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I\F 1761'^
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Oopr. Itfll. J. a W, Q). AMERICAN TREE LEAViCS, FLOWKKiJ AMD FRUITS
1 WTilteptn& £. Shellbart Ijlckory. S. Bed wjruce. 4, Inc«DM» DeO&r. S. Hemlfick, •- Blftck **lniit, 7.
Eedwood. a. Chdtnut. 9. Collonwvod, !«. Kiver blitlu
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COMPLETE AUTHORITATIVE PRACTICAL
WINSTON'S=
CUMULATIVE
Patents Nos. 910034, 9160^, 916036
ENCYCLOPEDIA
A COMPREHENSIVE
REFERENCE BOOK
Editor-in-Chief
CHARLES MORRIS
LiueraUuTy Historian and Encyclopedist
Author of "Civilisation, an Historical Review of Ita
Elements.'* "The Aryan Race." "Manual of Classical
Literature." "Man and His Ancestors," "Famous Men
and Great Events of the Nineteenth Century," and
numerous other works. Editor of "Twentieth Cen-
tury Encyclopedta." ' Biographical Dictionary."
"Famous Orators of the World." "Half Hours with
the Best American Authors," etc.. etc Member of
the "Academy of Natural Sictences of Philadelphia,**
••Gecwraphical Society of Philadelphia.** "Natural Hia-
tory Society," and "Sodety for Psychical Research.*!
Assisted by —
A CORPS OP CONTRIBUTORS
Authorities on Special SubjecU
In XCen IPolumcs
ILLUSTRATED WITH COLOREO PLATES
MAPS, PHOTOGRAPHS AND DRAWINGS
THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY
Philadelphia, Pa. Chicago, III.
wmmmm^mmmfim^mmm^mmmmmti^m^^
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Kf /7<^/"2
1 I
HARVARD
I UNIVERSHY
I LIBRARY
PATENTED
IMar LMtMi Pftteat Not. 010034. 010035. 010008
OOPTRIQHT 1018
Thb John C. Winston Co.
Copyright 1012, 1013. 1014. 1015. 1010, 1017
CAUTION
Tbe«ntin Contents and IUusti«tloiM In thia work
nra pcoiooted by oopyright, and the CumuUthro
Byatem is protected by patent lishts. AU persons
are warned not to use any portion ofthewoilKOO
sake UM ol the Oumulauve Bysteoi.
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KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
«
Three methods are used to indicate the pronunciation of the words
forming the headings of the separate articles:
(1) By dividing the word into syllablesi and indicating the syllaUe
or syllables to be accented. This method alone is followed where the
pronunciation is entirely obvious. Where accent marks are omitted, the
omission indicates that all syllables are given substantially the same value.
(2) Where the pronunciation differs from the spelling, the word is
re-spelled phonetically, in addition to the accentuation.
(3) Where the sound values of the vowels are not sufficiently indicated
merely by an attempt at phonetic spelling, the following system of diacritical
marks is additionally employed to approximate the proper sounds as
dosely as may be done:
I, at la tattt or in iMne.
I, as in elms, Fr. 4iiie» Ger. Balm=A
of Indian names.
Af the same sonnd short or medinm* as
in Fr. bal* Oer. Mann.
«f as in fat
i, as in folL
•» obscure, as in mrel, rimilar to n in
bst, 6 in h«r: common in Indian
f^ as in me=» in machtne.
e, as in met.
fy as in her.
I, as in pine, or as e< in Ger. Moin.
I, as in pin, also used for the short
souna correspondinf to S, at in
French and Italian words.
en, a lonf sound as in Fr. J«tee^=s
Ger. lonf d, as in 8^9ine, Gtftho
(Goethe). <
en, correspondins sound short or medi-
urn, as in Fr. pen = Ger. 9 short.
0, as in note, moon.
o,a8innot,fro8^ — that 1% short or medium.
0, as in moye, two.
11, as in t«be.
u, as in tifb : similar to 6 and also to sl
n, as in biilL
a, as in Sc ai>«fne=:Fr. 4 as in d^
Ger. # lonf as in grfin, Bfihne.
ft, the correspondinf short or medium
sound, as in Fr. Imt, Ger. MitUer.
oi, iM in oiL
ou, as in pound ; or as an in Ger. Hans.
The consonants, b, d, f, h, j, k, 1, m, n, ng, p, sh, t, v, and z, when
printed in Roman type, are always given their common English values in
the transliteration of foreign words. The letter o is indicated by 8 or k,
as the case may be. For the remaining consonant sounds the following
symbols are employed: .
di is always as in tiok.
4, nearly m» ih in ihiB^Bp. d in
Madrid, etc
I is always hard, as in ^a
represents the futtural in Scotdi
lock, Ger. nacik, also other similar
futturals.
^ Fr. nasal n as in bow.
t represents botii Bnflish r, and r in
fonofa words, in whidi it is fen-
erally much more strong trilled,
s, always as in to.
tti, as <J^ in thiiL
ih, as M in thU.
w always consonantal, as in «oe.
X = ks, which are used instead,
y always consonantal, as in yea (We^
Ugne would be re-written Itey).
ih, as t in pleasure = Fr. /.
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WINSTON'S CUMULATIVE ENCYCLOPEDIA
VOLUME X
W the twentieth letter in the English
9 alphabet, a sharp mute consonant,
representing the sound produced by a
quick and strong emission of the breath
after the end of the tongue has been
placed against the roof of the mouth
near the roots of the upper teeth. By
Grimm's Law t in English corresponds
to d in Latin. Greek and Sanskrit, and
to t« or 8 in German.
T&AfiiT10*A (td'sing-^), an island of
Ac»wM.A&5^ Denmark, south of Funen;
area, 29 square miles. Pop. 4035.
T&b&HllS (t<^h'a-nus). See Oad-fiy,
a sort of tunic of
ages, worn oyer
the armor, and generally embroidered
with the^ arms of the wearer, or if worn
Tabard ^^l^^'>
Tsbsrii, Sir John Cornwall, AmpthiU Oburch,
Beds.
by a herald, with those of his lord or
•oyereign. It still forms a part of the
oflBcial dress of heralds.
TabflAGO (tA-bftsIcO), a state of Mezi-
ACftMCMw ^^^ between Yucatan Penin-
sula and Vera Cruz; area, 10,072 square
miles. The surface consists almost en-
tirely of a great flat, sloping northwards
to the Gulf of Mexico. A Targe portion.
of the state is still covered with primeval
forests. The inhabitants are chiefly In-
dians. The capital is San-Juan-Bautista.
Pop. of the state, 159334^
TaVasheer. ^' Tabashib (Persian),
* ^ ' a siliceous concretion re-
sembling hydrophane, sometimes found
in the joints of bamboos and other large
frasses. It is highly valued in the East
ndies as a medicine, but its virtues are
merely imaginary.
Tabbv (^A^'^)> ^^ name given to
d.c»MMjr gtuffg watered or figured by
being passed through a calender, the
rollers of which, bearing unequally on
the stuff, render the surface unequal, so
as to reflect the rays of light differ-
ently, and produce the representation of
waves. Silks treated in this way are
called motr^.
Tabernacle i^\^S^^%\l^''^
sanctuary in which the sacred utensils
were kept during the wanderings of the
Israelites in the desert It was in the
shape of a parallelogram, 45 feet by 15,
and 15 feet in height, with its smaller
ends placed east and west, and having its
entrance in the east. Its framework con-
sisted of forty-eight gilded boards of shit-
tim-wood, bound together by golden rings
and set into silver sockets; and this
framework was covered with four car-
pets. The interior was divided by a cur-
tain into two compartments, the outer the
'sanctuary' proper, and the innermost
the holy of holies. In the sanctuary was
E laced on the north the table of show-
read, on the south the golden candle-
stick, and in the middle, near the inner
curtain, the altar of incense. In the
center of the holy of holies stood the ark
of the covenant The tabernacle was sit-
uated in a court 150 feet by 75, sur-
rounded by costly screens 7i feet hight.
and supported by pillars of brass 7i feet
apart, to which the curtains were at*
tached by hooks and flllets of silver. In
the outer or eastern half of the court
stood the altar of burnt-offering, and be-
tween it and the tabernacle itself the
laver, at which the priests washed their
hands and feet before entering the sane-
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Tabernacle
Taboi
tuaiy. It was superseded by the temple
at Jerusalem.
Tabernacle, ^ cccleslology, an oma-
Af»MVAu«»vAvy mented receptacle In
which the hoet is kept on the altar; also
a reliquaiy.
Tabernacles, SS^'SrS?' ^S.tX8.'
vals of the Jews which required the pres-
ence of all the males in Jerusalem. Its
object was to commemorate the dwellinf
of the Israelites in tents during their so-
journ in the wilderness, and it was also
a feast of thanksgiving for the harvest
and vintage. The time of the festival
fell in the autumn, when all the chief
fruits were gathered in. and hence it is
often called the feast of the ingathering.
Its duration was strictly only seven days,
but it was followed by a day of holy con-
vocation of peculiar solemnitv. During
the seven days the people lived in booths
erected in the courts of houses, on the
roofs, and in the court of the temple. It
was the most joyous festival of the year.
TabftS (till)te), a term formerly ap-
A»w« jjg^ j^ ^ disease characterised
by a gradually progressive emaciation of
the wnole body, accompanied with lan-
guor, depressed spirits, and, for the most
part, imperfect or obscure hectic fever,
without the real cause of the affection
being properly localised or defined.-^
ra6e0 mefeiilenoo. abdominal phthisis, or
consumption of the bowels, is a disease
of the bowels caused by the formation of
tubercles similar to those of the lungs in
ordinary consumption. It causes extreme
wasting, feebleness, and thinness of body,
and recovery is rare. — Tahet dorMi$ is
the same as locomotor ata^y (which see).
TfihiTi^t (tab'i-net), a rich fabric con-
J-aOineX slstlng of a warp of silk and
a weft of wool, employed for window
curtains and other furniture purposes.
Table ^®^^^^* ^^ Round Table,
Tableaux Vivants ^§^^T5R:
ing pictures*), representations of scenes
from history or fiction by means of per-
sons grouped In the proper manner,
placed in appropriate postures, and re-
maining silent
Table-land. otFllteav (pu-to;), a
A.AWAiT'MUAUi g^^ ^j. comparatively
level tract of land considerably elevated
above the general surface of a country.
Being in effect broad mountain masses,
many of these plateaus form the gather-
ing-grounds and sources of some of the
noblest rivers, while their elevation con-
fers on them a climate and a vegetable
and animal life distinct from that of the
surrounding lowlands. In Europe the
chief table-lands are that of Central
Spain, the less-defined upland in Switxer-
land, and the low plateaus of Bavaria
and Bohemia. In Asia is the most ex-
tensive table-land in the world, the sandy
rainless Desert of Gobi, nearly 400/000
square miles; also the loftiest inhabited
table-land in the world, that of Tioet,
with an elevation of from 11,000 to 15,-
000 feet In Africa are the platans of
Abyssinia, and the karoos or terrace
plains of South Africa. In America the
great table-lands are those of Mexico and
the Andes. The table-lands of the West-
ern United States are of large extent,
comprising much of the states of Colo-
rado, Utah, Oregon. Washington, and
Idaho, with considerable portions of other
states.
Table Mountain, g ™f ?°**?L« ^^
^%m*M*,^ .M»wiUAvcMU| South Africa,
south of Table Bay, its highest point be-
ing right over Cape Town. It is about
3600 feet high and level on the top. It
joins the Devil's Mount on the east, and
the Sugar Loaf or Lion's Head on the
west
Table-tnmin&r. ^°® ^' /**^,-tZ^f
AWMAv VMJ.UAU5I nomena of spiritual-
ism, in which a number of persons sit
around a table, with hands or fingers
touching it, the result in many cases be-
ing a tipping or other movements of the
table, questions asked being frequently
answered bv responsive tips indicating
*yes' or ^no.' The phenomenon has
been ascribed to involuntary muscular ac-
tion of the sitters, but in view of the
fact that the table is occasionally lifted
bodily from the floor, while touched only
on its surface, this explanation seems in-
sufllcient The a^ncy at work is claimed
to be that of spintual beings, but further
investigation is needed before any decision
in this problem can be reached.
Taboo ^' Tabu ( ta-b5' ), a peculiar
A»Mvv| ingtitation formerly prevalent
among the South Sea islanders, and used
in both a good and bad sense — as some-
thing sacred or consecrated, and as some-
thing accursed or unholy — both senses
forbidding the touching or use of the
thing taboo. The Idea of prohibition was
always prominent. The whole religious,
political, and social system of the prim-
itive Polynesians was enforced by the
taboo, the infringement of which in seri-
ous cases was death.
Tnlwir (tftni)ur), a small drum, beaten
**"* with a stick, and used as an
accompaniment to a pipe or fife.
Tolwtr (t&l>ur), a remarkable hill of
Atmur Northern Palestine, rising
abruptly in the shape of an almost per-
fect cone from the plain of EsdraUon to
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Tabor
Tacna
a beifbt of nearly 1000 feet It is
clothed with woods to the very summit,
where a view of immense extent is ob-
tained. Its isolation led the earlier ec-
clesiastics to make it the scene of the
transfiguration; but the historical data
which we possess show that its summit
was employed without intermission from
218 B.a till 70 a.d. as a stronghold.
Tftbor (t&'bor), a town of Bohemia,
•*■* ' on an eminence above the
Losebnits, 48 miles 8. 8. E. of Prague,
with old walls and towers. Its castle was
a stronghold of the sect of Hussites called
Taborites, and makes a conspicuous figure
in their history. Pop. 10.703.
TaboriteS. see Sussites.
TohrAA7 or Tabbiz (tk-hr^: the
xaurcez, ancient Tauris), a cltv of
Persia, capital of the province of Azer-
bijan, on the Aigi, 36 miles above its en-
trance into Lake tJrumia. It lies at the
inner extremity of an amphitheater,
about 4000 feet above sea-level, with hills
on three sides, and an extensive plain on
the fourth. It is surrounded with a wall
of sun-dried brick, with bastions, and en-
tered by seven or eight gates. There are
numerous mosques, bazaars, baths, and
caravanserais. The citadel, originally a
mosque, and 600 years old, was converted
by Abbas Mirza into an arsenal. The
blue mosque dates from the fifteenth cen-
tury. Tabreez has manufactures of silks,
cottons, carpets, leather and leather
goods, etc. It is the great emporium for
the trade of Persia on the west, and has
an extensive commerce. It has frequently
suffered from earthquakes. Pop. esti-
mated about 200,000.
Tabular-spar ^^^^'V^^.^j^^''. ^^^
AMMiucM a^a,M. gp^jj (called also Wol-
lc9tonite)f in mineralogy,^ a silicate of
lime, generally of a s[rayish-white color.
It occurs either massive or crystallized,
in rectangular four-sided tables, and us-
ually in granite or granular limestone,
occasionally in basalt or lava.
Tacabont (tak'a-hat), the small ^lOl
Aw^/«M*vM.v f^pnj^ QQ tjjg tamarisk-
tree (Tamariw indica). It is of great
value for the gallic acid obtained from it
which is used as a mordant in dyeing and
in tanning.
TaoamtdiaC (tak'a^ma-hak), the
A<»vTYiiinruMv ujinjg given to a bitter
balsamic resin, the produce of several
kinds of trees belonging to Mexico and
the West Indies, the East Indies, South
America, and North America. The bal-
sam-poplar or tacamahac is one of these.
See also CalophyUum.
Tacbygrapby <^^^'^-fi>- ^^
Tachypetes iJtwr^Jf"*^^- seeFHi^-
Tacitus (tas'i-tus), Caius Cobneli-
us, an eminent Roman his-
torian, bom probably about 54 a.d. Of
his education and early life we know lit-
tle. He seems to have been first ap-
pointed to public office in the reign of
Vespasian. Under Titus, by whom he
was treated with distinguished favor, he
became questor or eedile ; was pnetor un-
der Domitian (a.d. 88), and consul un-
der Nerva (a.d. 97). In 78 he married
the daughter of Cneius Julius Agricola,
the celebrated statesman and general,
whose life he afterwards wrote. He was
several years absent from Rome on
provincial business, and probably then
made the acquaintance of the German
peoples. After his return to Rome he
lived in the closest intimacy with the
younger Pliny, and had a very extensive
practice in the profession of law, acquir-
ing a high reputation as an orator. The
time of his death is uncertain; but it
grobably took place after a.d. 117. We
ave four historical works from his pen:
his AnnaUf in sixteen books (of which
books seventh to tenth inclusive are lost),
which contain an account of the principal
events in Roman history from the death
of Augustus (A.D. 14) to that of Nero
(AJ). 68} ; his History (of which only
four books and a part of the fifth are
extant), which begins with the year 69
A.D., when Galba wore the purple, and
ends with the accession of Vespasian
(70) ; his Oermany, an account of the
geography, manners, etc., of the country;
and his Life of Agricola. The works of
Tacitus have been pronounced, by the
unanimous voice of his contemporaries
and of posterity, to be masterpieces in
their way. His style is exceedingly con-
cise, so much so as to make it often
difficult to gather his full meaning with-
out great care. He had a wonderful in-
sight into character, and could paint it
with a master's hand. A high moral tone
pervades all his writings, though he gives
no clue to his religious belief.
Tack (^^^): ^° navigation, the course
* of a ship in regard to the position
o£ her sails and the angle at which the
wind strikes them. Tacking is an oper-
ation bpr which a ship is enabled to beat
up against a wind by a series of zigzags,
the sails being turned obliquely to the
wind first on one side and then on the
other.
Tackamahack. ®^ Tacamahac
TaCUa (tak'n&), a town of N. C^hile,
in a plain on a river of same
name, connected by rail with Arica. It
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Tacoma
Taglioni
is of some commercial importance. Pop.
24,160.
Tfi.r»Anifi. (tA-ko'mA), a city and port
xacoma ^^ Washington, on Com-
mencement Bay, Puget Sound, 80 miles
from the Pacific coast and 23 miles 8. by
w. of Seattle. Its situation is one of
great beauty, commanding a magnificent
yiew of Mount Rainier. It has an ex-
cellent harbor, with docks and wharves
several miles in length, and has a laige
ocean traffic; also extensive shipyards.
Lumber, shingles, and flour are very
largely manufactured and there are
many other industries. There are four
steamship lines to the Orient and others
to many iMirts of the world. Pop. 83,-
743.
Taconio Mountains i^fnVi^^^'r.'f
ran g e o i
mountains fn the United States, con-
necting the Green Mountains of Western
Massachusetts with the highlands of the
Hudson. The ' Taconic System,' in sfeol-
ogy, was named from the characteristic
strata of this range, a metamorphic rock,
believed to be older than the Silurian
system.
Tactics (tak'tiks), the branch of mili-
tary science which relates to
the conduct of troops in battle. Naval
tactics has the same significance in re-
lation to the handling of ships and
fleets. Strategy, on the other hand, re-
fers to the movements leading up to a
battle. See Battle.
Tacunga ^^^If^^^,^^,, »T t^l
province of Leon, at the foot of Goto-
paxi. Pop. 15,000.
Tadema. ®^ Alma-Tadema.
Tadmor. ^^ Palmyra.
Tadnole (^^'P^Of the name given to
" the larval or young state of
frogs and other amphibians.
TiiaI (t&l)* a money of account in
***^* China worth about $1.50, the
value of which varies considerably ac-
cording to locality and the rate of ex-
change. The tael is also a definite
weight, equal to 1.208 oz. troy.
TsBnia ®*® Tape-toorm,
Taepings. ^^ ^**'»*-
Taffeta (tafe-ta), or Taffety, was
^^^ originally the name applied to
all kinds of plain silks, but has now be-
come a kind of generic name for plain
silk, gros de Naples, gros des Indes, shot
silk, glac^i and others.
Taffrflil originally the upper flat
Acu&ACMA; part of a ship's stern, so
called because frequently ornamented
with carvings or pictures; now a trans-
verse rail which constitutes the upper-
most member of a ship's stem.
rpnff Alphonso, jurist, bom in Town-
^^*-h send, Vermont, in 1810; was
judge of the Cincinnati Superior Court,
1866-1872; appointed Secretary of War,
March 8, 1876; and made attorney-
general. May 22. He was United States
minister to Austna in 1882-1884, and
to Russia, in 1884-1885. He died May
21, 1891.
Toff LoBADO, American sculptor, bom
^^^h at Elmwood, IIL, in 1860. He
was for a number of years an instructor
in the Art Institute, Chicago. Amons
his works are The Solitude of the Soul,
The Blind, Fountain of the Oreat Lake:
He is the author of Htstory of American
Sculpture (1903).
Toff William Howabd, twenty-sev-
''^^'•h enth President of the United
States, was born at Cincinnati, Ohio,
September 15, 1857; son of Alphonso
Taft Admitted to the bar in 1860, he be-
came judge of the Superior Court of Ohio
in 1887; United States Solicitor-General
in 1890 ; and a judge of the United States
Circuit Court in 1892. He held this
position until 1900, being also dean and
professor in the law department of the
University of Cincinnati, 1896-1900. In
the latter year he was made chairman
of the Philippine Commission, and in
1901 civil governor of the Philippine Isl-
ands. In 1903 he was appointed Secre-
tary of War in President Roosevelt's
cabinet, in 1906 was seat to investigate
tile troubles in Cuba, of which he was
for a time provisional governor, and in
1907 and 1909 made tours of inspection
to Panama. He was elected president by
the Republican party in 1908. His ad-
ministration was distinguished by two
special sessions of Congress, the passage
of a new tariff bill, the prosecution of
several corporations and movements in
the line of conservation and reform. He
was renominated in 1912; but was de-
feated, partly owine to the split in the
Republican party, oee Progressive Party.
Ta^anrOfi* (tA-gAn-rok'), a seaport of
^^ o Russia, in the government
of Ekaterinoslav, on the low cape on the
northern shore of the Sea of Azof. It
is built chiefly of wood, but the im-
perial palace where Alexander I died in
1825. and the Greek monastery are
worthy of notice. Pop (1910) ^300.
Tiia»1iATii (t&l-yO'ng), Mabie, bom in
Xagliom jQQ^-^ was knowT through-
out Europe as the first ballet dancer of
her time. She retired from the stage in
1847 ; but supported herself in London as
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Tagore Talavera de la Beina
a teacW of deportment She died at for transmitting sounds to a distance
Marseilles in 1884. through the agency of light He took
TafiTOre Rabindbanath, a Hindu poet part in the 1874 expedition to the South
o ^ born in I860, known in the Pacific to observe the transit of Venus.
Occident chiefly through his own transla- Was decorated by the French Academy in
tions of his poems, though in India he 1809.
is widely honored as a teacher and man Tqitiitio* or Taspinq (tl-ping'). See
of affairs. Tagore's works best known in •■••"I'AU^, ^^,-^ *' "**
English are (Htaniali (devotional), The fftif (tftt), Abghibald Campbell,
Garden and The Crescent Moon, xcut archbishop of Canterbury, son of
Taenia (ta'gus: Spanish, Tajo; Portu- Crauford Tait writer to the signet, was
- « , guese, re;o). the largest nver bom at Edinburgh in 1811; died in
of Spain and Portugal, issues from the 1882. He was educated at Oxford, and
mountains of Albaracin, on the frontier there opposed the Tractarian principles,
of New Castile and Arason, flows north- He was appointed headmaster of Rugby
west and southwest and enters the At- on the death of Dr. Arnold in 1842; dean
lantic. It has a total length of 540 miles, of Carlisle in 1850; bishop of London in
and is navigable for 115 miles. 1856; and archbishop of Canterbury in
Tahiti tJ^'K^^V ,*K la^gjest of the 1868. His primacy was marked by the
"* Society Islands, consisting of disesUblishment of the Irish Church, and
two peninsulas, connected by an isthmus by the passing of the Public Worship
3 miles broad, and submerged at high- Regulation Act of 1874.
water; area- 412 square miles. It is m^jx Peteb Guthbie, physicist and
hUly, volamic, beautiful, and highly fer- A*"**) mathematician, born at Dal-
tile; and produces sugar, oocoant^ keith, Scotland, in 1831 ; was educated at
arrow-root, dye-woods, etc. Pop. 10,639. Edinburgh and Peterhouse, Cambridge.
See Society lalanda. In 1354 he was appointed professor of
Tailor-bird {OrthotHmus longiowh mathematics at Queen's College, Belfast,
ACUJ.VA wxxu. du9), a bird so named and in 1860 professor of natural philoso-
from its curious habits of weaving or phy at Edinourgb. He was the Joint-
sewing together leaves in order to form author, with Professor Sir William
a nest It belongs to the sub-family of Thomson, of a textbook on Natural
the Sylvinffi or true warblers, and in- Philoaophy, and with the late Professor
habits India and the Eastern Archipelago. Balfour Stewart of The Unseen Universe.
Tuinivr (tl'm^r), a peninsula of His Heat appeared in 1884, Light in 1884,
xaxiujri Northern Siberia, extending Properties of Matter in 1885, and Dy-
into the Arctic Ocean, between the mouth namics in 1895. For his various mathe-
of the Yenisei and Khatang Gulf, and matical and physical researches the Royal
containing Cape Chelyuskin, the most Society, London, awarded him a royal
northerly land in Asia. medal in 1886. He died July 4, 1901.
TfliTiA Ctftn ), HiPPOLTTB Adolphe, a Taiixmii (tl-wAn'), the capital of the
Xiuue Jip^nch writer, bom at Vou- ^^^^^"^ Chinese island Formosa, one
Eiers (Ardennes) in 1S2S, and educated of the treaty ports, with considerable
at the Collie Bourbon and the Ecole trade in sugar and opium. Pop., includ-
Normale. In 1854 his first iirork, an ing Takow, which almost forms one city
Essay on Livy, was crowned by the Acad- with it, 235,000. See Formosa,
emy; in 1864 he was appointed professor T^i-MoTiaI ( tAah-ma-hAl' ). See
in the School of Fine Arts in Paris; and ***J •™-»**«^ Xnra.
in 1878 he was elected to a seat in the Tainrah (t&-J5'r&), a seaport town
Academy. li\% History of English Liten^ *«*j*m.€»ix ^^^ ^^ie African coast of the
iure, one of the best and most philo- Gulf of Aden, on a bay of the same name,
sophical works on the subject, appeared in It is the outlet of trade from Shoa, and
1864 (four vols.) ; his PhUosophy of Art was ceded to France in 1887. Pop.
in 1865 ; his Ao<e« on England m 1872 ; about 2000.
and his Origin of Contemporary France TaVnixr See Taiwan.
in 1875-84, the last a work of great re- -^»^"w.
search and value, in two sections, the TalflfrAro iIa lo Paitio (t&-14-vfl'r4
first dealing with Uancien Regime, the •^*"»vcr» ac in, xirCiua ^^ ,^ ^^,^
second with the Revolution, He die^i ^^)jl ^ town of Spain, in the province
March 5, 1893. of Toledo, on the Tagus, 64 miles south-
Tainter (t&n'ter), Chables Sumneb, east of Madrid. It has a picturesque ap-
**^ inventor, bom at Watertown, pearance, and various interesting build-
Massachusetts, in 1854. He was the in- Ings. A great battle was fought here
▼entor of the grapbophone, and aided in July 27 and 28, 1809, between the French
Snyenting the radiophone, an instrument under Victor, Jourdan, and King Joseph,
Digitized by
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Talbot
Talisman
and the British under Wellington, in
which the former were defeated. Pop.
10,580.
Talbot (^ftl'b^t), a kind of hound for-
merly in vogue, pure white in
color, probably the original of the blood-
hound.
Talbotype. ^^ Photography.
Talo (^^^)> ^ magnesian mineral, con-
"* ** sitting of broad, flat, smooth
lamins or plates, unctuous to the touch,
of a shining luster, translucent, and often
transparent when in very thin plates.
There are three principal varieties of
talc, common, earthy, and indurated.
Talc is a silicate of magnesium, with
small quantities of potash, alumina, oxide
of iron, and water. It is used in many
?»arts of India and China as a substitute
or window-glass. A variety of talc
called French chalk (or steatite) is used
for tracing lines on wood, cloth, etc., in-
stead of chalk. See Potstone, Soapatone,
Steatite.
Talca (tal'kA), a town of Chile, capi-
tal of the province of Talca, on
the Claro, is connected by rail with Santi-
ago, and has manufactures of ponchos.
Pop. 42,766. The province has an area
of 3664 sq. miles, and pop. 146,685.
Talcahnana ^^l'}^;^f^^Sl' r.tJ^
port 01 Chile, province
Concepcion, with an arsenal, shipyards,
etc Pop. 13,499.
Talent (tal'ent), the name of a weight
and denomination of money
among the ancient Greeks, and also ap-
plied b^ Greek writers to various stand-
ard weights and denominations of money
of dififerent nations ; the weight and value
dififering in the various nations and at
various times. The Attic talent as a
weight contained 60 Attic minae or 6000
Attic drachmse, equal to 56 lbs. 11 oz.
troy weight As a denomination of silver
money it was equal to $1218.75. The
great talent of the Romans is computed
to be equal to $406.66 and the little talent
to $375. A Hebrew weight and denom-
ination of money, equivalent to 3000
shekels, also receives this name. As a
weight it was equal to about 93} lbs.
avoir. ; as a denomination of silver it has
been variously estimated at from $1700
to $1980.
Talfonrd i^»''^"''^^v, ^?\ thomas
^^^ Noon, an English dramatist
and poet, was bom in 1795, and was
brought up at Reading, where his father
was a brewer. He was called to the bar
in 1821, and in 1833 was made serjeant-
at-law. In 1835 he was returned to par-
liament for Reading, and in 1836 his
tragedy of Ion (published the previous
year) was produced at Covent Garden,
and achieved distinguished success. The
tragedies subsequently produced by him
were The Athenian Captive; Olencoe,or
the Fate of the Macdonalda; and The
CoitUian, an historical tragedy. Besides
his dramas he was the author of a Life
of Charles Lamb and of Vacation Ram*
hies. In 1849 he was raised to the bench
in the Court of Common Pleas, and re-
ceived at the same time the honor of
knighthood. He died suddenly in 1854 at
Stafford, while delivering his charge to
a grand-Jury.
Taliacotian Operation i^:^)l
See Rhinoplastic Operation,
TflliAaaiii (tari-sin), a Welsh bard
xuixcsaiu g^.^ ^^ ^^^^ flourished dur-
ing the twelfth or thirteenth century, and
styled Pen Beirdd, ' chief of the bards.'
TaUpot Palm iifM^^f.-^t^
great fan-palm, a native of Cevlon. The
cylindrical trunk reaches a height of 60
70, or 100 feet, and is covered with a tuft
of fan-like leaves, usuallv about 18 feet
in length and 14 hi breadth. The leaves
Talipot Palm {Cor^pha umbraculiffra).
are used for covering houses, for making
umbrellas and fans, and as a substitute
for paper. When the tree has attained
its full growth, the flower spike bursts
from its envelope or spathe with a loud
report The flower spike is then as white
as ivory, and occasionally 30 feet long.
When its fruit is matured, the tree gen-
erally dies.
Tflliamfl-n (tal'is-man), a figure cast
Digitized by
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Talitrus
Talleyrand-P^rigord
and made, with certain superstitious cere-
monies, at some particular moment of
time, as when a certain star is at its cul-
minatiniT point, or when certain planets
are in conjunction. The talisman thus
Srepared is supposed to exercise extraor-
inary influences over the bearer, partic-
ularly in averting; disease. In a more
extensive sense tne word is used, like
amulet, to denote any object of nature or
art, the presence of which checks the
power of spirits or demons, and defends
the wearer from their malice. Relics,
consecrated candles, rosaries, images of
saints, etc., were employed as talismans
in the middle ages: and at that time the
knowledge of the virtues of talismans and
amulets formed an important part of
medical science.
Talitrus (taJ'i-trus). see Sandhop-
Tallage (tal'ij), a sort of tax for-
Acuxorgc merly levied by the English
kings on towns and counties, as part
of the revenues of the crown, being origi-
nally exacted probabl:^ in lieu of military
service. It was abolished by statute of
1340.
TalialiaSSee (tal-A-has'se), a city,
***"********'^^ capital of the State of
Florida and of Leon Co., 165 miles w. of
Jacksonville, and 26 miles N. of the Gulf
of Mexico, being connected by rail with
the seaport of St. Marks. It has cot-
ton and cigar-making industries, and has
the Florida State College, the Florida
Normal and Industrial School (colored),
and several libraries. Pop. 5018.
Tallard (t&l-l^r), Camille de la
Aouaxu. g^xTME, DUC DE HOSTUN,
CoMTE DE, Marshal of France, descended
of an ancient family of Dauphlny, was
bom in 1652; died in 172a He entered
the army while young, and after serving
under the Great Cond^ in Holland, was
engaged under Turenne in Alsace in the
bnlliant campaigns of 1674 and 1675.
He distinguished himself subsequently on
various occasions, and in 1693 was made
lieutenant-general; marshal in 1703. In
1704 he was taken prisoner at the battle
of Blenheim, and was carried to England,
where he remained seven years.
Talladega i^'-yi^dei.%': SS:
bama, 100 miles N. v. E. of Selma. It
contains a State iiistitution for the deaf,
dumb and blind, and has large manufac-
tures of cotton, fertilizers, etc. Pop. 5854.
Tallecralla ital-e-gal'la), or Brush
»^^"^ Turkey, a remarkable
genus of rasorial birds, belonging to the
family of Megapodidae, or mound-birds.
(See Megapodtus.) The Tallegalla Lor
thdmi is the best-known species, and that
usually designated by the distinctive name
of * brush turke^.^ It inhabits Aus-
tralia, where it is also known by the
names 'wattled tallegalla' and 'New
Holland vulture ' — the latter name hav-
ing reference to the naked vulturine head
and neck. The male when full grown is
colored of a blackish-brown above and be-
low, with grayish tints on the back. The
head and neck are covered with very
small feathers of blackish hue, whilst a
large wattle, colored bright or orange yel-
low, depends from the front of the neck.
These birds are remarkable on account of
the huge, conical * egg-mound ' which they
form, several of them jointly, for the pur-
pose of therein depositing their eggs,
which are hatched by the heat of the de-
composing mass of vegetable matter piled
up. The eggs are greatly sought after
on account of their delicious flavor.
Talleyrand-P^rigord ^a^-^wrT.
Charles Maurice de. Prince of Bene-
vento, a famous French diplomatist, was
born at Paris in 1754 ; died there in 1838.
Though the eldest of three brothers he
was, in consequence of lameness caused
by an accident, deprived of his rights of
primogeniture, and devoted, against his
will, to the priesthood. His high birth
and great ability procured him rapid ad-
Talleyrand.
vancement, and in 1788 he was conse-
crated bishop of Autun. On the meeting
of the states-general he was elected dep-
uty for Autun. He sided with the popu-
lar leaders in the revolutionary move-
ments; and his advocacy of the abolition
of tithes and the transference of church
lands to the state gained him great popu-
larity. In 1790 he was elected president
Digitized by
Google
TaUien TaU^
of the national assembly. When the became one of the most popular men of
dyfl constitution of the clergy was adopted the revolutionary party, and took part in
be gave his adhesion to it, and ordained most of the sanguinary proceedings which
the first clergy on the new footing. For occurred during the ascendency of Bobes-
this he was excommunicated by a papal plerre. After the fall of Danton and
brief, and thereupon embraced the op- his party, he perceived that he should be-
portunity to renounce his episcopal func- come one of the next victims of Robes-
tions (1791). In 1792 he was sent to pierre if he did not strike the first blow,
London charged with diplomatic func- and it was mainlv bv his influence that
tions, and during his stay there was the latter with his friends was brought
proscribed for alleged royalist intrigues, to the gulUotine. He subsequently be-
Forced to leave England by the provis- came a member of the Council of Five
ions of the Alien Act, in 1794 he sailed Hundred, but his influence gradually de-
for the United States, but returned to dined. In after vears he was glad to ac-
France in 1796. The following year he cept the office of French consul at Ali-
was appointed minister of foreign affairs ; cante. He died at Paris, in poverty and
but being suspected of keeping up an un- obscurity, in 1820.
derstanding with the agents of Louis TflJlig (taris), Thohas, author of
XVIII, he was obliged to resign in July, ******* gome of the finest music in the
1799. He now devoted himself entirely cathedral service of the English Church,
to Bonaparte, whom he had early recog- was bom about 1515, and served in the
nised as the master spirit of the time, and chapel royal during the reigns of Henry
after Bonaparte's return from Egypt con- VIII, Edward VI, Mary, and Elizabeth,
tributed greatly to the events of the 18th He died in 1585, and was buried in the
Brumaire (November 10, 1799), when parish church at Greenwich,
the directory fell and the consulate began. TalloW (^^'^)* ^^^ harder and less
He was then reappointed minister of for- *****^ fusible fat of animals, espe-
eign affairs, and for the next few years cially cattle and sheep, melted and sep-
was the executant of all Bonaparte's dip- arated from the fibrous matter mixed
lomatic schemes. After the establish- with them. Tallow is firm, brittle, and
ment of the empire in 1804 he was has a peculiar heavy odor. When pure
appointed to the office of grand-chamber- it is white and nearly insipid; but the
Iain, and in 1806 was created Prince of tallow of commerce has usually a yellow-
Benevento. After the Peace of Tilsit in ish tinge, which may be removed by ex-
1807 a coolness took place between him posure to light and air. Tallow is manu*
and Napoleon, and became more and more factured into candles and soap, and is
marked. In 1808 he secretly joined a extensively used in the dressing of leather,
royalist committee. In 1814 be pro- and in various processes of the arts,
cured Napoleon's abdication, and after- Vegetable iaUoio is contained in the seeds
wards exerted himself very effectually in of various plants, one of the best known
reestablishing Louis XVIII on the throne of which is the candle-berry (which see),
of his ancestors. He took part ia the See also China Wax, and next article.
Congress of Vienna, and in 1815. when TalloW-tree {SttUingia iehifera), a
the allies again entered Paris, he became *«****' ^ vx^^ ^^^ ^^ ^1^^ ^^^ order
president of the council with the portfolio Euphorbiaceie, one of the largest, the
of foreign affairs; but as he objected to most beautiful, and the most widely
sign the second Peace of Paris he gave in diffused of the plants found in China,
bis resignaUon. After this he retired From a remote period it has fur-
into private life, in which he remained nished the Chinese with the material
for fifteen years. When the revolution out of which they make candles. The
of July, 1830, broke out. he advised Louis capsules and seeds are crushed together
Philippe to place himself at its head and and boiled; the fatty matter is skimmed
to accept the throne. Declining the of- as it rises, and condenses on cooling,
fice of minister of foreign asairs, he The tallow-tree has been introduced into
proceeded to London as ambassador, and the United States, and is almost natural-
crowned his career by the formation of ized in the maritime parts of Carolina,
the Quadruple Alliance. He resigned in It has also been acclimatized by the
November, 1834, and quitted public life French in Algeria. The tallow-tree of
forever. His Memoirs were published in Malabar is Vateria indica,
1891. Tallv (tal'i), a piece of wood on which
Tallinn it&l-i-ap), Jean Lambebt, a ***'"'J notches or scores are cut, as the
Acuxxv^u. ppench revolutionist, was born marks of number. In purchasing and
at Paris in 1769, and first made himself selling it was once customary for traders
known by publishing a revolutionary to have two sticks, or one stick cleft into
jounuil ouled Ami du Citoyen. Ho soon two parts, and to mark with scores oc
Digitized by
Google
Tally System
Talmud
notches on each the number or quantity
of goods delivered, or what was due be-
tween debtor and creditor, the seller or
creditor keeping one stick, and the pur-
chaser or debtor the other. Before the
use of writing, or before writing became
general, this or something like it was the
usual method of keeping accounts. In
the exchequer of England tallies were
used till late in the eighteenth century.
Ad exchequer tally was an account of a
sum of money lent to the government, or
of a sum for which the government would
be responsible. The tally itself con-
sisted of a squared rod of hazel or other
wood, having on one side notches, indicat-
ing the sum for which the tally was an
acknowledgment On two other sides
opposite to each other, the amount of the
sum, the name of the payer, and the
date of the transaction, were written by
an ofllcial called the writer of the tallies.
This being done the rod was then cleft
longitudinally in such a manner that
each piece rttained one of the written
sides, and one half of every notch cut in
the tally. One of these parts, the coun^
tertiock, was kept in the excheouer^and
the other, the 9tock, only issued. When
the part issued was returned to the
exchequer (usually in payment of taxes)
the two pax'ts were compared, as a check
against fraudulent imitation. This an-
cient system was abolished by 25 Geo. Ill
IxxxiL The size of the notches made on
the tallies varied with the amount The
notch for £100 was the breadth of a
thumb, for £1 the breadth of a barlev-
com. A penny was indicated by a slignt
slit
TaUy System, SpoS'^^.^m'!^'.!!?!
the purchaser agrees to pay for the pur-
chase by fixed installments at a certain
rate, and both seller and purchaser keep
books in which the circumstances of the
transaction and the payment of the sev-
eral installments are entered, and which
serve as a tally and counter-tally. This
mode of doing business has lately in-
creased enormously in all branches of
trade.
Tfllma (t&l-m4), FBANgois Joseph,
Acuiua ^ celebrated French tragedian,
was the son of a Parisian dentist, and
was bom at Paris in 1763. In 1787 he
made bis d^but at the Commie Francaise
in the character of 8iide in Voltaire's
Mohamet, His greatest successes were
achieved at the Thdfttre Francais (after-
wards Th6&tre de la Republique), which
he and others founded in 1791. He en-
joyed the intimacy of Napoleon, and was
the friend of Chtoier, Danton, Gamille
Desmoulins, aBd other revolutionists. Ha
died in 1826. Tahna was the greatest
modem tra^c actor of France, and one
of the earliest advocates of realism in
scenery and costume.
Talmafi'e Oarmaj), Thomas De
^^^ o WITT, clergyman, bom at
Boundbrook, New Jersey, in 1832.
After holding several Dutch Reformed
pastorates, he became pastor of the Cen-
tral Presbyterian Church in Brooklyn in
1869, and of the First Presbyterian
Church in Washington in 1896. He won
great popularity as a pulpit orator and
lecturer, and his sermons were printed
weekly for over thirty years in a large
number of newspapers. For years he
was editor of the Christian Herald, and
published a number of works on religious
subjects. He died April 12, 1902.
Tfl.lTnTii? (tal'mud), a Chaldaic word
J.aiiUUU gignifying 'doctrine,' and
sometimes used to designate the whole
teaching of the Jewish law, comprising
all the writings included in what we call
the Old Testament as well as the oral
law or Mishna, with its supplement or
commentary the Oemara, but more fre-
quently applied only to the Mishna and
Oemara, The main body of the Talmud
— in the second of these two senses —
consists of minute directions as to con-
duct. Its contents are hence very mis-
cellaneous, and they are as varied in
their character as in their subject Much
of it is taken up with regulations of the
most puerile nature, and not a little with
details only fitted to excite disgust In
other parts again there are passages con-
taining the loftiest expression of reli-
gious feeling, passages which are said to
be the source of almost all that is sub-
lime in the liturgy of the Church of
Rome, and those liturgies which have been
mainly derived from it Interspersed
throughout the whole are numerous tales
and fables, introduced for the sake of
illustration. The Jews are carefully in-
structed in it, and its very language is
sometimes quoted and acknowledged in
the New Testament The injunctions
referred to in the sermon on the mount
as having been 'said by them of old
time' (properly, the elders) are all
from the Mishna. The Gemara was origi-
nally an oral commentary of the Mishnd,
as the Mishna itself was originally an
oral commentary of the Mikra, or writ-
ten law. It consisted of the explanations
and illustrations which the teachers of
the Mishna were in the habit of giving
in the course of their lessons. These oral
comments were handed down from age
to a^e, differing of course in different lo-
calities, and gradually increasing in quan-
tity; and they were at last committed
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Talpa
Tambourine
only a few inches in length, presents a
wonderful resemblance to the lion.
Tamarind (tam'a-rind; Tamarindu8
^^^ tndtca), a large and beau-
tiful tree of the East and West Indies,
nat order Legumi-
noste. It is culti-
vate d .chiefly for
the sake of its pods
(tamarinds). The
West Indian tama-
rinds are put into
casks, with layers
of sugar between
them, or with boil-
ing syrup poured
over them, and are
called prepared
tamarinds. The
East Indian tama-
rinds, which are
most esteemed, are
preserved without
^¥^I\ V^^y *'® Tsmwrind (Tamartmrw
dried In the sun, or indiea).
artiflcially with
salt added.
Tamarisk (tam'a-risk), the common
^.waucMxoA. jjj^jjj^ ^^ shrubs of the
genus Tamarim, the type of the natural
order Tamaricaceee. T. aallica is very
abundant all rouifd the Mediterranean,
and is naturalized on some parts of the
south coast of England. It attains a
height of from 16 to 20 feet, has small
flowers of a bright rose color, and alto-
gether has a very attractive appearance,
which makes it very much sought after
as an ornament for shrubberies and parks.
TfLmniinfL (tA-ma'kwA), a town of Tfl.Tnfl.tfl.ve (tfim-A-tttv'), the chief
lamaqua ^chuyikiiLCo., Pennsyiva- Aamaiavc ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^j^^
of Madagascar. It was for a time capi-
tal of the island. Pop. about 6000.
to writing in two forms, the one called
the Jerusalem and the other the Baby-
lonian Gemara* or, with the addition of
the Misbna, which is common to both,
the Jerusalem and the Babylonian Tal-
mud. The Jerusalem Talmud is the
earlier and by much the smaller of the
two. The language of both the Gemaras
is a mixed Hebrew, but that of the Baby-
lonian Gemara is much less pure than
the other; in the narrative portions, de-
signed as i>opular illustrations of the
other parts, it comes near the Aramaic or
vernacular dialect of the Eastern Jews.
The style is in both cases extremely con-
densed and difficult. The Misbna, with
its corresponding Gemara, is divided into
six orders or principal divisions. The
subjects of these orders are agriculture,
festivals, women, damages, holy things,
and purifications. These orders are sub-
divided into sixty-three tracts, to which
the Babylonian Gemara adds five others,
thus containing sixty-eight tracts in all.
Other divisions of the Talmud are the
Halaka, the doctrinal and logical por-
tion; Hasada, the rhetorical or imagma-
tive portion; and Cabala, the mystical
gortion, including theosophy and magic,
[any translations of parts of the Talmud
have appeared.
Talpa (^^'P^^* ^^ ^^^'
Tfllns (ta'lus), in geology, a sloping
A.CU.UO jjpj^p ^£ broken rocks and stones
at the foot of any precipice, cliff, or rocky
declivity.
Tamandna (ta-man'da-a). a spe-
***"*********■* cies of ant-eater.
f%2^(?v
nia, 17 miles N. e. of Pottsville, and in
an extensive coal-mining district. There
are many collieries, iron foundries, and
machine shops, and manufactures of ex-
plosives and hosiery. Pop. 9462.
TamaricaceSB (tam-ar-l-ka'se^), a
A.c»ui.c»j.xva.vvcx^ small nat order of
polypetalous exogens. The species are
either shrubs or herbs, inhabiting chiefly
the basin of the Mediterranean. They
have minute alternate simple leaves and
usually small white or pink flowers in
terminal spikes. They are all more or
less astringent, and their ashes after
burning are remarkable for possessing a
large quantity of sulphate of soda. See
Tamart€k,
Tamarin (tamyrin), the name of
^^^ certain South American
monkeys. The tamarins are active, rest-
less, and irritable little creatures, two of
the smallest being the silkv tamarin (Mi-
daM roialia) and the little lion monkey
XAf* leonina)^ the latter of which, though
Tamanlipas (JArya-ji-isrp&s) astate
A«Kux»«AXAj^c»o ^j Mexico, on the Gulf
of Mexico, north of Vera Crux; area,
32,270 sauare miles. The coast is low,
but in the interior, towards the south,
the surface becomes finely diversified by
mountain, hill, and valley. The soil is
generally fertile. Cattle in vast numbers
are reared on the pastures. The foreign
trade is carried on chiefly at the ports of
Tampico and Matamoros. The capital is
Ciudad Victoria. Pop. 218,048.
Tambookieland. ^^ Ttmhuicnd.
Tambourine iTiMS'^t Vrhl"
drum species,
much used
among the
Spanish and
Italian peasants,
as well as else-
Tambouiiw.
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Tambour-work
Tana
where. It consists of a piece of parch-
ment stretched over the top of a broad
hoop, which is furnished with little bells.
It is sounded by sliding the fingers along
the parchment or by striking it with
the back of the hand or with the fist or
the elbow.
Tambonr-work /^^^Trf-a tel
a species of embroidery on muslin or
other thin material, worked on circular
frames which resemble drum-heads.
The practice of tambouring is rapidly
dying out, being replaced by pattern-
weaving, by which tambour-work can be
closely imitated.
TumliAir (t&m-bof'), a government of
XamDOY ^^1^ ^^^ •f Nijni-Nov-
gorod and Vladimir, between the basins
of the Oka and the Don ; area, 25,676 sq.
miles. It is one of the largest, most fer-
tile, and most densely peopled provinces
of Central Russia. More than two-
thirds of the surface is arable. The
principal crops are com and hemp. Vast
numbers of excellent horses, cattle, and
sheep are reared. The chief industrial
establishments are distilleries, tallow-
melting works, sugar works, and woolen
mills. Pop. 3i205;200.— Tambov, the
capital, 2^ miles southeast of Moscow,
is built mostly of wood. It has a great
trade in corn and cattle, and soap and
tallow are largely made. Pop. 60,729.
Tamerlane (tam-er-lan). See Ti-
TamiaS (^™'*'*^8)« See SqutrreU
Tamil (^aQ^'^D* the name of a race
AcuuxA ^iii^jh Inhabits South India and
Ceylon. The Tamils belong to the Dravid-
ian stock of the inhabitants of India,
and are therefore to be regarded as among
the original inhabitants who occupied the
country before the Aryan invasion from
the north, but they adopted the higher
civilization of the Aryans. The Tamil
language is spoken not only in South
India and Ceylon, but also by a majority
of the Indian settlers in places farther
east, as Pegu and Penang. There is an
extensive literature, the greater part of it
in verse. Among the chief works are
the Rural of Tiruvalluvar, an ethical
poem, and the Tamil adaptation of the
Sanskrit Ratnayana.
Tamise <^-™^]v S^ manufacturin|
ACMUAw town of Belgium, province of
B. Flanders, on the Scheldt Fop. 12,463.
Tam O'Shanter, *^® hero of Burns's
i&.cMu w MUMuwAy poem of the same
name; also a cap with a close-fitting rim
and large, flat top, usually with a knob
or tassel in the center; in Scotland, a
tight-fitting woolen cap or a braid bonnet
2—10
Tammany <*^A*"J^^'u« ^^^^'^^^^ ^^^
"^•^ or Columbian Order,
formed in New York city in 1789, as a
counterweight to the so-called 'aristo-
cratic' Society of the Cincinnati; deriv-
ing its name from a noted friendly Dela-
ware chief named Tammany, who had
been canonized by the soldiers of the
Revoluti<m as the patron saint of Amer-
ica. The grand sachem and 13 sachems
were intended to typify the President and
the governors of the 13 original states.
It was organized for social and benevo-
lent purposes, but always had a
political character. Always essentially
Democratic, it represented the distrust
of Hamilton's aristocratic policy. It is
the leading political mainspring of New
York politics.
Tflmmv ^'^^^s> Taminb, or Taminy,
A9»*uMM.jf ^ j^jj^ ^j woolen cloth highly
glazed, used for makins fine sieves em-
ployed in cooking, which are also called
tammies. It is also used under the names
of lasting and durant for ladies' boots.
TuinTiil. (tam'pA), a port of Florida.
J.ampa ^jusboro CoTon the Guli
Coast; a rising business center, the ter-
minus of three railways, and the point of
departure of steamers for various ports.
Among its places of interest are De Soto
Park and the Convent of Holy Names.
Here are large cigar factories and lumber
mills and it is an important shipping
point for naval stores, fruits, fish, and
cattle. It has become a favorite winter
resort Pop. 37,782; including suburbs,
52,000.
T<LTnTiir»n (tim-pe^kd), a seaport town
AampiCO ^j Mexico, in the state of
Tamaulipas, in the extreme south, 5 miles
from the mouth of the Panuco. On ac-
count of a bar the harbor is not accessi-
ble for large vessels; nevertheless, the
trade is considerable. Strong fibers used
in place of bristles for brushes, are ex-
ported from there. Pop. 17,569.
Tflmfini (t&m-sS'e), a town of China,
Acuuotu. f gland of Formosa, One of
the treaty ports, with a trade in tea.
Pop. about 100,000.
Tom.funi o^ Tom-tom, a cylindrical
Xam-l»m, drum used in the East
Indies. It is beaten upon with the fin-
gers, or with the open hand. Public no-
tices, when proclaimed in the bazaars of
Eastern towns, are generally accompanied
by the tam-tam.
Tana (t&'nft), (1) a river in the ex-
AooAA lYeme north of Norway, forming
part of the boundary between it and Rus-
sia. (2) A river of B. Africa, within
the British 'sphere of influence,' risine
in Mount Kenia, navigable for about 100
miles in the rainy season.
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Tanagers
Tangier
Tan fleers ^ ^*'*' * " ^*" h passerine
i&.c»uc»5^xo bir^g^ genus Tana^ra, fam-
ily Fringillide, or finches, distinguished
by the bill being of triangular shape at its
base and arched towards its tip, and re*
markable for their bright colors. They
are chiefly found in the tropical parts of
America.
Tanagra Figurines, l^^^^ ^^^
ra-cotta statuettes and reliefs, first found
in 1888 in the necropolis of Tanagra,
Greece, but since found elsewhere in
Greece. They date from about 40O B.c.»
though some of them are prehistoric
Tanais. ®^ ^^'
TananariVO. ®®® Antananarivo.
TtLTiort^A (tanlcred), son of the Mar-
Bmma, the sister of Robert Guiscard,
bom in 1078, was one of the most fa-
mous heroes of the first Crusade. He
distinguished himself at tlie siege of
Nic«a (1097), at the battle of Dory-
lieum (July, 1097), at the capture of
Jerusalem (July, 1099), and at Ascalon
(August 12), and was appointed by God-
frey de Bouillon Prince of Galilee. He
died in 1112, in his thirty-fifth year, of a
wound received at Antioch. He is repre-
sented by Tasso in the Jerutalem De-
livered as the flower and pattern of chiv-
alry.
Tatiait (tft'ne), Rooeb Bbooke, Jurist,
xaucjr ^j^ in Calvert Co., Maryland,
in 1777. He was graduated from Dickin-
son Ck>llege, was admitted to the bar in
1799, and elected to the Maryland Senate
in 1816. In 1831 he became Attorney-
General of the United Sutes, and in 1836
was appointed to succeed John Marshall
as Chief Justice of the United States
Supreme Court, a position which he held
until his death in 1864. The most fa-
mous of his decisions is that in the Dred
Scott case, denying freedom to a slave
going into a free State, an incident used
effectively in the antislavery movement
Tanganyika o^&^'ilSL'afiitJj
to the south of Lake Albert Nyanza. It
extends from about S"" 25' to S"" 40^ s. lat.,
and from 29« 20' to 32« 20' E. Ion. It
is 420 miles long, has an average breadth
of about 30 miles, and is 2700 feet above
the level of the sea. The basin in which
it lies is inclosed by an almost continuous
series of hills and mountains. It is fed
by numerous rivers and streamlets, and
discharges by the river Lukuga into the
CJongo. There are several London Mis-
sionary Society stations on Tanganyika,
and Ml the eastern shore is the Arab
town of Ujiji. A carriage-road, 210
miles, runs to Nyassa. Tanganyika was
discovered by Speke and Burton in 1858.
Tangent iKrL^h'ira^
or meets a circle or curve in one point,
and which being produced does not cut
it; a straight line drawn at right angles
to the diameter of a circle, from the ex-
tremity of it, as HA in figure, which be-
ing continued at A, would merely touch
and not cut the circle. In trigonometry
the tangent of an arc is a straight line
touching the circle of which the arc is a
part, at one extremity of the arc, and
B meeting the diameter i>as8-
' ing through the other ex-
tremity. Thus AH is the
tangent of the arc A B, and
it is also said to be the
^tangent of the angle a on,
^of which AB is the meas-
ure. The arc and its tang-
ent have always a certain
relation to each other; and
when the one is given in parts of the
radius, the other can always be computed.
For trigonometrical purposes tangents for
every arc from 0 degrees to 90 degrees,
as well as sines, cosines, etc, have been
calculated with reference to a radius of
a certain length, and these or their
logarithms formed into tables. In the
higher geometry the word tangent is not
limited to straight lines, but is also ap-
plied to curves in contact with other
curves, and also to surfaces.
Tancr'hiTi (tang'gin; Tanghinia vene-
Aaugmn ^f^^ ^ tree of Mada-
^ascar, nat order Apocynaces, bear-
mg a fruit the kernel of which, about the
size of an almond, is highly poisonous.
Trial by tanghin was formerly used in
Madagascar as a test of the guilt or in-
nocence of a suspected criminal. The
person undergoing the ordeal was required
to swallow a small portion of the kemeL
If his stomach rejected it he was deemed
innocent, but if he died, as happened in
most cases, he was deemed to have de-
served his fate and suffered the punish-
ment of his crime.
ToTicnpr (tan'jSr), a seaport of Mo-
raltar. It stands on two heights near a
spacious bay, and presents a very striking
appearance from the sea, rising in the
form of an amphitheater, and defended
by walls and a castle. Tangier is almost
destitute of manufactures. The hatbor
is a mere roadstead, but there is a large
trade. In 1662 Tangier was annexed to
the English crown as part of the dowry
of the Infanta of Portugal, the wife of
King Charles II, but in 1684 it waa
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Tanner Tanning
trated a very large army for the recon- tlie voice of the Virgin Mary, whom he
quest of East Prussia. hears calling upon him to return. The
General Samsonoff, who had been in goddess allows him to depart, when he
command of the southern army, pressed hastens to Rome to seek from the pope
on through Allensteia, with intent to (Pope Urban) absolution for his sins,
reach the Vistula. To succeed in this it The pope, however, when he knows the
was necessary to pass through a belt of extent of the knight's guilt, declares to
diflScult country, abounding in lakes, him that it is as impossible for him to
marshes, and woods around Osterode, obtain pardon as it is for the wand which
Tannenberg, and Eylau. he holds in his hand to bud and bring
It was here that Hindenburg with his forth green leaves. Despairing, the
intimate knowledge of the swampy land knight retires from the presence of the
gave battle to the Russians. The Battle pointiff, and enters the Venusberg once
of Tannenberg lasted three days, and a more. Meanwhile the pope's wand ac-
quarter of a million men were in action tually begins to sprout, and the pope, tak-
on each side. On the 30th of August the ing this as a sign from God that there
Russian flank was turned, and the en- was still an opi>ortunity of salvation for
veloping movement was carried on during the knight, hastilv sends messengers into
the night. On the 31st the collapse of all lands to seek for him. But Tannbftu-
the line began. As the Russians gave ser is never again seen. The Tannha.u-
way under the converging pressure of ser legend has been treated poetically by
front and flank attacks they found that it Tieck, and Richard Wagner has adopted
was a difficult matter to extricate them- it (with modifications) as the subject of
selves from the wilderness of woods, lakes one of his operas.
and marshes in which they had given bat- TaiiTiir* AniH (tan'ik), or TAiaaw, a
tie. Throe Russian generals fell in the AaiiA^v a^iu peculiar acid which ex-
final struggle: Samsonoff, Postitsch. and ists in every part of all species of oaks,
Martos. The Germans claimed that of especially in the bark, but is found in
the five army corps which formed the en- greatest quantity in gall-nuts. Tannic
emy's main battle line they destroyed acid, when pure, is nearly white, and not
three and a half. It was the most com- at all crystalline. It is very soluble in
plete victory won by the Germans in the water, and has a most astringent taste,
openinf: phase of the war and resulted in without bitterness. It derives its name
a preciijitate evacuation of East Prussia from its property of combining with the
by the invaders. Rennenkampf fought a skins of animals and converting them into
heroic rearguard action, falling back by leather, or tanning them. It is the active
way of Gumbinnen, recrossing the fron- principle in almost all astringent vegeta-
tier and retreating to the Niemen, where ties, and is used in medicine in preference
large reinforcements awaited. to mineral astringents, because free from
Tanner Henby Ossawa (18d9- ). irritant and poisonous action. The name
> an American painter, son of is generally applied to a mixture of sev-
Benjamin Tucker Tanner, bishop of the ^^\ substances.
African Methodist Episcopal Church. He Tqhtiitio* (tan'ing), the operation of
was bom at Pittsburgh, Pa., and began xa»iixu^ converting the raw hides
his studies at the Pennsylvania Academy an^ gfeing of animals into leather by ef-
of Fine Arts under Thomas Eakms ; later fecting a chemical combination between
a pnml of Jean Paul Laurens and Benja- ^jj^ gelatine of which they principally con-
min Constant of Paris. He specializ<^ m gjgt ^nd the astringent vegetable principle
religious subjects. He is represented in called tannic acid or tannin. The object
the Luxembourg ( Raising of Lazarus ), ^f ^he tanning process is to produce such
the Wilstach Collection, Philadelphia a chemical change in skins as may render
(/Annunciation*), Carnegie Institute ^hem unalterable by those agents whiah
(*Chnst at the Home of Mary and Mar- tend to decompose them in their natural
Vi^'rJ^^T^^^ 9^^^1 m^ J??^^SJ® state, and in connecUon with the subse-
(*TheTwoDiscinlesattheTomb ). He q^ent operations of currying or dressing
IS an Associate of the National Academy. J, 5^5^^ ^jj^m jn^o ^ state of pjiability
TaiiTiA-p'a QnTnonli See Coriaria. and impermeability to water which may
xaniicr 5 oiuuiiuii. adapt them for the many useful purposes
TflTiTiTionaAr (t&n'hoi-z*r), or Tan- to which leather is applied. The larger
**"^***^*^* hXuseb, in old German and heavier skins subjected to the tannmg
legend, a knight who gains admission process, as those of buffaloes, bulls, oxen,
into a hill called the Venusberg, in the and cows, are technieally called Mdet;
inte-ior of which Venus holds her court while those of smaller animals, as calves,
and who for a long time remains buned sheep, and goats, are called tkim. la
in sdnsual pleasures, but at last listens to preparing the hides and skins for tanning
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Tanreo
Taoism
they are subjected to certain operations
already described uader Leather, after
which the tanning proper begins. The
Tarious substances used for tanning are
oak, fir, mimosa, and hemlock bark, su-
mach, m^robalans, divi-divi, yalonia-nuts.
cutch, kmo, gambir, and oak-galls — all
of which contain tannin. The impregna-
tion of the hides with this tannin may
be effected either by placing them be-
tween layers of bark (oak bark being the
best) in a vat filled with water, or steep-
ing them m a liquor containing a small
at first, but steadily increasing propor-
tion of tannin throughout a series of pits.
This liquor usually consists of water in
which the ground or crushed tanning
material has been steeped. The raw bida
takes about a year to prepare it for the
best quality of leather. There is also a
process called iawinp^ which is employed
chiefly in the preparation of the skins of
sheep, lambs, goats, and kids. In this
process the skins are steeped in a bath
of alum, salt, and other substances, and
they are also sometimes soaked in fish-oil.
The more delicate leathers are treated in
this manner, those especially which are
used for wash-leathers, kid gloves, etc
After the leather is tanned it is finished
for use by the process of currying (which
see). Various improvements have been
attempted to be made in the art of tan-
ning, such as the preparation of the skins
by means of metaillic solutions instead of
by vegetable tan-liquor; the forced ab-
sorption of the tan by applying pressure
between cylinders; and the preparation
of the skins by a chemical agent, so as to
induce a quicker absorption of the tan.
It has been found, however, that the slow
process followed by the old tanners pro-
duces leather far superior to that pro-
duced by the new and more rapid
methods, though a fair leather for certain
purposes may be produced in five to ten
weeke.
Tflnrec (tan'rek), or Tenbbo (Cen-
*^ Uies), a genus of insectivo-
rous mammals, resembling in outward ap-
pearance the European hedgehog, thev
being covered with bristles about an inch
in length. These animals inhabit Mada-
gascar. They hibernate like the Euro-
pean hedgehog, and live in burrows,
which they excavate by means of their
strong claws.
TanSV i^^'^^* Tanadtum vulg§re)t is
A,mLoj ^ well-known plant, being
abundant throughout Europe and natural-
ized in the United States. It is a tall
Slant, With divided leaves and button-like
eads of yellow flowers. Every part of
the plant is bitter, and it is considered as
tonic and anthelmintic* tansy-tea being
an old popular medicine. It is now cul-
tivated in gardens mainly for the young
leaves, which are shredded down and em-
ployed to flavor puddings, cakes, etc.
Tantfl. (tftn'ta), a town of Lower
Egypt, situated on the railway
about 50 miles n. of Cairo. It has many
large public buildings, besides a palace of
the Khedive, and is celebrated in connec-
tion with the great Moslem saint Seyyid-
el-Bedawi, to whom a mosque is here
erected. Tanta has three great annual
fairs, which are held in January, April,
and August; and at the latter 500,000 per-
sons are said to congregate from the sur-
rounding countries. Pop. (1907) 54,437.
TAntfllniII (tan'ta-lum), a rare me-
AAuvcuiuu tuiji^j element discovered
in the Swedish minerals tanta lite and
yttro-tantalite ; chemical symbol Ta, atom-
ic weight 182. It was long believed to
be identical with ntobtum, but their sepa-
rate identity has been established.
Tantalus (tan'ta-lus), in (Jreek my-
*•* "^ thology. a son of Zeus, and
king of Phrygia, Lydia, Argos or Corinth,
who was admitted to the table of the gods,
but who had forfeited their favor either
by betrayine their secrets, stealing am-
brosia from heaven, or presenting to them
his murdered son Pelops as food. His
punishment consisted in being placed in
a lake whose waters receded from his lips
when he attempted to drink, and of be-
ing tempted by delicious fruit overhead
which withdrew when he attempted to eat.
Moreover, a huge rock forever threat-
ened to fall and crush him.
Tantalus, l, «frbet„'tm?.,''1?
loeulator is the wood-ibis of America,
which frequents extensive swamps, where
it feeds on serpents, young alligators,
frogs, and other reptiles. The African
tantalus (T. ibis) was long regarded as
the ancient Egyptian ibis, but it is rare
in Egypt, belonging chiefly to Senegal,
and is much larger than the true ibis.
ToTifroa (tan^tras), a name of certain
X an bras Sanskrit sacred books, each
of which has the form of a dialogue be-
tween Siva and his wife. The tantras
are much more recent productions than
the Yedas, the oldest being long posterior
even to the Christian era, although their
believers regard them as a fifth Veda, of
equal antiquity and higher authority.
The Tantrikas, or followers of the tan-
tras, indulge in mystical and impure rites
in honor of Siva.
TflniSTn or Taouism (t&'5-izm, tou'-
xauism, j^jjj)^ ^ religious system
formed in China by Lao-tse. He taught
a comparatively pure morality, but in its
later developments his doctrine is too
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Taormina
Tape-worms
often associated with magical rites and
superstitious observances. See Lao-tze,
Taormina. ^ tA-or-me'nA ), a town,
xuurmiua province of Messina, Sicily,
on Monte Tauro, overlooking the Strait
of Messina. Its chief interest is in the
ancient theater, sepulchers, reservoirs,
etc., which are still in good preservation.
It is a favorite place of resort for travel-
ers. Pop. 4351.
Taos (^'^")> ^h^ name of a district
A.i»vo jjjj^ town of New Mexico, about
50 miles N. of Santa F^ watered by the
Rio de Taos, a tributary of the Rio
Grande. Here is a fine example of the
pueblo Indian architecture, of prehistoric
date, yet still inhabited by a large num-
ber of Indians. This was the seat of the
first Territorial government, was the resi-
dence of Kit Carson and Colonel Burt,
and has now a town of about 500 inhabi-
tants, a market-place for the Indian
farmers surrounding.
ToTiflina (t&-p&-zh6s'), a river of Bra-
J.li|iajUB jjj^ ^|jj^.j^ g^^g through the
province of Para, and enters the Amazon
after a northward course of nearly 1200
miles.
Tanestrv (tap'es-tri), a kind of
"J' woven hangings of wool and
silk, often enriched with gold and silver,
with worked designs, representing fig-
ures of men, animals, landscapes, etc,
and formerly much used for lining or
covering the walls and furniture of apart-
ments, churches, etc. Tapestry is made
by a process intermediate between weav-
ing and embroidery^ being worked in a
web with needles mstead of a shuttle.
Short lengths of thread of the special
colors required for the design are worked
in at the necessary places and fastened
at the back of the texture. In Flanders,
particularly at Arras (whence the term
arra%t signifying 'tapestry*), during the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the art
was practiced with uncommon skill.
The art of weaving tapestry was intro-
duced into England near the end of
Henry VII I *s reign. During the reign
of James I a manufactory was estab-
lished at Mortlake. which continued till
the beginning of the eighteenth century.
Recently a royal school of tapestry has
been established at Windsor, and some
excellent work has been done by Mr. W.
Morris at Merton (Surrey). The first
manufacture of tapestry at Paris was set
up under Henry IV, in 1606 or 1607, by
several artists whom that monarch in-
vited from Flanders. But the most cele-
brated of all the European tapestry
manufactures was that of the Qobelins,
instituted under Louis XIV. (See
B^titum Taputry ancl Qohelin% Manufao-
iory,) The term tape»iry is also ap-
plied to a variety of woven fabrics hav-
ing a multiplicity of colors in their
design, which, however, have no other
characteristic of true tapestry. The
name of tapestry carpet is given to a
showy and cheap two-ply or ingrain
carpet, the warp or weft being pnnted
before weaving so as to produce the fig-
ure in the cloth.
Taneti (tapVti), the Brazilian hare,
* P * the Lepun BrasilieMis, the only
bare inhabiting South America.
Tape-worms, tli« name common to
***P^ wvxAAio, certain internal para-
sites (Entozoa) constituting the order
Cestoidea or Tsniada of the sub-kingdom
Annuloida, found in the mature state in
the alimenta^ canal of warm-blooded
vertebrates. Tape-worms are composed
of a number of flattened joints or seg-
ments, the anterior of which, or head
(which is the true animal), is furnished
with a circlet of hooks or suckers, which
enable it to mahitaui its hold on the
mucous membrane of the intestines of
its host. The other segments, called
proglottidea, are simply generative organs
budded off by the head, the oldest being
furthest removed from it, and each con-
taining when mature male and female
organs. The tape-worm has neither
mouth nor digestive organs, nutrition be-
in^ effected by absorption through the
skin. The length of the animal varies
from a few inches to several yards. The
ova do not undergo development in the
animal in which the adult exists. They
require to be swallowed by some other
warm-blooded vertebrate, the ripe prog-
lottides being expelled from the bowel
of the host with all their contained ova
fertilized. The segments or profflottides
decompose and liberate the ova, which are
covered with a capsule. After being
swallowed the capsule bursts and an
embryo, called a proscolew, is liberated.
This embryo, by means of spines, perfo-
rates the tissues of some contiguous
organ, or of a blood-vessel, in the latter
case being carried by the blood to some
solid part of the body, as the liver or
brain, where it surrounds itself with a
cvst, and develops a vesicle containing a
fluid. It is now called a scolew or
hydatidt and formerly was known as the
cystic worm. The scolex is incapable of
further development till swallowed and
received a second time into the alimen-
tary canal of a warm-blooded vertebrate.
Here it becomes the head of the true
tape-worm, from which proglottides are
developed posteriorly by gemmation, and
we have the adult animal with which the
cycle begins. Eight true tape-worms oc-
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Tapioca
Tar
car in man, Ttsnia toliifm, the cystic
fonn of ^hich produces the measles of
the pig, l>eing the most common. An-
other, T* mediocanellataf is developed
from the scolex, which causes measles in
the ox. The tape-worm of the dog, T.
Berrat€k, is the adult form of the scolex
which produces staggers in sheep. T.
Eehinaooccus of the dog produces hydatids
in man, through the development in man
of its immature young. In all cases the
only conclusive sign of tape-worm ia
the passage of one or part of one in the
fnces. One mode of treatment for this
disorder is, for an adult, a teaspoonful
of the extract of male-fern. A few hours
thereafter a strong dose of castor-oil
should be taken.
TftDlOCfl. (tap-i-Olui), a farinaceous
^ substance prepared from cas-
sava meal, which, while moist or damp,
has been heated for the purpose of dry-
ing it on hot plates. By this treatment
the starch-grains swell, many of them
burst, and the whole agglomerates in
small irregular masses or lumps. In
boiling water it swells up and forms a
viscous jelly-like mass. See Cassava,
TftDir C^'P^^)* the name of ungulate
-'^ or hoofed animals forming the
family Tapirids. The nose resembles a
short fleshy proboscis; there are four
toes to the fore-feet, and three to the
hind ones. The common South Ameri-
can tapir (Tapirus americanus) is the
sixe of a small ass. with a brown skin,
nearly naked. It inhabits forests, lives
much in the water, conceals itself during
the day, and feeds on vegetable sub-
stances. There are several other Ameri-
HaUy Tapir (TapTrtM malayantu).
can species. The T. malayanuB or {»-
dicu9 is found in the forests of Malacca
and Sumatra. It is larger than the
American species, and is a most conspicu-
ous animal from the white back, rump,
and belly contrasting so stronglv with the
deep sooty black of the rest of the body
as, at a little distance, to give it the
aspect of being muffled up in a white
■beet. Fossil tapirs are scattered
throughout Europe, and among them is
a gieantic species, T. giganteuM, Cuvier,
which in size must have nearly equaled
the elephant.
TaBBin? (tap'ing), or Pabacente'-
*'!'***& SIS, a surgical operation
commonly ];>erformed for dropsy, but also
for empyema, and for the relief of other
morbid efitusions in natural or accidental
cavities of the body. It consists in
piercing the wall of the cavity with an
Instrument, commonly a trocar or a
bistoury. The fluid usually flows out,
but it is sometimes necessary to use an
instrument which acts as a syringe.
Taprobane (ta-prob'a-n§), the an-
A«.^j.vM«.A&^ cient name of Ceylon.
See Ceylon,
TflTifi or Taptee (tip'te), a river in
xupu, Hindustan, rises in the Ner-
budda division of the Central Provinces,
and after a course of about 460 miles
falls by several mouths into the Gulf
of Cambay, 20 miles below Surat and
30 miles south of the mouth of the
Nerbudda.
Taqua-nut (^^-^^T^ A'^mS^
tree PhyieUphas macrocarpa, known
under the name of vegetable ivory. The
fruit is as large as a man's head and
contains numerous nuts of a somewhat
triangular form, each as large as a hen's
egg. When ripe they are exceedingly
hard and white, resembling ivory very
closely and being used for similar pur-
poses.
Tar (^^)* a thick, dark-colored, viscid
* product obtained by the destruc-
tive distillation of organic substances and
bituminous minerals, as wood, coal, peat,
shale, etc. Wood-tar, such as the
Archangel, Stockholm, and American
tars of commerce, is obtained by burning
billets of wood slowly in a conical cavity
at the bottom of which is a cast-iron pan
into which the tar exudes. Wood-tar is
also obtained as a by-product in the
destructive distillation of wood for the
manufacture of wood-vinegar (pyrolig-
neous acid) and wood-spirit (methyl
alcohol). It has an acid reaction, and
contains various liquid matters, of which
the principal are methyl-acetate, acetone,
hydrocarbons of the benzene series, and
a number of oxidized compounds, as
carbolic acid. Paraffin, anthracene,
naphthalene, chrysene, etc., are found
among its solid products. It possesses
valuable antiseptic properties, owing to
the creasote it contains, and is used ex-
tensively for coating and preserving
timber, iron, and cordage. Coal-tar,
which is largely obtained in gas manu-
facture, is also valuable inasmuch as it
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Tara
Tarare
is extensively employed in the production
of dyes, etc. See Coal-tar and Aniline,
Tarfl. (^'r&)* o' Tabo, the native
****** name ffiven to plants of the
genus ColoooMta, nat order Aracee,
especially C. esculenta and C. maororhieaf
cultivated in the Pacific Islands for their
esculent root, which, though pungent and
acrid raw, becomes palatable when
cooked. A pleasant flour is also made of
the roots or tubers, and the leaves are
used as spinach. The name is also given
to the allied Caladium esculenta, whose
tuberous root and leaves are used in the
same manner.
Tara P^rn ^ species of fern (Pterig
xartt xcru, esculenta) from the root
or rhizome of which a flour was obtained
which formerly made a staple article of
food for the natives of New Zealand.
Tfl.rfl.i (ta-ri'; 'moist land'), a moist
******* and jungly tract of Northern
India, running along the foot of the
first range of the Himalayas for several
hundred miles, with a breadth of from
2 to 15, infested by wild beasts, and
generally unhealthy. The name is given
distinctively to a district in the Kumaun
division of the Northwest Provinces, con-
sisting of a strip of country of about
90 miles in length E. and w. along the
foot of the Himalayas, and about 12
miles in breadth. Area> 938 square miles.
Pop. 118,422.
Taranaki iS^'^'^'AV' ^orm.«riy 2^e«
**********'*^ Plymouth), 2i provincial dis-
trict of New Zealand, on tne west coast
of Norlh Island. Its coast-line extends
to 130 miles, and it has an area of 3339
square miles. The coast is almost with-
out indentations, and has no good natural
harbors. Nearly three-fourths of this
district is covered by valuable forests,
and the rest is adapted for cattle rearing.
There is a good coal-field on the banks of
the Mokau, and the titaniferous iron-
sand, which lies from 2 to 5 feet deep
along the sea-beach, is believed to be the
purest iron ore known. The soil Is ex-
cellent, and a moist climate and temper^
ate atmosphere render vegetation luxuri-
ant. New Plymouth is the chief town,
and has direct railway communication
with Wellington and other parts of the
colony. Mount Egmont, an extinct vol-
cano, in the soutnwest, where the sur-
face is most elevated, attains a height
of 8270 feet, and is in many respects the
most remarkable mountain m the colony.
Pop. 38.000.
TarantaSS (taj-an-tas^), a large cov^
.b«.A»A&««.99 gj,^ traveling carriage
without springs, but balanced on long
poles which serve the purpose, and with-
out seats, much used m ftussia.
Tarantella <Si^Sii'Sliu.'dan'S^l;
six-eight measure.
Tarantism < taj'an-tlzm ), a leaping
**•*•***"**'*** or dancing mania, of the
medieval period, somewhat similar to the
disease called Bt Vitus' dance. It was
ascribed to the bite of the tarantula.
TflroTifn (t&'r&n-tO; anciently Taren-
xaraaw ^^^^^ ^ fortified seaport of
S. Italy, in the province of Lecce, on a
rocky peninsula at the northern ex-
tremity of the gulf of same name. It is
well built, and contains a cathedral and
several other churches, a diocesan semi-
nary, and several hospitals. The manu-
factures include linen, cotton, velvet.
muslin and gloves. There is now a
proposal for making Taranto a station
of the Italian navy. The ancient Taren-
tum was founded by the Greeks in B.a
708, and became a powerful city. It
was captured by the Romans B.a 272,
and remained a notable Roman town
until the downfall of the empire. Pop.
60,592.
Tarantula (^-ran'tia-la), a kind of
*•* ^ •* spider, the Lycdia iaran-
tiUaj found in some of the wanner parts
of Italy. When full grown it is about
the size of a chestnut, and is of a brown
color. Its bite was at one time supposed
to be dangerous, and to cause a kind of
dancing disease; it is now known not to
be worse than the sting of a common
wasD. In America the term is given to
the large mygalid spiders.
Tarapaci ^ ^'J^"P^'lfK?\^ * ^^
*******^**^** province of Northern ChUe,
containing deposits of niter and borax
and silver mines; area, 18,131 square
miles. CapiUl, Iquique. Pop. 101,105.
TflrftTA (t&-rilr), a town of France, in
xaiaix ^j^g department of the Rhone,
20 miles northwest of Lyons. Silks, vel-
vets, and muslins are made. Pop. 11,79L
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Tarascon
Tariftt
TurAnnAii (tA-ras-kov), a town of
xarascon Southern France, depart-
ment of Bouches-du-Rhdne. on the Rhone,
opposite Beaucaire, 50 miles N. N. w. of
Marseilles. It has interesting mediaeval
stmctures. Pop. (1906) 5447.
TorovaniTi (ta-rak'a-sin), a bitter
xara&aum crystalliaable principle
ooDtained in the milky juice of the dande-
Hon {Leontodon Tarawdcum)^ especially
in the juice of the roots. It possesses
tonic, aperient, and diuretic properties.
Torfl7ATifl (tA-ri-thd'ni), an episco-
larazona p^, ^^^^ ^^ ^^^j^^ ^ ^^
prorince of Saragossa, 57 miles w. N. w.
of the town of Saragossa, on the Queiles.
There is here an ancient episcopal palace
and a cathedral, founded about the thir-
teenth century. Pop. 8790.
TarhAll (tarl)el), Ida M., writer,
xarueil ^^^^ ^ g^j^ q^^ Pennsvlva-
nia, in 1857; was associate editor of the
Chautauquan, 1883-91, and of McClure't
Uagitzine after 1894. She attracted at-
tention by her vigorous arraignment of
the Standard Oil Company and its meth-
ods, also wrote Lives of Napoleon, Lin-
coln, Madame Roland, etc
TarliAft (t&rb),a town of France, cap-
xiurucsi .^j ^£ ^jj^ department of
Hautes Pyrto^es, situated 110 miles
south of Bordeaux, on the left bank of
the Adour. Its principal edifices are the
cathedral, and the church of St. John
(fourteenth century). The manufactures
embrace leather, woolens, machinery,
weapons, etc. Pop. 20366.
Tarboosh (tar;b58h), a red woolen
ACMMwou gjjuii^ap or fez, usually
ornamented with a blue silk tassel, and
worn by the Egyptians, Turks, and Arabs.
Tardierada (tai-di-gra'da; *siow
ACMUA^AMuo. steppers*), the name
applied by Cuvier to the family of eden-
tate mammals, which includes the exist-
ing sloths and the extinct Megatherium.
Tare i^^^)* ^^ common name of dif-
ferent species of Viciaf a genus
of leguminous plants, known also by the
name of vetch. There are numerous
species and varieties of tares or vetches,
but that which is found best adapted
for agricultural purposes is the common
tare (Vida sativa), of which there are
two principal varieties, the summer and
winter tare. They afitord excellent food
for horses and cattle, and hence are ex-
tensively cultivated throughout Europe.
(See Vetch,) The tare mentioned in
Scripture (Mat. xiii, 36) is supposed to
be the darnel (which see). V. $ativa is
found in fields in the United States.
fTapA in commerce, a deduction made
Ac»A«/9 ^j^jjj jjjg gross weight of goods
as equivalent to the real or approximate
weight of the cask, box, bag, or other
package containing them. Tare is said
to be real when the true weight of the
package is known and allowed for,
average when it is estimated from similar
known cases, and customary when a uni-
form rate is deducted.
AUA^MVMAu. ^£ Allegheny CJo., Pennsvl-
vania, on the Allegheny River, 21 miles
IV. E. of Pittsburgh. There are large plate
and flhit glass factories and steel mills,
with various other industries. Pop. 7414.
TarentTUXL ^^ Taranto.
Target (tAr'^et), (l) a shield or
****o^*' buckler of a small kind, such
as those formerly in use among the High-
landers, which were circular in form,
cut out of ox-hide, mounted on strong
wood, strengthened by bosses, spikes, etc.,
and often covered externally with a con-
siderable amount of ornamental work.
(2) The mark set up
to be aimed at in arch-
ery, musketry, or ar-
tillery practice and the
like. The targets used
in rifie practice are
generally square or ob-
long metal plates, and
are divided into three
or more sections, called
huU'B eye, inner (or
oenter)^ and ouierf
counting from the center of the target to
its edges ; some targets have an additional
division (called a magpie), situated be-
tween the outer and the inner. It is the
marksman's aim to put his shots as near
the central point as possible, as if he hits
the buirs-eve there are counted in his
favor 5 points, the center 4 points, the
magpie 3 points, and the outer 2 points,
or some similar proportions.
Tarimm (tAr'gum), a translation or
* o ^^ paraphrase of the Hebrew
Scriptures in the Aramaic or Chaldee
language or dialect, which became neces-
sary after the Babylonish captivity, when
Hebrew began to die out as the popular
language. The Targum, long preserved
by oral transmission, does not seem to
have been committed to writing until the
first centuries of the Christian era. The
most ancient and valuable of the extant
Targums are those ascribed to or called
after Onkelos and Jonathan Ben Uzziel.
All the Targums taken together form a
Paraphrase of the whole of the Old
'estament, except Nehemiah, EiZra, and
Daniel.
ToTifo (t&-r§'f&), a maritime town of
xariia, ^p^j^^^ j^^ Andalusia, 52 miles
southeast of Cadiz, and the most south-
Target.
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Tariff
Tarpan
erly town in Europe. It is surrounded
by fortifications built by the Moors, and
contains a very ancient Moorish castle.
Pop. 11,730.
Tariff (tar'lf), a list or table of duties
or customs to be paid on goods
imported or exported, whether such duties
are imposed by the government of a
country or agreed on by the governments
of two countries holding commerce with
each other. The tariff depends upon the
commercial policy of the state by which
it is framed, and the details are con-
stantly fluctuating. The tariff has long
been a leading political problem in the
United States, and has fluctuated with
the dominance of one or the other great
party, the Republicans favoring a high
tariff, protective of the manufacturing
interests, the Democrats a low one,
confined to revenue purposes. The oppo-
sition to a high tariff at first came from
New England, but was afterwards shifted
to the South, becoming so strong by 1832
as to lead to an attempt on the part of
South Carolina to secede from the Union.
A lower tariff policy was then adopted,
and there were several changes until 1861.
when the high tariff of the war period
was adopted. The Republican party be-
ing long afterward in toe ascendency, the
high tariff was continued until 1894,
when the Democratic party was in power
and passed a tariff bill much lowering the
rates of duty. In 1897 they were again
increased. During the succeeding years
the feeling developed that they were too
high and In 1909 a new bill was passed
making many reductions yet leaving some
leading articles in an unsatisfactory state.
The policy of partial revision then came
into favor, a permanent commission be-
ing appointed to study the several items
subject to customs duties and recommend
such changes as seemed desirable. At
the end of 1911 this commission made an
elaborate report on the wool industry, as
a guide to the deliberations of Congress.
The Democratic Congress passed a new
tariff law in 1913, the main features of
which were a longer free list. A Tariff
Commission forms a part of the Revenue
Bill passed by the House in 1916, and
provides for a board of six members, ap-
pointed by the President, with the consent
of the Senate, of which not more than
three shall be of one political party. Its
duty is to investigate the administration
and fiscal effects of the tariff laws.
Torlofan (t&r-la-tan), a thin and fine
xarJUtUU fabric of cotton, mostly
used for ladies* ball dresses. It is cheap,
but does not stand washing.
Tftm (tarn), a river of Southern
xaxu France, which rises on the south
slope of Mount Losftre, near Florae, in
the department of Lozftre; flows through
the departments of Aveyron, Tarn,
Haute-Garonne and Tam-et-Uaronne ;
and finalljrjoins the Garonne. Its whole
course is 230 miles, of which about 100
miles, beginning at Alby, are navigable.
Tarn ^ department of Southern
xcu.li.) France, named from the above
river; area, 2218 sq. miles. The surface
is intersected by hills, which generally
terminate in flat summits, on which, as
well as their sides, cereals and vines are
cultivated. The minerals include iron
and coal, both of which are partially
worked. Woolens, linens, hosiery, etc,
are manufactured. The capital is Alby.
Pop. (1906) 330,533.
Tarn-et-Garonne, |.r^?e"n°l^'
after its two chief rivers; area, 1436
square miles. This department belongs
to the basin of the Garonne, which
traverses it south to northwest, and re-
ceives within it the accumulated w&tert
of the Tarn and Aveyron, which are
both navigable. The arable land raises
heavy crops of wheat, maize, hempi
tobacco, grapes and fruit of all kinds
The most important manufactures con»
sist of common woolen cloth and serg^
linen goods, silk hosiery, cutlery, leather,
etc Montauban is the capitaL Pop.
(1906) 188,553.
TftmO'Dol (t&r-no'p6l), a town of
XamupOi ^alicia, Austria, on the left
bank of the Sereth, 80 miles e. 8. E. of
Lemberg. It contains a Russian Catholic
and a Greek Catholic church, castle,
Jesuit college, gymnasium, etc The in-
habitants are chiefly employed in agri-
culture. Pop. 32,082.
TamOW (tAr'nOf), a town of Galicia,
Austria, on a height above
the right bank of the Biala, 48 miles
E. 8. E. of Cracow. It is well built, is the
see of a bishop, has a cathedral, mon-
astry, gymnasium, svnsgogue, infirmary,
and manufactures of linen and leather.
Pop. 31,691.
Tarnowitz i^fJi^'^l^^^Jt tSTin^J
Prussia, in the province
of Silesia, not far from the Polish
frontier, with mines of iron and lead.
Pop. 11,858.
Tftro ItA'rO), a plant of the genus
***^ Colocasia, See Tara.
Taman (t&r'pan), the wild horse of
P Tartary, belonging to one of
those races which are by some authorities
regarded as original It is about the
size of an ordinary mule. The color is
invariably tan or mouse, with black
mane and tail. During the cold season
the hair is long and soft, but in sum-
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Tarpaulin Tarrasa
mer much of it is shed. They are some- Martius, and at his death was unani-
times captured by the Tartars, but are mously elected his successor. According
reduced with great difficulty to subjection, to Livy he made war with success on
the Latins and Sabines, from whom he
took numerous towns. Tarquinius also
distinguished his reign by the erection of
the Cloaca Maxima, the Forum, the wall
round the city, an(^ as is supposed, he
commenced the Capitoline Temple.
After a reign of about thirty-six years
he was killed in B.C. 578 by assassins,
who were employed by the sons of Ancus
Martins.
Tarquinius, IZ^'' ff^^^^^ST,
the last of the legendary Kings of Rome,
was the son of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus.
,^— .-^_^3- - Tarouin, on reaching man's estate,
TftrnAn murdered his father-in-law. King Servius
x»fv»ii. Tullius (the date usually given for this
Taroanlin (tAr-pftlin), canvas well event is B.c. 534), and assumed the
«^^^^ coated with tar, and used regal dignity. He abolished the privi-
to cover the hatchways, boats, etc., on leses conferred on the plebeians; ban-
shipboard, and also to protect agricultural ished or put to death the senators whom
produce, goods in transit, etc., from the he suspected, never filled up the vacancies
effects of the weather. in the senate, and rarely consulted that
TRrDeian S.OGk (t&r-pg'an), a pre- body. He continued the great works of
0.0*^^x0.11. .MvvA. cipitous rock form- his father, and advanced the power of
ing part of the Capitoline Hill at Rome Rome abroad both by wars and alliances,
over which i>ersons convicted of treason By the marria|re of his daughter with
to the state were hurled. It was so Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum, the
named^ according to tradition, from most powerful of the Latin chiefs, and
Tarpeta, a vestal virgin of Rome, and other political measures, he caused him-
daughter of the governor of the citadel self to be recognized as the head of the
on the Capitoline, who, covetous of the Latin confederacy. After a reign of
golden bracelets worn by the Sabine nearly twenty-five years a conspiracy
soldiery, opened the gate to them on the broke out by which he and his family
promise of receiving what they wore on were exiled from Rome (b.g. 510), an
their left arms. Once inside the gate infamous action of his son Sextus being
they threw their shields upon her, in- a chief cause of the outbreak. (See
stead of the bracelets. She was buried Lucretia.) He tried repeatedly, wi th-
at the base of the Tarpeian Rock. out success, to regain his nower, and at
TarDOn (t&r'pun), or Tabpum, the length died at Cumse in 495 b.o.
" Megalopa atlanticuSf SiheTTing' TaiTa?OIl (t*r'a-gon; Artemisia Dra-
shaped fish found on the southern coasts *«"■"■■«'€*''"■ ci<ncfi/tt«), a strong erect
of the United States and in the West perennial plant of the composite order,
Indies. It reaches a length of 5 or 6 a native of Siberia, cultivated in gar-
feet, and from a hundred to several hun- dens for flavoring dishes.
dred pounds weight, and is of giant Tfl.TTR?OILa (tflr-&-go'n&), a seaport
strength. Though too coarse ordinarily *«***«'6viia. ^^ Spain, capital of a
for food, it is a great attraction to province of its own name, on the
anglers. Its scales, which are of great Francoli, at its mouth in the Mediter-
size, are now largely used in ornamental ranean, on a limestone rock. The chief
work. building is the large cathedral, a fine
Taraninins (t&r-kwln'i-us), Lucius, Grothic building partly of the eleventh
H *""*"*"* sumamed Priscus (the century. The town was founded by the
first or the elder), in Roman tradition Phoenicians, and became of great impor-
the fifth king of Rome. The family of tance under the Romans. In its environs
Tarquinius was said to have been of are an ancient amphitheater, a circus, an
Greek extraction, his father, Demaratus, aqueduct, etc. It was taken and sacked
bein^ a Corinthian who settled in Tar- by the French under Suchet in 1811.
quinii, one of the chief cities of Etruria. It has a trade in corn, oil, wine, fruit,
Having removed with a large following etc Pop. 26,281.
to Rome, Tarquinius became the favorite Tarrasa (t^r-rft'si), a town of Spain,
and confidant of the Roman king, Ancus '^^*'*'^^^ province of Barcelona, with
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Tarrytown
Tartaric Acid
manufactures of cottons and woolens.
Pop. 15,956.
Aqneduet of Tamgons.
Tfl-mrfntim a village of Westchester
A airy town, ^^ ^^^ y^^^ ^^ ^^
Hudson River, 25 miles N. of New York
City. It has several manufacturing in-
dustries; but is largely residential. Pop.
(with North Tarrytown) 11,000.
TarsWsh (t&r'shish), a place fw-
" quently mentioned m the
Old Testament. It is now generally
identified bv biblical critics with the Tar-
tessus of the Greek and Roman writers,
a district in Southern Spain, near the
mouth of the Guadalquivir, settled by
the Phcenicians.
Tarsia-work <**^?*"*>'^ ^'""^ ^'
Ac»x0A«. TTVAA. nj^gaic woodwork or
marquetry much in favor in Italy in the
fifteenth century. It was executed by
inlaying pieces of wood of different
colors and shades into panels of walnut-
wood, so as to represent landscapes, fig-
ures, fruits, flowers, etc. At Sorrento
and other places the manufacture of
wood-mosaic, in modem times, has be-
come celebrated.
Tarsins (t&r'si-us), a genus of quad-
rumanous mammals of the
lemur family inhabiting the Eastern
Archipelago. In this genus the bones
of the tarsus are very much elongated,
which give the feet and hands a dis-
proportionate length. Tarsius spectrum^
the tarsier, seems to be the only species
known. It is about the size of a squirrel,
fawn-brown in color, with large ears,
large eyes, and a long tufted tail. It is
nocturnal In its habits, lives among trees,
and feeds upon lizards.
TfiTflTift (t&r'sus), in anatomy, that
is popularly known as the ankle, the
front of which is called the instep. It
corresponds with the wrist of the upper
limb or arm, and is composed of seven
bones. (See Foot.) In insects the
tarsus is the last segment of the leg. It
is divided into several joints, the last
being generally terminated by a claw,
which is sometimes single and sometimes
double. In birds the tarsus is that part
of the leg (or properly the foot) which
extends from the toes to the first joint
above; the shank.
TarsTia ^^ ancient city of Asia Minor,
xaiiiusy the capital of Cilicia, now in
the province of Adana, in Asiatic Turkey.
The Apostle Paul was bom, and Julian
the Apostate was buried there. Its in-
habitants enjoyed the privileges of Roman
citizens, and the city rose to such dis-
tinction as to rival Athens, Antioch and
Alexandria. It is situated on both banks
of the Cydnus, and has a considerable
trade. Pcyp. about 25,000.
Turf ATI (t&r'tan), a kind of vessel
X»nilUl ^g^ ^^ ^^^ Mediterranean,
both for commercial and other purposes.
It is furnished with a single mast on
which is rigged a large lateen sail; and
with a bowsprit and fore-saiL When the
wind is aft a square sail is generally
hoisted.
Tartan ^ well-known species of doth
' checkered or cross-barred with
threads of various colors. It was orig-
inally made of wool or silk, and consti-
tuted the distinguishing badge of the
Scottish Highland clans, each clan hav-
ing its own peculiar pattern. An endless
variety of fancy tartans are now manu-
factured, some of wool, others of silk,
others of wool and cotton, or of silk and
cotton.
Tartar (^i^tar), the substance called
also argal or argol, deposited
from wines incompletely fermented, and
adhering to the sides of the casks in the
form of a hard crust. When purified it
forms cream of tartar. (See Argal,
Cream of Tartar,) What is called tar-
tar emetic is a double tartrate of potas-
sium and antimony, an important com-
pound used in medicine as an emetic,
purgative, diaphoretic, sedative, febri-
fuge, and counter-irritant Tartar of the
teeth is an earthy-like substance which
occasionally concretes upon the teeth,
and is deposited from the saliva. It con-
sists of salivary mucus, animal matter,
and phosphate of lime.
Tartaric Acid (tAivtar^ik; cao.),
AMAVK^AAv AAVAu. ^jjg j^^j^ ^£ tartar.
It exists in grape juice, in tamarinds,
and several other fmits; but principally
in bilartrate of potassium, or cream of
tartar, from which it is usually obtained.
It crystallizes in large rhombic prismsi
Digitized by
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Tartars Tasmania
transparent and colorless, and very solu- include a large portion of Southeastern
ble in water. It is inodorous and very Russia. In a restricted sense it is iden-
sour to the taste. A high temperature tical with Turkestan. It received its
decomposes It, giving rise to several new names from the Tartars or Tatars,
products. ThMB solution of tartaric acid Tartrate (t&r'trftt), a salt of tartaric
acts with facility upon those metals which **** i*****^ ^^ji^ Some of the tartrates
decompose water, as iron and zinc. There are of considerable importance, such as
are five modifications of tartaric acid, tartar emetic and Rochelle salts. See
characterized chiefly by the differences in Tartar, Rochelle SalU,
the action exerted by them upon a ray Tamdant (ta-rS-dant*), a town of
of polarized light; such as dextro-ordi- *"•*"-"'«***« Morocco, at the southern
nary tartaric acid, Isvo-tartaric acid, foot of the Atlas, about 30 miles east
para-tartaric or racemic acid, meso-tar- from the Atlantic. Pop. about 8500.
taric acid, and meta-tartaric acid. Tar- Tasllkeilt (t&sh-kent') , or T a sB •
taric acid is largely employed as a dis- *«*»'»*^^***' kend', a town of Asiatic
charge in calico-printing, and for making Russia, in the government of Turkestan,
soda-water xK>wders and baking powders, formerlv in the khanate of Ehokand, on
In medicine it is used in small doses as a the Tchirshik, near its confluence with
refrigerant Sir-Daria or Jazartes, in a fertile oasis.
Tartars (t&r'ta]:z),orTATABS, avague It is surrounded by a lofty wall of dried
Ac»Aucu.a ^j^^ ^.^jj ^^ ethnological sig- bricks, about 12 miles in circuit, and is
nificance, usually applied to certain rov- entered by twelve gates. The streets are
ing" tribes which inhabited the steppes of very narrow, and the houses, composed
C^tral Asia. More specifically, how- of mud, are mean looking. The princi-
ever, Tatar or Ta-ta appears to have been pal buildings are the castle, several large
the name of a tribe of Mongols who oc- mosques, a bazaar, numerous colleges,
cupied about the ninth century a district and a number of old temples. The man-
of Chinese Tartary on the Upper Amur, ufactures are silk, cotton, gunpowder.
Though Tatar is the native form of iron, etc The trade, carried on chiefly
their name, it has long been anglacized by caravans, is ver^ extensive. Tashkent
as Tartar, which is the form in common was taken possession of by Russia in
use, while their country is known as 1865. Pop. (1912) 271,700.
Tartary. The true Tartars formed part Tasimeter (ta-sim'e-ter), an appa-
of the horde of Genghis Khan, when that *«*o*'"*^**»'*** ratus for measuring
conqueror carried bis arms from the changes in length, temperature, etc., of
country known as Chinese Tartary to bodies, by means of variations in the elec-
Europe, as well as to the successive trical conductivity of carbon, the result
hordes of similar origin who followed in of pressure.
their footsteps, and to the districts from Tasmania (taz-mft'ni-&), formerly
which they came, or in which they set- *«w»'»"'«*'"-^«' Yan Diemen's Land, an
tied; hence the names of Chinese Tar- island in the Southern Ocean, fully 100
tary. Independent Tartary, and Euro- miles south of Australia, from which it
pean or Little Tartary, which comprised is separated by Bass Strait; greatest
most of the Russian governments of length, 186 miles; mean breadth, 165
Orenburg, Astrakhan, Ekaterinoslav, the miles; area, 24330 square miles, or In-
Oossack provinces, and the Crimea. eluding islands, 26,215. The island may
Tartarus (t&r^ta-ms), a deep and be roughly described as heart-shaped.
** ** sunless abyss, according to The coasts, which are all much broken
Homer and the earlier Greek mythology, and indented, have some excellent harbors.
as far below Hades as earth is below The islands belonging to Tasmania are
heaven. It was closed by iron gates, and numerous, the principal being the Fur-
in it Jupiter imprisoned the rebel Titans, neaux S^up, on the northeastern
Later poets describe Tartarus as the place extremity. Tasmania is traversed by nu-
in which the spirits of the wicked receive merous mountain ranges, the chief sum-
tbeir due punishment ; and sometimes the mits of which are Mount Humboldt, 5520
name is used as svnonymous with Hades, feet ; Mount Wellington, 4195 feet ; and
or the lower world in general. Ben Lomond, 5002 feet The prevailing
Tartarv (t&r'ta-ri), a name formerly rocks are crystalline, consisting of basalt,
**" " applied to the wide band of granite, gneiss, quartz, etc. The chief
country extending through Central Asia rivers are the Derwent, the Huon, the
from the seas of Japan and Okhotsk in Arthur, and the Tamar. There are sev-
the east to the Caspian on the west, and eral large lakes. Lake Westmoreland (45
Inclndinc Manchuna, Mongolia, Turkes- sq. miles) being the largest. The climate
tan, and all the south part of Russian is very mild. Mount Wellington is fre-
iLiik. It was used sometimes even to quently covered with snow in the summer
Digitized by
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Tasmania
TassisndoA
months; but at Hobart, in its immediate made in 1808 by a iruard with a body of
vicinity, snow never falls. The mean convicts, who settled at Restdown, but
temperature throughout the year is about afterwards removed to the site now w>
^°A. The average rainfall is about
24.05 inches. Much of the soil of Tas-
mania is well adapted for cultivation.
Wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, pease,
beans, and hops are largely cultivated,
and the fruit includes grapes, cherries.
cupled by Uobart. The development of
the country made slow progress until the
land was divided into small allotments
and farming stock and government pen-
sions reckoned as capitaL Convict labor
was supplied, and at a very moderate ex-
plums, quinces, mulberries, peaches, apri- pense tarms were cleared for cultivation,
cots, walnuts, filberts, almonds, etc Sheep, cattle, and horses were introduced,
Fruit-preserving forms an important in- and the raising of stock has always been
dustry. Woodland was formerly general carried on with great success. Until
and much of it
still remains.
Kangaroos and
other herbivo-
rous animals of
the pouched kind
are numerous.
There are also
two marsupial
carnivorous ani-
mals called the
Tasmanian wolf
and the Tas-
manian devil,
both of which
are destructive
to sheep. The
natural forests
are ciiiefly of
tJhe eucalyptus
or gum-tree,
pine, and acacia
tribe. Among
the minerals are
gold, silver, cop-
per, iron, tin,
coal, freestone,
limestone, and
roofing slate.
Smelting • works
have been erect-
ed at Hobart
1824 Tasmania
was a depend-
ency of New
South Wales,
but in that year
it was made an
independent col-
ony. It became
one of the states
of the Common-
wealth of Aus-
tralia in 1901.
For a series of
years the pros-
perity of the
colony was re-
tarded by the
hostility of the
natives and the
depredations of
escaped con-
victs, known by
the name of
bush-rangers.
The aborigines
have ceased to
exist, in 1853
depo r tation
was abolished,
and about the
same time the
name of Tas-
for the iron which abounds in that dis- mania was officially adopted on the pe-
trict. The staple export from Tasmania tition of the colonists. Pop. 181,100.
is wool, and the other articles include Tfl^infl.nifl.n DfiVll ®®^ Dasyure,
gold, tin, timber, grain, fruit, hides, and *«*»***«•*""•** Ar*/vx*.
SS'i. &e'i:^^o1^t''H^urtfa'e Tasmaiiiaii Wolf. ^ ^^v'-'^-
capital, on a fine inlet of the south coast, Tasillfl.llite^^^^'°^^°'^^^* ^ translucent,
and Laonceston, on an inlet of the north, •*"""^*'*' reddish-brown fossil resin,
are the chief towns. Education is com- occurring in Tasmania.
Sulsory, and the higher education is un- TasinaillLia (taz-man'i-a), a genus
er a council, which holds examinations *«**»"*«***"*"«* of plants, consisting of
and grants degrees. one Tasmanian and two Australian
Tasmania was discovered in 1642 by shrubs, nat. order Magnoliaceffi. The Tas-
Abel Jansen Tasman, who named it after
Van Diemen, the governor of the Dutch
East Indies. It was visited by Cook in
1769, and during the next twenty years
by various navigators. In 1797 Bass dis-
covered the strait which has been called
after him. The first settlement was
manian species, T. odorata^
aromatic qualities, particularly in its
bark. Its fruit is used by the colonists
for pepper.
Tassisudon <rirrn'"''^t.ter^?d'
situated on the Gbd&da River about 130
Digitized by
Google
Tasso
Tate
miles N. w. of GofilpAra. There is a
palace where the Deb R&j& resides.
Tasao C^^'^)* Bernardo, an Italian
xopoov gpi^ j^jj^ lyric poet, father of the
more famous Torquato, bom of an an-
cient family at Bergamo in 1493 ; was edu-
cated with great care; entered the service
of Guido Rangone, general of the pope,
as a political emissary; and became sec-
retary to the Prince of Salerno, whom
he accompanied to Tunis. In 1539 he
married Forxia de Rossi and retired to
Sorrento. Subseouently he received the
patronage of the Duke of Urbino, and in
1563 the Duke of Mantua appointed xhim
governor of Ostiglia, where he diea in
1560. He published numerous lyric
poems, but his chief work is the epic of
UAmadigi^ founded on the story of Ama-'
dis de Qaw.
Tasso ^OBQUATO, an eminent Italian
ACMov^ epicj)oet, son of the preceding,
was bom at Sorrento in 1544. He was
early sent to the school of the Jesuits at
Naples, and subsequently pursued his
studies under his father's superintend-
ence at Rome, Bergamo, Urbino, Pesaro,
and Venice. At the age of sixteen he
was sent to the University of Padua to
study law, but at this time, to the sur-
Srise of his friends, be produced the
Hnaldo, an epic poem in twelve cantos.
The reputation of this poem procured for
Torauato an invitation to the University
of Bologna, which he accepted. Here he
displayed an aptitude for philosophy, and
began to write his great poem of Oeruaa-
lemme Liherata (* Jemsalem Delivered*).
While engaged on it he secured a patron
in Cardinal Louis d'Este, to whom he
had dedicated his Rinaldo. He was in-
troduced by the cardinal to the court of
Alfonso II of Ferrara. Here he remained
from 1565 to 1571, when he accompanied
the cardinal on an embassy from the
pope to Charles IX of France. Having
quarreled with his patron, Tasso re-
turned to Ferrara, and in 1573 brought
out the Aminia, a i>astoral, which was
represented at the court. In 1575 he
completed his epic of OeruBalemme Li-
herata. About this time he became a
prey to morbid fancies, believed that he
was persistently caluznniated at court,
and systematically misrepresented to the
Inquisition. To such a pass, indeed, had
this mania come in 1577 that the poet
drew bis poignard upon one of the do-
mestics of the Duchess of Urbino. He
was immediately arrested, but was set at
liberty after two days' confinement. At
his own request he returned to Ferrara,
to the convent of St. Francis; but from
here he made his escape, and traveled in
dliKaise to his native place, Sorrento,
where he stayed with his sister Cornelia.
He again asked permission to return to
Ferrara, a request which the duke coldly
granted. But in his excited and jealous
condition of mind Tasso found it impossi-
ble, to reestablish the old friendlv rela-
tionship at the court He fled from
Ferrara again, but again returned. So
outrageous had his conduct now become
that he was seized by the duke's orders
and confined as a madman in the hospital
of St. Anne at Ferrara. Here he re-
mained from 1579 to 1586, until he was
released at the solicitation of Vincent di
Gonzaga. Broken in health and spirit,
he retired to Mantua, and then to Naples.
Finally, in 1595, he proceeded to Rome
at the request of the pope, who desired
him to be crowned with laurel in the
capitol, but the poet died while the prep-
arations for the ceremony were being
made. Tasso wrote numerous poems, but
his fame rests chiefly on his Rime or
lyrical poems, his Aminta^ and his Oerusa-
lemme Liberata (translated into English
by Fairfax). His letters are also in-
teresting.
TflaQATii (tas-sd'nS), Alessandro, an
died in 1635; chiefly known from his
mock-heroic poam La Secchia Kapita
('The Stolen Bucket'), founded on an
incident that gave rise to war between
the Modenese and Bolognese in the
thirteenth century.
Taste i^^^^)f ^^^ sense by which we
perceive the relish or savor of a
thing. The organs of this special sense
are the papUUBt or processes on the sur-
face of tne tongue, and also certain parts
within the cavity of the mouth and the
throat, as the soft palate, the tonsils, and
the upper part of the pharynx. See
Tongue,
Tatar-Bazarjik (ti-tar'pi-zAr-jek'),
Ac»vc»x .wc^ciwxjAA. ^ ^^^^ j^ Eastern
Roumelia on the Maritza. Pop. 17,549.
Tatars. ^^ Tartarg.
Tate (^^^> Nahum, an English poet,
* was bom in Dublin about the year
1652; received his education in Trinity
College; went to London, where he en-
gaged in literary pursuits ; was appointed
poet laureate; and died in the Mint,
whither he had retired from his creditors,
in 1715. He was the author of several
dramatic pieces; assisted Dryden in the
second part of Absalom and Achitophel;
altered and arranged Shakespeare's King
Lear for the stage; and wrote, in con-
junction with Dr. Nicholas Brady, the
metrical version of the Psalms which
used to be appended to the English B«ok
of Common Prayer,
Digitized by
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Tatian
Taurida
Tatian (t&'shyan), a beresiarch of the
second century, was bom in
Assyria about 120, and died about 172.
He was educated in Greek philosophy;
traveled extensively; caused himself to
be initiated in the rites of various reli-
gions; and eventually embraced Chris-
tianity. Tatian became a disciple of Jus-
tin, after whose martyrdom he left Rome
and journeyed into Mesopotamia, where
he preached certain Gnostic and heretical
doctrines. He seems to have disbelieved
in the divinity of Christ, and his teach-
ing inculcatCNl abstinence from wine,
from animal flesh, and from marriage,
Ab a Christian apologist he wrote Oratio
ad Or<Bco», which is still extant, and his
Diate98aron seems to prove the existence
of four gospels about the middle of the
second century.
Tfl.tillft Achhixs. See AchiUcM To-
TflfATiiiv (taf9-ft), a kind of arma-
j.uvuuay ^^^ 0asypu9 taiouay, or
Xenuru9 unicindus) remarkable for the
undefended state of its tail, which is
devoid of the bony rings that inclose this
member in the other 'armadillos, being
only covered with brown hair.
Tatrfl. (tlL'tr&). See Carpathian Moun"
***•**• tains.
ToHa (t&'tH), a town in Kar&chi Dis-
Aabira ^j^^^ gjjj^ ^^ ^|j^ Indus, about
00 miles east of Kar&chl. Tatta has
some manufactures of cotton and silk
goods, but its commercial importance has
greatly declined. Pop. 10,783.
Tattersall's J[^/^'^^">' Knights-
i&«.v«^j.»cMx o bridge Green, London,
is the great metropolitan mart for horses,
and headquarters of the turf, removed in
1865 from Grosvenor Place, where it was
established by Richard Tattersall in 1773.
A subscription room is open for betters
on the turf, where they make and settle
their beta.
Tattle (^^^)> ^ ^® B^^ Indies, a
* thick mat or screen, usually
made of the sweet-scented cuscus-grass,
and fastened upon a bamboo frame, which
is hung at a door or window, and kept
moist so as to cool the apartment
iTattin? (tafing), a kind of narrow
*** o lace used for edging, woven
or knitted from sewing-thread, with a
shuttle-shaped instrument
Tftttoo (ta-t5'), a beat of drum and
Ac»vvvv ijngie^aii ^t night giving no-
tice to soldiers to repair to their quarters
in garrison or to their tents in camp.
TattOOine (ta-tO'hig), a practice cpm-
***^^^ o mon to several uncivilized
nations, ancient and modem, and to some
extent employed among civilised peoples.
It consists in pricking the skin in a de-
sign, and introducing into the wounds
colored liquids, gunpowder, or the like, so
as to make it indelible. This practice is
very prevalent among the South Sea Is-
landers, among whom are used instru-
ments edged with small teeth, somewhat
resembling those of a fine comb. Degrees
of rank are sometimes indicated by the
greater or less surface of tattooed skin.
Tauchnitz i^°,S25iS?B^5T(^
man publisher, bom in 1816. His estab-
lishment at Leipzig, founded in 1837, is
widely known from the collection of Brit-
ish authors issued from it, which numbers
considerably over 2000 vols., and is con-
tinually increasing. Baron Tauchnitz
was appointed in 1872 British consul-gen-
eral for Saxony. He died in 1895.
Taunton (f^n'^"?* t^p'tun), a par-
^^^^ liamentary borough, Somer-
set, England, on the Tone, 45 miles 8. 8. w.
of Bristol. The principal buildings and
institutions are the parish churches of St
James and St. Mary Magdalene; a Wes-
leyan and a Congregational College; the
library, and the museum of the Somerset-
shire Archffiological and Natural History
Society; an old market house; the castle;
the Shire Hall; a hospital, etc. The
town was long celebrated for woolen, and
afterwards for silk manufactures, but its
chief trade now is in agricultural produce.
Taunton is of great antiquity, and was a
principal residence of tne West Saxon
kings. Here Judge Jefitrevs held the in-
famous * bloody assizes ' in 1685. Pop.
21088.
ToTiTif ATI a town, one of the capitals
J.aUILl0n9 Q^ 3j^g^^j ^^^ Massachu-
setts, on the Taunton River, 35 miles
south of Boston. It is well built and con-
tains a frreat number of handsome edifices.
Its institutions include the Bristol Acad-
emy, organized in 1792, and a State in-
sane asylum. Its manufactures are very
extensive, embracing many large cotton
and yarn mills, silverware factories,
stove foundries, and locomotive works;
also manufactures of printing presses,
nails, shoe buttons, etc. Pop. 34,259.
Tannns (tou'nOs), a mountain range
amukUus ^f Westem Germany, mainly
in the Prussian province of Hessen-
Nassau, extending eastward from the
Rhine, north of the Main; highest sum-
mit. Great Feldbers, 2886 feet It is well
wooded, and exhibits much picturesque
scenery.
TflTiriilft (tft'rC-di), a government in
xaunaa ^^ ^^^^ ^^ Russia, bounded
north by Ekaterinoslaf ; east by the Sea
of Azof; southeast, south, and west by
the Black Sea, and northeast bv the
government of Kherson; area, 24,539
Digitized by
Google
Taurus
Tax
■qoare miles. It is very irregular in
snape and may be regarded as one large
penlnsala. subdivided into two minor
peninsulas, one of which is the Crimea.
It is watered by the Dnieper; the north-
em peninsula consists almost entirely of
an extensive steppe, and the chief occupa-
tion of the inhabitants, who consist of
Russians, is cattle-breeding and agricul-
ture. Pop. 1,634,700. The capital is
SimferopoL
Tun ma (t^'ms), the Bull, one of the
which the sun enters about the 20th ApriL
Taurus is also the second zodiacal con-
stellation, containing, according to the
British catalogue, l4l stars. Several of
these are remarkable, as Aldebaran, of
the first magnitude, in the eye; the
Hyades, in the face; and the Pleiades, in
the neck.
ToTiima a mountain chain in Asiatic
xuuruB, Turkey, stretching for about
500 miles from the Euphrates to the
^2gean Sea, latterly running north of
the Gulf of Adalia. In the east it takes
the name of Ala Dagh, in the west that of
Bnlghar Dagh. It descends steeply to
the sea on the south; northwards it
merges gradually into the plateau of Asia
Minor. It is connected by the Alma-
Dagh with the chain of Lebanon ; and by
Anti-Taurus, with Ararat, Elburz and
the Caucasus.
Tantoe (^^'to«>» » ,^^ . (Tautoga
© nigra or amertcana) found on
the coast of New England, and valued
for food. See BlackfUh.
Tantphoens ir^.T'^i.^Cr?/
James Montgomery, of Sathill, Ireland,
bom in 1807; died in 1883. She mar-
ried a Hungarian nobleman and wrote
novels in English, mainly of south Ger-
man life. They include The Initials,
Quits, and At Odds,
■Po vernier (tA-ver-ne-a), Jean Bap-
i^aYenuer „g^ ^^^^^ d'Aubonne,
tlie son of a Dutch merchant settled in
Paris, was born at Paris about 1605,
and died at Moscow in 1689. Before
his twenty-first vear he had visited a
coDsiderabje portion of Eurox>e, and he
repeatedly traveled through Turkey, Per-
sia, India, and other Elastem countries,
trading as a diamond merchant In 1669,
having realized a large fortune, and ob-
tained a patent of nobility from the
French king, he retired to his estate of
Aubonne, In the Genevese territories. He
compiled, with the aid of French littera-
teurs, Nouveile Relation de Vlnt&rieur du
Strau du Grand Seigneur, Sim Voyages,
and ReoueU de Plusieurs Relations, which
kaw been often reprinted and translated.
»— 10
Tavira (t&-v6'r4), a seaport of Portu-
gal, province of Algarve, on
the Rio Sequa. The town is well built
and has a considerable trade, especially
connected with the sardine fisheries. Pop.
12,175.
Taxriaf Aplr (tav'is-tok), a market town
xaviSlUUK Qf England, county of Dev-
on, in the valley of the Tavy, 16 miles
north of Plymouth. It has a guildhall,
public library, etc., and some remains of
a once magnificent abbey. Copper, tin,
manganese, arsenic, and iron are found
in the neighborhood. Sir Francis Drake
was a native, and the town possesses a
colossal statue of him. Pop. 4392.
TftVOV (tft-voi'), a district in the Ten-
Aa.vvjr asserim division of British Bur-
mah ; area, 7150 square miles. The coun-
try is mountainous with thick forests
and Jungles, and the chief rivers are the
Tavoy and the Tenasserim. The chief
town and the headquarters of the deputy-
commissioner is Tavoy, situated about 30
miles from the mouth of the river of the
same name. Pop. 22371. — There is also
an Island of Tavoy, the largest and most
northern of the extensive chain which
fronts the Tenasserim coast. It is about
18 miles long and 2 broad, and on the
eastern side there is a well-sheltered har-
bor called Port Owen.
TftWin? i^t^'^^s)f tb® manufacture of
o sheep, lamb, and goat skins
into white leather. See Tannina,
Tax (^^^)* ^ contribution levied by
^^^ authoritv from people to defray
the expenses of government or other pub-
lic services. A tax may be a charge made
by the national or state rulers on the in-
comes or property of individuals, or on
the products consumed by them. A tax
is said to be direct whan it is demanded
from the very persons who it is intended
or desired should pay it, as, for example,
a poll-tax, a land or property-tax, an in-
come-tax, taxes for keeping man-servants,
carriages, dogs, and the like. It is said
to be indirect when it is demanded from
one person in the expectation and inten-
tion that he shall indemnify himself at
the expense of another; as, for example,
the taxes called customs, which are im-
posed on certain classes of imported
goods, and those called excise duties,
which are imposed on home manufactures
or inland production. Taxes are also
rates or sums imposed on individuals or
their property for municipal, county, or
other local purposes, such as police taxes,
taxes for tlie support of the poor (poor-
rates), taxes for the repair of roads and
bridges, etc. In the United States and
elsewhere taxes on real estate form the
largest part of the local revenues, mu-
Digitized by
Google
TaxacesB
Taylor
nicipal revenues being almost entirely
raised from this source. Adam Smith
has laid down four principles of taxation,
which have been generally accepted by
Dolitical economists. These are: (1)
The subjects of every state ought to con-
tribute to the support of the government
as nearly as jKmsible in proportion to
their respective abilities. (2) The tax
ought to be certain, not arbitrary. (3)
Every tax ought to be levied at the time
or in the manner most convenient for the
contributor. (4) Every tax ought te be
so contrived as both to take out and keep
out of the pockets of i the people as little
as possible over and above what it brings
into the public treasury of the state.
^ee also Income-tax^ Inheritance-tax^
Customs, Excise, etc.
Tfl.XAGeffi (takB-&'se-€), a suborder of
j.a.Aavca; Coniferae, sometimes regard-
ed as a distinct order, comprising the
yew-tree {Taxus) and other trees or
shrubs which inhabit chiefly the temper-
ate parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and
America.
TotaI (taks'el), the North American
J.ii&ci badger (Meles labradorica) , Its
teeth are of a more carnivorous char-
acter than those of the true badger, and
it preys on such small animals as mar-
mots. Its burrowing powers are remark-
able, its hole often being 30 feet long.
TaTiilArmv (taks'i-der-mi), the art
xauaermy ^^ preparing and preserv-
ing the skins of animals, and also of
stuffing and mounting.
Taxodium a^;f-?>;ae'r«!
em. The T. distichum, or deciduous
cypress, a common ornamental tree grown
upon lawns, is a native of North Amer-
lea. The bark exudes a resin which is
used by the negroes for dressing wounds,
and the roots, which are hollow inside,
are used fox bee-hives.
Tfl.V ^^^)* ^® longest river in Scotland,
* J^ and the one that carries to the sea
a greater volume of water than any
other in the British islands. It rises
on the north side of Ben Lui. near the
borders of Argyleshire and Perthshire;
is known in its earliest course as the
Fillan, and enters Lock Tav, after be-
ing joined by the Lochy. as the Dochart;
issues thence as the River Tav, at Perth
widens out into the Firth of Tay, and
finally enters the North Sea. Its length
is about 120 miles, its greatest breadth
in the estuary 3^ miles, and the area
drained 2400 square miles. It is navi-
gable as far as Perth, but Dundee is
the chief port. The salmon fisheries are
important
'PoY Loch, a loch of Scotland, in the
J^' county of Perth, 15 miles long and
about 1 mile broad ; receiving at its south-
west end the Lochy and the Dochart,
and discharging at its northeast end at
Kenmore by the Tay. It is 100 to 600
feet deep, and is well supplied with fish.
On its northwest shores rises Ben
Lawers.
Tflv "RriilfyA 8- ?reat railway bridge
ittjr uriu^c, in Scotland crossing the
estuary of the Tay from Fifeshire to
Forfarshire at Dundee. A bridge was
built here in 1878, but much of it was
blown down by a violent storm in 1879.
It was replaced by a much more sub-
stantial one, opened in 1887. This is
more than 2 miles long, contains 85 piers,
carries a double line of rails on a steel
floor, and has an average height, above
high-water, of 77 feet under four of the
spans in the navigable channeL The
piers are formed of cylinders embedded
in the river bottom, and filled with con-
crete, while the superstructure is mad«»
of brickwork and malleable iron, braced
by various stays and arches.
TofTVAfiift (ta-ig'^tus), a mountain
AaygeiUS ^^^^ ^^ Southern Greece
(the Morea). See Greece,
Tftvlor (ta'lor), a borough of Lack-
xa.jrxvx awanna Co., Pennsylvania, 3
miles 8. w. of Scranton. It has silk
mills. Pop. 9940.
Tavlnr * *own of Williamson Co.,
tin. It has cotton gins, compress oil
mills, and other industries. Pop. 7785.
Tavlor (^'lor). Bayard, writer and
•^ traveler, was bom at Kennett
Square, Pennsylvania, in 1825. He
learned the trade of a printer, contrib-
uted to various magazines, made a
journey through Europe on foot in 1844-
46^ and on his return published Vistot
Afoot in Europe. This gained him a
position on the stafit of the New York
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Taylor
Taylor
Tribune. He afterwards traveled extens-
ively, and wrote works under the titles
of Eldorado (1850) ; Central Africa
(1854) ; The Land9 of the Saracena
(1854) : VuiU to India, China, and
Japan (1855) ; Northern Travel (1858) ;
Crete and RuMsia (1859) ; Byways of
Europe (1869) ; and Egypt and Iceland
(1874). He also published several
novels, including Hannah Thureton, The
Story of Kennett, and John Qodfrey*»
Fortune9,eji^ a number of volumes of
poems. He was for some time United
States secretary of legation at St. Peters-
burg, and later was United States
minister at Berlin, where he died Decem-
ber 19, 1878.
TavIat Bbook, an English mathema-
xajrxuxy tician, bom at Edmonton in
1685, was educated at Cambridge, and
died in 1731. Chosen a fellow of the
Royal Society, he became its secretary in
1714, an office which he retained four
fears. His chief works are: Methodue
ncrementorum Directa et Inveraa (Lon-
don, 1715), and Linear Perspective
(London, It 15). He was discoverer of
the mathematical formula called Taylor's
Theoretn, of extensive application in the
higher mathematics.
Tflirl nr Sib Henbt, an English
xayiur, ^iter, bom in 1800; died in
1886. At the age of fourteen he entered
the navy; afterwards he became a clerk
in the storekeeper-general's office; con-
tributed to various periodicals, and un-
dertook the editorship of the London
Magazine^ but soon afterwards accepted
an appointment in the colonial office,
where he remained for nearly fifty
fears. His contributions to literature are :
$aae Comenanue, a tragedy (1827) ;
Philip van Artevelde, a dramatic ro-
mance (1834) ; The Stateeman, a series
of essays (1836) ; J^diom the Fair, his-
torical drama (1842) ; The Eve of the
Conquest, and other poems (1845) ;
Notes from Life (1847) ; Notes from
Books (1849) ; The Virgin Widow, a
comedy, afterwards named A Sicilian
Summer (1850) ; and St, ClemcnVs
Eve, romantic drama (1862). He pub-
lished an Autobiography in 1885.
TofrlAT Isaac, a voluminous writer,
xayior, bom at Lavenham, Suffolk, in
1786: died at Stanford Rivers in 1865.
His life was passed without anv note-
worthy incident, and his publisheo works
include: Elements of Thought (London,
1823), The Natural History of En-
thusiasm (1829), The Natural History
of Fanaiiotsm (1833), Spiritual Despo-
iiem (1835), Physical Theory of Another
Life (1836), and various others. — His
AStes, JAJn Tatlqe (1783^1824) » pub-
lished Display, a tale (1814) ; Contribu-
tions of Q.Q., a series of essays; and, in
conjunction with her sister Ann, Origi-
nal Poems and Hymns for Infant Minds,
— His son, Isaac Tatlob, canon of York,
was bora in 1829, and graduated as a
wrangler at Trinity College, Cambridge,
in 1853. He is the author of Words and
Places (1864) ; Etruscan Researches
(1874); Greeks and Qoths (1879);
The Alphabet, an Account of the Oriain
and Development of Letters (1883) ;
Origin of the Aryans (1889), etc.
TflvlAr James Edwabd, artist, bom
xajriur, ^^ Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1839.
He began the study of art, but left it
to engage in the Civil war. In 1863 he
became artist and war correspondent for
Frank Leslie; in 1867 was artist with
the Peace Commission to the Indians.
One of his best paintings is The Last
Orand Review, made for General Sher-
man. Others of bis paintings are in the
Congressional Library at Washington.
He died June 22, 1901.
Tfi'vlnr Jkkemt, one of the greatest
J.a.jriuiy names in the Church of Eng-
land, was born in 1613 at Cambridge;
died at Lisbume, Ireland, in 1667. He
was educated at Perse's Free School in
his native place; entered, in 1626, as a
sizar in Caius College, where hejgradu-
ated Master of Arts; and in 1636 ob-
tained by the patronage of Archbishon
Laud a fellowship of all Souls' College.
Jeremy Taylor.
Oxford. In 1638 he was presented by
Bishop Juzon to the rectory of Upping-
ham, in Rutlandshire, and in 1642 he
was appointed chaplain in ordinary to
Charles I. After the outbreak of tlie
civil war he continued to attend Charles
as chaplain, and when the parliamentary
party proved yictorioas be was tx»
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Taylor
Taylor
f^
qaently imprisoned for short periods,
Byentnally ne retired into Wales, where
he was received by the Earl of Carbery.
under whose protection he was allowed
to exercise nis ministry and keep a
school. Afterwards he removed to Lon-
don, but in 1658 he accepted an invita-
tion from Lord Conway to reside at his
seat in Ireland. Here he remained until
the Restoration, when he was elevated
to the Iri^ see of Down and Ck>nnor,
with the administration of that of
Dromore. He was also, in the same
I rear, made a privv-councilor for Ire-
and, and chosen vice-chancellor of the
University of Dublin. The greater i>art
of his writings consist of sermons and
devotional pieces, and upon the former
rests his fame as a master of varied
English prose.
Tavlnr John, usually called the
xajTAVA^ water-poet f was bom in
Gloucester about 1580, and died in 1654.
He served an apprenticeship to a water-
man, was at the taking of Cadiz, under
the Earl of Essex, in 1596, and was many
years collector of the wine dues exacted
by the lieutenant of the Tower of Lon-
don. He afterwards kept a tavern, first
at Oxford and then at Westminster. His
pieces to the number of sixtv-three were
Eublished in a folio volume in 1630, but
e was the author of a great many more
both in prose and verse. They are char-
acterised by a certain rough vigor not
free from vulgarity.
TflvlAr Philip Meadows, bom at
xuyiur, Liverpool in 1808; died in
1876. From being a merchant's clerk in
Bombay he entered the Nizam's army;
received an appointment as administrator
of the state of Shorapore; maintained
order in the Berar district during the
mutiny of 1857; and received the rank
of colonel, a companionship of the Star
of India, and a commissionership of the
Western Deccan districts. He published
the Confessione of a Thug (1839),
Tippoo Bultaun J 1840), ^aTom _ (1863),
Hietot^ _^ _
QMeen (1^78)
ilph DameU (1865), Manual of the
Hiatory of India (1870), and A Noble
TflvlAr Thohas, the ' Platonist,' bom
xayiur, j^ London in 1758; died at
Walworth in 1835. He studied with a
view to the dissenting ministry, but en-
tered a banking-house, when all his
leisure was devoted to classical and
philosophical studies. He published,
chiefly with the aid of patrons, about
forty difiterent works, the most remark-
able of which are Plato (five vols. 4to,
1804) , printed at the expense of the Duke
tf Norfolk, who kept almost the whole
edition locked, up Ulf 1848; and Ari$totle
(ten vols. 1806-12), printed at the ex*
pense of Mr. W. Meredith, who gave
Taylor an annuity of £1(X), which he en-
joyed till his death.
TavIat Tom, bora at Sunderland in
Aajriur, 1817; died in 1880. He re-
ceived his education at Glasgow Uni-
versity and Trinity (>>l]ege, Cambridge;
became professor for two years in uni*
versity College, London; was called to
the bar (1845), and went on the north-
era circuit; appointed, in 1854, secre-
tary to the Board of Health; wrote and
adapted for the stage a great number of
plays; and succeeded Shirley Brooks
(1873) as editor of Punch. The most
popular of his plays are: New Men and
Old Acree^ Maeke and Facee (in col-
laboration with Charles Reade), Still
Water* Run Deep, The Overland Route,
and The Ticket of Leave Man. His
historic dramas include: The FooVe Re-
venge, Joan of Arc, 'Twimt Awe and
Crowf^ Lady Clanoartu, Anne Bdegn.
etc He also published biographies of
B. R Havdon (1853), C B. LesUe
(1859), and Sir Joshua Reynolds (1865).
TAvlonrillp & ^^^y^ capital of Chris-'
Xayiorviue^ tian do., Illinois, on the
south fork of the Sangamon River, 28
miles s. w. of Decatur. Its manufactures
include paper, chemicals, wagons, etc.
TflirlAT William, bora at Norwich,
xuyiur, England, in 1765; died in
1836L He was educated for a mercantile
career, but after a lengthened stay in
(Germany he resolved to devote himself
to literature. His published works are:
a translation of BQrger's Lenore (1796)
and Lessing's Nathan the Wiee (1806),
English Synongme Discriminated (1813),
and a Hietorio Survey of German Poetry
(1828).
Tavlor Zachast, twelfth president of
Aayiur, ^^^ United States, bom In
Orange county, Virginia, in 1784. He
entered the army in 1808, and rose to
the rank of major; took command of
the United States forces at the outbreak
of the Mexican war; repeatedly defeated
the Mexicans, and finally triumphed over
Santa Anna in the battle of Buena Vista
(1847). This was the moat spectacular
battle of the war, Taylor winning the
victory over much larger numbers, and
it gave him a wide reputation, he becom-
ing a popular favorite under his army
title of ' Old Rough and Ready.' This
popularity brought him the Whig party
nomination for President in 1848 and
he was elected in the following Novem-
ber. Though with little education and
no political experience, he showed good
sense and judgment, but died in the
second year. of his term, July 9, 18501
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Ttyra
Tea
Tftvra (^^« (M^m harhdra)t a caiv
AmjM,m ||iyor,)„g animal allied to tlie
ftattoot found in South America. In
color it is black, save a large white patch
on the breast
TaIiiiiI (chftd), Chad, or Tbao, a large
J.onaa Jresh-watcrlake of Central
Africa, In the Soudan, haying the ter-
ritories of Bomou, Kanem, and Bagirmi
surrounding it; length, about 150 miles;
breadth, about 100 miles; area, about
20,000 square miles, with a Tariable ex-
panse according as it is the wet or dry
season. Its principal feeder is the Shari
fnnn the south, and Its shores are low
and marshy. The lake (which has no
outlet) swarms with turtles, fish, croco-
diles, and hippopotamL It contahis a
number of small islands, which are
densely peopled, as are also great part
of its shores, especially on the west,
where is the large town Kuka, capital
of Bomou.
Tcherkask Ic^er^sk), or Novo-
Avuvi.A4»BA. TcHEBKASK, a towu situ-
ated on the Don, and capital of the Don
Cossack country. Russia. The town is
well built, and has a cathedral, collere,
library, market place, etc. Pop. 52,005.
Toherkassy <,'?->S^f 'o," ffl
Russia, situated on the Dnieper, 190
miles southeast of Kieff. It is built of
wood, and has a considerable trade.
Pop. 29,620.
TchernieOY (<*er.ne'gov), Tcmnua-
AVJ&i^AUA^vv QQjff^ Qf TCHEBNIOOW.
a government of Little Russia, situated
on the left bank of the Dnieper; area,
20,232 so. miles. The country is chiefly
an undulating plain, fertile for the most
part, and watered by the Soj, the Desna,
and the Dnieper. Agriculture and cat-
tle-breeding are the chief employments;
corn, linseed, timber, tobacco, and sugar
are exported. Pop. 2322,007. — Tcheb-
laoov, the capital, is situated on the
Desna, about 80 miles N. lY. B. of Kieff.
It is the see of an archbishop, has a
cathedral, a college, hospital, etc., and
a considerable txade. Pop. 27,028.
AVM«^AMvci^uj. f^^ ^ \ji\Mck soil in Rus-
sia of extraordinary fertility, covering at
least 100,000,000 acres, from the Carpa-
thians to the Ural Mountains, to the
depth of from 4 to 20 feet, and yielding
an almost unlimited succession of similar
crops without nreparatlon.
Tcherny. 8«* <?««^.
Tolmdes i?S:^^>an.T5.e«fc
races in the northwest of Russia. It
has now acquired a more general ap-
plication, and is used to designate the
S'oup of peoples of which the Fhins, the
sthonians, the Livonians, and Lap-
landers are members.
Tea. (^^<*)« A genus of plants, nat
*^** order TemstrcBmiacett (that to
which the camellia belongs), comprising
the species (T. sinenaia or chinemis)
which yields most of the tea of com-
merce. By different modes of culture'
this species has diverged into two dis-i
tinct varieties, entitled Thea viridU and
Thea hohea. The former is a lan^e hardy
evergreen plant with spreading branches
and thin leaves from 3 to 5 inches long;
the latter is a smaller plant, and differs
from the other in several particulars.
From both, according to the process of
manufacture, black and green teas are
procured. The tea plant is cultivated
not only over a great part of China, but
also in Japan, Tonquin, Cochin-China,
Assam and other parts of India, and
Ceylon. It has also been experimentally
introduced into Carolina, Brazil, and
Australia. Its growth is chiefly confined
to hilly tracts; it is raised from seed,
and the rearing of it requires great skill
and attention. In seven years the plant
attains the height of 6 feet, ana the
leaves are plucked off carefully one by
one four times a year. In their green
condition they are placed in a hot pan
over a small furnace, and then rubbed
lightly between the palms of the hands,
or on a table. This process is repeated
until the leaves become small, crisp, and
curled. The black teas thus prepared
include bohea, congou, souchong, and
pekoe; the green teas, twankay, hyson-
skin, young hyson, hyson, imperial, and
gunpowder. Green tea gets less of the
fire than black tea. The broken leaves,
stalks, and refuse of the tea are com-
pressed into solid bricks, which are im-
ported by the Russians into the greater
part of Central Asia, where (besides be-
ing used as a sort of coinage) they are
sometimes stewed with milk, salt, and
butter. There is considerable adultera-
tion in the teas sent from China to the
European market, and they are often
artificially colored with a mixture of
Prussian blue, or of gypsum and indigo
carefullv mixed. The infusion of tea-
leaves in hot water yields a beverage
which has little nutritive value, but It
increases respiratory action, and seems
to have a stimulative and restorative ac-
tion on the nervous system. This Is
chiefly due to the essential oil and the
theine (an alkaloid in its nature identical
with the caffeine in coffee) which it con-
tains, while the tannin, which is also
present, acts as an astringent. If the
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Teak
Technical Education
water is boiling, an infusion of ten min-
utes is sufficient to extract all the theine,
and a longer period only adds to the
tannin in the beverage, a result which
is very hurtful to digestion. From his-
torical sources we learn that tea was
used in China as a beverage in the sixth
century, and two centuries after its use
had become common. In England we
first find it mentioned about 1615 by an
asent of the East India Company; In
1660 Pepys says in his diarv, 'I did
send for a cup of tea, a China drink,
of which I never had drunk before';
and in 1664 the East India Company
made a present to the king of 2 lbs. 2 oz.
In the year 1678 the import of tea to
BriUin was 5000 lbs., but forty years
after it reached 1,000,000 lbs. and is
now more than 250,000,000. China, un-
til recent years, held almost a monopoly
jn the production of tea, but now India
and Ceylon have entered the market as
important competitors, and the product
of Japan is lai^e. Britain is the princi-
pal tea consuming country in the world,
coffee being lesn in favor there than in
many other countries, the United States
and Canada for example. Tea is also
very largely used in Russia and in great
part of Asia. The tax laid on tea and
the effort to force the colonists to use it.
was one of the chief instigating causes of
the American Revolution.
TaoJp (tek; Tect6na ffrandii), a tree
A^cuk ^£ ^Yxe nat order Verbenaceie, a
nativo of different parts of India, as well
as of Burmah and of the islands from
Ceylon to the Moluccas. It grows to
an immense size, and is remarkable for
Teak {Teetinagrandis),
its large leaves, which are from 12 to
24 inches long, and from 6 to 18 broad.
The wood, though porous, is strong and
durable: it is easily seasoned and shrinks
but little, and from containing a resin-
ous oil it resists the action of water,
and repels the attacks of insects of all
kinds. It is extensively used in ship*
building and for many other purposes.
— African teak, a timber similar to East
Indian teak, is believed to be the prod-
uce of Oldfieldia africanei, nat. order
EuphorbiaceflB.
Teal (^^^)* ^^® common name for ducka
Avcu. ^£ ^jjg genus Querquediila^ the
smallest and most beautiful of the
Anatidfls, or duck family. The common
teal (Q. crecoa) is an annual visitor to
Britain, remaining in parts of Scotland
all the year. North American species in-
clude the ^reen-winged teal (Q. oarolin-
enais) which is very like the common
teal, and the blue-winged teal (Q.
disoori), somewhat larger than the com-
mon teal, and easily domesticated.
Teasel (t^'s^l)! the English name of
Avoro^/x ggygfij plants of the genus
Dip$dcu9, nat order Dipsaceie, allied to
the composite order. One species (D.
Mylveatria) grows wild in England, and
in this country in hedges from Massachu-
setts to Indiana. Another species, the
fuller's teasel (Z). fuU6num)f by some
regarded as a mere variety, is cultivated
for the sake of the awns of the head,
which are employed to raise the nap of
Foolen doths.
Tebeth (tS'beth), the tenth month of
the Jewish ecclesiastical year,
beginning with the new moon in Decem-
ber and ending with the new moon in
January.
Technical Education. 'SSmSVaT
education, properly speakinjg, includes the
field of all instruction relating to the arts,
sciences, professions, and trades; but in
common use it is restricted to the field
of the industrial arts, and more particu-
larly to that instruction in which theory
rather than practice bears a preponderat-
ing part. The courses oflfered extend
over four years and lead to the B.S. de-
cree, one or two further years of study
Deing required for professional degrees,
viz., C.E. (civil engineer), E.E. (elec-
trical engineer), etc. The courses which
may generally be found are Uie following :
engineering usually in all branches, chem-
istry, physics, architecture, mining and
metallurg^r. For the two last-named sub-
jects special schools have been developed,
especially in those states where mining is
the chief industry, such as Ck)lorado,
New Mexico. Montana, and Michigan. In
addition to lectures and laboratory prac-
tice, in most technical schools practical
experience, under actual conditions,
is demanded from students before proceed-
ing to a degree.
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Teohnology Teeth
TAAliTi/^1/^<nr (tek-noro-ji), that TaaI (t^)f Tekl-sxed, an Indian name
XecnnoiO^ branch of knowledge ^^^'' for SeMmum Indicum and its seed,
which deals with the yarious industrial See Sesamum,
arts. There are a number of schools of O^AAg (tte), a river in England, which
technology in the United States devoted *^^» rises near Cross Fell, in Cumber-
to the study of civil, electrical, mining, liand, and marks the southern limit of
and mechanical engineering and similar the county of Durham, to its mouth in
subjects. Among these are the Massachu- the North Sea, where it forms an estuary,
setts Institute of Technology, at Boston, its whole course is between 70 and 80
the Stevens Institute of Technology, at miles.
Hoboken, N. J., the Case School of Ap- vpAAf li the name given to certain hard
?lied Science^ at Cleveland, Ohio, the a^^**"! structures growing out of the
!owne Scientific School at the University Jaws of vertebrate animals, and serving
of Pennsylvania, Sibley College at Cor- as the instruments of mastication. The
nell, the Armour Institute at Chicago, the teeth of animals differ in shape, being
Sheffield and Lawrence Scientific Schools, destined for different offices. In man
at Yale and Harvard respectively, the and the higher mammals two sets of
School of Mines at Columbia, etc teeth are developed, the early, milk, or
Teck Alexander, Pbincb of, was deciduous teeth, and the permanent set
T . J^i? ^J5^?^f^^ Palace, Lon- in fishes the teeth fall off and are re-
don, AprU 14, 1874, third son of the Duke newed repeatedly in the course of their
of Teck and Princess Mary Adelaide. He Uves. Teeth do not belong to the skele-
served with ho^uor at Matabeldand in ton, but to the skin or exoskeletal parts
laW. and m South Afnca, 1^^1900. of the body, and are homologous with
On May 7. 19H. he was appointed Gov- hairs. In man the teeth are imbedded
emor-Ueneral of Canada. * , * in sockets in the upper and tower jaw-
TeCOma (te-k6ma), a genus of Plants, bones. There are thirty-two In all, six-
^ nat order Btgnonwcew. The teen in each Jaw, and each consists of
species are erect trees or shrubs or dimb- the crown or visible part, and the fangs
ing plants, with usually pinnate leaves, or buried part. The four central teeth
and termmal panicles of dusky red or of each jaw having chisel-shaped crowns
orange flowere. There are about 80 spe- ^uh sharp edges are called incisors;
aw, some of them as T. tmpettfftnosa, on each side of these four is the pointed
medicinaL /^•i.^u i-i«r canine tooth (which in the upper jaw
TcCtlbrancluata ^A^^^f "^SSo'n of ^% ""t^^^ ^^"^ eye-tooth) ; on each side
, 1, ^^» aoivision or ^f t^gg^ ^pg two bicuspid teeth (pr»-
gasteropodous mollusca. comprehending molars) ; and behind these agahi are the
those species in which the gills are pro- ^olar teeth, three on each side. (See
tected by a shell, or by toe manUe, in- j)ental Formula.) The last of the
eluding the sea-haw and others. permanent teeth to appear are the
TeCnmseh Vl- M?;f5 J/ fi?f q?oS!S; farthest back, grinding teeth, which, ow-
T ^T. . y^^ i^^'ji^^^Af^a^^.^^^Z^Vf J°« to tl»«»' a"ival »>«tween the seven-
Indians, bom hi 1768. After taking part ^^^^1^ ^^ twentv-fif th years, are called
fewSSf~"*4«*i«S^« j2^^?i*.rf2S^I tlie wisdom teeth. Each ti)th has a
S!^*J^tr™^nHi?$.^p^C?f ♦ha'^^Mt?/ ce'^tral cavity filled with a soft pulp con-
the Western Indians against the whites, t-injn- hlood.vpsflplft and n*»rvA«* thi«
82JlSfl ^i^^Ji^ ^Z^llf^^^li ^^^/y^^r^^^^ byien^LTa ha'iS
General Harrison and wm defeated at gubgtince composed of phosphate and
Tippeouioe, November 7. 1811. This put ^rb^nate of uSeToutside the fang is^a
tSr*?h«t^Jl^'1?J%-nteZ**RHHSf cemVut-like suStince resemblini %one:
SfJ?. k?n^ «T rt,p h«J?i«!^f th« TTi™ while outside the crown is a hard enamel.
5?t^ K iftia ^ In yo"°« teeth the enamel is covered by
October 5, 1813. ^ delicate membrane called " the skin
Teddm^on (ted'ing-tun), a town of of the teeth," which in adult teeth is .
Avu.ux1j.5bvu England^ i^ the county worn off. Toothache is due to decay of
of Middlesex, on the Thames, and about the substance of a tooth, dental caries
13 miles 8.W. of London. Fop. 17,840. as it is called. When the enamel which
Te Denin ^^ dd'um), a name (from covers the tooth becomes flawed the un-
*^ ^vu-uj. ^g opening phrase, Te derlying dentine is exposed and soon
Deum laudamus) of the well-known Latin breaks down. When the decav, passing
bymn usually ascribed to St Ambrose inward, reaches the pulp which contains
mnd St Augustine, although it cannot be the blood-vessels and nerves it causes
traced farther back than the end of the inflammation, aching, and suppuration,
fifth century. It is used in the ritual of Any treatment of toothache, short of ex-
Bflman (Catholic and Anglican churches, traction, is seldom satisfactory if the
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Teetotalism
Teledn
^ulp has been actually attacked; but
neuralgia is often mistaken for tooth*
ache. See Dentiiiry.
Tcctotalism. Se^^emperance. fiooi-
Teff (Er^nn'OMiii Ahy$9inica), a grain
eztensiyely cultivated in Abyssinia,
liaving seeds about the size of those of
millet
T^tmi^T (teng-n&r'), Esaias, a Swed-
xc^uer jgjj p^^ y^^ ju ^7^2, studied
at the University of Lund, became in
1812 professor of Greek literature, and
in 18^ was appointed bishop of Wezi9,
where he died in 1846. Amonfr his
works may be mentioned his Frtthiof$
SagOy an epic poem, repeatedly translated
into English; his national song of the
Qoiha Lion; and The Children of the
Lord^a Supper, translated by Longfellow.
Tegucigalpa iK^fflJ^**
the Rio arande, about 3370 feet above
the sea, surrounded by mountains, with
a venerable old church, a high school,
and an active trade. Pop. about 35,000.
Teenexin (te-geks'to. reiyt Tei^i^
^o ^ in), a species of lizard in-
habiting tropical America. A full-grown
specimen may exceed 5 feet in length, and
they are able to swim with great ease and
rapidity.
Teheran iit'rtJlUlt' ttfr'£
the northeast of the province, 66 miles
south of the Caspian Sea, at the south-
em base of Mount Elburz. It is 4 miles
in circuit, surrounded by a strong wall,
flanked by numerous towers, with a
broad dry ditch, and glacis. The city
has six gates, from which the main
streets lead to the bazaar in the center
of the town. Since 1870 the city has
been much Improved, the streets being
lighted with gas and laid with tramways.
The principal edifice is the citadel-palace
of the shah, which has considerable
strength, but little architectural merit.
During the summer months the court re-
moves (on account of the intolerable
heat) to more agreeable quarters on the
heights to the north, and a third of the
inhabitants (including the European
embassies) follow the royal example.
The principal manufactures are carpets,
silks, cottons, and articles in iron. Fop.
(hi winter) 280,000.
Tf^liri (tft-r6'), a state of Hindustan.
j.^uj:i. ^^ Garhwdl. Tehbi is also
a name for the state of Orchha (which
see), and for its capital, an ill-built town
with a pop. of 33,871.
Te1i11&i!fl.n (tft-wA-kAn'), a town in
Xenuacan ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ Puebla, Mexi-
co^ at the southern extremity of the high-
lands of Anahuac, on the right bank of
the Salado, and 125 miles southeast of
the city of Mexica Pop. 7139.
Tehnantepec i^l^^^-^^^'i' ,^
State of Oaxaca, 14 miles above the
mouth of a river of the same name, fall-
ing into the Pacific Ocean. On account
of a dangerous bar the river is little
used for navigation. Pop., mostly In-
dians, 10,386. The town is near the
south side of the Isthmus or Tehuan-
TKPEO, the narrowest part of N. America,
having the GuLT or TsHUAirrEPEO on
the Pacific side, the Bay of Gampeachy
on the Atlantic side; width, about llD
miles. There have been various schemes
for constructing a canal or a ship rail-
way across the isthmus, the most recent
of the latter sort being that of an Ameri-
can engineer named Eads. See Ship
Raihoay, A railroad now crosses the
Isthmus and a large and valuable trade
has developed. It is expected to com-
E^te with the Panama Canal when fin^
bed, as furnishing a much shorter
Atlantic-Pacific route from northern
ports.
Teignmoutli <?3'°'SJI?i'eAo:S'"5
England, in the coun^ of Devon, at th«
mouth of the Teign, which is here crossed
by a wooden bridge 1671 feet in length.
It is divided into East Teignmouth and
West Teignmouth. East Teignmouth,
which is the more modem, is almost en-
tirely appropriated as a watering-place.
West Teignmouth, the port and principal
seat of business, has a safe and com-
modious harbor. The fisheries employ a
considerable number of the inhabitants.
Pop. (1911) 9221.
T^iTiHa (tends), the Scotch law term
XCXliUS j^y ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^j ^^^
fruits of the land. In the majority of
instances the telnds now belong to the
owners of the land formerly paying them,
to the crowiL or other proprietors, they
being charged in all cases with the pay-
ment of the parish minister's stipend.
Telamon. ®^ AUante$.
Telautograph i^AUnft'^;^^^^^
vented by Professor Elisha Gray, based
on a novel svstem of transmission,
whereby a fac simile reproduction of the
handwriting of the sender of a message
is effected. See Telegraph.
Teledn (t^^'^^)* ^ Javanese camiv-
orous quadruped, familv Mus-
telidfle, allied to the skunk, and like it,
when provoked, capable of diffusing a
most abominable stench; the stinkard
(Mydau9 melicep$).
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Telegraph
Telegraph
Teleeraph (tel'e-graf), a general
o *^" name for any instrument
or apnaratus for conveying intelligence
beyond the limits of distance at which
the Toice is audible, the idea of speed
behiig also implied. Thus the name used
to be given to a semaphore or other
appliances for signaling, which are now
designated as signaling apparatus. The
Single-needle Insfenunent.
word telegraph has come to be restricted
in its application to the electric tele-
graph, which from its power of rapidly
conveying elaborate communications to
the greatest distances has completely out-
rivaled all others. The electric telegraph,
as comprising the entire system of ap-
paratus for transmitting intelligence by
electricity, consists essentially (1) of a
battery or other source of electric power ;
(2) of a line-wire or conductor for con-
veying the electric current from one sta-
tion to another; (3) of the apparatus
for transmitting, interrupting, and if
necessarv reversing the current at pleas-
ure; and (4) of the indicator or signal-
ing instrument. The line-wires for
overhead lines are usually of iron, pro-
tected from atmospheric influence bv
galvanising or by being varnished with
boiled linseed-oil, a coating of tar, or
other means, and are supported upon
posts, to which they are attached by in-
sulators. (See Insulator,) In under-
ground lines the wires are insulated by
a gutta-percha or other non-conducting
covering, and inclosed in iron or leaa
pipes. The battery and line-wire are
common to all telegraphic systems;
it is in the method of producing
the signals that the great variation
exists; but in all of them advantage has
been taken of one or another of the three
following properties of the current: (1)
its power of producing the deflection of
a magnetic needle, as in the galvan-
ometer (which see) ; (2) its power of
temporarily magnetizing soft iron; and
(3) its power of producing chemical de-
composition.
The needle-telegraph of Coolce and
Wheatstone is an application of the first
of these properties. This, the earliest
form of telegraphic instrument, originally
employed five needles, each woilced by
two wires. The number was subse-
quently reduced to two, and now only
one wire is used. This hangs vertically,
but can move to right or left between
two stops. The signals are formed by
combinations of the deflections in the
two directions. These are variously
combined to represent the letters of the
alphabet, the Morse code being used. The
needle-telegraph was never adopted out
of England, and even here the Morse has
been generally substituted for it
The electro-magnetic instrument of Pro-
fessor Morse is an application of the
second of the above properties. By
means of an electro-magnet, an armature
which is attracted when the magnet is
temporarily magnetized, a lever moved
by the armature, and a style which moves
with the lever, this instrument impresses
a message in dots and dashes on a rib-
bon of moving paper, and by it forty
words may be sent in a minute. This
' dot and dash ' system which was in-
vented by Morse is now in very general
use. A modification of this instrument,
called a sounder, in which the lever
makes audible sounds by coming in con-
Receiver or Soonder.
tact with a brass rod, indicates the mes-
sage by the length of the strokes pro-
duced. This is sDOwn in the illustration,
which shows the arrangement, by which
the hammer-head h is attracted, and the
arm HP is brought into contact with
the pin a. Upon the cessation of the
current the spring brings down the arm
upon the pin ft. Frequently the Morse
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Telegrapli
Telegraph
is simultaneously a recorder and
sounder. It beins necessary that this
instrument should produce sharp and
Jistlnct impressions, and the current be-
insr weak for stages over 50 miles, a
relay, or subsidiary electro-magnetic
circuit, is added to it in the case of
longer distances. The transmitting in-
strument is a lever, which, on neing
gressed, permits the current from the
attery to flow into the line-wire during
the time the contact is made. Both on
account of its intrinsic merits and for
the sake of uniformity the Morse is the
most extensively used system, being that
in use in America and on the continent
of Europe, and being also largely em-
ployed in Britain.
Hughes' printing telegraph is the in-
strument chiefly used by the submarine
telegraph companies. It works with one
line of wire, and has about three times
the speed of the Morse system, with the
advantage that the message is printed
in the ordinary Roman type. The ma-
chine is rather complicated, but its prin-
ciple can be easily understood. A wheel
having type engraved on its rim is made
to revolve at a known rate; a strip of
paper, as in the case of the Morse, is
drawn ot£ a drum over a roller which
lies under the rim of the revolving type-
wheel ; by means of the current the roller
with the paper is raised against the
type- wheel as the proper letter passes,
and in this way the despatch is printed.
The operator works on a keyboard much
like that of a piano. Chemical tele-
graphs work on the principle that an
iron wire pressing against a paper pre-
pared with cyanide of potassium or other
substance will, while a current is passing
between the wire and the paper, produce
a dark streak of Prussian blue or other
mark, and when the current is inter-
rupted the streak of pigment is inter-
rupted. BonelIi*s telegraph is worked by
means of five wires. The message is set
up in brass types in one line; the let-
ters are common block letters ; five styles,
like the teeth of a comb, press against
the raised portions of the type, and as
the line of type is drawn through each
style sends a current along its wire to
a corresponding style pressing against
prepared paper at the distant station,
making a mark pp the paper there corre-
sponding to the raised portion of type
which sends the current. The chief ob-
jection to Bonelli's telegraph is the five
wires necessary between the stations.
Autographic telegraphs are chemical
telegraphs, and consist of a message writ-
ten with a pen dipped in some non-con-
dueting substance on a surface of tin-
foil or other conducting material pasted
on a cylinder which is made to revolve
at a certain rate; a style presses against
the surface, and is movea up or down
the cylinder at a certain rate so as to
describe a helical line; a current passes
between the cylinder and style except
when the non-conducting writing comes
between them; at the distant station a
similar cylinder covered with paper pre-
pared with cyanide of potassium revolves
at the same rate as the first cylinder;
and its style being connected with the
first style by means of the telegraph
wire makes a mark of Prussian blue,
which is a continuous helix, except when
the current is interrupted at the first
style. In this way a copy of the mes-
sage in the handwriting of the sender is
produced at a distant station. Bain's
automatic telegraph is Bonelli's tele-
graph, wherein by adopting the Morse
alphabet one wire is suflicient; and the
type is simply a strip of paper with
dots and dashes punched in it. In addi-
tion to the delicate mirror or refleeting
galvanometer, which Sir W. Thomson in-
vented in connection with the Atlantic
telegraph, that distinguished electrician
invented a self-recording instrument,
consisting of a light coil of wire, very
delicately suspended in a magnetic field,
the motions of which coil, when a cur-
rent is passed through it, are the means
by which messages are recorded. The
coil is attached to a very light glass
siphon in the shape of an exceedingly
fine capillary tube, through which ink
from a reservoir is drawn by electric at-
traction, the reservoir and the moving
paper ribbon upon which the ink falls
bein^ oppositely electrified. The ex-
tremity of the siphon is not in contact
with, but only very near the paper.
When there is no current the ink traces
a straight line; when the current is
passing the marks or deviations consti-
tuting the letters are produced. The
delicacy and rapidity of this instrument
are even greater than th6se of the mirror
galvanometer, and the siphon recorder
accordingly is highly valued.
As early as 1747 Bishop Watson
showed that signals might be sent through
a wire stretched across the Thames by
discharging a Leyden-jar through it.
In 1753 there appeared in the Scots
Magazine a letter signed G. M., in
which the idea of signaling by means of
electric discharges is put forward.
Lesage, 1774, erected at Geneva a tele-
graph line consisting of twenty-four
wires connected with the same number
of pith-ball electroscopes, each represent-
ing a letter. Reusser, in Germany, pro-
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Tclegrapn Telegraph
posed in the same year to replace the Wheatstone and Ck>oke on the London and
electroscopes by spangled panes exhibit- Birmingham and Great Western rail-
ing the letters themselves. Volta*s dis- ways. The wires, which were buried in
covery of the galvanic pile, and Oersted's the earth, were five in number, each act*
discovery of electro-magnetism, by sup- ing on a separate needle, but the ez-
plying electricity of a Kind more easily pensiveness of this plan soon led to its
retained on the conducting wires, af- beinz given up, the double-needle, and
forded much greater facilities for trans- finally the single-needle, system replac-
mlttin^ signals to a distance. Ampere, infirit.
in 1k20, proposed to utilize Oersted's This historical sketch may be corn-
discovery by employing twenty-four pleted by a statement of the more re-
needles to be deflected by currents sent cent inventions of importance in tele-
through the same number of wires ; and graphic science. The first great improve-
Baron Schilling exhibited in Russia, in ment after the general introduction of
1832, a telegraph model in which the the Morse system came in the multiple
signals appear to have been given by the or synchronous system, which was first
deflections of a single needle. Weber suggested as early as 1852. The early
and Gauss carried out this plan in 1833 forms of this system proved unsatis-
by leading two wires from the observa- factory, but Delany*s later invention, in-
tory of G5ttingen to the Physical Cab- troduced about 18fe, supplied a practieal
inety a distance of about 9000 feet, multiplex telegraph, by which several
The signal consisted in small deflections messages could be sent simultaneously.
of a bar-magnet suspended horizontally The principle involved is the synchronous
with a mirror attached, on the plan since rotation of sets of mechanism at opposite
adopted in Thomson's mirror galvanom- ends of a line. The difficulty to be met
eter. At their request the subject was is that of maintaining perfect syn-
eamestly taken up by Professor Stein- chronism. This system differg in prlncl*
A$ Punehsd.
•• • •# %••••• • #• • • •
A T J^ N Y XIMB3
As Printed.
Wbeatstone's Automatic System.
heil of Munich, whose inventions con- pie from that of duplew telegraphy^ de-
tributed more perhaps than those of any veloped by a number of inventors, and
other single individual to render electric now in general use in America and Eu-
telcgraphs commercially practicable. He rope. Edison's quadruples system, in-
was the first to ascertain that ^arth troduced in 1884, is an improvement
connections might be made to supersede upon the duplex. In this two keys are
the use of a return wire. He also in- provided in the sending circuit, and two
vented a convenient telegraphic alphabet, relays, each having a coil in both the
in which, as in most of the codes since line-circuit and compensation-circuit,
employed, the different letters of the One key reverses the current, and the
alphabet are represented by different other brings into the circuit three times
combinations of two elementary signals, as much battery power, which permits of
His currents were magneto-electric, like the two extra workings. A variety of
those of Weber and Gauss. The attrac- other printing telegraphs have sup-
tion of an electro-magnet on a movable plemented that of Hughes, including the
armature furnishes the means of signal- Phelps and House machine, the Rogers,
ing which is the foundation of Morse's Gray's telautograph, and various others,
telegraphic system, introduced in 1844, In the Gray instrument two wires are
and notable for its convenient alphabet, used and written messages are repro-
now in use in all parts of the world, duced. The writing instrument may be
About the year 1837 electric telegraphs an ordinary pencil, the pen of the re-
were first developed as commercial spec- ceiver being a glass tube, carrying its
nlations in three different countries, ink capillarity. The duplication of the
Steinheirs system was experimented with motions of the pencil at the transmitter
at Munich, Morse's in America, and is performed by current impulses con-
Wbeatstone and Cooke's in England, trolled by the shortening or lengthening
The first telegraphs ever constructed for of two silk cords to which the pencil is
commercial use were laid down by attached. By a complex mechanism the
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Telegrapli Cable Telephone
impulses at the transmitter are so dupli- This principle has been developed in the
cated at the receiver as to cause two modem range-finder. Acoustic telemeten
aluminum arms to shift the receiving record the time between the flash of a
pen along positions similar to those as- gun and the hearing of the report
sumed by the sending pencil and the silk Tfilftolo^V (tel-e-ol'd-ji), the science
cords, so that the record at the receiver ^v^^vxwgjr or doctrine of final causes ;
is always a fac simile of that at the the doctrine which asserts that all things
transmitter, whether words, figures, signs, which exist were produced by an int^i-
or sketches are made. The transmission gent being for the end which they fulfill,
of drawings can be made by this and TftlnnAAnnift (tel-e-O-sa'rus), a genus
several other instruments. ^ XClCUSaUTUS ^^ fossiTcrocoiilei oe-
In the printing telegraph of recent in- cnrring in the lower Jurassic rocks. They
vention the message is prepared bv a are found with marine fossils, and
species of typewriting machine, which seem to have been especially fitted for
punches holes in a paper tape, which an aquatic life.
tape is fed automatically through a Teleostei (tel-e-oa'te-I), a large and
transmitter, having minute levers which **'*^voi*^x ijnp^rtanj^ sub-class of the
make connections through the holes in class of fishes, distinguished primarily
the tape and send corresponding impulses by the usually hony nature of me skele-
over the wire. The speed of this instru- ton as compared with the cartilaginous
ment depends on the rapidity with which skeletons of some other sub-classes. Al-
the typewriter can be worked, as the most all our common fishes are included
tape can be sent through the transmitter in this order. See Ichthyology.
at almost any speed. Two hundred or Telenathv (tel-ep'a-thl), thought
more words a minute can be sent, De- *^*^i'«**''"'j transference from mind to
spite the rapidity of these methods, how- mind through intermediate space. This
ever, the simple Morse system still holds word was coined about 1886 oy the So-
its own, all more rapid ones suffering ciety for Psychical Research to Indicate
from some degree of complication. An the supposed cause of various phenome-
interesting development of telegraphy is na observed. These were very namer-
that of sending messages from moving ous and varied, and sufficed to convince
trains. This is done hy induction from many members of the Society that such
an instrument in the train to an external a power existed, they maintaining that
wire. The cost and little need of this the facts observed by them admitted of
system has prevented it from coming into no other explanation. These facts con-
use. For the most recent and one of the sisted of drawings made by a sensitive
most interesting discoveries in telegraphy when surrounded by others, who concen-
see Wireless Telegraphy. trated their thoughts on the object to be
TMf»(rrfl.nTi HAhlf^ ^^ Submarine drawn; the successes far surpassing
XCie^mpiL ^&Die. ^^^^^^ ^j,^ U^^jy ^^ ^ ^^^ ^^ chance. In ad-
Tele?raT)ll-T)laiLt {Desmodium fy- dition were communications received men-
AVAvgj.c»yu ^Aauv rans), an Indian tally from a distance, occasionally a very
leguminous plant, with small lateral great one, conveying some intelligence of
leaflets, which display a strange spon* a personal character that was afterwards
taneous motion, especially in a warm, corroborated. Many maintain that the
moist atmosphere. They jerk up and phenomena known as spirit communica-
down as if signaling, as many as 180 tions are telepathic in their origin, and to
times in a minute, and also rotate on sustain this give a great expansion to the
their axes. power of thought transmission.
TelemachUS ite-lem'akus), a son of JeleDhOIie jtel'e-fdn), an Insteument
AVAvuMarvuu0 Ulysses and Penelope, a^*^!'"^!*^ ^^^ transmitting the hu-
who is reputed to have gone through man voice or other sounds by means of
many adventures in search of his father electricity and telegraph wires. About
after the close of the Trojan war. He the year 1860 the idea that sound-produc-
is the hero of a French prose epic by ing vibrations could be transmitted
F^nelon (1609). through a wire by means of electricity
Telemeter (tel-em'e-ter), a device for began to be recognized bv several men
^ measuring distances; a of science. Reis of Frankfort invented
distance-meter. The simplest forms con- an apparatus which could reproduce at
sist of telescopes containing parallel wires a distant station the pitch of a musical
accurately spaced, or there may be two sound by means of a discontinuous cur-
telescopes at stations of known distance rent along a telegraph wire. A great
apart, the difference in the angles of ob- step in advance was made in 1876, when
servation affording a basis for calcula- Prof. Graham Bell discovered an articula-
ting the distance of the object observed, ting telephone which depends upon tht
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Telephone
Telescope
principle of the undulating current, and
by means of which the very quality of a
note, and therefore conversation itself,
could be reproduced at a distant station.
Eliaha Gray had made a similar inven-
tion at the same time, and Bell and
Gray applied for a patent on the same
day, Feb. 14, 187a Bell's application
came first and the patent was granted
him. The telephone was first shown in
?ublic at the Centennial Exposition of
876, at Philadelphia. Several varieties
of telephonic apparatus are now in use for
inter-communication between distant
places. The Bell telephone in its com-
mon form is shown in the accompanying
cut. A strong ordinary bar-magnet m
has round one of its ends a coil of fine
silk-covered wire in metallic communi-
cation with the two terminals 8 8, One
of the terminals communicates through a
telegraph wire with one of the terminals
of the coil of a precisely similar instru-
ment at the other station, the remaining
pair of terminals being connected
Bell Telephone Beceiver.
through the earth, or through a return
wire. Just in front of the extremity of
the ma^et there is a thin plate of iron
p. and m front of this a^ain there is the
mouth-piece of a speaking-tube o. By
this last the sounds to be transmitted are
collected and concentrated, and falling
on the metal plate cause it to vibrate.
These vibrations in their turn excite un-
dulating electric currents which corre-
spond exactly with the vibrations; that
is, with the original sounds. The elec-
tric currents being transmitted to the re-
ceiving telephone cause corresponding
vibrations in the plate or disc in it. and
these reproduce to the ear the original
•ounds. A telephone invented by Edison
la based upon the variation of resistance
to the electric current of carbon with
Tariation of pressure. The microphone,
in the invention of which both Edison
and Berliver claim priority, is the basis
of the carbon telephone. It has not
into OMi the Bell principle being
everywhere employed. The telephone is
now an established institution throuah-
out Europe and America. Copper wire
is generally employed in the lines in pref-
erence to iron, on account of its superior
power of electric conduction. Telephone
exchanges exist in all the principal towns,
subscribers to which have their houses or
places of business in direct communica-
tion with each other. Long distance
lines are also rapidly joining city to city,
lines between New York and Chicago
having been years in existence, while
greater distances have been covered both
1 America and Europe. In the United
States the telephone has made greater
strides than in any other country. There
is scarcely a village or small town but
has its telephone exchange, while in the
large cities there are many thousands in
use. Throughout the country they may
be found in many farm-houses and serve
to reduce the isolation of the farmer's
household. There are at present more
than 22,000,000 miles of telephone wire in
use in the United States and 37,000,000
in the world. See Wireless Telephony.
Telenhote (teKe-fOt), an instrument
* " for telegraphing images of
objects b^ the agency of electricity acting
on selenium, the electrical resistance of
which varies greatly with increase or
diminution of light. It was invented in
London in 1891.
Tf»1pflPAnA &° optical instrument es-
xcxcsuupc, gentially consisting of a
set of lenses fixed in a tube or a number
of sliding tubes, by which distant ob-
jects are brought within the range of
distinct, or more distinct vision. The
law of action b^ which the telescope as-
sists human vision is twofold, and that
under all the varieties of its construction.
A distant object viewed by the unaided
eye is placed in the circumference of a
large circle, having the eye for its center,
and consequently the angle under which
it is seen is measured by the minute por-
tion of the circumference which it occu-
pies. Now, when the distance is great, it
is found that this angle is too small to
convey to the retina any sensible im-
pression— all the light proceeding from
the object is too weak to affect the optic
nerve. This limit to distinct vision re-
sults from the small aperture or pupil of
the eye. The telescope substitutes its
large object lens or reflector for the hu-
man eye, and consequently receives a
quantity of light proportioned to its area
or surface; hence a distant point, inap-
preciable by the eye alone, is rendered
visible by the aid of the telescope. The
rays of light, after transmission or re-
flection, converge to a point as they at
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Telescope
Telescope
first proceeded from a point, and thus an
image of the object is formed which,
when Tiewed by the eye-piece or lens, is
more or less magnified. The telescope
therefore assists the eye in these two
ways: it gathers np additional light, and
it magnifies the object ; that is to say, its
image. The refracting telescope is con-
structed of lenses alone, which, by suc-
cessive refractions^ produce the desired
effect. This instrument was formerly
very cumbersome and inconvenient, inas-
much as its length had to be increased
considerably with every accession of
Oriving-elock of the 26-inch Equatorial Tele-
scope of the U. S. Naval Obserratory at
Washington.
power; but the substitution of achromat-
ic for ordinary lenses has rendered it
more portable and convenient. The re-
flecting telescope is composed of specula
or concave reflectors (see Speculum)
aided by a refracting eye-piece. To this
instrument we owe some of the most
wondrous discoveries in astronomical
science. The names of Newton, Gregory,
Herschel, and Lord Rosse are connected
with its history. The following dia-
grams exhibit the principles of construc-
tion and action in both sorts of tele-
scopes. In fig. 1, which illustrates the
refracting telescope in its simplest form,
A and B are two lenses of difter«nt focal
lengths. Rays of light from a distant
object falling upon the object-glass a
are converged to a focus at c. The eye-
glass B, placed at its focal distance from
the point of convergence, gathers up the
diverging rays and carries them parallel
to the eye. maffnifjing the image formed
at o. (See Optics,) The magnifying
power of the instrument is as a c : c B,
A,
Fig. 1.
or as the focal length of one lens to that
of the other. In this construction the
object is seen inverted or turned npside
down, and hence it is nnsui table for ter-
restrial purposes. To render the image
erect, and thus show it in its natural po-
sition, a more complicated eye-piece, con-
sisting of two additional lenses, is nec-
essary. Another refracting telescope,
consisting of two lenses in its simplest
form, is called the Galilean telescope.
It differs from the former in having a
concave lens for its eve-glass, which lens
is placed nearer the object-glass than the
focus of this lens, producmg an image
which is not inverted. This kind of tele-
scope is the one used in opera-glasses and
field-glasses. Fig. 2 shows the structure
Pig. 2.
of the reflecting telescope as constructed
by Dr. Gregory, a B is a large speculum
perforated m the center; upon this fall
the rays 5, a and d, c, which are reflected
to convergence at e. A smaller speculum*
c, takes up the diverging rays and re-
flects them, slightly converging, through
the aperture o, where they are received
by a lens, and, after transmission, they
intersect at a, and proceed to the eye-
glass, whence they emerge paralleL The
magnifying power of this instrument is
great for its length. In the telescope in-
vented by Sir William Herschel there is
no second speculum, and no perforation in
the center of the larger one placed at the
bottom of the tube. The latter is fixed in
an inclined position so that the image
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Telescopinm
Tell
formed by reflection falls near the lower
■ide of the tube at its open end or mouth,
Inhere it is viewed directly by an eye-
piece, without greatly interfering with the
light. This arrangement, in the case of
larce reflectors, is imposed by their great
weight and difficult management. Were
it otherwise the ordinary construction
would be preferred, the inclination of the
speculum being a disadvantage. Chro-
matic aberration; which arises from the
different refrangibilities of the different
colored rays, and leads to the formation,
by a lens, of a separate image of a
bright object for each colored ray, is rem-
edied by achromatizing the lens, that is,
by constructing it of two or more lenses
of different kinds of glass, so that the
colors, separated by one, shall be reunited
by the others. (See Achromatic.) The
most powerful refracting telescope yet
made is that in the Yerkes ObservatoiTt
Wisconsin, which has an object-glass 40
inches in diameter. Next in size is the
36-inch telescope at the lick Observatory,
California. The Hosse telescope is the
largest reflecting telescope, its lens being
6 feet in diameter. The Came^e reflec-
tor, now making, will have a 100-inch lens.
Telescopium <l\ir^!iS.?;!;''J?iitei*
lation, was introduced by Louis de
Lecaille in 1751 after extended observa-
tions. He placed the Telescopium be-
tween Ara and Sagittarius. The constel-
lation is now obsolete.
phono-
instru-
conversa-
tions, perfected by Thomas A. Edison in
1914. A phonograph record takes down
every sound that comes over the wire, the
recording apparatus being started or
stopped by pressing a button. The chief
use of the telescribe is in fixing exactly
important business agreements by tele-
ehone ; in case of dispute its decision will
i final as to what was said by the per-
sons concerned.
Telescriptor i^l^^a'aw
with keyboard transmitter and an auto-
matic receiver of the revojving type-wheel
pattern. The operator strikes the keys
exactly as if he were writing on a type-
writer, and the words come out on a strip
of paper that unrolls before him, while
at the same time the message is being
written before the eyes of the man at the
other end of the line.
through whom he was appointed surveyor
of puDlic works for Salop. He then ex-
changed his original occupation for that
of civil engineer, and was intrusted with
the construction of the Ellesmere Canal.
In the years 1803 and 1804 the parlia-
mentary commissioners for making roads
and building bridges in the Highlands of
Scotland, and al^o those for making the
Caledonian Canal, appointed Telford their
engineer, and thus an immense amount of
work was carried out by him. Above
thirty harbors were built or improved by
him, some of which, as at Aberdeen and
Dundee, were upon an extensive scale.
He superintended the construction of a
number of large bridges, and the execution
of numerous important works for the
metropolis. Besides the 900 miles of
lanon is now oosoiete.
Telescribe (tei'e-scnb) or ph
A^x^ovxxM^ graph recorder, an ini
ment for recording telephone conv<
Thomsi Telford.
roads laid in Scotland h« engineered a
system of roads through the more inac-
cessible parts of Wales, which involved
the erection of the magnificent suspen-
sion bridge across the Menai Straits, be-
gun in 1820, and the Conway bridge, be-
gun in 1822. He employed a system ef
road-making since known as the Telford.
In 1806 he was employed by the Swedish
government to lay out a system of inland
navigation through the central parts of
that kingdom. He died in 1834, and was
interred in Westminster Abbey.
TeU.
See Algeria,
TAlfnril Thomas, engineer, bom in TaII William, a famous peasant hero
xeuura, 1757 at Eskdale, Dumfries- •''^"^ of Switzeriand, reputed to have
done some daring and wonderful feats in
his resistance to the tyranny of the Aus-
trian governor Gessler, but now proved
to have been a mythical personage. Hq
■hire ; became a mason and worked at his
trade in Edinburgh, which in 1782 he
qtdtted for London. Here he was be-
friended by Sir William Pultney,
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Tell-el-Eebir TempS
is said to have belonged to the cantoo of TAlnliArovA (terfer-ij)» a •ystem f6r
Uri, and to have united with others be- *c*F"'^*«*S'' the antomatic transport
longing to this canton and to those of of goods by means of electridty densiMl
Unte^walden and Schwyx in resisting the by Fleeming Jenkin in 1881. It con-
Austrians. In particnlar, having re- sists of a line of steel rods or cables soa-
fnsed to do homage to Gessler's hat, set pended from brackets or posts, 70 feet
upon a pole, he was seized and con- apart, and serving at once as a suppor-
demned to death, but was granted his life ter of weights and a conductor of electric-
on condition of shooting with an arrow an ity. Buckets or other receptades ara
apple placed on the head of his own son. hung from the line bv a wheel or pair of
This he did successfully, admitting at the wheels, and a small electrical motor,
same time that a second arrow he had hanging below the line, supplies tiie
was intended for Gessler in case of fail- power. Trains of buckets nUed with
ure. He was therefore still kept a pris- goods may be conyejed at one time, or
oner; but while being conveyed over the they may be carried forwaM In a con-
Lake of Lucerne he manacled to leap tinuous stream. The system was devd-
ashore. and soon after, having lain in oped in conjunction with Professors Ayr-
wait for Gessler, he killed him. ton and Perry.
Tell-el-Kebir (tel;e.ke-b6r'), a village TelgTii (tyeVshC), a town of Russia. Itt
xcii-ci Jkcuir ^^ g j^ ^jjgj.^ ^jj^ xeuiU ^^ government of KovnoTlCO
British troops under Wolseley defeated miles N.w. of vilna. It has a population
those of Arabi Pasha, September 13, of 7700.
1882. Telni^ll (te-ia'gu), or TKLnroA. one of
Teller (^rer), Henbt Moobb, statea- *^***B** the languages of India, be-
man, was born at Granger, New lonaing to the Dravidian group, and
York, in 1830; died in 1914. He was a spoken in southern India by about twen-
lawyer in Illinois and Colorado and was a ty-one millions of people. The Telufu
major-general of Colorado militia in the are the most numerous brandi of ue
Civil War. In 18 1 6 he was elected to the Dravidian race, but are less enterprlsina
United States Senate ; appointed secre- than the Tamils. The language is allied
taiT of the interior in 1882, and in 1885 in roots to the Tamil language, but dif-
and 1891 again elected senator. He fers considerably otherwise,
withdrew from the Republican party in TATnT^tiloTi^ (tem'b5-land). a district
1896 and was reelected in 189? as an TCHlDlUantt if Uie^SansieUn tSS-
Independent Free-silver Republican, and tories in eastern South Africa, which ara
as a Democrat in 1903. bounded by Cape Colony, Basutoland, and
TellicherrV (teH-cher'i), a seaport NataL Tembuland has an excellent di-
*^ *^, of Hindustan, in the mate and a fertile soil, whidi is wdl
presidency of Madras, a healthy and pic- suited for pastoral and agricultural pnr-
turesque town, built upon a group of poses. The coast regions are adapted to
wooded hills, with a citadel or castle in the growth of sugar, cotton, and coffctt.
excellent preservation. It is a mart for The minerals include coal and ooppar.
sandalwood, coffee, etc. Pop. 231,151.
Tellnrinm (tel-l<lr'i-oni), a metal
AVAAK&AAiuu j^^^ recoguizcd as a dis- nTATnAoiroi* (tem'esh-vRr), a town of
tinct element in 1798. Symbol Te, ^^"ACiiVttr Hungary, in the Temes Ba-
atomic weight 127.5, specinc gravity nat, on the river Bega and the Bega
6.27. It is a brittle, silvery- white de- Canal, 75 miles N.N.B. of Belgrade. It
ment, melting at 452*^C. and boiling at is strongly fortified, and is for the moat
478'*C. Occasionally found native, but is part well built, with spadous streets and
very rare, and is mostly obtained in com- squares. The principal buildings are the
bination with other elements. It com- Greek Orthodox cathedral and other
bines directly with hydrogen to produce churches, the government offices, town-
telluretted hydrogen, a highly poisonous house, tneater, various schools and col*
gas. There are two chlorides, the di- leges, arsenal, civil and military hospitala.
chloride and the tetrachloride. Bromides The manufactures consist of woolens,
and iodides are known. With oxygen it dlks, paper, tobacco, etc; Held by the
forms the dioxide and the trioxide, and a Turks from 1552 to 1710, Temeavf^ waa
monoxide has been described. Two adds r* taken by Prince Eugene. Pop. 72,556.
exist, tellurous acid and telluric add. Temnikov (tyem-nyi-kov'), a town in
No well-defined normal salts in whidi **'*""***'^^ the Russian government of
tsUurium acts as a metallic radical ara Tambov, on the Moksha. Pop. 5737.
known. Tellurium is found in Transyl- Ti^niTie (tem'pC), Vale op, a beautiful
Tania and other parts of Hungary, in die •*'^*"y^ valley of northern Greece, in
Altai ailyer mines and in North Ameriot. Tbessaly, on the Peneus, much celebrated
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Tempera
Tempering
by the ancient poets, having Mount
Olympus on the north and Mount Ossa
on the south.
Tempera. See Distemper.
Temperance Societies. L^odau?n
for the purpose of influencing public
opinion in onJer to check the evil of in-
temperance was a society formed at Mor-
eau. New York, in 18()8. It was followed
in 1813 by the Massachusetts Society for
the Suppression of Intemperance. In
1826 a new impulse was given to the
movement by the establishment in Bos-
ton on a more extensive plan of the
American Society for the Promotion of
Temperance, the first annual report of
which announced the formation of thirty,
and the second of 220 auxlliarv associa-
tions. By 1831 more than 2200 socie-
ties, embracing 170,000 members, were
in correspondence with the parent so-
ciety. Reports of the movement in Amer-
ica soon began to have an effect on the
other side of the Atlantic In August,
1829, a society was formed in Ireland,
and before a year had passed sixty or-
ganisations, with 3500 members, were in
existence. In 1838 a great impetus to
the movement was given by the Rev.
Theobald Mathew, a Roman Catholic
priest, who succeeded in less than two
years in persuading 1,800,000 of his
countrymen to renounce the use of ardent
spirits. The first temperance society in
Scotland was established at Marvbill,
near Glasgow, in October, 1829, and the
Greenock and Glasgow and West of Scot-
land Temperance societies were consti-
tuted soon afterwards. On the 14th of
June. 1830, the first temperance society
in England was founded at Bradford,
and by the close of the year there were
in existence some thirty associations,
numbering about 10,000 members. These
societies went no further than the resolve
to abstain from ardent spirits, the use
of fermented liquors in moderation be-
ing permitted. But the principle of total
abstinence soon followed. In 1832 the
war against intoxicating liquors of all
kinds was opened in England by Joseph
Livesey of Preston, and by 1838 the total
abstinence, or teetotal, party had tri-
umphed all along the line, the old tem-
perate or moderation party having gradu-
ally disappeared. Of late years many of
the advocates of total abstinence have
sought to enforce their views by legisla-
tive measures, as exenoplified In the cele-
brated Maine Liquor Law (for the sup-
pression of the manufacture and sale
of intoxicating beverages), so called from
the state in which a prohibitory law
4—10
was first enacted. Some other states
passed similar laws, but at the end
of the century only three maintained
prohibition^ Maine, Kansas, and North
Dakota. In the early years of the
twentieth century an active movement
was instituted in favor of local option
and state prohibition of liquor selling,
beginning in the South, where negro
drunkenness had become a serious evil,
and extending to some of the states
of the North. As a result, on January
1, 1911, complete prohibition existed in
nine states, these being Maine, Kansas,
North Dakota, Georgia, Alabama, Missis-
sippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and
Tennessee. Since that date active pro-
gress has been made in the temperance
cause and nine more states have been
added to the list These include Arizona,
Arkansas, Colorado, Idaho, Iowa, Oregon,
Virginia, Washington and West Virginia.
Among the important developments In
the temperance movement are the ot^
aanizations known as the Independent
Order of Good Templars and the Anti-
Saloon League. (See these titles.) The
Woman's Christian Temperance Union,
long under the presidency of Frances E.
Willard, has been an influential Society.
Temperature i^'^^^^' >„ "JJ^
State of a body with regard to heat, or
to its power of communicating heat to
other bodies. It often refers to the at-
mospheric heat of a locality at a partic-
ular time. When we speak of a body
having a * high ' or a * low ' temperature
it is implied that the condition of heat in
the body may be compared with the
thermometer. See Thermometer,
Temperature of Animals. ®*®
AnimdL
Temperincr /tem'per-lng), in metal-
*^ & lurgy, the process of giv-
ing to metals, principally iron and steel,
the requisite degree of hardness or soft-
ness, especially the process of giving to
steel the necessary hardness for cutting,
stamping, and other purposes. If heated
and suddenly cooled below a certain de-
gree it becomes as soft as iron ; if heated
beyond that degree, it becomes very hard
and brittle. The process essentially con-
sists in plunging the steel when red-hot
into cold water or other liquid to give
an excess of hardness, and then gradually
reheating it until the hardness is re-
duced or brought dovm to the required
degree. The excellence of all steel-cut-
ting instruments depends on the degree
of temper given to them. Different de-
grees of temper are indicated by differ-
ent colors which the steel assumes. Thiir
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Tenul Tench
in different materials, and in the same law; and the outgoing tenant became en-
material it varies with the state of the titled to compensation from the proprie-
body in regard to temperature and other tor to an amount varying according to
circumstances. The resistance offered to circumstances. The act contained other
tearing is called absolute tenacity^ that provisions giving compensation for im-
offered to crushing, retroactive tenacity, provements, but as it did not succeed
The tenacity of wood is much greater in in doing away with all crievances a
the direction of the length of its fibers fresh bill was prepared and passed un-
than in the transverse direction. With der the name of the Land Law Act, 1881,
regard to metals the processes of forg- which established a land commission to
ing and wire-drawing increase their ten- revise rents, and to fix them for fifteen
acTty in the longitudinal direction; and years. This measure has been amended
mixed metals have, in general, greater by subsequent acta. See Ireland.
tenacity than those which are simple. T^THLftflf^rim (ten-as'er-im), a mari-
T^TiAil (te'nftl), Tenaiixe, in fortifi- -^cnnwcruu ^^^^ division of Bur-
Aciicux ^jutjQQ^ an out- work or rampart mah, about 500 miles in length, and
raised in the main ditch immediately in from 40 to 80 in breadth, with an area of
front of the curtain, between two has- 46,730 square miles. The eastern bound-
tions, in its simplest form having two ary of the district is formed by a range
faces constituting a reentering angle. of mountains from 3000 to 5000 feet in
Tf^nSLTlt (ten'ant), in law, one who height. The coast is for the most part
Acuaiib Q^jcupies, or has temporary rocky, and off the gouthem part of it the
possession of lands or tenements, the sea is studded by the innumerable isV-
titles of which are in another, the land- ands, large and small, of the Mergui
lord. A tenant-at-icill is one who oc- Archipelago. There are several good har-
cupies lands or tenements for no fixed bors, formed by the mouths of the rivers,
term other than the will of the landlord. Tenasserim is a hilly and densely wooded
A tenant in common is one who holds region, with here and there tracts of
lands or tenements along with another or arable land. It passed into the hands
other persons. Each share in the estate of the British at the close of the first
is distinct in title, and on the death of Burmese war in 182G. Pop. 1,159,55a
a tenant his share goes to his heirs or Tenbv (^^^^'l^Ot a municipal borough
executors. A tenant for life is one who **^""J and seaport of Wales, in the
has possession of a freehold estate or in- county of Pembroke, on the west side of
terest, the duration of which is deter- Carmarthen Bav, on the point and north-
mined by the life of the tenant or an- east margin of a rocky peninsula. It
other. An estate for life is g:enerally has a fine old church and several other
created by deed, but it may originate by buildings of note, including the Welsh
the operation of law, as the widow's es- Memorial to the late Prince Consort, and
tate in dower, and the husband's estate carries on a considerable trade in fish
by courtesy on the death of his wife, and oysters. It is besides a bathing-
See Landlord and Tenant, place, celebrated for its fine sands, beau-
TpuftTif.ricrlif a term specifically tiful scenery, and agreeable climate.
xciiuiit ix^lLhy applied to an Irish The old walls of the town are still to
custom, long prevalent in Ulster, either some extent preserved. Pop. 4362.
ensuring a permanence of tenure in the Tencll * teleostean fish, belonging to
same occupant without liability to any ^ ^ the carp family and genus
other increase of rent than may be sane- Tinea, of which T. vulg&rit (the common
tioned by the general sentimenU of the tench) is the type. It inhabits most of
community, or entitling the tenant of a
farm to receive purchase-money amount-
ing to so many years' rent, on its being
transferred to another tenant; the tenant
having also a claim to the value of per-
manent improvements effected by him.
In course of time the advantages of
tenant-right granted to the Ulster far-
mers were claimed by the farmers in the
other provinces of Ireland, and the cus-
tom spread to a considerable extent. At
last, under the management of Qlad-
stone and Bright, the Landlord and Tenck (Tinea vtdpSris).
Tenant Act of 1870 was passed. By it
the Ulster tenant-right and other corre- the lakes of the European continent, and
tponding cuatoms received the force of attains a length of from 10 to 12 iochcac
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Tender Teniers
The color is generally a greenish-olive coast of Asia Minor, 15 miles southwest
above, a light tint predominating below, of the Dardanelles, about 6 miles long
It is very sluggish, apparently innabiting and 3 miles broad. The channel which
bottom-waters, and feeding on refuse separates it from the mainland is 3 miles
vegetable matter. It is very tenacious broad. The interior of the island is very
of life, and may be conveyed alive in fertile, and is remarkable for the excel-
damp weeds for long distances. The lence of its wines. Com, cotton, and
flesh is somewhat coarse and insipid. fruits are also produced. On the east-
Tendfir (ten'der), in law, an offer of em side of the island, near the sea, is the
A^uu\;x compensation or damages town of Tenedos. Pop. about 4000. On
made in a money action. To make a it is the little seaport of Tenedos.
tender valid the money must be actually Teneriffe (ten-4r-if ). Tenebiffa, the
produced. A tender made to one of sev- *^"'^*"*^ largest of the Canary
eral joint claimants is held as made to Islands (which see), is of an irregularly
all. A tender of money for any pavment triangular form, and has an area of about
is legal, and is called a legal tender, if 782 square miles. It is of volcanic for-
made in current coin of the United mation, composed principally of enor-
States : in silver coins less than $1, not mous masses and cones of trachyte, lava,
exceeding $10; in gold and silver coins, and basalt, which culminate in the Peak
for any amount ; in United States bank of Teneriffe, 12,182 feet high. The coast
notes, except for duties on imports and consists of an almost uninterrupted series
interest on the public debt. of lofty cliffs, and the only good harbor
Tender (^^^^I)* ^ small vessel ap- is that of Santa Cms, the capital, on the
pointed to attend a larger one, northeast. The most remarkable feature
and employed for her service in procur- of the interior is the celebrated Peak,
ing stores, etc. In railways a tender is the summit of which forms a crater half
a carriage attached to the locomotive for a league in circuit, and from which is
carrying the fuel, water, etc. obtained one of the most magnificent
Tendon (ten'dun), the name given to views in the world. Two eruptions have
the 'sinews' by means of taken place since the colonization of the
which muscles are inserted upon bones, island oy the Spaniards in 1496, namely.
They consist of bundles of white fibrous in 1706 and 1y98, and at all times the
inelastic and very strong tissue disposed internal activity of the volcano is indi-
in bands, and separated by areolar or cated by frequent streams of hot vai)or.
connective tissue. The principal productions are maize,
Tendotome (ten'd5-t5m), in surgery, wheat, potatoes, pulse, almonds, oranges,
A^uuvvvux^ ^ subcutaneous knife, guavas, apples, honev, wax, silk, cochi-
having a small oblanceolate blade on the neal, and wine. Cochineal, tobacco, and
end of a long stem, and used for sever- wine are the chief exports. Pop. 138,-
ing deep-seated tendons without making 008.
a large incision or dissecting down to TenesmnS (te-nes'mus), in medicine,
the spot. MMM^\io*iM.iM.o ^ continual inclination to
Tendr&O ^ ten'drak ) , in zoQlogy, a void the contents of the bowels, accom-
small insectivorous mam- panied by straining, but without any dis-
mal, from Madagascar. It is about two- charge. It is a common symptom in
thirds the size of the common hedgehog, dysentery, stricture of the urethra, etc.
Tendril ^^ botany, a curling and Teniers (ten'e-6rz), David, the name
"*• ' twining thread-like process *^*"^**» of two celebrated artists of
by which a plant clings to another body the Flemish school, father and son, both
for the purpose of support. It may be natives of Antwero, in which city the
a modification of the midrib, as in the elder was bora in 1582. Having studied
pea; a prolongation of a leaf, as in under Rubens, he spent six years in
Nepenthes ; or a modification of the in- Rome. On his return he occupied himself
florescence, as in the vine. They have principally in the delineation of fairs,
been divided into stem tendrils and leaf rustic sports, and drinking parties, which
tendrils. Called also cirrhus, and by the he exhibited with such tmtb, humor, and
old authors capreolus and clavicula. originality, that he may be considered the
Tenebrio (te-n§'bri-d), a genus of founder oi a style of painting which his
*^ beetles, the type of the fam- son afterwards brought to perfection,
ily Tenebrionidffi. The larvae of one His pictures are mostly small. He died
species (T, mplitor) are the destructive in 1W9. — His son was bom in 1610. and
mealrworms which infest granaries, flour- was taught painting by his father, whom
stores^ etc he excelled in correctness and finish. He
Tf^Tiedos (ten'§-dos), an island of became highly popular, was appointed
xcucuuo Pintle Turkey, on the west court painter to the archduke Leopold
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Tenimber Islands
Tennessee
William, goTernor of the Netherlands,
and gave lessons in painting to Don
John of Austria. He specially excelled
in outdoor scenes, thoug many of his in-
teriors are masterpieces of color and
composition. His general subjects were
fairs, markets, merry-makings, guard-
rooms, taverns, etc., and his pictures,
which number over 700, are found in all
the importantpubUc and private galleries
of Europe. His etchings are also highlv
esteemed. He died at Brussels in 1690.
Tenimber Islands. |"/^</*^^''
Tennant (.ten'ant), William, a Scot-
* ••^ tlsh poet of some note, bom
at Anstruther, Fifeshire, in 1784, studied
|for some time at the University of St.
Andrews, and becoming a good oriental
linguist, was in 1835 appointed to the
chair of oriental languages in St. Mary's
College, St. Andrews, dying in 1854.
His chief production is Anster (that is.
Anstruther) Fair^ a humorous poem of
Scottish life in the same stanza as
Byron's Don Juan, which it preceded,
being published in 1812. Besides Antter
Fair, Tennant was the author of several
other poems and some dramas. None of
them, however, attained any success.
Grammars of the Syriac and Chaldee
tongues were also published by him.
Tennent ^^ James Emebson, states-
* "^^ ^ man and writer, was bom at
Belfast in 1794, and educated at Trinity
College, Dublin. From 1845 to 1850 he
was civil secretary to the government of
Ceylon; in 1852 he waS secretary to the
Poor-law Board; and from 1852 to 1867
he held the i>ost of secretary to the Board
of Trade, on retiring from which he re-
ceived a baronetcy. He was the author
of several books of travel and other
works, the most important being a valua-
ble account of Ceylon (1859, two vols.).
He died in 1869.
TAtiTiPoaAP (ten-es-se'). a south-cen-
xennessee ^^^^ g^^^ ^^ ^^^ American
Union, bounded on the north by Ken-
tucky and Virginia, east by North Caro-
lina, south by Georgia, Alabama, and
Mississippi, and west by Arkansas and
Missouri; area, 42,022 square miles.
Tennessee is popularly divided into three
sections. East Tennessee, an extensive
valley, and agriculturally one of the most
important sections of the State, stretches
from the eastern boundary to the mid-
dle of the Cumberland tableland, which
has an average elevation of 2000 feet
above the sea, and abounds in coal, iron,
and other minerals. Middle Tennessee
extends from the dividing line on the
table land to the lower Tennessee River,
and is a tegion of fertile terraces, includ-
ing the great elliptical basin of nearly
5^K) square miles, known as the 'Gar-
den of Tennessee.* West Tennessee ex-
tends from the Tennessee River to the
Mississippi, the bottom lands along the
latter stream being a low, flat, alluvial
plain, covered with forests and with many
lakes and swamps. The Unaka Moun-
thins, a section of the Great Smoky
range of the Appalachian chain, nut
along the eastern frontier, and have an
average elevation of 5000 feet above the
sea. The Mississippi, with the Tennes-
see and the Cumberland, drains three-
fourths of the State. The two latter are
navigable for a considerable distance,
and other rivers with numerous tribu-
taries supply valuable water power.
The climate is very healthy, the mean
temperature of winter being 87.8**, and
of summer 74.4^. West Tennessee is
extremely fertile and produces com and
cotton abundantly. Middle Tennessee
is generally fertile, also the valleys of
the east The principal grain crops are
Indian com, wheat and oats; and cot-
ton, tobacco, hay and forage are ex-
tensively cultivated. The rearing and
fattening of live stock are carried on
under peculiar advantages, and immense
numbers of hogs grow up on the mast
of the forests, which cover a very large
area. The wool clip is large and excd*
lent and much attention is paid to fine
breeds of horses. The most valuable
minerals are coal and phosphate, which
are very abundant, the coal deposits un-
derlying 5100 square miles. Gold, silver,
copper and zinc are also found, and there
is a small output of iron ore and lime.
Tennessee is nch in fine marbles, lime-
stone, and other building stones. There
is some output of clay, barytes and metal-
lic paints, and considerable bauxite. Pe-
troleum, sulphur, chalybeate and salt
springs are plentiful. The lumbering in-
terest is very great, and the lumber and
timber industries lead all others. Other
manufactures are flour and gristmiU
products, foundry and machine shop prod-
ucts, cars and general shop construction,
oil, cottonseed and cake, etc. Besides the
facilities for traffic afforded by the navig-
able streams, internal communication Is
further provided for by an extensive sys-
tem of railways. Among the educational
establishments stand the University of
Tennessee at Knoxville, the University of
Nashville, Vanderbilt and Fisk Univer-
sities, the last for colored students. The
chief towns are Nashville (the capital),
Memphis, Chattanooga, Knoxville. The
first settlements in this State were
made shortly before the Revolution, and
in 1784 the settlers organiied the State
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Tennessee Tennyson
of Franklin, which existed until 1788. Cambridge, where in 1829 he won the
In 1796 it was admitted to the Union as chancellor's medal by a poem in blank
the State of Tennessee. It joined the verse entitled Timbuctoo, As early as
Southern Confederacy in 1861. though 1827 he had published, in conjunction
a great majority of the inhabitants of with his brother Charles, Poem* by Two
East Tennessee were Unionists. Pop. Brothers^ but his literary career may be
(1910) 2,184,789. said to date from 1830, when he pubUshed
TenneaseA * "^®^ formed by the a volume entitled Poem9, chiafly Lyrical.
A%^MMM\,ao\,%,f union of two streams in It was not received with any great favor
the eastern part of the State of Tennes- by the public, although it was recognized
see, flows southwest, passes through the by many to contain much that distin-
northern part of Alabama, then flows guishes the true poet Its success at least
north through the western part of was sufficient to encourage the poet to
Tennessee and Kentucky, and enters the prepare a second collection, which ap-
Ohio, of which it is the largest tributary, peared in 1833, and contained such poems
about 10 miles below the confluence of as A Dream of Fair Women, The Palace
the Cumberland. Length, 1200 miles. A of Art, (Enone, The Lady of Shalott, and
great dam was completed on the Tennes- others. At this time he sustained a great
see River in 1913, and a powerplant with loss in the death of his friend Arthur
60,000 horsepower opened at Hale*s Bar, Hallam, and this, with the severe criti-
a few miles from Chattanooga. The dam, cism which his last volume received in
which is 1200 feet in length, with an Blackwood*s Magazine and the Quarterly
avera^ height of 62 feet, holds up a lake Review, may have occasioned his long
30 miles long, and lets pass a larger silence. It was not till 1842 that he
volume of water than passes over any again appealed to the public with a selec-
other navigable river dam in the United tion of his poems in two volumes, and
States. The power house and lock are it is from this time that we find his
equally gigantic. work beginning to receive wide recogni-
Tenniel (}?ny^)» John, a famous tion. The collection then issued in-
^ . Jlr3}^"®*J?^''' ^^ "°"* ^* ^^^' eluded Morte d* Arthur, Locksley Hall,
don m 1820. He was almost entirely The May Queen, and The Two Voioes,
self-taught, and his first picture was ex- all of which, it was almost at once
hibited while he was little more than a acknowledged, entitled him to rank very
boy. He painted one of the frescoes in high among modem poets. His reputation
the House of Parliament in 1845; in was more than sustained by_the works
1851 became connected as an illustrator that immediately followed. These were:
with Punch; and he also illustrated The Pnnoesa, a Medley (1847) ; In
many books, including ^aop'a Fables, Memoriam (1850), written in memory
Ingoldsby Legends, Ahce*s Adventures tn of his friend Arthur Hallam; and the
Wonderland, etc. He died in 1914. ode on the Death of the Duke of Wei-
Tennia (ten'is), a game in which a lington (1852). The latter was his first
A^xuxxo j^jj j^ driven continually great poem after receiving the laureate-
against a wall in a specially constructed ship (1850) upon the death of Words-
court, and caused to rebound beyond a worth. After that date hardly a year
line at a certain distance by several passed without his adding some gem to
persons striking it alternately with a our language. Maud and other Poems
racket, the object being to keep the ball was published in 1855, Idylls of the King
In motion as long as possible without followed in 1858 ; Enoch Arden and other
allowing it to fall to the ground. The Poems, in 1864; The Holy GraU and
game was introduced into England in other Poems, in 1869; The Window, or
the thirteenth century, and continued to the Songs of the Wrens, in 1870; and
be very popular with the nobility to the Gareth and Lynette, in 1872, the latter
reign of Charles II. The modem game volume, which included the Last TournO"
of rackets is a descendant of tennis, ment, completing the series of poems)
(See Rackets,) Lawn Tennis , is a re- known as the Idylls of the King. In
cent modification of the game. See 1855 the University of Oxford conferred
Lawn Tennis, on Tennyson the honorary degree of D.
TATinvson (ten'i-sun), Alfred, Lobd, C.L., and in 1869 the fellows of Trinity
xviuijovu. £jj|j.^ g^jj ^£ George Clay- College, Cambridge, elected him an hon-
toD Tennyson, rector of Somersby, in orary fellow. So long ago as 1833 he
Lincolnshire, was bom at the same place, had had printed for private circulation
August 6, 1809. He received his early a poem entitled The Lover*s Tale; in
education from his father, attended 18t9 this was republished, together with
Louth Grammar School, and in due a sequel entitled The Golden Supper.
coone proceeded to Trinity College, In the following year appeared Ballads
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Tenor TeocaUis
and oth^ Poems* Among his later com- being counted by the number at pins that
poeitiom are the dramas, Queen Mary are caused to falL
(1875), Harold (1876), and The Cup. Tenree ^^ Tanrec.
The latter was successfully produced by *^*"^^*
Mr. Irving at the Lyceum Theatre in Tent ^ portable dwelling-place, formed
1881, as nad also been Queen Mary. *»u.v| ugQally in the simplest manner.
The Falcon, another drama, was pro- of canvas, for instance, stretched with
duced by Mr. and Mrs. Kendal in 1882, cords upon poles. Tents are much used
and The Promise of May was brought for private purposes and everywhere for
out at the Qlobe Theatre the same year, army shelter. The soldiers' tents in the
. The Cup and The Falcon were published United States army have ridged tops,
as a single volume in 1884, and in the while those of the British army are cir-
same year appeared the historical drama cular, supported by a vertical pole in
of Beoket. in 1885 appeared Tireeiae the center 10 feet hiah.
and other Poems; in t88& Lockeley HaU: Tentacle (ten'ta-kl), in soOlogy, an
Simty Years After, which also included *^'**"'"^**' elongated appendage pro-a
The Promise of May: and in 1889 ceeding from the head or cephalic ex-|
Demeter and other Poems, this last tremity of many of the lower animals,
volume containin|r work of as high a and used as an instrument of ezplora-
quality as any of his previous writings, tion and prehension. Thus the arms of
Tennyson was raised to the peerage in the sea-anemone, the prehensile proces-
1884 as Baron Tennyson of Aldworth, ses of the dmpeds and annelids, the
Sussex, and Freshwater, Isle of Wight, cephalic feet of the cephalopoda, the
Few writera have developed so rare a barbs of fishes, are termed tentacles,
mastery of Bnglish as a poetic instrument, Tf^ntnAlllitefl (ten-tak'a-llts), a genus
and his works have a high rank in the •^C'^wwuiikCB ^^ ^^g^jj ^j^^j, ^^^^^
literature of the nineteenth century. He abundantly in Siberian and Devonian
died October 6, 1892. — His brother strata. Some writers regard them as
Ghables (bom 1808; died 1879) as- tubicular annelids, while others refer
sumed the name of Turner by royal them to the pterqbods.
^^^TJlir^^fh^r^l^'^JL^ Tentlirc'do. »«« saw^tnes.
deatn of nis granomotDer. He puDusnecl,
in conjunction with his brother, Poems Tj^Ti^frrrci. or Tenttbis. See Den*
hy Two Brothers (Louth, 1827), now a *^^ ^J'^f derah.
great bibliographical rarity. He became Ti^TiiiirilirfrrPfl (ten-ti-i-ros'trez; slen-
vicar of Grasby. Lincohishire, in 1835. ACmuru»vrc» aer-beaked), one of the
and published Bonnets (1864), Small four sections into
Tahleauw (1868), and Sonnets, Lyrics, which the order,
and Translations (1873). Insessores of
Tenor (t^n'uf t "^ Italian, tenore), in birds is divided.
Avuvx mugijj^ |g tiig njQpg delicate of This group, rep-
the two adult male voices, and its com- resented by the ,
pass generally extends from C in the bass humming-birds, ^^^ ^
to G or A m the treble. The qualities creepers, sun- ^^^^ *
of the tenor render it suitable to the birds, hoopoes,
expression of tender and delicate etc.. is character^ 1
sentiments. In a vocal composi- isea by the gener-
tion of four parts, for mixed voices, ally elongated
the tenor forms the second middle bill, which usu- Hsads or TunnaorntBi.
part, deeper than the alto, but ally tapers to a ^ «. Sun-bird (^•ctaHni*
higher than the bass; but in a song of point rftSiXfli ^SS^iSr^
the four male voices the tenor, as the TATm~fl S • e V kS^JS^^SS^
first voice, leads the chief melody, and as ICnUrCS. g^ (Si£^w^$ah
the second is the higher middle voice. Tenure of.
Theclef of this voice is the C clef, placed TeoAflUia (te-n-kal'is; * houses of
upon the fourth line of the staff, as •*'«v^»"« God'), the name given to
here shown. the ancient temples of Mexico, of which
Tennins ?, common game in the there are extensive remains. They were
*^ ^ United States adapted from generally solid four-sided truncated
the older English game of ninepins. The pyramids, built terrace-wise, with the
pins (round pieces of wood) are set up- temple proper on the platform at the
right in triangular form at the end of summit. Tney were constructed of earth,
a long level platform, and are bowled faced with brick, and many still remain
down by round bowls of varied sise rolled in a moi« or less perfect state. The
4own the length of the platform, the game principal existing sfecimena are thoaa
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Teos
Terence
tf GholalEt near Mexico, and of Palen-
que, in Yucatan. See Cholula and
Palenfue.
Te08 (^'^)* ^^ Teiob, anciently a
town on the coast of Ionia, in
Asia Minor, opposite Samos, the birth-
place of the poet Anacreon.
TeniG (^*P^')f & town of Mexico, in
* " the state of Jalisco, pleasantly
dtuated and rendered peculiarly attrac-
tive by terraced gardens and shady
promenades. It has manufactures of
woolens and sugar, and mines in the
neighborhood. Pop. 15,48a
Tenlitz (tftplitz), or Tdpurz, a town
Av^AAVA ^1 Korthenr Bohemia, pleas-
antly situated in a valley between the
Erzgebirge and Mittelgebirge, with a
castle and fine park and gardens. It has
celebrated thermal baths. The springs,
seventeen in number, have a temperature
varying from 99''.5 to 108* .5 and are
efficacious in cases of gout and rheuma-
tism. The bathing establishment is very
complete, and during June and July the
whole town is filled with visitors. Pop.
24,420.
Terai. ^^ Tarai and Him&laya.
TemnO (t&'ra-mS), a town of South-
A«»j.cuuv ^j^ Italy, capital of the prov-
ince of same name, in an angle formed
bv the confluence of the Tordino and
Vezaeola. It is the see of a bishop, and
has an old, though modernized, cathedral
and remains of Roman baths and theater.
Pop. 10,508.
Teranllilll (ter'a-fim), household dei-
""^^^ ties or images, reverenced
by the ancient Hebrews. They seem to
have been either wholly or in part of
human form and of small size, were re-
garded as penaieM or household gods, and
in some shape or other used as domestic
oracles. They are mentioned several
times in the Old Testament.
Teratology i<,rrph^ii A-^'ati
anatomical science devoted to the investi-
gation of abnormalities in the structure
of animals and plants, and to the deter-
mination of the exact nature of the
deviation from a normal type of struc-
ture.
Terbium (ter^l-um), was the name
.■.^AMxtuu giygjj ^^ ^ supposed earth-
metal now found to be nearly identical
with erbium, and which has been resolved
into several elements.
Terlimv (terT)urg), or Tebbobch,
*^**'*"o Gerasd, a Dutch portrait
and genre painter, bom at Zwolle, near
Overyssel, about 1617. His father, a
historical painter, gave him bis first les-
Kms in painting. He continued his
studies at Haarlem, and afterwards
visited Germany, Italy, Spain, England,
and France. On the meeting oi the
peace congress at Mfinster in 1646 he
painted the assembled plenipotentiaries,
which is now in the National Qallery,
London. He subsequently visited Madrid,
London, and Paris, whence he returned
to Oversrssel, married, and became burgo-
master of Deventer, dying in 1681. His
portraits and pictures of social life are
remarkable for elegance. He excelled in
painting textile fabrics, particularly satin
and velvet
Terce (^^i^)> ^^ & l^&l llfe-rent
^ amounting to one-third of her
deceased husband's landed estates recog-
nized by the law of Scotland in favor
of a widow who has not accepted of any
special provision.
Terceira ^T^^^^'^.^^'T t^
Azores; greatest length, 20 miles; aver-
age breadth, 13 miles; area, 223 square
miles. The soil possesses great natural
fertility, and heavy crops of grain, pulse,
etc., and abundance of oranges, lemons,
and other fruits are produced. The cap-
ital is Angra. Pop. 48,770.
Terebinth (tere-binth), the common
name for various resinous
exudations, both of a fluid and solid na-
ture, such as turpentine, frankincense
and Burgundy pitch, Canada balsam, etc.
The volatile oil of various of these
resins is called oil of terebinth, or oil of
turpentine. Terebinth is also a name
for the turpentine- tree (which see).
Terebratnla i^lt^f^^'^Ac^t-
pod bivalve molluscs found moored to
rocks, shells, etc. One of the valves is
Serforated to permit the passage of a
eshy peduncle, b^ means of which the
animal attaches itself. There are few
living species, but the fossil ones are
numerous, and are found most abundantly
in the secondary and tertiary formations.
Teredo (^-re'dO). see Ship-worm.
Terek ( ty&'rek ) , a Russian river which
descends from Mount Kasbek,
on the north side of the Caucasus, and
flows into the Caspian by a number of
branches; total course, about 300 miles.
T^r^iiPP (ter'ens), in full Publhts
J.CXCUI/C rJ^E^B^jTius Afeb (that is,
'the African'), a celebrated Roman
comic writer, bom in Africa, B. c. 195,
and while a child bought by Publius
Terentius Lucanus, a Roman senator,
who took him to Rome and gave him a
good education. His master having
emancipated him, the ^oung African as-
sumed the name of his benefactor, and
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Terrestrial Magnetism Tessellated Pavement
T«rr^8trisi.1 Htn^n^fium See Mag- She appeared on the stage in a child's
XerreSXnai magneXlSm. netismT part in 1856, and continued acting until
Terrier ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
that dug ofbS^rowefLX^und'iS Pfared at the Lyceum Theater with
reatneted to smaU or moderately small t^e United Stat^. Amone her best parts
dogs of a number of breeds. The type of are Portia, Pauline, and Ophelia, she
the class is the fox terner iq.v,). Ter- playing the last to Irving's Hamlet,
riers vary in siae from the toy black and TaranliAlliiKy ( ter-skel' ing ), an
tan, and Yorkshire, very small breeds, to ACISK/Ucuiu^ island of the Nether-
the Airedale (g. v.), the largest and lands, 10 miles off the coast of Friesland,
heaviest of the class. The bull terrier, between the islands of Vlieland and
as its name implies, is a cross between Ameland. It is about 15 miles long by
the bulldog and the smooth-coated white 3 broad, is flat and sandy, and exposed
terrier of early time. It is a quick, agile in some parts to inundation. The in-
and powerful dog, of unfailing courage, habitants are chiefly pilots and fisher-
and has been much used by the sporting ^^^' ^Pop. 3685.
fraternity as a pit dog, that is, a dog used Tertian Fever# ^^ A^i*e.
for fightmg when matched against one of , a r^ t
its own breed. The Boston terrier is an TertiaXV Formation. ^^ Geology,
American breed, originated about 1870, .7 , ^ ^ , , ^ . - „
It arose from breeding a brindle three- Tertnllian ( ter - tul' van ) , in full
quarter English bulldog which had one- *^*''*^°'" Quintus Skptimius Flo-
quarter terrier, and a pure white terrier kens Tebtuuianus, the earliest Latin
of stocky build and low on the legs. A father of the church whose works are
further breeding and selection of this type extant, flourished chiefly during the
as developed by the above cross, resulted reigns of Septimius Severus and Cara-
in the standard Boston terrier, whose calla (a. D. 193-217), became a presbyter,
characteristics are a screw tail, a white and continued orthodox till he had
blaze on the face and on chest and feet, reached middle age, when he w^t over
a fine short and bright coat, and a deep, to the Montanists (see Montanu$), and
broad chest It is a good tempered, cour- wrote several books in their defense. ^ His
ageous dog. There are many other breeds most celebrated work is the Apologia, a
of terriers, as the Scotch, the Skye, the formal defense of Christianity addressed
Bedlington, the Welsh and the Irish to the Roman magistrates. Among
iq.v,), a very popular breed. other works whose period is not known is
Territorv (ter'i-tor-i), a section of ^dversus Hermogenem, in which Tev-
J.errii;ory \y^^ national domain not tullian maintams the doctnne of the
yet admitted to statehood. It has a gov- creation of the world out of nothing as
emor, appointed by the President, with ^posed to the eternity of matter per «e.
a legislature of certain limited powers. The works of Tertullian display great
At present there are two — ^Alaska and learning, much imagination, and a keen
Hawaii. wit, but their style is bad. They are
•n rfA»'A..\ "RwrAicr />!>. *v»« «.«•« chlcfly valuable for the light they throw
Terror ^:!i:i^\^^^ So^^^'^^ 'Li^in^r^r:^?^ir^X^U' ""'
of the French revolutionary government ^"""^ ^ *^« ^ ^ r «m« w
from the appointment of the revolution- TeshO-lama. ^^ hamatsm,
2S.^Wrir« ^¥7ft?wi"^i'^f^l^n? Tpfila (tes'la), Nikola, bom at Smil-
RobSnie^^Jutv J? 1^94? sle ^n^ i^"' Seifvia, in 1857. Becoming
/m!?£I!7^ ^ ^ • ^* See/Tcnce ^ g^u^ electrician, he came to the
TerrV (te^rf)* Alfred Howe, soldier, tered the Edison works at Menio Park,
^ bom at Hartford, Connecticut, New Jersey. He subsequently set up an
in 1827. He engaged in the Civil war as establishment of his own in New York,
a colonel of volunteers; became a briga- He has made important inventions in
dier-general in 1862. He commanded a lighting and other uses of electricity,
division in the army under Grant in the His most valuable device is his oscillator,
summer of 1884 ; became a major-general a combination of dynamo and engine.
