkommen überein;
beide haben einen leicht nach links gezogenen Mund; die Zähne sind außerordentlich ähn-
lich, ein Schneidezahn greift bei beiden Schwestern in derselben Weise auf den anderen über,
Jessie war als Kind viel gesünder, woran die besseren Umstände, unter denen sie aufwuchs,
S
Getrennt erzogene EZ
143
Bild 87, Die Zwillinge Jessie und Bessie, (Nach Muller, 1925,)
schuld gewesen sein mögen; Bessie war als Kind schlecht ernährt. Beide hatten beinahe
gleichzeitig einige leichte Anfälle von Tuberkulose, Beide sind energisch, fähig, beliebt und
nehmen hervorragende Stellungen in Vereinen und in ihren kirchlichen Gemeinden ein. Beide
ließen sich gleichzeitig ohne Wissen voneinander das Haar kurz schneiden, zu einer Zeit, wo
dies noch Mut erforderte und die Mehrzahl der Freunde es nicht billigte. Beide waren schon
als Kinder leidenschaftliche Leserinnen und interessierten sich als Erwachsene für Geschichte,
Sozialpolitik und Politik; Mathematik lehnen sie ab. Beide haben die Neigung, sich zu über-
arbeiten; die eine der Schwestern erlitt einen Nervenzusammenbruch, die andere war ganz
nahe daran. Dem unbefangenen Beobachter scheinen sie nach ihrem ganzen geistigen Wesen,
nach Intelligenz wie nach Charakter, sehr ähnlich zu sein.
Die beiden Schwestern wurden nun im Alter von 30 Jahren einer eingehenden T e s t -
Prüfung unterzogen. Die Intelligenz wurde nach dem amerikanischen Armee-Test
geprüft, der während des Krieges bei allen in das Heer einzustellenden Männern angewendet
wurde (Army Alpha Test), Dazuhin wurde noch ein weiterer schwierigerer Test verwendet
(Otis Advanced Intelligence Test), Das Ergebnis war beim ersten Test bei einer Höchstzahl
von 212 erreichten Punkten bei Bessie 156, bei Jessie 153 Punkte, Beim zweiten Fall (Höchst-
zahl 75 Punkte) erhielt Bessie 64, Jessie 62 Punkte, Das ist ein außerordentlich hohes Resultat.
In der sozialen Schicht, der die beiden Schwestern angehören, erreicht im Durchschnitt nur
1 Person unter 200 eine solch hohe Punktzahl, Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß zwei beliebige,
nicht erbverwandte Personen gleichermaßen so hohe Leistungen vollbringen, ist daher außer-
ordentlich gering. Die Brauchbarkeit des Tests vorausgesetzt, spricht das Ergebnis sehr stark
und eindrucksvoll für die erbliche Bestimmtheit der gleichen Intelligenzleistung, Im einzelnen
zeigen sich bezeichnende Unterschiede, Bessie ist in den Aufgaben, die scharfes, begriffliches
Denken erfordern, weniger gut, dagegen im Rechnen besser. Das ist unschwer auf die Aus-
bildung und die verschiedene Tätigkeit der beiden Schwestern zurückzuführen. Im übrigen
ist interessant, daß die schulmäßig weniger gebildete Schwester höhere Punktzahlen erreichte
als die andere.
Sehr bemerkenswerte Unterschiede zwischen den beiden Schwestern ergaben sich bei den
Tests, welche das Gefühls- und Willensleben zu erfassen suchen. Die gefühls-
mäßige und soziale Haltung wurde mit dem „Pressey X-0 Test" geprüft. Dabei wurden den
Schwestern verschieden ausgewählte Listen von Worten vorgelegt, bei denen diejenigen an-
zustreichen waren, die Lust- oder Unlustgefühle, Ekel, Furcht, Argwohn, sexuelle Empfin-
144
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Getrennt erzogene EZ
145
düngen usw. auslösten. Die Ergebnisse dieses Tests zeigten, daß Bessie, die durch das Leben
soviel herumgeworfen worden war, durchweg viel weniger zu stören und zu verwirren war
als Jessie. Sie erwies sich als weniger unangenehm berührt durch die Dinge, die Ekel, Furcht,
sexuelle Gefühle oder Argwohn auszulösen imstande sind und drückte durchweg viel weniger
Ablehnungen aus als Jessie und wesentlich weniger als dies für den Durchschnitt der sonst
Untersuchten festgestellt wurde. Dagegen lehnte Jessie mehr ab als der Durchschnitt. Bessie
hat auch eine kleinere Liste von Dingen, die sie ängstigen oder die sie als Unrecht ansieht.
Ein Teil der Unterschiede kann durch die Tatsache erklärt werden, daß Jessie eine viel
furchtsamere, leichter verletzbare Pflegemutter hatte als Bessie, und daß sie nunmehr selbst
eine Familie besitzt. Daß sich die Zwillinge im Laufe der Jahre gefühlsmäßig in verschie-
dener Richtung entwickelt haben, wissen sie auch selber; zwei Umwelteinflüsse haben haupt-
sächlich dazu beigetragen: Als Jessie heiratete, war Bessie verlobt, brach aber ihre Verlobung
ab. Während Jessie ein glückliches Familienleben führte, ging Bessie während des Kriegs
nach Europa und brachte auf Grund ihrer Erlebnisse freiere Ansichten und andere Wert-
maßstäbe mit. Die Eigenschaften des Willens und des Temperaments wurden mit dem
„Downey Will-Temperament-Test" geprüft. Auch hier zeigten sich erhebliche Unterschiede
zwischen den beiden Schwestern. Bessie reagierte viel stärker gegen Widerspruch und gegen-
sätzliche Haltung als Jessie, die Verheiratete. Sie zeigte sich auch rascher, beweglicher, ging
schneller zu ihrer Höchstleistungsfähigkeit über und konnte besser verschiedene Tätigkeiten
zugleich ausüben als Jessie. Sie zeigte dabei weniger Interesse für Einzeldinge, war weniger
anpassungsfähig und weniger geneigt, die einmal gefaßten Beschlüsse zu ändern. In den Er-
gebnissen dieses Tests drückten sich damit deutlich gewisse Erfahrungen und Einwirkungen
des Lebens der beiden Schwestern aus.
Die Testuntersuchung ergibt also, daß die beiden Schwestern in ihrer Intelligenz
nahezu vollkommen übereinstimmen, in Gefühl, Temperament und
Wille aber recht verschieden erscheinen. Bessie selbst schreibt aber 1933
an SauDEK: „Ich fühle, daß ich und meine Schwester in unseren Temperamenten im Grunde
weitgehend übereinstimmen, obwohl die meisten Menschen, die uns während des letzten
Jahres zusammen gesehen haben, mit uns darüber nicht einig sind. Ich fühle, daß unsere
Unterschiede meistens oberflächlich und das Ergebnis verschiedener Erziehung sind." Auch
der Gatte von Jessie sieht nur geringe Unterschiede, falls überhaupt welche, zwischen den
Zwillingen; er sagt, daß es ihm gleich sei, mit welcher der Schwestern er beisammen ist.
Kann auf Grund der Ergebnisse einer Testuntersuchung ein wesentlicher Unterschied als
erwiesen angesehen werden, wenn die Schwester selbst den Kern der Persönlichkeit als gleich
ansieht? Darauf ist zu sagen, daß die Erfassung des ganzen Menschen wesentlicher ist und
zu einem richtigeren Eindruck führt als die zahlenmäßige Auswertung einer künstlich ge-
schaffenen Versuchsanordnung. Tatsächlich ist in keiner Weise die Gewähr geboten, daß der
Test das Wesentliche bloßlegt und eine sinnvolle Messung seelischer Unterschiede erlaubt.
So gut seelische Unterschiede mit dem als richtig und brauchbar angenommenen Test ge-
messen werden, könnte der umgekehrte Gedankengang durchgeführt werden: Da EZ erbgleich
sind, so können Zwillinge, die nach dem Gesamteindruck ihrer Persönlichkeit als gleich zu
werten sind, dazu benützt werden, den fraglichen Test zu „eichen". Der eine wie der andere
Schluß ist gleich berechtigt. Wir sind an und für sich geneigt, den von uns benützten Maß-
stab als „richtig" zu betrachten; diese Voraussetzung kann aber auf dem Gebiet des Seelischen
nicht als zutreffend bewiesen werden. Ob er „richtig" ist, zeigt der Maßstab nur damit, daß
die mit ihm gewonnenen Resultate so sind, daß sie sich in die Gesamtheit der Beobachtungen
und der ordnenden Vorstellungen ohne Widerspruch einfügen. Im Fall der MULLERschen
Zwillinge besteht der Gesamteindruck, daß Temperament und Charakter der beiden Zwillinge
auf alle Fälle viel ähnlicher sind, als der nicht unerhebliche Unterschied in den Ergebnissen
der Testuntersuchung zunächst vermuten läßt. Die gefundenen Unterschiede sind Modifi-
kationen einer gleichen Erbanlage. Unterschiede sind aber tatsächlich vorhanden. Allein für
sich genommen führen die MULLERschen Zwillinge, die seinerzeit als erstbeschriebenes ge-
trennt erzogenes Zwillingspaar starke Beachtung fanden, zu dem Schluß, daß die Intelligenz-
leistungen so gut wie ausschließlich erbbedingt seien, Gefühl und Charakter aber weitgehend
von Einflüssen der Umwelt geformt werden könnten. Ein einziger Fall genügt aber in keiner
Weise, einen solchen Schluß wirklich zuzulassen. Es war klar, daß abgewartet werden mußte,
was die Untersuchung weiterer „twins rcared apart" bringen werde. NeWMAN gab
von 1929 bis 1934 9 solcher Fälle bekannt.
Bild 88, Die Zwillinge Alice und Olive. (Nach Newman, 1929.)
Fall 1. Die beiden Zwillinge Alice und Olive, deren eineiige Entstehung durch eingehende
Untersuchung sichergestellt ist, sind als Kinder eines englischen Elternpaares in London-
Chelsea geboren. Im Alter von 18 Monaten kamen sie auseinander. Alice wurde von Freunden
der Familie adoptiert und blieb in England; Olive wurde von Verwandten angenommen und
zog mit ihnen in eine canadische Kleinstadt. Abgesehen von einem kurzen Zusammensein im
Alter von 10 Jahren waren die Zwillinge bis zu ihrem 18. Lebensjahr getrennt; in diesem
Alter kam Alice nach dem Tode ihrer Pflegeeltern zu ihrer Schwester nach Canada.
Die Umgebungen, in denen die beiden Zwillingsschwestern aufwuchsen, waren recht ver-
schieden. Alice lebte in der unfreundlichen Londoner Vorstadt Chelsea in einer wirtschaft-
lich nicht gut gestellten Familie, die außer ihr noch vier eigene Töchter, alle wesentlich älter
als Alice, aufzuziehen hatte; so konnte nur recht wenig für sie gesorgt werden. Sie besuchte
bis zum Alter von 14 Jahren die allgemeine Volksschule, machte dann einen Handelsschul-
kurs von 18 Monaten mit und arbeitete von da an auf einem Kontor. Ihre Schulzeit wurde
durch die Kriegsereignisse sehr stark gestört. Olive wuchs in der recht wohlhabenden Familie
ihrer Pflegeeltern als umsorgtes einziges Kind auf. Nach einigen Jahren Volksschule kam sie
in eine höhere Schule und besuchte dann einen zweijährigen Handelsschulkurs. Seit dem Ab-
schluß der Schule arbeitet sie wie ihre Schwester in einem Büro.
Die Untersuchung der Intelligenz erfolgte durch die Bestimmung des Intelligenz-
quotienten nach dem Verfahren von Stanford-Binet. Die Intelligenzuntersuchung er-
gab einen überraschend großen Unterschied: der Intelligenzquotient von Alice war 84,9, der
von Olive 96,9. Olive war damit in die Gruppe der normal Intelligenten, Alice in die Gruppe
der etwas Zurückgebliebenen einzureihen. Ein ähnliches Ergebnis brachten die anderen
Intelligenztests, der Unterschied erwies sich als dreimal so groß als der durchschnittliche
Unterschied von EZ in gleicher Umwelt; allerdings finden sich auch unter diesen Paaren
etwa 10%, die einen ebenso großen oder noch größeren Intelligenzunterschied zeigen. Die
Schwester mit den ungünstigeren Erziehungs- und Unterrichtsverhältnissen erwies sich gegen-
über der anderen im Nachteil.
Die Feststellung der geringeren Intelligenzleistung von Alice hat Newman beinahe in
einen Prozeß verwickelt. Ein Journalist berichtete nach Erscheinen der NEWMANschen Arbeit
unter der falschen Angabe eines Interviews mit Newman in der Presse über die Zwillinge
und führte unter starker Übertreibung der tatsächlichen Unterschiede aus, daß Olive sehr
aufgeweckt und Alice ganz einfältig sei. Alice wendete sich daraufhin an einen Rcchts-
10 Zwillinge
146
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Getrennt erzogene EZ
147
anwalt und ließ von NeWMAN Schadenersatz fordern. Es kostete Mühe, die Angelegenheit
wieder in Ordnung zu bringen. NeWMAN erklärte, daß auch Alice eine gut durchschnittliche
Intelligenz besitze. Er gab ihr zu, daß ihre weniger gute Leistung wohl darauf zurückzu-
führen sei, daß die verwendeten Tests auf amerikanische Schüler und nicht auf solche aus
englischen Schulen eingestellt seien, und daß ein sehr guter Brief von Alice seinen früheren
ungünstigen Eindruck von ihrer geistigen Leistung ganz wesentlich verbessert habe. Sie sei
tatsächlich viel intelligenter als die Zahlen der Testuntersuchungen anzeigen. Damit gab
NeWMAN das Ergebnis seiner Testuntersuchungen so gut wie ganz preis. — Bei der Unter-
suchung des Gefühls- und Willenslebens erwiesen sich die Zwillinge als ungewöhnlich ähn-
lich. Bei aller Ähnlichkeit erschien allerdings Olive als die Führende und Lebendigere.
Das Ergebnis der Untersuchung der beiden Zwillinge ist also dem an den MULLERschen
Zwillingen gewonnenen gerade entgegengesetzt. Aus den Beobachtungen an Alice und Olive
wäre zu schließen, daß die Intelligenz stärker beeinflußbar ist als Temperament und Wille.
Ihr Fall läßt deutlich erkennen, daß nur eineVielzahl von Beobachtungen Klarheit bringen kann.
Fall 2. Die Zwillingsschwestern Eleanore und Georgiana wurden in einem New Yorker
Entbindungsheim geboren und kamen dann in ein Waisenhaus. Eleanore wurde im Alter von
18 Monaten von einer Familie im Staat Michigan adoptiert. Die Pflegeeltern waren sehr
wenig gebildete Leute; die Mutter konnte nicht einmal lesen. Die Gemeindcschule des Ortes
besuchte das Kind nur fünf
Jahre lang; von da an war
sie zu Hause und half der
kränklichen Pflegemutter
bei der Hausarbeit, Einige
Jahre arbeitete sie, aller-
dings unregelmäßig, in ei-
ner Hemdenfabrik, Mit 18
Jahren kam sie als Gehilfin
zu einem Zahnarzt; sie be-
trachtet diese Stelle, in der
sie sich sehr gut bewährte,
als ihrem Wesen voll ent-
sprechend und vermochte
es auch mit der Zeit, den
Mißstand auszugleichen,
daß ihre Schulbildung so
mangelhaft war.
Georgiana wurde im Al-
ter von 2 Jahren von ihren
Pflegeeltern adoptiert und
kam in eine andere Stadt
im Staat Michigan. Beide
Pflegeeltern starben schon,
solange sie noch ein Kind
war. Nach der Volksschule
kam sie in eine katholische
Akademie in Detroit und
besuchte dort den ganzen
High School - Kurs, Da-
neben spielte sie viel Kla-
vier und erhielt auch eine
Ausbildung als Lehrerin.
Einige Zeit nachher traf
eine katholische Schwester
jener Schule bei einer Fahrt
im Omnibus ihre Zwillings-
Bild 89. Die Zwillinge Eleanore und Georgiana. Schwester Eleanore und
(Nach Ncwman, 1929.) knüpfte ein Gespräch mit
ihr an in der Meinung, sie sei ihre frühere Schülerin. Als Eleanore verneinte, erzählte ihr
die Schwester, daß sie einem Mädchen, das sie in ihrem Kloster kennen gelernt habe, völlig
gleiche. Die Nachforschung ergab, daß die beiden Mädchen Zwillinge seien; ein Zusammen-
treffen der damals 20jährigen Schwestern wurde in die Wege geleitet und von da an standen
die Zwillinge in dauernder Verbindung miteinander. Im übrigen wurde Georgiana dann doch
nicht Lehrerin, sondern Gehilfin eines Arztes; sie hält sich für diese Tätigkeit am besten ge-
eignet und findet volle Befriedigung in ihr. Es ist überaus bezeichnend, daß die beiden
Schwestern trotz verschiedenen Bildungsgangs schließlich genau denselben Beruf gefunden
haben, von dem sie empfinden, daß er ihrem Wesen am besten entspreche.
Die Untersuchung der Intelligenz ergab für Georgiana, die eine 15jährige Schulzeit hinter
sich hatte, wesentlich bessere Leistungen als für Eleanore, die nur 5 Jahre lang die Schule
besucht hatte (Intelligenzquotient von Georgiana 77,6, von Eleanore 65,6). Alle Intelligenz-
tests wurden von der geistig länger geschulten Schwester besser bewältigt als von der anderen.
Die Testuntersuchung von Gefühl, Temperament und Wille ergab eine bemerkenswerte und
ungewöhnliche Ähnlichkeit, Daraus könnte wieder ähnlich wie bei Fall 1 geschlossen werden,
daß Gefühl und Charakter stärker erblich bedingt sind und weniger durch die Umwelt ver-
ändert werden können als die Intelligenz.
Bild 90, City-boy (Paul C) und country-boy (Paul O,). (Nach Newman, 1929.)
Fall 3. Die beiden männlichen Zwillinge Paul C. und Paul O. wurden schon bald nach der
Geburt voneinander getrennt und von zwei verschiedenen Familien adoptiert. Erst im Alter
von 21 Jahren erfuhren sie voneinander. C. erfuhr zufällig aus Familienpapieren, daß er
einen Zwillingsbruder haben müsse, ging der Angelegenheit nach und fand auf diese Weise
seinen Bruder. Dabei stellte sich heraus, daß höchst merkwürdigerweise beide den Namen
Paul Harold führten, wohl infolge eines Mißverständnisses bei der Adoption des einen; die
Zwillinge riefen sich gegenseitig mit ,,Paul".
C, lebte zuerst mit seinen Pflegeeltern in einer kleinen Stadt und besuchte hier auch die
Schule bis zum Alter von 13 Jahren. Dann kam er in verschiedene größere Städte, wo er
die High School besuchte, eine kaufmännische Lehre mitmachte, später auch noch zwei kauf-
männisch-technische Fachschulen besuchte. Seine Pflegeeltern lebten in bescheidenen Ver-
hältnissen und hatten nur wenig Schulbildung. Geistige Förderung durch die Familie erfuhr
er nicht. Er wuchs als typisches einziges Kind auf und war weithin sich selbst überlassen.
Die Umwelt von 0„ dessen Pflegeeltern nie in größeren Städten lebten, war von der ersten
Jugend an ausgesprochen ländlich. Er besuchte zuerst die Dorfschule, dann einen High School-
Lehrgang, später noch eine höhere Bauschule, wo er aber Schwierigkeiten mit der Mathematik
hatte und deshalb austrat; von da an betätigte er sich bei der Post. Seine Pflegeeltern standen
auf höherer Bildungsstufe als die von C; er wurde in einer behaglichen Häuslichkeit mit
10*
• !
148
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Gelrennt erzogene EZ
149
i
%
zwei Kindern der Familie erzogen. Die Umwelten, in denen die beiden Zwillingsbrüder lebten,
waren somit deutlich, wenn auch nicht besonders stark, verschieden.
Die Testuntersuchung ergab für die Intelligenz nahezu völlige Übereinstimmung. Die
Prüfung von Gefühl, Temperament und Wille zeigte keine besonders großen Unterschiede;
doch erwiesen sich im persönlichen Umgang die beiden Persönlichkeiten als deutlich ver-
schieden: C, der „city-boy", war würdiger, zurückhaltender, beherrschter und weniger freund-
lich. Er lächelt selten und hat einen ernsten Ausdruck um Brauen, Augen und Mund, O., der
„country-boy", ist in vieler Beziehung der Gegensatz von C: Er lacht leicht und scheint
mehr Gesellschaft zu suchen als C. C. macht den Eindruck, die kräftigere Natur zu sein und
sieht gut aus, während es O, hierin etwas fehlt. Die Unterschiede der Persönlichkeit sind
also im ganzen so, daß sie auf die verschiedene Umwelt zurückgeführt werden können, in
der die Zwillinge aufgewachsen sind.
Fall 4. Die beiden Zwillinge Mabel und Mary wuchsen im Staate Ohio nicht weit von-
einander auf. Mary lebte bis zum Alter von 6 Jahren auf einer Farm und kam dann in eine
kleine Stadt. Sie hatte immer ein ruhiges beschauliches Leben in der Familie und kam kaum
zu körperlicher Arbeit. Nach der Gemeindeschule besuchte sie zuerst die kleine High School
ihres Städtchens und dann noch ein Jahr lang eine große High School in der Großstadt. Sic
war mit ihren Leistungen
immer im besten Viertel ih-
rer Klasse, Besonders gern
trieb sie auch Musik, Nach-
dem sie wieder nach Hause
zurückgekehrt war, arbei-
tete sie tagsüber auf einem
Kontor; abends gab sie Kla-
vierstunden, Mabel lebte
ganz auf einer größeren
Farm. Sie besuchte nur die
Gemeindcschule; den Be-
such der High School, den
sie anschließen wollte, brach
sie nach 6 Wochen wieder
ab, weil sie zu Hause ge-
braucht wurde; auch war
ihr Interesse für die Schul-
arbeit nicht groß. Nun wur-
de sie ein typisches, energi-
sches Bauernmädchen, Sie
verrichtete alle bäuerlichen
Arbeiten, versorgte das
Vieh und arbeitete auf dem
Felde, Sie sagt, daß nichts
sie veranlassen könne, die
Farm zu verlassen.
Obwohl Mary und Mabel
in ihrer Jugend kaum un-
terscheidbar waren, hatten
sich zur Zeit der Unter-
suchung der beiden Zwil-
linge im Alter von 29 Jahren
recht bedeutende Un-
terschiede herausge-
bildet. Mabel, das farm girl,
war viel kräftiger, einen
Zoll größer und 138,5Pfund
schwer; Mary wog nur 1 10,7
Bild 91. Die Zwillinge Mary und Mabel. (Nach Newman, 1932.) Pfund. Der Unterschied ist
also gegen 28 Pfund und damit beinahe 25% des Gewichts von Mary, die deutliches Unter-
gewicht und schwache Entwicklung der Muskulatur zeigte. Mabel ging in aufrechter Haltung
und mit männlichem Schritt, ihre Bewegungen waren sicher und rasch; Mary hielt sich weniger
aufrecht, hatte einen mehr frauenhaften Gang, war langsamer in ihren Bewegungen und mehr
geneigt, stillzusitzen und Anstrengungen zu vermeiden. So zeigte sich der Unterschied in
der körperlichen Beschaffenheit größer als in jedem anderen der beschriebenen Zwillings-
fälle; insbesondere ging der Unterschied im Gewicht weit über das hinaus, was sonst bei EZ
vorkommt. Bei der Intelligenzprüfung schnitt Mary mit einem Intelligenzquotienten von
106,2 recht gut ab, ganz wesentlich besser als Mabel mit 88,5, Der Unterschied ist über 3mal
so groß als der von NeWMAN an 50 Paaren gemeinsam erzogener EZ errechnete durchschnitt-
liche Unterschied, Der Unterschied geht gewiß zum Teil auf den ungleichen Bildungsgrad
der beiden Mädchen zurück, ist aber trotzdem wesentlich größer als man erwarten möchte.
In einem der Tests, der sich hauptsächlich an den gesunden Menschenverstand wendet und
die Einflüsse der Bildung nicht so zur Geltung kommen läßt, waren die Leistungen allerdings
nur wenig verschieden. Bei der Untersuchung des Gefühls- und Willenslebens gaben zwei
Tests recht große Unterschiede, drei andere verhältnismäßige Übereinstimmung,
Die Unterschiede der beiden Zwillinge erscheinen also nach den Ergebnissen der Test-
untersuchungen als recht groß. Dennoch hat NeWMAN das Gefühl, daß die ermittelten Zahlen
kein voll zutreffendes Bild geben; trotz der deutlichen und starken Wirkungen der Umwelt
hält er immer noch die Kraft des Erbgutes für größer.
Bild 92. Die Zwillinge Edith und Fay. (Nach Newman, 1932,)
Fall 5. Die Zwillinge Fay und Edith waren die ersten Kinder eines sehr jungen Paares;
der Vater war 18, die Mutter 17 Jahre alt, als die Kinder geboren wurden. Die Eltern ver-
suchten zuerst, sich mit den Kindern durchzubringen, gaben sie aber dann doch an zwei ver-
schiedene Familien ab; die Kinder wußten nichts voneinander, Ihr erstes Zusammentreffen
kam auf eigenartige Weise zustande: Als Edith im Laden ihres Pflegevaters mithalf, ver-
suchte ein Geschäftsreisender, der den Laden besuchte, ein freundliches Gespräch mit ihr
anzufangen, wie wenn er sie gut kennen würde. Als sie ihn zurückwies, fragte er, ob sie
denn nicht Fay R. sei. Sie sagte, sie kenne niemand dieses Namens, worauf er ihren Pflege-
vater fragte. Dieser teilte ihm mit, daß seine Pflegetochter tatsächlich eine Zwillingsschwester
dieses Namens habe. Fay war vom Nachbar des Besuchers, mit dem er in freundschaftlichen
Beziehungen lebte, adoptiert worden. Natürlich wurde bald eine Zusammenkunft der beiden
ty
. IIUI« ^»T!M>.'' IM. IHT»»^
150
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Getrennt erzogene EZ
151
All
>! i
I
Schwestern veranstaltet. Edith erzählte später von dem Augenblick, als sie bei der Ankunft
des Zuges ihre Schwester zum erstenmal sah: „Ich sah mich selbst aus dem Zug aussteigen!"
Sie verbrachten drei glückliche Wochen miteinander, trugen gegenseitig ihre Kleider und jede
behauptete die andere zu sein; es wurde ihnen nicht schwer, auch ihre besten Freunde zu
täuschen. Zwischen den beiden Schwestern entwickelte sich eine starke gegenseitige Zu-
neigung, die auch in den nächsten Jahren der Trennung nicht nachließ. Als sie 20 Jahre alt
waren, kam Edith in die Stadt von Fay und lebte dort mit ihr zusammen. Sie waren in zwei
verschiedenen Geschäften angestellt; zum Scherz füllte oft die eine den Platz der anderen
aus, ohne daß es entdeckt worden wäre. Zu jener Zeit sind auch die wiedergegebenen Bilder
aufgenommen; die Schwestern waren damals tatsächlich ununterscheidbar.
Nach einem Jahr des Zusammenseins heiratete Edith, zwei Jahre später auch Fay. Von
da an konnten sie sich nur noch gelegentlich besuchen; ihre Schicksale führten sie recht weit
auseinander. Fay heiratete einen Mann in guten Verhältnissen und bekam 4 Kinder; ihr
Leben war gesellig und ohne Sorgen und erlaubte ihr, geistige Interessen zu pflegen. Ediths
Mann war zuerst Farmer und dann Bremser bei der Eisenbahn. Die Familie, die 6 Kinder
bekam, lebte immer auf dem Lande. Während einer sehr harten und entbehrungsreichen Zeit
in den Kriegsjahren kamen 2 Kinder an; eine schwere Grippe warf Edith ernstlich nieder und
sie brauchte 3 Jahre um sich zu erholen, ohne daß von da an ihre Gesundheit ganz dieselbe
gewesen wäre wie vorher.
Zur Zeit der Untersuchung waren die Zwillinge 38 Jahre alt. Fay, die 814 Pfund schwerer
war als Edith, sah damals kaum älter aus als 30 Jahre, Edith älter als sie wirklich war. Über-
raschend groß war der Unterschied im Zustand der Zähne. Fays Zähne waren ohne den
kleinsten Schaden geradezu vorzüglich erhalten, Ediths Zähne in sehr schlechter Verfassung.
Nach der Ansicht von Newman ist der Unterschied auf die ungeeignete Ernährung von Edith
während ihrer Schwangerschaften zurückzuführen.
Die Testuntersuchung der Intelligenz ergab nahezu dasselbe Ergebnis. Fay, die etwas
länger die Schule besucht hatte, zeigte sich zwar leicht überlegen; im ganzen erwiesen sich
aber die Zwillinge als sehr ähnlich. In Temperament und Gefühl zeigten sie sich in manchen
Zügen recht verschieden, in anderen sehr ähnlich; im ganzen überwiegt aber die Ähnlichkeit
weitaus. Fays Verhalten ist sicherer als das von Edith; sie scheint den stärkeren Willen zu
haben; aber auch Edith hat in ihrem Leben in hohem Maße Mut und Energie gezeigt.
Bild 93. Die Zwillinge Ida und Ada. (Nach Newman, 1932.)
Fall 6. Ada und Ida waren zur Zeit der Untersuchung 58 Jahre alt. Damit war ihre Unter-
suchung besonders ergiebig, da die Einflüsse eines ganzen Lebens in ihrer Wirkung verglichen
werden konnten. Sie wurden im Alter von 3 Jahren getrennt und kamen erst vom 16. Jahr
ab wieder hie und da für kürzere Zeit zusammen. Die Kindheit beider Mädchen war recht
ähnlich, bei beiden hart und grausam. Der Vater war ein Trinker, der seine Familie im Stich
ließ, so daß die Zwillinge von Verwandten der Mutter, die sie gar nicht wollten, aufgenommen
werden mußten. In beiden Familien wurden die Mädchen vernachlässigt und mißhandelt. Die
soziale Umgebung, in der sie aufwuchsen, war so schlecht als sie nur sein konnte, Ada hei-
ratete im Alter von 17 Jahren und bekam 5 Kinder; sie trennte sich von ihrem Mann nach
10 Jahren vergeblicher Bemühungen, ihn zu bessern. Seither hat sie hart gearbeitet, um ihre
Kinder anständig zu erziehen.
Ida heiratete erst mit 33 Jahren einen Mann von gutem Charakter und bekam 4 Kinder.
Beide Schwestern sind hingebende Mütter, Es ist ungemein bezeichnend, daß beide Frauen
trotz ihrer Belastung durch die traurigen Umstände ihrer Kindheit zu hochachtbaren Per-
sonen mit strengen Moralgrundsätzen, guter Durchschnittsintelligenz und guten Umgangs-
formen geworden sind. Beide sind lange Zeit fanatisch religiös gewesen; Ada war bei den
Adventisten, Ida bei den Methodisten. Beide bekämpfen leidenschaftlich Tabak und Alkohol.
In ihrer körperlichen Beschaffenheit sind die beiden Zwillinge bis auf einen Umstand sehr
ähnlich. Ida hat einen ausgesprochenen Kropf und zeigt die typischen Folgen einer Unter-
funktion der Schilddrüse: er-
höhtes Gewicht und leichte Er-
müdbarkeit. Daß nur Ida einen
Kropf bekam, ist darauf zu-
rückzuführen, daß sie in einer
Kropfgegend lebte.
Die Prüfung der Intelligenz
ergab große Ähnlichkeit; beide
schnitten wesentlich besser ab
als man nach ihrer mäßigen
Schulbildung erwarten sollte;
bei der Untersuchung von Tem-
perament und Wille zeigten
sich kleinere Unterschiede, die
alle in der Richtung gingen,
daß Ada aktiver, bestimmter
und kräftiger ist als Ida, die
mehr sanft und zurückhaltend
erscheint. Ada führte durchweg
bei der Untersuchung und be-
trachtet sich selbst als die
Fähigere von beiden. Es könnte
daran gedacht werden, diese
Unterschiede den verschiedenen
Lebensschicksalen der beiden
Frauen zuzuschreiben; NeWMAN
führt aber die Unterschiede zum
größeren Teil auf das Vorhan-
densein des Kropfes bei Ida
und das Fehlen eines solchen
bei Ada zurück.
Fall 7. Die EZ Richard und
Raymond wurden als Kinder
ehrlicher und hochachtbarer
Leute geboren, die ihre zahl-
reichen Kinder kaum mehr
durchs Leben bringen konnten.
Raymond kam in die Familie
eines vielbeschäftigten Arztes
in einer Großstadt und hatte
damit die zahlreichen Vorteile
der Erziehung in einer solchen
Familienumgebung. Richard
wurde von einem Farmer adop-
Bild 94. Die Zwillinge Richard und Raymond.
(Nach Newman, 1933.)
152
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Getrennt erzogene EZ
153
f\ m
•j
tiert, der nacheinander in verschiedenen Orten lebte. Die Eltern hatten nur wenig Bildung.
Die Schicksale der Familie waren wechselnd; er hatte aber eine ausgezeichnete Pflegemutter.
Zur Zeit der Untersuchung waren die beiden Jungen 13K Jahre alt. Beide hatten von
ihrer Schule das Zeugnis, daß sie sehr munter und interessiert seien. Einmal im Jahr kamen
sie in Raymonds Heim zusammen. Diese kurzen Zusammenkünfte haben eine starke Zu-
neigung der Jungen entstehen lassen; es schien, daß sie immer das gleiche tun wollten. Die
Umgebung, in der Raymond lebt, ist an und für sich wesentlich günstiger als die von Richard;
es scheint aber, daß Richard durch die wechselnden Verhältnisse seiner Familie selbständiger
wurde als sein Bruder.
Die Untersuchung der Intelligenz ergab für die beiden Zwillinge annähernde Gleichheit;
die vorhandenen leichten Unterschiede lassen aber durchweg Richard trotz seiner weniger
günstigen häuslichen Verhältnisse als den besseren erscheinen. Die Untersuchung von Gefühl
und Wille, für welche die Zwillinge vielleicht noch zu jung waren und die von Raymond
weniger ernst genommen wurde als von Richard, ergab einen deutlichen Unterschied in der
Richtung, daß sich Richard kräftiger und bestimmter zeigte, überhaupt die stärkere Persön-
lichkeit zu sein schien. Im ganzen zeigten aber die beiden von allen untersuchten EZ-Paaren
die geringsten Unterschiede; dies mag zum Teil noch mit ihrer Jugend zusammenhängen.
Fall 8. Der Fall der beiden Zwillinge Mildred und Ruth ist insofern besonders inter-
essant, als das eine der beiden Mädchen in
einer geistig hochstehenden Familie erzogen
wurde, in der es große geistige Förderung
genoß, während dem anderen Mädchen zu
Hause jede Anregung fehlte.
Die Mutter der beiden Zwillinge starb
3 Monate nach der Geburt; die beiden Kinder
wurden dann von Verwandten angenommen.
Mildred wurde im Hause ihres geistig viel-
seitig interessierten Onkels mütterlicherseits
erzogen, der in einer kleinen Stadt als Rechts-
anwalt, Bankvorsteher und früherer Bürger-
meister eine wichtige Rolle spielte. Auch
Mildreds Pflegemutter war eine geistig hoch-
stehende Frau. Mit einer älteren Schwester
zusammen konnte Mildred Musik treiben; sie
spielt Violine im Orchester der High School,
die sie besucht. Eine hochgebildete Schwester
ihrer Pflegemutter nahm immer lebhaften
Anteil an Mildreds Erziehung; dabei hatte
Mildred immer auch Umgang mit vielen Kin-
dern, gute Bücher standen ihr im Überfluß
zur Verfügung, So gingen von ihrer Umwelt
die denkbar besten Einflüsse aus.
Ruth kam in die Familie eines Bruders
der Pflegemutter von Mildred, Ihre Pflege-
eltern haben verhältnismäßig wenig Bildung
genossen. Der Pflegevater war Vorarbeiter bei
Taglöhnern, ohne Interesse an wissenschaft-
lichen oder sonstigen kulturellen Dingen.
Ruths Pflegemutter liebte das Kind eifer-
süchtig und behielt es nach ihres Gatten Tod
noch mehr als bis dahin zu Hause. So führte
das Kind ein recht einsames Leben und spielte
mehr mit Puppen als mit anderen Kindern.
In der Familie war kein Kind außer ihr; sie
hatte auch wenige Freundinnen. Musik hörte
sie zu Hause nicht, gute Bücher standen ihr
nicht zur Verfügung. So bot ihr das häus-
liche Leben keine geistige Förderung, ganz im Gegensatz zum Leben ihrer Zwillingsschwester.
— Bei der Geburt wog Mildred 6 Pfund, Ruth nur 3X» Pfund; der Unterschied glich sich aber
später ganz aus. Beide Kinder schielen etwas, und zwar ist bei Mildred das rechte, bei Ruth
das linke Auge einwärts gerichtet. Beide Mädchen sind körperlich ungeschickt; Mildred hat
etwas mehr Sport getrieben als ihre Schwester, trotzdem sind beide in den Leibesübungen
hoffnungslos. Mildred ist viel freundlicher, gesprächiger und frei von Schüchternheit, während
Ruth schmerzlich scheu ist und viel weniger glücklich zu sein scheint. Mildred führt in allen
Dingen und ist viel zupackender.
Bei der Intelligenzuntersuchung ergab sich ein sehr erheblicher Unterschied: der Intelli-
genzquotient von Mildred war 92, der von Ruth nur 77, Der große Unterschied von 15 Punkten
ist dreimal so groß als der an 50 EZ-Paaren berechnete durchschnittliche Unterschied und
wesentlich größer als der durchschnittliche Unterschied von gemeinsam erzogenen ZZ, Alle
Tests zeigten, daß Mildred durchweg intelligenter ist als Ruth, obwohl in Art und Umfang
des Schulbesuchs der Mädchen, die beide eine High School besuchten, kaum ein Unterschied
war. Den Unterschied in den Leistungen schreibt deshalb NeWMAN der großen
Verschiedenheit der häuslichen Umgebungen zu. Die Untersuchung des
Gefühls- und Willenslebens zeigte Ähnlichkeiten und Verschiedenheiten. Die Unterschiede
gingen in der bereits genannten Richtung, Im ganzen konnten die beiden Mädchen in ihrem
Gefühls- und Willensleben als mäßig verschieden bezeichnet werden.
Der Fall der beiden Zwillinge hat insofern besondere Bedeutung, als er einen wesent-
lichen Unterschied in den geistigen Fähigkeiten zeigt, ohne daß ein erheblicher Unterschied
im Grade der Schulbildung vorliegen würde. Der Unterschied ist größer als bei Zwillingen
anderer Fälle mit sehr verschiedenartiger Schulbildung, Daraus wäre zu schließen, daß die
vorhandenen Unterschiede durch die häusliche Erziehung verursacht worden wären: Starke
geistige Förderung beim einen Zwilling, Fehlen von Anregung beim anderen Zwilling, Die
geistige Umwelt des Elternhauses wäre damit als ein sehr bedeutungs-
voller Faktor der geistigen Entwicklung wahrscheinlich gemacht.
r*"
Bild 95. Die Zwillinge Mildred und Ruth.
(Nach Newman, 1934.)
Bild 96. Die Zwillinge Holden und Harold, (Nach Newman, 1934.)
Fall 9 Die Zwillinge Harold und Holden wurden von NEWMAN im Alter von 19 Jahren
geprüft. Infolge des Todes ihrer Mutter waren sie schon in früher Kindheit von Verwandten
adoptiert worden. Harold lebte in einem Dorf in Wisconsin, Er besuchte die Dorfschule,
später auswärts auch die High School, Er liebte immer Kameradschaft und Sport; harte
Arbeit hat er nie getan. Holden lebte mit seiner Tante auf einer Farm in der Nähe )enes
Dorfes, Die beiden Zwillinge sahen sich deshalb recht häufig und waren immer wieder bei-
sammen, besuchten auch dieselbe High School, Dann kehrte Holden zu seiner Tante zurück,
um die Farm umzutreiben. Er ist weniger gesellig als sein Bruder. Umgebung und Bildung
der beiden Zwillinge sind im ganzen ziemlich gleich.
Bei der Intelligenzprüfung schnitt Harold besser ab; der Unterschied war aber mcht groß.
Ein deutlicher Einfluß der verschiedenen Umwelt ließ sich also bei der Intelligenz nicht er-
154
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Gleichheit und Verschiedenheit bei EZ
155
kennen. Im Temperament und Wille zeigten sich etwas größere Unterschiede, Harold ist
mehr sozial veranlagt als sein Bruder; das mag eine Folge davon sein, daß Holden eine
Reihe von Jahren auf der Farm arbeiten mußte, ohne viel an Geselligkeit denken zu können.
Im ganzen sind auch hier die Unterschiede nicht groß. So zeigt dieser Fall eine Überein-
stimmung der beiden Zwillinge, die kaum über das hinausgeht, was bei EZ in gleicher Um-
welt als Unterschied vorkommen kann.
Was lehren nun alle die berichteten Einzelfälle in ihrer Gesamtheit? Jeder
FallhatseineigenesGesicht, und wenn vielleicht zuerst geglaubt wurde,
es könnten auch aus einem Einzelfall Schlüsse auf allgemeine Gesetzmäßigkeiten
gezogen werden, so zeigte jeweils immer der nächste Fall, daß dies unmöglich ist.
Aus dem MuLLERSchen Fall wäre zu schließen gewesen, daß die Intelligenz durch
Umwelteinflüsse überhaupt nicht, der Charakter aber sehr stark beeinflußt werden
könne; die Paare I (Alice und Oliva) und noch mehr II (Eleanora und Georgiana)
von Newman wiesen im Gegensatz hierzu starke Abweichungen der Intelligenzquo-
tienten und fast völlige Übereinstimmung in Temperament und Charakter auf. Erst
die Gesamtheit aller Fälle kann über die Zufälligkeiten des Einzelfalles hinaus zu
einem einigermaßen sinnvollen Urteil führen.
Die Intelligenzleistungen sind im Durchschnitt doch ähnlicher als bei
den Fällen I und II. Der Unterschied zwischen dem MuLLERschen Fall (Bessie und
Jessie) einerseits und dem Fall II (Eleanora und Georgiana) andererseits hängt da-
mit zusammen, daß es sich bei den MuLLERSchen Zwillingen um zwei außerordent-
lich intelligente Schwestern handelte, während die geistige Begabung der beiden
anderen Schwestern erheblich unter dem Durchschnitt liegt. Die Erklärung des ver-
schiedenen Ergebnisses liegt sicher in folgendem Umstand: Bei sehr hoher Intelli-
genz spielen Unterschiede in der geistigen Schulung für die Lösung der Tests so gut
wie keine Rolle; ganz anders ist es bei mäßiger intellektueller Begabung; hier ist Länge
und Art der Schulung von sehr erheblicher Bedeutung für die Lösung der Aufgaben.
Mit den Intelligenztests kann eben tatsächlich nicht die Anlage an sich, sondern nur
eine Leistung festgestellt werden. Diese ist aber bei unterschiedlichen Intelligenz-
graden verschieden stark von der Schulung abhängig. Eine Anlage braucht fördernde
Reize zu ihrer Entwicklung. Bei gleichen Anlagen führen verschiedene Schulung
und Unterschiede der geistigen Umwelt zu verschieden hohen Leistungen; das ist
aber noch immer selbstverständlich gewesen. Über das hinaus kann aus den Intelli-
genzuntersuchungen Newmans nichts geschlossen werden.
In Temperament und Charakter zeigen die getrennt erzogenen Zwil-
linge auch Unterschiede verschiedener Abstufung; nach der Art ihrer Ausprägung
können sie nicht durchweg ganz klar mit den Lebensschicksalen in Zusammenhang
gebracht werden. Auch wo sich größere Unterschiede der beiden Persönlichkeiten
zeigen, gehen sie kaum über das hinaus, was auch bei gemeinsam erzogenen EZ an
Verschiedenheit beobachtet werden kann. Bei den meisten Fällen war aber festzu-
stellen, daß auch EZ, die in stark verschiedenen Lebensumständen aufgewachsen
sind, in Temperament und Charakter so gut wie ganz übereinstimmen. Der Gesamt-
eindruck ist mit voller Klarheit der, daß fürdieEntwicklungderPersön-
lichkeit der Einfluß des Erbguts die Einflüsse der Umwelt bei
weitem überwiegt. Newman versuchte früher auch zu einer zahlenmäßigen Be-
stimmung des Wirkungsmaßes der beiden Kräftegruppen zu kommen und fand auf
Grund eines Vergleichs der Testuntersuchungen an den verschiedenen Gruppen von
Zwillingen, daß der Einfluß des Erbgutes zweimal so groß sei als der der Umwelt.
Später kam er zu der Einsicht, daß die Festlegung eines Zahlenverhältnisses nicht
möglich sei. Wenn schon Zahlen genannt und errechnet werden, so ist der Anteil
des Erbgutes mit dem Verhältnis 2 : 1 zweifellos viel zu gering bewertet.
(
Newman ist von dem Ergebnis seiner Forschungen insofern enttäuscht, als es ihm
mit seinen Mitarbeitern entgegen früheren Hoffnungen über die Lösung des Nature-
Nurture-Problems mit Hilfe der Untersuchung getrennt erzogener Zwillinge nicht
gelungen ist, ein einfach zu fassendes, klares Ergebnis zu erzielen. Je weiter man in
das Problem eindringt, um so schwieriger wird es und um so mehr löst es sich in
Einzelprobleme auf. Newman und seine Mitarbeiter haben wohl zu viel erwartet,
insbesondere von der Zuverlässigkeit und Verwendbarkeit ihrer Tests. Ihre Unter-
suchungen geben aber auf alle Fälle einen wertvollen Einblick in die Modifikations-
breite der Anlagen von Intelligenz, Temperament und Charakter bei deutlich ver-
schiedenen Umweltverhältnissen und lassen im ganzen deutlich erkennen, daß für
die Entwicklung der Persönlichkeit letztlich nicht die Umwelt, sondern das Erbgut
entscheidend ist.
5. Gleichheit und Verschiedenheit bei EZ
Die Untersuchung getrennt erzogener EZ hat eine ganz klare und einfache Gesetz-
mäßigkeit nicht ergeben. Im einen Fall scheint die Umwelt recht stark gewirkt zu
haben, das andere Mal so gut wie gar nicht. Im ganzen gehen wohl die Unterschiede
über diejenigen hinaus, die an gemeinsam erzogenen EZ gefunden werden; die an
gemeinsam erzogenen EZ beobachteten Unterschiede sind aber vielfach gerade so
groß, manchmal sogar größer als bei den getrennt erzogenen EZ. Dabei ist zunächst
zu bedenken, daß es für zwei Menschen niemals vollkommen gleiche Umwelten geben
kann; bei vielen EZ mögen Umwelteinflüsse modifizierend gewirkt haben, die wir
nachträglich gar nicht mehr feststellen können. Tatsache ist es, daß es Zwillinge
gibt, die in ihren seelischen Eigenschaften vollkommen übereinstimmen und daneben
recht häufig andere, die intellektuell und charakterlich deutlich verschieden sind.
Der eine ist verschwenderisch, der andere sparsam, der eine gefühlsmäßig warm,
der andere kühl, der eine großzügig, der andere kleinlich, der eine lebhaft, der
andere ruhig, der eine offen und aufgeschlossen, der andere zurückhaltend, der eine
mehr männlich, der andere mehr weiblich. Beinahe immer ist der eine der beiden
Zwillinge der Führende, der andere der Folgende.
Nun ist es allerdings von grundlegender Wichtigkeit, wie diese Unter-
schiede zu werten sind. Es ist bei EZ etwas ganz anderes, zu vergleichen
und Unterschiede festzustellen als beim Vergleich nicht erbgleicher Menschen. Es
handelt sich bei ihnen nicht um Unterschiede, wie sie bei erbverschiedenen Menschen
vorkommen, sondern um Unterschiede einer ganz anderen Rangordnung. Auf der
Grundlage der tatsächlichen Gleichheit werden feine Abstufungen beobachtet; sie
werden oft mit Begriffen bezeichnet, die nicht für die Abstufungen zutreffen, sondern
für die Extreme gelten. Die Eigenschaften sind in der durch diese Begriffe bezeich-
neten Richtung verschieden, aber meist ohne daß die Unterschiede über eine ver-
hältnismäßig kleine Variationsbreite des Merkmals hinauskommen. Nie handelt es
sich bei den im Vorstehenden genannten Begriffspaaren um ein Entweder-Oder,
sondern immer nur um ein Mehr oder Weniger in der bezeichneten Richtung. Es ist
tatsächlich außerordentlich schwer, die Unterschiede von EZ wirklich objektiv zu
sehen und zu werten. Dem Fernerstehenden scheinen unter Umständen zwei Zwil-
linge völlig ähnlich zu sein, der Näherstehende sieht an ihnen auf Grund engen per-
sönlichen Umgangs deutliche Unterschiede. Die große Ähnlichkeit der EZ zwingt
geradezu die mit ihnen verkehrenden Menschen, bei ihnen nach Unterschieden zu
suchen. Die gefundenen Unterschiede werden viel größer gesehen, als sie tatsäch-
lich sind, weil auf dem Grunde der fast völligen Gleichheit auch die feinsten, sonst
vielleicht verschwindenden Abtönungen sich deutlich abheben. Umgekehrt ist es
aber auch psychologisch möglich, daß ein Beobachter von der Gleichheit zweier EZ
156
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Zwillingsgemeinschaft — Nervenleiden
157
so beeindruckt ist, daß er ihre Unterschiede gar nicht mehr sieht oder sehen will.
Alle diese Umstände machen es nahezu unmöglich, die vorhandenen Unterschiede
richtig einzuschätzen; daß durch Testuntersuchungen ein objektiver Maßstab ge-
wonnen werden könne, ist eine trügerische Hoffnung. Ob die Unterschiede ,,groß"
oder ,, klein" genannt werden, hängt bei vielen Forschern tatsächlich davon ab, was
sie von den EZ erwarten.
Ähnliches zeigt sich in der Entwicklung der Zwillingsforschung. Ihre erste Zeit
stand unter dem ungeheuer starken Eindruck der Übereinstimmung der EZ, die in
immer erneuten Untersuchungen nachgewiesen wurde. Nach und nach erkannte man,
daß EZ auch deutliche Unterschiede aufweisen können. Nachdem ihre Übereinstim-
mung beinahe zur Selbstverständlichkeit geworden war, interessierten nunmehr in
erster Linie diejenigen Fälle, in denen größere Unterschiede zu beobachten waren.
Mit der Verschiebung des Interesses rücken die unterschiedlichen Fälle in den
Vordergrund und es kann sich schließlich sogar ein Bild ergeben, das der Wirklich-
keit nicht voll gerecht wird. Die „Verschiedenheit" von EZ ist eine
solche, die nur auf dem Grunde ihrer einzigartigen und sonst
nicht wieder vorkommenden Gleichheit richtig bewertet wer-
den kann.
Die Frage nach der Ursache der Unterschiede ist schwierig; ihre Lösung ist noch
nicht über Anfänge hinausgekommen. Grobe Unterschiede sind nach Lange fast
immer auf äußere Schädigungen zurückzuführen, vor allem auf solche beim Geburts-
vorgang; diese sind häufiger als für gewöhnlich angenommen wird. Sehr viele Unter-
schiede werden auf Störungen während des vorgeburtlichen Lebens zurückzuführen
sein; die Zwillingsschwangerschaft bedeutet für den Keim eine unnatürliche Umwelt.
Bei kleinen Unterschieden sind die Ursachen meist nicht faßbar. Sie können sich
allmählich vergrößern: , »Minimale Unterschiede wirken wie Hebelarme, an denen
die Umwelt ins Große zeichnend eingreift." (Lange.)
In das Problem Gleichheit-Verschiedenheit spielt noch ein anderes herein: das
der Zwillingsgcmcinschait. Das Verbundensein von EZ ist besonders in der Jugend
und bei weiblichen Zwillingen sehr stark, oft von einer unvergleichlichen Innigkeit.
M. Schiller erzählt von zwei Brüdern, die sich in der Schule immer wieder umarmten
und küßten; weil sie damit den Unterricht störten, mußten sie getrennt gesetzt wer-
den. Das Verhältnis zweier erbgleicher Zwillinge zueinander ist etwas ganz Be-
sonderes und mit keinem anderen Verhältnis zwischen Menschen zu vergleichen; ein
Mensch ist hier immer mit seinem eigenen Doppel beisammen. EZ haben damit die
gleichartigste Umwelt, die sich denken läßt: auch der fast immer gegenwärtige
Partner ist gleich; das ganze Erleben ist gemeinsam. Der eine Zwilling kann sich
gar nicht ohne den anderen denken. Es gibt bei solchen Zwillingen oft gar kein
„Ich" mehr, sondern nur ein „Wir". M. ScmLLER erzählt, daß EZ häufig keine
Freunde haben; sie sind sich selbst völlig genug. Wenn sie Freunde haben, so sind
es fast immer die gleichen.
Aus der Gleichheit der EZ und ihres Wir-Erlebnisses folgt bei ihnen meist auch
der bewußte Wille zum Gleichsein. Es gibt bei ihnen — ganz im Gegensatz zu den
ZZ — meist keinen Wettbewerb, sondern nur das Bestreben, sich gegenseitig anzu-
gleichen. So verstärkt sich das gegebene Gleichsein durch die
völlig gleiche Umwelt und dazuhin meist noch auf psycholo-
gischem Weg durch ein Gleichseinwollen. Das bedeutet natürlich
eine methodische Schwierigkeit für die Herauslösung des reinen Einflusses der Erb-
anlage. Wenn aber schon versucht wurde, die Gleichheit der EZ weithin auf ihr
Bestreben der ,, Identifizierung" zurückzuführen, so ist dazu zu sagen, daß ein
solches Bestreben ja nur die Folge ihrer erblichen Gleichheit ist.
Nur in seltenen Fällen ist die Gemeinschaft von EZ gestört, manchmal bis zum
grimmigen Haß: Es sind Menschen, die ,,sich selbst nicht leiden können". Wer sich
selbst nicht ausstehen kann, mit sich selbst zerfallen ist, wird und muß sein Gefühl
auch an seinem Doppel auslassen. Wenn bei EZ ein sehr inniges Verhältnis die
Regel ist, so mag daraus gefolgert werden, daß der Mensch in der Regel sich selber
freundlich gegenübersteht.
6. Nervenleiden und Geisteskrankheiten
Wie der normale Ablauf der seelischen Funktionen erbmäßig bestimmt ist, so
ist es auch der krankhafte. Das große Gebiet der Nerven- und Geisteskrankheiten
hat deshalb die Erbforschung immer stark beschäftigt. Das Nervensystem kann von
organischen Schädigungen befallen werden, die zu Störungen der nervösen Funk-
tionen führen. Von diesen in körperlichen Erscheinungen sich äußernden neuro-
logischen Erkrankungen sind die Geisteskrankheiten (Psychosen)
zu unterscheiden, bei denen die geistigen und seelischen Fähigkeiten und Abläufe
gestört sind. Diese Störungen führen vom normalen Seelenleben bis zu Krankheits-
formen, die eine völlige Zerstörung der Persönlichkeit bedeuten.
Die Erbbedingtheit der Geisteskrankheiten ist von jeher bekannt ge-
wesen; mit genealogischen Methoden wurde der Art ihres Erbganges nachgegangen.
In Deutschland werden solche Forschungen seit längerer Zeit durch das K a i s e r -
Wilhelm-Institut für Genealogie und D e m o g r a p h i e b e i d e r
deutschen F o r s c h u n g s a n s t a 1 1 für P s y c h i a t r i e i n München
unter Leitung von Professor Dr. Rüdin durchgeführt. Es wurde dort versucht, für
die verschiedenen Arten geistiger Störungen den Grad der Wahrscheinlichkeit zu er-
mitteln, mit der Kinder belasteter Eltern der Erkrankung ausgesetzt sind. Etwa seit
1928 benützt dieses Forschungsinstitut für seine Untersuchungen auch die Zwillings-
methode. Die ersten grundlegenden Untersuchungen sind von Lange und Luxen-
BURGER durchgeführt worden. An ihre Arbeiten haben sich dann m den letzten
Jahren diejenigen weiterer Mitarbeiter der F^.'-^^^ungsanstalt angesch loss^^^^^^
alle gründen sich auf das von dem Institut in einzigartiger Weise gesammelte Material.
Die Absichten der Forschungsanstalt gehen dahin, zum mindesten für emzelne Krank-
heitsformen womöglich alle in Deutschland vorhandenen Falle zu sammeln und sie
damit der wissenschaftlichen Verarbeitung zuzuführen. Zu welchen Ergebnissen die
Forschungen des Instituts mit Hilfe der Zwillingsmethode gefuhrt haben, sei im
nachstehenden berichtet.
a) Nervenleiden
Auf dem Gebiet der Nervenkrankheiten ist bis vor kurzem die Zwillingsmethode
nurln ger^gem Umfang benützt worden. Dies rührte davon her daß d:e meisten
der Neurologischen Erkrankungen verhältnismäßig selten sind, und daß es deshalb
recht sÄig ist, ein genügend großes Material von Zwahngspaaren zusammen-
zubringen, von denen mindestens ein Partner von der KrankheU befal en .st.
Neuerdings hat nun aber die Münchener Forschungsanstalt die systematische Er-
fassung Iller neurologischen Erkrankungen in Angriff genommen; es wird versucht,
auf 2se Weise zu einer größeren Zahl von Zwillingsfällen der einzelnen Erkran-
kungen zu kommen. Von dieser großzügig durchgeführten Erhebung liegt eme erste
Arbeit vorfDie Anwendung der Zwillingsmethode auf die Erbpatholog.e der mul-
Uplen Sklerose durch Thums, Da diese Zwillingsarbeit sowohl nach der methodischen
Seite als auch nach der Art und Bedeutung ihres Ergebnisses besonderes Interesse
verdient, sei im folgenden näher auf sie eingegangen.
'!'^t''->ffHHt!H)r'(!.
Hm
158
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Multiple Sklerose
159
Die multiple Sklerose ist eine entzündliche Erkrankung des Nervensystems, die ihren
Namen davon hat, daß sich im Gehirn oder im Rückenmark oder auch in beiden vielfach und
wahllos verstreut Herde bilden, die härter sind als ihre Umgebung. Die äußeren Symptome
der Krankheit können der mannigfaltigen Verteilung der Herde entsprechend recht ver-
schiedenartig sein; es sind vor allem folgende: rhythmisches Augenzittern (Nystagmus);
Bewegungszittern der Gliedmaßen, das bis zu einem allgemeinen Körperwackeln führen kann;
Störung der Nerven des Sprechapparats, die sich in einer merkwürdig abgehackten, „skan-
dierenden" Sprache äußert; Lähmung der Beine. Im Verlauf dieser Nervenstörungen können
auch die geistigen Fähigkeiten abnehmen.
Von der multiplen Sklerose waren bis vor kurzem wie von allen übrigen Nervenkrank-
heiten nur ganz vereinzelte Zwillingsfälle bekannt. Von ihnen war besonders ein 1932 von
dem holländischen Forscher LeGRAS beschriebener Fall bemerkenswert; bei einem Paar
zweifelsfreier EZ war multiple Sklerose konkordant beobachtet worden, Angesichts der ver-
hältnismäßigen Seltenheit der Erkrankung war auch ein derartiger Einzelfall von wissen-
schaftlicher Bedeutung; er mußte eine starke Erbbedingtheit der multiplen Sklerose vermuten
lassen. Die Entscheidung kann aber erst durch die Erfassung einer lückenlosen Serie
herbeigeführt werden. Das Material der Untersuchung darf nicht durch Auslesevorgänge ver-
fälscht werden, sondern muß ,,r e p r ä s e n t a t i v" sein, d. h. in seiner Zusammensetzung
die Verhältnisse der Gesamtbevölkerung richtig wiedergeben. Am vollkommensten werden
diese Forderungen erfüllt, wenn innerhalb eines möglichst großen Zählbezirks alle Merkmals-
träger erfaßt und aus ihnen alle diejenigen ausgesondert werden, die einer Zwillingsgeburt
entstammen.
Ein möglichst vollständiges Material neurologischer Erkrankungen konnte nur auf dem
Weg der Erhebung bei Kliniken und Krankenhäusern gewonnen werden.
Um genügend viele Fälle zu erhalten, wurden an alle Heil- und Pflegeanstalten sowie an
alle Krankenhäuser des ganzen Reichs, an die staatlichen und privaten Gebrechlichen- und
Krüppelanstalten und an die chirurgischen und orthopädischen Kliniken Rundbriefe ver-
sandt, in denen um die Nennung aller neurologischen Fälle der letzten 10 bis 20 Jahre ge-
beten wurde. Von jedem einzelnen Fall sollten Name, Zeit und Ort der Geburt, Konfession,
Anschrift und Diagnose gemeldet werden. Von etwa 1000 Krankenhäusern und Anstalten,
an welche die Rundfrage erging, antworteten daraufhin zunächst gegen 400 und meldeten über
50 000 Fälle. An die Universitätskliniken wurden eigene Hilfskräfte der Forschungsanstalt
entsandt, um die Erhebungen durchzuführen. Auf diese Weise wurde ein Material über das
Vorkommen organischer Nervenkrankheiten gewonnen, wie es bisher auch annähernd nicht
vorhanden war.
Die zweite Aufgabe war es nun, aus diesem Material von Kranken die-
jenigen herauszufinden, die als Mehrlinge geboren worden waren.
Zu diesem Zweck wurde in jedem einzelnen der genannten Fälle an das Standesamt oder an
das Pfarramt des Geburtsortes die Anfrage gerichtet, ob die betreffende Person aus einer
Mehrlingsgeburt stamme oder nicht. Falls eine Antwort nach einigen Monaten nicht ein-
gelaufen war, wurde gemahnt. Es ist verständlich, daß trotzdem die Auskünfte nicht voll-
ständig eingingen; nach einiger Zeit konnte aber immerhin für 400 nervenkranke Patienten
festgestellt werden, daß sie als Zwillinge geboren waren. Bei der ersten Durchprüfung dieser
Fälle zeigte es sich, daß bei den ausgesprochen seltenen Nervenkrankheiten über eine Kasui-
stik nicht hinauszukommen war, daß es aber möglich ist, bei einigen anderen, etwas häufigeren
Nervenkrankheiten (z. B. bei multipler Sklerose, Hirntumor, Parkinsonscher Krankheit) zu
repräsentativen Serien zu gelangen. In Angriff genommen wurde zunächst die Untersuchung
der Zwillinge mit multipler Sklerose.
Bis zu dem Zeitpunkt, an dem eine vorläufige Begrenzung des sich immer noch vermehren-
den Materials vorgenommen wurde, konnte von 3123 Fällen multipler Sklerose
festgestellt werden, ob sie einer Zwillingsgeburt entstammt waren oder nicht. Es fanden sich
unter ihnen 51 als Zwillinge Geborene. Von ihnen galt es nun, in Erfahrung
zu bringen, ob und wo der gemeldete Kranke und sein Zwillingspartner lebten. Dies gelang
nur durch eine ausgedehnte Korrespondenz mit Einwohnermeldeämtern, Standesämtern,
Bürgermeistern, Pfarrern, Anstalten usw. Dann wurde an den Kranken und seinen Partner
oder, wenn bereits beide tot waren, an die Eltern oder eines der Geschwister ein persönlich
gehaltener Brief gerichtet, in dem der Zweck und die Wichtigkeit der geplanten Untersuchung
dargelegt und um eine Reihe von Auskünften, insbesondere auch um Photographien gebeten
wurde. Außerdem wurde der Besuch beider Zwillingspartner durch einen Arzt des Instituts
angekündigt. Auf diese Briefe wurde fast in allen Fällen bereitwillig Auskunft erteilt; auch
der eingehenden späteren Untersuchung auf die Eiigkeit und den Stand des Leidens wurde
nur in ganz wenigen Fällen Widerstand entgegengesetzt, so daß die 51 ermittelten Zwillings-
fälle tatsächlich so gut wie vollständig geklärt werden konnten.
Für dieses Material ergab sich, daß in 18 Fällen der eine Partner vor dem 5, Lebensjahr
gestorben war. Für die eigentliche Untersuchung standen damit nur noch 33 Fälle zur
Verfügung. Unter ihnen waren 11 EZ, 10 ZZ und 12 PZ. Das zahlenmäßige Verhältnis der
verschiedenen Arten von Zwillingen stimmt damit recht gut mit dem Verhältnis dieser drei
Gruppen in der Gesamtheit der Zwillingsgeburten überein. Die Zahl der Zwillinge entspricht
auch recht genau der Zwillingshäufigkeit in den entsprechenden Alters Jahrgängen der Ge-
samtbevölkerung. Das gewonnene Material entsprach also in bezug auf die Häufigkeit der
Zwillingsschaft völlig einer Durchschnittsbevölkerung.
Da stärkste Interesse gehört naturgemäß den 11 EZ-Paaren. Von ihnen mußte wiederum
eines ausscheiden, bei welchem der Partner zehn Jahre vor dem Beginn der Erkrankung
seines Bruders im Feld gefallen war. Bei den restlichen 10 EZ-Paaren steht in 3 Fällen die
Diagnose des einen Partners auf multiple Sklerose nicht ganz fest. Bei den übrigen 7 Fällen
war bei beiden Partnern das Ergebnis der Untersuchung völlig klar: die erbgleichen Partner
der durch die Erhebung ermittelten Kranken erwiesen sich sowohl nach ihren eigenen Aus-
sagen als auch bei der neurologischen Untersuchung als vollkommen frei von multipler Sklerose
oder einer anderen organischen Nervenkrankheit; nicht das geringste krankheitsverdächtige
Symptom konnte bei ihnen gefunden werden. Dasselbe gilt für die 3 zweifelhaften Fälle; auch
bei ihnen erwies sich der Partner des Kranken als gesund. Wenn sich auf diese Weise alle
EZ-Paare als diskordant erwiesen haben, so muß doch noch auf die Möglichkeit einer späteren
Abänderung dieses Ergebnisses hingewiesen werden. Wenn als Hauptgefährdungszeit der
multiplen Sklerose das 18, bis 35, Lebensjahr angenommen wird, so stehen von den 10 Paaren
noch 2 innerhalb dieses Zeitraums; es wäre also nicht völlig ausgeschlossen, daß bei ihnen
nachträglich auch noch der bisher gesunde Partner an multipler Sklerose erkranken würde,
so daß damit diese Fälle konkordant würden.
Auch bei allen ZZ-Paaren, die zur Untersuchung kamen, wurde nur Diskordanz gefunden.
Bei den 9 EZ-Paaren, die untersucht werden konnten, sind 5 sicher, 3 höchst wahrscheinlich
diskordant; 1 Paar ist fraglich konkordant.
Das Ergebnis der Untersuchung von Thums ist also, daß unter 10 erbgleichen
Zwillingspaaren einer auslesefreien Serie kein einziges Paar
gefunden wurde, bei dem die multiple Sklerose bei beiden
Partnern aufgetreten wäre. Daraus folgt mit voller Eindeu-
tigkeit, daß für das Zustandekommen der multiplen Sklerose
nicht eine Erbanlage entscheidend sein kann. Die Ursache der
Krankheit muß vielmehr in anderen, äußeren Ursachen gesucht werden. Diese Ur-
sachen sind trotz nachhaltigster Bemühungen vieler Jahrzehnte auch heute noch un-
geklärt. Die multiple Sklerose galt lange Zeit als eine Infektionskrankheit, ohne daß
ein klarer Beweis hierfür hätte geführt werden können. Mittels Familienuntersuch-
ungen versuchte Curtius die Wirksamkeit von Erbfaktoren nachzuweisen; der von
Legras beschriebene Einzelfall verstärkte die in dieser Richtung gehenden Ver-
mutungen, Nach dem klaren Ergebnis der Untersuchung von Thums steht fest, daß
eine Erbanlage für multiple Sklerose nicht besteht; es muß jetzt wieder an die in-
fektiöse Entstehung gedacht werden.
Die multiple Sklerose erscheint damit als eine reine Um-
weltkrankheit. Solange aber noch zwei Partner des Materials in der Gefähr-
dungsperiode sind, bleibt doch die Möglichkeit offen, daß sie noch an multipler
Sklerose erkranken. In diesem Fall müßte an das Vorhandensein einer Erbanlage
von schwacher Durchschlagskraft gedacht werden. Die Manifestationswahrschein-
lichkeit dieser Erbanlage könnte dann höchstens 33% betragen. Ob nun die eine
oder andere Möglichkeit vorliegt, so ist doch auf alle Fälle die multiple Sklerose
„von praktischen Gesichtspunkten aus nicht als ein Erbleiden zu bezeichnen, son-
160
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
dern als eine Erkrankung, bei der die Umwelt die weit überwiegende, entscheidende
Rolle spielt" (Thums). Das ist ein sehr wichtiges Ergebnis.
Die Arbeit von Thums ist deshalb so ausführlich wiedergegeben worden, weil sie
ein in vieler Beziehung aufschlußreiches Beispiel einer erfolgreichen wissenschaft-
lichen Untersuchung mit Hilfe der Zwillingsmethode darstellt. Die Darstellung ihrer
Methodik gibt einen lebhaften Begriff davon, wie unerhört mühevoll die
Gewinnung eines ausreichenden auslesefreien Materials ist.
Sie zeigt weiterhin, wie die Zwillingsmethode in einem seit langer Zeit umstrittenen
Fall zu einem völlig eindeutigen Ergebnis über die Erb- oder Um-
weltbedingtheit einer Krankheit zu führen vermochte, zu einem Er-
gebnis, wie es mit gleicher Sicherheit von keiner anderen Methode der menschlichen
Erbforschung geliefert werden könnte.
b) Schizophrenie
Mit besonderem Nachdruck hat sich die Erbforschung schon früher mit der Ver-
erbung der Geisteskrankheiten beschäftigt; sind es doch Erkrankungen schwerster
Art, welche ihre erbmäßige Bedingtheit deutlich erkennen lassen und mit ihrem
schicksalsmäßigen Auftreten den Menschen aufs tiefste bewegen. Es sind vor allem
zwei Hauptgruppen von Geisteskrankheiten zu erkennen: die Schizophrenie und das
manisch-depressive Irresein (Zyklophrenie). An sie schließen sich Epilepsie und
Schwachsinn an. Näher an der Grenze zum Normalen stehen diejenigen Erschei-
nungen, die man als Psychopathie und Hysterie bezeichnet; viele der Schwerver-
brecher, über die bereits früher berichtet worden ist, wären hier einzuordnen. Auf
die Erforschung aller dieser geistig-seelischen Störungen ist auch schon die Zwil-
lingsmethode angewandt worden; im folgenden soll dargelegt werden, was sich im
einzelnen aus diesen Untersuchungen ergeben hat.
Die Schizophrenie (Spaltungsirresein, wörtlich „Spaltung des Geistes") ist die
häufigste und schwerste der Geisteskrankheiten. Sie setzt verhältnismäßig früh,
meist schon im zweiten oder dritten Jahrzehnt ein (daher auch Dementiaprae-
cox = Verblödung im jugendlichen Alter). Ihr Auftreten kann sehr verschiedene
Formen zeigen; allen gemeinsam ist eine weitgehende Verödung des Gefühls- und
Willenslebens, die bis zur Verblödung führen kann.
Einzelne Zwillingsfälle sind schon vor längerer Zeit bekannt geworden und haben
dadurch Aufsehen erregt, daß sie einen völlig gleichen Ablauf der Krankheit zeigten.
Bereits Galton erzählt ausführlich einen solchen Fall. Mit Einzelfällen ist aber nicht
viel anzufangen; es ist verständlich, daß die konkordanten Fälle besonders leicht
auffallen und deshalb verhältnismäßig häufig berichtet werden, während die dis-
kordanten Fälle meist überhaupt keine Beachtung finden. Die in der Literatur be-
richteten Einzelfälle stellen daher, wenn sie gesammelt werden, eine starke Auslese
nach Konkordanz und damit auch nach der Eineiigkeit dar. Luxenburger hat, wie
schon mehrfach erwähnt, als erster auf die Notwendigkeit hingewiesen, der Zwillings-
forschung auslesefreie Serien zugrunde zu legen. Erst auf diese Weise konnten Er-
gebnisse von allgemeiner Bedeutung gewonnen werden. Aus einem Gesamtmaterial
von über 16 000 Kranken erhielt er schließlich etwa 81 Zwillingspaare, von denen
wenigstens ein Partner an Schizophrenie erkrankt war. Ihre Untersuchung ergab,
daß von 21 EZ-Paaren 14 konkordant und 7 diskordant waren, von 37 ZZ-Paaren
alle 37 diskordant, von 23 unsicheren Paaren 2 konkordant, 21 diskordant. Bei den
EZ sind also bei -j.^ der Paare beide Partner an Schizophrenie erkrankt; alle sicheren
ZZ sind diskordant. Schon aus diesen Zahlen geht die starke, wenn auch
nicht vollkommene Erbbedingtheit der Schizophrenie hervor.
Die Verarbeitung des statistischen Materials ergab weiterhin folgendes: Die
Häufigkeit der Zwillinge im Ausgangsmaterial entsprach ihrer Häufigkeit in der
Schizophrenie
161
Gesamtbevölkerung. Zwillinge sind also nicht stärker mit Schizophrenie belastet
als Einlinge; die Zwillingsschaft als solche hat keine Beziehung zur Entstehung der
Schizophrenie. Das ungestörte Verhältnis beweist auch, daß Erbträger der Schizo-
phrenie vor dem Ausbruch der Krankheit keiner Letalauslese unterliegen, d. h. nicht
in größerer Zahl sterben als Nichtträger der Anlage.
Die Untersuchung der konkordanten EZ gab wohl in vielen Fällen eine starke
Übereinstimmung im Auftreten und Verlauf der Erkrankung. Daneben aber
wurde eine erhebliche Zahl bemerkenswerter Unterschiede festgestellt.
,, Durch die Serien hat das Märchen von der photographischen Treue der Psychosen
bei EZ eine schlagende Widerlegung erfahren." (Luxenburger.) Diese Verschieden-
heiten zeigen, daß das Krankheitsbild der Schizophrenie eine starke umweltbedingte
Variabilität aufweisen kann. Der Beginn der Erkrankung ist zeitlich oft recht ver-
schieden. Neben Fällen, bei denen die Erkrankung bei beiden Zwillingen völlig
gleichzeitig einsetzte, sind zeitliche Unterschiede bis zu 11 Jahren beobachtet worden.
Der Verlauf der Erkrankung kann zum Teil recht verschieden sein; oft bringt es
aber der bunte Wechsel der einzelnen Bilder mit sich, daß , .manchmal der andere
bald nachmacht, was der eine vorgemacht hat. Ja gelegentlich scheint es, als ob
von dem später erkrankten Zwilling in einem Schub nach Schwere und Dauer das
nachgeholt würde, was der andere voraus hatte." (Lange.)
Das wichtigste Ergebnis der Luxenburger sehen Serie ist die Tatsache, daß nur
2/.; der EZ-Paare mit Schizophrenie konkordant sind; bei ^/.j ist nur der eine Partner
erkrankt. Daraus folgt, daß nicht bei allen Menschen, welche die Erbanlage für
Schizophrenie besitzen, diese Anlage sich auch tatsächlich manifestiert. Aus dem
genannten Verhältnis (k = 0,666) errechnet sich eine Manifestationswahrscheinlich-
2 k 1,333
keit von = = 0,8. Luxenburger hat zur Berechnung der Manifestations-
1 + k 1,666
Wahrscheinlichkeit der Schizophrenie noch besondere Formeln aufgestellt. Er erhält
damit Zahlen, die zwischen 0,692 und 0,810 liegen. Diese Zahlen stimmen mit der
oben errechneten sehr befriedigend überein; als Ergebnis der Serienuntersuchung
kann festgehalten werden, daß nur70bis80% allerMenschen, welche
die Anlage zur Schizophrenie haben, tatsächlich auch im Lauf
ihresLebensschizophrenwerden;bei den übrigen kommt die Krankheit
nicht zum Ausbruch. Die Schizophrenie ist ein Erbleiden von zwar recht starker,
aber doch nicht vollkommener Durchschlagskraft (Penetranz). Für ihre Manifestie-
rung müssen äußere Einflüsse wirksam sein; es ist die Frage auf zuwerfen, w a s f ü r
Umwelteinflüsse es sind, welche die M an i f e s t i er u n g beför-
dern oder hemmen. Hierüber ist noch recht wenig bekannt. Lange konnte bei
Frauen eine deutliche Abhängigkeit der Erkrankungen von Störungen in der Geni-
talsphäre nachweisen. Auch schwere Erkrankungen körperlicher Art, wie Typhus
und Gelenkrheumatismus, scheinen die Auslösung der ruhenden Anlage herbeiführen
zu können.
Diese Erkenntnisse über die Manifestation der Schizophrenie zeigen an einem
wichtigen Beispiel, in welchem Kräfteverhältnis Anlage und Um-
welt bei der Entstehung einer Krankheit zusammenwirken. Es
gibt Erbleiden, die sich mit einer Wahrscheinlichkeit von 100% manifestieren, die
also rein schicksalsmäßig entstehen und verlaufen. Umwelteinflüsse sind bei ihnen
für die Entstehung der Krankheit völlig belanglos. Daneben gibt es Leiden, die zwar
deutlich erbmäßig bestimmt sind, bei denen aber nur bei einem gewissen Hundertsatz
der Anlageträger das Leiden zur Manifestierung kommt. Es ist klar, daß hier äußeren
Einflüssen ein ganz bestimmtes Gewicht zukommt. Schließlich gibt es auch Krank-
heiten, bei denen eine Erbanlage überhaupt keine Rolle spielt, die ausschließlich
W Zwillinge
lilUilUUUUMlCIUUUil
i!HHltllÄililtyiiilltefll(ili!!t;illet
^i
162
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Erb- und Umweltkrankheiten — Manisch-depressives I
rresein
163
durch Umwelteinflüsse verursacht werden. Luxenburger hat dargelegt, daß auf Grund
dieser Tatsachen „die gesamte Pathologie des Menschen von den reinen Erbkrank-
heiten bis zu den reinen Umweltkrankheiten in ein sinnvolles System ge-
bracht werden kann, in welchem Erbkrankheiten und Umwelt-
krankheiten nicht mehr Gegensätze, sondern extreme Varianten
einer organisch sich aufbauenden V a r i a t i o n s r e i h e darstellen".
Diese Betrachtungsweise ist außerordentlich fruchtbar. Ist die Manifestations-
wahrscheinlichkeit eines Erbleidens höher als 50%, so ist die Anlage die Haupt-
ursache, die Umwelteinflüsse stellen nur Nebenursachen dar. Beträgt die Mani-
festationswahrscheinlichkeit 50%, so sind die beiden Kräftegruppen gleich stark.
Beträgt sie weniger als 50%, so muß zwar immer noch eine Anlage, eine gewisse
Bereitschaft des Körpers vorhanden sein, um die Krankheit entstehen zu lassen; die
Außeneinflüsse sind aber stärker als die Erbanlage. Wirken sie im Sinne der An-
lage, so können sie die Manifestierung der Krankheit herbeiführen, im entgegenge-
setzten Fall verhindern. Den verschiedenen Nerven- und Geisteskrankheiten kommen
in der Luxenburger sehen Variationsreihe ganz verschiedene Plätze zu. Wie später
noch ausgeführt wird, hat der erbliche Schwachsinn eine Manifestationswahrschein-
lichkeit, die ganz nahe an 100% heranreicht; er steht damit am Anlagepol des
Systems. Nicht weit davon entfernt steht die erbliche Epilepsie mit einer Manifesta-
tionswahrscheinlichkeit von etwa 92% ; schon wesentlich stärker wirken Umweltein-
flüsse bei der Entstehung der Schizophrenie mit. An ganz anderer Stelle ist die mul-
tiple Sklerose einzureihen. Sie steht entweder ganz am Umweltpol der Reihe oder
mit einer Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit, die allerhöchstens 33% betragen kann,
wahrscheinlich aber wesentlich geringer ist, nicht weit davon entfernt.
Die Betrachtungsweise Luxenburgers läßt erkennen, daß „Erbkrankheiten"
und „Umweltkrankheiten" keine sich ausschließenden Gegen-
sätze sind, sondern daß alle Leiden Glieder in einer stetigen
R e i h e d a r s t c 11 e n. Bei den Leiden, bei denen die Erbanlage das Wesentliche
ist, wird rassenhygienisches Handeln einsetzen müssen; bei den anderen wird der
Individualhygiene die Aufgabe der Bekämpfung zufallen. Aber auch bei Leiden, die
überwiegend erbmäßig bestimmt sind, wie die Schizophrenie, ist dem individual-
hygienischen Handeln nicht jede Möglichkeit genommen. Auch hier kann eine vor-
sichtige hygienische Führung, die bewußte Fernhaltung auslösender Reize unter Um-
ständen die Manifestierung der Krankheit verhindern. Voraussetzung hierzu wäre
es allerdings, daß die Wissenschaft die Art der fördernden oder hemmenden Ein-
flüsse noch besser kennen würde als dies zurzeit der Fall ist. Auf alle Fälle aber
ist es ein tröstliches Gefühl für viele Menschen, die von der Möglichkeit einer Be-
lastung mit Schizophrenie wissen, daß sie dieser Belastung nicht fatalistisch, schick-
salsmäßig ausgeliefert sind, sondern daß auch hier dem ärztlichen Handeln eine
V7irkungsmöglichkeit gegeben ist.
Noch eine andere wichtige Möglichkeit eröffnet die Zwillingsforschung in diesen
Fragen: Wenn von einem EZ-Paar der eine Partner an Schizophrenie erkrankt ist,
der andere nicht, so steht für den letzteren trotzdem fest, daß er die Anlage zur
Schizophrenie genau so besitzt wie der kranke Zwilling. Es wird von besonderer
Bedeutung sein, solche scheinbar gesunden Personen auf das genaueste zu unter-
suchen und zu beobachten, um auf diese Weise Symptome an ihnen zu finden, die
auf das Vorhandensein der krankhaften Erbanlage hindeuten. So könnte der Typus
des „manifestationsverhinderten Erbkranken" (Luxenburger) her-
ausgearbeitet und erkannt werden. Wenn es tatsächlich möglich wäre, ihn genau zu
erfassen, so könnte in anderen Fällen die vorhandene Erbanlage schon vor ihrer
Manifestation erkannt werden und bei den betreffenden Menschen könnte sowohl
das auf die Fernhaltung auslösender Reize gerichtete individualhygienische Handeln
als auch die auf Vermeidung von Nachkommenschaft abzielende rassenhygienische
Beeinflussung bewußt einsetzen.
Schließlich sei noch gezeigt, wie die Z w i 1 1 i n g s m e t h o d e an der Lösung
theoretischer Fragen der Vererbungslehre mitzuwirken vermag.
