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POMMON COMMODITIES

WINE AND
THE WINE TRADE

COMMON COMMODITIES
AND INDUSTRIES SERIES

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TEA. By A. IBBETSON
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P. KILGOUR
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HUMPHREY
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WILSON
WINE AND THE WINE TRADE.

By ANDRE L. SIMON
IRONFOUNDING. By B. WHITELEY
COTTON SPINNING. By A. S. WADE
ALCOHOL. By C. SIMMONDS
CONCRETE. By W. NOBLK

TWELVETREES

from Ihefronlispiece lo Rirkman'$"Droils" 1672 .

Frontispiece.

PITMAN'S COMMON COMMODITIES
AND INDUSTRIES

WINE

AND

THE WINE TRADE

ANDRE L. SIMON

LONDON

SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD.
PARKER STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C.2

BATH, MELBOURNE, TORONTO, NEW YORK

v %i $$1*3

W 2

PRINTED BY

SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD.
BATH, ENGLAND

PREFACE

THE accumulated store of knowledge which we have
inherited from past generations is altogether beyond
the power of assimilation of any single human brain.
Yet what is already known to us is not sufficient to
still our craving for more knowledge : on the contrary,
our generation shall hand down to the next immensely
greater treasures than it received. We can never
know enough : we may often know too much, but, if
we do, it is because we do not know enough.

Although it is as impossible as it would be unnecessary
for any single person to comprehend the sum total of
human knowledge, it is both possible and desirable
that we should all apprehend at least some of the
main facts to which the causation and effects of
phenomena and objects in our everyday life are due or
believed to be due.

There are only a few people who make it their business
or their hobby to comprehend the making and regulating
of clocks, but we have all learnt or heard enough about
them to " apprehend " that if our watch stops it is
that it requires either winding, or a new spring, or a
drop of oil, but that it has not stopped as the result of
some malefice of the sorcerer's art. Unscrupulous
tradesmen may sell us clocks with pretty faces and bad
works, but not watches without any works at all, such
as those given to children in the nursery.

The elementary knowledge which we all possess about
watches is superficial and yet it is very useful. Did
we all possess the same elementary knowledge about
wine, the poisonous concoctions which masquerade

484968

Vlll PREFACE

under the name of wine would no longer be sold, or, at
any rate, would not be sold so easily as they are to-day
in England.

The man who bought a toy tin watch for a real
silver timekeeper suffered no further hurt than the
loss of his money and maybe of a train. The case is
very different when a man wastes his money upon some
worthless fake sold to him under the name of wine.
The loss of his money does not really matter ; what
matters is that his health and that of his guests may be
temporarily or even permanently injured through his
complete ignorance of wine and the shameful advantage
taken of his ignorance by some sRameless trader.

Whether we drink wine or not, we have everything
to gain and nothing to lose by knowing a few elementary
truths about it. /

Where does the Vine grow and where are different
wines made ? What kind of a Trade is the English
Wine Trade ? What about those wines which we hear
and read about so often : Port, Champagne, Claret,
Burgundy, Sherry, Hock and Moselle ?

These are the questions which I have attempted
to answer in the present book. There are other and
more important works on wine : such, for instance, as
the two text-books written by me and published by
Messrs. Duckworth & Co., in 1919 and 1920 respectively.
The first, Wine and Spirits : The Connoisseur's
Text-Book, has been written more particularly for
country gentlemen, who have a cellar and the leisure to
enjoy both wine and a book about wine. The second,
The Blood of the Grape: The Wine Merchant's
Text-Book, has been written especially for persons
engaged or interested in the Wine Trade. In the
present work, I have endeavoured to compass under
the smallest possible volume the greatest number of

PREFACE IX

elementary truths about Wine and the English Wine
Trade, in order that the general public in England
might acquire, should they desire to do so, a little
more knowledge than they appear to possess about
one of the greatest of all God's gifts to man : WINE.

ANDR L. SIMON.

April, 1921.

CONTENTS

PREFACE . . . . . Vii

I, THE VINE 1

II. THE MAKING OF WINE . . . .12

III. THE WINE TRADE OF ENGLAND PAST AND

PRESENT . . . . . 27

iv. THE WORLD'S OUTPUT OF WINE , . 44

V. PORT WINE . V } . . " -. 55

VI. CHAMPAGNE /. . . . . 66

VII. CLARET ,'>. . - -'...,. }7 , . . 75

VIII. BURGUNDY v . . . . 87

IX. SHERRY . . . . . . 94

X. HOCK AND MOSELLE . . .' . 101

WORKS DEALING WITH WINE AND THE

WINE TRADE . < , . , 104

INDEX 105

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

INSIDE THE RED BULL PLAYHOUSE . Frontispiece

VINEYARDS IN WINTER 4

SUMMER IN THE VINEYARDS . . . . 9
VINTAGE SCENE AT RILLY-LA MONTAGNE (CHAM-
PAGNE) 13

REMOVING UNSOUND BERRIES BEFORE PRESSING

THE GRAPES ...... 17

CHAMPAGNE WINE-PRESS . . . . .22

WOE TO DRUNKARDS . . . '. . 31

DOURO VINEYARDS . ... . . .: . 56

PORT WINE LODGE . . . . . . 60

ENTRANCE TO QUINTA , . . . . 63

TESTING NEW BOTTLES (CHAMPAGNE) . . .69
BOTTLING (CHAMPAGNE) '. . . . .69

CORKING MACHINES (CHAMPAGNE) . . . 70

CORK CLIP -"-....I . " . . . . .71

FIRST CORK AFTER BOTTLING . . . .71

cos D'ESTOURNEL . . . , . .76

CHATEAU DUHART-MILON , . . .78

CHATEAU OLIVIER ,, . . . . . . 81

CHATEAU MONTROSE . . . . .83

CHATEAU PONTET-CANET . . . . 85

WINTER WORK IN VINEYARDS . . 91

BODEGA 97

.xiii

WINE AND
THE WINE TRADE

CHAPTER I

THE VINE

LONG before the earth had become habitable, before
any sign of animal life had appeared either on land or
in the seas, the wild vine grew from Pole to Pole, in the
warm equable temperature which then enveloped the
whole globe. At Brjamslak, in Iceland ; at Bovey
Tracey, in Devonshire ; at Sezanne (Marne), in France ;
in Silesia ; in the valley of the Rhine ; in Switzerland,
and in many other parts of Europe as well as in America,
fossils have been found which modern palaeontology
enables us to recognize as dating back to the earliest
stages of the crust formation of the earth, and which
show distinct impressions of the leaves of different
species of wild vines.

Whether it be Osiris, in Egypt ; Varum, in India ;
Samschid, in Persia ; Eleusis and Bacchus, in Greece
and at Rome ; we find in all the oldest legends of the
East and the mythology of the Ancients, a benevolent
divinity who was credited with having introduced
viticulture and civilization. It may truly be said that in
every part of the world and among every race the use
of wine is older than the oldest records which have
reached us.

Pickett, in his Origines Indo-Europeennes, states that
the Aryans introduced viticulture in Egypt, India,

/&* h*. WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

Persia, and Greece ; this is also the opinion advanced
by Pietro Selleti in his Trattato fii .Vjticoltura e di
Vinificazione." On the other hand, we <4re told by Sir
John Malcolm, in his History of Persia, that viticulture
was already flourishing in Persia in (the reign iof King
Jensheed, a monarch who is believed to have lived at
a very remote date and who is credited with the
discovery of ferment atioii. "

In Egypt, we have not only tradition to rely upon
but records of the greatest antiquity. Delchevalerie,
in his Illustration Horticole, depicts the scenes of grape-
gathering and wine-making which ornament the tomb
of Phtah-Hotep, who lived in Memphis some 4,000
years before Christ. Pickering, in his Chronological
History of Plants, has reproduced similar glyptic
illustrations which he ascribes to the Third Egyptian
Dynasty, adding that other representations of vineyards
and full details of the art of wine-making belong to the
fourth, seventeenth, and eighteenth dynasties.

In China, viticulture flourished from 2000 B.C. until
the fourteenth century of our era, whilst in Europe
and in Africa the Phoenicians seem to have taught the
art of wine-making in the Peloponese, the Latium,
Gaul and the Iberic Peninsula, as well as all along the
Mediterranean coast of Africa where they had colonies.

The earliest records of ancient Greek and Latin history
show that the cultivation of vineyards and the science
of wine-making are coeval with the dawn of civilization
in Greece, the Balkans, Italy, France, Spain, Portugal,
Germany, and Britain. Modern discoveries of the
lake-dwellings of the Bronze Age, at Castione, near
Parma, at Bex, at Wangen and at Varese, prove the vine
to have been indigenous to Europe and that at the
remotest date of western history of which we thus
possess documentary evidence, men grew corn and vines.

THE VINE 3

Professor Heer, in his Die Pflanzen der Pfahlbauten,
even asserts that he has been able to distinguish in some
lacustrine remains evidence of both wild and cultivated
grapes.

The Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans of old appear
to have all realized the civilizing influence of viticulture.
Wherever they obtained a sumcienlly secure footing
in a new country, they taught the " Barbarians " to
plant and tend vines. At a later date, the same policy
was followed by the early Christian missionaries who,
wherever they went and whenever they were able to
build a church or a monastery as a permanent abode,
taught the heathens the gentle art of viticulture. Some
of the choicest vineyards of France and Germany
retain to this day names recalling their ecclesiastical
origin. In Britain, too, it was the early Christian
priests who taught the Saxons how to grow vines
where no other crop could be raised and, under their
guidance, vineyards were planted not only on Kentish
chalk and Surrey gravel, but in almost every part of
the country, as far north as Scotland.

In more recent times, it was the successors of those
early Christian priests who also taught the art of viti-
culture aJl along the Pacific coast, from California and
Mexico to Peru and Chili.

It is true that the vineyards of Britain, if we except
those of the Marquis of Bute, in Wales, and of the Royal
Horticultural Society, in Surrey, have long ceased to
exist, as well as those of Normandy, Belgium, and
Northern Germany. This is not, however, because
vines can no longer be grown in northern latitudes, but
because it has been found more profitable for centuries
past to obtain supplies from those, lands where climate,
soil and cheaper labour make it possible to produce
wine of better quality and at lower cost.

2 (1461 F)

THE VINE 5

The vine will grow in all but arctic and tropical
latitudes, but its fruit will only mature to perfection
in temperate countries.

The vine holds an important place of its own in botany.
It belongs to the great family of the Ampelidacae (from
the Greek, Ampelos, vine), but the genus Vitis is the
only one which need arrest our attention.

The genus Vitis includes all grape-bearing vines;
there are ten different groups of Asiatic Vitis, sixteen
American ones, and one European, the Vitis Vinifera.

Until the last century there was practically no other
vine but the Vitis Vinifera in Europe, where it had
been cultivated without interruption ever since the
days of the Phoenicians. As a result of so many
centuries of observation of and experiments with the
Vitis Vinifera, the European parent vine possesses a
far greater number of different varieties than any other
species. It also produces grapes of a better quality
than any other class of vine, either Asiatic or American ;
but, on the other hand, it is far less fruitful and usually-
less hardy than these. One may form some idea ot
the considerable variety of European Vitis Vinifera
types from the fact that, in 1844, when a catalogue
was published of the different sorts of vines then being
reared in the Luxembourg Gardens, in Paris, there
were over 2,000 names of distinct types of Vitis Vinifera,
all of which had been obtained from the vine-growing
districts of France alone.

Species and Soil. The species of the vine affects the
style and quality of the wine, but the nature .of the soil
affects the growth and the produce of different species
of vines in a very remarkable way.

The large family of Pinots, for instance, give excellent
results in Burgundy, Champagne, Germany and Austria,
but the grapes they yield in different countries and

6 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

the wine made therefrom vary so much that one
can hardly realize that they are produced by the same
species of vine. In each case, the nature of the soil has
altered the characteristics of the species very con-
siderably. In this instance, the same species of vine,
finding suitable soil and environments under different
conditions, adapts itself to its near circumstances and
produces wines of the same degree of excellence although
very different in all other respects.

In many other vine-growing districts of Europe,
America, Africa, and Australia, the Pinots cannot be
acclimatized at all, whilst in other parts they grow
but give disappointing results. In the Beaujolais, for
instance, which is very close to the Cote d'Or, the
Pinots produce a wine inferior to that made from the
Gamay vines, which belong to a commoner species,
but are better suited to the soil and climate of the
Beaujolais. In the South of France, the Pinots not only
can grow but even grow with such vigour in a soil too
rich for them that they yield an abundance of grapes
from which no good wine can be made.

On the other hand, the Gamay vines which give
very good results in the Beaujolais, and the Aramon
vines which are grown with great success in the South
of France, never could produce any good wine if planted
at Clos de Vougeot, Ay or Rudesheim. In other
words, fine wines can only be made when the right
species of vines are grown in exactly the right kind of
soil.

The M6doc Cabernet vines will not produce a Chateau
Margaux at the Cape, any more than the Folle Blanche
of the Charentes can produce Cognac brandy in the
Languedoc or the Burgundy Pinots Chambertin in
Austria or the German Rieslings Johannesberg wine in
California and the Palomino grape Sherry in Chili.

THE VINE 7

There can be no perfection without harmony, and
perfect harmony between species and soil is absolutely
indispensable to the production of fine wines.

Aspect. Besides the different species of vines and
the nature of the soil in which they are grown, the
quality of wine depends also on the climate, altitude,
and aspect of the vineyards.

The vine requires a certain amount of heat and
moisture as well as a good deal of air and solar light.
This is the reason why practically all the best wines are
grown on hills or inclines often so steep as to necessitate
tiers or terraces which allow the sun to bathe each vine
and let the air circulate freely.

In the more northern vineyards of France, the
cultivation of vines on inclines also secures for them a
greater amount of heat and a better safeguard against
risks of spring frosts. In the south of France, where
the heat is quite sufficient to mature grapes completely
when grown in the plains, the quality of the wines
made from hill-side vineyards is superior to that of
the wines from the plain. In the Cognac, Medoc and
Graves districts, the proximity of the Atlantic permits
of growing vines successfully on almost flat ground,
as, thanks to the prevalent westerly winds, they never
lack proper aeration. In the valley of the Douro,
where the summer heat is very great, the grapes have
to be grown in terraces on mountain slopes so that they
may get all the aeration which they require to attain
perfection.

The altitude and aspect of a vineyard are of greater
importance than its latitude or longitude. In the sun-
scorched valley of the Douro, for instance, vineyards
may be planted at high altitudes on slopes facing north,
north-west or south-west. On the other hand, in
the colder valleys of the Moselle and of the Rhine, all

8 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

the best vineyards will be found on moderate heights,
chiefly facing south or south-east.

Weather. When nature, the art of man and the experi-
ence of many generations have made it possible to arrive
at the most perfect harmony between species, soil and
aspect, the quality and quantity of the grapes the
vine-grower may hope to gather are still and always
must remain very uncertain, on account of that ever
unknown factor, the weather.

The danger of spring frosts and the damage done by
hail storms may be minimized at the cost of much
labour, trouble and expenditure, but there are neither
scientific methods nor wealth capable of checking
excessive rains or prolonged droughts. To the differ-
ences in the weather from year to year may be ascribed
the differences often so striking and always noticeable
between the produce of the same vineyards, but of
different vintages.

The question of the weather is of paramount import-
ance at the four most critical epochs of the growth of
the vine, viz., the budding season in March or April ;
the flowering season in May or June (sometimes July) ;
the fruiting time in September or October ; and the
wood-ripening season in October or November.

Frosts, in the spring, may destroy all hopes of a crop
in the autumn ; excessive rains or winds may carry
away the pollen of the flowers and prevent the fruit
from setting ; the lack or the excess of rain or heat
may interfere with the development and proper ripening
of the grapes ; moist and mild weather in the late
autumn may prevent the wood of the vines from ripening
properly and thus handicap severely the crop of the
following year.

Some good wine may be made from grapes which are
over-ripe but never from unripe grapes. Generally

10 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

speaking, however, the most important condition
required of the grapes for the making of good wine
is that they shall be sound and fully ripe. Unripe
grapes contain a large percentage of acidity and little
sugar ; gradually, however, the acidity decreases and
the sugar increases as the fruit is ripening under the
summer sun ; the quantity of sugar in the grape-juice
then remains stationary for a few days during which
the acidity further decreases. The grapes are then
ready to be plucked and made to yield their precious
blood.

The more sugar there is in the ripe grape, the more
alcohol the wine made therefrom will contain, and as
the sun produces the sugar, it follows that the same
vines which produce a thin wine, with an excess of
acidity, after a cold and wet summer, will yield a bigger
wine, with perchance a lack of acidity, after a hot and
dry season.

The weather is, therefore, responsible to a large
extent not only for the quantity of fruit the vine will
bear, but also for the degree of excellence to which the
grapes, and ultimately the wine, may attain.

Culture. Independently of species, soil, aspect and
weather, the quality and quantity of fruit the vine will
produce depend on the mode of cultivation. It may be
laid down as a general rule that quantity is always
obtained at the expense of quality, and the vine-grower
must make up his mind which of the two will pay him
best, which of the two his vineyard is better suited for,
and adopt methods of cultivation accordingly.

There are, however, certain rules of viticulture which
apply to all vines alike.

PLANTING AND PROPAGATING. The vine is planted
and propagated in a variety of ways, either by slips,
layers, cuttings, eyes, or by budding and grafting ;

THE VINE 11

the depth at which the vines are planted depends
chiefly upon the nature of the soil and the climate of
the district, 1 J ft. being considered sufficient in the
Champagne country, whereas 3 ft. is more usual in the
valley of the Douro, where the greater heat makes it
imperative to give the roots a greater depth.

PRUNING. The vine must be limited in its production
for the finest quality of fruit to be obtained, and pruning
is a very important operation, which varies with the
species of vines and the climate of each district.
Generally speaking, however, it may be said that hard
pruning is the rule when quality is of greater importance
than quantity, as is the case when fine wines are
concerned.

