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Oopr.  Itfll.  J.  a  W,  Q).    AMERICAN  TREE  LEAViCS,  FLOWKKiJ  AMD  FRUITS 

1    WTilteptn&  £.  Shellbart  Ijlckory.  S.  Bed  wjruce.  4,  Inc«DM»  DeO&r.  S.  Hemlfick,    •-  Blftck  **lniit,    7. 

Eedwood.  a.  Chdtnut.  9.  Collonwvod,  !«.  Kiver  blitlu 


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COMPLETE       AUTHORITATIVE       PRACTICAL 


WINSTON'S= 


CUMULATIVE 

Patents  Nos.  910034,  9160^,  916036 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

A  COMPREHENSIVE 
REFERENCE    BOOK 

Editor-in-Chief 

CHARLES  MORRIS 

LiueraUuTy  Historian  and  Encyclopedist 

Author  of  "Civilisation,  an  Historical  Review  of  Ita 
Elements.'* "The  Aryan  Race."  "Manual of  Classical 
Literature."  "Man  and  His  Ancestors,"  "Famous  Men 
and  Great  Events  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  and 
numerous  other  works.  Editor  of  "Twentieth  Cen- 
tury Encyclopedta."  '  Biographical  Dictionary." 
"Famous  Orators  of  the  World."  "Half  Hours  with 
the  Best  American  Authors,"  etc..  etc  Member  of 
the  "Academy  of  Natural  Sictences  of  Philadelphia,** 
••Gecwraphical  Society  of  Philadelphia.**  "Natural  Hia- 
tory  Society,"  and  "Sodety  for  Psychical  Research.*! 

Assisted  by  — 

A    CORPS   OP    CONTRIBUTORS 

Authorities  on  Special  SubjecU 

In  XCen  IPolumcs 

ILLUSTRATED    WITH    COLOREO    PLATES 
MAPS,    PHOTOGRAPHS   AND    DRAWINGS 


THE  JOHN  C.  WINSTON  COMPANY 

Philadelphia,  Pa.  Chicago,  III. 


wmmmm^mmmfim^mmm^mmmmmti^m^^ 


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Kf  /7<^/"2 


1   I 


HARVARD 
I  UNIVERSHY 
I      LIBRARY 


PATENTED 
IMar  LMtMi  Pftteat  Not.  010034. 010035. 010008 

OOPTRIQHT  1018 

Thb  John  C.  Winston  Co. 

Copyright  1012, 1013. 1014. 1015. 1010, 1017 

CAUTION 
Tbe«ntin  Contents  and  IUusti«tloiM  In  thia  work 
nra  pcoiooted  by  oopyright,  and  the  CumuUthro 
Byatem  is  protected  by  patent  lishts.  AU  persons 
are  warned  not  to  use  any  portion  ofthewoilKOO 
sake  UM  ol  the  Oumulauve  Bysteoi. 


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KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 

« 

Three  methods  are  used  to  indicate  the  pronunciation  of  the  words 
forming  the  headings  of  the  separate  articles: 

(1)  By  dividing  the  word  into  syllablesi  and  indicating  the  syllaUe 
or  syllables  to  be  accented.  This  method  alone  is  followed  where  the 
pronunciation  is  entirely  obvious.  Where  accent  marks  are  omitted,  the 
omission  indicates  that  all  syllables  are  given  substantially  the  same  value. 

(2)  Where  the  pronunciation  differs  from  the  spelling,  the  word  is 
re-spelled  phonetically,  in  addition  to  the  accentuation. 

(3)  Where  the  sound  values  of  the  vowels  are  not  sufficiently  indicated 
merely  by  an  attempt  at  phonetic  spelling,  the  following  system  of  diacritical 
marks  is  additionally  employed  to  approximate  the  proper  sounds  as 
dosely  as  may  be  done: 


I,  at  la  tattt  or  in  iMne. 

I,  as  in  elms,  Fr.  4iiie»  Ger.  Balm=A 

of  Indian  names. 
Af  the  same  sonnd  short  or  medinm*  as 

in  Fr.  bal*  Oer.  Mann. 
«f  as  in  fat 
i,  as  in  folL 
•»  obscure,  as  in  mrel,  rimilar  to  n  in 

bst,  6  in  h«r:  common  in  Indian 


f^  as  in  me=»  in  machtne. 

e,  as  in  met. 

fy  as  in  her. 

I,  as  in  pine,  or  as  e<  in  Ger.  Moin. 

I,  as  in  pin,  also  used  for  the  short 
souna  correspondinf  to  S,  at  in 
French  and  Italian  words. 


en,  a  lonf  sound  as  in  Fr.  J«tee^=s 
Ger.  lonf  d,  as  in  8^9ine,  Gtftho 
(Goethe).  < 

en,  correspondins  sound  short  or  medi- 
urn,  as  in  Fr.  pen = Ger.  9  short. 

0,  as  in  note,  moon. 

o,a8innot,fro8^ — that  1%  short  or  medium. 

0,  as  in  moye,  two. 

11,  as  in  t«be. 

u,  as  in  tifb :  similar  to  6  and  also  to  sl 

n,  as  in  biilL 

a,  as  in  Sc  ai>«fne=:Fr.  4  as  in  d^ 
Ger.  #  lonf  as  in  grfin,  Bfihne. 

ft,  the  correspondinf  short  or  medium 
sound,  as  in  Fr.  Imt,  Ger.  MitUer. 

oi,  iM  in  oiL 

ou,  as  in  pound ;  or  as  an  in  Ger.  Hans. 


The  consonants,  b,  d,  f,  h,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  ng,  p,  sh,  t,  v,  and  z,  when 
printed  in  Roman  type,  are  always  given  their  common  English  values  in 
the  transliteration  of  foreign  words.  The  letter  o  is  indicated  by  8  or  k, 
as  the  case  may  be.  For  the  remaining  consonant  sounds  the  following 
symbols  are  employed:    . 


di  is  always  as  in  tiok. 
4,   nearly   m»   ih  in  ihiB^Bp.   d  in 
Madrid,  etc 

I  is  always  hard,  as  in  ^a 
represents   the   futtural   in   Scotdi 
lock,  Ger.  nacik,  also  other  similar 
futturals. 
^  Fr.  nasal  n  as  in  bow. 
t  represents  botii  Bnflish  r,  and  r  in 
fonofa  words,  in  whidi  it  is  fen- 


erally  much  more  strong  trilled, 
s,  always  as  in  to. 
tti,  as  <J^  in  thiiL 
ih,  as  M  in  thU. 

w  always  consonantal,  as  in  «oe. 
X  =  ks,  which  are  used  instead, 
y  always  consonantal,  as  in  yea  (We^ 

Ugne  would  be  re-written  Itey). 
ih,  as  t  in  pleasure  =  Fr.  /. 


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WINSTON'S  CUMULATIVE  ENCYCLOPEDIA 

VOLUME  X 


W  the  twentieth  letter  in  the  English 
9  alphabet,  a  sharp  mute  consonant, 
representing  the  sound  produced  by  a 
quick  and  strong  emission  of  the  breath 
after  the  end  of  the  tongue  has  been 
placed  against  the  roof  of  the  mouth 
near  the  roots  of  the  upper  teeth.  By 
Grimm's  Law  t  in  English  corresponds 
to  d  in  Latin.  Greek  and  Sanskrit,  and 
to  t«  or  8  in  German. 
T&AfiiT10*A  (td'sing-^),  an  island  of 
Ac»wM.A&5^  Denmark,  south  of  Funen; 
area,  29  square  miles.  Pop.  4035. 
T&b&HllS     (t<^h'a-nus).     See  Oad-fiy, 

a  sort  of  tunic  of 
ages,    worn   oyer 
the    armor,    and    generally    embroidered 
with  the^  arms  of  the  wearer,  or  if  worn 


Tabard  ^^l^^'> 


Tsbsrii,  Sir  John  Cornwall,  AmpthiU  Oburch, 
Beds. 

by  a  herald,  with  those  of  his  lord  or 
•oyereign.  It  still  forms  a  part  of  the 
oflBcial  dress  of  heralds. 
TabflAGO  (tA-bftsIcO),  a  state  of  Mezi- 
ACftMCMw  ^^^  between  Yucatan  Penin- 
sula and  Vera  Cruz;  area,  10,072  square 
miles.  The  surface  consists  almost  en- 
tirely of  a  great  flat,  sloping  northwards 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  A  Targe  portion. 
of  the  state  is  still  covered  with  primeval 


forests.    The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  In- 
dians.   The  capital  is  San-Juan-Bautista. 
Pop.  of  the  state,  159334^ 
TaVasheer.  ^'  Tabashib  (Persian), 
*  ^  '  a  siliceous  concretion  re- 

sembling hydrophane,  sometimes  found 
in  the  joints  of  bamboos  and  other  large 

frasses.    It  is  highly  valued  in  the  East 
ndies  as  a  medicine,  but  its  virtues  are 
merely  imaginary. 

Tabbv  (^A^'^)>  ^^  name  given  to 
d.c»MMjr  gtuffg  watered  or  figured  by 
being  passed  through  a  calender,  the 
rollers  of  which,  bearing  unequally  on 
the  stuff,  render  the  surface  unequal,  so 
as  to  reflect  the  rays  of  light  differ- 
ently, and  produce  the  representation  of 
waves.  Silks  treated  in  this  way  are 
called  motr^. 

Tabernacle  i^\^S^^%\l^''^ 

sanctuary  in  which  the  sacred  utensils 
were  kept  during  the  wanderings  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  desert  It  was  in  the 
shape  of  a  parallelogram,  45  feet  by  15, 
and  15  feet  in  height,  with  its  smaller 
ends  placed  east  and  west,  and  having  its 
entrance  in  the  east.  Its  framework  con- 
sisted of  forty-eight  gilded  boards  of  shit- 
tim-wood,  bound  together  by  golden  rings 
and  set  into  silver  sockets;  and  this 
framework  was  covered  with  four  car- 
pets. The  interior  was  divided  by  a  cur- 
tain into  two  compartments,  the  outer  the 
'sanctuary'  proper,  and  the  innermost 
the  holy  of  holies.     In  the  sanctuary  was 

E laced  on  the  north  the  table  of  show- 
read,  on  the  south  the  golden  candle- 
stick, and  in  the  middle,  near  the  inner 
curtain,  the  altar  of  incense.  In  the 
center  of  the  holy  of  holies  stood  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  The  tabernacle  was  sit- 
uated in  a  court  150  feet  by  75,  sur- 
rounded by  costly  screens  7i  feet  hight. 
and  supported  by  pillars  of  brass  7i  feet 
apart,  to  which  the  curtains  were  at* 
tached  by  hooks  and  flllets  of  silver.  In 
the  outer  or  eastern  half  of  the  court 
stood  the  altar  of  burnt-offering,  and  be- 
tween it  and  the  tabernacle  itself  the 
laver,  at  which  the  priests  washed  their 
hands  and  feet  before  entering  the  sane- 


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Tabernacle 


Taboi 


tuaiy.  It  was  superseded  by  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem. 

Tabernacle,  ^  cccleslology,  an  oma- 
Af»MVAu«»vAvy  mented  receptacle  In 
which  the  hoet  is  kept  on  the  altar;  also 
a  reliquaiy. 

Tabernacles,  SS^'SrS?' ^S.tX8.' 

vals  of  the  Jews  which  required  the  pres- 
ence of  all  the  males  in  Jerusalem.  Its 
object  was  to  commemorate  the  dwellinf 
of  the  Israelites  in  tents  during  their  so- 
journ in  the  wilderness,  and  it  was  also 
a  feast  of  thanksgiving  for  the  harvest 
and  vintage.  The  time  of  the  festival 
fell  in  the  autumn,  when  all  the  chief 
fruits  were  gathered  in.  and  hence  it  is 
often  called  the  feast  of  the  ingathering. 
Its  duration  was  strictly  only  seven  days, 
but  it  was  followed  by  a  day  of  holy  con- 
vocation of  peculiar  solemnitv.  During 
the  seven  days  the  people  lived  in  booths 
erected  in  the  courts  of  houses,  on  the 
roofs,  and  in  the  court  of  the  temple.  It 
was  the  most  joyous  festival  of  the  year. 
TabftS  (till)te),  a  term  formerly  ap- 
A»w«  jjg^  j^  ^  disease  characterised 
by  a  gradually  progressive  emaciation  of 
the  wnole  body,  accompanied  with  lan- 
guor, depressed  spirits,  and,  for  the  most 
part,  imperfect  or  obscure  hectic  fever, 
without  the  real  cause  of  the  affection 
being  properly  localised  or  defined.-^ 
ra6e0  mefeiilenoo.  abdominal  phthisis,  or 
consumption  of  the  bowels,  is  a  disease 
of  the  bowels  caused  by  the  formation  of 
tubercles  similar  to  those  of  the  lungs  in 
ordinary  consumption.  It  causes  extreme 
wasting,  feebleness,  and  thinness  of  body, 
and  recovery  is  rare. —  Tahet  dorMi$  is 
the  same  as  locomotor  ata^y  (which  see). 
TfihiTi^t  (tab'i-net),  a  rich  fabric  con- 
J-aOineX  slstlng  of  a  warp  of  silk  and 
a  weft  of  wool,  employed  for  window 
curtains  and  other  furniture  purposes. 
Table     ^®^^^^*    ^^  Round  Table, 

Tableaux  Vivants  ^§^^T5R: 

ing  pictures*),  representations  of  scenes 
from  history  or  fiction  by  means  of  per- 
sons grouped  In  the  proper  manner, 
placed  in  appropriate  postures,  and  re- 
maining silent 

Table-land.  otFllteav  (pu-to;),  a 

A.AWAiT'MUAUi  g^^  ^j.  comparatively 
level  tract  of  land  considerably  elevated 
above  the  general  surface  of  a  country. 
Being  in  effect  broad  mountain  masses, 
many  of  these  plateaus  form  the  gather- 
ing-grounds and  sources  of  some  of  the 
noblest  rivers,  while  their  elevation  con- 
fers on  them  a  climate  and  a  vegetable 
and  animal  life  distinct  from  that  of  the 
surrounding    lowlands.    In    Europe    the 


chief  table-lands  are  that  of  Central 
Spain,  the  less-defined  upland  in  Switxer- 
land,  and  the  low  plateaus  of  Bavaria 
and  Bohemia.  In  Asia  is  the  most  ex- 
tensive table-land  in  the  world,  the  sandy 
rainless  Desert  of  Gobi,  nearly  400/000 
square  miles;  also  the  loftiest  inhabited 
table-land  in  the  world,  that  of  Tioet, 
with  an  elevation  of  from  11,000  to  15,- 
000  feet  In  Africa  are  the  platans  of 
Abyssinia,  and  the  karoos  or  terrace 
plains  of  South  Africa.  In  America  the 
great  table-lands  are  those  of  Mexico  and 
the  Andes.  The  table-lands  of  the  West- 
ern United  States  are  of  large  extent, 
comprising  much  of  the  states  of  Colo- 
rado, Utah,  Oregon.  Washington,  and 
Idaho,  with  considerable  portions  of  other 
states. 

Table  Mountain,  g   ™f  ?°**?L«  ^^ 

^%m*M*,^  .M»wiUAvcMU|  South  Africa, 
south  of  Table  Bay,  its  highest  point  be- 
ing right  over  Cape  Town.  It  is  about 
3600  feet  high  and  level  on  the  top.  It 
joins  the  Devil's  Mount  on  the  east,  and 
the  Sugar  Loaf  or  Lion's  Head  on  the 
west 

Table-tnmin&r.  ^°®  ^'  /**^,-tZ^f 

AWMAv  VMJ.UAU5I  nomena  of  spiritual- 
ism, in  which  a  number  of  persons  sit 
around  a  table,  with  hands  or  fingers 
touching  it,  the  result  in  many  cases  be- 
ing a  tipping  or  other  movements  of  the 
table,  questions  asked  being  frequently 
answered  bv  responsive  tips  indicating 
*yes'  or  ^no.'  The  phenomenon  has 
been  ascribed  to  involuntary  muscular  ac- 
tion of  the  sitters,  but  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  the  table  is  occasionally  lifted 
bodily  from  the  floor,  while  touched  only 
on  its  surface,  this  explanation  seems  in- 
sufllcient  The  a^ncy  at  work  is  claimed 
to  be  that  of  spintual  beings,  but  further 
investigation  is  needed  before  any  decision 
in  this  problem  can  be  reached. 
Taboo  ^'  Tabu  ( ta-b5' ),  a  peculiar 
A»Mvv|  ingtitation  formerly  prevalent 
among  the  South  Sea  islanders,  and  used 
in  both  a  good  and  bad  sense  —  as  some- 
thing sacred  or  consecrated,  and  as  some- 
thing accursed  or  unholy  —  both  senses 
forbidding  the  touching  or  use  of  the 
thing  taboo.  The  Idea  of  prohibition  was 
always  prominent.  The  whole  religious, 
political,  and  social  system  of  the  prim- 
itive Polynesians  was  enforced  by  the 
taboo,  the  infringement  of  which  in  seri- 
ous cases  was  death. 

Tnlwir  (tftni)ur),  a  small  drum,  beaten 
**"*  with  a  stick,  and  used  as  an 
accompaniment  to  a  pipe  or  fife. 
Tolwtr  (t&l>ur),  a  remarkable  hill  of 
Atmur  Northern  Palestine,  rising 
abruptly  in  the  shape  of  an  almost  per- 
fect cone  from  the  plain  of  EsdraUon  to 


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Tabor 


Tacna 


a  beifbt  of  nearly  1000  feet  It  is 
clothed  with  woods  to  the  very  summit, 
where  a  view  of  immense  extent  is  ob- 
tained. Its  isolation  led  the  earlier  ec- 
clesiastics to  make  it  the  scene  of  the 
transfiguration;  but  the  historical  data 
which  we  possess  show  that  its  summit 
was  employed  without  intermission  from 
218  B.a  till  70  a.d.  as  a  stronghold. 
Tftbor  (t&'bor),  a  town  of  Bohemia, 
•*■*  '  on  an  eminence  above  the 
Losebnits,  48  miles  8.  8.  E.  of  Prague, 
with  old  walls  and  towers.  Its  castle  was 
a  stronghold  of  the  sect  of  Hussites  called 
Taborites,  and  makes  a  conspicuous  figure 
in  their  history.  Pop.  10.703. 
TaboriteS.     see  Sussites. 

TohrAA7  or  Tabbiz  (tk-hr^:  the 
xaurcez,  ancient  Tauris),  a  cltv  of 
Persia,  capital  of  the  province  of  Azer- 
bijan,  on  the  Aigi,  36  miles  above  its  en- 
trance into  Lake  tJrumia.  It  lies  at  the 
inner  extremity  of  an  amphitheater, 
about  4000  feet  above  sea-level,  with  hills 
on  three  sides,  and  an  extensive  plain  on 
the  fourth.  It  is  surrounded  with  a  wall 
of  sun-dried  brick,  with  bastions,  and  en- 
tered by  seven  or  eight  gates.  There  are 
numerous  mosques,  bazaars,  baths,  and 
caravanserais.  The  citadel,  originally  a 
mosque,  and  600  years  old,  was  converted 
by  Abbas  Mirza  into  an  arsenal.  The 
blue  mosque  dates  from  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. Tabreez  has  manufactures  of  silks, 
cottons,  carpets,  leather  and  leather 
goods,  etc.  It  is  the  great  emporium  for 
the  trade  of  Persia  on  the  west,  and  has 
an  extensive  commerce.  It  has  frequently 
suffered  from  earthquakes.  Pop.  esti- 
mated about  200,000. 

Tabular-spar  ^^^^'V^^.^j^^''.  ^^^ 

AMMiucM  a^a,M.  gp^jj  (called  also  Wol- 
lc9tonite)f  in  mineralogy,^  a  silicate  of 
lime,  generally  of  a  s[rayish-white  color. 
It  occurs  either  massive  or  crystallized, 
in  rectangular  four-sided  tables,  and  us- 
ually in  granite  or  granular  limestone, 
occasionally  in  basalt  or  lava. 
Tacabont  (tak'a-hat),  the  small  ^lOl 
Aw^/«M*vM.v  f^pnj^  QQ  tjjg  tamarisk- 
tree  (Tamariw  indica).  It  is  of  great 
value  for  the  gallic  acid  obtained  from  it 
which  is  used  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing  and 
in  tanning. 

TaoamtdiaC  (tak'a^ma-hak),  the 
A<»vTYiiinruMv    ujinjg  given   to  a  bitter 

balsamic  resin,  the  produce  of  several 
kinds  of  trees  belonging  to  Mexico  and 
the  West  Indies,  the  East  Indies,  South 
America,  and  North  America.  The  bal- 
sam-poplar or  tacamahac  is  one  of  these. 
See  also  CalophyUum. 

Tacbygrapby  <^^^'^-fi>-  ^^ 


Tachypetes  iJtwr^Jf"*^^-  seeFHi^- 

Tacitus  (tas'i-tus),  Caius  Cobneli- 
us,  an  eminent  Roman  his- 
torian, bom  probably  about  54  a.d.  Of 
his  education  and  early  life  we  know  lit- 
tle. He  seems  to  have  been  first  ap- 
pointed to  public  office  in  the  reign  of 
Vespasian.  Under  Titus,  by  whom  he 
was  treated  with  distinguished  favor,  he 
became  questor  or  eedile ;  was  pnetor  un- 
der Domitian  (a.d.  88),  and  consul  un- 
der Nerva  (a.d.  97).  In  78  he  married 
the  daughter  of  Cneius  Julius  Agricola, 
the  celebrated  statesman  and  general, 
whose  life  he  afterwards  wrote.  He  was 
several  years  absent  from  Rome  on 
provincial  business,  and  probably  then 
made  the  acquaintance  of  the  German 
peoples.  After  his  return  to  Rome  he 
lived  in  the  closest  intimacy  with  the 
younger  Pliny,  and  had  a  very  extensive 
practice  in  the  profession  of  law,  acquir- 
ing a  high  reputation  as  an  orator.  The 
time  of  his  death   is   uncertain;   but  it 

grobably  took  place  after  a.d.  117.  We 
ave  four  historical  works  from  his  pen: 
his  AnnaUf  in  sixteen  books  (of  which 
books  seventh  to  tenth  inclusive  are  lost), 
which  contain  an  account  of  the  principal 
events  in  Roman  history  from  the  death 
of  Augustus  (A.D.  14)  to  that  of  Nero 
(AJ).  68}  ;  his  History  (of  which  only 
four  books  and  a  part  of  the  fifth  are 
extant),  which  begins  with  the  year  69 
A.D.,  when  Galba  wore  the  purple,  and 
ends  with  the  accession  of  Vespasian 
(70)  ;  his  Oermany,  an  account  of  the 
geography,  manners,  etc.,  of  the  country; 
and  his  Life  of  Agricola.  The  works  of 
Tacitus  have  been  pronounced,  by  the 
unanimous  voice  of  his  contemporaries 
and  of  posterity,  to  be  masterpieces  in 
their  way.  His  style  is  exceedingly  con- 
cise, so  much  so  as  to  make  it  often 
difficult  to  gather  his  full  meaning  with- 
out great  care.  He  had  a  wonderful  in- 
sight into  character,  and  could  paint  it 
with  a  master's  hand.  A  high  moral  tone 
pervades  all  his  writings,  though  he  gives 
no  clue  to  his  religious  belief. 
Tack  (^^^):  ^°  navigation,  the  course 
*  of  a  ship  in  regard  to  the  position 

o£  her  sails  and  the  angle  at  which  the 
wind  strikes  them.  Tacking  is  an  oper- 
ation bpr  which  a  ship  is  enabled  to  beat 
up  against  a  wind  by  a  series  of  zigzags, 
the  sails  being  turned  obliquely  to  the 
wind  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the 
other. 
Tackamahack.    ®^  Tacamahac 

TaCUa     (tak'n&),  a  town  of  N.  C^hile, 

in  a  plain  on  a  river  of  same 

name,  connected  by  rail  with  Arica.    It 


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Tacoma 


Taglioni 


is  of  some  commercial  importance.  Pop. 
24,160. 

Tfi.r»Anifi.  (tA-ko'mA),  a  city  and  port 
xacoma  ^^  Washington,  on  Com- 
mencement Bay,  Puget  Sound,  80  miles 
from  the  Pacific  coast  and  23  miles  8.  by 
w.  of  Seattle.  Its  situation  is  one  of 
great  beauty,  commanding  a  magnificent 
yiew  of  Mount  Rainier.  It  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor,  with  docks  and  wharves 
several  miles  in  length,  and  has  a  laige 
ocean  traffic;  also  extensive  shipyards. 
Lumber,  shingles,  and  flour  are  very 
largely  manufactured  and  there  are 
many  other  industries.  There  are  four 
steamship  lines  to  the  Orient  and  others 
to  many  iMirts  of  the  world.  Pop.  83,- 
743. 

Taconio  Mountains  i^fnVi^^^'r.'f 

ran  g  e  o i 
mountains  fn  the  United  States,  con- 
necting the  Green  Mountains  of  Western 
Massachusetts  with  the  highlands  of  the 
Hudson.  The  '  Taconic  System,'  in  sfeol- 
ogy,  was  named  from  the  characteristic 
strata  of  this  range,  a  metamorphic  rock, 
believed  to  be  older  than  the  Silurian 
system. 

Tactics  (tak'tiks),  the  branch  of  mili- 
tary  science  which  relates  to 
the  conduct  of  troops  in  battle.  Naval 
tactics  has  the  same  significance  in  re- 
lation to  the  handling  of  ships  and 
fleets.  Strategy,  on  the  other  hand,  re- 
fers to  the  movements  leading  up  to  a 
battle.     See  Battle. 

Tacunga  ^^^If^^^,^^,,  »T  t^l 

province  of  Leon,  at  the  foot  of  Goto- 
paxi.     Pop.  15,000. 
Tadema.      ®^  Alma-Tadema. 

Tadmor.     ^^  Palmyra. 

Tadnole  (^^'P^Of  the  name  given  to 
"  the  larval  or  young  state  of 

frogs  and  other  amphibians. 
TiiaI  (t&l)*  a  money  of  account  in 
***^*  China  worth  about  $1.50,  the 
value  of  which  varies  considerably  ac- 
cording to  locality  and  the  rate  of  ex- 
change. The  tael  is  also  a  definite 
weight,  equal  to  1.208  oz.  troy. 
TsBnia      ®*®  Tape-toorm, 

Taepings.   ^^  ^**'»*- 

Taffeta  (tafe-ta),  or  Taffety,  was 
^^^  originally  the  name  applied  to 

all  kinds  of  plain  silks,  but  has  now  be- 
come a  kind  of  generic  name  for  plain 
silk,  gros  de  Naples,  gros  des  Indes,  shot 
silk,  glac^i  and  others. 
Taffrflil  originally  the  upper  flat 
Acu&ACMA;  part   of    a    ship's    stern,    so 


called  because  frequently  ornamented 
with  carvings  or  pictures;  now  a  trans- 
verse rail  which  constitutes  the  upper- 
most member  of  a  ship's  stem. 
rpnff  Alphonso,  jurist,  bom  in  Town- 
^^*-h  send,  Vermont,  in  1810;  was 
judge  of  the  Cincinnati  Superior  Court, 
1866-1872;  appointed  Secretary  of  War, 
March  8,  1876;  and  made  attorney- 
general.  May  22.  He  was  United  States 
minister  to  Austna  in  1882-1884,  and 
to  Russia,  in  1884-1885.  He  died  May 
21,   1891. 

Toff  LoBADO,  American  sculptor,  bom 
^^^h  at  Elmwood,  IIL,  in  1860.  He 
was  for  a  number  of  years  an  instructor 
in  the  Art  Institute,  Chicago.  Amons 
his  works  are  The  Solitude  of  the  Soul, 
The  Blind,  Fountain  of  the  Oreat  Lake: 
He  is  the  author  of  Htstory  of  American 
Sculpture   (1903). 

Toff  William  Howabd,  twenty-sev- 
''^^'•h  enth  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  at  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
September  15,  1857;  son  of  Alphonso 
Taft  Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1860,  he  be- 
came judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Ohio 
in  1887;  United  States  Solicitor-General 
in  1890 ;  and  a  judge  of  the  United  States 
Circuit  Court  in  1892.  He  held  this 
position  until  1900,  being  also  dean  and 
professor  in  the  law  department  of  the 
University  of  Cincinnati,  1896-1900.  In 
the  latter  year  he  was  made  chairman 
of  the  Philippine  Commission,  and  in 
1901  civil  governor  of  the  Philippine  Isl- 
ands. In  1903  he  was  appointed  Secre- 
tary of  War  in  President  Roosevelt's 
cabinet,  in  1906  was  seat  to  investigate 
tile  troubles  in  Cuba,  of  which  he  was 
for  a  time  provisional  governor,  and  in 
1907  and  1909  made  tours  of  inspection 
to  Panama.  He  was  elected  president  by 
the  Republican  party  in  1908.  His  ad- 
ministration was  distinguished  by  two 
special  sessions  of  Congress,  the  passage 
of  a  new  tariff  bill,  the  prosecution  of 
several  corporations  and  movements  in 
the  line  of  conservation  and  reform.  He 
was  renominated  in  1912;  but  was  de- 
feated, partly  owine  to  the  split  in  the 
Republican  party,  oee  Progressive  Party. 
Ta^anrOfi*  (tA-gAn-rok'),  a  seaport  of 
^^  o    Russia,  in  the  government 

of  Ekaterinoslav,  on  the  low  cape  on  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Azof.  It 
is  built  chiefly  of  wood,  but  the  im- 
perial palace  where  Alexander  I  died  in 
1825.  and  the  Greek  monastery  are 
worthy  of  notice.  Pop  (1910)  ^300. 
Tiia»1iATii  (t&l-yO'ng),  Mabie,  bom  in 
Xagliom  jQQ^-^  was  knowT  through- 
out Europe  as  the  first  ballet  dancer  of 
her  time.  She  retired  from  the  stage  in 
1847 ;  but  supported  herself  in  London  as 


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Tagore  Talavera  de  la  Beina 

a  teacW  of  deportment  She  died  at  for  transmitting  sounds  to  a  distance 
Marseilles  in  1884.  through    the   agency   of   light     He    took 

TafiTOre    Rabindbanath,  a  Hindu  poet  part  in  the  1874  expedition  to  the  South 
o      ^  born   in   I860,   known   in    the  Pacific  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus. 
Occident  chiefly  through  his  own  transla-   Was  decorated  by  the  French  Academy  in 
tions  of  his  poems,   though  in  India  he   1809. 

is  widely  honored  as  a  teacher  and  man  Tqitiitio*  or  Taspinq  (tl-ping').  See 
of  affairs.    Tagore's  works  best  known  in  •■••"I'AU^,     ^^,-^  *'  "** 

English  are  (Htaniali  (devotional),  The  fftif  (tftt),  Abghibald  Campbell, 
Garden  and  The  Crescent  Moon,  xcut  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  son   of 

Taenia  (ta'gus:  Spanish,  Tajo;  Portu-  Crauford  Tait  writer  to  the  signet,  was 
-  «  ,  guese,  re;o).  the  largest  nver  bom  at  Edinburgh  in  1811;  died  in 
of  Spain  and  Portugal,  issues  from  the  1882.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and 
mountains  of  Albaracin,  on  the  frontier  there  opposed  the  Tractarian  principles, 
of  New  Castile  and  Arason,  flows  north-  He  was  appointed  headmaster  of  Rugby 
west  and  southwest  and  enters  the  At-  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Arnold  in  1842;  dean 
lantic.  It  has  a  total  length  of  540  miles,  of  Carlisle  in  1850;  bishop  of  London  in 
and  is  navigable  for  115  miles.  1856;  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in 

Tahiti  tJ^'K^^V  ,*K  la^gjest  of  the  1868.  His  primacy  was  marked  by  the 
"*  Society  Islands,  consisting  of  disesUblishment  of  the  Irish  Church,  and 
two  peninsulas,  connected  by  an  isthmus  by  the  passing  of  the  Public  Worship 
3  miles  broad,  and  submerged  at  high-  Regulation  Act  of  1874. 
water;  area-  412  square  miles.  It  is  m^jx  Peteb  Guthbie,  physicist  and 
hUly,  volamic,  beautiful,  and  highly  fer-  A*"**)  mathematician,  born  at  Dal- 
tile;  and  produces  sugar,  oocoant^  keith,  Scotland,  in  1831 ;  was  educated  at 
arrow-root,  dye-woods,  etc.  Pop.  10,639.  Edinburgh  and  Peterhouse,  Cambridge. 
See  Society  lalanda.  In   1354  he  was  appointed   professor  of 

Tailor-bird  {OrthotHmus  longiowh  mathematics  at  Queen's  College,  Belfast, 
ACUJ.VA  wxxu.  du9),  a  bird  so  named  and  in  1860  professor  of  natural  philoso- 
from  its  curious  habits  of  weaving  or  phy  at  Edinourgb.  He  was  the  Joint- 
sewing  together  leaves  in  order  to  form  author,  with  Professor  Sir  William 
a  nest  It  belongs  to  the  sub-family  of  Thomson,  of  a  textbook  on  Natural 
the  Sylvinffi  or  true  warblers,  and  in-  Philoaophy,  and  with  the  late  Professor 
habits  India  and  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  Balfour  Stewart  of  The  Unseen  Universe. 
Tuinivr  (tl'm^r),  a  peninsula  of  His  Heat  appeared  in  1884,  Light  in  1884, 
xaxiujri  Northern  Siberia,  extending  Properties  of  Matter  in  1885,  and  Dy- 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  between  the  mouth  namics  in  1895.  For  his  various  mathe- 
of  the  Yenisei  and  Khatang  Gulf,  and  matical  and  physical  researches  the  Royal 
containing  Cape  Chelyuskin,  the  most  Society,  London,  awarded  him  a  royal 
northerly  land  in  Asia.  medal  in  1886.     He  died  July  4,  1901. 

TfliTiA    Ctftn  ),  HiPPOLTTB  Adolphe,  a  Taiixmii    (tl-wAn'),  the  capital  of  the 
Xiuue  Jip^nch    writer,    bom    at    Vou-    ^^^^^"^   Chinese  island  Formosa,  one 
Eiers   (Ardennes)   in  1S2S,  and  educated   of    the    treaty    ports,    with    considerable 
at   the  Collie   Bourbon  and   the  Ecole   trade  in  sugar  and  opium.     Pop.,  includ- 
Normale.     In    1854    his    first    iirork,    an   ing  Takow,  which  almost  forms  one  city 
Essay  on  Livy,  was  crowned  by  the  Acad-   with  it,  235,000.     See  Formosa, 
emy;  in  1864  he  was  appointed  professor  T^i-MoTiaI      (  tAah-ma-hAl' ).      See 
in  the  School  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris;  and   ***J  •™-»**«^     Xnra. 
in  1878  he  was  elected  to  a  seat  in  the  Tainrah    (t&-J5'r&),    a    seaport    town 
Academy.    li\%  History  of  English  Liten^  *«*j*m.€»ix  ^^^  ^^ie  African  coast  of  the 
iure,   one   of   the  best  and   most  philo-   Gulf  of  Aden,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name, 
sophical  works  on  the  subject,  appeared  in    It  is  the  outlet  of  trade  from  Shoa,  and 
1864  (four  vols.) ;  his  PhUosophy  of  Art  was    ceded    to    France    in    1887.     Pop. 
in  1865 ;  his  Ao<e«  on  England  m  1872 ;   about  2000. 
and  his  Origin  of  Contemporary  France  TaVnixr      See  Taiwan. 
in  1875-84,  the  last  a  work  of  great  re-   -^»^"w. 

search  and  value,  in  two  sections,  the  TalflfrAro  iIa  lo  Paitio  (t&-14-vfl'r4 
first  dealing  with  Uancien  Regime,  the  •^*"»vcr»  ac  in,  xirCiua  ^^  ,^  ^^,^ 
second  with  the  Revolution,  He  die^i  ^^)jl  ^  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province 
March  5,  1893.  of  Toledo,  on  the  Tagus,  64  miles  south- 

Tainter  (t&n'ter),  Chables  Sumneb,  east  of  Madrid.  It  has  a  picturesque  ap- 
**^  inventor,  bom  at  Watertown,  pearance,  and  various  interesting  build- 
Massachusetts,  in  1854.  He  was  the  in-  Ings.  A  great  battle  was  fought  here 
▼entor  of  the  grapbophone,  and  aided  in  July  27  and  28,  1809,  between  the  French 
Snyenting  the  radiophone,  an  instrument  under  Victor,  Jourdan,  and  King  Joseph, 


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Talbot 


Talisman 


and  the  British  under  Wellington,  in 
which  the  former  were  defeated.  Pop. 
10,580. 

Talbot    (^ftl'b^t),  a  kind  of  hound  for- 
merly  in  vogue,  pure  white  in 
color,  probably  the  original  of  the  blood- 
hound. 
Talbotype.     ^^  Photography. 

Talo  (^^^)>  ^  magnesian  mineral,  con- 
"*  **  sitting  of  broad,  flat,  smooth 
lamins  or  plates,  unctuous  to  the  touch, 
of  a  shining  luster,  translucent,  and  often 
transparent  when  in  very  thin  plates. 
There  are  three  principal  varieties  of 
talc,  common,  earthy,  and  indurated. 
Talc  is  a  silicate  of  magnesium,  with 
small  quantities  of  potash,  alumina,  oxide 
of  iron,  and  water.     It  is  used  in  many 

?»arts  of  India  and  China  as  a  substitute 
or  window-glass.  A  variety  of  talc 
called  French  chalk  (or  steatite)  is  used 
for  tracing  lines  on  wood,  cloth,  etc.,  in- 
stead of  chalk.  See  Potstone,  Soapatone, 
Steatite. 

Talca  (tal'kA),  a  town  of  Chile,  capi- 
tal  of  the  province  of  Talca,  on 
the  Claro,  is  connected  by  rail  with  Santi- 
ago, and  has  manufactures  of  ponchos. 
Pop.  42,766.  The  province  has  an  area 
of  3664  sq.  miles,  and  pop.  146,685. 

Talcahnana  ^^l'}^;^f^^Sl' r.tJ^ 

port  01  Chile,  province 
Concepcion,  with  an  arsenal,  shipyards, 
etc     Pop.  13,499. 

Talent  (tal'ent),  the  name  of  a  weight 
and  denomination  of  money 
among  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  also  ap- 
plied b^  Greek  writers  to  various  stand- 
ard weights  and  denominations  of  money 
of  dififerent  nations ;  the  weight  and  value 
dififering  in  the  various  nations  and  at 
various  times.  The  Attic  talent  as  a 
weight  contained  60  Attic  minae  or  6000 
Attic  drachmse,  equal  to  56  lbs.  11  oz. 
troy  weight  As  a  denomination  of  silver 
money  it  was  equal  to  $1218.75.  The 
great  talent  of  the  Romans  is  computed 
to  be  equal  to  $406.66  and  the  little  talent 
to  $375.  A  Hebrew  weight  and  denom- 
ination of  money,  equivalent  to  3000 
shekels,  also  receives  this  name.  As  a 
weight  it  was  equal  to  about  93}  lbs. 
avoir. ;  as  a  denomination  of  silver  it  has 
been  variously  estimated  at  from  $1700 
to  $1980. 

Talfonrd  i^»''^"''^^v,  ^?\  thomas 

^^^  Noon,  an  English  dramatist 

and  poet,  was  bom  in  1795,  and  was 
brought  up  at  Reading,  where  his  father 
was  a  brewer.  He  was  called  to  the  bar 
in  1821,  and  in  1833  was  made  serjeant- 
at-law.  In  1835  he  was  returned  to  par- 
liament for  Reading,  and  in  1836  his 
tragedy  of  Ion   (published   the  previous 


year)  was  produced  at  Covent  Garden, 
and  achieved  distinguished  success.  The 
tragedies  subsequently  produced  by  him 
were  The  Athenian  Captive;  Olencoe,or 
the  Fate  of  the  Macdonalda;  and  The 
CoitUian,  an  historical  tragedy.  Besides 
his  dramas  he  was  the  author  of  a  Life 
of  Charles  Lamb  and  of  Vacation  Ram* 
hies.  In  1849  he  was  raised  to  the  bench 
in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  re- 
ceived at  the  same  time  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  He  died  suddenly  in  1854  at 
Stafford,  while  delivering  his  charge  to 
a  grand-Jury. 

Taliacotian  Operation  i^:^)l 

See  Rhinoplastic  Operation, 
TflliAaaiii    (tari-sin),    a    Welsh    bard 
xuixcsaiu  g^.^  ^^  ^^^^  flourished  dur- 
ing the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century,  and 
styled  Pen  Beirdd,  '  chief  of  the  bards.' 

TaUpot  Palm  iifM^^f.-^t^ 

great  fan-palm,  a  native  of  Cevlon.  The 
cylindrical  trunk  reaches  a  height  of  60 
70,  or  100  feet,  and  is  covered  with  a  tuft 
of  fan-like  leaves,  usuallv  about  18  feet 
in  length  and  14  hi  breadth.    The  leaves 


Talipot  Palm  {Cor^pha  umbraculiffra). 


are  used  for  covering  houses,  for  making 
umbrellas  and  fans,  and  as  a  substitute 
for  paper.  When  the  tree  has  attained 
its  full  growth,  the  flower  spike  bursts 
from  its  envelope  or  spathe  with  a  loud 
report  The  flower  spike  is  then  as  white 
as  ivory,  and  occasionally  30  feet  long. 
When  its  fruit  is  matured,  the  tree  gen- 
erally dies. 
Tflliamfl-n   (tal'is-man),  a  figure  cast 


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Talitrus 


Talleyrand-P^rigord 


and  made,  with  certain  superstitious  cere- 
monies, at  some  particular  moment  of 
time,  as  when  a  certain  star  is  at  its  cul- 
minatiniT  point,  or  when  certain  planets 
are   in   conjunction.     The   talisman   thus 

Srepared  is  supposed  to  exercise  extraor- 
inary  influences  over  the  bearer,  partic- 
ularly in  averting;  disease.  In  a  more 
extensive  sense  tne  word  is  used,  like 
amulet,  to  denote  any  object  of  nature  or 
art,  the  presence  of  which  checks  the 
power  of  spirits  or  demons,  and  defends 
the  wearer  from  their  malice.  Relics, 
consecrated  candles,  rosaries,  images  of 
saints,  etc.,  were  employed  as  talismans 
in  the  middle  ages:  and  at  that  time  the 
knowledge  of  the  virtues  of  talismans  and 
amulets  formed  an  important  part  of 
medical  science. 
Talitrus  (taJ'i-trus).     see     Sandhop- 

Tallage  (tal'ij),  a  sort  of  tax  for- 
Acuxorgc  merly  levied  by  the  English 
kings  on  towns  and  counties,  as  part 
of  the  revenues  of  the  crown,  being  origi- 
nally exacted  probabl:^  in  lieu  of  military 
service.  It  was  abolished  by  statute  of 
1340. 

TalialiaSSee  (tal-A-has'se),  a  city, 
***"********'^^  capital  of  the  State  of 
Florida  and  of  Leon  Co.,  165  miles  w.  of 
Jacksonville,  and  26  miles  N.  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  being  connected  by  rail  with 
the  seaport  of  St.  Marks.  It  has  cot- 
ton and  cigar-making  industries,  and  has 
the  Florida  State  College,  the  Florida 
Normal  and  Industrial  School  (colored), 
and  several  libraries.  Pop.  5018. 
Tallard    (t&l-l^r),    Camille    de    la 

Aouaxu.     g^xTME,     DUC     DE     HOSTUN, 

CoMTE  DE,  Marshal  of  France,  descended 
of  an  ancient  family  of  Dauphlny,  was 
bom  in  1652;  died  in  172a  He  entered 
the  army  while  young,  and  after  serving 
under  the  Great  Cond^  in  Holland,  was 
engaged  under  Turenne  in  Alsace  in  the 
bnlliant  campaigns  of  1674  and  1675. 
He  distinguished  himself  subsequently  on 
various  occasions,  and  in  1693  was  made 
lieutenant-general;  marshal  in  1703.  In 
1704  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle 
of  Blenheim,  and  was  carried  to  England, 
where  he  remained  seven  years. 

Talladega  i^'-yi^dei.%':  SS: 

bama,  100  miles  N.  v.  E.  of  Selma.  It 
contains  a  State  iiistitution  for  the  deaf, 
dumb  and  blind,  and  has  large  manufac- 
tures of  cotton,  fertilizers,  etc.  Pop.  5854. 
Tallecralla  ital-e-gal'la),  or  Brush 
»^^"^  Turkey,  a  remarkable 
genus  of  rasorial  birds,  belonging  to  the 
family  of  Megapodidae,  or  mound-birds. 
(See  Megapodtus.)  The  Tallegalla  Lor 
thdmi  is  the  best-known  species,  and  that 


usually  designated  by  the  distinctive  name 
of  *  brush  turke^.^  It  inhabits  Aus- 
tralia, where  it  is  also  known  by  the 
names  'wattled  tallegalla'  and  'New 
Holland  vulture ' —  the  latter  name  hav- 
ing reference  to  the  naked  vulturine  head 
and  neck.  The  male  when  full  grown  is 
colored  of  a  blackish-brown  above  and  be- 
low, with  grayish  tints  on  the  back.  The 
head  and  neck  are  covered  with  very 
small  feathers  of  blackish  hue,  whilst  a 
large  wattle,  colored  bright  or  orange  yel- 
low, depends  from  the  front  of  the  neck. 
These  birds  are  remarkable  on  account  of 
the  huge,  conical  *  egg-mound '  which  they 
form,  several  of  them  jointly,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  therein  depositing  their  eggs, 
which  are  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  de- 
composing mass  of  vegetable  matter  piled 
up.  The  eggs  are  greatly  sought  after 
on  account  of  their  delicious  flavor. 

Talleyrand-P^rigord    ^a^-^wrT. 

Charles  Maurice  de.  Prince  of  Bene- 
vento,  a  famous  French  diplomatist,  was 
born  at  Paris  in  1754 ;  died  there  in  1838. 
Though  the  eldest  of  three  brothers  he 
was,  in  consequence  of  lameness  caused 
by  an  accident,  deprived  of  his  rights  of 
primogeniture,  and  devoted,  against  his 
will,  to  the  priesthood.  His  high  birth 
and  great  ability  procured  him  rapid  ad- 


Talleyrand. 

vancement,  and  in  1788  he  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Autun.  On  the  meeting 
of  the  states-general  he  was  elected  dep- 
uty for  Autun.  He  sided  with  the  popu- 
lar leaders  in  the  revolutionary  move- 
ments; and  his  advocacy  of  the  abolition 
of  tithes  and  the  transference  of  church 
lands  to  the  state  gained  him  great  popu- 
larity.   In  1790  he  was  elected  president 


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TaUien  TaU^ 

of    the    national    assembly.    When    the  became  one  of  the  most  popular  men  of 

dyfl  constitution  of  the  clergy  was  adopted  the  revolutionary  party,  and  took  part  in 

be  gave  his  adhesion  to  it,  and  ordained  most  of  the  sanguinary  proceedings  which 

the  first  clergy  on  the  new  footing.    For  occurred  during  the  ascendency  of  Bobes- 

this  he  was  excommunicated  by  a  papal  plerre.    After   the  fall   of   Danton  and 

brief,   and    thereupon   embraced    the   op-  his  party,  he  perceived  that  he  should  be- 

portunity  to  renounce  his  episcopal  func-  come  one  of  the  next  victims  of  Robes- 

tions   (1791).    In  1792  he  was  sent  to  pierre  if  he  did  not  strike  the  first  blow, 

London    charged    with    diplomatic    func-  and  it  was  mainlv  bv  his  influence  that 

tions,    and    during    his    stay    there    was  the  latter  with  his  friends  was  brought 

proscribed  for  alleged  royalist  intrigues,  to   the  gulUotine.    He  subsequently   be- 

Forced  to  leave  England  by  the  provis-  came  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five 

ions  of  the  Alien  Act,  in  1794  he  sailed  Hundred,  but  his  influence  gradually  de- 

for  the  United  States,  but  returned  to  dined.     In  after  vears  he  was  glad  to  ac- 

France  in  1796.    The  following  year  he  cept  the  office  of  French  consul  at  Ali- 

was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs ;  cante.    He  died  at  Paris,  in  poverty  and 

but  being  suspected  of  keeping  up  an  un-  obscurity,  in  1820. 

derstanding  with  the  agents  of  Louis  TflJlig  (taris),  Thohas,  author  of 
XVIII,  he  was  obliged  to  resign  in  July,  *******  gome  of  the  finest  music  in  the 
1799.  He  now  devoted  himself  entirely  cathedral  service  of  the  English  Church, 
to  Bonaparte,  whom  he  had  early  recog-  was  bom  about  1515,  and  served  in  the 
nised  as  the  master  spirit  of  the  time,  and  chapel  royal  during  the  reigns  of  Henry 
after  Bonaparte's  return  from  Egypt  con-  VIII,  Edward  VI,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth, 
tributed  greatly  to  the  events  of  the  18th  He  died  in  1585,  and  was  buried  in  the 
Brumaire  (November  10,  1799),  when  parish  church  at  Greenwich, 
the  directory  fell  and  the  consulate  began.  TalloW  (^^'^)*  ^^^  harder  and  less 
He  was  then  reappointed  minister  of  for-  *****^  fusible  fat  of  animals,  espe- 
eign  affairs,  and  for  the  next  few  years  cially  cattle  and  sheep,  melted  and  sep- 
was  the  executant  of  all  Bonaparte's  dip-  arated  from  the  fibrous  matter  mixed 
lomatic  schemes.  After  the  establish-  with  them.  Tallow  is  firm,  brittle,  and 
ment  of  the  empire  in  1804  he  was  has  a  peculiar  heavy  odor.  When  pure 
appointed  to  the  office  of  grand-chamber-  it  is  white  and  nearly  insipid;  but  the 
Iain,  and  in  1806  was  created  Prince  of  tallow  of  commerce  has  usually  a  yellow- 
Benevento.  After  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  in  ish  tinge,  which  may  be  removed  by  ex- 
1807  a  coolness  took  place  between  him  posure  to  light  and  air.  Tallow  is  manu* 
and  Napoleon,  and  became  more  and  more  factured  into  candles  and  soap,  and  is 
marked.  In  1808  he  secretly  joined  a  extensively  used  in  the  dressing  of  leather, 
royalist  committee.  In  1814  be  pro-  and  in  various  processes  of  the  arts, 
cured  Napoleon's  abdication,  and  after-  Vegetable  iaUoio  is  contained  in  the  seeds 
wards  exerted  himself  very  effectually  in  of  various  plants,  one  of  the  best  known 
reestablishing  Louis  XVIII  on  the  throne  of  which  is  the  candle-berry  (which  see), 
of  his  ancestors.  He  took  part  ia  the  See  also  China  Wax,  and  next  article. 
Congress  of  Vienna,  and  in  1815.  when  TalloW-tree  {SttUingia  iehifera),  a 
the  allies  again  entered  Paris,  he  became  *«****' ^  vx^^  ^^^  ^^  ^1^^  ^^^  order 
president  of  the  council  with  the  portfolio  Euphorbiaceie,  one  of  the  largest,  the 
of  foreign  affairs;  but  as  he  objected  to  most  beautiful,  and  the  most  widely 
sign  the  second  Peace  of  Paris  he  gave  in  diffused  of  the  plants  found  in  China, 
bis  resignaUon.  After  this  he  retired  From  a  remote  period  it  has  fur- 
into  private  life,  in  which  he  remained  nished  the  Chinese  with  the  material 
for  fifteen  years.  When  the  revolution  out  of  which  they  make  candles.  The 
of  July,  1830,  broke  out.  he  advised  Louis  capsules  and  seeds  are  crushed  together 
Philippe  to  place  himself  at  its  head  and  and  boiled;  the  fatty  matter  is  skimmed 
to  accept  the  throne.  Declining  the  of-  as  it  rises,  and  condenses  on  cooling, 
fice  of  minister  of  foreign  asairs,  he  The  tallow-tree  has  been  introduced  into 
proceeded  to  London  as  ambassador,  and  the  United  States,  and  is  almost  natural- 
crowned  his  career  by  the  formation  of  ized  in  the  maritime  parts  of  Carolina, 
the  Quadruple  Alliance.  He  resigned  in  It  has  also  been  acclimatized  by  the 
November,  1834,  and  quitted  public  life  French  in  Algeria.  The  tallow-tree  of 
forever.  His  Memoirs  were  published  in  Malabar  is  Vateria  indica, 
1891.  Tallv  (tal'i),  a  piece  of  wood  on  which 
Tallinn  it&l-i-ap),  Jean  Lambebt,  a  ***'"'J  notches  or  scores  are  cut,  as  the 
Acuxxv^u.  ppench  revolutionist,  was  born  marks  of  number.  In  purchasing  and 
at  Paris  in  1769,  and  first  made  himself  selling  it  was  once  customary  for  traders 
known  by  publishing  a  revolutionary  to  have  two  sticks,  or  one  stick  cleft  into 
jounuil  ouled  Ami  du  Citoyen.    Ho  soon  two  parts,  and  to  mark  with  scores  oc 


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Tally  System 


Talmud 


notches  on  each  the  number  or  quantity 
of  goods  delivered,  or  what  was  due  be- 
tween debtor  and  creditor,  the  seller  or 
creditor  keeping  one  stick,  and  the  pur- 
chaser or  debtor  the  other.  Before  the 
use  of  writing,  or  before  writing  became 
general,  this  or  something  like  it  was  the 
usual  method  of  keeping  accounts.  In 
the  exchequer  of  England  tallies  were 
used  till  late  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
Ad  exchequer  tally  was  an  account  of  a 
sum  of  money  lent  to  the  government,  or 
of  a  sum  for  which  the  government  would 
be  responsible.  The  tally  itself  con- 
sisted of  a  squared  rod  of  hazel  or  other 
wood,  having  on  one  side  notches,  indicat- 
ing the  sum  for  which  the  tally  was  an 
acknowledgment  On  two  other  sides 
opposite  to  each  other,  the  amount  of  the 
sum,  the  name  of  the  payer,  and  the 
date  of  the  transaction,  were  written  by 
an  ofllcial  called  the  writer  of  the  tallies. 
This  being  done  the  rod  was  then  cleft 
longitudinally  in  such  a  manner  that 
each  piece  rttained  one  of  the  written 
sides,  and  one  half  of  every  notch  cut  in 
the  tally.  One  of  these  parts,  the  coun^ 
tertiock,  was  kept  in  the  excheouer^and 
the  other,  the  9tock,  only  issued.  When 
the  part  issued  was  returned  to  the 
exchequer  (usually  in  payment  of  taxes) 
the  two  pax'ts  were  compared,  as  a  check 
against  fraudulent  imitation.  This  an- 
cient system  was  abolished  by  25  Geo.  Ill 
IxxxiL  The  size  of  the  notches  made  on 
the  tallies  varied  with  the  amount  The 
notch  for  £100  was  the  breadth  of  a 
thumb,  for  £1  the  breadth  of  a  barlev- 
com.  A  penny  was  indicated  by  a  slignt 
slit 

TaUy  System,  SpoS'^^.^m'!^'.!!?! 

the  purchaser  agrees  to  pay  for  the  pur- 
chase by  fixed  installments  at  a  certain 
rate,  and  both  seller  and  purchaser  keep 
books  in  which  the  circumstances  of  the 
transaction  and  the  payment  of  the  sev- 
eral installments  are  entered,  and  which 
serve  as  a  tally  and  counter-tally.  This 
mode  of  doing  business  has  lately  in- 
creased enormously  in  all  branches  of 
trade. 