Sed'D^wyisSJ:""^''"'^- °' TessellatedPavement, »i*„V^oJ
Turrv Bllbn Alice, actress, born at rich mosaic work, made of squares of
^^^^Jf Coventry, England, in 184& marbles, bricks, or tiles, in shape a^H
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TesserograpU
Tetuan
dispoBition resembling dice, and known
as te99eras,
TeSSerO&rraph (tes'ser-d-grtf). the
o *^^** name applied to a ma-
chine for printing railway tickets as
needed, invented by Robert Piscicelli
Taeegi, an Italian engineer. One of these
machines first in use in Italy printed any
one of 400 different kinds of tickets at a
cost of about one five-hundredths of a
cent each.
Test Acts >°<^'«de all statutes which
IB ^ require persons holding
Eublic offices to profess certain religious
ellefs. In England, from the time of the
Reformation onwards, a large number of
such acts were passed in favor of the
Established Church. The various test
jcte were for the most part repealed in
Testament, see wm.
Testinfir (test'lng), the process of ex-
•**o aminmg various substances
^ means of chemical reagents, with the
view of discovering their composition.
The term testing is usually confined to
such examinations as seek to determine
what chemical elements or groups of ele-
ments are contained in any substance.
without inquiring as to the quantity of
these elements. Testing is carried out
either by the application of chemical re-
actions to solid substances, or by the ap-
plication of reagents in solution to a solu-
tion of the substance unde*: examination.
Test-papers. ^^^? ?^. unsize<l paper
*' -"^ ^ soaked m solutions of
vegetable coloring matters, used as in-
dicators of the presence of acids or of
alkalies, and, in some instances, of special
chemical compounds. The most common
test-papers are litmus and turmeric papers.
Testudo (tes'ta-dd). See Tortoise.
T^sfnilA among the ancient Romans
xwvuuuy a cover or screen which a
body of troops formed with their oblong
shields or targets, by holding them over
their heads when standing close to each
other. This cover somewhat resembled
the back of a tortoise, and served to
shelter the men from missiles thrown
from above. The name was also given
to a structure movable on wheels or roll-
ers for protecting sappers.
TjkfoTi'na (tet'a-nus), a spasmodic
xctauiiS rigidity of the whole body,
■udi as frequently results from wounds.
Hie affection occurs more often in warm
climates than in cold. If the lower jaw
is drawn to the upper with such force
that they cannot be separated the dis-
order is called loch-jaw (tmrnvs). Tet-
aniu frequently terminates fatally.
Boman Testudo, from Trsjsn's PilUr.
TSte-dn-pont niS;T^wo'?k 'JSS
defends the head or entrance of a bridge
nearest the enemy.
TetrabrancMata <tL'^f';;'»'Srf^-'-of
Cephalopoda or cuttle-fishes, having four
branchisB or gills, comprising the two
families Nautilidae and AmmonitidjB.
Of this order the pearly nautilus may
be regarded as the type, being the only
living member of the order, though its
fossil representatives (Orthoceras, Am-
monites, etc.) are abundant. See HaU"
tan;
Tetrahedron (-he'dron), in geom-
*^ "" etry, a figure com-
prehended under four equilateral and
equal triangles, or a triangular pyramid
having four equal and equilateral faces.
It is one of the five regular solids.
Tetra^o. ®®® orouse.
Tetrarch (tet'rArk), a title which
XCtxarua originally signified the gov-
ernor of the fourth part of a country.
By the Romans the title was used to
designate a tributary ruler inferior in
dignity to a king.
Tetrastvle (tefrA-stll), in ancient
A^bxaotjxc architecture, having or
consisting of four columns, or haiang a
portico consisting of four columns.
Tetnan (tet-5-ftn'), a town of Moroc-
CO, on the northern coast of
Africa, 33 miles southeast of Tangier.
It is about \ mile from the Mediterran-
ean, is surrounded by walls and defended
by a castle, and carries on an active
trade. The environs are extensively
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Tetzel
Texas
»lanted with yineyaids and gardens.
>op. «S,000.
Tetzel (tefael), Johank, a man
AVMKM whose name has become promi-
nent in connection with the Reformation,
was bom aboat 1470, at Leipzig, where
he studied theology. He entered the
order of the Dominicans, and in 1QQ2
was appointed by the Roman see a
preacher of indulgences, and carried on
for fifteen years a successful propaganda
of them. It was his preaching in
Saxony of the indulgence in behalf of
the rebuilding of St Peter's in Rome
that roused Xnther to revolt Though
many of the sayings attributed to liim
by his critics are fictitious, yet there is
little doubt that he often mdulged in
frivolity and went farther in his promises
than the teaching of his church authorised
him to go. The best Roman Catholic
historians condemn bim for exa|»eration«
Tetsel died of the plague in 1519. in the
Dominican convent at Leipsig. See
Luther.
TeuthiS. SeeSgi««.
TeutobTirg Forest ifrf^f^^
WiXD, a hilly district of Germany, in
Westphalia, where Arminius defeated the
Roman general Varus, aj>. 9. See
Arminiu9»
Ti^ntAiiAft (tfl'tun-te), a tribe of Ger-
bri, invaded Gam in b.c. 113. In B.C.
102 they were defeated with great
slaughter near Aqu» Sezti« (Aiz in the
department of Bouches du KhOne) by
the Roman general Marine. A tribe of
the same name Is mentioned by Pliny
and others as inhabiting a district north
of the Elbe, which appears to have been
the original settlement of the Teutones
before their invasion of GauL See Teii-
tomo Peoples.
Teutonic Knights <«-£15'^'-''^'
ligious order of kniffhts, established to-
ward the close of the twelfth century,
in imitation of the Templars and Hos*
pitallers. It was composed chiefly of
Taotons or Germans who marched to the
Holy Land in the Crusades, and was
established in that country for charita-
ble purposes. In the thirteenth century
they acquired Poland and Prussia, and
they long held sway over a great extent
of territory in tliis part of Europe. The
order began to decline in the fifteenth
century, and was finally abolished by
Napoleon in 1809.
Teutonic Peoples, ^^"(aj^^j; ^,
High OermaAs, indudiag the German
inhabitants of Upper and Middle Ger-
many and those of Switzerland and Aus-
tria. (2) The Low Germans, induding
the Frisians, the Plattdeutsch. the Dutcl^
the Flemings and the EingUsh descended
from the Saxons, Angles, etc., who set-
tled in Britain. (8) The Scandinavians,
including the Norwegians, Swedes, Danes
and Icelanders. See PhUolomf* Indo*
European Languages.
Tewfik Pasha 4S2Lnl!^ve"5
Egypt, eldest son of Khedive Ismail, was
bom in 1852, and succeeded to the vice-
royalty by decree of the sultan, August 8,
1879, upon the forced abdication of his
father. He was the sixth ruler of Egypt
in the dynasty of Mahommed All Pasha.
He died January 7, 1892. See Egypt.
Tewkesbnry <,^'>t?^' %&^
borough of Ehigland, in Gloucestershnre,
at the conflux of the Severn and Avon.
The parish church is a noble pile of
buildinc in the Norman style, and one
of the latest in England. It is part of
the monastery of Tewkesbury. Pop.
(1911) 6287.
Texarkana <J«feJSX*>*^*»13:
Jacent to a town of the same name,
capital of Miller Go., Arkansas. The
two tow^ form a single municipality.
It has car and engine works, cotton-seed
oil mills, manufactures of lumber, furni-
ture, etc. Pop. of Texarkana, Texas,
9790; of Texarkana, Ariuuisas, 5665.
TAYOft (teks'as), the most southwest-
American Union, is bounded v. by New
Mexico, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, s. by
Oklahoma, Arkansas and Louisiana, w. by
New Mexico, s. w. by Mexico, and s. B. by
the Gulf of Mexico; extreme lensth, east
to west, 825 miles; breadth, 740 miles;
coast-line, 400 miles ; area, 205396 sq.
miles. The surface in the northwest bears
many mountains, which, in proceeding
southeast, subside into hills ana undulat-
ing plains, succeeded, on approaching the
Gulf of Mexico, by low alluvial lands.
These extend inland from 20 to 80 miles,
are traversed by numerous rivers, ana
consist for the most part of rich prairie
or forest land. The hilly region behind
this is formed chiefly of sandstone and
limestone ridges, separated by valleys of
considerable fertility. The general slope
of the country gives all the nvers a more
or less southerly direction. The Rio-
Grand, rising in New Mexico, forms the
southwest boundary of the State. The Red
River forms the greater part of the north-
em boondry. The other important
rivers are the (Colorado, the Brasos, th^
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Texas
Thackeray
Trinity, and the Sabine, which, during
the greater part of its course, is the
boundary between Texas and Louisiana.
The great timber region of the state lies
between the Sabine and the Trinity a
region generally level and sandy in the
south, with eztensiTe pine forests, but
rolling and fertile in the north. Between
the Trinity and the Colorado prairie land
extends, timbered along the streams, but
in the north there is an extensive forest,
extending through Central and Western
Texas to the Red River and called the
'Cross Umbers.' The timber area em-
braces about 42,000,000 acres, 25,000,000
being in pines. The pecan tree, a valu-
able nut-bearlBg tree, is widely distrib-
uted and yields largely. Western Texas
is chiefly prairie. A long chain of la-
goons stretches along the Gulf of Mexico.
The soil of Texas is, on the whole, ex-
tremely fertile. The staple products are
cotton and maize, both of which are
larcely cultivated. In the lower or coast
reiJon, the sugar-cane and rice also grow
luxuriantly. Wheat grows chiefly in the
north and center. Rye, oats, barley, to-
bacco and sweet and white potatoes are
grown to some extent, and both in the
elevated and the lower levels fruits in
almost endless variety are abundant
Texas leads the states in cotton produc-
tion, yielding one-fifth of the world's
crop. Sea-island cotton is grown in the
south. I%ousands of acres are under ir-
rigation from flowing artesian wells,
mainly in the southwest The pastures
are often covered with the richest grasses,
and the rearing of cattle, sheep and swine
is carried on very advantageously. The
minerals include copper, of which there
are large deposits; argentiferous galena,
which is also abundant; coal, induding
m field of lignite about 6000 sq. miles in
area; iron, occurring in very large quan-
tities; asphaltum, which occurs abund-
antly; salt, obtained from rich salt
q>riiig8; petroleum, of recent discovery
and now very largely produced ; saltpeter,
marble, slate, potter and fire-clay, and
fertilizers in great abundance. The
manufactures of Texas, which increased
dOO per cent in the period from 1890 to
1910. depend largely for their raw ma-
terials upon the stock-raising, agricul-
tural and mineral products of the state,
and have been greatly stimulated by the
rapid increase in the production of these
materials. Galveston, an important com-
mercial center in the state, is one of the
largest ports of entry in the South, and
Sabine is also a port of growing prom-
inence. Thewe avenues of transportation
afford excellent opportunities for inter-
■Cate, domestic, coastwise and foreign
conmierce. Hie first permanent settle-
ment in Texas was made at San Antonio
by the Spanish in 1718. After Mexico
won its independence Texas became one
of the Mexican states. Several colonies
of American citizens, invited by the
Mexicans, settled in the eastern section,
and gradually increased in numbers.
Texas then revolted from the Mexican
covemment and in 1836 declared itself
independent Santa Anna attempted to
reduce it but failed, being himself beaten
and taken prisoner at the battle of San
Jadnto by General Houston. Texas now
managed its own affairs as an independ-
ent republic till 1846, when it became one
of the United States, and thus gave rise
to a war which proved disastrous to
Mexico. It joined the Confederates dur-
ing the Civil War, and was the last state
to submit It was under military control
till 1870, when it was restored to the
tJnion. Austin is the capital, and other
diief towns are Galveston, San Antonio,
Houston, Dallas, Fort Worth, Waco, etc.
Its growth has been rapid. Pop. 3,896,*
642.
TiftTikl (teks'el), an island of the prov
J.C&C1 j^^ ^j ^^^^ Holland, 14 miles
in length and 6 in its greatest breadth,
situated at the entrance of the Zuvder
Zee, and separated from North Holland
by the narrow channel of Mars-Diep.
The island furnishes excellent pasture
for sheep, and it is noted for cheese
made from sheep's milk. It is well se-
cured with dikes of prodigious strengtii
and height Pop. 69^.
Ti»7nAPA (tes-k6'k6), or Texcoco, a
AezcOCO J^^^ ^j Mexico, in the de-
partment of Mexico, on the eastern shore
of the lAke of Tezcoca In andent times
it was the second city in the kingdom.
Here are the remains of three pyramids,
each measuring 400 feet along the base
of their fronts. The modem town con-
tains many handsome edifices, and car-
ries on an active trade. Pop. 5930.
Tezel (^^^'''^)* Same as TetgtL
Thackftrav ( thak'e - ri ) , WmiAic
Anac&eray Makepeace, an English
novelist and humorist, was bom at Cal-
cutta in 1811; died December 24, 1863.
His father was in the civil service of
the EsLBt India Company. At the age of
seven Thackeray was sent to England
for his education, and was placed at the
Charterhouse School, London, afterwards
continuing his studies at Cambridge.
He left the university without taking a
degree; and, being well provided for, ke
chose the profession of an artist He
spent several years in France, Grermany
and Italy, staying at Weunar, Roma
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Thaokeray
Thales
and Paris, but gradually became con-
vinced that art was not his vocation,
and having meanwhile lost his fortune,
he resolved to turn his attention to litera-
ture. His first appearance in this sphere
was as a journalist Under the name
of George Fitz-Boodle, Esq., or of Michael
Angelo Titmarsh, he contributed to
Frater^s Magazine tales, criticisms, verses,
etc., which were marked by great knowl-
edge of the world, keen irony, or playful
humor. It was in this magazine that The
Oreai Eoggarty Diamond, YeUotoplu^h
Papert, and Barry Lpndan appeared.
In 1840 he published separately the
Pari9 Sketch-hook, in 1841 the Second
Funeral of Napoleon and the Chronicle
of the Drum^ and in 1843 the Irish
William Mskepeaoe Thsekeraj.
Sketch-hook. None of these writings,
however, attained to any great popu-
larity. In 1841 Punch was started, and
his contributions to that periodical,
among others Jeamet* Diary, and tibe
Snoh Papers, were very successful. In
1846-48 his novel of Vanity Fair was
published in monthly parts, with illus-
trations by himself; and long before its
completion its author was unanimouslv
placed in the first rank of British novel-
ists. His next novel was the History of
Pendennis, completed in 1850. In 1851
he delivered a course of lectures in Lon-
don on the English Humorists of the
Eighteenth Century, which was repeated
in Scotland and America, and published in
1853. Another novel, The History of
Henry Esmond appeared in 1852, and
was followed by The Neweomes (1855).
The Virginians (1859K a sort of sequel
to Esmond; Lovel the Widower^ The Ad-
ventures of Philip, and Dents Duval,
which was left unfinished at his death.
In 1855-56 he delivered a series of lec-
)tt«M in the United States — TAe Four
Georges, and afterwards in England and
Scotland. In 1859 he became editor of
the Comhitt Magazine, in which his later
novels and the remarkable Roundabout
Papers appeared, but he retired from that
post in 1862. He wrote a good deal of
verse, half-humorous, half-pathetic, and
often wholly extravagant, but all char-
acterized by grace and spontaneity. He
undoubtedly ranks as the classical Eng-
lish humorist and satirist of the Victor-
ian reign, and one of the greatest novel-
ists, essayists, and critics in the literature.
A collection of letters by Thackeray was
fublished in 1887. — His daughter, Anns
SABELLA (Mrs. Richmond Ritchie),
born in 1838, inherited much of her
father's literary talent Her first story
appeared in (^mhill in 1860, and was
called Little Scholars in the London
Schools. It was followed by the Story
of EUzaheth in 1867. Old Kensington,
which followed soon after, is probably
the work by which she will be best
known. Among her other works are Blue
Beard's Keys, Toilers and Spinsters, Miss
Angel and Mrs. Dymond.
Thais (th&'is), an Athenian courte-
san, famous for wit and beauty,
who was in Asia with Alexander the
Great, and is said — on doubtful '\uthor-
ity — to have induced him to bum the
palace of Persepolis.
Thalamiflorse (thai-a-mi-fl6'P§), a
w*«*# class of exogenous or
dicotyledonous plants in which the petals
are distinct and inserted with the
stamens on the thalamus or receptacle.
Thalber? (tarber^), Sigismund, a
^^^ o celebrated pianist, was bom
in Geneva in 1812, received his first in-
stmction on the pianoforte in Vienna,
and already as a boy was famous as a
performer. Towards the end of 1835 he
went to Paris, where he at once estab-
lished his fame. He subsequently visited
England, the Netherlands, Russia and
Italy, being everywhere received with
the greatest enthusiasm. During the
years from 1865 to 1868 he visited Brazil
and the United States, and after several
years' retirement on an estate he had
purchased near Naples, he once more
visited Paris and London (1802), and
later Brazil. He died April 28, 1871.
He left a number of compositions, in-
cluding sonatas, studies, a concerto, sev-
eral nocturnes, and other small pieces.
Thaler ^ ta'Ur y, a silver com for-
merly in use in Germany, of
the value of about 75 cents. See Dollar.
ThaleS (tha'l&s), a native of Miletus
in Ionia, or, according to some,
of Phoenicia, the earliest philosopher of
Greece, and the founder of the Ionian
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Thalia
Thana
school, was bom about 640 b.c. He is
said to have made several visits to Egypt,
where he received iDstructions from the
priests, from whom he probably acquired
a knowledge of geometry. After his re-
turn his reputation for learning and wis-
dom became so great that he was
reckoned among the seven wise men, and
kls sayings were held in the highest
esteem by the ancients. He died about
B.C. 548. His philosophical doctrines
were taught orally, and preserved only
by oral tradition, until some of the later
Greek philosophers, particularly Aristotle,
committed them to writing. He con-
sidered water, or rather fluidity, the
elemental principle of all things. His
ehilosophical doctrines are, however, but
nperfectly understood.
Thalia (tha-U'a), one of the nine
Aucftuo Moses. She was the patron of
comedy, and is usually represented with
the comic nuusk and the shepherd's crook
in her hand. One of the Graces was also
called Thalia.
ThldlilUn /thari-um; from Gr. «Aal-
AAMMAAU.U1. 2^^ ^ green twig), a metal
discovered by Crookes in 1861, in a de-
posit from a sulphuric acid manufactory
In the Harz. In its physical properties
thallium resembles lead, but is slightly
heavier, somewhat softer, and may be
scratched by the finger-nail. It fuses
under a red heat, and is soluble in the
ordinary mineral acids. In color it re-
sembles silver, but is less brilliantly
white. Its specific gravity varies from
11.8 to 11.0, according to the mechanical
treatment to which it has been subjected.
The tenacity of the metal is less than
that of lead ; it is possessed of very con-
siderable malleability. Thallium and
its salts impart an intense green color
to a non-luminous flame; when a flame so
colored is examined by the spectroscope
one very brilliant green band is noticed,
somewhat more refrangible than the so-
dium line D. (See Spectrum.) The
salts of thallium are exceedinglv poison-
ous. The symbol adopted for this metal
is Tl, and the atomic weight 203.64.
With oxygen it forms two compounds,
T1,0, T1,0|. Small quantities of thallium
appear to be widely distributed in nature,
the metal frequently occurring in iron
and copper pyrites, in native sulphur,
etc.
ThalloeenS (thal'o-jensK one of the
^^^^ o primary divisions of the
vegetable kingdom, comprehending those
cryptogamous plants which are extremely
simple in their structure, and possess
nothing like the green leaves of phaner-
ecamous plants. They have no woody
iber properly so called, being mere masses
&-10
of cells. Thallogens include algse, char-
aceae, fungi, and lichens.
ThallUS <^^al'us), in botany, a solid
«.M.«M«u.» mass of cells, or cellular tis-
sue without
woody fiber, con-
sisting of one or
more layers, us-
ually in the form
of a flat stratum
or expansion, or
in the form of
a lobe, leaf, or
frond, and form-
ing the substance
of the thallogens.
Thaines(temz),
the most impor-
tant river of
Great Britain, is
usually said to
rise about three
miles southwest
of Cirencester in
Gloucestershire,
near a bridge
over the Thames ^h^^ ^, ^,^ y^
and Severn ieulotu*. t, t. Fructifies.
Canal, called tion. «, «, Air blsd-
Thameshead dert.
Bridge, but is
more properly formed by the Isis, Chum,
Colne and Leach, which have their sources
on the east side of the Cotswold Hills,
and unite near Lechlade, where it becomes
navigable for barges. Thence it flows
E., past Oxford and Abingdon to Read-
ing, after which its course is mostly
E., with great bendings and windings, to
its output in the North Sea, passing
through London in its course. Below
London it flows eastward to the Nore, a
broad estuary, its mouth being about 60
miles below the capital. Its total course
is estimated at 250 miles. It pursues a
winding way through London, with an
average width of about 1000 feet The
Basin of the Thames has an area of 5400
square miles, and belongs entirely to the
upper part of the Secondary and to the
Tertiary formations. The depth of the
river in the fair way above Greenwich to
London Bridge is 12 to 13 feet, while its
tides have a mean range of 17 feet and
an extreme rise of 22 feet. (See also
London,) By means of numerous canals
immediate access is given from its basin
to those of all the great rivers of Eng-
land.
Thana (^'°*)» Tanna, chief town of
a district of the same name,
Bombay Presidency 21 miles n. e. of
Bombay city. It is a favorite residence
with the Bombay officials. Pop. 16,011.
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Thane
Theater
TTiQiiA (thftn), a title of honor among
J-liauc ^^ Anglo-Saxons. In Eng-
land a freeman not noble was raised to
the rank of a thane by acquiring a certain
portion of land — five hides for a lesser
thane — by making three sea-voyages, or
by receiving holy orders. Everjr thane
had the right df voting in the witenage-
mot, not only of the shire, but also of the
kingdom, when important questions were
to be discussed. With the growth of the
kingly power the importance of the king's
thanes (those in t^e personal service of
the sovereign) rose above that of the high-
est gentry, ealdormen and bishops form-
ing an inferior class. On the cessation
of his actual personal service about the
king the thane received a grant of land.
After the Norman conquest thanes and
barons were classed together. In the
reign of Henry II the title fell into disuse.
In Scotland the thanes were a class of
non-military tenants of the crown, and the
title was in use till the end of the fifteenth
century.
ThonAf (than'et), Isle of, a district
xuaucb ^j England in the county of
Kent, at the mouth of the Thames, sepa-
rated from the mainland by the river
Stour on the south and the rivulet Nether-
gong* an the west, with an area of 41 sq.
miles.
Thanksgiving Day, fe^t wSf ol
thanksgiving for the mercies of the clos-
ing year, originating in New England in
1^1, after the first harvest at the Ply-
mouth settlement. It slowly spread to
the other colonies, and since 1863, when
President Lincoln issued a proclamation
recommending its national observance, his
example has been followed by succeeding
presidents, the last Thursday of No-
veml>er being chosen as Thanksgiving
Day and kept as a holiday throughout
the Union.
Til a 11 11 (tan), Germany, in Alsace,
i,uuaa jj^g ^ gjjg Gothic church with
a spire of open work 328 feet high, and
has manufactures of woolens, cottons, etc.
Pop. 7901.
Thar and Parkar <f-;.,f 'J^-K^a
east of Sind, British India. It is divided
into two districts, the * Pat * or plain of
the Eastern Nara, and the ' Thar ' or
desert. Area, 12,729 sq. miles. Chief
town, Umarkot or Amnrkote, the birth-
place of Akbar. Pop. 4924.
ThaiO (thlL'so), the ancient Thasos^
an itfland in the ^Egean Sea, a
few miles south of the Macedonian coast,
belonging to Turkey.
TTlfl-Ttpr (thaks'ter), Celia, an Amer-
xuiukbcx j^.jj^ poai^ born in New
Hampshire, in 1835; died in 1894. She
resided for years on the Isle of Shoals,
and wrote Among the Isles of Shoals,
Drift Wood, Poems for Children, etc.
Thaver (tha'6r), Abbott Hendebson,
xuajrcx American figure painter, born
in Boston in 1849. He was a pupil of
G^rAme at the Paris Ecole des Beaux
Arts. Among his best-known works may
be mentioned The Virgin, The Virgin En-
throned and Caritas,
Til Ao fin Aft ( the'a-tins) , an order of
XUeauues j^^^j^^ founded at Rome id
1524, principally by Gianpietro . Caraffa
(Pope Paul IV). archbishop of Chieti, in
Naples (anciently Theate). They bound
themselves to preach against heretics, at-
tend the sick and criminals, and not to
possess property or ask for alms. The
order formerly flourished in Fiance,.
Spain, and Portugal, but is now chiefly
confined to the Italian provinces.
Theater (^^^^'a-ter; Greek, theatran),
an edifice appropriated to
the representation of dramatic spectacles.
Among the Greeks and Romans theaters
were the chief public edifices next to the
temples, and in point of magnitude they
surpassed the most spacious of the tem-
ples, having in some instances accommo-
dation for as many as from 10,000 to
40,000 spectators. The Greek and Ro-
man theaters very closely resembled each
other in their general form and principal
parts. The building was of a semicircu-
Theater of Segesta, Sicily — restored.
lar form, resembling the half of an am-
phitheater, and was not covered by a roof.
In Greece the semicircular area was often
scooped out in the side of a hill, but Ro-
man theaters were built on the level.
The seats of the spectators were all con-
centric, being arranged in tiers up the
semicircular slope. The stage or place
for the playefs was in front of the seats,
bein^ a narrow platform along the
straight side of the theater. Behind this
rose a high wall resembling the facade of
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Theater Thebes
a building, this being intended to repr'e- galleries or balconies run in a semidrcu-
sent any building in front of which the lar or horseshoe form round the house,
action was supposed to take place. This The seats in the galleries rise terrace-
was called in Greek akSni (L. acena), the wise from the front, so as to allow the
stage being called proakenion (L. proa- persons in the back rows to see on to the
centum ). The semicircular space between stage over the heads of those before them,
the stage and the lowest seats of the Immediately in front of the stage is a
spectators was called orcheatra, and was space occupied by the orchestra. Part of
appropriated by the Greeks to the chorus the stage flooring is movable, either as
and musicians, and by the Romans to traps through which actors or furniture
the senators. Scenery, in the modem ascend or descend, or in long narrow
sense of the word, was not employed ex- pieces which are drawn off at each side of
cept in a very rude form, but the stage the stage to allow the passage of the ris-
machinery seems in many cases to have ing scenes. Within recent years there
been elaborate ; and in particular there have been great improvements in the art of
was a well-known machine or contrivance stage setting, for the production of nat-
of some sort from which deities made uralistic effects, and the stage of to-day
their entrance as if from the sky. A presents an extraordinary advance over
good existing example of an ancient that of the past centuries,
theater is that of Segesta in Sicily. ThebfiS (tbebz), an ancient capital of
Between the decline of the ancient and *'**^"*'* Egypt, in Upper Egypt, on
the rise of the modem drama there is a both sides of tne Nile, about 300 miles
long interval, in which the nearest ap- s. 8. E. of Cairo, now represented by the
proach to theatrical entertainments Is four villages of Luxor, Kamak, Medinet
found in miracle plays, mysteries, and Habu ana Kurneh, as well as by magnif-
interludes. These performances took icent mins which extend about 0 miles
place in churches, convents, halls, etc., along the river. When Thebes was
or in the open air. In 1548 the Con- founded is not known ; the period of its
fraternity of the Trinity opened a theater greatest prosperity reaches from 1500 to
in Paris, in which they performed secular 1000 B.c. The ruins comprise magnifi-
pieces. The first theater erected in Italy cent temples, rock-cut tombs, obelisks
seems to have been that of Florence, built decorated with beautiful sculptures, long
in 1581, but the first building that ap- avenues of sphinxes, and colossal statues,
proacbes the modem style was one con- The largest of the temples is that at Kar-
stmcted at Parma in 1618. In England nak, which is about i\ mile in circum-
there were organized companies of actors ference. The great hall of the temple (or
as far back as the time of Edward IV, but * hall of columns ' ; see Egypt, section
as there were no regular playhouses the Architecture) ^ the most magnificent in
performances took place in tennis-courts, Egypt, measures 329 feet by 170, and the
Inn-yards, and private houses. The Lon- roof was originally supported by 134 gi-
don Theater was built before 1576, and gantic columns, of which 12 forming the
the Curtain in Shoreditch and the play- central avenue are 62 feet high and 11
houses in Blackfriars and Whitefriars feet 6 inches in diameter, the others,
date from about the same time. Shakes- which are in rows on either side, being
peare*s plays were brought out at the fully 42 feet in height and 28 in circum-
house in Blackfriars and at the Globe on ference. Within the temple courts are
tbe Bankside, both of which belonged to several obelisks of red granite; one —
the same company, to whom James I the largest obelisk known — is 108 feet
granted a patent in 1603. The Globe was 10 inches high and 8 feet square. Above
a six-sided wooden stmcture, partly open Kamak are the village and temple of
at the top and partly thatched. Movable Luxor, the latter at one time connected
scenery was first used on the public stage with fi[amak bv an avenue of sphinxes
b^ Davenant in 1662, and about the same (some of which still remain) about a
time this manager introduced women to mile long. The Memnonium or temple of
Slay female characters, hitherto taken by Rameses II, and tbe temple and palace
oys and men. Modern theaters are all of Rameses III, on the other or left bank
very much alike in their internal con- of the river, are objects of great interest,
struction. The house is divided into two both for the grandeur of their architecture
distinct portions, tbe auditorium and the and the richness and variety of their
stage, the former for the spectators, the sculptures. (For plan of former see
latter for the actors and scenery, which Egypt,) Here are also the colossal
is often of the most elaborate and realis- statues of Amenoph III, one of them
tic kind. The floor of the auditorium known as the vocal statue of Memnen
is always sloped down from the back of (which see). In the interior of the
tbe bouse to the stage; several tiers of mountains which rise behind are fonad'
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Thebes
Theodolite
the tombs of the kings of Thebes, excava-
ted in the rock, the most remarkable be-
ing that of Sethi I, discovered by Belzoni,
and containing fine sculptures and paint-
ings.
TTiaTiaa <^ <^ity 0^ ancient Greece, the
xaeuc5, principal city of Boeotia, the
birthplace of Pindar, Eipaminondas, and
Pelopidas, was situated about midway
between the Corinthian Gulf and the Eu-
boean Sea. Cadmus is said to have
founded it in 1500 b.g. It lost much of
its influence in Greece through its perfid-
ious leagues with the Persians. Under
the brilliant leadership of Epaminondas
and Pelopidas it became the leading state
in Greece, but its supremacy departed
^hen the former fell at the battle of Man-
tinea (B.G. 302). From this time the city
never recovered its former importance,
and gradually disappeared from history.
The modem Thebes or Thiva is an unim-
portant town of some 3000 inhabitants.
Thefifl. (thSTui). in botany, the spore-
*"^^** case of ferns, mosses, etc
Theft. ®^ Larceny,
Theine (t*^*'*"*)- ®^ caffeine,
TTiAiam (thS'izm), the belief or ac-
J.iiej.5iu jmowledgment of the exist-
ence of God, as opposed to Atheism, See
Deism. , ^ „
TTiPifift (tis), a river of Hungary,
xaci8» formed in the east of the king-
dom by the junction of the Black and the
White Theiss, both descending from the
Carpathians and flowing into the Danube
about 20 miles above Belgrade; length,
about 800 miles. It is the second river in
Hungary, being inferior only to the Dan-
ube, with which, for about 100 miles, the
lower part of its
course is almost
parallel. Its prin-
cipal tributary is
the Maros from
the east
dess of law and
justice among the
Greeks, was the
daughter of Urft-
nus and GS
(Heaven and
Earth) ; accord-
ing to some, of
Helios, or the
Sun.
Themistocles
(thc-mis'tu-kl«a),
an Athenian com-
mander, born in
Themiitoelei.
514 B.G. On the second invasion of
Greece by Xerxes, Themistocles succeeded
by bribery in obtaining the command of
the Athenian fleet, and in the battle
of Salamis which followed (b.c. 480),
the Persian fleet was almost totally de-
stroyed, and Greece was saved. The chief
glory of the victory is due to Themi»
tocles. Subsequently he was accused
of having enriched himself by unjust
means, and of being privy to designs for
the betrayal of Greece to the Persians.
Fearing the vengeance of his countrymen,
he, after many vicissitudes, took refuge at
the Persian court. The Persian throne
was then (465 B.C.) occupied by Arta-
xerxes Longim&nus, to whom Themis-
tocles procured access, and whose favor
he gained by his address and talents, so
that he was treated with the greatest
distinction. He died in 449, according to
some accounts by his own hand.
Theobald < *^^'^^^?i. .Sl^^\ ^^
* ^ "^** nounced tib'ald), Lewis.
an English writer, bom about 1690. was
brought up to the profession of the law,
but earlv turned his attention to litera-
ture, and wrote some plays, now quite for-
gotten. Pope was meanly jealous of him,
and ridiculed him in his Duncit^. Theo-
bald, however, had his revenge, his edi-
tion of Shakespere (1733) completely
supplanting Pope's. He did great ser-
vice to literature by this painstaking
work, many of his emendations having
been adopted by subsequent editors. He
died in 1744.
Theobroma (thS-o-brO'ma). see Co*
cao,
Th^opraov (th&-ok'ra-si), that gov-
XneOCracy emment of which the
chief is, or is believed to be, God himself,
the priests being the promulgators and
expounders of the divine commands. The
most notable theocratic government of all
times is that established by Moses among
the Israelites.
Theocritus <)*^>L1i;'"tV i^r?^
poet, bom at Syracuse,
who flourished about B.c. 280. We have
under his name thirty idyls, or pastoral
poems, of which, however, several -are
probably by other authors. Most of his
idyls have a dramatic form, and consist
of the alternate responses of musical
shepherds. His language is strong and
harmonious, and his poetical ability high,
his bucolic poems being regarded as mas-
terpieces of their kind.
Theodolite (thS-odVlIt). a survey-
Au^vuv*Av«^ jjj^ instrument for meas-
uring horizontal and vertical angles by
means of a telescope, the movements of
which can be accurately marked. This
instrumeot is varioosly conf(truc^e4, but
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Theodora
Theodoric
its main characteristics continue un-
altered in all forms. Its chief features
are the teIe8coi>e, a graduated vertical
circle to which it is attached, two con-
centric horizontal circular plates which
turn freely on each other, and two spirit-
levels on the upper plate to secure exact
horizontality. the whole being on a tripod
stand. The lower plate contains the aivi-
sions of the circle round its edge, and the
upper or vernier plate has two vernier
divisions diametrically opposite. The
Theodolite.
?Iate8 turn on a double vertical axis,
'o measure the angular distance horizon-
tally between any two objects, the tele-
scope is turned round along with the
vernier circle until it is brought to bear
exactlv upon one of the objects ; it is then
turned round until it is brought to bear
on the other object, and the arc which the
vernier has described on the graduated
circle measures the angle required. By
means of the double vertical axis the ob-
servation may be repeated any number
of times in order to ensure accuracy.
The graduated vertical circle is for tak-
ing altitudes or vertical angles in a
similar way. The theodolite is a most
essential instrument in surveying and in
geodetical operations.
Theodora. (th§-o<l6'ra), the wife of
*^ the Byzantine emperor Jus-
tinian, of low birth, at one time a dancer
on the stage, and notorious for licentious-
ness. She later assumed the character of
a pious benefactor of the church, and
died in 548, aged forty. See Justinian I.
TliAAilorp (the'u-ddr), one of the
xaeoaure ^^^ distinguished ecclesi-
astical writers of his age, bom at Antioch
about the middle of the fourth century.
Early in life he followed the example of
Ghrysostom in embracing the monastic
life. He was ordained priest, and for
fifty years distinguished himself as a
zealous opponent of the heresies of Arlus,
ApoUinarius, and others. From Antioch
he removed to Tarsus, and in tbe year
392 or 394 was chosen bishop of Mop-
suestia in Cilicia. dying in 429. Only a
few fragments oi his works are extant,
the most important of them being com-
mentaries on almost all the books of the
Bible, and various polemical treatises.
His doctrine approximated somewhat to
that of Pelagius, and was later consid-
ered heretical.
Theodore H, ^l n g^^ of ^AbyjdnU.
of Kwara in 1818, for many years a
rebel, finally fought his way to the throne
(1855). He was a man of great parts,
an inveterate foe of Islamism, a bom
ruler, and an intelligent reformer. But
intolerance of any power save his own
finally made a tyrant of him ; and in con-
sequence of the imprisonment of Consul
Cameron and other British subjects he
brought upon himself a war with Eng-
land, which ended, April 13, 1868. in the
storming of Magdala and the death (sup-
posedly by suicide) of Theodore. See
Ahys9%nia.
Theodoret <*^^'"-''«V% ^* ^^m°'
AAAvvuvAvv gujghe^ ecclesiastical his-
torian and theological writer, bom at
Antioch about the close of the fourth cen-
tury, and in 420 or 423 raised to the
bishopric of Cyros or Cyrrhus. Becom-
ing involved later in the quarrel between
Nestorius and the overbearing and intol-
erant Cyril of Alexandria, he was de-
posed at the so-called robber council of
Ephesus, a sentence which was reversed
by the general council of Chalcedon in
451. Theodoret appears to have died in
457 or 458. The most important of his
works consist of commentaries on numer-
ous books of the Old Testament and on
the Pauline epistles; EccleaioBtical His-
tory, History of Heresies, etc.
TliAAilorio ( th6-od'u-rik), King of
ineoaonC \^^ Ostrogoths; bom in
A.D. 455, died in 526; was the son of
Theodemir, king of the Ostrogoths of
Pannonia. From his eighth to his eight-
eenth year he lived as a hostage with the
Emperor Leo at Constantinople. Two
years after his retum he succeeded to the
throne. In 493, after several bloody en-
gagements, Theodoric induced Odoacer,
who had assumed the title of King of
Italy, to grant him equal authority. The
murder of Odoacer at a banquet soon
after opened the way for Theodoric to
have himself proclaimed sole ruler. The-
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Theodosius
Theosophy
odoric ruled with great yigor and ability.
He attached his soldiers to his service by
assigning them a third part of the lands
of Italy, on the tenure of military serv-
ice; while among his Italian subjects,
whom he conciliated by introducing an
improved administration of justice, be
encouraged industry and the arts of
peace. Alt^iough, like his ancestors, he
was an Arian, he never violated the
peace or privileges of the Catholic
Church.
Theodosius (thS-o-dO'shi-us), a
AA&vv«&voAu.9 Christian Roman em-
peror, bom in Spain about 3G4, and
selected by the Emperor Gratlan, in 379,
for his partner in the empire. To bis
care were submitted Thrace and the east-
ern provinces, which he delivered from
an invasion of the Goths, concluding a
peace with them in 382. On the defeat
and death of Mazimus (388) he became
the sole head of the empire, Gratian hav-
ing been previously killed in the war
against Mazimus. Is 390 a sedition
took place in Thessalonica, and in re-
venge for this act, Theodosius caused the
people of the city to be invited to an ez-
hibition at the circus, and when a great
concourse had assembled they were bar-
barously murdered by l^is soldiery, to the
number, it is computed, of 7000. St Am-
brose refused him communion for eight
months on account of this crime, and
Theodosius submitted humbly to the
{)unishment He died at Milan, aj>. 395,
eaving the eastern portion of the empire
to his son Arcadius, the western to his
son Honorius. He distinguished himself
by bis zeal for orthodozy, and his intoler-
ance and persecution of Arianism and
other heresies.
Thpolo^V (th§-ol'o-ii ; Greek Theos,
J.acuiU|^jr (^^ ^jjj i^g^^ doctrine)
is the science which treats of the ezist-
ence of God^ his attributes, and the Divine
will regarding our actions, present con-
dition, and ultimate destiny. In refer-
ence to the sources whence it is derived,
theology is distinguished into natural or
philoMophical theology, which relates to
the knowledge of God from his works by
the light of nature and reason; and su-
pernatural, po»itw€y or revealed theoloffyt
which sets forth and systematizes the
doctrines of the Scriptures. With re-
gard to the contents of theology, it is
classified into theoretical theology or dog-
maticSf and practical theology or ethics.
As comprehending the whole eztent of re-
ligious science, theology is divided into
four principal classes, historical^ ewegeti'
col, systematic, and practical theology.
Historical theology treats of the historv
of Christian doctrines. Ezegetical theol-
ogy embraces the interpretation of the
Scriptures and Biblical criticism. Syste-
matic theology arranges methodically the
great truths of religion. Practical tbeoi-
ogy consists of an ezhibition, first, of
precepts and directions; and secondly, of
the moiives from which we should be ez-
pected to comply with these. Apologetic
and polemic theology belong to several of
the above-mentioned four classes at once.
The scholastic theolog\( attempted to clear
and discuss all questions by the aid of
human reason alone, laying aside the
study of the Scriptures, and adopting in-
stead the arts of the dialectician.
Theophrastus ^X^^.ll'i^^^,,,^
philosopher, was bom at Lesbos early
in the fourth century b.c., and studied at
Athens, in the school of Plato, and after-
wards under Aristotle, of whom he wa8
the favorite puptl and successor. On th€
departure of Aristotle from Athens after
the judicial murder of Socrates he became
the head of the Peripatetic school of phi-
losophy, and composed a multitude of
books — dialectic, moral, metaphysical,
and physical. We possess two entire
books of his botany, but only fragments
of his other works, such as those on
Stones, on the Winds, etc.; and his
Characters or sketches of types of char-
acter, by far the most celebrated of all
his productions. He died in 287 B.C.
To his care we are indebted for the
preservation of the writings of Aristotle,
who, when dying, intrusted them to his
keeping.
Theophrastus Paracelsus.
See Paracelsus.
Theoaonhv (th§-os'u-fi), accordhig to
xaeusopuy .^ etymology the sci-
ence of divine things. But the name of
theosophists has generally been applied to
persons who in their inquiries respecting
God have mn into mysticism, as Jacob
Bahme, Swedenborg, St. Martin, and
others. At the present day the term is
applied to the tenets of the Theosophical
Society, founded in New York in 1875
by Henry S. Olcott, the objects of which
are: to form the nucleus of a universal
brotherhood of humanity, to promote the
study of Eastern literature and science,
and chiefly to investigate unezplained
laws of nature, and the physical powers
of man, and generally the search after
divine knowledge — divine applying to
the divine nature of the abstract princi-
ple, not to the quality of a personal God.
The theosophists assert that humanity is
possessed of certain powers over nature,
which the narrower study of nature from
the merely materialistic stand-point has
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Thera
Thermo-electricity
failed to develop. They maintain the
Hindu doctrine of transmigration of souls.
The membership in the United States is
about 5000. Mrs. Annie Besant is at
present the president of the society.
Thera. See sanatoria.
Thcrapeuta < ^f^^mee^ ^|^
first century after Christ, somewhat akin
to the Essenes.
Therapeutics <«'-?i?^^?Hi' jX
cine which treats of remedies in the
widest sense.
Theresa (te-rS'sa), St., a religions
^ ^^* enthusiast, bom at Avila, in
Spain, in 1515, who took the veil among
the Carmelites at the age of twenty-four.
Being dissatisfied at the relaxation of
discipline in the order to which she be-
longed she undertook to restore the orig-
inal seyerity of the institute. The first
convent of reformed Carmelite nuns was
founded at Avila In 1562, and was speed-
ily followed by a number of others. She
died in 1582, and was canonized by Pope
Gregory XV in 1621.
TheresioBcl (ta-ra-sM'pei), or ma^
Xl&^x ^OXV^^M. m ^ . X H E BESIEN8TADT
(Hung. Szahaaka)', a royal free town in
Hungary, in the county of Bftcs, is more
properly a district than a town, as it
covers, with its numerous suburbs, an
area of more than 600 square miles. It
has manufactures of linen and woolen
cloth, dye-works, tanneries, soap-boiling
works, etc., and a trade in cattle, horses,
hides, etc. Pop. 82,122.
Therms (ther'me), a name often
Au^AAucK^ given to the large bathing
establishments of ancient Rome.
Thermidor <^.l^'™^"^?J^'-*?i? ®^®^'
•*•***** ^**^* enth month of the year
in the calendar ot the first French repub-
lic It commenced on July 19th and
ended on August 17th. See Calendar,
Thermit ^^ name given a mixture of
xii.vj.itu by aluminum powder or filings
and powdered oxide of iron, used for
welding the ends of iron rails or fractures
in iron goods. If set on fire it yields a
temperature of 5400^ F., far above the
melting point of iron. In burning it
produces practically pure iron in a
fiqnid state and oxide of aluminum as a
slag. The molten iron fills the fracture
or the space between the rails, which it
welds in hardening.
Thennodynamic Engine \^^^^^
nam'ik) any form of heat engine (as gas
or steam engines) by means of which a
percentage of the heat lost by one body
called the source, on account of its con«
nection with another body called the re-
frigerator, is converted into kinetic energy
or mechanical effect, and made available
for the performance of work. The effi-
ciency of a heat engine is the ratio of the
heat available for mechanical effect to the
total heat taken from the source. A re-
versible engine is called a perfect engine,
because it is the most efficient engine be-
tween the temperatures of its source and
the refrigerator.
Thermodynamics, TATt^u
ence which investigates the Taws regula-
ting the conversion of heat into mechani-
cal force or energy, and vice versa.
Thermo-electricity, «'„«^^'<>'iy p"^
Junction of two metals, or at a point
where a molecular change occurs in a bar
of the same metal, when the junction or
point is heated above or cooled below the
general temperature of the conductor.
Thus when wires or bars of metal of dif-
ferent kinds, as bismuth and antimony,
are placed in close contact, end to end,
and disposed so as to form a periphery or
continuous circuit, and heat then applied
to the ends or junctions of the bars, elec-
tric currents are produced. The princi-
ple of the arrangement is shown in the
accompanying figure, in which the bars
marked a are antimony, those marked h
bismuth. The junctions 1, 3, 5, 7 are to
be at one temperature, the junctions 2, 4,
Thermo-pile.
6, 8 at another, g is a delicate galvanom-
eter which measures the force of the
current produced. The thermo-electric
battery or pile, an apparatus much used
in delicate experiments with radiant
heat, consists of a series of little bats of
antimony and bismuth (or any other two
metals of different heat-conducting
power), having their ends soIdere<l to-
gether and arranged in a compact form;
the opposite ends of the pile being con-
nected with a galvanometer, which m very
sensibly affected by the electric current,
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Thermograpli
Thermometer
induced in the system of bars when ex-
posed to the slightest variations of
temperature. To the combined arrange-
ment of pile and galvanometer the name
of ihermo-multiplier is given. Two metal
bars of different heat-conducting power
having their ends soldered together, and
the combined bar then usually bent into
a more or less horseshoe or magnet form
for the purpose of bringing their free ends
within a conveniently short distance,
designated a thermo-electric pair, are
much used in thermo-electric experiments.
But as the electric current developed in
a single pair is very weak, a considerable
numl^r are usually combined to form a
thermo-electric pile or battery. Bismuth
and antimony are the metals usually em-
ployed, the difference in electro-motive
force being greater between them than
between any other two metals conven-
iently obtainable.
Thermograpli ^y^^rte'r^trl^deS
with a registering device ; and mechanism
for reading teznperature. The United
States Weather Bureau uses a crescent-
shaped bulb filled with alcohol and hermet-
ically sealed. Changes of temperature
affect the curve of the bulb, ana its al-
teration of form is communicated to a
series of multipljring levers, which act
upon a recording pen. Bartlett*s thermo-
graph is designed for greenhouses, it be-
ig electrically connected with dials in
the house and ofBce, so that changes in
temperature can be readily noted.
Thermometer /XSeTt'%TU.2g
the temperatures of bodies are ascer-
tained; founded on the property which
heat possesses of expanding all bodies,
the rate or quantity of expansion being
supposed proportional to* the degree of
heat applied, and hence indicating that
degree. The thermometer consists of a
slender glass tube, with a small bore, con-
taining in general mercury or alcohol,
which expanding or contracting by varia-
tions in the temperature of the atmos-
phere, or on the instrument being brought
into contact with any other body, or im-
mersed in a liquid or gas which is to be
examined, the state of the atmosphere,
the bodv, liquid, or gas, with regard to
heat, is indicated by a scale either applied
to the tube or engraved on its exterior
surface. The ordinary thermometer con-
sists of a small tube terminating in a
ball containing mercury, the air having
been expelled and the tube hermetically
sealed. A scale of temperatures is at-
tached, in which there are two points cor-
responding to fixed and determinate tem-
peratures, one, namely, to the temperature
IN,
of freezing water and the other to that of
boiling water. In the thermometer com-
monly used in the United States and the
British empire, known
as Fahrenneit's ther-
mometer, the former
point is marked 32*"
and the latter 212*";
hence the zero of the
scale, or that part
marked 0**, is 32® be-
low the freezing-point,
and the interval or
space between the
freezing and boiling
points consists of
180**. The zero point
is supposed to have
been fixed by Fahren-
heit at the point of
greatest cold that he
had observed, probably
by means of a freezing
mixture such as snow
and salt In France
and other parts of Eu-
rope, and nowadays in
all scientific investiga-
tions, the Centigrade
or Celsius scale is
used. In this the space
between the freezing
and boiling points of
water is divided into
100 equal parts or de-
grees, the zero being
at freezing and the
boiling-point marked
100**. IWaumur's ther-
mometer, in use in
Germany, has the
space between the
freezing and boiling
points divided into 80 ^
equal parts, the zero I S "S
being at freezing. o A9 fci
The following formu- Thermometer
l0B will serve to con- Scales,
vert anv given num-
ber of degrees of Fahrenheit's scale fato
the corresponding number of degrees on
Rteumur's and the Centigrade scales,
and vice versa: let F, R, and C (the 0*
of C. and R. being equal to F. 32"*, and
the three scales from freezing to boiling
point being F. 180% C. 100% R. 80% or
in the ratio of 9, 6, 4) represent any cor-
responding numbers of degrees on the
three scales respectively, then: (F.— 32*)
X4 = R.; (F.— 32*) X 1 = 0.; R. x
} + 32*=F.; C. Xf+32*=F.; C. X
= R.; R. X J = C. For extreme de-
grees of cold, thermometers filled with
spirit pf wine must be employed from its
III
1
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Thermo-pile Thetis
great resistance to freezing temperatures, performing. His first representation
whereas mercury freezes at about 39° be- took place in 585 B.C. See Drama,
low zero on the Fahrenheit scale. On the TliAa&alnTiiciTia ( ^^^s ' a-ld'ni • ans ) ,
other hand, spirit of wine is not adapted -■■iiC»»»A"i"»"a Epistles to the,
to high temperatures, as it is soon con- two New Testament epistles written by
▼erted into tapor, whereas mercur;y does St. Paul to the church at Thessalonica, in
not boil till its temperature is raised to all probability during his long stay at
660** F. As the ordinary thermometer Corinth, and therefore not very long after
gives the temperature onlv at the time the foundation of the Thessalonian church
of observation, the necessity for having on St. Paul's second missionary journey,
an instrument which would show the A note at the end of each of the epistles
maximum and minimum temperatures in our Authorized Version states that
within a given period is easily apparent they were written from Athens, but there
in all cases connected with meteorology, can be little doubt that this is erroneous,
and various forms of instruments for this and that they were really written at
purpose have been invented. A common Corinth. They are the earliest of Paul's
form of mawimum thermometer consists writings, and are characterized by great
of the ordinary thermometer fitted with simplicity of style as compared with his
a piston which moves easily in the tube, other epistles. The genuineness of the
The instrument is placed horizontally, first epistle has hardly ever been ques-
and the piston is pushed along the bore tioned, but according to the newer criti-
as the mercury advances, and is left at cism, that of the second epistle is more
the highest point by the retiring fluid, than doubtful.
This point is noted by the observer, who TlieaftfllnniGfl. (thes-a-lo-nS'ka). See
then erects the thermometer, causing the ****'»»«**vijj.vc* galonVca.
piston to sink to the mercury, the instru- Tlieasalv (thes'a-li), the northeast-
ment thus being in condition for a fresh •*'***^»*'«**j em division of Greece,
experiment. A similar action takes place mainly consisting of a rich plain inclosed
in the spirit of wine minimum thermome- between mountains and belonging almost
ter, the small movable piston being, how- entirely to one river basin, that of the
«ver, immersed in the fluid and drawn Peneios (Salambria), which traverses it
back by the convex surface of the con- from west to east, and finds an outlet
tracting fluid, being left at the point of into the ^gean through the vale of
greatest contraction. The maximum and Tempe. In the earliest times Thessaly
minimum instruments combined form the prop<ir is said to have been inhabited by
self-regUtering thermometer, ^olic and other tribes. Subsequently it
TheimO-DUe ^^ Thermo-electricity, was broken up into separate confederacies,
xuvxu&v ^MAM* ^^^ seldom exerted any important in-
ThermODvls (ther-mop'e-le), a nar- fluence on the affairs of Greece generally.
•k''^ row defile in Northern Thessaly was conquered by Philip of
Greece, leading from Thessaly southward, Macedon in the fourth century B. 0., became
between Mount GSta and the sea (the dependent on Macedonia, and was finally
Maliac Gulf, now the Gulf of Zeitouni), incorporated with the Roman Empire.
25 miles north of Delphi, celebrated for After the fall of the Bjrzantine Empire it
its brilliant defense by 300 Spartans, to- fell into the hands of the Turks, became
gether with allies, under Leonidas, against a part of the Ottoman Empire, although
the Persian host under Xerxes, in 480 b.o. most of the inhabitants are Greeks. The
ThesenS (t^^'^i^)* & mythical king of greater portion of it was in 1881 incor-
Athens and famous hero of porated with the kingdom of Greece,
antiouity, son of JEgeus by ^thra, the Capital Larissa. Pop. 344,000.
daughter of Pittheus of Troezen, in Pelo- T^fitford (thet'f^rd), a municipal
poonesus, of whom many notable deeds •*"**^ *'*-"'■'**' borough of England, partly
are related, as the slaying of the Mino- in the county of Suffolk and partly in that
taur and the freeing of Athens from the of Norfolk, on both banks of the Ouse,
tribute of seven youths and seven maidens here crossed by a handsome iron bridge,
annually sent to Crete to be devoured by It is a place of great antiquity and has
that monster. As king of Athens he is a remarkable Celtic Mound called
reputed to have governed with mildness, Castle Hill. Pop. 4778.
instituted new laws, and made the gov- Tli Affnrrl WiTiAa a city of Quebec
emment more democratic. xnctiuru jiliucs, province. Canada,
ThefiTllft (thes'pis), a native of a vil- 26 miles s. w. of Quebec. It has rich
.■.lA^o^Ao j^g^ jj^j. Atbeng^ ^bo lived asbestos mines. Pop. (1913) 7500.
in the sixth century b.o., reputed to be ThetlS (^b^'^is), a Greek divinity, a
the inventor of tragedy and of the masks ^•**^*'*^ daughter of Nereus and Doris,
which the Greek actors always wore in therefore one of the Nereids. By Peleus,
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Thirty Years' War Thistle
many marched against Frederick, who, forces at N5rdlingen (Sept, 1634) again
with an army of Bohemians, Moravians, gave to the emperor the preponderating
and Hungarians, kept the field until power in Germany. The Elector of
November 8 (1620), when he was totally Saxony, who had been an ally of Gus-
rouied at Weissenberg, near Prague, by tavus, now made peace at Prague (May,
Duke Maximilian of Bavaria. The 1635), and within a few months the
Protestant cause was now crushed in treaty was accepted by many of the
Bohemia, and the people of that province German princes. The Swedes, however,
suffered cruel persecution. The domin- thought ft to their interest to continue
ions of Frederick, the Palatinate of the the war, while France resolved to take
Rhine included, were now conquered, a more active part in the conflict Thus
the latter being occupied by Count the last stage of the war was a contest
Tilly, assisted by the Spaniards under of France and Sweden against Austria^
Spinola. At the Diet of Ratisbon in which the Swedish generals gained
(March, 1623) Frederick was deprived various successes over the imperial forces,
of Us territories, Duke Maximilian re- while the French armies fought with
ceiving the Electorate. Ferdinand, whose varied fortune in West Germany and on
succession to the throne of Bohemia was the Rhine. Meanwhile the emperor had
thus secured, had now a favorable op- died (1637), and had been succeeded by
portunity of concluding a peace, but his his son, Ferdinand III. The struggle
continued intolerance towards the Prot- still continued until, in 1646, the united
estants caused them to seek foreign as- armies of the French, under the great
sistance, and a new period of the war generals Turenne and Conde, and the
began. Christian IV of Denmark, in- Swedes advanced through Suabia and
duced partly by religious zeal and partly Bavaria. The combined forces of Swe-
bji the hope of an acquisition of tern- den, Bavaria, and France were then
tory, came to the aid of his German about to advance upon Austria, when the
co-religionists (1624), and being joined news reached the armies that the Peace
by Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick, of Westphalia (1648) was concluded,
advanced into Lower Saxony. There and that the long struggle was ended,
they were met by Wallenstein, Duke of TTiialiA (thiz'be). See Pyramus and
Friedland, who. In 1626, defeated Mans- •^^"»"« Thishe,
feld at Dessau, while Tilly was also Tlngtle (this'l), the common name of
successful in driving Christian back to ^ prickly plants of the tribe
Denmark. In the peace of LUbeck which Cynarace«e, nat order Compositie. There
followed (May, 1629) Christian of Den- are numerous species, most of which are
mark received back all his occupied ter- inhabitants of Europe. The bleesed-
ritory, and undertook not to meddle again thistle, Carduus henedictuM of the phar-
in German affairs. After this second macop(Bias, Cnicus benedictus or Cir-
success, Fredinand again roused his peo- sium henedicium of modem botanists, is
pie by an edict which required restitu- a native of the Levant, and is a laxa-
tion to the Catholic Church of all church- tive and tonic medicine. The cotton-
lands and property acquired by them thistle belongs to the genus Onopordum,
since 1555. To the assistance of the The common cotton-thistle (O. Aoan-
Protestants of Germany, in these cir- thium) attains a height of from 4 to 6
cumstances, came Gustavus Adolphus, feet It is often regarded as the Scotch
King of Sweden, who landed (1630) thistle, but it is doubtful whether the
with a small army upon the coast of thistle which constitutes the Scottish
Pomerania. Joined by numerous volun- national badge has any existing tjrpe,
teers, and aided by French money, he though the stemless thistle X(^^*<i^^
advanced, and routed Tilly at Breiten- acaulis or Cirsium acaule) is in many
feld (or the battle of Leipzig, September, districts of Scotland looked on as the
1031), victoriously traversed the Main true Scotch thistle. Some dozen species
and the Rhine valleys, defeated Tilly of thistle are common in the United
again near the confluence of the Lech States, spreading from New England to
and the Danube (April, 1632), and en- Florida, among them the Canada thistle,
tered Munich. Meanwhile the emperor one of the severest pests of the farmer,
sought the aid of Wallenstein, by whose TTiistle Obdeb of the, a Scottish
ability and energy Gustavus was obliged *'*"'"*'*^> order of knighthood, some-
to retire to Saxony, where he gained the times called the order of St. Andrew,
great victory of LUtzen (Nov., 1632), but It was instituted by James VII (James
was himself mortally wounded in the II of England) in 1687, when eight
battle. The war was now carried on knights were nominated. It fell into
by the Swedes under the chancellor abeyance during the reign of William and
Ozenstiema, till the rout of the Swedish Mary, but was revived by Queen Anne
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>
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Tholen
Thomas it Eempis
in 1703. The insignia of the order con-
sist of a gold collar composed of thistles
interlaced with sprigs of rue; the jewel,
a figure of St. Andrew in the middle of
a star of eight pointed rays, suspended
from the collar; the star, of silver and
eight-rayed, four of the rays being
pointed, while the alternate rays are
shaped like the tail-feathers of a bird,
with a thistle in the center surrounded
by the Latin motto 2femo me impune
Order of the Thistle — Star, Jewel, Badge
and Collar.
Iaces9it; and the badge, oval, with the
motto surrounding the figure of St. An-
drew. The order consists of the sov-
ereign and sixteen knights, besides extra
knights (princes), ana a dean, a secre-
tary, the lyon-king-at-arms, and the
gentleman usher of the green rod.
TlinlpTi (td'Ien), an island in the
xuuAcu province of Zealand, Holland,
between the Scheldt and the Maas, with
an area of about 50 sq. miles, and a
pop. of 15.000.
Tholnck (to1«k), Friedbich Au-
AuvAuvA Q^g^ GoTTREU, a German
theologian, bom in 1709; died in 1877.
He was educated at the universities of
Breslau and Berlin, and devoted himself
to theology. Tholuck filled the chair of
theology at Halle from 1826 till his
death.
TTiATnna Qeobge Henry, general, was
XnomaS, ^^^ .^ Virginia in 1816,
and at the age of twenty entered the
military academy at West Point, passing
^to the artillery as* sublieutenant at
the age of twenty-four. He took part in
the Mexican war (1846-47) ; was ap-
pointed professor at West Point in 1850 ;
recalled to active service in 1855, and
employed in Texas against the Indians.
When the Civil War broke out Thomas
had attained the rank of major, and being
appointed lieutenant-colonel of volunteers,
April 25, 1861, was some months later
sent into Kentucky, where, in the follow-
ing year, he defeated Zollikofer. As
major-general of volunteers he took part
in the battle of Murfreesborough, wnere
he greatly distinguished himself; while
at the bloody battle of Ghickamauga, in
September, 1863, he saved the Federal
army from destruction by his stubborn
resistance after the defeat of the Federal
right, earning the name of *The Rock
of Ghickamauga.* In 1865 be com-
pKelled the Confederates to raise the
siege of Nashville, for which he received
the thanks of Congress, and was raised
to the rank of major-general in the
regular army. The brevet ranks of lieu-
tenant-general and general were offered
him by President Johnson, but he de-
clined them. He died in 1870.
ThomftS (^om'as), Joseph, scholar and
linguist, bom in Cayuga Co.,
New York, in 1811, was, with Thomas
Baldwin, author of Baldwin* 8 Pronounc-
ing Oazetieer, In 1851-52 appeared his
first book of Etymology, followed by an
edition of Oswald's Etymological Diction-
ary, In 1854 he prepared A New and
Complete Gazetteer of the United States;
and in 1855 A Complete Geographical
Dictionary of the World (popularly
known as LippincotVs Gazetteer of the
World), and which for accuracy and
completeness had scarcely an equal. In
1864 appeared his comprehensive Medical
Dictionary; and in 1870 his Universal
Pronouncing Dictionary of Biography and
Mythology, which occupies a high place
among books of reference. He died De-
cember 24, 1891.
Thomas Theodore, noted orchestral
^ leader, born in Germany in
1835; died in 1905. His family moved
to the United States in 1845, and he be-
came an expert on the violin. His sym-
phony concerts began in 1864, and for
thirty years he was conductor of the
Brooklyn Philharmonic Society. His
later years were passed in Chicago, where
the Symphony Hall was built through
his efforts.
Thomas a Kempis <„r„V\I*pT„:
his birthplace, in the archbishopric of
Cologne) was bom about 1380. At the
age of twenty he retired to an Augustine
convent near Zwolle, in Holland, where
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Thomafville
Thompson-Seton
)
ke took the towb, and where, in 1471,
he died 8ulM>rior of the convent. He
copied many MSS. in a beautiful hand and
wrote numerous orii^nai works, including
sermons, exhortations, ascetic treatises,
hymns, prayers, etc His name, however,
would hardly be remembered were it not
for its connection with the celebrated
devotional work called The Imitation of
Christ, 'De Imitatione Christi,' a work
which has passed through thousands of
editions in the original Latin and in
translations. The authorship of this
book has long been a disputed point; but
it is generally ascribed to ft Kempis.
AMVAu«^Tj.MV9 g^j.^^ county seat of
Thomas Co., Ga., 200 miles w. s. w. of Sa-
vannah. It has a lumber trade, various
industries. Pop. 6727.
TTinmiafa the followers of Thomas
xaumi»b», Aquinas. See Scholasticism,
TlinniTianTi Almon Harris, born in
inompSOn, gtoddard, N. H., in 1839:
died in 1906. He became a member of the
United States Topographic Engineers in
1870. In 1882 he was appointed geojra-
pher to the United States Geological Sur-
vey, and (1884-95) did important work
in connection with the survey west of the
Mississippi.
Thompson, benjamin, count Rum-
AMw.u*j^»w«*9 FORD, an Amencan scien-
tist and Bavarian administrator, born at
Wobum, Mass., in 1753 ; died at Auteuil,
near Paris, in 1814. He commanded the
King*s American Dragoons in the Revo-
lutionary War^ and became aide-de-camp
and chamberlain at the court of the elec-
tor of Bavaria (1784-1802). He left
funds to Harvard for the professorship of
physical and mathematical sciences and
to the American Acadeniy of Arts and
Sciences and the Royal Society of Ten-
don for prizes for the most important dis-
coveries in heat and light
Thompson, I>enman, actor and play.
1^ ' wnght, born near Girard,
Pennsylvania, in 1S33; died in 1011. He
is best known by bis Joshua Whitcomb,
remodeled into the highly popular plav of
The Old Homestead, in which he long
took the leadingpart.
Thompson, P^^NCis, an English poet,
-*^ > bom at Ash ton. Lanca-
shire in 1860; died in rx)ndon, November
13, 1907. His early life closely resem-
bled that of DeQuincey, but he was finally
befriended and launched u^on the career
of journalist and poet. His verse, while
often eccentric and even forced, abounds
in passages of rare beauty.
TTinmnflAii Jerome, painter, was
XUOmpsou, ^^^ ^^ Middleborough.
Massacbusetts* in 1814; died in 1886.
Aside from portraits, his principal pic-
tores are scenes from rustic American
life, such as The Apple Qatherinff, The
Old Oaken Bucket, the Old Stage, and
The Lost Lamb, Many of his works
have been made familiar by engravings.
Thompson, sir John Sparrow, Ca-
•'^ ^ nadian statesman, bom
at Halifax in 1844; died in 1894. He
entered early into public life and be-
came premier of Nova Scotia in 1882.
He was appointed attorney general of
the Dominion in 1885 and became prime
minister in 1892. He took part in the
fishery treaty and the Behring Sea arbi-
tration.
Thompson, Jf^u^» sculptor, bom in
•*^"^**> Queens Co., Ireland, in
1833; died in New York in 1894. From
1874 to 1881 he resided in Rome. He
achieved great success as a portrait
sculptor, and was elected a member of
the Academy of Design in 1862.
TTiATTiTian-n Maurice, poet and nov-
J.UUmpson, ^jj^^^ ^^ ^^ Fairfield,
Indiana, in 1844; died in 1901. His
principal works are: Hoosier Mosaics,
The Witchery of Archery, A Tallehassee
Girl, His Second Campaign, and Songs of
Fair Weather,
Thompson, Ko™»r Eixis, educator,
i^ ' was bom m Ireland m
1844, came to America in 1857, was grad-
uated from the University of Pennsylvania
in 1865, and in 1873 was ordained min-
ister in the Reformed Presbyterian
Church. He was successively professor
of mathematics, of social science, and
of history and English literature in the
University of Pennsylvania, and has
been president of the Central High
School of Philadelphia since 1894. He
was editor of the Penn Monthly, 1870-
80, and became editor of The American
in 1880. He wrote Social Science and
Political Economy and Elements of Po-
litical Economy,
Thompson-Scton, ee«^t^^ evan.
thor, was bom at South Shields, Eng-
land, in 1860. He lived as a boy in
the Canadian woods and on the western
plains, became naturalist to the govern-
ment of Manitoba, and wrote Birds of
Manitoba and Mammals of Manitoba, He
afterwards studied art and became an
animal painter and illustrator. He also
became an active lecturer and wrote
many popular books describing the
habits ana intelligence of animals. The
best known among these is Wild AnimaU
I Have Known, Other writers followed
him in this field and a controversy arose
as to the truthfulness of their stories
of animal intelligence. The conception
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Thorns Thomson
of the organization of Boy Scouts, now 1730 his Autumn. After traveling for
so popular, is ascribed to him, though not some time on the Continent with the son
the title, and be is the leading spirit in of Sir Charles Talbot, the chancellor, he
this organization in the United States was rewarded with the post of secretary
(see Boy Scouts). . His name was legally of briefs, which he held till the death of
changed from Seton-Thompson to Thomp- the chancellor (1737), when he received
Bon-Seton in 1901. a pension of £100 from the Prince of
Thorns (^oms), William John, an Wales. Meanwhile he had brought on
• English author, bom at West- the stage his tragedy of Sophonisha
minster in 1803; died in 1885. He was (1729) and published his poem on
secretary to the Camden Society from lAheriy, the cool reception of which
1838 to 1873; deputy-librarian to the greatly disappointed him. He now
House of Lords; originator and for (1738) produced his tragedy of Aga-
many years editor of ^otes and Queriei, memnonf and a third entitled Edward and
and author of various antiquarian works. Eleanora, In 1740 he composed the
Thomson (tom'sun), Sib Charles masque of Alfred in conjunction with
Auvuun/u ^YViLLE, naturalist, bom Mallet; but which of them wrote the
in 1830 in Linlithgowshire; died in 1882. famous song, Rule. Britannia, is not
Educated at the University of Edin- known. In 1745 bis most successful
burgh, he l>ecame professor of miner- tragedy, Tancred and Sigismunda, was
alogy and geology in Queen*s College, brought out and warmly applauded.
Belfast, in 1854. In the dredging The following year he produced his
expeditions of the Lightning and Porcu- Castle of Indolence, a work in the Spen-
pine (1868-69) he took part, afterwards serian stanza. For a few years he held
publishing in The Depths of the Sea by deputy the confortable post of sur-
(1869), the substance of his discoveries veyor-general of the Leeward Islands,
in r^rd to the fauna of the Atlantic, and he died in 1748. He left a tragedy
In 1^39 he l>ecame fellow of the Royal entitled Coriolanus, which was acted
Society; in 1870 professor of natural for the benefit of his relatives. Thom-
history in the University of Edinburgh, son was greatly beloved for his amia-
In 1872 he was appointed scientific chief bility and kindness of heart His Sea-
of the Challenger expedition, which was sons, on which his fame rests, abounds
absent from England 3^ years, during in sensibility and beauty of natural de>
which time 68,890 miles were surveyed, scription. His Castle of Indolence,
On his return he was knighted, and en- though not so popular as the Seasons,
trusted by the government with the task is highly esteemed, but his tragedies are
of drawing up a report on the natural almost forgotten.
history specimens collected during the TTiAmsnii James, poet, was bom at
expedition. But he lived only to publish •■■^^wiusuii, port-Glasgow, Scotland, in
a preliminary account of the expedition, 1834, and was brought up at the Cale-
The Voyage of the Challenger: the At- donian Orphan Asylum, both his parents
lantio (1876-78). having died when he was very young.
TTiomaAn Elihu, an American elec- He became a schoolmaster in the army,
xixuuisvu, trician, bom in Manches- but quitted that occupation in 1862, and
ter, England, March 29, 1853 ; came to became clerk in a solicitor's office. In
the United States and subsequently se- 1860 he became a contributor to the
cured more than 600 patents for inven- National Reformer, in which was pub-
tlons which included the Thompson lished, under the signature * B. V.,' The
method of electric welding. He was Dead Tear, To Our Ladies of Death, and
awarded the Grand Prix, m Paris, in the poem by which he is best known, The
1889. for electrical inventions, received City of Dreadful Night (1874). Among
the decoration of C^hevalier of the Le- his other works are : Tasso and Leonora
gion of Honor, for electrical research, (1856) ; The Doom of a City (1857) ;
etc Sunday at Hampstead (1863); Sunday
TTiomaAii James, poet, was bom in up the River (1868) ; A Voice from the
XUUIUBUU, ^7QQ^ ^^ Ednam, near Kel- Nile (1881), and Insomnia (1882).
so, in Scotland, his father being minister Thomson*s verse is characterized by much
of Ednam pansh, and was educated at brilliancy and traits of graceful humor,
Jedburgh and the University of Edin- but its prevailing tone is one of despair,
burgh. He went in 1725 to London, He died in 1882.
where Winter, the first of his poems on TliAmfiAvi John, a landscape painter,
the seasons, was published in 1726. In A*lW"l»W*ij bora at Dailly, Scotland.
1727 he published his Summer, his Poem in 1776, succeeded his father as minister
to the Memory of Sir Isaac Newton, and of that parish in 1800, and exchanged
hk Britannia; in 1728 his Spring and in that living for Duddingston, near Edin-
<
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Thomson
Thomson
burgh, in 1805, dying there in 1840.
Thomson early turned his attention to
art, and produced a lar^ number o£
landscapes, which are considered to rank
him among the best painters of his na-
tive land.
Thomson, Joseph, an African ex-
' plorer, was born at Pen-
pont, Scotland, in 1858, and was educated
at Edinburgh. When twenty years of
age he accompanied Keith Johnston to
Central Africa, assuming full charge of
the expedition on the death of Mr. John-
ston. In 1882 he explored the Rovuma
in East Africa, and in 1884 made an im-
portant journey through Masai Land, in
eastern equatorial Africa. Among his
other achievements are an expedition to
the Atlas Mountains, and one to the river
Niger. He was a graphic writer, his
published works including Through Masai
Liand, To the Central African Lakes and
Back, Travels in the Atlas and Southern
Morocco, Life of Mungo Park, etc. He
died in 1895.
Thomson. Joseph John, phvsicist,
' was bom near Manchester,
England, in 1856, a cousin of Lord Kel-
vin. He became professor of experimen-
tal physics at Cambridge in 1884, and
wrote Vortew Rings, Recent Researches
in Electricity and Magnetism, etc. He
is especially notable for his researches
into the constitution of the atom of
matter, and the promulgation of the
theory of the electron, now so widely
accepted as the basic element of material
nature. His studies into the char-
acteristics of this have been intimate and
profound.
Tlinmann Thomas, a Scottish chem-
xaomsou, ist, bom at Crieff in 1773;
died in 1852. He adopted the medical
profession, and embraced chemistry more
especially as his favorite pursuit. In
18(D2 he published the first edition of his
System of Chemistry, which obtained
rapid success both in Great Britain and
on the Continent. It was followed in
1810 by his Elements of Chemistry, and
hi 1812 by his History of the Royal
Society. In 1813 he went to London
and commenced there a scientific journal,
the Annals of Philosophy, which he con-
tinued to edit till the end of 1820. The
lectureship (afterwards the regius pro-
fessorship) in chemistry in Glasgow
University was conferred on him in 1817.
His great work on the atomic theory was
published in 1825, under the title of
Attempt to Establish the First Principles
of Chemistry "by Experiment, In 1830-
31 he published his History of Chemistry,
in two volumes, and in 1836 appeared
kis OuUines of Mineralogy and Geology,
TTinmann Thomas, antiquary, brother
xnomsoU) of the Rev. John Thomson,
of Duddingston, was bom at Dailly,
Scotland, in 1768; died in 1852. He
was called to the Scottish bar in 1793,
appointed deputy-clerk register. 1806, and
principal clerk of session, 1828. He was
an early contributor to the Edinburgh
Review, and president of the Bannatyne
Club, for which and for the Maitland
Club he edited numerous valuable works.
TTiAifianTi William, Archbishop of
xnomson, York, was born at White-
haven, Feb. 11, 1819, and was educated
at Shrewsbury School and Queens Col-
lege. Oxford, of which he was succes-
sively fellow, tutor, and head. In 1858
he was chosen preacher of Lincoln's Inn,
and in 1859 was appointed one of her
majesty's chaplains in ordinary. Two
years later (1861) he was raised to the
episcopal bench as bishop of Gloucester
and Bristol; but before he had held the
appointment twelve months he was trans-
ferred to the archbishopric of York.
Dr. Thomson was author of a number
of works, including: An Outline of the
Necessary Laws of Thought; The Aton-
ing Work of Chnst, viewed in Relation
to some Current Theories; Crime and Its
Excuses; Life in Light of Ood's Word
(sermons) ; Limits of Phtlosophical In^
quiry; Design in Nature; and a series of
essays entitled Word, Work and WUL
He died in 1890.
Thomson, ,%.^rtf AV^^^l
mathematicians and physicists, was bom
at Belfast, Ireland, in 1824, his father be-
ing James Thomson, professor of mathe-
matics in Glasgow University. He was
educated first at Glasgow University, and
then at Peterhouse, Cambridge, where he
graduated (1845) as second wrangler,
and first Smith's prizeman, and was
elected to a fellowship. In 1846 he was
appointed professor of natural philoso-
phy in the University of Glasgow, a i>ost
which he continued to hold. The same
year he became editor of the Cambridge
and Dublin Mathematical Journal^ to
which he contributed valuable papers on
the mathematical theory of electricity,
being also a distinguished contributor to
Liouville's Journal de Math6matiques.
Amonp: the most important of his con^
tributions to electrical science are the
construction of several delicate instru-
ments for the measurement and study of
electricity. It is, however, in connection
with submarine telegraphy that Sir Wil-
liam Thomson's name is most generally
known, his services being rewarded, on
the completion of the Atlantic cable of
1866, with knighthood and other honon.
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Thor
Thombury
He also made important additions to our
knowled^ of magnetism and heat, and
invented an improved form of mariner's
compass now in extensive use. He was
president of the British Association at
Its Edinburgh meeting in 1871. He was
the author, jointly with Professor Tait,
of a well-known treatise on natural
philosophy, and issued many valuable
papers. A notable theory of his, the
vortex theory of atomics, attracted wide
attention, but was finally abandoned by
its author as mathematically undemon-
Btrable. He was created Baron Kelvin
in 1892. He died December 17, 1907.
TYiAT (thor, tor), son of Odin by JOrd
^^^'^ (the earth), the Jupiter of the
Teutons, the God of thunder. Thursday
has its name from him. See Northern
Mythology.
Thoracic Duct [^^Jf * >• ®^
TTiAroY (th6'raks), the chest, or that
XUQIUX. ^^j^ ^/ ^jjg human body
formed by the spine, ribs, and breast-
bone, situated between the neck and the
abdomen, and which contains the pleura,
longs, heart, etc The name is also ap-
Thorax in Man.
Thor»cic regions denoted by thick blsek
line*. 11, Right and left Hameral; 2 2, do.
SnbelaTian; 3 3, do. Mammary; 4 4, do.
Axillary; 5 5, do. Subaxillary or Lateral;
6 6, do. Scapular; 7 7, do. Interscapular;
8 8, do. Superior Dorsal or Subscapular. —
Yiscera or contents of Thorax, the position of
which is indicated by dotted lines, a a, Dia-
phragm; b. Heart; c. Lungs; d, Liver; e, Kid'
n«ys; /f Stomach.
piled to the corresponding portions of
other mammals, to the less sharply de-
fined cavity in the lower vertebrates, as
birds, fishes, etc., and to the segments
intervening between the head and abdo-
men in msects and other Arthropoda.
In serpents and fishes the thorax is not
completed below by a breast-bone. In
insects three sections form the thorax,
the pro-thoram, bearing the first pair of
isfi; the me»o-l^or<i0, bearing the second
6—10
pair of legs and first ^air of wings; and
and meta-thorawt bearmg the third pair
of legs and the second pair of wings.
Thoreau (t^o'r<». henry davie,
writer on nature subjects,
was bom at Boston, Massachusetts, in
1817, and was educated at Harvard tJni-
versity, where he was graduated in 1837.
From that time till 1840 be was en-
gaged as a schoolmaster. Then for
several years he occupied himself in
various ways, in land-surveying, carpen-
tering, and other handicrafts, but devot-
ing a greater part of his time to study
and the contemplation of nature. In
1845 he built for himself a hut in a
wood near Walden Pond, Concord, Mass.,
and there for two years lived the life of
a hermit After quitting his solitude.
Thoreau pursued his father's calling of
pencil-maker at Concord, where he died
in 1862. Besides contributing to the
Dial and other periodicals, he published
A Week on the Concord and Merrimao
Rivere (1849), and Walden, or Life in
the Woode (1854). After his death ap-
§ eared Ewcureione in Field and Forest,
*he Maine Woods, Cape Cod, and A
Yankee in Canada. Thoreau was a
friend of Emerson, and imbibed much of
his spirit and method of thought
TTiATnirm (th6'ri-um), the metal of
discovered by Berzelius. It is in the
form of a heavy metallic powder, has an
iron-gray tint, bums in air or oxygen,
when heated, with great splendor, and
is converted into thorina or oxide of
thorinum. It unites energetically with
chlorine, sulphur, and phosphorus. Hy-
drochloric acid readily dissolves it, with
the evolution of hydrogen gas. The
symbol of Thorium is Th, and the atomic
weight 116.
Thorn ^^ Hawthorn,
Thorn (tCni)f ^ ^^'''^ *°^ strong fort-
*'"^*" ress of Pmssia, province of
East Pmssia, on the Vistula. It con-
sists of an old and a new town, has
several churches, one of them containing
a statue of Copernicus, who was bom
here; manufactures of machinery, soap,
and a famous g! igerbread ; some ship-
ping, and a nood trade. Pop. 29,626.
Thorn-apple, see Datura.
Thom-hack Ray. see Bay.
TlinmhTirv ( thora'bu-ri ), Walter,
xauruuury ^ miscellaneous writer.
I>ora in London in 1828. Beginning his
literary career in Bristol at the age of
seventeen, he soon after settled in Lon-
don, where for thirty yean he was al-
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Thomhill
Thou
most continuously at work writiiur for
Household Worda^ Once a Week,
Athenwum, etc Among his numerous
works are Shakespeare's England, Songs
of the Cavaliers and Roundheads,
Haunted London, Legendary and Historic
Ballads, and a Life of 2'umer, under the
supenrision of Ruskin. He died in 1876.
Thornhill (thora-hiii). sp james,
«.**v«.«M*M* an English painter, bom
in 1676; died in 1734. He was much
encased in the decoration of palaces and
public buildings, in which his chief works
are to be found. Among his best efforts
may be mentioned the dome of St. Paul's,
the salon and refectory at Greenwich
Hospital, and some rooms at Hampton
Court His forte was in the treatment
of allegorical subjects.
Thrnnri & borough in Lackawanna
Xiixuu|i, Q^^ Pwinsylvania, 4 miles
from Scranton. It has coaling interests.
Pop. 6133.
Thorough-bass, see Ba#«.
ThorOUghwOrt. SeeBoi.e.e«.
TTiATTiA (tborp), Benjahiit, an Eng-
Xnorpe ^y^ ^tolar who greatly fur-
thered the study of Anglo-Saxon; bom
in 1782; died in 1870. Among his nu-
merous publications are an English edi-
tion of Rask's AngUhBawon urammar.
Ancient Laws and Institutes of the Anglo'
Soman Kings, The Oospels in Anglo-
Sawon, an edition of Beowulf, The
Anglo-Samon Chronicle, Northern Mythol-
ogy, etc
Thome Fbancis Newton, an Ameri-
" ' can author, bom in Swamp-
scott, Massachusetts, in 1857. He is
author of The Qovemment of the People
of the United States; The Story of the
Constitution; The Constitution of the
United States with Bibliography; The
History of the CivU War, and numerous
other works on historical and political
subjects. He was professor of American
Constitutional History at the University
of Pennsylvania, 1895-98.
Thorwaldsen irnrSgllfSo^ioi^
(Bertel), a celebrated sculptor, bom at
Copenhagen November 19, 1770. At first
he helped his father to cut figureheads
in the royal dockyard, then, after some
years' study at the Academy of Arts, he
won the privilege of studying three
vears abroad. Going to Rome (1797)
he was much impressed bv the works of
Canova, the sculptor, and Carstens, the
fainter, who were then residing there,
t was not until 1803, however, that he
became at all widely known. Then by
a lucky chance he received a commistion
from Sir Thomas Hope to execute in
marble a :statue of Jason, which the
sculptor had modeled. This was so bril*
liantly executed that commissions flowed
in upon him, new creations from his
hand followed in quick succession, and
his unsurpassed abilities as a sculptor
became everywhere recognized. In fel9
he returned to Denmark, and his Journey
through Germany and his receptions at
Copenhagen resembled a triumph. After
remaining a year in Copenhagen and
executing various works there, he re-
tumed to Rome, visiting on his way
Berlin, Dresden, Warsaw and Vienna.
He remained at Rome till 1^8, when he
undertook another journey to Copen-
hagen, being principally moved to this
step by the contemplated establishment
in that city of a museum of his works
and art treasures. His retum was a
sort of national festival. The remainder
of his life was spent chiefly in the Dan-
ish capital, where he died March 2^
1844. The Thorwaldsen Museum, opened
in 1840, contains about 300 of the works
of the sculptor. Thorwaldsen was emi-
nently successful in his subjects chosen
from Greek mythology* such as his
Mars, Mercury, Venus, etc His religious
works, among which are a colossal group
of Christ and the Twelve Apostles, St.
John Preaching in the WUdemess, and
statues of the four great prophets, dis-
play almost superior grandeur of con-
ception. Chief among his other works
are his statues of Oalueo and Copernicus,
and the colossal lion near Lucerne, in
memory of the Swiss guards who fell in
defense of the Tuileries.
Tlinfli (thoth, tot), an Egyptian deity
J-iiUtii jdentified by the Greeks with
Hermes (Mercury), to whom was at-
tributed the invention of letters, arts,
and sciences. The name is equivalent
in significance to the Greek Logos, and
Thoth is a mythical personification of the
divine intelligence.
Thou X^^)* Jacques Auguste dk, a
Auvu. j^rench statesman and historian,
bom in 1553; died in 1617. Henry IV
employed him in several important nego-
tiations, and in 1593 made him his prin-
cipal librarian. In 1596 he succeeded
his uncle as chief-justice, and during the
regency of Mary de' Medici he was one
of the directors-general of finance. His
greatest literarv labor was the composi-
tion in Latin of a voluminous History of
My Own Times, comprising the events
from 1545 to 1607, of which the first
part was made public in 1604. To this
work, which is remarkable for its im-
partiality, he subjoined interesting
Memoirs of his own lift.
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Thonglit-readiiig
Three Sivers
Thonght-reading. s«e Tctopa**^.
Thourout Z*^'?)* * ^^ ®' ^^i?™'
AuwMAWMv In the province of West
Flanders, with various manufactures and
a larse trade. Pop. 10,146.
Thousand and One Nights.
See Arahian Night$,
Thousand Idandu, l^rZ^g,
which really number about 1800, in the
St. Lawrence immediately below Ijake
Ontario. They partly belong to Canada
and partly to the State of New York, and
have become a popular summer resort
Thrace (thrfts), or Thbaoia, a name
applied at an early period
amonc the Greeks to a region lying north
of Macedcmia. By the Romans this
country was regarded as divided into
two parts by the Hemus (or Balkan),
the northern of which was called Moesla
and the southern Thrace. The Gredui
early settled colonies on the coasts, and
the country, besides possessing rich
meadows and corn-lands, abounded in
mines, while the Thracian horses and
riders rivaled those of Thessaly. Of the
rivers of Thrace, the latest and most
celebrated was the Hebrus (now
Maritsa). Abdera, the birthplace of
Democritus and Protagoras; Sestos, on
the Hellespont, celebrated in the story of
Hero and Leander; and Byzantium, on
the peninsula on which Constantinople
now stands, were the places the most
worthy of note.
Thrashing-machine, ?o"*i^Ja«t!
ing grain from the straw, and in which
the moving i>ower is that of horses,
oxen, wind, water, or steam. The
thrashing-machine was invented in Scot-
land in 1758 by Michael Stirling, a
farmer in Perthshire; it was afterwards
improved by Andrew Meikle, a millwrjyght
in ESast Lothian, about the year 1776.
Since that time it has undergone various
improvements. The principal feature of
the thrashing-machine as at present con-
structed, is the three rotary drums or
cylinders, which receive motion from a
water-wheel, or from horse or steam
power. The first drum which comes into
operation has projection ribs called
beaters on its outer surface, parallel to
its axis. This drum receives a very rapid
motion on its axis. The sheaves of grain
are finit spread out on a slanting table,
and are then drawn in with the ears fore-
most between two feeding rollers with
parallel grooves. The beaters of the
drum act on the straw as it passes
through tba rollers, and beat out the
grahi. The thrashed straw is then car-
ried forward to two successive drums or
shaken, which, being armed with numer-
ous spikes, lift up and shake the straw
so as to free it entirely from the loose
grain lodged in it The grain is made
to pass through a grated floor, and is gen-
erally conducted to a winnowing-machine
connected by gearing with the thrashing-
machine itself, by which means the gram
is separated from the chaif. Improved
machmes on the same principle, many
of them portable^ are extensively used in
the United Sutes and Britain, those of
the former country being particularly
light and effective. In American thrash-
ers two modes are employed for sepa-
rating the straw from the grain; the
* endless aprons' answer an excellent
purpose when not driven too rapidly, and
make clean work. The * vibrator^ con-
sists of a series of inclined fingers, the
rapid shaking motion of which tosses up
the straw and shakes out the grain; to
the machine is attached a measuring hop-
per, showing the quantity of grain pass-
ing through it Another machine foi
thrashing rve carries the straw throuch
unbroken, for binding in bundles. The
portable steam thrashing-machine, moved
from farm to farm, may perform the
thrashing-work of a wide district for the
whole season.
Thrasiinene (pr^i^nfflNU8),LAM:.
^ ^ See Perugia, Lago dt.
Thread (^i^)» & slender cord con-
sisting of two or more yarns,
or simple spun strands, firmly united to-
gether by twisting. The twisting to-
gecuer of the different strands or yams
to form a thread is effected by a thread-
frame or doubling and twisting machine,
which accomplishes the purpose by the
action of bobbins and flyers. Thread
is used in some species of weaving, but
its principal use is for sewing.
Thread-worms, fftf name for thread-
AAM^wM. vTVJ.A«Aa) j^i^^ intestinal worms
of the order Nematoda. The Owyuris
vermioularia occurs in great numbers in
the rectum of children particularly. See
Nemateknia.
Three Rivers, ^.f M,^^. J^t^
St. Joseph River, 25 miles s. of Kala-
mazoo. Manufactures cars, railroad sup-
plies, electric motors, furaiture, tools,
pulleys, paper, etc. Pop. 5072.
Three Rivers, - ,„t^'|„a"- «
entry of Quebec, Canada, 95 miles N. e.
of Afontreal, at the confluence of the
rivers St. Maurice and St. Lawrence. It
has an extensive trade in timber, and im-
portant manlifactures oTironware, ajnd ifl
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Thresher-shfurk
Thugs
one of the oldest towiu in the province,
being founded in 1634. It ie the re&i-
dence of a Roman Catholic bishop, and
contains a cathedraL Pop. 9981.
Thresher-shark, ^^^^^ ^
nus of sharks containing but one known
species {AlopiaB vulpei). with a short
conical snout, and less formidable jaws
than the white shark. The upper lobe
of the tail fin is very elongated, being
nearly equal in length to the rest of the
bodv, and is used as a weapon to strike
with. Tail included, the thresher attains
a length of 13 feet It inhabits the
Atlantic and the Mediterranean. See
Shark.
Thrift. ^^ Sea-pink.
ThriDS ^ senus of minute insects, or-
yoj ^gj. Hemiptera, suborder Ho-
moptera, closely allied to the Aphides.
They are extremely agile, and seem to
leap rather than fly. Thev live on
flowers, plants, and under the ba^ of
trees. T. cerealium is a common species,
scarcely a line in length or in extent of
wing, residing in the spathes and husks
of cereals, especially wheat, to whidi
it is most injurious.
Throat (tlir^t), the anterior part of
the neck of an animal, in
which are the oesophagus and windpipe,
or the passages for the food and breatlL
See Larynx, (E$ophagu9^ Trachea, Diph*
theria. Croup, etc.
Thrombosis ffir^'tVJ'S. ^^h^
heart or a blood-vessel which may block
the vessel, causing serious results.
Throstle, see rAm.*.
Thmsh ^^^ name applied popularly
> to several msessonal birds.
The true thrushes (Turdidw or Meru-
lidig) form a family of dentlrostral
passerine birds, including the song-
thrush or throstle, the missel-thrush, the
blackbird, etc. They feed upon berries,
small molluscs, worms, etc Their habits
are mostly solitary, but several species
are gregarious in winter. They are
celebrated on account of their powers of
song; and are widely diffused, being
found in all the quarters of the globe.
Nine species of the thrush family are
found in the United States. These in-
clude the wood thrush, found east of
the Mississippi and south to Guatemala,
the liquid, half plaintive notes of which
excel in sweetness those of any other
American bird. The notes are few in
number, but possess a charm beyond de-
scription. The common robin also is a
member of the thrush family. There
are several Ehiropean species, among
which are included the missel thrush and
the song thrush of Britain. These are
also sweet singers.
TVimali ^ disease common in infants
thm,) The name is also appUed to an
abscess in the feet of horses and some
other animals.
Thua'nus. seer»o».
Thucydides iWJi^gl'o^^fS^l:
torians, was bom in Attica about 471
B.O. He was well bom and rich, being
the possessor of gold mines in Thrace,
and was for a time a prominent com-
mander during the Peloponnesian war,
which forms the subject of his great
work. For many years he suffered exile
(being accused of remissness in duty) ;
but appears to have returned to Athens
the year following the termination of the
war, namely in B.C. 403. He is said to
have met a violent death, probablv a year
or two later, but at what exact time, and
whether in Thrace or Athens, is not
known. His historv consists of eight
books, the last of which differs from the
others in containing none of the political
speeches which form so striking a fea-
ture of the rest, and is also g;enerally
supposed to be inferior to them in style.
Hence it has been thought bv various
critics to be the work of a different au-
thor, of Xenophon, of Theopompus, or
of a daughter of Thucydides; but it is
more probable that it is the author's own
without his final revision. The history
is incomplete, the eighth book stopping
abruptly in the middle of the twenty-
first year of the war. As a historian
Thucydides was painstaking and in-
defatigable in collecting and sifting facts,
brief and terse in narrating them. His
style is full of dignity and replete with
condensed meaning. He is unsurpassed
in the power of analyzing character and
action, of tracing events to their causes,
of appreciating the motives of individual
agents, and of combining in their just
relations all the threads of the tanfled
web of history. The best translations
are by Jowett and Dale.
Thills ^^® name applied to a secret
xuugsy ^^^ ^jj^ widely-spread society
among the Hindus, whose occupation
was to waylay, assassinate, and rob all
who did not belong to their own caste.
This they did, not so much from cupidity
as from religious motive, such actions
being deemed acceptable to their goddess
Kait. The government first took active
measures against them in 1831 and 1835,
and Thuggery is now practically extinct.
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i
MiPfoditctd fcy ptrmiisiGm of iht PhUadrtphiti Afuieums.
HARVESTllfG IN THE WEST
JUpFodmctdby permission of the Philadaphia Museums,
8TSAM EARVBSTIR AND THRBSHSR
The upper view ihowv aide hill hArvwten drawn by teams of twenty-eight hones each. The machines
GBt the gram, and tie it ttp in bandies, which are droi>ped outside. The machine in the lower view is sdf-
propdiing, cttte and threshet tht grain, throwing out the straw, and plaoes the grain in ladcB ready foc^
loading on the wagon. v.
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Thuja
TliTinnan
Thuja.
See Arhar Vitw,
Thnle (thole), the name given by the
xuiuv ancients to the most northern
country with which they were acquainted.
According to Pytheas it was an island
six days' voyage to the north of Britan-
nia, and accordingly it has often been
identified wfth Iceland. Some have im-
agined it to be one of the Scotch islands,
others the coast of Norway.
Thumb-screw, !i*^?!S!.'L'''fn!"^°^
' of torture for com-
pressing the
thumbs. It was
employed In
various coun-
tries, Scotland
in particular.
Called also
Thumhkins,
Switzerland, in Sooteh Thumb-Screw, time
the canton of ofCh«rleiI.
Bern, beauti-
fully situated at the northwestern ex-
tremity of the lake of its own name, at.
the point where the Aar issues from it
It is the seat of the Swiss military school,
and the chief place of arms in the coun-
try. Pop. 6069.— The lake is 10 miles
long, 2 broad, and about 720 feet deep.
At its southeastern extremity it receives
the surplus waters of the Lake of Brienz
by the Aar, which again emerges from
its northwestern extremity.
Thunder. ^^ Lightning.
Thunder-fish, ^ ^p^^^i ®^a.?*^^^^
A^M^^««A *M,a^j ^g family Siluride,
found in the Nile, which, like the torpedo,
can give an electric shock. It is the
MalapterHruB dectricua of naturalists.
Thundering Legion. ^ ^r^,
HIM.
ThurfiraU (tur'srou), a canton in the
xiiui^UU northeast of Switzerland,
bounded mainly by the Lake of Constance
and the cantons of ZUrich and St. Gall;
area, 381 square miles; capital Frauen-
feld. It differs much in physical con-
formation from most other Swiss cantons,
in having no high mountains^ though
the surface is sufficiently diversified.
The whole canton belongs to the basin of
the Rhine, to which its waters are con-
veyed chiefly by the Thur and its afflu-
ents, and i^artly also by the Lake of
Constance, including the Untersee. The
principal crops are grain and potatoes;
large quantities of fruit are also grown.
In many places the vine is successfully
caltivateiL The manufactures consist
Thurible.
chiefly of cottons, hosiery, ribbons, lace,
etc Pop. 113,221.
Thurible ^ifj^;;
kind of censer of
metal, sometimes of
gold or silver, but
more commonly of
brass or latten, in
the shape of a cov-
ered vase or cup,
perforated so as to
allow the fumes of
burning incense to |,
escape. It has
chains attached, by
which it is held
and swung at high
mass, vespers, and
other solemn offices
of the Roman Cath-
olic Church.
Thiiringerwald Z^^-^o^^'^^V.
BINQIA, a mountain chain in the center
of German V, stretching southeast to north-
west for about 60 miles. Its culminating
points are the Beerberg and the Schnee-
kopf, which have each a height of about
3220 feet The mountains are well cov-
ered with wood, chiefly pine. The miner-
als include iron, copper, lead, cobetlt, etc
Thnrinaia ( thtt-rin'ji-a; German,
Xnunu^a >jpj^^ringen, ttt'ring-^n). a
region of Central Germany situated be-
tween the Harz Mouutains, the Saale,
the Tbtiringerwald, and the Werra, and
comprising great part of Saxe-Weimar,
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and other small ad-
joining states.
Tlmrl#kft (thur'les), a town in Ireland,
xiiUliCB jij ^^^ county of Tipperary,
on both banks of the Suir, with con-
siderable trade, a Roman Catholic cathe-
dral and college, etc. Pop. 4411.
TTinrlAur (thur'Io), Eowabd, Lord,
xiiuiiuw lord-chancellor of England,
was born at Little Ashfield, near Stow-
market, Suffolk, in 1732, and in 1778
was made lord-chancellor, being raised to
the peerage as Baron Thurlow. Pitt
suspected Thurlow of intriguing: with the
PrlDce of Wales, and from this time an
open disagreement took place between
them. Pitt demanded his dismissal, to
which the king at once agreed, and he
was deprived of the great seal in June,
1792. He died in 1806.
Thurman (thur'man), Allen Gran-
a.Ai.uMLaucMi. ggjjY^ Statesman, born at
Lynchburg, Virginia, in 1813. He en-
tered Congress in 1845, and was elected
to the supreme bench of Ohio in 1851,
occupying the position of chief -justice.
Ohio sent him to the United States Sen-
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Thursday
Thyrsus
ate in 1869, where he became the recog-
nized leader of the Democratic party.
He was the author of the act to compel
the Pacific railroad corporations to fuU-
fil their obligations, known as * the Thur-
man act.' In 1888 he received the nomi-
nation of the Democratic party for the
vice-presidency, but was defeated. He
was called ' the old Roman ' because of
his special devotion to the Republic He
died December 12, 1895.
TTinrftflflV (thurz'dA; that is, 'Thor's
week, so called from the old Teutonic
god of thunder, Thor. See Thor.
.Thursday Island, *, Xl^l
in Normanby Sound, Torres Straits. It
is a government station, and the harbor
— Port Kennedy — is one of the finest in
this quarter. It is in the direct tract of
all vessels reaching Australia by Torres
Straits; is the center of a large and
important pearl and btehenle-mer fishery;
and is a depOt of trade with New Guinea.
TlmraA (thur'sO), a seaport of Scot-
ness, on the shore of the bay of the
same name. The chief trade is the ex-
portation of grain, cattle, agricultural
produce and excellent paving-stones.
Pop. 3723.
TliiirafnTi (thurs'tun), Robebt Hen-
XnurSXOn ^^^ physicist, was bom at
Providence, Rhode Island, in 1839; died
in 1903. He graduated at Brown Uni-
versity in 1859; served in the navy dur-
ing the Civil war; became assistant pro-
fessor of natural philosophy at the Naval
Academy in 1865, professor of mechani-
cal engineering at the Stevens Institute
in 1871, and director of Sibley College,
Cornell University, in 1884. His experi-
ments and inventions were of great value
to his profession. He wrote UUtorp of
the Oroioth of the Steam EnginefFriction
and Lubrication^ Materials of Engineer'
ing, etc.
TTifTAflfAa (thi-es'tez), in Greek my-
xuyesi^es t^ology, son of Pelops and
Hippodamia, and grandson of Tantalus.
Having seduced the wife of his brother
Atreus, the latter, in revenge, served up
to him the body of his own son at a
feast See Atreiu.
TlivlaPlTiA ( thil'a-sSn ; ThylacinuM
xnyiaciue cynocephdlus) , a carniv-
orous marsupial animal inhabiting
Tasmania, and commonly known as the
Tasmanian wolf. In size it is generally
about 4 feet in total length, though some
specimens attain a much greater size.
It is nocturnal in its habits; of a fierce
and most determined disposition, and is
very deBtructlve to sheep and other ani-
mals. It has an elongated and somewhat
dog-like muzzle, and a long tapering tail ;
the fur is grayish-brown with a series of
bold transverse stripes, nearly black in
color, beginning behind the shoulders and
ending at the tail.
Thylacoleo ^^yT«^^''^^'. * f^
* '^ ^ markable extinct carniv-
orous marsupial, whose bulk and propor-
tions appear to have equaled the lion.
Its fossil remains are found in Australia.
Thvme (tl°>! Thymus vulg(tri$)f a
* "^ *^ small plant of the nat order
Labiatie, a native of the south of Europe,
and frequently cultivated in gardens. It
is from 6 to 10 inches high, with narrow,
almost linear leaves, and whitish or red-
dish fiowers; has a strong aromatic odor,
and yields an essential oil, which is used
for flavoring purposes. The fragrant wild
thyme found in several of the United
States is the Thgmua SerpyUuM of botan-
ists. Both species afford good bee-pasture.
Thymelaceas i,i^p\;SrSSSfJ'«. t*
der of exogenous plants, consisthig of
shrubs or small trees, rarely herbs,
with non-articulated, sometimes spiny
branches, with tenacious bark. The
leaves are alternate and opposite, and
the flowers spiked and terminaL The
fruit is nut-like or drupaceous. The
species are not common in Europe; they
are found chiefly in the cooler parts of
India and South America, at the Cape
of Good Hope and in Australia. See
Daphne and Laoe-barh Trees.
Thymus Gland /thrmus). a duct-
«.M^«M.»M« ^*MiM^ jggg temporary or-
gan situated in the middle line of the
body. After the end of the second year
of life it decreases in size, and almost or
wholly disappears at puberty. It is
covered in front by the breast-bone, and
lies on the front and sides of the wind-
pipe. Its functions are still undeter-
mined.
Thyroid Cartilage, see Lorynw.
Thyroid Gland ,<r"Jf4tS«'"?n
man which covers the anterior and in-
ferior part of the larynx and the first
rings of the windpipe. It is of a reddish
color, and is more developed in women
than in men. It may become abnor-
mally enlarged, as in goitre. Its use
is not at all clear, but it probably exerts
some influence on the blood and circula-
tion, especially in childhood.
ThvrSUS (thir'sus), among the Greeks,
J^ a wand or spear wreathed
with ivy leaves, and with a pine-cone at
the top, carried by the followers of
Bacchus as a symbol of devotion. In an-
Digitized by
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Thysaniira
Tibet
cient representations it appears in various
forms.
about 140 tons burden reach Rome. It
is subject to floods, and carries down
quantities of yellowish mud, hence its
the yeUow Tiber.' See
designation
Rome,
Tibc'rias.
(
See OalUee^ Sea of.
Ysrioas formi of Thynas, from snelont VaMS.
terous insects that undergo no meta-
morphosis, and have, in addition to their
feet, particular organs of motion, gener-
ally at the extremity of the abcbmen.
The group is often divided into two
families, Podurid» or spring-tails, and
Lepismidn or sugar^lice, etc. BLecently
it nas been divided into two orders by
Sir John Lubbock: 1. CoIlembOla, com-
prising those members known as spring-
tails, and nearlv co-equal with the
Poduridae; 2. Thysanura (restricted),
comprising those whose anal bristles do
not form a spring, as the Lepismidas.
See Podurida, Leptemidw.
Tiam. (tl-ft'ra), originally the cap of
xxaxa f^^ Persian kings. The tiara of
the pope is a high cap, encircled by three
coronets with an orb and cross of gold
at the top, and on two sides of it a
chain of precious stones. The miter
alone was first adopted by Damasus II
in 1048. It afterwards had a plain
circlet of gold put round it. It was
surmounted by a coronet by Boniface
VIII. The second coronet was added by
Benedict XII, the third coronet by
Urban V.
TibbllS (t^b'uB), a people of the East-
em Sahara, probably allied in
race to the Berl>ers.
TiliAr (tl'ber; Italian, Tevire: an-
j.iucr ciently, TiUrU), a celebrated
river of Italy, which rises in the Apen-
nines, in Tuscany, and, after a general
southerly course of about 240 miles, falls
into the Mediterranean by two mouths
(one of them artificial). It traverses
the city of Rome, here forming the isl-
and anciently called Insula Tiberina.
About ninety miles of its course are
navigable for small vessels; those of
Tiberius (ti-b€'ri-us), in full, Tiot.
** *^* Bius Claudius Nero Gjesab,
a Roman emperor, born B.C. 42, was the
son of Tiberius Claudius, of the ancient
Claudian family, and of Livia Drusilla,
afterwards the wife of the emperor
Augustus. Tiberius became consul in his
twenty-eighth year, and was subsequently
adopted by Augustus as his heir. In
AJ). 14 he succeeded to the tlirone with-
out opposition. Dangerous mutinies
broke out shortly afterwards in the ar-
mies posted in Pannonia and on the
Rhine, but they were suppressed by the
exertions of the two princes, Gkrmanicus
and Drusus. The conduct of Tiberius as
a ruler was distinguished by an extraor-
dinary mixture of tyranny with oc-
casional wisdom and goed sense. Tacitus
records the events of the reign, including
the suspicious death of Germanicus, the
detestable administration of Sejanus, the
poisoning bv that minister oi Drusus,
the emperor^s son, and the infamous and
dissolute retirement of Tiberius (a.i>.
27) to the Isle of Caprese, in the Bay
of Naples, never to return to Rome.
The death of Livia in a.d. 29 removed
the only restraint upon his actions, and
the destruction of the widow and family
of Oermanicus followed. Sejanus, aspir-
ing to the throne, fell a victim to his
ambition in the year 31 ; and many in-
nocent persons were destroyed owing to
the suspicion and cruelty of Tiberius,
which now exceeded all limits. He died
in March, 37.
Tibesti (t6-bes-t§'), a region of the
Eastern Sahara, supporting a
scanty population of the Tibbu race.
Tibet ^^ Thibet (ti'bet, ti-bet'), a
' country occupying the south
portion of the great plateau of Central
Asia, lying between Ion. 73** and 101 • K.,
and lat. 27*" and 36'' x., and extending
east and west from Cashmere and the
Karakorum range to the frontiers of
China; area about 700,000 sq. miles.
Its plains average about 10,000 feet in
height, and many of its mountains have
twice that altitude. In Tibet nearly all
the great rivers of South and East Asia
take their rise (Indus, Brahmaputra.
Hoang-ho, Yang-tse-kiang, etc.), and
there are numerous salt and freshwater
lakes, situated from 13,800 to 15,000
feet above the sea-leveL The climate is
characterized by the excessive dryness of
Digitized by
Google
Tibia
TickeU
the atmosphere, and the severity of the
winter. From October to March v^eta-
tion is almost wholly dried up, and the
cold is intense. Notwithstanding the in-
clemency of the weather there is a great
abundance of wild and domestic animals*
Of these the most remarkable is the yak»
which exists both wild and domesticated.
It supplies food and clothing, and is also
used as a beast of burden. Other ani-
mals include the musk-deer, the Cashmere
goat, wild sheep, wild horses and fat-
tailed sheep. Agriculture is practiced to
a comparatively small extent, suitable
localities beinc rare. Minerals include
gold, copper, iron, borax and rock-salt
Tibet does a large trade with China, ex-
changing gold-dust, incense, idols and
European and Indian goods, for tea, silks
and other Chinese produce. The capital
is Lhasa. The form of government is a
hierarchv. The religion Is Buddhism in
a form known as Lamaism (which see),
of which Tibet is the principal seat The
lama8 or priests form a large proportion
of the population, and live m monas-
teries; the two ^and lamas being re-
garded as the religious and political beads
of the state. Remains of an earlier creed
exist in the Boupo, a religion evolved
from Shamanism, but much influenced
by Buddhism, and frequently confounded
with the Ola school of the Buddhists.
The inhabitants are of an amiable dis-
position, but much averse to intercourse
with foreigners, few of whom have been
able to gain admittance to the country.
Recently, however, the country has been
traversed bv persistent explorers and its
general characteristics learned. The
manners and mode of life of the people
are rude. Polyandry is a common cus-
tom. The language is allied to Chinese,
and has been written and used in litera-
ture for 1200 years. Tibet was gov-
erned by its own princes till the com-
mencement of the 18th century, but since
1720 it has been a dependency of
China. A Chinese functionarv is always
stationed at the residence of the grand
lama, and a Chinese governor with a
military force is stationed in each of the
principal towns. A recent event was the
sending of a Chinese force to the coun-
try to seize the Dalai Lama, who was
suspected of ambitious views, and who
fled to India, putting himself under
British protection. The population is
estimated at from 2,000,000 to 3,000,000,
though by some it is supposed to be con-
siderably larger.
Tibia (tib^i-a), a kind of pipe, the
xxuxa commonest musical instrument
of the Greeks and Romans. It had
boles at proper intervals, and was fur-
nished with a mouthpiece. For the tibia
in anatomy see Leo,
libullUS (ti-bul'us), ALBIU8, a Ro-
* ^^ man elegiac poet, who be-
longed to the eouestrian order, and died
in the flower of his age, about b. c. 18.
His poems are among the most perfect
of their kind, but their moral tone is
that of a reckless voluptuary. We pos-
sess four books of elegies under his name»
but the third and part of the fourth are
spurious.
Tic Douloureux ^f a^s^VioS Ti
facial nerve, a species of neuralgia. It is
characterized by acute pain, attended
with convulsive twitchings of the muscles,
and continuing from a few minutes to
several hours. It occurs on one side of
the face, and may be caused by a dis-
eased tooth, by inflammation in the ear
passage, b/exposure to cold, by dyspep-
sia, etc The removal of the cause is
the natural remedy; and warm applica-
tions, the employment of electric currents
over the nerve, and morphia administered
subcutaneously, are sometimes efficient
TlPlTlA (ti-chS'nO; German and French,
J.XVX11V f Off gin) ^ a river of Switzerland
and North Italy, which rises in Mount
St. Gothard, and after a course of about
120 miles joins the Po on the left It
traverses Lake Maggiore and separates
Piedmont from Lombardy.
TiPiTin (German and French, TeMB%n)f
Xioiuu ^ canton in the south of Swit-
zerland; area, 1088 square miles. The
northern and greater part of this canton
is an elevated and mountainous region,
the SplUgen, St Bemardin, and Mount
St Gothard forming its northern bound-
ary. The chief river is the Ticino, and
there are numerous small lakes. Lake
Maggiore is partly within the canton.
In the north the principal occupations
are cattle-rearing and the preparation of
dairy produce. In the south the olive,
vine, ngs, citrons, and pomegranates are
grown. Manufactures and trade are un-
important The chief towns are Bel-
linzona, Locarno, and Lugano. Pop.
138,638, most of whom are Catholics and
speak Italian.
Tinlr^ll (tik'el), Thomas, an English
XXCiLCix ^^ ^j letters, born in Cum-
berland in 1686. His success in litera-
ture and in life was mainly due to
Addison, who procured for him in 171?
an under-secretarvship of state. In 1725
he was appointed secretary to the lords-
justices of Ireland, a post he held till
his death in 1740. His chief works are
Prospect of Peace, a ballad entitled
Colin and Lucy, and a fine elegy on the
death of Addison.
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Ticket-of-leave
Tide
TinlrAf-Af-lAQirA & certificate given York, situated upon the stream connect-
j.iClS.Cl. Ul iCiiVCy j^ ^ convict by ing lakes George and Champlain. It
which he is permitted to go at liberty, figured prominently during the colonial
under certain restrictions, before the ex- and revolutionary period, bavins a fort-
piradon of his sentence. This system ress built by the French in 17^, which
exists in Britain and a similar system, was attacked by the British in 1758 and
known as parole, has recently been captured by Ethan Allen in 1775. The
adopted in parts of the United States, ruins of the old fort remain an object
It amounts to a conditioned pardon, de- of interest. Pop. 2475.
pendent upon the conduct of the pris- TiJ^ol Motor ^ motive power receiv-
oner. * jm.vvva, ^^^ .^^ energy through
Ticking (tik'ing), a strong cloth, com- the lift and fall of the tides acting upon
AJ.VXWLU5 njQniy made of twilled linen a suitable apparatus,
or cotton and of a striped pattern* It Tide (^^^^» ^^® rising and falling of the
is chiefiy used for covering mattresses for **^^ water of the sea, which occurs
beds. periodically, as observed at places on the
Ticknor (tik-nur), Geobge, historian, coasts. The tide appears as a general
•*• ^ bom at Boston in 1791 ; died wave of water, which gradually elevates
there in 1871. He was graduated from itself to a certain height, then as gralu-
Dartmouth College in ISO?, and was ad- ally sinks till its surface is about as
mltted to the bar in 1813. In 1815 he much below the medium level as it wae
embarked for Europe, and visited the before above it. From that time the
chief capitals for the purpose of pursu- wave again begins to rise; and this
ing his studies. On his return in 1820 reciprocating motion of the waters con-
he was appointed professor of modem tinues constantly, with certain varia-
languages and literature in Harvard tions in the height and in the times of
University. In 1835 he resigned his attaining the greatest degree of height
professorship, and for the next three and of depression. The alternate rising
years traveled in Europe with his family, and falling of the tide-wave are observed
In 1849 he published a History of Span- to take place generally twice in the
ish Literature, corrected and enlarged course of a lunar day, or of 24 hours
editions being subsequently published. 49 minutes of mean solar time, on most
It was at once recognized by scholars as of the shores of the ocean, and in the
a work of value, and has been translated greater part of the bays, firths, and rivers
{
into Spanish
and German.
After com-
pleting some
works of min-
or interest he
produced, in
1863, a Me-
moir of Pres
cott, the his
torian, with
whom
n, witn /^
he had [mJ T\
long main- ^-^
tained a close
friendship.
Ticks * family of the Aca-
A,x%j£kOf j.jjj^ ^j^ miteH, class
Arachnida. Ticks are para-
sitic animals, po»^i?f^.^ing oval
or rounded btMliei^p and
'months, in the form of suck-
ers, by which tln?y attach
themselves to dogfi. sheep,
oxen, and other mnnjmals^
Birds and reptUes are also
annoyed by the attacks of
certain species and man is
subject to their attncka.
Ticonderoga <,'^,V.°- .15:
itge in Essex C^., New
Ilpi.
I1»&
©
Tidsi.
which commu-
n i c a t e freely
with it The
©tides form what
are called a
flood and an
ebb, a high and
low water. The
whole interval
between high
and low water
is often called a
tide; the water
is said to flow
and to ebb;
and the rising
is called the
flood^tide and
the falling the
ebb-tide. The
rise or fall of
the waters, in
regard to eleva-
tion or depres-
sion, is exceedingly different at
different places, ana is also vari-
able everywhere. The interval
between two succeeding high-
waters is also variable. It is
shortest about new and full moon,
being then about 12 hours 19
llt.lL
©
Digitized by
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)
Tide
minutes; and about the time of the
moon's quadratures it is 12 hours 80
minutes. But these intervals are some-
what different at different places. Tides
are caused by the attraction which the
sun and moon exert over the water of
the earth. The moon is the nearest of
the heavenly bodies to the earth, and the
mobile nature of water leads it to yield
readily to the attractive influence. Those
parts of the waters directly under the
moon's vertical path in the heavens are
drawn out towards the moon. At the
same time the moon attracts the bulk
of the earth, and, as it were, pulls the
earth away from the water on the sur-
face furthest from it, so that here also
the water is raised, although not quite
80 much as on the nearer side. The
waters being thus heaped up at the same
time on these two opposite parts of the
earth, and the waters situated half-way
between them being thus necessarily de-
pressed, two hiph and two Uho tides oc-
cur in the period of a little more than
one revolution of the earth on« its axis.
The sun's influence upon the tides is
evidenced in its either increasing or
diminishing the lunar tide, according as
the sun's place in the heavens coincides
with the line of the moon's attraction,
or the reverse. It is this difference
which produces what are known as spring
tides and neap tides. Spring tides occur
at new and full moon, and are the result
of the gravitating influence of both sun
and moon; neap tides occur when the
moon is in her quarters, and are not so
high as the spring tides, the lunar in-
fluence being lessened by the sun's force
acting in a direction at right angles to
it. The accompanpring figures illustrate
the theory of the tides, s Being the earth,
M the moon, s the sun, Wi w* the water
raised up by attraction on the opposite
sides of the earth. Fig. 1 shows spring
tide at new moon, fig. 2 spring tide at
full moon, the low tides being at o and d.
Fig. 3 illustrates the neap tides, Oi a,
being small tides caused by the sun alone.
The interference of coasts and irregulari-
ties in the ocean beds cause the great
variations as to time and range in the
actual tides observed at different places.
In some places, as in the Qerman Ocean
at a point north of the Straits of Dover,
a hign tide meets low water, and thus
maintains perpetual mean tide. In the
case cited high water transmitted through
the Straits of Dover encounters low water
transmitted round the north of Scotland,
and vice versa. The interval of time at
any place between noon and the time of
high water on the day of full or new
moon is called the establishment of the
Tieck
part The height of the tide differs
greatly in different localities. In the
adfic Ocean it is generally small, fre-
quently not exceeding two feet It is
much higher in the contracted waters of
the British coast than in the open waters
of American ports. In bays, where the
inflowing waters are lifted through con-
traction, the tides are necessarily high,
and this is especietlly the case in the long
and narrow Bay of Fundy, where the
tides are exceptionally high, rising from
50 to 70 feet, while the rush of water
into and out of the bay is very rapid.
Ti^nrA (tI'dOr), one of the Moluccas
xiaure {^hjch gee).
TiAnlr (tek), Lxtdwio, a German writer,
**^^*^ bom at Berlin in 1773. He was
educated at the University of Halle, and
at QOttingen and Erlangen, and having
returned to Berlin came forward as a
writer of tales and romances, including
his tale of Ahdallah, and a novel entitled
WUliam Lovell. His Peter Lehrecht, a
History ioithout Adventures, and Peter
Lebrechfs Volksm&rchen displayed great
imaginative power and rich humor. At
Jena in 1799-1800 he entered on friendly
relations with the Schlegels, Novalis,
Brentano, and others, and through this
association arose what has been denom-
inated as * the Romantic School of
Oermanv.' In 1799 he published Ro-
mantische Dichtungen, Bui in 1804 ap-
peared his comedy Kaiser Octavianus.
His Phantasus, however, gave the first
sign of his having freed himself from the
mysticism and extravagance of his earlier
works. In 1817 he visited England,
where he collected material for his
Shakespeare: and on his return resided at
Ziebingen till 1819{ when he removed to
Dresden. From this period his writings,
as exemplified in his Tales, bear the true
stamp of genius. These tales were ulti-
mately published complete in twelve
volumes (Berlin, 1853), the principal
being DichterUhen (* A Poet's Life —
Shakespeare ') ; Der Tod des Poeten
(*The Poet's Death — Camoens*); the
Witches* Sabbath; and Aufruhr in den
Cevennen (* Revolt in the Cevennes'),
an incomplete work. In 1826 he pub-
lished his Dramaturgische Blatter. His
study of Shakespeare resulted in Shakes-
peare's Vorschule, and the continuation
of the German translation of Shakespeare
commenced by Schle^el. His last story
of iniportance was Vtttoria Accorombona
(1840). On the accession of Friedrich
William IV Tieck was invited to the
Prussian court in 1841, invested with a
considerable pension and the rank of a
privy-councilor, and thenceforward acted
as a sort of supervisor of the Prussian
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Tiel
Tiger-beetle
Btafe. He died at Berlin on April 28,
I80&, — His brother, Chbibtian Fbied-
BiCH (bom in 1776; died in 1851), was
celebrated as a sculptor.
Tiel (^^^)' ^ ^^^^ ^^ Holland, in the
***'* province of Gelderland, 19 miles
w. 8. w. of Amhem. on the right bank of
the WaaL It carries en a considerable
general trade. Pop. 10.788.
TiATifaiTi (te-en-ts£n), a town in the
river-port of Pekin, 70 miles away, and
with which it communicates by the Pel-ho
Biver and by a railway line. The Pei-ho
is navigable only by native craft, and
large vessels have their caixoes trans-
shipped outside the mouth of the Taku
roadstead. A large import trade is car-
ried on, chiefly in European goods
i Tientsin being one of the treaty ports),
'he principal Imports are cottons, sugar,
opium, paper, and tea; exports, dates,
cotton, camers wool, and coal. The
Taku forts were taken by the British and
French in 1860, and the capture of
Pekin followed. Since then the defenses
of the Pei-ho have been immensely
strengthened. The city is surrounded
by a lofty wall with towers and presents
a mean appearance by its great expanse
of low nouses. The foreign quarter,
however* which is outside the main city,
is well Imilt. Pop. estimated at about
800,000.
Tierra del Pnego <5T''>i^/^^i
Fire'), a large group of Islands at the
southern extremity of South America,
separated from the mainland by the Strait
of Magellan. It consists of one large
island and numerous smaller islands, with
a total area of about 32,000 square miles.
The eastern part of the group belongs to
the Anentine Republic, the western part
to Chile. These islands consist chiefly of
mountains covered with perpetual ice and
snow, or clothed with stunted forests,
mainlv evergreen-beech. The climate is
wretched. The natives in the northeast
resemble the Patagonians in color,
stature, and habits; but those in the
southeast are short and stunted, unclean
in their habits, and pass a most de-
graded existence. Tierra del Fuego was
discovered by Magalhaens (Magellan) in
1520, and named 'Land of Fire' from
the numerous flres he saw on its coast
during the night.
Ti^nuMstf (ti-ir-2ft-t&; 'third es-
the ancient French monarchy to the
third order of the nation, which, together
with the nobility and clergy, formed the
i$4fts g4n4rauw (states-general). It con-
sisted of the deputies of the oourgeotBie,
that is, the free inhabitants of the towns
and communes who did not belong to
either of the other two estates. In 1789
the states-general, or rather the tiers'
6iat by itself, assumed the name of the
National Assembly.
Tiff an V (tif'a-ni). Louis Oohfobt,
Axuaujr American artist and art man-
ufacturer, born in New York CJity in
1848. In 1880 he began to devote him-
self almost entirely to the production of
decorative glass. The Favrile ^ass,
which he discovered, is favorably known
in both Europe and America.
Tiffifi (tif 'in), a city, capital of Seneca
j.UiUi p^, qj,{q^ jg situated on the San-
dusky River, 40 miles s. E. of Toledo.
It is the seat of Heidelburg University
and the college of Ursullne Sisters.
Natural gas and oil are produced and it
is the shipping point for large quantities
of wheat and com. The manufactures
include stock food, chemicals, grain, coal,
woolen goods, farming implements, emery-
wheels, pottery, glass, well-dnlling ma-
chinery, etc. Pop. 13,217. _
Tiflia (tif-lis), capital of Russian Cau-
xxuxo casia. Manufactures include cot-
ton and silk, leather, soap, etc. The ar-
tisans of Tiflis are celebrated as silver^
smiths, gunsmiths, and sword makers.
Pop. 303,150. — ^The government has an
area of 17,000 sq. miles : produces cereals,
fruits, etc Pop. 1,000,000.
Ti^er (^i?®''5 ^^^** tigr%9 or Tigris re-
^"^ g(U\8)^ a well-known carnivo-
rous animal, possessing, in common with
the lion, leopard, etc., five toes on the
front feet and four on the hinder feet,
all the toes being furnished with strong
retractile claws. The tiger is about the
heieht of the lion, but the body is longer
and the head rounder. It is of a bright
fawn-color above, a pure white below,
irregularly crossed with black stripes.
The tiger is an Asiatic animal, attaining
its fuU development in India, the name
of 'Bengal tiger' being generally used
as synonymous with those specimens
which appear as the typical ^d most
powerful representatives of the species.
The tiger also occurs in Java and Su-
matra. In habits it is far more active
and agile than the lion, and exhibits a
large amount of fierce cunning. It gen-
erally selects the neighborhood of water-
courses as its habitat, and springs upon
the animals that approach to drink.
•Man-eaters' are tigers which have ac-
quired a special liking for human prey.
The natives destroy tigers by traps, pits,
poisoned arrows, and other means.
Tiger-hunting is a favorite Indian sport.
Tiger-beetle ;^^t't:1Sie.T?^t
(
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Tiger-cat
TiU
opteroas insects which are swift and
active in their movements, and prey upon
other insects.
TwAr-ftftf a- name of not very defi-
J.i)^t;rut^ ^j^^ significaUon, some-
times given to some of those animals of
the family Felidse which are of middling
size, and resemble the tiger in their form
or markings, such as the chati, the
margay, the ocelot, the serval, etc, which
see.
Tiger-flower Z^^^^i^Ant
of the nat order Iridaces, frequently
cultivated in gardens on account of the
magnificence of its flowers. The stem
is about 1 foot in height, with sword-
shaped leaves. The flowers are large,
of a singular form,
and very evanescent.
The petals are of a
fine orange-red to-
wards the extremity;
whitish or yellowish
and beautifully
spotted at the base.
Tiger-lily (,««««
num) a native of
China, common in
American gardens,
having scarlet flowers
turned downward, the
Tiger-lily {LUium
HffHnum),
perianth being reflexed. I^ is remark-
able for having axillary buds on the
stem. The bulbs are eaten in China and
Japan.
* o ** of lepidopterous insects,
the caterpillars of which are well known
under the popular name of * woolly
bears.' The moth is colored red and
brown. The larve feed on dead-nettles.
Tifirhe ^^^* ^^^^ Blackford, an Irish
o poetess, bom in Dublin in 1774,
and married to Henry Tighe in 179a
Her writings were published after her
death in 1810. Her cnief poem is Psyche,
or the Legend of Love, written in the
Spenserian stanza. Her other poems are
short occasional pieces, frequently of a
religious cast.
Tiglath-pile'ser. see AMyno.
i^UCS S^ Armenia,
Tigra':
Tigr«.
See Ahytsinia.
Tifinis (*^'8fris), a river in Western
o •» Asia, having its principal source
in the Turkish province of Diarbekir, on
the southern slope of the Anti-Taurus, a
few miles to the east of the Euphrates.
It flows generally southeast, passes
Diarbekir, Mosul and Bagdad, and joins
the Euphrates somewhat more than 100
miles from its embouchure in the Per-
sian Gulf, after a course of IICK) miles,
the united stream being known as the
Shatt-el-Arab. Large rafts, supported by
inflated skins, are much in use for the
transport of goods. The region between
the Tigris and the Euphrates is known
as Mesopotamia.
Tikus. s^ ^*'^^-
Tilden (til'den)f Samuel Jones,
statesman, bom in New Leb-
anon, New York, in 1814. He was
elected to the State assembly in 1845,
and in 1846 was a member of the State
Constitutional Convention. From 1855
more than half the railway corporations
in the North were his clients. By 1868
he had become the leader of the Demo-
cratic party in New York State. His
determined opposition and practical
measures broke up the Tweed rmg. He
was elected in i874 Governor of New
York and in 1876 was Democratic candi-
date for President The election was so
close that a contest arose, the dispute
being finally settled by the decision of
an Electoral Commission. The electoral
vote, as declared finally, was 185 for
Haves; 184 for Tilden. In 1880 and
in 1884 a renomination was pressed upon
him, but declined. The greater portion
of his fortune (which was estimated at
$5,000,000) he devoted to public uses,
but the will was contested and the estate
went to the next of kin. He died August
4, 1886.
^TSIa (til), a term applied to a variety
of articles made either for orna-
ment, such as inlaid paving tiles (see
Encau9iio TUe» and Afo«aio), or for use.
as in tile-draining (see Draininp) ana
roofing, which last are made similarly
to bricks, and of similar clay.
Tiliacece itiH-a'se-e). the llme-tree
AAXAw^/wvw family, a nat. order of poly-
petalous dicotyledonous plants, consisting
chiefly of trees or shrubs, with simple,
toothed, alternate leaves, furnished with
stipules. The species are generally dif^
fused throughout the tropical and tem
perate parts of the globe. They have all
a mucilaginous wholesome juice, and are
remarkable for the toughness of the
fibers of their inner bark, which is used
for various economical purposes under
the name of hast. Among the most im-
portant genera are TUia and Corchorus,
the former containing the common lime,
the latter jute.
Till ^ name given in Scotland to un-
' stratified stony bowlder-clays, and
now extended bv geologists to any similar
surface or drift deposit
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Tillanclsia
Tillandsia (tjl-and'si-a), a genus of
^ epiphytes, belonging to
the nat order Bromeliaceae, natives of
tropical America. T. amcmo and T.
9plenden$ are cnltiyated in hothouses on
account of the singular variety and
splendor of the colors of the spathes and
flower^spikes. T. umetiideg is a native
of the Southern United States, where it
hangs in festoons from trees.
Tiller (^**'*^}» ^« '^^er or handle of
the helm by which the rudder of
a vessel is turned. See Steering ^p-
paraiue.
Tillmail (tn'man), benjamin Ryan,
statesman, born in South
Carolina in 1847. A farmer until 1886,
he began to agitate for industrial educa-
tion and other reforms; was elected
(Governor of South Carolina in 1890 and
1882 and United States Senator in 1894.
As a member of the Senate he has been
radical in his views and very pronounced
in his expression of them. He instituted
in his state a system of selling liquor
under State control and founded an in-
dustrial school for boys, the largest lu tue
South. He died July 3, 1918.
TiUotson ,\rp*Xks»fcfo?f:
ier near Halifax, was born in 1630. In
1647 he became a student of Clare Hall,
Cambridge, and was elected a fellow in
1651. He was a Presbyterian preacher
until 1662, when he submitted to the
Act of Uniformity, and was chosen
preacher to the society of Lincoln's Inn,
and lecturer at St. Lawrence, Jewry, in
1664. After becoming a D.D. in 1660,
he was made king's chaplain, and pre-
sented to a prebend of Cfanterbury. He
was subsequently appointed dean of
Canterbury, and in 1689 he became dean
of St Paul's. During the suspension of
Archbishop Sancroft, Tillotson exercised
the archiepiscopal jurisdiction, and in
1691 reluctantly accepted the arch-
bishopric. His liberal views rendered
him obnoxious to the advocates of ortho-
doxy, and he was assailed with great
animosity after his acceptance of the
primacy. He died in 1694. Tillotson's
sermons were at one time very popular.
Tillv (^*^'*» t6-y6), JOHANN TSEBK-
****J LAES, Count of, one of the most
celebrated generals of the seventeenth
century, bom about 1559, in Walloon
Brabant. After being educated by the
Jesuits he served successively in the
Spanish, Austrian, and Bavarian armies.
On the outbreak of the Thirty Years' war
he led the army destined to crush the
Protestants in Bohemia. (See Thirty
Years* war.) He defeated them on the
White MountalDfl (Nov., 1620), and ia
Timber
1622 conquered the Palatinate, defeat-
ing several Protestant commanders. On
August 27, 1626; he defeated Christian
IV of Denmark m Brunswick, and com-
pelled him to return to his own country.
In 1630 Tilly succeeded Wetllenstein as
generetlissimo of the imperial troops. The
act by which he is best known in history
is the bloody sack of Magdeburg, May 10,
1631, the inhabitants being ruthlessly
slaughtered. Gustavus Adolphus met him
at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, September 7,
and Tilly was entirely beaten, and was
himself wounded. In a subsequent en-
gagement with the Swedes on the Lech
a cannon-ball shattered his thigh, and
caused his death in 1632.
Tilsit (til'sit), a town of Bast Prus-
* •' sia, on the Memel, by means of
which it carries on a large trade. Manu-
factures include iron castings, machinery,
paper, cloth, soap, oils, leather, cheese,
etc. Pop. 37.148. The town is cele-
brated for the peace concluded here in
July, 1807, between Russia and Prussia
and Napoleon. See Prussia,
Tilf-liftTnni^r * large and heavy
XlU-nammer, hammer worked by
steam or water power, and used in forg-
ings. It has been largely superseded by
the steam-hammer, but is still advanta-
geously used with light work. Cogs (ar
i
Tilt-hammer.
at 0 0 in cut) being brought to bear on
the tail of the hammer (a), its depres-
sion causes the head (d) to be elevated,
which, when the tail is liberated, falls
with considerable force by its oyrn
weight.
Tilton (til'tun), Theodore, anthor,
•*•*•'" was born in New York City in
1855 ; died in 1907. He was chief editor
of the Independent, 1863-71, and of the
Golden Age, 1871-74. He wrote The
Sexton* 9 Tale (poems, 1867) ; Sanctum
Sanctorum (1869) ; Tempest Tossed
(1874) ; Thou and I (poems, 1882), etc.
Timber (^i°>'b^r)» & general term ap-
plied to wood used for con-
structive purposes, as that of the dif-
ferent kinds of fir and pine, the oak,
ash, elm, beech, sycamore, chestnut, wal-
nut, mahogany, teak, . etc. The sap in
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>
Tin Tinamou
taken prisoner. The conquests of the greater part of the foreign metals in
Tartar now extended from the Irtish a solid state. The molten tin is stirred
and Volga to the Persian Gulf, and in order to disperse the gases, and, when
from the Ganges to the Grecian Archi- partially cool, it separates in zones, the
pelago. He was making mighty prepa- upper consisting of nearly pure tin,
rations for an invasion of China when while the under is so impure that it
death arrested his pr^ress at his camp must be melted again. The upper layer
at Otrar, beyond the Sir-Daria, in 140d, is removed, cast into blocks, and sold as
and his empire inunediately fell to hlock-tin, the purest specimens being
pieces. He was fanatical in his reli- called refined-tin. Tin-pyrites, the other
gion, and although no conquests were ore of tin, contains from 14 to 30 per
ever attended with greater cruelty, dev- cent of tin, and is found in Cornwall,
astation, and bloodshed, he was in a in Saxony, and in Bolivia. Pure tin
measure a patron of science and art, has a fine white color like silver. It
and is also reputed author of the /f>- has a slightly disagreeable taste, and
stiiutions of Timur and the AutohioQ' emits a pectQiar sound when rubbed.
raphy of Timurf both translated into Its hardness is between that of gold and
English. lead, and it is verv malleable. Specific
Wljl a hard, white, ductile metal; at- gravity 7.2a Melting point about 230**
* omic weight 118; chemical symbol O. Tin is very flexible, and when bent
Sn (from L, siannum). Tin appears emits a crackling sound, sometimes
to have been known in the time of called the cry of ttn. It loses its luster
Moses; and the Phoenicians traded when exposed to the air, but undergoes
largely in the tin ores of Ck>rnwall. The no further alteration. Oxygen combines
mountains between Galicia and Portu- with tin, forming protoxide of tin or atan-
gal, and those separating Saxony and nous omide (SnO) ; aesquioxide (Sn^O.),
Bohemia, were also productive of tin and dioxide or «f an m'c oaride (SnOa). The
centuries a^o, and still continue unex- compounds of chlorine with tin are di-
bausted. Tin occurs in the Malay chloride or Btannous chloride ( SnCla) , sea-
Peninsula, the island of Banca, India, quiohloride (SusGla), and stannic chloride
Mexico, Bolivia, Peru, the United States, (SnCl4). Stannic chloride has long been
Australia, etc. In the United States known as the fuming liquor of Ltbavius,
there are rich deposits of both vein ore so called from Libavius, a chemist of
and stream-tin, but they are yet little the sixteenth century. Tin also com-
worked, the extraction of the tin being bines with phosphorus and with sul-
difficult. The most important localities phur. Stannus sulphide (SnSa) has
are the Straits Settlements, Banca, and long been known in chemistry as aurum
Bolivia. In Australia tin is found in mosaicum or mosaic gold. Tin will
New South Wales and Victoria; also oc- unite with arsenic and with antimony,
curs in Tasmania. There are only two but does not readily combine with iron,
ores of tin; the native binoxide, called Combined with copper it forms bronze,
tin-stone, and the double sulphide of tin bell-metal, and several other useful al-
and copper, called tin-pyrites. The loys. With lead it forms pewter and
former is the only ore used for obtaining solder of various kinds. Tin-plate is
metallic tin. It occurs in various cr^s- formed by dipping thin plates of iron
tallized forms, in deep lodes blended with into melted tin ; they are afterwards
several other metals, as arsenic, copper, cleaned with sand and steeped for
zinc, and tungsten, when it is known as twenty-four hours in water acidulated
mine-tin; or, in disseminated masses in bv bran or sulphuric acid. Tin is prin-
alluvial soil, in which state it is called cipally employed in the formation of al-
stream-tin. Mine-tin, when i^educed to loys. Its oxides are used in enameling,
the metallic state, yields hlook-tin, while and for polishing the metals, and its
stream-tin yields a purer sort called grain- solution in nitro-muriatic acid is an im-
tin. The ore is first ground and washed, portant mordant in the art of dyeing,
and then roasted in a reverberatory fur- rendering several colors, particularly
nace to expel the sulphur and arsenic, scarlet, more brilliant and permanent.
Mixed with limestone and fuel, it is Tin-plate is used for roofing, the making
again fused in a furnace for about eight of culinary utensils, etc.
hours, the earthy matters flowing off Tin&.mnil (tin'a-mO), the name given
with the. lime, while the oxide of tin, **'**«"***viA ^^ ^ genus and family of
reduced to a metallic state, falls by its birds occurring in South America, and
own weight to the bottom, and is drawn allied in some respects to the ostrich and
oft. The tin, still impure, is again mod- emeu. They somewhat resemble a par-
erately heated, when it melts and flows tridge, and vary in size from that of •
oft into the refining basins, leaving the pheasant down to that of a quail The
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Tinavelly
Tinos
treat tinamoa (Tinimus bratiliensis) is
about 18 inches long, and inhabits the
forests of Guiana.
Grest TiiiBmoa (Tindmus brasUienHs).
Tinavelly. ®*® Tinnevem.
Tincal ^ ting'kal ), the commercial
name of borax in its crude or
unrefined state. See Boraa,
Tincture (tingk'tOr), a spirituous so-
*^*^ lution of the active princi-
ples of some vegetable or other medicinal
substance.
Tindal (^n'^al). Matthew, an Bng-
lish controversial writer, bom
about 1657; entered Lincoln College, Ox-
ford, in 1672; became a fellow of All
Souls*, and received the degree of LL.D.
After the revolution he sat as a judge in
the Court of Delegates. In 1706 he pub-
lished a treatise entitled the Right of
the ChrUtian Church, attacking hierarch-
ical supremacy. This work excited the
animosity of the high church clergy, and
the House of Commons ordered it, to-
gether with two defenses of it written
by Tindal, to be burned by the common
hangman. In 1730 he published his
most famous work, Christianity as Old
as the Creation, or the Gospel a Repub-*
lication of the Reliffion of Nature, in
which he maintains that there has been
no revelation distinct from the internal
revelation of the law of nature in the
hearts of mankhid. He died in 1733.
Tindall ®' Ttndale, William, a
aauuonu^ martyr to the Reformation,
bom about 1484 in Gloucestershire, ano
educated at Oxford. After taking orden
he went as a tutor to Gloucestershire,
where, in consequence of his opinions in
favor of the reformation doctrines, he
was reprimanded by the chancellor of
the diocese. He then removed to Lon-
don, where he probably began bis Eng-
lish version of the New Testament, and
•obaeqiiantlj procteded to Germany,
7—10
visiting Luther at Wittenberg. Having
completed his translation he got it partly
Erinted in quarto at Cologne; but be
ad to flee from this town, and the
complete work was printed in octavo at
Worms. The greater part was sent to
England, and the prelates Warham and
Tunstall collected all copies they could
seize or purchase, and committed them
to the flames. The only fragment of the
quarto edition known to exist is pre-
served in the British Museum. Of the
first octavo edition only two copies re-
main, one in the Baptist Museum at
Bristol, the other (imperfect) in the
library of the Chapter of St Paul's.
Revised editions were soon issued by
Tindall himself. Tindall also translated
the Pentateuch, and subsequently Jonah.
In 1530 he took up his residence at Ant-
werp. In 1535 he was thrown into
prison at Vilvorde near Brussels, and
being found guilty of heresy he was
strangled in 1536 and his body burned
at the stake. Tindall's translation of the
Scripture is highly eftteemed for perspi*
cuity and noble simplicity of idiom.
Tinder (^J^'d^r), any substance arti»
ficially rendered raadily ignit-
ible but dot inflammable. Before the in«
vention of chemical matches it was the
chief means of procuring fire. The tin*
der, ignited by a spark from a flint, was
brought into contact with matches
dipped in sulphur. Tinder may be
made of half-burnt linen, and of various
other substances, such as amadou, touch-
wood, or German tinder (which see).
Tinea. ®^^ Ring-worm, also Clothes-
moth.
TiTl-foil P"'*® ^^°» or an alloy of tin
about TiAnith part of an inch thick.
When coated with mercury it forms the
reflecting surface of glass mirrors.
TiTlTl^v^lli ( tin-€-vel'i ) , a town in
xiiiiicvciii ^^g southeast of India,
in the presidency of Madras, the largest
town of the district of the same name,
the administrative headquarters of which
are at Palamkotta (which see) on the
other side of the Tambraparni River. It
has an interesting ancient temple and Is
an active Protestant missionary center.
Pop. 40,4G9.— The district, which occu-
pies the extreme southeastern corner of
the Indian peninsula, has an area of 5381
square miles. Pop. 2,059,G07.
Tinnin? (tin'ing), the process of cov-
o ering or coating other metals
with a thin coat or layer of tin, to pro-
tect them from oxidation or from cor^
rosion by rust
Tin oil (tfi'n6s), or Tino (anciently
xiUOT teno«), an island in the Grw^M
i
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Tin-plate
Tipton
Archipelago, one of the Gycladee, im-
mediately southeast of Andros; area,
about 85 sq. miles. It produces barley,
silk, wine, figs, oranges, and honey.
There is a town of the same name near
the south coast Pop. of the island 12,-
300; of the town, about 2000.
Tin-plate. ^^^^
Tintoretto («n.t6-ret't5), the sur.
AAuvvA^vw imme q£ i^ Venetian his-
torical painter, Giaoomo or Jaoopo Ro-
BUSTi. bom at Venice in 1518; died there
in IC^. He studied for a few days
under Titian, but, being dismissed with-
out explanation by his master, he after*
wards pursued his studies alone, and en-
deavored, according to his own motto,
to unite Titian's colorings with the
drawing of Michael Angelo. He painted
many works for his native city, among
which are a L<ut Judgment, the Israd"
ties Worshiping the Oolden Coif, &
Cruoifiaion. the Marriage of Cana, the
Miracle of 8t. Mark (*Miracolo dello
Schiavo')f his masterpiece. His por-
trait, by himself, is in the Louvre; and
there are many of his paintings in Ger-
many. Spain, France, and England.
EiQual in several respects to Titian or
Paul Veronese, he wants the dignity of
the former, and the grace and richness
of composition of the latter. His man-
ner of painting was bold, with strong
lights, opposed by deep shadows. His
execution was very unequaL
TinOCeraS ( tl-nos'^r-as ), or Tmo-
AXAi.vv«^Ac»a THERiUM, a genus of mam-
mals now extinct, found in the Eocene,
and representing the order Dinocerata.
The individuals were all large, some of
them nearly equaling the elephants, while
the brain was smaller than that of any
living or fossil mammaL
Tippecanoe <,*'i^Sli^f' i'^S. 5lS
in the K. part of the State, flows w. s. w.
and 8. 200 miles, and empties into the,
Wabash 10 miles above Lafavette. It is
famous for the battle fouf^ht near its
mouth, November 7, 1811, m which the
Indians, undei Tecumseh's brother, the
prophet, were defeated by General Har-
rison.
Ti-nTiAToli (tip-p€'r&), a district of
Xipperan ^^^i^i^ i^dla, in the Chit-
tagong division of Bengal; area, 2491
square miles. Capital, Comilla.
TiTmprarv (tip-p6r-ft'ri), an Inland
Xipperary county in Ireland, in the
province of Munster; area, 1659 square
miles. The soil is extremely fertile; the
chief crops are oats, potatoes, and
wh^at T^e highest elevation is 3000
Ue*^i the level country forms part of the
great central plain of Ireland, and in-
cludes some branches of the Bog of Al-
len. It is drained mainly by the river
Suir. Mineral productions comprise
coal, copper, zinc and argentiferous
lead; slates of good quality are exten-
sively obtained near Killaloe. Grazing is
the principal employment, and there are
numerous dairies. Chief towns: Clon-
mel, Carrick-on-Suir, Nenagh, Thurles.
Cashel. Tipperary and Roscrea. Pop.
160,232. — TIPPERABY, the county town,
situated on the river Arra, 98 miles
s. w. of Dublin, in a district called, from
ite fertility, the 'Golden Vale.' It has
a large trade in butter. Pop. 6281.
Tippoo Sahib (ti-P«' saiiib), sm.
^ ^^wv •^%m*M^*0 ^^ ^f Mysore, son of
Hyder Ali. bom in 1749, succeeded his
father in 1782. (See Hyder Ali Khan,)
He continued the war in which his father
was engaged with the British, and
abandoned the Camatic in order to check
the British advance on the Malabar
coast. In April, 1783, he forced the
British commander, Matthews, to sur-
render at Bednore. Matthews and a
part of the garrison were put to a
shameful death. Mangalore also fell
into his hands; but in March, 1784, be-
ing deprived of the assistance of the
French by the Treaty of Versailles
(Sept, 1783), he was induced to sign the
Treaty of Mangolore on advantageous
terms. In 1789 he attacked the RaJah
of Travancore, an ally of the British.
An offensive and defensive alliance was
concluded (June, 1790) between the
East India Company, the Peishwa of the
Mahrattas, and the Nizam. In the cam-
paign of 1790 and 1791 several places
were reduced by the allies, and Tippoo
was finally besieged in his capital, Serin-
fapatam. By a- peace concluded in Feb.,
792, the sultan agreed to relinquish
half his territor^r and to pay 33,000,000
rupees. But Tippoo was unwilling to
submit to this loss and entered into
negotiations with the French. Suspect-
ing that Tippoo's preparations were con-
nected with Bonaparte's invasion of
Egvpt, the Company determined to an-
ticipate hostilities, and on Feb. 22, 1799,
in connection with their allies, they de-
clared war against the sultan. Tippoo
was defeated in two battles, and retreated
to Seringapatam ; which place was at-
tacked bv General Baird on May 4, and
completely reduced, Tippoo perishing in
the assault.
Tintnii (tip'tun),'a town in Stafford-
^^ shire, England, 8 miles w. N. w.
of Birmingham. It dep^ids chiefly on
its manufactures of heavy iron gooda
Pop. 31,763.
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Tipula
TlDTilfl. (tip'u-la), a genus of dipter-
"^^ oufl insects or flies, of which
the great crane-fly (T. giaaniea) is a
typidftl species. See Crane-fly,
Tiraspol (Jy«:f?^*^^'y'>» * ^^^^ ^i
*^ South Russia government
Kherson, on the Dniester. Pop. 31,616.
Tirl pm nixt ( tirl-m6v ) , a town of Bel-
linemonx ^^^ ^ ^^^^^ Brabant
It has a diarch dating from the ninth
century, and manufactures of woolens,
breweries, and a large trade. Pop. 18,544.
TimaU C^r'nou), Tybnau, a royal
free town of Hungary, county
of Pressburg. Pop. 13,181.
Timova (tir'n6-vA), or Teb'nova, a
xuiiuva ^^ ^j Bulgaria, capital of
province of same name. Pop. 12,185.
Tirol. See Tyrot
Tiraitz (tecr'pitz), Alfmd, Grand
Au^Auo xdiobal von, a German com-
mander, born in 1849. He entered the
navy at sixteen; saw service in South
America and the West Indies and in the
Franco-German war. He was made a
rear-admiral in 1895, and in 1898 became
secretary of state for the Admiralty, the
head of the German navy. He is a man
of creat personal force and has done much
to build up the German navy.
Tinma (tt'rins), a very ancient ruined
xirjruB ^^ ^j Greece, in the Pelopon-
nesus, in the plain of Argolis, about 3
miles from the sea, with remains of
Cyclopean walls, and of a palace of the
eleventh or tenth century B.C., excavated
by Schliemann.
TiftfiliftTiilnrf ( tish'en-dorf ) , L o b e-
xiscuenaon ^^^ frudrich Kon-
BTANTIN, a German biblical <7itic, bom
in 1815, studied at Leipsic, and in 1845
became professor extraordinary there,
becoming professor ordinary of theology
in 1859. He made several visits to the
East, and brought back valuable MSS.,
the most remarkable being (in 1859) the
famous Sinai tic Ck>dex (which see).
TiBchendorf was continually engaged in
editorial labors, and was broken down
by overwork in 1873. He died at Leipsic
ial874.
Tiflio. See Garofato, Berwenuio.
TissHA (tish'fl), (1) in animal anato-
Axoouv my, the texture or grouping
of anatomical elements of which the sys-
tems of organs are composed. Thus in
special histology we speak of muscular
tts9U€, or flesh ; oaseouM tissue, or bone ;
adipose tissue, or fat; cartilaginous tis-
suOf or gristle; pigmentary tissue^ or
coloring matter seen in the skin, etc.;
gnolgr> oetMiirf or oonneoUve tissue,
widely diatribaied in every part of the
Titanic
body, and serving to bind together and
consolidate other parts and tissues. (2)
In vegetable anatomy, the minute ele-
mentary structures of which the organs
of plants are composed. Plant tissues
{
1,
VxasTABLx Tissns.
^roienohyms or Woody Tiiiue. 2,
Horizontal section of Prosenehymatoni TiHue.
8. Do. do. of a Single Cell, snowing the sue-
cessive layers of deposit in the interior which
give hardness and flrmnesi to the wood of
plants. 4, Cylindrical Parenchyma. 5, Round
or Elliptical Parenchymatous Tissue. 6,
Spongiform or Stellate Tissue.
are composed of elementary membrane
and elementary fiber, and the principal
forms under which they exhibit them-
selves constitute ceUular tissue, fibrous
tissue, and vascular tissue.
Experiments have been made in keeping
pieces of animal tissue alive in proper
media outside of the body. So far thev
can be kept alive only for a certain length
of time — from three to fifteen days — but
it is believed that death may be ratner
contingent than necessary, due to the ac-
cumulation of waste products. Alexis
Carrel has devised a system of artificial
rejuvenescence, by washing the tissue
from time to time in Ringer's solution
and by placing it in a medium of plasma
and distilled water. The excised heart of
a turtle will, under appropriate condi-
tions, continue beating for several days.
Tit. See Titmouse.
Titania. See Mah.
Tif onin Wreck of thk. On the night
lixamc, ^f ^p^ 14.^^ 1912, took
place the greatest disaster recorded in
the history of ocean travel, the total
wreck on her maiden trip, of one of the
two largest ships that had ever been built,
with the loss of 1635 of her passengers
and crew. The Olympic and lltanic, of
G6.000 tons each, were launched by the
White Star Line— the Olympic in 1910,
the Titanic in 1911. l^ese floating palaces
were of equal dimePsioPBfc having a total
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;Titanio Titie
lenfth of 882^ feet, breadth 02^ feet the band playing, and without a cry of
and height from bottom of keel to top of deapair from the doomed multitude,
the captain's house 106^ feet Olieir It was at break of day that the Car-
decks numbered 11, and they were pathia, reached by the call for aid, came
equipped with 15 watertight bulkheads, ?|rithin sight of the lifeboats. Those who
the claim being made that they were un- fiad not perished from exposure were
sinkable. While of 66,000 tous displace- taken on board and the ship's head was
ment, their registered tonnage was 45,- tamed backward for New xork, whence
000 tons. The Titanic, the one of these she had sailed. She arrived with the
twin steamers with which we are spe- rescued on the evening of Thursday, April/
cially concerned, was capable of carrying 18. Those alive numbered 705. Severali
5000 passengers, and had an average died on the voyage homeward. The story'
speed of 21 knots. She was prepared in told indicated that the berg had rent the
almost every particular for the comfort, side of the Titanic through a gretit part
enjoyment and safety of her passengers, of her leugth, rendering many ot her
being equipped with such unusual appli- waterproof compartments useless. The
ancesas salt-water swimming pools, squash disaster would probably not have occurred
racquet couits, sun parlors and other in a head-on collision. The loss was
pleasure devices. The one condngency great, not only in life, but in value of the
unprovided for was that of sufficient life- ship and cargo, estimated at 112,500,000.
boats to carry those ou board in the im- A number of multi-millionaires and prom-
probable event of an accident. Her water- Jnent persons were aboard. Investigation
tight oompartmentB were deemed sufficient into the causes of the disaster led to more
The iHtanic left Southampton, Bng- adequate safety regulations,
land, on April 10, 1912, in charge of TitaniUm («-til'ia-iun), a meUl dis-
Captoin B. J. Smith, a navigator of long *~^~7 covered in 1791. It is
experience, her crew and passengers num- round combined with oxygen in several
bering 2340. A disaster was threatened minerals, and occurs especially in iron
at the outset, the suction made by her ores, whidi hence receive the name of
great bulk as she began her course being tttaniferous iron ores. Titanium is a
so great as to drag the American liner wrk green, heavy, amorphous powder, and
New York from her quay, a perilous col- Bome auttiorities doubt its metaUic diar-
lision being imminent Proceeding on her «cter. Olie ores of this metsl indudo
eventful voyage, Sunday, April 14, found nienachanite, from Menachan in Cornwall,
her in the seas southeast of Newfound^ Where it was originally found; iserine,
land, then infested with icebergs to an fr^ the nyer Iser in SUesia; sphene,
nnusual extent News of the presence of J2?/«» °"*^fi^» ®?^ i ^ ». _.,. i
these bergs was received by wireless mes- TltaHS \\} tans), in Greek mythology,
sages from other vessels, but there was . ,„ ^he sons and dauahters of Urft-
no abatement in the speed of the Titanic, «»» (Heaven), and G€ JEarth). They
her record rate of 21 knots an hour being Were twelve in number, six sons Md six
maintained. At 10.25 at night her wire- O*?*^*^'*^ t?®^ ^?f awinst Urftnus.
less operators sent news of disaster far J?<> deposed him, rai^ng Cronus, one of
over the seas, their message being picked ftf>r number, to the throne. They were
np by a number of ships within range, afterwards overcome by Zeus, and
It stated that the Titonic had struck an ^^n into Tartarus. -,,^^^^
iceberg and needed immediate assistonce, TltchClier, T^^^ Bradpobd, an
her position being given as latitude 41» ^. . . \ ^ufS.^^^ psychoi-
46' nOTth, longitude 50» 14' west The ggf** ^S^n at Chlchwter, England in
•ti/w«ir nf fh» ^i««lftn xr\th thp hAwr hfl<1 1867. _ He Studied at Brasenose College,
shock of the colUsion with the bera had JS'- , "e studied at iiraswiose College,
been so slight that few of those on hoard Oxford, and at the University of Leip/igj
apprehended danger untU an hour or more JSJ, ?22o*^S i?*^ lecturer at Oxford
hkd passed. Thin it grew apparent that ^^J^^'^fy,^^ h^^ ?2g profewof
the riiip was fatally wounded and was ^.P^^^f^W ^^^^e sinf 18fc, a^^^
alowly filUng and the Ufeboats were hast fjined J^ternafaonal |ame- . His best-
Uy lowered and set afloat the men on ^^Zn»^nQM!^^^% !^
board holding heroically back and putting ^^ZK^il^l^Ai^^rS?^^^^
the women and children on board, l^n- tTJ^ nSL^V'^Jt^I^^J*^
fortunately the boats were not capable of Jt*J*n^^k{ ^""^ Tewilook of PBychoU
holding one third of the passengers and 2Z?J^ /iVi*. A««i^fl-^^« *^#i- •.
crew, yet no panic took place, the great- TlthC tf^V nf?/^r^^''?;«JS^r.^^ ^
est ieroism was shown, and wh*»n the ,. «„.i^!tS^v??ril^'«if^«^^ ?J?"fhI
great ship finally olunged beneath the l^i^fil^^rS^lt^Z^^l^a it^^K^'^.^^
^ters, at 2.20 A. M^. carrying more than l^^^y,^\}f^2^^ *Jj ♦^2^lJ?J^^«f^*^
1600 to inevitable death, she did so with »^ ^^ industry of the occupants, al-
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Tithe
lotted to the clergy for their maintenance.
The custom of giving and paying tithes
is very ancient, and was legally en-
joined by Moses (Lev. xxvii, Deut xiv,
and elsewhere). In 778 Charlemagne
established the payment of tithes iu those
parts of the Koman Empire under his
sway, dividing them into four parts: one
to maintain the edifice of the church, the
second to support the poor, the third the
bishop, and the fourth the parochial
clergy. Similar laws were afterwards
enacted in various countries of Western
Europe. Their payment was first en-
joined in England by a constitutional de-
cree of a synod held in 786. Oflfa, king of
Mercia, in 794 made a law giving the
tithes of all his kingdom to the church,
and similar laws were enacted by Athel-
stan and Canute. The first mention of
tithes in statute law is in 1285. In the
earliest arrangement a man might give
the tithes to what priests he pleased,
which were called arhttrary conseoration$
of tithes; but when dioceses were
divided into parishes, the tithes of each
parish were allotted to its own particu-
lar minister. It is now generally held
that tithes are due of common right to
the parson of the parish^^ unless there
be a special exemption. The parson of
the parish may be either the actual in-
cumbent or else the appropriator of
the benefice. (See Impropriations,)
Tithes in English law are of three
kinds: L prtedial, arising immediately
from the soil, as corn, hay, fruit, etc.;
2, mimed, such as calves, lambs, pigs,
fowls, wool, etc; 3, personal, arising
from the profits of personal industry ui
a trade, profession, or occupation. They
are divided into great and small. Great
tithes are chiefly com, hay, and wool,
and belong to the rector; small tithes
are chiefly mixed and personal tithes, and
belong to the vicar. Originally all the
land in the kingdom, except crown and
church lands, was tithable. By acts
passed in the reign of Henry VIII,
however, tithes could be temporarily re-
deemed by the payment of a lump sum.
The circumstance that tithes were en-
acted from dissenters and the difficulties
of collecting them, long led to constant
bickerings between the clergy and the
people. The popular demand for a
measure of commutation was at last met
by the Tithe C!ommutation Act (1830).
This act. amended by subsequent stat-
utes, provides for the conversion of all
the uncommuted tithes in England and
Wales into a com and rent charge, pay-
able in money, and estimated on the
average price of a bushel of com for the
seven years ending at the preceding
Titian
Christmas. In Ireland the tithes were
commuted into a money rent charge in
1838, which by the Irish Church Act of
18G0 was vested in the commissioners of
church temporalities, with power to sell
such rent charge at 22^ years purchase
to the landowner. The tithes in Scot-
land are called teinds (which see).
Tithes were collected in Virginia in
colonial times, and Patrick Henry first
won fame as an orator by his vigorous
defense of those who refused to pay them.
The lack of an established church has
kept this form of taxation out of the
United States, all church support being
Toluntary.
Tithin? (tn^'ing), an ancient subdi-
o Tision of England, forming
part of the hundred, and consisting of
ten householders and their families held
together in a society, all being bound for
the peaceable behavior of each other, the
chief of whom was the tithtM-man.
TithonUS (t^-thO'nus), in Greek my-
**" ^ *^ thology, a son, or brother,
of lAomedon, king of Trov. He was be-
loved by Eos (Aurora, Morning), who
importuned Zeus to make him immortal.
Her prayer was granted, but she had
neglected to ask for continual youth, and
in time her lover took on all the signs
of extreme age. Tithonus' prayer to the
gods to be relieved of the burden of old
age was answered bv his being metamor-
phosed into a grasshopper.
Tififln (tish'i-an), or Tiziano Vecel-
XXUan jjQ (tit-si-tt'no ve-cheni-6),one
of the most aistinguished of the great
Italian painters, and head of the Vene-
tian school, was bom at Pieve de Ca-
i
Titian.
dore. in the Camic Alps, in 1477. He
studied under Giovanni Bellini of Venice,
and in 1507 was associated with the
pahiter Giorgione in executing certain
frescoes. In 1511 he was invited to
Digitized by
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Titicaca
Titration
Padaa, where he executed three remark-
able frescoes which are still to be seen
there. In 1512 he completed the un-
finished pictures of Giovanni Bellini, his
former master, in the Sala del Gran
Consiglio at Venice, and the senate were
BO pleased that they gave him an im-
portant office. To this period are at-
tributed his pictures of the Tribute Money
and Sacred and Profane Love. In 1514
he painted a portrait of Ariosto at Fer-
rara, and after his return to Venice he
painted an Asnimption of the Virgin
(1516), considered one of the finest pic-
tures in the world; it is now in the
Academy of the Fine Arts in Venice.
About 1528 he produced his magnificent
Sicture, The Death of 8t, Peter the
lartyr — ^^ a picture,* says Alrarotti.
' in which the great masters admitted
they could not find a fault,' unfor-
tunately destroyed by fire in 1867. In
1530 the Emperor Charles V invited him
to Bologna to paint his portrait and ex-
ecute various other commissions. In
1532 he again painted the emperor's por-
trait, and he is said to have accompanied
Charles to Madrid, where he received sev-
eral honors. He remained, it is said,
three years i|i Spain, in which country
many of his masterpieces, such as The
Sleeping Venu9^ Christ in the Garden, St.
Margaret and the Dragon^ are still to be
found. In 1537 he painted an Annuncia-
tion^ and in 1541 he produced The De-
scent of the Holy Ohost on the
Apostles, The Sacrifice of Abraham, and
David and Goliath. In 1543 he painted
his picture of The Virgin and San
Tiziano: and in 1545 he visited Rome,
where he painted the famous group oi
Pope Paul III, the Cardinal Famese, and
Duke Ottavio Famese. He was patron-
ized as warmly by Philip II as by bis
father, Charles V. Of Titian's private
life but little is known. He died of the
plague in 1576, aged ninety-nine, having
painted to the last with almost undimin-
ished powers. Titian excelled as much
in landscape as in figure-painting, was
equally great in sacred and profane sub-
jects, in ideal heads and in portraits, in
frescoes and in oils; and though others
may have surpassed him in single points,
none eaualed him in general mastery.
A^ a colorist he is almost unrivaled, and
his pictures often reach the perfection of
sensuous beauty.
Titicaca (tlt-^kft^ki), a lake on the
northwestern frontiers of
Bolivia, situated in a valley of the
Andes, 12,600 feet above sea-level; esti-
mated area, 5300 square miles. It con-
tains several islands, and abounds with
fish.
Titlark, see Pipit.
Title-deeds, ^"^ l^^' ^? *^« ^<^?
**"**' \*.«*«***o, ments, such as mort-
Sages, conveyances, etc., which afford evi-
ence of the ownership of real property.
Titles of Honor, appellations given
Axi;j.«^0 vj. AA\/Aj.\/xy ^^ certain persons
in virtue of particular offices or dignities
possessed by them, or as marks of dis-
tiiiction and special rank. 'Hiey have
existed probably among all peoples.
Such were in Rome the titles of Magnus
(Great) and Africandus (African) ; and
the epithets Csesar, the name of a fam-
ily, and Augustus, which were gradually
applied to all who filled the imperial
throne. See Nobility, Peer, and Address
{Forms of).
Titling. See Pipit.
TitTnonae (tit'mous), Tit, or ToM-
number of dentirostral insessorial birds
inhabiting most parts of the world.
They are very active little birds, contin-
ually flitting from branch to branch,
devouring seeds and insects and not spar-
ing even small birds when they hap-
pen to find them sick and are able to
put an end to them. Their notes are
Bloa Titmoote, msle snd female (Parus
cmrvUus).
shrin and wild. They build in the hol-
lows of trees, in walls, etc The great
titmouse (Parus major) is between five
and six inches long, ana inhabits Europe
generally. There are various other Bu-
ropean species, and several occur in the
United States, some of them known as
chickadee (which see).
Titration (tl-tr&'shun), in chemical
analysis, a process for as-
certaining the quantity of any given
constituent present in a compound, by
observing the quantity of a liquid of
known strength (called a standard solu'
tion) necessary to convert the constitu-
ent into another form. The reaction is
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Titns
ofliially marked by a change of color or
by the formation of a precipitate.
Tifnfl (tl'tus), or in full, Titus Fiay-
xxi/uo j^g g^^BiiaJs VEaPASiANUS, a
Roman emperor, bom a.d. 40, was the
eldest son of the Emperor Vespasian.
He served with credit as a military
tribune in Germany and Britain, and
accompanied his father in the war
against the Jews as commander of a le-
gion. When Vespasian became emperor
(69) Titus was left to conduct the war
in Judea. He took Jerusalem (a.d.
70), and after visiting Egypt returned
to Rome in triumph, and was associated
with his father in the government of the
empire. He became sole emperor in 79,
and showed himself an enlightened and
munificent ruler, distinguished by benevo-
lence and philanthropy. He died Sept.
13, 81, after a reign of a little over two
years and two months. His brother
uomitian was strongly suspected of hav-
ing poisoned him.
Titnfl ^ disciple and assistant of the
xxvuo, apostle Paul, and the person to
whom one of the canonical epistles of
the New Testament is addressed. He
was a gentile by origin, and probably a
native of Antloch. He labored with
Paul in Asia Minor, Macedonia and
Crete, and is said to have been the first
Christian bishop of Crete.
Tifna Epibtle to, one of the three
^^^^*^ pastoral epistles of the New
Testament (the remaining two being those
addressed to Timothy), believed to have
been written by St Paul after his first
imprisonment at Rome. The topics
handled are the same which we find in
the other two kindred epistles. See
Timothyt EpUiles to.
Titus liviUS. ^ee Livius.
Titnsville ( ti'tus-vll ), a dty of
XiroSYUie Crawford Co.. Pennsylva-
nia on the Pennsylvania and New xork
Ontral railroads. It has steel and forge
works, oil refineries and manufactures of
iron, radiators, saddlery, etc. Pop. 9000.
TinniiiTi (ty9-mftn'), a town in the
XlUinen government of Tobolsk, West-
em Siberia, on the Tura, an affluent of
the Tobol. It is the center of the West-
em Siberian trade, and has various man-
ufactures. Pop. 29,588.
TifTPrfnn ( tiv'er-tun ), a municipal
XlverbUli borough of England, in the
county of Devon, pleasantly situated 12
miles north by east of Exeter. It con-
sists of several well-fbrmed streets, and
has a spacious market place, guildhall,
assembly rooms, public baths, etc.; and
important manufactures of lace. Pop.
(3911) 50,706.
Toad
Tivnli (tiV5-M; the ancient Tihur), a
xivuu ^^^ ^£ Central Italy. 17 miles
s. IV. E. of Rome (connected by tramway),
on the left bank of the Teverone (or
Anio), which here forms fine falls. It
has steep, narrow, and ill-paved streets,
and houses in general poorly built; with
a modem handsome cathedral, and some
other churches. It was a favorite re-
sort of the ancient Romans, and among
the remains in the town and neighbor^
hood are the circular temple oi the
Sibyl, the ruins of Hadrian's villa,
the villa of Maecenas, etc. The wine of
Tivola was famous in ancient times*
Pop. 12,881.
TizianO. ®®® Titian.
TlaKCala J[«*'k»-1A), a ^ate of
^^^^ Mexico, surrounded nearly
on all sides by the state of Puebla ; area*
15,957 square miles. Pop. 172,315. The
capital, which bears the same name, wfui
once an important citv. Pop. 2715.
Tlemcen (tlem-sen')» a town of Al-
V^" geria, in the province of
Oran, 70 miles s. s. w. of the city of that
name, finely situated 2500 feet above the
sea, in the midst of olive groves, vine-
yards, and orchards. Its chief buildings
are some fine mosques. Pop. 24,060.
Toad 0^)* ^^ name applied to va-
* nous genera of tailless amphibians.
Toads have a thick, bulky body, covered
with warts or papillse. They have no
teeth, and the tongue is fixed to the front
of the mouth, but the posterior extremity
is free and protrusibfe. The hind feet
are but slightly webbed. They leap
badly, and generally avoid the water, ex-
cept in the breeding season. Their food
consists of insects and worms. Toads
have a most unprepossessing aspect and
outward appearance. The bite, saliva,
etc., of the common toad of Europe
(Bufo vulgdris) were formerly consid-
ered poisonous, but no venom or poison
apparatus of any kind exists in these
creatures. The toad is easily tamed, and
exhibits a considerable amount of intel-
ligence as a pet. It lies torpid in some
hole during winter. Insects are caught
by a sudden protrusion of the tongue,
which is provided with a viscous secre-
tion. There are several species of toads
in the United States. The Surinam toad
is described fh the article Pipa. The
toad is extremely tenacious of life, but
experiments have conclusively shown that
there is no trath in the oft-repeated
stories of the creature being able to sup-
port life when inclosed in solid rock for
immense periods of time. Dr. Buckland
has shown that when excluded from air
and food, frogs and toads, in virtue of
i
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Toad-fish
Tobacco
their slow circulation and cold-blooded
habits, might sarvlTe about a year or
eighteen months at most.
Toad-fish ^ i^&nie sometimes given to
* ^ the Lophiu9 piacatoriu9.
See Angler,
Toad-flax ^^® English name of va-
Avcxiu ^a^f novm plants of the genus
Linariat order Scrophulariaceae. The
common toad-flax is L. vulgdris, which
in its general habits is not unlike flax.
The flowers are of a bright yellow; the
corolla labiate, resembling that of snap-
dragon in shape, but provided with a
long spur. It grows in hedges and fields,
and is a reputed purgative and diuretic
The ivy-leaved toad-flax (L. Cymbalaria)
is often found trailing over old walls.
Allied to this genus is the Antirrhinum
(which see).
TnhfLPnA (to-bak'6), a very important
AOOacCO jjj^jjj^ belonging to the nat
order Atropaces, or night-shade order.
The introduction of the use of tobacco
forms a singular chapter in the historv
of mankind. According to some authori-
ties smoking was practiced bv the
Chinese at a very early date. At the
time of the discovery of America to-
bacco was in frequent use among the
Indians, and the practice of smoking,
which bad with them a religious char-
acter, was common to almost all the
tribes. (See Calumet) The name to-
bacco was either derived from the term
used in Hayti to designate the pipe, or
from Tabaca in St. Domingo, whence
It was introduced into Spain and Portu-
gal in 1559 by a Spaniard. It soon
found its way to Paris and Rome, and
was first used in the shape of snuff.
Smoking is generally supposed to have
been introduced into England by Sir
Walter Raleigh, but Camden says the
practice was introduced by Drake and his
companions on their return from Vir-
ginia in 1585. It was strongly opposed
by both priests and rulers. Pope Urban
VII and Innocent IX issued bulls ex-
communicating such as used snuff in
church, and in Turkey smoking was
made a capital offense. In the canton of
Bern the prohibition of the use of to-
bacco was put among the ten command-
ments, immediately after that forbidding
adultery. The Counterblast or denuncia-
tion written by James I of Enj^land is
a matter of history. All prohibitions,
however, regal or priestly, were of no
avail, and tobacco is now the most ex-
tensively used luxury on the face of the
earth. The most commonly cultivated
tobacco plant (Nicotidna tab(icum) is
S'ltinous, and covered with a very short
WJ> ; the stem upright, 4 or 5 feet high,
and branching; the leaves are lanceolate,
■ometimes two feet long; the flowers are
terminal and rose-colored. A less es-
teemed species is N, ruaticOf distinguished
by a short yellowish-green corolla. All
tne tobacco plants are natives of Amer-
ica, and that continent has continued the
principal producer, the chief tobacco-
growing countrv being the United States,
and the chief localities being Kentucky,
North Carolina, and Virginia. The N,
quadrivalie and N. re- ~
panda have white or
Sellow corollas. The
itter is cultivated to
some extent in CuIml
and is known as Yara
tobacco. There are
^Ye leading types of
tobacco grown in the
United States — the
Seed Leaf, White Bur-
ley, Heavy Shippinc
or Dark, Yellow, and
Perique. Tobacco
owes its prineipal
properties to the pres-
ence of a i>oisonous
alkaloid named nico-
tine (see Nicotine).
The cultivated forms
of the present day are
highly developed and
very sensitive. In
some localities the
plants are shielded
with slats or cheese-
cloth. Clayey soils yield heavy leavea;
sandv soils, light. All plants except those
which are to be kept for seed are topped.
When the leaves begin to turn yefiow
the plants are cut close to the ground,
and afterwards carried to the dry-shed,
where thev are hung up in lines to dry.
Artificial heat is sometimes nsed. Prim-
ing, which is also largely practiced, con-
sists in removing the leaves in the order
in which they mature. When perfectly
dry the leaves are stripped from the
stalks and packed in boxes, in which they
are allowed to heat and sweat or ferment
Cigarette tobacco is cured in large drying
ovens and is consequently light in color
and without the agreeable cigar-leaf
aroma. Snuff is tobacco ground to a pow-
der and perfumed. Chewing tobacco con-
sists of pressed cakes or plugs, or of a
spongy mass of fine threads called 'fine
cut,' and is flavored with vanilla, sugar,
licorice, etc. Pipe tobacco is sold in rolls
of the natural leaf, or it may be cut fine.
In the manufacture of cigars the leaves
are saved for 'wrappers,' while smaller
pieces, sometimes of inferior grade, are
used as ' fillers.'
VirginiA Tobaoeo
{Nicididna Ia6d-
cum).
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Tobago
As the best leaf is grown in Cuba, so
also are the best cigars made there.
The leaf used for the manufacture of
Manila cheroots is gcown chiefly on the
island of Luzon. Tobacco is one of the
most profitable crops in the United
States; about one-half of the produc-
tion is abM>rbed for home use, the other
being exported, the far largest customer
being Britain. The plant has numerous
insect enemies, among them being the
Northern tobacco- worm (Protoparoa
celeut), and P, Carolina, the tobacco-
worm of the Southern States. These
are called, when adult, sphinx-moths;
they are strong, rapid flyers, and at
twilight are often mistaken for hum-
ming-birds. The eggs are laid singly on
the tobacco leaves, and quickly hatch;
the larva — homworm — is a voracious
feeder and inflicts much damage, par-
ticularly in the large, * wrapper^ leaves.
The greasy cutworm (Agrostia ypsUon)
is another pest The tobacco-fly or
flea-beetle (Crepidodera cucumerit) lives
through the winter in a winged state.
The annual tobacco crop of the United
States ranges from 700.000,000 to 1,000,-
000,000 pounds, much surpassing that
of other countries, and its consumption
there also much exceeds that of any
other country.
TAhfLiTA (td-bft'gO), an island of the
xvun^v j^ritigh ^egt Indies, belonsing
to the Windward group, was annexed in
1889 to Trinidad ; area, 114 square miles.
Two-thirds of the island are covered with
primeval forests, and out of a total area
of 73313 acres, only about 10,000 acres
are cultivated. Sugar, rum, molasses,
and cocoanuts are the chief productions;
but attention is now being turned to the
cultivation of cocoa and coffee, for which
the soil and climate are admirably
adapted. This island is one of the most
healthy of the West Indies. Tobago was
discovered by Columbus in 1408, and
was ceded to Great Britain by France
in 1763. Principal town, Scarborough.
Pop. 18,751.
Tobit i.to'bit). Book of, one of the Old
Testament apocryphal books, re-
jected by the Jews and Protestants, but
included in the Roman Catholic canon.
It contains an account of some remark-
able events in the life of Tobit, a Je^* of
the tribe of Naphtali, carried captive to
Nineveh, and his son of the same name.
TobOSrean (t^bog'an), a kind of
* »o sledge, of Indian inven-
tion, made of a piece of birch bark or
similar material, with the front end
turned up and a rope attached by which
it was drawn over the snow. This was
m use in Canada and was adopted and
Todas
improved by the fur-traders and explor-
ers of that country. Lately it has be-
come used for sport in cities of cold
climates. As such it is made of carefully
prepared hickorpr splints, from 5 to 15
feet long, the sides strongly braced, and
is used to slide down a snow-covered hill-
side or an artificial slope covered with
frozen snow, called a toboggan slide.
Tobol (to-boD, a river of Siberia,
which rises in the west slope of
the Ural Mountains, in the government
of Orenburg, and joins the Irtish at the
town of Tobolsk, after a course of about
550 miles.
Tnbolftlr (td-bolsk'), capital of the
XUUUX5& government of Tobolsk, West-
em Siberia, on the left bank of the
Irtish. It has a cathedral, arsenal, bar-
racks, a large prison for Siberian exiles,
a theater, etc. The climate is exceed-
ingly severe in winter. Pop. 21,401.—
The government comprises the north-
western part of Siberia, and has an
area of 539,659 square miles, and a
population of 1,656,700. Its mineral
products, of the Ural region, include
iron, copper, gold, silver, and platinum.
The north is widely forested; the south
fertile, yielding wheat, oats, and other
grains.
TAAQTifiTifl (td-kftn-tSns'), a river of
14** s., flows northward, receives the
Araguay, and enters the Atlantic by the
Parfl estuary, forminji; one mouth of
the Amazon. The entire course is 1590
miles, and is navigable for 1080; but
navigation is much impeded by sand-
banks and rapids.
TocqueviUe h^^l^'m.i''^^
DE, a French writer, born in 1805; died
in 1859. Being commissioned by the
government to proceed to the United
tates to report upon the penitentiary
system, the results of his inquiry were
published in 1833 under the title Du
SysUme Piniieniiaire aux Eiaia-Unia
ei de son Application en France, His
most celebrated work, however, was La
D^mocratie en AmMque ('Democracy
in America,* two vols. Paris, 1834),
which was translated into the principal
European languages. In 1849 he ac-
cepted the portfolio of foreign affairs, but
soon resigned it. After the coup d*6iat
of 1851 he lived retired from public af-
fairs. He wrote also UAncien Jtigime et
la Revolution; Histoire Philoaophique
du Rigne de Louis XV, etc.
Tndas (t6'das), a race inhabiting the
AvuMo upper part of the Neilgherry
Mountains, in Southern India. They are
few in number, and under the influence
i
Digitized by
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Toddy
Tokens
of polyandry and IntemDerance they are
rapidly disappearing. Their language is
Dravidian.
Tnrlrlir (tod'i), the name given by the
which are extracted from the different
species of the palm tribe, including the
cocoanut tree. When newly drawn from
the tree it is a sweet, cool, refreshing
beverage, but when it has been allowed
about ten or twelve hours to ferment it
becomes highly intoxicating. The name
toddy is also given to a mixture of spirits,
hot water, and sugar.
Todhnnter (todTiun-ter). ibaao,
a.v\ui>UKUv%^A mathematician, was born
at Rye, England, in 1820; studied at
University College, London, and after-
wards graduated as senior wrangler at
St. John's College, Cambridge, where he
resided as fellow, tutor, and principal
mathematical lecturer until his death in
1884. He wrote a series of popular text-
books on mathematics, a Htstory of the
Mathematical Theoriet of Attraction and
the Figure of the Earth (two vols., 1873),
etc
Tnrlli^hi^Ti (t6tna-b«n), Fsajtcis Ed-
XOaxeueu ^^^ count, a Russian
feneral and military engineer, bom in
818; died in 1884. After leaving the
schools of Riga he entered the College of
Engineers at St Petersburg, and served
against the Circassians m 1848. In
1854 he took the chief part in the de-
fense of Sebastopol, and after the peace
of 185G wrote a Narrative of the War in
the Crimea, During the Russo-Turkish
war Todleben was sent (in 1887) to
reduce Plevna. The place was soon in-
vested, and Osman Pasha, the Turkish
commander, was compelled to surrender
at discretion. For his services Todleben
was created a count, and he subsequently
became commander-in-chief of the Rus-
sian army in Turkey. He was after-
wards appointed governor of Odessa, and
later, of Wikia.
ToHmordeTl (tod'mor-den), a town
XOamoraeu ^^ England, partly in
Lancashire, partly in Yorkshire (West
Riding), on the Calder, in a beau-
tiful and romantic valley, 21 miles
N. N. E. of Manchester. It has extensive
manufactures of cotton goods. Pop. 25,-
455.
Todv (^^'^); ^^^ name of certain
xwujr tropical birds, genus Todus^ fam-
ily Todidffi. They are birds of gaudy
?Iumage, and feed on insects, worms, etc.
'he most elegant species is the T. regiua
(royal or kingtody). a native of Cayenne
and Brazil. The green tody (T, viridis)
is also a pretty bird, about the size of a
wren. It is very common in Jamaica.
Roman Senator wear*
ing the Toga.
Tofana ^^ Aqua Tofana, under
*^ "• •*• Aqua,
To^a (t6'ga), the principal outer gar-
^-^B^ ment of wOol worn by Roman
citizens. It cov-
ered the whole of
the body except
the right arm,
and was origin-
ally worn by both
sexes until the
matrons adopted
the Btola. The
toga virilis, or
manly gown, was
assumed by Ro-
man youths when
they attained the
age of fourteen.
The variety in the
color, the fineness
of the wool, and
the ornaments at- '
tached to it indi-
cated the rank of
the citizen; gener-
ally it was white.
ToffO (^^'s^)* Heihachibo, a Japan*
o^ ese admiral, who took an active
part in the war with China in 1894, and
opened the war with Russia in 19()4 by
an attack on the Russian fleet at Port
Arthur. On May 27-28, 1905, he anni-
hilated a powerful Russian fleet in the
Korean Straits, winning one of the most
notable of naval victories.
Tnc^nlflTiil (td'g6-land), a German
XO^Oiana protectorate on the Slave
Coast, Guinea, acquired in 1885. It lies
between the British Gold Coast Colony
and Dahomey, with a coast line of 12
miles, but a wide expansion haland, the
total area being estimated at 33,000 sq.
miles. Various tropical plants are grown,
and palm oil, gum and palm kernels are
exported. Pop. estimated at 900,000,
with less than 200 whites.
Tokar (t^'kar), a town of the Eastern
Soudan, south of Suakin, the
scene of two battles between English and
Arabs in February, 1884. Pop. 20,000.
Tokat (t^kftf), a town of North-
*^ eastern Asia Minor, 75 miles
south of the Black Sea. near the Yeshil
Irmak. Pop. about 30,000.
Tokfl.V (td-ka'), a town of Hungary,
Avivajr ^^ ^jjg conflux of the rivers
Theiss and Bodrog; pop. 5110. This
town is celebrated for the wine grown in
its vicinity, especially for a fine, rich,
sweet variety. Inferior and imitation
wines are often sold under this name.
Tokens (tO'kens), pieces of money
current by sufferance, and not
coined by authority ; or coins only nomi-
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Tokio
ually of their professed value. In Eng-
land tokens first came into use in the
reign of Henry VIII, owing to the want
of authorized coins of lower value than
a penny. Stamped tokens of lead, tin,
and even leather were issued by vintners,
grocers, and other tradesmen during the
time of Elizabeth, and were extensively
circulated, being readily exchanged for
authorized money at the shops where they
were issued. Token money has been
frequently issued in other countries.
Toledo
empire, with fall faculties and an at-
tendance of about 4000 students. This
city may be considered the center of the
political, commercial, and literary activ-
ity of Japan. Its foreign trade is
limited, on account of 'the shallowness of
the bay and rivers, but manufactures are
active and developing. Its population,
once estimated at 1,!SOO,000, fell oflt till
in 1872 it was about 780,000. It has
since rapidly increased and in 1909 was
2,168,151, ranking as the fifth city in
the world.
{
Tolrio (t5'k6-0), or Tokyo, formerly the world.
xvikAv ^j^jj^ Yeddo, the capital of Toland (Wland), John, an English
Japan, and chief residence of the mikado, *v*«*""^ deist, bom in 1669; died in
Japan, and chief residence of the mikado,
is situated on a bay of the same name,
on the 8. B. coast of Hondo, the largest of
the Japanese islands, and is connected
by rail with Yokohama and Kanazawa.
The bulk of the houses are of woooL but
there are manv new buildings of brick
and stone, and an imperial palace has
been erected near the center, as also
TOKIO.'
cMsuJimirLxt
P A a t f t 0 Q Q £ A H
public oflSces, etc The greater part of
the town is flat, and intersected by nu-
merous canals crossed by bridges. The
streets of the modem city have been
made fairly wide and regular; they are
kept clean and some of them are tra-
versed by railways. Gas has been in-
troduced, and the sanitary arrangements
have been improved. Education is well
organized, ana there are numerous pri-
vate and elementary schools. Tokio con-
tains the imperial university, the most
Jbiportant educational institution of the
1722. He entered Glasgow University
in 1687; was graduated M.A. from Edin-
burgh in 1690, and afterwards studied
theology at Leyden. In 1696 he pub-
lished his Christianity not Mysterious,
which created a great sensation, and was
burnt by the hangman at Dublin, bv
order of the Irish parliament, in 1697.
He subsequently settled down ' as a
voluminous pamphleteer in London. Of
his other works the chief were: Life of
MUton (1698), accompanying an edition
of his writing Anglta Libera (1701).
Socinianism Truly Stated (1705), and
Pantheisticon (1750). In the last of
these works Toland distinctly avowed
himself a pantheist.
Tnl^iln (to-le'dd; anciently ToUtum),
xuxcau ^ ^ijy Q^ gpj^.^^ .jj ^^^ Castile,
capital of a province of the same name,
on a rocky eminence washed by the Ta-
gus, and 1820 feet above the sea, 55 miles
southwest of Madrid. It is the see of
an archbishop, who is primate of Spain.
The streets are narrow and steep, and
the houses crowded together. Toledo
contains a ruined alcazar, or palace and
fortress, dating from 1551, and a Gothic
cathedral, one of the grandest in the
world, completed in 1492, in the style of
the thirteenth century; also other in-
teresting buildings. The Toledo sword-
blades, renowned for many centuries, are
manufactured in a larse building (a
government establishment) on the Tagus,
about a mile from the town. Toledo
was taken by the Romans in 193 B.C.,
and is celebrated in the history of Spain.
It was successively the seat of sovem-
ment under the Goths, Moors, and kings
of Castile. Pop. 23,317. Province: area
6919 sq. miles. Pop. 376,814.
ThIaHa a <^ity, capital of Lucas Co.,
xuxcuuy Qjjj^,^ ^jj ^jjg Maumee River.
about six miles from Lake Erie, and 65
miles s. s. w. of Detroit Toledo is the
northern terminus of the Miami and
Erie Canal, and the center of several
extensive railway lines. It has an ex-
cellent harbor and is one of the largest
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)
Tolentino Tomato
grain-shipping points of the country; towards an explanation of hia peculiar
also ships large quantities of iron-ore, social and mystic religious ideas. Among
coal, lumber, provisions, lire stock, etc. them are ConfesHont, My Reliffion, The
Manufactures are important, beer and Search for Happiness, Two Oeneraiions,
wine being largely produced and many Infancy and Youths Death, Qreat Proh-
other articles made. Boat- and ship- lemM of History, What is My Life? The
building are large industries. The city Kreuizer SonaPi, etc Regarded as one
has some notable public buildings, and of the leading writers and reformers of
possesses a aodlogical garden. Pop. the world, he was annoyed in his old age
168,497. by visitors and the social duties which
TMlfknfiTiA ( t6-lftn-te'n5) , a town of interfered with his life pursuits, and
xviciitiiiu Central Italy, in the prov- left home secretly with an idea of
ince of Macerata, with a fine cathedral, escaping these distractions. The severe
Here Pope Pius VI, in 1797, concluded weather to which he was thus exposed
a humiliating peace with Bonaparte, and broueht on inflammation of the lungi,
[in the neighborhood, in 1815, Murat, at and he died November 19, 1910.
the head of the Neapolitans, was de- TnltftPfl (tol'teks), a prehistoric people
:feated by the Austrians under Bianchi. *vj.wci/o ^f Mexico and Central Amer-
Pop. (commune) 13,197. ica, to whom the Aztecs and the Mayas
Tolcrfttion* ^^ Religious Liberty, ascribed their arts and ancient monu-
ments. See Mexico,
Toleration, Acr»-. see^co/roi- Xoln-babam '^^^^,1^^^^,
Tolima (t^'lS-mA), a state of the Re- tree of tropical South America, the
^^^^^ public of Colombia, intersected Myrospermum i\fyroTylon) toluiferum
by the upper course of the Magdalena. or peruiferum. Tolu-balsam becomes hard
and embraced between the two chief and may he pulverized, has a pleasant
chains of the Cordillera; area, 18,400 aromatic flavor, and is used in certain
sq. miles. It produces cacao, sugar, medicinal preparations,
maize, and tobacco, and is rich in gold Tnlnnfl (tG-lonci), a Mexican city,
and silver. The volcano of Tolima has *viuv€fc ^^^^ of the State of Mexico,
a height of 17,660 feet Pop. 305,185. 45 miles s. w. of the federal capital;
Capital, Neiva. situated 8500 feet above the sea. The
Toll (^^1)* A ^^ P^^^> ^^ ^^^y imposed, city has a cathedral, a theater, etc., and
'*'^" for some liberty or privilege or is noted for its hams and sausages,
other reasonable consideration: such as Pop. 25,940.
(a) the payment claimed by the owners Toluol (toro-ol). See TriniiroUh
of a port for goods landed or shipped ■*•"•■•»"'■• luene,
there; (6) the sum charged by the Tn-molifliiylr (tom'a-hftk), the light
owners of a market or fair for goods ^^uuxuuw ]s. battle-axe of the North
brought to be sold there; (c) a fixed American Indians. The head was origi-
charge made by those intrusted with the
maintenance of roads, streets, bridges,
etc., for the passage of persons, goods,
and cattle. See Roads.
Tolstoi (tol'stoi). Count Leo Niko-
xvxobvx LAiEvrrcH, a celebrated Rus-
sian novelist, bom Au^. 28, 1828. In
1851 he accompanied his brother to the
Caucasus and entered the army, and dur-
ing the Crimean war took part in the
defense of Sebastopol. At tne close of
the war he retired to his estates and de-
voted himself to literary composition
and schemes for the education and social
improvement of the peasantry. Eventu- Tomabawki of the North American Indians,
ally he gave himself up to working out
the higher problems of life experi- nally of stone attached to the shaft by
mentally — working along with the thongs, etc., but steel heads were after-
peasantry in a sort of communistic life, wards supplied by American and Euro-
Among his earliest writings of moment pean traders. The Indians could throw
are his vivid sketches from Sebastopol. the tomahawk with remarkable accuracy.
His three great novels are the Cossacks, Tomato (^-m^'^* tu-m&'tO; Lyooper*
War and Peace, and Anna Karenina. '*'*'*"«*''V •ioiim etculentiim), a plant be-
His later writings are all mostly directed longing to the nat. order Solanacett.
A
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Tomb
Formerly known also as Love Apple,
It is a native of Soath America, bat has
been introduced into most other warm or
temperate countries. It is cultirated
for the sake of its fmit, which is fleshy,
nsnally scarlet or orange, irregularly
shaped, and is largely used in sauces,
Tomato {Lifeop$r9ieum eteultntum).
stews, and soups, as well as eaten by
itself. The plant is a tender, herbaceous
annual, with yellow flowers, and has
come into hich repute, and its cultiva-
tion has rapidly extended in many parts
of the world. Its general use as food
has been chiefly within recent times.
Tomb (t^°>)» A°7 sepulchral structure,
MVMU.U Qgyaiiy n chamber or vault
formed wholly or partly in the earth,
with walls and a roof, for the reception
of the dead. See 8aroophagu8f Burial
and Funeral Riiee.
TaiviYioa Tombak (tom'bak), an alloy
lOmDaCy consisting of from about 75
to 86 parts copper, mixed with 25 to
15 parts sine, and used as an imitation
of gold for cheap Jewelry. When arsenic
is added it forms white tombac.
Tombigbee irh^JTsli'TSho'cilS^
go county, Mississippi, and after an ir-
regular course of 460 miles joins the
Alabama River ^ miles above Mobile;
the united stream is called Mobile River
below the junction. It is navigable for
410 miles from Mobile Bay.
TnmnAil (tom'kod), an American name
AUmcoa f^^ certofai small cod-fishes.
TninellAftO (tom-el-ld's6), a town of
lOmeUOBO ^p^j^ ,^ ^a Mancha, 50
miles E. N. E. of Ciudad ReaL It has
lately risen into importance as a center
of the wine trade, a mat part of the
claret and 'cognac* of commerce being
here produced. Pop. 13,929.
Tompkins i}^!.)!^^^:., ^"f^m^n
* vice-president, was bom in
Westchester Co.. New York, in 1774 ; died
in 1S26. He was elected to Congress in
1804, was governor of New York 1807-
17, and was vice-president of the United
•tatet daring President Monroe's two
Tone
terms. He was entfgetic in the war
against Bneland and aided in having
slavery abolished in New York.
Tommy Atkins, 5,,-^,,|i'^,t»
British army. It is said to have origi-
nated in the custom of makinir out
blanks for military accounts witn the
name, ' I, Tommy Atkins,' etc. Kipling
has immortalized it in verse.
Tom of Coventry, |,'U^?J«.'^«-
Tomsk * *®^^ ®' Western Siberia,
* capital of the government of
Tomsk, on the right bank of the Tom, on
the great road to China. Manufactures
include cloth, leather, and soap; and
there is an extensive trade in furs, fish,
and cattle, obtained in exchange for arti-
cles of European and Chinese manu-
facture. Pop. 112,083.— The government
of Tomsk has an area of 331,159 square
miles, and a pop. of 2,412,700. It is
watered by the Obi and its tributaries.
Tonawanda il^lvVeTaf *iJ4w* ffi
on the Niagara River, 11 miles s. e. of
Niagara Falls. Bridges connect it with
North Tonawanda, on the opposite side of
Tonawanda creek. It has a large pine
lumber trade, engine, boiler, and steel
works, and wooden ware factories. An
armory is located here. Pop. 8200.
Ton (^°)' A denomination of weight
equivalent to 20 hundredweights
(contracted to act), or 224M) lbs. In
the United States goods are sometimes
weighed by the short ton, of 2000 lbs.,
the hundredweight being reckoned at
100 lbs.; but it has been decided by act
of Congress that, unless otherwise
specified, a ton weight is to be under-
stood as 2240 lbs. avoirdupois.
Tone (^^i^)t iu music, the sound pro-
Avu%^ duced by the vibration of a string
or other sonorous body ; a musical sound.
Nearly every musical sound is composite,
that is, consists of several simultaneous
tones having different rates of vibration
according to fixed laws, which depend on
the nature of the sonorous body and the
mode of producing its vibrations. The
simultaneously sounding components are
called partial ioncM; that one having the
lowest rate of vibration and the loudest
sound is termed the prime, principal, or
fundamental tone; the otner partial
tones are called harmonica or overtones
Ti\r\tk Theobald Wolfe, Irish patriot,
*"^^> bom at Dublin, Ireland, in
1763; educated at Trinity College; stud-
ied law in London, and was called to the
bar at the Middle Temple (1798). He
was an ardent sympathizer with the doc-
trines of the French revolution, and hav
f
i
Digitized by
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Tonga Islands
Tonio Sol-fa System
ing promoted the combination of the Irish
Catholics and Dissenters he founded the
society of United Irishmen in 1791.
The discovery of his secret negotiations
with France drove him to the United
States (1795). He sailed for France in
1796, and became brigadier in Heche's
projected expedition to Ireland. He
served in the Bavarian armv in 1797,
and in 1798 he was captured on board
a French squadron bound for Ireland.
He was brought to Dublin, and sen-
tenced to death by a court-martial, but
committed suicide in prison, November
19, 179a
Tonga Islands fcVAan.f*''
Tongataboo <i-f]S?:'*r'-f^?fe-
most southern of the Friendly Islands,
in the Pacific Ocean. It is of coral
formation, about 60 miles in circuit.
Its soil is extremely fertile. See Friendly
Ulands.
Tongking. ^^ Tonquin,
Tnncrr^ft (to^-gr; Flemish, Tongeren),
XOngres ^ ^^^^ ^^ Belgium, in the
province of Limburg, on the Geer, 12
miles southwest of Maestricht Tongres
has a church (Notre Dame) dating from
1240. Pop. 9152.
Tnnimik (tung), the organ found in
xviiguc ^^ mouth of most vertebrate
animals, which exercises the sense of
taste, and also assists in speech and in
taking food. The name tongue is also
fiven to very different structures in
nvertebrata. In man the tongue is at-
tached by its base or root to the hvoid
bone, its other extremity being free.
The upper surface is convex with a
fibrous middle septum, called the raphi.
The front two-thirds of the tongue are
rough, and bear the papilke, in which the
sense of taste resides. The posterior
third is smooth, and exhibits the open-
ings of numerous mucous glands. The
substance of the tongue consists of nu-
merous muscles. The papillae, which
cause the characteristic roughness of the
tongue, are of three kinds, circumvaUate^
fungiform, and filiform. The largest or
circumvallate papillse number from eight
to ten, and occupy the posterior part of
the upper surface. Tney vary from
Ath to tVth inch in diameter. The
fungiform papilloi are scattered irregu-
larly, the filiform over the front In
structure the papillae are like those of
the skin (which see), and contain capil-
lary vessels and nervous filaments. Nu-
merous follicles and mucous or Ungual
glands exist on the tongue, the func-
tion of these latter beincr the seccetion
of mucus. The nervous supply is dis-
tributed in the form of three main nerves
to each half of the organ. The gustatory
nerves and the glossopharyngeal branches
are the nerves providing the tongue with
common sensation, and also with the
sense of taste; while the hypoglossal
nerve invests the muscles of the tongue
with the necessarv stimulus. The con-
ditions necessary for the exercise of the
sense of taste are: firstiv, the solution
of the matters to be tasted; secondly, the
presence of a special gustatory nerve ; and
thirdly, that the surface of the tongue
itself be moist The t<^ and edges of the
tongue are more sensitive to taste than
the middle portion. The sense of touch
is very acute in the tongue.
Tonic (ton'ik), or Key-note, in music,
the first or fundamental note of
any scale, the principal sound on which
all regular melodies depend, and in which
they or their accompanying basses natu-
rally terminate.
Tonic ^° medicine, any remedy which
> improves the tone or vigor of
the fibers of the stomach and bowels, or
of the muscular fibers generally. Tonics
mav be said to be of two kinds, medical
and non-medicaL Medical tonics act
chiefly in two ways: (1) indirectlv, by
first influencing the stomach and in-
creasing its digestive powers; such be-
ing the effect of the vegetable bitters,
the most important of which are calumba,
chamomile, cinchona bark, gentian, tar-
axacum, etc. (2) Directly, by passing
into and exerting their influence through
the blood; such being the case with the
various preparations of iron, certain
mineral acids, and salts. The non-
medical tonics are open-air exercise, fric-
tion, cold in its various forms and
applications, as the shower-bath, sea-bath-
ing, etc.
Tonic Sol-fa System, .^..Tet' of
notation and teaching which has re-
ceutlv been widely spread among the
English-speaking population of the globe,
chiefly through the untirins efforts of
the Rev. John Curwen, of Plaistow, who
obtained the leading features of his plan
from Miss Glover, of Norwich. The fol-
lowing is an outline of the system: As
of the two relations of musical sounds,
those of pitch and key (see Music), the
latter Is of transcendent importance,
every means should be taken to impress
this fact on the mind and ear of the
learner. Any diatonic scale is a natural
scale, whether it is founded on the key
of C, D, E, or on any other tone thus
represented by a letter-name iij the
ordinary notation. The tonic or key-
Digitized by
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Tonka
note of the scale is always called do]i«
the second rmj^ the others me, f ah, soh,
lah, to, successively, no matter what the
absolute pitch of the sound may be, the
initials only being ordinarily used in
printed music: thus, d, r, m, f , s, 1, t«
To designate a sound of absolute pitch,
the tonic-solfaist uses the first seven let-
ters of the alphabet just as the followers
of the other musical system do. Time
and accent are marked thus, | : | , or
I : : I , or | : i : | , etc. ; the space be-
tween the lines and dots indicating the
aliquot parts of the bar (the beat or
pulse), the line showing the strong ac-
cent, the short line the medium accent,
and the colon the weak accent Ac-
cidental or chromatic tones are indicated
by a change in the vowel sounds of the
Bvllables ; thus, dolu rmj^ f ah* etc., when
sharpened become de, re, fe, etc.; and
me, te, etc., flattened become ma, ta,
etc The higher octaves are marked d|,
rl, m|, etc, the lower d|, r|, m|, etc.
The ' last two lines of the psalm tune
French would therefore be printed
thus: —
Key F.
:s|d|:t|l:s|s:fe|s:m|r:d|d:t(1d
In teaching the system great use is made
of the modulator, a chart which repre-
sents pictorial ly in an upright position
the relative places of the notes of the
scales, the chromatic notes, the closely
related scales, etc.
Tonka (^onta), Tonga, the fruit of
x.vuA.a ^jjg Dipterix odorata or Couma-
rouna odordta, a shrubby plant of
Tonquin
Tonka Bean Plant {DipUrix odordta),
Guiana, nat. order Leguminosie, subor-
der Papilionacesp. The fruit is an ob-
long, dry, fibrous drupe, containing a
sinpe seed. The odor of the kernel is ex-
tremely agreeable. It is used in per-
fumery. Called also Tonkin bean, Ton-
*quin hean. See Coumarin,
Tonnaee ^^^^y)* * ^^^ originally
o signifying the number of
tons weight which a ship might carry
with safety, but now usea to denote the
gauge of the vessel's dimensions, and
the standard for tolls, dues, etc. It is
generally assumed that 40 cubic feet
shall constitute a ton, and the tonnage
of a ship is considered to be the multiple
of this ton which most closely corre-
sponds with the internal capacity of the
vessel. Formerlv the rule was to multi-
ply the length of the ship by the breadth,
assume the depth to be the same as the
width, multiply by this assumed depth,
and divide the product by 04, the
quotient being the tons burden. But
this mode was found to be both mis-
leading and dangerous ; for as harbor and
light dues, towage, etc., were charged
according to tonnage, shipowners had
their vessels built so deep and narrow
that they were often unsea worthy. An
improved system was introduced in 1835.
The depth from the deck to the bottom
of the hold is taken at different places,
and the breadth is measured at different
elevations in depth. If the vessel is a
steamer an allowance is made for the
space occupied by the engine-room,
boilers, coal-bunks, etc In vessels with
a break or poop in the upper deck, the
tonnage of this poop space must be ascer-
tained and added to the ordinary tonnage.
This system of measurement is in com-
mon use in the United States and British
countries.
Tonnage and Ponndage^^^Jj'g®
formerly imposed in England on exports
and imports. Tonnage was a duty upon
all wines imported. Poundage was an
ad valorem duty of 12d. in the pound on
all merchandise imported or exported.
They were first levied by agreement, and
were granted by parliament to the crown
for a limited period in 1370. They were
afterwards granted to successive sover-
eigns until 1787, when they were finally
abolished.
Tonanin (ton-k§n'). Tongkino, the
* most northern province of
Anam in Asia; area, between 40,000
and 50,000 square miles. The chief river
is the Song-ka. The principal agricul-
tural products are rice, cotton, spices,
and sugar; and the province is rich in
timber and minerals. The climate is un-
healthy. By treaty dated June, 1884,
Tonquin was ceded to France. Pop.
estimated at from 8;;000,000 to 10,000,*
000. See Anam.
{
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Tonsberg
Toothache
Tonsber^ (tuns-Wrg'), a town in
AOiiBuer^ Norway, situated on a fjord
branching off from Cbristiania Fjord.
(See Christiania,) Many vessels be-
long to the town. Pop. 8620.
TonsiUtis i^iZ'u "'"^- ^*«
Tonsils (^<>Qs^ls)t iQ anatomy, two
X.V.UOUO oblong suboval bodies situated
on each side of the throat or fauces.
Their minute structure resembles that
of the closed sacs or follicles of Peyer
in the intestine, and their function is not
yet understood. See Palate.
Tonsure (ton'shOr), the name given
to the bare place on the
heads of the Roman Catholic and Greek
priests, formed by shaving or cutting
away the hair and keeping it so. The
custom of cutting away the hair in token
of the dedication of a person to the
service of God is mentioned as early as
the fourth century. Shaving the hair
precedes consecration: it is performed by
the bishop. The tonsure admits the sub-
ject into holy orders, and the extent of
the tonsure increases with the rank held.
TATifiTi#k ( ton-ten' )f a kind of life an-
ventor Tontl, an Italian of the seven-
teenth century. A tontine is an annuity
shared by subscribers to a loan, with
the benent of survivorship, the annuity
being increased as the subscribers die,
until at last the whole goes to the last
survivor, or to the last two or three,
according to the terms on which the
money is advanced. By means of ton-
tines many government loans were
formerly raised in England.
Tooke i^^)» John Hobne, son of
John Home; a rich poulterer,
was bom in Westminster, England, in
1736. He was educated at Westminster
and Eton, afterwards proceeding to St.
John's College, Cambridge. In 1760 he
entered the church, and obtained the liv-
ing of New Brentford. A close friend-
ship with Wilkes ended in a public
altercation in 1770 and 1771. The year
1771 also witnessed his contest with
Junius, in which, in the general opinion,
he came off victor. In 1773 he resigned
his benefice to study for the bar (te
which from being in orders he was not
admitted) ; and oy his legal advice to
Mr. Tooke, of Purley, he became that
fentleman's heir, and assumed his name,
n 1777 he was prosecuted for a seditious
libel condemning the American war, and
his trial resulted in a year's imprison-
ment, and a fine of £200. He was a
short time member of parliament for Old
Samm. He died in 1812. He wrote
several political DCMnpblets and an in-
fenious linguistic work entitled Epea
HeroeniGt or the Divenions of Purley.
TadIa (t51), John La whence, a come-
J.UU1C ^^^^ jj^j.jj .jj London in 1833,
and was educated at the City of London
School. After serving for some time as
a clerk he took to the stage, and made
his first appearance at the Haymaiicet
in 1852. In 1880 he commenced the
management of the Folly Theater, Lon-
don» which he later on reconstructed and
named after himself. In 1874 he visited
America, in 1888 he published his Remi-
niaoenoes, and in 1890 made a successful
tour in the Antipodes. He was one of
the most popular actors on the stag^
and inimitable in his i>ersonation of
semipathetic and semiludicrous char-
acters. Among his most successfol im-
personations were Paul Pry, Caleb
Plummer in the Cricket on the Hearth^
Vnde Dick in Vnde Dick's Darling, etc
TnAin'hft (t5ms), Robert, secessionist,
gia, in 1810; died in 1886. He was
elected to the United States Senate in
1853 and 1859, became a leader in the
Secession party in Georgia and resigned
from the Senate to join the Confederate
cause. He was Secretary of State in the
Confederate Congress in 1861; Senator,
Febmary, 1862 ; and resigned to become a
brigadier-general in the army, but won no
distinction as a soldier. He refused to
take the oath of allegiance to the United
States government after the war and re-
mained rebellious till his death.
TnoTi 1 ^^^ ) » TooNA, the wood of an
-^""^ East Indian tree, the Cedr&a
Toona, nat order Cedrelacee. It is
sometimes called Indian mahogany, and
also Indian cedar. Another species (C
AuBtrdlie) yields the so-called cedar- wood
of New South Wales. Toonwood is
highly valued as a furniture wood, and
is used for door-panels, carving, etc
See Cedrela,
ToOl^Onef . ®^ Tourguenleff.
Tooth. SeeTcei*.
ToofTillpTiik (tdth'ftk), a well-known
lOOXnacne iffectlon of the teeth, arts-
ing from various causes. Inflammation
of the fangs of the teeth is a common
cause. If the inflammation is not re-
duced matter forms, and the result is
a gum-boil. Caries is a frequent cause
of toothache, the outer part of the tooth
rotting away and exposing the nerve.
Neuralgic toothache is a purely nervous
variety, and may occor either in sound
or carious teeth. As a preventive against
toothache the teeth should be kept
scrupulously clean, and when they show
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Tooth-shell
Tornado
symptoms of decay the services of a
skillful dentist should be had recourse
to. The decay of a tooth is very often
arrested by stopping or filling up the
cavity.
Tooth-shell. ®^ DentaUum.
ToothwOrt. ^^ Dentaria.
Toowoombd. (t5-w6m'b4), the prin-
ling Downs district of Queensland, Aus-
tralia, 100 miles west of Brisbane. It
occupies one of the best localities in
Soutnem Queensland, in the center of a
large agricultural settlement; contains a
number of religious, educational, and
other pnblic buildings, and many hand-
some private residences. Wine is pro-
duced in the vicinity. Pop. 9137.
Tonaz (tO'paz), a mineral, ranked by
* " mineralogists among gems,
characterized by having the luster vitre-
ous, transparent to translucent ; the color
yellow, white, green, blue; fracture sub-
conchoidal, uneven ; specific gravity, 8.409.
It is harder than quartz. It is a silicate
of aluminium, in which the oxygen is
partly replaced by fluorine. It occurs
massive and in crystals. The primary
form of its crystal is a right rhombic
prism. Topazes occur generally in igne-
ous and metamorphic rocks, and in many
parts of the world, as Cornwall, Scot-
land, Saxony, Siberia, Brazil, etc. The
finest varieties are obtained from Brazil
and the Ural Mountains. Those from
Brazil have deep yellow tints ; those from
Siberia have a bluish tinge; the Saxon
topazes are of a pale wine-yellow, and
those found in the Scotch Highlands are
of a sky-blue color. The purest from
Brazil, when cut in facets, closely re-
semble the diamond in luster and bril-
liance.
Tone (^^P)t * popular name for a
^^r^ species of Buddhist monument in-
tended usually to mark some important
event. The oldest monuments of this
kind are spherical or elliptical cupolas,
resting on a circular or rectilinear base,
with an umbrella-shaped structure on the
apex. See Dagoha.
Tone (Galeus catiM), a European fish
*"F^ of the shark family, attaining a
length of six feet.
TnnAlra (to-p$'k&), a city of Kansas,
XOpeKa capital of. the State and
county seat of Shawnee Co., on the Kan-
sas River, 67 miles w. of The Missouri
River. It has wide, well-built streets,
and contains a handsome State house,
State memorial building, State hospital
for the insane, reform school, Washburn
College, Bethany College, etc. It has ex-
8—10
tensive railroad shops, flour mills, cream-
eries, packing houses, foundries and other
industries. Since 1885 there have been
no saloons in the city. Pop. 47,385.
Top-Haneh. ^^ Constantinople.
Tophet. ^^ Gehenna.
ToplitZ. SeeTepKte.
ToTpTi-fiftli (tOrch'fish), a deep-sea,
lOrcn-nsn pedlculate fish which is
found off Madeira. The first dorsal spine
Torch-Fish {lAiaophryU lueiff),
carries a luminous bulb above the eyes
which resembles a torch.
Tor^an (t^^sou), a strongly fortified
o town of Prussia, province of
Saxony, 45 miles e. N. E. of Merseburg,
on the Elbe. Pop. 12,299.
Torm ATI til L tor'men - til ; Potentitta
lOrmeniU i^ormentma), a trailing
Slant common in healthy or waste places,
ee PotentUla.
Tornado (tor-na'dO), a term applied
^ to hurricanes and whirlwinds
in general, such as are prevalent in the
West Indies and on the west coast of
Africa about the time of the equinoxes
and in the Indian Ocean about the time
of changes in the monsoons. They
are accompanied with severe thunder and
lightning and torrents of rain, but are
of short duration and limited area. It
is especially applied to the very destruc-
tive whirling storms, of very narrow
width and brief duration, common on
the plains of the Mississippi valley and
occasionally appearing beyond this area.