Uie Schizophrenie wird auf Grund von Stammbaumforschungen als eine Krankheit angesehen,
die sich rezessiv vererbt. Wenn zwei nicht schizophrene Eltern ein schizophrenes Kind
haben, so muß angenommen werden, daß beide Eltern in bezug auf die Anlage zur Schizo-
phrenie heterozygot sind. Unter der Voraussetzung, daß die Krankheit auf einem einzigen
Oenpaar beruht (monomer ist) und sich vollständig manifestiert, müßten theoretisch 25%
der Kinder aus solchen Ehen schizophren sein. Tatsächlich bleibt aber die Zahl der an
Schizophrenie Erkrankten in solchen Geschwisterschaften ganz erheblich hinter 25% zurück
Luxenburger gab nach Rüdin früher nur etwa 5% dafür an. Nun zeigt die Zwillingsmethode,
daß bei einer Anzahl von Anlageträgern die Schizophrenie nicht manifest wird, es kann alsJ
unter Einrechnung des höchstmöglichen Wertes der Manifestationsschwankung angenommen
werden, daß in Wirklichkeit etwa 8% Schizophrener in den Geschwisterschaften vorhanden
sind. Diese Zahl bleibt aber immer noch weit hinter der Erwartung von 25% zurück. Daraus
schloß Luxenburger früher, daß die Krankheit nicht auf einem, sondern auf mindestens zwei
Anlagepaaren beruhen müsse, denn bei Dimerie bleibt die Zahl der homozygoten Träger der
rezessiven Anlagen wesentlich hinter 25% zurück. Nun ist die Frage vor einiger Zeit von
Luxenburger erneut aufgeworfen worden. Neue Untersuchungen haben höhere Geschwister-
proportionen der Erkrankten ergeben, als sie bisher angenommen wurden (bis 11,4%). Unter
Hinzurechnung der auf Grund der Zwillingsforschung zu errechnenden Manifestationsver-
hinderten ergibt sich, daß bis zu 18% der Geschwister als Erbträger der Schizophrenie an-
genommen werden können. Diese Zahl bleibt nun aber hinter der Erwartung von 25% nicht
mehr so weit zurück, daß die Annahme der Dimerie notwendig wäre, ja sie ist schon zu
hoch, um noch mit Dimerie vereinbar zu sein. Damit kommt LUXENBURGER zu dem Schluß,
daß die Schizophrenie wohl doch monomer sein werde. Wenn auch in
der Frage noch kein bestimmtes Ergebnis vorliegt, so können die geschilderten Überlegungen
doch zeigen, wie mit Hilfe der Zwillingsforschung und ihrer Möglichkeit, die Manifestations-
wahrscheinlichkeit von Erbanlagen zu errechnen, auch wichtige Fragen der theoretischen
Vererbungslehre der Klärung nähergeführt werden können.
c) Manisch-depressives Irresein
Die zweite Gruppe der Geisteskrankheiten ist das manisch-depressive
Irresein, neuerdings auch als Zyklophrenie bezeichnet. Die Erkrankung
ist gekennzeichnet durch eine schwere, krankhafte Störung der Stimmungslage, die
sich als unbändige heitere (manische) Erregung oder als tiefe melancholische De-
pression äußern kann. Diese beiden Zustände können bei Kranken je für sich be-
stehen oder auch miteinander abwechseln (zirkuläres oder periodisches Irresein).
Eine völlige Zerstörung der Persönlichkeit wie bei der Schizophrenie findet meist
nicht statt; nach einer tiefen Stimmungsschwankung kann der Normalzustand wieder
eintreten.
An der Erblichkeit des manisch-depressiven Irreseins bestand von jeher auf
Grund von Familienuntersuchungen kein Zweifel. Die Zwillingsforschung bestätigte
und vertiefte diese Erkenntnis. Die zuerst in der Literatur berichteten Einzelfälle
ließen auch als solche die Bedeutung des Erbfaktors deutlich erkennen, stellten aber
eine Auslese nach Konkordanz und Eineiigkeit dar und konnten deshalb keine all-
gemeinere Bedeutung beanspruchen. Eine von Luxenburger zusammengebrachte aus-
lesefreie Serie ergab bei 4 Paaren EZ 3 konkordante Fälle und 1 diskordanten Fall;
alle 13 Fälle von ZZ waren diskordant; unter 4 unsicheren Fällen war nur 1 kon-
kordanter Fall.
Diese Zahlen zeigen die starke Erbbestimmtheit des manisch-
depressiven Irreseins. Im einzelnen ergaben sich recht verschiedene Arten
164
Zwillingsforschung an seelischen Eigenschaften
Epilepsie
165
r 1
1 -.r 1. u T7 ^;MF«llPvonEZ-Paaren, bei denen die Partner „photographisch
genommen. Hier zeigten sie einen manischen E"-f "f^";'^"^-^;^^^^ Genau
Lh das Bild: sie liegen in Stupor sprachlos ""^^^^^;i^""f;^VX"^ld^^ A"^'^"^"'
69 Tage nach der Aufnahme w.rd m beiden Krankheitsgeschichten Id ^^.^^^
verzeichnet, daß sich der Z"^'»"«! .^^ ^"'^/^^.tfp^ti^^tn noch e^wäs Albernes in ihrem
i^fmcärtlKt^alterl Schädigungen des endokrinen Systems,
so hat in einem -«^^^^ ^^^„^,^7^^^^^^^^^^^^ de' Krankheit autweisen, so zeigt
f^r^-rfuf Se w^r-h em und ^^^::^:^i::^T2^-
Damit ist es möglich, all das zu «■■k;";-^""^/J^^"^Krankh^^^^^^ des manisch-
heitlichen Erbanlage entwickelt und damit =? /f,-" .'[;f™*^„„ Zwillingsfällen
depressiven Irreseins gehört. So -"•"de aus de ^ •■^e.ch""^ vo ^^^^^8 ^^^_
deutlich, daß sich Manie oder Melancholie nicht als so'^^« ^ e n g e n o t y p i s c h
:llThr;o7ei;rnVer zt ?;e^n'::rs7nr ^Drs^"etentli^He les Erhmerkmals
ist die ausgesprochene Stimmungsveranlagung.
d) Epilepsie
Die E p i 1 e p s i e i^t eine Erkrank f^^J ^^^ZZ^t^X^^^
bei denen der Kranke bewußtlos zu Boden fallt und e.ge ^^^^j^j
in schweren Fällen kann das Leiden zur Verb odung f"^-";"- J^P'^P^ ^„[^ktiöse
sein, sich aber auch auf Grund äußerer "-chen (Hn-nverletzu^^^^^ ^
Gehirnerkrankung) entwickeln. Hiernach wird ==^ ^f ^" "; P jg„
einerseits und symptomatischer EpUepsie andererseits unlersch'^^^^^^ ^^^.^^^^
°'^'T1.^-^ MTdttrtiak;o^s'wu'rd: TonZx.nTZZn als recht gering
gewesen; der Einfluß des brb aktors wurae ,^.i,..thode beizukommen,
Wonnen worden. , •„«„ QtirVitad die in sämtlichen An-
Durch eine großzügige Umfrage wurden für 7«"f '-J*^^^^^^^^^
stalten Deutschlands vorhandenen EP'lept'ker erhoben^ Von über ^^^^ .^
73.8% verwendbar und ""»er d^en ^d^ ,,,„
t;'rdernori5/p\rr:r ;:rfSung. vof denen die Eiigkeit sicher festge-
Bild 97, Epileptische EZ. (Nach Conrad, 1936.) Bild 98, Epileptische EZ. (Nach Conrad, 1936.)
Alfred und Willy S., geboren 1903, in der Jugend vcr-
wechslungsgleich, geistig früh zurückgeblieben (imbe-
zill). Beide haben Krampfanfälle in großen Abständen.
Anna und Maria F., geboren 1900. Die Anfälle traten
bei beiden zu Beginn der Schulzeit auf, so daß sie kaum
die Schule besuchen konnten. Geistig zurückgegangen
(debil); kindlich-freundlich, naiv. Anfälle regelmäßig.
stellt werden konnte. Ihre eingehende Untersuchung ging auf die Erfassung des
Krankheitsverlaufs und insbesondere auf die Entscheidung der Frage aus, ob eine
ererbte oder erworbene Epilepsie vorliege; das erstere wurde angenommen, wenn
eine klar erkennbare äußere Ursache nicht ermittelt werden konnte. Das Ergebnis
der Untersuchung zeigt die nachstehende Zusammenstellung.
Gesamt-
zahl der
Paare
Davon sind
konkordant diskordant
Von 100 Paaren sind
konkordant diskordant
ZZ
EZ
I symptomatisch
\ idiopathisch . .
I symptomatisch
( idiopathisch . •
34
93
8
22
0
4
1
19
34
89
7
3
0
4,3
12,5
86,3
100
95,7
87,5
13,7
Mit den vorstehenden Zahlen ist einwandfrei erwiesen, daß es eine Gruppe von
vorwiegend anlagebedingten Epilepsien gibt. Ihr steht eine andere gegenüber, bei
denen die Anlage eine viel geringere Rolle spielt. Wenn zu den konkordantcn Fällen
auch diejenigen gerechnet werden, bei denen der eine Partner eine echte Epilepsie
zeigt, der andere Schwachsinn und Psychopathie, so erhöht sich die Konkordanz.
Die Untersuchungen von Conrad zeigen, daß der Schwachsinn in irgendeiner geno-
typischen Beziehung zur Epilepsie steht, aber nicht mit ihr identisch ist. Die Be-
rechnung der Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit ergibt für das Gesamtmaterial der
EZ einen Wert von 80%, für die idiopathische Epilepsie von 92%.
Der überwiegend große Teil der Epilepsie steht also sehr nahedemAnlage-
p o 1 d e r LuxENBURGERSchen V a r i a t i o n s r e i h e. Mit den durch Conrad durch-
geführten Untersuchungen ist die lange geführte Diskussion, ob der Erblichkeit bei
der Epilepsie überhaupt eine besondere Rolle zukomme, eindeutig in positivem Sinn
beantwortet und damit endgültig zum Abschluß gebracht worden.
■■*T
'W-r r^ryt^HW.
■\ 1
166
Schwachsinn — Zwillinge in der Dichtung
e) Schwachsinn
Daß Schwachsinn erblich bedingt ist, ist durch Familienuntersuchungen
schon vor längerer Zeit nachgewiesen worden. Nachdem zuerst nur wenige Fälle
schwachsinniger Zwillinge bekannt waren, hat Smith aus einem Material, das sämt-
liche dänischen Schwachsinnigen umfaßte, eine auslesefreie Serie von schwach-
sinnigen Zwillingen gewinnen können. Unter 6700 registrierten Schwachsinnigen
konnten 66 Zwillingspaare gefunden und für die Untersuchung verwertet werden.
Von 16 EZ-Paaren waren 14 konkordant, 2 diskordant. Im Gegensatz hierzu fanden
sich unter 50 ZZ - Paaren nur 4 konkordante Paare. Dieses Ergebnis zeigt ein-
wandfrei, daß die Ursache des Schwachsinns so gut wie ganz in
der Erbanlage zu suchen ist. Bei den beiden diskordanten EZ-Paaren
machte es die Untersuch-
ung wahrscheinlich, daß
der Schwachsinn des kran-
ken Partners durch äußere
Einflüsse (wie Geburtsvcr-
letzung und Erkrankung
im Säuglingsalter) entstan-
den ist, daß es sich hier
also nicht um endogenen,
sondern um exogenen
Schwachsinn handelte. Die
konkordanten EZ wiesen
fast immer Schwachsinn
gleichen Grades auf; in
mehreren Fällen wurden
auch bei beiden ähnliche
neurologische Symptome
(Krämpfe, Sprachstörung)
beobachtet.
Aus der Konkordanzzahl ^V,, = 0,875 errechnet sich die Manifestationswahr-
scheinlichkeit des Schwachsinns zu 93%. Da aber die beiden diskordanten t^alle
exogenen Schwachsinn betrafen, so ist zu schließen, daß bei den rein endogenen
Fällen annähernd absolute Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit besteht. Außenfaktoren
haben also auf die Entwicklung des Schwachsinns so gut wie keinen bintluß; die
Erbanlage setzt sich auf alle Fälle durch.
V. Zwillinge in der Dichtung
Daß die Dichtung sich seit jeher immer wieder mit EZ beschäftigt hat, ist natür-
lich: Erbgleiche Zwillinge sind ein menschlich so ungewöhnlicher und fesselnder
Fall, daß sie zur dichterischen Gestaltung geradezu herausfordern, wie sie auch
Maler schon gefesselt haben (Bild 100 und 101). Poll hat in einer Studie über
„Zwillinge in Dichtung und Wirklichkeit" gezeigt, wie außerordentlich reich und
vielfältig sich die Zwillingsschaft bei Dichtern aller Zeiten und Volker gespiegelt
hat. Auf diese Arbeit sei in erster Linie verwiesen.
Shakespeare hat die Zwillingsähnlichkeit in schwankhafter Weise ver-
wendet und in der „Komödie der Irrungen" die beiden sich ^^^^^^^^^^f'^'^^^^^^
Zwillingsbrüder Antipholus von Ephesus und von Syrakus mit ihren Zwillingsdienern
Dromio in toller Weise durcheinandergewirbelt. Wenn schließlich nach endlosen
Verwechslungen beide Paare zusammen auf der Bühne stehen, so fallt die l^rage:
Wer ist echter Mensch und wer Erscheinung? Wer entziffert sie?
Bild 99, Schwachsinnige EZ. (Nach Smith.)
Robert und Harry sind hochgradifi schwachsinnig; Robert noch etwas
mehr als sein Bruder,
Zwillinge in der Dichtung
167
'
Bild 100, Zwillingsbildnis von Paulus Moreelse (1541—1638).
Aus der deutschen Literatur seien nur die Gestalten dreier EZ-Paare erwähnt. In
der Art, wie die drei Dichter zu ihren Zwillingen stehen, treten ganz rein die drei
verschiedenen Gefühlshaltungen heraus, die sich beim Bekanntwerden
mit eineiigen Zwillingen bei jedem denkenden und fühlenden Menschen von selber
einstellen,
Fritz Reuter erzählt in ,,Ut mine Stromtid" von den beiden Zwillingen
Lining und Mining, die er mit dem tiefsinnigen Satz einführt: ,,Un wer nich wüßt,
dat Lining nich Mining was, un Mining nich Lining, de würd all sin Dag nich ut
ehr klauk". So ähnlich sie sind, so erzieht doch Lining, die eine halbe Stunde älter
ist, immer an ihrer Schwester herum; sie ist deutlich die Führende. In ihrer innigen
Zwillingsgemeinschaft erleben Lining und Mining das Leben und die Liebe gleich;
die kleinen, vom Dichter psychologisch reizend gezeichneten Unterschiede der
Schwestern wirken ungemein echt. Tiefere Bezirke der Seele werden nicht angerührt;
der Humor, die behagliche, schalkhafte Freude an dem Naturspiel beherrscht die
Haltung des Dichters zu seinen Gestalten.
Anders hat Gottfried Keller in seinem Altersroman ,,M artin S a 1 a n d e r"
die Zwillinge Isidor und Julian Weidelich gestaltet. Ihre Eltern sind einfache
Gärtnersleute, die sie einem höheren Beruf zuführen wollen. Sie heiraten die beiden
Töchter Martin Salanders und werden Notare. Auch nach der Heirat führt jeder
das gleiche Leben wie der andere; beide kommen mit ihrer äußerlichen und gewissen-
losen Wesensart (,,sie haben beide keine Seelen", sagt die Mutter Salander) in die
gleichen Betrügereien hinein. Schließlich ist das Unheil nicht mehr aufzuhalten; die
Unterschlagungen des einen werden offenbar, und als die Nachricht hiervon die
Mutter der Zwillinge erreicht, da weiß sie sofort, daß der andere dasselbe getan hat:
„Sie haben jederzeit und alleweil das Gleiche gedacht, gewollt und getan und jeder
ilij
.1
168 Zwillinge in der Dichtung — Die allgemeine Bedeutung der Zwillingsforschung
gewußt, was der andere wollte." Die psychologische Schilderung der beiden Zwil-
linge und ihrer Entwicklung ist unerhört echt und lebenswahr. Auf dem Grunde
ihrer völligen charakterlichen Gleichheit zeigen sie in ungemein bezeichnender Weise
leichte modifikatorische Verschiedenheiten. Das beste, was über die Art der Gestal-
tung der Zwillinge durch den Dichter gesagt werden kann, ist von Poll ausgesprochen
worden: „Julian und Isidor Weidelich könnten in Langes Buch über Verbrechen als
Schicksal geradezu als Musterbeispiel eines Studienobjektes verwendet werden. In
solchem Grade aus dem Leben abgeschrieben wirkt Kellers Schilderung der beiden
betrügerischen Zwillingsnotare." Wohl spielt auch bei Keller der Humor eine Rolle,
so in der reizenden nächtlichen Szene, in der die Bräute ,,die Ohrläppchen her!"
kommandieren müssen, um ihre Liebsten an ihren spiegelbildlich verteilten Ohr-
mißbildungen unterscheiden zu können. Die Grundeinstellung Kellers ist aber die
des starken, wissenschaftlich zu nennenden psychologischen Interesses, des mensch-
lichen Beeindrucktseins von der schicksalsmäßigen Gleichheit zweier Menschen auf
Grund ihrer gleichen Erbanlage.
Noch ein anderes Gefühl leitet Wilhelm von Scholz in „Perpetua",
der Geschichte der Schwestern Katharina und Maria Breitenschnitt. Im mittel-
alterlichen Augsburg wachsen die mit übersinnlichen Fähigkeiten begabten Zwillinge
als Töchter eines kleinen Handwerkers auf. Das Schicksal führt die beiden gleich-
veranlagten verschieden: Maria geht ins Kloster, Katharina wird als Hexe ver-
urteilt. In der Stunde vor dem Feuertod vertauscht aber die Nonne mit der be-
wußtlosen Schwester das Gewand und geht für sie auf den Scheiterhaufen, Katharina
erwacht im Kloster und wird dort nach langer und schwerer Zeit seelischer Er-
schütterung, ohne daß der Tausch der Persönlichkeiten offenbar geworden wäre,
zur wundertätigen Heiligen Perpetua. Katharina und Maria sind in ihr zu e i n e r
Person geworden. Es ist der Schauer vor einem tiefen Geheimnis des Menschlichen,
der Wilhelm von Scholz, einen Dichter des Mystisch-Übersinnlichen, das Zwillings-
schicksal der Schwestern Breitenschnitt gestalten ließ, ein Gefühl, das keinem fremd
bleibt, der schon in die gleichen Seelen von Zwillingen einzudringen versucht hat.
So begegnen sich Wissenschaft und Dichtung im Zwillingsproblem. „Biologische
Beobachtung und poetisches Schauen versuchen jede in ihrem Sinn und jede mit
ihren Mitteln diese Menschlichkeit darzustellen. Die Wissenschaft darf sich nicht
zu strenge, die Kunst nicht zu erhaben dünken, um in Anregung und Austausch sich
gegenseitig zu befruchten. Denn in diesem scheinbar so entlegenen Sonderfall, allem
menschlichen Streben gemeinsam, drängt das höchste Problem der Menschlichkeit
in der härenen Kutte der exakten Forschung und dem schimmernden Gewand des
Märchens, des Mythos und der Dichtung ans Licht der Offenbarung." (Poll.)
VL Die allgemeine Bedeutung der Zwillingsforschung
Die Anwendung der Zwillingsmethode hat der Wissenschaft überaus wertvolle
Einsichten vermittelt; es ist versucht worden, einen Überblick über die Ergebnisse
der Einzelforschung zu geben. Darüber hinaus ist aber die Frage aufzuwerfen,
welche großen, allgemein bedeutungsvollen Erkenntnisse die Zwillingsforschung bis-
her gezeitigt hat und was die besonderen Leistungen der Zwillingsmethode im Ver-
gleich mit anderen Methoden der menschlichen Erbforschung sind.
Der merkwürdige Sonderfall erbgleicher Menschen, wie sie uns in eineiigen Zwil-
lingen gegenübertreten, macht Verknüpfungen nach vielen Seiten hin möglich. Da-
mit geben sich auch Beziehungen zu Fragen, die längst vor aller Erbforschung den
Menschen bewegt haben. Wenn im folgenden die Beziehung zu zwei Gebieten alten
Menschheitsglaubens aufgenommen wird, so mag dies manchem Vertreter strenger
Die allgemeine Bedeutung der Zwillingsforschung
169
Bild 101. Die Zwillinge. Von Jacob Gerritsz Cuyp (1594—1651).
Fachwissenschaft vielleicht überflüssig erscheinen; aber dem einfachen, der Wissen-
schaft fernstehenden Menschen läßt sich hier zeigen, wie klare naturwissenschaft-
liche Erkenntnisse ganz unmittelbar die Gestaltung seines Weltbildes bestimmen
können.
Seit Urzeiten hat die Menschheit geglaubt, daß das Leben des Menschen in ge-
heimnisvollem Zusammenhang mit dem Lauf der Gestirne stehe; ihr Stand in der
Geburtsstunde bestimme das Schicksal des Menschen. In unerhörtem Umfange geht
auch heute noch im Zeitalter der Naturwissenschaften in breitesten Schichten des
Volkes der mittelalterliche Aberglaube der Astrologie um. Zwillingsschicksale
können den mystischen Nebel zerreißen. Zweieiige Zwillinge sind so gut unter
gleichen Sternen geboren wie eineiige; diese erleben ein gleiches, jene ein verschie-
denes Lebensschicksal, das kein Sternenschicksal, sondern ein Erbschicksal ist. „In
deiner Brust sind deines Schicksals Sterne."
Ein anderes: Auch heute noch gibt es viele Menschen, die wohl für den Körper
das Bestehen der Vererbung zugeben, denen aber die Seele eine übernatürliche
Wesenheit ist, die unmittelbar vom Schöpfer dem neu ins Leben tretenden Menschen
eingepflanzt wird. Was zeigen EZ? Mit der Spaltung des Keims verdoppelt sich
nicht nur der Körper, sondern ebenso auch die Seele. Durch die Teilung entstehen
statt der einen Seele zwei völlig gleiche Seelen. Auch die einem frommen Glauben
als einmalig und einzigartig geltende „Seele" ist verdoppelt worden. Keine andere
Tatsache zeigt mit solch unausweichlicher Klarheit wie die Erscheinung der EZ,
daß das Seelische restlos und unauflöslich mit dem Körperlichen verbunden ist.
Mit der Vereinigung der väterlichen und mütterlichen Erbmasse im Vorgang der
170
Die allgemeine Bedeutung der Zwillingsforschung
Befruchtung sind nicht nur die körperlichen, sondern ebenso auch die seelischen
Anlagen des neuen Menschen festgelegt. Das Seelische ist ein immanenter, vom
Körperlichen nicht abzulösender Bestandteil des Lebens und keine übernatürliche,
über dem Körper stehende Wesenheit.
Die Zwillingsforschung im engeren Sinn hält sich natürlicherweise von Fragen
metaphysischer Art fern; sie führt aber unmittelbar an die Grundfrage alles Mensch-
lichen heran, an die Frage, was und wieviel am Menschen durch die Kräfte des
Erbguts gegeben ist und was äußere Einflüsse an dem wesensmäßig gegebenen Kern
formen können. Wie die Forschung diese Frage angreift, und welche Ergebnisse im
einzelnen gewonnen werden konnten, ist ja ausführlich berichtet worden. An dieser
Stelle soll nur nochmals kurz zusammenfassend dargestellt werden, was die Zwil-
lingsmethode bisher an wesentlichen neuen Einsichten gebracht hat.
Die Zwillingsforschung ermöglicht die Entscheidung, ob und wie weit die Aus-
prägung eines Merkmals als erblich oder umweltmäßig bestimmt anzusehen ist. Aus
den Unterschieden, die bei zwei EZ auf Grund der Einwirkung verschiedener Um-
welteinflüsse entstehen können, ergibt sich die Modifikationsbreite einer Erbanlage
auf körperlichem oder seelischem Gebiet, Aus der Erscheinung, daß die einen Merk-
male mehr, die anderen weniger durch Umwelteinflüsse abgeändert werden können,
folgt die Erkenntnis, daß die Erbanlagen in verschieden starkem Maße auf solche
Einflüsse reagieren; es gibt umweltstabile und umweltlabile Merkmale in allen Ab-
stufungen. Der Vergleich von Zwillingen verschiedener Altersstufen läßt erkennen,
in welcher zeitlichen Folge die Gene die Außenmerkmale zur Ausprägung bringen;
die Zwillingsmethode ist damit die Methode der erbbiologischen Entwicklungs-
physiologie.
Bei einer Reihe von Krankheiten konnte erst durch die Zwillingsmethode der
schlüssige Entscheid herbeigeführt werden, ob die Krankheit vorwiegend erbmäßig
oder umweltmäßig bestimmt ist. So wurde die starke erbliche Bedingtheit der Tuber-
kulose, der Rachitis, der Kurzsichtigkeit nachgewiesen, während sich für den Kropf
und die multiple Sklerose zeigte, daß sie als umweltbedingt anzusehen seien. Eine
ganz besondere Bedeutung kommt der Zwillingsmethode für die Erforschung der
Manifestation von Erbanlagen zu; ihre Leistung auf diesem Gebiet kann von keiner
anderen Methode menschlicher Erbforschung ersetzt werden. Die Erbgleichheit von
EZ macht es weiterhin möglich, aus verschiedenen Ausprägungen einer Erbkrank-
heit bei zwei EZ zu erkennen, auf welche Weise sich die Erbanlage auswirken kann;
dadurch ist es möglich, die Gesamtheit der Symptome der Krankheit klar zu er-
fassen und der gleichen genischen Grundlage zuzuordnen.
Alle aufgeführten Erkenntnisse zusammen vertiefen unsere Einsicht, was Erbgut
und Umwelt überhaupt bedeuten. Ihre Wirkungen können nicht säuberlich vonein-
ander getrennt werden, sondern sind unauflösbar miteinander verbunden. Keine Erb-
anlage entwickelt sich ohne entsprechende Umwelteinflüsse und kein Umwelteinfluß
vermag etwas hervorzubringen, was nicht im Erbgut vorgebildet ist. Damit schwächt
sich der Gegensatz zwischen Erbkrankheiten und Umweltkrankheiten erheblich ab:
alle Krankheiten sind Glieder einer stetigen Reihe; sie sind als das eine oder das
andere zu bezeichnen; je nachdem für ihre Entstehung der eine oder andere Ein-
fluß stärker ist. Wenn die Wissenschaft aus der Beobachtung an EZ noch mehr als
bisher lernt, die manifestationsfördernden und -hemmenden Umwelteinflüsse zu er-
kennen, so wird auf diese Weise die Möglichkeit gegeben sein, in günstigen Fällen
die Manifestation einer krankhaften Erbanlage zu verhüten. Damit ist ein ärztliches
Handeln auch bei solchen Krankheiten möglich, die vorwiegend erblich bestimmt
sind; in gewissem, für jede Krankheit verschiedenem Umfang könnten dann auch
sie verhütet werden.
Die allgemeine Bedeutung der Zwillingsforschung
171
Mit all diesen Leistungen ist die Zwillingsmethode zur fruchtbarsten Methode
menschlicher Erbforschung geworden; mit der Vielseitigkeit, Genauigkeit und Zu-
verlässigkeit ihrer Ergebnisse steht sie den anderen Methoden voran. Damit werden
aber jene keinesfalls entbehrlich gemacht, schon deshalb nicht, weil nicht alle
Gebiete der Vererbungserscheinungen mit der Zwillingsmethode behandelt werden
können; so kann sie in der Frage des Erbgangs eines Merkmals (dominant oder
rezessiv) nicht angewendet werden. Die Vererbungsforschung beim Menschen braucht
deshalb nach wie vor das Zusammenarbeiten aller Methoden, um in ihrer grund-
sätzlich schwierigen Lage das Bestmögliche leisten zu können.
Die fachwissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse, so wichtig und wertvoll sie sind, sind
aber doch nicht das Wesentlichste und Letzte, was uns eineiige Zwillinge als erb-
gleiche Menschen an Einsichten vermitteln können. Stärker als die mit der inter-
essantesten und zuverlässigsten Methode menschlicher Erbforschung gewonnenen,
kühl und scharfsinnig nachgeprüften neuen wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnisse wirkt
der ganz unmittelbare menschliche Eindruck, der von eineiigen Zwillingen ausgeht.
Wir spüren, daß wir hier an einer Stelle stehen, an der uns die Natur ganz tief und
unverhüllt in ihre Werkstatt sehen läßt, Geheimnisse des Lebens rücken in hellstes
Licht, so daß sie jeden Menschen unmittelbar packen müssen und jedem begreiflich
werden können. Es ist, wie wenn die Natur mit Hilfe einer merkwürdigen Aus-
nahme, den erbglcichen Zwillingen, mit geradezu herausfordernder Deutlichkeit
zeigen wollte, daß sie die Menschen wie alle ihre Geschöpfe auch gleich formen
könnte, wenn sie nur wollte. So ähnlich wie zwei EZ müßten die Menschen sein,
wenn sie wirklich gleich wären, gleich wie das Spiegelbild dem Urbild. Von der
Gleichheit der eineiigen Zwillinge hebt sich aber aufs stärkste ab, wie ungleich tat-
sächlich die Menschen sind. An dem seltenen Ausnahmefall der Gleichheit stellt
die Natur heraus, daß sie die Ungleichheit will und nicht die Gleichheit. Mit der
Ungleichheit ihrer Wesen hält sie das Leben in Spannung, treibt es vorwärts.
Verschieden sind wir durch Vererbung, und eineiige Zwillinge sind der packendste
Beweis für die alles Menschensein beherrschende Macht der Vererbung. Das gleiche
Erbgut vermag zwei Menschen bis auf die lächerlichsten Einzelheiten gleich zu
formen, gleich bis zur letzten Sommersprosse auf der Nasenspitze und bis zu den
feinsten Regungen des Seelenlebens. Gewiß wirken auch in begrenztem Ausmaß die
Einflüsse der Außenwelt, aber erschütternd ist der schicksalsmäßige Ablauf des
Geschehens, wenn starke, umweltstabile Erbanlagen vorliegen. „So mußt du sem,
dir kannst du nicht entfliehen" ist die letzte, beherrschende Erkenntnis, die uns
Zwillinge vermitteln. Was sich für sie exakt beweisen läßt, geht jeden Menschen an.
Mit unerbittlicher Wucht steht die große Erkenntnis vor uns, daß wir aus uns selbst,
aus unserem Erbschicksal heraus unser Leben leben müssen. Wir sind geformt und
werden in unserer Bahn vorwärtsgetrieben durch das, was die Natur in uns gelegt hat,
„und keine Zeit und keine Macht zerstückelt
geprägte Form, die lebend sich entwickelt".
i
tiii
l;!.^.,utH,H^l>nnl^^Qßl■rtt4mfltMHiw«l«l|"Wl«llHH;iftr^(^r^ii^(^lll^
172
Schrifttum
Schrifttum*
A. Zusammenfassende Arbeiten, Methodik und allgemeine Fragen
der Zwillingsiorschung
(Kapitel II, III und V des Buches)
BOUTERWEK, H., Asymmetrie und Polarität bei erbgleichen Zwillingen. A. R. G, B,, 28, 1934.
CURTIUS, F., und O. VON VeRSCHUER, Die Anlage zur Entstehung von Zwillingen und ihre
Vererbung. A. R. G. B., 26. 1932.
DahlbeRG, G., Twin births and twins from a hereditary point of view. Stockholm 1926.
(Eine grundlegende Arbeit mit umfangreichem Literaturverzeichnis.)
Fischer, E., Die gesunden körperlichen Erbanlagen. (In BauR — FISCHER — LENZ, Mensch-
liche Erblehre und Rassenhygiene. Bd. 1, 4. Aufl. München 1936.)
Galton, F., The history of twins as a critcrion of the relative powers of nature and nurture.
Journ. of the Anthropol. Institute, 1876. (Deutsch von SCHLEICHER und SCHILLER. Der
Erbarzt, 1935.)
Greulich, W. W., Heredity in human twinning. Am. Journ. of phys, Anthr., 19. 1934/35.
Hartmann, M., Wesen und Wege der biologischen Erkenntnis. Naturwissenschaften. 1936.
Heidenhain, M., Die Spaltungsgcsetze der Blätter. Jena 1932.
KOMAI und FUKUOKA, Die Häufigkeit von Mehrlingsgcburten in Japan. Zeitschr. für Mor-
phologie und Anthropologie, 31. 1933.
Kranz, H., Zwillingsforschung. Neue deutsche Klinik, 4. Ergänzungsband. 1936.
(Sehr reichhaltiges Sammelrcfcrat mit Literaturverzeichnis bis 1936.) c i. u • r\
Lemser, H., Zur Eiigkeitsdiagnose bei Zwillingen und über die Grenzen ihrer Sicherheit. Der
Erbarzt, 1937.
Lenz, F., Zur genetischen Deutung von Zwillingsbefunden. Z. i. A. V,, 52. 1933.
— Zur Frage der Ursachen von Zwillingsgcburten. A. R. G. B., 27. 1933.
— Die Methoden menschlicher Erbforschung. Die krankhaften Erbanlagen. (In Baur —
Fischer — Lenz, Menschliche Erblehrc und Rassenhygiene. Bd. 1, 4. Aufl. München 1936.)
— Inwieweit kann man aus Zwillingsbefunden auf Erbbedingtheit oder auf Umwelteinfluß
schliei3en? Deutsche med. Wochenschrift, 1935.
LOTZE, R., Identische Menschen. Kosmos, 1921.
— Die Bedeutung der Zwillingsforschung für die Vererbungswissenschaft. Aus der Heimat, 1929.
LUXENBURGER, H., Leistungen und Aussichten der menschlichen Mehrlingsforschung für die
Medizin. Z. i.A.V., 61. 1932. „
— Rassenhygienisch wichtige Probleme und Ergebnisse der Zwillingspathologie. (In KUDIN,
Erblehre und Rassenhygiene im völkischen Staat, München 1934.)
POLL, H., Über die Zwillingsforschung als Hilfsmittel menschlicher Erbkundc. Zeitschr. für
Ethnol., 46, 1914. (Die erste deutsche Arbeit zur Zwillingsforschung.)
— Zwillinge in Dichtung und Wirklichkeit. Z. Neur., 128. 1930.
RiFE, D. C, Genetic studies of monozygotic twins. J. Her., 24, 1933,
Schiller, M., Zwillingsprobleme, dargestellt auf Grund von Untersuchungen an Stuttgarter
Zwillingen, Zeitschr. für Vererbungs- und Konstitutionslehrc, 20. 1936.
Siemens, H. W., Die Zwillingspathologie. Berlin 1924.
(Grundlegende Arbeit mit auslührlichem Literaturverzeichnis.) v • A ir
— Die allgemeinen Ergebnisse der menschlichen Mehrlingsforschung. Z. i. A. V., 61, 1932.
Sternberg, L., Der antike Zwillingskult im Lichte der Ethnologie. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., 61. 1929.
* In dem Verzeichnis des Schrifttums werden folgende Abkürzungen benützt:
A. R. G, B. = Archiv für Rassen- und Gesellschaftsbiologie,
Z, Neur. = Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie.
Z. i. A. V. = Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammungs- und Vererbungslehre.
J. Her. = Journal of Heredity.
Das Verzeichnis des Schrifttums führt nur eine Auswahl der wichtigsten Arbeiten zur
Zwillingsforschung auf und erhebt keinen Anspruch auf Vollständigkeit. Die Arbeiten mit
ausführlichen Verzeichnissen des Schrifttums sind als solche besonders genannt.
Schrifttum
173
VON VERSCHUER, 0., Ergebnisse der Zwillingsforschung. Verhdl. Ges. phys, Anthr,, VI. 1931.
(Wichtige zusammenfassende Arbeit mit ausführlichem Literaturverzeichnis.)
— Die biologischen Grundlagen der Mehrlingsforschung. Z, i, A, V,, 61. 1932.
(Mit ausführlichem Literaturverzeichnis.)
— Die erbbiologische Zwillingsforschung. (In DiEHL und VON VERSCHUER, Zwillingstubcr-
kulose, 1933.) (Die ausführlichste wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Grundlagen der Zwillingsforschung.)
— Neue Ergebnisse der Zwillingsforschung. Archiv für Gynäk,, 156. 1934.
(Mit Literaturverzeichnis.)
— Erbpathologie. 2. Aufl. Dresden und Leipzig 1937.
Weinberg, W,, Beiträge zur Physiologie und Pathologie der Mehrlingsgeburten. Pflügers
Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie, 88. 1901.
WEITZ, W., Studien an eineiigen Zwillingen, Zeitschr, für klin, Medizin,, 101. 1924.
B. Biologie der Zwillingsbildung
(Kapitel I des Buches)
BrOMAN, J,, Grundriß der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen, München 1921,
Corning, H, K,, Lehrbuch der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen, München 1921,
Grosser, O,, Frühentwicklung, Eihautbildung und Plazentation des Menschen und der Säuge-
tiere, München 1927.
Heberer, G,, Die Chromosomen des Menschen, Aus der Heimat, 47, 1934,
Holländer, F,, Wunder, Wundergeburt und Wundergestalt, Stuttgart 1919,
HUECK, W,, Über die Bedeutung der menschlichen Doppelbildungen, Ber, der math.-phys.
Klasse der sächs. Akademie der Wissensch,, 83, 193L
KapperT, H,, Erbliche Polyembryonie bei Linum usitatissimum, Biol, Zentralbl,, 53, 1933.
Kleinwächter, L,, Die Lehre von den Zwillingen, Prag 1871,
KrONACHER, C, Zwillingsforschung beim Rind, Zeitschr, für Züchtung, Reihe B, Bd, 25, 1932.
MORITA, S,, Die künstliche Erzeugung von Einzclmißbildungen, Zwillingen, Drillingen und
Mehrlingen im Hühnerei. Anatom, Anzeiger, 82. 1936,
NeWMAN, H, H,, The physiology of twinning, Chicago 1923.
— The biology of twins. Chicago 1924.
SCHLEIP, W., Determination der Primitiventwicklung, Leipzig 1929,
Schwalbe, E,, Morphologie der Mißbildungen, l,Tcil: Allgemeine Mißbildungslehre, Jena
1906. 2. Teil: Die Doppelbildungen. Jena 1907.
Spemann, H., Entwicklungsphysiologische Studien am Tritonei, Archiv für Entwicklungs-
mechanik, 12. 1901. 15. und 16, 1903,
Steiner, Fr., Nachgeburtsbefunde bei Mehrlingen und Ähnlichkeitsdiagnose, Archiv für
Gynäk., 159. 1935.
Stockard, Ch. R., Die körperliche Grundlage der Persönlichkeit, Jena 1932.
Weber, Mehrfache Schwangerschaft. Im Handbuch der Geburtshilfe, herausgegeben von
DÖDERLEIN, 1. Bd., 2. Aufl. 1924,
C. spezielle Zwillingsforschung
(Kapitel IV des Buches)
BUSCHKE, F,, Röntgenologische Skelettstudien an menschlichen Zwillingen und Mehrlingen.
Fortschritte auf dem Gebiet der Röntgenstrahlen, Ergänzungsband 46. 1934.
Conrad, K., Erbanlage und Epilepsie, Z. Neur,, 153 und 155, 1935 und 1936.
DiEHL, K,, und VON VERSCHUER, 0., Zwillingstuberkulose. Jena 1933,
~ Der Erbeinfluß bei der Tuberkulose (Zwillingstuberkulose II). Jena 1936.
EUGSTER, J., Zur Erblichkeitsfrage der endemischen Struma. Archiv der Julius-Klaus-
Stiftung, 11. 1936. V • u f"
Frischeisen-Köhler, J., Untersuchungen an Schulzeugnissen von Zwillingen. Zeitschr. für
angewandte Psychologie, 37, 1930,
— Das persönliche Tempo, Leipzig 1933,
Hartmann, H., Zur Charakterologie erbgleicher Zwillinge, Jahrbücher für Psychiatric, 52.
1935. , ^ ^ . ^ ,., j, „
KöHN W„ Psychologische Untersuchungen an Zwillingen und Geschwistern über die Ver-
erbung der Kombinationsfähigkeit, der Intelligenz und der Phantasie. Archiv für Psy-
chologie, 88. 1933.
— Die Vererbung des Charakters, Studien an Zwillingen. A. R. G. B,, 29. 1935.
174
Schrifttum
,.
«1
Kranz, H., Lebensschicksale krimineller Zwillinge, Berlin 1936.
KÜHNE, K., Die Vererbung der Variationen der menschlichen Wirbelsäule. Zeitschr, für Mor-
phologie und Anthropologie, 30, 1932,
— Die Zwillingswirbelsäule, Ebenda, 35. 1936.
Lange, Joh„ Leistungen der Zwillingspathologie für die Psychiatrie, Allgemeine Zeitschr.
für Psychiatrie, 90, 1929.
— Verbrechen als Schicksal. Leipzig 1929.
Zwillingsbildung und Entwicklung der Persönlichkeit. Naturwissensch., 21. 1933,
— Über die Grenzen der Umweltbeeinflußbarkeit erblicher Merkmale beim Menschen, Be-
richt über die 12, Jahresversammlung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Vererbungswissen-
schaft in Frankfurt a. M, 1937.
Lassen, M. Th,, Zur Frage der Vererbung sozialer und sittlicher Charaktcranlagen, A. R.
G.B., 25. 1931.
Legras, A. M., Psychose und Kriminalität bei Zwillingen. Z. Neur., 144, 1933,
Lehmann, W,, und Witteler, E, A,, Zwillingsbeobactitung zur Erbpathologie der Polydak-
tylie, Zentralbl. für Chirurgie, 62. 1935,
Lehmann, W., Die Bedeutung der Erbveranlagung bei der Entstehung der Rachitis. Zeitschr.
für Kinderheilkunde, 57. 1936.
Lehmann, W., und Hartlieb, Capillaren bei Zwillingen. Zeitschr. für menschl. Vererbungs-
und Konstitutionslehre, 21. 1937.
LOTTIG, H., Hamburger Zwillingsstudien. Beiheft 61 zur Zeitschr, für angew, Psychol, 1931.
LUXENBURGER, H,, Vorläufiger Bericht über psychiatrische Scrienuntersuchungen an Zwil-
lingen. Z. Neur., 116. 1928.
— Über einige praktisch wichtige Probleme aus der Erbpathologie des zyklothymen Kreises,
Z, Neur,, 146. 1933.
— Die Manifestationswahrscheinlichkeit der Schizophrenie im Lichte der Zwillingsforschung.
Zeitschr. für psych. Hyg., 7. 1934,
— Untersuchungen an schizophrenen Zwillingen und ihren Geschwistern. Z, Neur., 154. 1935.
MEUMANN, J,, Testpsychologische Untersuchungen an ein- und zweieiigen Zwillingen. Archiv
für die gesamte Psychologie, 93. 1935.
MeyeR-HeydenhaGEN, G., Die palmaren Hautleisten bei Zwillingen. Zeitschr. für Morpho-
logie und Anthropologie, 33. 1935.
MiERKE, K., Psychologische Beobachtungen an eineiigen Zwillingen. Volk und Rasse, 9. 1934.
MjÖEN, J. A., Die Vererbung der musikalischen Begabung. Berlin 1934.
Müller, H. J., Mental traits and heredity. J. Her., 16. 1925.
NeWMAN, H. H., Mental and physical traits of identical twins reared apart. J. Her., 20. 23.
24. 25. 1929 1932 1933, 1934.
NEWMAN, H. H.', FrEEMAN.'f., und HOLZINGER, K., Twins. A study of heredity and environ-
ment. Chicago 1937.
PaetzOLD, J., Vererbung und Schulerziehung. A. R, G, B,, 29. 1935.
POPENOE, P., Twins reared apart. J. Her., 13. 1922.
QUELPRUD, Th., Untersuchung der Ohrmuschel von Zwillingen. Z. i. A. V., 62. 1932.
SauDEK, R., Können verschiedene Schreiber gleiche Schriften schreiben? Charakter, 2. 1933.
SaudEK, R., und Seaman, E., Die Handschrift eineiiger, getrennt erzogener Zwillinge. Cha-
rakter 2. 1933.
Schiff, F., und von VersCHUER, O., Serologische Untersuchungen an Zwillingen. Zeitschr.
für Morphologie und Anthropologie, 32. 1933.
SCHWESINGER, G., Heredity and environment. New York 1933.
Smith, J. Ch., Das Ursachenverhältnis des Schwachsinns, beleuchtet durch Untersuchungen
von Zwillingen. Z. Neur., 125. 1930.
Stumpfe, F., Die Ursprünge des Verbrechens, dargestellt am Lebenslauf von Zwillingen.
Leipzig 1936.
Thums, K., Neurologische Zwillingsstudien. Zur Erbpathologie der multiplen Sklerose.
Z. Neur., 155. 1936. 7 • a a^ c. lo-in
VON VERSCHUER, O., Erbpsychologische Untersuchungen an Zwillingen. Z. i. A. V., 54. 19JU.
— Ein erbgleiches Zwillingspaar mit hervorragender Begabung im Schachspiel. Eugenik, 1.
1931.
WaaRDENBURG, P. J., Das menschliche Auge und seine Erbanlagen. Im Haag 1932.
WiNGFIELD, A. H,, Twins and orphans, London 1928.
WeiTZ, W., Die Vererbung innerer Krankheiten. Stuttgart 1936.
li!>Ulilu;uuiIiii«iu
Namenverzeichnis
175
von Baer 15
Bonne vie 99, 100
Bouterwek 75, 86
Brauer 37
Broman 11
Buschke 22, 93, 94, 95
Camerer 108
Clarke 24
Conrad 164, 165
Corning 12, 13
Curtius 19, 82, 83, 159
Cuyp 169
Dahlberg 79, 81, 82, 87
Danforth 59, 72
Dareste 40
Darwin 54
Davenport 82
Diehl 109, 111 f.
Driesch 36
Engster 107
Exner 141
Fairchild 59
Freeman 142
Frischeisen-Köhler 116, 119
Frommolt 10
Fukuoka 80
Galton 54 f„ 69, 74, 98, 114,
124, 160
Geyer 130
Gottschaldt 129, 130
Greulich 83
Grosser 14
Gurlt 46
Hartmann H, 125
Hartmann M, 47
Heidenhain 47
Hellin 75
Herbst 36
Hertwig 0, 15
Holländer 26, 31
Holzinger 142
Namenverzeichnis
Ihering 40
Kästner 40
Kappert 46, 48
Keller Gottfried 167
Kiffner 19
Klages 120, 123 f,
Koch 142
Köhn 115, 120, 124, 129
Komai 80
Korkhaus 97, 98
Kranz 132, 133, 135, 137, 138,
140
Kronacher 44, 45
Kühne 94 f.
Lange 59, 125, 131 f., 141, 156,
161, 168
Lassen 19, 120
Lauterbach 114
Legras 132, 133, 158, 159, 164
Lehmann 65, 67, 105, 107
Lemser 71
Lenz 19, 83, 89, 91
Leven 75
Lottig 16, 120 f., 125, 129
Luxenburgcr 59, 68, 157,
160 f., 165
Merriman 114
Meumann 116
Meyer-Hcydenhagen 101
Michaelis 106
Mierke 126
Mjöen 118
Moreelse 167
Morita 40
Müller 0. 104
Muller 142 f., 146, 154
Newman 32, 37, 41 f., 48, 64,
85, 100, 101, 142—155
Paetzold 117
Patterson 41
Piccard 131
Poll 52,59,98, 116, 166, 168
Popenoe 142
Prinzing 76
Quelprud 102
Reuter Fritz 167
Rife 72, 73
Roux 36
Rüdin 157, 163
Sanders 22
Saudek 126 f., 142, 144
Schiller M. 55, 104, 105, 156
Schleicher 55, 108
von Scholz 168
Schwalbe 32, 46
Seaman 126, 127, 128
Shakespeare 166
Siemens 19, 59, 64, 69, 70, 87,
98
Smith 166
Sobotta 82
Spemann 36, 38, 39, 40, 86
Steiner 19, 20, 35
Stockard 38, 48
Stocks 100
Stumpft 132, 133, 139 f.
Thorndike 58, 59, 114
Thums 157 f.
Umber 107
von Verschuer 19, 20, 22, 24,
35, 59, 60, 62, 66, 69 f., 81,
82, 84, 85, 87 f., 91 f„ 98,
99, 100, 101, 103, 106, 109 f„
115, 117, 118, 119
Virchow 26, 27, 28, 29, 34
Vrolik 32
Waardenburg 101, 102
Waldschmiedt 28
Weber 18
Weinberg 78, 82
Weitz 59, 63, 64, 87, 88, 103,
106, 108, 125
Wingfield 114, 115
Wilder 101
Witteler 65, 67
176
Schlagwörterverzcichnis
;.*(tr'fKHt"Ufl;«mme(iuv|ut«MHf*t!fl«n!>(<jW't!t(tHt<l|((Hllt((llHWW
"I
lil'l
rl
Schlagwörterverzeichnis
,• I
Allantois (-gang) 13, 14
Amnion (-höhle) 12, 13, 18,
20, 21, 35
Anthropologische Maße 71
Augenbrauen 70, 101
Augenfarbe 70, 101
Befruchtung 9
Blastula 11
Blutdruck 63, 103
Blutfaktoren 70
Blutgruppen 70, 106
Blutkrankheiten 106
Brechungseigenschaften
des Auges 101, 102
Capillarsystem 103
Charakter 120, 121, 123
Chorion 13, 14, 18, 20, 21, 35
Craniopagen 31
Decidua capsularis 14, 15, 20,
21
Dementia praecox 160
Dottersack 11, 12, 13
Durchschlagskraft (Pene-
tranz) 65
Ektoderm 10, 11
Embryonalknoten 11, 12, 22
Embryonalschild 14, 22
Entoderm 11, 12
Epilepsie 164
Follikel 8, 35, 45
Furchung 10, 11
Gastrula 11
Gelbkörper 8, 9, 44
Generationswechsel 48
Geschlechtsbestimmung 9
Gliedmaßenskelett 93
Gürteltier 41 f.
Haarfarbe 70, 101
Haarform 70, 101
Haarwirbel 84, 85, 86
Handfläche 101
Händigkeit 84, 85, 86
Hautfarbe 70, 98
Hautgefäße 71
Herz 103
Infektionskrankheiten 108,
109
Intelligenzquotient 114
Körpergewicht 88
Körpergröße 87, 88
Konfliktkriminalität 141
Kopflänge 88
Korrelationskoeffizient 115,
116
Kropf 107
Kurzsichtigkeit 102
Leinzwillinge 46, 47
Lippen 70
Magen 106
Manifestation von Erbanlagen
65, 66, 67, 161, 162, 163
Manifestationswahrschein-
lichkeit 161, 162, 163
Manifestationsschwankung
161, 162, 163
Manifestationsverhinderte
Erbkranke 162, 163
Manisch-depressives Irresein
160, 163, 164
Meßfehler 89, 90, 91
Morula 11
Multiple Sklerose 157 f.
Musikalische Begabung 117
Nase, Form 70, 103
Ohr, Form 70, 103
Papillarlinien der Finger 71,
98
Parasiten 33, 34
Penetranz 65
Persönliches Tempo 119
Phänotypus 53, 60
Plazenta 14, 15, 20, 21
Polydaktylie 65, 67
Polyembryonie 37, 38, 48
Pygopagen 28
Rachitis 107
Reduktionsteilung 7, 8, 9, 50,
51, 83
Reifeteilungen der Samen-
zellen 7
Reifeteilungen der Eizelle 8,
9, 82, 83
Richtungskörperchen 8, 11,
82, 83
Rinderzwillinge 44, 45
Rorschach scher Formdeut-
versuch 115
Schachbegabung 119
Schizophrenie 160
Schulzeugnisse 116
Schwachsinn 166
Schwerkriminalität 141
Siamesische Zwillinge 25 f.
Sommersprossen 71, 98
Stanford-Binet-Test 145
Sternopagen 28, 33
Thoracopagen 28, 33
Trophoblast 11, 12, 14, 18,20
Tuberkulose 109 f.
Vielfingrigkeit (Polydaktylie)
65
Wachstum 91 f,
Wirbelsäule 94 f.
Xiphopagen 28, 33
Zähne 71, 97, 98
Zuckerkrankheit 106, 107
Zungenfalten 70
Zwillingsgemcinschaft 156
Zyklophrenic 160, 163
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Grundriß der Rassenkunde
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Grundriß der
Rassenkunde
Von Hermann Muckermann
Mit 4 Bildtafeln
Zweite Auflage
Ferdinand Schöningh /Verlag / Paderborn 1935
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Inhalt.
Seite
I. Aus der Geschichte der Rassenkunde . . 5
II. Biologische Grundlagen der Rassenkunde:
1. Das Grundgesetz der Vererbung. 2. Die
Gültigkeit des Mendelismus für normale
Eigenschaften beim Menschen. 3. Erbeigen-
schaften — Rasseeigenschaften. 4. Methoden
der Erb- und Rassenforschung. 5. Bedeutung
der Umwelt für die Ausprägung der Merk-
male. 6. Mutationen — Rassenentstehung —
Rassenentwicklung 17
III. Von den Menschenrassen der Vergangenheit 51
rV. Von den Menschenrassen der Gegenwart . 65
V. Die Rassen im deutschen Volk 79
VI. Rasse und Volk oder Rassenkunde und
nationale Eugenik 105
Personen- und Sachregister 126
■•/iy'.-f ■;"':'/, '. >r'f':':. '\-. ^'^ ^ ■•:■ : : ■ :.,: -I. : ■ .iruigmJT .^.
I. Aus der Geschichte der Rassenkunde.
!♦
" mimSvrwm^9Kim»^*4*m^mri
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I \
Neugierde und Interesse, auch Wißbegierde der
Menschen werden zunächst und im allgemeinen nicht
von den Dingen geweckt, deren AnbHck uns gewohnt
und vertraut ist. Das Alltäghche zu erforschen,
lockt nicht so sehr, obgleich gerade vielleicht das All-
tägliche, das scheinbar so Selbstverständliche oft
tiefste Geheimnisse in sich birgt, denen wir nur nicht
nachgehen, weil wir bei allem uns Bekannten ver-
lernt haben, uns zu ,, wundern". Blick und Phantasie
des Menschen gingen schon in frühen historischen
Zeiten in die Ferne; das Fremde und Ungewohnte,
das vom Alltäglichen Abweichende lockte auch hier.
So ist es zu verstehen, daß man zu allen Zeiten und
fast überall in der Menschheit ein starkes Interesse
für fremde Völker und fremde Rassen feststellen kann.
Mit welcher Begeisterung liest man, nicht nur in der
Jugend, sondern auch noch im erwachsenen Alter,
Reisebeschreibungen und Forschungsergebnisse, die
uns mit dem Leben und Treiben, aber auch mit dem
Aussehen fremder Menschen bekannt machen. Reicht
somit die Kenntnis und das Interesse für fremde
Rassen weit in die Vergangenheit zurück, so gibt es
eine wirkHch wissenschaftliche Rassenkunde oder
I Anthropologie erst seit der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts.
Einige wenige Streiflichter mögen den Weg beleuchten,
den die Rassenkunde von der Vergangenheit bis zur
Gegenwart genommen hat, die Entwicklung, die
■
■ •1'^ t T liti
von einer allgemeinen Rassenbeschreibung zu einer
auf exakten wissenschaftlichen Methoden beruhenden
Rassenkunde führte.
Die frühesten Zeugnisse, daß rassische Unter-
schiede innerhalb der Menschheit beobachtet wurden,
liefern die aus den ägyptischen Königsgräbern stam-
menden Fresken. Mit einer fast wissenschaftlich
anmutenden Genauigkeit sind die typischen und
charakteristischen Merkmale verschiedener Rassen,
mit denen die Ägypter damals zusammengekommen
sein mögen, herausgestellt: der Ägypter selbst mit
j feinen und edlen Zügen, feingebogener oder gerader
Nase, mit langem Kopf, von rötlich-brauner Haut-
farbe, ein Typ, der, müßte man ihm einen neuzeit-
lichen Rassenamen geben, bis auf die Hautfarbe der
^ orientalischen Rasse oder einer Rassenmischung aus
Orientaliden und Mediterranen zuzurechnen wäre. Da-
neben finden sich Vertreter der vorderasiatischen oder
armeniden Rasse von gelbbrauner Haut mit stark
gebogener Nase, kurzem Kopf und reichlichem dunklen
Haar- und Bartwuchs. Beim Neger ist nicht nur die
charakteristische dunkle Körperfarbe erfaßt, sondern
auch die den Neger noch jetzt kennzeichnende Kraus-
haarigkeit, die dicken aufgeworfenen Lippen und die
vorgeschobenen Kiefer. Und die letzte Gruppe der dar-
gestellten rassisch verschiedenen Menschen gibt uns den
Beweis, daß dem Ägypter schon damals der blonde
8
Nordeuropäer nicht unbekannt gewesen sein mag:
Menschen mit heller Haut, blondem Haar, rötlichem
Bart und blauen Augen sind neben den eben gekenn-
zeichneten drei anderen Rassen dargestellt.
Anthropologische Bemerkungen finden sich ein-
gestreut in einige Abhandlungen griechischer Ärzte
und Schriftsteller. So berichtet z. B. Herodot von
zwerghaften Völkern nilaufwärts und an den Quellen
des Nils, eine Beobachtung, die sich durch die Jahr-
hunderte später erfolgende Entdeckung der Pygmäen-
völker als richtig erwies. Auch die charakteristischen
körperlichen Eigenschaften von Negern und Europäern
werden von Herodot sehr genau und ausführlich ab-
gegrenzt. Hippokrates spricht von einer Bevölkerung
jenseits der Sümpfe mit besonders langem Schädel,
die er als Macrocephalen bezeichnet. Und Aristoteles
beschreibt die Äthiopier, die er allerdings noch als
eine Kreuzung von Affe und Mensch ansah.
Aber das alles sind, wie gesagt, nur gelegentliche
Beobachtungen und in andere Abhandlungen einge-
schaltete Zwischenbemerkungen. Eine eigentliche Er-
forschung fremder Menschen und Rassen und ein
Vergleich mit den im Lande lebenden Typen fehlten
sowohl im Altertum als auch im gesamten Mittelalter.
Das hängt selbstverständlich damit zusammen, daß
genügend anatomische Unterlagen für eine wissen-
schaftlich einwandfreie Beschreibung des Menschen
9
'■ff./-;. ;..;.:■;. ;.;.^jl#tr W. .
I'
; .
damals noch nicht vorhanden waren. Dazu kommt
die gefühlsmäßige und ethisch-religiös begründete
Scheu, den Menschen als wissenschaftliches Beobach-
tungsmaterial zu erforschen. Es sei an den schworen
Kampf erinnert, den der Begründer der Anatomie,
Andreas Vesalius, im Jahre 1543 mit seinen Zeit-
genossen begann, um seine Wissenschaft aus den
Fesseln Galens zu befreien.
Die ersten wirklich einwandfreien anthropolo-
gischen Untersuchungen gehen in die zweite Hälfte
des 18. Jahrhunderts zurück. Der in Göttingen
lebende Mediziner Joh. Friedr. Blumenbach unter-
suchte in exakter Weise Neger- und Europäerschädel
und lehrte die rassisch bedingten Unterschiede er-
kennen. Seine Untersuchungsmethoden wurden nicht
nur von seinen Zeitgenossen als vorbildlich ange-
sehen ; auch spätere Forscher sind weitgehend von ihm
beeinflußt, so daß er als der eigentliche Begründer
der wissenschaftlichen Kraniologie (Schädellehre) an-
gesprochen werden darf. Auch eine noch lange Zeit
angewandte Rasseneinteilung in Kaukasische oder
Weiße, Mongolische oder Gelbe, Äthiopische oder
Schwarze, Malayische oder Braune und Amerika-
nische oder Rote Rasse knüpft sich an den Namen
Blumenbachs. Nur wenig später als Blumenbach
veröffentlichte der Mainzer Anatom Soemmering
rassenkundliche Ergebnisse, die er durch die Unter-
10
suchung lebender Neger — sowie auch einiger Neger-
leichen — gewonnen hatte.
Einen weiteren Schritt vorwärts in der wissen-
schaftlichen Rassenforschung bedeutete die Einfüh-
rung des messenden Verfahrens in der Anthropologie,
bei dem die Ergebnisse zahlenmäßig berechnet und
verglichen werden können. Es wurde um 1840 und
in den folgenden Jahren in größerem Maße von
dem schwedischen Anatomen Anders Retzius aus-
gebaut. Er als erster unterschied ,, lange" und ,, kurze"
Schädel, indem er das Verhältnis der Schädellänge
zu seiner Breite in einer einzigen Zahl, dem ,, Längen-
Breiten -Index" ausdrückte. Seine Methode wurde
sehr bald von den Anthropologen aller Länder über-
nommen und weiter ausgebaut, so daß wir heute eine
ganze Anzahl von ,,Indices" in der Anthropologie
verwenden.
Von weitgehender Bedeutung für die Anthropo-
logie waren die Forschungen und Ergebnisse eines
Lamarck und Darwin. Zwar hatte schon Linne in
seinem Werk ,,Systema naturae" auf die Formver-
wandtschaft von Affen und Menschen hingewiesen,
die er in einer gemeinsamen Gruppe der Primaten oder
Herrentiere vereinigte. Aber erst die Forschungen
von Lamarck und Darwin und die inzwischen erfolgten
geologischen Funde lieferten die wissenschaftlichen
Unterlagen für die Gültigkeit der Abstammungs-
11
'>Jirti;.-i'i?*'i-'-i-ri?c/?*»rt»^P^-Tri •
oder Deszendenztheorie, nach der alle Formen der
Gegenwart sich aus anderen, teilweise jetzt schon aus-
gestorbenen Formen entwickelt haben. In diese
stammesgeschichtliche Entwicklung wurde auch der
Mensch eingeordnet, obgleich Lamarck eine restlose
Einordnung abgelehnt hatte. Nun erst war es möglich,
wissenschaftliche Hypothesen über die Entstehung
der Menschheit überhaupt und auch solche über die
Entstehung der verschiedenen Rassen aufzustellen.
Die Gründung einer Reihe von Anthropologischen
' Gesellschaften in verschiedenen Ländern um die
Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts war nicht nur die Folge,
sondern auch die Ursache von immer weiter um sich
greifenden anthropologischen Untersuchungen, die zu
eingehenden Rassenbeschreibungen und Rassenein-
teilungen führten, bei denen allerdings oft nur einzelne
wenige körperliche Merkmale berücksichtigt oder neben
körperlichen auch sprachliche und andere kulturelle
Verschiedenheiten als Kriterium der Rasseneinteilung
verwandt wurden.
Der erste, der es unternahm, eine Rasseneinteilung
auf Grund des körperlichen „Habitus", der auf einer
ganzen Anzahl von verschiedenen körperlichen Eigen-
schaften beruht, zu geben, war der in Frankreich
lebende Anthropologe Deniker. Als wesentliche Merk-
male der Unterscheidung verschiedener Rassen sah
er Haarform und -färbe, Hautfarbe, Nasenform,
12
Kopfform und Körpergröße an. Deniker war auch
der erste, der — um die Jahrhundertwende — die
geographische Verteilung bestimmter körperlicher
Merkmale (Schädelform, Körpergröße und Haarfarbe)
innerhalb Europas festzustellen suchte. Die Verteilung
der verschiedenen Ausprägungen jedes der eben ge-
nannten Merkmale wurde unabhängig von den
übrigen Merkmalen kartographisch niedergelegt. Eine
Vereinigung der Ergebnisse aus den verschiedenen
Häufigkeitsverteilungen ergab folgendes Bild: Im
Nordwesten Europas besteht ein ziemlich geschlos-
sener Block schmalschädehger, groß wüchsiger, blonder
Menschen, dem im Südwesten ein Block schmal-
schädeliger, kleinwüchsiger, dunkler Menschen ent-
spricht. In Zentraleuropa findet sich ein Block rund-
schädeliger, mittelgroßer und mittelbrauner Menschen,
und an der Wurzel der BalkanJialbinsel ein Block kurz-
schädeliger, großwüchsiger, dunkler Menschen. Es sei
aber betont, daß diese Eigenschaften nicht immer in Ver-
bindung miteinander, in Korrelation, auftreten, sondern
daß die Angaben sich auf das mehr oder weniger häufige
Vorkommen jedes einzelnen Merkmales, unabhängig von
den anderen, beziehen. Deniker stellte nach dieser
Merkmalsverteilung sechs verschiedene Rassen in
Europa auf, von denen vier — die nordische, die
mediterrane, die alpine und die dinarische Rasse —
sofort allgemeine Zustimmung fanden, wälu-end eine
13
'!!)mm'
ir\
fünfte, die von Deniker als race Orientale oder Ostrasse
bezeichnete erst in den letzten Jahren unter dem
Namen ostbaltische oder osteuropide als selbständige
Rasse anerkannt wurde. Die sechste von Deniker
aufgestellte Rasse ist nur eine Rassenmischung.
Deniker selbst sowie auch eine Reihe anderer
Anthropologen und Rasseforscher vor ihm und zu
seiner Zeit hoben als besonders wichtig hervor, daß
man als Kriterium der Unterscheidung von Rassen
nur erbliche Merkmale verwenden dürfe. Aber es
fehlte zu damaliger Zeit eine genaue Kenntnis der
Beziehung von äußerer Eigenschaft und ererbter Anlage,
es fehlte vor allem die Möglichkeit festzustellen, ob
das unterscheidende Merkmal wirklich ein erbliches
sei. Daher bedeutete es einen ungeheueren Fort-
schritt, man kann fast sagen eine Revolution in den
Methoden der Rassenforschung, als es einige Jahre
nach der Wiederentdeckung der Mendelschen Erb-
regeln gelang, die Gültigkeit des Mendelismus auch
für normale menschliche Eigenschaften, und damit
also auch für Rasseeigenschaften, einwandfrei fest-
zustellen. Es war der Anthropologe Eugen Fischer,
dem wir diese entscheidende Tat verdanken durch
seine Untersuchungen an einer Mischlingsbevölkerung
(Nachkommen von Buren und Hottentottenfrauen)
in dem früheren Deutsch -Südwest -Afrika und durch
das aus diesen Untersuchungen eich ergebende Werk
14
i,
i
I
t
1
I
über „Die Rehobother Bastards und das Bastardie-
rungsproblem beim Menschen". Es ist nicht zuviel
gesagt, wenn man Eugen Fischer als den Begründer der
modernen wissenschaftlichen Rassenkunde bezeichnet.
Denn mit der Einordnung des Menschen in die für
die gesamte Organismenwelt geltende Gesetzmäßig-
keit der Vererbung ist die Rassenforschung und
Rassenlmnde in ein neues Stadium der Entwicklung
eingetreten. War sie vorher eine rein deskriptive
Wissenschaft, die sich damit begnügte und begnügen
mußte, die Merkmale der verschiedenen Rassen be-
schreibend wiederzugeben, so ist sie heute, seit nun-
mehr 25 Jahren, eine experimentelle Wissenschaft,
ein Gebiet der menschlichen Erblehre geworden.
Eine letzte gründliche Zusammenfassung unseres
Wissens, die weit über die übrige Literatur der Gegen-
,|Wart hinausreicht, ist v. Eickstedts „Rassenkunde
iiund Rassengeschichte der Menschheit". Das Buch
steht wie eine Scheide zwischen Vergangenheit und
Zukunft. Es faßt unser gesamtes Wissen zusammen
und deutet an, in welcher Richtung die spätere For-
schung weiter zu schreiten hat.
Bevor ich auf das entscheidende Stadium der
Rassenkunde näher eingehe, müssen wir uns zunächst
mit dem von Mendel aufgestellten Vererbungsgesetz
etwas vertraut machen, wenn es auch im engen Rah-
men dieser Schrift nicht möglich ist, eine Einführung
15
/ )
'm';'
ii iiMifiiinfriiriii
'•""^--- *■
V..
IT. (be Vere.rbungswif;senschaft zu geben, die über das
hinausireiir wa< für das Verständnis von Rassenf ragen
norwendji^ ist. IcL muß auf Ausfiüirungen, die ich an
anderer Cm^n gemacht habe, verweisen („Kind und
Yok' Band 1 .Vererbung und Auslese". 16. Aufl.
Herae: u C)c.. Freiburg i. B. 1933. — „Vererbung.
Bioicjgiftciie urundiagen der Eugenik.*' Müller und
Eiepenneuei . Potsdam 1 93i — Lehrbuch der , ,Eugenik** .
lerL Immnae: BerÜL u. Bonn 1934.
I
II. Biologische Grundlagen der Rassen-
kunde.
I
t
it
2 Muckermaiio« Rasaenkunde.
f
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'iHiitiiiiiiiisiiitii-
-dUmiä,
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I
\ .
1. Das Grundgesetz der Vererbung.
In mehr als 10 000 Einzelversucheu an Pflanzen
hatte der Augustinerchorherr Gregor Mendel zu Brunn
(1822 — 1884) eine Reihe von immer wiederkehrenden
Gesetzmäßigkeiten der Vererbung festgestellt.
Kreuzt man zwei reinrassige Individuen, die sich
in einem bestimmten Merkmal unterscheiden, z. B.
hochwüchsige und zwergwüchsige Erbsenpflanzen, so
entstehen in der ersten Tochtergeneration nur Pflanzen,
die in bezug auf das untersuchte Merkmal alle gleich
(uniform) aussehen, in diesem Fall alle hochwüchsig
sind. Die Eigenschaft Hochwüchsigkeit überdeckt
die Eigenschaft Zwergwuchs; sie ist dominant über die
verdeckte, gleichsam zurücktretende, rezessive Eigen-
schaft Zwergwüchsigkeit.
Nach Selbstbestäubung dieser ersten Tochter-
oder Fl -Generation, oder einer Bestäubung unter-
einander, entstehen in der r2-G}«neration Pflanzen,
die teilweise die dominante Eigenschaft, also Hoch-
wuchs, teilweise die rezessive Eigenschaft, Zwerg-
wuchs, aufweisen, und zwar in einem Verhältnis von
3 : 1. Die r2-Generation ist also „aufgespalten"
in zwei äußerlich verschiedene Typen. Die rezessive
Eigenschaft des einen Großeiters, die Zwergwüchsig-
keit, ist, wie man es heute ausdrückt, wieder ,,herau8-
gemendelt". Befruchtet man nun jede der Pflanzen
2*
19
♦^'i
l\
I;
Mi .
aus der Fg-Generation mit sich selbst, so entstehen
aus den zwergwüchsigen Pflanzen in der nächsten und
allen folgenden Generationen immer nur zwergwüchsige
Pflanzen. Die rezessive Eigenschaft Zwergwuchs ist
reinerbig oder gleicherbig oder homozygot in den be-
treffenden Individuen enthalten. Aus einem Drittel
der hochwüchsigen Pflanzen entstehen, mit sich selbst
bestäubt, ebenfalls in der nächsten und allen folgenden
Generationen hochwüchsige Pflanzen, die homozygot
für die dominante Eigenschaft Hochwuchs sind. Die
übrigen zwei Drittel der Hochwüchsigen der r2- Ge-
neration spalten in der nächsten Generation wieder
auf in hochwüchsige und zwergwüchsige Pflanzen in
dem schon vorher erwähnten Verhältnis 3:1. Diese
Pflanzen waren also nicht reinerbig für die Eigenschaft
Hochwuchs, sondern trugen in sich verdeckt die
rezessive Eigenschaft Zwergwuchs; sie sind gemischt-
erbig oder heterozygot. Das Charakteristische bei der
Kreuzung zweier reinerbiger Individuen ist also ein-
mal die in der ersten Generation auftretende Gleich-
artigkeit und zum anderen die in der zweiten und
allen folgenden Generationen eintretende Aufspaltung
der Heterozygoten. Eine in eine reine Rasse hinein-
gekreuzte rezessive Eigenschaft geht — wenn nicht
besondere Umstände, von denen noch zu sprechen
ist, hinzukommen — nicht verloren, sondern kann
immer wieder herausmendeln.
20
'l
Bei der Kreuzung reinerbiger Individuen, die nicht
nur in einem, sondern in mehreren Merkmalspaaren
Unterschiede aufweisen, also z. B. in Hochwuchs und
Zwergwuchs, in farbigen und weißen Blüten, werden
in der Fj- Generation wiederum alle Pflanzen gleich-
artig aussehen, in unserem Fall hochwüchsig und
farbigblühend, da die dominanten Eigenschaften die
rezessiven überdecken. Kreuzt man die Fj-Genera-
tion untereinander, so vereinigen sich nicht etwa die
verschiedenen Merkmale zu einem Merkmalskomplex,
der sich bei der Befruchtung als Komplex mit einem
anderen verbindet und so in der F2- und den folgenden
Generationen regelmäßig immer wiederkehrende Merk-
malsverbindungen zeigt, sondern bei der Befruchtung
verbindet sich jedes Merkmal unabhängig von allen
übrigen mit einem ihm entsprechenden Merkmal. Wir
haben eine „freie Kombination der Anlagen". Es
können also, um bei unserem Beispiel zu bleiben,
folgende Individuen entstehen: 1. hochwüchsig und
farbigblühend; 2. hochwüchsig und weißblühend;
3. zwergwüchsig und farbig blühend; 4. zwerg wüchsig
und weiß blühend. Die Pflanzen der zweiten und
dritten Gruppe gleichen also in der einen ihrer Eigen-
schaften dem einen, in der anderen Eigenschaft dem
zweiten der Großeltern. Je größer die Anzahl der Merk-
male ist, in denen sich zwei Individuen von einander
unterscheiden, um so größer ist auch die verschiedene
21
fn;fii:fn'
II ''I
ji
ii
Li '
20?
\
Kombinationsmögliclikeit in den Nachkommen. Unter-
scheiden sich die Großeltern in zwei Eigenschaften,
so entstehen 2^= 4 verschiedene Typen in der Enkel- \
generation. Unterscheiden sie sich z. B. in 20 ver-
schiedenen Eigenschaften, so beträgt die mögliche
Zahl der verschiedenen Typen in der Enkelgeneration
(bei vollständiger Dominanz der Eigenschaften) 2
= nahezu eine Million.
Man kann also die von Mendel gefundenen Gesetz-
mäßigkeiten zusammenfassend als das Gesetz von der
Autonomie der Erbanlagen in Spaltung und freier
Kombination bezeichnen.
Schon Mendel selbst hatte in genialer Weise
den ,, Mechanismus der Vererbung" erkannt, den er
auf die in den Keimzellen enthaltenen väterlichen
und mütterlichen Anlagen zurückführte. Seine An-
nahme wurde von der späteren Keimzellforschung
in geradezu glänzender Weise bestätigt. Die in den
Kernen der Keimzellen enthaltenen Chromosomen
sind als Truhen der Vererbung zu betrachten, in denen
sämtliche Anlagen für die späteren Eigenschaften ver-
einigt sind. Die in den Mischformen gebildeten Keim-
zellen sind jedoch nicht eine Vermischung, sondern
ein Mosaik von Anlagen. Die in ihnen enthaltenen,
von väterhcher und mütterlicher Seite her über-
kommenen Chromosomen und damit die Erbanlagen
sind nicht miteinander verschmolzen, sondern be-
22
wahren ihre Reinheit und Selbständigkeit. Sie spalten
sich bei der für die spätere Befruchtung notwendigen
Reifeteilung so von einander, daß die Hälfte der zu
bildenden Zellen die eine Anlage, die andere Hälfte
der Zellen die andere Anlage erhält. Da bei mehreren
Anlagen das Gesetz der freien Kombination der An-
lagen selbstverständlich seine Gültigkeit hat, so ist
das Anlagenbild, das die späteren befruchtungsfähigen
Keimzellen aufweisen, ein von Zelle zu Zelle verschie-
denes, und ebenso verschieden ist auch das äußere
Erscheinungsbild. Abgesehen von den erbgleichen
Zwillingen beim Menschen, die aus einer von einer
Samenzelle befruchteten Eizelle entstanden sind, gibt
es auch innerhalb derselben Familie wohl nie zwei
Individuen, die sich in ihren sämtlichen Anlagen und
den daraus entstandenen Eigenschaften völlig gleich
sind.
Die von Mendel im Jahre 1865 in den Annalen
des naturforschenden Vereins zu Brunn veröffentlichten
,, Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden" fanden zunächst
keinen Widerhall in der wissenschaftlichen Welt. Erst
um die Jahrhundertwende wurden diese Gesetze un-
abhängig von Mendel und auch unabhängig von
einander von drei Forschern — Correns, de Vries und
Tschermak — wieder entdeckt. Seit dieser Zeit
beginnt der ungeheure Aufschwung der modernen
Erblehre.
23
Ü!
^frn^
t: .j. :,.iviii,
Uff.:-^ -yi^^f^AC^ä^hiäit^i^ff^
2. Die Gültigkeit des Mendelismus für normale
Eigenschaften beim Menschen.
Wenn auch die Gültigkeit des Mendelismus zuerst
an Pflanzen und Tieren nachgewiesen werden konnte,
80 erstreckte sich doch sein Anwendungsgebiet schon
bald auch auf krankhafte und normale Eigenschaften
des Menschen. Die letzteren sind von besonderer Wich-
tigkeit für die Rassenkunde.
Im Jahre 1908 zeigten Davenport und Hurst, daß
die Weitergabe der Augenfarbe von Eltern auf Kinder
und Kindeskinder den Mendelschen Erbgesetzen
folgt, d.h. daß die Unterschiede, die die verschiedenen
Rassen innerhalb und außerhalb Europas in bezug
auf die Augenfarbe aufweisen, in Erbanlagen ihre
Ursache haben. Die dunklen Augenfarben sind domi-
nant über die jeweils helleren. Damit war zum. ersten-
mal der Beweis gehefert, daß die Augenfarbe eine
echte Rasseeigenschaft ist.
Die im ersten Kapitel erwähnten Untersuchungen
von Eugen Fischer sind grundsätzlich noch von
größerer Wichtigkeit, da sie sich nicht nur auf ein
einzelnes körperliches Merkmal erstrecken, sondern
in systematischer Forschung eine Reihe von Merk-
malen auf ihre Erblichkeit hin untersuchten, so z. B.
die Körpergröße und Ghederproportionen, die Schädel-
form und die Gesichtsform nach verschiedenen Rich-
24
tungen hin, Augenfarbe, Haarfarbe und Hautfarbe,
die Haarform, die Form und Weite der Augenspalten,
die Form der Nasenlöcher und des Nasenrückens, die
Lippendicke sowie manches andere; alles Eigen-
schaften, in denen sich die beiden Ausgangsrassen —
Buren, d. h. Nordwesteuropäer vorwiegend nordischer
Rasse, und Hottentottenfrauen — weitgehend von
einander unterschieden haben. Durch die Mischung
der rassisch verschiedenen Erblinien war nicht etwa
eine verhältnismäßig gleich aussehende Mischrasse
entstanden, die ungefähr in der Mitte zwischen den
beiden Ursprungsrassen stand, sondern das für die
Mendelsche Vererbung charakteristische und not-
wendige ,, Auf spalten" der einzelnen dominanten und
rezessiven Merkmale in der zweiten und den folgenden
Generationen war auch hier erfolgt.
Und auch die Gültigkeit der von Mendel nach-
gewiesenen freien Kombination der Anlagen konnte von
Fischer belegt werden. Die von den beiden Ausgangs-
rassen vererbten Merkmale treten in der F 2- und den
folgenden Generationen in den verschiedenartigsten Ver-
bindungen auf, wie das auch an den schönen Abbildungen,
die Fischer dem Werk beigegeben hat, zu verfolgen ist :
z.B. hellere Hautfarbe mit hottentottisch anmutender
oder auch europäischer Gesichtsform, mit dunklem,
kraushaarigem oder schlichtem, d. h. in der Form euro-
poidem Haar, um nur einige wenige Beispiele zu nennen.
25
'D'
-/. :..:n;ihmt
ii0^^!i!lr!iiiMt
• : lii!
I
Auf Grund seiner Forschungen kommt Fischer
zu der Überzeugung, daß die oft geäußerte Meinung
falsch sei, nach der farbige oder primitive Rassen
als solche in der Vererbung stärker ,, durchschlagen".
Eine ,, Präpotenz" (Vorherrschen) bestimmter Rassen
in der Vererbung gäbe es nicht. Nicht die Rassen;
als solche sind dominant über andere Rassen, sondern
dominant sind immer nur die einzelnen Merkmale;;
solche auf dominanten Anlagen beruhenden Merk-
male aber gibt es in sämtlichen Rassen. Wenn aller-
dings eine ganze Anzahl von Eigenschaften vorhanden
sind, die dominieren, dann kann der Eindruck entstehen,
als ob diese Rasse als solche einer anderen gegenüber
durchschlage. Oft beruht dieser Eindruck aber auch
darauf, daß man nur einzelne besonders charakte-
ristische Merkmale ins Auge faßt, die anderen dagegen
völlig unberücksichtigt läßt.
Das Jahr 1908 bedeutet einen Wendepunkt in
der rassenkundlichen Forschung. Seit jener Zeit
werden als Rasseeigenschaften nur solche Merkmale
angesehen, die ihre Ursachen in Erbanlagen haben,
ganz einerlei, ob das auf diesen Anlagen beruhende
Erscheinungsbild von einer günstigen oder ungün-
stigen Umwelt nach dieser oder jener Richtung hin
abgeändert wird.
26
3. Erbeigenschaften — Rasseeigenschaften.
Rasseeigenschaften sind Erbeigenschaften. Aller-
dings sind nicht alle Erbeigenschaften auch Eigenschaf-
ten zur Unterscheidung von Rassen. Es gibt eine Reihe
von Erbanlagen, die sämtliche Rassen der Erde in glei-
cher Weise besitzen und die die Menschheit als Ganzes
gegenüber allen sonst lebenden Organismen auch kör-
perlich abheben. Man muß annehmen, daß diese allen
Menschen zukommenden Erbanlagen schon vom Ur-
sprung der Menschheit an vorhanden gewesen sind.
Ohne im Rahmen dieser Schrift näher auf die Frage ein-
gehen zu können, sei aber doch daraufhingewiesen, daß
diese bei allen Rassen und Menschen anzutreffenden
gleichen Erbanlagen ein sehr starker Beweis für die
monophyletische Entstehung des Menschen sind, d. h.
für die aus nur einem Vorfahrenstamm, einmalig
und an einem Orte entstandene Menschheit.
Zum anderen gibt es Erbanlagen, die zwar auch
bei allen Rassen vorkommen, die sich aber nicht bei
sämtlichen Angehörigen dieser Rasse oder auch nur
einem größeren Teil von ihnen finden, sondern gleich-
sam nur sporadisch auftreten. So z. B. findet sich
Albinismus, d. h. teil weiser oder völliger Mangel des Pig-
mentes grundsätzlich bei allen Rassen. Auch diese
Eigenschaften darf man nicht als Eigenschaften zur
Unterscheidung von Rassen bezeichnen.
