Full text of "The wine press and the cellar : a manual for the wine-maker and the cellar-man"

THE

WINE PRESS

AND

THE CELLAR.

A MANUAL FOR
THE WINE-MAKER AND THE CELLAR-MAN.

BY E. H . RIXFORD.

SAN FRANCISCO :
PAYOT, UPHAM & CO.

NEW YORK :
D. VAN NOSTRAND.

1883.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883, by

E. H. RIXFORD,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

C. W. GORDON,

Steam Book and Job Pri nter,

San Francisco, Cal.

PREFACE.

IN 1876 the Mission grape sold in California for from $7.50 to
per ton, and foreign varieties for from $14 to $18 per ton,
and consequently many vineyardists in districts remote from
the market turned their hogs into the vineyard to gather the
fruit. At this time farmers concluded that it would not pay to
grow grapes, and the vines were rooted out of many vineyards,
and the land devoted to the production of more profitable crops.
In 1878, 'however, the prices were better, and the Mission grape
brought from $12 to $14 per ton, and the foreign varieties from
$22 to $26, and under a growing demand for California wines,
the wine makers in the counties of Sonoma and Napa have paid
during the past three seasons of 1880, 1881, and 1882, prices
ranging from $16 to $22 per ton for Mission, and from $22 to
$35 for other foreign varieties, and in some cases even as high as
$40 per ton for wine grapes of the best varieties; the extremes in
prices depending upon the activity of the competition in the
different localities. Although in California we are accustomed
to speak of the "Mission grape" and the "foreign varieties" in
contradistinction, it may not be amiss to state for the benefit of
other than California readers, that the " Mission" is undoubtedly
a grape of European origin, and was cultivated by the Spanish
priests at the missions existing in the country at the advent of
the Americans, and hence the name. And notwithstanding the
existence of our grape, Vitis Calif arnica, the names "native" and
"California grape" have been applied to the Mission, but the
word "foreign" is never used in describing it.

The increase in the price of grapes has followed closely upon
the increase in the demand for our wines, and the production has
kept pace with the demand.

64-96

vi PREFACE.

The annual shipments of wine and brandy from California,
commencing with 1875, according to the reports published from
time to time, are as follows, in gallons:

Year. Wine. Brandy.

1875 1,031,507 42,318

1876 1,115,045. _ 59,993

1877 1,462,792 138,992

1878 _.1,812,159 129,119

1879 2,155,944 163,892

1880 2,487,353 189,098

1881 2,845,365 209,677

The figures for 1882, as published, are larger than those for
1881, but the figures furnished by Mr. Stone, the statistician of
the Merchants Exchange, give wine 2,721,428, brandy, 218,792;
from which I am led to believe that those for 1881 are too large.

The total production of wine for 1878 has been stated to be
from 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 gallons, for 1879, 7,790,000, for 1880,
10,000,000 to 12,000,000 gallons. Notwithstanding the increased
acreage of our vineyards, the product in 1881 fell off one or two
million gallons, and in the second annual report of the State Viti-
cultural Commission, just published, the loss is estimated at one-
third of the crop, making the product 9,000,000 gallons, or a
little less. That of 1882 is about 10,000,000 gallons.

In 1880 we had about 60,000 acres of vineyards in the State,
and according to Mr. Haraszthy's report as President of the
Viticultural Commission, contained in the report of the com-
mission last mentioned, the increase during the first two years
after the first organization of the commission in 1880, amounts
to 40,000 acres. Since the date of his report, April 19, 1882, the
acreage must have been largely increased, and making a liberal
allowance for errors, we must have at least 100,000 acres in vine-
yards in the State at the present time, which ought to produce,
at a small estimate, 20,000,000 gallons of wine in five years from
now, and in five years more, with the increased product from
the greater age of the vines, and from those planted in the
meantime, the yield ought to be doubled.

PREFACE. Tii

Among those who are now planting vineyards are many who
have had no experience in wine making; and in order that
such may have the advantage of the experience of those of other
countries who have spent their whole lives in perfecting the art,
and have had the benefit of the knowledge derived from genera-
tions before them, the author has prepared the following work,
in which he has attempted to lay before the reader an account of
the methods followed in those portions of Europe, especially
France, where the finest wines of the world are produced.

What is here given is the result of research on the part of the
author chiefly for his own benefit; and in going over the litera-
ture of the subject of wine making, he failed to find a work in
the English language which is adequate to the needs of the
practical wine maker, or one who intends to become such. There
are many good books in the French language, and, in fact, the
principal works on the subject are to be found in that language.
But the authors of many of them have hobbies, and the practice
indicated in a certain connection by one often differs from that
pointed out by another. It, therefore, became necessary to com-
pare the writings of various authors, and where they differed in
points of practice, to try and find out the reason therefor. This
was not always an easy task; but the author confidently hopes
that the beginner will always find a safe course pointed out to
him in the following pages, and that the experienced viniculturist
will have brought to his mind many things forgotten in the mul-
titude of affairs, and the experimentalist, to whom we all are
looking for further light, will here find many hints which may
assist him in finding out what are the best methods under the
conditions in which we find ourselves in the infancy of this
absorbing industry.

What forcibly strikes one in reading the works of different
authors on the subject of vinification is, that, notwithstanding
the variations in the methods, there are but few material differ-
ences in the practices in different localities in making a given
kind of wine. It is true that one method makes a red wine, a
different one makes a white wine, that grapes of one degree of

viii PREFACE.

ripeness and the corresponding practice in vinification produces
a sweet wine, and another a dry wine, but the author is convinced
that the method and practice which will produce the best result
in a given case in one locality will also produce the best result in
any other.

If it is found that in the northern and central portions of France
it is insisted that the casks be always kept full, and that in Spain
they are left with a vacant space, it will also be found that this
practice depends upon the alcoholic strength and robustness of
the wine. When the grapes of the more northern regions are
artificially matured till their saccharine strength approaches that
of grapes of more southern climes, then the wine made from
their must may safely be treated according to methods prevailing
in the latter regions. If, on the other hand, the grapes of hot
countries are gathered as soon as their must indicates a density
of 20 to 24 per cent., the wine made from them would be abso-
lutely ruined, if treated as the wine from overripe grapes, and it
must be cared for as the weaker wines of the northern climes.

The essentials, then, of good wine making, which include the
treatment in the cellar, are everywhere the same, and they only
vary with the varieties of wine that are to be produced.

The general climate of California corresponds in many respects
with that of the more southern wine-producing regions of Europe;
and the percentage of sugar carried in the grapes grown in the
southern and interior portions of our State is about the same as
that of the musts of those regions. The musts produced in the
central coast counties and the bay counties of the State, in aver-
age seasons, equal, if they do not exceed, in density the musts
of the central and northern portions of France in their very best
seasons.

The following tables will afford the figures necessary for a com-
parison between our wines and those of other countries, as to
alcoholic strength and acidity. The first table is useful as illus-
trating an advance in wine making in this State. The earlier
wine makers, guided by the experience derived from residence in
the northern viticultural regions of Europe, or by the information

PREFACE. ix

from writers of those countries, allowed their grapes to arrive at
an advanced state of maturity without considering the different
conditions of climate. Musts, therefore, that were fit only for
sweet wines, were treated according to dry wine methods, and no
wonder they were found heady, used as table wines, with so high
a percentage of alcohol.

The second table shows that we have learned to produce lighter
wines, which means, not only that we are growing grapes that
carry less sugar than the Mission, but chiefly that we do not
allow the berries to become overripe, dried up, under the ardent
rays of our constant sun.

The first figures are from a paper read by the late Major Snyder
before the Napa Wine Growers' Association, and published in
the Rural Press, August 3, 1871, Vol. IV, p. 66.

Color. Name of Maker. Year. Vol. per cent, of Alcohol.

White Craig 1867__Foreign grapes 14.4

" " 1870. .Mission 13.4

11 Dresel & Gundlach_.1861 14.4

" " __1870 13.3

" " _.1862_ 12.5

" " 1.1867. 13.6

" J.B. Snyder 1865. .Mission 12.5

" " 1866 12.6

" " 1867 13.3

" " 1868 12.8

" A. Jb\ Haraszthy 1871__Foreign 11.5

" " 1870__ " 12.6

Bed Buena Vista Ass'n___1866 16.5

White " " ___1871 11.5

Bed " " ___1871 12.6

White H. Winkle 1869__Mission 13.2

" ____ " 1871 _. " 12.5

" L. Goss 1871__Zinfandel 12.8

The following figures are from the Beport of the Commissioner
of Agriculture of the United States, for 1880, report of the
Chemist. It will be observed that where the name is followed
by a *, it is that of the Eastern dealer, and not that of the maker.

x PREFACE.

DRY BED WINES.

Per cent, by Total acid

Name. vol. of alcohol. Glucose, as tartaric. Maker.

Sonoma Mission, '79__10.03__None__ .722__Gretsch & Mayer.*
Zinfandel, 79_ 9.78__Trace _ .693__ "

Mission 9.29__ do __ .917__B. Dreyfus & Co.

Zinfandel 11.35__ do .__ .768__

Zinfandel, '78 10.30__ do __ .825__Dresel & Co.

Zinfandel, '79 11.08__ do ._ .798__ "

Zinfandel 12.31__ do __ .814_.Geo. Hamlin&Co.*

California Claret 10.56_. do __ .903

Zinfandel __. _13.24__ 0.18.. .726

DEY WHITE WINES.

White Hock 1T.37.. 0.09__ .855 -

White Hock 12.87__ 0.09__ .767

Muscatel 13.34__ 0.12_. .767

Sonoma Hock 12.05__ 0.13.. .422_.Perkins,Stern&Co*

Riesling 11.26__Trace _ .846__Dresel & Co.

Hock 11.35__ do __ .785__ "

Dry Muscat 11.44__ do __ .619__Dreyfus & Co.

Zinfandel 11.26__ do ._ .590__ "

Kiesling 12.05__ do __ .696_. "

Gutedel 11.70__ do __ .756__ "

Hock 9.70__ do __ .723__ "

Sonoma Mission, '78__10.56__ do __ .619..Gretsch & Mayer.*
Riesling. '77(?)13.15__ do _. .695.. "
'79__13.15__ do __ .575__ "
Mission, '79__10.38__ do __ .619__
Gutedel, '7911.87 do __ .589__ "

Dry Muscat '74(?) 12.40__ do __ .816__ "

Zinfandel, '78 11.96__ do __ .761. _ "

'79 11.00.. do _. .740__ "

PORT. SWEET WINES.

California Port 21.89__ 8.60__ .790

" 20.89__ 5.78__ .510__Kohler & Frohling.

" 18.88-- 4.49__ .755. .Dreyfus & Co.

PREFACE. xi

Per cent, by Total acid

Name. vol. of alcohol. Glucose, as tartaric. Maker.

California Port 19.87_. 5.88_. .370.. "

" 15.49.. 8.60__ .486_ .Perkins, Stern &Co

'Sunny Slope" 15.12__11.57__ .433__

Los Angeles 16.52__11.39__ .$08__Gretsch & Mayer.*

SHERRY.

California Sherry 17.96__ .61__ .532

" 16.15__ 2.45__ .721__Dreyfus&Co.

" 16.80__ 2.20_. .573..

CHAMPAGNES.

'Grand Prize" med. dry 12. 49 __ 8.21. _ .821__Arpad Haraszthy.
"Eclipse," extra dry__11.87_. 6.51._ .885_.
MISCELLANEOUS.

Gerke's White 14.74.. 2.21__ . 673 __ Henry Gerke.

Sweet Muscatel 18.58__25.37__ . 753 _ .Perkins, Stern &Co

22.36._11.59__ .366._Dreyfus & Co,

22.46__16.94__ .381..

Los Angeles Muscatel_17.08__13.44__ .533_.Gretsch & Mayer.*

Angelica 11.79__12.48__ .489

' 13.90__13.25__ .347__Perkins, Stern&Co

" 18.14..14.81.. .430__Dreyfus & Co.

" 18.78._16.20__ .466__Gretsch & Mayer.*

California Malaga 17.70__ 8. 59_ _ .659_ .Henry Gerke.

What is particularly striking in the figures last quoted, is the
remarkably high percentage of acid, which far exceeds what we
had hitherto supposed the acidity of our wines to be. Yet as a
large proportion of the total acids was volatile, it may be that the
wines had contracted acidity from improper methods of keeping.

From Prof. Hilgard's report of the work done in the viticul-
tural laboratory of the College of Agriculture of the University
of California, during the years 1881 and 1882, we extract
Table V given in the appendix. The figures for the averages
are our own. This report contains much valuable and interesting
information regarding the work done in the laboratory, and gives
many details of the analyses of these wines, which the limits of

xii PREFACE.

this volume will not permit us to give in full. And those who
wish to see the results of the most complete analysis of California
wines ever before made, are referred to the report itself.

It will be noticed that the average total acidity of the different
wines mentioned in the table is much lower than that found by
the chemist of the Department of Agriculture. The wines in
this table were furnished by the producer in nearly every case, a
few of them having been produced at the University, and were
undoubtedly pure, and in a fair condition, as samples of badly
kept wine would not likely be furnished by the maker for the
purpose of analysis; and the condition of those analyzed by the
chemist at Washington is, at least, doubtful.

From analyses. by R. Fresenius and E. Borgman, tabulated in
the Journal of the Chemical Society, London, for April, 1883,
from Zeits. Anal. Chem., XXII, 46-58, we extract the following
figures, the alcoholic strength being reduced to volume per cent,
as nearly as could be done from the per cent, by weight in volume
without the specific gravity :

Red

White

Red

Main.

Main .

Hocks.

French.

Moselle.

f Max.

.76

.54

.77

.17

11.52

10.77

Alcohol _

] Min.

.73

.00

.18

9.91

8.77

( Aver.

.76

.83

.67

10.58

10.02

( Max.

.62

.80

.01

.71

.58

.95

Acid

1 Min.

.54

.48

.54

.48

.64

( Aver.

.58

.69

.66

.62

.54

.79

And from the analyses given in the work of Thudichum and
Dupre, we deduce the following :

THIRTY-FIVE GERMAN WINES.

I Maximum. _14.45 ^ ^ ag f Maximum __ .823
(Average ___10,00 ar anc- (Average ___ .543

SIX FRENCH CLARETS.

f Maximum. _12.38 ( Maximum.. .645

Alcohol s Minimum- .10.42 A.ud j Minimum __ .548

Average 10.95 (Average .593

PREFACE. xiii

FOUR BURGUNDIES.

f Maximum. .14. 97 ( Maximum. _ .668

Alcohol -< Minimum. .11. 54 Acid x Minimum __ .495

(Average __.12.78 (Average ___ -562

ELEVEN SHERRIES.

( Maximum__22.75 f Maximum.. .626

Alcohol ] Minimum _ _ 1 7 . 03 Acid -! Minimum _ _ .372

(Average __ .20.93 (Average .476

SIX SO-CALLED NATURAL SHERRIES.

f Maximum. .18. 87 f Maximum _. .510

Alcohol ] Minimum __16.60 Acid 4 Minimum.. .397

(Average 17.37 (Average .454

ELEVEN PORT WINES.

f Maximum _ _ 23 . 34 ( Maximum _ _ .510

Alcohol ] Minimum. .18.04 Acid x Minimum __ .398

(Average ...21. 50 ( Average ... .424

TEN HUNGARIAN WINES.

f Maximum. .14.55 ( Maximum. . .716

Alcohol < Minimum. .11. 55 Acid -I Minimum __ .570

( Average ...12.85 (Average .637

The analyses of many other wines are given, and many other
details which would be of little use to the practical man, belong-
ing rather to the domain of the chemistry of wines.

There is a vast field open to the wine maker of this State, for
we have differences of soil and climate suitable for the production
of a wonderful variety of wines. But every man must decide for
himself what kind of wine his soil and situation are best adapted
to produce, and his aim then should be to produce the best of
that kind.

Thanks to the work of the State Viticultural Commission, we
are beginning to learn what varieties of grapes are best suited to
the different districts of the State. It is true that only a begin-
ning has been made, and the actual work of experimenting in
this direction can only be carried on by the practical viticulturists
themselves. It is for the Commission to bring order out of chaos,
and furnish for the information of the public the results of the
labors of the experimenters in the field.

Through the endeavors of the Commission, and especially of
its chief executive Yiticultural officer, Mr. Charles A. Wetmore,

xiv PREFACE.

who has an extended knowledge of the different varieties of grapes
grown in the State, and where they are produced, the viticulturists
are beginning to compare notes, and an exchange of knowledge is
now going on, which without the Commission would be impossible.

It is not within the scope of this work to enter into the details
of vine planting, or to point out what particular varieties of
grapes should be planted in the different sections, and probably
the time to produce a work which would convey definite and
satisfactory information on the latter subject has not yet arrived.
As fast as reliable information is acquired, it will undoubtedly be
made known by the Commission, and every intended vine grower
should carefully study its reports, as well as to keep himself
familiar with the discussions of the local viticultural societies, and
those of the general conventions.

If every grower in the State will only devote a portion of his
ground to the cultivation of the choicest varieties of grapes,
making sure that he knows what he is cultivating, will use the
best methods of vinification, preserve each kind of wine by itself,
or keep a careful record of his blends, and will age and rear the
different products according to the best and most intelligent
methods, the writer confidently expects that favored spots will
be found in time which will produce wines that will compare
favorably with the fine wines of Europe; and we may even ven-
ture to hope that some lucky individual will find that he is pos-
sessed of a vineyard that will make his name famous as the
producer of a grand wine equal to the most renowned wines of
the world.

The writers lays claim to but very little originality in the
the following pages. What the intended wine maker wants is
not new, untried theories, but the results of the experience of
others who have already labored in the field, in order that he
may not spend his time in inventing methods which, later he
learns, have already been tried by the laborers before him.

In this connection, the author makes his acknowledgments to
the following authors and their productions, as well as to others
mentioned in the body of the work. And if, in some cases, he

PREFACE. xv

has failed to give credit where it is due, it is because the informa-
tion remains, but the source is forgotten.

A. Du BREUIL, Les Vignobles et les Arbres et Fruits a Cidre,
Paris, 1875.

DR. JULES GUYOT, Culture de la Vigne et Vinification, Paris,
1861.

HENRI MACHARD, Traite Pratique sur les Vins, Bensancon, 1874.

RAIMOND BOIREAU, Culture de la Vigne, Traitement des Vins,
Vinification, Distillation, etc., 2 vols., Bordeaux, 1876.

A. HARASZTHY, Grape Culture, Wines, and Wine Making, New
York, 1862, including translations of JOHANN CARL LEUCHS on
Wine Making, and Dr. L. GALL, Improvement in Wine Making.

L. PASTEUR, on Fermentation, Annales de Chimie, 3 Series,
Vol. LVIII, P . 330.

JOSEPH BOUSSINGAULT, Sur la Fermentation des Fruits a Noyau
Annales de Chimie, 4 Series, Vol. VIII, p. 210.

M. BOUSSINGAULT, Experiences pour constater la perte en sucre
dans le sucrage du moat de du marc de raisin. Annales de
Chimie, 5 Series, Vol. VII, p. 433.

ANDRE PELLICOT, Le Vigneron Provencal, Montpellier, 1866.

HENRY VIZITELLI, Facts about Sherry, London, 1876; Facts
about Port and Madeira, London, 1880.

J. L. W. THUDICHUM and AUGUST DUPRE, Origin, Nature, and
Varieties of Wine, London, 1872.

N. BASSET, Guide Theorique et Pratique du Frabricant d'
Alcool et du Distillateur.

J. J. GRIFFIN, Chemical Testing of Wines and Liquors, London .

L. F. DUBIEF, Traite Complet Theorique et Pratique de Vinifica-
tion ou Art de Faire du Vin, 4 Ed., Paris.

P. SCHUTZENBERGER, On Fermentation, International Scientific
Series, New York, 1876.

E. J. MAUMENE, Traite Theorique et Pratique du Travail des
Vins, Paris, 1874.

M. W. MAIGNE, Nouveau Manuel Complet du Sommclier et du
Marchand de Vins (Manuels-Roret), Paris, 1874.

xvi PREFACE.

DON PEDRO VERDAD, From Vineyard to Decanter, a Book about
Sherry, London, 1876.

GEN. E. D. KEYES, Letter to Major J. K. Snyder, on Sherry
making, published in San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, May
29, 1877.

PROF. E. W. HILGARD, Report of work done in the Viticultural
Laboratory under the charge of F. W. Morse, University of
Calif ornia,College of Agriculture; Report of 1882, State Printer,
Sacramento, 1883.

August, 1883.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE .

Prices of grapes in California from 1876 to 1882, the Mission grape, v; annual
shipments of wine and brandy from California, annual production of wine,
acreage of vines, probable future production of wine, vi; objects of this book,
want of works on the subject in English, method of vinification varies with
kind of wine rather than with locality or climate, vii; climate of California and
density of must similar to those of southern Europe, viii; comparison between
California and European wines, viii-xiii; State Viticultural Commission, xiii.
advice to grape growers, xiv; acknowledgments by the author, list of
authorities, xv.

CHAPTER I.

GATHERING THE GRAPES MATURITY.

Utensils for picking, number of pickers necessary, when to commence, I ;
when to gather, successive gathering, 2; sorting the grapes, requisite degree
of maturity, 3; signs of ripeness, gathering before complete maturity, 4; gath-
ering after complete maturity, ripeness according to required strength, 5.

CHAPTER II.

MUST.

Composition, grape sugar, 6; must scale, 7; testing for sugar, 8; correcting for
temperature, 10; sugar and alcohoi, alcohol in wine, n.

CHAPTER III.

SUGARING AND WATERING MUST.

Sugaring, 13; nothing gained by adding sugar, 15; cost of glucose wine, 16;
experiment with glucose, the use of glucose condemned, 17; watering, 18.

CHAPTER IV.

STEMMING AND CRUSHING.

Diversity of opinion on stemming, effect of stemming, proper practice, .20; to
estimate tannin, stemmers, 21; how to remove the stems, crushing, methods
of crushing, 22; aerating the must, crushers, 23; rapidity of operation, special
practice, 24,

xviii CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V.

FERMENTATION ITS CAUSES.

Several different kinds of fermentation, alcoholic fermentation, the yeast plant,
25; functions of yeast, normal conditions of the life of yeast, 26; action of
various chemical and physical agents, 28; viscous or mannitic fermentation,
lactic fermentation, 29; acetic fermentation, 30; origin of ferments, 31;
ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION IN WINE MAKING: vinous or alcoholic fermenta-
tion, sugar, 32; alcohol by weight and by volume, 33; fermentation, its
products, percent, sugar to per cent, alcohol, different authors, 34; limits of
sugar and spirit, 36; temperature, 37; fermenting houses, 38.

CHAPTER VI.

RED WINE.

Coloring matter, fermenting tanks or vats, filling the tanks, 39; open vats,
closed vats, 40; the best practice, 41; hermetically sealed tanks, practice in
the Medoc, stirring the pomace in the vat, 42; when to draw from the vat, 43;
the objections to long vatting, in making fine wines, 44; how to know when
to draw from the vat, method of drawing from the vat and filling the casks,
45; wine presses, 46; pressing and press wine, special practice for fine wines,
TREATMENT OF RED WINES: insensible fermentation, 47; ulling or filling up,
48; summary of the rules for the treatment of new red wines, 50; treatment of
old red wines, 51; summary of rules for the care of old red wines, 53.

CHAPTER VII.

WHITE WINE.

Made from both red and white grapes, differences between red and white wine,
hygienic effect of red and white wine, 54; process of making, the barrels,
filling the barrels during fermentation, 55; pressing and filling, different kinds
of white wine, dry white wines, mellow white wines, 56, sweet white wines,
grand white wines, 57; treatment of white wines, to keep sweet, 58; dry white
wines, mellow white wines, 59; summary of rules, racking, 60.

CHAPTER VIII.

CASKS.

Different woods, oak wood, storing casks, 61; new casks, 62; old casks, rinsing
chain, visitor to examine the inside of a cask, 63; empty casks, washing,
sulphuring casks, condition to be examined, 64; flatness in the cask, acidity,
mouldy casks, 65; rottenness, brandy casks, caution as to sulphuring, cask
borers, 66; size of casks, 67.

CONTENTS. xix

CHAPTER IX,

SULPHURING. ARRESTING FERMENTATION.

Sulphuring casks, must and wine, sulphurous oxide or sulphur dioxide, the'
sulphurer or sulphur burner, 69; sulphur matches or bands, to sulphur a
cask, 70; to sulphur wine, sulphuring should be avoided in certain cases, 71 1
arresting fermentation, unfermented must, prepared in two ways, 72; clarifica-
tion and care of unfermented must, sulphur flavor, 73; other substances to
arrest fermentation, burning alcohol, aqueous solution of sulphurous acid,
bisulphite of lime, 74; salicylic acid, 75.

CHAPTER X.

AGING. EFFECTS OF VARIOUS INFLUENCES.

General considerations, how new wine differs from old, development of bouquet
and flavor, old wine, characteristics of, 76; color, aroma, flavor, influences
which develop, also destroy, influence of the air, 77; variations of tempera-
ture, influence of heat, 78; aging by heat, 79; preserving wine by heat, 80;
influence of cold, treatment of frozen wine, 8i; influence of light, aging by
sunlight, effect of motion of voyages, wines suitable for shipment, 82; shipping
new wine, 83; other motions, aging by fining, aging generally, 84; wines
which gain the most by aging processes, 85.

CHAPTER XI.

GENERAL TREATMENT CELLARS.

Unfortified or table wines, deposits, lees, etc., 86; to prevent degeneration,
CELLARS: temperature, 87; dampness, ventilation, evaporation, 88; other
precautions, supports for casks and tuns, 89.

CHAPTER XII.

RACKING.

Object of, time for, conditions indispensable for a good racking, 91; new red
wines, 92; old red wines, new white wines, first racking, subsequent rackings,
93; care to be observed, other precautions, 94; different methods of racking,
implements for tipping the cask, 95; racking without contact with the air
pumps and siphons, 97.

CHAPTER XIII.

CLARIFICATION FINING.]

Objects of fining, different substances employed, gelatinous substances, 99;
gelatine, its preparation, isinglass, fish glue, or ichthyocol, 100; albuminous
substances, blood, milk, white of eggs, 101; clarifying powders, gum arabic
addition of salt, addition of alcohol, addition of tannin, preparation, 102-
method of operation, implements for stirring, 103,

xx CONVENTS.

CHAPTER XIV .

SWEET WINES FORTIFIED WINES;

Generally, to increase sugar in must, without fermentation, care required, 105;
clarification, boiling must, left on the lees, 106; sweet muscat, pressing, marc
of sweet wines, amount of alcohol to be added, density, furmint wine, 107,
straw wine, PORT WINE in the Upper Douro: the must, lagars, etc., 108,
treading, fermentation, Vizitelli's description, 109; lodges or storehouses,
mixing, port loses color in wood, alcoholic strength and loss by evaporation,
112; MADEIRA: making, casks, treatment, heating house, heating, 113; solera
system, ullage, alcohol, 114; SHERRY: climate, vintage, crushing, gypsum, 115;
pressing, 116; plastering, fermenting, adding spirit, 117; bodegas or store-
houses, changes in the wine, fino, oloroso, basto, flowers, 118; sweet wine,
vino dulce, color wine, vino de color, arrope, 119; mature wine, THE SOLEEA
SYSTEM: establishing a solera, 120; standard soleras and their foundation,
121; blending for shipment, 122; formulas, fining, 124.

CHAPTER XV.

DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

Divided into two classes, general considerations, 125; NATURAL DEFECTS:
earthy flavor, its causes, 126; how prevented, treatment, 127; wild taste and
grassy flavor, greenness, causes, 128; prevention, treatment, 129; roughness,
causes, not a fault, disappears in time, how avoided, 130; how removed,
bitterness, causes, how prevented, treatment, taste of the stems, 131; sourness,
causes, how prevented, treatment, 132: alcoholic weakness, how avoided,
treatment, 133; want of color, causes, how guarded against, treatment, dull,
bluish, lead-colored wine and flavor of the lees, causes, 134; treatment, 135;
putrid decomposition, causes, 136; how avoided, treatment, different defects
together, ACQUIRED DEFECTS AND DISEASES: flat wines, flowers, causes, 137;
prevention, 138; treatment, 139; sourness, acidity, pricked wine, causes, what
wine liable to, 140; how prevented, treatment, 141; experiment before treat-
ment, 142; Machard's treatment, other methods, 144; cask flavor, barrel flavor,
causes, 145; treatment, 146; mouldy flavor, causes, prevention and treatment,
foreign flavors, 147; ropiness, causes, treatment, ropy wines in bottles, and
other treatment, 148; acrity, treatment, bitterness, 149; treatment, two kinds
according to Maumene, 150; fermentation, taste of the lees, yeasty flavor, 151 ;
how prevented, treatment, degeneration, putrid fermentation, duration of
different wines, 152; treatment, 153.

CHAPTER XVI.

WINE IN BOTTLES.

When ready for bottling, how long to remain in wood, 154; how prepared for
bottling, the most favorable time for bottling, 155; bottles, 156; filling

CONTENTS. xxi

the bottles, 157; corks, 158; corking machines, 159; preparation of the corks,
driving in corks, 160; sealing corks, sealing wax, applying the same, coloring
same, 161; capsules, capsuling, piling bottles, 162; racks and bins for bottles,
164; treatment of wine in bottles, fermentation in bottles, 165; deposits and
turbidity, 1 66; bitterness and acrity, ropiness, degeneration and putridity, 167;
decantation, 168; operation, instrument, 169.

CHAPTER XVII.

CUTTING OR MIXINCx WINES.

Most French wines mixed, when necessary, effect of, 171; wines of same nature
should be used, fine wines, 173; ordinary wines, must be allowed sufficient
time, large quantities, new and old wine, green wines, 174; white and red
wines, diseased wines, mixing grapes, precaution, 175.

CHAPTER XVIII.

WINE LEES, MARC, AND PIQUETTE.

Pomace and lees often placed in the still, WINE LEES: the lees should be cared
for, quantity of wine in lees, constituents of dry lees, analysis, vary,
176; treatment of lees, 177; extraction of wine from the lees, 178; fining the
wine from the lees, 179; red wine from lees, white wine from lees, pressing
the sediment, 180; use of dry lees, MABC OB POMACE PIQUETTE: unfermented
marc of white wine or of red wine not ^entirely fermented, fermented marc of
red wine, washing the marc, Pezeyre's method, 183.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE COMPOSITION OF WINE.

Generally, 185; table of substances recognized, 186; alcohol, estimate of, 187;
ethers, sugar, estimate of, 190; mannite, mucilage and mellowness, 191; pectose,
pectin, fatty matter, glycerin, coloring matter, aldehydes, 192; acids, tartaric,
malic, citric, pectic, tannic, carbonic, 193; acetic, lactic, valeric, succinic,
total acids, -the bouquet, artificial bouquet, 194; Maumene's experiment, I95
different substances employed, iris, 196; strawberry, gillyflower or stockgilly,
197; vine flowers, mignonette, nutmeg, bitter almonds and fruit pits,
sassafras, 198; other aromas, effects, 199.

CHAPTER XX.

GENERAL CHAPTER MISCELLANEOUS.

Proportion of juice to marc, 200; proportion of wine to grapes, 201;. wooden and
metal utensils, 202; cleanliness, 203; different cellar utensils, 204, 205;
USEFUL RULES: to ascertain the weight of a given number of gallons of a
liquid, for reducing must, for sugaring must, 206; for fortifying and reducing
wines, to reduce with water, 207; to reduce with weaker or fortify with

xxii CONTENTS.

stronger wine or alcohol, PLASTERING, 208; common practice in Spain and
southern France, objects, chemical effects, 209; effects on health, 210; plaster-
ing sherry, quantity used, 212; by adding water, sherry flavor, 213.

APPENDIX.

Sugar tables: Table I, Balling's degrees (per cent, sugar), corresponding
degrees Baume, and specific gravity at 63^ F., 215; Table II, Baume's degrees,
corresponding degrees Balling (per cent, sugar), and specific gravity at 63 1 F.
216; Table III, Baume's degrees and corresponding per cent, sugar, at 60 F.
217; Alcohol table, Table IV, showing percent, by volume for every one-tenth
per cent, from o.i 1030 per cent., corresponding per cent, by weight, and
specific gravity, 218-19; Table V, showing amount of alcohol and acid in
different California wines, 220-23.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig. Page.

1. HYDROMETER 8

2. HYDROMETER JAR 9

3. WOODEN STEMMER 21

4. CRUSHER 23

5. FERMENTING VAT 41

6. WINEPRESSES..... 46

7' X ULLING POTS I 49

' I Z FUNNELS X 49

ii.' RINSING CHAIN ..]'

12. VISITOR FOR EXAMINING THE INSIDE OF A CASK.... f

13. SULPHURER

14. MAUMENE'S SULPHURER

15. CASK AND SUPPORT '. 89

16. 1ACKFOK TIPPING A CASK )

17. FORK FOR TIPPING A CASK \ 95

J 8 ' | IMPLEMENTS FOR TIPPING A CASK ; I 96

20! A METHOD OF RACKING J

22* } SIPHONS f 97

23! ROTARY FORCE PUMP 98

24. ) )

25. [-IMPLEMENTS FOR STIRRING I 103

26. ) J

27. BOTTLE WASHER j

28. j. BOTTLE DRAINERS f J 5 6

RESERVOIRS FOR FILLING BOTTLES.... . 157

BUNG SCREW 158

CORKING MACHINES 159

CORKING MACHINES AND NEEDLES ? 160

PINCERS FOR REMOVING WAX ) ,

CAPSULER

PILING BOTTLES 163

j- BOTTLE RACKS X 164

BURROW'S SLIDER BIN.. 165

DECANTING BASKET )

CORKSCREWS I 169

DECANTING INSTRUMENT..

ERRATA

On page 216, Table II, read 63% F, instead of 93% F.

On page 218, Table IV, opposite 13.6 by volume, read 11.00 per cent, by
weight, instead of 10.10.

On page 219, Table IV, opposite 17.03 by weight, read 20.9 by volume,
instead of 20.7; and opposite 23.4 by volume, read .97251 specific gravity,
instead of .96251.

On page 222 read Tienturier instead of Tenturier.

THE WINE PRESS AND THE C

CHAPTEK I.

GATHERING THE GRAPES MATUJ

The first step in wine making proper, is the
grapes, or " picking/' as it is usually termed in California.

Utensils for Picking. Knives, scissors, and pruning shears
are used to cut the stems, and every one will adopt the tool that
he finds most convenient in practice; but if the berries are in-
clined to drop off, scissors or pruning shears are preferable.
Some authors give minute descriptions of receptacles of various
sizes and forms in which to gather the grapes, but the practice in
that respect usually followed in this State will be found the most
convenient. The grapes here are generally picked directly into
boxes holding about fifty pounds. The box is provided with an
oblong hole at each end near the top, or three or four holes bored
with an inch auger, by which the picker can easily move it from
vine to vine, and one man can carry it with both hands to the
wagon. These boxes are piled on the wagon without emptying,
transported to the wine house, and brought back empty, to be
filled again.

Number of Pickers necessary When to Commence.
There ought to be a sufficient number of men employed in pick-
ing to fill at least one fermenting vat in a day, in makijig red
wine. If, however, circumstances render this impossible, it
would be well to pile up the grapes on a good clean floor, under
cover, till sufficient are gathered to fill the tank, and then crush
them, and fill the tank in one day. (See Red Wine.) Picking
ought to commence as soon as the grapes are of a fair average
ripeness, beginning with the earliest and ending with the latest
variety. In the chapter on musts, we shall endeavor to indicate
the requisite maturity of the grapes, and it will there appear that
they may become too ripe by remaining too long on the vine, so
that it is very important that a sufficient number of pickers should
be employed to finish the gathering as promptly as possible, and
before too much sugar is developed. (See Musts.)

2 GATHERING THE GRAPES.

When to Gather. It is of little importance at what time
of the day the grapes are picked, whether in the cool of the
morning or the heat of mid-day, or whether the dew is on
or off, as long as they are ripe. In some countries, however,
and in what are known as bad years, the grapes do not arrive
at complete maturity, and therefore great care is taken to gather
them only in dry weather, and after the dew has disappeared.
(See Fermentation Temperature.) If they are picked during the
heat of the day, fermentation will commence sooner than if picked
in the cool of the morning; amd for this reason, in making white
wine from colored grapes, care should be taken to pick and press
them when cool, if it is desired that the wine should be free from
color; for if the slightest fermentation sets in before pressing, as
it is apt to do if the grapes are warm, some of the coloring matter
is pretty sure to be extracted from the skins and will discolor the
wine.

' Successive Gathering. It is sometimes recommended that
the grapes should be gathered as they ripen, by going over a vine-
yard two or three times, and picking off not only the bunches that
are ripe, leaving the green ones, but even picking off separately
three or four grapes from each bunch where itisnot evenly ripened,
arid this is the practice that is followed to-day in making the
great white wines of France and Germany; but it certainly will
not be adopted in this State while labor is as dear, and wine
is as cheap as it is at present. Instead, that practice will be fol-
lowed which is recommended by those writers who advise that
the grapes of each variety be left on the vines till they are all
fairly ripe, and that they be gathered clean at one picking. Where,
however, different varieties are planted in the same vineyard,
which ripen at different periods, those only should be picked at
the same time which ripen together. Gather the early ones first,
and the later ones successively as they ripen, but pick clean. The
same rule also applies to grapes of the same variety, but grown on
different soils and in different situations, as it is well known that
the same variety of vine will ripen its grapes on high land and
poor soil, earlier than on low land and rich soil.

GATHERING THE GRAPES. 3

Sorting the Grapes. It will frequently happen, however,
that there are some bunches of green grapes, and they should
always be thrown aside, if picked with the others. Sometimes,
also, there is what is called a second crop, which ripens so much
later than the main one that two gatherings are necessary. In
that case it would be injurious to the grapes of the earlier crop to
leave them on the vine till the complete maturity of those of the sec-
ond. Careful wine makers, therefore, will find it to their advantage,
either to leave the green grapes upon the vines for a second pick-
ing, or, if all are picked together, to throw the green ones into
a separate receptacle, or to sort them out from the ripe ones be-
fore crushing. Those who wish to take extra care will even have
the unripe, rotten, and dried berries clipped from the bunches
with scissors. These extra precautions are those which are ob-
served in making the great wines of Europe; but they are not
suggested here in the expectation that they will be generally fol-
lowed by the wine makers of California, but rather for the pur-
pose of indicating the best practices to those who may find out
that on account of the varieties they cultivate, and of the situa-
tion and soil of their vineyards, they too can produce such wines
by using the same care.

Requisite Degree of Maturity. It is insisted by all intelli-
gent writers on the subject, that, with possible exceptions, which
will be mentioned, the grapes should not be gathered till they
have arrived at a state of complete maturity. Without this, wines
from the finest varieties of grapes would not possess that beauty
of color, that delicious flavor, that fragrant bouquet, and that
alcoholic strength which they possess in so eminent a degree.
And if it is so necessary that the grapes of fine varieties should
be thoroughly ripe, it is quite as important that those of the
poorer varieties should be equally so. For these latter are gen-
erally wanting in sugar, and consequently their wines are feeble
in strength, and as the sugar increases directly with the Degree
of maturity of the grape, so the quantity of alcohol in their wines
increases accordingly, and thus by ripeness they make up for
their natural defects.

4 GATHERING THE GRAPES.

Signs of Ripeness. Complete maturity of the grape is indi-
cated by the concurrence of the following signs:

1 . The stem of the bunch changes from green to brown.

2. The bunch becomes pendant.

3. The berry has lost its firmness; the skin has become thin
and translucent.

4. The berries are easily separated from the stem.

5. The juice of the grape has acquired an agreeable flavor;
has become sweet, thick, and glutinous.

6. The seeds have become void of glutinous substances.
These are the signs given by several French authors, and are

here taken from Prof. Du Breuil, who says, nevertheless, that,
under some circumstances the grapes should be gathered before
arriving at the state of maturity indicated by these signs, and
under other conditions should be gathered even later. He says:

Gathering before Complete Maturity. 1 . In certain locali-
ties north of the viticultural region the grape hardly ever
arrives at the degree of maturity just indicated. Yet the crop
must be gathered, or otherwise it would rot on the vines. Under
these circumstances, the only thing that can be done is to leave
the grapes on the vine as long as they derive any benefit from it.

2. Grapes intended to make sparkling wine should also be
gathered before the moment of absolute maturity.

3. In the southern part of France, white grapes intended for
the making of dry wines, ought to be picked before reaching the
last degree of maturity. Otherwise, in that hot climate, the
quantity of sugar ia the grape would increase to such an extent
that it would be impossible to make a dry wine. This is the
practice in making the dry white wines of Lunel, of Coudrieux,
of the Hermitage, and of Saint Peray.

4. For all the ordinary red wines of the region inhabited by
the olive, if the gathering of the grapes is delayed till the last
degree of ripeness, the must will contain more sugar than can
be transformed into alcohol by fermentation. The result will
be that these wines will undergo a sort of continuous fermenta-
tion, which will make its appearance whenever they are moved,
and which will soon change into acetic fermentation. The only
way to cure this tendency and to render the wines capable of
shipment, is to strongly fortify them by the addition of spirits.

GATHERING THE GRAPES. 5

To prevent this difficulty in the first place, the grapes should be
gathered before complete maturity.

Some very respectable authors, whose experience has been con-
fined to the colder wine making regions, tell us that in all cases
the grapes should be allowed to remain on the vine as long as
they gain in sugar, and that in order to correct the excess that
they would thus in many cases acquire, they recommend that the
must be reduced by water. (See Watering Musts. )

Gathering: after Complete Maturity. To make sweet wines,
the grapes should remain on the vine until they have developed
the greatest possible quantity of sugar. For this purpose the
grapes are not only allowed to shrivel before gathering, but also
artificial means are resorted to, such as twisting the stem, or dry-
ing them on straw after picking, and even applying heat to them
in various ways. (See Sweet Wines.)

Ripeness according to Required Strength. If the wine
maker will first determine how strong in alcohol he wishes his
wines to be, he may anticipate the result approximately by testing
from time to time the amount of sugar contained in the grapes,
and by gathering them at the period when the sugar in the juice
shows that, fermented, it will produce the desired percentage of
spirit. This testing is easily performed by the use of the must-
scale or the saccharometer; and for information on this subject,
the reader is referred to the chapter on musts.

MUST.

CHAPTER II.

MUST.

Must is the name applied to the juice of the grape before fer-
mentation .

Composition. A good, average must, contains in 100 parts
by weight, the following ingredients, and in the proportions as
indicated, by weight, according to Dr. Guyot; but the amount of
sugar would be considered too small in California:

Pure water, 78

Grape sugar (glucose) - 20

Free acids (tartaric, tannic, etc.), 00.25

Salts, or organic acids (bitartrate), - 1.50

Mineral salts, 0.20

Nitrogenous, fermentive matter, ~\

Essential oils, .05
Mucilaginous and starchy substances, )

These constituents vary, however, according to variety of grape,
degree of maturity, soil, climate, etc.; and some of them may rise
in amount to double the average quantity given, or may even,
under some circumstances, descend to the one-fourth of it. Al-
though all these ingredients doubtless have important effects
upon the quality of the wine produced by fermentation, the acid
giving zest and freshness of taste, and the other minor ingredi-
ents, smoothness or harshness, as the case may be, yet the prin-
cipal one that we have to deal with is the sugar, and it is the
only one that the practical wine maker will give much attention
to, although in those countries where the grape in some seasons
does not ripen, the amount of acid is an important element to be
taken into consideration in testing the specific gravity of the
must. (See Composition of Wines, for further details.)

Grape Sugar, or glucose, as it is known in chemical language,
as already remarked, is the most important element entering into

MUST. 7

the composition of must, and upon its quantity depends directly
the amount of alcohol contained in the wine. The intelligent
wine maker, then, who wishes to know what will be the alcoholic
strength of the wine produced by the must which he is about to
subject to the action of fermentation, will test the must to ascer-
tain what percentage of sugar it contains. This is very easily
done by the use of an instrument prepared for the purpose.

Must Scale. A certain quantity of sugar being heavier than
the same volume of water pure cane sugar weighing about one
and six-tenths to one of water it follows that the more sugar
there is added to a given quantity of water the heavier it becomes,
and the more it will bear up anything floating on it; or, as it is
generally stated, the less of the liquid will be displaced by the
floating body. On this principle, the specific gravity of liquids,
or their weight as compared with water, is ascertained. The in-
strument employed is known by the general name of areometer,
but it is now more commonly called a hydrometer, and various
specific names are given to it according to the uses for which it
is intended. When constructed for testing the strength of sugar
syrups it is called a syrup-scale, saccharometer, ptee-sirop, etc.,
and those especially for testing musts are called must-scales,
pese-moiit, etc. These latter are constructed on the theory that the
liquid contains only cane sugar and water the difference in specific
gravity between cane sugar and grape sugar being disregarded
and that its density depends on the quantity of sugar; and al-
though the density of must is somewhat affected by other solid
matters than (Sugar contained in it, yet these instruments, whether
syrup-scales or must-scales proper, will give results sufficiently
accurate for the purposes of the wine maker, a small allowance
being made for the other solids, as hereafter mentioned. There
are three instruments which are the most generally used in this
country : Oechsle's must-scale, Balling's saccharometer or syrup-
scale, and Baume's syrup-scale, or pese-sirop. The degrees of
Oechsle's instrument indicate specific gravity in the manner men-
tioned under Table I; Balling's indicates percentages of sugar di-
rectly; and Baume's degrees are arbitrary. (See Tables II and

8 MUST.

III. ) There are other instruments used in France the gleuco-
cenometer, reading upwards for spirit and down for sugar on the
same stem, corresponding in degrees to Baume's and the gleu-
cometer, which indicates at once the percentage of alcohol which
the wine will contain after fermentation. Baume's and Balling's
instruments are better suited for use in California, where the
musts often show a specific gravity higher than is indicated by
Oechsle's scale, which frequently is graduated only up to 80 deg.,
or 19.75 per cent, of sugar. They are all made on the same
general plan, and are usually constructed of glass. The instru-
Fig. I. ment consists of a tube about the size of a pipe-stem,
terminating below in a bulb or expansion, weighted
at the bottom so that it will stand upright and float
when placed in a liquid. The scale is marked on the
stem, commencing at the top and numbering down-
ward. The first mark is zero, and shows how far the
hydrometer sinks in pure water. (Fig. 1.) As hy-
drometers are not always accurate, it is safer before
using one to have it tested by a chemist or a gauger, as
but few others have the necessary skill or the instru-
ments requisite for that purpose. If, however, an in-
strument which has been tested is accessible, another
one can be easily compared with that by ascertaining
if both sink to the same point in the same sugar solu-
tions.

TESTING FOR SUGAR.

Any person, provided with one of the ^hydrometers
mentioned, can easily ascertain the percentage of
Hydrometer. SU g ar contained in any must with tolerable accuracy,
providing the grapes from which it is pressed are ripe; for if
they are green, and contain an undue amount of acid, the density
will be materially affected by that. There is no occasion, how-
ever, for making wine from green grapes in this State.

MUST.

Fig. 2.

In addition to the hydrometer, it is necessary to
be provided with a thermometer with which to
ascertain the temperature of the must. Besides
the hydrometer and the thermometer, the only
other article necessary is a glass tube closed at the
bottom and provided with a foot, so that it will
stand upright, called the hydrometer- jar. (Fig. 2.)
This jar should have a diameter a little greater
than that of the bulb of the hydrometer, and must
be of such a height that the latter instrument will
stand upright and float freely in it, when filled
with a liquid. In the absence of the hydrometer-
jar, an empty fruit jar, or a tall tin cup or can will
Hydrometer-jar, answer its purpose. In performing the operation,
see that all the articles used are perfectly clean, more particularly
the hydrometer, for anything that would slightly affect its weight
would render the result of the test useless. Having taken this
precaution, press the juice from a small quantity of grapes and
strain it through a cloth, and pour sufficient into the hydrometer-
jar, that when the hydrometer is plunged into it, it will just
bring the level of the liquid to the upper edge of the vessel, or to
such a height that the figure on the stem can easily be read. Now
place the thermometer in the must and ascertain its temperature,
for the instruments are intended to be used at a certain degree
of he*at, although three or four degrees variation either way will
not materially affect the result. Baume's instrument, as origin-
ally constructed, was graduated for a temperature of 10 Eeamur,
which corresponds with 54i F.; but as constructed now-a-days,
is generally graduated for a temperature of 58 or 60 F.; and
Balling's and Oechsle's for a temperature of 63 f j F. Some of
Balling's instruments sold in the market are graduated for 62 F.
If it is found that the temperature is above or below the degree
indicated, it may be lowered by cooling, or raised by warming,
till about the right temperature is reached. Then the hydrometer,
being clean, should be taken by the stem at the top and gradu-
ally lowered into the must until it floats-. Press it down slightly
with the finger and let it come to equilibrium, being careful that

10 MUST.

there is not a drop of 'water on the stem above the surface of the
liquid, nor a bubble of air below. On looking at the stem where
it meets the surface, it will be seen that the liquid there curves
upwards around the instrument, and that the top of this curve
marks one degree higher than the general surface. If the reading
is taken from the point marked by the top of the curve (the
figures reading downwards), add one degree, or in other words,
ascertain the mark on the stem corresponding to the general sur-
face of the liquid. If Balling's scale is used, the number at this
mark shows the percentage of sugar which the must contains; if
Baume's is used, consult Table II or III, and opposite this num-
ber will be found the corresponding per cent, of sugar. If
Oechsle's scale is used, find from Table I or II the specific gravity
and the corresponding sugar per cent. Under Table I instruc-
tions will be found for reading Oechsle's scale. If Baume's
instrument is used, and a table is not at hand, multiply the
observed figure by 1.8, and the product will be nearly the per cent,
of sugar.

Correction for Temperature. It is known that a sugar
solution or a must expands as the temperature increases, and
contracts as it diminishes; and nice experiments have been per-
formed to show the amount of dilatation and contraction at dif-
ferent temperatures, and the consequent variation in the specific
gravity of the liquid, but there is considerable difference in the
results of the researches of different authors, and it would seem
that further experiments are necessary; but a rule may be deduced
which may be used instead of changing the temperature of the
must to make it correspond with that for which the instrument
is graduated, and although not strictly correct, is sufficient for
our purpose; and that is to add one-half per cent, to the sugar
per cent, indicated by the hydrometer for every 15 F. above
the standard temperature, and subtract J per cent, for every 15
below. For instance, if Baume's instrument shows 22 per cent,
of sugar at 75 F., the actual strength is 23 per cent., and it
would mark that at 60. If the same instrument shows 23 per
cent, at 45 F., the real strength is 23 per cent. In using Ball-

MUST. . 11

ing's scale graduated at 63 i F., the 15 in our example would
make 78J for the first supposed case, and 48 for the second.

In most cases the variation in temperature will be so little that
it may be disregarded; but if the test is made soon after the
grapes have been exposed to a hot sun, the must may show a
temperature of 90 or 95 F., and it would indicate one per cent,
less than its real sugar strength. But the temperature would go
below the freezing point of water before the must would mark
one per cent, too much.

As the must contains a small quantity of acids and extractive
matter which affect its density, some authors recommend that
from one-tenth to one-fifteenth of the figures indicating the density
by Baume should be deducted, calling the remainder sugar, and
this is about equivalent to deducting one for every twelve per
cent, of sugar. But if the grapes are ripe and the must is strained,
for all practical purposes all of the solid matter may be called
sugar, considering that we make a pretty liberal allowance of
sugar for one per cent, of alcohol. Fresh must should always
be taken for. the purpose of testing for sugar, for as alcohol is
much lighter than water, if fermentation has commenced, it will
be impossible to ascertain the amount of sugar by means of the
hydrometer.

Sugar and Alcohol. It will be shown in the chapter on
fermenation that, in actual practice, it takes about two per cent,
of sugar, as indicated by the hydrometer, to produce one per
cent, by volume of alcohol; therefore, divide the percentage of
sugar contained in the must, as shown by the hydrometer, by
two, and the quotient is approximately the per cent, of alcohol
which will be contained in the wine after complete fermentation.

Alcohol in Wine. A good, saleable dry wine ought to contain
from eleven to twelve or thirteen per cent, of alcohol; and to
produce such a wine the must should indicate from 22 to 26 per
cent, of sugar by the hydrometer. A wine which is soon to be
consumed at home does not require that degree of strength neces-
sary for shipment abroad and for keeping, and may contain only
ten per cent, of alcohol, and even less, and be found a very pala-
table drink, and less " heady" than that of a higher degree of

12 , MUST.

spirit. And a wine may contain as much as 14 per cent, of spirit,
and be very acceptable to the wine merchant for mixing with
weaker wines.

A must which does not contain more than 24 per cent, of sugar
per hydrometer, if properly managed, will complete its fermenta-
tion, and if it does not contain less than 22 per cent., will make
a good, sound, shipping wine, which will keep in almost any
climate. Mr. Crabb, a well known wine maker of Oakville, in this
State, writes me that such a must will ferment dry in six days,
but that if it contains more than 24 per cent, of sugar,, fermenta*
tion is likely to be arrested by the amount of alcohoi, when it
amounts to 12 per cent. This gentleman is an intelligent vim-
culturist and a practical man, and it would be safe to follow his
advice. Mr. Arpad Haraszthy, who is noted in this connection,
in his lecture on fermentation before the convention of wine-
growers, held at San Francisco in September, 1882, indicated
22 per cent, as a proper degree of sugar in the must; and it is
reported that the wine makers of Los Angeles county, in fixing
the prices of grapes in 1882, adopted 23 percent, as the standard.
Undoubtedly the fermentation will be finished sooner, and will
be less troublesome, if the must contains sugar within the limits
of 22 and 24 per cent., than if allowed to go beyond. (See
Maturity.) If it should go to 26 per cent, and beyond, the
chances are that the fermentation will be incomplete, and that a
portion of the sugar will remain in the wine, which will cause it
to ferment when exposed to changes of temperature; it may
become milk sour, and there will be danger of rapid deterioration.
From which it follows that, except for making sweet wines, the
grapes should be gathered before they develop much more than
24 per cent, of sugar. Supposing, however, that picking com-
mences as soon as the must shows 22 per cent., sufficient force
should be employed to finish before it goes beyond the limit indi-
cated. For the writer has seen grapes gathered at the beginning
of the season and made into wine which showed 11 per cent, of
alcohol, when the wine made from grapes of the same vineyard,
gathered too late, either on account of lack of pickers or of fer-
menting tanks, contained 14.5 per cent., and was still sweet.