Tfllma  (t&l-m4),  FBANgois  Joseph, 
Acuiua  ^  celebrated  French  tragedian, 
was  the  son  of  a  Parisian  dentist,  and 
was  bom  at  Paris  in  1763.  In  1787  he 
made  bis  d^but  at  the  Commie  Francaise 
in  the  character  of  8iide  in  Voltaire's 
Mohamet,  His  greatest  successes  were 
achieved  at  the  Thdfttre  Francais  (after- 
wards Th6&tre  de  la  Republique),  which 
he  and  others  founded  in  1791.  He  en- 
joyed the  intimacy  of  Napoleon,  and  was 
the  friend  of  Chtoier,  Danton,  Gamille 
Desmoulins,  aBd  other  revolutionists.    Ha 


died  in  1826.  Tahna  was  the  greatest 
modem  tra^c  actor  of  France,  and  one 
of  the  earliest  advocates  of  realism  in 
scenery  and  costume. 
Talmafi'e  Oarmaj),  Thomas  De 
^^^  o  WITT,  clergyman,  bom  at 
Boundbrook,  New  Jersey,  in  1832. 
After  holding  several  Dutch  Reformed 
pastorates,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Cen- 
tral Presbyterian  Church  in  Brooklyn  in 
1869,  and  of  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Washington  in  1896.  He  won 
great  popularity  as  a  pulpit  orator  and 
lecturer,  and  his  sermons  were  printed 
weekly  for  over  thirty  years  in  a  large 
number  of  newspapers.  For  years  he 
was  editor  of  the  Christian  Herald,  and 
published  a  number  of  works  on  religious 
subjects.  He  died  April  12,  1902. 
Tfl.lTnTii?  (tal'mud),  a  Chaldaic  word 
J.aiiUUU  gignifying  'doctrine,'  and 
sometimes  used  to  designate  the  whole 
teaching  of  the  Jewish  law,  comprising 
all  the  writings  included  in  what  we  call 
the  Old  Testament  as  well  as  the  oral 
law  or  Mishna,  with  its  supplement  or 
commentary  the  Oemara,  but  more  fre- 
quently applied  only  to  the  Mishna  and 
Oemara,  The  main  body  of  the  Talmud 
—  in  the  second  of  these  two  senses  — 
consists  of  minute  directions  as  to  con- 
duct. Its  contents  are  hence  very  mis- 
cellaneous, and  they  are  as  varied  in 
their  character  as  in  their  subject  Much 
of  it  is  taken  up  with  regulations  of  the 
most  puerile  nature,  and  not  a  little  with 
details  only  fitted  to  excite  disgust  In 
other  parts  again  there  are  passages  con- 
taining the  loftiest  expression  of  reli- 
gious feeling,  passages  which  are  said  to 
be  the  source  of  almost  all  that  is  sub- 
lime in  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  those  liturgies  which  have  been 
mainly  derived  from  it  Interspersed 
throughout  the  whole  are  numerous  tales 
and  fables,  introduced  for  the  sake  of 
illustration.  The  Jews  are  carefully  in- 
structed in  it,  and  its  very  language  is 
sometimes  quoted  and  acknowledged  in 
the  New  Testament  The  injunctions 
referred  to  in  the  sermon  on  the  mount 
as  having  been  'said  by  them  of  old 
time'  (properly,  the  elders)  are  all 
from  the  Mishna.  The  Gemara  was  origi- 
nally an  oral  commentary  of  the  Mishnd, 
as  the  Mishna  itself  was  originally  an 
oral  commentary  of  the  Mikra,  or  writ- 
ten law.  It  consisted  of  the  explanations 
and  illustrations  which  the  teachers  of 
the  Mishna  were  in  the  habit  of  giving 
in  the  course  of  their  lessons.  These  oral 
comments  were  handed  down  from  age 
to  a^e,  differing  of  course  in  different  lo- 
calities, and  gradually  increasing  in  quan- 
tity; and  they  were  at  last  committed 


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Talpa 


Tambourine 


only  a  few  inches  in  length,  presents  a 
wonderful  resemblance  to  the  lion. 
Tamarind     (tam'a-rind;    Tamarindu8 
^^^  tndtca),  a  large  and  beau- 

tiful tree  of  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
nat  order  Legumi- 
noste.  It  is  culti- 
vate d  .chiefly  for 
the  sake  of  its  pods 
(tamarinds).  The 
West  Indian  tama- 
rinds are  put  into 
casks,  with  layers 
of  sugar  between 
them,  or  with  boil- 
ing syrup  poured 
over  them,  and  are 
called  prepared 
tamarinds.  The 
East  Indian  tama- 
rinds, which  are 
most  esteemed,  are 
preserved     without 

^¥^I\     V^^y   *'®   Tsmwrind  (Tamartmrw 
dried  In  the  sun,  or  indiea). 

artiflcially     with 
salt  added. 

Tamarisk    (tam'a-risk),  the  common 
^.waucMxoA.   jjj^jjj^    ^^    shrubs    of    the 

genus  Tamarim,  the  type  of  the  natural 
order  Tamaricaceee.  T.  aallica  is  very 
abundant  all  rouifd  the  Mediterranean, 
and  is  naturalized  on  some  parts  of  the 
south  coast  of  England.  It  attains  a 
height  of  from  16  to  20  feet,  has  small 
flowers  of  a  bright  rose  color,  and  alto- 
gether has  a  very  attractive  appearance, 
which  makes  it  very  much  sought  after 
as  an  ornament  for  shrubberies  and  parks. 
TfLmniinfL     (tA-ma'kwA),  a  town  of  Tfl.Tnfl.tfl.ve    (tfim-A-tttv'),     the     chief 

lamaqua   ^chuyikiiLCo.,  Pennsyiva-  Aamaiavc    ^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^^^  ^j^^ 

of  Madagascar.     It  was  for  a  time  capi- 
tal of  the  island.     Pop.  about  6000. 


to  writing  in  two  forms,  the  one  called 
the  Jerusalem  and  the  other  the  Baby- 
lonian Gemara*  or,  with  the  addition  of 
the  Misbna,  which  is  common  to  both, 
the  Jerusalem  and  the  Babylonian  Tal- 
mud. The  Jerusalem  Talmud  is  the 
earlier  and  by  much  the  smaller  of  the 
two.  The  language  of  both  the  Gemaras 
is  a  mixed  Hebrew,  but  that  of  the  Baby- 
lonian Gemara  is  much  less  pure  than 
the  other;  in  the  narrative  portions,  de- 
signed as  i>opular  illustrations  of  the 
other  parts,  it  comes  near  the  Aramaic  or 
vernacular  dialect  of  the  Eastern  Jews. 
The  style  is  in  both  cases  extremely  con- 
densed and  difficult.  The  Misbna,  with 
its  corresponding  Gemara,  is  divided  into 
six  orders  or  principal  divisions.  The 
subjects  of  these  orders  are  agriculture, 
festivals,  women,  damages,  holy  things, 
and  purifications.  These  orders  are  sub- 
divided into  sixty-three  tracts,  to  which 
the  Babylonian  Gemara  adds  five  others, 
thus  containing  sixty-eight  tracts  in  all. 
Other  divisions  of  the  Talmud  are  the 
Halaka,  the  doctrinal  and  logical  por- 
tion; Hasada,  the  rhetorical  or  imagma- 
tive  portion;   and  Cabala,  the  mystical 

gortion,  including  theosophy  and  magic, 
[any  translations  of  parts  of  the  Talmud 
have  appeared. 

Talpa    (^^'P^^*    ^^  ^^^' 

Tfllns  (ta'lus),  in  geology,  a  sloping 
A.CU.UO  jjpj^p  ^£  broken  rocks  and  stones 
at  the  foot  of  any  precipice,  cliff,  or  rocky 
declivity. 

Tamandna   (ta-man'da-a).    a    spe- 

***"*********■*    cies  of  ant-eater. 


f%2^(?v 


nia,  17  miles  N.  e.  of  Pottsville,  and  in 
an  extensive  coal-mining  district.  There 
are  many  collieries,  iron  foundries,  and 
machine  shops,  and  manufactures  of  ex- 
plosives and  hosiery.  Pop.  9462. 
TamaricaceSB  (tam-ar-l-ka'se^),  a 
A.c»ui.c»j.xva.vvcx^    small    nat    order    of 

polypetalous  exogens.  The  species  are 
either  shrubs  or  herbs,  inhabiting  chiefly 
the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean.  They 
have  minute  alternate  simple  leaves  and 
usually  small  white  or  pink  flowers  in 
terminal  spikes.  They  are  all  more  or 
less  astringent,  and  their  ashes  after 
burning  are  remarkable  for  possessing  a 
large  quantity  of  sulphate  of  soda.  See 
Tamart€k, 

Tamarin  (tamyrin),  the  name  of 
^^^  certain      South      American 

monkeys.  The  tamarins  are  active,  rest- 
less, and  irritable  little  creatures,  two  of 
the  smallest  being  the  silkv  tamarin  (Mi- 
daM  roialia)  and  the  little  lion  monkey 
XAf*  leonina)^  the  latter  of  which,  though 


Tamanlipas  (JArya-ji-isrp&s)  astate 

A«Kux»«AXAj^c»o  ^j  Mexico,  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  north  of  Vera  Crux;  area, 
32,270  sauare  miles.  The  coast  is  low, 
but  in  the  interior,  towards  the  south, 
the  surface  becomes  finely  diversified  by 
mountain,  hill,  and  valley.  The  soil  is 
generally  fertile.  Cattle  in  vast  numbers 
are  reared  on  the  pastures.  The  foreign 
trade  is  carried  on  chiefly  at  the  ports  of 
Tampico  and  Matamoros.  The  capital  is 
Ciudad  Victoria.    Pop.  218,048. 

Tambookieland.  ^^  Ttmhuicnd. 


Tambourine  iTiMS'^t  Vrhl" 


drum  species, 
much  used 
among  the 
Spanish  and 
Italian  peasants, 
as  well  as  else- 


Tambouiiw. 


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Tambour-work 


Tana 


where.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  parch- 
ment stretched  over  the  top  of  a  broad 
hoop,  which  is  furnished  with  little  bells. 
It  is  sounded  by  sliding  the  fingers  along 
the  parchment  or  by  striking  it  with 
the  back  of  the  hand  or  with  the  fist  or 
the  elbow. 

Tambonr-work  /^^^Trf-a  tel 

a  species  of  embroidery  on  muslin  or 
other  thin  material,  worked  on  circular 
frames  which  resemble  drum-heads. 
The  practice  of  tambouring  is  rapidly 
dying  out,  being  replaced  by  pattern- 
weaving,  by  which  tambour-work  can  be 
closely  imitated. 

TumliAir  (t&m-bof'),  a  government  of 
XamDOY    ^^1^    ^^^  •f  Nijni-Nov- 

gorod  and  Vladimir,  between  the  basins 
of  the  Oka  and  the  Don ;  area,  25,676  sq. 
miles.  It  is  one  of  the  largest,  most  fer- 
tile, and  most  densely  peopled  provinces 
of  Central  Russia.  More  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  surface  is  arable.  The 
principal  crops  are  com  and  hemp.  Vast 
numbers  of  excellent  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep  are  reared.  The  chief  industrial 
establishments  are  distilleries,  tallow- 
melting  works,  sugar  works,  and  woolen 
mills.  Pop.  3i205;200.—  Tambov,  the 
capital,  2^  miles  southeast  of  Moscow, 
is  built  mostly  of  wood.  It  has  a  great 
trade  in  corn  and  cattle,  and  soap  and 
tallow  are  largely  made.  Pop.  60,729. 
Tamerlane  (tam-er-lan).     See      Ti- 

TamiaS   (^™'*'*^8)«    See  SqutrreU 

Tamil  (^aQ^'^D*  the  name  of  a  race 
AcuuxA  ^iii^jh  Inhabits  South  India  and 
Ceylon.  The  Tamils  belong  to  the  Dravid- 
ian  stock  of  the  inhabitants  of  India, 
and  are  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  among 
the  original  inhabitants  who  occupied  the 
country  before  the  Aryan  invasion  from 
the  north,  but  they  adopted  the  higher 
civilization  of  the  Aryans.  The  Tamil 
language  is  spoken  not  only  in  South 
India  and  Ceylon,  but  also  by  a  majority 
of  the  Indian  settlers  in  places  farther 
east,  as  Pegu  and  Penang.  There  is  an 
extensive  literature,  the  greater  part  of  it 
in  verse.  Among  the  chief  works  are 
the  Rural  of  Tiruvalluvar,  an  ethical 
poem,  and  the  Tamil  adaptation  of  the 
Sanskrit  Ratnayana. 

Tamise  <^-™^]v  S^  manufacturin| 
ACMUAw  town  of  Belgium,  province  of 
B.  Flanders,  on  the  Scheldt  Fop.  12,463. 

Tam  O'Shanter,  *^®  hero  of  Burns's 
i&.cMu  w  MUMuwAy    poem  of  the  same 

name;  also  a  cap  with  a  close-fitting  rim 
and  large,  flat  top,  usually  with  a  knob 
or  tassel  in  the  center;  in  Scotland,  a 
tight-fitting  woolen  cap  or  a  braid  bonnet 
2—10 


Tammany  <*^A*"J^^'u«  ^^^^'^^^^  ^^^ 

"^•^  or  Columbian  Order, 
formed  in  New  York  city  in  1789,  as  a 
counterweight  to  the  so-called  'aristo- 
cratic' Society  of  the  Cincinnati;  deriv- 
ing its  name  from  a  noted  friendly  Dela- 
ware chief  named  Tammany,  who  had 
been  canonized  by  the  soldiers  of  the 
Revoluti<m  as  the  patron  saint  of  Amer- 
ica. The  grand  sachem  and  13  sachems 
were  intended  to  typify  the  President  and 
the  governors  of  the  13  original  states. 
It  was  organized  for  social  and  benevo- 
lent purposes,  but  always  had  a 
political  character.  Always  essentially 
Democratic,  it  represented  the  distrust 
of  Hamilton's  aristocratic  policy.  It  is 
the  leading  political  mainspring  of  New 
York  politics. 

Tflmmv  ^'^^^s>  Taminb,  or  Taminy, 
A9»*uMM.jf   ^  j^jj^  ^j  woolen  cloth  highly 

glazed,  used  for  makins  fine  sieves  em- 
ployed in  cooking,  which  are  also  called 
tammies.  It  is  also  used  under  the  names 
of  lasting  and  durant  for  ladies'  boots. 
TuinTiil.  (tam'pA),  a  port  of  Florida. 
J.ampa  ^jusboro  CoTon  the  Guli 
Coast;  a  rising  business  center,  the  ter- 
minus of  three  railways,  and  the  point  of 
departure  of  steamers  for  various  ports. 
Among  its  places  of  interest  are  De  Soto 
Park  and  the  Convent  of  Holy  Names. 
Here  are  large  cigar  factories  and  lumber 
mills  and  it  is  an  important  shipping 
point  for  naval  stores,  fruits,  fish,  and 
cattle.  It  has  become  a  favorite  winter 
resort  Pop.  37,782;  including  suburbs, 
52,000. 

T<LTnTiir»n  (tim-pe^kd),  a  seaport  town 
AampiCO  ^j  Mexico,  in  the  state  of 
Tamaulipas,  in  the  extreme  south,  5  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Panuco.  On  ac- 
count of  a  bar  the  harbor  is  not  accessi- 
ble for  large  vessels;  nevertheless,  the 
trade  is  considerable.  Strong  fibers  used 
in  place  of  bristles  for  brushes,  are  ex- 
ported from  there.  Pop.  17,569. 
Tflmfini  (t&m-sS'e),  a  town  of  China, 
Acuuotu.  f gland  of  Formosa,  One  of 
the  treaty  ports,  with  a  trade  in  tea. 
Pop.  about  100,000. 

Tom.funi  o^  Tom-tom,  a  cylindrical 
Xam-l»m,  drum  used  in  the  East 
Indies.  It  is  beaten  upon  with  the  fin- 
gers, or  with  the  open  hand.  Public  no- 
tices, when  proclaimed  in  the  bazaars  of 
Eastern  towns,  are  generally  accompanied 
by  the  tam-tam. 

Tana  (t&'nft),  (1)  a  river  in  the  ex- 
AooAA  lYeme  north  of  Norway,  forming 
part  of  the  boundary  between  it  and  Rus- 
sia. (2)  A  river  of  B.  Africa,  within 
the  British  'sphere  of  influence,'  risine 
in  Mount  Kenia,  navigable  for  about  100 
miles  in  the  rainy  season. 


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Tanagers 


Tangier 


Tan  fleers  ^  ^*'*'  *  "  ^*"  h  passerine 
i&.c»uc»5^xo  bir^g^  genus  Tana^ra,  fam- 
ily Fringillide,  or  finches,  distinguished 
by  the  bill  being  of  triangular  shape  at  its 
base  and  arched  towards  its  tip,  and  re* 
markable  for  their  bright  colors.  They 
are  chiefly  found  in  the  tropical  parts  of 
America. 

Tanagra  Figurines,  l^^^^  ^^^ 

ra-cotta  statuettes  and  reliefs,  first  found 
in  1888  in  the  necropolis  of  Tanagra, 
Greece,  but  since  found  elsewhere  in 
Greece.  They  date  from  about  40O  B.c.» 
though  some  of  them  are  prehistoric 

Tanais.    ®^  ^^' 

TananariVO.      ®®®  Antananarivo. 

TtLTiort^A    (tanlcred),  son  of  the  Mar- 

Bmma,  the  sister  of  Robert  Guiscard, 
bom  in  1078,  was  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous heroes  of  the  first  Crusade.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  tlie  siege  of 
Nic«a  (1097),  at  the  battle  of  Dory- 
lieum  (July,  1097),  at  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem  (July,  1099),  and  at  Ascalon 
(August  12),  and  was  appointed  by  God- 
frey de  Bouillon  Prince  of  Galilee.  He 
died  in  1112,  in  his  thirty-fifth  year,  of  a 
wound  received  at  Antioch.  He  is  repre- 
sented by  Tasso  in  the  Jerutalem  De- 
livered as  the  flower  and  pattern  of  chiv- 
alry. 

Tatiait  (tft'ne),  Rooeb  Bbooke,  Jurist, 
xaucjr  ^j^  in  Calvert  Co.,  Maryland, 
in  1777.  He  was  graduated  from  Dickin- 
son Ck>llege,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1799,  and  elected  to  the  Maryland  Senate 
in  1816.  In  1831  he  became  Attorney- 
General  of  the  United  Sutes,  and  in  1836 
was  appointed  to  succeed  John  Marshall 
as  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court,  a  position  which  he  held 
until  his  death  in  1864.  The  most  fa- 
mous of  his  decisions  is  that  in  the  Dred 
Scott  case,  denying  freedom  to  a  slave 
going  into  a  free  State,  an  incident  used 
effectively  in   the  antislavery  movement 

Tanganyika  o^&^'ilSL'afiitJj 

to  the  south  of  Lake  Albert  Nyanza.  It 
extends  from  about  S""  25'  to  S""  40^  s.  lat., 
and  from  29«  20'  to  32«  20'  E.  Ion.  It 
is  420  miles  long,  has  an  average  breadth 
of  about  30  miles,  and  is  2700  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  basin  in  which 
it  lies  is  inclosed  by  an  almost  continuous 
series  of  hills  and  mountains.  It  is  fed 
by  numerous  rivers  and  streamlets,  and 
discharges  by  the  river  Lukuga  into  the 
CJongo.  There  are  several  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  stations  on  Tanganyika, 
and  Ml  the  eastern  shore  is  the  Arab 


town  of  Ujiji.  A  carriage-road,  210 
miles,  runs  to  Nyassa.  Tanganyika  was 
discovered  by  Speke  and  Burton  in  1858. 

Tangent  iKrL^h'ira^ 

or  meets  a  circle  or  curve  in  one  point, 
and  which  being  produced  does  not  cut 
it;  a  straight  line  drawn  at  right  angles 
to  the  diameter  of  a  circle,  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  it,  as  HA  in  figure,  which  be- 
ing continued  at  A,  would  merely  touch 
and  not  cut  the  circle.  In  trigonometry 
the  tangent  of  an  arc  is  a  straight  line 
touching  the  circle  of  which  the  arc  is  a 
part,  at  one  extremity  of  the  arc,  and 
B  meeting  the  diameter  i>as8- 
'  ing  through  the  other  ex- 
tremity. Thus  AH  is  the 
tangent  of  the  arc  A  B,  and 
it  is  also  said  to  be  the 
^tangent  of  the  angle  a  on, 
^of  which  AB  is  the  meas- 
ure. The  arc  and  its  tang- 
ent have  always  a  certain 
relation  to  each  other;  and 
when  the  one  is  given  in  parts  of  the 
radius,  the  other  can  always  be  computed. 
For  trigonometrical  purposes  tangents  for 
every  arc  from  0  degrees  to  90  degrees, 
as  well  as  sines,  cosines,  etc,  have  been 
calculated  with  reference  to  a  radius  of 
a  certain  length,  and  these  or  their 
logarithms  formed  into  tables.  In  the 
higher  geometry  the  word  tangent  is  not 
limited  to  straight  lines,  but  is  also  ap- 
plied to  curves  in  contact  with  other 
curves,  and  also  to  surfaces. 
Tancr'hiTi  (tang'gin;  Tanghinia  vene- 
Aaugmn  ^f^^  ^  tree  of  Mada- 
^ascar,  nat  order  Apocynaces,  bear- 
mg  a  fruit  the  kernel  of  which,  about  the 
size  of  an  almond,  is  highly  poisonous. 
Trial  by  tanghin  was  formerly  used  in 
Madagascar  as  a  test  of  the  guilt  or  in- 
nocence of  a  suspected  criminal.  The 
person  undergoing  the  ordeal  was  required 
to  swallow  a  small  portion  of  the  kemeL 
If  his  stomach  rejected  it  he  was  deemed 
innocent,  but  if  he  died,  as  happened  in 
most  cases,  he  was  deemed  to  have  de- 
served his  fate  and  suffered  the  punish- 
ment of  his  crime. 
ToTicnpr    (tan'jSr),  a  seaport  of  Mo- 

raltar.  It  stands  on  two  heights  near  a 
spacious  bay,  and  presents  a  very  striking 
appearance  from  the  sea,  rising  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheater,  and  defended 
by  walls  and  a  castle.  Tangier  is  almost 
destitute  of  manufactures.  The  hatbor 
is  a  mere  roadstead,  but  there  is  a  large 
trade.  In  1662  Tangier  was  annexed  to 
the  English  crown  as  part  of  the  dowry 
of  the  Infanta  of  Portugal,  the  wife  of 
King   Charles   II,   but   in   1684  it  waa 


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Tanner  Tanning 

trated  a  very  large  army  for  the  recon-  tlie  voice  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  whom  he 
quest  of  East  Prussia.  hears  calling  upon  him  to  return.    The 

General  Samsonoff,  who  had  been  in  goddess  allows  him  to  depart,  when  he 
command  of  the  southern  army,  pressed  hastens  to  Rome  to  seek  from  the  pope 
on  through  Allensteia,  with  intent  to  (Pope  Urban)  absolution  for  his  sins, 
reach  the  Vistula.  To  succeed  in  this  it  The  pope,  however,  when  he  knows  the 
was  necessary  to  pass  through  a  belt  of  extent  of  the  knight's  guilt,  declares  to 
diflScult  country,  abounding  in  lakes,  him  that  it  is  as  impossible  for  him  to 
marshes,  and  woods  around  Osterode,  obtain  pardon  as  it  is  for  the  wand  which 
Tannenberg,  and  Eylau.  he  holds  in  his  hand  to  bud  and  bring 

It  was  here  that  Hindenburg  with  his  forth  green  leaves.  Despairing,  the 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  swampy  land  knight  retires  from  the  presence  of  the 
gave  battle  to  the  Russians.  The  Battle  pointiff,  and  enters  the  Venusberg  once 
of  Tannenberg  lasted  three  days,  and  a  more.  Meanwhile  the  pope's  wand  ac- 
quarter  of  a  million  men  were  in  action  tually  begins  to  sprout,  and  the  pope,  tak- 
on  each  side.  On  the  30th  of  August  the  ing  this  as  a  sign  from  God  that  there 
Russian  flank  was  turned,  and  the  en-  was  still  an  opi>ortunity  of  salvation  for 
veloping  movement  was  carried  on  during  the  knight,  hastilv  sends  messengers  into 
the  night.  On  the  31st  the  collapse  of  all  lands  to  seek  for  him.  But  Tannbftu- 
the  line  began.  As  the  Russians  gave  ser  is  never  again  seen.  The  Tannha.u- 
way  under  the  converging  pressure  of  ser  legend  has  been  treated  poetically  by 
front  and  flank  attacks  they  found  that  it  Tieck,  and  Richard  Wagner  has  adopted 
was  a  difficult  matter  to  extricate  them-  it  (with  modifications)  as  the  subject  of 
selves  from  the  wilderness  of  woods,  lakes   one  of  his  operas. 

and  marshes  in  which  they  had  given  bat-  TaiiTiir*  AniH  (tan'ik),  or  TAiaaw,  a 
tie.  Throe  Russian  generals  fell  in  the  AaiiA^v  a^iu  peculiar  acid  which  ex- 
final  struggle:  Samsonoff,  Postitsch.  and  ists  in  every  part  of  all  species  of  oaks, 
Martos.  The  Germans  claimed  that  of  especially  in  the  bark,  but  is  found  in 
the  five  army  corps  which  formed  the  en-  greatest  quantity  in  gall-nuts.  Tannic 
emy's  main  battle  line  they  destroyed  acid,  when  pure,  is  nearly  white,  and  not 
three  and  a  half.  It  was  the  most  com-  at  all  crystalline.  It  is  very  soluble  in 
plete  victory  won  by  the  Germans  in  the  water,  and  has  a  most  astringent  taste, 
openinf:  phase  of  the  war  and  resulted  in  without  bitterness.  It  derives  its  name 
a  preciijitate  evacuation  of  East  Prussia  from  its  property  of  combining  with  the 
by  the  invaders.  Rennenkampf  fought  a  skins  of  animals  and  converting  them  into 
heroic  rearguard  action,  falling  back  by  leather,  or  tanning  them.  It  is  the  active 
way  of  Gumbinnen,  recrossing  the  fron-  principle  in  almost  all  astringent  vegeta- 
tier  and  retreating  to  the  Niemen,  where  ties,  and  is  used  in  medicine  in  preference 
large  reinforcements  awaited.  to  mineral  astringents,  because  free  from 

Tanner     Henby    Ossawa    (18d9-     ).   irritant  and  poisonous  action.    The  name 
>    an  American  painter,  son  of   is  generally  applied  to  a  mixture  of  sev- 
Benjamin  Tucker  Tanner,  bishop  of  the  ^^\  substances. 

African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  He  Tqhtiitio*  (tan'ing),  the  operation  of 
was  bom  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  began  xa»iixu^  converting  the  raw  hides 
his  studies  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  an^  gfeing  of  animals  into  leather  by  ef- 
of  Fine  Arts  under  Thomas  Eakms ;  later  fecting  a  chemical  combination  between 
a  pnml  of  Jean  Paul  Laurens  and  Benja-  ^jj^  gelatine  of  which  they  principally  con- 
min  Constant  of  Paris.  He  specializ<^  m  gjgt  ^nd  the  astringent  vegetable  principle 
religious  subjects.  He  is  represented  in  called  tannic  acid  or  tannin.  The  object 
the  Luxembourg  (  Raising  of  Lazarus  ),  ^f  ^he  tanning  process  is  to  produce  such 
the  Wilstach  Collection,  Philadelphia  a  chemical  change  in  skins  as  may  render 
(/Annunciation*),  Carnegie  Institute  ^hem  unalterable  by  those  agents  whiah 
(*Chnst  at  the  Home  of  Mary  and  Mar-  tend  to  decompose  them  in  their  natural 
Vi^'rJ^^T^^^  9^^^1  m^  J??^^SJ®  state,  and  in  connecUon  with  the  subse- 
(*TheTwoDiscinlesattheTomb  ).  He  q^ent  operations  of  currying  or  dressing 
IS  an  Associate  of  the  National  Academy.  J,  5^5^^  ^jj^m  jn^o  ^  state  of  pjiability 
TaiiTiA-p'a  QnTnonli  See  Coriaria.  and  impermeability  to  water  which  may 
xaniicr  5  oiuuiiuii.  adapt  them  for  the  many  useful  purposes 

TflTiTiTionaAr  (t&n'hoi-z*r),  or  Tan-  to  which  leather  is  applied.  The  larger 
**"^***^*^*  hXuseb,  in  old  German  and  heavier  skins  subjected  to  the  tannmg 
legend,  a  knight  who  gains  admission  process,  as  those  of  buffaloes,  bulls,  oxen, 
into  a  hill  called  the  Venusberg,  in  the  and  cows,  are  technieally  called  Mdet; 
inte-ior  of  which  Venus  holds  her  court  while  those  of  smaller  animals,  as  calves, 
and  who  for  a  long  time  remains  buned  sheep,  and  goats,  are  called  tkim.  la 
in  sdnsual  pleasures,  but  at  last  listens  to  preparing  the  hides  and  skins  for  tanning 


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Tanreo 


Taoism 


they  are  subjected  to  certain  operations 
already  described  uader  Leather,  after 
which  the  tanning  proper  begins.  The 
Tarious  substances  used  for  tanning  are 
oak,  fir,  mimosa,  and  hemlock  bark,  su- 
mach, m^robalans,  divi-divi,  yalonia-nuts. 
cutch,  kmo,  gambir,  and  oak-galls  —  all 
of  which  contain  tannin.  The  impregna- 
tion of  the  hides  with  this  tannin  may 
be  effected  either  by  placing  them  be- 
tween layers  of  bark  (oak  bark  being  the 
best)  in  a  vat  filled  with  water,  or  steep- 
ing them  m  a  liquor  containing  a  small 
at  first,  but  steadily  increasing  propor- 
tion of  tannin  throughout  a  series  of  pits. 
This  liquor  usually  consists  of  water  in 
which  the  ground  or  crushed  tanning 
material  has  been  steeped.  The  raw  bida 
takes  about  a  year  to  prepare  it  for  the 
best  quality  of  leather.  There  is  also  a 
process  called  iawinp^  which  is  employed 
chiefly  in  the  preparation  of  the  skins  of 
sheep,  lambs,  goats,  and  kids.  In  this 
process  the  skins  are  steeped  in  a  bath 
of  alum,  salt,  and  other  substances,  and 
they  are  also  sometimes  soaked  in  fish-oil. 
The  more  delicate  leathers  are  treated  in 
this  manner,  those  especially  which  are 
used  for  wash-leathers,  kid  gloves,  etc 
After  the  leather  is  tanned  it  is  finished 
for  use  by  the  process  of  currying  (which 
see).  Various  improvements  have  been 
attempted  to  be  made  in  the  art  of  tan- 
ning, such  as  the  preparation  of  the  skins 
by  means  of  metaillic  solutions  instead  of 
by  vegetable  tan-liquor;  the  forced  ab- 
sorption of  the  tan  by  applying  pressure 
between  cylinders;  and  the  preparation 
of  the  skins  by  a  chemical  agent,  so  as  to 
induce  a  quicker  absorption  of  the  tan. 
It  has  been  found,  however,  that  the  slow 
process  followed  by  the  old  tanners  pro- 
duces leather  far  superior  to  that  pro- 
duced by  the  new  and  more  rapid 
methods,  though  a  fair  leather  for  certain 
purposes  may  be  produced  in  five  to  ten 
weeke. 

Tflnrec  (tan'rek),  or  Tenbbo  (Cen- 
*^  Uies),  a  genus  of  insectivo- 
rous mammals,  resembling  in  outward  ap- 
pearance the  European  hedgehog,  thev 
being  covered  with  bristles  about  an  inch 
in  length.  These  animals  inhabit  Mada- 
gascar. They  hibernate  like  the  Euro- 
pean hedgehog,  and  live  in  burrows, 
which  they  excavate  by  means  of  their 
strong  claws. 

TanSV  i^^'^^*  Tanadtum  vulg§re)t  is 
A,mLoj  ^  well-known  plant,  being 
abundant  throughout  Europe  and  natural- 
ized in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  tall 
Slant,  With  divided  leaves  and  button-like 
eads  of  yellow  flowers.  Every  part  of 
the  plant  is  bitter,  and  it  is  considered  as 
tonic  and   anthelmintic*   tansy-tea   being 


an  old  popular  medicine.  It  is  now  cul- 
tivated in  gardens  mainly  for  the  young 
leaves,  which  are  shredded  down  and  em- 
ployed to  flavor  puddings,  cakes,  etc. 
Tantfl.  (tftn'ta),  a  town  of  Lower 
Egypt,  situated  on  the  railway 
about  50  miles  n.  of  Cairo.  It  has  many 
large  public  buildings,  besides  a  palace  of 
the  Khedive,  and  is  celebrated  in  connec- 
tion with  the  great  Moslem  saint  Seyyid- 
el-Bedawi,  to  whom  a  mosque  is  here 
erected.  Tanta  has  three  great  annual 
fairs,  which  are  held  in  January,  April, 
and  August;  and  at  the  latter  500,000  per- 
sons are  said  to  congregate  from  the  sur- 
rounding countries.  Pop.  (1907)  54,437. 
TAntfllniII  (tan'ta-lum),  a  rare  me- 
AAuvcuiuu  tuiji^j  element  discovered 
in  the  Swedish  minerals  tanta  lite  and 
yttro-tantalite ;  chemical  symbol  Ta,  atom- 
ic weight  182.  It  was  long  believed  to 
be  identical  with  ntobtum,  but  their  sepa- 
rate identity  has  been  established. 
Tantalus  (tan'ta-lus),  in  (Jreek  my- 
*•*    "^  thology.  a  son  of  Zeus,  and 

king  of  Phrygia,  Lydia,  Argos  or  Corinth, 
who  was  admitted  to  the  table  of  the  gods, 
but  who  had  forfeited  their  favor  either 
by  betrayine  their  secrets,  stealing  am- 
brosia from  heaven,  or  presenting  to  them 
his  murdered  son  Pelops  as  food.  His 
punishment  consisted  in  being  placed  in 
a  lake  whose  waters  receded  from  his  lips 
when  he  attempted  to  drink,  and  of  be- 
ing tempted  by  delicious  fruit  overhead 
which  withdrew  when  he  attempted  to  eat. 
Moreover,  a  huge  rock  forever  threat- 
ened to  fall  and  crush  him. 

Tantalus,  l,  «frbet„'tm?.,''1? 

loeulator  is  the  wood-ibis  of  America, 
which  frequents  extensive  swamps,  where 
it  feeds  on  serpents,  young  alligators, 
frogs,  and  other  reptiles.  The  African 
tantalus  (T.  ibis)  was  long  regarded  as 
the  ancient  Egyptian  ibis,  but  it  is  rare 
in  Egypt,  belonging  chiefly  to  Senegal, 
and  is  much  larger  than  the  true  ibis. 
ToTifroa  (tan^tras),  a  name  of  certain 
X  an  bras  Sanskrit  sacred  books,  each 
of  which  has  the  form  of  a  dialogue  be- 
tween Siva  and  his  wife.  The  tantras 
are  much  more  recent  productions  than 
the  Yedas,  the  oldest  being  long  posterior 
even  to  the  Christian  era,  although  their 
believers  regard  them  as  a  fifth  Veda,  of 
equal  antiquity  and  higher  authority. 
The  Tantrikas,  or  followers  of  the  tan- 
tras, indulge  in  mystical  and  impure  rites 
in  honor  of  Siva. 

TflniSTn  or  Taouism  (t&'5-izm,  tou'- 
xauism,  j^jjj)^  ^  religious  system 
formed  in  China  by  Lao-tse.  He  taught 
a  comparatively  pure  morality,  but  in  its 
later   developments    his   doctrine   is    too 


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Taormina 


Tape-worms 


often  associated  with  magical  rites  and 
superstitious  observances.  See  Lao-tze, 
Taormina.  ^  tA-or-me'nA  ),  a  town, 
xuurmiua  province  of  Messina,  Sicily, 
on  Monte  Tauro,  overlooking  the  Strait 
of  Messina.  Its  chief  interest  is  in  the 
ancient  theater,  sepulchers,  reservoirs, 
etc.,  which  are  still  in  good  preservation. 
It  is  a  favorite  place  of  resort  for  travel- 
ers.   Pop.  4351. 

Taos  (^'^")>  ^h^  name  of  a  district 
A.i»vo  jjjj^  town  of  New  Mexico,  about 
50  miles  N.  of  Santa  F^  watered  by  the 
Rio  de  Taos,  a  tributary  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  Here  is  a  fine  example  of  the 
pueblo  Indian  architecture,  of  prehistoric 
date,  yet  still  inhabited  by  a  large  num- 
ber of  Indians.  This  was  the  seat  of  the 
first  Territorial  government,  was  the  resi- 
dence of  Kit  Carson  and  Colonel  Burt, 
and  has  now  a  town  of  about  500  inhabi- 
tants, a  market-place  for  the  Indian 
farmers  surrounding. 

ToTiflina  (t&-p&-zh6s'),  a  river  of  Bra- 
J.li|iajUB  jjj^  ^|jj^.j^  g^^g  through  the 

province  of  Para,  and  enters  the  Amazon 
after  a  northward  course  of  nearly  1200 
miles. 

Tanestrv  (tap'es-tri),  a  kind  of 
"J'  woven  hangings  of  wool  and 
silk,  often  enriched  with  gold  and  silver, 
with  worked  designs,  representing  fig- 
ures of  men,  animals,  landscapes,  etc, 
and  formerly  much  used  for  lining  or 
covering  the  walls  and  furniture  of  apart- 
ments, churches,  etc.  Tapestry  is  made 
by  a  process  intermediate  between  weav- 
ing and  embroidery^  being  worked  in  a 
web  with  needles  mstead  of  a  shuttle. 
Short  lengths  of  thread  of  the  special 
colors  required  for  the  design  are  worked 
in  at  the  necessary  places  and  fastened 
at  the  back  of  the  texture.  In  Flanders, 
particularly  at  Arras  (whence  the  term 
arra%t  signifying  'tapestry*),  during  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  the  art 
was  practiced  with  uncommon  skill. 
The  art  of  weaving  tapestry  was  intro- 
duced into  England  near  the  end  of 
Henry  VII I *s  reign.  During  the  reign 
of  James  I  a  manufactory  was  estab- 
lished at  Mortlake.  which  continued  till 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Recently  a  royal  school  of  tapestry  has 
been  established  at  Windsor,  and  some 
excellent  work  has  been  done  by  Mr.  W. 
Morris  at  Merton  (Surrey).  The  first 
manufacture  of  tapestry  at  Paris  was  set 
up  under  Henry  IV,  in  1606  or  1607,  by 
several  artists  whom  that  monarch  in- 
vited from  Flanders.  But  the  most  cele- 
brated of  all  the  European  tapestry 
manufactures  was  that  of  the  Qobelins, 
instituted  under  Louis  XIV.  (See 
B^titum  Taputry  ancl  Qohelin%  Manufao- 


iory,)  The  term  tape»iry  is  also  ap- 
plied to  a  variety  of  woven  fabrics  hav- 
ing a  multiplicity  of  colors  in  their 
design,  which,  however,  have  no  other 
characteristic  of  true  tapestry.  The 
name  of  tapestry  carpet  is  given  to  a 
showy  and  cheap  two-ply  or  ingrain 
carpet,  the  warp  or  weft  being  pnnted 
before  weaving  so  as  to  produce  the  fig- 
ure in  the  cloth. 

Taneti  (tapVti),  the  Brazilian  hare, 
*  P  *  the  Lepun  BrasilieMis,  the  only 
bare  inhabiting  South  America. 
Tape-worms,  tli«  name  common  to 
***P^  wvxAAio,  certain  internal  para- 
sites (Entozoa)  constituting  the  order 
Cestoidea  or  Tsniada  of  the  sub-kingdom 
Annuloida,  found  in  the  mature  state  in 
the  alimenta^  canal  of  warm-blooded 
vertebrates.  Tape-worms  are  composed 
of  a  number  of  flattened  joints  or  seg- 
ments, the  anterior  of  which,  or  head 
(which  is  the  true  animal),  is  furnished 
with  a  circlet  of  hooks  or  suckers,  which 
enable  it  to  mahitaui  its  hold  on  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  intestines  of 
its  host.  The  other  segments,  called 
proglottidea,  are  simply  generative  organs 
budded  off  by  the  head,  the  oldest  being 
furthest  removed  from  it,  and  each  con- 
taining when  mature  male  and  female 
organs.  The  tape-worm  has  neither 
mouth  nor  digestive  organs,  nutrition  be- 
in^  effected  by  absorption  through  the 
skin.  The  length  of  the  animal  varies 
from  a  few  inches  to  several  yards.  The 
ova  do  not  undergo  development  in  the 
animal  in  which  the  adult  exists.  They 
require  to  be  swallowed  by  some  other 
warm-blooded  vertebrate,  the  ripe  prog- 
lottides being  expelled  from  the  bowel 
of  the  host  with  all  their  contained  ova 
fertilized.  The  segments  or  profflottides 
decompose  and  liberate  the  ova,  which  are 
covered  with  a  capsule.  After  being 
swallowed  the  capsule  bursts  and  an 
embryo,  called  a  proscolew,  is  liberated. 
This  embryo,  by  means  of  spines,  perfo- 
rates the  tissues  of  some  contiguous 
organ,  or  of  a  blood-vessel,  in  the  latter 
case  being  carried  by  the  blood  to  some 
solid  part  of  the  body,  as  the  liver  or 
brain,  where  it  surrounds  itself  with  a 
cvst,  and  develops  a  vesicle  containing  a 
fluid.  It  is  now  called  a  scolew  or 
hydatidt  and  formerly  was  known  as  the 
cystic  worm.  The  scolex  is  incapable  of 
further  development  till  swallowed  and 
received  a  second  time  into  the  alimen- 
tary canal  of  a  warm-blooded  vertebrate. 
Here  it  becomes  the  head  of  the  true 
tape-worm,  from  which  proglottides  are 
developed  posteriorly  by  gemmation,  and 
we  have  the  adult  animal  with  which  the 
cycle  begins.    Eight  true  tape-worms  oc- 


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Tapioca 


Tar 


car  in  man,  Ttsnia  toliifm,  the  cystic 
fonn  of  ^hich  produces  the  measles  of 
the  pig,  l>eing  the  most  common.  An- 
other, T*  mediocanellataf  is  developed 
from  the  scolex,  which  causes  measles  in 
the  ox.  The  tape-worm  of  the  dog,  T. 
Berrat€k,  is  the  adult  form  of  the  scolex 
which  produces  staggers  in  sheep.  T. 
Eehinaooccus  of  the  dog  produces  hydatids 
in  man,  through  the  development  in  man 
of  its  immature  young.  In  all  cases  the 
only  conclusive  sign  of  tape-worm  ia 
the  passage  of  one  or  part  of  one  in  the 
fnces.  One  mode  of  treatment  for  this 
disorder  is,  for  an  adult,  a  teaspoonful 
of  the  extract  of  male-fern.  A  few  hours 
thereafter  a  strong  dose  of  castor-oil 
should  be  taken. 
TftDlOCfl.   (tap-i-Olui),     a     farinaceous 

^  substance  prepared  from  cas- 

sava meal,  which,  while  moist  or  damp, 
has  been  heated  for  the  purpose  of  dry- 
ing it  on  hot  plates.  By  this  treatment 
the  starch-grains  swell,  many  of  them 
burst,  and  the  whole  agglomerates  in 
small  irregular  masses  or  lumps.  In 
boiling  water  it  swells  up  and  forms  a 
viscous  jelly-like  mass.  See  Cassava, 
TftDir    C^'P^^)*  the  name  of  ungulate 

-'^  or  hoofed  animals  forming  the 
family  Tapirids.  The  nose  resembles  a 
short  fleshy  proboscis;  there  are  four 
toes  to  the  fore-feet,  and  three  to  the 
hind  ones.  The  common  South  Ameri- 
can tapir  (Tapirus  americanus)  is  the 
sixe  of  a  small  ass.  with  a  brown  skin, 
nearly  naked.  It  inhabits  forests,  lives 
much  in  the  water,  conceals  itself  during 
the  day,  and  feeds  on  vegetable  sub- 
stances.   There  are  several  other  Ameri- 


HaUy  Tapir  (TapTrtM  malayantu). 

can  species.  The  T.  malayanuB  or  {»- 
dicu9  is  found  in  the  forests  of  Malacca 
and  Sumatra.  It  is  larger  than  the 
American  species,  and  is  a  most  conspicu- 
ous animal  from  the  white  back,  rump, 
and  belly  contrasting  so  stronglv  with  the 
deep  sooty  black  of  the  rest  of  the  body 
as,  at  a  little  distance,  to  give  it  the 
aspect  of  being  muffled  up  in  a  white 
■beet.    Fossil      tapirs      are      scattered 


throughout  Europe,  and  among  them  is 
a  gieantic  species,  T.  giganteuM,  Cuvier, 
which  in  size  must  have  nearly  equaled 
the  elephant. 

TaBBin?  (tap'ing),  or  Pabacente'- 
*'!'***&  SIS,  a  surgical  operation 
commonly  ];>erformed  for  dropsy,  but  also 
for  empyema,  and  for  the  relief  of  other 
morbid  efitusions  in  natural  or  accidental 
cavities  of  the  body.  It  consists  in 
piercing  the  wall  of  the  cavity  with  an 
Instrument,  commonly  a  trocar  or  a 
bistoury.  The  fluid  usually  flows  out, 
but  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  use  an 
instrument  which  acts  as  a  syringe. 
Taprobane  (ta-prob'a-n§),  the  an- 
A«.^j.vM«.A&^  cient  name  of  Ceylon. 
See  Ceylon, 

TflTifi  or  Taptee  (tip'te),  a  river  in 
xupu,  Hindustan,  rises  in  the  Ner- 
budda  division  of  the  Central  Provinces, 
and  after  a  course  of  about  460  miles 
falls  by  several  mouths  into  the  Gulf 
of  Cambay,  20  miles  below  Surat  and 
30  miles  south  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Nerbudda. 

Taqua-nut  (^^-^^T^  A'^mS^ 

tree  PhyieUphas  macrocarpa,  known 
under  the  name  of  vegetable  ivory.  The 
fruit  is  as  large  as  a  man's  head  and 
contains  numerous  nuts  of  a  somewhat 
triangular  form,  each  as  large  as  a  hen's 
egg.  When  ripe  they  are  exceedingly 
hard  and  white,  resembling  ivory  very 
closely  and  being  used  for  similar  pur- 
poses. 

Tar  (^^)*  a  thick,  dark-colored,  viscid 
*  product  obtained  by  the  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  organic  substances  and 
bituminous  minerals,  as  wood,  coal,  peat, 
shale,  etc.  Wood-tar,  such  as  the 
Archangel,  Stockholm,  and  American 
tars  of  commerce,  is  obtained  by  burning 
billets  of  wood  slowly  in  a  conical  cavity 
at  the  bottom  of  which  is  a  cast-iron  pan 
into  which  the  tar  exudes.  Wood-tar  is 
also  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the 
destructive  distillation  of  wood  for  the 
manufacture  of  wood-vinegar  (pyrolig- 
neous  acid)  and  wood-spirit  (methyl 
alcohol).  It  has  an  acid  reaction,  and 
contains  various  liquid  matters,  of  which 
the  principal  are  methyl-acetate,  acetone, 
hydrocarbons  of  the  benzene  series,  and 
a  number  of  oxidized  compounds,  as 
carbolic  acid.  Paraffin,  anthracene, 
naphthalene,  chrysene,  etc.,  are  found 
among  its  solid  products.  It  possesses 
valuable  antiseptic  properties,  owing  to 
the  creasote  it  contains,  and  is  used  ex- 
tensively for  coating  and  preserving 
timber,  iron,  and  cordage.  Coal-tar, 
which  is  largely  obtained  in  gas  manu- 
facture, is  also  valuable  inasmuch  as  it 


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Tara 


Tarare 


is  extensively  employed  in  the  production 
of  dyes,  etc.  See  Coal-tar  and  Aniline, 
Tarfl.  (^'r&)*  o'  Tabo,  the  native 
******  name  ffiven  to  plants  of  the 
genus  ColoooMta,  nat  order  Aracee, 
especially  C.  esculenta  and  C.  maororhieaf 
cultivated  in  the  Pacific  Islands  for  their 
esculent  root,  which,  though  pungent  and 
acrid  raw,  becomes  palatable  when 
cooked.  A  pleasant  flour  is  also  made  of 
the  roots  or  tubers,  and  the  leaves  are 
used  as  spinach.  The  name  is  also  given 
to  the  allied  Caladium  esculenta,  whose 
tuberous  root  and  leaves  are  used  in  the 
same  manner. 

Tara  P^rn  ^  species  of  fern  (Pterig 
xartt  xcru,  esculenta)  from  the  root 
or  rhizome  of  which  a  flour  was  obtained 
which  formerly  made  a  staple  article  of 
food  for  the  natives  of  New  Zealand. 
Tfl.rfl.i  (ta-ri';  'moist  land'),  a  moist 
*******  and  jungly  tract  of  Northern 
India,  running  along  the  foot  of  the 
first  range  of  the  Himalayas  for  several 
hundred  miles,  with  a  breadth  of  from 
2  to  15,  infested  by  wild  beasts,  and 
generally  unhealthy.  The  name  is  given 
distinctively  to  a  district  in  the  Kumaun 
division  of  the  Northwest  Provinces,  con- 
sisting of  a  strip  of  country  of  about 
90  miles  in  length  E.  and  w.  along  the 
foot  of  the  Himalayas,  and  about  12 
miles  in  breadth.  Area>  938  square  miles. 
Pop.  118,422. 

Taranaki  iS^'^'^'AV'  ^orm.«riy  2^e« 

**********'*^  Plymouth), 2i  provincial  dis- 
trict of  New  Zealand,  on  tne  west  coast 
of  Norlh  Island.  Its  coast-line  extends 
to  130  miles,  and  it  has  an  area  of  3339 
square  miles.  The  coast  is  almost  with- 
out indentations,  and  has  no  good  natural 
harbors.  Nearly  three-fourths  of  this 
district  is  covered  by  valuable  forests, 
and  the  rest  is  adapted  for  cattle  rearing. 
There  is  a  good  coal-field  on  the  banks  of 
the  Mokau,  and  the  titaniferous  iron- 
sand,  which  lies  from  2  to  5  feet  deep 
along  the  sea-beach,  is  believed  to  be  the 
purest  iron  ore  known.  The  soil  Is  ex- 
cellent, and  a  moist  climate  and  temper^ 
ate  atmosphere  render  vegetation  luxuri- 
ant. New  Plymouth  is  the  chief  town, 
and  has  direct  railway  communication 
with  Wellington  and  other  parts  of  the 
colony.  Mount  Egmont,  an  extinct  vol- 
cano, in  the  soutnwest,  where  the  sur- 
face is  most  elevated,  attains  a  height 
of  8270  feet,  and  is  in  many  respects  the 
most  remarkable  mountain  m  the  colony. 
Pop.  38.000. 

TarantaSS  (taj-an-tas^),  a  large  cov^ 
.b«.A»A&««.99    gj,^      traveling     carriage 

without  springs,  but  balanced  on  long 
poles  which  serve  the  purpose,  and  with- 
out seats,  much  used  m  ftussia. 


Tarantella  <Si^Sii'Sliu.'dan'S^l; 

six-eight  measure. 

Tarantism  <  taj'an-tlzm  ),  a  leaping 
**•*•***"**'***  or  dancing  mania,  of  the 
medieval  period,  somewhat  similar  to  the 
disease  called  Bt  Vitus'  dance.  It  was 
ascribed  to  the  bite  of  the  tarantula. 
TflroTifn  (t&'r&n-tO;  anciently  Taren- 
xaraaw  ^^^^^  ^  fortified  seaport  of 
S.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Lecce,  on  a 
rocky  peninsula  at  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  gulf  of  same  name.  It  is 
well  built,  and  contains  a  cathedral  and 
several  other  churches,  a  diocesan  semi- 
nary, and  several  hospitals.  The  manu- 
factures   include    linen,    cotton,    velvet. 


muslin  and  gloves.  There  is  now  a 
proposal  for  making  Taranto  a  station 
of  the  Italian  navy.  The  ancient  Taren- 
tum  was  founded  by  the  Greeks  in  B.a 
708,  and  became  a  powerful  city.  It 
was  captured  by  the  Romans  B.a  272, 
and  remained  a  notable  Roman  town 
until  the  downfall  of  the  empire.  Pop. 
60,592. 

Tarantula  (^-ran'tia-la),  a  kind  of 
*•*  ^  •*    spider,  the  Lycdia  iaran- 

tiUaj  found  in  some  of  the  wanner  parts 
of  Italy.  When  full  grown  it  is  about 
the  size  of  a  chestnut,  and  is  of  a  brown 
color.  Its  bite  was  at  one  time  supposed 
to  be  dangerous,  and  to  cause  a  kind  of 
dancing  disease;  it  is  now  known  not  to 
be  worse  than  the  sting  of  a  common 
wasD.  In  America  the  term  is  given  to 
the  large  mygalid  spiders. 

Tarapaci  ^  ^'J^"P^'lfK?\^  *  ^^ 

*******^**^**  province  of  Northern  ChUe, 
containing  deposits  of  niter  and  borax 
and  silver  mines;  area,  18,131  square 
miles.  CapiUl,  Iquique.  Pop.  101,105. 
TflrftTA  (t&-rilr),  a  town  of  France,  in 
xaiaix  ^j^g  department  of  the  Rhone, 
20  miles  northwest  of  Lyons.  Silks,  vel- 
vets, and  muslins  are  made.  Pop.  11,79L 


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Tarascon 


Tariftt 


TurAnnAii  (tA-ras-kov),  a  town  of 
xarascon  Southern  France,  depart- 
ment of  Bouches-du-Rhdne.  on  the  Rhone, 
opposite  Beaucaire,  50  miles  N.  N.  w.  of 
Marseilles.  It  has  interesting  mediaeval 
stmctures.  Pop.  (1906)  5447. 
TorovaniTi  (ta-rak'a-sin),  a  bitter 
xara&aum  crystalliaable  principle 
ooDtained  in  the  milky  juice  of  the  dande- 
Hon  {Leontodon  Tarawdcum)^  especially 
in  the  juice  of  the  roots.  It  possesses 
tonic,  aperient,  and  diuretic  properties. 
Torfl7ATifl    (tA-ri-thd'ni),    an    episco- 

larazona  p^,  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^j^^  ^  ^^ 

prorince  of  Saragossa,  57  miles  w.  N.  w. 
of  the  town  of  Saragossa,  on  the  Queiles. 
There  is  here  an  ancient  episcopal  palace 
and  a  cathedral,  founded  about  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Pop.  8790. 
TarhAll  (tarl)el),  Ida  M.,  writer, 
xarueil    ^^^^  ^  g^j^  q^^  Pennsvlva- 

nia,  in  1857;  was  associate  editor  of  the 
Chautauquan,  1883-91,  and  of  McClure't 
Uagitzine  after  1894.  She  attracted  at- 
tention by  her  vigorous  arraignment  of 
the  Standard  Oil  Company  and  its  meth- 
ods, also  wrote  Lives  of  Napoleon,  Lin- 
coln, Madame  Roland,  etc 
TarliAft  (t&rb),a  town  of  France,  cap- 
xiurucsi   .^j     ^£     ^jj^    department    of 

Hautes  Pyrto^es,  situated  110  miles 
south  of  Bordeaux,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Adour.  Its  principal  edifices  are  the 
cathedral,  and  the  church  of  St.  John 
(fourteenth  century).  The  manufactures 
embrace  leather,  woolens,  machinery, 
weapons,  etc.  Pop.  20366. 
Tarboosh  (tar;b58h),  a  red  woolen 
ACMMwou    gjjuii^ap    or    fez,    usually 

ornamented  with  a  blue  silk  tassel,  and 
worn  by  the  Egyptians,  Turks,  and  Arabs. 

Tardierada  (tai-di-gra'da;    *siow 

ACMUA^AMuo.  steppers*),  the  name 
applied  by  Cuvier  to  the  family  of  eden- 
tate mammals,  which  includes  the  exist- 
ing sloths  and  the  extinct  Megatherium. 
Tare  i^^^)*  ^^  common  name  of  dif- 
ferent  species  of  Viciaf  a  genus 
of  leguminous  plants,  known  also  by  the 
name  of  vetch.  There  are  numerous 
species  and  varieties  of  tares  or  vetches, 
but  that  which  is  found  best  adapted 
for  agricultural  purposes  is  the  common 
tare  (Vida  sativa),  of  which  there  are 
two  principal  varieties,  the  summer  and 
winter  tare.  They  afitord  excellent  food 
for  horses  and  cattle,  and  hence  are  ex- 
tensively cultivated  throughout  Europe. 
(See  Vetch,)  The  tare  mentioned  in 
Scripture  (Mat.  xiii,  36)  is  supposed  to 
be  the  darnel  (which  see).  V.  $ativa  is 
found  in  fields  in  the  United  States. 
fTapA  in  commerce,  a  deduction  made 
Ac»A«/9   ^j^jjj  jjjg  gross  weight  of  goods 

as  equivalent  to  the  real  or  approximate 


weight  of  the  cask,  box,  bag,  or  other 
package  containing  them.  Tare  is  said 
to  be  real  when  the  true  weight  of  the 
package  is  known  and  allowed  for, 
average  when  it  is  estimated  from  similar 
known  cases,  and  customary  when  a  uni- 
form rate  is  deducted. 

AUA^MVMAu.  ^£  Allegheny  CJo.,  Pennsvl- 
vania,  on  the  Allegheny  River,  21  miles 
IV.  E.  of  Pittsburgh.  There  are  large  plate 
and  flhit  glass  factories  and  steel  mills, 
with  various  other  industries.  Pop.  7414. 
TarentTUXL     ^^  Taranto. 