27
:Cj!
n
ii
ht
!
i }»
I
Finden sich dagegen bestimmte Erbeigenschaften
nur bei einer oder einigen Rassen, während sie bei
den übrigen fehlen, oder ist die Häufigkeit ihres Auf- '
tretens bei den verschiedenen Rassen eine typisch
und charakteristisch andere, so bezeichnet man diese
Erbeigenschaften als Rasseeigenschaften. Denn sie
sind die Ursache für die Verschiedenartigkeit der
Rassen. Rassenunterschiede beim Menschen werden
selbstverständlich nicht durch ein einziges Merkmal
hervorgerufen. In einzelnen Merkmalen können sich
die Angehörigen verschiedener Rassen sehr ähnUch
sein, obgleich sie unzweifelhaft nicht derselben Rasse
angehören. Es ist immer eine mehr oder minder große
j Zahl von Eigenschaften, eine bestimmte Kombi-
I nation normaler erbücher Merkmale, durch die sich
die Träger der einen Rasse von den Trägern anderer
Rassen unterscheiden. Das ist die jetzt von fast allen
Vererbungsforschern anerkannte wissenschaftliche Be-
griffsbestimmung einer Rasse im anthropologischen
Sinn.
Zu diesen erblichen Merkmalen, durch die sich
die Rassen unterscheiden, gehören grundsätzlich körper-
liche und seeüsche Eigenschaften. Während man
jedoch bei den körperlichen Merkmalen den Schritt
von der reinen Beschreibung der Rasseeigenschaften
zu einer auf exakter Forschung beruhenden erb-
wissenschaftlichen Methode vollzogen hat, ist es bis
f!
7
f
heute noch nicht möglich, bei den seelischen Eigen-
schaften in gleicher Weise vorzugehen. Hier hegen
Zukunftsaufgaben für eine wissenschaftliche Rassen -
Psychologie, die jetzt noch ganz am Anfang ihrer
Forschungsarbeit steht. Die Lösung wird deshalb
unendhch erschwert, weil ja die Seele als solche
niemals vererbt werden kann. Es kann sich also
immer nur um seelische Eigenschaften handeln, die /
durch das Zusammenwirken der Geistseele mit einem
bestimmten Gehirn zustande kommen.
4. Methoden der Erb- und Rassenforschung.
Auf welche Weise kann man nun feststellen, ob
die Merkmale und Eigenschaften, durch die sich die
verschiedenen Rassen von einander unterscheiden,
auf Erbanlagen beruhen ? Die erste Methode dazu
hat uns Eugen Fischer gewiesen. Es ist die der Bastard-
forschung, der Untersuchung einer rassengemischten
Bevölkerung, deren Ursprungsrassen uns bekannt
und in ihren Rasseeigenschaften vertraut sind. Am
günstigsten für eine solche Bastarduntersuchung sind
die Nachkommen aus den Rassen, die in ihren ver-
wandtschaftlichen Verhältnissen möglichst weit ent-
fernt von einander stehen, bei denen also die einzelnen
zu unterscheidenden Merkmale stark von einander
29
■R
ffU !
l
Vfi ;
i
hl
Hl
Mj
If
II
i
ec$ fCA vy\ . ^.
abweichen, so daß die „Aufspaltung** verhältnis-
mäßig klar zutage tritt.
Die erste derartige Untersuchung an den Nach-
kommen von Buren und Hottentotten ist die vorher
erwähnte Arbeit von Eugen Fischer über die Reho-
bother Bastards, die 1913 erschien. Leider sind ihr ,
nur sehr wenige gleichartige Arbeiten über die Rassen-
mischung stark verschiedener Rassen gefolgt.
Im Jahre 1927 veröffentlichte Rodenwaldt eine \
umfangreiche Untersuchung über „Die Mestizen auf
Kisar", Nachkommen aus Ehen zwischen Europäern
und Malaien, die sich, ebenso wie die Fischersche
Arbeit, auf eingehende Familienforschung stützt.
Über Rassenlo-euzung von Negern und Euro-
päern in Jamaica haben Davenport und Steggerda l
gearbeitet, leider nicht in der gleichen Weise wie
Fischer und Rodenwaldt, indem sie den Erbgang der
Eigenschaften in den einzelnen Familien verfolgten,
sondern dadurch, daß sie feststellten, ob und wie
häufig das betreffende Merkmal in den beiden Eltern-
rassen und in den Mischlingen vorhanden war. Das
Ergebnis ist daher weniger ein exakt erbbiologisches,
als viehnehr eine anthropologische Bestandsaufnahme
verschiedenster Merkmale innerhalb der dort lebenden
Bevölkerung.
Zu diesen drei umfangreichen Arbeiten kommen
noch einige kleinere Untersuchungen.
30
'■J
^
Aber es ist doch auffallend und in höchstem Maße
zu bedauern, daß die anthropologische Wissenschaft
sich nicht in stärkerem Maße des ihr gebotenen Ma-
terials bemächtigt und den Vorgang der Rassen-
kreuzung und das Bastardierungsproblem eingehender
verfolgt hat. Überall auf der Erde finden wir neben
der Rassenmischung einander nahestehender Rassen,
die für die Bastardforschung sich weniger eignet,
auch Rassenmischung sehr stark unterschiedener
Rassen, die besonders günstig für die Erforschung
der Erbbedingtheit und des Erbganges, also der
Mendelschen Gesetzmäßigkeit, ist. Es besteht die
Gefahr, daß derartiges für die Rassenforschung und
Rassenkunde wertvolle Material verloren geht, wenn
es nicht gelingt, die betreffende Rassenmischung in
der zweiten oder spätestens dritten Generation zu
erfassen und auch möglichst die den verschiedenen
Rassen angehörigen Vorfahren mit zu untersuchen.
Je länger wir zögern, um so unübersehbarer wird die
Rassenmischung.
Neben der Bastardforschung gibt es aber noch
einen grundsätzlich anderenWeg, um dieErbbedingtheit
von Eigenschaften festzusteUen. Es ist die von Francis
Galton im Jahre 187§ zuerst beschriebene Zwillings-
forschung. Charakteristisch ist der Titel der Arbeit
von damals: „The history of twins as a criterion of
the relative powers of nature und nurture" (Die
31
:::t::,:
mifiif*'
I i
Geschichte von ZwiUingen zur Unterscheidung der
Mact der Vererbung gegenüber der Bee-fl«
m Lebensbedingungen). Schon Galton hat damal
Eingaben über 94Z wiUingspaare für wissenschaftbche
Untlchungen verwandt. Er kannte den Unterschied
m: eineügen und zweieügen ZwüUngspaaren und
Ißte auch daß die eineiigen Zwillingspaare immer
I etge'htchtüch sein müssen. Zur Unterscheidung
tSen Gruppen verwandte er die Ähnlichkeitsdia-
'Itund nicht die ja auch nicht immer zutreffende
Tatsache daß eineiige ZwilUngspaare durchweg m emer
n IXnEihautgeboren werden. Galtons Methode w.rde
•' rierer Zeit von Forschern wie Siemens, Wei
und V. Verschuer aufgegriffen und ausgebaut. Otmar
: Verschuer hat vor allem eine «««''«
der zweieiigen ^-Uingspaare nach der GescMecht-
Uchkeit durchgeführt, um so den Vergleich m t den
eineiigen ZwiUingspaaren sicher verfolgen zu können^
IL der nicht-anthropologisch geschulte Mensch
„.acht die Erfahrung, daß Z-^^f f f \:^*' ^^^
keineswegs immer, auffaUend "^^^^^^ J^^.^'Z
j ««r^" an daß es schwer ist, sie aui.
p>in Ei dem anderen , so aau c» . , ^ ^
In ersten Blick zu unterscheiden. Aber nicht nu
Lmde vermögen die Zwilünge manchmal nicht
Oslander zu'halten; selbst die n^chst^n Ange-
hörigen, ia sogar die eigene Mutter i"* -»^^^^^^^^^^
Bei anderen ZwUlingen dagegen ist die Ahnhchkeit
'■^
SO geringfügig, daß man sie nicht für Zwillinge, manch-
mal sogar nicht einmal für Geschwister halten würde.
Die erste Gruppe gehört zu den erbgleichen oder
eineiigen Zwilüngen, die infolge der vollständigen
Durchschnürung der befruchteten Eizelle aus dem
gleichen väterlichen und mütterlichen Keimmaterial
entstanden und daher immer erbgleich, also auch
gleichgeschlechtlich sind. Die erbverschiedenen oder
zweieiigen ZwilHnge der zweiten Gruppe sind durch
gleichzeitige Befruchtung von zwei verschiedenen
Eizellen durch zwei verschiedene Samenzellen ent-
standen. Sie sind also erbverschieden, genau so erb-
verschieden, wie es zwei zu verschiedenen Zeiten
geborene Geschwister sind.
Bei erbgleichen Zwillingen findet man allerdings bei
genauer Untersuchung auch gewisse Abweichungen ihrer
Eigenschaften. Letztere können nun aber nicht in ver-
schiedenen Erbanlagen ihre Ursache haben, denn diese
sind ja bei eineiigen Zwillingen gleich. Wir müssen sie
auf den noch näher zu erörternden Einfluß, der bei der
Entfaltung und Ausbildung der Eigenschaften eine
wesenthche Rolle spielt, auf die Umweltwirkungen,
zurückführen. Je stärker die eineiigen Zwillingspaar -
linge in einem Merkmal sich unterscheiden, um so
stärker ist dieses durch Umwelteinflüsse zu verändern.
Sind sich eineiige Zwillingspaarlinge in bestimmten
Merkmalen fast immer gleich, zeigen dagegen die zwei-
3 Muckermann, Bassenknnde.
33
32
I
%.
eiigen ZwüUngspaarlinge in diesen Merkmalen mehr
oder minder große Verschiedenheit, so kann diese
Verschiedenheit nicht auf Umwelteinflüsse zurückge-
führt werden, denn grundsätzlich wachsen ja Zwillings-
paarUnge in gleicher Umwelt auf, unabhängig davon,
ob es eineiige oder zweieiige Zwillinge sind. Die bei
den zweieiigen ZwilHngspaarlingen im Gegensatz zu
den eineiigen auftretende häufigere Verschiedenheit
bestimmter Merkmale beruht also auf den in dieser
Gruppe vorhandenen verschiedenen Erbanlagen. Durch
den Vergleich eineiiger und zweieiiger Zwillinge gelingt
es, nicht nur den Beweis zu erbringen, daß bestimmte
Eigenschaften in Erbanlagen ihre Ursache haben. Man
kann auch den Anteil schätzen, den Erbanlagen und Um-
welt zu der Ausprägung der Eigenschaften, zu dem Er-
scheinungsbild, beisteuern. Die ZwüHngsforschung ist
somit die neben der Familien- und Bastardforschung
gleichberechtigte Methode zur Feststellung der Erb-
bedingtheit von Eigenschaften.
5 Bedeutung der Umwelt für die Ausprägung
der Merkmale.
Obgleich eineiige Zwillinge mit den gleichen Erb-
anlagen ausgerüstet sind, sind sie sich doch nicht,
wie man leicht feststellen kann, in ihren sämtlichen
34
1,
i
Eigenschaften gleich. Die Erbanlagen sind ja keine
starren Gebilde, die nach strengen chemisch-physi-
kalischen Gesetzmäßigkeiten so und nur so sich
entwickeln. Immer hängt die Ausprägung der Eigen-
schaften, das, was wir beim Menschen körperlich
und seelisch vor uns sehen, mehr oder weniger von
der Umwelt ab, die auf diese Erbanlagen als Entfal-
tungsreiz einwirkt. Es ist daher keinesfalls gleich-
gültig, in welcher Umwelt das heranwachsende
Menschenkind aufwächst. Das gilt sowohl für die
1 vorgeburtliche wie für die nachgeburtliche Lebenszeit
des Kindes und des Erwachsenen.
Selbstverständlich bleibt der Einfluß der Umwelt
in bestimmten Grenzen. Die den Erbanlagen gege-
benen Reaktionsmöglichkeiten weisen nur eine be-|
schränkte Schwankungsbreite auf. Aber ob das
Pendel — bildlich gesprochen — nach der einen oder
der anderen Seite ausschlägt, das ermöglichen die
Umweltverhältnisse, wobei als Umwelt all das be-
zeichnet wird, was nicht in Erbanlagen seine Ursache
hat. In dem Augenblick der Befruchtung sind die i
späteren Reaktionsmöglichkeiten ein für alle mal fest- »
gelegt. Aber das Kind unter dem Herzen einer von
Hunger und Sorge zermürbten Mutter ist sicherlich
durch die weniger günstigen Umwelt-, bes. Ernäh-
rungsverhältnisse in der mütterlichen Wiege in seiner
Entwicklungsmöglichkeit beeinträchtigt. Einen ent-
3*
35
ii;>.i
'"^m
H
sprechend gleichen Einfluß üben die Um weit Verhält-
nisse verschiedenster Art zeit unseres Lebens aus.
Die Verschiedenartigkeit in der Ausprägung von
Eigenschaften, die Variabilität der Eigenschaften
von Pflanze, Tier und Mensch, trotz gleicher Erb-
anlagen, beruht auf den die Erbanlagen treffenden
verschiedenen Umweltreizen. Jede irgendwie meß-
bare und durch Zahlen erfaßbare Eigenschaft wird
daher nie durch eine einzige Zahl ausgedrückt werden
können. Immer wird es ein Schwanken, ein Variieren
um einen bestimmten Mittelwert sein. So sind auch
Rasseeigenschaften zwar erbanlagemäßig festgelegt;
aber das äußere Erscheinungsbild, der Phänotypus
der Rasse, kann je nach den Umweltverhältnissen,
denen die Rasse ausgesetzt ist, ein körperlich und
geistig verschiedenes Gepräge aufweisen. Man denke
z. B. an Menschen an der See oder an Menschen im
Gebirge. Sie unterscheiden sich genau so wie die
übrigen Organismen auch.
Besteht somit kein Zweifel, daß die Umweltein-
flüsse das durch die Erbanlagen in seinen Grenzen
festgelegte Erscheinungsbild verändern, modifizieren
können, so ist man sich noch keineswegs ganz klar
über die Natur der besonderen Umwelteinflüsse, die
zu bestimmten Modifikationen führen. Sicher sind
z. B. Ernälirungsverhältnisse nicht nur beim einzelnen
Individuum, sondern auch in geschlossenen Gruppen,
36 :
vielleicht sogar bei Rassen, nicht ohne Einfluß auf
die Körpergröße, die an sich erbüch festgelegt ist. So .
sind beispielsweise in allen Ländern die sozial höheren
Schichten durchschnittlich größer als die niederen, 1
auch wenn beide der gleichen Rasse angehören. Weiter
ist erwiesen, daß die Körpergröße der europäischen
Bevölkerung in den letzten 70 Jahren zugenommen
hat Aber auch die Körperform muß gleichsam'
massiger geworden sein: der Durchschnittseuropäer
paßt nicht mehr in die Ritterrüstungen früherer
Zeiten hinein. Angehörige der gleichen Rasse sind
im Gebirge kleinwüchsiger als in der Ebene, wie der
amerikanische Anthropologe Franz Boas an einigen
Indianerstämmen nachweisen konnte. Aber auch bei
europäischen Rassen hat man die gleiche Erfahrung
gemacht. Eine solche Erscheinung ist schon nicht
mehr nur durch Ernährungsverhältnisse zu erklären,
sondern beruht sicher noch auf der Änderung weiterer
Umwelteinflüsse .
Eine der Eigenschaften zur Unterscheidung von
Rassen, die in früheren Jahren von Fachanthropo-
logen als eines der wesentHchsten und wichtigsten
Rassemerkmale angesehen wurde, die auch jetzt noch
von vielen Menschen in seiner Bedeutung als Rasse-
merkmal stark überschätzt wird, ist die durch den
Längen-Breiten-Index ausgedrückte Schädelform. Daß
sie in Erbanlagen ihre Ursache hat, steht außer
37
!
!l
Zweifel. Aber die viele Jahre herrschende Ansicht, daß,
abgesehen von groben Umwelteinflüssen, wie z. B.
Lage- und Druckverhältnissen, irgendwelche feineren
Umweltverhältnisse die Schädelform nicht zu ändern
vermögen, daß gerade diese Eigenschaft sehr umwelt-
stabil sei, wird nicht mehr in gleicher Weise aufrecht
erhalten. Boas konnte zeigen, daß die Kinder der
in amerikanische Großstädte eingewanderten lang-
schädeligen Neapolitaner und Sizilianer weniger lang-
köpfig als ihre Eltern waren, die Kinder von einge-
wanderten osteuropäischen kurzköpf igen Juden dagegen
weniger kurzköpfig, daß also beide Nachkommens-
Lgruppen sich dem amerikanischen Mittel näherten. Die
Abweichung vom Mittelwert der Eltern war um so
größer, je größer der zwischen Einwanderung der
Eltern und Geburt des Kindes Hegende Zeitraum war.
Es ist anzunehmen, daß die Veränderung der Schädel-»
form mit einem veränderten Stoffwechsel und einer
veränderten inneren Sekretion zusammenhängt. Doch
ist die Frage noch keineswegs geklärt. Ebensowenig
kennt man die Ursache für die Veränderung der
Schädelform in Süddeutschland. Während die dort
beigesetzten Schädel der VöU^erwanderungszeit Lang-
köpfigkeit aufweisen, herrscht jetzt in den Alpen-
gebieten eine manchmal extreme Kurzköpf igkeit, die
sich mit den übrigen der nordischen Rasse eigentüm-
liehen Körpermerkmalen wie Blondheit, blauen Augen,
38
v\
höherem Körperwuchs, nicht in Einklang bringen
läßt. Fast scheint es, als ob überhaupt die Lang-
köpfigkeit in historischen Zeiten abgenommen hat,
so daß Eugen Fischer von einer Kulturform des
Schädels spricht, die allmählich immer kurzköpfiger
wird.
Es läßt sich theoretisch nicht entscheiden, ob diese
durch Umwelteinflüsse herbeigeführten Veränderungen
des Erscheinungsbildes sich lediglich innerhalb der
Reaktionsbreite bewegen, die durch die Erbanlagen
gegeben ist, oder ob nicht eine ständig in gleicher Rich-
tung wirkende veränderte Umwelt zu einer allmählich
fortschreitenden Veränderung der Erbanlagen führt,
und zwar bei allen oder doch jedenfalls den meisten
Individuen der unter den veränderten Verhältnissen
lebenden Gruppe. Damit komme ich zu dem für die
Rassenentstehung und Rassenentwicklung so wich-
tigen Problem der Veränderung derErbanlagen.
6. Mutationen — Rassenentstehung — Rassen-
entwicklung.
Vererbung bedeutet, daß die Anlagen bei Eltern
und Kindern die gleichen sind und zu gleichen Eigen-
schaften führen, die nur in geringer Weise infolge
der Umwelteinwirkungen um ein gegebenes Mittel
39
.'mimp&iff
.1
I''
schwanken. Bei reinrassigen Individuen würde also
eine gewisse Gleichheit von Vorfahren und Nach-
kommen vorhanden sein. Damit aber ist das Aus-
einanderfaUen der Menschheit in verschiedene Rassen
nicht vereinbar. Wie ich oben schon andeutete, spricht
sehr viel für die monophyletische Entstehung des
Menschen. Gäbe es nur Vererbung (abgesehen von
den auf die Reaktionsmöghchkeiten der Erbanlagen
wirkenden Umwelteinflüssen), so ist jede Rassenent-
stehung undenkbar, denn alle Nachkommen müßten
ihren Vorfahren gleichen. Nur wenn Veränderungen
im Erbgefüge eintreten und die nunmehr abgeänderten
Erbanlagen an die Nachkommen weiter gegeben
werden, entstehen Typen, die erbbildlich und auch
erscheinungsbildüch von den Vorfahren abweichen
und zu neuen Rassen führen können. Rassenentstehung
und Rassenentwicklung ohne eine Veränderung des
Erbgefüges ist unmöglich.
In der experimentellen Erblehre hat man bei
genauester Erforschung der Individuen — ich nenne
besonders die von Thomas Hunt Morgan erforschte
amerikanische Obstfliege Drosophila, sowie das Haupt-
versuchsobjekt des leider allzu früh verstorbenen Erb-
biologen Erwin Baur, das Löwenmäulchen, Antirrhinum
majus, — immer wieder Veränderungen beobachten
können, die die verschiedensten Eigenschaften be-
treffen. Diese Veränderungen treten spontan auf, d.h.tj
40
I
ein äußerlich sichtbarer Grund dafür ist nicht nach-
zuweisen. Derart veränderte Eigenschaften folgen in
ihrem Erbgang den Mendelschen Gesetzen, wie durch
Kreuzung der Tiere und Pflanzen festgestellt werden
kann. So liegen also nicht etwa nur Veränderungen
des äußeren Erscheinungsbildes vor, wie wir es vorher
bei dem Variieren der Körpergröße oder der Schädel-
form feststellten. Das Erste und Ursprüngliche ist
eine Änderung des Erbanlagenbestandes, die durch
irgendeine unbekannte Einwirkung erfolgt ist, und
die nunmelir in der nächsten oder übernächsten
Generation zu Veränderungen des Erscheinungsbildes
führt.
Die am Erbanlagenbestande auftretenden Ver-
änderungen bezeichnet man als Mutationen. Meist
\ sind die Mutationen rezessiver Art, d. h. es müssen
zwei gleichartig veränderte Anlagen zusammenkommen,
damit in der nächsten Generation die äußere Eigen-
schaft verändert wird. Eine Mutation tritt also zum
mindesten eine Generation früher auf als die äußer-
lich sichtbare veränderte Eigenschaft.
Vor einigen Jalu-en gelang es dem amerikanischen
Biologen Muller an der Obstfliege Drosophila experi-
mentell durch Röntgenbestrahlung Mutationen her-B
vorzurufen. Grundsätzlich traten die gleichen Muta-
tionen auf, nur in einer viel größeren Häufigkeit, als
sie auch spontan in den Zuchten aufgetreten waren.
41
l'Ni I
Allerdings gelang es nie, bestimmte Mutationen nach
Wunsch zu erhalten; sie traten gleichsam ,, richtungs-
los'' auf. Auch durch Radiumbestrahlung sowie i-
durch stark veränderte Temperaturen, denen man
die Organismen aussetzte, konnten künstlich Muta-
tionen hervorgerufen werden. Es handelt sich, wie
es danach scheint, um eine durch stark abgeänderte
Umweltwirkungen hervorgerufene Änderung des Stoff-
wechsels und der inneren Sekretion, eine Änderung,
die so verheerend auf den Organismus einwirkt, daß
sie Änderungen oder sogar Schädigungen des Erb-
anlagenbestandes zur Folge hat. Die in der experi-
mentellen Erblehre beobachteten Mutationen sind
in der weitaus größten Zahl sogenannte Verlustmuta-
tionen, d. h. Änderungen, die die Leistungs- und
Lebensfähigkeit der Organismen herabsetzen. Es ist
nicht ausgeschlossen, ja wohl sogar wahrscheinlich
— die Experimente darüber geben noch kein eindeu-
tiges Bild — , daß die veränderten Umwelteinflüsse
bei fortgesetzter Dauer die anfangs richtungslos
auftretenden Mutationen nunmehr in bestimmter
Richtung schrittweise weitertreiben, so daß Gene-
rationen später eine von der Ursprungsrasse ge-
nügend unterschiedene Eigenschaft vorhanden ist. In
diesem Sinne spricht man auch von ,, gerichteten"
Mutationen. Die Kraft, die unter Führung der Um-
welt in eine bestimmte Richtung drängt, ist selbst-
42
3
j
verständlich etwas, das im lebendigen Erbgefüge selbst
Hegt.
Es ist einleuchtend, daß alle dauernden Ver-
änderungen bei Pflanze, Tier und Mensch auf Mutatio-
nen, d. h. auf Veränderungen des Erbgefüges, zurück-
gehen müssen. Auch jetzt noch treten, nicht nur in
den Zuchten, sondern überall in der freien Natur,
Mutationen auf, die sich nur deshalb nicht erhalten,
weil in den meisten Fällen der Höhepunkt der Ent-
wicklung für die betreffende Art erreicht und jede
I Mutation daher eine Verlustmutation ist, die die
Leistungs- und Lebensfähigkeit des Individuums so
stark herabsetzt, daß es im Kampfe ums Dasein zu-
meist nicht mehr konkurrenzfähig ist. Wir müssen
damit rechnen, daß in früheren Zeiten, als die Ent-
wicklung noch nicht abgeschlossen war, sehr viele
günstige Mutationen aufgetreten sind, die dem be-
treffenden Individuum oder der Art einen Vorteil
brachten, sie andern gegenüber begünstigten und so
im Kampfe ums Dasein zu einer positiven Auslese
führten, während die weniger begünstigten Indi-
viduen und Arten ausgemerzt wurden. Die Folgen
der Auslese und Ausmerze dürften in den Zeiten zu
Beginn der Menschheit auch für die Entstehung der
j verschiedenen menschlichen Rassen ganz ungeheure
gewesen sein.
Das Entstehen von Mutationen ist in früheren
43
JiitntiH
:mfmiff^
V
Erdperioden sicherlich durch die klimatischen und I
tßktouisclien Yeränderungen der Umwelt begünstigt *
worden. Diese abgeänderte Umwelt wirkte dann
aber Jahrtausende lang ein und mag somit — es sind
dies allerdings vorläufig nur Hypothesen — zu den
in bestimmter Richtung fortschreitenden Mutationen
beigetragen haben. Sicherlich ist auch die Fähigkeit
zu Mutationen nicht bei allen Individuen und Arten
die gleiche, wie sie auch nicht die gleiche ist für die
verschiedenen Organe desselben Individuums. Trotz
sehr genauer Beobachtung hat man z. B. in der experi-
ment^Uen Erblehre bei manchen Tieren und Pflanzen,
ich nenne als Beispiele nur Ratte und Maus, Muta-
tionen nur in geringer Anzahl feststellen können.
Die Mutationsfähigkeit, die Mutabilität, ist bei diesen
Tieren eine schwache.
Nach allen bisher gemachten Erfahrungen scheint
es, als ob unsere Haustiere leichter und stärker zu
Mutationen neigen als die betreffende Wildform, von
der das Haustier abstammt. In dem Augenblick,
wo der Mensch das Tier in seine Pflege nimmt, ändert
er wiUkürlich den Stoffwechsel — z. B. durch andere
Nahrung, die er zu bestimmten Zeiten gibt, oder durch
Wärme, die er dem Tiere angedeihen läßt — und
regelt die Fortpflanzungstätigkeit. Änderung des
Stoffwechsels und der inneren Sekretion begünstigen
aber die Entstehung von Mutationen. Eugen Fischer
44
hat gezeigt, daß auch der Mensch sich in dem Zustand
der Domestikation befindet, und zwar von dem
Augenblick an, wo er das Feuer besaß und als soziales
Wesen vergesellschaftet lebte. Das Feuer gab ihm die
Möglichkeit, seine Nahrung aufzubewahren und in
anderem als rohem Zustande zu genießen. Das Feuer
erlaubte ihm aber auch, künstlich die ihn wärmende
Umgebung zu ändern. Damit wurde der Stoffwechsel
grundlegend verändert. Das Zusammenleben in gesel-
ligen Verbänden regelte durch Brauch, Sitte und
Recht die Fortpflanzung. Die Änderung des Stoff-
wechsels und der Fortpflanzungstätigkeit führten
beim Menschen genau so wie beim Tier zu gesteigerter
Mutation. Haustiere und Mensch zeigen grundsätzlich
gleichartige Mutationen, die an bestimmten Organen
besonders häufig und leicht auftreten, während andere
Organe nur eine ganz geringe Mutationsfähigkeit auf-
weisen. Die normalen Rassenunterschiede zwischen
den Menschen, also z. B. Haarfarbe und Haarform,
Augenfarbe, Hautfarbe, Schädel- und Gesichtsform,
Körpergröße und -proportionen, um nur einiges heraus
zu greifen, finden wir grundsätzlich auch bei den
Haustieren. Man denke nur an unsere verschiedenen
Hunderassen: den weiß- und glatthaarigen Terrier,
den gelockten schwarzhaarigen Pudel, den krumm-
beinigen Dackel, den langschädeligen Windhund, die
Bulldogge mit der Vorkiefrigkeit. Und umgekehrt
45
h
1
! I
K
gibt es keine Mutation der normalen Eigenschaften
beim Haustier, die nicht grundsätzlich auch beim
Menschen aufgetreten ist.
Wenn auch die Fähigkeit zu gleichartigen Muta-
tionen der ganzen Menschheit gegeben ist, so muß
die Mutabihtät für ganz bestimmte Veränderungen
doch von Anfang an eine verschiedene gewesen sein.
Diese durch eine andersartige Umwelt begünstigte
verschiedene Mutabihtät und die daraus folgende
verschiedene Entwicklungsfähigkeit hat zur Entstehung
der verschiedenen Rassen und zur Rassenentwicklung
in verschiedener Richtung stark beigetragen.
Aber allein durch Mutation und die vorhin erwähnte
Auslese, d. h. das Überleben der mit vorteilhaften
Mutationen ausgestatteten Individuen, läßt sich die
Entstehung der Rassen nicht begreifen. Wenn wir
nicht mit der kaum vorstellbaren Hypothese rechnen,
daß die gleiche Mutation bei allen oder fast allen
Individuen einer Gruppe gleichzeitig auftrat und
daher sofort nach ihrem Auftreten der ganzen Gruppe
als typisches Merkmal eigen war, müssen wir davon
ausgehen, daß eine auf veränderten Erbanlagen be-
iruhende Eigenschaft erst aUmählich zum Gruppen-
Jmerkmal wurde. Das konnte nur geschehen durch
■ starke Inzucht und Abschließung in kleinen isoliert
(lebenden Gruppen. Zu der geographischen Isolation,
die das Entstehen von Gruppenmerkmalen förderte.
46
uai
mußte nun aber auch noch die Verbreitung des Merk-
mals über größere Gebiete hinzutreten. Von Anfang
an muß innerhalb der Menschheit eine ständige Fort-
bewegung gewesen sein. Aber diese Bewegung brachte
die einzelnen isoliert lebenden Gruppen in Berührung
miteinander; und diese Berührung fülirte sicher auch
zu Gruppenmischungen und -kreuzungen, so daß die
veränderten Erbanlagen, die ursprünglich nur in
kleinen Gruppen vorhanden gewesen sein mögen, sich
jetzt in größeren Gruppen weiter vererbten. Auch
hierbei müssen wir selbstverständlich mit einer starken
Auslese und Ausmerze rechnen, die den Trägern
günstigerer Mutationen zu einer stärkeren Fort-
pflanzung verhalfen. Es ist anzunehmen, daß sich
mit diesen günstigen Mutationen eine Reihe von Muta-
tionen vererbten, die zunächst wohl kaum einen
Auslesewert hatten, die aber vielleicht in viel späteren
Generationen, unter veränderten Um weit Verhältnissen
ihren Auslese wert offenbarten.
Das stetige Wandern von Beginn der Menschheit
an brachte die einzelnen Gruppen aber nicht nur mit
anderen Gruppen zusammen, ermöglichte Gruppen-
und später Rassenmischung, sondern es führte diese
Gruppen auch in veränderte Umweltverhältnisse hin-
ein. Diese wiederum begünstigten das Auftreten von
Mutationen mit möglichem Auslesewert. Das Aus-
einanderfallen der Menschheit in die groi3e Zahl dgf
47
C7 . ." r^-'^z-'.-^£.^
■mmWfW-i^Ä
I:
,11
i: ,
I .
Rassen — ein ZerfaU, wie er sonst nirgends in einer
.Tierart festzustellen ist — hängt sicher damit zu-
Isammen, daß von Anfang an die verschiedenen Gruppen
Ider Menschheit in die verschiedenste Umwelt ge-
kommen sind. Dies führte zu einem verschieden
häufigen Auftreten von Mutationen, von denen auch
die einzelnen Organe verschieden häufig betroffen
wurden, und damit zusammenhängend zu einer ver-
schiedenen Entwicklungsfähigkeit und einem ver-
schiedenen Entwicklungstempo, die ihrerseits nun
wiederum eine bestimmte Differenzierung und Speziali-
sierung der verschiedenen Rassen zur Folge hatten.
Eugen Fischer hat einmal in einer kleinen Studie
sehr einleuchtend dargelegt, daß bei den drei Haupt-
rassen, den Europiden, Mongoliden und Negriden,
1 grundsätzüch die gleichen Mutationen an den Organen,
' deren Anlagen besonders leicht mutieren, aufgetreten
sind, und daß erst das verschieden starke und ver-
schieden häufige Auftreten und die Kombination der
verschiedenen mutierten Eigenschaften zu den typischen
Ra^senunterschieden und der Rassenaufteilung ge-
führt haben. Gleiches Auftreten besonders auffaUender
Rassemerkmale, z. B. der Kraushaarigkeit oder des
Pygmäenwuchses oder einer stark konvexen Nase,
bedeute daher noch nicht, daß eine Rassen Verwandt-
schaft besteht, daß die betreffenden Unterrassen den
gleichen Hauptrassen oder -stammen angehören.
48
i
Es wäre noch ein Wort zu sagen über die jetzige
Ausdehnung und den Wert, bzw. die Nachteile von
Rassenmischungen. Doch bevor wir auf diesen Punkt
näher eingehen, müssen wir uns zunächst der Be-
schreibung der einzelnen Rassen zuwenden. Auf Rassen -
mischungen komme ich im letzten Kapitel dieses Büch-
leins zurück.
n
4 Muckermann, Rassenkunde.
49
.jmi^äjuun.är
sSSWöai&äyäÄ^'-^'-
-it
I
'
i
IIL Von den Menschenrassen der Ver-
gangenheit.
r 1
in
IS
^-TTTSStSlSSiäi
•am
Es gibt wohl selten einen Menschen, der ganz un-
empfänglich ist gegen den so eigenartigen Reiz und
Zauber, den die Betrachtung alter Familienbilder
ausübt. Wie haben unsere Großeltern, Urgroßeltern
und die weiteren Vorfahren ausgesehen, all die
Menschen, denen wir einen Teil des Erbanlagen-
schatzes verdanken, der uns zu dem gemacht hat,
was wir sind? Fast mit Entdeckerfreude finden wir
in den Zügen der Vorfahren Merkmale und Eigen-
schaften wieder, die wir auch bei uns oder unter
unseren Geschwistern festzustellen vermögen. Und
anderseits müssen wir beim Blättern in alten Familien-
büchern manchmal enttäuscht und traurig erkennen,
daß dieser oder jener charakteristische Zug, der dem
Antlitz des Vorfahren sein typisches Gepräge gibt,
in seinen Nachkommen nicht mehr zu finden ist und
vielleicht auch nie wieder auftreten wird.
Aber es sind ja nicht nur unsere direkten Vor-
fahren, über deren äußeres und inneres Bild wir etwas
erfahren wollen, deren Lebensschicksal uns fesselt.
Gehen wir einen Schritt weiter, so drängt sich uns die
Frage auf: Wie überhaupt haben die Menschen aus-
gesehen, die vor Jahrhunderten und Jahrtausenden, ja
vielleicht vor Jahrzehntausenden auf dieser Erde geatmet
und gelebt haben, die denselben Himmel erblickten,
zu dem auch wir aufschauen, die die gleiche Sonne
gewärmt hat, die auch uns mit ihren Strahlen erfreut.
53
m^ftn^iMmti
Es ist schwer, fast unmöglich, sich von den Menschen
und Menschenrassen der weit zurückliegenden Ver-
gangenheit, der Vorzeit, ein genaues Bild zu machen.
Nur ganz wenige Reste sind uns von diesen Vor- und
Urmenschen erhalten, Reste, die ausschließlich aus
Knochen und Knochenbruchstücken bestehen. Alle
Weichteile, Muskel- und Fettgewebe, sowie auch die
Haare, waren in hohem Maße der Verwitterung und
Vermoderung ausgesetzt, konnten auch nicht dem auf
ihnen lastenden Druck der Erdschichten widerstehen,
so daß restlos alles verloren ist. Nur die in besonders
günstigen Erdschichten gelagerten Hartteile, also
Knochen und Zähne, haben die Jahrtausende über-
dauert. Und hier wieder sind es neben den Zähnen
die Schädel — und zwar besonders die Hirnkapsel
— -, die die größte Widerstandskraft besaßen und be-
sitzen. So ist es kein Wunder, daß es in der Haupt-
sache Schädel und Schädekeste sind, die uns zwar
Kunde von der Vergangenheit bringen, die uns aber
doch ntir ahnen lassen, wie diese Vormenschen aus-
gesehen haben dürften und wie aus ihnen die ersten
wirklichen Menschenrassen entstanden sein mögen.
Eine tiefe, nicht zu überschreitende Kluft trennt
alle heute lebenden Menschenrassen, auch die primi-
tivsten, die wir überhaupt kennen, von allen auf der
Erde lebenden Tieren, auch von den höchst speziali-
sierten sogenannten „Menschen "äffen. Dem Menschen
54
I '
f
HC
(und nur ihm allein wird stets von neuem das Gnaden-
geschenk Gottes, die Geistseele, zuteil. Dies ist das
f
Gemeinsame, das alle Menschen umschließt und sie
heraus- und emporhebt über all das, was sonst noch
auf der Erde lebt. Aber andererseits können wir uns
doch in bezug auf den Ursprung des Körperhaften
der Wucht entwicklungsgeschichtlicher Gedanken
nicht verschließen. Bei aller körperlichen Verschieden-
heit, die Mensch und Menschenaffen in vielen Merk-
malen aufweisen, ist doch die Ähnlichkeit, ja manch-
mal sogar die Übereinstimmung von morphologischen
(Bau) und physiologischen (Funktion) Eigenschaften
bei ihnen ein Hinweis dafür, daß beide Formen ihren
Ursprung in einer gemeinsamen Stammesform gehabt
haben, von der aus die beiden Zweige sich nach ver-
schiedenen Richtungen hin zu mannigfachster Form-
gestaltung entwickelten.
Die zwischen Menschen und Menschenaffen liegende
„Zwischenform", das „missing-link", wie es auch
bezeichnet wurde, hat immer wieder den Forschergeist
und -drang der Menschen angeregt. Im Jahre 1892
fand der holländische Arzt Dubois bei Trinil auf Java
in systematischen Ausgrabungen neben einer großen
Anzahl von vorzeitlichen Säugetierknochen auch Bruch-
stücke eines Skelettes — ein Schädeldach, zwei Backen-
zähne und einen Oberschenkel — , die er als Reste eines
Zwischengliedes in der Entwicklungsgeschichte der
55
'f ' Jri:JJjiii4i4*^-' .
'J.
K ' '
H
i
Menschheit ansah. Der Fund wurde von ihm daher
auch als Pithecanthropus erectus, der aufrecht gehende
Affenmensch, bezeichnet. Nach den Forschungen von
HansWeinert hat das Schädeldach, die Kalotte, weder
die Merkmale der heutigen Großaffen noch die des
Menschen, sondern zeigt einen deutlichen Übergangs-
charakter, auch in der Größe der verschiedenen Maße,
die zwischen denen von Schimpanse und Mensch stehen.
Der Javafund ist nicht der letzte Rest einer vielleicht
ausgestorbenen Affenart, sondern weist schon ganz
deutlich zur menschlichen Entwicklung hin. Die hier
gezogenen Schlüsse finden eine glänzende Bestätigung
durch neue in jüngster Zeit hinzugekommene Funde.
Neben Zähnen und anderen Knochenbruchstücken
wurden im Jahre 1929 und 1930 in der Nähe von
Peking zwei Kalotten ausgegraben, die eine so auf-
fallende und überraschende Ähnlichkeit mit dem
Javafund aufweisen, daß man mit Recht auf eine
Verwandtschaft des Sinanthropus pekinensis — so
heißt dieser neue Fund — mit dem Pithecanthropus
erectus schließen darf. Allerdings deuten die chine-
sischen Funde in der Stu-nwölbung und der Kapsel-j
große darauf hin, daß diese Vormenschen entwick-
lungsgeschichtlich wohl etwas höher standen als der]
Pithecanthropus erectus.
Welche Überraschung war es für die wissenschaft-
liche Welt, als in den gleichen Schichten, in denen man
56
I
die Reste dieser Vormenschen entdeckt hatte, man
auch Reste menschlicher Kultur feststellen konnte.
Die ausgedehnten Feuerstellen sind uns, wie Abbe
H. Breuil hervorhebt, ein Beweis dafür, daß die
Menschen der damaligen Zeit es verstanden haben,
das einmal angezündete Feuer über lange Zeiten
hindurch zu erhalten, eine Leistung, die schon hohe
menschliche Fähigkeiten voraussetzt. Ebenso deuten
die teilweise zwar noch groben, aber teilweise doch
schon recht kunstvoll hergestellten Steinwerkzeuge,
die man neben den menschlichen Knochenresten fand,
auf das Vorhandensein einer spezifisch menschlichen
Kultur hin. Pithecanthropus erectus und Sinan-
thropus pekinensis sind wirkliche Vor mens chen
gewesen, denen der Rasseforscher v. Eickstedt daher
auch den gemeinsamen Namen Praehomo asiaticus
(asiatischer Vormensch) geben möchte.
Aber auch in Europa haben wir einen Fund, der
uns das Eine jedenfalls wissen läßt, daß auch hier in
einer der früheren Zwischeneiszeiten ein Vormensch,
ein Praehomo europaeus gelebt hat. Leider ist es nur
ein allerdings vorzüghch erhaltener Unterkiefer, den
man im Jahre 1907 in den ,, Sauden von Mauer" bei
Heidelberg fand. Es wurde daher der Name Homo
heidelbergensis gewählt. Der Unterkiefer ist recht
primitiv, besonders in seinen aufsteigenden Ästen
äußerst plump und massig; ein ausgebildetes Kinn
57
■m»^..
:ir:'f'i=ir^rmmrf^ ■'
^
i
:fi
I !
;
ii <
fehlt völlig. Das Gebiß dagegen zeigt keineswegs
äf fische, sondern eine rein menschliche Form. Irgend-
welche Werkzeuge, die uns einen Rückschluß auf die
mögliche Kultur des europäischen Vormenschen er-
lauben, hat man nicht gefunden.
Das sind die wenigen, aber doch aufschlußreichen
Reste, die uns von den vor Jahrzehntausenden leben-
den Vormenschen Kunde geben. Wer folgte diesen
Vormenschen ?
Das Provinzialmuseum zu Bonn birgt einen vom
rassekundlichen Standpunkt kostbaren Schatz, der
nicht nur von Wissenschaftlern eingehend studiert
worden ist, sondern den auch jeder gebildete Mensch
nicht ohne Staunen betrachtet. Die dunkel gefärbten
Knochenbruchstücke, deren Hauptstück ein gut er-
haltenes Schädeldach ist, sind die letzten Reste des
ältesten uns bekannten Menschen auf ejiropäischem
Boden, den man nach der Fundstelle als Homo ne-
andertalensis, Neandertaler, bezeichnet hat. Im Jahre
1856 waren diese Skelettreste beim Ausräumen einer
Höhle im Neandertal zwischen Düsseldorf und Elber-
feld in den Kalkschichten der Höhle gefunden worden.
Wenn auch nicht sogleich ihr Wert und ihre Bedeutung
allseitig anerkannt wurden, wenn auch von wissen-
schaftlicher Seite her zunächst Zweifel geltend ge-
macht wurden, ob es sich tatsächlich um Reste eines
prähistorischen Menschen aus der Frühzeit der
58
Menschheit überhaupt handele, so bestätigten doch
spätere, in den Schädel- und Knochenformen gleich-
artige Funde, bei denen das geologische Alter ein-
wandfrei festgestellt werden konnte, daß wir tatsäch-
lich in dem Fund von Neandertal — wie auch in den
übrigen Funden — letzte Reste einer Menschenart
vor uns haben, die wahrscheinlich vor mehreren
Jahrzehntausenden besonders im Westen von Mittel-
und Südeuropa gelebt hat. Die ganze Formengruppe
wird nach dem ersten Fund als Neandertalerrasse
bezeichnet.
Wie sah nun dieser Urmensch, der Neandertaler
aus ? Erhalten sind uns natürlich nur Knochenreste,
bei manchen Funden sogar nur Schädel oder Schädel-
bruchstücke, aber das doch alles in einer verhältnis-
mäßig so großen Zahl, daß wir uns ein zuverlässiges
Bild von dem Skelettbau des Neandertaler als Typ
machen können. Der Kopf ist, nicht nur im Ver-
hältnis zum übrigen Körper, sondern auch absolut
genommen, sehr groß; besonders der untere Teil des
Gesichtes, die Mundpartie und der sehr massige Unter-
kiefer tragen zu der Größe des Kopfes bei. Der Ge-
(hirnschädel dagegen ist verhältnismäßig klein. Also
gerade umgekehrt wie beim modernen Menschen, wo
ein Wachstum des Gehirnschädels auf Kosten des
Gesichtsschädels und besonders der Kiefer erfolgt ist.
l Der Schädel ist auffallend flach und niedrig, die
59
,^utiU^I)*!MifUbltt^^ifiäf
Ml
1« 1
i;'
Stirn fliehend mit starken Überaugenwülsten; das
Hinterhaupt ist weit ausgezogen. Die Augenhöhlen
sind groß und oft rund. Die Nasenwurzel ist breit,
so daß die Augen ziemlich weit auseinander gestanden
haben müssen. Groß und breit sind auch die knö-
chernen Nasenöffnungen. Ober- und Unterkiefer
springen vor; dagegen ist das massige Kinn meist
fliehend. Nach der Größe seiner Oberschenkel und
besonders der Unterschenkel zu urteilen, gehörte der.
Neandertaler zu einer kleinwüchsigen, plump ge-|
bauten Rasse.
Versucht man nun, über das rekonstruierbare
Skelett hinaus sich vorzustellen, wie der Neander-
taler als lebender Mensch ausgesehen haben mag,
so ist man in hohem Maße auf Vermutungen und
Phantasie angewiesen. Denn einen „Neandertaler"
unter den modernen Menschen gibt es ja nicht mehr,
wenn auch einzelne Merkmale bei manchen primi-
tiven Rassen, ja sogar manchmal bei einem einzelnen
Individuum innerhalb Europas anzutreffen sind.
Immerhin weisen einige besonders primitive Stämme
auf Melanesien eine auffallende Ähnlichkeit in der!
Schädel- und Gesichtsbildung mit der des Neander-
talers auf. Da man bei diesen jetzt lebenden Melane-
siern die Dicke der auf den Knochen liegenden Weich-
teile genau kennt, hat man versucht, nach diesen
Vorbildern die Weichteile des Neandertalers plastisch
60
I
I
■j hf
zu rekonstruieren. All das, was wir vorher auf Grund
des Skelettschädels über den Neandertaler haben
aussagen müssen, könnte man bei der Betrachtung
einer solchen plastischen Rekonstruktion wieder-
holen. Man muß zugeben, daß Gesicht und Schädel
ausgesprochen primitiv wirken; der moderne Mensch,
auch der sogenannte ,, Primitive" sieht anders aus.
Aber trotzdem ist das Ganze doch menschenähnlich.
Es ist nicht etwa eine ausgesprochene oder auch nur
affenähnhche Affenform, die uns in dem Skelett des
Neandertalers erhalten ist, sondern ein voller und
ganzer, allerdings in den Körperformen primitiver
Mensch, der, wie v. Eickstedt hervorhebt, einer Formen -
gruppe angehörte, ,,die sowohl entwicklungsgeschicht-
lich wie geographisch in eine Sackgasse geraten war
und der die Weiterentwicklung durch nachdrängende
höher differenzierte Hominiden abgeschnitten wurde".
Daß der Neandertaler ein echter Mensch war,
folgt unzweifelhaft aus bestimmten Zeichen, die uns
die Kultur der Zeit verraten. Wir finden Wohn-
stätten mit deutlichen Feuerstellen, echten Werk-
zeugen, zumeist aus Feuerstein, die als Hammer,
Messer, Schaber, Bohrer gedient haben mögen, ja
ganze Steinschlägerwerkstätten in voller Ausrüstung.
Von wem ist die Neandertalrasse verdrängt worden ?
Es sind im wesenthchen zwei Hauptrassen, die in
Europa in der Jungsteinzeit gelebt haben und mit
• 61
dem Neandertaler zusammen drei aufeinanderfolgende
/{Entwicklungsstufen darstellen: die Aurignac -Rasse
■^und die Cro-Magnon-Rasse. Die Aurignac -Rasse hat
ihren Namen nach der geologischen Erdperiode (Aurig-
nacien), in der die ersten dieser Schädelfunde lagerten.
Sie wird auch oft als Brünn-Rasse bezeichnet, nach
dem Fundort einiger besonders typischer Schädel.
Der französische Fundort Cro-Magnon im V^zeretal,
aus dem fünf Skelette einer von der Aurignac -Rasse
abweichenden Rasse stammen, gab der zweiten Haupt -
rasse ihren Namen. Beide Rassen zeigen viele Merk-
male, die wir jetzt noch bei modernen, rezenten
Menschen finden, wenn auch gerade bei der Aurignac -
Rasse manches typische Übergangsform aufweist.
So ist z. B. die Stirn etwas fliehend mit leichten
Augenbrauenbögen. Aber es ist alles nicht so grob
und plump wie beim Neandertaler. Der Schädel ist
auffallend schmal, dabei aber sehr lang, was dem
ganzen Bild etwas Graziles gibt. Dem entspricht
auch der viel zartere und feinere Körperbau der
Aurignac -Rasse. — Der Cro-Magnon-Mensch dagegen
gehört einer gröberen, starkknochigen und dabei
hochwüchsigen Rasse an. Sein Schädel ist groß und
wuchtig, mit steil aufsteigender Stirn und breitem,
niedrigem Gesicht. Beiden Rassen gemeinsam ist die
vom Neandertaler völlig abweichende Augenhöhlen-
bildung, die nicht mehr rund, sondern niedriger und
62
■W?m¥h}frfffJ'fi'Ji/fffpt
eckiger, beim Cro-Magnon-Menschen ausgesprochen
breit -rechteckig wird. Die Nase ist schmal mit hohem
Nasenrücken und schmalen Nasenöffnungen. Das
Kinn ist nicht fliehend, wenn auch nicht immer aus-
gesprochen vorspringend.
Im ganzen betrachtet ähneln diese beiden jung-
steinzeitlichen Menschenrassen sehr stark dem rezenten
Menschen, so daß wir sie wohl sicherlich mit Recht
als direkte Vorfahren unserer heutigen Menschenform
ansehen dürfen. Besonders den Cro-Magnon -Typ
findet man auch jetzt noch in ähnlicher Form in
Skandinavien (,,dalische" Rasse), in Nord Westdeutsch-
land (Westfalen, ,,fälische'' Rasse) und an der Küste
des Atlantischen Ozeans bis herunter nach Nordwest-
afrika und den Canarischen Inseln, bei den heutigen
Nachkommen der ehemaligen Guanchenbevölkerung.
Ob aus dieser Cro-Magnon-Rasse durch Umbildung
unsere heutige nordische Rasse entstanden ist — ein
Standpunkt, den u. a. der Rasseforscher Eugen Fischer
vertritt — oder ob die Cro-Magnon-Rasse verdrängt
worden ist von einer ihr rassisch zwar verwandten,
aber nicht aus ihr biologisch hervorgegangenen Rasse,
einer neuen Menschenwelle, die von Osten her nach
Europa hereinflutete — eine Ansicht, die von dem
Rasseforscher Egon von Eickstedt vertreten wird —
darüber läßt sich vorläufig noch keine Entscheidung
treffen. Wie dem aber auch sei: sicherlich weisen die
)
63
r„Hff'!'*'^f'^n^'^^
nordische Rasse und die auf die Cro-Magnon-Rasse
zurückzuführende dalo-fälische Rasse eine Reihe von
verwandten Merkmalen auf. Bevor wir aber auf
diese europäischen Rassen der Jetztzeit eingehen,
wollen wir versuchen, ein Bild von der Rassenein-
teilung auf der Erde überhaupt zu gewinnen.
IV. Von den Menschenrassen der Gegen-
wart.
64
5 Mackermann, Basaenkunde.
müf' 'i"illilMliJgMiiiili
"iäsUS&iuaa, -.
:!rmifmW^
$:
l'l
ll! I'
■i
vi-
Nicht nur Europa, sondern beinahe die ganze
Welt lebt im Zeitalter des Schnellverkehrs. Dampf-
schiff, Eisenbahn, Automobil und besonders Flugzeug
überbrücken Zeit und Raum. In wenigen Tagen,
oft schon nach Stunden befinden wir uns in Gegenden
und Gebieten, die nicht nur landschaftlich, sondern
auch rassisch ein anderes Gesicht zeigen als die uns
so vertraute Heimat. Die Gegensätze treten um so
schärfer hervor, weil wir die Übergangsformen bei
dem schnellen Durcheilen gar nicht oder kaum be-
achtet haben. Einem Wanderer, der trotz Eisenbahn
und Flugzeug in monate- und jahrelangem Wandern
die Erde zu Fuß durchstreifen würde, würde sich
ganz allmählich das äußere Bild der Menschen ver-
schieben. Am Ende jedes durchwanderten Tages
könnte er wohl schwerlich wesentliche Unterschiede
der Züge und der Eigenart der Menschen gegenüber
dem vorhergehenden Tage angeben. Aber auch er
müßte am Ende seiner Wanderung, die ihn vom
Norden Europas bis zum Süden Afrikas, oder vom
Westen Europas bis zum Osten von Asien geführt hat,
feststellen, daß trotz der allmählichen Übergänge das
rassische Bild ein anderes geworden ist : in Europa im
allgemeinen hellhäutige Menschen, in Afrika die schwarze
Rasse, im Osten von Asien die gelben Mongoliden.
In frühesten prähistorischen Zeiten, wohl Jahr-
zehntausende zurückliegend, ist der Zerfall der Mensch-
Ä*
67
■^
V
I
wrfi.
v*.'*?^?.' ' ^ ' ' fr-' 7/f?f.^^ /• -yfyt-'^.'/.'VVV;/ "■'r?^
iii
'\^ ■
I
heit in die verschiedenen Rassen eingetreten. Die
eiszeitlichen und zwischeneiszeitlichen Veränderungen
der Urheimat der Menschen, des heutigen Hochasiens,
zwangen Tier- und Menschenwelt, in die günstigeren
Randgebiete von Zentralasien abzuwandern. Das
geschah ganz allmählich. Es war nicht ein eigent-
liches Wandern, sondern mehr ein Absickern, ein
• Schieben und Geschobenwerden. Zentralasien wurdet
so zu einer Rassenscheide der Menschheit überhaupt;)
denn in den voneinander isolierten Randgebieten
entwickelten sich die verschiedenen Zweige der Vor-
und Frühmenschheit nach den verschiedensten Rich-
tungen hin und schoben sich von dort aus in die vor
ihnen liegenden offenen Gebiete: nach Osten die
Ostmenschheit, die sich zum späteren mongoliden
Rassenkreis entwickelte; nach Westen, europawärts,
die Nordmenschheit, der spätere europide Rassen-
kreis; nach Süden die Südmenschheit, aus der der
negride Rassenkreis entstand. Überblicken wir die
heutige Menschheit, so können wir drei, in ihren
wesentlichen Merkmalen weitgehend von einander
unterschiedene Hauptstämme der Menschen aufweisen :
die Europiden, die Mongoliden, die Negriden, otiA
auch als weiße, gelbe und schwarze Rasse bezeichnet.*
Die von den Randgebieten Zentralasiens aus nach
den verschiedenen Himmelsrichtungen sich ausbrei-
tenden, in hohem Maße entwicklungsfähigen Rassen
68
^Hmimtff^m^^
schoben die älteren primitiven Rassen vor sich her
und verdrängten sie in unwirtliche Lebensräume,
bis in die Randgebiete der Kontinente, wo sie zum
Teil immer mehr zerfielen und untergingen, oder wo
sie noch heute als Primitivrassen, die die Entwicklung
zu höher spezialisierten Formen nicht durchgemacht
haben, anzutreffen sind: in den Urwalddschungeln
von Vorderindien und auf Ceylon die Sonderform der
* weißen Rasse : die in ihren Körperformen primitiv
und kindlich wirkenden Weddiden; in den Tropen-
Wäldern Afrikas und auf der Inselwelt zwischen
[ Hinterindien und Australien die zwerghaften West-
' und Ostpygmiden als Sonderform der schwarzen
Rasse; im Norden, in Grönland, auf Labrador und in
Alaska als Sonderform der gelben Rasse die Eskimiden.
Bei dem langsamen Vorschieben der drei Haupt-
stämme, das sich in Jahrtausenden und Jahrzehn-
tausenden abgespielt hat, gliederten sich nun diese
Hauptstämme auch noch in Tochterrassen, die sich
dann unabhängig von den Hauptrassen in getrennten
Wohngebieten weiter differenzierten, allerdings lange
nicht in dem Maße, wie das bei den Hauptrassen
geschah, v. Eickstedt, dem wir diese Rasseneinteilung
verdanken, nennt als jetzt noch lebende Sonderformen
/f die Polynesiden z. B. auf den Philippinen, die in vielen ,
Merkmalen Ähnlichkeit mit den Europiden aufweisen, 1 1
-J^ die Melanesiden z. B. auf Neu- Guinea als Sonderform
69
'i
\ i
c r
i>
und Verwandte der Negriden, und, ab So^dStS^T /?^
der MongoUden, die Indianiden, die von Asien ausJ
auf der damals noch bestehenden Landbrücke nach
Amerika gekommen sind und dort die beiden Erd-
teile bevölkert haben.
Als Zwischen- oder Übergangsformen der Haupt-
rassen, die neben wesentlichen Merkmalen der einen
Hauptrasse auch Merkmale einer anderen Hauptrasse in
sich harmonisch vereinigen, sind die den Europiden
I ähnelnden Ainuiden, die den Negriden ähnelnden
Australiden und die Khoisaniden (Hottentotten und
, Buschmänner) des mongoliden Hauptstammes zu
nennen. Auch diese Rassen sind wenig spezialisierte
Altformen, denen die innere Entwicklungsfähigkeit
femte, und die daher noch jetzt die primitiven Merk-
male der Menschheit in hohem Grade aufweisen. Dies
gut besonders für die Australiden. Diese Rassen
wurden genau so wie die vorher genannten Sonder-
formen von den höher differenzierten, entwicklungs-
fähigen Rassen in die äußersten Gegenden der Kon-
tinente verdrängt: die Ainuiden leben heute in Nord-
ostasien auf den Inseln Jasso und SachaUn- die
AustraUden in Australien, dem vom Zentralgebiet
Asiens weit entfernten bewohnbaren Teil der südlichen
Halbkugel; die Khoisaniden in den Rückzugs- und
Bandgebieten im Südwesten Afrika«.
Der Druck, der von frühesten Zeiten her auf die
70
primitiven Alt- und Randformen der Menschheit
ausgeübt wurde und sie teilweise zerbröckelte und
untergehen ließ, hat sich in historischen Zeiten fort-
gesetzt. Es sind nicht nur, wie so oft behauptet wird,
die Europäer gewesen, die in brutalster Weise zum
Aussterben der primitiven Rassen beigetragen haben
und noch beitragen. Immer wieder sehen wir es,
/ daß die höher spezialisierte und differenzierte Rasse \\
die neben ihr lebende primitive Rasse als nicht gleich- '
berechtigt, als niedere Wesen, verfolgt und in ungün-
stigste Wohngebiete abdrängt und ihr damit Lebens-
raum und Lebensmöglichkeit nimmt. Das geschieht
in allen Gebieten, wo höher differenzierte Rassen mit
niederen zusammenstoßen: ich nenne als Beispiele
nur die Weddas auf Ceylon, die von den Singhalesen
unterdrückt und teilweise ausgerottet wurden, oder
j die Pygmäen Afrikas, die vor den Verfolgungen der
' Neger in die Urwälder flohen. Zahlenmäßig bilden
diese Alt- und Randformen, aber auch die Neben-
rassen der Polynesiden, Melanesiden und Indianiden
einen ganz geringen Bruchteil der jetzigen Bevölkerung
der Erde. Dem Raum und der Zahl nach nehmen
die drei Hauptstämme der Europiden, der Mongoliden
und der Negriden den größten Teil der Erde ein.
Ihnen woUen wir uns daher jetzt zuwenden. Welches
sind die jeder der drei Hauptrassen gemeinsamen
charakteristischen erblichen Merkmale, die die Träger
71
^^
li!
■ J-r->x.,.^-liJ.-)g-Tlfc.K.y^. >■>»., ■
.■mm^fiM^^i
n
t-^
i. >
Vi
i
V
i\
je einer Hauptrasse untereinander verbinden und sie
gleichzeitig von den beiden anderen Hauptrassen
grundlegend unterscheiden ?
Nach dem Stande der Forschung sind es bis jetzt
^ nur körperliche, nicht seelische Merkmale, die jeg-
licher Rasseneinteilung zugrunde liegen, und die in
bestimmter Kombination bei den einzelnen Rassen
auftreten. So sehen wir den meist kurzköpfigen
Mongoliden mit gelbUcher und dicker Haut, unter
der das Wangenrot nicht durchschimmert, mit straffem
schwarzen Haar, das einen fast quadratischen Quer-
schnitt mit abgerundeten Ecken aufweist und senk-
recht in der Kopfhaut sitzt. Die knöchernen Augen-
höhlen sind groß. Dagegen findet man äußerlich oft
eme enge Augenspalte und starke Schlitzung der
äußeren Augenwinkel, während der innere Augen-
winkel die charakteristische Mongolenfalte zeigt. Die
Nasenwurzel ist im allgemeinen breit, wie auch der
flache und niedrige Nasenrücken. Das Gesicht wirkt
breit und flach durch die hohen Wangenbeine und die
breiten Backenknochen. Sehr oft zeigt sich auch ein
leichtes Vorspringen der Kiefer, besonders der Ober-
kiefer, eine Prognathie. Die Körpergestalt ist meist
breit und untersetzt.
Ist die charakteristische Hautfarbe bei den Mon-
goliden eine gelbliche, so bei den Negriden eine hell-
bis dunkelbräunliche, manchmal sogar fast echwarz-
72
T
^':\tfp'
braune. Das Haar ist dunkel und sehr kraus, oft eng
spiralgedreht, eine Drehung, die sich noch unter der
Haut bis zur Haarwurzel fortsetzt. Der Querschnitt
des Haares ist ein schmales Oval. Die Nasenwurzel
ist niedrig; der Nasenrücken springt nicht vor. Die
Nase ist breit und rundkuppig mit geblähten Flügeln.
Die Nasenlöcher sind groß und quer gestellt. Die Pro-
gnathie ist ziemlich stark ausgebildet. Die Lippen
sind aufgeworfen und wulstig, so daß auch die Schleim-
hautlippe zu sehen ist. Die Negriden wirken durch
ihre besonders langen unteren Gliedmaßen im allge-
meinen groß. Unterarme und Unterschenkel fallen
durch ihre Länge auf. Im Gegensatz zu Mongoliden
und Europiden ist das Becken sehr schmal.
Gelbe und braune Pigmentierung in der Ausbildung,
wie sie Mongolide und Negride haben, fehlen bei den
Europiden. Ihre Haut ist, besonders bei den Euro-
piden der nördlichen und der mittleren Zone, meist
hellfarbig und dünn, so daß das Wangenrot durch-
scheint. Das blonde bis braune, in der südlichen Zone
bis schwarzbraune Haar ist schlicht, manchmal lockig
und leicht kraus, aber nie so wie das der Negriden.
Der Querschnitt ist rund bis breit oval ; das Haar sitzt
schräg in der Kopfhaut. Die Augen haben meist
eine hellere Farbe als die der beiden anderen Rassen.
Die Nase ist hoch und schmalrückig ; verglichen mit
der der Mongoliden und Negriden auch bei den euro-
73
/
o
K^
/
\ llli
me««
r
piden Unterrassen, die man als flach- und breitnasig
zu bezeichnen pflegt. Die Gestalt ist nicht so breit
wie die der Mongoliden; die Körperproportionen,
d. h. das Verhältnis der Gliedmassen zu dem übrigen
Körper ist ein anderes als bei den Negriden.
Das sind die Eigenschaften, die wir jeder der drei
Hauptrassen als Ganzes wohl zuschreiben dürfen.
Wir müssen uns dabei aber immer klar sein, daß die
Möglichkeit zu gleichartigen Mutationen allen Rassen
gegeben ist, wenn auch die Mutationsfähigkeit, die
Mutabihtät, für die einzelnen Eigenschaften bei den
verschiedenen Rassen eine verschiedene sein mag.
Anderseits besteht für alle Eigenschaften eine gewisse
Variationsbreite, die bald größer, bald geringer ist.
Beide Faktoren, die allen Rassen gegebene Muta-
tionsmöglichkeit und die VariabiUtät der Eigenschaften,
können es mit sich bringen, daß einzelne Individuen
in dem einen oder anderen Merkmal auch ohne Rassen-
mischung in die Variationsbreite der anderen Rasse
fallen.
Die den einzelnen Hauptstämmen innewohnende
Mutationsfähigkeit hat nun in Verbindung mit anderen
Faktoren, insbesondere mit geographischer Isolation
u^d scharfer Auslese, dazu geführt, daß im Lauf
der jahrtausendlangen Entwicklung die Hauptrassen
sich in eine Reihe von Unterrassen gegliedert haben,
die zwar im wesentüchen die charakteristischen Merk-
74
M
"<
male ihrer Hauptrassen aufweisen, aber sich doch in
einer größeren Anzahl von erblichen körperlichen
und — wie man wohl berechtigt ist, zu sagen — auch
geistigen Eigenschaften so wesentlich voneinander
unterscheiden, daß man sie als echte Rassen be-
zeichnen muß.
Der mongolide Rassenkreis in der Osthälfte Asiens
zerfällt in eine nördliche und südliche Form. Die
südlichere wird von den primitiveren Palämongoliden
im südlichen China eingenommen, die in der mon-
goliden Rassenentwicklung am weitesten zurück-
geblieben sind. In der nördlichen Zone ist bei den
Tungiden besonders in den nördlichen Randgebieten
der Wüste Gobi am stärksten die vorher geschilderte
mongolide Eigenart ausgeprägt. Die im nördlichen
China lebenden Siniden zeigen eine abgeschwächte
Form dieses Mongolidentypus. Als europide Über-
gangsform sind die Sibiriden am Nordwest- und Nord-
ostrand des bewohnten Asiens zu nennen, eine Rasse
mit zwar starken mongoliden Merkmalen, die aber
sicherlich europiden Einschlag aufweist. Als Neben-
rassen der Mongoliden leben und besonders lebten
vor der Eroberung Amerikas durch die Europäer die
Indianiden in Nord- und Südamerika, die in einer
Reihe von Merkmalen — z. B. Haut- und Haarfarbe,
Haarform, Augenform, vorspringende Backenknochen
— eine auffallende Ähnlichkeit mit den Mongoliden
75
tt
zeigen, aber in anderen Eigenschaften, z. B. in der ver
h&Itnismäßig hohen Nasenwtirzel, die sich in einem!
hohen und kräftigen, oft adlerförmigen Nasenrücken!
fortsetzt, oder in der sogenannten „Indianerfalte" '
deuthch ihre Sonderbildung verraten. Bei aller ras'
sischen Verwandtschaft, die die noch verhältnismäßig
junge Rasse der Indianiden aufweist, lassen sich doch
schon verschiedene Unterrassen voneinander scheiden
Der negride Rassenkreis umfaßt zunächst die
tropsche Altform der Urwaldneger Zentralafrikas, die
Palanegriden. Als jüngere spezialisierte Formen gelten
che Graslandneger, die wiederum in drei Unterrassen
^erfaUen: die Urbewohner am oberen Ml (die nüotide
Rasse), sodann die Bantuneger (bantuide Rasse)
und d,e Neger des Sudan (sudanide Rasse). Eine Ver-
bmdung zu den Europiden steUt die Zwischenform
^der 4th,pper. dar, die neben starken negriden Merk-
malen deutlich europide Züge zeigt. Die gleichfalls in
^üca ebenden Alt- und Randformen der Pygmiden
und Khommden sind schon zu Anfang dieses Ka-
pitels erwähnt. Als außerafrikanische negride Form
y^sea auf die M;,lanidenJ„ Indien sowie auf die schon
<^vorher genannte Sonderform der Melanesiden auf
^JNeu-Cuinea hingewiesen.
Weitaus am eingehendsten durchforscht ist der
europde Rassenkreis, der seinen Wohnsitz allerdings
nicht auf Europa beschränkt, sondern nach Süden
76
'
Vfc-,/y* >.
11
die afrikanischen Randgebiete bis zur Lebensscheide
der Sahara und nach Osten Vorderasien, Vorder-
indien, sowie das Hochland von Turan und die an-
grenzenden Gebiete umfaßt. Im europiden Rassen-
kreis können wir drei Rassengürtel, die im allgemeinen
auch geographischen Zonen entsprechen, unterscheiden.
Im Norden leben die depigmentierten Nordrassen:
die langköpfige nordische oder teutonordische sowie
die ebenfalls langköpfige dalonordische oder fälische
Rasse; außerdem im Osten von Nordeuropa die kurz-
köpf ige hellfarbige osteuropide oder ostbaltische Rasse.
Diesem depigmentierten, teilweise lang-, teilweise
kurzköpfigen Rassengürtel folgt nach Süden der
zentrale dunkelfarbige Kurzkopfgürtel der alpinen
und dinarischen Rassen in Europa, der armeniden
oder vorderasiatischen und turaniden Rassen in Asien.
Ihnen schließen sich im Süden die dunkelhaarigen lang-
köpf igen Südeurasiden an: die Mediterranen haupt-
sächlich in Südeuropa und Nordafrika, die Orientaliden
in Nordafrika und Arabien, die Indiden in Vorder-
indien. Außerhalb Europas lebt die Sonderform der
Polynesiden sowie die verdrängten Alt- und Rand-
formen der Weddiden auf Ceylon und der Ainus in
Ostasien.
77
h
(t
* : ^
! I'
,/
I
V. Die Rassen im deutschen Volk.
■!f^*t*Hfmt»^
i"i
■.■iMf-ti^tiil, i,
ü
1,1'
I
Es sind im wesentlichen Erbströme aus dem euro-
piden Rassenkreis, die dem Antlitz des deutschen
Volkes die ihm typische Prägung und Formung ge-
geben haben. Aus den drei europiden Rassegürteln
haben der hellfarbige nordische Gürtel mit der teuto-
nordischen, der dalonordischen und der ostbaltischen
oder osteuropiden Rasse, sowie der zentrale Kurz-
kopfgürtel mit der alpinen und dinarischen Rasse
den stärksten Anteil im Rassengemisch Deutschlands.
Dazu kommt ein geringer Einschlag der Mediterranen
aus dem südlichen Rassengürtel. Über ganz Deutsch-
land verstreut, in den Städten, besonders in den
Großstädten gehäufter auftretend als auf dem Lande,
treffen wir Juden, die in sich schon eine Rassen-
mischung aus vorwiegend vorderasiatischer und ori-
entalider Rasse sind.
Wie groß ist nun der Anteil, den jede der genannten
Rassen im Rassengemisch Deutschlands hat ?
Ich sage, im Rassengemisch Deutschlands. Von
frühesten historischen Zeiten an, schon in prähi-
storischer Vergangenheit, waren die Rassen Europas,
und damit auch die des heutigen Deutschlands, in
einer zwar oft langsamen, aber ständigen Bewegung
begriffen. Es waren einmal kriegerische Eroberungs-
züge, die die Rassen Europas nord- und südwärts,
nach Westen und nach Osten brachten. In den meisten
Fällen bildeten die das Land einnehmenden Eroberer
I
/
I '.
6 Muckermann, Rassonkunde.
81
il
M'tlti
M
ifflM
l!
>;tte
tl
! i- !
die eigentliche Herrenschicht, die zunächst zwar
wohl die bodenständige, rassisch andersartige Be-
völkerung überlagerte, aber sich dann sehr bald mit
ihr vermischte, sie also keineswegs immer ausrottete
l oder völlig verdrängte. Das Ergebnis war meist eine
Kreuzung und Mischung, ein Ineinanderfließen der
verschiedenen Erbströme, die nunmehr zwischen ge-
meinsamen Ufern oft unauflöslich miteinander ver-
bunden ihren Weg fortsetzten. Aber wirtschaftliche
Verhältnisse, vor allem Raumnot, führten auch zu
einem scheinbar ganz friedlichen Vordringen, zu einer
in zäher, fast könnte man sagen trotziger Arbeit ge-
wonnenen Ausbreitung, zu einem ganz allmählichen
Einsickern in die schon vorhandene Bevölkerung
und dann zu einer naturgemäß eintretenden Rassen-
vermischung. So gesehen, darf man den Satz auf-
stellen, daß schon in frühesten historischen Zeiten
wirklich „reine" Rassen in ganz Europa, also auch
in Deutschland, nicht mehr anzutreffen sind.
Der Prozeß des mehr oder minder langsamen
Einsickerns und der damit verbundenen Rassen-
mischung hat sich bis in die jüngste Gegenwart fort-
I gesetzt, ja er ist gerade durch die moderne Technik
und Zivilisation begünstigt worden. Gab es früher
noch abgeschlossene Gebirgstäler und fern vom Ver-
kehr liegende einsame Dörfer, die in sich geschlossene
Fortpflanzungsgemeinschaften bildeten und zu einer
82
1 1 1
Art von Gautypus führten, so erleichtern die jetzigen
Verkehrsmöglichkeiten ein Hin- und Herfluten nicht
nur der rassisch verschiedenen Einzelindividuen,
sondern auch ganzer Familien und Rassengruppen.
Und damit ist immer, fast möchte man sagen, unaus-
weichlich, Kreuzung und Rassenmischung verbunden.
Es wäre ein hoffnungsloses Unterfangen, wollte '
man versuchen, in dem Rassengemisch Deutschlands
die Erbströme, die von den einzelnen Rassen her im
deutschen Volk zusammengeflossen sind, wieder von-
einander zu scheiden, die ursprünglichen „reinen"
Rassen wieder herzustellen. Ebenso wenig wie eine
Einrassigkeit gibt es im deutschen Volke eine Rein-
rassigkeit. Aber das ist auch nicht das Entscheidende.
Wichtiger und entscheidender ist, daß all die Erb-
ströme, die sich in die Ufer der Umwelt eingeschmiegt
haben, zu einer Heimrassigkeit führten und damit
verbunden zu einem deutschen Volkstum, das wir
schätzen und lieben und daher mit allen uns zu Gebote /
stehenden Mitteln verteidigen werden. Doch davon
später.
Müssen wir also zugeben, daß wirklich reinrassige
Vertreter der einzelnen Rassen, die also nicht nur
äußerlich den Typ der betreffenden Rasse in ihren
sämtlichen körperlichen und seelischen Eigenschaften
offenbaren, sondern die auch reinerbig, homozygot,
für alle diese Eigenschaften sind, nur noch ganz selten
i
6*
83
f^it'til
'"immf^i
'o;
11
in Deutschland leben, daß im großen gesehen mehr
oder minder Mischerbigkeit vorherrscht, so müssen
wir doch andererseits feststellen, daß sich die ver-
schiedenen Stämme innerhalb Deutschlands durch
den verschieden großen Anteil unterscheiden, den die
einzelnen Rassen zum Rassengemisch des betreffenden
Gebietes beigetragen haben. So besteht z. B. keinerlei
Zweifel, daß der Anteil der nordischen Rasse in Nord-
und Nordwestdeutschland größer ist als in den Alpen-
gebieten oder Schlesien.
Aus dem gehäuften Auftreten gleichartiger Merk-
male, die zu ganz bestimmten Typen, Rassetjrpen,
führen, können wir uns mit mehr oder weniger großer
Sicherheit ein Bild all der Eigenschaften zusammen-
stellen, die für die reine Rasse charakteristisch sein
dürften, auch wenn wir nur in seltenen Fällen das
Glück haben, Trägern all dieser Eigenschaften zu
begegnen.
Charakteristisch für den nordischen Menschen
ist der hohe und schlanke Wuchs, der besonders durch
die Länge der Gliedmaßen bei verhältnismäßig kurzem
Rumpf bedingt ist. Die Körpergröße wird im Durch-
schnitt mit 1,73 Meter für den Mann angegeben.
Der Schädel ist schmal und lang. Das Hinterhaupt
ladet weit und rund aus, so daß die Profillinie nach
rückwärts gebogen erscheint und sich über den deut-
lich abhebbaren Hals und Nacken weit ausschwingt.
84'
Der Längen-Breiten-Index beträgt im Mittel 76
bis 79. Die Gesichtsform ist ein langes und schmales
Oval infolge der schmalen Stirn und der nicht vor-
springenden Backenknochen, die sich von hinten nach
vorn verjüngen und dadurch die Wangen besonders
schmal erscheinen lassen. Dazu kommt ein scharf
vorspringendes Kinn. Die Augen sind tief gebettet.
Stirn- oder Scheitelhöcker sind nicht vorhanden.
Unter einer leicht fliehenden, aber nicht gewölbten
Stirn springt die Nase mit hoher Nasenwurzel hervor.
Die Nasenbeine stehen spitz dachförmig gegenein-
ander. Die Nase ist schmal, mit geradem Rücken,
zeigt aber nicht selten an der Knochen -Knorpelgrenze
einen kleinen Höcker, ohne damit ihre vorwiegend
gerade Form zu verlieren. Die Nasenlöcher sind eng
und stehen senkrecht zum Gesicht. Die sehr schmalen,
oft zusammengepreßten Lippen lassen wenig Lippen-
rot sichtbar werden. Kennzeichnend für die nordische
Rasse ist auch ihre Pigmentarmut. Die Hautfarbe
ist rosaweiß ; die Dünne der Haut läßt das Wangenrot
durchschimmern. Infolge der Unfähigkeit, genügend
Pigment als Schutz zu bilden, ist die Haut außer-
ordentlich empfindlich gegen Sonnenbestrahlung. Der
nordische Mensch ,, bräunt" nicht, sondern die Haut
rötet sich, verbrennt und bildet Blasen. Das weiche
schlichte bis flachwelJige, in der Kindheit auch lockige
Haar hat eine blonde Farbe, die oft mit einem röt-
85
I
r'
1^1
fl
■11. 'i
! I.
I
« 4 «
liehen Schimmer vermischt ist. Im jugendlichen
Alter gelegentlich weiß- und flachsblond, dunkelt das
Haar meist in der Reifezeit nach zu den verschie-
densten blonden Abschattierungen bis zum Hell-
braun. Der starke, meist gekräuselte oder gelockte
Bart ist im allgemeinen etwas röthcher als das Kopf-
haar. Neben der hohen Gestalt und dem rötlich
blonden Haar wurde von Tacitus in seiner ,, Germania"
auch das blaue Auge des Germanen erwähnt, das oft
strahlend blau erscheint, aber auch blaugraue oder
graue Tönung haben kann. Die vordere Irisschicht
ist annähernd pigmentleer; dies und die Dünnheit
der Haut führen zu dem Blau des Auges.
Die nordische Rasse hat den stärksten Anteil im
Aufbau des deutschen Volkes^ Über ganz Deutsch-
land verbreitet, findet sie sich zahlenmäßig am
häufigsten im Norden und Nordwesten unseres Vater-
landes. Von diesem Haupt Verbreitungsgebiet aus
nimmt die Zahl der nordischen Menschen nach Süd-
westen hin sehr schnell ab : in dem früher zu Deutsch-
land gehörigen Oberelsaß z. B. gab es die geringste
Zahl blonder Menschen. Aber auch nach Süden und
Südosten von Deutschland verringert sich der Anteil,
den der nordische Typ am Aufbau und Gepräge des
Volksganzen hat, in ziemlichem Maße. Nach Osten
hin finden sich zwar in den Küstengebieten der Ostsee,
in Mecklenburg und Pommern, noch verhältnismäßig
86
i\
viel nordische Menschen; doch von einem Vorwiegen
der nordischen Rasse kann man in den Gebieten
östüfiL^dfit JElbe kaum noch sprechen.
Es sind im wesentüchen mehr ebene Landschaften,
die die nordische Rasse zu ihren Wohnsitzen gewählt
hat. Es ist bezeichnend, daß sich auch in Süddeutsch-
land und Österreich größere Gruppen nordisch ge-
prägter Menschen hauptsächlich in den Flußtälern und
in den fruchtbaren ebenen Landstrichen angesiedelt
haben, in den Gebirgen dagegen kaum anzutreffen sinc^.
In dem sonstigen Europa finden sich im Nord-
westen des Kontinents besonders in Schweden und
Dänemark, aber auch in Norwegen, England, Schott-
land und Nord-Frankreich geschlossene Kreise nordisch
bestimmter Menschen, deren Anteil im Volkstypus
nach Süden und Osten schnell abnimmt. Aber auch
hier, im Süden und Osten Europas sind noch Rest-
inseln nordischer Einschläge, die — und das ist charakte-
ristisch für die nordische Rasse — sich in den Ebenen
(z. B. der Po-Ebene) und an den Flußtälern, z. B. der
Weichsel entlang, ausgebreitet haben. Doch kehren
wir zu Deutschland zurück.
Innerhalb des nordischen Blockes in Nordwest-
deutschland, vor allem in Westfalen, läßt sich unschwer
neben dem teutonordischen Menschen der dalonor-
dische oder fälische Mensch herausheben. Die
fälische Rasse weist viele verwandte Züge mit der
87
m
mtif-n
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WPrf
,1
;,' r
jungsteinzeitlichen Cro-Magnon -Rasse auf. Ebenso
wie der nordische ist auch der fälische Mensch von
hohem, dabei aber nicht schlankem Körperbau. „Die
Dalen sind massige Gestalten, ragend und wuchtig",
so kennzeichnet v. Eickstedt sie. Schultern und Hüften
sind breiter als bei dem schlank wirkenden nordischen
Menschen. Die Schädelkapsel ist lang und schmal,
aber im ganzen nicht so hoch wie beim Teutonorden,
da die obere Wölbung flacher verläuft. Das Hinter-
haupt ladet weit aus, aber nicht in runder Wölbung,
sondern eckiger und schwerer. Auch das große Gesicht
ist niedriger und breiter als das des nordischen Menschen.
Die Backenknochen sind stark konturiert, springen
aber nicht etwa vor. Charakteristisch ist das breite
und wuchtige Kinn und die Verbreiterung der Unter-
kieferwinkel, die in Verbindung mit der breiten Stirn
und den breiten Backenknochen dem Gesicht etwas
Rechteckiges verleihen. Die Augen sind in fast recht-
eckigen Augenhöhlen tief eingebettet. Eine verhält-
nismäßig enge Lidspalte und ein eigentümlicher
flacher, fast wagerechter Verlauf der Augenbrauen-
bögen lassen die Augen klein erscheinen. Die Nase ist
weniger kühn und scharf vorspringend, mit breiterer
Nasenwurzel und breiterem, aber geradem Nasen-
rücken, der oft eine stumpfe Spitze aufweist. Auch
die Nasenflügel liegen weniger eng an. Der schmal-
lippige breite Mund betont noch einmal die Breite
88
II
/des Gesichtes. Wie die nordische, gehört auch die
fälische Rasse zu den hellfarbigen mit blauen bis
grauen Augen, blondem, manchmal rötlich blondem,
etwas dickerem Haar und heller, aber weniger dünn-
häutiger Haut.