HOEING. In the early spring and summer the hoe
has to be applied to loosen the surface of the soil and
remove all the weeds.

STAKING. The vine is a climbing shrub, which cannot
support itself, and stakes are used for the purpose.

MANURING AND TREATING. Manure as nourishment
for the roots is not all that is required by the vine ;
its many enemies, whether insects or fungi, make it
necessary to spray sulphur and . sulphate of copper
on the leaves to check the inroads of insect pests and
diseases.

VINTAGING. When the grapes have reached a suffi-
cient degree of maturity, they are gathered as
rapidly as possible and brought to the press, where
they are crushed and made to yield their sweet juice
before they have had time to get bruised or to rot.

CHAPTER II

THE MAKING OF WINE

WINE-MAKING is an art which the genius of man dis-
covered at the dawn of the world's history : it has
largely contributed to the well-being of mankind and to
the growth of all arts ever since.

The distinctive character of every wine is due
principally to the species of grapes from which it is
made, to the geographical situation of the vineyards
where those grapes are grown, and to the more or less
favourable weather conditions prevailing in different
years. But the striking differences which exist between
various kinds of wines, either dark or light in colour,
still or sparkling, sweet or dry, are due to the manner
and degree in which they are fermented, and to the way
they are treated during and after fermentation, or, in
other words, to different methods of vinincation.

It is of the utmost importance that grapes should be
sound and ripe, when picked at the vintage time.

Unsound grapes introduce into the "must" a number of
most objectionable moulds and bacteria which may
be mastered, at first, by more lively and plentiful yeasts,
but they will stay in the " must " and pass into the wine
made from that must. They will stay, bide their tim,
and, sooner or later, they will do their evil work and
spoil the wine.

Unripe grapes introduce into the " must " a proportion
of acids in excess of what is required to secure a well-
balanced, pleasant wine. Excessive acidity is not a
cause of decay in a wiie : on the contrary. At the
same time, nobody wishes to keep a sound but tart

14 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

wine which may remain sound a long time and grow
harsher and more unpalatable every year.

Overripe grapes, unlike unsound and unripe grapes,
may be used for securing an excessively sweet " must "
from which certain rich wines are made. But such wines
are the exception. In the great majority of cases, if
grapes are overripe when picked, the must does not
contain a sufficient proportion of acidity, and the wine
will eventually be deficient in keeping qualities.

Grape Juice. There is within each grape-berry a
sweet juice, the " pulp," consisting chiefly of water
and grape-sugar, in varying proportions, with very
small quantities of various acids and mineral matters,
the nature and number of which vary according to
the species of vines, the soil of the vineyards, the mode
of cultivation, climatic conditions, etc. Although we
describe " must " as grape-juice, it is more than that.
It is the juice of the grape, the pulp from inside the
berry, plus all sorts of vegetal and mineral substances
which were originally part of the skins, pips, and stalks
of the bunch of grapes as it grew upon the vine.

" Must," or grape-juice, varies therefore according to
the manner in which the juice of the grapes is obtained.
The oldest method of obtaining "must"- a method still
resorted to in many southern vineyards consists in
crushing the grapes under men's naked feet. The
latest is the hydraulic press.

If we were to make a chemical analysis of two "musts"
from grapes identical in every respect, but obtained
the one by the old, and the other by the new methods,
we would find not only noticeable but considerable
differences.

Which is the best method of securing grape-juice ?
It all depends upon the grapes available and the type
of wine which they are most suitable for. In the

THE MAKING OF WINE 15

Medoc, for instance, they do not actually press the grapes
when they want to make the " premier vin " or best
wine. When the grapes are brought in from the vine-
yards, the berries are roughly torn from their stalks
by hand or by machinery, and the skins are burst in the
process. The juice which bleeds from the wounded
berries runs into the vat on top of which this
" egrappage " takes place, and the burst berries them-
selves are thrown into the same vat, until it is full,
full of " must," full of grape-juice, but of grape-juice
with skins and pips also, and millions of Saccharomycetes,
the seeds of yeast, which are upon the grapes. When
the liquid contents of the vat are drawn, after the must
has become new wine, there remains in it a mass of wet
skins which contain still some pulp or grape-juice
proper, as well as pips and Saccharomycetes. This
mass is then placed in a press and pressed hard,
until all moisture is extracted. This also is " must " or
grape-juice : this also will ferment and become wine,
but not " premier vin," and if we analyze either this
second " must," or the wine made from it, we shall find
that both differ chemically from both the first " must "
and the first wine obtained from the same grapes.

In Champagne, the methods of pressing the grapes
are different. There, the bunches of grapes are thrown,
whole and unbruised, into a square oak press fitted
with a lid made of oak boards which can be raised
or lowered at will. As this lid slowly descends upon
them, the grapes burst and their juice runs away
immediately into a vat placed below the press, away
from stalks, pips, and skins, mostly black skins which
would otherwise make the "must" red in colour. There are
41 cwts. of grapes put in that press and fifteen casks, each
44 galls., of "must" is generally expected to be secured
from that quantity, but not "must" nor eventually

16 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

wine of the same composition. When the equivalent of
ten casks of wine has run from the press into the vat no
more grape -juice is allowed in. The press lid is screwed
down further, and, under the greater pressure, more
juice runs out of the mass of husks. The pipe through
which this grape-juice runs away is switched towards
another vat, and the pressure is kept up until sufficient
" must " has been obtained to fill the equivalent of two
casks (400 litres in all). What is left under the presslid
no longer looks like grapes it is a cake which has to
be cut up with a spade in slabs, and yet, when pressed
very hard, as it is eventually, it yields more " must,"
as much as the equivalent of three further casks, but
when we proceed to analyze the last cask of this " must "
we shall find in it different acids and oils which it will be
impossible for us to detect in the must of the first ten
casks. The same grapes, in other words, will have
yielded a number of appreciably different types of
" musts " from which widely different wines may be
expected.

Wine. Wines vary, in the first place, according
to the chemical composition of the " must " or grape-
juice from which they are made. They vary, in the
second place, according to different methods of vinifica-
tion. These methods differ chiefly according to the
types of wine it is desirable or possible to make from the
grapes grown in different districts. The principal
types of wine are

(a) Natural wines.

(b) Sparkling wines.

(d) Sweet wines.

(a) Natural wines are made from red and white grapes
crushed either with or without their stalks. The "must"
is left to ferment at first with the husks or skins, which

18 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

contain the colouring pigment which gives to red wines
their colour, and later in casks until the fermentation
is over. Of such wines Claret and Burgundy are the
prototypes.

(b) Sparkling wines differ chiefly from " natural "
wines in being bottled before the end of fermentation
so that the carbonic acid gas generated by fermentation
remains in solution in the wine inside the bottle.
Champagne is the prototype of all sparkling wines.

(c) Fortified wines are made by the addition of
brandy during fermentation, so that a certain pro-
portion of the grape-sugar of grape-juice remains
unchanged in the wine. Of fortified wines, Port is
the prototype.

(d) Sweet wines are made in a number of different
ways, either from overripe grapes, like Sauternes, or
by the addition of a liqueur made of sugar and brandy,
or by checking the fermentation of a wine containing
a large proportion of its unfermented grape-sugar.

Methods of vinification vary according to each wine-
producing district, and according to the finest type of
wine which the grapes, soil and climatic conditions of
different vine-growing districts make it possible to
obtain. If grapes grown in the Douro valley, for
instance, were pressed, fermented and treated in exactly
the same way as grapes are pressed, fermented and
treated in the Champagne district, wine would be
obtained which would be neither Champagne nor Port;
it would be very much worse than the worst Champagne
or the worst Port. The same disastrous result would be
obtained by attempting to introduce in the Champagne
district wine-making methods which give excellent
results at Oporto.

Whilst various processes of vinification obtain
in different wine-producing districts, there is one

THE MAKING OF WINE 19

all-important factor in the art of wine-making which
is common to all, viz., fermentation.

Fermentation. Fermentation consists in a series of
chemical reactions due to the presence of the catalyst
Zymase, which is the Enzyme of living micro-organisms
known as Saccharomycetes. As a result of these chemical
reactions, one molecule of grape-sugar is split up into
two molecules of ethyl alcohol and two molecules of
carbonic acid gas. As a matter of fact, this chemical
change is the most important, but by no means the only
one of those which take place during vinous fermen-
tation. There are other substances in grape-juice
besides grape-sugar, and there is a series of molecular
exchanges going on at the same time and all the time,
during the fermentation proper of the grape-sugar and
long after.

Pasteur, to whose genius we owe so much of our
knowledge of ferments and fermentation, has placed
beyond all argument the fact that fermentations offer
as an essential condition the presence of microscopic
living organisms or ferments.

Some species of these living yeasts are very fond of
grape-juice ; it is not a mere matter of taste, but of
life and death ; they must have grape- juice to live and
to grow ; hence the name which has been given to them,
viz., Saccharomycetes.

Borne on the breeze, the Saccharomycetes cling in their
thousands to the skin of the ripening grapes but fail to
reach the nectar so marvellously stored within. Their
chance comes when the bunches are plucked from the
vines, thrown into the press and crushed The sweet
juice which runs out is what the Saccharomycetes have
been waiting for : they are at it in a flash. Soon after
it begins to ferment, there is the life in it it is living :
it is wine.

3 (1461 F)

20 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

Saccharomycetes. Saccharomycetes are microscopic
fungi. They are generally composed of a single cell,
either spherical, elliptical or cylindrical, formed of a
thin cell-wall which contains a granular nitrogenous
substance known as protoplasm. These cells grow at
the expense of other bodies, but they do not breathe
like true plants or animals, hence the designation
" parasites," which ferments and all fungi have been
given. When the cell of the Saccharomycetes reaches
a certain size about ten micro-millimetres it divides
itself into two smaller similar cells, which grow and
divide themselves again as soon as they have reached
their full size. This process goes on so long as the liquid
in which they live supplies to the Saccharomycetes
sufficient and suitable food ; it goes on, however, at a
much more rapid rate when the temperature of the
liquid is high than when it is low, and it is checked by
extremes of heat and cold, by the presence of small
quantities of substances such as sulphuric acid, or of too
large a proportion of either alcohol or even grape-sugar ;
it is also checked completely by the total absence of
oxygen.

The Saccharomycetes are the appointed agents of
vinous fermentation. Their business is to see that
grape-sugar becomes changed into alcohol so that grape-
juice may acquire life and become wine. But the
Saccharomycetes have enemies, other living micro-
organisms like themselves, yeasts, moulds and bacteria,
millions 01 which are floating in the air, hanging on the
cellar walls or cask staves, always ready to pounce upon
grape-juice or wine and start work on their own
account.

Hence the importance of giving the Saccharomycetes
every chance, of having as many of them as possible,
studying their likes and dislikes in the matter of

THE MAKING OF WINE 21

temperature and surroundings, and being their true
ally in their struggle against the power of their
anemies, chiefly the dreaded moulds.

A wet vintage is always dangerous and often
disastrous. A wine made of wet-gathered grapes is
never safe, not because of the rain-water in the press,
but because of the much smaller number of Saccharo-
mycetes upon the grapes, which means that the vinous
fermentation will be slow and therefore unsatisfactory.

We know that fermentation transforms grape-juice
into wine ; when we ask how it is done we are referred
to microscopic living fungi of the " ferments " or
" yeast " tribe, and, in that tribe, the " ellipsoideus "
member of the honourable family of Saccharomycetes
is introduced to us as being responsible for vinous
fermentation.

The result of its work is so marvellous that we must
try and find out what is the process employed. Do
Saccharomycetes feed greedily upon grape-sugar ?
Is their action in the form of direct intervention ?
Are alcohol and carbon dioxide by-products of their
digestion ? The answer to these three questions is in
the negative.

Fermentation is a chemical change, a series oj chemical
reactions associated, with and, produced, by living organisms,
but not due to the direct action of such living organisms
upon the fermentable substances.

Enzymes. Sugar has been transformed into alcohol,
it has been " fermented " without the presence of any
living " ferment " or yeast, and merely through the
agency of an " Enzyme," a substance without any life,
but produced by and contained in the cell of living
yeast.

What is an Enzyme ? It is that part of the
Saccharomycetes which brings about the fermentative

THE MAKING OF WINE 23

changes. It is a substance which plays a very important
part, the most important part, in the process of
fermentation.

The word Enzyme is made up of a Greek preposition
meaning " in " and a Greek noun (V^) meaning
" leaven " (or yeast). It stands for th idea that
" in yeast," that is, within the living cell of yeast
micro-organisms, there is a substance which, without
possessing any degree of life itself and merely owing to
its texture and chemical composition, affects the rate
at which and the extent to which a chemical reaction
proceeds.

An Enzyme is a catalyst, that is to say, an agent
which facilitates or renders possible chemical reactions
by removing hindrances and without being used up
itself in the process.

Catalysts are accelerators of reactions.

When we eat, our salivary glands pour forth saliva,
which mixes with our food and immediately begins to
prepare it for our stomach ; this preparation is done by
means of chemical changes or reactions ; these changes
take place on the way from the mouth to the stomach,
and they can take place so quickly only because of the
presence of a particular catalyst in our saliva, a substance
known as " ptyalin."

It is also due to the presence of this and other
catalysts that our food can be transformed by numerous
reactions into suitable material for building up our
flesh and bones, making good the wastage of tissue,
renovating our blood and keeping up our body tempera-
ture. The unceasing work of the marvellous laboratory
of our organism could not be carried on if it were not
for the " catalytic " action of " catalysts " such as the
ptyalin of saliva, the pepsin of gastric juice, and the
trypsin of the pancreas.

24 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

Nor would grape-juice ferment without the catalytic
action of a particular Enzyme known as " Zymase,"
which accelerates the chemical reactions resulting in
the transformation of one molecule of grape-sugar
into two molecules of alcohol, two molecules of carbon
dioxide, and some minute quantities of glycerine and
other substances.

Zymase is the organic substance of the yeast cells
of the Saccharomycetes, and to its presence is due the
decomposition of grape-sugar and the production of
alcohol and carbon dioxide.

The juice of some kinds of grapes is more suitable
than the juice of others for wine-making, or for the
making of certain types of wine, but whether a wine
be sound or not, wholesome and pleasant or the reverse,
whether a wine is to enjoy a long and healthy life or to
suffer various diseases and die early, all this depends
entirely upon fermentation.

Grape-juice, the raw material from which wine is
to be built, is very complex ; it contains, besides
water and grape-sugar, a number of acids, organic
and inorganic salts, oils, mucilage, and other substances
in minute quantities but capable of making all the
difference to the bouquet, the charm and value of the
wine which will eventually result.

The chemical composition of grape-juice varies with
the species of vine, the soil of the vineyards, climatic
conditions and the methods employed to press the
grapes or otherwise to secure their juice. The chemical
composition of a wine depends in the first instance upon
the nature of the grape- juice, and secondly upon the
way, speed, and degree of fermentation by which the
grape- juice has been transformed into wine.

Blending. After fermentation, the most important
factor in the art of wine-making is blending.

THE MAKING OF WINE 25

The blending of wines from different vineyards or of
different years has a twofold object : firstly and chiefly
to obtain better and more regular quality, and secondly,
to reduce the average cost of production.

If there are two types of wine more popular in this
country than any other, they are Port and Champagne ;
and Ports and Champagnes are always blended, so
that it cannot be said that blending applies only to the
cheaper and commoner sorts of wines. With the
exception of the finest growths of the Gironde, Burgundy
and Germany, practically all the other wines either
are blended or could be improved by judicious
blending.

When a wine lacks acidity, for instance, and another
surfers from an excess of acidity, it stands to reason that
by blending the two together a much more palatable
wine will be obtained. Both these wines may be the
produce of the same vineyard but of different years,
or else of different vineyards, more or less favourably
situated in the same district ; the price may be much
higher one year than another or in one part of a certain
district than anywhere else in the same region. In-
telligent blending of wines is the only natural and
rational way of correcting the faults of two or three or
more imperfect wines and of thus creating a type as
near perfection as possible or as near the standard of
excellence which is aimed at and which will have to be
maintained year after year.

Delicate and difficult as the trade in wines is, it
would be considerably more difficult, not to say im-
practicable, were it not that shippers are able, thanks
to the art of blending, to maintain the standard of
quality and the average cost of their wines as uniform as
possible, in spite of the vagaries of the weather from
year to year.

26 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

Blending is an operation which requires considerable
experience, judgment and intelligence ; it is absolutely
legitimate, and, moreover, it is the only natural and
honest way of improving and rendering more lasting
the majority of wines.

CHAPTER III

* THE WINE TRADE OF ENGLAND PAST AND
PRESENT

THE Romans, during their occupation of Britain, were
probably the first to import wine into this country from
the Continent, but no documentary evidence of the
existence of the English wine trade has yet come to
light earlier than the fifth century. It is not before
the ninth century, however, that we find regular ship-
ments of wine from Rouen to both England and Ireland,
and, during the tenth century, this branch of commerce
had acquired sufficient importance to become a source
of revenue for the Royal Exchequer, 6s. per shipment of
wine having to be paid at Billingsgate by merchants
arriving from Rouen. Concomitant evidence of the
existence of the wine trade in England at that period
is afforded by the rule of St. Ethelwold, who allowed
the monks of all Benedictine monasteries to have their
"ollae," or large jugs, filled with wine twice a day, for
their dinner and supper.

Saxon records make manifest that before the Norman
Conquest wines were already in general use, in Britain,
for a variety of purposes, wines which are described
as being either " clear or strong, austere, soft, sweet,
etc." During the eleventh century, the wholesale
and retail branches of the wine trade were distinct and
both were flourishing. Edward the Confessor decreed
that all foreigners were free to come to England, there
to sell their wines, but only wholesale and without
competing or otherwise interfering with the retail
of wines, which should remain the sole privilege of natives
of his realm.