Target  (tAr'^et),  (l)  a  shield  or 
****o^*'  buckler  of  a  small  kind,  such 
as  those  formerly  in  use  among  the  High- 
landers, which  were  circular  in  form, 
cut  out  of  ox-hide,  mounted  on  strong 
wood,  strengthened  by  bosses,  spikes,  etc., 
and  often  covered  externally  with  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  ornamental  work. 
(2)  The  mark  set  up 
to  be  aimed  at  in  arch- 
ery, musketry,  or  ar- 
tillery practice  and  the 
like.  The  targets  used 
in  rifie  practice  are 
generally  square  or  ob- 
long metal  plates,  and 
are  divided  into  three 
or  more  sections,  called 
huU'B  eye,  inner  (or 
oenter)^  and  ouierf 
counting  from  the  center  of  the  target  to 
its  edges ;  some  targets  have  an  additional 
division  (called  a  magpie),  situated  be- 
tween the  outer  and  the  inner.  It  is  the 
marksman's  aim  to  put  his  shots  as  near 
the  central  point  as  possible,  as  if  he  hits 
the  buirs-eve  there  are  counted  in  his 
favor  5  points,  the  center  4  points,  the 
magpie  3  points,  and  the  outer  2  points, 
or  some  similar  proportions. 
Tarimm  (tAr'gum),  a  translation  or 
*  o  ^^  paraphrase  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  in  the  Aramaic  or  Chaldee 
language  or  dialect,  which  became  neces- 
sary after  the  Babylonish  captivity,  when 
Hebrew  began  to  die  out  as  the  popular 
language.  The  Targum,  long  preserved 
by  oral  transmission,  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  committed  to  writing  until  the 
first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  The 
most  ancient  and  valuable  of  the  extant 
Targums  are  those  ascribed  to  or  called 
after  Onkelos  and  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel. 
All  the  Targums  taken  together  form  a 

Paraphrase    of    the    whole    of    the    Old 
'estament,  except  Nehemiah,  EiZra,  and 
Daniel. 

ToTifo  (t&-r§'f&),  a  maritime  town  of 
xariia,  ^p^j^^^  j^^  Andalusia,  52  miles 
southeast  of  Cadiz,  and  the  most  south- 


Target. 


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Tariff 


Tarpan 


erly  town  in  Europe.  It  is  surrounded 
by  fortifications  built  by  the  Moors,  and 
contains  a  very  ancient  Moorish  castle. 
Pop.  11,730. 

Tariff  (tar'lf),  a  list  or  table  of  duties 
or  customs  to  be  paid  on  goods 
imported  or  exported,  whether  such  duties 
are  imposed  by  the  government  of  a 
country  or  agreed  on  by  the  governments 
of  two  countries  holding  commerce  with 
each  other.  The  tariff  depends  upon  the 
commercial  policy  of  the  state  by  which 
it  is  framed,  and  the  details  are  con- 
stantly fluctuating.  The  tariff  has  long 
been  a  leading  political  problem  in  the 
United  States,  and  has  fluctuated  with 
the  dominance  of  one  or  the  other  great 
party,  the  Republicans  favoring  a  high 
tariff,  protective  of  the  manufacturing 
interests,  the  Democrats  a  low  one, 
confined  to  revenue  purposes.  The  oppo- 
sition to  a  high  tariff  at  first  came  from 
New  England,  but  was  afterwards  shifted 
to  the  South,  becoming  so  strong  by  1832 
as  to  lead  to  an  attempt  on  the  part  of 
South  Carolina  to  secede  from  the  Union. 
A  lower  tariff  policy  was  then  adopted, 
and  there  were  several  changes  until  1861. 
when  the  high  tariff  of  the  war  period 
was  adopted.  The  Republican  party  be- 
ing long  afterward  in  toe  ascendency,  the 
high  tariff  was  continued  until  1894, 
when  the  Democratic  party  was  in  power 
and  passed  a  tariff  bill  much  lowering  the 
rates  of  duty.  In  1897  they  were  again 
increased.  During  the  succeeding  years 
the  feeling  developed  that  they  were  too 
high  and  In  1909  a  new  bill  was  passed 
making  many  reductions  yet  leaving  some 
leading  articles  in  an  unsatisfactory  state. 
The  policy  of  partial  revision  then  came 
into  favor,  a  permanent  commission  be- 
ing appointed  to  study  the  several  items 
subject  to  customs  duties  and  recommend 
such  changes  as  seemed  desirable.  At 
the  end  of  1911  this  commission  made  an 
elaborate  report  on  the  wool  industry,  as 
a  guide  to  the  deliberations  of  Congress. 
The  Democratic  Congress  passed  a  new 
tariff  law  in  1913,  the  main  features  of 
which  were  a  longer  free  list.  A  Tariff 
Commission  forms  a  part  of  the  Revenue 
Bill  passed  by  the  House  in  1916,  and 
provides  for  a  board  of  six  members,  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  with  the  consent 
of  the  Senate,  of  which  not  more  than 
three  shall  be  of  one  political  party.  Its 
duty  is  to  investigate  the  administration 
and  fiscal  effects  of  the  tariff  laws. 
Torlofan  (t&r-la-tan),  a  thin  and  fine 
xarJUtUU  fabric  of  cotton,  mostly 
used  for  ladies*  ball  dresses.  It  is  cheap, 
but  does  not  stand  washing. 
Tftm  (tarn),  a  river  of  Southern 
xaxu      France,  which  rises  on  the  south 


slope  of  Mount  Losftre,  near  Florae,  in 
the  department  of  Lozftre;  flows  through 
the  departments  of  Aveyron,  Tarn, 
Haute-Garonne  and  Tam-et-Uaronne ; 
and  finalljrjoins  the  Garonne.  Its  whole 
course  is  230  miles,  of  which  about  100 
miles,  beginning  at  Alby,  are  navigable. 
Tarn  ^  department  of  Southern 
xcu.li.)  France,  named  from  the  above 
river;  area,  2218  sq.  miles.  The  surface 
is  intersected  by  hills,  which  generally 
terminate  in  flat  summits,  on  which,  as 
well  as  their  sides,  cereals  and  vines  are 
cultivated.  The  minerals  include  iron 
and  coal,  both  of  which  are  partially 
worked.  Woolens,  linens,  hosiery,  etc, 
are  manufactured.  The  capital  is  Alby. 
Pop.    (1906)    330,533. 

Tarn-et-Garonne,  |.r^?e"n°l^' 

after  its  two  chief  rivers;  area,  1436 
square  miles.  This  department  belongs 
to  the  basin  of  the  Garonne,  which 
traverses  it  south  to  northwest,  and  re- 
ceives within  it  the  accumulated  w&tert 
of  the  Tarn  and  Aveyron,  which  are 
both  navigable.  The  arable  land  raises 
heavy  crops  of  wheat,  maize,  hempi 
tobacco,  grapes  and  fruit  of  all  kinds 
The  most  important  manufactures  con» 
sist  of  common  woolen  cloth  and  serg^ 
linen  goods,  silk  hosiery,  cutlery,  leather, 
etc  Montauban  is  the  capitaL  Pop. 
(1906)   188,553. 

TftmO'Dol  (t&r-no'p6l),  a  town  of 
XamupOi  ^alicia,  Austria,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Sereth,  80  miles  e.  8.  E.  of 
Lemberg.  It  contains  a  Russian  Catholic 
and  a  Greek  Catholic  church,  castle, 
Jesuit  college,  gymnasium,  etc  The  in- 
habitants are  chiefly  employed  in  agri- 
culture. Pop.  32,082. 
TamOW  (tAr'nOf),  a  town  of  Galicia, 
Austria,  on  a  height  above 
the  right  bank  of  the  Biala,  48  miles 
E.  8.  E.  of  Cracow.  It  is  well  built,  is  the 
see  of  a  bishop,  has  a  cathedral,  mon- 
astry,  gymnasium,  svnsgogue,  infirmary, 
and  manufactures  of  linen  and  leather. 
Pop.  31,691. 

Tarnowitz  i^fJi^'^l^^^Jt  tSTin^J 

Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Silesia,  not  far  from  the  Polish 
frontier,  with  mines  of  iron  and  lead. 
Pop.  11,858. 

Tftro  ItA'rO),  a  plant  of  the  genus 
***^  Colocasia,  See  Tara. 
Taman  (t&r'pan),  the  wild  horse  of 
P  Tartary,  belonging  to  one  of 
those  races  which  are  by  some  authorities 
regarded  as  original  It  is  about  the 
size  of  an  ordinary  mule.  The  color  is 
invariably  tan  or  mouse,  with  black 
mane  and  tail.  During  the  cold  season 
the  hair  is  long  and  soft,  but  in  sum- 


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Tarpaulin  Tarrasa 

mer  much  of  it  is  shed.  They  are  some-  Martius,  and  at  his  death  was  unani- 
times  captured  by  the  Tartars,  but  are  mously  elected  his  successor.  According 
reduced  with  great  difficulty  to  subjection,   to  Livy  he  made  war  with  success  on 

the  Latins  and  Sabines,  from  whom  he 
took  numerous  towns.  Tarquinius  also 
distinguished  his  reign  by  the  erection  of 
the  Cloaca  Maxima,  the  Forum,  the  wall 
round  the  city,  an(^  as  is  supposed,  he 
commenced  the  Capitoline  Temple. 
After  a  reign  of  about  thirty-six  years 
he  was  killed  in  B.C.  578  by  assassins, 
who  were  employed  by  the  sons  of  Ancus 
Martins. 

Tarquinius,  IZ^'' ff^^^^^ST, 

the  last  of  the  legendary  Kings  of  Rome, 
was  the  son  of  Lucius  Tarquinius  Priscus. 
,^— .-^_^3-    -  Tarouin,     on     reaching     man's     estate, 

TftrnAn  murdered  his  father-in-law.  King  Servius 

x»fv»ii.  Tullius  (the  date  usually  given  for  this 

Taroanlin    (tAr-pftlin),    canvas    well    event    is  B.c.  534),    and    assumed    the 

«^^^^  coated  with  tar,  and  used  regal  dignity.  He  abolished  the  privi- 
to  cover  the  hatchways,  boats,  etc.,  on  leses  conferred  on  the  plebeians;  ban- 
shipboard,  and  also  to  protect  agricultural  ished  or  put  to  death  the  senators  whom 
produce,  goods  in  transit,  etc.,  from  the  he  suspected,  never  filled  up  the  vacancies 
effects  of  the  weather.  in  the  senate,  and  rarely  consulted  that 

TRrDeian  S.OGk  (t&r-pg'an),  a  pre-  body.  He  continued  the  great  works  of 
0.0*^^x0.11.  .MvvA.  cipitous  rock  form-  his  father,  and  advanced  the  power  of 
ing  part  of  the  Capitoline  Hill  at  Rome  Rome  abroad  both  by  wars  and  alliances, 
over  which  i>ersons  convicted  of  treason  By  the  marria|re  of  his  daughter  with 
to  the  state  were  hurled.  It  was  so  Octavius  Mamilius  of  Tusculum,  the 
named^  according  to  tradition,  from  most  powerful  of  the  Latin  chiefs,  and 
Tarpeta,  a  vestal  virgin  of  Rome,  and  other  political  measures,  he  caused  him- 
daughter  of  the  governor  of  the  citadel  self  to  be  recognized  as  the  head  of  the 
on  the  Capitoline,  who,  covetous  of  the  Latin  confederacy.  After  a  reign  of 
golden  bracelets  worn  by  the  Sabine  nearly  twenty-five  years  a  conspiracy 
soldiery,  opened  the  gate  to  them  on  the  broke  out  by  which  he  and  his  family 
promise  of  receiving  what  they  wore  on  were  exiled  from  Rome  (b.g.  510),  an 
their  left  arms.  Once  inside  the  gate  infamous  action  of  his  son  Sextus  being 
they  threw  their  shields  upon  her,  in-  a  chief  cause  of  the  outbreak.  (See 
stead  of  the  bracelets.  She  was  buried  Lucretia.)  He  tried  repeatedly,  wi th- 
at the  base  of  the  Tarpeian  Rock.  out  success,  to  regain  his  nower,  and  at 
TarDOn    (t&r'pun),    or    Tabpum,    the    length  died  at  Cumse  in  495  b.o. 

"  Megalopa  atlanticuSf  SiheTTing'  TaiTa?OIl  (t*r'a-gon;  Artemisia  Dra- 
shaped  fish  found  on  the  southern  coasts  *«"■"■■«'€*''"■  ci<ncfi/tt«),  a  strong  erect 
of  the  United  States  and  in  the  West  perennial  plant  of  the  composite  order, 
Indies.  It  reaches  a  length  of  5  or  6  a  native  of  Siberia,  cultivated  in  gar- 
feet,  and  from  a  hundred  to  several  hun-  dens  for  flavoring  dishes. 
dred  pounds  weight,  and  is  of  giant  Tfl.TTR?OILa  (tflr-&-go'n&),  a  seaport 
strength.  Though  too  coarse  ordinarily  *«***«'6viia.  ^^  Spain,  capital  of  a 
for  food,  it  is  a  great  attraction  to  province  of  its  own  name,  on  the 
anglers.  Its  scales,  which  are  of  great  Francoli,  at  its  mouth  in  the  Mediter- 
size,  are  now  largely  used  in  ornamental  ranean,  on  a  limestone  rock.  The  chief 
work.  building   is    the    large   cathedral,   a    fine 

Taraninins   (t&r-kwln'i-us),   Lucius,   Grothic   building  partly   of   the  eleventh 

H *""*"*"*  sumamed  Priscus  (the  century.  The  town  was  founded  by  the 
first  or  the  elder),  in  Roman  tradition  Phoenicians,  and  became  of  great  impor- 
the  fifth  king  of  Rome.  The  family  of  tance  under  the  Romans.  In  its  environs 
Tarquinius  was  said  to  have  been  of  are  an  ancient  amphitheater,  a  circus,  an 
Greek  extraction,  his  father,  Demaratus,  aqueduct,  etc.  It  was  taken  and  sacked 
bein^  a  Corinthian  who  settled  in  Tar-  by  the  French  under  Suchet  in  1811. 
quinii,  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  Etruria.  It  has  a  trade  in  corn,  oil,  wine,  fruit, 
Having  removed  with  a  large  following   etc    Pop.  26,281. 

to  Rome,  Tarquinius  became  the  favorite  Tarrasa  (t^r-rft'si),  a  town  of  Spain, 
and  confidant  of  the  Roman  king,  Ancus   '^^*'*'^^^  province  of  Barcelona,  with 


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Tarrytown 


Tartaric  Acid 


manufactures    of    cottons    and    woolens. 
Pop.  15,956. 


Aqneduet  of  Tamgons. 
Tfl-mrfntim     a  village  of  Westchester 

A  airy  town,  ^^    ^^^  y^^^   ^^  ^^ 

Hudson  River,  25  miles  N.  of  New  York 
City.  It  has  several  manufacturing  in- 
dustries; but  is  largely  residential.  Pop. 
(with  North  Tarrytown)  11,000. 
TarsWsh  (t&r'shish),  a  place  fw- 
"  quently  mentioned  m  the 
Old  Testament.  It  is  now  generally 
identified  bv  biblical  critics  with  the  Tar- 
tessus  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers, 
a  district  in  Southern  Spain,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir,  settled  by 
the  Phcenicians. 

Tarsia-work   <**^?*"*>'^  ^'""^  ^' 

Ac»x0A«.  TTVAA.  nj^gaic  woodwork  or 
marquetry  much  in  favor  in  Italy  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  It  was  executed  by 
inlaying  pieces  of  wood  of  different 
colors  and  shades  into  panels  of  walnut- 
wood,  so  as  to  represent  landscapes,  fig- 
ures, fruits,  flowers,  etc.  At  Sorrento 
and  other  places  the  manufacture  of 
wood-mosaic,  in  modem  times,  has  be- 
come celebrated. 

Tarsins  (t&r'si-us),  a  genus  of  quad- 
rumanous  mammals  of  the 
lemur  family  inhabiting  the  Eastern 
Archipelago.  In  this  genus  the  bones 
of  the  tarsus  are  very  much  elongated, 
which  give  the  feet  and  hands  a  dis- 
proportionate length.  Tarsius  spectrum^ 
the  tarsier,  seems  to  be  the  only  species 
known.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  squirrel, 
fawn-brown  in  color,  with  large  ears, 
large  eyes,  and  a  long  tufted  tail.  It  is 
nocturnal  In  its  habits,  lives  among  trees, 
and  feeds  upon  lizards. 
TfiTflTift     (t&r'sus),    in    anatomy,    that 

is  popularly  known  as  the  ankle,  the 
front  of  which  is  called  the  instep.    It 


corresponds  with  the  wrist  of  the  upper 
limb  or  arm,  and  is  composed  of  seven 
bones.  (See  Foot.)  In  insects  the 
tarsus  is  the  last  segment  of  the  leg.  It 
is  divided  into  several  joints,  the  last 
being  generally  terminated  by  a  claw, 
which  is  sometimes  single  and  sometimes 
double.  In  birds  the  tarsus  is  that  part 
of  the  leg  (or  properly  the  foot)  which 
extends  from  the  toes  to  the  first  joint 
above;  the  shank. 

TarsTia  ^^  ancient  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
xaiiiusy  the  capital  of  Cilicia,  now  in 
the  province  of  Adana,  in  Asiatic  Turkey. 
The  Apostle  Paul  was  bom,  and  Julian 
the  Apostate  was  buried  there.  Its  in- 
habitants enjoyed  the  privileges  of  Roman 
citizens,  and  the  city  rose  to  such  dis- 
tinction as  to  rival  Athens,  Antioch  and 
Alexandria.  It  is  situated  on  both  banks 
of  the  Cydnus,  and  has  a  considerable 
trade.  Pcyp.  about  25,000. 
Turf  ATI  (t&r'tan),  a  kind  of  vessel 
X»nilUl    ^g^    ^^    ^^^    Mediterranean, 

both  for  commercial  and  other  purposes. 
It  is  furnished  with  a  single  mast  on 
which  is  rigged  a  large  lateen  sail;  and 
with  a  bowsprit  and  fore-saiL  When  the 
wind  is  aft  a  square  sail  is  generally 
hoisted. 

Tartan  ^  well-known  species  of  doth 
'  checkered  or  cross-barred  with 
threads  of  various  colors.  It  was  orig- 
inally made  of  wool  or  silk,  and  consti- 
tuted the  distinguishing  badge  of  the 
Scottish  Highland  clans,  each  clan  hav- 
ing its  own  peculiar  pattern.  An  endless 
variety  of  fancy  tartans  are  now  manu- 
factured, some  of  wool,  others  of  silk, 
others  of  wool  and  cotton,  or  of  silk  and 
cotton. 

Tartar  (^i^tar),  the  substance  called 
also  argal  or  argol,  deposited 
from  wines  incompletely  fermented,  and 
adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  casks  in  the 
form  of  a  hard  crust.  When  purified  it 
forms  cream  of  tartar.  (See  Argal, 
Cream  of  Tartar,)  What  is  called  tar- 
tar emetic  is  a  double  tartrate  of  potas- 
sium and  antimony,  an  important  com- 
pound used  in  medicine  as  an  emetic, 
purgative,  diaphoretic,  sedative,  febri- 
fuge, and  counter-irritant  Tartar  of  the 
teeth  is  an  earthy-like  substance  which 
occasionally  concretes  upon  the  teeth, 
and  is  deposited  from  the  saliva.  It  con- 
sists of  salivary  mucus,  animal  matter, 
and  phosphate  of  lime. 

Tartaric  Acid  (tAivtar^ik;  cao.), 

AMAVK^AAv  AAVAu.  ^jjg  j^^j^  ^£  tartar. 
It  exists  in  grape  juice,  in  tamarinds, 
and  several  other  fmits;  but  principally 
in  bilartrate  of  potassium,  or  cream  of 
tartar,  from  which  it  is  usually  obtained. 
It  crystallizes  in  large  rhombic  prismsi 


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Tartars  Tasmania 

transparent  and  colorless,  and  very  solu-  include  a  large  portion  of  Southeastern 

ble  in  water.    It  is  inodorous  and  very  Russia.    In  a  restricted  sense  it  is  iden- 

sour  to  the  taste.    A  high  temperature  tical    with    Turkestan.     It    received    its 

decomposes  It,  giving  rise  to  several  new  names  from  the  Tartars  or  Tatars, 

products.    ThMB  solution  of  tartaric  acid  Tartrate     (t&r'trftt),  a  salt  of  tartaric 

acts  with  facility  upon  those  metals  which  ****  i*****^    ^^ji^     Some  of  the  tartrates 

decompose  water,  as  iron  and  zinc.    There  are  of  considerable  importance,  such  as 

are  five   modifications   of   tartaric   acid,  tartar   emetic   and    Rochelle   salts.    See 

characterized  chiefly  by  the  differences  in  Tartar,  Rochelle  SalU, 

the  action  exerted  by  them  upon  a  ray  Tamdant  (ta-rS-dant*),    a    town    of 

of  polarized  light;   such  as  dextro-ordi-  *"•*"-"'«***«  Morocco,    at    the    southern 

nary    tartaric    acid,    Isvo-tartaric    acid,  foot  of  the  Atlas,  about  30  miles  east 

para-tartaric  or  racemic  acid,  meso-tar-  from  the  Atlantic.    Pop.  about  8500. 

taric  acid,  and  meta-tartaric  acid.    Tar-  Tasllkeilt    (t&sh-kent') ,    or    T a sB • 

taric  acid  is  largely  employed  as  a  dis-  *«*»'»*^^***'  kend',   a   town  of   Asiatic 

charge  in  calico-printing,  and  for  making  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Turkestan, 

soda-water  xK>wders  and  baking  powders,  formerlv  in  the  khanate  of  Ehokand,  on 

In  medicine  it  is  used  in  small  doses  as  a  the  Tchirshik,  near  its  confluence  with 

refrigerant  Sir-Daria  or  Jazartes,  in  a  fertile  oasis. 

Tartars   (t&r'ta]:z),orTATABS,  avague  It  is  surrounded  by  a  lofty  wall  of  dried 

Ac»Aucu.a  ^j^^  ^.^jj  ^^  ethnological  sig-  bricks,  about  12  miles  in  circuit,  and  is 

nificance,  usually  applied  to  certain  rov-  entered  by  twelve  gates.    The  streets  are 

ing"  tribes  which  inhabited  the  steppes  of  very  narrow,  and  the  houses,  composed 

C^tral    Asia.    More    specifically,    how-  of  mud,  are  mean  looking.    The  princi- 

ever,  Tatar  or  Ta-ta  appears  to  have  been  pal  buildings  are  the  castle,  several  large 

the  name  of  a  tribe  of  Mongols  who  oc-  mosques,    a    bazaar,    numerous    colleges, 

cupied  about  the  ninth  century  a  district  and  a  number  of  old  temples.    The  man- 

of  Chinese  Tartary  on  the  Upper  Amur,  ufactures    are    silk,    cotton,    gunpowder. 

Though    Tatar    is    the    native    form    of  iron,  etc    The  trade,  carried  on  chiefly 

their  name,  it  has  long  been  anglacized  by  caravans,  is  ver^  extensive.    Tashkent 

as  Tartar,  which  is  the  form  in  common  was   taken    possession    of   by   Russia   in 

use,    while    their   country    is   known    as  1865.    Pop.  (1912)  271,700. 

Tartary.    The  true  Tartars  formed  part  Tasimeter    (ta-sim'e-ter),     an    appa- 

of  the  horde  of  Genghis  Khan,  when  that  *«*o*'"*^**»'***    ratus     for     measuring 

conqueror    carried    bis    arms    from    the  changes   in   length,   temperature,  etc.,  of 

country   known    as   Chinese   Tartary   to  bodies,  by  means  of  variations  in  the  elec- 

Europe,    as    well    as    to    the    successive  trical  conductivity  of  carbon,  the  result 

hordes  of  similar  origin  who  followed  in  of  pressure. 

their  footsteps,  and  to  the  districts  from  Tasmania  (taz-mft'ni-&),  formerly 
which  they  came,  or  in  which  they  set-  *«w»'»"'«*'"-^«'  Yan  Diemen's  Land,  an 
tied;  hence  the  names  of  Chinese  Tar-  island  in  the  Southern  Ocean,  fully  100 
tary.  Independent  Tartary,  and  Euro-  miles  south  of  Australia,  from  which  it 
pean  or  Little  Tartary,  which  comprised  is  separated  by  Bass  Strait;  greatest 
most  of  the  Russian  governments  of  length,  186  miles;  mean  breadth,  165 
Orenburg,  Astrakhan,  Ekaterinoslav,  the  miles;  area,  24330  square  miles,  or  In- 
Oossack  provinces,  and  the  Crimea.  eluding  islands,  26,215.  The  island  may 
Tartarus  (t&r^ta-ms),  a  deep  and  be  roughly  described  as  heart-shaped. 
**  **  sunless  abyss,  according  to  The  coasts,  which  are  all  much  broken 
Homer  and  the  earlier  Greek  mythology,  and  indented,  have  some  excellent  harbors. 
as  far  below  Hades  as  earth  is  below  The  islands  belonging  to  Tasmania  are 
heaven.  It  was  closed  by  iron  gates,  and  numerous,  the  principal  being  the  Fur- 
in  it  Jupiter  imprisoned  the  rebel  Titans,  neaux  S^up,  on  the  northeastern 
Later  poets  describe  Tartarus  as  the  place  extremity.  Tasmania  is  traversed  by  nu- 
in  which  the  spirits  of  the  wicked  receive  merous  mountain  ranges,  the  chief  sum- 
tbeir  due  punishment ;  and  sometimes  the  mits  of  which  are  Mount  Humboldt,  5520 
name  is  used  as  svnonymous  with  Hades,  feet ;  Mount  Wellington,  4195  feet ;  and 
or  the  lower  world  in  general.  Ben  Lomond,  5002  feet  The  prevailing 
Tartarv  (t&r'ta-ri),  a  name  formerly  rocks  are  crystalline,  consisting  of  basalt, 
**"  "  applied  to  the  wide  band  of  granite,  gneiss,  quartz,  etc.  The  chief 
country  extending  through  Central  Asia  rivers  are  the  Derwent,  the  Huon,  the 
from  the  seas  of  Japan  and  Okhotsk  in  Arthur,  and  the  Tamar.  There  are  sev- 
the  east  to  the  Caspian  on  the  west,  and  eral  large  lakes.  Lake  Westmoreland  (45 
Inclndinc  Manchuna,  Mongolia,  Turkes-  sq.  miles)  being  the  largest.  The  climate 
tan,  and  all  the  south  part  of  Russian  is  very  mild.  Mount  Wellington  is  fre- 
iLiik.    It  was  used  sometimes  even  to  quently  covered  with  snow  in  the  summer 


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Tasmania 


TassisndoA 


months;  but  at  Hobart,  in  its  immediate  made  in  1808  by  a  iruard  with  a  body  of 
vicinity,  snow  never  falls.  The  mean  convicts,  who  settled  at  Restdown,  but 
temperature  throughout  the  year  is  about   afterwards  removed  to  the  site  now  w> 


^°A.  The  average  rainfall  is  about 
24.05  inches.  Much  of  the  soil  of  Tas- 
mania is  well  adapted  for  cultivation. 
Wheat,  oats,  barley,  potatoes,  pease, 
beans,  and  hops  are  largely  cultivated, 
and  the  fruit  includes  grapes,  cherries. 


cupled  by  Uobart.  The  development  of 
the  country  made  slow  progress  until  the 
land  was  divided  into  small  allotments 
and  farming  stock  and  government  pen- 
sions reckoned  as  capitaL  Convict  labor 
was  supplied,  and  at  a  very  moderate  ex- 


plums,  quinces,  mulberries,  peaches,  apri-  pense  tarms  were  cleared  for  cultivation, 

cots,     walnuts,     filberts,     almonds,     etc  Sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  were  introduced, 

Fruit-preserving  forms  an  important  in-  and  the  raising  of  stock  has  always  been 

dustry.    Woodland  was  formerly  general  carried    on    with    great    success.     Until 


and  much  of  it 
still  remains. 
Kangaroos  and 
other  herbivo- 
rous animals  of 
the  pouched  kind 
are  numerous. 
There  are  also 
two  marsupial 
carnivorous  ani- 
mals called  the 
Tasmanian  wolf 
and  the  Tas- 
manian devil, 
both  of  which 
are  destructive 
to  sheep.  The 
natural  forests 
are  ciiiefly  of 
tJhe  eucalyptus 
or  gum-tree, 
pine,  and  acacia 
tribe.  Among 
the  minerals  are 
gold,  silver,  cop- 
per, iron,  tin, 
coal,  freestone, 
limestone,  and 
roofing  slate. 
Smelting  •  works 
have  been  erect- 
ed    at     Hobart 


1824  Tasmania 
was  a  depend- 
ency of  New 
South  Wales, 
but  in  that  year 
it  was  made  an 
independent  col- 
ony. It  became 
one  of  the  states 
of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Aus- 
tralia in  1901. 
For  a  series  of 
years  the  pros- 
perity  of  the 
colony  was  re- 
tarded by  the 
hostility  of  the 
natives  and  the 
depredations  of 
escaped  con- 
victs, known  by 
the  name  of 
bush-rangers. 
The  aborigines 
have  ceased  to 
exist,  in  1853 
depo  r  tation 
was  abolished, 
and  about  the 
same  time  the 
name     of    Tas- 


for  the  iron  which  abounds  in  that  dis-  mania  was  officially  adopted  on  the  pe- 

trict.    The  staple  export  from  Tasmania  tition  of  the  colonists.    Pop.  181,100. 

is  wool,   and   the  other  articles  include  Tfl^infl.nifl.n  DfiVll      ®®^  Dasyure, 

gold,  tin,  timber,  grain,  fruit,  hides,  and  *«*»***«•*""•**  Ar*/vx*. 

SS'i.  &e'i:^^o1^t''H^urtfa'e  Tasmaiiiaii  Wolf.  ^  ^^v'-'^- 

capital,  on  a  fine  inlet  of  the  south  coast,  Tasillfl.llite^^^^'°^^°'^^^*  ^  translucent, 
and  Laonceston,  on  an  inlet  of  the  north,  •*"""^*'*' reddish-brown    fossil    resin, 

are  the  chief  towns.    Education  is  com-   occurring  in  Tasmania. 

Sulsory,  and  the  higher  education  is  un-   TasinaillLia     (taz-man'i-a),    a    genus 
er  a  council,  which  holds  examinations    *«**»"*«***"*"«*    of   plants,   consisting   of 
and  grants  degrees.  one     Tasmanian     and     two     Australian 

Tasmania  was  discovered  in  1642  by  shrubs,  nat.  order  Magnoliaceffi.  The  Tas- 
Abel  Jansen  Tasman,  who  named  it  after 
Van  Diemen,  the  governor  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies.  It  was  visited  by  Cook  in 
1769,  and  during  the  next  twenty  years 
by  various  navigators.  In  1797  Bass  dis- 
covered the  strait  which  has  been  called 
after    him.    The    first    settlement    was 


manian  species,  T.  odorata^ 
aromatic  qualities,  particularly  in  its 
bark.  Its  fruit  is  used  by  the  colonists 
for  pepper. 

Tassisudon  <rirrn'"''^t.ter^?d' 

situated  on  the  Gbd&da  River  about  130 


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Tasso 


Tate 


miles  N.  w.  of  GofilpAra.  There  is  a 
palace  where  the  Deb  R&j&  resides. 
Tasao  C^^'^)*  Bernardo,  an  Italian 
xopoov  gpi^  j^jj^  lyric  poet,  father  of  the 
more  famous  Torquato,  bom  of  an  an- 
cient family  at  Bergamo  in  1493 ;  was  edu- 
cated with  great  care;  entered  the  service 
of  Guido  Rangone,  general  of  the  pope, 
as  a  political  emissary;  and  became  sec- 
retary to  the  Prince  of  Salerno,  whom 
he  accompanied  to  Tunis.  In  1539  he 
married  Forxia  de  Rossi  and  retired  to 
Sorrento.  Subseouently  he  received  the 
patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Urbino,  and  in 
1563  the  Duke  of  Mantua  appointed  xhim 
governor  of  Ostiglia,  where  he  diea  in 
1560.  He  published  numerous  lyric 
poems,  but  his  chief  work  is  the  epic  of 
UAmadigi^  founded  on  the  story  of  Ama-' 
dis  de  Qaw. 

Tasso  ^OBQUATO,  an  eminent  Italian 
ACMov^  epicj)oet,  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  bom  at  Sorrento  in  1544.  He  was 
early  sent  to  the  school  of  the  Jesuits  at 
Naples,  and  subsequently  pursued  his 
studies  under  his  father's  superintend- 
ence at  Rome,  Bergamo,  Urbino,  Pesaro, 
and  Venice.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
was  sent  to  the  University  of  Padua  to 
study  law,  but  at  this  time,  to  the  sur- 

Srise  of  his  friends,  be  produced  the 
Hnaldo,  an  epic  poem  in  twelve  cantos. 
The  reputation  of  this  poem  procured  for 
Torauato  an  invitation  to  the  University 
of  Bologna,  which  he  accepted.  Here  he 
displayed  an  aptitude  for  philosophy,  and 
began  to  write  his  great  poem  of  Oeruaa- 
lemme  Liherata  (*  Jemsalem  Delivered*). 
While  engaged  on  it  he  secured  a  patron 
in  Cardinal  Louis  d'Este,  to  whom  he 
had  dedicated  his  Rinaldo.  He  was  in- 
troduced by  the  cardinal  to  the  court  of 
Alfonso  II  of  Ferrara.  Here  he  remained 
from  1565  to  1571,  when  he  accompanied 
the  cardinal  on  an  embassy  from  the 
pope  to  Charles  IX  of  France.  Having 
quarreled  with  his  patron,  Tasso  re- 
turned to  Ferrara,  and  in  1573  brought 
out  the  Aminia,  a  i>astoral,  which  was 
represented  at  the  court.  In  1575  he 
completed  his  epic  of  OeruBalemme  Li- 
herata. About  this  time  he  became  a 
prey  to  morbid  fancies,  believed  that  he 
was  persistently  caluznniated  at  court, 
and  systematically  misrepresented  to  the 
Inquisition.  To  such  a  pass,  indeed,  had 
this  mania  come  in  1577  that  the  poet 
drew  bis  poignard  upon  one  of  the  do- 
mestics of  the  Duchess  of  Urbino.  He 
was  immediately  arrested,  but  was  set  at 
liberty  after  two  days'  confinement.  At 
his  own  request  he  returned  to  Ferrara, 
to  the  convent  of  St.  Francis;  but  from 
here  he  made  his  escape,  and  traveled  in 
dliKaise   to  his   native   place,    Sorrento, 


where  he  stayed  with  his  sister  Cornelia. 
He  again  asked  permission  to  return  to 
Ferrara,  a  request  which  the  duke  coldly 
granted.  But  in  his  excited  and  jealous 
condition  of  mind  Tasso  found  it  impossi- 
ble, to  reestablish  the  old  friendlv  rela- 
tionship at  the  court  He  fled  from 
Ferrara  again,  but  again  returned.  So 
outrageous  had  his  conduct  now  become 
that  he  was  seized  by  the  duke's  orders 
and  confined  as  a  madman  in  the  hospital 
of  St.  Anne  at  Ferrara.  Here  he  re- 
mained from  1579  to  1586,  until  he  was 
released  at  the  solicitation  of  Vincent  di 
Gonzaga.  Broken  in  health  and  spirit, 
he  retired  to  Mantua,  and  then  to  Naples. 
Finally,  in  1595,  he  proceeded  to  Rome 
at  the  request  of  the  pope,  who  desired 
him  to  be  crowned  with  laurel  in  the 
capitol,  but  the  poet  died  while  the  prep- 
arations for  the  ceremony  were  being 
made.  Tasso  wrote  numerous  poems,  but 
his  fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  Rime  or 
lyrical  poems,  his  Aminta^  and  his  Oerusa- 
lemme  Liberata  (translated  into  English 
by  Fairfax).  His  letters  are  also  in- 
teresting. 
TflaQATii    (tas-sd'nS),  Alessandro,  an 

died  in  1635;  chiefly  known  from  his 
mock-heroic  poam  La  Secchia  Kapita 
('The  Stolen  Bucket'),  founded  on  an 
incident  that  gave  rise  to  war  between 
the  Modenese  and  Bolognese  in  the 
thirteenth  century. 

Taste  i^^^^)f  ^^^  sense  by  which  we 
perceive  the  relish  or  savor  of  a 
thing.  The  organs  of  this  special  sense 
are  the  papUUBt  or  processes  on  the  sur- 
face of  tne  tongue,  and  also  certain  parts 
within  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  and  the 
throat,  as  the  soft  palate,  the  tonsils,  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  pharynx.  See 
Tongue, 

Tatar-Bazarjik  (ti-tar'pi-zAr-jek'), 

Ac»vc»x  .wc^ciwxjAA.  ^  ^^^^  j^  Eastern 
Roumelia  on  the  Maritza.  Pop.  17,549. 
Tatars.      ^^  Tartarg. 

Tate  (^^^>  Nahum,  an  English  poet, 
*  was  bom  in  Dublin  about  the  year 

1652;  received  his  education  in  Trinity 
College;  went  to  London,  where  he  en- 
gaged in  literary  pursuits ;  was  appointed 
poet  laureate;  and  died  in  the  Mint, 
whither  he  had  retired  from  his  creditors, 
in  1715.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
dramatic  pieces;  assisted  Dryden  in  the 
second  part  of  Absalom  and  Achitophel; 
altered  and  arranged  Shakespeare's  King 
Lear  for  the  stage;  and  wrote,  in  con- 
junction with  Dr.  Nicholas  Brady,  the 
metrical  version  of  the  Psalms  which 
used  to  be  appended  to  the  English  B«ok 
of  Common  Prayer, 


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Tatian 


Taurida 


Tatian  (t&'shyan),  a  beresiarch  of  the 
second  century,  was  bom  in 
Assyria  about  120,  and  died  about  172. 
He  was  educated  in  Greek  philosophy; 
traveled  extensively;  caused  himself  to 
be  initiated  in  the  rites  of  various  reli- 
gions; and  eventually  embraced  Chris- 
tianity. Tatian  became  a  disciple  of  Jus- 
tin, after  whose  martyrdom  he  left  Rome 
and  journeyed  into  Mesopotamia,  where 
he  preached  certain  Gnostic  and  heretical 
doctrines.  He  seems  to  have  disbelieved 
in  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  his  teach- 
ing inculcatCNl  abstinence  from  wine, 
from  animal  flesh,  and  from  marriage, 
Ab  a  Christian  apologist  he  wrote  Oratio 
ad  Or<Bco»,  which  is  still  extant,  and  his 
Diate98aron  seems  to  prove  the  existence 
of  four  gospels  about  the  middle  of  the 
second  century. 
Tfl.tillft     Achhixs.     See  AchiUcM  To- 

TflfATiiiv  (taf9-ft),  a  kind  of  arma- 
j.uvuuay  ^^^  0asypu9  taiouay,  or 
Xenuru9  unicindus)  remarkable  for  the 
undefended  state  of  its  tail,  which  is 
devoid  of  the  bony  rings  that  inclose  this 
member  in  the  other  'armadillos,  being 
only  covered  with  brown  hair. 
Tatrfl.  (tlL'tr&).  See  Carpathian  Moun" 
***•**•  tains. 

ToHa  (t&'tH),  a  town  in  Kar&chi  Dis- 
Aabira  ^j^^^  gjjj^  ^^  ^|j^  Indus,  about 

00  miles  east  of  Kar&chl.  Tatta  has 
some  manufactures  of  cotton  and  silk 
goods,  but  its  commercial  importance  has 
greatly  declined.    Pop.  10,783. 

Tattersall's  J[^/^'^^">'    Knights- 

i&«.v«^j.»cMx  o  bridge  Green,  London, 
is  the  great  metropolitan  mart  for  horses, 
and  headquarters  of  the  turf,  removed  in 
1865  from  Grosvenor  Place,  where  it  was 
established  by  Richard  Tattersall  in  1773. 
A  subscription  room  is  open  for  betters 
on  the  turf,  where  they  make  and  settle 
their  beta. 

Tattle  (^^^)>  ^  ^®  B^^  Indies,  a 
*  thick    mat    or    screen,    usually 

made  of  the  sweet-scented  cuscus-grass, 
and  fastened  upon  a  bamboo  frame,  which 
is  hung  at  a  door  or  window,  and  kept 
moist  so  as  to  cool  the  apartment 
iTattin?  (tafing),  a  kind  of  narrow 
***  o  lace  used  for  edging,  woven 
or  knitted  from  sewing-thread,  with  a 
shuttle-shaped  instrument 
Tftttoo  (ta-t5'),  a  beat  of  drum  and 
Ac»vvvv  ijngie^aii  ^t  night  giving  no- 
tice to  soldiers  to  repair  to  their  quarters 
in  garrison  or  to  their  tents  in  camp. 
TattOOine  (ta-tO'hig),  a  practice  cpm- 
***^^^  o  mon  to  several  uncivilized 
nations,  ancient  and  modem,  and  to  some 
extent  employed  among  civilised  peoples. 
It  consists  in  pricking  the  skin  in  a  de- 


sign, and  introducing  into  the  wounds 
colored  liquids,  gunpowder,  or  the  like,  so 
as  to  make  it  indelible.  This  practice  is 
very  prevalent  among  the  South  Sea  Is- 
landers, among  whom  are  used  instru- 
ments edged  with  small  teeth,  somewhat 
resembling  those  of  a  fine  comb.  Degrees 
of  rank  are  sometimes  indicated  by  the 
greater  or  less  surface  of  tattooed  skin. 

Tauchnitz  i^°,S25iS?B^5T(^ 

man  publisher,  bom  in  1816.  His  estab- 
lishment at  Leipzig,  founded  in  1837,  is 
widely  known  from  the  collection  of  Brit- 
ish authors  issued  from  it,  which  numbers 
considerably  over  2000  vols.,  and  is  con- 
tinually increasing.  Baron  Tauchnitz 
was  appointed  in  1872  British  consul-gen- 
eral for  Saxony.  He  died  in  1895. 
Taunton  (f^n'^"?*  t^p'tun),  a  par- 
^^^^  liamentary  borough,  Somer- 

set, England,  on  the  Tone,  45  miles  8.  8.  w. 
of  Bristol.  The  principal  buildings  and 
institutions  are  the  parish  churches  of  St 
James  and  St.  Mary  Magdalene;  a  Wes- 
leyan  and  a  Congregational  College;  the 
library,  and  the  museum  of  the  Somerset- 
shire Archffiological  and  Natural  History 
Society;  an  old  market  house;  the  castle; 
the  Shire  Hall;  a  hospital,  etc.  The 
town  was  long  celebrated  for  woolen,  and 
afterwards  for  silk  manufactures,  but  its 
chief  trade  now  is  in  agricultural  produce. 
Taunton  is  of  great  antiquity,  and  was  a 
principal  residence  of  tne  West  Saxon 
kings.  Here  Judge  Jefitrevs  held  the  in- 
famous *  bloody  assizes '  in  1685.  Pop. 
21088. 

ToTiTif  ATI  a  town,  one  of  the  capitals 
J.aUILl0n9  Q^  3j^g^^j  ^^^  Massachu- 
setts, on  the  Taunton  River,  35  miles 
south  of  Boston.  It  is  well  built  and  con- 
tains a  frreat  number  of  handsome  edifices. 
Its  institutions  include  the  Bristol  Acad- 
emy, organized  in  1792,  and  a  State  in- 
sane asylum.  Its  manufactures  are  very 
extensive,  embracing  many  large  cotton 
and  yarn  mills,  silverware  factories, 
stove  foundries,  and  locomotive  works; 
also  manufactures  of  printing  presses, 
nails,  shoe  buttons,  etc.  Pop.  34,259. 
Tannns  (tou'nOs),  a  mountain  range 
amukUus  ^f  Westem  Germany,  mainly 
in  the  Prussian  province  of  Hessen- 
Nassau,  extending  eastward  from  the 
Rhine,  north  of  the  Main;  highest  sum- 
mit. Great  Feldbers,  2886  feet  It  is  well 
wooded,  and  exhibits  much  picturesque 
scenery. 

TflTiriilft  (tft'rC-di),  a  government  in 
xaunaa  ^^  ^^^^  ^^  Russia,  bounded 
north  by  Ekaterinoslaf ;  east  by  the  Sea 
of  Azof;  southeast,  south,  and  west  by 
the  Black  Sea,  and  northeast  bv  the 
government    of    Kherson;    area,    24,539 


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Taurus 


Tax 


■qoare  miles.  It  is  very  irregular  in 
snape  and  may  be  regarded  as  one  large 
penlnsala.  subdivided  into  two  minor 
peninsulas,  one  of  which  is  the  Crimea. 
It  is  watered  by  the  Dnieper;  the  north- 
em  peninsula  consists  almost  entirely  of 
an  extensive  steppe,  and  the  chief  occupa- 
tion of  the  inhabitants,  who  consist  of 
Russians,  is  cattle-breeding  and  agricul- 
ture. Pop.  1,634,700.  The  capital  is 
SimferopoL 
Tun  ma    (t^'ms),  the  Bull,  one  of  the 

which  the  sun  enters  about  the  20th  ApriL 
Taurus  is  also  the  second  zodiacal  con- 
stellation, containing,  according  to  the 
British  catalogue,  l4l  stars.  Several  of 
these  are  remarkable,  as  Aldebaran,  of 
the  first  magnitude,  in  the  eye;  the 
Hyades,  in  the  face;  and  the  Pleiades,  in 
the  neck. 

ToTiima  a  mountain  chain  in  Asiatic 
xuuruB,  Turkey,  stretching  for  about 
500  miles  from  the  Euphrates  to  the 
^2gean  Sea,  latterly  running  north  of 
the  Gulf  of  Adalia.  In  the  east  it  takes 
the  name  of  Ala  Dagh,  in  the  west  that  of 
Bnlghar  Dagh.  It  descends  steeply  to 
the  sea  on  the  south;  northwards  it 
merges  gradually  into  the  plateau  of  Asia 
Minor.  It  is  connected  by  the  Alma- 
Dagh  with  the  chain  of  Lebanon ;  and  by 
Anti-Taurus,  with  Ararat,  Elburz  and 
the  Caucasus. 

Tantoe     (^^'to«>»    »   ,^^  .  (Tautoga 
©    nigra  or  amertcana)  found  on 
the  coast  of  New  England,  and  valued 
for  food.     See  BlackfUh. 

Tantphoens  ir^.T'^i.^Cr?/ 

James  Montgomery,  of  Sathill,  Ireland, 
bom  in  1807;  died  in  1883.  She  mar- 
ried a  Hungarian  nobleman  and  wrote 
novels  in  English,  mainly  of  south  Ger- 
man life.  They  include  The  Initials, 
Quits,  and  At  Odds, 

■Po  vernier  (tA-ver-ne-a),  Jean  Bap- 
i^aYenuer  „g^  ^^^^^  d'Aubonne, 

tlie  son  of  a  Dutch  merchant  settled  in 
Paris,  was  born  at  Paris  about  1605, 
and  died  at  Moscow  in  1689.  Before 
his  twenty-first  vear  he  had  visited  a 
coDsiderabje  portion  of  Eurox>e,  and  he 
repeatedly  traveled  through  Turkey,  Per- 
sia, India,  and  other  Elastem  countries, 
trading  as  a  diamond  merchant  In  1669, 
having  realized  a  large  fortune,  and  ob- 
tained a  patent  of  nobility  from  the 
French  king,  he  retired  to  his  estate  of 
Aubonne,  In  the  Genevese  territories.  He 
compiled,  with  the  aid  of  French  littera- 
teurs, Nouveile  Relation  de  Vlnt&rieur  du 
Strau  du  Grand  Seigneur,  Sim  Voyages, 
and  ReoueU  de  Plusieurs  Relations,  which 
kaw  been  often  reprinted  and  translated. 
»— 10 


Tavira  (t&-v6'r4),  a  seaport  of  Portu- 
gal,  province  of  Algarve,  on 
the  Rio  Sequa.  The  town  is  well  built 
and  has  a  considerable  trade,  especially 
connected  with  the  sardine  fisheries.  Pop. 
12,175. 

Taxriaf  Aplr  (tav'is-tok),  a  market  town 
xaviSlUUK  Qf  England,  county  of  Dev- 
on, in  the  valley  of  the  Tavy,  16  miles 
north  of  Plymouth.  It  has  a  guildhall, 
public  library,  etc.,  and  some  remains  of 
a  once  magnificent  abbey.  Copper,  tin, 
manganese,  arsenic,  and  iron  are  found 
in  the  neighborhood.  Sir  Francis  Drake 
was  a  native,  and  the  town  possesses  a 
colossal  statue  of  him.  Pop.  4392. 
TftVOV  (tft-voi'),  a  district  in  the  Ten- 
Aa.vvjr  asserim  division  of  British  Bur- 
mah ;  area,  7150  square  miles.  The  coun- 
try is  mountainous  with  thick  forests 
and  Jungles,  and  the  chief  rivers  are  the 
Tavoy  and  the  Tenasserim.  The  chief 
town  and  the  headquarters  of  the  deputy- 
commissioner  is  Tavoy,  situated  about  30 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the 
same  name.  Pop.  22371. —  There  is  also 
an  Island  of  Tavoy,  the  largest  and  most 
northern  of  the  extensive  chain  which 
fronts  the  Tenasserim  coast.  It  is  about 
18  miles  long  and  2  broad,  and  on  the 
eastern  side  there  is  a  well-sheltered  har- 
bor called  Port  Owen. 
TftWin?  i^t^'^^s)f  tb®  manufacture  of 
o  sheep,  lamb,  and  goat  skins 
into  white  leather.  See  Tannina, 
Tax  (^^^)*  ^  contribution  levied  by 
^^^  authoritv  from  people  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  government  or  other  pub- 
lic services.  A  tax  may  be  a  charge  made 
by  the  national  or  state  rulers  on  the  in- 
comes or  property  of  individuals,  or  on 
the  products  consumed  by  them.  A  tax 
is  said  to  be  direct  whan  it  is  demanded 
from  the  very  persons  who  it  is  intended 
or  desired  should  pay  it,  as,  for  example, 
a  poll-tax,  a  land  or  property-tax,  an  in- 
come-tax, taxes  for  keeping  man-servants, 
carriages,  dogs,  and  the  like.  It  is  said 
to  be  indirect  when  it  is  demanded  from 
one  person  in  the  expectation  and  inten- 
tion that  he  shall  indemnify  himself  at 
the  expense  of  another;  as,  for  example, 
the  taxes  called  customs,  which  are  im- 
posed on  certain  classes  of  imported 
goods,  and  those  called  excise  duties, 
which  are  imposed  on  home  manufactures 
or  inland  production.  Taxes  are  also 
rates  or  sums  imposed  on  individuals  or 
their  property  for  municipal,  county,  or 
other  local  purposes,  such  as  police  taxes, 
taxes  for  tlie  support  of  the  poor  (poor- 
rates),  taxes  for  the  repair  of  roads  and 
bridges,  etc.  In  the  United  States  and 
elsewhere  taxes  on  real  estate  form  the 
largest  part  of  the  local  revenues,  mu- 


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TaxacesB 


Taylor 


nicipal  revenues  being  almost  entirely 
raised  from  this  source.  Adam  Smith 
has  laid  down  four  principles  of  taxation, 
which  have  been  generally  accepted  by 
Dolitical  economists.  These  are:  (1) 
The  subjects  of  every  state  ought  to  con- 
tribute to  the  support  of  the  government 
as  nearly  as  jKmsible  in  proportion  to 
their  respective  abilities.  (2)  The  tax 
ought  to  be  certain,  not  arbitrary.  (3) 
Every  tax  ought  to  be  levied  at  the  time 
or  in  the  manner  most  convenient  for  the 
contributor.  (4)  Every  tax  ought  te  be 
so  contrived  as  both  to  take  out  and  keep 
out  of  the  pockets  of i  the  people  as  little 
as  possible  over  and  above  what  it  brings 
into  the  public  treasury  of  the  state. 
^ee  also  Income-tax^  Inheritance-tax^ 
Customs,  Excise,  etc. 
Tfl.XAGeffi  (takB-&'se-€),  a  suborder  of 
j.a.Aavca;  Coniferae,  sometimes  regard- 
ed as  a  distinct  order,  comprising  the 
yew-tree  {Taxus)  and  other  trees  or 
shrubs  which  inhabit  chiefly  the  temper- 
ate parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America. 

TotaI  (taks'el),  the  North  American 
J.ii&ci  badger  (Meles  labradorica) ,  Its 
teeth  are  of  a  more  carnivorous  char- 
acter than  those  of  the  true  badger,  and 
it  preys  on  such  small  animals  as  mar- 
mots. Its  burrowing  powers  are  remark- 
able, its  hole  often  being  30  feet  long. 
TaTiilArmv  (taks'i-der-mi),  the  art 
xauaermy  ^^  preparing  and  preserv- 
ing the  skins  of  animals,  and  also  of 
stuffing  and  mounting. 

Taxodium  a^;f-?>;ae'r«! 

em.  The  T.  distichum,  or  deciduous 
cypress,  a  common  ornamental  tree  grown 
upon  lawns,  is  a  native  of  North  Amer- 


lea.  The  bark  exudes  a  resin  which  is 
used  by  the  negroes  for  dressing  wounds, 
and  the  roots,  which  are  hollow  inside, 
are  used  fox  bee-hives. 


Tfl.V  ^^^)*  ^®  longest  river  in  Scotland, 
*  J^  and  the  one  that  carries  to  the  sea 
a  greater  volume  of  water  than  any 
other  in  the  British  islands.  It  rises 
on  the  north  side  of  Ben  Lui.  near  the 
borders  of  Argyleshire  and  Perthshire; 
is  known  in  its  earliest  course  as  the 
Fillan,  and  enters  Lock  Tav,  after  be- 
ing joined  by  the  Lochy.  as  the  Dochart; 
issues  thence  as  the  River  Tav,  at  Perth 
widens  out  into  the  Firth  of  Tay,  and 
finally  enters  the  North  Sea.  Its  length 
is  about  120  miles,  its  greatest  breadth 
in  the  estuary  3^  miles,  and  the  area 
drained  2400  square  miles.  It  is  navi- 
gable as  far  as  Perth,  but  Dundee  is 
the  chief  port.  The  salmon  fisheries  are 
important 

'PoY  Loch,  a  loch  of  Scotland,  in  the 
J^'  county  of  Perth,  15  miles  long  and 
about  1  mile  broad ;  receiving  at  its  south- 
west end  the  Lochy  and  the  Dochart, 
and  discharging  at  its  northeast  end  at 
Kenmore  by  the  Tay.  It  is  100  to  600 
feet  deep,  and  is  well  supplied  with  fish. 
On  its  northwest  shores  rises  Ben 
Lawers. 

Tflv  "RriilfyA  8-  ?reat  railway  bridge 
ittjr  uriu^c,  in  Scotland  crossing  the 
estuary  of  the  Tay  from  Fifeshire  to 
Forfarshire  at  Dundee.  A  bridge  was 
built  here  in  1878,  but  much  of  it  was 
blown  down  by  a  violent  storm  in  1879. 
It  was  replaced  by  a  much  more  sub- 
stantial one,  opened  in  1887.  This  is 
more  than  2  miles  long,  contains  85  piers, 
carries  a  double  line  of  rails  on  a  steel 
floor,  and  has  an  average  height,  above 
high-water,  of  77  feet  under  four  of  the 
spans  in  the  navigable  channeL  The 
piers  are  formed  of  cylinders  embedded 
in  the  river  bottom,  and  filled  with  con- 
crete, while  the  superstructure  is  mad«» 
of  brickwork  and  malleable  iron,  braced 
by  various  stays  and  arches. 
TofTVAfiift  (ta-ig'^tus),  a  mountain 
AaygeiUS   ^^^^  ^^   Southern   Greece 

(the  Morea).    See  Greece, 

Tftvlor     (ta'lor),  a  borough  of  Lack- 

xa.jrxvx     awanna  Co.,  Pennsylvania,  3 

miles   8.   w.   of   Scranton.     It  has   silk 

mills.    Pop.  9940. 