Das Haupt Verbreitungsgebiet, nach dem die Rasse
auch ihren jetzt allgemein üblichen Namen hat, ist
Westfalen und außerhalb Deutschlands die angren-
zenden Gebiete Hollands. Nach Süden hin findet
sie sich in Nordhessen, nimmt aber dann sehr schnell.
Vi? . .
ebenso wie auch nach Osten hin an Zahl und Einfluß
ab. Auch in Schweden hat man Vertreter dieser als
„dalisch" bezeichneten Rasse gefunden, die ursprüng-
lich ein viel größeres Verbreitungsgebiet besaß und
sich an der Küste des Atlantischen Ozeans bis zu den
Canarischen Inseln hin ausdehnte.
Von den hellfarbigen Rassen des nordeuropidon
Rassenkreises hat die ostbaltische oder osteuro-
pide Rasse bisher am wenigsten zum typischen
Antlitz des deutschen Menschen beigetragen. Sie ist
erst verhältnismäßig spät von Osten her, wo sie in
weiten Gebieten Polens und Weißrußlands ihren
ursprünglichen Sitz hatte, in Deutschland eingewandert
und findet sich auch jetzt noch am häufigsten in den
östlichen Gegenden: in Ostpreußen und Schlesien,
weiter in einigen kleinen Bezirken Mitteldeutschlands,
z. B. in Brandenburg, Sachsen und in der Lausitz.
'lA
i
89
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ii
h I
Aber auch die großstädtische Bevölkerung anderer
Gebiete umfaßt unter den Einwanderern der letzten
Generationen viele Menschen mit osteuropidem Ein-
schlag.
Die Osteuropiden sind von mittelgroßer, unter-
setzter Gestalt, mit breiten Schultern, verhältnis-
mäßig langem Rumpf und kurzen GHedmaßen. Ver-
ghchen mit dem Körper ist der Kopf recht groß, mit
breitem, hinten etwas ausladendem Schädel. Das
Gesicht wirkt auffallend flach, dabei aber doch schwer
und massig, nicht selten eckig, durch die breite Stirn,
die nach außen und vorn vorspringenden Backen-
knochen und die Kiefer. Eine enge, manchmal schräg
stehende Lidspalte trägt zur Kleinheit der Augen bei.
Charakteristisch ist die niedrige und flache Nasen-
wurzel, die in einen breiten Nasenrücken, mit breiten,
etwas geblähten Nasenflügeln übergeht. Die Nase
selbst ist auffallend klein mit stumpfer und aufge-
worfener Spitze. Ebenso wie die Nase ist auch der
Mund breit. Die Hellfarbigkeit ist eine andere als die
der nordischen Rassen. Das meist schUchte Haar ist
ausgesprochen aschblond. Die sehr hellfarbige Haut
hat einen leicht grauen Ton, die Augen eine blaugraue,
graue oder auch weißblaue Färbung.
Verglichen mit der teuto- und dalonordischen
|j Rasse ist die osteuropide in vielen ihrer Merkmale aus-
ligesprochen primitiv, gleichsam stehen geblieben auf
90
einem stammesgeschichtlich älteren Stadium der Ent-
wicklung, so daß man sie den Altformen der Europiden
zuzählt.
Neben der nordischen Rasse hat der mittlere
Gürtel der Alpinen und Dinarier verhältnismäßig
stark zur Formung des deutschen Menschen beige-
tragen, zumal aber durchaus nicht ausschließlich in
Süddeutschland. Beiden Rassen gemeinsam ist die
mehr oder weniger dunkle Tönung und die Kurzköpf ig -
keit. Im übrigen aber bestehen große Unterschiede.
Der derbknochig gebaute alpine Mensch ist bei einer
durchschnittlichen Körpergröße von 1,63 Meter von
kleinem, untersetztem Körperbau, mit verhältnismäßig
langem Rumpf und kurzen Gliedmaßen. Außer-
ordentlich kennzeichnend für ihn ist der rundgewölbte,
breite und kurze Schädel. Der Längen -Breiten -Index
wird mit 85 bis 87 angegeben. Die Wölbung des
Schädels umfaßt den ganzen Kopf, von vorn nach
hinten und auch nach den Seiten zu. Die senkrecht
aufsteigende, nach allen Seiten hin gewölbte Stirn und
die Hinterhauptswölbung entsprechen einander. Das
Hinterhaupt ist über dem Nacken und dem kurzen
gedrungenen Hals nur wenig ausgewölbt. Stirn- und
Scheitelhöcker sind leicht betont. Das Gesicht hat
eine zierlich wirkende, nach unten sich verschmälernde
dreieckige Form mit spitzem unausgesprochenem
Kinn. Dadurch treten gelegentlich die Backenknochen
91
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leicht hervor, aber nie in dem Maße wie bei der osteu-
ropiden Rasse. Die kleinen Augen sind nicht tief in
den Augenhöhlen eingebettet, sondern flach nach
vorn stehend. Die Lidspalte ist eng und kurz, manch-
mal außen schräg nach oben gerichtet. Die Nase ist
klein und niedrig mit flacher Nasenwurzel und w^eniger
steil gegeneinander gestellten Nasenbeinen. Der Nasen-
rücken ist, besonders bei den Frauen der alpinen
Rasse, oft leicht konkav mit nach oben gerichteter
Spitze; bei den Männern ist der Nasenrücken meist
gerade, die Spitze verdickt. Ein kleiner Mund mit
vollen Lippen verstärkt besonders bei der Frau den
Eindruck des Kindlich -Weichen, der hauptsächlich durch
das runde Gesicht mit den vollen Wangen hervor-
gerufen wird. Das schlichte, etwas harte und dicke
Haar ist von einem mittleren Kastanienbraun, das
sowohl nach der einen Seite bis zum Hellbraunen
wie nach der anderen Seite bis zum fast Schwarz-
braunen abgetönt sein kann. Doch ist es nie so dunkel
wie bei der dinarischen Rasse oder den Rassen des
europiden Südgürtels. Die Augen sind hellbraun;
aber es finden sich sehr oft auch dunkelgraugrüne
Töne mit braunen Farbflecken auf der Iris oder am
Irisrand. Die Haut ist hell, aber nicht rosa weiß wie
bei der nordischen Rasse, sondern etwas ins Gelblich-
Bräunliche übergehend. Bei Sonnenbestrahlung bräunt
die Haut langsam und gleichmäßig. J
92
Eine Reihe von körperlichen Merkmalen der
alpinen Rasse zeigt einen ausgesprochen kindlichen
oder stammesgeschichtlich primitiven Charakter, beim
Manne weniger als bei der Frau, wie ja überhaupt die
Frauen aller Rassen in der stammesgeschichtlichen
Entwicklung und der individuellen Differenzierung
hinter dem Manne zurückstehen. Auch die alpine
Rasse muß man — mit noch größerem Recht als die
osteuropide — zu den stammesgeschichtlich auf einem
früheren Punkte stehen gebliebenen Altformen der
Europiden rechnen.
Innerhalb Deutschlands hat Südwestdeutschland
und Schlesien, besonders Oberschlesien den stärksten
Einschlag der alpinen Rasse. Meist ist sie allerdings
auch in diesen Gebieten sehr stark mit der nordischen
und dinarischen Rasse gemischt. Nur in den waldigen
Gebirgen einzelner Landschaften, so z. B. in den
nördlichen Teilen des Schwarz waldes, im Fränkischen
Jura und im Bayerischen und Böhmerwald kann man
von einem Vorwiegen der alpinen Rasse sprechen.
Wenn sich auch in Mitteldeutschland noch ein deut-
licher Einschlag dieser Rasse feststellen läßt, so
nimmt er doch nach Norden und Osten hin in immer
stärkerem Maße ab. Außerhalb Deutschlands treffen
wir die alpine Rasse am häufigsten in den Westalpen
und Mittelfrankreich; von dort aus erstreckt sie sich
an der deutsch -französischen Sprachgrenze entlang
93
Ki
M
> I
l . I
bis nach Belgien hin. Mehr oder weniger starke Reste
alpinen Einschlages findet man in der Tschechoslo-
wakei, in Ungarn und in Südpolen; weitere in Nord-
spanien, in der Bretagne und England.
In gewissem Sinne ein Gegenstück zu der alpinen
ist die dinarische Rasse. Groß und hochwüchsig,
von einer durchschnittlichen Körpergröße von 1,73
Meter beim Manne, mit sehr langen Beinen und
schmalem, schlankem Rumpf, dabei aber derbknochig,
so steht der Dinarier vor uns. Auch er gehört, wie
der Alpine, zu den kurzköpfigen Rassen; aber seine
Schädelform ist eine typisch andere. Der Schädel
ist hoch und kurz, mit steil abfallendem Hinterhaupt.
Hinterhaupts- und Nackenlinie bilden im Profil fast
eine Senkrechte. Obgleich der Schädel nicht auf-
fallend breit ist, ist der Längen-Breiten-Index infolge
der Kürze des Schädels doch recht hoch; er wird im
Durchschnitt mit 85 bis 87 angegeben. Entsprechend
der hohen und schlanken Gestalt ist auch das Gresicht
schmal und lang, mit sehr langer Nase und hohem,
etwas abgerundetem Kinn. Die Länge des Gesichtes
wird noch durch verhältnismäßig lange, dabei fleischigef
Ohren betont. Unter einer fast senkrechten Stirn^
springt die Nase mit hoher Nasenwurzel stark und
knochig hervor. Ihre Form ist hakenförmig, vielleicht*'
am besten mit Adlernase zu bezeichnen. Sie gibt
dem Gesicht der Männer etwas außerordentlich Kühnes.
94
;
Der breite Mund hat schmale Lippen, wenn auch nicht
so schmal wie bei der nordischen Rasse. Das dünne
und weiche, schlichte bis lockige Haar ist dunkel-,
fast schwarzbraun. Ebenso haben auch die Augen
einen sehr dunklen Ton, der charakteristisch anders
ist als der der alpinen Rasse. Die an und für sich
bräunliche Haut zeigt eine starke Fähigkeit zur
Pigmentbildung, so daß besonders die sich viel in
freier Luft aufhaltenden Dinarier oft eine tiefe Bräune
aufweisen. Auffallend stark ist der Haar-, wie auch
besonders der Bartwuchs der Dinarier, ein Merkmal,
das man bei den typischen Tiroler Gestalten so oft
findet.
Zeigt die alpine Rasse, besonders in ihren Frauen,
eine Reihe von primitiven Merkmalen, so ist der
Dinarier stammesgeschichtlich am weitesten fortge-
schritten, am stärksten spezialisiert und differenziert.
Das gilt auch für die Frauen, bei denen die für die
dinarische Rasse charakteristischen Merkmale, wenn
auch weniger stark ausgebildet, doch auch immer
wieder auftreten.
Das Hauptverbreitungsgebiet der dinarischen Rasse
innerhalb Deutschlands liegt im Süden und Südosten,
besonders in Bayern südlich der Donau, aber auch
in Schlesien. Nach Westen zu reicht ihr Einfluß
durch die Alpen noch bis in die Schweiz ; nach Norden
und Nordwesten ist er in Nordbayern und Württem-
95
!i'
1
\
1
•1
1*
1
1
berg zwar noch vorhanden, nimmt aber allmählich
zum Main hin immer mehr ab. Nördlich der Mainlinie ]
dürfte sich — abgesehen von einigen wenigen Rest-
bezirken geschlossen eingewanderter Bevölkenings-
gruppen, z. B. in Ostpreußen und Hannover, — kaum
noch ein stärkerer Einschlag der dinarischen Rasse
geltend machen. Das Haupt Verbreitungsgebiet liegt
außerhalb Deutschlands hauptsächlich im Südosten
von Europa, in den Ostalpen, in Tirol, Kärnten und
der Steiermark, in den Dinarischen Alpen, im Balkan
und in den Karpathen.
I Konnten wir die nordische Rasse als eine ausge-
; sprochene Tieflandsrasse bezeichnen, so ist der dem
IDinarier zusagende Lebensraum das waldige Gebirgs-
land. Wo immer er in ebenen Landschaften und Fluß-
tälern anzutreffen ist, ist er stark mit der nordischen,
aber auch der alpinen Rasse gemischt. In dem sich
durch ganz Mitteleuropa hinziehenden breiten Misch-
gürtel dinarischer, nordischer und alpiner Rasse,
dem auch die Osteuropiden nicht fehlen, ist Süd-
deutschland einbegriffen. Die in den mitteleuropä-
ischen Gebirgen liegenden Isolationsgebiete haben
trotz aUer vorher geschilderten Wanderbewegungen
doch zu einer starken Harmonisierung dieser einzelnen
in den Gebirgen getrennt lebenden Rassenmischungen
geführt, so daß wir eine Reihe von charakteristischen
LokaHormen oder Gautypen unterscheiden können,
96
die möglicherweise im Lauf der Jahrhunderte zu
neuen Rassen führen würden, wenn nicht unsere
moderne Technik eine weitere Isolierung und an-
schließende Harmonisierung fast hoffnungslos er-
scheinen läßt.
Weitaus den geringsten Anteil innerhalb des
deutschen Volkes weist die dem südeuropiden Rassen -
gürtel angehörige mediterrano Rasse auf. Ihrem
Körperbau nach ist sie die kleinste, aber auch zier-
lichste der in Europa lebenden Rassen. Die Körper-
größe für den Mann wird im Mittel mit 1,61 Meter
angegeben. Der Körper ist schlank und wohl propor-
tioniert. Bei den Frauen sind die Hüften stärker
betont als bei den übrigen europäischen Rassen. Der
Schädel ist lang und schmal mit einem durchschnitt-
lichen Längen-Breiten-Index von 73, dabei aber
kleiner und zierlicher als der der nordischen Rasse,
ohne das weit ausladende Hinterhaupt. Die Stirn
ist fast senkrecht, nach allen Seiten hin leicht gewölbt.
Auch das Gesicht macht einen besonders grazilen und
zierlichen, sehr regelmäßigen Eindruck. Es ist etwas
niedriger, aber auch schmaler als das der nordischen
Rasse. Die G^sichtsform ist eine ovale. Die Backen-
knochen sind nicht hervorstehend. Auch die Kiefer-
winkel springen nicht vor. Das meist kräftige Kinn
ist oft, besonders bei den Frauen, weich gerundet.
Stirn- und Nasenbein gehen ohne starken Winkel in-
7 Muckerm an n , Rassenkunde.
97
I
I
i'WMiWH.wWPBBnBnEWmf^IWWWwflT^Tf.'fWiJS'f
* I
einander über. Dem zierlichen Gesicht entsprechend
ist auch die Nase kürzer und springt nicht so stark
hervor. Der Nasenrücken dürfte in der Breite zwischen
nordischer und alpiner Rasse liegen. Er verläuft
gerade, manchmal leicht konvex, ohne Höcker bildung.
Die im allgemeinen großen und glänzenden Augen
sind dunkel-, fast schwarzbraun. Auch das reiche und
wellige Haar zeigt eine sehr dunkelbraune, fast schwarze
Färbung, manchmal mit einem leichten rötlichen
Schimmer. Die Augenbrauen sind dicht, die Wimpern
lang. Bei den Frauen der mediterranen Rasse findet
eich oft, manchmal schon in jüngeren Jahren, an-
Ideutungs weise ein kleines Lippenbärtchen, das in
Spanien z. B. zu dem Schönheitsideal der Frau gehört
und daher auch künstlich gepflegt wird. Die leicht
bräunliche Haut nimmt bei Sonnenbestrahlung einen
schönen gleichmäßig braunen, fast bronzefarbenen
Ton an.
In Deutschland findet sich die mediterrane Rasse
nur noch in den in früheren Zeiten von den Römern
besetzt gewesenen Gebieten Westdeutschlands, an
der Mosel und am Rhein, sowie in der Pfalz, beson-
ders aber in der Gegend der alten Kaiserstadt Trier.
Das Hauptverbreitungsgebiet der Rasse liegt außer-
halb Deutschlands, auf der ganzen Pyrenäenhalb-
insel, im südhchen Italien und in den südlichsten
Küstengebieten von Griechenland. Daneben findet
98
11
sie sich sehr stark in den nördlich von der Lebens -
scheide der Sahara liegenden Gebieten Afril^as, von
Ägypten bis nach Marokko hin, teilweise allerdings
gemischt mit Orientali den oder Negriden, weiter im
Südostbalkan und in Rumänien. Im südlichen Teil
von Frankreich sitzt ein geschlossener Block der
Mediterranen, außerdem an der Westküste Englands
in Cornwall und Wales und auf Irland.
Wie schon zu Anfang des Kapitels erwähnt, leben
innerhalb Deutschlands eine Reihe von Juden, die
an sich eine Rassenmischung aus vorwiegend armenider|j
(vorderasiatischer) und orientalider Rasse darstellen
Abgesehen von einzelnen wenigen Familien, die schon
jahrhundertelang innerhalb des deutschen Volkes
leben, ist ihr Hauptbestandteil erst in den ganz letzten
Generationen, ja vielleicht sogar erst in jüngster
Zeit eingewandert, so daß man sie nicht zu den heim-
rassischen Menschen unseres Volkes zählen kann,
sondern sie als fremdrassig bezeichnen muß. Aus
diesem Grunde sei hier, wo es sich um eine Beschreibung
der heimischen Rassen des deutschen Volkes handelt,
von einer Schilderung ihrer körperlichen Merkmale
abgesehen. Erwähnt sei nur, daß die vorderasiatische
Rasse mancherlei Ähnlichkeit mit der dinarischen
Rasse aufweist, ebenso wie die orientalide verwandte
Züge mit der mediterranen hat. Eine Reihe von
Forschern steht daher auf dem Standpunkt, daß
7*
99
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' 1
die dem mittleren europiden Gürtel angehörigen
dinarischen und vorderasiatischen Rassen einerseits,
die dem Südgürtel angehörigen mediterranen und
orientaliden Rassen anderseits je als einem gemein-
samen Stamm entsprossene Schwesterrassen anzu-
sehen sind, die sich in verschiedener Richtung differen-
ziert haben.
Die Einschläge des mongoliden und negriden
Rassenkreises innerhalb der deutschen Heimrassen
sind so geringfügig, daß man nur ab und zu bei einem
einzelnen Individuum dieses oder jenes Merkmal aus
einem der beiden anderen Rassenkreise fesztustellen
vermag. Es sind gleichsam Spritzer, die von den
Heimrassen aufgesaugt wurden, ohne wesentliche
Spuren im AntUtz des Volkes zu hinterlassen.
Alle bis jetzt aufgestellten Rasseneinteilungen,
auch die, der wir hier gefolgt sind, gehen lediglich
auf körperliche, und zwar morphologische Eigen-
schaften, die also den Bau des Körpers betreffen,
zurück. Man darf annehmen, daß auch auf den Ge-
bieten der Physiologie (die die Funktion des Körpers
betrifft) und der Pathologie (die sich auf Dispo-
sitionen, Mißbildungen und Krankheiten bezieht),
Rassenunterschiede bestehen, so daß wir von einer
Rassenphysiologie und einer Rassenpathologie sprechen
können. So stehen auf dem Gebiet der Physiologie
eine Reihe von Blutgruppenforschern auf dem Stand-
100
.■/.■iH'f}M/if{fimfh7diiifit i
'7
•f
punkt, daß die Zugehörigkeit zu einer bestimmten
Blutgruppe (0, A, B oder AB) als Rasseneigenschaft
zu gelten habe. Tatsächlich allerdings finden sich in
sämtlichen Rassen alle vier Blutgruppen. Nur ist die
prozentuale Verteilung bei den verschiedenen Rassen
und Völkern eine verschiedene. In dem eurasiatischen
Kontinent nimmt die Häufigkeit der Blutgruppen 0
und besonders A von Westen und Nordwesten nach
Osten und Süden stark ab, während umgekehrt B
und auch AB zunehmen. Auch auf anderen Ge-
bieten ist es der Forschung bisher nur in ganz
wenigen Fällen gelungen, wirkliche Rassenunter-
schiede, die also nicht auf Umweltfaktoren, wie
Inzucht und Auslese, auf Klima u. ä. zurückgehen,
aufzudecken. So ist es z. B. noch keineswegs einwand-
frei geklärt, ob die gegenüber den anderen Rassen
bei der nordischen Rasse auftretende spätere Ge-
schlechtsreife und das damit verbundene spätere
Altern ausschließlich auf rassisch verschiedenen Erb-
anlagen beruht, ob nicht die Umwelt die Unterschiede
jedenfalls stark mitbedingt.
Aber auch Rassenphysiologie und Rassenpatho-
logie gehören in ihren wesentlichen Zügen dem Gebiete
des rein Körperhaften an. Jede Rasseneinteilung,
die sich auf körperliche Merkmale beschränkt (und
vorläufig wohl auch beschränken .muß), ordnet die
verschiedenen Rassen in ein übersehbares System.
101
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Sie ermöglicht dem ästhetisch eingestellten Betrach-
ter, auf Grund des ihm vorschwebenden Schönheits-
ideals — das übrigens keineswegs für alle Rassen
das gleiche, sondern an sich schon rassisch ver-
schieden ist — Werturteile über die Schönheit der
einzelnen Rassen zu fällen, gleichsam eine Rang-
ordnung aufzustellen. Aber jede solcher Rasseneintei-
lungen bleibt im letzten unbefriedigend, wenn wir
nicht gleichzeitig mit dem äußeren Bild auch die
seelische Eigenart der Rasse, all das, was für die
Zukunft der Rasse und eines Volkes das vielleicht
allein Entscjieidende und Wertvolle ist, miterfassen
können. Leider ist es unmöglich, schon heute Kriterien
aufzustellen, die Rassenunterschiede auf seelischem
Gebiet mit Sicherheit dartun. Wohl behauptet man
z. B. von der nordischen Rasse, daß sie sich durch
eine starke Initiative und durch schöpferische Kraft
auszeichne. Indessen findet man die gleichen Eigen-
schaften auch bei vielen Menschen, deren rasseu-
mäßige Prägung eine andere ist. Wie viele mediterrane
Menschen haben im Laufe der Geschichte gerade
diese Eigenschaft offenbart! Die Geschichte des
römischen Volkes ist Beweis genug. Es ist mir un-
möglich, aus den verschiedenen Beschreibungen der
einzelnen Rassen, die das deutsche Volk zusammen-
setzen, das hier anzudeuten, was charakteristisch sein
soll. So tief ich daran glaube, daß es seelische Eigen-
102
•"ftmamthiMii^
Schäften geben muß, die bei ihrei Abhängigkeit vom
Gehirn in den Kreislauf der Entwicklung einzu-
spannen sind, so ist es doch unmöglich, schon heute
diese seelischen Eigenschaften als solche zu kenn-
zeichnen. Die Schwierigkeit wird um so größer, wenn
man überlegt, in wie weit das Ufer der Umwelt be-
stimmend auf die Äußerungen seelischer Anlagen
eingewirkt haben muß und einwirkt. Ich werde im
nächsten Kapitel auf diese Frage noch zurückkommen.
Fast möchte man versucht sein, zu der geistreichen,
wenn auch nicht sehr scharf gefaßten Theorie eines
Carus zurückzukehren, der vom Geistigen aus die
Rassen zu unterscheiden suchte. Ausgehend von
der Tatsache, daß das deutsche Volk eine Ideal-
gestalt wie Goethe hervorgebracht hat, unterschied
t^rus Tagesvölker und Nachtvölker. Außerdem die
Völker der Dämmerung und zwar die vom Aufgang
und vom Untergang. Als Tagesvölker bezeichnete
er im wesentlichen die Europiden, mit Einschluß
der entsprechenden Völker Asiens. Die Völker der
Nacht sind die Negriden, die kulturell nichts er-
hoffen lassen. Von den Völkern der Dämmerung sind
die Mongoliden in Asien Völker des Aufgangs, die
Mongoliden in Amerika Völker des Unterganges . Wissen
wir sehr viel mehr ? Wissen wir vor allem, ob mit
V JV bestimmten körperlichen Rassemerkmalen seelische
7\ i erblich gegeben verbunden sind?
103
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I (
I
Hier muß ich mich damit bescheiden, jenen Satz
anzuführen, den v. Eickstedt, einer der besten
Kenner der Rassenkunde und Rassengeschichte der
Menschheit, in seinem schon zu Anfang erwähnten,
gerade erschienenen großen gleichnamigen Werk zum
Ausdruck bringt: ,,Sehr bemerkenswert sind auch die
psychischen Eigenschaften der nordischen Rasse,
aber leider sind die rassenpsychologischen Methoden
eralujgmiig ausgearbeitet . Ansätze dazu finden sich
bei Günther, Clauß und Lenz." Ich folge dem Bei-
spiele V. Eickstedt s und verzichte auf die Beschrei-
bung von Eigenschaften, die erst nach gründlicher
Forschung als wirkliche Rasseneigenschaften gewertet
werden könnten. Ich habe dieselbe Zurückhaltung
in meinem Buch ,, Rassenforschung und Volk der
Zukunft" gewahrt. Die wissenschaftliche Kritik hat
mich deshalb nicht getadelt. Wenn man nach genialen
Köpfen sucht, die in den Körperformen die Eigenart
der verschiedenen Rassen nahe bringen sollen, wird
man durchweg Mischformen finden, die mehr oder
weniger vorwiegend die eine oder andere Rasse oder
sogar mehrere Rassen in gleicher Ausprägung zeigen.
Die Zusammenstellung der Tafel III läßt auch diesen
Gesichtspunkt deutlich erkennen.
104
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VI. Rasse und Volk oder Rassenkunde
und nationale Eugenik.
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Uralten Sitten folgend, feiert der deutsche Bauer
Jahr um Jahr sein Erntedankfest. Er will damit
dankbar zum Ausdruck bringen, daß ohne den Segen
des Vaters aller Menschen all sein Mühen, der braunen
Scholle die Frucht abzugewinnen, vergeblich sein
würde. Keiner wird daher so tief die Verknüpfung
der Generationen erkennen als er, der immer wieder
den Samen ausstreut, um die Halme wachsen und
Früchte tragen zu sehen. Dieser Gedanke wird bei
ihm um so stärker sein, da er das Bewußtsein hegen
darf, daß alle Begabung, die in einem Volke ist, zu-
letzt vom Lande kommt. Darum ist es begründet,
wenn man sagt, daß kein Stand in einem Volke
von so großer Wichtigkeit ist wie der Stand des
Bauern.
Wenn wir nun fragen, woher der Bauer und damit
das ganze Volk das biologische Erbe hat, das unter
dem Einfluß der Umwelt die Zukunft gestalten wird,
dann kommt man von selbst auf jenen lebendigen
Erbstrom, der seit Anfang der Menschheit durch
die Völker der Erde geht. Wohl ist dieser Erbstrom
nicht aliein entscheidend. Wie nie genug betont
werden kann, greift immer wieder die Geistseele, die
jedem Menschen zu Anfang seines Daseins geschenkt
wurde, in die gesamte Formung von Einzelwesen und
Volk ein. Aber das Instrument, dessen sich die Geist-
seele bedient, ist das menschliche Gehirn, das selbst
107
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aus Anlagen entstellt und darum im Erbstrom seinen
Urgrund hat.
Aus den vorausgehenden Kapiteln ist ersichtlich,
daß im deutschen VoUc eine bestimmte Mischung von
Rassen vorhanden ist. Den größten Einfluß hat die
teutonordische Rasse, der wir die dalonordische
unmittelbar anschließen dürfen. Dann folgen im
breiten Strom die ErbUnien dinarischen und alpinen
Ursprungs. Das Osteuropide ist erst sehr viel später
eingesickert — hauptsächhch dort, wo mehr Bevöl-
kerung als Volk ist, z. B. in Großstädten und Industrie-
gebieten. Außerdem findet es sich naturgemäß sehr
stark im Osten. Der mediterrane Einschlag ist gering.
Wie schon erwähnt wurde, findet er sich besonders
bei den Winzern und Winzerinnen des Moseltales.
Es hat keinen Zweck, die Frage zu untersuchen, wie
weit diese Rassen mit den Rassen der Vorzeit zu-
sammenhängen. Was darüber bekannt ist, wurde
genügend auseinander gelegt. Hier kommt es darauf
an, zu ergründen, wie aus der Rassenmischung, die
das deutsche Volk der Gegenwart zusammensetzt,
dieses Volk sich dauernd erneuert. Sodann ist die
Frage zu klären, welche Einflüsse sich günstig in der
Gestaltung des Volkes auswirken, um endlich in
großen Linien anzudeuten, in wie weit der Mensch
imstande ist, diese Einflüssejujboken. So verbindet
sich die Rassenforschung naturgemäß mit einer natio-
108
nalen Eugenik, die nach ihrem Begründer sowohl
die rassenmäßige Zusammensetzung eines Volkes als
auch die Gesundheit seiner Erblinien umfaßt.
Will man das Wirken des lebendigen Erbgefüges
verstehen, muß man es als eine Ai't von Kraftzentrale
auffassen, die ihre Strahlen nach allen Richtungen!
aussendet. Sicher ist die Variationsbreite möglicher
Entfaltungen, die vom Erbgefüge ausgehen, nicht
unbegrenzt. Aber sie ist weit größer, als man im all-
gemeinen annimmt. Mannigfache Beispiele aus der
Organismenwelt wie aus den individuellen Schick-
salen vom Menschen erweisen dies. Der Grund, wes-
halb eine ganz bestimmte Gestaltung im Einzelfall zu-
stande kommt, liegt ganz wesentlich im Einfluß
einer bestimmten Umwelt. Auch die Umwelt kann
man in den verschiedenen Möglichkeiten ihrer Aus-
wirkungen als eine Sammlung von Kraftzentren ||
auffassen. Wie Strahlen treffen die Einflüsse der
Umwelt die zur Entwicklung drängenden Kraft-
zentren des lebendigen Erbstromes. Die Strahlen
mögen locken und zurückdrängen. Das lebendige
Erbgefüge wird den Weg des geringsten Widerstandes
suchen und so zu jener spezifischen Entfaltung führen,
die wir in Einzelwesen, Familie und Volk wahrnehmen.
Es ist darum durchaus berechtigt, die eigentliche
Ursache aller Entwicklung im lebendigen Erbgefüge
selbst zu sehen und die Umwelt nur als die Fülle von
109
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Lebensbedingungen hinzustellen. Sieht man das Erb-
gefüge in einem Einzelwesen oder in einem Volke
unter dem Bilde eines Stromes, so ist die Umwelt als
Bett und Ufer des Stromes zu denken. Wenn auch
Bett und Ufer zuletzt vom Erbstrom selbst geformt
werden, so wirken sie doch auch wieder formend auf
den Erbstrom selbst, ohne allerdings die Zusammen-
setzung des Stromes als solche zu verändern.
Um nun zu erklären, wie aus dem Zusammen-
wirken von lebendigem Erbstrom und Lebensbedin-
gungen ein Typus wird, möge man zunächst jene
Formen ins Auge fassen, die sich in allen Völkern
und allen Rassen finden. Ich erwähne zunächst die
Konstitutionstypen. Die beiden wichtigsten seien ge-
nannt. Ich möchte sie den romanischen und den
gotischen Typ nennen, um eine Terminologie anzu-
wenden, die ästhetisch wirkt. Sonst müßte man
vom pyknischen Typ reden und vom leptosomen.
Es hat kein Interesse für uns, sich mit diesen Typen
zu befassen, weil sie für die Frage von Rasse und
Volk ohne Bedeutung sind. Eine andere Art von
Typen, die ebenfalls allen Völkern gemeinsam ist,
entsteht aus der Dauerbeschäftigung der Menschen
in einem bestimmten Beruf. Man nennt sie daher
die Berufs- oder sozialen Typen. Wer an den Aufzug
der Stände denkt, die sich auf der Festwiese in den
,, Meistersingern" zusammenfinden, wird sofort wissen,
110
I , I
was hier gemeint ist. Auch diese Typen brauchen
wir nicht zu erklären, weil sie ebenfalls für ,, Rasse und
Volk" keine Bedeutung haben. Ganz etwas anderes
ist es, wenn man die Familientypen nach ihrer körper-
lichen und seelischen Seite betrachtet. Wenn auch
diese Typen sich wiederum in tausendfacher Ge-
staltung bei allen Völkern der Erde finden, so haben
sie doch in jedem Volk aus der besonderen Rassen-
mischung und der besonderen Umwelt heraus eine
Bedeutung, die für die Ausbildung des Gautypus
und des Volkstypus nicht gleichgültig sein kann.
Im Gegenteil, die Summe dieser Typen stellt in be-
stimmten wesentlichen Grundzügen den Gautjrpus
oder Volkstypus als solchen dar. Wir haben im
deutschen Volk eine ganze Reihe von Gau typen. Ich
erinnere an den Friesen, der sich seiner Eigenart so
sehr bewußt ist, daß er, wie es in einem Sprichwort
heißt, nur einen Menschen aus dem eigenen Gau hei-
raten möchte und nicht einen Ausländer, z. B. einen
Deutschen. Ähnliches sagt man von anderen Gau-
typen des deutschen Volkes. Tatsächlich ist der
Friese kein Tiroler und der Alemanne kein Schlesier.
Gleichzeitig ist die Summe der Gau typen, die wir
den Volkstyp nennen, in seiner Eigenart so ausge-
prägt, daß man den Deutschen vom Franzosenf vom
Engländer und allen anderen unterscheiden kann,
obgleich vielleicht die erbliche Zusammensetzung
111
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aus den rassenmäßig bestimmten Erbströmen der
Vergangenheit nicht wesentlich verschieden ist. Man
erkennt hieraus die ungeheure Bedeutung der Umwelt,
die allerdings dauernd die Generationen der Menschen
zu beeinflussen hat — genau so wie die Ufer, die einen
Strom einschließen. Man muß daher mit dem Begriff
der Umwelt den Begriff der Tradition verbinden.
Doch dann ist es nicht schwer zu verstehen, wie aus
einer bestimmten Rassenmischung ein bestimmtes
Volk wird, das man in seiner Eigenart von jedem
anderen Volk unterscheiden kann.
Ehe wir die Frage aufwerfen, welche Elemente der
Umwelt besonders entscheidend auf die Formung
des Volkes einwirken, sei mit allem Nachdruck jene
Voraussetzung erwähnt, ohne die kein Bestand in
diese Formung des Volkes hineinkommen würde.
Es müssen die Menschen, die zu einem Volk gehören,
grundsätzlich heimrassige Ehen schließen. Es be-
deutet dies, daß sie Sorge tragen, die ursprüngliche
Rassenmischung, die in der Vergangenheit zur Ge-
staltung des Volkes führte, nicht wesentlich zu ver-
ändern. Wie groß die Bedeutung dieser Forderung
ist, sieht man, sobald pohtische Willkür eine Grenze
mitten durch ein Volk legt. So lange die Menschen
über die Grenze weg ihre Ehen schließen, bleibt der
ursprüngliche Volkscharakter gewahrt. Sobald aber
diese Art von Eheschließungen aufhört, wird der
112
I :
I I
Anfang zu einer neuen Entwicklung gegeben, die
durchaus nicht ungünstig zu sein braucht, die aber
nicht mehr zu jener reinen Form führt, die das Gesicht
eines Volkes bestimmt. Wie wahr diese Beobachtung
ist, sieht man besonders da, wo wegen der Nähe der
Grenzen, die Völker trennen, Übergänge von Volk
zu Volk auftreten. Es ist dies dieselbe Erscheinung, die
man auch an den Grenzen der Gautypen, nur in ver-
stärktem Maße, beobachtet.
Unter der Voraussetzung heimrassiger Eheschlie-
ßung kann man sich der Frage der Umwelt zuwenden,
die eben aufgeworfen wurde. Nur kann man in der
Würdigung der Einflüsse nie genug die beständige
Verknüpfung von Geistseele und Umwelt berück-
sichtigen. Bei der Menschengestaltung handelt es sich
nicht um Bildungen, wie man sie in Tropfsteinhöhlen
beobachtet. Dort ist jede Form, die wird, das Er-
gebnis rein mechanischer Einflüsse. Nur unsere
Phantasie, aber nicht die Natur beseelt die bizarren
Formen, die in Tropfsteinhöhlen wachsen.
An erster Stelle sei alles zusammengefaßt, was das
wundersame Wort Heimat bezeichnet.
Wer kann sagen, was Heimat ist! Ich glaube,
daß man den Begriff Heimat überhaupt nicht denken,
sondern nur fühlen kann.
Heimat ist zunächst der Standort, genau wie bei
Pflanzen und Tieren. Aber das, was wir beim Menschen
8 Muokermann, Bassenkunde
113
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Standort nennen, ist mehr als bei Pflanzen und Tieren
etwas Lebendiges. Es gehört alles dazu, was mit der
Scholle verbunden ist und was aus ihr emporwächst
und in ihr untergeht. Nicht nur die Wälder und
Wiesen gehören dazu, auch die Häuser, die aus dem
Boden wachsen und Form und Farbe haben, wie sie
nur hier und sonst nirgendwo zu finden sind. Man
denke z. B. an die Bauart im Wesergau. Wie die
Bauernhöfe dort sind, sind sie nirgendwo sonst. Aller-
dings darf man nicht so sehr an Großstädte denken,
sondern mehr an Kleinstädte und Land. Und dort
ist es ja auch, wo das Volk wächst, während in der
Großstadt schon viel zu viel Bevölkerung ist. Vielleicht
gibt es kein Wort, das unserer Seele so stark den Begriff
der Heimat zuträgt, wie das Wort Mutter. Die Mutter
ist das Edelste, was die Heimat birgt. Darum ver-
gleichen wir ja auch die Liebe zum eigenen Volk mit
der Liebe zur eigenen Mutter. Mir sagte einmal einer,
der allzusehr vom nordischen Gedanken erfüllt war,
daß ihm ein echtnordischer Mensch oben von der
Küste doch lieber wäre als z. B. ein Oberbayer. Ich
brauchte ihm nur zu antworten : , ,Und wenn Ihre Mutter
eine Oberbayerin wäre, was dann?" Dann war er
ganz still und sagte schließlich mit leiser Stimme:
„Daran habe ich nicht gedacht." Der Grund, weshalb
wir unser Volk lieben, ist ja überhaupt nicht der
Gedanke an seine große Begabung oder an seine
■«mwnHB
114
A
f
Weltgeltung. Es ist ganz allein der Gedanke, daß
es^sicli^um unser Volk handelt und nicht um ein
anderes. So ist es ja auch bei unserer Mutter. Sie
braucht nicht die reichste Frau der Erde zu sein.
Auch als ärmstes Mütterchen, das außer der Schule
des Lebens nie eine andere Schule sah, ist sie uns lieb
wie keine andere Frau. So ist es mit dem eigenen
Volk, für dessen Ehre und Leben wir mit derselben
heißen Begeisterung eintreten wie für Ehre und Leben ■
der Mutter, die uns gebar.
Das Wort Heimat erinnert uns auch an das, was
der Heimat so viel Leben gibt. Es ist die Sprache,
zumal das Niederdeutsche, das ich in dem Buch
„Volkstum, Staat und Nation eugenisch gesehen"
die Kosesprache des Volkes genannt habe. Der Leser
weiß, was ihm seine Sprache bedeutet. Wie vertraut
sind die Klänge von Menschen, die auf derselben
Scholle wachsen! Und wie fremd sind die Klänge
der anderen! Und ist auch die Sprache der Gaue im
eigentlichen Klang des Niederdeutschen verschieden,
so kann man doch ganz allgemein von der deutschen
Sprache sagen, daß wir froh sind, die Laute dieser
Sprache zu hören, wo immer in der Welt wir wandern.
Gezwungen zu fremder Sprache freut man sich, im
fremden Land einem anderen zu begegnen, der die
gleiche Sprache spricht wie wir. Die ganze Heimat,
das ganze deutsche Volk mit all seinem Reichtum,
8»
115
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den die Dichter und Künstler schufen, erwacht in
unserer Phantasie. Wir sind dann wie ein Kind, das
in der Fremde von Zuhause träumt oder vom Christ -
bäum und Weihnachten. Es ist ohne viele Worte
verständlich, warum gerade der Deutsche und sonst
niemand in der Weit das Wort Gemüt kennt. Man
hat oft gesagt, daß man dieses Wort nicht übersetzen
könnte. Tatsächlich kann man es tausendmal ver-
suchen, es wird nicht gelingen.
Von besonderer Bedeutung und auch wieder mit
der Heimat aufs innigste zusammenhängend ist
unsere Religion und das, was sie schuf. Sicher freuen
wir uns über manches, das uns aus der alten Greschichte
der Germanen berichtet wird. Wir lesen gern in der
Edda und suchen neugierig und begeistert Stätten
auf, wo die alten Germanen ihre Götter verehrten.
Aber was ist all das, verglichen mit dem, was die
Rehgion des Welterlösers auch dem deutschen Volke
brachte. Wir sind keine Heiden mehr, wir sind Christen, »
ohne unsere Prägung als Deutsche auch nur im ge- i
ringsten zu verlieren. Im Gegenteil, es dürfte nicht
viele Völker der Erde geben, die gerade wegen des
Gemütes, das ihnen eigen ist, das Christentum auf
so warme und treue Art aufgenommen haben. Jeden-
falls ist ganz sicher, daß wir das Beste in unserem
Volke auslöschen würden an dem Tage, an dem ,
wir die Gebilde christlicher Frömmigkeit vernichten
116
~\
würden. Wie lange haben die Bewohner von Köln
an ihrem Dom gearbeitet! Man sagt, daß mehr als
600 Jahre vergangen wären, bis dieses Meisterwerk
^liendeTwar. Sicher hat der Dom eben so lange
an den Bewohnern von Köln gearbeitet. Und so
innig ist dieses Werk frommer Kunst mit dem Volke
von Köln verbunden, daß man sich eine Trenimng
überhaupt nicht vorstellen kann. Es ist nicht anders
mit den Bewohnern von Wien und ihrem Stephansdom,
nicht anders mit der Wartburg zu Eisenach. Besonders
deutlich ist der Eindruck, den man in den Gegenden
gewinnt, wo am stärksten sich die Rassen der Vorzeit
gemischt haben. Ich erinnere an die großen Wasser-
straßen mit all ihren Nebenflüssen. Jedes Kirchlein
in den Dörfern am Main ist eine Offenbarung der
innigen Beziehung von ReUgion und Volk. Auch das
Saargebiet darf man nicht vergessen. Ob man in
Saarbrücken weilt oder in den kleineren Städten
rundum, überall wird man nichts mehr be^vundern
und als echter Deutscher mit seiner Seele umfangen
als die Heiligtümer. In Merzig steht eine Kirche, die
im 12. Jahrhundert gebaut wurde. Wer je in Merzig
war, prüfe einmal die Bedeutung dieses Gotteshauses
für die heutigen Bewohner. Sie sind geformt worden
durch all das, was von dem lebendigen Stein dieser
Denkmäler der Kunst ausstrahlt.
Zusammenfassend kann man sagen, daß biologisch
117
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I gesehen ein Volk dadurch zustande kommt, daß ein
^ durchaus eigenartig zusammengesetzter lebendiger Erb-
jstrom für eine Reihe von Generationen mit einer
^ eigenartigen Umwelt verbunden wird. Der Erbstrom
aus der Vergangenheit schmiegt sich, wie ich es in
„Volkstum, Staat und Nation eugenisch gesehen-
ff ausgedeutet habe, in die Ufer der Tradition, die in
Verbindung mit der Umwelt gefügt werden, und
brmgt dann jene eigentümliche Gestaltung zustande,
die wir als Volk bezeichnen.
Die wichtige Frage, die sich mit großer Dring-
lichkeit erhebt, ist die, inwieweit menschliche Willkür
das reine Bild des Volkes, das von der Rasse her ge-
bildet wird, verfärben und verformen kann. Es
kommt hier ausschheßlich auf biologische Einflüsse
an. In der Darlegung dieser Einflüsse sei sofort hinzu-
gefügt, was zu geschehen hat, um Ursprüngüches
zu erhalten oder wiederherzustellen.
Die erste Gruppe von Einflüssen, die von großer
biologischer Bedeutung ist, bezieht sich auf die rassen-
mäßige Zusammensetzung des Gesamterbstromes, aus
dem ein Volk entsteht. Allerdings ist die Frage der
Rassenmischung rein anthropologisch gesehen noch
längst nicht gelöst. Eine grundlegende Arbeit über
den Gegenstand schrieb, wie schon früher erwähnt
wurde, Eugen Fischer. Es ist die Schrift „Die Reho- '
bother Bastards und das Bastardierungsproblem beim
118
Menschen", die 1913 erschien. Fischer hebt ausdrück-
lich hervor, daß die Mischbevölkerung gesund, kräftig
un4 sehr fruchtbar sei. Von geistigen Eigenschaften
ist in dem Buch nicht die Rede. Es heißt nur ganz
allgemein, daß es eine präpotente Rassenvererbung j
nicht gibt. Einzelmerkmale seien dominant, nicht
Rassen. Wenn wir über körperliche Formen hinaus-
gehen wollen, dürfte weder diese Arbeit, noch eine der
anderen, die bis jetzt herausgekommen sind, eine Grund-
lage für die Lösung der Frage bieten, inwieweit durch
Rassenmischung ungünstige seelische Auswirkungen
entstanden sind. Mit diesen Worten soll nicht gesagt
werden, daß solche Wirkungen nicht entstehen können.
Ich möchte sogar die Behauptung wagen, daß eine
spätere Forschung, die sich gerade mit diesen Fragen
auf der Grundlage sorgfältiger psychologischer Krite-
rien befaßt, neben günstigen Ergebnissen auch un-
günstige nachweisen wird. Uns bleibt bei dem Stande
der Forschung nichts anderes übrig, als sofort mit
der Rassenmischung die Mischung von Kulturen
gleichzeitig ins Auge zu fassen. Dann allerdings läßt
sich heute schon nachweisen, daß bestimmte Mischungen
zu einer Änderung der Kultur führen. Selbstverständlich
braucht diese Veränderung durchaus nicht ein Herab-
steigen aus bisherigen Höhen zu bedeuten. Ja sie
kann sogar ein Emporheben sein, wie ja auch geschieht- , /
lieh z. B. aus Rassenmischungen nordischen Ursprungs Av^ /
mw
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119
^^^^^^<^^4VVHlS^ A, A?^?(/ >^ ^/l^^mv
lim
f^- >i
■M
h; '
• \
)
« : ^^"^^"^-^--g hat nicht nur Kulturen
ze^tort, sondern auch neue Keime zur Kulturent
sTZ'T. ""^'^"^ ^^ ""^ ''-' ^^'^--^' ^
so sehr cüe Frage vom Steigen oder Sinken von
KU tu""' 7 "^'"^ ^■^'^^ *"^^'^' -™-t dur h
oderrtr. .'"^ '^^ «—ischung begleitet
durch e,ne Veränderung des Heimrassigen entstehen
ieneT vl'°' " .'""" '^""^"'^""^ -- Einfluß
jenes Volkes spreche, das aus der vorderasiatischen
«Tchl ! ^"^"'"'"--t-n. gestaltet wurde, so
Iß icT . T'''^* "'* ^"^"^ ^-h<^-k sagen
daß ch weder dieses Volk noch ein anderes als minde^'
Z'h T'T' ™" '"^^^*«- ^'« v^^- 1
-Cirde haben ihren Wprf t^^ • ^ ,
. "'"^^^ ^«rt. Jedes ist anders. Die Fra^«
-«^, .v..^. uaxaus, aau wir ja nur das Ureigene'
deutschen Volkes und deutscher Kultur vor ri'
I <^-tschen Volke Bedeutendes geleistet habfn
abtun sollte. Im besonderen sind jene Juden die in
-nager Verbindung nnt ihrer Religion ihr eigZ:
120
Leben und das Leben ihrer Familie gestalten, nach-
ahmenswerte Beispiele einer großen Treue zur Natur
und zu Gott, dem Vater aller Menschen. Ich weiß auch,
daß viele Juden aus wirklich edler Gesinnung den
Mitmenschen hilfreiche Dienste leisteten, wobei sie
nicht wollten, daß die rechte Hand wüßte, was die
linke tat. Es sei auch an jene alten Famihen erinnert,
die bereits seit Generationen in deutschen Landen
wohnen und ihre Söhne im Kriege dahin gegeben
haben, genau wie die Heimrassigen. Endlich möchte
ich mit allem Nachdruck hervorheben, daß jenes Gesetz,
durch das wir unsere Zugehörigkeit zum Christentum zu
erweisen haben, sich auch auf Fremdrassige ausdehnt.
Ich meine das Gesetz, dem der Welterlöser die Form
gab: „Ein neues Mandat gebe ich euch, daß ihr ein-
ander lieben sollt, so wie ich euch geliebt habe. Und
daran soll man erkennen, daß ihr meine Jünger seid,
daß ihr einander liebet. . . .*'
Nachdem ich dies alles hervorgehoben habe, darf
ich wohl mit um so größerer Entschiedenheit sagen,
daß es selbstverständliche Pfhcht ist, alles zurück-
zudrängen, was geeignet sein könnte, entartend auf
das echte deutsche Wesen zu wirken oder auch nur
dieses Wesen nicht in seiner echten Form zum Aus-
druck zu bringen, zumal in der Erziehung der Jugend.
Ohne leugnen zu wollen, daß heimrassige Deutsche, die
sich Christen nennen, ein größeres Maß von Schuld
121
I < <!
il i
'l'lli.
t
i't
! ■ !fj
^ i|
* 1
j ' '
1
1
haben, als man zuweilen zuzugeben geneigt ist, muß man
sagen, daß bestimmte jüdische Schriftsteller gerade
jenes Gebiet verwüstet haben, das sich auf die ge-
^^schlechtHche Reinheit unseres Volkes bezieht. Es
ist auch aufs tiefste zu bedauern, daß deutsche Lite-
ratur und deutsche Kunst und vieles andere, das
ganz wesentHch zur deutschen Kulturgestaltung ge-
|i^ ^ö^*' ^^^^^ zum Vorteil unseres Volkes und seiner
Jugend in den Händen von Juden lag, die trotz
guten Willens, den ich vielen nicht abstreiten will,
nicht berufen sein dürften, das echte deutsche Wesen
zu vermitteln. — -~-
Ich spreche daher mit Nachdruck die Forderung
aus, daß man zunächst einmal Eheschließungen von
heimrassigen Deutschen mit Fremdrassigen, die das
Heimrassige verformen könnten, meidet. Man berufe
sich nicht auf die Taufe, die aus einem Juden einen
Christen macht. Die Taufe macht den Menschen
^ rv^«V^^ ^otteskind, aber ändert niemals sein Erbgefüge. 11
-^jJ^£^|V** jDarum mögen fremdrassige Menschen mit fremdrassi-
gen Menschen ihre Ehe schließen, doch die Heimrassigen
sollen unter sich bleiben. Das ist für beide segensreich.
Außer der Ablehnung der Eheschließung ist die
Grenze zu überwachen, zumal nach Osten hin. Nicht
in dem Sinn, als ob nun Fremdrassigen der Zugang
zum deutschen Volk einfach verschlossen werden
sollte, sondern in dem Sinne, daß man eine sorgfältige
122
Auswahl trifft, bei der gerade die eugenischen Ge-
sichtspunkte entscheidend sind.
Endlich dulde man nicht, daß in der eigentlichen
Kulturgestaltung und in der Erziehung unserer Jugend
Fromdrassige statt Heimrassige mit solchen wichtigen
nationalen Aufgaben betraut werden, wobei allerdings
im übrigen ausschließlich die persönliche Tüchtigkeit
eines Menschen entscheidend sein darf und kein anderer
Gesichtspunkt.
Noch viel ernster als die Störung der rassen-
mäßigen Zusammensetzung eines Volkes ist die un-
gleiche Fortpflanzung der Erbgesunden und der Erb-
kranken. Wohl kann diese ungleiche Fortpflanzung
unter rein rassenmäßigem Gesichtspunkt eine ernste
Sorge sein. Würde z. B. die Ablehnung des Kindes
gerade bei den Menschen nordischer Prägung in dem
Maße fortschreiten, wie es in der Vergangenheit der
Fall war, dann würde eine solche Entwicklung auch
für die Gestaltung des deutschen Volkes nicht ohne
Folgen sein, weshalb man unter diesem Gesichts-
punkt bestimmten Bestrebungen freundlich gegen-
über stehen kann, die unter anderem Gesichtspunkt
abzulehnen wären. In diesem Buch, das ja nur einen
Grundriß der Rassenkunde darstellt, kann nur der
mehr positive Gesichtspunkt herausgestellt werden.
Tatsächlich gelten jene stürzenden Kurven, die uns
das Leben im deutschen Volke anzeigen, nahezu aus-
123
■•'«lI
m
'fi\
I
I
I;
\i
l; i
ittti.i
schließlich von den Erbgesunden, die heute nicht mehr
so viel Nachwuchs haben, als notwendig wäre, um
den biologischen Stand der Familie zu sichern. Nicht
nur in den sogenannten aufgestiegenen Schichten der
Gresellschaft, wo das Unheil schon vor einem Menschen-
alter zur Sitte geworden war, sondern in allen Schichten
bis zu den Toren des Landes hat sich die Ablehnung
des Lebens auf so vernichtende Art durchgesetzt, daß
unsere Zukunft hoffnungslos erscheinen müßte, wenn
wir nicht den Glauben an jene Familien bewahren
würden, die noch heute die restlose Treue zu den
biologischen und ethischen Gesetzen festhalten und
darum Ausgangsquellen für ein neues Volk sein
können. Diese Familien gibt es besonders in der
Landbevölkerung, wenn auch leider hinzugefügt
werden muß, daß im ganzen auch dort der Rückgang
schon so weit durchgeführt wurde, daß nur ein kleiner
Teil der nachgeborenen Söhne und Töchter für die
Einmündung in die anderen sozialen Schichten in
Frage kommen kann. Auch das Land des deutschen
Bauern ist gleichsam eine Mutter geworden, die
beinahe alle ihre Kinder selber braucht. Soll dasjf
deutsche Volk erhalten werden, müssen die Menschen! 1
zur alten Treue unserer Vorfahren zurückkehren, "ll
Dazu ist erforderlich, daß man sich in jungen Jahren
nicht nur um die Kriterien der Eheschließung kümmert,
sondern vor allen Dingen auch jene Voraussetzungen
124
icV*'
entwickelt, ohne die der Mensch nicht imstande ist,
die Lehren der Schule der Weisheit zu erfüllen. Von
welcher Bedeutung würde es sein, wenn es gelänge,
unsere Jugend restlos zur Beobachtung der Keusch-
heit zurückzuführen, durch die allein jene Kraft
gesichert ist, die nach vollendeter Reife ergänzungs-
bedürftige und ergänzungsfähige Menschen zueinander*
führt, damit ein Lebens- und Liebesbund werde, aus
dem die Hoffnung unseres Volkes aufblüht.
Außer der eugenischen Erziehung müßte die
Umwelt im ganzen so verändert werden, daß sie die
Erhaltung geschlechtlicher Reinheit begünstigt und
daß sie dem menschlichen Bemühen jene Hilfsmittel
darbietet, ohne die eine erbgesunde, kinderreiche
Familie nicht gedeihen kann.
Vor allem ist der Einfluß jener Kraftquellen neu
zu erschließen, die einem christlichen Volk aus der
Übernatur zuströmen. Diese Klraftquellen allein werden
auch dann den Menschen zu einer kühnen Lebens-
bejahung bestimmen, wenn ein Heldentum verlangt
wird — wie die Märtyrer zumal aus der "Urzeit des
Christentums beweisen und wie man aus jenen Zeiten
erkennen kann, in denen ein Volk um Brot und Ehre
ringen muß.
So führt zuletzt die Rassenkunde zur nationalen
Eugenik, die unserem Volke eine neue, ureigene, be-
glückende Zukunft schenken möge.
125
I
M
m
tf
! I
! i
I
■iL i
K
■ !
■I '
I • >
I! i
Personen- und Sachregister.
Abstammungslehre 11 f., 55
Afrika 63, 67, 69, 70, 71, 76, 77,
99
•Ägyptische Königsgräber 8
Ainu, Ainuiden 70, 77
Alpine Rasse 13, 77, 81, 91 ff.,
94, 95, 96, 98, 108
Altformen 70, 71, 76, 77, 91, 93
Amerika 10, 37. 38, 70, 75, 103
Anlagen, s. Erbanlagen
Anthropologie 7 ff., 10, 11 ff.,
14 ff.
Armenide Rasse 8, 77, 99; s. Vor-
derasiatische Rasse
Asien 67, 70, 75, 77, 103
Äthiopische Rasse 9, 10, 76
Augen 9, 24, 25, 38, 47, 60, 62 f.,
72, 73, 75, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90,
92, 95, 98
Aurignac Rasse 62 ff.
Auslese 43, 46, 47, 74, 101.
Australide 70
Bantuide Rasse, Bantuneger 76
Bastardforschung 14 f., 24 ff.,
29 ff., 31, 34
Baur, Erwin 40
Blumenbach, Joh. Friedr. 10
Blutgruppen 100 f.
Boas, Franz 37, 38
Breuil, Abbö H. 57
Brünnrasse 62 ff.
Buschmänner 70
Clauß, L. F. 104
Correns, C. 23
Crö-Magnon-Rasse 62 ff., 88
Dalische Rasse, s.Fälische Rasse
Darwin 11 ff.
Davenport und Hurst 24; D. und
Steggerda 30
Deniker 12 ff.
126
Differenzierung der Fortpflan-
zung 123 f.
Dinansche Rasse 13, 77, 81, 91,
92, 93, 94 ff., 99, 100, 108
Domestikation 44 ff.
Dominanz 19 f., 24, 25, 26, 119
Dubois 55
Eickstedt, E. v. 15, 57, 61, 63,
69, 88, 104
Einrasaigkeit 83
Erbanlagen 22 f., 26, 27 ff., 33,
34 ff.; s. Mutation
Eskimide 69
Eugenik, nationale 109, 122 ff.
Eugenische Erziehung 124 f.
Europide Rasse 48, 68, 69, 70,
71, 73 f., 76 ff., 81 ff., 103
Fälische oder dalonordische
Rasse 63, 77, 81, 87 ff., 108
Fischer, Eugen 14 f., 24 ff., 29,
30, 39, 44 f., 48, 63, 118
Fremdrasaigkeit 99 f., 120 ff.
Galton, Francis 31 f., 109
Gesichtsform 24, 26, 45, 59, 60,
61, 62, 72, 85, 88, 90, 91 f.,
94, 97
Gliedmassen 73, 84, 90, 91
Graslandnoger 76
Günther, H. F. K. 104
Haar, 8, 9, 12, 13, 25, 38, 45,
72, 73, 75, 77, 85 f., 89, 90, 92,
95, 98
Haut 8, 10, 25, 45, 72, 73, 75, 77,
85, 89, 90, 92, 95, 98
Heimat 113 ff.
Heimrassigkeit 83, 99 f., 120 ff.
HeterozygotiO 20
Homo heidelbergensis 57
Homo neandertalensis 58 ff.
'■m
Homozygotie 20, 83
Hottentotten 14, 25, 30, 70
Indianerfalte 76
Indianide Rasse 70, 71, 75 f.
Indide Rasse 77
Inzucht 46, 101
Isolation, geographische 46, 74,
82, 96 f.
Javafund 56
Jüdisches Volk 38, 81, 99f ., 120f .
Kaukasische Rasse 10
Khoisanide Rasse 70, 76
Kiefer 69, 60, 72, 88
Kinn 57, 60, 63, 85, 88, 91, 94,
97
Konstitutionstypen 110
Körperbau, -form, -gestalt 37,
59, 62, 72, 74, 84, 88, 90, 91,
94, 97
Körpergröße 13, 24, 37, 38, 41,
45, 60, 62, 84, 88, 90, 91, 94,
97
Körperproportionen 24, 74, 84,
90, 91, 94, 97
Kraniologie 10
Kraushaarigkeit 8, 25, 48, 73
Kultur 57, 58, 61, 119 ff.
Kurzköpfigkeit 11, 38, 72, 77,
81, 91 ff., 94
Lamarck, 11 ff.
Längen -Breiten -Index 11, 37, 85,
91, 94, 97
Langköpfigkeit 11, 38, 39, 77,
84, 88, 97
Lenz, Fritz 104
Linn6 11
Lippen 8, 25, 73, 85, 88, 92, 95
Malaien, Malayische Rasse 10,
30
Mediterrane Rasse 8, 13, 77, 81,
97 ff., 99, 100, 102, 108
Melaneside Rasse 60, 69, 71, 76,
Melanide Rasse 76
Mendel und Mendelismus 14,
19 ff., 24 ff.
Menschenaffen 55
Merkmale und Eigenschaften
13 f., 21 ff., 28 f., 33, 34 ff.,
72 ff., 83, 84 f., 88, 90, 91 ff.,
94 ff., 97 ff., 100 ff., 119
Methoden der Erb- und Rassen-
forschung 29 ff.
Mischerbigkeit 22, 84, 104
Modifikationen 36 ff.
MongoJenfalte 72
Mongolide Rasse 10, 48, 67, 68,
70, 71, 72, 75 f., 100, 103
Morgan, Thomas Hunt 40
Muckermann, Hermann 16, 104,
115, 118
Muller, H. J. 41
Mundform 59, 88, 90, 92, 95
Mutationen 39 ff., 74
Nase 8, 12, 25, 48, 60, 63, 72, 73,
76, 85, 88, 90, 92, 94, 98
Neandertaler Rasse 58 ff.
Negride Rasse 8, 10 f., 30, 48,
68, 70, 71, 72 f., 76, 99, 100,
103
Nilotide Rasse 76
Nordische Rasse 13, 38 f., 63,
77, 84 ff., 88, 92, 93, 95, 96,
98, 102, 104, 119, 123.
Orientalide Rasse 8, 77, 81, 99,
100, 120
Ostbaltische, osteuropide oder
Ostrasse 14, 77, 81, 89 ff ., 96,
108
Palämongolide Rasse 75
Palänegride Rasse 76
Phänotypus 23, 26, 34, 36 ff.,
39, 41
Pigmentierung 8, 72 ff., 77, 85 f.,
89, 9U, 91 f., 95, 98
Pithecanthropus erectus 55 ff.
Polyneside Rasse 69, 71, 77
•Vi
127
MMNIBM.wMUkM**«i
V h
I
1^
1 '
•
'■ ' i
'■ 1
i: ' '•
1
t i
ii
Prähistorische Menschenrassen
53 ff., 58 ff.
Praehon^o asiaticus, Praehomo
europaeus 57
Prognathie 8, 45, 72, 73
Pygmäen 9, 48, 71
Pygmide Rasse 69, 76
Rasse: Begriff 28; Rasseneigen-
schaften 14, 24 ff., 26, 27 ff.,
36, 37, 84 ff.; Rasseneinteilung
10, 12 ff., 72, 100, 101 ff.;
Rassenentstehungund Rassen-
entwicklung 47 ff. ; Rassen-
raischung 8, 14, 25, 30 f., 47 f.,
81 ff., 84, 93, 96, 98, 104, 112,
118 ff.; Rassenpsychologie 29,
102 ff., 119; Rassenunter-
schiede 28, 45, 48, 101 ff.
Rehobother Bastards 15, 24 ff.,
30, 118 ff.
Reinrassigkeit 20, 40, 82 ff .
Retzius, Anders 11
Rezessivität 19 f., 25. 41.
Rodenwaldt 30
Schädel 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 24, 37 ff.,
41, 45, 56, 58 ff., 62, 72, 84,
88, 90, 91,94, 97
Schwarze Rasse 12, 67, 68, 69
Sibiride Rasse 75
Siemens, H. W. 32
Sinanthropus erectus 56 ff.
128
Sinide Rasse 75
Soemmering 10
Steinzeit 57 ff.
Stirn 60, 61, 62, 85, 88, 90, 91,
94, 97
Sudanide Rasse 76
Teutonordische Rasse 77, 81,
108; 8. nordische Rasse
Tschermak 23
Tungide Rasse 75
Turanide Rasse 77
Lmwelt 26, 33 f., 34 ff., 39 f.,
42, 44, 47, 82 f., 101, 103,
107 ff., 112 ff., 125
Unterkiefer von Mauer 57 f.
Urwaldneger 76
Variabilität 35, 36 ff., 39, 41, 74,
109
Verschuer, O. v. 32
Vorderasiatische Rasse 8, 77, 81,
99, 100, 120
Vries, de 23
Wedda, Weddide Rasse 69, 71,
77
Weinert, H. 56
Weiße Rasse 10, 67, 68, 69
Weitz 32
Zm iUingsforschung 23, 31, 32 ff.
A
Die Kalotte des Pitliecantliropus
(linke Seitenansicht. Nach Weineti)
i^^
'l.^'^'/U.
^4''
^^/^■■m^Q.
Die Neandertalkalotte
(linke Seitenansicht)
Tafel I
Der Unterkiefer von Mauer
(Homo heideibergensis. Nach WeinerO
Neandertaler Schädel
(La Chapelle aux Saints)
Auri^nac- oder Brünmasse
(Schädel-Brünn ill. Nach Ahsalon)
Der „Alte von Cro-Masnon'
^
f
I
m
Rassen der Vorzeit.
fumfifpisjJti:
M fi
Tafel II
'mm¥.i
if'
Palämonjjolide Rasse
(nach V. Eickstedt)
Tunj;ide Rasse
(nach Czaplicka)
I
Indianide Kasse
(nach Gusinde)
Nilotide Rasse
(nach Bernatzik)
!i
l'i i
U I
Sudanide Rasse
(nach Wenlnyei)
Bantuide Rasse
(nach I.. Schultze)
Mongolide und negride Rassen.
I I
Tafel III
''lll
f^
Vorwiegend noiüiscnu mansch
Goethe
Vorwiegend nordisch:
Erwin Baur
II
(! ii
Vorwiegend fälisch: Galton
Vorwiegend mediterran: Raffael
Vorwiegend alpin: Gregor Mendel
Vorwiegend ostbaltisch: Maxim Gorki
Europide Rassen.
i
,>¥!J'^fi^mism^rtflfffä>
Tafel IV
- 1
ti.
!i
I
Zum Vergleich von Affe (Orang-Utan) und Mensch.
%.!msk
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bet
5)0^en 9lc^t«- unb 6taaf«tt»iffcn|c^öffti^cn «Jatultät
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<5)rucferei Goncorbia Sp. 'iafc., spojnan (^ofen)
rm^r^^^ww n r^
'•-** ■ - ,-■»■* M*,r» »... MV»,*
Das Vertrag'sschliessungsrecht der deutschen Laender
by Ernst Pincus
has been removed to the library. Please ask the
librarian on duty if you wish to see this book. There are
no other notes or annotations in this work.
M 107^0
%
II
Villh
^chi»iiikr^ Pfs^eNt(t}0^^ H^^
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sse.'.
Aus der rheinischen Provinzial-Kinderanstalt für seeh'sch Abnorme
und dem Pathopsychologischen Institut der Universität Bonn
Direktor: Prof. Dr. med. O. Löwenstein.
lieber die Erblichkeitsverhältnisse des
Patellarsehnenreflexes nach
Untersuchungen an 31
Zwillingspaaren.
INAUGURAL-DISSERTATION
zur Erlangung
der
DOKTORWÜRDE
der
Hohen Medizinischen Fakultät
der
Rheinischen Friedrich Wilhelms-Universität zu Bonn
Vorgelegt am 14. Februar 1933
von
Karl Schnitzler
aus Dtiren.
Bonn 1933
Buchdruckerei PAUL KUBENS Dorotheenstr, 20
1
Gedruckt mit Genehmigung
der medizinischen Fakultät der Universität Bonn
Referent: Professor Dr. Löwenstein
>
Die Bedeutung der Zwilh'ngsforschung, die in neuester
Zeit durch grundlegende und ergebnisreiche Untersuchungen von
Siemens, v. Verschuer , Löwenstein, Luxen-
burger, Weitz u.a. weitesten Kreisen nahe gebracht wurde,
war schon seit langem als wertvolles Hilfsmittel menschlicher Erb-
forschung bekannt. 0 a 1 t o n hat bereits 1876 den Wert dieser
neuen Methode erfasst und klar herausgestellt. In Deutschland
war es vor allem P o 1 1 , der als erster die Forderung nach »plan-
mäßiger und kritischer Durchforschung erbverdächtiger Merkmale
bei eineiigen Zwillingen« (EZ.) stellte.
Alle diese Forscher gingen von der Voraussetzung aus
in einem eineiigen Zwillingspaar genotypisch identisches Material
vorsieh zu haben. Diese Annahme gründet sich zu einem wesent-
hchen Teil auf die Ergebnisse der Arbeiten von S o b o t t a ,
der durch seine exakten Untersuchungen über die erste Entwick-
lung der Maus und dem Gürteltiere die Entstehung E. Z. aus einer
Verdoppelung der »Embryonalblastomere«, die — vorher latent —
im Keimblasenstadium nachweisbar wird, wahrscheinlich machte.
Ist erst einmal die Erbgleichheit EZ. angenommen, dann
sind die weiteren Schlußfolgerungen zwangsläufig folgende:
1). Starke Aehnlichkeit bezüglich der Artung eines be-
stimmten Merkmals, bei einer großen Zahl EZ. gefunden, deutet
auf Erblichkeit derselben.
2). Alle Verschiedenheiten in den Eigenschaften EZ.
untereinander sind auf Außenwelteinflüsse, die evtl. schon in utero
wirksam waren, zurückzuführen. (Was keineswegs gleichbedeutend
mit Nichterblichkeit sein soll).
Mit Hilfe dieser Ueberlegungen ist die Aufdeckung einer
erhebliciien Anzahl vorwiegend genotypisch bedingter Merkmal-
artungen gelungen. Diese liegen nicht allein auf somatischem Ge-
biete, wie Knochenbau. Zahnfarbe, Papillarmuster der Finger, Mut-
termäler ufw. (Poll, Kork haus, Meyrowski u. a.). son-
dern man hat auch die Abhängigkeit psychischer Aeusserungen:
Kriminalität, Intelligenz usw. (Lange, v. Verschuer, Löwen-
stein) und der diese beiden Gegenpole überbrückenden psycho-
physischen Eigenschaften: Tonus der Muskulatur, hysterische Kon-
stitution (Löwen st ein) von erblichen Faktoren nachweisen
können. Aber nicht nur den Nachweis erblicher Anlagen über-
haupt ermöglicht uns die Zwillingsforschung, sondern durch den
Vergleich EZ. mit zweieiigen Zwillingen (ZZ.) gestattet sie uns
sogar den Grad der Paravariabilität annähernd zu messen. Wäh-
rend die EZ. die Träger vorwiegend gleicher, die ZZ. die Träger
von Erbanlagen sind, die im Durchschnitt in 50 7o der Eigen-
schaften verschieden sind, sind die Partner beider Zwillingsgrup-
pen meistens jevveils den gleichen Umwelteinflüssen ausgesetzt.
Dividiert man nach der Angabe von F. Lenz und O. v. Ver-
schuer den Durchschnitt der Unterschiede innerhalb der Eigen-
schaften bei den Partnern eineiiger Zwillingspaare (Löwen-
stein nennt diese Unterschiede bei den Partnern eines Zwillings-
paares intrageminelle Differenz) durch den der Partner
zweieiiger Zwillingspaare, so erhält man direkt den Anteil der Um-
welt in Form eines echten Bruches oder wenn man mit lOO multi-
pliziert in Prozenten.
Aufgabe dieser Arbeit soll es sein, die Abhängigkeit des
Patellarsehnenreflexes (PSR) von Erblichkeitsverhältnissen zu unter-
suchen. Das setzt voraus, daß es uns gelingt, die intrageminellen
Differenzen genau zu messen, die bei EZ. bezüglich des PSR. be-
stehen. Wenn wir das versuchen, so müssen wir uns darüber klar
sein, daß die GröÜe des PSR-Ausschlages auch bei ein und dem-
selben Menschen nicht immer gleich bleibt, vielmehr schon phy-
siologisch durch die verschiedensten äußeren und inneren Momente
beeinflußt wird. M. S t e r n b e r g gibt bereits schon im
Jahre 1893 eine sehr große Anzahl derartiger Momente an, die ge-
eignet sind den Ablauf der PSR zu variieren. So beobachtete er,
»daß die Zuckung mit jedem neuen Beklopfen stärker und rascher
eintritt« ; er führt dies auf Bahnung im Reflexbogen zurück. Die
Erscheinung, »daß die Sehnenreflexe nach wiederholter Auslösung
schwächer werden«, glaubt er der Ermüdung im Centrum zuschrei-
ben zu müssen. Diese Tatsache des Schwächerwerdens oder gar
des vorübergehenden Ausfalls des PSR nach nicht einmal »unge-
wöhnlicher Muskelanstrengung« konnte E.K och neuerlich an Lang-
streckenläufern bestätigen ; nur macht Koch hierfür nicht die Er-
müdung im Reflexcentrum, sondern die individuellen Unterschiede
der Willkürkontraktion verantwortlich. Beeinträchtigung der peri-
pheren Zirkulation, Hautreize, Gemütsbewegungen, psychische Alte-
ration, intensive geistige Arbeit, sollen nach Sternberg neben
vielen anderen Momenten geeignet sein, die Reflexgröße zu beein-
flussen. Auch dem Alter schreibt er eine bestimmte Bedeutung für
die Ausgestaltung des PSR zu; so findet er bei Neugeborenen in
der ersten Zeit und im Greisenalter mit dem Eintritt von Maras-
mus die Sehnenreflexe in ihrer Intensität verstärkt. Die verschieden-
sten Krankheilen sollen den PSR teils nach der positiven, teils nach
der negativen Seite hin verändern können. Abgemagerte und ge-
schwächte Kranke, Phthisiker, Gelenkrheumatiker, schwer Dysenterie-
kranke, an Basedow Leidaii Je werden mit gesteigertem PSR beschrie-
ben. Hohes Fieber, Diabetes, chronischer Morphinismus wird oft als
Grund für eine Herabset/amg des PSR angegeben. Die Erkennung
gewisser neurologischer Erkrankungen (Tabes, Paralyse, traumati-
sche Läsion des Nervensystems u. a.) an dem Grad des PSR-
Aussc'ilages ist seit langem ärztliches Allgemeingut. Nach den
Aufzeichnungen von Weiler, Jarrich und Schiff,
S c h c V e n u. a. zeigen die Ausschläge ein und desselben Indi-
viduums trotz gleicher Reizintensität und gleichen Intervalls zuver*
schied enen Zeiten häufig starke Unterschiede. Das erklärt sich
vielleidit durcii die von P. H o f f m a n n angenommene Koppe-
lung der Eigenreflexe mit der willkürlichen Erregung, d.h. durch
die Atnderung des Muskeltonus. R a n s o n spricht von einer
Abhängigkeit des Reflexes von der »nervösen Bilanz zur Zeit des
Reizbeginnes«.
U
i\
i
Sieht man die bisherige Zwillingsliterat iir darauf-
hin durch, inwieweit sich in ihr bereits Untersuchungen über den
PSR finden, so stellt man fest, daß außer einigen Mitteilungen in
den Arbeiten von Weitz und L Ott ig und außer der Erwähnung
von Nebenbefunden bei einigen anderen Autoren, zusammenfassende
Untersuchungen sich nur bei Curtius finden, der «die Erblich-
keil der Eigenreflexe« als erster systematisch untersucht. Curti us
kommt zum Schluß, daß »beim Zustandekommen der Eigenreflexe
die erbliche Anlage eine entscheidende Rolle spielt.« Doch diese
wie alle anderen einschlägigen Arbeilen stützen sich lediglich auf
subjektive Abschätzung der Reflexausschläge, die wiederum durch
subjektiv als gleich stark geschätzte Schläge ausgelöst werden
Diese verhältnismäSig grobe Methode bei der feinere Unterschiede
dem Untersucher vollständig entgehen mußten, und deren Ergeb-
nisse in hohem Maße von der größeren oder geringeren Geschick-
lichkeit und der größeren oder geringeren UeDung des Unter-
suchers abhängig sind, galt es, durch eine objektive experimentelle
vom Untersucher unabhängige Methode zu ersetzten.
Seitdem man den großen Wert der 1875 von Erb und
L. Westphal gleichzeitig - aber unabhängig von einander -
entdeckten Bewegungsvorgänge erkannt hatte, die beim Beklopfen
der Patellarsehne regelmäßig auftreten, bemühte man sich Apparate
zu konstruieren, die diese Erscheinungen des Kniephänoniens zur
graphischen Darstellung bringen konnten. Hierbei registrierte man
entweder die Quadricepskontraktion oder die Bewegung des Un-
terschenkels. Auf der letztgenannten Art beruhen die Methoden
von Sommer, Weiler, Pfahl u.a. mehr. Den von Weiler
benutzten Untersuchungsstuhl möchten wir hier kurz erwähnen
weil er mi Prinzip unserem später zu beschreibenden, von O.
L ö w e n s t e I n konstruierten Apparat entspricht. Weiler über-
tragt am sitzenden Patienten die Bewegung des herabhängenden
nhT, p"f Z l'T''P'^'"" gegenüberstehendes Kymogra-
phion. P f a h I empfiehlt die Untersuchung in Seitenlage, um die
Schwerkraft auszuschalten. Hiervon haben wir absichtlich Abstand
CrTT"' rn '' ""!, ^'"'^'"' ''^"■^"' ""'^""""'- die absolute
Große des Re lexausschlages festzustellen, als vielmehr darauf, das
.ntragen.melle Verhältnis dieser Größen kennen zu lernen. Da es
X
^^ ^ß_-_-
/
/
"
2?Q
B
1
r
Fi
t
>
MU
m
I
also die gleiche Fehlerquelle ist, die bei beiden zum Vergleich mit
einander herangezogenen Partnern unserer Versuche besteht, kann der
daraus entstehende Fehler überhaupt unberücksichtigt bleiben. Wir
brauchen nicht auf den großenVorteil zu verzichten, beideBeine zu unter-
suchen, ohne die Versuchsperson in eine andere Lage zu bringen.
Außerdem dürfte bei Seitenlagen die richtige Winkelstellung in
Hüft- und Kniegelenk mit jedesmaliger gleicher Spannung der be-
teiligten Ivluskelgruppen bei den beiden Beinen der jeweiligen
Zwillingspaare schwierig zu erlangen sein.
Zu unseren Versuchen schien uns keiner der bisher be-
schriebenen Apparate geeignet. Wir benutzten daher nachstehen-
den, von O. Löwenstein konstruierten Reflexstuhl der sich für
unsere Untersuchungen als zweckmäßig erwies. (Siehe Abb. 1).
Die Beinbewegung wird durch das Rad a, an dessen Achse die
Stange b angreift, auf die durch ein Uhrwerk gleichmäßig ge-
drehte berußte Schreibtrommel c übertragen. Die Stange b, der
der Unterschenkel mit Hilfe eines Lederriemens fest anliegt, ist
durch den Auszug bl der Größe des Beines anzupassen. Die
Spannung des Fadens d wird durch den verstellbaren Hebel e
garantiert. Durch Verschieben der Stangen f und fl ist es mög-
lich, den Drehpunkt des Rades mit der Drehachse des Unter-
schenkels gleichzustellen. Der Oberschenkel wird durch die
verschiebliche Verbindungsstange g unterstützt. Der Schlag auf
die Kniesehne geschieht mit dem elastischen Metallstab h, des-
sen Hebelarm i durch Verstellung in k beliebig geändert werden kann.
Ein Laufgewicht 1 reguliert seine Schwere. Beweglichkeit der Stange
m in der Vertikalen gestattet die Höhe der Drehachse o des
Perkussionsstabes zu wechseln Bib auf den Perkussionsstab
und das Verlängerungsstück bl, die beide ausgetauscht werden
können, ist der Stuhl symmetrisch gebaut, also für das rechte
und linke Bein ohne Schwierigkeit verwendbar.
Die ganze Kuivenregistrierung befindet sich hierbei im
Rücken der Untersuchungsperson. Der elastische Perkussionsstab
erlaubt ein sicheres Treffen der Patellarsehne. Die symmetrisch
angeordnete Bewegungsübertragung gestattet ohne Schwierigkeiten
die Kurven beider Beine untereinander zu schreiben.
Als Versuchsmaterial dienten uns 31 eineiige und zwei-
eiige Zwillingspaare im Alter zwischen 6 und 81 Jahren, die wir
I
ohne Rücksicht auf ein besonderes Merkmal, gerade wie der Zu-
fall sie uns brachte, verwerteten. Zur Orientierung diene die kurze
Uebersicht. Siehe Abb. 2.)
Paar EZ.l
Name Marga -\-
jCharlotte
Geschl. w w
Älter 12
EZ.2
Karl
Rolf
m m
18
Abb. 2.
EZ.3
EZ.4
EZ.5
EZ6.
Else Maria Otto Maria
^iü Gertrud Alfred Grete
w w w w m m w w
6 12 \7 T6^
Beson-
derheit,
aus der
Anamnese
Schul- Anstreicher^ Lchr-
Kaufm. kinder kinder lehrling. mädch.
bde. ~ ~~
Beruf Quartaner- Techn. Schul-
innen
o.B. bde. o.B. Maria: bde. IchThy
schwache schielt osis.
Struma. a.d.r.
Auge.
o.B.
Paar
EZ.7
EZ.8
Name
EZ.9
Geschl.
Alter ~
Beruf
Maria
Hanni
w w
Jakob
Robert
m m
Ferdinand
Otto
EZ.IO
Karoline
An. -Maria
12"
m m
/2
19
w w
Schul-
kinder
Beson- Maria:
derheit. Brille n.
aus der Schiel-
Anamnes. Operation
Versich. Ag.
Oberpriman.
bd. stark
cyanot. Füße
11 j/
2
81
Schul-
kinder
8
bde. Linkshänd.
a. Ik.
Hand verhornte
Bißwunden, im
Zank selbst bei-
gebr.Ferd:1920
»Gehirnentzdg.«
seitd. Ptosis bd.
Augenlider.
Haushälter-
innen
öTb.~~
Paar
Name
EZ.l 1 EZ.12 EZ.13 ZZ.U ZZ. 15
Edith Käthe Karl Gertrud Eduard
Inge Aenne Paul Elisabeth Engelbert
Geschl.
Alter 2
Beruf
w w
w w
6V2_
Schul-
kinder
ITA
m m
23
w w
m m
ITA
15 V,
Schul-
kinder
Medizin-
student.
Untersek.
Besonder- Bde.m.2J. bde. Ober- spiegel-
heit. a. d. kurze Anfä. kiefervor- bildl ähnl.
Anamne. danach bde. springend, in vielen
schielen. Anlagen.
Schul-
kinder
G ertr.: Leich o.B.
ter Exophthal-
mus, leichte
Struma.
Paar
Name
ZZA6 ZZ.17
Erna Gertrud
Ella Kathi
Geschl. w w w w
Alter
"27 Vs
20
ZZ18
Fina
Anna
w w
13
ZZ.19
Franz Josef
Lothar
ZZ.20
Helmuth
Erwin
m m
23/2
m m
20 'A
JBeruf Hausfrauen Landge-
hilfinnen
Besonder- o.B. o.B.
heit. a. d.