Originating in an overhanging cloud, a
tornado sends down a funnel-shaped
cloud to the ground, the lower portion
long and narrow. This is caused by an
immensely rapid vertical whirl in the air,
capable of twisting off the limbs of great
trees and of destroying whatever it
touches. The tornado is a traveling
storm, its track usually a narrow one^
but often several hundred miles in
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Tornca Torpedo
length. Death and destruction are left gineering works, agricnltural implement
in Its path, especially where this passes factories, breweries, carriage-works, tan-
through a town or city, and tornadoes neries, soap-works, boot and shoe fac-
are greatly feared in the localities sub- tories, piano and organ foctories, stove
ject to their visitations. foundries, etc. There is a large export
TomeS (tor'ne-6), a seaport of North trade in flour, grain, live-stock, etc
Finland, Russia, at the mouth Toronto was founded in 1794. The
of the River Tomea, which rises in latest official census gives a population of
Sweden and forms part of the boundary 376^538, but the city subsequently took
between it and Russia. It has an active a <^nsu8 through its police department,
trade in timber, nsh, pitch, furs, etc., the returns of which were as foUowi: •
and near by is a hill which tourists Ward 1 63,704
ascend at the summer solstice to view ** 2 00,204
the midnight sun. Pop. 1500. •• 8 54,758
Toronto (t^ron'tO), one of the chief •• 4 71^60
xuxuiLtu ^j^jgg ^f ^g Dominion of •* 5 72,897
Ganada, capital of the province of On- ^ 6 83,589
tario, situated in the county of York, •• 7 18,395
on a small bay on the northwest coast
of Lake Ontario, 315 miles w. 8. w. of Total 425,407
Montreal Its site is low, but rises Tomedo (.tor-pd'do), the name of
gently from the water's edge to a height *vj.fFcu.v ^g^^g allied to the rays, form-
of above 100 feet The fine bay in front ing the type of the family Torpedinldie,
of the city forms a splendid harbor. The and noted for their power <^ giving
town is regularly built, the streets cross electrical shocks by means of specially-
each other at right angles, and are developed electrical organs. The electri-
wide, well paved, and in general of cal organs consist of two masses placed
handsome architecture. The common on each side of the head, and composed
material is brick, of a pleasing light of numerous vertical gelatinous columns
color; the public buildings are numerous, separated by membranous septa, and
and many of them very handsome. The richly furnished with nervous filaments,
churches most worthy of notice are the The production of electricity by these
Anglican and the Roman Catholic cathe- fishes is explicable on the ground of tiie
drals, both in the pointed style, the conversion of an equivalent of nerve
Metropolitan Church (Methodist), and force into electric force by the electric
St. Andrew's Church (Presbyterian), organ; just as, under other circum-
Among secular buildings the finest (al- stances, nerve force is converted into
most completely destroyed by fire in 1890) motion through the musdes. The power
is the University of Toronto; the others of the discharge varies with the health
comprise the lieutenant-governor's resi- and size of the fish. The torpedoes occur in
dence; the magnificent new Parliament typical perfection chiefly in the Mediter-
Buildings; Osgoode Hall, the seat of the ranean Sea, and in the Indian and Pad-
provincial law courts; the normal school fie Oceans. A spedmen may measure 4
buildings; Trinity College, in connection ft. long, and weigh from 60 to 70 lbs.
with the Protestant Episcopal, a highly Tomedo ^ name for two distinct
ornate building; the Upper Canada Col- ^^'^x'^'^^^Jc' asses of submarine destruc-
lege; the custom-house; the post-office; tive agents, namely, torpedoes prope^
the public library; the Government which are moveable, and are propdled
School of Practical Science; and the against an enemy's ship; and submarine
froup of buildings where the annual in- mines, which lie stationary in the water,
ustrial exhibitions are held. Charitable Of the first class, called offentive t^r^
and benevolent institutions are numerous, pedoea, there are three principal types:
Queen's Park, in which the university (a ) the * automobile,* of which the
is situated, is the prindpal public park. Whitehead is the best-known form; (5)
The university is one of the best equipped the * towing torpedo * of Captain Har^
in America; and besides Trinity College vey; and (c) the 'epar' or 'out-
there is Knox Ck>llege, a Presbysterlan rigger' torpedo. The Whitehead, or fish
theological institution; Wydiffe College, torpedo, may be described as being a
an Anglican theological school; M'Mas- cigar-shaped vessel, varying from 14 to
ter University, supported by the Bap- 22 feet in length, and from 14 to 21
tdsts: the Upper Canada (College; the inches in diameter, the largest weighing
Provindal Normal and Model Schools ; 2000 pounds. It is made of specially pre-
two schools of medicine, two colleges of pared steel, and is divided into three com-
music, a veterinary college, etc Tfte in- partments; the war head contains the
4aaUie8 include iron-foundriea and en- charge, consisting of wet guncotton, trini-
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Torpedo Torpedo-boat
tro-tolnol or some other high exploBive. only from a fixed base and. are thus fitted
This charge is exploded bv a priming to be discharged only from shore, it beins
charge of dry guncotton which in tnm evidently a difficult problem to control
is fired by a primer struck by a firing their movements when discharged from a
pin carried in the war nose screwed into moving base, as a ship or torpedo-boat
the head of the torpedo before discharg- To the latter the Whitehead, or other
ing. The central portion of the torpedo self-moving form, is well adapted, but
contains the air flask in which air, com- it is unlikely that the wire-controlled
pressed to 2500 pounds to the square forms are ever likely to be used except
inch pressure, is carried for driving the from shore stations. The Whitehead is
propelling engine. The after part con- the form commonly in use. In addition
tains the encine, which is of reciprocating to these types of traveling torpedoes sev-
design ; the horizontal steering gear which eral kinds of fixed torpeooes are in use,
consists of a gyroscope driven by a spiral known as torpedo mines or submarine
spring. Any deflection of the torpedo mines. These have been for many years
from the line on which it was fired causes effectively used in warfare, and are of
the ^roscope to act on a steering engine two types, the self-acting and the con-
which moves tiie horizontal rudders and trolled. The first type is fired either
restores the torpedo to its proper course, mechanically or electrically. A conunon
The compartment also contains the au- mechanical device consists in a set of
tomatic vertical steering gear. pins projecting at different angles from
The range of torpedoes may be as high the head of the torpedo, any one of which
as 10,000 yards at a speed of 25 knots being struck is driven down on a fulmi-
an hour, but shorter ranges (up to 2500 nating base. The electrically fired are
yards) are more practical and at the anchored so as to float 5 to 20 feet be-
shorter ranges speeds up to 50 knots per low the surface, or may be ground mines
hour have been attained. with a buoyant float. The electric cir-
In recent practice the use of torpedoes cuit is completed and the mine fired when
has been almost entirely confined to sub- float or mine is struck by a passing vessel,
marines, which use a short-range torpedo The controlled mines have wires leading
carrying a very large charge of high ex- to shore stations. In one form the clos-
ploeive. The long range guns of modem ing of the circuit at the station does not
battleships and battle cruisers precluding fire the mine, which must be touched by
a sufficiently near approach for the use the vessel to complete the firing circuit
of torpedoes. There are several forms of In another form observers watch the
torpedo operated from shore. Of these the movement of the vessel and fire the mine
Brennan carries in its interior two drums from shore when the ship is over the
on which is wound piano wire. The torpedo. The spar or oumgger torpedo
wires pass out of the rear and are at- consists simply of a metal case contain-
tached to jK>werful enidnes on shore, ing the explosive substance (gunpowder,
These reel the wires oir the drums, can*, gun-cotton, dynamite, etc.), and fitted
ing the latter to rotate rapidly and to f^^ a fuse constructed so that it can be
act upon the propellers. Increased speed °^ ** ^l^^fi ^' exploded by contact
in the enrines causes the torpedo to move ^\^n * ship s side. It is screwed on to
more rapidly, while it can be steered by * long spar, whicli is usuaUy fixed m the
diecking one of the wires, these acting °^^ ^' * swift boat or steam-launch,
on vertical rudders in the torpedo. The which endeavors to reach and push the
operating range is a mile or more. In the torpedo against the hostile vesseL Sta-
Sims-Edison torpedo there is a 'float' tionary torpedoes or submarine mines,
from which the torpedo is suspended, so such as are placed in channels or coasts
that it hangs about six feet below the to prevent the approach of an enemy's
inrftice. Here an electric motor forms vessels, usually consist of a strong metal
the propelling agency, it being worked case containing an effective explosive,
from shore throogh an electric cable such as gun-cotton, etc.. and having a
wliicfa is paid out as the torpedo advances fuse or cap which will explode the
towards its mark. Another form, the charge on the slightest contact; or the
Lay torpedo, has compressed carboi^ explosion may be effected by means of
add gas for its motive power, the working electricity, the operator firing it at will
of the engine being controlled by an from the shore.
operator on shore throuch an electric TnimA/lA.TinQf The modern torpedo-
cable. Both these forms can be exploded iOrpcao-PUai. ^^^^ jg ^ g^,^! ^^p.
by aid of the electric current through the ship equipped with torpedo tubes as its
eable, their speed bdng about 10 or 11 chief weapons of offense. It must be
knots per qiile. The three wlr^-controlled capable or bil^ sneld, able to launch its
loiiDg mentioned can be folly oontrolM torpedoes effectuaJuy and seaworthy in pro*
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Torpedo Net
Torrens System^
portion to its size. There are two main
types, the torpedo-boat destroyer and the
torpedo-boat, a smaller type of 200 to 400
tons displacement which has been largely
superseded by the destroyer type and
relegated to harbor and coast defense.
This type is equipped with two or three
torpedo-tubes, several three-inch guns and
smaller arms. It has a speed of from 25
to 30 knots. The torpedo-boat destroyer
is a larger vessel usually of 900 to 1200
tons displacement, though larger vessels
in this class have been built From four
to eight torpedo tubes are carried and
four 4-inch guns, together with lighter
Sieces. A destroyer has a speed of about
0 knots per hour and is highly efficient
both as a scout and as a defense against
submarines. Originally designed for_night
attacks on larger ships the development
of rapid-firing guns and searchlisfhts has
been such that operations of this char-
acter are rare tnough destroyers were
actively engaged on both sides during
naval engagements in the European war
(q. v.). The motive power of these ves-
sels is steam generated by fuel oil for the
sake of space, economy and convenience.
They are driven by high powered quad-
ruple expansive engines operating twin
propellors and are sufficiently seaworthy
to accompany a battleship fleet on the
high seas.
Originally a torpedo-boat consisted
simply of a small boat filled with ex-
plosive which was itself destroyed in the
explosion. Such vessels were used as
early as 1585 at Antwerp. Submarine
craft carrying torpedoes which were to
be affixed to the bottom of the enemy
ships followed. Surface craft appeared
in the American Civil War, most of them
using torpedoes on long spars attached
to their bows, but it was not until 1877
when Herreshofif brought out the first
torpedo-boat fitted to discharge White-
head Torpedoes that the nrindples of the
modem vessel of this class were estab-
Kshed. . ^ ^ * ^ ,
TAimAfiA Wpf A net made up of steel
lOrpeaOXiei. ,{q^9 ^bi^h is earned
on a warship as a defense against sub-
marine torpedoes. The usual practice is
to suspend the net from the ends of
booms pivoted at the inboard end to the
side of the ship. When the shin is at
rest these booms are swung out horizon-
tally and the net unfurls, falling to a
sufficient depth to protect the hull. When
the ship is in motion the net is of no use
and the booms are swung ij» the net
being furled and lying in a shelf.
TAt^iiQV (tor-k(^'). a seaport and
lOrqnay ^aterin^-place of England.
on the 8onth coast of Devonshire, pleas-
antly situated on a series of heights and
depressions on the north side of Torbav.
It is well built, and consists principally
of two streets, of several commanding
terraces, and of a great number of
isolated cottages and villas, with gar-
dens attached. It has several handsome
churches, a town-hall, assembly-rooms,
etc., and a long pier forming an excel-
lent promenade. The water supply and
drainage system are excellent Vor in-
valids its climate in winter is among the
best in England. Here William of
Orange landed in his invasion of 1688.
Pop. (1911) 38,772.
Torane (tork), or TOBC, a personal
^ ornament worn by certain an-
cient nations, as by the ancient Britons,
Gauls, and Germans. It consists of a
stiff collar, formed of a number of gold
wires twisted together, and sometimes of
a thin metal plate, generally of gold, and
was worn round the neck as a symbol of
rank and command.
Torqnemada <»';;'|Jl*;S^6ai'?^
bom at VaUadolid in 1388 ; died in 1468.
He entered the Dominican Order in 1403
and became noted for his theological writ-
ings and took part in many Important
church councils.
Torquemada, Jj*?;^*?/^ ^ '•*-
Torre Annunziata <^!;^,.r^:
port in the province of Naples, Italy, at
the foot of Vesuvius, on the Bay of
Naples. Pop. 28,084.
Torre Del Greco ^rpornrW
in the province of Naples, on the Gulf of
Naples, at the foot of Mount Vesuvius.
The town has suffered much by eruptions
of Vesuvius. Pop. 35,328.
Tnrr#kTift (tor^rens). Lake, a large
xurrcus shallow salt lake of South
Australia, about 00 miles N. of Spencer's
Gulf. Length, about 130 miles; average
breadth. 20 miles. In the dry season it
is merely a salt marsh.
Torrens System, %l^ToA^!o
real estate originated by Robert S. Tor-
rens, and first brought legally into opera-
tion in South Australia in 1858. Some-
thing of the same character had been em-
ployed in Austria in 1811 and Hungary
in 1855, and Denmark had registered
titles by judicial decree as early as 1550.
But the Torrens system differed from
these earlier forms, and gradually spread
throusrh the Australian provinces and to
the Fiji and New Guinea Islanda In all
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Torrens System, Torsk
these the registration of titles was made 4)efore the Legislature of Michigan. These
(ompulsory on the alienation of crown were the latest States to take action
lauds, but was otherwise voluntary. Only upon the system,
fee simple titles could be registered, and Torres Strait (tor'rez), the strait
the title obtained by registration became *vxxco i^i^xaai^ which separates Aus-
indefeasible. tralia from New Guinea, bein^ about 80
From Australia the system snread to miles across. It ia crowded with islands,
various colonies in America, to Norway, shoals, and reefs, rendering its naviga-
Denmark, Germany and Austria, to Eng- tion difficult.
land in 1862 and Ireland in 1865^ In Torres Vedrfi^ (tor'rOsh v&'drash),
these, leaseholds for life or for twenty *v***'" ' ^u.xc*o Lines of, so-called
/ears were included. Absolute, qualified from a village in Portugal 24 miles
or possessory titles may be registered in northwest of X/isbon. These stupendous
England; only absolute titles in Ireland, works, constructed by Wellington in
In Canada the system was adopted in the 1810, consisted of two fortified lines, the
several provinces at various dates from one 29 miles in length, the other, in the
1871 to 1906, the act being compulsory on rear of the former, 24 miles in length,
alienation of crown lands, except in Brit- forming an impregnable barrier between
ish Columbia, and voluntary otherwise the French troops and Lisbon. The
except in Ontario, where it is wholly vol- lines of Torres Vedras saved Lisbon,
untary. bafDed a well-appointed French army.
The registration of land titles under and gave Wellington a fair opportunity to
statutes usuaUy known as ' Torrens Acts ' enter upon offensive operations. See Spain.
has been adopted in many parts of the Tnrrf^ir (tor'ri), John, botanist, bom
United States. Illinois in 1895 was the *"**^J at New York in 1796; died in
first to adopt it The act was held 1873. He became a physician in New
there to be unconstitutional, but was re- York and engaged in botanical study,
enacted in 1897, the point of objection publishing the first volume of his Flora
being removed. The same happened in of the Northern United States in 1824.
Ohio, a law being passed in 1896 and With Prof. Gray he produced a Flora of
repealed as unconstitutional in 1898. It North America in 1838. He was pro-
was re-enacted in 1913 when the Consti- fessor of chemistry at Princeton College,
tution was amended. Various other 1830-54, and botanist of the Geological
States adopted it. New York, in 1906, Survey of New York. In 1860 he pre-
being among the latest to do so. The sented his herbarluni, containing about
method pursued differs in form in differ- 50.000 specimens, to Columbia College,
ent States, the local procedure varying Torripplli ( tor-ri-chel'l€), Evangb-
widely. The daim to the title must be av^aa^cjxi j^^^j^ ^^^ Italian physicist,
definitely passed on by examiners of title bom in 1606 ; died in 1647. TorriceUi's
and in the event of a contest, this needs name is important in the history of
to be passed upon by a court. The de- science as the discoverer of the law on
cree, when given, becomes absolute and which the barometer depends. See
conclusive after a period varying in dif- Barometer.
ferent States and Territories, ranging Torrinoion (tor'ing-tun), a borough
from thirty days in Massachusetts and *vxxa*a5vvij. ^^ Torrington township,
the Philippines to five years in California. Litchfield Co., Connecticut, on the Nauga-
The title, when registered is. generally tuck river, 26 miles w. by N. of Hart-
speaking, indefeasiole, the exceptions ford. Its manufactures are of brass, ma-
being by private parties for fraud, foe chinery, needles, automobile accessories,
varying oeriods and under varying oondi- hardware, etc. Pop. 20,000.
"tc protect the todefewible quality of Towioil Balance i^s^t^J-^^St"^' em"
the r<»«^stered title, provision is gen- ployed to measure the intensities of very
erally made for an 'assurance fund,* the small forces. It consists of a fine wire,
proceeds of which are used for the reim- silk thread, or the like, suspended from a
bnrsement of any one injured by reason fixed point, and having a horizontal
of the decree upon which the registration needle attached, the force being meas-
wfls based. Such a person must bring ured bv the resistance to twisting which
suit within a fixed period, varying from the filament exhibits when the force
six to ten years in different States. A (that of attraction, for instance) acts
constitutional amendment submitted In on the needle.
1915 in Pennsylvania provided that new Torsk i^rosmius vulgdris), a fish of
courts should be established for carrying *v*^'*' the cod tribe found in great
the system into effect in that State. In quantities off the Orkney and Shetland
the same year a Torrens bill was brought Islands, where it constitutes a consider-
i
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Torso
Tortoise-shell
able article of trade. It is, when salted
and dried, a savory stoclc-fish. It ifi
from 18 to 30 inches long, and is called
also iusk.
Torso (tor'sO; Italian), an art term
xuxav gignifying the trunk of a statne
of which the head and the extremities are
wanting. The torso of Hercules, in the
Belvedere at Rome, is considered by con-
noisseurs one of the finest works of art
remaining from antiquity.
Torstenson <'^/«^J?T°^' '^?^^'
AVA0VVU0VU a Swedish general, bom
in 1603; died in 1051; distinguished in
the Thirty Years' war (which see). He
was appointed leader of the Swedish
army in Germany in 1641, and com-
manded it for five years.
Tort ^° ^^^' denotes injustice or in-
Avxify jury. Actions upon torts or
wrongs are all personal actions for tres-
passes» nuisances^ assaults, defamatory
words, and the like.
Tortoise (tor'tis), the name applied
■*'"**'"* to various genera of reptiles
included in the order Cbelonia, along
with the turtles and their allies. The
Oonunon or Greek Tortoise {TestCdo OrcBca).
distinctive features of the tortoises and
other Chelonians consist in the modifi-
cation of the skeleton and of the skin-
structure or scales to form the well-
known bony box in which their bodies are
inclosed, the upper portion of which is
the carapace, the lower the plastron. The
Testudinidse or typical land-tortoises have
short stunted limbs adapted for ter-
restrial progression; the short toes are
bound togetner by the skin, and have
well-developed nails. The carapace is
strongly convex, and is covered by homy
epidermic plates. The homy jaws are
adapted for cutting, or may be divided
into serrated processes. The head, limbs,
and tail can be completely retracted
within the carapace. Though capable of
swimming, the tortoises proper are really
terrestrial animals, and are strictly vege-
table feeders. The most familiar ex-
ample is the common Greek or European
tortoise {TestQdo OrcBca) so freauently
kept as a household pet, and which oc-
curs chiefly on the eastern borders of
the Mediterranean. These animals some-
times live to a great age (over 100 years
according to some), and hibernate
through the colder season of the year.
They attain a length of 12 inches. A
much larger species is the great Indian
tortoise {T. Indica), which attains a
length of over 3 feet and a weight of
200 lbs. Its flesh is reckoned food of
excellent quality, as are also its egas.
The box tortoise of India and Mada-
gascar {Cinywis arachnoides) is remark-
able for the curious development of the
front part of the plastron, which shuts
over the anterior aperture of the shell
like a lid when the animal retracts it-
self. In the box tortoise of North
America {CistOdo Carolina) the hinder
part of the plastron forms a lid. It is
included among the Emyds or terrapins.
(See Terrapin,) Other genera include
the alligator terrapin (Chelydra serpen-
tina) of America, also called the 'snap-
ping turtle.' (See Snapping Turtle,)
The mud or soft tortoises (Trionyohida)
occur in Asia, Africa, and North Amer-
ica. They have soft fleshy lips, and no
homy plates are developed in the skin.
Very frequently also the ribs are not so
modified as to form a hard carapace, as
in other chelonia. See also Turtle,
Tortoise-sheU, *,fr?oX'JhlTiTr
rather the scutes or scales of the tortoise
and other allied chelonians, especially to
those of the Chelonia imhrto&ta (the
hawk*s-bill turtle), a species which in-
habits tropical seas. The homy scales
or plates which form the covering of
this animal are extensively used in the
manufacture of combs, snufif-boxes, etc.,
and in inlaying and other omamental
H«wk*Bbf11 or Tortolse-Bhell Turtle
{Chelonia imbrie&ta) .
work. It becomes very plastic when
heated, and when cold retains with sharp-
ness any form it may be molded to in
its heated state. Pieces can also be
welded together under the pressure of
hot irons. It is now largely imitated by
horn and cheap artificial compounds.
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Tortoise-shell Butterfly
Toucan
Tortoise-shell Butterfly, J^^^^
two British batterflies, the small tor-
toise-shell (Vanessa uriloa) and the
large tortoise-shell (F. polyoMdroM) ,
from the coloring of the wings.
Tnrfnlfl. J[tor-t6'lA), a British West
Virgin Islands; area. 2o sq. miles. It
is bare and rugged* nsing to a height of
1000 feet. It contains Roadtown, the
capital of the group. Pop. 8431.
TnrfATiA (tor-tO'n&), a town in North-
lOrrona ^^ italy/ 12 miles east of
Alessandria, in the province of Ales-
sandria. The principal edifice is the
cathedral (1575). Pop. 7889.
TArfAfto (tor-tO'iA), a fortified city of
xun^usa ^p^^j^^ ^ Catalonia, 48 miles
southwest of Tarragona, on the Ebro.
There is a cathedral dating from 1374,
but the other buildings are unimpor-
tant. An active trade is carried on.
Pop. 24,452.
TortueaS (^r-tO'gis), or Dbt Tob-
AVA yu^a,9 xuoAS, a group of ten small,
low, barren islands belonging to Florida,
about 40 miles w. of the most western
of the Florida Keys. On Loggerhead Key
there is a lighthouse 150 feet high. Fort
Jefferson, on one of the islands, was a
penal station during the Civil war.
Torture (tor'ttlr), the arbitrary and
especially excessive inniction
of pain judicially, whether to extort con-
fession or to aggravate punishment
Torture has been common in all the na-
tions of modem Europe, and it was also
practiced by the ancient Romans. The
practice was first adopted by the church
in the early middle ages, and when the
old superstitious means of discovering
guilt (as in ordeal by fire and water)
lost their eflicacy torture became general
in Europe. Though never recognized by
the common law of England, it was em-
ployed there as late as the reign of
Charles I, and in Scotland torture was
not wholly abandoned till very near the
close of the seventeenth century. Every
reader is familiar with the horrid tor-
tures inflicted on those accused of witch-
craft, and on many of the Covenanters,
by means of thumbkins, the boot, etc.,
in order to discover alleged hiding-places
and the like. In the German States tor-
ture continued to be practiced under cer-
tain restrictions till the close of the
eighteenth century. The chief instru-
ment of torture was the rack (which
see) .
Taihi TVnff ^ Hindu girl of wonder-
lOrU iraiX, f„, prec<^ity, bom at
C!alcatta hi 1856; died in 1877. She
spent several years in England and
France, studied the literature of these
countries with avidity, and at eighteen
published a critical essay, showing
strange maturity, on Leconte de Lisle.
She next studied Sanskrit and translated
Sanskrit texts into English blank
verse. In 1876 she published A Sheaf
Gleaned in French Fields, being English
translations of about 200 French poems.
After her death, in her twenty-second
year, was published a romance in French,
Le Journal de MdUe d* Arvers, and An-
cient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan,
TorV (td'ri), a political party name of
*^*J Irish origin, first used in Eng-
land about 1679, applied originally to
Irish Catholic outlaws, and then gener-
ally to those who refused to concur in the
scheme to exclude James II from the
throne. The nickname, like its contem*
poraneous opposite, Whig, in coming into
popular use became much less strict in its
application, until at last it came simply
to signify an adherent of that political
party in the state who disapproved of
change in the ancient constitution, and
who supported the claims and authority
of the King, church, and aristocracy;
while their opponents, the Whigs, were if
favor of more or less radical changes, an^
supported the claims of the democracy*
In modem times the term has to some ex<
tent been supplanted by Conservative.
Tnfam (to-tft'ra; Podocarpus totara),
XUtaiH. ^ timber-tree of New Zealand,
allied to the vew.
Totem (totem), a rade picture of
Avw^^iu g^jjjg natural object, as of a
bird or beast, used by the American In-
dians as a symbol and designation of a
family or tribe. A similar practice has
been found to prevail among other sav-
age peoples, and some theorists have
given it a very wide extension on purely
conjectural grounds.
ToUfiftn ^ tou'kan ; Rhamphastos ) , a
xvuvooi. genus of scansorial or climb-
i
Red-billed Toucan {Rhatnphattos
€rythrorhynehus ) .
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Touch
Tonlon-snr-Mer
img birds of the family Rhamphastids. cause found in Lydia in Asia Minor. A
These birds inhabit the tropical regions series of needles (called touch-needles),
of South Americat and are distinguished of which the composition is known, are
by a large keeled bill. The bill is about used for comparison with the article to
8 inches long, and its substance is hoi- be tested. When the color of die streak
lowed out into air-cells, thus being com- produced by both the needle and the
paratively light The toucans feed on trinket on the stone is the same the
fruits, seeds, insects, etc The prevail- quantity of alloy they contain is supposed
ing colors among the toucans are yellow, to be similar.
bUck, and red. The bill is frequently TnTinliiuAAil & "oft white substance
very brilliantly colored. XOUCnwooo, j^^^ ^j,,^ ^^^ ^ ^^.
Tonell ^^ sense of feeling and the verted by the action of such fungi as
xvuvu) most widelv diffused of the PolypHrue igniariue. It is easily ignited,
flenses. It resides in the skin (see Skin), and continues to bum for a long time
and is exercised through certain struc- like tinder.
tures situated in the papille of the true Toin (^^0» a town of France, depart-
skin and connected with terminal fila- ^^*^ ment of Meurthe - et - Moselle,
ments of sensory nerves. These struc- on the Moselle, 12 miles west of Nancy,
tures have some variety of form, and are It is strongly fortified, and has a fine
called tactile cells, tactile corpuscles, com- Gothic cathedral, completed in the fif-
pound tactile corpuscles. Pacinian cor- teenth century. Toul was taken in the
puscles, etc. All the kinds are to be Franco-€torman war after a siege of five
regarded as terminal organs of the sen- weeks, September 23, 1870. Pop. 0523.
sory nerves, act- " "
ing as the media
by which im-
pressions made
on the skin are
communicated to
the nerve fibers.
Although the
sense of touch
is diflfused over
the whole body,
it is much more
exquisite in some
parts than in
others. Experi-
ment shows the
tip of the tongue
to be the most
sensitive surface,
the points oi
the fingers come
next, while the
red part of the
lips follow in
order. The neck,
middle of the
Toui-opf Harbour
Toula.' IJJ
Tonlon-snr-
Mer (»-•«?-
sur-m&r),
a seaport, and
after Brest the
most important
naval station of
France, in the
department of
the Var, situ-
ated on a bay of
the Mediterra-
nean, 42 miles
E. 8. B. of Mar-
seilles. It is de-
fended by nu-
merous forts and
redoubts, and
strong forts and
outworks occupy
all the heights
surrounding the
town. Toulon
back, and the middle of the arm and has a cathedral, originally Romanesque,
iQlfBnBAnEAH
thigh are the least acute surfaces.
Tonch-me-not. ®«® Impatiens.
of the eleventh century, a good town-hall,
theater, etc., besides the arsenal and
other marine establishments, which are
on a most extensive scale. The chief
harbors and docks are separated from the
Toncll-needleS. S«® Touchstone.
Tonrh-na.'nfir V^V^^ steeped in salt- roadstead by moles, which are hollow and
xuu^u }Ma,}M%ii,j peter, which bums bomb-proof, and lined by batteries, and
slowly, and is used as a match for firing the storehouses, shipyards, workshops,
gunpowder, etc. etc., are most complete. The trade is not
TnTinTiafnTiP & variety of extremely important Toulon suffered severely at
XUUi/iiStuiiC, compact siliceous schist, the hands of the republicans in 1793 after
used for ascertaining the purity of gold the withdrawal of the British, whom the
and silver. Known also as black Jasper inhabitants had voluntarily admitted, and
and hasanite. It was called Lydtan who destroyed here the French republi-
«/ofie, or lapis Lydia, by the ancients, be- can fleet Pop. 101,002.
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Toulouse
Toiu^e
Tonlnnftp (t5-15z), a town of South-
XOUiOUSe g^ France, capital of the
department of Haute-Garonne, on the
Garonne (which is navigable and crossed
by three bridges), 160 miles s.E. of Bor-
deaux. The streets are narrow and ir^
regular^ and the houses generally un-
pretentious. Among remarkable public
buildings are the cathedral, the church of
Ht. Semin, the Hotel de Ville, and the
till 508, when Clovis gained possession of
it. Subsequently it became the capital
of Aquitaine, was long governed by mde-
pendent counts, and in thQ thirteenth
century fell a prey to the cruel bigots of
the Inquisition (see Albigenses) , and then
was joined to the French crown. The
French were defeated by the British under
its walls in 1814. Pop. (1911) 149,576.
ToTirarn (ttt-rak'6), a name of inses-
Coryihaix or TurOcus^ natives of Africa,
and allied to the Scansores, or climbing
St. Semln, Toulouse.
Palais de Justice. Toulouse has univer-
sity faculties, a Roman Catholic univer-
sity, a lyceum, and other educational in-
stitutions, public library of 60,000 vols.,
etc It is the chief entrepot of the dis-
trict for agricultural produce and general
trade, and is an important industrial
center. It is a place of great antiquity,
and rose to eminence under the Romans,
who embellished it with a capitol, amphi-
theater, and other edifices of which
vestiges still remain. It was the capital
of the kingdom of the Visigoths from 419
Touraco {Coryihaix eryihrohph'UB).
birds. Their prevailing color is green,
varied in some species with purple on the
wings and tail. They feed cniefly on soft
fruits, and frequent the highest branches
of the forest trees.
TnnrfliTiA (t5-r&n), an ancient prov-
XOUIUine j^^ ^^ France, bounded
north by Maine, east by Orltenais and
Berry, soath by Berry and Poitou, and
west by Anjou and Poitou. It now
forms the department of Indre-et-Loire.
TOUrCOing ^^-•LTe'^'deJarS o1
Nord, 9 miles n. n. e. of Lille; a well-
built thriving manufacturing town, the
staple manufactures being woolen, cotton,
linen, and silk stuffs, brides dye-works,
soap-works, sugar retineries, machine
works, etc Pop. 82,644.
TnHIHyAA (tO]>zh&'). ACBION WlNB-
AUur^ee ^ novelist, bom at Wil-
liamsfield, Ohio, in 1838; died in 1905.
He served through the Civil war, and in
1866 engaged in the practice of law at
Greensboro, N. C. He took an active
part in the Constitutional conventions
of 1868 and 1875, and was judge of the
Superior Court. 1868-73. In 1897 he
was appointed United States Consul of
Bordeaux. France. His best-known novel
was A FooV% Errand, He wrote also
Br%ck9 Without Straw and other novels,
and some legal works.
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Tonrgnenieff
Tours
xviuguviix^u Seboetevitoh, a cele-
brated Roasian novelist, born at Orel in
1818; died near Paris in 1883. He be-
longed to a noble and ancient family, and
was educated at Moscow, St. Petersburg,
and Berlin. In 1842 he obtained an ap-
pointment in the ministry of the interior ;
but having written an article displeasing
to the authorities, he was shortly after^
wards banished to his paternal estate.
For some years he led the life of a country
gentleman, gaining an intimate acquaint-
ance witn Russian peasant life. His
first important publication v^as trans-
lated into English under the title of
Ru8$ian Life in the Interior, or the E»-
perienoee of o Sportsman, It was fol-
lowed by a great number of short tales
and dramas, contributed principally to
Russian periodicals. His earliest novels
were A Nest of Nobles (1859), and On
the Eve a8(»$). A powerful politico-
social novel, Fathers and Sons, was pub-
lished in 1861, and met with much ad-
verse criticism in Russia. His other
works include Smoke. Sprinq Floods,
Virgin Soil, etc., all of which have been
translated into English. Tourguenieif
has been ranked with the greatest masters
of fiction.
Tourmaline (Wr'M-lln), f mi^ral
AWM.AAUCMJ.A&V occurring crystallized in
three-sided or six-sided prisms, terminated
by three-sided pyramids, the primary
form being a rhomboid. It scratches
glass easily, has a specific gravity of 3,
and consists principally of a compound
silicate and borate of alumina and mag-
nesia. Tourmaline occurs most commonly
in igneous and metamorphic rocks, espe-
cially in granite, gneiss, and mica-slate.
Some varieties are transparent, some
translucent, some opaque. Some are
colorless, and others green, brown, red,
blue, and black. Red tourmaline is
known as rubeUite, blue tourmaline as
indioolite, and black tourmaline as schorl.
The transparent varieties include various
well-known jewelry stones, as the Brazil-
ian sapphire, the Brazilian emerald, etc.
Prisms of tourmaline are much used in
polarizing apparatus, and it possesses
powerful electric properties.
TnTiniAi (t5r>nft; in Flemish, Doomik,
XOUTUU ^or'nik)^ a town of Belgium,
in the province of Halnaut, on both sides
of the Scheldt, which is here crossed by
seven bridges and lined by fine quays.
The streets are for the most part spa-
cious, with well-built houses. Among the
principal edifices are the cathedral, an
ancient structure in the Romanesque
style; the Church of St Brice (twelfth
century) ; and the old monastery of St.
Martin, now used as a town-house. The
leading manufactures are linens, wool-
ens, cottons, and Brussels carpets.
Toumai is one of the oldest towns of
Belgium, and was anciently the chief
town of the Nervii, and afterwards the
residence of some of the early FranUsh
kings. Pop. (1904) 36,744
Tournament 4iSr'?"JSS?™L'^'^
NET, a common sport of
the middle ages, in which parties of
mounted knights encountered each other
with lances and swords in order to dis-
play their skill in arms. Tournaments
reached their full perfection in France in
the ninth and tenth centuries, where they
first received the form under which they
are known to us. They were introduced
into Ehigland soon after the Conquest by
the Normans. Jousts were single com-
bats between two knights, and at a
tournament there would often be a num-
ber of jousts as well as combats between
parties of knights. The place of combat
was the lists^ a large open place sur-
rounded by ropes or a railing. Galleries
were erected for the spectators, among
whom were seated the ladies, the supreme
judges of tournaments. A knight taking
part in a tournament generally carried
some device emblematic of a lady*s favor.
Tournaments gradually went out with the
decline of chivalry.
Tournefort <J»ri»'>'/^SS=boSS:
ist, bom in 1656. He was educated by
the Jesuits, and in 1683 became profes-
sor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes,
Paris. He visited Greece and Asia
Minor, and wrote Voyage au Levant,
His chief work is entitled Institutiones
Ret Herbaricp (three vols., Paris, 1700).
He died in 1708, being then professor of
medicine in the Collie de France.
Tourneur ,\r?4'>fc<^ofw!SS
existence we have little certain infor-
mation beyond the respective dates of hii
first and last extant works (1600-13).
The two plays on which his tame rests
are The Atheist* s Tragedy (1607) and
The Revenger's Tragedy (1611).
Tourniquet ii^-'iJ^'^li, J» ^^^^l
practice of sursery to stop bleeding, its
use being only intended to be temporary.
Some kind of ligature twisted tight' with
a stick forms a simple tourniquet
Tnnrft i^^^)^ & town of France, capi-
Auum ^j ^j ^jj^ department of Indre^
et-Loire, on the left bank of the Loir^
145 miles by rail southwest of Paris.
The Loire is here crossed bv two sus-
gension bridges, a railway bridge, and a
ne stone bridge 1423 feet long. Many
Digitized by
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TonrdUe
Town-counoil
of the streets are nMicious and elegant,
and there are seyeral historic chateaux in
the neighborhood. The principal edifice
is the cathedral (Tours being an arch-
bishopric), fianiiea by two towers, 205
feet high, a fine building begun in the
twelftli, completed in the sixteenth,
century. Of the old abbey church of St
Martin of Tours only two towers remain.
The modem buildings include the Church
of St. Joseph, the theater, and the mu-
seum. Manufactures include silk, clothe
carpets, chemicals, etc., and there is a
large printing and publishing establish-
ment Tours was known to the Romans
by the name of GesarodunuuL In later
times it became famous for its silk manu-
factures, and had a population of 80,000,
when the revocation of the edict of Nantes
deprived it of nearly half its inhabi-
tants, a blow from which it has never
recovered. In 1870 Tours was the seat
of the government of national defense.
Pop. 6lS07.
Tonrvillft (Wr-vil), De, Anne Hua-
*^"" wx**v jjjQjy j^ CJoLENTiN, Count.
a distinguished French admiral, bom at
Tourville, La Manche, in 1642; died at
Paris in 1701. He entered the navy in
1660, became a captain in 1667, and was
created vice-admiral in 1689. He de-
feated a Dutch-English fleet off the Isle
of Wight in July, 1690. In 1692 he was
ordered to attack a far superior Dutch-
English fleet off La Hogue, and was de-
feated. He was created a marshal in
1693. and in 1694 destroyed a Dutch and
English trading fleet off Cape St Vin-
cent
Tonssaint-LoTiverture 4moK? a
distinguished negro, bom a slave in the
Island of Hayti in 1743. After the in-
surrection of 1791 Toussaint served in
the army of the blacks, and later rose to
be their leader. He displayed great mili-
tary and political ability, and in 1796 the
French government appointed him gen-
eral-in-chief of the troops in San jDo-
mingo. After a severe straggle with in-
surrectionary movements he assumed su-
preme civil authority, and in 1801 was
completely master of the island. He was
appointed president for life of the Re-
public of Hayti, and under his vigor-
ous government the commerce and agri-
culture of the island began to revive.
But Napoleon did not choose to see him
independent, although professedly loyal
to France, and sent a powerful expedi-
tion to subdue Toussaint who was
forced to surrender. After a vigorous re-
sistance he was seized and sent to Franc^
where he died in prison, on the 27th of
April, 1806.
Tower (^<'^'^^)» CHAHTJnfAGiCB, diplo-
mat, was bom at Pottsville,
Pennsylvania, in 184a He was gradu-
ated at Harvard in 1872; was admitted
to the bar in 1878 ; became an oflicer and
director in several corporations; and in
1897 was appointed Minister to Austria-
Hungary. In 1899 he was made Am-
bassador to Russia, and in 1902 to Ger-
many, returning in 1908w He is the
author of The MarquU de La Payette in
the American Revolution.
Tower of London, S~1«^^*S.'2;
London, consisting of a collection of
buildings of various ages on a somewhat
elevated position on the north bank of j
the Thames, outside the old city walls.*
It covers about 13 acres, and is sur^
rounded by a battlemented wall flanked
with massive towers, and encircled by a
moat There is also an inner line of
circumvallation broken by towers^ and in-
terspersed with other buildings. In the
center is the White Tower, the keep of
the old fortress, around which are
grouped the chapel, the jewel-house, bar-
racks, and other buildings. The Tower
was a first-class medieval fortress, and
served at once as a palace, a prison, and
a place of defense. The White Tower
was built by Gundulf, bishop of Roch-
ester, for William I, in 1078. It was
successively strengthened by various
English sovereigns. The regalia, con-
sisting of the royal crowns, scepters,
etc., are now kept and exhibited in the
jewel-bouse. The armory contains a
fine collection of armor and wMpons. In
the part called the Bloody Tx>wer the
two young princes, sons of Edward IV,
were murdered. The Tower is now
chiefly used as an arsenal, and has a
small military earrison of the yeomen of
the guard. It is govemed by a constable
and deputy-constable. The governorship
is still a post of distinction. The White
Tower was slightly damaged on January
24. 1885, by an explosion, the work of
Irish dynamitards.
Town. ®^ ^**y-
Townn^lerk, ^l^^^^ a^munidiga
the town-coundL In the United States,
an officer who acts as custodian of civic
or municipal records, and enters all the
official proceedings of a city, town, or
borough. In England his chief duties
are to keep the records of the borough
and lists of burgesses and to take charge
of the voting papers at municipal elec-
tions.
Town-OOnncil, \^^ governing body
<A.vTTu vwuuvAAy ^ ^ municipal cor-
i
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Townshend
Trachyti
poratioD elected by the legal voters.
The principal duties of this body are to
manage the property of the city, impose
taxes for public purposes, pass laws for
the good government of the town, for the
prevention of nuisances, and the like.
ToWTIslieTld (toun'zend), Chables,
AUWIlBIieua g^^j^^j viscount, an Eng-
lish statesman, bom at Rainbam, Norfolk,
' in 1G74 ; succeeded to the peerage in
1(>87, and took his seat as a Whig in the
House of Peers in 1695. After acting
as a commissioner for arranging the
Scottish Union (1706), he was joint
plenipotentiary with Marlborough in the
conference at Gertruydenburg (1709),
and then, as ambassador to the states-
general, signed the Barrier Treaty. For
this he was censured by the House of
Commons, and declared an enemy to the
queen and kingdom. He thereupon en-
tered into communication with the
Elector of Hanover, who, on his acces-
sion ns George I, appointed Townshend
secretary of state, 1714. In 1717 he
became lord-lieutenant of Ireland; and
he was again secretary of state from
February, 1721, to May. 1730, when he
retired on account of differences with his
brother-in-law and colleague. Sir Robert
Walpole. He died in 1738.
TniUTlftTiPTirl (toun'zend), Charles,
xgwu^nena grandson of the above,
born in 1725; entered the House of Com-
mons in 1747, and became a commissioner
of trade and plantations in 1749. He
was a lord of the admiralty in 1754,
member of the privy-council in 1756,
secretary of war in 1761-(53, chancellor
of the exchequer in 1706. He supported
Granville's stamp-act (17(55), and in-
troduced the celebrated resolutions for
taxing the American colonies (June 2,
1767). He died in 1767. From so
often changing his political opinions he
was known as the * weathercock/ but he
had a great reputation for oratory and
ready wit.
TrnxTTiflliin (toun'sbip), a subdivision
XOWnsiup ^^ ^ county, without ref-
erence to its population. Townships
in the central and western United States
are frequently square areas of six miles
to a side. In England, a township is a
division of a parish which has a con-
stable, and may have overseers of the
poor belonging to itself.
Toixmqinllft (tounz'vil), the chief
XOWnSYlUe municipality of North
Queensland, Australia, on Cleveland
Bay, about 850 miles n. w. of Brisbane.
Being the port of an immense territory,
including several gold-fields and a large
area of pastoral country, there is a large
shipping trade. Extensive harbor im-
provements have been made. Pop. 12,717.
Toxicolo^V (tok-si-kol'5-ji), the sci-
&•' ence of poisons and anti-
dotes. See Poison.
Toxotea (toks'o-t§z), an East Indies
genus of fishes, with two
species. See Archer-fish,
Trafierv (tra'se-ri), the ornamental
xxa^cxjr stonework in the head of a
Gothic window, arising from the mul-
lions, and presenting various combina-
tions of curved or straight lines.
TrEched. (trftte-a), or Windpipe, in
anatomy, the name given to
the tube extending from the larynx
(which see) down into the chest to a
point opposite the third dorsal vertebra,
where the tube divides into two chief di-
visions or bronchi (which see), one of
which supplies each lung with the air
necessarv for respira-
tion or breathing. The
trachea in man is of
cylindrical form, about
4i inches long, and
from 3 to 1 inch in
diameter, and is com-
posed of from sixteen
to twenty rings or
zones of gristly or
cartilaginous nature,
separated and con-
nected by fibrous tis-
Bue. Each cartilage Trachea — Sec-
forms an "
ring, being
behind, and having
the gristly edges merelv joined by fibrous
membrane. The windpipe is lined by
delicate mucous membrane which is cov-
ered by epithelial cells provided with deli-
cate vibratile processes or cilia. All
mammals, reptilia, and birds possess a
trachea, but some amphibia want this
organ; the lungs in such cases spring-
ing directly from the larynx. The cut
shows the trachea A A, the epiglot-
tis B, the larynx c, and the oesopha-
gus D.
Traclieotomy J^^* • ke - ot ' o - mi) ,
or Bronchotomy, an operation in which
an opening is made into the trachea or
larynx, as in cases of suffocation.
Trachoma (tra-kO/ma), a specific
contagious form of m-
flammation of the conjunctiva of the eye.
It is associated with filthy conditions and
is common in Egypt, Arabia and parts of
Europe. Individuals suffering with the
disease are denied entry to the United
States.
Trachvte (traltlt), a compact vol-
* '"•' wv ^jj.^ j.^jj^ breaking with a
rough surface, and often containing cryv^
imperfect tion througli part
unclosed of face and neck.
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Tracing-paper
Trades-nnioiis
tals of glassy felspar, and sometimes
hornblende and mica. This rock is ex-
tremely abundant among the products of
modem volcanoes.
Tracing-paper < lif^SSr wwTSS:
ables a drawing or print to be clearly
seen through it when laid on the draw-
ing, so that a pen or pencil may be used
in tracing the outlines of the original.
It is prepared from smooth unsized white
paper rendered transparent by a varnish
made of oil of turpentine with an equal
part of Canada balsam, nut-oil, or other
oleo-resin.
Tractarianism ^tl'^i^f^t'^iV
given to a system of religious opinion
and practice promulgated within the
Church of England in a series of papers
entitled Tracts for the Times, and pub-
lished at Oxford between 1833 and 1841.
Traction-engine. 1^^^^?^'^*^^
Tracv (^^'^Ot benjamin Fbankun,
^ statesman, bom at Oswego, New
York, in 1830. He became brevet brig-
adier-general in the Civil war, United
States district attorney in 1866, and judge
of the New York Court of Appeals in
1889. In 1889 he became Secretary of
the Navy under President Harrison. He
was an unsuccessful candidate for mayor
of New York in 1897. Died Aug. 6, 1915.
Trade ^^^^ ^^* ^^^ Board,
Trade' Dollar, -^ ^itk"'<^-
taining 378 troy grains of silver and
42 troy grains of alloy. Dollars of this
description, issued under Act of Con-
gress of Feb. 12, 1873, were legal tender
to the amount of $5. Those issued under
the Act of July 22, 1876, possessed no
legal tender power. The trade dollars
were intended for trade with countries
doing business on a silver basis; hence
the name.
Trail Pain a rV & peculiar mark used
ATaae-marK, ^^^^ manufacturer to
distinguish his own productions from
those of other persons. Such marks can
now be registered and protected in all the
more important countries, and between
these also there is a general reciprocity
as to protection. Regarding trade-
marks many nice questions may arise,
i^nd it is not easy to define what con-
stitutes a valid trade-mark. A mere
descriptive title or a geographical name
will not constitute a proper trade-mark;
what it is best to select is some invented
word or words* or a word or words hav-
ing no reference to the character or
^oality (though suggestive of excellence),
some distinctive device, figure, emblem,
or design, or a written signature or copy
of such. Any mark or name calculated
to mislead as to the real nature or origin
of the soods will be vitiated. In the
United states trade-marks are registered
at the Patent Office, at a fee of $25,
the right running for thirty years.
TradeSCantia (trad-es-kan'she-a), a
A M, «.u>^»wwAj. V4.c» genug qI hly-like plants,
nat order Commelynaces. The species
are natives of America and India, and
many of them are cultivated as orna-
mental plants in flower gardens. They
are well marked by their three sepals,
three petals, three-celled capsule, and
filaments clothed with jointed hairs. T*
virginica, a United States species, is
known by the name of spiderwori. It
has succulent stems, shinme grass-like
leaves, and blue or purple flowers, and
it is common in the flower borders of
gardens. Other species are cultivated.
Trades-nnions. t>^il^^%^
combination of workmen to enable each
to secure the conditions most favorable
for labor'; and although trades-unions,
as they are generally called, almost al-
ways have other objects in view In ad-
dition to that specified in the definition,
that object is their distinguishing one.
Combinations of this sort in Qreat
Britain are considerably more than
three centuries old, for there is a
statute of the year 1548 expressly di-
rected against them. They are looked
upon as the lineal descendants of the
mediaeval gilds. Trades-unions generally
endeavor to regulate the prices and the
hours of labor, and in many cases the
number of men engaged by an employer,
the number of apprentices which may be
bound in proportion to the journeymen
employed b/ a master^ and the like.
As accessories these unions may collect
funds for benefit societies, and undertake
the insurance of tools, libraries, and
reading-rooms; but their fund, to which
every member must regularly contribute
a stated sum, is principally reserved for
enabling the men to resist, by strikes and
otherwise, such action on the part of the
employers as would tend to lower the
rate of wages or lengthen the hours of
labor. That trades-unions enable the
men to benefit by the state of trade
more than they otherwise would have done
would appear from the fact that the
worst-paid trades are those without
unions. Trades-unions are also said to
have, furthered the safety of the laborer
by producing beneficial modifications of.
the conditions in which he works. Some
hostility against trades-unions has been
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Trade-wind
Tn^opan
Krodaced by the outrages of a more or
M serious nature of which some of the
unions, or members of them, liave been
guilty, such outrages being directed
against the property of employers, or
against the persons and tools of non-
union men. The Trades Unions of the
United States originated within the last
century, and have united into general
organisations embracing laige numbers
of workmen. The oldest of these, the
KnighU of Labor, originated in 1869.
The American Federation of Labor, or-
ganised in 1887. includes the areat bulk
of the local unions, both of the United
States and Canada. It has a membership
of about 2,000,000, representing about
27,000 local unions in the two countries.
Britain has also a general Federation of
Trades-Unions and similar organisations
exist in other parts of Europe and else-
where. See Labor Organizations.
TrfliiA«iinTii1 one of those perpetual
ITaae-Wina, or constant win^ which
occur in all open seas on both sides of
the equator, and to the distance of about
30"" north and south of it On the north
of the equator their direction is from
the northeast (varying at times a point
or two of the compass either way) ; on
the south of the equator they proceed
from the southeast The origin of the
trade-winds is this: — The great heat of
the torrid lone rarefies and makes lighter
the air of that region, and in consequence
of this rarefaction the air rises and
ascends into the higher regions of the
atmosphere. To supply its place colder
air from the northern and southern re-
gions rushes towards the equator, which,
also becoming rarefied, ascends in its
turn. The heated air which thus as-
cends into the upper regions of the
atmosphere being there condensed flows
northward and southward to supply the
deficiency causfnl by the under-currents
blowing towards the equator. These
under-currents coming from the north
and south are, in consequence of the
earth's rotation on its axis, deflected
from their course as they approach the
equatorial region, and thus b^me north-
east and southeast winds, constituting
the trade-winds. The belt between the
two trade-winds is characterized by
calms, frequently interrupted, however,
by violent storms. Trade-winds are con-
stant only over the open ocean, and the
larger the expanse of ocean over which
they blow (as in the Pacific) the more
steady they are. In some places the
trade-winds become periodical, blowing
one-half of the vear in one direction and
the other half in the opposite direcUon.
See Ifomoofi.
Tradition (tw-diah'un), in iU gen-
* "^^ ** eral application, is any
knowledge handed down from one gen-
eration to another by oral communica-
tion. It plays a very important part in
the Jewish and Roman Catholic churches.
In theology, the term is specifically ap-
plied to that body of doctrine and dis-
cipline, or any article thereof, supposed
to have been put forth by Christ or his
apostles, and not committed to writing,
but stUl held by many as an article of
faith.
TradUCdaiiisnL ^^ CreaOoniBm.
Trafalgar LT^^^/recuV^'Wal:
gkf)f a low and sandy cape on the
southwest coast of Spain, at the north-
west entrance of the Strait of Qibraltar.
The famous naval battle in which Nelson
lost his life, after defeating a larger
French and Spanish fleet under the com-
mand of Villeneuve and Qravina, was
fought off this cape, October 21. 1805.
The Franco-Spanish fleet lost 19 ships
out of 33.
Tragacanth i^Sf'ISS)^.^
termed
gum-dragoi
the prod-
in or gum-tragacanth
uce of several
species of the
aenus Astragilh
Xu9, leguminous
plants natives of
the mountainous
regions of West-
em Asia. In
commerce tra{^-
canth occurs in
small twisted
thread-like pieces,
or in flattened
cakes, in color
whitish or yel-
lowish, devoid of
taste or smelL
It is demulcent, Trsgscmnth {AttragVliu
and is used in gymnUiw),
coughs and ca-
tarrhs, and to make lozenges and pills
It is employed also in calico-printing.
Tra^edv (^nLJ'e-dl), a dramatic poem,
*^^ ^ representing an important
event or a series of events in the life of
some person or persons, in which the
diction is elevated and the catastrophe
melancholy. Tragedy orixinated amons
the Greeks in the worship of the god
Dionysus or Bacchus. See Drama.
Tragopan <,*Sf(,*-^ii,&, « «!
the genus Oeriomii, and of the family
PhasknidiB, closely allied to the commMi
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Tn^opogon
fowl. O. noi^lra^ a common species, is a
naUve of the Himalayas. The plumage
is spotted, and two fleshy protuberances
bang from behind the eyes. When the
bira is excited it can erect these pro-
tuberances until they look like a pair of
horns. A large wattle hangs at either
side of the lower mandible.
TragOpOgOn. ®^ QoaU^Aieard.
Tram-bands, S.e'Tatu?r^fX^'
miUtia and volunteers, instituted by
James I and dissolved by Charles II.
The term was afterwards applied to the
London militia, from which the 3d regi-
ment of the line originated, and in which
the renowned John Oilpin was a captain.
IVAJyia Abmobbd, railway trains of
AAcuowy which the engine and carriages
are protected from email-arm fire by
armor in the shape of high parapets of
iron or steel plaung. Loopholes in the
armor allow the men to use their rifles.
Training CoUeges. |^!''"'«*
TrftmTi (trft'j&n), in full. Ma bo us
AAajou tlLPius TRAJANX78, a Roman
emperor, bom in Spain 52 A.D., was the
son of Trajanus, a distinguished Roman
commander under Vespasian. He served
against the Parthians and on the Rhine,
where he acquired so high a character
that Nerva adopted him and created him
Cssar in 9 7.
Nerva died in
98, and Trajan,
who was then in
Germany, peace-
a b 1 y succeeded
to the throne.
He made peace
with the Qerman
tribes, and pro-
ceeded to intro-
duce enlightened
measures of re-
form into the
public service.
One of his great-
est military
achievements was
his defeat of the
D a c i a n s, and
the reduction of
Dacia to a Ro-
Tramp
anonymous charaes. For some years
Trajan occupied himself with the work
of administration, but in 114 he set out
on an expedition against the Parthians
which resulted in the reduction of
Armenia to a Roman province. He died
in Cilicia in 117 aj>.. after having nomi-
nated Hadrian as his successor. He is
said to have been sensual in his private
life, but his good qualities as a ruler were
such that even 250 years after his death
senators greeted a new emperor with the
wish that he might be more fortunate
than Augustus and better than Trajan.
Trajan's Column. ^^^^^
Trajan's Wall, %J^^^,'^\^l
(Roumania), extending s. from the
Danube to Kustendii on the Black Sea,
a distance of 87 miles. It is a double,
in some places a triple, earthwork on the
south side of a natural fosse consisting
of a narrow marshy valley. Another
wall of the same name, built by a Ro-
man legion, 105-155 a.d., extends from
the Pruth B. to the Black Sea.
TrfilAA (tr&-le'), a town and seaport
xnuee ^ Ireland, in the county of
Kerry, on the river Lee, 55 miles south-
west of Limerick. It has an active trade
in farm produce. By means of a canal
vessels up to 800 tons can discharge
their cargoes within 100 yards of the
town. Pop. 9687.
ilVoTnTnel (tnun'el), an instrument
Axooiuiii^x ^^j. ^jn^^ing ovals, used by
joiners and other artificers. One part
consists of a cross with two grooves at
right angles ; the other is a beaii-compasa
i
Trmjan.
man province. It is supposed that it
was in commemoration of this war that
he erected at Rome the column which
still remains under his name. In 103
he wrote the famous epistle to Pliny,
governor of Pontus and Bithynia, direct-
ing him not to search for Christians,
but to punish them if brought before
him; and on no account to listen to
Trammel.
carrying two pins which slide in those
grooves, and also the describing pencil.
TrotnTi tbe colloquial name for va-
xiiuu|i, grants or wanderers. The
term ' tramp ' in general use means a
wandering, disorderly person, without
visible means of support, though vagrant
in a wider sense is applied to many per-
sons who cannot be classed as tramps.
In Bngland laws have been enacted for
many centuries for the regulation of
vagrancy. In the United States tramps
were formerly so few that before the
Civil war they received little attention.
Later, partly owing to the disbandment
Digitized by
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Tramway Transit
of the armies, the scatterine of the camp- of the main Caucasus ridge, and which
followers, the disastrous times of 1873, includes the governments of Kutais.
and the incr^se of foreign vagrants by Tiflis, Elisabethpol, Erivan, Kars, etc.
immigration, they increased so largely, Transcendental (™o8-sen-den'tal),
besides becoming so dangerous and vi- **"'""^*'"«*'"»'"'* a term applied in
dous in character, that the evil was so the system of philosophy founded by
great as to attract public attention. Kant to all those principles of knowl-
Now many of the states have promul- edge which are original and primary, and
gated vagrancy laws to abate the nui- which are determined d priori, such as
sance. It has been found, however, that Bp&ce and time. They involve necessary
severe treatment Is not a great deter- and strictly universal truths, and so
rent. transcend all truth derived from ex-
Tram WftV (tram'wa), the English perience, which must always be con-
xiaiiiwajr ugm^ f^p street railways, tingent and particular. The term trau'
which see; also Electricity and Trolley, scendentali^m is now generally used in
Trance (trans), a condition resem- a sense not very different from mysticism,
xAaiAv«7 biing sleep, in which con- or for that which is vague and illusive
sclousness and many of the vital func- in philosophy. In mathematics the term
tions are susx>endea, and during which is applied to quantities that cannot be
the action of the heart is diminished and expressed in oixiinary algebraic terms,
the breathing reduced. The subjects of Transent (tran'sept), in architecture,
trance are usually hysterical, and In **o^"*^i'»» th^ transverse portion of a
some cases it is induced by exhausting church which is built in the form of a
disease or emotional disturbance. In cross; that part between the nave p.nd
this condition the face is pale, the limbs choir which projects externally on each
relaxed, the mental functions are in side, and forms the short arm of the
abeyance, no effort at rousing will pro- cross in the general plan. See Cathedral,
duce a return to consciousness, and this Transfnsion ( trans-fa'sbun ), the
state may last from a period of several **»-**«»'^W'0*vix transmission of blood
hours to many weeks or months. When from the veins of one living animal to
the trance lasts for a lengthy period those of another, as from one of the lower
food is taken in a mechanical way at animals into a man, or from man to man,
intervals by the sleeper. Most cases with the view of restoring the vigor of
recover. The term is also applied to a exhausted subjects. This operation is a
sort of ecstatic state in which some per- very old one, but seems to have generally
sons are said to fall. ended in failure until about 1824, the
Trani C^^'***)' * seaport Sn South chief cause of failure probably being the
AAooAA Italy, province of Bari, on the want of due precautions to exclude the
Adriatic, 26 miles northwest of Bari, air during the process. It is now oc-
with old walls and bastions, and a ca- casionally resorted to as a last measure
thedraL Pop. 34,688. in cases of great loss of blood by hemor-
TrftTinnpliflr (tran-kwe-b&r'), a sea- rhage, especially in connection with
xjiiui^ueuiir ^ j^ ^jj^ district of labor.
Tanjore, Madras Presidency, India, for- Transit (tran'sit), in astronomy, (a)
merly a Danish settlement and a busy ■*•*"'""*• the passage of a heavenly
nort. Pop. 13,142. body across the meridian of any place,
TransbaikaUa ^^rVr^^vU
E. of Lake Baikal; area, 240,780 sq.
miles. It has an elevated, well-watered
surface, and climate dry and extreme
both in summer and winter. Agriculture
' and trade are limited ; gold is found to
some extent. Pop. 742,^.
Transcaspian Kcgion i^lt^]'
a territory to the E. of the Caspian re-
cently annexed by Russia. It has an
area of 220,000 sq. miles, mostly unin-
habited desert, and is traversed by the Transit of Mebcubt.
Transcaspian Railway, which connects a, Mercury. The dotted line ■howi the path.
Samarcand with the Caspian Sea.
Trn.n firman OAfti ft ( trans-ka-ka'shi-a ) , a phenomenon which is usually noted by
xj:iiU5i.»uuii5itt ^jjj^j p^j^ Q^ ^jj^ ^ ^j^^g.^ instrument. The determination
lieutenancy of the Caucaaos which lies b. of the exact times of the transits of the
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Transit Instrument Transvaal
heaveiily bodies across the meridian of objects. In the teaching of the Brah-
the place of observation enables the manic Hindus it has its foundation In
astronomer to ascertain the differences the belief of the connection of all living
of right ascensions, the relative situa- beings, and of the gradual purification of
tions of the fixed stars, and the varied the spiritual part of man and its return
motions of the sun, planets, and comets, to the common source and origin of all
in reipect to the celestial meridians, things — God. The Buddhists accept a
(h) The passage of one heavenly bodj similar doctrine, but with them the
over the disk of a larger one; but the ultimate goal of the soul is not absorp>
term is chiefir restricted to the passage tion by the Deity, but annihilation, Nir*
of the inferior planets. Mercury and vana. Transmigration also formed part
Venus, over the sun's disk. The tran- of the teachhig of the Egyptian priests,
sits of Venus are of great importance in The doctrine probably pa^ea from Bgypt
astronomy, as they aliord the best means into Greece, where it was never generally
of determining the sun's parallax, and current, but was confined to tne mys-
consequttitly the dimensions of the teries and some philosophic systems,
planetary system. These transits are of TraiISVa.al itrans-vttr), now Vaal
rare occurrence, four taking place in '*'*«***»^«'«** Kiveb Colony, was orig-
243 years, at intervals reckoning from the inally formed by part of the Boers, of
transit of 1874, in the order of 8, 122, 8, Dutch descent, who left Cape Colony in
and 105 years, which gives the transit 1836 for Natal, and quitted that colony
years 1882 (Dec. 6), 2004, 2012, 2117. on its annexation by Great Britain in
The transits of Mercury occur more 1845. Its independence was recognised
frequently, but they are of far less as- by the British government in 18S&, It
tronomical interest, as they cannot be lies north of the Vaal River and south
used for the same purpose, the planet of the Limpopo River, and is bounded or
being too distant from us. the west by Becnuanaland, east by Por-
Transit Instrument, ?» impor- tuguese territory, SwazUand, and Zulu-
AACM&Mv AAMVA luuvuvy ^^^ iustru- Isud, south by Natal and the Orange
ment adapted for observing the exact River Colony. Area, 114,360 so. miles,
time of the passage of heavenly bodies Its population is 1,68C,212, of whom
across the meridian. (See Tratmt.) about 300.000 are whites. Its largest
It consists essentially of a telescope fixed town is Johannesburg, with a popula-
at right angles to a horizontal axis, tlon of 237,220. This city is a gold-
which latter has its ends directed exactly mining center. The region is a plateau
to the east and west points of the hori- of from 1500 to 6000 leet elevation. It
son, so that the line of collimation or is well suited to agricultural and stock-
optical axis of the telescope may move raising pursuits, and large numbers of
in the plane of the meridian. The in- farm animals are kept. The great
strument is susceptible of certain nice wealth of the region is in its mineral
adjustments, so that the axis can be resources, notably gold, diamonds, and
made perfectly horizontal, and at right coal. The gold mines have the greatest
angles to the plane of the meridian, in output in the world, and the diamond
which plane tne telescope must move, product is of considerable value.
It is generally used in connection with In 1877, owing to a war with the
the mural circle (which see). Kaffirs, a British force assisted the
Tranakei (trans'kl), a division on the Boers and the territory was annexed to
east coast of Cape Colony, Great Britain. Troubles ensued, the
Africa, extending southward from the Boers rose in arms in 1880 and defeated
Kei River to Tembuland, and bordering the British in 1881 at Majuba Hill,
on the Indian Gcean; area, 2552 sq. Their independence was then recognized,
miles. The interior rises to an elevation though their foreign relations remained
of about 9800 feet It is a very fertile under British supervision. The rapid
region, with dense forests. Many cattle development of the gold-mining industry
and sheep are raised. Copner and coal brought new elements of difficulty into
are found. Pop. 177,647; 1700 whites, the problem, the Boers refusing to the
Transmigration of the Sonl, Xa}i^^°£lJiL^'*^^^«^ miners who sought
^ , .... V "*®*'^ country any political privileges,
or McTEMPSTCHOSis, (met-emp-si-kd'sis), while laying upon them the great burden
the passage which, according to the be- of taxation. The discontent of the
lief of many races and tribes at all Uitlanders (outlsnders) led, in 1895, to
times, the soul after the death of the an invasion of the republic by a party
body makes through the bodies of the of British settlers under Dr. Jameson,
lower animals or other human bodies, or, This was easily suppressed by the Boera
It may be, through plants or inanimate and the troubles grew more prominent
9—10
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Transylvania
Trapani
M yean went on until in 18d9 a petition,
signed by 21,000 British subjects, was
sent to the queen pointing out their
grievances. The negotiations which fol-
lowed proved ineffective, and conditions
grew so strained that the British gov-
ernment called out 25,000 of the reserve
forces. In reprisal the Boer government
demanded that all troops on the frontier
should be instantly withdrawn and that
no more troops should be sent to South
Africa. This demand not beinj; com-
piled with, a Boer force at once mvaded
Natal, where they invested Ladysmith,
and for a time bad much success. In
1900 the tide of the war turned, the
British forces Increasing until nearly
250,000 men were in the field under Lord
Roberts. Ladysmith and the other be-
sieged towns were relieved, and though
the Boers fought with great courage and
skill they were so largely outnumbered
that their case grew hopeless. Bloem-
fonteln, Johannesburg, and Pretoria were
occupied, and the Transvaal Republic
with the Orange Free State, which had
joined It In the war, were proclaimed
British colonies. President Kruger fled
to Europe, where he sought In vain for
European Intervention, and the war on
the part of the Boers became a series
of guerilla raids, continued until but a
handful of fighting men were left In
May, 1902, a treaty of peace was signed,
and the two republics passed under
British rule, the terms granted them be-
ing very favorable. For the restoration
and restocking of the Boer farms, which
had been ruined during the war, £3,000,-
000 were given by the British govern-
ment, which also agreed to make loans,
free of Interest for two years, for the
same purjpose, while no special tax waa
to be laid on the colonies to pay the
expenses of the war. The total cost of
the war to Qreat Britain was about
£233,000,000 or $1,165,000,000. In the
years that have succeeded these events
the possessions of the suffrage by the
Boers has, in a measure, given them pos-
session of the country again, they form-
ing a majority of the inhabitants, this re-
sulting In the election of one of their late
leaders to the chief post of authority In
the colony. The Transvaal and Orange
Free State now form States of the Union
of South Africa, organized in 1910.
Tranavlvania (tran-sil-va'nl-a; Ger-
Hungarian, Brdely), a grand-principality
belonging to the crown of Hungary,
forming the southeastern portion of the
Austrian Empire; area, 21,213 square
miles. The surface is mountainous, the
CfuiMithlan chAin covering Its southern
and eastern frontier, and sending out
numerous ramifications Into the Interior.
The chief rivers are the Aluta or Alt,
the Maros, and the Ssamos, all flowing
directly or Indirectly into the Danube.
The forests are extensive and valuable;
the vine flourishes everywhere, and the
crops Include maize, wheat, rye, hemp,
flax, tobacco. The minerals are Impor-
tant, and Include gold, silver, copper,
lead, coal, salt and iron. The chief
towns are Hermannstadt, Kronstadt, Bis-
triti and Szamos-Ujvar. BMucation is
in a very backward state. The popula-
tion (2,456,^8) is very mixed. Including
Roumanians, Ma^ars, Germans, Gyp-
sies, Jews, Bulgarians and others. Since
186t it has been an integral part of the
Kingdom of Hungary.
OVoTi a term rather looselv and vaguely
****r> applied by the earlier geologists
to some or all of the multifanous
igneous rocks that belong to the paljeoxoic
and secondary epochs, as distinct from
granite on the one hand, and the recent
volcanic rocks on the other. Trap-rocks
often assume a terraced appearance,
whence their name from trappa, the
Swedish for a stcdr. Their composition
may be described as consisting chiefly of
felspar and hornblende. Trap-rocks of
crystalline structure are distinguished as
greenstones, basalts, clink-stones, compact
felspar, and felspar porphyries; while
the softer and more earthy varieties are
known as clavstones, clavstone porphy-
ries, amygdaloids, trap-tuffs, and wackes.
Basalt (which see) is the most compact,
the hardest, and the heaviest of the trap-
rocks. The hill scenery of trappean dis-
tricts Is often picturesque.
Trana (trap'a), a genus of plants,
* -fc^ order Onagraceie. consisting of
several species, floating in water, and
having long jointed root-stocks, with haii^
like roots. They yield edible seeds. T.
natan9 of Central and Southern Europe
has received the name of water-caltrops
from its four-homed fruits. These, which
are called Jesuits*-nuts In Italy, and
water-chestnuts in France, are ground
Into flour and made into bread in the
south of Europe. T, hUpin68a yields the
Singhara-nuts of Northern India.
TraDani (trtt'pA-n§; ancient, Drepd-
AAayaux ^^^ ^j. Dfrepdnum), a forti-
fied seaport town in Sicily, capital of
the province of the same name, 47 miles
w. s. w. of Palermo, on a peninsula shaped
like a sickle, and hence Its ancient
name, from the Greek drepan^ a sickle.
It has a cathedral of no great merit,
lyceum, nautical school, etc. There Is a
good trade, and the fisheries are exten-
sive. At a short distance s. ir. e. of the
Digitized by
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Trap-door Spider
Travertine
Trap-door Spider
and Nest.
town is Mount San Qiuliano, the an-
cient Eryx. (See Eryw.) Pop. 68,986.
Trap-door Spider, « ^« %f^^^-
that have the habit of constructing
tubular dwellings in the ground, some-
times a foot or more
in depth, and an inch
or so in diameter,
closed by a sort of
hinged door. They
belong to several
genera, and are found
in Southern Europe,
Western United
States, and elsewhere.
The dwelling is lined
with the silky sub-
stance spun by the
insect, and the hinge
of the door is formed
of the same, the door
itself being con-
structed sometimes of
earthy particles con-
nected by threads,
sometimes of leaves, etc. Some species
construct nests that have a main tube
and one or more branches, the latter
having a door where they join the main
tube. Cieniza Sauvagei of Corsica, Ne-
tn€9ia (Myq&le) ccementaria of S. W.
Europe, and Ctenlza Calif omica of the
United States are examples.
Tni.'nP70lfl (trap'e-zoid), or Trapb'-
XrapeZOia 2\uM, a quadrilateral fig-
ure of unequal sides,
and consequently un-
equal angles. It is dif-
ferent from a parallelo-
gram, which is a quadri-
lateral figure with the opposite sides
equaL
Trappe, ^tippl'^"^''^- ^^ ^'
Trasimenus, ^^^%^ ^** Perugia.
Trass ^ volcanic production, ronsist-
* ing of ashes and scoriae thrown
out from the ancient Eifel volcanoes, on
the Rhine, near Coblentz. It is equiv-
alent, or nearly so, to the puzzolana of
the Neapolitans, and if used as A cement.
The same name is given to a coarse sort
of plaster or mortar made from several
other argillo-ferruginous minerals, used
to line cisterns and other reservoirs of
water.
Tranii (troun), Lake of, a small but
''•**^^ beautiful lake in Upper Aus-
tria near the town of Gmunden. The
river Traun passes through the lake ^nd
enters the Danube.
Trftnt^non (trou'te-nou), a town of
XTauxenau Northern Bohemia, in
/ZX
the valley of the Riesengebirge, with
flax-spinning and other industries. Pop.
16,096.
Trftvanror^ (trav-an-kdr'), a native
ATavancore ^^j^ ^^^^ gubsldiary
to the presidency of Madras, occupying
the extreme southwest of the peninsula;
mrea, 7091 square miles. It ui for the
most part hilly, and is bounded on the
east by the Western Ghats, elsewhere
chiefly by the sea, having Gape Gomorin
in the extreme south. Hie climate is
healthy, and the soil fairly fertile. The
principal products are iron, plumbago,
timber, pepper, areca nuts, sugar, cocoa,
coffee, tea, etc. Pop. 2,952,157.
Traveler's Tree < ^^w^^noia ^ moo-
Urania apecioaa), an arborescent plan^
native of Madagascar, having the ap-
pearance of a palm about 90 feet in
height and forming the only species of
the genus to which it belongs. Its
trunk terminates in a bundle of leaves,
each of which is borne by a petiole 6 or
8 feet in length and has a blade about 6
feet long. The seeds of tills tree, ground
into fiour, are eaten by the natives, and
the water contained in the cup-like
sheaths of its leaf-stalks was formerly
ibelieved to be an aid to travelers.
TraveUng Sidewalk, J, ^X^j
moving in a continuous manner with a
uniform rate of speed for the purpose of
transportation, it was first suggested
in 1870, but not put to practical use
until 1893, at the Golumbian Exposition,
Chicago. One with three parallel plat-
forms was a feature of the Faris Exposi-
tion, 1900. It was a belt or loop rail-
way, with one or more intermediate
steps between the first stationary and
the third fast-moving platform, which
was furnished with seats. Two speeds
enabled a passenger to mount or alight
easily on or from the rapid platform.
In some cities this principle is taken
advantage of in the large stores as a
traveling stairway or escalator.
Traverse City <rj;r^'8eV**o'i
Grand Traverse Co., Michigan, on the
west arm of Grand Traverse Bay, 147
miles N. of Grand Rapids. It has a good
harbor and is a summer resort. Here is
the Traverse City State Hospital. The
manufactures are fruit baskets, wooden
dishes, furniture, etc., and it is a fruit
' and potato center. Pop. 12,115.
TrflVprfiTip (trav'er-tSn), a white
xraveiTine ooncretioijary limeatooe.
usually hard and 86Qucryiit«Uin% ^
Digitized by
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Travnik
Treasure Trove
posited from the water of Bprings hold-
ing carbonate of lime in solution. Trav-
ertine is abundant in different parts of
Trarertine with impreuioni of leaTes.
Italy, and a large proportion of the
edifices of ancient and modem Rome
are built of this stone.
Travnik J[f5*^'S*i; \i?:?' S^^
nia, on toe JL«asva.. it nas
a garrison of Austrian troops. Pop. 6261.
TrA^iTKF (trftHng), a mode of fish-
xntWiin^ ine in which a net in the
form of a large bag, with a strong frame-
work keeping the mouth properly dis-
tended, is dragged along the bottom of
the sea. It is the mode chiefly adopts
in deep-sea fishing, and in British
waters has largely developed in recent
years, being much prosecuted by small
steam vessels specially built for the pur-
pose, but it is not allowed within three
miles of the shore. Cod, whiting, and
other white fish are taken bv it in large
numbers, and some kinds of flat fish, as
soles, can scarcely be taken in any other
way. Trawling can be practiced only
on a smooth bottom, as a rough bottom
would destroy the net. See Net.
Traz-os-Montes . ( tr^hHw-mcv'tash ;
.■.ACMi V0 .iu.vu««^o •Beyond the Moun-
tains'), a northeast frontier province
of Portugal; area, 4260 square miles.
The province is fertile in parts, and the
wine-gpowing district of Alto Douro Is
the native country of port The chief
towns are Villa Real and Bragansa.
Pop. 427,358.
Treacle (^'kl). Bee sugar.
Treacle-murtard, J^ST^iy^^iS:
cheiranih{>ide$, also called ioorm^eed.
See Eryaitnufn,
Tread-mill, *° ipstrnment of punish-
"> ment, of modem origin,
roDsisting of a large wheel* about 20 or
25 feet wide, with steps on its external
surface, upon which crmiinals are placed.
Their weight sets the wheel in motion,
and they maintain themselves in an up-
right posture by means of a horizontal
bar fixed above them, of which they keep
hold while moving their feet from step to
-step. The power thus obtained may be
applied to the same purpose as water-
power, steam, etc. The tread-mill has
recently been abandoned in most peniten-
tiaries. It was introduced into the
prisons of Great Britain about 1820.
Treason 0i^'2i>)t high. Treason,
the crimen Iwew majeMtatie
of the Roman law, is that crime which
is direct! V committed against the su-
preme authority of the state, and is con-
sidered to be the greatest crime that
can be committed. Formerly in England
certain offenses against private superiors
were ranked as petit or petty treason,
and it was in opposition to such offenses
that treason against the sovereign was
called high treason; eventually high
treason was made the only treason. In
a monarchy it is considered to be the
betraying or the forfeiting of allegiance
to the monarch ; but in a republic It has
reference to the government or the whole
community. The concealment of treason
is called misprision of treason. (See
MieprtBion,) In the United States trea*
son consists in levying war by a dtixeq
against the country, or adhering to its
enemies. The penalty is death.
Treasott-f elony, SJ«™ BriSfn^S
designate snch offenses as seeking or in-
tending to deprive the sovereign of any
of the royal powers or prerogatives, to
levy war within the realm in order to
forcibly compel a change in the royal
measures, to intimidate either house of
Parliament, or to excite an invasion in
any part of the country. Treason-
felony is punishable with penal servi-
tude for life or for a term not less than
seven years, or with imprisonment for
a term not exceeding two yean with or
without hard labor.
Treasure Trove < J'«^'°^ ^"S^ >•
AAvcM>«u.«^ .a.xvvi^ ^jj^^ j^ silver-
plate, or bullion found hidden in the
earth or in any private place, the owner
of which is not known. In Britain snch
treasure belongs to the ctown ; but if the
owner is known, or is ascertained after
the treasure is found, the owner and not
the crown is entitled to it. It is, how-
ever, the practice of the crown to pay
the finder the foil value of the property
on its beimr delivered up. On the other
hand, diouTd the finder conceal or ap-
propriate it he is guilty of an indictable
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Treasury Tree-ferns
offense puoishable by fine and imprison- Asiatic Torkey, capital of a pashalic of
ment In the United States such treas- the same name, on the Black Sea. It
ure, under the common law, beloxigs to has an extensive trade, exporting silk,
the government, thoagh the right is sel- wool, tobacco, wax, oil, etc., from Asiatic
dom, if ever, enforced. If the treasure Turkey ; and silk fabrics, shawls, oarpets,
is found on the surface, not hidden in etc.. from Persia. Pop. estimated at
the earth, the law is construed that the 40,000.
finder* not the government, is entitled Treble (treb'l), in music, the highest
to it *A^Mx%? vocal or instrumental part in
Tre&snrV (treth'ur-i), the department a concerted piece, such as is sung by
* «^ of a government which has women or boys, or played by instruments
control over the management collection, of acute tone, as the violin, flute, oboe,
and expenditure of the public revenue, clarinet, etc., or on the higher keys oi
The Treasury depaitment in the United the piano, organ, etc.: so called because
States is in charge of the Secretary of it was originally a third part added to
the Treasury, appointed by the Presl- the ancient canto fermo and the counter-
dent and Senate, and a member of the point
President's Cabinet It has sole charge Tredc^ftr X tred'S-gUr ) , a town of
of the national finances, under the laws ******^6*** England, in the countv of
of Congress, collects the revenue, pays all Monmouth, 12 miles west by south of
expenditures, audits all accounts, has Abergavenny, on the Sirhowy. Near it
charge of public buildings, national are valuable mines of coal and iron-
banks, coinage and paper money. stone, with extensive blast-furnaces and
Treatv C^^'^O* an agreement, league, steel works. Pop. 18,497.
J' or contract between two or Tree ^^^^> * perennial plant having a
more nations or sovereigns formally **^'' woody trunk of varying size, from
signed by commissioners properly author- which spring a number of branches, hav-
ised, and ratified by the several sover- ing a structure similar to the trunk,
eigns or the supreme power of each state. Trees are thus distinguished from shrubs.
Treaties are of various kinds, as treaties which have perennial stems but have no
for regulating commercial intercourse, trunk properlv so-called ; and from herbs,
treaties of alliance, offensive and de- whose stems live only a single year. It
fenslve, treaties of peace, etc. In most is diflicult, however, to fix the exact
monarchies the power of making and limit between trees and shrubs. Trees
ratifying treaties is vested in the sover- are both endogenous and exogenous, by
ei^; in republics it is vested in the far the greater number both of indi-
chief magistrate, senate, or executive viduals and of varieties belonging to the
council ; in the United States of America ktter class. Those of which the whole
it is vested in the President by and with foliage falls off periodically, leaving
the consent of the Senate. Treaties may them bare in winter, are called deciduous;
be concluded and signed by diplomatic those of which the foliage falls only
agentBL but these, of course, must be partially, a fresh crop of leaves being al-
fumished with full powers by the sover- ways supplied before the mature leaves
eign authority of uteir states. Among are exhausted, are called evergreen.
the most significant and important of re- Trees are the longest lived organisms of
cent treaties were two treaties of arbitra- the vegetable kingdom, and attain a
tion formed in 1911 between the United great and indefinite age, far exceeding
States on the one part and France and that of animals. See Arhoriculture,
Great Britain on the other, providing for Botany, Timber, etc.
the ])eaceable settlement of almost any Tree*Gr&.b ^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ genus Birgus,
question that could arise between these **^^ vx€*m, in^ji^j^j among the land-
nations, even those affecting so-called na- crabs. It breaks open the shell of the
tional honor. Similar treaties have since cocoa-nut, etc., by repeated blows of its
been made with other nations, until they great claws, in order to feed upon the
now number 30 in alL soft pulp of the nut. Tree-crabs can
Trebbia (treb'bS-A), a river of North live lor long periods out of water, but
* ** Italy, which rises in the deposit their eggs in the sea.
Apennines, and flows into the Po near Tree-f emS ^^® name given to several
Piacenza after a course of 65 miles. ^^^'^ x^aaxo, species of ferns which
Here Hannibal defeated the Romans in attain to the size of trees, as the Also-
218 B.C., Lad in the vicinity the Austrians phila vestlta, Cihotium Billardieri, etc.
and Russians under Suvaroff defeated They are found in tropical countries,
the French under Macdonald in 1799. A handsome species, Cyathea medulldris,
TTAbizond X ^^^'^ * ^^^^ • anciently contains in its trunk a mucilaginous pulp
AAvvAAvuu ff^^0mg)^ n seaport in comparable to sago, which is used ex-
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Tree-frog Trenton
tensively for food in Polynesia and New as far as Gainsborough, 25 miles, by
2iealand. vessels of 200 tons, and more than 100
Trei^-fr09 ^ name of frogs differing miles by barges.
MASfsi AAvgi £|.Qm proper frogs in the Trent (German, Trienf, Latin, Tri-
extremities of their toes, each of which dentum), a town in the Tyrol,
is expanded into a rounded viscous pellet Austria, picturesouely situated on the
that enables the animals to adhere to left bank of the Etsch or Adige. It is
the surface of bodies aud to climb trees, fortified, and has a castle, formerly resi-
wbere they remain during the summer dence of the prince-bishops, a noble
feeding upon insects. Hyta versicolor^ Romanesque cathedral dating from 1212,
of the Northern and Middle United and other interesting buildings. Trent
States, is very noisy towards evening. is a place of great antiquity, having
Trefoil (tre'foil), a distinctive title been made a bishopric before 380. The
a.xv;xvxx uppij^d to plants of various only memorable event in its history is
kinds on account of a peculiarity of the the council which was held in it, and
form of the leaf, which consists of three bears its name (see below). Pop. 24,-
leaflets; examples, buckbean, clover, and 808.
medick. The same term is also applied Trent ^^^^^^ o^* & celebrated oecu-
to an ornamental foliation in Gothic ' menical council of the Roman
architecture, used in the heads of win- Catholic Church, convened to settle vari-
dow lights, tracery, paneling, etc ous controversies that were agitating the
TrATTiofAila (trem-a-to'da), a division church during the Reformation period,
xrematuutt ^^ gcolecida, belonging to and for the reform of abuses, ft met
the group of Platyelmia or flat-worms, during the pontificate of Paul III at
and represented by such forms as the Trent in 1545, but the wars in Germany
flukes or Distoms (see Difftoma) and their caused its transference to Bologna in
allies. They are parasitic worms, usu- 154(>, when it dispersed. Pope Julius
ally of a flattened or rounded form, and III again convoked it at Trent in 1551,
are furnished with one or more suctorial but it dispersed a year later on the ap-
pores, like minute cupping-glasses, for proach of the Lutherans. Eight years
adhesion to the tissues of their hosts. afterwards it was again called together
TrATtinlifA (trem'u-llt), a mineral, a by Pius IV, and it finished ito labors in
xremoilie variety of hornblende. It 1563. This council definitively settled
ib a silicate of calcium and magnesium, the doctrines of the Roman Catholic
is white or colorless, and usually occurs Church.
in long, prismatic crystals. Trent Affftir ^^ October, 1861,
Tr ATI nil RicuABD Chenevix. ecclesi- **^"" *x«.cw.x. q^^^ Charles Wilkes,
xxc^xiv/AA, astic and philologist, was United States Navy, intercepted at sea
bom at Dublin, in 1807, and was gradu- the British mail steamer Trent bound
ated at Cambridge in 1829. He entered from Havana to St Thomas, and took off
the church, and eventuallv became dean two 0)nfederate commissioners, accredited
of Westminster (1856-63), and arch- to France, Messrs. Mason and Slidell,
bishop of Dublin, 1864. He was the who were among her passengers. They
author of a collection of poems, and a were taken to Boston, and imprisoned at
popular writer on philological and theo- Fort Warren, but were released on Jan.
logical subjects. His works include 1* 1862, on the demand of the British
Notes on the Parables (1841), Notes on government, and permitted to proceed to
the Miracles (1846), On the Study of Europe. The affair created intense ex-
Words (1851), Proverbs and their Les- citement at the time, but Secretary
sons (1853), Bynonyms of the New Seward accepted England's demand as an
Testament (1854). English Past and adoption of the American doctrine which
Present (1855), On Plutarch (1874), denied the right to search, and on that
Lectures on Mediwval Church History basis gave up the captives. The demand,
(1878), and many others. He died however, gave rise to much irritation.
March 28, 1886. Trenton (t''«Ji'tmi), a city, capital
TrATinliAft the name given fn general of Grundy O)., Missoun. is
xreucucs, ^^ ^j, ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^Ich on a branch of the Grand River, 102
are used in attacking a fortress. See miles n. e. of Leavenworth, Kansas. It
Siege^ Sap^ Fortification. is the seat of RusUn College and has
TrATif & I'iv^^ of England which rises railroad shops and flour mills. Pon.
xreni, ^ Staffordshire, 4 miles north 5656.
of Burslem. It flows through the conn- Trenton ^ ^^» ^^ capital of New
ties of Stafford, Derby, Nottingham, and ***^**''vaa| jeyggy^ ^^ ^^^ Delaware at
Lincoln, and falls into the Humber after the head of tide-water and steamboat
a course of 144 miles. It is navigable navigation, 29 miles iv. b. of Philadelphia.
Digitized by
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Trepang Trevithick
It is laid out with great regularity, and such officers may maintain poesesaion if
has a state-bouse, court-house, state- once they gain entrance. Malicious tres-
prison, state hospital for insane, armory, pass is a willful, malicious, or mis-
reform home for girls, normal and model chievoua injury of private or public
schools, and a Koman Catholic college, property, real or personal
The manufactures are large and numer- Trevelvail i^'®"^^' y*^)» SiB
ous, including extensive pottery works, **^^^*J»** Geoboi Otto, nephew of
wire-cable and other iron works, steam Lord Macaulay, bom in 1838. He was
turbines, and various others. Pop. educated at Harrow, was graduated at
108,000. The battle of Trenton, per- Trinity College, Cambridge, and entered
haps more than any other, decided the the Indian civil service by competition,
success of the Revolution, by giving new He was elected to parliament in 1865,
courage and confidence to the people. On and with the exception of a short in-
the morning of December 25, 1770, Wash- terval always followed Gladstone's lead,
ington, with about 2500 men, crossed holding several cabinet positions. He is
the Delaware River from the Pennsyl- the author of the Life and Letters of
vania side, eight miles above Trenton. Lord Macaulay, Early EUtory of Charles
After a forced march, he surprised CoL James Fom, History of the American
Rail, the Hessian general, and captured Revolution, etc
his entire force. Tr^v^ft (trSvz; German Trier, Lat
TreDftn^ (tre-pang*), the ^j^ **^v^» Augusta Trevirorum), a town
'^ o sea-slug, a ma- |^k In the province of Rheinland, Prussia,
Hue animal of the genus «H on the right bank of the Moselle. It is
Holothuria, belonging to the «■ considered the oldest city in Germany,
class Echinodermata, order IV and contains many Roman remains. It
Holothuridse, popularly MM is surrounded by wails, and is indiffer-
known as * sea-cucumbers,' or »■ ently built. The chief buildings are
btehes-demer. ^H^ ^^^ cathedral, built at various times
TrPTtflTiTiiTifF (tre-pan'ing), ^^^ from the sixth century downwards, and
xxcpitiiiiiii^ the operation T« containing the Holy Coat (see Holy
of cutting a circular opening ^S Coat of Treves) ; the Liebfrauenkirche,
into the skull by means of a J^V or Church of our Lady, an elegant
surgical instrument called a JV Gothic structure; and the old archi-
trepan or trephine. This con- S^ episcopal palace, now used as a barracks,
sists of a handle, to which is ^|» The Roman remains include an amphi-
fixed a small hollow steel *^ theater, the Porta Nigra (Black Gate),
cylinder, of about i to 1 Trepang baths, etc. Treves became a Roman
inch in diameter, having teeth (Hoiothu- colony under Augustus, and subsequently
cut on its lower edge so as liasdUlis), it was the residence of several emporors.
to form a circular saw. Tre- It rose to great splendor under the
panning is especially resorted to for the archbishop-electors, who exercised g*eat
purpose of relieving the brain from political influence in Germany. Fiom
pressure, as in fracture of the skull or 1473 to 1797 it had a university. Pop.
In cerebral abscess. 43,324.
Trpsnfliift (tres'pas), in law, a term TrAirifio (trft-v6'£6), a town of Italy,
xrcsptuis which is applied generally ^rcvisu capital of the province of
to any offense against the person or Treviso, 15 miles N. N. w. of Venice, on
property of another, but is more espe- the Sile. It is a walled town with
cially applied to a peaceable but unlaw- spacious streets and large squares, and
ful entry upon the property of another, has a great number of nandsome build-
the remedy for which is by action of dam- ings. The manufactures consist chiefly
ages. Any injuries committed against of silk and cotton goods, machinery, and
land or buildings are in the most ordi- cutlery. Pop. 16»933.
nary sense of the word trespasses, as Trevitlliclc (trav'i-thik), Richabo,
entering another's house without permis- *'*'^^''^"^^*^ engineer and inventor,
sion, walking over the ground of another, bom in Cornwall in 1771 ; died in 1833.
or suffering any cattle to stray upon it. In 1797 he succeeded his father as a
or any act or practice which damages the leading engineer * in Cornish mining,
property, or interferes with the owner's Amone his first inventions was an im-
or occupier's rights of possession. A cred* proved pump, which soon came into
itor or customer can be ordered away by universal use in de^p mining. He next
a householder or shopkeeper, and even perfected a high-pressure steam-engine,
the civil courts have no power to give a and began to experiment in the con-
right of entry to officers intrusted with struction of locomotive engines. Passen-
the execution of legal processes, though gers were first conveyed by steam by
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Triad Tridiina
means of his road locomotive in 1801, lines of a triangle are all corvee, the
and he soon after successfully worked triangle is said to be ourvUmeoTt as
a tram road locomotive. His ideas were fig. 5. If one or two of the aides are
afterwards taken up and developed by straight and others or other curve, the
Stephenson. He was the first to recog- triangle is said to be mwiUmear^ fig.
nize the value of iron in shipbuilding, 6. If the sides are all arcs of great
and the application of steam to agricul- circles of the sphere, or arcs of the same
ture. His request for recognition and circle, the triangle is said to be apkeri-
reward for his numerous inventions was cal,
disregarded by the government, and he Trifl.Tl?1lla.tion ^ method used in
died in poverty. **"o*"** ^"» su rv eying. See
Triad (trt'ad), a trinity, a unity of Trigonometrical Survey,
^* three. In Welsh literature, the Trios Tbiassic System. See Otology,
name is given to a class of ancient com- ***«**»>
positions — moral and historical — com- Tribmie (trib'fln: trihUnua), in Ro-
prising enumerations of particulars ****'•***'' man antiquity, originally an
bound together in knots of three. The officer connected with a tribe, or who
Hindu Triad, Trimurii^ or trinity, con- represented a tribe for certain purposes;
sists of the three deities Brahma, Vishnu, especially, an officer or magistrate chosen
and 8iva, considered as an iniseparable by the people to protect them from the
unity. oppression of the patricians or nobles.
Trial ^^^ *^^^ ^°^ Procedure, Civil, and to defend their liberties against any
AxxAx. attempts that might be made upon them
Triangle (trfang-gl), in geometry, a by the senate and consuls. These magis-
* o*^ figure bounded by three trates were at first two, but their num-
lines and containing three angles. The ber was increased to five and ultimately
three angles of a plane triangle are equal to ten. This last number appears to
to two right angles or 180**, and its have remained unaltered down to the
area is equal to half that of a rectangle end of the empire. There were also
or parallelogram of the same base and military tribunes, officers of the army,
altitude. The triangle is the most im- each of whom commanded a division or
portant figure in xeometry, and may be le^^ion, and also other officers called
considered the element of all other tribunes; as, tribunes of the treasury, of
figures. If the three lines or sides of the horse, etc See Rome {History).
a trianele are all straight, it is a plane TricUna (tri-kl'na), a minute nema-
or rectilinear triangle, as in figs. 1, 2, ***^*****» toid worm, the larva of
8, 4. If all the three sides are equal, it which was discovered in 1835 in the
is an equilateral triangle, as in fig. 2. tissue of the voluntary muscles of man.
If two of the sides only are equal.lt is giving rise to a disease since known as
an isosceles triangle, fig. 3. If all the trichtniasis or trichinosis. The worm is
A A common also to several other mammals,
|\ A A especially to the pig, and it is gener-
I \ / \ / \ ally from it that man receives the dis-
I -\ / • \ / \ ^^^s®* When a portion of flesh, say of
|\/'\/*\ the pig, containing larv» is taken into
lA. \ / \ / \ the stomach the larvs in a few days
become developed into procreative adult
W >^\ fv worms, having in the meantime passed
W X \ / X ^^^ "*® intestines. The male worm is
\\ / \ I \ about V«th of an inch long, the female
\4\ / t \/<\ about a half more. The female produces
U \ / If I embryos in extraordinary numbers,
^^^^^'v^.^^^^ /^-^ which gain entrance into the muscles by
»nJ^"7^ 4*—*^ penetrating the mucous coat of the intes-
Triangles. tine and entering the capillaries, whence
they art carried to their habitat by the
three sides are unequal, it is a scalene circulation. There they disorganise the
triangle, fig. 4. If one of the angles is surrounding tissue, setting up at Uie
a right angle, the triangle is right- same time morbid action in the system,
angled^ as fig. 1, having the right angle manifested by swelling of the face, body,
at A. If one of the angles is obtuse, and limbs, fever, pains, etc., and result-
the triangle is called ohtuse-angled, as ing sometimes in deatlL In the mnsdes
fiff. 4, having the obtuse angle b. If they become quiescent, are encased in a
an the angles are acute, the triangle is cyst covered with c^careous matter, and
Qcute-^npledf as figs. 2, 3. If the three may give no more trouble Thorough
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TricMniasis Trifolium
cookinr kills the trichinae, and thus pre- TridaCna. ^®® Clam.
Tents bfection.
TrirliiTiiflaift Trichiwobis ( trik-i- Triil^ntinp Rmmril the Council
iTicJumasiS) m^a^jg, triki-no'sis), J-naenxme uouncu, ^^ rp^.^^^ g^
a painful and sometimes fatal disease Trent and Trent, Council of.
produced in man by eating meat, espe- Triest (tr6-est'; Italian, Trieste)^ a
dally the flesh of pigs, either raw or m- ***^»'' seaport town in Austria, 214
sufficiently cooked, infested with iri- miles southwest of Vienna, on a gulf
chinw. Set Trichina. of same name, at the northeastern ex-
Trir^TiinrtnAlv (trich-in-op'6-li), a tremity of the Adriatic. The old town,
xiiv/iiiiiuyuxjr j^^jj ^£ British India, on an acclivity crowned by a castle, has
capital of district of same name, in the steep and narrow streets, but in the
presidency of Madras, on the right bank new town the streets are spacious and
of the Cavery. It is a military station, well paved, and there are handsome
and contains a citadel on a granite peak thoroughfares and squares. The chief
500 feet high, which commands the sur- buildings are an ancient cathedral in the
rounding country. The native town lies Byzantine style, and the exchange block
at the foot of the rock, and beyond it of buildings, which is a handsome edi-
are the European quarters, barracks, fice. Triest is the chief Austrian port,
hospitals, St. John's Church, with the and the most important trading place in
tomb of Bishop Heber, a Iloman Catholic the Adriatic, and has now very extensive
chapel, etc. Pop. 122,028. harbor accommodation. Triest is the
Triclininin Oi^*Klln'i-um>, among headquarters of the Austro-Hungarian
AXXVAXUJ.U111 £^g Romans the dining- Lloyd's shipping company, who have ex-
room where guests were received, fur- tensive shipbuilding and other establish-
nished with three couches, which occu- ments here. Triest existed under the
?>ied three sides of the dinner table, the Roman empire (Latin name Tcrgeste or
ourth side being left open for the free Tergestum), but did not rise to im-
ingress and egress of servants. On these portance until recent times. Pop. 221,-
couches, which also received the name 993.
of tricilinium, the guests reclined at din- Trif olilllll ^ trS-fdli-um ) , the Trefoil
ner or supper. Each couch usually ac- ^^-^v**"-"* or Clover, a genus of low
commodated three persons. herbs, with the leaves, as a rule, di^-
Tricolor Ort^ul-ur), the French na- tately trifoliate and with red, purple,
* tional flag, or one formed white, or yellow flowers, rareljr solitary,
after the model of it. The French tri- There are about 150 species, chiefly found
color is blue, white, and red in equal in the northern hemisphere, abounding in
vertical sections, the blue being next Europe and many of them natives of the
the flag-staff. United States. Several of the species
TVirAirnia TriTrnwia (tri-kd'pis), are very useful in agriculture, both as
±TlCOUpiS, XTlKUpiS fcHARii!lo8, pasture plants and from their power of
« Greek statesman, bom at Nauplia in enriching the soil. This arises from their
1832; died in 1896. He became minis- roots being infected by certain nitrogen-
ter of foreign affairs in 1866, and pre- fixing germs, through the action of which
mier in 1875 and on several later occa- the clovers add to the nitrogenous con-
sions, and was active in efforts for the tents of the soil. The true clovers have
development of Greece. Failing in his herbaceous, not twining stems, roundish
efforts to relieve the country from its heads or oblong spikes of small flowers,
financial difficulties, he was crushingly the corolla remaining in a withered state
defeated in the election of 1895. until the ripening of the seed. The most
Tricvcle (tn'si-kl), a three-wheeled important to the farmer is the common
* ^ variety of velocipede, intro- Red Clover (T. pratense)^ a native of
duced about 187o, and therefore subse- Europe, but naturalized in all parts of
qnently to the bicycle. The earliest pat- the United States, widely cultivated and
tema were rear-steering, but were soon growing freely in meadows and pastures,
superseded by front-steering machines, The White or Dutch Clover, Creeping
the latter being steadier. Tricycles were Trefoil, or Shamrock (T. repens) is
first worked by pedaled levers, but this found in most parts of North America
form soon gave way to the rotary action, and Europe, nearly always springing up
which is produced by a cranked axle to where a barren heath is turned with the
which the pedals are fixed. This axle spade or ploui'h. It is a valuable feed-
is connected by chains running on ing plant in dry and thin soils, and its
toothed wheels with the driving axle, spontaneous growth in a meadow Is hailed
The positions and sizes of the wheels, as a sign of improving conditions. In
and the steering gear, vary neariy in laying down permanent pastures, except
fTirj make. in strong land, it sbomd be somewhat
i
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Trinidad
TripoU
•tock raisinc region. Has railway shops,
foundryand machine shops and other in-
dustries. Pop. 10,204.
ISnuirlorl on® <>' *^« British West
xniuuiiU) jjj^j^ Islands, and, except-
ing Jamaica, the largest and most valu-
able. It is tlie most southeriv of the
Windward group, lies immediately off the
northeast coast of Venezuela, and is
about 65 miles long by 40 mUes broad;
area, 1756 square miles. There is a lake
of mineral pitch, 104 acres in extent, con-
taining an almost inexhaustible supply.
The chief products are sugar, cocoa,
molasses, rum, cocoanuts. pitch, timber
and fruits. The climate is healthy, and,
though hot, is well suited to Europe^s.
Trinidad is a crown colony, the puUie
affairs being administered by a lieutenant-
goTemor, assisted by an executive and a
lerislative committee. It was discovered
by Columbus in July, 1491, and taken
from Spain by the British in 1797. The
capital Port of Spain, on the northwest
side of the island, is one of the finest
towns in the West Indies. Pop. (1912)
840000.
TriTiiioii a town near the southern
xmuaaa, ^^^ ^^ Qu|>a, in SanU
Clara province. It is one of the seven
original dties established by Diego Vel-
asquez ; founded in 1514. Pop. 12,000.
Trinitrotoluene ti^;\,^*»J^lS>i:
line substance, insoluble in water, but
soluble in alcohol, ether and benzine. It
has recently been adopted as the base of
shell-fillers instead of prussic or ammo-
nium nitrate compounds. It is not dan-
gerous to handle, bums without explod-
ing, and has no bad effects physiologically.
TVinifv (trin'i-ti), a theological name
xxxiixtjr gj^^^ ^ ^jjg peity as expres-
sive of the Christian doctrine of the
Triune nature of God, the union of the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit
as Three Persons, and One God. The
doctrine of the Trinity is nowhere ex-
pressly taught in the Old Testament, but
m the New Testament it is clearly
taught, though the word Trinity does
not occur. A comprehensive statement of
the doctrine of the Trinity is found in the
Athanasian Creed, which asserts that ' the
Catholic faith is this: That we worship
one God as Trinity, and Trinity in Unity
— neither confounding the persons nor
dividing the substances — for there is one
person of the Father, another of the Son,
and another of the Holy Ghost. But the
Godhead of the Father and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghost is all one; the
alory Equal; the majesty co-etemaL*
iMfference in interpretation of the doc-
trine of the Trinity led to the division of
the Church into the Eastern and Western.
Trio
in
ics
(tr6'5, tri'6), a musical composi-
tion for three voices or for three
instruments. Also a record or subordinate
division of certain musical compositions.
Triple Amance.|«-^^*^«ti
are known by this name. The first was
formed in 1668 bv Great Britain,
Sweden, and the Netherlands asniinst
Louis XIV ; the second in 1717 by Great
Britain, J^rance, and Holland against
Spain. In 18S2 was formed that of Aus-
tria, Germany and Italy. From this Italy
withdrew during the European war.
Triple Entente <2»^*grt>Je^o^J
Britain, France and Russia. Great
Britain remained for long outside of alli-
ances, but at the opening of the twentieth
century, owing cluefly to the efforts of
Edward VII, began to enter into formal
ententes, first with France and then with
Russia. The Triple Entente— or Under-
standing— ^aroee from a Dual Alliance
between Russia formed in 1887, an in-
formal understanding between Britain and
France in 1904, and a similar understand-
ing between Britain and Russia in 1907.
Tri-nlA* (trip'let), in music, acombina-
xxx^i^v ^Q^ ^j£ ^pgg ^oteg to \^ played
in the time of two. They are joined by
a slur and distinguished by having the
figure 3 above them.
Tripod (trf:p?d),
AAx^vu. anciently a
bronze altar consist-
ing of a caldron
raised on a three-
legged stand of
bronze. Such was the
altar of Aiiollo at
DelphL Tripods of
fine workmanship in
precious metals were
placed in Apollo's
temple.
Tripoli (trip'o^).a
the north of Africa,
largely desert ; is
bounded on the north
by the Mediterranean, west by Tonla,
south by Fezzan and the Libyan Desert,
and east by the Libyan Desert and
Barca ; area, about 410,000 square miles.
Its boundaries are somewhat uncertain,
but it extends inland for about 800 miles.
The coast-line, which is 700 or 800 miles
in length, including the Gulf of Sidra,
or Greater Syrtis, has only one harbor,
that of the capital, Tripoli. The eastern
gart of the interior is mostly barren sand,
ut in the south and west it is diversified
by mountain ranges, attaining a height
Of about 4000 feet The richest tract of
Antique Tripod.
{
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Tripoli f ritiouni
Tripoli is that which stretches aboat 15 it was the capital of Morea> but Ibrahim
miles along the coast, and inclades the Pasha took possession of it in 1828 and
capital. It is prodactive of wheat, bar- razed it to the ground. It has been
ley, millet, and Indian-corn; oranges, partially rebuilt Fop. 10,4^.
pomegranates, lemons, figs, apricots, Trinng See Camhndge, Univeraity of.
plums, and other fruits. Abundant rains ***r^°»
fall from November to March, while from Trintvcll (trip'tik), a picture, carv'
May to September the heat is intense, the •^'-'■if^j^"' ^g^ q^ other representation
sirocco often blows, and the thermometer in three compartments side by side;
rises at times to a high figure. The most frequently such as is used for an
population, which in the outlying dis- altar-piece. The central picture is
tncts consists of Berbers and Bedouins,
and in the town chiefly Moors, is esti-
mated at about 1,000,000.— Tripoli, the
capita], stands on a tongue of land pro-
jecting into the sea, has a moderately
good harbor, and consists of a great num-
ber of narrow and uneven lanes, the chief
buildings being the governor's castle,
the great mosque, a handsome structure,
synagogues, bazaars, public baths, etc.
The trade across the desert extends as
far as Timbuctoo and Bornou. The chief
manufactures are carpets, long cele-
brated, other woolen goods, and leather.
Tripoli, originally held by tlie Phoenicians,
became in time part of the Roman prov-
ince of Africa, and in the 8th century
was conquered by the Arabs. It was Triptych. — Painting by Allegretto Nucci, 1465.
taken b/ Spain in 1510, and assigned to
the Knights of St. John, who had been usually complete in itself. The sub-
driven from Rhodes by the Turks. The sidiarv designs on either side are smaller.
Knights surrendered to the Turks in 1551 and frequently correspond in size and
and it remained a province of Turkey shape to one-half of the principal picture,
until 1714, when its bey became largely Trireme (tn'rOm), a galTov or vessel
independent Turkey subdued it again ■^•'■•'"'•ciiic ^^^.jj three benches or rnnkn
in 18->5, and it remained a vilayet o_f the of oars on each side, a common class of
Ottoman empire until 1911, when Italy, war-ship amont: the ancient Oreeks. Ro-
which had long sought to extend its in- mans. Carthapinians, etc. The trireme
terests in Africa, invaded it and after a was also nrovided with a large square
war continuing until October, 1012, ob- sail, which could be raised during a fair
tained possession. At present the posses- wind to relieve the rowers, but was never
sion is limited in great measure to the employed in action,
narrow atrip of coast held by the Italian Triqnipcnflfiifl See Hermes TrUmc-
army of occupation. Pop. of the capital AnsmeglBlUB. ^^^^
jaw
Thero
about 30,000. Trismus '(triz'mus), a species of
Trinnli Tababolto, or Tripolis, a ***""*•*•» nag affecting the under
xxxi^/xxy geaport of Syria, capital of a with spastic rigidity ; locked- jaw. 1
paahalic of the same name, situated on are two kinds of trismus, one attacking;
the Mediterranean, 48 miles northeast infants during the two first weeks from
of Beyrout There is a trade in silk, their birth, and the other attacking per-
wool, cotton, tobacco, galls, etc. I'up. sons of all ages, and arising from colds
about 90,000. or a wound. See Tetanus.
Trinnli a mineral originally brought m*-i.-,«. W A Pirn Tin (dA-k^n'yA).
XTipOUy ^^^ TripoU and used in AFlSXan U ilCUIIiia ^^ j^ » ^ ^^
poliahing metals, marbles, glass, etc. It three islands in the South Atlantic (the
10 a kind of siliceous rottenstone, of a others being Nightingale and Inaccessible
yellowish-gray or white color, rough to island), about 1300 miles 8. w. of St.
the touch, bard in grain but not com- Helena. It is mountainous, and one
pact, and readily Imbibes water. It is peak rises to the height of 7640 feet
also found in BYance, Italy and Ger- The island was taken possession of by
numy. . . ,. . v . Great Britain in 1817. Pop. less than
Trinolitzfl. (trip-u-lifKi), a town of loo.
***«^**'' Soathem Greece, province hp^ifi^nm (trit'i-kum), the ffenm of
pt Azcadia. PrtHom to the revolution xriwcum g^^^g^^ including wh«at
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Triton Troglodyte
Triton ^^ Newt Travancore state* Madras presidency, sit-
xxxtuii. uated about two miles irom the sea.
Tritonidie (tn-ton'i-de), a family of The town is of considerable importance,
Axxtuiuuo; marine nudibranchiate, has a fort containing the rajahs palace
gasteropodous molluscs, many of which and other buildings, an ancient temple,
are found on the coast of England, college with European instructors, medi-
France, and other European countries, cal school, hospitals, Napier museum,
Tritons (tri'tonz), in Greek mythology, various handsome buildings, and a mili-
^ ^ the name of certain sea-gods, tary cantonment Pop. 57,882.
They are variously described, but their Trivinm (tHv'i-um), the name given
body is always a compound of the human *****»*"*• in the middle ages to the first
figure above with that of a fish below, three of the seven liberal arts — gram-
They carry a trumpet composed of a mar, rhetoric, and logic. The other four,
shell, which they blow at the command consisting of arithmetic, music, geometry,
of Poseidon to soothe the waves. and astronomy, were called the quad-
Trinmnh (tn'umf), in Roman an- rivium. See Arts.
MxxiL±u.yfu, tiquity, a magnificent pro- Troad ^^ Troy.
cession in honor of a victorious zeneral, **^"'**»
and the highest military honor which he Trooha. (f^'^^)* derived from the
could obtain. It was granted by the ^*'^^^"'^ Greek and meaning a circle,
senate only to one who had held the As known in Cuba, during the insur-
ofllce of dictatof, of consul, or of praetor, rection of 1895-98, it was a barrier, ex-
and after a decisive victory or the com- tending across the island, built of posts,
plete subjugation of a province. In a at times three and even five deep, to
Koman triumph the general to whom this which barbed wire was strung. Behind
honor was awarded entered the city of this stockade the Spanish soldiers fought.
Rome in a chariot drawn by four horses. United States officers speak of its dire
crowned with laurel, and having a effectiveness.
scepter in one hand and a branch of TrOChee (trO'ke), in prosody, a foot
laurel in the other. He was preceded ^''^^^^^ of two syllables, the first
by the senate and the magistrates, long and the second short, as Lat.
musicians, the spoils, the captives in fdmo, or Eng. nation.
fetters, etc., and followed by his army TrOcMlidffi ^^ Humming-hird.
on foot, in marching order. The pro- •*-*v*/Aijj-i.u.«i«
cession advanced in this order along the Trochn (tro-sbU), Louis Jules, a
Via Sacra to the Capitol, where a bull '^*-^^**'^ French general, bom in Brit-
was sacrificed to Jupiter, and the laurel tany in 1815; educated at St Cyr; en-
wreath deposited in the lap of the god. gaged in the Algerian^ Crimean, and
Banquets and other entertainments con- Italian campaigns ; published a pamphlet
eluded the solemnity. A naval triumph entitled UArm^ Frangaise en 1867, and
differed in no respect from an ordinary showed the weakness of the French
triumph, except that it was upon a army, by which he forfeited the favor
smaller scale, and was characterized by of Napoleon. At the outbreak of the
the beaks of ships and other nautical Franco-German war (1870), however,
trophies. he was made /governor of Paris, and
Triumphal Arch, see Arc*. when^fte repubhc^w« ^^n^Uimed^he^^
Trinmirir (tn-am'vir), one of three a posidon which he held until the capitu-
xxxuiAivxx jjj^Q united in office. The lation. He wrote Pour la V4rit4 ei pour
triumvirs (L. triumviri) of Rome were la Justice, and L*Arm4e Frangaise en
either ordinary magistrates or officials, 1819, He died in 1896.
or else extraordinary commissioners who Tro^lodvte ( trog'lu - dit ) , a cave-
were frequently appointed to execute **v5xw\*jv^ dweller; one dwelling in
jointly any public office. But the men a cave or underground habitation. The
best known in Roman history as ancient Greeks gave the name troglodyte
triumvirs were rather usurpers of power to various races of savages inhabitmg
than properly constituted authorities, caves, especially to the cave-dwellers on
The term triumvirate is particularly ap- the coast of the Red Sea and along the
plied in Roman history to two famous banks of the Upper Nile in Nubia and
coalitions, the first in 59 B. c. between Abyssinia, the whole of this district be-
CiBsar, Pompey, and Crassus; the second ing known by the name Troglodytik&
in 43 B. c. between Antony, Octavian, It is shown by archsological investi-
and Lepidus. See Rome (History), gations that cave-dwellers in all lo>
Trivandrnm (tP6-van'dr5in), a town calities probably preceded house-build*
xixvouuxuui ^ India, the capital of ers.
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Troglodytes
TrOelodyteS < -tea ) . the generic
4.xv5AVF\i.jr vwo name of the wrens;
also that of the gorilla and chimpanzee.
Trnfrnn (tro'gon), a genus of birds,
gonidae. The trogons inhabit the forests
of the intertropical regions.
Trm'q "Rivi^rpci (trwu-ri-vy&r; 'three
irOlS lilViereS divers'), an old city
of Quebec, Canada, situated at the junc-
tion of the St Lawrence and St Maurice
rivers. It has various thriving indus-
tries. Pop. (1913) 18,000.
Trollev (trol'li; electric railway). A
•^ truck which travels along
overhead wires conveying an electric cur-
rent, and forms a means of connection
between them and a railway car. Cars
moved by this system have come very
widely into use and are commonly known
as trolley cars. See Electric RaUwap.
TrolloBe (tw>rop), Anthony, an Eng-
•t^ lish novelist, a younger son
of Frances M. TroUope, was bom in
London in 1815; died in 1882. In 1841
he was appointed clerk to a post-
o£Sce surveyor in Ireland, where his ex-
periences gave him material for bis first
novels. The MacdermoU of Ballycloran
(1847), and The Kellya and the O^KeUys
(1848), neither of which was success-
lul. Meanwhile he was appointed in-
spector of rural post-oflSces in Ireland
and parts of England, and continuing his
novel-writing bis first success was The
Warden (1^), followed by Barcheater
Towers (1857), Dr, Thome (1858), and
numerous others. He also published ac-
counts of his travels, including The
West Indies and the Spanish Main
(1859), Australia and New Zealand
(1873), South Africa (1878), besides a
Lfife of Cicero (1881), etc — Thomas
AooLPHUS Tbollope, eldest brother of
the above, was bom in 1810; resided
chiefly in Florence; and was the author
of Impressions of a Wanderer in Italy
(1852), Tuscany in 1849-59 (1859),
History of Florence (1865), etc. He
died in 1892. — Fbances Milton Trol-
Ijopb, mother of the above, was born
about 1790, and died in 1863. She was
the author of Domestic Manners of the
Americans (1831), The Refugee in Amer-
ica (1832), books which were very
severe upon American life and customs.
Trolls (trdls), in Northem mythology,
a name of certain supernatural
beings, in old Icelandic literature repre-
sented as a kind of giants, but in modem
Scandinavia regarded as of diminutive
size, and represented as a kind of mis-
chievous imps or goblins.
TrnmlinTiP (troml>dn), a deep-toned
xrumouue ^^^^ instrument of the
Troop
trumpet kind, consisting of three tubes;
the first, to which the mouthpiece is at-
tached, and the third, which terminates
in a bell-shaped orifice, are placed side
by side; the middle tube is doubled, and
slides into the other two like the tube
of a telescope. By the manipulation of
the slide the tube of air is altered n
i
1, Valve Trombone. 2, Slide Trombone.
length, and the pitch accordingly varied.
The trombone is of three kinds, the alto,
the tenor, and the bass; and some instru-
ments are fitted with pistons, when they
are known as valve trombones.
Trnmn Martin Habpebtzoon, the
j,xvxu.^f son of a Dutch naval officer,
was bora at Briel in 1597. He went to
sea with his father in 1607; received
the appointment of lieutenant-admiral;
gained a decisive victory over the Span-
ish and Portuguese fleet near Dunkirk in
1639; encountered Blake and Monk in
1653, and in the same year he again
encountered Monk and was killed in the
battle. — His son, Cornelius, bom at
Rotterdam in 1629, was also dis-
tinguished in the naval service of his
country. He died in 1691.
TroTTifiA (trom'sen), a seaport of Nor-
J.1U1XIOV ^^y capital of the province
of Troms5, situated on a small island
of the same name off the west coast. It
has an extensivQ trade In fish, train-oil,
etc Pop. 6956k
Trondhjem MI'^tT^ci.Jt T^^
way, the ancient capital of the country,
situated on a bay at the mouth of the
Nid, on the south side of the Trond-
hjem-fiord. It poaiesses strong fortifica-
tions on the mainland and on the small
rocky island of Munkholm. The chief
buildings are the cathedral, which in
some parts is as old as 1033 ; the Kongs-
gaard, or palace of the old Norwegian
kings; and a museum, including a pic-
ture-gallery, and a library with some rare
MSS. The trade consists chiefly in ex-
ports of timber, dried and salted fish, tar,
and copper. Pop. (1910) 45,335.
'TrOOB ^^^P)» ^ ^^y o^ cavalry,
•t^ usually consisting of sixty troop-
lers, under the command of a captain and
two lieutenants.
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Tmmpet-sliell
Trust
from the blowing of trumpets in the
temple with more than asual solemnity.
Trumpet-shell. ®^ ^^'*^'^-
Trumpet-weed, ^t^l^^!^^^^
fUa huccindliSf the stem of which being
hollow is used as a siphon, and also as a
trumpet
Trumpet-wood. ^^ Cecropia.
Trunk-fish. ®®® Oatradon.
Trunk-hose, t ^^'S^ ^' short wide
**^"*'' breeches gathered in
above the knees, or immediately under
them, and distinguished according to their
Tmnk-hoBe.
1, Charles IX of Prance, 1550-1574.
2, Bobert Oarr, Earl of Somerset, died 1645.
peculiar cut as French, Gallic, or Vene-
tian. This garment prevailed during the
time of Henry VIII, Elizabeth, and
James I.
Truro (^ru'rO), an episcopal city, sea-
port, and municipal borough of
England, county of Ck)mwall. at the con-
fluence of the Kenwyn ana St. Allen.
8i miles n. of Falmouth. The principal
edifice is the new cathedral (the first
Protestant cathedral, except St. Paul's,
built in England), consecrated in 1887,
when Truro was established as a bish-
opric. The smelting of tin is carried on
to a great extent. Pop. 11,325.
Trnrri Nova Scotia, on the Intercolo-
J.IUIU9 Dial Railway. It has manu-
factures of foundry materials, lasts and
pegs, hats and caps, knit goods, etc.
Pop. 6l0r. (See Truro.)
Truss ^ surgery, a bandage or appa-
' ratus used in cases of hernia
to keep up the reduced parts and hinder
furtlier protrusion, and lor other pur-
poses.— In building, a combination of
timbers, or of iron-work, or of both to-
gether, so arranged as to constitute an
unyielding frame. The simplest example
of a truss is the principal or main couple
of a roof, in which the tie-beam is sus-
pended in the middle by the king-post to
the apex of the angle formed by the
meeting of the rafters. See Roof,
Trust ^^ ^^^» * *^"®' ^ ^ peculiar
species of ownership, in which
property, real or personal, is invested in
one or more persons for the benefit of
others. The person who holds the pzop'
erty is a trustee; the person for whose
benefit it is held is called cestui que
trust (he that has the benefit of the
trust). Trusts, as originally employed
in England, applied to real estate only,
but in recent times have been extended
to personal property, and before the mid-
die of the nineteenth century the latter
form developed into what are known as
commercial trusts, great trade combina-
tions ostensibly intended to cheapen ex-
penses, regulate production, and re-
move competition, but practically going
beyond those ostensible purposes. Trusts
of this kind quickly made their way to
the United States, where they have
developed more rapidlv and greatly than
in England, some of them having be-
come immense in the amount of capital
involved, so much as to be regarded by
the community at large with hostility as
threatening the foundations of honorable
industry. As so regarded, the term trust
is applied to cases foreign to its original
application, being employed to designate
trade combinations in general, irrespec-
tive of their form and mode of creation.
As such the term corporation is also
commonly applied. The combinations
now in existence have ceased to be nor-
mal trusts from the fact that the
trustees have come to control, not the
real and personal property of the cor-
porations involved, but the shares of
their stockholders. This gives the trus-
tees the power of managing, though not
the legal ownership of, the property con-
cerned. Against these great combina-
tions of financial and commercial
property a vigorous enmity has arisen,
and the governing powers have pro-
ceeded against them in various instances
as law-breakers and foes of the com-
munity. Thus suits were brought against
the Sugar Trust in New York, the
Standard Oil Company in Ohio, and the
Chicago Gas Company in Illinois, and
the illegality of these combinations was
E roved. The forfeiture of one charter
1 each case, with the liability to a
similar forfeiture in the case of the other
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Trust
corporations coQcemed, operated effectu-
ally to dissolve these trusts in their
earlier forms. This preliminary battle
against the trusts simply changed, with-
out destroying them. They were quickly
reorganized in new and different forms
and continued in operation. They disap-
peared as corporate trusts, but con-
tinued to exist as combinations held
together by contract And their old
methods of injurious procedure were
continued: the stifling or competition of
minor concerns, the procuring of special
rates and privileges in railroad traas-
portation, the issue of watered stock,
increasing the sum of floating capital far
beyond the value of the property; all
these tending to keep alive the enmity
of the community at large. There have
"been many new suits at law brought
against the trusts, and legislative in-
vestigations by the House of Representa-
tives, the New York Senate, and the
Canadian Parliament Anti-trust laws
have been passed in a number of the
states, and in 1890 Congress passed a
National Anti-trust Act It cannot be
said that these had much beneficial
effect Most important of all has been
the creation of the Interstate Commerce
Commission, for the purpose of dealing
with all illegal practices of the trusts.
Unfortunately tnis Commission was
lon^: hampered by lack of full powers of
action, a weakness only recently re-
moved by new legislation. Of late years
it has proceeded actively against the
trusts and won some notable victories.
A spectacular one of these was the de-
cision given by a Federal court in 1907,
fining the Standard Oil Company the
immense sum of $29,240,000 for accept-
ing illegal rebates in railroad freights.
This decision was afterwards reversed by
a United Stalies Circuit Court of Appeals,
but it went far to do away with the
evil of rebating, which is now strictly
forbidden by law. Another notable suit
was against the Sugar Trust, in the
operation of which fraudulent methods
of weighing imported su^ar had been
discovered. In a decision rendered
March 5, 1909, the trust was fined
$134,116 for these practices, and in 1910
it was compelled to disgorge over $2,000,-
000 for fraudulent weighing. The two
most important suits were those brought
against the Standard Oil and the Amer-
ican Tobacco corporations in 1911.
These were both decided adversely to the
trusts, which were found guilty of
stifling competition and ordered to dis-
solve. Steps have been taken by the
companies to obey the orders of the court,
bot bow effective their breaking up into
Truxton
their elements will prove remains to be
seen. Variuu& devices have been proposed
for the more elTective control of trusts
by the Federal Government, and a Corpor-
ation Tax has been imposed since l909.
The Clayton Anti-Trust Bill, passed by
Congress in 1014 supplements the Sher-
man Law and makes it more rigid; and
the Trade Commission Bill, likewise
passed in 1914, provides for a commission
with full iaquisitional powers into the
operation and organization of corpora-
tions and authority to condemn unfair
methods of competition.
Tmstee (trus-te'), in law, a person to
* whom property is legallv com-
mitted in trust for the benefit of some
other party or parties, or for some
special purpose. See Trust. No one is
compelled to undertake a trust, but if he
once accept he cannot renounce it unless
the trust-deed contains a provision en-
abling him to do so, or a competent court
grants him a discharge, or by the con-
sent of all those beneficially interested in
the estate. Trustees are liable for the
consequences of any breach of trust
however innocent, and the estate of a
trustee deceased, who has misapplied the
trust fund, is uable for the deficiency;
but generally speaking, the law only re-
quires of a trustee the same amount of
care and prudence he would be expected
to display in managing his own affairs.
Where there are several trustees each is
liable for his own acts and receipts only,
unless there is common agreement
Trusts are generally to protect the in-
terests of married women and children,
by placing in the hands of trustees for
them the legal rights which they would
be incapable of exercising. Frequently
trusts involve the sale or purchase of
lands, or investment of funds, in which
cases the trustee has to exercise due
caution, as he may be rendered liable
for any loss.
T-m-villn or Trujuxo (both tru-h^l'-
J.riULUiU, y^x ^^ ^ ^Q^jj ^f Western
Spain, prov. of Caceres, the birthplace
of Pizarro. Pop. 12,512. (2) A town
(also called Chimti) in the north of Peru,
near the coast, and havine as its port
•Salaverry. It was founded by Pixarro,
has a university, and a good trade. Pop.
about 8000. (3) The canital of the state
of Truxillo, Venezuela, 90 miles 8. w. of
Barquisimeto. Extensive coal deposits
exist in the vicinity. Pop. 10,000.
TmvfATi (truks'tun), Thomas, naval
ATUXliOn ^gj^^ ^^ ^^ Long, igi^^
in 1755; died in 1822. He commanded
a privateer and took valuable prizes in
the Revolution. In 1794 he was made
captain in the navy and in the naval
i
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Trygonidae Tuber
war with France (1799-1800) captured ernment remained in her hands, the em-
the French frigates U Insurgente and peror being kept in a virtual captivity.
La Vengeance. The latter victory She opposed rerorm, encouraged the Boxer
brought him a gold medal from Congress, movement, but a few years later, after
TrVGronidflB (tn-gon'i-de), the family the Russo-Japan war, became herself a
•^^ name of the stingrays reformer and took active steps to mod-
( which see). emize Chinese administration and meth-
TsaritSVH ^ Russian city in Saratov ods of education. In many respects a
A»M "''J **> province, on the Volga, woman of unusual powers, the tendency
Pop. (1910) 100,847. of historians is to class her among the
TftRmfeov^-Sfklo (tsar'skO-yS sye-l6), great women rulers of the world. From
j.Mi9&vjrc acxv ^ a b s ko J k-selo the death of her husband in 1861 to the
(* Czar's Town '), a town of Russia, in time of her death, a period of nearly half
the province of St. Petersburg, containing a century, she was practically the ruler
the summer residence of the imperial fam- of China« She died November 15, 1908.
ily. Pop. 22,353. TnRm (tS'am), a town of Ireland,
Tachaikovakv (chl-kofski), Peter •^"►0'"* county of Gal way, 129 miles
.■.»^AM%xA.vFT0A.j iLiTcn, a noted Rus- northwest from Dublin. It is the seat
sian composer, born in 1840; died in of the Bishop of Tuam, and also of the
1893. In 1862, when the Conservatory Roman Catholic archbishop. Its princi-
of Music was founded at St. Petersburg, pal edifices are the Protestant and Ro-
he gave up an official position to devote man Catholic cathedrals, the bishops'
himself to music, studying under Anton nalaces, and the college of St. Jarlath.
Rubinstein and Zaremba. From 1866 to Pop. 3012.
1878 he taught in the conservatory ; then npriflninf n Talanila ( 1 5 - a - m 6't a ) ,
retired to devote himself to composition. AU^«U*AV«'U J-o******* i>AUMOTU, or Low
He is best known by his symphonies. Archipelago, an extensive group of is-
Tsetse-flv (^^t'se), a South African lands in the Pacific, lying eastwards from
^ dipterous (two-winged) in- the Society Islands and south of the
sect (Oloasfna morsitans), akin to the Marquesas. They are mostly under
gad-fly, whose bite is often fatal to horses, French protection, and have a population
dogs, and cows, but was long considered of 7000. They exjwrt pearls, motherK)f-
in noxious to man and wild beasts. It has pearl, trepang, etc.
been discovered that the same insect car- TnRricks ( tO'a-rikz ), TuAfiSGSy or
ries the ^erms of the deadlv sleeping sick- * uaxiui^p TawIbiks, a race of no-
ness, which has long been known in parts mads supposed to be connected with the
of Africa and of late years has proved Berbers in their origin, and inhabiting a
especially fatal to the natives of Uganda, great part of the Sahara desert between
Active efforts are now being made to 5° w. Ion. and 13° E. Ion. They are of
check the ravages of this disease by pre- a handsome and muscular physique, of
ventlve methods, the habits of the fly war-like habits, fierce and cruel aisposi-
being studied and its haunts broken up. tion, and Mohammedans in religion.
Tsi-nan Tsinanfu, a Chinese city on Their numbers are estimated at 200,000.
' the Ta-tsin River. Glass and Tnher (ttt'ber), in botany, an under-
silk wares made. Pop. 300,000. Auucx ground fleshy stem or append-
TovA Hai An ^^® ^^*® dowager em- age to the root, being usually an oblong
^^ •*** ^"^^ press of China, born ^
in Manchuria. She became one of the "*
wives of the emperor Hsien Fung, who
ascended the throne in 1850. A woman
of remarkable political acumen, she
raised herself to the position of co-em-
gress. On the emperor's death she put
er son, Tung Chi, on the throne, acting
as re|:ent during his minority. From
that time forward she was the practical
ruler of China. On the death of Tung
Chi, in 1875, she placed her nephew, Tuberous Roots.
Kwang Seu, an infant, on the throne, l, Palmate {Orchis maculata). 2, Didjmoni
she again becoming regent. When he iOrehi§ mascula). 8, Fasciculate {Fiearia
grew up and assumed control, his at- ranunctUoide$),
tempted reform movements led to his be-
ing deprived of authority by his despotic or roundish body, of annual duration,
aunt, backed by. the conservative party, composed chiefly of cellular tissue with
a&d from that time to her death the gov- a great quantity of amylaceous matter.
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Tubercle
Tuberculosis
intended fer the development of the
Btems or branches which are to spring
from it, and of which the rudiments, in
the form of buds, are irregularly dis-
tributed over its surface. Examples are
Been in the potato, the Jerusalem arti-
choke, and arrow-root. Tubers are dis-
tinguished, according to their forms, into
didymou$ (in pairs), palmate (hand-
like), fasciculate, globular , ohlonOf etc
Tnberfilp (tH'b^r-kl), a small aggre-
XlLOercie ^^^^ of round cells Snd
cnberde bacilli which tend to spread and
invade surrounding tissues. In doing so
it breaks down in the center into an
opaque, yellowish or cheesy material, car-
rying the normal tissue with it in its de-
structive change. Tubercles may be de-
veloped in different parts of the body, but
are most frequent in the lungs and mes-
entery. The tubercle bacillus in the lungs
is the cause of the well-known fatal dis-
ease, pulmonary consumption.
Tuberculin* f ""^t^^ "?2J^ contain-
AUWVJ.VIUAU9 ing the growth products
of the tubercle bacillus, put forth as a
cure for tuberculosis hj Dr. Koch in 1890.
It failed as a cure, but is used in diag-
nosing tuberculosis of cattle.
Tuberculosis ^ttl-bAr-kd-to'da) is the
*u.»/vAviMv»M Q^jjj^ applied to an in-
fectious, contagious disease due to inocu-
lation by a rod-sbaped, microscopical
germ, the Bacillus tuberculosis, measur-
ing in diameter 0.25 and in length 1.5 to
3.5 micromillimeters. There are two va-
rieties, the human and the bovine, the
former being the longer. The tubercle
bacillus attacks chiefly the warm-blooded
animals, being common among the do-
mestic creatures — fowls, cows, pigs, etc. ;
the horse is only slightly susceptible to
infection. The guinea-pie, while com-
paratively immune to infection, is very
susceptible to inoculation.
The bacillus gains entrance into the
body through wounds, the air inhaled,
or food ingested. It reaches the blood
stream, where the bacilli multiply and
are carried throughout the body, no or-
gan or tissue being exempt from their
ravages. The bacilli produce a toxin,
which is disseminated throughout the
system by the blood. In the various tis-
sues the bacilli lodge and multiply and
around them is formed the characteristic
tubercle, which aives the name to the
bacillus and the disease. The tubercle is
a small nodule, which may be white,
gnjt or yellow in color. The smallest
tubercles are called miliary. These may
be many or few in any particular area.
The tubercle is a mass of epithelioid cells
with large, oval nuclei and glistening,
nuclear bodies. In the center are so-
called 'giant cells,' which are round or
oval, with prolongations, and containing
from 20 to 100 round or oval nuclei,
which in old giant cells are arranged in
a chain around the periphery. Outside
the epithelioid cells is a zone of lymph
cells from the blood. In old tubercles
the center undergoes a cheesy degenera-
tion, due to lack of blood supply in the
center. Sometimes a fibrous capsule sur-
rounds and imprisons the tubercle. The
severity of any case of tuberculosis is
proportionate to the number of tubercles
present
Anv injury may provide an entrance
for the germs, as tney may be floating
in the air at the time. A person may
inhale them at any moment, since a tu-
berculous person may be exhaling them
in the vicinity or they may be wafted by
the breeze from a distance. Or a tuber-
culous person may expectorate them and
after the sputum has been desiccated
they may then be blown about. The
mere inhalation of the germs, however,
will not produce the disease, as the tis-
sues of the body may be able to destroy
or cast off the bacillL Attendants in
tuberculosis hospitals, exercising proper
care, do not become infected. .But
should a sickly person inhale them, his
likelihood of escaping the disease is not so
good, and if a well person harboring the
germs becomes ill or some acute inflam-
matory disease — cold, pneumonia, influ-
enza, etc. — tuberculosis may then start
up. Prolonged exposure to the exhala-
tions from tuberculous persons in poorly
ventilated apartments, as in crowded ten-
ements; the faulty disposal of tubercu-
lous sputum; the coughing by the tu-
berculous into non-tuberculars* faces;
infecting the pockets by placing spit-
cloths therein, are modes of infection.
Foul air, overcrowding, lack of sunshine,
dark bouses, dampness, combined with
low altitude and insanitary conditions
generally are all potent factors in the
propagation of the disease. Direct con-
tagion by kissing is possible and also
may occur by using eating and drinking
utensils after a tuberculous person that
have not been sterilized. Infection by
tuberculous meat eaten in a partially
raw condition has been frequently dem-
onstrated, as well as by contaminated
milk. The latter is thought to be the
source of intestinal tuberculosis in chil-
dren. The eating of tuberculous meat
has probably been pretty well eradicated
by careful inspection of abattoirs and
veterinary bacteriological inspection, but
vigilance in this direction must not be re-
lazed. All meat should be thoroughly
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Tuberculosis
Tuberose
<!3ooked to kill all germs that may have
found a lodgment therein. The disease is
not hereditary, but a predisposition is
transmitted to offspring.
Tuberculosis is to be prevented by
strict attention to hygienic rules. Tu-
berculous persons should not swallow
their sputum nor expectorate it on the
ground or pavement or into cuspidors, but
carefully eject it into impermeable re-
ceptacles, without soiling their hands,
clothes, or the receptacle. All the spu-
tum receptacles should be destroyed by
fire. All eating utensils of the tuber-
culous should be sterilized by thorough
boiling, as also should all their clothes,
though the latter may be fully sterilized
by exposure to formaldehyde gas for
twenty-four hours. All meat and milk
should be freed from tubercle by veteri-
nary inspection of herds. All excreta
from the tuberculous should be sterilized
by fire, 5 per cent, carbolic acid solution,
or 4 per cent chlorinated lime solution.
Much fresh air should be admitted to
rooms which human beings and animals
inhabit. The tuberculous should avoid
kissing and fondling others. Bedrooms
should be cleansed with moist cloths and
not have the dust swept into the air.
Sunlight and fresh air are the enemies of
germs.
Tuberculosis is the most widespread
and fatal disease to which man is heir,
about 40 per cent, of deaths in cities be-
ing due to it. Longitude and latitude
have but slight influence upon its prev-
alence, thou^ altitude appears to exert
a more or less controlling influence upon
the life of the tubercle bacillus.
Tuberculosis of the skin is called lu-
pus and contains tubercles. Eventually
large areas of skin are transformed into
reddish, ulcerated patches, more or less
deep, with pjockets of yellowish, piirulent
matter. It is treated by X-ray, Finsen's
phototherapy, radium, surgical removal,
and caustics. The lymph glands are at-
tacked and enlarge and finally degenerate,
surgical removal being required. The
mucous membrane of the alimentary canal
may become affected, tubercles, ulcera-
tions, hoemorrhages and weakness result-
ing. If the ulceration is sufficiently deep
to produce perforation, peritonitis or fis-
tula may result, which latter is frequent
in and around the rectum. The liver,
pancreas, spleen, kidneys, and other vis-
cera may be affected similarly.
The great tuberculous disease, however,
is tuberculosis of the lung. There are
two varieties of the disease — acute and
chronic — and three successive stages.
In this disease small nodules are scat-
tered more or less profusely throughout
the diseased areas. As the affection
progresses the nodules enlarge and be-
come more numerous, finally coalescing to
form large masses of consolidated matter.
When this liquefies, cavities are formed.
If, with this infection, there is added
some of the pus-forming bacteria, a more
rapid variety is the consequence, and an
irregular fever results. In the acute dis-
ease there is a sudden chill, fever, pain
in the side, cough, and bloody sputum.
In a fortnight a mucopurulent expectorar
tion occurs, which may contain the ba-
cilli. Then are found chills, fever, and
drenching sweats; the fever is higher tn
the evening than in the morning; the
heart is weak and rapid, breathing is dif-
ficult, and the tubercular gradually sinks.
The chronic disease begins usually as a
bronchitis, though it may come on stealttk-
ily with no prodromal signs. People us-
uallv describe it as a severe cold that
settles on the chest and cannot be gotten
rid of. There is some cough, dry at first,
but later profuse expectoration, fever, and
emaciation occur. There are gradual loss
of strength and appetite, ansemia, profuse
or slight hoemorrhage. This may con-
tinue for a long period o£ time or sud-
denly get worse.
It is treated by cold, dry air at an ele-
vation of 2000 or 3000 feet above sea
level, which is stimulating to the tissues,
arousing Nature's forces to repel the
bacteria and excrete the toxins. They
should remain outdoors the entire time,
summer and winter, if possible, only pro-
tected from storms. Buildines with re-
movable sides, or large sashes, constructed
of a material to withstand strong chem-
ical disinfectants, should be occupied, and
the body will adapt itself to the en-
vironment, provided warm clothing is
worn. At a lower altitude in damp
weather ventilation is secured by having
open the windows in an adjoining apart-
ment and an open fireplace in the room
occupied. Personal hygiene is impera-
tive, as are the preventive measures al-
ready given. An impermeable sputum
flask should receive the expectoration.
The tubercular requires good nourish-
ment Milk, cream, meat, eggs, butter,
vegetables, and game should be liberally
provided. Tuberculin is administered
sometimes by hypodermic injection until
the person no longer reacts to it
TnViPrAflP (ttll)e-r<>s; Polyanihe$ tube-
xuDeruse ^^^^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ „^^
order Liliaceae, originally brought from
the East, and now largely cultivated in
American gardens both for its perfume
and for its beautiful white flowers. It
has a bulbous root, and an upright
branchless stem growing to the height
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Tubicols Tuokerman
of 3 or 4 feet. It is caltivated for the Tnnlr^r 3^* Geoboe, jurist, was bom
perfumers in France and Italy. xuuxk^jx, j^ Bermuda m 1762; died in
Tubicolffi (ta-bik'u-l€; 'tube-dwell- 1827. While he was stiU a boy his
ers*), an order of anne- father removed to Virginia and he
lids, comprehending those which live in entered the William and Mary College,
calcareous tubes, composed of secretions where he was graduated in 1772. He
from the animal itself, as in serpula studied law, and during the Revolution-
( which see) ; in tubes composed of sand ary war served in the patriot army,
and fragments of shell connected together In 1778 he married Mrs. Randolph,
by a glutinous secretion, as in terebella; mother of the celebrated John Ran-
or in a tube composed of granules of dolph of Roanoke. After the war he
sand and mud, as in sabella. became a judge and also professor of law
TiiViiTicrATi (tU'bing-in), a town of in William and Mary (College, was made
AuuxiAgcu Wttrtemberg, in the circle judee of the State Court of Appeals in
of the Schwarzwald (Black Forest), on 1803, and of the United States Court
the Neckar. 18 miles southwest of for the eastern district of Virginia in
Stuttgart. It is irregularly built, and 1813. He published numerous works in
the streets are for the most part steep prose and verse, and was especially
and narrow, but the environs are pictur- happy in vers de societ4, — Henby St.
esque. There are various manufactures, Gboboe Tucker, his son, was bom in
but the town is supported chiefly by Virginia in 1781; died in 1848; studied
the university, which was founded in law under his father, and like him be-
1477. It has a library of 300,000 vols., came eminent in the profession. He was
a botanic garden, chemical laboratories, professor of law in the University of
collections of zodlogy and comparative Virginia, chancellor of the fourth Judi-
anatomy, of minerals, of coins and cial district, president of the State Court
medals, etc. The number of teachers of Appeals, and a member of Congress
is nearly 100, of students over 1200. 1815-19. He wrote Lectures on Consti-
Reuchlin and Melanchthon were pro- tutional Law and other legal works. —
fessors here, as was also F. C. Baur, who Beveblet Tuckeb, another son, bom in
founded the Tttbingen school of theology. 1784; died in 1851. He also became a
a school which has been distinguished lawyer, and served as a judge in Mis-
by its critical method, and its tendency souri from 1815 to 1830. From 1834 to
to the rejection of the supernatural ele- his death he was professor of law in
ment in Christianity. Pop. 16,809. William and Mary College. He wrote
TnliinorJi. (tu-bip'o-ra), a genus of legal works and several novels, one of
xuuxi^vxn corals belonging to the or- which. The Partisan Leader, published
der Alcyonaria, and represented by the in 1836, in a measure foreshadowed the
familiar organ-pipe coral (T. musica), secession movement of 1861. In the
and by other species. convention at Nashville in 1850, his
Tnlmfti TalsiTirlq (t5-b»-I'), a group visrorous invectives against the North re-
lUDUai ISianaS ^ the Pacific c^led the speeches of his half-brother.
Ocean, south of the Society Islands, and, John Randolph of Roanoke. — George
like them, under France. Tucker, a nephew of St. Geon^e Tucker,
Tnlmlftr T^riflirp See Bridge, was born in Bermuda In 1775; died in
lUDlUar linage. ^^ IS^l H^ ^^^^ ^^ Virginia in 1787,
TnfikflllOfi ( tuk-a-ho' ) , a singular studied law under his uncle at William
Auvxvcui.v^ vegetable found in the and Mary College, and was a member of
southern seaboard section of the United Congress from 1819 to 1825, when he
States, growing underground, like the became professor of ethics and political
European traffic. It is also called Indian economy in the University of Virginia,
bread and Indian loaf. It is referred to holding this position for twenty years,
a genus, Pachvmat of spurious fungi, but He wrote a standard Life of Thomas
in all probability it is a peculiar condition Jefferson; a History of the United
of some root, though of what plant has States, down to 1840; The Valley of the
not been properly ascertained. Shenandoah, a novel, and A Voyage to
T4ip1rpr (tuk'er), Abraham, an Eng- the Moon, a satirical romance. Sfost of
XUI/&CX j^gjj miscellaneous and philo- his later life was spent in Philadelphia,
sophical writer, bom in 1705; died in Tllokermfl.n (tuk'er-man), Henry
1774. He was educated at Oxford, lived *»*^«^^*"*"'" Theodore, an American
the life of a private country gentleman, man of letters, born at Boston in 1813;
and published his chief work. The Light died in 1871. His writing are very nu-
of Nature, under the pseudonym of Ed- merous, and consist mamly of mono-
ward Search. It has been frequently re- graphs relating to biography, literatures
published. and art Among the best known are
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Tucson
Italian Sketch Book; Artist Life; The
Optimist; Characteristics of Literature;
EssaySt Biooraphical and Critical, etc.
Tn/»aATi (tuk'sim), a city, the capital
XUCSUli ^^ pinj^ county, Arizona, 130
miles 8. E. of Phoenix. It is the seat of
the University of Arizona and of St.
Joseph's Aoademy. The chief industries
have to do with mining and stock-raising.
Hides, wool, and metals are dealt in.
Pop. 13.193.
TnGnm (t^'^ni)» * species of palm
^ (Astrocaryum vulgdre ) of
great importance to the Brazilian In-
ians, who make cordage, bow-strings,
fishing-nets, etc., from the fine durable
fiber consisting of the epidermis of its
unexpanded leaves. The name is also
given to the fiber or thread, and to an oil
obtained from the plant.
TTiPTimRTI ( t6 - ku - man' ) . or S A N
XUCUmau Miguel de Tucuman. a
town of the Argentine Republic, capital
of the province of the same name, in
the northwest of the country, near the
foot of a mountain range on the Upper
Rio Dulce. It is a rising place, con-
nected by railway with Buenos Ayres.
Pop. about 55,000. The province is
fertile, and has a fine climate; area,
8050 sq. miles. Pop. 263,079.
Tndela (tO-tha'lA), a city of Spain,
province of Navarre, on the
right bank of the Ebro, 156 miles north-
east of Madrid. It has an ancient ca-
thedral and other churches, a medical
college, etc. Pop. 9499.
TtiiI nr (tti'dur), the family name of an
xuuur j^ngiigij r^jyal line founded by
Tmdor Architecture, Hongrave Hall, Essex,
1588.
Taileries
Owen Tudor of Wales, who married the
widowed oueen of Henry V. The first
of the Tudor sovereigns was Henry VII ;
the last, Elizabeth. See England.
TTlflnr-fiftUTPr ^ trefoil ornament
architecture. It is placed upright on a
stalk, and is employed in long rows as
a crest or ornamental finishing on cor-
nices, ridges, etc
Tudor Stvlf* ^^ architecture, a name
XUQOr Diyie, frequently applied to
the latest Gothic stvle in England, being
the last phase of the perpendicular, and
sometimes known as Flortd Oothic The
period of this style is from 1400 to 1537 ;
but the term is sometimes extended so
as to include the Elizabethan period also,
which briuM it down to 1C03. It is
the result of a combination of the Italian
style with the Gothic. It is character-
ized by a flat arch, shallow moldings,
and a profusion of paneling on Vie
walls.
TnesdaV (ttte'^*)* the third day of
«^ our week, so called from the
Anglo-Saxon god of war, Tiu. See Tvr.
Tufa (tfl'fa), or Tuff, the name orig-
** inally given to a kind of volcanic
rock; consisting of accumulations of
scoria and ashes about the crater of a
Tolcano. The name is now applied to
any porous vesicular rock; thus rounded
fragments of greenstone, basalt, and other
trap-rocks, cemented into a solid mass,
are termed trap-tuff , while a vesicular
carbonate of lime, incrusting and incor-
porating twigs, moss, shells, and other
objects that lie in its way, is called oalc
tttff.
TuilerieS (twA'le-ris; from Fr. tuile,
a tile, because the spot on
which it is built was formerly used
for the manufacture of tiles), the resi-
dence of the French monarchs, on the
right bank of the Seine, in Paris.
Catharine de* Medici, wife of Henry II,
began the building (1564) ; Henry IV
extended it, and founded the old gallery
(1600) ; and Louis XIV enlarged it
(1654), and completed that gallery.
The side towards the Louvre consisted of
five pavilions and four ranges of build-
ings; the other side had only three pa-
vilions. During the revolution of 1830
the palace was sacked. It was restored
by Louis Philippe to its former splendor,
but in 1848 it was again pillaged. The
Tuileries then became successively a hos-
pital for wounded, a picture gallery, and
the home of Louis Napoleon in 1851. On
May 23, 1871, it was almost totally de-
stroyed by fire (the work of the commun*
ists), and the remaining portions wera
removed in the year 18&3.
Digitized by
Google
Tula Tmnof
viiHia (tU'lk), a goverament of Central compact, and fine-grained, and is em-
* ***** Russia ; area, 11,954 square miles, ployed for various useful purposes. The
The surface is generally flat, and the bark, especially of the roots, has an
principal rivers are the Oka, the Upa, aromatic smell and bitter taste, and has
and tne Don. By canal there is com- been used in medicine as a tonic and
munication with the Baltic, the Black febrifuge.
Sea, and the Caspian. Much grain is TuUe ^^^^» ^ town of France, capital
produced, and vast numbers of horses, of the department of Corrfeze, sit-
cattle, and sheep are reared. Iron is uated on the Corr^ze, 115 miles n. I7. b.
smelted and manufactured to a large of Bordeaux. It has a cathedral and
extent Pop. 1.662,000. — Tula, the capi- episcopal palace, a communal college, a
tal, is situated on the Upa, 107 miles diocesan seminary, courtuouse, etc., and
south of Moscow. It is the residence manufactures of firearms, wax-candles,
both of a civil and a military governor, playing-cards, leather, and the famous
the see of a bishop, and has extensive Point de Tulle lace. Pop. 11,741.
manufactures of firearms, as also cut- Tulle ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^P^° ^^^ manu-
lery, ornamental steelworks, platina »***^) factured at Tulle in France in
Buuu-boxes, silks, hats, goap, candles, narrow strips, and much used on ladies'
cordage and leather. Pop. 136,530. caps, etc.
Tula-metal, *"* ?."^y ^^ silver, with TiQloCh <^«1'^)» .iS^^* theologist.
' small proportions of lead ******'*'** born in 1823 at Bridge pf
and copper, forming the base of the cele- Earn, Perthshire; died in 1886. He was
brated Russian snuff-boxes popularly an influential leader in the councils of the
called platinum boxes. Scotch Church, was for many years
Tnle (t5'le), a large species of rush or principal of St. Mary's College, St. An-
sedge, Soirpus validuSy nat order drews, and was the author of the Burnet
Cyperacee, which grows to a great prize essay on Theism (1855), Leaders
height^ and covers large tracts of marshy of the Keformation (1859), Enalish
land m parts of California, being also Puritanism and its Leaders (lo61),
found generally throughout the United Rational Theology and Christian PhUos-
States. ophy in England in the Seventeenth cen-
Tnlin (tti'lip), a genus of plants (Tu- tury (1872). Pascal (1878), Facts of
*»***P ttpa), nat. order LiliaceuB. The Religious Life (1877), etc.
species are bulbous herbaceous plants, TnllTia Hostilins ( tul'us hos-tiri-
inhabiting the warmer parts of Europe ********* *avoi/xaxu.o ^^^ according to
and Asia Minor, and are now exten- the legend, third king of Rome and suc-
sively cultivated in gardens. About cessor to Numa Pompilius (B.a 670^
forty species have been described, of 638), a warlike monarch, in whose reign
which the most noted is the common took place the combat of the Horatii and
garden tulip (7. gesneriana), a native Curiatii.
of the Levant, now an ornament in TnlfpliA (tulfcha), a town of Ron-
American gardens. Upwards of 1000 •*•*"«'*'**«* mania, on the Danube, which
varieties of this plant have been enu- near it divides into its three chief mouths,
merated. The wild tulip (T. sylvestris) It has a good trade. Pop. 18,880.
has yellow flowers, and blooms in April Tnlao a city in Tulsa Co., Oklahoma,
and May. The sweet-scented tulip (T. ****»**> 14 miles N. N. K. of Sapulpa. It
suaveolens), prized for its fragrance, is is the center of a vast oil-producing region,
grown in the United States. About the Among the industries are: oil refining,
middle of the sey«ateenth century an coal mining, wheat milling, etc Pop.
extraordinary tulip mania prevailed in 28,240.
Holland. Enormous sums were given Tnmbrel (tum'brel), Tumbril, a
for bulbs, the ownership of a bulb being *"-*""**'* covered cart or carriage
often divided into shares, in which men with two wheels, which accompanies
speculated as they do in ordinary stocks trooj^s or artillery^ for conveying the tools
or shares. The close of this mania led to of pioneers, cartridges, and the Uke.
great losses. Tnmor (^^'Q^ui*)' ^^ surgery, in its
Tnlin-tree *^ American tree bearing **"*v* widest sense, a morbid enlarge-
Atux^ i»x^vy flowers resembling the ment or swelling of any part of the
tulip, the Liriodendron tulipifera, nat. body or of any kind ; more strictly, how-
order MagnoliaceflB. It is one of the ever, it implies a permanent swelling oc-
most magnificent of the forest trees in casioned by a new growth, and not a
the temperate parts of North America, mere enlargement of a natural part.
Throughout the States it is generally which is called hypertrophy. Tumors
known by the name of tulip poplar, white may be divided into two well-defined
wood, or canoe-wood. The wood is light, classes: (a) Simple, hemgn, or innooeni
i
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Tumuli
Tunis
tutnorSf the substance of which has
anatomical resemblance to some tissues
of the body; they gradually increase in
size; and generally only produce incon-
venience from the great bulk they some-
times attain; a complete cure may be
effected by simple excision, (b) Malig-
nant tumors^ which bear no resemblance
in substance to normal tissue; they are
exceedkigly liable to ulceration, they in-
vade all the textures of the part in which
they occur, affecting the mass of the
blood, and terminate fatally; when ex-
cised they are apt to recur not only in
the immediate neighborhood of the
previous site, but also in remote parti
of the body. This recurrence in remote
parts is due to transference of some of
the elements of the tumor by fiieans of
lymphatic or blood vessels. Hence if a
malignant tumor is to be excised it must
be done early to avoid such secondary
infection if possible. Innocent tumors
are often named from the tissues in
which thev occur, as adipose or fatty
tumors, fibrous tumors, cartilaginous
tumors, tony tumors, and the like. Of
the malignant class cancer is a well-
known example. See Cancer,
Tumuli (^'n^A'lOf artificial mounds
Au»u&uxj. ^£ earth or stone raised to
mark the resting-place of the dead. They
are very abundant in parts of the United
States, the work of prehistoric Indians.
Bee Boifrows,
'Tnyt an old measure of capacity. The
•*•**"> English tun of wine contained
four hogsheads, or 252 gallons, but in
English-si)eaking countries the gallon is
now the highest legal measure of capacity.
Tunbridge WeUs, l^rTJ^nl
place of England, partly in Kent, partly
in Sussex, 32 miles s. s. E. of London, 4
miles 8. of Tunbridge. It has a spacious
parade, a town hall, corn exchange, pub-
lic halls. Pump Room for visitors tak-
ing the waters. Convalescent Home for
Children, and manufactories of toys and
fancy articles. The spring to which the
place owes its origin and prosperity is
chalybeate, and is considered very effi-
cacious in cases of weak digestion. Pop.
35,703.
Tundras ^X^^.nJ^'S^.to^^^l^f
to the immense stretches of
flat, boggy country, extending through
the northern part of Siberia and part of
Russia, where vegetation takes an Arctic
character. They are frozen the greater
part of the year, and are very difficult
to cross when not frozen.
TnTi<ysfATi (tung'sten), a metal dis-
xua^ucu covered in 1781; atomic
weight 184; symbol W (from its other
name wolfram). It has a grayish-white
color and considerable luster. It is brit-
tle, nearly as hard as steel, and less
fusible than manganese. The ores of
this metal are the native tungstate of
lime and the tungstat* of iron and man-
ganese, which latter is also known by
the name wolfram.
TunS^S (tun'gus), a term applied to
^^^o certain Mongolian tribes in
the northeast of Asia, consisting of no-
madic and hunting peoples, spreiMl over
Eastern Siberia, in a wider sense the
term Tungtisians is wted to include the
Manchus, who conquered China in 1644.
'TniiiA (tH'nik), an ancient form of
AIUU.V garment in constant use among
the Greeks. Among the Romans the
tunic was an under garment worn by
both sexes (under the toga and the
palla), and was fastened by a girdle or
belt about the waist The term is also
used ecclesiastically to denote a dress
worn by the sub-deacon, made originally
of linen, reaching to the feet, and then
of an inferior silk, and narrower than the
dalmatic of the deacon, with shorter and
tighter sleeves.
Tunicata i^^,;°^"^>>' *'! ^^^^ ^'
^^^ Molluscoida or lower mol-
lusca, which are enveloped in a coriace-
ous tunic or mantle, provided with two
orifices, the one branchial and the other
anal, and covering beneath it a second
tunic, which adheres to the outer one
at the orifices. These animals are popu-
larly named sea-squirts, and are found
either solitary or in groups, fixed or
floating, and sometimes joined together
in a common mass. See Ascidia.
Tuniner-fork, a steel instrument with
AM.uxAi.g xvj.A.y ^^^ prongs, designed
when set in vibration to give a musical
sound of a certain fixed pitch. The ordi-
nary tuning-fork sounds only one note
— usuallv the middle or tenor C in
America, and A in Germany; but soma
are made with a slider on each prong,
which, according as it is moved up or
down, regulates the pitch of the note
produced.
aS]Yi{a (tti'nis), a country of North
Auau.o Africa, now a French protecto-
rate, is bounded on the north and north-
east by the Mediterranean, on the south-
east by Tripoli, and on the west and
southwest by Algeria; area, estimated
about 51,000 square miles. The coast-
line presents three indentations, forming
the Bay of Tunis on the north and those
of Hammamet and Cabes or the Lesser
Syrtis on the east. The northwest por-
tion of the country is traversed by the
Atlas Mountains, which on their lower
slopes have many fertile tracts, partly
Digitized by
Google
Tunis
under culture. Between these moun-
tains and the Gulf of Hammamet on the
east stretches the extensive plain or
plateau of Kairwan. The only river of
any consequence is the Mejerdah. Agri-
culture is very much neglected; the
principal crops are wheat, barley, and
maize; olive plantations are numerous,
while tobacco is largely, and cotton, in-
digo, saffron, and opium partially, grown.
On several parts of the coast the fisheries,
including that of
romXt are valuable.
The manufactures
consist chiefly of
woolen fabrics, soap,
dyed skins, and ordi-
nary and morocco
leather. The inhabi-
tants consist of a mix-
mre of Moors and
Arabs, along with
Berbers, here called
Kroumirs, occupying
the elevated tract
north of the valley of
Mejerdah. In an-
cient times Tunis be-
longed to the Cartba-
pfinians, afterwards
formed part of the
Roman province of
Africa, and many rel-
ief of Roman archi-
tecture remain.
It was subdued
about 675 by
the Arabs, be-
came a powerful
state under inde-
pendent rulers in
the thirteenth
century, and in
1575 was incor-
porated with the
Ottoman Em-
pire. In the
spring of 1881
the French in-
vaded Tunis, in
order to punish
the turbulence
Mlnmret at Tonia.
of the Kroumirs,
and the French minister resident is now
the virtual ruler of the country. Under
French administration the Tunisian debt
has been consolidated, commerce has in-
creased, the means of transit have been
improved, and a number of primary
schools established. The resident army
of occupation numbers 10,000 men.
Pop. estimated at nearly 2,000.000.—
Tuins, the capital city, is situated on
a salt lagoon connected with the Bay of
Tunis by a narrow channel, where is
Tunnel
the port of Ooletta, there being another
salt lake on the other side of the city.
Both Tunis and Goletta are built of the
materials of ancient Carthage. Almost
the only building of importance is the
palace of the bey in the Moorish style;
the bazaars are also interesting, and un-
der French direction a cathedral and
other, buildings have . been erected, and
schools, etc., established. Pop. about
250,000, nearly half being Christians and
Jews.
TunkerS. ^^ DunkerB.
Tunnel (^un'el), a subterranean pas-
^^^ sage cut through a hill, a rock,
or any eminence, or under a river, a
town, etc., to carry a canal, a road, or
a railway in an advantageous course. In
the coofitruction of canals and railways
i
St. Gothard Tunnel. Section showing eon<
atruction in soft strata.
tunnels are frequently had recourse to
in order to preserve the desired level and
for various other local causes. Tunnels,
when not pierced through solid rock.
St. Gothard Tunnel. Section near entrance
on Italian side.
have usually an arched roof and are
lined with brick- work or masonry. The
sectional form of the passage is various.
Among the greatest works of this kind
are the tunnels of St Gothard, Mont
Digitized by
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Tunny
Turbine
Cenis, the Arlberg, the Simplon, and the
recently constructed Loetschberg, in the
Alps. In Britain the Severn and Mersey
tunnels are noteworthy, while in America
the Hoosac tunnel and that through the
Cascade range in the State of Washington
are of much interest (See the various
headings.) Many important tunnels un-
der rivers have been recently constructed,
the most interesting bein^ those unu^r
the Hudson and East nvers at New
York, especially the great Pennsylvania
Railroad tunnel, which passes under both
rivers and under the city of New York.
Another of interest is die tunnel under
the Elbe, Germany, at Hamburg. Two
freat tunnels, through the Pyrenees from
Vance to Spain, were completed in 1913.
TfnjijiY i^'"^''^» ^ fi^^ ^^ ^^^ genus
A\MMM,j Thynnua and family Scombe-
ridie, the T. vulg&riSf closely allied
to the mackerel. These fish live in
shoals in almost all the seas of the
warmer and temperate parts of the earth.
They are taken in immense quantities
on the Mediterranean coasts, where the
fishing is chiefly carried on. The flesh
is delicate and somewhat resembles veal.
The common tunny attains a length of
from 4 feet to even 20 feet, and some-
times exceeds half a ton in weight. Its
color is a dark blue on the upper parts,
and silvery white below. The American
tunny {T, aecundo-dorsaiis) is found on
the American coast from New York to
Nova Scotia. The albacore (T. pacifi-
CU8) and the bonito are allied species.
TunstaU ii^a'.T'sVS.Sk'^fi
miles N. E. of Newcastle-under-Lyme. It
has rapidly risen from a hamlet to a
considerable town, with manufactures of
china and earthenware, bricks and tiles,
etc. The district is rich in coal and iron-
stone. Pop. of district 39,292.
TuBftlA (ttt-pe'ya)» a genus of remark-
'^ able mammals. See Bartering,
TnBftlo (ttl'pe-ld), a North American
* " *^ forest tree of the genus Nyaaa,
the N* dentioulaiOf nat order Santala*
ce». It is a lofty tree of great beauty.
The same name is given to other species
of the genus, some of which are also
called Uack gum, sour gum, gum tree,
piptridge, etc.
TlinTier (tup'er), Snt Chables. a Ca-
xu|y|fvx nadian statesman, born at
Amherst, Nova Scotia, in 1821 ; died Oc-
tober 10, 1915. He was a representative
for Nova Scotia in the British Parlia-
ment for many years, was premier of
Nova Scotia, 18C4--(>7, held various posts
in the Dominion cabinet, and become
premier of Canada in 1896, losing his
post the same year. As minister of rail-
ways, 1879-84, he promoted the construe-
ti(m of the Canadian Pacific Railway.
He was one of the commissioners who
formed the fishery treaty of 1887-88, and
was made a baronet in the latter year.
TnnnAT Martin Fabquhab, writer.
xuppci, bom in London in 1810; died
in 1889. He was educated at the Char-
terhouse and Christ Church, Oxford;
studied law, and was called to the bar
at Lincoln's Inn. He published a num-
ber of novels and plays, but his fam9
rests upon his Proverbial Philosophy
(1838), a work in a kind of blank verse
which has gone through numerous edi-
tions. His reminiscences are to be found
in My Life as an Author (1886).
classes into which human speech has been
divided, and including the Ugrian or
Finnish^ Samoyedic, Turkish, Mongolian,
Tungusic, and possibly the Dravidian.
It is called also Altaic and Scythian, It
is characterized as agglutinate and polv-^
synthetic, from the fact that its words
are polysynthetlc, or composed of several
distinct words, each, even in composition,
retaining its significance. See Philology,
Turban (t^^*n), a form of head-
Au^wcMj. jj^ggg ^Qpu by tjje Orientals.
It varies in form in different nations, and
different classes of the same nation. It
consists of two parts: a cap without
brim, fitted to the head; and a sash,
scarf, or shawl, usually of cotton or
linen, wound about the cap, and some-
times banging down the neck.
Tnrbellana (Jur-be-lAr'i-a), an order
Au^v^xMMM» ^^ Annuloida, of the
class Scolecida, almost all the members
of which are aquatic and non-parasitic.
There are two sub-orders, Planarida and
Nemertida. See these articles.
Turbine (turl)in), a kind of horizon-
•*■ tal water-wheel, made to re-
volve by the escape of water through
orifices, under the influence of pressure
derived from a fall. Turbines are now
made after a large variety of patterns.
The oldest and simplest is the Scotch
turbine, or Barker's mill (which see).
In another common form the water
passes vertically down through the
wheel between the fixed screw blades,
which gives it a spiral motion, and then
strikes similar blades attached to a mov-
able spindle, but placed in the opposite
direction, so that the impact of the water
communicates a rota^ motion to the
blades and spindles. Or the water may
be passed from the center horizontally
outwards through fixed curred bladeSi so
as to give it a tangential motion, and
thereby cause it to act on the blades of
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i
CcmrtnyoftUUPnUonUCo.
HYDRAULIC TDBBINBS
Oae of four 0000 hopMpoirer machines In ooune of erection. The water head required to operate them i«
66 feet and the speed 150 revoltttionB per minute.
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Turbot
Turgot
the wheel which revolyef oatside. In
the annexed cut the water is introdnced
into a close cast-irm vessel a by the pipe
ht connecting it with the reservoir.
Here, by virtue of its pressure, it tends
to escape by any aperture which may
be presented ; but the only apertures con-
sist of those between a series of curved
float-boards, ff, fixed to a horizontal
plate ff, mounted upon a central axis h,
which passes upwards through a tube
Section of Turbine.
connecting the upper and lower covers,
o and (i, of the vessel a. Another series
of curved plates ee, is fixed to the upper
surface of the disk d, to give a deter-
minate direction to the water before
flowing out at the float-boards, and the
curves of these various parts are so ad-
justed as to render the reactive force
of the water available to the utmost ex-
tent in producing a circular motion in
the disk and the axis h with which the
machinery is connected. The turbine has,
to a considerable extent, replaced the old-
style water wheel, and has been adapted
to steam engine purposes by substituting
steam for water as the moving agent.
See Steam Turbine, Oaa Turbine,
TnrTiM (turni>ot), a well-known and
xuruub jjjgjjjy esteemed fish of the
genus Rhombu9 or Pleuronectea {R, or
P. mammua), family Pleuronectidse or
flat-fishes. Next to the halibut, the tur-
bot is the largest of the Pleuronectidn
found on the Eluropean coasts, and is the
most highly esteemed for the table. It
is of a short and broad form, brown on
the upper side, which is usually the left
side, and attains a large size, sometimes
weighi^ from 70 to 90 lbs. The
American or spotted turbot (RhambuM
maculatus), common on the coasts of
New England and New York, attains a
weight of 20 lbs.
TnrdnS (tur'dus), the genus of birds
^ to which the thrush belongs.
Tnrenne (to-ren), henbi de la toub
D'AUVEBGNE, ViCOMTE DE,
Marshal of France, bom in 1611 at
Sedan, was the second son of Henri de
la Tour d'Auvergne, duke of Bouillon,
and of Elizabeth, princess oi Nassau-
Orange. He learned the art of war
under his uncles Maurice and Henry of
Nassau in the Dutch service, entered the
service of France in 1630, served with
distinction in Germanv and North Italy,
and in 1643 received the command of
the army of the Rhine in the Thirty
Years' war, and was made a marshal.
His successes in this post, as in the
battle of NOrdlingen (1645), great W con-
tributed to the close of the war. During
the disturbances of the Fronde the vic-
tories of Turenne led to the termination
of the civil war. In the war against
Spain he also distinguished himself, and
after its close in 1659 he was named
marshal-general of France. When war
was renewed with Spain in 1667 he con-
quered Flanders in three months. In
the Dutch war of 1672 Turenne had the
chief command. He first marched against
the Elector of Brandenburg, and having
driven him back as far as the Elbe
forced him to sign the Treaty of Vos-
sem in 1673; while in the brilliant cam-
paign of 1674-75 he destroyed two Aus-
trian armies by the battles of Mfihl-
hausen and Tfirkheim, and conquered and
devastated the Palatinate. In 1675 he
was killed while making preparations to
engage Montecuculi.
Turcot l^ur-go), Anne Robebt
*"' o^ Jacques, was bom at Paris
in 1727, and died in 1781. He was edu-
cated for the church, but renouncing this
purpose he studied law, and in 1671 was
appointed intendant of Limoges, which
post he occupied for twelve years.
Shortly after the accession of iJouis
XVI, in 1774, Turgot was appointed
comptroller-general of France, and In
order to reform the political ana financial
condition of the country he moderated
the duties on articles of the first neces-
sity, freed commerce from many fetters,
and encouraged industry by enlarging
the rights of individuals, and abolishina
the exclusive privileges of companies ana
corporations. Such, however, was the
opposition of the clergy and nobilitv to
his reforms that he was dismissed from
office in 1776» and retired into private
life.
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Tm^eneff Turkey
TnTon^n^ft S^ Tourguenief. with silk, which the country produces
XlU^ueacn* abundantly, are exported to India, Kaah-
Tnrin (^'^Q! Italian, ToHao), a city mere, and Tibet; while opium, tea, linens,
AUAX1& ^^ North Italy, capital of prov- and woolens are imported. The inbabit-
ince of same name, at the confluence of ants, who are mostly Mohammedans, are
the Dora Riparia with the Po, and be- very mixed. In 1863 a rebellion broke
tween those two rivers. The city is out, and after a war of several years
essentially modem, the streets being Eastern Turkestan succeeded, under
broad and regular, and many of them Yakoob Beg, in effecting its separation
lined with arcades, while there are from the Chinese Empire, but after his
nomerons wide squares and gardena assassination, in 1877, it was again
The chief boildincs are the cathedral, brought under Chinese sway. The chief
a renaissance boilding, completed in the towns are Kashgar and xarkand, and
beginning of the sixteenth century, and the pop. is estimated at about 2,000,000.
remarkable for its marble facade; the -^Westebn Turkestan comprises the
royal palace, a plain brick building, Trans-Caspian districts, the Turkoman
which contains the king's private library, steppes, the khanates of Bokhara and
with valuable MSS., and the royal Khiva, and the oasis of Merv. This im-
armory; the university, a fine edifice re- mense region, under the government or
cently coostmcted, in which there is a protection of Russia, is watered by the
larce librarv; the Palaszo dell' Ac- Oxus or Amu Darya, and the Jaxartes
caoemia delie Scienze, witti a picture or Syr Darya. Maize, millet, rice, and
gallery and museums of natural history cotton are cultivated in the oases along
and antiquities; the Palazzo Carignano, the rivers and on the slopes of the hills,
used at one time by the Sardinian and and trade has greatly increased since the
Italian parliaments when they met here Russian occupation. Pop. estimated at
(1848-65), and now given up to a col- between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000.
lection of natural history ; the Madama T|]rke8tfl.II ^ town of Asiatic Russia,
Palace, an old and interesting building. * ^""■^^"''^"•j in Syr Darya province,
and several theaters. The environs of 145 miles n.w. of Tashkend. It was for-
the city are beautiful, and offer many merly an important place of pilgrimage,
objects of interest. Among the educa- and its mosque, built by Tamerlane, is
tional establishments, in addition to the one of the most striking edifices in Cen-
university, which is attended by about tral Asia. Pop. 11,592.
2700 ■tudents, are an episcopal seminary, TTn-tpv (tur'ki), a Mohammedan em-
a royal mUitary academy, a polytechnic ^ ^^^y pj,^ of Southeastern Europe
school, and various other colleges uid and Western Asia, under the rule of a
schoola The manufactures consist, be- sultan. In Europe it now occupies a
sides the staple of silk, chieflv of woolens, small portion of the Balkan peninsula,
cottons, linen, paper, ir^mpngery, and in this portion is situated the capi-
earthenware, and porcelain. Turin was tal, Constantinople, but the larger part
ancioatly the capital of a tribe called of Turkey is in Asia. The immediate
the Taurini, and under the Roman Em- possessions of Turkey in Europe, or those
fire was called Augusta Taurinorum. directly under the sultan's rule, until the
t was long the capital of Savoy, thg Balkan war extended from Montenegro,
of the Sardinian kingdom, and from 1881 Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria on the north
to 1865 of United Italy. Pop. 427.106. to the iEgean and Greece on the south,
Turkestan (tOr-kes-tan;), a wide re- and from the Black Sea to the Adriatic,
. . ™^ gion of Central Asia, the Straits of Otranto, and the Ionic Sea.
roughly divided into two portions. East- The Treaty of Berlin in 1878 greatly re-
em Turkestan and Western Turkestan, dnced the area under direct Turkish rule.
Eastern or Chinese Turkestan is in- besides confirming the independence and
closed on three sides by lofty mountain extending the limits of several of the
ranges (Thian-Shan, Karakorum, Kuen- formerly tributary states ; and the Treaty
Lan), and on the east has the desert of of Bukharest in 1913, still further reduced
Gobi Near tlie center is the basin of the limits and power of Turkey. (See
tlie Lob-nor, a lake fed from the west Ottoman Empire and Balkan War, The
by tlie Tarim and its tributaries. The immediate possessions in Europe have an
greater part of this area is uncultivated area of 11400 sq. miles, pop. about 2,000,-
steppe, but there are fertile j;>ortions 000 : in Asia, 682,960 sq. miles, pop.
watered by the rivers Kashcar, Yarkand, 17,000,000 : in Africa, 400,000 sq. m&es,
and Karakash. The products include pop. D,S2i.lOO. Egypt, however, has
cereals, root-crops, and cotton in large ceased for the present to be part of Tur-
quantitiet, partly manufactured in the kev and TripoU has come under Italian
country. Oaiptta and felt clotlis» along rule. The island of Crete or Candia. in the
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TurKcy
Xur&ey
^geau Sea, formerly possessed by Tur-
key, was at the close of the Balkan War
left autonomous, its annexation by Greece
being foreseen.
European Turkey, — European Turkey
was by the Treaty of Bukbarest at the
conclusion of the Balkan War (1913) re-
duced to a very small area, including,
however, the creat strongholds of Con-
stantinople and Adrianople. It stretches
from the new eastern limits of Bulgaria
and the Black Sea on the west and north
to the JEgean and the Sea of Marmora on
the east and south. Until 1913 Turkev in-
cluded the provinces of Adrianople, Mace-
donia and Albania. (See Balkan ^^ar,)
In 1908 the Turkish provinces of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, which had been ad-
ministered by Austria since the Congress
of Berlin, in 1878, were formally annexed
by the latter country. Turkey protested,
but eventually accepted a payment of
$12,500,000 from Austria as compensa-
tion for the provinces. In 1909 the inde-
pendence of Bulgaria was also recognized
bv Turkey, on tne assumption by Kussia
of $9,000,000 of the Ottoman national
debt The climate of European Turkey
is Mediterranean, with sub-tropical rains
and summer droughts. The temperature
is variable, and owing to the cold north-
east winds is much colder than that of
other Mediterranean countries in the same
latitude. There are few manufactures ex-
cept in Constantinople and Adrianople.
The special industries are tanning (re-
cently established) and manufactui-es of
fine muslins, velvets, silks, carpets and
ornamental weapons. Until the outbreak
of the Balkan War, Turkey was making
substantial advance in agriculture.
Turkey in Asia comprises the ];>enin-
sula of Asia Minor, the country inter-
sected by the Euphrates and the Tigris,
the mountainous region of Armenia be-
tween their upper courses and the Black
Sea, the ancient lands of Syria and
Palestine, and the coast strips of Arabia
along the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.
jOmitting Arabia, the country consists
mainly of (1) a high plateau traversed
bv the mountains of Taurus and Anti-
Taurus, and stretching from the Archi-
pelago to the borders of Persia; (2) a
plateau of less elevation and extent
(Syria and Palestine) traversed bv the
double range of Lebanon; and (3) the
extensive plain of Mesopotamia on the
Lower Tigris and Euphrates. (See Asia
Minor. Armenia^ Kurdiatant Mesopoia-
mia, Syria, and Palestine.) The islands
Chios, Lesbos, Rhodes, etc., belong to
Turkey in Asia, while the island of
Samoa is a tributary principality, and
Cyprus is held by Britain. The chief
towns in Asiatic Turkey are Smyrna*
Damascus, Bagdad, Aleppo, and Beyrent«
Commerce, Communications, etc —
The chief exports are raisins, figs, and
dates, silk, cotton, wool, and mohair,
opium, coffee, wheat, wine, valonia, olive-
oil, and tobacco; while the imports are
cotton, woolen, and silk goods, metals,
iron, steel, glass wares, etc. Accounts
are usually kept in grush or piastres,
the value of which is something less than
4^ cents; a hundred piastres make a
Tuiicish lira or gold medjidi4 (value
about 36 cents), and 500 make a
•purse.' The unit of weight is the ohe,
equal to about 29 lbs. avoirdupois. The
usual linear measure is the arshin, equal
to 30 inches.
People. — ^The inhabitante of the Otto-
man Empire are of very diverse races.
First in order are the Osmanli Turks,
who, as the dominant race, are dif used
over the country. They are proprietors
of the greater part of the soil, fill all
the civil and military offices, live gen-
erally in towns employed In various
trades, and are seldom agriculturists.
The Crreeks form the bulk of the popula-
tion over great part of the iEgean coasts
and islands, and constitute to a very
considerable extent the mercantile and
trading community of Turkey. Amauts,
or Albanians, are found in the west
throughout Albania; the northwest is oc-
cupied by Servians; and Bulgarians in-
habit the district south of the Danube
and east of Servia and Albania. In
Asiatic Turkey the Turks are an im-
portant element, but there are also num-
bers of Armenians, Arabs, Kurds, Jews,
Greeks, Circassians, etc. The Turkish
language belongs to the Turanian family
of languages, and is allied to the Hun-
^rian and the Finnish. The literature
IS considerable in bulk, but not very
original, consisting in great part of
translations from the Persian and the
Arabic, and in recent times from Eu-
roi>ean literature.
Government. — ^The head of the govern-
ment of Turkey is a monarch, usually
designated the sultan, regarded by the
Turks as the caliph or head of Islam.
His edicts bear the name of Hatti-sherif.
and his government is often designated
as the Sublime Porte. The public officers
who conduct the administration under
the sultan are divided into three classes.
The first class is that of law and religion,
and at their head is the Sbeik-ul-Islam.
who governs a judicial and ecclesiastical
body called the Ulemas. The secimd
class consists of the 'officials of the
pen,* or the members of administration,
and at their head is the grand-vizier or
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Turkey Turkey-stone
SadratenL The third class includes the schools in that city. Roberts College,
' officials of the sword/ at their head be- in the Qiristian section of the capital, is
lag the Seraskier or minister of war, and an important institution, of American
the Gapudan Pasha or minister of marine, origin.
The supreme deliberative body is the History, — See Ottoman Empire,
divan or privy-council, with the grand- Tnrkev ^ large galUnaceous bird
visier at its head, other members being **"'^^J> (Meleagris gallo pavo), well
the Sheik-ul-Islam and the ministers of known as an inmate of the poultry yard,
war, marine^ finance, justice, education. It is a native of North America, and
commerce, etc The immediate posses- was introduced into Europe in the six*
sions of the Turkish Empire are divided teenth century. Wild turkeys abound in
into general governments or vilayets, at some of the forests of the United States,
the head of each of which is a governor where they feed on berries, fruits, in-
bearing the title of vali. The vilayets are sects, reptiles, etc., their plumage being
themselves subdivided into sanjaks, ad- a golden bronze, shot with violet and
ministered by mutessarifs; and these green, and banded with black. On ac-
again into kazas administered by kaima- count of its size and the excellence of
kans. Military service is obligatory on its flesh and eggs the turkey is one of
all Mohanmiedans. The service lasts the most valued kinds of poultry. There
twenty years: six with the Nissam and is another species, the Honduras or West
first reserve, eight years in the Redif, Indian turkey (MeleagrU ooeUato),
and six in the Mustafiz (eauivalent to which derives its specific name from the
the German Landsturm). The army on presence of bright eye-like spots on the
a i>eace footing comprises about 375,000 tail-coverts. It is not so large as the
of all arms and ranks ; if put on a war common turkey, but its plumage is more
footing it might contain 500,000 more, brilliant
It is organized on a new system dating Tnr1rpv-1iil79^ri1 ^^ Tubket Vuir
from 1887. At^xk^j MuxiAoxu^ txjbsl, a rapacious
Finances.'^'The financial condition of bird belonging to the vulture familv
Turkey is thoroughly unsound. From (Vulturidse) and the genus Ca^^rie< ((/.
IK^ the state had contracted a series aura) : so named from its bearing a dis-
of foreign loans, the total nominal capi- tant resemblance to a turkey. It Is about
tal of which amounted to about f 1,140,- 2h feet long, and with wings extended
000,000 in 1877. In 1875 the ffovem- about 6 feet in breadth, general color
ment announced that they would pay black or brownish. It inhabits a vast
half the interest on the debt, but in range of territory in the warmer parts of
1876 they declared themselves unable to America. It is of importance in the
pay anvthlng. In 1881 an arrangement cities of the southern United States as
was effected by delegates of the bond- a destroyer of carrion, and is protected
holders who met at Constantinople. The on account of its useful services in this
capital of the debt was reduced to $532,- direction.
1^5,000, and the Turkish government Tlirkev-Cfl.rDet ^ carpet made en-
agreed to hand over the excise revenues ^••"'^^J v€*i^^v, ^i^ij ^f ^ool, the
to a commission representing the bond- loops being larger than those of Brus-
holders, so that interest to the extent sels carpeting and alwavs cut The cut-
of 1 per cent has been paid since 1882. ting of the yam gives it the appearance
In addition to the foreign debt the coun- of velvet
try is burdened with an internal and Tnrlrpir-rprI A brilliant and durable
floating debt At the end of 1910 the debt AUiikcy rcu, ^^ ^j^^ produced by
remained about as above stated, with no madder upon cottom doth, and introduced
immediate prospect of liquidation. from the East about the end of the eight-
Religion and Education. — The estab- eenth century. The processes which a
lished religion of Turkey is Mohammed- fabric undergoes in receiving this dye are
anism, but Christianity under the Greek numerous, and vary in different estab-
form is professed by a large majority of lishments, but the most essential is the
the Ore^ and Bulgarians, while part preliminary treatment of the fabric with
of the Albanians are Roman Catholics, oils or fats, combined with certain other
The educational system of Turkey, in substances, such as carbonate of potash
accordance with the law of 1869, pro- or soda.
Tides for the erection of elementary Tiirkev-stoiie ^ ^^^ fine-grained
schoc^ in every oommune, and of sec- ^**^^^J owu.^, siliceous slate, com-
otidary schools in the larger towns. The monly of a greenish-gray, sometimes of
University of Constantinople, officially a yellowish- or brownish-gray color,
iooode^ in 1$00, has not yet been opened. When cut and polished it is used for
IhfiBEie axe law, military, and medical sha^ening small cuttiiig instruments.
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TufEomans Tume^
TnrlrnmaTia (tur'k5-manz), a no- 1807 he wag elected professor of per-
X lu JkUiuaua ^^^^ Tartar people oo spective in the Royal Academy, and the
copying a territory stretching between following year appeared his Liber Stu-
the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral, diorum, or Book of Studies, which
the khanates of Khiva and Bokhara, Charles Turner, Mr. Lupton, and others
Afglianistan, and Persia. They do not engraved. Other works by him which,
form a single nation, but are divided into were engraved are his illustrations of
numerous tribes or clans. Lord Byron's and Sir Walter Scott's
Turks ^ widely spread race, supposed poems; Roger's Italv and Poemt; The
> to have had its original seat in Riv€r$ of England; The Riven of
Turkestan or Siberia, but now extending France, and Scenery of ike Southern
from European Turkey through Asia to Coast. 'The reputation of Turner,*
the shores of the Northern Ocean. Be- says Mr. R. N. Womum, 'among land-
sides the Ottoman Turks or Osmanli of scape-painters stands alone, solitary,
Turkey, the Turkomans, Kirghiz, Us- colossal; no man has displayed at the
becks, Yakuts, etc., all belong to the same time such great powers of general-
Turkish race. See Turkey, Ottoman izlng and concentrating the beauties of
Empire, etc. nature. For half a century Turner pro-
TnrVa Talotiila constitute the s. E. duced a succession of great works, from
XUTJLS J.»xiiuas portion of the Ba- 1790 to 1840. After this period, he fell,
hama chain, and along with the Caicos for the most part, into that vague trifling
Islands are a dependency of Jamaica, with mere effects of light and shade and
having a government of their own. The color which has done so much for a time
chief island is Grand Turk, about 7 miles to almost destroy the great reputation
long and 2 broad. Their chief export is he had justly acquired by his previously
salt. See Caicos Islands. unrivaled works. He worked in three
Tnrmerifi (tur'me-rik), the dried tu- styles: the best of his early works re-
aumLiuvxav Ij^j^ ^j. rhiaonjeg of CurcH- semble Wilson and the Poussins; in his
ma lonaa, nat order ZingiberacesB (gin- second style Claude was his model; and
ger). It is largely employed in In- in his third he competed with nature
dia and China as an important ingredi- onlv. ... As examples of his three
ent in curir powder. Unsized white styles may be mentioned the Garden of
paper, steeped in an alcoholic solution of the Hesperides, the Shipwreck, and the
turmeric, when dried, is employed as a Sun Rising in Mist, illustrating the
test to detect alkalies, which change its first; Crossing the Brook, the Morning
color from vellow to reddish brown, of the Chase, and Apuleia in Search of
Turmeric yields a yellow color, which Apuleius, his second or Claude style; the
has great brightness but little durability. Rtse, and the Fall of Carthage, 1815 and
It is also used medicinally in the East 1817, showing his transition from this
as a carminative. second style to his third and greatest, of
Turner Charles Tennyson. See which the Bay of Baim, CaUgula*s
> under Tennyson. Bridge, and ChUde Harold* s Pilgrimage.
Tnmer (tur'ner), JOSEPH Mallobd painted between 1823 and 1S32, are grand
WILLIAM, a great English examples; and lastly, the Fighting
lands^pe-painter, was bom in London Temeraire, painted in 1830, may be in-
in 1775; died in 1851. His father, who stanced as tne indication of the point of
was a hair-dresser, proposed to teach the final transition from the sublime to what
boy that trade, but afterwards allowed we must call the ridiculous in some of
him to follow his inclination, and in those strange productions which occupied
1789 he entered the Roval Academy as the last years of his prolonged life.' By
a student. After remaining there for five his will he bequeathed all his pictures
years, and working actively at his pro- and sketches to the nation, on condition
Ifession for another five, during which of a suitable building being erected within
I period he sent to the exhibition no less ten years for their reception. They have
than fifty-nine pictures, he was elected been placed in the Turner Gallery, occu-
in 1799 an associate of the Royal pying two rooms in the National Gallery.
Academy. In the two following years Tnrnf^r Sharon, historian, was bom
he exhibited fourteen pictures, and in -^^^^^^^f in London in 1768; died in
1802 was elected an academician. Till 1847. Educated at a private school in
this date he had chiefly been known as Clerkenwell, he was articled to and be-
a landscape-painter in water-colors, but came an attorney in the Temple, but sub-
thenceforth be turned his attention to sequently devoted his time to historical
oil-painting, and in the ensuing half- and philological researches. His chief
century produced at the Academy ex- works are: History of the Anglo-Sawons
hibitioni upward!^ of 200 pictures. In (three vols., 1799-1806) \ aittory of
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Turnhout
Turn-table
England (nine vols., 179^1829) ; Sa-
cred History of the World (three vols.,
1832): and Richard Third, a poem
TumilOUt L^^^'^ont'), a town of
AU.AAUAVMV Belgium, province of Ant-
werp, 26 miles K.NJB. of the town of
Antwerp. It has manufactures of linen,
woolen, and cotton fabrics, colored paper,
playing-cards, and various other Indus-
tries. Pop. (1904) 22,162.
Tnminir (tumping), the art of giving
*********© circular and other forms to
articles of wood, metal, bone, ivory, etc.,
by making them revolve in various man-
ners in a machine called a lathe, and
applying cutting instruments so as to
produce the form required; or by making
the cutting instrument revolve when the
substance to be operated upon is fixed.
See Lathe.
Tnmin (tur'nip), the common name
XUnup ^^ ^^^ Braaeica Rapa, a cru-
ciferous, biennial plant, much cultivated
on account of its esculent root, and of
the same genus as the cabbage, cauli-
flower, and broccolL The turnip, as a
culinary vegetable and as a cattle food,
was well known to the Greeks and Ro-
mans. The root is generally used as a
culinary vegetable in
all temperate climates,
and in some countries
the vegetable is culti-
vated on a large scale
for feeding stock, the
root being invaluable
for this purpose. In
the field culture of
the larger-rooted va-
rieties the most ad-
vantageous mode is
by drills. The roots
of the turnip have
often a tendency to
divide and become
hard and worthless
— a condition known
as finger-and-toe, or
dactylorhiza. The
plant thrives best on
a rich and free soil
and in moist cloudy
weather. There are
aeveral varieties, all apparently the re-
sult of cultivation. The Swedish turnip,
which forms a valuable field crop, Is
probably a hybrid between B. campeatria
and B, Rapa or Napue, rape. B. NapuB
yields rape, cole, or colza seeds, from
which a well-known fixed oil is ex-
pressed.
TurniD-fly, Tuw^i^. the Haltica
*^ **jj f^^ff^^^^^ a small coleop-
ttroat ioaecty very destmctive to young
turnips. It is common in British
meadows from April to October, and may
be recognized by two yellow stripes on
its wing-cases. The name turnip-fly is
also given to a hymenopter, the Athalia
centifolia. The larvae of this fly, popu-
4
Striped Turnip-fly (HtUtica nemZrum). a a.
Natural aise. b b. Magnified, c, Larva, nat-
ural aize.
larly known as niggers, are very de-
structive to the leaves of the turnip.
Turnpike (tum'pXk), a gate that
•*^ may be set across a road,
and is watched bv a person appointed
for the purpose, in order to stop car-
riages, carts, wagons, etc., and sometimes
travelers, till toll is paid, for the cost
and upkeep of the road. Such roads are
called turnpike-roads, or simply turn-
pikes, and formerlv were common in the
Atlantic States, but recently tolls on
roads have been very largely abolished.
See Roads.
Tnmsnit (tnm'spit), a name given
xtaxuoyxb j^ ^ variety of terrier dogs,
tmm their being trained to turn the spits
or roasting-jacks in mansions. The breed
is now practically extinct
TnmafATiP & grallatorial bird of the
XUrnsliUne, plover family {Strepsilas
coU&ris.) The length of the bird is about
9 inches. It takes its name from its
practice of turning up small stones in
'rumip.
Tumatone {Strtptilat coUdris).
search of the marine worms, minute
crustaceans, etc., on which it feeds. It
appears in most parts of the globe, and
is found throughout North America, on
the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.
Turn-table, «n railways, a circular
AUAu v<»MAw, platform of iron and
wood, supported on rollers, and turning
upon a center without much friction, even
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Turpentine
Tuscaloosa
when loaded with a considerable weight
It is used for removing single carriages
from one line of rails to another, and
also for reversing engines on the same
line of rails.
Tnraentine (tor'pen-tin), an oleo-
xurpeauue ruinous substance flow-
ing naturally or by incision from several
species of trees, as from the pine, larch,
fir, pistacia, etc Common turpentine is
obtained from the Pinut tylvestrU or
Scotch fir, and some other species of
pine. Venice turpentine is yielded by
the larch, Larim Europaa; Strasburg tur-
pentine by Ahiet picea or silver fir; Bor-
deaux turpentine by Pinu9 maritima or
maritime pine; Canadian turpentine, or
Canada balsam, by Ahie9 halsamifera
or balm of Gilead fir; and Chian turpen-
tine by Pistacia Tereltinthus. All the
turpentines dissolve in pure alcohol, and
by distillation yield oils which are
termed »pirit$ of turpentine. Oil or
spirits of tun>entine is used in medicine
externally as an excellent rubefacient and
counter-irritant, and internally as a
vermifuge, stimulant, and diuretic It is
also much used in the arts for dissolving
resins and oils in taking varnishes.
Large quantities of it are obtained from
the pine forests of the South Atlantic
SUtes.
Turpentine-tree, J5me"^^r5
trees of the genus Pistacia, nat. order
Anacardiaces, which yield turpentine,
as the P. Terehinthus, the Chian or
Cyprus turpentine tree, P. lentiacus, the
Alount Atlas mastic or turpentine-tree,
etc. See Pistachio,
TriTOpfh (tur'peth), the root of Con-
XUrpeia ^o/^^j^, Turpethum or Ipo-
mesa Turpethum, a plant of Ceylon,
Malabar, and Australia, which has a
cathartic property. It is sometimes
called vegetable turpeth, to distinguish it
from mineral turpeth. See next article.
Tnrpeth-mineral ^^.^ ««ie'giv«eS
to the yellow basic sulphate of mercury.
It acts as a powerful emetic, but it is
not now used internally. It is a very
useful errhine in cases of headache,
amaurosis, etc
Turquoise <^"^'\^?r tur'kwftg), s
****H**^**'^ greenish-blue opaque pre-
cious stone, consisting essentially of a
phosphate of alumina^ containing a little
oxide of iron and oxide of copper. The
true or oriental turquoise, a favorite or-
namental stone in rings and other articles
of jewelry, is found only in a mountain
region of Persia, and was originally
brought into Western Europe by way of
Turlrey (hence the name).
Tnrrpf (tur'et), in architecture,, a
xiurct jjj^^ ^f g^^j, ^^^^^ Turrets
are chiefly of two kinds, such as rise im-
mediately from the ground, as staircase
turrets, and such as are formed on the
upper part of a building by being car-
ried up higher than the rest
Tnrret-Ship. ^^ Ironclad vessels.
Turtle (^^^0» the name given to the
marine members of the order
Chelonia, being reptiles which differ but
little from tortoises, the name turtle or
tortoise being in some cases applied in-
differently. Thev are found in all the
seas of warm climates, and feed chiefly
on marine plants. The most important
species is the green turtle (Chelonia
mydas), which is from 6 to 7 leet long,
and weighs from 700 to 800 pounds. Its
flesh is highly esteemed as a table luxury.
Hswk'sbiU Tartle iOhsOnsimbrienta).
It is a native of the tropical parts of the
Atlantic as well as of the Indian Ocean,
being especially abundant near Ascension
Island. The logger-head turtle (Ch^ne
or Chelonia caretta) yields an oil which
is used for lamps and for dressing leather.
The hawkVbill turtle (C. imbncdta) is
remarkable for the beautiful imbricated
horny plates covering the carapace, and
constituting the tortoise-shell of com-
merce. See Tortoise,
Turtle-dove <^*V:<«*' comments), a
small variety of pigeon,
about 11 inches in length, color pale
brown marked with a darker hue above,
a purple tinge pervading the feathers of
the breast They are in general smaller
and more slender than the domesticated
pigeons, and their cooing note is plaintive
and tender.
Tuscaloosa (tos-kA-W'sA), a city.
AU9vc»xw9a ^japiUl of the county of
that name, Alabama. It was once the
capital of the state. It is situated on
the Black Warrior River, 56 miles s.w.
of Birmingham. Here is the Univenity
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Tuscan Order of Arohitectnre
Tutenag
Tosean Order.
of Alabama and various other edacational
institiiUons. It is engaged in the coal
and iron industries, has cotton manufac-
tures, and is an important cotton sliipping
center. Pop. 8407.
Tuscan Order of Architecture,
one of the five orders
of architecture, ac-
cording to Vitruvius
and Palladia It ad-
mits of no ornaments,
and tho columns are
never fluted. Other-
wise it differs so lit-
tle, however, from
the Doric, that it is
generally regarded as
being only a variety
of the latter. See
Doric,
TuMany i^^?'^,)^{i
ian, Toioana), for-
merly a grand^luchy,
now a department of
Italy; area, d289
Xare miles. Pop.
ut 2,500.000. The
chain of the North-
em Apennines forms
a considerable por-
tion of its northern
boundary, the sea being its boundary
on the west The principal river is the
Amo. Cereals cover a large area, and
vineyards, oliveyards, and orchards are
numerous. The manufacture of silk is
considerable. The marble of Tuscany,
especially that of Siena, is well known.
Tuscany corresponds to the ancient
Etruria, which was, however, of wider
extent (See Etruria.) After the fall
of the Western Empire (476) it passed
successively into the hands of the Ostro-
goths. Byzantine Greeks, and Lombards.
Charlemagne made it a French province,
and it was governed by marquises or
dukes until the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, when it became broken up into
a number of smaH republics, four of
which were Florence, risa, Siena, and
Lucca. From the first Florence occupied
the leading place, and it gradually ex-
tended its territory. In 15o9 Pope Pius
I granted to Cosmo I the title of Grand-
duke of Tuscany, and this position was
retained, with interruptions, by the
Medici family (which see) until 1737,
when it passed to Francis Stephen, duke
of Lorraine. In 1859, when under his
descendant, the grand-duke Leopold, it
was annexed to Sardinia bv a popular
vote, and in 1861 became, with Sardinia,
part of the kingdom of Italy.
Tnscnlum llS^'^j^^iorm^rSK
near the site of the modem Frascati, 15
miles 8. E. of Rome. It was the birth-
place of the elder Cato, and a favorite
residence of Cicero. Many fine remains
have been dug up in recent times, among
them being the so-called Villa of Oicerow
the Forum, theater, amphitheater, and
ancient castle or citadel.
Tuskegee Institute <5^JS'g^i„!
al. non-sectarian institution at Tuskegee,
Alabama, founded by Booker Washington
in 1881 for the instruction of colored
students in industrial pursuits. Aided
by charitably disposed persons and man-
aged with remarkable ability, it has
played an important part in the develop-
ment in industry of the negroes of the
South. It has now 167 instructors and
over 1600 students, with an endowment
of nearly $2,000,000.
TuSSar-silk (^^s'^r), or Tussbh-
AM00WA 0AAA. gjj^^ ^ coarse silk ob-
tained from the cocoons of a wild native
Bengal silk-worm. See Silk,
TuSSilaerO (tus-ai-la'gO), coltWoot, a
^^^^^ genus of broad -leaved
plants, nat order CompNositfle, sub-order
CorymbifersB. The species are natives
of Europe and America. T, Farfdra
(common colt*s-foot) is found in the
Northern and Middle States. See ColVa-
loot.
Tussook-grass (^f^^^;- f <^^«;«.
grass, of the same genus as the cock's-
foot grass of the United States, a native
of the Falkland Islands, Fuegia, and
South Patagonia. It grows m great
tufts or tussocks sometimes 5 to 6 feet
in height, the long tapering leaves hang-
ing over in graceful curves. The plant
is a useful food for cattle, and several
attempts have been made to establish it
for that purpose.
Tussock-moth, a grayish-whlte moth
a.u.o0vvA AuvvAA) about an mch long,
the caterpillars of which do great mis-
chief in hop grounds, and are known as
hop dogs. The caterpillar is delicate
green in color, with brush-like tufts of
yellow hairs on several of the segments.
It feeds on leaves throughout the sum-
mer, becomes a hairy chrysalis about
September, and emerges as a moth in
the following spring.
Tntena? (ta'te-nag), Chinese white
o copper, an alloy of copper
50, nickel 19, and zinc 31, uised for taole
ware, etc. A small quantity of lead or
iron is added in some formulas. It much
resembles packfong, which is also called
Chinese white copper.
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Tutioorin
Twin Falls
Tntieorin (t5-t«-kor'in), a seaport of
XUUCOnu i^^i^ ^ terminuB of the
Soath Indian Railway, 33 miles east of
Tinnerelly, Madras. The roadstead is
and the trade considerable. Pop.
Tutor (tti'tur), (1) in many nniversi-
"" ties, the name given to scholars
attached to the various colleges, by
whom, assisted by private tutors, the
education of the students is chiefly con-
ducted. They are selected from the col*
lege. (2) In Scots law. the guardian of
a bo7 or girl in pupilarity. Bv com-
mon law a father is tutor to his children.
Failing him there may be three kinds
of tutor, a tutorHu>minatef a tuior^t-laWt
or a tutor^tive.
a.u.vvM.«i^«u Wtirtemberg, on the
Danube, near the Baden frontier. Pop.
(1905) 14,627.
Tutuila </^iH'*^' ^* of theUrgest
A.U.V1UA0 of the Samoan or Navigators'
Islands. It rises about 2000 feet above
the sea, is covered with vegetation, and
has the excellent harbor of Pango Pango,
or Pago Paga It was annexed to the
United States in 1899. Pop. about 4000.
Tuvere («l-y6r', or twe'yar). See
xujrvxv blast-furnace.
Tver (^^Ar)> ^ ^own of Russia, capi-
tal of the government of the same
name, situated in a plain on the Volga,
96 miles northwest of Moscow. It con-
sists of the Kremlin or fortress, sur-
rounded by an earthen wall, and the
town proper. The manufactures are
numerous and varied. Pop. 45,644. —
The government of Tver has an area of
25,225 square miles, and a population
of 2.053,000. Rye, barley, hemp, and flax
are largely cnltivated, and the forests are
extensive.
^P^^JH Mabk. See Clemens.
Twat ^° ^^^^" group in the Sahara,
^^^^f southeast of Morocco, to which
it is considered as belonging. The in-
habitants are al>out 800,000 in number,
partly Arabs, partiv Berbers, and are
fanaUcal Mohammeaans.
Tnj^^il (tw^), a river of Scotland,
of Peeblesshire, forms the boundary line
between England and Scotland for 16
miles, runs through England for a short
distance, and then enters the North Sea
at Berwick; total length, 97 miles. Its
waters abound with salmon and trout,
and its name is celebrated in connection
with some of the best literature of Scot-
land.
TuTAHil H.iTKy i^ political combination
XWeea Mug, ^"^^^^ York city
which, about 1868-71, secartd eoatrol
of the municipal elections and reTemMS.
the latter of which were plundered of
many millions of dollars. Its mling
spirit was William M. Tweed, who be-
came the head of the Tammany organisa-
tion. He was brought to trial in 1873
and sentenced to prison for 12 years.
He escaped in 1875, but was captured
and brought back, and died AprU 12, 1878.
Tw^lfth-flav ^^^ twelfth day after
XWeUin-aay, Christmas, upon
which is held the festival of Epiphany
(which see). On the evenhig of this
day, called Twelfth-night, various social
rites and ceremonies are observed in dif-
ferent countries. One of these is the
baking of a cake, into which a bean is
introduced, the person who receives the
bean being made king for the occasion.
Ttinnlr^Tilioni (twik'en-am), a town
XWlOKennam li Middlesex. England,
on the Thames, nearly 11 miles
8.W. of London. In the 18th century
it was a fashionable resort Pop. 29.374.
Twilight (twi'Ut), daylight whidi
X wAugut continues after sunset, occa-
sioned by the reflection of sunlight from
the higher parts of the atmosphere which
are soli illuminated after the sun has
become invisible from ordinary heists,
and which contain floating matter whidi
reflects the sun's beams. It is supposed
to last till the sun is about 18* below the
horizon, but is much influenced by the
state of the atmosphere as to douds. etc
The light preceding sunrise is also given
this name. In low altitudes (that is,
near the equator) there is little twiliaht.
TtxTilicyl^f QlA*n a method of indne>
llVlllgni Dieepy ^ painless child-
birth, worked out in the medical dinic
of the University of Baden, and in 1914
reported to have been used successfully
in 5000 cases in Freiburg. Germany. The
* twilight sleep ' is a borderland condition
between sleepinc and waking, induced by
the hypodermic In jcction of a small quan-
tity of a combination of two drucs, scop-
olamine and morphine, which produces an
unusual delicately balanced condition of
consciousness in which the body loses aU
sense of pain, but retains the power of
muscular contraction.
qVrr{11 a textile fabric, in whidi die
AwxxAy weft threads do not pass over
and under the warp-threads in regular
succession, as in common plain weaving,
but pass over one and under two, over
one and under three, etc.
TToHti Ffi^llfl * dty, county seat of
llVlIIJJauS, Twin Wlls Co., Idaho,
near the Snake River, 120 miles 8. w. or
Pocatello. It is in an agricultural dis-
trict Pop. 8000.
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Twin Screw
Tyndall
Twin SfirftW * propeller of a steam-
X^V^m DCrew, Tessel, composed of
two teparate and parallel screws which
reroWe fai opposite directions, thus giy*
inc increased power over a single screw
propellet. The twin-screw system is
now employed in the principal warships
of the world, and triple-screws are used
on many modem Teasels.
Tunftft Sib Tbatebs, bom in West-
*^"^ minster. England, in 1810.
He was educated at Oxford; became a
fellow and tutor in his college; was ap-
pointed successively professor of politi*
cal economy at Oxford (1842-49) ; pro-
fessor of international law, King's
College, London (1862-55) ; professor of
ciTil law in Oxfoid (1855-70) : and ad-
Tocate-general of the crown (1867-72).
His chief worlu are: The Oregon Qnst-
tion 17«amffied (1846), View of the
Progreu of PolUioal Economy in Europe
(1847), Leotnret on the Science of In'
iemationol Law (1856), the Law
of Netione (1863), and BeUigerent Right
on the High Beae (1884). He died in
1807.
Tvhnra (tfbnm), a turnpike at the
London, noted for the public executions
of metropolitan malefactors which long
took place near it. The turnpike was
removed in 1829.
Tyche~ t^'^^)* ^^ Fortune.
Tyco Bralie. see Brohe.
Tvl^r (tlHer), a town of Texas, capi-
* J*«^ tal of Smith Co., 19 miles N. w.
of Troup. It has cotton and oil mills
and other industries. Pop. 10,400.
IWr John, tenth president of the
*/*^*> United SUtes, was bom in
Virginia, March 29, 1790. He studied
law. was elected to Congress in 181G, and
in 1825 became governor of Virginia and
also succeeded John Randolph as United
States Senator. He subsequently be-
came identified with the Whig party, and
in 1840 was elected Vice-President under
the presidency of General Harrison. On
Harrison's death in 1841 he succeeded as
President, and as such came into col-
lision with his party on the National
Bank Bill and other questious. The an-
nexation of Texas was the chief event of
his term of office, at the end of which
he retired into private life. On the out-
break of the Secession war he espoused
the cause of the South, and was a mem-
ber of the Confederate congress. He
died in Richmond in January, 1862.
1Sr1*i* Moses Corr, historian, bom at
*y*^*> Oriswold, Connecticut, in 1885.
He graduated at xale University in 1857,
studied theology, and l>ecame a CJongre-
gational pastor in 1850. He was pro-
fessor of English literature in Michigan
University, 1867-72 and 1874-81, and
literary editor of The Christian Union,
1872-74. He became priest in the
Protestant Episcopal Church in 1883.
He wrote History of American Litera-
ture During the Colonial Period. Man-
Mat of English Literature, etc He died
December 28, 1900.
Tyler ^^T* ^^ En^ish soldier who
*J*''*> served in the French wars, and
was one of the leaders in the rebellion
of 1S81 against the poll-tax (which see).
He led the men of Kent upon London,
where, after fire and pillage, they were
partly dispersed by a promise of the
king to grant them charters of freedom
and amnesty. Tyler, however, remained
with a body of the insurgentcu^ and was
met by the king next dav at Smithfield,
where, for his apparent insolence in the
royal presence, he was stabbed by Wil-
liam Walworth, mayor of London.
qVlAT EowABO BuBNETT. anthropolo-
'^J^^''9 eist, bom at Camberwell, Eng-
land, in 1832. He devoted himself with
much success to researches in the historv
of man and civilization: became presi-
dent of the Anthropological Society,
keeper of the Oxford University Mu-
seum, and reader in anthropology. He
was appointed first Gifford lecturer at
Aberdeen in 1888. His chief works are:
Researches into the Early History of
Mankind; Primitive Culture; and A»-
thropology. He was made professor of
anthropology at Oxford in 1895.
Tympanum < tim'pa-num ), (Da
*j***r«***»**** cavity of an irregular
shape situated in the ear. (See Ear,)
(2) In architecture, the triangular spare
in a pediment included between the
cornices of the inclined sides and the
horizontal cornice; also, any similar
space, as above a window, or the space
included between the lintel of a door
and the arch above it. The tympanum
is often ornamented with carving or
sculpture.
TvHCLale ^^^^'^'^^' ^^ Ttndall, WO-
Tunilall (tin'dal), John, physicist,
xyuoau ^^ j^ jggO at Leighlin
Bridge, Carlow, Ireland; was educated in
a neighboring school; joined the Irish
Ordnance Survey in 1839; engaged in
railway engineering for several years;
was appointed teacher in Queenwood Col-
lege, Hants; was elected to the chair of
natural philosophy in the Royal Institu-
tion in 1853; visited Switzerland in 1866
along with Huxley, and made repeated
investigations in that country
i
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Tyne
Type-setting Machine
fluently: lectured throughout the United
States In 1872; and presided over the
British Association in 1874 at Belfast
His chief works are: The Olaoiera of
the Alpt (I860) ; Heat Considered a» a
Mode of Motion (1863) ; On Radiation
(1866); Sound JiBG6); Light (1870);
The Forme of Water (1872) ; Floating
Matter in the Air (1881), etc He died
December 4, 1883.
Tyt«^ (tin), a river of Bngland,
^jMM.^ formed by the Junction near
Hexham of the North Tyne, which rises
in the Cheviots, and the South Tyne,
which rises in the east of Cumberland.
The united stream enters the sea at
Tynemouth after a course from Hexham
of nearly 30 miles. The Tyne has, since
1854, been the subject of large engineer-
ing operations, consisting of extensive
dredging, the construction of piers at its
mouth, the formation of lar^ docks, and
the building of a swing-bridge at New-
castle. These Improvements have re-
sulted in a great increase in its trade.
See Netocaette-on-Tyne.
Tynemouth <f-^|^i ^^^'ft
Northumberland, at the mouth of the
Tyne on its north bank. There are
many handsome buildiuj^ a parade
nearly a mile long, the ruins of a pictur-
esque old priory, an aquarium, winter-
garden, baths, etc., and the place is much
frequented for sea-bathing. The port of
North Shields and several villages are
included within the borough. Pop. 58,-
822.
Tvne (^P)* ^ rectangular solid of
*Jr^ metal, wood, or other hard ma-
terial having a raised letter, figure,
punctuation mark, or other character on
the upper end, which, when inked, is used
to make Impressions on paper and other
smooth surfaces; the term is also used
collectively. Types must be all of a uni-
form height, and perfectly true in their
angles, otherwise they could not
be locked firmly together to be
printed from. The nicks d d d
shown in figure are notches
made on one side of the type
to assist the compositor in dis-
l, tlnguishing the bottom from the
top ; the groove (e) is a channel
made In the bottom of the type
to make It stand steadily. From
the character of the letters types
are known as capitals, small
or lower-case letters, italic8f scripts, etc.
From their size they receive the following
names, the titles ranging from hrilUant,
which, however, Is rarely used, to Eng-
lish, the largest tyi>e used In ordinary
book work: —
BrUliMit...
Diamo
P«ari.
Baby WOUam Csxton was the first Ena^
Nonparaa .....WiUsm Cazton was the first Bndia
Mfakkm William Caxton was the first Eng
Bravier William Cazton was the first
BmttK9oiB ^..William Caxton was the fir
Lone Primer William Caxton was the
Small pfoL^^William Caxton was th
Pica .William Caxton was
William Caxton
Bievi« WiMxk lltttrr or <Mft &i9lisl|
Late in the nineteenth century the
* point' system was adopted generally by
printers. The old names with their near-
est equivalent in the point system are as
follows :
BriUiant 31 poiAt
Diamond 4 **
Pearl 41 •*
Ruby 5
Nonpareil 6 **
Minion 7 "
Brevier 8 **
Bourgeois 9 **
Long Primer ....10 •*
SmaU Pica 11
Pica 12 ••
English 14 •*
Types are made by casting (which is
now done by machinery), the letter being
first cut upon the end of a steel punch,
and the punch then driven into a piece
of copper, which forms the matrix or
bottom of the mold intended to produce
the letter. Type-metal is an alloy of
lead, antimony, and tin. See Printing,
Type-setting Machine,
a mechanical device for setting type. A
machine for this purpose was patented
In England as early as 1794, out the
first in any way available was the
Churd machine of 1822. This cast the
types as well as set them. Various other
machines were subseouently produced,
but it was not until tne last quarter of
the century that any was Invented that
competed profitably with hand-setting.
Of those now in use that set previously-
cast types, there are two which may be
named, the Thorne and McMillan ma-
chines. The first of these sets and dis-
tributes the type, while the second has
separate machines for setting and dis-
tributing. Of type-casting machines,
there are two in common use, the
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Typewriter Typhoon
Mergantbaler and the Lanston. The feet, eyes, or ears. It la a native of
Mergantbaler machine, perfected in 1884, South Africa.
is known as the Linotype* from the fact TvDiiOid FeVfiT (tl'foid), called also
that it casts a line of type instead of *Jl'**^*** **^^* enteric fever and
single types. It has long been widely gastric fever, a disease somewhat re-
used in newspaper offices and is now sembling typhus, but essentially different,
largely employed in book setting. The It is characterized by serious disorder of
Lanston, known as the Monotype, casts the bowels, and is not infectious in the
single types, a keyboard being used as sense that it can be communicated from
in the Linotype, each key controlling one person to another by breath or bv
the casting of a special type-letter, mark, the skin, as in scarlet fever and small-
space, etc. This is in considerable nse, poz. The poison seems to consist of
and there are other single-type machines living organisms or disease germs which
on the market. exist in the discharges from typhoid fever
nVnPizrrif AT ^ machine intended to patients, may gain admission to the
xjriicwAxtcX) be used as a substitute water of wells, and hence to the human
for the pen. and by which the letters stomach, through drinking water or that
are produceo by the impression of inked used to wash milk dishes. When these
types. The essential elements in such germs gain access to the alimentary canal
machines are a movement to bring the of a person whose general health is im-
type into position, an inking device, an paired, the disease is usually set up.
impression movement, and means for let- It is uncertain what time may elapse
ter and line spacing. A successful form between the introduction of the poison
of the machine has a series of letter and the appearance of the disease, but
keys arranged in rows, to be worked by the period is usually about three weeks,
the fingers of both hands, a letter being The symptoms of the disease are languor,
imprinted on the paper (which moves chills, violent headache, thirst, and
automatically) each time a key is struck, pains in the limbs. Soon diarrhoea sets
In recent years many type-writers have in, accompanied by a distended and ten-
been brought before the public, such as der state of the abdomen. The temper-
the Remington, Hammond, Bar-Lock, ature rises, the skin loses its moisture,
etc, and improvements are made from the kidneys cease to act freely, and the
time to time. In these there are two tongue becomes drv and brown. Then
rows of keys, 29 in all. Each key works a rose-colored rash appears over the
a lever to which is attached a capital chest and abdomen, which mav soon dis-
letter, an ordinary Roman letter, and appear, only, however, to be followed by
a figure. The capital letters and the a new crop of spots. At this stage de-
fiffures are brought into play by means lirium and other serious symptoms arise,
of two small shift stops, and the print- and as the disease advances ulceration
ing as it is performed is in full view of or perforation of the bowels may take
the operator. In others, as the Gali- place. While the symptoms here de-
graph, Yost, and Smith Premier, there is scribed are those of a typical case, there
a separate key for every character pro- are numerous instances where the pa-
ducible. tient may have no marked looseness of
Tvnliaceffi (tl-f&'se-^), a nat. order the bowels, no spots on the skin, and
Ajri^uov^cx^ of m o n o c o t yledonous no delirium. In the treatment of the
plants, characterised by their calyx be- disease the most important thing is the
mg three-sepaled and half-glumaceous. or dieting. Only soft liquid foods are
a mere bundle of long hairs, by tnelr allowable, such as milk» in abundance,
long lax filaments, clavate anthers, soli- boiled bread and milk, corn-flour, etc.
tary pendulous ovules, and peculiar Looseness of the bowels, if excessive,
habit The order includes two genera, should be checked bv catechu and chalk
Typha and Sparganium, the species of mixture, with the addition of laudanum,
which are abundant in the northern if necessary, to a grown-up i>er8on. The
parts of the world. They are herbaceous ^ease is serious and often proves fatal,
reed-like plants, growing in marshes and See Vaccination.
ditches. See Reed-mace, TtrnTinTi (tffon), the Greek designa-
TvDhline (tiflin), a curious lizard *JF""" Uon of an Egyptian deity
A^|/iuxuv belonging to a family in called Set or Seth, son of Seb, and
which the eyes and ears are hidden under brother to Osiris, whom he is said to
the skin. In the typical species, the have destroyed. He seems to have repre-
common typhline (or blind acontias — sented the volcanic forces of the' earth.
TpphUna Cuvferii), the limbs are en- TvnllOIITl (tl-f5n'), a violent hurri-
tlrely wanting, and the animal looks ut- *jlf**^'vii. ^^^ especially one of those
terly helpless, having no apparent legs, which rage on the coasts of China, and
i
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Typhus Tevcr Tyrol
Japan and the neighboring archipelago. Tvrfl.ILt (^'^c^t)» originally, in an«
They occur from May to November, bat * J *■***" clcnt Qreece, one who had
are most frequent and disastrous during usurped the ruling power without the
the months of July, August, and Sep- consent of the people or at the expense
tember. of the existing government Such a
TvDlmfl Fever (tl'^us), known also ruler, although he obtained his power
*J"" ^ as hospital fever, illegally, did not always use it oppres-
jail fever, etc., is essentially a fever of sively and violently; on the contrary, it
the poor, ill-fed, and badly-housed in- was frequently used humanely and
habitants of . large cities. It is infec- beneficentlv, and some tyrants were
tious, and the infection is believed to be patrons of literature and art. In mod-
transmitted by germs carried by lice or em times the word has a different
other vermin. Free ventilation is the significance, indicating a cruel or op-
least favorable condition for the spread pressive ruler.
?La^ a^^riod^'^SSrSv^'S Tyrant Flycatcher, f^. ''•'"•"
twelve days may pass aftet* the person Tttta (^i*)» one of the most celebrated
is infected. Then there is generally a ^J*"^ cities of ancient Phoenicia, and
shivering, followed by a hot, dry skin, a with its elder sister, Sidon, long a great
suffused condition of the eyes, a small trading mart. It was built partly on
pupil, thirst, a dull, stupid expression, an island and partly on the mainland;
great prostration, and costive bowels, and the insular fortifications formed its
About the seventh day a rash of irregu- chief strength when besieged and taken
lar spots and of a dusky hue appears by Alexander the Great in B.O. 832. A
over the chest and back, but sometimes mole or causeway then constructed to
this is entirely absent. As the disease the island was the origin of the isthmus
advances the patient's strength becomes which now connects it with the main-
exhausted, the urinary secretion is land. Tyre was famous in the tenth
scanty, if not entirely suppressed, de- century B.C. under Hiram, the friend of
lirium sets in, and the disease is often Solomon; was besi^ed In vain bv the
complicated by bronchitis, pneumonia, or Assyrians in 725-720 B.O., and by
pleurisy. About the fourteenth day, in Nebuchadnezzar, 585-572 B.C., and re-
favorable cases, the turn of the fever is mained an important place till it came
shown by the patient falling into a into the hands of the Turks. It was
sound sleep, from which he awakes with famous for a dye (the Tyrian purple)
the fever gone. In unfavorable cases the obtained from the shell-fish Murem
prostration increases, the feverishness is (which see). The modem Tyre or Sur
heightened, convulsions may occur, and is an insignificant place of 6000 inhabl-
at length the patient sinks into uncon- tants, under the government of Beirut,
sciousness. The treatment consists in See also PhcBnicia,
keeping the patient in a well-ventilated Tvrol (tir'ol), or Tibol', a province of
room, and preventing exhaustion by a *J**'* Austria (including Tyrol proper
light and wholesome diet Milk, beef- and Vorarlberg), is bounded north by
tea, nourishing soups without vegetables, Bavaria and Lake Constance, west by
should be given to the patient in small Switzerland, east by Salzburgand IUyria«
quantities at short intervals. south, east, and west by venetla and
TvBOfirraDllV (tI-PO«'Pa-fi). See Lombardy; area, 11325 square miles.