. SUGARING AND WATERING MUST. 13

CHAPTER III.

SUGARING AND WATERING MUST.

Sugaring. As early as 1776, Macquer, in France, found that
by adding sugar to the must of green grapes, he could make
wine; and since his time many authors, notably Chaptal, Gall,
and Petiot, have recommended the addition of sugar to the must
of bad years when the grapes did not ripen; and had the practice
been limited to the addition of sufficient sugar of good quality to a
must which was deficient in that respect, but little harm would have
been done. The next step, however, was to take the must of partly
ripe grapes which contained an undue quantity of acid, and
reduce it by the addition of water till the acid corresponded in
quantity to that contained in a must of ripe grapes, and then to
add sufficient sugar to bring it up again to the necessary degree
of sweetness. This may be permissible in those countries where
in some years the grapes do not ripen, and in order to make a
drinkable wine, water to reduce the acid, and sugar to give
sweetness, must be added. But this did not satisfy the greed of
the artificial wine makers; they found, so they say, that they
could press the juice from the grapes, ferment it by itself, then
add to the marc water and sugar enough to bring it back to its
original quantity and sugar strength, draw off the artificial juice
slightly colored by the skins, and repeat the operation, and so
make three and four times the quantity of wine that could other-
wise be made, and all good wine.

It was thought that wine making in Europe would be revolu-
tionized, and untold wealth would pour into the coffers of the
wine makers. It was found, however, that cane sugar was too
expensive, but artificial glucose could be made from grain and
potatoes at a very small cost, and by reason of its cheapness its
use was forthwith recommended; and to such an extent was the
matter carried, that one would suppose that in order to make
good wine, it was only necessary to soak a few grape skins in a
quantity of sweetened water and let it ferment !

14 SUGARING AND WATERING MUST.

The practice, however, to the extent mentioned, did not com-
mend itself to sensible men, and wine making did not become
revolutionized. Yet it was to some extent adopted, and the effect
upon the wines of Burgundy is shown by Dubrunfaut in his
work on Sucrage de Mouts. He says that starch-sugar (glucose)
factories were established in Burgundy, and from 1825 to 1845,
this material was used to strengthen the musts. But complaints
arose in France and elsewhere against Burgundy wines; they
had a new flavor, and unexpected changes in many respects had
come over them. A congress of wine makers was held at Dijon
in 1845, at which the abandonment of the use of glucose was
decreed upon the report of a committee of merchants and pro-
prietors of Beaune, which was in effect as follows: that the long
extolled and generally practiced system of sugaring, and against
which a reaction set in some years ago, ought to be completely
abandoned, as being fatal (funeste) to Burgundy. He con-
siders, however, as do some others who condemn the use of glu-
cose, that the use of refined cane sugar is unobjectionable if used
in small quantities and merely to fortify the must when it needs
it. There are many authors, however, who speak highly of the
wines produced by the addition of sugar and water to the skins
after the juice has been drawn off, but it does not seem reason-
able that a good wine can be made in that manner. If a good
must contained only water, sugar, and acids, then there would
be reason for believing that the wine so made would be good.
But it is well known that many other ingredients enter into the
composition of the juice of the grape which, in some unknown
manner, have a very important influence upon the wine made from
it. Attempts have been made to produce an artificial must, which
is carrying the process but little farther than it is carried by some
of the writers on the subject; but Mr. Boireau says that what is
produced resembles cider rather than wine. He gives the fol-
lowing composition as approaching very nearly a must for com-
mon white wine:

Refined Sugar, 25 kilog.

Tincture of tannin, - - - 20 gr.

SUGARING AND WATERING MUST. 15

Crystals of tartaric acid, 500 gr.
Gum arable, - 1 kilog.

Vine leaves and fresh twigs chopped, - 5 kilog.
Distilled or filtered water, 1 hectol.

The author last quoted is a practical man, and his opinion is
valuable. He says, when the fermentation of this artificial must
is most active, it has analogies with ordinary white wine, but it
costs much more than the natural wine; and when its fermenta-
tion is complete, it -has not a bad taste, and there is nothing
hurtful in its composition, but that it has not the taste of white
wine; and the only time when it has any analogy to white wine
is during the tumultuous fermentation as already mentioned.
Many attempts have been made to vary the formula, but without
important results. Tolerably agreeable drinks are obtained, but
they are not wine. M. Boussingault gives his experience in sugar-
ing and watering must;* and the wine produced lacked acid, color,
astringency, and was very inferior to the wine first made from
the pure juice; it lacked the fixed substances and aromatic princi-
ples. He says that some would prefer it to cider, but that it only
differed from piquette in having a greater degree of alcohol.

To give even a summary of what has been written upon this
subject would occupy a volume, but the results arrived at by
the more intelligent modern writers and experimenters may be
summed up as follows:

1 . That good wine can be made only from the pure juice of
the grape.

2. That in case the grapes do not ripen sufficiently to make a
drinkable wine, water may be added to reduce the acid, and then
sugar enough to bring it up to the average sugar strength; but in
no case should any but the refined cane sugar be used; artificial
glucose, never.

Nothing gained by adding Sugar. Aside from the question of
quality, it may not be amiss to add a few remarks for the benefit
of intended wine makers who may have been led to believe, by
mistaken authors, that the profits of wine making maybe increased

16 SUGARING AND WATERING MUST.

by adding sugar and water, and thereby augmenting the quantity.
Assuming that it is permissible to use only refined sugar, it can
easily be shown that it is as cheap, if not cheaper, to make wine
from grapes than from sugar, as long as grapes can be bought
for $30 per ton.

A gallon of dry wine of average specific gravity, containing 10
per cent, by weight, or 12.4 by volume, of alcohol, weighs about
8i pounds, and contains about .825 of a pound of pure alcohol.
To produce a pound of alcohol requires about 2t Ibs. of pure
grape sugar, or 2.138 Ibs. of pure cane sugar, in practice, accord-
ing to the chapter on fermentation; so that to produce the .825
Ibs. of alcohol in one gallon of wine, requires about 1.80 Ibs. of
pure cane sugar. But refined crystalized sugar is not pure sugar
(anhydrous), as it contains about 10 per cent, of water; so, to
make our 1.8 of pure sugar, requires 2 Ibs. of ordinary refined
sugar. At 10 cents per pound, which would be cheap for thig
market, it would cost 20 cents to make the must for a gallon of
wine.

Supposing that a ton of grapes costs $30, and produces 150
gallons of wine, each gallon would cost 20 cents. So that there
is nothing to be gained by adding sugar at 10 cents a pound,
even if a ton of grapes costs $30 a ton, for the same facts would
apply to every pound of sugar added to a must, as well as in the
case supposed, where all the sugar was supplied.

Cost of Glucose Wine. Supposing that artificial glucose con-
tains 80 per cent, of pure (anhydrous) sugar, it would require 2i
Ibs. to make our gallon of wine; and if it could be laid down
here at 5 cents a pound, the gallon of wine would cost nearly
12 cents, and this would be equivalent to paying $18 a ton for
grapes.

When we take into consideration that every pound of glucose
and water added to a must will diminish the price of every gallon
of wine produced, it is probable that but little, if anything, could
be gained even by the use of this article; for the product will not
bring the price of an honest wine, and in the long run will
destroy the reputation of our wines, and reflect injury upon
every wine maker in the State.

SUGARING AND WATERING MUST. 17

Experiment with Glucose. Mr. Crabb, of Oakville, gave his
experience with glucose in a paper read before the St. Helena
Vinicultural Club, in July, 1882, as follows: I took three pack-
ages of equal size, one containing pure grape juice, the two
others containing each equal parts of the same juice and glu-
cose water, all showing 23 per cent, sugar by Balling's saccha-
rometer. The pure juice was dry in 15 days (the room being-
cold). One package of the mixture was dry in 30 days; the
other continued in fermentation 60 days, both emitting a rank
offensive odor during the process, arising from the amount of
chalk and sulphuric acid required in its (glucose) manufacture.
Racking at this time appeared to remove the greater part of the
offensive odor, and in 30 days the wine was clear and bright
enough to pass for a two-years'-old wine. I now thought it con-
tained a very superior fining principle, and if a small enough
quantity would answer the purpose, it might be a valuable acqui-
sition. But this was its most favorable period; it had reached its
zenith, and while the pure juice was now beginning to develop its
vinous properties, the mixture commenced to deteriorate, becom-
ing flat and insipid, as any grape juice would by being one-half
water, and the sulphuric acid and chalk (sulphate of lime) devel-
oping a disagreeable after-taste. Notwithstanding that I have
racked it again and fined it to a perfect condition, there is not
the least improvement, and I believe as it becomes more dry with
age, that the bitter, nauseous after-taste will become more and
more pronounced, so that one glass of it will leave such a lasting
impression on the palate as to never want any more; whereas,
the package of pure juice is now vinous, sprightly, refreshing
and inviting.

The use of Glucose condemned. On the 16th day of July,
1881, the St. Helena Vinicultural Association adopted resolutions
condemning in the strongest terms the use of glucose in the
making of wine and brandy, and promising to expose all parties
importing or receiving the substance by publishing their names,
and pledging the Society to use all honorable means to prevent
the adulteration of the product of our vineyards. The resolu-

18 SUGARING AND WATERING MUST.

tions passed unanimously, and were published in the different
newspapers. One man in the district, notwithstanding the warn-
ing, did cause to be shipped to him a quantity of glucose, and
the President and Secretary of the Society published in several
different newspapers, in December, 1881, over their own signa-
tures, and in the name of the Association,, a notice reciting the
resolutions, and stating that a person (giving his name) "im-
ported eighty barrels of grape sugar, made from corn, commonly
called glucose, and used the same, or the greater part of it, in
the manufacture of wine during the last vintage."

We believe that this was an exceptional case, and that its use
in this State has been exceedingly rare.

Watering. Another question which has been a good deal dis-
cussed is, whether it is better to pick the grapes as soon as they
develop sufficient sugar, or leave them on the vine till they develop
an excess, and then reduce the must with water. Dr. Guyot hav-
ing laid it down as a fundamental principle in wine making in
France, that the grapes should be left on the vine as late as pos-
sible, and until they have reached the highest point of maturity,
except, perhaps, in some of the most extreme southern portions,
he is consistent in counseling the addition of water to the must.
But the only reason given by him for it is that it is consonant with
his principle previously stated. Du Breuil is also of the same
opinion. Both are men of high authority, but it does not appear
that either of them ever made wine in a warm climate, where the
grapes would develop so much sugar as to require the addition
of water, if left upon the vine as late as possible. We have, on
the other hand, the testimony of Boireau, who, speaking on the
subject, says that it is probable that the theoricians who are in
favor of the practice have never made wine of must too rich in sugar
and of water. He says, it is true that the quantity is increased,
and fermentation is complete, but that the wine so made is only
fit for the still, will not keep and readily turns sour. -The Greeks
have followed this practice from time immemorial in the Archi-
pelago, where he tasted their wine so made in 1865, and which
they can keep with difficulty for one year, in spite of the addition

SUGARING AND WATERING MUST. 19

of a large quantity of rosin, which they introduce during fer-
mentation. And yet, these wines are not weak, having an average
of 10 to 11 per cent, of alcohol. He says that but few grapes
give musts too rich in sugar, if they are gathered as soon as ripe;
for even in viticultural countries situated farthest south, as the
south of France, Spain, Italy, Greece, and Africa, the grape just
ripe gives a must which does not exceed 14 Baume, unless left
on the vine until part of the water of vegetation has evaporated.
Having alluded to both sides of the question, it would seem to
be a fair inference from the foregoing that the safest course would
be, in a hot climate, to gather the grapes as soon as fairly ripe.
This may easily be done, where each grape grower makes his own
wine, and has immediate supervision of the picking, and has
sufficient men to finish it with promptness. But in the case of
large manufacturers who buy their grapes and cannot supervise
or order the gathering in the numerous vineyards whose crops
they purchase, it may sometimes be necessary, when the grapes
come in over-ripe, and it is not desirable to make sweet wine, to
add a small quantity of water to insure prompt and complete
fermentation. When the necessity arises, great caution should
be used, and the necessity should be avoided when possible.

20 STEMMING AND CRUSHING.

CHAPTER IV.

STEMMING AND CRUSHING.

Diversity of Opinion on Stemming. There is no subject
connected with wine-making upon which there is a greater differ-
ence of opinion than that of stemming. And it would seem that
the diversity of practice is not always caused by the different
conditions and exigencies of location, variety of grapes, etc. ;
but among the different wine-makers in the same locality, some
remove the stems, and others do not; from which Dr. Guyot
infers that' the practice cannot be classed among the essential
principles governing vinincation, but is a mere matter of detail,
and that stemming may be practiced or omitted without materi-
ally affecting the wine. But Machard, a writer of the Jura, lays
it down imperiously as one of the very essentials of good wine-
making that the grapes should be fermented with the stems, and
calls stemming a pernicious practice.

Effect of Stemming. All agree, however, that the stems,
during fermentation, if not removed, yield tannin to the wine,
and thereby give it astringency. It is also said to increase
fermentation, by furnishing to the must additional germs of
fermentation adhering to the stems, and perhaps acting also in a
mechanical way, by presenting many salient points, and exposing
a greater surface to the action of the ferment.* They also add a
certain amount of acid to the wine, if green. It is evident that
they increase the labor of pressing, by adding to the mass
of marc.

Proper Practice. If, therefore, by reason of the variety of
grapes cultivated, or the soil, or situation, your wine is too soft,
lacks life and astringency, ferment with all or a portion of the
stems ; but if your wine is rough, too astringent, it will be found
beneficial to stem the grapes. If your grapes lack the ferrnentive
principle, and fermentation is slow and incomplete, leave the

*Paateur,iu his Studies on Beer, says that the reason has not yet been discovered, but
that he has no doubt that it may be attri >uted, principally, to the fact that the interstices
between thegrapes, ami the spaces which the bunch leaves throughout, considerably in-
crease th'i volume of air placed at the service of the germ \ of ferment.

STEMMING AND CRUSHING.

grapes on the stem ; and in the same way the fermentation will
be assisted, if the grapes are over-ripe.

When the grapes are fermented with the stems, care must be
taken that they do not remain too long in the vat, or the wine
may acquire a bitter, disagreeable flavor, called by the French
gotlt de rape, or stem flavor, which is caused by the bitter prin-
ciple contained therein, and which is dissolved out by maceration.

To Estimate Tannin. A certain amount of tannin is neces-
sary to the proper clearing of the wine, which is brought about
by the tannin combining with albuminous matters, and they are
then precipitated, and the wine may be drawn off, leaving them
at the bottom of the cask. It is on the application of this well-
known principle that Maumene gives a very simple method of
ascertaining whether the grapes should be stemmed or not. He
says: First make a small quantity of wine without the stems, and
add tannin, or, what is better, a decoction made by boiling a
quantity of stems, and ;f sensible precipitation is produced, it is
better to ferment with the stems, for tannin is wanting ; but if
the precipitation is not formed, the grapes should be stemmed.

Stemmers. This is usually effected in California by the use
of the common hand stemmer, though some large establishments

Fig. 3.

Wooden Sternmer.

are using a stemmer
run by steam or horse-
power. The common
stemmer consists of an
oblong shallow box or
frame, six or eight feet
long by two wide, or
any convenient size,
and about six inches
deep, with a coarse
wire netting or grating
stretched across the
bottom. This grating
is usually made of
heavy galvanized-iron
wire, with f inch or

22 STEMMING AND GEUSHING.

inch meshes. Instead of having the grating extend the whole
length, a portion at one end may be floored with wood, upon
which a box of grapes can be placed without injuring the grating.
The only objection to this stemmer is that the grape juice comes
in contact with the metal of the grating, and it is a well-known
fact that nearly, if not all, of the baser metals are corroded by
the acids ; it would be better to replace the wire with a wooden
grating, as in France (fig. 3).

How to Remove the Stems. The grapes are dumped from
the boxes directly into the stemmer, and the workman seizes as
many as he can easily manage with both hands, and rubs and
rolls them to and fro upon the wire grating, and the berries, as
they are rubbed off, fall through the meshes, and the stems
remain in the hand. The few grapes that may remain are
removed by raising the mass of stems and forcibly throwing them
two or three times upon the grating. Sometimes the stems, with
the few grapes clinging to them, are turned over to another work-
man, who, with a hay fork, tosses them about upon another
grating till all the berries are removed. The stemmer ought to
be situated over the hopper of the crusher, so that the grapes will
fall directly into it, as they are separated from the stems.

Crushing. It is generally considered essential to crush the
grapes whether stemmed or not, although in some special cases,
to be hereafter noted, crushing is omitted.

Methods of Crushing. It is well known that in Europe the
grapes are usually crushed by being trodden with the feet of
men, usually barefooted, but sometimes in wooden shoes, and
many of the best writers of to-day are of the opinion that the
wine is better when the grapes have been well trodden with the
bare feet, for by thoroughly rubbing the skins and pounding
them into a pulp without breaking the seeds, they think that
more color and aroma are developed than can be obtained by
simply crushing them, as in a machine, and afterwards ferment-
ing. Although the practice of treading is the more common one
in Europe, yet there are exceptions, and in some places the crush-
ing is done by rollers and with satisfactory results. In Calif or-

STEMMING AND C HUSHING. 23

nia we are accustomed to regard the treading of grapes as an
antiquated practice, and a relic of a past age, and it is almost
universally discarded, being practiced only occasionally and by
Europeans, who have not yet wholly fallen into our methods of
practice. Those who are fastidious in this matter may rest
assured, that if they will drink California wine, they run but very
small risk of imbibing a liquid which a man has had his feet in.
Aerating the Must. There seems to be some confusion on
this subject, for some claim that the must is better exposed to
the air, and prepared for fermentation, by treading. This may
be true of treading in the vat "during fermentation, but simply
treading the grapes to crush them does not aerate the must as
much as crushing with rollers, for in the latter case the juice
falls through a considerable distance in a finely divided form,
which thoroughly exposes it to the air.

Crushers. The machine generally employed consists of two
rollers made of wood, iron, or other suitable material, 6 or 8, or
even more, inches in diameter, geared together so that they
revolve in opposite directions and towards each other, and so that
the grapes will be drawn between them from above. The rollers
run near each other, but do not touch, so that the grapes will be
crushed, and the seeds remain unbroken. It is operated by one
man turning a crank, either attached to one of the rollers or to a
Fig. 4. pinion. Figure 4 represents such a crusher,

except that in the figure the rollers are open-
work, instead of solid, as they should be.
It is surmounted by a hopper which allows
the grapes to fall between the rollers as they
revolve, and the whole apparatus should be
so placed that the pomace may fall into the
fermenting vats, or be easily conveyed to
Crusher. them or to the press, accordingly as it is to

be made into red or white wine.

Some stemmers have corrugated instead of plain rollers, but
there is no advantage in this, and unless they are very nicely
adjusted to the motion of the cog wheels, they may break the
seeds, which is always considered injurious to the wine.

24 . STEMMING AND CRUSHING.

Rapidity of Operation. Five men one to handle the boxes
of grapes, two to stem, standing on opposite sides of the stemmer,
one to operate the crusher, and one to take the stems and remove
the remaining grapes and to make himself generally useful can
stem and crush with these hand machines twenty tons of grapes
per day, enough to make three thousand gallons of wine. And
the work can be done much more rapidly by the use of the stemmer
and crusher combined, which is to some extent used in the largest
establishments .

Special Practice. Boireau says that it has been observed
that of the Medoc wines, those made without crushing the grapes
have less color than those made from grapes of the same crop
which have been crushed, but that they have a more refined and
delicate taste (plus fins de gottt), and that consequently many of
the proprietors of the grands crus of the Medoc in those years which
are favorable to the maturity of the grape do not crush; they only
do it in inferior years, when the grapes have not become suffi-
ciently ripe, and when they fear that the wine may not have a
suitable color. And in another place he tells us that in those
grand wines which are intended to be bottled, a superabundance
of tannin and its consequent roughness may be avoided by com-
plete stemming, fermenting the whole berries, and by drawing
from the fermenting vat at just the right time.

FERMENTATION. 25

CHAPTER V.

FEBMENTATION ITS CAUSES.

It is with some hesitancy that I attempt to give a brief sum-
mary of the results of scientific investigation into this subject,
for fear of going beyond the legitimate limits of a practical
work, as this book is intended preeminently for practical men.
But as the work would be incomplete without it, and as a knowl-
edge of the general phenomena of fermentation, and of the dif-
erent influences to which it is subject, ate of vast importance to
those who will intelligently apply their principles, I give the
following as but a brief resume, and will put it as plainly as the
subject will permit. Most of the ideas given below are extracted
from Schutzenberger's work on fermentation.

There are several different kinds of Fermentation, as (1)

vinous, alcoholic or spirituous fermentation; (2) mucous or
viscous fermentation; (3) lactic fermentation; (4) ammoniacal
fermentation; (5) butyric fermentation; (6) putrif action; and
(7) acetic fermentation, or fermentation by oxidation, and others.

Alcoholic Fermentation is that which sugar undergoes under
the influence of the ferment or yeast; and it is now agreed that
this ferment consists principally of an aggregation of living
organisms, or an assemblage of microscopic cells.

The Yeast Plant. Our author gives them the name of saccha-
romyces cerevisice, following those who consider it to be a species
of fungus, and states that it is now very generally admitted that
ferments are fungi, although by some they have been considered
animal in their nature. These cells are round or oval, and are from
.00031 to .00035 of an inch in their greatest diameter. "They are
formed of a thin and elastic membrane of colorless celluose, and
of a protoplasm, also colorless, sometimes homogeneous, some-
times composed of small granulations." The cells are separate
or united two by two. When they are deposited in a fermentable
liquid, as a sugar solution or a must, small prominences are seen

26 FERMENTATION.

to arise at one or rarely two points, the interior of which is filled
with protoplasm from the mother cell; these prominences grow
until they have attained the size of the original cell, when the
base contracts, forming a kind of neck, and immediately they
separate from the mother cell, and under favorable conditions one
cell produces several generations, but by degrees it loses all its
protoplasm, which at last unites in granules swimming in super-
abundant cellular juice. The cell ceases to produce, and dies; the
membrane is ruptured, and the granular contents are diffused in
the liquid. In the manufacture of beer the fermentation is of
two kinds: surface fermentation and sedimentary fermentation,
depending upon a high or a low degree of heat. The surface
saccharomyces develop more rapidly than the others, are larger,
and they bud so rapidly that the cells which issue from each
other do not separate, but remain attached, forming ramified
chains of from six to twelve or more buds. The bubbles of rising
gas have a greater hold on these chaplets than on single cells, which
causes the newly formed yeast to rise to the surface during active
fermentation. These organisms or fungi produce spores which
are sown on the surface of fruits, and get into the juice by crush-
ing, when they commence their reproduction by budding. So
that the basis or cause of the phenomena which we call fermenta-
tion is the growth and reproduction of yeast or ferment, which is
made up principally of the minute organisms just described.

Functions of Yeast. ffeasj^/is_a_livmg organism, belonging
to the family of fungi, genus Saccharomyces, destitute of myce-
lium, gn.pg.fr1 ft nf rp.prndnp.f.inTi, like all the ft1miftTii.q.ry ftl^g 1 ', by
buds and spores. Its composition singularly resembles that of
other vegetable tissues, and especially the plants of the same
family. It does not differ essentially from other elementary cells,
unprovided with chlorophyll.

Normal Conditions of the Life of Yeast. The conditions
which our author calls normal in the life-history of yeast, are
those in which it develops itself and increases with the greatest
activity and energy. They are of two orders, physical and
chemical.

FERMENTATION. 27

With respect to physical conditions, it is only necessary to
notice the temperature. That most favorable to the nutrition of
yeast, and that which is found advantageous to other cellular
vegetable organisms, is between 25C. and 35C. (77 and 95 F.)
Above and below these limits, the vital manifestations do not
cease until we descend below 9 C. (48.2 F. ), or rise above 60 C.
(140 F.), the temperature at which albuminoid principles begin
to coagulate.

With regard to the chemical conditions, our author says that
the most favorable medium is that which contains the most
appropriate nutritive elements. And as yeast contains water,
mineral salts, especially potassium, magnesium, and calcium
phosphates, therefore water and the alkaline and alkaline-earthy
phosphates will be necessary. We find, besides, a great propor-
tion of nitrogenous substances, either albuminous or otherwise ;
and therefore the food of yeast must contain nitrogen, it is
supposed, however, that the cells are not directly nourished by
albuminoids in the juices of fruits, the wort of beer, or yeast
water, but by analogous compounds contained in them, which
have the property of passing by osmose through the membranes ;
for the albuminoids themselves, it is said, cannot pass through.
Pasteur has shown by his experiments, that mineral salts are
absolutely necessary to the development and nutrition of the
yeast cell; and Mayer follows him with details as follows:
Preparations of iron, in small quantities, seem to have no influ-
ence ; in larger proportions, they are injurious. Potassium
phosphate is indispensable, and the absence of lime has little
effect. Magnesium, on the contrary, appeared to be very useful,
if not indispensable. The combinations of sodium present no
material effects.

f Sugar is one of the most important elements in the nourish-

/ ment of the yeast cells, and Pasteur has shown that, in alcoholic

^fermentation, a part of the sugar is fixed in the yeast, in the state

of cellulose or some analogous body, for, when the fermentation

is completed, it is found that more yeast is present than at the

commencement. Water is necessary, and the yeast cell manifests

its activity, develops and is nourished within the limits of 40 and

28 FERMENTATION.

80 per cent, of water, though yeast, dried with precaution, may
regain its power when moistened. And the fact that a solution
containing over 35 per cent, of sugar will not ferment, is explained
on the theory that such a solution takes from the cells by osmose
a sufficient quantity of water to lower their hydration below 40
per cent. The cells of the Saccharomyces cerevisice, introduced
into a liquid medium, absorb oxygen with great rapidity, and
develop a corresponding quantity of carbon dioxide. This con-
stitutes respiration, comparable to that of animals. By careful
experiments it has been shown that yeast breathes when placed
in contact with dissolved oxygen, and the respiration is more
active than that of fishes, and it plays as important a part in the
life of those minute vegetable cells as in the higher forms of
vegetable and animal life. Oxygen is furnished by atmospheric
air, and fermentation is more rapid when a large surface of the
liquid is exposed, and then the budding is more active.

Action of various Chemical and Physical Agents. "It

has long been known that certain chemical compounds, espe-
cially those which coagulate albuminous substances, and disor-
ganize the tissues, or which, by their presence in sufficient
quantities, are incompatible with life, are opposed to fermenta-
tion ; such are the acids and alkalies in suitable proportions,
silver nitrate, chlorine, iodine, the soluble iron, copper, and lead
salts, tannin, phenol, creosote, chloroform, essence of mustard,
alcohol when its strength is above 20 per cent., hydrocyanic and
oxalic acids, even in very small quantities.

"An excess of neutral alkaline salts or sugar acts in the same
manner, by diminishing in the interior of the cell the minimum
quantity of water, which is necessary to the manifestation of its
vital activity.

"The red mercury oxide, calomel, manganese peroxide, the
alkaline sulphites and sulphates, the essences of turpentine and
of lemon, etc., also interfere with, and destroy alcoholic fer-
mentation.

" Phosphoric and arsenious acids are, on the contrary, inactive."

Experiments have shown that sparks of electricity passing

FERMENTATION. 29

through yeast do not modify its power of changing cane sugar
into glucose, nor its activity as an alcoholic ferment. Fermenta-
tion is slower in the dark, and also in a vacuum. Flour of sul-
phur did not sensibly affect fermentation, but the carbonic acid
evolved contained sulphuretted hydrogen. Sulphurous acid,
however, arrests fermentation. Yeast is always acid, but an addi-
tion of an excess of different acids arrests the decomposition of
sugar. If one hundred times the amount of acid contained in
the yeast is added, fermentation does not take place.

M. Dumas has shown the action of various salts on yeast, but
the subject has little if any interest for the wine maker.

Viscous or Mannitic Fermentation is also excited, according
to Pasteur, by special ferment acting on glucose, transforming it
into a kind of gum or dextrin, mannite, and carbon dioxide.
This ferment is also formed of small globules united as in a neck-
lace, whose diameter varies from .000047 to .000055 of an inch.
These globules, sown in a saccharine liquid containing nutritive
nitrogenous matter and mineral substances, always give rise to vis-
cous fermentation. One hundred parts of cane sugar give : man-
nite, 51.09; gum, 45.48; and carbon dioxide, 6.18. The liquids
which are most apt to produce viscous fermentation can also under-
go lactic and butyric fermentation, but in this case the organized
forms of life which are developed in the liquid are of a different
nature. The conditions of action necessary to these gummy and
mannitic ferments are the same as those which suit alcoholic
ferment. The most favorable temperature is 30 C. (86 F. ) This
fermentation is what gives rise to the disease of wines, called by
the French la graisse, or ropiness. White wine is more subject
to it than red, and it is generally due to the want of tannin.
(See RopinessJ)

Lactic Fermentation is the transformation which certain
sugars, as sugar of rnilk and grape sugar, undergo, and by which
they are changed into lactic acid. This takes place in the souring
of rriilk. The most favorable temperature for it seems to be about
95 F. This also depends on a special ferment. Sugar solutions
are also capable of butyric fermentation and putrefaction, and we

30 FERMENTATION.

generally see viscous, lactic, and butyric fermentation appear in
succession.

Acetic Fermentation is to the wine maker and wine dealer,
after alcoholic fermentation, the most important.

Fermentable matter and ferment are also concerned in it, but
oxygen also is necessary.

It has long been known that the alcohol contained in fermented
liquids, such as wine, beer, etc., will disappear under certain
circumstances, and give place to vinegar or acetic acid, and that
the air, or rather its oxygen, plays a part in this reaction.

To the chemist the reaction is simple, and is formulated thus :

Alcohol. Water. Acetic Acid.

C 2 H 6 O 4- 2 = H, O + C 2 H 4 2 ,

or the oxidation may take place by two reactions, with the pro-
duction of an intermediate product, aldehyde:

Alcohol. Aldehyde.

0,H 6 + = H 8 + C 2 H 4 O,

Aldedyde. Acetic Acid.

C 2 H 4 O + O = C 2 H 4 2

According to Pasteur, the oxidation of alcohol is the conse-
quence of the action of a ferment or cryptogam, Mycoderma acefi,
and it makes its appearance on the surface of liquids, while in
acetic fermentation, in the form of a continuous membrane,
mother of vinegar, either wrinkled or smooth, which is generally
formed of very minute elongated cells, whose greater diameter
varies from .000059 to .000118 of an inch; these cells are united
in chains, or in the form of curved rods. Multiplication seems
to be effected by the transverse division of the fully developed
cells. The conditions of nutrition are similar to those suitable
to the alcoholic ferment, the hydro-carbon matter being supplied
by dilute alcohol. It may, however, be supplemented by the
acetic acid itself ; for if the process is left too long to itself, the
vinegar loses its strength by being consumed. The most favor-
able temperature is between 76 and 82 F.

Antiseptic agents, which arrest the development of beer yeast,

FERMENTATION. 31

act in the same manner on the Mycoderma aceti. Sulphurous
acid is especially active in this manner ; hence the use of the
sulphur match in sulphuring wine casks.

There is another ferment, Mycoderma vim, or flowers of wine,
which is found in wine and other alcoholic liquids exposed to
the air when fermentation is over of has become languid, which
resembles in many respects the acetic ferment. It has the power
of producing alcoholic fermentation, and is supposed by some to
be derived from the Saccharomyces . Like the Mycoderma aceti,
it is developed on the surface of fermented alcoholic liquors, in
the form of smooth or wrinkled films or membranes, but thicker
and more compact. It grows with great rapidity, and it has
been calculated that one cell would, in forty -eight hours, produce
about 35,378 cells. These cells are of various forms, ovoid,
ellipsoidal, and cylindrical, with rounded extremities. The ovoid
cells have their greater diameter about .000236, and their smaller
one, .000157 of an inch. The cylinders have their diameters
. 00047 x .000118 in. The nutritive principles are the same as
those of the mother of vinegar : alcohol, salts and nitrogenous
compounds. It also appears capable of utilizing for nutrition
the secondary products of alcoholic fermentation, such as succinic
acid and glycerine. Its development is most active between 61 J
and 86 J F. (See Sherry.}

Origin of Ferments. In order to produce the different kinds
of fermentation, the necessary ferment must be added, unless it
is already contained in the fermentable matter or in the air. In
the manufacture of beer and bread , yeast must be used ; the other
kinds of fermentation, except alcoholic, can generally be pro-
duced by the ferments or their spores furnished by the atmo-
sphere ; but Pasteur, in the course of his investigations, never
produced alcoholic fermentation from spores found in the air.
But the germs of the Saccharomyces cerevisive and of Mycoderma
vini seem to be found only on the surface of fruits, and their
stems, f

t Ferment cells, however, occur in considerable numbers in the neighborhood of places
where alcoholic fermentation is carried on, and the germs, perhaps, may be found in the
atmosphere near a vineyard, and in those cases the ferments and tlieir germs may be borne
about to some extent by the wind.

32 FERMENTATION.

These different germs, however, are all found in the must of
grapes, and in wine, and are ready to develop whenever favorable
conditions offer themselves, and produce diseases in the wine.
It is found that these germs are killed by raising the temperature
of the liquid to 140 F., and hence the process of heating wines
to preserve them (which see].

Leaving the germ theory of fermentation, we will pass to what
is of more practical importance.

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION IN WINE MAKING.

Yinous or Alcoholic Fermentation transforms the juice of
the grape into wine, and, as already shown, is caused by the
yeast or ferment, which finds its way into the must ; and by this
fermentation the sugar of the grape is changed principally into
alcohol, and carbon dioxide, or carbonic acid gas. And in order
to show the relations between the sugar and the alcohol produced,
it is necessary to say something about the chemical constituents
of each.

Sugar. In general terms, cane sugar may be expressed by the
chemical formula, C 12 ' H, 2 O n , or, in other words, one molecule
contains 12 atoms of carbon, 22 of hydrogen, and 11 of oxygen.

And the general term glucose, or grape sugar, may be expressed
by the formula C 6 H ]2 O 6 , or one molecule contains 6 atoms of
carbon, 12 of hydrogen, and 11 of oxygen.

If, instead of using the word atoms, we use the word pounds,
the chemical formula may be made clear to the unscientific.
Taking the formula for cane sugar, already given, it simply
means that 342 pounds contain the following ingredients, in the
following proportions:

Ibp. ibs.

12 parts carbon, each weighing 12, - - - 144
22 " hydrogen, " 1, - - - 22

11 " oxygen, " 16, - - - 176

342

FERMENTATION. 33

And the formula for glucose means that 180 pounds contain:

tbs. Ibs.

6 parts of carbon, @ 12, ------- 72

12 " hydrogen, " 1, ------- 12

6 " oxygen, " 16, ------- 96

180
And the formula for water means that 18 pounds contain:

Ibs. Ibc.

2 parts of hydrogen, @ 1, 2

1 part " oxygen, "16, 16

In fermentation, it is glucose which is immediately trans-
formed, although cane sugar ferments also ; but, before doing so,
it becomes changed or inverted into glucose, and one molecule
takes up a molecule of water, and produces two of glucose, thus:

Cane Sug;ir. Water. Glucose.

C 12 H 22 O n + H 2 O = 2 C 6 H 12 O,
342 +18 - 2 x 180 = 360.

Or, in the production of alcohol, 100 Ibs. of pure cane sugar
are equal to 105.26 Ibs. of pure grape sugar.

The general formula for alcohol is C, H . O, and for carbonic
acid CO 2 .

Alcohol by Weight and by Volume. The quantity of
alcohol contained in a given mixture of alcohol and water may
be expressed as per cent, by weight, or per cent, by volume.
The first method is usually used by chemists, and the second in
commerce. If we have 100 Ibs. of a mixture of alcohol and water
of which 10 Ibs. are alcohol and 90 Ibs. water, it contains 10
per cent, of alcohol by weight. If, however, we have 100 gallons
of a mixture in which there are 10 gallons of alcohol and 90
gallons of water, we say that it contains 10 per cent, by volume
of alcohol. This will serve to illustrate the meaning of the terms
per cent, by volume and by weight, although it is well known
that, owing to shrinkage, 10 gallons of alcohol and 90 gallons of
water do not produce quite 100 gallons of mixture.

34 FERMENTATION.

Whenever merchants and wine makers use the term per cent,
of alcohol, they mean per cent, by volume or measure; arid when-
ever the expression is used in this work, it is used in that sense,
unless otherwise expressed.

Fermentation Its Products. Per cent. Sugar to per cent.
Alcohol. In theory, glucose, during the process of fermentation,
is entirely changed into alcohol and carbonic acid; the two sub-
stances produced containing the same elements as glucose, and
no others. If there was no loss of sugar, or degeneration, as it
is called, the reaction would be exactly expressed as follows:

Glucose. Alcohol. Carbonic Acid.

C 6 H ]2 (1 = 2 C 2 H,, O + 2 C(X

180 92 + 88

And the old authorities said, if 180 parts of glucose produce
92 of alcohol, 100 will produce 51.1111, thus:

180 : 92 : : 100 : x == 51.1111, leaving the bal-
ance to be accounted for by carbonic acid 48.8889

100

And again, if it takes 100 parts of glucose to produce 51.1111
alcohol, how much does it take to produce 1 per cent, by weight?

51.1111 : 1 : : 100 : a? == 1.9565.

These figures are now true only of that part of the sugar which
is transformed into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

Different Authors. -Pasteur has shown that a portion of
the glucose was changed into succinic acid and glycerine, and
as the result of one of the experiments which he gives, out of a
large number, it appears that 100 parts of glucose produce about
48.46 of alcohol, and it would require 2.063 to produce 1 percent,
of alcohol by weight, and 1.65 to produce 1 per cent, by volume.

But this eminent chemist's experiments were conducted in the
laboratory, and under the most favorable circumstances, so that
no loss by evaporation could occur conditions under which fer-
mentation on a large scale is never carried on.

Dr. Guyot states that it takes about 1.5 per cent, of grape

FERMENTATION. 35

sugar to produce 1 per cent, of alcohol, which is even less than
is required according to Pasteur, and is manifestly too little.
And the statement has been made, that a must containing 20 per
cent, of sugar will produce 13 per cent, of alcohol, which is im-
possible. . .

J. J. Griffin quotes Pasteur, and estimating the average loss
to be 4s per cent, of the sugar, deduces the figures .4881 as the
per cent, by weight of. alcohol produced by 1 per cent, of grape
sugar. Dubief says that it takes 1.7 percent, of cane sugar to
produce 1 per cent, of alcohol by volume. Mr. Joseph Boussin-
gault gives his experiments on musts fermented in small vessels
under conditions similar to those under which fermentation is
carried on in wine making on a large scale; and the result of his
researches is that the product in alcohol is about 90 per cent, of
what the chemical theory calls for: say, .46 by weight for 1 of
sugar, or 1.7-1- glucose for 1 P er cent, of alcohol by volume. Mr.
M. Boussingault gives it as the result of his experiment, that it
takes 1.8 per cent, of sugar to produce 1 per cent, of alcohol.

So that it is pretty safe to say that it takes on an average about
1.8 of sugar to make 1 of alcohol, making some allowance for
loss by evaporation, etc.

As has already been stated in the chapter on Musts, 1 per cent,
for every 12 should be deducted from the percentage of sugar
shown by the hydrometer for other matters than sugar.

If, therefore, we have a must which shows 24 by the saccha-
rometer, we will deduct two, and call the remainder 22, sugar.
Although it is not strictly correct to say that 22 divided by 1.8 will
give the per cent, of alcohol which may be expected after ferment-
ation, owing to the well known variation between per cent, by
weight and by volume, as the figures increase, yet it is sufficient
for all practical purposes.

Let us then divide 22, the supposed sugar in the must, by 1.8,
the amount required to produce 1 per cent, of alcohol, and we
obtain 12 and a fraction. Now the total indication by the sac-
charometer was 24 per cent.; if we divide this by two we get the
same result in round numbers.

36 FERMENTATION.

Hence the rule : one-half of the figure indicating the total per
cent, by the saccharometer (hydrometer) is approximately the per
cent, of alcohol to be expected in the wine.

Owing to the fact that the loss by evaporation and degeneration
may vary greatly in different erases, this will be only a rough esti-
mate, but it will prove as satisfactory as any method that can be
adopted, and it corresponds very closely with the statement made
by N. Basset, that in actual practice, a must of 20 per cent, gives
only 7.88 per cent, of alcohol by weight, which corresponds with
10 per cent, by volume, nearly; and it is the rule^iven byPetiot
and Dr. Gall for a natural must.

It seems, however, from what follows below, that this is only
true of a normal must, but that a different rule applies to one of
a very high degree of sugar.

Limits of Sugar and Spirit. It is said that when a solution or
a must contains over 35 per cent, of sugar, it will not ferment; nor
will a wine or other alcoholic mixture which contains 20 per cent,
of spirit ferment. Boireau says that the maximum of alcohol
which a wine can attain by the fermentation of the richest must
is between 15 and 16 per cent., and those wines which show a
higher degree have been fortified. He says that the highest
degree of spirit ever observed by him in a natural red wine was
15.4 per cent., when it was a year old; from that time the strength
diminished, but the wine always remained sweet.

There is, however, a remarkable case given, and which seems
to be well authenticated, of an Australian wine which contained
naturally, by fermentation, 32.4 of British proof spirit, which
is equal to about 18.21 per cent. And Vizitelli states that Mr.
Ellis, of the firm of Graham & Co., asserts that perfectly fer-
mented Alto Douro wine will develop 32 proof spirit, or 18 per
cent, of alcohol, and when made exclusively from the Bastardo
grape, as much as 34, or about 19 per cent, of spirit. And Mr.
Vizitelli adds that he is satisfied from what he saw at Jeres, that
sherry wines which have had merely 1 or 2 per cent of spirit
added to them will in the course of time indicate 34. To pro-
duce these results would seern to require more than 35 per cent.

FERMENTATION. 37

of sugar, according to our rule; but while it is approximately
correct to say that 2 per cent, of sugar produces 1 per cent! of
alcohol as long as we are dealing with a must of 24 or 25 per
cent, and under, it may not be true of a must of 30 to 35 per
cent., for the other solid matters probably do not increase in pro-
portion to the sugar. Therefore, to reconcile this high degree
of alcohol with the statement that a must containing over 35 per
cent, of sugar will not ferment, we must use Pasteur's figures,
and then we will find that by them 35 per cent, of sugar is capa-
ble of producing over 20 per cent, of alcohol.

Temperature. The temperature most favorable to fermenta-
tion that is, at which it commences most promptly, and goes on
the most rapidly is between 77 and 95 .F., and it does not
cease until the temperature descends below 49, or rises above
140. If the temperature is favorable, fermentation ought to
commence in ten or twelve hours from the time the pomace is
put into the vat, or the juice into the barrel. In countries where
the weather is cold at the wine-making season, it is necessary
that the grapes should be gathered in the heat of the day, or
fermentation will be long in commencing ; and if the weather
continues unfavorable, so that the grapes do not become warmed
by the sun, it is even necessary to heat a portion of the must
artificially, and pour it into the vats or casks, or to raise the
temperature of the fermenting house.

Mr. Maumene also recommends that the vats be surrounded
with mats of loose straw, four or five inches thick, to be kept in
place by a covering of linen cloth ; and in this way the tempera-
ture produced by the fermentation may be maintained in cool
weather, without resorting to fires in the fermenting house.

It is not necessary, however, that the temperature of the
surrounding atmosphere should be as high as that indicated as
most favorable to fermentation ; for it commences readily in a
temperature of about 70, and the liquid will soon rise to 85 or
95, by the heat developed during the process ; and unless the
surrounding temperature descends below 65, this heat will be
maintained, and the fermentation will not be checked. Dr.

38 FERMENTATION.

Guyot says, however, that, to make fine wines, it should be
maintained at 68, at least ; and that, in other cases, it should
not be allowed to fall below 60.

Fermenting Houses. It is important not only that ferment-
ation should commence promptly, but that it should be main-
tained regularly ; and although a great amount of heat is
developed by fermentation, yet the must is liable to cool during
the night and cold days, unless the vats and casks are protected
from the change of temperature, whereby the fermentation may
be checked, to the injury of the wine. The natural conclusion
is that the must ought to be fermented in closed places. In
California, however, it is not necessary to construct the ferment-
ing house with the -same care required in colder climates, where
it is deemed desirable to furnish them with double windows and
doors. It cannot be denied that good wine is made in this State,
in places where the vats remain out of doors, shaded only by
trees ; but the practice is not to be encouraged, for the fermenta-
tion will be checked if the temperature of the surrounding
atmosphere goes to 60 and below. In constructing a fermenting
house, it ought to be so arranged, when practicable, as to be* on a
lower level than that of the stemmer and crusher, and higher than
the cellar ; for then the pomace and must can be run immediately
into the vats and casks, and, after the first fermentation, the wine
can be drawn off through a hose into the casks in the cellar,
thereby saving time and labor.

n ED WINE. 39

CHAPTER VI.

RED WINE.

Red wines are made from colored grapes, and the color is
extracted from the skins during fermentation. The coloring-
matter is blue, but is changed to red by the action of the acids
in the must. (See Coloring Matter Oenocyanine.) In order to
develop this color, the grapes are fermented, skins and juice
together, and the press is only brought into requisition after the
first fermentation is completed.

Fermenting Tanks or Yats. The tanks or vats in which red
wine is fermented, in France are generally made of oak, some-
times of masonry, but in this State redwood has* been almost
universally adopted, and 1 am not aware of any serious incon-
veniences from its use. It is advisable before using them the
first time, to steam them for several hours, or thoroughly soak
them to extract the coloring matter of the wood.

The capacity depends upon the quantity of wine to be made
in a season, varying from 1000 gallons to 2500 gallons and more,
and a sufficient number should be provided that B when wine
making has commenced, it can be carried on without interrup-
tion till the crop is worked up. The number of workmen must
be considered a well as the amount of grapes, and everything
ought to be so arranged that the fermentation will be finished in
the first tank filled, by the time the last one is full, so that the
first can be emptied and filled again, and then the second, and
so on. A hole must be bored in each vat two or three inches
from the 'bottom by which to draw the wine through a faucet.
And some kind of a strainer must be put over this hole inside to
keep back the marc a piece of perforated tin, a grating of small
sticks, or a bundle of straw or vine-cuttings kept in place by a
stone.

Filling the Tanks. In order that the whole mass in one tank
may be equally fermented, it should receive its full complement

40 RED WINE.

of grapes in one day. By putting in part of the grapes one day
and part another, not only will some of them complete their fer-
mentation before the others, but the addition of fresh grapes to
the fermenting mass will interrupt the fermentation, and prove
injurious to the wine. The vats must not be filled to their full
capacity, for during violent fermentation the marc, consisting of
skins and seeds, or those with the stems, rises to the top, brought
up by the bubbles of carbonic acid which are constantly rising,
and a portion of the boiling and foaming mass may be carried
over the top, and much wine thereby be lost. They should only
be filled to within a foot or a foot and a-half of the top, and
a little experience will show the proper practice. Guy ot says
that they should only be filled to five-sixths of their capacity at
most. Another reason for not filling the tank is that a layer of
carbonic acid gas will occupy the space left vacant by the pomace,
and prevent the contact of the air and the consequent souring of
the wine, by the changing of a portion of the alcohol into acetic
acid vinegar.

Red wine is fermented in open vats, vats loosely covered, or
in vats hermetically sealed, and good wine is made in each way.

In Open Yats, other conditions being equally favorable, fer-
mentation commences more promptly and is sooner ended,
owing to the free access of the air, a certain amount of oxygen,
as already shown, being necessary to fermentation. Although
fermentation will continue away from the air when once started,
it will be slow. The objections to open vats are, that although
there is a layer of carbonic acid resting above the must, yet it is
liable to be disturbed and become mixed with the air, and if the
fermentation is long continued, a portion of the wine may become
sour. Those who employ open tanks should also avail them-
selves of those conditions under which the wine will complete
its fermentation in a few days, and should draw off promptly.

Closed Vats. By using closed vats fermentation will be longer
in commencing, and will proceed more slowly, but as already
intimated, the wine can with safety be left longer in them than
in open tanks. When it is necessary to develop much color, it

RED WINE.

would be advisable to use covered tauks, for the longer the wine
is left in contact with the skins, the darker it becomes. The
covering should be close enough to prevent the immediate con-
tact of the open air, and yet allow the escape of gas of close
boards, but not luted, unless provided with a safety valve.

The Best Practice, however, in all cases, whether the vats
Fin- .5. are closed or not, is to have a false

head resting directly upon the
pomace, and which will keep the
latter submerged during the whole

A. B.

process of fermentation. In this way good color will be devel-
oped, and the marc will be kept from the air, and the danger of
souring will be avoided. In figure 5, A represents a fermenting
vat with the front half removed, showing the false head in place.

-f

0. D. G. H.

This head is made of several pieces which can be laid one by
one upon the pomace, and may be perforated with auger holes as
represented in 6', or may be a wooden grating, D. These pieces

42 KKD WINK.

or sections together constitute the head B, and are kept in place
by two cross pieces, e e, which are held down by blocks bolted
or pinned to the inside of the tank. G is a stave with a block,
/", attached, and H the same, showing the cross piece, e, slipped
under it. When the tank is filled to the required height, the
false head is put in, resting on the pomace, the ends of the
cross pieces are slipped under the blocks, and everything is
ready. As soon as the fermentation becomes violent, the whole
will be submerged in the bubbling wine.

Hermetically Sealed Tanks. Closely covered tanks must be
provided with a safety valve or pipe for the discharge of carbonic
acid gas, leading and discharging into a vessel of water, which
completely prevents contact with the air. Under pressure the
fermentation is much slower, and is not so complete. Yet
great advantages are claimed for this method by some writers
who maintain that by keeping the cover cool with wet straw or
cloth, or by using a safety tube in the form of a worm passing-
through a condenser on the top of the vat, the vapors are con-
densed and fall back into the liquid, preventing loss of alcohol,
and increasing the aroma, and that the wine acquires a superior
fineness and velvety smoothness under the pressure of the gas.
Boireau says that this latter quality is caused by the complete
dissolution of the mucilaginous matters; and Pasteur has shown
that more gtycerine is produced when the fermentation is slow,
which may contribute to the mellowness and smoothness.

Practice in the Medoc. Mr. Boireau says that the greater
part of the grand red wines of the Medoc, the prime St. Emilion,
and the prime Graves, are fermented in closed vats ; though a
certain number of the viniculturists still follow the old custom,
and make their wine in open vats.

Stirring the Pomace in the Vats. In Burgundy, and in some
other parts of France, it is considered necessary to give the mass
a thorough stirring (f outage) during the active fermentation, in
order that all parts may be equally exposed to the action of the
ferment, and also that a good color may be developed; and for
this purpose men enter into the vats and thoroughly mix the

RED WINE. 43

pomace and stir it about with their naked bodies and limbs, a
practice not only disgusting in the extreme, but dangerous for
the men, who are exposed to the poisonous effects of carbonic
acid. It is by no means a general practice, and is of doubtful
utility, even if it should be done by other agents than the naked
human body.

It is evident that two opposing forces are at work when the
must is stirred during fermentation. By the aeration fermenta-
tion would naturally be increased; but Dr. Guyot shows that
stirring actually diminishes its activity, and he advocates the
practice in order that the fermentation be not too tumultuous.
The temperature of the surrounding atmosphere being lower than
that of the fermenting mass, aeration by stirring must, by lower-
ing the temperature, diminish the activity of the fermentation.
'Mr. Haraszthy, in his lecture before the Convention of Vinicul-
turists in 1882, recommended that the mass be stirred when the
fermentation commences to lag, on the theory that by thus mix-
ing again the yeast with the liquid, so exposing it again com-
pletely to the action of the ferment, fermentation would start
again with renewed vigor. It can easily be stirred with poles
provided with shoulders or short cross pieces.

It has already been stated that the must is sufficiently aerated
by crushing the grapes with rollers, 'and where the vats are pro-
vided with a false head to keep the pomace submerged, the wine
will have sufficient color without the stirring; and it would seem
that the wine would clear sooner if the lees were not stirred into
it near the end of fermentation. Where the vats are not covered,
and the grapes are not stemmed and not kept submerged, acrust or
cap is formed on the top of the fermenting mass, which sours and
rots if long exposed to the air, and the mixing of this with the
liquid has a most deleterious effect upon the wine.

When to Draw from the Tats. When the first or active fer-
mentation in the vats is completed, the new wine must be drawn off
into pipes, and thus be separated from the marc, consisting of
skins, seeds, and sometimes stems, and also from the heavy lees
which has settled in the vats, and it is important to know the
proper time to do this.

44 RED WINE.

The duration of active fermentation depends upon several
causes and conditions as aheady indicated, such as heat, the
amount of sugar contained in the must, whether the vats are
covered or open, the immersion of the marc, and whether the
grapes are stemmed, etc. It may be completed in four or five
days, or it may continue for fifteen or twenty days. In case of
musts poor in sugar it may rarely terminate in twenty -four hours.
In some parts of France the grapes are allowed to macerate for
weeks and even months (for they cannot ferment actively for that
length of time), and what might be good wine, thus is often
spoiled.

The Objections to Long Tatting are that the marc will absorb
an undue amount of alcohol, as is shown when it is submitted to
to distillation in brandy making, for marcs which have remained
long in the vats with the wine yield more spirits, and, of course,
the wine is deprived of so much strength. This objection, how-
ever, would have but little force where the grapes are stemmed.
Another and more serious objection is, that by a long exposure to
the air which is apt to take place when the vats are not closely
covered, some of the alcohol will be changed to vinegar, and the
wine will rapidly degenerate, and become sour. Long contact
with the seeds, skins and stems also produces a foreign taste in
the wine known to the French as goilf de rape, stem flavor; and it
is obvious that if the marc is allowed to remain in the liquid till it
macerates and rots, it will acquire a still more disagreeable aroma
and flavor. It is also said that some varieties of grapes which
will not produce a wine with a bouquet, when allowed to remain
long in the tank, will develop it in a vatting of short duration.
The onry advantage to be gained by leaving a wine in the vat
after the active fermentation is finished, is in the way of color.
When it is desirable if it ever is to produce a dark-colored
wine at the expense of other good qualites, it may be left in the
vat to soak. Such wines have their use, and that is to mix with
those which lack color, but it is much better to mix in a quantity
of grapes which naturally produce good color.