Anamnese.
Schul-
Angest.
kinder
Schneider
o.B.
Bde K). Monat.
plötzl. Krämpfe
dana.Fr.Josef:
stottern.Lothar
mondsüch.bisz.
16. Lebens].
Herzkrank,bde.:
Tbc.
Bde. Angest.
Bde.: 3 J.a^
4 Woch.l An-
fall (3-4 Tge.
: Dauer) an-
, gebl. Malaria
Tbc. Helm.:
4. J Dipherie
dana.stottern.
Erwin
Herzfehler.
Paar
Name
ZZ.21
Friedel
Josef
ZZ.22
ZZ.2;i
m m
23
Liesel Gertrud
Agathe Elisabeth
w w w w
"TT
14
Geschl.
Ältef __ _ __^
Beruf Zahnmed. Hausange. Lehrmäd-
Gärtner. Verkäuferin chen
Besonder- Josef: o.B.
heit. a. d. Paraden-
tose Anamn.
^Z.24
Josef
Fritz
m m
ZZ.25^
Georg
Anna
m w
14V.
22
Lehrlinge Schreiner.
Haustochter
Eli sab.: leich-
te Struma.
o.B. Georg seit 3
J. Kiefereitrg u.
Fistelbildung.
I
Paar
Name
Geschl
Alter
Beruf
ZZ.2';
Gerda
Wilhelm
w m
20%
Haustocht.
Schuster
ZZ.27
Johannes
ZZ 28 ZZ.29
Kath. Klara
Gerhard Ludwig
w m w m
'M 26
Hausfrau Haustocht. Lehrig. Ü-Sek.
Gärtner Gärtner Haustocht. Lehrig"
Besonder- o.B. Joh.SJ.u. 078. Ludw Ik. o:b ^o B
lieit. ad. 14 J.Gelenk- H. 2 Daumen
Maria
m w
Lehrig.
Angest
ZZ.30 ZZ.31
Josef Maria
Apolonia Fritz
m w w m
15
1/
Anamnese.
u.Muskelrheu.
m.2 J.opera.
entfernt.
Bei der Stellung der Eiigkeitsdiagnose verfuhren wir
nach der von Siemens angegebenen Methode der Aehnlichkeits-
prufiing. .;\ls Haupttestmerkmale dienten uns : Haupthaarfarbe Haupt-
haarform, Augenfarbe, Augenbrauen, Hautfarbe am bekleideten Rük-
ken Form u Stellung der Zähne, Zahnfarbe, Gesichts- u. Kopfform
Gestaltung der Nase, Gestaltung der Ohren. Wir verwerteten aber"
auch andere körperliche Eigenschaften (Krankheit, erstes Laufen,
Zahndurchbruch u. a.) und psychische Eigenschaften (Intelligenz
Musikverständnis, Charaktereigenschaften etc.), soweit sie uns de;
Anamnese nach zugänglich waren. Auf den meist schwierig zu er-
tiZTr ^'"'^''^fr' ''''''' "'^ ^''''^'' ^^^^' ^'^ d'-e Vieldeu-
tigkeit der Eng eitsdiagnose aus den Eihüllen durch die Arbeiten
von V. Verschuer erwiesen erscheint. Nur in einzelnen Fällen
In^irt ^t"\r''^^^^^^^^^^ '^''^^' --^^^^^-'^ werden
konnte notierten wir ihn. Nachstehende Tabelle (Abb. 3) gibt über
dieses Untersuchungsergebnis schematisch Auskunft.
10
o
00
IM
M
M
<N
CN
o
CO
Abb. 3.
;;; +
+
+1 +1 +1
+1 +1+1 « <
+1 +1 +1
+
I +1
+1
+
+1 +1 +1
+
+1 +1
+1 +1 +1 +1 II
H +1 +1 +1 +1 +
+
+1 +1 <_
+1 +1 +1
+1 +1
+! +1 +1 +1 +1
15 +1 +1 +1 +1
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1
+1 +1
+1
+1 +1
+1 +1
+1
+i +
+1 +'
4-
+1
+1 +1 +1 +1 +
+l_+L+i +1
+1 +1 +1 +1
< < < -|-|
+1
+1
+
+ + +
+
+
+1 +
2 II
«
+1
1-3
3
CS
X
o
X
• •
CS
c
c
C
<
^0^
-*-• • •
CO <v
c
O O
03
SZ
CS
N
T3
C
C/5 E
^ o
"55 "o.
(U
a
c
O
o
03
x:
U
Zeichenerklärung: = : Unterschiede
ähnlich, kleine Unterschiede
größerer Unterschiede, -f :
+1
+ 1 +1 +1 +1 +':
+ 1
o
C^4
^_ ~*
1
1
+ +
— —
+
2
+1
00
<
<
+
—
—
1
1
+ 1 -r
(.
c»
<
<
(
< <
+! +
+1
00
1
1
«
«
«
<
<
<
t^
«
«
«
«
<
<
<
(D
«
<
<
<
<
«
<
OS
E
Ä
CJ
c/5
o
nicht festzustellen. ^ :
vorhanden. ^ : ähnlich
verschieden.
sehr
trotz
11
Unsere Versuehsanordnung gestaltete sich wie folgt- die
beiden Partner eines Zwillingspaares wurden nacheinander unter-
sucht. Vor Beginn der Versuche wurden sie kurz über die Art
der Reflexauslösung unterrichtet. Durch gleichgültige Unterhaltungen
Stellung von Rechenaufgaben u. dergl. mehr wurde eine psychische
Ablenkung erstrebt. In jedem Falle wurde zuerst der ältere Zwil-
ling rechts-links untersucht, der andere links-rechts. Daß bei bei-
den Partnern der reflexauslösende Schlag mit derselben Schwere
und aus entsprechender Höhe geschah, ergibt si:h aus dem vorher
nal, Versuchsanordnung Erwähnten. Mit der Auslösung des
nächsten Reflexes warten wir immer, bis der vorherige völlig ab-
geklungen war, mindestens aber 2 Sekunden. Ehe wir an die
Auswertung der unter diesen Versuchsbedingungen erhaltenen Kur-
ven gehen, müssen wir uns darüber klar sein, daß wenn de^ PSR
Diffe'nr 'Tr'tT''" ^'^^"^''^ '■^'' ^'^ ■•"'-Semindle
Uitterenz - auch der EZ. - verhältnismäßig groß sein kann
Trotzdem w,rd man beim Vergleich der Kurven 'von vo nhere, i
den Emdruck gewinnen, daß der Ablauf der Reflexausschläge d
EZ^ unteremander wesentlich ähnlicher ist, als der der ZZ was
nach unseren anfänglichen Erwägungen im Sinne einer erbiidn
Bedmgthe.t sprechen würde. Eine Bestätigung dieses Eind ucks
^usse aus den Quotienten zwischen der intrageminellen Differenz
EZ. und derenigenZZ. erhalten. Folgende 3 Krifpr! h J
dabei als Grundlage des Reflexab ^fve^werte^ " "''" "^
1). Den stärksten Ausschlag der ersten Schwingune der
sich innerhalb der gesamten Kurven eines ieden R J T^'^ /
bei wir annahmen, daß in diesem Falle dTe max mal R f, i "°"
erreicht sei) "laximale Keflexleistung
d. .llkommensten Orad^er Mrie^J^anlt; ttns Z
3). Die Anzahl der Schwingungen innerhalb der einzelnen Kurven
Zu diesem letzten Punkt ist zu erwähnen, daß d ie Zah de;
S hwmgungen, d. h. der Nachschwankunge; i„ g^Lm Maße
1^
vo;i der möglichen Entspannung des Individuums abhängig ist. Zwei-
felsohne hat bei unseren Versuchen eine große Zahl der Ver-
suchspersonen die erforderliche vollkommene Entspannung der
Muskulatur nicht durchführen können. Wenn wir diese Nach-
schwingungen trotzdem in unsere Berechnung einbeziehen, so tuen
wir dies in bewußter Kenntnis solcher äußerer Einflüsse.
Infolge der besonderen Zusammensetzung unseres Un-
tersuchungsmaterials brauchen wir uns nicht nur auf die Erörterung
der zwischen Zwillingen bestehenden Beziehungen zu beschrän-
ken; wir konnten unsere Berechnungen in einzelnen Fällen auch
allgemein auf Geschwisterschaft ausdehnen ; denn durch Geschwister-
schaft sind verbunden : ZZ. 17 mit ZZ. 18, ZZ. 19 mitZZ.20,ZZ. 2i mi|
ZZ.25u.ZZ. 26, ZZ. 28mitZZ. 29. V/ir haben also dreimal je 2 Paar
Zwillinge aus derselben Familie und einmal 3 Paar Zwillinge aus
einer Familie Durch Austausch der jeweiligen Paare untereinan-
der können wir 24 verschiedene Geschwisterkombinationen bekom-
men. Mit dem Ergebnis dieser Zusammenstellung haben mv dann
noch 24 willkürlich zusammengesetzte Paare verglichen, die nicht
durch Verwandtschaft verbunden sind, die aber untereinander un-
gefähr derselben Altersstufe angehören. Hierdurch ist uns ein
weiterer Schluß auf die Erblichkeit des PSR gestattet; denn nach
der nach der »zwillingspathologischen Vererbungsregel« von
Siemens wird jedes erbliche Leiden bei identischen Zwillingen
häufiger gemeinsam angetroffen, als bei nicht-identischen und bei
diesen häufiger gemeinsam als bei Nichtgeschwistern.
In Zahlen zusammengefaßt erhalten wir folgendes Ergebnis:
Die mittlere Differenz (hierunter soll die Summe der Unterschiede
zwischen den einzelnen Partnern, dividiert durch die Anzahl der
Paare, verstanden werden) des höchsten Anfangsausschlages eines
Paares untereinander beträgt:
^^^ ^^' ^'2 ,der g = 51,22 %
bei ZZ. 8,2
bei Geschwistern 8,3
bei Nichtverwandten 10,7
Das entspricht einem Verhältnis von 1 : 1,95 : 1,98 : 2,55
13
,.
Dif mittlere Differenz des stärksten Rückschlages beträgt:
bei EZ. 3,2 ^^^^ HZ. _
ZZ.
oder
51,61 %
bei ZZ. 6,2
bei Geschwistern 6,6
bei Nichtverwandten 9,0
Das entspricht einem Verhältnis von 1 : 1,94 : 2,06
Die Anzahl der Schwingungen war die gleiche :
2.81
bei EZ. in 57,73 7o
bei ZZ. in 44,34 7o
bei Geschwistern in 39,41 7o
bei Nichtverwandten in 36,27 7o
Versuchen wir diese Resultate graphisch darzustellen, so
erhalten wir nachstehende Bilder (Abb. 5, 6, 7). Auf der Abszis-
senachse sind jeweils die 13 ersten Versuchspaare vermerkt. Auf
derOrdinatenachse sind bei Abb. 5 und 6 die intrageminellen Dif-
ferenzen, bezw. die Unterschiede der einzelnen, nicht durch Zwil-
lingsschaft verbundenen Paare der Größe nach eingetragen, bei
Abb. 7 der Prozentgehalt der Anzahl der Schwingungen, in denen
die einzelnen Partner übereinstimmen.
Wir sehen aus allem, daß sowohl die Höhe des Reflex-
ausschlages ebenso wie sein Abfall von erblichen Einflüssen in
großem Maße abhängen muß. EZ. sind in dieser Beziehung fast
doppelt so ähnlich wie ZZ. und fast dreimal so ähnlich wie nicht-
verwandte Individuen. Die Zahlenwerte bei den Geschwistern, die
denen der ZZ. ganz nahe kommen, zeigen deutlich, daß sich in erb-
licher Bezehung ZZ. genau wie gewöhnliche Geschwister verhalten.
Der geringe Unterschied bei der prozentualen Ausrechnung der
Anzahl der Schwingungen läßt sich durch die oben skizzierten star-
ken Außenwelteinflüsse erklären. V/enn wir trotzdem noch einen
deutlich meßbaren höheren Prozentsatz der Aehnlichkeit bei EZ.
im Vergleich zu ZZ. und bei ZZ. zu Nichtverwandten feststellen
dürfen, so können wir ahnen, daß auch hier erbliche Einflüsse von
nicht geringer Stärke mitspielen müssen.
14
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14
Zusammenfassung.
1. Der von Lö wenste i n erdachte, hier beschriebene Reflex-
stuhl eignet sich besser als die bisher konstruierten Apparate zu
zwillingspathologischen PSR-Aufzeichnungen.
2. Die Aehnlichkeit der PSR-Kurven bei eineiigen Zwillingspaaren
beweist die Abhängigkeit des PSR von erblichen Einflüssen.
3. ZZ. verhalten sich in erblicher Beziehung genau so wie gewöhn-
liche Geschwister.
4. Die durch den Vergleich EZ. mit ZZ. erhaltenen Werte gestat-
ten uns einen Einblick in die Wirkungsgröße der Umwelteinflüsse
auf den PSR Die mittlere intrageminelle Differenz des stärksten
Anfangsausschlages und des stärksten Rückschlages EZ. und ZZ.
verhält sich in unseren Fällen wie 4,2 : 8,2 bzw. 3,2 : 6,2. Das
bedeutet nach Lenz und v. V e r s c h u e r , daß der Anteil der
Umwelt einem Prozentsatz von 51,22 bezw. 51,61 entspricht.
5. Der Vergleich EZ. mit ZZ. einerseits und Nichtgeschwistern
andererseits ergibt die Verhältniswerte 1 : 1.95 : 2.55 für die mitt-
lere Differenz des höchsten Anfangsausschlages eines Paares und
1 : 1,94 : 2,81 für die mittlere Differenz des tiefsten Rückschlages.
Die Anzahl der Schwingungen war die gleiche bei EZ. in 57,73 7o
bei ZZ in 44,34 7o, bei Nichtgeschwistern in 36,27 7o. Das
spricht nach der zwillingspathologischen Vererbungsregel für die
Erblichkeit dieser Merkmale.
Zum Schlüsse meiner Arbeit ist es mir eine angenehme
Pflicht Herrn Prof. Dr. L ö w e n s t e i n für die frdl. Ueberlassung
des Themas sowie für die wohlwollenden Anregungen herzlichst zu
danken.
15
Erb, W.
Galton
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16
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lichen Schwachsinns und der Letalfaktoren. (Zeitschr. f.
d. ges. Neur. Bd. l35 S. 769 1931)
Meirowsky-Lenz Neue Untersuchung über die Aetiologie der
Muttermünder. (Progr. d. Dresdener Kongr. d. Dtsch.
Dermat. Ges. 1925/12).
17
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ges. Ehysiol. Bd. 117 S. 108 ff. 1907.
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Anteil erblicher Bedingtheit beiNasenscheidewanddefor-
mitäten J.-D Bonn 1933
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dermatologischen Methode zur Eineiigkeitsdiagnose der
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Bd. 101. S. Il5 1924.)
— Ueber Vererbungsfragen in der menschlichen Pathologie
(Kli Wo. Bd. 5. Nr. 54 1926.)
Westphal C Ueber einige Bewegungserscheinungen an gelähmten
Gliedern, über einige durch mech. Einwirkung auf Seh-
19
18
71
nen und Muskeln hervorgebrachte Bewegungserschei-
nungen. (Arch. f. Psych. Bd. 5 S. 80;nf. 1875)
Wilson u. Wolfson. Organische Nervenkrankheiten bei eineiigen
Zwillingen (Bericht Nervenarzt Bd. 3 S. 380 l9;i0).
Wingfeld A.H. The intelligence of twins and of the inmates of
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58, S 661. 19:31.
Lebenslauf.
Ich, Karl Schnitzler wurde am 14. Dez. 1908 in Ameln
Kr. Jülich, als Sohn des prakt. Tierarztes Eduard Schnitzler geboren
Vom 6. — 9. Lebensjahre besuchte ich die Volksschule in Düren.
anschließend das dortige Realgymnasium wo ich Ostern 1927 das
Zeugnis der Reife erhielt.
Mein medizinisches Studium begann ich im S.-H. 1927.
Ich studierte nacheinander in Wien 2, in Köln 1, in Würzburg 2
in Berlin 1. München 1, in Würzburg 1 und die letzten 3 Semester
in Bonn.
Die ärztliche Vorprüfung legte ich Ende S.-H. 1929 in
Würzburg ab.
Das ärztliche Staatsexamen bestand ich im W.-S. 1932/33
in Bonn.
I
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Anleitung:
zum Stammbaum der
FAMILIE STRAUSS
Bearbeitet von
Herrn Rabbiner Isaak Straug
in Frankfurt a. Main
Gausstr.34
und
Herrn Salomon Koppel Straug
in Marburg (Hessen)
Bahnhofstr. 24
♦
Juli 1910
♦
Druck von L. Schwann In DOsseldorf
l-'^"«-';--; ■i;.-^jMf
Kinder:
IS (Haune), geb. 22. ii. 1856, ledig, in Berlin.
i, geb. 4. 4. 1858, verheiratet mit ihrem Vetter
lon Rosenbaum in Grebenstein, bereits erwähnt.
^' ^^^' verheiratet mit ihrem Vetter
ann Strauß (Koppel Sohn) in Marburg, später
mt.
ann Wertheim, geb. 5. 10. 1861 in Witzenhausen
ir, erst m Marburg, später in Frankfurt a. M.,
ratet 4. 3. 1900 in erster Ehe mit Paula Lehmann
-ankfurt a. M., geb. 18. 7. 1881, gest. 9. 10. 1901.
Kind:
Käthe, geb. 4. 9. 1901.
, in zweiter Ehe verheiratet mit Herta, geb
US Berlin, früher Offenbach, geb. 8. li. 1882.
Kind:
Ernst, geb. 26. 3. 1908.
ne, geb. 28. lo. 1865, verheiratet 11. 4. 1888 mit
Nathan Lipmann - Bundheim in Hamburg
rstr. 58, geb.
Kinder:
a) Max, geb. 23. 4. 1889,
b) Jettchen (Henriette), geb. 10. 8. 1890,
c) Frida, geb. 22. ii. 1892,
d) Ernst (Elieser), geb. 16. 2. 1895,
e) Gertrud, geb. 16. 8. 1896.
Dussel), Zwillingsschwester der Karoline, geb
1865, verheiratet 29. l. 1893 mit Bankier Kari
n Nordheim, geb. 6. 8. 1853 in Barderode, gest.
396 in Göttingen, später als Wwe. von Nord-
ich Marburg verzogen.
Kind:
Gerta, geb. 23. 12. 1893.
1 <i
IV Koppel StraußS geb. 2. 1. 1831 in Amöneburg, ver-
heirate 11.1855 mit Hannchen, geb.Kann^ ausMamzlar,
geb. 2. 1833 ; zogen 1870 von Amöneburg nach Marburg.
Kinder:
1 Hermann (Hone) Strauß, Kaufmann in Marburg,
' geb 10 7 1856, verheiratet 1.7. 1884 mit semer Cousme
Selma, geb. Wertheim, geb. 17. 1. in Witzenhausen.
Kinder:
a) Bruno (Baruch), geb. 29. 1. 1887, Zahnarzt,
b) Ernst, geb. 27. 6. 1889,
c) Julius, geb. 8. 8. 1890, stud. med.,
d) Siegfried, geb. 10. 10. 1898.
2 Isaak Straufe, Kaufmann in Marburg, geb. 17. 8. 1857
' in Amöneburg, verheiratet 26. 12. 1886 mit Frida, geb.
Lichtensteins aus Groß-Umstadt, geb. 28. 9. 1864.
Kinder:
a) Flora (Frommet), geb. 25. 10. 1887, verheiratet 6. 2.1910
mit Willy Speyer in Burghaun, geb. 14. 8. 1880,
b) Bella, Modistin, geb. 5. 4. 1889,
c) Paula (Breine), Putzmacherin, geb. 13. 4. 1891,
d) Thekla (Dussel), geb. 25. 5. 1895,
e) Else, Zwillingsschwester der Thekla, geb. 25. 5. 1895.
3. Salomon Strauß, Kaufmann in Marburg, geb. 3. 6.
1859, verheiratet 1. 5. 1889 mit Hanna, geb. Heilbrunn,
aus Gotha, geb. 5. 3. 1866.
1 Ungiähr bewährter, sehr religiöser isr. Gemeindevorsteher; bekannt
durch S große Sparsamkeit fü? die Gemeindekasse Marburg sowie
durch sein lebhaftes antreten tür die religiösen Interessen der Oememde.
2 AiiRerfxewöhnlich religiös, rechtlich und wahrheitsliebend. V or-
sitzend^is^isT Frauenverefns und erhielt später als Ehrenprasidentm
ein Ehrendiplom. . .
» Altbewährte Vorsitzende des jüdischen Frauenverems in Marburg. ^
/t V f
\^
'(a^f^
V#^*4<, ■.'-
■ Ptl
//
# *
» ')'
,»/;^,y.:*.>^^^>^'
A^i^i
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//.
'j i»
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dem
kaufmännisdien Redinungswesen
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PROF. DR. ERNST WALB.
It ^
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Vorwort.
Die vorliegende Sammlung soll in der Hauptsache der Unterstützung
der Vorlesung über das kaufmännische Rechnungs- und Bilanzwesen dienen
und ist in erster Linie für die Hörer derselben gedacht. Daneben bildet sie
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Freiburg i. Br., im Mai 1923.
ERNST WALB.
(j^
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f
1
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Der allgemeine Aufbau des Rechnungswesens,
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tAw
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M
c/w
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1) Einnahme aus einer Geschäftsvermittelung Ji 10 000.- 2) Warenkauf bar «^J 10 000^-
3 Warenverkauf bar Ji 6000.- 4) Warenverkauf auf Kredit .f^ 6000.-- '^>) ^ah hing
des Schuldners Ji 3000.- 6) Einkauf auf Kredit Ji 4000.- 7) Verkauf bar Ji 4400.-
8) Zahlung für Unkosten Ji 1000. —
Forderung Schuld
Soll A.15. Haben Soll C.D. Haben
Soll Kassakonto Haben
Ji
2) 10000.—
8) 1 000.—
Ji
1) 10 000.—
3) 6 000.—
5) 3000.—
7) 4 400.—
Kasseneinnahmen . . .
(Summe der Sollseite)
Forderung
(künftige Kasseneinnahme)
4)
6000.-
5)
Ji
3000.—
Ji
6) 4000.—
Ji 23 400.—
3 000.—
«
Kassenausgaben (Summe der Habenseite)
AVarenkauf -^10 000.—
Unkostenzahlung .... „ 1000.
Kassenausgabe
Erfolg . . .
Ji 26400.—
„ 15 000.—
Ji 11400.—
Wareneinkauf
auf Kredit
(künftige Kassenausgabe)
11
Ji 11000.—
„ 4000.—
Ji 15 000.—
^ 2 Rothschild A I Gruppe I d.
3 —
3. Die Verrechnung der Leistungsseite — oder die direkte Leistungs^
Verrechnung. ^
Yergleiche Vorgänge des Beispiels 2 c.
Sr,U Waronkonto Haben Soll ProTisionskonto Hahen Soll Unkostenkonto Haben
Jt
Ji
2)
10000.—
3)
6000.—
6)
4000.—
■i)
6000.—
"^j
4400.—
1)
10000.—
8)
1 000.—
Ausgang (Summe der Habenseiten)
Eingang (Summe der Sollseiten)
Erfolg Jl 11400.—
JC 26400.-
„ 15 000.-
4. Die doppelte Verrecfinung. ^
a) Die doppelte entgegengesetzte Verbudiung.
Leistungseingänge: 1) Ausgabe für eine Geschäftsvermittlung Ji 1000. — 2) Waren-
einkauf auf Kredit Jl 2000.— 3) Gebäudekauf auf Kredit Jl 10000.— 4) Gebälter
bar Jl 3000.—
Leistungsausgänge: 5) Einnahme aus einer Geschäftsvermittlung Jl 5400. —
6) Warenverkauf auf Kredit Ji 3000. — 1) Gebäudeverkauf bar Ji 12000. —
S
Leistungsreihc:
TVarenkonto H S Provisioiiskonto H
2) 2000.—
6) 3000.— 1) 1000.—
5) 5400.—
8 Gehaltskonto H S Gebäudekoiito 7/
4j 3000.—
.M
3) 10000.—
J6
7) 12000.—
,S'
Zalilunjrsroihe:
Kassakonto Jf S Fordernnarskonto H
Ji
Jt
5)
5400.
]) 1000.—
7)
12000.—
4) aooo.
J(
6) 3000.
S Sclnildenkonlo //
2) 2000.—
.'{) 10000. -
E r f o 1 g s e r m i 1 1 0 1 u n g :
Erlöse (Summe d. Habenseiten) Jl 20 400. —
Kosten (Summe der Sollseiten) „ 1 6 000. —
Gewinn JC 4 400 —
Einnjibmen (Siiirnne d. Solls.) r/l 20400. —
Ausg;ib(;n (Siirnrnc. d. Il;ib('iis.) „ 16 000. —
Gewinn //. 4 400. —
b) Umbudiungen und Stornierungen <Intcrne Huduinj^sRide).^'
1) Aufnahme eines Darlehens Jl 10 000.— 2) Warencinkniir l>,'i,r , //. 10 000. — 3) Waren-
verkauf bar Ji 6000. — 4) Warenverkauf auf Kif^lit ,M (;o()().__ 5) Zinszahlung
t/fi 1000. — , irrtümlich als AVaren verbucht. 6) KiickzahbiM^ jiuf I)/ukili(Ui JC 4000. —
7) Kückzahlung des Schuldners c^3000. — 8) Stornierung d(!r fniHchen Buchung e//^1000. —
^ 2 Rothschild A I Gruppe I d. • « Rothschild A I Grupix! II f.
— 4 —
'\
S Warenkonto H S Zinsenkonto H
2) 10000.—
5) 1000.—
Ji
3) 6000.—
4) 6000.—
8) 1000.—
8) 1000.—
S Kassakonto H S Forderungskonto H
1) 10000.—
3) 6000.—
7) 3000.-
2) 10000.—
.5) 1000.—
6) 4000.—
vfv
4) 6000.—
7) 3000.—
S Schuldenkonto H
Erlöse (Summe d.Habenseiten) Ji 13 000.
Kosten (Summe der Sollseiten) „ 12 000.
Gewinn J6 1000.
6) 4000.—
1) 10000.-
Einnahmen (Summe d. Solls.) J6 29000.—
Ausgaben (Summe d. Habens.) „ 28 000.—
Gewinn » J^ 1 QQ^--
5. Erfolgswirksamc und crfolgsunwirksamc Fälle. ^
1) Aufnahme eines Darlehens von A.B. J( 10 000.- 2) Waren-Einkauf gegen bar
^ 10 000.— 3) Verkauf gegen bar J6 6000.— 4) Verkauf an C. D. J6 6000.—
5) Zinszahlung J6 1000.- 6) Zahlung des CD. J6 3000.- 7) Rückzahlung an A.B.
Ji) 4000.—
s
Wirksame
Kassakonto H S CD.
H
3) 6000.—
6) 3000.—
^
Ji
2) 10000.— 4) 6000.—
5) 1000.—
Ji
6) 3000.—
Unwirksame
S Kassakonto HS A.B.
H
j(,
1) 10000.-
Ji
7) 4000.— 7) 4000.—
Ji
1) 10000.—
6. Die Erweiterung der Konten der Zahlungsreihe.'
a> Wcdiscl^, Akzepte^ und Hypothekenkonto.
1) Hypothekenschuld Ji 100000.- 2) Forderung an A.B. Ji 10000.- 3) Schuld an
CD. Ji 5000.- 4) Zahlung des A.B. durch Wechsel Ji 10 000.- 5) Übergabe eines
Akzeptes an CD. ^i 5000.—
Soll
Wechselkonto Haben Soll Akzeptekonto Hahen Soll Hypothekenkonto Haben
Ji,
4) 10000.—
Soll
A.B.
2) 10000.-
Haben
4) 10000.—
Ji
5) 5000.—
1)
Ji
100000.—
Soll
CD.
1
Haben
•
Ji
Ji
•
•fc
5) 5000.-
-
3)
5000.—
-
.
>
^
1 Rothschild A I Gruppe I d y..
2 Rothschild A I d ß.
— 5 —
b> Kapitalkonto, Gewinn* und Verlustkonto.^
1) Provisionsleistung des Betriebes Ji 10000.- 2) Aufwendung für Zinsen M 1000.—
3) Aufwendung für Unkosten Ji 2000.—
S ProYisionskonto H S Zinsenkonto H S Unkostenkonto H 8 Kassakonto H
J6
Auf G. U.V.
10000.—
Ji
1)10000.— 2) 1000.—
Auf G. U.V.
1000.-
^
3) 2000.—
Auf G. u.V.
2000.-
1)10000 —
J6
2) 1000.—
3) 2000.—
Kosten
Soll
Gewinn- nnd Verlnstkonto
Erlöse
Haben
Soll
Eapitalkonto
Haben
V. Zinsenkonto 1 000.—
„ Unkostenk. 2000.—
Auf Kapitalk.
(ReiDgewinii)7000.—
10000.—
Von Provisionskouto
10000.
lOOOO.—
Von Gewinn- und
Verlustkonto 7000.-
Kassenbestand (Vermögen)
Kapital
= Jl 7000.—
= „ 7000.—
c) Erweitertes Beispiel.
1) Bareinlage des Unternebmers Ji) 50 000.— 2) Darleben an A.B. ^ 40 000.—
3) Vermittlung des Betriebes gegen bar J6 10 000.— 4) Wechsel des A.B. J6 40 000. —
5) Darlehen von CD. ^20 000.— 6) Zinsen an CD. bar J6 1000.— 7) Unkosten
^ 2000.— 8) Akzept an CD. J^ 20000.— 9) Kapitalrückziebung J6 10 000.—
S ProTisionskonto H S Zinsenkonto H
Auf G. u.V.
10000.—
Ji
J(e
3) 10000.— 6) 1000
J&
Auf G. u.V.
1000.—
S Unkostenkonto H
Ji
7) 2000.—
Auf G. U.V.
"2000.-
S Kassakonto H S Wecliselkonto H
tM
Ji
1) 50000.—
2) 40000.—
3) 10000.-
6) 1000.
5) 20000.—
7) 2000.—
9) 10000.—
Ji
4) 40000.—
s
A.B.
H S Akzeptekonto //
2) 40000.—
Soll
Gewinn- nnd Verlnstkonto
Haben
Von Zinsen-
konto . . . 1000.—
Von Unkosten-
konto . . . 2000.—
Auf Kapitalkonto
(Reingewinn) 7000.—
* Rothschüd A I Gruppe I d 8 u. d -/i.
Von Provisions-
konto . . 10000.—
Ji
4) 40000.-
Jv
8) 20000.—
s c.
D. B
Ji
8) 20000.—
vfw
5) 20000.—
Soll
Kapitalkonto
Haben
9)
Ji
10000.-
Ji
1) 50000.—
Von Gew.- u.
Verl. -Konto
(Reingewinn) 7000. —
Gewinnermittelung aus der Zahlungsreihe
Einnahmen Ji 190000.— (Sollsummen)
Ausgaben „ 183000.— (Habensummen)
Überschuß
Ji 7000.—
— 6 —
[f
'
3
7. Aktivkonten, Passivkonten, Bilanzkonto und Kontenabsdiluß.
a> Die Saldengleichheit (auf Grundlage des Beispiels 6 c). ~
Provisionskonto ....
Zinsen- „ . . . .
Unkosten- „ . . . .
Gewinn- und Verlustkonto
Kassenkonto
Konto A. B
« C.D
Wechsflkonto
Akzepte- „
Kapital- „
Soll
Ji
10000.—
1000.—
2000.—
10000.—
80000.—
40000.—
20000.—
40000.—
10000.—
Haben
10000.—
1000.—
2000.—
10000.—
53000.—
40000.—
20000.—
20000.—
57000.—
Saldo
.^)Ar^\>ti
Soll
27000.—
AI/
Haben '^
Ji
40000.—
20000.—
47000.—
213000.—
213000.
67000.—
67000.-
b> Die Anwendung des Bilanzkontos im periodisdien Gesamtabsdiluß.
(Auf Grundlage desselben Beispiels.)
Soll Kassalcont« Hahen Soll Ak.eptekonto_a«6m Soll Wechselkonto Haben
Ji
vfV
80000.— I 53000.— Auf Bilanz-
Auf Bilanz- konto . . 20000.-
konto . . . 27000.—
80000.—
80000.—
Soll
Kapitalkonto
1
Ji
20000.—
Ji
40000.—
Ji
Auf Bilanz-
konto . . 40000.—
Haben
Soll
Bilanzkonto
Haben
Ji
10000.—
Auf Bilanz-
konto . . . 47000.-
57000.—
Ji
57000.—
57000.
Ji
Ji
Von Kassen-
Von Akzepte-
konto . .
27000.—
konto .... 20000.—
Von AVech-
Von Kapital-
selkonto .
40000.—
konto .... 47000.—
67000.—
I
67000.—
8. Anwendung des Kontentextes. <FormelIe Ausgestaltung.)'
Aufbau auf Beispiel 4 b (vergl. S. 4).
1) Aufnahme eines Darlehens Ji 10000.- (Per Kasse an C. D. [Gläubiger]). 2) Waren-
e nkauf bar Jt 10000.- (Per Warenkonto an Kassenkonto). 3) Warenverkauf bar ^ 6000.-
Per Kasse an Waren). 4) Warenverkauf auf Kredit Ji 6000.- (Per A. B Schuldner]
an Warenkonto). 5) Zinszahlung Ji 1000.-, irrtümlich als Waren verbucht (Per Waren
an Kasse). 6) Rückzahlung auf Darlehen Ji 4000.- (Per C D. [Glaub.ger an Kasse .
7) Rückzahlung des Schuldners Ji 3000.- (Per Kasse an A. B. [Schuldner]). 8) Stor-
nierung der falschen Buchung Ji 1000.- (Per Zinsen an Waren).
sßothschild AI Gruppe IIb.
'Rothschild AI Gruppe II dC, und d-r).
— 7 —
**
Soll
Warenkonto
Haben
Ji
2) AnKassenk. 10000.—
5) „ Kassenk. 1000.—
An Gewinn- und
Verlustkonto 13000.—
24000.—
i/W
3) Per Kassenk. 6000.—
4) „ A.B . . 6000.-
8) „ Zinsenk. 1000.—
Per Gewinn- u.
Verlustkonto 11000.—
24000.—
Soll
Eassakonto Haben
Ji
Ji
1) An CD. . .
10000.—
2) Per Warenk. 10000.—
3) „ Warenk.
6000.—
5) „ „ 1000.-
7) „ A.ß. . .
3000.-
6) „CD. . 4000.
PerBilanzkonto 4000.—
%
m
19000.-
19000.
Soll
Zinsenkonto
Haben
8) An Waren-
konto . . . .
J6
1 000.—
1000.
Ji
Per Gewinn- u.
Verlustkonto
1000.—
1000.—
Soll
Gewinn- und Verlustkonto Haben
Soll
A.
B. Haben
4) An Warenk.
J6
6000.—
7) Per Kassenk. 3000.—
Per Bilanzkonto 3000.—
»
6000.—
6000.—
An Warenkonto 11000.—
„ Zinsenkonto 1000. —
„ Kapitalkonto 1000.-
13000.—
PerWarenkonto 13000.—
13000.—
Soll C. ]
D. Hahen
6) An Kassenk. 4000.—
An Bilanzkonto 6000.—
1) Per Kassenk. 10000.—
10000.—
10000.—
Soll
Bilanzkonto
Haben
Soll
Kapitalkonto
Haben
An Bilanzkonto
1000.-
Per Gewinn- u.
Verlustkonto
1000.
1000.—
1000.
^
___..
"■
An Kassenkonto 4000. —
A.B. ... 3000.-
w
7000.-
Ji
Per CD. . . . 6000.—
„ Kapitalkonto 1000.—
. . 7 000.—
9. Die Konten der Umsatzwerte. ^
a) Das Warenkonto.
1) Kapitaleinlage des Unternehmers Ji 15000.— (Per Kasse an Kapital). 2) Waren-
einkauf auf Kredit von A. Ji 10000.— (Per Waren an A. [Gläubiger]). 3) Warenverkauf
gegen bar Ji 7 000.— (Per Kasse an Waren). 4) Warenverkauf an B. Jfo 2000.— (Per
Waren an B. [Schuldner]). 5) Unkosten auf Waren jH> 200.— (Per Waren an Kasse).
6) Nachlaß des A. Ji 100.— (Per A. [Gläubiger] an Waren). 7) Eücksendung des B.
Ji 400.— (Per Waren an B. [Schuldner]). 8) Zahlung an A. Ji 9900.— (Per A.
[Gläubiger] an Kasse). 9) Warenbestand jHo 3000.— (Per Bilanz an Waren).
Haben Soll Gewinn- und Verlustkonto Haben
Soll
Warenkonto
2) An A. . . .
5) „ Kasse .
7) w -ß" • •
An Gew. U.Verl.
10000.—
200 —
400.—
1500.—
12100.-
3) Per Kasse
4) „ B. . ,
6) „ A. .
9) M Bilanz
w
J6
7000.—
2000.—
100.—
3000.—
12100 —
An Kapital
1500.-
1500.
Per Waren
1500.—
1 600.-
* Rothschild A I Gruppe I d a und A II b 7.
— 8 —
Soll
Kassakonto
Haben
Soll
A.
Haben
M
1) An Kapital 15000.
ö)
»
Waren 7000.-
22000.—
5) Per Waren
Per Bilanz . .
Soll
1
B.
200.—
9900.—
11900.—
22000.—
Haben
6) An Waren
8)
Kasse
100.—
9900.—
Ji
2) Per Waren 10000.—
10000.
Soll
Kapitalkonto
10000.—
Haben
4) An Waren
2000.—
2000.-
7) Per Waren
Per Bilanz . .
400.—
1600.—
2000.—
An Bilanz . .
16500.—
16500.—
M
1) Per Kasse 15000.—
Per Gew. u. Verl. 1500.—
16500.—
Soll
Bilanzkonto
Haben
9) An Waren 3000.—
An Kasse 11900.—
Tj .... 1600.—
« -^ .^__— — .—
16500.—
Ji
Per Kapital 16500.—
16.500.—
b> Die Konten der Umsatzwerte in Fabrikbetrieben. ^
I. Verrechnung sämtlicher Fabrikationsvorfälle in einem Fabrikationskonto.
^^11 Fabrikationskonto
Haben
Materialbestand
Materialzugang
Lohnkosten . •
Fabrik.-Unkosten
Nachlaß . . •
Gewinn . • •
Ji
10000.—
80000.—
40000.—
20000.—
800.—
13000.—
163800.—
Ji
Verkauf 100000.-
Rabatt 200.—
Restbestände:
Material 8000.—
Halbfabrikate 15000.—
Fertigfabrikate . . . . 40600.—
163800.—
IL Vorkonten zum Fabrikationskonto.
Soll
Materialkonto Haben Soll Löhnekonto Haben ^oZZ Fabrik.-Unkostenkto. Haben
Ji
Anfangs-
bestand 10000.
Zugang 80000.-
90000.
Fabrika-
tionsk. 81800.-
Rabatt 200.-
Material-
bestand 8000.-
90000.-
Kasse
Ji
40000.-
40000.
Ji
Fabri-
kations-
konto 40000.-
Ji
Kasse . 20000.
Fabri-
kations-
konto 20000.-
40000-
20000.
20000.
Soll
Fabrikationskonto
Haben
Ji
\i
Material 81800.—
Löhne 40000.-
Unkosten 20000.—
Rabatt 800.—
Gewinn 13000.—
155600.—
tAv
Verkauf 100000.-
Halbfabrikato 15000.—
Fertigfabrikate .... 40600.—
155600.
» Rothschild, A I Gruppe I d t und Gruppe III b y-
— 9 --
/J
WMMMI
\
III. Vor- und Nachkonten zum Fabrikationskonto.
(Materialkonto, Lohnkonto, Fabrikations-Unkostenkonto wie vorn.)
Soll
Fabrikationslioiito
Haben
Soll
Fertigfabrikatekonto
Haben
141 800.—
Material
Löhne
Unkosten
81 800.—
40 000.—
20 000.—
Fcrtigfkte.
Halbfkte.
126 800 —
15 000.—
Fabrikations-
konto
Ji
126 800-
141 800.—
126 800.—
Verkaufs-
konto
Bostandkonto
86 200.—
40 600.—
126 800.—
Soll
Verkaufskonto
Haben
Ji
Fertigfabrikate-
konto 86 200.—
Rabatt 800.—
Gew. u. Verl. 13 000.—
100 000.—
(Verkäufe)
100 000.—
100 000.—
10. Die Konten der Gebraudiswerte. ^
Fortsetzung des Beispiels 9 a.
Soll Abschlußbilanz aus Oa Haben
Ji
Ji
An Waren . .
. . 3 000.—
Per Kapital . .
. . 16 500.—
„ Kasse . .
. . 11900.—
,. J3« • • •
. . 1 600.—
16 500.—
16 500.—
1) Mascliineneinkauf von C. Ji) 10 000.— (Per Maschinen an C. [Gläubiger]). 2) Mobilien-
kauf Ji) 1000.— (Per Mobilien an Kasse). 3) Neue Kapitaleinlage Ji 50 000.— (Per Kasse
an Kapitalkonto). 4) Hauskauf Ji 100 000.—, darauf bar bezahlt Ji 35 000.—, Eest
mit Ji 65 000. — Hypothek (Per Immobilien an folgende: Kasse Ji 35 000. — und Hypo-
thek. Ji 65 000). 5) Zahlung des B. Ji 1600.— (Per Kasse an B. [Schuldner]). 6) Waren-
verkauf an B. Ji 5500.— (Per B. [Schuldner] an Waren). 7) Unkosten Ji 500.— (Per Un-
kosten an Kasse). 8) Abschreibung auf Maschinen und Mobilien je 10% (Per Abschreibung
an folgende: Maschinenkonto, Mobilienkonto). 9) Abschreibung auf Immobilien ^j^^lo
(Per Abschreibung an Immobilien). 10) Warenbestand Ji 1500. — (Per Bilanz an Waren).
11) Kassenmanko Ji 200. — (Per Manko an Kasse).
S Warenkonto H S Maschinenkonto H
e/fv
An Bilanz
3 000.-
An G. u. V.
4 000.-
7 000.
j&
Ji
1) 10 000.—
6) 5 500.-
10) 1500.-
7 000.
10 000.—
8)
J6
1 000.—
Per Bilanz
9 000.-
10 000.
S Unkostenkonto H S Mobilienkonto H
J6
7) 500.—
500.
Ji
Per G. u.V.
500.—
500.—
Ji
JI
2) 1000.-
8) 100.—
Per Bilanz
900.—
1 000 —
1 000.—
s
c.
H S Kassakonto H
Ji
An Bilanz
10 000.—
10 000.-
Ji
1) 10 000.—
Jh
An Bilanz
11900.'
3) 50 000.-
B) 1 600.-
10 000.—
63 500.-
»^
2) 1 000.-
4) 35 000.-
7) 500.-
11) 200.-
Per Bilanz]
26 800.-
63 500.-
1 Rothschild A I Gruppe I d i und A II b ß.
10 —
<^
S Immobilienkonto H ÄAbsclireibungskto. H 1 .S Hypothekenkonto H £
B.
H
Ji \ Ji -^
4)100000.-9) 500.— 8) 1000.—
Per Bilanz 8) 100.-
99 500.— 9) 500.-
100 000.—
100 000.
1 600.—
Ji
Per G. u.V.
1 600.—
1 600.—
vfv
An Bilanz
65 000.
S Mankokonto H
Ji
Ji
An Bilanz
4) 65000.— 1600.—
6) 5 50O.-
65 000
7 100.
Ji
5) 1 600.—
Per Bilanz
5 500 —
7 100.—
=1=
Kapitalkonto Haben
Ji
An Bilanz 68 200.—
68 200.—
tAv
Per Bilanz 16 500.—
3) 50 000.—
Per G. u.V. 1700.—
68 200.—
Soll
Gewinn- und Verlustkonto Haben
Soll
Bilanzkonto
Haben
Ji
An Mankokonto 200. —
Unkosten- ., 500, —
1600.—
7?
„ Abschbg.-
Kapital-
1700.-
4000.—
Ji
PerWarenkonto 4000.—
10) An Waren 1500.—
„ Maschinen 9000.—
Mobilien 900.—
Immobil. 99500 —
Kasse 26800.—
B. 5500.—
5>
4000.—
143200.-
Ji
Per C. 10000.-
„ Hypoth. 65000.—
„ Kapital 68^eOr—
143200.—
11. Die Konten der Dienftleiftungen. '
(Fortsetzung des Beispiels 10.)
Abschlußbilanz des Beispiels aus 10.
Ji
Au Waren . . .
1500.—
„ Maschinen . .
9000.—
„ Mobilien . .
900.—
„ Immobilien
. 99500.—
„ Kasse . • .
. 26800.—
« B
5500.—
143200.—
•/fW
Per C 10000.-
„ Hypotheken . . 65000.—
„ Kapital ....
wo J.UO. ■
143200.—
I) Wareneinkauf von C. J& 20000.- (Per Waren an C. [Gläubiger]). 2) Zahlung an C
i 10 000.- (Per C. an Kasse). 3) Verkauf an B. Ji. 18000.- (Per B. an AVaren).
4) Maschinenkauf bar Ji 1000.- (Per Maschinen an Kasse). 5) Verkauf eines Maschinen-
teils J( 100.- (Per Kasse an Maschinen). 6) Zahlung von Miete (davon 1 Periode im
voraus) Ji 4000.- (Per Miete an Kasse). 7) Rückständige Gehälter JS 1000.- (Per Ge-
halt an Bilanz). 8) Kassenmanko, direkt auf Gewinn und Verlust Ji 100.- (Per Gewinn
und Verlust an Kasse). 9) Abschreibung auf Maschinen 10 «/o. 10) Abschreibung auf
Mobilien 10 »/o (Per Abschreibung bzw. Gewinn und Verlust an Maschinen und Mobilien).
II) Abschreibung auf Immobilien >///o auf Gewinn und Verlust (Per Gewinn und Ver-
lust an Immobilien). 12) Warenbestand Ji 9000.- (Per Bilanz an Waren).
' > Rothschild, A I Gruppe I d a u. -«i; A II a.
— 11 —
iS Warenkonto H
An Bilanz
1500.-
1) 20000.-
AnG.u.V.
5500.-
J6
27000.-
3) 18000.-
12) 9000.-
27000.-
S Grundstückskonto H
An Bilanz
99500.-
J6
11) 500.-
PerBilanz
99000.-
99500.-
99500.-
jSi Maschinenkonto H
ji
Ji>
An Bilanz
9000.—
5) 100.—
9) 1000.—
4) 1 000.—
Per Bilanz
8900.—
10000.—
10000.—
S Mobilienkonto H
An Bilanz |lO) 90.—
900.-
Per Bilanz
810.—
900.—
900.—
S Mietekonto II S Gehaltskonto II
6) 4000.—
4000.—
Per (^. U.V. 7) 1000.-
i4000.-
4000.—
1000.-
PerG.u.V.
1000.-
1000.—
Soll
Gewinn- nnd Verlustkonto Ilahen
8)
9)
10)
11)
100.—
1 000.—
90.—
500.—
An Gehaltskto. 1000.—
Mietekto. 2000.-
»
Kapitalkto. 810.-
5500.—
PerWarenkto. 5 500.—
5500.—
S Kassakonto H
An Bilanz
26800.-
5) 100.-
26900.-
2) 10 000.—
4) 1000.—
6) 4000.—
8) 100.—
Per Bilanz
11800.—
26900.
S Kapital
konto H
«/TP
M
An Bilanz
PerBilanz
69010.—
68200 —
Per G. u.V.
810.-
69010.—
69010.—
S Hypothekenkonto H S C* (Kreditor) II
An Bilanz
65000 —
PerBilanz
65000,—
65000.—
65000.—
2) 10000.
An Bilanz
20000.—
Per Bilanz
10000.—
1) 20000.-
30000.—
30000.—
S B. (Debitor) H
An Bilanz | Per Bilanz
5500.—
3) 18000.—
23500.—
23500.-
23500.
Soll
Bilanzkonto
Haben
Ji
Ji
AnWarenbest. 9000.—
„ Kasse 11800.—
„ Mobilien 810.—
„ B. 23500.—
„ Maschinen 8900.—
Per(rückständ.)
Gehälter, 7) 1000.-
„ Hypothek. 65000.-
„ C. 20000.-
„ Kapital 69010.-
„ Grdstcke. 99000.—
„ Miete (vor-
ausbezahlt) 2000.—
155010.—
155010.-
12. Die Zahlungskontcn. *
(Fortsetzung des Beispiels 11.)
Abschlnßhilanz aus Beispiel 11.
M
Ji
An
Waren . . .
9000.—
Per C
20000.
w
Mobilien . .
810.—
r
Hypotheken . .
65000.-
»
Maschinen . .
8900.—
»
Gehalt . . . .
1 000.—
n
Grundstücke .
. 99000.—
n
Kapital . .
69010.—
r
Kasse . . .
. 11800.—
n
B
. 23500.—
n
Miete . . .
2000.
155010.—
155010.—
^Rothschild, A I Gruppe Idß; A IlbS.
12 —
/
4^
1) Wechsel von B. ^ 10000.- (Per Wechsel an B.). 2) Akzept an C^ ^^'^^^^
Akzept) Ji 20000.-. 3) Waren an B. Ji 11000.- (Per B. an Waren). 4) Barzahlung
ts R .i^llOOC-, abzüglich 2 0/0 Skonto, direkt verbucht (f- folgende [Kasse ^^^^^^^
Zinsen] an B.). 5) Wechsel von B. JL UOOO.- (Per Wechsel an ^■>- J]^^^'^^^
des Wechsels von ^10000.- mit J^ 100.- Abzug, rndn^ekt verbucht (J«^ K**^^« ^^
Wechsel und Per Zinsen an Kasse). 7) Ankauf eines Wechsels von -^3000.- m t
ZiT- Abzug, direkt verbucht (Per Wechsel an Folgende: Kasse und Z-enko"to).
^ Wareneinkauf von 0. Ji 10000.- (Per Waren an 0.). 9) B-^^^l^/- ^J;
g kauften Waren mit 2 7» Skonto, indirekt verbucht (Per C. an Kasse -^ Pe^^^^^^^^^
an Zinsen). 10) Rediskont des Wechsels von Ji 3000.-, Abzug JS 20.-, direkt verbucht
Tper Folgende Kasse und Zinsen] an Wechselkonto). 11) Gehaltszahlung Ji 2000 -
%l Gehalt an Kasse). 12) Hypothekentilgung Ji 3000.- (Per Hypothe^n^a.K^^^^^^^
13) Hypothekenzinszahlung Ji 1000.- (Per Zinsen an Kasse) U) P»;'^^"*";^*'
y 2000 - (Per Privat an Kasse). 15) Vorauszahlung von Hypothekenzinsen ^ 2000 -
^e Zinsen ^!n Kasse). 16) AbscUung auf Maschinen 10 «/„ (Per Gewinn und V.lu^
an Maschinen). 17) Abschreibung auf Mobilien 10% (Per Gemnn und Veilust an
MobS 18 AbsLibung auf Immobilien V.^o (Per Gewinn -^ Ve^s^^ an Im
mobilien) 19) Warenbestand Ji 13 000.- (Per Bilanz an Waren). 20) Rückbuchung
d;r vorausgezahlten Hypothekenzinsen Ji 2000.- (Per Bilanz an Zinsen).
S Grundstückskonto H S Mascliinenkonto H
An Bilanz
99 000.-
18) 495.
Per Bilanz
98 505.
An Bilanz
8 900-
t/fv
16) 890.
Per Bilanz
8 010.
S
Kassakonto H S Hypotliekenkonto H
S Mobilienkonto H S Warenkonto H
J6
An Bilanz
11 800.-
4) 10 780.-
6) 10 000.-
9) 200.-
10) 2 980.-
Ji
An Bilanz
810.-
810.-
An Bilanz
17) 81.- 9 000.-
Per Bilanz
729.- 8) 10 000.-
AnG.U.V.
5 000.-
24 000.-
Ji
3) 11000.-
Per Bilanz
13 000.-
35 760.
6) 100.-
7) 2 960.-
9) 10 000.-
1 1) 2 000.-
12) 3000.-
13) 1 000.-
14) 2 000.-
15) 2000.-
Per Bilanz
12 700.
J6
12) 3 000.-
An Bilanz
62 000.-
./TB
Per Bilanz
65 000.-
35 760.-
65 000.- 65 000.-
810.-
24 000.-
S Zinsenkonto H S Gehaltskonto H
S
Debitor B. HS Wechselkonto H
An Bilanz
23 500.
3) UOOO.-
4) 220.-
6) 100.-
10) 20.-
13) 1 000.-
15) 2 000.-
3 340-
J6
7)
9)
40.-
200.- 11) 2000.-
Per Bilanz
I 2 000.-
|perG.u.V.
1 100.-
Per Bilanz
1 000.-
PerCu.V.
1 000.-
Ji
1) 10 000.-
4) 11000.-
.5) 11000.-
Per Bilanz
2 500.-
34 500.
Ji
1)
10 000.-
5)
11 000.-
7)
3 000.-
6) 10000.-
10) 3000.-
Per Bilanz
11000.-
34 500.
24 000.
i
24000.-
S
Kreditor C. HS Akzeptekonto H
3 340.-
2 000.-
2 000.-
J6
Ji
Per Bilanz
2) 20 000.-
20 000.-
9) 10 000.-
8) 10 000.-
Ji
An Bilanz
20 000.-
Ji
2) 20 000.-
30 000.-1 30 000.- 20 000.- 20 000.-
— 13 —
Iv.l,
iwff«' «n<mmwiiHi muttmi ■w*i""»t. itTtw^rr^^yartin -^
S Mietekonto H
Ji I Ji
An Bilanz IPerG. u.V.
2 000.-
2 000.-
2 000.-
2 000.-
S Kapitalkonto H 5 Privatentnahmekto, h^
Soll
Gewinn- und Verlnstkonto
Haben
16) ... . 890.—
17) ... . 81.-
18) ... . 495.—
An Mietekto. 2 000.—
„ Gehaltskto. 1 000.—
„ Zinsenkto. 1 100.—
M
PerWarenkto. 5 000.-
„ Kapitalkto. 566.-
5 566.—
5 .566.—
J6
Ji
An Privat
Per Bilanz
2 000.-
69 010.-
« G.n.V.
566.-
„ Bilanz
66 444.-
69 010.-
69 010.-
Ji
2 000.
J6
Per Kapital
2 000.-
2 000.-
Soll
Bilanzkonto
Haben
Ji
An Zinsen (voraus-
gezahlt) 2 000.—
„ AVarenbe-
stand . 13 000.—
„ Kasse . . 12 700.—
Debitor . 2 500.—
Maschinen 8 010. —
Mobilien . 729.—
Grund-
stücke . 98 505.—
Wechsel . 11000.—
J6
Per Akzepte . 20 000.—
„ Hypothek 62 000.—
„ Kapital . 66 444.—
V
148 444.-
148 444.—
13. Die Roh^ oder Probebilanz.'
a> Aufmachung der Roh- oder Prohchilanz.
Umsatz 1
Salc
Soll
1
Inventurbestände
Gewinn-
und Ver-
Konten
(Verkehr
Soll
1
szififern)
Haben
len
Haben
^lanzki)nto) i
Soll ] Haben |
lustk
Soll
onto
Haben
Waren
Ji
15 600.—
4 700.—
Ji
10 900.—
.y/6
Ji
17 000.—
Ji
Ji
Ji
6 100.-
i
Kasse ....
18 511.
15 100.—
3 411.—
3 311.—
—
100.
—
1
Wechsel . . .
4 300.—
4 300.—
—
in
Debitoren . . .
11 500.—
4 000.—
7 500.—
7 500.—
—
1
Maschinen . . .
7 200.—
7 200.—
6 480.
720.—
—
1
Mobilien . . .
900.—
900.—
810.—
90.—
—
*
Immobilien
99 500.—
99 500.—
99 000.—
500.—
—
Hypotheken .
1 000.—
65 000.—
64 000.—
—
64 000.—
—
Kreditoren . .
4 700.—
4 700.—
—
Zinsen . . .
2174.-
2 174.—
700.—
1 474.—
—
Privatentnahme
1 000.—
—
1 000.—
—
—
—
II^Q^
—
Unkosten . .
1 000.-
1 000.—
—
—
1 000.—
—
Kapital . . .
69 585.—
69 585.
70 801.
1216.
(an Kapital)
167 385.—
167 385.—
133 585.—
133 585.—
134 801.—
134 801.
6 100.—
6 100.—
L I Gruppe II f.
Ka
pitalkonto
ai 69 585.—
— „ 1000.— '•
» Rothschild, A
JI 68 585.—
-f „ 2 216.—
Ji 70 6
(Ol.—
b> Die Prohchilanz als ausschließliches Mittel der kurzfristigen Erfolgsermittlung.
Konten
Soll
Haben
Soll
Haben
Kontokorrentkonto . . .
Bankkonto
Ji
264 000 —
469 800.—
Ji
250 524.—
500 059.—
Ji
13 476.—
J6
30 259.—
\
AVechselkonto
Akzeptekonto
Materialkonto
Kapitalkonto
244 650.—
433 556. -
236 050.—
2 048.—
264 181.—
165 120.—
8 600.—
169 375.—
2 048 —
165 120.—
reine
Bestandskonten
Material in Fabrikation .
Lohnkonto
264 181.—
22 357.—
—
264 181.—
22 357.—
reine
Erfolgskonten
Ji
Betriebsunkostenkonto . .
Vertriebsunkostenkonto
Verkaufskonto
7 961.—
5 376.—
293 899.—
7 961.—
5 376.—
293 899 —
'Soll 299 875.—
Haben 293 899.—
^ Verlust 5 976.—
1711881.—
1 711 881.—
491 326.-
491 326.—
Soll
14. Die Gesamtheit der Absdilußvorgänge. '
Zusammenfassendes Beispiel.
(Aufgebaut auf Beispiel 13 a.)
Absclilußbilanz aus Beispiel 13a Haben
t/TB
An Waren 17000.—
Kasse 3311.
Kontokorrent . . • 7500.—
Maschinen 6480.
Mobilien 810.—
Immobilien .... 99000.
Zinsen '^Q^- —
V
n
134801.
Per Hypotheken .... 64000.—
„ Kapital 70801.—
134801.—
1) Waren von C. (Kreditor) J6 6000.- (Per Waren an Kontokorrent). 2) Wechsel
von B. J6 7500.- (Per Wechsel an Kontokorrent). 3) Waren an B. JS 9000.— (Per
Kontokorrent an Waren). 4) Diskontierung des Wechsels von B., ab J6 75.— Diskont,
direkt (Per Kasse an Wechsel, Per Zinsen an Kasse). 5) Zahlung an C. J6 4000.-,
ab 27o Skonto, direkt (Per C. an Folgende: Kasse und Zinsen). 6) Zahlung Hypotheken-
zins J6 800.- (Per Zinsen an Kasse). 7) Privatentnahme J6 2000.- (Per Privat, an
Kasse). 8) Unkosten J6 1500.— (Per Unkosten an Kasse).
Restbestände: Kasse
Waren
Maschinen
Ji) 2310.—
„ 18000.—
6000.—
Mobilien
Immobilien
Nachtragsposten
n
400.—
98000.—
45.— Zinsen für B.
Rothschild, AI Gruppe II h 5.
14 —
— 15 —
S Immobilienkonto H S Maschinenkto. H
Per Bilanz
An Bilanz
99000.-
99000.
Per Bilanz An Bilanz
98000.- 6480.-
,G.D.V.
1000.-
99000.-
6480.-
6000-
„ G.U.V.
480.-
6480.-
S TVarenkonto H S Mobilienkonto H
t/fwf
Per Bilanz
An Bilanz
17000.
1) 6 000.
An G. U.V.
4000.
27000.
3) 9000.- An Bilanz
Per Bilanz 810.
18000.-
27000.
810.
400.
„ Q.U.V.
410.-
810.-
S Zinsenkonto H S Unkostenkonto H
%4h
An Bilanz
700.
4) 75.-
6) 800.-
1575.
5) 80.- 8) 1500.
Per Kto.-Korr.
45.-
„ G.U.V.
1450.-
1575-
1500.-
PerG.u.V.
1500-
1500.
Soll
Gewinn- und Verlustkonto Haben
e-T§
An Kassa-Konto 206.—
„ Immobil.- „1000.-
„ Maschin.- „ 480.—
Mobilien-
410 —
Unkosten- „1500.—
M
PerWarenkto. 4000.—
„ Kapital-« 1046.—
Zinsen-
1450.—
5046.—
5046.—
S
Kassakonto H S Kontokorrentkto. H
An Bilanz 14)
4)
3311.-
7500.-
75-
3920.-
800.-
2000.-
1500.-
Per Bilanz
2310.-
,. G.U.V.
206.-
5)
6)
7)
8)
J6
An Bilanz
7500.-
3) 9000.-
5) 4000.
An Zinsen
45.
1) 6O0O.-
2) 7500.-
Per Bilanz
7045.-
10811.-
10811.
20545.-
20545.-
S Wechselkonto H S Hypotliekenkonto H
1) 7 500.
7500.-
t^
4) 7500.- An Bilanz
64000.-
7500.-
64000.
Ber Bilanz
64000'
64000.-
S Kapitalkonto H S Priratentn.-Konto H
Per Kapital
2000.-
Ji
An Privat
2000.
„ G.u.V.
1046.-
„ Bilanz
67755.-
t.'fi
Per Bilanz 7)
70801.-
2000.
70801.
70801.-
2000.-
2000.
Soll
Bilanzkonto
Haben
Ji
An Waren . 18000.—
, Kasse . 2310.—
„ Kontokorr. 7045. —
. Maschinen 6000.—
Jfv
Per Hypothek 64 000.—
„ Kapital 67 755.—
Immobil.
Mobilien
98000.—
400.—
131755 —
131755.—
Konten
Waren . . .
Kasse . . .
Kontokorrent
Maschinen
Mobilien .
Immobilien
Hypotheken
Zinsen . .
Privatentnahme
Unkosten . .
Kapital . . .
Umsatz
Soll
Haben
Ji
23 000.—
10811.-
f 45.-
::l
(20 500.—
6 480.—
810.—
99 OOO.—
1575.-
2 000.—
1500.-
J6
9 000.—
8 295.—
13 500.-
Salden
Soll
Haben
Inventurbestände
(Bilanzkonto)
Soll
Haben
Ji
64 000.—
f 45.-1
I 80.-1
70 801.—
14 000.—
2 516.—
l 7 000.— J
6 480.—
810.—
99 000 —
1 450.—
2 000.—
1 500.—
<J{
64 000.—
70 801.—
Ji
18 000.—
2 310.—
7 045.—
6 000.—
400.—
98 000.—
Ji
Erfolge
(Gew.- u.Verl.-Kto.)
Soll Haben
Ji
206.—
64 000.—
165 721.—
165 721.-
134 801.-134 801.—
67 755.—
181 755.-
131755.—
480.-
410.-
1 000.-
1 450.—
1 500.—
Ji
4 000.-
1046.
5 046.—
5 046.—
InTentur :
'
Aktiya
Kasse . . •
Ji
2 310.—
Waren . . .
n
18 000.— (Einzel auf Zählung)
Forderung an B
7?
9 045.—
Maschinen . .
n
6 000.— \
Mobilien . .
H
400. > Werte geschätzt
Immobilien .
«
98 000.— )
Ji.
133 755.—
Passlya
Hypothek
Ji
64 000.—
Schuld an C
m
2 000.—
Ji
66 000.—
Reinvermögen am Ende .
„ „ Anfang
"Verminderung
Privatentnahme . . . .
Verlust
Ji 67 755.—
^ 70 801.—
Ji 3 046.—
„ 2 000.—
Ji 1 046.—
Reinvermögen Ji 67 755,-
Abschlußbucliungen :
1) Gewinn- und Verlustkonto an folgende:
Kassenkonto «^^^ 206. ■
Maschinenkonto « 480.
Mobilienkonto n ^^^'
Immobilienkonto y^ 1000.
Zinsenkonto n 1450.
Unkostenkonto
1500.
M 5046.—
3) Kapitalkonto an Privatkonto . Ji 2000.—
4) Bilanzkonto an folgende:
Warenkonto .^18 000.—
Kassenkonto » 2 310.
Kontokorrentkonto ?»
Maschinenkonto «
2) Folgende an Gewinn- und Verlustkonto:
Warenkonto -^ 4000.—
.... „ 7045.-
. . . . „ 6 000.-
Mobilienkonto « 400.-
Immobilienkonto n 98 000.-
Kapitalkonto
1046.—
Ji 5046.
6) Folgende an Bilanzkonto:
Hypothekenkonto Ji 64 000,
Kapitalkonto
67 755.—
— 16 —
— 17
\f^'
%
»'
s
15. Die Erfolgscrrcdinung aus der Zahlungsrcihc'
(Fortführung des Beispiels 14.)
a> Bcstandsvcrrcdinung
Kassenkonto H S Kontokorrentkonto
H S Hypothekenkonto H
Bstd.
J6
3 311.—
7 500.—
75.— Bstd.
3 920.—
800.—
1 500.—
2 000.—
206.—
7 500.—
4 000.-
9 000.—
45.—
6 000.—
7 500.—
Ji.
Bstd. 64 000.-
8
10 811.—
Kapitalkonto
8 501.—
20 545.—
18 500.—
H
t/fv
Bstd. 70 801.—
Einnahmen
Summe der (
Kontenseiten \
J6
10 811 —
20 545.—
Ausgaben
Waren .
Maschinen
Mobilien
Immobilien
Differenz
31 356.—
18 000.—
6 000.—
400.—
98 000.—
153 756.—
3 046.—
156 802.—
I
J6
8 501.—
13 500.—
64 000.—
70 801.—
156 802.—
L
unverbrauchte Ausgaben (= Bestände; sie müssen
den Ausgaben ab- oder den Einnahmen zugeschrieben
werden).
Privatentnahme
Verlust . .
Ji 2000.—
„ 1046.—
Gesamteinnahmen und Ausgaben (ohne Bestände = Periodenbewegung)
Rückbuchung der
Privatentnahme
t/W
7580 —
13045.—
2O0O.—
22625.—
8581.—
13500.—
22081.—
544.—
Überschuß
Hinzurechnung der Bestandsyeränderungen am sonstigen Vermögen.
Diese kombinierte Einnahme- und Aus-
gabe-Rechnung ist im Grundsatz identisch
mit einer Bilanz.
Ji 3046.—
Restkapital Ji 67 755.—
b> Bcstandsändcrungsvcrrcdinung.
Soll
Kassenkonto
Haben
Soll
Konto-Korrentkonto
Haben
Bestand
Wechsel
Skonto
3311 —
7 500.—
80.—
Kontokorrent
Ji
4000.—
Bestand
Privatentnahme 2000 —
Diskont 75.— »
Kasse
Wechsel
Zinsen
800.-2
Zinsen
Unkosten
1500.-2
Manko
206.-2
. y
Ji
7500.—
4000.—
9000.—«
45.-2
Wechsel
Waren
J6
7500.—
6000.— 2
Ji
Waren (-f-) ....
1000.—
Maschinen
(-) .
Mobilien
(-) •
Immobilien
(-) .
Zinsen
(-) .
1 000.—
Zahlungsübcrschuß
544.—
1544.—
Mehrausgabe (Verlust)
1046.—
2590.—
m
Jt
480.—
410.—
1000.—
700.—
2590.
Erfolgswirksame Einnahmen und Ausgaben zuzüglich Bestandsveränderungen.
Ji
Skonto 80.—
Wechsel 9000.—
Zinsen 45.
Waren (+) .... 1000.-
Mehrausgabc
10125.—
1046.—
11J71.—
Diskont
Zinsen
Unkosten
Manko .
Waren
Maschinen ( — )
Mobilien (— )
Immobilien (— )
Zinsen ( — )
75.—
800.—
1 .500.—
206.—
6000.—
480.—
410.—
1000.—
700.—
11171.
Diese Darstellung ergibt im Prinzip das Gewinn- und Verlustkonto. Statt des
Gewinnes an Waren enthält die Aufstellung die Einnahmen und Ausgaben zuzüglich
Bestandsveränderung auf diesem Konto.
»Rothschild A I d x.
2 Erfolgswirksame Einnahmen und Ausgaben = ^ 9125.—
— 18 —
— Ji 8581.— = Überschuß Ji 544.—.
19
W i|
IL Teil.
Qesellschaftsanternehmangen,
16. Abschluß der offenen Handelsgesellschaft/
a> Budimäßigcr Abschluß.
Kapital AJ^^ 60 000.-, Kapital B ^^ 40000.-, Verzinsung 50/0, ^;™^^^^^^^^^^
Köpfen, Privatentnahme A J6 4000.-, B J^ 5400.-, Gewinn an Waren -^f ^9 815.-,
Unkosten J6 20000.-, Aktiva am Schluß des Jahres J6 213 000.-, Passiva J6 100 585.-.
Soll
Kapitalkonto A
Haben Soll
Kapitalkoiito B
Haben
J6
An Privat .
. 4 100.—
Pei
„ Bilanz .
. . 66 400.—
?)
«
70 500.-
Per Kapital . . 60 000.—
Zinsen . . 3 000.—
G. u. V. . . 7 500.—
An Privat .
„ Bilanz .
. 3 485.—
. 46 015 —
Soll
Privatkonto A
70 500. -
Haben Soll
49 500.—
Per Kapital
„ Zinsen
. G.u.V.
I
Privatkonto B
40 000.—
2 000.—
7 500.—
49 500.—
Haben
J6
An Kasse . . . 4 000.—
„ Zinsen . 100-
4100.—
Per Kapital .
t/rV
4 100.— An Kasse ... 3 400.—
„ Zinsen . 85. —
I
Soll
Zinsenkonto
4 100.—
Haben Soll
3 485.—
Per Kapital . . 3 485.—
3 485.—
Bilanz
Haben
An Kapital A
- B
J6
3 000.—
2 000.—
5 000.—
Per Privat A
B
„ G. u. V. .
100.—
85.—
4 815.—
5 000.—
An Aktiva
. 213 000.—
213 000 —
Per Passiva . 100 585.—
Kapital A 66 400.—
B 46 015.—
213 000.—
n
b> Erfolgsermittclung auf Grund der Inventur.
Aktiva 213000.-
_ Passiva \m:%^-
1 10 4.1 ?)
Reinvermogeu ^^^ -^ | A60 000.-
__ „ am Beginn ^^^^^^- \ B 40 000.—
Zunahme (brutto) 12 415.—
— Kapitalzinsen
7 415.—
-f Privatentnahme einschl. Zinsen .... '^ 585.—
Jahresgewinn 15 000.—
= „ pro Kopf 7 500.—
Rothschild A 1 Gruppe III b.
— 20 -
17. Liquidation der offenen Handelsgesellschaft.*
a) Auflösung.
Soll Bilanz vor der Auflösung
Haben
ji>
M
An Kasse . . 15 850.
Per Akzept .
15 000.—
„ Wechsel . 36 340.—
„ Kapital A
56 742.—
^ Devisen . 19 850 —
„ B
42 450.
„ Waren . . 26 852.—
„ Debitoren 15 300.—
114192.—
114192.—
Soll
Kassenkonto
Haben
An Bilanz .
„ Devisen
„ Waren .
15 850 —
20 852.—
27 807.—
64 509.—
^
Per Akzepte . 15 000.—
„ Kapital A 12 000.—
„ B 8 000.-
„ Unkosten 510. —
„ Kapital A 16 015.50
.. B 12 983.50
«
64 509.—
Soll
Warenkonto
An Bilanz . . . 26852.—
„ Gew.u.Verl. 955.—
27807.—
Per Kasse
. . . 27807.—
27807.—
Soll
Akzeptenkonto
Ji
An Kasse . . . 15000. -
15000 —
tM
Per Bilanz . . 15000.—
15000.—
Soll
Kapitalkonto A
Verlauf der Liquidation:
Einlösung des Akzeptes J6 15 000.—, Tei-
lung des Wechselbestandes A J6 14540. — ,
B Ji; 21 800.— (6 : 4), Verkauf der Devisen
Ji) 20 852.—, Rückzahlung von J6 20 000.—
(6 : 4), Teilung der Debitoren hälftig, Waren-
verkauf Ji> 27 807.—, Geschäftsunkosten
^ 510.— , Schlußverteilung.
S Wechselkonto H S Devisenkonto H
J6
An Bilanz
36 340.-
36 340
J6
P. Kap. A
14 540.
P.Kap.B
21 800.
36 340.—
J6
vfff
An Bilanz
Pei
' Kasse
19 850.-
20 852.-
„ G.U.V.
1 002.-
20 852.-
20 852.-
Haben Soll
Debitorenkonto
Haben
An Bilanz
• • •
J6
15300.
15300.-
Per Kapital A
- B
7650.—
7650.—
15300.—
Haben Soll
Gewinn- und Verlustkonto
Haben
J6
An Unkosten . 510. —
„ KapitalACVs)' 723.50
„ B(V,) 723.50
1957.-
Per Waren . .
„ Devisen
J6
955.—
1 002.—
1957.—
Haben Soll
Kapitalkonto B
Haben
An Wechsel
„ Kasse .
Debitoren
Kasse . .
21800 —
12000.—
7650.—
16015.50
57465.50
Ji
Per Bilanz . . 56742.—
An Wechsel . ;
„ Gewinn u.
„ Kasse . . .
Verlust . . . 723.50
„ Debitoren .
J6
14540.—
8000.—
Kasse . . . 12983.50
57465.50
43173.50
,/tv
Per Bilanz . . 42450.—
„ Gewinn u.
Verlust . . 723.50
43173.50
» Rothschild A I Gruppe III b. , ,. , . ..r
» Die Verteilung des Liquidationsgewinnes nach Köpfen oder Kapitalanteilen ist rechtlich strittig.
21 —
',._;!i5tv
"^^-^susmst^..
\
h) Abfindung des ausscheidenden Gesellschafters B auf Grund einer besonderen,
' Auscinandcrsctzungsbilanz.
Letzte Bilanz wie oben; Umbewertung Debitoren J^ 14000.-, Devisen J^ 17 500.-
AVaren J6 30000.—, Firmenwert J& 20000.—.
Bncbungen über Aüseinandersetznngskonto
Folgende an Auseinandersetzungskonto
Warenkonto ^ 3148.—
Firmenwertkonto « 20000.—
Ji 23148.—
Auseinandersetzungskonto an folgende
Debitorenkonto Jl 1 300.—
Devisenkonto .„ 2350.- c^ 3650.- ^^ ^^^^^__
Kapitalkonto A „ 11 145.- h. Verhältnis
B „ 8353.— (derKapital-
Jl 23 148.—
betrage
Soll
Auseinandersetzmigsbilanz Haben Soll
Weiterfülirungsbilaiiz
Haben
Kasse. . .
Wechsel .
Devisen . .
Waren .
Debitoren
Firmen wert
15850.-
36340.—
17500.—
30000.—
14000 —
20000 —
133690.—
Akzept . .
Kapital A
- B
J6
15000.-
67887.—
50803.—
15850.—
36340.—
19850.—
36852.—
Debitoren (?) . 15300.—
Kasse , .
Wechsel .
Devisen (?)
Waren . .
Akzept .
Bank . .
Kapital .
J6
15000.—
50803.—
48389.—
133 690.—
114192.—
114192.—
Soll
18. Absdiluß der AkticngcscUsdiaft.^
Bilanz Yor der Gewiiinverteilong ^
Haben
%/7V
An Kasse .
„ Wechsel
„ Debitoren
Waren
80000.—
100000.—
400000.—
347000.—
72000.—
„ Werkzeug 80000.-
.|. für Abschreibung 10 \ 8000.-
„ Maschinen .... 170000.-
.|. für Abschreibung 101 170Q0-- 153000.-
„ Immobilien .... 100000.-
.j. für Abschreibung 2\ 2000.—
Per Akzept
Kreditoren
Aktienkapital
Gewinn- und Verlustkonto
n
70000.—
80000.—
1000000.—
100000.—
98000.—
1250000.—
1250000.
Soll
Gewinn- und Verlustkonto
Haben
jh
An Unkosten 80000.—
„ Werkzeuge 8000.—
Maschinen 17000.—
„ Immobilien 2000.—
„ Bilanz 100000.-
'207000.-
Per Waren
Ji
207000.—
207000 —
1 Rothschild A I Gruppe III c.
'
Gewinnyerteilungsplan. ji
100000.
10000.
Bilanzkonto nach der Gewinn yerteilung.
Bilanzgewinn
— 10% gesetzliche Reserve
— Speziaireserve . . .
— 10°/o Vorstandstantieme
— 4% Vordividende . .
1070 Aufsichtsrats-
tantieme
90000.-
4500.-
85500.
8550.
76950.-
40000.-
An Kasse
„ Wechsel
„ Debitoren
„ Ware
„ Werkzeuge
„ Maschinen
„ Immobilien
Ji
80000.-
100000.-
400000.-
347000.-
72000.-
153000-
98000.-
36950.-
3695.-
— Pensionsfonds
— Gratifikation .
• •
33255.
3200.-
30055.
10000.
— IVa^/o Superdividende
Gewinnvortrag . . . .
20055-
15000.-
1250000.—
M
Per Akzept
„ Kreditoren
70000.-
80000.-
„ Aktien-
kapital 1000000.-
„ Reserve-
fonds I 10000.-
„ Reserve-
fonds II
*
4500.-
„ Tantiemen-
konto
12245.-
„ Dividenden-
konto
55000.-
„ Pensionsfonds
3200.-
„ Gratifikations-
konto
10000.-
„ Gewinn- und
Verlustkonto
5055.-
1250000.—
5055.—
19. Die Tanticmcbcrcchnung ^
nadi der Entscheidung des Reidisgeridits vom 11. Januar 1918.
Dem Aufsichtsrat steht laut Satzung Tantieme erst zu, nachdem die des Vorstandes abgesetzt ist.
Da die Tantiemeberechnung erst nach Abzug des Vortrages ins folgende Jahr erfolgen kann so liegt em
unbekannter Abzugsposten in der Mitte der Rechnung. Man rechnet daher bis zu dieser Stelle von oben
nach unten (Pfeil links) und dann von unten nach oben (Pfeil rechts). Der Unterschied zwischen beiden
Ergebnissen stellt den Vortrag dar, während die Tantiemen sich durch die Berechnung vom verminderten
Wert ohne weiteres ergeben. Die Höhe des ersten unteren Postens (Restdividende) ist in der Regel
gegeben, da man vor dieser Berechnung weiß, wieviel Dividende man ausschütten will.
Beispiel- Das Aktienkapital sei Ji 1000000.—, der Gewinn einschließlich eines Vortrags aus dem
Voriahre in Höhe von c^ 20000.— betrage e^ 250000.-, Abschreibungen und Rücklagen erfordern
Ji 60000.— ; für Zuwendungen an Beamte werden von dem Gewinn Ji 10000.— bereitgestellt. Die
Tantiemesätze für Vorstand und Aufsichtsrat seien je 10 X.
Gewinn einschl. Vortrag
-f- Abschr. u. Rücklagen
Ji 250000.-
60000.—
n
Ji 190000—
Vortrag ins folgende Jahr „ | 97.53.-1 k =^ Ji 190000. 180247.-
-:- 10°/o für Vorstand .
-\- 4% Vordividende
-r 10% für Aufsichtsrat
-:- für Beamte
-f- 10% Restdividende
M 180247.—
„ 18025 —
Ji 162222.—
„ 40000.—
Ji 122222.—
^ 12222.—
Ji 110000.—
„ 10000.—
Ji 100000.—
„ 100000.—
-I- i. H.
4- berechnet im Hundert
10
^90
Ji —.—
Soll die Aufsichtsratstantieme genau nach der Vorschrift des Reichsgerichts berechnet werden, so
wird die Rechnung schwieriger, da sie sich dann nicht in der Reihenfolge der Verteilung vollzieht. Die
Berechnun<. muß hier von einer Summe erfolgen, die die Vorstandstantieme noch einschließt aber um
die Vordividende vermindert ist. Man ermittelt hier zunächst den Vortrag und kann erst danach die
Tantiemeausrechnung vornehmen. Die Vortragsermittlung geschieht wie folgt: Man beginnt bei der
Rothschild AI Gruppe III c.
— 23 —
— 22 —
BerechnuDg von unten nach oben mit der Gesamtdividende. Die Tantiemen des Vorstandes und des
Aufsichtsrats berechnet man zunächst falsch, indem man die gleiche Summe zugrunde legt. Da alsdann
der Gesamtbetrag der Tantiemen zu groß ist, weil dem Aufsichtsrat auch von der Vordividende Tantieme
berechnet ist, so wird dieser Posten als Korrekturposten bei dem Gang von unten nach oben vor der
Tantiemeberechnung abgesetzt. Im weiteren verläuft die Rechnung wie oben.
b) Berechnung der Tantiemen und .
Verteilungsplan:
Gewinn ^ 250000.-
„ 60000.—
a) Berechnung des Vortrags
Gewinn . . .
— Abschr. und
Rücklagen .
Ji 250000.—
„ 60000.—
V Ji 190000.—
— Vortrag . . .
— 2XlO°/o
Tantiemen .
-f- Korrekturposten
— für Beamte . .
— 14% Dividende
I 7 500.—
Jl 182500.— .
^ 36500.—
^ft 146000.—
4000.—
Ji 150000.—
„ 10000.—
^C 140000.—
, 140000.—
Ji — .—
+ i. H. =
20
""so
-10%
der Vor-
dividende
— Abschr. und Rücklagen .
— Vortrag ....
— 101 für Vorstand
— Vordividende . .
— 101 für Aufsichtsrat
von Ji 182500.—
— , 40000.—
Ji 190000.—
7500.—
Ji 182500.—
„ 18250.—
Ji 164250.—
, 40000.—
Ji 124250.—
Ji 142500.—
14250.-
— für Beamte . .
101 Restdividende
Ji 110000.—
^ 10000.-
Ji 100000.—
„ 100000.—
Ji — .—
20. Sanierung der Aktiengesellschaft durdi Aktienzusammenlegung/
Soll
Bilanz vor der Sanierung
Haben Soll
Gewinn- und Verlustkonto
Haben
n
Ji
An Kasse . . 10 000.—
„ Wechsel . 140 000.—
Waren . . 570 000.—
Debitoren 435 000.—
Einrichtg. 190 000.—
Immobil. 200 000.—
Gewinn- u.
Verlust-
konto . 200 000.—
1745 000.—
Ji
Per Kredi-
toren . 945 000.—
„ Aktien-
kapital 800 000.—
Ji
An Bilanz .