28 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

After the Norman Conquest, the fact that both sides
of the Channel acknowledged the same Sovereign
helped materially to increase commercial intercourse
between England and the Continent. The wine trade
became far more important than it had ever been before
and wine was so plentiful that, even during the troubled
reign of Stephen, the King was able to fine one of his
barons, Matthew de Vernum, in 100 casks of wine for a
breach of the peace.

By the marriage, in 1152, of Eleanor of Aquitaine to
Henri Plantagenet, Duke of Anjou and Normandy,
who became King Henry II the following year, Bordeaux
and some of the fairest vineyards of France passed
under the rule of England and remained under it during
three consecutive centuries. The " Claret " trade in
England dates from that time. Gascon merchants
ceased to be aliens in this country ; they were given
such facilities to bring over their wines and privileges
for selling them in this country that they acquired for a
time what amounted practically to a monopoly of the
wine trade in England.

The privileged position of " Gascon " wines, as
most wines shipped from Bordeaux were usually called,
is evidenced by the Royal cellars purchase accounts
which have been preserved to this day. When, in 1212,
King John paid 507 11s. Od. for 358 casks of wine,
the proportion of Gascon wine was nearly 75 per cent
of the whole, i.e.

267 casks of Gascon wine
54 ,, ,, Orleans
8 ,, ,, Anjou
26 ,, ,, Auxerre ,,
3 ,, ,, German ,,

In London, where the Gascon merchants were
numerous, wealthy and powerful, the citizens and

WINE TRADE OF ENGLAND PAST AND PRESENT 29

aldermen challenged many times their rights and
privileges which were conflicting with the terms of royal
charters obtained at great expense by the Londoners
themselves. Eventually, the Gascon vintners had to
make up their mind either to give up their Gascon
nationality and settle over here for good and all, or
else to give up their former privileges and go back to
Bordeaux not later than forty days after landing their
wines over here and selling them to London vintners,
who were alone to deal with them on this side, either
wholesale or by retail.

One of the results of the objection taken by the
citizens of London to the ancient trading liberties of
Gascon vintners in the metropolis was to divert a fairly
large share of the Bordeaux wines to other parts of the
Kingdom, chiefly Bristol, Hull, Southampton and
Chester, but also to Portsmouth, Exmouth, Sandwich,
Winchelsea, Rye, Lynn, Ipswich, etc.

In 1335, Edward III, having prohibited all export of
coin, Bordeaux merchants were made to purchase, in
exchange for their wines, goods which they did not want
or did not understand sufficiently to buy well ; in
consequence, they preferred to go to Flemish, Dutch
and Hanseatic ports, and they ceased almost entirely
to come to this country. Hence, the King, the more
wealthy lords, both spiritual and temporal, as well as
English vintners, were obliged to send to Bordeaux
their men, their ships and their money to buy the
supplies of wine of which they stood in need. This
change was mainly responsible for the rapid increase
of the naval strength and maritime preponderance of
England. Until then, Gascons, Flemings, Genoese and
Germans had shared among themselves practically the
whole of the carrying trade, and the necessity which
forced English merchants to go overseas and fetch

30 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

wines which foreign traders refused to bring over any
longer was of the utmost benefit to the country. The
King did all in his power to encourage his subjects to
build ships for the purpose of commerce, and he granted
to them a considerable number of safe-conducts to go to
Bordeaux with bullion and return with wine.

The supremacy of the English mercantile marine
dates from that time and is closely connected with the
importance of the English wine trade in those far-off
days when wine cost but 4d. a gallon and was the
common beverage of all but the poorest in the land.

It was also during the reign of Edward III that the
practice originated of a number of ships sailing from
some appointed English port and on some officially
appointed day and proceeding to Bordeaux in fleet
formation, in order to be better able to defend them-
selves from attack. Such fleets sailed usually in the
late autumn and returned home before Christmas with
the " new " wines ; they sailed again in the following
spring, usually soon after Easter, and returned with
the " rack " wines.

When the wine-laden ships reached an English port,
the attorneys of the King's Butler, or " Yeomen of the
Butlery," had to be advised ; their office consisted in
taking two casks of wine per ship, or their equivalent
value in money, for the King's right of " prise " or
" prisage " ; they also purchased whatever quantity
of wine they had been instructed to secure for the royal
cellars and army, as well as for the numerous lay and
ecclesiastical beneficiaries of the King's bounty.

Only then could the wine be landed and stored in
vaults on or near the quay-side. This landing could
only be effected by officially recognized " wine-drawers,"
skilled in this work, who enjoyed an absolute monopoly.

Once landed, the wine had to be passed by the

WOE TO

DRVNKARDS.

A Sermon by S A MV EL WARD
Preacher of Ipfoich*

LONDON.

Printed for lohn Grifmand 1627

32 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

" Gauger," the buyer and seller each paying this official
one halfpenny per tun of wine gauged, and it could
then be so)d, but, again, the services of an official
" Broker " were required to make the sale binding.
This broker had to see that the price demanded by the
seller was not beyond the " maximum " price fixed by
civic authorities from time to time for different sorts
of wine ; he also had to see that the importer of wine
sold his wine wholesale, and only to those who were
free to buy wholesale, viz., peers of the realm, vintners
and taverners.

The retailer of wine had also many royal and municipal
ordinances to comply with. The maximum retail
prices of wine were fixed by law ; besides this, wines
of different kinds were not allowed to be kept in the
same cellar, so that they could not be mixed together ;
the consumer had the right to see his wine drawn from
the cask ; the Vintners' Company in London, and
municipal authorities in the provinces, had the right
to enter the premises of any taverner and demand
to test the wines stored therein and condemn it to be
destroyed if they thought fit !

Irksome as all these regulations undoubtedly were,
they had all been framed with a view to giving the
consumer the greatest possible protection against
fakers and profiteers, a protection for which the con-
sumer was made to pay eventually, since the different
taxes levied by all the officials through whose hands
all wines had to pass were charged for in the retail
price of the wine.

Prices, however, remained sufficiently low during
500 years for wine to be within the reach of a very large
number of people throughout the land.

From twelfth century records we learn that the
average price of wine in England was then Id. per

WINE TRADE OF ENGLAND PAST AND PRESENT 33

gallon. The lowest rate at which we find wine quoted
is under -|d. per gallon, in 1159, in London, and the
highest is 2d. per gallon, in 1174, for "French" and
" Moselle " wines.

During the thirteenth century, ' wine," " Gascon "
wine and wines of " Anjou," " Auxerre," " Oleron,"
" France," " La Reole," " Moselle," were sold in all
parts of the country at prices varying from fd. up to
3Jd. per gallon, the average price being about 2d. per
gallon. Towards the end of the century we find
mentions, for the first time, of " Ossey " and
" Malvoisie," which were imported from further south
and sold at much higher rates, viz., 6d. and 8d. per
gallon respectively.

During the fourteenth century, the average price
of " Gascon " wine, the wine which then formed probably
80 per cent of the total wine imports, rose to about
3Jd. per gallon. The lowest recorded was 2Jd. in
1343, at Berwick-on-Tweed, and the highest, 4Jd.
in London, in 1338. Poitou and Rochelle wines cost
rather less than Gascon and there is a rate of l^d. per
gallon charged in London, in 1303, for " old wine,"
which meant, perhaps, " too old," i.e. defective wine.

On the other hand, Vernage, a sweet wine from
Italy, was sold at 2s. per gallon, at Durham, in 1335,
and Crete wine at 4s. in 1360. Rhine wine was sold at
Is. 2d. per gallon, in 1340, at Durham, at 6Jd. in 1367,
and lid. in 1380, at King's Lynn.

During the fifteenth century, the price of " Gascon "
wine was fixed at 6d. per gallon, by order, but it fetched
commonly 7d. or 8d. per gallon. The chief feature of
this century is the decline in the consumption of
" Gascon," or beverage wine, and the increased
popularity of a large variety of sweet, or at any rate
sweeter, wines from Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the

34 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

islands of the Mediterranean : such were Bastard,
Tyre, Romeney, Malmsey, Osey, Vernage and Hippocras.
Irrespective of the " assize " or official maximum
prices of all such wines, their cost varied greatly
according to their quality, style, scarcity and popularity ;
thus, whilst Malmsey cost but lOd. per gallon at Norwich
in 1424, Oseye Is. at Warwick in 1405, and at Cambridge
in 1414, Vernage cost 2s. 8d. per gallon at Warwick
in 1405, and Hippocras 3s. 4d. at Cambridge in 1488.

During the sixteenth century, references to " Gascon "
wine are much less numerous ; this wine was still
imported on a large scale, but was more commonly
known under the name of " Claret," the price of which
rose steadily from 8d. per gallon, in 1510, to
2s. 8d. in 1592, in spite of the fact that its " assize "
price was only 8d. per gallon in 1538 and 1539, Is. in
1565, Is. Id. in 1571, and Is. 4d. from 1578 to 1581.

The price of Rhenish wine also rose during the same
period from Is. per gallon, in 1508, to 3s. 4d. in 1594.

The sweet wines of all kinds, Malmseys, Muscadells
and Muscadine, Romeney, Fimoy, Hippocras, etc.,
continued to be largely imported and were sold at
prices varying from lOd. per gallon to as much as 8s.
(for Hippocras) in 1587.

The chief feature of the wine trade during the
sixteenth century was 1he introduction and the imme-
diate popularity of Sack, the price of which rose from
lOd. per gallon in 1533, to 4s. 8d. in 1598, in spite of
the fact that its " assize " price was but Is. Id. per
gallon as late as 1571.

The cheapest wines of all during the sixteenth
century were those shipped to England from La
Rochelle, mostly thin white wines from Poitou and
Angoumois, but their price rose very much during
the latter part of the century. Their " assize " price

WINE TRADE OF ENGLAND PAST AND PRESENT 35

was only 4d. per gallon as late as 1553, but it was fixed
at Is. 2d. from 1578 to 1781.

William III raised the duties on wine, in 1693, and
inaugurated the imposition of a scale of duties on
different wines according to their country of origin ; thus,
French wine paid 22 2s.10d. per tun ; Rhenish wine
19 17s. 3d. per tun ; and Spanish and Portuguese wines,
17 13s. 3d. per tun. The same principle was adhered
to in 1697, when the duties of French, Rhenish and
Peninsular wines were raised to 47 2s. 10d., 26 2s. 10d.,
and 21 12s. 5d. respectively.

In spite of such excessive duties, and in spite of the
heavy taxation necessitated by the prosecution of an
expensive war on the Continent, the wine trade
remained very active. In giving the detail of the different
wines cleared in the port of London in 1694-5, Houghton
remarks that the total is only about 17,000 tuns, which,
he adds, " is but a small matter considering what was
brought in before the War ; for I have been told by
the City Gauger that there has come to London in one
year 31,000 tuns of wine." This would have been
equivalent to 7,812,000 galls, of wine, imported in
London alone, or more than a gallon per head of the
whole population of Great Britain at that time. This
quantity did not strike Houghton as being excessive,
for he further stated that " 'tis a pity we do not drink
30 gallons a head. . . "

The history of the wine trade in England during the
eighteenth century is chiefly remarkable for the rapid
decline in the consumption of French wines, and the
favour which the wines of Portugal came to enjoy.

When William of Orange ascended the English
throne, his arch enemy, Louis XIV, was at the zenith of
his glory. Louis' power on the Continent, the hospitality
he accorded to the exiled Stuarts, his treatment of

4 (1461F)

36 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

the Huguenots, and Colbert's commercial policy, were
all calculated to inspire the King and the people of
England with feelings of hatred against France and
everything French. When Queen Anne succeeded
William III, her Government knew that any measure
likely to cause serious prejudice to the French was sure
to be immensely popular. Accordingly they sought
to ruin one of the most important and prosperous
branches of France's trade, the trade in wines, by
admitting the wine of Portugal in England on payment
of 7 per tun, whilst the wines of France were to pay
55 per tun. This was the object of the famous Methuen
Treaty signed in 1703.

Protests were at first loud and numerous : General
Churchill, Marlborough's brother, the rich Pereira,
the jovial Portman Seymour, Dean Aldrich, " the
Apostle of Bacchus," Doctor Ratcliffe, who ascribed
all diseases to the lack of French wines, and a host of
bottle companions, poets and satirists, lawyers and
physicians, during the reign of Queen Anne, would
and did drink their favourite Claret, in spite of treaties
and duties. However exorbitant the charge for French
wines, there was a demand for them so long as the
generation of men lasted who had been boys in
Charles II's time, but the generations which followed
never had the opportunity of appreciating the vintages
of France sufficiently to pay the price demanded for
them ; their consumption gradually decreased almost
to vanishing point, and, in that respect, the promoters of
the Methuen Treaty attained the object they had in view.

During the first half of the eighteenth century, Port
had little to recommend it but its cheapness, but,
during the second half of the same century, both the
price and the quality of Port were raised gradually,
with the result that the popularity of the wine, as

WINE TRADE OF ENGLAND PAST AND PRESENT 37

shown by the figures relating to imports, increased
steadily until the superiority of Port over all other wines
became part and parcel of the creed of every true-born
and true-hearted Englishman.

During the first half of the nineteenth century, the
wine trade of England was in the hands of a com-
paratively small number of private wine-merchants,
who obtained their supplies direct from abroad or from
a few large wholesale houses in London. Nobody,
then, would have dared deny that the first duty of a
wine was to be red and its second to be sweet. Stout,
dark vintage ports were the rule ; full, sweet sherries
and brown Madeiras were their only competitors in the
public favour. Sweet Champagne was becoming more
popular amongst the wealthy classes, and there was
only a very limited demand for the Hocks and
Clarets Germany and France could produce.

Cheap wines were then practically unknown, and
cash payments would have been resented as an insult.
A wine merchant was expected to be a gentleman
possessed of considerable means and knowledge, which
enabled him to give his customer long credit and fine
quality ; his prices were no more questioned than the
fees of the physician.

This state of affairs came to an abrupt end in the
sixties, when Gladstone revolutionized the wine trade
of England.

On 29th February, 1860, the duty on every description
of wine was lowered to 3s. per gallon. On 1st January,
1861, this uniform rate was superseded by the imposition
of a scale of duties, based on the degree of strength,
according to Sykes's hydrometer, ranging from Is. per
gallon on wines containing less than 18 of alcohol,
to 2s. lid. per gallon on wines containing 45 of alcohol.
On 3rd April, 1862, this scale was further revised and

38 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

lowered, all wines containing less than 26 of alcohol
being admitted at the rate of Is. per gallon, whilst those
containing more, up to 42, were to pay 2s. 6d. per
gallon.

Such a drastic reduction in the duties on wine was
bound to have an immediate and considerable influence
upon the consumption of wine in England, but Gladstone
went even further. When, in 1860, he introduced his
first measure for lowering the duties on wine, he
concurrently brought in a Bill to facilitate its con-
sumption, by granting free scope to keepers of refresh-
ment houses of good character to sell wine on the
premises, on payment of certain Excise licences,
irrespective of magisterial jurisdiction. This Bill,
which duly passed into law, was followed by the
" Single Bottle Act " of 1861, which enabled all shop-
keepers to retail wine to be drunk off the premises.
Furthermore, whilst a "dealer" in wine had to pay
10 guineas for a wine-merchant's licence, " any person
(not being a dealer) who kept a shop for the sale of any
goods or commodities other than foreign wines, in
England and Ireland," was allowed to sell wine not to
be consumed on the premises, by retail, in reputed
quart or pint bottles only, on payment of 50s. for an
" off-licence. "

This measure proved more far-reaching than the
reduction of duties. It opened new channels to the
activities of grocers, drapers, limited liability com-
pany promoters, brewers, co-operative societies, and
others. It threw the wine trade open to all, since every
shopkeeper was henceforth free to sell wine on the
payment of 50s. to the Excise.

Gladstone's wine policy, inaugurated in 1860, has
been practically adhered to ever since ; it has, therefore,
been given nearly sixty years' trial, and we can now

WINE TRADE OF ENGLAND PAST AND PRESENT 39

form a fair estimate of the influence it has had on the
wine trade in England.

From 1860 till 1876, the clearances of wine from
bond show a gradual increase from less than 9,000,000
gallons to over 18,000,000 gallons.

French wines were responsible for the greater share
of this remarkable increase. In two single years only,
between 1800 and 1860, did the consumption of French
wines in England reach 500,000 galls. ; it had even
rarely attained 200,000 galls, per annum. In 1860,
however, the clearances of French wines from bond
amounted to 1,125,599 galls. ; in 1862 they were
2,227,662 galls. ; in 1868 they reached 4,502,162
galls.

But the enormous increase in the clearances from
bond of French as well as other wines, from 1860 till
1876, did not really represent as great an increase in
the actual consumption of wine throughout the land
during that period.

The number of wine sellers had increased far more
rapidly than the number of wine drinkers. All sorts
and conditions of men entered the wine trade during
the twenty years which followed the reduction of
duties and the passing of the " Single Bottle Act."
All the newcomers had to build up stocks before they
could hope to do any business ; most of them lacked
the knowledge, and many lacked the means necessary
to embark successfully in the wine trade. On the
other hand, they all seem to have been possessed of
much energy and of unbounded confidence in the
future. Their energy gained them some customers,
but their enthusiasm led them to hope for better results
than they actually obtained, the consequence being an
accumulation of stocks all over the country.

A few gave up the fight, but others took up their

40 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

places, and the consumption not having increased
in nearly the same proportion as either imports or
importers, competition became keener and less fair ;
the practice of small profits and cash payments was
introduced and rapidly gained ground. It benefited
the wine trade at first, by placing wine within the
reach of a greater number of people ; this, however,
was but a passing benefit, soon to be followed by a
serious calamity.