In making Fine Wines, a dark color is not looked for nor
desired, but rather a bright and lively red; and they should be

THE

RED WINK. 45 .

iillowed to remain in the vat only long enough to convert the
greater part of the sugar into alcohol .

How to Know when to Draw from the Vat. It is said in
general terms that the wine should be drawn from the vat when
the active fermentation is finished. This is known by the taste of
the wine by those long familiar with the vinous flavor which
takes the place of the sweet taste of the sugar; it is also recog-
nized by the cessation of the production of carbonic acid and the
consequent bubbling, the falling of the temperature, the-settling
down of the marc, and by the clearing of the liquid. If the must
or new wine shows from to 1 by Baume's hydrometer, or from
to 2 by Balling's saccharometer, nearly all the sugar will have
been converted into alcohol; I say nearly all, for all the sugar is
not converted till long after the wine is drawn from the vat.
Boireau says that the fermentation is yet incomplete when the
hydrometer marks several degrees of density, and the liquid is
warm, sweetish, and muddy. He says, moreover, that care should
be taken that active fermentation has entirely ceased before put-
ting the wine in pipes, for if it is still sweetish and fermenting,
it will remain sweet a long time, and ferments will often remain
in suspension, which will render the wine difficult to clear, and
liable to ferment and become sour.

Method of Drawing from Vats and filling: Casks. If the

pipes are on the same level with the vat, or higher, the new wine
is run from the vat through a faucet into buckets and carried in
th 3m to the casks and poured into these through a funnel, or is
run into a large receptacle or tub placed immediately under the
faucet and pumped into the casks by means of a force pump.
But the more expeditious way is to have the casks ranged 011 a
level lower than the bottom of the fermenting tank, and then to
run the wine directly into them through a hose attached to the
faucet. Of course, careful men must be in attendance to watch
the operation, and close the faucet as soon as the cask is filled,
and immediately transfer the hose to an empty one, so that the
wine may not run over and waste.

\\niere the wine is drawn from more than one vat, it should

RED WINE.

be equally distributed through all the casks, so that the quality
may be as nearly uniform as possible. If the press wine is to be
mixed with the vat wine, the casks should only be filled to three-
fourths or four-fifths of their capacity, in order to leave room for
the former.

Wine Presses. Wine presses are constructed in several differ-
ent forms, and the force is applied by means of a simple lever,
consisting of a long timber weighted at the end arid rigged with
a rope a.nd pulley to raise and lower it, or by means of a large
screw. Hydraulic presses are also used in large establishments.
It is not necessary here to give a detailed description of a press
of either kind, for the prospective wine maker will examine the
different ones and see them in action, and choose according to his
Fig. 6. means and necessities. Fig. 6

represents screw presses. A
very simple .one, however, and
which can be made by any car-
penter, consists of a box two
or three feet square, and a foot
or more high. This box, how-
ever, is made up of sections,
each of which is five or six
inches high; and they should be
constructed of strong two-inch timber, well
mortised together, and perforated with
small holes through which the wine may
ooze out. The height, and consequently
the capacity of the box or receptacle will
depend upon the number of sections used.
A broad board constitutes the bottom of
the press and should be larger than the
receptacle itself, and be provided with a rirn
open in the middle of the lower side, and having a shallow spout
for the wine to run through. 'This bottom is firmly placed so as
to incline slightly forward, the sections are placed on it, one 011
the other, till the box is of the desired height, then the marc

Wine Presses.

RED WINE. 47

from the vat is filled in and a head or follower fitted to the inside
of the box is placed on the marc, and pressure is applied with a
lever. This lever is a strong piece of timber with its fulcrum
end placed in a mortise in a large tree, or adjusted in any other
suitable manner, allowing free play to the other end to which is
attached the rope and pulley to facilitate its movement.

Pressing and Press Wine. In the manufacture of'all but
fine wines, it is the usual practice to mix the press wine with the
wine from the vat. And as the wine remaining in the pomace
is about one-fourth of the whole, it will be equally distributed
among all the casks by filling with it the vacancy left in them.
If a light pressure is first applied, the wine of the first pressing
will differ but little from the vat wine. After this, however, the
marc should be spaded and stirred and pressure applied again,
und the process repeated till the wine no longer flows. During
the last pressing it is necessary to apply so much force that a
great amount of coloring matter is pressed from the skins, and
tannin from the seeds, and also from the stems when not removed,
and the advantage of color may be more than counterbalanced
by the excess of tannin. There may be danger of giving the
wine too much astringency by mixing the last pressings.

Special Practice for Fine Wines. Mr. Boireau indicates the
practice in making common wines, as follows, as a warning to
those who can make fine wines. He says that the wine which
the marc contains is removed by pressing it almost to dry ness,
and that the wine thus obtained is very muddy, very harsh, and
sometimes sour, particularly when the upper part of the crust has
not been removed, where open vats are used and the marc not
submerged. The greater part of the proprietors of the ordinary
growths have the deplorable habit of mixing the press wine, with-
out clearing it, with the limpid part drawn from the vat. He says
that it should be kept separate, or otherwise the better part of the
wine will be made muddy and difficult to clear.

TREATMENT OF RED WINE.

Insensible Fermentation. After the wine has undergone its

48 ///<:/> WINE.

active fermentation, has been drawn from the vat and been filled
into casks, the latter should be at once stored in a suitable place
above ground of even, moderate temperature, or in an under-
ground cellar whose temperature is not much below 60 J F. The
new wine still contains some sugar, and a slow fermentation goes
on, bubbles of gas are given off, and sediment falls to the bottom.
This is called the secondary or insensible fermentation, and when
this is finished and no more gas arises, the wine has become clear.
A good deal of the carbonic acid that rises in bubbles is not pro-
duced by the insensible fermentation, but has become dissolved
in the wine during the active fermentation, and is gradually given
off with the new gas produced. While the gas is produced in the
cask, it must not be closely bunged, but the .bung-holes should
be loosely covered with a vine leaf, a block, an inverted bung, or
a bag of sand, so that the gas may escape. Various patent bungs
have been devised with the same object.

The wine should be tasted at each filling of the cask during
this period to ascertain whether the insensible fermentation has
entirely ceased, which may be known from the fact that it has
lost the peculiar pungent flavor of the carbonic acid. As soon
as this fermentation is ended, the casks should be tightly bunged
with conical bungs, which can be easily removed during the
period when it is necessary to fill up frequently.

Ulling or Filling Up. Owing to the escape of gas and to evap-
oration, vacant spaces are rapidly formed in the casks which
must be filled with the same kind of wine as that contained in
them. It is well to keep a certain amount of the wine of each
vintage in smaller vessels, to be used for this purpose, such as
barrels, kegs, demijohns, and bo'ttles, according to the extent of
the vintage. If one vessel is partly emptied, the remaining wine
should be put into a smaller one. It is absolutely necessary that
all of the casks be kept full or the wine will spoil. (See excep-
tions under Sweet Wine. ) For this purpose, during the first week
they should be filled every day or two, then two or three times the
next week, and later, once a week, once in two weeks, and finally
oncu a month. This is governed a good deal by the rapidity of the

RED WINE. 49

evaporation, which depends upon the cellar or place of storage.
This operation is performed by means of any vessel with which the
wine can easily be poured into the bung hole; the convenient uten-
sil, however, is a vessel in the form of a small watering pot with a
Flfl. 7. Fief. 8.

T lling Pots.

long spout, with which the bung can easily be reached. (Figs. 7
and 8. ) A good substitute is an ordinary tin funnel with a flexible
rubber tube attached to the small opening.
Where the casks are piled up in the cellar so
that the bungs cannot otherwise be reached,
""^ a funnel called the Z funnel (fig. 9) is used,
which is provided with a long spout or tube

turning at right angles to the upper part, and whose tip turns
down, and which can easily be passed between the casks to the
bung. If, however, the bung cannot be reached, a small hole
is bored in the upper part of the head of the cask, and the
wine put in with a Z funnel whose tube turns at right angles
Fie/. 10. but does not turn down at the tip (fig. 10.) The
vent is opened in the highest part of the bulge,
and wine is poured into the funnel whose tip is in
Z Funnel. the end hole till it rises to the vent, which is then
closed, and the funnel is removed and the- hole closed.

As 'some wine is liable to be lost in ulling a cask whose bung is
out of sight, to avoid this, an instrument in the form of a water-
ing pot, similar to tigs. 7 and 8, has bsen devised, but whose top is
entirely covered, the wine being poured into it through a tube
which is closed with a cork when in use. The vent is near the tip
of the spout on the under side, so that the wine will run as long
as the cask is not full, but will stop as soon as the vent is covered

50 RED WINE.

by the wine rising in the cask. It is convenient to have a stop-
cock on the spout.

Many of these implements are provided with a socket to hold
a candle.

Summary of the Rules for the Treatment of New Red Wines.

1. Put the casks, well bunged, in a cellar or other well closed
place, and keep them constantly full, by frequently and regularly
filling them with wine of the same kind.

2. Rack the wine as soon as the insensible fermentation has
ceased and the wine has become limpid, i. e., about December;
rack again before the vernal equinox; towards the summer sol-
stice; and also near the autumnal equinox. Racking should
always be done, if possible, during cool weather. (See Racking.)

3. To prevent secondary fermenations, draw off the wine
whenever by tasting you recognize by the flavor that it is com-
mencing to work.

If the wiiies are bright, avoid fining, and so preserve their
fruity fiavor; but if they remain muddy after the second racking,
line them after the third drawing off with the whites of eggs,
and leave them the shortest possible time on the finings.

Mr. Boireau says that by such treatment wines will be obtained
limpid and free from secondary fermentations, and that grand
wines will so preserve their fruity fiavor; while if they are allowed
to work again after the cessation of the insensible fermentation,
they will lose their fruity fiavor and mellowness, and become too
dry. In order to avoid this dry ness produced by secondary fer-
mentations, which will considerably diminish the value of the
wines, and especially of grand wines, some wine makers place
the casks with the bung on one side after the June racking ;
this practice should not be followed, for the elevation of the
temperature at that season is liable to set them fermenting.

The idea is in all cases to avoid mixing the lees with the wine,
and if young wines are to be shipped before the arrival of the
period of the first racking, they should nevertheless be carefully
drawn off, if they have already become (dear, for to mingle again

RED WINE. 51

the lees with wine, predisposes it to secondary fermentations,
and renders it difficult to clarify.

Treatment of Old Red Wines. Wines after the fourth racking
are treated as old wines. When they have acquired a clean taste,
are limpid and no longer ferment, the casks should be carefully
tilled and tightly bunged, and they should be stored in a suitable
place, with the bung turned to one side. The bung being thus
constantly wet swells and exactly fills the hole, the wine keeps
better, there is less loss by evaporation, and constant filling up is
avoided.

If it happens that by bad treatment the wines are not clear
and behave badly, they should receive the necessary treatment,
and be clarified before permanently put away with the bung at
the side.

In cellars and other well closed places, old red wine, clean
tasting, bright and quiet, stored in good, well hooped. casks; need
only two racking s per year, one in March and the other in Sep-
tember, unless for some reason it loses its limpidity by entering
again into fermentation, which will be discovered by tasting from
time to time. In that case, it should immediately be drawn oft'
without regard to the date of the former racking, and then fined.

Care should be taken not to leave ullage in the cask of old
wine, by frequent samplings and tastings. And when it occurs,
in order to avoid its effects, the wine may immediately be drawn
into a smaller cask, arid this is necessary more frequently in airy
storehouses where the evaporation is greater than in cellars.

Boireau says that if these rules are carefully observed the wines
will improve, and develop all the qualities which by their nature
they are susceptible of acquiring. *The greater or less degree
of fineness which they acquire by aging under proper condi-
tions results principally from two causes: The first is the
deposit of coloring matter and divers salts which the new wine
contains in dissolution, and which become insoluble by entering
into new combinations, and which in their turn are removed at
each racking, with the lees; the second cause is the transformation
of the tannin, which gives the wine a certain degree of roughness,

52 RED WINE.

into gallic acid, and its extraction in the insoluble combinations
which it forms with the different principles contained in the wine
and with the finings which are introduced. It follows that old
wine loses part of its color and soluble salts, and a great part
of the tannin which it originally contained. Its taste is* more
delicate, its flavor, which was masked by these different matters,
comes out better, its bouquet commences to develop, and its
mellowness is more pronounced.

These remarks are more particularly applicable to grand wines,
for in many of the ordinary ones the fruity flavor which they have
when new is lost before the end of the first year, because the
mucilages and pectine, which give them their mellowness, are
either precipitated with the lees or are destroyed by insensible
fermentation. In general these wines lack firmness, body and
tannin, and many of them show a strong tendency to lose their
color.

The time necessary for wines to remain in wood in order to
acquire the highest degree of perfection which they can acquire
in casks, depends upon the quality of the wine; wines of strength
and. body require more time than feeble ones.

Our author says that, on the average, the poorest wines of the
Medoc become bright about the end of two years, and if they
are kept longer, they lose their mellowness. But on the other
hand, the firm and full-bodied wines of the same localities require
to remain in wood a year longer to arrive at perfect maturity.
Certain wines strongly charged with tannin, coming from certain
localities, and those made from the verdot grape, are long in
developing, but they keep so much the longer.

When they have attained their entire development and the
separation of the lees is complete, they must be bottled, for they
will lose their qualities if left in casks. In bottles they arrive at
perfection; they acquire bouquet while they preserve their mellow-
ness, but in casks, they finally lose their fruity flavor aiid velvety
smoothness, and become dry.

And he gives the following

RED WINE. 53

Summary of Kuks for the (are of Old Red Wines.

1. They should be kept in places perfectly closed, and before
turning the bung to one side, we should be satisfied that they are
perfectly bright, quiet, and well behaved.

2. They should be drawn from the lees twice a year; the casks
should be kept full; and they should be kept from secondary
fermentations by watching and opportune racking.

3. Keep down the loss by evaporation by all means possible,
and keep them in close cellars, in strong, well hooped casks, and
avoid ullage..

4. Bottle them before they lose their fruity flavor, and as
soon as they cease to deposit.

Thus will they acquire all the qualities of which by their nature
they are susceptible.

But if they are kept in places to which the air has free access,
the evaporation will be great; and if the casks are left with ullage
caused by too frequent sampling, or too infrequent racking, they
will work, become dry, lose their mellowness, arid become slightly
affected by acetic acid, produced by contact with the air.

54 WHITE WINE.

CHAPTER VII.

WHITE WINE.

Made from both Heel and White Grapes. As the color of
grapes resides entirely in the skins, with the exception of a few
varieties such as the Tienl-uriers and the American variety Is.nnir,
which have colored juice, with these exceptions, white wine may
be made from both white and colored grapes.

Differences between Red and White Wine. Instead of put-
ting the pomace into fermenting vats, it is taken immediately to
the press, and the juice is fermented by itself, free from stems,
skins, and seeds, and is therefore not only free from the coloring
matter contained in the skins, but also from the numerous mat-
ters that are contained in red wine, extracted from the pomace
during fermentation. It is true that white wine may be made
from white grapes by the process that is employed in making red
wine from colored grapes, but then it ceases to be what is com-
monly called white wine, and possesses all the characteristics of
red wine except its color, which of itself has little effect upon the
wine, except to change its appearance; for when white wine has
been colored by the addition of a small quantity of very dark
wine, it remains white wine still in all its other characteristics,
and the difference is readily detected by experts.

Hygienic effects of Red and of White Wine. Dr. Guyoi
says that white wines generally are diffusible stimulants of the
nervous system; if they are light, they act rapidly upon the
human organism, and excite all its functions. But they escape
as readily by the skin and excretory organs, and their effect is of
short duration. Red wines , on the other hand, are tonic and per-
sistent stimulants of the nerves, muscles, and digestive organs;
their action is slower and more prolonged; they do not increase
perspiration or the excretions, and their action gonnmlly is astrin-
gent, persistent, and concentrated.

WHITE WINE. 55

Process of Making. As the must comes from the press it is
either immediately run into casks, or is first put into a vat to settle.
In the latter case it is allowed to stand in the settling vat from
twelve to twenty -four hours, and a large portion of the yeasty
parts settle to the bottom, a thick scum rises to the surface, and
the must becomes partially cleared. The scum is then skimmed
from the top, and the liquid is drawn off into casks, leaving the
heavy lees. By this means a great part of the fermentive matter
is immediately removed, and the wine does not ferment as thor-
oughly nor as rapidly as it otherwise would, and retains a portion
of its sugar and its sweetness longer. In the Champagne dis-
tricts the musts for sparkling wines are thus treated. If the
weather is very warm, it may not be practicable to do this, because
fermentation will set in before the must has time to settle. If,
however, it is desired to make a dry wine, the must is not put
into a settling vat, but is run from the press directly into the
casks.

The Barrels in which white wine is fermented and stored are
generally of small size, of a capacity of from 30 to 150 gallons,
or say 50 or (>0 gallons on an average, arid it is considered in
France that it preserves its good qualities in casks of moderate
size better than in large ones. It is to be understood, however,
that it is considered advisable in most parts of France that white
wine should retain a portion of its sw r eetiiess and be mellow rather
than dry; but if it is desirable to make a dry wine, larger casks
may be used for fermenting and storing. (But see Summary of
Ru.le&, below, and C'ax/'x.)

Filling the Barrels during Fermentation. A question upon
which there is some difference of opinion, is whether the casks
should be immediately tilled to their full capacity and kept filled
up during the first fermentation, so that the scum and foam will
be thrown out of the bung, or whether a vacant space shall be left
in each barrel, so that all the matter thrown up by the fermenta-
tion shall remain. The objections to allowing the wine to boil over
are that much good w r ine is thereby lost, and the outside of the
barrels and the floor of the fermenting house or cellar becomes

56 WHITE WINE.

foul. When the active fermentation ceases, whatever has been
thrown up in the form of a dirty scum will settle to the bottom
with the rest of the lees, and is no more injurious than the latter.
If, however, the foam is allowed to run over by keeping the
barrels full, a portion of the yeasty parts will be thrown out,
fermentation will not go 011 as tumultuously nor be as complete,
and the wine will longer retain a portion of its sweetness. So
that the practice in this behalf, as in most others where there is
a diversity of practices in making white wine, depends upon
whether it is desired to make a very dry wine, or one that retains
a portion of its sugar. But in the Champagne districts, although
they allow the marc to settle, they do not allow it to run over in
fermenting.

Pressing and Filling. The pomace is pressed in the same
manner as the marc of red wine, in two or three different press-
ings. The usual practice is to fill the barrels with an equal
amount of must from each pressing, so that the contents of all
shall be uniform in quality. If it is known beforehand how much
wine can be made from a given quantity of grapes, the requisite
number of barrels will be provided for each lot, and the must of
each pressing will be equally distributed in all. (See General
Chapter. )

Different kinds of White Wine. Boireau divides white
wines into three classes: dry, mellow, and sweet, whose charac-
teristics depend essentially upon the density of their musts.

In Dry White Wines fermentation is complete, and all the
sugar that is appreciable by the taste or the hydrometer, except
the small amount changed into other substances, is transformed
into alcohol and carbonic acid. The grapes are gathered as soon
as ripe, and are not allowed to shrivel. The density of the must
rarely exceeds 13 Baume.

Mellow White Wines are those which preserve a small
quantity of sugar after the tumultuous fermentation has ceased,
and which gives them mellowness and nnotuosity. To produce
these wines, it is necessary to increase the density of tlio must,
which is accomplished in the Gironde by Icjiving tlu- grapes upon

WHITE WINE. 57

the vines until they shrivel and turn brown (white grapes are
used), and they are gathered by several successive pickings. The
density of the must is from 12 to 15 Baume. These wines
occupy the place between dry wines and sweet wines.

White Sweet Wines (vius de liqueur) are those which pre-
serve a considerable portion of their sugar, which renders them
very sweet. And in order that they may retain their sweetness
in aging, the must should mark 15 to 20 Baume.

The Grand White Wines of France and Germany do not
require any different treatment from that already described,
except that the greatest care is exercised in assorting the grapes
and allowing them to arrive at the period of greatest maturity,
and, of course, they are made from the choicest varieties.

In describing the condition in which the grapes are when
gathered, the French use the word pour r is, which is usually
translated rotten. But Boireau says that it must not be supposed
that the grapes are spoiled (gates] because they are pourris; the
condition which is sought is a sort of natural dessication effected
by the heat of the sun, which evaporates a part of the water of
vegetation and concentrates the saccharine matter, as well as the
savory and aromatic principle, and bakes the grape, as it were.
If the weather remains dry, the grapes remain for a fortnight
perfectly ripe without any deterioration of the skin, but little by
little it changes from yellow or golden to brown, loses its con-
sistency and rots, or rather cracks and gives way. It is then that
dessication commences; the rays of the sun penetrate the thin
pellicle and volatilize the water of vegetation. In order to bet-
ter accomplish this result a portion of the leaves are removed
from the vine when the grapes are nearly ripe. Those grapes
only are picked which are sufficiently shriveled; if only a part
of the cluster is ripe, a few grapes are removed at a picking.
The vines are usually gone over in this manner three times. At
Barsac and Sauternes the white wines are known by three differ-
ent names, indicating in their order their strength and sweetness:
The first, or sweetest, are called teles; the second, centres; and the

58 WHITE WINE.

third, qtieu&s; or head wines, middle wines, and tail wines. If the
must does not indicate more than 12 J , 13 J , or 14 J Baume, the wine
cannot be expected to preserve its sweetness and mellowness in
aging. If it is desired to make the sweet head wines, having the
inimitable flavor (goM de roti) which they get from the great
maturity of the grapes, the density must be allowed to increase
till Baume's instrument marks 18 J to 20. Wines from must of
16 Baume will preserve their sweetness for a long time, but as
they develop a large amount of alcohol, it is preferable that
they be sweeter, and that the must mark 18 to 20. As these
wines do not develop more than 15 to 16 per cent, of alcohol by
fermentation, they will not bear transportation through tropical
climates with safety, and it is necessary to add spirit enough to
raise the strength to 18 per cent. If, however, they are carefully
managed, and kept in a cool cellar, they will remain sweet.

Treatment of White Wines. During the active fermentation
they should be left in a moderately warm place of even tempera-
ture, and until the foaming has ceased. Then, they may be stored
in a cooler place if desirable, or may be left where they are. But
then the bungs should be loosely closed with a chip or anything
that will allow the escape of gas, and the casks must be filled up
every two or three days. When the gas has "ceased, they should
be bunged tight, and filled up once or twice a week, according
to the rapidity of evaporation, until the first racking. ( See below. )

To keep Sweet. If it is desired that the wine should preserve
a portion of its sweetness and remain mellow, care should be
taken not to disturb it after it has commenced depositing, for
thereby the sediment and ferment will be again mingled with the
wine and its fermentation rendered more active, all its sugar may
be transformed, and the wine become dry. Fermentation may be
checked at any period by sulphuring, as is described under the
proper head (see Sulphuring and Unfermented Must), and so the
wines may be made dry or sweet at will; but if the sweet ones
contain less than 15 per cent, of alcohol they will ferment. By
sulphuring they may be kept sweet from one vintage to another,
even if the musts have not a high degree of sugar; but they must

WHITE WINE. 59

be constantly kept under the influence of sulphurous acid and
protected from the air. But the frequent sulphuring and racking
which they must necessarily undergo gives them an odor and a
flavor of sulphur; and if they are not watched they ferment.

The care to be given to white wines after the first racking
depends upon their character.

In the Case of Dry Wines, whose sugar has all been trans-
formed, the same attentions are to be bestowed as in the case of
new red wines, and the rules laid down are referred to. (See Red
Wine.}

Mellow White Wines, that is, those which retain a portion of
their sweetness after the tumultuous fermentation, particularly if
they do not carry 15 per cent, of alcohol, require the greatest
amount of care in order to preserve their mellowness in aging;
for if left to themselves they will again enter into fermentation,
and become dry. Such wines should be preserved against all
ulterior fermentations, and should be made perfectly bright and
freed from ferments, but this should be done with as little fining
or filtration as possible, which diminishes their mellowness.

It may be well to note that the less alcohol that mellow wines
have, the more susceptible they are to fermentation, and the con-
sequent loss of their mellowness.

Those which have 15 per cent, and have kept their mellowness
after the first fermentation, do not lose it as readily as those of a
less degree. If they have less than 15 per cent, of spirit and are
sweet, to retain their sweetness, they must be completely clarified
to free them from ferments; and in some cases it is necessary
not only to rack them, but at the same time to sulphur them, and
fine them with gelatine after adding tannin.

Such wines, not having naturally terminated their fermenta-
tion, which was arrested by sulphurous acid, reiterated rack-
ings, the extraction of ferments, and the lowering of the
temperature have a natural tendency to ferment; and the
arrested fermentation readily recommences if the wine is left
to itself, if vigilance is relaxed, if the temperature increases,
or if subjected to the movement of transportation.

60 WHITE WINE.

On the contrary, in those which have acquired the largest
amount of alcohol possible by fermentation (between 15 and
16 per cent.), no new spirit is formed at the expense of the
sugar, except in case of loss of strength by evaporation or other
enfeebling cause.

Summary of Rules for the treatment of mellow white wines,
according to Boireau :

1. They should be stored in perfectly closed places, in strong,
well hooped casks.

2. The casks should always be kept tightly bunged, and con-
stantly full, by frequent and regular ullings, with bright wine of
the same quality, and having the same temperature.

3. They should become bright, be protected against secondary
fermentations, and freed from the yeast which they contain
by rackings during the first year, according as their lees are
deposited. Fining should not be resorted to except when they
cannot be cleared by racking at the proper time (rigorously pro-
tected from contact with the air) into a cask sulphured with a
double square of a sulphur match.

4. When they have been three or four years in wood, if they
are not then bottled, they should be racked and transferred to
tuns where they receive the same care; the tuns should be first
tempered with wines of the same class.

5. They must be constantly watched and frequently tasted to
assure one's self that they do not enter into fermentation; if they
do, they must be racked at once.

Racking. When they remain calm after the insensible fer-
mentation is terminated, whether they are old or young, they
should be racked three times each year; first, at the sprouting of
the vine in the spring, in March, before the equinox; secondly,
at the flowering of the vine in June, before the summer solstice;
and thirdly, at the ripening of the grape in September, before
the autumnal equinox. (See Hacking.)

CASKS. 61

CHAPTER VIII.

CASK'S.

Casks are almost universally made of oak, though other mate-
rial has been tried, but generally to be abandoned in favor of the
first named. Large, covered tanks of redwood are used to some
extent in California for storing red wine, being first well steamed
to extract the coloring matter of the wood, but they are not con-
sidered desirable, and tyad better be replaced by oak casks.

Oak Wood. In France very nice distinctions used to be made
as to the kind and nationality of the wood used, the shook from
the north, Dantzig, Lubeck, Memel, Riga, and Stettin, taking
the first rank, that from America the second, and that known as
Bosnian, from the southern provinces of Austria and the north
of Turkey in Europe, the third, and that of France the fourth.
That from America is the most pliable, but is liable to be found
worm-eaten .

All kinds of oak wood contain in different proportions fourteen
different principles, several of which are dissolved by wine, and
among the most important of which are tannin, gallic acid, a
bitter extractive, mucilage, vegetable albumen, and several of
pronounced smell and taste. The Bosnian oak contains the most
tannin and soluble matter, and is suitable for highly colored
wines. But no w-a-days there is not so much stress laid upon the
quality of the wood as formerly. Their extracts serve often to
correct some of the defects of the wine, and many of them are
neutralized by the ingredients of the latter. By the introduction
of their tannin and albumen the clarification of wine is facilitated;
but none but new wine whose insensible fermentation is not yet
completed should be put into new casks, for they cause older
wines to lose their transparency, and give them a woody flavor
which may last a long time. Therefore, temper your new casks
with new wine.

Storing Casks. Casks should be kept in a closed place, not

62 CASKS.

so dry as to cause much shrinkage, nor so damp as to cause
mould. In California during the summer, there is no danger from
the latter, but the former should be guarded against. In winter,
the reverse is the rule. Where casks are to be kept a long time
empty, they should be sulphured and tightly bunged, and the
sulphuring should be repeated every six months. But they must
be carefully washed before putting wine into them. They are
less liable to be attacked by the borer if stored in a dark place.

New Casks. Before putting wine into a new cask, it is ordi-
narily sufficient to give it a thorough washing with boiling water.
Pour in one or two gallons of hot water, ^bung it up, and roll it
and shake it about till it is thoroughly rinsed, letting it rest
awhile on each end, and not only will this sufficiently cleanse the
cask, bul will show if there are any leaks. When the water is
nearly cold, let it run out, and thoroughly rinse with cold water,
and turn down the bung-hole and leave till well drained.

Mr. Maigne recommends that a couple of pounds of salt be
dissolved in the first water, and that the second washing be made
with a decoction of peach leaves. Often the casks are soaked for
a day with cold water, then washed with lime water, prepared by
adding four pounds of lime to two gallons of boiling water for
a 100-galloii cask. After thorough agitation, it is washed with
cold water. Sometimes, too, the cask is washed with a gallon or
so of boiling wine, but it is an unnecessary waste.

Mr. Boireau says that when it is necessary to put old or very
delicate wines into new casks, the greater part of the soluble
matters can be extracted in the following manner: Pour in about
two gallons of boiling lye made from ashes or potash, or other
alkaline substance, such as slacked lime or pulverized chalk, etc.,
for they will dissolve out more of those soluble matters than pure
water. After thoroughly agitating the cask, pour out the lye,
and repeat the process; afterwards rinse with boiling water, and
run it out before cold; then wash with cold water acidulated with
one-tenth part of sulphuric acid, which enfeebles the solubility
of these matters; finally, rinse with cold water and drain.

These latter operations may be avoided by first washing witli

CASKS.

hot water, and then filling the casks with com!
color of that intended to be put into them, and leavm)
about two weeks.

And before filling them with a grand red wine, it will be well
to moisten the inner walls of the cask with a glass or so of good,
old brandy.

Old Casks, or those which have been in use, should be well
washed as soon as emptied, and the washings should be repeated
with clean water until it runs out perfectly clear. Oftentimes the
cask will have more or less lees adhering to its inner walls, which
cannot be removed by an ordinary washing, but it will be necessary
to make use of the rinsing chain. This chain is about six feet long,
consisting of links made of square iron whose corners will more
readily detach the lees. One end is attached to a long conical bung
Fig. 11. to keep it from falling into the cask, and the other is
armed with a square block of iron of a size to easily
go into the bung-hole (fig. 11). After pouring in
two or three gallons of boiling water, leave the cask
for a while so that the lees may become softened, then
introduce the chain by the bung-hole, and close it
with the bung at the other end of the instrument.
Lin Thoroughly roll and agitate the cask till the chain
and its iron block have removed the lees so that they will run out
with the water. Repeat the operation with clean water as often as
necessary, and rinse till the water runs out limpid, and let the
cask drain.

Fig. 12.

To Examine the Inside of a Cask, an instrument
called a visitor is used. This is simply a piece of heavy
wire bent into a loop or handle at the upper end, with
the lower end turned up and bent around into the form
of a small ring into which a candle can be inserted (tig.
12). Put a piece of a candle into this candlestick or
socket, light it, and lower it into the cask through the

^2 bung, and the interior can be inspected.

Visitor.

64 CASKS.

Empty Casks should not be allowed to remain long
without Washing; as soon as the lees are removed, they should
be rinsed as already mentioned, and they should not be put to
drain in the sun, for the heat will transform the alcohol remain-
ing into vinegar in a few hours.

Sulphuring Casks. If the cask is to be kept empty for some
time, after it has been washed and then drained for a few
minutes, it should be sulphured by burning in it a piece of
sulphur match about an inch square, and it should then be left
to drain dry. After twenty -four hours, burn in it three or four
inches of the match, and bung it up with the gas in it. Store it
in a suitable place as described for new casks, and sulphur it
every three months. (See Sulphuring.)

Condition to be Examined. In using an old cask, as well
as a new one, the first thing to ascertain is if it leaks. If the
hoops are loose, they should be driven; then poilr in two or
three pails of water, and stand the cask alternately on each end,
and if it is found to leak, soak it till it is tight. If the leaks
cannot be stopped by driving the hoops and by soaking, it must
be repaired.

The next thing to ascertain is, if the cask has become sour,
mouldy, or has been otherwise injuriously affected, as it is liable
to be if put away without being carefully washed and cared for.
This can be ascertained by examining with the visitor, or by
smelling. If, when the candle or a piece of lighted sulphur
match is lowered into the cask, it ceases to burn, the cask proba-
bly contains a noxious gas, which must be expelled. This may
be done by blowing in the bung-hole with a hand-bellows till the
air is changed, or by standing the cask on its lower end with the
hole in the upper head open, and the open bung turned towards
the wind. If, however, it is in the condition which the French
call event e, which corresponds with that diseased condition of wine
called by the same name and which we call flatness, the gas being
carbonic acid, and heavier than air, will run out of its own accord
if the open bung is turned down and the cask left for a while in
that position.

CASKS. 65

Flatness in the Cask, as we will call it for want of a better
term, Boireau says, consists in the disengagement of carbonic acid
gas which is produced .in the interior, and is generally found in
casks which have been bunged up without washing, and which
gives them an odor of stagnant lees with slight acidity, and will
extinguish the sulphur match. After the bad air has been expelled
the cask should be well washed with the use of the chain. A
cask which has contained wine that has become flat should receive
the same treatment. If a large tun is to be treated, the foul air
should be expelled, and a man should not enter till a light will
burn in it. (See the disease, Flatness.)

Acidity will be found in the cask if it is left for several days
uncared for; the alcohol contained in the wine remaining on the
inside of the cask acidifies in contact witJi the oxygen of the air,
and is soon changed into, acetic acid, and the change is much
more rapid in a high temperature. Instead of being simply flat,
the cask is now really sour, and smells of vinegar. The treat-
ment consists in either removing or neutralizing the acid. The
first can be done by steam. Turn the bung-hole down, and con-
duct a jet of steam into the cask either through the faucet-hole
or the bung; the water condensed from the steam charged with
acid runs out at the bung-hole, and the process must be con-
tinued till the water no longer has an acid flavor.

Where it is not convenient to use steam, rinse the cask by using
the chain, and scald it out with hot lye made from wood ashes
or potash, or with quicklime dissolved in hot wafer. Give it
several rinsings with the alkaline solution without allowing it
to cool, and, if possible, fill it with cold water and let it soak
three or four days, and rinse as usual. If the water is allowed
to remain longer in the cask it may become stagnant.

Mouldy Casks. Oasks may become mouldy inside when left in
a damp place, if the bungs are left out, or if they are leaky
through defective staves or hoops, sometimes even when they
have been sulphured, and much more if they have not been.
This condition is recognized by a mouldy smell. The surest way
to treat a mouldy cask is to take out the head, and give it a thor-

66 CASKS.

ough scrubbing with a stiff broom and water. If after removing
the mould the staves resume the color of wine-stained wood, it is
proof that the wood has not been affected, and the head may be
replaced, and the cask rinsed in the usual way. If, however,
after removing the mould, the wood is found to be of a brown
color, it is more or less rotten.

Rottenness is due to the same causes as niouldiness, and when
the inside of a cask is decayed, it is no longer fit for wine. If,
however, the mouldy cask is brown only in spots, they should be
entirely scraped off, and then it may be used. But it is best not to
put good wine into such casks, for there is danger of spoiling it.

Brandy Casks, when emptied, should simply be bunged up,
without washing, as the alcohol remaining will have a preserva-
tive effect. They should not be kept in a place which is too
damp.

Do not Sulphur Old Brandy or Whisky ('asks which have
recently been emptied or in wh\ch any alcohol remains, or you
may cause a disastrous explosion. In preparing new casks for
the reception of brandy, they should be washed and left to drain
for twenty -four hours and until they are dry, and if they are to be
kept some time, throw in a glass or two of brandy, bung tightly,
and roll and shake till the inside is moistened with the liquor.
If they are to be used at once, they ought to be first soaked with
water for three or four days to remove the woody taste.

Boireau says that common wines may be put into brandy bar-
rels, or even oil barrels which have not become rancid (olive oil
barrels, I presume), but that fine wines should never be put into
them. He also adds that wine should not be put into casks
which have been used for rum, kirsch, vinegar, absinthe, ver-
mouth, or any other liquor having a strong odor, traces of which
will be preserved in the pores of the wood, even after the staves
have been scraped.

Cask Borers. There is a beetle which is very destructive of
casks. in California, which Mr. J.J. Rivers, curator of the museum
of the University, describes as Sinoxlyloti dective of the family of

CASKS. 67

Bostrichidae. In a paper read before the Anthrozoic Club, and
^reported in the Rural Press, Vol. XX, p. 153, 1880, he states that
at the request of Mr. Schram, of Napa county, he experimented
with the insect in order to ascertain a remedy for the ruin caused
by it. He says that " Its primary mischief is caused by the habit
of the parent insect boring a hole three or more inches for the
purpose of depositing eggs. As casks are usually much less than
three inches in thickness, the beetle taps the liquid contents, and
loss accrues by leakage. The remedy I first thought of was to
select some species of wood suitable for cask making that would
be unpalatable to this insect. My endeavors in that way have
resulted in failure for the reason that this beetle appears to have
no particular dislike to oak, chesnut, pine, whitewood, and sev-
eral of the eucalypti. The next step was to saturate the outside
of the cask with a strong solution of alum water applied hot,
and when dry, a coat of linseed oil, this latter to prevent the
alum from being washed out, as it would be in time. This proved
a success, for all the examples treated with the solution were
untouched, while the unprepared were riddled by the borer."
The insect is more destructive to casks stored in light places; it
is therefore better to keep them in the dark.

The Size of the Casks is a matter of a good deal of import-
ance. For shipping, the ordinary pipe or puncheon holding
from 150 to 200 gallons is of a convenient size for handling, but
for storing it is better to use as large a vessel as possible, and
where the quantity stored is large, tuns of from 1000 to 3000
gallons or more in size are far preferable. In the first place, it is
a well known fact that wine made at the same time, of grapes of
like varieties, from the same vineyard, and under the same appa-
rent conditions, turns out quite differently in different casks, and
the contents of one cask may far excel in quality that of another.
In order to insure uniformity in a large quantity of wine, it is
necessary to store it in large receptacles.

Another, and perhaps still more important consideration, is
that there is much less loss by evaporation when the wine is stored
in large casks. The evaporation in a small barrel will be almost

68 CASKS.

as great as in a cask three or four times the size, and to keep
the small one full will require about the same amount of wine af
each ulling, which must be performed nearly as often. There
are two reasons for this: first, because the staves of small cask?
are thinner, and secondly, because in them a greater surface oi
wine is exposed to evaporation, according to the volume, than in
the case of the larger vessel.

Guyot says, however, that the larger the receptacles, othei
conditions being equal, the more rapid the development of the
wines, and the sooner they go through the periods of their life,
and arrive at decrepitude. He says that the greater part of wines,
especially light wines and white wines, cannot endure a long
sojourn in tuns, vats, and cisterns. They go through the phases
of their life with a rapidity fatal to their good qualities; never-
theless, this fact may be utilized to hasten the epoch when wine
may be used or put upon the market; also to produce dry wines,
to vinify sweet ones, and to age those of good body. If, there-
fore, his theory is well founded and we know that fermentation
once established is more active, if the mass is great the intelli-
gent man will act in this behalf as circumstances require. II
would seem, however, that a large mass would be less affected by
sudden changes of temperature, and therefore, better protected
from their consequent ill effects.

And Boireau recommends that white wines be stored in tuns,
when mature, as already mentioned. ' (See Agiuy.)

SULPHURING. 69

CHAPTER IX.

SULPHURING ARRESTING FERMENTATION .

Casks are sulphured for the purpose of destroying the activity
of the ferments contained in the lees which may remain in
them, and thereby to prevent their moulding or souring, and must
and wine are sulphured to prevent or to check fermentation, and
white wine also to keep it from turning yellow.

Sulphurous Oxide, or Sulphur Dioxide, is produced by
burning sulpur. It is a colorless gas, of a suffocating odor, and
is composed of equal weights of sulphur and oxygen, or, one
part of the former and two of the latter, SO. 2 , and with water
becomes sulphurous acid. It arrests fermentation in two ways:
first, it absorbs oxygen with avidity, and thereby removes what
may be in the must or wine, or in the cask, thus taking away one
of the conditions necessary to the life and activity of the ferment.
(See Fermentation.) In the second place, by the absorption of
oxygen, sulphuric acid is formed from the sulphurous acid, in a
highly concentrated state, which is destructive of the life of the
ferment. ,

The Sulphurer, or Sulphur Burner, the instrument Fig. 14.
used for the purpose indicated, consists of a wire with a
Fig. 13. hook at one end, and the other attached to the
centre of a long, conical bung (fig. 13). It is
convenient to have the upper end pass entirely
through the bung, allowing the latter to move
up and down on the wire, so that the hook can
be raised or lowered, according to the position
to be occupied in the cask. This is used by
attaching the sulphur match to the hook and
lowering it into the cask, after lighting it. The
objection to this form of instrument is, that, the
coal or cinder left on the hook, after burning the
Sulphurer. match, may fall into the cask and' give the wine
an unpleasant flavor. To avoid this, Mr. Maumene Sulphurer .

70 SULPHURING.

invented a sulphurer, provided with a deep perforated porcelain
cup, into which the match is placed and in which it burns, and
which retains the carbonized linen (fig. 14). A piece of wire
cloth bent into a cup of a similar form and attached to the lower
end of the wire answers the purpose very well.

Sulphur Matches or Bands may be purchased, or they may
be easily manufactured. To make them, melt roll brimstone
(stick brimstone), or what is better, flowers of sulphur, over a
slow fire (sulphur melts at 115 C. or 239 F.); tear linen or cot-
ton cloth into strips an inch and a-half wide and 10 or 12 inches
long, and dip them into the melted sulphur, and lay them aside
to cool. Then dip again, and repeat the process, dipping and
cooling, till the coating of sulphur is of the required thickness,
and they should be thickly coated, or it may be necessary to burn
too much linen to get sufficient gas. If the sulphur is over-
heated, the match will be dark-colored.

Sweet scented powders are often added to the sulphur, whose
essential oils are disengaged when the sulphur is burned, and
the cask is perfumed by their vapors. The substances usually
employed are ginger, cinnamon, the flowers of the stock gilly,
iris, lavender, thyme, violet, etc., and the matches prepared with
the addition of them is generally preferred.

Mr. Maumene says that the smallest amount of this volatile oil
gives a perfume to the wine, which is generally advantageous,
but Boireau is of opinion, however, that these substances check
the combustion of the sulphur, and in a measure neutralize its
action, and he prefers the sulphur pure.

To Sulphur a Cask, take a piece of the sulphur match and
light it and lower it into the middle of the cask by means of the
sulphur burner, and lightly put in the bung of the instrument.
By applying the ear to the staves, it can be ascertained if the
match is burning. If the air is foul in the cask, and the match
will not burn, the noxious gas must be expelled as described
under the head of Casks. When the fire is extinguished the
burner is withdrawn, care being taken, if the hook is used, not
to drop any of the carbonized linen into the cask. If that should

SULPHURING. 71

happen, the cask must be washed again. As the burning sul-
phur fills the cask with gas, which exerts considerable pressure,
care should be taken that the bung is not blown out into the
face of the operator.

Sometimes a strip of the sulphured cloth is lighted at one end
and lowered into the cask, the other end being secured by putting
in the bung. This is objectionable, because it leaves the debris
of the match sticking to the bung and the stave, which may give
a disagreeable flavor to the wine. As already mentioned under
the head of Casks, never burn a match in a cask containing
alcohol.

To Sulphur Wine, if the cask is only partly full, operate the
same as in sulphuring an empty cask, only care must be taken
not to lower the match into the wine. Here the sulphur burner
with a movable bung comes in play. If the cask is full, the gas
may be drawn in by burning a match close to a hole bored in the
head of the cask somewhat higher than the faucet, drawing from
the latter at the same time. It is evident that while the wine runs
from the lower hole, the gas will be drawn in at the vent. Where
it is necessary to leave a cask with a vacancy in it for some time,
flowers and souring may be prevented by burning in it a piece of
sulphur match and bunging it up, and the process should be
repeated every two weeks, and besides as often as the bung is
removed for any purpose. It is better always to keep the cask
full, for in time the sulphurous gas will communicate a disagree-
able taste to the wine, which it takes a long time to remove.

Sulphuring should be Avoided in Certain Cases. Ropy
wines should not be sulphured, for the presence of oxygen is
necessary in or"der to help their fermentation; nor should those
wines be sulphured which it is desirable to keep in a state of
effervescence. Sulphur should be very sparingly used in connec-
tion with red wines, as it causes them to lose a portion of their
color by rendering insoluble the coloring matter, and precipi-
tating it; and for the same reason it is used for bleaching white
wines, and it prevents the latter from turning yellow. Liqueur
wines which are slow of fermentation should not be sulphured,
for they need all the natural aids to fermentation.

72 SULPHURING.

Fermentation is Arrested, sometimes, in the manufacture of
white wines, by drawing them off ftito well sulphured casks, using
two or three squares of the match, if the fermentation is not very
tumultuous; but if it is very active, it may be treated as mentioned
below for musts. And in most cases the proper practice is, where
wine needs sulphuring, to draw it off into the sulphured cask,
and in this way the oxygen contained in the wine is more thor-
oughly exposed to the action of the gas.

Unfermented Must. By sulphuring the must, fermentation
is prevented, and thereby is produced what the French call mute
wine; and it is the must of white grapes as it comes from the press
that is more generally subjected to the process. It is first allowed
to settle as described in the chapter on white wine, but it must.be
drawn from the vat as soon as signs of fermentation appear, and
bubbles of carbonic acid rise to the surface. And to have the
must clear, it must be closely watched, for as soon as fermenta-
tion sets in, it becomes turbid. The must should be freed from
all fragments of stems, skins, seeds, etc., and should therefore
be strained as it runs from the press.

It is Prepared in Two Different Ways. First, the cask must
be scalded, rinsed, and drained in the usual way, and then as
much sulphur must be burned in it as can be consumed, or until
the match goes out for want of oxygen. Then the cask must be
rapidly made half full of the must, and closely bunged. It
should then be rolled and thoroughly shaken until the gas has
been well absorbed by the juice. The must is then drawn off
without allowing it to come in contact with the air (See Racking],
and into another cask which has been sulphured in the same
manner, and is treated as before. While the second *cask is being
agitated, sulphur is again burned in the one just emptied, until
it goes out, and then the must is transferred back in the same
manner, and is again shaken. It is subjected to this operation
four times, and the cask is finally filled with must treated in the
same way, and tightly bunged. The more successful will the
operation be, the more the liquid is kept from contact with the air,
and therefore this method is preferable to the next. The second

SULPHURING. 73

method is as follows: burn in an empty cask matches represent-
ing a couple of ounces of sulphur; pour in about live gallons of
must, bung it up and thoroughly shake; take out the bung and
put in another lighted match; if it will not burn for want of
oxygen, the air must be renewed by. bio wing in the cask with a
bellows. Then burn the match in the cask, and afterwards pour
in live gallons more of must, bung and shake as before. Con-
tinue the process till the cask lacks about five gallons of being
full. Then five gallons must be sulphured in another cask, and
the cask filled up with this and tightly bunged. Of course, the
sulphur burner must be shortened as the cask fills up.

Must treated in this manner may be kept for a long time if
well clarified, and the cask is well sulphured at each racking, or
a portion sulphured when it commences to ferment.

If it is only necessary to keep the must a short time, a portion
only, say one-third, need be sulphured. In that case there will
be less odor of sulphur, and it will soon pass away.

Clarification and Care of Uiiferniented Must. It should be
kept in good, strong casks, well hooped and well bunged, in
closed cellars of a constant temperature. The casks should be
filled every few days with sulphured must; and they should be
frequently racked to free them from ferments. They should not
be exposed to the air when racking, and should be racked into
well sulphured casks. Boireau says that the must may be com-
pletely clarified before sulphuring, by introducing about one ounce
of tannin per 100 gallons of must, and pouring into the casks
before completely filling about a quart of water in which has
been dissolved about four tablets of gelatine, and which has
become cold.

A Sulphur Flavor is sometimes communicated to must treated
as above, and is also sometimes acquired by wines which are put
into casks which have been sulphured for some time, without first
washing them, and also by allowing the debris of the sulphur
match to fall into the cask; this flavor is apt to pass away with
time it not very pronounced, or in that case may be removed by

74 SULPHURING.

racking into a clean cask. But if the wine has a very decided sul-
phur flavor, it must be disinfected by wood charcoal. Several large
piecesf of coal well cleaned and well dried are introduced into
the cask and soaked in the wine, from which they can be with-
drawn by strings attached before putting them in the cask. Forty-
eight hours are generally sufficient to remove the flavor; but if
necessary, the process may be repeated, by changing the charcoal.
In operating on white wines, a large amount of charcoal may be
used without inconvenience, but in the case of red wine, there
seems to be some danger of depriving it of a portion of its color.
Mr. Maumeiie says, however, that the charcoal is liable to deprive
the wine of the carbonic acid dissolved in it, it being an absorb-
ent of that gas, dnd thereby rendering the wine more subject to
the action of oxygen.

Other Substances have been recommended to Prevent
Fermentation in a Must, but notwithstanding the disagreeable
flavor which is communicated by an excessive use of sulphur, no
other agent has been found which is as satisfactory, on the whole.

By Burning Alcohol in the Cask, the oxygen may be
removed, but the ferments are not destroyed. Care must be
taken to avoid an explosion. Therefore, the spirit must not be
poured into the cask and lighted, but must be placed in a small
vessel and lowered in through the bung, as in the case of sul-
phuring.

The Concentrated Aqueous Solution of Sulphurous Acid

has been recommended, but Maumene says that not only is its
preservation very difficult, but its management is more difficult
than the sulphur match, and the chances of its being mixed with
dangerous substances are considerable ; and therefore no one
should think of using it.

The Bisulphite of Lime has been used to prevent fermentation
in wine and cider, but it does not always give satisfactory results,
and the salt is difficult to keep, and the use for wine, at least, has
generally been abandoned. In the experiments of Proust, given

t Mac-hard says about 125 grammes to a tonneau, or 4 or 5 ounces to 5250 gallons of wine.

SULPHURING. 75

by Maumenfe, the smallest quantity used was 15 grammes to 100
kilogrammes of must, or about one-half ounce to 23 gallons.

Salicylic Acid has been much recommended within the past
few years, but like everything else, it affects the flavor, if suffi-
cient is used to prevent fermentation. The quantity necessary
depends upon the amount of alcohol, ferments, etc., contained in
the wine. Prof. Neubauer, quoted by H. Endemann in American
Chemist, says that wine which is yet fermenting should not receive
any salicylic acid, since too large quantities of the substance are
required for effective use, but that it may be used in wine when
made to prevent after-fermentation; that it will prevent disease,
but will not cure wine when diseased . Though infallible rules as to
quantity cannot be given, experiments should be made with from
.02 to .06 gramme per litre, or say from 1.165 to 3.5 grains per
gallon. A solution of 2 grammes (30.864 grains) of salicylic
acid to 100 c. c. (3.38 fluid ounces) of alcohol of 80 is employed;
1 c. c = 0.02 grammes; 3 c. c. =0.06 grammes; 61.44 minims or
a little more than one fluidram = 1.165 grains, and 3.7 fluidrams^=
3.5 grains. Salicylic acid being but sparingly soluble in water,
it is preferable to dissolve in strong alcohol, and these are con-
venient proportions.

It is said that 100 grammes (3? Ap. ounces) will stop the fer-
mentation of 1000 litres (about 264 gals.) of must, when nearly
completed; 800 grammas are necessary when in active fermenta-
tion; and 400 will preserve the wine when made.

But now the intelligence comes that salicylic acid has an
injurious effect upon the teeth and bones, it having an affinity
for calcareous salts (Boston Journal of Chemistry, Vol. XI, 143),
and the French Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, on the
report of the Committee of Public Hygiene, recommends that
the sale of articles of food adulterated with it be prohibited as
injurious to the public health. (Ib. Vol. XV., 45.)

76 AGING.

CHAPTER X.

AGING EFFECTS OF VARIOUS INFLUENCES.

General Considerations. Wines, from the time of their first
fermentation down to the time of their degeneration and decay,
are constantly undergoing change. Until they have acquired a
certain age, varying in each case with the quality and nature of
the liquid, they do not possess those qualities which make them
an agreeable, healthful beverage. The care to be bestowed upon
them in their general treatment not only includes what is neces-
sary for their preservation, but also what is necessary to age them
by developing in them all the good qualities of which they are
susceptible, and the means of preventing and remedying their
defects and diseases.

A New Wine, when first fermented, is quite different from
one even a few months old, in respect to color, flavor, arid aroma.
But the quality which it may acquire depends upon the propor-
tion of different substances which it contains. Some wines, poor
in alcohol and deficient in tannin, will develop their best qualities
and begin to degenerate very soon after fermentation. Such
should be consumed as soon as their insensible fermentation is
completed; it is useless to attempt to age them; while those which
are stout, firm and full-bodied must be kept several years to be
completely developed.

The Bouquet and Distinctive Flavor of a wine, according to
Mr. Boireau, generally, are not perfectly developed until defeca-
tion is complete that i to say, until, after several months' repose
under proper conditions, they have ceased to deposit insoluble
matters, and no longer mineral and vegetable salts, ferments,
and coloring matter are precipitated.

Old Wine, then, differs from a new wine of the same origin by
its color, its aroma, and flavor, and the difference is due to several
causes.

AGING. 77

The Color of old red wine is less dark on account of the
precipitation of a part of the coloring matter, which, rendered
insoluble by the formation of different combinations, has been
carried down with the lees. The red color becomes tawny in

time.

Til ft Aroma of old wine is more agreeable, being largely due
to ethers which are formed by a combination of the alcohol with
the acids, and because the other aromatic principles are no longer
masked by the carbonic acid which is disengaged when the wine
has been recently fermented.

The Difference in Flavor is due to several causes, such as the
loss of a great part of the mineral and vegetable salts, which
have become insoluble by combination with the tarfcnric, acetic,
and' malic acid, and their consequent precipitation, and also to
the deposit of a portion of the coloring matter.

So that when a wine is old, having been well cared for, it con-
tains less coloring matter, vegetable and mineral salts, acids free
and combined, tannin, ferments, mucilage, alcohol, etc., than
when first fermented.