„ Abschrei-
bungen 50 000.—
„ Unkosten 150 000.—
100 000.— I Per Waren
- Bilanz
100 000.—
200 000.—
1 745 000.-
300 000.-
300 000.—
Zusammenlegung 8
und ßeservebildung
: 5; ergibt Buchgewinn Ji) 100 000.—. Verwendung zu Abschreibungen
: Reserve Ji) 50 000.—, Debitorenabschreibung Ji 30000. — , Einrich-
tungsabschreibung Ji 20 000.—.
Soll
Bilanz nach der Sanierung
Haben Soll
Gewinn- und Verlustkonto
Haben
An Kasse . . 10 000.-
„ Wechsel . 140 000.-
„ Waren . . 570 000.-
„ Debitoren 405 000.-
„ Einrichtg. 170 000.-
„ Immobil. 200 000.-
1 495 000.
Ji
Per Kredi-
toren . 945 000.—
„ Aktien-
kapital 500 000.—
„ Reserve-
fonds . 50 000.—
Ji
An Bilanz . . 100 000.—
„ Abschrei-
bungen 50 000.—
„ Unkosten 150 000.—
„ Debitoren 30 000.—
„ Einrichtg. 20 000.—
Reserve-
fonds . 50 000.—
Per Waren .
„ Kapital-
Ji
100 000.—
300 000.—
?»
1 495 000.—
400 000.
400 000.—
1 Rothschild A 1 Gruppe III c. ^Eventl. über Sanierungs- (u. dgl.) Konto.
— 24 —
/:
21. Fusion der Aktiengesellschaft.^
a) Anrechnung der übernommenen Werte zum Kurswert der hingegebenen Aktien.
Soll
Aktiva
Übertragende Gesellschaft
Haben Soll
Übernehmende Gesellschaft
Haben
Ji
J(,
.^
.^
/a . .
. . 2 250 000.-
Aktienkapital 1 500 000.-
Kreditoren . 750 000.-
Aktiva .
. . 10 000 000.-
Aktienkapital 6 000 000.-
Rcservefonds 3 000 000.-
Kreditoren . 1000 000.-
2 250 000.-
2 250 000.-
10 000 000.-
10 000 000.-
Kurs 100 \. Kurs 1507o, Umtausch 3:2.
Yerbucliung über Fusionskonto.
Übernehmende Gesellschaft: Fusionskonto an Aktienkapital
Reservefonds
'Übertragende Gesellschaft: Aktienkapital „ Fusionskonto
Nach dem Sperrjahr f Übernehmende Gesellschaft: Aktiva an Fusionskonto . .
^ ^ ' Fusionskonto an Kreditoren
Auflösung
des Fusionskontos
Übertragrende Gesellschaft ;
Passiva
Aktiva
Fusionskonto
Ji 1000 000.—
500 000.—
1 500 000.—
2 250 000.—
750 000.—
2 250 000.—
750 000.—
Soll
b) Anrechnung der übernommenen Werte zum Nennbetrag der
hingegebenen Aktien.
Übertragende Gesellschaft Hahen Soll Übernehmende Gesellschaft Haben
Aktiva .
J6
2 500 000.-
2 500 000.-
J6
Aktienkapital 1 500 000.-
Reservefonds 100 000.-
Spczialrescrve-
fonds . . . 150 000.-
Kreditoren. . 750 000 -
2 500 000.-
Aktiva
J6
10 000 000.-
10000 000.-
J(^
Aktienkapital 6 000 000.-
Rescrven. . . 3 000 000.-
Kreditoren. . 1000 000.-
10000000.-
Kurs 150 7o. Kurs \hO\.
Umtausch 1:1; erforderliche Aktien 1 Vs Millionen , Fusionskosten Ji 100 000.— (über Fusionskonto).
Übertragende Gesellschaft: Folgende an Fiisionskonto :
Aktienknpital . . . Ji 1500 000.—
Reservefonds .... ^ 250 000.— Ji 1 750 000.—
Übernehmende Gesellschaft: Fusionskonto an folgende:
Aktienkapital . . . Ji 1 500 000.—
Kassakonto
100 000.—
1 600 000.-
Herabsetzung des Fusionskontos bei der übertragenden Gesellschaft um Ji 150 000.— durch Reserveaus-
sonilerung: Fasionskonto an folgende:
Reservekonto . . . . Ji hO 000. —
Speziaireservekonto . . „ 100 000.— M. 150 000.—
Soll Übertragende Gesellschaft Haben
Ji
Aktiva 2 500 000.-
2 500 000.
Jd
Fusionskonto 1600 000.—
Reservekonto .... 50 000. —
Speziaireservekonto . 100 000. —
Kreditoren 750 000.—
2 500 000.—
Nach dem Sperrjahr: Übertragende Gesellschaft:
Fusionskonto an Aktiva . . , . Ji 2 500 000.-
Folgende an Fiisionskonto:
Reservefonds . . Ji 50 000.—
Speziaireservefonds „ 100 000.-
Kreditoren
750 000 —
?>
900 000.—
Übernehmende Gesellschaft:
Aktiva an Fusionskonto ....
Fusionskonto an folgende:
Reservefonds . . Ji 50 000.—
Speziaireservefonds „ 100 000.-
J6 2 500 000 —
Kreditoren .
w
750 000.—
•n
900 000.—
* Rothschild AI Gruppe III c.
— 25
il
ffl. Teil.
Organisation der Verbüdittngsarbett. '
■^♦»-
22. Sammlung der
(ohne Vorbereitung in
GrundbucfizifFcrn
den Grundbüchern).
Soll
Kassenbuch
Haben
Primanote
An Saldo . . 5
„ Waren . • 1
„ Wechsel
„ Kontokorrent 1
„ Waren . .
„ Wechsel . 1
, Kontokorrent
„ Waren . • 1
Ji
000.—
000.—
500.—
000.—
200.—
000.—
400.-
600.—
000.-
Per Waren . . 1 000.—
, Kontokorrent 1 000.—
10 700.—
Wechsel
Mobilien
Wechsel
Mobilien
Waren .
Saldo
400.—
400.—
1 000.—
100.—
200.—
6 600.—
10 700.—
Per Waren an Kontokorrent
„ Kontokorrent an Wechsel
„ Wechsel an Kontokorrent
„ Kontokorrent an Waren
„ Wechsel an Kontokorrent
„ . r Waren . .
„ Mobilien „ Kontokorrent
„ Waren „ „
„ Kontokorrent an Wechsel
„ Waren an Wechsel . .
Ji
. . 1000.—
2 000.—
1 000.—
2 000.—
1 000.—
2 000.—
100.—
. 2 000.—
400.—
. 1 500.—
Soll
a> Vereinigte Vollsammlung
13 000.—
Haben
cM
Per Kassakonto
Laut Kassenbuch (ohne Saldo) . .
Per Warenkonto
An Kassakonto 1 000-
Ji
5 700.—
Kontokorrentkonto
„ Wechselkonto .
Per Wechselkonto
An Kassakonto . .
Kontokorrentkonto
V
«
Warenkonto
Per Kontokorrentkonto
An Kassakonto . .
Wechselkonto .
n
V
Warenkonto
K ontokorrentkonto
Per Mobilienkonto
An Kassakonto . . .
Kontokorrentkonto
. 200.—
. 1000.—
. 2 000.—
. 1500.- 5 700.—
Jt
An Kassenkonto
Laut Kassenbuch (ohne Saldo) .
An Warenkonto
Per Kassakonto . .
4 100.—
. 400.—
. 1000.—
. 1000.—
. 1000.—
. 2 000.— 5 400.—
« 1» ....
„ Kontokorrentkonto
„ Wechselkonto . .
An Wechselkonto
Per Kassakonto . .
. 1000.—
. 2 000.—
. 2 000.—
. 400.— 6 400.—
„ Kontokorrentkonto
„ Warenkonto . .
An Kontokorrentkonto
Per Kassakonto . .
400.—
100.—
100.— 600.—
22 800.—
V
?»
Warenkonto .
Wechselkonto .
Mobilienkonto
Warenkonto . .
Kontokorrentkonto
1 000.—
200.—
1 000.—
2 000.—
2 000.—
500.—
1 000.—
2 000.—
1 500.—
6 200.—
000.
1 000.—
400.—
600.—
1 000.—
1 000.—
1 000.—
100.—
2 000.—
400.— 7 500.—
22 800.—
Rothschild A I Gruppe II d.
b> Getrennte Vollsammlung.
a) Kassenf
alle.
Per
Kassakonto . .
n
Warenkonto . .
n
» • •
n
Wechselkonto
99
»
n
Kontokorrentkonto
99
Mobilienkonto .
99
n
Soll
5 700.—
. 1000.—
. 200.—
1 200.—
. 400.—
. 1 000.—
1 400.—
. • •
. 400.-
. 100.—
1 000.—
500.—
An Kassakonto
Warenkonto
b) Nichtkassenfälle.
Per Warenkonto
An Kontokorrentkonto
9 800.—
Soll
?9
n
99
99
99
99
99
99
99
Wechselkonto
99
Kontokorrentkonto
99
99
• •
1000
200.
1 000.
500.-
1 000.-
1 000.-
400.-
600.-
Haben
4 100.—
2 200.—
1 500.—
2 000.—
9 800.—
„ Wechselkonto . .
Per Wechselkonto
An Kontokorrentkonto
„ Warenkonto . .
Per Kontokorrentkonto
An Wechselkonto . .
„ Warenkonto . .
„ Wechselkonto . .
Per Mobilienkonto
An Kontokorrentkonto .
» 1 000.—
. 2 000.—
. 1 500.—
4 500.—
. 1000.—
. 1 000.—
. 2 000.—
4 000.—
. 2 000.—
•
. 2 000.—
. 400.—
4 400.—
• • • •
100.—
13 000.-
An Warenkonto
Per Kontokorrentkonto .
„ Wechselkonto . . .
. 2 000.-
. 2 000.—
Haben
Ji
4 000.—
An Wechselkonto
Per Kontokorrentkonto .
„ Warenkonto . . •
. 2 000.—
. 400.—
. 1 500.—
3 900.—
An Kontokorrentkonto
Per Warenkonto . . .
y, Wechselkonto . . .
n » . . .
„ Mobilienkonto . .
„ Warenkonto . . .
. 1 000.—
. 1000.—
. 1000.—
. 100.—
. 2 000.—
5 100.—
13 000.—
a) Kassenfälle.
c> Getrennte Teilsammlung.
b) Nichtkassenfälle.
.^
Soll
Haben
Per Kassakonto an fif. . . . |5 700.—
An Warenkonto 1000.—
200.—
1000.— —
»
n
Wechselkonto 500 —
1000.—
2200.—
1500.—
Soll
4500.—
Köntokorrcnt-
konto
* - #
1000.—
400.—
600.—
— 2000.—
Per Warenkonto an fif. . .
An Kontokorrent-
konto 1000.—
„ Wechselkonto .... —
ff. an Warenkonto .... —
Per Kontokorrentkonto . . . 2000. —
.. Wechselkonto 2000.—
Haben
3000.—
1 500.-—
4000.-[
Per ff. an Kassakonto . .
Warenkonto 1 000.-
4100.—
n
r»
200.— 1 200.— —
Wechselkonto
400.—
1000.— 1400.— —
1 000.— —
Per Wechselkonto [2000.— |
An Kontokorrent-
konto , 1000.—
1000.— —
• •
Kontokorrentkonto
Mobilienkonto 400.—
100.- 500.—
9800.— 9800.-
Per Mobilienkonto . .
An Kontokorrentkonto
Per Kontokorrentkonto
An Wechselkonto . .
n » • *
100.-
. 12400.—
2000.—
100.—
2000.—
400.—
13000.
13000.—
— 26 —
- 27 —
d> Kontengestaltung bei den versdiiedenen Sammlungsarten.
X,- * „«1, o^ Kontokorrentkonto nach b)
Kontokorrentkonto nach a)
Ji
An Verschiedene 5400.—
Per Verschiedene 7500.- An Kassakonto . 1000.-
^ Verschiedene 4400. —
77
Ji
Per Kassakonto . 2000.
„ Verschiedene 5500.
Kontokorrentkonto nach c)
M
An Kassakonto 1000.
„ Warenkonto .... 2000.—
. Verschiedene .... 2400.—
n
71
J(,
Per Kassakonto .... 2000.-
„ Warenkonto . . . 3000.-
„ Wechselkonto . . 2000.-
Mobilienkonto . . 100.-
Kontokorrentkonto 400.-
xM
r<
v.4J<«:. L C^t^^
» •
C. A. Wagner Buchdruckerei A.-G., Freiburg i. B.
\
M \olTO
/
^1 ///<}/»? Ni/^^^« CoWtü^'m
m
^rHclef.J Or
ciQ/>'i7/rt-iiffi
4rchivrs
\
\
AlDSchrif-h 1
jiil ternhilf^werk für die
jüdiache Jugend
Berlin-vJharlottenburg 2,
Kants tT*. 158 Gth.II. •
S
a t z u n
e n
Das üll ternhilfswerk für die j-idiache Ju^^end loe zweckt durch Zusanunenschlusa
jüdischer iilltern diesen die Sori^e um Jirziehung und Ausloildung ihrer Kin-
der zu erleichtern. Dieses Ziel soll in gemeinsamer Arbeit f\it den beste-
henden jüdischen Institutionen, die a,m ülrziehungs- und Bilciungswcsen be-
teiligt sind, erstreb- t werden;
aj- durch Förderung und Ilachweis der geeigneten Bildungsmöglichkeiten un-
ter Voranstellung der jüdischen Volksschule und unter Betonung der not
//endigen Beruferuins chich tun g^
b) durch Beschaffung von Leh"nni tteln und jtCrzi ehungsbeihilfen für unbemitr-
telte Kinder,
c) durch tätige Mitarbeit an V;ohl fahr tseinricht an gen zugunsten der jüdi-
schen Jugend.
Gleichzeitig soll im Rahmen dieser Aufgabe der Arbei t'.beschaf f ung für jü-
dische Lehrkräfte gedient werden,
§ 2.
'i ■
Der Name des njl ternhi Ifawerkes lautet: üil ternhilfswerk für die jüdische
Jugend. Der Verein soll in das Vereinsregister eingetragen werden und
nach jilintragung den x^l8.^.en "ijll ternhilfswerk für die jüdische Jugend" mit
dem Zusatz "e.V." f^'jhren .
^ 3» . ;
Sitz des jülternhilfswerks ist Berlin.
§
^ •
Mitglied des ii.1 ternhilfswerkes können Mitglieder dur jüdischen Gemeinden
im Mindestaltt^r von 21 Jahren werden, ferner die nicht jüdischen V?4ter
oder Mütter jüdischer Kin^ier.
Dit Mitgliedschaft wi-'d durch schriftliche Erklärung an den Vorg i t zv^ndon
erworbvjn, D^^r Austritt erfolgt in gleicher Weise zum 3I. März mit drei-
m.onatigcr I^rist.
^. § 6. . • •
Der Vorstand kann ein Mit.:i;lied wegen gemv^inschadlichen Verhaltens mit
Zweidrittelmehrheit auj j ohliess en . Der Ausschluss i^tmit eingeschriebe-
nem Brief dem Ausgeschlossenen mi t'^ut^^ilen . Dit^ser kann binnen 2 VVochen ^
die jjlntscheidung der nächsten Mitgliederversammlung anrufen, die mit Zwei-
dri ttol.r:uhrhei t entscheidet.
Jedes Mitglied hat einen Monatsbeitrag zu entrichte-, Di<j Höhe bostimjiät
der Vorstand jeweils i ür 1 Jahr.
■'% .>;.
• ' ." § c.
i
Der V'-'rs tand VüSt'^ht aus 9 Mitgliedurn, die von der Mi tgliüdervorsaram-
lurig gewählt werden, aus weittj^en 3 Mitgliedern, die von den gewc-^hlten •
Mi t^'liedern kooptiert wenden, .jieae 12 Mitglieder waiilen aus ih^-er Mit-
te djn geschnf ts f-'jhrcnden vorstand, bestehend aus Vorsitzendem, stell-
vertretendem Vorsitzenden, rCassenwart und einem weiteren Vorstandsmit-
glied. Diiv ^orsi f'.ende hat das Reoht, bis zu 3 weiteren Mitgliedern in
den Verstand zu "berufen.
Das jfil ternhi Ifswerk wird vertreten durch den \/orsi tzen den, [\r\
dessen Behinderung durch den stellvertretenden v^orsi tzen den j, gemeinsam
mit einem weiteren Mitglied des gei^ chnfts f^'jhr enden Vorstandes, vorstand im
Sinne des Gesetzes ist der /orsitzende und der Kassenwart, im 3ehinderung3j
falle deren Stellvertreter.
§
o
Die Mi tgliederver3am'::lung soll mindestens in
stattfinden. Der vorstand bestimmt Cr t und Ze
lieh oder durch Anzeige im vereinsor gan oder
der Bekanntmachunt,: der iiinladung im. Vereinsor
soll der Vorstand die üiinladung ferner in den
gen veröf f en tlichen ,
Zwischen dem Abgang de-^ i^in ladung 0
einsorgans #der des Rei chsan zei gers und dem
•ns 7 Tagen lie(_,en
soll eine irist vo>^ mxincieot
jedem Schulhalbjahr einmal
it. ilinladung erfolgt Schrift
im Reichsan Zeiger. Im i*alle
...an oder im Reichsanzei ger
gross er ein jüdischen Zeitun-
der dem jc^rs che inen des Ver-
Tag der Mi tglieder /ersamm^lung
Die .Bestimmung des \^ereinsorgans erfolgt durch den V'or.itandc
ä 10.
Die Beschlüsse der Mi tgliederversam. lung sind zu protokollieren. Das Pro«
tokcll ist von einem Vorstandsmitglied zu unterzeichnen.
§ 11.
Div. V»ahl des Vorstandes erf-^lgt durch die erste or.ientliche Mi tgliederver-
sarmnlung des Kalenderjahres auf 1 Jahr; f^-- in der Zwischenzeit ausschei-
dende Vorstandsmitglieder werden, soweit nicht dem. Vorsitzenden das Beru-
fungsrecht zustellt, -d^rsatzmi tgl ieder vom vOrstand kooptiert, oder in ein^r
Mitgliederversammlung i'ir die Zeit bis zum Ablauf de"^ Amtsdauer des Vor-
standes gewählt« Die jin ts ch ei düng über das eine oder das andere Verfahren
trifft der vorstand.
§ 12,
Di^y^ Vorjtand fasst seine Beschlüsse mit Stimmenmehrheit, bei S timmenglci ch-.
heit entscheidet di.; Stimmie des Vorsitzenden.
^
D^r Vrrstand kann f'\r einzeln,., Tätigkeitsgebiete Ausschüsse einsetzen, de-
ren iditclieder bis auf eins demx Vor jtand nicht anzugehören brauchen. Diese
Ausschüsse arbeiten nach Richtlinien des ges chäf ts f^ihr unden Vorstandes.
§ 14.
oatzungs Änderungen erfolgen durch Beschluss der Mi tbliederversammlung mit
Zweidrittelmehrheit der persönlich erschienenen Mitglieder.
§ 15.
I"! Falle der Aufloaung des ^Iternhi Ifawerkes hestimint die Mitglieder-
versammlung die /erwendunr, des /ereinsver^nögons Sie hat sich aanei
streng an den Zweck de3 Hilfswerkes zu halten und darf das Vermögen nur
gemeinnützigen Zwecken zuführen. Die Ver tellung ,w te- die kitgUod.r
ist ausgeschlossen.
Berlin, de- 19. Dezem'ber 1933»
gez
Unters ehr,' ften
Die Unterzeichneten haben den Besohlues gef ac-^-st ,za
einem Verein zusammenzutreten, dessen Hacien und Zweck sich aus
der folgenden
Satzung
ergibt, und der in das Tereinsregister eingetragen werden soll.
Der Verein führt den Hamen
TT
.'' Reichsverbaad'zur Förderung der Jdrbgesundheit
Der Verein hat seinen Sitz in Berlin. C o6^ oCoi^^fieZ-/^^
Zweck des Vereins ist die Förderung t^t Irbgesund-
heit bei der nichtarischen Bevölkerung im Deutschen Heich* Das Ziel
soll erreicht werden durch Forschung ,Aufklärung,.Belehrun:^-, Anregung»
Der Verein verfcigt keine politischen '^v/ecke. Jede politische Be-
tätigung der wiitgliöder im Hahmen des Vereins ist verboten«
§ 3:
Mitgli'id des Vereins kann jeder Reichsdeutsche
der nichtarischen Bevölkerungs^ruppe v.^erden. Das Mitgli3d wird
durch den Vorstand auf f';enomnien# Durch Annahm« der vom Vorstand auf
den ITamen einver bestimmten Person ausgestellten Mitglic;dskarte v/ird
die Mitgliedschaft begründet #
§ 4;
Di3 Mitglieder des V^jreins v/erden in 3 Gruppen
eingeteilt:
k die JugenÄgruppe bis i^ur Vollendung des 2Ujebens Jahres ,
B die Gruppe der volljährigen ünverh;;irateten,
C die Gruppe der verheirateten Mitglieder»
Die Mitglieder der Gruppe A zahlen einen monatlichen
Beitrag von HM 0,25,
Die Mitglieder der Gruppe B 2iahlen einen monatlichen
Beitrag von RM 0,50|
Die Mitglieder der Gruppe C zahlen für jedes Ehepaar
einen monatlichen Beitrag von RM 0,75»
Die Aufnahmegebühr für jedss Mitglied beträft
RM 0,50»
§ 5:
Der Austritt aus dem Verein ist nicht vor Ablauf
des ersten Mitglieds Jahres und nur nach einmonatiger Kündigung zum
Sohluss des Kalenderviertel jalires zulässig»
§ 6:
Der Vorstand kann ein Mitglied aus dem Verein mit
sofortiger Wirkung ausschliessen:
wenn es in seiner allgemeinen Lebens führungx den Zweck des
Vereins schädigt,
wenn es sich in einer den Verein schädigenden Weise politisch
betätigt,! § 2 der Satzungen)
wenn es mehr als 1/4 Jahjt: trotz Mahnung mit seinen Beiträgen
im Rückstand ist.
§ 7t
Die duroh ihi-e Vorbildung hierfür geeigneten Mitglieder
sind verpflichtet, zur Erfüllung des Veremsz^vecke ihre wissen-
schaftliche Arbeit im Rahaan des Vereins zur Verfügung zu stellen,
insbewondere also an der v/issenschaft liehen Aufhellung der Erbge-
sundheitsf ragen mitzuwirken, den Mitgliedern Belehrungen und Rat
zu erteilen und allgemeinverständliche Vorträge über Brbgesundhöi ts-
lehre zu halten»
§
ü:
Der Verein wird nach aussen, gerichtlich und ausserijericht-
lieh, durch den Vorstand vertreten, der aus einer Person besteht»
ür wird durch die Mitgliederversamnilung auf 3 Jahre gewählt»
§ 9:
Der Vorstand beruft zu seiner Unterstützung einen Verwal-
tungsrat, der aus mindes:.ens 2 Mitgliedern ausser dem Vorstand zu
bestehen hat* Auf die Mitglieder des Verv/altöungsrats kann der Vor-
stand einz^eine seiner Befugnisse übertragen#E4ne dem vorwaltungsrat
oder einem Mitg-ied des Ver altungsrats gegenüber abgegebene Er-
klärung der Vereinsmitglieder gilt als dem Vorstand gegenüber ab-
gegeben«
Der Vorstand ist Vorsitzender des Verwaltungsrats •
§ IQ;
Der Verwaltunrsrat wählt einen Schriftführer und einen
Schatzmeister. Im Falle der Behinderung ist jddes Mitglied des
Verwaltungsrats berechtigt, mit Zustimmung des Vorstandes ein
anderes Mitglied des Verwaltungsrats zu vertreten«
Der VorsraOTTTeruft, 7/enn er es für erf orderlicli hält, oder
auf Wunsch eines Mitgliedes des Ver altungsrats, das ium die Gründe
hierfür angeben soll, den Verwaltungsrat mündlich oder schriftlich
ein«
§12:
o 1, .^..^?5^ Verwai-cungsrat ist besohlussfähig.wenn der Vorsitzende,
Schriftführer und ein Mitglied anwesend sind^
Die Beschlüsse werden nach Stimmenmehrheit gefaast. Bei
Stimmengleichheit entscheidet die Stimme des Vorsitzenden«
§ 13;
über Vernanaiungen nimmt der Schriftführer eine Niederschrift
auf, in der die ordnungsmässige Berufung des Verwaltun.^srats , die
Kamen der Anwesenden u d die gefassten Beschlüsse zu beurkunden sind«
Die Niederschrift ist vom Vorstand und vom Schriftführer zu unter-
zeichnen« Sie beweist bis zum Beweise des Gegenteils das darin Be-
urkundete«
§ 14;
Der Vorstand bedarf der Genehmigung des Verv/altun^srats •
zum Ausschluss von Mitgliedern. 6 .
zur Anstellung von Angestellten*
zur Bestimmung von Gehältern-
zu Mietverträgen über Rt^ume,
zur Aufnahme von Darlehen,
zur Veräuscerung v9n Vereinseigentum, einschliesslich der Kündißunfi:
und Einziehung, » e
zum AbschluBS aller Verträge, für die d^r Verein eine Verpf licht
im Werte von RM 300,— oder mehr übernimmt«
ZOT Erhebung einer Klage vÄr Gericht«
g)
h)
§ 15;
Zum Nachweis der Genehmigung genügt eine vom
Schriftfülirer beglaubii^te Abschrift der Siederschrixt •
§16;
. Die Tereinsbeiträge and sonstigen Einnahmen
nat der Schatzmeister einzuziehen und in der vom Yerv;altangsrat
bestimmten Weise zu verwalten»
§ 17;
Es ist vorgesehen, im ganzen Deutschen Reich
nach Bedarf Ortsgruppen des Vereins einzurichten» Die Ortsgruppen
werden durch eigene örtliche Vorsitzende dem Verein gegenüber ver-
treten» Die Mitglieder der Ortsgruppen wählen iliren Vorsitzenden
auf 3 Jahre. Die Wafel des Vorsitzenden bedarJ der Bestätigung des
Verwaltungsrats •
§ 18;
Der Mitgliederversammlung liegt ob;
!• die Y/ahl des Vorstandes ( § 8 der Satzungen ),
2. die Bescrilussfassung über die Jahresrechnung und die Entlastung,
3« die Besohlussfassung über Erwerb und Veräusserung von Grund-
stücken,
4t die Bescnlussfassung ilber Änderung der Satzungen»
§ 19;
Die Mitgliederversamrplung wird gebildet von den
anwesenden volljährigen Mitgliedern des Vereins. Jedes volljährige
Mitglied kann sich durch ein anderes volljäliriges Mitglied unter
Vorlegung einer einfachen schriftlichen Vollmacht vert eten lassen.
§ 20;
Die ordentliche Mitgliederversammlung findet
jedes Jaar im TTovember statt. Sie wird vom Verwaltungsrat durch
einmalige Einrückung in 2 Berliner Zeitungen unter Angabe der Tages
Ordnung berufen« Der Verwaltungsrat kann beschliessen^ auss-irdem
die Bekanntmachung in der ihm geeignet erscheinenden V/eise vorzu-
nehmen«
Der Vorsitzende der OrtSi.'ruppe erhält vom Ver-
waltungsrat persönlich die Einladung. Es wird den Ortsgruppen über-
lassen, die Bekanntmachung in der ihnen geeignet erscheinenden Wei-
se vorzunehmen. Den Vorsitz führt der Vorstand oder in seiner Ver-
tretung ein von ihm ernanntes luitglied des VerA^'altun -srats »
Die Abstimmung erfo.gt durarh Erheben der Hände,
oder durch ein anderes, dem Vorsitzenden geeignet erscheinendes
Mittel.
^ , f Bei Stimmenr^ieichheit entscheidet die Stimne des
Vorsitzenden»
Zur Satzungsänderung ist 2/3 äea? Mehrheit der
abgegebenen Stimmen erforderlich';
-_. Über die Verhandlung nimmt der Schriftführer eine
Niederschrift auf, in der die ordnungsmässige Berufung der Versamni-
lung unter Beifügung der Belege und die gefassten Beschlüsse fest-
zustellen sind* Die NiscLerschrift ist vorzulesen und vorr Vorsitzen-
den und Schriftfülirer zu unterzeiclinen.
Ist der Schritt hrer nicht anwesend, so ernennt
der Vorsitzende ä^en Protokollfuhi'er •
§ 21;
Ausserordentliche Mitgliederversammlungen hat der Terv;al'
tungsrat, veaa er sie nioht selbst nötig findet, auf Antrag von
mindestens 10 Mitgliedern zu berufen. Auf sie findet § 20 der
Satzungen Anvjendung.
§ 22:
Dia Auflösung des Vereins bestimsrit die Mitgliederveraamm-
lung mit 2/3 Mehrheit. Das Eigentum des Vereins fällt der von
der Kitgliederversaiii .lang bezeicineten Stelle zu.
Berlin, den
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
z
^
Di« Unt«rs«lobii«t«a hab«n den B^sohlasa &ßt^^%X^%%
%\xMk Tertim lasaomaasatrctw» dtsatn Vmtn and Zwaok aleh aas
dar folgaadaa
S a t I a n g
ayglbtp and dar la das Terainaragletar aln'ati*ag«n wardaii aoll.
1:
/ j . .,
' ' ^/ A
-* /4> Z>;i^1)tr Vairal^ fdbrt dan Vasaa
** HaiohaTarbandMitir Ptfrdarong dar Hrbgaaaadliait
Dar Varaia hat aalAaa Sita ia Barlia. ^^ au<Jic<yi*:h'>Uiu: ^Su^^
lÜ.
^ ^ Zwaok daa Varaia« let dl« POrdtrong dar Xf bgaaand«»
halt bal dar nlohtarloixliaa BaTÖIkarong Im paataohan Raloh, Baa Zlajl
aoll arraloht wordan doroh ForaahaagyAafklftröaA^Balaliran »Anraguag»
"ä^t Yarain Tarfo gt kalna polltlaohaa ^^waoka. Jada polltladha Ba»
tätlgoag dar ^Itglladar Im Haltim^a daa Veraiaa lat Tarbotaa«
/,
^M
, ^^ ^ Mltgllad daa Varaiaa kana Jadar TFraloJiadaati^oha , i:>
dar niohtarladfciaa Bafölkaraagagrappa wer daa • Pas Mitgllad wlrdv x '"^^
doroh dan Toratand auff^aacmmaa* Durah Annahm t^t Toia Vorataad aaf
'trsoa aoagaatalltaa Mttgli Jakarta v?lrd
^i
/ / / if ^*,
Dia Mitglledtr daa 7fralns wardan la 3 Grappatt
tilagateilt:
4 dla Jagaaigrappa bla ^arJ|«CTaadaag daa Zl.Labaaajahraa,
I dla arappa dar iroUi^k^^^a^aTarh Iratitaa.
i dla arappa dar Ttjs^^lPNatataa Mltgllodar«
wtglladar dar Grappa A lahlaa alnan m natliohaa
Baitrag roa M^^T^Öft
Bla Mltglledar dar Orappa B zahlaa %^xi%tk moaatllohaa
Baitrag t^iTrII 0t90«
r Dla Uitglledar dar orappa C zehiaa für jadaa Shapaar
alaaa^oaatllahaa Baitrag voa BX 0,79 •
l lUa AtHEaahgagabcQagr f ür^T*'-^ " «4^-14-.^ v-^i^^^M **
^"
/
/
^ '^ // ■/
^ ^ «.^ ,.^*' AuBtrltt «00 d«B Vartln Ist^nloht tot Ablaaf
a«a «rstan Mitglied« Jahr •• aad aar aaoli «iAMonatiftttr tiindlgong i-»«
Sohlttas d«« f«l»nd«m(»rt«ljahr«e sftlteei«.
.>«^«.« «4 »- ^•' ^<"^«*an4 kann «ia Mitglied aas daa Varola «it
Bofertl^ar wizkoag aaaaahiiaaeaa:
waan aa in aalaar allgaMlaaa LabaaaftUurangK dan Ewaek da«
Taraifl« «onldigt ,
bat&tU» "* *öA«*»att*tag»i>aia aalildlgaa&aa Waiaa politiaoh
nBütLttsMlUr tJ^.ly^Jaht trott Hahoang alt salaen üaltrftgaa
I
•Ind v«rpfiläkt«t , »ity smuSS d«» r«r«lMt«»ol» iJum «!■••«•
iMlNvenlar« ^ribMnaa Atr «l«i>«iM<dMftUeli«a A.oflMU«B8 d«y !srt>i$««
•«ndluiltafrftS«« «ItiiMrliltMl, d«a llitcll«d«VB Mlahrwueva uttl Rat
M «vtallMI oad ftllg«MlyBV9rttt^.adll«M Tortrle« ttb«r Srbf;««andh«t t«<
l«turt tm lwlt«M.
llA, d«r«ii d«a rorstand v^t'.ffu, d«r aav «itttriForaoiM^et^ht«
llr «IM daroh dl« ia.tgli«e«sT«r««tt;4.(UM( «at 3 ^«h'e ,<!4ra«hlt
o
T/ /- 1 —
/
v^
,.' *
/.-.A/.
^
•tMid •man« ««In^r i«fiiinJUd# UiNiift?'ag«tt# tam fttm ^fof^Ufittifftrat
klttrmgjd«r v«r«lw8iltgU#$*ir gilt «1» &mi Vo^^ntmiA <;«feiifib^r txb«
r"
Dar ^orst«Bf*!Pöraft^ i»«»hHi# ^luJatr erfox^itf^RS?^ halt »oder
acif ^^^tcas^dl «ifiM ^IxgllQdM des f^t ^Itwi^fhtB^ d^« 1 lit oxiicid«
D#r v#r IncVU^ ist bM«bXoo9fahiggw«iin a«r ToMitatQd«^
sohirurtftairer and •la Xltglled cisw^isoiid tind.
Dl« B€«o Itett w«rdMi n oh r!ti»^iif»ihr «U Qßt^m%^ n#i
stlj»fMNlglttlahh«lt mteol»ild«t dU fti«i0 dM 7or«its«odta#
OllvT Yw^
•n niKit a#r "^i^^rlftf hr#r «ine VinderGor^i
Mtft in d r AUi ordciQii^iiMytiü/e Bi»rnfcu!i|t dtt »r^Altcm^or&tri, dlt
^ '^ ^ / // Wmmgk ik^t iwfiw«Q«iidai a d dl« g#ta . te» neschlftatf su becirkuiid«a «ittdJ
• Uff Dlt lft«d*r«oiijfll% tet iro« TormtulBA «ind vor ruhflftfBhrtr su icaittr*^
1 14t
. D»r Vpr^tfiod oidnjrf 4#y Cvtnthttlgitiifi m 7#r «Itoni^iifsit«:
•I tm 4M«0hXiusiii To« Ütflitfd^nit -^-^
^lU Allit»llMig 1M]^ AtUMLl^#U't#at
tttr B«»tlHBia I« irott ö«Sili«nit
ttty AuftehHt Y0tt !)i^l«hiB#
t«r Ttrfiiui HdroAg r^n T0r<flntoi^«ati»p«iii4ohliMfli<^ dtr Koadlgaa«!
cmA Blatithoagt ^
Jt\ SM xteo^i»!» iai#r Ttrtffigt, f ;t 41« d y T^rtiln tlfi« rtrpfllohti
4l) MT KltMllMttlg ttoov Klagt Ttr Gtrloht«
/
t lg;,
s
«r iif^
rtm
I 16 1
Mt der riehatimalMttr •ins
b««tin»t#a wtis« itt ▼•
f
ra«« und •ottstlffta KlanthaMS
and in d«r 70b Terwalttangsrnt
pMB Mdarr Ori.«i'rapp«ii d«« Yju»»4a» • Im» r loht«. Die Ortsrrttpwi
w»»d«n auroh «igea« örtlloh« Vor«lt««nde d«B 7«r«ln g»««nttber v«r»
*'•*••• pl« Hit«lU4«r a»r Ortsgrapp*a »niilta llir«n Torslt «nd««
- 3 Jahr«. Dlf -«irt. da« Vor«it»«ad«n bedarf d«r a««tatl«attg d««
I 18:
r:
Dtr Hl gll^d«rir«rsaMatiiiK liegt ob:
rötaodts ( } 3 der Sn^^iangaÄ ),
1,4 ^•«•. J-MatMÄiing ttb^r die Jabreer eohaang und die Hntlftetimg»
* tunk * ^**^*^* *'* ^^"^^ H werfe und Teräaseerung ?ott Orand«
4% dia Baaoalttsereanuri ' *•» IfliJaning Aar Sattem- jbI
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?Üfii!J,^f?S !'®4 ^"^'^^ «m anrtara« vrtljnhriga« Ml gl lad «atar
Torlagong am ^r «lafaohaa aohrUtUoliaa volinacht vr% atan laaaatt.
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g** Ba^amtraohon • in lar ihn gaalgaat araoh«ifta»iw4 »loa vowa*
— s^ ^ ^ - Ö«r ^aaroltaani« dar (h-ta-rcppe arbftl* vob 7a»«.
««Itangarat paraöaüoli dl^ioladung. iia wÄ^üa Sti^rJ?S«n aber«
iriS;-iih-f2**S2!"f?^*''?r^J*' *^*» «••^*»«t •«•aohaiaa;»*«! al-
•« ▼ottaaahMa. Dan v'oralt« fuhrt da« TooatiSd «dar in aaiaar 7a»-
trataag aln rim la^m araann««« ; Uglltd ^le V«.r -altun -urKtu.
oA«* Ä«.«K *4 M« ÄW%lB«oag «rfo gl daraiS^Tha^a der Hoada.
ilJtal antJerue. daa Voi^altaaadao gaalgnet a-B9iitia«adiB
B«l 6«
<;l«ldihalt aataiUialdiat dl« Stt»-« de«
Toraltsaadaat
lar nataangatmderans Ist 2/3 «äff Hdhrhalt d«»
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aaa B'j '^ohrlftfuhrar su onarsalohnaa«
dir 7orBU,eada d«?PrJtIk3äJto.^'' °*'"* "^'^••°«' »^-^'^nn*
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l5^m-'%-im%trMKm- aiP toii^ t 4ayc& t^tī batt 5 ilf Haada ,
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— ^ B«i ^tiar att«X«iakbtit aataabal ad dU^tuMr dta^^a»*
tlttandaa«
Z r Satitmgaftadaniac Ist S/9 Mahil&ait dar ab«ragabanta
stl«naii arf ordtrliali»
ülitr dlo v<^fhattdli«|4! wUMt d«r Si^riftfOhrar fiat
iriadaiNiahrlft aaf » IQ dar dla erdaanifatt^^aijüt arafaa« t^t Taraaan»
lang aatar Balfufung dar dalaga and dl^ gi»fa ;< t«a r^aaalilua^a f«at<»
aaataXlaa a;^« ^u !ria araohrlft iat mwp ialiiftta aad raa v-ortitst»»
daa aad eofirfftführar aa maratlohnaa»
^ ^ fat da» ohriftfatrttf alcdit "^ao^^t>aatid-r^<NN^ajpaafta4>^4»r
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•lud ftrptlioht«t. sar Srfttllttng d^e Ter^Iwiweoka Ihrt wiesta«
sohaftlloht Arbeit Im SaluMii dM V^rtlna siir Vtrfttfimg sm sttllea,
liMibevpad#ra alao aa dar wlaBansohaftllohta Aufluillaag dar Erbga«»
aaadhaltafragaa nltamlrkaa, daa Mltgliadara Balahruuigaa uad Rat
ta arkallaa and aUgattalareratändlleaa Tortraga ttbar Erbi^aaandhd ta
lahra la haltaa«
i 3t
^a w . ^?£ Y^^^i** Wird aaoh aaaoaa, gerloht j Iah and aaeaargarlo^t*
Xlw. dar^ daa TorataaA v^rtrataa, dar aus alaar Paraoa bastaht^
AT wird daroh dia HltglladarTaraafiurlan.? auf 3 Jahra «awahlt.
Dar Tora t and baraft la aalaar tJatarettttsang alaaa Varwal-
taagaratt dar aaa mlndaa aaa 2 Mltglledora auaaar daa Toratand ta
buatahaa hat« Auf dla ^Itglledar das Tar alt auac;« rata kaan dar Vor*
staad ala a aa aalaar Bafagnlösa Ubertragea* iaö daa varwaltan^arat
odar alaaa Mltg lad Aaa "^i^r altangarats gagaattbar abgegaoaoa vr*
klttruogjdar V«ra iaamltglladar gilt ala ß.0m Vorataad ^agaatlber ab-
gagabaa«
^ Der Vo-at ad Ist Toraltzaadar daa Varwaltan^e fötal
-at wttklt alaaa Fohriftfuhrar uad alnaa
f^ohatxmalatar. la Falla dar Bahladarang lat Jddai Mitglied daa
varwaltangaf*ata baraohtlgt, eilt Zaetlmmimg daa Voi*stfindaa ala
aad&raa Mltgllad daa Ver -altanf^arata sa Tartratea«
JLJk •
Dar ToratHMU öaruft, vm or «s fttr «»fordÄrllo:, hält,od«r
^4 i-iJ""** •^•* ^f^«li8dae d«a Vor altui^srats, da« in dia Srttnd«
liiaWttr angabaa •oll,&«n V rwaltangarat »ündlloh od« sohrlftlioh
aui»
I 12;
Sohrlftftthr ar and ain mtglled aaweaond sind;
Dia Baaoixittaa« wardan ttnoh stiBrnanmahrialt gafaaat. Bai
Stiomaaglalolihalt anttsohaldat dla ^tlorae daa Vorstaendaa.
^ Obvt Vei-finBltS^an nlnnt dar sohriftf ihrar alna Äiadereohrlft
wtf. In d r dl« ordaan^amäsai a Borafaag das '^erTialtoa'arötB, dl«
ffaman der Anweaandaa a d dla gafasstan Baaohlttaaa sa baarkandaa aiad.
4 C" ä^'?***^'"* ^* ^®* Torataad and rom PohriftfOhrar za untar-
ttSSd*?* beweist bis »a« Bawaiaa daa Sagaatal a daa narln Be-
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aar AaataUaag tob Aa^aatalltaa, •
aar BastlÄsa'ig Toa Galtltara.
•tt Mletvartr :raa Über RMU«a,
tar Aafttahffla Toa BarlaltL««»
JJJ JiSiilhua«*^ ^^ ▼•'•iMel^aataa.elnaohliaaalioh dar Kundlgoa«
l!"wiJ22*'i^*'ii^i!I ^•'♦'■«•' '^' 4i« 4 » ▼"•in alaa Varpfllphto»
ÜL S v^°" ^ 'O^t:- •*•» ■•^' übafalBint; ^
ta» KxiMbaaf «laay llag« Ttr Oarioht.
SECOND INTENTIONAL EXPOSURE
Anwta&ttxm
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im mm iiiiu%n' r j'^*^if TiSiiffFTt 1*^1 f I nfnüTittT "f?^^T laut dir von
4
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laabeveadtr« also an d«r wiaBtnsohaftllohta Ä,afluilIiaBg d«r Erbga»
•ondhaltafragMl Kttinwlrkaa, 4«a Mltglledara Balahrongaa uad Rat
•tt «vtailaa oad alle«B«iaTerat&ndllefia 7ortrlJta ttbar Ertfreaundhal ta
lahra ta haltaa«
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-I* w M ®?£ Y*^*i" *ir4,Baoli aaaaaa, gtrlohtUoh and aassargarlottt-
U«h. darah daa Twataa« vartrataa, dar aus alaar Paraoa bastahn
st wird darah dia mtgliadarraraaBrloag aaf 3 Jahr« gawtthlt.
Sar Toratänä baroft la aaiaar Uatarettttian« aiaaa Narwal-
toagerat. dar aoa nlndea aaa 2 Mltgiiedarn auaaar daa Torstand sa
buatahaa hat. Auf dia Siltgliftdar daa Tar.valtaan^srata kaan dar Tor»
ataad aia a aa aaiaar Bafagnlaaa ttbertragea. ftaa daa varwaltangarat
odar alaaa Mitg lad dea Tar altangarata gagaattbar abgegabaoa Hr»
kltouagdar Varainamltglladar gilt ala daa Torataad «agaattber ab-
gagabaa'. . ' •
D9t Torat-nd la« Toraltzaadar da« Tarwaltan^erataT
Dar TarwBltan -arat wShlt alaaa f^ohriftfuhrar uad alnaa
eehatiaalatar. In Palla dar Bahladarong lat iddaa Mltgllad da«
Tarwaltttngsrata baraohtlgt, r.lt Zaetlnmaag daa Voj-stnndaa ala
andaraa Mltgllad da« V«r.v«ltang«r«t« sa vartratea.
M „ w' ToraTBUr-Teruf t , waan or «« fttr arforderllc:, hUt.odar
K?:**U5^**^ •5"** ^iJ«lieÄ«» 4«« Vor altttigarats, daa in dia Crriind«
aiarrtir angabaa «ell.d^a V rwaltangarat »ttadlloh odö aohrlftlloh
• XÄ •
SohrlftfSL'aJ*iafI2^g?JltlJ ^SÜÄiSriSJ« '"•'*" '" ^o«""«^».
Dl« Baaoalttaa« ward«a aaoh stlarn«amahri alt gafaaat. B«i
St lam«Bgl« lohhalt aatcohaldat dia Stlama da« Toraitzandea.
Ob
\s^
.-# 4 a '^y«'Ä«^A«»n««« nlant dar Sahrlftf üirer alaa Iladoreohrift
•ax, in d r dl« ordaaagaamaai •« Berofong des 'er^altun sratB. dl«
SfTS* ^'Z*?*!!?*!* * * *^^ gttasst.aSaaohlttasa sa baarkoadan aiad.
Dl« lfl«d^r«ohrlft lat to« Torataad and toit. SohriftfOhrar sa uater-
arkimd*!' »»ewalat bis saa BawalBa da« Sagaatai • daa darin '?«-
.a« iäloJfSi'Äa'SltjfiSj'rSr*'^«"^ '•' ^«^ «^^'»«'^«'•t«:
!S£ i""*?l-3Laag Toa AaÄ«ataUtaaiV
sa Mlatvartr ;'aa Ubar R„tt««,
tax AafttahiB« Toa Darlahaa»
!S lUÄIhüJ;?* ^*" ▼•r«ln«elgaBtaa,eln«ohli««8lloh dar Kuadlgaag
lJ"wiJj2'^i^'J^^" ▼•rtröga. für dia d r Taraln alaa Varpfllohto«
«av 2xh«baag «iacy hag« T»r öarloht.
I lg;
Jtmammmmtm
«um Iaohw«ls der Senahalaung g«att5t»ine rom
Sohriftfahr«r beglaulji -t« Absolirift der ßlSdersolirirt,
i i6i , ^
DleVertlnBbeitrgg« and sonstigen Einnahmen
hat der feohateiBeister aintuiilhatt and in der vo« Verwaltung 8 rat
bastinrnten Weise au yerwaltett'.
Lili
k>o
Bi iat Torge8«h«a, Im ganzen Deutschen Heloh
naeh Bedarf Orts^TUppan des Verein» einzurichten* Die Ortsgruppen
werden durch eigene örtliche Voraitaende dem Verein gegenüber ver-
treten. Die Mitglieder der Ortsgruppen wählen ihren Vorsitzenden
auf 5 Jahre. Die Wafel de« Vorsitzenden bedart der Bc^etatigung dee
Verwaltangerate*« ^
1^
i 18:
Der Mi"eli3^ö^^''^^ß^^®^'^^*^ß lie§t ob:
jL^ die Y/ahl dee Vorstandes ( 5 8 der Satzungen Tt , ^
2. die Besc: luBßfaGSung über die Jahresreohnung und die Entlastung,
3. die BeBohlussfassung tlber Erwerb und Veräusserong rcn Grund«
; et ticken,
4^. die Beschlttsüfassung ber Änderung; der Satzungen.
L231
Die Miogllöderrereamiplang wird gebildet Ton den
anwesenden TOlljShrigen Mixjgliedern dee Vereins. Jedes roll Jährige
Mitglied kann sich durch ein anderes rclljähriges Mii^glied unter
Verlegung einer einfachen schriftlichen Vollmacht vert eten lassem.
i 20:
Die ordentliche MitgliederYersararrlu g findet
Jedes Jahr im Hov^^mber statt. Sie wird Tom Verwaltungsrat durch
einmalige :3inrttckang in 2 Berliner Zeitungen unter Angabe ä.n Tages
Ordnung börufem. Der Verwaltong^rat kam beßchliesaen, ausserdem
die Bekanntmachung in der ihm geeignet erscheinenden Weise voriu«
nehoiea«
Der Vors itaende der Orts,^ruppe erhält rem Ver-
waltungsrat peraönlich die Einladung. Ba wird den Ortsgruppen ttber-
lassea, die Bekanntmachung in der ihnen geeignet erscheinendenj^'el-
se Totsunehmem. Den Vorsita führt der Vorstand oder in selAor Ver-
tretung ein Ton inm ernanntes x itgliad des Verwaltun-erate*
Die Abstimmung erfo gt durwh Erheben der Hände,
oder durch ein anderes, dem Vorsitzenden geeignet ersone inendes
Mittel
^ Bei Stimmengleichheit entscheidet die Stimr e des
Tors Iti enden'»
Zur Satiungsänderung ist 2/3 de» Mehrheit der
abgegebenen Stimmen erforderlichst , - ^ ^^^^ ^
über die Verhandlung nimmt der chriftf ihrer eine
ariedersohrift auf, in der die ordnuigsmässige Berufung der Versamm-
lung unter Beifügung der Belege und die gefasrten Beschlüsse fest-
tustellen sind«. Die Niadereohrift ist toraulesen und vom Torsitien-
den und Sohriftf uhrer su unt er ze leimen •
Ist der Sohrlit hfer nicht anwesend, so ernennt
der Vorsitzende den Protokollführer!«
JLilL
AaiatrordtntUoba Ultgll«d«rT«rBaodilaii£«ii hat dtr TetwaX«
toüf^eratt ^oa tr slii nicht allbet aStlg flodit» auf Antrag rtm
Äindft*»ttnt 10 MitglU'adra za boruftn. Auf «li^ flndat J 20 der
Sataungan Anwandurig •
t 22:
ufiöaa
1 ^^^il,^ä^T*?*^ ^'•« Varaina bestlm-t aie MltglledarTareaaia*
lang mit 2/3 Mahrhalt* T)aa Ktgantaa daa Varaln» fallt dar von
lli%t Mltglladaarr^rsd lan^? batalo netan Stalla att#
Barlln.daB
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5;
6.
7.
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1
Dl« OnttrttlehMtM haben d«a B«a«liliMi iNrfMHlt.n
tinMi 7»r«la sttaMCMiMatr«!««, d«8*Mi Vaitn «ad Zi«««k ii^ mm
sattttQf *
•y«lbt, and d«r la dM 7<<r«ia«r«gi8t«r «In-ttraf«» iMird«a «oll«
Otr Ttrtla führt d«n f«MNl
" H«lohair«rb«nd/stur rordarttn«; dar HrbfMaadlMit ^^aikiMHrib«» #tt4«ft «•
D«jf v«r«iB hat «aiaaa siti in Bayiia-* f ^ ä4«^<«r^'«i*jff^ /hn^^iHctrH^
^ ii* ,. . - . ?i»aok daa ^avalM la» dlt Pttydaroii« dar Kifltgasand*
halt bal dat nldbtorl^fliMa BavtäianBm la paataehaS Halcdi. luva zlal
•Mtl arvalaht ««rdan daridlt Fora«haag,Aarkl|yiiBg,Hala!ir«t'.Anragunc.
Dar Taram varto «t kalaa politla<diaB ^«aoka. Jada politiadha na»
tttttgm^ dar ^ltgll9d«y ia Kc^ieoa daa v«raiBe ist Tar^otaa.
*-.- -« u* * . _>tttgujd daa Vvralaa kann jadar Halcbadaatooha
dar alehtarlaohaa iwölkarBa^iagrap?« w«rdaa. ivaa Kltgliad wird
dara^ daa 7oratand aafgaaoaR'att* ua.-ah Annahoa dar »oa vorettnd «af
daa VMwa alavar baatlrantaa l'araoa aoegaataXltaa MltgXli^akarta <niril
dia MltiXiadaehiift IwgrdailatW
«Ift^ateiHt
Dia Mltglledar daa Taralna itardaa in 9 Ora^pMI
t
[SSJ*fR':^H6i?LÄHSJS«iJ.';4ii^'"«-»*'~ •
dla Orapp« dar varhalratataa Kltglledar.
» .* «. « 5i* Wl*«ii«i«JP 4»' dTKpT^ A sahiaa alaaa m aa liohaa
Baltra^ vm W, 0»29,
•^«•^ «- « ?i* «i^il*-«*«» ««f örappa B sahlaa alaaa «onatllohaa
■aftfag voa Wl Ot90»
•laaa aoaatllohaa Baitrag vea m 0,?5,
Ula AomaliMgakähr für Jads« Utgllad betrat
i^?f .*^*^***.*'*" da« Varala Ist aloht var Ablaaf
Ledajohraa and aar aadi alttMaatigar Kuadigonff fte
idanrlartalialiraa »aUHeia.
aarorai«.* afw«-^*' ^«"•^?«* >««» •*« «lt«ll«4 aae daa ?arala alt
••f «rtlgar ^liltaag aaaaahll«aaaBt
irSalaa aehSdict' •^^^•■•***" 3tabaaafahrang« daa Swaak da«
•l«i tad*
«•an ««
katätSgt«
itaitttiiaVilHr
aadala»«tdaag«|iHlB aehldljraadaa waiaa »oUtlaaH
/i
t
••üAftllalM Arb«lt 1« RalUMii A«s Varviaa iw VcrfttcuB« tu »t«li«tt.
lM«««oad«r« also «a dvir wla: «nsehairtUolMa iiaflMUwic d«y Srbg«-
•ttndh«it«ri>agMI «Itiimlrk««, dta llitgll«d«va B«l«hrtmg*a uad Rat
»« «»tsUtm «nd aUg«MlBv«r«tnnd>iefia Vortrig« tfb«r Brt^^eaandhal t
l«hy» ta haltta.
8:
ü .lJ*iÄ ^•J*'^*^?!*?! v«r.rataa. dar aaa alaar Pai-aoa baltaht;
mt Wirt dairoli dl« mtgllosiarraraaaislaag auf 3 Jah'e ««awfililt.
*-. — J^*t ▼oranand iiaraft ta «aiaar Oatarstattar« aiaaa Varwal*
«aagarat, dar aoa »tndaa aaa 2 «liglledara auaaar laa Toratand xa
Ouatabaa hat. Auf «la Mitglladar daa Tarraltaanr^tsfata kavt dar Vor«
^!5*-?i5-*«?? •?*?*'r ^•'»«"i^«« Ub^rtrsgea. teo dan ^«rwaUBagaral
ff!' aiaaa Mitg lad daa v^r altangarata gaganttbar abg^ifahaiia :l-
klttrong dar VaralaaaltgUadar gilt ala da« 7os-«taad «ragaattber «b-
gagabMll '^ .
Dar Vo-at nd Ist Toralttanflar daa ^arrfaltan-ersta','
^9T Yöi-'^altttn 3 rat wühlt alaaa '^ohriftfulirar aad alnaa
^flhai.iaialatar. Ai Palla dar Baliiadaraa<; lat idda« MltgUad daa
Varwalta^^tsi-ata baraohtlgt. n-.it Zuatinkuig daa VoJ^tnndae ala
•adora« Mltgliad dta Ver altun^^arata sa vartrataa.
-.* .« ^w' Jo'«*JJ'W Beruft, wann ar aa far arforierllc hat.edar
JK*fSf Ä,Zi2l!".ät«Jf!*5' *"J«' altaigarata. daa l n dia arundt
aia; »««•*•« •aU.dan v rwaltangarat auadlioh ode aohrlftliah
nah»ift#ahf-I*«I!?'^I?pM4»*if*J baaohlass fähig »wann aar Toraitaania,
<>enrxivxam'ar aad ala Mitglied aaweaaod aiad^
n*i-«.— ?^ S*?r^"*'* ?•'*•" n •*» Stl«r.anM8hr. alt gefaaat. ^al
StlanaBglalohhalt aataohaidat dla rtiaaa daa 7ora txaadaa.
•«« 4« 0*v|r ?arl!5Bn«K?ta alKit ('.•r ?-.ohriftf >hrar alna liadareohrij
Kl« *.• f-fr?-f5*!?°^!"'^"^'* »«'tt«««« Ata errvaltttn^-aratfi, dl«
nir54J!Li?r!1J?*!"." * ^^* ß«f« tanlaaohlööaa «u baarkandaa ala«
aiiJSÜ* ??-'i'* ^i !?■ Voretaad and tob rohriftfUhrar sa untar-
SkSdlta ^ *'«*«^* *48 in« Bawaisa da« Ra^antai a daa sarin ' «-
a) ta« AaiaJffiJ'üa'SaifiJj'ifSt"**^"^ '•* ^•'-•"'«^'«''«•:
il !H t»»J?ll««»« ▼-« An«aataUtaB.
fl I*'„?'*f*^^*»'^ ^0» oaiiltara,
«I la Mlatvartr'i'aa üb«r R».aM.
•1 say AafaahiM tob DarlaliM«
SS aSSShSS^ **■ ▼•'•ln«olg««»a«,«inaehlita8liah dar Kundlgoai
'* S"wtJjrJSI*»2^i^ ▼«triga. für dia d r T«raiii «Ina Varpfllohtai
hl «• Sk! J^ !? 'OO*:- 04«r "»hr abaralomt;
a} tat uiMtaag alaty oaga rtr Oarloht.
«
sohrlftfiflxrai' bsj^laabl tt Absohrift
t 15;
Zttm.Haolrnel« d<jr a«n«lial<u£« «•nttgt * • in« tob
hat dar nohat,im«l8t*r •incBÜ^him h
bastlmtca W«l0« tu Terwalten.
t 17;
lirlft.
;• oad eonstjigea KlonahRta
id in dar rem r«r^,altungarat
— *. n.^ - «^ *■ ^* ▼««••rtiaa. In gaasaa Ditttaohan Heloli
«!Ä-^l*5'v.®';''*'*PS!f,?*? ^•»•^» •iMttilohtaa. Dia Ortagraipta
wardan durch algaaa örtliche Voraitianda dam Varain gaganttber ver«
trataa. Dia MitgUadar der Ortsgrappaa «ilhlaa ihren rorsit endaa
mat 3 Jahr a. Dlä - a^ da« Vgreitaandaa bedarf dar B«at&tl«img daa
Verwaltu igeratal -©«"b «*••
1" jn* - VI ^^ ir ^'f *f'«ll34«fT«''aaamlcmg liegt ob:
1. die «ahl daa Torataadaa { $ 8 der SatSmngea ),
2. die Beao lasBfaaanng ttber die JabresreoVinong and die Untlaetaa«
• ^rVw*''*^'***^***'*'^ **'•' B warb und Terftaeaerong ron Grand-
#*• die B©8oalttö8fa9«ang ber Än<?iiyung der Sattan^.a»
•B.«.*»^.» .«11 «Hv-«* ^l^«^^^*«'^«i'"aB»ltta<^ wird gebildet ron daa
Mweaaaden rolljöirigea Mitgliedern dea v^araiaa. Jecea roll Jährige
▼SfiiSJ* 2?? !^f i J'*"'*' «m andarea TOlljnhrigaa Ml-glied unter
Torieguag ein«r ainfäcuan aohriftUohaa Tollaaoht reri eten laaaea
20t
ant.iohe MltgliederTareamnln t; findet
iaüac. t- - 4. w '^^ wtu.Mfc.iouB »at;0i xeaerTareamnin t; findet
itJüif! '.,^" ^»I*"*«' statt. Sie wir! tob Verwaltungarat änrA
«i^ii*!-fi5'-"^li°« V* 2 Barliaar Zaitungan unter Angabe dar ?«««,
Ordnung berufe«. Dar v'a-waituag. rat kan . b-aohliasaea; aoas rdaa
nahaii; **"' ^ ^** ^^ «••!«»•* «raohe inenden >v,i8, voriu-
^1^ ^ ^*'. ^oraitiand« der Orta-'raDre erhflit toi» 7ep«»
»•Itungarat rersöniich die Binladang. ^a w^d dJn oÄsgrlS^an ttber-
!! I?!"""?*^** ?•" ''orsits fuhrt der Vorataad od«r in »eiäer 7ar-
tretnag ein tmi ian araaantaa i Itglled daa Ver^-aitun -erate,
cAmT <iu*«»." -4- ^J^^* ÄbetlBmung erfo gt durah iJrheben der Hand«,
Mittel^ «nderea. dea 7orait«aadan geeignet, «rnoneiaende«
Tor«ltiendait*; **^ Stlmmaaglalchhalt enteohsidat die ?tl» a da«
2ur Satsungaändarung lat 2/3 da« M:>hrheit da»
•bgagebanan Stiar.aa orfordarliolil
21
li '1
'21
lang tiit^l^^iSSSH.*?!« lig^irt« 4i«;!^f «i-« '«Jl^ «•' ^«
&«r :i;Ugl lad« rr««"«» lang bäsai« ai««» •"• s«.
l«yliB»d«i
1.
2;
9.
4;
9;
6.
7.
/f^^l
Die Unterzeichneten haben den Besohluss gefasst, za
einem Verein zasammenzutreten, dessen Namen and Zweck eich aas
der folgenden
S a t z a n g
ergibt, und der in das Vereinsregister eingetragen werden soll,
§ 1:
Der Verein führt den Namen
" Eeichsverband^zur Förderang der Erbgesandheit D^tooh r Jaden "
§ 2:
Zweck des Verein ist die Pörderang der B-;bgesandhsit bei
der niohtarischen Bevölkerang im Deatschen Heien. Das Ziel soll er-
reicht werden darch Porschang,Aufklärang,Belehrang,Anregangt Der Ver
ein verfolgt keine polititsohen Zwecke, lede politische Bste.tigarg
der Mitglieder im Rahmen des Vereins ist verboten«
arischen Be
§ 3;
Mitglied des Vereins kann jeder Eeichsdeatsche der nicht -
^^^^ ievölkerangsgrappe werden. Das Mitglied -vird darch den
Vorstand aag 'enommen* Durch Annahme des vom Vorstand auf den ITamea
einer bestimiiten Person aasgeste..lten Mitgliedskarte wird die
Mitgliedschaft begründet.
§ 42
Die Mitglieder des Vereins werden in 3 Grappen einge-
teilt:
A die Jagendgrappe bis zar Vollendang des 21.Lebens jahres ,
B die Graope der volljährigen unverheirateten Mitglieder,
C die Grappe der verheirateten Mitglieder ♦
Die Mitglieder aer Gruppe A zaJa^len einen monatlichen
Beitrag von RM 0,25, ^ . ^
die Mitglieder der Gruppe B zahlen einen mont Liehen
Beitrag von RM 0,50,
die Mitglieder der Gruppe C zahlen fUr jedes Ehepaar
einen monatlichen Beitrag von RM 0,75.
Die Aufnax^megebühr fUr jedes Mitglied beträgt RM 0,50#
§ 5:
Der Austritt aus dem Verein ist nicht vor Ablauf des erstej
Mitglieds Jahres un v. nur nach einmonatiger Kündigung zum Schluss
des Kalenaerviertel Jahres zulässig.
§ 6;
Der Vorstand kann 4in Mitglied aus dem VereinausschliessenJ
und zwar mit sofortiger Wirkung, wenn es
in seiner allgemeinen Lebensfiy^rung den Zweck des Vereins
sohädif,t,
sich in einer den Verein schädigenden Weise politisch be-
tätigt, ( § 2 der Satzungen)
mehr als l/4 Jahr trotz Malinung mit seinen Beiträgen im
Rückstand ist«
Die daroh ihre Vorbildung hierfür geeigneten Mitglieder sind
verpflichtet, zur Erfüllung des Veremszwecka ihre wicsenschaf t-
liche Arbeit im RaVimen des Vereins zur Verfügung zu stellen, ins-
besondere also ah der wissenschaftlichen Aufhellung der Iiirbgesund-
heitsfragen mitzuwirken, den Mitgliedern Belehrungen und Hat zu er-
teilen und allgemeinverständliche Vorträge über Erbgesundheitslehre
zu halten*
§ 8;
Der Verein wird nach aussen, gerichtlich und aussergeriohtlich,
durch den Vorstand vertreten, der aus einer Person besteht. Er wird
durch die I>'Iitgliederversatnt.ilung auf 3 Jahre gewäiilt.
§ S ;
Der Vorstand beruft zu seiner Unterstutzan^ einen Verv/altungs
rat, der aus mindestens 2 Mitgliedern ausser dem Vorstand zu beste-
hen hat. Auf die Mitglieder des Verwaltungsrats kann der Vorstand
einzelne seiner Befugnisse übertragen* Eine dem Verwaltungsrat oder
einem Mitglied des Verv;altungsrats g-^genuber abgegebene Erklärung
der Vereinsmit-lieder gilt als dem Vorstand gegenüber abgegeben*
Der Vorstand ist Vorsitzender des Ver- altungsrats»
§ 10;
Der Verwaltungsrat wählt einen Sohriftührer und einen Schatz-
meister. Im Falle der Behinderung ist gedes Mitglied des Verwaltungs
rats bereolitigt, mit Zustimmung des Verstandes ein anderes Mitglied
des Verwaltungsrats zu vertreten«
§ 11;
Der Vorstana" beruft , wenn er es ftir erior der lieh hält, oder
auf Wunsoh eines Mitglieaes des Verwaltungsrats, das inm die Gründe
hierfür angeben soll, den Verwaltungsrat mündlich oder sonriftlioh
ein,
§ 12; .- ,^ ^
Der Verwaltung, rat ist beschlussfähig, wenn der Vorsitzende,
Schriftführer uno. ein Mitglied anwesend sind,
Bie Beschlüsse werden nach Stirn: enmehr he it gefasst. Bei
Stimmengleichheit entsclieidet die Stimme des Vorsitzenden.
Über Verhandlungen nimmt der Schriftführer eine ^Niederschrift
auf, in der die '^rdnungs massige Berufung aas verwaltun.^rsrats , die
Kamen der Anwesenden und die gefassten Beschlüsse zu beurkunden
sindtDie Niederschrift ist vom Vorstand und vom Schuf tführer zu unt
zeichnen, Sie beweist bis zum Beweise ^^es Gegenteils das darin Beur-
kundete«
§ 14:
Der ^erstand beaarf der Genehmigung des Verwaltungsrats:
a) zum Ausschluss von Mitgliedern,
b) zur Anstellung von Angestellten,
o) zur Bestimmung von Gehältern,
dl zu Mietverträgen über Räume,
ej zur Aufnahme von Darlehen,
f) zar Veräusserung von ^ereinseigentum, einschliesslich der Kündigani
und Einziehung,
g) zum Absohluss aller '"^ertrage, für die der Verein eine VerpflichtuJ
im V/erte von HM 300, — oder mehr übernimmt,
h) zur Erhebung einer Klage vor Gericht»
§ II:
führer be
Zum ITacliweis der Crsnehmlgung genüg
laabi :te Absohrift aer ITiederschrif t"";"
§ 16;
t eine vorn Solirift-
Die Vereiriübeiträge and sonstigen Sinnahmen hat
der Scnatzmeis oer einzuziehen und in der vom Ver^.valtun/srat bestimm-
ten Weise zu ver^valten*
Es
§
iar
17:
^^ . ., — -~- Yorgegehen, im ganzen DeutGohen "Reich naoh Bedar
Orst^ruppen aes ^exQinQ emzurichtefi. Die Ortsgruppen V7erden durch
eigene örtliche Yorsibzende dem Verein gegenüber vertreten. Die Mit-
glieder der Ortsgruppen wählen ihren Vorsitzenden auf 3 Jahre, Die
Wahl des Vorsitzenden bedarf der Bestätigung o.es Verwaltun :srats •
§18;
- ^^ „, , ^ Der Mitgliederversammlung liegt ob:
Itdie w'ahl des Vorsitzenden ( § 8 der Satzungen),
2 •die Beaohlussfassung liüer die Jahresreohnung und die Entlastung,
3*die Beschlussfassung Über Brv/erb und Veräusserung von Grundstlicken|
4. die Besciilussfassung über Änderung der ^a zungen.
19:
Die l-itglia erversamralun" v/ird gebildet
den an-
en«
§ ^0:
Die ordentliche Mitgliederversammlung findet iedeW
Jahr im ITovember statt. Sie wird vom Verwaltungsrat aurch einma-
lige Einrückung in 2 Berliner Zeitungen unter An -abe der Tages-
ordnung berufen. Der Verwaltun::srat kann beschliessen, ausserdem
die Bekanntmachung in der ihm geeignet erscheinenden ./eise vor-
zunehmen«
Der Vorsitzende der Ortsgruppe erhält vom Vsr altungS'
rat persönlich die ^ihladung. Es wrjrd den Ortsgruppen überlassen,
die Bekanntmachung in der ihnen geeignet erscheinenden feise 1?or-
zunehmen. Den Vorsitz fü.rt der Verstand oder in seiner Vertretung
ei n von ihm ernanntes Mitglied des VerwaltungBrats ♦
Die Abstim ung erfolgt durch Erheben der Hände, oder"
durch ein anderes, dem Vorsitzenden geeignet erscheinendes Mittel.
Bei Stimi.iengleichheit entschei.efi die Stimme des Vor-
sitzenden.
Zir Satzungsänderung ist 2/3 Mehrheit der abgegebenen
Stimmen erforderlich.
Über die Verhandlung nimmt der Schriftführer oine
Niederschrift auf, in der die ordnungsmüssige Berufung der Versamm-
lung unter Beifügung der Belege und die güfaf3::ten Beschlüsse fest-
zustellen sind. Die ITiecörschrift ist vorzulesen und vom Vorsitzen«
den und Schriftführer zu unterzeichnen.
^^"t der Schriftführer nicht anwesend, so ernennt der
Vorsitzende den Protokollführer ♦-
§ 21;
Ausser ordentliche Mitgliüdervarsann;ilun"en hat der
Ver'-'altangsrat , v-enn ar sie nicht selbst nötig findet, auf Antrag von
mindestenslO Mitgliedern zu berufen. Auf sie findet § 20 der Satzung«
Anwendung,
§ 22;
,Die Auflösung des V"ereins bjc.tilnmt die Mlt^lieder-
versatnijilung mit 2/5 Mehrheit, Das Eigentum des Vereins fällt der von
der Mitgliederversammlung bezeidinöten Stelle zu.-
rder^in.den
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7,
//xn
)
\
•loMi TortlJi siiaMmMBiityttM« dts««a Vau an «md Zweok il«Ai «m
d«t f olgattdMi
SattQtig *
•yglbt» and dar la das Veraiaaraglr^tar aln'atfni^aa ifardaa soll»
Ssr Varsia tuhrt dsa Isasa
* BslohsTtrbsnd/sar POrdsrong dsr Mrlbgsstaidlislt üsatsshsr ladsa **
D#t Tsrsia hs« «sJasa Hlti la nsrlla, rc^ c(u4.^fu>^^ni^€.64^ 2u/J!f^tin$^
Zwsok dss Vsrsias ist dlt rerdsroag dst^ Sifligtsand«»
halt bal dar TlohtarL^^ahaa Bartflkayang I0 Paotaouan Haiolai» i)&a Zlal
soll srraloht wurdan daroh Forashaagt^ofkiarttaf »MXalurctti'^.nfaguiig«
"^t Tarala Tarto irt kalaa polltlsahaa ^waoka. Jada polltii^dht Ba-^
tätlgaag dar i^itglladar im Ka^ioea das V^raiaa Ut Tarbotaa#
VitgliMdaa Vera ins ksan Jadar Ralehsdaut^oha
dar Blahtsrlsohsa Bafolkaraagaiffappa wardaa« ßss Mltgliad wird
dar^ dsn Toratand safgaaoim^aa« imfsh AnnsUm dar voa Vorat&nd auf
daa VsMa aiavar l»aatlr.i?jtaa Paraoa daagaatalltaa mtjgli^dakef ta ^Ird
dia Mitgiiadsah^ft bagriiadat^#
4:
Sls mtglledar daa T^rslns wardsa In 3 Srarpaa
alai:*atellt;t
4 dia Ja^aaigrapps bis i.\xt ToXlaadaag dss 21 »Labana iahras»
1 dia dripiia dar irslljährlgaa Oararh Iratdtaa«
i dia arappa dar va/hairatataa Mltgliedar»
Dia Mitglladar dar Grappa A tahiaa siaaa » astliohaa
Bsitrsg Toa mi 0»29»
Dia Mltglladar dar Orapps B sshlaa ainaa eon^itliohaa
Baltrsg voa BH OtSO»
Dls Mitglli^ar dar (iraypa C nblsa für Jadaa Ihapsar
siaäa aoastliohaa Baitrsg von RM 0»79«
Dia AaüAshMgabtttur für Jad^s Kitgllad betrat
IM 0»90«
^.^ ^J^^^ Austritt aoa dsa Varala löt aloht vor AbXaaf
daa aratsa Mltslladsjohrss aad aar tmOx alteoastigar Kcindlgoag %m
tshiasa das Kslandarriartaljshrsa tallsalg« ^ «>
^ m^^^ «--^ ^•^ Vorstcmd kaaa sla Mitglied saa ^%m Tarala alt
sofortlgsr wirkaag sosashilessaat
wsan SS In ssiaar aUgaaaiaaa Labaaafahrang^ dan Zwask das
"'igt»
aadstaiatdanglfialsla ashldlgaadsa «slsa poUtiaoli
▼srsias sohidigt»
tloTr
wsan SS
bstntigtg
nmRatiaVlAur llf j/4 Jshs trots llannang alt asiasn BaUrigsa
Satzungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft
für Vererbungswissenschaft
§ 1. Der Verein heißt: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Vererbungs Wissenschaft.
Er hat den Zweck, die Vererbungswissenschaft zu fördern. Dazu dient in
erster Linie die Mitgliederversammlung.
§ 2. Zur Aufnahme als Mitglied ist Vorschlag durch zwei Mitglieder er-
forderlich; über die Aufnahme entscheidet der Vorsitzende. Gegen eine Ab-
lehnung ist Berufung an die Mitgliederversammlung zulässig. Der Austritt
erfolgt durch einfache Mitteilung an den Vorsitzenden. Der Ausschluß eines
Mitgliedes erfolgt auf Antrag des Vorsitzenden durch Beschluß der Mitglieder-
versammlung.
§ 3. Der Jahresbeitrag beträgt für In- und Ausländer fünf deutsche
Reichsmark mit Ausnahme der Deutsch -Österreicher, die fünf öster-
reichische Schillinge zahlen.
§ 4. Die Vereinsgeschäfte werden geführt durch einen Vorstand, der
von der Hauptversammlung für die beiden nächsten Rechnungsjahre gewählt
wird. Der Vorstand besteht aus: 1. einem Vorsitzenden, 2. einem Schrift-
und Kassenführer. Stellvertreter des Vorsitzenden ist jeweils der Vorsitzende
der vorangegangenen Wahlperiode. Die Wahl des Vorstandes geschieht durch
verschlossen abzugebende Stimmzettel, doch ist Wahl durch allgemeinen Beifall
zulässig. Die Hauptversammlung findet alle zwei Jahre statt, und zwar in
den Jahren, in denen keine Tagung der Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher
und Ärzte ist, in den dazwischenliegenden Jahren hält die Gesellschaft im
Rahmen der Naturforscherversammlung eine Sitzung ab. Der Ort der nächsten
Hauptversammlung wird auf der vorhergehenden Tagung bestimmt. Im all-
gemeinen soll die Hauptversammlung dort stattfinden, wo der Vorsitzende seinen
Wohnsitz hat.
§ 5. Über jede Versammlung erscheint ein Bericht in der Zeitschrift für
induktive Abstammungs- und Vererbungslehre. Jeder Vortragende ist ver-
pflichtet, zu diesem Zweck ein höchstens zwei Druckseiten beanspruchendes
Referat über den Inhalt seines Vortrages dem Vorsitzenden bzw. dem Schrift-
führer auszuhändigen. Einen Sonderabdruck des Berichtes erhält jedes Mit-
1
II
Deutselie desellscliaft für Verei'bungswissenschaft
glied kostenlos zugesandt. Über den Ort der ausführlichen Veröffentlichung
der Vorträge entscheiden die Vortragenden selbst, doch hat sich die Schrift-
leitung der Zeitschrift für induktive Abstammurgs- und Vererbungslehre bereit
erklärt, die Vorträge zum Abdruck zu bringen und sie unter Umständen als
geschlossenen Band herauszugeben.
§ 6. Alle Beschlüsse der Versammlung erfolgen durch einfache Majorität,
bei Stimmengleichheit entscheidet die Stimme des Vorsitzenden. Anträge von
größerer Wichtigkeit, so vor allem bei Änderung der Satzungen, auf Auflösung
des Vereins u.dgl., müssen bei der Einladung zur Versammlung im Wortlaut
mitgeteilt werden.
Verzeichnis der Mitglieder
Ktwaige Fehler und Adiessenäiuk'rungen sind dem Schiiftfüliror bekanntzugeben.
(Stand am 1. Januar 1920: 428 Mitglieder.)
Ehrenmitglied: Geh. Kat Prof. Dr. C. E. Correns, Berlin-Dahlem, Kaiser-^Vilhelm-In-
stitut für Biologie.
^'orsitzender: Prof. Dr. K. Baur, Berlin-Dahlem. Institut für Vererbungsforschung.
SteJlvertr. Vorsitzender: Prof. Dr. Hans Winkler, Hamburg, Institut für allgemeine
Botanik.
Geschäftsführer : Prof. Dr. iL N a c h t s h e i m , Berlin-Dalilem, Institut für Vererbungsforschung.
Adametz, Hofrat Prof. Dr. Leopold, Wien, Hochschule für Bodenkultur.
Aichel, Prof. Dr. Otto, Kiel, Anthropologisches Institut.
Akerman, Dr. A., Svalöf (Schweden.)
Alverdes, ProL Dr. F., Halle a. S., Zoologisches Institut.
Andersen, Prof. Dr. Karl, Weihenstephan bei Freising, Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule.
Ankel, Dr. Wulf E., Frankfurt a. M., Feyerleinstraße 10.
Appel, Geh. Reg.-Rat Prof. Dr. Otto, Berlin-Dahlem, Biologische Anstalt, Königin-
Luise- Straße 17.
Armbruster, Prof. Dr. L., Zehlendorf b. Berlin, Verlängerte Mühlenstraße.
Arndt, Dr. Walter, Berlin N 4, Museum für Naturkunde, Invalidenstraße 43.
Babcock, Prof. Dr. p:rnest B., Berkeley, Cal. (U. S. A.), Agricultural E.xperiment Station,
Division of Genctics.
Baltzer, Prof. Dr. F., Bern, Zoologisches Institut.
Bannier, Dr. J. P., Pasocroean, Java (Niederl.-Indien), Proeistation. i
Barfurth, Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. Dietrich, Rostock i.M., Graf-Schack-Straßc.
Bartels, Dr. Friedrich, Lennep, Wiesenstraße 2.
Bartsch, Dr. Otto, Berlin-Niederschönhausen, Kaiser- Wilhelm-Straße 60.
Bauch, Dr. Robert, Privatdozent, Rostock i. M., Botanisches Institut.
Bauer, Dr. K. Heinrich, Privatdozent, Göttingen, Chirurgische Universitätsklinik.
Satzungen. Verzeiclmis der Mitglieder
HI
Bauer, Dr. V., Bonn a. Rh., Physiologisches Institut.
Baumann, Dr. Ernst, -Ahlem 1). Hannover.
Baur, Prof. Dr. Erwin, Berlin-Dahlem, Institut für Vererbungsforschung, SchorlenuT Allee.
Becher, Prof. Dr. S., Breslau, Zoologisches Institut.
von Behr-Pinnow, Kabinettsrat Dr., Berlin W 15, Sächsische Straße (1.
Belirens, Geh. Ob.-Reg.-Rat Prof. Dr. .1., llildesheim. Kuchenthalstraße 15.
Belaf, l')r. K., Privatdozent, Herliu-Dahlem, Kaiser-Wilhelm-lnstitut für Biologie.
Benecke, Prof. Dr. W.. Münster i.W., Botanisches Institut.
Bergerhoff, Dr. Karl, Berlin-Steglitz, Schloßstraße 53.
Berndt, Prof. Dr. Will»., Abteilungsvorsteher, Berlin N4, Invalidenstraße 43, Zoologisches
Institut.
Blotevogel, Dr. Wilh., IL Prosektor, Hamburg 20, Anatomisches Institut, Ericastraße 1.
Bluhm, Dr. Agnes, Berlin-Lichterfelde, Unter den Eichen 54.
IMuutschli, Prof. Dr. 11., Frankfurt a. M., Anatomisches Instimt.
Boas, Prof. Dr. Friedrich, Weihenstej)han 1). Freising (Bayern), Landwirtschaftliche Hoch-
schule, Botanisches Institut.
Böhlke, Dr. Walter, T.rakehnen (Ostpr.), Hauptgestiit.
Bökmann, Dr. Ferdinand, Assistent, Hamburg 20, Anatomisches Institut. Ericastraße 1.
Bondi, Dr. S., Privatdozent, Wien VIII, Lange Gasse (>7.
Bonnevie, Prof. Dr. Kristine, Oslo (Norwegen), Zoologisches Laboratorium.
Bonnier, Dr. Gert, Stockhohn (Schweden), Zootomisches Institut.
Börner, Ob.-Reg.-Rat Dr. U., Naumburg a. S., Biologische Reichsanstalt für Land- und
Forstwirtschaft.
lk)schan, Georg, Rittnu'ister a. D., Wien I, Bäckerstraße i).
Bozler, Dr. Emil, München, Zoologisches Institut, Neuhauserstraße 51.
von Brand, Dr. Theodor, Erlangen, Physiologisches Institut.
Brasch, Dr., Wannsee b. Berlin, Moltkestraße 12.
Urecher, Dr. Leonore, Assistentin, Wien II, Prater, Biologisclu^ Versuchsanstalt.
Bredema.in, Reg.- u. ()konomierat Prof. Dr. Gustav, Landsberg a. W., Theaterstraße 25,
Staatliche Landwirtschaftliche Versuchs- und Forschungsanstalten.
Bremer, Dr. Fritz, Assistenzarzt, (Jöttingen, Universitäts-Klinik für psychische und Nerven-
krankheiten.
Bresslau,ProL Dr. E., Köln a. Rh., Zoologisches Institut, Stapelhaus.
Breuer, Dr. Rudolf, Wien XVIIl, Erndtgasse 20 IT.
Bfesina, Prof. Dr. Ernst, Wien I, P>örseplatz H.
Brieger, Dr. F., Assistent, Jena, Botanisches Institut.
Briquet, ProL Dr. Raul, St. Paolo (Brasilien), Universität.
Broili, Ob.-Reg.-Rat Dr. Jos., Rosenheim, Herbststraße 23.
Brunswik, Dr. Hermann, Wien III/3, Beatrixgasse 19.