Tavlnr     *    *own   of   Williamson    Co., 

tin.      It    has   cotton    gins,    compress   oil 
mills,  and  other  industries.    Pop.  7785. 
Tavlor     (^'lor).  Bayard,  writer  and 
•^  traveler,  was  bom  at  Kennett 

Square,  Pennsylvania,  in  1825.  He 
learned  the  trade  of  a  printer,  contrib- 
uted to  various  magazines,  made  a 
journey  through  Europe  on  foot  in  1844- 
46^  and  on  his  return  published  Vistot 
Afoot  in  Europe.  This  gained  him  a 
position  on  the  stafit  of  the  New  York 


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Taylor 


Taylor 


Tribune.  He  afterwards  traveled  extens- 
ively, and  wrote  works  under  the  titles 
of  Eldorado  (1850)  ;  Central  Africa 
(1854)  ;  The  Land9  of  the  Saracena 
(1854)  :  VuiU  to  India,  China,  and 
Japan  (1855) ;  Northern  Travel  (1858)  ; 
Crete  and  RuMsia  (1859)  ;  Byways  of 
Europe  (1869) ;  and  Egypt  and  Iceland 
(1874).  He  also  published  several 
novels,  including  Hannah  Thureton,  The 
Story  of  Kennett,  and  John  Qodfrey*» 
Fortune9,eji^  a  number  of  volumes  of 
poems.  He  was  for  some  time  United 
States  secretary  of  legation  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  later  was  United  States 
minister  at  Berlin,  where  he  died  Decem- 
ber 19,  1878. 

TavIat  Bbook,  an  English  mathema- 
xajrxuxy  tician,  bom  at  Edmonton  in 
1685,  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
died  in  1731.  Chosen  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  he  became  its  secretary  in 
1714,   an  office  which  he  retained   four 

fears.  His  chief  works  are:  Methodue 
ncrementorum  Directa  et  Inveraa  (Lon- 
don, 1715),  and  Linear  Perspective 
(London,  It  15).  He  was  discoverer  of 
the  mathematical  formula  called  Taylor's 
Theoretn,  of  extensive  application  in  the 
higher  mathematics. 

Tflirl  nr  Sib  Henbt,  an  English 
xayiur,  ^iter,  bom  in  1800;  died  in 
1886.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  entered 
the  navy;  afterwards  he  became  a  clerk 
in  the  storekeeper-general's  office;  con- 
tributed to  various  periodicals,  and  un- 
dertook the  editorship  of  the  London 
Magazine^  but  soon  afterwards  accepted 
an  appointment  in  the  colonial  office, 
where    he     remained     for    nearly    fifty 

fears.  His  contributions  to  literature  are : 
$aae  Comenanue,  a  tragedy  (1827)  ; 
Philip  van  Artevelde,  a  dramatic  ro- 
mance (1834)  ;  The  Stateeman,  a  series 
of  essays  (1836) ;  J^diom  the  Fair,  his- 
torical drama  (1842)  ;  The  Eve  of  the 
Conquest,  and  other  poems  (1845)  ; 
Notes  from  Life  (1847)  ;  Notes  from 
Books  (1849) ;  The  Virgin  Widow,  a 
comedy,  afterwards  named  A  Sicilian 
Summer  (1850)  ;  and  St,  ClemcnVs 
Eve,  romantic  drama  (1862).  He  pub- 
lished an  Autobiography  in  1885. 
TofrlAT  Isaac,  a  voluminous  writer, 
xayior,  bom  at  Lavenham,  Suffolk,  in 
1786:  died  at  Stanford  Rivers  in  1865. 
His  life  was  passed  without  anv  note- 
worthy incident,  and  his  publisheo  works 
include:  Elements  of  Thought  (London, 
1823),  The  Natural  History  of  En- 
thusiasm (1829),  The  Natural  History 
of  Fanaiiotsm  (1833),  Spiritual  Despo- 
iiem  (1835),  Physical  Theory  of  Another 
Life  (1836),  and  various  others. —  His 
AStes,  JAJn  Tatlqe  (1783^1824) »  pub- 


lished Display,  a  tale  (1814)  ;  Contribu- 
tions of  Q.Q.,  a  series  of  essays;  and,  in 
conjunction  with  her  sister  Ann,  Origi- 
nal Poems  and  Hymns  for  Infant  Minds, 
— His  son,  Isaac  Tatlob,  canon  of  York, 
was  bora  in  1829,  and  graduated  as  a 
wrangler  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1853.  He  is  the  author  of  Words  and 
Places  (1864) ;  Etruscan  Researches 
(1874);  Greeks  and  Qoths  (1879); 
The  Alphabet,  an  Account  of  the  Oriain 
and  Development  of  Letters  (1883)  ; 
Origin  of  the  Aryans  (1889),  etc. 
TflvlAr  James  Edwabd,  artist,  bom 
xajriur,  ^^  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1839. 
He  began  the  study  of  art,  but  left  it 
to  engage  in  the  Civil  war.  In  1863  he 
became  artist  and  war  correspondent  for 
Frank  Leslie;  in  1867  was  artist  with 
the  Peace  Commission  to  the  Indians. 
One  of  his  best  paintings  is  The  Last 
Orand  Review,  made  for  General  Sher- 
man. Others  of  bis  paintings  are  in  the 
Congressional  Library  at  Washington. 
He  died  June  22,  1901. 
Tfi'vlnr  Jkkemt,  one  of  the  greatest 
J.a.jriuiy  names  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, was  born  in  1613  at  Cambridge; 
died  at  Lisbume,  Ireland,  in  1667.  He 
was  educated  at  Perse's  Free  School  in 
his  native  place;  entered,  in  1626,  as  a 
sizar  in  Caius  College,  where  hejgradu- 
ated  Master  of  Arts;  and  in  1636  ob- 
tained by  the  patronage  of  Archbishon 
Laud  a  fellowship  of  all  Souls'  College. 


Jeremy  Taylor. 

Oxford.  In  1638  he  was  presented  by 
Bishop  Juzon  to  the  rectory  of  Upping- 
ham, in  Rutlandshire,  and  in  1642  he 
was  appointed  chaplain  in  ordinary  to 
Charles  I.  After  the  outbreak  of  tlie 
civil  war  he  continued  to  attend  Charles 
as  chaplain,  and  when  the  parliamentary 
party    proved    yictorioas    be    was    tx» 


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Taylor 


Taylor 


f^ 


qaently  imprisoned  for  short  periods, 
Byentnally  ne  retired  into  Wales,  where 
he  was  received  by  the  Earl  of  Carbery. 
under  whose  protection  he  was  allowed 
to  exercise  nis  ministry  and  keep  a 
school.  Afterwards  he  removed  to  Lon- 
don, but  in  1658  he  accepted  an  invita- 
tion from  Lord  Conway  to  reside  at  his 
seat  in  Ireland.  Here  he  remained  until 
the  Restoration,  when  he  was  elevated 
to  the  Iri^  see  of  Down  and  Ck>nnor, 
with  the  administration  of  that  of 
Dromore.    He   was   also,    in    the    same 

I  rear,  made  a  privv-councilor  for  Ire- 
and,  and  chosen  vice-chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Dublin.  The  greater  i>art 
of  his  writings  consist  of  sermons  and 
devotional  pieces,  and  upon  the  former 
rests  his  fame  as  a  master  of  varied 
English  prose. 

Tavlnr  John,  usually  called  the 
xajTAVA^  water-poet f  was  bom  in 
Gloucester  about  1580,  and  died  in  1654. 
He  served  an  apprenticeship  to  a  water- 
man, was  at  the  taking  of  Cadiz,  under 
the  Earl  of  Essex,  in  1596,  and  was  many 
years  collector  of  the  wine  dues  exacted 
by  the  lieutenant  of  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don. He  afterwards  kept  a  tavern,  first 
at  Oxford  and  then  at  Westminster.  His 
pieces  to  the  number  of  sixtv-three  were 

Eublished  in  a  folio  volume  in  1630,  but 
e  was  the  author  of  a  great  many  more 
both  in  prose  and  verse.  They  are  char- 
acterised by  a  certain  rough  vigor  not 
free  from  vulgarity. 

TflvlAr  Philip  Meadows,  bom  at 
xuyiur,  Liverpool  in  1808;  died  in 
1876.  From  being  a  merchant's  clerk  in 
Bombay  he  entered  the  Nizam's  army; 
received  an  appointment  as  administrator 
of  the  state  of  Shorapore;  maintained 
order  in  the  Berar  district  during  the 
mutiny  of  1857;  and  received  the  rank 
of  colonel,  a  companionship  of  the  Star 
of  India,  and  a  commissionership  of  the 
Western  Deccan  districts.  He  published 
the     Confessione    of    a    Thug     (1839), 


Tippoo   Bultaun  J 1840),  ^aTom  _  (1863), 

Hietot^   _^  _ 
QMeen  (1^78) 


ilph  DameU    (1865),   Manual  of  the 
Hiatory  of  India  (1870),  and  A  Noble 


TflvlAr  Thohas,  the  '  Platonist,'  bom 
xayiur,  j^  London  in  1758;  died  at 
Walworth  in  1835.  He  studied  with  a 
view  to  the  dissenting  ministry,  but  en- 
tered a  banking-house,  when  all  his 
leisure  was  devoted  to  classical  and 
philosophical  studies.  He  published, 
chiefly  with  the  aid  of  patrons,  about 
forty  difiterent  works,  the  most  remark- 
able of  which  are  Plato  (five  vols.  4to, 
1804) ,  printed  at  the  expense  of  the  Duke 
tf  Norfolk,  who  kept  almost  the  whole 
edition  locked,  up  Ulf  1848;  and  Ari$totle 


(ten  vols.  1806-12),  printed  at  the  ex* 
pense  of  Mr.  W.  Meredith,  who  gave 
Taylor  an  annuity  of  £1(X),  which  he  en- 
joyed till  his  death. 

TavIat  Tom,  bora  at  Sunderland  in 
Aajriur,  1817;  died  in  1880.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity and  Trinity  (>>l]ege,  Cambridge; 
became  professor  for  two  years  in  uni* 
versity  College,  London;  was  called  to 
the  bar  (1845),  and  went  on  the  north- 
era  circuit;  appointed,  in  1854,  secre- 
tary to  the  Board  of  Health;  wrote  and 
adapted  for  the  stage  a  great  number  of 
plays;  and  succeeded  Shirley  Brooks 
(1873)  as  editor  of  Punch.  The  most 
popular  of  his  plays  are:  New  Men  and 
Old  Acree^  Maeke  and  Facee  (in  col- 
laboration with  Charles  Reade),  Still 
Water*  Run  Deep,  The  Overland  Route, 
and  The  Ticket  of  Leave  Man.  His 
historic  dramas  include:  The  FooVe  Re- 
venge, Joan  of  Arc,  'Twimt  Awe  and 
Crowf^  Lady  Clanoartu,  Anne  Bdegn. 
etc  He  also  published  biographies  of 
B.  R  Havdon  (1853),  C  B.  LesUe 
(1859),  and  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  (1865). 
TAvlonrillp  &  ^^^y^  capital  of  Chris-' 
Xayiorviue^  tian  do.,  Illinois,  on  the 
south  fork  of  the  Sangamon  River,  28 
miles  s.  w.  of  Decatur.  Its  manufactures 
include  paper,  chemicals,  wagons,  etc. 
TflirlAT  William,  bora  at  Norwich, 
xuyiur,  England,  in  1765;  died  in 
1836L  He  was  educated  for  a  mercantile 
career,  but  after  a  lengthened  stay  in 
(Germany  he  resolved  to  devote  himself 
to  literature.  His  published  works  are: 
a  translation  of  BQrger's  Lenore  (1796) 
and  Lessing's  Nathan  the  Wiee  (1806), 
English  Synongme  Discriminated  (1813), 
and  a  Hietorio  Survey  of  German  Poetry 
(1828). 

Tavlor  Zachast,  twelfth  president  of 
Aayiur,  ^^^  United  States,  bom  In 
Orange  county,  Virginia,  in  1784.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1808,  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  major;  took  command  of 
the  United  States  forces  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Mexican  war;  repeatedly  defeated 
the  Mexicans,  and  finally  triumphed  over 
Santa  Anna  in  the  battle  of  Buena  Vista 
(1847).  This  was  the  moat  spectacular 
battle  of  the  war,  Taylor  winning  the 
victory  over  much  larger  numbers,  and 
it  gave  him  a  wide  reputation,  he  becom- 
ing a  popular  favorite  under  his  army 
title  of  '  Old  Rough  and  Ready.'  This 
popularity  brought  him  the  Whig  party 
nomination  for  President  in  1848  and 
he  was  elected  in  the  following  Novem- 
ber. Though  with  little  education  and 
no  political  experience,  he  showed  good 
sense  and  judgment,  but  died  in  the 
second  year. of  his  term,  July  9,  18501 


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Ttyra 


Tea 


Tftvra  (^^«  (M^m  harhdra)t  a  caiv 
AmjM,m  ||iyor,)„g  animal  allied  to  tlie 
ftattoot  found  in  South  America.  In 
color  it  is  black,  save  a  large  white  patch 
on  the  breast 

TaIiiiiI  (chftd),  Chad,  or  Tbao,  a  large 
J.onaa  Jresh-watcrlake  of  Central 
Africa,  In  the  Soudan,  haying  the  ter- 
ritories of  Bomou,  Kanem,  and  Bagirmi 
surrounding  it;  length,  about  150  miles; 
breadth,  about  100  miles;  area,  about 
20,000  square  miles,  with  a  Tariable  ex- 
panse according  as  it  is  the  wet  or  dry 
season.  Its  principal  feeder  is  the  Shari 
fnnn  the  south,  and  Its  shores  are  low 
and  marshy.  The  lake  (which  has  no 
outlet)  swarms  with  turtles,  fish,  croco- 
diles, and  hippopotamL  It  contahis  a 
number  of  small  islands,  which  are 
densely  peopled,  as  are  also  great  part 
of  its  shores,  especially  on  the  west, 
where  is  the  large  town  Kuka,  capital 
of  Bomou. 

Tcherkask  Ic^er^sk),  or  Novo- 
Avuvi.A4»BA.  TcHEBKASK,  a  towu  situ- 
ated on  the  Don,  and  capital  of  the  Don 
Cossack  country.  Russia.  The  town  is 
well  built,  and  has  a  cathedral,  collere, 
library,  market  place,  etc.    Pop.  52,005. 

Toherkassy  <,'?->S^f 'o,"  ffl 

Russia,   situated   on    the    Dnieper,    190 
miles  southeast  of  Kieff.    It  is  built  of 
wood,    and    has    a   considerable    trade. 
Pop.  29,620. 
TchernieOY    (<*er.ne'gov),  Tcmnua- 

AVJ&i^AUA^vv      QQjff^    Qf    TCHEBNIOOW. 

a  government  of  Little  Russia,  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dnieper;  area, 
20,232  so.  miles.  The  country  is  chiefly 
an  undulating  plain,  fertile  for  the  most 
part,  and  watered  by  the  Soj,  the  Desna, 
and  the  Dnieper.  Agriculture  and  cat- 
tle-breeding are  the  chief  employments; 
corn,  linseed,  timber,  tobacco,  and  sugar 
are  exported.  Pop.  2322,007. —  Tcheb- 
laoov,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the 
Desna,  about  80  miles  N.  lY.  B.  of  Kieff. 
It  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop,  has  a 
cathedral,  a  college,  hospital,  etc.,  and 
a  considerable  txade.    Pop.  27,028. 

AVM«^AMvci^uj.  f^^  ^  \ji\Mck  soil  in  Rus- 
sia of  extraordinary  fertility,  covering  at 
least  100,000,000  acres,  from  the  Carpa- 
thians to  the  Ural  Mountains,  to  the 
depth  of  from  4  to  20  feet,  and  yielding 
an  almost  unlimited  succession  of  similar 
crops  without  nreparatlon. 

Tcherny.  8«*  <?««^. 

Tolmdes  i?S:^^>an.T5.e«fc 

races  in  the  northwest  of  Russia.  It 
has  now  acquired  a  more  general  ap- 


plication, and   is  used  to  designate   the 

S'oup  of  peoples  of  which  the  Fhins,  the 
sthonians,  the  Livonians,  and  Lap- 
landers are  members. 
Tea.  (^^<*)«  A  genus  of  plants,  nat 
*^**  order  TemstrcBmiacett  (that  to 
which  the  camellia  belongs),  comprising 
the  species  (T.  sinenaia  or  chinemis) 
which  yields  most  of  the  tea  of  com- 
merce. By  different  modes  of  culture' 
this  species  has  diverged  into  two  dis-i 
tinct  varieties,  entitled  Thea  viridU  and 
Thea  hohea.  The  former  is  a  lan^e  hardy 
evergreen  plant  with  spreading  branches 
and  thin  leaves  from  3  to  5  inches  long; 
the  latter  is  a  smaller  plant,  and  differs 
from  the  other  in  several  particulars. 
From  both,  according  to  the  process  of 
manufacture,  black  and  green  teas  are 
procured.  The  tea  plant  is  cultivated 
not  only  over  a  great  part  of  China,  but 
also  in  Japan,  Tonquin,  Cochin-China, 
Assam  and  other  parts  of  India,  and 
Ceylon.  It  has  also  been  experimentally 
introduced  into  Carolina,  Brazil,  and 
Australia.  Its  growth  is  chiefly  confined 
to  hilly  tracts;  it  is  raised  from  seed, 
and  the  rearing  of  it  requires  great  skill 
and  attention.  In  seven  years  the  plant 
attains  the  height  of  6  feet,  ana  the 
leaves  are  plucked  off  carefully  one  by 
one  four  times  a  year.  In  their  green 
condition  they  are  placed  in  a  hot  pan 
over  a  small  furnace,  and  then  rubbed 
lightly  between  the  palms  of  the  hands, 
or  on  a  table.  This  process  is  repeated 
until  the  leaves  become  small,  crisp,  and 
curled.  The  black  teas  thus  prepared 
include  bohea,  congou,  souchong,  and 
pekoe;  the  green  teas,  twankay,  hyson- 
skin,  young  hyson,  hyson,  imperial,  and 
gunpowder.  Green  tea  gets  less  of  the 
fire  than  black  tea.  The  broken  leaves, 
stalks,  and  refuse  of  the  tea  are  com- 
pressed into  solid  bricks,  which  are  im- 
ported by  the  Russians  into  the  greater 
part  of  Central  Asia,  where  (besides  be- 
ing used  as  a  sort  of  coinage)  they  are 
sometimes  stewed  with  milk,  salt,  and 
butter.  There  is  considerable  adultera- 
tion in  the  teas  sent  from  China  to  the 
European  market,  and  they  are  often 
artificially  colored  with  a  mixture  of 
Prussian  blue,  or  of  gypsum  and  indigo 
carefullv  mixed.  The  infusion  of  tea- 
leaves  in  hot  water  yields  a  beverage 
which  has  little  nutritive  value,  but  It 
increases  respiratory  action,  and  seems 
to  have  a  stimulative  and  restorative  ac- 
tion on  the  nervous  system.  This  Is 
chiefly  due  to  the  essential  oil  and  the 
theine  (an  alkaloid  in  its  nature  identical 
with  the  caffeine  in  coffee)  which  it  con- 
tains, while  the  tannin,  which  is  also 
present,  acts  as  an  astringent.    If  the 


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Teak 


Technical  Education 


water  is  boiling,  an  infusion  of  ten  min- 
utes is  sufficient  to  extract  all  the  theine, 
and  a  longer  period  only  adds  to  the 
tannin  in  the  beverage,  a  result  which 
is  very  hurtful  to  digestion.  From  his- 
torical sources  we  learn  that  tea  was 
used  in  China  as  a  beverage  in  the  sixth 
century,  and  two  centuries  after  its  use 
had  become  common.  In  England  we 
first  find  it  mentioned  about  1615  by  an 
asent  of  the  East  India  Company;  In 
1660  Pepys  says  in  his  diarv,  'I  did 
send  for  a  cup  of  tea,  a  China  drink, 
of  which  I  never  had  drunk  before'; 
and  in  1664  the  East  India  Company 
made  a  present  to  the  king  of  2  lbs.  2  oz. 
In  the  year  1678  the  import  of  tea  to 
BriUin  was  5000  lbs.,  but  forty  years 
after  it  reached  1,000,000  lbs.  and  is 
now  more  than  250,000,000.  China,  un- 
til recent  years,  held  almost  a  monopoly 
jn  the  production  of  tea,  but  now  India 
and  Ceylon  have  entered  the  market  as 
important  competitors,  and  the  product 
of  Japan  is  lai^e.  Britain  is  the  princi- 
pal tea  consuming  country  in  the  world, 
coffee  being  lesn  in  favor  there  than  in 
many  other  countries,  the  United  States 
and  Canada  for  example.  Tea  is  also 
very  largely  used  in  Russia  and  in  great 
part  of  Asia.  The  tax  laid  on  tea  and 
the  effort  to  force  the  colonists  to  use  it. 
was  one  of  the  chief  instigating  causes  of 
the  American  Revolution. 
TaoJp  (tek;  Tect6na  ffrandii),  a  tree 
A^cuk  ^£  ^Yxe  nat  order  Verbenaceie,  a 
nativo  of  different  parts  of  India,  as  well 
as  of  Burmah  and  of  the  islands  from 
Ceylon  to  the  Moluccas.  It  grows  to 
an  immense  size,  and  is  remarkable  for 


Teak  {Teetinagrandis), 

its  large  leaves,  which  are  from  12  to 
24  inches  long,  and  from  6  to  18  broad. 
The  wood,  though  porous,  is  strong  and 
durable:  it  is  easily  seasoned  and  shrinks 
but  little,  and  from  containing  a  resin- 


ous oil  it  resists  the  action  of  water, 
and  repels  the  attacks  of  insects  of  all 
kinds.  It  is  extensively  used  in  ship* 
building  and  for  many  other  purposes. 
—  African  teak,  a  timber  similar  to  East 
Indian  teak,  is  believed  to  be  the  prod- 
uce of  Oldfieldia  africanei,  nat.  order 
EuphorbiaceflB. 

Teal  (^^^)*  ^^®  common  name  for  ducka 
Avcu.  ^£  ^jjg  genus  Querquediila^  the 
smallest  and  most  beautiful  of  the 
Anatidfls,  or  duck  family.  The  common 
teal  (Q.  crecoa)  is  an  annual  visitor  to 
Britain,  remaining  in  parts  of  Scotland 
all  the  year.  North  American  species  in- 
clude the  ^reen-winged  teal  (Q.  oarolin- 
enais)  which  is  very  like  the  common 
teal,  and  the  blue-winged  teal  (Q. 
disoori),  somewhat  larger  than  the  com- 
mon teal,  and  easily  domesticated. 
Teasel  (t^'s^l)!  the  English  name  of 
Avoro^/x  ggygfij  plants  of  the  genus 
Dip$dcu9,  nat  order  Dipsaceie,  allied  to 
the  composite  order.  One  species  (D. 
Mylveatria)  grows  wild  in  England,  and 
in  this  country  in  hedges  from  Massachu- 
setts to  Indiana.  Another  species,  the 
fuller's  teasel  (Z).  fuU6num)f  by  some 
regarded  as  a  mere  variety,  is  cultivated 
for  the  sake  of  the  awns  of  the  head, 
which  are  employed  to  raise  the  nap  of 
Foolen    doths. 

Tebeth  (tS'beth),  the  tenth  month  of 
the  Jewish  ecclesiastical  year, 
beginning  with  the  new  moon  in  Decem- 
ber and  ending  with  the  new  moon  in 
January. 

Technical  Education.  'SSmSVaT 

education,  properly  speakinjg,  includes  the 
field  of  all  instruction  relating  to  the  arts, 
sciences,  professions,  and  trades;  but  in 
common  use  it  is  restricted  to  the  field 
of  the  industrial  arts,  and  more  particu- 
larly to  that  instruction  in  which  theory 
rather  than  practice  bears  a  preponderat- 
ing part.  The  courses  oflfered  extend 
over  four  years  and  lead  to  the  B.S.  de- 
cree, one  or  two  further  years  of  study 
Deing  required  for  professional  degrees, 
viz.,  C.E.  (civil  engineer),  E.E.  (elec- 
trical engineer),  etc.  The  courses  which 
may  generally  be  found  are  Uie  following : 
engineering  usually  in  all  branches,  chem- 
istry, physics,  architecture,  mining  and 
metallurg^r.  For  the  two  last-named  sub- 
jects special  schools  have  been  developed, 
especially  in  those  states  where  mining  is 
the  chief  industry,  such  as  Ck)lorado, 
New  Mexico.  Montana,  and  Michigan.  In 
addition  to  lectures  and  laboratory  prac- 
tice, in  most  technical  schools  practical 
experience,  under  actual  conditions, 
is  demanded  from  students  before  proceed- 
ing to  a  degree. 


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Teohnology  Teeth 

TAAliTi/^1/^<nr  (tek-noro-ji),  that  TaaI  (t^)f  Tekl-sxed,  an  Indian  name 
XecnnoiO^  branch  of  knowledge  ^^^''  for  SeMmum  Indicum  and  its  seed, 
which  deals  with  the  yarious  industrial  See  Sesamum, 

arts.  There  are  a  number  of  schools  of  O^AAg  (tte),  a  river  in  England,  which 
technology  in  the  United  States  devoted  *^^»  rises  near  Cross  Fell,  in  Cumber- 
to  the  study  of  civil,  electrical,  mining,  liand,  and  marks  the  southern  limit  of 
and  mechanical  engineering  and  similar  the  county  of  Durham,  to  its  mouth  in 
subjects.  Among  these  are  the  Massachu-  the  North  Sea,  where  it  forms  an  estuary, 
setts  Institute  of  Technology,  at  Boston,  its  whole  course  is  between  70  and  80 
the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  at  miles. 
Hoboken,  N.  J.,  the  Case  School  of  Ap-  vpAAf li    the  name  given  to  certain  hard 

?lied  Science^  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  the  a^^**"!  structures  growing  out  of  the 
!owne  Scientific  School  at  the  University  Jaws  of  vertebrate  animals,  and  serving 
of  Pennsylvania,  Sibley  College  at  Cor-  as  the  instruments  of  mastication.  The 
nell,  the  Armour  Institute  at  Chicago,  the  teeth  of  animals  differ  in  shape,  being 
Sheffield  and  Lawrence  Scientific  Schools,  destined  for  different  offices.  In  man 
at  Yale  and  Harvard  respectively,  the  and  the  higher  mammals  two  sets  of 
School  of  Mines  at  Columbia,  etc  teeth  are  developed,  the  early,  milk,  or 

Teck  Alexander,  Pbincb  of,  was  deciduous  teeth,  and  the  permanent  set 
T  .  J^i?  ^J5^?^f^^  Palace,  Lon-  in  fishes  the  teeth  fall  off  and  are  re- 
don,  AprU  14,  1874,  third  son  of  the  Duke  newed  repeatedly  in  the  course  of  their 
of  Teck  and  Princess  Mary  Adelaide.  He  Uves.  Teeth  do  not  belong  to  the  skele- 
served  with  ho^uor  at  Matabeldand  in  ton,  but  to  the  skin  or  exoskeletal  parts 
laW.  and  m  South  Afnca,  1^^1900.  of  the  body,  and  are  homologous  with 
On  May  7.  19H.  he  was  appointed  Gov-  hairs.  In  man  the  teeth  are  imbedded 
emor-Ueneral  of  Canada.  *    ,     *     in  sockets  in  the  upper  and  tower  jaw- 

TeCOma  (te-k6ma),  a  genus  of  Plants,  bones.  There  are  thirty-two  In  all,  six- 
^  nat  order  Btgnonwcew.    The  teen  in  each  Jaw,  and  each  consists  of 

species  are  erect  trees  or  shrubs  or  dimb-  the  crown  or  visible  part,  and  the  fangs 
ing  plants,  with  usually  pinnate  leaves,  or  buried  part.  The  four  central  teeth 
and  termmal  panicles  of  dusky  red  or  of  each  jaw  having  chisel-shaped  crowns 
orange  flowere.  There  are  about  80  spe-  ^uh  sharp  edges  are  called  incisors; 
aw,  some  of  them  as  T.  tmpettfftnosa,  on  each  side  of  these  four  is  the  pointed 
medicinaL  /^•i.^u      i-i«r    canine   tooth    (which   in   the  upper  jaw 

TcCtlbrancluata  ^A^^^f  "^SSo'n  of  ^%  ""t^^^  ^^"^  eye-tooth)  ;  on  each  side 
,  1,  ^^»  aoivision  or  ^f  t^gg^  ^pg  two  bicuspid  teeth  (pr»- 
gasteropodous  mollusca.  comprehending  molars)  ;  and  behind  these  agahi  are  the 
those  species  in  which  the  gills  are  pro-  ^olar  teeth,  three  on  each  side.  (See 
tected  by  a  shell,  or  by  toe  manUe,  in-  j)ental  Formula.)  The  last  of  the 
eluding  the  sea-haw  and  others.  permanent  teeth  to  appear  are  the 
TeCnmseh  Vl-  M?;f5  J/  fi?f  q?oS!S;  farthest  back,  grinding  teeth,  which,  ow- 
T  ^T.  .  y^^  i^^'ji^^^Af^a^^.^^^Z^Vf  J°«  to  tl»«»'  a"ival  »>«tween  the  seven- 
Indians,  bom  hi  1768.    After  taking  part  ^^^^1^  ^^  twentv-fif th  years,  are  called 

fewSSf~"*4«*i«S^«  j2^^?i*.rf2S^I  tlie  wisdom  teeth.  Each  ti)th  has  a 
S!^*J^tr™^nHi?$.^p^C?f  ♦ha'^^Mt?/  ce'^tral  cavity  filled  with  a  soft  pulp  con- 
the  Western  Indians  against  the  whites,  t-injn-    hlood.vpsflplft    and    n*»rvA«*    thi« 

82JlSfl  ^i^^Ji^  ^Z^llf^^^li  ^^^/y^^r^^^^  byien^LTa  ha'iS 
General  Harrison  and  wm  defeated  at  gubgtince  composed  of  phosphate  and 
Tippeouioe,  November  7.  1811.  This  put  ^rb^nate  of  uSeToutside  the  fang  is^a 
tSr*?h«t^Jl^'1?J%-nteZ**RHHSf  cemVut-like  suStince  resemblini  %one: 
SfJ?.  k?n^  «T  rt,p  h«J?i«!^f  th«  TTi™  while  outside  the  crown  is  a  hard  enamel. 
5?t^  K  iftia  ^   In  yo"°«  teeth  the  enamel  is  covered  by 

October  5,  1813.  ^    delicate    membrane    called    "  the   skin 

Teddm^on  (ted'ing-tun),  a  town  of  of  the  teeth,"  which  in  adult  teeth  is  . 
Avu.ux1j.5bvu  England^  i^  the  county  worn  off.  Toothache  is  due  to  decay  of 
of  Middlesex,  on  the  Thames,  and  about  the  substance  of  a  tooth,  dental  caries 
13  miles  8.W.  of  London.  Fop.  17,840.  as  it  is  called.  When  the  enamel  which 
Te  Denin  ^^  dd'um),  a  name  (from  covers  the  tooth  becomes  flawed  the  un- 
*^  ^vu-uj.  ^g  opening  phrase,  Te  derlying  dentine  is  exposed  and  soon 
Deum  laudamus)  of  the  well-known  Latin  breaks  down.  When  the  decav,  passing 
bymn  usually  ascribed  to  St  Ambrose  inward,  reaches  the  pulp  which  contains 
mnd  St  Augustine,  although  it  cannot  be  the  blood-vessels  and  nerves  it  causes 
traced  farther  back  than  the  end  of  the  inflammation,  aching,  and  suppuration, 
fifth  century.  It  is  used  in  the  ritual  of  Any  treatment  of  toothache,  short  of  ex- 
Bflman  (Catholic  and  Anglican  churches,   traction,    is   seldom   satisfactory    if    the 


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Teetotalism 


Teledn 


^ulp   has   been   actually   attacked;    but 
neuralgia   is   often   mistaken   for   tooth* 
ache.    See  Dentiiiry. 
Tcctotalism.    Se^^emperance.    fiooi- 

Teff    (Er^nn'OMiii  Ahy$9inica),  a  grain 
eztensiyely  cultivated  in  Abyssinia, 
liaving  seeds  about  the  size  of  those  of 
millet 

T^tmi^T  (teng-n&r'),  Esaias,  a  Swed- 
xc^uer  jgjj  p^^  y^^  ju  ^7^2,  studied 

at  the  University  of  Lund,  became  in 
1812  professor  of  Greek  literature,  and 
in  18^  was  appointed  bishop  of  Wezi9, 
where  he  died  in  1846.  Amonfr  his 
works  may  be  mentioned  his  Frtthiof$ 
SagOy  an  epic  poem,  repeatedly  translated 
into  English;  his  national  song  of  the 
Qoiha  Lion;  and  The  Children  of  the 
Lord^a  Supper,  translated  by  Longfellow. 

Tegucigalpa  iK^fflJ^** 

the  Rio  arande,  about  3370  feet  above 
the  sea,  surrounded  by  mountains,  with 
a  venerable  old  church,  a  high  school, 
and  an  active  trade.    Pop.  about  35,000. 

Teenexin  (te-geks'to.  reiyt  Tei^i^ 

^o    ^  in),  a  species  of  lizard  in- 

habiting tropical  America.  A  full-grown 
specimen  may  exceed  5  feet  in  length,  and 
they  are  able  to  swim  with  great  ease  and 
rapidity. 

Teheran  iit'rtJlUlt' ttfr'£ 

the  northeast  of  the  province,  66  miles 
south  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  at  the  south- 
em  base  of  Mount  Elburz.  It  is  4  miles 
in  circuit,  surrounded  by  a  strong  wall, 
flanked  by  numerous  towers,  with  a 
broad  dry  ditch,  and  glacis.  The  city 
has  six  gates,  from  which  the  main 
streets  lead  to  the  bazaar  in  the  center 
of  the  town.  Since  1870  the  city  has 
been  much  Improved,  the  streets  being 
lighted  with  gas  and  laid  with  tramways. 
The  principal  edifice  is  the  citadel-palace 
of  the  shah,  which  has  considerable 
strength,  but  little  architectural  merit. 
During  the  summer  months  the  court  re- 
moves (on  account  of  the  intolerable 
heat)  to  more  agreeable  quarters  on  the 
heights  to  the  north,  and  a  third  of  the 
inhabitants  (including  the  European 
embassies)  follow  the  royal  example. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  carpets, 
silks,  cottons,  and  articles  in  iron.  Fop. 
(hi  winter)  280,000. 

Tf^liri  (tft-r6'),  a  state  of  Hindustan. 
j.^uj:i.  ^^  Garhwdl.  Tehbi  is  also 
a  name  for  the  state  of  Orchha  (which 
see),  and  for  its  capital,  an  ill-built  town 
with  a  pop.  of  33,871. 

Te1i11&i!fl.n  (tft-wA-kAn'),  a  town  in 
Xenuacan    ^^  ^^^^^  ^^  Puebla,  Mexi- 

co^  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  high- 


lands of  Anahuac,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Salado,  and  125  miles  southeast  of 
the  city  of  Mexica    Pop.  7139. 

Tehnantepec  i^l^^^-^^^'i' ,^ 

State  of  Oaxaca,  14  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  a  river  of  the  same  name,  fall- 
ing into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  On  account 
of  a  dangerous  bar  the  river  is  little 
used  for  navigation.  Pop.,  mostly  In- 
dians, 10,386.  The  town  is  near  the 
south  side  of  the  Isthmus  or  Tehuan- 
TKPEO,  the  narrowest  part  of  N.  America, 
having  the  GuLT  or  TsHUAirrEPEO  on 
the  Pacific  side,  the  Bay  of  Gampeachy 
on  the  Atlantic  side;  width,  about  llD 
miles.  There  have  been  various  schemes 
for  constructing  a  canal  or  a  ship  rail- 
way across  the  isthmus,  the  most  recent 
of  the  latter  sort  being  that  of  an  Ameri- 
can engineer  named  Eads.  See  Ship 
Raihoay,  A  railroad  now  crosses  the 
Isthmus  and  a  large  and  valuable  trade 
has  developed.     It   is  expected   to  com- 

E^te  with  the  Panama  Canal  when  fin^ 
bed,  as  furnishing  a  much  shorter 
Atlantic-Pacific  route  from  northern 
ports. 

Teignmoutli  <?3'°'SJI?i'eAo:S'"5 

England,  in  the  coun^  of  Devon,  at  th« 
mouth  of  the  Teign,  which  is  here  crossed 
by  a  wooden  bridge  1671  feet  in  length. 
It  is  divided  into  East  Teignmouth  and 
West  Teignmouth.  East  Teignmouth, 
which  is  the  more  modem,  is  almost  en- 
tirely appropriated  as  a  watering-place. 
West  Teignmouth,  the  port  and  principal 
seat  of  business,  has  a  safe  and  com- 
modious harbor.  The  fisheries  employ  a 
considerable  number  of  the  inhabitants. 
Pop.  (1911)  9221. 

T^iTiHa  (tends),  the  Scotch  law  term 
XCXliUS  j^y    ^^^^    ^^     ^^^^    ^j    ^^^ 

fruits  of  the  land.  In  the  majority  of 
instances  the  telnds  now  belong  to  the 
owners  of  the  land  formerly  paying  them, 
to  the  crowiL  or  other  proprietors,  they 
being  charged  in  all  cases  with  the  pay- 
ment of  the  parish  minister's  stipend. 

Telamon.  ®^  AUante$. 
Telautograph  i^AUnft'^;^^^^^ 

vented  by  Professor  Elisha  Gray,  based 
on  a  novel  svstem  of  transmission, 
whereby  a  fac  simile  reproduction  of  the 
handwriting  of  the  sender  of  a  message 
is  effected.  See  Telegraph. 
Teledn  (t^^'^^)*  ^  Javanese  camiv- 
orous  quadruped,  familv  Mus- 
telidfle,  allied  to  the  skunk,  and  like  it, 
when  provoked,  capable  of  diffusing  a 
most  abominable  stench;  the  stinkard 
(Mydau9  melicep$). 


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Telegraph 


Telegraph 


Teleeraph  (tel'e-graf),  a  general 
o  *^"  name  for  any  instrument 
or  apnaratus  for  conveying  intelligence 
beyond  the  limits  of  distance  at  which 
the  Toice  is  audible,  the  idea  of  speed 
behiig  also  implied.  Thus  the  name  used 
to  be  given  to  a  semaphore  or  other 
appliances  for  signaling,  which  are  now 
designated  as  signaling  apparatus.    The 


Single-needle  Insfenunent. 


word  telegraph  has  come  to  be  restricted 
in  its  application  to  the  electric  tele- 
graph, which  from  its  power  of  rapidly 
conveying  elaborate  communications  to 
the  greatest  distances  has  completely  out- 
rivaled all  others.  The  electric  telegraph, 
as  comprising  the  entire  system  of  ap- 
paratus for  transmitting  intelligence  by 
electricity,  consists  essentially  (1)  of  a 
battery  or  other  source  of  electric  power ; 
(2)  of  a  line-wire  or  conductor  for  con- 
veying the  electric  current  from  one  sta- 
tion to  another;  (3)  of  the  apparatus 
for  transmitting,  interrupting,  and  if 
necessarv  reversing  the  current  at  pleas- 
ure; and  (4)  of  the  indicator  or  signal- 
ing instrument.  The  line-wires  for 
overhead  lines  are  usually  of  iron,  pro- 
tected from  atmospheric  influence  bv 
galvanising  or  by  being  varnished  with 
boiled  linseed-oil,  a  coating  of  tar,  or 
other  means,  and  are  supported  upon 
posts,  to  which  they  are  attached  by  in- 
sulators. (See  Insulator,)  In  under- 
ground lines  the  wires  are  insulated  by 
a  gutta-percha  or  other  non-conducting 
covering,  and  inclosed  in  iron  or  leaa 
pipes.  The  battery  and  line-wire  are 
common  to  all  telegraphic  systems; 
it  is  in  the  method  of  producing 
the  signals  that  the  great  variation 
exists;  but  in  all  of  them  advantage  has 
been  taken  of  one  or  another  of  the  three 
following  properties  of  the  current:  (1) 
its  power  of  producing  the  deflection  of 
a  magnetic  needle,  as  in  the  galvan- 
ometer (which  see)  ;  (2)  its  power  of 
temporarily  magnetizing  soft  iron;  and 


(3)  its  power  of  producing  chemical  de- 
composition. 

The  needle-telegraph  of  Coolce  and 
Wheatstone  is  an  application  of  the  first 
of  these  properties.  This,  the  earliest 
form  of  telegraphic  instrument,  originally 
employed  five  needles,  each  woilced  by 
two  wires.  The  number  was  subse- 
quently reduced  to  two,  and  now  only 
one  wire  is  used.  This  hangs  vertically, 
but  can  move  to  right  or  left  between 
two  stops.  The  signals  are  formed  by 
combinations  of  the  deflections  in  the 
two  directions.  These  are  variously 
combined  to  represent  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  the  Morse  code  being  used.  The 
needle-telegraph  was  never  adopted  out 
of  England,  and  even  here  the  Morse  has 
been  generally  substituted  for  it 

The  electro-magnetic  instrument  of  Pro- 
fessor Morse  is  an  application  of  the 
second  of  the  above  properties.  By 
means  of  an  electro-magnet,  an  armature 
which  is  attracted  when  the  magnet  is 
temporarily  magnetized,  a  lever  moved 
by  the  armature,  and  a  style  which  moves 
with  the  lever,  this  instrument  impresses 
a  message  in  dots  and  dashes  on  a  rib- 
bon of  moving  paper,  and  by  it  forty 
words  may  be  sent  in  a  minute.  This 
'  dot  and  dash '  system  which  was  in- 
vented by  Morse  is  now  in  very  general 
use.  A  modification  of  this  instrument, 
called  a  sounder,  in  which  the  lever 
makes  audible  sounds  by  coming  in  con- 


Receiver  or  Soonder. 

tact  with  a  brass  rod,  indicates  the  mes- 
sage by  the  length  of  the  strokes  pro- 
duced. This  is  sDOwn  in  the  illustration, 
which  shows  the  arrangement,  by  which 
the  hammer-head  h  is  attracted,  and  the 
arm  HP  is  brought  into  contact  with 
the  pin  a.  Upon  the  cessation  of  the 
current  the  spring  brings  down  the  arm 
upon  the  pin  ft.    Frequently  the  Morse 


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Telegraph 


is  simultaneously  a  recorder  and 
sounder.  It  beins  necessary  that  this 
instrument  should  produce  sharp  and 
Jistlnct  impressions,  and  the  current  be- 
insr  weak  for  stages  over  50  miles,  a 
relay,  or  subsidiary  electro-magnetic 
circuit,  is  added  to  it  in  the  case  of 
longer  distances.  The  transmitting  in- 
strument is  a  lever,  which,  on  neing 
gressed,  permits  the  current  from  the 
attery  to  flow  into  the  line-wire  during 
the  time  the  contact  is  made.  Both  on 
account  of  its  intrinsic  merits  and  for 
the  sake  of  uniformity  the  Morse  is  the 
most  extensively  used  system,  being  that 
in  use  in  America  and  on  the  continent 
of  Europe,  and  being  also  largely  em- 
ployed in  Britain. 

Hughes'  printing  telegraph  is  the  in- 
strument chiefly  used  by  the  submarine 
telegraph  companies.  It  works  with  one 
line  of  wire,  and  has  about  three  times 
the  speed  of  the  Morse  system,  with  the 
advantage  that  the  message  is  printed 
in  the  ordinary  Roman  type.  The  ma- 
chine is  rather  complicated,  but  its  prin- 
ciple can  be  easily  understood.  A  wheel 
having  type  engraved  on  its  rim  is  made 
to  revolve  at  a  known  rate;  a  strip  of 
paper,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Morse,  is 
drawn  ot£  a  drum  over  a  roller  which 
lies  under  the  rim  of  the  revolving  type- 
wheel  ;  by  means  of  the  current  the  roller 
with  the  paper  is  raised  against  the 
type- wheel  as  the  proper  letter  passes, 
and  in  this  way  the  despatch  is  printed. 
The  operator  works  on  a  keyboard  much 
like  that  of  a  piano.  Chemical  tele- 
graphs work  on  the  principle  that  an 
iron  wire  pressing  against  a  paper  pre- 
pared with  cyanide  of  potassium  or  other 
substance  will,  while  a  current  is  passing 
between  the  wire  and  the  paper,  produce 
a  dark  streak  of  Prussian  blue  or  other 
mark,  and  when  the  current  is  inter- 
rupted the  streak  of  pigment  is  inter- 
rupted. BonelIi*s  telegraph  is  worked  by 
means  of  five  wires.  The  message  is  set 
up  in  brass  types  in  one  line;  the  let- 
ters are  common  block  letters ;  five  styles, 
like  the  teeth  of  a  comb,  press  against 
the  raised  portions  of  the  type,  and  as 
the  line  of  type  is  drawn  through  each 
style  sends  a  current  along  its  wire  to 
a  corresponding  style  pressing  against 
prepared  paper  at  the  distant  station, 
making  a  mark  pp  the  paper  there  corre- 
sponding to  the  raised  portion  of  type 
which  sends  the  current.  The  chief  ob- 
jection to  Bonelli's  telegraph  is  the  five 
wires  necessary  between  the  stations. 
Autographic  telegraphs  are  chemical 
telegraphs,  and  consist  of  a  message  writ- 
ten with  a  pen  dipped  in  some  non-con- 
dueting  substance  on  a  surface  of  tin- 


foil or  other  conducting  material  pasted 
on  a  cylinder  which  is  made  to  revolve 
at  a  certain  rate;  a  style  presses  against 
the  surface,  and  is  movea  up  or  down 
the  cylinder  at  a  certain  rate  so  as  to 
describe  a  helical  line;  a  current  passes 
between  the  cylinder  and  style  except 
when  the  non-conducting  writing  comes 
between  them;  at  the  distant  station  a 
similar  cylinder  covered  with  paper  pre- 
pared with  cyanide  of  potassium  revolves 
at  the  same  rate  as  the  first  cylinder; 
and  its  style  being  connected  with  the 
first  style  by  means  of  the  telegraph 
wire  makes  a  mark  of  Prussian  blue, 
which  is  a  continuous  helix,  except  when 
the  current  is  interrupted  at  the  first 
style.  In  this  way  a  copy  of  the  mes- 
sage in  the  handwriting  of  the  sender  is 
produced  at  a  distant  station.  Bain's 
automatic  telegraph  is  Bonelli's  tele- 
graph, wherein  by  adopting  the  Morse 
alphabet  one  wire  is  suflicient;  and  the 
type  is  simply  a  strip  of  paper  with 
dots  and  dashes  punched  in  it.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  delicate  mirror  or  refleeting 
galvanometer,  which  Sir  W.  Thomson  in- 
vented in  connection  with  the  Atlantic 
telegraph,  that  distinguished  electrician 
invented  a  self-recording  instrument, 
consisting  of  a  light  coil  of  wire,  very 
delicately  suspended  in  a  magnetic  field, 
the  motions  of  which  coil,  when  a  cur- 
rent is  passed  through  it,  are  the  means 
by  which  messages  are  recorded.  The 
coil  is  attached  to  a  very  light  glass 
siphon  in  the  shape  of  an  exceedingly 
fine  capillary  tube,  through  which  ink 
from  a  reservoir  is  drawn  by  electric  at- 
traction, the  reservoir  and  the  moving 
paper  ribbon  upon  which  the  ink  falls 
bein^  oppositely  electrified.  The  ex- 
tremity of  the  siphon  is  not  in  contact 
with,  but  only  very  near  the  paper. 
When  there  is  no  current  the  ink  traces 
a  straight  line;  when  the  current  is 
passing  the  marks  or  deviations  consti- 
tuting the  letters  are  produced.  The 
delicacy  and  rapidity  of  this  instrument 
are  even  greater  than  th6se  of  the  mirror 
galvanometer,  and  the  siphon  recorder 
accordingly  is  highly  valued. 

As  early  as  1747  Bishop  Watson 
showed  that  signals  might  be  sent  through 
a  wire  stretched  across  the  Thames  by 
discharging  a  Leyden-jar  through  it. 
In  1753  there  appeared  in  the  Scots 
Magazine  a  letter  signed  G.  M.,  in 
which  the  idea  of  signaling  by  means  of 
electric  discharges  is  put  forward. 
Lesage,  1774,  erected  at  Geneva  a  tele- 
graph line  consisting  of  twenty-four 
wires  connected  with  the  same  number 
of  pith-ball  electroscopes,  each  represent- 
ing a  letter.    Reusser,  in  Germany,  pro- 


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Tclegrapn  Telegraph 

posed  in  the  same  year  to  replace  the  Wheatstone  and  Ck>oke  on  the  London  and 
electroscopes  by  spangled  panes  exhibit-  Birmingham  and  Great  Western  rail- 
ing the  letters  themselves.  Volta*s  dis-  ways.  The  wires,  which  were  buried  in 
covery  of  the  galvanic  pile,  and  Oersted's  the  earth,  were  five  in  number,  each  act* 
discovery  of  electro-magnetism,  by  sup-  ing  on  a  separate  needle,  but  the  ez- 
plying  electricity  of  a  Kind  more  easily  pensiveness  of  this  plan  soon  led  to  its 
retained  on  the  conducting  wires,  af-  beinz  given  up,  the  double-needle,  and 
forded  much  greater  facilities  for  trans-  finally  the  single-needle,  system  replac- 
mlttin^  signals  to  a  distance.    Ampere,  infirit. 

in  1k20,  proposed  to  utilize  Oersted's  This  historical  sketch  may  be  corn- 
discovery  by  employing  twenty-four  pleted  by  a  statement  of  the  more  re- 
needles  to  be  deflected  by  currents  sent  cent  inventions  of  importance  in  tele- 
through  the  same  number  of  wires ;  and  graphic  science.  The  first  great  improve- 
Baron  Schilling  exhibited  in  Russia,  in  ment  after  the  general  introduction  of 
1832,  a  telegraph  model  in  which  the  the  Morse  system  came  in  the  multiple 
signals  appear  to  have  been  given  by  the  or  synchronous  system,  which  was  first 
deflections  of  a  single  needle.  Weber  suggested  as  early  as  1852.  The  early 
and  Gauss  carried  out  this  plan  in  1833  forms  of  this  system  proved  unsatis- 
by  leading  two  wires  from  the  observa-  factory,  but  Delany*s  later  invention,  in- 
tory  of  G5ttingen  to  the  Physical  Cab-  troduced  about  18fe,  supplied  a  practieal 
inety  a  distance  of  about  9000  feet,  multiplex  telegraph,  by  which  several 
The  signal  consisted  in  small  deflections  messages  could  be  sent  simultaneously. 
of  a  bar-magnet  suspended  horizontally  The  principle  involved  is  the  synchronous 
with  a  mirror  attached,  on  the  plan  since  rotation  of  sets  of  mechanism  at  opposite 
adopted  in  Thomson's  mirror  galvanom-  ends  of  a  line.  The  difficulty  to  be  met 
eter.  At  their  request  the  subject  was  is  that  of  maintaining  perfect  syn- 
eamestly  taken  up  by  Professor  Stein-  chronism.    This  system  differg  in  prlncl* 

A$  Punehsd. 