Influences which Develop, also Destroy. Pellicot, quoting
-Bechamp, says that a wine ages and improves under influences
analogous to those which spoil it, and he, himself, carries the
idea a little farther, and adds, that the influence which produces
the amelioration in a wine which ages it will, after having
brought about the improvement, cause it to deteriorate, unless its
action is opportunely suspended.

It must also be understood that certain influences which will
greatly improve a strong, alcoholic, or a sweet wine, might in a
short time entirely ruin a weaker one, or a dry wine.

Influence of the Air. When a wine of ordinary strength, a
table wine, comes into immediate contact with the air, a portion
of its alcohol evaporates, it loses its bouquet and flavor, and if
long exposed, a whitish scum is formed on its surface, called
flower*. These have already been described in the chapter on fer-
mentation as micuderma vim and micoderma aceti. A disagreeable

78 AGING.

flavor is communicated to the wine which the French call gout
d' event, and the wine is said to be evente, or flat; and it becomes
turbid, and loses its transparency. Sometimes when the wine
still contains sugar the flowers are not formed, but a second alco-
holic fermentation sets in, and it works. If the wine is not
immediately freed from contact with the air, it acidifies, becomes
pricked, and by degrees turns to vinegar. (See Acetic Fermenta-
tion.) And if still longer exposed, putrid fermentation sets in.

Sweet wines, whose alcoholic strength exceeds 16 per cent.,
and which contain a good deal of sugar, are not so liable to be
injured by the influence of the air. Not only does their high
degree of spirit interfere with acetic and putrid fermentation,
but an insensible alcoholic fermentation sometimes takes place,
and the supply of alcohol is kept up. But in time, as the sugar
disappears, the alcohol becomes enfeebled by evaporation, and
then acetic fermentation sets in, as in the weaker wines.

In the sherry countries it is considered necessary that the wine
should be exposed to the action of the air, and therefore the casks
are not kept full, and flowers are considered a good sign. In a
few instances, where the wines are strong enough to bear it, aging
may be hastened by some exposure to the air, but great care must
be taken that they are not left too long under its influence, or
disorganization may ensue. It must, however, be laid down as
an almost universal rule, that the casks must be kept full and
well bunged. (See Ulling.)

Yariations of Temperature affect wines like other liquids by
contraction and expansion. When a full cask is put in a cold
place, the wine contracts and leaves a vacant space; then it must
be filled up or the wine drawn into a smaller cask. If the tem-
perature of the wine in a full cask is raised, the liquid expands,
and is apt to cause leaks; the sediment is liable to rise and give
the wine a flavor of the lees.

Influence of Heat. Guyot says that the higher the degree
of heat to which wines are exposed, the greater their inter-
nal activity. Those subjected to 15, 20, 30 degrees, Celsius,
(59 J , 68, 86 F.), sooner arrive at maturity, if young, at old

AGING. 79

age, if ripe, and at decrepitude, if old, than they would at a
temperature of 10 C. (50F.) From which the conclusion is
drawn, that wines which have nearly or quite reached their
maturity must be protected from heat, or at least from that of an
elevated temperature, and that old wines should be kept in as cool
a place as possible.

Aging by Heat. On the other hand, if we wish to hasten the
maturity of our wines, we can do so by keeping them in a warm
place rather than in a cool cellar. The younger the wines, and
the more sugar and alcohol they contain, the more they will gain,
and the less risk will they run if subjected to a temperature of
from 60 to 86 F. For example, sweet wines which are only ripe
at thirty or forty years will mature in fifteen or twenty years, at
68 of heat, and in five or ten years, at 86; a Bordeaux or a Her-
mitage wine which at 50 would be made in eight or ten years,
would certainly be made in four or five years at from 59 to 68,
and in two or three years at 77 or 86 of heat. He says that a
temperature between 40 and 90 C. (104 and 194 F.) will dis-
organize many kinds of wine, particularly red wines and those
which have remained long in the fermenting vat, though it will
not have that effect upon all wines.

It is well known that the inhabitants of many southern coun-
tries are accustomed to expose their wines to a considerable degree
of heat to hasten their maturity, and different methods are
employed for the purpose, and it is important to know what
kind of wine will be improved and what injured by the practice.
On this subject Boireau says, that after many experiments, he can
affirm that if the heat exceeds 30 C. (86 F.), it is injurious to
the grand mellow wines of the Gironde; also to wines of a deli-
cate bouquet whose alcoholic strength does not exceed 12 per cent.
Fine wines which possess both an aromatic taste and bouquet, a
fruity flavor, and a pronounced mellowness, by heat take on a
certain tawny flavor of worn out wine; but they become dry, lose
their mellowness, and coolness, and acquire a cooked flavor, which
changes their nature and gives them an analogy with the wines
of the south of France. This taste covers their natural flavor
and renders them common .

80 AGING.

He goes on to say that wines subjected to the action of heat in

direct contact with the air, lose by evaporation a part of their
alcohol; the oxygen deprives them of a part of their color, and
if the influence is prolonged, they become weak and greatly
deteriorated. Exposed to heat in imperfectly closed vessels, they
deposit, and take the tawny flavor (gout de rancio) if their alco-
holic strength exceeds 16 per cent.; but if feeble in spirit, and
they remain long in this condition, the oxygen transforms a part
of their alcohol into vinegar. In receptacles kept full and well
stopped, they undergo but few constitutional changes, if the
heat does not exceed 158 F.; but, nevertheless, a small part of
their coloring matter is precipitated, and their taste is sensibly
changed. A flavor of cooked wine is found, and a slight odor
of the lees, no matter how quick the heating.

Whatever the kind of wine operated upon, care must be taken
not to carry the heat too high, for it will decompose and pre-
cipitate certain principles in dissolution in the wine, and change
its natural flavor. After cooling, voluminous deposits will be
found, and the cooking will give the wine a disagreeable flavor
and an odor of the residue of a still. The extreme limits of from
113 to 158 J F. should not be exceeded, and the greater the heat
the shorter should be the exposure to it.

Generally speaking, the wines which gain the most by heating,
either by artificial means or by leaving them in casks well bunged,
but in ullage, in warm store rooms, are strongly fortified liqueur
wines. And in order that they be not injured under those con-
ditions, they should contain at least 18 per cent, of pure alcohol.
And as they will gradually lose a little of their spirit by evapora-
tion, their alcoholic strength should be taken from time to time,
and they should be kept up to the indicated degree by fortifying.

Preserving Wine by Heat. Aside from the question of
aging wine by the effect of heat, Pasteur has attempted to show
that wines can be kept without change, if the temperature is
raised for a short time to 130 or 140 F. This is on the theory
that wines become flat, pricked, turned, or rotten, owing to
secondary fermentations, and that each change is due to the

AGING. 81

action of a particular ferment, as stated in the chapter on fer-
mentation; and that this degree of heat destroys the action of
these ferments in fact, kills them. It is owing to the presence
of the alcohol, that they are destroyed by this degree of heat,
for a must which has been raised to. the boiling point still fer-
ments according to the experience of Boireau and of Pellicot.
The first named gives the results of his experiments in heating
wines according to Pasteur's plan. The wine was in bottles, and
the heat was gradually raised to 52 C. (125.0 F.) In comparing
the wines treated with unheated wines kept under the same con-
ditions, he found that the wine which had been heated could
support contact with the air with less injury than -the unheated,
but that nevertheless it became flat, covered with flowers, and
acidified even in closed vessels which were- not completely full;
also that fine wines generally are injured by the process. The
wines experimented upon had from 10 to 10-} per cent, of alcohol.
It is a costly process to subject wine to a high artificial heat,
and owing to the doubt which yet seems to attend the matter,
but few are likely to go to the expense.

Influence of Cold. Most authors have something to say on
the subject of congealed wines, and undoubtedly the liquid ma} r
be concentrated by freezing a portion of the water, and drawing
off the remaining liquid. Those living in cold countries can
try the experiment, but it will certainly not be practiced in Cali-
fornia .

Mr. Boireau says that the liquid remaining acquires a flavor
similar to that possessed by wines which have been heated; that
fine wines of a delicate bouquet and flavor acquire a commoner
flavor than those in their normal state.

Treatment of Frozen Wines. It may not be amiss to indi-
cate what treatment a wine should receive in case it has been
frozen and has thawed again. It becomes turbid, loses part of
its color, and several matters are precipitated, or remain in sus-
pension, and it is liable to ferment when the temperature rises.
The last named author says that it should be put in a place of
even temperature, and if necessary, it should Toe fined; in which

82 AGING.

case it should be fortified with a strong wine of the same nature,
or a small amount of brandy.

Influence of Light. Guyot says that the direct light of the
sun causes wine to work, especially red wine, and that it has an
injurious effect upon its composition and color; and the color-
ing matter being decomposed, or modified, acts upon the other
elements and makes the wine turn. And hence the wisdom of
putting wine in colored bottles. It is only the direct light of
the sun, however, that is to be avoided, for a dim light, light
reflected or polarized, and moonlight and artificial light are not
sufficiently powerful to produce a sensible effect.

Aging by Sunlight. Exposure to the rays of the sun has

been resorted to for the purpose of aging wine, but Boireau says
that it is not favorable to all, and is least suited to those whose
alcoholic strength does not exceed 15 per cent. He says that the
direct rays of the sun falling upon bottled wines will promptly
precipitate the coloring matter, and that the effect is greater
where the bottles are not completely filled and corked with the
needle. If the bottles are wrapped in paper, or if the wine is in
casks, the aging is less rapid. He shows by experiment that
insolation is advantageous only to wines of more than 15 per
cent, of alcohol, to sweet wines, and wines fortified up to 18,
intended to be treated as the wines of Madeira, i.e., baked. But
wines of about 10 per cent, of spirit will not endure this method
of aging without more or less deterioration by souring.

Effect of the Motion of Voyages. Wines age more rapidly
if kept in motion, and hence, in part, the good effect of a long
voyage. Strong, sweet wines, are undoubtedly greatly improved
by the motion consequent on transportation, as well as by the
heat, but constant agitation will cause weak ones to go rapidly
through the periods of their existence, and degenerate.

Wines Suitable for Shipment. And Dr. Guyot adds that a
wine which does not contain 12 per cent, of alcohol and 6 per
cent, of sugar, crosses the equator with great difficulty, even in
bottles. In wood* it should be young and contain 20 per cent.

AGING. 83

of spirit, or sufficient sugar to make up that amount. For a
voyage in Europe, or to America direct, he says that the wines of
Bordeaux, Burgundy, and of Champagne, of 10 to 12 per cent,
of spirit and 2 to 4 per cent, of sugar, behave well if young or in
bottles.

Mr. Boireau, however, says that wines proper for exportation,
and which will keep in tropical climates, where good cellars and
good care are generally wanting, are those which possess naturally
or by addition a high alcoholic title, a solid, but bright and hand-
some color, a clean taste, and perfect limpidity. Sweet, fortified
wines best fulfil these conditions. He says that liqueur wines,
for shipping to the tropics, should have at least 18 per cent, of
pure alcohol; below that they ferment, their saccharine matter
is transformed into alcohol, their strength diminishes, and they
end by becoming pricked. Dry wines, to be sent to those coun-
tries, should have the same strength, unless the casks are kept
full. He adds, however, that these remarks only apply to those
wines which on their arrival do not receive the usual care, such
as filling the casks, clarifying and racking, and are not kept in
suitable places; and that a good firm wine of the south of France,
which has naturally at least 12 per cent, of alcohol, can be shipped
without fortifying.

The motion and the high temperature to which wines are sub-
jected in transportation also cause a loss of color by precipitation,
particularly if they lack tannin. Wines which are sufficiently
strong in alcohol, but from lack of tannin want firmness and
body, are liable to acidify. Therefore, wines too poor in tannin
should not be shipped abroad. The greater part of the wines of
the Giroiide having plenty of tannin, can be safely shipped if
fortified to 11 per cent., and the grand wines of less alcohol are
safe if shipped in bottles.

In Shipping a New Wine, whose sensible fermentation is
finished, the motion often causes a new disengagement of carbonic
acid, and sometimes in sufficient force to burst out a head of the
cask, unless vented. Of course, such wine should not be shipped,
except under conditions which admit of careful supervision. If

84 AGING.

transported short distances, a small gimlet hole should be kept
open near the bung, in which three or four straws may be placed
with the heads or spikes on, or a small tin tube with a button at
the top may be placed in the hole and bent inside the stave, hav-
ing sufficient play to allow the gas to escape. Must is shipped
in the same way.

Other Motion, such as Jarring and Trembling, produced by
loud noises and by passing teams and by factories, act injuriously
upon wines, causing them to behave badly and to deteriorate.
Guyot also says what may be by some deemed fanciful, that
musical sounds hasten the development of wine; and that most
old wines will turn in a cellar transformed into a music hall.

Filling is also resorted to for the purpose of aging wine, pro-
ducing results somewhat similar to the effects of time. But it
should be performed with the care and subject to the conditions
mentioned in the proper place. (See Fining.)

Aging Generally. Before subjecting a wine to any of the
processes for artificial aging, care should be taken, says Mr. Boi-
reau, to precipitate the matters held in suspension, and to render
it perfectly limpid.

Grand wines, however, should never be subjected to the treat-
ment, for if a premature development of bouquet is obtained, it
is at the expense of that precious quality, mellowness. For
to-day, gourmets and consumers of refined taste do not select,
wines which have a bouquet, if they are also dry and harsh to
the palate; such wines are only too plenty. They esteem above
all those wines which in aging have kept their fruity flavor, their
velvety smoothness, that unctuosity which can only be preserved
in keeping them in a place having a regular temperature (ave-
aging 60), in well closed receptacles, by bringing about the defe-
cation of their lees and the deposit of their ferments by oppor-
tune rackings without contact with the air, and by fining them
as little as possible.

If, for want of care or suitable places, the wines work, enter
into fermentation, their mellowness diminishes, and when neg-
lected they become dry.

AGING. 85

The Wines which Gain the Most by the Aging Processes

mentioned, are: 1st, Wines excessively' rough and overcharged
with color; 2d, fortified wines, whose minimum degree of alcohol
is 18- per cent.; 3d, sweet wines fortified to 18 or 20 per cent.

Those which remain too harsh should be fined with a strong
dose of gelatine; continued agitation after this will make them
smoother.

Fortified wines, dry or sweet, age very quickly, if subjected to
agitation and afterwards to insolation, if followed by a complete
clarification; but it is important to fortify them anew, for the
alcohol evaporates, and below 15 per cent, they would sour
iriHtead of acquiring bouquet. It is also sometimes necessary to
add sugar to sweet wines so treated.

86 GENERAL TREATMENT.

CHAPTER XI.

GENERAL TREATMENT CELLARS.

Unfortified, or Table Wines. After what has been said in
the last chapter of the different effects produced by the various
influences to which wine may be subjected, it remains to point
out the proper care and treatment to be bestowed upon unfortified
table wines, whose alcoholic strength does not exceed 15 per ceut.
The three essential conditions indicated by Mr. Boireau are:

1. They should be protected from the contact of the air.

2. They should be kept in a uniform temperature.

3. They should be freed from their lees, ferments, and
deposits; they must become perfectly clear, and their degenera-
tion be prevented.

It is very important to taste them, and keep close watch over
them by frequent visiting, in order to prevent secondary fer-
mentations and their consequent injurious results, particularly in
the case of mellow wines, which thereby transform into alcohol
the mucilages and pectines which they contain, and lose their
fruity flavor. (See Red Wine, White Wine, etc.)

Deposits, Lees, etc. It is important that they should be freed
from ferments and deposits, for muddy, troubled wines are pre-
disposed to secondary fermentations, alcoholic or acetic; they
readily contract the bad taste of the lees, bitterness, etc. In all
wines, the work of clearing is constantly going on; different
matters, among others, coloring matter, several mineral and
vegetable salts, etc., which were dissolved in the wine, become
insoluble, and these with a portion of the tannin are precipitated
to the bottom of the vessel or remain in suspension. It is these
matters with the ferments which constitute the lees. Wines de-
posit more or less, according to their nature and the care bestowed
in their making. The most voluminous deposits take place dur-
ing the first year, and they diminish in volume and consistency

GENERAL TREATMENT. 87

at each racking, if properly cared for. When they have become
well settled and bright, and have achieved their complete devel-
opment, the deposit is almost nothing. But it increases anew
when the wine declines and begins to degenerate.

To Prevent this Degeneration, and to keep fully developed
wines, they must be put into bottles. (See Wine in Bottles.)

CELLARS.

What has been said in the preceding chapter naturally
leads us to the subject of the proper place for storing wine
after it has completed its active fermentation. Cellars proper
are constructed entirely under ground, and should have vaulted
roofs of masonry. If the cellar is under a building, the arch
can safely come within two or three feet of the level of the
ground, but if no building is over it to protect it from the heat
of the sun, it should be four or five feet under ground. Many
storehouses for wine are constructed partly above and partly
below ground, and others again, entirely above. Undoubtedly
those below ground are the best adapted for keeping wines which
have arrived at maturity, and for those of little alcoholic strength,
but when it is desired to rapidly develop and age an immature
wine, it can be sooner accomplished in a place of a higher tem-
perature, and there also can a strong wine be safely kept.

Temperature. Whatever the degree of temperature, all agree
that it should be as nearly uniform as possible; and to insure
this, the cellar should face the north or east when practicable.
The outer door should not open directly into the cellar or store-
house, but it is better to have the entrance through an out-
building, or at least with an outer and an inner door, at a con-
siderable distance. If the wine-house is above ground, its walls
should be of sufficient thickness and of suitable material to pre-
vent changes of temperature, and it should have a loft or room
above, so that the wine may be protected from the effects of the
rays of the sun falling upon the roof; and it may also be shaded
by trees. Some of the older writers say that the proper tempera-
ture for a cellar is 50 or 52 F., but so low a degree can only be

88 GENERAL TREATMENT

obtained in a well constructed cellar wholly under ground, and
deep, and is not likely to be obtained in this State. Boireau,
however, says that in the Gironde the average temperature of
the cellars is from 15 to 17 C.,dr 59 to 62 F., arid if a person
can maintain the temperature of his cellar or storehouse in this
State uniformly at 60 he will do well.

Dampness. Formerly, when wooden hoops for casks were
used, it was necessary to guard against dampness , for they soon
rotted, and required to be frequently renewed; but now with the
use of iron in place of wood, less care is necessary in that respect.
It is best, however, that they should be sufficiently dry that mould
will not form on the cask, for a bad taste may thereby be com-
municated to the wine. Therefore, cellars should not be con-
structed in very damp places, should have the soil of the floor
well compacted, should be well drained, and well cemented, and
if necessary, the floor may be covered with a bed a foot deep
composed of a mixture of lime, sand, and gravel, or cinders, or the
like, well beaten down, and the whole covered with dry sand.
Nothing should be left in the cellar which naturally gathers
moisture. All mould should be frequently removed, and the
sand removed and replaced with dry sand when necessary.
Sawdust should not be used on the floor. In San Francisco, the
best cellars have a good asphaltum floor, and I know of nothing
better after the odor has passed away.

Ventilation is necessary at times to prevent too much damp-
ness, and also to change the air which may become foul. Under-
ground cellars can be ventilated by means of a large tube, such as
is used on shipboard, provided with a broad opening at the top
which can be turned in the direction of the wind, conducting the
air into the cellar. Storehouses may have small, movable win-
dows. In order to keep down the temperature, the proper time
to ventilate is during the coolest part of the night in the warmer
parts of this State.

Evaporation of the Wine, however, must be guarded against,
which may vary from 3 to 10 per cent, per annum, according to
whether the place of storage is open or closed. In France the

GENERAL TREATMENT 89

government makes an allowance in favor of the wholesale mer-
chant of 8 per cent., for loss. And Boireau says that in dry
storehouses where the air is continually renewed by ventilation,
the loss equals the allowed per cent. , and even exceeds it, particu-
larly if the casks are weak and poor, hooped in wood, and if the
hoops are not driven when they become dry. The loss may then
reach 10 per cent., without extraordinary leakage. By guarding
against too free access of air and heat, not only will a very con-
siderable loss by evaporation be avoided, but also other defects
which may seriously affect the wine, such as acidity, bitterness,
too great dryness, etc. And moreover, in poor cellars the wines
require much more attention, such as ulling, racking, and fre-
quent tasting, to protect them from secondary fermentations.

Other Precautions. From what has been said concerning
the influence of light, motion, etc., it results that wine cellars
should not be too light, nor be situated under wagon roads where
vehicles frequently pass, nor near blacksmiths' shops, or other
noisy industries, such as boiler making, etc. The vicinity of
sinks, cesspools, sewers, and the sources of noisome odors gen-
erally, should be avoided; and cellars should not be used for
storing milk, cheese, vinegar, or any matter liable to ferment,
such as fruit, vegetables, etc. ; rror should new wines be stored
there until their active fermentation has ceased, for these things
may either communicate a bad odor and taste to the wine, or
set up in it secondary fermentations.

The Casks and Tuns should be supported by strong timbers
Fig. 15. or masonry, and should be

sufficiently elevated, so that
the wine may be easily drawn
off, and should be securely
blocked. Fig. 15 represents
a cask supported by timbers
resting on brick work.
Where the casks are arranged
in piles, those in the lower
Cask and Support. tier should have four blocks

90 GENERAL TREATMENT.

or chocks each, for if they are blocked only on one side, they are
liable to be disturbed, and the outer ones should also have a large
block under the bulge. Of course, the outer blocks should be so
adjusted that they cannot be knocked out in passing by, and in
rolling barrels, etc. The casks of the upper tiers are rolled up
on skids, or inclined planes, and are then rolled along over scant-
lings, laid on the tier below; and hoisting tackle is often of use
in this connection. When, however, the cellar is furnished with
sufficient large tuns, the piling of casks may be dispensed with.

RACKING.

CHAPTER XH.

BACKING.

The Backing of Wines, or drawing off, is performed for the
purpose of freeing them from the lees. Some of the older writers
recommend that wine should be allowed to remain on the lees
till February or March, but the better practice is to draw it off
as soon as it has cleared. If it is allowed to remain long upon
the lees, variations of temperature and secondary fermentations,
storms, etc., are apt to cause it to become troubled and muddy,
and acquire a flavor of the lees. Boireau says that he has con-
stantly observed that wines in general, and especially those which
have been fined, if racked as soon as well cleared, say from two
weeks to a month after fining, according to the kind of finings
used, place of storage, nature of the wine, etc., are generally
more limpid, have a cleaner taste, and are much less liable to
work than if left 011 the finings for six months, from one racking
to another. Wines not fined, which have become clear naturally
by repose, exhibit the same results; those which are racked as
soon as bright, are, in every respect, of a quality superior to
those which have been left upon their lees from one equinox to
another.

The Conditions Indispensable to Good Backing are stated
by Mr. Machard as follows:

1. To perform the operation when the weather is dry and
clear, and if possible during a north wind, for it is only during
such weather that the precipitation of the lees can be really com-
plete.

2. To avoid the operation during damp and rainy weather,
and while violent winds are blowing from* the south.

3. Not to proceed during a storm, because then the lighter
parts of the lees rise and produce fermentive movements which
are always to be guarded against.

92 RACKING.

4. Never to draw off a troubled or muddy wine, for then it
must be racked again; and in that condition the deposits are
always mixed with the wine.

5. Moreover, never rack at the following periods of the vege-
tation of the vine: when the buds begin to swell, at the time of
flowering, and especially at the time when the fruit commences
to change color, in ripening.

6. Never to proceed during the heat of the day, or a south
wind, but always in the cool of the morning and during a north
wind.

7. To always make use of the sulphur match.

8. Never to leave the wine long exposed to the air.

9. Not to allow the wine to fall too far, so as not to deprive
it of its carbonic acid, which exerts a conservative effect, and
thus also to avoid too great agitation, which may be prejudicial.

10. Finally, to use the greatest care to free it from the least
traces of sediment.

I have repeated nearly the language of the author quoted, at
the expense of some repetition, because the rules are laid down
by him more minutely than by the other authors who agree with
him in general terms.

It is agreed that the most critical periods for wine on the lees
are the different periods of the vegetation above mentioned, which
vary somewhat in different climates, and they should therefore be
racked before these epochs arrive.

New Bed Wines, says Mr. Boireau, which have been properly
made, which are clear., which do not work, and which are kept
in closed cellars, should be drawn off four times during the first
year; the first racking is performed as soon as the insensible fer-
mentation has ceased, and the wine has become clear, i.e., during
the first cold weather of December; the second in March, before
the sprouting of the vine, or at the vernal equinox; the third
before the flowering of the vine, in June; and the fourth at the
autumnal equinox, in September. Machard considers that no
racking is so important as that of March, and he insists upon it
that it should never be omitted, and that it should be well done,

HACKING. 93

for if the lees are all removed then, it may even go safely till the
next vintage, and the June or July racking be omitted, except in
warm, climates; and then, as before observed, it should be done in
the cool of the day. Instead of waiting till September, the opera-
tion is often performed in August, when the grape begins to turn.
Of course, the periods change somewhat in different climates, as
already observed, so that the cellar-man must familiarize himself
with the conduct of the wine in his locality, and govern himself
accordingly, racking before the period arrives when the wine
usually works.

Old Red Wines are racked only twice a year, in the spring
and fall, before the equinoxes, except in case of their becoming-
turbid by secondary fermentations, when they must be racked,
whatever the time of year, except also in case of certain diseases.
If, however, the wine has not been well made or properly cared
for, it may show signs of fermentation arid alteration, and need
racking at periods different from those above mentioned. If the
wine does not clear of itself by the time it should be drawn off,
it may be necessary to clarify it by fining (which see). But if
well made and properly cared for, it will ordinarily clear itself.

New White Wines are racked as soon as they become clear,
and no precise epoch can be fixed for the operation, because the
duration of the fermentation depends essentially upon the density
of the must and the temperature. In any case, it is much more
prolonged than that of red wines. It often happens that it con-
tinues till the month of February, when the must is very rich in
sugar, especially if the weather is cold late in the fall; while wines
made of grapes from the same vineyard, made in the same way,
but less rich in the saccharine principle, may terminate their fer-
mentation in December.

The racking should always be performed before the weather
becomes warm, for the elevation of the temperature will set the
wine working, and the lees will become mixed with it. Ordinarily
the most favorable time is the month of February.

Subsequent RackingS. White wine, new or old, requires to
be racked three times a year, as stated in the chapter on Whita

94 RACKING.

Wine; first, in March, at the time of the sprouting of the vine,
before the equinox; secondly, at the flowering of the vine, in
June, before the summer solstice; and thirdly, in September, at
the ripening of the grape, before the autumnal equinox. (See
While Wine, Racking.)

Care to be Observed. Contact with the air should be care-
fully avoided during the operation. The same care should be
observed as in racking red wine, and the operation is performed
in the same manner, always keeping in view that what may be
essential to keep a mellow wine in condition, may to a certain
extent be neglected where dry ness is desired.

A sulphur match ought always to be burned in the cask before
wine, either red or white, is racked into it, for thus the germs of
fermentation which may be in the cask will be rendered inactive
by the sulphurous acid formed, and which will also absorb with
avidity the oxygen, and thereby in two ways tend to prevent fer-
mentation. The cask, however, should not be sulphured till well
drained, or the water remaining will be impregnated with the gas,
which is liable to give a disagreeable sulphur taste to the wine
which will not disappear for some time. (See Sulphuring.) A
cask which has been put away sulphured must for the same
reason be washed before using; and in fact no cask should be
used without washing.

Other Precautions. Great care must be taken in all cases
not to disturb the sediment by moving the cask, by pounding on
the stave to loosen the bung, or by driving in the faucet. The
latter ought to be opened before inserting it, so as to allow the air
contained in it to escape, and not to force itself into the cask and
trouble the wine, which it is liable to do by contraction and
expansion, forcing in the faucet. It should be closed as soon as
the wine begins to run. It is hardly necessary to say that an empty
bucket should be kept under, when putting in the faucet, to catch
the wine that may escape. Care must also be taken that the cask
to be filled, and all the utensils used in and about the racking,
are scrupulously clean, and buckets, hose, funnels, siphons, etc.,

RACKING.

must be washed carefully every day, for if allowed to stand with
wine in them, they will become sour. Siphons and short tubes
can be scoured by means of a brush, such as is used for cleaning
bottles and lamp chimneys, by attaching it to a long, stiff wire.

Different Methods of Racking. The commonest way is to

fig. 16.

Jack for tipping
a Cask.

Fig. 17.

draw the wine through a faucet into a bucket, and
pour it into the empty cask by means of a funnel.
The faucet is placed in a hole bored in the end of
the cask, an inch or more above the lower stave.
After the faucet has been placed in position, vent
the cask of wine, but not before. When the wine
no longer runs, the cask should be slightly tipped
forward, but by a very easy and gradual move-
ment, so as not to disturb the lees. This may
be done by a man carefully lifting the rear end.
A kind of hoisting-jack (fig. 16) is used for this
purpose. The lower end rests on the ground,
near the rear end of the cask, and the upper end
of the movable rod is placed under the upper
chime. On turning the crank the cask is tipped
gently forward, and a ratchet catches the pinion
and prevents the return. If there is not suffi-
cient space between the wall and the cask to
operate in the manner stated, one end of the
jack is placed against the wall above the cask,
and the power is applied to the upper forward
part of the cask by placing the other end behind
a forward hoop.

The fork (fig. 17) is used in the same way,
being lengthened by means of the screw. Fig.
18 represents another contrivance for the same
purpose.

Fork for tip- If Onlv ne man is em P lo y ed > a lever SU P~

ping a Cask. ported above the cask by two legs straddling

it, and forming the fulcrum, the rear end provided with a

EAGKING.

Fig. 18.

hook which hooks under the chime, and the other end extend-
ing forward beyond the front, may be used (fig. 19). The

workman, by bearing down
on the lever, or by pulling the
strap at the end, tips the cask
forward. When the wine has
nearly all run out, it should fre-
quently be examined by holding
a small quantity to the light in a
small, thin glass, and as soon as
the slightest appearance of lees
presents itself, the operation
should cease, and none of the
muddy wine should be poured
into the other cask. This method
has its advantages, in that the
first appearance of cloudiness can
be detected, for the liquid is
always under the eye of the opera-
tor, but it has the disadvantage
of greatly exposing the wine to
the air.

Implement for tipping a Cask

Fig., 19.

Another method which avoids
the last objection, is to securely
connect the faucet of the cask of
wine with the faucet of the empty
one, to open them both, and let
the wine run from one to the other.
If they are both on the same, or

Implement for tipping a Cask. nearly the same level, a portion
only will be transferred, and then the rest may be forced over by
connecting the tube of a hand-bellows tightly with the bung-
hole of the cask of wine, and blowing into it. This is easily done
by attaching the bellows by means of a hose to a long, hollow,
conical bung. (See fig. 20.) As soon as the air is heard in the
tube, close the faucet, and before removing it, bung the cask

RACKING.

tight. The remaining wine is removed as in the first method.

Fig. 20.

A Method of Racking.

Pumps and Siphons are very useful where wine is to be
merely transferred from one cask to another, but they are not
Fig. 21. Fig. 22.

Siphon. Siphon,

well suited for racking it from the lees, for it is difficult to
make use of them without disturbing the sediment, and thereby
troubling the liquid.

Figs. 21 and 22 represent two forms of siphons. They
may also consist simply of a bent tube.

Fig. 21 shows an exhausting tube attached, by which the air
is sucked out with the mouth.

98 RACKING.

Fig. 23 shows a rotary force pump for transferring wine from

Fig. 23.

Rotary Force Pump.

one cask to another. Lever force pumps are also used for the
same purpose.

CLARIFICATION. 99

CHAPTER XIII.

CLARIFICATION FINING .

When Necessary. Wines do not always acquire the desirable
state of brightness and limpidity by repose and racking, and it
becomes necessary to clarify them. They may become cloudy
through secondary fermentations, which cause the lees once
deposited to rise and become again mixed with the liquid, or
through changes of temperature, by transportation, by careless
racking, etc. , and by mixing different kinds together; or they may
fail to clear naturally, because not possessed of sufficient tannin
or albumen to precipitate the different matters held in suspension.
Weak wines of poor years may contain ferments in excess of their
sugar, which may be removed by clarification, and so fermenta-
tion be checked or retarded. Wines, however, which are well
made and properly cared for, ought to become bright without
recourse to clarification, and such will be found preferable to,
and will possess more fruitness, unctuosity, and color, than
those which have been clarified by several finings. And for these
reasons although it may be necessary to fine such wines as do
not naturally clear themselves care must be observed not to
carry the process too far, and deprive them of the tannin neces-
sary to their preservation, as well as of too much of their color,
fruity flavor, and mellowness.

The Different Substances Employed for Clarifying act

either chemically and mechanically, or simply mechanically.
Among the latter are blotting paper, either in sheets or in pulp,
fine sand, and powdered stone, which are placed in the cask, and
which in falling, carry down with them the matters which are held
in suspension. Wine is sometimes clarified by filtering it through
woolen bags. Those substances which act both chemically and
mechanically are albumen and gelatine, and similar substances.
Of Gelatinous Substances, two kinds are used, gelatine,
so-called, and isinglass, or fish glue, and they act in two ways.

100 CLARIFICATION.

They are not entirely dissolved in water; thin, transparent pelli-
cles remain in suspension, which form a sort of network in the
wine, and in settling they carry with them other insoluble matters.
Thus, their action is mechanical. The portion which is fully
dissolved is pure gelatine, and acts chemically. It combines
with the tannin of the wine and forms an insoluble substance,
tannate of gelatine, which is readily precipitated.

Gelatine, so-called, is prepared from the bones, skin, and
tendons of animals, and is sold in tablets or sheets, and is some-
times chipped or broken into small fragments. It is one of the
most powerful of finings, and causes a loss by precipitation of a
considerable portion of the tannin and of the coloring matter of
the wine. It should not, therefore, be used in clarifying red wines,
except when it is desirable to deprive them of a portion of their
roughness caused by an excess of tannin, or of a portion of their
color; and it should always be employed with caution. It pro-
duces more sediment than the two substances next named, and
leaves a bad taste in the wine, unless perfectly fresh matters have
been used in its preparation. For the latter reason, wine clarified
with it should be racked from the finings as soon as cleared. It
may be profitably used to clarify common white wines; and if
they are difficult to clarify, tannin should be added as described
below.

Preparation. Take about two tablets, or one ounce, for one
hundred gallons, or double the quantity, if the greatest possible
effect is desired. Dissolve it in a dish over the fire with a little
water, constantly stirring, and do not allow the water to boil. If
previously soaked a few hours in water, it will dissolve all the
more easily. Use as directed below.

Isinglass, Fish Glue, or Ichthyocol (Ichthyocolla of the
pharmacists), is prepared from the swimming bladder of the
sturgeon, and usually comes from Russia. It acts in the same
way as gelatine, mechanically, and also by combining with the
tannin. This is preeminently the fining for white wine. One
ounce or more may be used for 100 gallons. It should be broken
up by pounding it with a hammer on a block of wood, and

CLARIFICATION. 101

should be chopped into small fragments, so that it may be easily
dissolved. Put it in a vessel of crockery, and pour over it of the
wine to be clarified sufficient to cover it. Add another glass or
two of the wine in a few hours, when the first has been absorbed.
After about twenty-four hours it forms a jelly. This should be
thinned by adding more wine or warm water, and it should be
thoroughly worked with the hand until completely dissolved, and
then be strained through a piece of linen, using sufficient pressure
to squeeze out the mucilage. It should be thoroughly whipped
or beaten, and more wine is added if too thick. After being
prepared, it may be kept for some time in bottles, by adding a
little brandy . In clarifying sweet white wines, it is recommended
that an ounce or two of cream of tartar be added, which must
first be dissolved in warm water.

Albuminous Substances. Among these are mentioned the
blood of animals, dried or fresh, and it is a powerful clarifier.
About two quarts to 100 gallons are used, beaten up with an
equal quantity of wine. It is liable to deprive the wine of a
portion of its color, and sometimes conveys a disagreeable flavor,
particularly unless used when quite fresh. It should not be used
to clarify old or fine wines, but may be employed for new and
common ones. It is of use in clarifying white wines which have
turned yellow, for it effectually removes this color. It should be
used 'sparingly, if at all, for red wines, and the wine should be
drawn from the finings as promptly as possible.

Milk is also used in the same way and in the same quantity as
blood. It is liable to sour, and a small quantity is apt to remain
in the wine. By its use sugar of milk is introduced, which is
liable to undergo lactic and butyric fermentations, and the flavor
of sour milk and rancid butter may be communicated to the
wine. This may also be used to decolor white wine which has
become yellow.

The White of Eggs is the best of the albuminous substances
used for clarifying. It is coagulated by the alcohol and tannin,
and forms a precipitate heavier than the liquid, and as it falls, car-
ries with it the matters remaining in suspension. If the eggs are

102 CLARIFICATION.

fresh, as they always must be, there is no danger of communi-
cating any foreign flavor to the wine by their use; but it is not
advisable to use the yolks, for they injure the wine by decoloring
it, and the sulphur contained in them may communicate the odor
of sulphuretted hydrogen. This is preeminently the fining for
red wine. It is also used for the clarification of white wine, but
Machard says that it is subject to be condensed in the form of
splinters (esquilles), which obscure rather than clarify the liquid.
The whites of ten or a dozen eggs are used for 100 gallons. They
are beaten up in a small quantity of wine or water before using.

Clarifying Powders. In addition to the subtances mentioned,
there are special preparations in the form of powders, sold for
the purpose, which are highly recommended by some authors.
They are supposed to consist mainly of dried blood; directions
for using are given on the package.

Grum Arabic, about 10 ounces to 100 gallons, is also used,
but it is not readily precipitated, and is apt to remain in dissolu-
tion in the wine.

Salt is often added to the different finings, by first dissolving a
small handful in water. It renders them heavier, and as it is
insoluble in alcohol, it becomes precipitated, and thus acts in two
ways. Many authors recommend its use, but Boireau says it
should only be employed in clarifying common or very turbid
wines .

Alcohol is added with great advantage if the wines are so weak
in spirit that the finings do not act.

Tannin, however, more frequently requires to be added, for
upon it and the alcohol depends the action of the substances
employed. If the wine is not lacking in alcohol, and the finings
do not act, sufficient tannin must be added to produce the desired
effect. If the ordinary tannic acid of commerce is employed,
one-half to one ounce for 100 gallons may be used. Dissolve
2 Ib. in a quart of the strongest alcohol, 95 J , by thoroughly
shaking in a bottle of double the size. After standing twenty -four
hours it is filtered, and one gill of the solution contains one ounce

CLARIFICATION.

103

of tannic acid. This preparation of tannin, which is prepared
from nutgalls, is used for tannifying sparkling wines, because it
does not adhere to the inside of the bottle. It is preferable, how-
ever, in general to employ the tannin derived from the vine itself.
For this purpose a strong decoction is made by steeping grape
seeds, which have not undergone fermentation, in water. They
should be coarsely broken, or bruised, and boiled for several
hours. By adding from one-fourth to one-fifth of its volume of
strong alcohol of 85 per cent., it can be kept for future use. The
liquor may be filtered before adding the alcohol. Instead of the
seeds, sometimes a handful of stems are steeped, and the liquid is
used. Tannified wine may be prepared by soaking 50 or 60 Ibs.
of the bruised seeds in 100 gallons of white wine, for one or two
months. It is cared for as white wine. If only one cask is to be
treated, say 100 gallons, one-half pound of grapfe seed may be
reduced to powder and put in.

It is difficult to lay down a definite rule as to the amount of
either preparation to use, for the reason that the amount of tan-
Fig. 24. nin contained in the wine itself varies. Three or four
gallons of the tannified wine are recommended for 100
gallons, and a much smaller quantity of the first men-
tioned decoction would be equivalent in its effects, on
account of its additional strength. If, however, it is
Fig. 25. Fig. 26. found that sufficient has not been
used, the wine must be clarified
anew, and tannin added again.
By experimenting on a small quan-
tity of the wine, the proper quantity
may be ascertained.

Method of Operation. - After pre-
paring the finings as described under
the head of each of the substances
already mentioned, two or three
gallons of wine are drawn from the

Implements for stirring,

bung by the aid of a siphon, pump, or other suitable implement,

104 CLARIFICATION.

the finings are poured in, and the wine is stirred until thoroughly
mixed with them. This may be done with a stick split at the
end into three or four prongs (fig. 24), or by a sort of brush
consisting of several small bundles of bristles inserted in a stick
and at right angles to each other (fig. 25), or with a sort of bent
paddle, pierced with holes, called a whip (fig. 26). The wine
drawn out should then be replaced in the cask, which should be
completely filled, and left to rest till the wine is bright. In
filling a cask which has recently been agitated, or into which
finings have been put, a good deal of froth is frequently found
which will run out at the bung before the cask is full, and will
prevent the operator from filling it. A few smart blows on
the bung stave with a bung starter will break the bubbles and
remove the foam. The time required to clarify a cask of wine
depends somewhat upon the quality of the wine itself, and also
upon the kind of finings used. The usual time is from two
weeks to a month. In no case, however, should it be allowed to
remain on the finings after it has cleared and has ceased to
deposit, for the sediment may work up again and cloud the wine,
and if left too long in contact with the deposit, the wine may
acquire a disagreeable flavor.

If, after leaving the wine a suitable time, it still remains turbid
and continues to deposit, it should be racked into a clean cask
and fined again, adding tannin, if necessary.

SWEET WINES. 105

CHAPTEK XIV.

SWEET WINES FORTIFIED WINES.

Generally. The French give the name vins de liqueur, liqueur
wines, to sweet wines, and it is also sometimes applied to forti-
fied dry wines. Sweet wines are those which, after terminating
their active fermentation, still retain a quantity of sugar. In
order to produce natural sweet wines, it is necessary that the
must should contain a large amount of sugar; Boireau says, from
16 to 25 J Baume, or about 29 to 46 per cent. It would seem that
the latter figure is too high for a natural sweet wine, for it prob-
ably would not ferment at all, and to make a wine from a must
containing over 35 per cent, of sugar, the alcohol must be added.
(See Miusts.) He goes on to say that these wines will contain
from 15 to 16 per cent, of natural alcohol, without addition; the
sugar which they contain makes them heavier than water.

To Increase Sugar. In order to augment the amount of sugar,
the grapes are left on the vine till they become excessively ripe;
in some places the stem of the bunch is twisted on the vine to
interrupt the rising of the sap; the must is also sometimes con-
centrated by boiling; sometimes the grapes are picked and exposed
to the sun on screens or straw mats, until they become shriveled,
and sometimes they are dried in ovens.

Without Fermentation. Sometimes sweet wines are made
without allowing the must to ferment at all, by adding alcohol
till it contains 18 or 20 per cent, of spirit; thus all the sugar is
preserved. Again, they are made by mixing with dry wines
grape syrup or concentrated must, and fortifying.

Care Required. It has already been stated in the chapter on
keeping wine that these wines require less care than weaker ones.
But Mr.Boireau says that wines, whether sweet or dry, whose
strength does not exceed 16 per cent., require the same care as
ordinary wines.

106 SWEET WINES.

In order that sweet and fortified wines may be kept in store-
houses subject to great changes of temperature, in bottles upright,
or in casks in ullage in other words, under the conditions in
which brandy can be kept, they must contain 18 or 20 per cent,
of alcohol. They age sooner in casks than in bottles. (See
Aging.)

Clarification of these wines is effected by fining or by filtering.
The best finings for the purpose are those containing albumen,
such as the whites of eggs, though fresh blood may be used, but
only for the commoner wines. If they are very pasty, tannin
should be added, and then they should be clarified with a strong
dose of gelatine.

Small quantities of wine may be filtered through paper or
flannel, in closed filters.

These wines should always be allowed to rest for a while, and
then be racked before shipping, for it is rare that they do not
make a deposit. (See Fining.)

Boiling Must. Pellicot says that the common practice in
making sweet wines, is to reduce the volume of the must by one-
third, or even one-half, by boiling. They clear sooner, and
retain less of the cooked flavor if only a part is boiled, that is,
if, after boiling, one-fourth to one-third of the volume is added
of must from the sweetest varieties of grapes. In this way the
wines are more agreeable, and sooner matured. When the
boiled must is taken from the cauldron, it must be briskly stirred
with a bunch of twigs, or the like, till it ceases to smoke, in order
to remove a disagreeable flavor which wines so made may contract.
He gives it as his opinion that the greater part of the sweet wines,
even of southern countries, are made by boiling the whole or a
portion of the must, in spite of allegations to the contrary; and
he considers it an innocent and legitimate operation, the only
objection being the cooked flavor, which disappears with age.
He excepts, however, wine made from very sweet varieties, which
are ripened artificially. He also recommends that when kept in
a large cask, the lees should not be removed, as they contain a

SWEET WINES. 107

good deal of sugar. As a certain quantity is drawn off, it may
be filled each year with new wine of the same quality.

Sweet Muscat. In making sweet Muscat, fermentation should
be checked by the addition of alcohol, for if allowed to continue
too long, the Muscat flavor will disappear. And this is usually
necessary, as before stated, to keep the wines sweet.

Pressing. Where the grapes are quite ripe, and somewhat
dry, it may be difficult to extract the juice without a very pow-
erful press; under such circumstances Machard recommends that,
after crushing, the grapes be put into a vat for twenty-four or
forty-eight hours, according to the temperature, and until fer-
mentation commences, which fluidifies the must and makes it run
more freely from the press.

The Marc of Sweet Wines is useful to mix with poor white
wines to give them more sugar and more strength.

The amount of Alcohol to be added varies from two to five
per cent., or more, depending upon the amount developed by
fermentation, and the degree of sweetness desired. If the must
is not allowed to ferment at all, it must be fortified up to 18 or
20 per cent.; if, however, it is so sweet that it will not ferment,
it may be kept without the addition of alcohol, but it will be
syrup, and not wine.

Density. Dubief says that sweet wines should mark a density
of from 4 to 5 Baume, and the best of them even T.

Furmilit Wine. The following is the method given by Pellicot
as practiced by him in making wine from the Furmint grape. He
gathers the grapes when they are very ripe, and the small berries
are half dried, and then exposes them to the rays of the sun for
six or eight days, upon screens. When ready to crush, he takes
the screens to the crusher. The dryest berries are then removed
by shaking the frame, or with the hand, and put by themselves;
and the remainder are crushed in the usual manner. Then the
dry ones are crushed as well as possible, and the two kinds are
mixed together and fermented. Owing to the syrupy nature of

108 SWEET WINES.

the must, it ferments for a long time, and without much effer-
vescence. When it acquires a suitable flavor, it is drawn off, and
is then racked several times till clear.

Where the grapes are trodden, it is probably necessary to sepa-
rate the dry grapes from the rest, and crush them by themselves,
in order that they may be well crushed; but if a good crusher is
used, it would seem entirely unnecessary.

Straw Wines, according to Machard, are made as follows:
The ripest bunches are chosen, and preferably from old vines.
They are gathered when the weather is warm and dry. They are
spread upon straw, or hung up in the upper room of a house.
They are visited from time to time, and the rotten berries removed.
They are thus left till February or March, the time when straw
wine is usually made. Some, however, press in December, but the
wine has not the quality of that made later.* When sufficiently
dried the grapes are stemmed, and the remaining rotten berries
are removed. They are then crushed and pressed. The press-
ings are all mixed together. To arrive at perfection, such a wine,
he says, must be kept ten, twelve, or more years; that it need not
be racked, nor the casks made full, and that it requires no fining.

PORT WINE.

The Musts of the port wine grapes grown in the Upper Douro,
Portugal, show from 24 to 29 per cent, of sugar, according
to the variety. There are others cultivated in the district which
contain less sugar. The sweetest of all is the Bastardo. The
fermentation takes place under cover, in what is called a lagar,
which is a large stone vat, about three feet deep. According to
Dr. Bleasdale, it is necessary to gather the grapes as soon as they
are completely ripe; that the lagar or fermenting vat should be
filled as promptly as possible; that the mass should be thoroughly
stirred; that the fermentation should be tumultuous and uninter-
rupted, and that the wine should be drawn off when it has devel-
oped a vinous smell and flavor, and astringency and roughness

*It must be remembered that he is writing for the cold climate of the Jura, where the
grapes do not naturally acquire that degree of maturity necessary for aweet wines.

SWEET WINES. 109

to the taste, though all the sugar has not been fermented. The
defective grapes are picked out, and only good ones put into the
vat. As soon as the fermenting vat is filled, a sufficient number
of men enter into it to complete the treading. Three men to
each 120 gallons of must are employed, who with bare feet tread
and dance upon the grapes. If fermentation is slow in starting,
more men are put in to impart warmth, or a quantity of warm
must is added. The first treading lasts, in the instance given by
Dr. Bleasdale, six hours during the first night, and is continued
next day with two men, where three were employed the first night.
Men enter again during the active fermentation and tread to
keep down the pomace, and to extract as much coloring matter
as possible. Then the treaders leave the lagar, but the fermenta-
tion is closely watched.

The following graphic description, which differs in no essential
respect from that of Dr. Bleasdale, is from Vizitelli:

"When the mid-day meal is over, the grapes having been
already spread perfectly level in the lagar, a band of sixty men is
told off to tread them. The casa dos lagares* is a long building
with a low pointed roof, lighted with square openings along one
side, and contains four lagares, in the largest of which sufficient
grapes can be trodden at one time to produce thirty pipes of
wine.f As is universally the case in the Upper Douro, .these
lagares are of stone, and about three feet in depth. In front of
each, and on a lower level, is a small stone reservoir, called a
dorno, into which the expressed juice flows after the treading of
the grapes is concluded, and which communicates by pipes with
the huge tonels|| in the adega below, although not beneath the
lagares, being in fact in the face of the reservoirs, but on a level
some twelve feet lower, with a long, wooden staircase leading to
it. In front of the lagares runs a narrow stone ledge, to which
ascent is gained by a few steps, and here while the treading is
going on the overseers post themselves, long staves in hand, in

v Fermenting house.

tA pipe is i; wine gallons, or 115 Imperial.

y Tuus.

110 SWEET WINES.

order to see that every one performs his share of labor. The
treaders, with their white breeches well tucked up, mount into
the lagar, where they form three separate rows of ten men each
on either side of the huge, overhanging beam, and placing their
arms on each other's shoulders, commence work by raising and
lowering their feet alternately, calling out as they do so, 'Direita,
esquerda ! ' (Eight, left ! ) varying this after a time with songs arid
shoutings in order to keep the weaker and lazier ones up to the'
work, which is quite as irksome and monotonous as either tread-
mill or prison crank, which tender-hearted philanthropists
regard with so much horror. But the lagariros have something
more than singing or shouting to encourage them. Taking part
with them in the treading is a little band of musicians, with
drum, fife, fiddle, and guitar, who strike up a lively tune, while
their comrades chime in, some by whistling, others with castanets.
Occasionally, too, nips of brandy are served out, and the over-
seers present cigarettes all round, whereupon the treaders vary
their monotonous movements with a brisker measure. This first
treading, the ' sovar o vinho,' or beating the wine, as it is called,
lasts, with occasional respites and relays of fresh men, for
eighteen hours. A long interval now ensues, and then the tread-
ing or beating is resumed. By this time the grapes are pretty well
crushed, and walking over the pips and stalks strewn at the bot-
tom of the lagar, becomes something like the pilgrimages of old,
when the devout trudged wearily along with hard peas packed
between the soles of their feet and the soles of their shoes. The
lagariros, with their garments more or less bespattered with grape-
juice, move slowly about in their mauve-colored mucilaginous bath
in a listless kind of way, now smoking cigarettes, now with their
arms folded, or thrown behind their backs, or with their hands
tucked in their waistcoat pockets, or raised up to their chins, while
they support the elbow of the one arm with the hand of the other.
The fiddle strikes up anew, the drum sounds, the fife squeaks,
the guitar tinkles, and the overseers drowsily upraid. But all to
no purpose. Music has lost its inspiration, and authority its
terrors, and the men, dead beat, raise one purple leg languidly
after the other. In the still night time, with a few lanterns dimly

SWEET WINES. Ill

lighting up the gloomy casa dos lagares, such a scene as I have
here attempted to sketch has something almost weird about it.
By the time the treading is completed, the violent fermentation
of the must has commenced, and is left to follow its course.*
Accordingly, as the grapes are moderately or overripe, and the
atmospheric temperature is high or low, and it is intended that
the wine shall be sweet or dry, this fermentation will be allowed
to continue for a shorter or a longer period, varying from fifteen
hours to several days, during which time the husks and stalks of
the grapes, rising to the surface, form a thick incrustation. To
ascertain the proper moment for drawing off the wine into tonels,
recourse is usually had to the saccharometer, when, if this marks
four or five degrees, the farmer knows that the wine will be sweet;
if a smaller number of degrees are indicated, the wine will be
moderately sweet, while zero signifies that the wine will be dry.
Some farmers judge the state of the fermentation by the appear-
ance of the wine on the conventional white porcelain saucer, and
the vinous smell and flavor which it then exhibits. When it is
ascertained that the wine is sufficiently fermented, it is at once run
off into the large tonels, holding their 10 to 30 pipes each, themosto
extracted from the husks of the grapes by the application of the
huge beam press being mixed with the expressed juice resulting
from the treading. It is now that brandy not poisonous Beilin
potato spirit, but distilled from the juice of the grape is added
at the rate of 62 to 11 gallons per pipe,| if it is desired that the
wine should retain its sweetness. Should, however, the wine be
already dry, the chances are that it will receive no spirit at all.
The bungs are left out of the tonels till November, when they
are tightly replaced, and the wine remains undisturbed until the
cold weather sets in, usually during the month of December.
By this time the wine has cleared and become of a dark purple
hue. It is now drawn off its lees, and returned again to the
tonel, when it receives about 5 gallons of brandy per pipe. In

* It will be noticed that Dr. Bleasdale says that the treading is repeated during active
fermentation. Probably different practices prevail in different localities.
f About \% to 9% per cent say 5 to 10.
H-35 per ceii t.

112 SWEET WINES.

the following March it will be racked into pipes preparatory to
being sent down the Douro to the wine shippers' lodges at Villa
Nova de Gaia," a suburb of Oporto.

These Lodges or Storehouses are large, one-story buildings
above ground, dimly lighted through small windows, for Mr.
Vizitelli informs us that it is considered that ports mature less per-
fectly when subject to the influence of the light. But like other
fortified wines, exposure to the air is considered beneficial to
them; and in racking, they are drawn off into a wooden pitcher
holding about five gallons, and poured into the cask to be filled,
coming freely in contact with the air.