During the seventies, wine was both abundant and
excellent, owing to a series of fine vintages, so that
remarkable value could be offered to the consumer.
Unfortunately, plenty was followed by a woeful scarcity
during the eighties, when the phylloxera had devastated
the choicest vineyards of France. Good wine became
scarce and expensive, and wine merchants on this side
had to ask higher prices. It was then, however, that
the " Gladstone " wine sellers, whose name was legion,
committed the fatal mistake of persevering with their
low prices and " cheap lines " ; they could only do so
by giving very bad quality, but human nature being
what we know it to be, the man who allowed himself
to be tempted by the low prices offered by ignorant
or unscrupulous dealers, blamed the wine he drank
for not suiting his constitution or his palate, and,
in many cases, he gave up drinking wine and
learnt to resign himself to barley water and patent
medicines.

From 1868 till 1883, the average annual home
consumption of wine was maintained well over 16,000,000
galls. ; then the check came with bad vintages, and
from 1884 till 1889 the annual average was under
14,000,000 galls. Vineyards were rapidly replanted,
and good wine was once more made in fair quantity.
Wine merchants once more replenished their stocks

WINE TRADE OF ENGLAND PAST AND PRESENT 41

and the clearances from bond increased to an annual
average of some 15,000,000 galls, from 1890 till 1902.
Whilst stocks of wine and the number of wine sellers
were again on the increase, the consumption of wine
remained stationary, or even decreased. The phylloxera
had destroyed vineyards, but low prices, which spelt
bad quality, had destroyed the confidence of a large
number of former wine drinkers, and this evil has been
even more disastrous than the first.

When the real truth of the position became absolutely
evident, imports of wine received a serious check ;
the clearances from bond/ from 1903 till 1910 inclusive,
gradually decreased and only reached an average
of some 12,000,000 galls, per year. In 1911 the clear-
ances of wine from bond were only 11, 274, 146 galls.,
or nearly 7,000,000 less than in 1873, whilst the pro-
portion of wine consumed per head of the population
in 1911 'was smaller than the corresponding figure for
1859, when duties were higher and when the wine trade
was in the hands of a much smaller number of wine
merchants.

During the ten years which preceded the outbreak
of war, the consumption of wine in Great Britain was
not equal to the quantities of wine imported, so that, in
1914, larger stocks existed than, probably, at any
other time in the history of the wine trade in this
country.

The War checked imports and stimulated the con-
sumption of wine. The poor quality of the " Govern-
ment " beer and the shortage of home-made spirits,
due to the fact that most distilleries were commandeered,
led many beer and spirit drinkers in the land to turn
to wine for the stimulants they needed all the more
that they were living through strenuous times. Women
in receipt of the separation allowance, temporary

42 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

gentlemen in camp at home or on furlough from over-
seas, munitions workers and a host of well-paid officials
in newly-created departments, had never been so
well off before and felt that they were entitled to share
in the amenities of life and drink wine. Shipments of
wine were very irregular and totally inadequate, with
the result that existing stocks went into consumption
and the price of wine, good, bad and indifferent alike,
rose considerably.

During the year 1919, when it became once more
possible to import wines practically from all wine-growing
countries, imports of wine and clearances from bond
reached the unprecedented figures of 26,950,281 galls,
for imports and 19,232,172 galls, for clearances from
bond. During the year 1919, as happens after every
national crisis, all prices were inflated and everybody
in the land who had anything to sell made enormous
profits and spent freely money which had been easily
made. The consumption of wine was considerably
higher in 1919 than at any time during the preceding
twenty years, but imports were all the same far in
excess of the consumption, depleted cellars being
stocked once more by merchants all over the
country.

With the year 1920 the inevitable reaction set in.
Stocks of all raw materials and manufactured articles
purchased at excessive prices could not be sold
profitably ; in many cases they could not be sold even
at a loss. Fortunes which had been quickly made
were lost even more rapidly and the prevalent shortage
of money enforced a general curtailment of all expendi-
ture upon luxuries. The sale of wines suffered in conse-
quence and, to make matters worse, the Chancellor
of the Exchequer doubled the Customs duty upon all
wines and added a penal tax of 33 i per cent ad valorem

WINE TRADE OF ENGLAND PAST AND PRESENT 43

upon all sparkling wines. 1 This severe taxation
imposed upon a falling market staggered the wine trade.
Wine continued to be imported, although upon a much
smaller scale, in fulfilment of past contracts, but little
wine was cleared from bond and less still was dispatched
from merchants' cellars to consumers' tables.

The vicissitudes of the English Wine Trade have
been many during the last nine centuries and the
present depression, serious as it is, is not the worst that
has ever been experienced.

Owing to the War, to short crops and the enormous
consumption of wine by troops and civilians on the
Continent, there is very little wine available which is
old enough for present consumption, and it may be
that the present acute depression will help shippers
abroad to build up once more their exhausted stocks
so that they will supply better value to the merchant
when, as it is permissible to hope, the swing of the
pendulum brings back better days.

1 Duties on wines (including Vermouth) previous to the
Finance Act, 1920.

Full Duty. Preferential
per Gall. Duty.

s. d.

Wines not exceeding 30 of Proof 60% of

Spirit .... 13 full rate.

Exceeding 30 but not exceeding 66 % of

42 of Proof Spirit . . .30 full rate.

For every degree or part of a degree
beyond the highest above charged
an additional duty ... 3

Additional

Still wines imported in bottles . 10 50% of

full rate.

Sparkling wines imported in bottles 26 70% of

full rate.

The Finance Act, 1921, abolished the ad valorem duty on
sparkling wines but raised the duty from 7s. 6d. to 15s. per
gallon.

CHAPTER IV
THE WORLD'S OUTPUT OF WINE

THE vine is not only one of the most ancient of the
plants we know, but it is also one of the most universal.
It holds a unique place in the marvellously ordained
economy of our wonderful world, being at the same
time the most fruitful of all plants or trees and the only
one which will grow which is meant by Nature to grow
in the most barren soils. This is so true that it may
be safely asserted that the poorer the soil the better
will be the wine. A poor, light, chalky soil, such as at
Cognac, Avize or Jerez ; sandy, stony gravel, as in
M6doc ; decomposed granite as at Hermitage ; soft or
hard slate as on the banks of the Moselle ; hard schist
or granite as in the valley of the Douro ; soils which
are not suitable for either corn, beet or even grass,
there will the vine grow and prosper.

On the other hand, and as a consequence of the poor
soil of most vineyards, it may be asserted that no other
culture requires so much individual intelligence and
incessant care as does viticulture. So that the vine
does not only hold a prominent position economically,
rendering valuable otherwise valueless lands, but also,
and chiefly socially, as a civilizing agent. The vine is
par excellence the plant of peaceful lands ; nomadic
Arabs and roaming [gipsies sow corn and root crops
but move on as soon as their harvest is gathered. Not
so the vine-grower, whose patient and arduous labours
can never be repaid until some years after he has planted
those vines which attach him to the soil, which he
learns to tend with that loving and intelligent care

THE WORLD'S OUTPUT OF WINE 45

the like of which is not to be found in any other branch
of agriculture.

In 1880, before the devastating career of the phylloxera
in Europe, the recorded area of the world's vineyards
was 23,749,000 acres, and Europe, thanks to its much
more highly civilized population, that is to say, people
with more refined taste and many more wants, people
of more stable habits and more intelligently industrious,
was responsible for nearly 96 per cent of the total.
The figures were then

22,769,000 acres of cultivated vineyards in Europe ;
980,000 acres of cultivated vineyards in the rest
of the world.

Since then, a very large proportion of the European
vineyards have been destroyed by the phylloxera and
only partly replanted, whilst new vineyards have been
planted in other parts of the world, chiefly .in South
America and Northern Africa. The present recorded
area of the world's vineyards shows a decrease of over
2,500,000 acres in Europe, and an increase of some
38,000 acres in other continents.

CONTINENTS. VINEYARDS.

Europe ... . 20,200,075 Acres

America
Africa
Australia
Asia

460,968
448,532
61,698
47,542

Total. . 21,218,815

EUROPE

In Europe, the chief wine-producing countries
have been greatly affected by the War, as is shown
by the official figures on the next page giving the
quantities of wine produced in 1919 compared to those
representing the pre-war average production.

WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

Pre-war
average
1,000 galls.

1919
1,000 galls.

1. France : ;.

1,333,728

1,215,463

2. Italy . .

1,078,362

770,000

3. Spain

378,935

438,900 '

4. Portugal

84,333

86,900

5. Germany

54,092

47,317

6. Hungary

77,183

44,000

7. Greece

45,650

28,600

8. Rumania

47,667

14,300

9. Switzerland

22,807

11,110

10. Austria ,

136,731

4,400

11. Luxembourg

2,449

1,716

12. Russia

57,200

nil

13. Bulgaria

45,467

nil

14. Turkey in Europ

35,200

nil

15. Servia . .

12,320

nil

France. Of all wine-producing countries France is
unequalled, not only for the quantity but also for the
quality and the great variety of wines she produces.

With the exception of the few Departements of the
northern and north-western seaboards, France produces
wine in all parts of her territory, but in greater quantities
in the Departements of the Mediterranean seaboard
and of greater excellence in the three Departements of
" Gironde," " Marne " and " Cote d'Or."

The vineyards of the " Gironde " yield Claret, those of
the " Marne " Champagne, and those of the " Cote d'Or "
the best Burgundy. The other vineyards of France
may be said to grace the valleys of all the great rivers
throughout the land, the Seine, the Yonne, the Loire,
the Saone, the Rhone, the Doubs, the Charente, the
Dordogne, the Garonne, the Lot, the Rhine and the
Moselle.

By far the greatest proportion of the wines of France
are consumed locally. There are about 1,500,000
vineyard owners in France, and nearly a third of that

THE WORLD'S OUTPUT OF WINE 47

number are small holders who grow vines and make
wine for their own consumption only. There are also
many wines made in France which are not suitable for
export, but there are a great many different kinds,
besides the wines of the Marne, Gironde and Cote d'Or,
which are both distinctive and excellent. Chief among
these are the famous white wines of Chablis, from the
Yonne Departement ; red and white Burgundy from the
Departement of Saone et Loire ; still and sparkling
white wines from Saumur, Touraine, Anjou and the
whole of the lower valley of the Loire ; Hermitage,
Chateauneuf du Pape and many other well knowrf
growths of the Rhone Valley, and last, but by no means
least, the dry white wines of the Alsace-Lorraine vine-
yards which produced, in 1919, over 16,000,000 galls,
of wine.

Italy. Italy is, after France, the largest wine-
producing country of the world, and it may be said to
be one large vineyard from Lombardy and Tuscany
in the north down to Sicily in the extreme south.

Some sparkling wines are made on the low hills of the
Asti and Montferrat region, whilst dry red wines are
made in very large quantities in Tuscany. These
are both pleasant and wholesome, although they are
exported to this country only in comparatively small
quantities. The most renowned white Italian wines
are those from the vineyards of Capri, whilst Marsala
produces a large quantity of luscious wines of great
excellence.

Spain. Spain possesses a temperate climate and a
generally arid calcareous soil highly congenial to the
culture of the vine. From north to south and from
east to west, sites, soils and aspects of the happiest
kind are to be met with in every part of the country,
and luxuriant vineyards are to be seen on the slopes of

48 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

almost every hill or mountain ; yet there is but a small
percentage of the vinous wealth of Spain ever sent
abroad.

The most famous of all Spanish wines is the wine of
Jerez, or Sherry, from the province of Western Andalucia,
in the extreme south-western corner of Spain.

The most prolific vineyards of Spain are those
of Catalonia which produced, in 1919, close upon
180,000,000 galls, of wine. The majority of the wines
of this province are stout and useful but not fine ; large
quantities are shipped to England under the name
Tarragona, one of the best wine-growing districts of
Catalonia.

Besides Sherry and Tarragona, Spain exports wines
from Valencia, Alicante and Malaga, and she produces
very large quantities of other wines which are never, or
hardly ever, sent abroad.

Portugal. Portugal, as well from its geographical
position, benignant climate and geological conformation,
as from other propitious circumstances, is admirably
adapted to viticulture. Vines are grown and wines are
made in many parts of Portugal, but the only wines
which will bear exporting are those grown in the
immediate vicinity of Lisbon and in the valley. of the
Douro. Some 200 years ago the wines of Lisbon were
more prized in London than those of Oporto, whilst
we received up to the middle of the last century a fairly
large quantity of white Lisbon wines, Collares, Bucellas
and Carcavellos from Portugal. The fame of all other
Portuguese wines, however, has been eclipsed by the
popularity of Port.

The quantity of wine produced in Portugal, in 1919,
was nearly 800,000 pipes, of which 147,153 pipes were
produced in the valley of the Douro; 51,258 pipes
were southern wines (Lisbons) of the " rich " type ;

THE WORLD'S OUTPUT OF WINE 49

562,538 pipes were ordinary beverage wines, and
37,738 pipes were only suitable for distillation.

Germany. Antiquarian finds of Roman wine cups
and wine-making implements in Germany, as well as the
writings of ancient Roman historians, leave no doubt
whatsoever as to the antiquity of viticulture in Germany.
It is not so generally known, however, that the trade
in Rhine and Moselle wines was flourishing in England
as far back as the reigns of Edgar, Ethelred II, and
Edward the Confessor.

Viticulture, in Germany, and the imports of German
wines into this country have never attained and never
can attain a very considerable development. Vines
will only grow within a comparatively small area in
Germany, but they still flourish where they have been
growing for many centuries past.

The average output of wine in Germany was
54,000,000 galls, before the war, where it included the
production of the extensive vineyards of the two French
provinces taken by the Germans in 1871. German
vineyards proper yield only 38,000,000 galls, on an
average, Bavaria being responsible for about 12,000,000
galls., Baden for 8,500,000 galls., Rhenish Prussia
9,000,000 galls., Wurtemberg and Hesse each about
5,000,000 galls.

Besides her own legitimate Hocks and Moselles, the
quantity of which is small and the cost of which is very
great at present, Germany has also still and sparkling
wines made either partly or even entirely of grapes,
"must," or wine purchased outside Germany, wines
which are " made " in Germany and shipped from
Germany, but are not truly German wines.

Hungary. Hungary produces a large variety of wines
but none comparable in excellence to the Tokay.

Greece. Greece has seen her territory considerably

50 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

enlarged during the series of wars which have devastated
many of her vineyards between the years 1912 and 1919,
and her output of wine is only about half what it was.

Switzerland. Switzerland produces on an average
nearly four times more wine than the whole of Australia,
but, in 1919, the vintage was a failure and the yield only
half that of an average year.

In Austria, the pre-war production of wine was
over 136,000,000 galls, per annum ; in Rumania the
average pre-war annual production was over 17,000,000
galls. ; in Bulgaria, it .was over 45,000,000 galls. ;
in what used to be known as " Turkey in Europe"
it was over 85,000,000 galls., including the wines of
the island of Cyprus ; in Servia it was over 12,000,000
galls., and in Southern Russia the production of wine
was over 57,000,000 galls, per annum, but there are no
figures available at present showing to what extent
the vineyards of those unhappy lands have suffered
during the last few years.

AFRICA

After Europe, Africa is the largest wine-producing
Continent, chiefly owing to the activities of the French
vineyard owners in Algeria.

Pre-war
average
1,000 galls.

1919
1,000 galls.

Algeria .....
Tunis
South Africa ....

180,647
6,233
4,228

171,234
9,020
2,660

Algeria. Forty years ago the total wine output of
Algeria was not equal to the needs of the local white
population, and large quantities of beverage wines
were imported from France. The position has long
since been entirely reversed.

THE WORLD S OUTPUT OF WINE

In 1864, Algeria produced 1,430,000 galls, of wine, and
imported 8,800,000 galls, from France.

In 1878, Algeria produced 22,000,000 galls, of wine,
and began to export wine to France.

In 1898 Algeria produced over 110,000,000 galls,
of wine, and exported 72,600,000 galls, to France.

The yield of the year 1914 was a record which has
never been broken, viz. 226,600,000 galls. The output
of the last five years shows a downgrade tendency,
but not an alarming one, the average remaining over
160,000,000 galls, per annum.

During the last two years the Algerian wine production
has been as follows

DISTRICTS.

1918
Galls.

1919

Galls.

Algiers . ... . . . '
Constantine . . . .
Oran . . . . .
Other parts . . . .

Total

59,387,174
16,572,710
63,502,604
85,734

74,120,904
13,780,514
83,220,852
111,804

139,548,222

171,234,074

South Africa. The fruitful vine is cultivated in many
parts of Cape Colony, and vineyards are also to be
found in the Transvaal, but the most important vine-
yards are all situated in the south-western districts of
the Cape ; in other districts, such as Graaf-Reinet,
and in the Eastern Province, grapes are chiefly grown
for raisins, or, if pressed, the wine they yield is usually
distilled. By far the most famous of the Cape wines
is that of Constantia, produced at a wine-farm of that
name, founded about 1690 by Simon van der Stell,
at no great distance from Cape Town, and practically
at the foot of Table Mountain. Next to Constantia in
point of quality, the best wines of South Africa are

5 (1461 F)

52 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

those of the Cape proper, Stellenbosch, Somerset West,
Caledon, Paarl, Wellington, and Malmesbury, all of
which are produced by the vineyards of what may be
called the coastal area. Farther inland, at Worcester,
Robertson, Montagu, Ladysmith, and Oudtshoorn,
the vines are cultivated on rich alluvial soil in sheltered
valleys, and produce a greater quantity of grapes than
it is possible to obtain anywhere else, yielding as much
as 1,600 galls, of wine per acre, which is more than
double the greatest yield obtainable in the coastal
districts. Quantity, however, is never obtained but
at the expense of quality, and the bulk of the wines
made inland is and never can be otherwise than in-
different in quality. The vines cultivated in South Africa
were originally the same Riesling as on the Rhine, the
same Pedro Ximenes as at Jerez, the same Shiraz as at
Hermitage, the same Cabernet Sauvignon, Malbec, or
Verdot as in the M&loc ; but these vines grow in much
richer soil than these species ever grew in Europe, and
their growth is assisted by mild winters, showery
springs, and fine, dry summers, the like of which has
never been seen in any other part of the world. As a
result, the same vines bear an enormously greater
proportion of grapes in South Africa than in either
France, Germany, Spain, or Portugal ; when these
grapes are pressed, their sweet juice is found to be
quite different from the juice of the same species of grapes
grown in European vineyards ; it contains a great
deal more sugar and water, but the other component
parts do not increase in nearly the same ratio, so
that the wine which is eventually made from South
African grapes may be more luscious and possess greater
alcoholic strength than the wine made from similar
grapes grown in E irope, but it is certainly totally
different.