*Jr*'&*«*if**i/ Printing, In magnificence of scenery Tyrol is only
Tyr (tir), in northern mythology, the inferior to Switzerland, of which it is
^^ son of Odin, brother of Balder, a continuation. The Alps enter it from
and the god of war and victory. He Switzerk^nd in three chains, of which
corresponds to the Anglo-Saxon Tiw, the central (the Tyrol or Oetzthaler
from whom Tuesday is named, and the Alps) is the loftiest, and divides the
day is similarly named among the Danes country into North and South Tyrol,
and Icelanders. The drainage of North Tyrol is mainly
IVniTiTiiia (tl-ran'us), a genus of in- carried to the Danube by the Inn, which
xjrnumus gegsorial birds. The best- is the only navigable river; that of
known species is the tyrant fly-catcher South Tyrol is mostly conveyed to the
(T. Carolinen$i9) , which is remarkable Adriatic by the Adige. About one-third
for its bold and pugnacious disposition, of the surface is practically inaccessible.
It is a native of the United States, feeds another third is occupied by forests,
on insects, and is not afraid to attack The vine and cereals are cultivated, and
birds of prey much lanrer than itself, minerals, especially iron and salt, are
It is also called lynuil-tiirt&e and king- extensively worked. Silk, metal wares,
bird, wood articles, lace, and embroidery, aro
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Tyrone
Tytler
amoDf the maniifactims. The capital is
Innabrock. Pop. 850,002.
TirrATi^ (tl-r6n'), a ooanty of Ireland,
xyruue ^ ^^ province of Ulster;
bounded by Londonderry, Donegal,
Armagh, Monaghan, and Fermanagh;
area, 1260 8q. miles. The surface is
hilly, rising into mountains in the north
and south, and declining to a level to-
wards Lough Neagh. The soil in the
lower districts is fertile, and the county
Is watered by numerous branches of the
Foyle and Blackwater. Agriculture
cenerally is in a backward state. Goal
is mined to a small extent near Dun-
gannon in the eastern portion of the
county; linens, woolens, earthenware^
whiskey, beer, chemicals, etc., are made.
Principal towns, Strabane and Dun-
gannon. Pop. 150,567.
IVpatia ^ borough of Blair Co., Penn«
AyruuCi gvlvania, on the Little Juni-
ata River, 14 miles N. E. of Altoona.
It has extensive coaling interests, rail-
road shoDS, lumber and paper mills, etc
Tyrrhenian Sea (tir-rt'ni-an), the
*/********•*** *^** name given to the
part of the ^fedUerran^an Sen adjoining
the soiitUweflt coabI of Italy* and extend-
ing to Corsica* Sardinia^ aod Sicily.
Tvrtffina (tlr-t^'ua), a Greek lyric
*^ poet of the »<"veiith century
B.O., a native of Attka, celebrated for his
war soues written for the Spartans.
IVtiefTiiH (ter'it), Thomas, bom in
1786. He was educated at Eton and at
Queen 'a Collep?, Oxford i became a fellow
of Merton; clerk to the Honae of Ck>m«
mons (l?61-^7) ; and in 1781 was ap-
pointed a curator of the British Museum.
Among his writings were: Obtervaiiotu
on 9ome Pa$9age4 of Shakespore (1766) ;
an edition of Chaucer (1775) : and an
edition of the so-called Rowley^B Poems,
in the appendix of which he exposes the
fraud of CSiatterton.
TvfM^nft (tfsens), Peteb, a distin-
xyBSeus mulshed Flemish painter, bom
at Antwerp in 1625; died in 1602. He
excelled both in portraits and historical
painting. Amonc the latter is The At-
sumption of the Virgin, — His sons,
NiOHOULS and AuousTiifE, were also
talented artists, the former painting birds
and flowers, the latter landscapes of great
merit
TvtlPT Patbiok Fraseb, fourth son
*J"^^> of Alexander Fraser Tytler
(Lord Woodhouselee), was bom at
Edinburgh in 1791, and died in 1849.
He was educated at the University of
Edinburgh, became a lawyer, and finally
engaged in literature, writing his chief
work, the History of Scotland, 1823-43.
Among his other works are his biogra-
phies of the Admirable Grichton, Wlck-
ly£f, and Sir Walter Raleigh.— His
father, Alkzandeb Fraseb Tttleb
(Lord Woodhouselee), Scotch judge, was
bom at Edinburgh in 1747; died in 1813.
His chief work is the Elements of Oen-
erol History, He also contributed papers
to The Mirror, The Lounger, etc. — Lord
Woodhouselee's father, Wiluah Tttleb,
of Woodhouselee, born in 1711;
died in 1792, nublished an Inquiry into
the Evidence Against Mary Queen of
Soots, Criticisms of Hume's and Robert-
son's Histories, the Poetical Remains of
Jamm the First, etc.
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u
rr the twenty-fint letter and the fifth
' vowel in the English alphabet. Its
true primary sound was that which it
still retains in most of the languages in
Europe, that of oo in cool, tool, aood,
wood, etc., answering to the French ou
in tour, the sound being sometimes short,
sometimes long.
TJbangi. ^^ Mohangi.
tfbeda (^ba'da), a city of Spain,
^ ^ province of Jaen, on the right
t>ank of the Guadalquivir. It contains a
fine cathedraL Pop. 19,913.
uucrwc^ bom in Rhenish Prussia in
1826; died in 1871. He studied at GOt-
tingen and Berlin, and in 1862 was ap-
pointed professor of philosophy at
K5nigsberg. He wrote A 8y»iem and
HUtory of Logio (1875) and A Bitiory
of Philosophy, both translated into Eng-
lish.
XJbeS ^^* ®^ Seiuhal.
TTcayale (»-ka-gri«)t or Uoata'u, a
•^ large river of Peru, one of
the headwaters of the Amazon. It he-
fins in the Apurimac, is upwards of
.000 miles in length, and is navigable
by large vessels for 100 miles.
fi
TtdaiDiir (^'^^pv), or Oodktpobe,
" a town in the northwest of
India, capital of a native state of the
same name in Rajputana, on a lake
2000 feet above sea-level, contains a
notable royal palace, and exports
turmeric, cotton, indigo, etc. Pop. 45,-
595. — The state, which has an area of
12,670 sq. miles, came under the pro-
tection of Britain in 1817, and the rajah
ranks highest in dignity among the
Rajput chiefs. Pop. 1,030,212.
Tidal. ^^ ^^^ Right, and Allodium.
TT AtL\^ (fi'dal), Nicholas, the author
uuiux ^^ ^^jp^ Roister Doister, the
first regular English comedy, bom in
1506; died in 1556. He was master of
Eton School from 1534 to 1541, and the
play was written for performance by the
^holars. Its authorship was not ascer-
12—10
tained till 181& He was in favor at
court as a writer of pageants and Inter-
ludes.
TTddevflllfl. (ud-e-vAl'lA), a seaport in
UaaeviUili ^^^ southwest of Sweden,
at the inner end of the Byfjord. It has
an active trade and textile manufactures.
Pop. 9442.
TTdine (O'd^nA), a walled town of
vuAuv North Italy, ci^ital of a prov-
ince of the same name and see of an
archbishop, 60 miles northeast of Venice.
It contains a castle (now a barrack), a
Romanesque cathedraL bishop's palace,
etc and has manufactures of linen, silk,
woolens, etc. Pop. (1914) 48,962.
TTfo {6'fk), a government of Russia,
*'*** separated in 18«5 from Orenburg;
area 47,094 square miles. On the east,
where it is bordered by the Southern
Urals, the country is mountainous,
wooded, provided with excellent pastures,
and rich in minerals. It is also well
watered by the Bielaya, and has abun-
dance of arable land on which good crops
are raised. Pop. 2,620^600.— Ufa, the
capital, stands on the Bielaya, at the
confluence of the Ufa, 735 miles east
by north of Moscow. It is the see of a
bishop, and has considerable manufac-
tures and trade. Pop (1910) 103,485.
UffiziGaUery SS^''*^- «-
N. w. of the Victoria Nyansa. It is a
rich agricultural country with a mild
and uniform climate, and the inhabitants
are of a comparatively high type.
Within it, wholly or in part, are the
large hikes Victoria. Albert, Albert Ed-
ward, Kiogo and Rudolf. It was first
visited by Speke and Grant in 1860, and
is the seat of several mission stations.
Under King Mtesa, however, and his
successor Biwanga. the Ghristians were
persecuted, and Bishop Hannington was
put to death by the latter. It is now
a British protectorate, the British seat
of administration being^ Entebbe, the na-
tive capital Menga Pop. estimated at
4,000,000.
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Ugrians tlmaoese
DT^riftTlA (tt'gri-4nz), a term applied of Russia and signed a separate peace
V5AJ.CUA0 ^^ ^^ Finnic group of Tu- with Germany in 1918. Pop. about
ranian peoples, comprising the Lapps, 30.000,000.
Finns, and Magyars or Hungarians; TJlans (ti'lanz). See Uhlans,
their language is termed Ugrian. v*a.4i.o
TTlilsiTifl r^'iant), JoHANN LuDWiG, TTIpAr (ul'ser), a sore in any of the
Uiiiauu ^^ j^^ ^j. Tubingen in ^*^^* soft parts of the body, either
1787; died in 1862. open to the surface or to some natural
TTliI EiDWiN Fuller, statesman, bom cavity, and attended with a secretion of
' at Rush, New York, in 1841; died pus or some kind of discharge. Ulcers
in 1901. He studied law, became are of various kinds, as Moorhutic, oaf»-
mayor of Grand Rapids, Mich^ in ceroMM, »orofulou9f etc
1890, and was made assistant Secre- TnAftliArcy (5'le-o-borg), a town of
tary of State in October, 1893; and W^«»""*5 Russia, in the Grand-duchy
during the sickness of Secretary Gres- of Finland, at the mouth of the Ule&,
ham was Acting Secretary of State, in the gulf of Bothnia. Pop. (1904) 17,737.
While in this office be was entrusted TTleiIlfi.8 (U-16'maz), the hierarchical
with the arbitration to settle the boun- *'"*«*" corporation of learned men
dary between Brazil and the Argentine in Turkey, composed of the Imams or
Republic. He was made ambassador to ministers of religion, the Muftis or doc-
Germany in February, 180G. tors of law, and the Cadis or adminis-
ITlllfl.118 (3'Iai^)> a species of light trators of justice.
cavalry in the armies of the TTlfilaa ("I'fi-las), Ulphilas, or WuL-
Austrians, Russians and Germans. wxoiacwj riLAS, a bishop of the Gothe
TTIlTicllSVille (ytl'riks-vil), a citv of of Moesia, was bom, it is supposed, in
vuAAvuovAXA^ Tuscarawas Co., Ohio, 311; consecrated bishop by Eusebius of
on Stillwater Creek, 9 miles s. E. of New Nicomedia, probably at Antioch, in 341;
Philadelphia. It has manufactures of died at Constantinople in 381. He
fire clay and sewer pipe. Pop. 4751. translated most of the Bible into Gothic
Trintall MnnntflinA (Q-in't&), op (Moeso-Gothic), employing the Greek of
UlUl^aa moUnxaiUS uinta, a the Septuagint for the Old Testament,
range of lofty mountains in Utah, which and a Greek text, different from the re-
extend B. from the Wahsatch range, and ceived text, for the New. Only some
occupy a large area. Some of the peaks fragments of this translation have been
reach an altitude of over 13,000 feet. preserved, including the greater part of
ITist i^'^st), two islands of the Outer the four gospels, and these are of the
vxoif Hebrides, named North and South highest linguistic value. See Gotht,
Uist The people are principally en- TTIIftixrfltfkr (<ilz'wa-ter), the largest,
Sged in fishing. Pop. about 9000. uiiownwci ^^^^^ Windermere, of the
itlanders (weetMan-derz), out- English lakes, 8 miles n. of Windermere;
xbxcuAucxo landers or foreigners, the length, 7i miles. It is noted for its
fiame given by the Boers of the Trans- picturesque scenery,
vaal to the whites who lived In that TJlin ^11^2i}» * strongly fortified town
country before its annexation to the of Wflrtemberg, 45 miles s. s. E.
British empire. of Stuttgart, on the left bank of the
TTiifliTi (P-Jftn')> a town of India, in Danube, on both sides of which there
vjjaxii Scindias dominion, 350 miiea are important fortifications. It is an
northwest of Bombay, surrounded by a old town, irregularly built, with narrow
stone wail with round towers. It was winding streets, and has a cathedral in
one of the seven ancient holy cities of the the old Gothic style, one of the largest
Hindus. Pop. 39,892. churches in Germany with the tallest
TTVroiiiA (Q'kran) , a region in the spire in the world (530 feet — completed
ujikioxiic ^o^jiY^ of Russia along the in 1890). Its manufactures mclude
northern shore of the Black Sea ; called machinery, woolen and linen cloth, leather,
also Little Russia, to distingulKh it from paper, brassware, etc. The capitulation of
White Russia Ijring further north along Ulm in 1805, when General Mack surren-
the border of Austria-Hungary, and Great dered to Napoleon, was the turning-point
Russia, which centers around Moscow of the campaign in Austerlitz. Pop. 5(5,109.
and Petrograd. It formed the Russian TJlinaGeffi (ul-mft'se-§), a nat. order
governments of Kief, Chemigof, Podolsk, w*"*«»v^«/ ^^ exogens, oi which the
Karkof and Poltava. When Nicholas II genus Ulmu» or elm is the typo It is
was deposed and the communal system of nearly related to Urticace® (the nettles),
{government was inaugurated under the from which it differs only in having a
eadership of Lenine (q.v.), the Ukraine two-celled fruit and hermaphrodite
peoples declared themselves independent flowers. It consists of trees and skrabSi
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THna .
XTmbel
which have scabrous, alternate, simple,
deciduous leares and fugacious stipules.
TJlna. ^^^rm.
TTlphilaS. ^ee Ul/Uas.
TTlriPi (ol-r6't86), Hermann, a Ger-
""*^^ man philosopher, bom in 1806;
died in 1884. Having studied at Halle
and Berlin, in 1834 he was appointed
professor of philosophy at Halle Uni-
versity. His principal works are: A
History of Greek Poetry (1835), Shakes-
pere's Dramatic Art (18^), The Funda-
mental Principle of Philosophy (1845-
46), Compendium of Logic (1860), Qod
and Nature (1862), Body and Soul
(1866), Elements of Practical Philosophy
( 1873) •
TTlster (ul'ster), the most northerly of
the four provinces of Ireland,
8613 sq. miles in area. It is moun-
tainous in part, the heights reaching
2800 feet The coast is bold and rocky.
In the north is the famous Giant^s
Causeway. This province is the chief
seat of the Irish linen manufacture, and
shipbuilding is actively carried on at Bel-
fast Pop. 1,581,350.
Ulster King of Anns, J ^ « p^^-
aid of Ireland, and of the order of St.
Patrick. This office was created in 1552.
intima Thnle (Uppermost Thule),
wAVAAuo. AAJ.U.J.V ^ name given in an-
cient times by the inhabitants of South-
em Europe to the remote regions of
the unknown North. The Greek navi-
gator Pytheas (who probably lived in
the latter part of the fourth century
B.C.) made a voyage along the coast of
Britain and wrote an account of what he
learned about the Shetland and Orkney
Islands and possiblv the n. mainland
calling the region Thule. The name be-
came vague in its application, especially
under the form Ultima Thule. Norway,
Ireland, etc., bore the title in turn; and
many strange superstitions were current
regarding the region.
Tntimatum <«l-ti-mfl'tum), any final
wAVAAAj.wvM.AAj. ppopQgaj Qj. Statement of
conditions; e8i>ecially, in diplomatic ne-
gotiations, the final terms of the one
party, the rejection of which often in-
volves an immediate mpture of diplo-
matic relations and a declaration of war.
intramarine /"' '},"?; ™»; ''!?'^ v,^
vAVA»uj.aAAuv |jeau^,fu] and durable
skj-blue pigment, a color formed of the
mmeral called lapis lazuli. This sub-
stance is much valued by painters, on
account of the beauty and permanence
of its color, both for oil and water paint-
ing: Artificial ultramarine is prepared
by heating sulphide of sodium with a
mixture of silicic add and alumina.
Xntramontanism i^^^i^^^;
of that party in the Church of Rome
who place an absolute authority in mat-
ters of faith and discipline in the hands
of the pope, in opposition to the views
of the party who would place the na-
tional churches, such as the Galilean, in
partial independence of the Roman curia*
and make the pope subordinate to the
statutes of an oecumenical counciL Ac-
cording to ultramontanism the pope is
superior to general councils, independent
of their decrees, and considered to be
the source of all jurisdiction in the
church. The Vatican Council of 1870
virtually established the views of ultra-
montanism as dogmas of the church.
Xnugh Beg, Olug Beg iS'^^t
Moslem astronomer, bom in 1394, grand-
son of Tamerlane, and king of Transox-
iana. He began to reign in 1446 and
was killed by his son in 1459.
TTlverfttAH (ftl'ver-stun, locally pn^-
UlVerSXOn i^^nced tts'tun), aieaiK)rt
of EiUgland, in Lancashire, about H
mile from Morecambe Bay, to which
there is a canal. It has a paper-mill,
shoe-factory, blast-furnaces, etc.. and
there is a small amount of shipping.
Pop. (1911) 9552.
TTIiraapa (Q-lis'ste; in Greek, Odys-
Uljr55C5 ^g^^)^ ^.jj^ ^f ^^^ jgj^j ^^
Ithaca» was 'one of the Greek heroes
who engaged in the war against Troy.
In returning to his own country after
the siege he visited the country of the
Lotophagi in N. Africa, the Cyclopes in
Sicily (see Polyphemus) , the island of
i¥]olus, king of the winds, reached the
island JEtsa, where Circe changed
(temporarily) his companions into pigs;
visited the infernal regions, where he
consulted the soothsayer Tiresias how to
return to his country; passed in safety
the coast of the Sirens, and the dangers
of Scylla and Charybdis; remained for
seven years with the nymph Calypso
after losing all his men; and at last,
after an absence of twenty years, re-
turned to Ithaca. Here he found his
palace occupied and his substance wasted
by suitors for the hand of his wife
Penelope, but with the aid of his son
Telemachus he put them to death. He
lived about sixteen years after his re-
turn. These adventures of Ulysses are
the subject of Homer's Odyssey,
TJmballa. see Amtala.
TTmbel (um'bel), in botany, a variety
VAUMVA ^ inflorescence which coMisti
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TTmbelliferse
TTncial Letters
of a DtuDber of pedicels or flower-stalks,
nearly equal in len£th» springing from a
common center, with tne blossoms on
their smnmits forming a level or rounded
IJmbeU of Hemlock.
surface. When a number of such um-
bels are combined in the same way we
have a compound umheL the smaller um-
bels being called partial umbels.
XTmbellifero 4'•nS;J^'rd'1i'p2^^^-
nat order of plants, the flowers of
which are almost alwavs in regular com-
pound umbels. The plants of this order
are natives chiefly or the northern parts
of the northern hemisphere, and nearly
all herbs with fistular furrowed stems
and divided leaves; the fvuit consists
of two indehiscent ridged carpels united
by a commissure. Some are very poi-
sonous, as hemlock and certain others;
others are esculents, as celery, carrots,
and parsnips: many yield aromatics, as
caraway, coriander, dill, anise; a few
secrete a foetid gum-resin, much used in
medicine, as asafetida, galbanum, opop-
anax and sagapenum.
TTmber (umb^r), a well-known min-
eral pigment, of an olive-brown
color in Its raw state, but much redder
when burnt. It occurs either naturally
in veins and beds, or is prepared artifici-
ally from various admixtures. The
commercial varieties are known as
Turkey umber, raw and burnt, and Eng-
lish umber, the latter being an artificial
ochrey admixture.
** ^*^ vel and Placenta.
TTmlirQ (um'bra), in astronomy, a
^"^"** term applied to the total
shadow of the earth or moon in an
eclipse, or to the dark cone projected
from a planet or satellite on the side
opposite to the sun. See Penumbra,
Eclipse^
UmbrellA (um-brel'la), a portable
^*AM.^M,^MM» giju^g^ screen, or canopy
which opens and folds, carried in the
hand for sheltering the person. The um-
brella had its origin in the East in very
remote times, where it was (and still
is) regarded as an emblem of royalty
or a mark of distinction; but as a de-
fense from the rain it was not used in
the West till early in the eighteenth
century.
TTmbrella-bird, ?.^®®/"A** ^^,"«rican
** "*• Mxx*A, jjjj^ (Cephaioptirua
omAtus) allied to the crows, remarkable
for the crest of blue-black feathers rising
from the head ^nd curving towards the
end of the beak, which it nearly reaches.
Another long tuft of feathers hangs
down from the breast.
Umbrella-tree, ® °*.™® «2^f? *® ^^
v«xA»^A^x4.«. wxvv, gp^,eg of Magnolia,
M, umbrella and M. tripetala, from the
form and position of the leaves. The
same name is given to PanddnuB odora-
tissimuSf the screw-pine.
TTTnlirifl (um'bri-a), a division of
uiuuxiit jj^iy^ ^jj ^jj^ Adriatic, which
derives its appellation from the Um-
brlans, by whom it was inhabited in
ancient times. It now forms the prov-
ince of Perugia. The Umbrians were an
ancient people who spoke a language akin
to the Latin. See Euaubine Tables.
Umlaut C?m'loat), in philology, the
^ change of a vowel in one syl-
lable through the influence of one of
the vowels c, f\ u in the syllable im-
mediately following — a common feature
in several of the Teutonic tongues.
Ummre (u^'P^r)* a person to whose
^ r*'*'^ sole decision a matter in dis-
pute between two parties is referred.
Specifically, in law, a third person to
whom the dispute is referred for decision
when, in an arbitration, the arbitrators
do not agree.
Umritsir. ®^ Amritsir.
Unalaska /^-na-ias'k/), one of the
vucMCMMko. largest of the Aleutian
Islands (which see), being 75 miles long,
and 20 miles at its extreme breadth.
On it there are a number of volcanoes.
UnaH i^'°?^' ^ species of sloth. See
Uncaria (un-kA'ri-a), a genus of
^ ^ •* plants. See Gambtr.
Uncial Letters ("«^'8hai), letter of
ancient Latin and Greek manuscripts.
These letters were compounded between
the majuscule or capital and minuscule
or small character, some of the letters
resembling the former, others the latter.
Uncial writing ii supposed to have been
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Uncle Sam TJngulata
employed in Latin MSS. as early as the TTnderwOOd l^^ci^^ Mabous, botan-
third or fourth century, but was seldom *'****^*'^w**> isK born at New Wood-
used after the tenth. stock. New York, in 1853. He became
TTnde Sam ^^^ familiar name of the professor of geology and botany in the
** ^ United States govern- Illinois Wesleyan University, and wrote
ment, used as John Bull is with respect Our Native Fem» and Hoto to Study
to England. It is an extension of the Them, and other botanical works,
letters U. S. (United States), printed TJnderwriter ^^^ name given to in-
or stamped on the government property. vi*u.cx wxxv^x, dividual marine in-
It was first used in Trov, New lork, in surers. These persons were formerly
1812, when certain goods purchased for not permitted to enter into any joint-
the government and branded U. S., were stock action as a company, but wrote
officially inspected by Samuel Wilson, under policies of insurance with the
whose local nickname was Uncle Sam. sums for which they severally bound
The coincidence of initials suggested the themselves. The system still prevails
application of the nickname m full to abroad, but there are also numerous
the government companies whose business it is to grant
ITllGOIlfoniiable (un-ka-for'ma-bl), marme insurances. The underwriters of
vuvvuAvx MMj.^ jjj geology, a term American cities do not confine their
applied to strata whose planes do not business to marine insurance alone,
lie parallel with those of the subjacent TJiidilie (nn'din), a water-spirit of
wu-uxii^ ^^ female sex, resembling in
character the sylphs or spirits of the
air, and corresponding somewhat to
the naiads of classical mythology. Ac-
cording to Paracelsus, when an undine
married a mortal and bore a child she
received a soul. One of these spirits is
the heroine of a celebrated romance by
De la Motte Fouqufi.
Undidatory Theory A"?'taphy"8:
ics, the theory which regards light as a
Unconformable Strata. mode of motion generated by molecular
vibrations in the luminous source, and
or superjacent strata but have a dif- propagated by undulations in the subtle
ferent line of direction or inclination, medium known as the ether, presumed to
See also Conformable, pervade all space and to occupy the m-
TTti/»+iati Extreme. See Extreme tervals which separate the molecules or
\3 u\*\,i.\3U,y u faction. atoms of bodies. When these undula-
TTn A ik'Ttrr^ti-nYiA "RailrAarl ^'^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ *ct on the nerves of our
UnaergrOHna itaiiroaa, retina they produce in us the sensation
the name given before the Civil war to of light. The only other theory of li^ht
a secret arrangement for helping slaves which can be opposed to this, and which
to escape from the South, by passing is variously called the corpuscular, emis-
them from one hiding place to another sion, or material theory, supposes light
until they reached Canac^ or other places to consist of material particles, emitted
of safety. Large numbers gained their from the source, and projected in
freedom in this way, through the aid of straight lines in all directions with a
antislavery sympathizers. velocity which continues uniform at all
TTnrlpraTiAf-wliPPl a form of water- distances, and is the same for all in-
uuucisiiuw wiicci, yf\^ee\ having a tensities. The undulatory theory is,
number of float-boards disposed on its cir- however, now universally adopted by
cumference, and turned round by the physicists.
moving force of a stream of water acting TTnomlfttft (nng-gQ-lfl ta), the ungu-
on the float-boards at its lowest part. ^ "&»**"'•'"' late or hoofed quadrupeds.
In this wheel the water acts entirely by forming the largest and most important
its momentum, its weight taking no part order of the mammalia. This order is
in the effect. subdivided into (a) the section Peris-
TTth^ptwaaiI Francis Henry, au- sodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates, which
uuucrwuuu, jjjQ j^j^ j^j. Enfield, includes the rhinoceros, the tapirs, the
Massachusetts, in 1825; died in 1894. horse and all its allies; and (6) the
He wrote Handbook of American Liter- Artiodactyla, or even-toed, which com-
ature. Handbook of English Literature, prises the hippotamus, the pigs, and the
and some novels and biographies. whole group of ruminants, including
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TTnicom Union of South Africa
oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes, camels, UnifiTenitUS dci flliUS <**^^ ^
deer, etc. In the former section the *'***&*'***•'**» **vx uuuo gQ^t^^ son
hind feet are odd-toed (one or three of God*; from the initial words), a bull
toes) in all the members, and the fore- of Pope Clement XI (1713).
feet in all except the tapirs; in the lat- TTtiiati (Qn'yun), a town of Hudson
ter section the toes are always even in w-^**"!! ^j^^^ ^^^ Jersey, opposite New
number, either two or four. York, one mile N. of Hoboken. It has
TTnicOrn (^'m-kom), a fabulous ani- gUk and other industries. Pop. 21,023.
^ ^^ ** mal represented as with one TTtiiftn a town of Union CJo., South
horn i^rowin^ from its forehead. Such w*"vii, Carolina, 70 miles N. N. w. of
an animal is frequently mentioned by Columbia. It has cotton, cotton-seed-
Qreek and Roman writers, who generally oil, and hosiery mills. Pop. 5623.
describe it as a native of India, of the TTfiiAn The, in English history, the
size and form of a horse, the body being vnxwii, uniting of the parliaments of
white, and a straight horn growing from Scotland and England by the Act of
its forehead. The reem of the Hebrews, Union, 1707; also, the legislative union
of which unicorn is a mistranslation of Ireland with Great Britain in 1800.
(Deut xxxiii, 17, and elsewhere), was — The Union is a term frequently applied
probably a urus. It was a two-horned to the United States of America.
animal. The unicorn is one of the sup- TTtiiati Poliinna are textile fabrics
g)rters of the royal arms of Great *'*""ii 4:auxiU9| j^^^^g ^£ ^ mixture
ritain, in that posture termed salient, of different materials, as cotton and wool.
It was taken from the arms of Scot- cotton and silk, and similar mixtures,
land, which had two unicorns as sup- in which flax, hemp, jute, etc., are mixed
porters. with other fibrous materials,
TTnifiATTI-mnt ^ popular name of TTtiinn Janir the national ensign of
unicorn rooi;, ^j^^ . ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ union jacK, 3^^^^ „^ ^ \^^
no$a, a native of Nortn America, which form as a jack — that is, displayed at the
furnishes one of the most intense bitters end of a bowsprit The name has come
known, used as a tonic and stomachic. (wrongly) to be applied to the union flag
TTniform (<i'ni-^orm), the distinguish- itself. It is formed by the union of the
w ^*'***' ing dress of any body of crosses of St George, St Andrew and St
soldiers, sailors, members of a society Patrick. The jack is not flown on shore,
or club, etc Military uniforms seem TTTiinn nf Snnfli Afn'pft a federa-
first to have been adopted in England "^"011 01 DOnxn -ainca, ^j^^^ ^^
about the time of Henry VIII, being four British colonies of South Africa,
used for his bodv-guard and that of sue- including those of the Cape of Good
ceeding monarcbs. Uniforms for the Hope, NataL Transvaal, and Orange
army came in use in 1661, when. Free State, dating from May 31, 1910.
on the restoration of the Stuarts, a The movement for the union of the
standing army was first formed. Scai'let South African colonies was launched by
became the national color of the a convention in 1908. This convention re-
British uniform, as blue did of that of assembled in January, 1909, and pro-
the French and German, though the color ceeded to draft a constitution which, after
varied with circumstances, white being revision, was adopted. This constitution
used in hot climates. Blue was adopted vests the executive power in the Brit-
in the United States, and during the isb kings and his representative ; the legis-
Civil war blue and gray were the dis- lative in a Senate and House of Assembly,
tinctive colors worn by the soldiers of A Sui)reme Court is also provided for,
the North and South respectively. The of which the several supreme courts of
head-dress forms a distinctive part of the colonies are to form part. This con-
the uniform, and very showy hats and sists of judges elected by each of the four
helmets are at times worn, but chiefly for States. The Senate consists of 40 mem-
parade purposes. In recent times, hers, 8 appointed by the governor-general
owing to the advent of smokeless powder and 8 elected by each of the four states,
and long range rifles with telescopic The House has 121 members, divided
sights, showy uniforms of any kind and among the States according to their re-
color have grown dangerous, and there spective importance ; the Cape colony hav-
is a growing tendency to adopt the ing 51, Natal 17, Transvaal 36. and
khaki, dust-colored wear, from its indis- Orange Free State 17. The federation
tinctness when at a distance. The idea was confirmed by Parliament, August 16,
of display in military dress is being 1909. Herbert John Gladstone was ap-
abandoned in favor of that of safety. pointed as the first governoivgeneral.
TTnifAmiifiy Act of. See Act of General Louis Botha, of the late Boer
viuxviiuii^jTy xjf^ifoffg^Hy^ army, being made premier. Each colony
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Union Theological Seminary
United Brethren in Christ
retained Its own goyernor and legislature.
The area of this new federal union is
4r2,887 sq. miles, the pop. 5,450,217.
Union Theological Seminary^
a divinitjr school in New York City. Pres-
byterian in origin but now independent of
ecclesiastical control. It offers courses
leading to the degrees of bachelor of di-
vinity and doctor of divinity. The semi-
nary buildings are on Broadway at 120th
Street. There are 130,000 volumes in the
library. In 1917 there were 30 instruc-
tors and 230 students.
Uniontown, ^^l^iZ?T^f^
B. by B. of Pittsburgh. It is in an iron,
and coal district, and has coke, iron, steel,
flass, and other industries. Pop. 13,-
44.
Unit (^'°^^)> ^^ arithmetic the least
*^ " whole number, or one, represented
by the figure 1. Every other number is
an assemolage of units. This definition
is applicable to fractions as well as to
whole numbers. In mathematics and
physics a unit is any known determinate
quantity by the constant repetition of
which any other quantity of the same
kind is measured. It is not itself one,
but is a length, or a surface, or a solid,
or a weight, or a time, as the case mav
be, while 1 is only a numerical symbol.
— Specifio gravity unit: for solids or
liquids, 1 cubic foot of distilled water
at 62* Fahr.= 1; for air and gases. 1
cuWc foot of atmospheric air at 62®
Fahr.= 1. The unit of heat, or thermal
unit, in the United States and Britain,
the quantity of heat which corresponds to
1® Fahr. in the temperature of 1 lb. of
pure water at about 39** Fahr. ; in France,
the heat required to raise a gramme of
pure water at about 3.94'* C, 1* C. — In
electricity the unit of quantitff is that
quantity of electricity which with an
electro-motive force of one volt will
flow through a resistance of 1,000,000
ohms in one second, called a farad; unit
of current, a current of one farad per
second; unit of work, that which will
produce a velocity of one meter ^39.37
mches) per second in a ma^ weighing
one gramme (15.432 grains) after acting
ui>on it a second of time. — A dunamic
unit is one expressing the quantity of
a force or the amount of work done.
One such unit is the foot-pound (which
see). The system of units recommended
bpr a committee of the British Associa-
tion for scientific calculations, and
known as the C,0,8. system, adopts
the centimeter as the unit of length, the
gramme as the unit of mass, and the
$eoond as the unit of time, these words
being represented respectively by the
above letters. (See Dynamics.) In
this system the unit of area is the square
centimeter, the unit of volume is the
cubic centimeter, and the unit of velocity
is a velocitv of a centimeter per second.
The unit of momentum is the momentum
of a gram moving with a velocity of a
centimeter per second.
Unitarian (tt-m-ta'ri-an), a religious
^ "^ sect or congeries of sects,
distinguished by the denial of the re-
ceived doctrine of the Trinity. The Uni-
tarians may be divided into classes: (1)
The conservative or orthodox Uni-
tarians, who accept the general articles
of the Christian creed (with the excep-
tion of the Trinity), such as miracles,
the resurrection of Christ, and the
plenary inspiration of Scripture. (2)
The liberal or progressive Unitarians,
whose creed is purely rationalistic.
The^ consider Christ as a mere man,
inspired as other great men are, though
in a greater degree; they reject the
doctrmes of original sin, eternal punish-
ment, the belief in miracles, and gener-
ally the whole supernatural element in
Christianity. They den^ the necessity
of an atonement, considering Christ's
death but as a martyrdom in defense of
truth. This latter class forms the
majority. Unitarian views have been
held more or less in all ages of the
church, but they came more prominentlv
forward during the Reformation period,
especially in connection with the teach-
ing of the elder and younger Socinus,
L«ilius and Faustus, uncle and nephew.
United Brethren in Christ,
an American religious sect, founded by
Philip William Otterbcin, a minister of
the German Reformed Church, nnd Mar-
tin Boehm, a Pennsylvania Mcnnonite.
The church was organized in 1800; it
was at first confined to a membership
that was largely German, but it widened
its scope and grew rapidly. There are
nearly 3600 churches, with about 346.000
members and 2000 ministers. Ten col-
leges and several academics are supported
by the church. Bonobrake Theological
Seminary, Dayton, Ohio, dates from 1871.
The church has an extensive publishing
house at Dayton. The theology of the
United Brethren in Christ is Arminian.
They have two sacraments : baptism and
the Lord's Supi)cr. The ceremony of the
washing of feet is sometimes used. Home,
Foreign Mission and other societies are
supported. At the time of tho revision of
the Confession of Faith in 1880, the con-
servative element withdrew and estab-
lished the * Old Constitution ' body, which
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XTnited Greeks
ITnited States
now has an estimated membership of
about 22.000.
United Greeks 5M3?*^«.^
to the Greek Church, but whom the Ro-
man Church has united with her own
members on certain conditions. They re-
tain the ancient rite, the Greek language
during service, the strict Greek fasts, and
the Lord's supper under both forms, in
common with the old Greek Church.
TTnited Kingdom. ^ ^^*^**
Tlnited Presbyterian Chnrch^
the Bame adopted by that Scottiah
church which waB formed by the union
of the Sec^sloa Chunch and the Relief
Church in May, l&il. This churth ad-
beres to the theological dootrinea taught
in tbe Westminster Coufe^fiion of Faith
and the Larger and Sborter CatechismB.
The Bystem of chorrh govertiment diflfera
from that of the Established and Free
churches only In having no iatennediate
court between the presbyteries and the
Bupreme court, the latter of wbich is
called a General Synods and stta o&ce a
year. In the Onltetl States there are
about 1000 churehea and orer 150,000
memhere.
TTnited States li^%''^^^i^,
a federal republic of North America, one
of the largest and most important coun-
tries of the world, which occupies
nearly one-half the total area of the
continent and extends from the At-
lantic to the Pacific oceans, and from
the Mexican republic and Gulf of Mex-
ico on the south to the Dominion of
Canada on the north. Its greatest
length, from east to west, is 2800 miles ;
greatest breadth, north to south, 1600
miles ; area, 3,026,789 square miles, equal
to more than three-fourths that of all
Europe. In addition it possesses the
isolated territory of Alaska, 590,884
square miles in area, making its total
extent nearly equal to that of Europe.
Recent additions to its territory com-
prise the Philippine and Hawaiian
Islands, in the Pacific, and the island of
Porto Rico in the Atlantic, with a few
smaller islands, adding a further area of
132,310 square miles, the total area
under the American flag being 3,749,983
square miles. The boundaries on east
and west are the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans, on the south the waters of the
Gulf of Mexico and the ^northern border
line of Mexico. On the north the
boundary west of the 95th meridian of
w. longitude is, with slight exception,
the 49tli parallel of v, latitttde. Bast
of this meridian it is irregular, follow
ing the median line of the great lakes
and the 8t Lawrence Btver, which It
leaves at the 45th parallel of latitude.
This parallel forms the northern bound-
ary of New York and Vermont, but
Maine projects northward nearly to the
pazallel of 47** 30^. The population of
this country, exclusive of its outlying
portions, was in 1910, 91,972,266 ; in-
clusive of Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto
Rico, 93,402,151. That of the Philip-
?ine Islands (census of 1903) was
,635,426, makuig a total under the
dominion of the great republic of over
100,000,000. This includes a n€«ro
population of nearly 10,000,000, and a
foreign-born population of over 13,000,-
000, exclusive of that in the island pos-
sessions. The federation consists of 48
states (13 ori^ally) ; 2 organized terri-
tories, Hawaii and Alaska; 1 unorgan-
lized, Porto Rico; and the depend-
encies of the Philippine, Guam and
Tutuila islands. There are three cities
of over 1,000,000. eight of over 500.000
populatioQ* these being New York, 4,766,-
§83: Chic4igo, 2.185,283; Philadelphia,
1.549,003; St Louis, 687,029: Boston.
670.5S5; Cloveland, 560,663; Baltimore,
5aS,485, flDd Pittsburgh, 533,905. The
cities of over 100,000 number fifty-one.
The table on the following page gives the
areas and populations of the States and
Territories, those marked * being the
original States.
PhyHcal Characienstio9,— The United
States is very diversified in physical
aspect, soil and climate, extending, as
it does, from 25"" to 49"" N. latitude, and
from east to west over lowlands, plains,
plateaus and mountain ranges. It has
two broadly marked features, the Mis-
sissippi River, with its great valley,
crossing it from north to soutl^ and the
wide elevation of the Rocky Mountains,
with its bordering plains and plateaus,
following the same direction farther west.
The Mississippi Valley, covering about
one-half the area of the United States,
comprises in its northern portion a
prairie region, largely treeless, in parts
quite level, but generally a rolling coun-
try. South of the Missouri and the
Ohio its surface is more varied, there
being numerous hilly tracts, while the
level reaches are often swampy near
the rivers. Forests formerly covered
this southern region somewhat generally,
and considerable tracts of woodland re-
main, but farming and erasing lands now
occupy in great part the ancient forest
area.
Passing eastward from this vast valley,
with its elevatioQ varying from 700 feet
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United States
TJnited States
Btfttw.
Alabamn. ..,.,..
AfluJOBflJi. .,.,,,.
Arisona .........
Californim. , ,
Colorndo . , ,
*Cono«fticut
•Delmwart* . .
Florida. .........
*t}roT«ia .»,..,..
Jd&ho * . -
llUrioift
IndiA&A. ..,...«,.
Iowa ►,♦......,..
Kadaa. ... . .
Louiiidna. . , .
Mjup^e. . » , ,
•MfliyliiDd,
MicbicAii..
MinnHota. .,.,.,
MiflewJppL ......
MuMoun
Mod lann . .
KtbraAkft... , . , , .
Nl?V|lCtjl| , r ...... .
*Nffw HnxnpAhiTp
•New Jertry. . . . .
Kew Mt^iiico. , . . *
•Nrw York
Nonb D&kota,..
Ohio... .
OklflLhoma .......
Or*5ioii , , . . .
•PeanwylvBQui,
* Rhode Islnnd , . ,
•^uib Camlitia..
South Dfikota....
Tf^DiieflA^e
Teiaa ,
rtob.,.
V?rmoiil*,*^t ,*. .
Washifi^too. ,,,, ,
Wmt Vinjinia. .. .
Wisroniim
Wyomjng
Turrit oripfl
■j>d DiftUirta*
D- of Columbia. .
Alfii^kA. . ■ ,
HawaJi . , , ^
Porto RicH*. I . . '. t .
Afea
inSq.
158,297
103 .MS
4,0«.
2,370
se,66a
59,265
5fl,l47
83,158
4n.,WH
48,5<Mi
33,04 a
12,327
^,682
4fi.86r>
50,420
Hft,ftn7
77,520
UO,(5ftO
0,34 1
122,634
40,204
fi2,42fl
70.R37
41,040
70.05
06,690
4a,l2fl
1,248
3o.om»
77,<J15
42,022
265,896
84,060
0,554
42,fl27
00,127
24,170
66,066
97.UH
70
^^90,884
6,440
Popu-
Ifltton,
leoo.
1,828,607
1,311,564
122,031
L485,0.'i3
539.700
008,355
1 84 J 35
528,542
2,216,331
161,772
4.82J,5ijO
2,516,402
2.131,853
1.470.405
2.li7,l74
l,;t«l.625
Mm05(>
2,«*l,'>.34fl
J,42O.0SL1
1,751,304
1.551,270
3,*06,ftfir
243,329
1,088,53?*
42.335
411,588
l,8ft3.6m>
it>3,3l0
7,2flJ<.0l2
l.KOa.BlO
3l0,l4fi
4,157,54^1
l,fXK).00n
413,534]
0^302,11'^
42«,,55r»
1,340,3 Ui
401.570
2,020,6 1«|
3,048,710
2Trt,740
343,541
1, §54, 184
518,103
05S,800
2,Oft«.042
02,531
278,7 IS
8:^,441
lo4,001
0."a,243
Popu-
latitiiiii
leia
331,069
64,356
101,900
1,118,013
at the bead of navigation to sea level in
the coast district, an elevated region is
reached, the Appalachian uplift, which
borders the great valley on the east, as
the Rocky Mountain region does on the
west. Those mountains extend from
northern New England to central
Georgia and Alabama, reaching an eleva-
tion of 6293 feet in Mount Washington,
N. U., and 6710 in Mount Mitchell,
N. G. (See Appalachian Mountains.)
From the eastern base of this mountain
system to the sea extends a coast plain,
narrow in Maine, but widening south-
ward, with the exception of a narrow
belt at New York, and finally attaining a
width of 200 miles in North Carolina.
It is hilly in parts of New England,
but below New xork presents a distinct
coast region and a more elevated slope,
the latter southward becoming a somewhat
abrupt terrace, rising from a few hun-
dred to more than a thousand feet and
known as the 'Piedmont Plateau.' The
coastal region is seldom more than 100
feet in height, and has a sandy soil,
with extensive swamps in many places
near the coast. The coastal plain ex-
tends from the Atlantic westward along
the Gulf border and in its South At-
lantic portion ectends far southward,
forming the peninsular State of Florida.
In this are extensive swamps, which have
been partly reclaimed. Proceeding west-
ward from the Mississippi River, the
land rises in a very irentle slope until it
reaches the base of the western plateau,
where elevations of 5000 and 6000 feet
are attained. This region, known as the
Great Plains, has a light rainfall and
is not nearly so well adapted for agricul-
ture as the lower eastward region, but
it is covered with nutritive grasses and
forms extensive regions of pasturage,
the great grazing section of the country.
Westward still the foot-hills of the
mighty Rocky Mountain system appear.
(For the characteristics of the latter see
Rocky Mountains.) Westward from this
region of lofty peaks and arid soil
stretches to the ocean the Pacific slope,
broken by mountain ranges which em-
brace the Sierra Nevada and the Coast
Range, and including the Great Basin,
a vast arid plateau, none of the drain-
age of which reaches the sea. The Great
Salt Lake is its most extensive body of
water, the relic of a supposed much more
extensive lake of past ages, known to
geologists as Lake Bonneville. From
these mountains and plateaus the land
slopes downward to the Pacific coast.
In the northeast Puget Sound, a deep
open channel of navigable water, ex-
tends far into the State of Washington.
In southeast California is another great
depression, the Mohave Desert, waterless,
but sinking in its deepest part to a depth
of 260 feet below sea-level.
A splendid system of drainage exists
over the greater part of the broad surface
of the republic, especially in its great cen-
tral agricultural plain, which is crossed by
the Mississippi tnrough nearly its whole
width, while its great lateral affluents, the
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ITnited States United States
MiMoari and Ohio, with their numerous the rainfall is abundant, but not ex-
branches, gather up the greater parts cessive, and in the Mississippi valley the
of the waters of the east and west, and rains are sufficient in quantity and regu-
farther south the Arkansas, Red, and lar enough in distribution to aid eyery-
other streams pour their waters into the where in successful agriculture. On
great central artery of drainage. East- the Pacific slope, on the contrary, the
ward of the Appalachian extend numer- rains come periodically, there being wet
ous shorter streams, the Connecticut, and dry seasons, while within the Rocky
^ud8on. Delaware, Susquehanna, Poto- Mountain system the rainfall is in gen-
mac, James, Roanoke, Savannah and eral so deficient that irrigation is neces-
various others. On the Pacific slope the sary to render agriculture remunerative,
rivers are of lesser size, the mountains or even possible, in many sections. On
diverting much of the waterflow into the coast of Washington the annual fall
interior reservoirs, as in the Great is in places as high as 80 inches, while ,
Basin, while the lesser rainfall supplies in the mountain r^ions it is reduced to
a smaller quantity of water. The Co- 14 inches or even less, and in the Cali-
lumbia, with the exception of the Yukon, fornia Desert and Death Valley there
of Alaska, is the largest river of the may be no rain for years at a time,
continent flowing into the Pacific In the arid and semiarid sections of the
There are various smaller streams, the west, irrigation, long practiced by the
most notable being the Colorado, famous people, has been taken in hand by the
from the gnind canyon through which government, already with the addition of
it flows. This, however, renders it un- Targe areas of very productive land to
serviceable to mankind except in its low- the national resources and the promise of
est section, where it is proving of great millions of acres of fertile farm lands in
value as a source of irrigation. A the future.
notable feature of the water system of Flora. — The territory of the United
the United States is the series of great States, when settlement first began, was
lakes which extend between the States covered in ereat part with dense forests,
and eastern Canada, sending their waters a region of flounshine woodland unsur-
by the channel of the St. Lawrence to passed in extent and value. But the
the ocean, and forming an interior com- needs of settlers led to the removal of
mercial waterway nowhere rivaled. vast acres of this woodland for agri-
Climate, — The great width of the cultural puri>ose8, and the demands for
United States from north to south and lumber of an increasing population has
its diversified topography give it a great added immensely to this destructive
variety of climatic conditions, varying process, until what fovests remain are
from semi-arctic to semi-tropic in tern- largely confined to the mountains and
peratures. The icy blasts from the great are insufficient to supply the growing
northwestern level of the continent find demand. The government has recently
their wa^ southward over the wide cen- undertaken to conserve what remain
tral plains with little interruption, to of those forests on the public lands. The
the Appalachians, which, in a measure, existing forests cover 550,000,000 acres
save the Atlantic States from their Arctic or about one-fourth the area of the
influence. Warm southern winds, en- United States. Much the larger part of
tering from the Gulf region, similarly this woodland belongs to private owners,
make their way over the valley, bring- but there are very extensive national
ing summer temperatures, often of forests, and nearly 200,000,000 acres of
tropic heat This frequent variation of these nave been withdrawn from settle-
the winds between north and south ment and sale to be kept for the benefit
makes the climate of the east more of the whole community and utilized for
variable and with greater extremes of the preservation of the head- waters of
temperature than that of the west, where streams. A forest service has been or-
tbe changes of temperature are much ganized for the care of these large
more regular. . In the North Atlantic national forests and vigorous efforts are
States the temperature frequently falls being made to prevent the decimating
below zero, and in Minnesota it descends fires which have proven so destructive
to as low as — 40**, but the dryness of in the past. The forest region of the
the air renders such extremes easily country embraces a northern belt of
bearable, except when accompanied by pines, in which the white pine, one of
strong winds and * blizzard * snows. In the noblest and most valuable to the
the Middle Atlantic States the tempera- wood-worker of American trees, occupies
ture at times rises in summer to 100** or a conspicuous place. It has, however,
even above, but such extremes are rarely been verv largely removed by wasteful
of long continuance. In this section and reckless forestry and the less valu-
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ITnited States United States
able pines of the South are in a measure sheep, the so-called Rocky Mountain goat
taking its place. Other northern trees (a goat-like antelope), the wapiti or
of considerable industrial value are the American stag, the Virginia deer, the pec-
n>ruce, hemlock, yellow cedar, larch, lin- cary, the cougar or puma, the black
den, ash, maple, birch and elm. Some- and grizzly bear, the panther, the
what farther south range the hickories prairie wolf, the raccoon and the beaver,
and oaks, the chestnut, tulip tree, walnut. Among the birds are swans, wild tur-
poplar, plane, beech, catalpa, cherry keys, wild geese, wild ducks, eagles, vul-
and other valuable timber trees, some of tures, mocking and humming birds, etc.
these extending as far south as the Gulf Among the reptiles are the rattlesnake
coast. The flora of the southern coast and other snakes, turtles and tortoises,
regions is especially characterized by sev- alligators, etc. The smaller animals in-
eral species of pine, the live oak, pal- elude the lynx, weasel, foxes of several
metto, cypress and other species. The species, muskrat, marten, skunk, otter,
Appalachian mountains are generally prairie-dog, opossum, rabbit, porcupine,
covered with thick forests and the lower numerous species of squirrels and gophers,
Mississippi valley is richly forested, and a large number of destructive ani-
The prairie region of the northern half mals of the rat and mouse family. Among
of this valley, ranging from western water animals there is a great varietv of
Indiana to eastern Dakota, formerlv fishes, many of them, as the cod, shad,
mainly treeless, now contains much herring, salmon, mackerel, etc., highly es-
woodland, of recent planting, and the teemed for table use. Chief among shell-
great plains east of the Rocky moun- fish is the oyster, more abundant on the
tains, where the woodland was of old Atlantic coast than anywhere else in the
chiefly confined to the banks of streams, world and unequaled in quality in any
is becoming in a measure forested. The other country. Of crustaceans, the Ion-
vast mountain region of the west is ster comes first, of a siiecies quite distinct
richly covered with woodland, especially from that of Europe. As for domestic
on the coast ranges, where grows one of animals there are none of American
the densest and loftiest forests on the origin, all the animals of field and house-
globe. This Pacific region has a char- hold having been brought from Europe,
acteristic flora of its own, largeljr com- It is the same with the poultry yard, with
posed of coniferous woods and yielding the exception of the turkey and some
the tallest masts and finest spars to be species of swimming birds,
anywhere obtained. Noblest among Minerals. — The mineral resources of
these trees in the north is the great the United States are enormous in sup-
Douglas fir, and in the south the splen- ply and exceedingly varied in kind, be-
did redwood of the California coast mg in some respects beyond rivalry,
range and the giant sequoias of the Very much of this wealth is centered in
Sierra Nevada, the most stupendous the Rocky Mountain region and the
trees of the earth. The minor flora Pacific coast states, but this does not
of the country embraces a large variety apply to the highly valuable stores of
of fruit trees and berries, with plants of coal, petroleum, natural gas and iron,
economic value for various purposes, which are very largely developed in the
The pines of the south have a utility Appalachian region and the Middle
separate from that of timber purposes, West The Appalachian coal fields em-
yielding large quantities of tar, turpen- brace an area of over 59,000 square
tine, rosin, and similar products^ known miles, including the small but richly pro-
collectively as ' naval stores.' In many ductive anthracite region of Penn*
rural districts the forests supply the sylvania. In addition there are about
principal fuel used. Peat is locally em- 125,000 square miles in Illinois, Mis-
ployed as fuel, and in some of the tree- souri and other Mississippi valley States,
less districts hay, straw, and flax are Petroleum, at first obtained only in
burned for domestic purposes, ingenious Pennsylvania, has been found abundantly
inventions having rendered such ma- elsewhere, and extends to Texas and tlM
terials useful for this purpose. California coast, where it occurs in large
Fauna. — The fauna of the United quantity. Iron ores abound in many sec-
States, like its flora, is very varied, in- tions, being very rich in Pennsylvania,
eluding many species found in foreign West Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama,
lands, and some which are exclusively Wisconsin, Minnesota, Missouri and
American. Among wild animals are the several other States. Copper is nn-
bison or buffalo, now almost extinct in equaled in quantity, the United States
a wild state, the moose or American elk. supplying over five-eighths of the world's
the caribou, or reindeer, the prong-homed product. Its great fields are in Arizona^
antelope, the big-horn or Rocky Mountain Montana, Michigan, Utah and Call-
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TTnited States
TTnited States
fornia, the ores of Michigan being 90-
95 per cent, pure metal. Gold and
silver are widely distributed, the United
States standing second only to South
Africa in its production of gold, and to
Mexico in that of silver. The leading
States in these metals are California,
Ck>]orado. Nevada, and the territory of
Alaska, in gold; and Montana, Ck>lorado,
Nevada, Utah, Idaho and Arizona in
silver. Other metals in which this
country is rich are lead and sine Tin
ore is abundant but in unworkable con-
dition, and there are minor yields of
nickel, platinum, mercury, antimony, etc.
In the Rocky Mountain region are vast
deposits of lignitic coal, hitherto little
used, but now becoming available, and
of late years exceedingly valuable coal
deposits have been found in Alaska, not
yet worked. Copper is also abundant in
this territory. Aside from the minerals
mentioned are many others of economic
value, including salt, borax, limestone,
marble, sulphur, cement, etc. Geolog-
ically the United States possesses ex-
amples of all the formations, and is rich
alike in fossils of the primary and the
later periods. It is especially notable
for its abundance of vertebrate remains
in the geologic strata ranging from the
Permian to the Quaternary, including the
gigantic dinosaurs of the Jurassic and
Cretaceous epochs, the flying reptiles and
toothed birds of the Cretaceous, and the
greatly varied mammals of the Tertiary
age. Among the latter are several types
in the life history of the horse, and in
later time the horse itself. There are
also giant edentates, allied to the more
recent ones of South America; and the
mammoth and mastodon, relatives of the
elephant, all of which appear to have ex-
isted in recent geologic times. These are
the more notable among a multitude of
fossil forms.
Agriculture, — It is estimated that the
arable lands of the United States exceed
a million and a quarter smiare miles in
area, of which over 870,000 square miles
were occupied as farms in 1910, about
475,000 square miles consisting of im-
E roved lands. Considerable additions
ave been made to this area within the
last decade, irrigation in the west hav-
ing brought under cultivation large areas
once deemed hopelessly arid. The basin
of the Mississippi, the Pacific coast
lands, and the valley of the Red River
of the north vie with each other in fer-
tility, and other highly productive lands
are those of the Gulf coast, the region
draining into the Great Lakes, and
much of that east of the Appalachian
mountains. Westward, however, is a
very extensive section in great i^art unfit
for cultivation except under irrigation
on account of deficient rainfall. This
comprises most •f the region between the
eastern foot-hills of the Rocky Mountain
system westward to the Sierra Nevada
and Cascade ranges, an immense area
embracing about one-third of the whole
country. It includes the States of Ari-
zona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah,
Wyoming, Montana, most of Colorado,
and southern California, a larse part of
Oregon, Idaho and Texas, and parts of
the Dakotas, Nebraska and Kansas. A
large part of this jgreat region is grass-
covered and yields food to immense herds
of cattle and sheep. Much of it also may
yet be rendered fertile bv irrigation, but
there is a great extent of absolute desert
to which irrigation cannot be applied.
Of American crops the two distinctive
ones are cotton ana Indian com, of each
of which the United States produces
much more than all the rest of the
world combined. Most of the cotton
goods of the world are woven from
American cotton. The com, however, is
very largely consumed at home, especially
for the feeding of live stock, the hog-
harvest being largely dependent upon it.
Wheat is another product of great im-
portance, the crop of the United States
having long been the largest in the
world. Russia in Europe is now a dose
rival, but all other countries are far sur-
gassed. There are also large crops of
ay and oats, the five named being the
leading crops of the country. Other
products of great importance are i>ota-
toes,N tobacco, sugar, and rice. In 1910
the com crop reached the vast total of
over 3,000,000,000 bushels, the wheat
crop nearly 700.000,000 bushels, the oat
crop 1,100,000,000 bushels, the cotton
supply (1911) 12,132,332 bales, the total
value of all farm crops increased from
$5,000,000,000 in 1900 to about $9,000,-
000,000 in 1911. Other cereals grown
are rye, barley, and buckwheat, and com-
mon farm products include sweet potatoes,
flax, hops and peanuts, each largely
grown. No other part of the world is
so rich in fruits, alike in quantity and
variety. Very important among these are
the apple, peach and pear. Plums, apri-
cots, cherries and grapes are produced
abundantly, and a considerable variety of
berries and nuts are grown. The grape
is an important crop in many parts of
the east, and especially so in California,
and much wine is made. To the tem-
perate products must be added those of
the semitropics, the orange, lemon, olive,
fig and almond, abundant in California,
and the orange and pineapple of Florida.
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United States
United States
Live-Mtock. — The abundant com and
bay crops of the United States and the
very extensive grazing grounds of the
region of prairies and plains give a great
opportunity for the raising of live-stock.
The leading cattle-breeding State is
Texao; sheep-raising is most extensive on
the elevated plains east of the Rocky
Mountains and on the Pacific slope;
horses and mules are bred in great num-
bers in Missouri, Kentucky and Tennes-
see, while hogs are raised in all the corn-
growing States of the Central and South-
ern section. Slaughtering and beef and
pork-packing are carried on very exten-
sively in Chicago, and various other cities
of the Middle West. The dairying in-
dustry of the country is very large and
immense quantities of butter and several
varieties of cheese are made.
Manufactures, — The United States has
become the foremost manufacturing
country in the world, its supplies of coal
and iron exceeding those of any other
quarter of the globe, while the industry,
inventive genius and enterprise of the
peoi>le and the rapid development of fa-
cilities for transportation helped to ad-
vance the material interests of the coun-
try throughout the nineteenth century,
and have ^iven unquestioned industrial
supremacy m the twentieth. Among the
greatly varied manufacturing industries
that of textiles stands high, the cotton and
woolen manufacture being very flourish-
ing, while in silk manufacture this coun-
try is becoming a rival of France. Knit
goods are largely produced, while the pro-
' auction of ready-made clothing is a very
active industry. Iron and steel produc-
tion has reached a very high level, sur-
passing that of any other country, while
the manufacture of iron and steel wares
is most varied and abundant. Chief
among these industries are the production
of building steel, iron bridges, railroad
iron and steel, locomotives, armor for
steel-clad battleships, fire-arms, steel cars
and machine-shop products in general.
Other great fields of manufacture are
those of electrical appliances, automobiles,
agricultural implements, tin-plate, leather,
boots and shoes, paper (the pulp for
which consumes whole forests), pottery,
furniture, flour, beet-sugar, beer, lumber-
products and many others. As for the
smaller industries, they are innumerable.
The value of manufactured goods has
frown from $5,300,000,000 in 1880 to
20.600,000,000 in 1910.
Commerce and Transportation. — The
commerce of the United States has vied
with its manufactures in development.
Transportation has been provided with
extraordinary rapidity. For internal
commerce the navigable inland waters of
the country have been of immense value,
in view of the fact that steam transpor-
tation was established upon them early
in the history of the republic. Canals
were early provided to add to the facili-
ties in this direction, chief among these
being the Erie Canal, from Buffalo to
Albany, which for the greater part of
a century has been a valuable carrier of
freight But railroad development has
largely replaced that by water in the in-
land commerce of the country. This
began in 1830 with 23 miles of track.
In 1900, seventy years later, it had
erown to 194,334 miles. In 1912 it
had reached nearly 250,000 miles, far
surpassing in length that of any other
country, and equaling that of all Europe.
The foreign trade of the country has
grown to great proportions, though it is
much surpassed by the internal commerce.
In the last century the great bulk of it
consisted of agricultural products and
meats, cotton being a leading article of
export. Of recent years, however, this
country has ceased to feed and clothe
Europe to the extent of the past, the
home demand having grown so greatly,
especially for food stuffs, as to consume
the great bulk of them, while several
other countries are competing largely in
wheat, and to a small extent in cotton.
On the other hand the export of manu-
factured goods has grown until now
these form a very considerable part of
the goods sent abroad. At the beginning
of the twentieth century the commerce
of the United States was valued at about
$2,500,000,000. In 1911 it reached a
total of about $3,500,000,000. Of this
much the greater part were exports, the
balance of trade in its favor being in
1900 about $500,000,000. It has de-
creased somewhat since then, but is still
a notable amount. About two-thirds of
the exports go to Europe, half this
amount going to the British Isles. The
bulk of the British purchases consists of
cotton and food-stuffs. The exports of
manufactured goods embrace iron and
steel wares, leather, tobacco, oils, agri-
cultural implements, copper manufac-
tures, cotton goods, leather, wood prod-
ucts, etc. The imports include chemicals,
cotton goods, fibers, fruits, furs, hides
and skins, wool, tin-plate, india rubber,
jewelry, silk goods, coffee, sugar, tea,
tropical fruits and various other wares.
Government, — The government of the
United States is a federal republic based
on the constitution of 1787, drawn up
by delegates from the thirteen original
States, and subsequently amended. The.
constitution and modes of adminlitl^tion.
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United States
United States
of the individual States bear a close re-
semblance to each other and to the na*
tional government Bach State main-
tains its independence, and by means of
a State legislature and executive (vested
in a governor) has complete manage-
ment of its own affairs. The combined
States have one supreme legislature,
which takes the name of Congress, and
consists of a Senate and a House of
Representatives. The Senate consists
of two members from each State elected
bj its citizens for six years, one-third
of the whole body being renewable
biennially. The House of Representa-
tives consists of members chosen for two
vears bv the people of the several States,
in numbers proportioned to their popula-
tion as ascertained by the decennial
census. The head of the executive power
of the government is a President, elected
by the people and holding his office for
a term of four years, witn a Vice-Presi-
dent elected at the same time and for
the same term. Only persons bom in the
United States and who have reached the
age of 85 years are eligible to the presi-
dency. The President is commander-in-
chief of the army and navy and of the
mUitia in the service of the Union. He
has the power of a veto on all laws passed
by Congress: but, notwithstanding his
veto, any bill may become a law on its
being afterwards passed by each House of
Congress by a two-thirds vote. The Vice-
President is em ofHoio President of the
Senate. The presidential succession is
fixed by Chapter 4 of the acts of the
49th Congress, 1st session. In case of
the removal, death, resignation, or in-
ability of both the President and Vice-
President, then the Secretary of State
shall act as President till the disability
of the President or Vice-President is re-
moved or a President is elected. If there
be no Secretary of State, then the Secre-
tary of the Treasury will act; and the
remainder of the order of succession is;
Secretary of War, Attorney-General,
Postmaster-Oeneral, Secretary of the
Navy, Secretary of the Interior (the of-
fices of Secretary of Agriculture, Secre-
tary of Commerce, and Secretary of
Labor, were created after the passage of
the act). By the 15th amendment to the
Constitution neither race nor color af-
fects the rights of citizens, though un-
taxed Indians and Chinese are excluded
from the frsnrhise. The same is the case
With women except in ten states in which
they have full franchise and a number
of others in which they have a partial
franchise. There is a third section of
the government, the judicial, consisting
of a Supreme Court, which deals with
interstate subjects of controversy and
has the power of invalidating the enact'
ments of Congress, if it decides that they
are not in conformity with the Constitu-
tion. (See succeeding article on United
Staiee^ PoUiioal Development of the,)
The governments of the States are based
on a similar principle, each having its
Supreme Court, the decisions of which
are final on a constitutional question.
The Constitution can be amended only by
a vote in favor of the proposed amend-
ment of two-thirds of each House, and
subsequently by the acceptance of three-
fourths of the States; or by the calling
of a constitutional convention on the de-
mand of two-thirds of the States, with
ratifying conventions in three-fourths of
the States. While each State is guar-
anteed a republican form of government,
and in general their governments are
based on the same principle as that of
the national government, the territories,
organized and unorganized, are under the
direct control of Congress, the organized
ones being represented in Congress by
a delegate, who has no vote, and having
legislatures elected by their people.
Finances, — The public debt of the
United States reached its ultimate height
in 1866, as a result of the expenditure
for the Civil war, its amount on July 1
of that year being $2,773,236,173.
Thirty years before the country had been
out of debt and with an excess of funds
which it divided among the several
States. After the war the reduction of
this debt proceeded with marked rapidity,
until by 1912 the interest-bearing debt
had decreased to $963349390, and the
debt bearing no interest to $383,499,246,
making a total of $1346,848,636, in-
cluding $1351,810 on which interest had
ceased. Against this there was in the
treasury a reserve fund and cash balance
amounting to $300,400,000. During this
Eeriod the expenses of the government
ad steadily increased until what was
called a billion dollar Congress was
reached in McKinley's first term, while
in 1912 the appropriation for a single ses-
sion of Congress was over $660,000,000.
Artnff. — The United States army is
based on the principle of that of Great
Britain, being recruited by voluntary
enlistment only, not by conscription and
forced military service of all able-bodied
men, as is generally the case in the na-
tions of Europe. The island condition of
Great Britain and the strength of her
navy has removed the necessity of general
military duty, while the oceans which
divide the United States from all other
powerful nations have rendered a nower-
f ul army in this country in times of peace
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United States United States
unnecessary, a strong navy being de- National Guard, are subject to duty nn-
pended upon for protection. As a result der demand of the government if any
the army has been generally restricted to national emergency should arise. The
the numbers requisite for military police militia law of 1903, amended in 1908,
duty, the keeping a great multitude of provided that 'The militia shall consist
men under arms in times of ];>eace in of every able-bodied male citizen of the
readiness for possible war being not respective States who is more than 18
considered requisite. This policy has al- and less than 45 years of age.' These
ways prevailed, no more men being kept are to be divided into the organized
in the ranks than are deemed necessary to militia and a reserve militia, subject to
maintain internal order, the government duty should necessity demand. The total
relying upon the enlistment of volunteers number of this unorg^ized reserved mill-
in times of emesgency. In 1790 the tia wad stated in 1015 at 20,538,347.
national army consisted of only 12(30 Navy. — The United States has the
men, under the command of the Presi- credit of first demonstrating the advan-
dent. In 1861 its numbers had grown tage of an ironclad navy, this being done
to 14,000. During the Civil war 2,039,- in the Civil war by both sides engaged.
748 men were called into the ranks Britain and France had already built
chiefly by voluntary enlistment, in some ironclads, but the first battle between
measure by conscription, or by bounties ships thus protected w^as the memorable
of from ^00 to $1000 to each volunteer, conflict in Hampton Roads, in 1862, be-
After the war the army was disbanded tween the Monitor and Merrimac The
with the exception of the number re- wooden ships of the older navy, previously
quired for peace service, and by an act attacked by the Merrimac, proved hope-
of Congress of July 15. 1870, tnis num- lessly feeble before this powerful antag-
ber was limited to 30,000 men. This onist and were put out of service with
number was subsequently increased dur- startling suddenness, and only her encoun-
in^ the century to about 60,000. The ter with the Monitor checked the Merri-
brief war with Spain, in 1898, demanded mao In her career of destruction. The
a sudden enhancement of the army, which lesson thus taught was quickly taken
was readily accomplished by a call for advantage of in Europe, where a rivalry
volunteers. But the lack of careful in building iron- and steelclad war-vessels
supervision of this large body of raw begun which has continued without in«
soldiers was seriously felt, bad manage- terruption to the present day. But the
ment resulting in the death of large United States was very slow in putting
numbers of them by disease. After the into practice the lesson it had taught,
olsbandment of this volunteer force the Resting secure in its thousands of miles
limit of strength of the regular army of ocean boundary, it let twenty yeais
was fixed by Secretary of War Root and pass before It awakened to the advisabil-
General Miles at 77,284 men, in accord- ity of preparing for possible naval war.
ance with General Miles's proposition of Id 1882 there were 140 vessels on the
one soldier for every thousand inhabitants, navy list, but of these 25 were mere tugs.
The length of service was fixed at five while a laige number of the others were
years. The need of a more scientific antiquated and useless. Shortly after
management of the military establish- this the government aroused to the need
ment was seriously felt, and by a bill of possessing a modern naval establish-
of February 14, 1903, the oflice of Lieu- ment, and began the construction of the
tenant-General commanding was dropped powerful navy it has since possessed. Its
and a staff corps of eminent ofllcers, ap- long negligence left to the European na-
pointed by the President, was adopted, tions the task of experimenting in the new
In accordance with the policy pursued system of war-vessel construction, and
in European army organizations. Under gave It the important advantage of par-
laws passed in 1901, 1907 and 1908 the ticipating without cost in lessons learned
army now comprises 30 regiments of by a long-continued practical study of the
infantry, 15 of cavalry, 6 of field artil- new system in Europe. At the period
lery, and a coast artillery corps, with of the Spanish-American war a navy of
a Porto Rico regiment of infantry, and fair strength for that date existed, one
a considerable force In the Philippines, that with remarkable quickness put the
52 companies of which are native scouts, weaker Spanish navy out of commission.
The total strength of the army is about Since then many war-vessels fitted to
87,000, and it is provided by law that compete on equal terms with the strongest
it shall not exceed 100,000 men. In ad- of tnose possessed by other nations have
dition to these are the organized State been built, and in 1912 the United States
militia, a drilled and equipped force of bad, built and building, 28 battleships of
over 120,000 men. These, Imown as the recent type with 9 of older type, 12 first-
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ITnited States ITnited States
clau armored cruisers, and a considerable British dispossessed the Dutch on Man-
number of second and third-class cruisers, hattan Island, and named the settlement
monitors, gunboats, torpedo boats, destroy- New York. The first effort at a union
ers and submarines. In this respect it of the colonies was in 1643, when the
ranks high among other nations, Great settlements in Massachusetts, Connecti-
Britain considerably and Germany slightly cut and New Hampshire formed a con-
surpassing it in number and strength of federacy for mutual protection called
war ships. The United States nas a sat- * The United Ck>lonie8 of New England.'
isfactory number of the powerful Dread- The growth of the colonies was at-
nought and super-Dreadnought class. Of tended by occasional warlike relations,
these the Arkansas and Wyoming, with not only with the Indians, but between
their ^.000 tons displacement and arma- the Europeans of different nations. There
ment of twelve 12-inch guns ; the New was war on several occasions between the
York and Tewas, 27,000 tons, and the Enelish of South Carolina and Georgia
Nevada and Oklahoma, 27,500 tons, each and the Spanish of Florida, and three
with ten 14-inch guns, are much sur- successive wars broke out between the
passed by the 31,400>enii«y{vanta and Art- British of the North and the French
tona and the 32,000 CaUfomia, Idaho and of Canada, in 1689, 1702 and 1744.
Mississippi with twelve 14-in. guns each. These were hostilities between the colo-
History. — The territory now occupied nists arising from wars in Europe, but
by the United States of America, though in 1754 a more important war begun
it appears to have been visited on its due to rivalir between the colonists
2f. K. coast by Norse navigators about the themselves, and which in turn gave rise
year 1000, continued the sole posses- to an European war. This, known as
sion of numerous tribes of Indians till the French and Indian war, continued
the rediscovery of America by Colum- until 1763, its origin being an effort of
bos in 1492. In 1498 an English ex- the French to take possession of the
pedition, under the command of Sebas- Ohio Valley and the determination of
tian Cabot, explored the east coast of the British colonists to prevent this.
America, from Labrador to Virginia, Its seven years' continuance was attended
perhaps to Florida. In 1513 Juan Ponce by varying fortunes of war, the French
de Leon landed in the Florida peninsula, at first generally successful, the British
and explored a portion of that region in finally everywhere victorious, Quebec, the
a romantic search for the Fountain of capital and military stronghold of Can-
Touth. In 1539-1542 Ferdinand de Soto ada, being finally taken. The result
led a Spanish expedition from the coast was disastrous to France, which was
of Florida across Alabama, and dis- obliged to surrender its possessions in
covered the Mississippi river. In 1584- Canada to Great Britain. Its territory
1585 Sir Walter Raleigh sent two ex- west of the Mississippi was transferred
peditions to the coast of North Carolina to Spain. The close of this war was
and vainly attempted to form settlements soon followed by discontent on the part
on Roanoke Island. A Spanish settle- of the colonists with their treatment by
ment was made at St. Augustine, Florida, the British government In 1761 the
In 1565. The first successful English enforcement against smugglers of the op-
settlement was that planted at James- pressive Navigation laws, by the use of
town. Virginia, in 1607. In 1609 the general search warrants which gave the
Dutch explored the Hudson River, and customs officials the right to enter and
some years later began a settlement on search any domicile, caused a strong
Manhattan Island, New York harbor, excitement against the English govem-
Plymouth, Massachusetts, was settled by ment, especially in Boston. Parliament
the Pilgrims, members of a persecuted also resolved to increase the revenue by
religious sect, in 1620, and Massachu- a general stamp-duty through all the
setts Bay by the Puritans, another sect, American colonies. Accordingly, the
in 1628 and 1630. Later settlements Stamp Act of 1766 was passed ; but this,
were those of Connecticut, in 1633; after opposition, was repealed next year,
Manrland, in 1634; Rhode Island, in Britain still claiming, however, its right
1635; Carolhia in 1663 and 1670; to tax. In accordance with this claim
Pennsylvania in 1682, and Georgia in a duty, In 1767, was imposed upon tea,
1733. Meanwhile the French from paper, glass, etc.; but the colonial op-
Canada, under La Salle and others, had position was such that three years later
explored the Great Lakes and the Missis- the duties were all repealed except the
sippi, and settlements bad been made one upon tea. To such a pass had the
at points in Illinois and along the Missis- opposition now come that in 1773, when
sippi, while Mobile was founded in 1702 British ships loaded with tea attempted
•ad New Orleans in 1718. In 1664 the to effect a landing in the port of Boston,
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TJnited States
United States
a number of the inhabitants, disguised
as Indians, seized them and threw their
cargoes into the sea. In punishment of
this, parliament passed the Boston Port
Bill, wh^h declared that port closed to
all comioerce, and transferred the seat
of colonial government to Salem. This
caused loucn suffering in Boston and
from thi& time It became to many evident
that a conflict was inevitable. This be-
gan in April, 1775, when a British force,
sent from Boston to destroy the mili-
tary stores at Concord, fired upon the
colonists at Lexington, and was subse-
quently attacked and forced to retreat.
Before the end of April the British gov-
ernor and army were besieced in Boston
by a revolutionary force of 20,000 men ;
the northern fortresses of Ticonderoga
and Crown Point were seized ; and a Con-
tinental Congress which assembled at
Philadelphia took measures to equip an
army and navy, with George Washington,
who had won fame in the French and
Indian war, as commander-in-chief. On
June 17 the British attacked the in-
trenched position of the colonists on
Bunker Hill, which commanded Boston
harbor, and captured it with great loss
to their troops. In the following year
thev were forced to evacuate the city
and retreat to Halifax. This success
encouraged the colonists in their resist-
ance, and it was declared by the thir-
teen States assembled in Congress that
*The United Colonies are, and ought
to be, free and independent States; that
their political connection with Great
Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved.'
This resolution was embodied in a
declaration of independence, drawn up
bv Jefferson and adopted July 4, 1776w
The British government now sent an
army asainst the colonists under the
command of Sir William Howe^ and in
a battle on Long Island (August, 1776)
Washington was defeated and obliged to
abandon New York. He retreated
through New Jersey and crossed the
Delaware, but later in the year won a
victory at Trenton, New Jersev, which
enabled him to establish himself in that
State and threaten New York. In 1777
the British invaded Pennsylvania by way
of Chesapeake Bay, defeated Washing-
ton on the Brandywine and captured
Philadelphia. Fortune^ however, favored
the Americans in the north, where Gen-
eral Gates at Stillwater defeated General
Burgoyne, his whole armv being forced
to surrender. This event led to a treaty
with France in 1778, and subsequently
Spain and Holland gave support to the
Americans. The British army now left
Philadelphia and the conflict was trans-
13—10
ferred to the South. Here it was prose-
cuted with varying fortunes, but in 1781
the surrender of Lord Cornwallis with his
army at Yorktown to a combined French
and American force under Rochambeau
and Washington, virtoallv terminated the
war. On September 3, 1783, Great
Britain formallv recognized the independ-
ence of the United States by a treaty of
peace signed at Paris. The new-formed
States, however, were very imperfectly
united, and in 1787 a convention met at
Philadelphia and after four months' de-
liberation framed a Constitution. This
Constitution, which remains the basis of
the government, came into operation in
March, 1789, and on April 30 Washing-
ton became the first president. The Con-
gress appointed by the thirteen States
then proceeded to impose duties, estab-
lish a federal judiciary, organize the
executive administration, fund the debt
of the United States, and establish a
national bank. In 1792 Washington
was unanimously reelected president, but
in 1796 he refused to be elected for a
third term. During his administration
the States of Vermont, Kentucky, and
Tennessee were admitted into the Union.
John Adams was elected second presi-
dent, and it was while he held office
that the hostile demeanor of France led to
a brief naval war in which all the success
lay with the United SUtes. In 1800
the seat of government was transferred
from Philadelphia, which had been the
capital, to Washington, and in 1803, nn-
der President Jefferson the territory of
the new Union was immensely add^ to
by the purchase from France of Lonisi-
ana^ the great region between the Mis-
sissippi and the Rocky Mountains. A
new source of hostility to Great Britain
soon arose from her claim to the alle-
giance of American naturalized subjects
and the right to search American vessels
for British seamen. In 1807 the Brit-
ish frigate Leopard overhauled the United
States frigate Chesapeake, near the en-
trance to Chesapeake Bay, compelled her
to surrender, and took off four of her men.
Reparation was asked in vain ; some time
later all trade with France and England
was prohibited by Act of Congress, and in
June, 1812, war was declared against
Great Britain. This lasted until the end
of 1814, the armies having varying suc-
cess upon land, but the Americans win-
ning a brilliant series of naval victories.
The final event in the war was Jackson's
victory over the British at New Orleans,
fought after the treaty of peace had
been signed. After this the chief his-
torical events were the wars against tha
southern Indian tribes and l£t acqoisi'
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United States
XTnited States
tion of Florida from the Spanish in 1819 ;
the annexation of Texas, which led to a
war with Mexico isx 1S4G; and the
acquisition of a large territory in north-
ern Mexico, consisting of New Mexico
and Upper California, which were ceded
to the United States on payment of the
sum of $15,000,000 to Mexico. The
great question during this and the suc-
ceeding period was that of slavery in
the South, against which a strong party
arose in the North. Texas had been in-
troduced into the Union as a slave-
holding state, and the endeavor to act
similarly with regard to the territory of
Kansas led to local conflicts. The ques-
tion was still further complicated by an
antislavery insurrection (1859) at Har-
per's Ferry, led by John Brown, which
nelped to bring the question of the aboli-
tion of slavery to a crisis. The presiden-
tial election of 1860 turned to a great ex-
tent upon this question, and when Abra-
ham Lincoln, the Republican candidate,
was elected, the slave-holding States of
South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Ala-
bama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas
formally seceded from the Union. These
States formed themselves into a separate
union on February 4, 1801, which they
named * The Confederate States of Amer-
ica,' with Jefferson Davis as president.
They were subsequently joined, after
hostilities had begun, by Virginia, North
Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas. The
custom-houses, arsenals, and United
States buildings in these States were
seized and occupied by the Confederates,
and every preparation made to organize
a separate government. War was in-
evitable, and the first blow was struck
on April 12, 1861, the Confederates
Sroceeding to bombard Fort Sumter, in
harleston harbor, which wai forced to
surrender. President Lincoln then called
out by proclamation 75,000 volunteers,
and the first battle on a large scale took
place at Bull Run, south of Washington,
on July 21, the Federal forces being de-
feated. During the remainder of 1801
^frequent collisions took place between the
rival forces at different points. In the
spring of 1802 General Grant captured
Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland
River and obtained a victory over the
Confederates at Shilob, or Pittsburgh
Landing, in Tennessee. In April the
Federal fleet, under Porter, ran past the
forts at the entrance of the Mississippi,
and aided in the capture of Vicksburg and
Arkanaaa Post. An attempt was then
made, by General McCSellan to invest
Ridimond, the capital of the Confed-
eracy, but this was prevented by the Con-
federate generals Lee and 'Stonewall'
Jackson, who drove the Federals back to
the James River, where they established
themselves. General Lee then assumed
the offensive and moved with his whole
army upon Washington, defeating General
Pope with great loss at Bull Bon and
invading Maryland. Here he was met
on the banks of the Antietam by Mc-
Clellan, and, after an obstinate fight,
compelled to recross the Potomac. Soon
afterwards MoClellan was superseded
by Bumside, and in December another
advance to Richmond was commenced.
This General Lee had anticipated, and
intrenched himself behind the town of
Fredericksburg, a position from which
the Federals endeavored in vain and
with severe loss to dislodge him. In
the following April General Hooker,
superseding Bumside in the command ox
the army of the Potomac, commenced
another movement towards Richmond,
but was defeated bv General Lee at
Chancellorsville. Following np this gain
Lee transferred his army to the valley
of the Shenandoah, entered Maryland,
and crossed into Pennsylvania. At Get-
tysburg he unexpectedlv encountered the
Federal forces under Meade, and after
three days of desperate fighting and
the loss of 28,000 men was defeated
and was forced to retreat into Virginia.
On the Mississippi the fortune of war
was also in favor of the Federals. Aided
by the fleet, which dashed past Port
Hudson and seized Natchez, General
Grant assumed the offensive and cap-
tured Vicksburg with its large garrison,
while at the end of this year (1863) he
inflicted severe defeat upon Bragg at
Chattanooga. In 1864 General Grant, as
the result of his successes, was appointed
commander-in-chief of all the armies,
and at once he set himself to reorganize
the Federal forces. He took command
of the army of the Potomac himself, with
which he proposed to meet Lee, while he
despatched Sherman to operate against
the Confederate forces In Georgia. In
May Grant moved his main force across
the Rapidan and immediately attacked
Lee in The Wilderness, where severe fight
ght-
Un-
ing lasted for six consecutive days,
able to route the Confederates, Grant
endeavored by a flank movement to cut
them off from Richmond, but Lee antici-
gated the attempt and foiled it. Severe
attles followed and finally Grant crossed
the James River and attacked Petersburg,
but was repelled, and obliged to begin
a regular siege. Meanwhile Shermau,
with a large Federal force, defeated
Hood (who nad superseded Johnston as
commander in Georgia), and occupiec*
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Atlanta. From this point he crossed the
country by forced marches, seized Savan-
nah, and by February, 1865, occupied
Charleston and marched into North Caro-
lina. During this brilliant movement the
forces under Lee and Grant had faced
each other in the lines round Richmond,
but in April, 1865, a general advance was
made by the Federals. Lee defended
Petersburg and Richmond with great
skill and obstinacy, but after three days'
sanguinary conflict the Confederate lines
were broken, and Richmond lay at the
mercy of the Northern armies. Lee re-
treated to Appomattox Court House, but
was so closely followed by Grant that he
was obliged to surrender with his whole
army. The remaining Confederate arm-
ies in the field soon afterwards sur-
rendered, and the four years' war ended
in favor of the Federal government. In
the course of the war the abolition of
slaverv had been proclaimed by President
Lincoln, and he had just entered (April,
1865) upon his second term of the presi-
dency when he was assassinated in
Ford's theater at Washington by John
Wilkes Booth.
As the seceded States returned to
their allegiance to the Union they
were readmitted to their state and na-
tional privileges, being obliged to agree
to a number of amendments to the Con-
stitution, two of which gave the manu-
mitted slaves the rights of citizenship,
including that of the suffrage. The elec-
tion of General Grant to the presidency
in 1868 served, in some measure, to con-
solidate matters. The government de-
clared its ability to pay the enormous
war debt, and an attempt was made to
reform the civil service. The question
of equal rights, without regard to color
or previous condition of servitude, gave
rise in 1874 to hostile conditions in
the Southern States between the negro
and the u;hite population. The difficult
suppression of the hostile Indians in the
northwestern states formed one of the
tasks of the Grant administration. His
administration was also able by means
of arbitration to bring the claim of
damages against Great Britain for the
depredations of the Alabama and other
cruisers built there, to a favorable issue
for the United States. In 1876 a Cen-
tennial Exposition was held in Phila-
delphia, in celebration of the one hun-
drcMlth year of American independence.
The exhibitors, from all parts of the
world, numbered 30,865, and the exposi-
tion was the most brilliant which had
been held iip to that time. After a
presidency of two terms General Grant
was succeeded by Rutherfocd B. Hayef^
whose election was strongly contested
but was granted by an electoral commis-
sion formed by compromise between the
parties. At the next election (1880) the
Republicans elected General Garfield.
Soon after (July 2, 1881 ) he was shot by
Charles J. Guiteau, and died Sept. 19,
1881, Chester A. Arthur, the vice-presi-
dent, becoming president. In 1885 Grover
Cleveland, the first Democrat holding the
office since 1861, succeeded as president
The Anti-polygamy bill, virtually disfran-
chising Mormons, became a law in 1886;
also the Interstate Commerce bill, estab-
lishing a commission to secure uniformity
of railroad rates, nationalize through-
route traffic, and break up harmful trade
combinations. In 1888 North Dakota,
South Dakota, Montana and Washington
territories were admitted as States. A
bill passed in 1879 prohibiting the immi-
l^ration of Chinese as laborers, amended
in 1882 making the restriction to last for
20 years, was further amended in 1888
by taking away from the Chinese now
or heretofore in the country the privilege
of return unless they had previously pro-
cured certificates. President Cleveland
retired to private life after a cautious
and prudent administration, signalized
by patient attention to details and strong
assertion of official prerogative. In 1889
Benjamin Harrison, elected by the
Republicans, became president, the is-
sue of the campaign being Free-trade
V8. Protection. One result was the
enactment of a strongly protective tariff
bill. Acts to admit Wyomiuff and Idaho
as States were passed in 1800. On June
19, 1890, the report of the International
American Conference was presented,
forming the basis of the policy of reci-
procity by which treaties were entered
into with Germany, France, Spain,
Brazil and the countries of Central and
South America. By the end of 1892
these treaties began to bring about an
anticipated increase of trade. The Beh-
ring Sea question, long a diplomatic
stumbling-block between the United
States and Great Britain, was, after
skillful diplomacy, referred to a board of
arbitration. In 1892 Cleveland was re-
elected to the Presidency, and during his
administration a new tariff bill was
passed, under Democratic auspices, re-
ducing the rates but not sufficiently to
satisfy the President, who, however, per-
mitted it to become a law without his
signature. An interesting event of his
administration was a grand exposition of
industry held at Chicago in 1893, in honor
of the discovery of America by (iolumbus.
four ce&tnries before. Another event of
loterett, aa suataiJUQg tb« * MoAroe Voo
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tinited States
TTnited States
trine,' was the intervention of the Presi-
dent in a controversy between Great
Britain and Venesuela in regard to
boundary questions. Cleveland went so
far as to threaten forcible intervention
if Yenesaela was despoiled of any of its
rightful territory, and demanded a set-
tlement by arbitration. This was finally
granted and an amiable settlement
reached. In 1896 William McKinley, the
Republican candidate, was elected to the
prMidency. Important events marked his
administration. An insurrection against
Spain liad broken out in Cuba, and the
war there was attended by acts of bar-
barity against which the people of the
United States vigorously protested. The
battleship Maine^ sent to Havana harbor,
was sunk by an explosion^ nearly all on
board perishing. This untoward event led
to a declaration of war and a brief period
of hostilities succeeded, in which the
United States was uniformly successful.
Santiago, Cuba, was taken, after the
destruction of the fleet guarding it, and
a similar capture and destruction of a
Spanish fleet took place at Manila, capi-
tal of the Philippine Islands. The re-
sult was the freeing of Cuba from Span-
ish rule, and the cession to the United
States of Porto Rico, the Philippine Is-
lands, and the small Pacific island of
Guam. Another event of interest was
the annexation to the United States of
the Hawaiian Islands, in the mid-Pacific
In 1900 the United States took part in
the occupation of Peking, China, as a
result of the ' Boxer ' outbreak against
the national embassies to that countrv.
The gratitude of China was subsequently
won l>y the government of this country,
which remitted its share of the large
indemnity which the offended nations had
exacted
In 1900 President McKinley was re-
elected to the presidency, Theodore
Roosevelt being elected vice-president.
In September, 1901, the President was
shot by an anarchist while visiting an
exposition at Buffalo, New York, and
died of the wound, Vice-President Roose-
velt succeeding to the presidency. Im-
portant events of his administration were
the full establishment of the republic of
Cuba, the purchase by the United States
of the partly completed Panama Canal
and the taking of active steps towards
its completion, the settlement oy arbitra-
tion of the disputed boundary between
Alaskla and Canada, and the holding of a
magnificent World's Fair at St. L.ouis,
in recognition of the centennial anniver-
sary of the purchase of the great
Louisiana territory. There was also im-
por^nt Itgislation, at the instance of
tiie President, tending to control the
operations of railroads and ot^er corpor-
ationi. In 1904 Roosevelt was elected
to the presidency, and during this term
instituted a number of reform movements,
bills being passed to regulate freight
charges on railroads, to prevent the evil
of rebates in freight charges, to check
unclean methods of meat packing and
adulteration of food-stuffs, and to in-
vestigate the great business corporations,
several of which proved to be nests of
fraud and corruption. Among the gen-
eral events was a Peace Conference held
at Portsmouth, N. H., at the instance
of President Roosevelt, which broucht
to an end the terrible war of 1904-1905
between Russia and Japan. In 1906
San Francisco was in great part destroyed
by a severe earth9uake and subsequent
conflagration, causing a loss that elici-
tated large sympathetic contributions
from all parts of the countrv. Oklahoma
Territory and the Indian Territory were
united in 1906 and admitted to the Union
as a State, which was given the name
of Oklahoma. Another event, of spec-
tacular character, was a circumnaviga-
tion of the globe by a fleet of American
battleships, which visited all the leading
ports of the Pacific and returned to
Hampton Roads, February 22, 1909. In
1908 William H. Taft, late Secretary of
War, was nominated as the Republican
candidate for the presidency, elected in
November, and inaugurated March 4, 1909.
The beginning of his term was signalized
by a special session of Congress and the
enactment of a new tariff bill making
considerable reductions in the customs
charges. These reductions were not suf-
ficient to give general satisfactjlon. Presi-
dent Taft was an advocate of several
radical measures, one of these being
a treaty of reciprocity with Canada,
which was passed, but failed to meet the
approval of Canada. The formation of a
new party, the Progressive, was one of
the notable pi^jitlcal events of 1912, and
another was the election to the presidency
of Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat The
chief events of his administration were
the passage of a lower tariff bill; the
reform of the currency system ; measures
regulating corporations; the passage of
income tax and popular vote for senators'
amendments to the Constitution and semi-
warlike relations with Mexico.
Wilson was re-elected in 1916. Ten-
sion in the Mexican situation was greatly
increased by a raid into American terri-
tory by Villa, a Mexican bandit, and a
primitive expedition was sent into Mex-
ico and the niiobilization of practically the
eatire national guard, on the border.
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Vnited States XTnited States
Gennan submarine attacks on shipping under the control of Herbert C. Hoover
led to the breaking off of diplomatic re- and Harry A. Garfield, and an embargo on
lations with Germany in 1917, and war commerce between the United States and
was threatened. The strength of the the neutral nations of Northern Europe
army was increased to 208,828 and a bill which had been supplying Germany with
passed for large increases in the navy, war materials purchasecT in the United
The acquisition of the Danish West In- States. In October a second Liberty
dies was completed in 1917. Loan was negotiated, the large sum of
When the second term of Woodrow about $5,000,000,000 being obtained from
Wilson as President of the United States the people by these loans. Congress ad-
began, on March 4, 1917, the relations journed on October 6, after passinga war
between this country and Germany had loan tax estimated to yield $2,53437(4000
grown seriously strained as a result of the of revenue, chiefly by increased levies
relentless U-boat war on the part of Ger- upon incomes and taxes on excess war
many. It was growing evident that an profits. It also included an increase in
overt act on the part ot the latter country the postal rates, stamps on chedu, on the-
would precipitate war between the two nter tickets, travelers tickets and various
nations. Diplomatic relations between other items of daily use. The second war
these countries having already been appropriation of Congress in 1917 cov-
broken, only open hostilities remained, ered the large total of $4,810,779,370, of
and an attack on the liner Lucania by which $3,771,927,320 was maae available
a submarine was regarded as the overt for immediate use. This was the largest
act awaited. Congress was at once called appropriation ever made in the United
into extra session and on April 4 and 5 States, exceeding by more than S2,000,-
the two Houses decided by heavy ma- 000,000 the first bill passecl. Tne war
jorities that a * state of war ' existed be- bond bill passed by Congress on Septem-
tween Germany and the United States, ber 6 amounted to $11,538,945,460.
This action threw the nation into a state When Congress came again into session
of intense activities and strenuous prepa- on December 3, its first act was to declare
rations, for hostile relations at once began, war against Austria, this being carried
The navy was immediately mobilized, 90 with only one dissenting vote. During
German vessels in American ports (620,- the war a number of munition plants,
0(X) tons, $148,000,(XX) value) were taken stores of materials, vessels laden with war
over by the government, together with 14 supplies, etc., haa beon destroyed, pre-
Austrian ships. Active financial measures sumably by spies, and it became necessary
were also instituted, consisting in a reve- to take steps to prevent German and Aus-
nue bill for a bond issue of $5,(XX),0(X),000 trian residents in this country from work
and a Liberty Loan for public subscrip- of this kind and to pass stringent laws
tion of $2,(XX),(XX),(XX). Of the sums dealing with spies and alien enemies,
raised $3,(X)0,(X)0,0()0 were to be loaned Aliens were not permitted upon the water
to the European allies of the United fronts of the seaport cities unless with
States. Other steps taken in war prepa- permits, and decisive measures were taken
ration were the conscription of the Na- to protect all depots of supplies. The in-
tional Guard of volunteer soldiers into dustrial staff of the country was largely
the Federal service and the passage of a employed in the production of war mate-
Relective conscription bill, covering all the rials, the railroads were requisitioned for
young men of the nation between 21 and the transportation and such materials and
31 years of age. Registration for this all the products of the country held sub-
purpose was made on June 5, 1917, the ject to government demands. All this
number registered being about 10,(XX),000. led to a large increase in the prices of
In July a first draft was made, to cover food, fuel and other necessaries of life,
an army of over 600,0(X), and a force of some of these growing very scarce and
regulars was subseouently sent to Prance, dear, while the railroad service became so
under the command of General Pershing, congested that on December 28 the Presi-
late commander of the Villa punitive ex- dent took possession and assumed control
pedition to Mexico. This force was at- of the railroad lines of the country and
tacked on the high seas by German sub- the systems of water transportation under
marines, but reached Europe in safety, their control. William G. McAdoo was
Other important steps taken were for the appointed Director General. Meanwhile
building of a large number of small ves- large numbers of the newly organized
sels, fitted to cope with submarines, and army were transported to France with-
for the construction of 20.(X)0 war aero- out loss, the seas in the danger «one
planes for field service at the seat of war. being patrolled by swift destroyers. The
Bills were also passed for the regulation new recruits were put under intensive
of the food and fuel supply of the country, training on French soil and before the
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V nited States V nited States
year ended many of them were in the Si^oumey (1791-1865) ; the sons-
trenches, getting their final discipline writers, Francis Scott Key, Samael
under the guns of the foe. Their pres- Woodworth, John H. Payne (author of
ence on the battlefield and a large increase * Home, Sweet Home '), and Stephen
in their numbers were felt to be absolutely C. Foster. The later and in part more
necessary. The coal situation became famous names are John G. Whittier
acute at the end of 1917 and the beginning (1807-92), Henry W. LongfeUow (1807-
of 1918, and to relieve it the President or- 82), £klgar A. Poe (1808-49), James
dcrcd cessation of general industrira for a Russell Lowell (1819-01 ) , Kalph Waldo
t>eriod of five days and the Monday of Emerson (1803-82), Oliver W. Holmes
each week for several weeks. (1809-94), Wait Whitman (1819-92),
Literaiure.—The first literary work of Thomas B. Aldrich (1836-1907), Alice
any consequence in the United States Cary (1820-71), and others of later date,
was a translation of Ovid's Metamor- "^^e prominent novelists include James
photes by George Sandys, written in Vir- ^^l^"^^ ^^^.All^^^^\ u^*™«
ginia (1620) and published in London ^*''^« ,P«,Hyi?«, J?J^^vV'-^^' r^^'S? i:
'p'^\.^: ^rr ^'^^^^' **;: fiir7^o)^a^^^^^^
^/"^'n ^^^^.u^^® ^?V?22^«^'l "^""^ ^4) Harriet Beecber Stowe (1811-96),
of John Winthrop (1588.1649), gov- and Bayard Taylor (1825-78). Those of
^^9.^^^^^^^***^***^^^' ^y.?*^ Winslow more recent date include WilUam Dean
(1595-1655), governor of Plymouth col- Howells, Francis M. Oawford, Frances
ony, Nathaniel Morton (1613-85), etc., H. Burnett, Henry Jamen, Georee W.
have been valuable to the historian. The Cable, Francis Bret Harte. Mary Is. Mur-
most notable ef the earlier writers were free, Frank Stockton, Louisa Biay Alcott,
the theologians, such as Increase and etc. There are also many writers of the
Cotton Mather, Roger Williams, and short tale, most famous among them being
above all Jonathan Edwards. The only Edgar Allan Poe, followed by others too
one whose writin^rs are still read to any numerous to mention. Humorous writers
extent was Benjamin Franklin, whose also became numerous, the most famous
Auiohiographv and Poor Richard's Al- among them being Washington Irving,
manao are the only popular literature James Russell Lowell, Samuel L. Clemens
remaining from the colonial period. Tlie (*Mark Twain') and Charles Farrar
Bucceedinx or revolutionary era was chiefly Brown (* Artcmus Ward *) .
remarkable for its political writers, The United States has been the blrth-
among whom were James Otis (1725-83), place of a number of historians of su-
Josiah Quincy (1744-75). John Adams perior merit, chief among whom are
(1735-1826), Thomas Jefferson (1743- George Bancroft (1800-91), John Fiske
1826). Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), (1842-1901). William H. Prescott (1796-
John Jav (1745-1829), and James Madi- 1859), George Ticknor (1791-1871),
son (1751-1836). Of historical writings John Lothrop Motley (1814-77), Francis
belonging to this period there were the Parkman (1823-93), Wood row Wilson
Jlitiory of New England by Hannah (bom 1856), John Bach McMaster (bom
Adams; of the American Revolution^ by 1852), and others. Of writers who
William Gordon and David Ramsay, and achieved fame in other fields than those
the Annals of Americat by Abiel Holmes, mentioned may be named Washington
Philology was represented at this time by Irving, Ralph Waldo Emerson, whose Es-
Lindley Murray (1745-1826), and by says are oi world-wide fame; Henry D.
Noah Webster (1758-1842), the compiler Thoreau, Bayard Taylor, William Ellery
of a famous dictionary. The list of poets Channing and George W. Curtis. The
includes Philip Freneau (1752-18^^2), orators of high reputation include such
John Tmmbull (1750-1831), and Joel well-known names as Patrick Henry,
Bariow (1755-1812). The first well- Daniel Webster, Henry Cloy, John C.
known novelist was Charles Brockden Calhoun, Edward Everett. Wendell Phil-
Brown (1771-1810). lips, Henry Ward Beecher and Charles
It was not, however, until the nine- Sumner. This compilation of names is
teenth century that the United States by no means exhaustive, and there are
produced the higher forms of pure liters- many writers of recent date that might
ture. The poets of this epoch may be well have been added, but the list given
headed by William CuUen Bryant (1794- includes the most famous of American
1878), and following him come Richard literary artists.
H. Dana (1787-1879). Charles Spraguc TTTiif^il $iffif^s Political Develop-
(1791-1875), James G. Percival (1795- wiutcu Oittics, mknt of the. The
1856). Joseph R. Drake (1795-1820), description of the United States so far
Washington Allston (1779-1843), Fite- given is confined to its natural condf
Greene Halleck (1790-1867), and Mrs. tions and its industrial, historical an4
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TTnited States
TTnited States
literary progress. To gain a fuller idea
of its progress and significance as a
whole, it seems desirable to speak of its
political development, as exemplified in
the several great State papers which
have been from time to time issued, and
which have few counterparts in the his-
tory of any other country. The United
States differs from republics in general
in the fact that its system is the result of
a nradual evolution instead of a revo-
lutionary overthrow, as in the case of
France; or of imitation, as in the case
of the# other American republics, the
governments of which were based upon
that of the United States. The repub-
lic of Switzerland alone resembles that
of the United States as being a result of
political evolution. But it is on so smaU
a scale that it cannot properly be com-
pared to the giant federal organization
of the United States, which ranks in
size with the greatest of the world's na-
tions, covering half a continent The
stages by which the organization of this
great government was reached are indi-
cated in the Declaration of Independence,
the Constitution, and the other great
documents which appeared from time to
time, each as the outcome of a period of
preceding development and each as a
stepping stone of a future development
in the great problem of political prog-
ress. Tbis country has been democratic
in sentiment from its origin in the col-
onies that settled at successive periods,
along the Atlantic coast, their people
plainly indicating this feeling, and resist-
ing all efforts to subject them to the
dominance of king or parliament without
due representation. They insisted on hav-
ing their own legialatnrea, makinf their
own laws, imying their own ofiicials, and
in other ways maintaining a just degree
of independence. This spirit is shown in
all the American State papers.
At a very early date in the history of
the United States, that on which the
Pilgrims sought a new home beyond the
seas on the l^leak New England shore,
the immigrants gathered In the cabin of
their little ship, the Mayflower, and
drew up for themselves a compact of
government in which they determined to
make their own laws and choose their
own governors. This brief declaration
of intentions, dating from 1620, forms
the first chapter in the great volume of
documentary American historv, and we
give it here as the genesis of American
political progress.
THE MAYFLOWER COMPACT
In the name of God, Amen: We,
whose names are underwritten, the
loyall subjects of our dread Soveraiane
Lord King James, by ye grace of God
of Great Britaine. France, and Ireland,
King, defender of ye faitn, &c.« having
undertaken, for ye glorie of God and ad-
vancement of ye Christian faith, and
honour of our King and countrie, a voy-
age to plant the first colony in ye North-
erne parts of Virginia, doe by these
presents solemnly and mutually in ye
presence of God and one of another,
covenant and combine ourselves together
into a civill body politick, for our better
ordering and preservatione and further-
ance of ye ends aforesaid ; and by vertue
hereof to enact, constitute, and frame
such just and equall lawes, ordinances,
acts, constitutions, and oflSces, from time
to time, as shall be thought most meete
and convenient for ye generall good of
ye colonie, unto which we promise all
due submission and obedience. In wit-
ness whereof we have hereunto sub-
scribed our names. Cape Cod 11 of No-
vember, in the yeare of the raigne of
our Soveraigne Lord King James of
Englandj France^ and Ireland 18 and of
Scotland 54. Anno Domini, 1620.
Passing onward down the road of de-
velopment, it is proper to sute that Vir-
ginia had already a legislature of its own
election, though under a governor ap-
pointed by the king. The New England
colonies went farther, electing their own
legislatures and governors and making
their own laws, so that from their origin
they were practically republics, their alle-
giance to the distant kin^ being one
rather of formality than of submission.
In 1689 the New Haven colony became so
liberal as to give all freemen the right to
vote, embodying this principle in a writ-
ten instrument, the first known in his-
tory drawn up by a people for their own
government. The document made no
mention of the English king or com-
pany, and was in effect the constitution
of a separate republic In 1043 a step
was taken towards the formation of a
federal republic, the colonies of Ply-
mouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut and
New Haven forming a confederation for
defense against the Dutch and Indians.
This they called 'The United Colonies
of New England.'
The time came when it appeared de-
sirable to combine all the colonies for
defensive purposes, and in 1754 a con-
vention was held in Albany in which
the question of a general union was
brought forward. Of the several plans
offered that of Benjamin Franklin was
adopted. It provided for a union of the
colonies under the following terms:
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United States
United States
FrankUn susgested that Philadelphia,
the most central laiise city, should be
the capital of the united colonies. The
foverament sitting here was to consist
of a grand council, elected every third
year by the colonies, but holding yearly
meetings, with a governor-general ap-
pointed by the kinf with power of veto
over all laws. This government was to
have the power to make general laws,
levy taxes, regulate commerce and per-
form other governmental duties. This
governmental scheme proved in advance
of the times and was rejected, the colo-
nies thinking that it took too much power
from them to give it to the general gov-
ernment, the king that it gave too much
power to the colonies.
The first colonial congress held in
America was that known as the
'SUmp Act Congress,' held at New
York in 1765, and composed of dele-
gates from nine of the colonies, its pur-
pose being to consider the threatening
relations between the Parliament of
Britain and the colonies of America.
It made an appeal to the king for
American rights. In 1774 the idea of
colonial union had further advanced and
the * First Continental Congress ' met
in Philadelphia, all the colonies but
Georgia being represented. It also peti-
tioned the king to redress the wrongs
of the colonists, and drew up a declara-
tion of rights. It did not ask for
American representation in Parliament,
but demanded the right to make all laws,
except those relating to foreign com-
merce, and to levy all taxes needed for
colonial uses. In 1775 the * Second
Continental Congress ' met, with delegates
from all the colonies. This issued a
'Declaration of Colonial Rights,' and on
July 4, 1776, a 'Declaration of Inde-
pendence.' This famous paper, with
which the history of the United States
began, is here given.
THE DECLARATION OF INDE-
PENDENCE
IN C0NGBES8 JULY 4, 1776.
The unanimous declaration of the
thirteen United States of America.
When in the course of human events, it
becomes necessary for one people to dis-
solve the political bands which have
connected them with another, and to as-
sume among the powers of the earth the
separate and equal station to which the
Laws of Nature and of Nature's God
entitles them, a decent respect to the
opinions of mankind requires that they
should declare the causes w^ch impel
^em to the separation.
We hold these truths to be self-
evident, that all men are crtated equal,
that they are endowed by their Creator
with certain unalienable Rights, that
among these are Life, Liberty and the
pursuit of Happiness. That to secure
these rights. Governments are instituted
among Men, deriving their just powers
from the consent of the governed. That
whenever any Form of Government be-
comes destructive of these ends, it is the
Right of the People to alter or to abol-
ish it, and to institute new Government,
laying its foundation on such principles
and organizing its powers in subh form,
as to them shall seem most likely to
effect their Safetv and Happiness. Pru-
dence, indeed, will dictate that Govern-
ments long established should not be
changed for light and transient causes;
and accordingly all experience hath
shown, that mankind are more disposed
to suflter, while evils are sufferable, than
to right themselves by abolishing the
forms to which they are accustomed.
But when a long train of abuses and
usurpations, pursuing invariably the
same Object, evinces a design to reduce
them under absolute Despotism, it is
their right, it is their duty, to throw
off such Government, and to provide
new Guards for their future security.^
Such has been the patient sufferance of
these Colonies; and such is now the
necessity which constrains them to alter
their former Systems of Government
The history of the present King of Great
Britain is a history of repeated injuries
and usurpations, all having in direct ob-
ject the establishment of an absolute
Tyranny over these States, To prove
this, let Facts be submitted to a candid
world.
He has refused his Assent to Laws,
the most wholesome and necessary for
the public good.
He has forbidden his Governors to
pass Laws of immediate and pressing
importance, unless suspended in their
operation till his Assent should be ob-
tained; and when so susnended, he has
utterly neglected to attend to them.
He has refused to pass other Laws for
the accommodation of large districts of
people, unless those people would re-
linquish the right of Representation in
the Legislature, a right inestimable to
them and formidable to tyrants only.
He has called together legislative bodies
at places unusual, uncomfortable, and
distant from the depositorv of their pub-
lic Records, for the sole purpose of
fatiguing them into compliance with his
measures.
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He has dissolved Representativefundamentally the Forms of our Govern-
Houses repeatedly, for opposing with ments:
manly firmness his invasions on the rights For suspending our own Legislaturea
of the people. and declaring themselves invested witE
He has refused for a long time, after power to legislate for us in all case«
such dissolutions, to cause others to whatsoever.
be elected ; whereby the Liegislative pow- He has abdicated Government here, by
ers, incapable of Annihilation, have re- declaring us out of his Protection an4
turned to the People at lar^e for their waging War against us.
exercise; the State remainii^ in the He has plundered our seas, ravage^
meantime exposed to all the dangers of our Coasts, burnt our towns, and de^
invasion from without, and convulsions stroyed the lives of our people,
within. He is at this time transporting large
He has endeavored to prevent the pop- Armies of foreign Mercenaries to com;
ulation of these States; for that purpose plete the works of death, desolation an^
obstructing the Laws for Naturalhsation tyranny, already begun with circum
of Foreigners, refusing to pass others to stances of Cruelty and perfidy scarcely
encourage their migrations hither, and paralleled in the most barbarous ages,
raising the conditions of new Appropria- and totally unworthy the Head of a
tions of Lands. civilized nation.
He has obstructed the Administration He has constrained our fellow-Citizena
of Justice, by refusing his Assent to taken captive on the high Seas to beat
Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. Arms against their Country, to become
He has made Judges dependent on his the executioners of their friends an^
Will alone, for the tenure of their offices. Brethren, or to fall themselves by theii
and the amount and payment of their Hands,
salaries. He has excited domestic insurrectioni
He has erected a multitude of New among us, and has endeavored to bring
Offices, and sent hither swarms of on the inhabitants of our frontiers, th«
Officers to harass our people, and eat out merciless Indian Savages, whose known
their substance. rule of warfare is an undistinguished dci
He has kept among us, in times of struction of all ages, sexes and condi*
peace. Standing Armies without the Con- tions.
sent of our legislature. In every stage of these Oppressions
He has affected to render the Military We have Petitioned for Redress in the
independent of and superior to the Civil most humble terms. Our repeated Petf^
power. tions have been answered only by re-
He has combined with others to sub- peated injury. A Prince, whose character
ject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our is thus Marked bv every act which may
constitution, and unacknowledged by our define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler
laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of of a free people,
pretended Legislation: Nor have We been wanting in atten-
For quartering large bodies of armed tions to our British brethren. We have
troops among us. warned them from time to time of at-
For protecting them, by a mock Trial, tempts by their legislature to extend an
from punishment for any Murders which unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We
they should commit on the Inhabitants have reminded them of the circum-
of these States: stances of our emigration and settlement
For cutting off our Trade with all here. We have appealed to their native
parts of the world: justice and magnanimity, and we have
For imposing Taxes on us without our conjured them by the ties of our com-
Consent: mon kindred to disavow these usurpa-
For depriving us in many cases of the tions, which would inevitably interrupt
benefits of Trial by jury: our connections and correspondence.
For transporting us beyond Seas to be They too have been deaf to the voice
tried for pretended offences: of justice and of consanguinity. We
For abolishing the free System of Eng- must therefore, acquiesce in the necessity
lish Laws in a neighboring Province, which denounces our Separation, and
establishing therein an Arbitrary gov- hold them, as we hold the rest of man-
emment, and enlarging its Boundaries kind. Enemies in War, in Peace Friends,
so as to render it at once an example and We, therefore, the Representatives
fit instrument for introducing the same of the United States or America, in
absolute rule into these Colonies: GfiNERAL Congress Assembled, appeal-
For taking away our Charters, abolish- ing to the Supreme Judge of the world
ing our most valuable Laws, and altering for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in
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the Name, and by authority of the good
People of these Colonies, solemnly Pub-
USH and VVCLASM, That these United
Colonies are, and of Bight ought to be
Fbeb Ain) INDKPENDIITT States; that
they are Absolved from all Allegiance to
the British Crown, and that all political
connection between them and the State
of Great Britain, is and ought to be
totally dissolved; and that as Fbcb and
Independent States, they have full
Power to levy War, conclude Peace, con-
tract Alliances, establish Commerce, and
to do all other Acts and Things which
Independent States may of right do.
And for the support of this Declaration,
with a firm reliance on the protection of
Divine Providence, We mutually pledge
to each other our Lives, our Fortunes,
find our sacred Honor.
In this notable paper the colonies
united in declaring their independence
from Great Britain, but they were still
separate commonwealths, though fighting
together for one general object. Some-
thing rarther was needed. In the Decla-
ration they called themselves simply
' Free and Independent States.' If they
were to be 'United States' a great
further step in political evolution was
needed. To win their independence an
actual Union appeared necessary, and on
July 11, 1776, the Continental Congress
appointed a committee to draw up a
form of confederation for the States.
This was completed and signed July %
1778, but its ratification was made gradu-
allv by the several States, Maryland
being the last to accept it (January 80,
1781). The first Congress under the con-
federation met on March 2, 1781. This
first form of a United States Constitution
is of much importance as a step forward
towards a firm and durable Union. It
is here appended:
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERA-
TION
Abtioles op Confederation and Per-
petual Union between the States
OF New Hampshire, Massachusetts
Bat, Rhode Island and Providence
Plantations, Connecticut, New York,
New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Dela-
ware, Maryland, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, and
Georgia.
Article I, The style of this Con-
federacy shall be, 'The United States of
America.'
Artide 11. Each State retains its
sovereignty, freedom, and independence,
and every power, jurisdiction, and right,
which is not bv this Confederation ex-
pressly delegated to the United States in
Ck)ngress assembled.
Artide IIL The said States hereby
severally enter into a firm league of
friendship with each other, for their com-
mon defence, the security of their liber-
ties, and their mutual and general wel-
fare, binding themselves to assist each
other against all force offered to, or at-
tacks made upon them, or any of tftem,
on account of religion, sovereignty, trade,
or any other pretence whatever.
Artide IV. The better to secure and
perpetuate mutual friendship and inter-
course among the people of the different
States in this Union, the free inhabit-
ants of each of these States, paupers,
vagabonds, and fugitives from justice ex-
cepted, shall be entitled to all privileges
and immunities of free citizens in the
several States; and the people of each
State shall have free ingress and egress to
and from any other State, and shall enjoy
therein all the privileges of trade and
commerce subject to the same duties, im-
positions, and restrictions as the inhabit-
ants thereof respectively; provided that
such restrictions shall not extend so far
as to prevent the removal of property
imported into any State to any other
State of which the owner is an inhabit-
ant; provided also, that no imposition,
duties, or restriction shall be hiid by any
State on the property of the United
States or either of them. If any person
guilty of, or charged with, treason, fel-
ony, or other high misdemeanor in any
State shall flee from justice and be found
in any of the United States, he shall,
upon demand of the governor or execu-
tive power of the State from which he
fled, be delivered up and removed to the
State having jurisdiction of his offence.
Full faith and credit shall be given in
each of these States to the records, acts,
and judicial proceedings of the courts
and magistrates of every other State.
Article V. For the more convenient
management of the general interests of
the United States, delegates shall be an-
nually appointed in such manner as the
Legislature of each State shall direct, to
meet in Congress on the first Monday in
November, in every year, with a power
reserved to each State to recall its dele-
gates, or any of them, at any time
within the year, and to send others in
their stead for the remainder of the year.
No State shall be represented in Con-
gress by less than two, nor by more than
seven members; and no person shall be
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capable of being a delegate for more than
three years in any term of six years ; nor
shall any person, being a delegate, be
capable of holding any office under the
United States for which he, or another
for his benefit, receives any salary, fees,
or emolument of any kind. Each State
shall maintain its own delegates in any
meeting of the States and while they act
as members of the Committee of the
States. In determining questions in the
United States in Congress assembled,
each State shall have one vote. Freedom
of speech and debate in Congress shall
not oe impeached or questioned in any
court or place out of Congress; and the
members of Congress shall be protected
in their persons from arrests and im-
prisonments during the time of their go-
ing to and from, and attendance on. Con-
gress, except for treason* felony, or
breach of the peace.
Article VL No State, without the
consent of the United States in Coiyress
assembled, shall send any embassy to. or
receive any embassy from, or enter into
aiiy conference, agreement, alliance, or
treaty with any king, prince, or state;
nor shall any person holding any office
of profit or trust under the United
States, or any of them, accept of any
present, emolument, office, or title of any
kind whatever from any king, prince, or
foreign state; nor shall the United
States in Congress assembled, or any of
them, grant any title of nobility.
No two or more States shall enter int*
any treaty, confederation, or alliance
whatever between them, without the con-
sent of the United States in Congress
assembled, specifying accurately the pur-
poses for which the same is to be entered
Into, and how long it shall continue.
No State shall lay any imposts or
duties which may interfere with any stip-
ulations in treaties entered into by the
United States in Congress assembled
with any king, prince, or state, in pur-
suance of any treaties already proposed
by Congress to the courts of France and
Spain.
No vessel of war shall be kept up in
lime of peace by any State, except such
number only as shall be deemed neces-
sary bv the United States in Congress
assembled for the defence of such State
or its trade, nor shall any body of forces
be kept up by anv State in time of peace,
except such number only as, in the judg-
ment of the United States in Congress
assembled shall be deemed requisite to
?:arrison the forts necessary for the de-
ence of such State; but every State
shall always keep up a well-regulated
and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed
and accoutred, and shall provide and con-
stantly have ready for use in public
stores a due number of field-pieces and
tents, and a proper quantity of arms,
ammunition, and camp equipage.
No State shall engage in any war
without the consent of the United States
in Congress assembled, unless such State
be actually invaded by enemies, or shall
have received certain advice of a resolu-
tion bein^ formed by some nation of In-
dians to invade such State, and the dan-
ger is so imminent as not to admit of
a delay till the United Sutes in Congress
assembled can be consulted; nor shall
any State grant commissions to any ships
or vessels of war, nor letters of marque
or reprisal, except it be after a declara-
tion of war by the United States in
Congress assembled, and then only
against the kingdom or state, and the
subjects thereof, against which war has
been so declared, and under such regula-
tions as shall be established by the United
States in Congress assembled, unless such
State be infested by pirates, in which case
vessels of war may be fitted out for that
occasion, and kept so long as the danger
shall continue, or until the United States
in Congress assembled shaU determine
otherwise.
Article VIL When land forces are
raised bv any State for the common de-
fence, all officers of or under the rank
of Colonel shall be appointed by the Leg-
islature of each State respectively by
whom such forces shall be raised, or in
such manner as such State shall direct,
and all vacancies shall be filled up by
the State which first made the appoint-
ment
Article VIII. All charges of war, and
all other expenses that shall be incurred
for the common defence, or general wel-
fare, and allowed by the United States
in Congress assembled, shall be defrayed
out of a common treasury, which shall
be supplied by the several States in pro-
portion to the value of all land within
each State, granted to, or surveyed for,
any person, as such land and the build-
ings and improvements thereon shall be
estimated, according to such mode as the
United States in Congress assembled
shall, from time to time, direct and ap-
point The taxes for paying that pro-
portion shall be laid and levied by the
authority and direction of the L^isla-
tures of the several States, within the
time agreed upon by the United States
in Congress assembled.
Article IX. The United States in
Congress assembled shall have tbe mI;
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and exclusive right and power of deter-
mining on peace and war, except in the
cases mentioned in the sixth Article; of
sending and receiving ambassadors;
entering into treaties and alliances, pro-
vided that no treaty of commerce shall
be made, whereby the legislative power
of the respective States shall be re-
strained from imposing such imposts and
duties on foreigners as their own people
are subjected to, or from prohibiting the
exportation or importation of any species
of goods or commodities whatever; of
establishing rules for deciding, in all
cases, what captures on land or water
shall be legal, and in what manner prizes
taken by land or naval forces in the serv-
ice of the United States shall be divided
or appropriated; of i^ranting letters of
marque and reprisal in times of peace;
appointing courts for the trial of piracies
and felonies committed on the high seas:
and establishing courts for receiving and
determining finally appeals in all cases of
captures; provided that no member of
Congress shall be appointed a judge of
any of the said courts.
The United States in Congress as-
sembled shall also be the last resort on
appeal in all disputes and differences now
subsisting, or that hereafter may arise
between two or more States concerning
boundary, jurisdiction, or any other cause
whatever; which authority shall always
be exercised in the manner following:
Whenever the legislative or executive
authority, or lawful agent of any State
in controversy with another, shall pre-
sent a petition to Congress, stating the
matter in question, and praying for a
hearing, notice thereof shall be given by
order of Congress to the legislative op
executive authority of the other State in
controversy, and a day assigned for the
appearance of the parties by their law-
ful agents, who shall then be directed to
appoint, by joint consent, commissioners
or judges to constitute a court for hear-
ing and determining the matter in ques-
tion; but if they cannot agree. Congress
shall name three persons out of each of
the United States, and from the list of
such persons each party shall alternately
strike out one, the petitioners beginning,
until the number shall be reduced to
thirteen ; and from that number not less
than seven nor more than nine names, as
Congress shall direct, shall, in the pres-
ence of Congress, be drawn out by lot;
and the persons whose names shall be so
drawn, or any five of them, shall be
commissioners or jndges, to hear and
finally determine the controversy, so
always as a major part of the judges who
shall hear the cause shall agree in the
determination; and if either party shall
neglect to attend at the da^ appointed,
without showing reasons which Congress
shall judge sufficient, or being present,
shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall
proceed to nominate three persons out of
each State, and the secretary of Congress
shall strike in behalf of such party alh
sent or refusing; and the judgment and
sentence of the court, to be appointed in
the manner before prescribed, shall be
final and conclusive; and if any of the
parties shall refuse to submit to the au-
thoritv of such court, or to appear or
defend their claim or cause, the court
shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce
sentence or judgment, which shall in like
manner be final and decisive; the judg-
ment OP sentence and other proceedings
being in either case transmitted to Con-
gress, and lodged among the acts of
Congress for the security of the parties
concerned; provided, that every commis-
sioner, before he sits in judgment, shall
take an oath, to be administered by* one
of the judges of the supreme or superior
court of the State where the cause shall
be tried, * well and truly to hear and de-
termine the matter in question, accord-
ing to the best of his judgment, without
favor, affection, or hope of reward.' Pro-
vided, also, that no State shall be de-
prived of territory for the benefit of the
United States.
All controversies concerning the pri-
vate right of soil claimed under different
grants of two or more States, whose
jurisdictions, as they may respect such
lands, and the States which passed such
grants are adjusted, the said grants or
either of them being at the same time
claimed to have originated antecedent to
such settlement of jurisdiction, shall, on
the petition of either party to the Con-
gress of the United States, be finally de-
termined, as near as may be, in the same
manner as is before prescribed for de-
ciding disputes respecting territorial
jurisdiction between different States.
The United States in Congress as-
sembled shall also have the sole and ex-
clusive right and power of regulating
the alloy and value of coin struck by
their own authority, or by that of the
respective States; fixing the standard of
weights and measures throughout the
United States; regulating the trade and
managing all affairs with the Indians,
not members of any of the States: pro-
vided that the legislative right of any
State, within its own limits, be not in-
fringed or violated; establishing and
regulating post-offices from one State tD
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another, throughout all the United
States, and exacting such postage on the
gapers passing through the same as may
e requisite to defray the expenses of
the said office; appointing all officers of
the land forces in the service of the
United States, excepting regimental
officers; appointing all the officers of the
naval forces, and conmiissioning all
officers whatever in the service of the
United States; making rules for the gov-
ernment and regulation of the said land
and naval forces, and directing their
operations.
The United States in Congress as-
sembled shall have authority to appoint
a committee, to sit in the recess of Con-
gress, to be denominated *a Committee
of the States,* and to consist of one dele-
gate from each State, and to appoint
such other committees and civil officers
as mav be necessary for managing the
general affairs of the United States
under their direction; to appoint one of
their number to preside; provided that
no person be allowed to serve in the
office of president more than one year in
any term of three years ; to ascertain the
necessary sums of money to be raised for
the service of the United States, and to
appropriate and apply the same for de-
fraying the public expenses; to borrow
money or emit bills on the credit of the
United States, transmitting every half
year to the respective States an account
of the sums of money so borrowed or
emitted; to build and equip a navy; to
agree upon the number of land forces,
and to make requisitions from each State
for its quota, in proportion to the num-
ber of white inhabitants in each State,
which requisition shall be binding; and
thereupon the Legislature of each State
shall appoint the regimental officers,
raise the men, and clothe, arm, and
equip them in a soldier-like manner, at
the expense of the United States; and
the officers and men so clothed, armed,
and equipped shall march to the place
appointed, and within the time agreed
on by the United States in Congress as-
sembled; but if the United States in
Congress assembled shall, on considera-
tion of circumstances, judge proper that
any State should not raise men, or
should raise a smaller number than its
quota, and that any other State should
raise a greater number of men than the
quota thereof, such extra number shall
be raised, officered, clothed, armed, and
equipped in the same manner as the
quota of such State, unless the Legisla-
ture of such State shall judge that such
extra number cannot be safely spared
put 9f the same. In which c^se they shall
raise, officer, clothe, arm, and equip as
many of such extra number as they
judge can be safely spared, and the offi-
cers and men so clothed, armed, and
equipped shall march to the place ap-
pointed, and within the time agreed on
by the United States in Congress as-
sembled.
The United States in Congress as-
sembled shall never engage in a war,
nor grant letters of marque and reprisal
in time of peace, nor enter into any
treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor
regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain
the sums and expenses necessary for the
defence and welfare of the United States,
or any of them, nor emit bills, nor bor-
row money on the credit of the United
States, nor appropriate money, nor
agree upon the number of vessels of war
to be built or purchased, or the number
of land or sea forces to be raised, nor
appoint a commander-in-chief of the
armv or navy, unless nine States assent
to the same, nor shall a question on any
other point, except for adjourning from
day to day, be determined, unless by the
votes of a majority of the United States
in Congress assembled.
The Congress of the United States
shall have power to adjourn to any time
within the year, and to any place within
the United States, so that no period of
adjournment be for a longer duration
than the space of six months, and shall
publish the journal of their proceeding^
monthly, except such parts thereof rela-
ting to treaties, alliances, or military
operations as in their judgment require
secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the
delegates of each State, on any question,
shall be entered on the journal when it
is desired by any delegate; and the dele-
gates of a State, or any of them, at his
or their request, shall be furnished with
a transcript of the said journal except
such parts as are above excepted, to lay
before the Legislatures of the several
States.
Article X, The Committee of the
States, or any nine of them, shall be
authorized to execute, in the recess of
Congress, such of the powers of Con-
gress as the United States in Congress
assembled, by the consent of nine States,
shall, from time to time, think expedient
to vest them with ; provided that no
power be delegated to the said Com-
mittee, for the exercise of which, oy the
Articles of Confederation, the voice of
nine States in the Congress of the United
States assembled is requisite.
Article XI, Canada, acceding to thii
Confederation, and joining in the meas-
ures of the United States, «haU be md-
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mitted into, and entitled to all the
advantages of this Union; but no other
colony shall be adniitted into the same,
unless such admission be agreed to by
nine States.
ArtMe XIL All bilU of credit
emitted, moneys borrowed, and debts
contracted by or under the authority of
Congress, before the assembling of the
United States, in pursuance of the pres-
ent Confederation, shall be deemed and
considered as a charge against the
United States, for payment and satisfac-
tion whereof the said United States and
the public faith are hereby solemnly
pledged.
Article ZIIL Every State shall abide
by the determinations of the United
States in Congress assembled on all
questions which by this Confederation
are submitted to tnem. And the Arti-
cles of this Confederation shall be In-
violably observed by every State, and
the Union shall be peri>etual; nor shall
any alteration at any time hereafter be
made in any of them, unless such altera-
tion be agreed to in a Congress of the
United States, and be afterwards con-
firmed by the Legislatures of every
State.
And whereas it hath pleased the
Great Governor of the world to incline
the hearts of the Legislatures we respec-
tively represent in Congress to approve
of, and to authorize us to ratify, the said
Articles of Confederation and perpetual
Union, know ye, that we, the under-
signed delecfates, by virtue of the power
and authonty to us given for that pur-
pose, do, by these presents, in the name
and in behalf of our respective con-
stituents, fully and entirely ratify and
confirm each and every of the said Arti-
cles of Confederation and perpetual
Union, and all and singular the matters
and things therein contained. And we
do further solemnly plight and engage
the faith of our respective constituents,
that they shaU abide by the determina-
tions of the United States in Congress
assembled on all questions which by the
said Confederation are submitted to
them ; and that the Articles thereof shall
be inviolably observed by the States we
respectively represent, and that the
Union shall be perpetual.
The Articles of Confederation served
their purpose while the war for inde-
pendence continued. The necessity of
working together was then imperative.
But the war had no sooner ended than
their innate weakness became i4n>are»t'
The States hftd kept too lacs« ft ^hie^ve of
power for themselves and left the Con-
federation a weak and almost i>owerle8S
body. They had retamed the power of
taxation, which proved a fatal defect.
No Union could hold together with the
purse-strings in the hands of thirteen
semi-independent commonwealths. Also
there was no President, Congress being
at once the legislative and the executive
body. The new government could pass
laws but could not make the people obey
them. It could incur debt but could not
tax the people for money to pay its
debts. The States were to provide
money for this purpose, but they showed
little inclination to do so. They were
jealous of one another and each was in-
clined to act as a single nation. Wash-
ington thus described the situation:
* We are one nation to-day and thirteen
to-morrow.' Evidently the political evo-
lution of the United States was far from
complete. It must go farther or go back
to dissolution ; be one strong nation or
thirteen weak ones. The last alterna-
tive frightened the States. They were
already being pressed and threatened by
foreign nations. Feeling that they could
not stand alone, and could not keep to-
gether under the Articles of Confedera-
tion, a convention was called to revise
these Articles. It met at Philadelphia
in 1787. The Articles of Confederation
proved unsuited for revision, no change
could make them serve the purpose, and
the convention devoted its four months
of labor to working out a new Constitu-
tion. This Constitution, as afterwards
amended, is that under which the United
States has since been governed. Glad-
stone has spoken of it as the greatest
document ever produced by the force of
human genius. Its full text, with its
amendments, follows, with the under-
standing that the headlines of the several
sections as here given, such as * Preamble,'
'Legislative Powers,' etc., are appended
for the convenience of readers, and do
not occur in the original document:
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED
STATES
Preamble. — We, the people of the
United States, in order to form a more
perfect Union, establish justice, insure
domestic tranquillity, provide for the
common defence, promote the general
welfare, and secure the blessings of
liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do
ordain and establish this Coxstttution
for the United States of America.
Article /. Legislative Powers. — Sec-
tion I. All legislative powers herein
S^saated shall be Tested in a Cooipress of
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the United States, which shall consist of
a Senate and House of Representatives.
House of Representatives. — Section
II. 1. The House of Representatives
shall be composed of members chosen
€?very second year by the people of the
several States, and the electors in each
State shall have the qualifications requi-
site for electors of the most numerous
branch of the State Legislature.
Qualifications of Representatives. — 2.
No person shall be a Representative who
shall not have attained to the age of
twenty-five years, and been seven years
a citizen of the United States, and who
shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant
of that State in which he shall be
chosen.
Apportionment of Representatives. —
3. Kepresentatives and direct taxes shall
be apportioned among the several States
which may be included within this
Union according to their respective num-
bers, which shall be determmed by add-
ing to the whole number of free persons,
including those bound to service for a
term of years, and excluding Indians not
taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.
The actual enumeration shall be made
within three years after the first meet-
ing of the Congress of the United States,
and within every subsequent term of ten
vears, in such manner as they shall by
law direct The number of Representa-
tives shall not exceed one for everv thirty
thousand, but each State shall have at
least one Representative; and until such
enumeration shall be made, the State of
New Hampshire shall be entitled to
choose H; Massachusetts, 8; Rhode
Island and Providence Plantations, 1;
Ck>nnecticut, 6; New York, 6; New Jer-
sey, 4; Pennsylvania, 8; Delaware, 1;
Maryland, 6: Virginia, 10; North Caro-
lina, 6; South Carolina, 5, and
Georgia, 3.*
Vacancies, How Filled. — 4. When
vacancies happen in the representation
from any State, the Executive Authority
thereof shall issue writs of election t*
fill such vacancies.
Ofllcers. How Appointed. — 5. The
House of Representatives shall choose
their Speaker and other officers, and
shall have the sole power of impeach-
ment.
Senate. — Section III. 1. The Sen-
ate of the United States shall be com-
posed of two Senators from each State,
chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six
years; and each Senator shall have one
vote.
Classification of Senators. — 2. Im-
* Set Article XIV, Amendments.
mediately after they shall be assembled
in consequence of the first election, they
shall be divided as equally as may be
into three classes. The seats of the Sen-
ators of the first class shall be vacated
at the expiration of the second year, of
the second class at the expiration of the
fourth prear, and of the third class at
the expiration of the sixth year, so that
one-third may be chosen every second
year; and if vacancies happen by resig-
nation, or otherwise, during the recess
of the Legislature of any State, the Ex-
ecutive thereof may make temporary ap-
pointments until the next meeting of the
Legislature, which shall then nil such
vacancies.
Qualifications of Senators. — 3. No
person shall be a Senator who shall not
have attained to the age of thirty years,
and been nine years a citizen of the
United States, and who shall not, when
elected, be an inhabitant of that State
for which he shall be chosen.
President of the Senate. — 4. The Vice-
President of the United States shall be
President of the Senate, but shall have
no vote unless they be equally divided.
6. The Senate shall choose their other
officers, and also a President pro tempore,
in the absence of the Vice-President, or
when he shall exercise the office of Presi-
dent of the United States.
Senate a Court for Trial of Impeach-
ments.— 6. The Senate shall have the
sole power to try all impeachments.
When sitting for that purpose, they shall
be on oath or affirmation. When the
President of the United States is tried,
the Chief Justice shall preside: and no
person shall be convicted without the
concurrence of two-thirds of the members
present
Judgment in Case of Conviction. — 7.
Judgment in cases of impeachment shall
not extend further than to removal from
office, and disqualification to hold and
enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit
under the United States; but the party
convicted shall nevertheless be liable and
subject to indictment, trial. Judgment*
and punishment, according to law.
Elections of Senators and Repre-
sentatives.— Section IV. 1. The times,
places, and manner of holding elections
for Senators and Representatives shall
be prescribed in each State by the Legis-
lature thereof; but the Congress may at
any time by law make or alter such reg-
ulations, except as to places of choosing
Senators.
Meeting of Congress. — 2. The Con-
gress shall assemble at least once in
every year, and such meeting shall be on
the first Monday in December, unless
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they shall by law appoint a different of Representatives and the Senate shall,
day. before it become a law, be presented to
Organization of Congress. — Section the President of the United States ; if he
y. 1. Each House shall be the judge of approve, he shall sign it, but if not,
the elections, returns, and qualifications he shall return it, with his objections,
of its own members, and a majority of to that House in which it shall have
each shall constitute a quorum to do originated, who shall enter the objec-
business; but a smaller number may ad- tions at large on their journal, and pro-
joum from day to day, and may be au- ceed to reconsider it. If after such
thorized to compel the attendance of reconsideration two-thirds of that House
absent members in such manner and shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be
under such penalties as each House may sent, together with the objections, to the
provide. other House, by which it shall likewise
Rule of Proceedings. — 2. Each House be reconsidered ; and if approved by two-
may determine the rules of its proceed- thirds of that House it shall become a
ings, punish its members for disorderly law. But in all such cases the votes of
behavior, and with the concurrence of both Houses shall be determined by yeas
two-thirds expel a member. and nays and the names of the persons
Journals of each House. — 3. Each voting for and against the bill shall be
House shall keep a journal of its pro- entered on the journal of each House re-
ceedings, and from time to time publish spectively. If any bill shall not
the same, excepting such parts as may be returned by the President within
in their judgment require secrecy; and ten days (Sundays excepted) after it
the yeas and nays of the members of shall have been presented to him, the
either House on any question shall, at same shall be a law, in like manner
the desire of one-fifth of those present, as if he had signed it, unless the
be entered on the journal. Congress by their adjournment prevent
Adjournment of Congress. — 4. Neither its return; in which case it shall not be
House, during the session of Congress, a law.
shall, without the consent of the other, Approval and Veto Powers of the
adjourn for more than three days, nor President. — 3. Every order, resolution,
to any other place than that in which or vote to which the concurrence of the
the two Houses shall be sitting. Senate and House of Representatives
Pay and Privileges of Members. — may be necessary (except on a question
Section VI. 1. The Senators and Rep- of adjournment) shall be presented to
resentatives shall receive a compensation the President of the United States; and
for their services, to be ascertained by before the same shall take effect shall be
law, and paid out of the Treasury of the approved by him, or, being disapproved
United States. They shall in all cases, by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds
except treason, felony, and breach of the of the Senate and the House of Repre-
peace, be privileged from arrest during sentatives, according to the rules and
their attendance at the session of their limitations prescribed in the case of a
respective Houses, and in going to and bill.
returning from the same; and for any Powers Vested in Congress. — Section
speech or debate in either House they VIII. 1. The Congress shall have
shall not be questioned in any other power:
place. To lay and collect taxes, duties, im-
Other OflSces Prohibited. — 2. No Sen- posts, and excises, to pay the debts and
ator or Representative shall, during the provide for the common defence and gen-
time for which he was elected, be ap- eral welfare of the United States; but
pointed to any civil office under the au- all duties, imposts, and excises shall be
thority of the United States which shall uniform throughout the United States,
have been created, or the emoluments 2. To borrow money on the credit of
whereof shall have been increased during the United States.
such time; and no person holding any 3. To regulate commerce with foreign
office under the United States shall be a nations, and among the several States,
member of either House during his con- and with the Indian tribes,
tinuance in office. 4. To establish a uniform rule of
Revenue Bills. — Section VII. 1. All naturalization, and uniform laws on the
bills for raising revenue shall originate subject of bankruptcies throughout the
in the House of Representatives, but the United States.
Senate may propose or concur with 5. To coin money, regulate the value
amendments, as on other bills. thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the
How Bills Become Laws. — 2. Every standard of weights and measures,
bill which shall have passed the House 6. To provide for the punishmert of
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counterfeiting the securities and current
coin of the United States.
7. To establish post-offices and post-
roads.
8. To promote the progress of science
and useful arts by securing for limited
times to authors and inventors the ex-
clusive rights to their respective writings
and discoveries.
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to
the Supreme Court.
10. To define and punish piracies and
felonies committed on the high seas, and
offences against the law of nations.
11. To declare war, grant letters of
marque and reprisal, and make rules
concerning captures on land and water.
12. To raise and support armies, but
DO appropriation of money to that use
shall be for a longer term than two
years.
13. To provide and maintain a navy.
14. To make rules for the government
and regulation of the land and naval
forces.
15. To provide for calling forth the
militia to execute the laws of the Union,
suppress insurrections, and repel inva-
sions.
16. To provide for organizing, arming,
and disciplining the militia, and for gov-
erning such part of them as may be em-
§loyed in the service of the United
tates, reserving to the States respec-
tively the appointment of the officers,
and the authority of training the militia
according to the discipline prescribed by
Congress.
iT. To exercise exclusive legislation in
all cases whatsoever over such district
(not exceeding ten miles square) as may,
by cession of particular States and the
acceptance of Congress, become the seat
of Government of the United States, and
to exercise like authority over all places
purchased by the consent of the Legisla-
ture of the State in which the same shall
be, for the erection of forts, magazines,
arsenals, dry-docks, and other needful
buildings.
IS. To make all laws which shall be
necessary and proper for carrying into
execution the foregoing powers, and all
other powers vested by this Constitution
in the Government of the United States,
or in any departmeht or officer thereof.
Immigrants, How Admitted. — Sec-
tion IX. 1. The migration or importa-
tion of such persons as any of the States
now existing shall think proper to admit,
shall not be prohibited by the Congress
prior to the year one thousand eight hun-
dred and eight, but a tax or duty may
be imposed on such Importation, not ex-
ceeding ten dollars for each person.
1410
Habeas Corpus. — 2. The privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus shall not be
suspended, unless when in cases of re-
bellion or invasion the public safety may
require it.
Attainder. 3. No bill of attainder or
ex post facto law shall be passed.
Direct Taxes. — 4. No capitation or
other direct tax shall be laid, unless in
Eroportion to the census or enumeration
ereinbefore directed to be taken.
Regulations Regarding Customs Dut-
ies.— 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on
articles exported from any State.
6. No preference shall be given by any
regulation of commerce or revenue to the
ports of one State over those of another,
nor shall vessels bound to or from one
State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay
duties in another.
Moneys, How Drawn. — 7. No money
shall be drawn from the Treasury but in
consequence of appropriations made by
law; and a regular statement and ac-
count of the receipts and expenditures
of all public money shall be published
from time to time.
Titles of Nobility Prohibited.— 8. No
title of nobility shall be granted by the
United States. And no person holding
any office of profit or trust under them
shall, without the consent of the Con-
gress, accept of any present, emolument,
office, or title, of any kind whatever,
from any king, prince, or foreign state.
Powers of States Defined. — Section
X. 1. No State shall enter into any
treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant
letters of maraue and reprisal; coin
money: emit bills of credit; make any-
thing but gold and silver coin a tender
in pajrment of debts; pass any bill of
attainder, ex post facto law, or law im-
pairing the obligation of contracts, or
grant any title of nobility.
2. No State, shall, without the con-
sent of the Congress, lay any impost or
duties on imports or exports, except
what may be absolutely necessary for
executing its inspection laws; and the
net produce of all duties and imposts, laid
by any State on imports or exports, shall
be for the use of the Treasury of the
United States; and all such laws shall
be subject to the revision and control of
the Congress.
3. No State shall, without the consent
of Congress, lay any duty or tonnage,
keep troops or ships of war in time of
peace, enter into any agreement or com*
pact with another State, or with a for*
eign power, or engage in war, unless
actually invaded, or in such imminent
danger as will not admit of delay.
Article II, Executive Power, in WhoiD
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ITnited States
ITnited States
Vested. — Section I. 1. The Executive
power shall be vested in a President of
the United Sutes of America. He shall
hold his office during the term of f«ur
years, and, together with the Vice-Presi-
dent, chosen for the same term, be elected
as follows:
Electors. — 2. Each State shall ap-
point, in such manner as the Legislature
thereof mav direct, a number of electors,
equal to the whole number of Senators
and Representatives to which the State
may be entitled in the Congress; but no
Senator or Representative or person
holding an office of trust or profit under
the United States shall be appointed an
elector.
Proceedings of Electors. — Proceed-
ings of the House of Representatives. —
3. The electors shall meet in their re-
spective States and vote by ballot for
two persons, of whom one at least shall
not be an inhabitant of the same State
with themselves. And they shall make
a list of all the persons voted for, and
of the number of votes for each, which
list they shall sign and certify, and trans-
mit, sealed, to the seat of the Govern-
ment of the United States, directed to
the President of the Senate. The Presi-
dent of the Senate shall, in the presence
of the Senate and House of Representa-
tives, open all the certificatei, and the
votes shall then be counted. The person
having the greatest number of votes shall
be the President, if such number be a
majority of the whole number of electors
appointed, and if there be more than one
who have such majority, and have an
eoual number of votes, then the House
of Representatives shall immediately
choose by ballot one of them for Presi-
dent; and if no person have a majority,
then from the five highest on the list the
said House shall in like manner choose
the President. But in choosing the
President, the vote shall be taken bv
States, the representation from each
State having one vote. A ouorum, for
this purpose shall consist of a member
or members from two-thirds of the
States, and a majority of all the States
shall be necessary to a choice. In every
case, after the choice of the President,
the person having the greatest number
of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-
President. But if there should remain
two or more who have equal votes, the
Senate shall choose from them by ballot
the Vice-President.*
Time of Choosing Electors. — 4 The
Congress may determine the time of
* This cUnte it tuperteded by Artlold XTT,
AmendmtnU-
choosing the electors, and the day oo
which tney shall give their votes, which
day shall be the same throughout the
United States.
Qualifications of the President-— 6.
No person except a natural-bom citixen,
or a citizen of the United States at the
time of the adoption of this Constitution,
shall be eligible to the office of Presi-
dent; neither shall any person be eligible
to that office who shall not have attained
to the age of thirty-five years and been
fourteen years a resident within the
United States.
Provision in Case of His Disability.—
6. In case of the removal of the Presi-
dent from office, or of his death, resigna-
tion, or inability to discharge the powers
and duties of the said office, the same
shall devolve on the Vice-President and
the Congress may by law provide for the
case of removal, death, resignation, or
inability, both of the President and Vice-
President, declaring what officer shall
then act as President, and such officer
shall act accordingly, until the disability
be removed or a President shall be
elected.
Salary of the President — 7. The
President shall, at stated times, receive
for his services a compensation which
shall neither be increased nor diminished
during the period for which he shall have
been elected, and he shall not receive
within that period any other emolument
from the United States, or any of them.
Oath of the President — 8. Before he
enter on the execution of his office he
shall take the following oath or affirma-
tion:
* I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that
I will faithfully execute the office of
President of the United States, and will,
to the best of my ability, preserve, pro-
tect and defend the Constitution of the
United States.*
Duties of the President. — Section II.
1. The President shall be Commander-
in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the
United States, and of the militia of the
several States when called Into the
actual service of the United States; he
may require the opinion, in writing, of
the principal officer in each of the execu-
tive departments upon any subject re-
lating to the duties of their respective
offices, and he shall have power to grant
reprieves and pardons for offences against
the United States except in cases of im-
peachment
May Make Treaties, Appoint Ambassa-
dors, Judges, etc. — 2. He shall have
power, by and with the advice and con-
sent of the Senate, to make treaties,
provided two-thifdt of the Seoatom piee-
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United States
TTnited States
ent concur; and he shall nominate, and
by and with the advice and consent of
the Senate, shall appoint ambasBadors,
other public ministers and consuls,
judges of the Supreme Court, and all
other officers of the United States whose
appointments are not herein otherwise
f>royidcd for, and which sliall be estab-
ished by law; but the Congress may by
law vest the appointment of such in-
ferior officers as they think proper in the
President alone, in the courts of law, or
in the heads of departments.
May Fill Vacancies. — 3. The Presi-
dent shall have power to fill up all vacan-
cies that may happen during the recess
of the Senate by granting commissions,
which shall expire at the end of their
next session.
May Make Recommendations to and
Convene Congress. — Section III. He
shall from time to time give to the Con-
gress information of the state of the
union, and recommend to their con-
sideration such measures as he shall
judge necessary and expedient; he may,
on extraordinary occasions, convene both
Houses, or either of them, and in case of
disagreement between them, with respect
to the time of adjournment, he may ad-
journ them to such time as he shall think
proper; he shall receive ambassadors and
other public ministers ; he shall take care
that the laws be faithfully executed, and
shall commission all the officers of the
United States.
How Officers May be Removed. — Sio-
TION IV. The President, Vice-Presi-
dent, and all civil officers of the United
States shall be removed from office on
impeachment for, and conviction of,
treason, bribery, or other high crimes and
misdemeanors.
Article IIL Judicial Power, How
Vested. — Section I. The judicial
power of the United States shall be
vested in one Supreme Court, and in
■och inferior courts as the Congress may
from time to time ordain and establish.
The judges, both of the Supreme and in-
ferior courts, shall hold their offices dur-
ing good behavior, and shall, at stated
times, receive for their services a com-
pensation which shall not be diminished
daring their continuance in office.
To What Cases it Extends. — Section
II. L The judicial power shall extend
to all cases, in law and equity, arising
under this Constitution, the laws of the
United States, and treaties made, or
which shall be made, under their au-
thority; to all cases affecting ambassa-
dors, other public ministers, and consuls ;
to all cases of admiralty and maritime
jariidktiptt;, to contronrersies to whiqh
the United States shall be a party; to
controversies between two or more
States; between a State and citizens of
another State; between citlxens of dif-
ferent States; between citizens of the
same State, claiming lands under grants
of different States, and between a State,
or the citizens thereof, and foreign
States, citizens or subjects.
Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court —
2. In all cases affecting ambassadors,
other public ministers, and consuls, and
those in which a State shall be party,
the Supreme Court shall have original
jurisdiction. In all the other cases be-
fore-mentioned the Supreme Court shall
have appellate jurisdiction, both as to
law and fact, with such exceptions and
under such regulations as the Congress
shall make.
Rules Respecting Trials. — 3. The
trial of all crimes, except in cases of im-
peachment, shall be by jury, and such
trial shall be held in the State where the
said crimes shall have been committed:
but when not committed within any
Stats the trial shall be at such place or
places as the Congress may by law have
Treason Defined. — Section III. 1.
Treason against the United States shall
consist only in levying war against them,
or in adhering to their enemies, giving
them aid and comfort No person shall
be convicted of treason unless on the
testimony of two witnesses to the same
overt act, or on confession in open
court
How Punished.— 2. The Congress
shall have power to declare the punish-
ment of treason, but no attainder of
treason shall work corruption of blood
or forfeiture except during the life of
the person attainted.
Article IV. Rights of States and
Records. — Section I. Full faith and
credit shall be given in each State to the
public acts, records, and judicial pro-
ceedings of every other State. And the
Congress may by general laws prescribe
the manner in which such acts, records,
and proceedings shall be proved, and the
effect thereof.
Privileges of Citizens. — Section II.
1. The citizens of each State shall be
entitled to all privileges and immunities
of citizens in the several States.
Executive Requisitions. — 2. A person
charged in any State with treason, fel-
ony, or other crime, who shall flee from
justice, and be found in another State,
shall, on demand of the Executive au-
thority of the State from which he fled,
be delivered up, to be removed to tha
State haviag Joriadictioa of the crim^
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United States United States
Laws Regulating Service or Labor. — this Constitntion as under the Confedera*
3. No person held to service or labor in tion.
one State, under the laws thereof, escap- Supreme Law of the Land Defined.—
ing into another, shall, in consequence 2. This Constitution and the laws of the
of any law or regulation therein, be dis- United States which shall be made in
charged from such service or labor, but pursuance thereof and all treaties made,
shall be delivered up on claim of the or which shall be made, under the au-
party to whom such service or labor thority of the United States, shall be
may be due. the supreme law of the land, and the
New States, How Formed and Ad- judges in every State shall be bound
mitted. — Section II L 1. New States thereby, anything in the Constitution or
may be admitted by the Congress into laws of any State to the contrary not-
this Union, but no new State shall be withstanding.
formed or erected within the jurisdiction Oath: of Whom Required and for
of any other State, nor any State be What — 3. The Senators and Represen-
formed by the junction of two or more tatives before mentioned, and the mem-
States, or parts of States, without the bers of the several State Legislatures,
consent of the Legislatures of the States and all executive and judicial officers,
concerned, as well as of the Congress. both of the United States, and of the
Power of Congress over Public Lands, several States, shall be bound by oath or
— 2. The Congress shall have power to affirmation to support this Constitution;
dispose of and make all needful rules but no religious test shall ever be re-
and regulations respecting the territory quired as a qualification to any office or
or other property belonging to the United public trust under the United States.
States; and nothing in this Constitution Article 17/. Ratification of the Con-
shall be so construed as to prejudice any stitution. — The ratification of the Con-
claims of the United States, or of any ventions of nine States shall be sufficient
particular State. for the establishment of this Constitu-
Republican Government Quaranteed. — tion between the States so ratifying the
Section IV. The United States shall same,
guarantee to every State in this Union
a republican form of ffovemment, and Done in Convention by the unanimous
shall protect each of tnem against in- consent of the States present the seven-
vasion; and, on application of the Leg- teenth day of September, in the year of
islature, or of the Executive (when the our Lord one thousand seven hundred
Legislature cannot be convened), against and eighty-seven, and of the Independ-
domestic violence. ence of the United States of America
Article V, Constitution, How Amended, the twelfth. In witness whereof we
— The Congress, whenever two-thirds of have hereunto subscribed our names,
both Houses shall deem it necessary, Go: Washington,
shall propose amendments to this Con- Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia,
stitution, or, on the application of the
Legislatures of two-thirds of the several Avinvm*irwT« -m twit nmcaTTTTTT^nw
States, shall call a convention for pro- Amendments to the constitution
posing amendments, which, in either *_,. » . j..^. ^ .4 j ^
case, shall be valid to all intents and pur- AT**^^^ tn addttton to, and Amen^^i
poses, as part of this Constitution, when ^f/ *}^ Cpmt%tut%on of the United States
ratified by the Legislatures of three- of America, proposed hy Congress, and
fourths of the several States, or by con- ^V*^^ ^^ *^ h^^^V'''1S:Z{ *^l/-^?^i
ventions in three-fourths thereof, as the fi""*^*. Pursuant to the Fifth ArUole of
one or the other mode of ratification may **^ prtgtnal Constitution.
be proposed by the Congress; provided
that no amendment which may be made Article I, Religion and Free Speech,
prior to the year one thousand eight hun- —Congress shall make no law respecting
dred and eight shall in any manner affect an establishment of religion, or pro-
the first and fourth clauses in the Ninth hibiting the free exercise thereof; or
Section of the First Article; and that abridging the freedom of speech or 01 the
no State, without its consent, shall be press; or the right of the people peace-
deprived of its equal suffrage in the ably to assemble, and to petition the
Senate. Government for a redress of grievances.
Article VL Validity of Debts Recog- Article II. Rieht to Bear Arms.— A
nized. — L All debts contracted and en- well-regulated mintia being necessary to
gagements entered into before the the security of a free State, the right of
adoption of this Constitution shall be as* the people to keep and bear arms shaJl
valid against the United States under not be infrmged. «
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United States TTnited States
Artide III. Soldiers in Time of United States by the Constitution, nor
Peace. — No soldier shall, in time of prohibited by it to the States, are re-
peace, be quartered in any house without served to the States respectively, or to
the consent of the owner, nor in time of the people.
war but in a manner to be prescribed by Article XL Judicial Power.— The
law. judicial power of the United States shall
Article IV, Right of Search. — The pot be construed to extend to any suit
right of the people to be secure in their iQ Iaw or equity, commenced or prose-
persons, houses, papers, and effects, cuted agahist one of the United States,
against unreasonable searches and seiz- by citizens of another State, or by citi-
ures, shall not be violated, and no war- sens or subjects of any foreign State,
rants shall issue but upon probable Article XII. Electors in Presidental
cause, supported by oath or affirmation. Elections. — The electors shall meet in
and particularly describing the place to their respective States, and vote by bal-
be searched, and the persons or things lot for President and Vice-President, one
to be seized. of whom at least shall not be an inhabi-
Artide F. Capital Crimes and Arrest tant of the same State with themselves;
Therefor. — No person shall be held to they shall name in their ballots the per-
answer for a capital or other infamous ^^ voted for as President, and in dis-
crime, unless on a presentment or indict- tinct ballots the person voted for as
ment of a grand jury, except in cases Vice-President; and they shall make
arising in the land or naval forces, or in distinct lists of all persons voted for as
the militia, when in actual service, in President, and of all persons voted for
time of war or public danger; nor shall as Vice-President, and of the number of
any person be subject for the same votes for each, which lists they shall
offence to be twice put in jeopardy of »*«?» and certify, and transmit, sealed, to
life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in the seat of the Government of the United
any criminal case to be a witness against States^ directed to the President of the
himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty. Senate; the President of the Senate
or property, without due process of law; shall, in the presence of the Senate and
nor shall private property be taken for House of Representatives, open all the
public use without just compensation. certificates, and the votes shall then be
Article VI, Right to Speedy Trial. — counted; the person having the greatest
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused number of votes for President shall be
shall enjoy the right to a speedy and the President, if such number be a ma-
public trial, by an impartial jury of the jority of the whole number of electors
State and district wherein the crime appointed; and if no person have such
shall have been committed, which dis- majority, then from the persons having
trict shall have been previously ascer- the highest numbers, not exceeding three,
talned by law, and to be informed of the on the list of those voted for as Presi-
nature and cause of the accusation; to dent, the House of Representatives shall
be confronted with the witnesses against choose immediately, bv ballot, the Presi-
bim; to have compulsory process for ob- dent. But in choosing the President,
taining witnesses in his favor, and to the votes shall be taken by States, the
have the assistar.ce of counsel for his representation from each State having
defence. one vote; a quorum for this purpose
Article VII, Trial by Jury. — In suits shall consist of a member or members
at common law, where the value in con- from two-thirds of the States, and a ma-
troversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the jority of all the States shall be neces-
right of trial by jury shall be preserved, sary to a choice. And if the House of
and no fact tried bv a jury shall be other- Representatives shall not choose a Presi-
wise reexamined in any court of the dent, whenever the right of choice shall
United States than according to the rules devolve upon them, before the fourth
of the common law. day of March next following, then the
Article VIII, Excessive Bail. — Ex- Vice-President shall act as President, as
cessive ball shall not be required, nor in the case of the death or other consti-
excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and tutional disability of the President
unusual punishments inflicted. The person having the greatest number of
Article IX, Enumeration of Rights, votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-
— The enumeration in the Constitution President, if such number be a majority
of certain rights shall not be construed of the whole number of electors ap-
to deny or disparage others retained by pointed, and if no person have a ma-
the people. jority, then from the two highest
Article X. Reserved Rights of States, nombers on the list the Senate shall
— The powers not delegated to the choose the Vice-President; a quorum tot
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the purpose shall consist of two-thirds States, shall have engaged ia iiunirre6»
of the whole number of Senators, and a tlon or rebellion asamst the tame, or
majority of the whole number shall be given aid and comfort to the enemies
necessary to a choice. But no person thereof. But Congress may, by a vote
constitutionally ineligible to the office of of two-thirds of each House, remove
President shall be eligible to that of such disability.
Vice-President of the United States. The Public Debt— 4. The validity of
Article XIII. Slavery Prohibited. — the public debt of the United States,
1. Neither slavery nor involuntary serv- authorized by law, including debts in-
itude, except as a punishment for crime curred for payment of pensions and
whereof the party shall have been duly bounties for services in suppressing in-
convicted, shall exist within the United surrection or rebellion, shall not be
States, or any place subject to their questioned. But neither the United
jurisdiction. States nor any State shall assume or
2. Congress shall have power to en- pa^ any debt or obligation incurred in
force this article by appropriate l^^la- aid of insurrection or rebellion against
tion. the United States, or any claim for the
Article XIV. Protection for all Citl- loss or emancipation of any slave: but
sens. — 1. All persons bom or natural- all such debts, obligations, and claims
ized in the United States, and subject to shall be held illegal and void,
the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of 5. The Congress shall have power to
the United States and of the State enforce, by appropriate legislation, tn«
wherein they reside. No State shall provisions of this article,
make or enforce any law which shall Article XV, Right of Suffrage. — 1.
abridge the privileges or immunities of The right of the citizens of the united
citizen* of the United States; nor shall States to vote shall not be denied or
any State deprive any person of life, abridged by the United States or by any
liberty, or property without due process State on account of race, color or
of law, nor deny to any person within previous condition of servitude,
its jurisdiction the equal protection of 2. The Congress shall have power to
the laws. enforce the provisions of this article by
Apportionment of Representatives. — appropriate legislation.
2. Kepresentatives shall be apportioned ArUcle XVI, The Congress shall have
among the several States according to power to lay and collect taxes on incomes,
their respective numbers, counting the irom whatever source derived, without
whole number of persons in each State, apportionment, among the several states,
excluding Indians not taxed. But when and without regard to any census or
the right to vote at any election for the enumeration.
pllMon^f^nT^Jh! nni^If'tt^^o^^^^ ^rticU XV IL The Senate of the
f/n?«H?ai ^n^^Poilr^ ^J^^^.SSFfv'a ^^ited Statcs shall be comoosed of two
fnTlnXioi nffi^oSf^'p «fof. ^^^ Senators from each State, elected by the
mal»l« nf ?^^T^J^L^.^^fL.2L^^. Reople thereof, for six years; and each
3i^^ fn Inl nf^Si^u i^ifJS?/' is Senator shall have one vote. The elec-
«ri.^h S^-^^i^fni^'^f ^'winfi^^n^^^^^ tors iu each State shall have the quaU-
Sf ll}lTMf^^^.f,y:T^l.J^\l!fI^ fications requisite for electors of the most
oi ?f '«SS Jal oStiHSi^oF^l.f'^f^^^ numerous branch of the State Legis-
or in any way abndged, except for par- i«f«-oa
ticipation in rebellion or other crime, the w^« «*.a«..^a. i«.».«^.. i« ♦v^ «^^«-
basis of representation therein shall be ^^S^rT^^J'J^^^fF^^^ ^^^I^^It^
reduced in the proportion which the ^^^^iJL^'L^^ll^^
number of such male citizens shall bear fii^"'t^**''5^i^i.rt^' T fii?*^.!,'^
to the whole number of male cithtens iX1p«^^v?iJ tSof^h^rSj.!^^^^^
twenty-one years of age in such State, nancies, provided that the Legiriature of
Rebenion Aiainst the Unh^ Stftt«L ^?^ ^>*^ ^^^ empower the Executive
Ket^iiion Against the ^mt^ Stat«k ^Yi^^^^i to make temporary appointments
Repre^eU^U^^n^cSL^^^^ ^^..^I^^^'L^.^ l^^i^^
President and Vice-President, or hold «^^^^o° ^ «!« Legislature may direct
any office, civil or military, under the Ratification or the Constitution.
United States, or under any State, who. The Constitution was ratified by the
having previously taken an oath, as a thirteen original States in the following
member of Congress, or as an officer of order:
the United States, or as a member of Delaware, December 7, J'W, unani-
any State Legislature, or as an execu- mously.
tive or judicial officer of any State, to Pennsylvania, December 12i 1*97. tocs
support the Constitution of the United 46 to 23.
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United States ITnited States
New Jersey, December 18, 1787, unani- nor can I forget, as an encouragement to
moQsly. it, your indulgent reception of my senU-
Oeorfia, January 2, 1788, unanimously, ments on a former and not dissimilar
Connecticut January 0, 1788, vote 128 occasion. Interwoven as is the loye of
to 40. liberty with every ligament of your
Massachusetts, February 6, 1788, vote hearts, no recommendation of mine is
_ 187 to 168. ^ ^ ^^ necessary to fortify or confirm the at-
MaryUind, April 28, 1788, vote 63 to 12. tachment
South Carolina, May 28, 1788, vote 140 The unity of government, which con-
to 78. stitutes you one people, is also now
New Hampshire, June 21, 1788, vote 57 ^j^^ j^ ^^^^ i^ isHusUy so; for it is
tri!^ . T «te iToo ^ oo « TO * DoaJn pillar in the edifice of your real
Virgima, June 25^788, vote 89 to 79. indepenrf?nce — the support ot your
^^^^Jn^Jl^^^^^J^^ vote ao to^ tranSuillity at home, your peace abroad,
^^i'^ P*?K*°* November 21, 1789, vote ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^y of /our prosperity, of
R^^Al^d. May 29, 1790, vote M pL''''Uut''^l! in^ti tHor^See'ffi
^" **• from different causes and from different
Ratification or thb Amendicents quarters, much pains will be taken,
December 15. 17~- ^ , ^ as this is the point in your political
XI vw declared in force January 8. fortress against which the batteries of
1798. internal and external enemies will be
XII regulating elections, was declared in most constantly and actively (though
force September 28, 1804. often covertly and insidiously) directed
XIIL The emandpation amendment -T^*,> ^' infinite moment that you
was proclaimed December 18, 1865. should properly estimate the immense
XIV. Reconstruction amendment was ^*,\"®,,^^ ^^^^ 5?^^S'^^' u"°K" '^ li^l
proclaimed July 28, 1868. collective and individual happ new ; that
▼V nj^^mm^ ^Txm^I^t^ «.M«««;i«MA..f ^o. V^^ shouW cherish a cordial, habitual
^;w,i!fSS ^f^fc'ft? amwidment was J^^d immovable attachment to it; ac-
^J!?**ii? .^*^* ' ^ . ^ customing yourselves to think and speak
Xvl. The income tax amendment be- of it as of the palladium of your polit-
came a provision of the Constitution, iod safety and prosperity; watching for
February 8, 1918. its preservation with jealous anxiety;
XVn. Popular election of Senators be- discountenancing whatever may suggest
came a provision of the Constitution, even a suspicion that it can, in any
April 8. 1913. event, be abandoned ; and indignantly
• -«^^ ^ .«♦•.. , , frowning upon the first dawning of every
In 1796 George Washington took leave attempt to alienate any portion of our
of the people in a famous address. Its country from the rest, or to enfeeble the
concluding portions are here given: sacred ties which now link together the
various parts.
TirAanTxrnmrki^*a V4i>VTrr«TT ^^' '^^® ^^^ ^^® ®V«T inducement of
WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL sympathy and interest Citiaens by
ADDtil!i»B birth or choice of a common country,
Here, perhaps, I ought to stop; but a that country has a right to concentrate
solicitude for your welfare, which can- your affections. The name of America,
not end but with my life, and the appre- which belongs to you in your national
hension of danger natural to that capacity, must alwajrs exalt the just
solicitude, urge me, on an occasion like pride of patriotism, more than any ap-
the present, to offer to your solemn con- pellation derived from local discrimina-
templation, and to recommend to your tions. With slight shades of differences,
frequent review, some sentiments, which vou have the same religion, manners,
are the result of much refiection, of no habits, and political principles. You
inconsiderable observation, and which have, in a ^mmon cause, fought and
appear to me all-important to the per- triumphed together; the independence
manency of your felicity as a people, and liberty vou possess are the work of
These will be afforded to you with the joint counsels and joint efforts, of com-
more freedom, as you can only see in mon dangers, sufferings and successes,
them the disinterested warnings of a It is important, likewise, that the
parting friend, who can iKtssibly have habits of thinking, in a free country.
Qo personal motive to bias his counsel; should inspire caution in those in-
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United States
United States
trusted with its administration, to con-
fine themselyes within their respective
constitutional spheres, avoiding In the
exercise of the powers of one department,
to encroach upon another. The spirit
of encroachment tends to consolidate the
powers of all the departments in one,
and thus to create, whatever the form
of government, a real despotism. A just
estimate of that love of power, and
proneness to abuse it whicn predomi-
nates in the human heart, is sufficient
to satisfy us of the truth of this posi-
tion. The necessity of reciprocal checks
in the exercise of political power, by
dividing and distributing it into dif-
ferent depositories, and constituting
each the guardian of the public weal,
against invasions by the others, has been
evinced by experiments, ancient and
modern; some of them in our own coun-
try and under our own eyes. To pre-
serve them must be as necessary as to
institute them. If, in the opinion of the
people, the distribution or modification
of the constitutional powers be, in any
particular, wronjj, let it be corrected by
an amendment m the way which the
Constitution designates. But let there
be no change or usurpation; for though
this, in one instance, may be the instru-
ment of good, it is the customary weapon
by which free governments are destroyed.
The precedent must always greatly over-
balance, in permanent evil, and partial
or transient benefit, which the use can,
at any time yield.
Observe good faith and justice toward
all nations; cultivate peace and har-
mony with all; religion and morality
enjoin this conduct; and can it be that
good policy does not equally enjoin it?
It will be worthy of a free, enlightened,
and, at no distant period, a great nation,
to give to mankind the magnanimous
and too novel example of a people al-
ways guided by an exalted justice and
benevolence. Who can doubt that, in
the course of times and things, the fruits
of such a plan would richly repay any
temporary advantages which mieht be
lost by a steady adherence to it? Can
it be that Providence has not connected
the permanent felicity of a nation with
its virtue? The experiment, at least, is
recommended by every sentiment which
ennobles human nature. Alas! is it ren-
dered impossible by its vices?
Against the insidious wiles of foreign
influence (I conjure you to believe me,
fellow-citizens) the jealousy of a free
people ought to constantly awake; since
history and experience prove that for-
eign influence is one of the most baneful
foes of republican government. But
that jealousy to be useful, must be im-
partial; else it becomes the instrum^it
of the very influence to be avoided, in-
stead of a defence against it Excessive
partiality for one foreign nation, and
excessive dislike for another, cause those
whom they actuate to see danger only
on one side, and serve to veil, and even
second, the arts of influence ob the other.
Real patriots, who may resist the in-
trigues of the favorite, are liable to be-
come suspected and odious, while its
tools and dupes usurp the applause and
confidence of the people, to surrender
their interests.
The great rule of conduct for us in re-
f^rd to foreign nations, is, in extend-
ing our commercial relations, to have
with them as little political connection
as possible. So far as we have already
formed engagements, let them be ful-
filled with perfect good faith. Here let
us stop. Europe has a set of primary
interests, which to us have none, or a
very remote relation. Hence she must
be engaged in frequent controversies, the
causes of which are essentially foreign
to our concerns. Hence, therefore, it
must be unwise in us to implicate our-
selves by artificial ties, in the ordinary
vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordi-
nary combinations and collision of her
friendships or enmities. Our detached
and distant situation invites and en-
ables us to pursue a different course.
If we remain one people under an effi-
cient government, the period is not far
off when we may defy material injury
from external annoyance; when we may
take such an attitude as will cause the
neutrality we may at any time resolve
upon, to be scrupulously respected ; when
belligerent nations, under the impossi-
bility of making acquisitions upon us,
will not lightly hazard the giving us
provocation; when we may choose peace
or war, as our interest, guided by jus-
tice, shall counsel.
In offering to you. my countrymen
these counsels of an old and affectionate
friend, I dare not hope that they will
make the strong and lasting impression
I could wish ; that they will control the
usual current of the passions, or prevent
our nation from running the course
which hitherto has marked the destiny
of nations; but if I may even flatter
myself that they may be productive of
some partial benefit; some occasional
good; that they may now and then recur
to moderate the fury of party spirit, to
warn against the mischiefs of foreign
intrigues, to guard against the impos-
tures of pretended patriotism; this hope
will be full recompense for the solicitude
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for your welfare by which they have
been dictated.
Qeobge Washington.
United States, September 17, 1796.
Next in order in the series of famous
American documents is the * Monroe Doc-
trine/ issued in 1823 as part of Presi-
dent Monroe's message to Ck>ngress in
that year. Spain had long been hav-
ing trouble with her American colonies
and there was serious danger of some of
the other nations of Europe giving her
aid and receiving American territory in
exchange. Russia was also seeking to
extend its holdings on the Pacific coast.
Under these threatening circumstances
Monroe gave warning to all ambitious
nations that the United States would
not stand idly by and see the southern
republics seized by any foreign power.
This declaration holds good to-day and
has been frequently invoked as a warn-
ing to European powers to keep off of
American soil. We give below the text
of this significant declaration of Amer-
ican policy, the recognized political prin-
ciple of * America for the Americans.'
THE MONROE DOCTRINE
In the discussions to which this inter-
est has given rise, and in the arrange-
ments by which they mav terminate, the
occasion has been deemed proper for as-
serting, as a principle in which rights
and interests of the United States are
involved, that the American continents,
by the free and independent condition
which they have assumed and maintain,
are henceforth not to be considered as
subjects for future colonization by any
European power. . . . We owe it, there-
fore, to candor and to the amicable rela-
tions existing between the United States
and those powers to declare that we
should consider any attempt on their
part to extend their sjrstem to any por-
tion of this hemisphere as dangerous to
our peace and safety. With the existing
colonies or dependencies of any £}uro-
pean power we have not interfered and
shall not interfere. But with the gov-
ernments who have declared their inde-
pendence and maintain it, and whose
independence we have, on great con-
sideration and on Just principles,
acknowledged, we could not view any
interposition for the purpose of oppress-
ing them or controlling in any other
manner their destiny by any European
power in any other light than as the
manifestation of an uc^riendly disposi-
tion toward the United States.
Though this doctrine has the weight
only of an executive statement, it has
been maintaiaed as resolutely as though
it were a section of the Ck>nstitution, be-
ing invoked on several occasions, and
especially in that of the occupation of
Mexico by France during the American
Civil war. European nations have rarely
ventured to disregard it, and never suc-
cessfully.
The most perilous threat against the
stability of the Union came in later
years, when the great controversy be-
tween the advocates of slavery and
emancipation arose. It led, as all
know, to one of the greatest wars of
the nineteenth century, the struggle in
the field between the parties which had
for years contended on the rostrum. In
the midst of this great war President
Lincoln issued a proclamation of free-
dom for the slaves which the event of
the war lifted into the category of the
great State papers of the United States.
Its terms have since been accepted by
North and South alike. The text of
this proclamation is here given:
THE EMANCIPATION PROCLA-
MATION
Whereas, On the twenty-second day
of September, in the year of our Lord
one thousand eight hundred and sixty-
two, a proclamation was issued by tne
President of the United States, contain-
ing among other things the following,
to wit:
'That on the first day of January, in
the year of our Lord one thousand eight
hundred and sixty-three, all persons held
as slaves within any State or designated
part of a State, the people whereof shall
then be in rebellion against the United
States, shall be then, thenceforward, and
forever free; and the executive govern-
ment of the United States, including the
military and naval authority thereof,
will recognize and maintain the freedom
of such persons, and will do no act or
acts to repress such persons, or any of
them, in any efforts tney may make for
their actual freedom.
'That the Executive will, on the first
day of January aforesaid, by proclama-
tion, designate the States and parts of
States, if any, in which the people
thereof, respectively, shall then be in
rebellion against the United States; and
the fact that any State, or the people
thereof, shall on that day be in good
faith represented in the Congress of the
United States, by members chosen
thereto at elections wherein a majority
of the qualified voters of such State
shall have participated, shall, in the ab-
sence of strong countervailing testimony,
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)
United States United States
be deemed conclusive eyidence that such to be an act of justice, warranted by the
State, and the people thereof, are not Constitution upon military necessity, I
then in rebellion against the United inyolce the considerate judgment of man*
States.' kind and the gracious iayor of Almighty
Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, God.
President of the United States, by vir-
tue of the power in me vested as com- In witness whereof I have hereunto
mander-in-chief of the army and navy set my hand and caused the seal
of the United States, in time of actual of the United States to be affixed,
armed rebellion asainst the authority Done at the citr of Washington,
and government of the United States, this first day of January, in the
and as a fit and necessary war measure year of our Lord one thousand
for suppressing said rebellion, do, on eight hundred and sixty-three,
this first day of January, in the year of and of the Independence of the
our Lord one thousand eight hundred United States of America the
and sixty-three, and in accordance with eighty-seventh,
my purpose so to do, publicly proclaimed *.«.«.,, t^^»*
for the full period of one hundred days Abrahau Lxncout.
from the day first above menttoned. q^^ ^^j^ ^^i^f 5^t notable declara-
order and desUmate as the States and ^ion from President Lincoln will suffice
parts of States wherein the people ^^ ^^^^ ^his series of naUonal docu-
thereof, respecUvely. are this day In re- ^^^^^ ^ ^ y^ ^^dress at the dedica-
bellion against the United States, the tj^n ^f Gettysburg Cemetery, November
following, to wit: 19 igQ^ j^ j^g ^i^^^ been regarded as
Aransas, Texaj I^uisiana (except ^ '^^ p^„ unsurpassed f^ dignity
L^t^esT^Sl'^ei;.?:!^ cte ^^^-'^^^ '- '^^ --^^'' ^'^^^'
lonnrLif^efst''^^^^^^^^ LINCOLN'S GETTYSBURG SPEECH
tin and Orleans, including the city of Fourscore and seven years ago our
New Orleans), Mississippi, Alabama, fathers brought forth upon this conti-
Florida, Georflda, South Carolina, North nent a new nation, conceived in liberty.
Carolina and Virginia (except the forty- and dedicated to the proposition that all
eight counties designated as West Vir- men are created equal
ginia, and also the counties of Berkeley, Now we are engaged in a great dvfl
Accomac Northampton, Elizabeth City, war, testing whether that nation, or any
York, Princess Anne and Norfolk, in- nation so conceived and so dedicated, can
eluding the cities of Norfolk and Ports- long endure. We are met on a great
mouth) ; and which excepted parts are, battlefield of that war. We are met to
for the present, left precisely as if this dedicate a portion of it as the final rest-
proclamation were not issued. ing-place of those who here gave their
And by virtue of the power, and for lives that that nation might live. It is
the purpose aforesaid, I do order and de- altogether fitting and proper that we
clare that all persons held as slaves should do this.
within said designated States, and parts But in a larger sense we cannot dedi-
of States, are and henceforward shall be cate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot
free, and the executive government of the hallow this ground. The brave men, liv-
United States, including the military and ing and dead, who struggled here have
naval authorities thereof, will recognise consecrated it far above our power to add
and maintain the freedom of said per- or detract The world will little note
sons. nor long remember what we say here but
And I hereby enjoin upon the people it can never forget what they did here,
so declared to be free to abstain from It is for us, the living, rather to be dedi-
all violence, unless in necessary self-de- cated here to the unfinished work that
fence; and I recommend to them that in they have thus far so nobly carried on.
all cases when allowed, they labor faith- It is rather for us to be here dedicated
fully for reasonable wages. to the great task remaining before us;
And I further declare and make that from these honored dead we take
known, that such persons, of suitable increased devotion to the cause for which
condition, will be received into the armed they here gave the last full measure of
service of the United States to garrison devotion ; that we here hiffhlv resolve
forts, positions, stations, and other that the dead shall not have died in vain ;
glaoes, and to man vessels of all sorts that the nation shall, under God, have a
1 said service. new birth of freedom, and that govern-
And c^oo this act, sincerely believed ment of the people, by the people, and
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ITnited States
for tb« people, ehall not perish from tbe
•artlL
The poUtleal oondidon of the United
States, as it at present stands, is a re-
sult of the several stages of soyem*
mental evolntion above deocribea, and
especially of the operation of the Gon-
stitntioQ, the basis of the Federal Union
of the States. This Constitution em-
bodies the general principles of govern-
ment adapted to the orcanisation of such
a union, the result being that when
particular questions have arisen in tbe
history of the nation, it has frequently
become the duty of the Supreme Court
to decide on the constitutionality of such
questions. Thus numerous acts have
been passed by Congress tbe agreement
of which with the Constitution was
doubtfuL It is not the dutv of the Su-
preme Court to deal with such acts unless
a suit is brought bv some party or par>
ties to determine their constitutionality,
in which case the Supreme Court takes
the matter in hand and renders a decision
as to whether they are in harmony with
the Constitution or the contrary. Such
a dedsion is final and by this means the
intmity of the Constitution against dis-
cordant acts of Congress is preserved and
its exact significance developed. In this
way the Supreme Court of tbe United
States has become a great balance wheel
by the aid of which the course of gov-
ernment is made to run true. It may be
further stated here that tbe Constitu-
tion of the United States differs from
that of Qreat Britain in being a written
document, inflexible in its provisions,
while that of Great Britain is, properly
considered, not a constitution at all, but
simply an aggregation of the many acts
of Parliament, which is changed or added
to by every new Parliamentarv measure.
The general organization of the Federal
republic is as follows: Tbe powers of
the national government are of broad
and general scope, embracing those sub-
jects that affect the country as a whole
or pass beyond the borders of any single
State, including the relations of the coun-
try to foreign nations and of tbe States
to each other. Under this general gov-
ernmental organisation lie tbe several
States, each a sovereign commonwealth
within its own borders and with ffO\ em-
mental control over all subjects that re-
late to itself alone, or to intrastate as
distinct from interstate interests. Thus
each State has duties of importance be-
longing to itself, outside of tbe jurisdic-
tion or the general government, and to
deal with these it
Asntal oifgniiatioa
a govern-
on the model
of the national government Each State
has its Constitution, its Senate and
House of Representatives, its Qovemor
(corresponding to the President), its Su-
preme Court, with duties similar to those
of the National Supreme Court, and in
all these respects is a copy in miniature
of the Federal governmental organisa-
tion. It has its own code of laws,
which is not operative beyond its bor-
ders, and in this way is a little nation
in itself, with powers which cannot be
abrogated. Tracing down the details of
this composite scheme of government we
come to the cities, in which in some
measure the same type of organisation is
preserved, as they have a legislative body
of two branches, and a Mayor as their
chief executive oflldaL They lack the
Supreme Court and their local govern-
ment is in some measure under State
control, but in various respects each is a
Uttle sovereignty in itself. This is
especially the case in the metropolitan
city of New York, the present population
of which exceeds that of the remainder
of the State, and which has control of
local interests of great diversity and im-
portance, in the management of which it
has accumulated a municipal debt far
greater than that of any State in the
Union and surpassed only by the
national debt of the countrv as a whole.
In the development of this great
congeries of self-governing units some
friction has from time to time arisen,
and there has been vigorous discussion
of State and National jurisdiction and
powers, the result being at present the
existence of two great political parties,
the Democratic and the Republican, the
first standhig for State rights, the sec-
ond favoring a broadening of the Na-
tional sovereignty. While these parties
difiTer in other particulars, this funda-
mental distinction has usually been main-
tained, and since the formation of the
government two parties with these gen-
eral views have existed, at first those of
the Federalists and Anti-Federalists, and*
after them parties with various names,
but with this division of views. At
present the tendency seems to be towards
a widening of tbe powers of the national
government, but it has not escaped
vigorous opposition from the adherents
of the States rights doctrine. There has
also recently been developed a degree of
friction between the executive and the
legislative branches of the general gov-
ernment, the executive in some respects
trenching upon the functions of the leg-
islative and this vigorously maintaining
its rights and privileges. There has also
been manifested a tendency to bring the
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»
great business orgaDizations of the coun-
try within some considerable degree of
goyernmental control, under the plea that
their vast growth and power has made
them inimical to the rights of the public
at large and that it is the duty of the
government to act as guardian of the
industrial rights of the people.
With this orief review of the status of
governmental and industrial affairs now
existing within the United States it will
be of interest to consider in some meas-
ure the workings of the great Federal
organisation here outlined. In the pre-
ceding artide* on the subject of the
United States in general, the organiza-
tion of the government under the Con-
stitution is stated, and in the Con-
stitution itself, as above given, may be
found the clauses which define this or-
ganization. But in the working of the
government machinery several adventi-
tious departments have arisen, some
account of which is necessary before the
operation of the governmental organiza-
tion can be properly understood. This
has principally to do with the great ex-
ecutive departments of the government,
the series of officials who compose the
cabinet of the President, but who were
not provided for in the Constitution,
having arisen through the multiplicity of
executive labors.
It was quickly perceived, in fact, that
the duties of the executive branch of the
government were too varied and numer-
ous for management and control by any
one official, and at the start President
Washington was obliged to call several
persons to his aid, the so-called cabinet
officers, at first consisting of the Secre-
taries of State, of War, and of the
Treasury, and the Attorney-General,
appointed in 1789. These had no official
standing under the government, but were
simply aids to the President, chosen by
him and removable at his will, yet in-
dispensable to the multitudinous duties
arising in the conduct of public affairs.
This continues the position of these offi-
cials to the present day, in which they
form the President's official family and
;body of advisers, but possess no power
beyond that which the President chooses
to give them and whose advice he is in
no respect obliged to take. From time
to time it became advisable to add other
officials to the four above named. The
Postmaster-General was at first looked
upon as a temporary position only, and
did not become permanent until 1794, and
this official was not considered a Cabinet
officer until 1829. The Secretary of the
Navy was added to the list in 1798.
The later additions to the list were thoee
of Secretary of the Interior in 1849.
Secretary of Aifriculture in 1889, and
Secretary of Commerce in 1903, and
Secretary of Ivabor in 1913. Under each
of these officials there are assistants and
a considerable number of division and
other officers, the scone of departmental
work having grown wide and its duties
numerous and complicated as time went
on and the country grew in population
and wealth. Members of the Cabinet re-
ceive salaries of $12,000 a year. The
duties of the several heads of depart-
ments are as follows:
Duties of the Secretary of State. — The
Secretary of State is charged, under the
direction of the President, with the
duties appertaining to correspondence
with the public ministers and the consuls
of the United States, and with the repre-
sentatives of foreign powers accredited
to the United States; and to negotia-
tions of whatever character relating to
the foreign affairs of the United States.
He is the medium of correspondence be-
tween the President and the chief ex-
ecutives of the several States of the
United States; he has the custody of the
Great Seal of the United States, and
countersigns and affixes such seal to all
executive proclamations, to various com-
missions, and to warrants for the extra-
dition of fugitives from justice. He is
regarded as the first in rank among the
members of the Cabinet He is the cus-
todian of the treaties made with foreign
states, and of the laws of the United
States. He grants and issues passports,
and exequaturs to foreign consuls in the
United States are issued through his
office. He publishes the laws and resolu-
tions of Congress, amendments to the
Constitution, and proclamations declar-
ing the admission or new States into the
Union.
Duties of the Secretory of the Treas-
ury.— The Secretary of the Treasury is
charged by law with the management
of the national finances. He prepares
plans for the improvement of the revenue
and for the support of the public credit;
superintends tne collection of the rev-
enue, and directs the forms of keephig
and rendering public accounts and of
making returns; grants warrants for all
moneys drawn from the treasury in pur-
suance of appropriations made by law,
and for the payment of monevs into the
treasury; and annually submits to Con-
gress estimates of the probable revenues
and disbursements of the government.
He also controls the construction of pub-
lic buildings; the coinage and printing
of money; the administration of the life-
saving, revenue-cutter and the pnbUc
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health and marine-hospital branches of Department He appoints all officers
the public service, and furnishes gener- and employees of the department, except
ally such information as may be required the four Assistant Postmasters-General
by either branch of Congress on all mat- and the purchasing agent, who are ap-
ters pertaining to the foregoing. pointed by the President, by and with
Duties of the Secretary of War, — The the advice and consent of the Senate;
Secretary of War is head of the War appoints all postmasters whose corn-
Department, and performs such duties pensation does not exceed $1,000; makes
as are required of him by law or may be postal treaties with foreign govem-
enjoined upon him by the President con- ments, by and with the advice and con-
cerning the military service. He is sent of the President; awards and ex-
charged by law with the supervision of ecutes contracts, and directs the man-
all estimates of appropriations for the agement of the domestic and foreign mail
expenses of the department, including service. ^ ^^ „ ^ , , „
the mUltary establishments ; of all pur- ^J*^„ of *^« Secretary of the Navy.
chases of army supplies; of all expendi- —The Secretary of the Navy performs
tures for the support, transportation such duties as the President of the
and maintenance of the army, and of }^°.*^?^ States, who is Commander-in-
such expenditures of a civil nature as Chief, may assign him, and has the een-
may be placed by Congress under his «ral superintendence of construction,
direction. He also has supervision of manning, armament, equipment and em-
the United States Military Academy at ployment of vessels of war.
West Point and of military education in Duties of the Secretary of the Interior.
the army, of the Board of Ordnance and — The Secretary of the Interior is
Fortification, of the various battlefield charged with the supervision of public
commissions, and of the publication of business relating to patents for inven-
the Official Records of the War of the tions; pensions and bounty lands; the
Rebellion. He has charge of all mat- public lands and survevs: the Indians;
ters relating to national defense and sea- ^ucation ; the Geological Survey and
coast fortifications, army ordnance, river Reclamation Service; the Hot Springs
and harbor improvements, the prevention Reservation, Arkansas; Yellowstone Na-
of obstruction to navigation, and the tional Park. Wyoming and the Yosemite,
establishment of harbor lines; and all Sequoia, and General Grant parks, Cali-
plans and locations of bridges authorized fomia, and other national parks; distri-
by Congress to be constructed over the bution of appropriations for agricultural
navigable waters of the United States and mechanical colleges in the States and
require his approval He also has charge territories ; and supervision of certain
of the establishment or abandonment of hospitals and eleemosynary institutions
military posts, and of all matters re- in the District of Columbia. He also
lating to leases, revocable licenses, and exercises certain powers and duties In
all other privileges upon lands nnder the relation to the territories of the United
control of the War Department. States.
Duties of the Attorney-Oenerdl. — The Duties of the Secretary of Ayriculture,
Attorney-General is the head of the De- — The Secretary of Agriculture exercises
partment of Justice and the chief law personal supervision of public business
officer of the government. He represents relating to the agricultural industry. He
the United States in matters involving appoints all the officers and employees of
legal questions; he gives his advice and the department with the exception of the
opinion, when they are required by the Assistant Secretary and the Chief of the
President or by the heads of the other Weather Bureau, who are appointed by
Executive Departments, on questions of the President, and directs tne manage-
law arising in the administration of their ment of all the bureaus, divisions, offices,
respective departments ; he appears in the and Uie Forest Service, embraced in
Supreme Court of the United States in the department He exercises advisory
cases of especial gravity and importance; supervision over agricultural experiment
he exercises a general superintendence stations, which receive aid from the
and direction over United States attor- National Treasury; has control of the
neys and marshals in all judicial dis- quarantine stations for imported cattle,
tricts in the States and territories; and of interstate \]uarantine rendeied n^ces-
he provides special counsel for the United sary by sheep and cattle diseases, and of
States whenever required by any depart- the inspection of cattle-carrying vessels;
ment of the government. and directs the inspectioi) of domestic
Duties of the Postmaster^Qeneral. — and imported food products ' under the
The Postmaster^eneral has the direc- meat inspection and pure food and drugs
tion and management of the Post-Office laws. He Is charged with tht duty of
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United States
United States
>
Swuing roles and regoUtions for the pro-
tection, maintenanoe, and care of the
National Forest Beserres. He also is
cbarxed with carrying into effect the laws
prohibiting the transportation by inter-
state commerce of game killed in viola-
tion of local laws and excluding from im-
portation certain noxious animals, and
has authority to control the importation
of other animals.
Dutie$ of the Secretary of Commerce,
— The Secretary of Commerce and Labor
is charged witn the work of promoting
the commerce of the United States, and
its mining, manufacturing, shipping, fish-
ery and transportation interests. His
duties also comprise the investigation of
the organisation and management of cor-
porations (excepting railroads) engaged
in interstate commerce; the administra-
tion of the Lighthouse Service, and the
aid and protection to shipping thereby;
the taking of the census, and the collec-
tion and publication of statistical infor-
mation connected therewith; the making
of coast and geodetic surveys ; the collect-
ing of statistics relating to foreign and
domestic commerce; the inspectlou of
steamboats, and the enforcement of laws
relating thereto for the protection of life
and property; the supervision of the
fisheries as administered by the Federal
Government; the supervision and control
of the Alaskan fur seal, salmon and
other fisheries ; the jurisdiction over mer-
chant vessels, their registry, licensing,
measurement entry, clearance, transfers,
movement of their cargoes, and passen-
gers, and laws relating thereto, and to
seamen of the United States; the super-
nese; the custody, construction, main-
tenanoe and application of standards of
weights and measurements; and the
gathering and supplying of information
regarding industries and markets for the
fostering of manufacturing. He has
power to call upon other departments
for statistical data obtained by them.
It is his further duty to make such
special investigations and furnish such
information to the President or Congress
as may be required by them on the fore-
going subject-matters and to make annual
reports to Congress upon the work of
said denartment.
DutieM of ike Secretary of Labor, —
The Secretary of Labor is diarged with
fostering, promoting and developinr the
welfare of the wage-earners of the United
States; improving their working condi-
tions and advancing their opportunities
for profitable employment. He has power
to act as mediator and to appoint com-
missioners of conciliation in labor dis-
putes whenever in his judgment the in-
terests of industrial peace may require it
to be done. Further, he is vested with
authority over any bureau, office, officer,
board, branch or division of public serv-
ice included in the Department of Labor.
The act creating the Department of
Labor, approved March 4. 1913, changed
the name of the Department of Com-
nferce and Labor to the Department of
Commerce. The Bureau of Labor,
Bureau of Immigration, Division of Na-
turalisation and Children's Bureau were
organised into this new department
The Armv of the United States at the
beginning of the second year of America's
Army Pay Table.
Oaios.
PAV or ornccKS ik activs sxrvicx. — ^Tearlj p*j.
Pints
yesri*
tArrioe.
After 5
year*'
Mrvice.
After 10
yean'
•erriee.
After 15
yean'
lerriee.
After 20
yean'
ierrice.
Lienttnaat-Gsaeral . . .
Major-Oenenl
BrigadieT'Oenenl . . . .
Colonel ih)
Lieatensnt-Oolonel (h)
Major (6)
Oaptain
First liieateiiABt
Second Lieutenant ...
$11.^00
g,000
6,000
4,000
8.500
8,000
2,400
2,000
1,700
10 p. e.
20 p. c.
80 p^ e.
94.400
8,850
'8,800
2,640
2,200
1,870
14,800
4,200
8,600
2,880
2.400
2,040
fS.OOO
4,500
8,000
8,120 . \
2,600/
2,216
40 p. c
f5,000
4,500
4.000
8,860
2,800
2,880
vision of the inunlgimtion of aliens, and entrance into the European war (1918) /
the enforcement of the laws relating had a strength of 1,500.000 men. The /
thereto, aott t» the ewlmriim of (M- Army and Navy pay is aa per UUe :
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TTnited States
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Chaplaiiii have the rank and pay of $24, nn increase of $12; over 924, and
major, captain and first lieutenant, re- less than $45, an increase of $8; and
■paetiTalj. those whose base pay is $45 or more per
Obapb.
PAY or BBTIRSD OFriosss. — ^Yearly pay.
First 5
years'
serrice.
After 5
yean'
serrice.
After 10
years'
serrice.
After 15
years'
service.
After 20
years'
serrice.
98,250
93.666*
8,150
2,700
2,160
1,800
1,580
' 93.750 66'
8,875.00
2.924.40
2,840.00
1.950.00
1.657.44
6,000
4,500
8.000
2,625
2,250
1,800
1,500
1,275
' 98,800.66 *
2,887.50
2,475.00
1.980.00
1,650.00
1,402.50
93.756'
8,875
8,000
2.520
2.100
1,785
Lleutenaat-GMiarsl . . .
Major-Oeneral
Brifsdier-Oenarsl . . . .
Ooloael (b)
Lieatensnt-Oolonel ( b )
Major (b)
Captain
First Lieataiuuit
Seeond Lieutenant ...
(•) Service increase of pay of officers month, an increase of $6 per month.
below rank of brigadier-general cannot
exceed 40 per cent in all.
(I)) The maximam pay of a colonel is
$6000, of a lieatenant-colonel $4500, and
of a major $4000.
Fir8t-cla«8 seumen receive $38.40 por
month ; Rcumcu frunners, $36.60 ; firemen,
first clasH, $46.50; musicinns. first cln.«s,
$43.20; seoond-olass seamen, $35.00;
third-class seamen. $32.60. First-class
Navy Piy TaUs.
Baitk.
Admiral
Rear-Admirala, first 9
Rear-Admirala, seoond
aina
Brifad'r-GaneraltOom-
mandant Marine
Corps
Captains
Commanders
Lieutenant • Command*
•rs
Lieutenants
Lieutenants (Junior
Grade)
Basigns
Chief Boatswains.
Chief Gunners, Ch'f
Carpenters, Chief
Sail-makers
Midshipmen (at Naval
Aeademy)
Atl
$14,850
8.800
6.600
6.600
4.400
8.850
8.800
3.640
S.200
1.870
1,870
600
Cn Shor^
Duty.
$18,600
8.000
6,000
6.000
4.000
8.500
8.000
2.400
2.000
1,700
1.700
600
Rank.
Midshipmen (after
graduation)
Mates
Medical and Pay Di-
rectors and Inspec-
tors having the same
rank at sea
Fleet • Surgeons and
Fleet-Paymasters . .
Surgeons and Pay-
masters
(Thaplains
Professors and Civil
Engineers
Kaval Constructors.
At Sea.
$1,400
1.500
4,400
4.400
8.800
2.200
to
4,400
2,640
to
4,400
2,640
to
4,400
On Shore
Duty.
$1,400
1,125
4,000
4,000
8,000
2,000
to
4,000
3.400
to
4,000
2.400
to
4,000
The pay of non-commissioned officers is
from $40.20 to $96 per month, and of
privates from $33 to $36.60 per month.
The Act of Congress of May 22, 1917,
provided that commencing June 1, 1917,
and continuing until six months after the
war, all enlisted men of the navy of the
United States whose base pay does not
exceed $21 per month shall receive an in-
crease of $15 per month; those virhose
base pay ia over $21, and not exceeding
petty officers receive from $47.60 to
$77.50 ; second-class, from $46.50 to $52 ;
third-class, $41. Chief petty officers re-
ceive from $61 to $83 per month, present
war pay. In the messmeo branch attend-
ants receive from $32.60 to $41; cooks
from $41 to $61 ; stewards to com-
manders in chief and commandants, $72;
cabin and wardroom stewards, $6^1 ; other
stewards, $46.50.
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Hospital apprentices receive from
$20.90 to $26.40 per mouth; pharmacista*
mates, from $38.50 to $44 ; cliief pharma-
cists' mates, acting appointment, $66;
chief pharmacists* mates, permanent ap-
pointment, $77 per month.
The organization of the legislative
branch of the government is as follows:
The Senate. — Two Senators are
elected by the legislature of each State
for terms of six years each. Each Sena-
tor must be thirty years or over of a^e,
and must have been for at least, nine
years a citizen of the United States.
He must be a citizen of the State from
which he is chosen, and cannot, while in
the Senate, hold any civil position under
the government nor act as a Presidential
elector. He is elected in the following
manner: The election takes place on the
second Tuesday after the organization of
the legislature chosen next before the ex-
firation of the preceding senatorial term,
n each house of the legislature the mem-
bers present, by a viva voce vote, the
name of a person or persons for Senator,
and the name of the person receiving the
greatest number of votes is entered upon
the journal of that house. At noon on
the next day the members of both houses
meet in a joint session, at which the
journals of Uie two bodies are read, and
If the same person received a majority of
the votes in both houses he is declared
elected Senator. However, if no person
receives such majorities, the members in
joint session proceed by a viva voce vote
to choose a Senator, a majority of all
the members being necessary for an elec-
tion. If such a majority is not secured
at the first session, the two houses meet
Jointly at noon on each succeeding legis-
lative day and take at least one ballot
for Senator until one is elected or the
legislature adjourns. If a vacancy in
the representation of any State in the
Senate occurs by reason of death or
otherwise, sudi vacancy is filled by the
legislature in the same manner as a
Senator is regularly elected. But if
such vacancy should occur during a re-
cess of the legislature, or if the legisla-
ture should adjourn without electing a
Senator, the governor of such State may
fill the vacancy by a temporary appoint-
ment until a Senator is elected at the
next session of the legislature. This
method has been varied in one imjnortant
particular since the passage in 191^ of the
XVII amendment to the Constitution ;
Senators being now chosen by direct vote
of the people. This important function is
thus taken from the legislature.
House of Representatives, — ^The House
of Representatives is composed of mem-
bers chosen each two years by the people
of the several States. The number of
members depend upon the pojpulation of
the States, each one representing a fixed
number of inhabitants, varying after
each census. As fixed under the 1910
census the total number of members is
436, including three from the new States
of Arizona and New Mexico, admitted in
1912, there being one for each 211,877 of
population.
Qualifications, — ^A Representative must
have attained to the age of twenty-five
years and have been seven years a citizen
of the United States. He must be an in-
habitant of the State from which he is
chosen and cannot hold an^ civil office
under the United States during his term
of office nor serve as a Presidential
Elector. By custom he is a resident of
the district from which he is chosen.
Election. — The number of Representa-
tives to which each State is entitled is
determined by Congress after each decen-
nial census. Congress has fixed the time
of their election as the * Tuesday next
after the first Monday in November* in
every even-numbered year. In States en-
titled to more than one Representative,
they are elected by * districts composed
of contiguous territory and containing
as nearly as possible an eciual number of
inhabitants,' which districts are deter-
mined and the boundaries fixed by the
legislatures of the States. When, in a
reapportionment, a State's representation
is increased, the additional Representa-
tives are chosen by vote of the whole
State, until the State is redistricted.
They are called Representatives or Con-
gressmen-at-Large.
Judicial Branch of the Oovemment, —
The judicial power of the United States
is vested in a Supreme Court, nine Cir-
cuit Courts, nine Circuit Courts of
Appeal, eighty-six District Courts, and
a Court of Claims. Judges of the United
States courts are appointed by the Presi-
dent with the consent of the Senate and
serve during good behavior.
The Supreme Court is composed of a
Chief Justice, and eight Associate Jus-
tices. The court sits at Washington, and
holds one session annually, commencing
on the second Monday in October.
The United States is divided into nine
judicial circuits. To each circuit the
Supreme Court allots one of its justices,
who must attend at least one term of
such court in every two years. For each
circuit there are also appointed two or
more circuit judges. The Circuit Court
sits twice a year in each district within
the circuit
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The Circuit CJourts of Appeal are nine
in number and were created for the pur-
pose of relieving the Supreme Court of
certain classes of appeals. A Circuit
Court of Appeals consists of three
judges, two of whom form a quorum. It
IS held by the justice of the Supreme
Court allotted to that circuit and two
circuit judges, but a district judge is
also competent to act. No judge, how-
ever, can hear a case in the Circuit Court
of Appeal at the trial of which he pre-
sided in the District or Circuit Court
Congress has set apart each State as
a judicial district, except in case of the
more populous States, which are divided
into two or more districts. There are
eighty-six judicial districts in the States
and territories. There are one or more
resident judges in each district and the
court is held by a district judge.
The Court of Claims consists of a
Chief Joatice and four Associate Judges.
The State governments are organized
in the following manner:
The Bmeouiive Department — At the
head of this department is the Governor,
elected by the people, for a term of one
to four years. It is his duty to see that
the laws are executed. He may call to
his assistance judges and gherifiFs and, in
case of need, the militia of the State.
When public business is conducted with
another State, the Governor acts in the
name of the State. He sends a message
to the legislature at the opening of its
session, informing it of the conditions
throughout the state, and in time of
pressing need may call the legislature in
extra session.
In many States the Governor has the
power to pardon criminals, or commute
their punishment. He appoints many
officers and in some States he appoints
Che judges of the State courts. Most of
the States elect a Lieutenant-Governor to
serve when the Governor is unable to be
at his post. He acts as the President
of the State Senate. The Secretary of
State, sometimes elected, sometimes ap-
pointed by the Governor,, is the highest
clerk of the executive department The
State Comptroller or Auditor manages
the financial business of the State gov-
ernment. The State Treasurer is the
custodian of the funds of the State, which
he disburses only on orders from the offi-
cers designated by law. The Attorney-
General is the law officer of the State.
The Superintendent of Public Instmc-
tion is the head of the school system of
the State.
In addition to these officers, which are
found in almost every State there are in
15 10
many States other executive officers and
boards whose duties are very important,
such as the Insurance Commissioner,
the Board of Railroad Commissioners,
the Inspector of Factories, the Liquor
License Commissioners, the Board of
Charities, the Board of Health, the Tax
Commissioner, the Board of Pardons,
the Superintendent of Banlcs, the Board
of Medical Examiners, the Commissioner
of Agriculture and the Board of Public
Works.
The Leffislative Department, — The
legislature of a State is always divided
into two branches — a Senate and a
House of Representatives. In some
States the lower house is called the As-
sembly, in others the House of Delegates,
in New Jersey the General Assembly.
In many of the States the whole legis-
lature is called the General Assembly.
Both the Senate and the lower house are
representative bodies. The counties or
towns and cities are represented in the
lower house according to population, de-
termined by a census taken every five or
ten years. The State is divided into
senatorial districts from each of which
a senator is elected. The minimum age
for senators is generally higher than for
representatives, and their term is usu-
ally longer.
The State legislature may not pass
any law contrarv to the Constitution of
the State nor of the United States. It
grants charters for the government of
cities, boroughs and villages; and for
the organization of railroad companies,
banks, colleges, and many other public
and private institutions. It makes lawi^
governing the public schools. It defines
the boundaries of counties and towns.
It makes laws concerning property, real
and personal. It makes laws concerning
the social relations, marriages, divorces,
etc. It makes laws regulating the man-
ner of holding elections and the oualifi-
cations of voters. It re^^ulates railroads,
and other public utilities operating
within the State. It regulates manu-
facturing, trading, mining, agriculture,
hunting, fishing, etc
The Judicial Department, — The lowest
court is conducted by a justice of the
peace or magistrate, who acts in the
name of the State. He renders deci-
sions only in small and unimportant
cases. The next court is called the Cir-
cuit Court, the District Court, the Su-
perior Court, the Supreftie Court or the
Court of Common Pleas. This court
sits in the courthouse at the county
seat The same judge may serve in
several counties. The judges are gener-
ally elected, hot in some States appointed
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)
by the Governor. Appeals from the
lower court are taken to the Supreme
Court, or Court of Appeals, the highest
court of the State. It usually meets at
the capital of the Stale. In some States
there is an intermedin te court between
the lower and hlffher, which hears ap-
peals in certain classes of cases.
The District of Colufubia. — The mu-
nicipal government of t e District of
Columbia is vested by act of Congress
approved June 11. 1878» in tiiree Com-
missioners, two of whom are appointed
by the President from citiiens of the
District having had three years' resi-
dence therein immediately preceding that
appointment, anC confirmed by the Sen-
ate. The other Commissioner is detailed
by the President of the United States
from the Corps of Engineers of the
United States Army, and must have
lineal rank senior to captain, or be a
captain who has served at least fifteen
years in the Corps of Engineers of the
Army. The Commissioners appoint the
subordinate official service of said gov-
ernment, except the Board of ESducaaon,
which is appointed by the Supreme Court
•f the District of Columbia.
County Oovemment. — Every State
and territory is divided into counties
(in Louisiana called parishes). In the
Southern States and in many of the
Western States the county — outside of
towns and cities — assumes most of the
functions of local government. Each
county has a county seat where the pub-
lic business is transacted. Most of this
business is done by a ^Vmrd of County
Commissioners or Supervisors, called in
some States the county court; in others
the levy court, because it levies the taxes.
There are no County Commissioners in
Rhode Island.
As a rule the County Commissioners
fix the rate of taxation for the county,
appropriate money for the payment of
the salaries of county officers and to meet
the other expenses of county government,
make contracts for building and repair-
ing roads and bridges, appoint subordi-
nate county officials, and represent the
county in the courts when it Is sued for
damages.
At every county seat one or more
judges sit for the trial of cases. These
judges are generally State officers, but
they receive the assistance of several
county officers. The Sheriff carries out
the orders of the judge. He has the
custody of prisoners, executes the death
penalty, sells property and preserves
peace and order. When necessary he
may call to his aid deputies or helpers.
The Prosecuting Attorn^, called also
the State's Attorney, the District Attor^
ney, the County Attorney, or the Solic-
itor, appears in the county court and
presents the case against a criminal.
The Coroner takes charge of the body of
a person found dead or who dies mys-
teriously, and inquires into the cause of
death. If foul play is suspected, be im-
panels a jury and holds an ' inquest.'
In some States in case of a vacancy by
death, resignation or inability to act of
the sheriff he assumes the duties of that
office. The Clerk of the County Court
or Prothonotary keeps the records of the
county court In some States he keeps
a record of deeds and mortgages, issues
marriage certificates and records births
and deaths.
The above officers are found in almost
every State; in many States there are
also a County Treasurer, County Audi-
tor, County Assessors, County Tax Col-
lectors, Register or Recorder of Deeds
and Superintendent of Schools.
The Probate or Orphans* Court — In
Qeorgia the judee of this court is called
' Ordinary ' ; in New York and New Jer-
sey * Surrogate.'
Townahip Oovemment. — In the Mid-
dle Atlantic and Middle Western States,
township government is organized. It
usually supposts public schools, cares for
public roa(&, and helps the poor. In
many States it levies and collects taxes
for these purposes. The township offi-
cers vary greatly in different states.
The more usual ones are the Supervisor
or Trustee, who cares for roads and
bridges; the School Directors, who con-
trol the public schools; the Township
Clerk, the Assessors, the Tax Collector,
the Auditors, the Constable, who assists
the justice of the peace and is the peace
officer of the township, and the Overseers
of the Poor.
Town Oovemment* — The town as a
politiod organization is characteristic
of the New England States. It cor-
responds in effect to the townships
elsewhere, being partly rural, and con-
taining villages, all combined into one
political group. Its most important fea-
ture is the town-meeting, composed of all
citizens and usually held once a year in
the town hall. At this meeting the rate
of taxation Is fixed, money is appropri-
ated, by-laws are passed, and town offi-
cers are elected. The principal officers
are: The Selectmen, who carry into
effect the measures adopted at the town
meeting; the Town-clerk, who keeps the
records; the Assessors; the Tax-collec-
tor; the Town-treasurer; the Overseers
of the Poor; the Constable; the Sur-
veyor of Highwayst who keeps roads and
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bridges in repair; the Fence-viewers,
who settle disputes over boundaries, and
the Field-driver, or Pound-keeper, who
takes charge of stray animals.
Village or Borough Qovemmeni, — In
thickly settled communities a village or
borough may be organized under a char-
ter from the State. It usually has a
President or Mayor or Chief Burgess
and a body of Trustees, Ck)mmi8sioner8.
Councilmen or Burgesses, who pass local
laws or ordinances, levy taxes, and pro-
vide for police and fire protection, street
paving, sewerage, etc; and School Di-
rectors, who provide for the needs of the
schools. It may also have a Clerk, a
Treasurer, Assessors, a Tax Collector, a
Constable and a Street Commissioner.
City Oovemment. — When the village
or borough grows to a large size, it be-
comes a city; it is still organized under
a charter from the State, but with
broader functions and greater powers.
The city always has two departments —
executive and legislative — the judicial
department being a part of the State gov-
ernment
The Mayor Is the executive officer of
the city. His powers and functions vary
greatly. He ha nearly always elected by
the people, but in a few cases is chosen
by the City Council. His term of office
varies from one to four vears. His chief
duty is to carry out the ordinances of
the Council. In most cities he can veto
an ordinance, but it can be passed over
his veto by a two-thirds or three-fourths
vote.
The City Council is the legislative de-
partment of the city. In large cities it
often has two branches, whose members
are called Aldermen and Councilmen, or
Select and Common Councilmen. These
members are usually elected by wards.
They meet in the city hall and make
laws, called ordinances, for the govern-
ment of the city. Their powers and
limitations are defined by the State legis-
lature.
The Commission Plan. — In many cities
of the country, more than 300 in
number, the ' Commission * plan of city
government has been adopted. The com-
mission consists of a Mayor and a small
body of Councilmen or Aldermen, each
the head of a department, and all elected
by the whole body of voters without re-
gard to wards or precincts and usually
without regard to party. The commis-
sion both makes the laws and executes
them. The Mayor is chairman of the
commission but does not have the veto
power.
tTiiivfl.1vfe (a'ni-vtlv) , a moUuflC with
umvadve ^ ^^ compoeed of a gis-
gle piece. The univalves include most
of the Gasteropoda, as laad-snails, sea-
snails, whelks, limpets, etc The major-
ity of univalve shells are cone-shaped
and spiral.
BfllMl.
BodjirhtA
Univalvjc SHXX.L OF Buecinum undatum.
A, Apex. B, Base, o, Aperture, d, Aii>
terior canal, x, Poiterior canaL F, Inner
lip, pillar lip, columellar lip or labinm. o,
Outer lip or labrum. dfcg, Peristome or
margin of aperture, w, Whorli or volutions,
s, Suturei, or line* of aeparation. v, Variz.
— ^The last whorl of the ihelL usually much
larger iimn the rest, it called the 'body
whorl,' the rest of the volutions constitute
the * spire.'
Universalist ^l;£kir'^"'2k^
according to the 'profession of belief
as adopted in 1803, at Winchester, New
Hampshire, by the New England Con-
vention, believes in the Holy Scriptures;
in one God, whose nature is love, re-
vealed in one Lord Jesus Christ, by one
Holy Spirit of Grace, who will finally
restore the whole family of mankind to
holiness and happiness; that believers
ought to be careful to maintain order
and practice good works, as holiness and
true happiness are inseparably connected.
The system of government is a modified
Presbyterianism. The general convfen-
tion, held annually, consists of clerical
and lay delegates f^m each State con-
vention. There are in the United States
about 900 churches and 66,000 members.
Universal language, JJ^SSIHS
serve as a medium of commercial com-
munication for all countries, with the
possibilitv of its eventually superseding
all existing languages. Such languages
have been partly or fully worked out at
various times, as by Urquhart, Dalgamo,
Wilkins, Leibnitas, and various others in
the past, and in Volapfik and Esperanto
of recent times. Vigorous efforts have
been made to get these two artificial
languages adopted, but as yet with little
prospect of success. Figedn JBnoUih and
the IrtN^ Fronca of the liedi&rbuitai
(
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tTniversal Prime Meridian
TJnivenity Settlements
are partial and spontaneous efforts in the
same direction.
Universal Prime Meridian,
in astronomy, the meridian of Green-
wich, adopted at an international con-
ference of scientific men, held at Wash-
ington. D. C. in 1883. While adopted by
the other principal countries, it was not
adopted by France until 1911. but is now
in use throughout Europe and the United
States. Universal time, for international
purposes, was adopted at the conference
above named. It is reckoned from mean
noon at the Universal Prime Meridian,
the day commencing at midnight, and
being divided into 24 (instead of into
two portions of 12) hours each.
University (ft-ni-jer'si-ti), a corpo-
«' rate body or corporation
established for the purposes of instruc-
tion in all or some of the most important
branches of literature and science, and
having the power of conferring certain
honorary dignities, termed degree^y in
several faculties, as arts, medicine, law,
theology and others. In most cases the
corporations constituting universities in-
clude a body of teachers or professors
for ffiving instruction to students; but
this is not absolutely essential to a uni-
versity, the staff of London University,
for instance, being merely an examining
body. In the middle ages, when the
term began to be used m reference to
seminaries of learning, it denoted either
the whole bodv of teachers and learners,
or the whole body of learners, with cor-
porate rights and under by-laws of their
own, divided either according to the
faculty to which they were attached, or
according to the country to which they
belonged (hence the 'nations* into
which the students were classed, and
which still exist in some universities).
At a later period the expression uni-
verB%ta9 literarum (the whole of literature
or learning), was used to indicate that all
the most important branches of knowl-
edge were to be taught in these estab-
lishments. Some, forming their notion
of a university from the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge, suppose that it
necessarily means a collection and union
of colleges, that it is a great corporation
smbodying In one certain smaller and
iubordinate collegiate bodies; but this
is not correct, for many universities exist
in which there are no colleges. The
oldest of the European universities were
those of Bologna and Paris, and these
formed the models on which most of the
other earlv universities were established,
a papal bull being generally regarded
as necessary ta tl^ The United StotM
possesses the largest number of institu-
tions bearing the name of universities,
but a large proportion are sectarian, and
may represent only a single faculty, and
in no proper sense deserve the name.
For the chief universities see under
separate heads, and refer to the articles
on the different countries.
tTnivenity CoUege, f^^f^ £[
stitutlon belonging to a university, or
such as mi^ht belong to a university.
The University College, London, is close-
ly connected with London University.
(See London^ University of,) The
name is given especially to three of the
four colleges which are intended to form
a Welsh University, viz. the VniverHty
College of Walet at Abervstwith, Unl-
veraitg College of South Wales at Car^
dlff, and the University CoUege of North
Walet at Bangor. The students of
these colleges, proceeding to degrees, have
to go through a course at either London,
Dublin, Edinburgh, or Glasgow. The
University College of Oxford is the
oldest of its colleges, founded about 1253.
University Extension, * e" t''^
progress to extend the means of higher
education to persons of all classes and
of both sexes engaged in the regular
occupations of life. Anv community may
avail itself of the privileges by forming
a local committee, which provides the
necessary funds and fixes fees, etc. The
mode of instruction consists In courses
of lectures by specialist graduates of the
universities, each lecture being preceded
or followed by a class, in which the
students are orally examined by the
lecturer, who also corrects written
papers done at home. An examination
is held at the end of each course and
certificates awarded. The movement be-
gan in 1872 with Cambridge University,
ut Oxford did not go heartily into it
till 1885. The movement has extended
widely in Britain and in 1890 reached
the United States, where there has de-
veloped a liberally conducted movement
for university extension, spreading from
Philadelphia as a center to many sec-
tions of the country, being established
mainly in connection with colleges and
universities. A well-developed plan has
been evolved by which institutions of
learning in every section are enabled to
share in the benefits of the movement
and to extend them to others.
University Settlements, j^^'^jgj
poor districts of cities where educated
men and women live and- come in con-
tact with the poorer classes for social
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(Jnterwalden
Tlrsmia
edacational and civic purposeA. These
■ettlements provide dubs, and offer a
home and recreation for poor workers.
Children are taken care of and have
many amusements, all with a view to
waken in them a desire for better things
and right living. The first settlement m
the United States was founded in New
York city September 1, 1889, by the grad-
uates of several women's colleges. It has
since extended to all the large cities of
the country, Hull House, Chicago,
opened in the same month with the
New York settlement, being one of the
most notable examples.
wMvwATVMA««.wu. g^igg canton, bounded
on the north by the Vierwaldstfttter Lake,
on the east by mountains which separate
it from Uri, on the south by Bern, and
on the west by Lucerne; area, 295 sq.
miles. It is divided into two valleys,
Upper and Lower (Obwalden and Nid-
walden), bv a forest called Kemwald,
and these districts being also politically
distinct, send each one representative to
the Swiss Council. The chief town of
Obwald is Samen, and of Nidwald,
SUnz. Pop. 28.000. Both cantons are
almost entirely Roman Catholic.