All Wines of Similar Character are Blended together at

the lodge, by mixing in largs vats, sometimes stirred with a large
fan operated by machinery. The blending is also performed
in casks, by pouring into each one successively a certain number
of gallons of each kind of wine, so that the contents of all the
casks will be uniform. A small quantity of spirit is usually
added at the time of cutting. After blending the wine is racked
every three months, until in a condition for shipment, which may
be in from fifteen to twenty -four months, according to quality.

Port loses its Color rapidly in Wood, and much of its full-
ness, and wines five years old cease to be regarded as shipping
wines, and are then kept in store and used to give age and char-
acter to younger wines. It is then a valuable, old, mellow, and
tawny wine, which the merchants of Oporto themselves drink.

Port Wine Contains from 18 to 23 per cent, of absolute
Alcohol after fortifying, the amount of spirit added depending
upon how much is developed by fermentation, and the amount
of sugar in the grapes. It is customary to add a small amount
whenever it is racked, and before shipping. The object of these
frequent additions is to keep up the necessary strength, for a
certain amount of alcohol is constantly evaporating while the
wine is in casks, and it may fall below the required strength if
these additions are not made.

Mr. Vizitelli has fallen into the error of stating that in dry

SWEET WINES. 113

climates wine becomes stronger by the evaporation of its watery
parts; but this is impossible, for alcohol is more volatile than
water, and whenever there is evaporation in a wine, it becomes
weaker from the loss of alcohol; and whenever a wine gains
strength by keeping, it is because the sugar contained in it has
been transformed into alcohol, etc., by fermentation, as stated in
other parts of this work.

MADEIRA.

Making. In the island of Madeira it is the practice, according
to Mr. Vizitelli, to tread the grapes thoroughly in a large, square
wooden trough, or lagar, in which they are also pressed, as in
sherry making. A great part of the juice is extracted by treading,
being strained through a basket as it runs off into casks. After
the grapes have been thoroughly trodden, the pomace is gathered
together and piled in the centre of the lagar, and pressed and
patted with the hands to extract the must, and this is repeated
three times, and finally the pomace is again raised in a mound,
wound with a rope, and pressed by means of a heavy beam sus-
pended over the lagar. This primitive method, however, can
have but little interest for the wine maker, as the essential practice
in making Madeira, or rather in the aging of it, is the application
of heat.

Casks, Treatment. The must is fermented, the wine racked
and heated, in casks holding 130 gallons. After heating, it is
stored in casks holding about 400 gallons. It is fermented in
these smaller casks with the bung open, simply covered by a
leaf, till the month of November. Either before or after the fer-
mentation, a small quantity of brandy is added, varying in
quantity according to the quality of the must, but seldom exceed-
ing three per cent. When the wine has well cleared, it is racked
and lotted, according to quality, and forwarded to the heating
house, or estufa.

Heating House, Heating. One of these at Funchal, described
by Vizitelli, consists of a block of buildings of two stories, divided
into four compartments. " In the first of these, common wines

114 SWEET WINES.

are subjected to a temperature of 140 F., derived from flues heated
with anthracite coal, for the space of three months. In the next
compartment wines of an intermediate quality are heated up to
130 J for a period of four and a-half months, while the third is
set apart for superior wines, heated variously from 110 to 120
for the term of six months. The fourth compartment, known as
the 'calor,' possesses no flues, but derives its heat, varying from
90 to 100 J , exclusively from the compartments adjacent; and
here only high-classed wines are placed." They receive a further
addition of spirit, after leaving the estufa, varying in quantity
from one to three gallons per cask, presumably to supply what
has evaporated during the heating. Wines are also heated by
exppsing them to the rays of the sun in glass houses. In the day
time a temperature of 120 to 130 is secured, which becomes con-
siderably less during the night, which change is by many considered
detrimental. Some again, put the casks out of doors in the full
sunshine. In the estufas mentioned, the pipes are placed on end
in stacks of four, with smaller casks on the top, a gangway being-
left between the different stacks. The casks are vented with a
small hole during the process. Leaking is common during the
exposure to so great a heat, and it is necessary to inspect the casks
once during every day and once during the night.

Each compartment is provided with double doors, and after it
is tilled with wine, the inner door is plastered so as to stop all
the cracks. In entering the estufa, only the outer door is opened,
entrance through the inner one being made through a small door
for the purpose. The man who examines the casks, coming out
after a stay of an hour, drinks a tumblerful of wine, and cools
off in a tight room provided for the purpose. From 10 to 15
per cent, of the wine is lost by evaporation while it remains in
the heating house.

General Treatment Alcoholic Strength. The solera system
is somewhat in vogue in Madeira, as in the sherry country. The
practice also of leaving the casks in ullage prevails a vacant
space of ten or a dozen gallons is left. On the south side of the
island 5 per cent, is the largest amount of alcohol added, and on

SWEET WINES. 115

the north side a little more, which is added at different times.
Most Madeira is dry, or nearly so, and contains about 18 per
cent, of alcohol on the average.

SHERRY.

Climate. According to General Keyes, the climate of the
sherry districts of Spain is a trifle warmer in winter and about
the same in summer as that of Napa Valley. But the seasons
are not so distinctly wet and dry as in California, and the grapes
are sometimes rained on while growing, and are frequently wet
while ripening. Neverthless, the south of Spain is a dry country.

The Vintage begins in the early part of September, at which
time the grapes are ripe, but by no means overripe, but sweet
and luscious. The grapes are picked in the early part of the
day, and spread upon mats in the sun, where they remain till the
evening of the same day, when they are crushed. General Keyes
says that they are invariably crushed in the evening of the same
day, but Mr. Vizitelli states that they remain on the straw mats
from one to three days. As both write from observation, it
would seem that the practice varies, the time of the exposure to
the sun probably depending upon the degree of maturity when
picked. The defective berries are carefully removed. The cool
of the night for crushing is preferred to the heat of the day, and
to avoid the precipitation of fermentation.

Crushing. Mr. Vizitelli's description is as follows : ' ' The press-
ing commenced between seven and eight o'clock, and was accom-
plished in a detached building under a low tiled roof, but entirely
open in front. Passing through the gateway, and stumbling in
the dim light afforded by an occasional lamp fixed against the
wall, over a rudely paved court-yard, we found ourselves beside
a row of large, stout wooden troughs, some ten feet square and a
couple of feet deep, raised about three feet from the ground, and
known in the vernacular of the vineyards as lagares. The bot-
toms of these receptacles were already strewn with grapes, lightly
sprinkled over with yeso ( gypsum ), which if spread over the whole
of the bunches, would not have been greatly in excess of the

116 SWEET WINES.

amount of dust ordinarily gathered by a similar quantity of grapes
conveyed in open baskets on the backs of mules from the vine-
yards to the pressing places in the towns. At Torre Breva, the
sixty or more arrobas of grapes (1500 Ibs.) required to make each
butt of wine, were having from two to four pounds of yeso
sprinkled over them, or about half the quantity which would be
used in a moist season. I was assured that at last year's vintage
here not a single ounce of yeso was employed in the manufacture
of upwards of 700 butts of wine. * * * Rising perpendicu-
larly in the centre of each of the four lagares to a height of about
seven feet, is a tolerably powerful screw, which is only brought
into requisition after the grapes have been thoroughly trodden.
A couple of swarthy, bare-legged pisadores leap into each lagar,
and commence spreading out the bunches with wooden shovels;
and soon the whole eight of them, in their short drawers, blue-
striped shirts, little caps, red sashes, and hob-nailed shoes, are
dancing a more or less lively measure, ankle- deep in newly-
crushed grapes. They dance in couples, one on each side of
the screw, performing certain rapid, pendulum-like movements
which are supposed to have the virtue of expressing the juice
more satisfactorily from the fruit than can be accomplished
by mere mechanical means. Their saltatory evolutions ended,
the trodden grapes are heaped up on one side and well patted
about with the shovel, like so much newly mixed mortar. This
causes the expressed juice to flow out in a dingy, brown, turgid
stream through the spout fixed in front of the lagar, into a metal
strainer, and thence into the vat placed beneath to receive it.
Fresh grapes are now spread over the bottom of the lagar, and,
after being duly danced upon, are shoveled on one side; and
this kind of thing goes on until sufficient trodden murk has been
accumulated to make what is called a pile."

Pressing. His description goes on to show that the treaders
give place to the pressers, who, with wooden shovels, build up a
mound of marc under the screw, conical in form, some five feet
high, which is neatly dressed and trimmed, and then wound
around with a straw rope or band, about four inches wide, from

SWEEI WINES. 117

base to summit. A circular piece of wood is placed on the top,
and the pressure is applied by means of the screw, the must
passing through the insterstices of the straw band.

Treading and pressing goes on nightly for fourteen hours,
with occasional intervals for refreshment.

The wine from J;he press is invariably fermented separately
from that of the first run during the treading.

All agree that the grapes are crushed without stemming, but it
seems that the practice of pressing with the stems on is not uni-
form. General Keyes says that he made careful inquiry on this
subject, and was informed that only a few of the larger stems
were removed, while Mr. Vizitelli states that the sherry wine
maker is so much afraid of tannin and roughness in the wine,
that the stems are all removed before the pomace is pressed. This
is not important, however, as the press wine is inferior, and is
usually distilled.

It is almost a universal custom to sprinkle each pressing of
grapes with two or three handfuls of gypsum, or from two to six
pounds to a butt of wine of 130 gallons, and in wet seasons, even
more. Gen. Keyes gives an instance of one wine maker who made
several casks of sherry one year without the use of gypsum, and
he found no material difference in the product, but he still follows
the custom of the country. (See Plastering.}

Fermenting. The must is run into casks of about 150 gallons
capacity, which are filled only to within ten or fifteen gallons of
their full capacity, and is left to ferment in a cool shed, or in a
place separate from the storehouse or bodega; new wine is not
fermented in the same room with the old.

As soon as the wine falls bright, which it does at any time from
January to April, it is racked and placed in the bodega, with still
a vacant space in the cask, and brandy is added equal to one or
two per cent, to the stronger wines, and three or four per cent,
to the commoner ones.

If the wine is deficient in sugar, it may clear by January, but
if rich, it may not become blight till April. During the active

118 SWEET WINES.

fermentation, the bungs, of course, are left open, and in the
bodega they are left loose, or laid over the hole.

Sometimes the wine is left undisturbed in the bodega until
required for shipment, when it is racked, clarified, and again
fortified. It is considered best, however, to rack it once a year.
The wine is now well fermented, and dry, or nearly so, and the
sugar that may be found in it after shipment, has been put in
by adding a small quantity of sweet wine.

The Bodegas, or Storehouses, in which these wines are
stored, are entirely above ground, have very thick walls and
double doors, the roof is covered with tiles, and the floor may
consist only of a mixture of sand and loam, which, when moist-
ened, is not muddy, and when dry, is not very dusty. They are
kept well ventilated, even at the expense of a good deal of loss
by evaporation, and are comparatively cool, the rays of the sun
being excluded by shutters. As only old or seasoned casks are
used for shipment, the new ones are used for fermenting the
must, and so they are seasoned.

Changes in the Wine. The young wine in the bodega now,
during the first two years, undergoes extraordinary changes.
That made from the same vineyard and of the same varieties of
grapes, crushed at the same time, placed in casks side by side,
receiving apparently identical treatment, developes totally differ-
ent characters in different butts, and is classed according to these
several characters, as Fino, Oloroso, and Basto.

The best is ftno, of a delicate, soft, mellow flavor, and pale
in color, and only from ten to twenty per cent, take this form.
The /mo, at times, develops into a still finer quality, producing
what is known as amontillado, the most valued of all.

Oloroso is a nutty flavored development rather deeper in color,
and of a stouter character; when old, it is of great body, and
perfectly dry.

The coarse, inferior kind is called basto.

There are still other casks which by bad behavior, poor fer-
mentation, or weakness, are only fit for the still.

Flowers. Sherry produces the phenomenon known an flowers

SWEET WINES. 119

of wine (micoderma rini), of which a writer under the assumed
name of Pedro Verdad, whom I have frequent occasion to quote,
says: "At every period, about the flowering of the vine, and
at about vintage time, the wine begins to ' breed; ' that is, throw
up a flor (flower), which remains for some time on. the surface,
and then falls in sediment to the bottom, when the wine once
more becomes bright. This phenomenon is looked for with
great anxiety in the bodegas, for if it does not occur, the wine
may be assuming some other and less valued character. Strange
as it may appear," he says, "I have seen the actual flor rise in a
bottle in England, just as in the butt in Spain."

Vino Dulce, or Sweet Wine, is made from the sweeter kinds
of grapes, especially the Pedro Jimenes. The grapes are exposed
to the sun, sometimes for a fortnight, and till they almost become
raisins, and they then go through the ordinary modes of crushing
and fermentation. To each butt of this wine about six or seven
gallons of spirit are added, while the must of other grapes have
as much as twenty gallons mixed with each cask of must to check
the fermentation, and keep the wine sweet. One-third of the
spirit is poured in as soon as a small portion of the must has
been put into the cask, a third when the cask is half full, and a
third when nearly three-quarters full. The reason is obvious, as
the spirit is lighter than the must, and would otherwise remain
on the top. Soleras of vino dulce are of a sweet, luscious flavor,
and of an oily and slightly glutinous consistency. The finer
kinds resemble a liqueur, and are of great value.

Vizitelli says that sweet wine is used to give softness and
roundness to old and pungent wines, as well as to the cruder,
youthful growths, and it is remarkable how very small a quantity
suffices perceptibly to modify these opposite characteristics. As
little as one per cent, of dulce will impart a softness to the drier
wines, which otherwise they only acquire after being several years
in bottle.

Color Wine (Vino de Color) is composed of a mixture of
white wine and arrope. The latter is a must of white grapes
boiled down over a slow fire till it is reduced to one-fifth or one-

120 SWEET WINES.

sixth of its orginal quantity, great care being taken to skim it
while boiling. This is a dark-colored, almost black fluid, of a
bitterish taste . It is mixed with from three to five times its volume
of white wine, and the "color" is formed.* It is chiefly used for
giving color to young and undeveloped wines. With great age,
the solera of this wine is very valuable, being of a deep brown
color, and a perfect essence.

Mature Wines. When the wines have assumed their dis-
tinctive characters and this requires from three to five, or even
more, years they are used to replenish the soleras. In the
shippers' bodega are kept many soleras, each containing a given
number of butts. A solera, whether classed as Jino, oloroso, or
otherwise, has its distinctive qualit}^ required in the preparation
of a wine for shipment. It has been reared and nursed for years
with careful attention; each butt has been tasted from time to
time, and any cask in which a material deterioration has been
detected is rejected from the solera, and probably fortified with
spirits, or distilled.

THE SOLERA SYSTEM.

The distinctive feature in the production of sherry is the solera,
which signifies foundation, and means old wine kept in casks,
which are never moved as long as the solera exists, and on the
foundation of which younger wines are reared.

The casks are arranged in groups, piled in tiers, and the groups
into scales. The distinctive feature of the system is a series,
commencing with a very old wine, followed by a younger one,
and so on down the scale to the youngest, so that when wine for
blending and shipment is drawn from the group of casks consti-
tuting the oldest solera, they are replenished from the group of
casks of the next younger solera, and these again from those of
the next younger, and so on through the scale, thus keeping up
the characters of the soleras.

Establish ina; a Solera. The following from the address of

* Vizitelli says the arrope is mixed with nine parts of rnu-t, and feru.ented to mako the
color, but theother authors say "white wine," instead <jf -must."

SWEET WINES. 121

Mr. Pohndorff before the Viticultural Convention held at San
Francisco in September, 1882, gives a good idea of how to estab-
lish a solera:

Select the finest wines of a year's vintage, put them away by
themselves, and carefully care for them and nurse them by racking,
etc., during the year. The next year, separate the finest wines
from the vintage, always leaving ullage in the casks of three to five
gallons, according to size, and the bungs loose, simply laid over
the hole. Go on in this way for five years. Now a fifth of this
five-year-old wine may be drawn off for, and used to establish
another solera, and the casks refilled from the four-year-old wine,
which, of course, must be as nearly as possible of the same
nature. With the younger wines, you may do the same, except
those of one and two years old, which are not yet soleras, but
young wines. You have then a solera of this five-year-old wine,
which is one-fifth four-year-old wine, and this may be called the
mother solera. At the end of ten years more, you can say that you
have a solera fifteen years of age; though during the period,
you have drawn off periodically a small portion of it and replaced
it with the next younger, always providing that the younger wine
is similar, for this quality is of much greater importance than
the difference of a year or two in age, for wine a year or two
younger or older, if of the same kind, will not injure the solera,
but its character may be destroyed by mixing with it wine of a
different nature.

A solera, then, really consists of a mixture of wines of differ-
ent years. The head of each cask is inscribed with the distin-
guishing mark of its solera, and the number of butts of which
it is composed.

"The Standard Soleras," says. Gen. Keyes, "are those from
which the wine is drawn for shipment, and their contents have
rested in, and permeated through, a series of groups called feed-
ers" a solera sometimes dating back a century, it is said. " At
every stage the wine is graded, so that the best young wine passes
ultimately into the oldest and highest priced solera. When there
is only a small number of feeders, say two or three, in the group

122 SWEET WINES.

next behind the standard solera, the wine ought not be drawn out
for shipment oftener than twice a year; but when there are many,
say twelve, the wine for shipment may be drawn out every two
months. To make myself understood in this complicated process,
I must explain the principle upon which it is founded. When
wine is needed for shipment, a portion, is drawn out by siphons
from the standard soleras. The amount which may be drawn
out with safety, and the kind of younger wines which are to
replace it in the old solera, requires great skill and experience,
and, I may say, a natural aptness for the business. The end in
view is. to draw off from a standard solera such a number of
gallons, that, being replaced by an equal number of gallons of
the younger wines, the standard of the solera may remain intact.
If too much is drawn out, or if it is replaced from the wrong
feeders, the standard may be injured, or even destroyed. But if
the proper number of gallons are drawn out and replaced by the
right sorts from the other casks, the old solera soon transmutes
the younger wines to its standard, the bodega retains its reputa-
tation, and the owner grows rich." He quotes Mr. Davis, of
Jerez, as follows: "The age of the first step of a solera scale
depends entirely upon the character and price of the oldest grade
of that particular solera. F.or instance, the first group of wine
in a scale of six, ending in a medium priced sherry, might be
two years old; whereas, the first group of wine to permeate
through a scale of, say four, ending in a wine of great age or
value, would, perhaps, require to be fifteen or twenty years old.
In proportion to the number of the scale behind the final solera,
so is the frequency with which the wine can be drawn determined.
In a scale of twelve, the final solera might be drawn, perhaps,
every two months. In a scale of three feeders, perhaps twice a
year."

Blending for Shipment. In the cellar a book is kept in
which is recorded the blend of each shipment made, the history
of the shipment, and all the facts necessary to its identification,
and a sample bottle of every shipment is also preserved. When an
order is received for a quantity of wine of the same kind as a

SWEET WINES. 123

former shipment, referance is made to the blend book, and recourse
is had to the sample bottle, due allowance being made for the
bottle flavor acquired by the sample, and the blend is prepared
accordingly, the necessary quantity being taken from each solera,
of which there are many in a shipping bodega, and allowance is
also made for the change that may have occurred in the solera by
replenishing. It is needless to add that only experience and
natural aptitude fit a man for this delicate operation.

If the order is by a sample whose blend is not known, the
sample is brought into the tasting office, and the blend glass
brought into requisition. It is a graduated glass tube, with
forty markings, corresponding to the number of jarras, or jars,
which a butt contains, all shipments being by the butt. The
shipping butt contains 130 gallons, and the cask for storing is
about 20 gallons larger.

The cellar-man dips out and puts into the graduated glass
amounts corresponding to the number of jars to be taken from
each solera, sweet wine being added for sweetness, and color
wine for color. As the sugar added in the sweet wine would
excite fermentation, sufficient aguardiente, spirit, must be added
to bring its alcoholic strength up to at least 18 per cent.

The right blend having been ascertained, it is left for a while,
and tasted once or twice to make sure that it is correct. If it
does not match the sample, a little of this and that solera is
added till it exactly corresponds. The blend is then entered in
the blend book, which gives the number of butts required, and
the amount to be taken from each solera. The book is then
handed in to the bodega for the execution of the blend. Sup-
posing it to be a ten-butt shipment, ten butts are brought into
the cellar, having been most carefully examined and rinsed out
with spirit. If ten jars are required from a solera of fifty butts,
two jars would be drawn from each of the fifty butts of the
solera, and put into the ten butts, and so on from each solera;
whatever the number of butts in a solera, an equal quantity of
wine is drawn from each cask.

The following samples of blends are given by Verdad:

124

SWEET WINES.

ORDINARY PALE SHERRY.

Pale soleras,
Fino soleras,
Vino dulce,
Aguardiente,

Pale soleras,
Oloroso soleras,
Vino de color,
Vino dulce,
Aguardiente, -

Pale soleras,
Oloroso,
Vino de color,
Vino dulce,
Aguardiente,

ORDINARY GOLDEN SHERRY.

ORDINARY BROWN SHERRY.

20 jarras
16 "

3 "

1 "

40 jarras

22 jarras
8J "

2 "
6 "
U "

40 jarras

23 jarras

4 "

5 "

6 "

2 "

40 jarras

Fining. After the blend is complete, the wine is fined with
the whites of eggs and fuller's earth, a kind of earth found at
Lebrija, near Jerez, and called Tierra de Lebrija. For a butt of
wine, a handful of this earth is made into a paste with the whites
of ten eggs. The paste is thrown into the cask, and the wine is
stirred in. the usual manner. (See Fining.)

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 125

CHAPTER;XV.

DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

These are Divided by Boireau into two classes: 1. Those
defects due to the nature of the soil, to fertilizers employed, to
bad processes in wine making, and to the abundance of common,
poor varieties of grapes. It is evident that defects of this class
may exist in the wines from the moment when they leave the fer-
menting vat, or the press, and they are as follows: earthy flavor,
greenness, roughness, bitterness, flavor of the stems, acidity,
want of alcohol, lack of color, dull, bluish, leaden color, flavor of
the lees, and tendency to putrid decomposition. 2. Those vices
which wines acquire after fermentation, and of which the greater
part are due to want of care, or uncleanness of the casks, and
they are: flatness, flowers, acidity (pricked wine), cask flavor,
mouldiness, bad flavors communicated by the accidental intro-
duction of foreign soluble matters, ropiness, bitterness, acrity,
flavor of fermentation, degeneracy, and putrid fermentation.

General Considerations. Before entering on the subject of
the correction and cure of defects and diseases, it is proper to say,
that whatever be the nature of the malady or defect, especially if
the bad taste is very pronounced, wine once hurt, however com-
pletely cured of the disease, will never be worth as much as a
wine of the same nature which has always had the correct flavor.

It is, therefore, wiser and more prudent, says our author, to
seek to prevent the maladies of wines, than to wait for them to
become diseased in order to cure them.

Of course, the wine maker should use every endeavor to remedy
the natural defects of his wines. And as for the wine merchant
and the consumer, they should reject all vitiated wines, unless
they can be used immediately, for they lose quality instead of
gaining by keeping.

Moreover, when a wine has a very pronounced defect, it can
rarely be used alone, either because deficient in spirit or in color,
or because the vice cannot be entirely destroyed.

126 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

It would also be a mistake to suppose that the flavor of a dis-
eased wine would be rendered inappreciable by mixing and dis-
tributing it throughout a large number of casks of sound wine;
oftener the latter would be more or less injured by the operation.
The defect of such a wine should first be removed by treating it
by itself, and then it should be mixed only with the commonest
wine in the cellar.

Each defect arid disease will be treated under its proper name,
the cause indicated, with the means to be employed to prevent,
diminish, or to remove it.

The doses in all cases, unless otherwise indicated, are according
to Mr. Boireau, who gives what is required to treat 225 litres,
but we have increased the ,dose to what is necessary for 100
gallons of wine in each case.

Any one can first try the experiment on a gallon or less by
taking a proportional amount of the substances indicated, leav-
ing the sample corked, in a cool place, for at least two days in
ordinary cases, or for eight days in case the wine is fined.

NATURAL DEFECTS.

Earthy Flavor Its Causes. It is a natural defect in the
wine, and consists of a bad taste by which the pulp and the skins
of the grapes are affected before fermentation. It occurs in wine
made from grapes grown on low, wet, swampy land, and on land
too heavily manured, or fertilized with substances which commu-
nicate a bad flavor. He says that this must not be confounded
with the^natural flavor and bouquet of the wine. Contrary to
the opinion of those cenologues who attribute this defective flavor
to the presence of essential oils, he believes that there is a sensi-
ble difference between the natural flavor (seve) and the earthy
flavor. In fact, the flavor and bouquet of wines made from
grapes of the same variety, but grown in different vineyards,
present considerable differences, which are due to the different
natures of the soils, to the different processes in wine making,
to climate, exposure, age of the wine, etc. On the other hand,
the taste and odor produced by the natural flavor and bouquet

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 127

are not entirely developed till the wine is old, and the clearing is
complete ; while the bad taste transmitted from the soil through
the sap, instead of increasing with age, diminishes, and often
finally disappears. The reason is thnt this taste being communi-
cated principally by the coloring matters of the skins, diminishes
with the deposit of these matters, according as the wine becomes
clear. It follows that certain wines may have a good flavor, and
even acquire a bouquet in aging, which while young had a dis-
agreeable earthy flavor.

He instances the wines of several crops, treated by him, having
a fine color, mellowness, and 10 per cent, of alcohol, which in
their early years had an earthy flavor so pronounced that it might
almost have been taken for a mouldy taste. This taste dimin-
ished gradually, with proper care, and finally disappeared toward
the third year; the natural flavor then developed itself, and the
wines acquired an agreeable bouquet in bottles.

Grapes from young vines planted in moist land, have an earthy
flavor more pronounced than those from older vines, grown in the
same situations, and this flavor is generally more developed in
the heavy -yielding common varieties than in the fine kinds.

How Prevented. This flavor may be sometimes diminished
or destroyed by draining the soil of the vineyard, aerating the
vines when too crowded, and by avoiding the planting of trees
in the vineyard. If it comes from too much manure, less should
be used, and less wood left on the vines.

Great care should be taken to draw such wines from the fer-
menting vat, as soon as the active fermentation is finished, for a
long sojourn in the tank with the stems and skins aggravates the
defect.

The Treatment of wines so affected differs according to their
origin, their nature, and their promise of the future; but the
condition necessary in all cases is to promptly obtain their defe-
cation or clarification, and never to allow them to remain on the
lees. They should therefore be drawn off as soon as clear, and
frequently racked to prevent the formation of voluminous deposits.

128 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

Red wines, which in spite of this defect, have a future, and
may acquire quality with age, should be racked at the beginning
of winter, again in the beginning of March, and after the second
racking should be fined with the whites of 12 eggs to 100 gallons
of wine; they are then racked again two weeks after fining.

Common red wines, without a future, dull and poor in color,
and weak in spirit, are treated in the same manner, but before
fining, a little more than a quart of alcohol of 60 to 90 per cent,
is added to facilitate the coagulation of the albumen.

In treating wines which are firm, full-bodied, and charged
with color, after the two rackings, an excellent result is obtained
by an energetic fining with about three ounces of gelatine.

Earthy white wines should be racked after completing their
fermentation, and after the addition of about an ounce of tannin
dissolved in alcohol, or the equivalent of tannified white wine.
After racking, they should be fined with about three ounces of
gelatine.

These rackings and finings precipitate the insoluble matters,
and part of the coloring matter, which is strongly impregnated
with the earthy taste, and the result is a sensible diminution of
the flavor. When not very pronounced, it is removed little by
little at each racking. But if it is very marked, the wine after
the first racking should have a little less than a quart of olive oil
thoroughly stirred into it. After a thorough agitation, the oil
should be removed by filling the cask. The oil removes with it
a portion of those matters in the wine which cause the bad
flavor. The wine is afterwards fined as above.

Some writers recommend that wine having an earthy flavor
should be mixed with wine of a better taste, as the best method
of correcting the defect; but from what has been said in the
preceding part of this chapter, it would seem to be an unsafe
practice .

The Wild Taste and Grassy Flavor are due to the same
causes, and are removed in the same way.

yiGreenness Its Causes. This is due to the presence of tartaric
acid, which it contains in excess. It gives a sour, austere taste

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 129

to the wine, which also contains malic acid, but in a less quantity.
When tasted, it produces the disagreeable sensation of unripe
fruit to the palate, sets the teeth on edge, and contracts the ner-
vous expansions of the mouth.

Greenness, as the term imports, is caused by want of maturity
of the grapes. We all know that acids abound in unripe fruit,
and it is only at the time of maturity, and under the influence of
the heat of the sun, that they disappear and are changed into
glucose or grape sugar.

A green wine, then, is an imperfect wine, which, besides this
defect, generally lacks alcohol, body, mellowness, firmness, bou-
quet, and color, because the incompletely matured grapes contain
much tartaric and malic acid, and but little grape sugar and other
mucilaginous matter, and because the matters destined to give
color to the skins, as well as the aromatic principles, are not
completely elaborated.

The only way to Prevent this Defect is to resort to means
necessary to increase the maturity of the grape, or to add sugar
to the must, neither of which will scarcely ever be found neces-
sary in California, where / the defect is not likely to exist, if the
grapes are not picked too green.

Treatment. Where the sourness is not insupportable, the
wine may be ameliorated by adding a quart or two of old brandy
for each 100 gallons.

The wine as it comes from the vat contains much more free
tartaric acid than it contains after the insensible fermentation in
the cask, because it combines with the tartrate of potash in the
wine and forms the bitartrate of potash, or cream of tartar, which
is deposited with the lees, or attaches itself to the sides of the
cask. It follows that the wine will be less green after insensible
fermentation, at the first racking, than when it was new; but if
the greenness is excessive after the insensible fermentation, the
wine still contains much free acid. The excess of acid may be
neutralized in wines which are very green by adding the proper
amount of tartrate of potash, which combines with a part of the
tartaric acid to form the bitartrate, which after a few days falls

130 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

to the bottom, or adheres to the cask. The dose varies from 10 to
24 ounces per 100 gallons of wine. Five or six gallons of wine
are drawn out of the cask, and the tartrate of potash is thrown
in by the handful, stirring the while as in the case of fining.
This treatment does not always succeed; hence, the necessity of
preventing the defect when possible.

When the greenness is not very marked, the wine may also be
mixed with an older wine, which contains but little acid and
plenty of spirit.

Lime and other alkaline substances will surely neutralize the
acid, but they injure the wine and render it unhealthy, and
should never be used.

Machard lys great stress upon the addition of brandy to such
wines, because, he says, the alcohol will precipitate the excess of
acids, and will also combine with them to form ethers which give
a delicate, balsamic odor to the wine, which is most agreeable.
(See Ethers, Bouquet.}

Roughness is due to the astringency given to the wine by the
tannin when in excess. Tannin is useful for the preservation
and the clarification of wines, and those which contain much,
with an equal amount of alcohol, keep much longer than those
which contain less, and undergo transportation better, and are
considered more healthful.

Roughness is Not a Fault, it is rather an excess of good
quality, if the rough wines have no after-taste of the stems, bit-
terness, earthy flavor, acrity, and possess a high degree of spirit,
a fruity flavor, and a good color. Such wines are precious for
fortifying, and to assist in aging those which are too feeble to
keep a long time without degenerating. When kept without
cutting, they last a long time, and end well. But they are long
in developing.

The Roughness Disappears in Time, because the tannin is
transformed into gallic acid, and besides is precipitated by other
principles contained in the wine, and by finings.

An Excess of Tannin is Avoided in strong, dark-colored,
full-bodied wines by removing all the stems, and by early drawing

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 131

from the tank. If the wines are inclined to be soft, weak, and
with but little spirit, no attempt should be made to avoid rough-
ness.

When wines are put into new casks, their roughness is increased
by the tannin derived from the oak wood of which they are madeJ
but during insensible fermentation a good deal of the tannin is
thrown down with the vegetable albumen contained in the new
wine.

How Removed. If the wines are of good body and color, the
roughness may be removed by fining them with a strong dose of
gelatine, two or three ounces to 100 gallons. As this removes a
portion of the color, it should only be resorted to in the case of
rough and dark-colored wines, to hasten their maturity.

Bitterness and Taste of the Stems Causes. Bitterness is
a disagreeable taste which, in new wines attacked by it, comes
from the dissolution of a bitter principle contained in the stems,
a principle entirely different from tannin. Sometimes it is com-
municated by the skins of certain varieties of grapes.

This is Prevented by allowing the grapes to reach complete
maturity, and above all by stemming them all, and by not leaving
the wine too long in the fermenting vat.

The Treatment is the same as for the earthy flavor, and also
afterwards pouring in a quart or more of old brandy.

The bitterness here mentioned is only that met with in new
wines, and its cause is entirely different from that found in old
wines, which is described further on.

The Taste of the Stems, which often accompanies bitterness,
is due to a prolonged immersion of the stems in the wine. It is
supposed that this defect, which gives the wine a wild and com-
mon liavor, comes from an aromatic principle contained in the
stems. It is prevented by stemming, and like natural bitterness,
diminishes with time. The treatment is the same.

An unreasonably long vatting is one of the principal causes of
bitterness and stem flavor.

132 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

Sourness Its Causes. Sourness, or heated flavor, as it is
also called, is due to the presence of acetic acid in the wine. All
wines, even the mellowest, the best made, and the best cared for,
contain some acetic acid, but in so small a quantity as to be
inappreciable to the taste. Acetic acid is produced in wines
during their fermentation in open tanks, and is due to the con-
tact of the air with the crust of the pomace. This crust or cap,
formed of skins and stems, brought to the surface by bubbles
of carbonic a'cid rising from the liquid, is exposed directly to the
air, and the alcoholic fermentation of the liquid part is soon
completed, and under the influence of the air and ferments, the
alcohol is transformed into acetic acid. This transformation is
so rapid that when the vatting is too prolonged, and the tempera-
ture is high, the exterior crust rapidly passes from acetic to
putrid fermentation.

As long as the tumultuous fermentation continues, the crust is
kept up above the surface by the bubbles of rising gas, but when
it ceases, the cap falls, and settles down into the liquid, and the
wine becomes impregnated with .the acetic acid. The wine also,
by simple contact with the crust, acquires a vinegar smell and
taste.

Wines which become pricked by contact with the air after
fermentation are treated further on under the head of Pricked
Wines.

How Prevented. The formation of acetic acid during fer-
mentation is prevented by fermenting the wines in closed or
partly closed vats, by avoiding contact of the air, by keeping the
pomace submerged, and by confining the carbonic acid in the
vat. If open vats are used, they should be only three-fourths
full, so that a layer of gas may rest upon the pomace and protect
it from the atmosphere; or the cap may be covered with a bed
of straw as soon as formed. Care should be taken to draw off as
soon as fermentation is complete.

Treatment. Wines affected in this manner cannot be expected
to acquire good qualities with age. They may be rendered pota-
ble, but their future is destroyed. Therefore, every precaution

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 133

should be taken to guard against the defect. They should be
separated from their first lees as soon as possible; consequently,
they should be drawn off as soon as the gas ceases to rise. If
they are still turbid, they should be clarified by an energetic
fining, and they should be racked from the finings the very
moment they are clear. They should be afterwards racked to
further free them from ferments. If the wines are only heated,
the odor of acetic acid will be sensibly diminished by the above
operation; but if they are decidedly pricked, the means to neu-
tralize their acid when drawn from the vat, as indicated for
Pricked Wines, should be resorted to.

Alcoholic Weakness is due to a want of sufficient spirit, caused
by an excess of water of vegetation, and the consequent lack of
sugar in the grapes. In France this defect is generally found in
wines coming from young vines planted in very fertile soils, or
from the common varieties, pruned with long canes, and pro-
ducing a great quantity of large, watery grapes. When wines
weak in alcohol contain but little tannin and color, they rapidly
degenerate, often commencing their decline during their first
year, and before their clarification is completed.

How Avoided. This defect can be corrected by planting the
proper varieties of vines, and by avoiding rich soils; but in the
climate of California there is but little danger of the wines being
too weak, unless the grapes are late varieties, and grown in very
unfavorable situations.

The Treatment of weak wines is to rid them of their ferments
as soon as possible, in order to avoid acid and putrid degenera-
tion, to which they are quite subject. This result is obtained by
drawing them off as soon as the lees are deposited. If they
remain turbid after the second racking, they should be gently
fined with the whites of nine or ten eggs to 100 gallons. The
coagulation of the albumen will be facilitated by adding one or
more quarts of strong alcohol to the wine before fining, and by
adding to the eggs a handful of common salt dissolved in a little
water. But as these wines, by themselves, are short lived, it is

134 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

necessary, in order to prolong their existence, to mix them with
firm wines, strong in body and rich in color. By adding alcohol,
they are still left dry and without fruity flavor, while if mixed
with a wine of a flavor as nearly like their own as possible, and
having a fruity flavor, and being firm and full-bodied, but not
fortified, they will acquire mellowness as*well as strength.

Want Of Color Causes. As coloring matter is not found in
the skins of grapes till they are ripe, green wines produced in
years when the grapes do not ripen well, lack color.

The amount of color may be diminished if by excess of maturity
the skins of the grapes decay.

The method of fermentation also influences more or less the
richness of the color. Those wines, in the fermentation of which
the pomace is kept constantly immersed in the liquid, dissolve
out more coloring matter than those fermented in open vats in
which the crust is raised above the surface of the must.

Some kinds of grapes naturally develop more color than
others.

How Guarded Against. It is therefore obvious, that the lack
of color may be guarded against by gathering the grapes when
they are just ripe, planting the proper varieties, and keeping the
pomace submerged during fermentation, stirring it up, if neces-
sary.

The Treatment should be such as to avoid as much as pos-
sible the precipitation of the coloring matter. They should,
therefore, be fined as little as possible, and gelatine should be
carefully avoided. If they must be fined, use the whites of eggs
and in the quantity mentioned for weak wines 10 to 100 gallons.

Of course, their color may be increased by mixing them with
darker colored wines, but in order not to affect their natural
flavor, they should be mixed only with wines of the same nature
and of the same growth.

It is not to be supposed that any one will resort to artificial
coloring of any kind.

Dull, Bluish, Lead-colored Wine, and Flavor of the Lees-
Causes. Certain wines remain turbid, and preserve a dull,

DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

leaden-color, even after insensible fermentation. This st
be due to several causes. Oftentimes young wines remain turbid
because, for want of racking at proper times, and for want of
storing in proper places, secondary fermentation has set in, which
has stirred up the lees which had been deposited at the bottom
of the cask. This also takes place when new wines are moved
before racking.

Treatment. In these cases, put them into a cellar of a con-
stant temperature, leave them quiet for a couple of weeks, and
see if they settle naturally. If not, clarify them by using the
finings appropriate to their nature.

If they are turbid on account of an unseasonable fermentation,
the first thing to do is to stop the working by racking, sulphur-
ing, etc. When, in spite of all the cares that have been bestowed
upon them, they still remain dull and difficult to clarify, while
undergoing no fermentation, the cause must be sought in the
want of tannin or alcohol.

If the difficulty is due simply to lack of spirit, the treatment
consists in adding two or three quarts of strong alcohol to each
100 gallons, mixing with the wine a fifth or a tenth of a good-bod-
ied wine of like natural flavor, and then by fining it with eggs as
mentioned for weak wines.

If the dull wine has sufficient alcohol, as shown by a pro-
nounced color, add about an ounce of tannin dissolved in
alcohol, or the equivalent of tannified wine, and fine it with
one to two ounces of gelatine .

Bluish or violet color, accompanied by a flavor of the lees,
often occurs in wines of southern countries, and is due to an
abundance of coloring matter and a lack of tartaric acid. When
the violet-colored wine has a good deal of color, and more than
nine per cent, of alcohol, the color may be changed to red by
mixing with it from one-sixth to one-fourth of green wine, which
contains an excess of tartaric acid, the natural blue color of the
grape being changed to red by the action of the acid; then about
an ounce of tannin, or the equivalent of tannified wine, should
be added, that the color may become fixed, and that clarification

136 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

may subsequently take place in a proper manner. In default of
green wine, crystalized tartaric acid may be used, which is very
soluble in wine. A small amount should be first experimented
with, in order to learn just how much to use to change the blue
of the wine to red, for we must not forget that this acid gives
greenness to the wine and thereby renders it less healthful.

If the wines are so weak in alcohol that they have but little
color, and that is blue and dull, they have a tendency to
putridity. In this case, the blue color is in fact only a com-
mencement of decomposition. It is due to an internal reaction
which transforms a part of the tartrate of potash into carbonate
of potash. Such wines have a slightly alkaline flavor, and left to
themselves in contact with the air, they become rapidly corrupt,
without completely acidifying. These wines are of the poorest
quality. This disease, which is very rare, may be prevented by
using the proper methods of vinification, and by rendering them
firmer and full-bodied by the choice of good varieties of vines.
In the treatment of such wines, some propose the use of tartaric
acid to restore them. This will turn the blue color to red, but
will not prevent the threatened decomposition. Mr. Boireau
prefers the use of about one-sixth of green wine, which contains
an abundance of the acid, and the subsequent mixing with a
strong, full-bodied wine.

Putrid Decomposition Causes. Wines are decomposed and
become putrid, on account of little spirituous strength and lack
of tannin. The weakness in alcohol is due to want of sufficient
sugar in the grapes to the excess of water of vegetation. We
see, then, that wine is predisposed to putridity when it is wanting
in these two conservative principles, alcohol and tannin. Such
wine quickly loses its color; it never becomes brilliant and limpid;
it remains turbid, and never clears completely, but continues to
deposit. The tendency to decomposition is announced by a
change of color, which becomes tawny and dull, which gives it,
though young, an appearance of worn-o\it, turbid, old wine.
Its red color is in great part deposited, and it retains only the
yellow. If the defect is not promptly remedied by fortifying, it

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 137

acquires a nauseous, putrid flavor of stagnant water; and it con-
tinues turbid, and is decomposed, without going squarely into
acetous fermentation.

How Avoided. To avoid this tendency, which is rare, means
should be employed to increase the natural sugar in the must,
and by planting proper varieties of grapes, which will produce
good, firm wines, and by choosing proper situations for the vine-
yard, and employing the best methods of vinification.

Treatment. Decomposition may be retarded in several ways:
First, by fortifying the wines, by adding tannin to them, and by
adding a sufficient quantity of rough, firm, alcoholic wine;
second, in default of a strong, full-bodied wine, brandy may be
added, or better, the tannin prepared with alcohol, so as to give
them a strength of at least ten per cent.; third, fining should be
avoided as much as possible, especially the use of finings which
precipitate the coloring matter, such as gelatine; albumen should
be used in preference, as for weak wines; fourth, the movements
of long journeys, and drawing off by the use of pumps, should be
avoided, for they are apt to increase the deposition of the color-
ing matter.

The treatment mentioned will retard the decomposition, but
will not arrest it, and such wines can never endure a long voyage
unless heavily brandied.

Several Different Natural Yices and Defects may attack the
same wine, when it should be treated for that which is most
prominent.

ACQUIRED DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

Flat Wine Flowers Causes. Flowers of wine are nothing
but a kind of mould, in the form of a whitish scum or film, com-
posed of microscopic fungi, the mycoderma vini and mycoderma
aceti, already mentioned under the head of Fermentation, and
which develop on the surface of wine left in contact with the
air. This mould, or mother, communicates to the wine a dis-
agreeable odor and flavor, and also a slight acidity, which the

138 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

French call event odor, or flavor evenle, and which may be called
flatness. The development of these organisms is due principally
to the direct exposure of the wine to the air, which favors their
growth by the evaporation of a portion of the alcohol which
exists at the surface of the liquid which is exposed, and a com-
mencement of oxidation of that which remains. The result is
that the surface of the wine becomes very weak in alcohol, and
having lost its conservative principle, it moulds. This mould
consists, as before remarked, of a vast number of small fungi.
They have a bad flavor, and are impregnated with an acidity
which comes from the action of the oxygen of the air upon the
alcohol, converting it into acetic acid.

This disease develops more or less rapidly, according to the
alcoholic strength of the wine and the temperature of the place
where it is kept. Those common, weak wines, which have only
from 7 to S per cent, of alcohol, are the first attacked; on them
flowers are developed in three or four days. Stronger wines,
which contain from 10 to 11 per cent, of spirit, resist twice as
long as the weaker ones. Fine wines of an equal strength resist
better than the common kinds; and wines which contain more
than 15 per cent, are not affected. During summer they are
much sooner affected.

Machard is of the opinion that this flavor is due to the com-
mencement of disorganization of the ferments remaining in the
wine, which, as they begin to putrify, give off ammoniacal ema-
nations. Maumene says that it is due to the loss of carbonic
acid.

To Prevent Flatness, all agree that wines should be pro-
tected from the air; for this purpose they should be kept in casks
constantly full, or in well corked bottles lying in a horizontal
position.. When it is necessary to leave ullage in the cask, a
sulphur match must be burned, and the cask tightly bunged.
( See General Treatment, Wine in Bottles, Sulphuring, etc. )

In frequently drawing from the cask, the deterioration is
retarded by taking care to admit the least possible amount of
air, just enough to let the wine run, but the evil cannot be

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 139

entirely prevented in this way; and by frequent sulphuring the
wine will acquire a disagreeable sulphur flavor; therefore, ullage
should never be left when it is possible to avoid it.

Treatment. When the wines show flowers, but have not yet
become flat, as in the case of new wines which have been neg-
lected, and have not been filled up for a week or more, and are
only affected at the surface, by filling up, the flowers may be
caused to flow out at the bung. The cask must then be well
bunged. It must afterwards be kept well filled, for besides the
flat flavor that the flowers may give the wine, they will render it
turbid on account of the acid ferments introduced, and cause it
to become pricked in the end.

Wine badly flowered, and which has acquired a decided flavor
of flatness, without being actually sour, should be filled up, and
the flowers should be allowed to pass out of the bung; it should
then be racked into a well sulphured cask, which must be com-
pletely filled. The flowers must not be allowed to become mixed
with the wine. After racking, two or three quarts of old brandy
to each 100 gallons should be added, or a few gallons of firm,
full-bodied wine, as near as possible of the same natural flavor.
It should then be well fined, using in preference the whites of
eggs (one dozen for 100 gallons, and a handful of salt dissolved
in a little water), and then it must be racked again as soon as
clear.

The object of this treatment is to extract from the wine by
racking the mould which causes the bad taste; to replace by for-
tifying, the alcohol lost by evaporation; and finally, by fining, to
remove in the lees the acid ferments, which have developed in
the form of flowers.

Yet those wines which have become badly affected through
negligence are never completely restored, and if they are fine,
delicate wines, they lose a large part of their value. Therefore,
great care should be taken to prevent this disease, which in the
end produces acidity, for, often, neglected wines are at the same
time flat and pricked.

Some authors recommend that such a wine should be again

140 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

mixed with a good, sound, fresh pomace, which has not been long
in the vat, and allowed to ferment a second time; this is called
passing it over the marc. Of course, this can only be done in the
wine making season, and cannot be resorted to by those who do
not make wine themselves, or who are at a distance from a wine
maker.

When all else fails, they recommend that several large pieces
of dry, fresh charcoal be suspended in the wine, attached to
cords to draw them out by, Maigne says, for forty-eight hours,
and Machard says, one or two weeks, renewing the charcoal from
time to time till the taste is removed.

If the wine has already become acid, charcoal will not remove
the flavor. ;

Sourness, Acidity, Pricked Wine Causes. Acidity is a sour
taste caused by the alcohol of the wine being in part changed to
acetic acid by the oxygen of the air. It is due to long contact
with the air, and it is the oxygen which produces the change, as
described under the head of Acetic Fermentation, and it is the
more rapid, according as the temperature is more elevated, and
the wine contains more ferments.

What Wines Liable to. All 'wines whose fermentation is
completed, and which have been fermented under ordinary cir-
cumstances that is, those which have received no addition of
alcohol, and no longer contain saccharine matter, are subject to
this affection when left exposed to the air.

When they have been fortified up to 18 per cent, of alcohol,
whether sweet or not, they do not sour until the alcohol has been
enfeebled by evaporation.

If they contain sugar, although not fortified, a new fermenta-
tion takes place, and they do not acidify until the greater part of
the sugar has been transformed into alcohol. Machard, how-
ever, says that wines which contain a good deal of sugar do often
acidify, and in the experience of others, there is a continuous
fermentation, which renders them very liable to become pricked.

As the acetic acid is formed at the expense of the alcohol, the

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 141

more the wine contains of the former the less will it have of the
latter.

Acidity is Prevented by giving wines proper care and atten-
tion, and by keeping them in suitable places, and by using the
precautions indicated for flat or flowered wines, i.e., by avoiding
long contact with the air. Flowers are the forerunners of acidity;
yet they do not always appear before the wine is pricked, espe-
cially if the temperature is elevated, and the alcoholic strength
considerable. In general, wines become pricked without pro-
ducing flowers when they are exposed to the air at a temperature
of 77 to 100 F.; acidity is produced under these conditions in
a very rapid manner; and this is why extra precautions should
be taken during hot weather. It should also be remembered that
thisvicecom.es either from the negligence of the cellar-man to guard
the wines from contact with the air, or from the bad slate of the
casks, and storing in unsuitable places.

Treatment. Acetic acid in wine may be in great part neutral-
ized by several alkaline substances; but, if used, there remain
in solution in the wine certain salts ( acetates and tartrates) formed
by the combination of the acetic and tartaric acid with the alka-
line bases introduced. These alkaline substances not only neu-
tralize the acetic acid, but also the vegetable acids contained in
the wine. These neutral salts are not perfectly wholesome, being
generally laxative in their nature. Moreover, the acetic acid can-
not be completely neutralized by the employment of caustic alka-
lies (potash, soda, quicklime), and these bases decompose the
wine and cause the dissolution and precipitation of the coloring
matter, and render it unfit to drink by reason of the bitterness
which they communicate. It is necessary, therefore, to choose
for the treatment of pricked wines, those alkaline matters which
are the most likely to neutralize the excess of acetic acid without
altering the constitution of the wine, without precipitating their
color, and which produce by combination the least soluble and
least unwholesome salts.

Those which should be employed in preference to others are,
carbonate of magnesium, tartrate of potassium, and lime water.

142 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

The following substances should only be employed when it is
impossible to obtain those last mentioned, for the reason that the
salts remaining in solution in the wine may cause loss of color,
and even decomposition, if used in large doses, i. e.,wood ashes
(ashes from vine cuttings being preferred as containing much
of the salts of potash); powdered chalk and marble (composed
of the subcarbonates of lime, marble dust being the purer);
solutions of the sub-carbonates of potash, and of the subcar-
bonate of soda, and plaster.

In Using the Substances, it is always best to experiment with
a small quantity of wine, being careful to employ a dose propor-
tioned to the extent of the degree of acidity. Thus, to a quart
of wine add 15 or 20 grains of carbonate of magnesia (1 or 2
grammes per litre), little by little, shaking the bottle the while;
again, but only when the wine is badly pricked, slack a suitable
quantity of quicklime in water, and let it settle till the surface
water becomes* clear. Then add to the wine which has already
received the carbonate of magnesia, 5 or 6 fluidrams of the lime
water (2 centilitres), and shake the mixture; then pour in 2 or 3
fluidrams of alcohol (1 centilitre), and finally clarify it with
albumen, using fresh milk in preference, from 1^ to 3 fluidrams
to a quart (i to 1 centilitre to a litre); cork the bottle, shake it
well, and let it rest for three or four days, when by comparing
the sample treated with the pricked wine, the effect will be seen.

This treatment varies according to the nature of the wine. If
it is green and pricked, add 15 grains (1 gramme per litre) of
tartrate of potassium to the magnesia; and if the wine has a dull
color, after having added the milk, put in about 3 grains (22
centigrammes) of gelatine dissolved in about a fluidram (5 centi-
litre) of water; if the wine is turbid and hard to clarify, add a
little more than a grain (8 centigrammes) of tannin in powder,
before putting in the milk and gelatine.

Of course, the same proportion should be used in operating
upon a larger quantity of wine.

If carbonate of magnesium, which is preferable to all others,
cannot be obtained, the dose of lime water may be doubled, and

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 143

in default of lime, powdered chalk, or marble and vine ash may
be used, but with great prudence, and in smaller proportions, or
solutions of the sub-carbonates of potash and soda. Great care
should be exercised as to the quantity of the latter used, and
they should not be employed in treating wine slightly attacked.

Mr. Boireau prefers the carbonate of magnesium to any other
alkaline substance, because it affects the color less, and does not
give bitterness to the pricked wines, nor render them unwhole-
some, as do the salts formed by alkalies with a potash, lime, or
soda base. In medicine, carbonate of magnesium is used to cor-
rect sourness of the stomach (so also, we might add, is carbonate
of sodium). For the same reason, decanted lime water is pre-
ferred to the sub-carbonate of lime, employed in the form of
marble dust and powdered chalk; nevertheless, lime water in
large doses makes a wine weak and bitter.

Brandy is added to these wines in order to replace the alcohol
lost in the production of acetic acid. The preference given to
milk for fining is founded upon the fact that it is alkaline, and
therefore assists in removing the acid flavor of the wine while
clarifying it. It is alkaline, however, only when it is fresh;
skim-milk a day old is acid, and should not be used. Finally,
the tartrate and carbonate of potassium employed to treat green
and pricked wines, are used to neutralize the tartaric acid, and
gelatine and tannin to facilitate the clarification and the precipi-
tation of acid ferments.

Wines whose acid has been neutralized should be clarified, and
then racked as soon as perfectly clear, according to the methods
pointed out.

The acetic acid being formed at the expense of alcohol, the
more acid the less alcohol, and hence the necessity of adding
spirit, or, if the acidity is not too pronounced, of mixing with a
full-bodied but ordinary wine; but those wines should not be
kept, as they always retain acid principles, become dry, and turn
again at the least contact with the air. If they are very bad,
and their alcoholic strength much enfeebled, they had better be
made into vinegar.

144 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

Machard's Treatment. Machard says that the most success-
ful treatment for sour wine employ egi by him, is that founded
upon the affinity of vegetable substances for acids, and that he
has succeeded beyond his hopes in completely removing the acid
from a wine which was so sour that it could not be drank with-
out seriously disagreeing with the person drinking it. This is
his method of proceeding.