••       •          •#       %•••••  •       #•    •    •       • 


A      T         J^       N            Y  XIMB3 

As  Printed. 
Wbeatstone's  Automatic  System. 

heil  of  Munich,  whose  inventions  con-  pie  from  that  of  duplew  telegraphy^  de- 
tributed  more  perhaps  than  those  of  any  veloped  by  a  number  of  inventors,  and 
other  single  individual  to  render  electric  now  in  general  use  in  America  and  Eu- 
telcgraphs  commercially  practicable.  He  rope.  Edison's  quadruples  system,  in- 
was  the  first  to  ascertain  that  ^arth  troduced  in  1884,  is  an  improvement 
connections  might  be  made  to  supersede  upon  the  duplex.  In  this  two  keys  are 
the  use  of  a  return  wire.  He  also  in-  provided  in  the  sending  circuit,  and  two 
vented  a  convenient  telegraphic  alphabet,  relays,  each  having  a  coil  in  both  the 
in  which,  as  in  most  of  the  codes  since  line-circuit  and  compensation-circuit, 
employed,  the  different  letters  of  the  One  key  reverses  the  current,  and  the 
alphabet  are  represented  by  different  other  brings  into  the  circuit  three  times 
combinations  of  two  elementary  signals,  as  much  battery  power,  which  permits  of 
His  currents  were  magneto-electric,  like  the  two  extra  workings.  A  variety  of 
those  of  Weber  and  Gauss.  The  attrac-  other  printing  telegraphs  have  sup- 
tion  of  an  electro-magnet  on  a  movable  plemented  that  of  Hughes,  including  the 
armature  furnishes  the  means  of  signal-  Phelps  and  House  machine,  the  Rogers, 
ing  which  is  the  foundation  of  Morse's  Gray's  telautograph,  and  various  others, 
telegraphic  system,  introduced  in  1844,  In  the  Gray  instrument  two  wires  are 
and  notable  for  its  convenient  alphabet,  used  and  written  messages  are  repro- 
now  in  use  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  duced.  The  writing  instrument  may  be 
About  the  year  1837  electric  telegraphs  an  ordinary  pencil,  the  pen  of  the  re- 
were  first  developed  as  commercial  spec-  ceiver  being  a  glass  tube,  carrying  its 
nlations  in  three  different  countries,  ink  capillarity.  The  duplication  of  the 
Steinheirs  system  was  experimented  with  motions  of  the  pencil  at  the  transmitter 
at  Munich,  Morse's  in  America,  and  is  performed  by  current  impulses  con- 
Wbeatstone  and  Cooke's  in  England,  trolled  by  the  shortening  or  lengthening 
The  first  telegraphs  ever  constructed  for  of  two  silk  cords  to  which  the  pencil  is 
commercial    use    were    laid    down    by  attached.    By  a  complex  mechanism  the 


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impulses  at  the  transmitter  are  so  dupli-  This  principle  has  been  developed  in  the 

cated   at   the   receiver  as   to  cause  two  modem  range-finder.    Acoustic  telemeten 

aluminum    arms    to    shift    the    receiving  record  the  time  between  the  flash  of  a 

pen  along  positions  similar  to  those  as-  gun  and  the  hearing  of  the  report 

sumed  by  the  sending  pencil  and  the  silk  Tfilftolo^V     (tel-e-ol'd-ji),   the  science 

cords,  so  that  the  record  at  the  receiver  ^v^^vxwgjr     or  doctrine  of  final  causes ; 

is  always  a  fac  simile  of   that  at  the  the  doctrine  which  asserts  that  all  things 

transmitter,  whether  words,  figures,  signs,  which  exist  were  produced  by  an  int^i- 

or  sketches  are  made.    The  transmission  gent  being  for  the  end  which  they  fulfill, 

of  drawings  can  be  made  by  this  and  TftlnnAAnnift   (tel-e-O-sa'rus),  a  genus 

several  other  instruments.                    ^  XClCUSaUTUS   ^^  fossiTcrocoiilei  oe- 

In  the  printing  telegraph  of  recent  in-  cnrring  in  the  lower  Jurassic  rocks.     They 

vention   the  message   is   prepared   bv   a  are    found    with    marine    fossils,    and 

species    of    typewriting    machine,    which  seem   to  have  been  especially   fitted  for 

punches   holes   in   a   paper   tape,   which  an  aquatic  life. 

tape  is  fed  automatically  through  a  Teleostei  (tel-e-oa'te-I),  a  large  and 
transmitter,  having  minute  levers  which  **'*^voi*^x  ijnp^rtanj^  sub-class  of  the 
make  connections  through  the  holes  in  class  of  fishes,  distinguished  primarily 
the  tape  and  send  corresponding  impulses  by  the  usually  hony  nature  of  me  skele- 
over  the  wire.  The  speed  of  this  instru-  ton  as  compared  with  the  cartilaginous 
ment  depends  on  the  rapidity  with  which  skeletons  of  some  other  sub-classes.  Al- 
the  typewriter  can  be  worked,  as  the  most  all  our  common  fishes  are  included 
tape  can  be  sent  through  the  transmitter  in  this  order.  See  Ichthyology. 
at  almost  any  speed.  Two  hundred  or  Telenathv  (tel-ep'a-thl),  thought 
more  words  a  minute  can  be  sent,  De-  *^*^i'«**''"'j  transference  from  mind  to 
spite  the  rapidity  of  these  methods,  how-  mind  through  intermediate  space.  This 
ever,  the  simple  Morse  system  still  holds  word  was  coined  about  1886  oy  the  So- 
its  own,  all  more  rapid  ones  suffering  ciety  for  Psychical  Research  to  Indicate 
from  some  degree  of  complication.  An  the  supposed  cause  of  various  phenome- 
interesting  development  of  telegraphy  is  na  observed.  These  were  very  namer- 
that  of  sending  messages  from  moving  ous  and  varied,  and  sufficed  to  convince 
trains.  This  is  done  hy  induction  from  many  members  of  the  Society  that  such 
an  instrument  in  the  train  to  an  external  a  power  existed,  they  maintaining  that 
wire.  The  cost  and  little  need  of  this  the  facts  observed  by  them  admitted  of 
system  has  prevented  it  from  coming  into  no  other  explanation.  These  facts  con- 
use.  For  the  most  recent  and  one  of  the  sisted  of  drawings  made  by  a  sensitive 
most  interesting  discoveries  in  telegraphy  when  surrounded  by  others,  who  concen- 
see  Wireless  Telegraphy.  trated  their  thoughts  on  the  object  to  be 
TMf»(rrfl.nTi  HAhlf^  ^^  Submarine  drawn;  the  successes  far  surpassing 
XCie^mpiL  ^&Die.     ^^^^^^  ^j,^  U^^jy  ^^  ^  ^^^  ^^  chance.    In  ad- 

Tele?raT)ll-T)laiLt  {Desmodium  fy-  dition  were  communications  received  men- 
AVAvgj.c»yu  ^Aauv  rans),  an  Indian  tally  from  a  distance,  occasionally  a  very 
leguminous  plant,  with  small  lateral  great  one,  conveying  some  intelligence  of 
leaflets,  which  display  a  strange  spon*  a  personal  character  that  was  afterwards 
taneous  motion,  especially  in  a  warm,  corroborated.  Many  maintain  that  the 
moist  atmosphere.  They  jerk  up  and  phenomena  known  as  spirit  communica- 
down  as  if  signaling,  as  many  as  180  tions  are  telepathic  in  their  origin,  and  to 
times  in  a  minute,  and  also  rotate  on  sustain  this  give  a  great  expansion  to  the 
their  axes.  power  of  thought  transmission. 
TelemachUS  ite-lem'akus),  a  son  of  JeleDhOIie  jtel'e-fdn),  an  Insteument 
AVAvuMarvuu0  Ulysses  and  Penelope,  a^*^!'"^!*^  ^^^  transmitting  the  hu- 
who  is  reputed  to  have  gone  through  man  voice  or  other  sounds  by  means  of 
many  adventures  in  search  of  his  father  electricity  and  telegraph  wires.  About 
after  the  close  of  the  Trojan  war.  He  the  year  1860  the  idea  that  sound-produc- 
is  the  hero  of  a  French  prose  epic  by  ing  vibrations  could  be  transmitted 
F^nelon  (1609).  through  a  wire  by  means  of  electricity 
Telemeter  (tel-em'e-ter),  a  device  for  began  to  be  recognized  bv  several  men 
^  measuring  distances;  a  of  science.  Reis  of  Frankfort  invented 
distance-meter.  The  simplest  forms  con-  an  apparatus  which  could  reproduce  at 
sist  of  telescopes  containing  parallel  wires  a  distant  station  the  pitch  of  a  musical 
accurately  spaced,  or  there  may  be  two  sound  by  means  of  a  discontinuous  cur- 
telescopes  at  stations  of  known  distance  rent  along  a  telegraph  wire.  A  great 
apart,  the  difference  in  the  angles  of  ob-  step  in  advance  was  made  in  1876,  when 
servation  affording  a  basis  for  calcula-  Prof.  Graham  Bell  discovered  an  articula- 
ting the  distance  of  the  object  observed,  ting  telephone  which  depends  upon  tht 


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principle  of  the  undulating  current,  and 
by  means  of  which  the  very  quality  of  a 
note,  and  therefore  conversation  itself, 
could  be  reproduced  at  a  distant  station. 
Eliaha  Gray  had  made  a  similar  inven- 
tion at  the  same  time,  and  Bell  and 
Gray  applied  for  a  patent  on  the  same 
day,  Feb.  14,  187a  Bell's  application 
came  first  and  the  patent  was  granted 
him.    The  telephone  was  first  shown  in 

?ublic  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  of 
876,  at  Philadelphia.  Several  varieties 
of  telephonic  apparatus  are  now  in  use  for 
inter-communication  between  distant 
places.  The  Bell  telephone  in  its  com- 
mon form  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
cut.  A  strong  ordinary  bar-magnet  m 
has  round  one  of  its  ends  a  coil  of  fine 
silk-covered  wire  in  metallic  communi- 
cation with  the  two  terminals  8  8,  One 
of  the  terminals  communicates  through  a 
telegraph  wire  with  one  of  the  terminals 
of  the  coil  of  a  precisely  similar  instru- 
ment at  the  other  station,  the  remaining 
pair      of      terminals      being      connected 


Bell  Telephone  Beceiver. 


through  the  earth,  or  through  a  return 
wire.  Just  in  front  of  the  extremity  of 
the  ma^et  there  is  a  thin  plate  of  iron 
p.  and  m  front  of  this  a^ain  there  is  the 
mouth-piece  of  a  speaking-tube  o.  By 
this  last  the  sounds  to  be  transmitted  are 
collected  and  concentrated,  and  falling 
on  the  metal  plate  cause  it  to  vibrate. 
These  vibrations  in  their  turn  excite  un- 
dulating electric  currents  which  corre- 
spond exactly  with  the  vibrations;  that 
is,  with  the  original  sounds.  The  elec- 
tric currents  being  transmitted  to  the  re- 
ceiving telephone  cause  corresponding 
vibrations  in  the  plate  or  disc  in  it.  and 
these  reproduce  to  the  ear  the  original 
•ounds.  A  telephone  invented  by  Edison 
la  based  upon  the  variation  of  resistance 
to  the  electric  current  of  carbon  with 
Tariation  of  pressure.  The  microphone, 
in  the  invention  of  which  both  Edison 
and  Berliver  claim  priority,  is  the  basis 
of  the  carbon  telephone.  It  has  not 
into  OMi  the  Bell  principle  being 


everywhere  employed.  The  telephone  is 
now  an  established  institution  throuah- 
out  Europe  and  America.  Copper  wire 
is  generally  employed  in  the  lines  in  pref- 
erence to  iron,  on  account  of  its  superior 
power  of  electric  conduction.  Telephone 
exchanges  exist  in  all  the  principal  towns, 
subscribers  to  which  have  their  houses  or 
places  of  business  in  direct  communica- 
tion with  each  other.  Long  distance 
lines  are  also  rapidly  joining  city  to  city, 
lines  between  New  York  and  Chicago 
having    been    years    in    existence,    while 

greater  distances  have  been  covered  both 
1  America  and  Europe.  In  the  United 
States  the  telephone  has  made  greater 
strides  than  in  any  other  country.  There 
is  scarcely  a  village  or  small  town  but 
has  its  telephone  exchange,  while  in  the 
large  cities  there  are  many  thousands  in 
use.  Throughout  the  country  they  may 
be  found  in  many  farm-houses  and  serve 
to  reduce  the  isolation  of  the  farmer's 
household.  There  are  at  present  more 
than  22,000,000  miles  of  telephone  wire  in 
use  in  the  United  States  and  37,000,000 
in  the  world.  See  Wireless  Telephony. 
Telenhote  (teKe-fOt),  an  instrument 
*        "  for  telegraphing  images  of 

objects  b^  the  agency  of  electricity  acting 
on  selenium,  the  electrical  resistance  of 
which  varies  greatly  with  increase  or 
diminution  of  light.  It  was  invented  in 
London  in  1891. 

Tf»1pflPAnA  &°  optical  instrument  es- 
xcxcsuupc,  gentially  consisting  of  a 
set  of  lenses  fixed  in  a  tube  or  a  number 
of  sliding  tubes,  by  which  distant  ob- 
jects are  brought  within  the  range  of 
distinct,  or  more  distinct  vision.  The 
law  of  action  b^  which  the  telescope  as- 
sists human  vision  is  twofold,  and  that 
under  all  the  varieties  of  its  construction. 
A  distant  object  viewed  by  the  unaided 
eye  is  placed  in  the  circumference  of  a 
large  circle,  having  the  eye  for  its  center, 
and  consequently  the  angle  under  which 
it  is  seen  is  measured  by  the  minute  por- 
tion of  the  circumference  which  it  occu- 
pies. Now,  when  the  distance  is  great,  it 
is  found  that  this  angle  is  too  small  to 
convey  to  the  retina  any  sensible  im- 
pression—  all  the  light  proceeding  from 
the  object  is  too  weak  to  affect  the  optic 
nerve.  This  limit  to  distinct  vision  re- 
sults from  the  small  aperture  or  pupil  of 
the  eye.  The  telescope  substitutes  its 
large  object  lens  or  reflector  for  the  hu- 
man eye,  and  consequently  receives  a 
quantity  of  light  proportioned  to  its  area 
or  surface;  hence  a  distant  point,  inap- 
preciable by  the  eye  alone,  is  rendered 
visible  by  the  aid  of  the  telescope.  The 
rays  of  light,  after  transmission  or  re- 
flection, converge  to  a  point  as  they  at 


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first  proceeded  from  a  point,  and  thus  an 
image  of  the  object  is  formed  which, 
when  Tiewed  by  the  eye-piece  or  lens,  is 
more  or  less  magnified.  The  telescope 
therefore  assists  the  eye  in  these  two 
ways:  it  gathers  np  additional  light,  and 
it  magnifies  the  object ;  that  is  to  say,  its 
image.  The  refracting  telescope  is  con- 
structed of  lenses  alone,  which,  by  suc- 
cessive refractions^  produce  the  desired 
effect.  This  instrument  was  formerly 
very  cumbersome  and  inconvenient,  inas- 
much as  its  length  had  to  be  increased 
considerably    with    every    accession    of 


Oriving-elock  of  the  26-inch  Equatorial  Tele- 
scope of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Obserratory  at 
Washington. 

power;  but  the  substitution  of  achromat- 
ic for  ordinary  lenses  has  rendered  it 
more  portable  and  convenient.  The  re- 
flecting telescope  is  composed  of  specula 
or  concave  reflectors  (see  Speculum) 
aided  by  a  refracting  eye-piece.  To  this 
instrument  we  owe  some  of  the  most 
wondrous  discoveries  in  astronomical 
science.  The  names  of  Newton,  Gregory, 
Herschel,  and  Lord  Rosse  are  connected 
with  its  history.  The  following  dia- 
grams exhibit  the  principles  of  construc- 
tion and  action  in  both  sorts  of  tele- 


scopes. In  fig.  1,  which  illustrates  the 
refracting  telescope  in  its  simplest  form, 
A  and  B  are  two  lenses  of  difter«nt  focal 
lengths.  Rays  of  light  from  a  distant 
object  falling  upon  the  object-glass  a 
are  converged  to  a  focus  at  c.  The  eye- 
glass B,  placed  at  its  focal  distance  from 
the  point  of  convergence,  gathers  up  the 
diverging  rays  and  carries  them  parallel 
to  the  eye.  maffnifjing  the  image  formed 
at  o.  (See  Optics,)  The  magnifying 
power  of  the  instrument  is  as  a  c  :  c  B, 

A, 


Fig.  1. 

or  as  the  focal  length  of  one  lens  to  that 
of  the  other.  In  this  construction  the 
object  is  seen  inverted  or  turned  npside 
down,  and  hence  it  is  nnsui table  for  ter- 
restrial purposes.  To  render  the  image 
erect,  and  thus  show  it  in  its  natural  po- 
sition, a  more  complicated  eye-piece,  con- 
sisting of  two  additional  lenses,  is  nec- 
essary. Another  refracting  telescope, 
consisting  of  two  lenses  in  its  simplest 
form,  is  called  the  Galilean  telescope. 
It  differs  from  the  former  in  having  a 
concave  lens  for  its  eve-glass,  which  lens 
is  placed  nearer  the  object-glass  than  the 
focus  of  this  lens,  producmg  an  image 
which  is  not  inverted.  This  kind  of  tele- 
scope is  the  one  used  in  opera-glasses  and 
field-glasses.     Fig.  2  shows  the  structure 


Pig.  2. 


of  the  reflecting  telescope  as  constructed 
by  Dr.  Gregory,  a  B  is  a  large  speculum 
perforated  m  the  center;  upon  this  fall 
the  rays  5,  a  and  d,  c,  which  are  reflected 
to  convergence  at  e.  A  smaller  speculum* 
c,  takes  up  the  diverging  rays  and  re- 
flects them,  slightly  converging,  through 
the  aperture  o,  where  they  are  received 
by  a  lens,  and,  after  transmission,  they 
intersect  at  a,  and  proceed  to  the  eye- 
glass, whence  they  emerge  paralleL  The 
magnifying  power  of  this  instrument  is 
great  for  its  length.  In  the  telescope  in- 
vented by  Sir  William  Herschel  there  is 
no  second  speculum,  and  no  perforation  in 
the  center  of  the  larger  one  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tube.  The  latter  is  fixed  in 
an  inclined  position  so  that  the  image 


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formed  by  reflection  falls  near  the  lower 
■ide  of  the  tube  at  its  open  end  or  mouth, 
Inhere  it  is  viewed  directly  by  an  eye- 
piece, without  greatly  interfering  with  the 
light.  This  arrangement,  in  the  case  of 
larce  reflectors,  is  imposed  by  their  great 
weight  and  difficult  management.  Were 
it  otherwise  the  ordinary  construction 
would  be  preferred,  the  inclination  of  the 
speculum  being  a  disadvantage.  Chro- 
matic aberration;  which  arises  from  the 
different  refrangibilities  of  the  different 
colored  rays,  and  leads  to  the  formation, 
by  a  lens,  of  a  separate  image  of  a 
bright  object  for  each  colored  ray,  is  rem- 
edied by  achromatizing  the  lens,  that  is, 
by  constructing  it  of  two  or  more  lenses 
of  different  kinds  of  glass,  so  that  the 
colors,  separated  by  one,  shall  be  reunited 
by  the  others.  (See  Achromatic.)  The 
most  powerful  refracting  telescope  yet 
made  is  that  in  the  Yerkes  ObservatoiTt 
Wisconsin,  which  has  an  object-glass  40 
inches  in  diameter.  Next  in  size  is  the 
36-inch  telescope  at  the  lick  Observatory, 
California.  The  Hosse  telescope  is  the 
largest  reflecting  telescope,  its  lens  being 
6  feet  in  diameter.  The  Came^e  reflec- 
tor, now  making,  will  have  a  100-inch  lens. 

Telescopium  <l\ir^!iS.?;!;''J?iitei* 

lation,  was  introduced  by  Louis  de 
Lecaille  in  1751  after  extended  observa- 
tions. He  placed  the  Telescopium  be- 
tween Ara  and  Sagittarius.  The  constel- 
lation is  now  obsolete. 

phono- 
instru- 
conversa- 
tions,  perfected  by  Thomas  A.  Edison  in 
1914.  A  phonograph  record  takes  down 
every  sound  that  comes  over  the  wire,  the 
recording  apparatus  being  started  or 
stopped  by  pressing  a  button.  The  chief 
use  of  the  telescribe  is  in  fixing  exactly 
important   business   agreements   by   tele- 

ehone ;  in  case  of  dispute  its  decision  will 
i  final  as  to  what  was  said  by  the  per- 
sons concerned. 

Telescriptor  i^l^^a'aw 

with  keyboard  transmitter  and  an  auto- 
matic receiver  of  the  revojving  type-wheel 
pattern.  The  operator  strikes  the  keys 
exactly  as  if  he  were  writing  on  a  type- 
writer, and  the  words  come  out  on  a  strip 
of  paper  that  unrolls  before  him,  while 
at  the  same  time  the  message  is  being 
written  before  the  eyes  of  the  man  at  the 
other  end  of  the  line. 


through  whom  he  was  appointed  surveyor 
of  puDlic  works  for  Salop.  He  then  ex- 
changed his  original  occupation  for  that 
of  civil  engineer,  and  was  intrusted  with 
the  construction  of  the  Ellesmere  Canal. 
In  the  years  1803  and  1804  the  parlia- 
mentary commissioners  for  making  roads 
and  building  bridges  in  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  and  al^o  those  for  making  the 
Caledonian  Canal,  appointed  Telford  their 
engineer,  and  thus  an  immense  amount  of 
work  was  carried  out  by  him.  Above 
thirty  harbors  were  built  or  improved  by 
him,  some  of  which,  as  at  Aberdeen  and 
Dundee,  were  upon  an  extensive  scale. 
He  superintended  the  construction  of  a 
number  of  large  bridges,  and  the  execution 
of  numerous  important  works  for  the 
metropolis.     Besides   the   900   miles   of 


lanon  is  now  oosoiete. 

Telescribe  (tei'e-scnb)    or    ph 

A^x^ovxxM^     graph  recorder,  an  ini 
ment   for   recording    telephone   conv< 


Thomsi  Telford. 

roads  laid  in  Scotland  h«  engineered  a 
system  of  roads  through  the  more  inac- 
cessible parts  of  Wales,  which  involved 
the  erection  of  the  magnificent  suspen- 
sion bridge  across  the  Menai  Straits,  be- 
gun in  1820,  and  the  Conway  bridge,  be- 
gun in  1822.  He  employed  a  system  ef 
road-making  since  known  as  the  Telford. 
In  1806  he  was  employed  by  the  Swedish 
government  to  lay  out  a  system  of  inland 
navigation  through  the  central  parts  of 
that  kingdom.  He  died  in  1834,  and  was 
interred  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

TeU. 


See  Algeria, 

TAlfnril     Thomas,    engineer,   bom   in  TaII      William,  a  famous  peasant  hero 
xeuura,    1757   at   Eskdale,   Dumfries-  •''^"^    of  Switzeriand,  reputed   to  have 

done  some  daring  and  wonderful  feats  in 
his  resistance  to  the  tyranny  of  the  Aus- 
trian governor  Gessler,  but  now  proved 
to  have  been  a  mythical  personage.     Hq 


■hire ;  became  a  mason  and  worked  at  his 
trade  in  Edinburgh,  which  in  1782  he 
qtdtted  for  London.  Here  he  was  be- 
friended     by      Sir     William      Pultney, 


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Tell-el-Eebir  TempS 

is  said  to  have  belonged  to  the  cantoo  of  TAlnliArovA  (terfer-ij)»  a  •ystem  f6r 
Uri,  and  to  have  united  with  others  be-  *c*F"'^*«*S''  the  antomatic  transport 
longing  to  this  canton  and  to  those  of  of  goods  by  means  of  electridty  densiMl 
Unte^walden  and  Schwyx  in  resisting  the  by  Fleeming  Jenkin  in  1881.  It  con- 
Austrians.  In  particnlar,  having  re-  sists  of  a  line  of  steel  rods  or  cables  soa- 
fnsed  to  do  homage  to  Gessler's  hat,  set  pended  from  brackets  or  posts,  70  feet 
upon  a  pole,  he  was  seized  and  con-  apart,  and  serving  at  once  as  a  suppor- 
demned  to  death,  but  was  granted  his  life  ter  of  weights  and  a  conductor  of  electric- 
on  condition  of  shooting  with  an  arrow  an  ity.  Buckets  or  other  receptades  ara 
apple  placed  on  the  head  of  his  own  son.  hung  from  the  line  bv  a  wheel  or  pair  of 
This  he  did  successfully,  admitting  at  the  wheels,  and  a  small  electrical  motor, 
same  time  that  a  second  arrow  he  had  hanging  below  the  line,  supplies  tiie 
was  intended  for  Gessler  in  case  of  fail-  power.  Trains  of  buckets  nUed  with 
ure.  He  was  therefore  still  kept  a  pris-  goods  may  be  conyejed  at  one  time,  or 
oner;  but  while  being  conveyed  over  the  they  may  be  carried  forwaM  In  a  con- 
Lake  of  Lucerne  he  manacled  to  leap  tinuous  stream.  The  system  was  devd- 
ashore.  and  soon  after,  having  lain  in  oped  in  conjunction  with  Professors  Ayr- 
wait  for  Gessler,  he  killed  him.  ton  and  Perry. 

Tell-el-Kebir   (tel;e.ke-b6r'),  a  village  TelgTii   (tyeVshC),  a  town  of  Russia.  Itt 

xcii-ci  Jkcuir  ^^    g      j^    ^jjgj.^    ^jj^  xeuiU   ^^  government  of  KovnoTlCO 

British   troops   under   Wolseley  defeated  miles  N.w.  of  vilna.    It  has  a  population 

those    of    Arabi    Pasha,    September    13,  of  7700. 

1882.  Telni^ll    (te-ia'gu),  or  TKLnroA.  one  of 

Teller    (^rer),  Henbt  Moobb,  statea-  *^***B**    the   languages  of   India,   be- 

man,  was  born  at  Granger,  New  lonaing    to    the    Dravidian    group,    and 

York,  in  1830;  died  in  1914.    He  was  a  spoken  in  southern  India  by  about  twen- 

lawyer  in  Illinois  and  Colorado  and  was  a  ty-one  millions  of  people.     The  Telufu 

major-general  of  Colorado  militia  in  the  are   the  most  numerous  brandi   of  ue 

Civil  War.   In  18 1 6  he  was  elected  to  the  Dravidian  race,  but  are  less  enterprlsina 

United   States   Senate ;   appointed  secre-  than  the  Tamils.    The  language  is  allied 

taiT  of  the  interior  in  1882,  and  in  1885  in  roots  to  the  Tamil  language,  but  dif- 

and    1891    again    elected    senator.      He  fers  considerably  otherwise, 

withdrew  from  the  Republican  party  in  TATnT^tiloTi^  (tem'b5-land).  a  district 

1896  and  was  reelected  in  189?  as  an  TCHlDlUantt  if  Uie^SansieUn  tSS- 

Independent  Free-silver  Republican,  and  tories  in  eastern  South  Africa,  which  ara 

as  a  Democrat  in  1903.  bounded  by  Cape  Colony,  Basutoland,  and 

TellicherrV    (teH-cher'i),   a  seaport  NataL    Tembuland  has  an  excellent  di- 

*^          *^,  of    Hindustan,    in    the  mate  and  a  fertile  soil,  whidi  is  wdl 

presidency  of  Madras,  a  healthy  and  pic-  suited  for  pastoral  and  agricultural  pnr- 

turesque   town,   built   upon   a   group   of  poses.    The  coast  regions  are  adapted  to 

wooded  hills,  with  a  citadel  or  castle  in  the  growth  of  sugar,  cotton,  and  coffctt. 

excellent  preservation.     It  is  a  mart  for  The   minerals   include  coal  and  ooppar. 

sandalwood,  coffee,  etc.  Pop.  231,151. 
Tellnrinm     (tel-l<lr'i-oni),  a  metal 

AVAAK&AAiuu     j^^^  recoguizcd  as  a  dis-  nTATnAoiroi*  (tem'esh-vRr),    a    town    of 

tinct    element    in    1798.      Symbol    Te,  ^^"ACiiVttr  Hungary,  in  the  Temes  Ba- 

atomic    weight    127.5,    specinc    gravity  nat,   on  the   river  Bega  and    the  Bega 

6.27.     It  is  a  brittle,  silvery- white  de-  Canal,  75  miles  N.N.B.  of  Belgrade.     It 

ment,  melting  at  452*^C.  and  boiling  at  is  strongly  fortified,  and  is  for  the  moat 

478'*C.    Occasionally  found  native,  but  is  part  well  built,  with  spadous  streets  and 

very  rare,  and  is  mostly  obtained  in  com-  squares.    The  principal  buildings  are  the 

bination   with  other  elements.     It  com-  Greek    Orthodox    cathedral    and    other 

bines  directly  with  hydrogen  to  produce  churches,   the  government  offices,   town- 

telluretted  hydrogen,  a  highly  poisonous  house,   tneater,  various  schools  and  col* 

gas.     There  are   two  chlorides,    the   di-  leges,  arsenal,  civil  and  military  hospitala. 

chloride  and  the  tetrachloride.    Bromides  The    manufactures    consist    of    woolens, 

and  iodides  are  known.     With  oxygen  it  dlks,  paper,  tobacco,  etc;     Held  by  the 

forms  the  dioxide  and  the  trioxide,  and  a  Turks  from  1552  to  1710,  Temeavf^  waa 

monoxide  has  been  described.    Two  adds  r*  taken  by  Prince  Eugene.     Pop.  72,556. 

exist,    tellurous    acid    and    telluric    add.  Temnikov  (tyem-nyi-kov'),  a  town  in 

No   well-defined    normal   salts   in    whidi  **'*""***'^^    the  Russian  government  of 

tsUurium  acts  as  a  metallic  radical  ara  Tambov,  on  the  Moksha.    Pop.  5737. 

known.     Tellurium  is  found  in  Transyl-  Ti^niTie   (tem'pC),  Vale  op,  a  beautiful 

Tania  and  other  parts  of  Hungary,  in  die  •*'^*"y^    valley  of  northern  Greece,  in 

Altai  ailyer  mines  and  in  North  Ameriot.  Tbessaly,  on  the  Peneus,  much  celebrated 


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Tempera 


Tempering 


by  the  ancient  poets,  having  Mount 
Olympus  on  the  north  and  Mount  Ossa 
on  the  south. 

Tempera.  See  Distemper. 

Temperance  Societies.  L^odau?n 

for  the  purpose  of  influencing  public 
opinion  in  onJer  to  check  the  evil  of  in- 
temperance was  a  society  formed  at  Mor- 
eau.  New  York,  in  18()8.  It  was  followed 
in  1813  by  the  Massachusetts  Society  for 
the  Suppression  of  Intemperance.  In 
1826  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  the 
movement  by  the  establishment  in  Bos- 
ton on  a  more  extensive  plan  of  the 
American  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Temperance,  the  first  annual  report  of 
which  announced  the  formation  of  thirty, 
and  the  second  of  220  auxlliarv  associa- 
tions. By  1831  more  than  2200  socie- 
ties, embracing  170,000  members,  were 
in  correspondence  with  the  parent  so- 
ciety. Reports  of  the  movement  in  Amer- 
ica soon  began  to  have  an  effect  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Atlantic  In  August, 
1829,  a  society  was  formed  in  Ireland, 
and  before  a  year  had  passed  sixty  or- 
ganisations, with  3500  members,  were  in 
existence.  In  1838  a  great  impetus  to 
the  movement  was  given  by  the  Rev. 
Theobald  Mathew,  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  who  succeeded  in  less  than  two 
years  in  persuading  1,800,000  of  his 
countrymen  to  renounce  the  use  of  ardent 
spirits.  The  first  temperance  society  in 
Scotland  was  established  at  Marvbill, 
near  Glasgow,  in  October,  1829,  and  the 
Greenock  and  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scot- 
land Temperance  societies  were  consti- 
tuted soon  afterwards.  On  the  14th  of 
June.  1830,  the  first  temperance  society 
in  England  was  founded  at  Bradford, 
and  by  the  close  of  the  year  there  were 
in  existence  some  thirty  associations, 
numbering  about  10,000  members.  These 
societies  went  no  further  than  the  resolve 
to  abstain  from  ardent  spirits,  the  use 
of  fermented  liquors  in  moderation  be- 
ing permitted.  But  the  principle  of  total 
abstinence  soon  followed.  In  1832  the 
war  against  intoxicating  liquors  of  all 
kinds  was  opened  in  England  by  Joseph 
Livesey  of  Preston,  and  by  1838  the  total 
abstinence,  or  teetotal,  party  had  tri- 
umphed all  along  the  line,  the  old  tem- 
perate or  moderation  party  having  gradu- 
ally disappeared.  Of  late  years  many  of 
the  advocates  of  total  abstinence  have 
sought  to  enforce  their  views  by  legisla- 
tive measures,  as  exenoplified  In  the  cele- 
brated Maine  Liquor  Law  (for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  manufacture  and  sale 
of  intoxicating  beverages),  so  called  from 
the  state  in  which  a  prohibitory  law 
4—10 


was  first  enacted.  Some  other  states 
passed  similar  laws,  but  at  the  end 
of  the  century  only  three  maintained 
prohibition^  Maine,  Kansas,  and  North 
Dakota.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
twentieth  century  an  active  movement 
was  instituted  in  favor  of  local  option 
and  state  prohibition  of  liquor  selling, 
beginning  in  the  South,  where  negro 
drunkenness  had  become  a  serious  evil, 
and  extending  to  some  of  the  states 
of  the  North.  As  a  result,  on  January 
1,  1911,  complete  prohibition  existed  in 
nine  states,  these  being  Maine,  Kansas, 
North  Dakota,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, North  Carolina,  Oklahoma,  and 
Tennessee.  Since  that  date  active  pro- 
gress has  been  made  in  the  temperance 
cause  and  nine  more  states  have  been 
added  to  the  list  These  include  Arizona, 
Arkansas,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Iowa,  Oregon, 
Virginia,  Washington  and  West  Virginia. 
Among  the  important  developments  In 
the  temperance  movement  are  the  ot^ 
aanizations  known  as  the  Independent 
Order  of  Good  Templars  and  the  Anti- 
Saloon  League.  (See  these  titles.)  The 
Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union, 
long  under  the  presidency  of  Frances  E. 
Willard,  has  been  an  influential  Society. 

Temperature  i^'^^^^'  >„  "JJ^ 

State  of  a  body  with  regard  to  heat,  or 
to  its  power  of  communicating  heat  to 
other  bodies.  It  often  refers  to  the  at- 
mospheric heat  of  a  locality  at  a  partic- 
ular time.  When  we  speak  of  a  body 
having  a  *  high  '  or  a  *  low  '  temperature 
it  is  implied  that  the  condition  of  heat  in 
the  body  may  be  compared  with  the 
thermometer.     See  Thermometer, 

Temperature  of  Animals.    ®*® 

AnimdL 

Temperincr   /tem'per-lng),   in   metal- 
*^  &    lurgy,  the  process  of  giv- 

ing to  metals,  principally  iron  and  steel, 
the  requisite  degree  of  hardness  or  soft- 
ness, especially  the  process  of  giving  to 
steel  the  necessary  hardness  for  cutting, 
stamping,  and  other  purposes.  If  heated 
and  suddenly  cooled  below  a  certain  de- 
gree it  becomes  as  soft  as  iron ;  if  heated 
beyond  that  degree,  it  becomes  very  hard 
and  brittle.  The  process  essentially  con- 
sists in  plunging  the  steel  when  red-hot 
into  cold  water  or  other  liquid  to  give 
an  excess  of  hardness,  and  then  gradually 
reheating  it  until  the  hardness  is  re- 
duced or  brought  dovm  to  the  required 
degree.  The  excellence  of  all  steel-cut- 
ting instruments  depends  on  the  degree 
of  temper  given  to  them.  Different  de- 
grees of  temper  are  indicated  by  differ- 
ent colors  which  the  steel  assumes.    Thiir 


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Tenul  Tench 

in  different  materials,  and  in  the  same  law;  and  the  outgoing  tenant  became  en- 
material  it  varies  with  the  state  of  the  titled  to  compensation  from  the  proprie- 
body  in  regard  to  temperature  and  other  tor  to  an  amount  varying  according  to 
circumstances.  The  resistance  offered  to  circumstances.  The  act  contained  other 
tearing  is  called  absolute  tenacity^  that  provisions  giving  compensation  for  im- 
offered  to  crushing,  retroactive  tenacity,  provements,  but  as  it  did  not  succeed 
The  tenacity  of  wood  is  much  greater  in  in  doing  away  with  all  crievances  a 
the  direction  of  the  length  of  its  fibers  fresh  bill  was  prepared  and  passed  un- 
than  in  the  transverse  direction.  With  der  the  name  of  the  Land  Law  Act,  1881, 
regard  to  metals  the  processes  of  forg-  which  established  a  land  commission  to 
ing  and  wire-drawing  increase  their  ten-  revise  rents,  and  to  fix  them  for  fifteen 
acTty  in  the  longitudinal  direction;  and  years.  This  measure  has  been  amended 
mixed  metals  have,  in  general,  greater  by  subsequent  acta.  See  Ireland. 
tenacity  than  those  which  are  simple.  T^THLftflf^rim  (ten-as'er-im),  a  mari- 
T^TiAil  (te'nftl),  Tenaiixe,  in  fortifi-  -^cnnwcruu  ^^^^  division  of  Bur- 
Aciicux  ^jutjQQ^  an  out- work  or  rampart  mah,  about  500  miles  in  length,  and 
raised  in  the  main  ditch  immediately  in  from  40  to  80  in  breadth,  with  an  area  of 
front  of  the  curtain,  between  two  has-  46,730  square  miles.  The  eastern  bound- 
tions,  in  its  simplest  form  having  two  ary  of  the  district  is  formed  by  a  range 
faces  constituting  a  reentering  angle.  of  mountains  from  3000  to  5000  feet  in 
Tf^nSLTlt  (ten'ant),  in  law,  one  who  height.  The  coast  is  for  the  most  part 
Acuaiib  Q^jcupies,  or  has  temporary  rocky,  and  off  the  gouthem  part  of  it  the 
possession  of  lands  or  tenements,  the  sea  is  studded  by  the  innumerable  isV- 
titles  of  which  are  in  another,  the  land-  ands,  large  and  small,  of  the  Mergui 
lord.  A  tenant-at-icill  is  one  who  oc-  Archipelago.  There  are  several  good  har- 
cupies  lands  or  tenements  for  no  fixed  bors,  formed  by  the  mouths  of  the  rivers, 
term  other  than  the  will  of  the  landlord.  Tenasserim  is  a  hilly  and  densely  wooded 
A  tenant  in  common  is  one  who  holds  region,  with  here  and  there  tracts  of 
lands  or  tenements  along  with  another  or  arable  land.  It  passed  into  the  hands 
other  persons.  Each  share  in  the  estate  of  the  British  at  the  close  of  the  first 
is  distinct  in  title,  and  on  the  death  of  Burmese  war  in  182G.  Pop.  1,159,55a 
a  tenant  his  share  goes  to  his  heirs  or  Tenbv  (^^^^'l^Ot  a  municipal  borough 
executors.  A  tenant  for  life  is  one  who  **^""J  and  seaport  of  Wales,  in  the 
has  possession  of  a  freehold  estate  or  in-  county  of  Pembroke,  on  the  west  side  of 
terest,  the  duration  of  which  is  deter-  Carmarthen  Bav,  on  the  point  and  north- 
mined  by  the  life  of  the  tenant  or  an-  east  margin  of  a  rocky  peninsula.  It 
other.  An  estate  for  life  is  g:enerally  has  a  fine  old  church  and  several  other 
created  by  deed,  but  it  may  originate  by  buildings  of  note,  including  the  Welsh 
the  operation  of  law,  as  the  widow's  es-  Memorial  to  the  late  Prince  Consort,  and 
tate  in  dower,  and  the  husband's  estate  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  fish 
by  courtesy  on  the  death  of  his  wife,  and  oysters.  It  is  besides  a  bathing- 
See  Landlord  and  Tenant,  place,  celebrated  for  its  fine  sands,  beau- 
TpuftTif.ricrlif  a  term  specifically  tiful  scenery,  and  agreeable  climate. 
xciiuiit  ix^lLhy  applied  to  an  Irish  The  old  walls  of  the  town  are  still  to 
custom,  long  prevalent  in  Ulster,  either  some  extent  preserved.  Pop.  4362. 
ensuring  a  permanence  of  tenure  in  the  Tencll  *  teleostean  fish,  belonging  to 
same  occupant  without  liability  to  any  ^  ^  the  carp  family  and  genus 
other  increase  of  rent  than  may  be  sane-  Tinea,  of  which  T.  vulg&rit  (the  common 
tioned  by  the  general  sentimenU  of  the  tench)  is  the  type.  It  inhabits  most  of 
community,  or  entitling  the  tenant  of  a 
farm  to  receive  purchase-money  amount- 
ing to  so  many  years'  rent,  on  its  being 
transferred  to  another  tenant;  the  tenant 
having  also  a  claim  to  the  value  of  per- 
manent improvements  effected  by  him. 
In  course  of  time  the  advantages  of 
tenant-right  granted  to  the  Ulster  far- 
mers were  claimed  by  the  farmers  in  the 
other  provinces  of  Ireland,  and  the  cus- 
tom spread  to  a  considerable  extent.  At 
last,  under  the  management  of  Qlad- 
stone  and  Bright,  the  Landlord  and  Tenck  (Tinea  vtdpSris). 
Tenant  Act  of  1870  was  passed.     By  it 

the  Ulster  tenant-right  and  other  corre-  the  lakes  of  the  European  continent,  and 

tponding  cuatoms  received  the  force  of  attains  a  length  of  from  10  to  12  iochcac 


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Tender  Teniers 

The   color  is  generally   a  greenish-olive  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  15  miles  southwest 

above,  a  light  tint  predominating  below,  of  the  Dardanelles,  about  6  miles  long 

It  is  very  sluggish,  apparently  innabiting  and  3  miles  broad.    The  channel  which 

bottom-waters,    and    feeding    on    refuse  separates  it  from  the  mainland  is  3  miles 

vegetable  matter.     It  is   very   tenacious  broad.    The  interior  of  the  island  is  very 

of  life,   and   may  be  conveyed  alive   in  fertile,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  excel- 

damp    weeds    for    long    distances.    The  lence    of    its   wines.     Com,    cotton,    and 

flesh  is  somewhat  coarse  and  insipid.  fruits  are  also  produced.    On  the  east- 

Tendfir    (ten'der),  in  law,  an  offer  of  em  side  of  the  island,  near  the  sea,  is  the 

A^uu\;x    compensation    or    damages  town  of  Tenedos.     Pop.  about  4000.    On 

made  in  a  money   action.    To  make  a  it  is  the  little  seaport  of  Tenedos. 

tender  valid  the  money  must  be  actually  Teneriffe    (ten-4r-if ).  Tenebiffa,  the 

produced.    A  tender  made  to  one  of  sev-  *^"'^*"*^    largest     of      the     Canary 

eral  joint  claimants  is  held  as  made  to  Islands  (which  see),  is  of  an  irregularly 

all.    A  tender  of  money  for  any  pavment  triangular  form,  and  has  an  area  of  about 

is  legal,  and  is  called  a  legal  tender,  if  782  square  miles.     It  is  of  volcanic  for- 

made    in    current    coin    of    the    United  mation,    composed    principally    of    enor- 

States :  in  silver  coins  less  than  $1,  not  mous  masses  and  cones  of  trachyte,  lava, 

exceeding  $10;  in  gold  and  silver  coins,  and  basalt,  which  culminate  in  the  Peak 

for  any  amount ;  in  United  States  bank  of  Teneriffe,  12,182  feet  high.     The  coast 

notes,  except  for  duties  on  imports  and  consists  of  an  almost  uninterrupted  series 

interest  on  the  public  debt.  of  lofty  cliffs,  and  the  only  good  harbor 

Tender    (^^^^I)*    ^   small   vessel    ap-  is  that  of  Santa  Cms,  the  capital,  on  the 

pointed  to  attend  a  larger  one,  northeast.    The  most  remarkable  feature 

and  employed  for  her  service  in  procur-  of   the   interior   is   the  celebrated   Peak, 

ing  stores,  etc.     In  railways  a  tender  is  the  summit  of  which  forms  a  crater  half 

a  carriage  attached  to  the  locomotive  for  a  league  in  circuit,  and  from  which  is 

carrying  the  fuel,  water,  etc.  obtained    one    of    the    most    magnificent 

Tendon    (ten'dun),  the  name  given  to  views  in  the  world.     Two  eruptions  have 

the    'sinews'    by    means    of  taken  place  since  the  colonization  of  the 

which  muscles  are  inserted  upon  bones,  island  oy  the  Spaniards  in  1496,  namely. 

They  consist  of  bundles  of  white  fibrous  in  1706  and  1y98,  and  at  all  times  the 

inelastic  and  very  strong  tissue  disposed  internal  activity  of  the  volcano  is  indi- 

in   bands,  and   separated   by  areolar  or  cated  by  frequent  streams  of  hot  vai)or. 

connective  tissue.  The    principal    productions    are    maize, 

Tendotome    (ten'd5-t5m),  in  surgery,  wheat,  potatoes,  pulse,  almonds,  oranges, 

A^uuvvvux^   ^     subcutaneous     knife,  guavas,  apples,   honev,  wax,  silk,  cochi- 

having  a  small  oblanceolate  blade  on  the  neal,  and  wine.     Cochineal,  tobacco,  and 

end  of  a  long  stem,  and  used  for  sever-  wine  are  the  chief  exports.     Pop.   138,- 

ing  deep-seated  tendons  without  making  008. 

a  large  incision  or  dissecting  down  to  TenesmnS  (te-nes'mus),  in  medicine, 
the  spot.  MMM^\io*iM.iM.o  ^  continual  inclination  to 
Tendr&O  ^  ten'drak  ) ,  in  zoQlogy,  a  void  the  contents  of  the  bowels,  accom- 
small  insectivorous  mam-  panied  by  straining,  but  without  any  dis- 
mal, from  Madagascar.  It  is  about  two-  charge.  It  is  a  common  symptom  in 
thirds  the  size  of  the  common  hedgehog,  dysentery,  stricture  of  the  urethra,  etc. 
Tendril  ^^  botany,  a  curling  and  Teniers  (ten'e-6rz),  David,  the  name 
"*•  '  twining  thread-like  process  *^*"^**»  of  two  celebrated  artists  of 
by  which  a  plant  clings  to  another  body  the  Flemish  school,  father  and  son,  both 
for  the  purpose  of  support.  It  may  be  natives  of  Antwero,  in  which  city  the 
a  modification  of  the  midrib,  as  in  the  elder  was  bora  in  1582.  Having  studied 
pea;  a  prolongation  of  a  leaf,  as  in  under  Rubens,  he  spent  six  years  in 
Nepenthes ;  or  a  modification  of  the  in-  Rome.  On  his  return  he  occupied  himself 
florescence,  as  in  the  vine.  They  have  principally  in  the  delineation  of  fairs, 
been  divided  into  stem  tendrils  and  leaf  rustic  sports,  and  drinking  parties,  which 
tendrils.  Called  also  cirrhus,  and  by  the  he  exhibited  with  such  tmtb,  humor,  and 
old  authors  capreolus  and  clavicula.  originality,  that  he  may  be  considered  the 
Tenebrio  (te-n§'bri-d),  a  genus  of  founder  oi  a  style  of  painting  which  his 
*^  beetles,  the  type  of  the  fam-  son  afterwards  brought  to  perfection, 
ily  Tenebrionidffi.  The  larvae  of  one  His  pictures  are  mostly  small.  He  died 
species  (T,  mplitor)  are  the  destructive  in  1W9. —  His  son  was  bom  in  1610.  and 
mealrworms  which  infest  granaries,  flour-  was  taught  painting  by  his  father,  whom 
stores^  etc  he  excelled  in  correctness  and  finish.  He 
Tf^Tiedos  (ten'§-dos),  an  island  of  became  highly  popular,  was  appointed 
xcucuuo  Pintle  Turkey,  on  the  west  court  painter   to   the  archduke   Leopold 


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Tenimber  Islands 


Tennessee 


William,  goTernor  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  gave  lessons  in  painting  to  Don 
John  of  Austria.  He  specially  excelled 
in  outdoor  scenes,  thoug  many  of  his  in- 
teriors are  masterpieces  of  color  and 
composition.  His  general  subjects  were 
fairs,  markets,  merry-makings,  guard- 
rooms, taverns,  etc.,  and  his  pictures, 
which  number  over  700,  are  found  in  all 
the  importantpubUc  and  private  galleries 
of  Europe.  His  etchings  are  also  highlv 
esteemed.    He  died  at  Brussels  in  1690. 

Tenimber  Islands.    |"/^</*^^'' 

Tennant    (.ten'ant),  William,  a  Scot- 

*  ••^  tlsh  poet  of  some  note,  bom 
at  Anstruther,  Fifeshire,  in  1784,  studied 
|for  some  time  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews,  and  becoming  a  good  oriental 
linguist,  was  in  1835  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  oriental  languages  in  St.  Mary's 
College,  St.  Andrews,  dying  in  1854. 
His  chief  production  is  Anster  (that  is. 
Anstruther)  Fair^  a  humorous  poem  of 
Scottish  life  in  the  same  stanza  as 
Byron's  Don  Juan,  which  it  preceded, 
being  published  in  1812.  Besides  Antter 
Fair,  Tennant  was  the  author  of  several 
other  poems  and  some  dramas.  None  of 
them,  however,  attained  any  success. 
Grammars  of  the  Syriac  and  Chaldee 
tongues  were  also  published  by  him. 
Tennent   ^^  James  Emebson,  states- 

*  "^^  ^  man  and  writer,  was  bom  at 
Belfast  in  1794,  and  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  From  1845  to  1850  he 
was  civil  secretary  to  the  government  of 
Ceylon;  in  1852  he  waS  secretary  to  the 
Poor-law  Board;  and  from  1852  to  1867 
he  held  the  i>ost  of  secretary  to  the  Board 
of  Trade,  on  retiring  from  which  he  re- 
ceived a  baronetcy.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  books  of  travel  and  other 
works,  the  most  important  being  a  valua- 
ble account  of  Ceylon  (1859,  two  vols.). 
He  died  in  1869. 

TAtiTiPoaAP  (ten-es-se').  a  south-cen- 
xennessee  ^^^^  g^^^  ^^  ^^^  American 

Union,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Ken- 
tucky and  Virginia,  east  by  North  Caro- 
lina, south  by  Georgia,  Alabama,  and 
Mississippi,  and  west  by  Arkansas  and 
Missouri;  area,  42,022  square  miles. 
Tennessee  is  popularly  divided  into  three 
sections.  East  Tennessee,  an  extensive 
valley,  and  agriculturally  one  of  the  most 
important  sections  of  the  State,  stretches 
from  the  eastern  boundary  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  Cumberland  tableland,  which 
has  an  average  elevation  of  2000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  abounds  in  coal,  iron, 
and  other  minerals.  Middle  Tennessee 
extends  from  the  dividing  line  on  the 
table  land  to  the  lower  Tennessee  River, 
and  is  a  tegion  of  fertile  terraces,  includ- 


ing the  great  elliptical  basin  of  nearly 
5^K)  square  miles,  known  as  the  'Gar- 
den of  Tennessee.*  West  Tennessee  ex- 
tends from  the  Tennessee  River  to  the 
Mississippi,  the  bottom  lands  along  the 
latter  stream  being  a  low,  flat,  alluvial 
plain,  covered  with  forests  and  with  many 
lakes  and  swamps.  The  Unaka  Moun- 
thins,  a  section  of  the  Great  Smoky 
range  of  the  Appalachian  chain,  nut 
along  the  eastern  frontier,  and  have  an 
average  elevation  of  5000  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  Mississippi,  with  the  Tennes- 
see and  the  Cumberland,  drains  three- 
fourths  of  the  State.  The  two  latter  are 
navigable  for  a  considerable  distance, 
and  other  rivers  with  numerous  tribu- 
taries supply  valuable  water  power. 
The  climate  is  very  healthy,  the  mean 
temperature  of  winter  being  87.8**,  and 
of  summer  74.4^.  West  Tennessee  is 
extremely  fertile  and  produces  com  and 
cotton  abundantly.  Middle  Tennessee 
is  generally  fertile,  also  the  valleys  of 
the  east  The  principal  grain  crops  are 
Indian  com,  wheat  and  oats;  and  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  hay  and  forage  are  ex- 
tensively cultivated.  The  rearing  and 
fattening  of  live  stock  are  carried  on 
under  peculiar  advantages,  and  immense 
numbers  of  hogs  grow  up  on  the  mast 
of  the  forests,  which  cover  a  very  large 
area.  The  wool  clip  is  large  and  excd* 
lent  and  much  attention  is  paid  to  fine 
breeds  of  horses.  The  most  valuable 
minerals  are  coal  and  phosphate,  which 
are  very  abundant,  the  coal  deposits  un- 
derlying 5100  square  miles.  Gold,  silver, 
copper  and  zinc  are  also  found,  and  there 
is  a  small  output  of  iron  ore  and  lime. 
Tennessee  is  nch  in  fine  marbles,  lime- 
stone, and  other  building  stones.  There 
is  some  output  of  clay,  barytes  and  metal- 
lic paints,  and  considerable  bauxite.  Pe- 
troleum, sulphur,  chalybeate  and  salt 
springs  are  plentiful.  The  lumbering  in- 
terest is  very  great,  and  the  lumber  and 
timber  industries  lead  all  others.  Other 
manufactures  are  flour  and  gristmiU 
products,  foundry  and  machine  shop  prod- 
ucts, cars  and  general  shop  construction, 
oil,  cottonseed  and  cake,  etc.  Besides  the 
facilities  for  traffic  afforded  by  the  navig- 
able streams,  internal  communication  Is 
further  provided  for  by  an  extensive  sys- 
tem of  railways.  Among  the  educational 
establishments  stand  the  University  of 
Tennessee  at  Knoxville,  the  University  of 
Nashville,  Vanderbilt  and  Fisk  Univer- 
sities, the  last  for  colored  students.  The 
chief  towns  are  Nashville  (the  capital), 
Memphis,  Chattanooga,  Knoxville.  The 
first  settlements  in  this  State  were 
made  shortly  before  the  Revolution,  and 
in  1784  the  settlers  organiied  the  State 


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Tennessee  Tennyson 

of  Franklin,  which  existed  until  1788.  Cambridge,  where  in  1829  he  won  the 
In  1796  it  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  chancellor's  medal  by  a  poem  in  blank 
the  State  of  Tennessee.  It  joined  the  verse  entitled  Timbuctoo,  As  early  as 
Southern  Confederacy  in  1861.  though  1827  he  had  published,  in  conjunction 
a  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  with  his  brother  Charles,  Poem*  by  Two 
East  Tennessee  were  Unionists.  Pop.  Brothers^  but  his  literary  career  may  be 
(1910)  2,184,789.  said  to  date  from  1830,  when  he  pubUshed 

TenneaseA  *  "^®^  formed  by  the  a  volume  entitled  Poem9,  chiafly  Lyrical. 
A%^MMM\,ao\,%,f  union  of  two  streams  in  It  was  not  received  with  any  great  favor 
the  eastern  part  of  the  State  of  Tennes-  by  the  public,  although  it  was  recognized 
see,  flows  southwest,  passes  through  the  by  many  to  contain  much  that  distin- 
northern  part  of  Alabama,  then  flows  guishes  the  true  poet  Its  success  at  least 
north  through  the  western  part  of  was  sufficient  to  encourage  the  poet  to 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  and  enters  the  prepare  a  second  collection,  which  ap- 
Ohio,  of  which  it  is  the  largest  tributary,  peared  in  1833,  and  contained  such  poems 
about  10  miles  below  the  confluence  of  as  A  Dream  of  Fair  Women,  The  Palace 
the  Cumberland.  Length,  1200  miles.  A  of  Art,  (Enone,  The  Lady  of  Shalott,  and 
great  dam  was  completed  on  the  Tennes-  others.  At  this  time  he  sustained  a  great 
see  River  in  1913,  and  a  powerplant  with  loss  in  the  death  of  his  friend  Arthur 
60,000  horsepower  opened  at  Hale*s  Bar,  Hallam,  and  this,  with  the  severe  criti- 
a  few  miles  from  Chattanooga.  The  dam,  cism  which  his  last  volume  received  in 
which  is  1200  feet  in  length,  with  an  Blackwood*s  Magazine  and  the  Quarterly 
avera^  height  of  62  feet,  holds  up  a  lake  Review,  may  have  occasioned  his  long 
30  miles  long,  and  lets  pass  a  larger  silence.  It  was  not  till  1842  that  he 
volume  of  water  than  passes  over  any  again  appealed  to  the  public  with  a  selec- 
other  navigable  river  dam  in  the  United  tion  of  his  poems  in  two  volumes,  and 
States.  The  power  house  and  lock  are  it  is  from  this  time  that  we  find  his 
equally  gigantic.  work  beginning  to  receive  wide  recogni- 

Tenniel  (}?ny^)»  John,  a  famous  tion.  The  collection  then  issued  in- 
^  .  Jlr3}^"®*J?^'''  ^^  "°"*  ^*  ^^^'  eluded  Morte  d* Arthur,  Locksley  Hall, 
don  m  1820.  He  was  almost  entirely  The  May  Queen,  and  The  Two  Voioes, 
self-taught,  and  his  first  picture  was  ex-  all  of  which,  it  was  almost  at  once 
hibited  while  he  was  little  more  than  a  acknowledged,  entitled  him  to  rank  very 
boy.  He  painted  one  of  the  frescoes  in  high  among  modem  poets.  His  reputation 
the  House  of  Parliament  in  1845;  in  was  more  than  sustained  by_the  works 
1851  became  connected  as  an  illustrator  that  immediately  followed.  These  were: 
with  Punch;  and  he  also  illustrated  The  Pnnoesa,  a  Medley  (1847) ;  In 
many  books,  including  ^aop'a  Fables,  Memoriam  (1850),  written  in  memory 
Ingoldsby  Legends,  Ahce*s  Adventures  tn  of  his  friend  Arthur  Hallam;  and  the 
Wonderland,  etc.     He  died  in  1914.  ode  on  the  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wei- 

Tennia  (ten'is),  a  game  in  which  a  lington  (1852).  The  latter  was  his  first 
A^xuxxo  j^jj  j^  driven  continually  great  poem  after  receiving  the  laureate- 
against  a  wall  in  a  specially  constructed  ship  (1850)  upon  the  death  of  Words- 
court,  and  caused  to  rebound  beyond  a  worth.  After  that  date  hardly  a  year 
line  at  a  certain  distance  by  several  passed  without  his  adding  some  gem  to 
persons  striking  it  alternately  with  a  our  language.  Maud  and  other  Poems 
racket,  the  object  being  to  keep  the  ball  was  published  in  1855,  Idylls  of  the  King 
In  motion  as  long  as  possible  without  followed  in  1858 ;  Enoch  Arden  and  other 
allowing  it  to  fall  to  the  ground.  The  Poems,  in  1864;  The  Holy  GraU  and 
game  was  introduced  into  England  in  other  Poems,  in  1869;  The  Window,  or 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  continued  to  the  Songs  of  the  Wrens,  in  1870;  and 
be  very  popular  with  the  nobility  to  the  Gareth  and  Lynette,  in  1872,  the  latter 
reign  of  Charles  II.  The  modem  game  volume,  which  included  the  Last  TournO" 
of  rackets  is  a  descendant  of  tennis,  ment,  completing  the  series  of  poems) 
(See  Rackets,)  Lawn  Tennis  , is  a  re-  known  as  the  Idylls  of  the  King.  In 
cent  modification  of  the  game.  See  1855  the  University  of  Oxford  conferred 
Lawn  Tennis,  on  Tennyson  the  honorary  degree  of  D. 

TATinvson  (ten'i-sun),  Alfred,  Lobd,  C.L.,  and  in  1869  the  fellows  of  Trinity 
xviuijovu.  £jj|j.^  g^jj  ^£  George  Clay-  College,  Cambridge,  elected  him  an  hon- 
toD  Tennyson,  rector  of  Somersby,  in  orary  fellow.  So  long  ago  as  1833  he 
Lincolnshire,  was  bom  at  the  same  place,  had  had  printed  for  private  circulation 
August  6,  1809.  He  received  his  early  a  poem  entitled  The  Lover*s  Tale;  in 
education  from  his  father,  attended  18t9  this  was  republished,  together  with 
Louth  Grammar  School,  and  in  due  a  sequel  entitled  The  Golden  Supper. 
coone    proceeded    to    Trinity    College,   In  the  following  year  appeared  Ballads 


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Tenor  TeocaUis 

and  oth^  Poems*    Among  his  later  com-  being  counted  by  the  number  at  pins  that 

poeitiom   are  the  dramas,   Queen  Mary  are  caused  to  falL 

(1875),  Harold   (1876),  and  The  Cup.  Tenree      ^^  Tanrec. 

The  latter  was  successfully  produced  by  *^*"^^* 

Mr.   Irving  at  the  Lyceum   Theatre   in  Tent     ^  portable  dwelling-place,  formed 

1881,   as   nad   also   been    Queen   Mary.  *»u.v|    ugQally  in  the  simplest  manner. 