TTnvftro (3-ny6'r0), a district of Bqua-
uu/uru ^^^j^, Africa, lying to the west
and north of Uganda, to which it is
tributary, and stretching to the Nile.
TTpanishads iferS^ui;. 1i ^T.
given to a series of treaties or com-
mentaries on the Vedic hymns, the con-
tents of which are partly ritualistic,
partly speculative. They are of different
dates, some of them being as old as sev-
eral centuries b.c.
Upai Tree (AntiarU toxiearia).
llDftfl (tt'pas), a tree common in the
w^c»o fQi^g^g Qf Java, and of some of
the neiffhborinff islands, and found also
in tropical Africa. It is a species of
the genua Antiom (A* UMricaria)^ aat
order Artocarpacee. Many exaggerated
stories were formerly current concerning
the deadly properties of this plant, its
exhalations being said to be fatal to both
animal and vegetable life at several
miles distance from the tree itself. The
truth is, that the upas is a tree which
yields a poisonous secretion and nothing
more.
Tlliemivilc (5-per'ne-vik), the most
upciiiivuk northerly of the Danish I
settlements in Greenland, on an island!
off the west coast, in lat. 72" 48' N.
It has long been a place of call for
arctic expeditions.
Upholsterer-bee. ®^ Carpenter-hee.
TJdoIu <^P^-lS')f the chief of the Sa-
vyvAu. m^jj^n group of islands in the
South Pacific. It is about 150 miles in
circumference, and cotton and cocoa-nut
oil are its principal products. Apia is
the capital. It belongs to Germany.
Pop. 19,842.
Upper Senegal-Niger, ^Jf^""^
French West Africa, formed in 1894 out
of the territories of Senegambia and the
Niger, with the exception of the former
Sen^ral protectorate, which was restored
to Senegambia. In 1907 the several
Dahomey districts were added to the
colony, which now has an area of 302,-
136 sq. miles. Capital, Bamaka; pop.
5,000,000.
XlDSala ("p-8a'ia)» * town of Sweden,
wyoo^M 45 miles n. w. of Stockholm.
It has a cathedral (archiepiscopal, the
finest in Sweden), which contains the
tombs of some Swedish kings and of
Linnieus; a celebrated university founded
in 1477, with a library of about 250,000
volumes, a botanical garden, observatory,
etc. Pop. 22,855.
UDShlir ("P'«hur), Abel Pabkeb,
^'•r statesman, bom in Northamp-
ton Co., Virginia, in 1790. In 1841 he
was appointed Secretary of the Navy by
President Tvler. Two years later, on
the resignation of Daniel Webster, he
was appointed Secretary of State.
Early in 1844 he was on the United
States steamer Princeton^ on the Po-
tomac River, in company with the Presi-
dent and other members of the cabinet,
to witness experiments with a large
wrought-iron gun which burst, and
mortallv wounded him together with sev-
eral others. He died near Washington,
February 28, 1844.
XTp'upa. ®^ iloopoe.
TTr^inift (O-rS'ml-a), a diseased con-
urwmitt ^j^j^j^ ^j ^jj^ j^y arising
from the presence of urea in the blood,
in consequence of the urine not being
(
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XTral
Urban
)
properly secreted, as in Bright's disease
or other ailments, thus leaving in the
blood elements that should be carried
off.
Tlrftl C^^'r^Of a rivtfr of Russia, which
** nses in the Ural Mountains, forms
part of the boundary between Europe
and Asia, and enters the Caspian after
a course of about 1000 miles.
Ural Mountains, S^l^'^^aSd "" piS:
teaus stretching nearly north and south
between Europe and Asia, from the
shores of the Arctic Ocean for a dis-
tance of about 1900 miles; highest sum-
mit, 5613 feet. There is but fittle strik-
ing scenery, and the rise is so gradual in
some parts that the traveler from Perm
to Ekaterinburg, for instance, hardly
notices that he has crossed the chain.
The Ural Mountains are celebrated for
the mines of gold, platinum, copper, coal
and iron which they contain, and in the
south are many broad valleys of remark-
able fertilitv.
TTrolaIr (0-ralsk')> a town of Russia,
uraiSJL on the Ural, 170 mUes w. s. w.
of Orenburg. It has a considerable
trade, espedally in fish and caviare.
Pop. 43,006. It is the capital of Uralsk
province, which borders on the Caspian
Sea, with an area of about 126,000 sq.
miles.
TTraniA ^ fl-ra'ni-a ) , in Greek my-
vxoaucft thology, the muse of astron-
omy. She is gen-
erally represented
holding in her left
hand a celestial
globe to which she
points with a little
staff.
a rare metal
whose chemical
symbol is U, ato-
mic weight 240,
specific gravity
18.4. The chief
source of uranium
is pitchblende.
iMetallic uranium
'is obtained in the
form of a black
powder, or some- Uranis, antiqne itatue In
times aggregated the Vatican,
in small plates,
having a silvery luster and a certain
decree of malleability. It forms several
oxides, which are used in painting on
porcelain, yielding a fine orange color in
the enameline fire, and a black color
in that in which the porcelain itself is
baked. It is strongly radio-active, per-
haps from containing radium, a con-
stituent of pitchblende.
TTraima (u'ra-nus), in Greek my-
U ran us t^joiogy^ ^^^ g^n ^f q^^, the
earth, and by her the father of the Titans,
Cyclopes, etc. He hated his children,
and confined them in Tartarus, but on
the instigation of Geat Kronos, the
youngest of the Titans, overthrew and
dethroned him.
TJ'ranTIS, ^°, astronomy, one of the
V A»M«.iM9^ primary planets, and the
seventh from the sun, discovered by
Sir William Herschel in 1781. It
was first called Oeorgiutn Sidus in
honor of George III, and afterwards
Herschel, in honor of the discoverer,
finally receiving its present name in ac-
cordance with the practices of naming
the planets after the deities of mythol-
ogy. To the naked eye it appears like
a star of the sixth magnitude. Its
mean distance from the sun is about 1754
millions of miles, and the length of the
year 30,686.82 days, or about 84 of our
years. Its mean diameter is estimated
at about 33,000 miles. Its volume ex-
ceeds the earth's about 74 times, but
as its mean density is only 0.17 (the
earth's being 1) its mass is only about
12% times more. The length of its day
is supposed to be between 9 and 10 hours.
It is now generally admitted that this
planet has four satellites, which differ
from the other planets, primarr and
secondary (with the exception of Nep-
tune's satellite), in the direction of their
motion, this being from east to west, and
they move in planes nearly perpendicular
to the ecliptic.
XT'rari. ^^ouran.
TTm. TvnhA 1^'"^ tyS'be), a town of
Ura lyUDe ^^^^^ Turkestan, in
the district of Sir Darya, with walls
and a citadel. Pop. 22,()8&
Urban (u<^l>an), the name of eight
vauooa pop^^ Qf whom the most nota-
able were: Ubban II (Othon de
Lagny), 1088-99, was elected by one
party in the church, and in a council
held at Rome he excommunicated his
rival Clement III and his supporter, the
Emperor Henry IV. By his decision
and energy he extended the power of the
popedom, and it was at his kistigation
that the first crusade was undertaken,
and Jerusalem captured. — Urbait VI
(Bartolommeo Prignani), 1378-89. so
exasperated the cardinals by his reform-
ing zeal that they caused a schism ir
the church by electing Clement VII
The two popes excommunicated esLck
other until urban died, under circum-
stances which suggested poisoning.—
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TJrbana
Urine
Ubban VIII (Maffeo Barberini), 1623-
44, was more of a temporal prince than
a cleric, extending the power of the
church by raising armies, bailding
fortresses, and entering into an alliance
with France against the powers of Aus-
tria and Germany. He condemned
Galileo and Jansen.
TTrhfliifl a city, county seat of Cham-
Uroana, paign Co., Ohio, 47 mUes
w. by N. of Columbus. Here ia Urbana
University (Swedenborgian), organized
in 1851. It has manufactures of straw-
board, w^ol, brooms, paper and auto-
matic telephones, etc. Pop. 7739.
XTrbana ^"':*^^'*Al * <?ty, county
***"***•* seat of Champaign Co., Il-
linois, 31 miles w. of Danville. It is the
seat of the University of Illinois, a
flourishing institution with over 5000 stu-
dents, of the Illinois Laboratory of Na-
tural History, and of a Government Ex-
periment Station. It has railroad repair
shops and other industries. Pop. 8500.
TTrbinO (^r-b^'no), a town of North
^ Italy, province of Pesaro e
Urbino, 21 miles west by south of
Pesaro. It is the see of an archbishop,
the seat of a university; the chief build-
ings being the ducal palace and the
cathedraL It was the birthplace of
Raphael, whose house is still shown.
Pop. 18,244.
TJrobilL ^'^ ^^ Echinui.
TTrdll* ®^ HinduttanL
Tr«^ (Qr), Andbew, chemist, bom at
^^^ Glasgow in 1778; died In 1857.
He was educated at Glasgow and Edin-
burgh universities, where he was grad-
uated in medicine; became professor of
chemistry at the Andersonian Institution
(1804), director of the Observatory,
Glasgow (1809), and was appointed
analytical chemist to the Board of Cus-
toms (1834) in London. His chief
works are: A Dictionary of Chemiiiry
(two vols., 1821), The Cotton Manufao-
turet and Mines (two vols., 1837)
and a Dictionary of ArU, Manufao'
tur€8 and Mines (two vols., 1837-
39), enlarged by Dr. Robert Hunt (4
vols., 1875-78).
\Tredo (ti-re'd<^), a genus of minute
vxcuv parasitic fungi, the species of
^bich are parasitic on plants. The dis-
eases called smut, brand, burnt ear, rust,
etc, are caused by their ravages.
Wrftter (tl-rg'ter), the excretory duct
vx^^v^x ^j. ^^^ which conveys the
urine from each kidney to the bladder.
In man it is about the size of a goose-
quill; and its length is from 16 to 18
inches.
TTretTirsi. (fl-re'thra), in anatomy, the
ureiora ^^^^j j^^j^^ ^^^^ the tiad-
der to the external urinary opening, and
serving for the excretion of the urine.
In the male it is a complicated structure
varying in length from 8 to 9 inches,
and in the female it is a narrow mem-
branous canal about 1^ inches in length.
TJrfft (ur-ftt'), a town of Turkey in
^ •• Asia, in Upper Mesopotamia, a
seat of an Armenian bishop, and of a
French and an American mission. Pop.
about 60,000.
Tlr^a (^i^^)t & Chinese town in
***&«* Northern Mongolia, on the river
Tola, on the trade route between Peking
and Kiachta. Pop. 30,000.
TTri (d'ri), a canton in Switzerland,
** bounded by Schwyx, Unterwalden,
Valais. Tessin, Orisons and Glarus;
area, 415 square miles. It is one of the
most mountainous of the Swiss cantons,
presenthig a complete chaos of mountain
masses, the most famous of which is the
St. Gothard. An interesting mass is the
Urirothstock, 9620 feet high. The most
important portion of the canton Is the
valley of the Reuss, which enters the
Liske of Uri, an arm of the L<ake of
Lucerne. The chief industry is cattle-
rearing; sheep and goats are also numer-
ous: and timber is exported. The in-
habitants are mostly Roman Catholics,
and speak German. Uri was one of the
three original Swiss cantons. It is
visited by many tourists. The capital is
Altorf. Pop. 19,700.
Uric Acid <^'?i>'^«„.ra„a'?tlS
in the healthy urine of man and quad-
rupeds, and in much larger quantity in
the urine of birds. Uric acid constitutes
the principal proportion of the urinary
calculi and the concretions causing the
complaint known as the gravel.
Urim (^'^^)* * ^^°^ o^ ornament or
** "^^ appendage belonging to the cos-
tume of the Jewish high-priest in ancient
times, along with the thummin^ in virtue
of which he gave oracular answers to the
people, but what the urim and thummio
really were has not been satisfactorily
a seer tained.
Xlrinary* Calculi, ^ee caicuiu».
Urine (fi'rin), an animal fluid or
** ** liquor secreted by the kidneys,
whence it is conveyed into the bladder
by the ureters, and through the urethra
discharged. In its natural state it is
acid, transparent, of a pale amber or
straw color, a brackish taste, a peculiar
odor, and of a snecific gravity varyinc
from 1.012 to 1.030. The character of
the urine, however, is apt to be altered
<
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Google
TTrmiyah TTraguay
by the state of health, the season of the family. But the order is more frequently
year, age, food, and a variety of other confined to the Urticee, or nettle family,
causes. A knowledge of the urine in typical genus, Urtica. (See Nettle,)
health, and of the variations to which it The juice of the restricted order is
is subject in disease, is of the utmost watery, not millur; the wool in the ar-
importance to the medical practitioner, boreous or shruDbery species, which are
One of its morbid constituents is diabetic all tropical, is soft and light. The fiber
sugar. See Diahetea, of the bark of some is valuable. It is
TIrmivah ^^ Urumiyah, in the restricted Urticace» that species
wA.uu.jrcu&« covered with stinging hairs are found.
TTrri a kind of vase, often one for hold« TTni'hainhfl ( nr-al)am-ba ), one of
^^"> ing the ashes of the dead. See W^**"»"*"» the head streams of the
Cinerary Urn, Vase, Amazon (which see).
TTrodelfl. (fi*i^o-de'la), an order of am- TTm'bTi (tl-ral)Q), the native name of
vAvu^ACR. piiibiim vertebrates in which *'****'^ an American vulture, the Catk-
the larval tail is always retained in the arUta Iota (black vulture or zopilote),
adult, the body being elongated posteri- veir nearly allied to the turkey-buzzard,
orly into the tail. There are two which it closely resembles. This vora-
sections, the Perennihranchiate Urodela, clous bird is common in the villages and
in which the gills are retained through towns of the southern portion of the
life, as in proteus, siren, etc. ; and toe United States, acting as a scavenger.
Caducibranchiatej in which the gills dis- Trrnmiov (^ru-gwl', or fi-m-gwa'), a
appear at maturity, as in newts and *'***8*"*/ river of South America,
salamanders. which rises in Brazil, in the province
XTrsa llajor. XTrsa Minor. ®^ ?*°^ catharma, flows first west-
vAoa .uM^jvxy vAon .iu.xaj.vj.* ^^^^ds, then gradually turns south, and
See Bear, Great and Little, finally enters the estuary of La rlata
TTrfline Seal (nr'sin; Otaria urtlna opposite Buenos Ay res; length, about
wA0Au« Kn^tM ^y Arctocephdlus iir- 800 miles.
sinus), one of the otaries or eared seals, TTrnanAV ^^ BAin>A Oriental del
a native of the North Pacific, about 8 *'*»*5*"*/i Uruguay, a republic of
feet long. Called also sea-bear. South America, bounded on the north and
TTrsimift CtAUff^t^ a non-sectarian ?^f*^!f«* ^^ .?^^\^\^^L^^^t **^ *^®
ursinus ^^ouege, collegiate institn- Atlantic, on the south by the Rio de la
tion, established in 1869 at CoUegeville, Plata, and on the west by the Uruguajr,
Pa. It has about 300 students. separating it from the Argentine Repub-
TTrftftTi (ur'sun), a name given to the 1^/ aroa estimated at 72,150 square
ursou srethison dorsdtum, or Cana- ^ll^*- Th« surface forms a vast undu-
dian porcupine, which is 18 inches in Jatmg plain, generally flat, but broken in
length, and the quills of which are smaller ♦?« interior by several ndges of moderate
than in the common porcupine. elevation. Gold is mined to some extent,
TIrRTlla (ur'sii-la), St., a virrin mar- and fUver, copper and lead exist. The
Ursuia ^y according to the legend a P"**^^P?* ^^.^"".^ *?® ^®^' ^^'K^ ^^-
daughter of a prince in Britain put to l\^^ the state into two nearly equal poiv
death at Coloene by a horde of Huns, fi^n?' and on the southeast frontiel is
some say in 384, others in 453. together *»>« larg« '?^®,?u^ Menm. The climate is
with 11,000, or more probably 11, largins mild and healthy, the feneral range of
who accompanied her. *be thermometer being from 82** to 90*
TTrfiTllini'fl (-Unz), or Nuns or St. F. The extensive plains seem admirably
urBUUUes tJasuLA, a sisterhood adapted for agriculture, but they are
founded by St. Angela Mericl at Brescia, occupied by large herds of horses, sheep
in 1537. They devote themselves to the and cattle, the rearing of these^ beinc
succor of poverty and sickness and the the pnncipal industry. The pnncipal
education of female children. They had agricultural products are wheat, maise,
many houses in France during the aeven- oats, rye, millet and flaxseed. The chief
teenth century. The Cana^an Ursulines exports are hides, tallow, preserved
date from 16&. meat, sheepskins, bones, wool and horse
TTrtiTia a n ^air, while the chief imports are cotton
UTBUB. 8ee Hear, goods, woolens, coal and iron. Primary
TTrtifiafififfi (ur-ti-ka'se-e), a nat or- education is compulsory; there are nor-
u X iiAuau^cxj ^gj. ^£ exogenous trees, mal, secondary and hisher institutions,
herbs and shrubs. In an extended sense and a university at Montevideo. The
the order includes the Ulmeas, or elm Roman Catholic Is the state religion,
family ; the Artocarpejp, or breadfruit but all faiths are tolerated. The country
family; and the Cannabinetc. or hemp is divided into nineteen provinces, ana
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TJminiyali TTtali
by the constitution of 1830 it is cov- TJaliailt (u^^^'^nt; French, Ou€s$ant),
erned by a president, a senate and a *"»•******" an island of France, 15 miles
house of representatives. Uruguay at off the west coast of the department of
one time formed part of the Spanish Finist^re, to which it belongs; area, 6
viceroyaKy of Buenos Ayres, and the square miles. It presents a very bold and
lans[uage of the country is Spanish, rocky coast; fishmg and the rearing of
Capital and chief port, Montevideo, sheep are the principal occupations. Fop.
Pop. (1908) 1,042,66a 2761
TTmmivflJl (^ni-me'a), or Us'ia- TTalioa (fl'shas), in Hindu mythology,
VAUUXAJCU& YAH, a town of Persia, *'•'**•*•' one of the ancient elemental di-
said to be the birthplace of Zoroaster, in vinities. the goddess of the dawn. In the
the west of the province of Azerbijan, Vedic n^ns she is represented as a
situated near a lake of the same name, young wife awakening her children and
65 miles southwest of Tabreez. The sur- giving them new strength for the toils of
rounding district is of surpassing fertil- the coming day.
ity. Pop. about 30,000. — The lake, sit- TTglier vUBbei')f a° officer who has the
uated 4300 feet above sea-level, is about *'"**^* care of the door of a court.
80 miles long from north to south, by 20 hall, chamber, or the like. In the royal
miles broad. It is extremely shallow household of Britain there are four gen-
throughout. tlemen ushers of the privy chamber. The
TTmintsi (u-r5m'tsS)y a city of Cen« Oenileman u»her of ihe Uack rod is an
vAUAuvoA ^j^j ^g.^^ j^ ^jj^ Chinese officer of the order of the Garter (see
province of Dzoungaria, on the northern Black-rod) ; the Usher of the green rod,
side of the Thian-Shan Mountains. It an officer of the order of the Thistle,
was formerly of great commercial Im- The service of ushers is customary in
portance in the trade between Russia, American churches, at weddings, and in
Turkestan and India. Pop. estimated at places of amusement.
30,000. TJslier ^^ Usshek, James, Arch-
TTmii (ft'rus), a kind of laige ox which *'*»•***'*> bishop of Armagh, bom at
*'*" ran wild in Gaul at the period of Dublin in 1580; died in 1^. He took
the Roman invasion, as described by orders in 1601; in 1607 received the pro-
Cesar, perhaps the wild ox such as still fessorship of divinity at Trinity College,
exists in Ehigland, at Chillingham in Dublin, and the office of chancellor of
Northumberland and Hamilton in Lan- St. Patrick's; in 1620 the bishopric of
arinhire, or else the aurochs. Meath; in 1623 a place in the Irish
TTgo^aro (tk-sa-ga'ra), part of the privy-council; and in 1624 the primacy
V 00*5 MA a German possessions in East of Ireland. He was a man of great eru-
Africa, occupying an extensive area of dition^ his chief works l}eing the Annalea
country inland north of the river Rufiji. Vetert9 et Novi Testamenii, which forms
It has mountains of considerable height, the basis of the received biblical chro-
and is generally fertile. nolo^y; and Britannicarum Ecdesiarum
TTsambArfl. ^ A-sam-ba'ra ), a moun- Anttquiiates,
voc»AUMc»xc» talnous territory of Ger- TJaliVTi'D ^^ Uskub (us'kup), a town
man East Africa, situated about 50 miles *'"'*'^^r> of Northwestern Turkey, on
N. w. of Zanxibar, extending inland from the river Vardar, seat of a Greek arch-
opposite the island of Pemba. The bishop, with manufactures of leather, etc
country grows rice, maise, india-rubber Pop. 20,000.
and tobacco. TTssiiri (^^^'rO. a river of Eastern
Usbeoks (Ss'beks), or Usbeks, a *"»*•**** Asia, a tributary of the Amoor,
Turkish tribe which at one forming for a long distance the boundary
time formed the ruling class throughout between Russia and Chinese territories;
Western Turkestan, m Bokhara, Kho- length, 300 miles.
kand, Khiva and Balkh, and parUy also TJanfmot (^'z^-^rukt), in law, the
in Eastern Turkestan. In Western **"**** w-^" temporary use and enjoy-
Tnrkestan they are now completely under ment of lands or tenements, or the right
the control of Russia, but in the districts of receiving the fruits and profits of lands
mentioned they still form the nobility and or other things without having the right
landowners. to alienate or change the property.
TTftf^ilnni (5'ze-dom), a Prussian TTftTirv (tl'zha-ri). See Interest.
useaom ,g,^^^ .„ ^^^ g^j^j ^^ ^^^ usury
coast of Pomerania; area, 150 square TJtall (^'^'^)* a Western State of the
miles. The inhabitants are employed in ^ Amencan Union, bounded N. by
agriculture and fishing; chief towns, Idaho, n. k. by Wyoming, e. by Colorado,
Swinemttnde and Usedom. Pop. about b. by Arizona, and w. by Nevada; area,
88,000. 84,990 sq. miles. The northeastern part
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trtah Lake TTtioa
of the State consists of the hi£h rangei of the Jordan River. Several Mormon
of the Uinta and Wasatch Mountains, towns are on its eastern shores.
Practically all of eastern and southeast- TTtahs ^^ Utes, a tribe of American
em Utah consists of a series of broad de- ** va'**o> Indians of the Shoshone fam-
vated plateaus, deeply cut by canyons ily, living on reservations in Utah and
and narrow stream valleys. The west- Colorado, having sold most of their lands
em portion of the State lies entirely to the United States govemment. Pop.
within the Great Basin region and is about 2000.
separated from the more eastern portion TT'folro-moTi/l See Ootaoamund,
by the steep escarpment of the plateau. " WUWUUaaa.
Within the Great Basin region broad, TTtAniA (<i'ter-us), or Womb, an or-
nearly level desert areas are interrupted wi»cxu» ^ ^£ females, situated be-
by steep and rugged mountain chains run- tween the bladder and rectum, in which
ning north and south. Within the pla- the embryo is contained until it arrives
teau portion, there are numerous small at matunty, when it is finally bora or
valleys which are irrigated for intensive expelled. In the virgin female it is some-
agriculture, but upon the plateau itself what pear-shaped, and measures about 3
grazing is the principal industry. The inches long, 2 inches broad, 1 inch thick,
greater portion of the agricultural land and weighs about 1^ oz. It is divided
of the State lies along the western border into a fundus or base, a body and a
of the mountain and plateau district cerviw or neck. It opens into the vagina
where the water from higher levels is by a transverse aperture (os uteri),
brought down and applied to the sandy The organ is retained in its place by cer-
and gravelly loams around the margin of tain ligaments derived from the peri-
the Great Basin region, and to the finer toneum. Its internal cavity is small,
grained sediments of the stream valleys and at each superior angle at the fundus
and of the level floors of recent lake a Fallopian tube or oviduct enters,
basins. The possible dry farm area of These tubes convey the ova or eggs from
Utah is practically all of that which is the ovarjf (which see) to the uterus,
not covered by mountains or under ir- In structure the utems is composed of
rigation canals, with the exception of an outer serous coat, a middle muscular
some of the more desert districts where coat, and an inner mucous lining. The
the rainfall is less than ten inches. The arteries of the uterus are derived from
irrigating ditches of the State are over the internal iliac and the aorta; the
6,887 miles in length, of an estimated veins are large, and are called Hnuiea
cost of $17,840,775.00, and the reservoirs in the impregnated state. The nerves
are extensive. The agricultural products spring from the inferior hypogastric and
include wheat, oats, barley, com, pota- spermatic plexuses, and from the third
toes, onions, cabbage, peas, tomatoes, and fourth sacral nerves. The womb is
sugar beets and fmits. Over 37,000 liable to many diseases, of which the most
acres are devoted to the sugar beet and frequent and important are inflamma-
46,000 acres to fmit and nursery in- tory affections and tumors. It is also
terests. The chief wealth of the State liable to become displaced in various
is in its agricultural and mineral re- ways from laxity of its liraments and
sources. Its minerals embrace gold, sil- other causes (see Prolap$u9 uieri) ,
ver, copper, lead, iron, coal, salt, etc. TTfiAO (tlti-k&). an ancient city of
In silver yield, Utah stands next to Mem- ^ •'•^^«* North Africa, on the river Ba-
tana. Manufactures are mainly confined grada, near its entrance into the Medi-
to goods for inter-mountain consumption, terranean, about 25 miles IV. w. of Car-
though much beet sugar is made, and thage. After the destruction of Gar-
there are large smelting works. The thage Utica became the capital of the
capital is Salt Lake City; the next Roman province. It was destroyed by
largest city Is Ogden. Utah was settled the Araos In the latter part of the
in 1847 by Mormons ; organized as a ter- seventh century.
ritory in 1850 and in 1896 admitted as a K'tica * ^^ <>' New York, county
State, In 1882 Congress passed a ^ "*«», ^^^ ^£ Oneida CJountv, situ-
stringent law against polygamy, and in ated on the south bank of the Mohawk,
1890 the Mormon CJhurch decreed its 95 miles w. by N. of Albany. It has beau-
di neon tin uance. Pop. (1910) 373,351. tiful parks and charitable institutions,
1Tta.ll Lake ^ fresh-water lake in and is the site of a state hospital for the
*•»*!.»/, j.jjg Stsite of Utah, 30 insane. Among its public buildings are
miles 8. of Salt Lake Citv. It is 25 the Federal Building, the Ounty BuUd-
miles in length w. to 8., with an extreme ingf City Hall, State Armory, Public Li-
width of 13 miles. Its waters are brary. It has large and diversified manu-
irained into Great Salt Lake by means facturing interests including twenty-two
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4i
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utilitarianism TJzbegs
textile mills. It is also the center of a engaged in the war of the Spanish Sue-
large dairy country and is a market for cession. On April 11, 1713, the States-
cheese. It is on the Erie Canal and the general, Prussia, Portugal and Savoy,
D. L. and W., the N. Y. C, the II. R., signed separate treaties with France,
the N. Y. Ont. and W., and the W. Shore The emperor refused to accede to the
railroads. Pop. (1910) 74,419. peace, and his differences with France
TT+"ili+flriflniani (Cl-til-i-tft'ri-an-izm), were subsequently adjusted by the
Uliliwniiiusni ^jjg general name treaties of Rastadt and Baden in 1714.
given to those schools of morals which By the treaty with England, France,
define virtue as consisting in utility, among other things, recognized the
The name is more specially applied to Hanoverian succession, engaged never
the school founded by Jeremy Bentham, to unite the crowns of France and Spain,
of which the m«8t recent exponent is and ceded to Britain Nova Scotia, New-
John Stuart Mill, but there are many foundland, St. Kitt's and Hudson Bay
other developments of the same principle and Straits. Gibraltar and Minorca
both in ancient and modern scnopls of were also ceded on behalf of Spain,
morals. See Ethics, Holland retained the Spanish Nether-
TT+n-nifl (tt-t6'pl-a), a name invented lands until a barrier treaty was arranged
utupxa by Sir Thomas More, from the with Austria. (See Barrier Treaty,)
Greek ou iopoa (no place), and applied Louis XIV recognized the title of the
by him to an imaginary island, which King of Prussia, who received a part of
he represents as discovered by a com- Spanish Guelderland, and the sovereignty
panion of Amerigo Vespucci. As de- of Neufchatel in Switzerland, while re-
cribed in his work called Utopia, writ- nouncing the principality of Orange,
ten in Latin and published in 1516, the Savoy and Nice were restored to tne
Utopians had attained great perfection in Duke of Savoy, who was recognized as
laws, politics, etc. presumptive heir to the Spanish mon-
TT'+rn/mia+a See Caliwtines, archv, and received the title of king.
U truquiSliS. pjjiifp V was not recognized till the con-
TT+rPPli+ (O'treAt), an important town elusion of these treaties, but France
Ubici^ub of Holland, capital of a prov- treated for Spain, and formal treaties
ince of the same name, 2^ miles south- corresponding with those with France
east of Amsterdam. It is pleasantly sit- were afterwards signed with that power,
uated on the Old Rhine, is traversed by TTtiera (^^-^ra'ri), a town of Spain,
two canals crossed by numerous stone province of Seville, 18 miles
bridges, and is surrounded by strong s. e. of the city of Seville. It has a
forts. The town is well built, and has fine Gothic church and a Moorish palace
several squares, promenades, a govern- Pop. 15,138.
ment house, a Protestant cathedral (a TTtricularia (A-trik-il-lft'ri-a), the
fine Gothic building), mint, handsome ^ v ***«.* » generic name of the
town hall, palace of justice, etc. Educa- hladderworta (which see),
tional establishments include a well- TT'vrila See Palate,
equipped university, a veterinary school, *
musical college, and schools for drawing TjTbrid^e (uks'brij), a town of Eng-
and architecture. Utrecht is the central ^-^^^^^s^ land, in Middlesex, on the
point of the Dutch railway system, and CJolne, 15 miles w. of London. It has
carries on an extensive trade in grain an ancient church, an iron foundry,
and cattle, and in the manufactures of breweries, brick kilns, etc. There is a
the place, which include Utrecht velvet, good trade in corn and flour. Pop.
carpets, floor-cloth, cottons, linens, chem- 10,374.
icals, etc. Utrecht is the oldest town of TTiTTnal (^-13Q&10» an ancient Indian
Holland, and was called by the Romans ^^^^^"^ town of Yucatan, Central
Trajectum ad Rhenum, that is * Ford of America, about 35 miles 8. w. of Merida.
the Rhine/ later Ultra'trajectum, Pop. It is now an extensive group of ruins.
121,317. The province of Utrecht has Some of these are remarkable relics of
an area of 532 'square miles, with a pop. a past state of Indian civilization. They
(1905) of 276,543. It is generally flat, comprise several large temple buildings
is well watered by the Rhine, Vecht, of striking architecture and adornment.
Amstel and other rivers, and is better TJz ^ ^^^ ^^^ Testament, a region
suited for dairy farming and stock rais- "^ probably lying to the east or south-
ing than for com growing. east of Palestine, known as the scene of
Tltrecht PJ'^ce of^ a series of sepa- the story of Job.
' rate treaties agreed upon at TTzbe^S ^^ Vahecks,
Utrecht by the powers which had been ^*'"^6*»«
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V
yr the twenty-second letter of the Eng-
' lish alphabet, a labial, formed by
the junction of the upper teeth with the
lower lip, and a gentle expiration. It
resembles the letter /, but is sonant and
not like it surd or hard,
VaaI P.iiTPr (^^Uf a river of South
vaai JUVer Africa, rises in the Quath-
lamba Mountains, and after a tortuous
course of about 500 miles joins the
Orange River (which see). It divides
the Transvaal Colony from the Orange
River Colony.
Vaccinatioa ^J„f5^S*'^rl'ac<*?;
in order to procure immunity from small-
pox, or with modified virus of any disease
m order to produce it in a mild form and
80 prevent a serious attack. The practice
of anti-smallpox vaccination was intro-
duced by Jenner, and it soon came into
common use instead of inoculation. (See
Jenner and Inoculation,) The usual
method in vaccination is to make a tew
scratches across one another, with a clean
lancet point, upon the upper part of the
arm. The matter from the cowpox. or
from the vaccination pustule produced on
another person, is then rubbed on the skin
where the scratches have been made. If
the vaccination proves successful a small
inflamed pustule appears about the third
day, and increases in size until the tenth
day. On the eighth day the constitu-
tional effects manifest themselves by
slight pain in the part, headache, shiver-
ing, loss of appetite, etc. These subside
spontaneously in one or two days.
Afterwards the fluid in the pustule dries
up, and a scab forms which disappears
about the twentieth day, leaving a slight
scar in the skin. Repeated vaccinations,
with intervals of several years, have
been recommended by medical authorities.
Anti-typhoid vaccination has recently
found favor. It was introduced into the
United States army and navy earlv in
1912. The following year not a single
case of typhoid occurred, despite the fre-
quent exposure to unsanitary conditions.
Anti-typhoid vaccination has also been
practiced with satisfactory results in Brit-
ish armies in various parts of the world,
in the Japanese and the French army.
tleberry belongs.
Vacnnm (vak'ti-um). empty space, or
vAviAiAAu gp^^ devoid of all matter
or body. Whether there is sach a thing
as an absolute vacuum in nature is a
question which has been much contro-
verted. The existence of a vacuum was
maintained by the Pythagoreans, Epicu-
reans, and Atomists; but it was denied
by the Peripatetics, who asserted that
* nature abhors a vacuum.' The modem
theory, which seems to be warranted
by experience, is that an absolute vac-
uum cannot exist, the subtle medium
known as ether being believed to be
everywhere present. In a less strict
sense a vacuum (more or less perfect)
is said to be produced when air is more
or less completely removed from an en-
closed space, such as the receiver of an
air-pump, a portion of a barometric tube,
etc In the receiver of the air-pump the
vacuum can only be partial, as the ex-
haustion is limited by the remaining air
not having sufficient elasticity to raise
the valve*^ The Torricellian vacuum,
that is, the space above the mercury in
a carefully manipulated barometer tube,
is more nearly perfect in this respect,
but even this space is to some extent
filled with the vapor of mercury.
Vacnnm-brake. ®^ ^'^*^-
Vacuuin Cleaner, ? "ystem of
w MvuiAAu. vAvcuAVAy h o u s c cleaning
by aid of machines creating a partial
vacuum and by this means extracting the
dust from carpets, sofas, and furniture
in general, through a tube with a spe-
cial nozzle. These machines have come
largely into use, worked by hand or
power, on small or large scale. The
same principle has been applied to other
purposes, on the farm, or elsewhere, such
as the moving of grain, etc, and prom-
ises to become somewhat wide in its ap-
plications.
Vacnum-tllbe. ®^ Oeisdef^t Tubes.
Vade HeCUm iya'^e mfilnim; Lat.
me; I, e.t with me). A portable object
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Vail Valencia
for freqaent or occasional ase; a pocket bot rising in Moont Popovagora to 1080
companion; a book or manual for carry- feet They are well wooded, and contain
ing about on the person. It is popu« the sources of the Volga, Dnieper, and
larly given to any readily available work Ddna.
of reference, or a key to any science or VnlilAnATiflft (v&l-dA-p&n'y&s), a town
Srofession, as The EUcirician^a Vade ^^^^P^^i^^ in Spain, New Castile,
fecufii. The LQwyer'9 Vade Mecum^ etc province of Giudad Real, 110 miles south
Vfiil (v&l), Alfbxd, inventor, bom at of Madrid. It is celebrated for a red
^*" Morristown, New Jersey, in 1807; wine. Pop. 21,015.
in 1837 became associated with a F. B. Vfl.1 dfi Travers (^^^ ^^ tr&-v&r),
Morse in his electric telegraphy expert- ^«" **« AiavciB ^ ^^j, j^ ^j^^
ments. He made several important Swiss Jura, canton of Neufchfttel,
inventions in this connection and is drained by the Reuse flowing into the
credited with that of the alphabet of lake of NeufchateL It is cultivated in
dots, spaces and dashes which is the parts, and contains a deposit of asphalt,
distinguishing feature of the Morse sys- yielding annually upwards of 2000 tons,
tem. He was assistant superintendent See Aaphali,
of the first telegraph line in tnis country, VflldlVlfl. (val-de've-ft). a seaport of
invented the finger key, and received the ' «***"'^*«» Southern Chile, on the navi-
first message from Washington. He gable Calle-Calle. Pop. 9704 — Its port
died Jan. 18, 1859. Is Valdivia Port, or Corral, one of the
Vail,
Theodore Newton, electrician, best harbors on the Pacific coast of South
' was bom in Carroll Co., Ohio. America,
in 1845; a cousin of the preceding, and Vflldofltfl. (▼al-dos'ta) , a city, capital
nephew of Stephen Vail, who built the ' «****vo*»€» ^^ Lowndes Co., Georgia,
engines for the SavannaK the first steam- 157 miles 8.w. of Savannah. It is in a
ship to cross the Atlantic. He studied cotton-growing region, and has manufac-
medicine, but was soon engaged in the tories of yam, oil, turpentine, lumber,
railroad mail service and in 1878 entered and fertilizers. Pop. 7656.
the telephone business, organizing the first VqIatiaa (vft-lft^s), chief town of the
Bell Telephone Co. After 1896 he was ^^^^*^^^ department of Dr6me,
engaged m introducing street railways France, on the left bank of the Rhone,
and telephones in Argentina. He built 66 miles south of Lyons. It is a poorly-
up the national telephone organization, built town surrounded by old oattle-
and has secured control of the Western mented walls. It has a citadel, a small
Union Telegraph Co., and since 1907 has ancient cathedral, a public library, a
been president of the American Tele- court-house, and a theater. It is a
craph and Telephone Co., and the New bishop's see, and has manufactories of
York Telephone Ca silk and cotton, and some trade in wine,
Volaift (▼&-1&; Qerman, TTalUa), a liquors, spirits, silk, fruit, etc Pop.
VaiaiS ^southern cantoS of Switzer- 22.950.
land, abutting on France and Italy; VfllenciR (v&-len'shi-&), a city of
area, 2026 square miles. It is sur- "^^-"•v*€» Spain, capital of the prov-
rounded on all sides bv sections of the ince of the same name, on the Guada-
Alps, with ridges 13,000 to 15,000 feet laviar, 2 miles from the Mediterranean
high, and magnificent glaciers. The and 190 miles e.sjb. of Madrid. It has
Rhone traverses the whole length of the much of the Moorish character, with
canton, forming the largest valley in mostly narrow winding streets, lined
Switzerland. The mountain slopes are with good houses. It is an archbishop's
covered with forests of pine and hard- see, and has a cathedral (datine from
wood trees, succeeded by productive 1262 and greatly injured by modemiza-
orchards. Rich pastures support nu- tion), a ro:^al palace, an exchange, a
merous cattle, the chief source of sub- general hospital, an academy of the fine
sistence of the inhabitants; and in the arts, and other institutions. The uni-
lower yalley of the Rhone there is much versity, founded in 1500, is one of the
arable land, the finer fraits are grown, leading seats of leammg in the kingdom*
and silk-worms reared. The canton pro- Outside the walls are the bull-ring, a
duces a good deal of wine. In the Upper botanic garden, and the Alameda, a
Valais German, in the Lower French is delightful walk bordered with orange,
spoken. The canton was admitted into pomegranate, and palm trees. The chief
the Confederation in 1553. Sion is the manufactures are silk, linen, hemp, glass,
capital. Pop. 114,438. cigars, paper, and soap. Valencia was
Voliloi TTilU (vAl'dl), a range of founded bv^ Junius Brutus, 140 B.o.
Vaiaai lUUS ^^^^^ ^^ western Rus- Pop. 233,34d. The old province of
•la* averaging about 300 feet in height, Talencia is now broken up into die dircc
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Valencia
Valetta
I
provinces of ValeDcia« Alicante, and
Castellon de la Plana. It is one of the
most fertile and pleasant regions of
Spain.
Vol^TiitiQ ^ town of Venezuela, about
ibbean Sea. connected by railway with
Puerto Cabello. It has a number of
notable buildings, and an active com-
merce in coffee, sugar, rum, cattle, hides,
etc. Pop. 38,664.
ValenrieiiTieq (vA-lA^-syen) , a for-
VaienCienneS tified town of France,
in the department of Nord, on the
Scheldt, 30 miles 6.E. of Lille. It is a
somewhat gloomy town with narrow
streets, but the houses are in general
well built There is a handsome cathe-
dral of the thirteenth century and a
notable town-hall of the seventeenth cen-
tury. It has important manufactures of
lace, fine linen, hosiery, beet-ssgar, soap,
etc. Pop. (1906) 25.077.
Valens (^&'ienz)> Flavius, a Roman
emperor of the East, born in
Pannonifi in 328. and declared emperor
of the East by nis brother Valentmian
I, who had alreadv been elected emperor.
The chief event of his reign was the war
with the Goths under Athanaric, which
lasted during the whole of Valei^s' reign.
The Goths were several times defeated,
and sued for peace, which was granted
them (370). In 377 the Goths, driven
southwards by the Huns, asked and re-
ceived permission to settle on Roman
territory. Irritated by the treatment
they received at the hands of the im-
perial officials they soon took up arms,
and in 378 defeated Valens and destroyed
the greater part of his army. Valens
was never seen or heard of afterwards.
VfllpTiHo or Valencia (vft-len'shi-
viticuua, ^^^ ^ g^^jj j^j.^.,^ jgj^jj^
off the southwest coast of Ireland, be-
longing to County Kerry, about 5 miles
long by 2 miles broad. It has slate and
flag quarries and productive fisheries.
The British Atlantic telegraph cables to
Newfoundland start from Valentia, and
there is a lighthouse.
VflleTifiTiP ^'^- (varen-tin), a saint
vaientme, ^^ ^^^ Roman calendar,
said to have been martyred in 306 a.d.
The custom of choosing valentines on his
day (Feb. 14) has been accidentally
associated with his name. On the eve
of St. Valentine's day young people of
both sexes used to meet, and each of
them drew one by lot from a number of
names of the opposite sex, which were
put into a common receptacle. Each
gentleman thus got a lady for his valen-
tine, and became the valentine of a lady.
The gentlemen remained bound to the
service of their valentines for a year.
A similar custom prevailed in the Ho-
man Lupercalia, to which the modem
custom has, with probability, been traced.
The day is now celebrated by sending
anonymously through the poet sentT
mental or ludicrous missives specially
prepared for the purpose. But this
practice is also on the decline.
Valentinians il?^*''^;^''!?:!!"?;^;!
sect of iinostics
(which see).
Valenza ir^ii^^H^, * *®^^ ^f
Northern Italy, provmce of
Alessandria, pleasantly situated on the
right bank of the Po. It has a cathe-
dral of the sixteenth century. Pop. 7115.
VdlAriQTi (va-le'ri-an; ValerUlna offi-
vaicriau oinolis), a plant of the or-
der Valerianacese, native of Europe,
which grows abundantly by the sides of
rivers, and in ditches and moist woods.
The root has a
very strong
odor, which is
dependent' on a
volatile oil.
It is used in
medicine, in the
form of Infu-
sion, decoction,
or tincture, as a
nervous stimu-
lant and anti-
spasmodic (3ats
and rats are
very fond of va-
I e r i a n. Vale-
riana ruhrat or
red valerian, is
cultivated in gar-
dens, as well as
many other species,
elegant flowers. V.
Valerian CValtriEna
Qficinmis),
on account of its
»ylvaticaf wild va-
lerian, is found in swamps from Vermont
to Michigan; V. pauciflora in Ohio, Vir-
ginia and Tennessee; V, cUiata in low
grounds in Canada, Wisconsin and Ohio.
The true valerian of the shops is a prod-
uct of V, officindlis.
VAlerifi.nilS ( va-le-rl-a'nus), PuB-
vaienaiLUS ^^g Liciiaus, a Ro-
man emperor from 253 to 260. He was
taken prisoner by the Persians in 260,
and his after fate is unknown.
Valerius Flaccus <,7;'*'^1- ^^^l-
Roman epic poet who flourished in the
reign of Vespasian, about 70-80 a.d.
He
was author of the Arponautica, a poem
which extended to eight books, but was
left unfinished.
Vq1a++o (v&-let't&), a strongly forti-
V aieixa ^^ seaport, capital of Malta,
on the N, & coast of toe Island, situated
Digitized by
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Vallialla Vallisneria
on an elevated neck of land, with a large Valladolld. ^ ^^^^ ^^ Mexico, same
and commodious harbor on each side. » «***«***vax\ij ^^ Morelia (which see).
The town has wide streets payed with Va.llfi.Tldi^'hn.Tn ( va - Ian' de - gam ) ,
lava, spacious squares, and fine quays, ' o,s^€M,xkuj.^iLa,iu. Cuement L., poli-
lined with elegant buildings. From the tician, born at New Lisbon, Ohio, in
inequality of the site the communication 1820. He was a member of Congress
between the different streets is main- 1858-63, supported the Southern Con-
tained by flights of steps. The cathe- federacy in the House of Representa-
dral, built in 1580, contains the tombs tives, and made such violent harangues
of the knights of Malta or of St. John in favor of the insurgents that he was
(see John, KnighU of St.), and in a arrested in May, 1863, on a charge of
chapel are the kevs ol: Jerusalem, Acre, uttering disloyal sentiments. He was
and Rhodes. Other notable buildings tried by court-martial and sentenced to
are the governor's residence, formerly confinement until the end of the war, this
the palace of the grand-masters; the being commuted to banishment to the
library, museum, universitv, and the Confederate lines. Not being warmly
military hospital. The dockyard is received there, he went to Canada. In
capable of admitting the largest men- the same year the Democrats of Ohio
of-war. Some shipbuilding and various denounced his banishment and nomi-
other industries are carried on, and the nated him for governor, but he was M
trade includes grain, wine, fruits, cotton, beaten by the largest majority ever given /^
and other manufactures, coals, etc. The in that state. He died in 1871. [H
mail steamers for Alexandria, Constan- Vfllleio (val-&'hd or vftl-yftHiO), a city ^H
tinople, etc., call here, and it Is the chief ' «***vjw ^^^ seaport of California, ^
station of the British fleet in the Medi<» capital of Solano Co., on an arm of San ^
terranean. Pop. 61,268. See Malta. Pablo Bay, 23 miles N. E. of San Fran-
VaUiallfl. ^ val-hal'a ) , in Northern cisco, in a fruitful farming region. It
mythology, the palace of has a spacious harbor, flour-mills, ship-
immortality, inhabited by the souls of yards, iron-foundries, and machine-shops,
heroes slam in battle, who here spent Large quantities of grain are shipped,
much of their time in drinking and feast- There Is a United States navy yara on
fng. The name Is applied figuratively Mare Island, near this place. Pop. 11,340.
to any edifice which is the final resting- Vallevfifild ^ town of Quebec prov-
place of many of the heroes or great » «*"^jr«**^***; Ince^ Canada, on Beau-
men of a nation, and specifically to an hamois Canal, 6 miles 8. e. of Cotean
edifice built by Ludwig I of Bavaria, a Landing. Has cotton, fiour and other
few miles from Ratisbon. See Walhdlla, industries. Pop. 9447.
Valkvriaft (val-kir'i-as), Valktes, Vnllpir Vnnr^ a village in Chester
YlU&yrias jjj Northern mythology, ^*"™ •'^"^^J Co., Pennsylvania, on
the 'choosers of the slain,' or fatal sis- the Schuylkill River, and 24 miles w.
ters of Odin, represented as awful and N. w. of Philadelphia. It is celebrated as
beautiful maidens, who, mounted on the place where Washington with about
swift horses and holding drawn swords 11,000 troops went into winter quarters
in their hands, presided over the field in December, 1777. It was here also
of battle, selecting those destined to that Baron Steuben became inspector-
death and conducting them to Valhalla, general of the army, and the treaty of
where they ministered at their feasts, alliance with France was announced,
serving them with mead and ale In skulls. May 6, 1778. During the winter the
V&.ll&.dolid (vAl-y&-do-lid'), a city of American army suffered very greatly
Spain, capital of the from cold and hunger, and about half
province of the same name, 98 miles of the men were rendered unfit for active
northwest of Madrid. It has a cathe- duty. The state has converted the
dral, many churches and suppressed locality into a public park, as a historic
convents, three hospitals, and a uni- landmark, and a monument has been
versity. The church of Santa Maria la erected by the Daughters of the Revolu-
Antigua dates back to 1088. Columbus tion to the memory of the soldiers who
died in this city and Cervantes dwelt died in camp during that winter of suffer-
here 1603-06. It was formerly the ing.
capital of Castile. The manufactures Vallisiierift (^*''^*"°*'''^"*?» * genus
consist of silks, cotton and woolen goods, c*xxj.o4a%^xxc» ^£ aquatic plants, of the
hats, jewelry, paper, etc. Pop. 6i8,789. nat order Hydrocharidaceie. They grow
— The province has an area of 3042 at the bottom of the water, and the
square miles, and a population of 278,- male and female flowers are separate.
661. It is well watered by the Douro When the time of fecundation arrives
and its tributaries, and is very fertil«»- the male flowers become detached, and
Digitized by
Google
VaUombrosa
VamWry
float on the water; the female flowers
develop long spiral peduncles, by means
of which they reach the surface, where
they are fertilized by the male flowers,
y. ^pir&lis ffrows in still waters in Italy,
and in the Khone; it is commonly grown
in aquariums.
VaUombrosa < ^^-^oTDrbT^'sk ) , f or-
vcMAVAUft/xvoa merly an abbey in a
wooded valley of the Apennines, belong-
ing to the diocese of Fiesole, in the
Florentine territory, where Giovanni
Gualberto founded a house for monks in
1038, subject to the rule of St. Benedict
The building (dating from 1637) now
accommodates an institute of forestry.
Valmv (^&l-m^)> & village of Fraiice.
«*****Jr department Marne, celebrated
for the afitair known as * the cannonade
of Vahny/ where the French republican
troops under Kellermann defeated the
Prussians in 1792.
Va1oi« (V&1-W&), House of, a dynast;
Y aiuxs ^jjj^jj ^j^ France from 1328
to 1589. In 1285 Philip III gave the
county of Valois (now in the departments
Oise and Aisne) to his younger son,
Charles, and upon the extinction of the
Capet dynasty, in 1328, the eldest son
of this Charles of Valois ascended the
French throne as Philip VI, and founded
the Valois dynasty, which was followed
by the house of Bourbon. See France
(HUtory).
Valparaiso ^7^\^^'^^}*r.^h^ ^^'
w cM^a.A«.x0v ^jjpjj p^j^ ^f Chile, capi-
tal of the province of Valparaiso, situ-
ated on a large bay of the Paclflc, 90
miles w. N. w. i
of Santiago.
The bay is open
to the n o r t h,
but well shel-
tered from
winds in other
directions, and
is capable of
accommodating
a very large
number of ves-
sels. The cus-
tom-house is
the only public
building worth v
of note. Val-
paraiso is the
great commer-
cial emporium of Chile, and is in rail-
way communication with Santiago, the
capital. The chief imports into Val-
paraiso are manufactured goods, sugar,
wln^ tobacco, and cigars. The exports
consist mainly of wheat, barley, wool,
etc., and of mining produce. The im-
ports of Valparaiso constitute nearly
the whole of the imports of C^ile, while
the exports form a large portion of the
total exports. Pop. 180,600.— On August
16, 1906, the city was destroved by an
earthquake, but has been rebuilt
Valparaiso, ^cof'inl^:^! '^^^Z
8. E. of Chicago. It contains several edu-
cational institutions and has manufac-
tures of school specialties, mica, paints,
and varnishes. Pop. 6987.
ValDV (^Al'POf Richard, an English
¥ tM-jfj scholar, bom in 1754. He was
graduated at Pembroke College, Ox-
ford, in 1776. He entered the church,
and for several vears held a living at
Bury St Edmunds. From 1781 to 1830
he was head-master of Reading Gram-
mar School, and compiled a LAtln and a
Greek grammar and several classical text-
books, which enjoyed a wide reputation.
He died in 1836.
Valve (^Al^)t & ^i°^ of movable lid or
voiXYv^ cover adapted to the orifice of
some tube or passage, and so formed cz to
open communication in one direction and
to close it in the other, used to regulate
the admission or escape of a fluid, such
as water, p^as, or steam. Some valves
are self-acting, that is, they are so con-
trived as to open in the required direc-
tion by the pressure of the fluid upon
their surface, and immediately to snut
and prevent the return of the fluid when
the direction of its pressure changes.
Others are actuated by independent ex-
ternal agency. Examples of the former
kind are presented in the valves of
pumps, and In
the safety-valves
of steam boilers,
and of the latter
in the slide-
valves appended
to the cylinder
of a steam-en-
gine for the
purpose of reg
ulating the ad-
mission and
escape of the
steam. The con-
struction of
valves admits
of an almost
endless variety
of devices. See
Safety-valve, Pump, etc
Vamhirv (jAm'ba-re), Herman, a
vamoeiy Hungarian traveler and
scholar, bom in 1832. He studied at
Pressburg, Vienna, and Budapest, and
then went to Constantinople, where he
lived by teaching French. In 1858 he
published a Turkish-German dictionary.
Digitized by
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Vampire
Vanbrugh
In 1861-64, disguised as a dervish, he
undertook an extensive journey of ex-
ploration through Persia into Turkestan,
and visited Khiva, Bokhara, and Samar-
cand. In 1865 he became professor of
Oriental languages at the University of
Budapest, and he wrote many valuable
linguistic works as well as works on his
travels, including Travels in Central
Asia (1865) ; Wanderings and Adven-
tures in Persia (1867) ; Sketches of Cen-
tral Asia (1868) ; History of Bokhara
(1873) ; Central Asia and Anglo-Russian
Frontier (1874) ; Islam in the Nine-
teenth Century (1875) ; The Origin of
the Magyars (1882) ; The Coming Strug-
gle for India (1885) ; Story of Hungary
(1887) ; etc The Story of his Life and
Adventures appeared in 1888. He has
also been a frequent contributor to
periodical literature in England, Ger-
many, and Hungary.
Vattitiv/A (vani'plr), a superstition of
vampue Eastern origin existing
anicag tie ftlavonic and other races on
the Lower Danube. A vampire is a
jhost still possessing a human body,
which leaves the grave during the night
and sucks the blood of living persons,
particularly of the :^oung and healthy.
Dead wizards, heretics, and such like
outcasts become vampires, as does also
any one killed by a vampire. On the
discovery of a vampire's grave the corpse
must be disinterred, thrust through with
a white-thorn stake, and burned.
VQniT>irp.liflf & name for certain
Vampire-OaX, ^^^ inhabiting South
America. The name was giv«i from
the blood-sucking habits attributed to
these bats, but how many of them really
attack animals and suck blood from
them is not quite clear. One species
at least, known as the vampire-bat
{Vampyrus spectrum)^ of large size and
having formidable teeth, seems to be con-
clusively acquitted of the charge, its
regular food being fruits and insects.
It has large leathery ears, an erect spear-
like appendage on the tip of the nose,
wings when extended measuring 28
inches. Several bats, however, have
been proved to be blood-suckers, the best-
known being Desmodus rufus, a species
only about 4 inches long ana 15 or 16
in expanse of wing. It has large promi-
nent upper incisors of peculiar shape,
and upper canines somewhat similar, ana
the stomach and intestines are evidently
specially adapted for a diet of blood.
This species of bat seems to he generally
distributed throughout the warmer parts
of South America from Chile to Guiana.
The blood-sucking propensities of these
bats are by no means so dangerous as
l6 10
formerly and popularly described? but
there is little doubt that they do attack
horses and cattle, and sometimes even
man in his sleep.
Van C^^'^)* cnief town of a vilayet of
the same name in Armenia, Asi-
atic Turkey. It is pleasantly situated
near Lake Van, and is overlooked by an
old citadel. Cotton cloth is manufac-
tured and exported. Pop. about 30,000.
— Lake Van is a salt-water lake, 5467
feet above sea-level; area, about 1600
square miles. It contains many islands,
and has no visible outlet.
Vanadium ^^^^^^^^^ fsao?*^!
though what was at first considered the
metal was really an oxide; chemical
symbol V; atomic weight 51.2. Vana-
dium has a stronsr metallic luster, con-
siderably resembling silver, but still
more like molybdenum. When in mass
it is not oxidised either by air or water,
but the finely-powdered metal quickly
takes up oxygen from the air.
VanBeneden|.-S.,''e-|d-)i
Belgian naturalist, bom at Mechlin in
1809; died in 1894. He became pro-
fessor of geology at Ghent in 1835, and
at Louvain in 1836, remaining there till
his death. In 1843 he established the
first laboratory and aquarium for the
study of marine life, and he won a wide
reputation by his study of parasites.
Vanhmo^li Cyan-brO'), Sib John, an
Vanoru^n English architect and
dramatist, bom about 1666, and was
educated partly in England and partly In
France. He entered the army, became
well known in London as a man of fash-
ion, and then tumed his attention to
play-writing. His first play. The Re-
lapse, was brought out at Drury Lane
about 1697, and was followed by The
Provoked Wife, and JEsop, The first
two of these had all the wit and most
of the freedom of treatment which char-
acterized that period, but ^sop was
moral and dull, and therefore unsuccess-
ful. How he obtained his knowledge of
architecture is not known, but at this
time (1702) Vanbrugh designed Castle
Howard, the seat of the Earl of Car-
lisle. Afterwards he entered with Con-
greve into a speculation to build a great
theater at the west end of London, in
which he was his own architect; but it
did not prove a success. In 1706 he was
commissioned by Queen Anne to present
the garter to the Elector of Hanover,
and the same year he was occupied with
the erection of Blenheim Palace. This
work got him into considerable pecuniary
trouble, as parliament, which voted itf
(
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Van Buren
Vanoouver Island
voted nothing for its payment He built
many other mansions for the nobility;
in i714 he was knighted by George I,
in the following year appointed controller
of the royal works, and in 1716 surveyor
of Qreenwich Hospital. He died March
26. 1726. Vanbrugh's plays are admir-
able in dramatic conception as well as in
wit, and his architectural works received
the approval of Sir Joshua Reynolds.
Van Bnren ^yViu^^'^^^)' }^^F^'
vc»u A#ux«^u gigjjth president of the
United States, was bom at Kinderhook,
New York, Dec. 6. 1782. He early
studied law, and in J 812 was elected to
the state senate. He was attorney-
general from 1815 to 1819, and in 1821
was elected United States senator. In
1828 he became governor of New York,
and in the following year President
Jackson appointed him secretary of
state. In November, 1832, he was
elected vice-president by the Democratic
5 arty in association with President
ackson, and in 1836 was elected presi-
dent of the United States. The diffi-
culties whicti his administration had t»
face were chiefly connected with the de-
Eosit of state funds in private banks, and
is term of office was made notable by
a business depression of great intensity.
He was again nominated for President in
the elections of 1840 and 1848, but was
unsuccessful on both occasions. He
wrote a treatise entitled An Inquiry into
the Origin and Course of Political
Parties tn the United States, He died
in July, 1862.
Vancouver (^an-kO'ver), GpRGE,
V c»Ai.vvu.v«^A ^jj English navigator,
bom about 1758; died in 1798. He en-
tered the navy
as midshipman
in 1771; ac-
companied Cap-
tain Cook on
his second and
third voyages
of exploration
( 1772-74 and
1776-79) ; was
made first lieu-
tenant in 1780;
and served in
the West In-
dies until 1789.
In 1790 he was
put in c o m-
mand of a small
squadron sent
to take over
N o o t k a from
the Spaniards,
and was also
chaiged to as-
certain if there was a northwest passage.
He sailed in the Discovery in 1791, spent
some time at the Cape of Good Hope,
and afterwards at Australia and New
Zealand, the coasts of which he surveyed.
He then went north and received forma]
surrender of Nootka, and spent the thre«
summers of 1792-94 in surveying the
coast as far north as Cook'« Inlet. On
his return voyage he visited the chief
Spanish settlements on the west coast of
South America, and reached England in
1795, where a narrative of liis voyage
was published in 1798.
Vancouver, ?.*^^^ and port of Brit-
' ish Columbia, on the
Strait of Georgia, and forming the
western terminus of the Canadian Pa-
cific Hallway. Though established as
late as 1885, it has had a rapid growth
and developed a flourishing trade and
numerous manufactures. Pop. (1914)
207.383.
Vanoonvpr * ^^^» county seat of
Y aiLCOUVer^ ^^^^y^^ q^ Washington.
on the Columbia River, 6 miles N. of
Portland, Oregon ; served by five rail-
roads, the largest seagoing vessels reach
the wharf, fruit, lumber, flour, walnuts,
potatoes, prunes, and dairy products
being the principal sliipments. There are
saw-mills, fruit-packing industries, etc.,
mining and manufactures. Poj;>. 12,000.
Vancouver Island, f^-, ^^ml JS
the west coast of British Columbia, of
which province of Canada it forms part;
length, from 250 to 300 miles; breadth,
from 10 to 70 miles; area, about 12,000
square miles. It is generally moun-
tainous, . and heavily timbered. The cli-
mate is tem-
perate, and the
soil, in the
south and east,
fertile and fa-
vorable to agri-
culture and
fruit growing.
The interior is
p o c k y, inter-
spersed with
small grass
tracts suitable
for pasturage,
and with lakes
and small
streams. Coal is
worked (•
Nanaimo), an€
ffold, copper and
iron ore, and
other minerals
are found.
Horses, cattle.
Vancouver
Island*
Digitized by
Google
Vandals
Van Dyke
sheep and pigs thrive well, and the seas
and lakes aboand with fish. Large quan-
tities of salmon are exported, and there is
an extensive trade in fur, the skins ex-
ported being chiefly those of the mink,
marten, sable, fox, bear, beaver, otter,
seal, and deer. There are numerous good
harbors along the coasts, the chief of
which is Esquimault (which see). As
this island lies opposite the terminus of
the Canadian Pacific Railway it has re-
cently acquired great importance. The
chief town of the island, and the capital
of British Columbia, is Victoria, in the
extreme southeast. Pop. of the island
about 50,000.
Vandals (v&Q'^^als)* & German nation
or confederation, probably
allied to the Ooths, who occupied at an
early period the country on the south of
the Baltic, between the Oder and the
Vistula. At a later period they appear
to have descended into Silesia, and sub-
sequent! jr occupied Pannonia, Moravia,
and Dacia. In 406, in conjunction with
a German host, they ravaged GauJL and
thence found their way into Spain.
After defeating an allied annv of Goths
and Romans, they seized Seville and
Carthagena, and, led by Genseric,
crossed to Africa. Here they vanquished
the Roman governor (429), and founded
a kingdom, which abisorbed the greater
part of tne Roman possessions. Gen-
seric immediately began to revive the
maritime glories of Carthage, and ex-
tended his conquests to Sicily, Sardinia,
and Corsica. He also invaded Italy
and sacked Rome In 4^. Genseric con-
cluded a long reign m peace in 477.
The kingdom of the Vandals was con-
tinued under his descendants — Hunneric,
his son, who immediately succeeded
him; Gundamund, 484; Thrasimund,
496; Hilderic, 523: Gelimer, 530. It
was overthrown in 534 by Belisarius, the
general of the eastern Emperor Jus-
tinian.
VanderbUt &-;' ^^ilai^', ^^,
Stateo Island in 1794; died in 1877. A
poor boy, he engaged in steamboat en-
terprises, which greatly expanded, and
in later life in railroad management, and
acquired great wealth. His son, Wil-
liam Henry (1821-85) added enormously
to this wealtn. The Vanderbilt Univer-
sity (Methodist Eniscopal) at Nashville,
Tennessee, was rounded by Cornelius,
who presented it with $1,000,000; to
which William H. added $310,000.
Van Diemen's land feaLT^l:
VanDyck ^^-pf^eVhlp^ ^"JS^S^^
greatest of all portrait-painters, was
bom at Antwerp on March 22, 1599,
where his father was a merchant He
studied painting first under Van Balen,
and then under Rubens, quitting the
studio of the latter after a few years to
proceed to Italy, where he spent about
five years (1623-28) chiefly at Genoa,
Venice, and Rome, and then returned
to Antwerp. Having acquired a great
reputation as a portrait painter he was
invited to England by (Jharles I, who
bestowed upon him the honor of knight-
hood, a considerable annuity, and a sum-
mer and winter residence. The painter
(
bir Anthony Yandyck.
rewarded this generosity by unceasing
diligence, and executed, besides a multi*
tude of portraits, several mythological
and historical paintings. He was fond
of splendor, and lived in a very expensive
style. Shortly after his marriage to
Mary Ruthven, a granddaughter of the
Earl of Gowrie, he died (December 9,
1641), and was buried in St. Paul's.
Vandyck's great strength lay in portrait
painting, and he excelled in the knowl-
edge of chiaroscuro, but he sometimes
amused himself with engraving and etch*
ing.
Van Dvke ^^^^ dik), hewry, au-
A'j**.^ ^jjQ,.^ ^j^g JJQJ.JJ jj^ German-
town, Pennsylvania, in 1852. He was
educated at Princeton and Berlin, became
a pastor at Newport in 1878, at New
York in 1882, preacher to Harvard Uni-
versity in 1890-92 and 1808-99, and lec-
turer at Yale in 1896. As an author he
has been prolific, some of his works being
The Poetry of Tennyson (1889), The
First Christmas Tree (1897), The ToUing
of Felix and other Poems (1900), The
Open Door (1903), The Spirit of Christ-
mas (1905), Out of DoQr§ in th9 Bol$,
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VandyEe Brown
Vapor
Land (1908). In 1913 he was appointed
ambassador to the Netherlands.
Vandyke Brown, t.^^jTi^^''^
kind of peat or bog-earth, of a fine, deep,
semitransparent brown color; so called
from its being supposed to be the brown
used by Vandyck m his pictures.
Vane (^A°)* ^^ Henbt, an English
¥ cuA.^ statesman and writer, born in
1612, eldest son of Sir Henry Vane,
secretary of state. He was educated at
Westminster and Oxford, afterwards
completing bis education at Geneva,
where he became a puritan and a re-
publican. Returning to England, he
found that his religious and political
opinions exposed him to much ill-will
and annoyance^ and he consequently
emigrated to New E2ngland, arriving at
Boston in 1635. He was elected gov-
ernor of Massachusetts in 1636. In 1637
he returned to England, after which he
was knighted, entered parliament, and
became treasurer of the navy. He took
part in the impeachment of Strafford,
and was a zealous supporter of parlia-
ment in the civil war and one of the
leaders in the Long Parliament. He was
also a supporter of the Solemn League
and Covenant. He was averse to the
execution of the king, and came into
Conflict with Cromwell in consequence of
the forcible dissolution of the Long
Parliament (1653). In 1656 he was im-
prisoned in Carisbrooke Castle for four
months, by order of Cromwell, on ac-
count of a pamphlet he had written. On
his release he continued to resolutely op-
pose the government of Cromwell and
of his son Richard. In 1659 he was a
member of the committee of safety and
president of the Council of State. After
the Restoration he was sent to the
Tower (Feb., 1660), and subsequently
moved from prison to prison. A rising
of the Fifth Rionarchy party (Jan., 1661)
led to increased severity towards him,
and he was tried for high treason before
the Court of King's Bench, June 2, 1662,
condemned, and beheaded on Tower Hill
on June 14th. He wrote various theo-
logical works characterized by excessive
mysticism, and his relieious views gave
rise to a small circle of disciples known
as Vanists.
Vanella. ^^ Lapwing.
VanEyck. see ^yc*.
Vanilla (va-nil'a), a flavoring airent
» auxxxo. ^g^ jjj confectionery, and in
the preparation of ligueurs. procured
from the fruit of Vanilla aromatica and
V. planifoHOf orchidaceous plants pf
tropical Amer-
ica, remarkable
on account of
their climbing
habits, and
now cultivated
in various
tropical coun-
tries, including
Ceylon and
India. It has a
fragrant odor,
and is also used
in medicine as
a stimulant and
promoter of di-
gestion.
Vannes<'»2i[:
port of France,
capital of the VsnllU (VanOaaro-
department of matica.)
Morbihan, 64 miles n. w. of Nantes. It
has ancient walls and gates. There is a
cathedral, and a museum ri«h in Celtic
antiquities. Pop. (1906) 16,72a
Van Eensselaer ^-»'-'"iufe^
man, was bom in New York in 1764;
died in 1839. He became known as * the
Patroon,* being a descendant of the older
patroons, or great land holders. He was
lieutenant-governor of the State for six
years, and commanded the New York
militia in 1812. He codperated with
Clinton in building the Erie Canal, and
founded in 1824 Rensselaer Institute
(now the Polytechnic School) at Troy;
was distinguished for his zeal in the cause
of science.
ViiTi lU^Ti' a city, capital of Van
van wen, ^gy^ ^ 5jjJ^j 27 miles
w. N. w. of Lima. It has railroad shops,
lumber and flour mills, and oil-well sup-
ply works, etc. Pop. 7157.
Vauor (vft'pur), in physics, a term
**" applied to designate the gas-
eous form which a solid or liquid
substance assumes when heated. Vapor
is, therefore, essentially a gas, and see-
ing that all known gases have now been
proved to be liqueflable, no physical dif-
ference can be said really to exist be-
tween an ordinary gas, such as oxygen,
and a vapor, such as steam. In common
language, however, a difference is usuallv
recognized; a gaa is a substance which
at ordinary temperatures and pressures
exists in a state of vapor; while a vapor
is produced by the application of heat
to a substance which normally exists in
a solid or liquid form. The difference
has been otherwise explained to be one
not so much of kind as of degree; steam
in tbe boiler of a steam-engine being sr.'d
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Var
Vamisli
to b€ in a state of vapor, while super-
heated steam is said to be a gas. Aque-
ous vapor formed on the surface of the
land and water is always present in
suspension in the atmosphere, and when
it meets with a reduction of temperature
it condenses into water in the form of
rain or dew.
Var (^^^)* A department in the south-
east of France, bordering upon the
Mediterranean, and covered in the in-
terior with ramifications of the Alps;
area, 2349 square miles, of which only
a small portion is arable. There are
magnificent forests of pine and oak, and
the, vine, olive, mulberrv and tobacco
are' extensively cultivated. Minerals in-
clude salt, lead, coal, marble, gypsum
and building stone. The manufactures
consist of woolens, perfume, liqueurs,
olive-oil, soap, leather and silk. The
coast is bold and deeply indented; and
the fishing, both of tunny and anchovies,
is actively carried on. The capital is
Draguignan. Pop. 326,384.
Varangians ^'"^iJ^f X)^,- Ip
plied to the Norse vikings, who, at the
close of the ninth century, founded
various principalities in Russia. Some
of them afterwards entered the service
of the Byzantine emperors, and became
the imperial guards at Constantinople.
Here they were recruited by Anglo-
Saxons and Danes, who fled from Eng-
land to escape the Norman yoke.
VaranidSB. ^ee Monitor.
VnraariiTi (v&-r&s-den'), a town of
V urusuxu Austria, capital of a county
of the same name in Croatia. It has
an old castle, several Roman Catholic
churches, a high school, and manufac-
tories of tobacco, liqueurs, vinegar, and
silk wares. Pop. 12,930.
Variable Quantities, 'Satfcs* eSct
quantities as are regarded as being sub-
ject to continual increase or diminution,
in opposition to those which are constant,
remamin^ always the same; or quan-
tities which in the same equation admit
of an infinite number of sets of values.
Thus, the abscissas and ordinates of a
curve are variable quantities, because
they vary or change their magnitudes
together, and in passing from one point
to another their values increase or
diminish according to the law of the
curve. See Calculus (in mathematical
sense) .
Variable Stars, |^"| ^('^i^^!^.
crease and diminution of their luster.
This is supposed to be due to dark com-
panions, which cut ott part of their
light at intervals by rotating around
them.
Varicose Veins Ml^^Ski I^?!,
which became dilated and uneven, and
form hard knotty swellings in the situ-
ation of their valves. The disease is a
common affection of the lower limbs,
where sometimes the varix bursts and
hemorrhage takes place. It also occurs
in the veins of the scrotum and lower
rectum, producing in the latter case
bleeding piles. Varicose veins are
caused by local obstruction of the cir-
culation of the blood, and are common
in pregnancy, while stout people, and
those who stand most of the day at
work, are apt to suffer from them. The
treatment consists in the application of
proper bandages, and rest to the limb
supported in an elevated position.
VarietV (va-ri'e-tij, in scientific
J^ classifications, a subdivision
of a species of animals or plants; an
individual or group of individuals differ-
ing from the rest of the species to which
it belongs in some accidental circum-
stances which are not essential to the
species. Varieties are considered as less
permanent than species, and those natu-
ralists who look upon species as strictly
distinct in their origin, consider varieties
as modifications of them arising from
particular causes, as climate, nourish-
mentj cultivation, and the like. See
Spectes.
Mama (vftr^nft), a fortified town of
vuriiu, ]^uigaria (of which it is the
chief port), on the Black Sea. It has
a good harbor, and a large trade with
Constantinople In ^rain. It is the see
of a Greek archbishop. A memorable
battle between the Turks and Hunga-
rians was fought here in 1444. It was
taken by the Russians in 1828, but re-
stored to Turkey a year later bv the
Peace of Adrianople. The Crimean
expedition sailed from Varna in 1854.
Pop. (1906) 37,155.
Varnhagen von Ense ^fon^'en'^K
Karl August, a German biographer,
born at DUsseldorf in 1785; died at
Berlin in 1858. He had a considerable
military experience hi his younger days,
and was latterly engaged in the Prus-
sian diplomatic service. Among his chief
works are Biographische DenkmalCf
Denkwurdigkeiten und VermUchie Schrif-
<en, Tagebucher, and Lives of Von
Seydlitz, Sophia Charlotte, Marshal
Keith, etc.
Varnish (v&r'nlsh), a solution of res-
inous matter, forming a
i
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Varnish Tree
Vascular Tissue
clear, limpid fluid, capable of hardening
without losing its transparency, and
used by painters, gilders, cabinet makers,
etc, for coating over the surface of their
work, in order to give it a shining,
transparent, and hard surface, capable
of resisting in a greater or less degree
the influences of air and moisture. The
resinous substances most commonly em-
ployed for varnishes are mastic, sandarac,
lac, copal, amber, and asphalt; and the
solvents are fixed oil, volatile oil, and
alcohol. Varnishes are colored with
arnotto, gamboge, saftron, dragon's-
blood, etc. Fixed-oil varnishes are the
most durable, and are the best adapted
for exposure to the weather. Volatile-
oil varnishes consist of a solution of
resin in oil of turpentine. They are
chiefly used for paintings.
Varnish Tree, ^^^: °^"f ^^''®°u:*?
¥ MAUAOM AAwwy various trees which
furnish a resinous juice used for varnish-
ing or for lacquermg. They are chiefly
natives of the hotter parts of the East-
em Hemisphere.
Varro (^a^'^)* Marcus Terentius,
one of the most learned men
and prolific writers of ancient Rome,
born B.C, 116, served in the army, and
subsequently filled several public oflSces.
Varro was the intimate friend of Cicero,
and was proscribed by Antony, but he
escaped and returned to Rome under
Augustus, and died there in B.c. 27.
Of his numerous writings, chiefly on.
language, history, and philosophy, only
one has come down to us entire — a
treatise upon agriculture (De Re RuS'
Uca), Fragments of a treatise on the
Latin language (De Lingua Laiina) are
also extant.
VorriTin (va'r5-na>, in Hindu my-
Y aruna thology, the god of water, the
cause of rain, lord of rivers and the sea.
Vanma, the Indian God of Waters.
nally the sky or heavens. He is repre-
sented as a white man, four-armed, rid-
ing on a sea animal.
Varus (va'rus), PuBLius Quintilius,
a Roman general. In 7 B.C.,
having received from Augustus the com-
mand to introduce the Roman jurisdic-
tion into the German territory conquered
by Drusus, he was carrying out his mis-
sion when he was suddenly attacked by
an immense host under Arminius, and his
whole army destroyed. Varus put an end
to his own life. See Arminius,
Vasa (▼*'84)j GusTAvus. See €hw-
Vasari (vA-sA're), Giorgio, an Italian
painter and architect, but most
distinguished as the biographer of
artists, was born at Arezzo, in Tuscany,
in 1512j and studied under Luca Signor-
elli, Michael Angelo, and Andrea del
Sarto. As an architect he showed great
ability: as a painter he was less success-
fuL His Vite de* pOk ecceUenti Pittorit
ScuUori ed ArchitetU (* Lives of the Most
Excellent Painters, Sculptors and Archi-
tects') is of great interest, but contains
many errors. Vasari died in 1574.
Vasculares (vas-w^-JfL'^^* ^' ^^'
vcftovuAax^^o CUT^AB I'LANTS. a great
division of plants, consisting ot those in
which vascular tissue appears, and includ-
ing all phanerogamous plants, both ezog^
enous and endogenous. See Vellulares,
Vascnlar Surgery, ^l K Va!
sels, practically created by Alexis Carrel.
Vascular surgery was only in its initial
sta^e when Dr. Carrel began his investi-
gations, so that an entire system had to
be worked out The first point was to
show that the wall of a vessel could be
sutured without giving rise to coagulation
in the interior. This had already been
done in the case of a puncture in the wall
of a vein, but it was now demonstrated
that an incision in the wall of an artery
could be sutured while the continnity of
the * lumen ' or point of opening was pre-
served. The methods which had proved
successful in the surgery of other organs,
however, were too gross for the surgery
of the blood-vessels and only infinite care
led to the desired results. It is now the
standard treatment of an incised wonnd
to suture the wound and not to tie the
vessel in its continuity.
Vascular Tissue pi^ts^JSriVts !5
elongated ducts or cells, whicn may have
closed extremities, so that fluids pass
from one cell to another through the
partition walls, or these partitions may
the Hindu Neptune or Poseidon indeed . -
His name corresponds with Greek be partly obliterated, thus forming a con
Ourftnos (Ur&nus), and meant origi- tinuous tube. See Botany.
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Vase
Vassar College
Vase (^^t T&z), a name applied to cer-
tain vessels of an ornamental
character. Vases were made in ancient
times of all materials, but those which
have come down to us in greatest num-
bers are the so-called Etruscan vases,
made of terra cotta, and adorned with
painted figures. (See Etruscan Vases,)
Such vases have been found in most
Greek cities as well as in Etruria, and
all are really the productions of Greek
art The Greek vases of the oldest
Grecian YsBes.
style mostly come from Corinth and the
islands of Thera and Melos; and those
of the late rich style have been almost
exclusively discovered in Lower Italy
(Apulia and Lucania), and were prob-
ably manufactured there, chiefly in the
fourth and third centuries B.c. Vases
were used for all purposes, but one
peculiar and very common application
of them was to adorn sepulchers.
Chased metal vases were in use in an-
cient times both among the Greeks and
Chineie, Japaneie, and Indian Yaaea.
Romans, and many of the more valuable
and beautiful kinds of stone were also
used for making vases. Murrine vases
(which see) were highly esteemed at
Rome. Another favorite kind of vases
at Rome was that called cameo vases,
made of two layers of glass, the outer
of which was opaque, and was cut down
so as to leave figures standing out upon
the lower layer as a ground. The cele-
brated Portland vase is an example of
this kind. At a later period glass vases
surrounded with delicate filigree work
were introduced. Italy, France, and Ger-
many in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries produced many vases which are
the perfection of artistic form and ex-
ecution, and since the fifteenth century
many masterpieces of the glass art in
the form of vases have issued from the
Venetian manufactories. From India,
China and Japan have also been ob-
tained vases of varying materials, espe-
cially of porcelain, vying in elegance of
form and beauty of ornamentation with
those produced in Europe.
Vasectomy (^^ ■ ??^ ' ^V ^\l " ^!
voov^vi/vAuj operation of cutting out
a small section of the vas deferens of the
male. It is done in some penal institu-
tions and homes for mental defectives to
prevent procreation of similar public
charges. It is legally enforced on these
classes of persons in eight states. The
result of the operation is to prevent
propagation of unfit persons and improve
the mental and physical condition of
those operated upon. This operation has
already been carried out for over six
years in one of the States of the Union,
which has the most intelligent criminal
and charitable code, with actual results
that far exceeded expectations. The ef-
fect upon the male criminal was to ren-
der him much more amenable to disci-
pline, to improve his general nutrition and
nis mental balance, and to give him a
sense of protection against himself and
of a new grip upon his life problem. For
instance, while the average rate of re-
lapse and return of thousands of convicts
sent out from this institution has been
about 25 per cent, out of 106 men set
at liberty on parole after being submitted
to vasectomy, only 5 have relapsed and
been brought back. It originated with
Dr. H. C. Shaip, of Indianapolis, and is
called the * Indiana plan.' The vas def-
erens can at any time be reunited and
thus restored to its i>re-operation condi-
tion, with the function of procreation
restored. The corresponding operation
on the female is called salpingotomy
(which see).
Vaseline (vas'e-lgn), a name given to
a product obtained from pe-
troleum after the lighter hydrocarbons
are driven off, and composed of a mixture
of parafi^ns. It is used as a base for
ointments, pomades, cold-cream, etc., and
for coating surgical instruments and
steel surfaces generally to protect them
from rust.
Vassal* ^®^ Feudal System,
Vassar CoUege, ^,„,'L°S^f n/^
York, founded by Matthew Vassar in
{
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Vateria
Vaud
1861 for the higher education of women.
It confers the decrees of B.A. and M.A.,
and the course of studies resembles those
of other first-class colleges. Its annual
class of students numbers over 1000 and
it has endowed funds of nearly $1,400,000.
Vateria. ( ^^ ~ ^^'^ * & ) » a senna of
^* •• plants, nat order Dipterocar-
paceie. Two species, F. indioa and F.
lanceafolia, belong to India, forming
large trees, valuable both for their tim-
ber, and also for the products which they
yield. V, indica, whose timber is much
employed in shipbuilding, produces the
resin called in India copal and in Eng-
land gum anime. It also yields a fatty
substance called piney^iallow.
Vathi ^^ Vathy. See Ithaca.
Vatican (.^a^'-kan), the most exten*
sive palace of modem Rome,
the residence of the pope, built upon
the Vatican Hill, from which it has re-
ceived its name, on the opposite side
of the river from the bulk of the city,
immediately to the north of the cathe-
dral of St. Peter's. It is a long rec-
tangular edifice lying north and south,
with an irregular cluster of buildings at
either end. The present building was
begun by Pope Eugenius III (1145-53),
and has been enlarged and embellished
by many subsequent popes down to the
last one (Pius X). It now possesses
twenty courts, and, it is said, 11,000
rooms of one sort or another. Immense
treasures are stored up in it. Here are
celebrated collections of pictures of many
of the great masters, and museums in
which all periods of the arts are repre-
sented by many of their most perfect
productions. Among its noblest art
treasures are the frescoes on the ceiling
of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michael
Angelo, and consisting of scenes and
figures connected with sacred history;
and the frescoes painted by Raphael on
the ceilings and walls of certain apart-
ments known as Raphael's stanze, the
subjects being biblical, allegorical, etc.
Since the return of the popes from Avig-
non, the Vatican has been their principal
residence, and here the conclaves alwavs
meet for the election of new popes. The
Vatican Library was first constituted by
Pope Nicholas V (1447-55), and was
added to and enlarged by Leo X, Pius
IV, Pius V, and other popes. The most
important part of the library is the man-
uscript collection, which is said to con-
tain about 25,600 MSS. The number of
printed volumes has been estimated at
from 150,000 to 220.000, including 2500
fifteenth-century editions, and a great
number of bibliographical rarities.
Vatican Codex, see code^.
Vatican Council, ^t.ncf "r\t
dHiurch of Rome which met in the Vati-
can in 1870, under Pope Pius IX, and
declared the personal infallibility of the
pope when speaking cw cathedrd to be a
dogma of the Church.
VoffAl Embich von (fon vat-tel'), a
vattCl, celebrated Swiss jurist and
writer, bom hi Neufchfttel In 1714; died
in 1767. His great work was The Right
of Natives, or the Principlei of Natural
Law Applied to the Conduct and Affairs
of Natives and Sovereigns. This has
been published in numerous editions and
translated into the principal European
languages.
Vfl.ll1)fl.n l^^b&Q), S£ba8TIEN lb
wcftUMCftu pBKgxmg^ Seioneub de. Mar-
shal of France, and the greatest military
engineer of that country, descended of
an ancient and noble familv, was bom
in 1633, and early entered the army,
where he rose to the highest military
rank by his merit and services. He was
made governor of the citadel of Lille in
1668, commissioner-general of fortifica-
tions in 1677, and marshal of France in
1703. He died at Paris in 1707. As
an engineer he carried the art of fortifi-
cation to a degree of perfection unknown
before his time. He strengthened and
improved above 300 citadels, erected
thirty-three new ones, aod directed fifty-
three sieges.
VannlnaA (v5-klfiz), a department In
VaUCiUSe ^^ southeast of France;
area, 1381 so. miles. It is mgged and
mountainous In the east, but more than
one-half of the whole surface is arable,
and vineyards occupy about one-sixth of
this portion. The mulberry (for the
rearing of silk-worms) and olive are ex-
tensively cultivated, and much attention
is paid to the culture of aromatic and
meoicinal plants. Vaucluse takes its
name from the valley and village of that
name, celeorated by Petrarch. Avignon
is the capitaL Pop. (1906) 239.178.
Von /I OT Fayb-de-Vaud (pe-e-d6-v5;
vauu, German, Waadt or Waadtland),
a westem canton of Switzerland; area,
1244 sq. miles. It has three mountain
systems — the Alps in the southeast, the
Jura in the west, and the Jorat in the
south, connecting the other two. Vaud
belongs partly to the basin of the Rhine
and partly to that of the Rhone. The
soil is moderately fertile; and the vine
is extensively cultivated in the south.
There are no manufactures of impor-
tance. The inhabitants are mostly
Protestants. Vaud became a canton of
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Vaudeville Teddei
the Swiss Confederation in 1803. The Brahma, and by the extinction of all
capital is Lausanne. Pop. 281^79. consciousness of outward things.
Vaudeville (vft'^er^iO, a term first Vl^rlM (vft'daa; from the Sanslcrit root
# ,,. ^ \. applied to the Norman ▼«**»» t^, meaning 'know'), the old-
follC;Song of the fifteenth century, which est of the Shastras or sacred writings
originated with Oliver Basselin, who lived of the Brahmans, and the oldest com-
In the Tal or Van de Vere. The folk-sonc positions in . the Sanskrit language,
led to a series of plays interspersed with Their date is unknown. Sir W. Jones
songs, and known as Vaudevilles, occa- fixes it at 1500 b.c., and Bitter at 1400
sionally as Virelais. The word is now to 1600 B.C. They are four in number,
appUed to Ught theatrical entertainments, called respectively the Rig, Yajur, Sama,
Vault. *^ ^architect re, a continued and Atharva Veda. All the Vedas are
.^ . J^f^^h^P^ ^^ arched roof, so con- believed to be inspired, and are held by
structed that the stones, bricks, or other the Brahmans in the highest respect,
material of which it is composed sus- The religious system of the Vedas is at
tain ana keep each other in their places, bottom monotheistic. It derives a poly-
theistic appearance from the mention of
the deity by various names according to
the difference of his manifestations and
attributes (Sarya, Mitra, etc., the sun:
Soma, the moon; Agni, fire; Indra, the
firmament, etc.), but the unity of the
supreme being is expressly asserted in
more than one passage. Each of the
Vedas is divided into three parts: the
- -« first called the SanhitA. a collection of
1, GK>thic Oroined 2, Spherical or hymns and prayers called mantras or
Vault. Domical Vanlt. a&nas; the second, BrAhmana^ which re-
lates chiefly to ritual ; and the third, the
Vaults are cylindrical, elliptical, single, Jn&na or Upanishada, which is the
double, cross, diagonal, Gothic, etc. philosophical portion of the work. The
Vaux (^Qhs), Calvert, landscape Upanishads are sometimes called col-
V n%M^ architect, born at London in lectively the Veddnta, The Rig-veda is
1824, came to the United States in 1848. the oldest of the Vedas, and the Atharva-
With L. L. Olmstead he devised the veda the latest. Some scholars question
plans for Central Park, New York, and whether the latter should be regarded
the Metropolitan Museum and the State as a Veda. Varying greatly in age, the
Reservation at Niagara. He died in 1895. Vedas represent many stages of thoucht
Vector (^^^'t^r), in mathematics, the and worship, the earliest being the sim-
^ " name given to any quantity plest, the later following and reflecting
which involves direction as well as mag- the development of the Brahmanical
nitude. The simplest example is the posi- system, with all its superstitions and
tion of one point with respect to another, ntes.
fully represented by the straight line Veddfl.1lS (ved'da-), a wild, semi-sav-
joining them. Other vector quantities are ^^^n'**^ f^g^ race, about 400 in num-
velocity, force, electric induction, etc her, residing in the interior of Ceylon,
'V^AtLYiftL Philnan'n'hv (ve-dan'tA), and said to be a remnant of the ab«-
veaania rmiOSOpny ^ ^^^^^^ ^J ^.^.^j^g ^^ Ceylon. The forest Veddahs
Brahmanic philosophy, first set forth in a live in trees and caves and subsist on
work called the Veddnta, said to have game, which they kill with rude bows
been written more than two thousand and arrows. The village Veddahs dwell
years ago, and described as containing in certain districts, but hold slight in-
the quintessence of the Veda». This sys- tercourse with the other inhabitants,
tem is based, like that of the Eleatics The two tribes do not intermarry, and
among the Greeks, upon the unity of all they have their own chiefs whom they
real existence. The sole real existence elect and obey.
is denominated knowledge Undna), soul, ITaAAtkr (ved'er), EuHU, painter,
or God. The multiplicity of individual ^^^^^* bom at New York in 1836.
life and variety of external life in the He became a student in Italy, and
universe is merely phenomenal, and has finally made that country his permanent
all proceeded from the one real being by residence. His works are ireouently
the exercise of the power of ignorance marked by a mystical and poetical qual-
(ajndna), which may be vanquished by ity and are highly suggestive. His nest
a religious and ascetic mode of life, or by pictures are The Lair of the Sea 8er-
meditation on the one supreme spirit, pent^ A Venetian Dancing Qirl, Th9
i
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Vei^ Carpio Veins
Death of Abel, and An Arab LUtening to pending upon 80lar energj, organic and
the Sphinm. His illustrations of Fits- mineral constituents, and water. Sm
gerald 8 translation of the Rubaiyai Botanif,
of Omar Khayy&m (1884) won great VMrAfolilA Tirorv the name which
praise. vcgcxaDie ivoiy, i3 ^ppii^ ^^ ^^^
Vein. Cftmio (^^'C^ kar'pe-O), Fe- kernels of the nuts (ooroeo-^ute) pro-
»* wi»A^*w jj^ Lope de, a Span- duced by the Phutelephae macrooarpa, a
ish poet and dramatist, bom at Madrid palm growing in South America. It is
in 1562 ofpoor but noble parents; died very hard and compact, has the appear^
there in 1635. After studymc at Alcal& ance of ivory, and may be turned In tlM
he became the secretary of the Duke of lathe, being used for buttons, umbrella
Alva. In 1582 he joined the army, and handles, etc The stem of the palm is
in 1588 accompanied the Invincible extremely short, but the leaves rise to
Armada. After being twice married and the height of 80 or 40 feet,
twice a widower, he in 1009 became a V^^AtohlA l/TorrAiiT a species oC
priest, and subsequently entered the ^^B^^^^^ maiTOW, ^^ ^,^
order of St Francis. He had already vated as a culinary vegetable, and used
published various poems, but his dra- fried, boiled, or otherwise. See Squaeh.
matic and poetical productions were now Vi»9AtAh1^ PliirftinlAcnr ^^^ func-
multiplied with extraordinary rapidity. ▼©gClraDlC riiysiOiO^, ^^^^ ^
He enjoyed an immense popularity, and tivities of plants. These include tho
^^ived marks of distinction from the functions of germination; respiration, as
.ving of Spain and Pope Urban VIII. shown in the inhalation of oxygen and
About three hundred of his dramatic exhalation of carbon dioxide; traneoira*
works have been printed. They reveal <ton, the vaporization of water by the heat
an inexhaustible but ill-regulated imag^ yielded in respiration; assimilation, the
inatlon, a strong mixture of the sub- taking in of carl>on under the influence
lime and the ridiculous, and extraor- of sunlight, a process the reverse of
dinary facility in versification. He respiration; absorption, the intaklnc of
wrote altogether upwards of eighteen water from the air and soil; metabolism^
hundred comedies, but only some four the formation of complex organic sub-
bund 1 3^1 and fifty are extant in print or stances from the simple chemical ele-
manuscript. ments; growth: plant movements; r^-
Veeetable Clieinistry. t*»«^«I>art- production, sji^ other processes of a
w^gvvMVA^ vruvuuovAj, mentofor- physiological character,
ganic chemistry which investigates the Ve?etfi.rifi.Tli8Tn ( vej-e-tft'ri-an-ism ),
chemical compounds found in vegetables. ' ^5^«^*a»a"o«i. ^^ theory and prae*
These compounds are chiefly made up tice of living solely on vegetables. The
of carl>on, hydrogen, oxygen and nitro- doctrines and practice of vegetarianism
gen, but potash, soda, mne, and other are as old as the time of Pythagoras, and
substances are occasionally present in have for ages been strictly observed by
small and variable quantities. Sugar, many of the Hindus; and of late years
starch, gum, and other distinct com- the practice of subsisting solely upon
pounds existing already formed in plants, vegetable food has come prominently be-
and capable of separation without sufTer- fore the public in connection with dietetic
ing decomposition, are called proximate reform.
or immediate principles of vegetables. Vaii (vS'yl). See CamiUus and Bome»
Proximate anal}(sis is the separation of
a particular pnnciple from others with Vein (^^)> ^ mining^ a crack or fis-
which it is mixed. Ultimate analysis ^ ^"^^ sure in a rock, filled up by sub-
consists in the reduction of the proximate stances different from the rock, and
principles to their simplest parts. The which may either be metallic or non-
more important classes of compounds to be metallic Veins are sometimes many
obtained from vegetables are acids, alka- yards wide, having a length of many
lis or alkaloids, oils and resins. Color- miles, and they ramify into innumerable
ing matter, tannin, albumen, gluten, smaller parts, often as slender as threads
yeast, and other substances are also Metallic veins are chiefly found in the
obtained. Of the acids the chief are primary, and lower and middle secondary
acetic acid or vinegar, oxalic, tartaric rocks.
and benzoic acids. The alkaloids are or- Veina (^&Q2)» & system of membra-
ganic bases which produce remarkable ^"*» nous canals or tubes distributed
toxicological effects. During the sermi- throughout the bodies of animals for
nation of seeds there is a conversion of the purpose of returning the impure
starchy matter into sugar. The nutri- blood to the heart and lungs, after i^
tion of plants may be regarded as de- has been conveyed to the various parts
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Velasqni^z
Vellum
by the arteries. They are not elastic
and have no polsation (thus differing
from the arteries )» the motion of the
blood in them being mainly secured by
pressure of the moving . parts between
which they are embedded, the backward
flow of the blood being prevented where
necessary by a series of valves which
permit a current only towards the heart.
The veins at their farthest extremities
form capillaries which collect from the
tissues the blood brought by the arterial
capillaries. These minute branches
unite to form veins, which similarly unite
in turn, formina gradually larger
branches and trunks as thev approach
the heart The venous blood from the
head, neck, and upper limbs is all re-
turned to the heart by one great vein,
the vena cava guperiar, while that from
the lower limbs and belly is returned by
the vena cava inferior. The portal vein
{vena portw) receives the venous blood
from the intestines and conveys it
through the liver to the vena cava in-
ferior. From each lung to the heart
come two pulmonary veins carrying back
the blood that has been purified In the
lungs, after being carried to them by the
pulmonary artery. See Heart,
V^1fiiiniiA7 (ve-lAslKcth), or in full
w ^aopo^i^uva j^j^ Diego Rodbiquez db
SiLVA T Velasquez (or Velazquez),
an eminent Spanish historical and por-
trait painter, was bom at Seville in
1599. He studied flrst under Francisco
Herrera the elder, and afterwards under
Francisco Pacheco. He was appointed
principal painter to Philip IV in 1623.
In 1629 be went to Italy, where he
closely studied the works of Michael
Angelo, Raphael, and Titian. On his
return to Spain in 1631 he was received
with great distinction, and in 1658 the
king raised him to the dignity of a noble.
He died in 1660. His compositions ex-
hibit strong expression, freedom of pen-
cil, and admirable coloring. Among his
best works are the Aguaaor, or * Water
Carrier*; the Orlando Muerto; a Nativ-
ity, or Adoration of the Shepherds; the
Brothers of Joseph; Moses Taken from
the Nile; portraits of Philip IV and of
Elizabeth bis queen. Pope Innocent X,
and other dignitaries; and many pictures
from history and from common life.
Velde (vel'd«)> Adrian van deb, a
¥ vxu^ celebrated Dutch landscape
painter and engraver, was bom at Am-
sterdam in 1635, and died in 1672. He
came under the influence of Wouverman,
and excelled in pastoral scenes, which
he executed in admirable drawing and
color. He also painted some large his-
torical and religious pieces, and etched
a number of plates. — His father, WiL-
LEic VAK DEB Velde the Bldcr, was
bom at Leyden in 1610. He was origi-
nally bred to the sea, but afterwards
studied painting, and early became dis-
tinguished for nis excellence In marine
subjects. He entered the service of
Charles II of EngUnd. He chiefly
painted in black and white, and is said
to have been present at several sea-
fiahts in order to sketch the incidents.
He died at London in 1093. — Another
son, WnxEH van deb Velde, the
Younger, was. bom at Amsterdam In
1038, and painted the same class of sub-
jects as his father, whom he surpassed.
He also entered the service of Charles
II. His principal works are chiefly to
be found in the royal collections and
cabinets of £}ngland. He died at Lon-
don in 1707.
Velellfl. (^el*«l'&)* A curious genus of
^*^**«* coelenterate animals, of the
class Hydrosoa, order Physophorids, and
represented by free-swimming oceanic
forms, which occur around the British
coasts, but more frequently in warm
seas. The best-known member, Velella
vulgaris, or * Sallee Man,' is about 2
inches in lenath by 1^ in height It is
of a beautiful blue color and semitrans-
parent, and floats on the surface of the
sea with its vertical crest exposed to the
wind as a sail
Velez-Malaga .^^Wkn^
dalusia, province of Malaga, on the
Velez. 1} miles from the Mediterranean,
and 14 miles N. e. of Malaga. The dis-
trict is very fertile, and produces sugar-
cane, maize, etc. Fop. 23,586.
VaIitia (vft-l^'nd), a small stream of
¥cxiuu Central Italy, a tributary of
the Nera, at its junction with which it
forms beautiful falls about 650 feet
high. See Terni,
Yelleius Paterculus. ^^sf^*^
Velletri (vel-l&'tre), a town in' Italy.
^®"®*" province of Rome, and H
miles southeast of Rome. The chief
buildings are the cathedral, a handsome
Gothic structure rebuilt in 1660; the
town-hall, built from the designs of
Bramante; and the palaces Lancellotti
or Qinetti, and Borgia. Pop. 14,243.
VaIIata (veHdr'), a town and fort of
vcixui^ India, presidency of Madras,
district of North Arcoc, on the PalAr
River. The town has a Vlshnulte tem»
pie, mosque, military offices, chuich, mia
sions, a hospital, barracks, etc Poa
43^7.
Vellum. •** Pi^rchment.
i
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Velocipede Venddme
VelOGinede (ve-los'i-pM), a light ve- 2595 sq. miles. The surface is much
T^Avvx^^u^ j^j^j^ ^j, carriage impelled diversified, and is watered in the north
by the feet of the rider himself. One by tributaries of the Loire, and in the
o! the older forms of this carriage con- south by the Lay and tributaries of the
sisted of two wheels of nearly equal size» Charente. The principal crops are grain,
placed one before the other, and con- flax, and hemp; aud a white wine is
nected by a beam on which the driver's also produced. Capital, La Roche-sur-
seat was fixed. The rider, sitting astride Ton. At the time of the revolution the
the machine, propelled it by the thrust Vendfons espoused the royalist cause,
of each foot on the ground. This form and, inspirited by La Roche jaquelein,
dates from the early part of the last Cathelineau, and other leaders, and
century. In the latter half of the cen- aided by the hilly and wooded nature of
tnry treadles operating cranks on the axle the ground, they resisted the republicans
of the front wheel came into use, and with varied success from 1793 to 179G,
soon many modified and improved kinds when the rising was completely quelled
became popular under the name of the by the activity of General Hoche. In
bicycle and tricycle. See Bicycle, Tri- 1799-1800, and again in 1814 and 1815,
cycle, some risings took place in favor of the
VAl/w»ifir the rate at which a body Bourbons, but they were quickly sup-
YClUClty, changes its position in pressed. Pop. (1906) 442,777. See Cfcoii-
space. Velocity is popularly expressed an9 and La Rochejaquelein,
as so many miles per hour, or as so Veild^ini&ire (v&Q-da-mi-ftr; that
many feet per second. The velocity of » ^'****^"****«***^ is, * vintage month '),
a body is uniform when it passes the first month in the French revolu-
through equal spaces in equal times^ tionary calendar, from September 22 to
variaUe when the spaces passed through October 21. See Calendar,
in equal .times are unequal, accelerated Vcildettft ( ^^Q'det'a ; an Italian word
when it passes through a greater space ^ ^'**^^»'»^ from L. vindicta, revenge),
in equal successive portions of time, as a blood-feud; the practice of the nearest
is the case of falling bodies under the of kin executing vengeance on the mur-
action of gravity, and retarded, when a derer of a relative. In Corsica the veb-
less space Is passed through in each sue- detta is regarded as a duty incumbent
cessive portion of time. Angular velocity on the relatives of the murdered man,
is such a velocity as that of the spoke of and, failing to reach the real murderer,
a wheel, being measured as a number they take vengeance on his relatives.
of angles of a specified extent (as right The practice exists, although to a more
angles) divided by a measure of time in limited extent, in Sicily, Sardinia and
specified units. See Fall of Bodiet, Calabria, as well as among the Druses,
Dynamics, Projectiles, Motion^ etc Circassians, Arabs, etc.
Velvet (v^l'vet), a rich silk stuff, Vendome Iv&Q-ddm ), a town of
covered on the outside with a *av4*i.v France, in the department
close, short, fine, soft shag or nap. In of Loir-et-Cher, on the Loir. It is regu-
this fabric the warp is passed over wires larly and well built, and contains a fine
80 as to make a row of loops which old church. Pop. (1906) 7381.
{>roject from the backing, and are thus Vendomfi LouiSf Dukb of, the cele-
eft, by withdrawing the wire, for an vxiu.viti^, brated general of Louis
uncut or pile velvet, but are cut with XIV, was the grandson of C^sar, eldest
a sharp tool to make a cut velvet, son of Henry IV and Qabrielle d'Estrtfes.
Florence and Genoa have been long He was bom in lt>54, early entered tbe
noted for the manufacture of velvet, but military service, and received, in 1702,
Lyons, in France, is now its principal the command of the French army in the
seat. O)tton and woolen fabrics woven war of the Spanish Succession. After
in this manner are called velveteen and having distinguished himself in Italy,
pluih respectively. Tyrol, and Belgium, the Duke of Bur-
Vendace i ^^^'^^ ) » & species ot gundy was placed over him ; and the dis-
* fishes, of the family Sal- agreement of the two commanders caused
monids, genus Coregdnus {C, Wtllough- the defeat of the French at Oudenarde
btt), found in Europe in some of the (July 11, 1708) Vend6me was recalled,
rivers and lakes of Britain and Sweden. Soon after being placed in command in
The average length is about 6 to 7 Spain he gained several distinguished
inches. The fish is esteemed a great successes, but died in 1712. His brother,
delicacy, and is taken with the sweep- Philip, was grand prior of the order of
net about August. the Knights of Malta in France. He
Vendue (v&9'^&)» ^ western maritime was bom in 1655, served in the Spanish
wvuuw department of France; area, war of Succession, and died in 1724.
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Veneet
Venezuela
Veneer (^^i^^^')* & t^in layer of
'^ choice hard wood, such as ma-
hogany, rosewood, maple, etc., glued to
the surface of wood of a commoner sort,
such as fir or pine, so as to give the
whole the appearance of being made of
the more valuable material. It is mostly
used for furniture, and owing to recent
improvements in sawing machinery, lay-
ers as thin as paper can be obtained.
Venesection. ^^ Phlebotomy.
Venetian Architecture g^h^J n*)';
Venetian Gothic, that style of Italian
architecture employed by the Venetian
architects from the fifteenth to the early
part of the seventeenth century. The
principal characteristics are: each story
IS provided with its own tier of columns
or pilasters, with their entablature, and
separated from the other stories by con-
spicuous friezes or belts, often in the
form of balustrades broken by pedestals
and ornamented by figures; arched win-
dows ornamented with columns, the
spandrels being often filled with figures:
ornamental parapets are common; ana
the whole has a rich and varied effect.
This style of architecture is character-
ized by Fergusson as " Gothic treated
with an Eastern feeling, and enriched
with many details borrowed from East-
ern styles.*'
Venetian School, JSho^t^^hf^h
counts among its masters Titian, Paul
Veronese, Giorgione, Tintoretto, and
many other illustrious names. See
Painting,
VauattiaIo (ven-e-zw^lA), a north-
VeneZUeia ^^^ republic of South
America, bounded by the Caribbean Sea,
British Guiana, Brazil, and Colombia;
area, 599.538 square miles. The Andes
enter Venezuela from the west in two
branches; the western branch has a
moderate elevation, rarely exceeding 4000
feet, but the eastern branch, which is
about 300 miles lonp; by GO miles broad,
has an average altitude of 12,000 feet,
culminating in Sierra-Nevada-de-Merida
with summits attaining 15,000 feet.
There are other branches running north-
east and parallel to the north coast, and
in the south, on the frontiers of Guiana,
are the mountains of Parima. From
these mountains to the coast chain at
Caracas, and from the Andes to the
mouth of the Orinoco, extend vast
plains (or llauos) with an area of 300,-
000 sq. miles. The chief rivers are the
Orinoco and its affluents; the principal
lakes arc Maracaibo and Tacarigua.
The climate is equatorial io character.
and the seasons are distinguished into
the wet and the dry. It is not un-
healthy on the whole. The greater part
of Venezuela is liable to earthquakes.
The valleys and tablelands of the coast
mountains are the chief seats of cultiva-
tion. The region of palms extends from
the sea-level to the height of 8800 feet;
mingled with the palms are cacti« mi-
mo8», the pineapple, the milk tree, ma-
hogany, and trees yielding caoutchouc,
sarsaparilla, copaiba, and other drugs.
Above 2000 feet are the forests of cbi'
chona or Peruvian-bark tree, the vanilla,
plantain, etc. All the grains of tenr
perate regions attain perfection at an ele-
vation of 8000 feet. Cultivated planU
include the cacao, cocoanut, tobacco,
maize (two crops yearly), cotton, coffee,
sugar and indigo. Among the minerals
are gold, silver, tin and copper; good
coal is found in the coast districts:
asphalt and petroleum abound round
Lake Maracaibo*. The gold mines are
now being worked by English and other
capital. The wild animals include the
Jaguar (now rare), puma, tapir,, ounce,
monkeys, serpents, alligators, the' mana-
tee, etc. The population is of Spanish,
Indian and Negro origin, either of pure
or mixed blood. More than half the
population are mestizoes, mulattoes and
other mixed breeds. Venezuela was
formerly divided into twenty states, four
territories, and a federal district, but a
readjustment in 1904 reduced the num-
ber of states to thirteen, and made the
territories five. The Republic of Vene-
zuela was formed in 1831 by secession
from the other members of the free state
founded by Bolivar. (See Colombia.)
The capital is Caracas. The chief ports
are La Guayra, Puerto-Cabello, Mara-
caibo and Ciudad Bolivar. Discovery
of gold led Great Britain to claim that
the boundary of British Guiana extended
to the Orinoco, thus including the gold
fields. Upon Venezuela *s protest, and at
the instance of the United States govern-
ment, the dispute was arbitrated dv the
Congress at The Hague, and a satisfac-
tory adjustment made. Columbus reached
the coast of Venezuela in 1498, and it
was visited by Ojeda and Vespucci in
1499. It was settled by Spain, but a
struggle for independence begun in 1810,
resulted in its freedom and formation
into a federal republic. As in Latin
America generally it has been the scene
of many rebellious outbreaks, and under
its recent president, Castro, it came into
hostile relations with several foreign
nations^ Castro disregarding his ' com-
mercial engagements. This gave dissat-
isfaction among the people, and, in De>
i
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Venice
Venice
cember, 1908, during a visit to Europe,
he was deposed, Ylce-PresideDt Gomes
being installed in his place. Pop. 2,591,-
000.
Venice (ven'is; Italian, Venezia), a
¥ %iMkx\f%, pj^y j^jj J seaport of Northern
Italy, capital of the province of the same
name, on a number of islets in a shallow
lagoon in the northwest of the Adriatic,
23 miles east of Padua by rail. The
islets are very low, and the houses are
mostly supported on piles. A railway
viaduct nearly 2) miles long connects
the town with the mainland. The city
is divided into two parts by the Canal-
axso or Grand Canal, spanned by an ele-
gant bridge, the Rialto, and several lesser
bridges. The numerous branch canals
are crossed by about 380 bridges, which
rise rapidly towards the center to afford
Passage to the gondolas and other boats.
?he city is also intersected by calli or
narrow lanes for pedestrians: but the
canaJs are really the streets of Venice,
and it possesses neither horses nor
i^heeled carriages. Near the center of
the city there is one street about 18 feet
wide, the Meroerla, but the great center
of business and amusement is the Piazza,
or Square of St Mark, and the piazetta
adjoining it. The Piazza is about 570
feet long by 200 broad, contains some of
the more remarkable public buildings,
and is lined with hanclsome shops and
cafte. The piazetta faces the sea. The
Palace of the Doges, reconstructed by
Marino Falieri in 1354, abuts on the
piazetta. It is in the Venetian Gothic
style, and has two of the sides resting
on double ratigas of arcades. It contains
a auifiber of. beautiiul balls, sooie witli
ceilings and walls painted by Tintorettow
Paolo Veronese, and other distinguished
masters. The Ponte-del-Sosplri (Bridge
of Sighs) connects the palace with the
public prisons on the opposite side of a
narrow canal. The church of St. Mark,
now the cathedral (erected 976-1071),
is in the Romanesque-Byzantine style,
and is surmounted by five domes. The
principal front is adorned with 500
columns of precious marbles, and the in-
terior is lavishly decorated. Above the
doorway are the four celebrated bronze
horses brought from Constantinople by
the Doge Dandolo in 1204. Other nota-
ble churches are Santa-Maria-Gloriosa-
de'-Frari (thirteenth century), contain-
ing the tomb of Titian, and numerous
works of art ; San Giovanni-e-Paolo ; and
Il-Santissimo-Redentore, one of Palla-
dio's finest structures. Of the numerous
palaces the chief are the Palazzo-Reale ;
the Palazzo-Giustiniani ; the Palazzo-
Contarini-Fasan, restored in 1867; and
the Palazzo-Comer della-Cft-Grande, now
the seat of the government authorities.
The remaining public buildings include
the Accademia oelle Belli Art!, contain-
ing works by Titian, Giorgione, Tin-
toretto, Paolo Veronese, and others; the
Dogano, or custom-house; the arsenal;
the Zecca, or mint; etc. The chief man-
ufactures are woolen cloth, cloth of gold
and silver, velvet, lace, ornamental and
colored glass, mosaic, jewelry, castings,
etc. The trade is extensive; the imports
include colonial goods, dye-woods, coal,
iron, oil, etc ; exports, timber, rice, linen,
glass, coral, etc The harbor is spacious,
but the entrances are shallow. — Venice
is supposed to have been founded in the
fifth century by inhabitants of the sur-
rounding districts, who took refuge from
the cruelty of Attila on the islets at the
mouth of the Brenta. In 697 Pauluccio
Anafesto was elected the first doge or
duke, and in 819 the seat of govern-
ment was removed from Malamocco to
Rivoalto (Bialto), and the adjacent is-!
lands were connected by bridges. The
Crusades (1096-1271) greatly increased
the wealth and power of the Venetians
by giving employment to their shipping.
In 1204 the jDoge Enrico Dandolo con-
quered Constantinople, and upon the
a {vision of the Byzantine Empire Venice
received a large accession of territory.
Under Dandolo*s successors the Vene-
tians gradually lost all their mainland
possessions. But in 1386 they captured
Corfu, Durazzo, Argos, etc.; in 1405
their general, Malatesta, conquered
Vicenza, Belluni, Verona, and Padua:
and besides these and other conquests on
Uod, the Veoetiao fleet defeated tbo
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Venice Venus
Turkish at GalHpoIi in 1416, and in 1421 is a bishop's see, and is surrounded by
subjugated all the towns along the forts. Pop. 5650.
Dalmatian coast At the close of the Vfintnor (^^i^t'ner), a watering-place
fifteenth century Venice had a popula- ' ^iai'Iavx ^^ England, on the south-
tion of 200,000, and was the center of east shore of the Isle of Wight, in the
activity of the commerce of Europe. Its district of Undercliif. It has many ac*
power then began to decline, its commerce commodations for visitors and a good
was gradually superseded by that of the beach for bathing. Pop. 5787.
Portuguese, and in 1508 a league to sub- Ventose ^^ Calendar,
due the republic was formed at Cambrai vixwov.
between Pope Julius II, the Emperor of VATifrinlA ^^ Heart.
Germany, and the kings of France and ^<5"''"^*<5»
Spain. All its possessions on the main- VentrillMllliflin ( Ten-triKu-kwiim )*
land were taken, and the work of de- ^aai'aaav^iaaoaii. ^^ ^^ ^£ speaking
struction was all but completed by war- in such a way as to cause a hearer to
fare with the Turks at intervals from believe that the sound comes, not from
1649 to 1718. The French took posses- the person speaking, but from a different
sion of the city in 1797. It subsequently source. The name (Latin, venter, belly,
became part of the Austrian Empire, of and loqui, to speak) orisinated from the
Napoleon's kingdom of Italy, and from erroneous supposition that the sounds
1815 to 1866 of the Lombardo- Venetian uttered were formed in the belly, whereas
Kingdom under Austria. In 1866 the practice alone is necessary to carry this
city and province were ceded to Napoleon act of illusion to a high degree of perfec-
III, Emperor of Fmnce, under whose tion. The sounds are formed by the
auspices they Were united by a plebi- ordinary vocal organs — the larynx, the
scite to the Kingdom of Italy. Pop. palate, the tongue, the lips, etc The
169,568. art of the ventriloquist consists merely
Venice Guur of. See Adriatic Sea. in this: — After drawing a long breath
^ > he breathes it out slowly and gradually,
V^nir^ fsLoina. (ve-nTre fft'sl-as; dexterously modifying and diminishing
Yciurc ittoitts tat in, 'that you the sound of the voice; besides this he
cause to come'), in law, a writ or pre- moves his lips as little as possible, and
cept directed to the sheriff, requiring by various contrivances diverts the at-
him to cause a Jury to come or appear ten tion of his auditors. This art was
in the neighborhood where a cause is known to the ancient Greeks,
brought to issue to try the same. This Venue (ven'Q), in English law, the
writ was abolished in England in 1852. * ^"•*^ place, that is, the county,
but the precept issued by the justices of where an action is to be tried, and from
assize, which is substituted, is sometimes whence juries are to be summoned for
loosely spoken of as a ventre, trial of causes. The venue, in all cases,
Venlo (ven-lO')» a town of the Neth- civil and criminal, may be changed for
erlands. province of Limburg, sufficient cause,
on the right bank of the Meuse. It has VenuS C^^'nn^)* the Roman name of
manufactories of needles and cigars. ^-^^^ tne goddess of love, called by
Pop. 15,000. the Greeks Aphrodite. In the Iliad she
Veil Am AH ft AnimQla ^"^myl^ cap- is described as the daughter of Zeus and
venomous AnunaiS, ^,^ ^^ j^ Dl^g. ^ut Hesiod represenU her as the
flictine poisonous wounds by means of offspring of Urftnus, bom among the
special organs or contrivances. They foam (Greek, aphroe) of the sea. She
include spiders, bees, wasps, hornets, scor- surpassed all other goddesses in beauty,
pions, certain serpents, etc. In all cases and hence received the apple which was
the venomous matter must be introduced to be awarded to the most beautiful by
directly into the circulation to produce Paris. She was the wife of Hephsstoa
its effects. (Vulcan), but also bestowed her love on
VenOSfl. (▼A-n^'sA; anc. Venuiia), a the gods Arte (Mars), Dionysus (Bac-
town of Italy, province of chus), Hermes (Mercury), and Poseidon
Potensa. It has a cathedral, and a (Neptune), and the mortals Anchlses and
castle dating from the fifteenth century. Adonis. The myrtle, rose, poppy, apple,
Horace was bom here. Pop. 8508. and other fraits were sacred to her, as
Ventilation (ven-ti-l&'sbun) . See were also the dove, sparrow, swan, swal-
wvuvAAAMvu -pf^ farming and VentHa- low, ram, hare, and tortoise. The chief
tion, places of her worship in Greece were
Ventimi^lift (-meryA), a town of the islands of Cyprus and C!ythera. In
"^^o**** Italy, province of Porto Rome several temples . were erected to
Maurizio, 7 miles east of Mentone. It her under different names. In the best
i
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Veniu
Verb
days of art this goddess was always
represented draped. In later times nude.
The scene of her arising from the sea
was sculptured by
Phidias on the
base of the statue
of Zeus at Olym-
pia, and one of the
most famous pic-
t u r e s of Apelles
represented the
same subject The
Venus of Capua
and the Venus of
Milo represent her
as Venus Victrix,
with one foot on
a helmet and rais-
ing a shield. The
Venus de' Medici
is supposed to be
a free copy of a
statue of her by
Praxiteles, which
was celebrated
aboye all her
other statues in
ancient times.
Among modem
one of the most
Tenui, antique itstue
In the Britiih Museum.
statues of Venus,
famous is that by Canova, in which
she is represented as issuing from the
bath.
Venus ®°® *** ^^® inferior planets,
^ having its orbit between Mer-
cury and the earth, and the most brilliant
of all the planetary bodies. From its
alternate appearance in the morning and
evening it was called by the ancients
Lucifer and Hesperus, the morning and
evening star. The mean distance of
Venus from the sun is about 06,134,000
miles, its diameter 7510 miles, and its
period of revolution round the sun about
224.7 mean solar days. Its volume is
equal to about fj^ths of the earth, but
its density being slightly greater its mass
is actually equal to about IJ^ths of the
earth. It probably revolves about an
axis, in a period of about 23 hrs. 21
min., the axis of rotation being inclined
to the ecliptic at an angle of about 75**.
According to its various positions rela-
tively to the sun and earth it exhibits
phases like the mooa. Like Mercury,
Venus transits the face of the sun. but
at longer intervals. The transits of
Venus are of much more importance than
those of Mercury, because, being nearer
to us when in transit, its position on the
sun is measurably different for observers
placed on different parts of the earth.
See Transit.
See Dioncea,
Venus' Fly-trap.
Vera Cmz ^ y^'i^ krOs ) , the chief
seaport of Mexico, and
capital of a state of the same name. The
harbor is merely an open, unsafe road
stead, but there is a large trade. The
town has broad and regular streets, and
some good buildings, and is defended by
the fortress of San-Juan-de-UUoa on an
island in front of the harbor. The situ-
ation of the town is exceedingly un-
healthy. It was founded bv Cortez 'm
1520 and was captured by General Scott
in 1847. Pod. 48,m— The state
stretches along tne 8. w. part of the Gulf
of Mexico; area, 29,28o square miles.
The products embrace all kinds of grain
crops, tobacco, sugar, cotton, fruits, dye-
woods and timber. Cattle, horses and
sheep are numerous. Pop. 981,030.
Veratrin {^^^^A'W'ft^n^i^
alkaloid found in Veratrum Sabadilla,
Veratrum album, etc. It is generally
obtained as a crystalline powder, nearly
white, very acrid and poisonous, insoluble
in water, but very soluble in alcohol.
In the form of tincture, and still more
in that of ointment, veratrin is mush
used as an external application in cases
of neuralgia and obstinate rheumatic
pains. The smallest quantity entering
the nose causes violent and even danger-
ous sneezing.
Veratrum i^®''"^'^'^™>v f .^t""
^-'—•'*»**** known genus of plants be-
longing to the nat. order Melantbaces.
Veratrum al'uum (common white helle-
bore) is a native ot most alpine meadows
in the southern, central and northern
parts of Europe. It has large plaited
leaves, erect stems, and large panicles of
greenish flowers. It yields the substance
veratrin (which see). Every part of
both is acrid and poisonous, especially
the rhizomes. The F. viride of North
America (American hellebore) is an acrid
emetic, and acts strongly in lowering the
action of the heart.
Verb '° grammar, that part of speech
^ whose essential function is to
predicate or assert something in regard
to something else (the subject or thing
spoken of) ; as, the boy runs, the man
lifts the stone, fishes «trtm, he suffers
much. Verbs usually have the power of
indicating time and mode by means of
tenses and moods, these varying in the
different languages, as does also the con-
jugation or system of verbal inflections
and forms as a whole. They have been
divided into active and neuter verbs, ac-
cording as they predicate action or state.
Active verbs are divided into intransitivs
and transitive, according as the action
IS confined to the actor or passes from
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Verbascum
Vereshtcliagiii'
him to an object. Intransitive verbs often
take an objective of their own nature ; as.
he run9 a race; he $leep$ the sleep of
death. When a verb may be used either
transitively or intransitively, as he walks
the horse, he walks to church, the verb
in the former use is said to be oauaaiive.
Many causative verbs are distinguished
from their corresponding intransitlves by
a change of form, as ttf, set; lie, lay;
fall, fell. Paative verbs affirm suffer-
ing or endurance of what another does.
Hence, only verbs which take an object
after them can have a passive voice, be-
cause it can be said of objects only that
they suffer or endure the action directed
on or towards them by the subject of the
active verb. Passive verbs are thus the
correlatives or complements of active
verbs.
Verbascum. ^^ Muiiein.
VerbenA (ver-bC'na), a fenoi ol
vcrucua plants, the type of the nat
order Verbenaceae. Most of the species
are American ;
about seventy
are enumer-
ated. V, offici'
ndlie (common
vervain), a
plant widely
distributed, was
once held in
great repute
for its medici-
nal virtues,
and entered into
the compos! tit n
of varioT 8
charms and love
philters. S e v -
eral species are
cultivated for
the great beauty o€ their flowers, being
fine border plants. The verbena of the
perfumers is the lemon-grass, from which
the * oil of verbena * is extracted.
VerbenaCeaS (ve^^be-na'se^^), a nat
•^^ order of plants, con-
sisting of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous
Elants common in the tropics of both
emispheres, but rare in £urope, Asia
and North America. They have generally
opposite or whorled, simple or compound
leaves without stipules; flowers in op-
posite corymbs, or spiked alternately,
sometimes in dense heads, seldom axillary
or solitary. The verbena and teak are
examples.
Vercelli (ver-chel'le), a town of
Vfuri/cm ^^^^^ j^^iy^ province of No-
vara, near the right bank of the Sesia,
44 miles w. s. w. of Milan by rail. It
has a modern cathedral, a castle, now
17 lo
Yerbenai — Garden va-
rieties.
converted into courts of justice ; hospital,
cavalry barracks, etc., flourishing mann-
factures and trade. Pop. 17,922.
Verd-antiaue (yero-an-tek'), la
w w««» M»*vA^i*v mmeralogy, an aggre-
gate of serpentine and white crjrstalliaed
marble, having a greenish color. It is
beautifully mottled, takes a fine polish,
and is much used for ornamental pur-
poses. The term is also given to a green
Incrustation on ancient coins, brass or
copper. Oriental Verd-cntique is a green
porphyry used as marble.
JTarAt^n (f&r'd^n), a town of Prussia,
V crucu ^ Hanover, on the Aller, 21
miles 8. BL of Bremen. It has a fine
Qothic cathedral, a gymnasium, brew-
eries, distilleries and manufactories of
cigars. Pop. 9842.
Verdi (Ver'de), Giuseppe, an Italian
operatic composer, bom in 1814,
His first production was Oberto, Conie
di San Bonifazio (1839), and in 1842
he brought out with great success at
the La Scala, Milan, his Nabuco, fol-
lowed by / Lombardi (1843), Bnuini
(1844), Rigoletto (1851), // Trovatare
(1853), La Traviata (1853), Vn Ballo
in Maschera (lSGd),Aida (1871), Monte-
euma (l878), and Otello (1886). Verdi
had a fine dramatic gift, and his melodies
are showy and taking. He died in 1901.
Verdict. See Jury.
Verdigris (^^i^di-ffris), a polsonoas
o substance, prepared by ex-
posing copper to the air m contact with
acetic acid, and used as a pigment, as a
mordant, in medicine, etc.
Verditer (ver'di-t6r), a blue pigment
prepared by dissolvmg ver-
digris in acetic acid.
Vprrlnn (ver-duv), a town of France
Y ciuuu department of the Meuse, 150
miles E. N. E. of Paris. It is a walled
town defended by a citadel, the work of
Vauban. The chief buildings are the
episcopal palace, the barracks, and the
fiublic library. Verdun is famous lor
ts liqueurs and confectionerv, and it has
breweries, tanneries, dye-works, etc. The
Germans captured it in 18T1 and vigor-
ously besieged it in 1916. This siege was
of such importance in the history of the
European war that a special description
of its purpose and general events is requi-
site to a just conception of this great con-
flict. It constitutes one of the leading
phases of the war in its western field,
paralleling the Battle of the Mame (g.v.)
as a desperate effort to break through the
IiYench lines at a vulnerable point and
expose Paris to peril of capture. Verdun
was a specially hard point at which to
smash the French line, l)eing the stroof*
i
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;
Verdun Vereshtclia£:iii
•■t of a series of fortified places facing Harcourt was captured and on the 6th
the German frontier. An attack on it at BetMncourt fell into their hands. On the
the beginning of the war had led to great 11th Germany claimed a total of 36,000
development in its outer defenses, so that French prisoners, but the loss of the Ger-
it became rather a fortified area than a mans in their assaults on the French posts
fort Its fall, then, would have been so had been very heavy and their efforts now
much the more serious for France, and slackened, while the French began a series
the army under the German Crown-Prince of counter-attacks, though with no marked
was selected to undertake its capture. change in the situation, losses and gains
A well-devised effort to take the city being successively made. Thus on May 22
by surprise, one that nearly succeeded, the French recaptured part of Fort
was the method pursued. A series of vio- Douaumont and some trenches on Dead
lent attacks, extending widely along the Man's Hill, but they lost their hold on the
western front, was made in the early fort three days later and also the village
weeks of 1916. which was intended to of Gumidres, west of the Meuse. Inces-
mislead the Allies as to the proj|M!ted sant assaults on the part of the Germans
assault, Verdun being left at rest. These followed, with no marked gains, but on
continued through late January and early June 7, by a sudden shifting of the point
February, Arras being specially their of attack. Fort Vaux was captured. On
center, the indications being that a drive the 23d, after two weeks of furious fight-
was about to be made upon Dunkirk and ing, Thiaumont was taken by the Ger-
Calais. The French were next attacked mans and by July 1 it had been lost and
in Champagne and at other points, while taken three times by either side, whUe on
all remained quiet at the strong fortress the 4th it again fcU into German hands,
on the Meuse. The result was a weaken- The Somme drive had now been launched
ing of the garrison of Verdun. Suddenly, on the part of the Allies and it was hoped
on the 23d of February, the storm broke, that this would lessen the German pres-
eight German army corps (300,000 men) sure on Verdun, but the attacks con-
taking part in it. These were hurled tinned, though with no marked gains,
upon the weakened French lines with such For more than four months this great
impetuous force that in the first day's contest had continued and though the
assault more than six miles of trenches Germans had gained considerable terri-
were carried, the defenses being pene- tory and a number of the outlying forts,
trated to a depth of neariy two miles* Verdun remained intact and the great
while 3000 French prisoners were taken, effort to break through the French line
The second day added as much more to had so far failed.
the captures, bringing the Germans from The fighting points now shifted to other
a distance of 8 miles to a point only 4% sections of the long battle-line, and com-
miles from the fortress. The next day Fort parative quiet remained at Verdun until
Douaumont was taken and held firmly the end of October, when the policy of
against the furious counter-attacks of the surprise shifted to the other side. An
French. The purpose of the Germans attack was made on October 24, and was
had now become evident and troops were so sudden and impetuous that the Ger-
hurried to the danger point in all haste, mans were utterly overwhelmed. Not at
the British taking over several miles of a single point were they able to stop the
French trenches to permit this reinforce- furious rush. Douaumont and Thiau-
ment. In the first six days the Germans mont were wrested from their hands, the
daimed to have taken 16.800 prisoners German line being broken over a front of
and 78 cannon. But French resistance in 4 1-3 miles and penetrated to a depth of
this direction now jttiffcned, and the Ger- nearly two miles. Thus in three hours
mans found it advisable to shift to new the French recaptured ground which it
points of attack. The first assaults on had taken the Germans months to cap-
the left bank of the Meuse were made on ture and hold.
March 6 and defenRive points were car- Verduil ^ town of Quebec province,
ried there and during the following week, »*^***""**j Canada, 1% miles from
including the Forest of Cumi^res, but in Montreal. Pop. (1911) 11,629.
the succeeding period the Germans were VAr^QTifnTincnTi ( ve-res-tch&'gin ),
firmly faced. V CTCSIIXCIiagin Vasilit, a Russian
Le Morte Homme (Dead Man's Hill) historical painter, bom in 1842, and was
became a central point in the struggle in educated at the naval school in St.
mid-March, both sides clniming its cap- Petersburg. In 1864 he entered the
ture, though each referred to a different 15cole des Beaux Arts at Paris, where
MU. Malancourt was taken by the Ger- Gerome was his master. He Joined the
mans on March 31. and the village of Caucasian expedition under General
Vaud and Caillotte Wood. On April 5 Kaufmann in 1867, and in 1869 went to
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<
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CoogTc
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Vergil Vernal Orass
Siberia. He took t>art in the Rumo- Wantifully scarlet color, obtained fron
Turkish war, and was woonded at crystallized mercuric sulphide. It is
PleTna. From that time on he Tislted all tensively employed in painting, in mal
the chief cities of Europe exhibiting his red sealing-wax, and other purposes,
pictures. He was drowned in the sinking Vermin (ver'min), obnoxious insects*
of a Russian warship during the Russo- »^***"** as bugs, fleas and lice;
Japanese war in 1904. troublesome animals, as rats and mice;
Vernl ^^ yirgU. game-destroying species, as weasels, poto-
vvA^AA. ^^^ ^jg^ hawks and owls. The fox is
Veriniee (Ter'JOs), a sharp vinegar called vermin, but not in a sense of dig»
verjUlUC ^^^^ ^^ ^^ . j^^ ^^ ^^^ respect
crab-apple; alse the sour Juice of unripe VArmATif (yer-monf), one of th«
grapes Is used for cnlina^ purposes. ^ ^xiiiwuv United States, bounded H.
Verlfline (▼er-lftn'), Paul, French by Quebec, E. by New Hampshire (from
w ^AAc»*uv lyrical poet, bom in 1844 ; which it is separated by the Connecticnt
died in 1896. In a quarrel with Rim- River), 8. by Massachusetts and w. by
baud, he aimed a pistol and was imnris- New York and Lake Champlain. Length
oned for two years. He left prison a de- 143 miles, width 40 to 85 ; area, 9664
Tont Catholic. His poems are remarkably square miles. The surface is traversed
beautiful both in thought and rhsrthm. from south to north by the Green Moun-
V^rm^^r (ver-mftr^), or Jan Van der tains (French, VerU Mont$), which cul-
vuAiuuux j^Tgjo^ OF Dklft, s Dutch minate in Mansfield Mountain in the
painter, bom in 1682 ; died in 1675. He n. w., 4280 feet high. They are generally
was greatly influenced by Pieter de Hooch, covered by dense forests, but afford ex-
His genre pictures sre highly prized. cellent pasturage. The drainage is
VAmiAiA (^^r-ma^id), or Rio Gbandb. shared between Lake Champlain In the
'^*"*^J" See Paraguay, west, and the Connecticut and its afflu-
Vermea (ver'mfo; Latin, 'worms'), ents. The surface is generally fertile,
vvi.iti^o Iphe sixth class of snimals in the best soil being on the western slope
the Linniean arrangement of the animal of the mountains near the border of Lake
kingdom, comprising all animals which Champlain. The climate is healthy,
could not be arranged under Vertebra ta and the temperature ranges from 20^
and Insecta. below zero in winter up to 90® in sum-
VermiGelli (-<^beri$ ; Italian* ' little mer. Farming and grazing are the chief
vvxiux\/vxxx ^QrjQs'). See Mac a- occupations, all the agricultural staples
roni, being abundantly produced, while the
Vermiform Appendix, |-wVh ^f . lnifr,Tr5d^cnruSe°'«d
from the intestines which, so far as is excellent, and cattle, sheep and horses
known, is peculiar to man, certain of are raised in large numbers. Vermont
the higher apes, and the wombat. The is the greatest breeding state for fine
vermiform appendix in the human species horses and for Spanish merino sheep,
hangs from the cii^cum, which is the point Manufactures are of much importance
of Junction between the smaller intestines and cover a wide range of goods, includ-
and the ascending colon. In size and ing cotton and woolen goods, leather,
shape it resembles a man*s little fineer. bar and pig iron, machinery, etc. Large
It IS functionallv useless to man and it quantities of lumber are exported and
appears to be the relic of an organ of tbere are extensive marble, granite and
utility to some of the lower animals, slate quarries. Rutland is the largest
Its lining membrane secietes a mucus marble center in the world, and Barrc
which in health constantly wells up into the largest granite center. There is a
the lower end of the colon where the considerable internal and transit trade,
ileocecal valve opens, and this mucus but the foreign trade is limited, beinc
acts as a lubricant to the valve. The chiefly carried on through New York and
appendix is subject to inflammatory at- Massachusetts. Vermont was first settled
tacks arising probably from the ingestion by emigrants from Massachusetts, and
of matter from the bowels. Attacks of joined the TTnion in 1791, after the state
this kind are somewhat frequent, the of New Turk had renounced a claim to
^mial treatment being surgical, the dis- the territory for $30,000. Montpelier is
eased organ being removed. Lighter at- the capital, but Burlington (1910) (pop.
tacks are treated hi remedial methods. 20,463) is the largest town. Pop. ®D,-
Vennifn^e (ver'mi-fftj). See 4.it- 966. , , , ^ .^
Vl^rmilion (vewniryun), the name ^''^"«" witwi ^^^^ odoriltum),
wxAuxxxvu ^i^^jj ^ ^ nlgmcnt of a sweet-scented pasture grass, that to
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Vernation
Veronese
which the odor of new-mown hay is
chiefly due, growing in most of the
States.
Vernation /▼er-na-hun). a botan-
vvAUAMvu i^j j^pjjj^ indicating the
manner in which the leaves are arranged
in the leaf bud. In some plants the
leaves are placed together , in a very
simple method, in others thev are curi-
ouslv folded, rolled, or plaited and inter-
laced with each other, but so as to sepa-
rate readily when the time for their ex-
pansion comes.
Verne (Tem), Jules, a popular
▼ vxuv French romancer, bom at Nan-
tes in 1828. He studied law for some
time, but afterwards began writing short
1>ieces for the stage. In 1863 he pub-
ished Five Weeikf in a Bailoont and the
vein of the marvelous, tinged with a
quasi-scientific truthfulness, was after-
wards worlced by him with great success.
His more popular works are: Twenty
Thou$and League9 %nder the Sea, From
the Earth to the Moon, Acro8$ Africa in
a Balloon, To the Center of the Earth,
and Bound the World in Eighty Days.
Most of his works have been translated
into English and German. He died in
1906. ^
Vemet (▼er-nft), Jean Emile Hob-
wxuw ACE, a French painter, grand-
son of Claude Joseph Vemet, a distin-
guished painter of sea pieces and sea-
port scenes; and son of Antoine Charles
Horace Vemet, painter of battle and
Snre pictures. He was bom In Paris
1798; and died in 1863. His first
master In art was his father, and at an
early age he acquired the favor of the
imperial court by his battle pieces, in
which he adopted a realistic treatment
in opposition to the classical school of
David. His pictures connected with the
wars of Napoleon are very numerous.
In 1828 Charles X appointed him direc-
tor of the French Academy in Rome, a
post he ably filled till the end of 1834,
roducing a series of pictures, partly
istorical, partly genre. Louis Philippe
then commissioned him to paint galleries
of the museum at Versailles with scenes
relating to the conquest of Algeria, a
country which he several times visited.
In 1840 we find him travelina in Egypt,
Palestine, and Syria; in 1842 he ac-
companied the Emperor Nicholas on a
Joumey from St. Petersburg to Sebas-
topol; and in 1845 he visited Spain and
Algeria. In 1853 he followed the French
armv to Varna, but soon returned to
Paris and produced his last great picture.
The Battle of the Alma.
V^miAr (ver'ni-er), an index fitted to
I hi
scale (as that of a barometer) and hav-
ing divisions marked upon it, by means
of which readings may be taken to small
fractions of the parts actually marked
ou the scale. Suppose we have a scale
of inches and tenths of an inch, and
suppose the index is -^ths of an inch,
and divided into 10 divisions. Suppose
that in taking a reading the end of the
index is past the 8 figure on the scale
we write down 8, that it is past 3 of the
tenth spaces and part of another we add
.3, then looking up the index we find that
its 6th division most nearly coincides
with a division on the scale and we add
.06, and so the position of the index is
taken as marking 8.36 inches.
VAmAn a town (township) in Tol-
veruuu, land Co.. Connecticut, which
contains the city of Rockville and the
Tillage of Vernon, in which woolens,
warps, and yams are manufactured.
Pop. 9087.
VAmiio (v6-r5'nA), a city of North-
vcruua em Italy, capital of the prov-
ince of same name, beautifully situated
on both sides of the Adige. The town
is surrounded by battlemented walls, and
is entered by five beautiful gates. The
streets are narrow and crooked, but there
are several elegant squares. Verona has
a Roman amphitheater, supposed to have
been built about the second or third cen-
tury of our era, the interior of which
is nearly perfect; an imposing cathedral
in the Gothic style dating from the four-
teenth century, and many other magnifi-
cent churches rich in paintings and other
art treasures. Other notable edifices are
the Palazzo del Consiglio, adorned with
statues of celebrated natives of the town ;
and the Gothic tombs of the Delia Scala
family (Scaligeri), who ruled Verona
from 1262 to 1389. Modem public build-
ings include theaters, a museum, a li-
brary, hospitals, literary institutions,
etc. The town has manufactures of
silks, woolens, hats, etc., and a consider-
able trade. Verona was subject to the
Romans in the second century b.g.. and
on the decline of the Roman Empire it
was taken by the Goths, and became
the capital of Theodoric's empire. In
774 it was captured by Charlemagne, and
subsequently became an independent re-
public. Weary of the continual dissen-
sions of its nobles, it voluntarily ceded
itself to Venice, under which it remained
from 1405 to 1797. It subse<iuently be-
longed to the Austrians, and in 1866 be*
came a city of the new Kingdom of Italy.
Pop. (1914) 84,755.
Veronese (va-ro-na'ze), Path^ the
V vAwu^v^ popular name of Paolo
Cagliari, an eminent Italian artist, born
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Veronica Vertigo
at Verona in 1528. He studied paint- the Germans established their headquar-
ing under bis uncle, Antonio Badile, and ters at Versailles; and from March, 1871,
worlied successively in Venice, Rome, till 1879 it was the seat of the French
and other cities of Italy, but Venice government Pop. (1911) 60.458.
was bis chief residence. He was an Verse ^ measured and cadenced font
excellent colorist, and was distinguished * ^ ^^' of speech or composition, usnally
by the richness and fertility of bis Im- adopted in poetry. It seems to be the
agination. He was a contemporary of natural language of passion, vet it baa
Titian and Tintoretto. He died at unquestionably been improved and de-
at Venice April 19, 1588. His pictures veloped by art. The use of rhymed
are exceedingly numerous and varied in cadences is a comparatively modem in-
subject. Among bis masterpieces are: vention. (See Rhyme.) Grammarians
The Marriage at Cana (now in the have elaborately classified the varieties
Louvre), The CaUing of Bi. Andrew to of verse^ and analytically distinguished
the AjpoBtle^hip, The Rape of Europa, the possible divisions of words into bars
The Family of Dariu$ at the Feet of of accented and unaccented syllables.
Alewandtr, Adoration of the Magi. Con- (See Rhythm,) The term is also ap-
aecration of 8t, Nicholas and 8t, tielena, plied to a line of poetry consisting of a
and The vision of the Invention of the certain number of metrical feet dbposed
Croae. The last five mentioned are in according to the rules of the species of
the British National Gallery. poetry which the author intends to com-
VeroniGfl. (ve-ron'l-ka). See Speed- pose. Verses are of various kinds, as
^* toeU, hexameter, pentameter, etc. Blank verse
Veronififl. Saint, a female saint who, is verse in which the lines do not end
"****> according to legend, met in rhymes. (See Blank Verae,) Heroic
out Saviour bending under the weight of verae is rhymed verse in Which the
the cross, and offered him her veil to lines usually consist of ten syllables, op
wipe the sweat from his brow, when the in English of five accented syllables,
divine features were found miraculously constituting five metrical feet,
impressed on the cloth. This veil was Vftrspr7 (ver'sbets), a town of Hun-
brought from Palestine to Rome, where »^*»^^«* gary, county of Temesvar. It
it is still preserved by the canons of St. is the see of a Greek bishop, and has
Peter's. silk mills, and a large trade In silk and
VerrftZZATlO (ver-rat-sa'nd), or Vkb- wine. Pop. 22,199.
v^xxcMiAcuAv ii^^iji^ Giovanni de, Vprfif a Russian measure of length,
an Italian navigator, bom about 1486. *^^o«'9 equal to 3500 English feet, or
He is believed to have visited the coast very nearly two-thirds of a mile,
of North America in the service of VAi^f aVi'to See Spine.
France in 1508 or earlier. In 1524 he VCriCDra.
is said to have traced the coast from VArfAlirofo (ver-te-brft'ta), the name
Cape Fear to New England, probably vcrtcurata ^j^^ ^^ ^^^ highest sub-
entering the Hudson River and Newport, kingdom of animals, consisting of those
This visit has been doubted by some animals which in early life usually pos-
writers and does not seem well authenti- sess a backbone, but which invariably
cated. He finally became a privateer or possess a notochord (which see) ; which
pirate, and was taken and executed at nave never more than four limbs dis-
Pico, Spain, in 1527. posed in pairs; which possess jaws as
Versailles (▼^i^&lz'; French pron. parts of the head; and which have the
vvxDcuuco ver-sA-y4), a town of great nerve-centers contained within a
France, capital of the department of special case formed by the skull and
Seine-et-Oise, in a plain, 11 miles 8. w. spinal column. In all Vertebrata save
of Paris. It is regarded as one of the the lancelet a distinct heart is developed,
handsomest towns in Europe, having been The Vertebrata include the classes
built under the auspices of the soveieigns Pisces (fishes). Amphibia (frogs, etc.).
of France, particularly Louis XIV, who Reptilia (reptiles), Aves (birds), and
made it the seat of his court and erected Mammalia (quadrupeds and man),
the palace. The latter is a large and They have also been classified into
imposing building with an extensive park Ichtbyopsida, including Pisces and Am-
and gardens, fine fountains, etc. Louis phibia; Sauropsida, comprisuig Reptilia
Philippe converted the palace into a na- and Aves; an4 Mammalia. See these
tional museum, and it contains an im- headings.
mense collection of statues and paintings VertllPO i^^^^^'t^)* <ui attack of gid-
representing personages and events con- * ^*' ^^6^ diness or swimming of the
nected with the French monarchy from head in which objects appear to move in
Clovis downwards. In October, 1870, various directions though sUtlonary, and
Digitized by
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Vcrtne
Vesta
the person affected finds it difficult to
maintain an erect posture. It is a com-
mon symptom of an irregular (exces-
sive or dnectiye) supply of blood to the
brain and of nervous and general de-
bility ; but it frequently arises from some
disturbance of the digestive organs.
Vertne (▼er'ta), Geoboe, a distin-
▼ cxifuc guished engraver, bom in
Westminster in 1684. He enjoyed the
.patronage of Sir Godfrey Kneller, and
'became engraver to the Society of An-
tiauaries in 1717. He died in 1756.
His best-known works include twelve
Portraits of Poets and ten Portraits of
Charles I and His Friends,
VcrtnmnUS ( ver-tum'nus ), a R^
^ ^^^^^ man deity who ]^ resided
over crops and orchards. He is gen-
erally represented as a young man
crowned with fiowers, and holding in his
right hand fruit, and a horn of plenty
in his left He was the husband of
Pomona.
Vcr'ulam, ^^- ^^ ^®^^-
Vervain. ^*® verbena.
Verviers (ver-vi-ft), a town of Bel-
w^xvA^Ao gi^nj^ province of Liege, on
the Vesdre, 14 miles e. s. e. of Liege. It
is celebrated for its manufacture of
broadcloth, which is the staple of the
town. There are also cotton, leather,
and other manufactures. Pop. 49,168.
Vesalins (ve-s&'li-us), Andbeas, the
w ^ocuxuo father of modem anatomy,
bora at Brussels in 1514; died at Zante
in 1564. He was physician to the Em-
peror Charles V and to Philip II. His
chief work, De Corporis Humani Falrioa,
opened a new era in the science of
medicine.
Vesonl (v^8^1)» a town of France,
capital of the department of
Haute-SaOne, on the Durgeon, 27 miles
N. of Besancon. It is surrounded bv
vineyards, and is well built. Pop. 8702.
Vespa. ^^ ^**''-
VAfi'nafliaTi (ves-pft'zhi-an; Lat Vks-
vespasiua p^si^Nus). Titus Fla-
vius, Emperor of Rome, was bom
near Reate, in the country of the
Sabines. in a.d. 9. After serving with
distinction in Germany and in Britain
as commander of a legion, he was made
consul. He afterwards became pro-
consul of Africa, and on the rebellion
of the Jews he was sent with an army
into Judsa (a.d. 66). He reduced nearly
all Galilee, and was preparing to attack
Jerusalem when he received news of
Nero's death (a.d. 68). Then followed
Che emperors Qalba, Otho and Vitellius,
and in aj). 69 Vespasian was himself
elected emperor bv the army, and arrived
in Rome about the middle of the year 70,
leaving the siege of Jemsalem to his son
Titus. He immediately reformed the
discipline of the army, purified the sena-
torial and equestrian orders, and im-
Ooin of Vegpaiian.
proved the administration of Justice.
He favored arts, letters, and learned
men, particularly Ouintilian, Pliny and
Josephus. He rebuilt a part of the city,
restored the capitol, and erected the
gigantic amphitheater, the ruins of which
are still celebrated under the name of
the Coliseum. Vespasian died A.D. 79.
Vespucci Amerigo ^^t^^^h oi
Amebicus Vespucius, an Italian navi-
gator, after whom the continent of
America is named; bom in Florence in
1451. He took part in a voyage to
America in 1499, by which part of the
mainland of South America was explored.
In 1501 he was sent by Portugal on an
exploring vovage to BraziL He appears
to have made four voyages to the New
World, probably serving as astronomer.
Without any initiative on his part, his
name was applied by a mapmaker to the
lands visited by him, and in time came
to designate the whole continent He
died in 1512.
Vesta (^^s'ta), a Roman divinity, the
goddess of the hearth. She was
worshiped, along with the Penates, at
every family meal, when the household
assembled round the hearth, which was
in the center of the room. Her public
sanctuary was in the Foram. and the
sacred fire was kept constantly burning
in it by the vestals, her priestesses. The
vestals are said to have been established
by Numa. There were at first four,
and afterwards six of them. They were
taken from six to ten years of age. They
were bound to virginity for thirty years,
the term of their service, after which
they were allowed to marry. Their per^
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Vesta Veto
sons were inviolable, and they were pveeent one, being subsequently altered
treated with great honor, and had im- by Tolcanic forces in the same manner
portant public privileges. The punish- as 800 feet of the present cone was
ment of a vestal who was guilty of un- carried away by an eruption of 1822.
chastity was burying alive. The first recorded symptoms of activity
VAflf Q ^ astronomy. See A$teraid9* exhibited by Vesuvius occurred in A.D.
^^^^^f 63. In 79 a great erupUon buried in
VAflfolfl See Ve9ia. ashes the Roman cities of Herculaneum
vesiaiB. ^nj Pompeii. The next recorded dis-
VftfltniftTltft (vest'ments), Saobed, the charge of ashes and lava was in 1036.
¥ cobAucuvo official garments worn by Since then there have been many violent
ministers of religion. The term is also eruptions, the most noted of which was
applied to the altar cloths. Among that of 1631, when it is estimated that
Catholics and High Churchmen, who 18,000 lives were lost Many other se-
believe that Christianity has retained a vere eruptions have since taken place, a
special priesthood and ritual, much im- verv violent one in 1872, and several
S>rtance is attached to vestments. Sea within the present century. A wire-rope
iiualism^ also Chasuble, Stole, etc railway, traversed by one carriage going
Vestrv (ves'tri), a room adjoining a up while another is coming down, was
▼ ^Dvxjr church where the vestments of opened in 1880, and carries visitors to ^
the clergy are kept. Hence the place within a short distance of the crater. ^1
of meeting of those having the charge VefifiTinlA TroiTifl trains of rail- ^M
of parochial affairs, and collectively the ^wtiuuic xrauiS| ^^^ ^„ H
persons themselves to whom these affairs vided with inclosed and connected plat' ^B
are intrusted. In England the minister, forms. The expedient of inclosinff, or as ^
church-wardens, and chief men of a it has been termed, the vestibuling of,
parish generally constitute a vestry, and car platforms for the comfort and con-
the minister, whether rector, vicar, or venience of passengers having occasion
perpetual curate, is ex-officio chairman, to pass from car to car while a train is
The powers of the vestry include the in motion adds considerably to their
expenditure of the parish funds, the safety.
repairing or alteration of churches or VeSZDrini i^es'prim), a town of
chapels, and the appointment of certain '^ Western Hungary, north
parish officers. In London the vestries of Lake Balaton, with a fine cathedral,
are highly important bodies. In the Pop. 14,144.
Episcopal Church in the United States Vetcll ^^^ popular name applied to
the vestry is a committee chosen an- ' plants of the genus FuTio, mors
nually by the parish, which, in conjunc- especially to V. sativa, the common vetch
tion with the church wardens, manages or tare. The name is also applied, with
its temporal concerns. various epithets, to many otner legumi-
Vftfmvillfi (ve-sQ'vi-us), a volcanic nous plants of different genera; as, the
T^auTxuo mountain of Southern horseahoe vetch, of the genus Hippo-
Italy, 10 miles s. s. s. of Naples. It rises cripU; the mitk-vetch, of the genus A«-
in the center of a plain 2300 feet above tragdlus, etc. See Tare, Vicia,
the sea, in a pyramidal cone of about VAfAriTiA'nr Arf (vet-er-e-nft'ri), the
1900 feet; total height, over 4200 feet, ^ '^•''^^Aiittry .nxt ^^^ ^^^^ ^^j^
liable to alteration at eruptions. The with the nature, causes, and treatment
cone is truncated, and about 2000 feet of the disorders of domestic animals,
in diameter. Previous to an eruption The first veterinary school was instituted
about 1838 the top was an uneven plane, in 1762 at Lyons ; in 1766 that at Alfort
but was then converted into a hollow near Paris was opened. A similar insti-
cup sloping to a depth of 500 feet. A tution was established at London in 1791,
precipitous rocky ridge. 1400 feet high, and in the year following one in Berlin,
called Monte Somma, lies to the north In Edinburgh instruction in veterinary
of the cone, from which it is separated medicine began to be given by Mr. Dick
by a deep valley called the Atrio del in 1819, and in veterinary surgery in
Cavallo. At the western extremity of 1823. In the United States veterinary
this valley an observatory has been estab- chairs have been added to some of the
lished. The lower belt of the sloping universities, but most of the schools are
plain is about 2 miles broad; it is laid private institutions,
out in vineyards and well cultivated. Vfeto (^^'^'* Latin, 'I forbid'), the
Above this belt the plain Is rugged and ^ ^•'^ power which one branch of the
covered with scoriae. Monte Somma is legislature of a countij has to negative
supposed to have formerly formed a com- the resolutions of another branch, or the
plete cone of larger dimensions than the right of the executive branch of govern-
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Vcvcy Vice-president
mentf such as king, president, or gov- Vibnmnni (vi-bar'num), a genos of
emor, to reject the bills, measures, or muki.a*iuii plants, nat order Gapri-
lesolutions proposed by the legislature, foliacese, including the gelder-rose and
In Britain the power of the crown is laurustine (which see), and Y, Lat^
confined to a veto, a right of rejecting t(kna^ the wayfaring tree, native of N.
and not resolving, and even this right America, Europe and Asia. The young
is rarely exercised, the last occasion be- shoots are used in Germany for basket-
ing in 1707. In the United States the making; the wood is sometimes employed
president may veto all measures passed in turning and cabinet making; the ber-
by Ck>ngress, but after that right has ries are used for making ink. and the
been exercised the rejected bill may be- bark of the root for making bird-lime,
come law bv being passed by two-thirds VinQr (vik'&r), in a general sense, a
of each of the houses of Ck>ngre8s. representative or vicegerent. The
Vevev (ve-v*')» a town of Switzer- pope calls himself vicar of Christ on
'^'^/ land, canton Vaud, beautifully earth. In the Church of England a vicar
situated at the n. e. margin of Lake is the priest of a parish who receives
Geneva, 11 miles E. s. E. of Lausanne, a only the smaller tithes or a salary. A
favorite place for visitors and foreign vicar apoatolio, in the Roman Catholic
residents. Pop. 11,781. Church, is a bishop who possesses no
Viadnct iTl'^-^^t). See Bridge and diocese, but who exercises jurisdiction
UaUicaya. over a certain district by direct authority
Viannfl. (vS-an'A), a seaport of Portu- of the pope; vicar general, the official
gal, province of Minho, at the assistant of a bishop or archbishop,
mouth of the Lima, 40 miles n. of Oporto. Vice-adiuiral. ^^ AdtniraL
VlwiS i:Lt«f^?tfc.%?rv?n^* 2f Vice^hanCeUor. see C*««ce«or.
Lucca, on the Mediterranean, a favorite VinA.i«ATifiTi1 See Consul.
watenng place. Pop. 14,863. VlCe-COnSUl.
Viationm (vl-at1-kum), lUerally pro- Vicenza i7'5?®°T?V' * ^}^7'^. ^'
' *"^ vision for a journey; in » *^^**««' North Italy, capital of a
the Roman Catholic Church, the province of the same name, 49 miles
eucharist administered to patients who west of Venice, beautifuUv situated on
are so ill as to be deemed beyond hope the Bacchiglione, where joined by the
of recovery. Retrone at the foot of some wooded hills.
Viatka (^^tnci), Vyatka. a town It is well built, containing handsome
of Russia, capital or the gov- streets and several elegant squares. The
emment of same name, on the Viatka, 500 public buildings are almost all the work
miles s. N. E. of Moscow. It has a ca- of Palladio, who was bom here, or of
thedral, some manufactures, and a large scholars who rather slavishly imitated
trade. Pop. 15,776. — The government him. The most remarkable ^ifices are
has an area of 59,172 square miles, the Duomo or cathedral; the Palazzo
and a pop. of 3,082,788. The sur- della Ragione (town-hall), an ancient
face is much broken by low hills, and Gothic building, with fine connected
large tracts are under wood and natural buildings by Palladio; the Museum, one
pasture. The soil yields good crops of of Palladio's finest buildings; the
corn, flax and hemp. The drainage be- Palazzo-Prefitizzio, and the theater, both
longs to the basin of the Volga. by Palladio; the Academy of Sciences
Viborff (vfi'borg), a town of Den- and Arts, founded in 1550; Ivceum,
o mark, on the lake of Viborg, churches and hospitals. Pop. (1914)
86 miles n. w. of Aarhus. It is a bishop s 50,296. — The province has an area of 1050
see, and has a good cathedral ; and manu- sq. miles ; pop. 450,000.
f act u res of linen, tobacco, etc. Pop. Vinprnv (vls'rof), the governor of a
8623. viucruy ^^j^^^^j^ ^^ country, who
Vi^bor? or WiBOBO, a seaport of Fin- rules in the name of the monarch with
o> land, capital of a govern- regal authority as his substitute,
ment of the same name, on a deep inlet VinA-nrAsi^ATif an executive official
of the Gulf of Finland, 74 miles n. w. ^ ^^^ prcsiucut, ^^ ^^^ United States
of St Petersburg. It has an active ex- government, who ordinarily presides
port trade. Pop. estimated 31,000. over the Senate, voting only in case of
Vibrio (vJ'bri-O), a name of certain a tie vote in that body; but who suc-
infusoria or microscopic organ- ceeds to the office of President in case
isms, sometimes called microscopic eeU, of the death or disability of the elected
and now often regarded as bacteria, or president. On several occasions the vice-
of fungoid nature, Tiresident has succeeded to the presidency.
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Vichy
Victor Emmanuel II
He is elected with and in the same way
as the president, the person receiving the
highest number of electoral votes for the
vice-presidency obtaining the office, if this
number be a majority of the whole body
of electors. If not, then the Senate is
empowered to choose a Vice-President
from the two receiving the most votes.
In this case a majority vote in the Sen-
ate, if a quorum of two-thirds is present,
will suffice for the election.
VipTiv (ve-she), a town of France, in
¥ xviijr t)jg department of the AUier, in
a valley of the river of that name, 32
miles s. s. e. of Moulins. It was once
a place of strength, and is celebrated for
its thermal alkaline sprmgs. The Vichy
waters are in much request for disorders
of the stomach and bowels, and of the
urinary organs, in gout, rheumatism, etc
Much of the water is sent out in bottles.
Pop. (1906) 14,520.
Vicia (vis'i-a), the vetch genus of
w xvxa plants, which, besides the vetches,
inclades also the F. Faba or common field
bean. See Vetch,
Vicksbnrcr tf>»>.r«). » city of
o Mississippi, county seat
of Warren Co., situated on the Missis-
sippi and Yazoo Rivers, 400 miles above
New Orleans. It is a port of entry and
the most important commercial city of
the State. Vicksburg has an extensive
trade in cotton and is the business center
of a large district. Its industries em-
brace railroad car works, iron foundries,
oil mills, saw-mills, wagon, broom, mat-
tress, furniture and ice factories, etc.
During the Civil War this place was
strongly fortified by the Confederates.
After a long siege it was surrendered to
Grant, Julv 4. 1863. Pop. 20,814.
Vico .(v6^^^6), Giovanni Battista, a
jurist, critic, and historian, was
bom at Naples in 1668, was educated
by the Jesuits, and studied law. In
1697 he was appointed professor of
rhetoric at the University of Naples,
and in 1735 historiographer-royal. His
Principi d'una Scienza Nuova d*intorno
alia Commune Natura delle Nazioni
(1725) has caused him to be regarded
as one of the founders of the philosophy
of history. He also wrote De antiquis-
8ima Italorum Sapientia and other works.
Vico died at Naples, January 20, 1744.
Victor Amadeus H, J>„»>^\„«/ i^;
king of Sardinia, was born in 166G; died
in 1732. He joined the Austrians in
the war of the Spanish Succession, and
at the Peace of Utrecht (1713) he ob-
tained the addition of Sicily to his
dominions. In 1720 he gave up that
island to the Austrians in exchange for
Sardinia^ and then took the title of King
of Sardinia. He abdicated in favor of
his son, Charles Emmanuel IIL in 1730.
Victor Emmaimel U 1^^^°^^^
uele), the eldest son of Charles Albert,
king of Sardinia, was born at Turin,
March 14, 1820. His aptitude for a mili-
tary career became evident when he com-
manded the Savoy brigades against
Austria (1848-49), and distinguished
himself in the battle of Goito by his
reckless valor. After the battle of
Novara (March 23, 1849) his father
abdicated* and Victor Emmanuel as-
cended the throne of Sardinia. He had
then to negotiate with Austria under
most unfavorable circumstances, but he
Victor Emmanuel.
steadily refused to give up the princi-
ple of representative government in the
Sardinian constitution, and this gained
for him the name of honest king (re
galantuomo) and the good-will of the
Italian people. This latter was only
gained, however, after much calumny and
misunderstanding, but the young king
pursued from the first a policy which led
to the national unity of Italy. Under
the advice of his celebrated minister,
Cavour, he regulated the finances, re-
organized the army, and secularized the
church property, for which he was ex-
communicated by the pope. He took
part in the Crimean war, and in 1859,
assisted by France, renewed the contest
with Austria, taking part in the battles
of Magenta (June 4) and Solferino
(June 24). By the Treaty of Villa-
franca and the Peace of ZOrich which
followed these successes, Lombardy was
added to his dominions, but he had to
cede Savoy and Nice to France. Parma,
Modena and Tuscany now became united
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Victoria
Victoria
to Sardinia, and Garibaldi's successes in
Sicily and Naples brought the whole of
Sonthem Italy over to victor Bmmanuel.
On March 17, 1861, he assumed the title
of King of Italy, and early in 1865
Florence became the royal residence. By
the Peace of Vienna (1866) Austria
ceded Venetia, and on the withdrawal
of the French garrison from Rome in
1870 that city annexed itself to Italy,
of which it was made the capitaL The
king entered Rome on July 2, 1871, and
took up his residence in the Quirinal.
He died January 9. 1878, and was suc-
ceeded by his son Humbert.
VinfArin (vik-td'ri-a), a British od-
VlCXOna ^^^y in the southeast of Aus-
tralia, bounded K. by New South Wales,
8. E. by the Pacific, 8. by Bass Strait
and the Southern Ocean, and w. by
South Australia; area, 87,884 square
miles. It has about 600 geographical
miles of sea-coast, with considerable bays
and indentations, especially about the
middle, where Port Phillip Bay, with an
area of 875 square miles and an entrance
barely 2 miles wide, affords shelter suf-
ficient for the largest fleet The interior,
thouffh diversified by mountains, is
chiefly distinguished by yast unwooded
plains mostly occupied as pasture.
There is one principal mountain range,
a portion of the Great Dividing Range
of Eastern Australia, running from east
to west through the colony, with various
off-shoots. Its highest peak is Mount
Bogong, of 6500 feet elevation. It is di-
vided into separate ranges called the
Grampians and the Australian Alps,
which are connected by such ranges as
the Pyrenees and Hume Range, contain-
ing numerous cones and extinct craters,
and composed of metamorphic rocks of
granite, quartz, syenite, etc This is
the region of the goldfields. The rivers
are numerous, but are generally small
and dry up in summer, leaving the coun-
try parched. The chief is the Murray,
which rises in the Australian Alps, forms
the northern boundary of the colony for
980 miles, is in all 1300 miles long, and
is navigable for several hundred miles.
The climate of Victoria is temperate, but
liable to sudden fluctuation; and hot
winds blow at intervals from November
to February, causing great discomfort
The hottest period Is in January and
February, when the thermometer may
rise to 108* in the shade. For the chief
animal and vegetable products native to
the colony see Australia. Some of the
common English quadrupeds and birds
have been introduced, such as hares, rab-
bits, deer, pheasants, partridges, larks,
stc.» and are now becoming quite plenti-
fuL Rabbits have become so numerous
in some districts as to prove a serious
nuisance and source of loss to the planters.
Victoria is the principal gold-producing
colony of Australia, the yield amounting
in value to about $15,000,000 annually.
The total yield since the discovery of
gold in 1851 has been about $1,500,000,-
000. Tin, antimony, copper and coal are
also among the minerals worked. Agri-
culture has much improved of late years,
wheat and oats being the two cereals
chiefly cultivated. The great staple of
the colony, however, is wool, the annual
wool clip yielding nearly $20,000,000.
The estimated number of sheep ap-
proaches 15^000,000 and of cattle nearly
22,000,000. The vine is extensively cultf-
yated, and the wines are becoming well
known in Europe. Many kinds of fruits
are grown, also tobacco, hops, etc Vic-
toria is divided into the four districts of
Gipps Land^ the Murray, Wimmera and
Loddon, which are subdivided into thirty-
seven counties. The government is in-
yested in a governor appointed by the
crown, aided by an executive ministry
consisting of twelve members, and a
parliament consisting of a legislative
council of forty-eight members elected for
fourteen provinces, and a legislative as-
sembly or ninety-five members for eighty-
four districts. On Januanr 1, 1901, it
became one of the states of the common-
wealth of Australia. Victoria was first
colonized from Tasmania in 1834. It
made rapid progress, especially in sheep
breeding, and the discovery of gold in
1851 caused a rush of population from
all parts. Hitherto it had been known
as Port Phillip, and formed part of New
South Wales, but in this vear (independ-
ently of the gold discovery) it was erected
into a separate colony under the name
of Victoria. In 1850 the population
numbered 76,162; in 1854 it was 812,-
307. In 1856 responsible government
was conferred on the colony. The chief
towns are Melbourne (the capital). Gee-
long, Ballarat and Sandhurst The
population was estimated in 1911 as
1350,000, including nearly 10,000 Chi-
nese, and several hundred aborigines.
VirfATifl capital of British Colum-
ViUl^uriliy bia, is situated on Van-
couver Island, on the north side of the
Strait of Juan de Fuca, in very beauti-
ful scenery. The public buildings in-
clude the Parliament house, government
offices, provincial museum and library,
city hall, etc., while in the environs are
many attractive villas, surrounded by
beautiful gardens. The manufacturing
interests Include powder works, potteries,
coaling, lumber and brewing industries,
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Victoria
Victoria Nyanza
and large fish-canning establishments.
It is also engaged in boat building. The
harbor of Victoria for lai^e vessels is
at Esqulmault, 3 miles distant, where
there is a station of the British navy.
Pop. 31,660.
Victoria. S^ Hong-Kong,
Victoria T (Alexandbina), Queen
VlClona X ^^ q^^^ Britain and Ire-
land and Empress of India, only child of
Edward, duke of Kent, and of his wife
Princess Victoria Mary Louisa, was bom
at Kensington Palace, May 24. 1819.
Her father died January 23, 1820, and
she became heiress-presumptive to the
crown on the accession of William IV
in 1830. The latter dying without issue
(June 20, 1837), she ascended the throne
of Great Britain and Ireland, that of
Hanover falling by the Salic law to her
uncle, the Duke of Cumberland. She
was crowned in Westminster Abbey,
June 28, 1838, and on Feb. 10, 1840.
married her cousin, Prince Albert of
Saze-Goburg-Gotha, who died December
14, 1861. In 1876 she assumed the title
was so marked by literary progress and
political and industrial development that
it is spoken of appreciatively as the Vic-
torian era, as a counterpart of the
Elizabethan era. She died Jan. 22, 1901.
Victoria Cross, ? British military
V xw uvi xc* vrx voa, decoration i n s t i -
tuted at the close of the Crimean war in
1856. It is granted to soldiers and
sailors of any .
rank for a sin- I I_
ffle act of valor f^f^^^S^^^
m presence of '■ ^^^'^^s^^ • — »
the enemy. It
was instituted
in imitation of
the French cross
of the Legion
of Honor. It is
a Maltese cross,
with a royal
crown in the
center, sur-
mounted by a
lion„ and the
words * For
Valour 'indented
on a scroll be-
low the crown.
Victoria Oroii.
Queen Victoria.
of Empress of India. Her children were
nine in number, of whom the eldest, Vic-
toria, became empress of Germany, and
the second, Albert Edward, succeeded her
on the throne, as Edward VII. A strik-
ing feature of the Victorian era was the
rapid development and extension of the
British colonies. Of the warlike events
of her reign the most important were
those of the Crimea and South Africa
and the rebellion in India. Her period
The ribbon is red for the army, and blue
for the navy. A pension of £10 a year
accompanies the decoration. Since the
foundation upwards of 400 officers and
men have been recipients of this honor.
Victoria FaUs, SaiSbSrVhic'h
see), in lat 17* 55' s.. Ion. 26'* 32r k. The
river here, nearly a mile broad, drops 330
feet into a narrow transverse fissure or
crack crossing its course, the water then
Massing away in a narrow rocky gorge,
'hey vie with Niagara Falls in grandeur
and surpass them In height. These falls
were discovered by Livingstone in 1866.
The gorge above the falls is now crossed
by a single-span railway bridge, the most
elevated structure of its kmd in the
world, the rails standing 420 feet above
the water.
Victoria Harbor. ^^ Lahuan.
Victoria Land, South Victoria,
the name given that portion of the sup-
posed Antarctic continent which bounds
Ross Sea on the west. It is mountain-
ous in character, and contains the two
volcanoes Erebus and Terror. South-
ward it extends from Cape Adare to a
lofty plateau of wide extent.
Victoria Nyanza, i,;f4%2^„t'^
miles inland from the Indian Ocean,
crossed near its north end by the equator,
about 3800 feet above the sea ; area, about
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Victoria Eegia
Vienna
26,000 square miles, or nearly as large
as Scotland. It communicates with the
Albert Nyanza by means of the Victoria
Nile, and is the principal feeder of the
Nile, It contains many islands, some of
them of considerable size. The Ripon
Falls, about 1200 feet across, mark the
discharge of the Nile from the lake. It
was discovered by Captain Speke in
1858. The area of the lake is almost
equally divided between British and
German East Africa. Its most impor-
tant tributary is the Kagera, now looked
upon as the head-stream of the Nile.
Victoria Beeia, ^^^ "^^^l 8^»?° *^
w AwvvAAw M»^^xc»9 ^ magnificent wa-
ter lily, first found in the river Berbice,
in British Guiana, in 1837, by Sir
Robert Schomburgk. It belongs to the
nat. order of Nymphseacese, and was
tive, bom at Arras in 1771. He began
his career as a thief, and was suc-
cessively soldier, deserter, gambler, and
vagabond, being often imprisoned for his
offenses. He entered the police service
as a detective in 1810, his success in this
vocation being so great as to give him a
wide reputation. He died in 1850, leav-
ing a history of his exploits, which is
not considered truthful.
Vi PT1 Ti II. ( v§ - en ' n4 ; German, Wien) ,
liifsuuu, capital of the Austro-Hun-
garian Empire, is situated in a plain on
the right bank of t^e Danube, and is
intersected by a narrow arm of the river
into which fall the Wien and other small
streams. The city proper is surrounded
with a rampart and ditch, called the
Lines, and consists of the Innere Stadt,
or old town, and the municipal districts
Street in Vienna.
dedicated by the discoverer to Queen
Victoria. The leaves measure 5 or 6 feet
across; they are of a bright green above
and a deep violet on the lower surface,
with a uniformly turned-up margin about
3 inches hi^h. The flowers are more than
1 foot in diameter, are of all shades from
white to pink, and exhale an agreeable
odor. The plant is successfully culti-
vated in the United States.
Vienna (vi-lK]p'y&)f a ruminant ani-
mal {Auchenia vicugna) ,
closely allied to the llama. It is a
native of South America, frequenting the
lofty slopes of the Andes of Chile, etc.,
near the region of perpetual snow, and
somewhat resembles the chamois in its
habits. See Llama,
Vidoca ^ ^^ " ^^^ ^ ♦ Eugene Fran-
^*^ QOiB, a famous French detec-
of Leopoldstadt, the chief commercial
district : Landstrasse, the official district ;
Mariahilf, Neubau, and Margaretben,
manufacturing districts; Alser^rund,
containing large general and military
hospitals; and the residential districts of
Wieden, Josefstadt, and Favoriten, besides
extensive suburbs. The old town is still
the court and fashionable quarter of the
city, and is encircled by the Ringstrasse,
a handsome boulevard, 55 yards wide.
Vienna is on the whole a handsome, well-
built town, with fine squares and
straight and spacious streets. The
Prater, a public park on the bank of the
Danube, is about 4 miles long and 2
broad, and is considered the finest public
park in Europe. Of the churches the
most remarkable is the Domkirche, or
cathedral, of St. Stephen, a crucifonn
Digitized by
Googk
Vienna
Vienna
Gothic structure, with a maiu tower 453
feet high. The interior is adorned with
numerous statues and monuments, and
the tower contains a bell of 18 tons
weight. The Capuchin church contains
the imperial burying vaults; the Votiv-
kirche (1856-79) is one of the finest
St. Stephens, Yiemia.
specimens of modem Gothic The im-
perial palace (Kaiserliche Burg) is a
poor though ancient structure; the im-
perial summer residence, Sch5nbrunn, is
about 2 miles from the city. The
modern palaces of the archdukes and
others of the nobility are, many of themi
handsome buildings. Deserving of spe-
cial mention are the houses of parlia-
ment, the magnificent Gothic town-house
(1872-83), the courts of justice, the
museums of art and of natural history,
and the exchange. The university was
founded in 1237, and reorganized by
Maria Theresa. It has some 350 teach-
ers. 6000 students, and a library of 340,-
00() vols. Other notable public buildings
are the Joseph inum (an academy for
army surgeons), the Polytechnic Insti-
tute, and the Seminar! um, a Roman
Catholic institute for the training of
priests. There are also Hungarian and
Protestant theological institutes, an acad-
emy of fine arts, a conservatoire of
music, several public libraries and mu-
seums, and a number of gymnasia and
schools. The imperial library contains
900,000 volumes and 25,000 MSS. The
imperial museum of natural history is
one of the finest in Europe. The Treas-
ury, among other imperial treasures, con-
tains the regalia of Charlemagne. There
are many hospitals and other benevolent
institutions, and the scientific and liter-
ary associations are too numerous to
mention. The principal theaters are the
Hofburg and the Stadt theaters, and the
fine Opera house. Vienna is the first
manufacturing town in the empire, and
its manufactures include cotton and silk
goods, leather, porcelain, arms, hardware,
and man^ other articles. There is also
a large inland trade. Vienna appears
to have been a Roman station in the
first century. It was afterwards in-
cluded in Upper Pannonia, and called
V Tubotirt. After being taken by Attila,
f 47(0, and by Charlemagne, about
. it became the capital of the margra-
■ ^ of Austria in 1142, a free im-
V' rial city \n 1237; it was besieged by
Suitiin Solyman in 1529, and by Kara
Miji^taphn in 1683, was occupied by Napo-
iiiPii, November 13, 1805, and May 12,
1809; the old walls were demolished in
1860. It is now the center of a great
railway system, and the regulation and
deepening of the Danube is expected to
make it the center of the shipping trade
between eastern and western Europe.
Pop. (1911) 2,004,291.
Vienna Congress of. This congress
w x\iiLiM,ny ^^g assembled on November
1, 1814, to reorganize the political sys-
tem of Europe after the first overthrow
of Napoleon. The principal powers rep-
resented in it were Austria, Russiat
Prussia, England, and France. Spain,
Portugal, Sweden, and other minor
powers were also consulted on matters
more nearly concerning them. Xh«
i
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Yienne
Viga
leadinf territorial adjuftmentt effected
by the congrees were the following >—
Austria recovered Lombards and Ye-
netia, while Tuecany and Modena were
conferred on collateral branches of the
imperial house. The King of Sardinia
recovered Piedmont and Savoy, with the
addition of Genoa. Murat retained Na-
ples, but the Bourbons were soon rein-
stated. Holland and Belgium were
erected into a kingdom for William I,
Prince of Orange. Hanover, with the
title of king, was returned to the King
of England, and Great Britain retained
Malta, Heligoland, and several con-
quered colonies. A federative constitu-
tion, with a diet at Frankfort, was es-
tablished for Germany. Prussia re-
ceived the duchy of Posen, the Rhine
province, and a part of Saxony. Russia
received the greater part of the ipand-
dnchy at Warsaw, Cracow becoming a
free state, protected by Russia, Austria,
and Prussia. Sweden retained Norway,
and Denmark was indemnified with Lau-
enburg. The congress was suddenly
broken up by Napoleon's escape from
Elba (February, 1815) ; but its acts
were signed by the powers interested on
June 9, 1815.
Vienne i'^^ol' r'UJ^Tre.'^KS
square miles. The surface is generally
fiat; it is well watered by the Vienne
and the Creuse. Three-fifths of the sur-
face is arable, and all kinds of cereals,
maize, hemp, and indifferent wines are
produced. Iron is abundant, and there
are excellent quarries of marble, granite,
millstones, whetstones, lithographic stones,
and limestone. The manufactures con-
sist of woolens, lace, cutlery, paper, pig-
iron, etc The capital is Poitiers. Pop.
336343.— Haute- VIENNE ( Ot-v«-enn ;
'Upper Vienne') is a hilly department
adjoining Vienne on the southeast; area,
2130 sq. miles. Almost the whole de-
partment belon^^s to the basin of the
Loire, and it is crossed by the upper
course of the Vienne. The principal
crops are buckwheat, rye, beans and
peas; and horses, mules and swine of a
superior breed are reared. Minerals in-
clude iron, copper, tin, lead, coal, anti-
mony and kaolin. Porcelain, woolen and
other tissues, paper and leather are the
chief manufactures. Limoges is the cap-
ital. The Limoges chinaware ranks with
the finest made. Pop. (1906) 333,021.
ViATiTiA & town of France, depart-
V icuuc, jjjgjjj. ^j j^j,^ ^^ ^g Rhone,
41) miles n. n. w. of Grenoble. It is an
ancient place, with narrow dark streets.
It has a cathedral, a museum, public
llbraryi college, etc Vienne contains
namarons Roman remains, and figures
prominently in ecclesiastical history, and
was the capital of the Burgundian king-
dom. Pop. 24,619.
ViATOPTi (fSr'i^n), a town of Rhenish
Vicrscu Pr^^i^ district of DOssel-
dorf, 18 miles w. of town of that name,
and 10 miles s. w. of Crefeld. It has
important manufactures of satin, plush,
silk, woolen, linen, and cotton fabrics;
leather, tobacco, etc Pop. 27,577.
Yierwaldstattersee. l^^^^/f^"^
ViPrsjATi (vyllr-»6p), a French town.
Vierzon department of Cher, 124
miles 8. of Paris. It has manufactures
of machinery, porcelain, glass, etc» and
a technical school. Pop. 11,812.
Vio^iraTiA (vi-jft'vA-n6), a town of
Vl^Vano n^iy province of Pavia,
on the Mora, 15 miles s. 8. E. of Novara.
It is a bishop's see, and has manufactures
of silks, hats, soap and macaroni. Pop.
18,0^
Vi^^fiftOn (vig'fas-sun), Gudbrand^
Vl^USBOn ^ Scandinavian scholar,
bom in Iceland in 1827; died at Oxford
in 1889. He was educated first at the
high school of Reikiayik, afterwards at
Copenhagen University. He lived in
Copenhagen from 1849 till 1864, having
devoted himself to the study of old Ice-
landic literature. His first work, Tima-
ialf on the chronology of the SagoBt
was published in 1855, and revealed the
hand of a master. In 1858 he brought
out the Bitkupa 85gur, or * Lives of the
Icelandic Bishops,' and in 1864 the Epr-
hy^gja Saga, In the latter vear he came
to England to undertake the Icelandic-
English Lexicon, begun by Cleasby, and
in 1866 began at Oxford this work, which
kept him engaged for seven years, the
result being the excellent dictionary is-
sued from the Clarendon Press. In 1878
the Clarendon Press published his Stur-
lunga 8aga, to which he prefixed Pro-
leaomena, containing a complete history
of the classic literature of Iceland. This
was followed by several minor works and
essays, by the Orkneyinga Saga and
Hahonar aaga, and by the Corpui Poeti-
cum Boreale (in conjunction with F.
York Powell), a complete collection of
the ancient Icelandic poetry, with trans-
lation. At the time of his death he was
engaged upon a work entitled Originet
Islandiw,
Vicil (^*i'>'l I-at^^ <^V»^» watchful),
o an ecclesiastical term applied at
first to the evening, and afterwards to
the whole day, preceding a great festival.
This name originated from the circum-
stance that the early Christians spent a
part of the night preceding such festivala
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Vigilance Committee
Viking
in prayers, to prepare themselves for the
coming celebration.
Vigilance Committee, '^.Z'^l
citizens formed at times in parts of the
United States for the purpose of pun-
ishing and discouraging crimes with
which the authorities had failed to deal
with sufficient vigor. An example of
this is the uprising of such a committee
In 1885 appeared his celebrated drama
Chatterton. He also wrote SteUo
(1832) ; Servitude et Grandeur MUi-
iairee (1835) ; and Lee Desiiniea, a
philosophical poem published after his
death in 1864.
Vifi*0 (^^'C(^)» ^ ci^ ^^^ seaport of
o^ Northwestern Spain, province of
Pontevedra, <m a spacious bay. It is
surrounded by walls with bastions, and
I
in earlv San Francisco to deal with
criminals who defied the law. Lynch
law is summary justice (or injustice)
applied by such committees. Thougn
usually arising under stress of great
provocation, such organizations are apt
to develop into an evil, which in its turn
needs suppression.
Viffnv v^n-yg), Alfred Viotob,
' 6 «/ Count de, a French poet and
novelist, bom in 1799, entered the royal
guard in 1816, but retired from military
service in 1828, and devoted himself ex-
clusively to literature. He died in Paris
in 18^. His PoHnea (1822) and his
allegory of Eloa, ou la Sosur dee Angee,
placed him among the leaders of the
new romantic school of poets. In 1826
he published Po^ee Antiquee et Mod-
emee, and also an historical novel, Cinq'
Mar$9 which attracted much attention.
has steep, narrow, and tortuous streets.
The fishing of sardines and tunnies is
important, and there is an active foreign
trade. Pop. 23.259.
Vi1riTi0> (viring; from the Icelandic
vuuu^ !?♦*, a bay or fiord, and the
termination ing, implying one who be-
longs to or is descended from: literally
one who lurked in bays and issued thence
to plunder), a rover or sea-robber belong-
ing to one of the bands of Northmen
who scoured the European seas during
the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries.
This word has been frequentlv confounded
with eea-king, a term which is applied
to a man of royal race, who toox by
right the title of king when he assumed
the command of men, although only of
a ship's crew; whereas the former term
is applicable to any member of the rover
bands. See Northmen,
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Vilas yiUein
Vilas WiiJJAM F., statesman, bom and was bom at Moulins in 1653. He
vxxoo) at Chelsea, Massachusetts, in early distinguished himself under Tu-
1840; died Aug. 27, 1908. He became renne, Cond^, and Luxembourg, and was
a colonel in the Civil war, was after- created mar^chal de canip in 1690, and
wards prominent in the Democratic lieutenant-general in 1693. In the wars
Sarty, and was postmaster general 1885- of the Spanish succession he was sent
9, and secretary of the interior in 1889. to co5perate with the Elector of Bavaria.
He was United States senator 1891-97. He defeated Prince Louis of Baden at
Vilavet (vil-a-yet'), a name officially Friedlingen, October 14, 1702, for which
wxxa«jrcb uppii^ gin^»^ 13^5 ^q the he received the marshal's baton ; and ha v-
large administrative districts of Turkey, ing joined the elector, he defeated the
Vl1lA-AlfR (vil'yA-ai'tA), a town of Prince of Baden at HOchstadt, Sept 21,
▼ ±xxa axbo. i^exijjQ^ gtate of Oajaca, 1703. His success in dealing with the in-
in a fruitful region producing coffee, to- surrection of the Camisards (see Cami-
bacco, etc. Pop. 5000. sards and Cavalier, Jean) obtained for
Villach (vil'AA), an old and pictur- him the title of duke (1705). Having
esquely situated town of Aus- been sent to defend the frontier against
tria, on the Drave, with warm sulphur Marlborough, he forced the formidable
baths in the neighborhood. It has Im- lines of Stollhofen, near Strasburg, and
portant industries. Pop. 9690. penetrated far into Germany (1705-
Villafranfta (vei'lA-frftn'kA), a town 1707). In 1709 he replaced VendOme in
viiiaiiituua Q^ i^^jy^ province of Flanders, and fought the battle of Mal-
Verona, on the Tartaro. It is celebrated plaquet against Marlborough and Eugene,
as having been the center of the wars of in which he was seriously wounded. In
1848 and 1866. The preliminaries of 1712 he defeated the allies at Denain,
peace between Napoleon III and the took Marchiennes, and relieved Landrecy.
Emperor of Austria were signed here, After the Peace of Utrecht he <^posed
July 11, 1859. Pop. 5037. Eugene with uninterrupted success, and
Villaee Communities, * ^^^ ^f ??*^^j?^»5^ J^4J5 ^*S ^^^ Peac« <>' Rastadt,
wAAA<»5v \/vAUAxxuuAVA^O| political March 7. 1714. On the renewal of the
and industrial organization claimed to war with Austria, in 1733, he was sent
have widely prevailed in early times, to Italy at the head of an army, with the
and which has left its traces to the title of Marshal-general of France. After
present time. Those organizations seem a successful campaign, he died at Turin
to have been common among the tribes in 1734.
of the Aryan family of mankind, and VillAfro-nnliA (v$l-fr&9sh), a town
they still exist in the villages of Russia ▼^^ciniuuliC ^^ France, depart-
and India, while evidences of their former ment Aveyron, at the junction of the
existence are found in other localities. Alzou with the Aveyron. Pop. 6297.
w .?^V^ ^®H!!" ^^""i ^ -A^"^^ ?^ l*?f Villefranchc-siir-Sadne ^:^V
built their huts, and laid out fields ^ ^^^^^^^v**^ 01** wmvu^ sOn),a
which they cultivated in common as one town of France, in the department of
great family. Every few years the land Rhone, on the SaOne, 20 miles N. w. of
surrounding the village was divided into Lyons. Pop. 14,794.
family lots, while beyond these lots was Villelia.rdo'llin (vil-Ar-^lJ-ap). G»OF-
a larger area used in common for pastur- ^ *"^'»*«**"'Vuj.xi yroy de, a French
age or other j^urposes. The Russian historian, bom about 1160, died about
Jitr, or village, is a significant example 1213. He took an important part in the
of this interesting phase of civilization, fourth crusade, was present at the siege
The government is in the hands of an and capture of Constantinople, and when
elected council of village elders and a the Greek emperor was overthrown and
headman acting as chief of the council. Baldwin established in his stead, he re-
VillaiOVOSa (vil-yA-AO-yO'sA), a sea- ceived an extensive territory for himself
V UmMj V J voo. p^j^ q£ Spain, province in Thrace. His Histoire de la Con-
Alicante, in the Mediterranean. Pop. quite de Constantinople, is one of the
8902. most valuable historical works of the
Villarreal (vSl-yAr-ra-ar), a town of middle ages.
Spain, province Castillon, Villein (vil'en), a species of feudal
4 miles from the Mediterranean, in an ***^*** seHa who were allowed to
orange growing district. It is sur- hold portions of land at the will of their
rounded by old walls. Pop. 16,068. lord, on condition of performing menial
Villa.r8 (^iJ"^'')» CJlaude Louis Heo- and non-military services. It frequently
TOB, Due DE, one of the great- happened that lands held in villeinage
est generals of the age of Louis XIV, descended in uninterrupted snccession
was the son of the Marquis de Villars, from father to son, antil at length the
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ViUcncnvc Vimy Bidge
occupiers or villeins became entitled, by sqnare miles and a ponulation of l,501r
prescription or custom, to bold their 112. The surface is generally flat, and
lands so long as they performed the re- the government produces good crops of
quired services. And although the vil- grain, hemp, and flax. Manufactures and
leins themselves acquired freedom, or trade are limited. The town of Vilna
their land came into the possession of dates back to the 10th century. It was
freemen, the villein services were still the capital of Lithuania in 1320, and was
the condition of the tenure, according to united with Poland in 1447. It is re-
the custom of the manor. These cus- ported to have had a printing press as
toms were preserved and evidenced by the early as 1519. Armies have devastated it
rolls of the several courts-baron, in which many times. It was almost obliterated in
they were entered, or kept on foot by the the Ilusso-Polish wars. It was captured by
constant immemorial usage of the several the Russians in 1655 and ceded to Russia
manors in which the lands lay. And as in 1656. The Swedes occupied it in 1702
such tenants had nothing to show for and in 1706. The Russians again took
their estates but the entries into those possession in 1788 and it was finally an-
rolls, or copies of them authenticated by nexed to Russia in 1705, after the parti-
the steward, they at last came to be tion of Poland. In the great European
called tenants by copy of court-roll, and war the Teutonic forces fought their way
their tenure a copyhold, to Vilna in 1015. The evacuation by the
Vill ATI ATiifA ( v€l - neiiv ) , P I E B B E Russians occurred on September 19.
vixiciiCUYC ^^Bi^g i^^ B^. yjjneiro (vi-ma'i-r&), a village of
TiSTE SiLVESTBB DE, a French admiral, *'^***^**«* Portuguese Estremadura, 3
bom in 1763, entered the navy in 1777. miles from Torres Vedras. It is remark-
He led the rear division at the battle able for the battle between Wellington
of the Nil^ and escaped with his own and Junot, fought on August 21, 1808,
and four other ships to Malta. In 1804 which was followed by the Convention of
he was made vice-admiral, and in 1805 Cintra (August 30).
Napoleon appointed him to the command Virnv Bldfire Battle of. The
of the Toulon squadron, with orders to : ^ -^^^w, ^^^ ^^^ named is
divert the British fleet from the Eu- the last elevation in the range of chalk
ropean coasts. He was eventually shut hills which extend from the North Sea to
up in Cadiz by Nelson, but with the hope Arras. It has two prolonged summits, the
of repairing his ill success by a brilliant northern one named La Folie, from a for-
victonr he sailed out of Cadiz, along with ^ler farm on its side; the southern one
the Spanish fleet under Gravina, and called Telegraph HilL as the seat of an
offered the enemy battle off Cape Trafal- old semaphore post, it was laid open to
gar (which see). Villeneuve's flagship, attack as a result of the battle of the
the Buoentaure, was captured, and the Somme (g. i?.). As the Germans retired
admiral taken as prisoner to England, after the assault on the Somme this de-
In April, 1806, he was released and re- vation offered them a post of great nat-
tumed to France, but learning that his oral strength and they prepared to hold it
reception by the emperor would be un- at all costs, planting a strong force in
favorable, he committed suicide. the fortifications along its crest and sides.
TT-ii fK^ TtomA ^f a n.,»,K^. lo the autumn of 1916 a force of Cana-
VllleneUVe, *of ° iu„wnRfnF?fn^/ ^ans under Sir JuHan Byng was moved
. ■ of small towns m France, ^^ t^is front and remained there during
. . ^ - - ^^
i
/ ,# jt V M prelude to the battle was a bombardment
Vllllfl.. 2.^ WiLNA (vfilna), a town of of great vigor, guns thundering continu-
> Russia, capital of the govern- ously against the height, whUe a fleet of
ment of the same name, aa the Villa. It aircraft moved to and fro above the
is picturesquely situated, and contains trenches, directing the fire of the artillery
numerous churches and convents. It has and driving off German idrplanes.
a governor's palace, a town-house, Greek By the time fixed for the assault, at
and Roman Catholic cathedrals, and the end of the first week of ApriL hardly
numerous educational establishments, a foot of land remained on the ridge not
There is a considerable trade in agricul- torn by shellfire. The time fixed for the
tural produce sent to Baltic ports, assault was the hour of 5.80 in the mom-
Pop. 10^,000.— The government, which ing. Rain was falling heavily and the
lies m the Baltic, has an area of 16,406 ground was a bed of mud. The distano*
i8 lo
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Vimy Bidge
Vinci,
)
to the hilltop varied from 1200 yards to a
mile. As the Canadians advanced, under
the protection of a barrage of shellfire,
they were subjected to a tierce bombard-
ment, chiefly of machine guns» on the ex-
treme left. But they were not to be
checked, and in a half hour they had
reached and won the front line trenches
in the center of La Folie ridge. Many of
the Germans were ready and eager to sur-
render, as for a number of days their food
supply had been cut off by the intense
artillery fire. By nightfall the crest of
Telegraph Hill had also been won, the
only point still held by the Germans being
HiU 145, where a strong resistance was
kept up by machine guns. When the
morning of April 10 broke, the rain of
the preceding day had changed to snow,
which swept over the ridge in a driving
storm. But the daring Canadians were
not to be held back, and in a short time
HiU 145 was in their hands. Still an-
other hill here confronted them, an eleva-
tion which they had given the name of
'The Pimple.' This was held bv a body
of the Prussian Guard, and on the morn-
ing of the 12th, the time fixed for the as-
sault, the courageous Canadians, who had
defeated a strong German counter-attack
on the previous day, made a vigorous dash
upon this final stronghold. A driving
snow-storm was raging, the slopes of the
Pimple were deep in mud, but the Cana-
dians hurled themselves forward and won
their way to the trenches, where a hand-
to-hand fight went on. The assault kept
up for nearly an hour, at the end of which
the Pimple was won and its garrison dead
or prisoners.
By nightfall the Canadian line had ex-
tended till it reached beyond the Vimy-
Arras Railway, while Vimy, Petit Vimy
and several other villages had been taken.
In their forward movement the cavalry,
which had so little to do in this struggle,
played its first active part, riding far in
advance of the infantrv, and capturing
villages and gun positions as it went.
The retreat of the Germans from this
fierce assault was in no sense a matter of
strategy. They were driven back with
such impetuosity that they had no time
to remove their guns, many of them being
left behind uninjured, while a large supply
of ammunition was abandoned. The
final act in the battle of Vimy Ridge was
the dashing capture of Arleux by the
Canadians. The victory, as a whole, is
claimed as the most important won by the
Allies to that date, and, in the words of
Belloc, * the greatest operation in the mili-
tary history of England.' However this
estimate be reearded, the Canadians won
glory for their native land, the chief
among the British colonies. What had
been called * the hinge of the Hindenburg
line ' was in their hands, and a door had
been opened to the plains surrounding
Doust. From the Vim^r Ridge the British
dominated Lens, the important coal re-
gions that surround it, and the valley of
the Scarpe. In this week of battle the
Canadians captured 4081 prisoners, 63
guns of all calibres, 124 machine guns
and 104 trench mortars, while their cas-
ualties barely equalled the number of
prisoners taken.
VinneTiTies (va^-senn), a town of
V mcennes prance, department of Uie
Seine, about 2 miles east of Paris. Its
large old castie was once the residence of
the French kings, but was converted into
a State prison by Louih XI. Pop. 29,791.
Vincennes ilL-Ti^'o" ^*Ji~"5i!
diana, on the Wabash River, 58 miles
8. by w. of Terre Haute. The river is
navigable to this point. Manufactures
include flour, lumber, staves, glass, paper,
tools, furniture, steel sashes and doors,
steel bridge, farm implements, sewer pipe,
etc. There are coal mines, oil and gas
wells in the vicinity, and a shipping trade
in grain and catUe. Pop. 143^.
VinnpTif (vin'sent), John Jervis.
Yinceni Eabl or St., a distinguish^
British naval commander, bom at Mea-
ford, Staffordshire, in 1734. He entered
the navy at an early age, and commanded
the Foudroyant in the action between
Admiral Keppel and the French fleet in
July, 1778. In 1794 he commanded a
squadron in the West Indies, and re-
duced Martinique, Guadeloupe, and St.
Lucia. On the 14th of February, 1797,
in command of the Mediterranean squad-
ron of fifteen sail, he defeated twenty-
seven Spanish ships of the line off Cape
St. Vincent, and was created a peer with
the titie of Baron Jervis and Earl of St.
Vincent, and a pension of £3000 a year.
In 1799 he became admiral ; in 1801 first
lord of the admindtv; and in 1821 ad-
miral of the fleet. He died in 1823.
ViTinpTif St.. one of the British West
vmueui, India Islands. See 8t Vin-
cent.
Vincent de Paul, H yf^^J";^
Vinci (vin'ch^s), Lbonardo da, one of
the greatest Italian painters,
also distinguished as a sculptor, architect,
and civil and military engineer, a
scientific inventor, and a man of uni-
versal genius, was the natural son of
Pietro da Vinci, a Florentine notary, and
was bom at tne village of Vinci, near
Florence, in 1452. He excelled in nil
accomplishments, and acquired distinction
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Vinci Vine
in mathematics, pbiysics, botany, anatomy, have availed themselves. In 1797 some
literature, and philosophy; but he espe- frannents of Da Vinci's were published
dally excelled in the arts of design, and at Paris under the title of Essai $ur les
his father placed him in the studio of Ouvrageg Phyiico-MaiMmaiiqueg de
Andrea Verocchio, a celebrated pamter Leonard da Vincif etc., which created a
and sculptor, who was soon surpassed by profound sensation by their scientific in-
his pupil. Two of his earlier productions sight and anticipation of modem dis-
are still extant: The Adoration of the coveries. Da Vinci's paintings were the
Magi, in the gallery of the Ufl^i at result of profound theoretical study of
Florence, and The Virgin of the Roche his art; fie executed slowly, and was
in the British National Gallery. About seldom satisfied with his finish of a pic-
1482 he entered the service of Ludovico ture, so high was his ideaL His knowl-
il Moro, duke of Milan, by whom he was edge of anatomv was deep. He made a
employed in engineering as well as special study of the human countenance
artistic work. His great painting of the under all circumstances. His extant
Lord*e Supper was finished in 1499. The works are few, and some of those at-
original has been wholly defaced, but tributed to him are believed to have been
judginff from copies and engravings, this executed by his pupils,
work Is universally regarded as one of Vindhva MonntfllnS (vind'hya),
the greatest ever produced. One of the • ***^***,7«' -^^ •***"«•***•» a mountain
range in India, stretching east to west
from the basin of the Ganges to Guzerat
It forms the N. boundary of the valley of
the Nerbudda, and unites the north ex-
tremities of the Eastern and Western
Ghauts. It is of granitic formation,
overlaid with sandstone.
Vine (.^^)» & well-known climbing
^ shrub, type of the order Vitaceee,
which consists of climbing plants with
woody stems, simple or compound leaves,
peduncles sometimes changed into ten-
drils, small green flowers, and round
berries. The species are found in both
the Old and New Worlds, especially in
Asia. The best known and most useful
of the order is the Vitia vinifira, the
grapevine, cultivated in the Old World
Leonardo da Vinci. from time immemorial, of which there
are numerous varieties, distinguished by
best copies is that in the Royal Academy, possessing lobed sinuately-toothed, naked
London, by his pupil, Marco d' Oggi- or downv leaves. It is a native of Cen-
onno. After the occupation of Milan by tral Asia, and its cultivation extends
Louis XII (1499) he retired to Florence, from near SS"* north latitude to the
where he painted his celebrated portrait equator, but in south latitude it only ex-
of Mona Liea del Giocondo, known as La tends to about 40^. It is rarely grown
(hoconda, in the Louvre (from which it at a greater altitude than 3000 feet,
has recently been stolen). In 1502 he France is probably the greatest vine-
was appointed chief engineer and archi- growing country in the world, though its
tect of the pope's army, and visited many cultivaticm is active in several other
of the fortified posts in the papal do- countries of Europe. Several species of
minions. In 1607 he returned to Milan, vine are indigenous in North America,
and painted a Madonna and ChUd in the as the Vitie Lahrueoa, the wild vine or
Ealace of the Melzi at Vaprio. In 1512 fox-grape ; F. cordifolia or riparia, heart-
e jpalnted two portraits of Duke Maxi- leaved vine, river-side vine, or frost-
milian, son of Ludovico, and in 1516 ac- grape; and V. cutivdlia, the summer
companied Francis I to France. He died grape. About 1771 a European vine was
at Cloux, near Amboise, May 2, 1519. introduced on the Pacific slope, and the
Leonardo executed several important en- culture has increased to great dimensions,
gineering works at Milan, and wrote especiallv in California. In other parts
numerous treatises^ few of which have of the United States, however, the native
been published. His Trattato della Pit- American species are chiefly cultivated,
tura was printed in 1651, and contains and a number of excellent varieties have
a mass of information on the principles been produced, both for table and wine
of art, of which all subsequent writers purposes. The vine has also been hitro-
i
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Vinegar
Vinland
duced into Australia, where it thrives
well, and Quantities of wine are pro-
duced. The vine grows in every sort of
soil, but that which is light and gravelly
is best suited for the production of fine
wines. It is a long-lived plant; indeed,
in suitable climates the period of its
duration is not known. It is propagated
from seeds, layers, cuttings, graftings, and
by inoculation, the first method being used
for obtaining new varieties. Some vines
produce dark-colored berries (black or
red so called), others white. The Bur-
gundy may be considered the most gen-
eral vineyard grape of France, and the
best wines in Italy and Spain are also
made from grapes of this description.
The sweet wines are made from sweet-
berried grapes allowed to remain on the
plants till overripe. Most varieties of
the vine bear only once in the season,
some oftener, especially in warm cli-
mates. In recent times the vine has
been subject to a disease caused by the
frowth of a fungus known as Otdium,
t appeared about 1845, and gradually
spread over Southern Europe. Its rav-
ages abated about 1863, but the vine has
since been attacked by a still more de-
structive disease produced by an insect
called the Phytlowera (which see).
Grapes are extensively used in the dry
state under the name of raisins, chiefly
imported from Spain and the Levant, and
now largely produced in California. The
dried currants of commerce are tho
produce of the small seedless Corinthian
grape which is cultivated in Greece and
m many of the Greek Islands. The vine
is mentioned in the most ancient his-
torical records, and the grape has been
in use for the making of wine for more
than 4000 years. The Phoenicians intro-
duced the vine into Europe. Vineyards
are mentioned in Domesday Book as ex-
isting in England, but in the reign of
Henry II the cultivation of the vine
began to be neglected. For the manu-
facture of wines see Wine,
ViTiPcrar (vin'e-gar), the name given
viuc^ui j^ ^jijy^g ^jj^ impure acetic
acid (which see), obtained by the vinous
fermentation. In wine countries it is
obtained from the acetous fermentation
of inferior wines, but elsewhere it is
usuffUy procured from an infusion of
malt which has previously undergone the
vinous fermentation. Vinegar may also
be obtained from strong beer, by the
fermentation of various fruits, or of a
solution of sugar mixed with yeast; in
short, all liquids which are capable of
the vinous fermentation may be made to
produce vinegar. The cider of apples,
tQr example^ is largely converted into
vinegar. Vinegars yield by distillation
a purer and somewhat weaker acetic acid,
called diatiUed vinegar. Wood vinegar
is an impure acetic acid obtained by the
distillation of wood; called also Pyrolig-
neous acid. Common and distilled vine-
gar are used in phannacy for preparing
many remedies, and externally in medi-
cine, in the form of lotions. The use of
vinegar as a condiment is universaL
ViTiAcyo'r.AAl &n animal so called
Txuc^iur-cei^ ^^^ .^ eel-like shape.
but in fact a minute thread-worm or
Nematode which is found in paste, vine-
gar stagnant water, and in . fermenting
and decaying substances. Its body is al-
most transparent, though with thick cu-
ticle, and it multiplies with great rapidity.
Vinegar-plant, It^f^enUu)^:
fflaucunit a fungus found on decaying
substances, and in fluids in a state of
acetification. It forms a flocculent mass,
which is tough and crust-like or leathery.
A small piece of this when immersed in
a mixture of sugar or treacle and water
produces a rather insipid kind of vinegar.
VitiaIcitiiI a borough in Cumberland
VXUeiaua, ^^^ yr^^ Jersev, 34 mUes
8. by E. of Philadelphia. Glass, boots,
shoes, clothing, grape juice and wine are
Sroduced, and there is a large poultry
idustrv. A Training School and State
Home for Feeble-minded are located here.
Pop. 5282.
Vinet (▼i'^A)* Alexandre Rodolphe,
a Swiss theologian and writer,
bom at Lausanne in 1797 ; died in 1847.
In 1817 he was appointed professor of
the French languaj^e and hterature at
the Basel Gymnasium, in 1835 at the
Basel University, and in 1837 accepted
the chair of theology in the academy at
Lausanne. In 1840 he seceded from the
national church, maintaining that there
should be no connection between (jhurch
and State. His views on this subject
were enforced in his Eaaai $ur la Jfani-
feataiion dea ConvictioM reHgieuaea^
et aur la Separation de VEgliae de VEtat
(1842). In 1815 he gave up his chair.
He was an earnest and eloquent preacher,
and wrote Hiatoire de la LtttSraiure
Francaiae, au XVIIl^ Siide; Etudes aur
la Litt6rature Frangaiae du XlXs
Sidcle^ etc.
Vinland (vin'land), the name giver
VUUana ^^ ^^^ settlement madS bj
the early Norsemen on the North Amer*
ican coast, probably that of New Eng-
land, though its location is questioned,
about 1000 A.D. So called from the vines
they found growing, the name signifying
*Wineland.' The settlement existed for
about ten years.
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Viol
Viper
Viol (^'^l)> ^ ^^^^'^ ^^ ancient musical
^^ instruments wliicli may be re-
garded as tlie precursors of the modem
violins. They were fretted instruments
with three to six strings, and were played
on with a bow. There were three instru-
ments differing in pitch in a set, the
treble, tenor» and bass viols, and in con-
certs they were commonly played in
pairs: two treble, two tenor, and two
bass. The bass viol, or viol de aamhOf
was the last to fall into disuse, which it
did about the close of the eighteenth
century.
Viola. ®®® yioUn and Violet.
ViolaCCSB. SeeFtofe*.
Violet (vl'ti-let; Vidla), the popular
WXVXV2V name given to the species of
the nat. order Violacen, which are favor-
ite flowers in all northern and temperate
climates, and many of them among the
first to make their appearance in the
spring. The corolla is composed of five
unequal petals; the roots are mostly
perennial; the leaves are alternate and
stipulated; and the flowers are peduncu-
late. More than a hundred species are
known. The greatest favorites are
Viola odorAtOf or common sweet violet,
and V, tricolor^ or heart*s-ease, the former
being especially esteemed for its fra-
grance. The well-known pansies, so com-
mon as garden flowers, are but varie-
ties of V. tricolor produced by cultivation.
ViftlAf one of the colors. See Color,
YXUiei., Spectrum, etc.
Violet-wood. ®^ King-wood.
VinliTi <vl'u-lin), a musical instru-
viuuu ^^^^ consisting of four cat-
gut strings, the lowest of which is
covered with silvered copper wire,
stretched by means of a 1> ridge over a
hollow wooden body, and played with a
bow. It is considered the most perfect
of musical instruments, on account of
its capabilities of fine tone and expres-
sion, and of producing all the tones in
any scale in perfect tune. It forms with
its cognates, the viola, violoncello or bass
violin, and double-bass, the main element
of all orchestras. The principal parts
of the violin are the tcroll or head, in
which are placed the pins for tuning the
strings; the necK which connects the
scroll with the body, and to which is
attached the finger-board, upon which the
strings are stopped by the fingers of the
left hand as it holds the neck in playing;
the helly, over which the strings are
stretched, and which has two /-shaped
sound holes, one on each side; the bach
or under side; the mdu or r%b9^ uniting
the back and belly; the taU-piece, to
which the strings are fastened; and the
bridge* The back, neck, and sides are
generally of sycamore, the belly of deal,
the finger-board and tail-piece of ebony.
Almost all the different pieces are fas-
tened together with glue. The four
strings of the violin are tuned at in-
tervals of fifths. G, on the upper space
of the bass staff, D, A, E, reckoning up-
wards. Every intermediate semitone in
its ordinary compass of Sj octaves may
be produced by stopping the strings with
the finjKers and the compass may be al-
most indefinitely extended upwards by
the harmonics produced by touching the
strings lightly. The viola, or tenor
violin, has four strings tuned G (in the
second space of the bass staff), D, A, O,
reckoning upwards, and is an octave
higher than the violoncello and a fifth
lower than the violin. (See Violoncello
and Contraba9$o,) The violin can, to a
limited extent, be made to produce har-
mony by sounding two or three strings
together. The finest violins are by old
makers, which cannot be imitated, and
the precise cause of their superiority has
never been satisfactorily explained. The
Cremona violins stand in the first rank,
the celebrated maker being the Stradivari
(Straduarius), Amati, and Guarneri
(Guamerius) ; of German makers the
most celebrated are Stainer or Steiner
and Klotz; Vuillaume of the French,
and Forrest of the English.
Violoncello ^ vl-u-lon-sero, or chel'd) ,
^ a powerful and express-
ive bow instrument of the violin kind,
held by the performer between the knees,
and filling a place between the violin and
double-bass. It has four strings, the two
lowest covered with silver wire. It is
tuned in fifths, O (on the second ledger-
line below the bass staff), G, D, A,
reckoning upwards, and is an octave
lower than the viola or tenor violin.
Its ordinary compass from C on the sec-
ond ledger-line below extends to A on
the second space of the treble, but soloists
frequently play an octave higher.
a name ap-
plied to va-
rious V e n o -
mous serpents
belonging to
the family
Viperidffi, sub- _
order Viper- Head and Tail of Common
ina, and char- viper {Pelia9 6#n«#).
acterized, like
other members of that section, by having
no teeth in the upper jaw save the two
i
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Virchow
Virgil
)
hollow poison-fangs. The common viper
or adder (Pelias Herua or Vipira com-
munis) ^ the only venomous serpent which
occurs in Britain, appears to be very
local in its distribution. It is generally
of a brownish-yellow color, with zigzag
markings and black triangular spots. Its
bite is, as a rule, not fatal, but may
induce pain, sickness, and fever. The
food consists of frogs, mice, birds, eggs,
etc. The viper is viviparous — retain-
ing its eggs within the body till the
young are hatched. Among other ser-
pents denominated vipers are the death
viper or adder (AcanthdphiM antarctica)
or Australia; the horned viper or asp
(Certutes Hasselquistii) and plumed
viper {Clotho cornUta) of North Africa.
No species of viper is found in America,
though Heterodan niger has been called
the black viper.
Viwyinixr (f6r'*6), Rudolph, a Ger-
¥iii.uuw ^^^ pathologist and anthro-
pologist, bom in 1821. studied medicine
at Berlin, and early became famous as
a lecturer on pathological anatomy at
Berlin University. His advanced liberal
opinions during the movement of 1848
induced the government to deprive him
(temporarily) of his appointment. In
1849 he accepted a chair at Wttrzburg,
where he remained seven years, return-^
Rudolf Virchow.
ing to Berlin in the autumn of 1856 as
professor in the university and director
of the pathological institute attached to
it. He rendered immense service to
medical science by his discoveries in re-
gard to inflammation, ulceration, tuber-
culosis, and numerous other morbid
processes of the human body, and had
great influence on the whole of modem
medicine, including hospital reform and
sanitary science. After 18^ he was one
of Bismarck^s most powerful opponents
in the Prussian parliament and Reich-
stag, and was made a member of impor-
tant commissions, etc In 1856 he was
elected an honorary member of the Royal
Society of Medicine. London; in 1859 a
corresponding member of the French
Academy of Medicine; and in 1873 a
member of the Berlin Academy of
Sciences. He was on« of the founders
of the German Anthropological Society,
and an enthusiastic worker in this field,
accumulating facts (partly in company
with Schliemann) in Asia Minor, the
Caucasus, Egypt, Nubia, etc. Among
his important works are: Cellular Pa-
tholoffy, Handhuch der Speziellen Pathol-
ogie und Therapie, Vber den Hunger^
iyphu9, Die Aufgabe den Naturwiisen-
aohaften in dem neuen nationdlen
Lehen Deut8chland$j Die Freiheii der
Wisaenschaft im Modemen Staat^ and
many others. Most of his medical works
have been translated into English. He
died SepL 5, 1902.
Virril (ver'jil), full name, Publius
'**o** VIBGILIU8 (or Vebgiuub ),
Mabo, the most distinguished epic, didac-
tic, and pastoral poet of ancient Rome,
was born at Andes (probably Pietola),
a little village near Mantua, October
15, 70 B.C. His father possessed a
:farm there, which he cultivated himself,
and Virgil received a good education.
He appears to have come to Rome about
41 or 40 B.C., when his estate was lost
at the time of the agrarian division. It
was restored to him, however, on applica-
tion to Augustus, who henceforward be-
came his patron. He also enjoyed the
patronage of Maecenas, and was intimate
with Horace. His health was delicate,
and his retiring nature led him to reside
for the most part outside Rome, either at
Tarentum or Naples. His Eclogues^ a
series of bucolic or pastoral poems, were
written about 41-39 B.C. His Oeorgics,
a poem on agriculture, was completed in
B.C. 81. The JEneid, an epic in twelve
books on the fortunes of iBneas (which
see), was probably begun about B.C. 29.
It occupied the author many years, and
never received his finishing touches. In
RC. 20 Vinil appears to have engaged on
a tour in Greece. But Augustus, havhig
arrived at Athens on his return from the
East, Virgil determined to accompany
him home. At Megara, however, he fell
sick, and he died at Brundusium, B.C. 19.
His poems exhibit a remarkable command
of language, and great taste and skill
in the management of all the materials
of poetry. He is unrivaled in beauty
of versification. He was amiable and
modest, free from envy and jealousy, and
of irreproachable character. Medieval
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Virginia City Vishnu
of Dulath. It has iron mining interests. Vischer (fis^'ir), Peteb, a Gennan
Pop. 10,473. *ov«.^x sculptor, bom at Nuremberg,
Vir<yiTii£i TifTT county seat of Storey Bavaria, In 1455, son of a worker in
Txxgxiiia vxbjr, q^^ Nevada, is situ- bronze. Little is known of his private
ated in a rocky region of the Sierra life, but he attained great fame as an
Nevada, at an elevation of 6205 feet. It artist, and received orders both from
owes its importance to its gold and silver German and foreign princes. His most
mines, especially the famous Comstock celebrated work is the tomb of St
Lode and the Big Bonanza* which were Sebaldas in Nuremberg, which contains
long the richest producers of silver in the seventy-two figures, besides those of the
United States. Pop. 2244. apostles and prophets. He died at
Vir<niiifl (]t^^i\^t the ParikenooU' Nuremberg in 1529.
Virginia Ureeper, ^^^ quinquefoUa, Viaconti (vis-kon'te), an old Milan-
a climbing plant, native of the United ^ *»^""«'A ese family, celebrated for its
States, nsed as an ornamental covering political consequence and its patronage
for walls, etc, and sometimes called ilmsr- of science. The family reached the sum-
ican Ivy, mit of its grandeur and splendor in the
Vironniji TyTilifonr Tuafif-nf^ reign of Gian Galeazzo, who assumed
Virginia OUll^ary XnSlUnxe, the government in 1385. In later years
a state school esteblished In 1889 at Lex- it decreased in importance,
ington, Va. The instructors hold com- Visconnt (^I'kount), a title of no-
missions in the state militia and the stu- »*»^vmkU.v ^jjity u^xt in rank to that
dents are organised as a military corps of of earl, and immediately above that of
cadets. During the Civil War the cadets baron. It is the most recently estab-
were in active service for thirteen months, lisbed English title, having been first
Vir<niiifl TTiiiirATVifir (officially The conferred by letters patent on John,
Vir^nia UniVCrSUy "ffniversUy of Lord Beaumont, by Henry VI in 1440.
Virffinia), near Charlottesville, Virginiau The title is frequently attached to an
was chartered in 1819, and opened earldom as a second title, and is held
in 1824 under the rectonuiip of Thomas by the eldest son during the lifetime of
Jefferson. It enjovs stote patronage, the father. See Peer, Nobility and Coro*
receives an annual grant of money, net.
and has a library containing 75,000 ViftTiTin (vish'nO), the second god of
Tolnmes. visimu ^^ ^.^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^
Vircrin Islands (^^i^^)f ^ group being Brahma and Siva), and by his
1- ^ » „ , , ^^ small islands in special worshipers considered to be the
the West Indies belonging to the United greatest. In the early
States and Great Britain. St. Croix, St. Ycdas he appears as a
Thomas and St John were purchased bv manifestation of the
the United States from Denmark in 1917. sun, and he was not
Culebra, Culebrita and Vieques also be- regarded as the most
]ong to the United States (formerly to exalted deity, this rank
Spain) and the rest of the group, Tortola, being accorded to him
Anegada, Virgin and Gorda to Great by the later writers of
Britain. The area of the group is about the Rflmflyana, the
150 square miles. See Danish West Mahftbhflrata. and more
12?*^*. . . ^ . m «_ especially of the Pu-
tober 31, 1876) of the United States nu are chsracterized
steamer Vtrgtntus off Jamaica, by the by the idea that when-
SpanUh wars^p Tornado. The ship was ever a great physical
taken to Santiago, Cuba, and 52 of the or moral disorder af-
pajwengers and crew were court-martialed fected the world, Vish-
and ^ecuted. The action of the loc^ ^u descended in a small
offidals was disowned by the Spanish portion of his essence viihiwonhis
government to set it right Such Hanbird Gsmds.
VlSCacha V?®;^*,^*V x ^^ost6mu$ descents are called
. , M « trtohoaactylus), B, rodent avatars, or incarnations, and are gener-
ajimal of South America, allied to tte ally given as ten, nine of which are
S^?i*^^i.*^'*l^-.'®?*ii^®^*^i.*Sr*i®^"£^ already past, the tenth being yet to come.