Buchner, Prof. Dr. Paul, Greifswald, Zoologisches Institut.
Buder, Prof. Dr. .loh., Greifswald, Botanisches Institut.
Burgeff, Prof. Dr. Hans, Würzburg, Botanisches Institut.
deBurlet, Dr. H. M., Prosektor, Utrecht (Holland), Anatomisches Institut.
Busse, Geh. Ob.-Reg.-Rat Dr. Walter, Berlin-Wilmersdorf, Hildegardstraße 3.
Butz Dr. Hans, Hannover, Engelbosteler Damm 139 I.
Christiansen-Weniger, Dr. F., Privatdozent, Breslau 10, Versuchsfeld der Universität.
Christie, Dr. W., ITjellum (Norwegen). , ,
IV
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Vererbungs Wissenschaft
Claus, Prof. Dr. A., Hamburg 23, Jordanstraße 0.
Clausen, Prof. Dr. Roy E., Berkeley, Cal. (U. S. A.), Agricultural Experiment Station,
Division of Genetics.
Cohen-Kvsper, Dr. med. Adolf, Hamburg, Esplanade 39.
Constantinescu, Prof. Dr. G., Bukarest (Rumänien), Veterinär-Hochschule.
Cords, Prof. Dr. Richard, Augenarzt, Köln-Lindenthal, Kinkelstraße 17.
Cori, Prof. Dr. C. J., Prag II 1594, Weinberggasse 3, Zoologisches Institut der Deutschen
Universität.
Correns, Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. C. E., Berlin-Dahlem, Kaiser- Wilhelm-Institut für Biologie.
Cretschmar, Max, cand., Frankfurt a. M., Eschersheimer Landstraße ß.
Czellitzer, Dr. med. Arthur, Berlin W 9, Potsdamer Straße 5.
Dahlgren, Docent Dr. K. V. Ossian, Uppsala (Schweden), Trädgardsgatan 17.
Davenport, Prof. Dr. Chas. B., Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y. (U. S. A.), Carnegie
Institution of Washington, Department of Genetics.
Delbanco, Prof. Dr. E., Hamburg, Alte Rabenstraße 12.
Demoll, Prof. Dr. R., München, Veterinärstraße 6.
Deneke, Prof. Dr. Theodor, Hamburg 5, Lohmühlenstraße 3.
Derenberg, Dr. med. Julius, Hamburg 37, Frauental 9.
Dem, Ob.-Reg.-Rat, Bayr. Landesinspektor für Weinbau, Würzburg, Sanderring 19.
Diehn, P., Zahnarzt, Rostock, Bornsdorfer Weg 48.
Diels, Prof. Dr. L., Berlin-Dahlem, Altensteinstraße 4.
Donat, Dr. Arthur, Freiburg i. Breisgau, Botanisches Institut.
Duckart, Dr. Joachim, Saatzuchtdirektor, Marggrabowa (Ostpreußen).
Dultz, Alfred, Buchhändler, München, Landwehrstraße 6.
Duncker, Dr. H., Bremen, Wernigerodestraße 22.
Dürigen, Prof. B., Berlin SO 16, Schmidstr. 8 a.
Dürken, Prof. Dr. B., Breslau, Anatomisches Institut.
Edler, Geh. Rat Prof. Dr., Jena, Landwirtschaftliches Institut der Universität.
Egert, Dr. Friedrich, Wien VI, Girardigasse 8.
Ehrenberg, Prof. Dr. Rudolf, Göttingen, Physiologisches Institut.
Eidmann, Dr. Hermann, München, Forstliche Versuchsanstalt, Amalienstraße.
Erdmann, Prof. Dr. Rhoda, Berlin-Wilmersdorf, Nassauisdie Straße 17 I.
Erhard, Prof. Dr. Hubert, Gießen, Bahnhofstraße 84 I, Zoologisches Institut.
Erlenmeyer, Dr. phil. Hans, Berlin, Schwedter Straße 268.
Ernst, Prof. Dr. Alfred, Zürich, Botanisches Institut.
Federley, Prof. Dr. Harry, Helsingfors (Finnland), Zoologisches Institut.
Fetscher, Dr. Rainer, Privatdozent, Dresden, Hygienisches Institut der Technischen Hoch-
schule.
Fick, Geh. Medizinalrat Prof. Dr. R., Berlin NW 9, Anatomisches Institut.
Fischer, Prof. Dr. Eugen, Freiburg i. Br., Anatomische Anstalt.
Fischer, Regierungsrat Dr. G., Berlin W 9, Leipziger Platz 7.
Fleischer, Prof. Dr. B., Direktor der Universitäts- Augenklinik, Erlangen.
Fleischmann, Direktor, Rud., Kompolt, Pert K;'il (Ungarn),
Franz, Prof. Dr. Viktor, Jena, Zoologisches Institut.
Freudenberg, Richaid, Weinheim i. B.
von Frisch, Prof. Dr. Karl, München, Zoologisches Institut, Neuhauserstraße 5L
Frölich, Prof. Dr. Gustav, Halle a. S., Sophienstraße 15.
*^
Satzungen. Verzeichnis der Mitglieder ^
Fruwirth, Hofrat Prof. Dr. C, Waldhof b. Amstetten (Nieder-Österreich).
Gaffron, Dr. E., Schlachtensee b. Berlin, Klopstockstraße 34.
Ganzert, Grete, cand. agr., Hamburg 39, Willistraße 316.
Geinitz, Dr. B., Assistent, Freiburg i. Br., Zoologisches Institut.
Gelei, Prof. Dr. J., Szeged (Ungarn), Tisza Lajos Körut 6.
Gertz, Th., Diplomlandwirt, Berlin SW68, Simeonstraße 10.
Giesenhagen, Prof. Dr. Karl, München, Botanisches Institut der tierärztlichen Fakultät der
LTniversität.
Gilg, Prof. Dr. Ernst, Berlin- Dahlem, Botanisches Museum.
Gleisberg, Dr. Walter. Leiter der Station für gärtnerische Pflanzenzüchtung, Breslau,
Matthiasplatz 5.
Goetsch, Prof. Dr. W., München, Neuhauser Straße 51. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akadf'mie.
Goldsch'midt, Prof. Dr. Richard, Berlin- Dahlem, Kaiser- Wilhelm-Institut für Biologie.
Graebner, Prof. Dr. P., Berlin-Dahlem, Botanischer Garten und Museum.
Grassberger, Prof. Dr. R., Wien IX, Kinderhospitalgasse 15, Hygienisches Institut.
Grimpe, Dr. Georg, Privatdozent, Leipzig, Zoologisches Institut, Talstraße 33.
Grote, Prof. Dr. L. R., Überarzt der medizinischen Klinik, Halle a. S., Tiergartenstraße 10.
Gruber, Prof. Dr. Karl, München, Technische Hochschule.
V. Gruber, Geh. Rat Prol". Dr. Max, München, Hygienisches Institut.
Gschwendtner, Leopold, Mitarbeiter am oberösterr. Landesmuseum, Linz, Hauptstraße 28.
Gutherz, Dr. S., Privatdozent, Berlin NW6, Luisenstraße 5€, Anat.-Biol. Institut.
Gutmann, Dr. med. M. J., Arzt, München, Karlsplatz SIL
Haase-Bessell, Frau Dr. Gertraud, Dresden N., Hospitalstraße 3 II.
Haberlandt, Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. G., Berlin- Wilmersdorf, Berliner Straße 06.
Haecker, Prof. Dr. Valentin, Halle a.S., Zoologisches Institut.
von Hahn, Dr. Friedrich-Vincenz, Hamburg 20, Allgemeines Krankenhaus, Eppendorf.
Hamburger, Dr. Viktor, Freiburg i. B., Zoologisches Institut.
Hanhart, Dr. med. Ernst, Zürich (Schweiz), Schmalzbergstraße 4, Medizinische Poliklinik.
Haniel, Dr. C. B., München, Pienzenauer Straße 38.
Härder, Prof. Dr. R., Stuttgart, Technische Hochschule.
Harms, Prof. Dr. W. J., Tübingen, Zoologisches Institut.
van der Hart, R. M., Haarlem (Holland), Gaelstraat 51.
Hartmann, Prof. Dr. Max, Berlin-Dahlem, Kaiser- Wilhelm-Institut für Biologie.
Hatschek, Hofrat Prof. Di. Berthold, Wien, II. Zoologisches Institut der Universität.
Hauchecorne, Dr. Fritz, Direktor d. Zoologischen Gartens, Halle a. S.
Heck, Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. L., Direktor d. Zoologischen Gartens, Berlin W 62, Budapester-
Straße.
Heider, Geh. Rat ProL Dr. Karl, Berlin N 4, Invalidenstraße 43, Zoologisches Institut.
Heilborn, Dr. Otto, Stockholm (Schweden), Botanisches Institut, Högsscola.
Heilbronn, Prof. Dr. Alfred, Münster i. Westf., Steinfurterstraße 39 11.
Heinricher, Hofrat Prof. Dr. E., Innsbruck, Botan. Institut der Universität.
Heiß, Prof. Dr. Robert, Königsberg!. Pr., Anatomisches Institut.
Hemleben, Dr. Hans, Kassel, Philosophenweg 63 II.
Henke, Dr. Karl, Göttingen, Zoologisches Institut.
Henseler, Prof. Dr. Heinz, München, Technische Hochschule.
Herbst, Prof. Dr. Curt, Heidelberg, Weberstraße 18, Zoologisches Institut.
VI
Deutsche (iesellsclinft für Aererbuiigswissensehaft
Satzungen.
Verzeichnis der Mitglieder
VII
Hermannes, Direktor W., Derenburga. Harz, Deutsch-Schwedische Saatzuchtanstalt.
Hertwig. Prof. Dr. (mnther. Rostock. Anatomisches Institut.
Ilertwig, Dr. Paula, Privatdozentin, lierlin-Grunewald, Wangenlieinistraße 28.
von Hertwig, Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. Richard, München, Schackstraße 2 III.
van Herwerden, Dr. M. A., Lektorin an der Universität Utrecht (Holland), Laboratorium
für Embryologie und Histologie. Nieuwegracht 98.
Herzberg-Frcänkel, Dr. Otto, Wien XVlII/o, Julienstraße 54.
Herzfeld, Dr. Stephanie. Wien III, Rennweg 14, Botanisches Institut.
Hesse, Prof. Dr. R., Bonn a. Rh., Behringstraße 7.
Heymons. Prof. Dr. Richard, Berlin N4, Invalidenstraße 42, Zoologisches Institut der
Landwirtschaftlichen Hochschule.
Hillmann, Prof. Dr. P., Tilyberg, Post Neuburg i. Mecklenburg.
Himmelbaur, Dr. AVolfgang, Privatdozent. Wien IL Trunnerstraße 3, Landw.-chemischc
Versuchsstation,
llimmer, Dr. Anton, Landwirtschaftsassessor, Erlangen. Anstalt für Bienenzucht.
Hindorf, Dr. Richard, Berlin W 35, Flottwellstraße 3.
llintzmann, Walter, stud. med., Frankfurt a. M., Mozartplatz.
Hirmer, Dr. Max., Privatdozent. Müuchen-Nymphenburg, Botanisches Institut.
Hirsch, Dr. Max, Berlin W30, Motzstraße 34.
Hirschfeld, Sanitätsrat Dr. Magnus, Berlin NW 4U. Zelten 10.
Hoffmann, Dr. Hans, Privatdozent, Jena, Zoologisches Institut.
Hoff mann, Dr. med. Hermann, Assistent, Tübingen, Psychiatrische Klinik,
von Hofsten, Prof. Dr. Nils, Uppsala (Schweden), Zoologisches Institut der Universität.
Holzmann. Dr. med. Willi. Nervenarzt, Hamburg, An der Alster 63.
Honing, Prof. Dr. J. A.. Wageningen (Holland), Ryksstraatweg 79, Laboratorium voor
Erfelijklieldsloer.
Höppner, Direktor Edgar, Jena, Botanischer Garten.
Höstermann, Prof. Dr. G., Leiter der Pflanzenphysiolog. Vers. -Anstalt, Berlin-Dahlem.
Hünerbein. Karl, cand. ])hil , Langenberg (Rheinland), Voßnacken 31a.
Husfeld, Bernhard. Dipl.-Landw. u. Saatzuchtinspektor, Berlin-Friedenau, Lauterstraße 16.
Iltis, Prof. Dr. Hugo, Brunn, Liliengasse 13.
Janchen, Prof. Dr. Erwin, Wien III, Ungargasse 71.
Janowitz, Dr. Olga, Mittelschullehrerin, Wien VIII, Sanellystraße 4.
Jesenko, Prof. Dr. Franz, Ljubljana (Jugoslawien), Universität.
Johannsen, Prof. Dr. W., Kopenhagen (Dänemark), Pflanzenphysiol. Institut d. Universität,
.lollos, Prof. Dr. V., Berlin-Dahlem, Kaiser- Wilhelm-Institut für Biologie.
Joseph, Prof. Dr. Heinrich. Wien I, Universität, IL Zoologisches Institut.
Junker, Dr. Hermann, Hamburg, Kolloid-Biologische Abteilung d. Krankenhauses Eppendorf.
Just, Dr. Günther, Privatdozent, Greifswald, Zoologisches Institut.
Kühn, Dr. Eugen, Privatdozent, München, Psychiatrische Klinik, Nußbaumstraße 7.
Kankeleit, Dr., Hamburg, Staatskrankenanstalt Langenhorn.
Kappert, Dr. Hans, Quedlinburg, Saatzuchtwirtschaft Dippe.
Kerbcrt, Dr. C, Direktor des Zoologischen Gartens, Amsterdam, Natura artis magistra.
Kießling, Prof. Dr. L., Münclien, Technische Hochschule, Arcisstraße 21.
Klatt. ProL Dr. Berthold, Hamburg, Zoologisches Museum, Steintorwall.
Klein, Max, Diplomlandwirt, Wissenschaftlicher Hilfsarbeiter am Institut für Pflanzen-
züchtung, Landsberg a. W., Theaterstraße 25.
i
I'«
y
Kleinhoonte, A., Baarn (Holland), de Ruyterlaan 12.
Kniep, Prof. Dr. Hans, Berlin-Dahlem, Pflanzenphysiologisches Institut.
Koch, Dr. Anton, (Jreifswald, Zoologisches Institut, Bismarckstraße 12.
Koehler, Prof. Dr. Otto, Königsberg!. Pr., Zoologisches Institut.
Koernicke, Prof. Dr. Max, Bonn-Poppelsdorf, Botanisches Institut der Landw. Hochschule.
Koltzoff, Prof. Dr. N. K., Moskau (Rußland), Sivzev Vrogen 41.
Kornfeld, Dr. Werner, Assistent, Wien VIII, Hamerlingplatz (S.
Kos, Dr. Franz, Uhef der naturhistorischen Abteilung des Landesmuseums in Laibach
(Jugoslawien).
Kosanin, Prof. Dr. N., Belgrad (Serbien), ,,Jevremovac-'-Jardin Botanique.
Kotte. Dr. W., Freiburg i. Br., Institut für Weinbau.
Kraus, Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. Friedrich, Berlin NW 23, Brückenallee 7.
Krieg, Prof. Dr. Hans, Tübingen, Anatomisches Institut.
Kronacher, Prof. Dr. C, Hannover, Institut für Tierzucht und Vererl)ungsforschung.
Kröning, Dr. Kriedrich, Göttingen, Zoologisches Institut, Bahnhofstraße 28.
Krüger, Prof. Dr. Paul, Bonn, Zoologisches Institut.
Kuhn, Dr. i)hil. Otto, Göttingen, Zoologisches Institut.
Kuhn, Prof. Dr. Ph., Direktor d. Hygienischen Instituts d. Technischen Hochschule, Dresden.
Kühn, Prof. Dr. A., (löttingen, Zoologisches Institut.
Kupelwieser, Dr. Hans, (jut Kyrnl)erg in Pyhra b. St. Polten, Nieder-Osterreich.
Kuskop, Dr. Martha, München, Neuhauserstraße 51, Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie.
Laibach, Prof. Dr. F., Frankfurt a. M., Vogelweidstraße 14.
Lakon, Di. G., Privatdozent, Hohenheim b. Stuttgart, Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule.
Landauer, Dr. Walter, Storrs, Conn. (U. S. A.), Agricultural Experiment Station.
Lang, Dr. Theo, Tübingen, Zoologisches Institut.
Lange, Dr. Johannes, Privatdozent, München, Nußbaumstraße 7, Psychiatrische Klinik.
Laube, Dr. Walter, Saatzuchtleiter, Petkus i. Mark.
Lebzelter, Dr. Victor, Wien VI, Schmalzhofgasse 10.
Lehmann, Prof. Dr. Ernst, Tübingen, Botanisches Institut.
von Lengerken, Prof. Dr. Hans, Berlin N4, Invalidenstraße 42, Landw. Hochschule.
Lenz, Prof. Dr. Fritz, Herrsching, Ob.-Bayern.
Levy, Dr. phil. et med. Fritz, Prosektor, Berlin W^ 57, Winterfeldstraße 35.
Liese, Dr., Privatdozent, Eberswalde, Forstliche Hochschule.
Lilienfeld, Dr. Flora, Wloszanowo b. Gniezno (Polen), Versuchsstation f. Pflanzenzüchtung.
Lindemuth, Dr. Karl, Stolp i. Pommern, Landwirtschaftliche Schule.
Lindner, Dr. Erwin, Stuttgart, Naturaliensammlung.
Linsbauer, Prof. Dr. Karl, Graz, Pflanzenphysiologisches Institut der Universität.
Lohmann, Prof. Dr. H., Hamburg, Zoologisches Museum.
Löhner, ProL Dr. med. et phil. Leopold, Graz, Physiologisches Institut.
Lo Priore, Prof. Dr. G., Modena (Italien), Staz. sperimentali Agrarie Italiane.
Lutz, Dr. (ieorg, Privatdozent, Abteilungsvorstand, Stuttgart, KathariTumhospital.
Mangold. Dr. ()., Privatdozent, Berlin-Dahlem, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Biologie.
Marklund, Frik, Amanuensis, Mag. phil., Uppsala (Schweden), Botanisches Museum.
Martin, Dr. A., Studienrat, Kettwig, Krummacherstraße.
Mathis, Dr. Paul, Klein-Schwein b. Gramschütz.
Mattfeld, Dr. Joh., Berlin-Dahlem, Botanisches Museum.
Maynar, Prof. Dr. Jesus, Zaragoza (Spanien), Universidad, Älanifestacion 93.
VIll
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Vererbungswisseuschaft
Meg:g;endort(3r, Dr. F., Privatdozent, Assistenzarzt an der Staatskrankenanstalt Friedrichs-
berg in Hamburg.
Merkel, Dr. Friedrich, Geschäftsführer der Saatzuchtstelle der D. L. G., Berlin SW 11,
Dessauer Straße 14.
Merker, Dr. F., Privatdozent, Gießen, Zoologisches Institut.
Meyer, Dr. Ad., Bibliothekar, Hamburg 26, Schulenbecksweg 11, pt. 1.
Meyer, Paul, cand. med., Frankfurt a. M., Cronbcrger Straße 25.
Miehe, Prof. Dr. Hugo, Berlin N 4, Invalidenstraße 42, Botan. Inst. d. Landw. Hochschule.
Miessnor, Prof. Dr., Hannover, Hygienisches Institut d. Tierärztlichen Hochschule.
Mirbt, Carl-Alexander, cand. agr., Göttingen, Wilhelm- Weber- Straße 4.
Mjoen, Dr. Jon Alfred, Oslo (Norwegen), Winderen Laboratorium.
Modrow, Eberhard, Leutnant a. D., Giesen b. Kailies (Pommern).
Mohr, Prof. Dr. 0. Lous, Oslo (Norwegen), Anatomisk Institut, Universitetet.
de Mol, Dr. W. F., New York City (U. S. A.) 321a Greenwichstreet.
Moser, Dr. Johannes, Berlin N 4, Invalidenstraße 43.
Muckermann, Prof. Dr. Hermann, Schlachtensee b. Berlin, Waldemarstraße 81.
Mühlebach, A., Präsident der aargauischen Tierzuchtkommissionen, Brugg (Schweiz).
Müller, Dr. Hans, Braunschweig, Salzdahlumer Straße 111 I.
Müller, Dr. Karl 0., Berlin-Dahlem, Biologische Reichsanstalt f. Land- u. Forstwirtschaft.
Müller, Dr. Lene, Bonn a. Khein, Mechenstraße 38.
Munerati, Prof. Dr. Ottavio, Direktor d. R. Stazione sperim. di Bieticultura, Rovigo (Italien).
Muth, Prof. Dr. F., Geisenheim a. Rhein.
Nachtsheim, Prof. Dr. Hans, Berlin-Dahlem, Schorlemer- Allee, Institut für Vererbungsforsch.
Nemeczek, Dr. Albin, Veterinär amtsdirektor der Stadt Wien, Purkersdorf b. Wien.
Neumayer, Dr. Hans, Assistent am Botanischen Institut, Wien III, Rennweg 14.
Neunzig, Dr. Rudolf, Berlin-Hermsdorf, Neue Bismarckstraße 42.
Nilsson-Ehle, Prof. Dr. H., Lund (Schweden), Alnarp.
Noack, Prof. Dr. Konrad L., Würzburg, Botanisches Institut.
Oehlkers, Prof. Dr. Friedrich, Tübingen, Botanisches Institut.
van Oordt, Dr. G. J., Conservator am Zool. Labor, der Tierärztl. Hochsch. Utrecht (Holland).
Opawa, Realschulprofessor Fritz, Wien XIX, Panzergasse 28.
Opitz, Prof. Dr. Kurt, Berlin-Dahlem, Inst. f. Acker- u. Pflanzenbau.
Oppenheim, J. 1).. Tel-Aviv (Palästina), Agricultural Fxper. Station, P. 0. B. 121.
Ossenkopp, Dr. (J., Frankfurt a. M., Feldstraße 78, Psychiatrische Univ.-Klinik.
Pariser, Dr. Käte, Berlin WG2, Kurfürstenstraße .51).
V. Patow, Frh. Dr. C, Rittergut Calberwisch b. Osterburg (Altmark).
Pease, Dr. Michael, Cambridge (England), School of Agriculture.
Peter, Dr. Hans, Wien XVIII, Hochschule für Bodenkultur.
P^terfi, Prof. Dr. T., Berlin-Dahlem, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Biologie.
Peters, Prof. Dr. Wilhelm, Jena, Psychologische Anstalt der Universität, Fürstengraben G.
Pflug-Baltersbach, Rittergutsbesitzer, Berglase a Rügen.
Philiptschenko, Prof. Dr. Jur., Leningrad (Rußland), Institut für Genetik und experimenteile
Zoologie,
Piate, Prof. Dr. Ludwig, Jena, Zoologisches Institut. i
Plaut, Dr. Menko, Saatzuchtleiter, Hamersleben b. Oscherslelien.
Plehn, Prof. Dr. Marianne, München, Oettingenstraßc Ö4.
Satzungen.
Verzeichnis der Mitglieder
IX
Ploetz, Dr. Alfred, Herrsching b. München, Gut Rezensried.
Poch, Dr. Hdla, Assistentin am Anthropol. Institut, Wien IX/H, Maximilian platz 10.
Poll, Prof. Dr. Heinrich, Hamburg 20, Anatomisches Institut, Ericastraße 1.
Poppelbaum, Dr. Hermann, Frankfurt a.M., Holzhausenstraße 30.
Pregl, Basilius, Leiter des Landespflanzenbau-Inspektorates, Graz, Glockenspitalplatz 5 II.
Prell, Frau Dr. phil. Adrienne, Tharandt, Zoologisches Institut.
Prell, Prof. Dr. Heinrich, Tharandt, Zoologisches Institut.
Rabbethge, Dr. Oskar, Direktor der Zuckerfabrik Klein- Wanzleben (Bez. Magdeburg).
Rabl, Prof. Dr. Hans, Graz, Universitätsplatz 4.
Raum, Prof. Dr. Hans, Weihenstephan, Post Freising, Hochsch. f. Landwirtschaft u. Brauerei.
Reichenow, Dr. Eduard, Privatdozent, Hamburg 4, Institut f. Schiffs- u. Tropenkrankheiten.
Reiling, Dr. Hans, Wissenschaftlicher Hilfsarbeiter am Institut für Pflanzenzüchtung,
Landsberg a. W., Theaterstraße 25.
Reincke, Geheimrat Prof. Dr. J., Preetz (Holstein), Klosterhof 20.
Renner, Prof. Dr. Otto, Jena, Botanisches Institut.
Rhumbler, Prof. Dr. L., Münden i. IL, Forstakademie.
Rimsky-Korsakow, Prof. Dr. M., Leningrad (Rußland). Zoologisches Institut der Universität.
RoemJr, ProL Dr. Theodor, Halle a. S., Institut für Pflanzenbau und Pflanzenzüchtung.
Rohweder, W., Saatzuchtleiter, Altona, Schulterblatt 135.
Rüdin, Prof. Dr. Ernst, München, Psychiatrische Klinik, Pettenkoferstraße 14 I.
V. Rümker, Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. K., Emersleben, Kreis Halberstadt.
Ruppin, Dr. A., Jerusalem, Zionist Commission to Palestine.
Sabalitschka, Dr. Th., Privatdozent, Berlin- Steglitz, Elisenstraße 7.
Sabnis, Prof. Dr. S. S., Bombay (Indien), Post Office Box 201.
Sämisch-v. Ranke, Frau, Dr. Alexandra., Potsdam, Waisenstraße.
Sandt, Dr. W., München-Nymphenburg, Botanisches Institut.
Sapehin, Prof. Dr. A. A., Odessa (Rußland), Institutskaja 1).
Saulescu, Dr. N., Dozent, Jassy (Rumänien), Landwirtsch. Inst. d. Univ.
Schaxel Prof Dr. .1., Vorstand der Anstalt für experimentelle Biologie der Universität Jena.
Scheidt' Dr. Walter, Privatdozent, Hamburg, Museum für Völkerkunde, Binderstraße 14.
Schellenberg, Prof. Dr. A., Berlin N4, Invalidenstraße 43, Zoologisches Museum.
Scheunert, Prof. Dr. Arthur, Leipzig, Veterinärphysi.dogisches Institut, Tiroler Straße (>.
Scheuring, Prof. Dr. Ludwig, München, Biologische Versuchsanstalt hir Fischerei.
Schiemann, Dr. Elisa])eth, Privatdozentin, Berlin- Dahlem, Institut für Vererbungsforschung.
Schlaginhaufen, Prof. Dr. Otto, Zürich (Schweiz), Universität.
Schleip, Prof. Dr. Waldemar, Würzburg, Zoologisches Institut der Universität.
Schlör, Dr. W., IL Prosektor, Stuttgart, Neue Weinsteige 59.
Schmalfuß, Dr. Hans, Privatdozent, Hamburg, Rothenbaumchaussee 113.
Schmidt, Prof. Dr. J., Göttingen, Institut für Tierzucht, Nikolausberger Weg 9.
Schmidt, Walter, Tierzuchtdirektor, Berlin W57, An der Apostelkirche 1.
Schneider, Dr. Fritz, Saatzuchtleiter, Klein- Wanzleben, Bez. Magdeburg.
Schön Dr. phil. Arnold, Berlin-Friedrichshagen, Landesanstalt für Fischerei.
Schultz, Dr. Walter. Kinderarzt, Allenstein (Ostpreußen), Zeppelinstraße 2 IIL
Schulze', Prof. Dr. Paul. Rostock, Zoologisches Institut.
Schulze Dr. Werner, Prosektor, Würzburg, Köllikerstraße 6, Anatomisches Institut.
Schussnig, Dr.B., Wien III, Rennweg 14, Botanisches Institut ^. ,, , . ,.
Schwemmle, Dr. Julius, Assistent am Botanischen Institut, Tübingen, Nauklerstraße 14.
X
Deutsche Gesellseliaft füi- Vt'reil)nngs\vissens(!!iaft
Seeliger, Reg.-Kat Dr. Rudolf, Naumhurg a. S., Sedanstraße B7, Biologische Reichsanstalt
für Land- und Forstwirtscliaft.
Segall, Dr. E., Wien XX, Denisgasse 11.
Seiler, Prof. Dr. Jacob, München, Zoologisches Institut, Neuhauser Straße 51.
Sessous, Dr. George, Saatzuchtdirektor, Schlanstedt, Bez. Magdeburg
Shull, Prof. Dr. (1. IT., Princeton, N. J. (U. S. A.).
Sicher, Dr. Harry, Privatdozent, Wien I, Brandstätte 1).
Siemens, Dr. med. Hermann Werner, Privatdozent, München, Bavariaring 47.
Sirks, Dr. M. .T., Wageningen (Holland), Ryksstraatweg 02.
Snell, Dr. Karl, Abteilungsvorsteher am Forschungsinstitut für Kartoffelbau, Berlin-
Steglitz, Florastraße G.
Solger, Prof. Dr. F., Berlin NW, Rathenower Straße 3 III.
Sommer, Geh. Medizinalrat Prof. Dr., Gießen.
Späth, Dr. Hellmut L., Baumschulenbesitzcr, Berlin, Baumschulenweg, Späthstraße 1.
Spatz. Dr. Hugo, wissenschaftlicher Hilfsarbeiter au der deiitsclien Forschungsanstalt für
Psychiatrie, München, Psychiatrische Klinik, Nußbaumstraße 7.
Spemann^ Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. IT., Freiburg i. B., Zoologisches Institut.
Sperlich, Prof. Dr. Adolf, Innsbruck, Salurner Straße 16.
Spieckermann, Prot. Dr. A., Vorsteher des Instituts für Pflanzenkrankheiten, Münster i. W.,
Landwirtschaftliche Versuchsstation.
Spinner, Dr. Julius, Wien XIX, Grinzinger Allee 7.
Spöttel, Dr. W,, Privatdozent, Assistent am Tierzuchtinstitut, Hallo a. S., Landwehrstraßcw.
Staffe, Dr. Adolf, Privatdozent, Wien, Hochschule für Bodenkultur.
Stang, Prof. Dr. V., Berlin NW 6, Luisenstraße 56, Tierärztliche Hochschule.
Steffen, A., Gartendirektor, Pillnitz bei Dresden, Sächsische Versuchs- und Beispielgärtnerei.
Stein, Dr. Emmy, Berlin-Dahlem, Institut für Vererbungsforschung, Schorlenu'r-Allee.
von den Steinen, Prof. Dr. Karl, Berlin-Wilmersdorf, Güntzelstraße 66.
Stellwaag, Prof. Dr. Fr., Neustadt a. d. Haardt, Staatliche Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt für
Wein- und Obstbau.
Stieve, Prof. Dr. Hermann, Halle a. S., Anatomisches Institut.
Stolte, Dr. Hans Adam, Privatdozent, Tübingen, Zoologisches Institut.
Stomps, Prof. Dr. Th. J., Amsterdam (Holland), Botanischer Garten.
Stoppel, Dr. Rose, Haml)urg, Institut für allgemeine Botanik.
Storch, Dr. Olto, Privatdozent, Wien, II. Zoologisches Institut der Universität.
zur Strassen, Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. 0., Frankfurt a. M., Zoologisches Institut.
Stresemann, Dr. Erwin, Berlin N4, Invalidenstraße 43, Zoologisches Museum.
Strube, Elisabeth, Inhaberin der Firma Saatzuchttwirtschaft Fr. Strube, Schlanstedt,
Bez. Magdeburg.
Süffert, Dr. F., Privatdozent, Freiburg i. Br., Zoologisches Institut.
Süpfle, Prof. Dr. K., München, Tierhygienisches Institut.
Swoboda, Dr. Herrmann, Privatdozent, Wien XIX, Hochschulstraße 36.
Tamm, Dr. Ernst, Berlin-Friedenau, Hauptstraße 74.
Tammes, Prof. Dr. Tine, Groningen (Holland), Botanisches Laboratorium. Abt. f. Ver-
erbungsforschung.
Taubert, Dr. Grete, Wien XIX, Hardtgasse 7.
Taufer, Prof. Dr. Joseph, Brunn (Tschechoslowakei), Hochschule für Bodenkultur.
Tävcar, Dr. Alois, Vorstand des Pflanzenzuchtinstituts Agram (Jugoslavieii).
Satzungen.
\'erzeichnis der Mitglieder
XI
Telschow, Ulrich, Schäfereidirektor, Berlin- Grunewald, Kunz-Buntschuh- Straße 12.
Terho. Dr. T.. Dickursby (Finnland).
Thilo, Hans Ludwig, Tierzüchtcr und Hauptmanna. D., Berlin W85, Genthiner Straße 15.
Thoms, Geh. Reg.-Rat Prof. Dr. H., Berlin-Dahlem, Pharmazeutisches Institut.
Thost, Dr. R., Veilagsbuchhändler, Berlin W 35, Schöneberger Ufer 12a.
Tischler, Prof. Dr. Georg. Kiel, Botanisches Institut.
Tjebbes, Dr. K., Hilleshög pr. Landskrona (Schweden).
Tobler, Prof. Dr. Friedlich, Dresden, Botanisches Institut der Technischen Hochschule.
Toenniessen. Prof. Di. E., Erlangen, medizinische Klinik.
Trojan, Prof. Dr. Emanuel, Prag II, Weinberggasse 3, Zoolog. Inst. d. deutschen Univ.
Trunner, Otto, Baumschulenbesitzer, Ybbs a. d. Donau (Deutschösterreich).
Tschermak, Prof. Dr. A., Prag VI, Albertov 5.
Tschermak-Seysenegg, Prof. Dr. Erich, Wien XVIII, Hochschule für Bodenkultur, Ana-
stasius-Grün-Gasse 52.
Übelhör, Dr. Fritz, Oberstudienrat, Nürnberg, Schonhoverstraße 20 ".
von Ubisch, Dr. Gerta, Privatdozentin, Heidelberg, Botanisches Institut.
Uhlmann, Prof. Dr. Eduard, Jena, Phyletisches Museum.
Ulmansky, Prof. Dr. S., Agi-am (Jugoslavien), Tvornicka 10.
Unna, Frau Dr. med. Marie, Bergedorf b. Hamburg, Wentorfer Straße 74.
Vavilov, Prof. Dr. N. J., Leningrad (Rußlaiul), Bureau für angewandte Botanik und
Pflanzenzüchtung, Morskaja 44.
V. Verschuer, Frh. Dr. 0., Tübingen, Medizinische Klinik.
Verstl, Major a.D., Schlanstedt, Kr. Oschersleben.
Vivanco, Dr. Juli;in, Medico (Mrujano, Habana, Cuba (Amerique), Marti 7, Vereda Nueva.
Vogel, Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. Leonhard, :München, Veterinärstraße 6 II, Institut für Tierzucht.
Voigt, Prof. Dr. A., Hamburg 36, Bei den Kirchhöfen 14.
Volksgesundheitsamt (Bibliothek) im Bundesministerium für soziale Verwaltung, Wien I,
Hofgartengasse 3.
Völtz, Prof. Dr. W., Königsberg i. Pr., Institut für Tierzucht.
V. Voss, Dr. Hermann, Dorpat (Estland), Physiologisches Institut, Sarci tän 5.
Wachs, Prof. Dr. Horst, Rostock, Zoologisches Institut.
Wacker, Dr. Franz, München, Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie, Neuhauser Straße 51.
Wacker, Prof. Dr. J., Hohenheim bei Stuttgart.
Waitzinger, Dr. L. A., Research Assistant, Berkeley, Cal. (U. S. A.), Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Division of Genetics.
Walther, Prof. Dr., Hohenheim i. W., Tierzuchtinstitut.
Warth, Dr. Gustav, Tübingen, Weitzäckerstraße 17.
Wassermann, Prof. Dr. Fritz, München, Pettenkoferstraße, Anatomie.
Wastl, Joseph, Demonstrator am Anthropologischen Institut, Wien Vill, Lerchengasse 27.
Weber, Diplomlandwirtin Elisabeth, Berlin-Nikolassee, Lückhoffstraße 19.
Weber, Dr., Privatdozent, Köln, Moltkestraße 137.
Weese, Prof. Dr. Joseph, Vorstand der Lehrkanzel für Botanik an der Technischen Hoch-
schule, Wien IV, Karlsplatz 13.
Weinberg, San.-Rat Dr. Wilhelm, Stuttgart, Rotebühlstraßc 51.
Weißenberg, Prof. Dr. Richard, Berlin NW 6, Luisenstraße 56, Anat.-biol. Institut.
Weitz, Piof. Dr. Wilhelm, Leiter der medizinischen Poliklinik in Tübingen, Wildermuthslr. 4.
Weide, Dr., Stadtschularzt, Leipzig, Tröndlinring 9 III.
XII
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Vererbuugsvvissenschaft
Weninger, Dr. Joseph, Assistent am Anthroj)ül. Inst, Wien XVIII, Scheibenberggasse 18.
Werdermann, Dr. Erich, Santiago de Chile, Cas. 3457, Sanat. Sanitas.
Westberg, Dr. Gustav, Rechtsanwalt, Hamburg 11, Kleine Johannisstraße 20.
Westenhöfer, Prof. Dr. M., Berlin, Pathologisches Museum der Universität.
von Wettstein, Prof. Dr. Fritz, Göttingen, Botanisches Institut.
Wettstein, Hofrat Prof. Dr. K, Wien III, Rennweg 14.
von Wiese und Kaisers waldau, Dr. W., Saatzuchtleiter, Klein- Wanzleben, Bez. Magdeburg.
Wilsdorf, Dr. Georg, Tierzuchtdirektor, Berlin-IIalensee, Paulsborner Straße 25.
Winge, Prof. Dr. 0., Kopenhagen (Dänemark), Kgl. Veterinär- og Landbohojskole's
Avlsbiologiska Laboratorium.
Winkler, Prof. Dr. Hans, Hamburg 36, Institut für allgemeine Botanik.
Witschi, Dr. Emil, Privatdozent, Basel, Zoologisches Institut.
Wittmack, Geh. Reg.-Rat Prof. Dr. L., Berlin-Lichterfelde-Ost, llobrechtstr. 10.
Woltereck, Prof. Dr. R., Leipzig, Zoologisches Institut, Talstraße 33.
Wriedt, Chr., Staatskonsulent, Ski (Norwegen).
Wunder, Dr. Wilhelm, Breslau, Zoologisches Institut.
Zade, Prof. Dr. Adolf, Leipzig, Windmühlenweg 25.
Zarnik, Prof. Dr. Boris, Agram (Jugoslavien), Institut für experimentelle Biologie,
von Zastrow, K., Major a. D., Charlottenburg, Schillerstraße 5.
Zeiger, Dr. Karl, Assistent, Frankfurt a. M., Anatomisches Institut.
Ziegelmayer, Dr. W., Saarbrücken III, Hydrobiologische Station.
Ziegler, Dr. A., Würzburg, Bayerische Hauptstelle für Rebenzüchtung.
Zimmermann, Dr. W., Assistent, Tübingen, Botanisches Institut.
Zoltän, Dr. Szabo, Budapest 8 (Ungarn), Landwirtschaftliche Fakultät der Universität,
Eszterhazyut 3.
Zweigelt, Dr. Fritz, Leiter der staatl. Rebenzüchtungsstelle an der Bundeslehranstalt für
Wein-, Obst- und Gartenbau, Klosterneuburg bei Wien.
TENNIS-KLUB
GRUNEWALD
1933 E.V.
Grunewald
SATZUNGEN
V
o*
A) NAME, SITZ UND ZWECK DES VEREINS.
§ 1.
Der Verein führt den Namen : , J e n n i s - K I u b Grune-
wald 1933 E.V." Er hat seinen Sitz in Berlin und soll in das
Vereinsregister eingetragen werden. Der Verein führt die Farben
„Schwarz-Rot". Seine Geschäftsstelle befindet sich im Klubhause
Berlin-Grunewald, Berkaerstr. 18 — ^20.
Der Verein ist Mitglied im ,,Sportbund des Reichsbundes jüdi-
scher Frontsoldaten (R. j. F.)".
§ 2.
Zweck des Vereins ist die Pflege und Förderung des Tennis-
sports und anderer Sportarten, die Veranstaltung von Wettspielen
und die Pflege der Geselligkeit, sowie die Erziehung der Mit-
glieder im Geiste des R. j. F.
§ 3.
Das Geschäftsjahr des Vereins läuft vom 1. Januar bis zum
31. Dezember.
'i
^
B) MITGLIEDSCHAFT UND BEITRÄGE.
§ 4.
Der Verein hat folgende Mitglieder:
a) Gründermitglieder,
b) Ehrenmitglieder,
c) ordentliche Mitglieder,
d) außerordentliche Mitglieder.
Gründermitglieder sind diejenigen, die die Satzungen unter-
zeichnet haben. Ordentliche bzw. auf^erordentliche Mitglieder
können alle unbescholtenen Personen werden, die das zehnte
Lebensjahr überschritten haben. Mitglieder unter 18 Jahren wer-
den einschließlich des Kalenderjahres, in welchem sie das acht-
zehnte Lebensjahr vollenden, als Junioren geführt. Sämtliche
Mitglieder müssen der jüdischen Konfession angehören.
§ 5.
Personen, die sich hervorragende Verdienste um den Klub
erworben haben, können auf Antrag des Klubausschusses durch
Beschluß der Mitgliederversammlung zu Ehrenmitgliedern ge-
wählt werden. Derart gewählte Ehrenmitglieder sind nicht ver-
pflichtet, Beiträge zu entrichten, haben aber alle Rechte der
ordentlichen Mitglieder. Sie erhalten eine vom Gesamtvorstand
unterzeichnete Ehren-Urkunde.
§ 6.
Zur Aufnahme als ordentliches oder außerordentliches Mit-
glied ist die Einreichung eines schriftlichen Gesuches an den Vor-
stand erforderlich. Dem Gesuch ist ein Ve^^rpflidi^^ fol-
genden Inhalts beizufügen: '"^ " ''^^
„]. Ich bestätige, daß ich weder einer marxistischen Orga-
nisation angehöre, noch mich irgendwie in staatsfeind-
lichem Sinne betätige.
2. Ich verpflichte mich, dem Vorstand des Vereins im Rahmen
der allgemeinen Staatsgesetze vorbehaltlos Gefolgschaft
zu leisten und seinen Anordnungen zu gehorchen.
3. Ich gelobe, niemals gegen die Gebote eines anständigen,
sauberen und schlichten Lebenswandels zu verstoßen und
in jeder Lage die Ehre und das Ansehen des deutschen
Judentums hochzuhalten."
Das Aufnahmegesuch bedarf der Unterstützung zweier Mit-
glieder und ist durch Anschlag zur Kenntnis der Klubmitglieder zu
bringen. Einsprüche sind schriftlich unter Angabe der Gründe
innerhalb einer Woche nach erfolgtem Anschlag dem Vorstand
einzureichen, über die Aufnahme und etwaige Einsprüche ent-
scheidet der Vorstand nach Ablauf der Einspruchsfrist. Zur Auf-
nahme durch den Vorstand ist erforderlich, daß sie durch die in
der Vorstandssitzung anwesenden Vorstandsmitglieder einstimmig
erfolgt, und daß mindestens die Hälfte der Vorstandsmitglieder
anwesend ist, oder ihren Standpunkt schriftlich zur Kenntnis ge-
geben hat.
Die Entscheidung ist dem Gesuchsteiler innerhalb von acht
Tagen, im Falle der Ablehnung oTTne Angabe von Gründen, vom
Vorstand mitzuteilen.
Mitglieder, welche die deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit nicht
besitzen, können nicht dem Vorstand oder Klubausschuß an-
gehören.
§ 7.
Ordentliche Mitglieder haben Sitz und Stimme in der Mit-
gliederversammlung. Sie sind verpflichtet, ein einmaliges Ein-
trittsgeld, den jährlichen Mitgliedsbeitrag und etwaige Umlagen
sowie Balljungengelder zu zahlen. Die Höhe dieser Beiträge
wird vom Klubausschuß bis zum 20. September jeden Jahres für
das folgende Kalenderjahr festgesetzt und am schwarzen Brett
des Klubs angeschlagen. Soweit die einzelnen Beträge gegen
das Vorjahr um mehr als 20 "/o erhöht werden sollen, muß die
Mitgliederversammlung mit einfacher Stimmenmehrheit die Fest-
setzung genehmigen. Erfolgt in einem Geschäftsjahr keine Fest-
setzung, so gilt die Festsetzung des vergangenen Geschäfts-
jahres. Für JuDlQr^ werden ermäßigte Eintrittsgelder und Bei-
träge festgesetzt.
>
Von Fall zu Fall können der Vorstand oder eine vom Klub-
ausschuß eingesetzte Kommission die vorstehenden Beträge er-
mäßigen, stunden oder erlassen {derartige Vereinbarungen be-
dürfen zu ihrer Rechtsgültigkeit der Schriftform) andererseits für
nicht rechtzeitige Zahlungen bestimmte Zuschläge festsetzen.
§ 8.
Außerordentliche Mitglieder haben kein Stimmrecht. Sie
zahlen ermäßigte Beiträge, die gleichfalls gemäß § 7 vom Klub-
ausschuß festgesetzt werden. Wollen sie die Spielanlagen be-
nutzen, so haben sie vom Vorstand festzusetzende Platzgelder
zu entrichten.
Bei Überführung eines außerordentlichen Mitgliedes zum
ordentlichen ist der Unterschied zu den einmaligen Zahlungen
und zu den laufenden Beiträgen für das ganze Kalenderjahr
nachzuzahlen. Der Antrag auf Überführung eines ordentlichen ||
Mitgliedes zum außerordentlichen (z.B. wegen vorübergehender*'
Abwesenheit) ist dem Vorstand spätestens bis zum 30. September
schriftlich einzureichen, anderenfalls sind die Beträge für ordent-
liche Mitglieder auch für das folgende Kalenderjahr zu zahlen.
§ 9.
Der jährliche Mitgliedsbeitrag ist bis spätestens 1. März zu
zahlen. Im Laufe des Kalenderjahres eintretende Mitglieder
haben die bei Eintritt fälligen Beträge und die fälligen laufenden
Beträge spätestens innerhalb einer Woche nach erfolgter Auf-
nahme zu zahlen.
Erst nach Zahlung aller fälligen Beträge haben die Mit-
glieder Anspruch auf Aushändigung der Mitgliedskarte. Ohne
Mitgliedskarte darf kein Mitglied die Spielplätze betreten oder
benutzen.
Hat ein Mitglied seine Mitgliedschaft aufgegeben, so kann
es innerhalb der nächsten fünf Jahre bei Wiederaufnahme auf
seinen Antrag von der Zahlung des Eintrittsgeldes befreit werden.
Die Entscheidung hat der Vorstand von Fall zu Fall zu treffen.
§ 10.
Die Ausübung der Mitgliedsrechte kann nur persönlich er-
folgen und ist nicht übertragbar.
§ n.
Die Mitgliedschaft erlischt außer durch den Tod
a) durch Austrittserklärung, welche schriftlich an den Vor-
stand zu richten ist, und zwar spätestens drei Monate vor
Ablauf des Kalenderjahres durch eingeschriebenen Brief,
widrigenfalls die Beiträge auch für das folgende Kalender-
Jahr zu zahlen sind. Der Vorstand kann die Genehmigung
zum Austritt versagen, wenn er die Gründe zur Aus-
schließung aus dem Klub nach § 11 c für vorliegend er-
achtet.
b) durch Streichungsbeschluß des Ausschusses auf Grund von
§ 12,
c) durch einstimmigen Beschluß des Vorstandes, falls ein Mit-
glied die ihm als solchem obliegenden Pflichten verletzt
oder sich der Achtung der Klubmitglieder unwürdig er-
wiesen hat.
Jedem Mitgliede, dem Ausschließung droht, ist es gestattet,
sich in der hierüber Beschluß fassenden Vorstandssitzung zu ver-
teidigen. Bei der Abstimmung jedoch darf das Mitglied nicht zu-
gegen sein. Dem Ausgeschlossenen ist die Ausschließung durch
eingeschriebenen Brief ohne Angabe von Gründen durch den
Vorstand bekanntzugeben. Der Ausgeschlossene hat das Recht,
binnen zwei Wochen Berufung an den Klubausschuß einzulegen,
welcher binnen Monatsfrist hierüber zu entscheiden hat.
§ 12.
die trotz Mahnung nicht gezahlt
des Mitgliedes durch Nachnahme
die Nachnahme nicht eingelöst, so
und Streichung aus der Mitglieder-
Der Anspruch auf die laufenden
hierdurch nicht berührt.
Rückständige Beiträge,
werden, können auf Kosten
eingezogen werden. Wird
kann gerichtliche Betreibung
liste nach § 11 b erfolgen.
Kalenderjahresbeiträge wird
C) ORGANE DES KLUBS.
§ 13.
;
Organe des Klubs sind:
a) die Mitgliederversammlung,
b) der Klubausschuß,
c) der Vorstand.
Mitgliederversammlung.
§ 14.
Die ordentliche jährliche Mitgliederversammlung soll in der
fersten Hälfte des Oktobers stattfinden. Sie hat aus den ordent-
lichen Mitgliedern den Ausschuß sowie für die Dauer des fol-
genden Jahres zwei Kassenrevisoren und für diese zwei Stell-
vertreter zu wählen, welche die Pflicht haben, die Kasse jährlich
mindestens zweimal zu revidieren.
Ferner hat sie den Geschäfts- und Kassenbericht entgegen-
zunehmen und dem Vorstand und Ausschufi Entlastung zu er-
teilen.
§ 15.
Außerordentliche Mitgliederversammlungen werden nach
Bedarf von dem Vorstande berufen. Sie müssen auch auf Be-
schluß des Ausschusses berufen werden, und wenn ein Antrag
von mindestens 20 ordentlichen Mitgliedern beim Vorstand schrift-
lich gestellt wird. In diesem Falle muß die Mitgliederversamm-
lung innerhalb von 30 Tagen stattfinden.
§ 16.
Die Berufung der Mitgliederversammlung hat mit einer Be-
rufungsfrist von mindestens einer Woche unter Angabe der
Tagesordnung schriftlich an alle Mitglieder zu erfolgen. Sie soll\
außerdem am schwarzen Brett des Klubs und, falls der Klub ein
offizielles Organ hat, in diesem bekanntgemacht werden.
§ 17.
Die Mitgliederversammlung ist beschlußfähig, wenn 4 Aus-
schußmitglieder und insgesamt ein Zehntel der ordentlichen Mit-
glieder anwesend sind. Bei den Beschlüssen entscheidet außer
im Falle der Auflösung die Mehrheit der abgegebenen Stimmen,
bei Stimmengleichheit der Vorsitzende. Bei Beschlußunfahigkeit
kann gemäß § 16, jedoch nur mit fünf Tagen Berufungsfrist eine
neue ^Mitgliederversammlung berufen werden, die über die
gleiche Tagesordnung ohne Rücksicht auf die Anzahl der er-
schienenen Mitglieder beschlußfähig ist.
§ 18.
Auf Antrag von mindestens 20 ordentlichen Mitgliedern sind
bestimmte Gegenstände auf die Tagesordnung zu setzen.
§ 19.
ober die Beschlüsse der Mitgliederversammlung ist ein Pro-
tokoll aufzunehmen, das vom Leiter der Versammlung und dem
Schriftführer zu unterzeichnen ist.
Klubausschuß. § 20.
Der Klubausschuß besteht aus wenigstens 10 und höchstens
15 Mitgliedern. Von ihnen müssen mindestens 8 Mitglieder aus
den Gründern des Vereins entnommen werden.
Ausschußmitgliedern, die ihre Pflicht nicht erfüllen, kann
durch Beschluß des Ausschusses Sitz und Stimme entzogen
werden. Gegen einen solchen Beschluß steht dem betreffenden
Mitglied Beschwerde an die nächste ordentliche Mitgliederver-
sammlung zu, welche beim Vorstand schriftlich einzulegen ist.
§ 21.
Ausschuß und Vorstand können Kommissionen für besondere
Veranlassungen ernennen, zu denen auch andere ordentliche
Mitglieder des Klubs herangezogen werden können.
§ 22.
Der Ausschuß wird vom Vorstand berufen, so oft es die Ge-
schäfte erfordern. Er muß auch einberufen werden, und zwar
innerhalb zehn Tagen, wenn mindestens ein Drittel seiner Mit-
glieder dies schriftlich beim Vorstand beantragt. Bei den Ein-
ladungen, die mindestens drei Tage vor dem festgesetzten Ter-
min zu versenden sind, muß die Tagesordnung bekanntgegeben
werden.
§ 23.
Der Ausschuß ist beschlußfähig, wenn mindestens acht Mit-
glieder mit Ausschluß des Vorstandes ihre Stellungnahme münd-
lich oder schriftlich bekanntgegeben haben.
Bei Abstimmungen entscheidet die Mehrheit, bei Stimmen-
gleichheit der Vorsitzende, über die Sitzung ist ein Protokoll auf-
zunehmen, das vom Vorsitzenden und vom Schriftführer zu unter-
zeichnen ist.
§ 24.
Der Ausschuß hat insbesondere zu beschließen:
1. über die Verwendung und Verwaltung des Klubvermögens.
2. über Satzungsänderungen.
3. über Unternehmungen und Veranstaltungen des Klubs, letz-
tere mit Unterstützung des etwa eingesetzten Vergnügungs-
ausschusses.
4. über die jeweils geltende Spielordnung.
Vorstand.
§ 25.
Der Vorstand besteht aus:
1. Dem ersten Vorsitzenden.
Er hat die Repräsentationspflichten für den Klub und führt
den Vorsitz bei allen Vorstands- und Ausschußsitzungen und bei
allen Mitgliederversammlungen. Ihm untersteht die Geschäfts-
stelle.
2. dem zweiten (stellvertretenden) Vorsitzenden.
Er vertritt den ersten Vorsitzenden im Behinderungsfalle und
unterstützt ihn in der Führung der Geschäfte.
3. dem Schriftführer.
Dieser führt regelmäßig die Sitzungs- und Versammlungs-
protokolle und erledigt den Geschäftsverkehr, soweit dieser nicht
durch eine besonders eingerichtete Geschäftsstelle besorgt wird.
. 4. dem Schatzmeister.
Dieser besorgt die Geldgeschäfte des Klubs und verwaltet
das Klubvermögen im Sinne des § 24, Ziffer 1. Er hat Beiträge
j
und Außenstände einzuziehen und laufende Zahlungen anzu-
weisen, Buch über die Einnahmen und Ausgaben zu führen und
die Jahresrechnung zu legen.
Bei Behinderung vertreten sich die Vorstandsmitglieder tun-
lichst nach der Ähnlichkeit der ihnen zugewiesenen Aufgaben.
In der ordentlichen Generalversammlung hat jedes Vorstands-
mitglied über seine Aufgaben Bericht zu erstatten.
§ 26.
In den Vorstand können nur ordentliche Mitglieder gewählt
werden. Sämtliche Ämter sind Ehrenämter.
§ 27.
Der Vorstand wird vom Ausschuß aus seiner Mitte auf die
Dauer des Geschäftsjahres im Anschluß an die ordentliche
Generalversammlung gewählt. Scheidet ein Vorstandsmitglied
während seiner Amtsdauer aus, so kann der Ausschuß einen Er-
satzmann für den Rest der Amtszeit wählen. V^/iederwahl ist zu-
lässig. Bis zur Wahl des neuen Vorstandes führt der bisherige
Vorstand sein Amt fort.
§ 28.
Der Vorstand vertritt den Klub in allen Angelegenheiten. Er
hat die Befugnis, sich vertreten zu lassen, insbesondere einen
Klubdirektor oder andere Personen gegen Entgelt anzustellen
und diesen die laufende Geschäftsführung zu übertragen. Ur-
kunden, welche den Klub vermögensrechtlich verpflichten sollen,
müssen die Unterschriften zweier Vorstandsmitglieder tragen.
Vorstand im Sinne des § 26 BGB. sind allein der erste und
der zweite Vorsitzende.
§ 29.
Der Vorstand beschließt mit einfacher Stimmenmehrheit, bei
Stimmengleichheit gibt die Stimme des Vorsitzenden oder seines
Stellvertreters den Ausschlag. Wichtige Angelegenheiten muß er
dem Ausschuß unterbreiten. Er hat für ordnungsmäßige Aus-
führung der Beschlüsse des Ausschusses und der Mitglieder
Versammlung Sorge zu tragen. Der Vorstand hat das Recht, allen
Kommissionssitzungen beizuwohnen. Er hat Sitz und Stimme im
Ausschuß und in der Mitgliederversammlung.
D) VERSCHIEDENES.
§ 30.
Der Vorstand kann ein amtliches Publikationsorgan des Klubs
bestimmen. Alle wichtigen Mitteilungen für Mitglieder, die An-
schriften des Vorstandes und Ausschusses sollen am schwarzen
Brett des Klubs bekanntgemacht werden.
§ 31.
Mitglieder dürfen nur mit besonderer Genehmigung des Vor-
standes für eine Tennis-Vereinigung repräsentativ spielen.
An einem zur Feststellung der Spielstärke der Mitglieder
jeden Herbst zu veranstaltenden Klubturnier müssen alle ordent-
lichen Mitglieder teilnehmen. Die nicht teilnehmenden haben in
jedem Fall das Nennungsgeld für eine Konkurrenz zu zahlen.
§ 32.
Der Vorstand bestellt aus der Reihe der Mitglieder einen
Sportv^art, der die Aufsicht über den Spielbetrieb führt.
§ 33.
Der Klub kann aufgelöst werden, wenn die Erreichung seiner
Zwecke unmöglich wird. Ein Antrag auf Auflösung des Klubs ist
nur zulässig, wenn er entweder vom Ausschuß einstimmig oder
von drei Viertel der stimmberechtigten Mitglieder gestellt wird.
Verhinderte Ausschußmitglieder können in diesem Fall schriftlich
stimmen, über den Antrag auf Auflösung entscheidet eine Mit-
gliederversammlung, die mindestens drei Wochen vor dem Ter-
min einzuberufen ist. Jedem Mitglied ist schriftlich der Antrag auf
Auflösung unter Angabe der Gründe bekanntzugeben. Zu dem
Beschluß auf Auflösung ist notwendig, daß in der Mitglieder-
versammlung mindestens die Hälfte der stimmberechtigten Mit-
glieder anwesend ist, und von diesen mindestens drei Viertel dem
Beschluß zustimmen. War in der Versammlung die Hälfte der
Mitglieder nicht anwesend, so ist innerhalb drei Wochen eine
neue Mitgliederversammlung einzuberufen, in der alsdann bei
gewöhnlicher Beschlußfähigkeit der Auflösungsbeschluß mit drei
Viertel Mehrheit gefaßt werden kann. Gleichzeitig ist über Ver-
wendung des Klubvermögens Beschluß zu fassen.
§ 34.
Nach beschlossener Auflösung bleibt der Vorstand bis nach
beendeter Liquidation in seinem Amte, und hat diese gemäß den
Beschlüssen der letzten Mitgliederversammlung durchzuführen.
§ 35.
Für alle Rechtsgeschäfte und Streitigkeiten zwischen dem
Klub und seinen Mitgliedern ist Erfüllungsort und Gerichtsstand
„Berlin-Grunewald".
B e r 11 n , den 26. November 1933.
M I07S0
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GRUNDSÄTZE
des BGB
Bund Geistiger Berufe
BERLIN Q Alexanderstj;aße 71
(am AlexanderpTafz^au^eroIinaT^m. 604-b
Fernsprecher: El Berolina 2325
A. Wie sieht die Intelligenz
die allgemeine Lage?
I. Materielle Lage schlecht, geistige Lage verworren. Lebenshaltung ge-
fährdet, Kulturgüter bedroht. Kriegsgefahr.
II. Vernichtung aller bisherigen Autoritäten, weil sie, ohnmächtig gegen
die allgemeine Krise, nur noch Inhaber von Machtinstrumenten sind.
1. Schwund des Vertrauens zu den Wirtschaftsführern, die sich hilf-
los zeigen.
2. Auflösung unserer Kultur, die von einem bestimmten materiellen
Niveau abhängig ist.
3. Ratlosigkeit; Flucht in soziales und geistiges Kurpfuschertum.
B. Wie sieht die Intelligenz ihre eigene Lage?
I. Durch Wirtschaftskrise Abbau, trotz Arbeitsfähigkeit und Arbeitswillen.
II. Unbeschäftigtbleiben der jungen Generation.
III. Quantitative und qualitative Einengung der Berufstätigkeit; dadurch
demoralisierende Furcht vor Erwerbslosigkeit, unwürdiges Kleben an
Posten.
IV. Senkung der Einkünfte der noch Arbeitenden;
1. bei Beamten und Angestellten direkt;
2. bei freien Berufen durch Wechselwirkung
(Arzt— Patient; Architekt—Mieter; Künstler— Publikum usw.).
V. Ständische Abkapselung der Berufe; oft Gegeneinanderwirken
1. von Prominenten und Unprominenten desselben Berufs;
2. von den einzelnen Berufen;
3. von Berufsausübenden und ihren speziellen Konsumenten (Lehrer-
Eltern — Schüler).
C Wie verhalt sich die Intelligenz?
DI« Intelligenz erkennt nicht, daß obige Verhältnisse nur zwangsläufig
End« einer Entwiciciungsperiode sind. Daher:
!. Resignation (Untergangsstimmungen, Lebensniveausenken als Prinzip).
II. Flucht in „Romantik" (Maschinensturmerei; Siedlungsphantasien; Zurück-
drängen der Frau in die bereits zerstörteJiflyslichkeit).
III. Kritiklose Unterordnung unter Autorität als solche (Furcht vor Zue
denken; Zurückschrecken vor Konsequenz; Ausweichen vor Verant-
wortlichkeit). Daraus:
1. „Führer"-Prinzip (Hitler-Psychose);
2. Hoffnung auf Eingliederung der eigenen Person in den etwa
kommenden faschistischen Fach- und Verwaltungsapparat.
3. Nichteinsehenwollen, daß dies nur mgmgntflng. tiilfe .fvr einigg ^'
Wenjq^/ für alle Anderen aber zukünftig numerus clausus be-
^Wachsendes Elend der ausgeschlossenen. Auch den vom
?erus" clausus Begünstigten droht bei der nächsten Wirtschafts-
krise wieder Abbau.
D. Pflicht der heutigen Intelligenz
I. Die Probleme vorurteilslos zu durchdringen.
iL Den Vorstoß zu versuchen zu Lösungen^ die — ohne standesmäßige ^ » «» »^ *
"^onderrechfg — auch für die Massen der IntÄll^krueilen ArDeiTsmiä- ^
~ lichkeit und damit wirtschaftliche Sicherstellung geben.
Ili Arbeiten dieser Art, die bereits zahlreich und allerorts von Einzelnen
und kleinen Arbeitsgemeinschaften geleistet werden, zusammenzufassen
und weiterzuführen.^ f/Ui^ 6 (i/fT y^W^^^^^V^ 7/^-. ^
IV. Den ganzen Fragenkomplex der Intelligenz vor der Öffentlichkeit auf-
zurollen.
:i.A7{. }iM^<itAJt /IM^^^
E.
I.
\^
Zweck und Aufgaben
des Bundes Geistiger Berufe
Zusammenschluß aller ^eistige^ Beruje^ Zusammenfassung aller In-
tellektuellen, die mit der heutigen wirtschaftlichen und kulturellen Lage
unzufrieden sind und die
1. leeren suggestiven Einflüssen nicht unterliegen;
2. statt verschwommener Gefühle gedankliche Durchdringung der
Probleme und Klarheit über die Folgen verlangen.
i7nd durch Ö
Ergänzung und Weiterführung der Aufklärungsarbeit der Einzelnen und
der schon bestehenden Arbeitsgemeinschaften innerhalb und außer-
halb Berlins.
Abhaltung allgemein interessierender und öffentlicher Vorträge über
Fachgebiete. Diskussionsabende über wichtige Fragen.
IV.
V. Beratung; Schaffung von Studienmaterial.
F. ^rt des Bundes (gehflger Berufe
I. Der Bund soll der Mittelpunkt der Aufklärung, der Selbstverständigung
und der Bewegung der deutschen Intelligenz sein.
II. Der Bund nimmt alle Angehörigen aller geistigen Berufe auf, die die
Richtigkeit der oben angeführten Sätze einsehen oder diese Sätze als
Diskussionsbasis annehmen.
III. Der Bund ist von jeder politischen Partei unabhängig.
Berlin, Ende Februar 1932.
BUND GEISTIGER BERUFE
gez. Franz Hermann Bosning, Dipl. - Ing.; Hermann
.;\ ^ / \ , . Budzislawski, Dr. rer. pol.; Lucy Corvinus, Heil-
Pädagogin; Elsa Gindler; Richard Linneke, Dir.;
Theodore von Loebell, Dr. phil.; Prof. Bruno Taut,
Architekt; Dr. Victor Waisskopf, Physiker.
Druck • Otto Gröner, N 24
,,'bükd g-eistiger berupe
j , «•» ^i» «•• ^i* ■•• ^*» ^i" •■• ^"^ ^* *■■• ^"^ *•• ^
Hierdurch melde ich mich für die Arbeitsgemeinschaft
Hr» an« l/^"*^
N a m e : A ! . *
A d r e s s e * ♦..».
Ich habe noch für eine Arbeitsgemeinschaft mit folgendem
Thema Interesse: *• *
N a m e : ...♦,..
A d r e s s e : ••••.......• • ^
v
Bitte diesen Zettel auszufüllen tind an der Kasse abzugeben l -\
M107SO
I
yii
)^illim Hvssic^r^ Colkfhn ET ''Ot'mt Meutlm^ •■ ■ '\ '^^'^
/fr^ h
i^cS
/
QriHe yeror^nüncj Zur /ti^f/üfyre^/^a
des Ceseizes Zi^r Verhüfi^f»^
'io>i^ch^ses
Decejy^ht
, Dritt« D^rorönung jur ausfütjrung öcs
<5«f€^€s 3ur D-erbütung erbkranken n a cft -
j iD u d) [ e s
■^ Dom 25. Uebrucr 1935
auf (Drunb öes § 17 bos (Bejß^es 3ur Derbütung erbkranken nacb-
rouc^jes Dom 14. 3uU 1933 (Reidjsgefcfeblatt 1 S. 529), öes Hr-
tiRels 5 über öcn tleuaufbau öes Reiches nom 30. Januar 1934
(Reid|sgefe^blatl 1 S. 75) unö öes Hrtikels 5 öes (Erjten (Bejc^es
3ur Überleitung bcr Redjtspflege auf bas Reid) com 16. Februar
1934 (Rcidjsgefeplatt I S. 91) mirö nerorönet;
art ikel 1
(l)^artikcl 1 abj. 2 Sa^ 3 bcr Derorönunq 3ur flusfübrung bcs
(Beleges ^ur Derijütung erbkranken nad)iDud|fcs oom 5. Desember
1933 (Reidjsgeje^blatt I S. 1021) erbält folgenöe Jaffung:
„(Ein fortpflansungsfäbiqer OErbkranker, ber in einer ge-
ict?lüffenen anftalt ocrroabrt roirb, barf nidjt entlaffen ober be-
urlaubt roerbcn, beoor bie Unfrud)tbarmad)ung burciigefüljrt
ober ber antrag enbgültig abqelebnt roorben ijt; bies gilt nidjt.
roenn ber für bie anjtnit ^uitnnbige amtsar3t aus befonberen
prunöen bcr dntlaljung ober Beurlaubung ausnaljmsroeife 3U-
(2) artikel 4 abf. 2 bcr 3roeiten Derorbnung 3ur ausfübrunq
öes (Dcfc^cs 3ur Dcrfjütung erbkranken HaAujudifes com 29. mal
1934 (Reid)sgefc^blatt I S. 475) fallt rocg.
artikel 2
(1) (Einem Hnfrudjtbnrsumacfjenben bcr mcgcn krankijaftcn
(Bci|tcs3uftnnbcs feine Bclanqe nid)t fclbft mabrnei)mcn kann, ift
Don bem drbgefunbbeitsgcridit für biefcs Dcrfafjren ein Pfleger 3U
bcftcllcn. Der Pfleger bot bie Stellung eines gefcfelidjen Dertreters.
Der Unfrud)tbar3umad)cnöc Jtebt einer roegcn (Bciftcsfdjroäc^e cnt-
munbigten Pcrfon gleid?. Der Pfleqcr bcbarf 3ur Stellung bcs an-
trags auf llnfrud}tbarmad)ung nicbt ber (Benebmiqunq bcs Dor-
munbjd?aftsgcrid}ts. '
(2) (Ein Pfleger foll nid)t beftcllt roerben, tocnn bcr Unfrucf^tbar-
3umad)cnbc unter clterlid)er (Bemalt ober unter Dormunbfiaft ftebt
ober einen Pfleger für feine perfon erbalten Ijat.
(3) Jn bem bem antrag auf Unfrud?tbarmad)ung bei3ufügenbcn
ür3tlid)cn (Butad)ten ift aucb 3u ber 5rage Stellung 3u nebmcn, ob
bic Bcitellung eines Pflegers nad) abf, l erforbcriidj ift.
(4) Die Pflcgfdjaft enbigt, falls bas (Beridjt fie nidjt früljer auf-
bebt, mit ber Durdifüljrung ber llnfrudjtbarmadiung ober bcr enb
gültigen ablebnung bcs antrags
(5) Der Pfleger crbält (Erfatj feiner notmenbigen baren auslagen
ous ber Staatskaffc.
•- a r t i k e I 3 „ ...
artikel 2 abf. 2 ber 3u)eitcn Derorbnunq 3ur ausfü^rung bcs
(Eefc^es 3ur Derbütung erbkranken IladiiDudjfes oom 29. ITlai 1934
(Rcidjsgcfe^blatt I S. 475) crbält folgenbe Raffung:
J- „Die Beifi^er bcr (Erbgcfunbbeitsgcriditc unb (Erbgcfunbbcits-
• • obergerid?tc crbaltcn eine ReifckoftenDcrgütung nad) ben für bie
Reid?sbeamtcn ber Befolbunqsqruppe A. 2 geltenbcn Bejtimmun-
gen. Sorocit bie Beifi^cr nid)t beim Rcid), bei ben Cönbern. (5c-
meinbcn ((BemeinbCDcrbänben) ober Körperfd)aften bcs öffcnt-
lidjen Rcdjts in einem fcftcn BcfoIbunqsDcrbältnis ftcljen, crljal-
ten fie aufeerbcm für hm ibnen aus ber IDabrnebmung bcs Bei-
fi^cramts crroad^fenbcn Dcröienftausfall eine (Entfdjäbigung in
t)öbc Don örci Rcidjsmark für jebe angefangene Stunbc ber
Si^ungsbaucr unb bcr Dorbereitung auf bic Si^ung; bic Dcr-
gütung für bie Dorbercitunq barf bic für bie Si^ung 3U gcroäb-
rcnbc Dergütung nidjt übcrfteigen."
ar t i k cl 4
BcDonmädjtigtcn unb Bciftänbcn kann bas auftreten oor ben
(Erbgefunbbcitsgcrid)ten unb (Erbgcfunbbeitsobergerid]tcn aus ujid)-
tigen (Brünben unterlagt toerben; ber Befdjiufe ift unanfcdjtbar.
a r t i k e I 5
Jalls ber Bcfdjlufe bcs (Erbqcfunbbeitsgcridits ober (Erbgcfunb-
beitsobergcrid)ts bem Unfrud)tbar3Ümacbenben pcrfönlid) 3U3U-
ftcllcn ift, kann nad) bem (Ermeffen bes (£crid)ts Don einer ITlit-
tcilung bcr (Brünbe abgcfeben roerben. au? Dcriangcn ift bem Un-
f rud)tbar3uma*cnbcn eine ausfcrtiqunq bes Dollftnnbigen Befdiluffcs
koftcnlos 3U erteilen. Die 3uftcllunq e'ines abgekür3tcn Befdiluffes
itcbt in ben IDirkungcn ber 3uftcIIung eines Doilftänbiqcn Be-
fdiluffes glcid).
artikel 6
Die Bcfd)roerbe gegen ben Befd)Iu6 bes (Erbqefunbbeitsgerid)ts
kann aud) bei bem (Erbgefunbbcitsobeigerid}t fdiriftlidi ober \m
mcbcrfdjrift bcr (B^fd)äftsfteUc biefcs (Beridits eingelegt ujcrben.
a rt i kcl 7
artikel 6 abf. 3 ber Derorbnunq 3ur ausfübrunq bes (Bcfcfecs
3ur Derbutung erbkranken nad)roud)fcs oom 5. Dezember 1933
{Rcid}sgefcplatt I S. 1021) crbält folgenbe Jaffung-
„!1ft ber (Eingriff nad) Urteil bcs ausfüf)rcnben Ör3tcs roegcfl
bcfonbcrcr Umftänbe mit Cebensgefabr für hm (Erbkranken oer-
bunbcn ober aus einem anberen u)id)tigcn gcfunbbeitlid)cn
(Brunbe nid)t alsbalb burd)fübrbar, fo kann ber 3uftänbige amts-
ar3t auf antrag bes arstes, ber ben (Eingriff ausfübrcn foII, an-
orbncn, ho.^ bic Dornabmc bes (Eingriffs cinftroeilcn unterbleibt.
Die ausfe^ung erfolgt ouf beftimmte 3eit. IDieberbolte aus-
fc^ung ift 3uläffig. Die ausfe^ung ift bem (Erbgcfunbbcitsgeridit
an3U3cigcn."
art ikcl 8
(1) per bic Unfrud)tbarmad)unq ausfübrenbc arst bat bem (Erb-
gefunbl)eitsgerid)t unb bem beamteten ar3t einen fd)riftlid)en Bc-
rid)t über bie Unfrud)tbarmad)ung unb bas bierbei angcioanbte
Dcrfabrcn fpäteftens 3iDCi IDodicn nad) Dornabmc bes (Einqriffs
ein3urcid)cn. ^ '
Jil ?J^ ^l^ Teilung 3ur 3eit ber Berid)tcrftattung nod? nid)t oSs-
ge|(l)loI)en, fo ift bies in bem Beridit ^u oermerken unb erneut ^u
bcrid)tcn, fobalö bic {)cilung erfolgt ift.
artikel 9
(1) als Koften bes är3tlid)en (Eingriffs gelten:
1. bie Koften ber Reife bcs Unfrud)tbar3umad)cnben unb feiner
ctioa notiDenbigen Begleitunq in bie anftalt, in u)eld)cr bcr
ar3tlid)c (Eingriff ausgcfübrt roerben foll,
2. bic Koften feines aufcntbalts in bcr anftalt. folangc biefcr 3ur
ausfübrung öes är3tlid)cn (Eingriffs notmenbig ift,
3. bic Koften bes ärstlidjcn (Eingriffs fclbjt,
4. bic Koften einer mäbrenö eines balben Jabres nad) bem (Ein-
griff ctroo crforberlid)cn Iladibebanblung,
5. bic Koften, bic aus einer Derroabrunq bes (Erbkranken in einer
gefd)loffencn anjtalt auf (Brunb bcs ärtikels 1 abf. 2 Sa^ 3 bcr
Derorbnung 3ur ausfübrung bes (Befe^cs 3ur Derbutung erb-
kranken nad)U)ud)fcs com 5. Dc3cmbcr 1933 (Rcidjsgcfcplatt I
S. 1021) entftebcn, folangc bcr (Erbkranke Icbiglid) 3ur Der-
butung ber 5ortpflan3una unb nid)t aus anberen (Brünben in
bcr anftalt ocrmabrt morbcn ift.
(2) Die Koften 3U hm 3iffern 1, 2 unb 5 finb oon h^v. im § 13
ab). 2 bcs (Befe^cs bc3eid)neten Stellen aud) bann 3u übernebmcn,
menn ber (Eingriff fclbft nid)t 3ur ausfübrung kommt.
(5) Die Dcrpflid)tung ber Krankenkaffe, bie Koften bcs är3tlicbcn
(Eingriffs vx tragen (§ 13 abf. 2 Sa^ l bcs (Befc^cs), umfaßt aud)
bic im abf. 1 um. l bis 3 genannten Koften bcs är3tlid)en (Ein-
griffs an einem nad) § 205 ber Reid)SDcrfid)erungsorbnung bercd)-
tigtcn Jamilicnmitglicb bcs Derfid)crten. Die im äbf. 1 um. 4 unb
5 genannten Koften trögt bie Krankenkaffe w.^^^ hm Dorfd)riftcn
bcr ReicbsDerfid)crungsorbnung über ben Umfang ber £eiftungcn.
jcbod) nur, mcnn bic Dorausf-c^ungcn für bie (Bcmäbrung bcr
£eiftungcn ViQii\ ber Rcid)SDcrfid)crungsorbnung erfüllt finb.
(4) Sorocit bic Staatskajfc bic Koften bcs är3tlid)cn (Eingriffs
trägt (§ 13 abf. 2 Sa^ 2 bes (Dcfetjcs), finb bie Koften nid)t cr-
ftattungsfäbig, bie nad) bem (Butad)ten bes amtsar3tes nid)t 3U hm
Koften bcs är3tlid)en (Eingriffs im Sinne bes abfa^es 1 geboren
ober bas ÜTafe öcffcn übcrfteigen, roas bei einem f)ilfsbcöürftigcn
Don öcr öffcntlidjcn IJürforgc 3U übernebmn roärc. Die Dorfcbriftcn
öes § 13 abf. 2 Sq.% 2 öes (Befet^cs unö öes ärtikels 7 abf. 2 öcr
Dcrorönung 3ur ausfübrung Ö9s (Befc^es 3ur Derbutung erbkranken
nad)ioud)fes Dom 5. Dc3cmber 1933 (Rcidisgefcplatt I S. 1021)
roerben bieröur* nid)t berübrt. Die !Jeftftellung öcr öcn Krankcn-
kaffen 3ur £oft fallenöen Koften erfolgt nad) öcn Dorfd)riften öcr
Rtid)SDcrfid)erungsorönung im Sprudinerfabrcn.
artikel 10
(1) Solange öic Unterbiiugunq eines ITlinöeriäbrigen 3ur 3är-
forgeer3icbung angeorbnct ift, fallen bie Koften bes är3tlid)cn (Ein-
griffs an bem ITlinbcriäbriqcn bem dräqer bcr Koften ber Uürforge-
cr3iebung md) ben für biefe qeltcnben Dorfd)riften 3u Caft; ^'75
bcs Reid)sgefe^Gs für Jugcnbrobblfabrt finbet keine anroenbung.
(2) Die Derpflid)tung ber Staatskaffc unb bcr Krankenkaffe nad)
§ 13 abf. 2 bcs (Befe^es bleibt unberübrt. Jür bie Derpflid)tung
ber Krankenkaffen ift im übrigen bie Dorfd)rift bes § 216 abf. ]
Hr. 1 ber Reid)SDerfid)trungsofbnung entfpred)cnb an3urocnbcn.
a r t i k e l 11
fl) Sorocit Krankenkaffe, öffcntlid)c Jürtorgc, (Träger ber Koften
ber 5ürforgcer3icbung, Polisci ober Staatskaffc bis 3U bem auf bie
Dcrkünbung biefcr Derorbnung folgenbcn (läge Koften bes är3tlid)cn
Jingriffs getragen babcn, können fie untcreinanber Rüdicrfa^ öicfer
Koften aud) öann nid)t foröcrn, roenn fie nadi öicfer Dcrorönung
für öic übernabmc öcr Koften nid)t 3uftänöig roaren.
(2) Jällc, öic öurd) Jeftfeftung öer Koften bereits abgcfd)loffcn
finb, roerben nur bann oon öicfer Dcrorönung berübrt, roenn beim
Inkrafttreten öicfer Dcrorönung fd)riftlid)c '(Einroenöungcn gegen
ÖIC Koftcnfcftfcöung üorlicgcn.
«. '.%'..> ._.
257
'»/
V
artikel 12
(1) Der Rdd)sminijter ber 3ujti5 bejtimmt Si^ unb Besirk ber
entt(t)eibenben (Berid|te unb bie 3at)l ber bei biejen einsuridjtenben
Kammern. (Er kann bie Busübung biejer Befugnis ben ©berlanbes-
gericf)tsprälibenten übertragen.
(2j ^injidjtlid) bcr Derroaltunq unb Dienjtaufjid}t gelten bie drb-
gejunbtieitsgericbtc als aeil bes amtsgeridjts, bie (Irbgefunbljcits-
obergerid)tc als deil bes (Dberlanbesgeridjts.
(3) Die 3at)I bQt är3tlid)en mitqlieber unb it)rer Dertreter be-
nimmt ber (Dberlanbesgerid}t5prnfib~ent nad} bem Bebürfnis.
; , ... artikel 15
(1) Die initglieber ber entjd]cibenben (Bericbte unb itjre Stell-
üertreter merben bejtellt:
1 für bas (Erbgejunbljeitsaeridjt im Bejirk bes £anbgerid}ts Berlin
burd) bcn präfibcnten bes amtsgeridjts Berlin;
2. für bie übrigen (Erbgejunbl)eitsgerid)te burd) bie £anbgerid}ts-
pröjibenten;
3. für bie (Erbge|unbl)eitsobergerid)te burd) bie ©berlanbes-
gerid)tspräfibenten.
(2) Die rid)terlid)cn IHitglieber ©erben für bie Dauer bes (Be-
Id}äftsiabres. bie är3tlid)en mitglieber für bie Dauer Don smei (5e-
d)äftsiabren bejtellt. Die är5tlid)en mitglieber jinb auf porjd)lag
ber böberen DerroaItunQsbef)örbe. in Berlin bes poliseiprajibenten,
^u beftellen. Die Dorfdfläqe ber är?tlid)en mitglieber für bie ^rb-
gefunbbeitsobergcrid}te bebürfen bcr 3ujtimmung bes Reid)s-
minifters bes Jnncrn.
(3) rOirb roäbrenb bcr Bmtsjeit bcr mitglieber bie Bcltellung
neuer mitglieber erforberlid), |o mcrben bieje für ben Rejt ber
amtsseit bcjtcllt.
(4) Die Reibenfolgc für bie t)cran:^iebung ber Beijiöer bcftimmt
ber Dorfitjcnbe cor Beqinn bes (Dejd)äftsjal)res für feine Dauer.