The  Falcon,   another   drama,   was   pro-  of  canvas,  for  instance,   stretched  with 

duced  by  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Kendal  in  1882,  cords  upon  poles.    Tents  are  much  used 

and  The  Promise  of  May  was  brought  for  private  purposes  and  everywhere  for 

out  at  the  Qlobe  Theatre  the  same  year,  army  shelter.    The  soldiers'  tents  in  the 

.  The  Cup  and  The  Falcon  were  published  United   States   army    have   ridged    tops, 

as  a  single  volume  in  1884,  and  in  the  while  those  of  the  British  army  are  cir- 

same  year  appeared  the  historical  drama  cular,  supported  by  a  vertical  pole  in 

of   Beoket.    in   1885   appeared   Tireeiae  the  center  10  feet  hiah. 

and  other  Poems;  in  t88&  Lockeley  HaU:  Tentacle    (ten'ta-kl),   in  soOlogy,   an 

Simty  Years  After,  which  also  included  *^'**"'"^**'    elongated     appendage     pro-a 

The    Promise    of    May:    and    in    1889  ceeding  from   the   head   or  cephalic   ex-| 

Demeter    and    other    Poems,    this    last  tremity  of  many  of  the  lower  animals, 

volume  containin|r   work   of   as   high   a  and  used  as  an  instrument  of  ezplora- 

quality  as  any  of  his  previous  writings,  tion  and  prehension.    Thus  the  arms  of 

Tennyson  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  the  sea-anemone,   the  prehensile  proces- 

1884  as  Baron   Tennyson  of  Aldworth,  ses   of   the   dmpeds   and   annelids,   the 

Sussex,  and  Freshwater,  Isle  of  Wight,  cephalic    feet    of    the    cephalopoda,    the 

Few  writera  have  developed  so   rare  a  barbs  of  fishes,  are  termed  tentacles, 

mastery  of  Bnglish  as  a  poetic  instrument,  Tf^ntnAlllitefl  (ten-tak'a-llts),  a  genus 

and  his  works  have  a  high  rank  in  the  •^C'^wwuiikCB  ^^    ^^g^jj    ^j^^j,      ^^^^^ 

literature  of  the  nineteenth  century.    He  abundantly    in    Siberian    and    Devonian 

died     October    6,     1892. —  His    brother  strata.    Some    writers    regard    them    as 

Ghables    (bom    1808;    died    1879)    as-  tubicular    annelids,    while    others    refer 

sumed    the    name    of    Turner   by    royal  them  to  the  pterqbods. 

^^^TJlir^^fh^r^l^'^JL^  Tentlirc'do.   »««  saw^tnes. 

deatn  of  nis  granomotDer.    He  puDusnecl, 

in  conjunction  with  his  brother,  Poems  Tj^Ti^frrrci.    or    Tenttbis.      See    Den* 

hy  Two  Brothers  (Louth,  1827),  now  a  *^^  ^J'^f  derah. 

great  bibliographical  rarity.    He  became  Ti^TiiiirilirfrrPfl    (ten-ti-i-ros'trez;    slen- 

vicar  of  Grasby.  Lincohishire,  in   1835.  ACmuru»vrc»  aer-beaked),  one  of  the 

and    published    Bonnets    (1864),    Small  four  sections  into 

Tahleauw    (1868),   and   Sonnets,  Lyrics,  which    the    order, 

and  Translations  (1873).  Insessores     of 

Tenor    (t^n'uf  t  "^  Italian,  tenore),  in  birds    is    divided. 

Avuvx    mugijj^  |g  tiig  njQpg  delicate  of  This   group,    rep- 

the  two  adult  male  voices,  and  its  com-  resented  by  the  , 

pass  generally  extends  from  C  in  the  bass  humming-birds,      ^^^  ^ 

to  G  or  A  m  the  treble.    The  qualities  creepers,    sun-        ^^^^         * 

of   the   tenor  render  it  suitable  to   the  birds,  hoopoes, 

expression  of  tender  and  delicate  etc..  is  character^  1 

sentiments.    In  a  vocal  composi-  isea  by  the  gener- 

tion  of  four  parts,  for  mixed  voices,  ally    elongated 

the  tenor  forms  the  second  middle  bill,    which    usu-  Hsads  or  TunnaorntBi. 

part,   deeper   than    the   alto,   but  ally   tapers   to  a    ^ «.  Sun-bird  (^•ctaHni* 

higher  than  the  bass;  but  in  a  song  of  point  rftSiXfli ^SS^iSr^ 

the  four  male  voices  the  tenor,  as  the  TATm~fl  S  •  e  V    kS^JS^^SS^ 

first  voice,  leads  the  chief  melody,  and  as  ICnUrCS.  g^  (Si£^w^$ah 

the  second   is   the  higher  middle  voice.  Tenure  of. 

Theclef  of  this  voice  is  the  C  clef,  placed  TeoAflUia    (te-n-kal'is;   *  houses  of 

upon   the   fourth   line   of   the  staff,   as  •*'«v^»"«   God'),  the  name  given  to 

here  shown.  the  ancient  temples  of  Mexico,  of  which 

Tennins     ?,   common    game    in    the  there  are  extensive  remains.    They  were 

*^     ^    United  States  adapted  from  generally      solid      four-sided      truncated 

the  older  English  game  of  ninepins.    The  pyramids,    built    terrace-wise,    with    the 

pins  (round  pieces  of  wood)  are  set  up-  temple  proper  on   the   platform   at   the 

right  in  triangular  form  at  the  end  of  summit.    Tney  were  constructed  of  earth, 

a   long   level  platform,   and  are  bowled  faced  with  brick,  and  many  still  remain 

down  by  round  bowls  of  varied  sise  rolled  in   a  moi«  or   less   perfect  state.    The 

4own  the  length  of  the  platform,  the  game  principal   existing   sfecimena   are   thoaa 


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Terence 


tf  GholalEt  near  Mexico,  and  of  Palen- 
que,  in  Yucatan.  See  Cholula  and 
Palenfue. 

Te08  (^'^)*  ^^  Teiob,  anciently  a 
town  on  the  coast  of  Ionia,  in 
Asia  Minor,  opposite  Samos,  the  birth- 
place of  the  poet  Anacreon. 
TeniG  (^*P^')f  &  town  of  Mexico,  in 
*  "  the  state  of  Jalisco,  pleasantly 
dtuated  and  rendered  peculiarly  attrac- 
tive by  terraced  gardens  and  shady 
promenades.  It  has  manufactures  of 
woolens  and  sugar,  and  mines  in  the 
neighborhood.  Pop.  15,48a 
Tenlitz  (tftplitz),  or  Tdpurz,  a  town 
Av^AAVA  ^1  Korthenr  Bohemia,  pleas- 
antly situated  in  a  valley  between  the 
Erzgebirge  and  Mittelgebirge,  with  a 
castle  and  fine  park  and  gardens.  It  has 
celebrated  thermal  baths.  The  springs, 
seventeen  in  number,  have  a  temperature 
varying  from  99''.5  to  108*  .5  and  are 
efficacious  in  cases  of  gout  and  rheuma- 
tism. The  bathing  establishment  is  very 
complete,  and  during  June  and  July  the 
whole  town  is  filled  with  visitors.  Pop. 
24,420. 
Terai.     ^^  Tarai  and  Him&laya. 

TemnO  (t&'ra-mS),  a  town  of  South- 
A«»j.cuuv  ^j^  Italy,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  same  name,  in  an  angle  formed 
bv  the  confluence  of  the  Tordino  and 
Vezaeola.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and 
has  an  old,  though  modernized,  cathedral 
and  remains  of  Roman  baths  and  theater. 
Pop.  10,508. 

Teranllilll  (ter'a-fim),  household  dei- 
""^^^  ties  or  images,  reverenced 
by  the  ancient  Hebrews.  They  seem  to 
have  been  either  wholly  or  in  part  of 
human  form  and  of  small  size,  were  re- 
garded as  penaieM  or  household  gods,  and 
in  some  shape  or  other  used  as  domestic 
oracles.  They  are  mentioned  several 
times  in  the  Old  Testament. 

Teratology  i<,rrph^ii  A-^'ati 

anatomical  science  devoted  to  the  investi- 
gation of  abnormalities  in  the  structure 
of  animals  and  plants,  and  to  the  deter- 
mination of  the  exact  nature  of  the 
deviation  from  a  normal  type  of  struc- 
ture. 

Terbium  (ter^l-um),  was  the  name 
.■.^AMxtuu  giygjj  ^^  ^  supposed  earth- 
metal  now  found  to  be  nearly  identical 
with  erbium,  and  which  has  been  resolved 
into  several  elements. 
Terlimv  (terT)urg),  or  Tebbobch, 
*^**'*"o  Gerasd,  a  Dutch  portrait 
and  genre  painter,  bom  at  Zwolle,  near 
Overyssel,  about  1617.  His  father,  a 
historical  painter,  gave  him  bis  first  les- 
Kms    in     painting.    He    continued    his 


studies  at  Haarlem,  and  afterwards 
visited  Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  England, 
and  France.  On  the  meeting  oi  the 
peace  congress  at  Mfinster  in  1646  he 
painted  the  assembled  plenipotentiaries, 
which  is  now  in  the  National  Qallery, 
London.  He  subsequently  visited  Madrid, 
London,  and  Paris,  whence  he  returned 
to  Oversrssel,  married,  and  became  burgo- 
master of  Deventer,  dying  in  1681.  His 
portraits  and  pictures  of  social  life  are 
remarkable  for  elegance.  He  excelled  in 
painting  textile  fabrics,  particularly  satin 
and  velvet 

Terce  (^^i^)>  ^^  &  l^&l  llfe-rent 
^  amounting  to  one-third  of  her 
deceased  husband's  landed  estates  recog- 
nized by  the  law  of  Scotland  in  favor 
of  a  widow  who  has  not  accepted  of  any 
special  provision. 

Terceira   ^T^^^^'^.^^'T t^ 

Azores;  greatest  length,  20  miles;  aver- 
age breadth,  13  miles;  area,  223  square 
miles.  The  soil  possesses  great  natural 
fertility,  and  heavy  crops  of  grain,  pulse, 
etc.,  and  abundance  of  oranges,  lemons, 
and  other  fruits  are  produced.  The  cap- 
ital is  Angra.  Pop.  48,770. 
Terebinth  (tere-binth),  the  common 
name  for  various  resinous 
exudations,  both  of  a  fluid  and  solid  na- 
ture, such  as  turpentine,  frankincense 
and  Burgundy  pitch,  Canada  balsam,  etc. 
The  volatile  oil  of  various  of  these 
resins  is  called  oil  of  terebinth,  or  oil  of 
turpentine.  Terebinth  is  also  a  name 
for  the  turpentine- tree  (which  see). 

Terebratnla  i^lt^f^^'^Ac^t- 

pod  bivalve  molluscs  found  moored  to 
rocks,  shells,  etc.     One  of  the  valves  is 

Serforated  to  permit  the  passage  of  a 
eshy  peduncle,  b^  means  of  which  the 
animal  attaches  itself.  There  are  few 
living  species,  but  the  fossil  ones  are 
numerous,  and  are  found  most  abundantly 
in  the  secondary  and  tertiary  formations. 
Teredo      (^-re'dO).     see   Ship-worm. 

Terek  ( ty&'rek ) ,  a  Russian  river  which 
descends  from  Mount  Kasbek, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Caucasus,  and 
flows  into  the  Caspian  by  a  number  of 
branches;  total  course,  about  300  miles. 
T^r^iiPP  (ter'ens),  in  full  Publhts 
J.CXCUI/C  rJ^E^B^jTius  Afeb  (that  is, 
'the  African'),  a  celebrated  Roman 
comic  writer,  bom  in  Africa,  B.  c.  195, 
and  while  a  child  bought  by  Publius 
Terentius  Lucanus,  a  Roman  senator, 
who  took  him  to  Rome  and  gave  him  a 
good  education.  His  master  having 
emancipated  him,  the  ^oung  African  as- 
sumed the  name  of  his  benefactor,  and 


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Terrestrial  Magnetism  Tessellated  Pavement 

T«rr^8trisi.1  Htn^n^fium     See  Mag-  She  appeared  on  the  stage  in  a  child's 

XerreSXnai  magneXlSm.  netismT  part  in  1856,  and  continued  acting  until 

Terrier  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

that  dug  ofbS^rowefLX^und'iS  Pfared    at    the    Lyceum    Theater    with 

reatneted  to  smaU  or  moderately  small  t^e  United  Stat^.     Amone  her  best  parts 

dogs  of  a  number  of  breeds.    The  type  of  are    Portia,   Pauline,    and    Ophelia,   she 

the  class  is  the  fox  terner  iq.v,).    Ter-  playing  the  last  to  Irving's  Hamlet, 

riers  vary  in  siae  from  the  toy  black  and  TaranliAlliiKy    (  ter-skel' ing  ),      an 

tan,  and  Yorkshire,  very  small  breeds,  to  ACISK/Ucuiu^   island   of   the   Nether- 

the   Airedale    (g.    v.),    the    largest    and  lands,  10  miles  off  the  coast  of  Friesland, 

heaviest  of  the  class.     The  bull  terrier,  between    the    islands    of    Vlieland    and 

as  its  name  implies,  is  a  cross  between  Ameland.     It  is  about  15  miles  long  by 

the  bulldog  and  the  smooth-coated  white  3  broad,  is  flat  and  sandy,  and  exposed 

terrier  of  early  time.    It  is  a  quick,  agile  in   some   parts   to   inundation.     The   in- 

and  powerful  dog,  of  unfailing  courage,  habitants   are   chiefly    pilots   and    fisher- 

and  has  been  much  used  by  the  sporting  ^^^'  ^Pop.  3685. 

fraternity  as  a  pit  dog,  that  is,  a  dog  used  Tertian  Fever#     ^^  A^i*e. 
for  fightmg  when  matched  against  one  of  ,  a      r^    t 

its  own  breed.    The  Boston  terrier  is  an  TertiaXV  Formation.  ^^  Geology, 
American  breed,   originated  about  1870,  .7  ,  ^       ^  , ,         ^     .      -  „ 

It  arose  from  breeding  a  brindle  three-  Tertnllian    (  ter  -  tul' van  ) ,    in    full 

quarter  English  bulldog  which  had  one-  *^*''*^°'"   Quintus  Skptimius  Flo- 

quarter  terrier,  and  a  pure  white  terrier  kens  Tebtuuianus,  the  earliest  Latin 

of  stocky  build  and  low  on  the  legs.    A  father  of   the   church   whose   works  are 

further  breeding  and  selection  of  this  type  extant,     flourished     chiefly     during     the 

as  developed  by  the  above  cross,  resulted  reigns  of  Septimius  Severus  and  Cara- 

in    the   standard    Boston    terrier,    whose  calla  (a. D.  193-217),  became  a  presbyter, 

characteristics  are  a  screw  tail,  a  white  and    continued    orthodox     till     he    had 

blaze  on  the  face  and  on  chest  and  feet,  reached  middle  age,  when  he  w^t  over 

a  fine  short  and  bright  coat,  and  a  deep,  to  the  Montanists   (see  Montanu$),  and 

broad  chest    It  is  a  good  tempered,  cour-  wrote  several  books  in  their  defense.  ^  His 

ageous  dog.    There  are  many  other  breeds  most  celebrated  work  is  the  Apologia,  a 

of  terriers,  as  the  Scotch,  the  Skye,  the  formal  defense  of  Christianity  addressed 

Bedlington,    the    Welsh    and    the    Irish  to     the     Roman      magistrates.    Among 

iq.v,),  a  very  popular  breed.  other  works  whose  period  is  not  known  is 

Territorv    (ter'i-tor-i),    a   section   of  ^dversus    Hermogenem,    in    which    Tev- 

J.errii;ory    \y^^   national   domain    not  tullian    maintams    the    doctnne    of    the 

yet  admitted  to  statehood.    It  has  a  gov-  creation  of  the  world  out  of  nothing  as 

emor,  appointed  by  the  President,  with  ^posed  to  the  eternity  of  matter  per  «e. 

a  legislature  of  certain  limited  powers.  The   works   of   Tertullian  display   great 

At  present   there  are   two — ^Alaska  and  learning,  much  imagination,  and  a  keen 

Hawaii.  wit,   but   their  style   is   bad.    They   are 

•n  rfA»'A..\     "RwrAicr  />!>.    *v»«  «.«•«  chlcfly  valuable  for  the  light  they  throw 

Terror  ^:!i:i^\^^^  So^^^'^^  'Li^in^r^r:^?^ir^X^U'  ""' 

of  the  French  revolutionary  government  ^"""^  ^  *^«  ^  ^  r  «m« w 

from  the  appointment  of  the  revolution-  TeshO-lama.    ^^  hamatsm, 

2S.^Wrir«  ^¥7ft?wi"^i'^f^l^n?  Tpfila    (tes'la),  Nikola,  bom  at  Smil- 
RobSnie^^Jutv  J?  1^94?    sle  ^n^  i^"'  Seifvia,  in  1857.     Becoming 

/m!?£I!7^  ^     ^      •  ^*    See/Tcnce  ^    g^u^    electrician,    he    came    to    the 

TerrV   (te^rf)*  Alfred  Howe,  soldier,  tered  the  Edison  works  at  Menio  Park, 

^    bom  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey.     He  subsequently  set  up  an 

in  1827.    He  engaged  in  the  Civil  war  as  establishment  of  his  own  in  New  York, 

a  colonel  of  volunteers;  became  a  briga-  He    has    made   important    inventions    in 

dier-general  in  1862.     He  commanded  a  lighting    and    other    uses    of    electricity, 

division  in  the  army  under  Grant  in  the  His  most  valuable  device  is  his  oscillator, 

summer  of  1884 ;  became  a  major-general  a  combination  of  dynamo  and  engine. 

Sed'D^wyisSJ:""^''"'^-  °' TessellatedPavement,  »i*„V^oJ 

Turrv    Bllbn  Alice,  actress,  born  at  rich  mosaic  work,  made  of  squares   of 

^^^^Jf  Coventry,    England,    in    184&  marbles,  bricks,  or  tiles,  in  shape  a^H 


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Tetuan 


dispoBition  resembling  dice,  and  known 
as  te99eras, 

TeSSerO&rraph  (tes'ser-d-grtf).  the 
o  *^^**  name  applied  to  a  ma- 
chine for  printing  railway  tickets  as 
needed,  invented  by  Robert  Piscicelli 
Taeegi,  an  Italian  engineer.  One  of  these 
machines  first  in  use  in  Italy  printed  any 
one  of  400  different  kinds  of  tickets  at  a 
cost  of  about  one  five-hundredths  of  a 
cent  each. 

Test  Acts     >°<^'«de  all  statutes  which 
IB     ^    require      persons     holding 

Eublic  offices  to  profess  certain  religious 
ellefs.  In  England,  from  the  time  of  the 
Reformation  onwards,  a  large  number  of 
such  acts  were  passed  in  favor  of  the 
Established  Church.  The  various  test 
jcte  were  for  the  most  part  repealed  in 

Testament,    see  wm. 

Testinfir  (test'lng),  the  process  of  ex- 
•**o  aminmg  various  substances 
^  means  of  chemical  reagents,  with  the 
view  of  discovering  their  composition. 
The  term  testing  is  usually  confined  to 
such  examinations  as  seek  to  determine 
what  chemical  elements  or  groups  of  ele- 
ments are  contained  in  any  substance. 
without  inquiring  as  to  the  quantity  of 
these  elements.  Testing  is  carried  out 
either  by  the  application  of  chemical  re- 
actions to  solid  substances,  or  by  the  ap- 
plication of  reagents  in  solution  to  a  solu- 
tion of  the  substance  unde*:  examination. 

Test-papers.  ^^^?  ?^.  unsize<l  paper 
*'  -"^  ^  soaked  m  solutions  of 
vegetable  coloring  matters,  used  as  in- 
dicators of  the  presence  of  acids  or  of 
alkalies,  and,  in  some  instances,  of  special 
chemical  compounds.  The  most  common 
test-papers  are  litmus  and  turmeric  papers. 
Testudo    (tes'ta-dd).    See  Tortoise. 

T^sfnilA  among  the  ancient  Romans 
xwvuuuy  a  cover  or  screen  which  a 
body  of  troops  formed  with  their  oblong 
shields  or  targets,  by  holding  them  over 
their  heads  when  standing  close  to  each 
other.  This  cover  somewhat  resembled 
the  back  of  a  tortoise,  and  served  to 
shelter  the  men  from  missiles  thrown 
from  above.  The  name  was  also  given 
to  a  structure  movable  on  wheels  or  roll- 
ers for  protecting  sappers. 
TjkfoTi'na  (tet'a-nus),  a  spasmodic 
xctauiiS  rigidity  of  the  whole  body, 
■udi  as  frequently  results  from  wounds. 
Hie  affection  occurs  more  often  in  warm 
climates  than  in  cold.  If  the  lower  jaw 
is  drawn  to  the  upper  with  such  force 
that  they  cannot  be  separated  the  dis- 
order is  called  loch-jaw  (tmrnvs).  Tet- 
aniu  frequently  terminates  fatally. 


Boman  Testudo,  from  Trsjsn's  PilUr. 


TSte-dn-pont  niS;T^wo'?k  'JSS 

defends  the  head  or  entrance  of  a  bridge 
nearest  the  enemy. 

TetrabrancMata   <tL'^f';;'»'Srf^-'-of 

Cephalopoda  or  cuttle-fishes,  having  four 
branchisB  or  gills,  comprising  the  two 
families  Nautilidae  and  AmmonitidjB. 
Of  this  order  the  pearly  nautilus  may 
be  regarded  as  the  type,  being  the  only 
living  member  of  the  order,  though  its 
fossil  representatives  (Orthoceras,  Am- 
monites, etc.)  are  abundant.  See  HaU" 
tan; 

Tetrahedron  (-he'dron),  in  geom- 
*^  ""  etry,  a  figure  com- 
prehended  under  four  equilateral  and 
equal  triangles,  or  a  triangular  pyramid 
having  four  equal  and  equilateral  faces. 
It  is  one  of  the  five  regular  solids. 

Tetra^o.  ®®®  orouse. 

Tetrarch  (tet'rArk),  a  title  which 
XCtxarua  originally  signified  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  fourth  part  of  a  country. 
By  the  Romans  the  title  was  used  to 
designate  a  tributary  ruler  inferior  in 
dignity  to  a  king. 

Tetrastvle  (tefrA-stll),  in  ancient 
A^bxaotjxc  architecture,  having  or 
consisting  of  four  columns,  or  haiang  a 
portico  consisting  of  four  columns. 
Tetnan  (tet-5-ftn'),  a  town  of  Moroc- 
CO,  on  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa,  33  miles  southeast  of  Tangier. 
It  is  about  \  mile  from  the  Mediterran- 
ean, is  surrounded  by  walls  and  defended 
by  a  castle,  and  carries  on  an  active 
trade.    The     environs     are     extensively 


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Texas 


»lanted    with    yineyaids    and    gardens. 

>op.  «S,000. 
Tetzel  (tefael),  Johank,  a  man 
AVMKM  whose  name  has  become  promi- 
nent in  connection  with  the  Reformation, 
was  bom  aboat  1470,  at  Leipzig,  where 
he  studied  theology.  He  entered  the 
order  of  the  Dominicans,  and  in  1QQ2 
was  appointed  by  the  Roman  see  a 
preacher  of  indulgences,  and  carried  on 
for  fifteen  years  a  successful  propaganda 
of  them.  It  was  his  preaching  in 
Saxony  of  the  indulgence  in  behalf  of 
the  rebuilding  of  St  Peter's  in  Rome 
that  roused  Xnther  to  revolt  Though 
many  of  the  sayings  attributed  to  liim 
by  his  critics  are  fictitious,  yet  there  is 
little  doubt  that  he  often  mdulged  in 
frivolity  and  went  farther  in  his  promises 
than  the  teaching  of  his  church  authorised 
him  to  go.  The  best  Roman  Catholic 
historians  condemn  bim  for  exa|»eration« 
Tetsel  died  of  the  plague  in  1519.  in  the 
Dominican  convent  at  Leipsig.  See 
Luther. 
TeuthiS.    SeeSgi««. 

TeutobTirg  Forest  ifrf^f^^ 

WiXD,  a  hilly  district  of  Germany,  in 

Westphalia,  where  Arminius  defeated  the 

Roman     general     Varus,     aj>.     9.    See 

Arminiu9» 

Ti^ntAiiAft   (tfl'tun-te),  a  tribe  of  Ger- 

bri,  invaded  Gam  in  b.c.  113.  In  B.C. 
102  they  were  defeated  with  great 
slaughter  near  Aqu»  Sezti«  (Aiz  in  the 
department  of  Bouches  du  KhOne)  by 
the  Roman  general  Marine.  A  tribe  of 
the  same  name  Is  mentioned  by  Pliny 
and  others  as  inhabiting  a  district  north 
of  the  Elbe,  which  appears  to  have  been 
the  original  settlement  of  the  Teutones 
before  their  invasion  of  GauL  See  Teii- 
tomo  Peoples. 

Teutonic  Knights  <«-£15'^'-''^' 

ligious  order  of  kniffhts,  established  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  twelfth  century, 
in  imitation  of  the  Templars  and  Hos* 
pitallers.  It  was  composed  chiefly  of 
Taotons  or  Germans  who  marched  to  the 
Holy  Land  in  the  Crusades,  and  was 
established  in  that  country  for  charita- 
ble purposes.  In  the  thirteenth  century 
they  acquired  Poland  and  Prussia,  and 
they  long  held  sway  over  a  great  extent 
of  territory  in  tliis  part  of  Europe.  The 
order  began  to  decline  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  was  finally  abolished  by 
Napoleon  in  1809. 

Teutonic  Peoples,  ^^"(aj^^j;  ^, 

High  OermaAs,   indudiag   the   German 


inhabitants  of  Upper  and  Middle  Ger- 
many and  those  of  Switzerland  and  Aus- 
tria. (2)  The  Low  Germans,  induding 
the  Frisians,  the  Plattdeutsch.  the  Dutcl^ 
the  Flemings  and  the  EingUsh  descended 
from  the  Saxons,  Angles,  etc.,  who  set- 
tled in  Britain.  (8)  The  Scandinavians, 
including  the  Norwegians,  Swedes,  Danes 
and  Icelanders.  See  PhUolomf*  Indo* 
European  Languages. 

Tewfik  Pasha  4S2Lnl!^ve"5 

Egypt,  eldest  son  of  Khedive  Ismail,  was 
bom  in  1852,  and  succeeded  to  the  vice- 
royalty  by  decree  of  the  sultan,  August  8, 
1879,  upon  the  forced  abdication  of  his 
father.  He  was  the  sixth  ruler  of  Egypt 
in  the  dynasty  of  Mahommed  All  Pasha. 
He  died  January  7,  1892.    See  Egypt. 

Tewkesbnry  <,^'>t?^'  %&^ 

borough  of  Ehigland,  in  Gloucestershnre, 
at  the  conflux  of  the  Severn  and  Avon. 
The  parish  church  is  a  noble  pile  of 
buildinc  in  the  Norman  style,  and  one 
of  the  latest  in  England.  It  is  part  of 
the  monastery  of  Tewkesbury.  Pop. 
(1911)  6287. 

Texarkana   <J«feJSX*>*^*»13: 

Jacent  to  a  town  of  the  same  name, 
capital  of  Miller  Go.,  Arkansas.  The 
two  tow^  form  a  single  municipality. 
It  has  car  and  engine  works,  cotton-seed 
oil  mills,  manufactures  of  lumber,  furni- 
ture, etc.  Pop.  of  Texarkana,  Texas, 
9790;  of  Texarkana,  Ariuuisas,  5665. 
TAYOft    (teks'as),  the  most  southwest- 

American  Union,  is  bounded  v.  by  New 
Mexico,  Oklahoma,  and  Arkansas,  s.  by 
Oklahoma,  Arkansas  and  Louisiana,  w.  by 
New  Mexico,  s.  w.  by  Mexico,  and  s.  B.  by 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  extreme  lensth,  east 
to  west,  825  miles;  breadth,  740  miles; 
coast-line,  400  miles ;  area,  205396  sq. 
miles.  The  surface  in  the  northwest  bears 
many  mountains,  which,  in  proceeding 
southeast,  subside  into  hills  ana  undulat- 
ing plains,  succeeded,  on  approaching  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  by  low  alluvial  lands. 
These  extend  inland  from  20  to  80  miles, 
are  traversed  by  numerous  rivers,  ana 
consist  for  the  most  part  of  rich  prairie 
or  forest  land.  The  hilly  region  behind 
this  is  formed  chiefly  of  sandstone  and 
limestone  ridges,  separated  by  valleys  of 
considerable  fertility.  The  general  slope 
of  the  country  gives  all  the  nvers  a  more 
or  less  southerly  direction.  The  Rio- 
Grand,  rising  in  New  Mexico,  forms  the 
southwest  boundary  of  the  State.  The  Red 
River  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  north- 
em  boondry.  The  other  important 
rivers  are  the  (Colorado,  the  Brasos,  th^ 


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Trinity,  and  the  Sabine,  which,  during 
the  greater  part  of  its  course,  is  the 
boundary  between  Texas  and  Louisiana. 
The  great  timber  region  of  the  state  lies 
between  the  Sabine  and  the  Trinity  a 
region  generally  level  and  sandy  in  the 
south,  with  eztensiTe  pine  forests,  but 
rolling  and  fertile  in  the  north.  Between 
the  Trinity  and  the  Colorado  prairie  land 
extends,  timbered  along  the  streams,  but 
in  the  north  there  is  an  extensive  forest, 
extending  through  Central  and  Western 
Texas  to  the  Red  River  and  called  the 
'Cross  Umbers.'  The  timber  area  em- 
braces about  42,000,000  acres,  25,000,000 
being  in  pines.  The  pecan  tree,  a  valu- 
able nut-bearlBg  tree,  is  widely  distrib- 
uted and  yields  largely.  Western  Texas 
is  chiefly  prairie.  A  long  chain  of  la- 
goons stretches  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  soil  of  Texas  is,  on  the  whole,  ex- 
tremely fertile.  The  staple  products  are 
cotton  and  maize,  both  of  which  are 
larcely  cultivated.  In  the  lower  or  coast 
reiJon,  the  sugar-cane  and  rice  also  grow 
luxuriantly.  Wheat  grows  chiefly  in  the 
north  and  center.  Rye,  oats,  barley,  to- 
bacco and  sweet  and  white  potatoes  are 
grown  to  some  extent,  and  both  in  the 
elevated  and  the  lower  levels  fruits  in 
almost  endless  variety  are  abundant 
Texas  leads  the  states  in  cotton  produc- 
tion, yielding  one-fifth  of  the  world's 
crop.  Sea-island  cotton  is  grown  in  the 
south.  I%ousands  of  acres  are  under  ir- 
rigation from  flowing  artesian  wells, 
mainly  in  the  southwest  The  pastures 
are  often  covered  with  the  richest  grasses, 
and  the  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep  and  swine 
is  carried  on  very  advantageously.  The 
minerals  include  copper,  of  which  there 
are  large  deposits;  argentiferous  galena, 
which  is  also  abundant;  coal,  induding 
m  field  of  lignite  about  6000  sq.  miles  in 
area;  iron,  occurring  in  very  large  quan- 
tities; asphaltum,  which  occurs  abund- 
antly; salt,  obtained  from  rich  salt 
q>riiig8;  petroleum,  of  recent  discovery 
and  now  very  largely  produced ;  saltpeter, 
marble,  slate,  potter  and  fire-clay,  and 
fertilizers  in  great  abundance.  The 
manufactures  of  Texas,  which  increased 
dOO  per  cent  in  the  period  from  1890  to 
1910.  depend  largely  for  their  raw  ma- 
terials upon  the  stock-raising,  agricul- 
tural and  mineral  products  of  the  state, 
and  have  been  greatly  stimulated  by  the 
rapid  increase  in  the  production  of  these 
materials.  Galveston,  an  important  com- 
mercial center  in  the  state,  is  one  of  the 
largest  ports  of  entry  in  the  South,  and 
Sabine  is  also  a  port  of  growing  prom- 
inence. Thewe  avenues  of  transportation 
afford  excellent  opportunities  for  inter- 
■Cate,    domestic,    coastwise    and    foreign 


conmierce.  Hie  first  permanent  settle- 
ment in  Texas  was  made  at  San  Antonio 
by  the  Spanish  in  1718.  After  Mexico 
won  its  independence  Texas  became  one 
of  the  Mexican  states.  Several  colonies 
of  American  citizens,  invited  by  the 
Mexicans,  settled  in  the  eastern  section, 
and  gradually  increased  in  numbers. 
Texas  then  revolted  from  the  Mexican 
covemment  and  in  1836  declared  itself 
independent  Santa  Anna  attempted  to 
reduce  it  but  failed,  being  himself  beaten 
and  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  San 
Jadnto  by  General  Houston.  Texas  now 
managed  its  own  affairs  as  an  independ- 
ent republic  till  1846,  when  it  became  one 
of  the  United  States,  and  thus  gave  rise 
to  a  war  which  proved  disastrous  to 
Mexico.  It  joined  the  Confederates  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  and  was  the  last  state 
to  submit  It  was  under  military  control 
till  1870,  when  it  was  restored  to  the 
tJnion.  Austin  is  the  capital,  and  other 
diief  towns  are  Galveston,  San  Antonio, 
Houston,  Dallas,  Fort  Worth,  Waco,  etc. 
Its  growth  has  been  rapid.  Pop.  3,896,* 
642. 

TiftTikl  (teks'el),  an  island  of  the  prov 
J.C&C1  j^^  ^j  ^^^^  Holland,  14  miles 
in  length  and  6  in  its  greatest  breadth, 
situated  at  the  entrance  of  the  Zuvder 
Zee,  and  separated  from  North  Holland 
by  the  narrow  channel  of  Mars-Diep. 
The  island  furnishes  excellent  pasture 
for  sheep,  and  it  is  noted  for  cheese 
made  from  sheep's  milk.  It  is  well  se- 
cured with  dikes  of  prodigious  strengtii 
and  height  Pop.  69^. 
Ti»7nAPA  (tes-k6'k6),  or  Texcoco,  a 
AezcOCO  J^^^  ^j  Mexico,  in  the  de- 
partment  of  Mexico,  on  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  lAke  of  Tezcoca  In  andent  times 
it  was  the  second  city  in  the  kingdom. 
Here  are  the  remains  of  three  pyramids, 
each  measuring  400  feet  along  the  base 
of  their  fronts.  The  modem  town  con- 
tains many  handsome  edifices,  and  car- 
ries on  an  active  trade.  Pop.  5930. 
Tezel   (^^^'''^)*     Same  as  TetgtL 

Thackftrav  ( thak'e  -  ri ) ,  WmiAic 
Anac&eray  Makepeace,  an  English 
novelist  and  humorist,  was  bom  at  Cal- 
cutta in  1811;  died  December  24,  1863. 
His  father  was  in  the  civil  service  of 
the  EsLBt  India  Company.  At  the  age  of 
seven  Thackeray  was  sent  to  England 
for  his  education,  and  was  placed  at  the 
Charterhouse  School,  London,  afterwards 
continuing  his  studies  at  Cambridge. 
He  left  the  university  without  taking  a 
degree;  and,  being  well  provided  for,  ke 
chose  the  profession  of  an  artist  He 
spent  several  years  in  France,  Grermany 
and    Italy,   staying   at   Weunar,    Roma 


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and  Paris,  but  gradually  became  con- 
vinced that  art  was  not  his  vocation, 
and  having  meanwhile  lost  his  fortune, 
he  resolved  to  turn  his  attention  to  litera- 
ture. His  first  appearance  in  this  sphere 
was  as  a  journalist  Under  the  name 
of  George  Fitz-Boodle,  Esq.,  or  of  Michael 
Angelo  Titmarsh,  he  contributed  to 
Frater^s  Magazine  tales,  criticisms,  verses, 
etc.,  which  were  marked  by  great  knowl- 
edge of  the  world,  keen  irony,  or  playful 
humor.  It  was  in  this  magazine  that  The 
Oreai  Eoggarty  Diamond,  YeUotoplu^h 
Papert,  and  Barry  Lpndan  appeared. 
In  1840  he  published  separately  the 
Pari9  Sketch-hook,  in  1841  the  Second 
Funeral  of  Napoleon  and  the  Chronicle 
of   the  Drum^   and   in   1843   the   Irish 


William  Mskepeaoe  Thsekeraj. 

Sketch-hook.  None  of  these  writings, 
however,  attained  to  any  great  popu- 
larity. In  1841  Punch  was  started,  and 
his  contributions  to  that  periodical, 
among  others  Jeamet*  Diary,  and  tibe 
Snoh  Papers,  were  very  successful.  In 
1846-48  his  novel  of  Vanity  Fair  was 
published  in  monthly  parts,  with  illus- 
trations by  himself;  and  long  before  its 
completion  its  author  was  unanimouslv 
placed  in  the  first  rank  of  British  novel- 
ists. His  next  novel  was  the  History  of 
Pendennis,  completed  in  1850.  In  1851 
he  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  in  Lon- 
don on  the  English  Humorists  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  which  was  repeated 
in  Scotland  and  America,  and  published  in 
1853.  Another  novel,  The  History  of 
Henry  Esmond  appeared  in  1852,  and 
was  followed  by  The  Neweomes  (1855). 
The  Virginians  (1859K  a  sort  of  sequel 
to  Esmond;  Lovel  the  Widower^  The  Ad- 
ventures of  Philip,  and  Dents  Duval, 
which  was  left  unfinished  at  his  death. 
In  1855-56  he  delivered  a  series  of  lec- 
)tt«M  in  the  United  States  — TAe  Four 


Georges,  and  afterwards  in  England  and 
Scotland.  In  1859  he  became  editor  of 
the  Comhitt  Magazine,  in  which  his  later 
novels  and  the  remarkable  Roundabout 
Papers  appeared,  but  he  retired  from  that 
post  in  1862.  He  wrote  a  good  deal  of 
verse,  half-humorous,  half-pathetic,  and 
often  wholly  extravagant,  but  all  char- 
acterized by  grace  and  spontaneity.  He 
undoubtedly  ranks  as  the  classical  Eng- 
lish humorist  and  satirist  of  the  Victor- 
ian reign,  and  one  of  the  greatest  novel- 
ists, essayists,  and  critics  in  the  literature. 
A  collection  of  letters  by  Thackeray  was 

fublished  in  1887. —  His  daughter,  Anns 
SABELLA  (Mrs.  Richmond  Ritchie), 
born  in  1838,  inherited  much  of  her 
father's  literary  talent  Her  first  story 
appeared  in  (^mhill  in  1860,  and  was 
called  Little  Scholars  in  the  London 
Schools.  It  was  followed  by  the  Story 
of  EUzaheth  in  1867.  Old  Kensington, 
which  followed  soon  after,  is  probably 
the  work  by  which  she  will  be  best 
known.  Among  her  other  works  are  Blue 
Beard's  Keys,  Toilers  and  Spinsters,  Miss 
Angel  and  Mrs.  Dymond. 
Thais  (th&'is),  an  Athenian  courte- 
san,  famous  for  wit  and  beauty, 
who  was  in  Asia  with  Alexander  the 
Great,  and  is  said  —  on  doubtful  '\uthor- 
ity  —  to  have  induced  him  to  bum  the 
palace  of  Persepolis. 

Thalamiflorse   (thai-a-mi-fl6'P§),  a 

w*«*#  class  of  exogenous  or 
dicotyledonous  plants  in  which  the  petals 
are  distinct  and  inserted  with  the 
stamens  on  the  thalamus  or  receptacle. 

Thalber?  (tarber^),  Sigismund,  a 

^^^  o  celebrated  pianist,  was  bom 
in  Geneva  in  1812,  received  his  first  in- 
stmction  on  the  pianoforte  in  Vienna, 
and  already  as  a  boy  was  famous  as  a 
performer.  Towards  the  end  of  1835  he 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  at  once  estab- 
lished his  fame.  He  subsequently  visited 
England,  the  Netherlands,  Russia  and 
Italy,  being  everywhere  received  with 
the  greatest  enthusiasm.  During  the 
years  from  1865  to  1868  he  visited  Brazil 
and  the  United  States,  and  after  several 
years'  retirement  on  an  estate  he  had 
purchased  near  Naples,  he  once  more 
visited  Paris  and  London  (1802),  and 
later  Brazil.  He  died  April  28,  1871. 
He  left  a  number  of  compositions,  in- 
cluding sonatas,  studies,  a  concerto,  sev- 
eral nocturnes,  and  other  small  pieces. 
Thaler     ^  ta'Ur  y,   a   silver   com   for- 

merly  in  use  in  Germany,  of 
the  value  of  about  75  cents.  See  Dollar. 
ThaleS    (tha'l&s),  a  native  of  Miletus 

in  Ionia,  or,  according  to  some, 
of  Phoenicia,  the  earliest  philosopher  of 
Greece,  and  the  founder  of  the  Ionian 


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school,  was  bom  about  640  b.c.  He  is 
said  to  have  made  several  visits  to  Egypt, 
where  he  received  iDstructions  from  the 
priests,  from  whom  he  probably  acquired 
a  knowledge  of  geometry.  After  his  re- 
turn his  reputation  for  learning  and  wis- 
dom became  so  great  that  he  was 
reckoned  among  the  seven  wise  men,  and 
kls  sayings  were  held  in  the  highest 
esteem  by  the  ancients.  He  died  about 
B.C.  548.  His  philosophical  doctrines 
were  taught  orally,  and  preserved  only 
by  oral  tradition,  until  some  of  the  later 
Greek  philosophers,  particularly  Aristotle, 
committed  them  to  writing.  He  con- 
sidered water,  or  rather  fluidity,  the 
elemental    principle   of    all    things.    His 

ehilosophical  doctrines  are,  however,  but 
nperfectly  understood. 
Thalia  (tha-U'a),  one  of  the  nine 
Aucftuo  Moses.  She  was  the  patron  of 
comedy,  and  is  usually  represented  with 
the  comic  nuusk  and  the  shepherd's  crook 
in  her  hand.  One  of  the  Graces  was  also 
called  Thalia. 

ThldlilUn  /thari-um;  from  Gr.  «Aal- 
AAMMAAU.U1.  2^^  ^  green  twig),  a  metal 
discovered  by  Crookes  in  1861,  in  a  de- 
posit from  a  sulphuric  acid  manufactory 
In  the  Harz.  In  its  physical  properties 
thallium  resembles  lead,  but  is  slightly 
heavier,  somewhat  softer,  and  may  be 
scratched  by  the  finger-nail.  It  fuses 
under  a  red  heat,  and  is  soluble  in  the 
ordinary  mineral  acids.  In  color  it  re- 
sembles silver,  but  is  less  brilliantly 
white.  Its  specific  gravity  varies  from 
11.8  to  11.0,  according  to  the  mechanical 
treatment  to  which  it  has  been  subjected. 
The  tenacity  of  the  metal  is  less  than 
that  of  lead ;  it  is  possessed  of  very  con- 
siderable malleability.  Thallium  and 
its  salts  impart  an  intense  green  color 
to  a  non-luminous  flame;  when  a  flame  so 
colored  is  examined  by  the  spectroscope 
one  very  brilliant  green  band  is  noticed, 
somewhat  more  refrangible  than  the  so- 
dium line  D.  (See  Spectrum.)  The 
salts  of  thallium  are  exceedinglv  poison- 
ous. The  symbol  adopted  for  this  metal 
is  Tl,  and  the  atomic  weight  203.64. 
With  oxygen  it  forms  two  compounds, 
T1,0,  T1,0|.  Small  quantities  of  thallium 
appear  to  be  widely  distributed  in  nature, 
the  metal  frequently  occurring  in  iron 
and  copper  pyrites,  in  native  sulphur, 
etc. 

ThalloeenS  (thal'o-jensK  one  of  the 
^^^^  o  primary  divisions  of  the 

vegetable  kingdom,  comprehending  those 
cryptogamous  plants  which  are  extremely 
simple  in  their  structure,  and  possess 
nothing  like  the  green  leaves  of  phaner- 
ecamous  plants.  They  have  no  woody 
iber  properly  so  called,  being  mere  masses 
&-10 


of  cells.    Thallogens  include  algse,  char- 
aceae,  fungi,  and  lichens. 
ThallUS    <^^al'us),  in  botany,  a  solid 
«.M.«M«u.»   mass  of  cells,  or  cellular  tis- 
sue     without 
woody  fiber,  con- 
sisting of  one  or 
more    layers,    us- 
ually in  the  form 
of  a  flat  stratum 
or   expansion,   or 
in    the    form    of 
a    lobe,    leaf,    or 
frond,   and   form- 
ing the  substance 
of  the  thallogens. 

Thaines(temz), 

the  most  impor- 
tant river  of 
Great  Britain,  is 
usually  said  to 
rise  about  three 
miles  southwest 
of  Cirencester  in 
Gloucestershire, 
near  a  bridge 

over  the  Thames     ^h^^    ^,  ^,^  y^ 
and        Severn  ieulotu*.    t,   t.    Fructifies. 
Canal,  called  tion.      «,  «,    Air    blsd- 
Thameshead  dert. 
Bridge,   but   is 

more  properly  formed  by  the  Isis,  Chum, 
Colne  and  Leach,  which  have  their  sources 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Cotswold  Hills, 
and  unite  near  Lechlade,  where  it  becomes 
navigable  for  barges.  Thence  it  flows 
E.,  past  Oxford  and  Abingdon  to  Read- 
ing, after  which  its  course  is  mostly 
E.,  with  great  bendings  and  windings,  to 
its  output  in  the  North  Sea,  passing 
through  London  in  its  course.  Below 
London  it  flows  eastward  to  the  Nore,  a 
broad  estuary,  its  mouth  being  about  60 
miles  below  the  capital.  Its  total  course 
is  estimated  at  250  miles.  It  pursues  a 
winding  way  through  London,  with  an 
average  width  of  about  1000  feet  The 
Basin  of  the  Thames  has  an  area  of  5400 
square  miles,  and  belongs  entirely  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  Secondary  and  to  the 
Tertiary  formations.  The  depth  of  the 
river  in  the  fair  way  above  Greenwich  to 
London  Bridge  is  12  to  13  feet,  while  its 
tides  have  a  mean  range  of  17  feet  and 
an  extreme  rise  of  22  feet.  (See  also 
London,)  By  means  of  numerous  canals 
immediate  access  is  given  from  its  basin 
to  those  of  all  the  great  rivers  of  Eng- 
land. 

Thana  (^'°*)»  Tanna,  chief  town  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name, 
Bombay  Presidency  21  miles  n.  e.  of 
Bombay  city.  It  is  a  favorite  residence 
with  the  Bombay  officials.    Pop.  16,011. 


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Theater 


TTiQiiA  (thftn),  a  title  of  honor  among 
J-liauc  ^^  Anglo-Saxons.  In  Eng- 
land  a  freeman  not  noble  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  a  thane  by  acquiring  a  certain 
portion  of  land  —  five  hides  for  a  lesser 


thane  —  by  making  three  sea-voyages,  or 
by  receiving  holy  orders.  Everjr  thane 
had  the  right  df  voting  in  the  witenage- 


mot,  not  only  of  the  shire,  but  also  of  the 
kingdom,  when  important  questions  were 
to  be  discussed.  With  the  growth  of  the 
kingly  power  the  importance  of  the  king's 
thanes  (those  in  t^e  personal  service  of 
the  sovereign)  rose  above  that  of  the  high- 
est gentry,  ealdormen  and  bishops  form- 
ing an  inferior  class.  On  the  cessation 
of  his  actual  personal  service  about  the 
king  the  thane  received  a  grant  of  land. 
After  the  Norman  conquest  thanes  and 
barons  were  classed  together.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  II  the  title  fell  into  disuse. 
In  Scotland  the  thanes  were  a  class  of 
non-military  tenants  of  the  crown,  and  the 
title  was  in  use  till  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

ThonAf  (than'et),  Isle  of,  a  district 
xuaucb  ^j  England  in  the  county  of 
Kent,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  sepa- 
rated from  the  mainland  by  the  river 
Stour  on  the  south  and  the  rivulet  Nether- 
gong*  an  the  west,  with  an  area  of  41  sq. 
miles. 

Thanksgiving  Day,  fe^t wSf  ol 

thanksgiving  for  the  mercies  of  the  clos- 
ing year,  originating  in  New  England  in 
1^1,  after  the  first  harvest  at  the  Ply- 
mouth settlement.  It  slowly  spread  to 
the  other  colonies,  and  since  1863,  when 
President  Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation 
recommending  its  national  observance,  his 
example  has  been  followed  by  succeeding 
presidents,  the  last  Thursday  of  No- 
veml>er  being  chosen  as  Thanksgiving 
Day  and  kept  as  a  holiday  throughout 
the  Union. 

Til  a  11 11  (tan),  Germany,  in  Alsace, 
i,uuaa  jj^g  ^  gjjg  Gothic  church  with 
a  spire  of  open  work  328  feet  high,  and 
has  manufactures  of  woolens,  cottons,  etc. 
Pop.  7901. 

Thar  and  Parkar  <f-;.,f 'J^-K^a 

east  of  Sind,  British  India.  It  is  divided 
into  two  districts,  the  *  Pat  *  or  plain  of 
the  Eastern  Nara,  and  the  '  Thar '  or 
desert.  Area,  12,729  sq.  miles.  Chief 
town,  Umarkot  or  Amnrkote,  the  birth- 
place of  Akbar.  Pop.  4924. 
ThaiO  (thlL'so),  the  ancient  Thasos^ 
an  itfland  in  the  ^Egean  Sea,  a 
few  miles  south  of  the  Macedonian  coast, 
belonging  to  Turkey. 
TTlfl-Ttpr  (thaks'ter),  Celia,  an  Amer- 
xuiukbcx     j^.jj^     poai^     born     in     New 


Hampshire,  in  1835;  died  in  1894.  She 
resided  for  years  on  the  Isle  of  Shoals, 
and  wrote  Among  the  Isles  of  Shoals, 
Drift  Wood,  Poems  for  Children,  etc. 
Thaver  (tha'6r),  Abbott  Hendebson, 
xuajrcx  American  figure  painter,  born 
in  Boston  in  1849.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
G^rAme  at  the  Paris  Ecole  des  Beaux 
Arts.  Among  his  best-known  works  may 
be  mentioned  The  Virgin,  The  Virgin  En- 
throned and  Caritas, 

Til  Ao  fin  Aft  ( the'a-tins) ,  an  order  of 
XUeauues  j^^^j^^  founded  at  Rome  id 
1524,  principally  by  Gianpietro .  Caraffa 
(Pope  Paul  IV).  archbishop  of  Chieti,  in 
Naples  (anciently  Theate).  They  bound 
themselves  to  preach  against  heretics,  at- 
tend the  sick  and  criminals,  and  not  to 
possess  property  or  ask  for  alms.  The 
order  formerly  flourished  in  Fiance,. 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  but  is  now  chiefly 
confined  to  the  Italian  provinces. 
Theater  (^^^^'a-ter;  Greek,  theatran), 
an  edifice  appropriated  to 
the  representation  of  dramatic  spectacles. 
Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  theaters 
were  the  chief  public  edifices  next  to  the 
temples,  and  in  point  of  magnitude  they 
surpassed  the  most  spacious  of  the  tem- 
ples, having  in  some  instances  accommo- 
dation for  as  many  as  from  10,000  to 
40,000  spectators.  The  Greek  and  Ro- 
man theaters  very  closely  resembled  each 
other  in  their  general  form  and  principal 
parts.    The  building  was  of  a  semicircu- 


Theater  of  Segesta,  Sicily  —  restored. 

lar  form,  resembling  the  half  of  an  am- 
phitheater, and  was  not  covered  by  a  roof. 
In  Greece  the  semicircular  area  was  often 
scooped  out  in  the  side  of  a  hill,  but  Ro- 
man theaters  were  built  on  the  level. 
The  seats  of  the  spectators  were  all  con- 
centric, being  arranged  in  tiers  up  the 
semicircular  slope.  The  stage  or  place 
for  the  playefs  was  in  front  of  the  seats, 
bein^  a  narrow  platform  along  the 
straight  side  of  the  theater.  Behind  this 
rose  a  high  wall  resembling  the  facade  of 


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Theater  Thebes 

a  building,  this  being  intended  to  repr'e-  galleries  or  balconies  run  in  a  semidrcu- 
sent  any  building  in  front  of  which  the  lar  or  horseshoe  form  round  the  house, 
action  was  supposed  to  take  place.  This  The  seats  in  the  galleries  rise  terrace- 
was  called  in  Greek  akSni  (L.  acena),  the  wise  from  the  front,  so  as  to  allow  the 
stage  being  called  proakenion  (L.  proa-  persons  in  the  back  rows  to  see  on  to  the 
centum ).  The  semicircular  space  between  stage  over  the  heads  of  those  before  them, 
the  stage  and  the  lowest  seats  of  the  Immediately  in  front  of  the  stage  is  a 
spectators  was  called  orcheatra,  and  was  space  occupied  by  the  orchestra.  Part  of 
appropriated  by  the  Greeks  to  the  chorus  the  stage  flooring  is  movable,  either  as 
and  musicians,  and  by  the  Romans  to  traps  through  which  actors  or  furniture 
the  senators.  Scenery,  in  the  modem  ascend  or  descend,  or  in  long  narrow 
sense  of  the  word,  was  not  employed  ex-  pieces  which  are  drawn  off  at  each  side  of 
cept  in  a  very  rude  form,  but  the  stage  the  stage  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  ris- 
machinery  seems  in  many  cases  to  have  ing  scenes.  Within  recent  years  there 
been  elaborate ;  and  in  particular  there  have  been  great  improvements  in  the  art  of 
was  a  well-known  machine  or  contrivance  stage  setting,  for  the  production  of  nat- 
of  some  sort  from  which  deities  made  uralistic  effects,  and  the  stage  of  to-day 
their  entrance  as  if  from  the  sky.  A  presents  an  extraordinary  advance  over 
good  existing  example  of  an  ancient  that  of  the  past  centuries, 
theater  is  that  of  Segesta  in  Sicily.  ThebfiS  (tbebz),  an  ancient  capital  of 
Between  the  decline  of  the  ancient  and  *'**^"*'*  Egypt,  in  Upper  Egypt,  on 
the  rise  of  the  modem  drama  there  is  a  both  sides  of  tne  Nile,  about  300  miles 
long  interval,  in  which  the  nearest  ap-  s.  8.  E.  of  Cairo,  now  represented  by  the 
proach  to  theatrical  entertainments  Is  four  villages  of  Luxor,  Kamak,  Medinet 
found  in  miracle  plays,  mysteries,  and  Habu  ana  Kurneh,  as  well  as  by  magnif- 
interludes.  These  performances  took  icent  mins  which  extend  about  0  miles 
place  in  churches,  convents,  halls,  etc.,  along  the  river.  When  Thebes  was 
or  in  the  open  air.  In  1548  the  Con-  founded  is  not  known ;  the  period  of  its 
fraternity  of  the  Trinity  opened  a  theater  greatest  prosperity  reaches  from  1500  to 
in  Paris,  in  which  they  performed  secular  1000  B.c.  The  ruins  comprise  magnifi- 
pieces.  The  first  theater  erected  in  Italy  cent  temples,  rock-cut  tombs,  obelisks 
seems  to  have  been  that  of  Florence,  built  decorated  with  beautiful  sculptures,  long 
in  1581,  but  the  first  building  that  ap-  avenues  of  sphinxes,  and  colossal  statues, 
proacbes  the  modem  style  was  one  con-  The  largest  of  the  temples  is  that  at  Kar- 
stmcted  at  Parma  in  1618.  In  England  nak,  which  is  about  i\  mile  in  circum- 
there  were  organized  companies  of  actors  ference.  The  great  hall  of  the  temple  (or 
as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Edward  IV,  but  *  hall  of  columns ' ;  see  Egypt,  section 
as  there  were  no  regular  playhouses  the  Architecture) ^  the  most  magnificent  in 
performances  took  place  in  tennis-courts,  Egypt,  measures  329  feet  by  170,  and  the 
Inn-yards,  and  private  houses.  The  Lon-  roof  was  originally  supported  by  134  gi- 
don  Theater  was  built  before  1576,  and  gantic  columns,  of  which  12  forming  the 
the  Curtain  in  Shoreditch  and  the  play-  central  avenue  are  62  feet  high  and  11 
houses  in  Blackfriars  and  Whitefriars  feet  6  inches  in  diameter,  the  others, 
date  from  about  the  same  time.  Shakes-  which  are  in  rows  on  either  side,  being 
peare*s  plays  were  brought  out  at  the  fully  42  feet  in  height  and  28  in  circum- 
house  in  Blackfriars  and  at  the  Globe  on  ference.  Within  the  temple  courts  are 
tbe  Bankside,  both  of  which  belonged  to  several  obelisks  of  red  granite;  one  — 
the  same  company,  to  whom  James  I  the  largest  obelisk  known  —  is  108  feet 
granted  a  patent  in  1603.  The  Globe  was  10  inches  high  and  8  feet  square.  Above 
a  six-sided  wooden  stmcture,  partly  open  Kamak  are  the  village  and  temple  of 
at  the  top  and  partly  thatched.  Movable  Luxor,  the  latter  at  one  time  connected 
scenery  was  first  used  on  the  public  stage  with  fi[amak  bv  an  avenue  of  sphinxes 
b^  Davenant  in  1662,  and  about  the  same  (some  of  which  still  remain)  about  a 
time  this  manager  introduced  women  to  mile  long.    The  Memnonium  or  temple  of 

Slay  female  characters,  hitherto  taken  by  Rameses  II,  and  tbe  temple  and  palace 

oys  and  men.     Modern  theaters  are  all  of  Rameses  III,  on  the  other  or  left  bank 

very   much   alike   in   their   internal   con-  of  the  river,  are  objects  of  great  interest, 

struction.     The  house  is  divided  into  two  both  for  the  grandeur  of  their  architecture 

distinct  portions,  tbe  auditorium  and  the  and    the    richness   and    variety    of   their 

stage,  the  former  for  the  spectators,  the  sculptures.     (For    plan    of    former    see 

latter  for  the  actors  and  scenery,  which  Egypt,)     Here     are     also     the     colossal 

is  often  of  the  most  elaborate  and  realis-  statues   of   Amenoph    III,   one  of   them 

tic  kind.    The   floor  of   the  auditorium  known  as  the  vocal  statue  of  Memnen 

is  always  sloped  down  from  the  back  of  (which    see).    In    the    interior    of    the 

tbe  bouse  to  the  stage;  several  tiers  of  mountains  which  rise  behind  are  fonad' 


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Thebes 


Theodolite 


the  tombs  of  the  kings  of  Thebes,  excava- 
ted in  the  rock,  the  most  remarkable  be- 
ing that  of  Sethi  I,  discovered  by  Belzoni, 
and  containing  fine  sculptures  and  paint- 
ings. 