ImUt with a short tail, inhabiting the He is generally represented as having
Sampas of the Argentine ««R"J>"5 «nd f^^^ ^rms, each hand holding some par-
viM in burrows fike the prairie dog of ^^^^g^j. object, and as riding on a being
North America. half man half bird.
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i
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Visible Speecli Vitrnvins PoUio
VifriM^ flTMiAPli ^ term applied the fovemment of the lame name, on
VlBlOie opceuu, ^,y p^^ Alexander the Dflna. 316 miles 8. of St Petersburg.
Melville Bell, its inventor, to a system The streets are narrow and dirty, and
of alphabetical characters designed to the houses mostly built of wood. Its
represent every possible articulate ut- manufactures are woolen and linen
terance of the organs of speech. The cloth, leather, and mead. It has a con-
system is based on an exhaustive classi- siderable trade. Pop. 103340.— The gov-
fication of the possible actions of the emment has an area of 17.483 square
speech organs, each organ and every miles. The surface is generally flat, and
mode of action having its appropriate much occupied by woods and morasses,
symbol It is said that this invention The whole drainage is carried to the
is of great utility in the teaching of the Baltic. The soil suits rye better than
deaf and dumb to speak, and in enabling any other grain. The only mineral of
learners of foreign languages to acquire value is iron. P^. 1,802,916.
their pronunciation from books. Vif.Ar1)A (vS-terbO), a town of Italy,
Viuotith (vi«'i-goth). See Goths. / ^'^^^ "" in a fertile valley in the pro v-
Vision (vish'un). See Eye, Optiot, of Rome. It has a Gothic cathedral con-
-"^^vu. ^^^^ taining the tombs of several popes, an an-
ViafnlA (vis'ttl-l&: German, Weich- cient Episcopal palace, and a town-hall.
VlSlUia ;^ vlk's*l), a river which Pop. 17^344.
rises in the Carpathians, traverses Viti Lavh (▼6'tfi Ift'v5), the chief
Galicia, Poland, and Prussia, and after '*"* *»vwu. igi^nj ^f j.|,g pyj group,
a course of about 650 miles empties by See Fi/t.
several mouths into the Gulf of Danzig. Vitis (^tis), the typical genus of the
It flows past the towns of Cracow, War- ' " ** order vitaceae, comprising the
saw, Bromberg, and Dancig, and is navi- vines (which see).
gable from the first-mentioned place. Vitorifl. (v6-t6'rfr-a), a town of Spain,
VifanACP (vI-t&'se-€). See Vine. wxwa*» |^ Biscay, capital of the
Vli;ace» province of Alava, 66 mfies K. B. of
VitflliflUa (vi-tA'li-anz). See ApolU- Burgos. The chief buildings are four
vxiffviiniiir fmrianM. parish churches, a palace of deputies, an
VitflUfione (vftA-sk«p), an appa- academy of music, theater, and prison.
T xncMvvjtfv^ ratus, under various It has a Gothic cathedral built In the
names, by which instantaneous photo- twelfth century, but with few features
graphic pictures of moving objects are of interest Leather, soap, etc., are
illuminated bv the electric or calcium manufactured. Pop. 33,617.
light and, whUe in rapid motion, pro- Vitrifi^ll PnrfR (vit'ri-fld), the
jected upon a screen bv an arrangement vai/xxii^« ^ vavo ^^^^g glyen to cer-
of powerful lenses. These magnify the tain prehistoric hill fortresses princi-
objects represented on the 1^ * films ' to pally found in Scotland, but atoo in
life-size on the screen and portray the France and Germany. The materials of
objects in motion. See Afoving PioiureM, which thev are constructed are perfectly
Vif aTisIt^ See Viiepsk. or partially vitrified or transformed into
Vitelline (vl-tenfai) consists of it is now generally believed that the
'**' ^ casein and albumen, form- vitrifaction was intentional, being ef-
ing the yolk of birds' eggs. fected by means of piled-up fuel.
Vitellins (vi-tel'li-us), Aulus, a Ro- Vitriol <vit'ri-ul), Blue. See C<«>per.
wxi^xxxuo jjjj^j^ emperor, bom about '*«'**^*
15 ▲.!)• He was a favorite with Vitriol ^been, the same as copperas
Caligula, Claudius and Nero, and was ^ ^^^av*, ^^ sulphate of iron. See Cop-
put by Galba in command of the Ger- perat,
man legions. His army soon proclaimed Vitriol ^^ ^'* ^^^ com'mon name for
him emperor. Galba was slain by the 'strong sulphuric acid (which
oartisans of Otho and a contest arose see).
tor the throne in which Otho was de- Vifrmnna Pnllin (vi-trO'vi-us poK-
feated and Vitellius recognized as em- ^*«'*^viu» X'UlilU ,^j^ Mabcus, a
peror. Meanwhile Vespasian had been celebrated Latin writer on architecture,
proclaimed at Alexandria, and one of his who flourished in the time of Julius
generals marched against Rome, de- Caesar and Augustus, and wrote his work
Tested the supporters of Vitellius, and De Architectura probably about B.O. 13.
put him to death (60 a.d.). This treatise is valuable as a compendium
VifAitalr (v§'tyepsk), or Vitebsk', a of the writings of numerous Greek ar-
V11.eps& ^^ ^ Russia, capiUl of chitects.
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Vitry-lc-Pransois
Voice
Vitry-lc-Fransois Ur^iio^S:
fied town of France, dep. Mame, on the
river Mame. Pop. 8561.
Vittoria. see Fi*or»«,
Vitus' Dance, s^- i^'^^^h ot cho^
WAVM.O «#«»<Av^9 ^^ ^ spasmodic or
convulsive disease, allied to rheumatism,
and due to an irritable condition of the
spinal cord» in which the muscles of the
extremltiea and other parts are thrown
into various involuntary motions, and
perform in an irregular manner those
motions usually controlled by the will.
The disease attacks both sexes, but
chiefly the female, and is specially a
disease of childhood, occurring in those
who are of a weak constitution or im-
properlv nourished. It generally appears
from the eighth to the fourteenth year.
In serious cases the spasmodic movements
are violent and incessant, and speech and
swallowing are interfered with.
Vivandier^ (vi-van-di-^r), a woman
VXVancuere itt^^hed to French and
other European continental regiments,
who sells provisions and liquor. The
dress of the vivandieres is generally a
modification of that of the regiment to
which they are attached.
ViverridSB (▼i-^er'i-de), a family of
. . mammals containing the
civits and allied tribes.
Viviparous Animals (;J7^-
which bring forth their young alive. See
Reproduction.
Vivisection (▼iv-e-sek'shun), the
,1 TT p r a c t i c e of operating
with the knife upon living animals for
the purpose of ascertaining some fact in
physiology or pathology which cannot be
otherwise investigated. It is also prac-
ticed in order to illustrate previously
known facts, and to enable students to
acquire operative dexterity. Vivisection
for the latter purpose solely is condemned
in the United States, but is carried on
in the veterinary colleges in France.
Though the term vivisection strictly is
applicable to cutting operations only, it
is generally employed for all scientific
experiments performed on living animals,
whether they consist of cutting opera-
tions, the compression of parts by liga-
tures, the administration of poisons, the
inoculation of disease, the subjection to
special conditions of food, temperature,
or respiration, or to the action of drugs
and medicines.
Vizacranatam (▼«-«a-«r«-pu-tiini'), a
V ixiaga^iavaiu ^^^ ^^ British India,
Madras Presidency, at the entrance of
tbe Ve/agatam into the Bay of Bengal.
It is a military station. Pop. 40,8d2.
Vizier (vi'zir; Arabic, waztr, a bearer
,. ^ T. of burdens), a titie given to
high political ofilcers in the Turkish Em-
pire and other Mohammedan countries.
The president of the divan or prime min-
ister is known as grand vizier.
Vlaardingen ^l^^Sl'^Slf,,* ii»^
Province of S. Holland, on the New
laas, a seat of the Dutch herring fishery.
Pop. 17,000.
Vladikavkas (viA-dyf-kaf-kas'), a
, ^t town of Russia, capi-
tal of Terek district, at the northern base
of the Caucasua Pop. 49,924.
Vladimir (7iA-<iy6'm6r), one of the
vAc%«uauAA ^j^^g^ towns in Russia,
capital of a government of the same
name, 105 miles N. b. of Moscow. It has
considerable manufactures, and a trade in
fruit During the, thirteenth century it
rivaled Moscow in importance. Pop. ®,-
170. — The government has an area of
18,815 square miles, and a population of
1,730,400. There are important manufac-
tures of linens and woolens, and several
blast-furnaces.
Vladivostok (4irtS:;»A/.
atic Russia, on the Siberian coast. Sea
of Japan. It was founded in 1861, and
since 1870 has been the chief station
of the Russian Pacific fleet Vast sums
have been spent on wharves, shipyards,
and arsenals, and it is the termination
of one of the branches of the Trans-
Siberian Railway. The trade is of grow-
ing importance and there are a number
of manufactures. Pop (1911) 91,464.
Vliessingen ^J,^^^"/^"" >• ®^*
Vocational Guidance, ^^Zn'e^n^
cation, having for its object the direction
of young persons into vocations for which
they are adapted.
Vocational Training. JJ o vement.
into the schools instruction in agriculture,
domestic science and the trades have been
widespread in recent years; and experi-
ments have given highly satisfactory re-
sults. Investigations have shown that the
fourteen-year-old child who leaves school
to find employment is ill-trained and un-
familiar with the needs of industry. To
remove these conditions is the object of
vocational training.
Voice (vols), the name given to the
^**'^ result of the production of sound
in nearly all higher vertebrate animals.
* Speech' (which see) is a modification of
'voice.' In man the voice is produced
by the inferior laryngeal ligamenta (see
Larynw). These * vocal cords * consist g/
i
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Tolapiik
Volcano
two elastic folds of mucous membrane,
80 attached to the cartilages of the larynx
and to muscles that they may be
stretched or relaxed and otherwise altered
so as to modify the sounds produced by
their vibration. The higher the note
produced the greater is the tension of
the cords; and the range of voice there-
fore depends upon the amount of tension
which the coids can undergo. Rc|^rd-
ing the compass and application of the
voice in speaking and singing physiolo-
fists have noted three kinds of sequence,
n ordinary speaking a monotonous se-
quence is observed, the notes having
nearly all the same pitch, and the variety
of the sounds being due rather to articu-
lation in the mouth than to definite
movements of the glottis and vocal cords.
A passage from high to low notes, with-
out intervals, forms the second kind of
sequence; or the same sequence is ob-
served in the passage from low to high
notes. Such a sequence is exemplified
in crying and howling both in man and
in lower animals. The true musical se-
quence forms the third, in which the
successive sounds tiave vibrations cor-
responding in relative proportions to the
notes of the musical scale. The male
voice admits of division into tenor and
bass, and the female into soprano and
contralto. The lowest female note is an
octave or so higher than the lowest note
of the male voice, and the female's high-
est note is about an octave above that
of the male. The compass of both
voices taken together is about four
octaves, the chief difference residing in
the pitch and also in the quality or
timbre. The difference of pitch between
the male and female voice is due to the
length of the vocal cords, while the dif-
ference in timbre appears to result from
differences in the nature and extent of
the walls and cavity of the larynx, throat,
and mouth. Cheat note% differ from
falsetto notes in that the former are
natural notes produced by the natural
voice, while the latter are produced by
a stopping action on the cords. Finally
it may be noted that the actual strength
of the voice depends on the degree of
vibration of the vocal cords, and also in
a minor degree on the resonance of the
larynx, lungs, and chest generally.
VolaDlik (^d'iA'PUk), the name given
"^^ to a universal language in-
vented by Johann Martin Schleyer, of
Constance, after twenty years' labor.
The name means ' world-speech,' being
based on English world and speak, and
a number of the vocables are modified
English words. In structure the lan-
guage is simple and extremely regular,
and the orthography is entirely phonetic,
the words being pronounced as they are
written, and vice versa. The study of
Volapiik made some progress, but has
been superseded by a new artificial lan-
guage called Esperanto (which see).
Volatile Oils (^oi'a-tii). See oiu.
Volcano (^ol-ka'nd), tea popular
sense, a conical hill or moun-
tain composed of material (volcanic ashea
and lava) brought up by igneous forces
from the interior of the earth through
a pipe or vent. At the top there is a
cup-shaped hollow called the crater. A
volcanic eruption generally commences
Outline of Volcanic Neck.
Ground-plan of Volcanic Neck,
a. Surrounding strata, h. Volcanic vent
e. Core of lava.
Section of Volcanic Neck,
a. Surrounding strata. ««, Surface of
ground. «, Crater,
stored.
dd. Original cone, re-
with the discharge of immense quantities
of gases. This is followed by the ejec-
tion of ashes and hot fragments of rock.
Lastly there is a flood of molten rock or
lava. Volcanoes which show such out-
bursts more or less frequently are called
active volcanoes; those which are known
to have been active in historic times, but
have long been quiescent, are called
dormant or sleeping volcanoes; and those
which present all the phenomena of vol-
canoes« but which have shown no activity
in historic times, are called e^iinot or
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Volcano
Volga
dead volcanoes. The mud volcanoes or
9aUes of the Crimea and elsewhere
(conical hills of slowly-flowing mud) ;
toe fumaroles (fissures from which steam
issues) ; the tolfataras (holes from
which sulphurous fumes proceed) of
Italy, etc.; the geysers and hot springs
of the Yellowstone Park, Iceland, New
Zealand, etc, are si^ns of weak or de-
creasing volcanic activity in the special
districts in which they occur. Volcanoes
may occur as isolated conical mountains,
such as Vesuvius, Etna, or the Peak of
Tenerifite. They also form various
groups or svstems of mountains. One
remarkable fact in the distribution of
volcanoes is their proximity to the sea,
for out of 323 active volcanoes enumer-
ated by Fuchs, all, excepting two or three
in Central Asia and about the same num-
ber in America, are within a short dis-
tance at least of the ocean. There are
certain regions over the whole of which
active volcanic vents are distributed at
intervals. Of these great regions that
of the Andes is one of the best defined.
Am almost uninterrupted line of volcanoes
stretches from the 46th degree of 6. lat.
in Chile to the north of Mexico, includ-
ing Tunguragua, Cotopaxi, ALntisana«
Pichincha, Orizaba, Popocatepetl, Jorullo,
etc Another continuous line of volcanic
action commences in the north of Alaska,
passes through the Aleutian Isles over
to Kamtchatka in N. E. Asia, then pro-
ceeds southward without interruption
through a space of between 60** and 70°
of latitude to the Moluccas. It includes
the Kurile, Japanese, and Philippine Isl-
ands, traverses Java, Sumatra, Borneo,
Celebes, New Guinea, and extends to
various parts of the Polynesian Archi-
pelago and New Zealand. A volcano in
this series, on the island of Krakatoa,
in the Straits of Sunda, burst into one
of the most violent eruptions on record
on the 26th of August, 1883. (See Kra-
katoa,) In the Old World the volcanic
region extends from the Caspian Sea
to the Azores, embracing the greater part
of the Mediterranean and its most promi-
nent peninsulas. Here volcanic action
is most prominently visible in Vesuvius,
Etna, and the Lipari Islands. Among
disconnected volcanic groups may be
mentioned Iceland (Mt. Hecla, in par-
ticular), the Sandwich Islands, and the
island of Bourbon, Madagascar, and
Mauritius. (See Vesuvius, Etna, Hecla,
etc.) Also those of the West Indies,
especially Mount Pel^ in the island of
Martinique, an outbreak of which on
May 8, 1902, destroyed the citv of St.
Pierre and all its inhabitants, about 30,-
000 in number. (See Pel6e, Mount.)
Submarine volcanoes show a frequent ex-
istence, but such phenomena are for the
most part inaccessible. In the present
century several instances of the nse and
disappearance of islands owing to vol-
canic action have been observed. Vari-
ous theories have been proposed to ac-
count for the immediate cause of volcanic
action. It is now generally accepted
that it is produced by internal heat at
a certain depth beneath the surface of
the earth, and the evolution of a great
body of elastic vapor, apparently in many
cases due to the sudden vaponzation of
water which has made its way down-
ward, expanding and seeking to escape
where the least amount of resistance is
presented, and manifesting itself in the
explosions that accompany an eruption,
or in the upheaval of rocks and the pro-
duction of earthquakes. See also Earth,
OeyserSf Earthquakes, etc
VnlA (v61; Arvicdla), a genus of ro-
^ "*^ dents closely allied to the rata
and mice, and included in that family.
Some are terrestrial, others aquatic
The common vole of Europe (A. agres-
tis), the meadow-mouse, or short-tailed
field-mouse, is injurious to young planta-
tions, devouring the bark and destroying
i
Common Vole (Arvielfla agrestia).
the roots. It is reddish brown above
and frray below. The water-vole (A.
amphihius) or water-rat is much larger,
and swims well though its feet are not
webbed. It is of a pale or chestnut
brown, tinted with gray. There are
many other species in the Old and New
World.
Vol^a (vorg&), a river in Russia, the
o* longest in Europe; rising in a
small lake in the east of the Valdai
Hills, and falling into the Caspian Sea
by about seventy mouths, near Astra-
khan, after a total estimated course of
2400 miles. Its basin is estimated at
from 500,000 to 700,000 square miles.
It flows generally southeast past Tver,
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YolHynia
Voltaire
YaroslAT, Ko«troiDa« and Nijni-Novflrorod
to Katan, thence south past Simbirsk
and Saratov, and proceeds southeast
from Sarepta to the Caspian. Its chief
tributaries are the Kama on the left
bank and the Oka on the right. It is
navigable by barges from its source, and
Mouths of
Tes Volga.
communicates with the Caspian, Baltic,
and Polar Seas by a system of canals.
Its banks are fertile and weil wooded,
and its waters abound in fish, particu-
larly sturgeon, carp, and pike of extraor-
dinary sise.
Vnlliimio (voMn'i-a), a government
V um/ma j^ southwest Russia ; area,
27,690 square miles. The soil is fertile,
producing all kinds of grain, particularly
wheat; and fine breeds of cattle and
horses are reared. The hills in the south
are rich in iron. There are also con-
siderable manufactures. The capital is
Jitomir. Pop. 8,647,500.
Volition <v6-lwl»'un). See WiU.
Volnev (vorne), Cowstantine Fbak-
wvu&«^jr g^ig^ ^ distinguished French
author and traveler, bom at Craon in
1757; died in 1820. He published in
1787 his Travelt in Egypt and Byria^ a
work of high reputation, and in 1791 his
Ruin^t or Meditations on the Revolu-
tiont of Empires, a philosophical work
which attracted great attention. Among
his other works was one on the Climate
and Soil of the United States.
Vologda \rK^i,t«RaTa,^.*
155,033 square miles. The surface is
for the most part covered with woods,
lakes, and morasses. Its forests furnish
considerable quantities of timber and
charcoal. Pop. 1,365,587.— The capiUl
ia Vologda, on a river of the same name.
in a beautiful district, 85 miles E.8.E. of
St. Petersburff. Pop. 27,822.
VnlftPi (vorsl), an ancient Italian
V uiM/i ^^j^ ^jj^ j^gjj jj^ Latium, on
both sides of the river Liris (Gariff llano).
Their principal city was CorioU, from
which Coriolanus derived his surname.
After having several times endangered
the Roman State thev were conquered,
and disappeared from history (888 B.a).
Voltll. (▼ortA), ALB88AITDB0, an Ital-
Yvxna Ij^jj natural philosopher, bom at
Como in 1745; died there in 1827.
Two treatises, published in 1709 and
1771, in which be gave a description of
a new electrical machine, laid the foun-
dation of his fame. He was successively
professor of physics at the gymnasium in
Como and in the University of Pavia«
where he invented the electrophorus and
electroscope. He also devised several
other electrical appliances, and in 1800
the voltaic pile (which see). In 1728 he
made a tour through France, Germany,
England and Holland. In 1801 Na-
poleon invited him to France, where a
medal was struck in his honor. In 1810
he was created a senator of Italy, with
the title of count ; and in 1815 was made
director of the philosophical faculty of
Padua.
Voltaic Electricity at.S'jr,>:
tricity, galvanism. See Oalvanio Bat'
tery and Galvanism,
Voltaic Pile, y vita's arrangement
w vAvcMv A M^%iy ^^^ producmg a cur-
rent of electridtv,
consisting of a pile
of alternate disks of
two dissimilar met-
als, as copper and
zinc, sine and silver,
zinc and platinum,
separated by pieces
of flannel or paste-
bo a r d moistened
with salt water or
with water acidu-
lated with sulphuric
acid.
Voltaire^-';?^).
Mabie Abouet de,
a celebrated French
writer, born at
Paris, November 21,
1G94; died there
May 30, 1778. His
father was Fran-
cois Arouet, a no-
tary, and he was des-
tined for the legal
profession, but abandoned the law lor
letters. In 1718 a tragedy named (Edip€
Voltaio Pile.
p, potitiye, n. nega*
tivs sno.
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Voltaire Volunteers
was brought out by bim, and was a Zadig, Candide, L*Inff4nu,etc't his bis-
great success. It is said that this play tories: SUcle de Louis XI V^ and His-
was finished, and that two cantos of totre de CAaWea Z//; his correspondence;
his epic the Henriade were written in and more than all, perhaps, on his
the Bastille, where he was confined from poetical epistles, satires, and occasional
May, 1717, to April, 1718, for writing light poems, which all exhibit wit, gayet7,
certain satirical verses on the regent viYacfty, and grace. Several of his
He now became the fashionable poet and tragedies, such as Zaire, Alzire, MeropCf
resided mainly at Paris, leading a life of Mahomet, had great success in their day,
gayety and pleasure in the society of but are not assigned a high place in
the great It was about the beginning French literature. His comedies, the
of this period that he adopted the name best of which is VEnfant Prodiffue, were
of Voltaire. In 1726 he was again im- less successfuL His Henriade, an epic
prisoned in the Bastille for sending a poem, had great success, and exercised
challenge to the Chevalier Rohan, by a powerful influence when it first ap-
whom he had been grossly insulted. He peared, but is not highly esteemed now.
was liberated within a month, and went His Pucdle, dealing in mock-heroic man-
to England on the invitation of Lord ner with the history of Joan of Arc,
Bolingbroke. Here he resided till 1729 abounds in obscene passages, and treats
in friendship with the leading deists, and sneeringlv of religion, virtue and all that
acquired some knowledge of English men hold most sacred, but is viewed by
literature. His Henriade was completed Brougham as ' the great masterpiece of
and published by subscription in Eng- Voltaire's poetic genius.*
land. After his return to France he VAHaraAfAi* ( vol-tam'e-ter) , an in-
lived chiefly at ParU til! 1734. During ^O^i^aiiicwr gtniment in which a
this period he raised himself from very current of electricity is made to pass
moderate circumstances to a condition through slightly acidulated water, and
of affluence by successful monetary specu- as the water is thus decomposed, oxygen
lations. From 1734 to 1749 he resided and hvdrogen being liberated, the quan-
with the Marchioness de GhAtelet at tity of electric current passing through
Girey, in Lorraine. She died in 1749, in a given time may be ascertained In
and Voltaire then accepted the oft-re- terms of the quantity of water decom*
peated invitations of Frederick the Great posed.
to come and live at his court at Pots- Volterrfi. (▼^l-ter'A; ancient Volatef
dam. Here he was received with great v* ««**«» f^g^^ ^ town in Italy, prov-
bonor, but a series of disagreements with ince of Pisa, 33 miles southwest of
the king ended in Voltaire's retirement Florence. It was anciently one of the
from the Prussian court in 1753. He twelve principal cities of Etruria, is sur-
then resided for a short time at Stras- rounded by Etruscan walls, and possesses
burg, Ck>lmar. and Lyons, removing at a museum rich in Etruscan antiquities,
the end of 1754 to Geneva. For ahnost Pop. 5522.
the whole of the remainder of his life Vnlfprra Daniels da. See Ricoia-^
he lived in Switserland, or close to its ^ uiicrni, ^^^^
borders. In 1760 or 1761 he fixed his Voltmeter (v^^^^™^^®**)* ao instru-
residence with bis niece, Madame Denis, v*w«x^v^x ^j^^^ ^^^ measuring the
at Femey, where he received a constant pressure, electromotive force, or dif-
succession of distinguished visitors, and ference of potential at the ends of an
maintained a correspondence which in- electric current. There are a numbet
eluded in its range most of the crowned of such instruments, of which the gold-
heads of Europe. In Feb., 1778, he went leaf electroscope may be considered a
to Paris, where he was received with crude example.
enthusiasm by all classes. But the ex- VnlfnmA (vol-t&r^5), a river of
citement of the occasion hastened his ▼"*•'*""" Italy, rising in the prov-
death. His works embrace almost ev«ry ince of Oampobasso, flows s.e. to its June-
branch of literature: poetrv, the drama, tlon with the Galore, and then west past
romance, historv, philosophy, and even Gapua into the M^terranean.
science. Hatred of fanaticism and super- VnlnnfAAra (vol-un- tSrz'), citizens
sHtion was his chief characteristic, and ▼ "*i"*«''5'5r» ^y^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ accord
nearlv all his works are strongly ani- offer the state their services in a military
mated by a spirit of hostility to the capacity without the stipulation of a
Eriests and the religion they represented, substantial reward. The oldest volun-
[e upheld theism, however, with as much teer force in Great Britain is the Hon*
seal as he denounced Ghristianity and orable Artillery Gompany of the city of
priesthood. Voltaire's literary fame London, which received its charter of
chiefly rests oa his philosophical noyels: incorporation from Henry VIII. la
i
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Volunteers of America
Vortex
case of a war of ma^itude the United
Staten has always relied on its volan-
teer soldiery. During the Civil War, in-
cluding retell liHtment 8, there were li.G56,-
533 men in the field — the great body of
whom were volunteers.
Volunteers of America, f^u/^^^n^d
philanthropic organization, founded In
1896 by Commander and Mrs. Balling-
*:on Booth, formerly of the Salvation
Army, in part as a protest against the
rigid militarism of that body. Over 100
Tolutes of the Ionic and Corinthian Capitals,
a a, Volutes. b, Helix.
stations for philanthropic work are in
operation in the United States, and ac-
tivities are being extended to other lands.
Volute (voltlt'), in architecture, a
kind of spiral scroll used in
the lopic, Corinthian, and Composite
capitals, of which it is a principal orna-
ment. The number of volutes in the
Ionic order is four. In the Corinthian
and Composite orders they are more
numerous, in the former beinir accom-
panied with small ones, called helices.
Vomer (^^'™ci')t ui anatomy, one of
the bones of the skull, forming
in man part of the septum or division
between the cavities of the nostrils. In
fishes it is a feature of importance for
classification purposes.
Vomit (^ODt^'^w to expel matters foi>
v"**" cibly from the stomach through
the cesopharuB. At times it is sympathet-
ic, as in affections of the kidneys, uterus,
brain« etc. At others it is symptomatic,
as in castritis, peritonitis, etc
Vonael (von^del), JOOST VAN DEN
one of the most celebrated
poets of Holland, born in 1587; died in
1669. His works display so much genius
and elevated imaginanon that he has been
called the Dutch Shakespeare, They
include metrical versions of the Psalms,
of Virgil, and of Ovid, together with
satires and tragedies. Of the latter
PalOfnedetL the Conquest of Amsterdam,
and Lueifer are considered the master-
pieces of Dutch tragedy.
VA1I ITAlflt Hermann Edward, a
YUa AUlB^ distinguished historian.
bom at Feliin, Livonia, in 184L H*
was professor of history at Strassbars
and Freiburg, and at the University of
Chicago after 1892. He wrote ConstiiU'
iional History of the United States, Con-
stitutional Law of the United States^
lives of John C. Calhoun, John Brown,
etc.
Voodou, or Voudoo ^.t^^^^^^S
by the negroes of the United States and
the West Indies to certain supeistitious
rites and beliefs brought from Africa,
also to the sorcerer who practiced these
rites. If the negro wished to destroy
an enemy he sought the aid of the voo-
dou 'doctor,' who would often under-
take to remove the designated party.
This, it is thought, was usually done by
the aid of poison, though apparently by
incantations. At one time no slave could
be induced to expose himself to the
wrath of one of these conjurers, and in
many cases the victim of a voodou is
thought to have died from sheer fright,
all hope being given up when he believed
he was under the fatal spell. Voo-
douism flourished most in this country
in the rice, cotton, and sugar plantations
of the far South, where the negroes were
less immediately under the influence of
their masters than those living farther
north.
Vorarlber^ (fOr'arl-berg), a west-
VUruriDCr^ em district of Austria-
Hungary, officially included in the Tyrol.
Area, 1005 square miles; pop. 129,237.
VorOTiPl (va-r6'nyesh), a town of
vuruucj fi^ggia, capital of the gov-
ernment of the same name, on the Vo-
ronej, 290 miles 8.8.E. of Moscow. It
is an important entrepdt on the railway
between Moscow and the Sea of Azov.
It has manufactures of woolen and linen
cloth, soap and vitriol, tanneries, and a
considerable trade. Pop. 84,146. — The
government has an area of 25,440 square
miles, and a pop. of 3,097,700. It is in-
tersected by the Don, which receives the
whole of the drainage, partly through its
tributaries, the Voronej and Khoper.
The soil is generally^ fertile, and large
crops of grain are raised.
VnrfpT (vor'teks), the form produced
V ui vcA. ^Yxen any portion of a fluid is
set rotating round an axis. Familiar ex-
amples are seen in eddies, whirlpools,
waterspouts, whirlwinds, and on a larger
scale in cyclones and storms generally.
Descartes supposed certain vortices to
exist in the fluid or ether of space en-
dowed with a rapid rotatory motion about
an axis, and filling all space, and by
these he accounted for the motions of the
universe.
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Vortex Bing
Vowel
Vortex Bine. ^ P^^^? vordcai
^^^ *"«***6> molecular filament or
column returning into itself so as to form
a ring composed of a number of small
rotating circles placed side by side, like
beads on a string, as the singular smoke-
rings which are sometimes produced when
a cannon is fired, or when a smoker skill-
fully emits a puff of tobacco smoke. Re-
cent investigations of the motion of vor-
tices suggested to Lord Kelvin the possi-
bility of founding on them a new form of
the atomic theory, and the vortex atom
was for a time widely accepted by scien-
tists, but was finally abandoned bv its
author as mathematically incapable of
demonstration.
VortiAfkllft or 'Bell-animalcule,*
soria. having a fixed stem capable of being
coilea into a spiral form, and vibratile
organs called cilia fringing the bell-
shaped disc or head, which are constantly
in rapid motion and attract particles of
food. The species are very numerous in
fresh water, and are generaUy micro-
scopic.
VnnfFf^s (vOzh), a chain of mountains
voB^^es ^^^^ ^QQ ^^^ j^j^^ extend-
ing N. N. B. to 8. 8. w. along the frontiers
of France and Alsace^ nearly parallel with
the Rhine. The breadth varies from 20
to 45 miles, and the highest peak is
Ballon-de-Guebwiller, 4685 feet. A great
part of the Vosges is densely wooded, and
the eastern and southern slopes are often
covered with vineyards. There is also ex-
cellent pasturage. The lU, Lauter. Mo-
selle, Meurthe, Saar and Sadne rise in
this chain.
VAftfTAa <^ eastern frontier depart-
vusi^eSy j^g^^ ^f Prance; area. ^79
square miles. It is bounded on the east
by the Vosges Mountains, which send out
ramifications over the greater part of its
surface, while in the south it is traversed
by the chain of the Faucilles. Grain,
hemp, flax and potatoes are extensively
grown, and the department is famous for
its kirsch-wasser. It was in this moun-
tainous region that France struck Its first
blows in the European war. While Ger-
many was invading Belgium, France drove
strongly into the Vosges uplands, pene-
trating Abace as far as Mulhausen. But
its forces were eventually driven back
nearly to the frontier. They held the
steep escapement facing the valley of the
Rhine against all the efforts of the Ger-
man army to displace them until the tide
of war drew thoir forces to the more wes-
terly region, when the Vosges campaign
ended. The principal rivers are the
Meuse, MoujBon, Madon, Moselle, Saone
a^ 10
and Meurthe, all unnavigable within the
department. The minerals are valuable.
The manufactures are various, fipinal is
the capitaL Pop. 429,812.
Vo88 (^^)9 JoHANN Heinbioh, e Ger-
* ^^^ man poet and translator, bom in
1751. He received a scanty school edu-
cation, served for a time as private tutor
in a family, and in 1772 went to Got-
tingen, where he studied the classical and
modem languages, and was one of the
founders of the Gottingen Dichterbund,
or poets' union. In 1775 he retired to
Wandsbeck in order to edit the Muaenair
manaeht which he published till 1800. In
1778 he became rector of a school at
Ottemdorf, in Hanover, and in 1782 went
as rector to Eutin. In 1805 he became
professor at Heidelberg, where he re-
mained till his death in 182a Between
1785 and 1802 he published several vol-
umes of original poems, the best of which
is the idyllic LuUe. As a translator Voss
exhibited great skill in the handling of
meters, and a wonderful conunand of lan-
Siage. Among his translations that of
omer's works is undoubtedly the great-
est, being the classical German version of
these great epics. A translation of
Shakespeare, which he undertook with
his sons, was published in nine volumes in
1829.
VnaaiTia (vosh'e-us), Gebhabd Jo-
VQSSIUS ^^j,j, ^ p„^^jj classical
scholar, bom in 1577. studied at Dor-
drecht and Ijeyden. In 1614 he under-
took the direction of the theological col-
lege at Leyden, and subsequently became
Srofessor of rhetoric and chronology,
'avoring the Remonstrants, he became
obnoxious to the prevailing party in the
church, and was deprived of his office.
Archbishop Laud then conferred on him
a prebendary stall at Canterbury, with
permission to continue his residence in
the Netherlands. In 1633 he was invited
to Amsterdam, to occupy the chair of
history, and continued there till his death
in 1649. Several of his sons, especially
Isaac, also distinguished themselves as
scholars.
Voussoirs ^I^^'!^' ^H; uf^^
v»o«vxA» shaped stones which form
an arch. The under sides of the vous-
soirs form the intrados or sofiit of the
arch, and the upper sides the extrados.
The middle voussoir is the keystone.
Vowel (vou'el), a simple articulated
sound, which is produced
merely by voice proceeding from the
larynx, modified bv a greater or less ele-
vation or depression, expansion or con-
traction of tne tongue, and contraction
i
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Vnltue
Viilean, from an
Antique.
or expansion of the lipe. The vowel
Bounds of the English alphabet are im-
perfectly represented by five letters, a,
0.>f, 0, u (and sometimes to and y).
Vowels are distinguished from consonants
in that they result from an open position
of the vocal organs, while consonants
are the result of an opening or shutting
action of the organs; thus the former
can be pronounced by themselves, while
consonants re-
quire to be
sounded with the
aid of a vowel.
Vulcan k<!"'':
K a n;
Latin VulcO-
»««), in Roman
mythology, the
god who presided
over the fire and
the working of
metals, and pat-
ronised handi-
craftsmen of
every kind. By
some writers he
is said to have
been bom lame,
but by others his
lameness is at-
tributed to his
having been thrown from Olympus. He
was completely identified with the Greek
Hephiestus (which see).
Vlllcanite (▼"I'^a-nlt), a kind of
vulcauized caoutchouc,
di£ferin|[ from ordinary vulcanized caout-
chouc m containing a larger propor-
tion of sulphur — from 30 to 60 per
cent. — and in being made at a higher
temperature. It is of a browuish-black
color, is hard and tough, cuts easily, and
takes a good polish, on which account
it is largely used for making into combs,
brooches, bracelets, and many other or-
naments. As it is especially distin-
guished by the large quantity of elec-
tricity which it evolves when rubbed, it
is much used in the coust ruction of
electric machines. See Vulcanization,
Vidcanization i'tlSS^'ti^'^rJal'
ing caoutchouc or india-rubber with sul-
phur to effect certain changes in its
properties, and yield a soft T vulcanized
indta-ruhher) or a hard (vulcanite)
product. Other ingredients, as litharge,
white-lead, whiting, etc., are added tc the
sulphur to give color, softness, etc. The
substance thus formed possesses the fol-
lowing properties: it remains elastic at
all temperatures, it cannot be dissolved
by the ordinary solvents, neither is it
affected by heat within a considerable
range of temperature; finally, it acquires
extraordinary powers of resisting com-
pression, with .a great increase of
strength and elasticity. See Vulcanite
and India-rubber,
Vulgar Fractions. ^ FractionM.
Vnl^tt-ti^ (vuVg&t), the Latin trans-
has, in the Roman Catholic Church, of-
ficial authority, and which the Council
of Trent, in their fourth session, on May
27, 1G46, declared ' shall be held as au-
thentic in all public lectures, disputa-
tions, sermons, and expositions; and. that
no one shall presume to reject it, under
any pretense whatsoever.' Even in the
early period of the church a Latin trans-
lation of the Old Testament existed,
called Itala, made after the Septuagint.
St Jerome found that this translation
was not always accurate, and between
385-405 A. D. made a new Latin trans-
lation from the Hebrew, which, however^
was only partially adopted by the church.
In the sequel the translations were com-
bined, and formed the Vulgate {ver§io
vulgdta^ common or usual version). This
grew up between the eighth and six-
teenth centuries. The version jiow in
use is the edition published by Clement
VIII in 1592 (improved edition 1593).
Vulture (▼ul'ttir), the common name
viuburi; ^Qj. ^jj^ raptorial birds be-
longing to the family Vulturidie, char-
acterized by having the head and part of
the neck destitute of feathers, and a
iEcji'plijiri \ >
rather elongated beak, of which the upper
mandible is curved at the end. The
strength of their talons does not corre-
spond with their size, and they make
more use of their beak than of their
claws a. id are unable to carry off their
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Vnlturc
Vyatka
prey, like the eagles and hawks. In gen-
eral they are of a cowardly nature, living
chiefly on dei^d carcasses and offal. Their
win£s are very strong and give them re-
markable powers of swift and Ions sus-
tained flight. Unlike other birds of prey
the female is smaller than the male.
Their geoxraphical distribution is con-
fined chiefly to warm countries, where
they act as scavengers to purify the
•earth from the putrid carcasses with
which it would otherwise be encumbered.
The griffon vulture (Vultar fulvu$) in-
habits the mountainous parts of the
south of Europe, as does alBO the cinere-
ous or brown vulture (7. ciner^§). The
former measures nearly 4 feet from tip
of beak to end of tail. The bearded vul-
ture, or Iftmmergeier (Oypaetos bar-
bdiu9)t inhabits the Alps, Asia, and
Africa. The Egyptian vulture (Neo-
phron percnoptiru9) is often called
' Pharaoh's Chicken ^ from its frequent
occurrence in ancient hieroglyphics, where
it is used as an emblem of paternal love.
This bird is very common in Northern
Africa and Persia and is frequently seen
in the south of Europe. It is about 2
feet long, has pointed wings, and is
raven-like in form. Greatest among the
vultures are the l&mmergeier, 4 feet in
length, the king vulture {Sarcorham'
phui papa) of South America, and the
giant condor (Sarcorhampkus condor or
ffryphui) of the Andes, the largest of the
family, and the most powerful flyer
among birds. The turkey-buzzard {Co-
tharte$ aura), about 2^ feet long, is com-
mon in the eastern United States and is
protected in southern cities for its serv-
ices as a destroyer of carrion. See
Condor, Egyptian Vulture, King Vulture,
Ldmmergeier, and Turkey-buzzard,
Vvatka (vy&t'k&), a city of Russia,
jni^xxA capital of a govemmenc of
the same name, is situated on Vyatka
River, 280 miles N. E. of Nijni-Novgorod.
It is largely engaged in the corn trade
and the manufacture of wax and tallow
candles. Pop. about 20,000. — The gov-
ernment has an area of 59,239 square
miles, and a pop. of over 3,000,000.
i
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w
TIT the tweDty-tbird letter of the Eng-
f lisb alphabet, representing a con-
sonantal sound formed by opening tbe
mouth with a contraction of the lips,
such as is performed in tbe rapid passage
from the vowel sound u {oo) to that of
i (ee). Tbe character is formed, as
its name indicates, by doubling the u or
V, At tbe end of words or syllables it
is either silent, as in low, or it modifies
the preceding vowel, as in new, how, hav-
ing then tbe power of a vowel.
W&eI i^^^* ^ branch of tbe Rhine.
oee Rhine,
Wfl.bfl.fill (wftlmsb), a river, tbe most
wauaou injpiQptant northern tribu-
tary of the Ohio. It rises in the N. w.
of Ohio, winds across Indiana, forms
the boundary between Indiana and Illi-
nois, and falls into the Ohio after a
course of 550 miles. It is navigable for
steamboats to La Fayette, and connects
Lake Erie with tbe Ohio by tbe Wabash
and Erie CanaL
UTaKoali ft city, capital of Wabash
wauaBliy Co., Indiana, on tbe Wa-
bash River. 47 miles s. w. of Fort Wayne.
It has active manufactures of furniture,
paper, machinery, hats, larse railroad
shops, etc; in the vicinity is excellent
building stone. Pop. 8687.
TXTo/feA (wAs), an Anglo-Roman poet,
^ ^^^ native of Jersey, born in 1115 ;
died in 118i. Two important works by
him remain, the Brut d*Angleterre (see
Layamon), and the Ronian de Rou, a
history of Rollo and tbe dukes of Nor-
mandy, including the conquest of Eng-
land.
TXTonA (wft'kO), a city, county seat of
¥V auu AfcLennan county, Texas. It is
situated on tbe Brazos River, 100 miles
N. B. of Austin, and as the center of a
large and fertile cotton and wheat grow-
ing district, commands a large trade in
agricultural products. Its industries in-
clude flour and cotton-seed oil mills, brick,
tile and bottle works, etc. It has warm
and medicinal artesian waters. Pop.
42.000.
Wiiilai o' Waday (wa-dl')f an ex-
wiiuiuy tensive negro stote in tbe
19—10
central Soudan, between Kanem and
Bagirmi in tbe w. and Darfur in tbe B.,
with a pop. estimated at about 2,000,-
000. It consists principally of an ele-
vated plateau, very fertile in some parts,
but extending into the Sahara and largely
arid. Its fertile districts produce abun-
dantly maize, millet, indigo, cotton, etc.
The prevailing religion is Mohammedan.
Formerly very powerful and warlike, it
is now a protectorate of France, con-
stituting part of the Lake Chad territory
or Uinterland of French Congo. Capital
Abesbr.
Wade (^A<^)> Benjamin B^nklin,
Tvauc statesman, born at Spring-
field, MassachusetU, in 1800; died in
1878. He studied law, was admitted to
the bar in Ohio in 1825, and elected state
senator 1837 and 1841, made judge in
1847. and elected United States senator
by the Whigs in 1851, remaining in tbe
senate till 1809. He advocated tbe
Homestead bill, voted for tbe repeal of
the Fugitive Slave Law, opposed tbe
Kansas-Nebraska bill of 1854, and during
tbe Civil war was prominent in public
affairs. He was elected president of tbe
senate in 1867, and was a prominent
candidate for the vice-pn»sidency in 1868.
WiiHa James Franklin, military
^*^^> officer, born in Ohio in 1843.
He entered the army &» lieutenant in
1861, served with distinction throughout
tbe war, was brevetted brigadier-general
of volunteers in 1865, entered tbe regu-
lar army, and rose in rank from major
in 1866 to brigadier-general in 1897. He
took an active part in the war with
Spain and was made military governor of
Cuba in 1899. He subsequently served
in tbe Philippines as major-eeneral, com-
manded the Atlantic division 1904-07,
and retired in 1907.
WsirlAlfli (wtt-d^lf), a military post
wiiuciiu jij ^y^ Equatorial Province
of what was formerlv tbe Egyptian Sou-
dan, on tbe Albert Nyanza, now in tbe
Congo Free State, about 85 miles N. of
the Albert Nyanuu It is famous as tbe
chief station of Emin Paaha. 8^
8hnUg€r.
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Wading Birds
Wagtail
Wading Birds. ®*® ordOatores.
Wfl.di (^&'<in> & watercourse; chiefly
¥¥ auj. ^jjg ^^^ jg j|yy pj^j.^ ^f ^jjg time.
Wafer (wA'fer), a thin circular cake
of unleavened bread, gener-
ally stamped with the Christian mono-
gram, the cross, or other sacred sjrmbol,
used in the Roman Catholic Church in
the administration of the Eucharist —
Also a small disc of dried paste usually
made of flour and water, gum and color-
ing matter, used for sealing letters, etc
Waiter (wA'Jer), a bet or something
VY a5v^x gtaif^ QQ tjie event of a con-
test or some unsettled question. The
partv whose opinion proves to be correct
receives what has been staked by both.
By statutes of Bncland, Scotland, and
the United States all contracts. or agree-
ments, whether by parole or in writing,
depending on wagers, are null and void,
and money due thereon cannot be recov-
ered in any court of law. A wager is
therefore merely a debt of honor.
Was^a (wA'Jez), generally speaking,
^ the payment given for per-
sonal services; but the term is now usu-
ally restricted to the money paid at short
intervals for mechanical or muscular
labor, otiier than that performed by the
more educated classes, to which the word
salary bears reference. In some States
wages can be legally attached for debt.
TXTafmAi* Ghabijes, a French writer,
WH^uer, bom in Alsace in 1852.
He became an evangelist, inculcating
simple Ghristiuiity divested of dogma-
tism, and attracted great attention by
The Simple Life, in which this principle
was maintained. Other works were
YouiK Courage, etc. He lectured in the
United SUtes in 1904.
Wamier (vAA'n^r), Wilhelm Rioh-
o '^^ ABD, one of the most cele-
brated of modem composers, bom at
Leipzig in 1818 ; died at Venice, Feb 13,
18fi3. He received bis education at
Leipzig and Dresden. From 1834 he
filled various musical engagements at
Madgeburg, Riga and KOnigsberg. In
183S^1 he went to Paris and London,
and composed his operas of Rienzi and
the Flying Dutchman. The brilliant suc-
c\sss of these operas secured him the
conductorshlp at the Royal Opera of
Dresden in 1843. He joined the insur-
rectionary movement of 1848-49, and
was compelled to exile himself. Until
his return to Germany in 1864 he spent
most of his time in Switzerland, Italy,
Paris and London. His Tannhdu$er
and Lohengrin appeared in 1845 and
1860, respectively. The late King of Ba-
Taria, Louis II, became an enthusiastic
and liberal patron of Wa^er, and the
theater at Baireuth, especially built for
Wagner, was chiefly supported from the
king's purse. Here his famous tetralogy
Der Ring des Nihelungen, consisting of
Das Rheingold, Die WalkUre, Siegfried
and Ootterdammerung, was first per-
formed in 1876 before an unusually bril-
liant and appreciative audience. About
a year before his death he produced his
last creation, Parsifal. In 1870 he had
married, as second wife, Cosima von
BUlow, a daughter of the Abb^ Liszt.
Wagner labored to reform dramatl*;
Wilhelm Richard Wagner.
music according to the ideas of Gluok
and Weber, and gave his creations a
national character by selecting his sub-
jects from old German heroic legends.
His theory (not in itself specially origi-
nal) was that in a perfect musical drama
the three arts, poetry, music, and dra-
matic representation, should be welded
together into one well-balanced whole.
This theory he demonstrated with con-
summate ability and unsurpassed mac*
nificence. His particular views on music
are embodied in a well-known work en-
titled Oper und Drama.
VJtkWtkfn (vft'gram). a village of
WH^ram ^^^^ Austria, on the left
bank of the Rossbach, 12 miles N. B. of
Vienna, famous for tne great battle in
1809 between the French under Napoleon
and the Austrians under the Arcnduke
Charles, each about 100,000 strong. The
battle was well contested, but the re^^uii
gave Napoleon a decisive victory, which
was followed up by an armistice and the
treaty of SchOnbrunn (October 14).
TXTflcH-flil (wag'tAl), a name of birds
wa^au included in the family of
the warblers, and so termed from their
habit of jerking their long tails when
running or perching. They inbcipit
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Wah Wakefield
meadow lands and pastures, frequent Spanish torpedo-boat destroyers. He is
water pools and streams, are agile run- now a rear-admiral in the nayy.
ners, and have a rapid flight Their food Woite (^^^)> Mobbison Kkmiok,
consists of insects. Their nests, built on «^»^ jurist, bom at Lyme, Ck>nnecti-
the ground, contain from four to six cut in 1816 ; died in 1888. He was grad-
eggs. These birds belong to both Old uated from Yale Ck>llege in 1837, became
and New Worlds, and migrate south- a prominent lawver in Ohio, and in 1874
wards in winter. Representative varie- became Chief Justice of the Supreme
ties, distributed principally over the Court of the United States.
European continent and the East, are Waits (wftts), the name given at one
the white wagtail (MotaciUa alba); the ''«7*«"» time to the king's minstrels,
gray wagtail (if. campestHs or Boa- whose duty it was to guard the streets
rula) ; and the yellow or Ray's wagtail at night and proclaim the hour; to the
(if. 9ulphurea or Budytes Rayi). musicians of a town; and to private
T[7a li See Panda, bands when employed as serenaders.
^***» The term is now applied in England to
WahahpM (wA-ha'b€s), Waha'bis, those who sing or play carols on Christ-
w liiiiiuccsi ^jj. waha'bites, a Moham- mas and New Years Eve with a view to
medan sect, founded in Arabia about donations. , , ^ — ^ ,
1760 by Abd-el-Wah&b, an oriental WaitZCll (^^^en), or VIcz (ylts), a
scholar of high attainments. He deemed market town and bishopric
it his mission to restore Islamism to of Hungary, on the left bank of the
strict harmony with the teachings of the Danube, 20 miles n. of Budapest. It
Koran and the Sunna. Thousands has a splendid cathedral and several
flocked to the Wahabee standard, and monastic and scholastic establishments,
enabled the reformer to secure the whole Pop. 16,808.
of his native province Nejd, and to carry TXTa^atlDH (^^^Wi-Wp^)* * pictur-
his victorious arms into Yemen. Under •"^"•w f** esque lake in the South
his successors the greater part of Arabia Island of New Zealand; area, 112 acres,
fell under the Wahabee power. Mecca Queenstown and Glenorchy, on the
and Hejaz were captured in 1803, and borders of the lake, are favorite tourist
the loss of the sacred city roused the resorts, on account of the magnificent
Turks to action. Several expeditions mountain scenery in the vicinity,
were sent from Egypt, and in 1818 Woke (^*^)t ^ *®"^ corresponding
Ibrahim ^asha was at last successful originally to vigil, and applied
in dispersing the Wahabee forces, in cap- to a festival held on the anniversary of
turing their capital, Derayeh, and their the day on which the parish church was
leaders, who were executed at Ck)n- consecrated and dedicated to a saint
stantinople. The Wahabees, however, A lyke or lick wake (Anglo-Saxon, lie,
gradually regained their influence, espe- a corpse) is the watching of a dead
cially in their native homes of Nejd, body by night by the relatives and friends
where they form at present an independ- . of the deceased. The practice, once gen-
ent state of Arabia. The latest statistics eral, is now confined to the lower Irish
of Islamism estimate their number at four classes, and is frequently accompanied by
millions. scenes much out of keeping with the sad
WoiVsito (wft-kE't6), one of the prin- occasion.
wai&atu ^jp^i ^^^^ ^^ j^g^ 2ea. Wakefield (wftk'f€ld), a municipal
land, in the North Island; length, about ^«^c"c*« and parliamentary bor-
200 miles. It traverses a district of ough of England, in the West Riding of
great fertility. Yorkshire, on the Calder, 9 miles s. of
Wainscot (^ft^'skot), the name Leeds. It is well built, with wide and
^^^ given to paneled boards regular streets, and several fine public
(usually oak or chestnut) employed to buildings. Leeds, Bradford, and Hali-
line the internal walls of an apartment, fax have to a great extent absorbed
Wainscoting of oak was commonly used the woolen manufactures of Wake-
in England for interior lining in Eliza- field, but there are still several im-
bethan and^ Stuart times. portant establishments, and the trade
Wainwri&rht ^ ^*?'^^L^ » Richabd, m wool, com, Sour, and malt is
«T ... T .«^5*^** officer, bom at very extensive. Wakefield was created
Washington in 1849, was graduated from a bishopric in 1888. Pop. 61,5ia
the Naval Academy in 1868. became lieu- WnlrAfiAlH a town (township) of
tenant commander, and was executive ^ "^^"^*^> Middlesex Co., Massachu-
officer in the Maine when the ship was setts, 10 miles w, of Boston. It has im-
blown up in Havana harbor in 1898. portant manufactures of rattan and knit
He commanded the Olouoester in the goods, boots and shoes, stoves, pianos, etc.
naval fight .at Santiago and sunk two Fop. 12,000.-
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Waloheren Wales
Wftlcheren (vAl't^^n), an island ori^n the Waldenses have been distin-
wTCMvuvAVAi. ^^ Holland, province of ruished by their pure morals and their
Zeeland. at the mouth of the Scheldt. It mdustry.
is level, below high-water mark, very rjrr^ij^^^^ (val'der-sfi). Alfbed,
fertile, populous, and prosperous. It Waiacrsee (Jqunt von a German
M?iSiih„5^ i^l^^f^ ^""ZT vLS""pS5' «««»«ral, bom in 1832; died in 1904. He
K ^**^iS55u^^^P'^^ ***^ ^^^ ^^^' Served in the Austrian and French wars
about 40.000. r-».»r-a tvwv. of 1806 and 1870. became Moltke's chief
WolCOtt ^^^""^^'S^tf^LJ^f a«istant in 1881, and chief of staff of^the
V.W vn.v ^S^vf^^^nH; ^ ^9lS^ <>«"n*° army on the resignation of Von
New York Mills, New York, in 1850. ^oltke. In 1900 he was made com-
He studied geology, became assistant on mander-in^ihief of the allied forces in
the New York and afterwards on the phina.
United States Geological Survey, and '^*""*'
^rector of the latter in 1894. He wrote lir«l|M| (wto), a principality in the
The TrUohiie, The Cambrtan Fauna of vVttiCB southwest of the island of
North America, etc. Great Britain, which since Edward I
Waldeck (^&1'<1^^)> & small princi- gives the title of Prince of Wales to the
pality of Western Germany, heir-apparent of the British crown ; area,
under Prussian administration^ consist- 7446 si^uare miles; pop. 2,032,103. As a
ing of the two separate territories of whole it is very mountainous, particu-
Waldeck and Pyrmont; total area, 433 larly in the north, where Snowdon, the
square miles; pop. 60»127. It is chiefly culminating point of South Britain, rises
agricultural. The reigning house is to the height of 3571 feet ; and it is inter-
one of the most ancient in Germany. sected by beautiful valleys, traversed by
TXTolHATiaAa (wal-den's^), a Chris- numerous streams, including among others
woAucuBCB ^.^jj gg^ which owes iu the large river Severn. It is rich in
origin to Peter Waldus (Waldo), a rich minerals, particularly coal, iron, copper,
citfisen of Lyons. About 1170 Waldo by l«ad, and zinc, and to these Wales owes
his preaching collected numerous fol- its chief wealth. The coal trade is most
lowers, who were often confounded with extensive, and Cardiff (which see) is one
the Albigenses and others, whose fate ?' the largest coal ports m the worid.
they shared. Their chief strongholds I«>n, steel, and copger works are also
were, and still are, in the mountain tract ?** a large scale. Besides the mineral
of the Cottian Alps, southwest of Turin. iBdustries, there are considerable woolen
where, since 1848. they (about 10,000) °;*R?^*^'"'??» especially of flannel, coarse
enjoy the same religious nghts, and now ^o^h and bosierv (See England and
also the same political rights, as the ^"^^VH ^J^^ inhabitants are almost
Roman Catholics*^ of Italy. *" The design JSJ^^L^SIJ^SaHv RHto^-^lhn^^^
of the founder was to reform the clergy, L" VaintortLttrhr^^^ whe'S ^^l
S^Hnl; u^.^ .^rt^AiZ^rZ Ihl io"^ are Protestant Nonconformists, the
f^Hn^^Wrf. piS? fniSp^^^^ °»o«t numerous bodies being the Congre-
SfcJinf. i2.^Sh ^/J^^«l gationalists, the Calvinistic Method&ts,
religious society. They were, therefore, j^^^j ^^^ Baptists.
excpmmun^ted as heretics, and for cen- Previous to the Roman occupation
turies suffered occasional persecution, wales appears to have been chiefly in-
Separate congregations found^ their way habited liy three British tribes, called
to various parts of Europe, and some the Siluiis, Dimet«, and Ordovices.
of these became attached or amalgamated During the later period of the Roman
with other reformed sects. The spiritual occupation the subject part of the is-
teachers of the modern Waldenses are land was divided into four provinces, of
supplied from the academies of the Cal- which one, including the country from the
vinistic churches. The Waldensian rites Dee to the Severn, was called Britannia
are limited to baptism and the Lord's Secunda. It was after the invasion of
supper, respecting which they adopt the the Saxons that the country acquired
notions of Calvin. Each congregation a distinctive national character, as the
is superintended by a consistory composed refuge of the vanquished Britons who
of elders and deacons, under the presi- were gradually driven to the west. Prom
dency of the pastor, which maintains the this period till the final conquest of the
strictest moral discipline, and adjuste country by Edward I there was little but
vnall differeocet. Fiom the time of their a auccessioo of petty wars between the
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Wales Wales
riral chiefs or kings into which both There are a number of poetic pieces at-
coontries during a great part of the tributed to Taliessin, Aneurin, Merlin,
Saxon period were divided, or the more and Llywarch Hen, bards supposed to
systematic efforts 6f the larger monarchy have lived in the fifth century ; but great
to absorb the smaller. Among the great- and reasonable doubts have been thrown
est of the Welsh heroes of the early on the authenticity of these early pro-
period was Cadwallon. After being de- ductions, which, in their present form at
feated by Edwin of Deira, or North- least, are not believed to be earlier than
umbriat and compelled to flee to Ireland, the eleventh century. Subsequent to
he returned and defeated the Saxons in this time there were numerous poems
numerous battles, but was at last de- written, many in praise of warriors,
feated and slain by Oswald of North- others dealing with love, or descriptive
nmbria in 635. The last of the Welsh of nature.
princes. Llewellyn, who revolted against Dafydd ap Gwilym (1293-1366) has
£dwara 'I. was defeated and slain by the frequently been called the Ovid of Wales.
Earl of Mortimer in 1284, and since that A welcome guest at everv mansion in
time the principality has been incorpor- Wales, he traveled much throughout the
ated with England. There were, however, land. As a poet of nature, few, if any,,
for a number of years, occasional insur- English writers equal him and none ap-
rections, some with French assistance. In preached him before Wordsworth. He is
1400 Owen Glendower, incensed by an familiar with every bird and flower, and
encroachment by Lord Qrey de Ruthyn, his descriptions of natural objects are
rose in arms and held his own for a not the conventional ones of Chaucer, but
considerable period, Henry IV taking the indicate a profound and loving familiarity
field against him in vain. In 1401 yery with nature's innate secrets. To the
severe rescriptive laws against the Welsh earlier poets of Wales we must ascribe
were passed and Sir Henry Percy (Hot- the origin of the favorite romances of
spur). Justiciary of Chester, was put Arthur and his knights, which had long
in command, but Owen held his own, been floating as folklore, but were first
Henry IV, who invaded the country in put by them into literary shape. Geoffrey
1402, being driven back by extraordinary of Monmouth made these legends known
storms. Owen was recognized as Prince to British writers, and within twenty
of Wales in 1402, and allied himself with years afterwards the legendary heroes of
Hotspur and others for a partition of the early Britain were household names
kingdom, but Kinr Henry intercepted throughout Europe. Among the Welsh
Hotspur in his march, defeating him near bards of later date may be named Huw
ShrewsbuiT. Owen continued to hold out Morris (1622-1709) and Goronwy Owen
until his death in 1415. Wales was in- (1772-80), the laUer the author of Cy-
corporated with England, with English wydd v Farn ('Day of Judgment*),
laws and liberties, in 1536; the lords which is regarded as the finest poem in
marchers' surviving jurisdiction was abol- the Welsh language. There are extant
ished in 1689 ; and the Welsh judiciary a number of prose tales or romances, the
was incorporated in the judicial system of chief of which are contained in a collec-
England in 1831. tion known as the Mahtnogior^ which
The native name of the Welsh Ian- dates back to the era of the Arthur ro-
guage is Cymraeg, the speech of the mances. All their literature existed in
Cymri (which see). The names Wales manuscript until 1546, when appeared the
and Welsh are of Anglo-Saxon origin, first Welsh book eyer printed Modern
from iceaUu, strangers, foreigners (plural works in Welsh are largely confined to
of wealh). The Welsh language is, with theology, history and biography, though
the other Celtic languages, included in there were many song writers in the nine-
the Indo-European group. The alphabet teenth century, with some writers of
contains thirteen simple and seven double literary essays and novels. Much has
consonants, and seven Towels, with nu- been done in the recent period in reSdit-
merous diphthongs and triphthongs. It ing the old Welsh literature. The Jfy-
is still spoken exclusively by about a vyrian Archaiology, containing poems, hls-
Suarter of a million of the inhabitants of torical and other medieval works, was
tie principality. The necessities of published early in the nineteenth century,
commerce are, however, gradually doing the Mabinooion, with translations in
for the Welsh language what they have 1838, and Uie Four Ancient Bookt of
done for the Irish and Gaelic, and Eng- TFolet, containing the Book of Aneurin,
lish is becoming more and more the Ian- the Book of Taliesin, the Black Book of
gnace of eyeryday life in Wales. The Carmarthen, and the Red Book of Her-
«arUest remains of Welsh literature are aest, in 1868, and other Welsh texts at
•ipposed to belong to the ninth century, different dates.
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Walei Walker
TXToIas Pmwcb or, the tiUe appUed burgh, Scotland, in 1845, daughter of
w lUCBf ^ ^g eldeat son of the Eng- John Colquhoun, author of The Moor and
liflh sovereign since the period of the con- the Loch. She wrote The Baby*$ Orand*
quest of Wales by Edward I. After the mother, A Btiffnecked Oeneration. Th9
fall of the last native Welsh princes, Lie- Matchmaker, The Intruder, and other
wellyn and David, in 1284, Edward is books. ^ ,. . . .
fabled to have presented the Welsh with Wiilfiflnll BlLV (warfish), a British
a prince in his infant son Edward, bom w»*^»^" -"»/ settlement and har-
at Carnarvon Castle, but he warn not bor of refuge in Southwest Africa, on
really created Prince of Wales nntil 1801. the coast of Damaraland ; area, with
Edward III made his son, the Black Penguin Island, about 450 so. miles ; pop.
Prince. Prince of Wales in 1343, and 1000. It was acquired by Great Britain
from that time HU the present the title in 1878, annexed to Cape Colony in 1884,
has been continuously borne by the eld- and is governed by a resident magistratt
est son of the British monarch. Until from that colony.
the reign of Charles II the connection TITolliQlla (wAl-hiHa), a magnHicent
with Wales was maintained by the odd ^ "^*" * and sumptuously decorated
arrangement of providing a Welsh wet- Boric octostyle peripteral temple, on the
nurse for the infant Prince of Wales. Danube, near Katisbon; built between
The title has usually been bestowed by 1830-42. as a national pantheon, con-
patent and investiture, though in a few secratea to celebrated Germans of all
instances a simple declaration has sufficed walks of life. The idea of the erection
to make the hcdr to ^e throne Prince of is derived from the Walhalla or Valhalla,
Wales. The eldest son of t^e sovereign the ancient paradise of Odin and the
inherits the title of Duke of Cornwall, Scandinavian deities. (See Valhalla.)
which title was first bestowed in 1337, on lITollrAr (wa'ker), FnAivois AifA&A,
Edward, the Black Prince. Edward III ^ »a^cx pofitical economist, was born
bore the title, before his accession to at Boston, Massachusetts, July 2, 1840,
the throne, of Earl of Chester, and this son of Amasa Walkeb (1779-1875).
title haa since accompanied that of Prince author of Nature and Use$ of Money and
of Wales. When a Prince of Wales dies Soienee of Wealth, He was graduated
before his father, his son, or his next from Amherst College in 1860, became
vounger brother, is given the title, be- chief of the U. S. Bureau of Statistics in
ing heir apparent, thou^ this waa not 18^, superintendent of the census in 1870
done in the case of Charles I until four and 1880, commissioner of Inlian affairs
years after the death of Prince Henry, in 1871, professor of political economy at
The Prince of Wales also bears the Scotch Yale in 1873, and president of the Massa-
titles of Great Steward of Scotland, Duke chusetts Institute of Technology in 1881.
of Rotibsay, Earl of Carrick, Baron of His works include The Indian Question;
Renfrew and Lord of the Isles, and the Wagee and the Wage OUu$: Money,
Irish title of Eari of Dublin was created Trade and Industry; Political Hoonomy;
for him in 1849. The Prince of Wales Land and iU Rent, etc. He died Janr
has a separate household and obtains nary 5, 1897.
the larger nart of the revenues of the Tn'ollrAr Fbedebick, an English paint-
Dudiy of (3omwall, amounting approxi- ^ O'^^^'-f er, bom at London In 1840;
mately to |600,00(X with an annuity of died in 1875. At an early age he
about $100,000. By a statute of the began drawing, and after spending
Order of the Garter in 1805, the Prince, about eighteen months in an archir
when he receives hia title, becomes a tecf ■ office became a student at the
Knight of the Garter. The arms of the Royal Academy (1858), and commenced
Prince are those of the sovereign, and he deagning for wood engravers. The illus-
bears besides a badge composed of a trations he supplied mm 1800-64 to the
plume of three white ostrich feathers en- ComhiU Magatine and Onoe a Week are
circled by an ancient coronet of a Prince full of life, and rank high as specimens
of Wales, with the motto 'Ich Dien* of this kind of draughtsmanship. Some
(* I Serve*). of these drawings he reproduced in water-
Wftlfift WILLIAM, an English astron- color, in which medium he produced a
«^**"> omer, bom about 1734 ; died in number of exquisite pictures. In 1863 he
1798. He observed the transit of Venus exhibited his first oil painting, The Lost
at Hudson Bay in 1768, and accompanied Path, at the Royal Academy, and was
Captain Cook in his second and third made an associate R.A. in 1871. His
voyages. Chosen a Fellow of the Loyal best works in oil are The Bathers and
Society in 1776; and published Otnerai By the PlouaK Originality, poetic feel-
Observations Made at Hudson Bay, ing, graceful drawinc and remarkable
UTalfAnl (wftl'fuid), LnoT Bkthia, puiity and range of color characteriie hia
^*"^™ novelist, iwm near Bdiar pain^iga.
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Walker
Wallace
WallrAr Obobob, was born of Bog*
wax&eri ligj^ parents, in county Ty-
rone, Ireland, in the early part of the
seventeenth century, and was killed at
the battle of the Boyne in 1690. He
studied theology at Glasgow University,
and after taking orders obtained the Uy-
ing of the parish of Donoughmore. He
was rescued from obscurity by the arrival
of James II in Ulster (1689), which
caused Walker to seek refuge in London-
derry; and in the memorable siege of
that city he took the most prominent
part both in word and deed. (See Lon^
donderry,) After the siege Walker went
to London, was presented with the bish-
opric of Derry and £5000 and parliament
voted him its thanks. Instead of taking
quiet possession of his bishopric he ac-
companied William III in his Irish cam-
paign, and fell a victim to his courage.
Wflllrpi* John, an English lezicograph-
waiJicr,^^^ bom in Middlesex in
1732; died in 1807. He published A
Rhyming Dictionary and Critical Dic-
tionary and Ewpositor of the English
Language, which became very popular.
T[rfl11rpr RoBEBT J., statesman, was
wauicry jj^yjj ^j Northumberland,
Pennsylvania, in 1801 ; died in 1869. He
removed to Natchez in 1826, practiced
law there, and was elected United States
Senator by the Democratic party in 1835.
He strongly supported the annexation of
Texas to the United States, was ap-
pointed Secretary of the Treasury by
President Polk in 1845, and made a
report in favor of free trade which at-
tracted much attention. He was ap-
pointed Governor of Kansas in 1857,
but dissatisfaction with the policy of the
government caused him to resign his gov-
ernorship in 1858.
T[rfl11rpr William, filibuster, was
wiu&cry j^^ ^^ Nashville, Tennes-
see, in 1824, and emigrated to California
about 1850. In 1855 he led a party of
adventurers to Nicaragua, took the side
of one of the factions engaged in civil
war, captured Granada, assumed the title
of President of Nicaragua, and reestab-
lished slavery, which had been abolished.
He was driven from power in 1857 and
retired to New Orleans. In 1860 he led
an expedition against Honduras and was
captured and shot at Truxillo in Septem-
ber, 1860.
Walking Delegate, ^^ ^ e n° "^ ?n
official of a trade union, whose duty is
to visit places where members of the
union are emploved and ascertain if they
are keeping the laws of the craft. When
an unexpected strike has been ordered
by the union directors it is his duty
to notify the workmen to stop work at
the place or places indicated.
Walking-Leaves and Walking-
Stifika ^^ Leaf-ineectt, Phaemida,
i^vxvxKo. Mimicry.
WalkyriaS. see Fattyna*.
Wflllfl.bv (wora-bi), a name common
YvcMxaruj ^^ several rather small-sized
kangaroos of the genus Halmatarus..
TXTolliiAA (worias), Alfred Russell
wauace ^aturaUst, was born at Ust
Monmouthshire, England, Jan. 8, 182?,
and was educated at Hertford Grammar-
schooL He spent many years in travel
ing, especially in South America and
the Asiatic Islands, and the valuabl«
material collected in these scientific ex
plorations he embodied in Travels on the
Amagon and Rio Negro, The Malay
Archil^lagOj. Tropical Nature, The Oeo
graphtciU Distribution of Animals, etc
His observation of animal life early led
him on to the track of natural selection,
and before Darwin gave his famous work
to the world he had published his Bpecu
lations on the Oriptn of Bpecies, His
share in establishing the theory was
acknowledged by Darwin. But while
Darwin, in his later editions of the
Origin of Species, somewhat modified his
original conclusions, ^ Wallace, in bis
recent work, Darwinism, an imposition
of the Theory of Natural Selection
(1889), strongly insists upon the com-
plete controlling power of these primary
laws and conditions. Wallace, however,
differs from Darwin on the subject of the
intellectual, moral, and spiritual nature
of man. He contends that the higher
faculties have been developed not under
the law of natural selection, but under a
higher law, which has come in imper-
ceptibly; and that the Darwinian theory
supports this view. Among his later
works are Miracles and Modem Spiritu^
atism (in which he declares a full be*
lief). Island Life, Land Nationalization,
etc. He died November 7. 1913.
TXTolloAA Lewis, soldier and author,
wouituc, bom at Brookville, Indi-
ana, April 10, 1827. He served with
distinction in the Mexican and Civil
wars; was appointed Governor of New
Mexico, 1880; and Minister to Turkey,
1881-85. He practiced law and wrote
very extensively. Among his works are
The Fair Qod; Ben Hur, A Tale of the
Christ, etc. The latter has had a greater
circulation than any work since Uncle
Tom*s Cabin. He died February 15,
1905. — His wife, Susan E. Wallace,
wrote The Storied Sea, Along the Bos-
porus, and other works.
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Wallace Wallenstein
Wallace ^'^ Wiluah, the hero of height of 220 feet. It serves the pur-
^ Scottish independence, is pose of a Scottish Walhalla, and busts
said to have been the younger son of Sir of eminent Scotchmen are from time to
Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie and time added.
Auchinbothie, by Margaret, daughter of WqIIoaa William Vincent, musi-
Sir Reynold Crawford, sheriff of Ayr. ^ «*""'V^) ^al composer, was bom of
He was probably bom about 1270. For Scotch parents, at Waterford, England,
the most detailed particulars we possess in 1814; died in France in 1865. His
about this famous Scottish character we father, a bandmaster in the army, taught
are almost entirely dependent on Blind him to play on the usual military instru-
Harry (see Harry the Mimtrel) ; but ments, and procured him teachers of the
the narratives cannot bear the scmtiny violin, pianoforte, and guitar. He spent
of the critical historian. Contemporary some years in Australia, and made an
Scottish records do not exist, while the extensive concert tour in the Australian
English chroniclers of the period were colonies, in India, and in America. In
but imperfectly informed and prejudiced. 1845 he went to London, and devoted
Wallace is described as a man of hercu- himself to composition. His first opera,
lean proportions and stren^^th, and it is Maritana, was produced at Drury Lane,
certain that he possessed in a high de- in 1846, and secured him at once a repu-
gree the qualifications of a commander, tation. Lvrline and the Amber Witch
He is represented as having been for are his other chief operatic compositions,
some years engaged in a partisan war For the pianoforte he wrote numerous
against the English before what is repre- airs of great sweetness, which are very
sented by Blind Harry as the turning- popular.
point in his career took place, the T[ra11fl.oliio See Roumania.
slaughter of Haselrig in revenge for the ^ «*"'*"'V*"""
murder of his wife, and in pursuance of Wollonk (wal'lak), James William,
his vow of etemal vengeance against the «'<"'«'V»xk ^^^ American actor, bom in
invaders of his country. Henceforth he London in 1795 ; died in 1864. He made
continued in open resistance to the Eng- his first appearance in the United States
lish, and having collected a considerable at the Park Theater, New York, in 1818,
force was besieging the castle of Dundee opened the National Theater in 1825,
when he heard that Surrey and Cress- Wa Hack's Lyceum in 1852, and Wal-
ingham were advancing upon Stirling lack's Theater in 1861. — His son, Lbsteb
with a large army. He met them in the John, bora in New York in 1820, con-
vicinity of that town, and, thanks to his ducted Wallack's Theater with much suc-
ingenious military tactics, gained a com* cess for many years. He wrote the plays
{)lete victory (1297). After this Wal- of The Veteran and Rosedale, also Me-
ace appears with the title of Guardian tnoirs of Fifty Year%, He died Septem-
of the Kingdom, which was temporarily ber 6, 1888.
cleared of the English, and is found con- X7all&.roo (^ol'a-rd), the native Aus-
ducting a series of organized raids into '▼«****"'*^^ tralian name given to two
England. In 1298 Edward I entered species of kangaroos, the Maordpiu an-
Scotland with an army estimated at ttpolinu$, the red wallaroo, and M.
nearly 90,000 men. Wallace retired be- rohu€tu$, the black wallaroo, found in
fore him, wasting the country, but was New South Wales.
at length overtaken at Falkirk, com- TXTolloron ^ seaport town in South
pelled to fight, and after a gallant re- ^ «***"'* w, Australia, on the Spencer
sistance his army was routed. He sue- Gulf, 91 miles north of Adelaide. The
ceeded in escaping, and little is known Wallaroo and other copper mines are in
of his movements henceforth. He was the neighborhood, and the largest smelt-
excluded from the peace granted by EM- ing works in the colony are carried on
ward to the Scottish council of regency «t Wallaroo Bay. Pop. 2920.
in 1304, and every effort was made to Wollo Wallft (woI'lA woriA),acity,
secure his apprehension. It was effected »"» ^» €***«» capj^ni ^f ^ county of
through Alexander de Monteith, gov- the same name in Washington, on the
eraor of Dumbarton Castle. Wallace Walla Walla River. It is in a rich grain,
was conveyed to London, and after a fruit and livo-stock region with an exten-
mock trial found guilty of treason and sive trade. It has a large foundry, agri-
rebellion. and executed on August cultural machine works, flour mills, etc
23, 1305. A memorial to Wallace has Here are several collegiate institutions,
been placed on the summit of Abbey a state penitentiary, and a military post.
Craig, near Stirling, in the form of a P«n. 20,963.
Scotch baronial tower, surmounted by Wallenstein <v** en-stin), Al-
an architectural crown, and having a ^^^^^»^^^^ brecht Wenzel Eufl»-
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Wallenstein Wallis
BIU8, YON, Duke of Friedland, a famous TXTollAr (worer), Edmund, an Eng-
leader In the Thirty Years' war, was ^"^^* lish poet, bom at Coleshill,
born on the paternal estate of Hermanic, Hertfordshire, in 1605 ; died in 1687.
Bohemia, In 1583; assassinated at Eger He was early left an orphan with a
in 1634. Both his father and mother considerable estate, and was educated at
belonged to the Bohemian evangelical Eton and King's College, Cambridge,
church^^but shortly after their early His mother was a sister of John Hamp-
death Wallenstein went over to the Ro- den, and a royalist, but all the rest of
man Catholic faith. He finished his his relatives were against the court It
studies at the Universities of Bolocna is stated that Waller wrote poetry at
and Padua, and traveled in Italy, Ger- eighteen, but his first collection of poems
many, France, Spain, England and the did not appear until 1645. As an ele-
Netherlands. He took military service gant amatory and panegyrical poet, a
in Hungary, and returned to Bohemia at brilliant talker and wit, he was a great
the peace of 1606 with the rank of cap- favorite at court, in parliament, and in
tain. When the Thirty Years' war broke society. But his political conduct is not
out in Bohemia (16j8) he joined the honorable. At heart he probably re-
imperial forces against his native coun- mained true to royalty, but he sang the
try. His estates, valued at 30 million praises of the Lord Protector as well as
florins, he was allowed to form into those of the Charleses. He was sent as
the territory of Friedland, and in 1624 the commissioner from parliament to the
he was created Duke of Friedland. He king after Edgehill. Shortly after he
raised a large army to assist the em- plotted in favor of the king, and when
Seror against the Lower Saxon League; detected turned informer. His brother-
efeated Count Mansfeld at Dessau in-law, Tomkins, and the latter's friend,
(April, 1626), and compelled Bethlen Chaloner, suffered death, while Waller
Gabor to conclude a truce; conquered by his judicious bribery got off with
Silesia, and bought from the emperor, banishment and a fine of £10,000. After
partly with military services, partly with nearly ten years of exile in Paris, Crom-
plunder, the duchy of Sangan and other well allowed Waller to return in 1653,
extensive estates. In September, 163(1 and he took his usual place in sodetv
owing to the jealousy of the nobles and and parliament, and was afterwards wel-
the license of his followers, he was de- come at the courts of Charles II and
S rived of his command, and retired to his James II.
uchy of Friedland until the emperor Wallflower (wftl'flou-er), the com-
was compelled to seek his aid against «*****v ^ ^* mon name of the species
Gustavus Adolphus. Wallenstein now of plants belonging to the genus Chei-
obtained almost absolute power, and did ranihus, nat order Cruciferae. They are
not fail to abuse It His behavior hence- biennial or perennial herbs or under-
forth leaves no doubt that the emperor's shrubs. Many of them exhale a delicious
interests were second to his own, and odor, and are great favorites in gardens,
that he would not have hesitated to join The best known is the C. Cheiri, or com-
the emperor's enemies to secure his own mon wallflower, which, in its wild state,
independence and the crown of Bohemia, grows on old walls and stony places.
After some partial successes he encoun- In the cultivated plant the flowers are
tered the King of Sweden at Ltttzen, of more varied and brilliant colors, and
November 16, 1632, in which battle Wal- attain a much larger size than in the
lenstein was defeated and Gustavus killed, wild plant, the flowers of which are al-
Wallenstein had unsuccessfully treated on ways yellow.
his own account with the Swedish king, Wfllllllffford (wol'ing-fird), a bor-
and he now secretly reopened negotia- ^ •****"&* v*"- ©ugh of New Haven
tions with France and the German Co., Connecticut, on the Quinepiac River
princes, occasionally taking the field to and two railroads, 12 miles n. n. e. of
display his military power. The court at New Haven. It has manufactures of
Vienna was well aware of his crafty di- silver and plated ware, insulated wire
plomacy, but the emperor was not strong and fireworloi. Pop. 11,155.
enough to remove him, and had recourse TXTollia (wol'ls), John, an English
to assassination. This was done at Eger, «•***» mathematician, bom in 1616 ;
where Wallenstein had retreated for died in 1703. Educated for the church
safety, and where he was killed by at Emanuel 0>llege. Cambridge, he took
Colonel Gordon, commandant of the for- orders in 1640, and in 1663 obtained a
treat, and his fellow officers Butler, Les- living in London. He was one of the
lie. and Devereux. Wallenstein la the secretaries to the assembly of divines at
subject of and gives the title to one of Westminster; became Savilian professor
Schiller's best dramatic poems. of geometry at Oxford in 1649, and D.D.
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Walloons
Walpole
in 1654. Charles II, for seryiceB ren-
dered to the royal canse, made him one
of the royal chaplains, and in 1661 he
was one of the divines appointed to re-
vise the Book of Common' Prayer. He
was one of the earliest and most useful
members of the Royal Society, founded
in 1663. He was the author of many
mathematical, theological, and contro-
versial works and papers, the most im-
portant of which are his Aritkmeiio of
the Infinities and his Mechanics,
Walloons (wa-lOnz'), or Wallonb',
lineal descendants of the
old Gallic Beige, who occupy the Bel-
gian provinces of Hainault, Li^e,
Namur, and part of Southern Brabant
and Western Luxembourg. They are
superior in physique to their Flemish
compatriots, and a large proportion of
them have black hair and eyes. In 1005
there were resident in Belgium 3,600,000
Flemish, and 3300.000 Walloons. Their
language, also called Walloon, is a
French patois retaining numerous Gallic
words, but it somewhat varies in the
different provinces.
WftU Paner paper used to cover the
wau Jraper, ^^jj^ ^^ dwellings, or-
namented with a pattern printed in
colors. It has come into very general
use, and manv of the more costly wall
papers are highly artistic and ornamental.
Wallsend i^i^J'^^t^', *, ^^^"^ .?^
•^ ^ ** Northumberland, on the
Tyne, 4 miles N. E. of Newcastle. It is
named from being situated at the eastern
extremity of the Roman Wall, and was
formerly famous for its coal. Metal and
chemical works form the chief industries.
Pop. 41,464.
WaU Street, ^jJeV'To^S' X7 ?n
which the yarious exchanges and the
largest banking institutions are situated,
and stocks and bonds are dealt in to a
vast extent. Its control over finance has
spread until now it affects the whole
country and is a rival of the great
financial centers of Europe.
WfllTint (warnut), the common name
Wainnx ^^ Species of trees and their
fruit of the genus Juglane, nat order
Juglandaceas, The best known are the
common European species of walnut tree
(J. repia), a native of several Eastern
countries and the black walnut (J.
nigra), found in most parts of the United
States. The latter often grows to large
size, the trunk in favorable situations at-
taining a diameter of 6 to 7 feet. The
European species is a large, handsome
tree with strong spreading brapches.
The timber of the walnut is of great
Talue, is very durable, takes a fine polish,
and is a beautiful furniture wood. It
is also employed for turning and fancy
articles, and especially for gun-stocks,
being light and at the same time hard
and fine grained. The ripe fruit is one
of the best of nuts, and forms a favorite
item of dessert It yields by expression
a bland fixed oil,- which, under the
names of toalnui-oU and nut-oil, is used
by painters, and in the countries in which
it is produced is a common article of diet.
In copper-plate printing it is employed
to produce a fine impression, either in
black or colors. By boiling the husks
Walnttt iJufflanaregia),
when beginning to decay, and the bark of
the roots, a substantial dark-brown color
is obtained, which is used by dyers for
woolens, and also by cabinet-makers to
stain other species of wood in imitation
of walnut The fruit, in a green state,
before the shell hardens, is much used
for pickling. The American species
yields a wood preferable to the European
walnut for furniture and carpentry pur-
poses, its abundant use having caused a
scarcity of this handsome and valuable
lumber. Its nuts are inferior, the shell
being much harder, though the kernel is
very oily. The butternut (/. cathartioa)
is another noteworthy variety. See But-
ternuU
Wfll-nnip (worpol), Horace, Barl of
Wiupoxe orford, third son of Sir
Robert Walpole, bom in 1717; died in
1797. He was educated at Eton, and
King's College, Cambridge, on leaving
which he traveled two years on the con-
tinent in company with Gray, the poet
Returning in 1741 he entered the House
of Commons, and he sat for various con-
stituencies up to 1768. He always took
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Walpole Walrus
a lively but superficial interest in politics, many improvements in the tariff. lo
inclining sentimentally to extreme opin- 1724 he was made a Knight of the Bath,
ions. In 1747 he purchased Strawberry in 1726 a Knight of the Garter, and
Hill, near London, where he erected a on February 9, 1742, two days before his
Gothic villa, laid out the grounds with resignation, he was created Earl of Or-
minute ingenuity, and made it a principal ford. In an age famous for venality
business of his life to adorn and furnish
it with objects of curiosity and anti-
quarian interest. His maintenance was
provided for bv some sinecure appoint-
ments, obtainea through his fathers in-
fluence. To his antiquarian taste he
added authorship, first in verse and
afterwards more extensively In prose, and
in 1757 he established a private printing
press at Strawberrv Hill, at which he
printed not only his own works but
those of others. In 1791 he succeeded
his nephew in the peerage. He never
took his seat in the House of Lords, and
appears to have avoided using his title.
Walpole's works are numerous; but his
fame as a writer rests on his LetterM and
Memoirs, The former are held to be
unsurpassed in the English language,
and both are highly interesting and ai, w^k-,* w-i.w*!-
valuable as a storehouse of the more Sir Robert Walpole.
evanescent traits of contemporary his-
tory. His romance, The Castle of and lax morals he was the least cor-
Otranio, is also well known. Walpole's rupted, the soberest, and the haniest
manners were affected; he was fastidi- working of the leaders of both factions,
ously aristocratic, sensitive to criticism, An able monograph on Walpole has been
and eager for applause; but under his published by John Morley.
vanity and frivolity there existed a sub- WQl'niir?&. (v&ljP^i^saJt Walbubga,
stratum of good sense and sound judg- ^ •"••■■F ***&•"' or Walpurgis, a female
ment saint, born in England early in the
WalDOle ^^^ RoBEBT, Earl of Or- eighth century; died in 779. She wa«
-^ ' ford, statesman, was bom for many years a nun in a Dorsetshire
at Houghton, England, in 1676; and died convent. As a niece of St. Boniface
in 1745. He was educated at Eton, and and sister of St. Willibald. first bishop
at King's College, Cambridge; succeeded of Eichstfldt, Bavaria (741-786), she
to the paternal estate in 1700, and en- was induced to proceed to Germany to
tered parliament as member for Castle found convents, and in 754 she became
Rising. In 1702 he was elected for abbess of Heidenheim, a convent within
King's Lynn, became an active member her brother's bishopric. She died at the
of the Whig party, and soon distin- latter place, but was buried at Eichstttdt,
guished himself by his business capacity, where her shrine was visited by many
and by his easy, plausible, and dispas- pilgrims and was the scene of many
sionate debates. He was secretary of miracles. The eve of May 1, associated
war and leader in the Commons in 170S, with some of the most popular witch
faymaster of the forces in 1714 and superstitions of Germany, is called Wal-
rzO, and first lord of the treasurv and purgu-night, but her feast falls properly
chancellor of the exchequer in 1715, and on the 25th of February,
again in 1721. From the latter date Wolriifl (worms), a marine camiv-
until 1742 he held without interruption ^ «*****» orus mammal, the single spe-
the highest office in the state, that of cies constituting a genus Trichicus, as
prime minister. During his long ad- well as the family Trichecids, and be-
ministration the Hanoverian succession, longing, with its allies, the seals, to the
to which he was zealously attached, pinnigrade section of the order Camiv-
became firmly established, a result to ora. The walrus, which is also known
which his prudence and political as the morse, sea-horse and sea-cow, has
sagacity largely contributed. He pro- a general resemblance to the seals, but
moted by an enlightened policy the com- is especially remarkable from the up-
mercial prosperity of the nation, and per canine teeth being enormously d«-
zeUeved the weight of taxation by veloped in the adults, constituting two
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Walsall
Waltham
larve pointed tusks directed downwards
and slightly outwards, and measuring
usually 12 to 15 inches in length, some-
times even 2 feet and more. There are
no external ears. The animal exceeds
the largest ox in size, attaining a length
of 20 feet. It is monogamous, and
seldom produces more than one young at
Pacific Walrus (Odobamus obelus).
a birth; gregarious but shy, and very
fierce when attacked. It mhabits the
high northern latitudes, where it is
hunted by whalers for its blubber, which
fields excellent oil; for its skin, which
IS made into a durable leather; and for
its tusks. Its favorite food consists of
crustaceans.
T^Qlaoll (wol'sftl), a parliamentary
and municipal borouch of
England, in the county of Stafford, S miles
N. N. w. of Birmingham. The present
town is almost entirely modem. Exten-
sive coal, iron, and limestone deposits
in the immediate vicinity, and ample
canal and railway communication with
leading trade centers, have made an im-
g>rtant manufacturing town of Walsall,
rass and iron foundries are numerous
and on a large scale; and for saddlers'
and carriage-builders' ironmongery, tools,
locks, and keys, etc., Walsall has long
been famous. Pop. 92,130.
Wfllftli Robert, author, born at Bal-
wttisuy tinjQpe^ Maryland, in 1784;
died in 1859. In 1837 he removed to
Paris, and was U. S. consul there 1845-
52. He edited the American Review of
History and Politics, the first American
quarterly, and was the author of vari-
ous works of literature, political in
eharacter. He conducted the American
Register, the National Oazette, and the
Museum of Foreian Literature and
Science, and edited Didactics: Social,
Literary and Political.
WfllfiVi William Shepabd, Joumal-
of the preceding. He wrote much for
periodicals, became editor in 1886 of
Lippincotvs Magazine, and published
Faust: The Legend and the Poem,
Paradoses of a Philistine, Handy Book
of Literary Curiosities, historical and
scientific books for the young, etc. — His
brother, Henbt Collins Walsh (bom
1863), also a joumalist, wrote By the
Potomac and other Poems, The Last
Cruise of the Miranda (a record of an
Arctic voyage), etc
Walsingham «'^iSfarWS
Statesman of the reign of Elizabeth,
born of good family about 1536; died in
1590. After studying at King's College,
Cambridge, he traveled on the continent
for some time, and acquired a good
knowledge of foreign languages and
politics. He was introduced by Cecil,
Lord Burleigh, to public service, and was
employed in embassies to France, the
Netherlands, and Scotland. He also sat
in the House of Commons for various
constituencies, and occupied important
public offices. His sagacity and discre-
tion caused him to be much employed,
often against his own desire, in the in-
trigues of Elizabeth, especially against
Mary Queen of Scots. The unraveling
of the Babington plot was intrusted to
Walsingham, and he was also one of
the commissioners who tried Queen
Mary.
Walter (wftl'ter), John, an English
waiter journalist, bom fn 1739; died
in 1812. He founded the London Times,
the greatest of British joumals, in 1788.
He was succeeded by two others of the
same name. The last died in 1894 and
was succeeded by his nephew, Arthur.
Wfllfpr Thomas U., architect, bora
Wiiiiciy j^j. Philadelphia in 1804; died
in 1887. He was the architect of Girard
College, in Philadelphia, a magnificent
Grecian structure, and in 1851 was made
architect of the United States Capitol
extension. In addition to this work he
built several of the department buildings
at Washington. He was for many years
professor of architecture in the Franklin
Institute, Philadelphia.
Wfllfliflni (wol'tham), a city of Mid-
waiiaam ^j^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ Charles
River, Massachusetts, 9 miles west of
Boston. The river supplies abundant
water-power to its factories of watches,
wAtch-tools, and cottons. The WMUiaa
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Waltham Abbey
Waltz
m, or
Waltham Grosi^ about a mile from Wal-
tham Abbey, is a famous cross erected
1291-94 by Edward I. Pop. of district
6796.
machine-made watches are known
throughout the world. There are vari-
ous other industries, including knit goods,
automobiles, bleachery and dye works.
Pop. 27,834.
Waltham Abbey, *^ '^igiW^'iS Walther von der Vogelweide
the county of Essex, 12 miles north by (f0'gl-vl-d6), one of the most eminent
old German lyric poets of the class of
Minnesinaen, was bom about 1170; died
at Warzburg about 1230. His earliest
patrons were Duke Leopold VI of Aus-
tria and his son Frederick. Subse-
quently he yisited, for shorter and longer
periods, the courts of most German
princes, who were in favor of an im-
perial as against a papal policy and who
could appreciate his distinguished muse.
The emperor Frederick II provided him
with a small estate near Wttrzburg,
where he seems to have always retired
when disgusted with traveling, the
courts, and intrip;ues, and there he died.
He was a politician and reformer as well
as a poet, and his exquisite and manly
verses breathe a liberalism far in ad-
vance of his times; while the subjects
of his favorite love songs are women true
and noble.
Walton (^ftl'^n)* IZAAK, the anther
of the famous Compleat Ang-
ler, was born at Stafford in 1593; died
at Winchester in 1683. For a number
of years he carried on successfully in
London some branches of the drapery
trade, but retired at the age of fifty,
and devoted his remaining forty years
to a life of cultured ease and pleasure.
In 1626 he married a relative of Arch-
bishop Cranmer, and about 1646 a half-
sister of Bishop Ken. Through these
matrimonial alliances he became friendly
and intimate with many of the distin-
guished ecclesiastics of his time, and
wrote the biographical memoirs of some
of them. His first edition of the Com-
pleat Angler appeared in 1653. It is to
his exquisite delineations of rural scen-
ery, his genuine love for the Creator
and His works, the ease and unaffected
humor of the dialogue, and the delight-
ful simplicity and purity of the style,
that this notable work owes its charm.
TXTaltz (^^1^)* & dance of Bohemian
origin, executed with a rapid
wheeling motion, the gentleman having
his arm round his partner's waist. The
music is written in triple time in
crotchets or quavers, and consists of
eight or sixteen bar phrases. Several
of these phrases are now usually voited
to prevent monotony. The vaUe d deux
temp$ is a form of waltz in which two
steps are made to each bar of three
beats. Clotiicai icdHze$^ are compoai-
Wftlthsm Cross.
east of London, on the left bank of the
Lea. It derives its name from an old
abbey founded by King Harold in 1060;
and is now chiefly known for its govern-
ment gunpowder and guncotton factories.
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Wampum Wandering Tew
tiomi in walti form not intended for 0tni^ him wbfle beinc led to llie cruel*
dance tnnee. Ilxion, osing the wordk 'Go, Jeeos: fo
WAmimm (wam'pom), the Indian on faster.* Jems replied, 'I go, not
VT cMu^tuu jj^mg £^y gjjgjj beads, used thon shalt wait till I return.* The story
by the United States tribes for oma- goes on to state that Gartaphilus was
ment and as money, or a medium of baptised by Ananias with the name of
commerce. They were often fastened Joseph and settled in Armenia, and had
together into a broad belt, called by often eaten at the bishop's table. He
them Wampumpaque, or Wampeaque. was thirty years old when he insulted
They were shaped by them out of sea- Christ, and wbeneyer he reached the age
shells, cut into round pieces, but the of one hundred he fell into a faint and
colonists soon entered into this enter- recovered to find himself again thirty
prise and quickly reduced the value of years of ace. The bishop's brother
wampum by producing an oversupply. afterwards visited England, and some of
^Vanftmaker (wa-na-ma'ker), JoHir, the monks with him confirmed the story.
▼¥ MuaAuaav^x merchant, was bom in It has been suggested that the name
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, July 11, Cartaphilus (Gr., ^ very dear*) may have
1838. He engaged in the mercantile arisen from the disciple 'whom Jesus
business in 1861, displayed great ability loved,' and of whom he said to Peter,
and enterprise, and in 1876 opened the *If I will that he tarry till I come,
first department store in the United what is that to thee?* (John xzi, 22).
States. This, started in Philadelphia, This saying may have been gradually
has a counterpart in New York, both of transformed in its significance into that
them very large and prosperous. In of the legendary wanderer. As for the
1880-93 he was postmaster-general, and Armenian origin of the story, a question-
has taken an active part in politics from Able point is the fact, that there exists
the reform side, alM> in Sunday-school iu> trace of such a story in Armenia or
work, the Bethany Sunday School, Phila- anywhere in the East
delphla. founded by him, becoming one €k>ming down to a date, three hundred
of the largest in the country. years later, the story crops up again In
WfLTirlpriTil^ Jl^ixr ™^ ^ero of a a new development Paul von Eitsen,
wttuaermi^ficwi medieval legend, bishop of Sleswick. is said to have seen
which deals with a Jew who cannot die, the Jew at Hamburg in 1547, listening
but is condemned to wander until the day to his sermon. He was a tall, ragged
of judgment in punishment for an insult barefoot gaunt wanderer, with long hair
offered to Christ when on his way to falling over his shoulders. His name had
the place of crucifixion. This legend is now become Ahasuerus, and his occupa-
not of ancient origin, nor is it wide- tion at the time of Christ that of a shoe-
spread. No trace of it is found in the maker. He could talk in the language of
literature of the early middle ages, and every country, was never seen to lau^
its popularity has been chiefly confined itnd rebuked with the greatest severity all
to a few countries, as Germany, France, blasphemies against the name of Christ
Scandinavia and the Netherlands. The This story became widely current during
legend takes several forms, and has its the succeeding period, and from this time
analogues in the story of Cain, whose forward we meet with many precise ver-
curse presents some mmilarity, and the sions and variations.
Arab story of Samirl, the maker of the One of the most celebrated appear-
Golden Calf, who became a similar home- ances of the Jew was at Brussels in
less wanderer. The Wandering Jew ap- 1640, where he was seen and talked
rears to make his first appearance in an with by two reputable citizens. His
talian legend, which may be of great name now becomes Isaac LAquedom,
antiquity. This tells how a Jew named which Bdttcher thinks is possibly a cor-
Malcnus struck Jesus with an iron glove, ruption, by a man of small learning, from
Since then he has lived underground, the Hebrew Ut-k^dem ( * the former
doomed to turn endlessly around a pillar world*). These versions made their way
until the day of judgment We first read into other countries, and their substance
of the historic Wandering Jew in the appears in a poem in Percy's Relique$,
Hittoria Major of Matthew Paris (com- llie name Laquedom is used In a beau-
pleted in 1259). His version is that an tiful French compUUnie on the subject
Armenian bishop visited Ensland in 1228* Still another name has been given the
and among the wonders of his country Jew, that of Buttadeus, and various
told of a Jew named Cartaphilus, then other appearances are on record at
alive and well known to him, yet who Beauvais, Leipzig, Ltibeck, Moscow,
kad been a doorkeeper in the palace of Madrid and HulL The latter record is
Pilate in the time of Christ and had in a tract of 1760, in which four min-
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' Wanderoo War
Isten of Hiillt Yorkshire, tell bow ' some is found in Canada and the northern
tLne since,' the Jew yisited Hull and was parts of the United States from the
lucked up, but the prison doors flew Atlantic to the Pacific. Its flesh is not
open before one condemned to have no much prized, being coarse and dr^, but
resting place. The Turkish Spy, writing its hide is made into an excellent kind of
from Paris in 1644, gravely tells of a leather.
conversation with him, now as Michob \X7oT)T)in|y (wop'ing) , a district of
Ader, i» several languages, including a a'i»i»A**5 jj^gt London, in Middle-
five or six hour talk In Arabic sex, on the north bank of the Thames,
In thia talk the Jew ' the Younger inhabited chiefly by persons employed in
Brother of Time.' told his listener that the shipping of the port of London,
there was scarcely a true historv in ex- Here are the London Docks, St Cather-
istence. When asked about what had ine's Docks, etc., and the stupendous
become of the lost Ten Tribes of Israel, warehouses belonging to the custom-
he was unable to give any satisfactory house, etc. See London.
account of them. Such are the various TXTay* (wftr), a contest between nations
notiona which have arisen concerning ^^^ or countries {international war),
this curious story. The conception in- or between parties in the same country
volved is one that has been connected (dvU ioar), carried on by force of arms,
with ether characters and incidents, like usually arising in the first case from dis-
that of Cain fleeing with the brand of putes about territorial possessions and
murder on him, the Wild Huntsman of frontiers, unjust dealings with the sub-
German legend, and the famous story of Jects of one country by another, ques-
the Flving Dutchman, so weirdly treated tions of race and sentiment, jealousy of
by Coleridge. fRie Wandering Jew has military prestige, or mere lust of con-
found a place more than once in litera- quest, rarely nowadays from the whim of
ture, as in Bugene Sue's novel under a despot. In the case of - civil war it
that title, and the theme presented itself arises from the claims of rival contend-
favorably to Goethe, but was abandoned ers for supreme power in the state, or
for that of Faust for the establishment of some important
WonrlArAA TXTonrlAni (wanMer-0; point connected with civil or religious
WanaerOO, WanaerU lfaoaou9 liberty, in all cases the aim of each
sUenus), a monkey of southern Hin- contending party is to overthrow or
dustan, especially near the Malabar weaken the enemy by the defeat or dis-
coast They are long, slender, black persion of his army or navy, the occu-
animals, notable for the large mane or pation of important parts of his country,
ruff, and beard, which stand out like such as the capital or principal admin-
a gray or white frame to the black istrative and commercial centers, or the
face, and give it a very peculiar aspect ruin of his commerce, thus cutting off
Ws.ndswortTl (wons'worth), a tton- his sources of recuperation in men,
vrauuowvxvu, ^^^ suburban parlia- money, and material. International or
mentaij borough, created in 1885. public war is always understood to be
Pop. 311,402. Wandsworth proper is authorized by the monarch or sovereign
situated at the confluence of the Wandle power of the nation; when it is carried
with the Thames, immediately to the Into the territories of a hitherto friendly
B. w. of Battersea, and is an important power it is called an oppressive or of-
center of industry. fensive ioar^ and when carried on to
WantA^e (won'tftj), a market town resist such aggression it is called de-
wauungv of England. Berkshire, on tensive. Previous to the outbreak of
a small tributary of the Thames, situated nostilities between countries, the power
in the fertile vale of the White Horse, taking the initiatory step issues a deolo-
Pop. 3628. ration of war, which now usually takes
WaDftntflJce (wft'pen-tftk, wop'n-tak), the form of an explanatory manifesto
w a|ivuifcuk.v ^jjg name formerly given addressed to neutral governments. Dur-
In some of the northern shires of £}ng- ing the progress of the struggle certain
land, and still g[iven in Yorkshire, to lavos, usages, or rights of war have come
a territorial division of the county, cor- to be generally recognised; such laws
responding to the hundreds of the south- permitting the destruction or capture of
em counties. armed enemies, the destruction of prop-
Wamti (wop'i-ti), a species of deer, erty likely to be serviceable to them.
wa^ixux ^^ North American stag the stoppage of all their channels of
{Cervus Canadensis) .hetits considerable traffic, and the appropriation of every-
resemblance to the European red deer, thing in an enemjrs country necessary
though it is larger and of a stronger for the support and subsistence of the
make, its antlers also being larger. It invading army. On the other hand
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War Ward
tboagh an enemy may be starred into the Alliance Between Church and Siaift
surrender, wounding, except in battle, etc., but his great work is the Divine he*
mutilation, and all cruel and wanton gatxon of Moses, It was assailed in
devastation, are contrary to the usages many quarters, and Warburton carried
of war, as are also bombarding an un- on the controversy with ability and in-
protected town, the use of poison in any temperate vigor. A defense of I'ope's
way, and torture to extort information Essau on Man secured him the friendship
from an enemy; and generally the ten- of the poet By the death of Ralph
dency in all laws and usages of war is Allen (which see), Warburton succeeded
becoming gradually more favorable to to the splendid seat of Prior Park, in
the cause of humanity at large. These Gloucesterstiire. He was appointed, in
principles of warfare, it should be stated, 1746, preacher to the society of Lincoln's
refer to warlike conflicts as now con- Iiui, and from at time his advancement
ducted. As conducted in former, less civ- was rapid, until he became the bishop of
ilised times, no such rules existed and Gloucester in 1751).
war was carried on with little regard to X7ard ^^ft^)* Abtekas, a Revolu-
mercy or morality. See also Interna- tionary general, bom at
tional Law, Shrewsbury, Massachusetts, In 1727;
'Vffur I'EASANTS'. See Pea9ant%' loor. died in 1800. He served in the French
'^ *""* > and Indian war under Abercrombie.
Wfl.rbefik (wgrVk), or OsBEC, Pee- At the siege of Boston, in 1775. he be-
¥v MX u^vi^ ^jjj^ jjj^ g^jj ^£ ^ Flemish came second in command under Wash-
Jew, was set up by Margaret of York, Ington. He resigned in April, 1776, and
dowager-duchess of Burgundy, as a pre- was a member of Congress from 1791 to
tender to the crown of England agamst 1795.
Henry VII. For this purpose she Wor^ Abtemus. See Browne, C, F.
claimed to recognize him as her nephew, '
Richard Plantagenet, duke of York, the Word ^dwasd Mathew, an English
younger of the two princes who were * *^> .painter, born at London in
murdered in the Tower by Richard III. 1816; died at Windsor hi 1879. In 1835
He was patronized by France and Scot- he joined the classes at the Royal Acad-
land, married a kinswoman of the emy. The following year he went to
Scottish king, James IV, made several Italy, where he studied fresco painting
fruitless invasions of England and Ire- under Cornelius. He took part in the
land, was taken prisoner after an at- competition, opened in 1843, for decorat-
tempt on Cornwall (Oct, 1497), and in|: the House of Parliament, his design
connned to the Tower, where, his plot- bemg illustrative of events in the hls-
ting being continued, he was executed tory of Boadicea. Eight of his designs
(>fovember, 1499). were finally accepted, and executed by
Warblers (wftr'blerz; Sylviadie), the him in the corridor of the House of Com-
wwnxuxMxo ua^jje applied to a family mons in 1853. For his subjects he gen-
or dentirostral insessorial birds, gener- erally chose interesting historical epi-
ally small, sprightly, very shy, and re- eodes and popular characters; hence,
markable for the clearness, sweetness, many of his paintings have been largely
and flexibility of their song. Insects reproduced by the engraver. Dr. John-
form their food, and most of them are ion in Lord Chesterfield's Anteroom,
migratory. The typical warblers belong and the Royal Family of France in the
to the genus Sylvia (which see). Vnnple, are cc^nsidered his best works.
Warhnr+nn (wftr'b*r-tun), WiL- VJarA ^*8» Herbert D.. Elizabeth
warounon ^^^^ ^^ English prel- W»™, stuabt Phelps, American
ate, was bom at Newark-upon-the- author, born in Boston in 1844; died in
Trent in 1698; died at Gloucester in 1911. She took an active interest in
1779. He was brought up to the law, temperance and other reform movements,
but not finding this profession to his Her works Include Gates Ajar, A Singu-
taste he relinquished it, and in 1723 took lar Life, The Man in the Case, Story
deacon's orders in the church In 1727 of Jesus Christ,
he began to distinguish himself as a Word Herbert Dickinson, author,
writer by his inc^uiry into the Causes of '**"'* ^> bom at Waltham, Massachu-
Prodigies and Miracles, This led to.h>8 setts. In 1861. He married Elisabeth
being presented to the rectory of Brand Stuart Phelps (which see) in 1888. He
Brou|:hton, in Lincolnshire, where he bees me an editorial writer for daily and
remamed many years, composing here monthlv publications, and wrote The
most of those works which contributed New Senator at Andover, The Master of
to the establishment of his fame. In the Magicians, The Captain of the Kit*
1736 appeared his first important work, tiwipk. The Burglar Who Moved Par^
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Ward Warming and Ventilation
dise, The Light of the World, Love iian Ewaminer, His Lettert from PaU
Letters of an American Oirit etc myra, in the Knickerhooker Magazine,
Ward ^^* HuHFHBT (Mary Au- were published in 1856, under the name
gusta Arnold), was born at of Zenobia, which was followed by Au-
Hobart, Tasmania, June 11, 1851, a relian and ProbiM, classical romances,
granddaughter of Dr. Arnold of Rugby, which brought him a high reputation.
Her father, Thomas Arnold, was an Other works were The Works and
author of some reputation. She mar- Oenius of Washington Allston, and
ried T. Humphry Ward, editor of Men 8ketche9 on European Capitals,
of the Time, The English Poets, etc VJar Indemnitv ^^® ^™ ^^ money
As a novelist she is known under her '*•** **xM.^iiiiin*j, exacted from a
husband's name. She gained a wide defeated country by its yictorious an-
popularity in 1888 by her novel of tagonist This money payment replaces
Robert Elsmere, which had a phenome* the spoils of war of former history, and
nal success. Other works from her pen was first adopted within the past cen-
are David Orieve, Marcella, Sir George tury, the highest indemnity ever exacted
Tressady, Lady Rose's Daughter, The being the $1,000,000,000 paid by France
Case of Richard Meynell, and a number to Germany after the war of 1870-71.
of others, all of considerable popularity. A similar indemnity has been demanded
Ward J^^BSf A British painter, bom in all recent wars, on the principle of
"■> in London in 1769; died at repayment to the conqueror of the costs
Cheshunt in 1859. He early became of making war. It is aside from land
eminent as an engraver, and onlv took exactions, since Germany took from
to painting when arrived at middle age. France also the province of Alsace-
Hls exquisite delineation of animals Lorraine. The conduct of the United
speedily secured him fame, and he was States has been generous in this respect
extensively patronized by George III. After the war with Mexico it paid that
Warii John Quincy Adams, sculp- country for the territory occupied and
Wara, ^ ^^^ ^^ Urbana, dhio. in "tamed, and after the war wi^ Spain.
1830 ; died May 2, 1910. After studying in 1898, paid Spain, $20,000,000 for its
medicine for a time he became a sculp- property in the Fhilippmes. It was the
tor and won the reputation of being one same with the Boxer indemnity exacted
of the ablest that this country had pro- ^ron? ^^^^ in 1900, the United States
duced. Among his works are the statues remitting its share of this indemnity, a
of Shakespeare, Central Park, New York ; generosity not displayed by any of the
of General Thomas, at Washington, 1>. C, European nations concerned,
and of General Washington at New- Waiilie (wftr'ing), Geobgb F., en-
buryport He also produced The Escaped ^ . ® gineer and author, born m
;S7are, The Indian Hunter, The Good Westchester Co., New York, in 1833,
Samaritan, etc. He became a member of He was an engineer of Central Park, New
the National Academy of Design in 18G3, York City, 1857-61, senred in the Civil
and its president in 1872. war, becoming a cavalry colonel, and
TfTflril Lestkb Frank, geologist and afterwards attained distinction as a
^^^^^ sociologist, bom at Joliet, Illi- sanitary and agricultural engineer. He
nois, in 1841. He was graduated at executed the new sewerage works of
Columbian College, Washington, D. C, Memphis, Tennessee, in 1880, in 1895
in 1809, served as assistant geologist in was appointed street commissioner of
the United States Geological Survey 1881- New York, and surprised the people of
88, and afterwards as geologist and that city by an honest administration,
paleontologist Among his many works and in 1898 went to Havana and en-
are : Dynamic Sociology, Geological Dis- deavored to eradicate the causes of yel-
trihution of Fossil Plants, Principles of low fever. The result was that he took
Sociology, Pure Sociology, Applied So- the fever himself and died of it He
ciology, etc. He died April 18, 1913. wrote Elements of Agriculture, Sanitary
TXJTqjia (w&r), a town of Hampshire Drainage, Village Improvements and
^ Co., Massachusetts, on Ware Farm Villages, etc
River, 27 miles E. N. k. of Springfield, It'^rarmini^ tLYxA Y^r\ti\tM(%r\
has manufactures of cottons and woolens, Warming ana VenUiailOn.
boots and shoes, hosiery, paper, etc The condition of the atmosphere of our
Pop. 8774. houses and apartments is of such im-
Ware ^warV William, author, bom portance to health and vigor of mind
^^/v^ *t Hingham. Massachusetts, in that warmmg and ventilation, two
1797; died in 1852. He became a closely allied subjects, are receiving
church pastor at New York and else- more and more attention as sanitary
where, and for a time edited the ChriS' science advances. Their neglect haJi
20 — ^10
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fl
Wanning and Ventilation Wanning* and Ventilation
been the cause of, and is still responsible, perature of the water, the greater is the
for an incalculable amount of human motive power for circulation. There are
disease and suffering. The body, to re- also several systems of heating by
main in health, requires a certain de- passing steam or hot air through pii>es.
gree of heat; so that, if the surrounding Ventilation is the means of renewing
atmosphere is too low in temperature, the atmosphere, and of maintaining its
artificial means must be employed to purity bv expelling foul air and ad-
raise it. The temperature which is mitting fresh, without drafts. Of the
found the most agreeable for the air of products which vitiate the air pulmonary
apartments, in which the occupants are exhalations are the most important Air
not engaged in bodily exercise, is from which has been utilized bv living beings
63® to 65*" F. The charcoal brasler is is always charged with carbonic add, and
a very ancient method of warming an also with a varying amount of watery
apartment The Greeks and other na- vapor, the quantity of which is in-
tfcns commonly used it, and they sought creased as the ajr is warmed; and
to correct the deleterious nature of the smaller quantities of ammonia, and or-
fumes by burning costly odorous gums, ganic matter, especially bacteria, still
spices, and woods; but the carbonic acid further assist in rendering the atmos-
;iven off by the combustion of charcoal pbere not only unfit but dangerous
Is very injurious to health. The ordi- for respiration. Authorities on hygiene
nary open coal-fire is, if not the most vary somewhat as to the amount of air
economical, at least the most agreeable necessary for healthy living rooms, but
means of heating apartments, but the it is generally admitted that not less than
waste of heat is very considerable. 1000 cubic feet of fresh air per healthy
This waste early led to the introduction person should be supplied every hour,
of closed stoves, first in earthenware and and from 3000 to 4000 cubic feet to
then in metal. These closed stoves, of rooms occupied by invalids. We may
which there are innumerable varieties in renew the air in a room in an instant
form and construction, are particularly by throwing open doors and windows,
favored in America and on the European but this process probably would be at-
continent, and certainly effect a great tended with danger to the health of the
saving in fuel; but they do not form inmates from the violence with which
natural ventilators, like the open fire- the air currents would enter and leave
places, and are liable to overheat the the room. The most common form of
rooms and to render tl# air in them too ventilation is the chimney, and with a
dry. For public buildings, warehouses, good fire in an open grate it proves
conservatories, etc., the most extensively under ordinary conditions to be suffi-
employed systems of beating are those of cient The difference in the weight of
steam and hot-water pipes. The hot- hot air and burnt gases in the chimney
water apparatus, in its simple and prac- and the column of air Outside supplies
tical form, was introduced by Atkmson the motive force necessai^ to expel the
in 1822. The circulation of water is former. Mechanical ventilation is gen-
brought about on the principle of the ex- erally effected by means of gratings in
pansTon of water by beat, and its the ceilings or cornices in communica-
^eater lightness in consequence. What- tion with flues leading into the open air,
ever be tne height of the water above, and a variety of arrangements have
the water when heated in the lower part been invented to prevent down-drafts,
of a boiler will rise to the surface, mak- Public and other large buildings are
ing room for other and cooler particles commonly ventilated in the roof, though
to be heated, in their turn; hence if a sometimes by gratings in or near the
pipe full of water rise from the top of floor, but this latter method is objection-
a boiler to any required height, and able on account of draft. Automatic
then return by gentle bends to the ventilation is, of course, irregular, owing
boiler at the lower part, heated water to changes in wind and temperature,
will rise and occupy the upright pipe, which increase or reduce, or even revert
and the colder water will descend into the motive power. In places where
the boiler to take its place. Thus a large numbers of people congregate and
continuous circulation may be maintained a uniform renewal of air is required,
through pipes in a building, the heated it is therefore necessary to resort to
water rising up, passing on, and return- machinery. Many systems are in
ing cooled, to the lower part of the operation, varying with the nature of
boiler, causing a satisfactory tempera- the building to be ventilated. Air flues,
ture to be everywhere felt The greater shafts, or pipes are usually the medium
the elevation to which the heated water through which air passes in and out,
Ascends, and the higher tha iaitial tem- and this passage i^ generally regulated
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Warner Warrington
by pump or fans moved by steam op officers, to search private premises,
gas engines. The proper ventilation of €k>mmercia] warrants usually authorize
mines forms one of the most difficult and the delivery of goods or money, such
important functions of a mining en- as Dock Warrant, Dividend WarranU,
gineer. See Mining, and also Saniia- etc
*52I^ . . . ^ ^ Warranty (wor'an-ti), in law, d
Warner (war'ner), Chabms Dudley, ^ «***»"!'/ guarantee or securi^; a
J ,r ^y author, was bw^^ at Plain- promise or covenant by deed, made by
field, Massachusetts, in 1829, and was a bargainer for himself and his heirs,
Kaduated from Hamilton College in 1851. to warrant or secure the bargainee and
1853 he was connected with a sur- his heirs against all men in the enjoy-
veying party on the Missouri frontier; ment of an estate or other thing granted,
he then studied law and pracUced in Worren iwor'en), a city, capiul of
Chicago; became connected with the »''«»**^** Trumbull Co., Ohio, 14 miles
newspaper press; traveled in Europe; N. w. of Youngstown. It has large pot-
and in 1884 became joint-editor of Hat' teries, extensive machine shops, produces
Set*** Magtutine. His works include: electric lamps and appliances, etc. It is
iy Summer in a Garden, SaunteringB, in a rich agricultural and dairying
Baokloa Studies, My Winter on the country. Pop. 11,081.
Vile, in the Levant, Washington Irving, VJorr^n county seat of Warren Co.,
etc. He edited Library of the WorWe vv«*xx^ii, Pennsylvania, on the Alle-
Best Literature, Died October 20, 1900. ghenv River, 120 miles N. e. of Pittsburg
X^ftraer Susan, an American writer, on three railroads. It is in an agricul-
' "'***^ > bom at New York in 1819; tural and oil region, but the chief Indus-
died in 1885. In 1851 she published, tries are connected with oil products and
under the pseudonym of Elizabeth manufacturing. Here is' a State Insane
Wetherell, a novel entitled The Wide, Asylum. Pop. 13,650.
Wide World, which soon attained ex- X^orreil ^ town in Bristol Co., Rhode
traordinary popularity on both sides of '*«***^"^ Island, 10 miles B. k. of
the Atlantic. Queeohy, which appeared Providence. Cotton goods and yam are
in 1852, was almost equally popular, manufactured. A trading post was es-
She wrote also various otiier worics, but tablished here in 1632. Pop. of town
none Ihat had any special favor with the 6585.
public WArren Gouverneub Kemblb, mili-
Wfim See Weaving. w**va*, ^ officer, bom at Cold
^*^P* Spring, New York, in 1830; died in
X7fl.TT)iTl9 ^ mode of fertilizing poor 1882. He was graduated at West Point
wnx^xug (warp'ing), in agriculture Academy in 1850, and became a colonel
or barren land by means of artificial of volunteers in 1861, and brigadier
inundation from rivers which hold large general in 1862. In 1863 he was made
quantities of earthy matter, or warp, chief of topographical engineers, and
in suspension. The operation, which subsequently chief of engineers. He
consists in inclosing a bodv or sheet of was promoted major general in Mav,
water till the warp has deposited, can 1863, and in March, 1864, was put in
only be carried out on flat low-lying command of the 5th corps of the army,
tracts which may be readily submerged. General Sheridan was displeased with
\Xr&.rrflllt (wor'ant), an instrument his conduct at the battle of Five Forks,
waxxcuxu ^jj. document authorizing April 1, 1865, and removed him from
certain acts which without It would be his command. He was mustered out in
illegal. Warrants may be divided into May, 1865, as major of engineers, and
executive, judicial, and commercial war- in 1876 was made lieutenant-colonel in
rants. The first include Death, Extra- the United States army. A statue of
dition, and Treasury Warrants (author- him was placed on Little Round Top,
ity to receive payments at the treasury). Gettysburg, in 1888.
Common forms of judicial warrants are: \X7orren Joseph, a Revolutionary
the Warrant of Arrest, usually issued ^ a'Ax^A*j patriot, bom at Roxbury,
by a justice of the peace for the appre- Massachusetts, in 1741. On June 14,
hension of those accused or suspected of 1775, he was made major-general in the
crimes; the Warrant of Commitment, a army befoae Boston; took part in for-
written authority committing a person tifying Bunker Hill, and was killed in
to prison ; the Distress Warrant, a war- the Bunker Hill battle of June 17, 17^.
rant issued for raising a sum of money A statue of him was erected at Bunker
upon the goods of a party specified in Hill in. 1857.
the warrant ; the Search Warrant, an War ftevemie '^® taxation act
authority, generally granted to police- »•«'* "«'vvv*x»*^. ^^^ ^^^^ designed
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War Kevenuc War Revenue
to supply the United States goverament In addition to these income taxes, there
with funds, in addition to those raised by is a considerable variety of war taxes, an
loan, for the exoeuscs arising from the important one being that on beverages,
partiapation of this country in the Euro- Qq distilled spirits now in bond or that
pean war, covered a. wide scope, including j^ay hereafter be produced in or imported
S.Tn "h^iAnZ ^.?r«Hon«"*'«nl^''n^ ^^^o the United States, if intendcd^o be
pronts m business operations, and on a ,.„,^ „„ iv««-^«««^« « «.«L ^# eom - ^«„-«
targe number of arUdes used in daily Ufe "«ed as beverages, a tax of $2.10 on every
operations. The taxes on incomes pro- ^^i g^on, or wme gallon when below
vided by the existing law covered a tax l'^- }^J]ot to be used as beverages the
of 1 per cent on the net income of all sin- tax is 91.10 per gallon. On beers, ales,
gle persons over |r»000 and married per- porters and other fermented liquors, the
sons over $4000, with a surtax on incomes tax will be $1.00 on every barrel con-
over $20,000, this gradually increasing in taining not more than 31 gallons. The
percentage as the income grew larger, tax on cigars and other tobacco products
Under the new law^ the exemption ie re- varies in regard to the sevend forms
duced and applies in the case of single which tobacco takes in manufacture and
persons to incomes over $1000 andof ug© and the prices at which these are
married persons to incomes over $2000. b^ij. Thus 25 cents per 1000 are laid on
Under the 1017 enj^.ctmeit uv additjnnnl ^ weighing not more than 3 pounds
srm\ 2 per c<^Dt lH?twi^eu ?7(MN) iitid ^ents each, and so on in an mtncate
ilO,000. 3 per cent between $10.tKH> and variety of charges. ,.,.., . ^ ^
|l2,0CHJ, 4 per cent between $t2>IH¥) mii . A war tax is laid on facihties furnished
Slfi/KKX 5 per ctajt betwt I'n $15.tH»o muJ by public utihties and insurance. Lnder
|20,(HJf», 7 per eetit bc^twrn^u |i20.rMK] Mm I this head are taxes of 3 per cent on the
|40.(MXX 10 perceot h.rw.-Ti J!?4n,iMM> awl charge for freight or express carriage by
irrf>rMK>, 14 per ceiif In lur. :, ,<:t;o,<MM> uuJ rail or water; and 8 per cent on the cost
iSfKMMK IS p<*r rotit bttv^^t u $,Sa.iHXI uhi of tickets of travelers by rail or water;
?:iO(M>tH>. 22 iMiT cent between *liH>.(HH) also 5 per cent on the cost of seats or
aiidlirrf^mKv. 2hperi7Pntbemi*en $154>JX>') berths m parlor or sleeping cars or on
nnrl |l^tK(.niHi, :\u p,^r t^».nt botwoen ^200.- vessels. These taxw and various others
CKin jiiid .^j.-,rM>M(), 'M per cent b^?t^%>e^ came into effect on Nov. 1, 1917. Among
IliTiOpOtiO 4iPLii $::fi^MM><>. ;1T p^^r cent be- the others were taxes on the vanous
twf^n $Ht¥HKHi mill srit>ii.fMNt, 40 per oeut kinds of insurance, and on war excises on
Vrw(H^u |tr.oo,(MM> uhA .>^7"»a.i)00. 4ri per automobile trucks, wagons and motor
f?ect Wvtwf^.*ii ^TGO.tXM* siml $1 ,0(>D,00<:>, cycles, the latter being 3 per cent of the
nnfl 50 per ot^iit over $1.0<K>,CKX1 Uo*ier selling price. In addition may be named
tho^n hi WSJ t^ie tiff a] tJix oil in*nim*^ of player pianos, graphophoncs, moving pic-
SIDO.OCMJ iimountstoni^MSO; on iiicume.^ ture fihns, jewelry, yachts, motor or
of $500,000 to $192,680; on those of pleasure boats, and a large variety of
$1,000,000 to $475,180. In addition to other articles used for pleasure purposes,
these taxes on individuals there is imposed including playing cards, toys and games:
a corporation tax of 40 per cent on the also perfumes, essences, toilet soaps and
annual income of the corporation, joint powders. In addition taxes are levied on
stock company, etc. PiUs» tablets, powders, chewing gums and
Taxes on excess profits are also im- other substances in great variety,
posed, in addition to those above enumer- . After December 1, 1917. a tax became
ated, upon the income of every corpora- imposed on tickets of admission to places
tion, partnership, or individual, these be- of amusement of 1 cent on each 10 cents
ing equal to the following percentages of or fraction thereof, including admission by
the net income : 20 per cent of the amount season ticket or subscription. Also all
of the net income (in excess of certain dues for membership in any club or asso-
deductions provided for) , if not in excess elation are taxed 10 per cent if amounting
of 15 per cent of the invested capital for to over $12 per year. Stamp taxes are
the taxable year, 25 per cent of the net imposed on bonds, debentures or certin-
income if in excess of 15 but not of 20 cates of indebte<lness of 5 cents for every
per cent of the invested capital ; and so on $100 of face value; on indemnity and
in increasing percentages up to 60 per surety bonds a tax of 50 cents ; on parcel
cent of the amount of the net income in post packages, when the postage amounts
excess of 33 per cent of the invested cap- to 25 cents, of 1 per c^nt on each dollar
ital. The amount of deduction is varied or fractional part thereof; on postal
and intricate in its appUcation to the dif- cards and letters, and on numerous other
f erent cases involved. articles to which a stamp tax is apphcable.
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Warrington
Warthe
Warnnerton (wor'mg-tun), a town
YVtiirxu^tuu ^^ Lancashire. Eng-
land, with a sinall portion in Cheshire.
River, canal, and railway communica-
tions secure it exceptional carrying fa-
cilities. Tanneries, iron, glass, and soap
works, cotton mills, and breweries are
numerous. The Manchester Ship Canal
passes here. Pop. 72,178.
War Risk Insurance, f^/'****'"
Warrnambool U7portTo;S'U'vic*
toria, 170 miles southwest of Melbourne.
It lies in a fertile agricultural district,
and has an extensive trade in wool, flour,
and dairy produce with Melbourne. Popc
6410.
Warsaw (wa.r'sa), a clt]r of Russia,
waxoa.w capital of Russian Poland,
or the Vistula Province, as that country
is now officiallv designated. It lies on
the left bank of the Vistula, and extends
for over 5 miles along that river. Its
water communications have long made it
one of the most important ' commercial
centers of Eastern Europe, and it is now
connected by rail with Moscow, Petro-
gradj S. W. Russia, Dantzic, and
Berlin. Two bridges connect it with
Praga, a suburb on the right bank of the
river. Warsaw is famous for its huge
churches, numerous and magnificent pal-
aces and monuments, remnants of former
Polish grandeur: for its educational in-
stitutions; and tor Its many and exten-
sive gardens, parks, and suburban drives.
It was formerly also exceptionally rich in
literature and art treasures ; most of these
have been confiscated and transferred to
Petrograd. Leather, boots and shoes,
woolen and linen stuffs, plated ware, ma-
chinery, chemicals, spirits and beer, are
some of the most important industrial
products. It became an important place
in the middle ages, and earlv in the sev-
enteenth century supplanted Cracow as
the capital of Poland. As such it was
several times stormed and captured, com-
ing under Russian rule in 1813. Although
strongly protected by the fortresses on
the Narev and Novo-Georgievsk on the
Vistula, it was taken by the German
armies on August 5, 1915, one year after
the opening of the European war ig.v,).
The population in 1913 was 872,000.
Warship. See Navy and Ironclad.
VJart (wart), a small dry hard tumor
'^*"'*'' making its appearance most
frequently on the hands, sometimes on the
face, ana rarely on other parts of the
body, and occurring usually on children.
Warts may be described as collections of
abnormally lengthened pupilbe of the
skin, and closely adherent and ensheathed
in a thick covering of hard dry cuticle.
In most cases they disappear of them-
selves, or they may be removed by appli-
cations of nitric or glacialacetic acid, etc.
War Tax. see war Revenue.
(v&rt'bqrii), an ancient
mountain castle in Ger-
many, near Eisenach, in the grand duchy
of Saxe-Weimar. It was built in 1067 as
a residence for the landgraves of Thur-
ingia. Here, according to the legend, took
Wartbnrg
The Wartburg.
place the poetic contest known as the
^ War of the Wartburg/ between Walther
von der Vogelweide ana six other eminent
poets of Germany, in 1206. It was the
residence of Luther in 1521-22, and the
room in which he worked at the transla-
tion of the Bible is still shown.
WorfViP (v&r't*), or Wabta, a river
Warxne ^^ Germany. It rises in
Poland, 35 miles n. w. of Oracow, flows
N. and w., then through Prussia w. N. w.,
and after watering Posen joins the Oder
at Kiistrin. Total length, 483 miles, of
which 220 are navigable.
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Wart-hog Washburnc
TXroi4 TiAcy A name common to certain fhe two great manufacturing towns of
WttXb-iiu^, members of the hog fam- Birmingham and Coventry (which see).
ily, genus Phacochtsrue, distinguished Pop. (1911) 1,040,628.
from the true swine by their dentition, Tlfftrw^ftV (wftr'wils), a town (town-
which in some respects Wttiwiuiw gj^jp^ j^ g;^^^ Qq^ Rhode
resembles that of the Island. It contains several villages and
elephants. The head is has important cotton manufactories. Pop.
very large; immense 26,629.
tusks project from the TXro'rixni^lr Richard Neville. Eaxl
mouth outwards and Wttiwiuik, ^p^ . ^jj^ kingmaker/ a
upwards, and the great English nobleman, born in 1428;
cheeks are furnished killed in 1471. He was the son of an
^_^ — with flesh-like excres- earl of Salisbury, and became Earl of
cences resembling Warwick by marrying the heiress of tiie
Head of Wart-hog. warts. They feed on title and estates. Taking the Yorbst
the roots of plants, side in the Wars of the Roses, he was
which they dig up with their tusks, the main instrument in placing Edward
The African wart-hog or haruja (P. IV on the throne in 1461 in Place of
Pliant) of Abyssinia, and the vlacke- Henry VI, and became the most powerful
vark of the Dutch settlers of the Cape nobleman In the kingdom. Quarming
(P. JEthiopicua or PaUaaii) are familiar with Edward on account of the latter s
species. marriage, he went over to Henrys side,
TXTorfATi (war'tun), Thomas, an Eng- and was able to place bim again on the
WartOn {4» pJet' and critic, son of throne, but ^s army was defeated and
the Rev. Thomas Warton, professor of himself slain In the battie of Bamet
poetry at Oxford, was bom at Basing- WashbUm, ^^7* f^fSS? J?.
stoke^n 172S; died at jOxford in 1796, ^v" ^tl . . '. oA?r^.l?.,ij*?S«^^^
He was educated
Trinity College, O
ttois^an^d'^^^^^^ 1853 ^^,^^^^^^^^1''^^:'^''^^
nrnfpsfinr nf noptrv ftt Oxford in 17.^7 vard University loDo-7o. He was tne
Yl^\f&\^Zm g^°t abilit/ fJr author of»«'e«J works on Mtapr«d«^
ten years; appointed Camden professor *'"°»F *5T* 'p?^ p^^« 7W.M.T^
of fiistorv In 1785; and Succeeded f^'* f<'^^^<>^P;'>J^J^lJ^^'s^,
Whitehea/as poet-laureate in the same ''^ 17*^2,^" 1 1S**7r?7** ""*' ®*^
year. Several church livings were aUo *l*r'«t, ^«^ P^i^ifi^ OOLMW
held by him. He rendered great service Washblinie, Xm^^^^ o Idi??'
♦^ i:«^^.^4^.,.»v i>« u5« TTim*.,^^, ^4 i3\.^Aii»i^ ' American suiuicr,
Uon as k^litera^^'^iritic: and a^ head- -^J^e^SfS^ ^^^^^^
master of Winchester School (m6-9G). ^^^ X¥^%^^f^^ rSu^ SS 2d
To him we owe an essay on the ^txUnga ^^^^^n Cavalry, of which he became
and Gemiij of Pove. coloneL Was active during the war and
Warwick /^^ "V» a parliamentary ^ major-general in 1862. He was
I ^11 ^J?^*""?*^. ?:^ r'^i^"K^• i"" ^ a member orCoSgress 1867-71. when he
rocky hill on the right bank of the Avon, chosen governor of Wisconsin. Died
the county town of Warwickshire. The w~ ^4 j^g^
principal object of interest is Warwick ttt^-,i,V- *^ EUHU BENJAMIN,
Castle, the most magnificent of the an- Wasnouriiey statesman, bom at liv-
cient feudal mansions of the English ermore. Maine, in 1816. He practiced law
nobility. Pop. 12,414.— The county has ^^ Galena. luinois, was elected to Con-
an area of 902 sq. miles. The surface ^^^ ^ 1852, and remained there until
is gently undulating, well watered, 1339 when President Grant appointed
chiefly by the Avon and the Tame; the ^im Secretary of State, and soon after
soil generally fertile, suitable for grain, Minister to France. During the Franco-
root, and pulse crops, and there is a German war be made the American lega-
large amount of pasture for dairying ^lon a place of refuge for the Germans
and grazing purposes. Coal (output and other foreigners who would not leave
over a million tons per annum) and paris. For th& he received honors from
several kinds of building stone are the German emperor. He published in
abundant. Warwickshire is also fa- 1887 AeooIIfottOfM 0/ a ifff»t«ter lo
mous for its manufactures and includes Franoe, and oied in that year.
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"Washing-macliiiie Wasliii^on
TKTashillfir-IIiacllilLe. ^ machine a climate similar to that of Britain.
, ^, ? ^ : lor wa 8 h i n g Coal, iron ore and timber are abundantt
clotnea. A great number of machines and rich deposits of the predous metals
liaye been contrived, the most general are worked in the N. E. The Columbia
feature of them beinff that the clothes Biver and Puget Sound swarm with sal-
are agitated by artindal means in a mon« which are tinned and exported,
▼essel or trough containing the cleansing Ther« are mamificent natural harl^rs on
Stents. There are many kinds of domes- the Pacific Tuget Sound, which pene-
c washlns-machines, one of the simplest trates deeply into the State, is a yast
being the doUy, a wooden disk with three harbor, with 1594 miles of shore line, and
or four projecting arms placed horizon- Seattle, its principal port, is becoming the
tally on an upright shaft in a tub. The metropolis of the northwest coast Olym-
shaft is fixed in a slip at the bottom and pia, at the head of Puget Sound, is the
passes through a cross-piece at the top, capitaL Shipbuilding is an important in-
and is turned either by a cross handle or dustry, and other manufactures are grow-
by simple spur gear. The arms are moved iug rapidly. More than 20,000,000 acres
around backward and forward among of the State are in timber, many of the
the clothes. Nearly all domestic wash- trees being of immense size. Pop.
Ing-machines consist of a tub or dstem (1910) 1,141,990.
of a form suited to the character of the WasTiiTifH-ATi capital of the United
moving parts of the apparatus. Some »» "^•^""B •'""> States, is in the Dia-
operate by squeezing the clothes between trict of Columbia, at the confluence of
grooved rollers, others by rubbing them the Anacostia with the Potomac, here
between corrugated surfaces by a rock- navigable bv ships of the largest class;
Sng or up and down movement, others 230 miles by rail from New York, 40
have a combined squeezing and rubbing miles s. w. of Baltimore. The site was
action, while still others are constructed selected in 1790 by Washington himself,
on the principle of the old dash wheel And the plan of the city was dravni up
used in aye and bleaching works. Some on a most magnificent scale. The streets
recent washing-machines, which have (70-120 feet wide) cross each other
come into considerable use, consist of a at right angles and are intersected
ribbed drum or cage formed of tubes fixed diagonally by avenues (120-180 feet
into the end of the drum. The clothes are wide), which bear the names of States
placed inside the cage, which is kept re- of ^e Union. A large number of ^ese
volving in opposite ways by turns inside spadous thoroughfares are planted witii
a thin metal case, the hot, soapy water fine shade trees, and are well paved and
drculating freely between the rtubes. well kept Numerous open spaces, larce
WoaliiTicrf AH (wosh'ing-tun), one of and smalL some of them beautifully laid
waBUmgXOU ^^ p^^^t^c States of out, aredistributed throughout the vast
^e American Union, in the extreme area occupied by the citv. First among
northwest section, being bounded N. by the numerons public buildings ranks the
British Columbia, w. by the Pacific Capitol, an architecturally beautiful edi-
Ocean, E. by Idaho, and s. by Oregon: fice on a hill above the Potomac, in the
area. 69,127 eq. miles. Prior to 1861 midst of a highly ornamented park of 50
it also comprised the present States of acres. It consists of a central building of
Idaiho and Montana. It is drained by freestone, two wings (each with a dome)
the Columbia and its tributaries, and of white marble, and a lofty central
the elevated Cascade Mountain range dome of iron, surmounted bv a statue of
runs through the State from N. to 6., liberty (total height, 307^ feet),
about 100 miles from the Pacific coast, The Rotunda, in the center of the main
dividing it into two distinct parts. The building, is a magnificent hall, adorned
western part is a rich timber country with bas-reliefo and paintings, and &
with heavy rainfall and many highly fer- colossal statue of George Washington,
tile valleys, in which hops, fruits of all The entire structure covers 3% acres,
kinds, and vegetables of immense size are and cost over $13,000,000. It accommo-
grown. The eastern part is well adapted dates the two Houses of Congress, the
for the growth of all kinds of grain, and U. S. Supreme Court, and untu recently
other farm products, some sections being the Capitol also housed the extensive
admirably suited for wheat raising. Cat- library of Congress, now transferred
tie and live stock of all kinds do well, the to a magnificent 'Congresdonal library
abundance of grasses and lightness of building, an extensive and impodng edifice
the snowfall permitting them to graze In the Italian Renaissance style of archi-
through the winter season. The State is tecture^erected in 1888-97, at a cost of
very rich in natural resources and ad- $6,180,000. It measures 470 feet in
vantages, and the coast district enjoys length and 340 in width, its entrance
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WasMngton Washington
hall and stairways being unsurpassed in can Republics, etc.
beauty of design and decoration. This The National Soldiers* Home, two
ornate edifice contains at the present miles above the cit;^, founded in 1851.
time nearly 2,000,000 books, pamphlets, has 523 acres of improved park and
manuscripts, maps, etc The collection forest and serves as an attractive rural
is rich In history, political science, official resort and free drivine park, in addition
documents and Americana (including to its function of providing a comfortable
important files of newspapers and manu- home for veterans and Invalids of the
scripts of colonial and later times). North- United States Army. The National
westward from the Capitol extends Penn- Asylum for the Insane, with nearly lOOt
aylvania avenue, 160 feet wide and the inmates (either of the Army or Navy, or
most notable of the city's highways, its from the District of Ck>lumbia), is situ-
main drive extending to the Treasury ated on the heights above Anacoetia, an
building, an immense edifice in the eastern tmtnch of the Potomac Among
Grecian style of architecture, near which the institutions of learning in the dtj
is the prepident^s house, or executive are the C^rge Washington (formerly the
mansion, commonly known as the White Columbian) University, Georgetown Uni-
House, built of free stone and surrounded versity (Roman Catholic), Howard Uni-
by extensive grounds. It is handsomely versity (for colored students). Catholic
furnished and is a place of interest to all University of America, founded in 1887.
visitors to the national capitaL West American University (Methodist), and
of the White House is a large and hand- the National Deaf Mute College. Monu-
Bome building accommodating three of ments are numerous, chief among them
the governmental department the State, being the national Waahington Menu-
the War and the Navy, it being 567 feet ment, near the Potomac, a towering
in lengtii and 342 in width. Other im- obelisk of white marble 555^ feet high,
portant public edifices are the Land built at & cost of SI 4230,000, and con-
Office (formerly the General Post Office), taining commemorative slabs from most
of white marble ; the Patent Ofllce, with of the States. Bronze statues, equestrian
a great Doric portico ; the building of the and others, are very numerous, there being
Smithsonian Institution (devoted to hardly a public square or civic circle
scientific research and the promotion of without its monument The city, with its
useful knowledge), of red sandstone, in euburb of Georgetown (now West Wash-
the Byzantine style, with picturesque in^^ton), and the rural portion of the
towers: the building of the Department District, covers an area of about 70
of Agriculture; the Pension Office, Post square miles. In addition to its many
Office and various others. An interesting small parks and the zoological park of 167
edifice among them is the new structure acres, it possesses Rock Creek Park of
of the United States National Museum, over 1500 acres, extending for miles alone
in which is housed an enormous collection the picturesque banks of the stream^amid
of economic products, examples of art forests of great natural beauty. Wash-
and manufacture, and objects of natural ington is abundantly supplied with pure
history, the latter including the exten- water by a conduit 15 miles long, from
sive series of African animals contributed the Falls of the Potomac Opposite, in
by ex-President Boosevelt as a result of Virginia, is Arlington, with its beautiful
his African hunting trip. Other institu- national cemetery, and about 15 miles
tions are the Army Medical Museum, below the city is Mount Vernon, formerlv
with valuable pathological collections, the the home of Washington. Pop. 331,069.
botanical garden and the zoological (See Columbia, Disiriot of A «
gardens, situated in the Rock Creek dis- WaftliiTicrf'ATi * city, county seat of
trict The United States Naval Observa- VV asxungxon, Daviess Co., Indiana,
tory, of white marble, occupies a retired 19 miles E. of Vincennes. It is in a farm-
and commanding site on Georgetown ing and coal mining region, and pro-
Heights. Other interesting institutions duces canned goods, lumber, furniture
are the Corcoran Gallery of Art, a and iron products, cooperage stock, un-
notable collection of paintings and derwear, etc Pop. 7854.
statuary, housed in a handsome new WftsTiiTifH-ATi a town, county seat of
marble building; the Carnegie Institu- vv usiuil^tuu, geaufort Co., North
tion. founded in 1902, 'to encourage in- Carolina, on the Tar River, 33 miles v.
vestigation, research and discovery,* with of Newbem. It has foundries and manu-
an endowment by Andrew Carnegie of factures of lumber, knit goods, boats, bug-
t 10,000,000; the Washington Academv of gies, fiour, oil, etc Pop. 6211.
Idences, National Geographic Society, WaftTiiTicH-nTi county seat of a county
Biological Society, Anthropological Soc- ^»waa^B •'"**> of the same name in
iety. International Bureau of the Ameri- Pennsylvania, 25 miles 8. w. of Pitts-
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Washington Washington
bargh. It is in a coal and oil region, Vernon« then the residence of his half-
and has extensive manufactures of tin brother Lawrence, wxio had inherited the
plate, iron, steel, glass, etc. Here is greater part of the estate. This gave
Washington and Jefferson College and him access to books and to better teach-
other collegiate institutions. Pop. 25,000. ers and brought him in contact with
Wasllin0i:on Booker Taliavebbo, Lord Fairfax, a relative of Lawrence's
WW a.ouj.ug vvu| ^ucator, born of Af ri- wife, who possessed a larife tract of land
can parentage at Hale's Ford, Virginia, in the Shenandoah Valley. The boy,
about 1859. The son of a slave, he who had been dissuaded by his mother
succeeded in obtaining entry at Hamp- from entering the British navy, had ac-
ton Institute, was graduated in 1875 and quired some knowledge of mathematics
taught there until put in charge of the and surveving, and was employed by
Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Insti- Lord Fairfax in 1747 to survey his val-
tute, Alabama, in 1881. This, under his ley property. He alternated surveying
care, has made a remarkable progress in with hunting, spent the winters at
industrial education, and has done much Mount Vernon, and in 1751 accompanied
toward solving the race problem between his brother, stricken with consumption,^
the blacks and whites, while its president to Barbadoes. Here Lawrence died in
is regarded as one of the most remark- 1752, leaving George guardian of his only
able men of the age. He has published daughter and heir to his estate if she
Satoing and Reaping, Up from Slavery^ should die without issue. Lawrence had
Future of the American Nepro and already given his younger brother in-
various other works. Died in 1915. atruction in the use of arms and the art
TXTaaliiTicH-nTi BusuROD, judge, was of war, a training soon to become nsefuL
wasiiiu^tuii, ^^^^ jij Westmoreland He was appointed adjutant-general in the
Ck)unty, Virginia, in 1759; died in 1829. Virginia militia at the age of nineteen.
He was a nephew of George Washing- and in 1752, when twenty-one years of
ton, and a member of the Virginia age, was chosen for a service of great
Convention which ratified the Constitu- importance. The French had built some
tion of the United States in 1788. In forts on territory near Lake Erie claimed
1798 he was appointed a justice of the by Virginia, and Governor Dinwiddle sent
United States Supreme Court The a messenger to warn them off. The mes-
estate of Mount Vernon was left to him senger returned in fright before finishing
in the will of hit illustrious unde. his work and the governor now chose
TXTofiliiTicFfATi George, the hero of Washington, possibly at Lord Fairfax's
w osiiiu^iuu, American independ- instigation, as a strong and capable
ence, and the 'father of his country,' as young man, familiar with the ways of
he has long been popularly called, was the wilderness and fitted for the duty,
bom at Bridges Creek, Westmoreland There was no turning back by the new
County, Virginia, February 22, 1732. He messenger. He made a long and perilous
came of good English stock, being the journey through the wilderness and over
grandson of John Washington, who emi- the mountains to the French forts south
grated in 1657 from Northamptonshire, of the Ohio, gave the warning required,
England, where the Washington family and took occasion to study the Indian
had been one of excellent standing. In situation and gain a definite idea of the
.Virginia John Washington and his broth- designs of the French. On his retom,
er Lawrence brought a large tract of which was accomplished at great risk
land on the western side of tne Potomac of life, he suggested to the governor
and about fifty miles above its mouth, the building of a fort at the point where
Here John married, acquired wealth and the Monongahela and Alleghanv rivers
position, and left the paternal homestead unite to form the Ohio. In the following
to his second son Augustine, who was spring the French came down the Alle-
the father of George Washington by ghany, drove away the British workmen,
his second wife, Mary Ball. George was and completed the fort for themselves,
but ten years of age when his father Washington's military career now began,
died, six children in all being left to the He was made second in command of a
mother's care. Little or nothing is force sent from Virginia to deal with the
known of his childhood, though various French, but the death of the colonel threw
problematical stories have gathered about the command into his hands and he per-
nis name, some of them, possibly, based formed his responsible task with great
upon fact. He appears to have been a skill and judgment. Outnumbered by the
strong, healthy boy, quiet and thoughtful French, he built a small woodland fort
beyond his age, not brilliant as a student, where he defended himself with soldierly
bnt with the innate qualities of a man resolution, surrendering only when de-
of action. In 1747 he went to Mount f^nse had become hopeless and favorable
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Washing^ton Washingloii
tenns were offered. eent Vimnia in the Continental Gon-
Orden beixic sent from England that gresa which met at Philadelphia in Sep-
any English field officer should be sape- tember, 1774. At the end of the first
rior in command to any colonial officer, session, when Patrick Henry was asked
even one of higher rank. Washington at whom he considered the greatest man in
once resigned ; but in 1756 he consented the Congress, he replied, * If yoo apeak
to accompany Braddock as a volunteer
on his unfortunate expedition. The af-
fair would have ended very differently if
the opinionated Englishman had listened
to the advice of his Virginian aide-de-
camp, but, as it proved, Washington was
almost the only officer who returned un-
harmed from the disastrous expedition.
He was now placed at the head of the
Virginia forces, and in 1756 visited Bos-
ton and had an interview with General
Shirley, the commander-in-chief, with
whom he satisfactorily settled the ques-
tion of rank. During the remainder of
the war he was occupied on the fron-
tier, where the Indians were attacking
the settlers, and in 1758 accompanied George Washington.
General Forbes in the second expedition
against Fort Duquesne. He commanded of solid information and sound Judgment,
the part of the army which occupied that Colonel Washington is unquestionably
fort in November, 1758, and by putting thegreatest man on that floor.'
an end to the operations of the French Washington and his fellow patriots had
in tibat quarter, settled the question of mot aimed at separation from the mother-
ownership of the Ohio region. This ended country, but simply at Justice and fair
bis military career for that period. Elec- treatment, but alter the affair at Lex-
ted in 1758 to the House of Burgesses ington, April 19, 1775, nothing remained
of Virginia, he was on his first appear- but to resist British tyranny by force
ance hlghlv complimented by the speaker of arms, and on the 15th of June Wash-
for his milltanr service. Washington rose ington was unanimously elected by Con-
to reply, but in such a state of nervous- cress the commander-in-chief of the Amer-
ness, that he could not speak a word, ican forces. Ue had continued a mem*
*8it down. Mr. Washington,' said the her of Congress, but now left it to take
iq>eaker; 'Your modesty equals your command of the forces then besieging
valor, and that surpasses the power of Boston. The battle of Bunker Hill bad
any language I possess.' In 1750 he taken place, with much credit to the
married Martha Custis, a rich voung provincials for bravery, but Washington
widow, and settled down to the life of found the militia a disorganized mass,
a farmer at Mount Vernon, which had more an armed mob of pamots than an
fallen to him through the death of his army. It took him some time to under-
niece. This, added to the estate of his stand this half disciplined body of New
wife, made him one of the richest men Englanders, and for them to understand
In the land, his estate growing throuah him. but he soon brought order out of
purchase until it reached a total of 8000 confusion and won the love and respect
acres. He managed it himself, kept his of his men. Munitions of war were
own books, and nandled all his affairs greatly lacking and Congress was nearly
with method and Judgment while winning destitute of money or credit and sadly
a reputation for mercantile integrity, unfit to deal with the situation. Under
For srears he remained a member of the these circumstances it is a matter of
House of Burgesses, but took no promi- great credit to Wenhinirton that in nine
nent part in its debates, being ever more months' time he forced the British to
a man of action than an orator. In evacuate Boston with their army of
1778 he came again prominently into veterans and surrender to him the first
public affairs as a member of the con- seat of the war.
vention that met at Williamsburg and We must deal briefly with the remain-
asserted the right of the colonies to self- ing history of the war. the events of
government declaring that taxation and which are noted under United States.
representation could not justly be sepa- The defeat of the Americans on Long
rated. rHiis convention chose him, with Island led to the loss of New Tork and
Patrick Henry and five others, to repre- the retreat of Washington across New
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WasMngton WashingtoiL
Jersey, followed by the brilliant victory hasty southward inarch, besieged York-
at Trenton on Christmas ni£ht. 177(5, town with a force of about 15,000 men,
and the subteanent yictory at rrinceton, and on October 19 forced Cornwallis to
on Janoary 8, 1777. These soccesses surrender his forts and his force of 7000
greatly revived the spirits of the Ameri- veterans. It was the most important
cans, which had been much depressed by event of the war. since it brought it to
the preceding ill fortune, but Washington a rapid close, the discouraged British
had still many difficulties to contend with government givinc up the struggle,
in the lack of recruits, the want of Throufhout this contest, Washingtoii
money and war materials, and the snpe- was obviously the strongest and ablest
riority of his foes in all military req- man in the field, quiet» energetic, capa-
uisites. Their one lack lay in their ble, rarely losinc his temper, quick to
commanders, among whom Cornwallis take advantage oi every opportnnky, res-
was the only able soldier. In military olute in endurance, bearing the attacks
ffenius none of them compared with Wash- of his enemies, the lack of resources, the
ington, and he did not fail to take ad- continued difficulties which surrounded
vantage of their weakness and ineffi- him, with the spirit of a hero and the
dency. The next movements of the en- composure of a pnilosopher, and triumph-
emy were Burgoyne's disastrous march ing in the end as such men must tri-
sonthward from Canada and Howe's ex- umph, through an innate force of charac-*
pedition against Philadelphia by way of ter that never yields to defeat Wash-
Chesapeake Bay. Washington's army ington has since been regarded as a mil-
was defeated by superior forces at the itary genius of a high type, not a daiaMng
Brandywine, the British occupied Phila- meteor of war like Alexander or Napo-
delphia, and their alert opponent soon leon, but a leader capable of obtaining
after attacked them at German town, los- great results by the wise handling ot
ing the battle mainly through the con- slender means. A patriot in rrain, whose
fusion caused by a fog. But the loss in only desire was the independence of his
this quarter was recompensed by the de- country, he vigorously rejected the de-
feat and capture of Burgorne's army at mand of his followers that he should
Saratoga, and Washington's army went make himself a king, and retired to his
into winter quarters at Valley Forge home at Mount Vernon, taking up with
with reviving hope from the cheering composure and relief his old pursuit of
news from the North. The winter was a agriculture.
severe one and the men at Valley Forge He was not permitted to remain In
suffered greatly from want of clothing seclusion. Confusion and Inefficiency
and other necessaries. The spirit of their reigned supreme in governmental rela-
great leader, however, remained unbroken, tions and the necessity of a stronger gov-
and when 'the tidings of the alliance with ernment became daily more manifest In
France and the danger of the Delaware the events that followed, leading to the
being closed by a French fleet caused the calling of the Constitutional Convention
British to evacuate Philadelphia, Washing- of 1787, Washington took an active part*
ton was quickly on their track, attacked and he was chosen president of the oon-
them at Monmouth, and probablv would vention which, in the short space of a
have given them a crushing defeat but few months, devised the admirable Con-
for the misconduct of one of his subor- stitution which has since formed the
dinates. The following winter was passed basis of government of the United States,
by Uie American army at Morristown, Unanimously elected the first president
New Jersey, and in 1780 the war was of the new Union, he accepted it, as he
transferred to the South, the weakness said, 'with more diffidence and reluc>
and destitution of Washington's army tance than ever I experienced before in
obliging him to remain on the defensive, my life.' The mental characteristics
tibough closely watching the movements which make a man a great soldier are
of the enemy in and about New York, usually not those that fit him to be a
The climax came in 1781, when Lord constitutional governor, but Washington's
Cornwallis injudiciously moved his army Judgment, good sense and moderation
to Yorktown, Virginia, fortified that adapted him very well to his new duties,
place and awaited reinforcements from and he dealt with the difficulties that
New York. The alert American com- surrounded him in his new position with
mander took instant advantage of the a wisdom that few of his associates
opportunity. He had been reinforced by manifested. Reelected in 1792, he re-
a French army, a French fleet bad en- luctantly resumed the duties which re-
lered Chesapeake Bay and cut oif Com* moved him from the private life that
wallis' communication with New York, appealed more to his disposition, espe-
and Washington at once set out on a ^cially in view of the fact that he was
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Washington Court House Watcli
ass^ied by political foes as viruientiv as Washington Monumeut,
he had formerly been by military foes, *> — .w*»i***j.w**i#,
On the 7th of December. 1796, ne for a magnificent monument erected at
the last time met the Houses of Con- Washington, D. C. by the American peo-
gress, and made to them a dignified ple in honor of George Washington. It
Farewell Address, so full of wise advice stands in the Mall, a public park ex-
ihat it has since been regarded as one of tending to the Potomac, aud is 555^ feet
the great state papers of the country, high and 55 feet, 1^ inches square at
Declining a third term in office, he re- base, tapering upward to 34 feet, 54
tired a^dn to Mount Vernon, but in inches square. It is built of blocks of
1798 his services were once more de- marble two feet thick, and has a stair-
manded by his countrymen. A naval way and an elevator in its interior, the
conflict liaa arisen between France and States having contributed richly carved
the United States, there was danger of stones for the decoration of its interior
a declaration of war, and a small army walls. The comer-stone was laid in,
was raised, of which Washington was 1848 and the work finished Dec. C, 1884.
appointed commander-in-chief. Fortu- WasMta (wosh'i-tft), a river of Ar-
nately no war followed and the home '^ »»aj-h'«. Kansas and Louisiana, an
life of the venerated chief was not again affluent of Red River; length, GOO miles;
disturbed. He died after a short illness, valuable for navigation,
due to acute laryngitis, at Mount Ver- TXTogn (wosp), the common name ap-
Don. on December 14, 1799. ir plied to insects of various gen-
History presents us with few characters era belonging chiefly to the family
■o worthy of our admiration and esteem Vespide, order Hymenoptera. Those
as George Washington. His mental best known belong to the genus VespOf
gifts were not of the daszlin^ kind nor and live in societies, composed of fe-
were his talents of the brilliant order, males, males, and neuters or workers.
jet he possessed the essentials of wisdom The females and neuters are armed with
In a high degree, his nowers and traits an extremely powerful and venomous
of diaracter being so finely proportioned sting, especially so in the Hornet,
and adjusted and so firmly controlled TZTootp PrnHnnfft TTfi1i7QfiATi A-f
by a heroic will and high moral faculty, Wasie rrOUUCXS, UUXlZaXlOU 01.
as to enable him to witiistand alike dis- in the process of manufacture much sub-
aster and obloquy, to reject the prompt- stance is useless for the purpose in-
ings of ambition, and to pursue the even tended and vast quantities of material
tenor of his way unmoved by but one have in the past been thrown aside as
aspiration, to promote the happinee», 'waste.' Within later times much of
prosperity and good governnient of his this material has been found useful for
country. The equipoise and harmony of other purposes, being at times more
his powers, his keen foresight and rare valuable than the original product This
Judgment, led to that wise disrrimina>tipn utilization of waste has proceeded to
which is the outcome alike of well de- such an extent that comparatively little
veloped mental and moral faculties, niaterial is now discarded as useless.
Washington merited the noble title of Thus 'waste silk* is now valuable.
• Father of his Country.' though it retains this name. Rags of
Wash, inert on Conrt HonSC. **^ kinds are now so much in demand
^ . „ ^ ^^. tliat no one speaks of them as waste,
a city, county seat of Fayette Co,. Ohio, Much heat was wasted in the past which
on Paint Creek, 75 miles B. N. E. of Cm- fg now made useful. The vast heaps
cinnati. It has a poultry packing house, of waste coal dust at the mines are now
and manufactures of stoves, furniture, being converted into burnable briquets
shoes, fertilizers, etc. Pop. 8000. ^ and utilized in other ways, and the
WashUUrtOn and Lee IFniVCr- refuse of oW smelting works is being
. * * ^i_ A ^ made to yield metal by improved proc-
ritV. V*® ^ outcome of the Augusta esses. The science of chemistry has done
: , Aaidemy, Aurasta Co., Virginia, much in utiUzing refuse, coal tar, for in-
founded in 1749. Becoming the Wash- gtance, now yielding a multitude of use-
Ington Academy, it was removed in 1906 fuj products. The saving effected by this
to Lexington, Va. Before the Civil war utilization is too varied to be further
•Stonewall' Jackson was one of ito pro- particularized, and the saving amounts to
fessors. In 1865 Gen. Robert B. Xee yast sums.
5*^®* ^?o»7iP'??^®°*' -s*°^ !♦ ^ * Watcli (woch), a well-known pocket
death, in ISJOit was given its Pfesent WaXCn i\^trument for measuring^me,
■*™*-^ ^^JSP^ *n ^^ ^ instructors invented at Nttrnberg in the end of the
and about 600 pupils. fifteenth century. The wheels in watches
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Watch Water
are urged on by the force of a spiral of compensatioa (which see) in the
sprinf^, generally of steel, contained in balance, have combined to give to the
a cylindrical barrel or box, to which one best chronometers of to-day a uniformity
end of a chain is fixed, the chain als* of rate which it is probably impossible
making several turns round the barrel to excel. A number of watches for
outside; the other end of the chaui is special performances are also con-
fixed to the bottom of a cone with a structed. Such are the calendar watch,
spiral groove cut on it, known as the the repeater, the chronograph (which
fusee (which see). On the bottom of see), etc Large quantities of the
the fusee the first or great wheel is put cheaper class of watches are now made
The barrel-arbor is so fixed in the frame by machinery in the United States,
that it cannot turn when the fusee is Switzerland, France, Germany, and Eng-
winding up. The inner end of the land. They are generally produced on
spring hooks on to the barrel-arbor, the the interchangeable system, that is, if
outer to the inside of the barrel. If the any part of a watch has become unfit
fusee is turned round in the proper for service, it can be cheaply replaced
direction It will take on the chain, and by an exact duplicate, the labor of the
consequently take it off from the barrel, watch repairer thus becoming easy and
This coils up the spring; and if the expeditious.
fusee and great wheel are left to them- Wofch (i^utical), a certain part of
selves, the force exerted by the spring ^^^"' t^^ officers and crew or a ves-
in the barrel to unroll itself will make sel who together work her for an al-
the barrel turn in a contrary direction lotted time, the time being also called
to that by which it was bent up. This a watch. The time called a watch is
force communicating itself to the wheels four hours, the reckoning beginning at
will set them in motion. Their time noon or midnight Between 4 and 8
of continuing in motion will depend on p.m. the time is divided into two short
the number of turns of the spiral groove or dog-icatchea, in order to prevent the
on the fusee, the number of teeth in constant recurrence of the same portion
the first or great wheel, and on the of the crew keeping the watch during
number of leaves in the pinion upon the same hours.
which the great wheel acts, etc. The \X7oteT (^ft'^^^)> ^ liquid which cov-
necessity of keeping the watch from ^^ **•"*'* ers the greater part of the
' running down,' aud of making the earth's surface. It was classified among
wheels move with uniform motion, gave the elements until the close of the eight-
rise to the use of the balance-wheel and eenth century, when Lavoisier, profiting
hair-spring (taking the place of the by the experiments of Cavendish, proved
pendulum of a clock) and the variously it to be a compound of hydrogen and
and ingeniously designed mechanism, the oxygen, in the proportion of two volumes
escapement (which see). On the per- of the former gas to one volume of the
fection of the escapement the time- latter; or by weight 2 parts of hydrop^en
keeping qualities of a watch largely de- to 16 parts of oxygen ; hence its chemical
pend. Of the many varieties invented formula is H^O. Pure water is a color-
and perfected, watches are now almost less, tasteless, inodorous liquid; a power-
exclusively provided with either the ful refractor of light; a bad conductor
horizontal, toe lever, the chronometer of heat and electricity; it is very
or the detached escapement. (See Chro^ slightly compressible, its absolute dlmin-
nometer.) In all but the best class ution for a pressure of one atmosphere
of modem watches the fusee has been being only about 51.3 million ths of its
abandoned in favor of the going-barrel, bulk. Although water is colorless in
The latter offers better facilities for small quantities, it is blue like the
keyless work, and keyless watches are atmosphere when viewed in mass. It
manufactured in great quantities. The takes a solid form, that of ice or snow,
going-barrel watch can abo be produced at 32® F. {0° C), and all lower tem-
at a cheaper rate, and for ordinary pur- peratures; and it takes the form of
poses is amply reliable. The main- vapor or steam at 212® F. (100® C.)
spring in this class of watch is very under a pressure of 29.9 ins. of mercury,
long, but only a few coils are brought and retains that form at all higher
into action. The great wheel is at- temperatures. Under ordinary condi-
tached to the going-barrel itself, thus tions water possesses the liquid form
the spring force is directly transmitted only at temperatures lying between 32®
to the escapement. The invention of the and 212®. It is, however, possible to
spiral hair-spring by Dr. Hooke (about cool water very considerably below 32®
1658), the scientific application of its F. and yet maintain it in the liquid
properties since, and the intelligent use form. Water may also be heated, under
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Water
'Water
prMsare, many degrees above 212® F.
withoot passing into the state of steam.
The spedfic gravity of water is 1 at Z9J2^
Fm being the unit to which the specific
gravities of all solids and liqaids are
referred, as a convenient standard, on
account of the facility with which it
is obtained in a pure state ; one cubic
inch of water at W"* F. and 29.9 inches
barometrical pressure, weighs 252.468
Tsnk and Pump Honse.
grahis. Distilled water is 815 times
heavier than atmospheric air. Water is
at its greatest density at 39.2'* F.
(=4* C.), and in this respect it pre-
sents a singular exception to the general
law of expansion by heat If water at
39.2® F. be cooled, it expands as it
cools till reduced to 32®, when it solidi-
fies; and if water at 30.2® F. be heated,
it expands as the temperature increases
Ko accordance with the general law. In
a chemical point of view water exhibits
in itself neither add nor basic proper-
ties : but it combines with both acids and
bases, forming hydrates; it also com-
bmes with neutral salts. Water also
enters, as a liquid, into a peculiar kind
of combination with the greater number
of all known substances. Of all liquids
water is the most powerful and general
solvent, and on this important property
its chemical use depends. Without
water not only the operations of the
chemist but the processes of animal and
vegetable life would come to a stand.
In consequence of the great solvent
power of water it Is never found pure in
nature. Even in rain-water, which is
the purest, there are always traces of
carbonic acid, ammonia, and sea-salt.
Where the rain-water has filtered
through rocks and soils, and reappears
as spring or river water, it is always
more or less charged with salts derived
from the earth, such as sea-salt, gypsum,
and chalk. When the proportion of
these is small the water is called $oftt
when larger it is called hard water.
The former dissolves soap better, and is
therefore preferred for washing; the
latter is often pleasanter to drink.
Some springs contain a considerable
quantity of foreign ingredients, which
impart to the water particular proper-
ties. They are known under the general
term mineral waterB^ and accordiDg to
the predominating constituents held in
solution are divided into carbonated
waters (alkaline, magnesian, calcareous,
and chalybeate), sulphatic waters (con-
taining chiefly sulphates), chlorinated
waters (containing chiefly chlorides),
and sulphuretted waters (containing
large quantities of sulphides or of
sulphuretted hydrogen). The only way
to obtam perfectly pure Vater is to dis-
til it, but matter simply held in suspen-
sion may be got rid of by suitable
filtration. The great reservoirs of water
on the globe are the oceans, seas, and
lakes, which cover more than three-fifths
of its surface, and from which it is
raised by evaporation, and, uniting with
the air In the state of vapor, is wafted
over the earth ready to be precipitated
in the form of rain, snow, or hail, and
make its way by river channels to the sea.
Water, like air, is absolutely necessary
to life, and healthy human life requires
that it should be free from contamina-
tion, hence an ample and pure water
supply is considered as one of the first
laws of sanitation. In addition to the
abundant surface pressure of water, it
penetrates the rock crest of the earth
to considerable depths and by its sol-
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Water-bed
Water-oreM
vent powers produces important effects.
It can be reached by bonng in some of
the most arid parts of the earth, and
rising to the surface as artesian waters,
brings fertility to desert regions. It is
supposed also to be the cause of Tolcanic
eruptions, through the explosive force of
steamt into which it is converted when
it aiisks to thiL* Lotier parts of the f^arth's
cruat,
MTofAf.'h^tfl & bed consisting of aft
waier-oeUj india-rubber mattress
filled with water, and generally ui^ed by
persons (."onQned to bed. Its ptiability
prevents pressure on tbe body of tbe
patient, an<t thus acta to prevent bed-
the Waterbury watches and clocks, which
are known throughout the world.
Electro-plate is also made and there are
numerous rolling mills and foundries
and extensive manufactures of pins, but-
tons, pearl goods, lamps and many
other products. The city contains a
-W^':
ptpl^/S't^
r^^^&^m
Geological Drainage of Water Into Wells.
sores. Water-beds, however, have been
largely superseded by the more con-
venient and healthier air-beds (which
see).
Water-beetle, ^^®, ^*™® ^7^^ *?
«««.«w w^^vA^y various species of
beetles, having legs adapted for swim-
ming, the two hinder pairs being flat-
tened and fringed with hairs. They are
exceedingly voracious both in the adult
and larval state, even devouring young
fishes.
Water-boatman ^^^'^'l^.^* |[,"J*:
Waterbury ^^,ri^bo*/&JLu^
in a valley on the Naugatuck River, 77
miles northeast of New York. It is
an important railway junction and
manufacturing town. Brass and brass
goods are the staple products, the largest
part of the output of the country being
produced here. It is also the seat of
number of benevolent and academic in-
stitutions. Pop. 73,141.
Water-Chestmit. SeeTrapa.
Water-clock. ^^ Clep^ydra.
Water-colors, °"f^ ^° painting are
WW cftv^A vvAVAOy colors carefully
ground up with water and isinglass or
other mucilage instead of oil. Water-
colors are often prepared in the form
of small cakes dried hard, which can
be rubbed on a moistened palette when
wanted. Moist water-colors in a semi-
fluid state are also used; they are gen-
erally kept in metal tubes, which pre-
serve them from drying up.
Water-cress (^««*««*;**«»» orndfuueh
wAvoo ^ cruciferous plant dis-
tributed throughout Europe, Western
Asia, North Africa, introduced Into North
America and certain British colonies, and
choking some rivers of New Zealand,
where the stem grows as thick as tha
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Water-cure
Water-hog
wrist It grows on the margin of clear
streams, or even partly immersed in the
water. It has antiscorbutic properties,
and is cultivated near many large towns
to be used as salad, or otherwise.
Water-cure. ^^ Bydropathy,
Water-dofiT, * ^^5^^^ ^l ^?^ ^''^^
w» nw^A U.V59 ^ curly coat, long ears,
a rounded head, and webbed toes. It
seems to be allied to the poodle, but
differs from the latter in its firmer set
and stouter body, and in its larger size.
The water-dog Is highly intelligent, but
less so than the retriever. It is usually
of a grayish white varied with black
and brown.
Waterfall ^^ (^^^^raa.
TXTafAr.flAO A name given to various
wairer-uea, genera of small swim-
ming crustaceans belonging to the class
Entomostraca. Among the commonest
are CyprU and Cydops (which see).
One very familiar water-flea is the
Daphnia pulem. See Daphnia.
Waterford (wft'ter-furd), a city and
mrawciiuiu seaport in the southeast
of Ireland, capital of the county of same
name, 97 miles a. s. w. of Dublin, on the
right bank of the Suir, which soon after
joins the Barrow, the combined stream
reaching the sea by the fine estuary
known as Waterford Harbor. It
stretches along the Suir for about 1
mile, has convenient quay accommodation
for large vessels, ana commands a con-
siderable shipping trade. The bulk of
the manufactures of Waterford county « ^ i.
are carried on at Waterford and its Water-ho&T. °®* CapyMra,
Ticinity, and most of the exporU pass " -" o
through Waterford Harbor. There are
large bacon-curing establishments, brew-
eries, saw and flour mills, etc. The
principal buildings are the Episcopal
and Roman Catholic cathedrals. Pop.
26,769.— The county belongs to the
province of Munster. The area is 721
sq. miles. The coast is in general bold
and rocky, and besides the harbors of
Waterford and Youghal at its east and
west extremities respectively, has the
deep indentations of bungarvan Harbor
and Tramore Bay. The interior is
largely rugged and mountainous. The
principal rivers are the Suir and the
Blackwater. Dairying is the chief re*
source of the rural population. Slat&
sandstone, and marble are quarried, and
there is a large export of potter's clay.
The fisheries are valuable. Pop. 87,187.
Water-gas, \^t\ZT'^r^,^^.
candescent carbon. It is used for
heating and welding j^urposes in metal'
lurgy, and also for illumination, espe-
cially in the United States. Numerous
deaths from poisoning have resulted
from its use, however, this being largely
due to its want of smell. Burnt in the
usual way it gives a blue flame, but by
suspending a comb of thin magnesium
rods in the flame the filaments are
quickly heated to a white heat, produc-
ing a bright glow light of hign illu«
mmating power, but which is neither un*
pleasant to the eye nor prejudicial to
the sight Mantels made of several in-
fusible metals are now in common use
and give a brilliant light with a com-
paratively small consumption of gas.
Water-SrlaSS, *. Bubstance which,
WW c»i»^j. gACft0»9 when solid, resembles
glass, but is slowly soluble in boiling
water, although it remains unaffected by
ordinary atmospheric changes. It con-
sists of the soluble silicates of potash
or soda, or a mixture of both. It is
prepared either by breaking down and
calcining flint nodules, the fragments or
particles of which are then added to a
solution of caustic potash or soda,
whereupon the whole is exposed for a
time to intense heat, or by fusing the
constituents together in a solid state,
and afterwards reducing them to a viscid
condition. Among the purposes to which
water-glass is applied are painting on
glass, coating stone, wood and other
materials to render them waterproof,
glazing scenery and paintings, fixing
wall-paintings, etc.
Water-hen. ^^ oaiiinuie.
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Waterhouse Water Power
WaterhOUSe (wft'ter-hous), Alfrbd, ■UT'aterloo » ^^^y» county seat of
vyauciiiwuDC £i^ j^ jj^j^j^ at vvaienuu, Blackhawk Co., Iowa, on
Liverpool in 1830; studied architecture Cedar River, 100 miles n. e. of Des
in Manchester, and designed various Moinos . It is the trade center of a wide
important buildings in that city and farming and grazing region, and has rail-
London. He also partly reconstructed road repair shops, canning and packing
Balliol College, Oxford and Caius and factories, and manufactures of gasoline
Pembroke, Cambridge. He was elected engines, automobiles, farming and cream-
a royal academician in 1885. ery implements, etc. I*op. 35,000.
Waterhouse John William, an WftterlnA Stanley, author, bom in
watcmousc, English painter, born WaicnOO, st. Clair Co.. Michigan, in
about 1840, became a member of the 1846. He became a journalist and
Royal Academy in 1895. Among his editor of various papers, the latest the
paintings are Mariamne, Ulysses and the Washington Critic and Capital, His
Sirens and The Lady of Shalott. works include A Man and a Woman,
Wftter-lilv See yymphmacecB^ LO' Armageddon, The Wolfs Long Howl,
TTc»i.i^x ixxjr. ^^^^ miumhium, V»o- The Seekers, These Are My Jewels,
toria Regia, The Cassowary, etc.
Waterloo Iwa-ter-lS'), a village of Watermelon. *, favorite fruit, cul-
vvMvvxxw Belgium, nearly 10 miles »» "••'^^""^^avii, tivated largely in the
8. s. E. of Brussels. It is famous for the United States and many other countries
memorable battle which was fought here for its cool and refreshing juice and
on June 18, 1815, and which finally palatable pulp. It often grows to a very
shattered the power of Napoleon. The large size, resembling the pumpkin in
Prussian defeat at Ligny, and his own shape. It is the melon of Scripture,
unsuccessful engagement at Quatre WafAr-miQAl or Dippeb. See Dip-
Bras on the 16th of June, caused Wei- W aiCr-OUSei, ^^^ o x/ p-
lington to retire towards Waterloo, while TXroi'AT.'n'i^n'liAT* the popular name
BlUcher concentrated his troops at ^ ""'^^ pil/Cncr, ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^
Wavre, about 10 miles distant. The der Sarraceniacee, the leaves of which
whole British position formed a sort of somewhat resemble pitchers or trumpets
curve, the center of which was nearest in general form.
to the enemy. The French forces oc- TU'Qtfir.'nIfl.Tltfl.iTi ^^^ common name
cupied a series of heights opposite, ^ 0'«vi ^Aaui/axu^ ^£ various species
there being a valley of no great depth, of plants of the genus Alisma, nat.
and from 500 to 800 yards in breadth, order Alismacecp. One species, A. Plan-
between them. Each army probably tdgo (great water-plantain), is a com-
consisted of about 70,000 men. The mon wild pUint in wet ditches and by
object of Napoleon was to defeat the river sides.
British, or force them to retreat, before TXToter Power ^ general phrase ap-
the Prussians, who, he knew, were com- ** at^x avwux^ plied to the various
ing up, could arrive in the field; while means by which the energy of moving
that of the Duke of Wellington was to water may be utilized. To make such a
maintain his ground till he could be source of energy effectual it is neces-
joined by his allies, when it might be in sary and sufficient to have the water
his power to become the assailant. The falling from a higher to a lower level.
French began the battle about noon, and Such conditions more or less* favorable
it continued with great fury till even- exist in all streams, though in many
ing, when the appearance on the scene cases the fall is so slight and the ve-
of the Prussians caused Bonaparte to locity of the water so small that prac-
redouble his efforts. His imperial tically no useful work can be obtained
guards, which had been kept in reserve. Of the various machines by which the
made a final attempt. Wellington's necessary transformation is usefully
line, however, charged them at the point effected, the most common are what are
of the bayonet, and the imperial guard known as water-wheels, in their several
began a retreat, in which they were im- forms of turbines, undershot wheels,
itated by the whole French army. The breast-wheels, and overshot wheels (see
British left the pursuit to the Prussians, these terms). Recently the application
The whole French army was disi>ersed of water-power through the aid of tur-
and disabled, and their artillery, bag- bines to the development of electricity
gage, etc., fell into the hands of the cob- and its secondary application in this form
querors. Their loss in killed, wounded, to power purposes at great distances
and prisoners amounted to between 40,- from its source, together with the grow-
000 and 50,000. The allied loss ing cost of coal as a source of power
amounted to 23,000 killed and wounded, and its threatened ezhaostlon in some
21 10
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Waterproof Glotk Waterspout
localities, have brought the question of do not altogether obstruct ventilation,
the conservation and utilization of water- Consecutive dipping of cloths in soap
I>ower into great prominence as a prob- and alum solutions, or in gelatine and
ably indispensable need of mankind. Its gall solutions, or in a solution of
most important application in this di- acetate of lead and then in a solution
rection hitherto made has been tiiat of of alumina, has been reported to with
the Falls of Niagara power-works, both more or less success. The new sub-
on the American and the Canadian side, stance called algin, obtained from sea-
Here enormous electrical power has been weed, has been strongly recommended
developed by the use of turbines, its for the same purpose. Another recent
most important application being in the patent process consists in treating the
city of Buffalo for manufacturing, elec- fibers in the solution instead of the
trie railways and otherwise. It has also manufactured textile, and the fabric
been applied extensively in Canada. A thus produced, while rain-resistinz, of-
great dam on the lower Susquehanna, re- fers the same ventilation as ordinary
ceotly completed and estimated to yield materiala.
100,(K)0 horse-power, is Supplying Balti- TXTo f at 1)01)1)1 f 9Ln American spe.
more, many miles distant, with dectrical VYttlcr JVauuit, ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^
power, and may in the future supply dant in the swampy tracts bordering
rhiladelphia. Applications of water-pow- on the Mississinpi end its tributaries in
er in this way have become numerous and the southwestern States, whence it is
extensive in various parts of the United also called the swamp hare. It is an
States and in other countries. A great excellent swimmer, and subsists chiefly
concrete dam, 0096 feet in total length, on the roots of aquatic plants,
ia being built across the Mississippi at TXToi-A-p Poil a bird generally dis-
Keokuk, Iowa, at the foot of the Des watcrjMtii, tributed over America
Moines rapids, which is expected to yield and Europe, and fairly common, though
dOO.OOO horse-power, a little more than not often seen, from its shy, retiiid
half that obtained from the Niagara. In habits. It freanenta marshes and bogs,
view of the coming wide installation of and swims and dives well, but has poor
works of this character, far-seeing capi- powers of flight It is a delicious oird
talists have made insidious efforts to gain for the table and is a favorite game bird,
control of the leading sources of water- TXTofAr Potvi Ra^ TTmtJi^-nMtii^ ifjum.
nower, not yet occupied, in the United Water Ham. See HydruuUe Rmm.
States, having in view doubtless the TXfQfAr.rof So» Vni^
coming replacement of steam by electric- Waicr-rai. Bee voie.
ity in railroad traction. To forestall TXTofAr.finn'minTi ^^^ popular name
this, the government has withdrawn the ^ ^^^^ JM/Orpiuu, ^^ jf^^^ ^ ^^^^
important water-power sites in the West of hemipterous insects, the species of
from private exploitation, reserving them which innabit ponds, etc. Some of them
for the benefit of the people at large when are powerful insects, 2 or 3 inches in
the time for their utilization shall arrive, length. They receive their popular
HrQ^ATTirAAf Plnfli cloth rendered name from the scorpion-like form of the
waierprooi V/1UI.1I, impervious to forelegs, with which they seise their
water. There are numerous processes prey.
for waterproofing fabrics of all kinds. UTafAraliAil SSIao TfinttrM
The earliest patent, that of Macintosh WaxersneO. See Ktver$.
(1823), consisted in covering cloth with lITflf AranAnf ^ remarkable meteoro-
a paste obtained by dissolving caont- ^ o,h^xoy%iui0f logical phenomenon
chouc in benzol or coal naphtha. In freonently observed at sea, and exactly
the treatment of cotton and hnen cloth analogous to the whirlwinds experienced
a small proportion of sulphur is gen- on land. It occurs when opposite winds
erally added. A thin layer of this of different temperatures meet in the
rubber solution is spread on the fabric upper atmosphere, whereby a great
by special machinery, after which the amount of vapor is condensed into a
cloth is doubled, pressed and finished thick black cloud, to which a vortical
in calenders, the waterproof layer be- motion is given by the action of the
ing thus in the center of the finished opposing winds, the force of which ex-
material. Textiles thus manipulated be- tends downward. This vortical motion
come also impervious to air, and from causes the cloud to take the form of a
a hygienic point of view unsuitable for vast funnel, which, descending near the
prolonged personal wear. This led to surface of the sea, draws up the water
the introduction of other solutions and in its vortex, which joins in its whirl-
methods of application intended to pro- ing motion. The whole column, which
dace fabrics which, while resisting rain, after the junction extends from the sea
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:^HH
Waterton Waterworks
to the clouds, assames a magnificent ap- paper, wood-pulp, steam engines, air-
pearance, being of a light color near its brakes, silk, etc. There is here a State
axis, but dark along the sides. When armory, homes for the aged and orphans,
acted on by the wind the column as- etc. Pop. 26,730.
Bumes a position oblique to the horizon, WofprfAwn a city, county seat of
but m calm weather it maintains its ▼»0'«'Ca wvwii, Coddington Co., South
vertical position, while at the same time Dakota, 225 miles west of Minneapolis.
~ ^^^^H It is the trade center of a rich farming
j^^H country, and has a large wholesale and
. .','9[^H jobbing trade. Pop. 7010.
■W TXTflfprfn'o/Ti a city of Jefferson and
1 WaxeiTOWn, ^^^ ^^^^ Wisconsin.
on the Hock River, 44 miles w. by N. of
Milwaukee. It is the trade center of an
extensive farming region and has manu-
factures of machinery, bricks, flour,
apiary supplies, dairy products, shoes,
boxes, etc. Here is the Northwestern
^ University (Lutheran) and the Sacred
Waterspout Heart College (Catholic). Pop. 8829.
it is carried along the surface of the Waterville ^ ^^^^ ^^ Kennebec O).,
sea. Sometimes the upper and lower *» "•"^'^ **"^> Maine, on the Kennebec
parts move with different velocities, Kiver, 81 miles N. n. e. of Portland,
causing the parts to separate from each Various falls afford water-power. Here
other, often with a loud report. The is Colby College (1820), and the Colbum
whole of the vapor is at length absorbed Classical Institute. Manufactures in-
in the air, or it descends to the sea in dude cotton and woolen goods, machin-
a heavy shower of rain. Sudden gusts ery, foundry products, furniture, shirts,
of wind, from all points of the compass, etc. At Winslow, on the opposite side of
are very common in the vicinity of the river, are large paper and pulp mills,
waterspouts. What are sometimes Waterville was settled as a part of Wins-
called waterspouts on land, or cloud- low in 1764. Pop. 12,500.
luntSt are merely heavy falls of rain Watervliet ("^^^*U ^ ^^ ^^ ^^'
of a local character that occur gen- *^ "••'^-^ ^•"^•' bany Co., New York, on
erally daring thunder-storms. In sandy the Hudson River, opposite Troy, on the
deserts they draw up the sand as Delaware and Hudson Railroad and the
waterspouts draw up water. The tor- Erie Canal. It has a national arsenal,
nado of the central United States is a car-works, foundries, woolen factories,
destructive example of the whirling hardware works, etc. Pop. 15,074.
storms which on the ocean produce water- 'WRtPT-'wliepl ^ wheel moved by
spouts. »T»v^x Tv^v^xi ^jter, as the over-
WofprfnTi Charles, an English nat- shot wheel the undershot wheel, the
waicrtUU, ^pjjig^ bom at Walton breast-wheel and the turbine. (See
Hall, Wakefield, in 1782; died in 1865. these terms.)
He was educated at the Koman Catho- Waterworks *^® reservoirs, with
lie College at Stonyhurst, where he . vx*».s», ^j^^jj, accompanying
evinced a great taste for natural his- pumping machinery and distributing
tory. He spent many years in travel, pipes, by which water is now supplied
and published Wandertngs in South to cities. This process is by no means
America and Essays in Natural History^ modern. We read in the Bible that King
With an Autobiography, Hezekiah made a pool and a conduit
Wfttertown (wft'ter-town), a village and brought water into the city of Jeru-
wni/vxiivwu ^£ Watertown township salem. In the Roman Empire the bring-
(town), Middlesex Co., Massachusetts, on ing of water into cities by means of
the Charles River, 7 miles w. of Boston^ aqueducts was very common and many
of which it is a residental suburb. Ic remains of the masonry aqueducts of
bas a national arsenal and manufactures ancient Rome still exist The great
of paper, rubber goods, woolens, shoddy, modern cities of Europe and America
soap, starch, etc. Pop. of town, 13,000. owe their possible existence to copious
Watertown ^ ^^^y* capital of Jef- supplies of water, brought often from con-
Tv a.vvj.vwvTuy ferson Co., New York, siderable distances, carried in large pipes
on Black River, about 10 miles from under the streets and supplied to houses
I^ke Ontario. The rapids of the river by means of small pipes, a sufficient head
yield abundant water-power, which is of water being needed to drive tie supply
utilized in extensive manufactures of to the upper stories of houses. Water
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Watford Watson
for this purpose is obtained from yarioas miles n. by w. of Elmira. It has large
80uf(^ by pumping from rivers, as in salt works and brewing industries. It
Philadelphia, from a lake, as in Chicago^ is notable for the deep and picturesque
and by conveyance from large reservoirs, ravine known as Watkin's Glen, in
as in New York and many other cities, which are numerous beautiful cascades
The most striking example of the latter and which attracts large numbers of
method of supply is that of New York visitors. Pop. 2817.
city, which has long been supplied from Wotklll (wot'kin), Sir Edward Wil-
the Croton reservoir, the water being '* «*!».»-"* ham, railway manager,
conveyed through a great rock tunnel to was bom at Salford. England, in 1819;
the city. The need of a larser supply died in 1894. He became secretary to
has led to the damming of Esopus and the Trent Valley Railway in 1845, and
Catskill Greeks in the Catskill Mountain from that time was director or manager
region, to form a lake capable of hold- of several of the leading railways, especi-
ins 130,000,000,000 gallons. Great tun- ally the Southeastern. In 1861 he went
nels have been made to convey the water to Canada in connection with the union
to the city, including a number of steel of the Canadian provinces, and after
pipe siphons, the most remarkable of 1864 was long a member of parliament,
which IS one which passes under the He was a strenuous promoter of the
Hudson River at the great depth of 1100 Channel Tunnel, and of Wembly Park
feet The amount of water expected Tower, designed to exceed the Eiffel
from this stupendous work is 600,000,000 Tower in height In 1889 he acquired
sallons daily. The supply for the city of part of Snowden by purchase. He was
London has for half a century or more a knight of several foreign orders,
been in the hands of eight companies, five TZrofliTio'sfrAAf (wot'ling-stret), one
of which draw all their supplv from the W auingSirccii ^^ ^^ lloman miU-
Thames, with the exception of a portion tary roads In Britain, running from near
obtained from wells and springs. The Dover by London, St Alban's, Dunstable
East London Company obtains nearly all and Towcester, into North Wales, a
its supply from the river Lea, the New branch also extending into Scotland.
River Company from the Chadwell, Am- Traces of this ancient road still exist in
well and Lea. the Kent Company entire- many parts of its course and in some sec-
ly from chalk wells. Meters are used tions it is still in use as an important
and the average use of water per day highway.
per head is 25 gallons. This is greatly Wotson (wot'son), Jamss Craxo,
exceeded in some American cities, especi- " o-^ovi* astronomer, bom in Elgin
ally in the city of Philadelphia, whose County, Canada West in 1838. He was
ciUzens use (or waste) more water than graduated at the University of Michi-
those of any other city in the world. It gan in 1857, and became professor of
obtains its supply from the Delaware and astronomy there in 1859. In 1863 he
Schuylkill rivers* an extensive filtration was made professor of the observatory,
plant having recently been constructed In 1879 he became professor of as-
to purify the waters of these rivers, tronomy in the University of Wisconsin,
The system of purification here employed and died there Nov. 23, 1880. He dia-
ls that of slow sand filtration^ but in covered 23 asteroids, receiving the Le-
many places coagulating chemical sub- lande medal of the French Academy of
stances are used for the removal of im- Sciences for discovering six of them in
purities. A disinfecting agent now com- one year. He also discovered several
ing into wide use is hypochlorite of lime, comets, was a member of the eclipse ex-
It must be said in conclusion that the pedition of 1869 and 1870, and of the
methods of purification now employed transit of Venus expedition in 1874. He
have proved very efficacious in the pre- wrote Theoretical Astronomy,
vention of such epidemic diseases as TX7Qf«rt"n John (pseudonym *Ian
cholera and typhoid fever. Wtti,»uu, Maclaren^), a clergyman
Wflffnrrl (woff6rd), a town of Eng- and novelist of Scotch parentage, bom
witbiuiu j^j^ j^ Hertfordshire, on at Manningtree, Essex, England, in
the river Colne and the Grand Junction 1850. Educated at Stirling and Bdin-
CanaL It is well built, and has large burgh, he became a Presbyterian minis-
breweries, com and paper mills. A ter, and was stationed at Liverpool
bridge across the Colne connects it with 1880-1905. His Beside the Bonnie
Bushey, a residential suburb. Pop. Briar Bush made him famous as an
(1911) 40,953. author. This was followed by a rapid
TU'afViTia (wotTsin*), a village, capi- series of works. A popular preacher
wabluuB ^^ ^f Schuyler Co., New and lecturer, he visfted the United
York, at the head of Seneca Lake, 22 States on lecturing tours in 1896 and in
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Watson
Watteau
1907, dying daring the latter tour at
Mount Pleasant, Iowa.
WofQCTi John Cbittenden, admirah
waison, jj^j.^ ^^ Frankfort, Ken-
tucky, in 1842. He was graduated at
the Naval Academy in 1860, and served
in the navy throughout the Civil war,
being master on Farragut's flagship, the
Hartford, from 1862 to the end of the
war. He took part in the battles on
the Mississippi and in Mobile Bay, in
the latter engagement, when Admiral
Farragut had taken a position in the
port mizzen rigging to observe the flght,
Watson lashed him to the rigging to
prevent the danger of his falling. He
was made commodore in 1897, com-
manded the blockading squadron in the
North Cuban coast in 1898, and in 1899
succeeded Dewey in command at
Manila, being appointed rear-admiral.
He was United States naval representa-
tive at the coronation of Edward VII in
1902. Retired August 24, 1904.
W^atson ^I^OMAS E., politician and
^ historian, was bom in Co-
lumbia Co., Georgia, in 1856. He was
elected to Congress by the Populist
party in 1891, and was nominated for
vice-president by this party in 1896,
and for President in 1904. He became
publisher of Tom WaUon^a Magazine in
1905, and in 1906 founded the Jefferso-
nian Magazine and the Weekly Jeffer-
Bonian. He wrote The Story of France
and Life of Napoleon, popular histories;
also Life of Jefferson and Bethany, a
Study and Story of the Old South,
Watt (^®^)» James, the celebrated
•'■*"•' improver of the steam engine,
was bom at Greenock, January 19,
1736; and died at his seat of Heath-
field, Staffordshire, August 25, 1819.
His father was a merchant and magis-
trate of Greenock, and James received a
food education in its public schools,
laving determined to adopt the trade
of mathematical instrament maker, he
went to London (1754) to learn the art,
but ill health compelled him to return
after only a year's apprenticeship.
Shortly after his return be endeavored
to establish himself in Glasgow. The
corporation objecting, he was appointed
in 1757 mathematical instrument maker
to the university, and resided within its
walls till 1763, when he removed into
the town. From this time till 1774 he
acted as a civil engineer — made several
surveys for canals and harbors, and
some of his plans were afterwards car-
ried into execution. It was during this
period that he conceived and gave shape
to his improvements on the steam-
engine, which have rendered his name
famous. (See Steam-Engine.) To give
his inventions practical form he asso-
ciated himself in 1774 with Mathew
Boulton (see Boulton), the firm of
Boulton and Watt having their works
at Soho, Birmingham. He retired from
business in 1800. Watt was a fellow
of the Royal Societies of London and
Edinburgh, and member of the National
Institute of France. He was twice mar-
ried, and was survived by one son, who
Jamee Watt.
carried on the establishment at Soho in
partnership with a son of Mr. Boulton's.
Besides his great improvements to the
steam engine, which first rendered it ef-
fective for general industries, Watt in-
vented or improved a variety of mechan-
ical appliances, including a letter-copying
press. He was a man of high mental
powers generally, and possesseid a wide
and varied knowledge of literature and
science.
VTatt ^^^ name of the electrical unit
^ of activity or rate of doing
work. It is measured by the product of
the voltage or electromotive force of the
source into the current supplied. Thus
a dynamo which is yielding 30 amperes
at a voltage of 100 is working with an
activity of 3000 watts. The watt is
equal to 0.735 foot-pound per second;
so that one horse power per second is
equal to 746 watts. It is customary to
use the kilowatt as the practical unit.
It is equal to 1000 watto or 1.2 horse
power per second.
"Waff pan (v&t-6), Jean Antoine, a
WaXXeaU ^^.^^^^ painter, born at
Valenciennes of poor parents, in 1684;
died at Nogent-sur-Mame, in 1721. In
1702 he went to Paris, and eamed his
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Wattersoii
Wave
bread by working for decorative painters.
For many years lie struggled in ob-
scurity, but his talent once recognized
he rapidly became popular and prosperous.
In 1717 he was rei'eived at the Acad-
emy, and enrolled as a painter of fites
galantes, that is, pleasure parties, balls,
masquerades, etc., subjects in which he
excelled. Lightness, elegance, and bril-
liancy form ' the chief attractions of his
style.
Watt#»rflOTi ( wat'er - sun ) , Henbt,
WaXXerSOn journalist, born at Wash'
ington, D. C, in 1840. He edited the
Republican Banner, Nashville, Tennes-
see, before and after the Civil war, and
during this war served in the Confed-
erate army. He edited the Louisville
Journal, at Louisville, Ky., 1867-68,
and after that date the Courier-Journal.
and won the reputation of being one oi
the most brilliant of American journal-
ists. He wrote History of the Spanish-
American War, Abraham Lincoln, etc.
Wattle-bird ffi?"l1id "u«1*"
chosra carunculata) belonging to the
honey-eaters, and so named from the
large reddish wattles on its neck. It is
about the size of a magpie, and is of
bold, active habits.
TXTflfflp-frPA A name given in Aus-
watiieiree, ^^j.^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^
cies of acacia.
Wattle-turkey, »,'"'-| t^sh^tu^
key. See TallegaUa,
Watts (wots), Geobob Frederick,
vv»vv0 ^j^ English artist, bom in
1820. He first exhibited at the Roval
Academy in 1837. Among his more im-
portant pictures are: iAfe*s Illusion
(1849), The Window Scat and Sir
Galahad (18G2), Ariadne (1863), Esau
(1865), Love and Death (1877), Time,
Death, and Judgment (1878), Happy
Warrior (1884), Hope (1886), Judg-
ment of Paris (1887), The Angel of
Death (1888), and Fata Morgana
(1889). He was one of the most sub-
tle and powerful of portrait-painters,
among his successful work in this line be-
ing portraits of Tennyson, Millais, Leigh-
ton, Cardinal Manning, Browning; etc.
He was perhaps the greatest idealist in
contemporary British art. He became
R.A. in 1868, and in 1886 presented
some of his famous pictures to the na-
tion. He died June 1, 1904.
W^attS ^^^^G, an English divine and
^ poet, bom at Southampton in
1674; died at London in 1748. In
1702 he became minister of a Dissenting
congregation in the metropolis, but ill
health compelled him in 1712 to relin-
quiab his pastoral duties. His Psdlma
and Hymns give him the first TAuk
among English hymn writers. He was
the author of various other works in
prose and verse.
Waukegan Ufe;nWke ^o/i'J&
nois, on the w. shore of Lake Michigan,
35 miles w. by n. of Chicago. It is built
on a commanding bluff, has a good har-
bor, and is a poi)ular summer and health
resort, having mineral waters which are
largely used. There are varied manu-
factures, including sugar refineries, steel
wire, and brass works, scales, and organ
works, etc. It is the business center of
a large farming district Pop. 16,069.
WahVprIiii. (wa-ke'sha), a town,
WaUKesna ^^^ty seat of Waukesha
Co., Wisconsin, on Fox River, 17 miles
west of Milwaukee. Here are numerous
mineral springs, the waters of which are
widely exported. There are iron, alumi-
num and bridge works, motor works,
breweries, etc. A State industrial school
for boys, and Carroll College are located
here. Pop. 8740.
Wfl.1isa.11 (wa'sa), a city, county seat
«***«»«•*» of Marathon Co., Wisconsin,
42 miles N. by E. of Grand Rapids.
There is a county school of agriculture
and domestic science, and extensive in-
dustries, including lumber, paper, granite,
veneer, flour, turpentine, shoes, leather,
saw-mill macliinery, etc Pqp. 18,640.
TXTayA (wllv), in physics, a disturb-
ance of matter in such a way
that energy is transmitted through great
distances, sometimes, but not always, ac-
companied with a slight permanent dis-
placement of the particles of the con-
veying medium. When a disturbance
is produced at a point in air, waves pro-
ceed from that point as concentric
spheres and carry sound to the ear of
a listener. (See Sound.) Light is sup-
posed to be propagated by the wave
motion of the ether in a manner some-
what analogous to the propagation of
sound In air. (See Vndulaiory Theory.)
When waves are produced by the dis-
turbance of a small quantity of liquid,
as when a pebble is thrown into a pool,
they appear to advance from the dis-
turbed point in widening concentric cir-
cles, the height of the wave decreasing
gradually as it recedes from the center;
but there is no progressive motion of the
liquid itself, as is shown by any body
floating on its surface. The whole seems
to roll onwards, but, in reality, each
particle of water only oscillates with a
vertical ascent and descent. Where the
depth of the liquid is invariable ov«r its
extent, or sufficient t« allow the ^scil-
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Wax
Wayne
latioDS to proceed unimpeded, no pro-
gressive motion takes place, each ridge
or column being kept in its place by the
pressure of the adjacent columns.
Should, however, free oscillation be pre-
vented, as by the shelving of the shore,
the columns in the deep water are not
balanced bv those in the shallow parts,
and they thus acquire a progressive mo-
tion towards the latter, or take the form
of hreakers, hence the waves always roll
in a direction towards the shore, no mat-
ter from what point the wind may blow.
The height of the wave depends in a
great measure on the depth of the water
m which it is produced. The waves of
the ocean have been known to reach a
height of 43 feet, from trough to crest.
The horizontal pressure of a strong At-
lantic wave has been recorded as high
as 3 tons to the square foot
TXTgxr (waks), an unctuous-feeling sub-
" **^ stance partaking of the nature
of fixed oil. It is secreted bv bees, and
is also an abundant vegetable produc-
tion, entering into the composition of
the pollen of flowers, covering the en-
velope of the plum and of other fruits,
and, in many instances, forming a kind
of varnish to the surface of leaves.
Common wax is always more or less
colored, and has a distinct, peculiar odor,
of both of which qualities it may be
deprived by exposure in thin slices to
air, light, and moisture, or more speed-
ily by the action of chlorine. At ordi-
nary temperature wax is solid and some-
what brittle; but it may be easily cut
with a knife. Its specific gravity is
0.96. At ISS*' Fahr. it melts, and it
softens at 86°, becoming so plastic that
it may be molded by the band into any
form. Wax is insoluble in water, and
is only dissolved in small quantities bv
alcohol or ether. The principal appli-
cations of wax are to make candles and
medicinal cerates; to give a polish to
furniture or floors; to form a lute or
cement, for which it Is used by chemists;
and to serve as a vehicle for colors.
(See Encaustic Painting.) Sealing-wax
is not properly a wax. See also Candle-
herry, Carnauha, China Wax, Waa-
palm.
Wax Mineral. See Ozokerite.
WfuraTiflnliii* « town, capital of
waxanacme, ^j.^ ^^^ r^J^^g 3^
miles s. of Dallas. It has cotton, cot-
ton-seed oil and lumber mills. Pop.
<;205.
WaT-Wn * small finch, genus Es-
Wtti uiii, ^^^^^ g^ ^^„^ ^^^^ .^g
beak being red like wax. It is often
kept in cages.
Wax Il^iectS. see China Warn.
Wax-myrtle, see Candleherry.
Wax-painting. p^J^^f '''''''
W^ax-Hftlm (Cerowylon andieola), a
* l^i**""* species of palm ^rielding a
substance consisting of two-thirds resin
and one-third wax, which is found on its
trunk in the form of a varnish. It is
a native of the Andes, towering in ma-
jestic beauty on mountains which rise
many thousand feet above the level of the
sea, and sometimes attaining the height
of 160 feet
XUa-r TvAA ^ genus of tropical Amer*
WttA. J.1CC, j^jj trees, some of the
species of which yield a copious supply
of yellow resinous juice, which resembles
gamboge so closely that it is called
American gamboge. Like gamboge, it
has purgative properties.
Wax-wincr {^^P^^ , garrula), an
w» cfrA. WW XM,^ insessonal bird belonging
to the dentiroBtral section of the order.
It d* rivf^a its name from the appendages
attachi^d to the secondary and tertiary
quiU feathers of the wings, which have
iXm appearance of red sealing wax. An
Aroericaa wax- wing is the cedar-bird
(which see).
Wnvprn^q (wa'kros), a town, capital
way cross ^^ ^y^^.^ ^^^ Georgia, 60
miles w. of Brunswick, on the Atlantic
Coast Line and the Atlanta and Birming-
ham railroads. It has car works, and
manufactures of lumber and naval
stores. Pop. 14,485.
IXrQtrlQTiii (wa'land), Francis, an
waymua educator, bom in New
York city, in 17i)(i. He was graduated at
Union College in 1813, and was presi-
dent of Brown University in 1827-
1855. He was the author of many valu-
able works, including: Elements of
Moral Science, Elements of Political
Economy, Limitations of Human Re-
sponsibility. Domestic Slavery Consid-
ered as a Scriptural Institution, Ele-
ments of Intellectual Philosophy, etc.
He died in 1865.
VTftVne \W^°)» Anthont, a Revo-
J^ lutionary soldier, born at
Easttown, Chester Co., Pennsylvania, in
1745. A surveyor in his youth, he was
elected to the general assembly in 1774.
and was a member of the committee of
safety in 1775. In the latter year he
caised a regiment and entered the army
as a colonel. He served in Canada in
1776, afterwards took command of Fort
Ticonderoga, and joined Washington's
army in 1777 as a brigadier general.
He took a leading part iii the battles of
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Waynesboro Wcatlicr Bureau
Brandywine and Germantown, and was TXTAafliAr Tlnrpan a bureau of ob-
commended by Washington for his gal- ^«^*''"^* xiuircttu, gervation
lantry at Monmouth. His daring and founded in 1870 by the United States
brilliant exploit in the capture of the GoTernment its purpose being to make
atrong fortincations at Stony Point won daily otsei^vations of the state of the
idm a vote of thanks from Congress, weather in all parts of the country, to
fie took part in the siege of Yorktown, collate the informatioii thus obtained,
was a member of the constitutional con- and to calculate from the results a fore-
▼ention of 1787, and as major general cast for each of various defined districts^
in 1794 gained a complete victory over these being published so that the peo^
the insurgent Indians in western Ohio, pie of each district may know in ad<
He died in December, 1796, on his re< vance the kind of weather likely to oc-
tum from the west. Although called cur. While of importance to the agricul-
*Mad Anthony,* on account of his im- turist, these forecasts are frequently of
petuouB daring, he did not lack prudence still more importance to ship masters,
and judgment, and was an able com* storm warnings being given that may
mander. keep them in port when storms are im-
TXTaimAa'hnrA (wftns'bur-o), a town minent and thus save their ships from
W lijriicsuuru ^^ FrankUn Co., Penn- danger of injury or shipwreck. This
s^lvania, near South Mountain and An- system has made great progress since
tietam Creek, 14 miles s. by e. of Cham- its institution, and reports are now re-
bersburg. It has large factories, pro- ceived daily from more than 3600 land
ducing engines, boilers, agricultural im- stations and about 50 foreign stations,
plements, machinery, etc. Also stock- while bv means of wireless telegraphy
ing and shirt factories, vise works, etc some 2000 ships send reports of the
Copper, iron and oil are found in its weather conditions at sea. Study of re*
Tlcinity. Pop. 7199. suits has led to the conception that
TDTovoTi ^^ Wezzan« an inland town more than 80 per cent of winds and
«**'«***> Qf Morocco, picturesquely storms follow beaten paths, their move-
dtuated on the northern slope of a two- ments beinc governed by physical con-
peaked mountain, 90 miles 8. K. of ditions, a knowledge of which enables
Tangier. It is a sacred city and a place the bureau officials to estimate very
of pilgrimage, the headquarters of the closely their probable speed and direc-
Grand Shereef. The principal buildings tion and send warnings of their coming
are the great mosque and the tombs of a in advance. These forecasts cover the
long line of shereefs. The trade, which weather probabilities for 24 to 48 hours
is carried on chiefly in Morocco, is most* in advance and at times embrace general
ly in the hands of the Jews. Pop. about indications for a week. The forecasts
1a),000. are based upon simultaneous observa-
TXTAQTmATifk Bishop's, and Monk tions of local weather conditions taken
w caxiuu utii^ Weabmouth. (See daily at 8 o'clock in the morning and
Sunderland.) 8 o'clock in the evening. Eastern time,
Wpfl.fip1 (we'zl; MuBtela vulffdris), a at about 200 regular atationa in the
vv^oiD^A digitigrade carnivorous ani- United States and the West Indies, and
mal, a native of almost all the temper, from reports received daily from vari-
ate and cold parts of the northern hem- ous other American localities. The re-
isphere. llie body is extremely slender, suits of these observations are tele-
the head small and flattened, the neck graphed to Washington, where they are
long, the legs short It feeds on mice, charted for study and interpretation by
rats^ moles and small birds, and is often experts. l%ese telegraphic reports In
useful as a destrover of vermin in ricks, their complete form include data regard-
bams and granaries. The polecat, fer- ing the temperature, atmospheric pres-
ret, ermine and sable are akin. The sure, precipitation of rain, wind direction,
weasel, like the related species, is very wind velocity, general weather conditions!
courageous, and is marked by agility and and the kind, amount and direction of
wariness and pertinaceous blood-thirst, movement of the clouds. From these data.
It is very persevering in hunting, keen associated with those of preceding re-
in scent and in sight, bites severely and ports, the forecaster is able to trace the
has a disagreeable smell. It usually path of a storm area from its first ap-
sleeps during the day, and is most active pearanc© and to form an approximate
at night. Tlie fur is sometimes used, but decision as to its probable future course,
the animal is too small to have any In addition to the forecast center at
commercial importance. Washington, there are others at Chicago,
Weather (weth'er). Se.Meteorolo„. ^l^^^toi^r^^^'r^sll^^'or^^^t
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Weather Bureau
Weaver
are sent to the surrounding areas. With-
in two hours after the morning observa-
tions, the forecasts are telegraphed to
more than 2300 principal distributing
points, whence they are further sent out
by mail, telegraph and telephone, being
mailed daily to 135,000 addresses and re-
ceived by nearly 4,000,000 telephone sub-
scribers. Maps of wind and weather con-
ditions are printed and distributed, and
other means of disseminating the informa-
tion are taken. One of the most valuable
services rendered is that of the ^^arnings
of cyclonic fitorms for the benefit of
marine interests. These are displayed at
nearly 300 points on the ocean and lake
coasts, including all important ports and
harbors, warnings of coming storms be-
ing received from 12 to 24 hours in ad-
vaDce. Hie result has been the saving
of vast amounts of maritime property,
estimated at many millions of dollars
yearly. For storm signals, flags of dif-
ferent colors and markings are displayed,
each signifying some special condition of
wind and weather likely to occur. Ag-
riculturists also derive great advantage
from these warnings, especially those en-
gaged in the production of fruits, vege-
tables and other market garden products.
Warnings of frosts and of freezing weather
have enabled the growers of such products
to protect and save large quantities of
valuable plants. It is said that on a
single night in a small district in Florida,
fruits and vegetables were thus saved to
the value of more than $100,000. In
addition, live stock of great value has
been saved by warnings a week in ad-
vance of the coming of a flood in the
Mississippi ; railroad companies take ad-
vantage of the forecasts for the preser-
vation, in their shipping business, of
products likely to be injured by extremes
of heat or cold, and in various other
ways the forecasts are of commercial, or
other value. Similar bureaus have been
established in other countries and prog-
ress is being made towards an interna-
tional study of the weather. In this,
observations made in the arctic and ant-
arctic regions may hereafter become of
utility. One of the chief stations for
observations is that at Mount Weather,
in the Blue Hidge Mountains of Virginia.
This is equipped with delicate instru-
ments in considerable variety for the
study of the varying conditions of the
upper air. Kites and captive balloons
are sent up every favorable day, ascend-
ing to heights of two or more miles, and
equipped with self-registering instruments
to record the temperature and other con-
ditions of the atmosphere. At other times
free balloons are liberated, carrying sets
of automatic registering instruments.
Some of these travel hundreds of miles,
but nearly all are eventually found and
returned.
Weatherford, |.„<?J^^'r ^^'lefat af
miles w. of Fort Worth. It has several
collegiate institutions, and cotton and
other manufactures. Pop. 6500.
Weaver-bird (^6'vr), a name given
weaver oira ^^ ^jj^^g ^^ various
genera, belonging to the Fringillidse or
finches. They are so-called from the
remarkable structure of their nests,
which are woven in a wonderful manner
of various vegetable substances. Some
species build their nests separate and
singly, and hang them from slendei
Yellow-crowned Weaver and Nest
(P. icterocephUtta),
branches of trees and shrubs; but others
build in companies, numerous nests sus-
pended from the branches of a tree be-
ing under one roof, though each one
forms a separate compartment and has
a separate entrance. They are natives of
the warmer parts of Asia, of Africa, and
of Australia. The Ploceua icierocephdlus,
or yellow-crowned weaver, is a native of
South Africa.
TXTaq iTAr Jahes B., lawyer, bom at
weaver, Dayton, Ohio, in 1833. He
served in the Union army during the Civil
war, becoming a brigadier general of vol-
unteers. Subsequently he practiced law in
Iowa; filled several public oflSces; edited
the Iowa Tribune; was a member of Con-
gress 1870-81, and 18a5-89; was the
Greenback candidate for President in
1880; and in 1892 the candidate of the
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Weaving * Weaving
Populist party, receiyinf 22 electoral works to and fro like a pendulam by
votes. He was mayor ofColfax, Iowa, in an attachment of vertical rods at each
1904-06. He died February 6, 1912. side called the swords. Attached to the
Weaving (wgv'ing), the art of inter- lay is what is called the reed, which is
" ^"v***© lacing yam threads or a sort of comb having a tooth raised
other filaments by means of a loom, so between every two threads of the warp,
as to form a web of cloth or other and so by driving up the lay after a
woven fabric. In this process two sets weft thread has been introduced the
of threads are employed, which traverse weaver strikes home that thread to its
the web at right angles to each other, place in the cloth. A great improve-
The first set extends from the end of ment was made upon the hand-loom
the web in parallel lines, and is com- when John Kay, about 1740, invented the
monly called the tcarp; while the other flv-shuttle, as it was called. This en-
set of threads crosses and interlaces with abled the weaver to drive the shuttle
the warp from side to side of the web, both ways with the right hand by means
and is generally called the weft or woof, of a cord attached to a box or trough
In all forms of weaving the warp- placed at each end of the shuttle-race,
threads are first set up in the loom, and which impelled the shuttle to and fro at
then the weft threads are worked into each jerk of the cord. But the most im-
the warp, to and fro, by means of a portant improvement was made on the
shuttle. It was by this fundamental hand-loom by Joseph Jacquard, of
process of lacing two sets of threads in Lyons, who, in 1801, invented an ap-
looms of simple mechanism that the paratus by which the most intricate pat-
mummy cloths of Egypt, the fine terns could be woven as readily as plain
damask and tapestries of the Greeks and cloth. This is accomplished by an in-
Romans, the Indian muslins, the shawls genious arrangement ot hooks and wires,
of Cashmere, and the famed textile fab- by means of which the warp threads are
rics of Italy and the Netherlands were lifted in any order and to any extent
produced. From the latter countries necessary to make the shedding re-
weaving by means of a hand-loom was quired by the pattern. The order in
introduced into England. This loom, in which these hooks and wires are sue-
its latest form, consists of a frame of cessively lifted and lowered is deter-
four upright posts braced together by mined by means of a series of paste-
cross-beams, the center beam at the back board cards punctured with holes cor-
being the warp beam, the beam in front responding to a certain pattern and the
being that upon which the web is wound, caixis passing successively over a cylin-
while just below this, in front, is the der or drum. The hooked wires pass
breast-beam for the support of the throush these holes and lift the warp-
weaver at his work. At the top of the threads in an order which secures that
loom is an apparatus by which the hed- the arranged pattern is woven into the
dies are lifted or lowered by means of fabric. When the pattern is extensive
treadles under the foot of the weaver, the machine may be provided with as
These heddles consist of two frames, many as 1000 hooks and wires. Another
from which depend cords attached by a development was made in the art of
loop or eye to each thread in the warp, weaving by the invention of the power-
As these threads are attached to the loom by the Rev. E. Cartwrigbt hi
frames, alternately, it follows that when 1784. In the power-loom, which has
one heddle is raised every second thread been gradually improved and adapted to
in the warp is also raised, while the re- steam-power, the principal motions of
maining threads are depressed; and this the old method of weaving, such as
is called shedding the tcarp. When the shedding the warp-threads, throwing the
warp threads are thus parted there is shuttle, and beating up the thread, are still
left a small opening or shed between the retained. The frame of -the power-loom
threads, and it is through this opening is of cast-iron, and motion is communi-
that the weaver drives his shuttle from cated to the loom by means of a shaft,
side to side. The shuttle, which is hoi- the stroke of the lay being made by
low in the middle, contains the weft- cranks attached to the driving shaft,
thread wound round a bobbin or pirn, while the shuttle is thrown by means
and as the shuttle is shot across the of a lever attachment at the center of
web this weft thread unwinds itself, the loom. Although the principle of the
When the thread is thus introduced it loom is the same in all kinds of weav-
is necessary to bring it to its place in ing, yet there are numberless modifica-
the fabric. This is accomplished by tions for the production of special fab-
means of the lay or hattcuy which is rics. The lappet loom is one suitable
suspended from the top of the loom, and for weaving either plain or gauze cloths,
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A MODERN mOH SPEED POWER LOOM
This wonderful machine is capable of turning out beautiful and intricate fabrics vith great rapidity and Is
almost entirely automatic in its action.
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Webb City Webster
and also for putting in representations in August, 1823. In 1826 Weber visited
of flowers, birds, or the like. Cross London to superintend the production of
weaving is a term applied to that process Oheron at Covent Garden Theater. It
in which, as in gauze weaving, the was enthusiastically received. The coni-
warp threads, instead of lying con- poser, however, was out of health, and
stantly parallel, cross over or twist died in Ix>ndon, June 5, 1826. Besides
around one another, thus forming a operas, he wrote a large number of other
plexus or interlacing independent of that works.
produced by the weft. Double weaving Wfibster (web'ster), a village in
consists fai weaving two webs simultane- ^'^"«»«'^* Webster township (town),
ously one above the other, and inter- Worcester Co., Massachusetts, on the
weaving the two at intervals so as to French River, 16 miles s. by w. of Wor-
form a double cloth. Kidderminster or cester. It has extensive manufactures
Scotch carpeting is the chief example of of cotton and woolen goods, boots and
this process. PUe weaving is the proc- shoes, optical goods, etc. The lake is a
ess by which fabrics like that of velveU, summer resort Pop. 11,509.
velveteens, corduroy, and Turkey car- TXTebstcr ^^^^ ^^ Hamilton Co., Iowa,
pets are produced. In the weaving of ^woi#^*, ^^^ ^^^ Boone River, 20
these fabrics, besides the ordinary warp miles E. of Fort Dodge. It has railroad
and weft, tnere is what is called the shops and various manufactures. Pop.
pile-warp, the threads of which are left 5208.
in lo<^s above the surface till cut, and TXTebster ^^^^^^^ famous orator and
the cutting of which constitutes the ^^^"^•'^^j statesman, born January
pile. 18, 1782, at Salisbury, New Hampshire.
Webb Citv ^ ^^^^ ^^ Jasper Co., He studied for four years at Dartmouth
VTC/Mu vrxi/jr^ Missouri, 5 miles if. w. College, and having adopted the legal
of Joplin. It is the center of a lead and profession was admitted as a practi-
zinc region, and has large mining inter- tioner in the Court of Common ' Pleas
ests. Has also a foundry, iron works, for Suffolk county. In 1813 he was
etc. Pop. 11,817. elected to Congress by the Federal party
Wphh Cha&les Henbt, humorist, in New Hampshire, and from that
^^""> born at Rouse's Point, New period to the close of his life took a
York, in 1834; died in 1005. Under
the pen name of * John Paul * he wrote
for several newspapers, his humorous
sketches being chiefly contributed to the
New York Tribune, He wrote several
burlesque dramas.