THE WORLD'S OUTPUT OF WINE

Azores, Canaries, and Madeira. The vineyards of
these islands, off the coast of Africa, are responsible for
some 3,000,000 galls, of wine, on an average, every
year. The best wine of these islands is a rich, generous
type of wine, and it is not too much to say that there
is no finer dessert wine in the world than fine old
Madeira.

Egypt. There are vineyards in Egypt but very
little Egyptian wine is ever drunk. The best vineyards
yield grapes which are dried and sold as raisins or
" sultanas " ; the others yield grapes from which a
poor wine is made, which is used mostly for distillation.

AMERICA

The United States of America, having chosen to adopt
the tenets of the Koran, preferring to follow the law of
Mahommed rather than St. Paul's advice to Timothy,
the flourishing vineyards of California cannot be counted
any longer as part of the world's wine-producing areas.
A little wine is made in Canada, and a little in Mexico,
but there is really no large wine-producing district in
America, except in the South, where the cultivation of
the vine is growing rapidly in importance.

South America

Pre-war
average
1,000 galls.

1919
1,000 galls.

Argentine
Chili
Brazil
Uruguay
Peru
Bolivia

26,767
49,867
8,287
2,171
7,150
638

77,000
48,400
10,560
4,400
7,150
1,386

In the Argentine, the production of wine is kept
down on purpose to keep up prices, but even as it is,
it exceeds the needs of the population, and large

54 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

quantities of Argentine wine were exported to France
during the war for the needs of the armies in the field.
As regards quality, the wines of Chili are greatly
superior to those of the Argentine, where they find a
ready and profitable market, so much so that the
import of French still wines into the Argentine, which
amounted to close upon 9,000,000 galls, in 1914, are
now almost nil.

AUSTRALIA

The dearth and great cost of skilled labour in
Australia is a serious handicap to viticulture. On the
other hand, it has caused vine-growers to seek and
adopt some extremely ingenious mechanical labour-
saving devices in the manufacture of wine. Wine-
making in Australia is, accordingly, less of an art
but more of a scientifically conducted industry than in
Europe.

The average production of Australian wines is about
6,000,000 galls, and the imports of Australian wines
in England, during the last few years, have been as
follows

Imports.

Clearances
from bond.

1917
1918
1919
Average 1917/19

289,518
176,029
465,989
310.512

343,396
248,328
470,573
354,099

CHAPTER V

PORT

PORT is of all wines the most interesting for an English-
man. Quite apart from its own intrinsic merits,
Port is a wine which owes its existence chiefly to the
industry of Englishmen. Furthermore, it is a wine
which cannot be drunk to such perfection nor be so
thoroughly appreciated anywhere in the world as in
England.

Although authenticated shipments of wine from
Portugal to England may be traced to the fourteenth
century, it was only during the latter part of the sixteenth
century that the trade between England and Oporto
became regular and fairly important. At that time,
some adventurous West Country merchants, most
of them Devonshire men, went to Oporto and Lisbon
and settled there ; their principal business was to buy
locally and send to England the produce of the vast
Empire of Brazil, lately discovered by the Portuguese
and closed by them to the trade of all other nations.

During the seventeenth century, the English fleets
cruising in the Atlantic were repeatedly ordered to
repair either to Oporto or Lisbon, and there take on
board large quantities of wine for the use of the men.
Rum was not known then, and all men-of-war crews
had a daily allowance of wine. Such orders for the
fleet helped to induce the English merchants at Oporto
to devote their spare time to viticulture and to plant
more vineyards along the sun-baked hills of the Douro
valley.

The Portuguese -wine-growers were then, and for many
55

PORT 57

years afterwards, totally different from the intelligent
and hard-working growers of France. A most ignorant
class, they had neither the means nor the wish to find a
foreign market for their wines ; they were plagued with
the most corrupt and despicable officials, who were
altogether incapable of educating them, of improving
their condition, or of protecting their interests. Under
these circumstances, the first Englishmen who settled
at Oporto were able to obtain from the growers, at
ridiculously low prices, wines which they could sell
easily and profitably in England. This encouraged
them to stay and to devote much trouble, time and
money to the extension and proper care of vineyards.
Both Charles II and William of Orange prohibited the
import of French wines into England and greatly helped
thereby the rising trade in Portuguese wines. These
were further granted a most privileged position by the
Methuen Treaty in 1703, being admitted in this country
upon payment of 7 duty per tun, whilst the duty on
French wines was fixed at 55 per tun.

Thus encouraged by the legislature, the Port wine
trade grew with prodigious rapidity, and it is no less
remarkable that, in spite of the competition of Germans,
Dutchmen, and of the Portuguese themselves, the
lion's share of the Port trade has been kept to this
day in the hands of English firms and Englishmen, some
of whom trace back their pedigree to the original
seventeenth century settlers.

The industry of a few West Country merchants, the
protection of the home government, the comparatively
low price of the wine, all helped to establish the popu-
larity of Port in England. But the main cause of this
well-deserved popularity is to be sought in the wine
itself, and in the fact that it is most eminently suited
to the English climate and constitution.

58 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

Port is a fortified wine, which means that in the
making of Port the art of man intervenes to improve
upon Nature.

, When the grapes are ripe, they are picked and brought
to what is known as a lagar, i.e. a large, square stone
trough. This being filled, a number of bare-legged
men enter it and dance and jump about to the tune of
much music and song, until the whole lagar is a mass of
discoloured husks in a purple sea of "must" or grape- juice.
This is left alone in the lagars for three or four days
during which the microscopic agents known as Sac-
charomycetes or " ferments," which are to be found in
thousands on all grape-skins, begin their work. They
attack the natural sugar which the sunshine has stored
in the grapes, and which makes grape-juice so sweet,
and they transform this sugar into alcohol and carbonic
acid gas. The alcohol remains in what was grape-juice,
but is now becoming wine, whilst the carbonic acid gas
loses itself in the air. This is known as the process of
fermentation ; it goes on at a very rapid pace at first,
but it is checked by the alcohol present in the mass of
the liquid and accordingly becomes slower every day.

After a time, when fermentation has " eaten up "
or transformed a certain proportion of the grape-sugar
into alcohol, all further fermentation is definitely
checked by the addition of brandy, i.e. spirit distilled
from wine. This raises the alcoholic degree of the
mass so much that no further fermentation is possible,
and the unfermented portion of the original grape-sugar
remains in its natural state. The newly-made wines
are then carted down from the quintas, or farms on the
hillside, down to the river Douro, and sent by barges to
Oporto, there to be stored in vast warehouses or lodges.

Once that stage is reached, the Port wine shippers
have to decide whether the new wines shall be shipped

PORT 59

as vintage wines or not. In the first case, the wines
are sent over here, as a rule two years after the vintage,
and bottled soon after. Slowly does the wine thus
bottled go on improving, the added brandy gradually
losing some of its strength and " feeding " upon some
of the original grape-sugar left in the wine, to combine
with it and to form that captivating and generous
wine we all know as vintage Port.

On the other hand, if the wines made at the vintage
lack the bouquet, body, or " quality " indispensable
if they are to last on their own merits for years to come,
improving as time goes on, then they are kept at Oporto.
Stored in large casks and frequently refilled with better-
class wines kept in reserve for that purpose from good
years, these wines gradually improve in quality and,
after many years of intelligent care, the outcome will
be what we know as tawny Port a wine lighter in
colour and in body, owing to the fact that it has been
kept in casks to which the air has access, instead of in
bottles which are almost airtight.

It also happens sometimes that a vintage Port, that is,
a Port which is fit to be bottled early and to last on its
own merits, will be kept in wood for a more or less
extended number of years before it is bottled. The
result will be a wine with less colour and strength than
the early bottled vintage Port, but with more body
and colour than tawny Port. This wine is often
described as " Ruby "' Port.

There are in the Douro valley some 65,000 acres of
vines, and they yield an average of 100,000 pipes of wine
per annum of Douro wine, of course, but not all Port
wine.

Port is a name .with a twofold meaning : it is both
geographical and generic. It serves to designate a
certain type of wine made in a certain way, but only

60 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

when produced in a particular district and shipped
from a particular port.

Port stands for Oporto, the port at the mouth of the
river Douro, and it has been applied during the last
two and a half centuries to the wine shipped from
Oporto. But the mere fact of coming from Oporto was,
obviously, never meant to entitle any kind of wine to
the name of Port, a name to which no wine has any

PORT WINE LODGE

right which does not fulfil the three conditions laid
down by the Portuguese law of 1915, viz. : (1) a fortified
wine ; (2) produced in the Douro region, as demarcated
by law ; (3) exported through the Bar of Oporto.

The shipments of wine from Oporto rose very rapidly
during the second half of the last century : from 16,690
pipes in 1858, they reached 40,483 in 1866 ; 61,278 in
1877; 85,348 in 1888, and 116,583 in 1892. But all
these wines were not Port, although they all passed
through Oporto ; some were wines from the south
of Portugal, sent to Villa Nova de Gaia, blended there

PORT 61

and shipped later under the name of Port. This
practice was never legitimate, but it became practically
a necessity when the phylloxera had devastated the
vineyards of the Douro Valley and reduced the pro-
duction considerably. American plants were introduced
to replace the vines destroyed by the phylloxera ;
old vineyards were replanted, and many new vineyards
were planted by people who were tempted by the high
prices paid for wine not only in Portugal, but also and
even chiefly in France, whither much Portuguese wine
was shipped at very profitable prices.

The new American plants are more prolific than the
old vines,"so that, at the beginning of this century,
when the newly planted and the re-planted vineyards
began to be in full bearing, there was a glut of wine at
Oporto, due, on the one hand, to the largely increased
output in the valley of the Douro, and, on the other,
to the fact that French vineyards were once more
yielding crops which rendered unnecessary purchases
of Portuguese beverage wines.

In 1906, the total shipments of wine were 5,280,000
galls., or 20 per cent less than in 1899, whilst the
shipments of wine " other than Port " were 11,440,000
galls,, or only about 1 per cent below those of 1898..

The farmers of the Douro, greatly and justly alarmed
by this state of affairs, made strong representations
to the Lisbon Government, and demanded to be
protected by national laws and international treaties
from the unfair competition of Spanish and south
of Portugal wines, wrongly described and sold as
" Port."

They succeeded, after years of agitation, in securing
a greater measure of justice and protection than is
accorded to the wine-growers of any other part of the
world, whether British or not. The area outside

WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

which no wine can be made which is entitled to the
name of Port has been strictly delimited by law.

The same has been done at Cognac, in Champagne,
and elsewhere, but where the Douro growers have
won a truly invaluable victory is in having secured for
their wines the protection of British law, British customs
and police officials, a protection which the wines of
other lands are not yet privileged to receive.

The Anglo-Portuguese Treaty is quite as important
as the famous Methuen Treaty of 1703, as regards
the privileged position it accords to the wines of Portugal
and Madeira. The Methuen Treaty made it possible
to buy Portuguese wines in England much cheaper
than those of France ; the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty
of 1916 makes it possible to buy Port and Madeira in all
confidence, and, as we all know, confidence is the soul
of commerce, hence the unprecedented increase in
the sales of Portuguese wines.

During the four pre-war years and the four years
of the War, our imports of wines from Portugal have
been as follows

PRE-WAR YEARS.

YEARS OF THE

WAR.

1910
1911
1912
1913

Gallons.

3,795,229
3,201,592
3,306,582
3,623,061

Pipes
(approx.)
33,000
27,840
28,753
31,505

1915
1916
1917
1918

Gallons.

3,970,570
6,230,873
2,578,120
6,660,496

Pipes
(approx.)
34,527
54,181
22,418
57,917

In 1919, the imports of wine from Portugal into the
United Kingdom reached the unprecedented figure
of 13,462,253 galls, or 117,063 pipes.

How is it, one may ask, that it has been possible
to ship such enormously larger quantities of Port wine
after the Portuguese and British Governments had

PORT

restricted the use of the name " Port " to the wines
of the Douro ? The answer is that whilst wines from
Lisbon and other parts of Portugal can no longer be
shipped from Oporto under the name of " Port/' any
and every kind of beverage wine, or " consume " made

ENTRANCE TO QUINTA

in the valley of the Douro now, may be and has
been fortified and shipped from Oporto under the
name of " Port," to which such wine is now " legally "
entitled.

Before the War, the annual average production of
Port in the valley of the Douro was a little more than
30,000 pipes, or about half the total quantity of wine

64 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

produced in the district. If the production of Port was
not greater, it was because only about half the quantity
of wine produced in the valley of the Douro was suitable
for the making of Port, and neither Portuguese nor
English laws can improve the quality of the common
beverage, " consumo " wines of the Douro. But such
wines being cheap to buy and " Port " being easy to
sell, a number of enterprising individuals, mostly
Portuguese, saw their opportunity and blossomed
out into " Port Wine Shippers." These are the
people who are responsible for the large quantities
of most objectionable wines legally entitled to the name
of Port placed on the English market since the
Armistice.

The following is a representative list of some of the
Port Shippers who have shipped " Port " for many
years before the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1916

Butler Mackenzie

Cockburn Martinez

Croft Morgan

Delaforce Offley

Dixon Rebello Valente

Dow Sandeman

Ferreira Smith Woodhouse

Feuerheerd Stormonth Tait

Fonseca Taylor Fladgate

Gonzalez Tuke (Hunt)

Gould Campbell Van Zellers

Graham Warre

PORT " VINTAGES " SHIPPED BY ALL OR MOST SHIPPERS

1815 1868 1887

1820 1870 1890

1834 1873 1896

1847 1875 1900

1851 1878 1904

1858 1881 1908

1863 1884 1912

PORT 65

PORT " VINTAGES " SHIPPED BY FEW SHIPPERS.

(Vintages shipped by only one or two Shippers, names of Shippers

given.)

1853
1864 (Martinez)
1865
1866 (Martinez)
1867
1869 (Croft)
1871 (Feuerheerd)
1872
1874 (Martinez, Tuke)
1877 (Sandeman)
1880

1885
1886 (
1892
1894
1897
1899
1901
1906
1911 (
1917

Martinez)

Dow)
Graham)
Taylor)
Martinez, Sandeman)

CHAPTER VI

CHAMPAGNE

CHAMPAGNE is the name of an ancient French province,
where the Romans introduced viticulture and where
it has flourished ever since. It is also the name of a
sparkling white wine known by that name all the world
over ; but, although the old province of Champagne
was divided, in 1789, into four Departements, the
Ardennes, Aube, Marne, and Haute Marne, all of
which boast that they possess extensive vineyards
and produce good wine, the better class Champagne is
grown within a comparatively small area of the Marne
Departement only.

The grapes which produce the best Sparkling Cham-
pagne are grown on the calcareous slopes of two distinct
ranges of hills, with greatly varying aspects, north,
east and south, but all possessing one common and
important feature, namely, poor soil, practically all
chalk, and unsuitable for any other culture.

The Champagne vineyards are usually classed into
two main topographical divisions, those of the Marne
River and those of the Montagne de Reims. The
former are facing the River Marne and may be further
divided as follows : (1) The vineyards of the river
proper, facing south, from Cumieres to Avenay, and
including besides these, Hautvillers, Dizy, Mareuil-
sur-Ay, and Ay ; (2) The Epernay vineyards, which
also include the neighbouring growths of Pierry and
Chouilly ; (3) The Montagne d'Avize, a gentle range
of hills beginning with Grauves and Cuis in the west
and sloping towards the east as far as Vertus. From

CHAMPAGNE 67

Cuis to Vertus, the finest Champagne white-grape
vineyards are situated at Cramant, Avize, Le Mesnil
and Oger. Owing to their north-easterly aspect, most
of these vineyards are liable to be severely affected
by late spring frosts, which are responsible for the
smaller average yield per acre in that district than in any
of the others of the same region.

What is known as the Montagne de Reims is really
the other side of the range of hills facing the river
Marne and dividing Reims from Epernay. On the
Reims side, the slopes are not nearly so steep and they
permit of a far greater acreage of hillside vineyards,
beginning at Villedommange. To the east of this,
and practically facing north, are the famous vineyards
of Rilly-la-Montagne, Chigny, Ludes, Mailly, Verzenay
Sillery and Verzy. Soon after Verzy, the Montagne
comes to an end in the shape of an irregular horseshoe
or spur, and round the bend with a southern aspect are
the vineyards of Bouzy, Ambonnay and Trepail.

All the above are first growths and produce none but
the best Champagne. There are, of course, a great
many other less renowned vineyards within the Marne
Departement alone, and within the area officially
delimited by the French Government, outside which
no wine can be made which is entitled to be sold as
Champagne.

In almost every vine-growing country of Europe,
America and Australia, they make fairly cheap and
quite drinkable sparkling wines, which are supposed
to resemble Champagne, but there are a few people in
the world who can afford to have the best, and there
are a great many more who cannot afford it but who
will have it all the same, so that the demand for Cham-
pagne is equal to or greater than the supply, with
the result that the price of Champagne is high. The

6-r-(146lF)

68 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

wealth of the world has increased, and the love of good
things, ease, and comfort has increased still more,
but the supply of Champagne has not. The trouble
is that Champagne can only be made to perfection
from a certain species of grapes grown within a restricted
area upon a very peculiar calcareous soil, only to be
found in a certain part of the valley of the Marne.
The characteristics of the wine obtained from the
Champagne vineyards are due to the poor soil on which
suitable vines are grown, to the climatic conditions
obtaining in the district, and to the mode of cultivation
of the vineyards ; man as well as Nature striving to
produce quality at the expense of quantity.