He formed a long chaplet, six feet or so in length, by cutting
carrots into short, thin pieces, and stringing them on a cord.
This he suspended in the wine through the bung for six weeks,
and at the end of the time he did not find the least trace of acetic
acid, thereby accomplishing what he had for a long time in vain
attempted. He says that this is the only treatment that succeeded
with him, and he confidently recommends it to others. But he
advises that the carrots be left in the wine at least a month and
a-half , protecting the wine from the air. And he says that there
is no danger of injuring the wine by long contact with the car-
rots, or by using a large quantity of them.

Other Methods. Maigne says that if the wine is only affected
at the surface from leaving ullage in the cask, the bad air should
be expelled by using a hand-bellows; when a piece of sulphur
match will burn in the cask, the air has been purified. Then
take a loaf of bread, warm as it comes from the oven, and place it
upon the bung in such a way as to close it. When the loaf has
become cold, remove it, rack the wine into a well sulphured cask,
being careful to provide the faucet with a strainer of crape or
similar fabric, so as to keep the flowers from becoming mixed
with the wine. It will be observed that the bread absorbs a good
deal of the acid, and the operation should be repeated as often
as necessary.

Another plan is to take the meats of 60 walnuts for 100 gallons
of wine, break each into four pieces, and roast them as you would
coffee; throw them, still hot, into the cask, after having drawn
out a few quarts of wine. Fine the wine, and rack when clear,
and if the acidity is very bad, repeat the operation.

A half pound of roasted wheat will produce the same effect.

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 145

He also gives the following method for using marble dust.
Take of

White marble, - 12 Ibs.

Sugar, 18 Ibs.

Animal charcoal, washed with boiling water, 6 ozs.

Take of this from 3 to 6 Ibs. to 100 gallons of wine, according
to the degree of acidity ; dissolve it in two or three gallons of the
wine and pour into the cask. Shake it well, and continue the
agitation from time to time, for twenty -four or thirty -six hours,
till the wine has lost its acidity, taking care to leave the bung
open to allow the escape of the carbonic acid which is gen-
erated. At the end of the time, add of cream of tartar one-
half as much as the dose employed; shake again, from time to
time, and at the end of five or six hours, draw the wine off and
fine it. If, at the end of the first twenty -four hours, the wine is
still acid, add a little more of the powder before putting in the
cream of tartar.

In answer to the objections that the charcoal removes the color
and bouquet of the wine, and that the acetate of potassium formed
injures the wine, he says that the charcoal would not hurt a
white wine, and would have but little effect upon a red wine;
and as to the bouquet, that wines which have become sour have
none, and that the acetate of potassium has no perceptible effect
upon the health.

Instead of the preceding powder, the following may be em-
ployed :

White marble, in fine powder, - 12 Ibs.

( for ordinary wine, - 4 ozs.

Animal charcoal i /

( lor line wine, - 2 ozs.

Sugar, - 1 lb.

From 5 to 7 Ibs. of this are used for 100 gallons of wine, and
one-half the quantity of cream of tartar in fine powder is then
added, in the manner above mentioned.

Cask Flavor, or Barrel Flavor Causes. This, says Mr.
Boireau, should not be confounded with the wood flavor derived

146 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

from oak wood, and w<hich wines habitually contract when stored
in new casks, and which comes from aromatic principles con-
tained in the oak. This barrel flavor is a bad taste, which appears
to come from an essence of a disagreeable taste and smell, and
which is the result of a special decay of the wood of the cask.
This vice is rare. It is impossible for the cooper to prevent it,
for he cannot recognize the staves so affected, so as to reject
them. For those pieces of wood which have a disagreeable
smell when worked, or show reddish veins, blotched with white,
often produce casks which give no bad taste to the wine, while
other staves selected with the utmost care, sometimes produce
that effect, and even in the latter case it is impossible to point
out the staves which cause the trouble. When such a cask is
found, the only way is to draw off the wine, and not use the
cask a second time.

The Treatment for wines which have contracted a bad taste
of the cask, is to rack them into a sweet cask, previously sul-
phured, to remove them from contact with the wood which has
caused the trouble. The bad taste may be lessened by mixing
in the wine a quart or two of sweet oil, and thoroughly stirring
it for five minutes, first removing a few quarts of wine from the
cask to permit of the agitation. The oil is removed from the
surface by means of a taster, or pipette, as the cask is filled up.
The wine should then be thoroughly fined, either with whites of
eggs or gelatine, according to its nature, and racked at the end
of one or two weeks.

The reason for the treatment is that the fixed oil takes up the
volatile essential oil, which apparently produces the bad flavor.
The olive oil used contracts a decided flavor of the cask.

This treatment diminishes the cask flavor, but rarely entirely
removes it.

Maigne says that to succeed well by this process, the oil should
be frequently mixed with the wine, by stirring it often for two or
three minutes at a time, during a period of eight days. It is
also necessary that the oil be fresh, inodorous, and of good
quality, and of the last crop.

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 147

The same author gives another process, that of mixing with
the wine sufficient sugar or must to set up active fermentation.
After the fermentation has ceased, fine and rack.

This author also mentions other methods of treatment, but as
olive oil is the remedy more generally used, it is not worth while
to give them at length; suffice it to say, that the substances
recommended are, a roasted carrot suspended in the wine for a
week; a couple of pounds of roasted wheat suspended in the
wine for six or eight hours in a small sack; the use of roasted
walnuts, as mentioned for sourness; and two or three ounces of
bruised peach pits, soaked two weeks in the wine.

Mouldy Flavor Bad Taste Produced by Foreign Matters.

Wine contracts a musty or mouldy flavor by its sojourn in casks
which have become mouldy inside, on account of negligence and
want of proper care, as by leaving them empty without sulphur-
ing and bunging. (See Casks.) The mould in empty casks is
whitish, and consists of microscopic fungi, which are developed
under the influence of humidity and darkness. The bad flavor
appears to be due to the presence of an essential oil of a disagree-
able taste and smell.

Prevention and Treatment. It is prevented by carefully
examining the casks before filling them, and by avoiding the use
of those which have a mouldy smell. Wines affected by this
flavor require the same treatment as those affected with cask
flavor.

Maigne says that this taste may also be corrected by applying
a loaf of warm bread to the open bung, or by suspending in the
wine a half-baked loaf of milk bread. The operation should be
repeated in three or four days.

Foreign Flavors. Wines which have contracted foreign
flavors, either by being kept in casks which have been used for
liquors of decided flavors and odors, such as anisette, absinthe,
rum, etc., or from contact with substances having good or bad
odors, owe their taste to the dissolution in them of a part of the
essential oil which those substances contain, and should be

148 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

treated in the same manner. The chief thing is to remove the
cause, by changing the cask, for if the foreign taste and smell
become very marked, they cannot be completely destroyed; they
can only be rendered tolerable by mixing them with sound wines.

Ropiness is the name applied to a viscous fermentation which
takes place in wine, making it slimy in appearance. It is met
with more particularly in white wines, which contain albuminous
matters in suspension, and but little tannin. It is not a very
serious difficulty, for it can be easily corrected. It is only neces-
sary to tannify the wine by adding 12 or 15 quarts of tannified
wine, well stirred in with a whip as in fining, or an ounce or two
of tannin dissolved in alcohol for each 100 gallons. The tannin
combines with the viscous matter and precipitates it, so that in
removing the ropiness the wine is fined at the same time. It
should be racked from the finings after about two weeks' repose.

And we may add that grapes which produce wines predisposed
to ropiness ought not to be stemmed, or the must should be fer-
mented with at least a portion of the stems.

Mr. Machard says that this disease is also due sometimes to
lack of tartaric acid, and that it may be cured by supplying this
substance, and setting up fermentation again. For 100 gallons
of wine, about a pound of tartaric acid should be dissolved in
hot water, to which the same quantity of sugar is added, and
when dissolved, the whole is poured warm into the cask contain-
ing the ropy wine. Then replace the bung, and give the cask a
thorough rolling for six or eight minutes. A small hole is pre-
viously bored near the bung and closed with a spigot, which is
removed after rolling the cask, to allow the gas to escape. After
resting two or three days, the wine, which we suppose to be a
white wine, should be fined with isinglass.

Ropy Wines in Bottles generally cure themselves, but they
must not be disturbed until the deposit changes color and takes
a brownish tinge. Then is the time to decant them for drinking.

Ropiness may also be Cured by passing the wine over the
marc again. But only good, fresh pomace should be used, which

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 149

is but a few days old. This is done by mixing the wine with the
marc of three times the quantity of wine, and stirring* from time
to time till fermentation is established. After the fermentation,
the press wine may be mixed with the rest.

The author does not state whether this is to be done in the case
of white wine or red wine, or both, but it is apparent that it
would be subjecting a white wine to a very unusual operation.
Fresh lees may also be mixed with the wine instead of the marc.
Sometimes it is only necessary to let the wine fall into one vessel
from another at a little height, several times, or to give it a
thorough agitation by stirring it, or by driving it about for a few
hours in a vehicle over a rough road.

Alum has been sometimes recommended, but it is now con-
demned as unwholesome.

Other means have been suggested, but these will suffice; and
it is agreed by all that tannin is the sovereign remedy.

It is best to avoid the use of sulphur in treating ropy wines,
for fermentation is to be encouraged rather than checked.

Acrity. An acrid taste, with which certain wines are affected
as they grow old, is a sign of degeneration. Mr. Boireau says
that he has reason to believe that this disease is due to the pres-
ence of acetic acid, coupled with the precipitation of the mucil-
ages which give the mellow flavor to wine. It is more often
observed in old, dry wine, improperly cared for, and conse-
quently deprived of its fruity flavor.

The Proper Treatment is to remove the acetic acid by using a
gramme or two per litre (60 to 120 grains to a gallon) of car-
bonate of magnesium. (See Sourness, Pricked Wines.) If the
acrity is not too great, wines may be fortified, or mixed with a
strong, young, clean-tasting wine of the same nature, after
which they should be fined.

Bitterness, which is often a natural defect (which has already
been considered), becomes an accidental defect when developed
in old wines which were previously sou ad. It is almost always
a commencement of degeneration. This bitter taste comes prin-

150 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

cipally from those combinations which are formed by the dissolu-
tion of the coloring matter, and by the precipitation of the
mucilaginous substances, the pectines, which give the wine unc-
tuosity and its fruity flavor.

Treatment. The way to diminish this bitterness is to fortify
and regenerate the bitter wine which has entered on its decline*,
by mixing it with wine of the same nature, but young, stout, and
full-bodied, and which have not yet reached maturity. The mix-
ture should be fined with albumen, and racked after resting a
fortnight. The wine may be improved in this way, but the bitter-
ness will reappear in a few months. It should, thererore, be used
as soon as possible.

Machard recommends the following: Fine the wine with eggs,
and let it rest till clear. Burn in a clean cask a quarter or a half
of a sulphur match (for 60 gallons), and pour in the bitter wine
at once with the smoke in the cask, after having added to each
litre of the wine about one gramme of tartaric acid (say GO
grains to the gallon), dissolved in warm water. It must then be
mixed with from a fourth to a half of old wine, firm and well
preserved. He says that a new wine to mix with it is not suit-
able, not having sufficient affinity for the old.

Where there is such a difference of opinion as there is between
these two authors, one recommending the mixture of new wine,
and the other forbidding it, every one had better experiment
for himself with a small quantity, and after the cut wines have
become thoroughly amalgamated, a choice can be made.

And yet, Mr. Machard says that if the bitterness is not very
great, it is better to give them no other treatment than simply
mixing them with younger ones, but which have a tendency to
become sour, or are already slightly pricked.

Mr. Maumene Distinguishes Two Kinds of Bitterness:

1. The nitrogenous matters, under certain circumstances not well
understood, appear to be changed into a bitter product, and
entirely spoil the best wine. This effect depends especially upon
the elevation of the temperature and the old age of the wine. He
says that he knows of but one way to remove this bitterness, and

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 151

that is to add a small quantity of liine. For example, 25 to 50
centigrammes per litre (say 15 to 30 grains per gallon). The lime
should be perfectly new and fresh. It is slacked in a little water
or wine, and poured into the cask; after stirring well, it is left to
rest for two or three days, and then racked and fined. Probably
the lime combines with the nitrogenous matters, gives an insolu-
ble compound, which separates from the wine, and restores to it
its former flavor. The wine ought to remain acid after this treat-
ment. He says that it has succeeded with him a great number
of times. 2. Another cause of bitterness appears to him to be
the formation of the brown resin of ammoniacal aldehyde, under
the influence of oxygen. The ferment which adheres to the
inside of the cask gives a little ammonia by decomposition.

We see how the wine, under the influence of the air, produces
a little aldehyde, the ammoniacal aldehyde, and finally the very
bitter brown resin, whose formation was made known by Liebig.
It is under these circumstances that sulphuring may be employed
as a remedy. The sulphurous acid destroys the resinous matter
in taking its oxygen to become sulphuric. There is then made
sulphate of ammonia and pure aldehyde. These two substances
by no means communicate to the wine the disagreeable flavor of
the brown resin from which they are derived.

Another origin of bitterness is given, that of the oxidation of
the coloring matter, but there is no positive proof of this any
more than there is of the two causes mentioned by him. Unfor-
tunately, the whole matter is hypothetical.

Fermentation and Taste of the Lees Yeasty Flavor. By

the term fermentation in this connection we mean the malady
which is known in different parts of France by various names,
such as la poasse, vins monies, foarnes, fares, a I'ecliaiid. It gen-
erally attacks those wines which are grown in low places, which
come from poor varieties of grapes, or are produced in bad sea-
sons, are weak, full of ferments, and thereby liable to work.

Mr. Boireau gives it the name of gout de travail, working taste,
or fermentation flavor. He says that the taste is due to the
presence of carbonic acid, disengaged during secondary alcoholic

152 DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

fermentation, by reason of saccharine matter contained in the
wine, or of mucilaginous matters which give them their mellow-
ness. The principal cause of fermentation is the presence of
these matters joined with ferments, and takes place in an ele-
vated temperature.

The yeasty flavor comes from the mixture in the wine of the
lees and deposits already precipitated, and which are again
brought into suspension by the movement of fermentation.

How Prevented. Fermentation and the consequent taste of
the lees are prevented by making and fermenting the wines under
proper conditions, keeping them in an even temperature, and by
separating them from their lees by well-timed rackings, as detailed
in the chapters on General Treatment, Racking, etc.

Treatment. The working is stopped by racking the wines
into sulphured casks, and placing them in cellars of a cool and
even temperature. (See Sulphuring, etc.) If they have become
turbid, they must be fined, and they must be left on the finings
only as long as is strictly necessary for their clarification.

Machard recommends that about a quart of alcohol for 100
gallons of wine, or its equivalent of old brandy, be introduced
into the sulphured cask before drawing the wine into it, and
that it be fined in all cases.

Degeneration Putrid Fermentation. We are warned of
degeneration in wines a long time in advance, in divers manners:
by the loss of their fruity flavor, by bitterness, acrity, etc.; but
the true symptoms in old wine are, the more abundant precipita-
tion of their blue coloring matter, a heavy and tawny aspect,
with a slightly putrid flavor. The principal causes are the same
as those mentioned in speaking of the putrid decomposition in
new wines, that is, feebleness in alcohol, and lack of tannin.

We know that by the time the tannin is transformed into gallic
acid, the alcohol is diminished by slow evaporation, and it follows
that wines which are too old have lost a part of those principles
which give them their keeping qualities, alcohol and tannin.

The Duration of Different Wines is exceedingly unequal,

DEFECTS AND DISEASES. 153

and, like animate beings, they display marked differences in
constitution. There are very feeble wines, as we have already
seen, which are in the way of degeneration the first year, while
others, firm and full-bodied, gain in quality for four, six, ten,
and more years. As soon as it is seen that a wine, by its taste
and appearance, has commenced to degenerate, it is important to
arrest the degeneration at once.

Treatment. Degeneration may be retarded by adding tannin,
but it is preferable, in most cases, to mix the wine with younger
wines of the same nature, firm, full-bodied, which are improving,
and consequently possess an excess of those qualities which are
wanting in the degenerating wine. (See Wine in Bottles.]

154 WINE IN BOTTLES.

CHAPTER XVI.

WINE IN BOTTLES.

When Ready for Bottling. Wines should not be bottled till
their insensible fermentation is entirely completed, have become
entirely freed from deposits, excess of color, salts, and ferments,
and have become perfectly bright. If they are bottled before
these conditions are fulfilled, deposits are made in the bottles,
the wines may contract bitterness and a taste of the lees, and if
fermentation is violent, the bottles may burst. When they are
bottled too young they are sure to deposit, and then they must
be decanted.

The Length of Time that They Require to Remain in Wood

before being ready for bottling, depends upon the strength and
quality of the wines, and the conditions under which they are
kept.

Weak wines, feeble in color and spirit, mature rapidly, while
firm, full-bodied wines, rich in color and alcohol, require a
longer time to become sufficiently ripe to admit of bottling.

The older writers say that wines should not be put into glass
until they have become fully ripe, and have become tawny (if red),
and have developed a bouquet. But Boireau says that this is not
the proper practice. He says that wine is fit for bottling when
freed from its sediment, and when there is hardly any deposit
formed in the cask at the semi-annual racking when its color is
bright, and it has lost its roughness or harshness, which it pos-
sesses while young, and at the same time preserves its mellowness.
If left in the cask till a bouquet is developed, wines will often be
found to be in a decline by the time they are bottled, and will
not keep as long as those bottled previous to the development of
their bouquet, and while they still possess their fruity flavor.
But greater precautions must be taken to insure their limpidity,
or they will be liable to deposit heavily in the bottle. And
Machard, who indicates aroma and color as signs of proper

WINE IN BOTTLES. 155

maturity, though laying more stress upon the taste, says that it
is always better to be a little too soon than to wait till the wine
passes the point.

Some wines are fit for the bottle at one year old, others require
to be kept from two to six years, and some even ten years, or
longer, in wood. White wine, generally speaking, matures earlier
than red.

How Prepared for Bottling. Although a wine may appear
perfectly limpid to the eye, yet, when bottled, it may make a con-
siderable deposit, and therefore, the only safety is to carefully
rack and fine it to get rid of the insoluble matters in suspension.
If it is not clear after one fining, it must be drawn off and the
process repeated. When fined and cleared, it is better to rack
again into a cask slightly sulphured, and allow it to rest for
three or four weeks before drawing into the bottles; for if drawn
from a cask still containing the finings, the sediment is liable to
be stirred up by the movement of the liquid. If this is not done,
the faucet should be fixed in place at the time of fining and
before the wine has settled, and at the same time the cask should
be slightly inclined forward and blocked in that position, and
other precautions must be taken not to disturb the cask after the
wine has cleared. If the wine is too feeble to allow of fining
without injury, and one is sure of its perfect limpidity, the
fining had better be dispensed with. Very young wines may be
bottled after subjecting them to repeated finings, but it will
deprive them of some of their good qualities. (See Fining.) It
often happens that a well-covered, or dark-colored wine will
deposit considerable color in the bottle after one fining; such
wine should be twice fined, and twice racked before fining, say,
once in December or January, and again in March.

The Most Favorable Time for Bottling is during cool, dry
weather, but in cellars of uniform temperature, it may be done
at any time. It is better, if possible, to avoid warm or stormy
weather, and those critical periods in the growth of the vine
referred to in the chapter on Racking. Of course, the wine should
not be bottled if it shows signs of fermentation.

156

WINE IN BOTTLES.

Bottle Washer.

Bottles should always be carefully washed and drained before
using. Theyjire best washed by the use of a machine made for
the purpose, which scrubs them inside and sometimes, also,
Fin. 27. outside with a brush (fig. 27).

If only a small number of bottles
are to be cleaned, it may be done
by using the chain made for the
purpose, or by putting in coarse
sand or gravel and water, and
thoroughly shaking them. Shot
must not be used, for a portion
of the lead will be dissolved by
the water, and if any remains in
the bottle it will be acted upon
by the wine, and lead poisoning
may result. In many cases it will
be necessary only to rinse them
out with clean water. Whether new or second-hand, they must
be scrupulously clean before using. After the bottles are rinsed,
Fig. 28. they should be allowed to drain by leaving them
inverted for an hour or two in a dry place; if they
are left in a damp cellar, they are liable to contract a
musty flavor within. They may be drained by placing
*the necks downward through holes bored in a plank,
by inverting them in boxes or baskets, or by placing
them upon pegs or nails driven into a post, and
inclining upwards sufficiently to leave the opening
of the bottle down, when the neck is slipped over
Fig. 29. the peg or nail. Figs.

28 and 29 show devices
for the purpose. The
bottles are sometimes
rinsed out with wine,
Bottle Drainers. or if intended to con-

tain very poor, weak wine, with a little brandy. This is done by
pouring the liquor from one bottle to another.

WINE IN BOTTLES.

157

It is best to use bottles uniform in size for each lot of wine,
and certainly to reject those which are cracked, have large blis-
ters, and those which are very thin. These latter, however, may
be employed, if but little pressure is used in corking, but they
should be placed by themselves, or on the top of the pile. No
one would make use of such bottles except to store wine for his
own consumption.

Clear and transparent bottles are used for white wine, and
those of colored glass for red. Hock, however, is often put in
brownish bottles, conical in shape. White wines which are per-
fectly limpid show to advantage in clear bottles, but red wines,
if stored in such, are liable to lose their color by the action of
light.

It is important that the glass of which wine bottles are made
should not contain too much soda, potash, or lime, or they may
combine with the acids, and injure the wine. By the use of
crude soda, alkaline sulphites may be formed in the glass, and
communicate an odor of sulphuretted hydrogen to the wine.

Filling the Kottles. If the faucet has not previously been
placed in the cask, it must now be done with great care, so as not

Fig. 30.

Reservoir for ulling Bottles.

to disturb any lees that may have
remained at the last racking. The
faucet should be put into the cask
open, as for racking, and with very
light blows of the hammer. A
shallow dish or bucket is placed
under the faucet in which the bottle
stands. An ordinary brass faucet
may be used, or the bottles may be
filled much more rapidly by draw-
ing the wine from the cask into a
reservoir provided with as many
faucets or tubes as bottles which it
is desired to fill at the same time
(fig. 30) . The cask must be vented

either by making a gimlet hole or two near the bung, or the bung

158 WINE IN BOTTLES.

must be removed. The latter, however, must not be done by
blows with the bung-starter, but by using the bung-screw (fig. 31) ,
Fig. 31. or the lees will be stirred up. The bottle should

not be placed upright so that the wine will fall
directly to the bottom, but should be slightly
inclined so as to permit the wine to trickle down
the inside, or a foam will be formed, and it will
be difficult to fill the bottle. The workman
having his empty bottles within reach, allows a
little of the first wine to run into the dish, or
into a bottle, which is put aside, as there may
Bung Screw. be some impurities in the faucet. The work-
man is seated in front of the cask, and the empty bottles are
placed one at a time under the faucet as described. As soon as
one bottle is filled, it is removed and another put in its place,
without closing the faucet, and without loss of wine. The sedi-
ment would be disturbed by the shocks caused by opening and
shutting the faucet.

If the needle is used in corking the bottles, they should be
filled within a little more than an inch of the top, and if corked
in the ordinary manner, only to within about two inches of the
opening, leaving an inch of vacancy below the cork ; always,
however, depending somewhat upon the length of the corks
used. This is continued, placing the full bottles in a convenient
place, until the wine ceases to run at the faucet. The cask must
then be slightly inclined forward, as described in the case of
racking. At this stage, great care must be taken not to trouble
the wine; and if a few bottles at the end contain that which is
not clear, they should be put aside, to be decanted after settling.
In drawing from the upper tiers of casks in piles, the basin must
be elevated sufficiently to bring the bottle placed in it up to the
faucet, or the latter may be connected with it by a hose.

Corks. Only good corks should be used. They are supple
and uniform in texture. Poor corks are sold in the market, in
which is found a good deal of the dark, hard portion of the
bark, which are not only liable to break the bottles by the great

WINE IN BOTTLES.

159

amount of pressure required to insert them, but also to discolor
the wine, affect its flavor, and to permit it to leak out. Straight
corks are used now-a-days, somewhat larger than the neck of the
bottle, and are forced in by means of

Corking Machines. These machines are of different forms
and make, but are provided with a hollow cone through which
the cork is forced by a piston, compressing it so that it easily
goes into the neck of the bottle. Some work with a lever, and
some with a crank. In the small hand-machine, the piston is

Fig. 32.

Corking Machines.

pushed by the hand. The bottles may be made full enough so
that the wine will touch the bottom of the cork, leaving no vacant
space, if the needle is used in corking.' This is a small, tapering,
half-round, steel instrument, one-tenth of an inch in diameter,
with a groove along the flat side. By placing this in the neck
with the groove next the glass, the cork may be forced down to
the wine, the air and surplus wine escaping by the groove. After
the cork is driven home, the needle is removed. A piece of wire,
provided with a handle, will answer the purpose. The handle of 1
the needle (either a ring, or like that of a gimblet), is attached
by a hinge, and turns down out of the way of the tube and piston
of the machine. Some bottling machines have a needle attach-
ment. Bottles corked by the use of this instrument do not con-

160 WINE IN BOTTLES.

tain a vacant space, and the wine keeps better, not being exposed
to the action of the air, which would otherwise remain in the neck
of the bottle, and not being shaken in transportation.

Fig. 33.

Corking Machines.

Figures 32 and 33 show corking machines with and without
needles. In fig. 33 two needles are also shown.

If the old-fashioned conical corks are used, they may be driven
home with a small mallet, or wooden paddle, but the cylindrical
corks are preferable, if the^wine is to be kept long.

Preparation of the Corks. In order to render them more
supple, they are soaked for several hours in water. What is far
better, however, is to steam them for two or three hours, or soak
them in hot water. They should be allowed to drain, and then
be dipped in wine like that to be bottled. Some dip them in
alcohol to render them more slippery, and some again, put a drop
or two of sweet oil on the surface of the water in which they are
wet.

The Corks may be Driven down Flush with the opening of
the bottle, or they may be left projecting a quarter of an inch,

WINE IN BOTTLES. 161

and if much larger than the neck of the bottle, a shoulder will
be formed, as in the case of sparkling wines. The object of
leaving the corks projecting a third of their length in bottling
sparkling wines is, that they may be forced out with an explosion;
and the shoulder completely closes the bottle, being wired down.

Sealing the Corks. If the bottles are stored in a damp place
where the corks are liable to rot, and also if they are to be kept
more than two years, it is well to cover the ends of the corks with
wax. This also prevents attacks by insects.

The Sealing Wax used should be sufficiently adhesive, but
not too hard and brittle. Various receipts are given for its prepa-
ration, and the following is given by Boireau: Melt common
pitch or turpentine over a slow fire, taking care not to allow it to
boil over. When it is well melted, remove whatever impurities
it contains, add a little tallow a little less than an ounce of
tallow to a pound of pitch. Its natural color is reddish, and- is
used without addition of coloring matter. Kosin may be substi-
tuted for the pitch. Instead of making this preparation, the
fruit wax of commerce may be used. About the same quantity
of tallow, however, should be added, if sealing wax is used, or
otherwise it will be too brittle. The tallow may be replaced by
beeswax with advantage.

An excellent bottle wax is said to be made by melting together
two pounds rosin, one pound Burgundy pitch, one-fourth pound
yellow wax, and one-eighth pound red wax. The wax may be
replaced by three ounces of tallow. If too much tallow is added
the cement will be too soft.

The Cement is Applied Hot. It must be melted, and the
bottle reversed and dipped into it, so that the wax will cover the
end of the cork and a small part of the neck of the bottle, say
down to the ring. It is entirely unnecessary to cover more of
the neck of the bottle.

Coloring Matter may be added to these different cements, and
any desired color produced. A little more than half an ounce of

162

WINE IN BOTTLES.

the following named substances is stirred in to one pound of the
melted wax.

A brilliant red is produced by vermilion, a duller red by red
ochre, black with animal black, yellow with orpiment, dark
yellow with yellow ochre, and blue with Prussian blue. Green
is made by mixing equal parts of blue and yellow, and other
shades may be made by mixing the different colors to suit the
taste.

Fig. 34.

Capsules are now much used instead of wax. In preparing
the bottled wine for shipment, where the corks have previously
been waxed for storing in the cellar, capsules
are also used . In this case, the wax is removed
before the capsule is put on by means of a pair
of pincers with roughened jaws (fig. 34). These

, capsules in different colors are sold by dealers

Pincers for . r

Removing Wax. in corks.

They are Put on by slipping one over the neck of the bottle
as far as it will go, and then pressing it down closely all round.
For this purpose, one turn is made around the end of the capsule
with a stout cord fastened at one end, and the bottle is pushed
Fin. 35. forward with one hand, while the loose

end of the string is pulled tight with
the other, thus sliding the loop over the
capsule and the neck of the bottle, and
pressing it firmJy in place. Instead of
holding the cord with one hand, it may
be attached to a pedal worked by the
foot. A machine (fig. 35) is made with
two posts or standards, one solid, to
which one end of the cord, A, is at-
Capsuler. tached, and the other playing on a

hinge, to which the other end is fastened, and pulled tight by a
pedal, B.

Piling of Bottles. Bottles may be stacked on the floor of the
cellar in piles consisting of a single or a double range. The bed

WINE IN BOTTLES. 163

should be made level by arranging the soil, or by laying down
strips of wood, and leveling them. The bottles should be laid
horizontal. If the neck is down, the deposit will be on and near
the cork, and will trouble the wine as it runs from the bottle. If
the bottom is lower than the neck, the cork will not be kept wet,
and the wine is liable to be injured by the air, as the cork is not
perfectly air tight. The bottles should be supported at two
points, the neck and the bottom; the belly of the bottle needs
no support. If two tiers of bottles are put in a pile, the bottoms
are on the outside, with the necks at the middle of the pile.
Laths are used to support the bottles, about three-eighths of an
inch thick, and one inch or more wide. The lower row of one
tier is made by laying down at the outside of the pile two laths
to support the bottom end of the bottle, and one thick strip or
sufficient laths are laid down to support the neck, inside the ring,
and keep the bottle level. The next tier may be commenced by
laying one or two laths on the necks of the bottles of the first
one to support the necks of those of the other, the necks of the
bottles of one tier lapping over those of the bottles of the other;
Fig. 36. the bottoms of those of this tier must

be sufficiently elevated by laths to
keep the bottles level. The next
row of bottles is supported by laths

laid on those below, one or two near

Filing Bottles. , ., .,

the outer end of the lower ones, and

a larger number 011 their necks. In this case the necks all point
in, the bottoms being together (fig. 36). The bottles of each row
should be sufficiently -separated to allow those of the next row
above to be supported by the laths without touching each other,
and should be blocked after adjusting the distances. The piles
may be made from three to six feet high, and must be supported
at the ends, either by the cellar walls or posts.

Each tier may be made entirely independent of the other, by
supporting the necks of the bottles of the next upper row on
laths laid near the bottoms of those of the first row, one row
having the necks pointing out, and the next one having them

164

WINE IN BOTTLES.

pointing the other way. In this case the bottles in a row may
be separated an inch or more from each other, and blocked with
bits of cork.

Racks and Bins for Bottles. Instead of piling the bottles,
they may be arranged in bins constructed for the purpose. The
simplest is a frame of wood or iron of the desired length and
Fig. 37. height, and deep

enough to accommo-
date one or two tiers
of bottles. The lower
bars on which the
first row of bottles
rests, should be so ar-
ranged as to support
them in a level posi-
tion, as already de-
scribed for piling.
If only one tier is to
Uottie Rack. be made, only two bars

at the bottom are necessary, but if double ranges are to be made,
the frame must be deeper, and have a middle bar to support the
necks of the bottles, the bottoms all being outside. The bottles
are piled in these frames in the manner already described.

Fig. 38. Instead of piling them in sim-

ple frames with the use of laths,
racks are made with bars to sup-
port each row of bottles by itself,
and so that any one bottle can be
taken out without disturbing the
rest. If the supports are of wood,
they may be cut, or if of iron,
bent in a form to fit each bottle,
that is, in small half -circles in
which the bottles rest, with smaller
ones for the necks, or they may be straight. These bins may be
made portable, and of any size to suit. (figs. 37 and 38.)

i2@g^

Bottle Rack.

WINE IN BOITLES. 165

Burrow's Patent Slider Bin, made in England, has a separate
compartment for each bottle.

Fin. 39.

Burrow's Slider Bin.

Treatment of Wine in Bottles. Sometimes it will be found
that wine ferments in the bottle, becomes turbid, and makes a
voluminous deposit, or may contract various maladies, such as
bitterness, harshness, ropiness, or may become putrid. These
effects result principally from bottling the wine too young, before
insensible fermentation and the natural clearing has been com-
pleted, or they may be caused by changes of temperature, or too
great age.

Fermentation in the Bottles is due to the same causes as
fermentation in casks changes of temperature, contact of the
air, etc. It may be avoided by bottling at the proper time, care-
fully protecting the wine from the air by corking the bottles
hermetically by the use of the needle, and keeping them in a
cellar of even temperature. Boireau says that sweet and mellow

166 WINE IN BOTTLES.

wines are liable to ferment in bottles, especially if exposed to a
high temperature, unless their alcoholic strength exceeds 15 per
cent. Still wines which ferment in the bottle generally must be
emptied into casks, and there treated as indicated in the chapter
on Diseases. Temporary relief may be given by putting the
bottles in a cooler place, and uncorking them for an hour or two
to allow the gas to escape.

Deposits and Turbidity. Wine, after being some time in
glass, forms more or less deposit, according to its age, quality,
and degree of limpidity at the time of bottling. The deposits
consist almost entirely of coloring matter, and vegetable and
mineral salts; sometimes they adhere to the sides of the bottle,
and in some cases they render the wine turbid, and again they
present the appearance of gravel when the wine contains much
tartar.

In wines bottled too young, or which are made by mixing
those of different natures, quite a voluminous deposit may be
formed after they have remained a few years in glass. But good,
natural wines, of good growth, well cared for, and bottled under
proper conditions, scarcely commence to deposit at the end of
one or two years. The deposit, however, will be increased, if
the bottles are frequently disturbed, are transported long dis-
tances, undergo changes of temperature, or are kept so long
that they begin to degenerate. If there is much deposit, it is
apt to give the wine a bitter or acrid flavor, or a taste of the lees.
Therefore, if the wines are of high quality, they should be
decanted.

Mr. Boireau proceeds to say that if the deposit is small, and
we are dealing with grand wines in bottles, which have contracted
no bad taste, it is better not to decant them, for the operation is
liable to cause a loss of a portion of the bouquet, especially if not
done with proper precautions.

These directions only apply to those bottled wines which have
deposited sediment, but which are nevertheless clear, and bright,
and of a lively color. Those, however, which become and remain

WINE IN BOTTLES. 167

turbid, must be fined, and for this purpose they must be put into
casks. If wines containing sediment are brought to the table
without decanting, they are kept in nearly the same position as
they occupied in the cellar, by using small baskets contrived for
the purpose. (See Decantation.)

Bitterness and Acrity, when not caused by deposits, are due
to loss of the fruitiness and mellowness of the wine, which then
has commenced to decline. The only remedy in case of fine wines
which have preserved their bouquet, is to mix them with younger
wines, mellow and perfectly bright. This should be done by
decanting without contact with the air; but if they are seriously
affected, they must be put into casks and the operation there
performed; then they should be well fined before re-bottling.

Ropiness in bottled wines, which is due to lack of tannin,
generally occurs in white wines which have been bottled before
perfectly clear, and while they contained considerable nitro-
genous and albuminous matters in suspension. The treatment
is indicated elsewhere.

In most cases, if the wines are worn out, it will be necessary
to put them into casks, and mix them with younger ones of the
same quality.

Degeneration and Putridity. Wine may be kept and im-
proved in bottles, if properly treated, as long as its constituent
principles remain soluble and in combination ; but with the lapse
of time, varying with different kinds, it begins to lose quality.
This degeneration, says the author last quoted, announces itself
a long time in advance, in the grand wines, by a loss of their
unctuosity, of their fruity flavor, and by a bitter and sometimes
acrid taste; and if they are kept for several years more, the fra-
grance of the bouquet is lost, and they contract a rancio or tawny
flavor, which masks their natural flavor; they rapidly lose color,
and form a deposit much more considerable than in the earlier
years of their sojourn in bottles; and finally, when their degen-
eracy is advanced, they give off a slightly putrid odor.

168 WINE IN BOTTLES.

As soon as high priced wines have attained their entire devel-
opment in bottles, in order to prevent their decline, they should
be carefully decanted into bottles with ground glass stoppers,
previously rinsed with wine of the same kind.

Loss of color, joined with an abundant deposit, which is a
sure sign of degeneration in the wines of the Gironde, do not
mean the same in all other kinds. For instance, the red wines of
Spain (and we may add, Portugal), and the sweet wines of Kou-
sillon, which have a very dark color when young, almost entirely
lose it after three or four years in bottle; they become tawny,
without degenerating; but, quite to the contrary, their quality is
improved.

It is observed, however, that in wines of these latter classes,
whose alcoholic strength exceeds 15 per cent., the deposit is
not so great, compared with the amount of coloring matter
precipitated, as in wines of the first mentioned growth, and that
the coloring matter adheres to the sides of the bottle, instead of
falling to the bottom. Some of our California wines deposit a
good deal of color in the bottle, even when fined. Probably a
double fining would be advantageous in many cases.

As alcohol and tannin are the preservative principles of wines,
those last longest which are best provided with them.

The cause of the degeneration of wine is the decomposition of
its constituent parts, which thereby become insoluble, and are
precipitated. The loss of tannin, which in time is transformed
into gallic acid, takes from feeble wines their best conservator,
and causes precipitation of the coloring matter. And it is
observed in practice that wines which contain a great quantity of
tannin last longer than those of the same alcoholic strength hav-
ing less tannin.

Decantation consists in drawing a wine from the bottle con-
taining it, so as to leave the sediment behind. It should be
done without exposing the wine to the air.

WINE IN BOTTLES.

109

The bottles should be brought from the cellar without chang-
ing their position, for if the deposit is disturbed, and the wine
becomes cloudy, the bottles must Fig. 4:1.

rest till it has settled again. For
this purpose they are laid in a
basket, or other suitable receptacle,

Fig. 40.

Decanting Basket. Corkscreus.

where they are inclined just enough so that the wine will not run
out when the cork is removed (fig. 40). -The cork must be drawn
without disturbing the sediment, by using a corkscrew, which by
means of a screw or lever, gradually removes it, and without a
shock (fig. 41 ). The wine is slowly run into another clean bottle
previously rinsed with the same kind of wine. If the wine is in
its decline, rinse the bottles with old brandy.

The Operation may be Performed by carefully pouring the
wine into the empty bottle through a small funnel, which is pro-
Fig. 42. vided with a strainer. By means of

a light placed below the bottle, the
sediment can be watched, and as
soon as it is about to run out with
the wine, the operation must cease.
The new bottle must be filled up
with the same kind of wine and
immediately corked. In decanting
in this manner, the bubbling of the

air passing into the bottle as the wine runs out, is very apt to
disturb the lees. This may be prevented by using a small tube,
slightly curved, which connects the air outside with the vacant

space in the bottle. In order to prevent access of the air, however,
12

Decanting Instrument.

170 WINE IN BOTTLES.

an instrument is used consisting of two conical corks, connected
by a small rubber tube. Each cork is pierced with two holes; the
one placed in the botlle to be emptied, besides the hole which
receives the rubber hose through which the wine runs, is pro-
vided with one through which a bent tube is placed to admit the
air; the hose passes through the other cork and conducts the
wine into the other bottle, and this cork has another hole for the
escape of the air (fig. 42).

CUTIING OR MIXING WINES. 171

CHAPTER XVII.

CUTTING OK MIXING WINES.

Most French Wines Mixed. Maigne, speaking of the wines
of France, says, that of one hundred wines in the market, per-
haps there are not ten which are not produced by mixing several
different kinds. Without doubt, he says, we should as much as
possible preserve the products of the vine as they are given to
us; but there are a multitude of cases where it is absolutely
impossible to render them drinkable without mixing, or as wine
men say, without culling them with other wines.

When Necessary Effect of. In good years, almost all
wines can be drank in their natural condition, but when the
grapes have not become sufficiently ripe, the wines, even of good
growths, lack quality, or preserve for a long time a roughness
more or less marked, and always disagreeable. It is then neces-
sary to mix them, especially if common wines, with better ones,
to make them tolerable. It is not always necessary, however,
that the season should be bad, in order that cutting should be
proper. Wines naturally have, for a certain time, an earthy
flavor and greenness which are unpleasant, which disappear by
mixing. This is why ordinary wines of a moderate price, which
have been mixed, are preferred by a great number of consumers
to others which are higher in price but left in a state of nature.
For example, a new, very dark-colored wine of good growth is
not an agreeable drink; but if an old white wine of an inferior
growth, but of good taste and constitution be added, it will be
drank with pleasure.

Mixing the wine produces results similar to those caused by
mixing the fruit, and it may be done by the wine maker as well
as by the merchant. As they come from the vat, wines manifest
the qualities and defects communicated by the vintage, and
which are varied by a multitude of circumstances, such as the
nature of the soil, varieties of grapes, temperature of the season,
and the like.

172 CUTTING OE MIXING WINES.

"Wines endowed with qualities which fit them to be kept in
their natural condition, of course, are not mixed. But those
which, on the other hand (and they are in the majority), have
too much or too little color, are weak, flat, coarse, green, pasty,
rough, lacking in bouquet, too strong, or too light, cannot be
put on the market till they have been cut with other wines capa-
ble of giving them the qualities which they lack, and of remedy-
ing their defects. It will be understood that the mixture of a
weak wine with a stronger one, of one lacking color with one
which has too much, a light wine with a generous one, of a hard
wine with a flat one, etc., a wine will be produced superior in
quality to any one of those used.

For these reasons, in a viticultural district, when a producer
cannot sell his wine of a bad year, he mixes it with that of the
following year, if the latter is of a better quality; if he cannot
mix it all, he may use it for ullage. In the same way, if he has
new white wines which become discolored and turn yellow, he
mingles them with very dark red wines, which then become more
agreeable to drink.

It is said that the tithe wines used to be of superior quality.
In certain communes of France, the inhabitants contributed to
the priest's cask a certain amount of their new wine, and this
wine which represented a mixture of all the wines of the com-
mune, had the reputation of being superior to any one of the
others.

And the following case, quoted by Maigne, is given for what
it is worth. A cask lay in a cellar into which they were accus-
tomed to throw the leavings of all kinds of wine, such as from
broken bottles, drippings, etc. It was intended to use the liquid
upon diseased trees, but it was for some time forgotten. When
found and brought out, the cellar-man tasted the singular mixture
out of curiosity. It was found to be a delicious liquor, which
gave delight at dessert; and it was with true grief that they saw
its end approach !

In order to perform the operation successfully, an experienced
man is required, who will be guided by his educated taste; and

CUTTING OR MIXING WINES.

therefore, precise rules cannot be laid down, but there*
general principles which it may be useful to state.

Wines of the same General Nature and Flavor should be
used, and two of such wines may nevertheless be deficient in
some particular respects, so that by mixing, the defects of the
two will be corrected. Such wines are mixed, because they are
said to marry better, and produce a more homogeneous liquid
than those of different natures.

Fine Wines. All agree that fine wines which have a bouquet
and a future are best left in their natural condition, for their
distinctive character will be destroyed by mixing with wines of a
different nature and quality. Boireau says that experience proves
that if such wines are mixed while young, even with old wine of
good quality, they will never acquire that degree of fineness
which they would have obtained if left by themselves; that they
sooner loose their fruity flavor, and are more liable to make a
deposit in the bottles.

There are cases, however, when cutting becomes necessary, as
when the wine from being kept too long in casks, has commenced
to decline, has lost its fruity flavor, has become acrid and dry;
when made in a bad, cold season; and when they are too poor,
green, or too feeble to keep well.

When wines are too old and worn out, they should be fortified
with young wines of the same kind, produced, if possible, from
the same vineyard, one or two, or at most, three years old, and
possessing great mellowness. The amount of new wine to be
used will depend upon the degree of degeneracy and the length
of time they are to be kept. (See Degeneration.)

Poor, weak wines, whose keeping qualities are doubted, should
be mixed with young wine of a good year, firm and full-bodied,
possessing as nearly as possible the same natural flavor.

The foregoing is intended to apply to feeble, delicate wines
which have a flavor and bouquet, but which are not too green.
Wines which have a future should not be sacrificed by using
them to fortify others which are both feeble and green, for the
excess of tartaric acid contained in the latter will totally destroy

174 CUTTING OE MIXING WINES.

the mellowness of those used to fortify them. To mix with such
wines, clean-tasting wines of the south should be used.

If the wines are too green, a portion of the acid may be neu-
tralized, as described under the head of Greenness.

Ordinary Wines should be treated in such a way as to give
them as much as possible the qualities sought in fine wines, and
they should be cut with suitable wines of the same age to give
them bouquet, flavor, and mellowness, or at least to remove their
excessive dry ness a very difficult thing to do. It maybe accom-
plished, in part, by mixing them with wines of the same growth,
but whose bouquet and flavor are very expansive, and by adding
neutral, mellow wines.

Sufficient Time Must be Given to the mixture to allow the
different wines employed to become intimately combined, or their
different flavors may be detected, which will not be the case when
thoroughly amalgamated.

When Large Quantities of wine are used, the mixture is more
nearly perfect than if mingled, cask by cask; and by operating
upon the whole amount at one time in a large vat, a perfect uni-
formity will be insured.

An Entirely New Wine should not be mixed with an old one,
as there is not sufficient affinity between them.

In an old wine, says Machard, all the constituents are in a
state of complete quiet; they are well combined (melted) and
homogeneous. If there is mixed with it a wine whose principles
are equally well combined, no ulterior action will result. But if
new principles are introduced, elements of a different nature, the
equilibrium will be disturbed, there will infallibly result a recip-
rocal action and disorganization.

Yery Green Wines should not be mixed with those containing
much sugar for similar reasons, for the mixture is liable to be
thrown into a state of violent fermentation, which it will be
difficult to arrest. The reason given is that the green wine con-
tains a good deal of ferment; but if both the wines are produced

CUTTING OR MIXING WINES. 175

in the south, where the ferment contained in the dry wine is not
abundant, the mixture may safely be made. So that, after all,
we get back to the principle, that wines of widely different
natures and origins should not be mixed, but keeping this in
in mind, a sweetish and a dry wine may be used to correct each
other.

White Wines may sometimes be mixed with advantage with
red ones, as before mentioned, but the former should not be
employed too liberally.

Diseased Wines must not be mixed with sound ones, except
in the few cases mentioned under Defects and Diseases. It is
especially dangerous to cut a soured or pricked wine with a sound
one, for the whole mass is liable to be lost.

Mixing Grapes. It is doubtless always better, when prac-
ticable, to correct defects by mixing the grapes and fermenting
the different kinds together, for then a more homogeneous wine
will be formed; and, therefore, the intelligent grape grower will
find out the defects of his wine, and remedy them by planting
a sufficient quantity of other varieties for the purpose.

Precautions. Care, however, must always be taken not to
spoil a good wine by cutting it with a very common one, nor by
mixing poor varieties with grapes of fine kinds.

Cheap wines, however, for immediate consumption, may admit
a certain proportion of poor, common wine, into their composi-
tion, without inconvenience. In that case, the ferments of the
common sorts will not have time to act and produce serious
results.

If, however, they are to be kept for some time, or bottled, the
effect will be bad, for the ferments always abundant in wines
from the commoner varieties, are liable to become decomposed,
and cause a disagreeable, nauseating flavor.

Whenever there is a doubt in the mind of the cellar-man as to
whether certain wines should be mixed, it is always best to make
a small sample first, clarify it, and leave it for a sufficient length
of time, and judge of the result, before operating upon a large
quantity.

176 LEES, MARC, PIQUETTE.

CHAPTEE XVIII.

WINE LEES, MAEC, AND PIQUETTE.

The Residue of Wine Making, pomace and lees, are often
placed immediately in the still, and their alcohol distilled off
directly, but the result is better if the wine is first extracted,
and distilled without putting the residue into the boiler, for it is
liable to burn and give a disagreeable burnt flavor to the brandy.

I am indebted to Mr. Boireau, so often quoted, for what
follows :

WINE LEES.

The Lees should not be neglected, because, for want of proper
care, the wine which is extracted from them will contract a very
disagreeable taste, which is due to its too long sojourn on the
deposit, and which would be prevented by drawing it off in time.

Therefore, in order that the wine extracted from them should
not lose all its value, the lees should receive particular attention,
and be stored in places free from variations of temperature.

The Quantity of Wine Contained in the Lees varies from
30 to 90 per cent. From those of fined wines an average of 70
per cent, may be extracted without pressing.

The Dry Parts of the Sediment contain a great quantity of
insoluble matters, tartar, or argol, several other vegetable and
mineral salts, divers compounds, ferments, mucilaginous matters,
and the residue of animal and vegetable matters (albumen and
gelatine), which have been employed in fining.

An Analysis of Dry Lees by Mr. Braconnot, a distinguished
chemist, establishes the presence of the following substances:
bitartrate of potash (cream of tartar), tartrate of lime, tartrate
of magnesia, nitrogenous animal matter, fatty substances, color-
ing matter, gum, and tannin.

The Composition of Dry Lees varies with the age, nature,
and quality of the wine which produces them; but in all, the

LEES, MARC, PIQUETTE. 177

bitartrate of potash or cream of tartar predominates. The lees
of mellow wines contain mucilages, and we find in the lees
deposited by sweet wines great quantities of saccharine matter
which may be utilized. The different uses to which dried lees
may be put will be mentioned further on.

Treatment of the Lees. Lees will settle by repose, but the
wine which comes from them, if left long upon the heavy lees,
contracts a disagreeable flavor, owing to its contact with the
insoluble matters forming the sediment, and with the ferments
found in the lees with the residue of the substances used in
fining. The surface wine is often in a state of fermentation, and
remains turbid, contracting at the same time a disagreeable bit-
terness, unless soon withdrawn from the influence of the ferments.

By proper care and attention, not only can all the liquid be
extracted from the lees, but the wine so extracted will have no
bad flavor, no vice, in a word, will partake of the same qualities
as the wine from which the heavy lees were deposited. The casks
into which they are to be put should be washed in the same man-
ner as those destined to contain limpid wine, and double the
quantity of a sulphur match employed in the case of racking new
red wines, should be burned in each. As fast as the casks are
emptied in drawing off, the lees are turned into a pail, and
immediately poured into the cask intended for them. In empty-
ing them into the pail, care should be taken not to introduce dirt,
mould, etc., and if there is debris around the bung-hole, it should
be swept away before removing the bung. As soon as the cask
is full of lees, it should be stored, bung up, in a proper place,
as mentioned, and should then be ulled and bunged, and the
date of storing may be marked on it, with the kind and age of
the wine from which it came.

When the casks are not completely filled the same day, and it
is necessary to leave them with ullage, they should be bunged
tight, after having again burned a square of a match in each }
and the sulphuring should be renewed as often as the lees are
added, if left so for several days, in order to avoid access of air,
and to prevent the action of ferments. In a word, casks con-

178 LEES, MARC, PIQUETTE.

taining lees, without being full, should always be well bunged
and sulphured, and guarded from variations of temperature.

The casks, when stored, should be regularly ulled once a week
with limpid wine, and re-bunged, and after two weeks' repose,
the first drawing off takes place, and should be renewed once or
twice every month. All the clear wine will be drawn off at each
racking, by following the precautions indicated further on. By
drawing off thus frequently, fermentation, to which such wine
is subject, will be avoided, even in summer. Thus, also, will
be avoided the disagreeable taste of the lees, of acrity and bitter-
ness, which wine contracts when left long on the deposit, and
moreover, much more clear wine will be withdrawn. Lees from
diseased wine should not be mixed with the rest, but should be
put aside and treated according to the malady by which the wine
was affected.

Extraction of Wine from the Lees. Lees preserved under
the conditions indicated naturally free themselves from a great
part of the foreign substances which they contain, by rest, for
they are insoluble, and specifically heavier than wine, and settle
of their own accord. The wine should not be fined till drawn
from the heavy lees.

The racking off of the clear wine may be performed in two
ways, either by the use of a glass siphon or of a faucet. For
the first rackings the glass siphon is most appropriate, and by its
use the boring of holes high up in the end of the cask is avoided.
It is introduced about eight inches into the full cask, a proper
vessel to catch the wine is placed under the end, with another
vessel close at hand, and the wine is started by the breath; but
the siphon must be held with the hand, or otherwise sustained so
that it will not go too deep into the cask. By holding a candle
below, it can be seen if the wine is any way clear; and as long
as it runs sufficiently limpid, the siphon is lowered into the cask,
little by little, till the level of the turbid wine is nearly reached.
When one bucket is filled, the other is slipped under the stream
without stopping it. Two men are usually required, one to attend
the siphon, and the other to empty the buckets. As soon as the

LEES, MARC, PIQUETTE. 179

wine runs muddy, it is stopped. If the cask of lees is suffi-
ciently elevated, the stem of the siphon may run into a funnel
placed in the empty cask.

When the casks have all been drawn from, the remaining heavy
lees are filled into those containing the greater quantity, so as to
transfer the least quantity. Before filling, however, the casks
should have a double square of sulphur match burned in each,
to prevent subsequent fermentations.

The use of the faucet is preferred, when the lees are thick, and
the casks which contain them are near the ground, and are only
used for storing lees. In the latter case, the injury to the cask
by boring holes in the head at several heights, is of little conse-
quence. A greater quantity of wine may be drawn off by the
use of the faucet than with the glass siphon, but it is generally
less clear than if carefully done with the latter; and one man can
do the work.

First, it is necessary to ascertain how far down the clear wine
reaches, by means of gimlet holes, and the faucet hole should
then be bored just above the level of the heavy lees. If the
faucet has been placed too low, the sediment which runs through
it at first may be put aside.

After the drawing of the clear wine has been repeated several
times, and the thick lees united as above mentioned, the casks
should not be filled until heavily sulphured, and they must not
be disturbed, for the least agitation may stir up the sediment
already formed, and cause bad flavor in the wine, and even pro-
duce putrid fermentation, especially in those from fined wines
which contain large quantities of animal matter introduced in
the finings. Casks emptied of heavy lees should be washed with
a chain, to remove the sediment clinging to the inside, which must
not be allowed to dry on.

Fining Wines Extracted from the Lees. These wines often
are not sufficiently clear; and they are generally more difficult to
clarify completely by the usual methods than the wines which
produced the lees.