Weher (vft'b^r), Kabl Mabia Fbied-
TT^M^A RICH Ernst, Baron von, a
German musical composer, was bom at
Eutin in Holstein in 1786. His father
was a musician and had him carefully
educated. In 1800 he wrote the opera
of the Waldmadchen (* Wood-maiden ') .
and had it performed at Chemnitz and
Freiberg in Saxony. In 1803 he visited
Vienna, where he became acquainted
with Haydn and the Abb6 Vogler, from
whom he received great help in his
studies. The latter procured him a Dsxiiel Webster,
musical directorship in Breslau, on
which he entered in 1804. Two years prominent part in public affairs, being
later he exchanged this post for a similar especially distinguished as an orator,
one at Carlsruhe, and he was subse- No public speaker could surpass him in
quently (1813-16) director of the opera producing an impression on an audience,
at Prague. At the close of 1816 he set- and he is regarded as one of the greatest
tied at Dresden, where he was founder of the world's orators. He became a
and director of the German opera. In senator in 1827, and in 1836 (and again
1820 he went to Berlin to bring out Der in 1848) was an unsuccessful candidate
Freischiitz, the most celebrated of his for the presidency. In 1841, under the
compositions. It was performed in Lon- presidency of General Harrison, he was
don and Paris two years later. In 1822 appointed secretary of state, and he had
Euryanihe was produced on commission an important part In the arransamept
for Yieima, and was brought out there of the Ashburton Treaty of 1842. B^
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Webster Groves
Wedgwood-warc
was opposed to the admission of Texas
as a slave state and to the Mexican war,
but supported Clay's •compromise* of
1850. In 1850. on the death of Presi-
dent Taylor, ne became secretary of
state under President Fillmore. This
office he continued to occupy till his
death, which took place at bis estate of
Marshfield, Massachusetts, October 24,
1852. Among his many notable orations
the most famous was that called out
by the nullification movement of South
Cfarolina in 1830. His great argument
in defense of the Union and the Consti-
tution on that occasion has rarely or
never been surpassed in the history of
oratory. Its closing sentence, * Liberty
and Union, now and forever, one and in-
separable,' has become an American
watchwoid.
Webster Groves, LoVibVmu:
souri, 10 miles w. s. w. of the central
point of St. Louis, to which it is closely
related. Pop. 7080. ^
TXTfibfiter ^<^^^9 a dramatic poet of
w^i#ob«^xy the seventeenth century,
was clerk of the parish of St. Andrew,
Holbom, and a member of the Company
of Merchant Tailors. His works are:
The White Devil (1612) ; The DeviVa
Law-caae (1(523); The Duchess of
Malfy (1G23) ; AppiuB and Virginia
(1054) ; The Thracian Wonder (1601) ;
and A Cure for a Cuckold, a comedy
(1661). He also assisted Dekker in
writing the History of Sir Thomas
Wyatt, and the comedies Westward Ho!
and Northward Ho! By some critics he
is accounted second only to Shakes-
peare.
Webster, IT' J'^i^^Wlnt:^',
Connecticut, in 1758, and educated at
Yale College. He chose the law as a
profession, but relinquished it for teach-
ing (1782). About the same time he
began the compilation of books of school
instruction, and published his Gram-
matical Institute of the English Lan-
guage, in three parts: Part 1, Wehster^s
Spelling Book; Part 2, A Plain and
Comprehensive Grammar; Part 3, An
American Selection of Lessons in Read-
ing and Speaking, All these works had
an enormous sale. His literary activity
was henceforth very great, the works is-
sued by him during the next few years
including important legal and linguistic
studies. In 1789 he settled at Hartford
to practice law, but removed in 1793 to
New York, where for some time he de-
voted himself to journalism. In 1806
be published an 8vo English Dictionary,
wUich }^ ihe way for his great work.
the American Dictionary of the English
Language, In preparing this work he
visited England, and finished the diction-
ary during an eight months' residence
in Cambridge. The first edition of his
dictionary was published in 1828 (2
vols. 4to) ; it was followed by a second
in 1840; since which time several en-
larged and improved editions have ap-
peared. He died in May, 1843.
IXTed^e (^'®<^J)> * piece of wood or
o metal, thick at one end, and
sloping to a thin edge at the other, used
in splitting wood, rocks, etc. In geo-
metrical terms it is a body contained
under two triangular and three rectangu-
lar surfaces. It is one of the mechani-
cal powers, and besides being used for
splitting purposes is employed for pro-
ducing great pressure, and for raising
immense weights. All that is known
with certainty respecting the theory of
the wedge is that its mechanical power
is increased by diminishing the angle of
penetration. All cutting and penetrat-
ing instruments may be considered as
wedges.
Wfido^wood (wedj'wyd), Josiah, a
wea^WOOa celebrated potter, bom at
Burslem, Staffordshire, England, in
1730. He received little education, and
went to work in his brother's factory at
the age of eleven. An incurable lame-
ness, the result of smallpox, which sub-
sequently compelled him to have his
right leg amputated, forced him to give
up the potter's wheel. He removed for
a time to Stoke, where he entered into
partnership with persons in his own
trade, and where his talent for orna-
mental pottery was first displayed. Re-
turning in 1759 to Burslem, he set up a
small manufactory of his own, in which he
made a variety of fancy articles. His
business improving, he turned his atten-
tion to white stoneware, and to the
cream-colored ware for which he became
famous; and he succeeded in producing
a ware so hard and durable as to render
works of art produced in it almost in-
destructible. His reproduction of the
Portland Vase is famous. He also exe-
cuted paintings on pottery without the
artificial gloss so detrimental to the ef-
fect of superior work. (See Wedgwood-
ware.) His improvements in pottery
created the great trade of the Stafford-
shire Potteries. He died in 1795. See
Pottery,
Wedgwood-ware, 'or^mMtrw°*d
pottery, without much superficial glaze,
and capable of taking on the most bril-
liant and delicate colors produced bv
fused metallic oxides and ochers; Sv
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Wedncsbury Weigelia
named after the inventor. It is much TXTeeks ^^^^'^ o^* ^^ Pentecost.
used for ornamental ware, as vases, etc., vv-g^o?
and, owmg to its hardness and property TXTAA-nAr-ninTiVAir or Sai. See 8a-
of resisting the action of all corrosive ^ ^cpcr muui^ey, ^^-^^
substances, for laboratory mortars. IXTee'Dill^-fl.sll J^ra^lnua petKfilto, a
Wednesbnrv (wenzl^er-i ), a par- ^ ^^tr^^-B «*«'"•? variety of ash differ-
«y hamentary borough of ing from the common ash only in its
England, in Staffordshire, 19 miles 8. 8. E. branches arching downwards instead of
of Stafford, in the district known as the upwards.
Black Country, and an important seat TXreeDill^-birGll ^ variety of the
of wrought-iron manufactures. It has an ^ ^^r*'"'B "■"^•"•^ b i r c h-tree, known
ancient church. Pop. 28,108. as BetUla pendUla, with drooping
WpilTipailQir (wenz'da), the name of branches, common in different parts of
weanesaay ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ Europe.
week (in Latin, dies Mercurii, day of TX7AA'niTi(y.ixri11/>ix7 a species of wil-
Mercury), derived from the old Scandi- ^ ^^JfAU^ wiiiuw, j^^^ ^j^^ 8 alia
navian deity Odin or Woden. Bahylonica, whose branches grow very
IXTaa^ ( w§d ), Thublow, journalist, long and slender, and hang down nearly
born at Cairo, New York, in in a perpendicular direction. It is a
1797 ; died November 22, 1882. He served native of the Levant, but has been intro-
as a private in the war of 1812, after- duced into the United States and other
wards engaged in newspaper work, and countries.
in 1820 founded the Albany Evening Weerd ^^ Weebt (vftrt), a town of
Journal, which became the organ of the ^'vxu., Holland, in the province of
Whig party, and which he controlled Limburg. Pop. 8677.
for 35 years. He was a leader in state ^XTpAver (^^'^^^)» & name of several
and national politics, but declined all ^^*'**'* acanthopterygious fishes of
offices for himself. He supported Lin- the genus Trachinus, included by many
coin and the Civil war, and was sent by authorities among the perches. Two
the President on a mission to Europe in species are found in the Atlantic, viz.
1861-62. He wrote Letters from Eu- the dragon-weever, sea-cat, or sting-bull,
rope and the West Indies, Reminiscences, T. draco, about 10 or 12 inches long,
and Autohiographp, and the lesser weever, T, vip^a, called
W^66d ^ ^o.me applied to uncultivated also the adder-pike, or sting-fish, which
' plants growing wild or contami- attains a length of 5 inches. They in-
nating cultivated ground. Many are flict wounds with the spines of their
useful. first dorsal fin, which are much dreaded.
IXTaaV (wgk), a period of seven days. Their flesh is esteemed.
one of the common divisions of TXTaaviI (w§'vil), the name applied to
time, the origin of which is doubtful. ^ ^^^^ beetles of the family Curcu-
Among the nations who adopted the lionidse, distinguished by the prolonga-
week as a division of time, the Chinese, tion of the head,
Hindus, Egyptians, Chaldeans, Jews, so as to form a
Persians, and Peruvians have been men- sort of snout or
tioned, but in some cases the antiquity proboscis. Many of
of the practice is doubtful, and in others the weevils are dan-
the name has been applied to other gerous enemies to
cycles than that of seven days. The the agriculturist, ^
nations with whom the weekly cycle has destroying grain, ^ ^\^ i "j
been traced with certainty to the great- fruit, flowers, ^^"^atlnar^)
est antiquity are the Egyptians and the leaves, and stems. r * * i
Hebrews. With the former we only The larvae of the ,:i h "TnL.?*!;?!!
know of its existence, but with the lat- corn-weevil ( C a- nified, c, Larvi 5'
ter it had a much more important char- landra granaria) is Egg (both mAgnifled)!
acter. The use of tlie week was intro- very destructive to
duced into the Roman Empire about the grain, that of the pea-weevil (Bruchus
first or second century of the Christian pisi) to peas. See Corn-iceevil and Pea-
era from Egypt, and had been recog- beetle,
nized independently of Christianity be- WAff See Weaving,
fore the Emperor Constantino confirmed ^ ^'
it by enjoining the observance of the TXTaic^aIici ( wl-g6'li-a ), a genus of
Christian Sabbath. With the Moham- ^ c-^B^"* shrubs of the order Capri-
medans the week has also a religious foliaceas (honeysuckles), natives of China
character, Friday being observed by and Japan, now cultivated in gardens for
them as a Sabbath. the beauty of their flowers.
i
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Weighing UacMne
Weights and Measures
Weighing Machine, see Balance.
TXTei^ht ('^^^h ^^e measare of the
o force by which any body, or
a given portion of any substance, gravi-
tates or is attracted to the earth; in a
more popular sense, the quantity of mat-
ter in a body as estimated by the bal-
ance, or expressed numerically with ref-
erence to some standard unit In deter-
mining weight in cases where very great
Srecision is desired, due account must
e taken of temperature, elevation, and
latitude. Hence in fixing exact stand-
ards of weight a particular temperature
and pressure of air must be specified;
thus the standard brass pound is directed
to be used when the Fahrenheit ther-
mometer stands at 62^ and the barom-
eter at 30°. See also Gravity, and
next article.
Weights and Measures,
the standard used in accurately weigh-
ing and measuring quantities, of especial
importance in buying and selling, scien-
tific operations, etc. The origin of the
English measures is the grain of com.
Thirty-two grains of wheat, well dried,
and gathered from the middle of the ear,
were to make what was called one
I>enny weight ; 20 pennyweights were
called one ounce; and 20 ounces, one
pound. Subsequently, it was thought
better to divide the pennyweight into 24
equal parts, to be called gratns, Will-
iam the Conqueror introduced into Eng-
land what was called troy weight
(which see). The English were dissat-
isfied with this weight, because the
pound did not weigh so much as the
pound at that time in use in England;
consequently a mean weight was estab-
lished, making the pound equal to 16
ounces. (See Avoirdupoi9,) But the
troy pound was not entirely displaced
by the pound avoirdupois; on the con-
trary it was retained in medical prac-
tice, and for the weighing of gold, silver,
jewels, and such liquors as were sold by
weight. There are 70(X) grains in one
pound avoirdupois, and 5760 grains in
one pound troy; hence the troy pound
is to the avoirdupois pound as 14 to 17,
or as 1 to 1.215. The troy pound was
retained as the British standard by an
act passed in 1824; and in order that
the standard pound, in case of damage
or destruction, might be restored, by
reference to a natural standard, it was
ascertained that a cubic inch of dis-
tilled water, at a temperature of 62®
Fahr., weighed, in air, 252.458 grains;
and it was directed that the standard
pound should be restored by the making
of a new standard troy pound, weighing
5760 of such grains. In Britain the
unit of lineal measure is the yard, all
other denominations being either multi-
ples or aliquot parts of the yard. The
length of the imperial standard yard, ac-
cording to the act of parliament passed
in 1824, was the straight line or distance
between the centers of the two points
in the gold studs in the brass rod m the
custody of the clerk of the House of
Commons, entitled, standard yard, 1760.
By the same act, the brass rod, when
used, must be at the temperature of 62**
of Fahrenheit's thermometer. It was
enacted at this time that if this standard
should be lost or destroyed^ the length
of the yard should be determined by
reference to the length of a pendulum
vibrating seconds of mean time in a
vacuum in the latitude of London, at
sea-level. When the standard yard was
actually destroyed, however, by the fire
which consumed the two Houses of Par-
liament in 1834, the commissioners ap-
pointed to restore the standard decided
that it was better to do so by means of
authentic copies of the old standard that
were in existence. This was accord-
ingly done, and five new official copies
were made, one of which, to be regarded
as the national standard, is preserved
at the exchequer in a stone coffin in a
window-seat of a groined room. The
national standard yard is thus the dis-
tance between two fine transverse lines
on a square rod of gun-metal 38 inches
long. In France the mitre is the stand-
ard or unit of linear measure; the are,
or 100 square metres, the unit of sur-
face measure; and the Bt&re, or cube of
a m^tre, the unit of solid measure. The
system of measure, called the decimal
or metric system, based upon these
standards, is now largely adopted. For
all sorts of liquids, corn, and dry goods,
the British standard measure is declared
by the act of 1824 to be the imperial
gallon, which should contain 10 lbs.
avoirdupois weight of distilled water
weighed in air at the temperature of 62**
Fahr., the barometer being at 30 inches.
The official measurement of this quan-
tity of water measured under the speci-
fied conditions gave as the result 27 1. 274
cubic inches, which, though since ascer-
tained to be slightly in excess of the
true measurement (277.123 cubic inches),
is still the legal capacity of the gal-
lon. The United States has adopted
the weights and measures prevalent
in Britain and the two countries are
alike in this respect Prior to 183^
there existed a bewildering irregularity
in the weights and measures used, but
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Wei-hai-wei
Weld
since then they have been in great meas-
ure regulated by statute, and entire uni-
formity has been introduced. By the
statutes the imperial standard yard,
pound, and gallon are fixed, and all local
measures of capacity abolished. The
legal stone is fixed at 14 lbs. avoirdupois.
All articles sold by weight must be sold
by avoirdupois, except gold, silver, plati-
num, and precious stones, which, as noted
above, are still to be sold by troy weight.
While the system described is in common
use in all Enfflish-soeaking countries,
the French metrical system has extended
widely beyond the borders of France, and
is now In use to some extent in nearly
all civilized countries. In the United
States and Great Britain it is largely
used in scientific measurement. Be-
sides the articles on Avoirdupois, Troy
Weighit etc., see Ounce, Pound, Bushel,
Decimal System, etc
Wei-hai-wei (e;:;^^ 'th^e ^^.
ince of Shantung, China, extending 16
miles along the bay of the same name;
area about 285 sq. miles; pop. about
150,000. A Chinese fleet was destroyed
in the bay during the war with Japan
in 1895. The territory, with the walled
city of Wei-hai-wei, was leased to Great
Britain by China in 1898.
TXTAiTnai* (vi'm&r), the capital of the
wciiuair grand-duchy of Saxe- Wei-
mar, stands on the left bank of the Ilm,
and in a beautiful valley surrounded by
hills, but is not well built, and not-
withstanding the presence of the court
has a dull and lifeless appearance. Its
public edifices most deserving of notice
are the ducal palace* the so-called Red
and Yellow Castles, now united and oc-
cupied by several public departments;
the public library, containing an exten-
sive collection; the museum; the theater;
the Stadtkirche, with an altar-piece, one
of the finest works of Lucas Cranach.
Weimar is closely associated with the
names of Schiller, Ck)ethe, Herder, and
Wieland, the first three of whom are
buried here, and statues to all the four
adorn the town. The houses of Goethe,
Schiller, Cranach, and Herder are also
objects of much interest Pop. (1910)
34.582.
Weimar^ Saxe. See Sawe-Weimar.
VI^inhfAm (vInTiIm), a town in
W einneim g^^^j, Germany, in Ba-
den, on the Weschnits, 10 miles N. of
Mannheim, with manufactures of ma-
chinery, silks, woolens, etc. Pop. 12,560.
TXTeir (^^^)* ^ ^^^ erected across a
' river to stop and raise the water,
either for the purpose of taking fish, of
conveying a stream to a mill, or of main-
taining the water at the level required
for navigating it, or for purposes of
irrigation.
TiTAJr Habbison, an English artist,
^^^y was bom at Lewes, Sussex, in
1824, and educated at an academy in
Camberwell. Having learned the trade
of a wood-engraver ne turned his atten-
tion to painting. His first exhibited
gicture was in oil, entitled The Dead
hoi. In 1847 he was elected a mem-
ber of the new Society of Painters in
Water Colors. He became chiefly noted
for his pictures of country life, animals,
fruits, dowers, and landscapes. As an
illustrator of books and periodicals he
is well known. He was the author of
The Poetry of Nature; Everyday Life
in the Country; Animal Stories: Old and
New; and The Cat. He died Jan. 4»
1900.
Weismann i,^^^"^;.^^ "a't"
Frankfort-on-the-Main in 1834; studied
medicine, and in 1860 became phy-
sician to the Archduke Stephen of Aus-
tria. He attracted great attention by
his Essays on Heredity (translated 1892),
in which he denied hereditary transmis-
sion of other than race characters. With
this he advanced a theory of generation
that was accepted by many oiologists.
Others st^ongl^ opposed it and it was
sustained by him in several volumes. It
is known in biologv as Weismannism.
It maintains that the nucleus of every'
germ cell contains a germ-plasm which is
not derived from the body, but is trans-
mitted from germ to germ. Thus it is
unaffected by the hereditary character-
istics of the body, but contains and re-
produces those of the race only. Bioloe-
ical science is divided between the friends
and foes of this unproved hypothesis.
Weissenbnrg i^'oeSyV V'Z
province of Alsace-Lorraine, at the foot
of the Vosges Mountains, on the Lauter,
34 miles N. N. E. of Strasburg. In the
Franco-German war of 1870-71 a battle
took place at Weissenburg on Aug. 4,
1870, the first important engagement be-
tween the two armies, in which the
French were defeated. Pop. 6946.
WeiSSenfelS ivl's^p-felsl, a town of
w c^xoocux^xo Prussia, in the govern-
ment of Merseburg. in the province of
Saxony, on the Saale, with manufactures
of porcelain, shoes, woolen fabrics, gold
and silver articles, etc. It has a church
containing the remains of Gustavns
Adolphus. Pop. ^.894.
Weld. ®^ byer's-ioeed.
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Welding
Wellington
WMflin^ (weld'ing). the onion pro-
mfciiuix^ duced between the surfaces
of pieces of malleable metal when heated
almost to fusion and hammered.
TX7a11qii/1 a town of Ontario, Canada,
weuana, ^^^ WeUand Canal, 12 miles
8. of St Catharines. Pop. 6500. The
canal, opened in 1829. affords navigation
around the Niagara falls and rapids; is
26% miles in length and by means of 26
locks rises 326% feet.
TXTAllAft (welz), Gideon, an American
W6iic» ^^^^1 ^g^p ^jj^ political
leader, bom in Glastonbury, Conn., July
1, 1802. He studied law and in 1826 be-
came editor and proprietor of the Hart-
ford Times, favoring Andrew Jackson's
election to the presidency. From 1827 to
1835 he was a member of the Connecticut
legislature. He became identified with the
Republican party in 1857. and was chair-
man of the Connecticut delegation in the
Convention that nominated Lincoln. He
was secretary of the navy, 1861-69. Ha
died February 11, 1878.
TXTaIIas THOBLA.S, colonial eovemor,
mfciics, born in England 1598; came
to America about 1636, and settled in
Hartford, Conn. He was commissioner of
the United Colonies in 1649 and 1654, and
governor in 1655 and 1658.
^CXTAllpfllAir * town of Norfolk county,
weiiesiey, Massachusetts, 15 miles
w. by 8. of Boston. It is the seat of
Wellesley College^ founded in 1875. for
the higher education of women, which in
1913 had an enrollment of 1480 students.
133 instructors and a library of 74,000
volumes. Pop. of town 5413.
Wellesley, ^^J^''^^ ^'^^ ^^ ^^
WpIIpqIptt (welzli), Richabd Col-
wexiesiey j^ Weslet, Marquess,
eldest brother of the Duke of Wellington,
was bom at Dublin in 1760. He was ap-
pointed governor-general of India m
1797. He became lord-lieutenant of Ire-
land, in 1821. He resigned in 1828, but in
the Grey ministry he again became lord-,
lieutenant of Ireland (1833-35). He.
died in 1842.
WeUhausen i^ii^SI^T^ii, SS
theologian and critic, bom 1844. Among
his works are Tewt der BUcher Samuelis,
Die Phariaaer und Sadducder,
WplfnTA WorV ^^^ ^^i™ applied to
weuare WOrs, various activities
undertaken by large corporations and
other employers for the benefit of their
employes. These range from lunch
rooms and locker rooms to extensive med-
ical and sanitary systems, and the pro-
visions for old age pensions, compensa-
tion for industrial accidents, etc.
WelUngborougli i^^^'^^^^'^U-
amptonshire, on the river Nen, 10 miles
northeast of Northampton. It has a
handsome parish church, a grammar
sfliool, and a com exchange, nccommo-
daiiug also a literary institute. The
principal industries are the manufacture
of boots and slioes, and the smelting of
iron. Pop. 19,758.
WeUington, LSlfeV To? £*n*sa°«!
on Slate Creek, 30 miles s. by w. of
Wichita. It has flour mills and grain
elevators, and is the division point for
the Santa F6 Railroad. Pop. 7034.
Wellington T^ZT,]' in^ sC^
shire, 11 miles cast of Shrewsbury, with
manufactures of nails, farm implements,
brass and iron ware, etc. Pop. 7820.
Wellinerton, S ^^^° P^ England, in
o *^^"' Somerset, with manu-
factures of druggets and serges. From
this place the Duke of Wellington took
his title. Pop. 7634.
Wellineton, f^e capital of New Zea^
o *^^"^ land, is situated on
Port Nicholson, an islet of Cook's Strait,
on the southwest extremity of the pro-
vincial district of Wellington, North Isl-
and. Its harbor is 6 miles long and 5
wide. It has two wharfs and a patent
slip. The principal buildings are the
Government House, the Houses of Legis-
lature, the Government Buildings, Wel-
lington College, a Roman Catholic college,
etc It has several daily and weekly
newspapers, botanic gardens, tramways,
etc., and is lighted by electricity. Pop.
64,372. — The provincial district of Wel-
lington has an area of 11,250 sq. miles.
It has an equable and healthy climate,
but is subject to earthquake shocks. It
is intersected by several mountain
ranges, but there are many fine agricul-
tural and pastoral districts. Gold was
found in 1881. The chief rivers are the
Manawatu and Wanganui.
WpIIiuH-oh Abthub Welleslet,
Wemn^On, duke op, bom in 1769.
was the third son of the first Earl of
Momington, and was educated at Eton,
at Brighton, and finally at the Military
College of Angers. In 1787 he received
a commission as ensign in the 73d Foot,
and after a rapid series of changes and
promotions, attained by purchase in 1793
the command as lieutenant-colonel of tli'^
33d Regiment. During 1794 and 1795
he served with his regiment under the
Duke of York in Flanders. In 1796 his
regiment was despatched to Bengal,
Colonel Wellesley landing at Calcutta in
Feb., 1797, at a critical moment for th«
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Wellington Wellington
British power in India. War had just perseded; but before giving up the com-
been declared against Tippoo Saib, and mand he gained the battle of Vimeira over
an army of 80,000, of which Colonel Junot, the campaign being brought to a
Wellesley's regiment formed part, close with the convention of Cintra, by
marched against him. An engagement which the French agreed to evacuate
took place at Mallavelly (Mysore) on Portugal. In 1809 Wellesley was ap-
the 2Tth, in which Wellesley, who com- pointed to take the chief command m
manded the left wing, turned the right the Peninsula, which had been overrun
of the enemy. He was subsequently by the French. The famous passage of
employed to dislodge the enemy from their the Douro, and the defeat of Soult which
posts in front of Seringapatam, and after followed, fittingly opened this masterly
the capture of that capital he was ap- campaign. For the victory at Talavera
pointed, in 1799, to the administration (July 28), the first of a long list that
of Mysore, his brother being at this subsequently took place in the Penin-
time governor-general. (See Wellesley,) sula, the government raised the com-
In 1802 he attained the rank of major- mander-in-chief to the peerage as Vis-
general, and in the following year he count Wellington. Towards the end of
was appointed to the command of a force 1810 Wellington fought the battle of
destined to restore the Peishwa of the Busaco, which was followed by the fa-
Mahrattas, driven from his capital by mous fortification and defense of the
llolkar. After this operation had been lines of Torres Vedras. A little later
successfully performed the other Mah- (in 1811) occurred the victory of Fuen-
ratta chiefs, Scindia and the Rajah of tes de Onoro. In the following year he
Berar, showed hostile designs against took Oiudad Rodrigo and Badajoz by
the British, and Wellesley was ap- storm, and fought the battle of Sala-
pointed to the chief military and polit- manca, accounted one of his most famous
ical command in the operations against victories. On August 12, 1812, Welling-
them. After an active campaign, in ton entered Madrid. For his brilliant
which he took Ahmednuggur and Arun- conduct of the campaign thus far he re-
gabad, he encountered a powerful Mah- ceived the thanks of parliament, was
ratta army, assisted by French officers, raised to the dignity of marquis, and a
at Assay e, on September 23, and en- sum of £100,000 was voted to purchase
tirely defeated it. The parallel sue- him an estate. Next followed the bat-
cesses of General Lake, and the defeat of tie of Yittoria (June 21, 1813), for
the Rajah of Berar by Wellesley at Ar- which decisive victory Wellington was
gaum on November 29 compelled the given the baton of field-marshal ; then
submission of the Mahrattas, and peace battles in the Pyrenees, the capture of
was restored on conditions drawn up by San Sebastian, and the crossing of the
the successful general. Early in 1805, Bidassoa into France. In 1814 the bat-
his health failing, Wellesley obtained tie of Orthez was gained, and in the
leave to return home, and arrived in same year the battle of Toulouse, in
England in September. He had before which Soult's best troops were routed,
leaving Madras received his appoint- and the hopes of France in the Penin-
ment as Knight Commander of the Bath, sula utterly annihilated. The way was
From November to February he was en- now open for the British troops to the
gaged as brigadier-general in Lord Cath- heart of France. In six weeks, with
cart's expedition to the continent, which scarcely 100,000 men, Wellington had
was without result. In January, 1806, marched 600 miles, gained two decisive
be succeeded Lord Comwallis as colonel battles, invested two fortresses, and
of his own regiment, the 33d. On Ai>ril driven 120,000 veteran troops from
10, 1806, he married Lady Catherine Spain. Napoleon abdicated on April 12,
Pakenham, third daughter of the Earl and a few days later the war was
of Longford. He was sbortl:r after- brought to a close by the signing of con-
wards elected M.P. for Rye, and in April, ventions with Soult and Berthier. In
1807, was appointed secretary of state May the triumphant general was created
for Ireland. In August he received the Marquis of Douro and Duke of Welling-
command of a division in the expedition ton, with an annuity of £10,000, com-
to Copenhagen under Lord Cathcart and muted afterwards for £400,000. He re-
Admiral Gambler, and took Kioge on ceived the thanks of both Houses of
April 29, the only land operation of im- Parliament. In July he went as am-
portance. On April 28, 1808, he at- bassador to France, and succeeded Lord
tained the rank of lieutenant-general and Castlereagh as British representative in
in June received the command of a force the Congress of Vienna. In April ho
destined to operate in the north of Spain took the command of the army assem*
and Portugal. He was subsequently su- bled in the Netherlands to oppose Nap<^
22 10
(
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Wellman Welsbach Light
leon. (See France and Waterloo,) On WaITo David A., economist, born In
his return to England after the restora- ^^^^9 Springfield, Massachusetts, in
tion of peace he received a vote of £200,- 1828. He was graduated from Williams
000 for the purchase of the estate of College in 1847. Among other publica-
Strathfieldsaye, to be held on presenting tions his essay on Our Burden and Our
a colored flag at Windsor on the 18tn Strength, issued in 1864, had a large
of June each year. With the return ef circulation. In 1867 he visited Europe,
peace he resumed the career of politics, under government commission, and in-
He accepted the post of master-general vestigated industries competitive with
of the ordnance with a seat in the cabi- those of the United States. His ex-
net of Lord Liverpool in January, 1819. perience resulted in his acceptance of
In 1822 he represented Great Britain in free-trade doctrines. He was a prolific
the Congress of Vienna. In 1826 he was writer of pamphlets on economic sub-
nppointed high-constable of the Tower, jects. He died in 1898.
On January 22, 1827, he succeeded Wellg Herbebt George, a British
the Duke of York as commander-in-chief '^*'"°> novelist, bom at Bromley,
of the forces. On January 8. 1828, he Kent, in 1866. He wrote a Tewt Book of
accepted the premiership, resigning the Biology in 1893, and followed this by a
command of the forces to Lord Hill. In series of highly imaginative stories, en-
January, 1829, he was appointed gov- titled The Time Machine, The War of
ernor of Dover Castle and lord warden of the Worldt, When the Sleeper Wahe$
the Cinque Ports. In 1^0 repeated and various others, among the latest be-
motions for parliamentary reform were ing The New Machiavetti.
defeated, but the growing discontent Wells Horace, dentist, bom at Hart-
throughout the country on this subject ^**o> ford, Vermont, in 1815. He
and a defeat in parliament caused the appears to have been the first to em-
resignation of the government in Novem- ploy anssthetics successfully, by inhal-
ber. His opposition to reform made the ing nitrous oxide gas to destroy pain
duke so unpopular that he was assaulted in dental operations. He tried it first
by a mob on June 18, 1832, and his on himself in 1844. Dr. Morton, of
life endangered. He accepted office un- Boston, substituted ether for nitrous
der Sir Robert Peel in 1834-41, and oxide in 1846. Wells lost his reason in
again in 1846» when he helped to carry 1848, probably as a result of inhaling
the repeal of the corn-laws, which till chloroform, and committed suicide,
then he had opposed. In 1842 he re- WAllgton ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^ Louis Oa.
sumed the command of the forces on the ^"oi'Vii., Missouri, in the vicinity of
death of Lord Hill. He died at Walmer St. Louis city. Pop. 7312.
Castle, September 14, 1852. TXTAllQfi^Ti ( wels'tun ), a town of
Wellman Walter, joumalist and ^ cuswiu ^^ackson Co., Ohio, 32 miles
' ^ explorer, was born at Men- s. E. of ChiUicothe. There are coal
tor, Ohio, November 3, IS.'^S. He estab- mines in the vicinity, and it has iron,
lished a weekly newspaper at the age of steel and cement works. Pop. 6875.
14; at 21 established the Cincinnati Wellsville (welz'vil), a cit^ of Co-
Evening Post, and has been a corre- lumbiana Co., Ohio, on the
spondent of the Chicago Herald and Ohio River, 48 miles w. N. w. of Pitts-
Record'Herald since 1884. In 1892 he burgh. It has iron and tin-plate works,
marked with a monument the supposed boiler, tanks, sewer-pipe and pottery
landing place of Columbus in Watling worlcs, etc. Pop. 7769.
Island; in 1894 and 1898 headed Arctic WAlfthflpTi JAahf &n invention of
exploring expeditions; in 1906 built a wcwuaoii xii^iit, ^.^^.j ^^^j. ^^^
large airship at Paris, and attempted an Welsbach, an Austrian, in 1884. In
aerial flight to the north pole in 1907 Europe it is known as the Auer light,
and again in 1909, both proving failures. It is based upon the discovery that cer-
In 1910 he attempted a flight from the tain materials become incandescent at
United States to Europe, starting at At- a low temperature. The process fol-
lantic City, N. J. He failed in this lowed is to saturate a combustible fila-
effort, but made a flight over the ocean ment in the form of a network with a
of 1000 miles, the greatest airship flight solution of a salt of a refractory earth,
made to that time. such as zirconium. It is then dried out
Wells 1^^^)* ^ city of England, in aad burned, the combustible element dis-
Somersetshire, contains one of appearing and leaving a frame of refrac-
the most magnificent cathedrals in Eng- tory material, which becomes incandes-
land, 415 feet long, with a transept cent at a low temperature. The fila-
measuring 155 feet, and three towers, ment is called a mantle and is exceed-
Pop. 4655. ingly fragUe. It gives a brilUant light
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Welwitschia Werner
and has come into very wide use for square miles. Its chief feeder is the
stores and dwellings. Klar. By a canal it communicates with
Wftlwiffloliiii (wel-wich'i-a), a re- Lake Wetter, but its only proper outlet
vv ^xwAbo^/iAxa markable plant grow- is at its southwestern extremity, where
ing in Southern Africa in dry regions its superfluous waters are received by
near the western coast, between lat. 14** the river Gotha. In winter it is frozen
and 23** 8. It presents a stem or rhizome for several months, and crossed by
forming a woody mass rising to a foot at sledges. It abounds with fish,
most above the ground, and having a TXTenlOGk (wen'lok), a municipal bor-
diameter of from 4 to 5 inches to as many ^"*vvxi. ^^^^ ^^ England, in Shrop-
feet, this mass bearing the two original shire, 12 miles southeast of Shrewsbury,
cotyledonary leaves, which, when they It comprises Much Wenlock, Broseley,
reach their full development of 6 feet Madeley, Coalbrookdale, etc. There are
in length or so, become dry and split up larse iron and other industries. Pop.
into shreds but do not fall off. Every 15,244.
year several short flower-stalks are de- TXTATilnnlr O-ronii ^^ geology, that
veloped at the base of these leaves, but ^c^^^*' \Tiuujti, subdivision of the
no other leaves are produced. There Silurian system lying immediately be-
seems to be but one species, W, mira- low the Ludlow rocks, and so called from
hilia. It is placed among the Gneta- being typically developed at Wenlock.
ceee. See Qeology,
Wen, ?f«3*1r'Xr S'^of ttS Wentletrap. S«e Boalaria.
body. They are formed by the accu- Wpnf^xrorfh (went'wurth). Sib
mulation of sebum in a hair follicle, or ^ cutwurtn rj^noMAS, Earl of Straf-
in the recesses of the sebaceous gland ford. See Strafford,
of the hair sac, causing distension of TXTArdaTi (ver'dou), a town of Sax-
the sac. An encysted tumor, in its com- »'*'***«*** ©ny, on the river Pleisse, 25
mencement, is always exceedingly small, miles w. s. w. of Chemnitz, with exten-
and perfectly indolent; and it is often sive manufactures of yarn and worsted,
many years before it attains any great machinery, etc Pop. (1905) 19,473.
size. TXTerden (^^^''^^^i^)* & manufacturing
IXTAiiPAaloiia (wen'ses-lfts), or Wen- »^^***^" town of Rhenish Prussia, 15
wenoesxaus ^^^^ ^^ Emperor of miles northeast of Dttsseldorf. Coal
Germany and King of Bohemia; bom in mining is carried on in the vicinity.
1361; was the son of Charles IV, whom Pop. (1905) 11,029.
he succeeded in 1378. He favored the WereWolf (wSr'wjjlf), a man- wolf,
Hussites, but was unable to save the life ''*'*^ ^** a man transformed into a
of Huss. He died in 1409. wolf according to a superstition prev-
TXT^n-pliniXT' (wen'chou), a Chinese alent in ancient and medieval times.
well (/iivw ^.j.^^^ VOtU in Chew- It was generally thought that such be-
kiang, at the head of a bay. Pop. 100.000. ings had the form of a man by day, and
Wends ^^^ name of a section of the that of a wolf by night
' ' Slavonic race, now dwelling VJ^rff (werf), Adriaan van deb, a
mostly in that part of Germany known '^ ^*'"' Dutch painter, bom near Rot-
as Lusatia, partly in Prussia, partlv terdam in 1659; died there in 1722. He
in the Kingdom of Saxony. In the sixth was a pupil of Van der Neer, and among
century the Wends were a powerful peo- his celebrated painting are the Judg-
pie, extending along the Baltic from the tneni of Solomon, Chrtst Carried to the
Elbe to the Vistula, and southwards to Sepulcher, Ecce Homo, Abraham with
the frontiers of Bohemia. They com- Sarah and Hagar, and Magdalen in the
prised a variety of tribes. The favor- Wildemets, Van der Werff was partic-
ite occupation of the Wends was, and ularly noted for his small historical
still is, agriculture. There are several pieces, which are most exquisitely fin-
dialects of the Wend language still ex- ished, and still in high request. — His
tant. brother and pupil, Pieteb tan deb
Wener (vender), the largest lake of Webff (born in 1665), painted portraits
* Sweden, and after those of and domestic pieces, and was a very able
Ladoga and Onega the largest in Eu- artist. Died m 1718.
rope, situated in the southwest of the TXTATHnlrl Webotld. See Anglo-
kingdom. It is 147 feet above sea-level, ^c^6"^> Sawon.
and of very irregular shape. Its great- TJCTerTier (v^r'n^r), Abraham Gott-
est length, northeast to southwest, is '^*'''""^* ix)b, a German mineralogist,
about 100 miles; and its breadth may born in 1750; died in 1817. In 1775
average about 30 miles; area, 2306 he was appointed inspector and teacher
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Wemigcrode
Wessez
of mineralogy and mining in the Min-
ing Academy at Freiberg, in which po-
sition he remained for the rest of his
life. Werner was the first to separate
geology from mineralogy, and to place
the former on the basis of observation
and experience. The great geological
theory with which his name is connected
is that which attributes the phenomena
exhibited by the crust of the earth to the
action of water, and is known as the
Wernerian or Neptunian theory, in dis-
tinction to the Uuttonian or Plutonic, in
which fire plays the chief part.
Wernigerode i^^^V^^u^^lSl
the province of Saxony, 43 miles south-
west of Mad|;eburg, at the foot of the
Harz Mountains. It has several interest-
ing ancient Gothic buildings, a residence
of the Counts Stolberg- Wernigerode, with
a library of about 120,000 volumes, etc
Pop. (1905) 13,137.
Werra. g^^ weaer.
TXTAflpI (vft'zl), a river port and strong-
wcDCX jy fortified town in Rhenish
Prussia, at the confluence of the Rhine
and the Lippe, 30 miles n. n. w. of DOs-
seldorf. It contains the old Gothic
church of St. Willibrord, recently re-
stored, a fine old Gothic town house, and
many quaint buildings. The manufac-
tures comprise woolens, chemicals, leather,
etc. Pop. (1905) 23,237.
Weaer (^^'z^r). a river of Germany,
formed by the junction of the
Fulda and Werra at MUnden, flows gen-
erally in a northwest direction, and,
after a very circuitous course, traverses
the city of Bremen, and then falls by a
wide mouth, very much encumbered with
sand-banks, into the German Ocean. Its
length, including the Werra, is about
430 miles. The navigation for vessels
of large size ceases aoout 10 miles be-
. low Bremen. See Bremen.
\X7ao1av (wes'li), Charles, younger
J^ brother of John Wesley, was
born at Epworth, England, in 1708, and
was educated at Westminster School
and Christ Church, Oxford. He accom-
panied his brother to Georgia as an or-
dained clergyman, but after his return
to England he became, in 1738, a
preacher in the Methodist connection,
and materially assisted the success of
the movement by his numerous hymns,
large collections from which have been
frequently published. He died in 1788.
Two of his sons, Charles and Samuel,
were celebrated for musical genius.
TZTAalAy John, the founder of Wes-
^^ leyan Methodism, was bom
at Epworth, Lincolnshire (his father
being rector of the parish), June 17,
1703, and educated at the Charterhouse,
and at Christ Church, Oxford. He took
his degree of B.A. in 1724, was ordained
deacon in 1725, became a fellow of Lin-
coln College, and lecturer and modera-
tor in classics in 1726; and took priest's
orders in 1728. He now gathered to-
gether a number of pupils and com-
panions who met regularly for religious
purposes, and by their strict and method-
ical habits acquired the name of
Methodists. Among these companions
were Hervey, Whitefield, and Law, the
author of the Serious Call to the Uncon-
verted. In 1735 Wesley accepted an
invitation from General Oglethorpe to
go out to America to preach to the
colonists of Georgia. After a stay of
two years he returned to England (Feb.,
1738), and in the following Majr an im-
portant event took place in his inner
religious life, namely, his conversion.
In June he paid a visit to Herrnhut, the
Moravian settlement, returning to Eng-
land in September. Early in the follow-
ing year (1739) he began open-air
preaching, in which he was closely asso-
ciated with Whitefield, from whom, how-
ever, he soon separated, but without a
permanent personal breach. Having
now the sole control of the religious body
which adhered to him, he devoted his en-
tire life without intermission to the work
of its organization, in which he showed
much practical skill and admirable
method. His labors as an itinerant
preacher were incessant. He would ride
from 40 to 60 miles in a day. He read
or wrote during his journeys, and fre-
quently preached four or five timet a
day. He married in 1750 Mrs. Vizelle,
a widow with four children, but the
union was unfortunate, and they finally
separated. He died March 2, 1791.
He held strongly to the principle of
episcopacy, ana never formally sepa-
rated from the Church of England. His
collected works were published after his
death in thirty-two volumes, octavo. He
contributed to the collection of hymns,
the greater part of which were writ-
ten by his brother Charles. See Metho-
dists.
Wesleyan Methodists, f^tuf*''-
TXTessex (wes'seks), that is, West
^ Saxons, one of the most im-
portant of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in
England during the sixth, seventh, and
eighth centuries, and the early part of
the ninth, and that in which the other
kingdoms were ultimately merged in the
reign of Egbert in 827. It included the
counties of Devon, Dorset, Somerset
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West Western Australia
Wilts, Hants, Berks and a part of facturing region. It is closely associated
Cornwall. with Berwick, its banking point Pop.
TTTAaf Benjamin, painter, born in 5512.
TV ^oby Delaware Co., Pennsylvania, Westhoro (west^ur-5), a town of
October 10, 1738. He showed great pre- ''^^•'"v*^ Worcester Co., Massachu-
cocity in his aptitude for painting, and at setts, 33 miles from Boston, on the Bos-
the age of eighteen established himself as ton and Albany Railroad. Its maniifac-
a portrait-painter at Philadelphia. In turts include iron and brass beds, trellises.
July, 1760, he visited Italy, and settling tape, leather, straw and leather goods,
in Rome, painted Cimon and Iphigenia, underwear, etc. Pop. 5446.
and Ang^luM and Medora, He visited Wcstbrook (^est'bruk), a citar of
England in 1763, and was so well pa- ^ ., Cumberland Co« Maine,
tronlzed that he determined to make it ^ miles N. w. of Portland. There are
his future residence. He painted Hec- Paper, cotton and silk mills, foundries
tor and Andromache, The Return of the *5^ ot^^er industries. Pop. 8500.
Prodigal Son, and a historical painting Wcst BrOIUWicll. ^ municipal
of Agrippina, the last for the Arch- ^ , ,. ^ ^ , *°" parliamen-
bishop of York, who introduced him to ^^J borough of England, in Stafford-
George III, who became his steadfast *?*r** V 1® *° ^ "^^ '^^^ ^°^ ^*^ ^'
patron, and gave him commissions to the ^^^ f^^ ^^^ extensive iron works and
extent of about £1000 a year for up- SfS?!*^*"^®^ ^^ ™®^^ «*^^^8- ^OP-
wards of thirty years. He painted a JJ; ^, , , x. s
series of historical works for Windsor, WCSt Chester } w e s t ches-ter ) , a
and for the oratory there a series on the ^« ^ ^ „ borough, capital of
progress of revealed religion. On the ^ff^^^.. ^^•» V^S??^^^?^'. " , situated
death of Reynolds, in 1792, he was P% «»^«8 w. of Philadelphia. It stands
elected president of the Royal Academy. *!L* V^*^ /5r^*5^ ^'^??'^°» a rolling coun-
He afterwards painted a number of reli- {7» about 4o0 feet above tide-water, and
gious and historical pictures of large ^. * notable courthouse, a botanical
size, among them being Christ I/eo«wf^ fj^^^^'/^^ »» *^« 8^^'?^ a State normal
the Sick (in the National Gallery), the f^J^^^^ *°^ ^^^^T educational institufaons.
Crucifixion, Ascension, and Death on the H^^^^Vi^^Ff^^ *°^ dairying industries,
Pale Horse. The Death of General ^^.^^^'^l^'^^^^^t f 1?*^^ , «!iS?^»^«'
Wolfe at Quebec and The Battle of La ^«^^«: ^«f «» ?lP?,Vi5V^: ^^l' ^^'W^r^
Hogue are accounted the best of his his- WcstCOtt (west kot), Edwabd Noyes,
torical pieces. * The 400 historical pic- ^„, ^^^ v^^t jI! VcYt® u™-*^,,^^'^'
tures which he painted show skill in SJr n^ wn^t 'nlwi^^' ^® '* ^2?"^°
composition and considerable inventive ^^^ .^^^.^?[S^£«^^ £,^^^^
Dower but thev have no real vitalitv * ^* A'^frjjF^,^ J^^^* ^^ which the humor
C''in%Ie'Ind monZnoui in'cXr *"^
they now possess little interest. Many Si'^iJ,}! *'h^f^S"'?t^°S;.Kii^.*«;?i'*^ ^"'^^
of bis woAs have been engraved. He 2Ji ^^•^•,''*^7^ '*5 Py,^*'*^^?'""-;,,.^ ,„
died in London March 11, 1820. and Wcsterlv teJ /J;^2A„J?.i.iT.''fe™V'
was buried in St Paul's Cathedral. Washington CrRh^de^^l^lt'S, <o«e
West African Colonies S^n ^ Pawcatuck River, 44 mUes 8. w. of
rf<\A r««<.ot T«*r^o r<«*»K{. «*»^QLi^« Providence. Cottons and woolens are
liinp rwhir.J' fff\ ^*"*'^*' ^^^ S'^"* largely manufactured, also thread and
44^ X V^i. '^ 0 xMii 1 r. printing presses, and a highly superior
WeStAlllS, ^w^Ufnf'n^rn.^eS ^.-'"o^Mlrs^ ^ l«?el,\ua^ried.
from Milwaukee. Its manufactures in- xxrl^i.^^^ A««4.«^ii^ a Rrifiah
elude engines, chains, belts, steam pumps, WeStem Australia, colony which
etc. Pop. 0645. includes all that portion of the Austra-
West Bay City (fomieriy Wenona), Han continent situated westward of
T. n xiw \u ^o'*"-'* ""'^J- ""^ 129'> E. Ion. This territory measures
Bay Co., Michigan, on the Saginaw River, 1490 miles from n. to 8., and 850 miles
near ite mouth, and opposite Bay City, from e. to w. The total estimated area
It has shipbuilding and coal-mining in- ig 975,920 sq. miles, thus making it
dustries, and manufactures lumber, beet- the largest of the Australian colonies.
^}^^^A^ ^o ,^.^' , chemicals, etc. Pop. The really occupied portion, apart from
(19U0) 13,119; It IS now incorporated scattered settlements round the coasts,
with Bay City. , . ^ is almost entirely in the southwest, and
West Berwick, ? ^P^«^ ^n ^o- is about r>00 mlles in length, and 150
... '. lumbia Co., Penn- miles in average breadth. The re-
Avlyama, in an agricultural and manu- mainder is almost wholly desert or sand-
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Western Empire
West Indies
covered plain, with large areas desti-
tute of vegetation. A region of moun-
tains border the western coast line,
with other more interior ranges. West-
em Australia was first settled in 1821)
as the Swan River Settlement, and for
many years the population was very
small. In 1850 it was made a con-
vict station, and remained such till the
abolition of transportation in 1868.
Since that time it has been making
gradual progress. Perth is the capital,
on Swan River. Besides this river there
are, in the southwest, the Blackwood,
Murray, Murchison, etc., further north,
the Gascoyne, Ashburton, Fortescue, De
Grey, Fitzroy, etc., none of them navi-
gable at all seasons. The south-
west has vast forests, which supply
valuable timber for exportation, es-
pecially that known as jarrah (which
see). Other trees are the lofty euca-
lyptus or blue gum, sandalwood, karri,
etc. Ck)pper and lead are found in
abundance and are slightly worked.
The other chief minerals are gold, coal,
zinc, and iron; the gold deposits being
widespread and the product of much
value. The pearl fisheries are rising in
value. The Kimberley and northern dis-
tricts contain boundless pastures, and
there are lands suitable for the growth
of sugar, tobacco, wheat, etc. in the
Kimberley district considerable quanti-
ties of gold are now obtained from
quartz reefs. In other parts are soils
and climates admirably adapted for the
cultivation of silk, olives, the vine, etc.
Fruits are abundantly general. The live
stock includes sheep, cattle, horses, pigs,
goats, and a few thousands of camels.
Sheep are largely kept and the wool
clip is large and valuable. The princi-
pal exports are wool, pearls and shells,
timber, and sandalwood. The chief im-
ports from Great Britain are apparel
and haberdashery, ale, iron, cottons,
telegraph wire, etc. In 1901 the colony
became a State of the commonwealth of
Australia, its population at that date
being 184,124. Pop. (1914) ^5,019.
Western Empire, L^I?- e^a'pi^e!
consisting of Italy, Illyricum, Spain,
Gaul, Britain and Africa, which Valen-
tinian I reserved for himself when in
364 he shared the imperial authority
with his brother Valens, who reigned in
Constantinople as Emperor of the East,
and whose territories comprised the east-
em half of the Roman Empire. This
partition of the Roman Empire became
final in 395, when Theodosiui the Great
divided the Roman world between his
sons, Honorius, who became Emperor of
Rome and the West, and Arcadius, who
became Emperor of Gonstantinople and
the East. The Western Empire termi-
nated in 476.
Western Eeserve, S,^Sf/i'o1
what is now the State of Ohio, once
forming part of the claims of Connecti-
cut in the Northwest Territory. When,
by the treaty of 1783, Great Britain re-
linquished the territory s. of the Great
Lakes and E. of the Mississippi, disputes
arose among the States of Virginia,
New York, Massachusetts, and Connecti-
cut as to the right of occupancy in that
locality. The difllculty was finally set-
tled by the cession of the whole to the
Federal government, but CJonnecticut re-
served a tract of nearly 4,000,000 acres
on Lake Erie. The State finally dis-
posed of this in small lots to colonists,
and so accumulated a very large school
fund.
WAftf-fipIrl (wesffgld), a town (town-
WeSXneia \^^^^ ^{ Hampden Co.,
Massachusetts, on Westfield River, 9
miles w. of Springfield. It contains a
State Normal School, Westfield Athe-
nseum, and other institutions. The man-
ufactures are extensive and include
whips, cigars, paper, steam heaters,
machinery, thread, etc. The town was
settled in 1658. Pop. 16,044.
TXTAof-fiAlii a town of Union Ca, New
Wesxneia, ^^^^^ 7 miles w. by s.
of Elizabeth. It is chiefly a residence
place for New York business men. Pop.
6420.
TXTAof TTo'irp'h ^ borough of New
WeSl Haven, Haven (5)., Connecti-
cut, separated from New Haven by the
West Kiver. It has manufactures of
buckles, pianos, safes, etc. Within its
limits is Savin Rock, on Long Island
Sound, a popular resort Pop. 8543 (in-
cluded in pop. of Orange).
West Hoboken, ^fo^,"' h«c^-
near the Hudson River, coT>tiguous with
Hoboken and Jersey City. Its manufac-
tured products include embroideries, silks,
braids, pearl buttons, artificial flowers,
etc. The town was set off from Bergen
in 1861. Pop. 35,403.
Westhoughton <4'*S>i^eai?SS;
5 miles w. 8. w. of Bolton, with manu-
factures of silk and cotton, and coal
mining. Pop. 15,046.
West India Apricot. 8«t*rf.""^
West Indies <ti'e°TNkx^ th?"^
tensive archipelago which lies between
North and Soutn America, stretching
from Florida to the shores of VenesBuela.
It is divided into the Bahamas, the group
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Westinglioiue Westminster Abbey
stretching from near the coast of lantern, the oil cook stove, the stove
Florida m a southeaster)^ direction; the board, etc He died December 28, 1900.
Greater Antilles, compnsinc the foar WAatmACOtt ( west'ma - kot ) , Sib
lar^t islands of the croup, Cuba« ^ vo»a**€»wi#v rjchakd, sculptor, bom
Hajti, Porto Rico and Jamaica; and in London in 1775. In 1793 he went to
the Lesser Antilles, stretching like a Rome to study under Canova, and made
great bow. with its convexity towards such progress that he gained the pope*s
the east, rrom Porto Rico to Trinidad, annual gold medal for sculpture. He
near the coast of Venexueku Almost the also obtained a first prize for sculpture
whole archipelago lies within the torrid at Florence. In 1798 he returned to
zone. The total area does not exceed England, and rose rapidly in his profes-
95,000 square miles, of which the Greater sion. Many of the monuments in St.
Antilles occupy nearly 83,000 square Paul's are from his chisel. He designed
miles. The climate is tropical, but mod- also the AchiUe$ in Hyde Park, the
ified by the surrounding oceans and the statue of Lord Erskine in Lincoln*s Inn
elevated surface of many of the is- Old Hall, that of Nelson in the Liver-
lands, and the islands abound in trop- pool Exchange, besides statues of Addi-
ical productions, as sugar, cotton, coffee, son, Pitt, etc. He was elected an
tobacco, maize, etc.; oranges, lemons, associate of the Royal Academy in 1805,
limes, pomegranates, citrons, pineap- a full member in 1816, and in 1827 suc-
ples, etc.; manioc, yams, potatoes, etc ceeded Flaxman as lecturer on sculpture.
Except Hayti and Cuba (which are in- In 1837 the dignity of knighthood was
dependent), Porto Rico, Santa Cms, St. conferred on him. He died in 1856.
Thomas, and St. Johns (which now be- We8tinea.t1i (west'm^th). a county
long to the United States, the latter three " ^"•'***^"'«** In Ireland, m the prov-
purchased recently from Denmark ), and a ince of Leinster, with an area of 708
few islands off the coast of S. America, sq. miles. The surface is hilly in the
the W. L Islands are in the possession north, but elsewhere undulates gently,
of European powers. The chief British The drainage is shared between the
possessions are: Jamaica, Barbados, Shannon and the Bovne. The former,
St. Luda, St. Vincent, Trinidad, To- with its expansion Lough Ree, forms
bago, Antigua, St. Kitt's, Dominica, Vir- the western boundary of the countv;
sin Islands and the Bahamas. — Dutch: other rivers are the Brosna and the
St. Bustatius, Saba, St. Martin (partly Inny; and there are a number of lakes.
French), Bonaire or Buen Ayre, Cura- The principal grain crop is oats, but the
So, and Oruba or Aruba. — French: larger part of the available surface is
artinique, Deseada, Guadeloupe, Marie devoted to srazing. Important means of
Galante, St. Martin (partly Dutch), St. communication are furnished bv the
Bartholomew, and Les Saintes. See the Shannon, the Royal Canal, and a branch
various islands and groups. of the Grand CanaL The county town
Westin^llOTlse ( west'ing-hous )» is MuIUngar. Pop. of county, 61,629.
Yv^ovxAA5Aj.vuo^ Geoboe, inventor, Westminster (west'min-ster), a city
capitalist and manufacturer, was bom ^oitAua.MM,oits^*, ^^ Middlesex, England,
at Central Bridge, New York, in 1846. seat of government and the residence
He entered the machine shop of his father of royalty, is now so united with London
and at the age of 15 designed a rotary that in appearance they form one city,
engine. He served in the Union army in and in orainary speech are mentioned as
1863-64. He is best known by the fa- one^ though they have their separate
mous air-brake that bears his name, so jurisdictions. Temple Bar (now re-
generally used in railroad traffic. He moved) separated the two cities. Within
originated other devices, including elec- the city and liberties are Westminster
trical machinery, railroad signals, etc., Hall, Abbey, and School, Buckingham
and was an extensive manufacturer of Palace^ the Houses of Parliament, St.
electrical goods, bis enormous manufactur- James- Palace, the Whitehall Banquet-
ing establishment, that of the Westing- ing House, etc. Pop. 160,277. (See
house Mfg. Co., being at Pittsburgh, Pa. London.)
He died. March 12, 1914. WMtmillfttl^r AMl^V ^^^ corona-
Westlake (west'iak). wiluam, bom vv ewminsxer iiooey, ^^^^ ^^^^^
in Cornwall, England, in of the sovereigns of England, and one of
1831 ; removed to Milwaukee, Wis., the chief ornaments of London, is a mag-
early in life; later learned the tin- nificent Gothic pile, situated near the
smith's trade; was employed by Capt. Thames, and adjoining the Houses of
John Ericsson to make model;* for his Parliament. In 1065 a church was built
first hot-air ensine. His Inventions era- here In the Norman style by Edward the
brac« the W^clake car heater, the globe Confessor. Part of this structure still
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Westminster Assembly Weston-super-Mare
remains in the pyx-house and tho. south the Confession of Faiths and the Larger
side of the cloisters; but the mniu build- and Shorter Catechisma, which remain
ing, as it now stands, was Ugun in practically the standards of the Presby-
11^ by Henry III (who built the choir terians to the present day. At the
and transepts), and was prncticnlly com- Restoration the whole proceedings of the
Dieted by Edward I. Various additions, Westminster Assembly were annulled as
however, were made (including the nave invalid.
and aisles, the west front, and the Jem- TXTAaf-minQf Ar TToll the hall of the
salem Chamber) down to the time of W CStminstcr AlUl^ ^j^ p^j^^ ^^
Henry VII, who built the chapel which Westminster, was erected by Richard II
bears his name, while the upper parts of (1397-99) on the foundations of a
the two western towers were designed structure built by William Rufus. It
by Sir Christopher Wren. The extreme has a fine porch, and its hammer-beam
length of the church, including Henry roof of carved timber is considered the
VIi*s chapel, is 531 feet; breadth of most notable of its kind; length of the
transepts, 203 feet; height of the roof, building, 290 feet, breadth 68 feet, and
102 feet; height of towers, 225 feet. The height 110 feet This building is closely
coronation ceremony takes place in the associated with many stirring events in
choir, where the coronation stone brought English historv; but it is chiefly remark
by Edward I from Scotland is situated able as the place where were held such
beside the coronation-chairs of the Eng- great State trials as those of the Chan-
lish sovereigns. Westminster Abbey is cellor More, Lady Jane Grey, the Earl
distinguished as the burial-place of nu- of Strafford, King Charles I, and Warren
merous English kings from Edward the Hastings, and as the center of the highest
Confessor to George II; the north tran- English courts of law till these were
sept is occupied chiefly by monuments removed to the new buildings recently
to warriors and statesmen; while in the erected for their accommodation. The
south transept is situated the * Poets* hall now serves as a fine vestibule to
Comer,* the burial and memorial place the Houses of Parliament,
of most of England's great writers from TXTpafmiTicifpr SpViooI or the Royal
Chaucer to RoWt Browning. See Lon- WeSXminSXer OCnOOl, School of
dofu St. Peter's, Westminster, one of the
Westminster Assembly of Di- QTli'Ss^^'L^a^CrtanSS
vines * celebrated assembly held at in 1868. There are forty foundation-
Yxuca^ Westminster for the settlement ers, the number of vacancies yearly being
of a general creed and form of worship ten.
throughout Great Britain. By an ordi- WpftfrnnrplflTirl ( wesf m5r-land ) , a
nance passed June 12, 1643. 121 cler- ^ c»wmuiciauu county in England,
gymen, with ten lords and twenty bounded by Cumberland, Lancashire,
commoners as lay assessors, were nomi- Morecambe Bay, Yorkshire, and Dur-
nated as constituents of the assembly, ham; area, 783 square miles. The sur-
The assembly began its sittings in July, face, with the exception of a small
1643, in Westminster Abbey, but in the portion in the south sloping to More-
meantime a royal proclamation had been cambe Bay, is very mountainous. Much
issued forbidding the assembly to meet, of the celebrated lake scenery of England
which had the effect of inducing the is within the limits or on the borders
greater part of the Episcopal members of this county, the chief lakes being
to absent themselves. The majority of T^lleswatcr, Grasmere, Rydal Water, and
those who remained were Presbyterians, Windermere. The principal rivers are
but there was a strong minority of In- the Eden, Lune, and Kent. The min-
dependents. A deputation was now_sent erals include graphite, roofing slate, mar-
Dg- hie, and small quantities of
lish parliament to the General Assembly and copper. Appleby is the chief town.
along with commissioners from the Eng- hie, and small quantities of coal, lead,
of the Scottish Church and the Scottish Pop. 63,575.
Convention of Estates, soliciting their IXTpfitlHOIlIlt ^ town of Quebec
cooperation in the proceo«lings of tho '^ ^^ ^ > province, Canada. Pop.
Westminster Assembly, and accordingly 14,579.
in September four Scottish clergymen, TXTpof TjJeW York ^ town of Hud-
with two laymen, were admitted to seats '* ^^*' *'^ •*•*' *^} son Co., New Jer-
and votes by an act of the English sey, adjacent to West Hoboken. It has
legislature. The assembly continued to silk mills. Pop. 13,560.
hold its sittings till February, 1649. TXTpQfoTi.aTi'npr.'M'QrA (mft'rg; that
Among the results of its deliberations wesiun SUpcr mare j ^^ ^ Weston-
were the Directory of Public Worships on-Sea), a seaport and watering-place
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West Orange
West Virginia
in England in the count v of Somerset,
on the Bristol Channel* l9 miles south-
west of Bristol. It is recommended as
a place of resort both in winter and
summer. A fine esplanade* pier, etc., are
here. Pop. 23,235.
West Oranere, a^town of Essex Co.,
WW \/ov vAorugv^ -^^^ Jerscj, adjoin-
ing the city of Orange. It contains
Llewellyn Park, a beautiful residential
tract on the 8. E. slope of Orange Moun-
tain ; also a large country club. Hats,
etc., are made here. Pop. 10,980.
Westphalia (.wesffa-ll-a), the name
w« %r»v^MMr.i^Mr gjygjj ^j- different periods
to (1) one of the circles of the old Ger-
man Empire; (2) one of Napoleon's
kingdoms (1807-13), conferred upon his
brother Jerome; and (3) now to a prov-
ince of Prussia. The latter is bounded
by Rhenish Prussia, Holland, Hanover,
Brunswick, Hesse and Nassau. Its
area is 7771 square miles. The surface
' in the south and northeast is generally
mountainous; the northwest spreads out
into extensive and often marshy plains,
and belongs to the basin of the Ems;
the northeast and a small part of the
east to the basin of the Weser; the re-
mainder, constituting the far larger por-
tion of the whole, belongs to the basin
of the Rhine, whose chief tributaries are
the Ruhr and Lippe. Besides iron and
coal in abundance the minerals include
copper, lead, zinc and salt; and the
manufactures are varied and important.
The province is divided into the three
governments of MUnster, Minden and
Amsberg. MUnster is the capital. Pop.
(1905) 3,018,090.
Westphalia, ^^^=. ^E: ^^^ °*°**^
w« ^»^w2r****'^**9 given to the peace con-
cluded in 1648 at MUnster and Osna-
brtick, by which an end was put to the
Thirty Years* war (which see). By
this peace the sovereignty of the members
of the empire was acknowledged. The
concessions that had been made to the
Protestants since the religious peace in.
1555 were confirmed. The elector-pala-
tine had the palatinate of the Rhine and
the electorate restored to him; Alsace
was ceded to France; Sweden received
Western Pomerania, Bremen, Verden,
\yi8mar and a sum equal to £750,000;
Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Hanover and
Brunswick were compensated by the
secularization of numerous ecclesiastical
foundations. The independence of the
United Provinces was recognized by
Spain.
West Pittston, * borough of Lu-
WW x^av ^M,vvav^^AM,J g^^jj^ Q^^ Pennsyl-
vania, on the North Branch of the Sus-
quehanna River, opposite Pittston, and
on the Lackawanna and Lehigh Valley
Railroads. Pop. 6848.
West Point, r'tlT^'ud^^T K
about 50 miles above New York City.
It is notable as the seat of the United
States Military Academy, and is a fa-
vorite summer resort. A fortress was
built here during the Revolutionary
war, and the treason of Benedict Arnold
consisted in his endeavor to deliver this
to the British. The site of the academy
commands one of the finest river views
in the world.
XUt^^i" Trnir the official post - office
wcat xiuy, designation of the town
of Watervliet (which see).
Westport J-tlLTc'Uy'K a^t
the mouth of a small river in Clew
Bay. 10 miles s. s. w. of Castlebar. Pop.
West Springfield, fti^TS. ^'^S?:
den Co., Massachusetts, with a village of
the same name, on the Connecticut River,
opposite Springfield. It has some manu-
factures. Pop. of town, 922^,
W^Qf ToniTiQ a city of Hillsboro
WeSX lampa, ^o., Florida, in West
Tampa precinct Pop. 8258.
West Virginia, instate of^^^the
bounded N. and E. by Pennsylvania and
Maryland, E. and s. by Virginia, and w.
by Ohio and Kentucky; area 24.170 sa
miles. The surface is very largely moun-
tainous and hilly, being traversed in
the east and center by parallel ranges
of the Allegheny Mountains. About two-
thirds of the area is covered with for-
ests. The soil of the ridges is fertile,
and the summits of many of the moun-
tains are level, forming natural meadows
or glades. Blue grass is indigenous and
grazing excellent, especially in the val-
ley of the Great Kanawha. The forests
are chiefly made up of hardwood trees
of valuable kinds, making the lumber
interest very important; coal is a
highly valuable product, nearly the whole
State lying within the Allegheny coal
system. The coal is bituminous and is
estimated to underlie 16,000 square
miles. Petroleum is also abundant and
is extensively produced, and natural
gas is found in some sections. Other
minerals include salt, largely produced;
iron-ore, glass-sand, kaolin, limestone and
grinding stone. The minerals and min-
eral springs are practically inexhaustible.
The live-stock interests of the State are
large, especially sheep. West Vir^nia be-
ing famous for its wool. The agncultural
staples include com, wheat, oats and
i
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Westward-Ho
Whale
tobacco, and orchard fruits are ezten-
flively cultivated. Manufactures are as
yet little developed, except in the towns
on the Ohio river, but the State has
enormous water-pov^er, all its streams
having a rapid descent. This will un-
doubtedly be utilized. The leading in-
dustries are those of steel and iron, glass,
flour, salt, lumber and wood products,
coke, pottery, firebrick, leather, cigars and
tobacco. Wheeling is the largest and
most important city; and the manufac-
toring center, nearly all the industries
named flourishing here. Pop. 1,221,119.
Wpfttwrarfl-Wo * sea-bathmg place
Wesiwaxa .no, ^^ England, in the
county of Devon, on Barnstaple Bay,
about 3 miles n. w. of Bideford. West-
ward-Ho College is a military school,
and there is an excellent golfing links.
IXTAffAT (vet'ter), a lake in Sweden,
Wt;iicr ^^^^ 24 miles southeast of
Lake Wener; greatest length, 80 miles;
medium breadth, about 15 miles. Its
height above the level of the Baltic is
nearly 300 feet, but its depth is
in some parts above 400 feet The
Wetter forms part of the canal connec-
tion between the Cattegat and the Bal-
tic. The chief town on its shores is
J5nk5ping.
Wi^ffi^rTiftm (vet'ter-h6m), a monn-
WeXXernom ^j^^ ^^ Switzerland, in
the Bernese Oberland, with three peaks
respectively 12,149, 12,166 and 12,107
feet high.
TXTAf^laT (vetz'lUr), a town in Rhenish
W C1.Z.ltir Prussia, at the junction of
the Lahn and Dill. It was anciently a
free imperial town, and was the seat of
the imperial German court of justice
from 1698 to 1806. Pop. (1905) 12,276.
TU'A'vf A-r#1 ( weks'f urd ) , a maritime
weAlora county in Ireland, on the
Irish Sea and St. George's Channel;
area 901 sq. miles. The chief inlet on
the east coast is Wexford Harbor,
which, though spacious, is of intricate
navigation and obstructed by a be.r.
The surface of the interior is hilly, rising
into a ridge on the northwest, declining
into a level peninsula to the southeast.
The chief rivers are the Slaney Ind Bar-
row. The prevailing soil is Stiff clay,
generally well cultivated, and producing
oats, wheat, barley, and potatoes. The
fisheries are extensive. Pop. 104,104.
— Wexford, the county town, is a sea-
port on the river Slaney, where it en-
ters Wexford Harbor. The herring and
salmon fisheries employ many persons;
malt is manufactured, and distilling,
brewing, and shipbuilding are carried on.
The chief trade is in exporting grain,
cattle/ poultry, butter, etc Pop. 11,168.
TJSTexio (vek'si-eu), a cathedral city of
Southern Sweden, with an old
cathedral. Pop. 7365.
WavIpt Valebiano y NicouLU, a
w ujrxcx; Spanish general, bom at Bar-
celona in 1840. He was a military at-
tach6 of Spain at Washington during
the American Civil war and served in
the army under Sheridan. He took part
in the Carlist war, has a high reputa-
tion as a soldier, was made governor of
the Canary Islands in 1879 and captain-
general of the Philippine Islands in 1889.
He afterwards held high offices in Spain
and in 1896 was sent to Cuba to sup-
press the insurrection. His ruthless
cruelty to the natives excited such in-
dignation in the United States that he
was recalled in the autumn of 1897.
WAvmfiTi (wft'man), Stanley John,
wt;ymau ^ English novelist, bom at
Ludlow in 1855. His novel of romance
and adventure, A GenUeman of France
(1893), became highly popular, and was
followed by a number of others in the
same vein.
Weymouth and Helcombe-
B.eris ^ seaport of England, in Dor-
^^B ^ setshire, on a semicircular bay,
7 miles south-southwest of Dorchester,
Weymouth being on one side, Melcombe-
Regis on the other of the small river
Wey, over which is a bridge. There is
a considerable coasting trade, the chief
export being Portland stone. Malcombe-
Hegis attracts numerous visitors. There
is a fine esplanade, about 1 mile in
length. Pop. 22.325.
Weymouth tt^C T^c^l
setts, on Boston Harbor, 11 miles s.s.e.
of BostcQK. It has manufactures of
boots and shoes, isinglass, fireworks, etc.,
and i considerable trade. Pop. 12,895.
TI71|q1a (wfil), the common name given
'"***^ to the larger mammals of the
order Cetacea (which see). They are
characterized by having fin-like anterior
limbs, the posterior limbs being absent,
but having their place supplied by a
large horizontal caudal fin or tail.
Their abode is in the sea or the great
rivers, and they resemble the fishes so
closely in external appearance that not
only non-scientists, but even some of the
earlier zoologists regarded them as be-
longing to that class. The whales are
usually divided into two families, the
Balsenidffi and the Physeteridae or Cato-
dontidse. The Balsenidffi, or whalebone
whales, are distinguished by the absence
of teeth, by the presence of baleen or
whalebone in the mouth. The typical
representative of this family is the corn-
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f
Reproduced by permission of The Philadelphia Museums*
THB WBTTBRHORN ASUAL RAILWAY
rhis remarkable railway operate* on the famous Wetterhom Mountain in Switierland. The care,
holding twenty passengere. are carried on wire cables and balance each other by means of a cable
attached to each, which passes around a drum at the top.
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'Whale Wharton
moi i^ Greenland whale (BalcBna use, and the danger of the fishery is
mysticituB) , so valuable on account of greatly reduced. When captured the
the oil and whaleb<')ne which it furnishes, animal is cut up, the blubber boiled and
(See Whalebone.) It is principally the oil extracted, and the whalebone
found in the Arctic seas, but it is also dried. In recent years there has been
found in considerable numbers in many an increase in the amount of whale
other parts of the world. Its length is products in America, with a correspond-
usually about 60 feet, and its greatest ing increase in prosperity,
circumference from 30 to 40 feet. Al- TXHialeback ^^^ name of a form of
lied to the Greenland whale is the ror- '^'"«**^*'«*^'^^ steam vessel invented
by Capt Alexander McDougall. of West
Superior, Wisconsin, in 1874, tor use on
the Great Lakes. In 1888 the first
whaleback barge was built of 437 tons
registry and 1400 tons capacity. The
name whaleback was suggested by the
resemblance of the visible portions of
the vessel, when afloat, to the back of a
whale. A whaleback crossed the At-
lantic in 1891. Vessels of this kind are
now in common use.
Whalebone (wai'bon) or baleen,
WW M«»A\/»/v^\^ ^ ^gjj _ known elastic
horny substance which hangs down in
n.»..i...<iwi,.i» /R^i^^« •»...».•..:#... \ thin parallel plates from the sides of the
Greenland Whale (BaJamamy*tice(u#). ^pp^*' .^^ J^ ^^^ ^^^.^^ ^^ ^j^^,^g
qual. It measures as much as 85 feet called Baleenidie. These plates or
in length, and from 30 to 35 feet in laminse vary in size from a few inches
circumference. (See Rorqual,) Of the to 12 feet in length; the breadth of the
Physeteridee or Catodontidse, the best largest at the thick end, where they are
known species is the sperm-whale or attached to the jaw, is about a foot, and
cachalot (PhyaSter or Catodon maoro- the average thickness is from four to
cephdlui), which averages from 50 to five tenths of an inch. From its flexi-
70 feet in length. (See Sperm-whale,) bility, strength, elasticity, and lightness,
Some species of the Delphinidse or dol- whalebone is employed for many pur-
phin family are also known as whales, poses, as for ribs to umbrellas and para-
(See Beluga, Caaing-tchale,) Whale sols, for stififening corsets, etc. In com-
fishing for the sake of the oil and whale- merce it is often called whale-fin.
bone has been an important industry TXThol^.lmiQA (Cydmus ceti/ order
since the twelfth century. It was for wiiiticiuusc Laemodipoda). a genus
long prosecuted with great ent/gy by the . of small crustaceans, so named from
Dutch, English, French, and Americans, living a parasitic life on whales and
but of recent times it has greatly de- other cetaceans.
creased, chiefly on account of the scar- TXThamnnfl (hwttm-pO'a), a port of
city of whales. The British whaling ^ ^o,uiyvti China, on an island of the
fleet now numbers barely a dozen ves- same name, 12 miles E. of Canton, with
sels, mostly belon'^ing to Dundee and comniodious docks, etc., for the cleansing
Peterhead. The American whale fishery and repair of vessels,
is chiefly prosecuted by New Bedford Wharton (hwftr'tun). Anna Hol-
ressels, but is fast dwindling away. lingswobth, author, born
The instruments used in the capture of in Cumberland Co., Pennsylvania. She
the whale are the harpoon and the lance, became a resident of Philadelphia and
The harpoon is an iron weapon about wrote Through Colonial Doorways, A
3 feet in length, terminating in an arrow- Last Century Maid, Heirlooms in Mima'
shnped head. This is attached to a line, ture, and other works dealing with
and is thrown at the whale by hand, so Colonial life.
cs to transfix it, or is discharged from a WhartOn ^^th, American author,
small swivel cannon placed mj a boat. ^q_- _ 1 ^''^^ i^ New York City in
The lance is a spear of iron about 6 j^^' Her fiction includes : Tfce FaWcy o/
feet in length, terminating in a thin Decision (1902}, The Descent of Man
sharp steel head. These, with the nee- ajf* Other Stones (1904), The House of
essary lines, boats, etc., are all the ap- S*^*;. (1905), The Fruit of the Tre€
paratUB required for capturing the (1907) and Ethan Frame (1912).
whale. In modem whale fishing guns, TXrharfnTi Francis, jurist wp^ i)orn
with explosive bullets, are brought into ^^^^^^^"-9 at Philadelphia in :iSU(ii
{
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Wharton Wheat
died in 1889. He became professor of these works were written originally for
logic and riietoric of Kenyon College, tlie Encyclopcedia Metropolitana. He
Ohio, in 1856; was afterwards ordained occupied the chair of political economy
as a rector in the Episcopal Church, and at Oxford in 1830-31, and afterwards
became professor in the Episcopal di- published Introductory Lectures on Po-
vinity school at Cambridge, Mass. ; also Utical Economy, In 1831 he was ap-
Srofessor of international law in the pointed archbishop of Dublin, a position
Boston Law School, and in 1885 solici- in which he did much for national edu-
tor for the State Department at Wash- cation and other worthy objects in Ire-
ington. He wrote A Treatise on the land, including the foundation and
Criminal Law of the United States, A endowment of a chair of political econ-
Treatise on Medical Jurisprudence, The omy in Trinity College. Besides the
Conflict of Laws» etc works mentioned he wrote or edited many
TXThorf^Ti Joseph, manufacturer, was others.
wuaxi/uu, bom at Philadelphia in TrrUf^^f (hw^t ; THticum sativum) , the
1826; died in 1909. He engaged in the v¥iicau most important species of grain
white-lead manufacture, was manager of cultivated in Europe, and a very im-
the Lehigh Zinc Co., 1853-63, aided in portant crop in America, India, Aus-
founding the Bethlehem Iron Co., and tralia, etc. It grows readily in almost
established extensive nickel works at every climate; but its natural home
Camden, New Jersey. He founded the seems to be a temperate climate, and
Wharton School of Finance and Eco- the soils best adapted for its culture
nomics, University of Pennsylvania, and are rich clays and heavy loams. Of
endowed a chair of history and economics cultivated wheats there are many varie-
at Swarthmore College. ties, the differences, however, being
WliartOTI Thomas Whabton, Mar- mostly due to soil, climate, and mode of
vYA&axuvuy Qujg Qj.^ Ijq^jj 1(^^; died cultivation. Three primary varieties
1715; is the reputed author of the cele- may be mentioned: (a) T, hybemum
bra ted political ballad LillihuUero, and imuticum), winter or unbearded wheat;
was severely castigated by Swift. — Uis (5) T, cpstivum (aristatum), summer
son, Philip Wiiabton (1G99-1731), or bearded wheat; (c) T, spelta (ad-
was created a duke in 1720. Like his hcerens), spelt or German wheat, which
father, he lived a very profligate life, is of much less value than the others,
and is now chiefly remembered as the but grows on poorer soils and more ele-
subject of Pope's satire, as his father vated localities. White wheat and red
was of Swift's. wheat are names applied according to
WTiatelv (hwafli), Richard, Arch- the color of the grain, the red sorts be-
vv Aia,b^j.j bishop of Dublin, was born ing generally hardier than the white, but
in London in 1787; died in 18G3. He of inferior quality, and the yield is less,
received his education at a private Winter wheat is sown in the autumn,
school at Bristol, and at Oriel College, with the view of being harvested the
Oxford. He graduated B.A. m 1808, following year; summer wheat is sown
and in 1810 won the English essay in the sprmg of the year in which it is
prize. In 1819 he made his first ap- reaped. The native country of the culti-
pearance as an author by publishing his vated wheat has usually been considered
famous Historic Doubts Relative to to be the central parts of Asia, and it
Napoleon Bonaparte, In 1822 Whately has been reported as growing wild in
was appointed Bampton lecturer at Ox- Kurdistan, Mesopotamia and elsewhere,
ford, and delivered eight lectures On the but this lacks proof. It has been culti-
Use and Abuse of Party Feeling in Mai- vated from a very early period, probably
ters of Religion. He held the living of as early as 3000 B.C. in China. It was
Halesworth in Suffolk^ in 1822-25, and one of the principal crops in ancient
was then appointed principal of St Al- Egypt and Palestine, and has been found
ban's Hall, Oxford. In the latter year in the lake dwellings of prehistoric Eu-
he published Essays on Some of the rope. It is now cultivated in all the
Peculiarities of the Christian Religion, temperate parts of the continents, is
A second series of essays On Some Dif- grown to a considerable extent in north-
ficulties in the Writings of St, Paul and em India, and is very extensively culti-
Other Parts of the New Testament, vated in thu United States, Canada and
came out in 1828; and a third series, wide regions of South America. Wheat
The Errors of Romanism Traced to Their of very fine quality is produced in Ans-
Origin in Human Nature, in 1830. In tralia. It does not thrive in the torrid
1827 was published The Elements of zone, except in elevated situations.
Logic, and the scarcely less popular though it does well in subtropical regions.
Elements of Rhetoric in 1828. Both of A hardy plant, it can endure very severe
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Wheat Wheat-ear
winters if covered with snow. For its ished the quantity it can spare to send
successful cultivation it must have a abroad and the extra supply needed in
mean temperature of not less than 55** F. Europe is now largely obtained from
for three or four months of the year. As other countries. Chief among these may
it is an annual plant, its capacity for be named Argentina and Canada, both
enduring cold is of importance, since this of these countries possessing large areas
permits it to be sown in the autumn, so fitted for wheat cultivation. Though
as to have a good start in the following they have come somewhat recently into
spring. Its cultivation does not extend the market for wheat supply, their an-
as far north as that of oats, rye or nual harvest is rapidly increasing and
barley, its northern limit in Europe their surplus for exportation growing,
being about 60° N. latitude. The quality Wheat is not native to America, its
of the grain varies in different soils and first introduction being by the Spaniards
climates, and certain varieties are dis- about 1630. It was planted in New
tinguished by difference of quality and of England and Virginia shortly after their
external appearance. The varieties of settlement, the spread of its cultivation
wheat are, from its long cultivation, very keeping pace with that of settlement and
numerous, many of these varieties being its production becoming phenomenal in
in high esteem in certain districts, the middle west within a comparatively
though little known beyond them. The recent period. Of late years a variety
relative proportions of straw and grain of wheat adapted to dry climates has
differ greatly in different varieties, the been introduced, with the result that a
proportion of grain to that of straw large area of semiarid land, unadapted
when dried for stacking varying from 20 to the former varieties, is becoming a
to 47 per cent. The value of wheat de- wheat-raising territory of some import-
§ends mainly upon the quantity of fine ance. This is not well fitted for bread-
our which it yields, the best wheat making, and is known as macaroni wheat,
yielding 76 to 80 per cent., at times as from its chief use. At the present time
much as 86 per cent., while inferior the United States and European Russia
wheat may be under or little over 60 are about equal in product, each having
per cent. In general the smoother and an annual yield of about 700,000,000
thinner the grain is in skin the more fine bushels. France and British India
flour it yields. The greater part of the come next with about half this quantity
husk is separated in milling and is known and Austria- Hungary with about 250,'>
as bran. 000,000. Other countries with over 100,-
Wheat being the most esteemed of the 000,000 bushels each are Canada, Argen-
cereals, especially for bread-making, the tina, Germany, Italy, Roumania and
increase in its growth has kept pace with Spain. The principal diseases to which
the development of the art oi ac[riculture the wheat plant is subject, some of them
and the increase in wealth in many the source of great loss to farmers, are
countries. Yet, only within recent times due to the presence of parasitic fungi, the
has it become a common article of food chief of these diseases being known as
among the laboring classes in any coun- rust, smut, bunt, and mildew. The
try and it is still little eaten by these plant is attacked also by a number of in-
classes in many countries. On the other sect pests, such as threadworms, wire-
hand its use is growing in some of the worms and others of what are known as
rice-eating countries, as in China. In corn insects. The Hessian fly has long
England, down to the beginning of the been a destructive enemy of wheat in
eighteenth century, only the wealthier American fields, first known as scourge in
classes used wheaten bread as a com- the years 1786 and 1789, and claimed to
mon article of food, house servants being have been introduced from Germany bv
provided with rye. oats or barley, and the Hessian mercenaries in the British
in northern England and Scotland the army. In some years it has caused enor-
use of wheaten bread was very rare for mous loss. The eggs are laid on the
half a century later. At the present leaves, and the larvae bore into the stem,
day the use of wheat is spreading rapidly suck the juices and kill the plant,
throughout the world as the most desir- TXTTieot-ear (Saa^icdla oBnanthe), a
able and palatable bread-making cereal. »^ -"■**«*«' ^^*- bird of the crder Insea-
For many years past the United States sores belonging to the dentirostral section
has been the greatest of wheat producers, of the order, and to the family of the
growing annually enough to supply Eu- Sylviadae or warblers. Its average length
rope largely with wheat flour from its is 6% inches, and its color gray above,
snrplus, while retaining an abundance breast brown, and under parts white. It
for home use. The rapid increase in its is a native of northern Europe and Asia,
population, however, has greatly dimin- and is found in Alaska and Greenland.
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Wheat-eel
Wheeler
Wheat-eel, ^ disease in wheat called
vTuv^oi/ c^A, ^jg^ ear-cockle and pur^
pl€8. See Ear^ockle,
TXTTiAof.'fl'fr a name common to insects
wiit;at ny, ^^ ^j^^ ^^^^g Ceddomyia,
applied especially in England to O.
triticif sometimes also called the wheai-
midge. It is a two- winged gnat about
the tenth of an inch long, and appears
about the end of June. The females
lay their eggs in clusters among the
chaffy flowers of the wheat, where they
produce little footless maggots, whose
ravages destroy the flowers of the plant,
and render It shriveled and worthless.
The American wheat-fly (C. destructor)
is described and figured under Hessian-
fly,
WliAfifATi (bwe'tun), Henby, jurist
WneaXOn ^^^ diplomatist, bori at
Providence, Rhode Island, in Nov.. 1785;
died in March, 1848. He studied law,
edited the National Advocate in New
York, and held official positions, be-
coming minister to Germany in 1837.
He gained a wide reputation for his
able works on legal subjects, especially
his Elements of^ International Law, a
standard authority, and History of the
Law of Nations in Europe and Amer-
foa, a work of the greatest merit.
Among his other works is a History of
the Northmen,
Wheatstone i^^^*^«*M°>^ ^m
^w AM,^,nvav^JXL^, Ohables, Scientific m-
vestigator and discoverer, born at Glou-
cester in 1802; died at Paris in 1875.
Before he was of age he commenced
business for himself in London as a
maker of musical instruments, and in
1823 attracted the attention of men of
science by the publication in Thomson's
Annals of Philosophy of a paper entitled
New Experiments on Sound, This was
followed liy a number of other papers,
some of them describing inventions of
his own, all of which are remarkable for
their ingenuity and delicacy of mechan-
ical construction. In 1834 Wheatstone
was appointed professor of experimental
philosophy in King's College, London,
but he seldom lectured. In 1836 he ex-
hibited at King's College experiments
showing the velocity of electricity, which
suggested to him the idea of applying
his apparatus to telegraphing and in
1837, m conjunction with W. F. Cooke,
he took out the first patent for the
electric telegraph. He was a fellow of
the Royal Society from the year 1836,
and in 1868 he received the honor of
knighthood. He was the author of
numerous papers, chiefly contributed to
the Philosophical Magazine and the
Journal of the Royal Instituti^**
Wheel ^^ instrument of torture for-
^ merly employed in France and
Germany, on which the criminal was
placed with his face upwards and his
legs and arms extended along the spokes.
On the wheel being moved round the
executioner broke the wretch*s limbs by
successive blows with a hammer or iron
bar, and after a more or less protracted
interval put an end to the sunerings of
his victim by two or three severe blows,
called coups de grdce (mercy strokes),
on the chest or stpmacb. or by strang-
ling him. In Germany its use lingered
down till the beginning of the nineteenth
century.
Wh^^l (hw5l), Persian. See Persian
Wheel and Axle, ^?^ 9^ }^^ ^^
▼¥ Aj.^^j. c»u.u. ^^u%j,%^j chanical pow-
ers, which consists of a wheel round the
circumference of which a string may be
wound, having a small weight attached
to its free end, and an axle whose cir-
k m
Wheel and Axle.
cumference, being smaller than that of
the wheel, will sustain a heavier weight
at the end of the string which is wound
upon it in the opposite direction to that
or the string on the wheel.
WTippIat (hwel'er), William Almon.
infiiccicx vice-president of the United
States, was bom at Malone, New York,
in 1819; died in 1887. He was for a
time state senator, and was member
of Congress 1861-63 and 1869-77. He
opposed an increase of salary and re-
turned the extra pay allotted him under
the salary bill. He was the author of
the * Wheeler Compromise * of the Louisi-
ana difficulties of 1875, and in 1876 was
nominated by the Republican party for
vice-president and elected under the de-
cision of the Electoral Commission, serv-
ing through the Hayes administration.
WTiaaIat Joseph, soldier and legis-
wuccici, j^j^^^ ^^j^ ^^ Augusta.
Georgia, in 1836. He was graduated at
West Point, and was appointed a brevet
second-lieutenant of dragoons in 1859.
He resigned April 22, 1861, entering the
Confederate service as lieutenant </
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Wheeling Whin-chat
artillery; his promotion was rapid; tlie mastership of Trinity, and in this
from 1862 until the close of the war position labored earnestly and success-
be commanded the cavalry corps of the fully to obtain for the natural and moral
Army of the West. During the war he sciences a better recognized position
was three times wounded and had six- among the studies of the university. He
teen horses shot under him. After 1881 became fellow of the Royal Society in
till the Spanish war he was a member 1820, and was one of the first members
of Congress. He served with distinction of the British Association, of which he
in that war and subsequently served in was president in 1841. He died in 1866.
the Philippines, and in 1900 was made Among Whewell's multifarious writings
a brigadier general in the regular army, may be mentioned the Bridgewater^
He died June 25, 1906. treatise, Astronomy and General Physics,
\Xr>iAAli-ncy (hw^ring), the largest city Considered with Reference to Natural
wuccilli^ of West Virginia, Uie coun- Theology (1833) ; History of the Induo-
ty seat of Ohio Co., on the Ohio River, 92 tive Sciences (1837) ; Philosophy of the
miles below Pittsburgh, with several Inductive Sciences (1840) ; History of
branches of three railroad systems and Scientifio Ideas; Elements of Morality,
many miles of trolley lines. There are including Polity (1845) ; On Liberal
large manufacturing interests producing Education in General; Lectures on the
iron, steel, tinplate, pipe, nails, machin- History of Moral Philosophy in England
ery, tin cans, glass, enameled ware, sto- (1852); Platonic Dialogues (1859-61);
gies and other tobacco products, pottery, and Lectures on Political Economy
leather, etc. Wheeling is the center of a (1863).
large coal industry, adjoining Belmont TVliev ^^ MUk.
County, Ohio, the largest coal-producing ^ ■">^j«
county in that State, with mines employ- WTiiHoTi-hirH ( hwid'a), a name
in« 15,000 men. Natural gas is obtein- VVniaan Oira gj^^^ ^^ weaver-birds
able at low rates. Pop. 41,641. of the genus Vidua, inhabiting Western
IXTli aaI.tttiti JoT¥r in Gothic architec- Africa, and found in abundance in the
vTM^^A wxAx^AVTVy ^^j.g^ ^ circular kingdom of Dahomey, near Whidah, In
window with radiating mullions re- size the Whidah-bird resembles a linnet
sembling the spokes of a wheel. See or canary, and during the breeding sea-
Rose-window, son the male is supijlied with long,
Whelk C'^^^^J^)* fl- general name ap- drooping tail-feathers, giving it a grace-
plied to various species of gas- ful appearance,
teropodous molluscs. The large or com- TUTii^ (hwig), in English history, the
mon whelk ( Buccinum und&tum ) is ^ B name which was from the time
found on the coast of Europe, and is of Charles II to within little more than
distinguished by the shell having its a generation ago applied to the political
canal notched, and the mouth or aper- party that advocates such changes in
ture of large size. The whelks are the constitution as tend in the direction
typically carnivorous molluscs, and pos- of democracy. The term is of Scottish
sess long odontophores or tongues pro- origin, and various explanationi of it
vided with siliceous or flinty teeth, are given. It was originally applied to
These animals are largely used for food the Covenanters of the southwest of
and bait. Scotland. From Scotland the word was
TXTheiTV (^^er'i), a light, shallow brought to England, where it was used
J^ boat used in England, with as the distinguishing appellation of the
seats for passengers, and plying on rivers, political party opposed to the Tories,
Whetalate-. ^^® Hone, The term Liberals is now generally ap-
plied to the representatives of the party
Whewell (^^'^*)» Wiluam, phUoso- formerly known as Whigs. The Whig
pher, was bom at Lancas- party in the United States stood op-
ter, England, in 1794, and received his posed to the Democratic party from
early education at the free grammar about 1835 to 1856, when the Northern
school of his native town, afterwards at wing of the Whigs merged in the new
Haversham Grammar School, whence he Republican party. See Tory,
went to Trinity CJollege, Cambridge. TXThin (hwin). See Furze.
In due course he became fellow and tutor *"
of his college. In 1828 he was elected TXTTiiii.n'hQf a passerine bird of the
profespyr of mineralogy. In 1832 he ^"A^^^^a^ genus Saancdla or Prat-
resigned this chair for that of moral incdla, the 8, or P, rubetra. It is com*
Khiilosophy, which he held till 1855, when mon in Northern Europe during summer,
e became vice-chancellor of the uni- frequenting broom and furze, on the
versity. In 1841 he was nominated to highest twigs of which it perches, and
Digitized by
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^^ippe^-iIl N^Thist
occasionally sings very sweetly. It is chiefly by tlie meeting of currents of air
closely allied to the stone-chat (which which run in different directions. When
see). they occur en land they give a whirling
Whi'D'Der-iTl ^^ ^^^ hunting, one motion to dust, sand, etc., and some-
v¥ ux^^cx xAiy ^jjQ keeps the bounds times even to bodies of great weight and
from wandering, and whips them in, if bulk, carrying them either upwards or
necessary, to the line of scent. In downwards, and scattering them about
politics, one who enforces party dis- in all directions. At sea they often give
cipline among the supporters of the gov- rise to water-spouts. They are most
emment or opposition, and urges their frequent and violent in tropical coun-
attendance. tries, and are common in an exaggerated
WhlDTjle (hwip'el), Edwin Percy, form in the Central United States,
¥» xxx^^xv essayist, was born at Glou- where they are known under the name
cester, Massachusetts, in 1819; died in of Tornadoes.
1886. He contributed essays and critical TXriiiskeV (^^^^'ki; a corruption of
articles to the reviews and magazines ^ the Gaelic word uisge,
of his time, a collection of his articles, water, whiskey being called in Gaelic
Essays and Revietcs, being published in visge-heatha^ which signifies water of
1849. Other works were Essays on Suh- life), the name applied to an ardent spirit
iects Connected toith Literature and distilled generally from barley, but some-
lAfe, and Character and Characteristic times from wheat, rye, sugar, molasses,
Men, He was esteemed as a lecturer, etc. There are two chief varieties of
and published a volume of lectures on whiskey, viz., malt-whiskey and grain-
Literature of the Age of Elizabeth. whiskey. The former variety is of finer
WhlTI-TIOOr-Will ^^® popular name quality, and made chiefly from malted
¥¥ xxx^ ^vvx v¥ XXX, ^j ^^ American barley and sometimes from rye. The lat-
bird, the Chordeiles, Antrostomus, or ter is made from sugar, molasses, pota-
Caprimulgus vociferus, allied to the Eu- toes, Indian com, barley, oats, etc. See
ropean goat-sucker or night-jar, and so DistUlation,
MiJ^J^riVr'S'of'^iVniJIdlSre^"! Whispering GaUery, Whisper-
is about 10 inches long, and feeds on rntf Dome ^ S^aHery or dome of an
flying moths and other insects. Its 6 " f elliptical or circular form,
note is heard in the evening, or early in which faint sounds conveyed around
in the morning. During the day these the interior wall may be readily heard,
birds retire into the darkest woods. while the same are inaudible elsewhere
WTllTI Sllfl.ke ^^^ name given a spe- in the interior.
TV xxx^ Mixaxwcy gjgg distinguished by ^nHiict (hwist), a well-known game at
its very slender back and tail, which has ^ **^^^ cards, first clearly described by
been compared to the thong of a whip, Edmond Hoyle in his Short Treatise on
and long and narrow head, which ends the Oame of Whist (1743). The game
in a protruding rostral shield or in a is played with the full pack of fifty-two
flexible anout. They are arboreal in cards by four persons, two being partners
habit, usually ^reen in color, and feed against the other two, each player re-
on birds and lizards. ceiving thirteen cards dealt out one by
WTHrlTJOOl (hwerrpQl), a circular one in rotation. The last card dealt is
" eddy or current in a river turned face up, and is called the trump
or the sea produced by the configuration card; it gives a special power to the
of the channel, by meeting currents, by suit to which it belongs. The cards
winds meeting tides, etc., as those of rank as follows: ace (highest), king,
Charybdis, the Maelstrom, and Cor- queen, knave, and the others according
, ryvreckan. to their number of pips. Play is com-
^WThirlwiff Whiblwig - beetlb (Oy- menced by the person on the left hand
I ^ **^*-*'^*'B9 rinus natdtor), a beetle of the dealer laymg down a card face up
» which abounds in fresh water in the on the table, the other players following
United States; may be seen circling in succession with cards of the same
round on its surface with great rapidity, suit if they have them. When all have
Its eyes are divided by a narrow band, played the player who has laid the high-
80 that, although it has only two, it is est card takes the four cards laid down,
made to look as if it had four. which constitute a trick. The winner
Whirlwind (hwerl'wind), a violent of the trick then leads, as the first of a
wind moving in a spiral new trick, the winner of which becomes
form, as if moving round an axis, this the leader, and so on. When a player
axis having at the same time a progres- cannot play a card of the same suit,
Bive motion. Whirlwinds are produced he may play one of the tramp suit, and
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WMstler
White
take the trick, or lay one of a different
salt, which gives him no chance of win-
ning the trick. When the hand is
played out the score is taken as follows:
the partners who conjointly gain the
majority of tricks score one point for
every trick taken above six. The ace,
king, queen and knave of the trump suit
are called honors, and count one each
for the side who holds them; if one
side hold three honors, they count two
by honors, as the opposite side can have
but one; if one side hold all the honors,
four by honors is counted; should the
honors be equally divided neither side
counts, the honors being then said to
cancel each other. In long tchist, an
obsolescent form of the game, ten of
these points made a game. In short
iohist, the game now generally played,
the number has been reduced to five or
seven, and in this form it is common to
count by tricks alone, honors not being
counted. A rubber consists of a series
of three games, and is won by the side
that secures two of them. Should ene
party gain two games in succession, the
third of the rubber is not played.
WTiiQflAr (hwist'ler), James Abbott
WmSUer j^,cXeil, artist, born at
Lowell, Massachusetts, in 18M. He
studied art in Paris and in 1855 went
to England, where he spent the re-
mainder of his life. His paintings at-
tracted great attention and found ardent
admirers and severe critics. His etch-
ings are universally praised, and he is
now looked upon as the greatest painter
of his age. One of the most admired
of them is a portrait of his mother.
He is the author of the cuttingly satir-
ical Oentle Art of Making Enemies. He
died July 17, 1903.
Wlii^fftTi (hwis'tun), William, an
wmsion Jjngiigh divine and mathe-
matician, born in 1667; died in 1752.
He studied at Clare Hall, Cambridge,
where, having taken his degree in 1600.
he was chosen a fellow of his college, ana
became an academical tutor. Entering
into holy orders he was appointed in
1694 chaplain to the Bishop of Norwich.
In 1696 he published a Theory of the
Earth on the principles of the Newtonian
philosophy; in 1698 became rector of
Lowestoft; and in 1701 was appointed
deputy-professor of mathematics at
Cambridge by Sir Isaac Newton, who
shortly afterwards resigned the pro-
fessorship in his favor. He was ex-
pelled from the university in 1710 for
Arian opinions, and the following year
was deprived of his professorship. He
then removed to the metropolis, and
published his Primitive Christianity,
2310
which caused him to be prosecuted as a
heretic, though the proceedings were
ultimately terminated by an act of grace
(1715). Towards the close of his life
he became a Baptist. Among his latest
labors were his Memoirs of My Otcn Life
(1749-50). Besides numerous original
productions he published a well-known
translation of the works of Josephus.
Txri|-ifA (hwit), Andbew Dickson,
wiutc educator, bom in 1832 at
Homer, Cortland Co., New York, was
graduated from Yale b 1853. He filled
the position of president of Cornell Uni-
versity, was minister to Germany 1879-
81, and was appointed ambassador there
in 1897. Among his ntmierous works
are Outline of Lectures on History^ The
New Germany, and The Warfare of
Science with Theology,
TXriiJ+A Edwabd Douglass, jurist,
^ born in Lafourche parish,
Louisiana, in 1845. He served through
the Civil war in the Confederate arm^
and was admitted to the bar of Louisi-
ana in 1808. He was elected to the
State senate in 1874, appointed a jus-
tice of the Louisiana Supreme Court in
1878, and was United States Senator
from Louisiana 1891-94. In the latter
year he was appointed an associate jus-
tice of the Supreme Court of the United
States. In this position be showed great
learning and efficiency, and on December
11, 1910, he was appointed by President
Taft Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
of the United States.
TUTi-ifA GiLBEBT, naturalist, bom in
wiutcy ^^20 at Selborne, England;
died in 1793. He was educated at Oriel
College, Oxford, of which he became a
fellow in 1744. He declined all church
preferment, but in his later vears served
as curate in his native village, in the
beautiful rural scenery of which he spent
the greater part of his days, occupying
his leisure hours mainly with the study
of natural history, in which he was a
most assiduous and accurate observer.
His "Natural History of Selborne was
published in 1789, and has retained a
deserved and unimpaired popularity to
the present day. Mr. White was also the
author of letters on the antiquities of
Selborne.
TXTTi-ifA Henbt Kirke, poet, bom at
VVUil/e) xottingham, England, in 1785.
He was the son of a butcher, but being
of a delicate constitution he was put to
the trade of stocking weaving. From his
infancy he manifested great love of
learning, and at the age of fourteen
produced some notable specimens of
poetry. He published, in 1803, a poem
called Clifton Orove; and after his death
(
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WMte Whitefield
his Remains, consisting of poems, letters, caring for the wounded and sick American
etc., were edited by ooutbey. He died soldiers and sailors, but the aiding of
in 180G. the widows and orphans of those who
White RiCHABO Grant, author, was are killed in battle or die of disease or
Y¥Ui.uuy born in New York city. May accident
22, 1821. HU literary tendencies drew ^J^hite ElCDhailt, J^.^Jephant af-
him from law, and his musical, dramatic — **^^**mi**vj fg^jted with al-
and art criticisms gave him prominence, binism. Such animals appear to have
He occupied a place among the most been known to the ancients. They are
learned Shakespearean scholars. He highly esteemed by some Eastern poten-
died in 1885. tates, and are considered sacred in Siam.
White William, Protestant Episco- A specimen nurehased by the late P. T
v¥ uxi/cy p^j 5igjjQp^ ^ng ijQrn in Phila- Bamum from King Theebaw, of Burma,
delphia. in 1748. He was ordained was brought to the United States in
priest in 1772, and subsequently became 1884, but the genuineness of this is very
rector of Christ Church and St. Peter's doubtful. It is generally reported that
Church, Philadelphia. During the Kev- when the King of Siam desires to ruin
olution Dr. White sided zealously with anyone he makes him a present of a white
the colonies. In 178G he was elected elephant. The sacred elephant has an
Bishop of Pennsylvania, being conse- enormous appetite, and, being sacred, it
crated in Lambeth palace, England, in is a crime to let it die, so that the gift
1787. He lived to see the Episcopal generally entails financial ruin on the
Church thoroughly organized in the recipient,
United States, he consecrating eleven TXThifAflAlH (hwit'fSld), Gboboe,
bishops. He died in 1830. wmwcuciu founder of the Calvin^
Wllite William Hall, an English istic Methodists, was bom in 1714 at
> novelist who, under the pea Gloucester, England. At the age of
name of * Mark Rutherford,* has writ- eighteen he entered as servitor at Pem-
ten The Revolution in Fanner* s Lane, broke College, Oxford, where he became
Clara Hapgood, etc., also Spinoza's acquainted with the Wesleys, and joined
Ethics. the small society which procured them
White Ants ^^ Termites, the name of Methodists. (See Meiho-
J_^ ^^^^o* ^^^^ ^^^ Wesley.) He was ordained
IJSrhite-hait * name for the young deacon in 1736, and soon became very
TVAuv^ ucarxby of the herring. It popular as a preacher. In 1738 he went
abounds in the Thames during the spring to the American settlement of Georgia,
and summer, and is much prized by the where his ministrations gave great satis-
Londoners. The English cabinet used faction to the colonists. In the follow-
to assemble at Greenwich previous to ing year he returned to England to pro-
the prorogation of parliament in autumn cure subscriptions for buildmg an
to partake of a white-bait dinner. orphan house in the settlement. Having
WhitehovS ^^ illegal association taken priests' orders, he repaired to
J^ ^ formed in Ireland about London, where the churches in which
1760. The association consisted of he preached proved incapable of hold-
starving day laborers, evicted farmers, ing the crowds who assembled to hear
and others in a like condition, who used him. He now adopted preaching in the
to assemble at nights to destroy the open air, and visited various parts of the
property of harsh landlords or their country, addressing vast audiences. In
agents, the Protestant clergy, and tithe 1739 he again embarked for America,
collectors, or any others that had made and made a tour through several of the
themselves obnoxious in the locality. In colonies, preaching with great effect to
many cases they did not confine their immense crowds. He returned to Eng-
acts of aggression merely to plunder and land in the following year, where for a
destruction, but even went the length time differences between him and Wes-
of murder. ley deprived him of many followers
White Cross ^^ organization simi- After visiting many parts of England,
WW UAVM vrxvooy i^j. jj^ many respects Scotland, and Wales ne again returned
to the famous Red Cross, from which to America, and remained there nearly
it differs chiefly in the fact that it is four years. Soon after his return he
distinctly American. It was founded in was introduced to the Countess of Hunt-
1898 by Mrs. Jane Creighton, of Port- ingdon. who made him one of her
land, Oregon, who became its first presi- chaplains. A visit to Ireland and two
dent. The motto of the organization more voyages to America followed, and
is Truth, Charity and Philanthropy, for several years his labors were un-
and its purposes include not only the remitting. At length, on his seventh
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Whitefish
White-throat
visit to America, he died at Newbury*
port, Mass., in 1t70.
Whiteflsh, ft ^*^S' ^* salmon fam-
VVUAVVU0U9 ijy (Coregontts alius) ^
found abundantly in the Great Lakes,
and in some American rivers. It is 15
to 20 inches long, bluish-gray above and
white below. It is caught in large
numbers and Is esteemed as a food fish.
WhitehaU ^-akr* K''ai°e
the admiralty office, and that of the
commander-in-chief (the Horse Guards),
etc. (See London.) On the banic of
the Thames was a palace called White-
hall, built before the middle of the thir-
teenth century. In 1530 it became the
residence of the court, but in 1697 was
destroyed by fire, excepting the Ban-
queting Hall, added bv James I, accord-
ing to a design of Inigo Jones, in 1619.
Whitehaven '^T^^^^t^^TZ
seaport of England, in Cumberland, situ-
ated on a bay of the Irish Sea, has a
good harbor and doclc, and enjovs a con-
siderable shipping trade. Iron ship-build-
ing is carried on, and there are blast-
furnaces and iron and brass foundries.
l»op. 19,048.
"UThif AlinrQA a river port of the Tu-
Wmxenorse, j^^^ Territory, Canada,
situated on the Yulcon River at the foot
of Whitehorse Rapids, the head of navi-
gation of the Yulcon River 456 miles Irom
Uawson City and 110 miles from Skag-
way, Alaska. It is in the center of the
copper belt, at the head of the trail con-
necting the Shushana gold district of
Alaska with the steamer and rail service.
Pop. (1911) 727.
White-lead, see Ceruse.
White lady, The, ^,^|„y|„'^.
lish and Scotch folklore, a supernatural
visitant supposed to haunt certain places
and to be seen on particular occasions.
It dates from the sixteenth century, being
first seen at Rosenberg, in Bohemia.
White Mountains, * group of
«v AAAvvr .««.vu.A*v«*AA^^ mountains in
New Hampshire, belonging to the AUe-
ghenies. They have fine scenery and are
a favorite summer resort. The culmi-
nating point is Mount Washington, 6288
feet.
White Oak, ^ *p^^^^ ,?^ ^*^» J**«
vvuAvv voko., Quercus alba, a native
of the United States and of parts of
Canada.
TITliifA PiTiA the Pinus 8trohu8, one
W Uil/e X-inc, ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ valuable and
inieresting species of pines, common to
the northern parts of the United States
and Canada. It is widely used in car-
pentry. See Pine,
Wliif A pioiTiQ a village, county seat
WmxeriamS, ^^ wistchester Co..
New York, 10 miles north of New York
City, the birthplace of the State of New
York, and scene of the Battle of White
Plains, 1776. It is chiefly a residential
village, containing many beautiful homes.
Pop. 20,000.
White Kiver, iVnJ'a SmT -'In'^
' Kansas, witn a course
of 800 miles. It joins tiie Mississippi
above the influx of the Arkansas river,
and has several important affluents. To-
gether with its tributaries it affords
500 miles of boat navigation. (2) A
river in Indiana, formed by the con-
fluence of the East and West Forks,
emptying into the Wabash near Mount
CarmeL
White Sea * ^^^B!^ ^^^ o^ the Arc-
wmi/e oea, ^.^ 5^^^^^ penetrating
into Northern Russia to tlie distance of
between 300 and 400 miles. It has an
area of about 47^000 square miles, with
a coast-line of 1000 miles. It is navi-
gable only from the middle of May to
the end of September.
WMte Slave Traffic, ^f^f ™ «g;
business of organized vice, which is now
attracting widespread attention. The re-
I>ort of the Chicago Vice Commission
throws light on the financial aspect of
prostitution, and conditions in Chicago
may be taken as typical of conditions in
every important city. According to con-
servative estimates, the annual profits
from nrostitution in Chicago are $16,-
000,000 and the number of persons devot-
ing their time exclusively to the business
of organized vice about 6000. In tiie
opinion of John D. Rockefeller Jr., who
has developed a Bureau of Social Hy-
giene, the prostitutes are in the majority
of cases ' merely tools in the hands of
men.* Economic conditions, it is be-
lieved, render easy the procuring of girls.
Wliife Sx[relliTio^ ^« popular name
eases of the joints resulting from chronic
inflammation in the dones, cartilages,
or membranes constituting the joint
Among the diseases known under this
name are: (a) acute or chronic inflam-
mation of the synovial membrane; (b)
pulpy thickening of the synovial mem-
orane; (c) ulceration of the cartilages;
id) scrofulous diseases of the joints be-
ginning In the bones.
White-throat, »,««sJi ''SSif/'^,
warblers. The common white-throat
{Mylvia undAta) attains a length of 5
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Google
Whitgift Whitman
inches, frequents gardens and hedces, and pricks, contusions^ etc. They often occur
is a regular summer visitor to Northern without any apparent cause, but are al-
Europe. ways preceded by the entrance of bacteria
Whit^ft (hwit'gift), John, Arch- through a wound.
TTiui«5xj.i# bighop of Canterbury, was IXT'hifTnfl'n (hwit'man), a village of
born at Grimsby in 1530, and com- w^"*'"^**" Plymouth Co., Massachu-
pleted his education at Cambridge under setts, 21 miles 8. of Boston. Its manu-
Ridley and Bradford. He imbibed from factures include boots and shoes, leather-
his uncle. Abbot AVhitgift, opinions that board, tacks, etc. Pop. 7292.
inclined him later to tbe side of th(^ \Xriiitnia.Tl Cuables Setmoub, Ameri-
Reformation; but by a cautious reserve ^ *^^^^'*'^9 can jurist and statesman,
he escaped persecution during the reign born at Norwich, Connecticut, August
of Queen Mary, and on tbe accession of 28, 1SG8. He was admitted to the bar in
Eilizabeth was ordained priest. lie held Ism and began the practice of law. In
successively many posts at Cambridge, in- 1001 he was apnointed assistant corpora-
eluding the mastership of Pembroke Hall tion counsel of New York City ; in 1904
and Trinity College, and the regius pro- president of the Board of Ci^ Magis-
fessorship of divinity. In 1577 he was trates ; in 1907 judge of the Court of Gen-
appointed bishop of Worcester, and on the eral Sessions ; in 1910 district attorney of
death of Grindal (1583) was raised to New York City; and in 1914 he waa
the primacy. Ue had always been a rigid elected governor of New York on the Re-
disciplinarian ; but he now became an j)ublican ticket.
inquisitor, insisted on new articles of sub- ^Xrhitma.n ^^^^^^^^^t pioneer, bom at
scription, suspended the clergy who re- ^^ iiAuiii.a.ix, RushviUe, New York, in
fused them, and in every way acted as 1802. He emigrated to the Pacific coast
the intolerant ecclesiastic. He took a in 1836, to serve as a missionary, and in
leading part in the conference at Ilamp- 1843 made a visit to the East, riding over
ton Court under James I, and died soon 3000 miles on horseback through the
after, in 1604. Rocky Mountain region in winter, and
Whiting (hwlt'ing; Merlangus mer- euflfering great hardships. His purpose
"^ o langu8)t a well-known fish was said to have been to acquaint the gov-
belonging to the cod tribe. It abounds emment with the value of the Oregon
in the seas of Northern Europe generally, country, but later criticism seemed to
and exceeds all the other nshes of its ^how that it was not politicaL He was
tribe in its delicacy and lightness as an killed by Indians in 1847.
article of food. The American whiting is TXTTiifTnoTi Walt, poet, was bom at
known as the hake. wniiman, j^^^^ ^^^ ^o Island.
Wllitin? a town of Lake Co., Indi- New York, in 1819. In his earlier years
o' ana, near Lake Michigan, 17 he was an errand boy and printer, and
miles 8. E. of Chicago. Its industries subsequently a school teacher, editor, and
include wire-fence, paints, lumber, etc. general writer for the press. He was
Pop. 6587. founder of the Long Islander and editor
UriiifiTKy.'nnTif A British fish of the of the Brooklyn Eagle. Previous to the
wmun^ poui,, ^^ £^jjj.jy (^Mor- CivU war he took an extended Southern
rhua lusca). See Bib. trip. During the war Whitman gave de-
Whltlock (hwit'lok), Brand, Ameri- voted service in the hospitals of Virginia
" can author and statesman, and Washington. This irretrievably
bom in Urbana, Ohio, March 4, 1869. He ruined his ^reat physical health. In 1873
engaged in newspaper work, studied law. he was stricken with paralysis at Wash-
was admitted to the Illinois bar in 1894 ington and went to Camden, N. J., where
and to the Ohio in 1897. In 1905 he was he lived till his death, March 26, 1892.
elected mayor of Toledo as Independent He had been a clerk in the period from the
against four other candidates, served four war to 1874. The first edition of his
terms and refused the fifth. In December, poetic volume. Leaves of OrasBtthen quite
1913, he was appointed by President Wil- small, was issued in 1855. There nave
son U. S. minister to Belgium. His pub- been numerous subsequent editions, each
lished works include The Turn of the BaU one with added pages, the last in Decem-
ance (19(n), Fort tf Years of li (1914), etc ber, 1891, under his own supervision. His
Whitlow (hwit15), in sun^ery, is an entire published works now appear In ten
inflammation aflrecting the volumes — Leaves of OrasSj containing all
skin, tendons, or one or more of the finger the poems, and Prose WorhSt indudins
bones, and generally terminating in an Speptmen Days and CoUed, He discarded
abscess. Tnere is a similar disorder rhyme and metrical uniformity in his
which attacks the toes. Whitlows differ poems, and while possessed of great poet-
much in their depth and extent. The ical ability failed to gain wide popularity,
usual exciting causes of whitlows are largely because he insisted on introduc*
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Whitney
Whitworth
ing in his poems sexual subjects tabooed
in ordinary polite society.
"UrhifTiAv (hwit'ni), Adeline Dut-
WJUiney ^^ (Train), author, born
in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1824. Wrote
Faith Oariney's Girlhood, The Qay-
worthy 8, Leslie Qoldthwaite's Life, As-
cutney Street, etc. She died in 190G.
WViifTiAir ^Li, inventor, born at
wiutlicjry westborough, Massachu-
sets, in 1765, and educated at Yale College,
where he was graduated in 1792. Going
then to Georgia as a teacher, he invented
the machine since known as the cotton
gin, its purpose being to separate the cot-
ton from the seed, thus greatly cheapen-
ing the production of this important
fiber. Returning to the North he started
business in conjunction with a man
named Miller as a manufacturer of cot-
ton gins. But his invention was pirated
and the profits of the business, together
with $50,000 voted to him by the State of
South Carolina, were swallowed up in his
lawsuits in defense of his rights. He
subsequently went into the manufacture
of firearms, for which he received a gov-
ernment contract, and in this way made
a fortune. He died in 1825.
IXT'hi'f'nA'U' William Dwioht, a dis-
wiutucjTy tinguished philologist, bom
in 1827, at Northampton, Massachusetts,
studied at Williams College, Williams-
town, and at Yale College, giving spe-
cial attention to Sanskrit language and
literature. He also studied Sanskrit in
Germany from 1850 to 1853, returning
in the latter year to America. The first-
fruits of his studies in Sanskrit was an
edition of the Atharva-Veda in conjunc-
tion with Roth (1856). He had previ-
ously (1854) been made professor of
Sanskrit and of comparative philology at
Yale College. Among his independent
wt)rks may be mentioned Language and
the Study of Language (1867), Oriental
and Linguistic Studies (1872-74), Life
and Growth of Language (1875), Sans-
krit Grammar (a highly important
work), German Grammar, etc. He was
editor of the great Century Dictionary
of the English Language. He died in
1S94. His brother, Josiaii D wight
Whitney, became in 1865 professor of
jreology in Harvard University and pub-
lisiied a number of works on geology.
Whitstable i^-JX'd!' cLry^f*
Kent, 6 miles bv rail w. N. w. of Canter-
bury, of which it is the port It has ex-
tensive oyster fisheries. Pop. 7084.
Whitsuntide ^^Ji^X"^ ^ * ^"^
Whi+fiAr <hwifi-er), John Green-
Quaker parents in 1807 at Haverhill,
Massachusetts, and educated at the acad-
emy of his native place. In his younger
days he worked on his fatber*s farm and
learned the shoemaking trade, but early
began to write for the press, and in
1831 published his first work. Legends
of New England, in prose and verse. He
carried on the farm himself for five years
and in 1835-3G he was a member of the
legislature of Massachusetts. After hav-
ing edited several other papers he went to
Philadelphia to edit the Pennsylvania
Freeman, an antislavery paper, the of-
fice of which was burned by a mob in
1839. In the following year he returned
to his native state, settling in Amesbury,
where (or at Danvers, Mass.) he after-
wards chiefly resided. Among the nu-
merous volumes of poetry which he
from time to time gave to the world the
following may l^ mentioned: Moll
Pitcher, Lays of My Home, The Voices
of Freedom, Songs of Labor, Snow
Bound, In War-ttme, National Lyrics,
Ballads of New England, The King's
Missive, Poems of Nature, St. Gregory's
Guest, etc. At Sundown was published
after his death. Whittier's poems are
distinguished by their freshness, their
quiet power, and intense feeling. His
nature poetry is faithful and beautiful,
and his Barclay of Vry and Barbara
Frietchie rank high amon^ ballads of
moral heroism. My Psalm is considered
a masterpiece in the realm of spiritual
thought. He died September 7, 1892.
Whittlesey «l-^*,>iS°d.*"?nTh"e
county of Cambridge, 6 miles east by
south of Peterborough. Pop. 4207.
About 4 miles southwest of the town was
the shallow lake, Whittlesey Mere, now
drained and the land reclaimed.
WlilttTed^lk (hwit'rej), Worthino-
WiUl.l.rea^e ^^^^^ painter, born at
Springfield, Ohio, in 1820. Among his
best-known works are The Old Hunting
Grounds, The Pilgrimage to Saint Roche,
The Rocky Mountains and The Old
House by the Sea, lie died in 1910.
Whitwftrfli (hwit'wurth), Sie Jo-
WmiWOITIl gj,pj^ ^^ Elnglish enei-
neer, was bom in 1803; died in 1887.
After working as a journeyman in Man-
chester and London, he started business
in the former city in 1833 as a manu-
facturer of engineers' tools, thus found-
ing the firm of which he was long the
head. He subsequently turned his at-
tention to a uniform system of screw-
threads, which was soon very generally
adopted. This was followed by standard
gauges, which have been universally ac-
cepted for engineering work. In 18o4-55
(
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Whooping-cougli
Wickliffe
be began bis experiments witb firearma,
wbicb led to tbe production of tbe Wbit-
wortb rifle, and later brougbt bim into
competition witb Armstrong as a manu-
facturer of rifled ordnance. He was also
the originator of the fluid-pressed steel,
used in tbe manufacture of cannon and
ships' plates. He was created a baro-
net in 1809. Tbe Wbitworth scholar-
ships, for the cultivation of theoretical
and practical skill in mechanical and en-
fineering arts, were founded by him in
869. He was tbe author of Guns and
Steel (1873).
Whooping-cough. ®,® ^^ Hooping-
Whorl (h^'^rl), in botany, a ring of
^^ organs all on the same plane.
Whortleberry (J^wur'ti-beM; {Vao-
WVUVXVAWVJ.XJ ctntutn), a genus of
shrubbery plants, the type of the nat.
order Vacciniaceae, with alternate leaves,
pink or red bell-like flowers, and berries
of a dark purple, bluish, or red colour.
The common whortleberry, bilberry, or
blaeberry (F, tnyrtilluB) is a hardy
plant which grows in forests, heaths,
and on elevated mountains. In some of
tbe pine forests of Scotland the plant
attains the height of 3 feet The berries
have a pleasant, sweet taste, and are
used for making jelly. The berries of tbe
red whortleberry (V, Vitis-idcBa) are of
a bright red color, and possess acid and
astringent properties; from their similar^
ity to cranberries they are sold as such
in various parts of Scotland. (See
Cranberry,) Whortleberries are gener-
ally known in the United States as
huckleberries and blueberries and grow
abundantly In mountain soil.
WTivHali (bwi'da), a town of West
Wiijruaii Africa in the kingdom of
Dahomey, on the Bight of Benin. Pop.
about 20,000.
Whydah-bird. ^^^ whidah-hird.
Whvmner ^ bwim'f er ) , Edward,
Wiijrmpci traveler and artist, bom
in London in 1840. He is best known
as a mountain-climber, and was the first
to ascend the Matterhom and Chim-
borazo. He published Scramble Among
the Alps, Travels Among the Great
Andes of the Equator, etc. He died in
1911.
Whyte-Melville, ^^l ^?n°fn
Fifesbire, Scotland, in 1821. He en-
tered the army, and fought in the Cri-
mean war. He first made himself known
as a novelist in 1853, when he published
Digby Grand, This was followed by
Chneral Bounce^ Kate Coventry, Market
Harboroughf The Oladiatora, Sarohedon,
Satanella^ Holmby House, Bones and /.
etc. He was killed in tbe hunting-field
in 187a
WibOI^. ®^ Viborg.
Wi oh 1 f n ( wicb'i-tfl ) , a city of Kansas.
WlCniXa situated at the junction oi
the Arkansas and the Little Arkansas
River, in south central Kansas, at the
junction of seven different lines. Wich-
ita's history dates back only to 1872. It
is the leading manufacturing and distrib-
uting center of tbe Southwest It has
packing houses, railroad shops, flouring
mills, woodworking establishments, and
other large enterprises. It is the largest
implement and machinery distributing
point in its territory. It has a number of
odncational institutions. Pop. 67,847.
Wirhlf A "PaIU capital of Wichita
Wichita River, about 95 miles n. w. of
Fort Worth. It has grain and lumber
interests. Pop. 82t)0.
TXTirlr (^ik)t a seaport of Scotland,
^^^^^ capital oi the county of Caith-
ness, at the head of the Bay of Wick,
on tbe left bank of the river Wick, over
which is a bridge connecting it with its
suburb Pulteney-Town. It is tbe head-
quarters of tbe herring fishery of Scot-
land. Pop. 7911.
WipVlifFp (wik'lif), Wtcuffe, Wic-
wioiuine LIJ.J. wyklyt, etc., John,
religious reformer, was bom about 1320
at Hipswell, near Richmond, in York-
shire. He was educated at Oxford; waa
John .ickliffe.
elected master of Balliol College, and in
1361 was appointed rector of Fylingham,
or Fillingham. in Lincobishire. He
afterwards became doctor of theology
nnd teacher of divmity in the university:
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Wickliffe Wieland
and for some time held the living of by the Council of Constance, and in
Ludgershall, in Buckinghamshire. Dis- 1428 his remains were dug up, burned,
putes existed at this period between Ed- and the ashes cast into the Swift The
ward III and the papal court relative influence of his doctrines spread widely
to the homage and tribute exacted from on the Continent, and may easily be
John, and uie English parliament had traced in the history of the Reforma-
resolved to support the sovereign in his tion. Wickliffe was the author of an
refusal to submit to the vassalage, enormous number of writings in Latin
Wickliffe came forward on behalf of tne and English, and he ranks undoubtedly as
patriotic view and wrote several tracts, the father of English prose. Many of his
which procured him the patronage of writings still remain in MS., and It was
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. In not until 1850 ^at the whole of his Bible
1374 he was one of the commissioners appeared.
sent by the king to Bruges to confer Winlrlow (wllfr5), a maritime county
with the nuncio of Gregory XI respect- ^^^^^^^ of Ireland, in the province
ing the statutes of provisors and pne- of Leinster, bordering on the Irish Sea;
munire. Shortly before Edward gave area 781 sq. miles. The coast is mostly
him the valuable rectory of Lutterworth, precipitous. The surface is diversified
in Leicestershire, which he held till his and picturesque, rising into mountain-
death. Here he labored zealously and groups, the loftiest of which is Lugna-
unweariedly as a preacher and pastor, quilla, 3039 feet high, and intersected
though he lived at times also in Oxford by deep and romantic valleys. Its min-
or London. In some of his utterances erals include a little gold in the streams,
he is said to have styled the pope Anti- lead and copper ores, and pyrites in con-
Christ, charging him with simony, covet- siderable quantities. The principal rivers
ousness, ambition, and tyranny. His are the Slaney, Vartrey, and Avoca. It
opinions began to spread, and the church is mainly a pastoral county. Pop.
grew alarmed. Courtenay, bishop of 60,824. — Wicklow, the county town, is
London, summoned him to appear before at the head of a small bay and ia a sea-
a convocation at St Paul's. Wickliffe bathing resort. Pop. 328».
appeared there on February 19, 1377, TXTiddlll ^^ Vidin (vi'den), a town of
attended by his friends, John of Gaunt '»*^***"> Bulgaria, on the right bank
(then the virtual ruler of England), of the Danube. Ships can reach the
Lord Percy, the earl-marshal, and others, town at high-water, and there is a con^'
Hot words passed between the bishop siderable trade, chiefly in corn, wine and
and the duke; blows followed; and salt Widdin was formerly strongly
the meeting broke up in confusion. In fortified. Pop. 14,551.
May following the pope addressed three TXTid^eon ^^ Wigeon (wij'un). a
bulls to the King, tne primate, and the »»*^6*'^"> species of natatorial bird
University of Oxford, commanding them allied to the Anatidse or ducks; the
to take proceedings against Wickliffe, MarSoa peneldpe. It breeds in the ^
who in answer to the prelate's summons Arctic regions, and is common in north- ^
appeared in the chapel of Lambeth, em Europe in winter. The American H
Proceedings were, however, stopped by widgeon is the MarSca Americdna, It is V
order of the queen-mother, and Wickliffe most abundant in the Carolinas and is ^
was dismissed with simply an injunction often called hald-pate, from the white on
to refrain from preaching the obnoxious the top of the head,
doctrines. About this time he was en- '\I7iHTies (^^<1'Q^)» & thriving manu-
gaged in translating the Bible from the ***^***'® facturing town of England,
Vulgate with the assistance of some of county of Lancaster, on the Mersey (here
his friends. In 1381 he publicly chal- crossed by a magnificent iron-girder
lenged the doctrine of transubstantia- bridge), 13 miles E. s. E. of Liverpool
tion, and his heresies were condemned by by rail. There are extensive chemical
the theologians of Oxford, as well as works, copper-smelting works, rolling-
b^ a provincial council called by Arch- mills, iron-foundries, etc Pop. 31,544.
bishop Courtenay and held at the Black- TXTiilA'iiT.'hirH See WhidaH-hird.
friars, London, in 1382. Wickliffe was ^ ^^^"^ "*^^'
proclaimed a heretic, his works were con- ^XTieland (v^lAnt), Chbistoph Mab-
demned to be burned, and some of his *^*a'"u. ^jj^^ ^ German romancist
followers were imprisoned; but he was and poet, bom in 1733; died in 1813.
allowed to retire unmolested to his rec- He was educated at the University of
tory of Lutterworth. A stroke of paraly- Tttbingen ; was appointed professor of
sis terminated his life on the 31st of De- philosophy in 1769 at Erfurt; and three
cember. 1384. About thirty years after years afterwards went to Weimar as
his death his doctrines were condemned teacher to the sons of Dachess Anna
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Wieliczka
Wilberforce
Amalle. Uere, or in the immediate
neighborhood, he resided till his death,
being a member of the circle to which
Goethe, Schiller, and Herder belonged.
The early period of his literary life was
devoted to pietistic or at least serious
poetry such as The Nature of Things
(1752), Twelve Moral Letters in Verse
Anti^vid (1752), The Trial of Ahra-
kam*s Faith (1753) ; in the second
^riod he produced the romances Agathon
(1766), and Don Sylvio de Rosalva
(1764), the poem Musarion (1768), and
a prose translation of Shakespeare in
eight vols. (1762-66) ; while in the
third and ripest period were written the
romantic epic of Oheron (1781) ; History
of the Abderites (1781) ; The Rtpuhlio
of Fools, London (1861); The Secret
Historv of Peregrinus Proteus (1791),
etc He also published translations of
Horace, Lucian, and the Letters of
Cicero.
W'i^liP7lrft (vyel-ich'ki), a town in
WXeUCZKa Austria, Galicia, situ-
ated 8 miles southeast of Cracow, and
noted for its extensive salt mines. Pop.
6012.
Wiener-Neustadt (j^n^r-noi'stAt ) ,
WW *^*M,^s, *'^ •*»•'«'**»' a town of Austria,
25 miles a. of Vienna. It was almost
entirely destroyed by fire in 1834, but a
number of interesting mediasval buildings
yet remain. There are important man-
ufactures of locomotives, machinery, pot-
tery, leather, etc. Pop. !£8 45&.
Wiesbaden (y^'ba-d^n), a town in
wv x^oMM\«.^u Prussia, provmce of
Hesse-Nassau, finely situated at the foot
of Mt. Taunus, in the valley of the Salz-
bach, about 2 miles from the Rhine. It
is noted for its medicinal saline springs
(the temperature of the Kochbrunnen
being 156^ F.), and it attracts annually
upwards of 60,000 visitors. The chief
buildings are the Kursaal, a new town-
house, an old and a new palace, library,
museum, English church, and other
churches, theater, etc Pop. ( 1910 ) 109,033.
Wife. ^^ Marriage.
Wiff an artificial covering of hair for
oJ the head, used generally to con-
ceal baldness, but formerly worn as a
fashionable means of decoration. For-
mally curled wigs are stir, worn pro-
fessionally by judges and lawyers in
Great Britain, and wigs are commonly
used in making up for the stage.
Wi^an (^is fill)* & municipal and par-
o liamentary borough of Lanca-
shire, Bngland, on the Douglas, 21 miles
northeast of Liverpool. Wigan stands
in the center of an extensive coal field,
and its manufactures, which are impor-
tant, consist chiefly of calicoes, fustians,
and other cotton goods, linens, checks,
cotton twist, etc, besides iron-foundries,
iron-forges, railway-wagon works, iron-
rolling mills, large breweries, chemical
works, and com and paper mills. Pop.
<19lTf 65,528.
Wifrcn-n (wig'in), Kate Douglas, au-
wx^^iu ^jjQj.^ ^jjg j^j^ ^^ Philadel-
§hla in 1857. The daughter of R. N.
mith, she married Mr. Wiggin in 1880,
and in 1891, after his death, 0. N. Riggs.
She engaged in kindergarten work on
the Pacific coast, and wrote a series of
highly popular juvenile tales, including
Timothy*s Quest, The Story of Pansy,
The Birds* Christmas Carol, etc.
^XTi^ht (^^^)> I^i^ ^^t an island off
vv xguv j^g g^jyjjj ^^g^ Q^ England, in
the county of Hants, separated from the
mainland by Spithead and the Solent;
23 miles in length, 13 miles broad; area,
147 sq. miles. A range of chalk downs,
which cross the island from east to west
and form excellent sheep-walks, separate
it into two districts somewhat different
in character. The general appearance is
giotnresque, and the geology of the island
I interesting. The air is remarkably
mild, and the district known as the Un-
dercliff, lying along the south coast, and
completely sheltered from the north, has
long been a resort for invalids. The
chief towns are Newport (the capital),
Ryde, CJowes, Ventnor, Bembridge,
Freshwater, Yarmouth and the fashion-
able health resorts of Sandown and
Shanklin. Near Cowes is Osborne
House, a favorite residence of the late
Queen Victoria. C^risbrooke Castle is
an interesting ruin. Pop. .88,193.
Wigtownshire i:?:'^;^,^^.^.'^*^?
county of Scotland; area, 491 sq. miles.
The coast is indented by numerous deep
and spacious bays, of which Wigtown
Bay, Luce Bay and Loch Ryan are the
most important. The chief rivers are the
Cree and Bladenoch, both partially navi-
gable. It is mostly a dairying country.
Pop. 32,685. Stranraer is the largest
town and Wigtown the capital.
TXTicniTci'm (wig' warn), an Indian cabin
wxgwam Qj. i^^ ^ ^„^ jjj ^jj^
United States and Canada. These huts
are generally of a conical shape, formed
of bark or mats laid over stakes planted
in the ground and converging at top,
where is an opening for the escape of the
smoke.
*Wilhi*rfftrri^ (wil'ber-fors), Samuel,
WUDenorce ^^ English prelate, son
of William Wilberforce, the philanthro-
pist, was born at Clajpham in 1805; was
graduated from Oriel College, Oxford ; was
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Wilberforce
Wilkes
appointed curate of Checkendon (1828)
and became dean of Westminster and
bishop of Oxford in 1845. He was the
leader of the High Church party, and the
author of Note-book of a Country
Clergyman (1833), Euchari9tica (1839),
A History of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in America (1844), a volume of
University Sermons, and numerous other
works. He was killed by a fall from
his horse in 1873.
Wigwams of North American Indiani.
WilhArfnrPA William, a celebrated
WllDenorue, English philanthropist,
was bom at Hull in 1759; died in 1833.
After completing his education at St.
John's CJollege, Cambridge, he was, in
1780, elected member of parliament for
his native town; and in 1784 was re-
turned by the county of York. In 1786
he made the acquaintance of Clarkson
(see Clarkson, Thomas), who gained his
sympathies on behalf of the agitation
against the slave trade. In 1791 he
moved for leave to bring in a bill to
prevent further impnortation of African
negroes into the British colonies. Year
after year he pressed this measure, but
was always defeated till 1807, when it
was passed during the short administra-
tion of Fox. He then devoted his en-
ergies to bring about the total abolition
of slavery, and three days before his
death he was informed that the House
of Commons had passed a bill which ex-
tinguished slavery in the British colo-
nies.
Wilrnv Bu^ Wheeler, poetess, bom
w X1UU&9 ^j Johnstown Center, Wiscon-
sin, in 1858. She has written much
creditable verse, contributing to current
periodicals, and publishing Poems of Pas-
sion, Poems of Pleasure, Drops of Watery
etc.; also a number of novels.
"Willi A (wild), OscAB, poet and dra-
^"^^ matist, bom at Dublin, Ireland,
in 1856, son of Sir William Wilde, an
eminent Irish surgeon and writer oo
medical subjects. His mother was a
poetess. He was a pupil of Ruskin, and
after his college days became noted for
eccentricities in dress and manner. He
wrote ably, producing Poems, The House
of Pomegranates, Lady Windermere*s
Fan, a play, Dorian Qray, a novel, and
various other works. In 1896 he was
sentenced in London to two years' im-
prisonment for vicious practices. He
died November 30, 1900.
Wilhelmina ^^'^^'■^,\^;
Queen of the Netherlands, only child of
William III by his second wife, was
born at The Hague, August 31, 1880.
Her mother was regent until August 31,
1898, in which year she was crowned.
In 1901 she married Duke Henry of
Mecklenberz-Schwerin. The people of
the Netherlands were very anxious for
an heir to the throne, and this anxiety
was satisfied by the birth of a daughter
in 1909.
Wilhelmsliaveii <^y;^l^,?/;r?ti^
tion belonging to Germany, on the w.
side of the Jade, an inlet of the North
Sea. The entrances to the harbors are
sheltered by lon^ moles, the whole town
is strongly fortified, and there are nu-
merous docks, building-slips, etc. Pop.
(1905) 26,012. See Jade,
Wimelmshohe. SeeCa*«el.
TXTilVpa (wilks), C^harles, naval oflB-
Wimes ^^^ ^^ j^ j^g^ York City.
April 3, 1798; entered the navy in 1816
and became a lieutenant in 1826. In
1838 he commanded an exploring expedi-
tion sent by the United States govern-
ment to the Antarctic regions. Here he
discovered what he claimed to be an
Antarctic continent, sailing far along its
coast He completed a voyage around
the world, returning in 1842 and pub-
lishing an account of his explorations.
In 1861» while in command of the San
JaointOf he intercept^ the British
steamer Trent and took as prisoners J.
M. Mason and J. Slidell, Confederate
commissioners to Europe, an event that
produced a great sensation and threats
of war in England. In 1862 he was pro-
moted commodore, after which he com-
manded a squadron in the West Indies.
In July, 1866, he was made a rear-ad-
miral. He died Febroary 8, 1877.
H^illrAfi John, political agitator, bora
WllKeSy in London in 1727; died in
1797. He was the son of a rich distil-
ler, and was educated for some time at
Leyden. He was returned to parliament
as a member for Aylesbury (1757), and
attained considerable notoriety by the
i
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Wilkes-Barre Wilkinsbiirg
SublicatioQ of a paper entitled the North academician. In 1825, owing to ill
Triton, in No. & of which (17G3) he health, he made an extended tour through
commented severely on the king's speech Italy, Germany, and Spain. In the lat-
to parliament The home secretary in ter country his style as a painter under-
consequence issued a general warrant, went a marked change when he came
upon which Wilkes, with others, was ap- under the influence of Velasquez and
prehended and committed to the Tower, Murillo. Retumyig after three years to
but released by Chief Justice Pratt, who England, he was appointed (1830)
declared the prosecution illegal. On the painter in ordinary to the king, and was
next meeting of parliament, however, a knighted in 1836. His pictures, such as
special law was passed to sanction his the Blind Fiddler. Rent Day, Cut Fin-
prosecution, and in 1764 he was ex- ger, RahUt on the W<UL Penny Wed-
pelled from the House of Commons. As ding, Cotter^a Saturday Night, Duncan
he had by this time withdrawn to France Cfray, Blind Man*» Buff, CheUea Pen-
and did not appear to receive sentence, aionera Reading the Gazette of Waterloo,
he was outlawed. He returned, how- John Know Preaching before the Lord9 of
ever, to England at the election of 1768, the Congregation, etc, are well known
and was sent to parliament as repre-
sentative of Middlesex, but was expelled
from the House and committed to prison.
Three times after this he was reelected
within a few months by the same con-
stituency, but the HousA of Commons
persisted in keeping him out. giving rise
to a formidable agitation in favor of
* Wilkes and liberty.* He was released
from prison in 1770, having been elected
alderman of London, and he was next
appointed sheriff oif Middlesex, lord-
mayor of London, and again (1774)
member of parliament for Middlesex.
On this occasion he was allowed to take
his seat, and in 1782 the resolutions re-
specting the Middlesex election were ex-
gunged from the journals of the House of
ommons. He published many speeches
and pamphlets, and his correspondence
was pubUshed after his death Sir David Wilkie.
Wilkes-Barre (wilks'ba-re), a aty,
vTXAxv^o ^axxv capital of Luzerne as engravings. These belong for the
Co., Pennsylvania, on the east bank of most part to his early and best period,
the north branch of the Susquehanna when his method was characterized by
River, about 140 miles northwest of Phil- subdued coloring and minute and spir-
adelphia. It is the center of rich anthra- ited drawing. His later and less success-
cite coal field, and has manufactures of ful style is distinguishable by a breadth
machinery, locomotives, cars, mining of treatment which sometimes shows
engines and tools, iron castings, wire looseness in drawing, and deals chiefly
ropes, lace, silks, tinware, lumber, cutlery, with historical subjects. It is repre-
brewery products; axles, springs, adding gented by The Entrance of Oeorge IV
machine^*, tobacco, etc. Pop. 67,105; into Holyrood, The Spanish CouncU of
within 8-mile radius, 245,000. War, The Maid of Saragosaa, Napoleon
Wilkie (^Jl'k6). Sib David, one of and Piua VII.
the most famous painters of TXTilklTIS Maby Eleanob, novelist,
the British school, was son of the minis- ^ *^*J^^^^y bom at Randolph, Massa-
ter of Cults, near Cupar, Fifeshire, born chusetts, in 1862. She produced graphic
there in 1785; died at sea off Gibraltar stories of New Englana life, and jub-
in 1811. while returning from a visit to lished A Humble Romance, The Wind
Palestine. He received his early art in the Rose Bush, Dr. Gordon, Pembroke^
training at the Trustees' Academy, Edin- Jerome, etc. She married Dr. O. M.
burgh; entered the schools of the Royal Freeman in 1902.
Academy, London, in 1805; first exhib- TXTillriTiQliiircr a borough in AUe-
ited there (1806) The Village Politicians, ^"^"ISWUr^, ^^^^ ^^ ^ Pennsyl-
which at once established his reputation; vania, 7 miles E. of Pittsburgh, many of
was elected an associate of the Acad- whose business people reside hera I^oD-
emy in 1809, and in 1811 became an 18,924.
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Wilkinson William I
WillriTianTi ( wil'kin-sun) , Sib John witnesses must attest and subscribe the
¥v uxkxiiovu ^^BDijEB^ ^ distinguished will in the presence of the testator.
English archsologist, bom in 1797; died Willa.rd (wil'ard), Frances Eliza*
in 1875. He was educated at Harrow '^'■""«"^"' beth, bom near Rochester,
and Exeter College, Oxford, and after- New York, in 1839. Was the author of a
wards resided twelve years in Egypt As number of works and lectured on her
the result of his investigations there he travels in Europe, Egjrpt and Palestine,
published the Manners and Customs of She was best known in connection with
the Ancient Egyptians (five vols, temperance work, and for her active la-
1837-41). His other works are: A bors in this cause. She became president
Handbook for Travelers in Modem of the Woman's Christian Temperance
Egypt (1847), A Popular Account of Union in 1879; founded the World's
the Ancient Egyptians^ Dalmatia and Woman's Christian Temperance Union in
Montenegro (1848), and The Egyptians 1883 and was its president from 1888
under the Pharaohs (1857). until her death, February 18, 1898.
\X7;i1 The, is usually described as one IXTiIIatiIioII (wiren-hftl), a town of
^"*> of th^ three faculties by means of ^"^C^"*"^ England, in West Staf-
which the human mind finds expression, fordshire, 12 miles N. w. from Birming-
the other two being thought (or Intel- ham. There are brass and iron foun-
lect) and feeling (or emotion). It is dries, but the staple industry is in locks
the faculty by which a choice is made and padlocks. Pop. 18^858.
between two courses of action, as distinct IXTillesden ('^"^'dn), a parish in Mid-
fiom the exercise of this power, which ^ou.^11. ^i^g^j ^^^j suburb of Lou-
is more fitly described as volition. This don, 7 miles N. w. of St. Paul's. It is
faculty of the will, in the maturitv of its also a local government district and con-
complex power, is usually conceived as tains parts of Kilbum, Kensal Green,
having been educated by a process of etc., and an important railway junction,
sensation; pleasure and pain giving rise Pop. 154,267.
to the motives by which the active de- Willet (^^^'^t; Symphemia semipal-
termining energy is set in motion. Yet "'****''' mata), a bird of the snipe fam-
the exact relation between will and mo- ily found in America. It is a fine game
tive, the question whether the motive bird, and its flesh and eggs are prized
governs the will or the will determines for food. Called also stone curlew,
the motive, has never been authori- "WlUlftm I (wil'yam), suraamed the
tatively settled. Thus the * freedom ' Conqueror, King of Bng-
of the will has, until now, been main- land and Duke of Normandy, born in
tained as a metaphysical and theological 1027, was the natural son of Robert,
belief in opposition to the doctrine of duke of Normandy, by Arlotta, the
'necessity.' Aristotle in his Ethics in- daughter of a tanner of Falaise. His
cidentally asserted the freedom of the father having no legitimate son, William
will ; with this the Stoics and Epicureans became the heir at his death, and ruled
agreed; as did also Justin Martyr, Normandy with great vigor and ability.
Origen, and St Augustine; while its The opportunity of gainmg a wider do-
later adherents were Reid, Stewart, minion presented itself on the death of
Kant, and Hamilton. On the contrary, his second cousin, Edward the Confessor,
among the early Christians, the Qnostics king of England, whose crown he
denied the freedom of the human will; claimed. To enforce this claim he hi-
so also did Spinoza ; while the more mod- vaded England, and the victory of Hast-
em advocates of the doctrine of *neces- ings, in which his rival Harold was
sity* were Hobbes, Hume, Jonathan Ed- killed, ensured his success (1066). Oa
wards, and John Stuart Mill. his return to Normandv, however, the
Will ^^ Testament, in law, the legal English, being treated by the Norman
> declaration of a man's intentions leaders like a conquered people, broke
as to what he wills to be performed after out in revolt, but William speedily re-
his death in relation to his property. In turned and suppressed the insurrection.
England, as also in its colonies and most The resistance of two powerful EiXiglish
of the United States, no will, whether nobles, Edwin and ^lorcar, who had
of real or personal estate, is valid unless formed an alliance with the kings of
it be in writing, and signed at the foot Scotland and Denmark, and with the
or end by the testator, or by some person prince of North Wales, soon after drew
in his presence, and by his direction. William to the north, where he obliged
Such signature must be made and the Malcolm, king of Scotland, to do homage
document acknowledged as his will by the for Cumberland. In 1069 another insur-
testator in the presence of two or more rection broke out in the north, and at
witnesses at the same time, aci such the same time the English resumed arms
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William II
William ILL
in the eastern and southern counties,
only, however, to be suppressed with mer-
ciless rigor. He now established the ad-
ministration of law and justice on a firm
basis throughout England, conferred nu-
merous grants of land on his own fol-
lowers, and introduced the feudal
constitution of Normandy in regard to
tenure and services. He also expelled
numbers of the English Church dignita-
ries and replaced them by Normans.
Towards the end of his reign he insti-
tuted that general survey of the landed
property of the kingdom, the record of
which still exists under the title of
Domesday Book. Although the English
bad been completely subdued, William
had to suppress several formidable re-
volts by his own vassals, while in 1080
he was at open war with his son Robert.
In 1087 he went to war with France,
whose king had encouraged a rebellion
of Norman nobles. He entered the
French territory, and committed great
ravages, but, by a fall from his horse at
Mantes, received an injury which caused
his death at the abbey of St. Gervais,
near Rouen (1087).
Willifmi TT sumamed Rufus, from
the preceding, was bom in Normandy in
1056, and crowned at Westminster in
1087 on the death of his father. The
Norman barons were discontented with
this arrangement, and sought to make
his eldest brother, Robert, king of Eng-
land, but this project was defeated by
William, who secured the aid of Lan-
franc, archbishop of Canterbury, and the
English nobles. Having repressed the
conspiracy, he forced the Norman barons
to withdraw to Normandy and confis-
cated their English estates. On the death
of Lianfranc he also seized the estates
connected with the vacant bishoprics and
abbeys. In 1090 he sent an army into
Normandy, while he himself crossed the
Channel the following year. A recon-
ciliation was effected between the two
brothers, and in 1096 Robert mortgaged
Normandy to his brother for a sum suf-
ficient to enable him to join a crusade to
the Holy Land. A characteristic incident
in William's reign was his contention
with Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury,
regarding church property and the sov-
ereignty of the pope. (See Anselm,)
In 1100 he met his death while hunting
in the New Forest, by an arrow shot
accidentally or otherwise from the bow
of a French gentleman named Walter
Tyrrel.
William TTT Stadtholder of Hol-
land» son of William II of Nassau,
prince of Orange, and Henrietta Mary
Stuart, daughter of Charles I of Eng-
land, was bom at The Hague on the 4th
of November, 1650. During his early
life all power was in the hands of the
grand pensionary John De Witt, but
when France and England, in 1672, de-
clared war against the Netherlands, there
was a popular revolt, in which Cornelius
and John De Witt were murdered, while
William was declared captain-general,
grand-admiral, and stadtholder of the
United Provinces. In the campaign
which followed he opened the sluices in
the dykes and inundated the country
round Amsterdam, thus causing the
French to retire, while peace was soon
made with England. In subsequent cam-
paigns he lost the battle of SenefPe
(1674) and St. Omer (1677), but was
still able to keep the enemy in check.
William III.
In 1677 he was married, and the Peace
of Nijmegen followed in 1678. For some
years subsequent to this the policy of
William was directed to curb the power
of Louis XIV, and to this end be brought
about the League of Augsburg in 1^6.
As his wife was heir-presumptive to the
English throne he had kept close watch
upon the policy of his father-in-law,
James II, and in 1688 he issued a declara-
tion recapitulating the unconstitutional
acts of the English king, and promising
to secure a free parliament to the people.
Being invited over to England by some
of the leading men he arrived suddenly
at Torbay, November 5, 1688, with a fleet
of 500 sail, and with 14.000 troops.
Upon landing, a great part of the nobility
declared in his favor, and in December
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William IV William II
James fled with his family to France, duchies of Schleswig-IIolstein ; quarreled
after which William made his entry into with Austria, and engaged in a campaign
London. The throne was now declared which ended in the victory of Stdowa
vacant, the Declaration of Rights was (1866) ; and went with the rest of Ger-
passed, and on February 13, 1689, Mary many to war with B^rance in 1870 (see
was proclaimed aueen and William king. Oermany and France), In this war the
Scotland soon afterwards followed Eng- operations of the Prussian generals were
land's example (with a partial resistance under the personal supervision of the
under Dundee) ; but in Ireland, whither king. The results of this war were so
Louis XIV sent James with an army, favorable for Germany that the German
the majority of the Catholics maintained States combined in raising William to
the cause of the deposed king, until they the imperial dignity, and he was pro-
were defeated at the Boyne (1690) and claimed emperor of Germany at Ver-
at Aughrim (1691). In the war with sallies January 18, 1871, during the siege
France William was less successful; but of Paris. He died March 4, 1888.
although he was defeated at Steinkirk IXTillioTn TT ninth king of Prussia
(1692) and Neerwinden (1693) Louis w iiiiam AX, ^^ ^j^^^ emperor of
was finally compelled to acknowledge him Germany, was bom at Berlin, January
king of England at the Peace of Ryswick 27, 1859, eldest son of the crown prince
in 1697. In 1701 James II died, and (afterward emperor) Frederick and Prin-
Louis XIV acknowledged his son as king cess Victoria of England. After a care-
of England. England, Holland, and the ful training at home, the education of
empire had already combined against the young prince was completed in the
Louis, and the war of the Spanish Sue- gympasium at Gassel, and he also re-
cession was just on the point of com- ceived a thorough military training and
mencing when William died, March 8, full instruction in the arts of govem-
1702, from the effects of a fall from his ment and administration. An accident
horse, his wife having already died child* at birth caused a weakening of his left
less in 1694. arm which became permanent, and in
W-illiOTTi TV King of Great Britain addition he has a serious anection of
y^iiwtm J.V, ^jj^j Ireland, and third the ear, which so far has defied treat-
son of George III, bom in 1765; died in ment. Yet, despite these afflictions, his
1837. He served in the navy, rising ardent temperament led him to become
successively to all the grades of naval a skilful horseman and a tireless hunter,
command, till in 1801 he was made ad- as well as an enthusiastic yachtsman,
miral of the fleet. In 1789 he had re- and he is deeply interested in all kinds
ceived the title of Duke of Clarence, and of army evolution. He married Augusta
in June, 1830, he succeeded his brother Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Augustin-
George IV to the throne. The great leg- burg in 1881, and, after the brief reign
islative events which render his reign of his father, succeeded to the imperial
memorable are the passage of the reform dignity on June 15, 1888. Since his
act, the abolition of slavery in the col- accession he has shown himself a ruler
onies, and the reform of the poor-laws, of exuberant energy and has made him-
He married (1818) Adelaide, sister of jelf felt as a vigorous power alike in his
the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom home government and in international
he had no surviving children, but by his European affairs. An exaggerated idea
connection with Mrs. Jordan, the actress, of the imperial dignity, embracing the
he had a large family. exploded conception of the divine right
"Williflm T first German Emperor. ?f kings, was shown in the speeches of
vyxxixtiui J., and seventh king of *»** ^^ly rule, and the intense energy
Prussia, second son of Frederick William with which he pushed forward the op-
m, was born March 22, 1797. .\t an ganization of the army and navy led to
early age he began the study of military apprehensions of warlike purposes, while
affairs; took part in the campaigns of his later career has given warrant for
1813-14 under BlUcher: married in 1829 the alarm to which his early actions and
Princess Augusta of Saxe-Weimar ; be- expression of views gave rise. His in-
came heir-presumptive to the throne of dependence of action and decision of
Prussia on his father's death in 1840 ; opinion soon led to strained relations
was commander of the forces which sup- wi**\ Prince Bismark, who had long been
pressed the revolutionary movement dominant in political affairs, the auto-
(1849) in Baden; was created regent in <^ratic premier findine his authority
1858; and on the death of the king, his greatly diminished by the resolute asser-
Srother, in 1861, succeeded to the throne tiveness of the strong-willed young em-
of Prussia. During his reign Prussia pe^or- A decided break came when Wil-
defeated Denmark (1864), annexing the '^*™ established a system of partial state-
Digitized by VjOOQIC
WiUiamn WiUiam the SUent
socialism, of which Bismarck strongly (lis- being that he ordered the dissolution of
approved. This quickly led to the re- the parliament and a new election. He
tirement of the able chancellor, and his opened himself to drastic parliamentary
replacement by Count Capri vi, a man criticism in 1910, in a speech at KOnigs-
more ready to yield to the emperor's berg, in which he reminded his hearers
views, or more in accord with them, that his grandfather, William I, believed
Since that date several changes have himself the chosen instrument of God and
taken place in the chancellorship. The in possession of the crown by 6od*8
foreign policy of the new regime led to grace alone. The following words, with
a strengthening of the triple alliance be- which he concluded, indicated that he
tween Germany, Austria and Italy, a entertained a similar opinion : ' Consider-
weakening of the older bond between ing myself as the instrument of the
Germany and Russia, and to a colonial Master, regardless of passing views and
expansion indicated by Germany's taking opinions, I go my way^ which is solely
an active part in the partition of Africa devoted to the prosperity and peacefid
between the European powers. A large development of the Fatherland.' These
area of territory in the west, a second words were sharply controverted in the
in the southeast, and a third in the press and by the Socialists in the Reich-
Guinea region of that continent were won stag. William throughout showed that
by Germany in consequence. In 1890 he was one of the ablest and most ener-
the island of Heligoland, in the German getic of ruling monarchs and one ready
Sea, was ceded by England to Ger- to maintain the political and commercji
many, in return for which England was interests of his country to the verge of
f ranted certain advantages in Africa, war. This was shown in his contest
n the negotiation of the treaty of peace with France in 1905, on the Morocco
between Turkey and Greece at the end of question, in which war seemed imminent,
the war of 1897j William took a very and the renewal of this contest in 1911,
prominent part, insisting that provision at which date the hostile feeling was
lor payment of the defaulted interest due abated through the cession by France of a
by Greece to foreign bondholders (main- large area, in Africa to Germany. To
ly German ) should form part of the what extent William is responsible for the
terms of settlement. The treaty was great conflict in Europe which began in
made to accord with the emperor's views. July, 1914, and continued with unabated
In his internal administration, William fury and frightful loss of life and property
has actively sought to establish a more for more than two years, it is for from
pronounced personal government, a pur- easy to estimate. The Entente powers
pose in which he has met with strong accuse him of plunging Europe into war
parliamentary opposition, fie has made to gratify his ambition and give suprem-
himself a leader in European policies, acy to Germany, and this sentiment is
and Germany, under his control, has widely entertained in the United States,
advanced greatly in strength and politi- The nnal decision upon this subject must
cal importance. lie has also taken steps await the calm inquiry and full investiga-
to placate the workingmen by establish- tion of the days to come,
ing a system of old-a^e insurance under WilHQTii the IiIOH ^^^ Scotland
State auspices, and inaugurating other '' **^«''*" •'***' -^^vai.. (ffigtQry),
legislation in their favor. The great William thC Silent, S*'""' ^i
growth of Socialism has proved a dis- " ****«-*** v*x\* i^j.avai.v, Nassau and
turbing element, and he has sought to re- Prince of Orange, eldest son of William
press it. William's plans for an increase count of Nassau, was bom in 1533, and
of the army and navy, with the necessary was educated in the Roman Catholic
additional taxation, on several occasions faith. He had large estates in the Neth-
brought him into conflict with the Reich- erlands, and held high ofllces under
stag and long continued a source of alarm Charles V and his son Philip II ; but
in Europe, especially in Great Britain, the reckless persecution of the Protes-
The result was a contest between these tants roused him against the Spaniards,
countries in the building of war vessels, and when the Dukc of Alva with a
the British government striving strenu- Spanish force was sent to subdue the
ously to maintain its supremacy and Netherlands (1567), he retired to Ger-
the German government increasing the many. He now declared himself a
strength of its navy at a disturbing rate. Protestant, and personally led an army
A conflict between William and the into Brabant against Alva, but failed to
Reichstag took place in December. 190B, bring about an engagement In 1572
when that body opposed the emperor's the estates appointed the prince stadt-
views of maintaining a large garrison in holder of Holland, Zealand, Friesland
German Southwest Africa, the result and Utrecht, with power to prosecute the
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William and Hary College Williamstown
war against Spain. In 1574 the prince's WilliamS ^^^ Moniek. See Monier
brothers, Louis and Henry, were defeated ' )\ illiams.
and killed in a battle at Mookerheide. Williams ^^^^^^^ ^ Baptist divine
but this disaster was to some extent com- ' and founder of the colony
pensated by the raising of the siege of of Rhode Island, North America, was
Leyden. In 1576 the brutality of the born of Welsh or Cornish parenU about
Spanish soldiers was such that William 151)9; died in 1U83. lie was ^nt as a
was able, to negotiate the pacification of scholar to the Charter-Louse, afterwards
Ghent, a treaty in which the provinces he studied either at Oxford or Cambndee.
bound themselves to expel the Spaniards g® i^^^^i^x. to have taken ordera in the
from the Netherlands. In the troublous English Church, but because of his re-
times which followed the prince acted te"/„5^^'^(v*}f.^'"ifril^^^^^
with great discretion, and it was by his ?°5\^°/- fhY^i^.-.^Ztt^^^^f ^tC^.ZVi
political prudence thit the five northern f^^^Zlat^lJ^A ifj. fr. L ^«ni«i^
ra^'aitliS iSfd'^tt^foLSn'^ TrrrUoTof 'Ai?ssi?hutt»'r^
if Jhi'rfniiin^f ^ho TTni/^ K^lhpr Pa^^ed to Rhode Island and founded a
fini. Tn^ owt th?«^ iio^?^.. ^wJ; settlement, which he called Providence.
P?nf; cTf a ^rw nf >r,rf^^^^ "^re he proclaimed complete religious
ni?in*^triLi'J''^f^h5*i?^ tolerance, thus making R&ode Island a
"P***^. ^^t ^^l^ ^l^^^ ^"""^5; ^^1^1 ^^^ haven for those persec^uted by the Puri-
iTjy^ }^tK^^^ life was attempted in ^^^^^ u^ ^^s an earnest friend of the
1582 at Antwerp, and he was ultimately Indians. He was twice in England in
assassinated at Delft m 1;)84 by a fa- connection with a charter for the colony,
natic named Balthasar Gerard. ^nd there made the acquaintance of Mil-
Wllliam and Mary College, ton and other prominent Puritans. He
^T ,...!, published A Key into the Language of the
inent Virginians were educated here. yet More Bloudy (1652), etc.
Williams, Fbancis Howard, an WilHamS Talcott, an American
J^,~;f? American dramatic writer, wmiams, journalist, born of Amer-
born in Philadelphia, in 1844. Among lean parents in Turkey, July 20, 1849.
his plays are : The Prtnceas Eltzabcthf From 1881 till 1912 he was on the staff
A Lyric Drama, A Reformer in Ruffles, of the Philadelphia Press, He then be-
At the Rise of the Curtain, etc.; also came head of the school of Journalism
The Flute Player and Other Poems, founded by the late Joseph Pulitzer as
The Burden Bearer, An Epic of Lin- an adjunct of Columbia University.
coin, etc. — His son, Francis Churchill
WiLLL/iMS, is the author of The Captain. "flTi-niQniQTin-H- (w il'y umz-port), a
a novel, and several other stories and ^r^ xxixnuioyMLh ^j^y^ ^^^ county seat
sketches. of Lycoming Co., Pennsylvania, on the
Williams Joh^, missionary, was west branch of the Susquehanna River,
** "f bom near London in 1796* 94 miles N. by w. of Harrisburg. It is
and served as an ironmonger's appren- attractively laid out, with several parks,
tice. Having been ordained a minister and a city hall, government buildings,
in 1816, he sailed for the South Seas Masonic temple, cathedral, and other
under the auspices of the London Mis- notable buildings. It was formerly the
sionary Society ; achieved a remarkable greatest lumber market in Eastern United
success in civilizing the islanders; and States. The mountains to the north are
after his return to England, in 18.'?4. he heavily timbered and there are rich coal
published the account of his Jt.bors in mines in the vicinity. There are large
A Narrative of Missionary Enterprise lumber mills, steel works, rubber fac-
in the South Sea Islands (1837). Re- tories, furniture factories, machine shops,
turning to Polynesia in 1838 he was mur- tanneries and a large silk mill. This city
dered by the natives of Erromanga in is the seat of Dickinson Seminary. Pop.
1839. 31,860.
Wi11in.Tnft John Shabp, senator, TXT^iKayYiqf^^ijrTYi a town of Williams-
W imams, ^^ ^^ Memphis, Tennes- ^ llUamSliOWn, ^^^ township
see, in 1854. He engaged m law prac- (town), Berkshire Co« Massachusetts,
tice in 1877, was elected to Congress from on the Hoosac River, 6 miles N. w. of
Mississippi in 1893, and was long the North Adams. It lies in a fertile valley.
Democratic leader in the House. He noted for beautiful scenery, and is a
was elected to the Senate in 1008 for summer resort The town has bleaching
the term 1911-17. and finishing works and manufactures of
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WiUiamstown Wilmington
corduroy and ctnton ^^njtU. Williams The Huntingdon or white willow {SaliiB
t'ollege^oundod r«t>:i, is situated here, alba) and the Bedford willow {8, Rut-
Fop, 5000. selliana) are large trees, yielding a light
WiUiamstown * seaport in Vic- soft timber, valuable for resisting the
j.».uA0vvwu9 toria, on the south- influence of moisture or damp. The
west shore of Ilobson Bay, immediately weeping willow {8, Babylonica) is a na-
opposite Sandridge (Port Melbourne), tive of China, and is a fine ornamental
and 9 miles by rail from Melbourne, tree. The willow has for long been con-
Tlie piers are commodious, and there are sidered as symbolical of mourning,
shipbuilding yards, patent slips, the Al- WlllftW-llPrh See Epihbium.
fred graving dock, and government work- ▼»***vw uvxu.
shops. There is a lighthouse on the Willow-TTifttli a species of mouse-
peninsnla on which the town is built, and »»"*vw mutu, colored moth (Caro-
a lightship further down the bay. Pop. drina cubicularis) , the hinder wings of
14.083. which are pure white. The larvie feed
Willimantic ^ wil-i-man'tik ) , a city on grains or wheat
^ of Windham Co., Con- Wi11n^][7.nfl1r ^^ ^Vmerican tree of
necticut, is on the Willimantic River, 16 ^"^^^ "<*^J the genus OuercuM, the
miles N. w. of Norwich. It contains a Q. Phellos. The wood is of loose, coarse
State normal training school. The river texture, and is little used,
affords abundant water-power, and the ^VilloW-Wren ^P^^^^ irochilus, one
manufactures are extensive, especially of x^nj ^f ^^^ m^g^ abundant
cotton thread, of which it is the greatest of the warblers, and a summer visitant
producer in the country. There are also in Britain, with a pleasing song. The
large silk, silk-twist, and cotton mills, general color is dull, olive-green above,
plumbers' supplies and steam-heating the chin, throat and breast yellowish-
works, etc. Pop. 11,230. white, and the belly pure white.
Willift (wil'is), Nathaniel Pabkeb, WilmeTflin^ ^ borough in Alle-
^^^* author, bom at Portland! ^""1CI^*""&> gheny Co., Pennsvl-
Maine, in 1807; died in 18G7. lie was vania, 13 m. e. 8. e. of Pittsburgh. P. 6133.
educated at Boston, Andover and Yale ^XTil mprsHnrf & ^^'^'^ of Prussia, 3
College; employed by S. P. Goodrich '^"^^^*^"*^' m. s. w. of Berlin. Pop.
(Peter Parley) to edit The Legendary d^lO) 102.716.
(1828) and The Token (1829); estab- Wilmin^On (wil'ming-tun), a city
lished the American Monthly Magazine, » ^ and port of entrv, capi-
which was merged in the New York Mir- tal of Newcastle Co., Delaware, is situ-
ror; traveled in France, Italy, Greece, ated on the Delaware River and Bran-
European Turkey, Asia Minor and dywine and Christiana Creeks, 27 miles
finally England; returned to America in s.w. of Philadelphia. It is the commer-
1837, and afterwards edited The Uome cial and manufacturing emporium of the
Journal. His numerous published writ- State^ and has large and nourishine in-
ings include: Pencilinga by the Way dustnes, especially in powder-making,
(1835), Inklinga of Adventure (1836), vulcanized hber and glazed kid. There
Loitering* of Travel (1839), People I are also large shipyards, iron and steel
Have Met (1850), Famous Persons and works, and manufactures of cars, car-
Places (1845), Outdoors at Idlewild wheels, bridges, boilers, paper, leather,
(ia54), and The Convalescent, His Ram- etc. Among its -institutions are a govem-
blea and Adventures (1859). mei^t building, court-house. State insane
Willnw (wiro), the common name of asylum, normal school and other in-
wiuuw ^jiffepenj species of plants be- dustrial institutions. Old Swedes* Church
longing to the genus 8alia, the type of built in 1698, marks the site of the oldest
the natural order Salicaceae. The spe- Swedish settlement in the Delaware
cies of willows are numerous, about 160 valley. Pop. 87,411.
having been described, 35 belonging to TXr,l«miii*rl-Aii a <?ity, port of entry
the United States. They are either trees ^ imuil^tUll ^^^ capital of New
or bushes, and grow naturally in a moist Hanover Co., North Carolina, is situ-
soil. On account of the flexible nature ated on the east bank of Cape Fear River
of their shoots, and the toughness of about 25 miles from its mouth, and is
their woody fiber, willows have always the largest commercial town in the
been used as materials for baskets, hoops. State. Its notable public buildings in-
crates, etc. The wood is soft, and is used elude a Federal building, city hall, union
for wooden shoes, pegs, and the like; station, etc. The river has a depth of
it is also much employed in the manu- 26 feet at mean low water and extensive
facture of charcoal, and the bark of all port facilities including 11 large term-
the species contains the tanning principle, inals erected during the past two years.
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Wilna
Wilson
Wilmington has a large export trade in
cotton and lumber. It has extensive
manufactures, including large lumber
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^ Wilmington. N. C.
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mills, metal works, machine shops, ve-
neer mills, handles and heading factories,
turpentine distilleries, etc. Pop. 25,748.
Wilna. Se«F«na.
WUmot Proviso. S>x 'o".ndTte
United States terminated in the acquisi-
tion of a vast territory by the latter.
Mr. Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, in 1846,
offered in Congress what became historic
as the * Wilmot Proviso,* that * No part
of the territory thus acquired should be
open to the introduction ©f slavery.'
This proviso brought heated discussion
of the slave question, and civil war and
a dissolution of the Union were threat-
ened in consequence. The proviso failed
of passage.
^nr-ilann a town, capital of Wilson
WliSUUy Q^^ j^Qp^jj Carolina, about
44 miles E. by s. of Raleigh. Cotton
goods, cottonseed-oil, etc., are manufac-
tured. Pop. 6717.
Wilson { ^^I'sui^ )> Alexandeb, an
^ American ornitholcM^ist, was
bom at Paisley, Scotland, in 1766. He
emigrated to America in 1704; as-
sisted in editing the American edition of
Ke€8'9 Cyclopedia; also worked at his
24 10
trade as a weaver and taught a school
at Kingsesslng, near Philadelphia. Be-
coming interested in ornithology, he re-
solved to write and illustrate a work
on American birds, and for this pur-
pose traveled on foot through West-
ern New York, then a wilderness, ob-
serving its birds. He told the story of
his excursion in a lively and graphic
work called The Foresters. The result
of his labor was the American Omiihol-
ogy (seven vols., 1808-13), a work which
was completed by Ord, with a continua-
tion by Lucien Bonaparte. It was the
pioneer of the magnificent works of
Audubon and Charles Bonaparte. He
died in 1813, worn out by his great labor
on this work.
TXTilann Sib Daniel, archsologist,
WllSUliy ^^g ^^j.jj ^^ Edinburgh in
1816; educated at the university there;
became secretary to the Roval Society of
Antiquaries; was appointed (1853) pro-
fessor of history and English literature
in University College, Toronto, Canada;
and in 1880 was elected president He
wrote numerous works, including Pre-
historic Man, Caliban, the Missing Link,
The Lost Atlantis, Anthropology, Left-
Handedness, etc. He died in 1892.
m'llQnn Henry, statesman, was bom
Yvxisuii, jjj parmington. New Hamp-
shire, in 1812. In 18ft, as the ' Natick
cobbler,* he addressed political meetings,
being elected in that year to the Massa-
chusetts Legislature. In 1856 he was
elected United States Senator. His
speeches bear the impress of clear-sighted
statesmanship. Mr. Wilson was an ar-
dent antislavery man, and was the au-
thor of the bill by which slavery was
abolished in the District of Columbia
(1862). He was reelected to the Senate
in 1865, and was chosen vice-president
of the United States in Grant^s second
term (1862). He died in this office No-
vember 22, 1875.
Wilson HoBACB Hatican, oriental-
wxAovu.^ jgj^ ^jjg JJQJ.JJ ^^ London, in
1786; died in 1860. He was educated
for the medical profession, went out to
Bengal as assistant-surgeon in the serv-
ice of the East India 0)mpany; was
appointed to an office in the Calcutta
mint, of which he afterwards became
assay-master and secretary; devoted his
leisure to the study of Sanskrit; was
elected (1832) Boden professor of San-
skrit at Oxford University; and soon
afterwards became librarian at the India
House and director of the Royal Asiatic
Society. His writings included a San-
skrit'English Dictionary (1819), and nu-
merous translations of Sanskrit poems,
etc.
i
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Wilson Wilson
Wilson J'^^^'IBt American jurist and and settled in Edinburgh. He was one
^ signer of the Declaration of of the original contributors to Black-
Independence, was born in Scotland in wood's Magazine, established in 1817* and
1742; came to America in 1763 and three years afterwards was appointed
made his home in Philadelphia ; delegate to the chair of moral philosophy m Edin-
to Congress, 1775-77, 1782--83 and 1785- burgh I'niversity, a position which he
87; was appointed a justice of the Su- held until 1851. Besides his numerous
preme Court in 1789. Died 1798. magazine articles, the most characteristic
iXTilson James, ez-Secretary of Ag- of which were some of the Nocie$ Am-
wAAovuy riculture, was bom in Scot- hroaianw and those published subse-
land in 1836. He was a member of guently as the Recreations of Christopher
Congress, 1873-77 and 1883-85. Ap- North (1842), he wrote other tales. •
pointed to the cabinet office by President TXTilanTi Woodrow, twenty -eighth presl-
McKinley, he held that position during '^ """"> dent of the United States, edu-
the Taft and Roosevelt administrations, cator and author, was bom at Staunton,
WiloATi James Grant, author, born Virginia, December 28, 1856. He was
wusuuy in New York dtv in 1832, graduated from Princeton in 1879; stud-
served in the Civil War. Besides nu- Ted law at the University of Virginia;
merous addresses, essays, and articles in practiced law in Atlanta (1882-83) ; re-
periodicals, he published : Biographical ceived the degree of Ph.D. at Johns Hop-
Sketchea of lUinois Officers; Life of kins University (1886) ; was professor at
General Grant; The Presidents of the Bryn Mawr, 1^85-88 ; at Wesleyan. 1888-
Vnited States; Thackeray in the United 90 ; at Princeton. 1800-1910. In 1902 he
States, etc. He was the editor of Apple- became president of Princeton Univer-
Um^s Cyclopwdia of American Biography ^ sity. He wrote A History of the Amer^
and of Memorial History of the City of iean People and others work^ and be-
Uew Yorkf etc Died May 2, 1914. came prominentias a reformer. He was
Wilson J^^BS Harbison, American elected governor of New Jersey in 1910.
vvuovuy soldier and author, bom in He was chosen on the strength of his
niinois in 1837. His conduct through- irreproachable character and his sdenti-
oot the Civil War was such as to win fie knowledge of the principles of goven-
for him the title of brevet major-general meut, and during his first year in oflBce a
of Yolnnteers for gallant and meritorioas number of important reform measures in-
service during the war. In 1865 he com- eluded in his platform were enacted. His
manded a cavalry expedition into Georgia successful record as ^ovemor brought him
and Alabama daring which he captured the Democratic nomination for President
Jefferson Davis. He entered the regular in 1912 and his subsequent election. His
army at the close of the war with the term of office was marked by intema-
rank of lieutenant-colonel, retiring from tional questions rarely equalled in impor-
the service in 1870. Served in the Span- tance. Including the revolutionary out-
ish War and in the China expedition of breaks in Mexico and the great European
1900 ; represented the United States war, both of these involving .the lives and
Army at the Coronation of Kins Edward interests of American citizens. President
VII; in 1901 was placed on the retired Wilson handled these momentous ques-
list as a brigadier-general United States tions in the cause of peaceful relations, so
Army. Among other things he wrote: far as the safety and dignity of the
China: Travels and Investigations in the American govemment permitted. In 1916
Middle Kingdom^ A Life of General he was a second time elected President
Grant, etc and began his second term on March 4,
"Wilson John, better known in liters- 1917. Although a lover of peace and the
* ture as * Christopher North,* nominee of a party who had presented
was bom in Paisley, Scotland, in 1785 ; him for re-election as * the man who kept
died in 1854. He was educated at Glas- us out of war,* he was forced into the
S»w University and Magdalen College, affray to defend the honor of the country
zford, where he gained the Newdigate and the safety of the lives of Americans
prize for an English poem, as also a on the high seas who were being murdered
great reputation tor athletics. Leaving by Germany's undersea navy. Too, there
Oxford he bought the estate of Elleray, was the holy cause of invaded Belgium,
near Windermere, and there formed an President Wilson's notes to Germany
acquaintance with Wordsworth. Southey, and his messages to Congress were ac-
and Coleridge ; contributed to Coleridge's claimed among all the Allied peoples, who
Friend, and published a poem called came to look upon him as the leader of the
The Isle of Palms (1812). Another world's thought. His slogan, *to make
poem. The City of the Plague, appealed the world safe for democracy,* became a
U 1816. He now passed the Scots bar, powerful rallying cry. On the 3d of
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Copytit:htffv f!,irTi j* t nim:.
WOODROW WILSON
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)
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Wilson Wilts
February, 1917, he severed diplomatic re- deavored to help in the upbuilding of the
lations with Germany and suggested sim- new republic, first sending a special diplo-
ilar action on the part of other nations, matlc mission headed by Elihu Root, and
The machinations of the agents of Ger- later, when the BoLsheviki had taken con-
many in America, as well as other parts troL assuring the Soviet of American sym-
of the world, were rapidly bringing that pathy in the crucial days of March, 1918.
late flourishing empire to scorn and con- In one of his speeches he declared,
tempt. *The peace we make must deliver Bel-
President Wilson had settled the diffi- gium and Northern France from the
cult Mexican situation, and the with- Prussian conquest and the Prussian men-
drawal of American troops from that ace, but it must also deliver the peoples
country was completed by February 5. of Austria-Hungary, the pe2ple8 of the
The^ torpedoing or American ships con- Balkans, and the peoples of Turkey alike
tinning, he asked Congress to authorize in Europe and in Asia from the impudent
him to arm merchant ships. The Senate and alien domination of the Prussian mil-
debate on the question was protracted by itary and commercial autocracy.* In his
a few pacifists whom the President styled speech of February 11, 1918, President
*a group of wilful men.' The second ses- Wilson presented four principles which
don of the 64th Congress ended without he said must be acceptea by the military
passing the bill. President Wilson took and annexationist party or Germany as
matters into his own hands, declared he they had been accepted by all other peo-
had full power and went ahead with his pies. * The tragic circumstance,' he said,
program of arming merchant ships. To is that this one party in Germany is
guard against filibustering in future the apparently willing and able to send mil-
enate, in special session on March 8, lions of men to their death to prevent
passed the famous Cloture rule. See what all the world now sees to be just.'
Cloture, The great railroad dispute. These are the four principles:
which threatened a nation-wide strike in First — ^That each part of the final set-
March, was settled by President Wilson, tlement must be based upon the essential
who insisted that the demands of the men justice of that particular case and upon
for a basic eight-hour day must go into such adjustments as are most likely to
effect. Later he took over control of the bring a peace that will be permanent,
railroads. Second — ^That peoples and provinces
On the assembling of the 65th Congress, are not to be bartered about from sover-
summoned by the President in extra ses- eignty to sovereignty as if they were mere
sion, he called for a declaration of war on chattels and pawns in a game, even the
Germany and provision for full co-opera- great game, now forever discredited, of
tion with the Allies. The Senate passed the balance of power; but that,
the war, resolution by a vote of 82 to 6; Third — Every territorial settlement in-
the House by a vote of 373 to 50. The volved in this war must be made in the
n'eat peace President became a great war interest and for the benefit of the popu-
President. He ordered the immediate ex- lations concerned, and not as a part of
pansion of the army and navy to full war any mere adjustment or compromise of
strength and advocated an Army Draft claims among rival states ; ana.
Bill, which was passed by Congress in Fourth — ^That all well-defined national
May. (See Conscription,) Although de- aspirations shall be accorded the utmost
termined to bring all the resources of the satisfaction that can be accorded them
country to bear on the struggle, if need without introducing new or perpetuating
be, he kept in view the possibility of old elements of discord and antagonism
peace ana refrained from war with that would be likely in time to break the
Austria-Hungary in the hope that through peace of Europe, and consequently of the
that country he might reacn the people of world.
Germany and persuade them to overthrow IXTiltS ^^ Wiltshire, a southwestern
the war lords. But the dual monarchy ''•^*'»> county of England, bounded
was plainly under the thumb of the Prus- by the counties of Gloucester, Somerset,
sian militarists and on December 3, 1917, Dorset. Hants, and Berks ; area 1350
President Wilson asked Congress for a sq. miles. The north is flat and fertile,
declaration of war on Austria-Hungary, the south is Salisbury Plain, an ele-
As indicating the unanimit;{r of the nation, vated tableland, chiefly uncultivated. The
the House of Representatives passed the strata of the county, are principally
war resolution with but one dissenting cretaceous, belonging to the great central
vote, registered by London, a New York chalk district of England; and the chief
Socialist. The Senate adopted the resolu- rivers are the Kennet and the Upper
tion unanimously. and Lower Avon. The larger proporaon
Through the Russian debacle he en- of the surface is in pasture, aevoted
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Wimbledon
Wind
chiefly in the south division to the rear-
ing of sheep, and in the north to cattle-
grazing and the dairy, Wiltshire bacon
and cheese being famous. The manu-
factures comprise woolen goods, for which
the principal localities are Wilton, Brad-
ford, Trowbridge, Westbury, etc., excel-
lent cutlery and steel goods at Salisbury,
ropes and sacking at Marlborough, iron-
founding at Devizes, and there is a col-
lege of agriculture at Downton. Capital,
Salisbury. Pop. (10U) 286376L
Wimbledon (wim'bl-dun), a town
WUauieagiL ^^ England, county of
Surrey, 7 miles southwest of London, at
the northeast extremity of Wimbledon
Common. Up to 1889 it was well known
in connection with the shooting competi-
tions of the National Rifle Association.
There are remains of an ancient British
earthwork. Pop. 54,876.
Wimborne Minster (wim'bum),
»«AA«AvvAuv ou^uov^A ^ town m
Dorsetshire, England, on the river Allen,
near its confluence with the Stour. The
princ^ipal building is the minster, a fine
cruciform structure in various styles.
Pop. 3711.
TXTiTi/^Air (win'si), a strong and dura-
wxiii/Cjr ^jjle cloth, plain or twilled,
comi)osed of a cotton warp and a woolen
weft.
W^inch ^ ^'i^d of hoisting machine or
> windlass, in which an axis is
turned by means of a crank-handle, and
a rope or chain is thus wound round
it so as to raise a weight.
T[7iti#%1ia11 ( winch'el ), Alexander,
Wincueu geologist, bom at North
East, New York, in 1824; died in 1801.
lie held professorships in the University
of Michigan and elsewhere and for a
number of years served as State geologist
of Michigan. He wrote Sketches of Crea-
tiottt Oeology of the Stars, Preadamites,
World-Life^ and various other works.
WJTlpTi^TliloTi A town (township) in
Wmcnenaon Worcester Co., Massa-
chusetts. It contains several villages,
with manufactures of cottons, toys, wood-
en ware, hardware, leather, etc Pop. of
town, 5678.
Winchester ^T.^^X'^Ji' ^^x^i
in Hampshire, on the Itchen, 12 miles
N. E. of Southampton. The most impor-
tant edifice is the cathedral, which was
built in the latter half of the eleventh
century, but has since been much added
to and altered. It is in the form of a
cross; length from east to west, 545
feet, width of the transepts 208 feet.
Besides being in itself of great architec-
tural importance, it contains numerous
monuments of historical interest; as the
tombs of William Bufus, of Edmund, son
of Kinff Alfred, and of Izaak Walton;
the golden shrine of St Swithin; bronze
figures of James I and Charles I, etc.
The other important buildings and in-
stitutions are St Mary's College, founded
in 1387, the town hall, the old castle,
a corn exchange. In the fourteenth cen-
tury Winchester was the principal seat
of the woolen manufactures in England
and had a large foreign trade. Pop.
C19U) 40;W2.
WiTi#«liAftf Ar « <^*y» <?o«nty seat of
WmcneSXer, Clark Co.. kentucky,
18 miles E. of I^xington. It is the seat
of Kentucky Wesley an College. The
industries are stock-raising, farming,
planing and flour mills, etc. Pop. 9743.
"WinnliAafpr « <^ty» county seat of
WincneSXer, Frederick Co., Va.. 32
miles s. w. of Harper's Ferry. It lies
in the Valley of Virginia and baa several
educational institutions, also extensive
manufactures of gloves, leather, woolen
goods, paper, lumber, flour^ etc. National
and Confederate cemeteries are located
here. During the Civil war in its vicinity
were fought several battles, it being re-
peatedly occupied by both contestants.
Pop. 5864.
WiTinli#fcat#fcr ^ village and township
Wmcnesier, of Middlesex Co., Mas-
sachusetts, 8 miles n. n. w. of Boston.
It has a State aviary, a home for aged
people, etc., and manufactures of leather,
machinery and watch hands. Q«orge
Bancroft and Theodore Parker were bom
here. Pop. of town, 0309.
Winckelmann (vink'ei-man), Jo-
vv AAi.vAVAAu»Ai.u jj^j^j^ Joachim.
critic and historian of ancient classical
art, was bom at Stendal, Prussia, in
1717. He was educated at Berlin and
Halle; became a Roman Catholic re-
ceived a pension from the papal nuncio
at Dresden (1755), and visited Rome,
where he was appointed librarian to
Cardinal Alban. In 1768 he was mur-
dered and robbed in an inn at Trieste.
His chief work is Anmerkungen uher die
Baukunst der Alten (1762).
W^ind ^ current in the atmosphere, as
' coming from a particular point.
The principal cause of currents of air is
the disturbance of the equilibrium of the
atmosphere by the unequal distribution
of heat When one part of the earth's
surface is more heated than another, the
heat is communicated to the air above
that part, in consequence of which the
air expands, becomes lighter, and rises
up, while colder air rushes in to supply
its place, and thus produces wind. It is
thus that the sea-breeza is produced every
afternoon at places near the coast.
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Windber
Windlass
especially in intertropical countries, the
ground having been heated by the sun's
rays to a higher temperature than the
sea; while about twelve hours later, the
reverse effect — a land-breeze — occurs,
the ground having fallen at night to a
lower temperature than the sea. As the
heat of the sun is greatest in the equa-
torial regions, the general tendency there
is for the heavier columns of air to dis-
place the lighter, and for the air at the
earth's surface to move from the poles
toward the equator. The only supply
for the air thus constantly abstracted
from the higher latitudes must be pro-
duced by a counter-current in the upper
regions of the atmosphere, carrying back
the air from the equator towards the
poles. These are known respectively as
the Trade and the Anti-Trade iotnds.
Besides the unequal distribution of heat
already mentioned, there are various other
causes which give rise to currents of
air in the atmosphere, such as the con-
densation of the aqueous vapors which
are constantly rising from the surfaces of
rivers and seas, and the agency of elec-
tricity. Winds have been divided into
fixed or constant^ as the trade-winds;
periodical^ as the monsoons; and variable
winds. (See Trade-winds^ Monsoon.)
There are also local winds, which receive
particular names; as, the etesian wind,
the siroccot the simoom^ the harmattanf
the mistral, tpphon, etc. The velocity
and force of the wind vary considerably,
as shown by the anemometer. Thus a
light wind traveling at the rate of 5
miles an hour exercises a pressure of 2
oz. on the square foot; a light breeze
©f 10 miles an hour has a pressure of
8 oz. ; a good steady breeze of 20 miles,
2 lbs.; a storm of 60 miles, 18 lbs.; a
violent hurricane of 100 miles, 50 lbs.,
a pressure which sweeps everything be-
fore it. Whirling winds, known in the
United States as tornadoes, are at times
of enormous violence, the air movement
being at the speed of many hundreds of
miles an hour. See Cycloxw.
UTiTii^'hAr a borough of Somerset Ca,
WinaDer, Pennsylvania, 21 miles
N. E. of Somerset. It has coal-mining
nnd other industries. Pop. 8013.
Windermere i^'^^^^Z^l
sheet of water in England, and renowned
on account of the beauty of its scenery,
is partly in Westmoreland and partly in
Lancashire. It is about 11 miles long,
and averages 1 mile in breadth; its prin-
cipal feeders are the Bratha;jr and the
Rotbay, and it has numerous islets.
Windfalls (wind'gftlz), are puffy
Wiua^aus g^ellings about the fet-
lock joints of animals, especially the
horse, a result of over- work on hard
roads. They are not accompanied with
I>ain or lameness and cause no serious
trouble. A long rest may cure them in
young horses.
Windham |.$f;rLt!^sjsr"iH>?s
in London in 1750; died in 1810. After
being educated at Eton, Glasgow, and
Oxford, he was returned to parliament
(1784) as member for Norwich. Op-
posed at first to Pitt's administration
he joined in Burke's condemnation of
the French Revolution, and advocated
the war against France; became secre-
tary of war in 1794, and remained in this
position until the retirement of Pitt in
1801; took office again in the Grenville
administration (1806), and brought for-
ward a bill to limit the term of service
in the army, as also to increase the pay
and pensions of officers and men ; re-
tired from office (1807), and strenuously
opposed the Copenhagen and Walcheren
expeditions. He was the friend of Dr.
Johnson and Cobbett, and combined the
varied qualities of scholar, orator, states-
man, athlete, and sportsman.
Wind-instniinent, %° >n«tr"/»ent
w¥ AAJ.M. AA1.0VJ. u.axj.>^A«.v, q£ music, played
by means of artificially-produced currents
of wind, as the organ, harmonium, etc.,
or by the human breath, as the flute, horn.
etc. See Instrument and Instrumental
Music,
TXTiTii^losa (wind'las), a modification
WlliUlUBB qJ ^j^^ ^,jj^g, ^jj^ ^^ig ^^^
for raising weights. The simple form of
the windlass used in ships, for raising
the anchors, consists of a strong beam of
wood placed horizontally, and supported
at its ends bv iron spindles, which turn
ip collars or bushes inserted in what are
Ship's Windlass.
termed the windlass hitts. This large
axle is pierced with holes directed to-
ward its center, in which long levers or
handspikes are inserted for turning it
round when the anchor is to be weighed
or any purchase is required. It is fur-
nisbea with pawls to prevent it from
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WindmiU
Windsor
taming backwards when the pressure <m
the handspikes is intermitted.
Windmill ^ °^^'^ which receives its
VT j»uu.iiAxxj.y motion from the impact
of wind upon sails, and which is used
for grinding com, pumping water, etc.
In structure the wmdmill is a conical
or pyramidal tower, and from the posi-
tion of the sails in relation to the wind-
shaft it is described as either vertical or
horizontal. In the former, a section of
which is here given, the wind is made to
act upon sails or vanes ▲ ▲ attached
by means of rectangular frames to the
axle or windBhaft of the mill. This axle
is placed nearly horizontal, so that the
sails by the pressure of the wind revolve
in a nearly vertical plane, thus giving a
rotarv motion to the driving wheel e
fixed in the wind-shaft. The movement
thus produced is transferred by means of
WiTH^nm WnxiAH, statesman, be
Wrnaoni, j^ Behnont Co., Ohio,
bora
in
1827 ; died in 1891. He was elected to
Congress from Minnesota in 1858 and
to the senate in 1870; was Secretary of
the Navy under Garfield, in 1881, and
Secretary of the Treasury under Har-
rison, in 1889.
WinHA^or (win'do), an opening in the
wmuuw ^^^ ^^ ^ building to admit
light and air into the interior. In
dwelling houses in ancient times the
windows were narrow slits, and it was
not until about , .
the end of the
twelfth century
Section of upper part c»f
Wiudmiil.
bevel- wli eels to the ma id shaft
F, which is conoected with the
specific machinery of the mill. As the
sails to be effective must always face the
wind, this is accomplished in modern mills
by a self-adjusting cap B, moved by a fan
or flyer c attached to the projecting frame-
work at the back of the cap. B^ means
of a pinion on its axis, motion is given
to the inclined shaft and to the wheel d
on the vertical spindle of the pinion a;
tills latter pinion engages the cogs on the
outside of the fixed rim of the cap,
and by these means the sails are kept
constantly to the wind, when the wind
causes the fan o to revolve. In the
horizontal windmill, which is considered
inferior to the other, the wind-shaft is
vertical, so that the sails revolve on a
horizontal plane. In most of the wind-
mills used in America, the sails consist
of narrow boards arranged in a circular
framework at a constant angle to catch
the wind. Windmills, while widely re-
placed by the steam engine, are still
larrely used in the United States and
Holland.
were almost un-
known in the re-
ligious edifices of '-^^ -
the Egyptians, West Window, Erwux
Greeks, and Ro- Cathedral,
mans, the light
being admitted at the roof, but they
constitute an essential and distinguishing
feature of the Gothic style. In modem
houses windows are made capable of be-
ing opened and shut by means of case-
ments or sashes. In Britain a window
tax was imposed in 1695, and m
1851, when the tax was abolished,
each house having more than seven win-
dows was taxed. No such tax was ever
imposed in the United States.
Windpipe. ^^ Trachea,
Windsor (^iJ^'^^r), or New Wnro-
SOB, a municipal and parlia-
mentary borough in England, county of
Berks, beautifully situatea on the
Thames, 22 miles w. from London, and
connected by a bridge with Eton. There
are several churches and chapels, bar-
racks, an infirmary, etc. The only
manufacture of importance is that of
tapestry. Pop. 19,840. Windsor owes
its chief Importance to its castle, which
stands east of the town on a height over-
looking the river Thames, and is the
principal royal residence m the kingdom.
It was begun, or at least enlarged, by
Henry I, and has been altered and added
to by almost every sovereign since. The
castle stands in the Home Park or
•Little Park,' which is 4 miles in cir-
cumference, and this again is connected
with the Great Park, whfch is 18 miles
in circuit, and contains an avenue of
trees 3 miles in length. The chief fea-
tures of interest in the castie are tb«
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Windsor Winged Lion
old state apartments; St. George*8 arrested while part of the sugar is un-
Chapel, where the Knights of the Garter changed a fruity wine is the result If
are installed, and the vaults of which the process, however, is completed, and
contain the remains of Henry VI, Edward all the sugar converted into alcohol, a
IV, Henry Vlll^Charles I, George III. dry wine is obtained. When an efferveB-
George IV, and William IV; the Uouna cing wine, like champagne, is desired
Tower or ancient keep; and the present the fermenting liquid is bottled, and the
state apartments occupied by the sovei;- process of fermentation completed in the
eign. bottle, where the carbonic acid gas re-
Windsor * ^°^° ®°^ P^*"^ ®^ entry, mains to give it a sparkling effervescent
^ capital of Hants Co., Nova quality. When the wine is red in color
Scotia, on an arm of Minas Bay, 45 it shows that the skins of the grape have
miles N. w. of Halifax. It is the seat remained in the vat during fermentation,
of King's College, founded in 1788. while in tohite wines the skins have been
There are* here extensive mines of lime- removed before that process is begun,
stone, gypsum and oth^r useful minerals. The leading character of wine must be
Windsor was settled about 1745 and in- referred to the alcohol which it con-
corporated in 1878. Pop. 3398. tains, and upon which its intoxicating
mrindfiOr ^ ^^^^ ^ Ontario, Canada, powers principally depend. The amount
vTxii.u.Dvxy on the Detroit River and of alcohol in the stronger ports and sher-
Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific, and ries is from 16 to 25 per cent ; in hock,
other railways. It is in a fruit region, claret, and other light wines from 7 to
and has saU, chemical, and other im- 12 per cent Wine containing more than
portant industries. Pop. 20,000. 13 per cent of alcohol may be assumed
IXTiTii^nrfirii TQlciTi^fi ( wind'ward ), to be fortified with brandy or other spirit
wiiiuwaiu X9XiiiiUB ^jjg q£ ^jjg jj. rpije most celebrated ancient wines were
visions of the Lesser Antilles in the West those of Lesbos and Chios among the
Indies, so called in opposition to another Greeks, and the Falernian and Cecuban
division of the same, called the Leeward among the Romans. The principal
UlandB. The term is vaguely used, but modem wines are Port, Sherry, Claret,
generally includes Martinique, St Lucia, Champagne, Madeira, Hock, Marsala,
St Vincent, Grenada, Barbados, and etc. The varieties of wine produced are
Tobago. almost endless and differ in every con-
Xffinf^ (win), the term specifically ap- stituent according to the locality, reason,
^^^^ plied to the fermented juice of and age. The principal wine-producing
the grape or fruit of the vine, though it countries are , France, Germany, Spain,
may also be applied to the fermented juice P^j-tugal, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Cape
of any fruit (See Vine.) Wines are Colony, Australia, and the United States,
distinguished practically by their color, ^"^^^ *^^«'T*«.! SHf^V^^t^l^^^^liS^;
hardness or softness on the palate, their 8"^?^ m the United States is the product
flavor, and their being still or effervescing. ^U!^^^ country, chiefly of California.
The differences in the quality of wines de- Wine-meaSUre, ?JU«n«. bv which
Eend partly upon differences in the vmes, . , ... , measure oy wnicn
ut more on the differences of the wmes and other spirits were sold. In
soils in which they are planted, in the this measure the gallon contamed 231
exposure of the vineyards, in the treat- c"«>ic pches. ^ ^„„Hf
ment of the grapes, and the mode of Winficld ^^ ^*?.^' iL nl^'ir^n™^
manufacturing the wines. When the J^^^^*^ «®*^ ^^ ^:^l*T„^'bf *i^
grapes are fully ripe, they generally yield 50 nulw B. 8. E. of Wichita. Here are
the most perfect wine as to strength and an institution for the feeble-minded, two
flavor. The juice is expressed from the colleges, a Chautauqua Assembly, flour
grapes by means of presses of all va- mills, produce plants, etc. Pop. tJTUU.
rieties of construction, from the simple Wlllfired Bull. ^ architectural dec-
lever and wedge press to the machine ^"*6^^ , \ option of frequent
with hydraulic power. It is usual to occurrence in ancient Assyrian temples,
separate the juice as it is expressed into where winged human-headed bulls and
first, second, and third * runs,' the first lions of colossal size usually guarded the
pressing being the best quality, and the portals. They were evidently typical of
amount of all the juice is usually about the union of the greatest intellectual and
70 per cent of the weight of the grapes, physical powers. _ u i j i.u
The juice of the grape when newly ex- Win^fill LioTl *°® symbol of the
pressed, and before it has begun to fer- ^ *^8^^ xixuii, evangelist St. Mark,
ment, is of a sweet taste, and is called which was adopted as the heraldic de^
must. The fermenting process requires vice of the Venetian Republic. A a»>-^
much time and attention, and if it be brated bronse figure of the winged \\m^
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Wing-shell ' Winsey
of St Mark sarmomitiiis a magnificent Canadian Pacific now gave it a great
. , granite colamn^ formed out of a boom, wild land apecnlation setting in,
mngle block, stands in the pianetta of and the population doubling in a few
St Mark at Venice. months. This * boom *, however, checked
IXriTKy.aliAll SUa Pimmj^ ^^ development of the city, a business
Wing-Sneii. see P%fm9. coUapse following, which ckused much
WlTiTliTW*^ (win'i-peg), a lake of loss and rapidlj diminished the popula-
w¥ xAMMx^sif^ Canada, province of Mani- tion. But prosperity soon returned and
toba ; length, about 250 miles ; breadth, in 1886 it had 20,2^ population. Being
from 5 to 70 miles. It receives the sur- on the eastern edge of the prairie re-
plus waters of lakes Winnip^oos and f^on, which extends for a thousand miles
Manitoba, besides the river Winnipeg, to the Rocky Mountains, and lying west-
but its chief tributaries are the Saskatch- ward of the great L<aurentian formation
ewan and the Red River. Its surplus extending to Montreal, it is admirably
water is discharged by the Nelson River situated as an important railway center,
into Hudson Bay. The river of the same The first railway to reach it was the
name, which flows into Lake Winnipeg, Pembina branch of the Canadian Pacific,
rises in the Lake of the Woods, and has ^ 1878. This branch connects with the
a length of about 250 miles. Its navi- nulway system of the United States,
gation is interrupted by faUa. ^^ Canadian Pacific main line soon
WinniTieir capital of the province of after traversed the city and several
w xiuupc^^y Manitoba, Canada, stands branches radiated from this center. These
at the confluence of the Assiniboine and advantages and its location on navi-
the Red rivers, 40 miles 8. of Lake Win- sable rivers made it the commercial focus
nipeg. It occupies a central position on of the vast agricultural territory of the
the Canadian Padfic Railway, 1424 miles Canadian Northwest, a fact to which it
by rail w. n. w. of Montreal, and 512 ^b lanely owing its rapid development
miles 1?. V, w. of Minneapolis. The In 1^1 it had a population of 25,042,
locality of t^e city is that of the old Red ^^^ ^ 1^1 of 42,340, but dnce the
River colony of Lord Selkirk, founded in latter date, the settlement of the wheat-
1812. In fact, five fur traders' forts have growing territory of the Northwest has
stood within the city limits : Fort Rouge, given it ft phenomenal growth, its popu-
a French outpost (1736) ; Fort Gibraltar, lation reading 136.035 in 1911. The
built by Montreal traders (1804-15) ; <^ty is handsomely laid out, with numer>
Fort Doufflas, the Lord Selkirk strong- ous interesting edifices, including the city
hold (1813-15) : Old Fort Garry, of the hall, the parliament buildings, the grain
Hudson Bay Company (1821-35), and exchange, governor's residence, court-
New Fort Garry (1835-82). Hie trans- house. University of Manitoba (a well
fer of Ruperf s Land to Canada in 1870 endowed institution with four affiliated
led to the founding of the Manitoba prov- colleges), St John's Episcopal College,
ince, and at that date Winnipeg began/ Manitoba Medical College and St Boni-
as a village, half a mile north of Fort 'ace (Roman Catholic) C3ollege. Among
Garry. It owes its sudden expansion' the business interests of the dty, the
into an important city largelv to its ^ast bazaar known as the Hudson Bay
position on the Canadian Pacinc, while Company's stores stands preeminent
it is also benefited by railway connec- There are also great flour mills and grain
tion with the United States and by sev- elevators, the repair shops of the Cana-
eral other railways which radiate from dian Padfic Railway, and manufactures
it The site of the city is on a prairie, of agricultural implements, cottons, sew-
part of it being originally swampy, though ing silk and dairy implements,
it is now well drained. It extends on W'inOIia. (wi-n6'n4), a city county
hoiii sides of the Assiniboine, and on "vaj-c* ^^^ ^^ Winona Co., Minne-
the west side of the Red River, the sota, situated on the west bank of the
east side of which is occupied by its Mississippi. It is one of the largest
suburb of St Boniface, settled in 1817 grain-shipping points in the United
by Lord Selkirk's German De Meuron States, and an active manufacturing city,
soldiers. The growth of Winnipeg has producing agricultural implements, car-
been remarkably rapid. In 1871, the pop- riages and wagons, flour, patent medicines,
ulation of the village was only 241, but malt liquors, etc. Here is a State normal
it grew so rapidly that in 1873 it was school and other educational institutions,
incorporated as a city, in the face of Pop. 22.000.
vigorous opposition by the Hudson Bay W'ingev *^^ Wincey, a doth consist-
Compapy. Canadisn immigration now ''^Jy ing of woolen warp and cot-
became rapid, and in 1881 it had 7985 ton weft, or of wool mixed with a por-
Inhabitants. Its central position on the tion of cotton. Heavy winseys are used
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Winslow Winten
for skirtings, light winseys for men's WiTififi^H (win'sted), a borough and
shirts. * ' * -^ wmstea ^^^ ^^ ^j^^ capitals of Litch-
WiTiolAxir (winz'16), Edwabd, gov- field Co., Connecticut, at the outlet of
WlUSiUW ernor of Plymouth col- I^ng Lake, 28 miles N. w. of Hertford,
ony, Massachusetts, was born in 1695 at It has a county hospital, children's home,
Droitwich, England, sailed in the May- and varied manufactures. Pop. 7754.
flower, was governor or assistant governor Winston ^^^^ Clark, publisher, po-
after 1624, and returned on three occa- ^•*"*»»'^**> litical reformer, was bom
aions to England to further the interests at Darlington, Indiana, in 1856. He was
of the colony. In doing this he published graduated at Ilaverford College in 1881 ;
Oood Net09 From New EngJnnd (1624), entered the publishing business in Phila-
Hyprocrisie Unmasked (1646), and New delphia. and in 18H4 organized and be-
England^B Salamander (1647), all these came president of The John C. Winston
being yaluable descriptions of the young Company, lie has long been prominent
colony. He was appointed by CromweU in reform politics in Philadelphia,
chief commissioner of an expedition WiTlstOTl-Ssi.lein * ^^*y» countv
against the West Indies and died at sea W^"»«'«" oaiciu, ^^^^ ^^ Forsyth
in 1655. — JosiAH, his son, bom in 1629; County, North Carolina. Winston and
died in 1680 ; was assistant governor from Salem were formerly separate, but were
1657 to 1673. and afterwards governor consolidated into one city in 1913.
until his death. He was appointed gen- Salem was established in 1766 ; Winston
eral-in-chief of the United Colonies in in 1849. The city is located within fifty
1675, and in the same year the ^t pub- miles of the main range of the Blue Ridge
lie school was founded under his auspices. Mountains and is an important railroad
— John, Josiah's grandson, born in 1702 ; and industrial center, with varied manu-
died in 1774; carried out, under orders factures. It is the principal trading
from the British authorities, the removal center of a wide area. Pop. 30,000.
of the Acadians. W^lllt I^^^eb ^^ painter, was born at
TXriYifilnnr Forbes Bbnignus. physi- ^' *""» Stone, Staffordshire, England,
wiUBiuwy cian. bom at London in in 1784; died in 1849. He descended
1810; died in 1874. He was educated from a Dutch family settled in New
in Scotland and Manchester; studied York, studied Mezzotint engraving, but
medicine at New York and London Uni- soon took up oil and water-color paint-
versities passed the College of Surgeons ing. He became notable for his beautiful
in 1835; and in 1849 was graduated water-color illustrations of English land-
M.D. from Aberdeen. He devoted him- scape, architecture and country life. His
self chiefly to the investigation of men- favorite fields of work were in Uncoln,
tal disease, and published Anatomy of Yorkshire and Derbyshire, though he also
Suicide (1840), iManity in Criminal painted scenes on the Thames and the
Cases (1843K Obscure Diseases of the Trent, in Wales and elsewhere. He ex-
Brain (I860), etc. hibited mainly in the rooms of the Water-
TXTinaloixr John, naval officer, born color Society. He is well represented
WAiiMvw, ^^ Wilmington. North Car- both in the National Gallery and at
olina, in 1811; died in 1873. He en- South Kensington. Among his cele-
tered the navy about 1827, and in 1862 brated pictures are The Cricketers^ Lin-
served under Oiptain Foote on the coin Cathedral, The Hay Harvest^ Rich-
Mississippi River. In 1863 was put in mond Hill, Cows in Winter, A Cornfield
command of the Kearsage, a 7-gun and A Woody Landscape, the last two
steamer, and sent to the coast of Europe oil paintings.
to watch the Confederate cruisers. Here Winter (^^i^'ter), the coldest season
on June 19, 1864, he met the privateer '»***•'*** of the year, in the northern
Alabama, and sunk it after a short fight, hemisphere comprising the months of
its crew being rescued. He was ap- December, January and February. The
pointed commodore in 1865 and rear- astronomical winter begins on the short-
admiral in 1870. est day (December 22) and ends with
WiTifior Justin, historian, bom at the vernal equinox (March 21).
''^ *"**"*» Boston, Massachusetts, in Winfpr John Stbanoo. See Stan-
1831; died in 1897. He was superin- ^ ^^^^^^ nard, Mrs. Arthur.
tendent of the Boston Public Library, IJCTiTiter William, author and dra-
and librarian of Harvard University. ^ matic critic, was born at
He was the highest authority on the Gloucester, Massachusetts, in 1S.H6. He
early history of North America. Hia studied law. but soon forsook it for a
works are Memorial History of Boston, career in literature, which he had beeun
and The Narrative and Critical History in early life. In 1854 appeared his first
0/ America, dramatic criticism, a field in wbirh ho
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Winter-cress
Wire-glass
has since continued, gaining high repu-
tation as a critic. He has written much
under his own and other names, largely
in poetry and on stage subjects, and has
edited many of Shakespeare's and other
plays, also the Poepis of Oeorge Arnold,
the rorms and iStorte.'i of John Urouunam,
etc. He died June 30. 1917.
Winter-cress, *'o cTc?'f??ou''sT.in"J
of the genus Barharea, Barbarea vul-
gdris, called also yellow rocket, grows on
the banks of ditches and rivers, and about
hedges and walls. It is bitter and sharp
to the taste, and is sometimes used as a
salad.
WiTif^r<rrf^f^Ti & name of several
winxergreen, ^,^^^3^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^
being the partridge-berry (which see).
The name is also given to a genus of
perennial plants {Pyrola), order Pyro-
northeast of ZQrich. The principal in-
dustries are cotton spinning, silk weaving,
iron foundries, machine making, etc
Pop. 22,335.
WiTifliro'n a town (township) of
winxnrop, g^^^j^ ^^ Ma^chu-
Rotts. 5 miles N. E. of Boston. It forms a
peninsula in Massachusetts Bay, and is
a favorite summer resort Pop. 10,132.
WiTifnii A borough of Lackawanna
wmtuuy ^^^ Pennsylvania. 18 miles
N. E. of Scranton. It is in a coal-mining
district Pop. 5280.
IXTire ^^^ metallic substance drawn
^ to an even thread or slender
rod of uniform diameter by being passed
between grooved rollers or drawn through
holes in a plate of steel, etc. Wire is
usually cylindrical, but it is also made
of various other forms. The metals most
commonly drawn into wire are gold.
6 7 8
8 10 II
Sizes of Plain Wire
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 » 20
lace», having sh^rt stems, broad ever-
green leaves, and usually racemose white
or pink flowers. P. rotundifolia pos-
sesses astringent properties and was for-
merly used in medicine.
Winter-moth, tia'^tuJat^Z
larvfB of which are exceedingly injurious
to apple, pear, cherry, and plum trees.
The moths appear in their perfect state
in the beginning of winter.
Winter's-bark i:''S\t''trJZ\:
order Magnoliacese, a native of South
America. It is an evergreen shrub, the
bark of which has an a|;reeable, pungent,
aromatic taste, and tonic properties.
Winter Solstice, ^ee soutice.
Winterthur L'J^'^'T LS.rt^l
canton of Ztlrich, on the Eulach, 12 miles
silyer, copper, aluminum, iron and steel ;
but Uie finest wire is made irom platinum.
Copper and iron wire is extensively used
for telegraph and telephone. For fences
great quantities of plain and barbed wire
are produced. During the European war
barbed wire was extensively employed as
a protection against infantry attack by
the enemy. Wtredratoing is Uie name for
the process of making wire. An impor-
tant use of wire in engineering is for the
manufacture of wire rope. This is com-
posed of strands of metal wire twisted to-
gether. These wire ropes have displaced
nberropes in many branches of industry.
They are employed for suspension bridges,
for hoisting machines, telegraph cables*
ship's hawsers, etc. Endless wire ropes or
cables ore employed on traction railways
in some instiincos.
Wire-rfaSS window glass in which
'^ * gxa,oi», ^ screen of woven wire
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Wireless Telegraphy ' Wireless Telegrapliy
is imbedded. The molten glass is poured dicated and they are taken up in Boffi-
on an iron nlatform and the netted wire, cient strength to repeat their pulsations
heated red not, is pressed into it. Tiie and in this way reproduce the signals
result is an unbreakable sheet of gln^^. sent from Hie transmitter. One dUfi-
WirAlAflft Tplpcrrfl'n'hv ^^ send- culty hitherto has been Uiat a message
wxreiess xeie^apny, j^^ ^^ ^^j^ ^^^y ^ received by hundreds of receiying
graphic messages Hirough open space, instruments in all directions, thus pre-
without the use of conducting wires, venting secrecy. Many efforts liave been
Three different methods have been made made to overcome this defect, but as yet
use of in wireless telesraphy, which may with only partial success. The distance
be classed as conduction, induction and to which messages can be sent has so far
wave methods. In the first method cur- depended largely on the height to which
rents are sent through the earth from the wires extend above the earth's snr-
an electrode to another at the sending fac^ lofty poles being erected at the
station. In induction, use is made of stations. The height of these has been
the property which alternating currents gradually increased until the Eiffel Tower
possess of exciting similar currents in at Paris has been utilized as a sending
neighboring conductors, the aim being to station. The strength of the electric
get as intense a current as possible in waves has been similarly increased to
the secondary circuit. Mr. W. H. Preece, add to their space-penetrating capacity.
England, by combining the two. signaled The record of wireless telegraphy has
in this way as far as 40 miles. The been in this way improved until now it
third and the only method which has has come into daily competition with
proved practically available is by the use other means of news sending. Methods
of electro-magnetic waves. Guglielmo of tuning the instruments have been
Marconi, an Italian, after long experi- adopted which limit the influence of tht
ment, patented in 1897 a method en- currents to properly tuned receivers and
tirely independent of wires, the electric in this way some degree of secrecy is
waves being sent, presumably, through attained. Though the honor of inventing
the ether, by the aid of a transmitting the art of wireless telegrs^^hy is gener-
apparatus, and being detected by a ally ascribed to Marconi, this is to fdve
cohereff a glass tube filled with metallic him more credit than he deserves. The
filings, into the end of which the ter- principles involved were discovered by
minals of a relay circuit enter. The others and the utmost done by him was
wave falls on conducting material and, to invent a practical method of apply-
the spark gap being replaced by a ing them. There are other systems of
coherer, the metallic filings magnetic- wireless telegraphy of later invention
ally ding together, closing the relay than that of Marconi, tiirough a different
circuit, so that a signal is made. On application of the same principles, but
breaking the current, a slight tap on the none so far that seems likely to supplant
coherer or other means breaks the co- the Marconi process. Messages have been
hesion of the filings and the relay dr- sent to enormous distances, far surpass-
cuit is broken. In this way a rapid ing the width of the Atlantic, as from
succession of signals can be sent In Nova 8ootia and Ireland to Argentina,
1899 Marconi conducted in England an a distance of 6600 miles. Under excep-
exhaustive series of successful experi* tional conditions a distance of 6600
men ts, sending messages across the Eng- miles was at length attained, and oom-
lish Channel from the South Foreland munication between Japan and the United
to the French coast near Boulogne, and States was established in 1915. For
extending his results until much longer overland messages the limit of distance
distances were covered. The process of is less than oversea. Trans-Atiantic
development was continued until, to the passenger Tessels are now fitted out with
world's astonishment, signals were sent wireless apparatus, by means of which
across the Atlantic and, finally, conuner- almost constant communication can be
dal messages were transmitted over this kept up between passing vessels and
distance. between ships and shore. The effidency
Marconi's system is based on the prop- of the wireless process as a very oseful
erty supposed to be exerted by the Ti- appliance on shipboard has been fre-
brations or waves of electric currents quentiy demonstrated by indicating the
passing through a wire of setting up locality of sinking ships and calling
similar vibrations in the ether of space, others to their aid. Relief has been
These waves extend in every direction brought in this way to vessels in distress
from the point of departure and by in- and many lives saved. An important ex-
gepious and very delicate receiving in- ample is that of the sinking of the
struments. their presence in space is in- Titanic in 1912. By means of wireless
i
i
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^
Wireless Telephony Wisconsiii
messages from ship to ship the width by tbe Anti-Masonic party Aod reoeived
of the Pat ilic has been practically cov- the electorial vote of Vermont He died
ered, as ships enroute from America to February 28, 1834.
Australia or Asia can be kept in touch Wisbefih ^* WlBBEACH (wis'bfich)^
with Honoluln through almost the entire *9um\^*m^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ Cambridgeehire,
journey. Law in the United States now England, on the Nene, on the island of
requires that all ocean passage-steamers Ely, 40 miles N. of Cambridge. Vessels
carrjring 50 or more passengers on of nearly 500 tons can ascend to Nene,
routes of 200 miles or over, must be and the place has some trade and manu-
equipped with efficient wireless apparatus factures. It was long famous for its
and operators. The distance reached woad and this is still made here for dye-
must be at least 100 miles. Tbe Cana- ing. A castle was founded here by Wil-
dian law provides that every sea-going liam the Conqueror in 1071^ was aeyeml
and coasting passenger ship of over 400 times rebuilt, but waa demolisbed in 1810.
tons gross, registered in Canada, and Pop. (1911) 10,828.
every sea-eoing and coasting freight ship Tirxa'Kv (^'b^)t & seaport famous iik
of over 1200 tons gross, shaU be equipped ^ *»*'/ medieval times on the Swedish
with a wireless apparatus. Wireless mes- island of Gothland, 130 miles B. of Stock-
sages have been successfully sent from holm. It was one of the most important
aeroplanes, balloons and submarine ves- commercial cities in Europe during the
sels, and the naval vessels of all nations tenth and eleventh centuries and a prin-
are kept in easy communication by this cipal factor of the Hanseatic Leagne in
method. Wireless press messages be- the fourteenth and fifteenth. It was
tween America and Europe are also mat- captured and plundered by Valdimar III
ters of daily performances. Great Britain of Denmark, In 1361, and this proved
proposes to send wireless messages e ound fatal to its prosperity. Its remains at-
the world by a system of relays. test its early grandeur. Pop. 6666.