The great majority of the grapes grown in the
Champagne district are black. When they have been
picked, they are put in the press and the mass of over
8,000 Ibs. of blue-black grapes, which go to make one
pressing, would certainly lead one to believe that red
wine was going to be made and not white. But when
the heavy oak lid of the press is slowly lowered and
crushes the grapes, the sweet juice which these yield
as they burst immediately runs down into a separate
vat placed for that purpose below the press, whilst the
skins, pips, and stalks are left high and dry. The juice
of the grapes, being of a greenish-white colour, would
only become red if left in contact with the skins, which
contain all the colouring matter ; so that it is possible to
cheat Nature and to make white wines out of black
grapes.

The juice of the grapes, or " must," contains
a great deal of sugar, which the natural process of
fermentation transforms into alcohol and carbonic
acid gas ; the alcohol stays in the wine, whilst the
carbonic acid gas loses itself in the air. To keep part
of this carbonic acid gas in the wine is the chief feature

CHAMPAGNE 69

of the art of making sparkling wine. In the spring
which follows the vintage, the newly-made wines are
bottled, tightly and securely corked, and laid to rest.
Bottled thus early, Champagne still contains a certain
proportion of its original grape-sugar, which will be
transformed in due course by fermentation into alcohol
and carbonic acid gas, and as the latter is no longer
free to escape, it remains in the wine, which it renders
sparkling. After it has been bottled a certain time,

TESTING NEW BOTTLES BOTTLING

the wine ceases to ferment ; it then contains its
maximum quantity of alcohol and the proportion of
carbonic acid gas corresponding to the amount of sugar
which was in it at the bottling time. Unfortunately,
it also contains a good deal of sediment as a result of
fermentation and of ageing. If it were not for this
sediment, the wine would be ready for consumption,
but it cannot be allowed to leave the cellar
until it is absolutely " star bright/' and this means
more work and no little ingenuity.

Each bottle is placed on specially made perforated
tables, neck downwards, and is shaken gently every

70 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

day for weeks in such a way that the sediment which
has been deposited on the glass in the bottle is gradually
made to fall upon the cork and to settle there. When
this has been achieved, the cork and all the sediment
which has been collected upon it are removed with as
little loss of wine as possible. Another cork is imme-
diately driven in to replace the first one, and the wine
is then ready for consumption, both sparkling and
bright a fully fermented exhilarating wine.

CORKING MACHINES

After the wine has been freed from the sediment it
contained, and before it is corked a second time, some
sweet syrup of sugar candy is sometimes added to
sweeten it, but this is only done to suit the taste of those
consumers who like a sweet wine ; it does not affect
in any way whatsoever the sparkling quality of
Champagne.

If one bears in mind the limits outside which no wine
may be made which is legally entitled to the name of
Champagne, and if one realizes that it takes a consider-
able time, untold care, many expert and skilled workmen
to transform crude grape- juice into a wine which

CHAMPAGNE 71

contains not a particle of sediment and neither a lack nor
an excess of carbonic acid gas, it becomes quite easy
to understand why Champagne has always been and
still is a most expensive wine. To ignore or to overlook
this truth is to court disaster ; the homely sardine
is infinitely preferable to stale caviare, and an
honest draught of bitter beer is greatly to be preferred
to bad Champagne. Champagne, like criticism, is
most wholesome when it is sound, but, also like

CORK CLIP FIRST CORK AFTER

BOTTLING

criticism, it is both despicable and dangerous when
bad.

There is but a limited output of grapes from the best
vineyards of Champagne ; there is but a limited number
of shippers who ship really high-class Champagne.
In the present state of the Champagne vineyards the
requirements of this limited number of shippers are far
in excess of the limited output of fine grapes, and of
fine wine, every drop of which is bought, and will
continue to be bought, every year, at the vintage time,

72 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

at very high prices by shippers who can get the best
prices for their Champagne. Hence high-class Cham-
pagne is bound to be and to remain dear. This is a fact
which is so plain that it leaves really no room for argu-
ment nor doubt. There is another fact which is less
obvious : it is that so long as the output of the best
Champagne grapes remains below the requirements
of the shippers of the best Champagne, the grapes
which have to be bought by shippers who cater for a
class of customers who cannot or will not pay " top "
prices, cannot be wholly nor even partly " of the
best."

The difference which existed between first-class and
second-class Champagne, before the war, when the
output of the best vineyards was, in good years, larger
than the demand, is now much greater and will remain
greater as long as present conditions remain what they
are.

Before the War, there was, on an average, much more
Champagne produced within the Champagne district
than was required or suitable for the sparkling Cham-
pagne trade, much of it being required and consumed
as ordinary beverage wine. There is every reason to
believe that the hard work which is being put into the
tremendous task of making good the havoc wrought
by the War will bring back the average output of wine
to the pre-war figure within ten or twelve years from
the cessation of hostilities.

Champagne is not shipped as the produce nor under
the name of any particular vineyard, like Claret or
Burgundy. To make sparkling Champagne, the wines
of different vineyards are blended together in order
to unite the particular characteristics of different
grapes from different parts of the Champagne district.
This blending takes place when the wines are still in

CHAMPAGNE 73

cask, that is to say, before the bottling time in the
spring which follows the vintage.

In the majority of cases, the blending of Champagne is
not confined to wines of different vineyards and of the
same vintage ; a more or less important proportion of
older wines, kept in casks for the purpose from year to
year, is added, before bottling, to improve the
" Cuvee."

In exceptionally fine years, the wines of the year
may be bottled after having been blended together,
but without older wines being blended with them.
Strictly speaking, no Champagne is entitled to be shipped
under a label giving the year of its vintage except
when no older wine has been blended with that of the
year on the label. It is permissible to infer that the
dating of vintage Champagne has ceased to be strictly
carried out, since exceptionally fine years have been
quite as exceptional during the present as during the
last century; whilst, on the other hand, so-called
" Vintage " Champagnes are much more numerous
and unlike each other now than they were wont to be.
As a matter of fact, there are but very few vintage
" Cuvees " on the market which are not blends,
blends not only of wines from different vineyards but
also of different years, and all experts are agreed
that such " Cuve"es " are all the better for being
blends.

The excellence of Champagne depends to a very
large extent upon the shipper's skill in blending and
upon the quality and variety of Champagne wines at
his command when he makes up his blends or
" Cuvees."

This is why Champagne is not known by the name of a
chateau, like the wine of Chateau Lafite, nor by the
name of a vineyard, like the wine of Chambertin, but

74 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

by the names of responsible shippers such as the
following

Ayala Krug

Binet Lanson

Bellinger Lemoine

Charles Heidsieck Moe't & Chandon

Clicquot-Ponsardin Montebello

Delbeck Perrier-Jouet

Deutz & Geldermann Piper-Heidsieck

Duminy Pol Roger

Goulet (George) Pommery & Greno

Heidsieck & Co. L. Roederer

(Dry Monopole) Ruinart pere & fils
Irroy

and many others.

CHAPTER VII

CLARET

Bordeaux. Ever since the fourth century, when
Ausonius, who was born at Bordeaux in A.D. 309, tells
us that they were in demand in Rome, the wines of
Bordeaux have been shipped to every part of the
civilized world and have enjoyed a more universal
and lasting reputation than any other wine. But not
all the wines which have for so many centuries passed
through Bordeaux on their way to distant and less-
favoured lands have been the produce of the Bordeaux
vineyards. What we call Claret in England, and what
the French call Vin de Bordeaux is, or should be, the
produce of the Departement of the Gironde, and of
no other.

The Departement of the Gironde is part of the old
Province of Guienne and produces a much greater
quantity of fine red and white wines than any other
Departement in France.

The vineyards of the Gironde may be divided into
six principal districts, namely : (1) Medoc ; (2) Graves ;
(3) Sauternes ; (4) Entre-deux-Mers ; (5) Cotes ; and
(6) Palus. All these districts are situated on the
Garonne, on the Dordogne, or on their confluent, the
Gironde ; they produce an average of 91,895,019 galls,
per annum.

1. The Medoc is a strip of low lying land along the
left bank of the River Gironde, some 6 miles wide and
about 50 miles long. The best vineyards are planted
on a series of gently swelling elevations of varying

CLARET 77

heights, which may be likened to some great downs,
the soil of which is chiefly composed of silicious gravel
and is sometimes of a calcareous nature.

The principal vineyards of the M6doc, as one leaves
Bordeaux and proceeds towards the sea, lie in the
districts of Ludon, Macau, and Labarde, and on to
Cantenac and Margaux, from the stony and gravelly
soil of which are produced some of the most delicate and
refined of all Clarets.

After passing through some few miles of flat country,
where richer alluvial soil is to be met and a somewhat
poorer quality of wine is made, one comes to the vine-
yards of St. Laurent, and the more famous district of
St. Julien, in which Leoville, Larose and many other
fine growths are situated. From there one passes into
the Pauillac district, where are to be found some of the
finest vineyards in all the Medoc. Here, near the old-
fashioned village of Pauillac, on the banks of the broad
river, are the celebrated Chateaux of Lafite and Latour,
Mouton, Pichon Longueville and Pontet Canet, and
more than a score of others, separated from each other
and from less famous vineyards merely by a road or
even a path.

After leaving Chateau Lafite, one enters the St.
Estephe district, where there are fewer chateaux, but
where some fine wine is also made. At St. Estephe
may be said to terminate the " Grands Crus du Medoc,"
although there is a large quantity of good wine made
in districts beyond.

The growths of the Medoc have been "classified"
a long time ago ; their classification has been altered
slightly from time to time, but not since 1855.
Although some few alterations might be made, the
classification of 1855 still holds good, as shown on
page 79.

CLARET

CHATEAU

(First Growths)

Lafite

Margaux

Latour

(Second Growths)
Mouton-Rothschild ,
Rauzan-Segla
Rauzan-Gassies
Leoville-Lascases
Leoville-Poyferre
Leoville-Barton
Durfort-Vivens .
Lascombes .
Gruaud-Larose-Sarget
Gruaud-Larose-Faure
Brane-Cantenac .
Pichon-Longueville
Pichon-Longueville-Lalande
Ducru-Beaucaillou
Cos-d'Estournel .
Montrose .

(Third Growths)

Kirwan

D'Issan

Lagrange

Langoa

Giscours

Cantenac Brown

Malescot-St.-Exupery

Palmer

La Lagune

Desmirail . . . .

Calon-Segur

Ferriere ....

Marquis-d'Alesme-Becker .

(Fourth Growths)

St. Pierre-Sevaistre

St. Pierre-Bontemps-Dubarry

Talbot-d'Aux

Branaire-Ducru .

Duhart-Milon

Poujet

COMMUNES.

Pauillac

Margaux

Pauillac

Pauillac
Margaux
Margaux
St. Julien
St. Julien
St. Julien
Margaux
Margaux
St. Julien
St. Julien
Cantenac
Pauillac
Pauillac
St. Julien
St. Estephe
St. Estephe

Cantenac

St. Julien

Labarde

Cantenac

Margaux

Ludon

Margaux

St. Estephe

Margaux

St. Julien

St. Julien
St. Julien
Pauillac
Cantenac

WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

CHATEAU. COMMUNES.

(Fourth Growths, cont.)

La Tour-Carnet .
Lafon-Rochet .'
Beychevelle . '
Le Prieure ; ;

Marquis-de-Terme

(Fifth Growths}
Pontet-Canet
Batailley . .
Grand-Puy-Lacoste
Grand-Puy-Ducasse .
Lynch-Bages
Lynch-Moussas .
Dauzac

Mouton-d'Armaillacq
Le Tertre .
Haut Bages
Pedesclaux
Belgrave .
Camensac
Cos I^abory
Clerc-Milon
Croizet-Bages
Cantemerle

St. Laurent
St. Estephe
St. Julien
Cantenac
Margaux

Pauillac

Labarde

Pauillac

Arsac

Pauillac

St. Laurent

St. Estephe

Pauillac

Macau

2. Graves. This district is smaller but more
picturesque than the Medoc, beginning just outside
Bordeaux and extending only 13 miles to the south,
and about 5J miles to the west of the city. The soil
is of a light sandy nature full of silicious stones of
different sizes and colour to a depth of from 2 to 10 feet.
The subsoil varies a good deal, and is either clay, chalk
or stone, or formed of a hard kind of very dark sand,
known as alios, which contains a ferruginous matter
called " arene." There, again, we have a soil absolutely
unfit for any other culture but that of the vine, which
grows there and produces a wine the flavour and sweet-
ness of which more than compensate for the usually
small quantity of the yield. The Graves district
produces red as well as white wines of very high
repute, but the brightest jewel in its vinous crown,

CLARET

and one of which it is justly proud, is the Chateau
Haut-Brion, which stands at the very gates of
Bordeaux.
The following are only a few of the Chateaux and

CHATEAU OLIVIER

estates of the Graves district which produce some of the
best red wines.

CHATEAUX. COMMUNES.
Haut-Brion, first growth, ranking
with the three first growths of

the Medoc .... Pessac

La Mission-Haut-Brion . . Pessac

Pape-Clement .... Pessac

Haut-Bailly .... Leognan

Larrivet-Haut-Brion . . . Leognan

Domaine de Chevalier . . Leognan

Smith-Haut-Lafite . . . Martillac

3. Sauternes. This is a comparatively small district,
comprising Sauternes, Bommes and Barsac, and

82 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

dedicated almost entirely to white wines. The soil
differs from that of the Graves district, which it adjoins ;
it is a mixture partly of clay and gravel and partly of
chalk and clay.

The sunny vineyards of the Sauternes district produce
a naturally sweet wine, of unsurpassed excellence, the
best and most widely known being that of Chateau
Yquem.

4. Entre-Deux-Mers. This district is situated between
the Garonne and the Dordogne, and produces a great
deal of sound and useful red and white wines.

5. Cotes. The Cotes wines are those from hillside
vineyards in different parts of the Gironde Departement ;
they vary greatly, therefore, in quantity and quality.
By far the finest Cotes wines are those of the St. Emilion
district on the right bank of the Dordogne. This is a
quite attractive district of the Gironde, as it is undulat-
ing and abounds in beautiful landscape, whilst the old
ruins of St. Emilion itself are of great beauty and
archaeological interest. Among the best wines of St.
Emilion and of the adjoining district of Pomerol are
the following

ST. EMILION, POMEROL.

Ausone La Conseillante

Cheval-Blanc L'Evangile

Clos Fourtet Petrus
Canon

6. Palus. The Palus wines are those obtained from
vineyards planted in rich alluvial soil, either close to
the banks of the Gironde, Garonne, or Dordogne, and
on islands in the Gironde, or in the plains. These vine-
yards give usually abundant crops, but the quality of
the wine made therefrom is distinctly inferior to the
produce of any of the other vineyards of the Gironde.

In the making of Claret, the art of man intervenes

7__(i46lF)

84 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

only to remove every possible cause of imperfection,
but not to assist nor to hamper Nature. In order to
obtain the best " must," all imperfect berries are
carefully removed when the grapes are picked, and
in order to avoid the wine acquiring from its lees too
pungent a taste, it is " racked " from time to time,
but nothing is added either to the " must " or the wine to
improve its colour, body, flavour, or alcoholic strength,
all of which are due to the species of grapes used in
making the wine, to the nature of the soil, the aspect
of the vineyards where such grapes were grown, and
the natural phenomenon of fermentation. Moreover,
there is in Claret a more perfect harmony between
its component parts than in any other wine. There is
neither a lack nor an excess of grape-sugar, acidity,
tannin, or alcohol, all of which so marvellously har-
monize that Claret charms without palling on the palate
and stimulates the brain without over-balancing it.

One of the great charms of Claret is that it adapts
itself to all tastes, constitutions and purses. The
varieties of Claret, the differences in excellence and in
price, in type and style, are much greater than is the
case with other wines.

Broadly speaking, Claret is the wine which is made
from vines grown in the Gironde Departement. This
Departement, however, produces much good wine,
but also some of indifferent quality.

A Claret which is offered for sale solely under the
name of either M6doc, Graves or St. Emilion is but the
nondescript product of large wine-growing districts
where good quality is the rule, but a rule which has
many exceptions. There are in the Me"doc, for instance,
many communes or administrative divisions, of which
the best known in England are those of Margaux,
St. Julien, and St. Estephe. A Claret sold under any

CLARET

such name is supposed to be a wine grown within the
commune the name of which it bears ; but, there again,
many and wide are the differences which exist between
the wines of the same commune, differences which are
chiefly due to the soil and aspect of each vineyard.
On the same hillock, for instance, a vineyard may be
planted facing north-west, on a slope at the foot of

CHATEAU PONTET-CANET

which runs the Gironde ; the rich alluvial soil, the
unfavourable aspect, and the immediate proximity
of the river all combining to make it impossible for such
a vineyard to produce really fine wine. Yet, at a very
short distance, at the top or on the opposite slope of
the same hillock, vines may be grown on eminently
suitable stony or gravelly soil, with a south-eastern
aspect, and produce the finest Claret it is possible to
taste. Much sound, wholesome and pleasant Claret
may be sold merely under the name of a commune,
such as St. Julien or Margaux ; but all Clarets which

86 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

have a claim to a more or less high degree of excellence
are too proud of their birthright not to go into the
world under their own name the name of the estate
or chateau whence they came. Thus, whilst the
names of M6doc and Margaux are no real guarantee
of fine quality, a bottle of Chateau Margaux means a
bottle of Claret from a particular estate which holds
the first place among all the vineyards of the Commune
of Margaux, in the district of the Medoc ; Chateau
Rauzan-Segla is the name of one of the second best ;
Chateau Desmirail denotes one of the third best ;
Chateau Marquis de Terme one of the fourth best wines
of the Medoc district, and all from the Commune of
Margaux. The same applies to all the vine-growing
communes of the Medoc, of the Graves, and of the St.
Emilion districts, so that its almost endless varieties
and many grades of excellence make Claret the most
interesting of all wines ; one always finds something
new to learn about Claret, and this is not one of the
least charms of this excellent wine.