180 LEES, MARC, PIQUETTE.

It is noticeable that these wines have less color and less alcohol
than other wines produced in the ordinary way.

The difficulty in obtaining their complete clarification arises
from the great quantity of insoluble matter which they still hold
in suspension, and their relative feebleness in alcohol and tannin.

The want of color is due to the mechanical action of the
insoluble matters which the lees contain; these matters in pre-
cipitating carry down a part of the coloring matter remaining in
solution in the liquid. It follows that the older the lees, and
the oftener the wine has been drawn from them, the feebler the
color.

Red Wines extracted from the lees, to be completely clarified,
should be fined with a heavy dose of albumen (the whites of
16 or 18 eggs to 100 gallons), previously well beaten up in a pint
of water in which half an ounce of sea salt has been dissolved to
give it density. If the alcoholic strength is below nine per cent,
they should be fortified by the addition of two or three quarts
of brandy or alcohol to each 100 gallons. Bed wines from this
source should not be fined with gelatine, or it will diminish the
color too much.

White Wines of this kind may be fined with albumen also, if
strong in alcohol; but otherwise, they should be fined with a
heavy dose of gelatine, three tablets. But before fining they
must be tannified by adding 4 or 5 gallons of tannified wine, or
an ounce of tannin for each 100 gallons.

Wines from lees should remain on the finings only long enough
to precipitate the matters used, about ten days; after which they
must be carefully racked, and cared for like other wines.

Pressing the Thick Sediment. After the lees have undergone
three or four semi-monthly rackings, the rest of the wine which
they contain may be extracted by pressure, and this amounts on
the average to fifty per cent. More wine might be extracted by
further racking, but by allowing the wine to remain longer in
contact with the finings and other sediment, it will contract the
disagreeable flavors already alluded to, which may be avoided by

LEES, MARC, PIQUEITE. 181

pressing the lees after the first three or four rackings; and an
excellent result is obtained by using a filter press after the first
racking, and the wine obtained will have no bad taste.

The pressing is performed in small sacks about eighteen inches
long. They should be made of cotton cloth, as those made from
hemp, even after being used several times, give a disagreeable
flavor to the wines passed through them.

It is not necessary to provide more than sacks enough for one
cask of lees. The cloth of which they are made should be fine,
and of close and regular texture.

To make a cheap press, one head of a cask is removed, and
the pieces of this head are fastened together by nailing on two
cross pieces to keep it in form, and enough of the wood around
the edge is removed to allow it to pass freely into the cask as a
follower. The cask is then placed upright, and a hole is bored
in one of the staves close to the lower head, into which is placed
a faucet. This cask, which is to contain the sacks, may be placed
high enough to allow the wine to run from the faucet directly
into the bung of another cask to hold the wine. If the casks
containing the lees are placed on a horse or platform, the latter
may be run from the faucet-hole directly into the sacks, which
may be fastened to the chime with small hooks, and be kept open
with the hand or a small hoop. A dish should be placed under
before withdrawing the spigot. Or, to avoid fouling the outside
of the sack with the lees, they may first be run into a tub, and
dipped into the sacks, the tub being provided with a sack-holder.
As soon as a sack is sufficiently filled, it should be strongly tied
with a bow-knot which can be easily untied, and laid in the cask
provided; and a few small sticks should be placed over the inner
end of the faucet so that it may not be stopped by a sack corning
in contact with it. Sacks are placed in the cask till it is full.
The faucet is left open, so that the wine, as fast as filtered, may
run through a hose into a well washed and well sulphured cask,
placed in position to receive it.

When the cask is full of sacks, the cover is placed on them
and they are allowed to drain for several hours, weights being

182 LEES, MARC, PIQUETTE.

gradually placed upon the cover or follower. Further pressure
is applied by means of a lever rigged for the purpose, one end
made firm, and the other having weights attached.

It is best that the pressure be gradually applied, leaving the
sacks to drain for several hours, then applying the lever, but
loading it with weights- several hours later, or the next day.

When the wine no longer runs, say twenty-four hours after
loading the lever, the sacks are removed.

If the lees are not very thick, but little will be found in the
sacks, and they may be refilled without removing it, and sub-
jected to a second pressure. Then they must be thoroughly
washed with water. Lye should not be used.

Where large quantities of lees are to be pressed, larger presses
may be used, vats being employed instead of casks.

It is impossible to obtain all the wine by simple filtration with-
out pressure, owing to the fact that the filters soon become foul,
and the wine ceases to pass through.

If the first wine which runs off is turbid, it may be put by
itself, and the clear wine caught separately. It is apt to run
turbid when additional weight is applied.

Use of Dry Lees. They have a certain value, and after being
removed from the sacks they may be sold to the manufacturers
of cream of tartar, if they are virgin lees. Lees from fined wines
are of little value for this purpose. They may be dried on well-
aired floors, or in the sun. They are also used for the production
of pearlash by burning them. The ash produced is of a greenish
gray color, and is crude pearlash. Good lees, perfectly dry, pro-
duce about 30 per cent, of this alkali.

Lees are also valuable as a fertilizer. Those from sweet wine
contain considerable sugar, which may be utilized by fermenting
and distilling the alcohol produced. This, however, will render
them less valuable for making cream of tartar, a portion of which
will be dissolved by washing.

MARC, OR POMACE PIQUETTE.

Marc, or Pomace, is the residue remaining in the vat after the
fermentation of red wine, or in the press, in making white wine.

LEES, MARC, PIQUETTE. 183

After being pressed, it is used in many parts of France to make
a weak wine called piquette t for the use of the laborers. For this
purpose are utilized all the soluble principles remaining in the
marc, by the following treatment:

1. The Unfermented Pomace of White or of Ked Wine not
Entirely Fermented, is well broken and crumbled up so as to
finely divide it, and introduced into tuns, which are then com-
pletely filled with water, or into a fermenting vat, adding double
its weight of water. After giving it a thorough stirring and
mixing, the first piquette is drawn off. After a maceration of
three of four days, renewing the water several times, the saccha-
rine matter and soluble salts which the marc contains are com-
pletely removed. Piquette is fermented in casks and cared for
like new wine. The weakest is first consumed.

Or the marc may be pressed and put into barrels, keeping it in
as solid a mass as possible; the surface is then covered with sand
and the casks closed air-tight. Piquette may then be made as
needed, using the marc of one cask, washing with water till it is
exhausted.

2. The Fermented Marc of Red Wine is treated as follows :
After pressing, it is immediately put into a large vat. Double
its weight of water is added, and after a complete stirring, it is
allowed to macerate one or two days at most. The first piquette
is then drained off, and water is put in several times till the
soluble matters are removed.

Pressed marc is also used for forage, mixing it with half the
quantity of hay.

As for making wine from marc by adding sweetened water, see
Watering and Sugaring Must.

The following method of washing the marc is from an
article on the Distillation of Marc, by J. Pezeyre, printed in
Le Parfait Vigneron, Almanack du Moniteur Vinicole, 1881 :

Six vats or barrels are set up side by side, each provided with
a faucet, and a movable cover. The faucet is protected inside,
as in the case of the ordinary fermenting vat.

184 LEES, MARC, PIQUETIE.

To thoroughly exhaust the marc, it should be washed with six
times its weight of water, or 100 Ibs. of pomace require 72
gallons of water.

The vats being arranged, are charged with marc, which is
pressed down till it fills the vat to within about ten inches of the
top. The marc is kept submerged in the usual way, by a false,
perforated head.

The first vat is filled with cold water, and left to rest for two
hours. The liquid is then drawn off and filled into vat No. 2.
No. 1 is then re-filled with fresh water. When the liquid in No. 2
has remained for two hours, it is drawn off and put into No. 3.
No. 1 is then emptied into No. 2, and filled with water a third
time. The maceration in No. 3 having continued for two hours,
its liquid is drawn off and poured into No. 4; No. 3 is filled
from No. 2, and this from No. 1, which is filled the fourth time
with water. No. 5 is filled from No. 4, and each vat is filled
from the preceding one, until No. 1 has received in water six
times the weight of the marc contained in it.

The liquid from No. 5 is poured into No. 6, and after two
hours is drawn from this last vat into the still.

When the wine has been drawn from the last vat, the marc in
No. 1 having been washed six times with its weight of water, is
exhausted of all its alcohol. It is then re-filled with marc, and
becomes No. 6 of the series, and *is filled with the liquid from
No. 5. Each number is thereby carried around the circle,
becoming successively No. 6.

In this way the pomace is, little by little, deprived of its
alcohol, and the liquid coming from No. 6 is rich in spirit, and
when delivered to the still is nearly equal in strength to the
original wine.

When there is but little marc to operate upon, the liquid may
be drawn off into buckets, and so filled into the vats; but time
and labor may be saved by using a pump and hose.

COMPOSITION OF WTNE. 185

CHAPTEE XIX.

THE COMPOSITION OF WINE.

Generally. Wine is not only composed of alcohol and water,
which are the two most prominent ingredients, but a great num-
ber of other substances have been recognized, and others still
are supposed to exist. Some substances which are found in one
wine may not exist in another, or it may exist in a greater or less
quantity. We know that alcohol, water, and acids exist in all
wines, in varying quantities; that some are sweet, and contain
sugar, and that others are dry, thoroughly fermented,. and contain
none. We also know that the alcohol in different wjnes may
vary from 4 or 5 per cent, in piquette made by washing the
pomace with water, to 20 or 25 per cent, in the more strongly
fortified. And we know generally how a wine is modified as to
its taste and effect on the system, by such substances as water,
alcohol, sugar, and acid; but there are many substances whose
effect is but little known, and others again only known by their
effects. The science of chemistry has not yet been able to lay
hold of them.

Substances Recognized. The following table from Maumene
indicates the different substances contained in different wines, the
letter F indicating those produced by fermentation, the others
existing in the juice of the grape. It will be observed that the
amount of acid tartrate of potash (cream of tartar) mentioned is
5.5 grammes per litre at most, and this is the quantity contained
in a new wine, old wines containing only one or two grammes per
litre, and even less. This salt is contained in the grapes, and is
soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol, and, therefore, the
greater part of it is precipitated as the alcohol increases by fermen-
tation, and is deposited with the lees. The Eeport of the Uni-
versity of California, Department of Agriculture, referred to in
the preface, shows the amount contained in different California
wines and their lees.
13

186

COMPOSITION OF WINE.

Grammes.

f Water 9 volumes, 900 to 891

Common Alcohol (Absolute or Pure), F. i volume, 80 to 79

Other Alcohols (Butyric, Amylic, etc.) F. "

Aldehydes (several ?) F.

Ethers (Acetic, Butyric, oenanthic, etc.), con-
tributing principally to the bouquet F.

Essential Oils ( several) ...

I Grape Sugar (Dextrose and Levulose)
Mannite F.

| Mucilage, Gum, and Dextrin . .

Pectin

Coloring Matters (oenocyanine)

Fatty Matters (and Wax ?)

Glycerin F.

Nitrogenous Matters (Albumin, Gliadin, etc.)
Ferments

("Acid Tartrafe of Potash (5.5 grammes

Neutral at most)

Bodies *> ' Neutral Tartrate of Lime

^ I " " Ammonia

3 I Acid Tartrate of Alumina (simple, or

&\ with Potash.)

fcfl Acid Tartrate of Iron (simple, or with

> .Potash.)

Racemates L

Acetates, Propionates, Butyrates, Lac-
[ tates, etc F.

Free Acids.

f Sulphates . .

Nitrates . . .

Phosphates.

Silicates . . .

Chlorides . .

Bromides . .

Iodides

[ Fluorides .

With a base of Potash,
Soda, Lime, Magnesia,
Alumina, Oxide of Iron,
Ammonia.. .

Carbonic (2.5 grammes at most) F.

Tartaric and Racemic (Gluco-tartaric ?)

Malic

Citric

Tannic

Metapectic. . . F.

Acetic F.

Lactic F.

Succinic F.

Butyric F.

Valeric?... ..F.

1000 1000

COMPOSITION OF WINE.

187

A few of the more important ones will be briefly noticed.

Alcohol is considerably lighter than water, and from the
specific gravity of any mixture of alcohol and pure water, the
quantity of spirit contained in it can readily be ascertained. (See
Table IV.)

To Ascertain the Alcoholic Strength of Wine, if it con-
sisted of a mixture of water and alcohol alone, it would only be
necessary to learn its specific gravity; but as all wines contain
other substances which affect the weight of the liquid, it becomes
necessary to separate the alcohol from the other matters by distil-
lation; then by adding Water enough to make up the original
volume of the wine assayed, we will have simply a mixture of
alcohol and water.

Small stills are sold in the market, with the necessary instru-
ments accompanying them, with which to perform the operation.
In the accompanying figure (43), which shows a French still, L

is a spirit lamp, B a
glass boiler with a
perforated stopper, S
a worm, contained in
the cooler D, which
is kept filled with
cold water, as a con-
denser; t is a rubber
tube connecting the
boiler with the con-
denser, tightly fitted
to the stopper of the
French Still. former, and also to

the end of the worm. E is a small hydrometer-jar, of glass, with
a foot, for measuring the wine to be distilled, and for catching
the distillate as it runs from the worm. It has three marks the
upper one, m, indicating the height to which it is to be filled
with the wine, and also a i mark and a i mark. Sometimes it is
provided with a groove along one side to carry the thermometer.

188 COMPOSITION OF WINE.

A represents the hydrometer, or alcoholometer, being a spindle,
usually of glass, similar in form to the saccharometer (which see),
except that the zero mark to which the alcoholometer sinks in
distilled water, is at the lower end of the stem, and the degrees
are numbered from zero to the upper end, each figure represent-
ing one per cent, of alcohol. T is a thermometer, in its place in
the jar with the hydrometer; t' is a small glass pipette to assist in
filling the jar just to the mark.

To make use of the instruments, measure in the jar, E, the
wine to be distilled, by filling it up exactly to the upper mark, m,
using the pipette, t' , by which a little of the liquid can be sucked
up, and let out, drop by drop, by increasing and diminishing the
pressure of the finger applied to the upper opening. The wine
so measured is poured into the boiler, JB, draining out the last
drop, or the little remaining may be rinsed out with a little
water, which is poured into the boiler with the wine without
affecting the result. The boiler is then placed over the lamp and
connected with the condenser by means of the rubber tube, and
the condenser filled with cold water. Light the lamp, and place
the now empty jar under the lower end of the worm. The vapor
of the alcohol first passing from the boiler through the rubber
tube into the condenser, will there condense, and the liquid run-
ning from the worm into the test tube will be almost pure alcohol,
but as the process goes on, more and more water comes out with
the alcohol, till the spirit has all passed over. If the strength of
the wine does not exceed 14 or 15 per cent., the alcohol will all
have passed over when one-third of the wine has been distilled,
as will be shown when the distillate reaches the mark on the
glass. If the strength exceeds the above limit, one-half of the
wine should be distilled. If, therefore, on testing the wine, it is
found to contain 16 per cent, or more of spirit, and only one-
third was distilled, another quantity should be distilled, and
about one-half allowed to pass over. It is always safer, unless
the wine is very weak, to distil over a little more than a third.
If you are operating on a wine which foams to such an extent
that a portion may pass through the tube into the condenser,

COMPOSITION OF WINE. 189

which would spoil the effect of the operation, this may be pre-
vented by putting into the boiler with the wine a pinch of tannic
acid. In operating on a wine which contains an appreciable
amount of acetic acid is pricked the acid ought to be neutral-
ized before distillation, as it is volatile, and will go over with the
alcohol and effect the result. This is easily done by adding to
the wine caustic soda in drops, till it completely changes color,
red wine becoming blue, and white wine, brown. These precau-
tions, however, are generally omitted in analyses for commercial
purposes.

When the distillation is complete, add to the distillate sufficient
pure water (distilled water if possible), to make up the exact
volume of wine measured. To do this, take the jar containing
the distillate and hold it perpendicular, with the upper mark on
a level with the eye, and carefully let in the water, drop by drop,
by means of the pipette. The surface of the liquid will be seen
to curve upward, owing to the attraction of the glass, and the
tube should be filled till the bottom of the curve touches the
mark; and the same precaution should be taken in measuring the
wine in the first place.

Now we have a mixture corresponding in volume with the wine,
and containing all the alcohol originally contained in the wine,
and a certain amount of water, and nothing else.

As the density of the liquid also depends upon the temperature,
it becomes necessary to have a fixed standard at which the test is
made, and this is 60 F. in this country, and I believe in all
countries except France, where it is 15 C., or 59 F. As the
temperature affects the volume, it is better to adjust it by cooling
the distillate before adding the last few drops of water, which
may be done by dipping the jar into cold water, or if it is too
cold, by warming it with the hand.

The hydrometer used will be adjusted to a temperature of 60
F., or 15 C., which is generally shown by directions accompany-
ing the still, or will be marked on the instrument. Let the
hydrometer be perfectly clean and dry, no moisture on the stem.
Take the tip of the stem between the thumb aiid forefinger and

190

COMPOSITION OF WINE.

lower it into the distillate till it floats, press it down with the
finger very slightly, and let it come to equilibrium. Place the
eye on a level with the surface of the liquid, and see where it
cuts the stem, and the mark shows the percentage of alcohol
Fig. 44. contained in the wine. Remem-

ber that the mark to be taken is
the one corresponding with the
general surface of the liquid, not
the top of the meniscus, or curve.
With care, a result can be obtained
sufficiently accurate for all com-
mercial purposes.

A table is usually sold with these
stills, showing the corrections for
different temperatures, so that by
its use the reduction of the tem-
perature to the standard may be
avoided.

Fig. 44 represents a still made
in New York, called the Monitor
Still.

Ethers are formed by alcohol in presence of the different
acids contained in the wine, and they take names corresponding
to the acids, ocurring as compound ethers, the most common one
being acetic ether. They have a powerful and characteristic
odor, known as the etherous odor, which is somewhat disagree-
able in the pure ether, but becomes agreeable and resembles the
aroma of fruit and flowers when greatly diluted.

Among the important ethers contained in wine is Oenanthic
ether, which is said to give to wine its characteristic vinous smell,
which distinguishes it from any other fermented liquor.

Sugar is contained in many wines, especially sweet wines, arid
exercises an important influence upon the flavor.

To Estimate Sugar. The quantity of sugar contained in a
sweet wine may be estimated with sufficient accuracy, for com-
mercial purposes, in the following manner. A certain quantity

Monitor Still.

COMPOSITION OF WINE. 191

of wine is measured in the jar, and distilled in the same manner
as in the estimation of alcohol (ivhich see), or the wine may be
placed in a shallow dish on a stove or over a lamp, and boiled
slowly till the volume is reduced one-half, when the alcohol will
be all evaporated; then the original volume should be restored
by adding water. After it has rested for a day or so, the greater
part of the salts will crystallize and be deposited, when the sugar
strength can be ascertained by the use of the saccharometer, in
the usual way (see page 8). One degree, however, should be
deducted from the hydrometer reading.

Mailllite. or the essential principle of manna, is produced in
wine when sugar undergoes viscous fermentation. Its flavor is
similar to that of sugar, and its composition is but little different
from that of the same substance.

Mucilage. The grand red wines of the Medoc, and of some
other portions of the Gironde, and also the grand wines of Bur-
gundy, says Boireau, preserve in aging a pronounced fruity taste,
an unctuosity, a velvety mellowness, which, joined with their
flavor and bouquet, make these wines in good years the delight
of the gourmets. This velvety mellowness is found only in those
seasons when the grapes ripen well. In poor years, when the
grapes do not become completely ripe, the wines may have at
times more or less distinctive flavor (seve), and sometimes even a
little bouquet, but they are dry, and the mellowness is wanting.

Many ordinary wines possess while young, if they have been
well made, and are produced in favorable years, a marked fruiiy
flavor; but in the greater part of the wines of this kind, this
mellowness does not last, and disappears gradually with age,
while in the grand wines of good" years, the unctuosity is more
appreciable after the defecation of their lees than while they are
new.

The substance which in a measure produces this quality is
called mucilage by Maumene and some others. Others, again,
have given it different names. Maumene says that it seems to
be a sort of intermediary substance between cellulose and dextrin,

192 COMPOSITION OF WINE.

and that its nature is not yet known, but that it is a near neigh-
bor of sugar.

Mr. Boireau believes that the mellowness is produced by a modi-
fication of grape sugar, because, when not properly cared for,
mellow wines undergo an insensible fermentation, especially if
they are in their first and second years, and still contain fer-
ments. Very often at the end of these secondary fermentations,
the unctuosity has disappeared, and the wines have become dry.
It seems, accordingly, that the substance is capable of under-
going the same transformations as sugar under the influence of
ferments and heat.

Pectose is found in green grapes and other fruits, and by the
acids is changed into pectin, which is the gelatinizing principle,
is soluble in water, and may have some effect on the mellowness
of wine. Alcohol precipitates it in the form of jelly.

Fatty Matters have been found in wine lees, which may be
extracted from the seeds by long contact during fermentation,
for it is known that the seeds yield such matters.

Glycerin is mentioned among fatty matters, but it is known
to be produced by the fermentation of sugar, and is supposed to
have its influence on the flavor of wine.

The Coloring Matter of red wine has received the name of
cenocyanine. In its pure state it is blue, but is changed to red
by acids. The yellow and brown color of some white wines is
due to the oxidation of some of the matters contained in them .
The change of color in red wines is also due to the oxidation of
the tannic acid, thereby forming an . insoluble compound, tan-
nomelanic acid, which is precipitated, carrying down the cenocy-
anine, and the wine gradually becomes tawny.

Aldehydes are produced first in the transformation of alcohol
into an acid by oxidation, acet-aldehyde occurring between
alcohol and acetic acid, as mentioned in Acetic Fermentation.
When a weak wine is exposed to the air it is gradually converted
into vinegar, or acetic acid. If free access of air is permitted, it

COMPOSITION OF WINE. 193

may be converted at once into acetic acid, but if the access of
the air is very limited, or if the wine is rich and strong, oxida-
tion stops at the first stage, and aldehyde is formed. It is a
colorless liquid of a very suffocating smell, having an etherous
odor, and is supposed to have an important influence on the
flavor and bouquet of various wines. The strong wines of south-
ern countries which are kept in casks in ullage, exposed to the
action of the oxygen of the air, develop a certain amount of
aldehyde in time, and it is supposed that sherry owes some of its
qualities to this substance.

Acids. We can only allude briefly to the acids which have
been recognized in wines. The principal one is tarlaric acid,
found in considerable quantities in grapes, and is contained in
the argols, or crude cream of tartar, bitartrate of potash, which is
deposited on the inner walls of the casks in which the wine is
kept. This substance principally gives the acid taste to wine.

Malic Acid, or the acid of apples, is found; and of citric add,
or the acid of lemons, traces have been recognized; also pectic
acid, derived from the pectose.

Tannic Acid is a very important ingredient in wine, and is
frequently mentioned in this work. (See Fining, Tannin.)

Carbonic Acid. It has been shown in the chapter on Fer-
mentation that carbon dioxide is the gas produced by fermenta-
tion. This gas, CO,, was known to the old chemists as carbonic
acid, or carbonic acid gas, and the latter terms are "frequently
used in this work in the sense of carbon dioxide, in accordance
with common usage. But modern chemistry teaches us that
carbon dioxide, OCX, is not an acid at all, but in connection with
water it takes up a molecule of the latter, and becomes EL CO,,
carbonic acid proper. The gas, however, as well as the acid,
exists in all wines, and to the former, sparkling wines owe their
effervescence. Its presence is important, exercising a preservative
effect by preventing their oxidation, and also by keeping in dis-
solution substances which would otherwise cloud the wine.
When the wine is first fermented it is saturated with carbon

194 COMPOSITION OF WINE.

dioxide, and while it remains so, oxygen will not be absorbed,
and hence its preservative effect. Mr. Maumene even recom-
mends resort to artificial means to restore it, or to re-saturate the
wine in case of its loss. If, however, the precautions heretofore
indicated for keeping table wines are observed, the wine will be
well preserved.

Acetic Acid is the result of oxidation, or acetic fermentation
(which see), and lactic acid is derived from lactic fermentation,
but is regarded as accidental in wine, probably not existing in
the must, though it is found in some wines made from grapes
which have been bruised and broken a long time before using.

Butyric Acid is the product of butyric fermentation.

Yaleric Acid is supposed to exist in wine from the distinctive
odor which is smelt in it under certain conditions.

Succinic Acid has been referred to as one of the products of
alcoholic fermentation.

The Total Acids in wine vary a good deal, but four or five per
mille is a fair average.

Space will not permit of more details on the various substances
contained in wine, but those who desire further information are
referred to the work of Maumene in French, and that of Thudi-
churn and Dupre in English.

The Banquet proper of wines is a perfume containing differ-
ent odors, like that of a bouquet of flowers. It is very complex
also in its origin, and the matters contained in the wine which
give rise to it are but little known. It is variable, being differ-
ent in different wines, and all the odorous matters doubtless con-
tribute to its existence, such* as oenanthic, and other ethers, the
different alcohols, aldehydes, and perhaps even certain essential
oils. The varieties of grapes, the season, and the soil, also have
their effect, as well as the method of vinification. It is believed,
however, that the bouquet is principally due to the ethers.

Artificial Bouquet. In this connection, the experiments of

COMPOSITION OF WINE. 195

Mr. Maumene will be found interesting. He prepared one litre
of a liquid similar, to wine, but without a sensible odor, by add-
ing distilled water to the distillate from a red wine of Bordeaux.

One drop of aldehyde produced no appreciable odor.

Six drops of acetic ether produced no sensible effect.

Nor did crystallized acetic acid change the result.

He then added 5 grs. 5 of cream of tartar, gr. 18 of succinic
acid, and 20 grs. of glycerin, without producing any odor in the
liquid.

On adding certain ethers a remarkable change was produced.

By adding two small drops of cenanthic ether (obtained by
distilling fresh wine lees), the liquid instantly gave an odor of
wine.

Then he added, drop by drop, one cubic centimetre (1000th
part by measure) of essence of pears, that is, the following
mixture:

1 volume of valero-amylic ether.
6 volumes of alcohol of 36 per cent.

The first drops developed a bouquet which belongs to certain
wines; but by adding the whole amount mentioned, a pear odor
was developed, by which the liquid could be easily distinguished
from wine. So he prepared another litre of the liquid contain-
ing the same substances, and added only two or three drops of
essence of pears. He then added two drops of ordinary butyric
ether, and the bouquet resembled in a remarkable degree that of
a good Bouzy wine, arid several persons took it for a decolored
wine. By varying the experiment, the bouquet of wines can be
imitated in a remarkable manner.

For those who are curious in such matters, I translate the
following from Boireau:

Artificial bouquets are produced by aromatic substances, or
essential oils, whose aroma is extracted or dissolved out by the
help of alcohol. The aromatic principle may be extracted either
by a simple alcoholic tincture, by digestion or distillation, by
dissolving the oils themselves, etc., and the process varies with
the substance used.

196 COMPOSITION OF WINE.

The aromatic substances most frequently employed to pro-
duce artificial bouquets in non-fortified wines, commencing with
those which form the base and whose aromas are more dominant,
are: iris, strawberry, gillyflower, the flower of the vine, mign-
onette, nutmeg, bitter almond, fruit pits, sassafras, etc. The
latter are rarely employed alone, and play a secondary part by
mixing with the two first, iris and strawberry, whose aromas are
quite distinctive.

Iris. There are two varieties of this. The roots only are
employed; they are white, of an average diameter of m. 02
(I in.), and of a very irregular form. They are sold in pieces
about Om. 05 (2 in.) long, with the rootlets removed. They are
largely employed in perfumery.

The root of the so-called Florence iris, which grows in Italy
and the south of France, has a pronounced violet odor. Another
variety, which grows in the north of France and in Germany, is
sold under the name of German iris. An experienced person can
distinguish the two.

The perfume of the iris is with difficulty and incompletely
extracted by distillation; it is obtained by infusing the roots in
alcohol, after first reducing them to a powder by means of a
grater. The operation is long, but indispensable. The powder
occurs in commerce, but in that form the roots lose their aroma,
and it is moreover liable to be adulterated.

The tincture is prepared in the following proportions : old
spirit of wine of 85 per cent., 10 litres (2 gallons); Florence
iris, 1 kilogramme (21, lb.), reduced to powder.

Bung or cork the vessel containing it, stir it about for a few
minutes, and then put it in a place of at least 68 J F., but which
does not go beyond 95 C . Shake it occasionally during two weeks,
and then press and filter it.

The tincture has a pronounced violet odor, and a harsh, bitter
after-taste.

It may be employed alone, in a very small dose, rarely exceed-
ing 5 centilitres per hectolitre (131 fluidrams to 26 gallons).

COMPOSITION OF WINE^~yl I 197

Oftener, however, a few drops of the essential
etc., are mixed with it.

Strawberry. The preparation of an alcoholic infusion of
strawberries is very simple. Take fully ripe berries, pick them
over and hull them, and put them in a keg with a large bung.
Ten kilogrammes of fruit to 12 litres of old spirits of wine of 85
per cent. (22 Ibs. to 3i gals.) are used. After macerating for
twenty-four hours, the liquor is drawn off and filtered. It is a
rose-colored liquor of a very pleasant aroma. Then the fruit is
crushed, and brandy of 50 per cent, is added, and the whole is
allowed to macerate for a month, and then the marc is pressed.
The second tincture has an odor and flavor inferior to the first,
and has more color. It is filtered, or what is better, distilled in
a water bath. In the latter way spirit of strawberry is obtained.
It is preferable to employ the liquor of the first infusion. This
aroma is generally used alone, and is much employed in the
manufacture of sparkling wines. Sometimes a small quantity of
other aromatic substances are added, allowing the strawberry to
predominate. It is the best modifier of the aroma of young
wines.

The dose varies according to the degree of the aroma, from 2
to 10 centilitres per hectolitre ($ to ;] of a gill, or 5.4 to 27 fluid-
rams to 26.4 gals. )

Gillyflower, or Stoekgilly. The essential oil of this flower
may be extracted by pressure, by maceration, or by distillation,
and is found in commerce. To make the bouquet, the oil is
used, or the concentrated essence, which is produced by the
distillation of the bruised flowers with alcohol of 85 per cent.,
in the proportion of 300 grammes of the flowers to 5 litres of
alcohol (10] oz. to 55 quarts). In the absence of an alembic,
the aroma may be extracted by infusion, as in the case of iris, by
macerating 100 grammes of the bruised flowers to 1 litre of
alcohol of 85 per cent. (3-1 oz. to a quart) for eight days, and
filtering. Gillyflower is rarely used alone; but by adding a very
small quantity of it to iris, a good effect is produced, and the
perfume becomes more intimately mixed with the wine, for the

198 COMPOSITION OF WINE.

oil of gillyflower is heavier than water; but this aroina should
never predominate, and is best for old wines without bouquet.

Vine Flowers are gathered and the petals infused in alcohol
of 85 per cent., in the proportion of 100 grammes of flowers to 5
litres of alcohol (3^ oz. to 5 quarts). After macerating for eight
days, it is distilled in a water bath. This aroma, which is very
volatile, is used in the dose of 5 centilitres to a hectolitre (13.5
fluidrams to 26.4 gals.)

Mignonette. The perfume of the mignonette, like that of
many other flowers, is obtained by picking the flowers from their
stems, bruising them, and placing them upon layers of cotton or
pieces of linen impregnated with fresh oil, or other sweet fats; oil
of ben is preferred. The flowers are renewed every four hours,
till the cotton or the cloth is charged with perfume. The oil or
fat is removed by pressure or otherwise, and the essential oil is
dissolved out with alcohol of 85 per cent., which is afterwards
separated from the fixed oil, and filtered. The extract of mign-
onette so obtained is employed in the proportion of 1 to 5 cen-
tilitres to a hectolitre (2.7 to 13.5 fluidrams to 26.4 gals.) but
oftener it is mixed with other perfumes.

Nutmeg is employed in the form of spirit distilled from the
nuts over the fire, 500 grammes of nuts to 10 litres of alcohol
(1 Ib. to 102 quarts), or in the form of a tincture made with the
same proportions of nuts and alcohol, or a small quantity of the
essential oil is mixed with other aromatic substances. This pre-
paration, particularly the tincture or the distilled spirit, has a
good effect. Being heavier than water, it assists the mixture.

Bitter Almonds and Fruit Pits. Their oil is found in com-
merce, and its aroma is due to the hydrocyanic (prussic) acid
contained in it, which is poisonous, and therefore the oil should
be employed in the smallest doses.

Sassafras. The essential oil is extracted from the wood and
bark by distillation, and can be purchased in the market. It is
heavier than wine, and fixes the lighter perfumes. It is used
only secondarily, and in very small quantities.

COMPOSITION OF WINE. 199

Other Aromas have been tried, but they can only be used as
auxiliary to the three first named, iris, gillyflower, and strawberry,
because their odors dift'er essentially from the natural bouquet of
mellow wines.

Effects. These preparations give wines a bouquet or aroma
which partakes of the substances employed, but they do not give
the distinctive flavor (s6ve) which characterizes fine wines, and
the result only flatters the sense of smell. These perfumes are
very volatile, and it does not require a very delicate or a much
experienced palate to distinguish them from the natural bouquet
of wine, and persons of delicate sensibilities are disturbed by
them, if too pronounced.

When a wine has been artificially perfumed, it still preserves
its taste and earthy flavor; it has simply changed its odor. Taste
it without smelling, and its distinctive flavor will be recognized.
Mr. Boireau says that, notwithstanding the contrary announce-
ments of interested manufacturers, they are not preserved like
the natural bouquets and flavors, but, little by little, they become
enfeebled, and are volatilized with time.

He says that the trade is inundated with the announcements
of pretended cenologists, chemists, etc., manufacturers of bou-
quets decorated with such pompous names as Medoc Flavoring
(Seve du Medoc), Bouquet of Bordeaux, of Pomard, Bordeaux
Extract, etc., and all these humbugs are advertised as giving the
most ordinary wines the true Medoc flavor, etc., which, happily
for the producers of Medoc, cannot be done.

It is better, as stated in the chapter on Gutting Wines, to
improve wines by mixing them with those having expansible
flavors and odors, rather than use these artificial bouquets.

200 MISCELLANEOUS.

CHAPTER XX.

GENERAL CHAPTER MISCELLANEOUS .

The Proportion of Juice to Marc, as stated in Thudichum
and Dupre's work, has been found in various grapes as follows:

White Chasselas, stems removed, gave by strong pressure, 97
per cent, of juice; marc of skins and seeds, 3 per cent.

Black Pinot grapes, stems removed, gave 94.8 per cent, of
juice, and 5.2 per cent, of marc.

Black Pinot, pressed with the stems, gave 91. 8 per cent, of juice,
and 8.2 per cent, of marc, including stems.

Black Pinot, fermented with the stems and then pressed,
gave 69.6 per cent, of wine, and 30.4 per cent, of marc.

In the latter case much wine is absorbed by the stems, which
cannot be removed by pressure.

In the first three cases the pressure must have been such as to
reduce the marc to near dryness to obtain so high a percentage
of juice.

In the report of the work done in the Viticultural Laboratory
of the University, referred to in the preface, the following figures
are found, and are extracted from Table No. 1 of the report.
Omitting the two extremes Fehei Szagos, 203.2, and Lenoir,
118 we obtain the average of 157 gallons of grape juice per ton
of 2000 Ibs. in twelve white wines, and 174.8 gallons per ton in
twelve red wines; the word "red" being used in the table to
designate the product obtained by fermenting white grapes with
the skins and seeds, as well as to designate "red wine" proper.

The report says: "The red wines, of course, produce very
much less pomace, which consists largely of skins and seeds only.
The white pomace has much more of the pulp of the grape, and con-
sequently a much larger amount of water. During the fermentation
the internal structure of the grape is destroyed, the sugar is fer-
mented out, and only the fibrous structure remains; even this is to a
great extent broken up, and runs out with the wine when pressed ,"

MISCELLANEOUS.

201

NAME.

Color of Wine.

2 :
I,

Pomace, per cent.

Air-dried Pomace,
per cent.

Gallons of Must per
ton of Grapes
2000 Ibs.

Mission, just ripe.
" fully "

( ( C( t

Red

White
Red
White

71.75
106.50
101.00

85.80

13.50
18.30
11.63
24.10

3.05
3.75
3.96
3.07

8.71

6.38
9.20

8.98
6.84

177.8
172.6
177.8
159.4

( (

Red

73.92

12.20

2.91

5.26

6.30

170.5

Zinfandel

White

84.00

27.30

5.75

6.20

147.6

< <

Red

126.00

13.40

5.55

11.00

174.6

(.-

White

87.78

29.07

451

7.31

6.32

144.0

c (

Red

84.26

10.96

4.02

494

7.30

173.4

Malvoisie

White

116.00

18.10

2.58

9.90

170.6

Red

151.00

10.92

2.65

14.30

189.4

Charbono

White

97.00

30.92

6 18

7.00

144.2

Burerer

White

74.00

.97

6.40

172.8

"Red"

95.00

12.10

7.36

8.25

173.6

Chasselas

White

103,84

31.35

9, 96

5.93

7.47

143.8

c <

"Red"

70.40

13.75

2 92

3.74

5.97

169.6

Golden Chasselas.
Prolific

"Red"
White

139.70
95.04

12.28
23.15

4.56
3.70

3.15

7 76

12.90
7.54

184.6
158.6

"Red"

86.24

11.73

3.57

4 24

7-30

169.2

Black Prince
1 1 ( (

Feher Szagos
( ( ( (

Mataro

White
Red
White
Red

White

108.24
103.40
92.40
77.99
131.67

25.60
15.74
25.95
9.01
21.40

5.18
4.46
2.14

2.28
6.69

9.01
5.21
4.89
2.55
6.26

8.13
8.54
7.47
7.93
10.46

150.2
165.2
161.8
203.2
158.9

i (

Red

90.20

12.19

5.60

5.02

7.76

172.0

Lenoir .

Red

33.00

17.30

600

8.50

1.96

118.7

This table contradicts the opinion held by some wine makers,
that the Mission grape yields a larger percentage of stems than
other varieties . The five lots of Mission grapes analyzed give
an average of nearly 3.35 per cent, of stems, which is less than
the yield of every other variety mentioned, except Malvoisie,
Chasselas, and Feher Szagos.

The Proportion of Wine to Grapes. It is generally said that
it takes about 12 Ibs. of grapes to produce a gallon of wine;
some give the number of pounds as low as 10; the product,
14

202 MISCELLANEOUS.

however, is must, or new wine, for nothing is taken into consid-
eration for loss by evaporation, etc., while aging. Some wine
dealers here consider that it takes about 17 Ibs. of grapes to pro-
duce a gallon of wine ready for consumption.

At a meeting of the St. Helena Vinicultural Club, Napa Valley,
in this State, the following facts were stated, as reported in the
newspapers. Mr. Krug said that he had always thought that 14
Ibs. of grapes would give a gallon of good wine at the time of the
second racking in March , April, or May. Mr. Scheffler said he
had made last year 135.6 gallons of wine and 8 gallons of brandy
to the ton of grapes. Counting each gallon of brandy as equal
to 5 of wine, it was equal to about 176 gallons of wine. That
was about the average of Riesling, Chasselas, Zinfandel, Mal-
voisie, etc. The general average was 136 gallons of wine and 8
of brandy, or 125 gallons of good wine and 10 of brandy. Mr.
Heyman said he was glad to get 145 gallons of clear, marketable
wine on the average. Mr. Pellet said that the very best grapes
would make 150 gallons of wine at the first racking, and this is
probably a fair average.

Wooden and Metal Utensils. In European countries, and
in all properly ordered wine cellars, wooden utensils are used
wherever practicable; and it ought to be impressed upon the
mind of every one who has anything to do with the handling of
the liquid, that metal should never come in contact with wine, if
it can be avoided, except it be a precious metal like silver. The
reason is that wine, on account of the acids contained in it, has
a powerful effect upon lead, copper, zinc, iron, etc. Whenever
such a metal is exposed to the influence of the air, and of an
acid liquor, the metal is readily oxidized, and the oxide combines
with the acid to form a salt. Therefore, Mr. Maumene says that
it is dangerous to keep wine for a few hours in vessels of copper
or lead, on account of the poisonous effects of their compounds.
It is bad even to leave it in iron, zinc, or tin. Among the acids
contained in wine, that which is the most capable of causing
oxidation of the metals is the tartaric acid and the crude tartar.
So the principal salts formed by the wine in metallic vessels are
the bi-tartrates of potash and the oxide of the metal. Iron wire

MISCELLANEOUS. 203

wet with wine, in a few days becomes covered with a very dark,
brown pellicle, the wine is reduced to a solution of tartrate of
iron and potash, which is of that color. A piece of iron in the
wine produces the same result. This salt, however,"is not poison-
ous. But if the acid acts energetically on the iron, the water
will be deprived of its oxygen, and the hydrogen thereby set free
may seriously affect the wine, by combining with foreign bodies
found in it, producing a detestable flavor and odor. A cask of
wine may be completely ruined by a nail.

The salts of iron, therefore, are not to be feared on account
of any deleterious effect upon the system, but rather on account
of the ill effect which they may have upon the color, the flavor,
and odor of the wine. On the other hand, the salts of copper
and lead are highly poisonous, and should be carefully avoided.

Zinc and galvanized iron are also affected by wine, to the
extent that when left in vessels made of either, it will cause
serious indisposition to those who drink it.

Tin is also dissolved by wine, forming stannic oxide and stan-
nic acid, which combine with the coloring matter and render it
insoluble, making the wine cloudy at first, and finally rendering
it nearly colorless. By long contact with tin the wine develops
a fetid odor. Every wine maker knows how soon his tin vessels
used about wine wear out, and the reason is apparent.

Cleanliness. Whether wood or metal utensils are used, it is
one of the essentials in making good, wholesome wine, that they
should' be kept scrupulously clean and neat. Steminers, crushers,
presses, buckets, funnels, and in fact everything that comes in
contact with the liquid should be scrubbed and rinsed often
enough to prevent their becoming sour, or contracting any
disagreeable flavor or odor. If metal vessels must be used, by
all means do not allow wine to stand in them. Bun water
through the hose and the pumps after using, and also before
using again. For it is safe to assert that many of the bad odors
and flavors met with in wines made by inexperienced persons
are often due to want of care in these matters. The necessary
care to be bestowed upon the casks has already been mentioned
iix the proper place.

204

MISCELLANEOUS.

Different Cellar Utensils which will be found convenient are
represented in the following figures :

Fig. 45. Fig. 46. Fig. 47.

Tin Pitchers. Wooden Pitcher.

Figures 45 and 46 are tin pitchers, and 47 is of wood.
Fig. 48. Fig. f.P.

Wooden Funnel. Adjustable Hoop.

Figure 48 shows wooden vessels not necessary to describe.

Figure 49 is a wooden funnel for casks. Figure 50 is an
adjustable hoop, useful in case of leakage in a cask caused by
the breaking of hoops. It can be put around a cask and tight-
ened with the screw till a new hoop is put in place. Where,
however, casks are well hooped with iron, it is not likely to be
needed.

Figure 51 are baskets for carrying bottles.

Every well ordered cellar should be provided with graduated
measures (tigs. 52 and 53) in which to measure the respective
proportions to be taken of each kind of wine for cutting. They

MISCELLANEOUS.

205

52.

can be had of any desired capacity, and graduated decimally, or
otherwise, as needed.

F'KJ. 51. Figure 54, instruments

of tin for drawing from the
bungs of casks in tasting.
In the sherry districts,

Bottle Baskets. where the casks are not

a narr0 w cup attached to a stick is used to
dip out the wine through the bung. The practice of
i: 'ing a piece of hose for this purpose, by letting one
Fig, 53. end into the cask and sucking on the
other with the mouth till the wine
runs, as it is done in too many cellars
iii California, is not to be commended
LO the fastidious.

A pump in the form of figure 55 is
sometimes useful for drawing wine
fjom casks in certain positions.

Figure 56 represents wire imple-
ments for removing corks which have
been pushed inside a bottle.
Fig. 55. Fig. 56.

Graduated Measures.

Fig. 54.

For Removing Corks.

Fig. 57.

Tin Tasters.

Hand Pump.

Bucket

206 MISCELLANEOUS.

USEFUL RULES.

To Ascertain the Weight of a Given Number of Gallons of
a Liquid, multiply 8.33 by the specific gravity of the liquid, and
the product by the number of gallons. For instance, suppose
we have 1000 gallons of a must which shows 22 per cent, sugar.
From Table I we obtain the corresponding specific gravity,
1.0923 (the figure 1 is omitted except at the top of the column),
which shows how much heavier it is than water, water being 1 .
Now, one gallon of water at 60 F. weighs 8.33 Ibs., and the
temperature of the must should be about the same. (See Must
Testing for Sugar.} 8.33 multiplied by 1.0923 = nearly 9.1,
which is the weight in pounds of one gallon of the must.
One thousand gallons would weigh nearly 9,100 Ibs. If Beau-
me's hydrometer is used, ascertain from Table II the specific
gravity corresponding to the mark on the stem. This rule applies
to all liquids whose specific gravity is known syrup, wine,
brandy, alcohol, etc.

The specific gravity of a wine of 12 per cent, is .9843, and by
our rule, one gallon weighs about 8.2 Ibs. a little less than a
gallon of water.

Rule for Reducing Must from a higher to a lower percentage
of sugar: Multiply the number of gallons of the must by its
specific gravity, and the product by the difference between the
given per cent, and the required per cent., and divide by the
required per cent.

Suppose that we have 1000 gallons of a must of 27 per cent.,
how many gallons of water are required to reduce it to 23 per
cent?

The specific gravity, by Table I, is 1.1154, and this multiplied
by 1000 = 1115.4, which multiplied by 4, the difference between
27 and 23 = 4461.6, which divided by 23 gives 194 gallons, in
round numbers.

Rule for Sugaring Must. If crystallized sugar is used, dis-
solve it and make a strong syrup, or sugar water, and the propo-
sition is: Given a must of a certain sugar per cent., and a syrup
of a given per cent., how much of the syrup for each gallon of

MISCELLANEOUS. 207

must is required to produce a must of any required strength,
between the two ?

First Multiply the required per cent, by the corresponding
specific gravity.

Second Multiply the per cent, of the must by its specific
gravity.

Third Multiply the per cent, of the syrup by its specific
gravity.

Divide the difference between the first and second products by
the difference between the first and third, and the quotient will
be the fraction of a gallon required.

Suppose that we have a must of only 10 per cent, of sugar,
and a syrup of 60 per cent. ; how much of the second should be
added to one gallon of the first to produce a must of 23 per
cent.?

23 x 1.0969 10 x 1.0401

=.284 of a gallon.

60 x 1.2899 23 x 1.0969

Therefore, for every gallon of the must, we add 0.284 gallons
of the syrup.

The same rule will apply to the mixing of a strong and a weak
must.

Rules for Fortifying and Reducing Wines and Weak
Liquors. In mixing strong spirits, it is necessary to make an
allowance for contraction, and tables are prepared for the pur-
pose, but in mixing wines and weak spirits, it may be disre-
garded, and the following rules will be found sufficient.

To Reduce with Water. Having a wine or a weak Spirit of a
certain per cent, of alcohol, how much water is required for
each gallon to reduce it to any lower per cent.?

Divide the difference between the given per cent, and the
required per cent., by the required per cent.

Suppose a wine or other alcoholic solution of 15 per cent, by

208 M ISC EL LAN EG US .

volume, how much water is required for each gallon to produce
one of 10 per cent.?

15 10

Therefore, add one-half gallon of water for each gallon of the
wine or weak spirit.

To Reduce with Weaker Wine, or to Fortify with Stronger
Wine or Alcohol. Having two wines or other weak liquors
whose percentages of alcohol are known, how much of the
second is required for every gallon of the first, to produce a wine
of any required strength between the two ?

Divide the difference between the per cent, of the first, and
the required per cent, by the difference between the per cent, of
the second and the required per cent.

Having a wine, etc., of 18 per cent., and another of 8 per
cent., how much of the second is required for every gallon of
the first to produce one of 12 per cent.?

18 12 6

.128 4

Or one and one-half gallons of the second for every gallon of
the first.

Or, suppose we have a wine of 15 per cent., how much brandy
of 50 per cent, must be used for every gallon of the first to pro-
duce a wine of 20 per cent.?

20 15 5 1

50 20 30 " 6

Or one-sixth of a gallon of the brandy must be used for each
gallon of the wine.

PLASTERING.

It is a Common Practice in Spain and in the southern part
of France to plaster the wines, by adding more or less gypsum,
or plaster of Paris. It is either thrown upon the grapes before

MISCELLANEOUS. 209

or after crushing, or is added to the must. Gypsum is known to
chemists, when pure, as calcium sulphate (sulphate of lime),
but contains a certain amount of water of crystallization, and is
generally found associated with other substances, such as rock
salt, and calcium carbonate, or limestone. It is the commonest
impurity found in spring water, and gives water its permanent
hardness. Much has been written for and against the practice of
plastering, and both sides of the question have strong advocates.

Objects. There are many different reasons given for the prac-
tice, some of which are fanciful. It is claimed that it retards
fermentation, and that red wines under its effects develop more
color, because the marc can be left longer in the fermenting vat;
that the froth of plastered wine is livelier and sooner disappears,
which pleases the merchants; and that it has a preservative effect
upon the wine. It is claimed by some that it renders the wine
dryer and harsher, as it does, if used to excess, and by others,
that it unites with a portion of the water of the juice, and renders
the remaining juice richer in sugar. Again, it is added to neu-
tralize a portion of the acid contained in the must.

Chemical Effects. Maumene says that it transforms the
potassium salts of the wine into insoluble lime salts and potas-
sium sulphate, and this may have an important effect upon fer-
mentation, for some chemists attribute to the acid potassium
tartrate the property of holding ferments in solution, and that
potassium sulphate, even with the freed tartaric acid, does not
possess this power; that the carbonate of lime contained in
the plaster, in neutralizing the acidity of the tartar, without
doubt contributes to the precipitation of the ferment which this
salt held in solution; and that during the neutralization, car-
bonic acid is disengaged, and the evaporation of the moisture
carried up by the gas somewhat lowers the temperature. He
supposes that all these causes combined retard the fermentation.

P. Carles (J. Pharm. Chim. [5], 6, 118-123), says that the
calcium sulphate acts on the potassium bitartrate in the juice of
the grape, forming calcium tartrate, tartaric acid, and potassium

210 MISCELLANEOUS.

sulphate, a large proportion of the last two bodies remaining in
the wine. That without plastering, wine contains about two
grammes per litre of pure tartaric acid, whilst after plastering,
it contains double or treble that amount, and even more, accord-
ing to the quantity of potassium bitartrate decomposed .

In order to make clear what this chemist says, in ordinary
language, we will say that the gypsum acts upon the cream of
tartar in the grape juice, sets free a portion of the tartaric acid
existing in combination in it, and also forms tartrate of lime and
sulphate of potash.

At first sight, therefore, it would seem that the addition of
gypsum, or plaster of Paris, actually increases the acid, and this
would be true if the gypsum consisted of pure calcium sulphate,
but it always contains more or less calcium carbonate, and this
substance, which is but another name for chalk, limestone, or
marble, precipitates the free tartaric acid, and the carbonate of
lime does what is generally claimed for the gypsum diminishes
the acidity of the wine. But if the calcium carbonate does not
exist in sufficient quantity in the gypsum to precipitate all the
tartaric acid set free, the opposite effect would be produced.
Why not add marble dust at once?

The experiments given in Thudichum and Dupre's work show
that the amount of water withdrawn from must by the addition
of even anhydrated plaster is so small as to be unworthy of
notice, being only one-fourth the weight of the plaster used.

Effects Oil the Health. This question was examined at Mont-
pellier, in France, by a committee of chemists appointed by the
court, and the results of their inquiries are frequently cited by
those who are in favor of plastering:

1. That the plastered wine contains no new mineral sub-
stance.

2. That the quantity of plaster introduced into the wine may
be considered null, because it is entirely changed into potassium
sulphate, a slightly purgative salt, analogous in this respect to
tartar.

MISCELLANEOUS. 211

Later, however, a commission was appointed by the Conseil des
Armees, who reported as follows:

1. That by the taste, plastered wines could not be' distin-
guished from the natural ones.

2. That plaster diminished the intensity of the color. (This,
of course, refers to the direct effect.)

3. That the potassium bitartrate, one of the most useful prin-
ciples contained in wine, is decomposed by plaster, and that
potassium sulphate is formed, which remains in solution, and
calcium tartrate, which is precipitated.

4. That potassium phosphate, also one of the salts naturally
contained in wine, is equally decomposed by plaster.

5. That plastering profoundly modifies the nature of wines,
by substituting for the potassium bitartrate a purgative salt in
the proportion of from 3 to more than 7 grammes per litre.

And they demand the exclusion of all wine containing more
than 4 grammes of the sulphate per litre.

And Mr. Carles, above quoted, concludes that, owing to the
purgative effect of this salt, potassium sulphate, the quantity
present should not exceed 2 grammes per litre, or half as much
as the army commission allow.

Still later, we have the instructions of the Minister of Justice
of France to the procureurs Generaux, issued in 1880, as follows:

After several judicial decisions relative to the sale of plastered
wines, one of my predecessors expressed to the Minister of
Agriculture and Commerce the desire that new experiments
should be made in order to establish, if in the present state of
science the immunity accorded to plastered wines by the circular
of July 21, 1858, should be maintained.

Having examined the question, the consultation committee of
public hygiene issued the following notice:

1 . That the absolute immunity which plastered wines enjoy
on account of the circular of the Minister of Justice dated July
21, 1858, ought no longer to be officially allowed.

212 MISCELLANEOUS.

2. That the presence of potassium sulphate in the wines of
commerce, which results from plastering the must, from the
mixture of plaster or sulphuric acid with the wine, or from cut-
ting with plastered wines, should only be tolerated to the maxi-
mum limit of 2 grammes per litre (about 117 grains per gallon).

In calling my attention to this notice, rny colleague of agricul-
ture and commerce informs me that he completely concurs.

He, therefore, instructs the officers to prosecute, under the
laws against adulterations, the dealers who shall sell wine con-
taining more than the quantity indicated of potassium sulphate,
as dangerous to the health of the consumers.