Wireleaa TelfiTilionv. ^"^ -*7*' WisroTifiin (wis-kon'sin), a river
wireless j.eiepuuiijr. ^em of elec- vviscQnsia ^j^-^j^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^
trical transmission employed in wireless em border of Wisconsin, runs southward,
telegraphy has recently been applied sue- becomes navigable at Fortage city, ana
cessfully in telephony, through the in- enters the Mississippi 4 miles below
vention of suitable apparatus, and tt is Prairie-du-Chien after a course of nearly
possible to telephone many miles with- 600 miles. It is remarkable for its
out wires. Distances reached in this rapids and falls.
manner have rapidly and remarkably in- WifinriTifiiTi one of the northern
creased, and in Sentember, 1915, a mes- VYISUUUMU, United States, bounded
sage sent from Arlington, Va., to Call- north by Lake Superior, northeast by
fomia was distinctly heard in Hawaii. Michigan, east by Lake Michigan, south
WirA«WOrmS "^® name given the by Illinois, and west by Iowa and Min-
vYA*^ TTVAAU0) grubs of tbe click beetle nesota, the Mississippi river separating it
(Elater or Agriotes). They are perhaps from the latter States; area, 66,066 aq.
the moat injurious of farm pests, destroy- miles. It condsts of an ondulating
ing root, grain and fodder cropa Their plateau, varying from 600 to 1500 feet
name is given from their Hkeness in above the sea-level, with high bluffs abnf
rtuipe and toughness to a piece of wire, the rWers and lakes, elsewhere diversi-
Tbej are of yddovTish color, ^ to % inch fied with prairie and woodland. Besides
in length, with three pairs of legs and a Michigan and Superior there are nu*
suctorial appendage below the tail, merous small lakes; the chief rivers.
Among the natural enemies of these which drain into the Mississippi, are the
worms, moles, plovers, pheasants and St Croix, Chippewa and Wisconsin,
rooks are the most important In winter the weather is severe, but on
Wirt WnxiAH, lawyer, bom at Bla- the whole the climate is dry and healthy.
^ *'*' *'* densburg, Maryland, in 1772 ; The northern part of the State is heavily
was admitted to the bar in 1792, and in timbered, but is fast becoming settled.
1806 settled in Richmond, Vs., where The State ranks high in agrictiltural
he became a prominent lawyer. He dis- value, the soil outside the wooded
tinguished himself at the trial of Aaron country being good and producing large
Burr, in 1807, as one of the counsel for crop, such as wheat, corn, rye, oats,
the prosecution. He held many State barley, potatoes, hay and beet su^r.
offices, was appointed United States Dis- Fruit growing is an important industry,
trict Attorney in 1816, and Attorney- and cheese and butter making have very
General in 1817, holding the latter office greatly increased. So has tobacco-grow-
till 1829, through three administrations, ing, which is profitable, the leaf com*
He was nominated for President in 1832 manding a high price tat wrappeiik
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' Zi ail
Sire □/ typi\ tnJfCsiittH
rtlitfk't i>nrar<iMiL< o/ p/uce*
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Wisdom Witchcraft
In the north the lumber business is large, trines ; returned to Scotland and began
Horses are kept in large numbers and to teach, but was prosecuted for heresy;
sheep are numerous, the wool clip being fled to England in 1538, and remained in
valuable. The mineral wealth is great. Cambridge for six years; returned to
especially of iron ore, of which the yield Scotland in 1543, and preached in the
is enormous. An excellent hydraulic ce- chief towns, for which oflfense, at the
ment comes from the vicinity of Mil- order of Cardinal Beaton, he was ar-
waukee. Galena, limestone, lead and rested in the house of Cockbum of
zinc are mined. The lakes and streams Ormiston, tried by a clerical assembly
abound with fish, especially trout and in St. Andrews, and burned at the stake
black bass. The manufactures in the there in 1546.
cities are chiefly furniture, agricultural Wielifl-rrT (wish'fl), a police burgh,
implements, carriages, saddlery, woolen ^▼^o^O'W g^otland, Lanarkshire, 15
goods, leather, brooms, nails, paper, steel miles s. e. of Glasgow. It has several
rails, etc At Milwaukee are some of the large coal-mines, iron, steel, and nail
largest beer brewing corporations in the works, fireclay brick- works, railway-
world. There are a number of universi- wagon works, and a distillery. Pop.
ties and colleges, the Wisconsin Uni- 20,873.
veraity, Madistn, being liberally subsidized TI7ioT«ftf. (v§s'mar), a seaport town
by the State. Wisconsin was admitted ▼viDuiai ^^ Mecklenburg - Sch we rin,
to the Union in 1848. The inhabitants North Germany, situated at the head of
to a large extent are German in origin, a bay in the Baltic, 18 miles N. E. of
Milwaukee is the chief town, and Madi- Schwerin. It has some manufactures,
»^ the capital. Pop. (1910) 2,333,860. an excellent harbor, and a considerable
Wisconsin. Univebsity of, a State trade in coal, timber, iron, etc. Pop.
' co-educational institution, (1905) 21,902.
located at Madison, Wisconsin, widely WiQQl^Tn hourly See Weissenburg.
known throughout the country because of ''^ -^SoCiuuu Ul^.
its active extension work in all parts of Wistariil. (wis-tft'ri-a), a genus of
the State. The University comprises a WA»«'»Aia plants, nat. order Legu-
CoUege of Letters and Science, Graduate, minosse. The species are deciduous.
Engineering, Law, Agriculture, Medicine twining, and climbing shrubs, natives of
and Library Schools ; and a flourishing Japan, China and North America. When
summer bchool is maintained. The ex- in flower, they form some of the hand-
tension division consists of the depart- somest ornaments of the garden. W.
ment of correspondence study, iiistrut- frutesoens is a species belonging to the
tion by lectures, debating and public dis- United States.
cussion, and general information and wel- •fTTi-fp^ Annis Lee (Fumess), bom
fare work. For the purposes of this WlSlCr, ^^ Philadelphia in 1830, mar-
extension study the State 18 divided into rfed Dr. Caspar Wister. She translated
fourteen districts, with university head- into English numerous novels from the
quarters in each. The College of Aj?ri- German of E. Marlitt and others, which
culture maintains an experiment station, became very popular. She died in 1908.
long and^ short courses in agriculture. TCTigtA- Owen, novelist, born at Phil-
farmers institutes, and courses in home WlSVCr, ^delphia in 1860. He was
I^^Z'^^^'a'^ *^^™P^V^ ^^ Univer- graduated from Harvard, became a law-
sity at Madison covers 926 acres on Lake yer, and gained wide repute by The Vir-
Mendota and contam some 26 buildings, ginian, a novel of cowboy life. Lady
The students in 1912 nunabered 5(48. Baltimore gained equal popularity. He
Wisdom l^^.u°°J,'' Book of, called has written various other stories and
QUA/^ |jy ^jj^ Septuagint the Wis- sketches.
^oV^fthTo^fi- ^?sVien^t* '''^^''"'' Witchcraft ^,t=^r;V;er' Xh
Wise (^^)» Henry A., statesman, persons were formerly supposed to obtain
was born on the eastern shore of by entering into compact with the devil,
Virginia in 1808, and died in 1876. He who engaged that they should want for
was sent as Minister to Brazil in 1844, nothing, and be able to assume whatever
and was elected Governor of Virginia in shape they pleased, to visit and torment
1855, after a most energetic campaign, their enemies, and accomplish their in-
W^ifiliart (''^^'Art), George, one of fernal purposes. As soon as the bargain
***** the first martyrs to the was concluded the devil was said to dc-
Protestant religion in Scotland, was liver to the witch an imp or familiar
bom in Kincardineshire early in the six- spirit, to be ready at call, and to do
teenth century; traveled in Europe whatever it was directed. By the aid
where he accepted the Reformed doc- of tb's imp and the devil together the
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Witch-hazel Wittcnbcrgc
witch, who was almost always an old came president of Princeton College. Ha
woman* was enabled to transport lierself identified himself with the cause of the
through the air on a broomstick, and to colonists and was elected to the Con-
transform herself into various shapes, tinental Congress. His patriotic work
Kirticularly those of cats and hares; to was arduous and of supreme importance,
flict diseases on whomsoever she pleased. He died in 179i.
and to punish her enemies in a variety of Witness (wifnes), in law, (o) one
ways. The belief in witchcraft is very " aw****"** ^Jj^ sigDB his name as evl-
ancient. It was a common belief in dence of the genuineness of another signa-
Burope till the sixteenth century, and ture; (6) a person who gives testimony
mainUdned its ground with tolerable firm- or evidence under oath or affirmation in
neas till the middle of the seventeenth a judicial proceeding. See Evidence,
century. Indeed it is not altogether ex- Witt ^^ ^^ ^^ ^****
tinct even at the present day. Numbers "*'"'j
of reputed witches were condemned to TfT-iff-A Sergei Yxtijevitch, a Russian
be burned, so that in England alone rt ^^UrC, statesman, was bom in 1840
is computed that no fewer than 30,000 at Tiflis, his father being a government
of them suffered at the stake. The last official of German extraction and his
victim was executed in 1722 in Scotland, mother a member of one of the oldest
and in the United Kingdom prosecution Russian noble families. After leaving
for witchcraft was abolished m 1736 by the Odessa Universify he devoted some
act of parliament In the United Stata time to journalism, but in 1877 entered
a few executions for witohcraft took the railroad service, in which he showed
Slace in the early colonial period, the the highest efficiency during the war with
alem witchcraft delusion becoming his- Turkey (1877-78). In 1879 he was
toricaL In France executions lor witeh- called to St Petersburg to be made rail-
craft were prohibited by an edict of way manager, and was promoted rapidly
Louis XIV as early as 1670. until in 1892 he became Minister of
T[rif^li.lifi.7Al S^ Wych'hazel. Communications and soon afterwards of
mriU/U lu&^ci. Finance. In the latter charge he intro-
Wif^TtftiTATnAt (wife-na-ge-mof ; lit- duced many reforms, increased the
wx 1*^11.05 v;iuv» erally, 'meeting of revenue, negotiated large loans abroad,
the wise men'), among the Anglo- and concluded important conmiercial
Saxons, the great national council or treaties. In 1903 he was made President
parliament, consisting of athelings or of the Committee of Ministers and a
prhices, nobles or ealdormen, the large member of that of the empire. In 1905
landholders, the principal ecclesiastics, he was the chief Russian plenipotentiary
etc. The meetings of this council were in the negotiations at Portsmouth, New
frequent ; they formed the highest court Hampshire, yielding the treaty or peace
_ary to give validity to laws, and treaties 32 miles w. n. w. of Amsberg, on the
with foreign states were submitted to Ruhr. The chief industries are connected
their approval. They had even power to with iron and steel, lead, chemicals, plate-
elect the king. See Anglo-Sawons. glass, fire-brick, etc. Pop. 35,841,
Wither (with'er), Geoboe, an Eng- Wittenberg (vifen-burg), a town in
W liner ,\gjj ^^^ ^^ ^^^ j^ Hamp- Wlll^enoerg f^^ussia, province of
shire in 1588; died in 1667. He was Saxonv, on the right bank of the Elbe,
educated at Magdalen College, Oxford; 45 miles southeast of Magdeburg. It
afterwards entered himself a student of was while Luther was a professor in
Lincoln's Inn; and in 1613 published his Wittenberg that he nailed his ninety-five
satires entitled Abuses Stript and Whipt, theses to the door of the Schlosskirche.
the severity of which led to his confine- The university of which he was professor
ment in the Marshalsea. Having been was united to Halle in 1817. The prin-
released he took an active part on the cipal buildings are the Schlosskirche, in
side of the Parliament when toe Civil war which both Luther and Melanchthon are
broke out. and sold an estate to raise a buried; the Stadtkirche, where Luther
troop of horse. Under the Long Parlia- and Melanchthon preached; the remains
ment he enjoyed various lucrative employ- of the Augustine monastery, with Luther's
ments. apartments; the houses of Melanchthon
' '"* - * - ^jj^ Cranack.- the town hall, the gym-
nasium, etc Pop. 20^382.
tion of Independence, was bom in Gif- ^XTiftATiliArffA (vit^enbe^-ge), an in-
- -^ ■ ^* -^-^ In 1768 he ba- WlXXeilDerge ^ustrial town of Pram-
Witherspoon ii^^M^e^beS:
tion of Independence, w
ford, Scotland, in 1722.
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Witwatersrand Wolf
sia district of Potsdam, at the junction Wnlf (wulf), a quadruped belonging
of the Stepenitz with the Elbe. Pop. ^ to the digitigrade camivora, and
18,501. very closely related to the dog. The com-
TXTif'OTQfArarQ'nfl ( wit - wft't^rz-rant ; mon European wolf (Cania lupua) is yel-
W II, waiersraiiu . ^ h i t e Water lowish or fulvous gray ; the hair is harsh
Range'), a ridge of land in the Trans- and strong, the ears erect and pointed,
vaal. South Africa, about 100 miles long the tail straight, or nearly so, and there
E. to w., in lat. 26*^ s. This is the great- is a blackish band or streak on the fore-
est gold-yielding region in the world, legs about the carpus. The height at the
Gold was discovered here in 1886, and shoulder is from 27 to 29 inches. The
was the proximate cause of the Boer war. wolf is swift of foot, crafty, and rapa-
The output has increased until it is cious; a destructive enemy to the sheep-
nearly double that of the United States, cote and farm-yard ; it associates in packs
yjJt\ai\ (wOd), a cruciferous plant of to hunt the larger quadrupeds, such as the
wuau ^jj^ genus ladtia, the /. tino- deer, the elk, etc. When hard pressed
toria, formerly cultivated to a great ex- ^i^h hunger these packs have been known
tent in Britain on account of the blue to attack isolated travelers, and even to
dye extracted from its pulped and fer- enter villages and carry off children. In
mented leaves. It is now, however, nearly general, however, wolves are cowardly and
superseded by indigo, which gives a stealthy. Wolves are still plentiful in
stronger and finer blue. The ancient some parts of Europe, as in districts of
Britons are said to have colored their ^^^
bodies with the dye procured from the ^ i-tlm^S^'
woad plant. WUd tDoad, weld, or wold
is the Reseda Luteola, a British plant,
which yields a beautiful yellow dye. See
Dyer'S'Weed.
Wftlrnm (wa'bum), a city of Mid-
wouuru ^jgggj Co., Massachusetts, 10
miles N. w. of Boston. It has the largest
leather-making establishments in New
England; also has large manufactures of
shoes, glue, chemicals. Pop. 15,308.
Wodfl.n o' Woden (wd'den), the
TTvuau^ Anglo-Saxon form of the
name of the deity called by the Norse - «r ,* /^ > ,
Odin. Wednesday derives its name from Common Wolf (Oanit lupus).
him, and his name is also seen in several
place-names, as Wedneabury, etc. See France, Spain, Italy, Germany, Turkey
Odin, and Russia; they probablv ceased to ex*
WniiiznilA Watwode (wft'wOd) an ist in England about tne end of the
wuivifuuc, old Slavonic name for a fifteenth centurv; the last of them in
general, afterwards used as a title of civil Scotland is said to have been killed by
rank and authority. The princes of Cameron of Lochiel in 1680, while in Ire-
Wallachia and Moldavia were called land they are known to have existed until
Woiwodes, and this title was also ap- at least the beginning of the eighteenth
plied at an early period to the Poli& century. The wolf of North America is
kings. generally considered to be the same ape-
■"■ ^ " an Bng^ cies as the European wolf, though indl-
-*'* — *" ~ary much in color and otherwise.
^ f prairie-wolf or coyote (C ocfcro-
was born in lt38; died in 1819. He P««)» abounding on the plains of the
studied medicine ; resided some time in western part of the United States, is a
Jamaica, where he took clerical orders; burrowing animal. The Tasmanian wolf
and afterwards established himself in is a marsupial.
Cornwall, where he discovered the artis- Wolf i7®^^)» Friedrich August, a
tic genius of the painter Opie. He pub- German critic and scholar, bom
lished a number of satirical poems, and in^ 1759; died in 1824. His fame as a
in particular turned his humor upon critic rests upon his Prolegomena to
George III. Between 1778 and 1808 he Homer (1795), in which he endeavors to
is said to have put forth some sixty show that the Odyssey and Iliad in their
satirical productions in verse, most of present form are not the work of one
them now forgotten. hand, but of several. This opinion he
Wnlrl <*^ WELD. See Dyer^a-toeed, further defended in his Letters to Heyne
^^^^y (1797). Seeflomer.
Kings. geoerauy cod
Wolfiott (wol'kot), John, an Bng^ cies as the I
vxvvvv jigjj writer, generally known viduals vary i
by his nom de plume of * Peter Pindar,' The little pra
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Wolfe
Wolseley
HTnlf* (wulf), CuABLES, the author
WUlie of the Ode on the Burial of Sir
John Moore, was born in Dublin in 1791 ;
died in 1823. He was educated at Trin-
ity College, Dublin, and it was while there
that the poem which has secured his fame
was published in the A'eirry Telegraph
(1817). He was also the author of sev-
eral other poems, and his Remains were
published at Dublin (two vols., 1825).
TKTolfe Jakes, an English general,
¥¥ vxxc^ ^j^g Ij^j^ ^^ Westerham, Kent,
in 1727; entered the army and proceeded
with his regiment to the Low Countries;
took part in the battles of Dettingen,
Tontenoy, Falkirk, CuUoden and Laf-
feldt, being wounded in the last. After
distinguished service against the^ French
in America he was entrusted (lio9) with
an army of 8000 men with which to as-
sault Quebec. During the night this
small force scaled the Heights of Abra-
ham, which commanded the town, and in
fhe battle which took place next day the
British were victcyious; but General
Wolfe was wounded in the engagement,
and died in the moment of victory,
his opponent, Montcalm, being also mor-
tally wounded.
Wolfenbiittel ^ 'M^lcV" Te^
nrany, on the Oker, 7 miles south of
Brunswick. It has a castle, town house,
arsenal; a library of about 300,000 vol-
umes, besides MSS. ; a statue of Leasing,
who was long librarian to the duke; a
gymnasium, etc. Pop. 17,873.
Wolffian Bodies Sy'!liff;\\, %fl
coverer), in physiology, a term applied
to certain bodies in the vertebrate em-
bryo, preceding the two kidneys, whose
functions they perform. As the foetus
advances they gradually disappear, their
place being* supplied by the true kidneys,
except in fishes, in which they are per-
manent.
Wolf-fish. S^^ Sea^wolf.
TITnl fro TTi (wulf'ram), a native tnng-
woiiram ^^^^^ ^^ .^^^ ^^^ man^-
nese. Its color is generally a brownish
or grayish black. It occurs massive and
crystallized, and in concentric lamellar
concretions, and is the ore from which
the metal tungsten is usually obtairyed.
Wolfram von Eschenbach.
See Eschenbach,
TXTnlf a.liQTiA & poisonous plant of
won S Dane, ^^g genus Aconitum
(A, Napellus), It is a native of Alpine
pastures in Switzerland, and found m a
wild state in oue or two parts of Eng-
land* Se« Aconite,
WoUaston (fBl'as-tun), Woxiam
¥w vAMMwu jj Y D E , a distinguishetl
chemist, bom in London in 1776; died
in 1828. He was educated at Cambridge,
took the degree of M.D., practiced as a
Ehysician in London, but finally devoted
imself to scientific research. He was
the inventor of the p>niometer, an in-
strument for measnrmg tha angles of
crystals, and the discoverer of palladium
and rhodium, and of the malleability of
platinum.
WnlliTi (voHn), an island of Prus-
on the north side of the Great Haff:
length, 20 miles; breadth, from 3 to 10
milea. Fishing and cattle rearing are the
chief employments of the people. Pop.
about 15,000.
Wolseley .tt2!^V^U^?5I^
LEY, a British general, was bom near
Dublin in 1833; died in 1913. He
entered the army as ensign in 1852;
took part in the second Burmese
war (1852-53), where he was severely
wounded; served with distinction in the
Crimea, and was wounded at the siege
of Sebastopol; engaged in the siege
and capture of Lucknow during the In-
dian mutiny of 1857-58; and was em-
ployed in 1800 in the Chinese war. He
was despatched to Canada in 1861, and
again in 1807, having received command
of the Red River expedition, which he
carried to a successful issue. Three years
afterwards Wolseley (now K.C.M.G. and
major-general) was appointed to the com-
mand of an expedition to punish the King
of Ashantee, and after a brief campaign
he entered Coomassie (Feb., 1874) and
received the submission of the king, being
rewarded by a grant of £25,000 and the
dignity of K.C.B. After the defeat of a
British force by the Zulus in South
Africa, in 1879. he was despatched as high
commissioner, but before bis arrival the
Zulus had been defeated at Ulundi, and
little remained for him to do. His next
command was in Egypt, in 1882, where
his forces successfully stormed the lines
of Tel-el-Kebir and captured Arabi
Pasha. For this he received the thanks
of parliament and was created a baron,
his army rank being also raised to that
of general. His next appointment was as
adjutant-general of the forces. When
the Mahdi subdued the Soudan, and heM
General Gordon prisoner in Khartoum.
Wolseley was despatched in 1884 with a
relief expedition. He concentrated his
forces at Korti, and sent a column across
the desert to Khartoum, but before its
arrival the place had fallen. On his re-
turn to England be was created a vis-
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Wolsey
Women^s Eights
count. In 1888 he was made ranger of
Greenwich Park. From 1895 to 1900 he
was commander-in-chief, being succeeded
in the latter year by Lord Roberts. He
is the author of the Soldier'a Pocket Book
(1869), etc
Wolsev (wnrsi). Thomas, Cardi-
son of a butcher, was bom at Ipswich,
England, in 1471. He was educated at
Magdalen Ck>llege, Oxford, where he took
his degrees as a scholar of distinction.
After quitting the university he was ap-
gointed to the parish of Lymington, in
omerset Then he became a private
chaplain to the Archbishop of Canter-
bury, one of the governors of Calais,
chaplain to Henry Vll, and latterly Dean
of Lincoln. When Henry VIII became
king the advancement of Wolsey was
rapid. Successively he was appointed
Canon of Windsor. l>ean of York, Bishop
of Lincoln, Archbishop of York, and his
nomination as cardinal in 1515 and pope*s
legate in 1518 completed his ecclesiasncal
dignities. In 1515 he was also appointed
lord-chancellor of the kingdom. He was
twice a candidate for the papacy, and his
power in England, as sdso nis revenues,
were only equaled by those of the crown.
Part of his immense revenues he expended
in display, and part more laudably for
the advancement of learning. He pro-
jected on a magnificent scale the College
of Christ Church, at Oxford; founded
several lectures, and built the palace at
Hampton Court, which he presented to
the king. This rapid preferment by the
king was largely the result of a remark-
able series of diplomatic victories, in
^hich Wolsey had been the means of en-
abling Henry to hold the balance between
Francis I and the Emperor Charles V.
His success in the region of politics ter-
minated in the splendors of the Field of
the Cloth of Gold (1520). In his am-
bitious career the cardinal nad made many
enemies, who were held in check so long
as he retained the favor of his royal mas-
ter. This favor Wolsey lost when he
failed to obtain from rope Clement a
decision granting the king's divorce from
Catharine of Aragon. Thenceforth the
enemies of the fallen prelate harried him
unmercifully. He was banished from
court, stripped of his dignities, found
Siltv of a praemunire, and sentenced to
prisonment Finally, after a brief res^
pite, during which he was restored to
some of his offices, and had returned to
his see of York, he was arrested at Ca-
wood Castle on a charge of high treason,
and on his wav to London as a prisoner
he died in 1530 of dysentery at Leicester
Mabt. See
nHfi, Mary,
See Olutton.
Qod-
Wolstoneoraft;
Wolverene.
Wolverhampton to^fTm^HS':
pal and parliamentary borough of Eng-
land, county of Stafford, 13 miles N. w.
of Birmingham. It contains the collegi-
ate church of St Peter, a Roman Catholic
chapel designed by Pugin, an exchange, a
market hall, art gallery, town hall, etc.
It is situated in the heart of the Midland
mining district, has extensive beds of coal
and ironstone in its vicinity, is the larg-
est manufacturing town in Stafford, and
is known as the capital of the Black
Country. The chief industries are the
smelting of iron ore, and manufactures
in brass, tin, steel papier-mftchd, iron,
galvanised iron, ana chemicals. Pop.
95,333.
Woman's Christian Temper-
ance XJnioiU ^^ Temperance SoMe^
Woman Suffrage. f^J^ women*.
Wombat i'^om'btLt; Phaecolomyjt
icomhai), a marsupial ani-
mal, a native of Australia and Tas-
mania. It is about 8 feet in lencth, and
has coarse, almost bristly fur, of a gen-
Wombst (Pkaseolamyt wombat) ,
era] gray tint, mottled with black and
white, it burrows, feeds on roots, and its
flesh is said in fatness and flavor to re-
semble pork.
Women'! Eights, |^ ST liSa"^
made, on behalf of women, for a legal,
political educational and social status
equal to that of meiv on the basis of
natural right and also oi tk« right to a
voice in public affairs as property hold-
ers and taxpayers. The nrst distinctir*
claim for eouality in tlie employment
education and political liberty of womea.
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Women's Eights Women's Bights
was that made in 1792 by Mary Woll- been successful in a number of countries,
itonecraft, in her Vindication of the These include Australia and New Zealand,
RighU of Women, For the pioneers in where full sufifrage exists, also Norway,
a public movement i|i that direction, we Finland. Iceland, Denmark and Isle of
must seek the United States^ where a Man. In Great Britain women can vote
band of resolute women met in 1848 at for all public officials except members of
Seneca Falls, New York, the first Wo- parliament.
men's Bights Convention ever held, at Suffrage for women exists in all the
which the claim of suffrage for woman provinces of Canada except Quebec. They
on equal terms with man was first def- also have municipal suffrage on the same
initely made, Elizabeth Cady Stanton be- terms as men in the British Isles and in
ing the prime mover in the demand. The Sweden. In some other countries women
movement was not confined to suffrage, suffrage has made progress. In Great
but covered other fields of inequality be- Britain, before the European war, the de-
tween man and woman, and since that mand for full sufbage took a new stage,
date the fight has gone on all along the proceeding from quiet demand to militant
line. The demand for property and edu- insistence. The House of Conmions was
cational rights has made more rapid prog- assailed by bands of suffragists, many of
ress than that for suffrage and in these whom willingly suffered imprisonment as
directions there is little left to gain. At martsrrs to the cause. Punishment for
present, many colleges and universities their acts only inspired them to more vig-
admit women to a full coarse of instruc- orous attempts, the assault upon the Par-
tion in all departments, most of those liamcnt being succeeded by attacks on pri-
founded since 1840 receiving women on yate property, the assailants resorting to
equal terms with men. Women have also window breaking, etc. Many thinking
colleges of their own, where full courses wf>men defended these methods on the
of instruction may be had, and also medi- ground that the straggle amounted to
cal colleges as advanced in their courses actual warfare and was due to the fact
as those confined to men. Full courses of that women had been insulted and bru-
stady in legal science may also be ob* tally treated while seeking the vote by
tained and courses in medicine have for peaceful measures. During the European
years been open to women. In most of war militant methods were desisted from
the States the legal profession is open to and in 1917 the suffragists won a notaUe
women, though few have as yet embarked victory, 330 members of the House of
in it. In regard to property rights, the Commons, out of 440 present, voting in
same equality has been widely estab- their favor.
lishedf women retaining the control of In the United States milder methods
their own property after marriage, in- were adopted, yet more effective ones as
stead of letting it fall to their husbands, the above record shows. The suffrage
as under the older system. In this re- parades and conventions held in large
spect there is now httle distinction be- cities have been dignified and impressive,
tween the rights of men and women. For In 1917, however, a method of picketing
many years past the fight for equal rights the White House at Washington was
of suffrage has been vigosously waged, adopted by a small party of extremists
and the progress of women In this di-and gave such annoyance that those tak-
rection has become notable, especially ing part in it were imprisoned. The
within the present century. In the Uni- method was deemed unwarranted by the
ted States, women now ciossess the right ^eaders in the movement,
of suffrage in thirteen States : in Wyo- A meeting of the National Woman Suf-
ming (1869), Colorado (1893), Utah f rage Association was held at Washington
(1896), Idaho (1896), Washington in 1910, it being addressed by Prerident
(1910). California (1911), Arissona, Kan- Taft, this being the first occasion in which
sas and Oregon (1912), Illinois (1913), this body had been addressed by a Presi-
Montana and Nevada (1914), New Yoris dent of the United States. A monster pe-
(1917). Also Alaska Territory (1913). tition, with 500,000 signatures, was at the
In 1917 Indiana, Ohio and Rhode Island same time presented to Congress, calling
Save women the right to vote for Presl- for the reference of the suffrage question
ential electors and North Dakota gave to popular vote. This has developed into
them municipal suffrage, this to be ex- a demand for an amendment to the con-
tended to Presidential electors in 1920. stitution establishing a national right of
School suffrage for women prevails in woman suffrage and in response to a mcR-
some form in thirty-one States, tax-paying sage from President Wilson the Susan B.
suffrage for women tax-nnyers in Mon- Anthony Amendment was passed by the
tana^~IiOuisiana and Michigan. Outside House in January, 1918.
the TFnited States woman suffrage has The industrial rights of women hav«
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Wonders of the World Wood
beea the subject of legislative enactment Democrats in 1841, and in 1854 was
in many of the States during recent dected mayor of New York, where he
years, one of the latest notable events in. introduced various reforms. In 1861,
this direction being a decision of the Su- when the southern states were seceding,
preme Court of 'Illinois in April, 1911, he recommended that New York should
in which was upheld the law of 1909, s€»cede and become a free city. He was
which Mmited the employment of women reelected to Congress in 1868, and re-
in laundries, factories, etc., to ten hours mained a member until bis death, Febrw*
in any one day. This decision, in con- ar.r 13, 1881.
nection with that of the Supreme Court of "HToofl George B., an eminent physi-
the United States upholding the Oregon »» vwu, ^j^^^^ ^^g ^^^ ^^ Greenwich,
ten-hour law, clearly establishes the right New Jersey, in 1797 ; died in 1879. He
of a State to use its police power in was graduated in medicine from the Uni-
restricting the freedom of contract, to versity of Pennsylvania in 1818, became
their injury, of adult women. The a professor in the Philadelphia College of
Southern Conference on Women and Pbar.'nacy, and in 1835 in the University
Child Labor formed a permanent organ- of Pennsylvania, where be remained until
ization at Memphis, Tenn., in April, i860. He did much to advance the in-
1911, its purpose being to secure uni- terests of the University, and in 1865 en-
form legislation on hours and conditions dowed there an auxiliary faculty of medi-
of labor. Such legislation is generally cine. His medical works included a
demanded and is likely to take place. Treatise on the Practice of Medicine, a
Wonders of the World. ^^ ^l TreatUe on Therapeuttct and Pharma-
vvvuu^xo vx i»u«. vTvxAu.. ^icut colooy, a PharmacopoBta, and great part
times seven of these were enumerated, of the United States Dispensatory, All
These were the Pyramids of Egypt, the these were admirable works and highly
Mausoleum of Artemisia, the temple of nseful in the study of medicine.
Diana at Ephesus, the Hanging Gardens Trrg^gxA Horatio C, physician, was
of Babylon, the Colossus of Rhodes, the VVUUU, ^^ ^^ Philadelphia in 1841.
Statue of Jupiter Olympus and the He was graduated from the University of
Pharos of Alexandria. ^ Pennsylvania in 1862, and was appointed
WoO-GhaHfiT (w5-chang), a city of to professorships of medical botany and
^*^^*^^ China, province of Hu- nervous diseases. He wrote much on
P4, on the Yang-tse-kiang, opposite the medical and other subjects, his writings
city of Hankow. Pop. estimated at over being Essay on Thermic Fever, or Sun-
500,000. stroke; The Fresh Water Alga of North
Wood ^^ Ttmher. America, A Study of Fever, A Treatise
' in Therapeutics, and many papers on
Wooil (^Tl<^K Anthony, antiquary, medicine, botany, and other branches of
^^^^ bom at Oxford in 1632; ^ed in science.
1695. He was educated at Merton Col- T^dd^ James Fbedebio, an American
lege, Oxford, where he took his degrees, »»vwu, archbishop, was bom in Phila-
and spent his life in examining and sift- delphia in 1813, educated in England,
ing the records of the university. The and became a bank cashier in Cincinnati,
result of bis laborious researches was He joined the Roman Catholic Church in
Published as Historia et Antiquitates 1836, studied at Rome and became a
Jniversitatis Oxoniensis (1674), this be- priest, was made bishop of Philadelphia
ing a Latin translation of Wood's English in 1860, and archbishop in 1875. He
treatise under the authority of the uni- died June 20, 1883.
versity. He was also the author of IJJiMxA Rev. John Geoboe, naturalist,
Athenw Oxonienses (1691-92). wuuu, ^^^ ^ London in 1827; died
Wood ^I'l^^f or Price, an English suddenly at Coventry in 1889. He was
yyvvu.^ novelist, better known as Mrs. an enthusiast in natural history, and
Henry Wood, bora at Worcester in 1820 ; published a large number of books on
died in 1887. Among her many novels zo<)logy and kindred subjects, which had
may be noted E<ist Lynne, which has had great popularity.
ar enormous success both as a book and T[7|)|)^ Leonard, physician and sol-
a drama; The Channings, St. Martin's "vvu, ^^^^^ ^^g ^^^ ^^ Winchester,
Eve, A Life's Secret, Roland Yorke, Dene New Hampshire, in 1860. He was grad-
HollotD and the Johnnie Ludlow Stories, uated from Harvard Medical School in
reprinted from the Argosy. 1884, and was appointed Assistant Sur-
Wood Fernando, congressman, was geon in 1886, with rank of captain in
^ vviA, Ij^j^ ^^ Philadelphia about 1891. He received a medal of honor for
1812. He became a merchant in New services against Geronimo in 1888. In
York, warn elected to Oongreas by the 1898 he became colonel of Roosevelt'a
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Wood Ant Wood-pulp
' Rough Rider * regiment and took part Wood-^TOnse ^^ OaperoaUzie,
in the Spanish war, in which he was pro- ^^^ ©awi*.*!^.
moted brigadier-general. In 18^ he was WoodhOUSClcC. ®^ ^«^^-
appointed governor of Cuba, in which »» *'*'****viao**x^^.
island he hai much to do with stamping WAod.lorlr & small species of lark,
out yellow fever. He was made brigadier- '"' ^^** xaxxw, ^^ Alauaa arhorea, not
general in the regular army in 1901, unfrequeut in some parts of England, but
major-general in 1903; commanded in the rare in Scotland. Its »>ng is more melo-
Phllippines 1906-08, and in Dec., 1909, dious than that of the skylark, but it
was appointed chief of staff of the army, does not consist of so great a variety of
WaaiI Anf A common species of notes, nor is it so loud.
WTOU AU\y ^^^ f^^^^ ^ ^^^^^ WoodlifiP See Slater.
where it makes a great heap of vegetable WOOOnuc.
fragments, beneath which ft hbj numer- TI7#\#\|9.TiTrm'n'h in ancient mythol-
ous chambers and passages. It has the ^vuu uymyiiy ^y ^ goddess of the
power of ejecting an acid secretion as a wood, a dryad. In zoology this name is
defense against enemies. given to the beautiful lepidopteroos in-
Woodbine (wadl)ln), a name given sects of the genus Endryat.
"^^ the honeysuckle and also WoAll-oil * balsamic substance (an
some other climbers, such as some kinds ^ ^^'^ ^*^ oleo-resin) obtained from
of ivy, the Virginia creeper, etc. Spe- several species of Dipterocarpus grow-
cially applied to CUtus quinquefolia, a ing in Pegu, Assam, and some of the
vigorous climbing plant, supporting itself islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is
by means of its radiating tendrils. used medicinally, as a varnish, in litho-
Woodbnrv I^aniel R., statesman* graphic ink, etc.
vwwuMUAjr, bom at Francestown, TXT'Anil'nAAlrAr a name for the birds
New Hampshire in 1789; died in 1851. WOOapeCiier, belonging to the fam-
He was admitted to the bar in 1812, was ily Picid®, and the order Scansores or
appointed judge of the Superior Court climbers. They are characterized by their
in 1817, and was elected governor of long, straight, angular beak, adapted for
New Hampshire in 1823. He was a splitting the bark of trees ; by their slen-
member of the United States Senate der tongue, with its spines at the tip
1825-31, was appointed secretary of the curved backwards to enable them to ex-
navy by President Jacluon in 1831 and tract insects from crevices; and by their
secretary of the treasury in 1834, hold- gtifif tail, which acts as a prop to sup-
ing that position until 1841, when he port them while climbing. The noise
was reelected senator. In 1845 he sue- they make in tapping the bark of a tree
ceeded Joseph Strong as a justice of the to discover where an insect is lodged can
Supreme Court of the United States. A be heard at a considerable distance,
collection of his Political, Judicial and Piou9 major, mediuf, minor, and viridis,
Literary Writings was published in 1852. the green woodpecker, are European
Woodohnok ^^ popular name of species. In America the most characteris-
* a rodent mammal, a tic species are P. principalis or the ivory-
species of the marmot tribe, the Arc billed woodpecker, P. aurdtus or gold-
tomys monaw, or ground-hog, common in winged woodpecker, and the Califomian
the United States and Canada. It is of woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivdrus) ,
a heavy form, from 15 to 18 inches long, TXTAnii.TiiiyAATi See Bina-dove.
blackish or grissled above and chestnut- WOOa-pigeon.
red below. It excavates burrows in TtTftnil.T^-nlT* the fibrous product of
which it passes the winter in a dormant ▼^vwu pu^p^ ground-up wood from
state. which paper is made. This branch of
^JSToodcOCk * ^'^ ®' *°® genus manufacture has grown to enormous
, ' ScoUpaw, the S. rustx- proportions, to supply the great demand
eola, same genus as the snipe. It is for printing paper of recent years,
widely distributed, being found in all Spruce, hemlock, and poplar are com-
parts of Europe, the north of Asia, and monly employed and other trees and
as far east as Japan. The bird is about plants are coming into use, such as white
13 inches in length, the female being fir, balsam, pine, cottonwood, etc, the
somewhat larger than the male. Its food wood being simply ground up finely and
is chiefly worms. The American wood- made into paper, or treated with cliem-
cock iSodlopaco or PhUoheles minor) is ical substances to yield a better product
a smaller bird, but very similar in plum- suitable for book purposes. The total
lage and habits. use of wood for this purpose in the United
'wonil V.ntrtajn'nv See Engraving, States in 1910 was over 4,000,000 cords.
WIHia XiUKHiyill);. rpj^g ^g^j consumption of pulp wood in
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Woodruff
Woolen Manufacture
the United States has led to a large de-
mand from the extensive. coniferous for-
ests of Canada, to facilitate which the
tariff has been taken off from Canadian
wood-pulp. Wood-pulp has been applied
to otner purposes than papermaking,
bricks, and even car-wheels, being made
from it, while among its other products
artificial silk may be named, the fine pulp
being forced through minute holes in a
Diate and yielding threads of a smooth,
silk-like finish and considerable strength.
It can be woven into silk-like fabrics.
Woodruff (^W^J'"-"^)' WooDBOOF, the
vw*** «u«. common name of plants of
the genus AsperUla, nat. order Rubiaces.
The sweet woodruff (A. odorata), with
its whorled leaves and white blossom, is
found plentifully in Britain in woods and
shady places. The dried leaves are used
to scent clothes and also to preserve them
from the attacks of insects. The root
of the dyer's woodruff (A. tinctoria) is
used instead of madder.
VJfkfkAu Lake of the. See Lake of
wooas, ,^^ ^^^^,
VliUiiiA KATHABim: Peabson, novel-
WOUUtt; ist, bom at Wheeling, West
Virginia, in 1850. Her socialist novel,
Metzerott Shoemakerf attracted much
attention; others were The Mark of the
Beast, From Dusk to Dawn, etc.
Woodsia iTt?^/?!"*^' * T^^P |.'^
*^ " tributed genus of polypodia-
ceous ferns. TF. hyperhorea, the flower-
cup fern, is a very small species, much
resembling W. Perrinianat forming tufts
on rocks.
TXTnAil.anrrAl the common name of
WOOa-SOrreiy ^^^^^ Acetosdla, well
known for the aciditv of its leaves, and
formerly used in medical practice as an
antiscorbutic and a refrigerant
WoodBtock, t„,^%, 'S^u^X^
nada, county seat of Oxford Co., on the
Thames River, 30 miles E. N. E. of Lon-
don. It is a place of considerable trade,
and has various manufactures. Is a fa-
vorite summer resort Pop. 9321.
Wood-swallow, \ °*°;? ^^^ ^
VT vv«& 0Tv»uvTV| Australia to a ge-
nus of birds (ArMmiA), famil^r Ampe-
lidffi or chatterers. One species (A.
sordidus) is remarkable for its habit of
hanging suspended from dead branches
in clusters resembling swarms of bees.
Woodworth, L^-p^^U-riiu^
uate, Massachusetts, in 1785; died in
1842. He was an editor on various jour-
nals, wrote The Champions of Freedom
and several dramatic works, but is
chiefly known for his popular poem, The
Old Oaken Bucket.
prov-
WOO-UOO, treaty port of China, l
ince of Ngan-Hoei, on the Yoing-tse^
kiang, about 50 miles above Nanking.
Opened to trade in 1887 it has recently
become of considerable commercial im-
portance, the chief exports being rice,
silk, feathers, hides uad tea, and the chief
import is opium. Pop. about 115,000.
Wool (^uDf that soft species of hair
" "^ * which growc on sheep and some
other animals, as the alpaca, some spe-
cies of goats, etc., which in fineness
sometimes approaches to fur. Wool is
divided into two 'classes — short or card-
inff wool, seldom reachiiig over a length
of 3 or 4 inches, and long or comh%np
wool, varying in length from 4 to 8
inches, each class being subdivided into
a variety of sorts, according to their
fineness and soundness of the staple.
Wools which unite a high degree of fine-
ness and softness with considerable
length of staple, bear a high price.
English-bred sheep produce a good,
strong, combing wool, that of the Scotch
breeds being somewhat harsher and
coarser. The finest carding wools were
formerly exclusively obtained from
Spain, the native country of the merino
sheep, and at a later period extensively
from Germany, where that breed had
been successfully introduced and culti-
vated. Immense flocks of merinoes are
now reared in the United States, Aus-
tralia, South America, and Europe, the
annual wool product of the United States,
Russia and Argentina being about 325,-
000,000 pounds for each country, while
that of Australia is about 750,000,000
pounds. The total European product is
about 800,000,000 pounds; total world
product 2,700,000,000 pounds.
Woolen Manufacture. '^^'^^
article of clothing dates from the earli-
est times, and no doubt it was made into
cloth earlier than either flax or cotton.
Among the ancient Jews wool was the
staple material of clothing: and the
woolen fabrics of ancient Greece and
Rome attained special excellence. In
time the Roman manufactures were car-
ried to the countries in which Roman
colonies had been established. In Eng-
land the making of woolen cloth seems to
have been introduced b^ the Romans,
but It did not rise into importance as a
national employment until much later.
The woolen cloths of England were for
a considerable time confined to the
coarser fabrics of domestic manufacture,
finer cloths being imported from the
Continent, particularly from Brabant
At various times also the trade was
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Woolen Manufacture
Woolner
hampered by many illiberal laws for its
regulation, for prohibiting exportation,
etc In the early part of the eighteenth
century Yorkshire began to assume an
important position in woolen manufac-
tures, and that county is now the chief
seat of both the English worsteds and
woolens. Scotland, especially the south,
is famous for the sort of cloth called
tweeds. The industry was introduced
into the United States in the early colo-
nial period as a household manufacture.
It has now grown into one of the leading
textile industries.
In making woolen cloth the essential
processes, as carried on in modem fac-
tories, are: — (1) the atapling of the raw
wool. In this process the stapler or
sorter works at a table covered with wire
netting, through which the dirt falls
while the various qualities of wool are
being separated. The wool is then ready
to be put through the (2) scouring
machine, where it passes on an endless
apron into an oblong vat, which contains
a steaming soapy solution. Here it is
carried forward gently by means of rakes
until it is thoroughly soaked and
cleansed. After this it is taken to the
(3) drying framework of wire netting,
under which are situated steam-heated
pipes. A fan-blast drives the heated air
upwards through the wet wool, which
lies on the wire netting, until it is all
equally dried. When necessary this is
the point in the process when it is ' dyed
in the wool.* It is then ready for the
(4) icilleying or teasing machine, which
consists of a revolving drum furnished
with hooked teeth, close above which are
set cylinders with hooked teeth moving
in a contrary direction. The wool is
fed in upon the drum, which whirls with
great speed; and between the two sets
of teeth working in opposite directions
it is disentangled, torn, and cast out in
fine, free fibers. With some classes of
wool it is also necessary, at this stage,
to remove suds and burrs by steeping
them in a solution of sulphuric acid, or
passing them through a burring machine,
by which the burrs are extracted. The
wool is now dry and brittle; and before
submitting it to the process (5) of
carding, it is sprinkled with oil and well
beaten with staves in order to give it
suppleness. This process of carding is
accomplished by a series of three delicate
and complex machines called a scribbler,
an intermediate, and a finisher. These
machines have various intricate cylin-
ders and rollers, studded with teeth and
working in opposite directions, over
which the wool is passed until it is torn,
interblended, and finally delivered from
the finisher in a continuous flat lap. li
is then cut into strips and passed (6) to
the condensing machine, which rubs the
strip into a soft, loose cord or sliver
technically called a 'slubbing.' The
wool is now ready for (7) spinning into
yam, and this is accomplished in a wool-
spinning mule, which draws and twists
the sliver into the required thinness, the
process being essentially the same as in
cotton-spinning. (See Cotton-spinning,)
The wool, which has thus been brought
into the form of yarn, is now fit for (8)
weaving into woolen cloth. (See Weav-
ing.) When it is taken out of the loom
the cloth is washed, to free it from oil
and other impurities, and also beaten
while it lies in the water by wooden
hammers moved by machinery, while it
is again dyed if found necessary. After
it has been scoured in water mixed with
fuller's earth, the cloth undergoes a
process of (9) teaseling and shearing
(see Teasel) t in which the pile or nap
is first raised, and then cut to the proper
length by machines. When this is done
it IS (10) steamed and pressed between
polished iron plates in a hydraulic press.
In the manufacture of worsted yam
the long-staple wool fibers are brought
as far as possible into a parallel condi-
tion by processes called giUing and comb-
ing. The wool, in a damn condition, is
passed through a series of *gill boxes,'
in which steel gills or coml» separate
and straighten the fibers until, from the
last box, it issues in a long sliver. In
this condition it is run through a deli-
cate combing machine; after a process
of roving the thread is spun into yarn.
Merinos, Thibets, empress and Henri-
etta cloths, alpacas and other kinds of
dress goods are made from worsted
yarns. The camel hair, cow hair and
calf hair goods are of cheaper grades:
most of these contain a considerable pro-
portion of shoddy, the lower grades of
wool and woolen waste. These belong
more to the woolen than the worsted
trade.
Wnnlnpr (wuKner), Thomas, sculp-
WOOiUer tor^^^s bom at Hadleigh,
Suffolk, in 1825; educated at Ipswich;
placed at the age of thirteen in the stu-
dio of William Behnes; exhibited his
first notable life-size group, The Death
of Boadicea (1844) ; ana followed up
this success with Puck^ Titania, and
Eros and Euphrosyne. Besides his well-
known statues of Carlyle, Tennyson,
Gladstone, Newman, Darwin, Kingsley«
etc., his more celebrated works are:
Elaine with the Shield of Sir Lancelot
Ophelittt In Memoriam, Virpilla Be-
wailing the Banishment of Coriolanu9,
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Google
Woolsack
Worcester
and Achillea and Pallaa Shouting from
the Trenched. He was elected an
A.R.A. 1871; R.A. in 1876. He has
also achieved considerable success as a
poet in the volumes entitled My Beauti-
ful Lady (1863), Pygmalion (1884),
Silenus (1884), and Tiresias (1886).
He died in 1892.
Woolsack (wul'sak), a large square
WOOiSaCiL jjj^g Qf ^^j^ without back
or arms, covered with red cloth, which
forms the seat of the lord chancellor of
England in his capacity of speaker of the
House of Lords.
TXTnAlftAV Theodore D wight, an eml-
wuuiscjTi jjp^^ scholar, born at New
York, October 31, 1801 ; died July 1, 1889.
He was graduated from Yale (Jollege in
1820, studied law and theologv, and was
professor of Greek at Yale 1831-46, and
then its president until 1871. From
1871 to 1881 he was president of the
American revisers of the New Testa-
ment. He prepared editions of several
of the Greek classic authors, and wrote
Introduction to the Study of Interna'
tional LatOf The Religion of the Past and
the Future^ and other works.
TXTnnlaoTi Constance Fenimobe,
WUUisuUy novelist and poet, bom at
Claremont, New Hampshire, in 1838;
died in 1894. Her works embrace
Castle Nowhere. Rodman the Keeper,
Jupiter Lights, For the Major, etc.
Wool-tree. ^^ Eriodendron.
WnnliEripli (wurich), a town and
WOOlWlCn ^arriamentary borough of
England, county of London on the
Thames, 8 miles below London Bridge.
It stretches about 3 miles along the river,
and owes its importance to the great
arsenal, which has a circumference of 4
miles, and consists of gun and carriage
factories, laboratory, barracks, ordnance
departments, etc. At North Woolwich,
on the opposite side of the river, many
houses and extensive factories have re-
cently sprung up. Pop. 121,406.
Wnnnftooki^f (w6n-sok'et), a city of
WOOUSOC&ei Providence Co., Rhode
Island, on the Blackstone River, about
40 miles s.w. of Boston. It is claimed
to be the largest producer of woolen
goods of any city in the United States,
and has extensive cotton mills, employing
over 4000 hands. There are also rubber
shoe, yarn and machinery works, etc.
Pop. 38,125.
Woorali Poison. ^"^ ^"'^"'^
'UfAAafAT (wos't^r), a manufacturing
WOOSlcr ^..^y^ capital of Wayne Co.,
Ohio. It is the seat of the University
of Wooster, founded in 1870, and of the
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.
Plows, whips, furniture, coach-pads,
foundry and lumber products are manu-
factured. Pop. 6136.
TXTootz (w5tz), a superior steel from
vTvvi»A ^jj^ g^g^ Indies, imported into
Europe and America for making the fin-
est classes of edge-tools.
Worcester tea^^We^a'S' onl
of the most ancient cities in England,
lies on the eastern bank of the Severn,
114 miles N. w. of London. Its most
notable building is a Gothic cathedral,
originally built in 680 and rebuilt in the
beginning of the thirteenth century. Con-
structed in the form of a double cross,
with a central tower, it has been added to
at various periods, and a very complete
restoration was made in 1857. Among
other buildings are the shire hall, the
guildhall, com exchange, museum of
natural history, etc. . Worcester is the
chief seat of the English leather glove
trade, has celebrated porcelain works,
with foundries, carriage factories, and
other works. JPop, 47^87. The county
is bounded N. by Shropshire and Staf-
fordshire, E. by Warwickshire, s. by
Gloucestershire and w. by Herefordshire ;
area, 751 sq. miles, about half of which
is in permanent pasture. The surface is
a broad plain varied by the Malvern
Hills in the s. w.^ several valleys, of
which the Severn is the most notable,
and having as its chief rivers the Severn,
Stour, Teme and Avon. Wheat is ex-
tensively grown, while bop gardens are
numerous. Coal and iron are worked;
there are large manufactures of iron,
steel, and hardware; and salt is obtained
abundantly from the salt springs at
Droitwich. The carpets of Kiddermin-
ster are famous, as are also gloves and
porcelain of Worcester, and there are
important glass manufactures at Dudley
and Stourbridge. Pop. 526,143.
WOrceSier, ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ Worcester
Co., Massachusetts, lies on the Black-
stone River, 44 miles west of Boston. It
is the second city of the State, and has
many notable edifices, including the city
hall, public library. State armory, Clark
University, Polytechnic Institute, Holy
Cross College, American Antiquarian
Society, Odd Fellows' Home, and an Art
Museum with endowment of $4,000,000.
Its industries are large and varied, its
wire works being the largest in the world.
There are also great loom and envelope
works, woolen and mohair mills, large
carpet works, boot and shoe factories,
and many other industries. Worcester
was permanently settled in 1713 ; incorpo-
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Worcester
Wordsworth
rated as a city in 1848. Pop. (1913)
166.206.
^Xr^rAAttf Ar Edwabd Somebset, Ma^
WUrucBbcr, quis of, one of tlie ear-
liest inventors of a steam engine, was
bora abont 1601; died in 1667. He was
engaged in tlie service of Charles I
during the civil war, and was imprisoned
in the Tower from 1652-65. He after-
wards publisfied iSoaniUnpa of One Hun-
dred Inventions, in which he gave a de-
scription of his steam engine.
Wnrnpftf^r Blwood, American dergv-
woroesT^er, ^^^ ^„^ ^0^^^^^
Masilon, Ohio, in 1886. Since 1904 he
has been rector of Emmanuel Church,
Boston. Soon after 1904 he inaugurated
a movement for the treatment of nervous
diseases which attracted widespread in-
terest His books include ReUgion and
Medicine (1907), and The Living Word
WnrMiif^r Joseph Emebson, a dis-
WOrceSXer, ^inguished lexicographer,
bom at Bedford, New Hampshire, in
1784. His first work was a Geographi'
ool Dictionary, or Univereal Oaeettecr.
It was followed by Oaeetieer of the
United Statee. Blemente of Geography,
Sketches of the Earth and its Inhabit-
anU and BlemenU of History, In 1830
he published a Comprehensive Pronounc-
ing and Explanatory EnoUsh Dictionary,
In 1860 be published the great quarto
Dictionary of the English Language (il-
lustrated). He died October 27, 1865.
WnnlATt John, naval officer born at
woraeu, ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^.^^ j^
1818; died in 1897. He entered the
navy as a midshipman in 1834, and at
the beginning of the CJivil war was taken
prisoner bv the Confederates, being ex-
changed after seven months. His most
eminent service in the war was as cap-
tain of the Monitor in its famous tight
with the Merrimac in Hampton Roads.
He comanded the iron-clad Montauk
in its operations against Fort Sumter,
was made commodore in 1868 and rear-
admiral in 1872, and retired in 1886.
Wordsworth (wards'wiirth), Chris-
woroBWurtu topheb, youngest
brother of William Wordsworth, was bom
at Cockermouth in 1774; died in 1846.
He was the author of Ecclesiastical Biog-
raphy and other works.
Wordsworth William, a celebrated
woraBwori.ay Enough p^^t, son of
an attorney, was bom at Cockermouth,
Cumberland, April 7, 1770; died April
23, 1850. In 1787 he was sent to St.
John's College, Cambridge. He left the
university after taking his degree, but
without having otherwise distinguished
himself, and lived aimlessly hi Lon-
don and elsewhere. He crossed to
France in 1791, and exhibited vehement
sympathy with the revolution, remaining
in France for nearly a year. After his
return, disregarding all entreaties to en-
ter upon a professional career, he pub-
lished his Evening Walk and Descriptive
Sketches (1793). Two years afterwards
he received a legacy of £900 from Raisley
Calvert, a friend whom he had nursed in
his last illness. With this sum and the
consecrated helpfulness of his sister Dor-
othy he contrived to keep house for eight
years, while he gave himself to poetic
effort as his high * office upon earth.*
For the first two years they lived at
Racedown in Dorset, where the poet,
among other experiments, began his trag-
edy of The Borderers, In this retreat
they were visited (1797) by C^oleridge,
who had already recognized an original
poetic ffenius in the author of Descrip-
tive Sketches, Coleridge was at this
time living at Nether Stowey, in Somer-
set, and during this visit he induced the
Wordsworths to go into residence at Al-
foxden, in his immediate neighborhood.
Here the two poets held daily inter-
course, and after a twelvemonth they
published Lyrical Ballads (1798) in
literary copartnership. Although this
volume was received with almost com-
plete public indifference, yet Wordsworth
felt that he had found his mission, and
after a winter spent in Germany he and
his sister settled at Grasmere (1799),
where he proposed to write a great philo-
sophical poem on man, nature, and so-
ciety. Thenceforth his life was marked
by few incidents. Those worth noting
are his marriage in 1802 with bis cousin
Mary Hutchison; a removal from Gras-
mere to Allan Bank in 1808; his ap-
pointment in 1813 to an inspectorship of
stamps, and his removal to Rvdal
Mount; several journeys into Scotland
and to the continent; his acceptance of
a D.C.L. degree conferred upon him in
1839 by the University of (Jxford; and
his accession in 1843 to the laureateship
on the death of Southey. Wordsworth^
great philosophic poem, which, in his
own phrase, was to be the Gothic cathe-
dral of his labor, received only a frag-
mentary accomplishment in The Prelude^
The Ewcursion, and The Recluse. Yet
enough was achieved in his smaller poems
to justify his own conception of himself
as a 'dedicated spirit,' and to set him
apart among the greatest of England's
poets. A complete edition of his poetical
works has been published by Professor
Knight, his prose writings have been col-
lected and published by Dr. Grosart, his
Memoirs were published in 1851 by his
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Work
Wormseed
nephewt and an interesting account of
the poet and his sister Dorothy is found
in her Diary of a Tour in the Highlands.
VJqtIt (wurk), in mechanics, the act
of producing a change of con-
figuration in a system in opposition to a
force which resists that change. Accord-
ing to physicists a unit of work is taken
as a weignt of one pound lifted one foot.
See Foot-pound, Unity Energy,
Workhouse, ^^»- 'S.J^t.S''^l
the public expense, those who are able-
bodied being compelled to work. Under
the old poor-laws of England, there was
a workhouse in each parish, partaking of
the character of a bridewell, where in-
digent, vagrant, and idle people were set
to work, and supplied with food and
clothing, or what is termed indoor relief.
These workhouses were described as, gen-
erally speaking, nurseries of idleness,
ignorance, and vice; but a new system
was introduced in 1834, parishes being
now united for the better management of
workhouses, which gave rise to the poor-
law unions, with their workhouses. In
these establishments the pauper inmates
are employed according to their capacity
and ability. Religious and secular in-
struction is supplied, while habits of
industry, cleanliness, and order are en-
forced. Similar institutions exist in the
United States. See Poor.
Workington KeVt^w^n^Sn'd^Sea^
port of England, county of Cumberland,
near the mouth of the Derwent, about o
miles N. of Whiteliaven. Its industrial
establishments comprise large iron-smelt-
ing works and works for steel rails, iron-
plates, ship-building, etc. Pop. 25,099.
Workmen's Compensation
IiAWS ^^s relating to the compensa-
tion of workmen for injuries
sustained have been passed by many
states. In nearly all the states of the
Union the laws of employers' liability
have been modernized, but only in a few
states do these acts apply to all servants
and are therefore * compensation acts.*
TXTnTlrfiATi (wurk'sup), a market town
WOriLSOp ^^ England, in Nottingham-
shire, 26 miles n. of Nottingham. It
has a beautiful Norman church, iron-
foundries and saw-mills. Pop. 20,387.
W^Orld (wurld), in its widest sense
defies the universe, the total
of all existing things. In its narrower
sense it means the earth, its figure, di-
mensions, mass, and all else related to it
It is often spoken of also as the total of
human beings, ' the world of man ' ; also
of a specific group, aa ' the literary world.'
World Sconts, f », ^^^^ (50^
the chief difference being that it is di-
vested of all military significance, and
based on the principle that all mankind
constitute one family, and that in a strict
sense there are no foreigners. It orig-
inated with Sir Francis Vane, who was
concerned with General Baden-Powell in
organizing the Boy Scouts. Not relish-
ing the military aspect of the latter, be
devised this new idea. It has bad won-
derful success, its membership going up
to 50,000 in a few months, and spread-
ing over Europe, though not yet to the
United States. The rules of helpfulness,
etc., are similar to those of the Boy
Scouts (which see). The American Boy
Scouts are essentially non-military.
Worms (^urms), a term loosely ap-
plied to many small longish
creeping animals, entirely wanting feet
or having but very short ones, includ-
ing such various forms as the earth-
worm, the larvflB or grubs of certain
insects, intestinal parasites, as the tape-
worm, thread-worm, etc In zoological
classifications it is used as equivalent to
Vermes or to Annelida. In medicine it
is applied to the parasitic animals which
exist chiefly in the intestines, and to the
disease due to the presence of such para-
sites. Several kinds of worms may in-
fest the human body, but those with
which children are so commonly annoyed
are the small worms known as thread-
worms. Vermifuges or anthelmintics are
names given to medicines that cure
worms, such as extract of male-fem root
for tapeworms, santonin for thread-
worms. See Wormseed. Wormwood,
Tapeworm and Nematelmta.
Worms (^dnns), one of the most an-
WVAU&0) ^.gjjj cities of Germany, is in
the Grand-duchy of Hesse, on the Rhine,
25 miles s. of Mainz, and 20 miles n. w.
of Heidelberg. The chief buildings of
interest are the Romanesque cathedral
(twelfth century), a magnificent struc-
ture with four round towers and two
large domes; the Liebfrauenkirche and
church of St. Martin; the town house;
and the monument to Lather, consisting
of a colossal statue on a raised plat-
form surrounded by figures of precursors
of or persons directly connected with the
Reformation. At Worms was held the
famous diet in 1521, at which Lather
defended his doctrines before the Em-
peror Charles and an august assemblage.
Pop. (1910) 46,819.
WormA^^rl ^ s^^ which has the
WOrmsCCa, property of expelling
worms from the intestinal tube or other
open cavities of the body. It is brought
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Wormwood Wrack
from the Levant, and is the produce of a ouentlr he built, in Sayannah, 6a., the
Kipecies of Artemisia (A. Sanionioa), nrst direct-acting compound engine ever
which is a native of Tartary and Persia, used in water-works; erected a large
In the United States the name is gener- plant for the manufacturing of pumping
ally given to the seed of Chenopodium machinerv; invented the duplex pump,
anthelmintioum. See Santonin and Ery- and devised various improvements m
ttmtfm. steam and hydraulic machinery. He
VUnrrnvjiMiA (wurm'wud), the com- died December 17, 1880.
wuJTiuwuuu „j^j^ jj^g ^j several Wotton (woften), Sib Henbt, a dl-
plants of the genus Artemina, Com- plomatist and miscellaneous
mon wormwood (A. Absinthium), a writer, bom in 1568; died in 1639. He
well-known plant, is celebrated for its was educated at Winchester and Oxford ;
intensely bitter tonic and stimulating resided on the Ckintinent for some years,
qualities, which have caused it to be an and on returning to Bngland was em-
ingredient in various medicinal prepara- ployed as secretary to Essex. On the
tions, and even in the preparation of fall of that nobleman from power (1600)
liqueurs. It is also useful in destroying Wotton fled to Florence, where he was
worms in children. employed by the grand-duke to reveal to
Wnrfit^H (wur'sted), a variety of King James of Scotland a plot against
wvxobcu woolen yam or thread, spun his life. When the Scottish king as-
from long-staple wool which has been cended the throne of England he showed
combed, and which in the spinning is his gratitude by making Wotton a knight,
twisted harder than ordinary. It is knit employing him abroad as an ambassa-
or woven into stockings, carpets, etc. dor, and ultimately (16C25) appointing
The name is derived from Worsted, a him provost of Eton. His ability as a
village in Norfolk where it is supposed writer is shown in IMiqui4B Wottonianw,
to have been first manufactured. See published in 1651, with Izaak Walton's
Woolen Manufacture, Life of Wotton,
Wort ®®^ Brewing. Wonnd ^° surgical phrase, a break or
w»vM-»A*», i^jgg ^j continuity in any of
Worth William Jenkinb, soldier, the soft parts of the body occasioned by
> bom at Hudson, New York, external violence, and attended with a
in 1794; died in 1849. He entered the greater or less amount of bleeding,
army as a private in the war of 1812, Wounds have been classified as follows:
became aid-de-camp to Generals Lewis (o) Cuts, incisions, or incised wounds^
and Scott, and fought at Chippewa and which are produced by sharp-edged in-
Lundy's Lane, being severely wounded at struments. (6) Stabs or punctured
the latter battle. Promoted major in wounds, made by the thrasts of pointed
1832 and colonel in 1838. He took com- weapons, (c) Contused wounds, pro-
mand of the Florida war in 1841 and duced by the violent application of hard,
brought it to a successful termination, blunt, obtuse bodies to the soft parts.
He served under General Taylor in the (d) Lacerated wounds, in which there is
Mexican war, and distinguished himself tearing or laceration, as by some rough
at the storming of Monterey. He was instrument, (e) All those common in-
afterwards placed in command of the juries called gunshot wounds, (f) Poi-
Southwest soned wounds, those complicated with the
TKTortllill? (wur'thing), a watering- introduction of some poison or venom
v¥ vx i>uxu5 place in England, county into the part. Recent success in accel-
of Sussex, about 10 miles west of Brigh- crating the growth of tissues seems likely
ton. It is a fashionable resort, having to revolutionize the treatment of wounds,
an esplanade, libraries, a literary institu- Wonvermail (jou'vftr-mAn), Phiuf,
tion, reading-room, etc. There is also an " viav^xaiacmi. j)y^^,jj painter, bom in
extensive mackerel fishery. Pop. 30,308. 1620; died in 1668. He was the son of
Wortllill^toil Henry Rossiteb, in- Paul Wouverman, a historical painter,
Yv vx i>uxu5 bvuy ventor, bom at New who taught him the rudiments of the art.
York in 1817. He engaged in mercantile The subjects in which he excelled were
business, but in 1840 began a series of huntings, hawkings, encampments of
experiments with steam for the propul- armies, farriers' shops, and all such
sion of canal boats. Soon afterward he scenes as admitted the treatment of
devised a small steam pump to be used horses and other animals,
in the maintenance of the water supply TXTt^aV (rak), or Sea.-wra.ck, a popu-
in the engine boiler, and in 1841 patented AO'VXk j^^^ name for sea-weed cast
an independent feed pump which de- ashore by the waves, but sometimes ap-
veloped into the direct-acting steam plied specifically to the genus Fucus
pump that he patented in 1840. Subse- See Fucacew,
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Wrangler * Wright
Wrftn^ler i^^e'e^er), in Cambridge 1708 surveyor of the royal worlcs, and
Yvxaugxc/i. University, tlie name from 1685 to 1700 represented various
given to those who have attained the boroughs in parliament. Over the north
first class in the public examination for doorway of St. Paul's is a memorial
honors in mathematics, commonly called tablet on which are the well-known
the mathematical tripoa. The student words: Si monumentum requiris, oif'
taking absolutely the nrst place is called cumapice. See Paul% 8t.
the senior wrangler, TXTrencll ^^ instrument consisting
Wrasse (ras)» *he name of various ^ ^^"-^^y essentially of a bar of metal
w M.aooM species of fish belonging to having jaws adapted to catch upon the
the family Labridc They are prickly- head of a bolt or a nut to turn it; a
spined, hard-boned fishes, with lar^e dou- screw-key. Some wrenches have a va-
ble and fleshy lips. Several species are
natives of the British seas, as the ballan
wrasse, or old wife {Lahrus tinea or
maculatu8), which attains a length of
about 18 inches.
TXTtati (ren), a name given to certain
^^^** birds closely allied to the warb-
lers, distinguished by their small size,
slender beak, short, rounded wings, mot- Wrench is.
tied plumage, and the habit of holding i^ Screw-wrench. 2, T»p-wrench. 8, An-
the tail erect. The wren proper {Trpg- gie- wrench. 4. Tube-wrench. 5. Monkey-
lodiftes vulpdris) is, with the exception wrench for hexagonal and square nuts,
of the golden-crested wren, the smallest
bird in Europe, averaging about 4 inches rjety of jaws to suit different sizes and
m length. It is a well-known bird, and shapes of nuts and bolts, and others, as
has rather a bold loud song. The Amer- ^he monkey-wrench, have an adjustable
lean house-wren {T, domesticus) is a inner jaw.
very familiar bird, and a general favorite TIT-|kxliATtl (reks'am), a municipal
in the United States. „ ,. v ^^^^^""^and parliamentary bor-
Wren. Sib Christopher, an English ough of North Wales, county of Den-
^^\ L architect, bom m 1631 ; died in bigh, 12 miles south of Chester. Its
1732. He was educated at Wadham church of St. Giles, built about 1470. is
College, Oxford; became a fellow of All one of the finest old Gothic buildings in
Souls in 1G53; was appointed professor North Wales. The town has large brew-
of astronomy at Gresham College in ^ries, tanneries, paper-mills, etc., and
1657, and three years afterwards was the district has numerous coal, lead, and
elected Savilian professor of astronomy \yq^ mines. Pop. 20,408.
at Oxford. He had been appointed by TiT„Vl,f Carroll Davidson, statisti-
Charles II to restore old St. Paurs, but wiigut, ^.^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ Dumbar-
after the great fire (1666) it became ton. New Hampshire, in 1840. He served
necessary to rebuild the cathedral. In fn the Civil war, rising from private to
Ereparing his plans he was considerably colonel, was chief of the Massachusetts
ampered by the ecclesiastical authority, bureau of statistics 1873-88. and United
but with the king's permission he modi- States Commissioner of Labor after 1885.
fied and improved the design as the in 1902 he became president of Clark
building proceeded. Thus, the division College. He published Industrial Evolu-
of the exterior into two orders of col- Hon of the united States, Outline of
umns, and the present dome and drum on Practical Sociology , etc He died in
which it stands were alterations on the 1909.
original plan. The cathedral was begun OTi^iylif (rtt), Horatio Gouverneur,
in 1675, and the architect saw the last " ^^B**" general, bom at Clinton. Con-
stone laid by his son thirty-five years necticut, in 1820; died in 1809. lie was
afterwards. Among the other notable graduated from West Point in 1841, and
buildings which Wren designed are: the after some service in the army was
modern part of the palace at Hampton promoted major in 1861. He served
Court, the library of Trinity College, through the Civil war, was made briga-
Cambridge, the hospitals of Chelsea and dier-^eneral of volunteers, commanded a
Greenwich, the churches of St. Stephen's, division at the Wilderness and a corps at
Walbrook; St. Mary-le-bow: St. Mi- Spotsylvania and Cold Harbor, and was
chael, Comhill; St. Bride. Fleet Street; promoted major-general in the United
as also the campanile of Christ Church. States army In 1865. He was chief of
Oxford. In 1680 he was chosen presi- engineers at the time of his retirement in
dent of the Royal Society, appointed in 1884.
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Wright
Writing
^XTricylif Obvillb, bom at Dayton,
wri^ut, Ohio, In 1871, and Wilbur.
born near Millville, Indiana, in 18G7.
brother aeronauts, the first to succeed
in inventing heavier-than-air flying ma-
chines capable of bearing the weight of
a man in the air. The earliest successful
test of their machines was made at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, in 1003,
and the first successful long distance
flight near Dayton in 1905. After that
time they made numerous flights in the
United States and Europe, and were
awarded gold medals bv the French
Academy of Sciences and many other
institutions. In 1900 they took charge
of the Government aviation sohool at
College Park, Maryland, but in 1910 re-
turned to Dayton to manufacture aero-
planes under their patent Wilbur
wrirht died in 1912.
Wrist SeeJJaiwJ.
Writ ^^^^9 ^ l^^> ^ mandatory pre-
cept, issued by the authority and
in the name of the sovereign or the
State, for the purpose of compelling the
defendant to do something therein men-
tioned. It is issued by a court or other
competent jurisdiction, and is return-
able to the same. It is to be under
seal, and attested by the proper oflScer,
and is directed to the sheriff, or other
ofllcer legally authorized to execute the
same.
Writer's Cramp, f^^^fl^fX
the patient loses complete control over
the muscles of the thumb and the fore
and middle fingers, so that all attempts
to write regularly, and in the severer
cases even legibly, are unsuccessful. It
is a tetanic contraction of the muscles
of the hand and forearm. It may be due
to cold, rheumatism, exhaustion of the
muscles by long-continued strain, or in-
fection by bacteria. It is treated dif-
ferently, according to its cause, such as
by heat, antirheumatic remedies, rest,
bacterial vaccines, massage, etc. Called
also Scrivener's PaUy.
Writers to the Signet, s^^ ^^
WrifiTK^ (rl'ting), one of the oldest
wiitxu^ arts, is usually divided into
ideographic writing, in w^hich signs rep-
resent ideas, and into phonetic writing,
in which signs represent sounds. Ideo-
graphic writing, in its earliest form, is
supposed to have been an attempt to
convey ideas by copying objects direct
from nature, and this form of it has thus
acquired ^ the name of picture-writina.
After this came symbolical writing, m
which abbreviated pictures were used
as arbitrary symbols, first of things, and
still later of sounds and words. This
indicates the transition into phonetic
writing, in which the signs may either
represent a whole syllable (syUabic
writing), or only a single sound, in
which case they are called alphaheiic
These signs differ in form ana use in
the various alphabets. Thus the Chi-
nese signs are read in columns from
top to bottom, the Mexican picture
writing from bottom to top, tie Hebrew
writing from right to left, and Latin,
Greek, and all European languages aa
well as Sanskrit from \ett to ri^t.
«»' .»
Wood Writing Tsblet.
(See Alphabet,) In the Chinese sys-
tem of writing there is no alphabet, the
characters being syllabic and strictly
ideographic.
Writing was introduced to the western
nations by the Phoenicians, and the
Phoenician system is supposed to have
been based on the Egyptian. The
cuneiform writing, another ancient sys-
tem, invented by the Accadian inhab-
itants of Chaldea, was also adapted to
several languages, as the Assyrian, the
Persian, etc., in a variety of ways, ideo-
graphic» syllabic and alphabetic (set
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Writing
Wuhu
Cuneiform Wriimff). Also of inde-
pendent origin is the Chinese system.
The Egyptians bad three distinct kinds
of writing, the hieroglyphic, the hieratic,
and the enchorial or demotic (see Hiero-
gluphio), and it was from the second
that the Phoenician and other Semitic
systems of writing are thought to have
been derived. The leading Semitic
forms are the Samaritan or ancient
Hebrew, the Chaldee or East Aramaic,
the Syriac or West Aramaic, the Kufic
or early Arabic, and the Neshki or mod-
em Arabic. At what time writing was
introduced into ancient Greece is not
types, became common in inscriptions
from the thirteenth to the fifteenth cen-
turies, and were employed in church
books from the time of St. Louis. In
England a variety of styles called Sazop
prevailed in the early middle ages. A
mixed style was formed of a combina-
tion of Roman, Lombardic and Saxon
characters; the Norman style came in
with William the Conqueror; and the
English court hand, an adaptation of
Saxon, prevailed from the sixteenth cen-
tury to the reign of George II. There
have been various attempts made to in-
troduce systems of phonetic toriiing, hi
known with certainty, but probably be-
tween the tenth and the seventh century
B. c. From Greece it passed to Sicily
and Italy, and thence it was spread as
Christianity spread. Like the Semites,
the Greeks originally wrote from right
to left In medieval manuscripts a
variety of styles were adopted in differ-
ent epochs and countries. Capitals
were not then used as now to distinguish
prominent words, but whole manuscripts
were written in large or small capitals.
Uncial letters, which prevailed from the
seventh to the tenth centuries, were
rounded capitals with few hair-strokes.
Gothic characters, which were merely
faneifol deriations from the Roman
which each sound should be represented
by one invariable sign. Systems of
shorthand writing are generally phonetic
See Shorthand.
Wrvnpolr (n'nek), a bird allied to
wryneciL ^^^^ resembling the wood-
peckers. One species, the common wry-
neck {Tunm torquilla), is a summer vis-
itant of the north of Europe. It is
remarkable for its long tongue, its power
of protruding and retracting it, and the
writhing, snake-like motion which it can
impart to its neck without moving the
rest of the body. It feeds chiefly oil
insects.
Wuhn. ^^woo-Boo.
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Wundt Wyandotte
Wundt <^'*»"0, WiLiiELM Max, a Wiirzblirg* (vwrts'bur^), a town in
German physiologist and pay- *' ^^A^-wi^xg ^^ northwest of Bavaria,
chologist, born at Neckarau in Baden, on the Main, 60 miles s. e. of Franltfort.
August 10, 18:^2. The list of his works Its old fortifications have been demol-
is long and comprehensive, including phy- ished, and the site laid out in fine promen-
siology, psycholof V, lo^ic and ethics, lie ades, but it is still overlooked by the
believes that the straight road to ethics fortress of Marienberg, on a lofty hill
lies throu|?h studying the history of the outside the city. The most important edi-
race and its psychology. His comprehen- fices are the Romanesque cathedral,
sive System der Philosophie is widely erected in the tenth century, with an in-
known, terior highly enriched but much deterio-
Wnrttembercr ^ v^jr-tem-berfc ) , or rated by plaster decoration of the eight-
o WtBTEMBEBQ, a king- eenth century; the university, with vari-
dom of the German Empire, between ous new buildings : the Julius hospital
Bavaria. Baden, Hohenzollem, and the and school of medicine, and the royal
I^ake or Constance, which separates it palace (1720-44). The university library
from Switzerland : area, 7531 sq. miles ; nas 200,000 volumes, and in other respects
pop. 2,435,000. Except a few tracts in the university, especially in the medical
the south, the surface is hilly and evea faculty, is well equipped. The manufac*
mountainous. In the west the Schwara- tures are varied in character. Pop.
wald, or Black Forest (which seeK (1910) 84,496.
^?Tu««?«tS A?f4 Wnrzen h^^^X^l^^,^ ,^
TK'^iS.nnV^iXn^ <n°i.™«°,Sl^ tnThp Mulde, with a cflth^ral, ancient castle,
wards into that riyer %, the Neckar. Wu-TlUg-f aUg, giP„'*»^'»'|Vin5iS
while the Danube flows across the south- ^. ^ K-wnmr-tiinir Phinfl Hp wuh Pdn-
em districts. A part of the Lake of Jl^.b in Ch!neJ2^'leami^e at cJ^tSn £
Constance is also included in WUrttem- ^n^Tuh «V Ho^ iTn^ f n5 -nf^SS \»w
berg. The climate is decided^ temperate, fj'f}^^^^^ i5fn/"«^^^f;^^ tn fhl F^.rlf.h
Ml !.Td^^m1So'n"i?^tn'Y^^^^^^ Ur^^^Hr^e^S^i^edir^^^^^
^d tle^e cS?dva^te3on^nS^^^ VT^^^^<^^ law at Hong-Kong till 18fi2,
S?aler or^^s sevSal fim-?^^ ^i^^P ^« was appointed deputy for foreign
maL^'^wtt^o'^^^^^^ Tpples; !;F?pni1.L.t^W?h. K^^^
which are employ^ in cider making, are ^^l^^h.f/iT^tuf filt^!ii^«^ ?n (^h^« Tn
largely cultivated. About a third of the ?2^i*'"hi 1® J^L^nVS^^l^rn^^^^ fh-
count^ is tinder forests which consist W},,^ TTn?.o,SKJ^^«. ^ JL^'Lo^
^vi{a4Iv^# yxoira KAAytkAo on^ rx\rxt% c\^ 1 lentsui Univcrsity, was on the peace
m^eral^ by flfr^ a^e embassy to Japan U 1896, and aidS in
, S^ anlMiTt b^th ofThich are w negotiating a treaty of Commerce with
■ brth^ go^lJSm'Sf?: le^oSerrarriS.^ ^^s ill 19ol f Jd^a^Iin^fiol 1?"^^
g??u%%s1.°oLr&t/c^^^^^^^ ^e^it o^loiri^^ ^as^^n^rn^iS^^i"
and linen goods, paper, woodei clocks, ^^^^ ?V^i?"^' *2? was appointed Min-
toys. musicil instrai^nts, and chemical ^.^^ o^, J"»^ce in the cabmet of the pro-
products. The government is an hered- "^f^oiiBX government, ^d re;«.ppointed
itary constitutional monarchy, the execu- ^wter to the United States in 1912.
tive power being lodged in the sovereign, WyaildotS (wran-dotz; In Oanada
and the legislative jointly in the sever- ^ .J . .. called Huroiw), an Indian
eign and a parliament, composed of $"*>«>? North America belonging to the
an upper and a lower chamber. In the Jroquois family. In the beginning of
Bundesrath Wttrttemberg is represented J?^^ seventeenth century they were set-
by four members, and in the Reichstag by tied on the eastern shore of Lake Huron,
seventeen. Education is generally dif- but in a tnbal war (1636) they were
fused, and the center of the educational nearly exterminated. Part of the dis-
system is the University of Tttbingen. persed tribe settled at Ancien Lorette in
Besides Stuttgart (the capital), the chief Lower Canada, where their descendante
towns are Ulm, Heilbronn. and Esslingen. still remain.
The history of the state is of little gen- Wvsi.Tll1nttp (wfan-dot), a city of
eral interest. In the war of 18C6 Wttrt- ^J»"^"''''C Wayne Co., Michigan,
temberg sided with Austria against Pru9- on the Detroit River, 12 miles s. 8. w.
sla. It became a member of the Ger- of Detroit. It has ship and boat yards,
man Empire on its foundation in 1871. and manufactures of chemicals, salt^
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Wyandotte Wyoming
trunks, fur-robes, coats, malt liquors, TXTvPATnhe (wlk'um), High or Chip-
auto trucks, stoves, etc. Pop. 8287. »» jrvvuiuc pmQ^ a municipal borough
Wvo^tiHaHp Kansas, is a part of of England, in Buckinghamshire, on the
w yudiaQJfW, Kansas City. Wye, 34 mUes N. w. of London. Its chief
TXTTTATiflAffA Cq-u^ Situated '5 miles building is the Church of All Saints,
W yaiiaui»l.e uave, j^ ^^ Leaven- built about 1273 a.d., and ite chief man-
worth, Indiana, has been explored for ufactures are paper and lace. Pop.
over 20 miles, and rivals the Mammoth 24,558.
Cave in the size of some of its chambers ^J'^^ (wl), a river of South Wales,
and in its stalagmites and stalactites, ^ J^ vehich rises on Plynlinmion, in
surpassing the Mammoth Cave in the Montgomeryshire, passes through Rad-
number and beauty of these. It is not- norshire, Brecknockshire and Hereford-
able for its large chambers. shire, and falls into the Severn, after a
Wva.tt (^I'&^)> ^IB THOiiAi^ the first course of 130 miles, near Chepstow, in
▼▼jo'vv writer of sonnets in the Eng- Monmouthshire. Above the latter place
lish language, bom in 1503; died m it is only navigable by barges.
1542. His jm>etical works were pub- TXTTrlrpliani (wik'am), William of,
lished in 1557. wyKCaam ^^ ^^ ^^ Wykeham,
Wvant ^ wl'ant) , AuEXAin)EB H., Hampshire, in 1324 ; died in 1404. He
•^ landscape nainter, was bom received a liberal education from the lord
at Port Washington. Ohio, in 1836. He of the manor of Wykeham, and was after-
studied at Carlsruhe, Germany, under wards recommended by him to the notice
Hans Gude, and made attractive studies of Edward III. Having taken holy or-
in Ireland of the lakes of Killamey. ders he was elevated to the rich see of
His studies of autumn effects in Amer- Winchester, and in 1367 was appointed
ican forests, and views of nature in the to the chancellorship of England. He
Adirondacks and along the Ohio river, founded (1373) a grammar school at
have made his fame more than conti- Winchester, which still exists; and about
nental. He died November 29, 1892. the same time founded a college at Ox-
Wvnhi^rli^v ( wich'er-li ) , William, ford, now called New College. In the
wjvucxxcjr ^ English dramatist, last years of his life he rebuilt Winches-
bom about 1640 at Ciive, near Shrews- ter Cathedral.
bury; died in 1715. His early years WvntOTllL (win'tun), Andrew, an
were spent in France, afterwards he was »»/iivvukU. mjci^n^ rhyming chronicler
educated at Oxford, and entered himself of ScotUnd, who lived in the early part
at the Temple; while in 1670 he became of the fifteenth century, was a canon
known as a fashionable man about town regular of St Andrew's, as also prior of
and the author of Loi7e m a Wood. St SerTs Inch, in Lochleven. His
This comedy was followed by the Gen- Chronicle, which is in the Scottish ver-
ileman Dancing Master, the Country nacnlar, and is called the Orygynale
Wife, and the Plain Dealer. In 1680 he CronykU of Scotland, begins with the
married the Countess of Drogheda, a creation of the world, and is brought
young, rich widow, who at her death left down to the death of Robert III in 1406.
him a lawsuit, the expenses connected The first five books contain an outline of
with which brought him to the Fleet general history and geography; the four
Prison. Here he remained for seven remaining books dealmg with the history
5 ears, until released and pensioned by of Scotland,
ames II. Wycherley is the typical dra- WvAmiTl^ (wl-6'ming), one of the
mat 1st of the Restoration group, in '^JviuxiAg tJnited States (admitted
which all the brilliancy and dissoluteness June, 1890). It is almost rectangular in
of that school are very prominent. shape, bounded 8. by Utah and Colorado,
'UTvp'h.'hiiTPl (wichliA-il), the com- N. by Montana; B. by Nebraska and
w jr en uit^ci jjj^jj jj^jjjg ^j j^^g ^f g^^ Dakota, and w. by Utah, Idaho
the genus Hamam€lis, the type of the nat and Montana ; area, 97,575 square miles,
order Hamamelidaceo. They are small The surface is to a large extent moun-
:rees, with alternate leaves on short peti- tainous, the main chain of the Rocky
)les, and yellow flowers disposed in clus- Mountains extending from northwest to
ters in the axils of the leaves, and sur- southeast It is broken by deep river
rounded by a three-leaved involucram. cafions and flat topped hills or buttes.
They are natives of North America, Per- which rise from the pUiin or valley like
sia, or China, and are very different from walled cities or mounds. Near are large
the true hazel. The Virginian wych-hazel elevated pUiteaus or parks, of which the
is medicinally important. See Uazeline* principal is the great Yellowstone Park.
WvnlifFi* See WiokHffe. The river system includes the Platte
wyciiue. j^j ^1^ jjg tributaries in the south-
i
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Wyoming Wythe
2rd''Sl^Y^S«?tJ^lVlS'™'«^Wyvmc Thomson Bidge.
Powder rivers in the north. The moun- See AUaniio Ocean,
tainous districts abound in forests, and ^[rTrA'm'i'ncy VqIIptt in Luzerne
the soil of the valleys is a fertile loam WJ""A1U^ viuicy^ ^^^ Pennsylva-
very suitable for agriculture, but need- nia, famous as the scene of a massacre
ing irrigation in great part of the State, of the American settlers by a band of
It is claimed that 10,000,000 acres may Tories and Indians July 4, 177a Nearly
be reclaimed in this way, and irrigation all the American fighting men were away
is being actively applied, there being more in the Continental army and after a brief
than 4600 miles of irrigating ditches, resistance the remaining men took refuge
Wheat, oats and barley are the chief in Forty Fort, where most of the fam-
ciops, and large tracts are used for Hies of the valley had gathered. The
stock-raising, which is the chief industry. Tories, under Colonel Butler, offered un-
Wyoming is rich in mineral resources ezpectedly easy terms of surrender, and
Good coal is abundant and there are the settlers went back to their homes,
vast beds of iron ore, while gold while the invaders were supposed to be
and silver are plentiful. Other miner- leaving the valley. Against the com-
als are gypsum, salt, soda, sulphur, cop- mands of their white leaders the In-
per, lead and tin. Petroleum seems dians remained, and, on the night of
abundant in the central and southern July 4, began massacring the inhabitants
sections. Of the larger animals grizzly and burning the houses. All who could
and black bears and several species of escape made their way into the Wilkes-
deer are still abundant, but the buffalo, Barre Mountains and the swampy land
of which there used to be immense herds beyond, where many of the women and
on the plains, have become extinct, children died. When peace was estab-
The manufactures consist of the sawing lished the surviving settlers returned. A
of lumber and railroad ties, milling of memorial marble monument is erected in
quartz, and railroad repair and macnine the valley.
work in the railroad towns. Acquired TXTvtlifi (with), Gbobge, an American
as part of the Louisiana Purchase, this »» /•'•"^ patriot, bom in Elizabeth
territory was organized hi 1868, and is City Co., Virginia, in 1726; died in 1806.
now being slowly developed, chiefly He was elected to the Continental Con-
through means of the Union Pacific Rail- cress in 1775, signed the Declaration of
way, by which it is traversed. In the Independence in 1776, became in 1777 a
northwest the Yellowstone district has judge of the High Court of Chancery, and
been set apart by the government as a served as chancellor of Virginia for
great national park. See Yelloicatone twenty years. He was professor of law
Ifational Park, The capital is Cheyenne at William and Mary college 1779-89,
City. The State is rapidly increasing in and a delegate to the Constitutional Con-
population. Pop. (1910) 145,965. vention of 1787.
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2 tbt twenty-fourth letter of the Eng-
' liBh alphabet Except when used at
the beginning of a word, m in Engliih is
a double consonant, and has usuallj the
•oond of k9i as in wam^ law. osii, etc.;
but when terminating a 8yllable» espe-
cially an initial syllable, if the syllable
following it is open or accented, it often
takes the sound of gg, as in luwury, em-
hau»t, esalt, ewatiOf etc. At the begin-
ning of a word it has precisely the sound
of z.
as tungsten, iridium, or platinum, from
which focus spot the Roentgen Bays
radiate in all directions accorduig to the
law of inverse squares. They are used
in medicine and surgery to photograph
the skeleton and all the internal organs
of the human body as an aid in diagnosis,
also as a therapeutic agent to destroy dis-
eased tissue with and without the aid of
surgery. Cancers and tumors of certain
kinds and a number of skin diseases ar«
made to disapi^ear by their use.
X-Bay8»j:«^^t„«S['j5^S!^?;> Xanthippe &*"•»'*>• ^ ^'^
covered by Wilhelm Conrad Rttntgen of
the University of Wttrtiburg, Germany,
and announced by him in December, 1896.
Prof. Rttntgen named them X-Rayn (* un-
known quantity*), since their exact na-
ture was unknown when they were dis-
covered. They are invisible rays trans-
mitted through the ether in a manner
similar to light They consist of very
short, irregular, non-harmonic, electro-
magnetic pulses in the ether and are
capable of passing through all substances
in a remarkable manner, approximately in
inverse proportion to the atomic mass of
the material. They produce fluorescence
and phosphorescence in many crystalline
substances such as barium-platinocyanide,
calcium tungstate, willemite, calc spar,
fluorspar, rock salt, calcium sulphide, etc.,
giving a method of making their presence
visible. They reduce the silver haloids
of photographic emulsions ; color crystals,
gems and glasses; ionize air and other
gases; excite secondary Roentgen Rays
m all substances absorbing them; pre-
doitate mercurous chloride from adueous
solutions of mercuric chloride and am-
monium oxalate; reduce vitality of cell
life (and in large amounts destroy it) ;
and increase the velocity of a few chemical
reactions. They are produced by passing
uni-directional, electric current of from
twenty to one hundred thousand volts
pressure through a specially constructed
nigh vacuum tube, within which, cathode
rays radiating from the surface of a con-
cave cathode are focussed upon and bom-
bard a target of refractory material such
26—10
Xanthorrhoea ^g^^u^'^^' ^
Xanthoxylum ^p^X'2T^'
XanthuS ^Pf !?*'*!}/ ^ indent dty
*^ of Asia Minor, in Lycia, on
the river Xanthus, about o miles above
its mouth. Its ruins were discovered in
1838 by Sir C. Fellows ; and have yielded
a large collection of marbles, now in the
British Museum. The river rises in
Mount Taurus, and falls into the Med-
iterranean a little to the west of Patara.
YowiAr Si'< Fbancis (zav'i-^r; Span-
^avier, ish pron. Wv-i-er*), surnamed
the apostle of the Indie$, was bom in
1506 at the castle Xavier in Navarre.
He fell under the personal influence of
Ignatius Loyola, and became one of the
first members of Loyola's Sode^ of
Jesus. Under the auspices of John, King
of Portugal, he went to the East Indies
as a missionary in 1541. In 1649 he
made his way to Japan. He was about
to extend his field of labor to China, when
he died in 1552. Cancmiced in 1621.
TfiTiiii. (»6'ni-a), a dty, capital of
Afiami River, 66 miles N. B. of Cincinnati.
It is the seat of Zenia Theological Sem-
inary and the Ohio Soldiers' and SaOora'
Home. Wilberforce University, form-
erly here, is now at Wilberforce, 8 miles
away. It has saw, planing and paper
mills, marble and granite works; cord-
age, twine, shoes and other industriea.
Pop. 8706.
i
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lill
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Xenocrates
fXylology
Xenocrates (^nok'ra-t&), of chai-
.«.«uvvxa,i*«o cedon, a Greek philoso-
pher, and disciple of Plato, bom 396
B.C.; and from 339 until his death, 314
B.O., head of the famous Academy at
Athens. Metaphysics and ethics were his
chief subjects, but of his numerous works
only the titles are now known.
XenOphaneS (je-nofa-ngz). of Colo-
«a.%.uv^ua.u«o pljQjj^ ^ Greek philoso-
pher, bom probably about 330 B.c. ; for
some time settled at Elea, and regarded
as the founder of the Eleatic school of
philosophy. The character of his teach-
ing has been much debated. He must
have been at least seventy-two when he
died. See Eleatio School.
XenOPhon (zen'o-fon), a Greek his-
^r ^** torian and essayist, bom
at Athens about 430 B.C.; became early
a disciple of Socrates. In 401 B.C.,
partly from curiosity, and in no military
capacity, he joined the Greek mercenaries
attached to the force led by Cyrus the
Younger against his brother Artaxerxes
II. After the defeat and death of Cyrus
on the field of Gunaxa, the chief Greek
officers were treacherously assassinated
by the victorious satrap. Xenophon now
came to the front, and mainly con-
ducted the famous retreat of the 10,000
through wild and mountainous regions,
often harassed by the guerrilla attacks
of barbarous tribes, until after a five
months' march they reached Trebizond
on the Black Sea, February, 400 B.c.
The expedition and its sequel form the
subject of his best-known work, the
Anabasis, Xenophon fought on the side
of the Lacedaemonians in the subsequent
war between Sparta and Persia, and rose
from poverty to competence through the
ransom which he received from a wealthv
Persian nobleman whom he had captured.
With Agesilaus, under whom he had al-
ready served, he fought at Coroneia (394
B.C.) against his own countrymen, and
was on this account formally banished
from Athens. For more than twenty
years he seems to have lived the life of
a country gentleman at Scyllus in Elis,
where he is supposed to have written
most of his works. After the defeat of
ihe Spartans at Leuctra (371 ac),
Xenophon was driven from Elis, and is
said to have retired to Corinth. He was
certainly alive in 357 B.C. Xenophon 's
principal works, besides the Ana6o«w,
are his Cyropwdia, a political and edu-
cational romance based on the history of
Cyrus the Great; the HeUenica, a history
of Greece where Tbucydides leaves off,
including the period from 411 to 362
n.c. : and the ifemora&i7ta, recollections
^f Socrates.
XereS. SeeJerc*.
Xerxes I (^erk'sez). King of Persia,
famous for his unsuccess-
ful attempt to conquer Greece, was the
son of Darius and of Atossa, daughter of
Cyrus. He began to reign 485 B.C., and
continued his father's preparations for
another Persian invasion of Greece. The
army which he collected is estimated to
have exceeded a million of men, with a
fleet of 1200 sail. Xerxes crossed the
Hellespont on a bridge of boats (480
B.C.), and met with no resistance until
he reached the Pass of Thermopylse.
After Leonidas had fallen there with his
Spartans (see Leonidas) ^ Xerxes pressed
forward and burned Athens, which had
been forsaken by almost all its inhabit-
ants. He watched from the mainland
the naval battle of Salamis (September,
480 B.C.), and fled ignominiously after
the overwhelming defeat of his fleet.
Xerxes was assassinated 465 b.o. He
has been supposed to be the Ahasuems of
the Booh of Esther,
XiineneS t^»-ma'nes), Fbancisco, a
Spanish cardinal, born m
1437 ; died in 1517. In 1492 he was ap-
pointed confessor to Queen Isabella of
CastilCj and in 1495 Archbishop of To-
ledo, distinguishing himself as a reformer
of ecclesiastical and monastic abuses. In
1507 he was made a cardinal, and in 1516
King Ferdinand died, leaving Ximenes
regent during his grandson Charles' ab-
sence in the Netherlands. In 1517 Charles
returned to Spain, and, prompted by jeal-
ousy, dismissed him. Ximes died soon
afterwards. He founded and endowed the
University of AlcalA de Henares.
Xin^n (shing-gO'), a river of Brazil.
6 one of the chief tributaries of
the Amazon, rises near lat 15** s.. Ion.
59** w., and after flowing north for 1300
miles joins the Amazon 240 miles w. of
Parfi. It is navigable for 100 miles.
Xiphias. ^^ sword-fish,
Xiphodon K^-Jii^^^^^^^^^^
to Anoploiherium,
XylOC'opa. ^^ Carpenter-hee,
Xvlo&rraphv (z^-log'ra-fi), a name
"^ "6***Jr'**J sometimes given to
wood-engraving.
Xvloloe^ (zMor6-ji), the science of
•^ o*' wood-structure, of the iden-
tification of woods and the detection of
substitutes. The chief value of the work
of the xylologist at present is in discov-
ering DPW woods with properties and
Ktrurtural rharaoters 8imilar to certain
kinds which are being rapidly exhausted.
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Y the twenty-fifth letter of the Enclish
' alphabet, was taken from the Latin,
the Latin having borrowed it from the
Greek T or upsilon. In modem English
it is both a consonant and a Towel. At
the beginning of syllables and followed
by a Towel it is a consonant ; in the mid-
dle and at the end of words it is a vowel.
Y or I J (both pronounced I), the west-
* em arm of the Zuider Zee on which
Amsterdam is situated.
7&blOIIOi« ®^ Stanovoi Mountaitu,
Yaclit j(yot), a light and elegantly
fitted up vessel, used either for
pleasure trips or racing, or as a vessel of
state to convey kings, princes, etc., from
one place to another by sea. There are
two distinct species of yacht: the mere
racer, with enormous spars and sails and
deeply-ballasted hull, with fine lines, but
sacrificing everything to speed; and the
elegant, commodious, well-proportioned
traveling yacht, often with steam-propel-
ling machinery, fit for a voyage round
the world. A type of yacht much used in
America is that with a center-board or
sort of movable keel. (See Center-
hoard.) The practice of yachting as
well as the word yacht was derived from
the Dutch. The word yacht is found in
use in English in Elizabeth's time, and
James I had a yacht built for his son
Henry early in the seventeenth century,
but it was not till long after that yacht-
ing became a favorite pastime with the
rich. The first yachting club in the
British Kingdom was organized at Cork
Harbor in 1720. The first yacht club
in the United States was established at
New York in 1844. In each country
the yachts are now numbered by the
thousand. In 1851 the America^ built in
New York, carried oflf a cup given by the
Yacht Squadron at Cowes, and her vic-
tory led to considerable modifications of
the build of British yachts. In subse-
quent international contests the Ameri-
can yachts have held their own, and the
cup has never recrossed the Atlantic.
Yak *^^ ^^ ^^ Po€phdgu$ grunniena,
^^^> a fine large species of ox, with
cylindric horns, curving outward, long
pendent silky hair fringing its sides, a
bushy mane of fine hair, and long, silky,
horse-like tail; inhabiting, both in the
wild and the domesticated state, Tibet
and the higher plateaus of the Hima-
layas; called ffrunnien$ (grunting) from
its very peculiar voice, which sounds .
Tak (Bos ffrunnUns).
much like the gmnt of a pig. It is the
ordinary domestic animal of the inhabit-
ants of those regions, supplying milk,
food, and raiment, as well as being used
as a beast of burden and to draw the
plow. The tail of the .yak is in great
request for various ornamental purposes,
and forms an article of commerce.
YakubKhan (y*-k»b'). ma-
^^ HOMED, Amir of Af-
ghanistan. See Afghanistan.
Yakutsk ilt^^'^'l\Jir,F^^i^ZA^
Jfiastem Diberia, includes
nearly the whole of the basin of the Lena,
between which river and its tributary,
the Vitim, rich gold mines are worked.
Area, 1.533,397 sq. miles. Pop. 261,731.
Yakutsk, capital of the province of the
same name, stands on a branch of the
Lena, and is the principal trade-center of
Eastern Siberia. It was founded by the
Cossacks in 1632. Pop. about 7000.
YaIa (yfil)t EUHU, philanthropist, was
bom at Boston, Massachusetts,
in 1648; died in 1721. He went to
England while very young, was edu-
cated there, and never returned to the
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Tale Tankee
United States, becoming an Eait India scend. The tubers of D. oULta, the West
merchant and acquiring great wealth. Indian yam, one of the species most
He gave books and money valued at widely diffused, sometimes attain a
$4000 to the Collegiate School at Say- weight of 50 lbs.
brook, Ck>nnecticut, and after the removal VoTno (yam'a), a Hindu god, the
of this school to New Haven it was ^-^^"-^ judge of the dead, whose good
named in consequence Yale Ck>]]ege. and bad actions are read to him out of a
Yale L^us, inventor, bom at Sails- record, and who according to their merits
*<MV) bury. New York, in 1821; died in and demerits are sent to the celestial or
1868. In 1850 he began the study of to the infernal regions. Hindus offer to
mechanical problems, and in 1851 pat- him daily oblations of water,
ented a safety lock. From this date un- Vamiicyofii Ahitomo, a Japanese
til his death he was considered an author- *»iii»B»t'»> marquis and field-mar-
ity in all matters relatin^f to locks, his shal; bom in 183a The son of a Sam-
most notable invention bemg the double urai chieftain, he received a military
lock, which comprised two locks within education, and In 1868 took part in the
a sinele case and operated by the same suppression of the Shogunate^ He be-
er different combinations. The ' Yale came Minister of War in 1873, created a
lock ' is now in almost universal use. national army out of the feudal retainers.
Vol A TTTiivemifv (yfti)* one of the and in 1877 quelled the Satsuma rebel-
XIUC uiUYcmiijr oldest of the lion. He conunanded the successful Jap-
American universities, was orisinally a anese forces in the Chinese war of
collegiate school established at Saybrook, 1894-05^ and was prominent in the
Connecticut, in 1701. It was removed in Russo-Japanese war of 1904; was presi-
1716 to New Haven, and soon after its dent of the councils of war which for-
name was changed to Yale College, after mulated the plan of campaign,
its patron Elihu Yale (1648-1721). In Yoii<y.f7A.1risi.ti<y (yang-tsS-ke-ang'),
1887 its name was changed to Yale Uni- ^^*^B ^^C iuaug one of the two
versity by act of Assembly. It has four great rivers of China, is formed by two
faculties — philosophy and arts, theology, streams rising in Eastern Tibet, in lat.
law, and medicine — in all of which its 26* 30* N., Ion. 102* K. After flowing
goveming body grants degrees. The first east and then south it enters the Chinese
of these faculties includes, besides the province of Yunnan. Pursuing a very
original academical department, a scien- tortuous course, much of it through most
tific and engineering school — decrees for fertile and densely-populated regions, it
civil and dynamic engineering being given reaches the great city of Nanking, 200
— and a school of fine arts. The aggre- miles from the sea, where It widens grad-
uate number of volumes in all the librar- ually into the vast estuary which con-
ies of the college is 600,000, of which nects it with the Yellow Sea. Its whole
1000 were presented to it in 1730 by course, under various names, is 2900
Bishop Berkeley. Its museum of natural milea, and the area of its basin is com-
history was endowed with $150,000 by puted to be 548,000 square miles. It is
George Peabody and the endowment of connected by the Grand Canal with the
the university is over $13,000,000. The Hoang-ho or Yellow River, and is navi-
numerous buildings cover about nine gable for vessels of considerable draught
acres in the heart of the city, the oldest for 1200 miles from its mouth. By the
dating from 1752. The teaching staff Treaty of Tien-tsin the Lower Yang-tse
and members of faculty number over 410, was opened to European trade ; and 700
and the average number of students over miles from its mouth is the treatv-port
3000. of Hangkow, the great commercial city
Yam * ItiTge esculent tuber or root of Mid-China. The highest port on the
* «*-"*> produced by various plants of river at present open to foreign trade is
the genus DioscoreOt order Dioscoreace», Ichang, 1000 miles from its mouth,
growing in the warmer regions of both YAfi^iiia ^^ Janina.
hemispheres. Yams, when roasted or *
boiled, form a wholesome, palatable, and Vonkee (yanTtfi), a cant name for
nutritious food, and are extensively cul- *«***^^^ Americans belonging to the
tivated in many tropical and sub-tropical New England States. During the Ameri-
countries. The Chinese or Japanese yam can Revolution the name was applied by
(Z). Batatas) contains more nitrogenous the British to all the insurgents; and
and therefore nutritive matter, but less during tha Civil war it was the common
starch, than potatoes. It is hardy in designation of the Federal soldiers by the
Great Britain and thrives in the Unitcni Confederates. In BriUin the term is
States, but its cultivation is impeded by sometimes improperly applied generally
tbt graath depth to which it« roots de- to natives of the United States. The
i
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Yankee-Doodle
Yarrow
most common explanation of the term
seems also the most plausible, namely,
that it is a corrupt pronunciation of
English or of French Anglais formerly
current among the American Indians.
Yankee-Doodle. * famous air. now
A MAu^w^ ^ vv^Mw^ regarded as Ameri-
can and national In reality the air is
an old English one, called Nankey Doo-
dle, and had some derisive reference to
Cromwell. The really national air of the
whole United States, however, is *The
Star-Spangled Banner,' which divides
public favor as a patriotic song with
^America,* beginning,
*My country, 'tis of thee.
Sweet land of liberty/ etc
Yankton (yank'tun), a city, countj
xau&WU g^^^ ^f Yankton Co., SouS
Dakota, and up to 1883 the capital of
Dakota Territory. It is on the N. bank
of the Missouri River, 61 miles N. w. of
Sioux City. It contains Yankton College
and has flour mills, grain elevators,
brewery, brick, tile and cement works,
etc. Pop. 4000.
Yankton Indians. Sr ^iL*>* ^
.^uaAAvvu Au^&AMuoy North and
South Dakota, numbering about 7000.
Yard ^ British and American stand-
^> ard measure of length, equal to
3 feet or 36 inches, the foot in general
being made practically the unit. As a
cloth measure the yard is divided into 4
quarters = 16 nails. A square yard con-
tains 9 square feet, and a cubic yard 27
cubic feet See Weights and Measures,
Yard ^° ships, a long cylindrical piece
^ of timber, having a rounded
taper toward each end, slung crosswise to
a mast All yards are either square or
lateen, the former being suspended across
the masts at right angles for spreading
square sails, the latter obliquely. Yards
have sheave-holes near their extremities
for the sheets reeving through. Either
end of a yard, or rather that part of it
which is outsiae the sheave-hole, is called
the yard-arm.
Yare (y^')> ^ river of England, which,
** rising about the middle of Nor-
folk, flows eastpast Norwich, and after
receiving the Waveney widens into the
estuary of Breydon-water, is joined by
the Bure, and enters the German Ocean
2^ miles below Great Yarmouth, after
a course of about 30 miles.
Vfirlronii (y&r-k&nd'), the chief town
xariLaua >^ ^^ principal oasis of
Eastern Turkestan, is situated on the
river Yarkand. It is enclosed by a thick
mud wall, and its rich gardens are well
watered by numerous canals. The in*
habitants, chiefly Persians, are keen trad-
ers. Pop. estimated at from 75,000 to
100,000.— The river rises in the Kara-
korum Mountains, and helps to form the
river Tarim, which enters Lob Nor.
Yarmouth i^!r°'."iVi'nM'v'"JnJ?
more strictly called.
Great Yarmouth, an English seaport,
important fishing station, and watering
place, is in the county of Norfolk, 20
miles east of Norwich. It is situated on
a long and narrow tongue of land run-
ning from north to southward between
the German Ocean and the estuary of the
Yare. The town is connected by a bridse
with Little Yarmouth, or South Town, m
Suffolk. The parish church of St Nich-
olas, founded in 1101, and of late years
completely restored, is one of the largest
in the kingdom. Yarmouth has a naval
lunatic asylum, the only one in the king-
dom. It IS the great seat of the English
herring and mackerel fisherr, and also
furnishes large quantities of white-fish.
The curing of nerring as 'Yarmouth
bloaters * is an important industry. The
coast is dangerous, but Yarmouth Roads,
between the shore and a range of sand-
banks, offers a safe anchorage. Pop.
(1911) 55,188.
Yftrmonth ^ seaport town of Nova
xarmouxn, scotir^205 mUes 8.W. of
Halifax, and the chief shipbuilding place
in the province. Pop. 6600.
Yam "*y textile fiber prepared for
•**"^ weaving into cloth. See Thread,
YarOSlaf . ^^ Jaroslav,
Yarr ^ well-known British and Euro-
' pean plant, Spergula arvensis.
See Spurrey,
Yarra-Yarra (yaf'if-yar'rA), the
*** ***** Australian nver on
which Melbourne, Victoria, is situated.
Its length is about 100 miles. On ac-
count of falls it is not navigable above
Melbourne. See Melbourne.
Yarrell (yar'el), Whjjam, an emi-
nent naturalist, was the son
of a newspaper agent in London; bom
there in 1784 ; died in 1856. He assisted
in and succeeded to his father's business.
He contributed frequently to the Trans-
actions of the Linniean Society, of which
he became a fellow, and to natural his-
tory periodicals. His two works, the
History of British Fishes and the His-
tory of British Birds, are standard au-
thorities.
Yarriba. ®«® Yoruha.
'Varrnju (yar'/^), a name given to a
xurruw p^ngen^ pjant, AchUUta miJ-
Icfolium, also known by the name milfoU
(which see).
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Yarrow Yeast
'YarrnxsT & parish in Selkirkshire, son. It has cotton, oil and lumber in-
xaiiuwy Scotland, chiefly pastoral, terespts. Pop. 6790.
celebrated for its poetical and historical "V^qt (7^^)* ^^^ period of time during
associations. The river Yarrow, famous * which the earth makes one com-
in song, issues from the foot of St. plete revolution in its orbit, or the period
Mary*s Loch, and, flowing 14^ miles which elapses between the sun's leaving
eastward, falls into the Ettrick, 2 miles either equinoctial point, or either tropic,
8. w. of Selkirk. and his return to the same. This is the
Yata?ha.n (yat'a-gan; Turk, yata- tropical or aolar year, and the year in the
^ ^^^ gdn), a sort of dagger- strict and proper sense of the word,
like saber with double-curved blade, about This period comprehends what are called
2 feet long, the handle without a cross- the twelve calendar months, and is usu-
guard, much worn in Mohammedan coun- ally calculated to commence on January
tries. 1 and to end December 31. It is not
Votes 1^^^)* Edmund Hodgson, an quite uniform, but its mean length is
English novelist, born in 1831; about 365 days, 5 hours, 48 mmutes and
died in 189C He wrote Broken to Har- 51.6 seconds. In popular usage, how-
nesB, Land at Last, Dr. Wainwrighfs ever, the year consists of 366 days, and
Patientf The Impending Sword, Personal every fourth year of 366. See Leap-
Reminiscences, etc. year, — Anomalistic year. See under
Yawl (yft^)» ^ small ship's boat. Anomaly. — Civil year, the ordinary year
xawx |28ually rowed by four or six of 366 days. — Ecdesiastical year, from
oars; a jolly-boat; also a sailing boat Advent to Advent. — Gregorian year, Ju-
similar to a cutter, but having a small lian year. See Calendar. — Lunar year,
sail at the stern. a period consisting of 12 lunar months.
Vownin? (yAwn'ing), an involuntary The lunar astronomical year consists of
** o expansion of the mouth, a 12 lunar svnodical months, or 354 days,
reflex muscular action, generally pro- 8 hours, 48 minutes, 36 seconds. The
duced by weariness, tedium, or an in- common lunar year consists of 12 lunar
clination to sleep, sometimes by hunger, civil months, or 354 days. The em-
etc. When yawning is troublesome, it holismio or intercalary lunar year con-
may be relieved by long, deep resplra- sists of 13 lunar civil months, and con-
tion, or drawing in the air at long in- tains 384 days. — Sabbatical year. See
tervals. Sabbath, — Sidereal year. See Sidereal
Yaws (yft*)' ^ disease occurring in Time.
** ** America, Africa, and the West Yeast (y^^^* *^® yellowish substance,
Indies, and almost entirely confined to *•*'•**»'' having an acid reaction^ pro-
the African races. It is characterized by duced during the vinous fermentation of
cutaneous tumors, numerous and succes- saccharine fluids, rising to the surface,
sive, gradually increasing from specks to when the temperature ot the fluid is high,
the size of a raspberry, one at length in the form of a frothy, flocculent, viscid
growing larger than the rest; core a matter (surface yeast), and falling to
fungous excrescence; fever slight, and the bottom (sediment yeast) when the
probably irritative merely. It is infec- temperature is low. The ordinary yeast
tious and contagious, and is produced by of beer consists of an immense number of
inoculation with Treponema pertenius, minute cells, which constitute a plant
which may be carried by the common called the yeast-plant, which multiplies
house fly. It is also called frambossia, by budding off other cells, or sometimes
from the French framboise, a raspberry, by spores. Little is known regarding the
It is treated by intramuscular or intra- genesis of the yeast-plant Pasteur's re-
venous injections of dioxyamido-arseno- searches seem to snow that the yeast
benzol, or '606,' a remedy brought for- which forms in grape juice is derive<l
ward by Dr. Ehrlich for syphilis, both chiefly from certain germs abounding
diseases being caused by varieties of about harvest-time on the grapes, and
Treponema, Milk of goats thus treated diffused throughout the atmosphere of
is suggested for children affected with breweries and wine-cellars, etc. Yeast is
the disease. not only generally essential to the produc-
YazOO B.iver (j^'^)* & river of tlon of wine from grape and other fruit
.■.cMivv jAxvcx jyfississippi, 290 miles juices, and to the manufacture of beer,
long, navigable throughout its course, but it is also an acent in produclns the
and joining the Mississippi River 5 miles fermentation whereby breaa is rendered
above Vicksbui^. light, porous, and spongy and has super-
YazAA a city, capital of Yazoo C3o., s«»ded leaven. (See Fermentation.) —
^ Mississippi, on the navigable German yeast is prepared in various ways
Yazoo River, 45 miles N. n. w. of Jack- from common yeast collected, drainedf
I
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Yeats
Yellow Sea
and prened till nearW dry* It can be so
kept for several months, and is much used
bj bakers* — Patent yeaet is yeast col-
lected from a wort of malt and hop, and
treated similarly to German yeast —
ArtifMiU feast is a doagh of floar and a
small quantity of CQmmoo. 7%ist made
into sinall cakes and dried.
V^Qfji (yftts), William Btttlbb, an
*^'* Irish poet, bom at DnbUn, in
1866. He wrote The Wanderinge of Ot-
Hn and Other Poems, Countess Vathleen,
Shadowy Waters, etc., and varioas plays
of verse since pablished as Plays for the
Irish Theater (1912). He was one of
the leaders of the Celtic Renaissance, and
has written some prose works including
The OeUio TioiHght and Sygne and the
IreUMnd of Hie Tme.
Yeddo. seertwo.
Yeisk. ^^^^
Yelete. see/i^..
Yell il^^)* ^® second largest of the
^^^ Shetland Islands, separated from
the mainland by Yell Sound, and 25
miles N. of Lerwick. It is about 17^
miles in length, and from half a mile to
6 miles in breadth. The surface is
chiefly moorland, and fishing is the lead-
ing employment Pop. 2579.
VAllniiy (ycl'O), one of the prismatic
xcAiuw g^ij^rg. the color of that part
of the solar spectrum situated between
the orange and the green ; a bright golden
color, the type of which may be found in
the field buttercup, which is a pure yel-
low. United with blue it yields green;
with red it produces orange. See Color
and Spectrum,
Yellow-berries. ^^ French Berries.
YeUow-bird, ^onTi' in-^gi^.^1^
States, the FringiUa or Chrysometris
tristis. The summer dress of the male is
of a lemon yellow, with the wings, tail,
and fore part of the head black. When
caged the song of this bird greatly resem-
bles that of the canary.
; TeUow Fever, P^Xw^^jJ-^ r.
infectious disease of tropical and semi-
tropical America and the western tropical
coast of Africa. It is caused by the
injection of the yellow fever bacteria
through the bite of the Stegomyia fasciata
mosquito, which was proved by researches
made in Havana, Cuba, in 1^, by Drs.
Walter Reed, J. Carroll and A. Agra-
mcDte, of the United States Marine Hos-
pital Service. The symptoms begin in
fiom one to six days after the mosquito
bite is inflicted. One attack usually con-
fers lifelong immunity. There are three
stacee: L The febrile stage, beginning
with malaise, headache, irritable stomach,
chills, high fever; pains in head, back
and bmbs ; scanty urine ; a peculiar odor.
Slight jaundice occurs, resembling the
appearance just prior to the eruptive
stage of measles. The white of the eye
is colored yellow. The coloring deepens
for several days, and may become quite
dusky. Albumin appears in the urine
on the third day. 2. About the thi^d or
fourth day the fever drops to 100** or
99° F. and other symptoms improve. A
crisis may then terminate the disease.
3. In the third stage the previous symp-
toms may reappear in wone form than
before. A characteristic is an abnor-
mally slow pulse with a fever, where the
pulse rate may decrease while the fever
grows higher. The other symptoms are:
complete jaundice, black vomit, hsmor-
rhages from mucous membranes, feeble
pulse, cold surface, irre^lar respiration.
Prevention of the spread of the disease is
accomplished by completely screening the
patient so that no mosquito can bite him
to carry the germs elsewhere. By this
method epidemics of the disease can be
prevented and it may in time be eradi-
cated. It is treated by calomel for tiie
bowels, sodium bicarbonate to reduce ex-
cessive urinary acidity, no food for three
or four days because of the condition of
the stomadi, febrifuges, heart stimulants
and other treatment.
YeUow-hammer, ^^-^bl^f-o?
the genus Emheriza, the E, oitrinellaj
called also yeUow-hunting, The head,
cheeks, front of the neck, belly, and
lower tail-coverts are of a bright yellow.
The upper surface is partly yellow, but
chiefly brown, the feathers on the top of
the back being blackish in the middle, and
the tail feathers are also blackish. The
yellow-hammer occurs throughout Europe.
Vpllnixr PitiA A North American
vai'i4ihUis, The wood is used largely for
domestic purposes in the United States.
In Canada and Nova Scotia the name is
given to P, resinosa, and it is also applied
to P. australis.
Yellow Eiver. See Hoangho.
^AllATira an inflammation of the liver,
xcuuwsy ^j. ^ ^j^j ^j jaundice which
affects horses, cattle and sheep, causing
yellowness of the eyes. The same name
is given to a disease which affects the
peach tree.
YeUowSea <.?'k°rof'*'th';''Sc
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THE YELLOWSTONE
View of the Grand Cafion and Inspiration Point from Artist's PoliiU
^Q
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Yellowstone National Pari
Yeovil
Ocean, on the northeast coast of China;
length, about 620 miles ; greatest breadth,
about 400 miles. It is very shallow, and
obtains its name from the lemon-yellow
color of its water near the land, caused
by mud suspended in the water from the
inflow of tbe rivers Hoang-ho and Tang-
tse-kiang.
Yellowstone National Park,
a region of the state of Wyoming, occu-
pying its northwest corner with slight
extensions into Montana and Idaho; of
remarkable natural beauty and unique
for the number and diversity of its geysers
and hot springs. It was in 1872 with-
drawn from settlement by the United
States government to become a park or
tract for the recreation of the people. It
was originally about 62 miles in length
(from N. to s.), and 54 in width, with an
area of 3350 sq. miles, but in 1882 a for-
est preserve of over 2000 square miles was
added in the e. and s., making the total
area a little over 5500 so. miles. It is
readily accessible by a branch of the
Northern Pacific Railway. Its surface is
mainly an undulating plain, diversified,
however, by great mountain ranges, one
of which, the Absaraka, a range separat-
ing the waters of the Yellowstone river
(which see) from those of the Big Horn,
contains some of the grandest scenery in
the United States. The whole region ex-
hibits an endless variety of wild volcanic
scenery — hot springs, mud volcanoes,
geysers, cafions, waterfalls, etc. The gey-
sers are more remarkable than those of
Iceland, and the Grand Geyser in Fire-
hole Basin is the most magnificent nat-
ural fountain in the world. The Yellow-
stone Lake, one of many, is a maj^nifi-
cent sheet of water, with an area of 150
aq. miles, and an elevation of 7440 feet.
The falls of the Yellowstone are of strik-
ing beauty. The Mammoth Hot Springs
also are notable, from their beautiful
terraces and basins of exquisitely colored
calcareous deposits. A large part of the
park is covered with forest. Stringent
legislation protects the game, with the
result that elk, deer, antelope and bear,
have taken refuge in it and have rapidly
increased in numbers.
YeUowstone Eiver, f^/'wJterl
United States, which rises in the Rocky
Mountains, about lat. 44^ N. and Ion.
110* w. After a course of about 25
miles its passes through the lake of the
same name, and runs northward through
the Yellowstone National Park. Soon
after issuing from the lake the river
makes at intervals a series of falls (the
last being 300 feet high), and traverses
cafions, one of which, the Great Cafion,
is 30 miles in length, its steep sides being
colored in bright hues and shaped in a
great variety of fantastic forms. Run-
ning in a northeasterly direction the river
ultimately joins the Missouri about lat.
48"* N., after a course of some 1100 miles.
Steamers can ascend it for 3(X) miles to
the mouth of the Big Horn, which is its
largest affluent.
YeUow-throat, IJ^^ ^^^
bird {Sylvia Marilandica).
Temen (7^°>'^x^)f & division of Arabia,
occupying the southwest angle
of the peninsula, and known as Arabia
Felix. Some i>ortions of it are very
fertile. Among its princiiial products
is coffee, to a specially prheed kind of
which Mocha, one of its seaports, has
given a name everywhere known. Esti-
mated area, 70,000 square miles; esti-
mated population, about 750,CKX). (See
Arabia.) The chief potentate is the
Im&m of Sana, a tributary of Turkey.
Vau & Japanese money of account,
^^"^9 equivalent to $1.(>4.
VatiiItqI^ (yen-ik^a-lft). Strait of,
xem&axe connecting the Black Sea
with the Sea of Azof, is about 20 miles
long, and in some parts only 2 miles
broad and 2 fathoms deep.
Yenisei (yen'i-sl), a great river of
A^uAo^A ^g.j^^ j..g^ jjj Mongolia, flows
northward through Siberia, and after a
course of about 2500 miles enters the bay
of the same name in the Arctic Ocean.
Yeniseisk Uw„tl''!,? ^feasU'^H^!
beria, extending from the Chinese fron-
tier to the Arctic Ocean; area, 986,908
sq. miles. It contains rich auriferous
deposits. Pop. 657,900. — The capital, of
the same name, is the chief entrepot for
the gold mines of the province and the
Siberian fur-trade. Pop. 11,739.
VAnTnofirv (yO'man-ri), a volunteer
Xeomanry cavalry force originally
embodied in Britain during the wars of
the French revolution. They must fur-
nish their own horses, but have an allow-
ance for clothing; the government also
supplying arms and ammunition. Unlike
the ordinary volunteer force, the yeo-
manry cavalry may be called out to aid
the civil powers in addition to their be-
ing liable for service on invasion of the
country by a foreign enemy.
Yeomen of the Guard. ^^5^^'
V^Airil (y^'vil), a municipal borough
AuuvxA ^f England, in Somerset, on the
river Yeo or Ivei, 40 miles south of Brif^
tol. It has a fine cruciform church
dating from the fifteenth century, and is
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TH3 GREAT 40-INCH BQUATOSIAL TELBSCOPB, YERKB8 OBSERVATORY
^ perfect]ots possible seem to be combined in this instrument, which with its moving dome cost som«
. 1x70.000. The moving floor is raised by electrical means, the clock rewinds itself, andyet other
iBOton direct the telescope to the desired pUoe. The observatory is at T^iams Bay. Wisconsin.
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Yerkes Observatory
Yonne
noted for its
Pop. 18,7(50.
manafacture of glorei.
Terkes Observatory, fP^ ^^^
by Charles T. Terkes, a capitalist of Chi-
cago, to Chicago University. It is located
at Williams Bay, Wisconsin, 75 miles
above Chicago, and is furnished with a
40-inch lens telescope, one of the largest
in the world. It is thoroughly equipped
with other astronomical instruments.
VAftflA (yez'6)t Yezo, or Jesso (offi-
*^**" cially called Hokkaido), the
most northerly of the larger Japan is-
lands, has an area of about 30,300 sq.
miles, and a pop. (1904) of 843,717, in-
cluding about 18,000 Ainos, a docile ab-
oriffinal race. The island is mountainous
and volcanic, and is rich in minerals, in-
cluding coal, gold, and silver. Matsmai
and Hakodadl (which see) are the chief
towns.
Yew (^^» *° evergreen tree of the
^ genus Tamus, nat. order Taxacese.
The common yew is T, baccdta, indige-
nous in most parts of Europe. It is a
handsome tree, growing to a height of
from 30 to 40 feet, with numerous spread-
tor branches, forming a dense head of
foliage. Its trunk is thick, and has been
known to attain a circumference of 56
feet. Its fruit is a red berry with green
seeds. It used to
be frequently
planted in church-
yards, and its tough
elastic wood was
extensively used in
the manufacture of
bows. In our own
days, on account of
the durability of
the timber, and of
its hard, compact,
close grain, it is
much used by cabi-
net-makers and
turners. There are
several varieties of
it, the Irish yew,
which has a more
upright growth than the common yew, be-
ing esteemed the finest. The American
yew (T. haccaia Canadensis) is a low
prostrate shrub, never forming an erect
trunk. It is found in Canada and the
more northern of the United Staten, and
is commonly called ground-hemlock,
Yezd (y^2^)» ^ city of Persia, prov-
ince of Farsistan, in an oasis in
a Bandy plain 190 miles southeast of
Ispahan, it is noted for its velvet and
other silk manufactures, and contains
about 4000 fire worshipers. Pop. esti-
mated at 50,00a
Yaw (Tmcus haecdta) ,
Y^drasil ^oooka.8iix (ig'dra-ml), in
o^ ^ Scandinavian mythology, the
giant ash-tree spread over the wholt
world, the branches of which reach above
the heavens, the roots of which reach
down to the under world. Ygdrasil typi-
fies existence.
Yiddish (7i<l'iBli)» Judisch or Judbo-
a.Au«uou (}eiij£^jj^ jargon spoken by
the Jews in Russia and Central Europe
and carried by immigrants to America.
It is a High CTerman with a large admix-
ture of Hebrew and other langaages.
It is spoken by over six million people
and is the medium of a considerable
literature, some of it dating from the
16th century.
Yo^fl. (?^'S&; union), in Hindu phil-
*^o** ology, one of the six Darsanas
or schools of Brahmanical philosophy,
that of Patanjali, the essence of which is
meditation. Theoretically at least its
devotees can acquire entire command oyer
elementary matter by certain ascetic prac-
tices, such as lonf-continued supprmion
of the breath, and by endeavoring to unite
themselves with the yital spirit which per-
vades all nature. When the mysncal
union is effected, the disciple (Yoei) can,
according to the belief, traverse all space,
become inyisible, know the past, present
and future.
Yokohama (y^ko-ha'ma), the most
AVA.VUCMUA important of the Japan-
ese ports from its proximity to Tokio, the
capital of the empire, with which it is
connected by a railway 18 miles in length.
The foreign settlement consists of well-
constructed streets with business estab-
lishments. The harbor, a part of the bay
of Tokio, is good and commodious. Steam-
ers from San Francisco, Vancouver Is-
land, etc., call regularly. The population
has grown rapidly within recent years,
increasing from 70,019 in 1884 to 394,303
in 1909.
Yonkers (yonglsers), a dty of West-
XUUlLers cheater county. New York,
on the east bank of the Hudson Riyer,
adjoining the northern line of New York
City. It is both a residential and manu-
facturing city, its industries including
large carpet, elevator and hat manufac-
tures, also sugar refineries, sash, door and
metal-foil factories. The first settlement
here was made about 1650. Pop. 88,000.
VniiTiA (yon), a department of Cen-
XOnne ^^^ if^rance, traversed by the
river Yonne, which is nayigable through-
out it The soil is yery fertile, producing
large wheat crops, and the vines yield the
finest red wines of Lower Burgundy, and
the finest of white wines, the well-known
Chablis. Auxerre is the capital Area
2880 sq. miles. Pop. (1910) 3324277.
Digitized by
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York
Yosemite Valley
York (y^^l^)* 01^ Yorkshire, the lar-
^^*'^ gest county of England, faces the
North Sea on the N. £. and extends from
the Tees river on the N. to the estnary of
the Humber in the s. ; area 6067 sq,
miles. It is divided into the North,
South, and West Ridings, each riding
having a separate lord-lieutenant The
surface is much diversified, there being
a lam central valley with a mountainous
district in the N. B. and in the E. an ele-
vated chalky district called the Weald.
The county contains some of the most
fertile tracts in the kingdom, while there
are areas of barren moor. The central
valley is drained chiefly by the Ouse and
its tributaries. The West Riding con-
tains some of the richest coal mines in
the Kinffdom and there are large de-
posits of iron in the N. There are a
number of large manufacturing centers,
including Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, Hud-
dersfield and others. Hull and York are
other notable cities, York being the cap-
itaL Pop. (19U) 3,960,461.
VftrV (British, Coer Effroo, or Ehroc:
^^*'^ Latin. Ehoracum), a cathedral
city and archDishop*s see, the capital of
Yorkshire, England, 188 miles north of
London by rail, is situated at the conflu-
ence of the Foss and the Ouse. The city
proper, embracing a circuit of nearly 3
miles, was inclosed by walls, restored bv
Edward I. of which the portions still
remaining nave been converted into prom-
enades, conunanding a prospect of the
surrounding country. Tnere are many
quaint, old-fashioned houses in the nar-
row streets of its older portion. The
great object of attraction, however, is the
minster or cathedral, the finest in Eng-
land, which dates from the seventh cen-
tury, but did not begin to assume its
present form till the twelfth century, and
was not completed till 1472. It is built
in the form of a Latin cross with choir,
aisles, transepts, a central tower and two
western towers ; extreme length, 524 feet ;
breadth, 250 ; height of central tower, 213
feet. (See cut at Decorated Style,)
York was the capital of Roman Britain.
It was made an archiepiscopal see by
Edwin of Northumbria in 624. It still
ranks second theologically and polit-
ically among English cities, its arch-
bishop having the title of Primate of
England (see Archbishop), and its chief
magistrate takes the title of lord-mayor.
It was incorporated by Henry I, and the
city boundaries were extended in 1884.
The trade is local, and the industries un-
important Pop. 82,297.
York ^ ^'^' capital of York Co.,
a.vAA.9 Nebraska, on a branch of the
Big Blue River, 50 miles w. of Lincoln.
It is in a farming and stock-raising re-
gion, and manufactures flour and fonn*
dry products. Pop. 6235.
York ^ ^^^y* ^P^^ o^ ^<>'^ ^M
^ Pennsylvania, lies on Codorus
Creek, a branch of the Susquehanna. 28
miles s. s. e. of Harrisburg. It is in a
rich agricultural region and has a num-
ber of educational and charitable institu-
tions. The industries are varied, includ-
ing bridge and chain works, i)aper and
pulp mills, foundries and machine shops,
traction engines, water-wheels, farm im-
plements, and various others. The 0)n-
tinental Congress met at this place in
1777-78 while Philadelphia was occupied
by the British army. Pop. 55,000.
Vnrlr House or, an English royal
•^"^"'^ house, the rival of that of Lan-
caster. The House of York was united
to the House of Lancaster when Henrv
VII married the eldest daughter of Ed-
ward I v. The emblem of the Yorkists
was a white rose. See England {Hi$-
tory),
York Peninsula, 1^ Queensland,
gion lying on the east side of the Gulf
of Carpentaria, and terminating at its
north end in Cape York, separated from
New Guinea by Torres Strait.
Yorktown 'J^^^'Tii^^'c^^'^t:
ginia, on the right bank of York river,
nearly 10 miles from its mouth and 36
miles N. N. w. of Norfolk. It was the
scene of the surrender of Lord Com-
wallis to General Washington, October
19, 1781. The surrender is commemo-
rated by a monument. In the Civil war
it was fortified by the Confederates, who,
having been besieged bv General McClel-
lan, evacuated it May 4, 1862. Its popu-
lation now numbers little over 100.
YAm'hfl (y6'r0-ba), a country of West
xuruuii Africa, north of the Bight of
Benin. It is peopled b^ a number of
confederated tribes, and is now attached
to the colony and protectorate of Lagos.
Much of the country is fertile and well
cultivated, and the inhabitants have made
great progress in the industrial arts.
They are chiefly pagans, but Mohamme-
danism has made way among them. Prot-
estant and Roman Catholic missions have
long been at work among them. Ibadan
is tne largest town.
Yosemite VaUey if^''-*«^f-
natural wonders of North America, is in
Mariposa countv, California, about 180
miles E. by 8. of San Francisco and mid-
way between the eastern and western
bnses of the Sierra Nevada. It is a nar-
row valley at an elevation of 3860 fete
I
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ELCAPTTAN
ykm in the Yosemite Valley. California.
Digitized by
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Yoshihito Yoimg
above the sea, and is itself nearly level, ated at Dartmouth Ck>llege in 1853; was
about 6 miles in length, and varying in a captain in the Olvil war, and after-
width from i mile to a mile. On each wards held several professorships, be-
side rise enormous domes and almost ver- coming professor of astronomy at Frince-
tical cliffs of granitef one of them, called ton Ck>irege in 1877. He made very im-
the Half Dome, being 4737 feet higher portant spectroscopic studies and dis-
than the river Merced at its base, while eyeries in solar physics and chemistry,
there are various others equally notable His .principal work was The Sun. He
in aspect. Numerous waterfalls and cas- died January 4, 1908.
cades descend fromprodigious heights, the Vounfir H^dward, an English poet,
chief being the Yosemite Falls, which ^ 7 **o^ was the son of a dean of
drops nearly half a mile. The Bridal Veil Salisbury, and bom in 1083. He was
Fall is also very picturesque. This val- educated at Winchester and Oxford, and
ley forms part of the California Yosemite obtained in 1708 a law fellowship at All
State Park, which is included in the Souls. Patronixed and pensioned by the
larger Yosemite Natiopal Park. profligate Duke of Wharton, he wrote
Vftiiliilii+A (y6-shi-h6't0), emperor or '^^S^P^^SSJS ajid a couple of plays, one of
XUBlulUtu naikado of Japan, the son which, Tfce Revenge, long kept posses-
of Mutsuhito, born in 1879, proclaimed ^^^ o' the stage. His first great liter-
Crown Prince in 1889. He received a *jy success was his production of a series
liberal education, and though extremely S\'*r'^®» ^"£^ collectively in 1728 as
delicate as a child grew into robust man- ^^^ -^5^^^ SL V**^* /*^ Universal Pat-
hood. On the death of Mutsuhito in •*^^» }^ 1828 he took orders, was made
1912, Yoshihito succeeded to the throne. * ^J^. ^^^BJF* £^^ "'^^^'^ ^ Welwyn.
Tftne^hftl t7»'ftJ o^ yal), a seaport of Sf'^-^ A^^* Pl*^^?,l^^.*P^ P"^
XOU^OaX YreiSnd, on tie estuary of aPPeared the work by which chiefly he is
the Blackwater, county Cork. 28 miles wmembered, the gloomy but striking ATtjyA*
east of Cork. It has manufactures of IMughtt. He died in 1765.
earthenware and bricks. Pop. 5393. YOIUie, ^"^. Flaog. an American
XOUng guishe^ africultural writer, f^V^ i^'v^^^J T** 5^?^^^ ''Kr^^
bom in 1741; died in 1820. He became a ^*,^viV«^'i School, and Chicago Nor-
farmer. and made a series of agricultural iWf^r^rki w,.kT#I^ ^^ ^^^^ ?!
tours in England, Ireland, and France. if^^L?E/,'^^i^^ qk™k^® University
pubUshing accounts of them, and in 1793 ?Jj VSK??^ "^ 1?P?-. She be^ teachmg
he was appointed secretary to the newly- !Si,i^«« nM^^"^*! oqt^HS? "**'*5^®°^ ^1
constitute Board of Agriculture. Of his ^^^^ S^^Vt^^^"^' ^V'^AV^'' ^^
many writings his TraveU in Prance, ifeSl?2Sk .^''^ Ju^ts -f'^?!?*^/.?? Chicago,
published in 1792. is the most interesting. iSTHM^^ ^iSS?Sq®' ^® Chicago Nor-
preacher of the Mormon doctrine. He .viv.nsf in Ift4i ?<«^T??^^b^*°"'
was one of the twelve founders of Nan- Twm io^S^ident of^rt.« N»wV«?b
5SL„r8;j,Vt?.' iifdX^'su^ *of%rs?^:E: t-^wTn'ttravii w2r:*srtawShed^the
Jweph Smith, and the flight of the Mor- horning Pott in Philacfelphia aad tte
cons from Nanvoo, Young became their gtandaPd in New York? was EuropeiS
leader on their long lourney westward, correspondent of the ^er^W; went iSnnd
was elected their presfdent on their set- the wSrld with General Grint "wm ai^
tling in Utah, and when this was made pointed minister to China; and In laW
the Mormons of Utah. Young was a eral, 1903.
kaan of great practical ability. UUh Youil? Thomas, scientist, was born
flourished under his rule, and he long ^wuu-g, ^^ ^ Quaker family at Mil-
withstood successfully the efforts of the verton, in Somersetshire, England, in
Urited States government to establish 1773. He qualified himself for the med-
its authority there. ical profession, but a fortune left him
Tinnfir Chables Augustus, astron- made him rather languid in his practice
* •***&> omer, bom at Hanover, New as a physician in London. In 1802 he
tii nnahire. Dec 15. 1834 ; was gradu- became the colleague of Davy as pro-
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Yoni^ Ypres
feisor of nataral philosophy at the Royal Ypres took place in October, 1914« whoi
Institotion, having previously made the Britain's sznall professional army with
discovery of the interference of light, the peat bravery stopped the German forces
result of researches which, completed by in their maivh on the channel ports and
Fresnel, secured the triumph of the un- drove them out of«the town, which had
dnlatory theory. In 1807 appeared his first been occupied by the enemy on Octo-
admirable LeciurtM on Natural Philoso- ber 3. In the second battle, in the spring
pky. In 1818 he was appointed secre- of 1915, the Canadians, who had taken
tary to the Board of Longitude, with the the heights before the town, were com-
charge of supervising the Xautuial Al- pelled to retire into Ypres. It was in this
wianack. Young preceded Chanit>oOion battle that the Germans first introduced
in the discovery of the alphabetic char- poison gas. During 1916 the Germans,
acter of certain of the Egyptian hiero- from their positions on the heights, poured
glyphs. He was a man of universal ae- a steady stream of pro^'ectiles into the old
complishments, adding to his scientific town. Hardly a building was left stand-
and mathematical attainments a knowl- ing, and even the beautiful Cloth HaU — a
edge of the cUssical and the principal glorious relic of the 13th and 14th cen-
modem and oriental languages. He died turies, built in the form of an irregular
in 1829. trapesium surmounted by a square tower
^/^•n<n«» ITa-m's /n«i^<rf4a<ii A floA. ^^ oclfry — ^was reduced to a heap of ruins.
Young Men 8 Cnnrtian ASSO- i^ 1917 the third battle of tpres was
/»iafiATia Among the first of these was fought, wiUi the British and Canadians
Oiatiuiui. ^jj^j funded in London tai on the ofltensive. The Germans were
1844 by George Williams. The movement i'?!*^ ^^ *?<* ^« famous Passchendaele
extended, and became one not only for the R»dge ^^^ other um>OTtant heists were
religious but for the general culture anr! gained by the AUied mwps. The Cana-
social wellbeing of young men engaged in <!"">»» under General &ir Arthur Currie,
business. These associations became ^^re given the honor of leading the as-
widelv extended, there being in 1916 in ^^^ and gained a bnUiant victory. 1^
the United States alone 700^ members, town of Ypres Was full of memones for
with buildings and property valued at jvery Canadian, memon^ of great sacn-
^90,000,000. The European war opened gee and of man^ comrades laid to rest,
a new field of work for them, and laixe The trenches which they took over on the
sums of money were contributed to be ^^^ ^^^'^ the smne trenches where, in
used in their special Une of activity for Jlie »pnng of 1915, the Germans had at-
soldiers in camp and field. tackod them with poison gas. High offi-
^r^«.-..w.4.^..«*«. (vnim'tonn) a ritv ^" ^"<> ™ them had played their part
Co., Ohio, on the Mahoning River, 66 S*"! »'.»'>«» ""«» »««>? t^a' SirTWw
mil^B soutLeast of Cleveland, in the vicin- Hwg, m h« message to General Currie,
ity of iron ore and coal beds. It contains ??ii i„ J^iTf ^^^S^^^^iZ^J^^t
a Federal building, various homes and """f^y ^»u*^u,^°*'^** JSl.^P^?^!
hospitals, an opera house, Ubrary, etc. ?,"«««5? ^'S which your command of ^e
ItLi an important iron manuflJrturinK S?""^*? a^rf^n.*^«..'^mjr^^.!:?»i?;
town, having many large mills and T^" r? /»'»«??» y«« employed totally
foundries. all> nZufactuf«i of lumber. f^i^'"L'"^f.Kp*^°,.^L^rmAJ^h^
/Mii« ivwJfin<r mttfA,^<iia •w^nr/iA» »tAf/>* losscs RTQ rcliaDly estimated at more than
«™ ^ Pon^ft (Sft^ ^ • double those suffered by die Canadian
^rs, etc i-ov^y^fW^ n, . . . troops. The skill, bravery, and determi-
X 0 n n g women 8 LnnStian nation shown in the attack and in main-
A • x» /v« ♦f.^ —«.<.» u^^m .. taining the positions won against repeated
Associations, ^^^ ^o^unT^'en w" ^T^^ T^i'"' ^"^"^ ""''' ^° "^ ""^"^
KTn1ifrd^and^L**LiS'in%^^^^ ""^The^tide of battie surged back in 1918
^f RHt^in onH A«?r^JL rrS^^ ^^ the desperate and reckless attempt of
?L?Il^StiS^ «^f ^«J^? f^^'^^iS^ the GermaSs to reach Calais. The Brit-
nhr.inTi^?»i "jnf^o^LT^S^o J3 ^I'lL^^V ^^ ^^^^ relinquished the heights, but
^ysical, Boc^l, imellec^al, and spmma^^ held fast at Ypres, as the French had
Ypres i?:Pf'.^!?^& Jp^«*»).' ^el- ^^^^ ^t Verdun and the Mame. (See
wlf ini^^ «i r° lis ^1 ^ISm^^^A^^ European War.) In peace times tiie
Ti^fvI^^^L}^^ ^^^ *"? ^^^ ""^^ principal trade of tiie to^ was in cotton
of the Xperlee, 28 miles s. 8. .w. of ^nd lacea. Jansen was bishop of Ypree
^r';l^^ f ^'^Z^^l '^^' ^^ "^^ ^^''''^ and w l>"ned in the crypt of tiie now
I nim^^.'^^r''^^- i^il^® successive bom- ^j^^, cathedral of St. Martin. It was
ih f v»^^?i''. ^l^' %^'^^4i ^^''i^A? ^ ''J formerly one of tiie most important manu-
tho European war. The first battle of facturing towns of Flandofs, and in Uie
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Ypsilanti Yucatan
14th century had 200,000 inhabitants and with the control of an army corps. He
employed 4000 looms. The population in now became the leading power in modem-
1013 was 17,000. izing the Chinese army, and by 19(K1 had
TMilftllti (ip-si-lan'U), a city of a corps of many thouswids of weU-driUed
Apsiiauti Washtenaw county, Mich- and well-armed men. Also, as Yicero^ of
Igan. on the Huron River, 29 mUes w. by ChiU province, he was instrumental in
B. of Detroit. It is the seat of the Michi- introducing the modem system of educa-
ean State Normal School, and has manu- i><>»^i5^2 "»« empire. At an earUer date
factures of paper, cement, agricultural *»« l»aa become awaire of the plans of the
implements, veneers, flour, etc Pop, young emperor and hw reformer aaaoci-
0230 a^^ ^o introduce radical reforms and
YnftilftTifi a distinguished Greek fam- seize the reins of power Jong held by the
XpSUauU, iiy prominent in the Greek empress dowager. He informed her of
movement for independence. Dkmetbius *^1!u ^^S?®*** '** conseauence of which she,
was bom in 1703; died in 1832. He dis- ^™ ^^^ support of the cwiservatives,
tinguished himself so highly in the revolu- JJ*"® » palace prisoner of Kwang Sen,
Son of S2I as to be maSe president of !!i«,>. X^I^It^^SJIw J.^^^
the Greek legislative council after the II'IL^® ^'^P!?;^ 1^^?§S£*^^Si^*^^^^^
Uberation from the Ottoman yoke, f^®"^ ^^'l ^^^^ "\ J?^; Pnnce Ohun,
Z^T /x^ «/^ x^«^»«l - -o^i^s-^ ^e regent, dismissed him from his post as
Ysaye ^?"^?\' J?^®"?^.x* . iS^ Grand councilor. A hasty flight probably
il r .^^^^fe?* *^ ¥^1^1''^^ saved his Ufe. After the Wginning of thi
h?**?T ^J^al i° ; iiwiy*^ J"i ^^"♦1 revolution of 1911 Yuan was recalled by
the United States in 1804. He U justly ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ n^^^e premier, with dicta-
regarded as one of the KfeatiMt living ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ei^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^e^y
exponents of classical and virtuosic yiolm effort to savi the Manchu dynasty. Hi
music. He was violin profe^or at the ^^^^^ ^t abiUty in deaKng with the
Brussels Conservatoire from 1886 to 1898 difficult situation, arranged an armistice
and was manager and conductor of the or- ^^j ^^^ revolutionists, but found it im-
^estral concerts. _ ,. ^. ,, ,, . possible to save the empire. The leaders
Yssel. ®I i?®5?^u ^ 1 J ^ "il V 1 ^ of the revolutionary movement insisted on
.t «v7 ^^ the Netherlands, wWch leaves ^he dethronement of the child emperor and
the Rhine near Amhem,a^ receiving the ^^^ estabUshment of a republic. Yuan
Old Yssel from Rhenish Prussia, enters ^^s obliged to yield to this demand, and
the Zuyder Zee after a course of 80 mil<». on the abdication of the imperial famUy in
Ysselmonde, IJasmMONDE ( l /l- ^912 and the resignation of Sun Yet Sen.
*u *T ^u 1 A '"^'ri^^Vv^ *^ .1 t the provisional president, he aocepted the
the Netherlands opposite the mouth of presidency. An attempt by him to restore
the YsseL the empire at the close of 1915 failed and
Ystad V?®^t^« ^ seaport town of jjg continued to hold the presidency untU
oo ., ^^H5^ Sweden, on the Baltic, hig death in June, 1916.
36 miles southeast of Malmo. It has a Yneatftll (y^-kfi-tAn'), a peninsula
safe and spacious harbor, and amwie its XUCaxan f^^ming the southeastern
industries is shipbuilding. Pop. 9862. extremity of Mexico. Before its con-
Vqfrsi.rlvfnrl'arir ^^ Rhondda, a quest by the Spaniards it was the seat
xsLmuyiuuwi^, township of South of a flourishing civilization. It is now
Wales, in Glamorganshire, comprising for the most part a sparsely cultivated
several villages, the inhabitants of which region, whose forests yield excellent tim-
are chiefly engaged in the collieries. Pop. ber. cabinet-woods and dye-woods, and
152,798. which has recently been productive of
Yttria (it'ri-a), the protoxide of great quantities of sisal or so called Yu-
yttrium, a white powder, in- catan hemp. Yucatan is rich in ar-
soluble in water, but soluble in some chitectural remains of its ancient in-
acids. When ignited it glows with a habitants, temples, pyramids, etc., the
pure white light. work of the civilized Mayas. The most
Yttrinin (it'ri-um), an earth metal, imposing of these rains are those at Ux-
AbVAAtui* ^j^^ ^^ ^jj^ elements, the mal, Labwa, Loltun. and Chichen-itza.
basis of yttria; symbol Y, atomic weight Five-sixths of the inhabitants are In-
93. Its texture is scaly, and its color dians, preserving the speech of their an-
grayish-black. cestors, whom the Spaniards dispossessed.
Yuan Shi-kai president of China, In 1861 the peninsula, which since 1824
A ucftu MAAA AMXy ^,j^g resident com- had formed one state in the Mexican Coo-
missioner in Korea before the Japan- federation, was divided into two: Yuca-
Chinese war. and after that war was tan, area 29.560 square miles, pop. 314,-
made vice-president of the army board, 087, capital Merida ; and Campeacfiy, are«
* 27 10
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Yucea
Yvoa
18,100 Moare miles, pop.
Campeadiy*
VnOfifl. (juk'A), a genus of American
Auvva plimtB, nat. order Liliacee.
The spedea are
handsome plants*
with white flow-
ers, extremely ele-
gant, but desti-
tute of odor. F.
glorio9tL or com-
mon Adam's nee-
dle, is much
prised on account
of its panicle of
eleaant flowers,
which attain a
height of 10 or 12
feet. It yields a
fiber well adapted
for paper-making
F. filament 0 80^
the silk grass,
which has nani-
des of pendtuouiu
cUmatiied as a garden plant, blossoming
in the autumn.
Yukon (y<^'kon), one of the largest
^^^'^ liyers of America, rises in
Canada atMut lat. 57* 45' N., Ion. 130**
45' w., pursues a generally westward
course, of which the length is estimated
at 22u0 miles, the greater portion in
Alaska, and enters the Pacific Ocean by
several mouths. For three-fourths of its
course it is navigable by steamers, and is
a channel of supply for the gold regions
of the Klondike and parts of interior
84,281, capital ten members of a Legislative CoundL
Dawson City is its chief dty of impor-
tance: Whitehouse ranks next, mtuated
as it is at the head of navigation on the
Yukon River.
VhVati ^ territory of northwest Can-
XIULUUi ^^ j^^j^ ^f British Colum-
bia, adjoining the territory of Alaska;
area 207,076 sq. miles ; area lake surface
415^280 acres, population in 1001. 27,210 ;
in 1911, 8512. It lies in the basin of the
Yukon River and is largely mountainous.
It is traversed by the Lewis, PeUv, White,
Stewart and Klondike rivers. There are
142 miles of railways. The gold of Klon-
dike valley gives the territory its chief
importance, though copper and coal are
also mined. The gold produced from 1807
to 1014 amounted to $175,000,000. The
territory is goremed by commissioner and
Ynle (y^)f the old BndUh and Scan-
X U.XV; dinavian name for Christmas,
still to some extent in use, as in the term
yule-loff,
Ylinnfl.Tl (yun-nan'), the most south-
*"***«*** westerly province of China,
is bounded on the south by Annam,
Siam, and Burmah, and on the west by
Burmah. It is extremely rich in min-
erals, espedally iron and copper, contain-
ing also many varieties of precious stones.
At least a third of the cultivated land is
said to be under the poppy, l^e inhab-
itants are for the most part Chinese;
but there is a large number of non-
Chinese Mohammedans (called by the
Burmese Panthays). In 1860 the Mo-
hammedans rose in rebellion against the
Chinese government, and succeeded in es-
tablishing an independent government, but
it lasted only three or four years. By
the convention of Chefoo. in 1876. Uie es-
tablishment of commercial relations be-
tween British subjects and Yunnan was
conceded by the Chinese government.
Estimated area. 146,500 square miles;
estimated pop. 12.000,000.— -Yunnan, the
capital, is dtuated in the southeast of the
province, and is a busy and prosperous
town. Pop. (1907) 45,000.
Yvetot (6v-t5), a town of France, 24
Avvvuv jj^^ northwest of Rouen.
From the fifteenth to the middle of the
sixteenth century the lords of Yvetot bore
the title of king, and their lands were
exempt from service to the French crown ;
hence B^ranger's famous song, Le roi
d:Yveiot. Pop. (1906) 6214.
Yvon (^vov), Adolphe, painter, was
* *^** bom at Bscheviller, France, in
1817. He studied art with Paul Dela-
roche. In 1843 he visited Russia, and
from there sent pictures to the Salons of
1847-48. He was successful in portraits
and battle scenes. He received the grand
medal of honor in 1857; also in 1867.
His pictures are full of movement, and
the painting sober and straightforward,
free from affectation. Diad September 11,
1893.
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9 tbt last letter of the Onglidi alpha- Zflirii ^^ Otmgo.
^> bet, U a sibilant consonant, and is ^^^^* ^^
merely a vocal or sonant 8, haying pre- Zambesi (Mm-ba'ii), the most iBi«
cisely the same soond that • has In iw»e, •*«**** "^"* iK>rtant river in Sontheast-
eute, pleose, etc. (See 8.) The words em Africa, and the laifest flowing int«
in modem Knglish, which begin with 9 the Indian Ocean, has its source in sev
are all derived from other languages, eral streams uniting in the far interior,
mostly from the Greek. When not in- It flows first southeast and then north-
itial, however, we often find it represent- east, then curves asain to the southeast,
ing an older s in genuine English words, and reaches the Indian Ocean by several
as in hlaze^ freeze, gaze, graze^ etc mouths in the Mosambique Chuinel op-
Zaandam (sUn-dftm'), or Saabdam, poslte Madagascar. The delta of the
a town in the province or Zambesi covers an area of about 26,000
North Holland, 8 miles northwest of square miles, and commences about 90
Amsterdam. It is noted chiefly as the miles from the coast, a little below the
place where in 1007 Peter tbe Great confluence of the main stream with the
worked for a short time as a ship carpen- Shir^ The course of the whole river is
ter. Pop. (1913) 26,172. about 1400 miles, and it drains an area
Zabem ^^^'h^m) ; French, 8avtme)f of 600,000 square miles. Its course as a
a town of Germany, in Alsace, whole is through fertile valleys and
at the foot of the Vosgcs Mountains, and wooded plains; but the navigation is in-
29#wP® Rhine and Marne Canal. Pop. terrapted by rapids and cataracts,
^09. among the latter being the Victoria Falls,
Zafiatecafi (sa-kA-ta'kAs), a state of which are among the ffnndeit Jn the
£iacai.eca8 Xlexico, belonging to the worid. The vaUey of the Zambesi is
central tableland, and bounded by the capable of immense development in the
states of Aguas-Calientes, Jalisco, Du- way of trade. The Portuguese govem-
rango, Cohahuila, Nnevo-Leon, and San ment have long exercised sway for three
Luis rotosi. It is very rich in gold and hundred miles from the months of tbe
silver, which are extensively mined, river, and bv the international arrange-
Area, 24,757 square miles. Pop. 462,190. ment of 1890 the river from the coast to
^Zacatbcas, the capital, 340 miles the confluence of the 8hir6 is recognised
northwest of Mexico, is the center of one as being in Portuguese territory; west
of the oldest and most productive silver- of that point it forms the boundary be-
mining districts in the republic. Pop. tween British and Portuguese territory as
(1910) 25,900. far west as Zumbo, 460 miles from the
Zacaton (>&k'a-ton), a grass of wide sea; farther west it passes through ter-
** growth in America, which is ritory under British influence, its early
recommended by the U. S. Department of course being, however, in Portuguese tw-
' Agriculture for the manufacture of paper, ritory. The Zambesi and its afllnents
to which it seems well adapted. are now free to the flags of all nations.
ZfliFre (zafer), an impure oxide of 9!oniia (sft'mi-a), a genus of_plants,
Aiuixc cobalt, used in painting. ^luum ^^ ^^^ CycadaceiB. Tfc spe-
ZafirazifiT (^-Sfi-z^r), the capital of cies are found in tropical America, at the
«. .. .^ ^'J® Egyptian province of Gape of Good Hope, and in Australia,
Sharkiyeh. at the junction of the railways and partly resemble palms, partly tree-
from Cairo, Sues, Alexandria, and ferns. JTsllr-drea^ is a ^
Damietta, and on the fresh-water canal, for the genus in Sooth Africa, where the
? miles from Tel-el-Kebir, the scene of otttral part of the stem pith of Z.
Lord Wolseleys victory over AraM, Cafrs Is formed into cakes, ^tksd. Mid
September, 1882. Pop. 34,0P^ ^ ^JSm by the oatiTas.
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Zamora
Zebu
Zomorn. (th4-m6'r4), a city in Spain,
/<amora ^ j^^, ^^ ^^^ province of the
•ame name, 182 miles northwest of Mad-
rid, on the right bank of the Doura
Pop. 16,283.
Zanesville 5**^\"h i?® ^1?*^
MCMAVBVAAAv town of Musklngum CJo.,
Ohio, situated on the Muslcingum River
142 miles south of Cleveland. Its notable
buildings include the court-house, Athe*
neum. and the Soldiers' and Sailors' Me-
morial Hall. It is in a coal and iron
country and is largely engaged in manu-
facture, having three large encaustic and
mosaic tile works, woolen, cotton, and
hosiery factories, large tul>e works, glass
works, railroad shops, etc It is an active
trade center of a large agricultural dis-
trict Pop. 28,026.
ZnTlirwill (sang'wil), Ibeael, novel-
lly in London in 1864. He was graduated
from London Universitv, and became a
Journalist. He is widely known for his
tales of Jewish life. Children of the
Ohetto, Qheiio Tragedies, and The King
of 8chnorrer$. He has also written The
Moiter, Without Prejudice, etc — His
brother Louis (bom 1869), is the author
of A Drama in DutcK The World and a
Han, etc
Zante (»&n'te; ancient, Zac^tku9)j
^ one of the Ionian Islands, is 25
miles long, and about 12 miles broad;
area. 277 square miles. The greater part
of the interior consists of a fertile and
Sroductive plain, almost covered with the
warf grape which produces the so-called
currants; also olives, almonds, oranges,
and wine. The staple ex];>ort is currants.
Destructive earthquakes, causing great
loss of life and property, occurred in Feb-
ruary, March, and April, 1803. Pop. 46,-
082. Zantb, the capital, is a consider-
able seaport on its east side. Pop. 14,-
65a
Zannhar («*n-«M>tr'), a sultanate
£<ailUOar ^^ ^^^ Africa, which for-
merly comprised the whole coast between
Magdiahu (Magadoxo), about lat 2^ N.,
and Cape Delgado, lat lO"" 42" 8., with
the four islands of Zanaibar, Pemba,
Lamu, and Mafia. The continental part
of the sultanate lias recently become part
of British East Africa and German East
Africa; while the island and town of
Zansibar, and the island of P«nba, are
entirely under British protection. The
island (area. 600 sq. miles) is very fertile
and well cultivated, being especially suited
for the cultivation of cloves, sugar, cof-
fee, cocoa, and various spices, of which
thM^ is a considerable export. The pop-
ulation (200,000) is extremely beteittee-
Mous, inclading Eiir<^>eaiis» Arabs* half-
caste Portuguese from the Malabar coast
of India, and the Soahilis from the
mainland. — Zaitzibab, the chief town,
on the west side of the island, is the
center of trade for the eastern seaboard
of Africa, and of missionary and explor-
ing work of the interior. At the in-
stance of the British government the
slave trade has been abolished and slavery
restricted in Zansibar. Pop. about 35,-
000.
y.a-ro (z&'r&), an Austrian seaport,
***** capital of Dalmatia, lies on the
Adriatic, 130 miles southeast of Trieste.
It is an old town, with interesting me-
diflBval relics. Its chief industry is the
preparation of the well-known liqueur
maraschino. Pop. 32,551.
Zarathnstra. s^e zoroiwter.
ZarskOJC-SclO. ^^ Tiar$koye-selo.
7ao (sS'a; ancient (7eo»), one of the
^^^ Cyclades, in the ^gean Sea, 14
miles from the coast of Attica; 13 miles
long, and 8 broad. It is fertile, pro-
ducing fruit, wine, honey, and valonia.
Pop. 5019. most of whom belong to Zea,
the capital
7Ao1aTl^ (rt'land), or Seezand, the
£ieaiana largest of the Danish islands,
separated from Sweden by the Sound and
from Funen bv the Qreat Belt* le^tjiu,
81 miles, breadth, 65. It -^r "i^ces large
crops J com, and has excellent pasture.
It coma ins the capital of Denmark, Co-
penhagen.
Zehra '■^'b'&)> ^® Equui or AHnms
^ ** eftro, a quadruped of Southern
Africa, nt .riy as large as a horse, white,
striped wuh numorons brovmisli-black
bands on th^ head, trunk, and legs, ex-
cept on the jelly and inside of the thighs.
The lebra is extremely difficult to ap-
proach, f rcHU its watchful habits and great
swiftness of foot Only in a few in-
stances has it been domesticated. The
name lias been sometimes applied to the
now extinct quagga and the dauw or
Burchell's sebra ; but they differ frun the
lebra bi having no stripes on the lower
limbs, wl&ile those on the body are not
so black as the true lebra's. See Damw^
Quagga*
7*Kii (■S'bQ)f a raminant of the ox
Acuu ^^ ^^ TaufMM Indieus or Boe
/actons, called also Brahman buU. This
quadruped differs from the common ox in
having one, or more rarely two, humps
of fat on the shoulders, and in bavins
eighteen caudal Tertebm instead of
twenty-one. It is found extensively in
India, and also in Qiina* Japam and
Africa. Zebus are used as beasts of
draught and burdea, aad cocaakAally for
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Zebu
Zend-Avesta
riding. Their flesh is eaten as an article
of food, especially the hump, which is es-
teemed a great delicacy.
Zebu ( Taurus Indieus ) .
Zebu. SeeCeftu.
Zebnlnn (««b'tt-lun), the tenth son
Mw«r«»«.M* ^£ Jacob, and gave his name
to one of the twelve tribes of Israel, and
to a region ^f Palestine. At the first
census the tribe numbered 57,400, and
60,500 at the second. The territory of
the tribe lay in the fertile hilly country
to the north of the plain of Jezreel, and
included Naxareth.
Zeohfl.rifl.h (zek-a-rfi), or Zacha-
£ici;iiana.u ^^^^ ^j^^ eleventh of the
minor prophets, is supposed to have been
bom In Babylon, and to have been in the
first detachment of the exiles who re-
turned to Jerusalem under Zerubbabel
and Joshua. He began to prophesy in
the second year of Darius Hystaspes, and
with his senior contemporary, the prophet
Haggai, contributed powerfuUv by his
appeals to the rebuilding of the temple
(Ezra, vi, 14). Chapters i-viii of the
prophecies of Zechariah, are generally ad-
mitted to be his composition. But the
two other sections of the book into which
critics and commentators have divided it,
chapters iz-zi and zii-ziii, have been
ascribed by many to a pre-ezilic author,
partly because both what is said and is
not said in them is regarded as irrecon-
cilable with a post-ezilic one.
Zcdekiah iH;^Fi?^'Al '*!.^ ""^i
^ •*** of Judah of the lin( of
David. When he was twenty-one yc n s
of age Nebuchadnezzar appointed him
succeed his nephew Jehoiachim (whom
he carried to Babylon) as king of Judah.
He took an oath of allegiance to Nebu-
chadnezzar, which he afterwards broke
by entering into an alliance with Egypt.
His conduct in so doing was denounced
by the prophet Jeremiah, who, as well
as Ezekiel, then in Chaldsa, predicted
the approaching fall of Jerusalem, which
was besieged by Nebuchadnezzar and
taken, B.C. 588. Zedekiah, whose sons
were killed in his presence^ bad bis eyes
put out, and was carried to Babylon,
which city was probably the place of his
death.
Zedoarv (ze^'^a-ri; Curcuma Zed-
"** J^ oaria), a plant of the order
Zingiberaces, distinguished, like ginger,
for the stimulating and aromatic proper-
ties of the root. It is a native of India
and China. The roots of several other
species are sold under the same name.
Zeebmgge ^J^'^^ -^ .ISle^^r
great importance during the European
war, when it became a base for subma-
rines during the German occupation of
Belgium. In April, 1918, it wan the scene
of a daring raid undertaken by British
naval forces, with the co-operation of
French destroyers. Six obsolete cruisers,
filled with concrete, were convoyed under
smoke curtains and sunk or blown up at
the entrance of the channel leading to the
Mubmarine basin. The raid was under-
taken in conjunction with one on Ostend,
also in German hands, and here two block
ships were nm ashore and blown up.
Zeelfl.nd (zS'Ian*!)* Zealand, or See-
** LAND, the most westerly
province of Holland, has the greater part
of its surface below the sea-level, and
protected by dikes. The soil is fertile,
Eroducing rich crops of wheat, flax, and
emp, and much dairy produce is ex-
ported. The capital is Middleburg. Area,
690 square miles. Pop. 227,292.
ZeTmiTidfl.r (zem-in-dar'), in India,
cials created under the Mogul gov-
ernment of India. They have been
regarded, first, as district governors; sec-
ond, as landed proprietors; and third, as
farmers or collectors of the government
revenue on land. At the present dav, in
Bengal, the zemindar has all the rights
of a British landed proprietor, subject to
the payment of the land-tax, and also to
a certain ill-defined tenant-right on the
part of tenants who have long held pos-
session of their farms.
ZenAnfl. (ze-na'na), the name given
to the portion of a house re-
served exclusively for the females belong-
ing to a family of good caste in India.
7eild ^° ancient Iranian language, in
^ **> which are composed the sacred
writings of the Zoroastrians. It is a
member of the Aryan family of languages,
and very closely allied to Sanskrit. See
next article.
Zend-Avesta (^end-a-vee'ta), the
*^ ** ** collective name for the
sacred writings of the Guebers or Par-
sees, ascribed to Zoroaster, and reverenced
as a bible, prayer-book, and sole rule of
faith and practice^ It consists of tevtViJ
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Zennr
Zeppelin
diyisions, of which the oldest is written
in the primitiye Zend languai^e. This
Iiartly consists of gdthdM or songs, some
of which may contain the actual words
of Zoroaster, and are yalnable as con-
tainins the doctrines he taught. An
Bnglisn translation of the Zend-Ayesta
has been pnblished.
S^ntiiMF i^^)* 9i seaport town of
*'^"5S Austria, on the Adriatic Pop.
Zenith (^^eu'lth), the vertical point of
"■ the heavens at any place, that
is, the p<^nt right above a spectator's
head, and from which a line drawn per-
pendicular to the plane of the horizon
would, if produced, pass through the
earth's center, supposing the earth a
perfect sphere. Each point on the sur-
face of the earth has therefore its cor-
responding senith. The opposite pole of
the celestial horison is termed the nadir,
(See yadir.) The senith distance of a
heavenly body is the arc intercepted be-
tween the body and the senith, being the
same as the oo-altitude of the body.
Z^nitLn (s«n*J&n')> a town of Persia,
£<C]ljaii 1^ ^^ province of Irak-Aejmi,
with manufactures of carpets, woolen
doths, and arms. Pop. 15,000.
S^AfiA (sd'nO), emperor of the Eastern
***"" Empire from 474 to 491 A.D.
He is reoresented as depraved and inca-
pable. One of the chief events of his
reign, which was full of vicissitudes, was
the permission siven by him to Theodoric
to dethrone Odoacer, which led to the
establishment of the Ostrogothic kingdom
in Italy.
Zeno ^' Ornuic, in Cyprus, where
' he was bom, founder of the
Stoic school of philosophy, flourished in
the first half of the third century ac.
Settling in Athens he attached himself
to various philosophical sects in succes-
sion, until he instituted a doctrine of his
own. He taught in the Stoa. a porch
adorned with the pictures of Polygnotus,
whence his followers were called Stoics,
and were sometimes designated 'dis-
ciples of the porch.' His writings are
all lost In his ethical system the nature
of moral obligation was recognized as
unconditional, virtue as the only good,
and vice, not pain, as the only eviL De-
veloped by his successors. Stoicism be-
came the creed of the noblest of the
Romans until Christianity was generally
accepted. (See 8ioic9,) The date of his
death is uncertain.
Zeno ^' Elba, an early Greek phi-
^' losopher, is supposed to have
been bom about the beginning of the fifth
entury aa He taught philosophy at
Athens, and Pericles is said to have been
one of his pupils. He was a favorite
disciple of Parmenides, and is introduced
as discussinf philosophy with his master
in Plato's dialogue of that name. He
sought to recommend Parmenides's doc-
trine of the one by controverting the
popular belief in the existence or the
many.
M^uvwxa. myra, was the wife of its
king Odenathus. and accompanied him
both in war and in chase. Gallienus, in
return for his services, adcnowledged
Odenathus as emperor, and when her hus-
band was murdered, 267 A.D., she as-
sumed the sovereifntf, conquered Egypt,
and called herself Queen of the East
Her ambition provoked the emperor
Aurelian to make war on her. and after
a stubborn resistance she fell into his
power (273 A.D.) and was obliged to
grace his triumph. She was allowed to
pass the remainder of her life as a Roman
matron. Zenobia was a woman of great
courage, beauty, and linguistic accom-
plishments, and her studies were directed
by Longinus (which see).
Q^^nlif^ (s9'G-lIt), a generic name of
^eOUie ^^ number of minerals whidi
fuse under the blowpipe, l^ey are
hydrated double silicates, of which the
principal bases are aluminum and cal-
cium.
Zephaniali ^.-^-ni' ."T^'tJe'
Bible, the work of the ninth in order of
the minor prophets, who lived in the
reign of Josian, and who probably ut-
tered his prophecies some time betwe^i
630 and o24 ao. The subjects of his
Srophecy are the temporary desolation of
ndea, the destruction of the Philistines.
MoaUtes, Ammonites, Assirrians, etc, and
the promise that God will effect the resto-
ration and felicity of a righteous rem-
nant.
ally, any soft, mUd. gentle breese. The
poets personify Zephyrus, and make him
the most mUd and gentle of all the sylvan
deiUes.
Zennelin (t«ep'pe-lin), TssasapxAm
£ieppeim ^^t, avUtor, was bora at
(Constance, Baden, in 1838. He entered
the army, was an officer of cavalry in
the Franco-German war, and aftennirda
rose to the rank of lieutenant-general.
He subsequently became an enthusiast in
aviation, ouilding dirigible, power-driven
air-shops, and making many experimental
flights. His first ascent was made at
Bern in IfiH^ and in 1900 he was abla
to remain an hour in the air. In 8abM>
quent years he built a succession of verf
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9
f
!►
I
I
r
f
4
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Zerafshan Zenn
fctrruW ^r°4.?o'^"&ieS! ZerdUSht. see «oro«l^
aeyeraf of his great airships beinc de- Zermatt (»«'-m*^)f » ▼in««« ftunoua
stroyed. A fund contributed larg^ by ^^^^^^^\ o a tourirt center, in ti^
the Qennan nation enabled Count Zeppe- canton of Valais, Switierland, at the foot
Un to continue his experiments, and ho of the Matterhom. Eleyation 6315 feet,
threw himself enthusiastically into the de- v^rn (s^'rO)* in physics, any convenient
yelopment of his ideas. The results were «ciw ^^^^ ^^ reference to which
happy: he produced a number of huge quantitatively estimable phenomena of the
dingibies which were capable of sustained game kind are compared ; such as the
flights. When the war broke out in 1914 point of a graduated instrument at which
the imagination of the German people was Its scale commences : the neutral point
fired by the prospect of a fleet of Zeppelin between any ascending and descending
airships hurling death and destruction ^cale or series, generally represented by
upon the enemv. The war-Zeppelin b^ the mark 0. In thermometers the xero
came an actuality. It was armed and of the Centigrade and Reaumur scales is
carried bombs, but proyed inadequate to the freesing point of water; in Fahren-
cope with the anti-aircraft guns and the Beit's scale, S2* bdow the freeiinff point
speedy seaplanes and aerophines. Super- of water. (See Thermometer.) Ah$olute
Zeppelins were constructed on modehi pre- zero is -273' C, or 273* O. below the
pared by the count a short time before he freezing point of water, at which tempera-
died. One of these, the L 33, fell into the ture any given body is supposed to con-
hands of the British in the fall of 1916 tain no heat.
and the wreck covered over an acre of 7||*.«|,l||| <tser-rin'), Cabl, Ckrman-
ground. It was 680 feet long, displaced *««*«""* American musical conduc-
60 tons weight of air, contidned two tor, bom at Malchow, Mecklenburg, in
million cubic feet of gas. and is said to isid. He setUed in Boston in 1848, and
have cost $1,750,000. The Zeppelin had was conductor of the Handel and Haydn
been the vessel destined by the Germans Society from 1854 to 1895. During this
to strike terror to the heart of England, time Boston owed much of its good music
but the perfecting of the anti-aircraft gun to his efforts and enthusiasm,
and the speedy armored aeroplane de- 7a4>1oti#1 a ml-^* ^
stroyed the effectiveness of the huge Zep- ^CUaiia. See Shetland.
pelhis. Subsequent German air raids on VaikvIaiIaii (sQ'glo-don), an extinct
^^^ Britain were carried out by the ^CTIglOaOll ^g^nus of m '
Great Britain were carried out by the ^^u^xwu-w** g^^^, ^^ marine
heavier-than-air fliers, which presented mals, regarded by Huxley as intermediate
lees of a target for the gunners on land between the true cetaceans and the car-
and in the air. As a weapon of aggressive nlvorous seals. They belong to the Bocene
warfare the Zeppelins proved unsatisfac- and Miocene, and Z, oetoidee of the
tory. The capture and destruction of Middle Eocene of the United States at-
many of these airships was a severe blow tained a length of 70 feet,
to Count Zeppdin and tiie German people, ZmUnvoiiA (tsoi-len-rO'da). a town
who had placed the most extraordinary ^euiCHTOaa ^^ Central Germany,
hopes in them. In ms Ferdinimd Zei^ principaUty of Reuss-Greia. Pop. 9419.
pelin visited the United States and fought h (^Os), in mytiiology, tiie supreme
wiUi the Union troops in the Civil war. ^iCUB divinity among tiie Greeks; the
Stj Paul, Minn., cUims the distinction of ^oler of tiie otiier gods; generally treated
being the town where young Zeppelin as the equivalent of the Roman Jupiter,
made his first ascent in a balloon. Count He was the son of Cronus and Rhea.
Zeppelin died March 8, 1917. brother of Poseidon (Neptune) and Hera
^.^Ttkfmhttn (ser-af-shan'), a river In (Juno), the latter of whom was also his
£ieraiBUau central Asia, which flows wife. He expelled his fatiier and the
westward past Samarkand, and becomes dynasty of the TitaniL successfully op-
lost in the neighborhood of the Amoo- posed the attacks of the giants and the
Daria, west of Bokhara. Its length is conspiracies of the other gods, and be-
f rom 400 to 500 miles. came chief power in heaven and earth.
7ArhfH: (tserpst), a town in the Ger- See Jupiter.
MJMM, wov ^^Q duchy of Anhalt, on the ZeilM (tsois) . JOHAlflf Kaspam, bom
Nuthe, 21 miles southeast of Magdeburg, ^^*^^ in 1806; died in 1856; a native
is the seat of various manufactures ; iron- of Bavaria, may be said to have fdunded
founding is carried on; and there are Celtic philology with the publication in
several breweries. Pop. 17,096. 1853 of his great work, the Orammatiea
<7A«ilA ^ ,^ V . . . V Celtiea, In his later years he was a pro-
^eroa (xer'da), the fennec (9. v.). feasor at the Bamberg Lyceum.
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Zetuds Zinoognraphy
7iiiiYia (stlk'sis)» a celebrated Greek Zinfi '^ metal, frequently called tpeKer
ACiL&xs pginter^ ^ho floarished about """^^ in commerce; chemical symbol
420-400 B.C., and latterly lived in Zn; atomic weight 65. It has a strong
Bphesus. He belonged to the Asiatic metallic luster and a bluish-white color,
school of painting, the distinguishing Its texture is lamellated and crystalline,
characters of which were accurate Imita- and its specific gravity about 7. It is
tion and the representation of physical hard, being acted on by the file with dif-
beauty. One of his most famous works ficulty, and its toughness is such as to
was a picture of Helen, He was a con- require considerable force to break it
temporary of the painter Parrhasius. when the mass is large. At low or high
Vil^Af ZiBETH ( sib'et ) , Viverra zi- degrees of heat it is brittle, but between
Aiucti lei)^ an animal of the same 250** and 300* F. it is both malleable and
genus as the civet cat It is found in ductile, and may be rolled or hammered
Eastern Asia, and in some of the larger into sheets of considerable thinness and
Islands of the Indian Archipelago. It drawn into wire. Its malleability is con-
secrets an odoriferous substance which siderablv diminished by the impurities
resembles that secreted by the civet. It which the zinc of commerce contains. It
is often tamed by the natives of the fuses at 773*" F., and when slowly cooled
countries where it is found, and it in- crystallizes in four- or six-sided prisms,
habits their houses like a domestic cat. Zinc undergoes little change by the
See CiveU action of air and moisture. When fused
2{f ZiPH, the second month of the in open vessels it absorbs oxygen, and
**'"'> Jewish sacred year, extending forms the white oxide called flowers of
from the new moon in May (or accord- zinc Heated strongly in air it takes fire
ing to some rabbis in April) to that in and bums with a beautiful white light,
June. forming oxide of zinc. Zinc is found in
Zillell (*!©'; ancient Zela), a town the United States; also Britain, Austria,
mdXAxs^AL ^£ northeastern Asia Minor, 39 Germany, Belgium, Italy, etc It does
miles southwest of Tokat; with some not occur in the native state, but is ob-
manufactures, and an annual fair at- tained from its ores, which are chiefly
tended by from 40,000 to 50,000 persons, the sulphide, or eino-hlende, and the car-
Pop. 20,000. bonate, or calamine. The oxide of zinc
f^iTnonoYi (8«-mA-p&n'), a town of (ZnO) is a fine white powder, insoluble
£iuanyu,a Mexico, state of Hidalgo, in water, but very soluble in acids, which
with gold, silver, and lead mines. Pop. it neutralizes, being a powerful base of
(commune) 15,000. the same class as magnesia. It combines
f^immA-mioTiTi ( tsim'ir-min )» J«- also with some of the alkalies. Several
Axuuuermauu ^j^^j^ Georo, an emi- of the salts of zinc are employed in medi-
nent physician and miscellaneous writer, cine and the arts ; as the sulphate, which
was bom in 1728 at Brttgg, in the Swiss is used in calico printing, and in medi-
canton of Bern. At the University of cine as an astringent, a caustic an
G&ttingen he studied under and was be- emetic, and a tonic; the oxide and the
friended by Haller, and eventually was carbonate, used as pigments, etc Sheet-
appointed public physician to bis native zitic is largely employed for lining water
town. He became famous in his profes- cisterns, baths, etc., for making spouts,
sion, and published several works on mis- pipes, for covering roofs, and several other
cellaneous subjects, with one on Ewperi- architectural purposes. Plates of this
ence in Medicine, which procured him metal are used as generators of elec-
the appointment of physician for Hanover tricity in voltaic batteries, etc ; they are
to George III. The loss of his wife and also employed in the production of pic-
other domestic calamities brought on an tures, etc, in the style of woodcuts,
attack of hypochondria, from which a (See Zincography,) Zinc is much em-
second marriage relieved him, and as a ployed in the manufacture of brass (see
result of his recovery he produced his Bra99) and other alloys, and in prepar
once celebrated treatise on Solitude ing galvanized iron. See €falvan%zed
(1784), by which out of his own country Iron,
he is alone remembered. In 1786 he at- yAr%i^\%\mr%A^ native sulphide of zinc,
tended Frederick the Great in his last ««Anc-UiCUUC, consisting essentially
illness, about whom he published two of sulphur and sine, but often contain-
works, one of them Conver$aiion9 with ing a considerable proportion of iron.
ihs King, which involved him in painful See Zinc.
controversy. Eventually he became men- yAr%nfktmkr%hjr (sing-kog'ra-fl), an art
tally deranged, and died in 1795. His «"lCUgr»piiy i^^ts essential fea-
AuUhiograpfijf was issued in 1791. tures similar to lithography, the stone
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Zinc-white Zirknitz
printing-surface of the latter beinc re- colors of their bracts ; but they are chiefly
plarced by that of a pkte of polished valued for the salce of the aromatic and
line. A form of this art called anastatic stimulating properties of the rhizome or
printing is described under Anaatatio. «»t, found in ginger, galangal, zedoary,
7iTin.wTiifA (ZnO), oxide of zinc a ^fdamoms, etc.
^inO-WniXe ^ig^ent now largely lub- ZlOn C'^on); » ^^^^^ or «mnence in
stituted for white-lead as being less lU- - ^„ . , :®5"g?r™;_^® ^^^ residence
bie to blacken on exposure; but it has not J^^*^^ ^^ ^ successors. See Jerusa-
an equal covering power. ^1, . ^ „ . .
7iii9ftr^11i (dzen-ga-rem), NiOOOLO ZlOniSm ^'l?^"*5"^V ^. movement
^ingaxem li„jow[0. an Italian com- ~\\y VT J^^c^ has for its object the
poser, bom in 1762. Alter much success ?i?^%^i:J„?,/!y!Ll*IS.i^ *^*^T
S a composer, both of operas and of S?|^ n^^JiL^f^.^'fJil® n^^^^KJiS"*;
sacred muSic, ill 1804 he was appointed S;?i?% ??fp!5,^®*'iur w. ifto« ^^^IS
te'- aSfon '4fu^L.^5'c"o'^^^^^^ Te SaMes^SnTsWS^^^^^^^
nTl* nS MonSlSn^ m«kin? hl« «m ^^ ^"^^^^ ^^ Turkey, and that a Jewish
tiS^'^nf Wn,^n*^i^.M «,^ti?*««5^^^ nutonommis state ehoild be founded under
king of Rome, he was awested and fallen Turkj.ii fiuzeraitity. A Zionist congress
to Paris, but was immediately liberated ^^^ i,^j,| ^^ Bast^j; Switzerland, in August,
and penrtoned by the emperor, who was ig^j -The statemput of aims adopted by
a.Kreat Jdmirer of his music. When he 2CK) dolegatcs, representing Jews of all na-
died in r437 he was director of the Royal tion^iIUii^s, began : ' Zionism aims at es-
College -f Music at Naples, and chapel- t&blis^hlng for the Jewish people a pub-
master of the Neapolitan Cathedral. Uciy rwognized and legally secured home
Among his chief operas were Montezuma in Palejitine/ Isrnnl Zangwill, English
and Romeo and Juliet, ^ autlior and nlnywri^ht, took a prominent
ZinnS Trhll.H. ^^ Oenghit Khan, pnrt in the Zionist movement. The con-
o ception of an autonomous Jewish state in
7iTiKATlilArf (tsin'tsen-dorf)» Nioho- Palestine met with little practical en-
MxiubviAuvAx j^g LUDWIO, CJOUNT Gouragement from the Turks. The cap-
VON, founder of the community of Mo- ture of Jerusalem by the British in the
ravian Brethren, or Hermhuters, was fall of 1017 has given the Zionists new
bom at Dresden in 1700. After study- hope. Mr. Arthur J. Balfour, Foreign
ing law at Wittenberg, and several years Minister of Great Britain, indorsed the
of foreign travel, he resolved to settle principle of Zionism ofiSdall^. He wrote :
down as a Christian land-owner among The government view with favor the
a pious tenantry, and while carrying out establisnment of Palestine as a national
this intention be worked assiduously in pom® ^or the Jewish people and will use
co5peration with congenial friends at their best endeavors to facilitate the
creating a revival of religion in the «chievement of this object.' TheFedera-
Lutheran Church, Having given an non of Ammcsn Zionists comprises 140
asylum on his estate to some persecuted ^cieties. The headquarters are in New
religionists from Moravia, and built for ^9'*»' /.^.^„^ . .y^r^ a-n. \
them the village of Herrnhut, he settled ZirOOIl ^'^V*'^./. ^F^* «iO,). a min-
among them, and by degrees established ^^^„.„^ m^^ ,*^;5*'? ^' nrconium.
there a common wofship; and a oiission- 2^«^?^i/??°£ ^J^J^^^
ary and industrial organization based on ??,!,^?' ^« IT^lSS k^J^'k ^^"'^
thi family, not on the monastic, system. S?^^'S!J?;„^^*l'^™^^^
This association became known through- «J?- ^^*.^°^/ Si^A.^i'^^^'^^IJft^^Iu
out the world as the Moravian Brethren ZirCOnU l55^'^?"\U£'^* J • uft?
(which see). To the extension of its ^u,.. , ,. , . 2?rk. • ^f ^m^iT'..^ ^
influence Zinzendorf devoted his fortune ^^^ ^^^^ .sfcks of which are yme-
and his energies, visiting in the course w^^f lim« oxyhydrogen flame
^'e dL^Sri7&" ^"''""^ ^' ''"''''"• zSS^lim the metal contained in
He died in 1760. ........ -^ ^ircomum, zircon and certain other
ZinZlberaCeS l*Sj;v?J^^''«Tf" KL" y^nerals; symbol Zr; atomic weight
-J # . * * GiBERA. CMC, ana t . 90. it appears to form a Unk between
order of plants, of which the genus Ztiw*- aluminum and silicon.
her (ginger) is the type. The species are Zirknitz (tserk'nitz), or Czibknicz.
all trcplcaf plants, or nearly so, the ^ITKIUXZ ^ ,^^ ^^ Austria, in Cami-
greater number inhabiting various parts ©la, 30 miles e. n. e. of Trieste, about 5
of the East Indies. They are gener- miles long and between 2 and 3 broad,
ally of great beauty through the develop- without surface-outlet. It is remarkable
mtnt ci their floral envelopes and the rich for the occasional disappearance of its
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Zjgka \ Zoiltt»
waters for weeks and even months, during etc Here in 1800. after the battle of
which its bottom is often covered with Wagranif an armistice was concluded be-
luzuriant herbage. tween Napoleon I and the Archduke
7\f!ktL (s^'ka)f John, leader of the Charles. Pop. 16.261.
C4UAA Hussites, was bom about 1360 Zft^Yi (sO'an), the Tirnis of the Greeks
in Bohemia. He Joined as a volunteer •^vou ^^^ Romans, an ancient Egyp-
the Knights of the Teutonic Order, and tian city, on the right bank of what was
fought against the Poles, as also with the the Tanitic bank of the Nile, now only
Hungarians against the Turks. He is a canaL It was probably the residence
also said to have fought on the English of Uie Pharaoh of the Exodus, and con-
side at the battle of Agincourt He threw aeqnently the scene of the * marvelous
in his lot with the militant reformers who things ' that were done ' in the field of
took arms after the martyrdom of Huss Zoan' (Ps. Ixxxviii, 12). The temple
and Jerome in Bohemia, and became their was one of the grandest in Egypt. Its
leader; established himself at Mount mins, buried under mounds, hiave been
Tabor, which he fortified, and where a explored, and one of the chief curiosities
town grew up occupied by his foUowers, found in them is the Canopus stone, with
who .took the name of Tabontes. He a trilingual inscription, like that on the
died in October, 1424. Eosetta stone, hieroglyphic, demotic, and
Zither, Zlthern i'^i'' J*iJ.fi52f <^reek, recording a decree of Egyptian
4 -^ \ • ^ a stringed musical princes assembled at Canopus B.a 254.
*^'!^^^if^'"f ^""^ -2^ \ sounding-box Sftftufliftriii. («6-an-thftM^), an oi^
pierced with a large circular sound-hole ^oanviiaria ^^^ ^£ ^^ ^j^ Actino-
near the middle, the strings, to the num- ^j^ represented by the sea-anemones and
ber of tlurty-one in the more perfect ^y the great bulk of the coral-polyps,
forms of the instrument, being made of lyLj-^* /aft'di-ak) an imairinarv belt
ateel, brass, catgut, and. silk covered with ZodiaC or «Sie in the hSf^STStend^
S2?M'!!7nL''L?^^FSvr«7V»^l^^^^^ i«K about 9« on each side of the ecliptic.
E^^JiL L!2 •. ^Zt^ ^IJ^^ -*«^ It is divided into twelve equal parts called
fj^.!^ ^f ^ii.if^?^r,«^X,^iS7 H^^ s»«ns. It was marked out by t^e ancients
SntpiSf^f ?L^p^L^ «Sn^/; thS as distinct from the rest of the heavens
SSSSon^htfriStheriUh^^^^^ S,^"^^5* .K^nCLt?^!^^' t' ^^
armed with a metal ring striking the S^^.S- J^^LiPkS^i? ^T? w^S?
string. These strings. wEich are tuned ^®'® *'^!^ ^^^^xi ^\y.^\lr^^ ill
in fifths, have a chromatic range from C S^P?L ^™® ^^ ^" *^® planets. See
in the second space on the bass staff to £1"*t,""* • • • % ^ /-x a^^ 1p-i\ :^
D on the sixth ledger-line above the treble. ZodiaOal LuTllt ^ ♦ "rTJS; . '|„ «?
AU the remaining strings, caUed the ac- •'*'^*^~ **^ ^^It'SFut}^!'^
companying strings, are struck by the go»8 tract of an elongated triangular
first th^e fingers oi the right hand, and fig"'^ Jyi°« "^"^K "^ ^^^ ^}^\^\ *^
being unstopped produce only the single ^^ t>e|°K ^R,***!? no"W)n, and iti apex
tone to which they are tuned. The instru- at varying altitudes, seoi at certafai eea-
ment is played on a table with the key- w>n» of the year either in the w«it after
board nearest the performer. »unset or to the east before sunrise. It
ZittAn (tsit'ou), a town of Saxony, in appears with greatest brilliance within
£<iliWU ^jj^ district of Bautzen, on the the ^^pJcSj^ where it sometimes Hvals
Mandau, 48 miles E.S.E. of Dresden, is the Milky Way. The most plausible >y-
the center of the manufacture of mixed pothesis respecting it is that it consists
cotton and woolen stuffs in Saxony ; of a continuous disc, probably of meteors
manufactures also woolens, cottons, trim- revolving round the sun.
mtogs, etc, and has bleach-fields, dye- Zofifl. (»5-€'a), the name given to an
woAs. machine-works, tile-works and *'"*^ embryonic staee in the develop-
otteries, royal institute of rfass-painting. ment of Crustacea (which see),
etc There are a number of lignite mines 9?A»trAnA (B6'e-tr6p), an optical toy.
worked in the vicinity. Pop. 34,706. ^ocww^^ ^hich exhibits pictures of
KlfitAiiQf (zla-td-osf), a townof Rus- objects as if endowed with life and ac-
Aiawusii g. government of Ufa, tivitv. It is of toterest as a forerunner
among the Ural Mountains, on the banks of the principle perfected to the ktoeto-
of the Ai, which supplies with motive scope, which has completely replaced it
power the crown iron-works. It has man- Each shows pictures of object^ givtog
nfactures of swords, bayonets, firearms different phases of attitudes and made to
and ordnance. Pop. 20,973. run together by passing before the eye
Znflim (tsnim), a town of Moravia, in quick succession.
on the Thaya, has mauufac- 7Ai1iia (aO'i-his), a rhetorician tt an-
tnres of earthenware, leather, cb<wu>iate, ••vuuo ^jj^^^ Greece^ bom at Amphip*
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Zola
Zodlogpioal Garden
olif. chiefly remembered for the asperity
of his criticieme on the poems of Homer.
The time at which he lived la uncertain
— probably the third century b.o. His
name is used proyerbially as that of &
captious or snarling critic.
7a1o (sO'la), Emujb, a French noyelist,
^"** bom in 1840, the son of an Italian
ensineer. After working for Paris pub-
lishers and writinc for the press he at-
tempted fiction with some success. He
first became generally known by com-
mencing, in 187L the famous series of
novels entitled Let Rougon Macquart
HUiaire NaiureUe d'une FamUle sons U
Second Empire* They were based on a
theory that It is the duty of the modem
novelist to depict human life, in all grades
of society, exactly as it is, omitting and
softening nothing, however repulsive and
disgusting. Zola carried out this theory
so effectually that English translations of
several of Uiese novels are not allowed
to be sold. One of the series, L'Aeiom-
ffioir, portraying the evil consequences
of drunkenness, was dramatised by
Charles Reade as 'Drink,* and became
popular. Among his later and more at*
tractive works are Lowrdee (1894);
Rome (1896), and ParU (1898). In
1897 he condemned the course adopted by
the government in the Dreyfus case and
was tried for libel during his absence and
sentenced tn fine and imprisonment. He
escaped ^Jih penalty by remaining abroad
until f»ft«ir the revision of the Dreyfus
triaL H« 4ied Sept. 29, 1902.
7n11irAreiTi (tsol'vir-In), the German
^OUVerein ^u^toms union, the pre-
cursor of the present German Empire,
founded in 1827, and afterwards greatly
extended through the efforts of the gov-
ernment of Pruissia. Its principal object
was the establishment of a uniform rate
of customs duties throughout the various
states Joining the union. The territories
of the Zollverein now coincide with those
of the German Empire, and include also
Luxembourg.
7mnhor (•^m'bor), or Sombob, capl-
^omoor ^1 ^£ ^^ Hungarian ccunty
of BAcs-Bodrog, on a canal which unites
the Tbeiss and Danube, about 120 miles
south of Budai>est, is the center of the
eom and cattle trade of an extensive dis-
trict Pop. 29,086.
7ATiiLrfui (son'a-ras), Joanivk, a By-
£iOliara» gantine historian, flourished
in the twelfth century. His chief work
is the Chrofiicon^ a history extending
from the creation of the world to ▲. d.
1118. Of the events of his own time his
account is meager; but his works con-
tain valuable fragments from lost writ-
ings of earlier historians
Zone ^^h <^) ^ geography, one of
Auuc ^jjg ^^^ ^^^^ divisions of the
earth, bounded by circles parallel
to
the equator, and named according to the
temperature prevailing in each. The
sones are: the iorrii ttone. extending
from tropic to tropic, or 23^^ north and
23i*^ south of the equator; two temper-
ate gonetf situated between the tropics
and polar circles, or extending from the
parafid of 23^'' to that ofdOi** north
and south, and therefore called the north
temperate and eouth temperate sone re-
spectively; and two priaid gonee, situated
between the polar circles and the north
and south poles. (See Climate,) (2)
In natural history, the name is given to
any well-defined belt within which cer-
tain forms of plant or animal life are
confined ; as the different belts of vegeta-
tion which occur as we ascend mountains.
MvvAu. Qpganlsm. not independently de-
veloped from a fertilised ovum, but de-
rived from a preceding individual by the
process either of fission or gemmation.
ZoHlatrv .(■^>-ora-tri), animal wor-
^OOiairy ^^. adoration paid by
man to any of the lower animals. This
cult seems to have passed through three
stages: (1) The animal was reverenced
and prmpitiated as possessing a power
greater than that of man. (2) The ani-
mal was regarded as an incarnation of
some deity or spirit. (8) It was raised
to the position of a tribal ancestor.
Zodlogioal Garden <'S^^^^
in which a collection of animals is kept.
The gardens of the Zoological Society,
Regent's Park. London (familiarly termed
'the Zoo'), founded in 1828, are prob-
ably the finest of the kind in the world.
They belong to the Zoological Society of
London, which was founded in 1826.
Of the other chief soOlogical gardens, the
Jardin des Plantes bi Paris is the oldest,
having been founded in 1794 Gardens
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Zoological Stations Zorilla
of this kind fonn a popular resort in the have originated. Among those who haye
larger American cities. modified the classification of Oavier may
^,-.,^ . ^*, ^ noted Lamarck, Ehrenberg, Owen,
Zoological stations, stations Mllne-Edwards, Von Siebold, Lenckart,
u^tu 0 w ;L ""^ ^ S°l®U Agassis, Huxley, Haeckel, MiUler, Dohrn^
which.have of late years been estabbshed Sjy ilankester and others. Professor
i3 V.nSI!iP*'*n?h^^ stt .TSr^^ 5?5ui^;iL'"l? Huxley recognises the following sub-
of xoOlofy. The Stasione Zoiilogl<» at kingdoms: Vertebrata, MoUuaca, MoUus-
Naples, founded mainly in Dohrn m 1872. coidV Aniul^ iS^loida, cSe^raS^
■S.HH.??J» n7?hi'«2!lL u^^ull InfusoriT iSa Protozoa. HaSS?S
SSi^taT^US^St'SSli'sff^^?^^ VSr^l^A^rTh^SS^'^lc^M^^^^
l^xiZl,.^' (lA^VMi • Or eBon. an iini- **•*"*• .There are more recent syatems.
Zoology ^^^tudloSot'dTm^lrt^), »ome of which »re far more elaborate th«
that adeoce wbiih twate of the naturif *«»« P/*"- . That of Bay Lankeater may
htotorT of animals, or their structure. 5?,M^^l%°h!^„lm«iTtaX™'?St„'fSf™Kl
physiology, classifiration, habits, and dis^ d hriding the animal kingdom into t^ aub-
trihurton ThfTtPrm 'nafnral hiRtnTv' kingdoma of Protoeoa (single-Celled am-
h«b^n fr^nlnt^rused°Vs'5Jno''nymSSa ^'^ '>^t^1^ iri^Z^^SlHSl-
«rifi» mr^i^^^^ K.^f'-it^K «> *«^« iJr.v.^i. luals). The latter include Porifera
Of biological science, constituting, in fact, !!PAfSLi®i^;//filLl* k1^^^
with its neignbor b^ch. botany the sci- tfla o«^^«a«i?i^ batrachia, reptUes,
ence of biofogy. Its study comprehends ^ w>d mammals),
such branches as the morphology of ani- ZOODllYte l«>o-"y w, 9601^ an anl-
mal$, or the science of form or struc- .^ J ™i^' Uid phytan, a plant),
ture, which again includes comparative the name given by Cuvier to any member
anatomy, by which we investigate exter- ?' ^m sub-kmgdom Radiata. It is now
nal and internal appearances, the post- loosely apphed to animals of extremely
tions and relations of organs and parts; lo^ organization which present many ex-
the development of animaUt which treats temal resemblances to plants,
of the various stages leading from the J^AAQnorA (zOos-p()r), a spore occur-
•mbrjonlc to the mature state; the •'vvoywj.v „n^ i^ cryptogamic plants,
phytology of animali, which includes which, having cil-
the study of the functions of nutrition, re- ia or long fill-
production, and of the nervous system; form moving
classification or tawonomy, which assigns processes project-
to the various individuals their proper ing from its sur-
place in the scale of life. A new depart- face, moves spon-
ment has been added In recent times, taneously for a
sometimes called etiology, which investi- short time after
gates the origin and descent of animals, being discharged from the sporeniase of
or treats of the evolutionary aspect of the parent plant.
zoological science. Various systems of Zooiitft (J^^ ' r6'ta), Geboiomo, a
classification have been framed by zoOlo- *^**«'"' Spanish historian, bom in
gists. Linnaeus divided the animal king- Estramadura in 1512 ; died in 1581. He
dom into six classes, viz., Mammalia^ was made a member of the supreme coun-
Birds, Fishes, Amphibia, Insects, and cil of Castile in 1543, was afterwards
Worms (Vermes). Cuvier proposed a sent as an embassy to Germany, and in
more scientific arrangement. He divided 1549 was appointed historiographer of
the animal kingdom into four sub- the kingdom. His principal work, Af»-
kingdoms, viz., Vertebrata, MoUusca, J»«^ of the Crown of Aragon, enjoys a
Articulata and Radiata. Modem classi- "igh reputation.
fications have been based chiefly on mor- Zorillfi. (z^rUla), a small mammal
phological characters, with the addition •'^*"*«* of South Africa {Ictonym to-
ot the study of cellular embryology, and rilla). related to the badgers and the
the facts of heredity and adaptation. American skunks. Like the latter, it
They have been very largely influenced by secretes a liquid having a very offensive
the theory of evolution, which has induced odor, which it can discharge to a con-
many naturalists to arrange animal forms siderable distance. Its glossy fur is
as nearly as possible on the lines of de- black in color, with white bands and
•cent from which they ate believed to spots.
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Zoroaster Zng
ZorOftAter (■^r^as'ter; Old Persian very popular. He died in 1896.
MvxvcMiv^A ^araihu8ira, later Per. Zosimns (aos'l-mus), a Greek histo-
Zerdutki), one of the great religious ■^*'«»*«*»«» rfan, who held an otBciai
teachers of the East, the founder of what post at Constantinople during the first
was for centuries the national religion of half of the fifth century a.d. He was a
Persia, and is still adhered to by the pagan, and in his history of the then em-
Parsees. He has been represented by pire he severely criticised the Ghristiaii
eminent authorities as purely mythical, emperors, representing the substitution
but it seems more reasonable to believe of Christianity for paganism as largely
that he was a real and historical per- responsible for the decline of the empire,
sonage. If this view be accepted, he was Zauovar (*w&vi), originally mercen-
probably a native of the east of Iran, ••*'**«» »^*» aries belonging to a Kabyle
but there is great uncertainty as to the tribe. The Zouaves in the pay of the
time in which he appeared as a religious Dey of Algiers were, when Algeria be-
teacher. He is supposed by some to have came a French possession, incorporated
been a contemporary of Moses, by others witii the French army there, preserving
his date is assigned to the tenth century their Arab dress. Ultimately the native
before Christ. His doctrines are to be element was eliminated, and the Zouaves
found in the Parsee scriptures called the became merely French soldiers in the
Zend-Avesta (which see), and the picturesque Arab costume. As such they
OdthA$, which is the oldest part of that distinguished themselves in the Crimea
work, are declared to contain his au- and the Franco-Italian war of 1859.
thentic utterances. The fundamental 7afi1iokke (tshok'k^), Johann Hein-
idea of his doctrine was the existence, •^»v**vikxk\? ^^^ Daniel, a Qerman
since the beginning, of a spirit of good, author bom at Magdeburg In 1771 ; died
AhurO MazdaO (Ormuzd). and a spirit in 1848. He settled in Switzerland, in
of evil, AngrO Mainyusn (Ahriman). which country he held an honored posi-
These two are in perpetual conflict, and tion in connection with education and
the soul of man is the great object of the public affairs, and with the press. His
war. Ormuzd created man free, so that autobiography, several of his tales, and
if he allows himself to fall under the the ' Hours of Devotion * {Btunden der
sway of Ahriman he is held to be justly Andaohi), have been translated into
punishable. When he dies his ^ood and English.
evil deeds will be weighed against each 7acTiADO|i (tsho'pou), a town of Sax-
other, and accordingly as the balance is «"^**v^«*"' ony^ on a river of same
struck will be sent to heaven or to hell, name, 6 miles southeast of Chemnitz;
If they are exactly equal, the soul iMisses has important manufactures of woolens,
into an intermediate state, and remains cottons, etc Pop. 6748.
there until the day of judgment Or- 7iin/ili^ro (dzijk'e-rO), or Zuooabo
muzd is to triumph ultimately, and then *'^"«"^**' (dz^ri-rO), Taddeo and
there will be one undivided kingdom of Federiqo, two brothers, Italian painters
Qod in heaven and on earth. TThe re- of the sixteenth century, were chiefly
ligion of Zoroaster, when it became that noted in their own country for their
of Iran, was expounded by a widely- fresco-paintings. Federigo, the younger
spread priesthood, and these provided for of the two, came to England in 1674, and
it a ritual and ceremonial. Minutely received commissions to paint the por-
elaborated laws for the puriflcation of traits of high personages, among them
soul and body were laid down. They in- those of Queen Elizabeth and Mary Queen
eluded a prohibition of the burning or of Scots. His portrait of the latter was
the burying of the dead bodies of be- oigraved by Vertue.
lievers, which, by the Parsees in Bombay 2llfr (ts6A), a central and the small-
and elsewhere, are still left to be devoured ^^HS est undivided canton of Switzer-
by vultures. See Fire-worship, Ouehres, land, bounded by Zflrich, Schwyz, Lu-
Pwrs^es. ceme, and Aargau ; area, 92 square miles.
7Arri11o ir TyTArol (thG-r^rya fi mO- The surface, mountainous in the south-
^omixa y uorai ^.^^ j^j^ j^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Rossberg occu-
a Spanish dramatist and poet, bom at pies the frontier, slopes more or lees
Valladolid in 1817. He was intended gradually north and west, till it becomes
for the law, but devoted himself instead comparatively flat. The only lakes de-
to literary pursuits. In 1841 he pub- serring the name are those of Zug and
lished 8ong9 of the Trouhadoun; this BgerL The climate, rigorous in the
was followed by a collection of Hiiiarioal mountainous districts, is mild on the
Legend* mnd Traditiane; several volumes lower south slopes. The chief nporto
of poeniSy comedies, etc., all of which were are cattle, fmita, cider» and kirscli-
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Znider Zee Zurbaran
WMwr/ Area, 92 sqiiare mUes; pop. took ptaa at Ulundl, where therower of
ak026. — ZVQ, the capital, stands on th% the Zulus was qnlte croshecL The sabse-
Bortb shore of the lake, is 12 miles north- Q^ent British reorganization of Zula-
MWt of Loceme, with which and with Hind did not work snccessfolly, and in
ZOrich it is connected by raUway. Pop. 1882 Cetewayo was restored, a strip of
<B0& — T.Agff of Zue, or Zuokrbb, chiedSy country adjacent to Natal being consti-
in the canton of Zug. 9 miles lone north tuted as a ' reserve.' Into this reserve
to m>nth, and in br^th from 8 miles to 1 Cetewavo fled in 1883, after being de-
pill^ llie i^ores are low In all directions feated by a hostile Zulu chief, Usibepu,
«xcept the south and southeast In the and there he died in 1884. However,
former direction the Rigi and in the latter Cetewayo's son, Dinhralu, misted by
the Rossberg rise in lofty precipices, pre- Transvaal Boers, vanquished Usibepu,
tenting scenery of a grand description, and drove him into the reserve. Ulti-
The lake has a maximum depth of QSO mately the Boers took possession of a
feet. The fishing, principally pike and considerable portion of the country, while
carp, is productive. Also famous for a the remainmg portion of Zululand, with
pecoliar kind of trout locally called the reserve, was annexed to Britain in
adtML 1887. Zululand is now a province of the
9mmiA^^tW^^ (zoi'd6r-aft: or Zutdeb: Natal state. Pop. estimated at 230,000.
ZmderZee ^i5i sk),"^ alSifoi Zulus i^J^hA ^''^') ±^lfl^Ji
tlie North Sea* on the coast of rfoUand^; ^^^'^^ Bantu ^{^^^o Vki.^* f^^"?h^
80 mUes long, 40 miles greatest breadth, people which is notable for the
It wa» formerly a lake, but was united physical and mental development of its
with the German Ocean by inundations members. They are organized as a pure
In tiie twelfth and thirteenth centuries, democracr. their chiefs being elected and
file islands Texel, VTieland, Terschelling, holding office during the pleasure of the
Amdand, etc, separate it from the North people. They have a very complete
Sea. wiui whidi it communicates by va- though unwritten code of laws, and as a
rious channels, the principal one being be- race are conspicuous for their morality
tween Helder and TexeL It is very shal- and freedom from drunkenness and
low, and to avoid the difficulties of its crime. See Zululand,
BftTigation to Amsterdam the North Sea ^nTnlio («um'b6), a town of South
Oaiua was constructed. In 1914 the gov- ^^u-**^"" Africa, near the confluence of
•rnment lent its support to plans for the the Loangwa with the Zambesi ; lat 15*^
construction of a dike twen^r miles wide 37' 2" 8. ; Ion. 30** 32' e. ; 450 miles
maom the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, thus from the mouth of the Zambesi. It marks
fedaiming a large area oi fertile land; the western point of the Portuguese ter-
estimated cost, $80,000,000. ritories on the Zambesi ; has an advan-
KniTlfflins tUt, z^^^nlL tageous site; was formerly the seat of an
AUin^UUB. Bee Zwingli. important trade, and contained a number
•• « « n imMsiJ\at,A\ m tv%nth Afrf- of Substantial buildiugs ; but of late trade
Zululand <S^^^??i^tib no?t^^^ ?*« neglected, and the town fell into
» 2?^- mulSf' iTrt^ni^^ zSpt l^^: dWn'&^ro'?^
^•rf«3is;j^l55^''bl"T$A sorof Rom*^'fcu^ii"thfuii?e«^^
5l ft. tS&iirS' tfe^^Ss?^ U of Beriin, produced several excellent edi-
S. a ?2IS Hne of llO Su^^ tions of 'litin classics, and a valuable
i^fi.«r«^Srtion r>f 5ie TOunSTc «nd elaborate Latin grammar, of which
Siefly™ ^ndiSati^^^^ there have been several English transla-
grass; and thinly wooded. The coast re- tu*°"v /4.k^, ka ,.a„'\ f»a w
/mi«Ai^ A? NRtAl Dossessina an organised there many of his best works. Among
2?S?of c?nridSrffiJ5mSeS^ iSl^ these his «*. Thoma. Aquinaf is held to
mSiF thSr to? Cetewayo, they came be one of the most admirable paintings
Sto%^^%i theT^t^ (See ever produced in Spain. There are so^^^
O^fwSoO At first the war waa unfor- of his works in the ^enes of Paris.
tmSte fcr tiie British (a body of troopa Berlin, Dresden and Munidi. He waa
biStS be^aSnihiUtid at IsanduUT, eminentiy succwsful in his treatment of
botin jSyT 1879, a general engagement the Spanish friar, his favorite subject.
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Ziirich Zwingli
vid he was remarkable for his ricbnesa being the ecene of the death of Sir Philip
of coloring, chiaroscuro and exquisite rep- Sidney, who was killed before iU walls
resentation of velvets, brocades and white in 158G. Pop. 10,000.
draperies. He received the titie of Znvdcr Zee See Zuider Zee.
painter to Philip III, and was patron- ^'^ytier ^ee.
wed by Philip IV. . , -, . , Zvomik (^vor'nek), a fortified town
Ziirioll (tsfl'n*; ancient, Turtcum). ^vuriuik ^^ Bosnia, on the Drina.
■'^^ a town of Switzerland, capital pop. 8500
of the canton of the same name, is beau- ZweiliriifikeTl ( tsvfbruk-^n ; LaUn.
tifully situated at the northern end of ^WCloruCKen ^ipf^nSm: French!
the lake of Zttrich, on both eidos of the Deuw-Ponti, two-bridges), a town3
Limmat, and having on the west the Sihl, Bavaria, in the Palatinate, pleasantly
which joins it immediately below. It situated on the Scbwanbach; has manu-
has a university and a polytechnic school, factures of velvet, plush, cotton fabrics,
both occupying handsome buildings, a machinery, etc. The edition of the claa-
Romanesque cathedral of the eleventh- sics known by the name of 'Bipont*
thirteenth centuries, town-hall, public was published here. Pop. 14,711.
library, etc. Its most considerable in- Z-aHnVpTi (tsvik'ou), a town of Sax-
dustry is that of silk, but its cotton- ^'Wiuikttu ^^y^ ^q ^^^^ w.s.w. of
spinning and manufacture of locomotives Dresden, with several fine churches, not-
and machinery are also important. Its ablv St. Mary (1453-1536), restored
inhabitanU are mainly German-speaking 1884; the fine Gothic 'Gewandhaoa'
Z^^SS^^^^ ^'^P-. (including suburbs), (1522), now a theater; town-house, gor-
205.000.~The canton holds the second ernment buildings, etc. The railway-
place in the Swiss confederation as re- station is one of the largest in Germany,
gards population. It is one of the north- Zwickau has manufactures of linen and
era cantons, and extends from the lake cotton goods, dyes, and chemical prod-
of the same name to the Rhine, to which ucts, etc. ; productive coal mines in the
its waters are carried by the Thur, TOss, vicinity employ over 8000 men. Pod.
Glatt, and Linmiat. It is highly culti- (191 :{) 75,542.
vated, and the land held by no fewer ZvriTl^er (tswing'er), TnoDon; an
than 36,000 proprietors. There are ex- •'^^"B^* eminent Swiss bchohir and
tensive manufactures of silk and cotton physician, was bora at BAle in 15«S3;
goods. Area, 655 square miles. Pop. died in 1588. He became professor of
431,637. Greek at Bftle, and published On the
Ziirinli Lake of, or Zurichebsee, lies Rural Method of Cato and Varro and
€4Uj,x\,iLy jjjjjgfly jn ^jjg canton of ZU- a collection of anecdotes entitled Theater
rich, but partly in Schwyz. Its greatest of Human Life, His son and several of
length is about 27 miles ; while its great- his grandsons were noted for various ac-
est breadth does not exceed 3 miles, and quirements.
ite greatest depth 600 feet. Its scenery Zwin^li (tsvinglfi), or (as it is often
is distinguished not so much for *''^"*©" Latinised) ZuiNQLins, Dl-
grandeur as for beauty. A considerable rich, the Swiss reformer, was bora in
traffic is carried on upon the lake by the canton of St Gall, where his father
means of sailing vessels and a number of was a thriving peasant proprietor. In-
steamers. It is well supplied with fish, tended for the church, he studied at va-
Its chief feeder is the Linth Canal, com- rious places, during a second residence at
municating with the Wallenstatter-see. Basel becoming the pupil and friend of
It discharges itself at the town of Ziirich Thomas Wyttenbach, a reformer before
by the Limmat the Reformation, and from him learaed
Ziiricll treaty of, signed there No- the evangelical doctrines which he after-
^ vember 10, 1859, by the pleni- wards promulgated with signal success,
potentiaries of France and Austria, em- Ilia first overt revolt against the Roman
bodied the conditions of the preliminaries Catholic system was when he was a priest
of peace agreed to at Villafranca, on the at Einsiedein (1516), which a supposed
part of Napoleon III and the Emperor of miracle-working image of the Virgin had
Austria, Francis Joseph, and closed the made a favorite resort of pilgrims. So
Franco-Italian war by Austria's abandon- effectively did he denounce pilgrimages as
ment of her right to Lombardy. superstitious that his sermons were talked
ZutDhen (s^^'^^b), a fortified town of in Rome, and it is said futile offers of
^ r ^^ of Holland, in the province promotion were made to coax him into
of Gelderland, 20 miles by rail south of silence. In 1518 be was appointed
Deventer, has an active trade, especially preacher In the cathedral of Zttrich,
in timber asd grain. It is notable at where he opposed a preacher of indul-
i
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Zwimer
Zymayovak
gences. Then followed other denuncia-
tioDS of Roman Catholic practices and
doctrines, until Ziirich, the authorities of
which supported Zwingli, and the people
of which adhered to him, became thor-
oughly Protestant, and adopted a re-
formed theology, worship, and discipline.
Zwingli went further than Luther, whose
' doctrme of consubstantiation led to what
proved on the whole a resultless confer-
ence on the subject between him and
Luther and Melanchthon at Marburg in
152& In 1531 the Forest Cantons, which
adhered to the Roman Catholic faith,
made wa> upon ZUrich, whose troops
Zwingli accompanied as chaplain. While
in the thick of an engagement at Kappel,
near Zarich, he was mortally wounded,
October 11, 1531.
ViTMnm^T (tsw^r'ner), Ebnbt Fbied-
^Wirner \^^^ ^ German architect,
bom in Silesia in 1S02; died in 1861.
He was appointed architect of the an-
cient Cologne Cathedral in 1833, and
spent many years in its restoration and
completion. His work is considered a
highly admirable and successful ezamplt
of restoration.
71171 f fan (zwifft), a town of Austria-
^^^*'^*'^ HungiTry, in the extreme
north of Morayia, circle of Olmtitz, 40
miles li. of Brdnn. It is a seat of the
textile industry and has manufactures of
tobacco, etc. Pop. 9029.
Zwolle (zwoHi), a town of Holland,
"^ capital of the province of
Overijssel. It is a well-built town, with
fine suburbs and a fine church (St.
Michaers), with a famous organ.
ZwoUe conmiunicates with the sea by
means of the Willemsyaart Canal.
Among its industries are shipbuilding,
cotton manufacture, tanning, rope-mak-
ing, etc. Three miles from the town is
the monastery of the Agnetenberg, where
Thomas & Kempis spent most of his life.
Pop. (1913) 33,836.
Zwyndrecht iS^ne'^S^^-eigiUrTn
Bast Flanders, 17 miles N. e. of Dender-
monde, in the Scheldt Pop. about 5000.
£iy^»na ^j^j^^ shark. See Shark.
Zymotic Diseases ^^.TaSiidtS
epidemic and endemic, contagious dis-
eases, because they are supposed to be
produced by some morbific principle act-
ing on the system like a ferment (Greek
Zffmi). This morbific principle or poison
gets into the blood in minute particles or
germs, which there increase and multiply,
the disease lasting until the poison naa
become worked out, or has been destroyed.
Among these diseases are measles, scarlet
fever, smallpox, typhus, typhoid, diph-
theria, whooping-cough, croup, erysipeuuip
etc.
Zygophyllacea <K" h^LoS
exogens, containing about a hundred spe-
cies of herbaceous plants, trees and
shrubs, found in the hottest parts of
both hemispheres. There are seyen
khown genera, of which the most impor-
tant is Guaiacum (which see). The
abundance of species of Zygophyllum
and some other genera constitutes a most
striking feature of the North African
and Arabian deserts. The flowers of
Z, fahago are employed as a substitute
for capers, and are known as bean-
capers.
plied also to the beer of the northern
nations; a liquor made from malt and
wheat.
Zyrnayovsk LTS'^T^V AA-
ver-producing district of Semipalatinsk,
near the southern border of Siberia. It
lies among the slopes of the Altai Moun-
tains, on a head-stream of the Irtish
River. The Zyrians of the vicinity, a
Tartar tribe, are Shamanists, and live
byhunting ii: the forests. Pop. about
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