The Gironde Departement also produces much white
wine of good quality. The best dry white wines of
Bordeaux come from the Graves district, whilst some
inimitable sweet white wines are produced in the
Saut ernes district, none being more justly celebrated
throughout the world than the magnificent, luscious
wines of Chateau Yquem.

CHAPTER VIII

BURGUNDY

DIJON, the ancient and proud capital of the Burgundian
dukes, used to be surrounded by some of the most
famous vineyards of the Cote d'Or. It is no longer
so, chiefly owing to these vineyards having been planted
with commoner species of vines, yielding a greater
quantity of grapes but of distinctly inferior quality.
The finest Burgundy vineyards may be said to extend
from Gevrey, some 5 miles south of Dijon, to Santenay,
close to the limits of the Departement de Saone et Loire.
Gevrey is an old-world village, the name of which has
faded before the fame of its most celebrated vineyard,
Chambertin. Chambertin is not on the maps of the
world, yet its name is known, and has been known for
centuries, in all parts of the world wherever there
have been men blest with an appreciative palate, and
with the means of obtaining the good things of this
world.

From Gevrey to Beaune runs one of those straight
and broad roads so dear to the heart of the motorist.
To the left of that Route Nationals vines grow and
prosper on the rich soil of the plain, but the wine they
yield is only fit for local consumption, whilst, on the
right of the same road, the most celebrated growths
of Burgundy are situated.

Foremost among these are the Clos de Beze, within
the Commune of Gevrey, like Chambertin ; then, in
the neighbouring Commune of Morey, the Clos de Tart.
The Clos de Tart is not only one of the finest but also
one of the most ancient vineyards of Burgundy. It

88 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

was purchased in 1141 by a religious order, and Pope
Lucius III confirmed them in the possession thereof
in 1184 ; ever since, vines have been cultivated and
excellent wine has been made there.

Next to the Commune of Morey is that of Chambolle ;
like that of Gevrey, its name has little significance
abroad, but the name of Chambolle's most famous
vineyards, Musigny, is ever on the lips and in the heart
of all who value fine wine. After Chambolle, we come
to the Commune of Vougeot, where is situated the
Clos de Vougeot, a growth which enjoys a more ancient
and world-wide popularity than any other vineyard
in the whole of Burgundy.

The famous Abbey of Citeaux was given some vine-
land at Vougeot in 1110, and from that 'date until 1336,
the property of the monks was increased by purchases
or gifts in such a manner that they ended by possessing
one of the finest vineyards ever known, a square piece
of the best vine-growing land covering over 125 acres,
planted with the finest species of vines, the whole
surrounded by a high wall, which exists to this day.
Unfortunately, the monks are no longer there and their
vines have now passed into the hands of a relatively
large number of growers. All of them make excellent
wine from their little share of the Clos de Vougeot
vines, but, good as such wines are to-day, they cannot all
possess that same quality which was uniformly theirs
so long as the famous Clos remained entirely the
property of one owner.

Next to Vougeot is the Commune of Flagey, where
some very fine wines are made from the Grands-
Echezeaux vineyards, but these are hardly known in
England, where they are handicapped by their difficult
name. Still pursuing our way towards Beaune, we
now come to Vosnes.

BURGUNDY 89

Of all the communes of France the most modest is
assuredly that of Vosnes. Who knows it ? Quiet
and unobtrusive like the ballet-master whom nobody
thinks of nor inquires after, Vosnes glories in the fame of
her brilliant daughters whose names are famous all the
world over, as great favourites as the greatest dancers
of the day, but with the difference that, never growing
old, they deserve and receive the unstinted admiration
of generation after generation. Vosnes is unknown,
but the vineyards of Vosnes are Richebourg, Romance
Conti (the only vineyard which takes precedence of
the Clos de Vougeot), La Tache, Romance St. Vivant,
and many of more or lesser fame abroad but of equally
remarkable excellence.

After Vosnes, we come to the Commune of Nuits.
Nuits itself is more than a village, and the fine mansions
of its merchants give it quite the air of a town. More-
over, Nuits has not allowed the fame of even its most
celebrated vineyard, viz., St. Georges, to usurp its
place in the annals of the world. The wines of Nuits
include the produce of a great many vineyards in the
neighbourhood, some extremely fine, whilst others are of
more moderate quality. The same remark applies
to the wines made from the vineyards of the neighbour-
ing Commune of Premeaux, which are usually shipped
abroad under the better-known name of Nuits.

After Premeaux, there is a short gap in the hills of
the Cote d'Or, and we get no more good vineyards until
the Commune of Aloxe is entered ; it is there that the
famous Gorton vineyards are situated, and there also
that what is known as the Cote de Beaune begins.
A little to the west, there are the extensive vineyards
of Savigny, but if we keep to the Route Nationale,
which we have followed from Gevrey, we soon arrive
at the quaint little town of Beaune, where some fine

90 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

remains of the ancient fortifications are still to be seen,
and where the old Hospice, founded in the fifteenth
century, still carries on its work of mercy, exactly in
the same way as 500 years ago. The nuns wear the
same curious, high-shouldered garb ; the drugs are
still kept in now priceless mediaeval pottery ; and the
ivory white faces of the folks, lying in fifteenth century
four-posted beds, seem also to belong to days of long
ago.

Remarkable as the Hospice de Beaune assuredly is
in many respects, it is quite unique in the source of its
yearly income. The old Hospice is not dependent
upon State grants, municipal largesse, nor public
generosity ; its chief income is derived from the
vineyards which have been bequeathed to that
benevolent institution from time to time for centuries
past.

The vintages of Beaune have been famous in Great
Britain for a longer time than any other Burgundy
wines. In 1512, Louis XII of France sent a present of
thirty-six puncheons of " Vin de Beaune cleret " to
James IV of Scotland, and, in 1537, Lord Lisle imported
ten casks of Beaune wine, which were shipped to him
from Rouen to London.

Amongst the most celebrated growths of the " Cote
de Beaune " are those of Pommard and Volnay, the
wines of which justly enjoy a world- wide reputation.

Farther south, some very good white wine is made from
the vineyards of the Communes of Meursault, Puligny
and Chassagne, where are situated the famous Montrachet
vineyards, which produce a white wine equal, if not
superior, to the finest white wines of France. The
Commune of Santenay is the last within the Departe-
ment of Cote d'Or ; it adjoins the Saone et Loire,
where many fair vineyards are to be seen, and much

92 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

good wine is made, but none which can compare in
quality with the best growths of the Cote d'Or. The
best red wines of Saone et Loire are those of Macon
and the best white wines those of Pouilly. Further
south, in the Departement of Rhone, extensive vine-
yards are to be seen upon the hills of the Beaujolais,
and they produce a sound red wine much lighter, but
also much cheaper, than the Cote d'Or wines.

In quite another direction, to the north-west of
the Cote d'Or, the Departement of Yonne part of which
used to be within the limits of the old province of
Burgundy produces a large quantity of both red and
white wines. The first were formerly greatly appreciated
in England, where they were known as " Wines of
Auxerre." Thus Henry VIII had some Auxerre wine
sent to London, via Rouen, in 1536 and 1537. On
several occasions, in 1537, 1538, and 1540, .Lord Lisle
also imported some Auxerre wine, which was sent by
barge from Auxerre, on the river Yonne, to Montereau,
where the Yonne meets the Seine, and hence by the
Seine to Rouen. The red wines of the Yonne Departe-
ment have long ceased to be popular outside the district
where they are made, but the fame of the white wines
of Chablis is as great and as justly deserved as ever.

Burgundy is the most fragrant of all red wines ; all
the best growths have a distinctive and a striking
bouquet. Burgundy is equally pleasing to the eye as
to the olfactory sense ; it possesses a fine, clear, dark
red colour, which no mixture of grape-juice, spirit
and sugar can ever approach. Burgundy fulfils on
the palate the promises held out by its fine colour and
charming bouquet ; it possesses a certain softness,
warmth and delicacy harmoniously blended together
in a manner that the art of man never can hope to
imitate ; soft and vevelty, Burgundy never is " sugary ";

BURGUNDY 93

warm and generous, it never is " spirity " ; delicate, it
never is vapid. As the last sip is swallowed, Burgundy
leaves on the palate a most pleasing " farewell/' never
a watery nor fiery taste. The popular belief that
Burgundy is a heavy, inky wine is due, like many such
beliefs, not to facts but to fiction. The black vinous
brews sold under the name of " Burgundy " or the
appellation of " Burgundy-type," by retailers often
more ignorant than dishonest, are a gross libel upon the
highly bred, delicate and delicious wines of Burgundy.

CHAPTER IX

SHERRY

SHERRY is a wine which is essentially Spanish.
Imitations of Sherry are numerous, but they are all
unsatisfactory and many are objectionable. True
Sherry comes from the district of which Jerez is the
centre, a district which lies, roughly speaking, within
an imaginary line drawn from Port St. Mary to Rota,
San Lucar, Trebujena, Lebrija, Arcos, and back to Port
St. Mary.

Sherry is a wine which owes its chief merit, its dis-
tinctive and varied characteristics, in the first instance,
to the species of grapes and to the nature of the soil
of the Jerez vineyards, and, in the second place, to the
way fermentation of the wine is carried out.

The vineyards of Jerez are divided into three main
classes, according to the nature of the soil. The best
vineyards, those where the finest grapes are cultivated
and where the finest wines are made, have a calcareous
soil known as " Albariza." In other vineyards the soil
is mostly or entirely clay ; these are known as " Barros,"
and the grapes produced from such vineyards yield a
distinctly commoner type of wine. Lastly, there are
vineyards planted in sandy lands called " Arenas,"
and the large quantity of wine made therefrom is
inferior. Of course, these three different types of
soil are not divided from one another in the same
precise way as black squares from white squares upon
a chess-board. The soil of many vineyards is neither
wholly clay, nor wholly chalk, nor wholly sand, and
there are ever so many different shades of types and

SHERRY 95

styles of soil, grapes and wines in the Jerez district,
from the worst " Arenas " up to the finest " Albariza."

The vineyards are divided into a large number of
" Pagos," or estates ; many of these are owned and
worked by small farmers who are far from wealthy.
This explains why a number of vineyards destroyed
by the phylloxera have never been replanted ; their
owners, lacking the means necessary for planting new
vines and waiting several years before they could
become productive, sowed cereals instead and reaped
a more immediate profit.

The grapes are picked and crushed generally in
September, and they begin to ferment very soon after;
the pulp is then subjected to a harder and more
thorough pressing, and, at that stage, a handful or
two of " yeso " is sprinkled over the sticky mass in the
press. This " yeso " is a pure native earth burnt
to a dust. This earth is found in large quantities in
the neighbourhood of Jerez, and consists almost
entirely of sulphate of lime ; it is added in the pro-
portion of about 2 Ibs. to 1 ton of freshly crushed
grapes, which is the quantity usually' necessary to
obtain a butt of " must." This addition of sulphate of
lime is peculiar to Jerez, and it is a very ancient local
practice. When the grapes are picked and brought to
the press, the berries are usually covered with a white
" bloom/' consisting partly of living Saccharomycetes,
indispensable to the life process of fermentation, and
partly with a little fine dust from the soil of the vine-
yards. This fine dust is composed largely of calcium
carbonate, particularly so in " Albariza " vineyards,
and the handful of " yeso " added to the crushed
grapes in the press cannot be said to be the introduction
of an alien substance. Sulphate of lime is responsible
for certain chemical reactions, but it is in no way

96 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

injurious nor objectionable ; on the contrary, it has a very
marked and beneficial influence upon the fermentation
and quality of Sherry.

The fermentation of the newly pressed grapes goes
on boisterously during about three weeks, and proceeds
at a slower pace during the ensuing eight weeks or so.
The wine is then racked into fresh casks, and although
it is still called " mosto," it is no longer " must " ; it
is young wine, but not yet Sherry. There is only one
way to make Sherry, and this is to leave the " mosto "
alone and watch what time will do to it. Nobody
can guess how the new wine inside the cask is going to
turn out ; it may become sour or vapid ; it may develop
into a delicate " fino " or a generous " oloroso." Time
alone will tell.

Three or four months after the vintage, the " mosto "
or new wine will fall bright, and it will be possible
to decide which is fit only for distillation, or, on the
contrary, which is good enough to keep with every
prospect of its becoming Sherry. The latter is then
racked, a little brandy is added to it, and it is left to
ferment, undisturbed, in the bodegas.

This second or "slow" fermentation of the Jerez
wines is very peculiar ; it is all important, and yet it is
but very imperfectly understood. To all appearances
there is no carbonic acid gas generated, but a " flor "
or fine scum gradually spreads over the wine and covers
it completely. The " flowering " of the wine plays a
very important part in the making of Sherry ; it is to a
large extent responsible for the character which the wine
will assume eventually.

The wine is encouraged to flower by every means
known to the " almacenista " whose property the wine is.
One of the chief means is to leave the casks on ullage
with the bungs either removed or very loose, so that

SHERRY

the wine comes in contact with the oxygen of the air.
For this reason bodegas are never below ground, and
care is taken that no refuse or decadent matter is
allowed in the bodega. The " almacenista " watches
carefully the progress of each butt, and when the
" flor " has done its work, it precipitates as a sediment
and the wine is then racked.

BODEGA

It is upon the "flowering" fermentation of the wine
that the style, but not the quality, of Sherry depends.

Three or four months after the vintage, the young
wines are only " mosto " ; some eighteen months
later they have become " vinos de anada," or " natural
wines," and these are classified not as regards " quality "
for it is only with time that they will acquire or fail
to acquire quality but as regards " type."

The wines which the shipper has before him at that
stage may be from the same vineyard, made in the
same way and at the same time ; yet there will be, after

98 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

the "flowering," very marked differences between the
contents of each cask.

In some casks the wine will be intensely clean, dry
and most delicate ; such a wine is called " Fino " ; it
is usually marked with a chalk sign known as " Palma."
Other casks, on the contrary, will contain a bigger and
rich wine ; such casks will be marked with a chalk
dash, or " Raya," which is the name by which they
will then be known.

Yet the shipper cannot divide all his wines as coarse
and delicate ; some of his casks will be found to contain
a wine very nearly as " clean " as the " Fino " and yet
almost as full-bodied as the " Raya." In this case the
shipper will mark the cask with a chalk dash crossed
by another dash at the top, and the wine in the casks
marked thus will henceforth be known as " Palo
Cortado." Besides these, there are a number of other
varieties and distinctive marks.

Sherry is not shipped under such names as " Raya "
or " Cortado " but under the names " Amontillado "
and " Vino de Pasto," " Oloroso " and " Amoroso,"
or " Golden Sherry." The first two are blends mostly
of " Fino " wines, the next two are blends chiefly of
" Cortado " wines, and the last a blend of " Raya "
wines, but in each case the blending of different wines
and of wines of different years will have to be carried
on slowly and judiciously, year by year, according to the
different characteristics which each wine will acquire
or fail to acquire with age.

This scientific blending process is responsible for the
" solera " wines, or wines of different types selected
by the shipper to form as perfectly sound a founda-
tion as possible, and also as regular a " quality " of
wine as possible. The great art of the shipper is to
maintain the original quality of his " solera " wines

SHERRY 99

from year to year, drawing upon them for his shipping
" marks " and replacing the quantities of wine he draws
by "Vinos de Anada," or natural wines of suitable
style and in suitable quantity for the newcomers to
acquire the quality of the rest of the " solera " wine
to which they are admitted.

It is this " solera " system which makes it possible
for the shipper to maintain the continuity of style and
the level of quality of the wines which he will sell to the
merchants.

Sherry shippers could not ship " mosto " ; they
never ship "Vinos de Anada"; they rarely ship
" solera " wines. What they ship is " Sherry," Sherry
of different styles and quality made up at the time of
shipment with so many " arrobas " (a measure equi-
valent to about 2 1 galls.) from one " solera " and so many
more " arrobas" from other " soleras," or of " Vinos de
Anada," according to the taste or requirements of the
customer who has ordered the wine.

In the great majority of cases, Sherry, before it is
shipped, is blended still further with a proportion of a
sweet wine of the Jerez district known by the name of
the grape from which it is obtained, i.e. " Pedro
Ximenez," a very sweet grape, the juice of which is
prevented from fermenting by the addition of grape-
spirit soon after the vintage. Lastly, some dark-brown
wine may also be added in order to " colour " Sherry
before it is shipped. On the whole, it is not too much
to say that Sherry is the triumph of the blender's art,
but one must bear in mind that the blender's art stands
or falls by the help of the greatest artist of all, viz.,
Time.

Of all wines, Sherry is practically the only one which
bears being left open without deteriorating. Port,
Claret, far worse, Champagne taste flat, and lose much

8 (1461F) 12 pp.

100 WINE AND THE WINE TRADE

of their charm if they are kept overnight once the cork
has been drawn ; not so Sherry, which will retain its
full fragrance and unimpaired excellence for some time
after it has been opened.

This fact, which has long been recognized by the
public, makes Sherry the ideal wine for temperate yet
hospitable people, and it gained for Sherry the place of
honour on every Englishman's sideboard during the
greater part of Queen Victoria's reign. Sherry suffered
more than any other wine from the Gladstonian
legislation of the early sixties and the introduction of
weak and " extraordinarily dry " Sherry retailed by
grocers and others at " bargain " prices. To ask for
" cheap " Sherry is to court disaster. Sherry is a wine
which requires so much time to make that its price can
never be really low.

CHAPTER X

HOCK AND MOSELLE

PRACTICALLY the whole of the German vineyards are
in southern and western provinces of the Reich, and
the German wines shipped to this country come chiefly
from three distinct districts, viz., (1) from the valleys
of the Moselle and its tributaries ; (2) from the valley
of the Rhine ; (3) from the Bavarian Palatinate.