TTiaTiaa  <^  <^ity  0^  ancient  Greece,  the 
xaeuc5,  principal  city  of  Boeotia,  the 
birthplace  of  Pindar,  Eipaminondas,  and 
Pelopidas,  was  situated  about  midway 
between  the  Corinthian  Gulf  and  the  Eu- 
boean  Sea.  Cadmus  is  said  to  have 
founded  it  in  1500  b.g.  It  lost  much  of 
its  influence  in  Greece  through  its  perfid- 
ious leagues  with  the  Persians.  Under 
the  brilliant  leadership  of  Epaminondas 
and  Pelopidas  it  became  the  leading  state 
in  Greece,  but  its  supremacy  departed 
^hen  the  former  fell  at  the  battle  of  Man- 
tinea  (B.G.  302).  From  this  time  the  city 
never  recovered  its  former  importance, 
and  gradually  disappeared  from  history. 
The  modem  Thebes  or  Thiva  is  an  unim- 
portant town  of  some  3000  inhabitants. 
Thefifl.  (thSTui).  in  botany,  the  spore- 
*"^^**  case  of  ferns,  mosses,  etc 
Theft.     ®^  Larceny, 

Theine    (t*^*'*"*)-     ®^  caffeine, 

TTiAiam  (thS'izm),  the  belief  or  ac- 
J.iiej.5iu  jmowledgment  of  the  exist- 
ence of  God,  as  opposed  to  Atheism,  See 
Deism.  ,  ^    „ 

TTiPifift  (tis),  a  river  of  Hungary, 
xaci8»  formed  in  the  east  of  the  king- 
dom by  the  junction  of  the  Black  and  the 
White  Theiss,  both  descending  from  the 
Carpathians  and  flowing  into  the  Danube 
about  20  miles  above  Belgrade;  length, 
about  800  miles.  It  is  the  second  river  in 
Hungary,  being  inferior  only  to  the  Dan- 
ube, with  which,  for  about  100  miles,  the 
lower  part  of  its 
course  is  almost 
parallel.  Its  prin- 
cipal tributary  is 
the  Maros  from 
the  east 

dess  of  law  and 
justice  among  the 
Greeks,  was  the 
daughter  of  Urft- 
nus  and  GS 
(Heaven  and 
Earth)  ;  accord- 
ing to  some,  of 
Helios,  or  the 
Sun. 

Themistocles 

(thc-mis'tu-kl«a), 
an  Athenian  com- 
mander, born  in 


Themiitoelei. 


514  B.G.  On  the  second  invasion  of 
Greece  by  Xerxes,  Themistocles  succeeded 
by  bribery  in  obtaining  the  command  of 
the  Athenian  fleet,  and  in  the  battle 
of  Salamis  which  followed  (b.c.  480), 
the  Persian  fleet  was  almost  totally  de- 
stroyed, and  Greece  was  saved.  The  chief 
glory  of  the  victory  is  due  to  Themi» 
tocles.  Subsequently  he  was  accused 
of  having  enriched  himself  by  unjust 
means,  and  of  being  privy  to  designs  for 
the  betrayal  of  Greece  to  the  Persians. 
Fearing  the  vengeance  of  his  countrymen, 
he,  after  many  vicissitudes,  took  refuge  at 
the  Persian  court.  The  Persian  throne 
was  then  (465  B.C.)  occupied  by  Arta- 
xerxes  Longim&nus,  to  whom  Themis- 
tocles procured  access,  and  whose  favor 
he  gained  by  his  address  and  talents,  so 
that  he  was  treated  with  the  greatest 
distinction.  He  died  in  449,  according  to 
some  accounts  by  his  own  hand. 

Theobald  <  *^^'^^^?i.  .Sl^^\  ^^ 

*  ^  "^**  nounced  tib'ald),  Lewis. 
an  English  writer,  bom  about  1690.  was 
brought  up  to  the  profession  of  the  law, 
but  earlv  turned  his  attention  to  litera- 
ture, and  wrote  some  plays,  now  quite  for- 
gotten. Pope  was  meanly  jealous  of  him, 
and  ridiculed  him  in  his  Duncit^.  Theo- 
bald, however,  had  his  revenge,  his  edi- 
tion of  Shakespere  (1733)  completely 
supplanting  Pope's.  He  did  great  ser- 
vice to  literature  by  this  painstaking 
work,  many  of  his  emendations  having 
been  adopted  by  subsequent  editors.  He 
died  in  1744. 
Theobroma   (thS-o-brO'ma).    see  Co* 

cao, 

Th^opraov  (th&-ok'ra-si),  that  gov- 
XneOCracy  emment  of  which  the 
chief  is,  or  is  believed  to  be,  God  himself, 
the  priests  being  the  promulgators  and 
expounders  of  the  divine  commands.  The 
most  notable  theocratic  government  of  all 
times  is  that  established  by  Moses  among 
the  Israelites. 

Theocritus  <)*^>L1i;'"tV  i^r?^ 

poet,  bom  at  Syracuse, 
who  flourished  about  B.c.  280.  We  have 
under  his  name  thirty  idyls,  or  pastoral 
poems,  of  which,  however,  several  -are 
probably  by  other  authors.  Most  of  his 
idyls  have  a  dramatic  form,  and  consist 
of  the  alternate  responses  of  musical 
shepherds.  His  language  is  strong  and 
harmonious,  and  his  poetical  ability  high, 
his  bucolic  poems  being  regarded  as  mas- 
terpieces of  their  kind. 
Theodolite  (thS-odVlIt).  a  survey- 
Au^vuv*Av«^  jjj^  instrument  for  meas- 
uring horizontal  and  vertical  angles  by 
means  of  a  telescope,  the  movements  of 
which  can  be  accurately  marked.  This 
instrumeot  is  varioosly  conf(truc^e4,  but 


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Theodora 


Theodoric 


its  main  characteristics  continue  un- 
altered in  all  forms.  Its  chief  features 
are  the  teIe8coi>e,  a  graduated  vertical 
circle  to  which  it  is  attached,  two  con- 
centric horizontal  circular  plates  which 
turn  freely  on  each  other,  and  two  spirit- 
levels  on  the  upper  plate  to  secure  exact 
horizontality.  the  whole  being  on  a  tripod 
stand.  The  lower  plate  contains  the  aivi- 
sions  of  the  circle  round  its  edge,  and  the 
upper  or  vernier  plate  has  two  vernier 
divisions     diametrically     opposite.    The 


Theodolite. 

?Iate8  turn  on  a  double  vertical  axis, 
'o  measure  the  angular  distance  horizon- 
tally between  any  two  objects,  the  tele- 
scope is  turned  round  along  with  the 
vernier  circle  until  it  is  brought  to  bear 
exactlv  upon  one  of  the  objects ;  it  is  then 
turned  round  until  it  is  brought  to  bear 
on  the  other  object,  and  the  arc  which  the 
vernier  has  described  on  the  graduated 
circle  measures  the  angle  required.  By 
means  of  the  double  vertical  axis  the  ob- 
servation may  be  repeated  any  number 
of  times  in  order  to  ensure  accuracy. 
The  graduated  vertical  circle  is  for  tak- 
ing altitudes  or  vertical  angles  in  a 
similar  way.  The  theodolite  is  a  most 
essential  instrument  in  surveying  and  in 
geodetical  operations. 
Theodora.  (th§-o<l6'ra),  the  wife  of 
*^  the  Byzantine  emperor  Jus- 

tinian, of  low  birth,  at  one  time  a  dancer 
on  the  stage,  and  notorious  for  licentious- 
ness. She  later  assumed  the  character  of 
a  pious  benefactor  of  the  church,  and 
died  in  548,  aged  forty.  See  Justinian  I. 
TliAAilorp  (the'u-ddr),  one  of  the 
xaeoaure  ^^^  distinguished  ecclesi- 
astical writers  of  his  age,  bom  at  Antioch 
about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. 


Early  in  life  he  followed  the  example  of 
Ghrysostom  in  embracing  the  monastic 
life.  He  was  ordained  priest,  and  for 
fifty  years  distinguished  himself  as  a 
zealous  opponent  of  the  heresies  of  Arlus, 
ApoUinarius,  and  others.  From  Antioch 
he  removed  to  Tarsus,  and  in  tbe  year 
392  or  394  was  chosen  bishop  of  Mop- 
suestia  in  Cilicia.  dying  in  429.  Only  a 
few  fragments  oi  his  works  are  extant, 
the  most  important  of  them  being  com- 
mentaries on  almost  all  the  books  of  the 
Bible,  and  various  polemical  treatises. 
His  doctrine  approximated  somewhat  to 
that  of  Pelagius,  and  was  later  consid- 
ered heretical. 
Theodore  H,   ^l  n  g^^  of ^AbyjdnU. 

of  Kwara  in  1818,  for  many  years  a 
rebel,  finally  fought  his  way  to  the  throne 
(1855).  He  was  a  man  of  great  parts, 
an  inveterate  foe  of  Islamism,  a  bom 
ruler,  and  an  intelligent  reformer.  But 
intolerance  of  any  power  save  his  own 
finally  made  a  tyrant  of  him ;  and  in  con- 
sequence of  the  imprisonment  of  Consul 
Cameron  and  other  British  subjects  he 
brought  upon  himself  a  war  with  Eng- 
land, which  ended,  April  13,  1868.  in  the 
storming  of  Magdala  and  the  death  (sup- 
posedly by  suicide)  of  Theodore.  See 
Ahys9%nia. 

Theodoret  <*^^'"-''«V%  ^*  ^^m°' 

AAAvvuvAvv  gujghe^  ecclesiastical  his- 
torian and  theological  writer,  bom  at 
Antioch  about  the  close  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, and  in  420  or  423  raised  to  the 
bishopric  of  Cyros  or  Cyrrhus.  Becom- 
ing involved  later  in  the  quarrel  between 
Nestorius  and  the  overbearing  and  intol- 
erant Cyril  of  Alexandria,  he  was  de- 
posed at  the  so-called  robber  council  of 
Ephesus,  a  sentence  which  was  reversed 
by  the  general  council  of  Chalcedon  in 
451.  Theodoret  appears  to  have  died  in 
457  or  458.  The  most  important  of  his 
works  consist  of  commentaries  on  numer- 
ous books  of  the  Old  Testament  and  on 
the  Pauline  epistles;  EccleaioBtical  His- 
tory, History  of  Heresies,  etc. 
TliAAilorio  (  th6-od'u-rik),  King  of 
ineoaonC  \^^  Ostrogoths;  bom  in 
A.D.  455,  died  in  526;  was  the  son  of 
Theodemir,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths  of 
Pannonia.  From  his  eighth  to  his  eight- 
eenth year  he  lived  as  a  hostage  with  the 
Emperor  Leo  at  Constantinople.  Two 
years  after  his  retum  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne.  In  493,  after  several  bloody  en- 
gagements, Theodoric  induced  Odoacer, 
who  had  assumed  the  title  of  King  of 
Italy,  to  grant  him  equal  authority.  The 
murder  of  Odoacer  at  a  banquet  soon 
after  opened  the  way  for  Theodoric  to 
have  himself  proclaimed  sole  ruler.    The- 


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Theosophy 


odoric  ruled  with  great  yigor  and  ability. 
He  attached  his  soldiers  to  his  service  by 
assigning  them  a  third  part  of  the  lands 
of  Italy,  on  the  tenure  of  military  serv- 
ice; while  among  his  Italian  subjects, 
whom  he  conciliated  by  introducing  an 
improved  administration  of  justice,  be 
encouraged  industry  and  the  arts  of 
peace.  Alt^iough,  like  his  ancestors,  he 
was  an  Arian,  he  never  violated  the 
peace  or  privileges  of  the  Catholic 
Church. 

Theodosius  (thS-o-dO'shi-us),  a 
AA&vv«&voAu.9  Christian  Roman  em- 
peror, bom  in  Spain  about  3G4,  and 
selected  by  the  Emperor  Gratlan,  in  379, 
for  his  partner  in  the  empire.  To  bis 
care  were  submitted  Thrace  and  the  east- 
ern provinces,  which  he  delivered  from 
an  invasion  of  the  Goths,  concluding  a 
peace  with  them  in  382.  On  the  defeat 
and  death  of  Mazimus  (388)  he  became 
the  sole  head  of  the  empire,  Gratian  hav- 
ing been  previously  killed  in  the  war 
against  Mazimus.  Is  390  a  sedition 
took  place  in  Thessalonica,  and  in  re- 
venge for  this  act,  Theodosius  caused  the 
people  of  the  city  to  be  invited  to  an  ez- 
hibition  at  the  circus,  and  when  a  great 
concourse  had  assembled  they  were  bar- 
barously murdered  by  l^is  soldiery,  to  the 
number,  it  is  computed,  of  7000.  St  Am- 
brose refused  him  communion  for  eight 
months  on  account  of  this  crime,  and 
Theodosius     submitted     humbly     to     the 

{)unishment  He  died  at  Milan,  aj>.  395, 
eaving  the  eastern  portion  of  the  empire 
to  his  son  Arcadius,  the  western  to  his 
son  Honorius.  He  distinguished  himself 
by  bis  zeal  for  orthodozy,  and  his  intoler- 
ance and  persecution  of  Arianism  and 
other  heresies. 

Thpolo^V  (th§-ol'o-ii ;  Greek  Theos, 
J.acuiU|^jr   (^^    ^jjj    i^g^^    doctrine) 

is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  ezist- 
ence  of  God^  his  attributes,  and  the  Divine 
will  regarding  our  actions,  present  con- 
dition, and  ultimate  destiny.  In  refer- 
ence to  the  sources  whence  it  is  derived, 
theology  is  distinguished  into  natural  or 
philoMophical  theology,  which  relates  to 
the  knowledge  of  God  from  his  works  by 
the  light  of  nature  and  reason;  and  su- 
pernatural, po»itw€y  or  revealed  theoloffyt 
which  sets  forth  and  systematizes  the 
doctrines  of  the  Scriptures.  With  re- 
gard to  the  contents  of  theology,  it  is 
classified  into  theoretical  theology  or  dog- 
maticSf  and  practical  theology  or  ethics. 
As  comprehending  the  whole  eztent  of  re- 
ligious science,  theology  is  divided  into 
four  principal  classes,  historical^  ewegeti' 
col,  systematic,  and  practical  theology. 
Historical  theology  treats  of  the  historv 
of  Christian  doctrines.    Ezegetical  theol- 


ogy embraces  the  interpretation  of  the 
Scriptures  and  Biblical  criticism.  Syste- 
matic theology  arranges  methodically  the 
great  truths  of  religion.  Practical  tbeoi- 
ogy  consists  of  an  ezhibition,  first,  of 
precepts  and  directions;  and  secondly,  of 
the  moiives  from  which  we  should  be  ez- 
pected  to  comply  with  these.  Apologetic 
and  polemic  theology  belong  to  several  of 
the  above-mentioned  four  classes  at  once. 
The  scholastic  theolog\(  attempted  to  clear 
and  discuss  all  questions  by  the  aid  of 
human  reason  alone,  laying  aside  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures,  and  adopting  in- 
stead  the  arts  of  the  dialectician. 

Theophrastus  ^X^^.ll'i^^^,,,^ 

philosopher,  was  bom  at  Lesbos  early 
in  the  fourth  century  b.c.,  and  studied  at 
Athens,  in  the  school  of  Plato,  and  after- 
wards under  Aristotle,  of  whom  he  wa8 
the  favorite  puptl  and  successor.  On  th€ 
departure  of  Aristotle  from  Athens  after 
the  judicial  murder  of  Socrates  he  became 
the  head  of  the  Peripatetic  school  of  phi- 
losophy, and  composed  a  multitude  of 
books  —  dialectic,  moral,  metaphysical, 
and  physical.  We  possess  two  entire 
books  of  his  botany,  but  only  fragments 
of  his  other  works,  such  as  those  on 
Stones,  on  the  Winds,  etc.;  and  his 
Characters  or  sketches  of  types  of  char- 
acter, by  far  the  most  celebrated  of  all 
his  productions.  He  died  in  287  B.C. 
To  his  care  we  are  indebted  for  the 
preservation  of  the  writings  of  Aristotle, 
who,  when  dying,  intrusted  them  to  his 
keeping. 

Theophrastus    Paracelsus. 

See  Paracelsus. 

Theoaonhv  (th§-os'u-fi),  accordhig  to 
xaeusopuy  .^  etymology  the  sci- 
ence of  divine  things.  But  the  name  of 
theosophists  has  generally  been  applied  to 
persons  who  in  their  inquiries  respecting 
God  have  mn  into  mysticism,  as  Jacob 
Bahme,  Swedenborg,  St.  Martin,  and 
others.  At  the  present  day  the  term  is 
applied  to  the  tenets  of  the  Theosophical 
Society,  founded  in  New  York  in  1875 
by  Henry  S.  Olcott,  the  objects  of  which 
are:  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  universal 
brotherhood  of  humanity,  to  promote  the 
study  of  Eastern  literature  and  science, 
and  chiefly  to  investigate  unezplained 
laws  of  nature,  and  the  physical  powers 
of  man,  and  generally  the  search  after 
divine  knowledge  —  divine  applying  to 
the  divine  nature  of  the  abstract  princi- 
ple, not  to  the  quality  of  a  personal  God. 
The  theosophists  assert  that  humanity  is 
possessed  of  certain  powers  over  nature, 
which  the  narrower  study  of  nature  from 
the  merely  materialistic  stand-point  has 


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Thermo-electricity 


failed  to  develop.  They  maintain  the 
Hindu  doctrine  of  transmigration  of  souls. 
The  membership  in  the  United  States  is 
about  5000.  Mrs.  Annie  Besant  is  at 
present  the  president  of  the  society. 
Thera.     See  sanatoria. 

Thcrapeuta  <  ^f^^mee^  ^|^ 

first  century  after  Christ,  somewhat  akin 
to  the  Essenes. 

Therapeutics  <«'-?i?^^?Hi'  jX 

cine  which  treats  of  remedies  in  the 
widest  sense. 

Theresa  (te-rS'sa),  St.,  a  religions 
^  ^^*  enthusiast,  bom  at  Avila,  in 
Spain,  in  1515,  who  took  the  veil  among 
the  Carmelites  at  the  age  of  twenty-four. 
Being  dissatisfied  at  the  relaxation  of 
discipline  in  the  order  to  which  she  be- 
longed she  undertook  to  restore  the  orig- 
inal seyerity  of  the  institute.  The  first 
convent  of  reformed  Carmelite  nuns  was 
founded  at  Avila  In  1562,  and  was  speed- 
ily followed  by  a  number  of  others.  She 
died  in  1582,  and  was  canonized  by  Pope 
Gregory  XV  in  1621. 

TheresioBcl  (ta-ra-sM'pei),  or  ma^ 

Xl&^x ^OXV^^M.     m  ^  .  X  H  E  BESIEN8TADT 

(Hung.  Szahaaka)',  a  royal  free  town  in 
Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Bftcs,  is  more 
properly  a  district  than  a  town,  as  it 
covers,  with  its  numerous  suburbs,  an 
area  of  more  than  600  square  miles.  It 
has  manufactures  of  linen  and  woolen 
cloth,  dye-works,  tanneries,  soap-boiling 
works,  etc.,  and  a  trade  in  cattle,  horses, 
hides,  etc.  Pop.  82,122. 
Therms  (ther'me),  a  name  often 
Au^AAucK^  given  to  the  large  bathing 
establishments  of  ancient  Rome. 

Thermidor  <^.l^'™^"^?J^'-*?i?  ®^®^' 

•*•***** ^**^*  enth  month  of  the  year 
in  the  calendar  ot  the  first  French  repub- 
lic It  commenced  on  July  19th  and 
ended  on  August  17th.  See  Calendar, 
Thermit  ^^  name  given  a  mixture  of 
xii.vj.itu by  aluminum  powder  or  filings 
and  powdered  oxide  of  iron,  used  for 
welding  the  ends  of  iron  rails  or  fractures 
in  iron  goods.  If  set  on  fire  it  yields  a 
temperature  of  5400^  F.,  far  above  the 
melting  point  of  iron.  In  burning  it 
produces  practically  pure  iron  in  a 
fiqnid  state  and  oxide  of  aluminum  as  a 
slag.  The  molten  iron  fills  the  fracture 
or  the  space  between  the  rails,  which  it 
welds  in  hardening. 

Thennodynamic  Engine    \^^^^^ 

nam'ik)  any  form  of  heat  engine  (as  gas 
or  steam  engines)  by  means  of  which  a 
percentage  of  the  heat  lost  by  one  body 
called  the  source,  on  account  of  its  con« 


nection  with  another  body  called  the  re- 
frigerator, is  converted  into  kinetic  energy 
or  mechanical  effect,  and  made  available 
for  the  performance  of  work.  The  effi- 
ciency of  a  heat  engine  is  the  ratio  of  the 
heat  available  for  mechanical  effect  to  the 
total  heat  taken  from  the  source.  A  re- 
versible engine  is  called  a  perfect  engine, 
because  it  is  the  most  efficient  engine  be- 
tween the  temperatures  of  its  source  and 
the  refrigerator. 

Thermodynamics,  TATt^u 

ence  which  investigates  the  Taws  regula- 
ting the  conversion  of  heat  into  mechani- 
cal force  or  energy,  and  vice  versa. 

Thermo-electricity,  «'„«^^'<>'iy  p"^ 

Junction  of  two  metals,  or  at  a  point 
where  a  molecular  change  occurs  in  a  bar 
of  the  same  metal,  when  the  junction  or 
point  is  heated  above  or  cooled  below  the 
general  temperature  of  the  conductor. 
Thus  when  wires  or  bars  of  metal  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  as  bismuth  and  antimony, 
are  placed  in  close  contact,  end  to  end, 
and  disposed  so  as  to  form  a  periphery  or 
continuous  circuit,  and  heat  then  applied 
to  the  ends  or  junctions  of  the  bars,  elec- 
tric currents  are  produced.  The  princi- 
ple of  the  arrangement  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure,  in  which  the  bars 
marked  a  are  antimony,  those  marked  h 
bismuth.  The  junctions  1,  3,  5,  7  are  to 
be  at  one  temperature,  the  junctions  2,  4, 


Thermo-pile. 


6,  8  at  another,  g  is  a  delicate  galvanom- 
eter which  measures  the  force  of  the 
current  produced.  The  thermo-electric 
battery  or  pile,  an  apparatus  much  used 
in  delicate  experiments  with  radiant 
heat,  consists  of  a  series  of  little  bats  of 
antimony  and  bismuth  (or  any  other  two 
metals  of  different  heat-conducting 
power),  having  their  ends  soIdere<l  to- 
gether and  arranged  in  a  compact  form; 
the  opposite  ends  of  the  pile  being  con- 
nected with  a  galvanometer,  which  m  very 
sensibly  affected  by  the  electric  current, 


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induced  in  the  system  of  bars  when  ex- 
posed to  the  slightest  variations  of 
temperature.  To  the  combined  arrange- 
ment of  pile  and  galvanometer  the  name 
of  ihermo-multiplier  is  given.  Two  metal 
bars  of  different  heat-conducting  power 
having  their  ends  soldered  together,  and 
the  combined  bar  then  usually  bent  into 
a  more  or  less  horseshoe  or  magnet  form 
for  the  purpose  of  bringing  their  free  ends 
within  a  conveniently  short  distance, 
designated  a  thermo-electric  pair,  are 
much  used  in  thermo-electric  experiments. 
But  as  the  electric  current  developed  in 
a  single  pair  is  very  weak,  a  considerable 
numl^r  are  usually  combined  to  form  a 
thermo-electric  pile  or  battery.  Bismuth 
and  antimony  are  the  metals  usually  em- 
ployed, the  difference  in  electro-motive 
force  being  greater  between  them  than 
between  any  other  two  metals  conven- 
iently obtainable. 

Thermograpli  ^y^^rte'r^trl^deS 

with  a  registering  device ;  and  mechanism 
for  reading  teznperature.  The  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  uses  a  crescent- 
shaped  bulb  filled  with  alcohol  and  hermet- 
ically sealed.  Changes  of  temperature 
affect  the  curve  of  the  bulb,  ana  its  al- 
teration of  form  is  communicated  to  a 
series  of  multipljring  levers,  which  act 
upon  a  recording  pen.    Bartlett*s  thermo- 

graph  is  designed  for  greenhouses,  it  be- 
ig  electrically  connected  with  dials  in 
the  house  and  ofBce,  so  that  changes  in 
temperature  can  be  readily  noted. 

Thermometer  /XSeTt'%TU.2g 

the  temperatures  of  bodies  are  ascer- 
tained; founded  on  the  property  which 
heat  possesses  of  expanding  all  bodies, 
the  rate  or  quantity  of  expansion  being 
supposed  proportional  to*  the  degree  of 
heat  applied,  and  hence  indicating  that 
degree.  The  thermometer  consists  of  a 
slender  glass  tube,  with  a  small  bore,  con- 
taining in  general  mercury  or  alcohol, 
which  expanding  or  contracting  by  varia- 
tions in  the  temperature  of  the  atmos- 
phere, or  on  the  instrument  being  brought 
into  contact  with  any  other  body,  or  im- 
mersed in  a  liquid  or  gas  which  is  to  be 
examined,  the  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
the  bodv,  liquid,  or  gas,  with  regard  to 
heat,  is  indicated  by  a  scale  either  applied 
to  the  tube  or  engraved  on  its  exterior 
surface.  The  ordinary  thermometer  con- 
sists of  a  small  tube  terminating  in  a 
ball  containing  mercury,  the  air  having 
been  expelled  and  the  tube  hermetically 
sealed.  A  scale  of  temperatures  is  at- 
tached, in  which  there  are  two  points  cor- 
responding to  fixed  and  determinate  tem- 
peratures, one,  namely,  to  the  temperature 


IN, 


of  freezing  water  and  the  other  to  that  of 
boiling  water.  In  the  thermometer  com- 
monly used  in  the  United  States  and  the 
British  empire,  known 
as  Fahrenneit's  ther- 
mometer, the  former 
point  is  marked  32*" 
and  the  latter  212*"; 
hence  the  zero  of  the 
scale,  or  that  part 
marked  0**,  is  32®  be- 
low the  freezing-point, 
and  the  interval  or 
space  between  the 
freezing  and  boiling 
points  consists  of 
180**.  The  zero  point 
is  supposed  to  have 
been  fixed  by  Fahren- 
heit at  the  point  of 
greatest  cold  that  he 
had  observed,  probably 
by  means  of  a  freezing 
mixture  such  as  snow 
and  salt  In  France 
and  other  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, and  nowadays  in 
all  scientific  investiga- 
tions, the  Centigrade 
or  Celsius  scale  is 
used.  In  this  the  space 
between  the  freezing 
and  boiling  points  of 
water  is  divided  into 
100  equal  parts  or  de- 
grees, the  zero  being 
at  freezing  and  the 
boiling-point  marked 
100**.  IWaumur's  ther- 
mometer, in  use  in 
Germany,  has  the 
space  between  the 
freezing  and  boiling 
points  divided  into  80  ^ 
equal   parts,   the   zero       I  S         "S 

being    at    freezing.       o         A9         fci 
The    following    formu-  Thermometer 

l0B   will   serve   to  con-  Scales, 

vert  anv  given  num- 
ber of  degrees  of  Fahrenheit's  scale  fato 
the  corresponding  number  of  degrees  on 
Rteumur's  and  the  Centigrade  scales, 
and  vice  versa:  let  F,  R,  and  C  (the  0* 
of  C.  and  R.  being  equal  to  F.  32"*,  and 
the  three  scales  from  freezing  to  boiling 
point  being  F.  180%  C.  100%  R.  80%  or 
in  the  ratio  of  9,  6,  4)  represent  any  cor- 
responding numbers  of  degrees  on  the 
three  scales  respectively,  then:  (F.— 32*) 
X4  =  R.;    (F.— 32*)  X  1  =  0.;    R.  x 

}  +  32*=F.;  C.  Xf+32*=F.;  C.  X 
=  R.;  R.  X  J  =  C.  For  extreme  de- 
grees of  cold,  thermometers  filled  with 
spirit  pf  wine  must  be  employed  from  its 


III 


1 


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Thermo-pile  Thetis 

great  resistance  to  freezing  temperatures,  performing.      His      first      representation 

whereas  mercury  freezes  at  about  39°  be-  took  place  in  585  B.C.     See  Drama, 

low  zero  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale.    On  the  TliAa&alnTiiciTia    (  ^^^s '  a-ld'ni  •  ans  ) , 

other  hand,  spirit  of  wine  is  not  adapted  -■■iiC»»»A"i"»"a  Epistles     to     the, 

to  high  temperatures,  as  it  is  soon  con-  two  New  Testament  epistles  written  by 

▼erted  into  tapor,  whereas  mercur;y  does  St.  Paul  to  the  church  at  Thessalonica,  in 

not  boil  till  its  temperature  is  raised  to  all   probability   during  his  long  stay  at 

660**   F.    As  the   ordinary  thermometer  Corinth,  and  therefore  not  very  long  after 

gives  the  temperature  onlv  at  the  time  the  foundation  of  the  Thessalonian  church 

of  observation,  the  necessity  for  having  on  St.  Paul's  second  missionary  journey, 

an    instrument    which    would   show    the  A  note  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  epistles 

maximum    and    minimum     temperatures  in    our   Authorized    Version    states    that 

within  a  given  period  is  easily  apparent  they  were  written  from  Athens,  but  there 

in  all  cases  connected  with  meteorology,  can  be  little  doubt  that  this  is  erroneous, 

and  various  forms  of  instruments  for  this  and   that    they    were   really    written    at 

purpose  have  been  invented.    A  common  Corinth.    They  are  the  earliest  of  Paul's 

form  of  mawimum  thermometer  consists  writings,  and  are  characterized  by  great 

of  the  ordinary  thermometer  fitted  with  simplicity  of  style  as  compared  with  his 

a  piston  which  moves  easily  in  the  tube,  other   epistles.     The   genuineness   of   the 

The   instrument    is   placed    horizontally,  first  epistle  has  hardly  ever  been  ques- 

and  the  piston  is  pushed  along  the  bore  tioned,  but  according  to  the  newer  criti- 

as  the  mercury  advances,  and  is  left  at  cism,  that  of  the  second  epistle  is  more 

the  highest  point  by  the  retiring  fluid,  than  doubtful. 

This  point  is  noted  by  the  observer,  who  TlieaftfllnniGfl.    (thes-a-lo-nS'ka).     See 

then  erects  the  thermometer,  causing  the  ****'»»«**vijj.vc*   galonVca. 

piston  to  sink  to  the  mercury,  the  instru-  Tlieasalv    (thes'a-li),    the    northeast- 

ment  thus  being  in  condition  for  a  fresh  •*'***^»*'«**j     em     division     of     Greece, 

experiment.     A  similar  action  takes  place  mainly  consisting  of  a  rich  plain  inclosed 

in  the  spirit  of  wine  minimum  thermome-  between  mountains  and  belonging  almost 

ter,  the  small  movable  piston  being,  how-  entirely  to  one  river  basin,  that  of  the 

«ver,   immersed   in   the   fluid   and  drawn  Peneios   (Salambria),  which  traverses  it 

back  by  the  convex  surface  of  the  con-  from  west  to  east,  and  finds  an  outlet 

tracting  fluid,  being  left  at  the  point  of  into    the    ^gean    through    the    vale    of 

greatest  contraction.    The  maximum  and  Tempe.     In   the  earliest  times  Thessaly 

minimum  instruments  combined  form  the  prop<ir  is  said  to  have  been  inhabited  by 

self-regUtering  thermometer,  ^olic  and  other  tribes.     Subsequently  it 

TheimO-DUe      ^^  Thermo-electricity,  was  broken  up  into  separate  confederacies, 

xuvxu&v  ^MAM*  ^^^   seldom    exerted   any    important    in- 

ThermODvls    (ther-mop'e-le),  a  nar-  fluence  on  the  affairs  of  Greece  generally. 

•k''^          row  defile  in  Northern  Thessaly    was    conquered    by    Philip    of 

Greece,  leading  from  Thessaly  southward,  Macedon  in  the  fourth  century  B.  0.,  became 

between   Mount   GSta  and   the  sea    (the  dependent  on  Macedonia,  and  was  finally 

Maliac  Gulf,  now  the  Gulf  of  Zeitouni),  incorporated    with    the    Roman    Empire. 

25  miles  north  of  Delphi,  celebrated  for  After  the  fall  of  the  Bjrzantine  Empire  it 

its  brilliant  defense  by  300  Spartans,  to-  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  became 

gether  with  allies,  under  Leonidas,  against  a  part  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  although 

the  Persian  host  under  Xerxes,  in  480  b.o.  most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Greeks.    The 

ThesenS    (t^^'^i^)*  &  mythical  king  of  greater  portion  of  it  was  in  1881  incor- 

Athens   and    famous  hero  of  porated    with    the    kingdom    of    Greece, 

antiouity,  son  of  JEgeus  by  ^thra,  the  Capital  Larissa.     Pop.  344,000. 

daughter  of  Pittheus  of  Troezen,  in  Pelo-  T^fitford     (thet'f^rd),     a     municipal 

poonesus,  of  whom  many  notable  deeds  •*"**^ *'*-"'■'**'    borough  of  England,  partly 

are  related,  as  the  slaying  of  the  Mino-  in  the  county  of  Suffolk  and  partly  in  that 

taur  and  the  freeing  of  Athens  from  the  of  Norfolk,  on  both  banks  of  the  Ouse, 

tribute  of  seven  youths  and  seven  maidens  here  crossed  by  a  handsome  iron  bridge, 

annually  sent  to  Crete  to  be  devoured  by  It  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity  and  has 

that  monster.     As  king  of  Athens  he  is  a      remarkable      Celtic      Mound      called 

reputed  to  have  governed  with  mildness,  Castle  Hill.     Pop.  4778. 

instituted  new  laws,  and  made  the  gov-  Tli Affnrrl  WiTiAa     a   city   of   Quebec 

emment  more  democratic.  xnctiuru  jiliucs,    province.    Canada, 


ThefiTllft    (thes'pis),  a  native  of  a  vil-  26  miles  s.   w.  of  Quebec.     It  has  rich 

.■.lA^o^Ao    j^g^  jj^j.  Atbeng^  ^bo  lived  asbestos  mines.     Pop.   (1913)  7500. 

in  the  sixth  century    b.o.,  reputed  to  be  ThetlS    (^b^'^is),    a   Greek   divinity,   a 

the  inventor  of  tragedy  and  of  the  masks  ^•**^*'*^     daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris, 

which  the  Greek  actors  always  wore  in  therefore  one  of  the  Nereids.    By  Peleus, 


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Thirty  Years'  War  Thistle 

many   marched   against   Frederick,    who,  forces  at  N5rdlingen  (Sept,  1634)  again 

with  an  army  of  Bohemians,  Moravians,  gave  to  the  emperor  the  preponderating 

and    Hungarians,    kept    the    field    until  power    in     Germany.    The     Elector    of 

November  8  (1620),  when  he  was  totally  Saxony,  who  had  been  an  ally  of  Gus- 

rouied  at  Weissenberg,  near  Prague,  by  tavus,  now  made  peace  at  Prague  (May, 

Duke      Maximilian      of      Bavaria.     The  1635),    and    within    a    few    months    the 

Protestant    cause    was   now    crushed    in  treaty    was    accepted    by    many    of    the 

Bohemia,  and  the  people  of  that  province  German  princes.     The   Swedes,  however, 

suffered   cruel    persecution.     The    domin-  thought  ft  to  their  interest  to  continue 

ions  of  Frederick,  the  Palatinate  of  the  the  war,  while  France  resolved  to  take 

Rhine    included,    were    now    conquered,  a  more  active  part  in  the  conflict    Thus 

the     latter    being    occupied     by     Count  the  last  stage  of  the  war  was  a  contest 

Tilly,   assisted   by    the   Spaniards   under  of  France  and  Sweden  against  Austria^ 

Spinola.    At     the     Diet     of     Ratisbon  in    which    the    Swedish    generals    gained 

(March,   1623)    Frederick   was   deprived  various  successes  over  the  imperial  forces, 

of  Us   territories,   Duke  Maximilian   re-  while    the    French    armies    fought    with 

ceiving  the  Electorate.     Ferdinand,  whose  varied  fortune  in  West  Germany  and  on 

succession  to  the  throne  of  Bohemia  was  the  Rhine.     Meanwhile  the  emperor  had 

thus   secured,   had   now  a   favorable  op-  died   (1637),  and  had  been  succeeded  by 

portunity  of  concluding  a  peace,  but  his  his    son,    Ferdinand    III.     The    struggle 

continued   intolerance  towards   the  Prot-  still  continued  until,  in  1646,  the  united 

estants  caused  them  to  seek  foreign  as-  armies   of   the   French,   under  the   great 

sistance,  and  a  new  period   of  the  war  generals    Turenne    and    Conde,    and    the 

began.     Christian    IV    of    Denmark,    in-  Swedes    advanced    through    Suabia    and 

duced  partly  by  religious  zeal  and  partly  Bavaria.     The  combined   forces  of   Swe- 

bji  the  hope  of  an  acquisition  of  tern-  den,    Bavaria,    and    France    were    then 

tory,    came   to    the   aid    of    his    German  about  to  advance  upon  Austria,  when  the 

co-religionists    (1624),   and   being  joined  news  reached  the  armies  that  the  Peace 

by  Mansfeld  and  Christian  of  Brunswick,  of    Westphalia     (1648)     was    concluded, 

advanced     into     Lower     Saxony.     There  and  that  the  long  struggle  was  ended, 

they  were  met  by  Wallenstein,  Duke  of  TTiialiA     (thiz'be).     See   Pyramus  and 

Friedland,  who.  In  1626,  defeated  Mans-  •^^"»"«     Thishe, 

feld  at  Dessau,  while  Tilly  was  also  Tlngtle  (this'l),  the  common  name  of 
successful  in  driving  Christian  back  to  ^  prickly  plants  of  the  tribe 
Denmark.  In  the  peace  of  LUbeck  which  Cynarace«e,  nat  order  Compositie.  There 
followed  (May,  1629)  Christian  of  Den-  are  numerous  species,  most  of  which  are 
mark  received  back  all  his  occupied  ter-  inhabitants  of  Europe.  The  bleesed- 
ritory,  and  undertook  not  to  meddle  again  thistle,  Carduus  henedictuM  of  the  phar- 
in  German  affairs.  After  this  second  macop(Bias,  Cnicus  benedictus  or  Cir- 
success,  Fredinand  again  roused  his  peo-  sium  henedicium  of  modem  botanists,  is 
pie  by  an  edict  which  required  restitu-  a  native  of  the  Levant,  and  is  a  laxa- 
tion  to  the  Catholic  Church  of  all  church-  tive  and  tonic  medicine.  The  cotton- 
lands  and  property  acquired  by  them  thistle  belongs  to  the  genus  Onopordum, 
since  1555.  To  the  assistance  of  the  The  common  cotton-thistle  (O.  Aoan- 
Protestants  of  Germany,  in  these  cir-  thium)  attains  a  height  of  from  4  to  6 
cumstances,  came  Gustavus  Adolphus,  feet  It  is  often  regarded  as  the  Scotch 
King  of  Sweden,  who  landed  (1630)  thistle,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
with  a  small  army  upon  the  coast  of  thistle  which  constitutes  the  Scottish 
Pomerania.  Joined  by  numerous  volun-  national  badge  has  any  existing  tjrpe, 
teers,  and  aided  by  French  money,  he  though  the  stemless  thistle  X(^^*<i^^ 
advanced,  and  routed  Tilly  at  Breiten-  acaulis  or  Cirsium  acaule)  is  in  many 
feld  (or  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  September,  districts  of  Scotland  looked  on  as  the 
1031),  victoriously  traversed  the  Main  true  Scotch  thistle.  Some  dozen  species 
and  the  Rhine  valleys,  defeated  Tilly  of  thistle  are  common  in  the  United 
again  near  the  confluence  of  the  Lech  States,  spreading  from  New  England  to 
and  the  Danube  (April,  1632),  and  en-  Florida,  among  them  the  Canada  thistle, 
tered  Munich.  Meanwhile  the  emperor  one  of  the  severest  pests  of  the  farmer, 
sought  the  aid  of  Wallenstein,  by  whose  TTiistle  Obdeb  of  the,  a  Scottish 
ability  and  energy  Gustavus  was  obliged  *'*"'"*'*^>  order  of  knighthood,  some- 
to  retire  to  Saxony,  where  he  gained  the  times  called  the  order  of  St.  Andrew, 
great  victory  of  LUtzen  (Nov.,  1632),  but  It  was  instituted  by  James  VII  (James 
was  himself  mortally  wounded  in  the  II  of  England)  in  1687,  when  eight 
battle.  The  war  was  now  carried  on  knights  were  nominated.  It  fell  into 
by  the  Swedes  under  the  chancellor  abeyance  during  the  reign  of  William  and 
Ozenstiema,  till  the  rout  of  the  Swedish  Mary,  but  was  revived  by  Queen  Anne 


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Thomas  it  Eempis 


in  1703.  The  insignia  of  the  order  con- 
sist of  a  gold  collar  composed  of  thistles 
interlaced  with  sprigs  of  rue;  the  jewel, 
a  figure  of  St.  Andrew  in  the  middle  of 
a  star  of  eight  pointed  rays,  suspended 
from  the  collar;  the  star,  of  silver  and 
eight-rayed,  four  of  the  rays  being 
pointed,  while  the  alternate  rays  are 
shaped  like  the  tail-feathers  of  a  bird, 
with  a  thistle  in  the  center  surrounded 
by    the   Latin   motto   2femo   me  impune 


Order  of  the  Thistle — Star,  Jewel,  Badge 
and  Collar. 

Iaces9it;  and  the  badge,  oval,  with  the 
motto  surrounding  the  figure  of  St.  An- 
drew. The  order  consists  of  the  sov- 
ereign and  sixteen  knights,  besides  extra 
knights  (princes),  ana  a  dean,  a  secre- 
tary, the  lyon-king-at-arms,  and  the 
gentleman  usher  of  the  green  rod. 
TlinlpTi  (td'Ien),  an  island  in  the 
xuuAcu  province  of  Zealand,  Holland, 
between  the  Scheldt  and  the  Maas,  with 
an  area  of  about  50  sq.  miles,  and  a 
pop.  of  15.000. 

Tholnck  (to1«k),  Friedbich  Au- 
AuvAuvA  Q^g^  GoTTREU,  a  German 
theologian,  bom  in  1709;  died  in  1877. 
He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Breslau  and  Berlin,  and  devoted  himself 
to  theology.  Tholuck  filled  the  chair  of 
theology  at  Halle  from  1826  till  his 
death. 

TTiATnna  Qeobge  Henry,  general,  was 
XnomaS,  ^^^  .^  Virginia  in  1816, 
and  at  the  age  of  twenty  entered  the 
military  academy  at  West  Point,  passing 
^to    the    artillery    as*  sublieutenant    at 


the  age  of  twenty-four.  He  took  part  in 
the  Mexican  war  (1846-47)  ;  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  West  Point  in  1850 ; 
recalled  to  active  service  in  1855,  and 
employed  in  Texas  against  the  Indians. 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  Thomas 
had  attained  the  rank  of  major,  and  being 
appointed  lieutenant-colonel  of  volunteers, 
April  25,  1861,  was  some  months  later 
sent  into  Kentucky,  where,  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  he  defeated  Zollikofer.  As 
major-general  of  volunteers  he  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  Murfreesborough,  wnere 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself;  while 
at  the  bloody  battle  of  Ghickamauga,  in 
September,  1863,  he  saved  the  Federal 
army  from  destruction  by  his  stubborn 
resistance  after  the  defeat  of  the  Federal 
right,  earning  the  name  of  *The  Rock 
of  Ghickamauga.*  In  1865  be  com- 
pKelled  the  Confederates  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Nashville,  for  which  he  received 
the  thanks  of  Congress,  and  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the 
regular  army.  The  brevet  ranks  of  lieu- 
tenant-general and  general  were  offered 
him  by  President  Johnson,  but  he  de- 
clined them.  He  died  in  1870. 
ThomftS  (^om'as),  Joseph,  scholar  and 
linguist,  bom  in  Cayuga  Co., 
New  York,  in  1811,  was,  with  Thomas 
Baldwin,  author  of  Baldwin* 8  Pronounc- 
ing Oazetieer,  In  1851-52  appeared  his 
first  book  of  Etymology,  followed  by  an 
edition  of  Oswald's  Etymological  Diction- 
ary, In  1854  he  prepared  A  New  and 
Complete  Gazetteer  of  the  United  States; 
and  in  1855  A  Complete  Geographical 
Dictionary  of  the  World  (popularly 
known  as  LippincotVs  Gazetteer  of  the 
World),  and  which  for  accuracy  and 
completeness  had  scarcely  an  equal.  In 
1864  appeared  his  comprehensive  Medical 
Dictionary;  and  in  1870  his  Universal 
Pronouncing  Dictionary  of  Biography  and 
Mythology,  which  occupies  a  high  place 
among  books  of  reference.  He  died  De- 
cember 24,  1891. 

Thomas  Theodore,  noted  orchestral 
^  leader,  born  in  Germany  in 
1835;  died  in  1905.  His  family  moved 
to  the  United  States  in  1845,  and  he  be- 
came an  expert  on  the  violin.  His  sym- 
phony concerts  began  in  1864,  and  for 
thirty  years  he  was  conductor  of  the 
Brooklyn  Philharmonic  Society.  His 
later  years  were  passed  in  Chicago,  where 
the  Symphony  Hall  was  built  through 
his  efforts. 

Thomas  a  Kempis  <„r„V\I*pT„: 

his  birthplace,  in  the  archbishopric  of 
Cologne)  was  bom  about  1380.  At  the 
age  of  twenty  he  retired  to  an  Augustine 
convent  near  Zwolle,  in  Holland,  where 


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) 


ke  took  the  towb,  and  where,  in  1471, 
he  died  8ulM>rior  of  the  convent.  He 
copied  many  MSS.  in  a  beautiful  hand  and 
wrote  numerous  orii^nai  works,  including 
sermons,  exhortations,  ascetic  treatises, 
hymns,  prayers,  etc  His  name,  however, 
would  hardly  be  remembered  were  it  not 
for  its  connection  with  the  celebrated 
devotional  work  called  The  Imitation  of 
Christ,  'De  Imitatione  Christi,'  a  work 
which  has  passed  through  thousands  of 
editions  in  the  original  Latin  and  in 
translations.  The  authorship  of  this 
book  has  long  been  a  disputed  point;  but 
it  is  generally  ascribed  to  ft  Kempis. 

AMVAu«^Tj.MV9  g^j.^^  county  seat  of 
Thomas  Co.,  Ga.,  200  miles  w.  s.  w.  of  Sa- 
vannah. It  has  a  lumber  trade,  various 
industries.  Pop.  6727. 
TTinmiafa  the  followers  of  Thomas 
xaumi»b»,  Aquinas.  See  Scholasticism, 
TlinniTianTi  Almon  Harris,  born  in 
inompSOn,  gtoddard,  N.  H.,  in  1839: 
died  in  1906.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Topographic  Engineers  in 
1870.  In  1882  he  was  appointed  geojra- 
pher  to  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey, and  (1884-95)  did  important  work 
in  connection  with  the  survey  west  of  the 
Mississippi. 

Thompson,  benjamin,  count  Rum- 
AMw.u*j^»w«*9  FORD,  an  Amencan  scien- 
tist and  Bavarian  administrator,  born  at 
Wobum,  Mass.,  in  1753 ;  died  at  Auteuil, 
near  Paris,  in  1814.  He  commanded  the 
King*s  American  Dragoons  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary  War^  and  became  aide-de-camp 
and  chamberlain  at  the  court  of  the  elec- 
tor of  Bavaria  (1784-1802).  He  left 
funds  to  Harvard  for  the  professorship  of 
physical  and  mathematical  sciences  and 
to  the  American  Acadeniy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  and  the  Royal  Society  of  Ten- 
don for  prizes  for  the  most  important  dis- 
coveries in  heat  and  light 
Thompson,   I>enman,  actor  and  play. 

1^  '  wnght,  born  near  Girard, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1S33;  died  in  1011.  He 
is  best  known  by  bis  Joshua  Whitcomb, 
remodeled  into  the  highly  popular  plav  of 
The  Old  Homestead,  in  which  he  long 
took  the  leadingpart. 
Thompson,  P^^NCis,  an  English  poet, 

-*^  >  bom  at  Ash  ton.  Lanca- 
shire in  1860;  died  in  rx)ndon,  November 
13,  1907.  His  early  life  closely  resem- 
bled that  of  DeQuincey,  but  he  was  finally 
befriended  and  launched  u^on  the  career 
of  journalist  and  poet.  His  verse,  while 
often  eccentric  and  even  forced,  abounds 
in  passages  of  rare  beauty. 
TTinmnflAii  Jerome,  painter,  was 
XUOmpsou,  ^^^     ^^    Middleborough. 

Massacbusetts*  in   1814;   died  in  1886. 


Aside  from  portraits,  his  principal  pic- 
tores  are  scenes  from  rustic  American 
life,  such  as  The  Apple  Qatherinff,  The 
Old  Oaken  Bucket,  the  Old  Stage,  and 
The  Lost  Lamb,  Many  of  his  works 
have  been  made  familiar  by  engravings. 
Thompson,  sir  John  Sparrow,  Ca- 
•'^  ^  nadian  statesman,  bom 
at  Halifax  in  1844;  died  in  1894.  He 
entered  early  into  public  life  and  be- 
came premier  of  Nova  Scotia  in  1882. 
He  was  appointed  attorney  general  of 
the  Dominion  in  1885  and  became  prime 
minister  in  1892.  He  took  part  in  the 
fishery  treaty  and  the  Behring  Sea  arbi- 
tration. 

Thompson,  Jf^u^»  sculptor,  bom  in 
•*^"^**>  Queens  Co.,  Ireland,  in 
1833;  died  in  New  York  in  1894.  From 
1874  to  1881  he  resided  in  Rome.  He 
achieved  great  success  as  a  portrait 
sculptor,  and  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Design  in  1862. 
TTiATTiTian-n  Maurice,  poet  and  nov- 
J.UUmpson,     ^jj^^^   ^^   ^^   Fairfield, 

Indiana,  in  1844;  died  in  1901.  His 
principal  works  are:  Hoosier  Mosaics, 
The  Witchery  of  Archery,  A  Tallehassee 
Girl,  His  Second  Campaign,  and  Songs  of 
Fair  Weather, 

Thompson,  Ko™»r  Eixis,  educator, 
i^  '  was  bom  m  Ireland  m 
1844,  came  to  America  in  1857,  was  grad- 
uated from  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1865,  and  in  1873  was  ordained  min- 
ister in  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church.  He  was  successively  professor 
of  mathematics,  of  social  science,  and 
of  history  and  English  literature  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  has 
been  president  of  the  Central  High 
School  of  Philadelphia  since  1894.  He 
was  editor  of  the  Penn  Monthly,  1870- 
80,  and  became  editor  of  The  American 
in  1880.  He  wrote  Social  Science  and 
Political  Economy  and  Elements  of  Po- 
litical Economy, 

Thompson-Scton,  ee«^t^^  evan. 

thor,  was  bom  at  South  Shields,  Eng- 
land, in  1860.  He  lived  as  a  boy  in 
the  Canadian  woods  and  on  the  western 
plains,  became  naturalist  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Manitoba,  and  wrote  Birds  of 
Manitoba  and  Mammals  of  Manitoba,  He 
afterwards  studied  art  and  became  an 
animal  painter  and  illustrator.  He  also 
became  an  active  lecturer  and  wrote 
many  popular  books  describing  the 
habits  ana  intelligence  of  animals.  The 
best  known  among  these  is  Wild  AnimaU 
I  Have  Known,  Other  writers  followed 
him  in  this  field  and  a  controversy  arose 
as  to  the  truthfulness  of  their  stories 
of   animal   intelligence.    The   conception 


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Thorns  Thomson 

of  the  organization  of  Boy  Scouts,  now  1730   his  Autumn.    After  traveling   for 

so  popular,  is  ascribed  to  him,  though  not  some  time  on  the  Continent  with  the  son 

the  title,  and  be  is  the  leading  spirit  in  of  Sir  Charles  Talbot,  the  chancellor,  he 

this   organization   in   the   United   States  was  rewarded  with  the  post  of  secretary 

(see  Boy  Scouts).  .  His  name  was  legally  of  briefs,  which  he  held  till  the  death  of 

changed  from  Seton-Thompson  to  Thomp-  the  chancellor   (1737),  when  he  received 

Bon-Seton  in  1901.  a   pension  of  £100  from   the  Prince  of 

Thorns   (^oms),    William    John,    an  Wales.    Meanwhile   he   had   brought   on 

•                  English  author,  bom  at  West-  the    stage    his    tragedy    of    Sophonisha 

minster  in  1803;  died  in  1885.     He  was  (1729)     and    published     his    poem     on 

secretary    to    the   Camden   Society   from  lAheriy,    the    cool    reception    of    which 

1838    to    1873;    deputy-librarian    to    the  greatly      disappointed      him.     He      now 

House    of    Lords;    originator    and    for  (1738)    produced    his    tragedy    of    Aga- 

many  years  editor  of  ^otes  and  Queriei,  memnonf  and  a  third  entitled  Edward  and 

and  author  of  various  antiquarian  works.  Eleanora,    In     1740    he    composed    the 

Thomson    (tom'sun),     Sib    Charles  masque   of   Alfred   in   conjunction    with 

Auvuun/u    ^YViLLE,   naturalist,    bom  Mallet;    but   which   of   them   wrote   the 

in  1830  in  Linlithgowshire;  died  in  1882.  famous    song,    Rule.    Britannia,    is    not 

Educated    at    the    University    of    Edin-  known.     In    1745    bis    most    successful 

burgh,    he    l>ecame    professor   of    miner-  tragedy,    Tancred   and   Sigismunda,    was 

alogy    and    geology    in    Queen*s    College,  brought     out     and     warmly     applauded. 

Belfast,     in     1854.     In     the     dredging  The    following    year    he    produced    his 

expeditions  of  the  Lightning  and  Porcu-  Castle  of  Indolence,  a  work  in  the  Spen- 

pine  (1868-69)   he  took  part,  afterwards  serian  stanza.     For  a  few  years  he  held 

publishing    in    The   Depths    of   the   Sea  by   deputy  the  confortable  post   of  sur- 

(1869),  the  substance  of  his  discoveries  veyor-general    of    the    Leeward    Islands, 

in  r^rd  to  the  fauna  of  the  Atlantic,  and  he  died  in  1748.     He  left  a  tragedy 

In  1^39  he  l>ecame  fellow  of  the  Royal  entitled    Coriolanus,    which    was    acted 

Society;    in    1870    professor   of    natural  for  the  benefit  of  his  relatives.    Thom- 

history  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  son   was   greatly   beloved   for   his   amia- 

In  1872  he  was  appointed  scientific  chief  bility  and  kindness  of  heart    His  Sea- 

of  the  Challenger  expedition,  which  was  sons,  on  which  his  fame  rests,  abounds 

absent   from   England   3^    years,   during  in  sensibility  and  beauty  of  natural  de> 

which  time  68,890  miles  were  surveyed,  scription.    His     Castle     of     Indolence, 

On  his  return  he  was  knighted,  and  en-  though  not  so  popular  as  the  Seasons, 

trusted  by  the  government  with  the  task  is  highly  esteemed,  but  his  tragedies  are 

of  drawing  up  a  report  on  the  natural  almost  forgotten. 

history    specimens    collected    during    the  TTiAmsnii     James,  poet,  was  bom  at 

expedition.     But  he  lived  only  to  publish  •■■^^wiusuii,   port-Glasgow,  Scotland,  in 

a  preliminary  account  of  the  expedition,  1834,  and  was  brought  up  at  the  Cale- 

The  Voyage  of  the  Challenger:  the  At-  donian  Orphan  Asylum,  both  his  parents 

lantio  (1876-78).  having   died   when   he   was   very   young. 