(5) artikel 4 abf. 1 ber Derorbnunq :^ur ausfüt)rung bes (Defe^es
■^ur Derl)ütung erbkranken nad)a3ud)fes Dom 5. Dezember 19^^
(Reid)sgeje^bl. I 5. 1021) fällt roeg.
artikel 1 4
Die amtsseit ber beim Inkrafttreten biefer Derorbnung im amt
befinbltd)en ärjtlidjcn mitglieber ber (Irbgcjunbl)eitsgerid)te unb
^:, «
ber (Irbgefunb!)citsoberqerid)te enbet am 31. Dcsomber 1935. ar-
tikel 15 abf. 3 gilt entjpredienb. ,- . ,„ ~ r-,^^ • i
Berlin, bQW 25. Jcbruar 1935 'r •,•;' ' ) ':■''.■'■-. -;>.^
. Der Reid)sminifter bes Jnncrn • ^
« .'- :rn Dertretung: Pfunbtner- -)
Der Rcidisminifter ber Huftis ' • '
3n Dertretung: Dr. 5 d) l e g e l b e r g e r
Der Reidisarbeitsminifter -
dn Dertretung: Dr. K r o 1} n
nad)td)ulung üon f)ebamm€n
Runberlafi bes Reirf)s- unb prcufeifdien miniftcrs bes. O^nnern uom
19 Jcbruar 1935 — IVb 411'35 — .
1 dinc nad)fd)ulunq bcr f)cbammen auf bem (Debiete ber Säug-
lings- unb Kleinkinbcrpflegc, -ernät)iung unb -fürforgc ift brmgeno
criDÜnfdit,
2. Die möglid)kcit bcr (Einrid)tuna oon nadifdiulungskurfcn burd)
ben Ccitcr ber ^ujtänbigen f)obamm*cnlcl)ranjtalt ober Uniuerfitats-
frauenklinik ift gcmeinfam mit bcr Ccitcrin bcr örtlidicn Rcid)S-
fad)fd/aft Deutfd)er f)Gbammcn ^u prüfen.
3. i)icrbci ijt barauf ju aditcn, baf^ qcnügcnb (5clcgenl]cit ^nx
praktifd)en Übunq nid)t nur bei ncuacborcncn, fonbern aud) bei
Kleinkinbcrn gegeben ift. Derbinbung mit einem geeigneten Säug-
lings- unb Kfnbcrkrankcnl)aus unb geeigneten Jürforgcftcllcn am
®rtc ber £anbcsfraucnklinik unb Rcbammcnlcbranftalt ift bat)cr
nötig.
4. Die aeilnat)me bcr f)ebammcn foll frcituiliig fein. -
5. 5ür bie Kojtcnaufbringunq ift ^u prüfen, ob mittel bcr Pro-
üinsialücrroaltunq ^ur Derfüqünq itcl)cn. ob 3ufd)uffc feitens ber
Kreife geleistet ujcrben können, rocldic mittel bie örtlid)C (Blieberung
bcr Rci"d)sfadifd)aft 3ur Derfüqünq bat ober non bcr Reid)sfad)fd)aft
Berlin erkalten kann. Gegebenenfalls roerbcn Staatsmittel in be-
id)ränktcm Umfange 3iir Derfügung gcftellt merben können.
6 3um 1. april 1955 febe idi cntfprcdicnöcm Berid)t entgegen.
i\
\
.1
I
SaDen
(Einfüf)rungsU{)rgang in Babcn-Babcn ,
Die £anbcstt«lle Baöen b«r KaffenärjtUdien Dereinigung
Dcutfdjlanbs D^ranftaltet am 6. unb 7. Bpril 1935 in B a b c n -
B a bcn einen
(Einfül)rungslel)rgang für bie Kaffenpraiis.
Jeber Hrst, ber 3ur Kaffenprajis sugelaffen lüerben roill.
muB nad) § 18 abf. 1 ber 3uIatiungsorbnung an einem foldien
Kurs teilgenommen I)aben.
anmelbungen 3ur (Ieilnal)me finb bis fpäteftens
28. inärs 3u rid)ten an bie £anbesftelle Baben ber KDD,
iriannfjeim, £. 15. 1. Die deilnebmexgebübr beträgt 5 Rm.
n
03 r a n t) e n b u r cj
3ulatfungen
am 11. Hpril 1935 foll über 3ulaffungen im arstregiftcr-
be3irk Branöenburg, (Drensmark pofen-tDeftpreufeen Betd)lufe
gefafet loerben. (Bemäfe § 47 ber 3ul® unb unter Besugnabme
auf bie Bekanntmad)ung bes Reid)sfül)rers ber KDD über bie
Bilbung oon ar3tregifterbe3irken unb aeilbc3irken üom
18. auguft 1934 gebe id) bekannt, bafe 3ulatfungen für folgenbe
(Drte ober ©rtsteile in 5rage kommen (in Klammern bie
Kreife):
258
a e i l b e 3 i r k I (f) a d e 11 a n b) : B e e l i § (3aud)-Bel3ig),
Hauen ((Dftljaoslianb), Rl]inorD (tDcftliaüellanb), Bran-
benburg (Stabtkreis).
aeilbe^irk II (Prigni^): H) i 1 1 enber ge dDeft-
prigni^), Prit^icalk ((Dftprigni^), Heuruppin (Rup-
pin), Karftäöt (IDcftprigni^).
Cleilbe3irk III (Udicr mark): dcmplin (dempUn),
S d) iD e b t " (angermünbe). £ u n o id (angermünbe), a o a -
d) i m s t b a I (Bngermünbe).
deilbesirk IV (mittlere mark): Rebfelbe
(riieberbarnim), 3ernsborf (CEeltorD), 3 'i l li cl)en b or f
(nüterbog-CudieniDalbe), Jüterbog (Jüterbog-£udienroalbe),
Cudienroalbe (3ütcrboq-£nmenu)albe), Blumberg (Hie-
öerbarnim), Kalkberge (nieberbarnim). B a r u 1 1) (Jüter-
bog-Cudienroalöe). 3 offen ((Idtoiü), drkner (Hieber-
barnim).
CEeilbesirk V (Heumark): arnsroalbe (Brns-
malbe), Breitenftein (Jriebeberg), Königsberg (Kö-
nigsberg), neuenl)agen (Königsberg), Sellnotü (Brns-
roalöe), II e u in e b e 11 (BrnstDalbe).
a e i l b e 3 i r k VI (£ e b u f e r ' £ a n b) : D r o f f e n (IDsft-
ftsrnberg). Frankfurt a. b. (Dber (Stabtteil Br<;2tindi2n).
CE e i l b e 3 i r k VII (© r e n 3 m a r k P 0 f e n) : K r i e f d) t
(©jtfternberg), Betfdie (meferiij), 5d]rDiebus (3üllid)au-
Sd)rDiebus),*3üllid)au (3üllidiau-5d)ir)iebus).
aeilbe3irk VIII (Hie be r l a uf it}) : (B u b c n - üörbl.
Stabtteil (Stabtkreis), 5 ün feidien ((Buben), IDiefenau
((Buben), Spremberger Dorjtabt (dottbus-Stabtkreis),
//? loyfo
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Dr. ROBERT RICARD
MATHEMATISCHES BÜRO
Berlin W 30
Stegitzer Str. ao/3i III.
B 1 Kurfürst 1140
b ia^
Dr. W. Nussbaum
Frauenarzt
Berlin W 57, Potsdamerstraße 92
Sprechstunden: 5—6
außer Mittwoch nachmittag
Telefon: Pallas 3761
den
193
Rp.
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Dr. W. Nussbaum
Potsdamer Strafe 92 B 7 Pallas 3761
Sprechstunden: 4-5 Uhr
au^er Mittwoch Nachm. und nach Verabredung
Rp.
Berlin, den 193
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Dr. W. Nussbaum
Potsdamer Strafe 92 B 7 Pallas 3761
Sprechstunden: 4-5 Uhr
fluider Mittwoch Nachm. und nach Verabredung
RP;
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GEGENSEITIGE DOPPELTE
GOLDENE LEBENSVERSICHERUNGS-
P^OILflCE
AUSGESTELLT FÜR DAS GRÜNE BRAUTPAAR
PAULA UND HERMANN SIEGEL
am 13. Januar 1885
Zahlbar in Silber durch 100000 Küsse
in herziger treuer Liebe
am 13. Januar 1910
Prolongierf durch Verlängerungsschein
in lOOOOOfacher goldener unbezahlbarer Zuneigung
und Liebe der Söhne und Enkel
am 13. Januar 1935
Als Extra-Prämie wird eine weitere Auszahlung in Diamanten^
aber nicht in Königsbergerscher, sondem in ewiger unzer-
störbarer Fassung
am 13. Januar 1945
stattfinden.
Diese Police ist unter Garantie der Unverfallbarkeit ausgestellt von der guten
HIMMELS-GLUCKS STERN VERSICHERUNGS-A.-G.
DIEDIREKTION
Neu ausgefertigt am 13. Januar 1935 im Logentiaus, Berlin, Kleiststraße, durch
WALTER SIEGEL
gegengezeichnet von Josef Juliusburger
Ein Gutes hat eine Lebensversicherung, bist Du beim Abschluß noch ziemlich jung, so zahlst Du bis 100 Jahre
lang und wirst dann sicherlich nicht krank. Jedoch eine Police, gerad* so v/ie diese, ganz schwierig auszu-
stellen geht, denn es ist eine goldene Rarität.
fikFEIILIEIIEII
L LIED
MELODIE: Strömt herbei Ihr Vö Ik e r s c h a r e n
Eine Reihe alter Lieder,
Sind gewiß heut angebracht,
Selbst die Töne bringen wieder,
Woran lang man nicht gedacht.
Und an solchem Jubeltage,
Den man der Erinnerung weih't,
:,: Hört man gerne ohne Frage,
Aus der guten alten Zeit. ;,:
Paula, Hermann, Ihr zwei Beiden,
Denkt an Cosel mal zurück.
An die Stadt, wo Ihr bescheiden
Noch nicht ahntet Euer Glück,
Wo der Hermann dienstbeflissen,
Noch bei Ring im Laden stand,
:,: Wo den Kunden er gerissen
Bowels drückte in die Hand.
0 $
Wo die dickliche Pauline
Heut sieht man ihr dies nicht an.
Mit viel Chick und froher Miene,
Hüte schön garnieren kann.
Dort in Cosel war's gewesen.
Wo zum Ball er sie geführt,
:,: Ach, er tanzte wie ein Besen,
Und das hat sie sehr geniert. :,:
Trotzdem ging's in Freundschaft weiter,
Zwar war Paula äußerst kühl.
Aber wie ein kühner Reiter,
Ritt er feste auf sein Ziel,
Wollt' in Cosel nicht mehr bleiben,
Münsterberg beglückt er bald,
:,: Briefe mußt' er viele schreiben,
Doch auch dies ließ Paula kalt. :,:
II. LIED
MELODIE: Am grünen Strand der Spree
Auch Paula wollte hoch hinaus,
Darum zog sie nach Brieg,
Sie gründet ein Putzmodehaus
Und rechnet Heil und Sieg,
Mit einem Riesen - Kapital,
Aus Mutters Sparnedann,
:,: Das bracht den Segen kolossal,
Es ging recht gut voran. :,:
Inzwischen wurde er Soldat,
Sein Sinnen war nur sie.
Und als er einmal Urlaub hat.
Denkt er: jetzt oder nie.
Durch ihre Kundschaft kannt' sie nur,
Die Leutnants-Uniform,
:,: Doch seine 3. Garnitur,
Die störte sie enorm. :,:
Trotzdem blieb Hermann unverzagt,
Zum Ziel „Ausdauer" führt.
Und endlich hat sie ja gesagt.
Da war er hochgerührt.
So selig unser Hermann war.
Daß zum Verlobungsfest,
",: Das Brautbukett, das wunderbar,
Im Zug er liegen läßt. :,:
Im Putzgeschäft, man kann's versteh'n,
Das paßt dem Hermann nicht.
Zum Kaufen schöne Worte dreh n,
Versäumt er oft die Pflicht,
Sobald es aber Liebe heißt,
Selbst „Ammen" machen froh,
:,: Da fließt das Wort, da sprüht der Geist,
Noch heut' ist's bei ihm so. :,:
Zwei Knaben schenkte Paula ihm,
Ein Rätsel war's fürwahr.
Denn fremd war ihr das Wort „intim",
Auch schon vor fünfzig Jahr,
Doch der Bedarf wuchs dadurch stark,
Bis Hermann sagt Hcrrjeh,
:,: Hier schmeiß ich hin den ganzen Quark,
Zieh an den Strand der Spree. :,:
llllllllllllilllillllllllllllllllllllllllllilillllllHIlHlllllllilllflillllllllllllilllllllillllH
III. LIED
MELODIE: Wenn die Blätter leise rauschen
In der Raupachstraße war
In Berlin zuerst das Paar,
Onkel Königsberger hier,
Der bekannte Juwelier,
Sichert sich des Hermanns Kraft,
Doch bis nachts um 12 Uhr schafft,
Er fast täglich ohne Rast,
Bis auch dies ihm nicht mehr paßt.
Darum, darum, darum:
Hat er klug und schnell entschlossen,
Sich dem Zweige zugewandt.
Dem bis heute unverdrossen
Die Befriedigung er fand.
Seine Witze, seine Spaße,
Und sein lachendes Gesicht,
Das war seine wahre Größe,
Der Erfolg versagte nicht.
Doch auch mancher Schicksalsschlag,
Sich nicht ganz vermeiden mag,
Paula kämpfte treu und brav.
Als sie Hermanns Krankheit traf,
Die Finanzen meistens klein,
Richtet sie verständig ein.
Alles für's Gymnasium,
Alles für das Studium,
und heut und heut und heut,
Sieht man goldne Früchte tragen,
Was das Pärchen einst gesät,
Nach den Mühen, nach den Plagen,
Rosiges Glück am Himmel steht,
Enkelkinder, Söhne (prächt'ge),
Scheuchen jede Sorg' und Pein,
Lächelnd schützt Euch der Allmächtige
Möge ewig es so sein!
IV. LIED
MELODIE: Im schwarzen Walfisch zu Ascalon
Beim Schluß der Lieder, da fehlt fürwahr.
Wo Air so fröhlich sind hier:
:,: Ein Hoch fürs goldige Jubelpaar,
Darum erheben wir :,:
Das Glas, gefüllt mit perlendem Wein,
Nun rufet hell und klar:
:,: Stets glücklich sollen Beide sein,
Und zwar bis 100 Jahr! :,:
Paula und Hermann
sie leben hoch, hoch, hoch!
!><>><>l>>>>><>ll<>><l>>l>>>lll<lllll>lllllllll>lll>lllllllllllllllillllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllü^ Illllllllllilllllllllillllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll^^^
DRUCK: HERMANN KURNIK, BERLIN O 27. FOTO: GERTRUD OCHS, BERLIN W 30, SCHWABISCHE STR, 20
>V
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C 0 W F 3 R E K C -2
on
DTOAI^IIC AKTEROPOMCTRY
rPIMY, APRIL 15 AIO)
SATÜEDAY, üPBIL l6, I955
TH2 IS; YOBK ACADjJ^IY OF SCI23ICxJS
SiiCTIOn OF aOTEROPOljOGY
2 iiAST SIXTY-TEIBD STRSET
imi YOEK 21, ]M7 YORK
Thoso proprlntod abstracts aro not prosontod In licu
of publication. Pormisslon must bo obtainod from
tho authors and The ITow York Acadomy of Scioncos
for UGo in any printod rcforonccs, tho Press cxcoptod.
COKFEBENCE DYNAMIC ANTHROrOMETRY
SESSION NO. 1, PAPER #1
ORGANIC FORM AS DETERMINED BY FUNCTION
by
N. Rashevsky
Commlttee on Mathematical Biology
University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois
In inany respects an organism may be considered as a very complicated raechanism
vhich performs a great variety of different functions. Those functions may be of
Chemical, like metabolism, or of a mechanical nature, like locomotion, or of a com-
vlex combined physicochemical nature, like Vision, etc. Some functions, like metab-
u.^ism, mvolve the whole organism and cannot be associated with any particular parts
of lt. Others, like locomotion, while involving basically the whole organism, are
particularly associated with certain parts of it, for example, the extremities of
quadrupeds.
Mechanical and geometric considerations lead to relations betveen the inten-
sities of Performance of some functions and the sizes, shapes, and structures of the
corresponding organs. For example, the size and shape of the extremities determine
to a large extent the highest possible speed of locomotion. On the other band, the
relative sizes and shapes of different orjans to a large extent determine the ^oss
shape of the organism. Thus we are led to the pcssibility of deriving the gross
shape of an organism from the knovledge of the mterisities of different functions
l^l"^ J performs. Speaking in engineering terms, we may consider an organism as an
optimal structure for the Performance of a given f'onction.
These considerations are applied to both plant s and animals, and it is shown
hov specifxcation of different parts of the organism describes its gross shaje Sath-
ematical expressions are derived for the sizes and shapes of some elternal and in-
ternal crgans and are found in ger.eral agreement with available data.
m
SESSION NO. 1, PAPER #2
ENTROPY AI'JD GROWTH OF AN ORGANISM
by
L. Brillouin
Columbia University, New York, New York
In any chemical reaction, energy is conserved, but the entropy of the System
is increased, hence the entropy is a most important quantity to measure. The
entropy of a living organism cannot be measured nor even defined, since a measure-
ment of entropy requires the use of a chain of reversible reactions; and the cre-
ation and destruction of an organism are obviously not reversible.
The entropy of the food used by an organism and of the excrements can be
measured and this gives an idea of the degree of irreversibility of chemical re-
actions representing life.
m
-2-
COI^ERENCE - DYNAMIC ANTHROPOMETRY
SESSION NO. 1, PAPER #3
D'ARCY THOMPSON 'S MATHEMATJCAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND
THE ANALYSIS OF GROWTH
ty
Oscar W. Richards
American Qptical Company
Research Department
Southbridge, Massachusetts
Forty years ago Thompson proposed, among other ideas, transforming matheraati
cally the outline form of an organism of one species into that of another to shov
the relatedness of the tvo organisms. De Coninck, Medawar and others have used
his method; it was applied to growing form by Richards and Riley, and the method
was related to allometric technics and generalized by Kavanagh and Richards. A
two-diraensional analysis of the growth of the tobacco leaf illustrated the use of
the general method as adequate three-dimensional data could not be found. Thomp-
son 's analytical considerations of evolution have developed into a promising tool
for the analysis of growth and form, and his invitation to the mathematicians to
enter this field has resulted into a challenge to the biologists to obtain the
quantitative Information necessary for test and application.
##
SESSION NO. 2, PAPER #1
AN EXPERIMENTAL STATISTICIAN LCOKS AT ANTHROPOMETRY
by
Donald Mainland
New York University
New York, New York
NO ABSTRACT RECEIVED
-3-
CONFERENCE -DYNAMIC ANTHROPOMETRY
SESSION NO. 2, PAPER #2
)
ff
'tat
ALIßMETRY AMD AMTHROPOLCGY
A. H. Hersh
Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
ennfori^^rJ^'' ^°f^ ^^^ ^^^''^k^ '°''°' °^ Differential growth in which the data
conform to the equation of y : bx^, in ^,hich ^ and x are the growing parts and b
and k are constants. K is usually termed the growth constant or grovth ratio a^d
can be given a general biological meaning; b vhich is the value of y when x - TL
termed the initial growth index. It can be-given no generll biolo^cll Lani'n^
but sometoBes can be given a special meaning, having ?egard to ?he°pa"ti?X Sse.
The time course of size increase of y and x is universally sismoid althnn^h +n
equ:t^:^ de:criMnA"^''^^''^i"^ ''^*°^^ ''''^^' '^^ -l-ionTJh'e'mSeScal
equation describing the sigmoid course of y to that describing the time course of
speci:i ^aLT''^^'^' ''"'''°" *'^' ^'''^'^ '^^'^ *^^ allometrL e:u^t?:n\°:S:pt in
The most desirable data for studies of differential growth are the measurements
f 1.1 l "?^^ °l ^ '"^'"' °^ *^^ ^^"« individuals during their Sand perloH?
growth. such anthropometric data are not available, and fre very^carce eJen ?or
tS^L'^M^f °''ff^''^'• T^ "'^"" '^^^ ^^*^ ^^^ available then /is the raIJS o?
measurements of y and x taken on a group of individuals arranged accordins to ace
ar'j^t'in'rSf fef'^Buf ^'^^ ^^^'l ^'^' °" anthropometric d:ta of tVi^ Sd
hf Lh+ «i/f !^, ? * ^ '■^''^°* ^^""^^^ ^^°"' England shows that x taken as total
«tifJLr?-'^' ^^° *' ?•!? ^^"^■*^^' ^°^^ ^^"^ ^^"-^'^ «""i j^^ l«"eth conform to
strai^t lines on an arithmetric grid so allotietry is not involved. More usually
the data represent a more restricted ränge from a segment of the grand period of
growth. When such data confcrm to the alloaetric equation, it is clear that k
cannot strictly be regarded as the ratio of specific growth rates. K in sSch-cases
can merely represent the ratio of the $ in increase in y to that of x.
*u ^*'^ *J?« f^°^l *l^a* is the most inportant element in the growth pattern. An-
thropologists for more than a Century have been using various measurements of the
skull xn an attempt to distinguish various anthropologlcal groups. The cephalic
index and other indices have been used, but lately one gets the Impression that more
headway is being made by use of the blood groups, which rest upon a definitely worked
out genetic basis; something which could not be said for the various skull indices
Students of Allometry are rather more interested in the growth pattern than in an-'
thropological sub-groups, and it may be remarked that by and large the indices do
not throw much light on differential growth.
On the basis of descriptive data various conflicting opinions and theories have
been put forth; regarding the growth processes in the sloOl. After the growth con-
stants and indices have been determined the problem naturally reduces to one relat-
ing to the growth processes which bring about the mature growth pattern. This prob-
lem is obvlously to be solved only on the basis of some suitable e:q)erimentbl pro-
cedure. Consequently about the best one can do in anthropometry is to obtain exper-
imental results on other mammalian forms and make the assumption that the main
general results likewise apply to man.
By the use of the vital staining technique, growth studies have been made on
the pig, monkey and principally the rat. The main general results may be briefly
Btated. Differential growth in the size of the skull takes place largely as the
result of two main growth processes. The individual bone is the unit of growth but
of the two basic Systems of growth one involves the expansion of the brain case
CONFERENCE - DYNAMIC ANTHROPOMETRY
SESSION NO. 2, PAPER #2, (Cont'd)
which iß related to the rapid growth of the "braln and secondly the slover grovth of
longer duration vhich reßults in the elongation of the cranial hase and consequent-
ly the face also,
The qtiantitative data on the phylogenetic growth in man are even more meager
than for the ontogenetic growth pattern, The pertinent data involve principally
the increase in brain capacity with the resulting effect on the brain case of the
sk\ill, from Java man through Cro-Magncnman to modern types, the data have not been
shown to conform to the allometric equation.
m
SESSION NO. 2, PAPER #3
ROIE OF ANTHROPOMETRY IN THE STUDY OF BODY C0J4P0SITI0N :
TOWARD A SYNTHESIS OF JIETHODS
by
Josef Brozek
Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
In the past the physical anthropology of the living man has been concerned ex-
cessively with body form, largely neglecting the "substance" of the body and its
compoßition. In this way it has failed to realise in füll the potent ial contribu-
tion to the study of metabolism, body function, and tendency toward the developnent
of degenerative diseases»
In the past 15 years important new tools were developed for the assessment of
tissue masses, based on biophysical (body density) and biochemical (body water and
its fractions) methods. Ir^ the anthropologist » s own armariiom, the roentgenological
analysis has been used in a series of studies for the measurement of the depth of
skin plus subcutaneous tissue and, in the limbs, for the quantitative Separation of
the muscle and bone components.
While the latter techniques are more elegant and more direct, field research
and a good deal of the work in the clinic must be based on the simpler anthropom-
etric techniques. One of the pressing tasks is to develop a System of measurements
and equations for the characterization of body composition on the basis of direct
anthropometric data and their ''translation" into the more complex and more compre-
hensive Systems.
Reference will be made to researches carried out at the Laboratory of Physio-
logical Hygiene in which external body measurements, including skinfolds, were made
simultaneously with X-ray analysis, determinations of body density or total body
water, in a larger framework of experimental and descriptive human biology.
###
SESSION NO. 2, PAPER #4
TOWARD AN ANTHROPOMETRY OF THE BRAIN
by
Gerhardt von Bon in
Professor of Anatomy, University of Illinois College of Medicine
Chicago, Illinois
In spite of the fact that everybody knows that man owes his place in nature
largely to the development of his brain, very little work has been done on the anth-
ropology of the brain.
This is largely due to the technical and theoretical difficulties inherent in
-5-
CONFERENCE - DyMiVIIC ANTHROPOMETRY
SESSION NO. 2, PAPER §k (Cont»d)
the subjecti To clear the ground from its worst difficulties, this outline is
given .
The "brain of" primates weighs less than that of man, "but the exact vay in which
"body veight and brain weight are related is still debatable. Whether the brain is
built according to the sarae plan in all primates is the next question. The brain
of most anthropoids is built on the same general plan as the human brain. It seems
further that the frontal lobe is relatively about as large in a macaque or a cebus
monkey as it is in man. In all these forms, ve also find a true posterior hörn,
and a true temporal lobe. What differs quite a lot is the development of the
parietal lobe vhich is much smaller in lower monkey s than it is in the higher forms
and particularly in man. When we go to still lower forms, such as the lemurs and
tarsius, ve find brains vhich are built quite differently. There is no posterior
hörn of the ventricle, and in tarsius there is not even a true temporal lobe. Also
the olfactory brain becorces niuch larger, so that we have here a gradual transition
to macrosmatic forms from the specialized microsmatic brain of anthropoids .Tarsius
is particularly far removed from the anthropoids, so that the tarsiar hypothesis
receives very little support from comparative neurology. Merely measuring brains
in some detail -will undoubtedly help to clarify some of the problems vith which an
anthropology of the brain is confronted.
Racial differences are extreraely vague. That the brain weight is not the same
in all races is well known. But we are unable at the moment to correlate this with
the average body weight of these races, so that it is very hard to say exactly what
these differences mean, It might be of interest to determine whether the perietal
.lobe, e.g. has developed differently in different races, but that means studies of
fairly large samples to find out whether statistically significant differences are
to be found.
Another subject might be histological differences between different people.
Again, we would need a detailed survey of numerous brains of different races, a sur-
vey that evidently has to go into questions of cell/gray coefficients rather than
into those of the parcellations of the cortex which only very exceptionally go by
Sharp boundaries. To do that by band as it were, is almost impossible, A machine
which allows to measure the cell/gray coefficient by electrical means is now being
built with the help of the Guggenheim Foundation. It ought to reveal interesting
data. Of course, here again, a lot of preliminary work in standardizing the pro-
cedure for age changes, for the weight of the brain and perhaps for the sex has to
be done before we can embark on a racial survey, but it should be possible to do it
with the means now at our disposal.
We could finally ask more physiological questions, e.g., how articulate speech
developed in man. That much of this apparatus lies ready to band, as it were, be-
fore man made use of it, seeras clear. It is also clear that the problem is more
than a purely neurological one, it embraces also the comparative anatomy of the
mouth cavity, that means in this case, practically of the whole skull, of the soft
parts in the mouth and the pharynx, as well as of the larynx. But that the central
mechanism in the brain is of paramount importance, goes without saying. Dr. DuBrul
is at present working along these lines, in the hope of turning out an outline of
how the development of speech must have proceeded from a neurological point of
View .
Cy<rr\
y^^^'^i^ ^ ^i^'-c^UA^
-6-
CONFERENCE - DYNAMIC ANTHROPOMETRY
SESSION NO. 3, PAEER #1
LONGITUDINAL ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA IN THE SIPUDY OF
INDIVIDUAL GROWTH PATTERNS
Hovard ¥• Meredith
State University of Iowa, Arnes, lova
Three facets of the topic will be discussed: (l) methodologic lessons from
early studies of human growth patterns for indivldual children, (2) research per-
taining to the collection of longitudinal data on body size and form during child-
hood, and (3) sample findings from the use of high Standards of data collection in
the investigation of indivldual growth patterns. Methodologic lessons from early
studies will be drawn with the aid of slides illustrating sterile analyses and/or
erroneous conclusions from (a) use of insufficiently reliable data, (b) extrapol-
ation, and (c) truncation. Aspects of the collection of longitudinal data pro-
Jected for discussion include (a) adequacy of source, i.e., discriminative use of
roentgenogram, cast, and child; (b) efficiency of procedure, i.e., attain ing and
maintaining satisfactory reliability; and (c) frequency of reexamination, i.e.,
Problem, method, and growth rate considerations. Examples of similarities and differ
ences in indivldual growth patterns will be presented for a few anthropometric dim-
ensions and ratios. These examples will encompass measures commonly used by stud-
ents of child development in describing the size and form of the (a) head and face,
(b) trunk^ and (c) extremities,
###
SESSION NO. 3, PAPER #2
RELATIVE GROWTH OF THE HUl^IAII FETAL SKELETON
CRANIAL AND POST CRANIAL
by
Melvin L. Moss
Instructor in Anatomy, Columbia University
New York, New York
Relative growth studies of the human fetal skeleton are a new application of a
weil proven technic. V/hile such analyses of the data do not contribute directly to
cur under Standing of the nature of the mechanisms involved, they may well serve as
indicators of such phenomena as effect the growth and maturation of the indivldual
bones and the skeleton in common.
The application of differential growth analysis to problems of human fetal bone
morphology and skeletal maturation indicate certain critical developmental horizons.
It is demonstrated that the parameters of these horizons, crown rxarap length and
time, are identical for both the cranial and post cranial skeleton. With these
critical periods established, it is possible to correlate with them a variety of
gross and histomorphological changes. In the cranial skeleton, these changes occur
in the underlying neural mass and its membranes, as well as in the bones theraselves.
In the post cranial skeleton a complete change in the mode of bone and cartilage
formation occurs.
In addition to the specific data presented in this study, the general applica-
bility of this method to various mammalian forms will be reviewed.
m
-7-
CC^ERENCE - DYNAHIC ANTHROPCMETRY
SESSION NO. 3, PAPER #3
PATTERN ANALYSIS OF ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA
Stanley Marion Garn
The Fels Research Institute, Yellow Springs, Ohio
1. Traditionally, anthropometric data are considered measurement by measurement,
or in pairs. Tvo type questions are asked. The first being whether a given measure-
ment differs significantly between populations, and the second being how two measure-
ments co-relate.
2. The Problem of how a c.^3rla>B of measurements coinpare in two populations, or
in two individuals, has been but little explored, though elementary graphical com-
parisons have been set up. Hellmans' wiggles come dosest to "pattern analysis",
of the methods described in the literature,
3. In other fields however, notably in psychometrics, pattern analysis has be-
come both a familiär and useful technique. Such patterns apply both to the study of
groups, and to individuals.
4. For any series of anthropometric measurements it is possible to establish a
pattern, characteristic of the group (or sex) and differing from other groups (or
immatiire individ\ials, or those of the other sex)» But applied to individuals such
absolute patterns become less useful because they (frequently) fall into a Single
f amily •
5. In such cases the Z or T score or "relative" patterns help to extract the
individTxal from the group» As applied to subcutaneous fat it has been possible to
Show both the existence of a number of relative patterns characteristic of individ-
uals, and to Show that such individual relative fat patterns persist during con-
tinued caloric debt.
6. Similar techniques of pattern afialysis have been applied to the urinary con-
ctituents, and to autonomic responses. Pattern analysis is applicable in a Wide
rringe of situations as for exanrple tissue-components during growth. The use of
:o:ittern analysis should extend the Utility of anthropometric data, especiall;/ in
twin and sibling comparisons. For relative (i.e. Z or T score) patterns, unlike the
raw measurements themselves, are in many cases reasonably permanent characteristics
of the individual.
m
SESSION NO. 3, PAPER #4
BODY DYIIAxMICS AND DYNAMIC ANTHROPOMETRY
by
Herbert Elftman
Depaiiiment of Anatomy, Columbia University
New York, New York
Man exhibits some of his most distinctively human characteristics in his pattern
of motion. The ability to stand erect with assurance and to move with efficiency and
grace is a major determinant in the design of the human body. To make this design
comprehensible, the components of the body must be studied in terms of the contri-
butions which they make to the functioning whole rather than as manifestations of
Euclidean geometry.
The locomotor mechanism may be epitomized as a series of skeletal links so di-
meneioned as to be readily controlled by available muscular and gravitational forces.
An appreciation of the extent to which the construction of the body is determined by
these requirements emerges from the analysis of these '^^l^'ll7e£^^^^^
Iv the dynamics of löcomotion. lUustrations from these e^^eriments ^^^IjJ^^J^^
S^lpes of Suman measurements vhich are used in the study of body dynamxcs vith the
hope that they viXl contrxl)ute to a dynamic anthroporaetry.
SESSION NO. k, PAPER #1
ANTHROPOfflTRY OF BODY ACTION
t)y
Wilfrid T. Pemp^ter
University of Michigan MedicaX School
Ann Arbor, Mi.chigan
The l^ody, as Fischer (iW) pointed out, Is a mechanisin of Pf^™^J*^^ "^^^^
Chain linkage; vhich shov indeterminate actions. ^^ ^ ^^ess of Se Lderlyins
motion is to be developed, there must he an xncreased ^^f ^°«^f °^ .^^^^^J^^rf J"
kin^^atic System that is operative. A study hased largely on the l^f ^ P°^°^\*°
tS'need for knoving five classes of Information . These are: (l) the degrees of
fr;eS permiSed at the various Joints, (2) the ^-°3^, f J^J^t'^'^rj^f'ii) ^f
^ocaWon of instantaneous centers of Joint rotation, (k) link «^^f »^^^'^^^^^J^iJi.^f
:elatSe orieStation of each Joint to its neighbors. These are f-nctxonal features
dependent upon structural poculiarities of the bones and jon.nts. ^here is vaxxa
tion from iSdividual to indlviöral, but its study C^^^^^^' . ^^e, racxal dxfxerences
e'°!) has been re.erved for •.•utv.re investigators. Movement of the ^and and foot as
the effect of end members of the limbs is especialU^ pertinent. It xs doubtful xf a
f::cfion2 Sthropometry may be buxlt up by ^^-theBizing data «" P-^/^^f ^^^J
r-i-i-ioal study of ope-ntional patterns sho-^^n by test subjeccs. Three tecnnxques
i:-v,;iving tes? indivxäuals are^ugge sted . (l) the study of specific ^oveme"ts of
ä^:3riy?rsi:rrr s :nSr:t-d:-d: -t^^:::^Sen^^^^
cbtained and then measurements may he made.
SESSION NO, k, PAPER #2
STUDIES IN HUIvIAN BIOMECHANICS
by
F. Qaynor Evans
Department of Anatoiny
Wayne University College of Kedicine, Detroit, Michigan
X, . ^« +h*. c^tudv o-P the various forces, vith resultant stresses and
ena in structural members or materxals. .tost ^^^^^^/^^^^g^^^^^^a ^^rains on the con-
.ubjected to a bending action vnicn f f ^^^^^.^^"^J^^j^f J^J^^Je aspect of the bent
v^x aspect and compres.xve stresnes ^"J^^^^^^^^ °" ^^^^^J^^^f i^near fractures be-
.^r., Bending is the ^^^;^J^l^^ l^oZZ flastic limit of the
c.-,r:ge as soon as the tensxle strax.io ^n «tr-rrth of coEipact bone is considerably
bone fracture occurs. Toe ultxmate oani.lle ^^'^-^S*^ °) °°^^ ^3 ^^^^^ i„ thoeo «^eas
less than its compresslve stren^th and xn ^^"'^^^^^^^^^^"^^^T.J'e can support a
suboected to maxünum tensile ^^-^^ -?^-,™^,f ^^^cttd t^^ ^"^
greater load if it is slov^ ^gjf/.^^f ,*,^:,^r?;adini ..imal experimentation in-
rat"es^trJ^S^?e:SeTtLfn^^n.^
cSed and illustrated. The engineering techniques used wxll be describea.
CONFERENCE - DYNAMIC AI^HROPOMETRY
SESSION NO. h, PAPEB #3
SCME CONTRIBUTIONS OF APPLIED PHYSICAL AimiHOPOLCGY
TO HUMAN ENGINEERING
H. T. E. Hertzberg
Aero Medical Laboratory, Yellow Springs, Ohio
This paper briefly discusses soine of the conflicting conceptions of Human En-
gineering. Whereas conventional engineering (civil, mechanical, etc.) covers the
most efficient use of inaniinate, relatively homogeneous materials. Human Engineer-
ing generally iniplies the most efficient use of a highly variable material, the
human being.
A rationale is presented for effective application of anthropometric ^ata,
mainly by Air Force examples. Some further applications are dravn from the field of
biokinematics (sometimes called bio-mechanics), or the study of the human body as a
dynamic solid, and from studies of the principles of bodily comfort.
m
SESSION NO. h, PAPER #+
ANTHROPOlffiTRIC DATA IN THE DESIGN OF ANTHROPOMORPHIC DUMMIES
by
Lavrence Edwin Abt
Beth Israel Hospital, New York, New York
Using anthropometric data obtained from a number of sources, including certain
new measurements, several investigators used these data in the design of a life-
like anthroponorphic test dummy for the Naval Air Develcpnsnt Station at Philadel-
phia and for the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio. The dummy has gone
through successive stages of development, in which additional data have been em-
ployed and refined.
Attempts have been made, through suitable calculations, to arrive at a test
dummy capable of human -like movement of the articulations, correct centers of grav-
ity for all members, including the head, Simulation of flesh-like coverings for the
skeleton, and posture-positioning of the dummy in raany dynamic postures.
In each of these stages of development, to the present Mark III, essential
anthropometric data have been used.
The paper will concern itself with a statement of some of the pertinent data,
a discussion of the characteristics of the resulting test dummies, and a consider-
ation of the non-classified uses of the anthropomorphic test dummy.
###
-10-
WEDNESDA
NEW YORK CITY AREA
8:45 p.m.
Lebanon Hospital
Auditorium, Grand Concourse & Mt. Eden Pkwy., Bronx
CURRENT CONCEPTS OF VASCULAR SURGERY
MICHAEL DeBAKEY, /A.D.
Baylor University Cojli^se-'OfMedicine
THURSDAY - APRIL 20
9:30 a.m.
Riverside Hospital
North Brother Island, Foot of East 134th Street, Bronx
CLINICAL CONFERENCE ON DRUG ADDICTION
PERCY MASON, M.D., Moderator
(Similar Conferences will be held on April 27/ May
4 and May 1 1)
4:00 p.m.
Fordham Hospital
Southern Boulevard and Crotona Avenue, Bronx
PULMONARY SURGERY
SAMUEL A. THOMPSON, M.D.
New York Medical College
4:30 p.m.
Downstate Medical Center
Basic Science Building, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn
OPERATIVE AND POST OPERATIVE EFFECTS OF
ALPHA-CHYMOTRYPSIN
CORWIN, M.D.
Society in affiliation ith the New York
Academy of Medicine
2 East 103rd Street
THE PLANT TUMOR PROBLEM
ARMIN C. BRAUN, M.D.
The Rockefeller Institute
13
NEW YORK CITY AREA
THURSDAY - APRIL 20
9:00 p.m.
Coney Island Hospital
"l^bditoriur^, Ocean and Shore Parkways, Brooklyn
\^ENT ADVANCES IN CANCER
^ÄEMOTHERAPY
ROIERT E. HANDSCHUMACHER, M.D.
Yolä University Medical School
PAUL CALABRESI, M.D.
Yale University Medical School
FRIDAY - APRIL 21
1 :45 p.m.
Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Fourth Floor Auditorium, Abraham Jacobi Hospital, Bronx
TUMORS IN CHILDHOOD
DAVID MAEIR, M.D.
DANIELE SALVIONI, M.D.
JULIAN SCHORR, M.D.
DAVID SHAPIRA, M.D.
HERBERT VOLK, M.D.
2:00 p.m.
New York Acadenny of Medicine, Section on
Orthopedic Surgery v/ith Philadelphia
Orthopedic Club
2 East 103rd Street
1. Charcot Joints
JOSEPH B. MASON, M,D.
EDGAR L. RALSTON, M.D., Di$cus$or
2. Hand Reconstruction
ROBERT E. CARROLL, M.D.
JAMES HUNTER, M.D., Discussor
3. Osteoarthritis of the Hip: A Concept of the
Pathogenesis Correlated with Orthopedic
Therapy
J. VERNON LUCK, M.D.
IRVIN STEIN, M.D., Discüssor
4. The Use of Tetracyclines in Skeletal
Physiological Investigation
HAROLD A^ FROST, M.D.
JOHN ROYAL MOORE, Discussor
u
NEW YORK CITY AREA
TUESDAY - APRIL 25
rk Academy of Medicine, Section on
rics and Gynecology
Street
PROBLEM OF THE TERM BREECH
CHARLES M. STEER, M.D.
Columbia University P & S
CLAUDE E. HEATON, M.D., Discussor
N.Y.U. School of Medicine
RICHARD S. MEREDITH, M.D., Discussor
St. Luke's Hospital
WEDNESDAY - APRIL 26
9:30 a.m. - 5:00 p.m.
Vascular Research Foundation
Barbizon-Plaza Hotel, West 58th Street
SYMPOSIUM - THE MANAGEMENT OF
PATIENTS WITH ANGINA PECTORIS AND
MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION
9:30 a.m. - 72.00 Noon — Morning Session
LEO LOEWE, M.D., Moderator
State University of New York, Brooklyn
LOUIS SIGLER, M.D., Coney Island Hospital
ARTHUR BERNSTEIN, M.D., Heart Institute, Newark
ALBERT HYMAN, M.D., New York Medical College
HARRY GOLD, M.D., Cornell University Medical College
RUDOLPH FREMONT, M.D., State University of N. Y., Brooklyn
2:00 p.m. - 5:00 p.m. — Afternoon Session
HARRY GOLD, M.D., Moderator
Cornell University Medical College
HENRY RUSSEK, M.D., Peninsula General Hospital
WILLIAM DRESSLER, M.D., Maimonides Hospital
LEO LOEWE, M.D., State University of New York, Brooklyn
CHARLES BAILEY, M.D., New York Medical College
2:45 p.m.
Goldwater Memorial Hospital
Weifare Island
SYMPOSIUM ON DISEASES OF THE
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
ALEXANDER SLANGER, M.D.
April 26: Joundice: Etiology, Diognosis and
Management
May 10: Diseases of the Gall Bladder and
Bile Ducts
17
TNIW YORK CITY AREA *
WEDNESDAY - APRIL 26
8:45 p.m.
Brooklyn Academy of Pediatrics
Grenada Hotel, Lafayette Ave. & Ashland PI,, Brooklyn
RESIDENTES NIGHT
1. Sarcoma, Boitryoides in Infants
MOHAMED POURFAR, M.D., Maimonides Hospital
2. Transient Hypoglycemia in the Neonatal Period
RICHARD GLASS, M.D., Jewish Hospital
3. Non-lipid Reticuloendotheliosis in Three Siblings
GERALD B. MARTORI, M.D., Long Island College Hospital
4. Diabetes Mellitus with Peptic Uicer
MARA KOELLO, M.D., Lutheran Medical Center
5. Presacral Teratosarcoma in the Six Year Old
MICHAEL DiLORENZO, M.D., Methodist Hospital
4:00 p.m.
Fordham Hospital
Southern Boulevard and Crotona Avenue, Bronx
NEOPLASTIC DISEASES - METHODS OF
DIAGNOSIS, CYTOLOGY
GENEVIEVE M. BADER, M.D.
Memorial Hospital for Cancer and Allied Diseases
4:00 p.m.
Fordham Hospital
Southern Boulevard and Crotona Avenue, Bronx
PERIPHERAL VASCULAR SURGERY
S. THOMAS GLASSER, M.D.
New York Medical College
8:30 p.m.
Association for the Advancement of Phychoanalysis
2 East 103rd Street
DEVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION OF MORALITY
MORRIS ISENBERG, M.D.
LOUIS E. DeROSIS, M.D.
JOHN A. P. MILLET, M.D.
18
NEW YORK CITY AREA
^ THURSDAY - APRIL 27
4:30 p.m.
Downstate Medical Center
Basic Science Building, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF EYE MOVEMENTS
R. GOLDBERG, M.D.
r
,7:00 p.m.
Brooklyn Society of Internal Medicine
Downstate Medical Center, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brookl]
ViRUSES AS INCITERS AND INHIBITORS,
OF CANCER
CHESTER tA. SOUTHAM, M.D.
Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research
8:00 p.m.
Metropolitan Electroencephalography Society
Montefiore Hospital, 210th St. and Bainbridge Ave., Bronx
LONG TERM STUDY OF PATIENTS WITH
ABDOMINAL EPILEPSY
SEYMOUR SOLOMON, M.D.
Montefiore Hospital
9:00 p.m.
Postgraduate Radio Program, Medical Society of
the County of Kings, 1330 AM . . . WEVD
YOUR GLANDS AND YOUR HEALTH
BERNARD SELIGMAN, M.D., Brooklyn Jewish Hospital
JEROME ADESMAN, M.D., Brooklyn Jewish Hospital
EARL PETERSON, M.D., Moderator, Public Health Committee
April 27, 1961 - April 28, 1961
New York Academy of Medicine
2 East 103rdrd Street
1961 EASTERN STATES HEALTH CONFERENCE
Information:
lAGO GALDSTON, M.D.
2 East 103rd Street, New York 29, N. Y.
19
NEW YORK CITY AREA
FRIDAY - APRIL 28
1:45 p.m.
Albert Einstein College of Medicine
4th Floor Auditorium, Abraham Jacobi Hospital, Bronx
RADIOTHERAPY OF BRAIN TUMORS
CHARLES BOTSTEIN, M.D.
LEO DAVIDOFF, M.D.
JOHN EVANS, M.D.
DANIELE SALVIONI, M.D.
8:30 p.m.
Association for the Advancement of Psychotherapy
2 East 103rd Street
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF PSYCHIATRY
IN COMMUNIST COUNTRIES
STANLEY LESSE, M.D., Moderator
ZIGMUND LEGENSOHN, M.D.
LOTHER KALINOWSKY, M.D.
GEORGE SERBAN, M.D.
8:30 p.m.
New York Acodemy of Medicine, Section on
Pediotrics
2 East 103rd Street
1. Clinical Observations of the Physiology of
Erythropoietin
G. DENMAN HAMMOND, M.D.
University of Southern California School of Medicine
2. Cytologie and Chromosome Studies of the Cells
Derived from Normal Tissues, Solid Tumors and
Tissue of Unusual Disease Entities of Children
ROBERT M. McALLISTER
University of Southern California School of Medicine
3. Changes in Assignment of Sex Role at Age Ten
Years — Case Presentation
SHERMAN LITTLE, M.D.
University of Southern California School of Medicine
4. Cushing's Syndrome in Children
SOLOMON A. KAPLAN, M.D.
University of Southern California School of Medicine
20
NEW YORK CITY AREA
POSTGRADUATE COURSES
*
Weekly By Special Arrangement
8:00 a,m. - 5:00 p.m., Monday - Friday or
One Day Weekly, Minimum af Five Weeks
New York Medical College
ENDOTRACHEAL TECHNIQUES IN ANESTHESIA
FRANK E. FIERRO, M.D.
FEE: $125
By Special Arrangement
Six Hours Daily, Fourteen Days (
New York Medical College
GROSS HUMAN ANATOMY ON CADAVER
FOR UROLOGISTS
J. CLIFFORD HAYNER, M.D.
FEE: $75
By Special Arrangement
Six ^/f^^rJJQf'Yt ^'^""tfi^lZ.Si^-^
New/iterk Medical College
tOSS HUMAN ANATOMY ON CADAVER
)R OBSTETRICIANS AND GYNECOLOGISTS
IIFFORD HAYNER, M.D.
$75
By Sjkecial Arrangement
Six Hours Daily, Fourteen Days
New York Medical College
GROSS HUMAN ANATOMY ON CADAVER
FOR ORTHOPEDISTS
J. CLIFFORD HAYNER, M.D.
FEE: $75
By Special Arrangement
Six Hours Daily, Fifteen Days
New York Medical College
GROSS HUMAN ANATOMY ON CADAVER
FOR OTOLARYNGOLOGISTS
J. CLIFFORD HAYNER, M.D.
FEE: $125
29
NEW YORK CITY AREA
POSTGRADUATE COURSES
ßy Special Arrangement
Six Hours Daily, Forty Days
New York Medical College
GROSS HUMAN ANATOMY ON CADAVER
FOR ROENTGENOLOGISTS
J. CLIFFORD HAYNER, M.D.
FEE: $300
ßy Special Arrangement
Six Hours Daily, Forty Days
New York Medical College
REVIEW OF GROSS HUMAN ANATOMY ON
CADAVER FOR SURGEONS
J. CLIFFORD HAYNER, M.D.
FEE: $300
April 17, 1961 - April 18, 1961
10:00 a.m. - 4:00 p.m., Monday - Tuesday
New York Medical College
BASIC ENGINEERING FOR ORTHOPEDIC
SURGEONS
LEO A. GREEN, M.D.
FEE: $100
April 17, 1961 ' April 21, 1961
9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m., Monday - Friday
N.Y.U. Post-Graduate Medical School
GYNECOLOGICAL ENDOCRINOLOGY
HERBERT S. KUPPERMAN, M.D.
JEANNE A. EPSTEIN, M.D.
FEE: $140
April 17, 1961 - April 22, 1961
9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m., Monday - Saturday
N.Y.U. Post-Graduate Medical School
REGIONAL ANESTHESIOLOGY
RAFAEL ROBERTAZZI, M.D.
VINCENT J. COLLINS, M.D.
FEE: $135
30
NASSAU COUNTY
TUE5DAY - APRIL 18
»
8:30 p.m.
Nassau Neuropsychiatric Society
1200 Stewart Avenue, Garden City
PROBLEMS OF FAMILY MENTAL HEALTH
ANDRE BALLARD, M.D.
Hospital and Home for Aged and Infirm Hebrews
WEDNESDAY - APRIL 26
11:00 a.m.
North Shore Hospital and Long Island Jewish)
Hospital
North Shore Hospital, Manhasset
FETAL ANOXIA
L STANLEY JAMES, M.D.
Columbia University P & S
ROCKLAND COUNTY
April 70, 1961 - April 28, 1961
Letchworth Village Branch, Research Foundation for
Mental Hygiene
Thiells
GRADUATE LECTURES IN MENTAL RETARDATION
1. Mental Retardation: Its Historicol Background
PAUL F. CRANEFIELD, Ph.D.
Albert Einstein College of Medicine
2. Educotion and Training of Mental Retordotes in
Public Schools
CHRIS J. DePROSPO, M.D.
The City College of New York
3. Comprehensive Planning for the Study, Core,
Training, Education, and Rehabilitation of the
Mentally Retarded
GUNNAR DYBWAD, J.D.
National Association for Retarded Children
4. Biochemical Aspects of Metabolie Deviation in
Mental Retardation and its Genetic and Other
Determinants
FRED GOLDSTEIN, Ph.D.
Letchworth Village
37
ROCKLAND COUNTY .^
Letchworth Village
(continued) *
5. Ego Structure and Function in Mental
Retardates
SIDNEY L GREEN, M.D.
State University of New York, Brooklyn
6. Neurostructural Factors in Mental Retardation
and Their Genetic, Metabolie, Traumatic, and
Infectious Determinants with Demonstration of
Cases and Neuropathology
GEORGE A. JERVIS, M.D.
Columbia University
7. Human Genetics
FRANZ J. KALLMANN, M.D.
Columbia University P & S
..I
8. Dynamic Interpretation of Human Figure
Drawings and Art Productions of Mental
Retardation
KAREN MACHOVER, M.A.
State University of New York, Brooklyn
9. Psychological Concepts of Mental Retardation
THOMAS L McCULLOCH, Ph.D.
Letchworth Village
10. Epidemiological Studies in Mental Retardation
BENJAMIN PASAMANiCK, M.D.
Ohio State University
11. Incidence and Demography of Mental
Retardation
12. Primary Narcissism and Impairment of Learn-
ing Behavior
13. Adaptational Psychodynamics in Mental
Retardates
14. The Psychiatric Study of Mental Retardation
HOWARD W. POHER, M.D.
State University of New York, Brooklyn
15. Interpretation of Electroencephalographic
Tracings and Pneumoencephalographs
MARK RAYPORT, M.D., Ph.D.
Albert Einstein College of Medicine
16. Growth and Development of the Nervous Sys-
tem and its Implication in Adaptive Behavior
WALTER RISS, Ph.D.
State University of New York, Brooklyn
38
STATE OF NEW JERSEY
American Psychosomatic Society
, (continued)
Friday, April 28t\
WILLIAM A. GREENE, JR.,
Univaraity of Rgyliester^ School of
Use of a Twin Pool in Developing
Interdisciplinary Research
2. Sucking Behavior ot Newborn Infants within
the First Week of Life
3. Maternal Anxiety During Pregnancy and
Childbirth Abnormalities
4. Differential Correlates of Physical Handicap
and Obesity with One Aspect of Ego Function
in Males and Females
5. Bleeding Peptic UIcer: Recurrence of Bleeding
Following Medical and Surgical Therapy
6. GSR Inhibition Threshold: A New Psycho-
Physiological Method
Safurday, April 29fh - 9:00 a.m.
LAWRENCE S. KUBIE, M.D., Chairman
Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital, Maryland
1. The Influence of Psychologie Stress on Water
and Electrolyte Excretion
2. Conditional Reflex Formation Under
Phenobarbital
3. Patterns of TKyroid, Gonadal, and Adrenal
Hormone Secretion Related to Psychological
Stress in the Monkey
4. Mild Stress and Adrenocortical Function:
Psychological Factors in Lowering Plasma
Hydrocortisone Concentrations
55
STATE OF NEW JERSEY
American Psychosomatic Society
(continued) \
Safurday, April 29th - 2:00 p.m.
STEWART WOLF, M.D.
University of Oklahoma Medical Center
1. Presidential Address
2. A Summary Description of Fifty Normal White
Males
3. A Life History Pattern Apparently Associated
with Neoplastic Disease
4. An Anterospective Study of Coronary Heart
Disease
Sunday, April 30fh - 9:30 a.m,
ERIC D. WIHKOWER, M.D., Chairman
McGill University
1. Variations in the Magnitude of Anxiety and
Hostility with Phases of the Menstrual Cycle
2. Relationships Between Biochemical Deficiencies
Observed in Schizophrenie Patients and the
Premorbid Life of the Patient
3. Psycho-endocrinological Studies in a Male with
Cyclic Changes in Sexuality
4. Perceptual and Conceptual Disturbances in
Anorexia Nervosa
Sunday, April 30th - 2:00 p.m.
JULIUS B. RICHMOND, M.D.
State University of New York, Syracuse
1. Changes in Coronary Blood Flow and Other
Hemodynamic Indicators Induced by StressfuI
Interviews
2. Autonomie Functions in Patients with 0-\ and
Dermatological Disorders
56
A
photos/ats •
III BROADWA
NEW YORK 6, N. Y.
^^oto^k^Unt^
PHOTOGRAPH?
TRINITY BUILDIN
RE. 2-68^2
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NORMAL FINDINGS
621
NORMAL FINDINGS
BLOOD
Erythrocytes (red cells) . .4,500,000-5,000,000 per cubic mm.
Leukocytes (white cells) 5,000-8,000 per cubic mm.
Hemoglobin 90-105 per cent (14-17 gm. per cent)
Color index 0.9-1.05
Coagulation time 4-6 min
Bleeding time 1-2 min
BLOOD CHEMISTRY
Urea nitrogen 12.0-15.0 mg. per 100 cc.
Glucose (0.09-0.12 per cent) . . 80.0-120.0 mg. per 100 cc.
Uric acid 1.0-3.0 mg. per 100 cc.
Non-protein nitrogen 25.0-45.0 mg. per 100 cc.
Creatinine 1.0-2.5 mg. per 100 cc.
Cholesterol (0.14-0.17 per cent) . . . 130.0-240.0 mg. per 100 cc.
Calcium 9.0-11.0 mg. per 100 cc.
Sodium 310-345 mg. per 100 cc.
Potassium 16.0-22.0 mg. per 100 cc.
Phosphorus 3.0-4.5 mg. per 100 cc.
Chlorides (as NaCl) 600-800 mg. per 100 cc.
Bilirubin 0.1-0.25 mg. per 100 cc.
Fatty acids 290-420 mg. per 100 cc.
Phosphatase 1,5-4.0 mg. per 100 cc.
Albumin 4.6-6.7 gm. per 100 cc.
Globulin 1.2-2.3 gm. per 100 cc.
Total protein 6.5-8.2 gm. per 100 cc.
CO2 (carbonate content) 55-75 vol. per cent
Hydrogen ion concentration pH 7.33-7.39
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Color Clear-colorless
Reaction Slightly alkaline
Calcium .2.5-11.6 mg. per 100 cc.
Magnesium 3.0 mg. per 100 cc.
Chlorides 740 mg. per 100 cc.
Glucose 0.04-0.07 gm. per 100 cc.
Protein Trace
Total solids 0.876-1.2 gm. per 100 cc.
Cytology 1 to 7 (max. 10) cells per cubic mm.
Pressure • . .* . .70-180 mm. (water manometer)
Specific Gravity 1.001-1.010
DIFFERENTIAL WHITE COUNT
Polymorphonuclears 68-70 per cent
Segmented polys 58-66 per cent
Stab cells (rod nuclears) 3-5 per cent
Juveniles (metamyelocytes) 0-1 per cent
Myelocytes 0- per cent
Small lymphocytes 20-22 per cent
Large lymphocytes (monocytes) 3-6 per cent
Eosinophiles 1-2 per cent
Basophiles 0.5-1 per cent
GASTRIC CONTENTS
Quantity (one hour after Ewald meal)
Total acidity ... 50-100 deg. (cc. N/10 NaOH
Free HCl 25-50 deg. (cc. N/10 NaOH
Combined HCl 10-15 deg. (cc. N/10 NaOH
Organ ic acids and
acid salts 3-5 deg. (cc. N/10 NaOH per 100 cc.)
MILK
Human
Protein 1.57o
50-100 cc.
per 100 cc.)
per 100 cc.)
per 100 cc.)
Fat 4.0%
Sugar (Lactose) 7.0%
Salts 0.26%
Total Solids 12.75%
Water 87.25%
Cow
3.5%
4.0%
4.5%
0.75%
12.75%
87.25%
URINE
Amount in 24 hours 1200-1500 cc.
Color Light to amber
Specifiic Gravity 1.017-1.020
Reaction to litmus pH 4.8-7.5 (mean 5.3)
Total acidity 554-669 cc. N/10 NaOH in 24-hr. spec.
Urea 25.0-35.0 (mean 30) gm. in 24-hr. spec.
Organic solubles 30-40 (mean 35) gm. m 24-hr. spec.
Inorganic solubles 20-30 (mean 25) gm. in 24-hr. spec.
Uric acid 0.4-1.0 gm. in 24-hr. spec.
Ammonia 0.5-1.0 gm. in 24-hr. spec.
Chlorides 10-15 (mean 13) gm. in 24-hr. spec.
Phosphates 2.5-3.5 gm. in 24-hr. spec.
Sulfates 1.5-3.5 gm. in 24-hr. spec.
Total solids 55-70 (average 60) gm. in 24-hr. spec.
Phenolsulfonephthalein test 40-50 per cent by end Ist hr.
Phenolsulfonephthalein test . . . 60-75 per cent by end 2nd hr.
622
VASCULAR HEADACHES — PHYSICIANS BAG
VASCULAR HEADACHES
UsefuI Information about Headaches with Special Reference to the Treatment of
thosc Severe Recurrent Headaches Classified as "Vascular" Headaches
THERAPY: To be effective, the therapy
of "Vascular" headache must be directed to
the underlying vascular mechanism. To pro-
vide satisfactory relief from migraine at-
tacks, for instance, the physicians must se-
lect a drug that will correctthe abnormal
behavior of the cranial arteries which oc-
curs during the painful phase of the attack
(See Physiological Mechanism below). Re-
lief from headache will then coincide with
the vascular response. The only drugs which
have been consistently effective for produc-
ing this action are :
Orally administered : crgotamine with
caffcine*
Parenterally administered : either ergo-
tamine* alone or its derivative di-
hydroergotamine*
These agents have made it possible for the
physician to relieve vascular headache at-
tacks in 85% to 90% of the cases.
The table on the opposite page gives the
CLINICAL CHARACTERISTICS of the
most important types of headaches in the
vascular Classification and the THERAPY
indicated for each.
PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISM : Med-
ical authorities agree that headache is the
commonest of all the complaints encoun-
tered in general practice. Yet until the ad-
vent of the present era of headache re-
search, very Uttle basic knowledge of this
disorder had been gathered. Only within the
past two decades have modern methods of
study finally uncovered a considerable vol-
ume of well-founded knowledge on the etio-
logy and physiological mechanism of head
pain.
The earliest of this modern research was
conducted on patients suffering headaches
clinically classified as migrainous, and
revealed the fact that the underlying physio-
logical mechanism of their head pain is an
abnormal behavior of cranial blood vessels.
Continuation of this research has established
a vascular Classification of headaches which
includes migraine, histamine cephalalgia
and tetision headache. Now it is possible to
observe the vascular disturbance involved,
to locate the pain sensitive cranial struc-
tures and trace the pathways of transmis-
sion of the pain Sensation.
It appears from the most recent observa-
tions that the grouping of headaches as
vascular and non-vascular to some extent
depends upon the degree to which blood
vessel disturbance is involved, for the pain-
producing mechanism of almost all head-
aches includes some vascular component.
However, this factor is highly dominant in
migraine and related headaches, whereas it
is secondary or subordinate to other factors
(e.g. tissue irritation) in the non-vascular
group. Moreover, vascular headaches are
highly recurrent in nature and particularly
occur in patients whose constitutional
make-up causes them to be susceptible to
the basic physiological disorder.
These data about headache are of great
practical importance to the physician. They
Highlight the need for a careful, differential
diagnosis to determine which type of head-
ache one is dealing with, so that for each
case the treatment most effective can be
chosen. For example, it is now well-estab-
lished that the usual dosage of commonly
used analgesics is not able to effectively re-
lieve the severe pain of the vascular head-
ache attacks. To relieve these headaches it
is not satisfactory to use drugs which act
only by raising the pain threshold (see
THERAPY above).
NOTE: Patients subject to vascular head-
aches may also at times have headaches of
other types (e.g. those associated with mus-
cle tension, tissue inflammation, etc.) ; the
latter types often can be relieved with anal-
gesic drugs.
It is also useful to remember that analgesics
are not necessarily contraindicated in "vas-
cular" headaches. In fact, the ordinary
analgesics and sedatives such as aspirin
and phenobarbital are often helpful Supple-
ments to specific treatment, especially for
patients who suffer from residual muscle-
soreness (often in the back of the neck)
after the headache itself has been stopped.
*SEE CLASSIFICATIONS YELLOW
SECTIONS:
ERGOTAMINE TARTRATE
DIHYDROERGOTAMINE
METHANESULFONATE
ERGOTAMINE TARTRATE/W
CAFFEINE
SUGGESTED PHYSICIAN'S BAG DRUGS and SUPPLIES
Drugs and supplies in a physician's bog depend upon the
emergency medical and pharmaceutical Service in the area.
The suggested list presented herewith is a compilation from
several sources. It is intended only as an aid to the physician
in his selection. Of course a special bog is required for ob-
stetrics and many other specialties. Additional materials, such
as cotton, gauze, adhesive, will occur to the physician. The
following is only a Suggestion.
AMPULS
1. Calcium Gluconate 10%— 10 cc. (for
hypocalcemic tetany)
2. Caffeine Sodium Benzoate (stimulant
of respiratory, vasomotor and vagal
Centers)
3 Camphor in Oil 20% (stimulant of
motor cortex; respiratory and cir-
culatory)
4. Epinephrine 1:1000 Solution, 1 cc.
(sympathomimetic ; vasoconstrictor)
5 Ergotamine Tartrate 1:1000 Solution
(1 mg. per cc.) (oxytocic ; relief of
migraine)
6 Glucose 50%, 50 cc. (hypertomc ; f or
diabetic emergency; for cerebral
edema) .
7. Insulin (for diabetic coma ; with glu-
cose if indicated)
8 Mecholyl 25 mg. (parasympathomi-
metic ; vasodilator ; similar to acetyl-
choline)
9 Mercupunn or Mercuhydrin 2 cc.
(potent diuretic; for relief of edema)
10 Ouabain 2 cc. of 0.5 mg. (for con-
gestive heart failure ; rapid emergen-
cy action)
11 Phenobarbital Sodium 130 mg. (anti-
convulsion ; depresses motor cortex)
19 Picrotoxin 1 cc. (3 mg. per cc), or
Amphetamine (20 mg.) (analeptic; to
combat barbiturate coma)
13 Tetracaine Hydrochloride (Ponto-
caine) 0.5%, 15 cc. bottles (corneal
anesthesia)
14 BAL in Oil (Dimercaptopropanol)
4.5 cc. (for poisoning by heavy
metals) . ♦
15 Solution of Postenor Pituitary l«cc.
(oxytocic; diabetis insipidus)
16. Aminophylline 0.25 gm. in 10 cc. (for
pulmonary edema of cardiac origin)
17. Veratrone 1 fluidounce (Hypotensor
in eclampsia)
ANTIBIOTICS
1. Penicillin Sodium Crystalline 100,000
Units.
2. Penicillin in Oil and Wax 300,000
U. vials or procaine penicillin with
syringe
3. Penicillin Tablets — Penicillin Soluble
Tablets for nebulizer Solution
4. Streptomycin 1 gm. vial (Requires no
refrigeration)
BIOLOGICALS
1 . Tetanus Antitoxin
MISCELLANEOUS
1. Alcohol 70% by wgt. 4 oz. (skin
cleansing, Solution for Instruments ;
to remove iodine stains)
2. Chloroform (anesthesia) not explo-
sive
3. Ether % ^b, (anesthesia) or defatting
of skin ; removal of adhesive tape)
4. Ephedrine Sulfate ^% Solution
5. Ethyl Chloride — Spray 4 oz. (local
freezing anesthetic and brief general
anesthetic for convulsions in emer-
gency)
6. Fluidextract of Ergot 2 oz, (oxyto-
cic; acts in 15 to 30 minutes)
7. Iodine Tincture Mild 2% (wound
antiseptic)
8. Surgical Lubricant Jelly (for rectal,
vaginal or urethral Instrumentation ;
non-oily)
9. Parldehyde (for treatment of delirium
tremens and for obstetrical amnesia)
10. Silver Nitrate Solution 5% (styptic ;
dilute to 1% for Ophthalmia neona-
torum)
11 Sulfanilamide Powder — Sterile Pack-
ets 3 (for wound bacteriostasis)
PEARLS
1. Amyl Nitrite (vasodilator; relief of
arterial spasm ; coronary insufficiency)
2. Aromatic Spirit of Ammonia (volatile
reflex stimulant)
TABLETS
1. Aspirin (5 gr.) or A.P.C. Tablets
(antipyretic and analgesic)
2. Atropine Sulfate H.T. 1/150 gr.
(should be availaWe when Mecholyl
is used ; decreases secretions)
3. Codeine Sulfate or Phosphate H.T.
y2 gr. (.03 gm.) (sedative; cough
depresöant)
4. Digitoxin 0.2 mg. tablets (or ampuls
0.2 mg. per cc.) digitalis acts on the
heart with small dosage)
5. Morphine Sulfate H.T. % gr. (.015
gm.) (sedative ; for severe pain)
6. Nitroglycerin 1/150 gr. (vasodilator;
relief of arterial spasm)
7. Pentobarbital 1^ gr. (hypnotic of
relatively brief duration)
8. Phenobarbital J^ gr. (Sedative for
nervous excitement ; antispasmatic forj
epilepsy)
9. Quinidine Sulfate 3 gr. (useful in
auricular fibrillation)
10. Quinine Sulfate 5 gr. (antimalarial)
11. Strychnine Sulfate 1/30 gr. (.00:
gm.) (respiratory stimulant)
12. Sulfadiazine 7^ gr. (bacteriostatic(
agalnst si^sceptible organisms)
13. Syrup of Ipecac (centrally acting
emetic ; requires Va to 1 hour, useful
in spasmodic croup)
JIR 10150
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Seine Gedichtiß sind vor allem und das ist rielleicht mehr alarollendete
Forrakunst^allein, tiefgef ue'-^lte Bekenntnis se, die eruptir aus der Seele
eines dich le ri seh reranlagten Henschen "brechen« Dr. ^Tuss' aiun ist g& t-
glau#hig und ein 3ucher^der aher zu sehen rersteht und sicherlich noch
teanches zu sagen haben wird^ÄntnHnxHECxcÄüxclIoxekÄKÄpc Iin uehrigen ist
Dr.^Tnsshaum langjahf riger Praeaident der Sicial -Scientific Society ^-^^
des desellig-Wisensdi aftlichen Vereines, der im Jahre 187o Ton Karl
l
Sdhury gegruendet wurde« Und nun Herr Dr. ITunshatai^'bitte i& Sie, uns
doch zu sagen, woher Sie stamren und wie Sie zur Kunst kamen?, -au 33 er
Ihrer aerztlichen Kunst.
Ff Ich hin in Prakfurt am T'ain gehör en und verle'bte auch dort meine
Kindheit, die Ton Historie, Kunst und -Tissenschaft umgehen war«
*" Gleichzeitig "genoss" idi eine sehr strenge aymnasialei^iehung«
Da konnten Sie wohl kaum dichten?
Hl
Doch! Ich schrieb Tagehuecher und madite schon damals gelegenti
>/lich Gedichte. Ifti hhtte immer scäion
ITeigun^zum Theater,
Li
zu Kunst und Uatur« Sch^n im F.lternhaus erhielt ich eine Er-
z'ehung,die das rrute,]|Rhisch-Verpflidi tende yeimittelte und mir
41nen Weg fuers Lehen wies»
Bllehen Sie immer in Frankfurt am Kai n?
Kein* I* studierte in Muenchen^X^ »fUT^^u^
Sind Sie da auch in Kuenstlerkreise gekommen?
Oh, ich S:am mit rielen Dichtern und Kuen^tlern in l^uenchen zusam«
men. Eine meine^shoensten Erinnerungen aus dieser Zelt ist die
Begegnung mit Rainer I^ria Hilke,mit dem ifli einen Nachmitta«
sprechen konnte»
Erinnern Sie sich noch an dieses Gespraech?
\
^
K,
L;
IT,
L|
-4-
^
;
V**'llem Ist es interessant, dass Rilke einsfc au* Arzt werden
wollte, - und sich sehr fuor meine damaligen medizinisch n
Studien interessierte. Rilke gsb mir auch seine Erklaerung
des Gedichtes und sa^te, a| s wir uher Kunst im allgemeinen
spr-^chem, dass er 4»B^Requem als letzte Antwort ^^ dei Tod
ansehe«
^?
urden Sie in Fuenchen aber nicht auch sl bat kuenttlerisdiilT
angeregt?
Ito schrieb viele Gedichte undlie einmal ein vm mir ge-
schriebenes Drama " Gottmensdi " vor.
Hatten Sie auch als Faler hier in Amerika Erfolg?
Eine meiner schoensten Erfolge als Maler ist der, dass fuenf mei^
ner Pilder fu^^ etntm ^aV-^önd^^ angefordert
e
tausend Dollar einbrachten*
und
Das ist wirklich seh oen, Herr Doktor! - Leider koennen Mr
und jetzt nicht auch ueber Ihre wissenschaftlichen Erfolge
unterhalten*- I* d'^nke Ihnen fuer Ihr Erscheinen,
Meine Damen und He-ren, ich lese einige Gedichte von Dr.Tilliam
ITuosbaum,
/»f mso
%
I?
Dfän Ui/y^i""" ^slle^^-i'">
yniliam
ur.
Ujwtt/f A/^fM '*"'"''"^
\
A^ W7S0
William hlpssk
I
IWs
I
Fiir den untorsuchendun Arzt.
_,Richtliniün zieir B,,aQtwor tung;- 4es beilieci:endes Fogens.
Vor der Beantwortung des ^ra^-ebogens vom
untersuchenden ;.rzt zu lesen^!
^ ^ /usgesciilossen von der Aufnahme sind alle Bewerber mit an-
stecKo^ ;den xvraakheiten, einschl. ^t-schlechtskrankheiten, Tuber-
ivulosc- alier Organe, instesondore der Lungen, bei weiblichen Be-
werbern Schwangerschaft.
U n
E.
i g n e t
, r : i'ür die Aufnahme sind Personen mit
schweren chronischen Krar.vhei ten, insbesondere Bronchialasthma
chronische Bronchitis, Lungenemphysen, allen Herzleiden organischer
_-.atur, schwere Herzneurosen, Hypertonie, allen organischen togen- '
armericrankungen, sowie solchen, die eine best inmte Diät
unu Dö
i?rb T; ;;r^r ^^^::"^^^^^^^ankheiten, Gallen- una Nierensteine, samt-
lieh. Krankheitun des Blutes und der blutbildenden Organe ausser
Chlorose, scnwer^r Basedow, Diabetes, Gich-, Musel und Gelenkrhpu-
matismus, a^.i.e organischen Nervunkrani^hei ten, Epilepsie Hyst^-ri"-
all. angeborenen und erworbenen Körperlichen Missbildun^en, .jlnn' '
dadurch cie Arbeitsfähigkeit beeinträchtigt wird, hochgradi^^e Yer-
Vrrr^ninnf^'n ^v"" ^^ ^^"?f ^^^^^ ^ schlec.t geheilte Knochenbrüche und
Verrenkungen, Versteifungen grosser Gelenke.
_U_n geeignet
ken
^^ '^^^^ weibliche Bewerber, die an so. star-
ouer so sehr:: .rzhaften .:enstruationen leiden, dass dabei k^ine
"^^^i^^lLt^^^tK.^^^^^^ kann, lerne; solche, die an"'
erleibotumoren aller Art oder an Retroflexio uteri fixata leiden.
U n
^ ^ sind ferner solche Personen, die
vorher eine Operation durchgemacht haben.
kurz
ü
n
o
e 1
— .::: — t±-j=> - ^ j^ ;-, n ^ u ,,±nu. enai
-^ielgungen, -ei solchen, die bereits
^ e__t_ -^md endlich Psychopathen mit asozialen
- i^i ciie bereits i^i einem Heim oder einer
R L V. ''^:^^^^' ^^^ Angabe der diesbezüglichen Adresse nötig, um
Bericht anfordern zu Können. ^
Bewerber mit Plattfüssen können nur dann aufgenommen werden
wenn sie sich vorher einer erf ol<-^reic. " '
-1,,,^ ^ ^ - o '^ orthopädischen Behand-
lung uiterzogen ...aben, solche ml l Eing. weidebrüchen nur dann
wenn der Bruc/; aurch ein Bruchbaad gut zurückgehalten wird. '
Gehwache ^'luskulatur
holt, wenn
(1
bedingt im allgemeinen keine Ungeeignet-
, vv....:i sie nur der Ausdruck eines bestimmten Körperbautyps
c;ptisch, asthenisch) uhd nicht etwa das Symptom oder die Be-
gleiterscheinung einer Krankheit ist. Ebenso schadet >.^
.Beeinträchtigung des Seh- und Hörvermögens nicht
-p-.*-;
geringiugige
Es wire gebeten, die, in Teil B. des Fragebogens geforderten
ivl^ssungen am vol..ig entKleiueten Bewerber vorzunehmen Fern^-r
wird gebeten bei den in Teil B. genannten Erkrankungen nachzu-
forschen, ob der i^ewerber früher schon einmal an ihnen gelitten hat
,Y^^^ ausgefüllte Fragebogen ist dem Bewerber jn ver-
schlossenem u,nschlag mitzugeben, der ihn dem Landwerk unverzüo:! ich
einsendet . ^u^x j.en
Di:; Kosten de]- Untersuchung trägt der Bewerber.
AerztLichcs ivibrlcblatt für Pewerber zur Aufnahme in
Landv/orK
das
^.^
e u e n d o r
\ Die Betäti£,ung in der L-radwir tschaft setzt die Fähigkeit zu
schw^jrur körperlicher Arbeit voraus, wie sie nur körperlich
und seelisch völli?^ gesunden Menschen eigen ist. Wir müssen daher
hiermit ganz besonders darauf hinweisen, dass das Landwerk Neuen-
dorf weder ein Erholungsheim, noch ein Krankenhaus, weder ein
Sanatorium noch ein Psychopathenheim ist.
Um daher körperlich ungeeignete Elemente 'on vornherein auszu-
schalten, w^irden die,jenigc;.i , die. eine Aufnahme ins Landwerk
wünschen, ersucht, sich zugleich mit der Bewer^ mg einer ärzt-
lichen r-itersuchung zu unterziehen, deren Ergebais vom unter-
suchenden Arzt (am basten ^iausarzt)auf beiliegendem Fragebogen
einzutragen ist. Erst nach ^orliugen des ausgefüllten Fragebogen-
vordruck .s kann über den Auf nahmeantrag entschieden werden^
Aus
e s c li
o s s e n
^___^_____ von der Aufn^;hme sind alle Personen
mit ansteckenden Krankheiten einschliesslich Geschlechtskrankhei-
ten, sowie Tuberkulose aller Organe, insbesondere Lungentuberku-
lose, obenso weibliche Personen in der Schvy^angerschaf t .
U n
e e 1
c n
I IIB'
0 t
^ür die Aufnahme sind alle schweren chro-
nischen Erkrankungen, insoesondere Bronchialasthma, chronischer
Luftröhrenk'itarrh, Lungenerweiterung und ^lähung, alle Herzlei-
dun organiooher Art, schwerere Herzneurosen, hoher Blutdruck,"
alle organischen Magen- und Darmerkrankungen sowie solche, die
eine bestimmte Di It erfordern, Gallen- und Nierensteine, Nieren-
krankheiten, sämtliche Krankheiten des Blutes und der blutbilden-
den Organe ausser Bleichsucht ; schwere Basedowsche Krankheit,
Zuckerkrankheit, Gicht, Muskel- und G^J.enkrheumatismus , alie'Ner-
venkrL ikheiten organischer Natur, Epilepsie und Hysterie; alle kör-
perlichen Missoildung-.n angeborene, sowohl wie erworbene( z.B.
das Fehlen ganzer Guedel', ausgedehnte Narbon) soweit sie die Ar-
beitsfähigkeit beeinträchtigen, hochgradige Verkrüppelung der
VUrbelsäule, schlecht geheilte ^^nochenbrüche und Verrenkuhgen ,
Versteifungen grosser Gelenke. ' ,
3
I
4
Von weiblichen Bewerbern sind solche ungeeimet, die an so starken
und so ■sch;.i..rzhaften ^^^onatsblutungen leiden, dass sie an diesen
Tagen keine iiörperliche Arb.it leisten können, ferner solche
mit ÖTiterleibsgoschwülsten aller Art oder mit Verwachsungen der
Gebärmutter. ^
U
n
e e i
£_n_
e t sind ferner solche Personen, dir kurz vorher
eine Operation durchgemacht haben.
'3
/
rf
-2-
ndlich ist euch das psychische Vurhalton der Bewerber von
ichti^krit Un^eei^.net sind Psychopatnea mit asozialen .Jeigun^^en
solchen die "bereits in '.;iner Anstalt waren, ist Angabe der
\ ei
' vdr
esse
der Anstalt erforderlich,
um
u
vtl. Bericht anfordern zu
Können ,
Bewurbv^r mir Plattfüssen können nur dann auigenommen werden, wenn
sie sich vorher einer erf ol-^reichen orthopädischen Behandlung
unterzo.-^en haben : solche mit Eingeweide. brüchen nur dann, wenn
dur Bruch durch ein Bruchband gut zurückgehalten wird.
/ll^>-eraein-^ :^öraerschw:iche(iviu.::.:celschwache) bedeutet im allgemeinen
ii. inu^Un.".,.^i.: .;ethuit,-we-in seist KL.ine .-rankheit od^r Krankheitsan
läge vurii.jgt: ebenso schadet geringfü^^ige Beeinträchtigung des
Seh - und p/örvermögens nicht.
/ui iOlSO
^
/
]Hlllm fh/U CoUecH^^ ^' ^'''^^' ^ f^kA ^'' ^'^J^jfj
^''cjf,
VWX
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ecf/or}
^ecH0r, cf (iflisU re : /jnjr^^^u
/
z
^
Ä^J /^ ^^v ^-t^ .'^^X. / ' .^^^4.
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3
P m
V
u
A?
^^?ui^tijL/
/'
^
- <^
^ ci^^^^;^ -^:^^ ^
l
7^
J^f>
>tiA^X\^ ^. ^ c^ y^^.-^'i^^t^^^^^^^^j^y^^^ KJU )
M ll>7^^
%
^/
Milillim /i/psflof^f» C»lkc^pan ^' P«(itutJs ^ ^rich SiejffittM
^rji
■V»'
M lölft)
Mm Nl^d>am Clk
hfkarj, of fricl Sie^man/,
'cn>/)
^
V
ßunftmaler
tl^ortDalbfenftra^e 17
'pofi[df;edkRontoJ STtünd^cn 32031.
Werter Leser!
'|i»i»yi a I
Gerade heute ist es die besondere Aufgabe jedes Deutschen seine schöne
Heimat schätzen zu lernen. Die hier zum Kau! angebotene Serie Postkarten enthält
auch deutsche Heimatlandschaften.
Die Postkarten sind nach meinen Original-Oelgemäldcn und Zeichnungen
angefertigt. Alle meine Arbeiten sind mit dem Munde gemalt, weil meine Arme und
Hände gelähmt sind und ich diese nicht gebrauchen kann.
Auf Wunsch sende ich Ihnen gerne meine sämtlichen, auch ärztlichen Zeug-
nisse, notariell beglaubigt franko zu, ebenso ein Verzeichnis meiner verkäuflichen
Oelgemälde.
Die beifolgende Serie mit 10 Stck. Karten kostet RM. —.70 und bitte Si»^
dieselben nicht aus Mitleid, sondern als Anerkennung ,'meincr gewiß nicht alltäg-
lichen Leistung und vvegen des niedrigen Preises kaufen zu wollen. Es wäre für
mich eine Freude, wenn Sie die Serie behalten wollten.
Durch einen Kauf tragen Sie auch dazu bei, weiteren Volksgenossen zu
Arbeit und Brot zu helfen.
Mit deutschem Gruß!
ergebenst
BergischsHlcirkische Zeitung^ Giberfeld
schreibt in ihrer Nummer 129 vom 12. Mai 1934
Arbeit, ein lebendes Beispiel des Siegerwillens . .
• • • •
Der Held der
m Organ der Deutschen Qrbeitsopfer^ Berlin
in Nummer 6 der Juniausgabe 1934 schreibt .... so arbeitet dieser
Volksgenosse in dessen verstümmeltem Körper sich eine geniale Ver-
anlagung und ein stahlharter Wille paarten um Großes zu schaffen • . .
^/Freisinger nachrichten^^ in Freising
schreiben in Nummer 181 vom 9. August 1934 ... Mit eiserner
Willenskraft hat er sich daran gewöhnt, Stift und Pinsel mit den Zähnen
so geschickt zu führen, daß die Technik seiner Werke sich in nichts
von der eines normal arbeitenden Künstlers unterscheidet . .
* • • • .
---,Vf.^.
-IM« ««Bauerische Hausfrau^^
in Nummer 22 vom 1. März 1934 schreibt . , . i Er will im freien
Wettbewerb unter seinen Berufskollegen als Künstler gewertet sein und
er hat recht damit. Wenn soviel Können und Kraft in einer Künstler-
seele liegen, wie eben bei diesem Maler ohne Hände, dann kann er
beanspruchen, daß man ihn nicht als Abnormität, sondern als voll-
wertigen Künstler beurteilt .......
in.
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