Moselle. The valley of the Upper Moselle, before
the river reaches Treves, produces a large quantity of
wine, but none of superior quality, and none which can
compare with the wines of the Saar. This river runs
mostly in a north-westerly direction, and joins the
Moselle a few miles above Treves. The finest vineyards
of the Saar are on the right bank of the river, from
Geisberg in the south to Euchariusberg in the north.
Not far from Geisberg is Bockstein, and a little further on
the famous Scharzhofberg, the finest growths in the
Saar valley. Two other celebrated bergs are Scharz-
berg and Agritiusberg, . whilst excellent wines are also
made a little further north at Wiltingen and Oberemmel.

Below the ancient city of Treves, rich in Roman
remains of great beauty, the Moselle receives, on the
right, another small river, called the Ruwer. In the
valley of the Ruwer, some very delicate and fascinating
wines are also made, none better known nor more
excellent than those from the ancient ecclesiastical
vineyards at Grunehaus.

From there to Coblenz, on either bank of the Moselle,
are grown the finest wines of the Moselle proper. To
name but a few : there are Piesport and the range of

101

102 WINE ANT> THE WINE TRADE

the Brauneberg hills, on the left bank of the river ; a
little further down, and on the opposite bank, we come
to the celebrated vineyards of Berncastel, where the
vines grow on distinctly slaty soil.

From Berncastel northwards, the vineyards of
Graach, Josephshof, Wehlen, Zeltingen and Trarbach,
on the right, and those of Erden, Machern and Uerzig,
on the left, are among those which produce the most
delicate Moselle wines, light without being thin, and
possessing that very distinctive bouquet which is one
of their greatest charms. The peculiar aroma of the
Moselle wines is due to the silicious soil on which they are
grown, which often requires blasting before the vines
can be planted.

Rhinegau. The valley of the Rhine is not so
picturesque as that of the Moselle, but it has more
grandeur. From Bonn to Coblenz and from Coblenz
to Bingen many vineyards are to be seen on either side
of the river, and much wine is made therefrom, but the
most famous Rhine wines are those of a limited district
known as Rheingau and those of Rhenish Hessen.
The Rhinegau vineyards are on the right bank of the
Rhine and may be said to begin almost opposite Bingen
with the extensive vineyards of Rudesheim, and to
end with the hills of Rauenthal. It is within thai
comparatively small area that are to be found the most
celebrated Rhinegau vineyards, which yield wines
second to none in the world in point of excellence, and
which are eagerly bought at the vintage at prices far
higher than those given for new wines in any other
vine-growing country.

After leaving Rudesheim, one comes to Geisenheim,
Winkel, Mittelheim and Oestrich, near the Rhine,
whilst higher up the hills are the Castles of Johannisberg
and Volrads, surrounded by magnificent vineyards.

HOCK AND MOSELLE 103

A little further east are the no less celebrated hills of
Steinberg, whilst nearer the river are the famous
growths of Hattenheim, Marcobrunnen, Erbach and
Eltville.

On the opposite bank of the Rhine, in Hessen, there
are a far greater number of vineyards from Bingen
to Mayence and from Mayence to Worms than in the
Rhinegau, but there is only a comparatively small
percentage of the wines made in this province which
can claim to possess a very high degree of excellence.
Some vineyards in Hessen, however, produce very
fine wines, with good body and bouquet, which are
eminently suited for exportation. The best of these
are the wines of Nierstein and Oppenheim, some miles
south of Mayence, and those of Liebfraumilch, near
Worms, on the southern frontier of Hessen.

Palatinate. The Palatinate vineyards differ from all
others in Germany, being the only ones which are not
grown in sheltered valleys, on the lower slopes of the
hills which border the Rhine and its tributaries. They
are situated on a plateau, protected from strong winds
by a mountain range, and are planted in a soil chiefly
of alluvial origin, mostly with southern aspects. The
wines made in that district are very distinct from those
of the Rhinegau, being more luscious but not always
so lasting. The first growths of the Palatinate are
Deidesheim and Forst ; also Durkheim, Wachenheim,
and Ruppertsberg.

8A (1461 F)

WORKS DEALING WITH WINE
AND THE WINE TRADE

BY ANDRE L. SIMON

THE HISTORY OF THE CHAMPAGNE TRADE IN ENGLAND.

London, 1905. Wyman & Sons.
HISTORY OF THE WINE TRADE IN ENGLAND.

Vol. I. The rise and progress of the Wine Trade in England

from the earliest times until the close of the Fourteenth

Century. London, 1906. Wyman & Sons.

Vol. II. The progress of the Wine Trade in England during

the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. London, 1907.

Wyman & Sons. Illustrated.

Vol. III. The Wine Trade in England during the Seventeenth

Century. London, 1909. Wyman & Sons. Illustrated.
RICHARD AMES.

The Search after Claret. 1691. Facsimile reproduction of

three rare pamphlets with some introductory notes on Claret.

London, 1912. Palmer, Sutton & Co.
IN VINO VERITAS.

A Book about Wine. London, 1913. Grant Richards, Ltd.

BlBLIOTHECA VlNARIA.

A Bibliography of books and pamphlets dealing with viti-
culture, wine-making, distillation, the management, sale,
taxation, use and abuse of wines and spirits. London, 1913.
Grant Richards, Ltd.

WINE AND SPIRITS.

The Connoisseur's Text-book. London, 1919. Duckworth
& Co.

THE BLOOD OF THE GRAPE.

The Wine Trade Text-book. London, 1920. Duckworth & Co.

104

INDEX

AFRICA, vineyards of, 45, 50

Agritiusberg, 101

Albariza, 94

Algeria, 50, 51

Alicante, 48

Aloxe, 89

Alsace-Lorraine, 47

Altitude, 7

Ambonnay, 67

America, vineyards of, 45, 53

Amontillado, 98

Amoroso, 98

Angoumois, 34

Anjou, 28, 33, 47

Aramon, 6

Arenas, 94

Asia, vineyards of, 45

Aspect, 7

Asti, 47

Ausone, 82

Australia, vineyards of, 45, 54

Austria, 50

Auxerre, 28, 33

Avenay, 66

Avize, 44, 67

Ay, 66

Ayala, 74

Azores, 53

BALKANS, 2
Barros, 94
Barsac, 81
Bastard, 34
Batailley, 80
Beaujolais, 92
Beaune, 87, 90
Belgrave, 80
Berncastel, 102
Bex, 2

Beychevelle, 80
Binet, 74
Bingen, 102

Blending, 24, 25

Bockstein, 101

Bolivia, 53

Bellinger, 74

Bommes, 81

Bordeaux, 28, 29, 75

Bouzy, 67

Bovey-Tracey, 1

Branaire-Ducru, 79

Brane-Cantenac, 79

Brauneberg, 102

Brazil, 53

Bristol, 29

Britain, 2, 3, 27

Brjamslak, 1

Bucellas, 48

Bute, vineyards of Marqui:

of, 3
Butler, 64

Cabernet, 6, 52
Caledon vineyards (S.A.), 52
California, 53
Calon-Segur, 79
Camensac, 80
Canada, vineyards of, 53
Canaries, 53
Canon, 82
Cantemerle, 80
Cantenac, 77
Cantenac-Brown, 79
Cape wines, 51
Capri, 47
Carcavellos, 48
Castione, 2
Catalonia, 48
Catalysts, 23
Chablis, 47, 92
Chambertin, 87
Chambolle, 88
Champagne, 15, 66
shippers, 74

105

106

INDEX

Champagne vintages, 73
Charles Heidsieck, 74
Chateau-Neuf-du-Pape, 47
Chester, 29
Cheval-Blanc, 82
Chigny, 67
Chili, 53
China, 2
Chouilly, 66
Chassagne, 90
Claret, 34, 75
Clerc-Milon, 80
Clicquot-Ponsardin, 74
Climate, 7
Clos de Beze, 87

de Tart, 87

- Fourtet, 82

Vougeot, 88

Cockburn, 64

Cognac, vineyards of, 7, 44

Collares, 48

Constantia, 51

Corton, 89

Cos d'Estournel, 79

Labory, 80

Cote d'Or, 46
Cramant, 67
Crete, 33
Croft, 64
Croizet-Bages, 80
Cuis, 66

Culture of the vine, 10
Cumieres, 66
Cyprus, 50

DAUZAC, 80

Deidesheim, 103

Delaforce, 64

Delbeck, 74

Desmirail, 79

Deutz & Geldermann, 74

Dijon, 87

D'Issan, 79

Dixon, 64

Dizy, 66

Domaine de Chevalier, 81

Douro Valley, 7, 44, 48, 50

Dow, 64

Ducru-Beaucaillou, 79
Duhart-Milon, 79
Duminy, 74
Durfort-Vivens, 79
Durkheim, 103
Duties on wine, 38, 42, 43

EGYPT, 1, 2, 53

Eltville, 103

Entre-deux-Mers, 82

Enzymes, 21, 23

Epernay, 66
! Erbach, 103
' Erden, 102

Euchariusberg, 101

Europe, vineyards of, 45

FERMENTATION, 19

Ferreira, 64
j Ferriere, 79
! Feuerheerd, 64

Fimoy, 34

Fino, 96, 98

Flagey, 88

Flowering of wine, 96, 97

Folle Blanche, 6

Fonseca, 64

Forst, 103

GAMAY, 6

Gascon merchants, 28

Gauger, 34

Geisberg, 101

Geisenheim, 102

George Goulet, 74

Germany, wines of, 2, 28, 49

Gevrey, 87

Gironde, 46

Giscours, 79

Gladstone, 37, 38

Gonzalez, 64

Gould Campbell, 64

Graach, 102

Graaf-Reinet vineyards, 51

Graham, 64

Grand-Puy-Ducasse, 80

- Lacoste, 80
Grands Echezeaux, 88

INDEX

107

Grape- juice, 14, 24
Grauves, 66
Graves, 7, 80
Greece, 2
Gruaud-Larose-Faure, 79

- Sarget, 79
Grunehaus, 101

HATTENHEIM, 103
Haut-Bages, 80

Bailly, 81

Brion, 81

Hautvillers, 66
Heidsieck, Dry Monopole, 74
Hermitage, 44, 47
Hessen, 102, 103
Hippocras, 34

Hock, 49
Hoeing, 11
Hull, 29

IMPORTS, 35, 39, 41
India, 1
Ipswich, 29
Irroy, 74
Italy, 2, 47

JEREZ, 44, 48, 94
Johannisberg, 102
Josephshof, 102

KIRWAN, 79
Krug, 74

LABARDE, 77

La Conseillante, 82

Ladysmith vineyards, 52

Lafite, 77, 79

Lagrange, 79

La Lagune, 79

La Mission-Haut-Brion, 81

Langoa, 79

Lanson, 74

La Reole, wines of, 33

La Rochelle, wines of, 34

Larose, 17

Larrivet-Haut-Brion, 81

Lascombes, 79
La Tache Romance, 89
Latour, Chateau, 77, 79
Latour-Carnet, 80
L'Evangile, 82
Le Mesnil, 67
Lemoine, 74
Leognan, 81
Leoville-Barton, 79

Lascases, 79

Poyferre, 79

Le Prieure, 80

Le Tertre, 80
Liebfraumilch, 103
Lisbon, 48, 55
Ludes, 67
Ludon, 77
Lynch-Bages, 80
-Moussas, 80

Lynn, 29

MACHERN, 102

Macau, 77

Mackenzie, 64

Macon, 92

Madeira, 53

Mailly, 67

Malaga, 48

Malbec, 52

Malescot-St.-Exupery, 79

Malmesbury vineyards, 52

Malmsey, 34

Malvoisie, 33, 34

Marcobrunner, 103

Mareuil-sur-Ay, 66

Margaux, Chateau, 79

, commune of, 77

Marne, 46

Marsala, 47

Martillac, 81

Marquis-d'Alesme-Becker, 79

Marquis de Terme, 80

Martinez, 64

Mayence, 103

Medoc, 7, 15, 44

Methuen Treaty, 36, 55,;75

Meursault, 90

Mexico, 53

108

INDEX

Mittenheim, 102

Moet & Chandon, 74

Montagu, vineyards of, 52

Montebello, 74

Montferrat, 47

Montrachet, 90

Montrose, 79

Morey, 88

Morgan, 64

Moselle vineyards, 7, 101

wines, 33, 44, 49

Mosto, 96, 97

Mouton d'Armailhacq, 80

Mouton-Rothschild, 77

Muscadelle, 34

Muscadine, 34

Musigny, 88

"Must" or grape- juice, 14

NIERSTEIN, 103
Nuits St. Georges, 89

OBEREMMEL, 101
Oestrich, 102
Offley, 64
Oger, 67

Oleron, wines of, 33
Oloroso, 96, 98
Oporto, 55
Oppenheim, 103
Orleans, wines of, 28
Ossey, 33, 34
Oudtschoorn, 52

PAARL, 52
Palatinate, 103
Palma, 98

Palmer Margaux, 79
Palo Cortado, 98
Palomino, 6
Palus, 82
Pape-Clement, 81
Pasteur, 19
Pauillac, 77
Pedesclaux, 80
Pedro Ximenez, 52, 99
Perrier-Jouet, 74
Persia/ 2

Peru, 53

Pessac, 81

Petrus Pomerol, 82

Phylloxera, 45

Pichon-Lalande, 79
Longueville, 77, 79

Pierry, 66

Piesport, 101

Pinots, 5, 6

Piper-Heidsieck, 74

Planting, 10

Poitou, wines of, 34

Pol Roger, 74

Pommard, 90

Pommery & Greno, 74

Pontet-Canet, 77, 80

Port wine, 36, 58

shippers, 64

- vintages, 64, 65

Portsmouth, 29

Portugal, 2, 33, 55

Pouget, 79

Pouilly, 92

Preignac, 81

Premeaux, 89

Prisage or Prise, 30

Propagating, 10

Pruning, 1 1

Puligny, 90

RAUENTHAL, 102
Rausan-Gassies, 79
Rauzan-Segla, 79
Raya, 98

Rebello Valentc, 64
Rhenish wine, 34, 35
Rhinegau, 102
Rhine vineyards, 7
Richebourg, 89
Riesling, 6, 52
Rilly la Montagne, 67
Robertson vineyards, 52
Roederer, 74
Romance, la, 89
Romanee-Conti, 89
- La Tache, 89
St. Vivant, 89

Romeney, 34

INDEX

109

Rudesheim, 102
Ruinart, 74
Ruppertsberg, 103
Ruwer, 101
Rye, 29

SAAR, 101

Saccharomycetes, 19, 20, 21

Sack, 34

St. Emilion, 82

St. Estephe, 77

St. Georges (Nuits), 89

St. Julien, 77

St. Laurent, 77

St. Pierre Bontemps, 79

Sevaistre, 79

Sandeman, 64

Sandwich, 29

Santenay, 87

Saone et Loire, 47

Saumur, 47

Sauternes, 81, 82

Savigny, 89

Scharzberg, 101

Scharzhofberg, 101

Servia, 50

Sezanne, 1

Sherry, 48, 94

Shiraz, 52

Sillery, 67

Smith-Haut-Lafite, 81

Smith Woodhouse, 64

Soil of vineyards, 5

Solera, 98

Somerset West vineyards, 52

Southampton, 29

Spain, 2

Species of vines, 5

Staking, 11

Steinberg, 103

Stellenbosch vineyards, 52

Stormonth Tait, 64

Switzerland, 50

TALBOT-D'AUX, 79
Tarragona, 48
Taverners, 32
Taylor Fladgate, 67

Tokay, 49
Touraine, 47
Trarbach, 102
Trepail, 67
Tuke's Port, 64
Tunis, 50
Turkey, 46, 50
Tuscany, 47
Tyre, 34

UERZIG, 102
Uruguay, 53

VALENCIA, 48
Van Zellers, 64
Varese, 2
Verdot, 52
Vernage, 34
Vertus, 66
Verzenay, 67
Verzy, 67
Villedommange, 67
Vino de Pasto, 98
Vinos de Anada, 99
Vintaging, 11
Vintners, 32
Vintners' Company, 32
Vitis Vinifera, 5
Volnay, 90
Volrads, 102
Vosnes, 88, 89
Vougeot, 88

WACHENHEIM, 103
Wangen, 2
Warre, 64
Weather, 8
Wehlen, 102

Wellington vineyards, 52
Wiltingen, 101
Winchelsea, 29
Winkel, 102
Wine-drawers, 30
making, 15
Wines, fortified, 17
, natural, 16

, new and rack, 30

, sparkling, 17

110

INDEX

Wines, sweet, 17

Wine production of Africa, 50
- Algeria, 50, 51
Alsace-Lorraine, 47
Argentina, 53
Australia, 54
Austria, 46, 50
Azores, 53
Bolivia, 53
Brazil, 53
Bulgaria, 46, 50
Canaries, 53
Chili, 53
Cyprus, 50
Egypt, 53
France, 46
Germany, 46, 49
Greece, 46, 49
Hesse, 103
Hungary, 26, 49
Italy, 46
Luxembourg, 46
Peru, 53
Portugal, 46, 48,

59, 62

Rumania, 46, 50
Russia, 46, 50
S. Africa, 50, 51
S. America, 53
Servia, 46, 50
Spain, 46, 48
Switzerland, 46
Tunis, 50
Turkey, 64, 50

Wine production of Uruguay,

53
Wines of Angoumois, 34

Anjou, 28, 33

Auxerre, 28, 33

Bordeaux, 28

Champagne, 15

Crete, 33

France, 33, 35, 36, 39

- Gascony, 28, 33

Italy, 33

- Jerez, 48

- La Reole, 33

- La Rochelle, 34

- Malvoisie, 33

- Moselle, 33, 49

- Oleron, 33

- Ossey, 33, 34

Poitou, 33, 34

- Portugal, 33, 35, 36, 48,
57

- Rhine, 49, 102

- Rochelle, 33

- Spain, 33, 35, 39

- Switzerland, 50

- Vernage, 33, 34
Worcester vineyards, 52

YEAST, 19
Yeso, 95
Yquem, 86

ZELTINGEN, 102
Zymase, 24

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