Plastering Sherry Quantity Used. Mr. Vizitelli says that
during his stay at Jeres, he paid particular attention to the
plastering question, saw the gypsum applied in almost a hun-
dred instances, and questioned the overseers in scores of vine-
yards. He states that within his own knowledge gypsum is by
no means invariably used in the vinification of sherry, as already
stated under the head of Sherry. And although applied in the
majority of cases, but a few pounds per butt are used, say G Ibs.
at most in a dry season, and a little more than double that
quantity in years when great dampness prevails. And he argues
from the Montpellier experiment, already mentioned, where the
committee added 40 grammes of gypsum to a litre of wine, and
found only 1.240 grammes of sulphate of potash per litre where
pure calcium sulphate was used, and 1.828 grammes where ordi-
nary plaster was employed, that when the Spaniards add the
amount which they do to the must in sherry making, no injury
to the wine can occur. It may be proper to suggest, however,
for the benefit of future inquirers, that wine, after insensible
fermentation, contains but a small proportion of the potassium
bitartrate which was contained in the grape, the greater part of
it having been deposited with the lees and the marc. Wines
do not contain tartar enough to furnish 2 grammes per litre of
potassium sulphate, nor enough to act upon 1 gramme of pure
gypsum. But it is far otherwise with grape juice. Now 6 Ibs.
of gypsum to one butt of wine of 108 Imperial gallons would be

MISCELLANEOUS. 213

the same as about 5.5 grammes per litre, and if pure, ought to
produce, on being fully satisfied with the acid potassium tartrate,
as much as 8 grammes per litre of potassium sulphate, and Mr.
Carles, above quoted, says that it does amount to from 4 to 7.5
grammes per litre in plastered wines.

Supposing the following to be the correct reaction, 1 gramme
of pure gypsum ought to produce, with 2.6 grammes of cream
of tartar, 1.477 grammes of sulphate of potash; and to produce
.the 2 grammes per. litre of the latter would only require 1.353 of
the former; and but a little more than 1 Ib. of pure gypsum
could safely be added to 100 gallons of must:

Ca SO 4 + 2 C 4 H, KO ( , = C 4 H 4 Ca O ( , + C 4 H b O 6 + K. SO 4

As the gypsum is usually added to the pomace itself, or to the
grapes before crushing, it is unsafe to argue from the effects pro-
duced by adding it to wine.

By Adding Water to must, the effects of plastering may be
produced, if the water is hard by reason of the gypsum contained
in it.

SHERRY FLAVOR.

In many California wines a flavor called the ' ' sherry flavor " is
often observed; and in the red wines may frequently be tasted
what would with equal propriety be called a " port flavor;" and
the " sherry flavor" would by some be called a "Madeira flavor."

Mr. Polmdorff stated at the State Yiticultural Convention of
1882, that he was of the opinion that this flavor was due to the
oxidation of the wine. If this is so, the remedy would be to
use greater care in its management, and avoid exposing it to the
air, in fact, observe just the treatment indicated in this book for
all but sweet and fortified wines.

Without attempting to say anything authoritative on the sub-
ject, the author would suggest that in addition to the above cause,
these flavors are largely due, first, to our hot climate; second, to
over-maturity of the grapes; and third, to aging the wine in too
high a temperature; for these conditions all exist in southern

214

MISGELLA NEO US .

countries, whose wines are apt to have a peculiar flavor, called
by some writers the "cooked flavor," which is unobjectionable in
a sweet wine. The first is not always within the control of the
producer, but the two last can always be controlled by the grape
grower and the cellar-man.

APPENDIX

TABLE I.

Balling's degrees (per cent, of sugar) Corresponding degrees Baume,
and specific gravity at 63J F. Ghas. Stammer.

.fT

S ~

c 5 ~

O 3

1 J

^
1

1
I

o
I

I .56

I .0039

'4-35

.1107

27.71

1.2383

76^40.36

I .3894

I. II

.0078

14.00

1154

28.24

.2439

40.84

3959

1.6 7

.OII7

15-44

.1201

28.75

.2495

41-33

.4025

4 2.23

-0157

15-99

.1249

29.27

.2552

41.81

.4092

2. 7 8

.0197

l6 -53

.1297

29.79

.2609

42.29

4159

3-34

.0234

3 1

17.07

I 345

30-3I

.2666

42.78

.4226

3-89

.0278

3 2

17.61

30.82

.2724

43-25

4293

4-45

.0319

18.15

.1442

31-34

.2782

43-73

.4361

5.oo

.0360

18.69

.1491

3I-85

.2840

44.21

-443

5.56

.O4OI

19.23

"-I54I

32-36

.2899

44.68

-4499

6.ii

0443

19.77

i59i

32-87

.2958

45-15

.4568

6.66

.0485

20.30

.1641

33.38

.3018

45.62

.4638

7.22

.0528

20.84

.1692

33.89

.3078

46.09

.4708

7-77

.0570

21.37

3440

.3138

46.56

.4778

8.32

.0613

21.91

.1794

34.901 .3199

47-02

-4849

8.87

0657

41 22.44

.1846

3540

.3260

9 1

47-48

.4920

9.42

.0700 42 22.97

.1898

35-90

.3322

47-95

.4992

9-97

.0744 4323.50

.1950

36.41

-3384

48.40

.5064

10.52

.0787

| 4424-03

.2003

36.91

3446

48.86

5136

11.07

.0833

45 24.56 .2056

37-40

3509

49-32

.5209

11.62

.0878

4625.09

.2110

37-90

3572

49-77

.5281

12.17

.0923

.2164

38.39

.3636

50.22

5355

2 3

12.72

.0969

48 26.14

.2218

38.89

3700

50.67

.5429

13.26

.1015

49 26.67

.2273

74 39.38 -3764

51.12

-5504

13.81

.IO6l

50 27.19; .3328 | 75 39.87; .3829

IOO

5L56

-5578

OECHSLE'S MUST SCALE indicates specific gravity to three decimal
places. When two figures are shown on the scale, a cipher before
them must be understood. For instance: 83 means 1.083, or 20
per cent., Balling; and 106 means 1.106, or 25 per cent., Balling.

216

APPENDIX.

TABLE II.

Baume's degrees, corresponding degrees, Sailing (per cent, sugar,}
and specific gravity at 93 J F.

[ I

N i

I i

bp 3

ctf

ba *

w *

Si!

1
1

.s a

1 g
*rt u

w 2

1 ^

'Jl

o.o

O.OO

1 .0000

23.52

1 .0992

47-73

1 .2203

73.23

1-3714

0.5

0.90
1. 80

.0035

.0070

13-5

24-43

25-35

.1034

.1077

26.5

48.68
49-63

2255
.2308

39.5
40

74.25
75-27

.3846

1.5

2.69

.0105

14-5

26.27

.II2O

27.5

50-59

.2361

40.576.29

3913

3-59

.0141

27.19

.1163

51-55

.2414

4i 77.32

.3981

2-5

4-49

11 77

15.5

28.10

.I2O6

28.5

52-51

.2468

4i.578.35

.404-;

5-39

.,213

29.03

.1250

53-47

.2522

42 |79-39

.4118

3-5

6.29

.0249

16.5

29.95 - T -94

29.5:54.44

.2576

42. 5 1 80.43

.4187

7.19

.0286

30.87

.1339

30 S5A7

.2632

43 |8i-47

.426;

4-5

8.09

.0323

17.5

31.79

30.5,56.37

.2687

43-5

82.51

.4323

9-00

.0360

32.72

.1429

3i -07-34

2743

83.56

.4400

5-5

9.90

-0397

18.5

33> 6 5

.1474

3i-5|53.32

.2800

44-5

84.62

.4472

10.80

0435

.1520

32 159.29

.2857

85.68

.4545

6-5

11.70 .0473

.19-5

35-50

.1566

32.560.27

.2915

45-5

86.74

.4619

12.61, .0511

36.44

16131 33

61.25

2973

87.81 .4694

7-5
8

^Si; -549
14.42 .0588

20.537-37

21 38.30

.1660
.1707

33-5
34

62.23
63.22

3032
.3091

46.5
47

88.88
89.96

.4769
.4845

8-5

15.32 .0627

21.539.24

1755

34-5

64.21

47.5

91.03

.4922

16.23

.0667

22 40.17 -i3o3

65.20

.3211

92.12

.5000

9-5

17.14

.0706

22.541.11 .1852

35-5

66.19

.3272

48.5

93.21

.5079

18.05

.0746

42.05 .1901

36 67.19

3333

94-3

.5158

10.5 18.96

.0787

23.5

42.99 .1950

36.5 68.19

3395

49.5

95.40 .5238

ii 19.87

.0827

43-94

.2000

69.19

3458

96.51 .$319

11.520.78

.o368

24.5

44.88

,2050

37-5

70.20

.3521

50.5

97.6.' .5401

12 -21.69 .0909

45.83 .2101

71.20

.3585

98.7:' .5484

12.5(22.60! .0951

25.5

46.78 .2152

38.5 72-22

3 6 49

5L5

99-85 1 .5568

APPENDIX.

217

TABLE III.

Baume's degrees and corresponding per cent, of sugar at 60 J F.

Baumo

degrees

Sugar .
per cent.

Baume
degrees

Sugar
per cent.

P>;UIMH;
de;;rces

Sugar
per cent.

Baumo
degrees

Sugar
per cent.

1.72

19.83

38.29

57.31

3-50

21.71

40.17

59.27

5.30

23-54

42.03

61.23

7.09

25-34

43.92

63.18

8.90

27.25

45-79

65.19

10.71

29.06

47.70

67.19

12.52

30.89

49.60

69.19

14.38

3275

5i.5o

71.22

16.20

34.60

53-42

73.28

18.04

36.40

55.36

75-35

218

APPENDIX.

TABLE IV

Showing the specific gravities of mixtures of alcohol and water, containing
from o.i to 30 per cent, by volume, of absolute alcohol, and corresponding per
cent, by weight, for erery o.i per cent, by volume, compared with water at 60 F.

The specific gravity of absolute alcohol according to U. S. standard being .7939,
referred to water at its greatest density as unity, or .79461, referred to water at
60 F.

J w

1 1

S S

~ :J | i

" ~

! 1

5 3

!'i

o *S

& '

i ft,

s. 1*

O.I

0.08

.99986

3-8

3-04

.99460

7-5

6. 02

.98974 I 1. 2

9-03

98530

0.2

0.16

.99972

! 3-9

3-12

99445

7-6

6.10

.98961 11.3

9.11

.98519

0-3

0.24

99957

4.0

3-20

9943 *

7-7

6.18

.98949 * l -4

9.20

.98508

0.4

0.32

99943

4.1

3.28

99417

7.8

6.26

.98936 11.5

9.28

.98497

o-5

0.40

99929

4.2

3.36

.99403

7-9

6-35

.98924 ii .6

9-36

.98486

0.6

0.48

99915

4-3

3-44

.99388

8.0

6.43

.9891 1 1 1 ./

9-44

98475

0.7

0.56

.99901

; 4-4

3.52

99374

8.1

6.51

.98899 1 1. 8

9-52

.98463

0.8

0.64

.99886

i4-5

3-6o

.99360

8.2

6-59

.98886 11.9

9.60

98452

0.9

0.72

.99872

. 4-6

3-68

.99346

8.3 ,

6.67

.98874 12 io

9.69

.98441

0.80

.99858

! 4-7

3-76

99332

8.4

6-75

.98861 12. 1

9-77

.98430

0.88

.99844

4.8

3-84

993 1 7

8.5

6.8;

.08849. 12.2

9.85

.98419

0.96

.99830

! 4-9

3-92

99303J

8.6

6.91

.08837 12.3 '

9-93

.98408

.04

.99815

'] 5-o

4.00

.99289

8-7

7.00

-08824 12.4

10.011.98397

.12

.99801

4.08

.99276

8.8

7.08

.98812 12-5

IO.IO

.98386

.20

99787

i S- 2

4.16

99263

8.9

7.16

.98799 12.6

10.18

.98375

.28

99773

! 5-3

4.24

.99250;

9-0

7-24

.08787 2.7

10.26

.98364

99759

5-4

4.32

.99237;

9.1

.08775 2.8

10.34

98352

1.8

99744

5-5

4.40

.99224

; 9.2

.40

.08762 2.9

10.42

.98341

1.9

52 -9973

5-6

4-49

1.99211

: 9-3

.48

.08750 3.0

10.51

98330

2.0

.60 .99716

5-7

4-57

I-99I98

9-4

98737 3- 1

10.59

.98319

2.1

.68 1:99702 5.8

4-65

;. 99 i86

').5

.6",

.98725 3.2

10.67

.98308

2.2

.761.99688

5-9

4.73

99 I 73

0-6

9S7I3 :' 3-3

10.75

.98297

2-3

.841.99673

6.0

4.81

.99160

0-7

.81

.98700 13.4

10.83

.98286

2.4

.92 '.99659

6.1

4.89

.99148

9.8

.80

.98688 13.5

10.92

.98275

2-5

2.00 .99645

6.2

4.97

00135

9-9

.97

.98675 13.6

IO.IO

.98264

2.6

2.08 .99631

6-3

5-05

-00123

IO.O

8.05

.98663 13.7

1 1. 08

.98253

2.7

2.16 .99617

6.4

5 * .1

.001 10

10. 1

8.14

.98652 13.8

11.16

.98242

2.8

2.24 .99602

5.21

.90008

,10.2

8.22

.98641 13.9

11.24

.98231

2.9

2.32 .99588

^ 6.6

5.29

.09086

10.3

8.30

.98630 14.0

i 1 -33

.98220

2. 401. 99574

6.7

5-37

.09073

10.4

8.38

.08619 14.1

11.41

.98209

3.1

2.48 .99560

6.8

5-45

.99061

10.5

8.46

.98608 14.2

11.49

.98199

3-2

2.56 .99546

6.0

5-54

.99048

10.6

8.54

.98597 14.3 ,

"57

.98188

3-3

2.64.99531

7.0

5-62

99036

iio.7

8.62

.98586 14.4

11.65

.98178

3-4

2. 72'. 99517

7- 1

.99024

10.8

8.71

.98574 14.5

11.74

.98167

3-5

2.7Q ! . 99503

, 7-2

5-78

.99011

10.9

8.79

.98563 14.6

11.82

.98156

3-6

2. 88 ,.99488

! 7-3

5.86,. 98999

[II. O

8.87

.98552 14.7

11.90

.98146

3.7 2.961.99474

''' 7-4

1 5-94

.989861111.1

8.95

.98541 14.8

11.98

.98135

APPENDIX.

TABLE IV. Continued.

^ 1

j E
1

E
O

. 4>

c S

4) 3
" 1

| J

s-l
g|

(^ >

1 *

& >

i *

"G
1

14.9

12.07

.98125

i8. 7

15-21

-97733

22.5

18.37

97344

26.3

21-55

.96950

15-0

12.15

.98114

18.8

15.29

.977221 22.6

18.45

-97334

26.4

21.64

.96939

12.23

.98104

18.9

15-37

.97712 22.7 18.53 .97323

26.5

21.72

15-2

12.32

.98094

19 o 15.46

.97702 22.8 18.62

97313

26.6

21.81

.96917

15-3

12.40

.98083

19.1 15.54

.97692 22.9,1870.97302

26.7

21.89

.96906

15.4

12.49

.98073 19.2 15.62

.97682 23.oji8.78 .97292'

26.8

21.98

96896

15.5

12.57

.98063

19-3 I5.70.9767* 23.1 18.87

.97282!

26.9

22.06

.96885

15.6

12.65

.98053! 19.415.78.97661 23.218.95.97272!

27.0

22.15

.96874

12.73
12.82

.98042 19.5:15.87 .97651 23.3119.04
.98032 19.615.95.97641 23.419.12

.97261
96251

27.1
27.2

22.23
22.32

.96863
-96853

15-9

12.90

.98021 | 19.716.041.97631! 23.5

19.20

.97241

27-3

22.40

.96842

16.0

12.98

.98011! 19.816.12.97620 23.619.29

.97231

27.4

22.48

.96832

16.1

13.06.98001; 19.916.20.97610 23.719.37

.97221

27-5

22.57

.96821

16.2

13.14.97990 20.016.29.976001 23.8

19.45

.97210

2 7 .6

22.65

.96810

16.3

I3.22J.97980 20.1 16.37 -9759 23.9119.54

.97200

27.7

22.74

.96799

16.4

13-31 -97969; 20.2 16.45 ,.975 8o ' : 24.019.62

.97190

27.8

22.82

.96789

16.5

13.39 .97959

20.3

16.5^1.97569 : 24.1 19.71

.97180

27-9

22.91

96778

16.6

13.47 .97940 20.4 i6.62i.97559 24.2 19.79

.97170

28.0

22.99

.96767

16.7

I3.55.97938 20.5,16.70.97549 24.3119.87

.97159

28.1

23.07

16.8

13.631.97928 20.6.16.79 .97539 24.4 19.96

.97149

28.2

23.16

.96745

16.9

17.0

I3-7I -97917: 20.7li6.87:. 9 7529 24.5
13.80.97907 20.816.95.97518 24.6

20.04 .97139
20.131.97129

28.3 23.24
28.423.33

96733
.96722

17.1

13-88;. 97897

20.7 17.03

.97508 24.7

20.21 .97118 28.5:23.41

.96711

17.2

13.96 .97887 1 21.0 17.12 .97498 ; 24.8 20.29 .97108

28.623.50

.96700

17.3

I4.o5 ; .97876;i 21.117.20.97488; 24.920.38.97097 28.723.58

.96689

17.4

14. 13:. 97866 j 21.2

17. 28;. 97478 25.0 20.46 .97087

28.823.67

.96677

17-5.

14.21 .97856, 21.3

17-37.97467; 25.120.55.97076 28.923.75

.96666

17.6 14.29.97846 21.417.45.97457 25.2

20.63 .97066,

29.0 23.84

.96655

17.7 14.381.97835 21.5117.53.97447 25.3

20.71 .97055

29.1 23.93

.96644

17.8

14.46 .97825

21.6

17.62

.97437: 25.4

20.80 .97045;

29.2 24.01

.96632

17.9

14.54 .97814

21.7

17-70

.97427 | 25.5

20.88 .97034

29.324.10

.96621

18.0

14.62 .97804

21.8

17-78

.97416! 25.6

20.97 97023

29.424.18

.96609

18.1

14.71

97794

21.9

17.87 .97406; 25.7

21.05.97013 29.524.27

.96598

18.2 14.79 -97784

22.0

17-95

97396 i 25.821.13 .97002

29.6124.35

.96587

18.3

14.87

97773

I 22.1

18.03

.97386

25.921.22

.96992

29.7 24.44

.96575

18.4

14.96 .97763

! 22.2

18.12

-97375

26.0 21.30

.96981

29.8 24.52 .96564

18.5
1 8. 6

15-04 -97753
15.121.97743

22.3
1 22.4

1 8. 20

18.28

.9736511 26.1
97354 ' 26.2

21.39
21.47

.96970
.96960

29.9 24.61
30.0 24.69

.96552
.96541

The basis of the foregoing table is Table III of the U.S. Manual for Inspec-
tors of spirits, giving the respective volumes of absolute alcohol and water in 100
volumes of spirits of different strengths, for every 0.5 per cent, by volume, and
the specific gravities, referred to water at 60 F.

220 TABLE T.

~ u O ^^lOO f} ONVO O O^ N* O N ^" O ON & t^ *OOO O *^ t^ C$ vO
go, 6 oo N rn -< ci fo rrj ci vn N" N rj- >j"ivd <* en T}- r^i en i>. M'

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222

APPENDIX.

INDEX.

Page.

Acetic acid 194

fermentation 30

Acid in California wines x,22O

in European wines xii

increased by stems 20

in wine x,xi,xii, 193,220

see acetic, carbonic, citric, tar-
taric, malic, pectic, tannic,
salicylic, lactic, valeric, succinic
and plastering.

Acidity, disease, see sourness.

in casks. 65

Acquired defect sand diseases 137

Acrity H9

in bottles 167

Adjustable hoop, see utensils.

Aerating must 23

stirring pomace 42

see treading, air, influence of.

port wine 112

Age, effect on wine 51 , 52 ,

Aging wine effect of various in-
fluences. ..." 76

general considerations. 76

requisite to make agreeable and

healthful 76

care to age and preserve 76

new wine . 76

different wines require different

periods 76

development of bouquet and
flavor 76

Page.

Aging wine, old wine, characteristics

of 76

color, aroma and flavor 77

influences which develop, also

destroy.. 77

influences on weak wine and

strong wine 77

influence of the air, see aerating. 77

variations of temperature 78

influence of heat 78

.aging by heat 79

preserving by heat 80

influence of cold and frozen wines 81

inrraence of light 82

aging by sunlight, insolation.... 82
effect of motion and voyages... 82 84

wines suitable for shipment 82

aging by lining 84

generally 84

rine before aging 84

what wines gain the most by

the processes 85

heating Maderia . . . 113

see casks, size of

Air, influence of 77

see port, aerating

Albumen, see fining.

Alcohol in California wines.. ix,x,22O

in European wines xii

relation to sugar II, 28, 34

required in dry wine II

to keep wine sweet. 58, 59,106, 107
in aging by heat So

224

INDEX.

Page.

Alcohol required in aging by sun-
light 82

for shipping wines 82

by weight and by volume 33

burning to arrest fermentation . . 74

lost by evaporation 112

natural in sweet wines 105

adding in fining. IO2

to sweet wines 105, 106, 107

to port. in, 112

to sherry 117, 123

to Madeira 114

see rules.

amount in port H2

in Madeira 1 1 5

in sherry 1 23

estimation of < ... 187

limits by fermentation 36

Alcoholic weakness 133

fermentation, see fermentation.

Aldehyde 3

Almonds, bitter, see bouquet, artificial

Analysis of dry lees 176

Areometer 7

Aroma, see bouquet.

Arresting fermentation 72

see sulphuring, sulphurous acid...

by burning alcohol 74

aqueous sulphurous acid 74

bisulphite of lime 74

salicylic acid , 75

Arrope H9

Artificial must 14

Balling's saccharometer 7, 8, 9

Barrels, see casks.

Barrel flavor , H5

Basket, decanting 169

bottle 205

Bastardo grape, see port.
Basto, see sherry.

Page.

Baume's saccharometer 7, 8

Bins for bottles 164

Bisulphite of lime 74

Bitartrate of potash, see cream of tartar
Bitter almonds, see bouquet, artificial.

Bitterness 131, 149

in bottles 167

Blending, see cutting.

sherry 122

Blood, see fining.
Blotting paper, see fining.

Bluish wines 134

Boiling must 106

Borers of casks 66

Bottles, wine in, bottling, etc., see
wine in bottles.

washer, drainers 156

piling 163

racks and bins 164

baskets 205

Bouquet, short vatting promotes.... 44

development of, by age 76, 77

how lost 77

generally 194

artificial 194

substances used 196

iris 196

strawberry 197

gillyflower, stock gilly 197

vine flowers 198

mignonette 198

nutmeg 198

bitter almonds and fruit pits. ..198

sassafras 198

other aromas 199

effects ,199

Brandy, shipments of California,... vi

casks, empty 66

casks for 66

Bung turned to one side 51, 53

screw...., ....158

INDEX

225

Page.

Butyric fermentation 29

California, prices of grapes vi

exports of wine and brandy vi

product of wine vi

wines, alcohol and acid in . ix, x, 220

wines compared ix, x, 220

musts viii

Capsules and capsuling 162

Carbonic acid produced by fermen-
tation 34

in wine 193

Carbon dioxide, see carbonic acid.

Casks 61

redwood. 61

oak, different kinds, principles

contained in 61

temper with new wine 61

storing 61

sulphured before storing 62

new, preparing, washing 62

old, washing 63

t remove lees, rinsing chain 63

to examine inside, visitor 63

wash empty ones at once 64

do not leave in the sun 64

examine to ascertain condition... 64

le^ky, to expel bad air 64

flatness in, acidity in, mouldy.... 65

rottenness 66

brandy, do not sulphur 66

for brandy 66

oil casks 66

which have contained aromatic

liquors 66

borers 66

size of 67

see different winos.

large, preferable 67

why sulphured 69

how sulphured 70

caution in sulphuring 71

Page.

Casks, filling from vats 45

of new wine loosely closed 48

must be kept full 48

bung to one side, old wine 5 1 * 53

for white wine 55

small for sweet, large for dry 55

rilling during fermentation of

white 55

see froth, racking.

flavor 145

how long wine to remain in 154

supporting and arranging 89

implements for tipping 95

Cellars 87

temperature 87

dampness, floors 88

ventilation, evaporation 88

other precautions 89

supporting and arranging casks.. 89

for port 112

for sherry 118

utensils 204

Cement for cork 1 --, see wax.

Centres, see white wine.

Chain for washing casks 63

Charcoal to remove sulphur flavor.. 74
deprives wine of color and car-
bonic acid 74

Citric acid 193

Clarification, clarifying powders, see
fining.

Cleanliness about wine making.94, 203

Climate of sherry districts 115

Coal, see charcoal.

Cold, influence of on wine 81

Color, increased by long vatting.... 44
dark, not necessary to fine wines 44

precipitated by sulphur 71

by blood 101

removed by charcoal 74

changed by age 77

226

TND EX .

Page.

Color affected by light 82

heat and motion 83

weakened by fining 99

want of 1 34

dull, bluish, lead-colored wines.. 134
see port, tawny,
wine, see sherry.

Coloring matter in red wine 39

Composition of wine 185

cream of tartar 185

not composed of alcohol and

water alone 185

alcohol, acid, and sugar gener-

ally .-... 185

table of substances recognized. . . 186

alcohol and estimation of 187

stills for and operation 187

monitor still 190

ethers . .' 1 90

sugar and estimation 190

mannite 191

mucilage and mellowness 191

pectose, pectin 192

Composition of wine 185

fatty matters 1 92

glycerin 1 92

coloring matter, oenocyanine. . .192

aldehydes 192

acids 1 93

tartaric - 1 93

malic 193

citric 193

pectic 193

tannic 193

carbonic 193

acetic 1 94

lactic 194

butyric ,". . . .194

valeric 1 94

succinic 194

total 194

Page.
Composition of wine, bouquet,

natural and artificial 194

Copper affected by wine 202

Corks 158

preparation of 160

sealing for 161

utensils to remove, see utensils.
Corking machines, corking. . . 159, 160

Corkscrews 169

Cream of tartar, see plastering, lees,
composition of wine, fining.

Crushing and methods of 22

aerating must by 23

Crushing and stemming, rapidity . 24
special practice in the Medoc, 24

effect of 24

dry grapes 108

Crushers 23

Cutting wines 171

most French wines mixed 171

AN- hen necessary, effect 171

tithe wines, singular case 171

no precise rules 171

mix wines of same nature .... 173

fine wines 173

ordinary wines 1 74

time must be allowed 174

quantity to mix. ... 174

mixing new and old wines 174

green wine 174

white and red wine 175

diseased wines 125, 126, 175

mixing grapes 175

precaution ,...175

Dampness, see cellars.

Decanting wine from bottles 188

basket 1 69

instrument 169

Decomposition of wine, see diseases.

INDEX

227

Page

>efects and diseases 125 j

division, general considerations. 125 j

better avoided than cured 125 I

not ahvays cured by mixing. ... 126 j

doses in treating 126

natural defects 126 j

earthy flavor and causes 126 j

how prevented, treatment .... 127

wild taste, grassy flavor 128 j

greenness and causes 128

how prevented, treatment. ... 129

roughness 1 30

not a fault, disappears in time. 130

to avoid excess of tannin 130

how removed 131

bitterness and causes in new

wine 131

how prevented, treatment .... 131

stem flavor 131

sourness and causes 132

how prevented, treatment .... 132

alcoholic weakness 133 j

how avoided, treatment 133

want of color and causes 134

how guarded against, treat-
ment 134

dull, bluish, lead -colored wine,
flavor of lees, and causes. ... 134

how avoided, treatment 135

putrid decomposition and causes. 1 36
how avoided, treatment . 137
several natural defects combined ..137
acquired defects and diseases.. . . 137
flat wines, flowers, and causes. . . 137

prevention 1 38

treatment 139

sourness, acidity, pricked wine

and causes. ... 140

what wines liable to 140

how prevented, treatment .... 141

Page.
Defects and diseases, pricked wine,

experiments with substances in

treating 142

Machard's treatment 144

other methods 144

cask flavor, barrel flavor, and

causes 145

treatment 146

mouldy flavor 147

prevention, treatment 147

foreign flavors 147

ropiness, causes and treatment . 148

in bottled wines 148, 167

other treatment 148

acrity and treatment .... 149

in bottles 167

bitterness 149

treatment 1 50

according to Maumene 1 50

in bottles 167

fermentation, taste of the lees,

yeasty flavor 151

how prevented, treatment. ... 152
in bottles 165

degeneration, putrid fermenta-
tion -.87, 152

in bottles 167

duration of different wines 152

treatment 153

deposits and turbidity in bottles. 1 66
Degeneration of wines 87, 152

see diseases.
Density of sweet wines 107

musts, see musts, different wines,

sugar.
Deposits, see diseases, lees, wine in

bottles.

Diseases and defects 125

Drainers for bottles 156

Drawing off, sec racking.

frcm vats 43, 44, 45

228

INDEX.

Page.

Dry grapes, crushing 108

wines, see white, red, treatment

casks for 55

Dull-colored wine 134

Duration of different wines 152

of fermentation, see fermentation,
different wines.

Earthy flavor 126

Kchaud 151

Effervescent wines not to be sul-
phured 71

Eggs, see fining.

Empty casks, see casks.

Estufa, see Madeira, heating house.

Ethers 190

European wines, alcohol and
acid in xii

Evaporation of wine in cellars 88

weakens wine 112

see casks, size of.

Event, evente, see flatness .

Exports of California Wine and
brandy vi

Exportation, see shipping.

Fatty matters in wine 1 92

Ferments, origin of 31

destroyed by heat ... 81

see yeast, saccharomyces .

Fermentation, its causes 25

kinds of 25

alcoholic generally 25

yeast plant, saccharomyces cere-

visice 25

functions of yeast 26

normal conditions of the

life of 26

surface and sedimentary.. 26

physical conditions, tempera-
ture., 27

Page.
Fermentation, chemical conditions 27

action of various chemical and

physical agents 28

viscous or mannitic 29

lactic 29

butyric and putrefac-

tive 29, 136, 152, 167

acetic, aldehyde 30

mycoderma aceti, mother of

vinegar 30

mycoderma vini, flowers of wine. 31

origin of ferments 31

alcoholic, in wine making 32

sugar, cane, grape or glucose.. . . 32
alcohol by weight and by volume 33
its products, per cent, sugar to

per cent, alcohol 34

different authors 34

limits of sugar and spirit 36

temperature 37

surrounding vats with straw. ... 37

fermenting houses 38

duration of in red wine 44

in white wine 93

insensible 47 , 48

arresting, see sulphuring, arresting.

by burning alcchol 74

aqueous solution of sulphurous
acid... ... 74

bisulphite of lime 74

salicylic acid 75

increased by stems 20

by open vats . 40

slow in closed vats 40

under pressure and not so

complete 42

disease i 5l> ^5

in bottles ^5

see white wine, filling casks,

different wines, plastering,

effects of.

INDEX.

229

Page.

Fermenting houses 38, 109

tanks or vats 39, 41 , 108

material, size, number, arrange-
ment of 39

surrounding with straw 37

filling 39> 40, 108

open, closed . 4

best practice 4 1

hermetically sealed, cooled

with condenser 42

practice in the Medoc 42

stirring pomace in. 42, 108

drawing from 43, 44

Filling vats 39, 4

casks from vats 45

during fermentation of white

wine 55

see froth, ulling.
Filtering, see fining.

Fining ... 99

when necessary, objects of 99

best avoided unless necessary .91, 99

caution 99

substances employed 99

which act mechanically, blot-
ting paper, fine sand, powder-
ed stone 99

filtration 99

substances which act chem-
ically and mechanically .... 99
gelatinous substances.. .... 99

gelatine proper .100

its preparation.. 100

isinglass, fish glue, ichthyocol.ioo

its preparation 100

adding cream of tartar for

white wine 100

albuminous substances 101

blood, milk 101

white of eggs 101

the fining for red wine.. 101

Page,

Fining, clarifying powders 102

gum arabic 1-2

addition of salt 102

addition of alcohol 102

addition of tannin 102

method of operation 103

implements for stirring 103

time necessary for 103

new wines 5

sweet wines 106

sherry , 1 24

to age wine 84

before aging 84

wines extracted from lees.. 179, 180
P'inings, see fining.

leaving wine on 91 , 104

Fino, see sherry.
Fish Glue, see fining.

Flatness, influence of air 78

in casks 65

Flat wine 137

Flavor developed by aging 76, 77

how lost 77

causes of change of 77

sulphur, causes and removal .... 73

foreign 147

barrel, cask 145

sherry, madeira, port 213

fruity, see fruity flavor.

Flowers on wine 31, 77, 118, 137

Fortified wines, see sweet wines.
Fortifying, see alchol.

rule for 208

Foul casks 64

French wines generally mixed ... 171

alchol and acid in xii

Froth in filling a cask 104

Frozen wine 81

Fruity flavor, how lost 50, 52, 99

preferred by gourmets 84

Fruit pits, see bouquet, artificial.

230

INDEX.

Funnels, see utensils.
Furmint wine . .

Page.

107

Gallons of must per ton of grapes

200, 201

of wine per ton of grapes 201

of liquid, weight of 206

Galvanized iron affected by wine . . 203

Gas in empty casks 64

Gathering grapes, maturity, utensils I

number of pickers i ? 12

when to commence I

time of, successive gathering 2

before complete maturity 4

after complete maturity 5

Gelatine, see fining.

General treatment of table wines . . 86

sweet wines IO 5

see different wines

Gillyflower, see bouquet, artificial.

Glass, materials in 157

Gleucometer, gleuco-oenometer.. . 8

Glucose, must 6

for a gallon of wine. 16

cost of glucose wine 16

effect on Burgundy 14

experiment I7

use condemned 17

name of user published 18

grape sugar, generally 32

Glue, fish, see fining

Glycerine, produced by fermentation 34
in wine ,86, 192

Gourmets, wine preferred by 84 j

Gout d' 6vent, see flatness .

de travail ic

Graduated measures, see utensils.

Grand wines should not be aged

artificially 8

see different practices and treat-
ment, red wine, white wine.

Page.
Grapes, prices in California ....... \

Mission .......... . . . v

picking .................. j

see gathering, maturity.

sorting ............... -

tons stemmed and crushed in a
da >' .............. 24

gallons of wine per ton of ...... 201

juice, see must.

per cent, of stems in dffferen t. . . 201

su g ar ...................... 6, 32

Grassy flavor ____ ........ . . 128

Green wine, mixing .............. 74

Greenness .- ........ j^

Gumarabic, see fining.
Gypsum, see plastering.

Head wines, see white wines .
Heat, influence on wine

aging by

preserving by .............. 80

destroys ferment germs ....... 81

see fermentation.
Heating Madeira. . . ............. j r j

Hoop, adjustable, see utensils.
Houses, fermenting ......... .38, 109

Hydrometer ................. 7? g, 9

tables, see appendix.

Hygienic effects of red and white
wine ........................ 54

Ichthyocol, see fining.

Implements, see utensils.

Influences, effect of various on wine 76

which develop, also destroy ..... 77
Ingredients in wine, see composition.
Insensible fermentation .......... 47

when finished ............... 4^

Insolation, see sunlight.

Iris, see bouquet, artificial.

Iron affected by wine ........ 202, 203

Isinglass, see fining.

INDEX.

231

Page.

Juice, grape, proportion to marc .200
see must.

Lactic fermentation 29

acid 186, 194

see milk, fining.
Lagar, see port, sherry.

Lead affected by wine 202

Lead-colored wine 134

Leaky casks, see casks.

Lees, marc, piquette 176

residues often put in the still., . . 176

wine 176

should not be neglected 176

quantity of wine contained in. . . 176
contents of dry parts, analysis. . 176

composition varies 176

treatment of 177

wine should not be left long in

contact with 178, 180

except sweet 106

casks for, barreling 177

sulphuring, storing, ulling 177

how often to draw wine from.. . . 178
from diseased wine, put by them-
selves 178

extracting wine from with

siphon 178

extracting wine from with

faucet 179

fining wine extracted from .179

wines from lack color, difficult

to clarify 180

red wine from, to fine 1 80

white wine from, to fine.. 1 80

pressing thick sediment 180

sacks for 181

press for 181

applying 'pressure 182

to remove from casks 63

use of dry 182

Page.

Lees, flavor of 134, 151, 165

see racking, fining, etc.

marc or pomace, piquette 182

unfermented and partly fermented

pomace 183

fermented marc 183

Pezeyre's method of washing. . . .183
deposits 86, 166

Light, influence on wine 82

port 112

aging by 82

Liqueur wines, see sweet wines.

Liquid, to ascertain weight of 206

Lime, bisulphite 74

see diseases.

Loss by evaporation, see cellars,
casks, size of.

Madeira 113

making, casks, treatment 113

adding alcohol 113

heating, heating houses 113

general treatment 1 14

solera system, ullage 114

alcoholic strength 115

flavor 213

Malic acid 186, 193

Mannite 186, 191

Mannitic fermentation '..... 29

Marc of sweet wine, use of 107

passing wine over 139

proportion of juice to 200

see lees, marc, piquette.

Matches, sulphur 70

Matters in wine, see composition.

Maturity of grapes 3

signs of 4

gathering before complete 4

gathering after complete 5

according to required strength . . 5
for port 108

232

INDEX .

Page, j
Maturity for sherry 115 j

of wine, see white, red wine,
aging.

Maumene's sulphurer 69 j

Mellowness, how lost 52, 84

cause of 191

see white, red wine.
Measures, graduated, see utensils.
Metal utensils, wood preferable... .202 j

affected by wine , 202*

Middle wines, see white wines, centres
Mignonette, see bouquet, artificial.
Milk, see fining.

Miscellaneous chapter 200 i

Mission grape v ;

Mixing pressings 45, 47 t

see red, white, port.

wines, see cutting.

Monte, vin 151

Mother of vinegar 30

Motion, effect of, aging 82, 84

shipping 83

Mouldy casks 65

flavor 147

Mucilage 186, 191

Muscat, sweet 107

Must, composition of 6

grape sugar, glucose 6

scale, saccharometer 7, 8

testing for sugar 8

proper amount of sugar n, 12

sugaring 13

nothing gained by ... 15

artificial 14

cost of 16

glucose, experiment with 17

condemned 17

watering 18

when allowable 16

aerating 23, 43

rule for reducing 206

Page.

Must, why sulphured 69

unfermented, sulphuring 72

clarifying, care of J2

prepared in two ways 72

proportion of to marc 200

shipping 83

of sweet wine 57, 58, 105

of dry white wine, density 56

of mellow wine 57, 58

of port 108

boiling 101

per ton of grapes 201

California viii

Musty, see mouldy.

Mute wine 72

Mycoderma aceti 30

Mycoderma vini 31

see flowers.

Natural defects 126

New red wine, treatment of 47

summary of rules 5

white wine 5^> 60

wine differs from old 76

influence of heat 78, 79

shipping 83

see racking, fining.
Nutmeg, see bouquet, artificial.

Oakwood, see casks, vats.

Oechsle's must scale 7, 8, 9, 10

Oenocyanine 192

Old red wine, treatment 51

characteristics 52, 76, 77

wine, influence of heat 78, 79

see racking, albuminous sub-
stances, fining.
Oloroso, see sherry.

Passing wine over marc 139

Pedro Jimenes grape 119

INDEX .

233

Page.

Pectic acid 193

Pectin 192

Pectose 192

P&se nirop, ptse mout 7

Picking grapes I

see gathering.

Piling bottles 163

Piquette, see lees, marc, piquet te .
Pitchers, see utensils.

Plastering 208

common in Spain and South of

F ranee 208

objects ... 209

chemical effects 209

effects on health 210

report of committee at Mont-

pellier 210

of conseil des armees 211

instructions of French Minister

of justice 211

sherry and quantity added. 115, 212

chemical reaction 213

by adding water 213

Pomace, per cent, in different

grapes 200, 201

see lees, marc, piquet te.

stirring in vat 42

Port wine 108

must, fermentation, maturity of

grapes 108

filling lagar, stirring, drawing off,

sorting grapes 108

treading 109

Vizitelli's description 109

adding alcohol 111,112

storing, racking 1 1 1

storehouses 112

mixing 1 1 2

loses color in wood 112

alcoholic strength of 112

becomes weaker by evaporation .112

| Page.

i Port wine, flavor 213

Pousse 151

Powdered stone, see fining.
Powders, clarifying, see fining.

Preserving by heat 80 .

Pressing and press wine, red 47

white wine 56

sweet wine 107

sediment 180

see different wines.

Pressings, mixing, different 46, 47

Presses, wine 46

for lees ...181

1 Prices of grapes in California v

i Pricked wine 140

< Proportion of juice to marc 200

wine to grapes 201

i Pumps 97, 98

hand, see utensils.
Putrefaction, putrid fermentation,
decomposition .29, 87, 136, 152, 167

; Queues, see white wine.

Racking,- objects of 91

first time 91 , 92

leaving wine on finings 91

rules for 91 , 92

new red wines 50, 92

before shipping 50

old red wine . . . 51 , 53, 93

new white wine 93

subsequent rackings. 60, 93

care to be observed, other pre-
cautions 94

lees must not be disturbed 94

different methods 95

i by bucket and funnel . 95

implements for tipping cask. ... 95

without contact with air 97

pumps and siphons 97

see different wines.

234

IND EX .

Page.

Racks for bottles 164

Rando flavor caused by heat .... 80

in bottles 167

Red wine 39

coloring matter 39

fermenting tanks, or vats, filling

same 39

open vats, closed vats 4

best practice 41

hermetically sealed vats 42

practice in the Medoc 42

stirring pomace in vat 42

souring of the crust 43

when to draw from vats 43

duration of fermentation 44

objections to long vatting, fine

wines 44

how to know when to draw from

vats 45

method of drawing from vats,

filling casks 45

wine presses 46

pressing and press wine 47

practice for fine wines 47

treatment of new 47

insensible fermentation 47

storing new 48

tasting, filling up or ulling ... 48
summary of rules for treatment

of 50

of old 51

characteristics of age. ..... 51, 52

grand and common character-
istics 5 2

how soon bright 5 2

summary of rules for 53

hygienic effects of 54

how differs from white 54

should be sparingly sulphured.. . 71

fining, see gelatine. loo

see blood, milk, white of eggs.ioi
red wine extracted from lees. . 180

Page;
Red wine put in colored bottles . . . 1 57

with earthy flavor 128

, see racking, fining, etc.
Reducing must and wine, see rules.
Redwood, see casks, vats.

Rinsing chain for casks 63

Ripeness, signs of 4

see maturity.
Ropiness. viscous fermentation

29, 148. 167

Ropy wines should not be sulphured 71

Rotten casks 66

Roughness 130

improved by aging 85

Rules to ascertain weight of liquid . 206

for reducing must 206

for sugaring must 206

for fortifying and reducing wine. 207

to reduce with water 207

weaker wine 208

to fortify with stronger wine
or alcohol 208

Saccharometer 7,8

Saccharowyces cerevisise 25

conditions of life 26

action of chemical and physical
agents 28

destroyed by heat and alcohol.. . 81

Sacks for pressing lees 181

Salt in clarifying, see fining.

Salicylic acid '. 75

Sand, see fining.

Sassafras, see bouquet artificial".

Sealing wax for casks 161

to remove 162

Sea voyage, ettect of, bee aging.

should nut be broken in

crushing 23

INDEX ,

235

Page.

Seeds, tannin from. 103

yield fatty matters 192

Settling and skimming must for

white wine 75

Sherry 115

climate, vintage, crushing gyp-
sum 115

pressing 1 16

stemming, fermenting, racking. .117

fortifying 117, 123

casks in ullage r.nd open 117

a nearly dry wine 118

bodegas or storehouses 1 18

seasoned casks alone used 1 18

changes in the wine 118

fino, oloroso, basto 118

flowers 118

vino dulce, or sweet wine, and

preparation 119

vino de color, or color wine, and

preparation, arrope ... 1 19

mature wine 1 20

solera system 120

establishing a solera 120

standard soleras 121

drawing the wine 122

blending for shipment 122

formulas, fining 1 23 ]

influence of air 78

flavor 213

Shipments of wine and brandy

from California vi

Shipping, rack before 50, 106

wine suitable for 12, 82

new wine or must 83

Shot, do not clean bottles with ... 156 |

Siphons 97

of glass 178

to clean 95 j

Skimming and settling must (white
wine) 55 j

Page.

Smoothness increased by pressure. 42

Solera, see sherry.

Sorting grapes 3, 108

for grand white wines 57

Sour casks 65

Sourness 132, 140

Spirit, see alcohol, see tables in
appendix.

Stems, effect on fermentation 20

how to remove , 22

when to ferment with. ..... 20, 21

increase tannin 20, 21

when to remove 20, 21

effect of too long contact 21

flavor , ... 21, 44, 131

per cent, in different grapes ... 201

Stemmers 21

Stemming, diversity of opinion ... 20

effect of 20

proper practice 20

see sherry 117

and crushing 20

rapidity of operation 24

special practice . 24

Stills, assay 187, 190

Stirring implements, fining. 103

pomace, see aerating, treading,
vats, port.

Stockgilly, see bouquet, artificial.

Stone, powdered, see fining.

Storing casks 61

wine, see different wines, cellars,
casks for 67

Straw wines 108

Strawberry, see bouquet artificial.

Substances in wine/see composition.

Succinic acid 34, 194

Sugar, grape 6

testing for in must 8

in wine 190

correction for temperature 10

INDEX.

Page, i

Sugar and alcohol II, 34 f

in must of dry wines 1 1 , 12, 56 j

sweet wines. . . . 57, 105 {

weight of for a pound of alcohol. 16

for a gallon of wine. . 16

crystalized, purity of 16

and glucose generally 32

limits of in fermentation 36

necessary to growth of yeast .... 27
not all converted by first fermen-
tation 45

to increase in grapes 105 '

in must, to reduce, rules 206

see must, tables in appendix .

Sugaring and watering must 13

carried too far 13

effect on burgundy 14

artificial must 14

nothing gained by sugaring 15

cost of glucose wine 1 6

experiment with glucose 17

glucose condemned 17

rule for sugaring 206

watering 1 8

rule for 207

Sulphur matches or bands, bow

made 70

flavor, how caused 73

how removed 74

Sulphurer or sulphur burner 69

Sulphuring casks 62, 69, 70

caution 71

partly empty 73

wine 69, 7 1

when to avoid 71

from lees 177

must 69, 72

white wine to arrest fermenta-
tion 69, 72

Sulphurous acid 69 -

arrests fermentation in two ways 69

Page.
Sulphurous acid, aqueous solution

"<" 74

see acetic fermentation , 31

Sunlight, influence on wine 82

aging by 82

Sweet, fortified, liqueur wines 105

defined ..... 105

sweetness of must for 57, 105

natural alcohol in 105

increasing sugar in grapes 105

without fermentation 105

care required 105

alcohol necessary to keep 105

fining, rack before shipping . . . 106

boiling must 106

to be kept on lees 106

sweet muscat 107

pressing 107

marc, use of 107

alcohol, amount to add 107

density of 107

Furmint wine .... 107

straw wines 108

should not be sulphured 71

influence of heat, aging 79, 80

of sunlight 82

casks for 55

see air, influence of, heat, in-
fluence of, red wine, white
wine, port, Madeira, sherry.

Table wines, see treatment.

of substances in wine 186

of sugar, density, alcohol, hy-
drometers, see appendix.

Tail wines, see white wines.

Tanks, see fermenting tanks.

Tannin increased by stems 20, 21

how to know if sufficient 21

excess of, how avoided. 130

how removed 100, 131

INDEX.

237

Tage. i
Tannin, when added in fining.. . .102

tannic acid 102, 193

use and proportions . 102

from the vine preferred. ... ... 103

hovv prepared from seeds 103

from stems. 103

tannified wine 103

soaking seeds in wine 103 ;

Tare, vin 151

Tartaric acid 193 <

see wine, California, European,

acid in .
Tasters, see utensils.

Tawny color by age 77

see old wine.

flavor by heat 80 j

in bottles 167 j

Temperature, correction for in

sugar testing . . 10 i

effect on yeast 27, 81 i

in fermentation 37

variation of, aging 78 <

see heat, cellars, hydrometers.

Testing for sugar in must 8

in wine 1 90 ,

Tetes, see white wines. J

Tin, affected by wine 203

Tipping casks, implements for .... 95
Tithe wines, see cutting.

Tourne, vin 151

Travail, gofit de 151

Treading in vat 42, 109

crushing 22, 109, 113, 1 16

aerating must ... 23, 43

Treatment, general, of table wines. 86

sweet wines 105

deposits, lees 86

degeneration 86

of Madeira 113

of wine in bottles 165

see different wines, cellars, rack-
ing, fining, aging, etc.

Tubes to clean

Tuns, see casks, cellars.

Turbidity in bottles

see lees, deposits, etc.

Page.
95

..166

Ulling the casks 48

utensils for 49

Unfermented must 72

clarifying, care of 73

Unfortified wines, see treatment.

Utensils, wooden or metal 202

effect of wine on metals 202

cleanliness necessary 203

different cellar 204, 205

pitchers of tin and wood 204

wooden vessels 204

wooden funnels 204

adjustable hoop 204

bottle baskets 205

graduated measures 205

tin tasters 205

hand pump . . 205

for removing corks 205

for stirring, fining 103

for ulling 49

bung screw 1 58

bottle washer 156

bottle drainers 1 56

reservoir for filling bottles 157

corking machines, needles. 159, 160

to remove wax 162

capsuler. 162

bottle racks and bins 164

decanting basket 169

instrument 169

corkscrews 169

presses, wine 46

lees 181

sacks for pressing lees 181

for tipping a cask 95

rinsing chain 63

INDEX.

Page.
Utensils, visitor to examine casks. . 63

crushers 23

for racking 95, 9^ 97

for picking grapes i

Variations of temperature, aging. . 78

Valeric acid 1 94

Vats, see fermenting vats.

Vatting, long, effects of 44

Ventilation, see cellars. 88

Vessels, see utensils.

Vine flowers, see bouquet, artificial.

Vin de liqueur, see sweet wines.

monte, tare, lournt 1 5 1

dulce, see sherry.
Vinegar, mother of 30

see acetic acid, acetic fermenta-
tion.

Vineyards, acreage of in California . vi
Vinification, essentials the same

everywhere vii

Vinous fermentation, see alcoholic

fermentation.

Viscous fermentation 29

Visitor to examine casks 63

Voyage, effect on wine, see aging.

Water, necessary to growth of yeast 27

Watering must 18

when allowable 19

rule for 206

wine, rule for 207

Wax for sealing corks 161

how removed 162

Weakness in alcohol 133

Weight of a liquid, to ascertain . . .206

Whip for stirring 103

White of eggs, see fining.

White wine 54

from red and white grapes 54

how differs from red 54

White wine, hygienic effects

process of making

settling and skimming . . .
to keep sweet

- 54

- 55

to make dry 55

barrels for 55

filling barrels during fermentation 55

pressing and filling casks 56

different kinds of 56

dry white wines 56

mellow white wines 56

sweet white wines 57

see sweet wines.

jrand white wines 57

ripening the grapes, ponrri.fi ... 57
tvtes, centres, queues, head.

middle, tail 57

treatment of 58

density of must to keep sweet. 58

dry wines 59

mellow wines 59

summary of rules, racking 60

sulphured to keep from turning

yellow 69, 7 1

bleached with sulphur 71

with blood, milk 101

fermentation arrested by sulphur-
ing 7 2

fining, see gelatine 100

isinglass 100

white of eggs, blood, milk. . . 101

extracted from lees 180

with earthy flavor. .;., 128

matures earlier than red 1 55

mixing with red 175

in transparent bottles 157

Wild taste 128

Wine, California, shipments yi

product vi

alcohol and acid in ix, x, 220

European, alcohol and acid in . . . xii

INDEX .

239

Page.
"\Vine making, essentials every where

the same vii

plastering 208

grand and common, character-
istics 5 2 ^4

red, maturity of 52

new, treatment of 47

old, treatment of 51, 53

see red wine.

why sulphured 69

how sulphured 71

when to be sulphured 71

effect of heat 78, 79, 80

varies in different casks 67

dry strength of 1 1

constantly undergoing changes . . 76

influence of heat 78

preserving by heat 80

weak, see influence of air.
heat, sunlight, see aging.

suitable for shipment 82

shipping new 83

kinds preferred by gourmets 84

which gain most by. aging

processes 85

diseased, see defects and diseases.

what liable to sour 140

duration of 1 52

lees, see lees,
from lees, see lees.

composition of 185

proportion of to grapes 201

rules for reducing and fortifying . 207
mixing, see cutting,
bad, often due to want of clean-
liness 203

should not be left on the lees and

fining*, 178, iSo

unless sweet . 106

presses 46

Page.

Wine, tannified 103

see aging, white wine, red wine,
sweet, fortified, new wine, old
.wine, grand wine, general
treatment, frozen wine, the
different kinds.

Wine in bottles, bottling 154

when ready for bottling 154

ho\v long to remain in wood .... 1 54

how prepared for bottling 155

most favorable time for 155

bottles, washing, bottle washer,

etc -' I5 6

shot must not be used 1 56

draining, drainers 1 56

rinsing with wine 156

sorting 1 57

different kinds 1 57

materials in glass 1 57

filling, adjusting casks, etc. . .157

reservoirs for 1 57

corks 158

corking machines, needles. .159, 160

preparing the corks 160

how far inserted 160

sealing corks 161

sealing wax for, how made, how

applied 161

coloring the wax 161

capsules and capsuling 162

pincers for removing wax 162

capsuler 162

piling bottles 162

bottle racks and bins 164

treatment of wine in bottles. . . . 165

fermentation in the bottles 165

deposits, turbidity 166

bitterness, acrity, ropiness 167

degeneration and putridity 167

decaiitation 168

corkscrews, baskets 169

240

INDEX

Page.
Wine in bottles, operation of

decanting 169

decanting instrument 169

Wood, wine, how long to remain in. 154
Wooden utensils preferable ....... 202

Yeast plant 25

functions of 26

surface and sedimentary 26

conditions of life, physical and

chemical 26

temperature 27

Page.
Yeast plant, action of chemical and

physical agents 28

water, sugar, oxygen, etc.,

necessary 27

origin of ferments 31

Yeasty flavor, see lees, flavor of.
Yellows, see white wine, sulphur-
ing.

Yield of juice by different grapes. .200
wine per ton of grapes 201

Zinc affected by wine 202, 203

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