TTiomaAn    Elihu,  an  American  elec-  He  became  a  schoolmaster  in  the  army, 

xixuuisvu,  trician,    bom    in    Manches-  but  quitted  that  occupation  in  1862,  and 

ter,  England,  March  29,  1853 ;  came  to  became  clerk   in  a   solicitor's  office.     In 

the  United  States  and  subsequently  se-  1860    he    became    a    contributor    to    the 

cured  more  than  600  patents  for  inven-  National  Reformer,   in   which   was  pub- 

tlons     which     included     the     Thompson  lished,  under  the  signature  *  B.  V.,'  The 

method    of    electric    welding.     He    was  Dead  Tear,  To  Our  Ladies  of  Death,  and 

awarded    the   Grand    Prix,   m   Paris,    in  the  poem  by  which  he  is  best  known,  The 

1889.   for   electrical   inventions,   received  City  of  Dreadful  Night  (1874).     Among 

the  decoration   of  C^hevalier  of  the   Le-  his  other  works  are :     Tasso  and  Leonora 

gion    of    Honor,    for   electrical   research,  (1856)  ;   The  Doom  of  a  City   (1857)  ; 

etc  Sunday  at  Hampstead    (1863);  Sunday 

TTiomaAii     James,  poet,  was  bom  in  up  the  River  (1868) ;  A  Voice  from  the 

XUUIUBUU,  ^7QQ^  ^^  Ednam,  near  Kel-  Nile     (1881),     and     Insomnia     (1882). 

so,  in  Scotland,  his  father  being  minister  Thomson*s  verse  is  characterized  by  much 

of  Ednam  pansh,  and  was  educated  at  brilliancy  and  traits  of  graceful  humor, 

Jedburgh   and    the   University   of   Edin-  but  its  prevailing  tone  is  one  of  despair, 

burgh.     He    went    in    1725    to    London,  He  died  in  1882. 

where  Winter,  the  first  of  his  poems  on  TliAmfiAvi      John,  a  landscape  painter, 

the  seasons,  was  published  in  1726.     In  A*lW"l»W*ij    bora  at   Dailly,    Scotland. 

1727  he  published  his  Summer,  his  Poem  in  1776,  succeeded  his  father  as  minister 

to  the  Memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  and  of  that  parish  in   1800,   and   exchanged 

hk  Britannia;  in  1728  his  Spring  and  in  that  living  for  Duddingston,  near  Edin- 


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burgh,  in  1805,  dying  there  in  1840. 
Thomson  early  turned  his  attention  to 
art,  and  produced  a  lar^  number  o£ 
landscapes,  which  are  considered  to  rank 
him  among  the  best  painters  of  his  na- 
tive land. 
Thomson,  Joseph,    an    African    ex- 

'  plorer,  was  born  at  Pen- 
pont,  Scotland,  in  1858,  and  was  educated 
at  Edinburgh.  When  twenty  years  of 
age  he  accompanied  Keith  Johnston  to 
Central  Africa,  assuming  full  charge  of 
the  expedition  on  the  death  of  Mr.  John- 
ston. In  1882  he  explored  the  Rovuma 
in  East  Africa,  and  in  1884  made  an  im- 
portant journey  through  Masai  Land,  in 
eastern  equatorial  Africa.  Among  his 
other  achievements  are  an  expedition  to 
the  Atlas  Mountains,  and  one  to  the  river 
Niger.  He  was  a  graphic  writer,  his 
published  works  including  Through  Masai 
Liand,  To  the  Central  African  Lakes  and 
Back,  Travels  in  the  Atlas  and  Southern 
Morocco,  Life  of  Mungo  Park,  etc.  He 
died  in  1895. 
Thomson.  Joseph  John,  phvsicist, 

'  was  bom  near  Manchester, 
England,  in  1856,  a  cousin  of  Lord  Kel- 
vin. He  became  professor  of  experimen- 
tal physics  at  Cambridge  in  1884,  and 
wrote  Vortew  Rings,  Recent  Researches 
in  Electricity  and  Magnetism,  etc.  He 
is  especially  notable  for  his  researches 
into  the  constitution  of  the  atom  of 
matter,  and  the  promulgation  of  the 
theory  of  the  electron,  now  so  widely 
accepted  as  the  basic  element  of  material 
nature.  His  studies  into  the  char- 
acteristics of  this  have  been  intimate  and 
profound. 

Tlinmann  Thomas,  a  Scottish  chem- 
xaomsou,  ist,  bom  at  Crieff  in  1773; 
died  in  1852.  He  adopted  the  medical 
profession,  and  embraced  chemistry  more 
especially  as  his  favorite  pursuit.  In 
18(D2  he  published  the  first  edition  of  his 
System  of  Chemistry,  which  obtained 
rapid  success  both  in  Great  Britain  and 
on  the  Continent.  It  was  followed  in 
1810  by  his  Elements  of  Chemistry,  and 
hi  1812  by  his  History  of  the  Royal 
Society.  In  1813  he  went  to  London 
and  commenced  there  a  scientific  journal, 
the  Annals  of  Philosophy,  which  he  con- 
tinued to  edit  till  the  end  of  1820.  The 
lectureship  (afterwards  the  regius  pro- 
fessorship) in  chemistry  in  Glasgow 
University  was  conferred  on  him  in  1817. 
His  great  work  on  the  atomic  theory  was 
published  in  1825,  under  the  title  of 
Attempt  to  Establish  the  First  Principles 
of  Chemistry  "by  Experiment,  In  1830- 
31  he  published  his  History  of  Chemistry, 
in  two  volumes,  and  in  1836  appeared 
kis  OuUines  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology, 


TTinmann  Thomas,  antiquary,  brother 
xnomsoU)  of  the  Rev.  John  Thomson, 
of  Duddingston,  was  bom  at  Dailly, 
Scotland,  in  1768;  died  in  1852.  He 
was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar  in  1793, 
appointed  deputy-clerk  register.  1806,  and 
principal  clerk  of  session,  1828.  He  was 
an  early  contributor  to  the  Edinburgh 
Review,  and  president  of  the  Bannatyne 
Club,  for  which  and  for  the  Maitland 
Club  he  edited  numerous  valuable  works. 
TTiAifianTi  William,  Archbishop  of 
xnomson,  York,  was  born  at  White- 
haven, Feb.  11,  1819,  and  was  educated 
at  Shrewsbury  School  and  Queens  Col- 
lege. Oxford,  of  which  he  was  succes- 
sively fellow,  tutor,  and  head.  In  1858 
he  was  chosen  preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn, 
and  in  1859  was  appointed  one  of  her 
majesty's  chaplains  in  ordinary.  Two 
years  later  (1861)  he  was  raised  to  the 
episcopal  bench  as  bishop  of  Gloucester 
and  Bristol;  but  before  he  had  held  the 
appointment  twelve  months  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  archbishopric  of  York. 
Dr.  Thomson  was  author  of  a  number 
of  works,  including:  An  Outline  of  the 
Necessary  Laws  of  Thought;  The  Aton- 
ing Work  of  Chnst,  viewed  in  Relation 
to  some  Current  Theories;  Crime  and  Its 
Excuses;  Life  in  Light  of  Ood's  Word 
(sermons)  ;  Limits  of  Phtlosophical  In^ 
quiry;  Design  in  Nature;  and  a  series  of 
essays  entitled  Word,  Work  and  WUL 
He  died  in  1890. 

Thomson,  ,%.^rtf  AV^^^l 

mathematicians  and  physicists,  was  bom 
at  Belfast,  Ireland,  in  1824,  his  father  be- 
ing James  Thomson,  professor  of  mathe- 
matics in  Glasgow  University.  He  was 
educated  first  at  Glasgow  University,  and 
then  at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  where  he 
graduated  (1845)  as  second  wrangler, 
and  first  Smith's  prizeman,  and  was 
elected  to  a  fellowship.  In  1846  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  natural  philoso- 
phy in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  a  i>ost 
which  he  continued  to  hold.  The  same 
year  he  became  editor  of  the  Cambridge 
and  Dublin  Mathematical  Journal^  to 
which  he  contributed  valuable  papers  on 
the  mathematical  theory  of  electricity, 
being  also  a  distinguished  contributor  to 
Liouville's  Journal  de  Math6matiques. 
Amonp:  the  most  important  of  his  con^ 
tributions  to  electrical  science  are  the 
construction  of  several  delicate  instru- 
ments for  the  measurement  and  study  of 
electricity.  It  is,  however,  in  connection 
with  submarine  telegraphy  that  Sir  Wil- 
liam Thomson's  name  is  most  generally 
known,  his  services  being  rewarded,  on 
the  completion  of  the  Atlantic  cable  of 
1866,  with  knighthood  and  other  honon. 


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Thombury 


He  also  made  important  additions  to  our 
knowled^  of  magnetism  and  heat,  and 
invented  an  improved  form  of  mariner's 
compass  now  in  extensive  use.  He  was 
president  of  the  British  Association  at 
Its  Edinburgh  meeting  in  1871.  He  was 
the  author,  jointly  with  Professor  Tait, 
of  a  well-known  treatise  on  natural 
philosophy,  and  issued  many  valuable 
papers.  A  notable  theory  of  his,  the 
vortex  theory  of  atomics,  attracted  wide 
attention,  but  was  finally  abandoned  by 
its  author  as  mathematically  undemon- 
Btrable.  He  was  created  Baron  Kelvin 
in  1892.  He  died  December  17,  1907. 
TYiAT  (thor,  tor),  son  of  Odin  by  JOrd 
^^^'^  (the  earth),  the  Jupiter  of  the 
Teutons,  the  God  of  thunder.  Thursday 
has  its  name  from  him.  See  Northern 
Mythology. 

Thoracic  Duct  [^^Jf  *  >•    ®^ 

TTiAroY  (th6'raks),  the  chest,  or  that 
XUQIUX.    ^^j^    ^/    ^jjg    human    body 

formed  by  the  spine,  ribs,  and  breast- 
bone, situated  between  the  neck  and  the 
abdomen,  and  which  contains  the  pleura, 
longs,  heart,  etc    The  name  is  also  ap- 


Thorax  in  Man. 
Thor»cic  regions  denoted  by  thick  blsek 
line*.  11,  Right  and  left  Hameral;  2  2,  do. 
SnbelaTian;  3  3,  do.  Mammary;  4  4,  do. 
Axillary;  5  5,  do.  Subaxillary  or  Lateral; 
6  6,  do.  Scapular;  7  7,  do.  Interscapular; 
8  8,  do.  Superior  Dorsal  or  Subscapular. — 
Yiscera  or  contents  of  Thorax,  the  position  of 
which  is  indicated  by  dotted  lines,  a  a,  Dia- 
phragm; b.  Heart;  c.  Lungs;  d,  Liver;  e,  Kid' 
n«ys;  /f  Stomach. 

piled  to  the  corresponding  portions  of 
other  mammals,  to  the  less  sharply  de- 
fined cavity  in  the  lower  vertebrates,  as 
birds,  fishes,  etc.,  and  to  the  segments 
intervening  between  the  head  and  abdo- 
men in  msects  and  other  Arthropoda. 
In  serpents  and  fishes  the  thorax  is  not 
completed  below  by  a  breast-bone.  In 
insects  three  sections  form  the  thorax, 
the  pro-thoram,  bearing  the  first  pair  of 
isfi;  the  me»o-l^or<i0,  bearing  the  second 
6—10 


pair  of  legs  and  first  ^air  of  wings;  and 
and  meta-thorawt  bearmg  the  third  pair 
of  legs  and  the  second  pair  of  wings. 

Thoreau  (t^o'r<».  henry  davie, 

writer  on  nature  subjects, 
was  bom  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in 
1817,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard  tJni- 
versity,  where  he  was  graduated  in  1837. 
From  that  time  till  1840  be  was  en- 
gaged as  a  schoolmaster.  Then  for 
several  years  he  occupied  himself  in 
various  ways,  in  land-surveying,  carpen- 
tering, and  other  handicrafts,  but  devot- 
ing a  greater  part  of  his  time  to  study 
and  the  contemplation  of  nature.  In 
1845  he  built  for  himself  a  hut  in  a 
wood  near  Walden  Pond,  Concord,  Mass., 
and  there  for  two  years  lived  the  life  of 
a  hermit  After  quitting  his  solitude. 
Thoreau  pursued  his  father's  calling  of 
pencil-maker  at  Concord,  where  he  died 
in  1862.  Besides  contributing  to  the 
Dial  and  other  periodicals,  he  published 
A  Week  on  the  Concord  and  Merrimao 
Rivere  (1849),  and  Walden,  or  Life  in 
the  Woode  (1854).    After  his  death  ap- 

§  eared  Ewcureione  in  Field  and  Forest, 
*he  Maine  Woods,  Cape  Cod,  and  A 
Yankee  in  Canada.  Thoreau  was  a 
friend  of  Emerson,  and  imbibed  much  of 
his  spirit  and  method  of  thought 
TTiATnirm    (th6'ri-um),    the    metal    of 

discovered  by  Berzelius.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  heavy  metallic  powder,  has  an 
iron-gray  tint,  bums  in  air  or  oxygen, 
when  heated,  with  great  splendor,  and 
is  converted  into  thorina  or  oxide  of 
thorinum.  It  unites  energetically  with 
chlorine,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus.  Hy- 
drochloric acid  readily  dissolves  it,  with 
the  evolution  of  hydrogen  gas.  The 
symbol  of  Thorium  is  Th,  and  the  atomic 
weight  116. 
Thorn     ^^  Hawthorn, 

Thorn  (tCni)f  ^  ^^'''^  *°^  strong  fort- 
*'"^*"  ress  of  Pmssia,  province  of 
East  Pmssia,  on  the  Vistula.  It  con- 
sists of  an  old  and  a  new  town,  has 
several  churches,  one  of  them  containing 
a  statue  of  Copernicus,  who  was  bom 
here;  manufactures  of  machinery,  soap, 
and  a  famous  g!  igerbread ;  some  ship- 
ping, and  a  nood  trade.  Pop.  29,626. 
Thorn-apple,    see  Datura. 

Thom-hack  Ray.  see  Bay. 

TlinmhTirv  ( thora'bu-ri  ),  Walter, 
xauruuury  ^  miscellaneous  writer. 
I>ora  in  London  in  1828.  Beginning  his 
literary  career  in  Bristol  at  the  age  of 
seventeen,  he  soon  after  settled  in  Lon- 
don, where  for  thirty  yean  he  was  al- 


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most  continuously  at  work  writiiur  for 
Household  Worda^  Once  a  Week, 
Athenwum,  etc  Among  his  numerous 
works  are  Shakespeare's  England,  Songs 
of  the  Cavaliers  and  Roundheads, 
Haunted  London,  Legendary  and  Historic 
Ballads,  and  a  Life  of  2'umer,  under  the 
supenrision  of  Ruskin.    He  died  in  1876. 

Thornhill  (thora-hiii).  sp  james, 

«.**v«.«M*M*  an  English  painter,  bom 
in  1676;  died  in  1734.  He  was  much 
encased  in  the  decoration  of  palaces  and 
public  buildings,  in  which  his  chief  works 
are  to  be  found.  Among  his  best  efforts 
may  be  mentioned  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's, 
the  salon  and  refectory  at  Greenwich 
Hospital,  and  some  rooms  at  Hampton 
Court  His  forte  was  in  the  treatment 
of  allegorical  subjects. 
Thrnnri  &  borough  in  Lackawanna 
Xiixuu|i,  Q^^  Pwinsylvania,  4  miles 
from  Scranton.  It  has  coaling  interests. 
Pop.  6133. 

Thorough-bass,    see  Ba#«. 
ThorOUghwOrt.     SeeBoi.e.e«. 

TTiATTiA  (tborp),  Benjahiit,  an  Eng- 
Xnorpe  ^y^  ^tolar  who  greatly  fur- 
thered  the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon;  bom 
in  1782;  died  in  1870.  Among  his  nu- 
merous publications  are  an  English  edi- 
tion of  Rask's  AngUhBawon  urammar. 
Ancient  Laws  and  Institutes  of  the  Anglo' 
Soman  Kings,  The  Oospels  in  Anglo- 
Sawon,  an  edition  of  Beowulf,  The 
Anglo-Samon  Chronicle,  Northern  Mythol- 
ogy, etc 

Thome  Fbancis  Newton,  an  Ameri- 
"  '  can  author,  bom  in  Swamp- 
scott,  Massachusetts,  in  1857.  He  is 
author  of  The  Qovemment  of  the  People 
of  the  United  States;  The  Story  of  the 
Constitution;  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  with  Bibliography;  The 
History  of  the  CivU  War,  and  numerous 
other  works  on  historical  and  political 
subjects.  He  was  professor  of  American 
Constitutional  History  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  1895-98. 

Thorwaldsen  irnrSgllfSo^ioi^ 

(Bertel),  a  celebrated  sculptor,  bom  at 
Copenhagen  November  19,  1770.  At  first 
he  helped  his  father  to  cut  figureheads 
in  the  royal  dockyard,  then,  after  some 
years'  study  at  the  Academy  of  Arts,  he 
won  the  privilege  of  studying  three 
vears  abroad.  Going  to  Rome  (1797) 
he  was  much  impressed  bv  the  works  of 
Canova,  the  sculptor,  and  Carstens,  the 

fainter,  who  were  then  residing  there, 
t  was  not  until  1803,  however,  that  he 
became  at  all  widely  known.  Then  by 
a  lucky  chance  he  received  a  commistion 


from  Sir  Thomas  Hope  to  execute  in 
marble  a  :statue  of  Jason,  which  the 
sculptor  had  modeled.  This  was  so  bril* 
liantly  executed  that  commissions  flowed 
in  upon  him,  new  creations  from  his 
hand  followed  in  quick  succession,  and 
his  unsurpassed  abilities  as  a  sculptor 
became  everywhere  recognized.  In  fel9 
he  returned  to  Denmark,  and  his  Journey 
through  Germany  and  his  receptions  at 
Copenhagen  resembled  a  triumph.  After 
remaining  a  year  in  Copenhagen  and 
executing  various  works  there,  he  re- 
tumed  to  Rome,  visiting  on  his  way 
Berlin,  Dresden,  Warsaw  and  Vienna. 
He  remained  at  Rome  till  1^8,  when  he 
undertook  another  journey  to  Copen- 
hagen, being  principally  moved  to  this 
step  by  the  contemplated  establishment 
in  that  city  of  a  museum  of  his  works 
and  art  treasures.  His  retum  was  a 
sort  of  national  festival.  The  remainder 
of  his  life  was  spent  chiefly  in  the  Dan- 
ish capital,  where  he  died  March  2^ 
1844.  The  Thorwaldsen  Museum,  opened 
in  1840,  contains  about  300  of  the  works 
of  the  sculptor.  Thorwaldsen  was  emi- 
nently successful  in  his  subjects  chosen 
from  Greek  mythology*  such  as  his 
Mars,  Mercury,  Venus,  etc  His  religious 
works,  among  which  are  a  colossal  group 
of  Christ  and  the  Twelve  Apostles,  St. 
John  Preaching  in  the  WUdemess,  and 
statues  of  the  four  great  prophets,  dis- 
play almost  superior  grandeur  of  con- 
ception. Chief  among  his  other  works 
are  his  statues  of  Oalueo  and  Copernicus, 
and  the  colossal  lion  near  Lucerne,  in 
memory  of  the  Swiss  guards  who  fell  in 
defense  of  the  Tuileries. 
Tlinfli  (thoth,  tot),  an  Egyptian  deity 
J-iiUtii  jdentified  by  the  Greeks  with 
Hermes  (Mercury),  to  whom  was  at- 
tributed the  invention  of  letters,  arts, 
and  sciences.  The  name  is  equivalent 
in  significance  to  the  Greek  Logos,  and 
Thoth  is  a  mythical  personification  of  the 
divine  intelligence. 

Thou  X^^)*  Jacques  Auguste  dk,  a 
Auvu.  j^rench  statesman  and  historian, 
bom  in  1553;  died  in  1617.  Henry  IV 
employed  him  in  several  important  nego- 
tiations, and  in  1593  made  him  his  prin- 
cipal librarian.  In  1596  he  succeeded 
his  uncle  as  chief-justice,  and  during  the 
regency  of  Mary  de'  Medici  he  was  one 
of  the  directors-general  of  finance.  His 
greatest  literarv  labor  was  the  composi- 
tion in  Latin  of  a  voluminous  History  of 
My  Own  Times,  comprising  the  events 
from  1545  to  1607,  of  which  the  first 
part  was  made  public  in  1604.  To  this 
work,  which  is  remarkable  for  its  im- 
partiality, he  subjoined  interesting 
Memoirs  of  his  own  lift. 


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Thonglit-readiiig 


Three  Sivers 


Thonght-reading.  s«e  Tctopa**^. 
Thourout  Z*^'?)*  *  ^^  ®'  ^^i?™' 

AuwMAWMv  In  the  province  of  West 
Flanders,  with  various  manufactures  and 
a  larse  trade.    Pop.  10,146. 

Thousand    and    One    Nights. 

See  Arahian  Night$, 

Thousand  Idandu,  l^rZ^g, 

which  really  number  about  1800,  in  the 
St.  Lawrence  immediately  below  Ijake 
Ontario.  They  partly  belong  to  Canada 
and  partly  to  the  State  of  New  York,  and 
have  become  a  popular  summer  resort 
Thrace  (thrfts),  or  Thbaoia,  a  name 
applied  at  an  early  period 
amonc  the  Greeks  to  a  region  lying  north 
of  Macedcmia.  By  the  Romans  this 
country  was  regarded  as  divided  into 
two  parts  by  the  Hemus  (or  Balkan), 
the  northern  of  which  was  called  Moesla 
and  the  southern  Thrace.  The  Gredui 
early  settled  colonies  on  the  coasts,  and 
the  country,  besides  possessing  rich 
meadows  and  corn-lands,  abounded  in 
mines,  while  the  Thracian  horses  and 
riders  rivaled  those  of  Thessaly.  Of  the 
rivers  of  Thrace,  the  latest  and  most 
celebrated  was  the  Hebrus  (now 
Maritsa).  Abdera,  the  birthplace  of 
Democritus  and  Protagoras;  Sestos,  on 
the  Hellespont,  celebrated  in  the  story  of 
Hero  and  Leander;  and  Byzantium,  on 
the  peninsula  on  which  Constantinople 
now  stands,  were  the  places  the  most 
worthy  of  note. 

Thrashing-machine,  ?o"*i^Ja«t! 

ing  grain  from  the  straw,  and  in  which 
the  moving  i>ower  is  that  of  horses, 
oxen,  wind,  water,  or  steam.  The 
thrashing-machine  was  invented  in  Scot- 
land in  1758  by  Michael  Stirling,  a 
farmer  in  Perthshire;  it  was  afterwards 
improved  by  Andrew  Meikle,  a  millwrjyght 
in  ESast  Lothian,  about  the  year  1776. 
Since  that  time  it  has  undergone  various 
improvements.  The  principal  feature  of 
the  thrashing-machine  as  at  present  con- 
structed, is  the  three  rotary  drums  or 
cylinders,  which  receive  motion  from  a 
water-wheel,  or  from  horse  or  steam 
power.  The  first  drum  which  comes  into 
operation  has  projection  ribs  called 
beaters  on  its  outer  surface,  parallel  to 
its  axis.  This  drum  receives  a  very  rapid 
motion  on  its  axis.  The  sheaves  of  grain 
are  finit  spread  out  on  a  slanting  table, 
and  are  then  drawn  in  with  the  ears  fore- 
most between  two  feeding  rollers  with 
parallel  grooves.  The  beaters  of  the 
drum  act  on  the  straw  as  it  passes 
through  tba  rollers,  and  beat  out  the 


grahi.  The  thrashed  straw  is  then  car- 
ried forward  to  two  successive  drums  or 
shaken,  which,  being  armed  with  numer- 
ous spikes,  lift  up  and  shake  the  straw 
so  as  to  free  it  entirely  from  the  loose 
grain  lodged  in  it  The  grain  is  made 
to  pass  through  a  grated  floor,  and  is  gen- 
erally conducted  to  a  winnowing-machine 
connected  by  gearing  with  the  thrashing- 
machine  itself,  by  which  means  the  gram 
is  separated  from  the  chaif.  Improved 
machmes  on  the  same  principle,  many 
of  them  portable^  are  extensively  used  in 
the  United  Sutes  and  Britain,  those  of 
the  former  country  being  particularly 
light  and  effective.  In  American  thrash- 
ers two  modes  are  employed  for  sepa- 
rating the  straw  from  the  grain;  the 
*  endless  aprons'  answer  an  excellent 
purpose  when  not  driven  too  rapidly,  and 
make  clean  work.  The  *  vibrator^  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  inclined  fingers,  the 
rapid  shaking  motion  of  which  tosses  up 
the  straw  and  shakes  out  the  grain;  to 
the  machine  is  attached  a  measuring  hop- 
per, showing  the  quantity  of  grain  pass- 
ing through  it  Another  machine  foi 
thrashing  rve  carries  the  straw  throuch 
unbroken,  for  binding  in  bundles.  The 
portable  steam  thrashing-machine,  moved 
from  farm  to  farm,  may  perform  the 
thrashing-work  of  a  wide  district  for  the 
whole  season. 

Thrasiinene  (pr^i^nfflNU8),LAM:. 

^  ^  See  Perugia,  Lago  dt. 
Thread  (^i^)»  &  slender  cord  con- 
sisting  of  two  or  more  yarns, 
or  simple  spun  strands,  firmly  united  to- 
gether by  twisting.  The  twisting  to- 
gecuer  of  the  different  strands  or  yams 
to  form  a  thread  is  effected  by  a  thread- 
frame  or  doubling  and  twisting  machine, 
which  accomplishes  the  purpose  by  the 
action  of  bobbins  and  flyers.  Thread 
is  used  in  some  species  of  weaving,  but 
its  principal  use  is  for  sewing. 

Thread-worms,  fftf  name  for  thread- 
AAM^wM.  vTVJ.A«Aa)  j^i^^  intestinal  worms 

of  the  order  Nematoda.  The  Owyuris 
vermioularia  occurs  in  great  numbers  in 
the  rectum  of  children  particularly.  See 
Nemateknia. 

Three  Rivers,  ^.f  M,^^.  J^t^ 

St.  Joseph  River,  25  miles  s.  of  Kala- 
mazoo. Manufactures  cars,  railroad  sup- 
plies, electric  motors,  furaiture,  tools, 
pulleys,  paper,  etc.    Pop.  5072. 

Three  Rivers,  -  ,„t^'|„a"- « 

entry  of  Quebec,  Canada,  95  miles  N.  e. 
of  Afontreal,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
rivers  St.  Maurice  and  St.  Lawrence.  It 
has  an  extensive  trade  in  timber,  and  im- 
portant manlifactures  oTironware,  ajnd  ifl 


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Thresher-shfurk 


Thugs 


one  of  the  oldest  towiu  in  the  province, 
being  founded  in  1634.  It  ie  the  re&i- 
dence  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  and 
contains  a  cathedraL    Pop.  9981. 

Thresher-shark,  ^^^^^  ^ 

nus  of  sharks  containing  but  one  known 
species  {AlopiaB  vulpei).  with  a  short 
conical  snout,  and  less  formidable  jaws 
than  the  white  shark.  The  upper  lobe 
of  the  tail  fin  is  very  elongated,  being 
nearly  equal  in  length  to  the  rest  of  the 
bodv,  and  is  used  as  a  weapon  to  strike 
with.  Tail  included,  the  thresher  attains 
a  length  of  13  feet  It  inhabits  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean.  See 
Shark. 
Thrift.     ^^  Sea-pink. 

ThriDS  ^  senus  of  minute  insects,  or- 
yoj  ^gj.  Hemiptera,  suborder  Ho- 
moptera,  closely  allied  to  the  Aphides. 
They  are  extremely  agile,  and  seem  to 
leap  rather  than  fly.  Thev  live  on 
flowers,  plants,  and  under  the  ba^  of 
trees.  T.  cerealium  is  a  common  species, 
scarcely  a  line  in  length  or  in  extent  of 
wing,  residing  in  the  spathes  and  husks 
of  cereals,  especially  wheat,  to  whidi 
it  is  most  injurious. 

Throat  (tlir^t),  the  anterior  part  of 
the  neck  of  an  animal,  in 
which  are  the  oesophagus  and  windpipe, 
or  the  passages  for  the  food  and  breatlL 
See  Larynx,  (E$ophagu9^  Trachea,  Diph* 
theria.  Croup,  etc. 

Thrombosis  ffir^'tVJ'S.  ^^h^ 

heart  or  a  blood-vessel  which  may  block 
the  vessel,  causing  serious  results. 

Throstle,    see  rAm.*. 

Thmsh  ^^^  name  applied  popularly 
>  to  several  msessonal  birds. 
The  true  thrushes  (Turdidw  or  Meru- 
lidig)  form  a  family  of  dentlrostral 
passerine  birds,  including  the  song- 
thrush  or  throstle,  the  missel-thrush,  the 
blackbird,  etc.  They  feed  upon  berries, 
small  molluscs,  worms,  etc  Their  habits 
are  mostly  solitary,  but  several  species 
are  gregarious  in  winter.  They  are 
celebrated  on  account  of  their  powers  of 
song;  and  are  widely  diffused,  being 
found  in  all  the  quarters  of  the  globe. 
Nine  species  of  the  thrush  family  are 
found  in  the  United  States.  These  in- 
clude the  wood  thrush,  found  east  of 
the  Mississippi  and  south  to  Guatemala, 
the  liquid,  half  plaintive  notes  of  which 
excel  in  sweetness  those  of  any  other 
American  bird.  The  notes  are  few  in 
number,  but  possess  a  charm  beyond  de- 
scription. The  common  robin  also  is  a 
member    of    the    thrush    family.    There 


are    several    Ehiropean    species,    among 
which  are  included  the  missel  thrush  and 
the  song  thrush  of  Britain.    These  are 
also  sweet  singers. 
TVimali    ^  disease  common  in  infants 

thm,)  The  name  is  also  appUed  to  an 
abscess  in  the  feet  of  horses  and  some 
other  animals. 

Thua'nus.  seer»o». 
Thucydides  iWJi^gl'o^^fS^l: 

torians,  was  bom  in  Attica  about  471 
B.O.  He  was  well  bom  and  rich,  being 
the  possessor  of  gold  mines  in  Thrace, 
and  was  for  a  time  a  prominent  com- 
mander during  the  Peloponnesian  war, 
which  forms  the  subject  of  his  great 
work.  For  many  years  he  suffered  exile 
(being  accused  of  remissness  in  duty)  ; 
but  appears  to  have  returned  to  Athens 
the  year  following  the  termination  of  the 
war,  namely  in  B.C.  403.  He  is  said  to 
have  met  a  violent  death,  probablv  a  year 
or  two  later,  but  at  what  exact  time,  and 
whether  in  Thrace  or  Athens,  is  not 
known.  His  historv  consists  of  eight 
books,  the  last  of  which  differs  from  the 
others  in  containing  none  of  the  political 
speeches  which  form  so  striking  a  fea- 
ture of  the  rest,  and  is  also  g;enerally 
supposed  to  be  inferior  to  them  in  style. 
Hence  it  has  been  thought  bv  various 
critics  to  be  the  work  of  a  different  au- 
thor, of  Xenophon,  of  Theopompus,  or 
of  a  daughter  of  Thucydides;  but  it  is 
more  probable  that  it  is  the  author's  own 
without  his  final  revision.  The  history 
is  incomplete,  the  eighth  book  stopping 
abruptly  in  the  middle  of  the  twenty- 
first  year  of  the  war.  As  a  historian 
Thucydides  was  painstaking  and  in- 
defatigable in  collecting  and  sifting  facts, 
brief  and  terse  in  narrating  them.  His 
style  is  full  of  dignity  and  replete  with 
condensed  meaning.  He  is  unsurpassed 
in  the  power  of  analyzing  character  and 
action,  of  tracing  events  to  their  causes, 
of  appreciating  the  motives  of  individual 
agents,  and  of  combining  in  their  just 
relations  all  the  threads  of  the  tanfled 
web  of  history.  The  best  translations 
are  by  Jowett  and  Dale. 
Thills  ^^®  name  applied  to  a  secret 
xuugsy  ^^^  ^jj^  widely-spread  society 
among  the  Hindus,  whose  occupation 
was  to  waylay,  assassinate,  and  rob  all 
who  did  not  belong  to  their  own  caste. 
This  they  did,  not  so  much  from  cupidity 
as  from  religious  motive,  such  actions 
being  deemed  acceptable  to  their  goddess 
Kait.  The  government  first  took  active 
measures  against  them  in  1831  and  1835, 
and  Thuggery  is  now  practically  extinct. 


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i 


MiPfoditctd  fcy  ptrmiisiGm  of  iht  PhUadrtphiti  Afuieums. 

HARVESTllfG  IN  THE  WEST 


JUpFodmctdby  permission  of  the  Philadaphia  Museums, 

8TSAM  EARVBSTIR  AND  THRBSHSR 

The  upper  view  ihowv  aide  hill  hArvwten  drawn  by  teams  of  twenty-eight  hones  each.  The  machines 
GBt  the  gram,  and  tie  it  ttp  in  bandies,  which  are  droi>ped  outside.  The  machine  in  the  lower  view  is  sdf- 
propdiing,  cttte  and  threshet  tht  grain,  throwing  out  the  straw,  and  plaoes  the  grain  in  ladcB  ready  foc^ 

loading  on  the  wagon.  v. 


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Thuja 


TliTinnan 


Thuja. 


See  Arhar  Vitw, 


Thnle  (thole),  the  name  given  by  the 
xuiuv  ancients  to  the  most  northern 
country  with  which  they  were  acquainted. 
According  to  Pytheas  it  was  an  island 
six  days'  voyage  to  the  north  of  Britan- 
nia, and  accordingly  it  has  often  been 
identified  wfth  Iceland.  Some  have  im- 
agined it  to  be  one  of  the  Scotch  islands, 
others  the  coast  of  Norway. 

Thumb-screw,  !i*^?!S!.'L'''fn!"^°^ 

'  of  torture  for  com- 
pressing  the 
thumbs.  It  was 
employed  In 
various  coun- 
tries, Scotland 
in  particular. 
Called  also 
Thumhkins, 

Switzerland,  in  Sooteh  Thumb-Screw,  time 
the     canton    of  ofCh«rleiI. 

Bern,  beauti- 
fully situated  at  the  northwestern  ex- 
tremity of  the  lake  of  its  own  name,  at. 
the  point  where  the  Aar  issues  from  it 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  Swiss  military  school, 
and  the  chief  place  of  arms  in  the  coun- 
try. Pop.  6069.— The  lake  is  10  miles 
long,  2  broad,  and  about  720  feet  deep. 
At  its  southeastern  extremity  it  receives 
the  surplus  waters  of  the  Lake  of  Brienz 
by  the  Aar,  which  again  emerges  from 
its  northwestern  extremity. 
Thunder.     ^^  Lightning. 

Thunder-fish,  ^  ^p^^^i  ®^a.?*^^^^ 

A^M^^««A  *M,a^j  ^g  family  Siluride, 
found  in  the  Nile,  which,  like  the  torpedo, 
can  give  an  electric  shock.  It  is  the 
MalapterHruB  dectricua  of  naturalists. 

Thundering  Legion.  ^  ^r^, 

HIM. 

ThurfiraU  (tur'srou),  a  canton  in  the 
xiiui^UU  northeast  of  Switzerland, 
bounded  mainly  by  the  Lake  of  Constance 
and  the  cantons  of  ZUrich  and  St.  Gall; 
area,  381  square  miles;  capital  Frauen- 
feld.  It  differs  much  in  physical  con- 
formation from  most  other  Swiss  cantons, 
in  having  no  high  mountains^  though 
the  surface  is  sufficiently  diversified. 
The  whole  canton  belongs  to  the  basin  of 
the  Rhine,  to  which  its  waters  are  con- 
veyed chiefly  by  the  Thur  and  its  afflu- 
ents, and  i^artly  also  by  the  Lake  of 
Constance,  including  the  Untersee.  The 
principal  crops  are  grain  and  potatoes; 
large  quantities  of  fruit  are  also  grown. 
In  many  places  the  vine  is  successfully 
caltivateiL    The     manufactures     consist 


Thurible. 


chiefly  of  cottons,  hosiery,  ribbons,  lace, 
etc     Pop.  113,221. 

Thurible  ^ifj^;; 

kind  of  censer  of 
metal,  sometimes  of 
gold  or  silver,  but 
more  commonly  of 
brass  or  latten,  in 
the  shape  of  a  cov- 
ered vase  or  cup, 
perforated  so  as  to 
allow  the  fumes  of 
burning  incense  to  |, 
escape.  It  has 
chains  attached,  by 
which  it  is  held 
and  swung  at  high 
mass,  vespers,  and 
other  solemn  offices 
of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic  Church. 

Thiiringerwald  Z^^-^o^^'^^V. 

BINQIA,  a  mountain  chain  in  the  center 
of  German V,  stretching  southeast  to  north- 
west for  about  60  miles.  Its  culminating 
points  are  the  Beerberg  and  the  Schnee- 
kopf,  which  have  each  a  height  of  about 
3220  feet  The  mountains  are  well  cov- 
ered with  wood,  chiefly  pine.  The  miner- 
als include  iron,  copper,  lead,  cobetlt,  etc 
Thnrinaia  ( thtt-rin'ji-a;  German, 
Xnunu^a  >jpj^^ringen,  ttt'ring-^n).  a 
region  of  Central  Germany  situated  be- 
tween the  Harz  Mouutains,  the  Saale, 
the  Tbtiringerwald,  and  the  Werra,  and 
comprising  great  part  of  Saxe-Weimar, 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  other  small  ad- 
joining states. 

Tlmrl#kft  (thur'les),  a  town  in  Ireland, 
xiiUliCB  jij  ^^^  county  of  Tipperary, 
on  both  banks  of  the  Suir,  with  con- 
siderable trade,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral and  college,  etc.  Pop.  4411. 
TTinrlAur  (thur'Io),  Eowabd,  Lord, 
xiiuiiuw  lord-chancellor  of  England, 
was  born  at  Little  Ashfield,  near  Stow- 
market,  Suffolk,  in  1732,  and  in  1778 
was  made  lord-chancellor,  being  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Thurlow.  Pitt 
suspected  Thurlow  of  intriguing:  with  the 
PrlDce  of  Wales,  and  from  this  time  an 
open  disagreement  took  place  between 
them.  Pitt  demanded  his  dismissal,  to 
which  the  king  at  once  agreed,  and  he 
was  deprived  of  the  great  seal  in  June, 
1792.  He  died  in  1806. 
Thurman  (thur'man),  Allen  Gran- 
a.Ai.uMLaucMi.  ggjjY^    Statesman,    born    at 

Lynchburg,  Virginia,  in  1813.  He  en- 
tered Congress  in  1845,  and  was  elected 
to  the  supreme  bench  of  Ohio  in  1851, 
occupying  the  position  of  chief -justice. 
Ohio  sent  him  to  the  United  States  Sen- 


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Thursday 


Thyrsus 


ate  in  1869,  where  he  became  the  recog- 
nized leader  of  the  Democratic  party. 
He  was  the  author  of  the  act  to  compel 
the  Pacific  railroad  corporations  to  fuU- 
fil  their  obligations,  known  as  *  the  Thur- 
man  act.'  In  1888  he  received  the  nomi- 
nation of  the  Democratic  party  for  the 
vice-presidency,  but  was  defeated.  He 
was  called  '  the  old  Roman '  because  of 
his  special  devotion  to  the  Republic  He 
died  December  12,  1895. 
TTinrftflflV    (thurz'dA;  that  is,  'Thor's 

week,  so  called  from  the  old  Teutonic 
god  of  thunder,  Thor.    See  Thor. 

.Thursday  Island,  *,  Xl^l 

in  Normanby  Sound,  Torres  Straits.  It 
is  a  government  station,  and  the  harbor 
—  Port  Kennedy  —  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
this  quarter.  It  is  in  the  direct  tract  of 
all  vessels  reaching  Australia  by  Torres 
Straits;  is  the  center  of  a  large  and 
important  pearl  and  btehenle-mer  fishery; 
and  is  a  depOt  of  trade  with  New  Guinea. 
TlmraA    (thur'sO),  a  seaport  of  Scot- 

ness,  on  the  shore  of  the  bay  of  the 
same  name.  The  chief  trade  is  the  ex- 
portation of  grain,  cattle,  agricultural 
produce  and  excellent  paving-stones. 
Pop.  3723. 

TliiirafnTi  (thurs'tun),  Robebt  Hen- 
XnurSXOn  ^^^  physicist,  was  bom  at 
Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1839;  died 
in  1903.  He  graduated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1859;  served  in  the  navy  dur- 
ing the  Civil  war;  became  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  natural  philosophy  at  the  Naval 
Academy  in  1865,  professor  of  mechani- 
cal engineering  at  the  Stevens  Institute 
in  1871,  and  director  of  Sibley  College, 
Cornell  University,  in  1884.  His  experi- 
ments and  inventions  were  of  great  value 
to  his  profession.  He  wrote  UUtorp  of 
the  Oroioth  of  the  Steam  EnginefFriction 
and  Lubrication^  Materials  of  Engineer' 
ing,  etc. 

TTifTAflfAa  (thi-es'tez),  in  Greek  my- 
xuyesi^es  t^ology,  son  of  Pelops  and 
Hippodamia,  and  grandson  of  Tantalus. 
Having  seduced  the  wife  of  his  brother 
Atreus,  the  latter,  in  revenge,  served  up 
to  him  the  body  of  his  own  son  at  a 
feast    See  Atreiu. 

TlivlaPlTiA  (  thil'a-sSn ;  ThylacinuM 
xnyiaciue  cynocephdlus) ,  a  carniv- 
orous marsupial  animal  inhabiting 
Tasmania,  and  commonly  known  as  the 
Tasmanian  wolf.  In  size  it  is  generally 
about  4  feet  in  total  length,  though  some 
specimens  attain  a  much  greater  size. 
It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits;  of  a  fierce 
and  most  determined  disposition,  and  is 
very  deBtructlve  to  sheep  and  other  ani- 


mals. It  has  an  elongated  and  somewhat 
dog-like  muzzle,  and  a  long  tapering  tail ; 
the  fur  is  grayish-brown  with  a  series  of 
bold  transverse  stripes,  nearly  black  in 
color,  beginning  behind  the  shoulders  and 
ending  at  the  tail. 

Thylacoleo  ^^yT«^^''^^'.  *    f^ 

*  '^  ^  markable  extinct  carniv- 
orous marsupial,  whose  bulk  and  propor- 
tions appear  to  have  equaled  the  lion. 
Its  fossil  remains  are  found  in  Australia. 
Thvme     (tl°>!    Thymus    vulg(tri$)f    a 

*  "^  *^  small  plant  of  the  nat  order 
Labiatie,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
and  frequently  cultivated  in  gardens.  It 
is  from  6  to  10  inches  high,  with  narrow, 
almost  linear  leaves,  and  whitish  or  red- 
dish fiowers;  has  a  strong  aromatic  odor, 
and  yields  an  essential  oil,  which  is  used 
for  flavoring  purposes.  The  fragrant  wild 
thyme  found  in  several  of  the  United 
States  is  the  Thgmua  SerpyUuM  of  botan- 
ists. Both  species  afford  good  bee-pasture. 

Thymelaceas  i,i^p\;SrSSSfJ'«.  t* 

der  of  exogenous  plants,  consisthig  of 
shrubs  or  small  trees,  rarely  herbs, 
with  non-articulated,  sometimes  spiny 
branches,  with  tenacious  bark.  The 
leaves  are  alternate  and  opposite,  and 
the  flowers  spiked  and  terminaL  The 
fruit  is  nut-like  or  drupaceous.  The 
species  are  not  common  in  Europe;  they 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  cooler  parts  of 
India  and  South  America,  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  and  in  Australia.  See 
Daphne  and  Laoe-barh  Trees. 

Thymus  Gland  /thrmus).  a  duct- 

«.M^«M.»M«  ^*MiM^  jggg  temporary  or- 
gan situated  in  the  middle  line  of  the 
body.  After  the  end  of  the  second  year 
of  life  it  decreases  in  size,  and  almost  or 
wholly  disappears  at  puberty.  It  is 
covered  in  front  by  the  breast-bone,  and 
lies  on  the  front  and  sides  of  the  wind- 
pipe. Its  functions  are  still  undeter- 
mined. 

Thyroid  Cartilage,  see  Lorynw. 
Thyroid  Gland  ,<r"Jf4tS«'"?n 

man  which  covers  the  anterior  and  in- 
ferior part  of  the  larynx  and  the  first 
rings  of  the  windpipe.  It  is  of  a  reddish 
color,  and  is  more  developed  in  women 
than  in  men.  It  may  become  abnor- 
mally enlarged,  as  in  goitre.  Its  use 
is  not  at  all  clear,  but  it  probably  exerts 
some  influence  on  the  blood  and  circula- 
tion, especially  in  childhood. 
ThvrSUS  (thir'sus),  among  the  Greeks, 
J^  a   wand   or   spear   wreathed 

with  ivy  leaves,  and  with  a  pine-cone  at 
the  top,  carried  by  the  followers  of 
Bacchus  as  a  symbol  of  devotion.    In  an- 


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Thysaniira 


Tibet 


cient  representations  it  appears  in  various 
forms. 


about  140  tons  burden  reach  Rome.  It 
is  subject  to  floods,  and  carries  down 
quantities  of  yellowish  mud,  hence  its 
the     yeUow     Tiber.'    See 


designation 
Rome, 

Tibc'rias. 


( 


See  OalUee^  Sea  of. 


Ysrioas  formi  of  Thynas,  from  snelont  VaMS. 

terous  insects  that  undergo  no  meta- 
morphosis, and  have,  in  addition  to  their 
feet,  particular  organs  of  motion,  gener- 
ally at  the  extremity  of  the  abcbmen. 
The  group  is  often  divided  into  two 
families,  Podurid»  or  spring-tails,  and 
Lepismidn  or  sugar^lice,  etc.  BLecently 
it  nas  been  divided  into  two  orders  by 
Sir  John  Lubbock:  1.  CoIlembOla,  com- 
prising those  members  known  as  spring- 
tails,  and  nearlv  co-equal  with  the 
Poduridae;  2.  Thysanura  (restricted), 
comprising  those  whose  anal  bristles  do 
not  form  a  spring,  as  the  Lepismidas. 
See  Podurida,  Leptemidw. 
Tiam.  (tl-ft'ra),  originally  the  cap  of 
xxaxa  f^^  Persian  kings.  The  tiara  of 
the  pope  is  a  high  cap,  encircled  by  three 
coronets  with  an  orb  and  cross  of  gold 
at  the  top,  and  on  two  sides  of  it  a 
chain  of  precious  stones.  The  miter 
alone  was  first  adopted  by  Damasus  II 
in  1048.  It  afterwards  had  a  plain 
circlet  of  gold  put  round  it.  It  was 
surmounted  by  a  coronet  by  Boniface 
VIII.  The  second  coronet  was  added  by 
Benedict  XII,  the  third  coronet  by 
Urban  V. 

TibbllS    (t^b'uB),  a  people  of  the  East- 
em  Sahara,  probably  allied  in 
race  to  the  Berl>ers. 

TiliAr  (tl'ber;  Italian,  Tevire:  an- 
j.iucr  ciently,  TiUrU),  a  celebrated 
river  of  Italy,  which  rises  in  the  Apen- 
nines, in  Tuscany,  and,  after  a  general 
southerly  course  of  about  240  miles,  falls 
into  the  Mediterranean  by  two  mouths 
(one  of  them  artificial).  It  traverses 
the  city  of  Rome,  here  forming  the  isl- 
and anciently  called  Insula  Tiberina. 
About  ninety  miles  of  its  course  are 
navigable    for   small    vessels;    those   of 


Tiberius  (ti-b€'ri-us),  in  full,  Tiot. 
**  *^*  Bius  Claudius  Nero  Gjesab, 
a  Roman  emperor,  born  B.C.  42,  was  the 
son  of  Tiberius  Claudius,  of  the  ancient 
Claudian  family,  and  of  Livia  Drusilla, 
afterwards  the  wife  of  the  emperor 
Augustus.  Tiberius  became  consul  in  his 
twenty-eighth  year,  and  was  subsequently 
adopted  by  Augustus  as  his  heir.  In 
AJ).  14  he  succeeded  to  the  tlirone  with- 
out opposition.  Dangerous  mutinies 
broke  out  shortly  afterwards  in  the  ar- 
mies posted  in  Pannonia  and  on  the 
Rhine,  but  they  were  suppressed  by  the 
exertions  of  the  two  princes,  Gkrmanicus 
and  Drusus.  The  conduct  of  Tiberius  as 
a  ruler  was  distinguished  by  an  extraor- 
dinary mixture  of  tyranny  with  oc- 
casional wisdom  and  goed  sense.  Tacitus 
records  the  events  of  the  reign,  including 
the  suspicious  death  of  Germanicus,  the 
detestable  administration  of  Sejanus,  the 
poisoning  bv  that  minister  oi  Drusus, 
the  emperor^s  son,  and  the  infamous  and 
dissolute  retirement  of  Tiberius  (a.i>. 
27)  to  the  Isle  of  Caprese,  in  the  Bay 
of  Naples,  never  to  return  to  Rome. 
The  death  of  Livia  in  a.d.  29  removed 
the  only  restraint  upon  his  actions,  and 
the  destruction  of  the  widow  and  family 
of  Oermanicus  followed.  Sejanus,  aspir- 
ing to  the  throne,  fell  a  victim  to  his 
ambition  in  the  year  31 ;  and  many  in- 
nocent persons  were  destroyed  owing  to 
the  suspicion  and  cruelty  of  Tiberius, 
which  now  exceeded  all  limits.  He  died 
in  March,  37. 

Tibesti  (t6-bes-t§'),  a  region  of  the 
Eastern  Sahara,  supporting  a 
scanty  population  of  the  Tibbu  race. 
Tibet  ^^  Thibet  (ti'bet,  ti-bet'),  a 
'  country  occupying  the  south 
portion  of  the  great  plateau  of  Central 
Asia,  lying  between  Ion.  73**  and  101  •  K., 
and  lat.  27*"  and  36''  x.,  and  extending 
east  and  west  from  Cashmere  and  the 
Karakorum  range  to  the  frontiers  of 
China;  area  about  700,000  sq.  miles. 
Its  plains  average  about  10,000  feet  in 
height,  and  many  of  its  mountains  have 
twice  that  altitude.  In  Tibet  nearly  all 
the  great  rivers  of  South  and  East  Asia 
take  their  rise  (Indus,  Brahmaputra. 
Hoang-ho,  Yang-tse-kiang,  etc.),  and 
there  are  numerous  salt  and  freshwater 
lakes,  situated  from  13,800  to  15,000 
feet  above  the  sea-leveL  The  climate  is 
characterized  by  the  excessive  dryness  of 


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Tibia 


TickeU 


the  atmosphere,  and  the  severity  of  the 
winter.  From  October  to  March  v^eta- 
tion  is  almost  wholly  dried  up,  and  the 
cold  is  intense.  Notwithstanding  the  in- 
clemency of  the  weather  there  is  a  great 
abundance  of  wild  and  domestic  animals* 
Of  these  the  most  remarkable  is  the  yak» 
which  exists  both  wild  and  domesticated. 
It  supplies  food  and  clothing,  and  is  also 
used  as  a  beast  of  burden.  Other  ani- 
mals include  the  musk-deer,  the  Cashmere 
goat,  wild  sheep,  wild  horses  and  fat- 
tailed  sheep.  Agriculture  is  practiced  to 
a  comparatively  small  extent,  suitable 
localities  beinc  rare.  Minerals  include 
gold,  copper,  iron,  borax  and  rock-salt 
Tibet  does  a  large  trade  with  China,  ex- 
changing gold-dust,  incense,  idols  and 
European  and  Indian  goods,  for  tea,  silks 
and  other  Chinese  produce.  The  capital 
is  Lhasa.  The  form  of  government  is  a 
hierarchv.  The  religion  Is  Buddhism  in 
a  form  known  as  Lamaism  (which  see), 
of  which  Tibet  is  the  principal  seat  The 
lama8  or  priests  form  a  large  proportion 
of  the  population,  and  live  m  monas- 
teries; the  two  ^and  lamas  being  re- 
garded as  the  religious  and  political  beads 
of  the  state.  Remains  of  an  earlier  creed 
exist  in  the  Boupo,  a  religion  evolved 
from  Shamanism,  but  much  influenced 
by  Buddhism,  and  frequently  confounded 
with  the  Ola  school  of  the  Buddhists. 
The  inhabitants  are  of  an  amiable  dis- 
position, but  much  averse  to  intercourse 
with  foreigners,  few  of  whom  have  been 
able  to  gain  admittance  to  the  country. 
Recently,  however,  the  country  has  been 
traversed  bv  persistent  explorers  and  its 
general  characteristics  learned.  The 
manners  and  mode  of  life  of  the  people 
are  rude.  Polyandry  is  a  common  cus- 
tom. The  language  is  allied  to  Chinese, 
and  has  been  written  and  used  in  litera- 
ture for  1200  years.  Tibet  was  gov- 
erned by  its  own  princes  till  the  com- 
mencement of  the  18th  century,  but  since 
1720  it  has  been  a  dependency  of 
China.  A  Chinese  functionarv  is  always 
stationed  at  the  residence  of  the  grand 
lama,  and  a  Chinese  governor  with  a 
military  force  is  stationed  in  each  of  the 
principal  towns.  A  recent  event  was  the 
sending  of  a  Chinese  force  to  the  coun- 
try to  seize  the  Dalai  Lama,  who  was 
suspected  of  ambitious  views,  and  who 
fled  to  India,  putting  himself  under 
British  protection.  The  population  is 
estimated  at  from  2,000,000  to  3,000,000, 
though  by  some  it  is  supposed  to  be  con- 
siderably larger. 

Tibia  (tib^i-a),  a  kind  of  pipe,  the 
xxuxa  commonest  musical  instrument 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  had 
boles  at  proper  intervals,  and  was  fur- 


nished with  a  mouthpiece.  For  the  tibia 
in  anatomy  see  Leo, 

libullUS  (ti-bul'us),  ALBIU8,  a  Ro- 
*  ^^  man  elegiac  poet,  who  be- 
longed to  the  eouestrian  order,  and  died 
in  the  flower  of  his  age,  about  b.  c.  18. 
His  poems  are  among  the  most  perfect 
of  their  kind,  but  their  moral  tone  is 
that  of  a  reckless  voluptuary.  We  pos- 
sess four  books  of  elegies  under  his  name» 
but  the  third  and  part  of  the  fourth  are 
spurious. 

Tic  Douloureux  ^f  a^s^VioS  Ti 

facial  nerve,  a  species  of  neuralgia.  It  is 
characterized  by  acute  pain,  attended 
with  convulsive  twitchings  of  the  muscles, 
and  continuing  from  a  few  minutes  to 
several  hours.  It  occurs  on  one  side  of 
the  face,  and  may  be  caused  by  a  dis- 
eased tooth,  by  inflammation  in  the  ear 
passage,  b/exposure  to  cold,  by  dyspep- 
sia, etc  The  removal  of  the  cause  is 
the  natural  remedy;  and  warm  applica- 
tions, the  employment  of  electric  currents 
over  the  nerve,  and  morphia  administered 
subcutaneously,  are  sometimes  efficient 
TlPlTlA  (ti-chS'nO;  German  and  French, 
J.XVX11V  f  Off  gin)  ^  a  river  of  Switzerland 
and  North  Italy,  which  rises  in  Mount 
St.  Gothard,  and  after  a  course  of  about 
120  miles  joins  the  Po  on  the  left  It 
traverses  Lake  Maggiore  and  separates 
Piedmont  from  Lombardy. 
TiPiTin  (German  and  French,  TeMB%n)f 
Xioiuu  ^  canton  in  the  south  of  Swit- 
zerland; area,  1088  square  miles.  The 
northern  and  greater  part  of  this  canton 
is  an  elevated  and  mountainous  region, 
the  SplUgen,  St  Bemardin,  and  Mount 
St  Gothard  forming  its  northern  bound- 
ary. The  chief  river  is  the  Ticino,  and 
there  are  numerous  small  lakes.  Lake 
Maggiore  is  partly  within  the  canton. 
In  the  north  the  principal  occupations 
are  cattle-rearing  and  the  preparation  of 
dairy  produce.  In  the  south  the  olive, 
vine,  ngs,  citrons,  and  pomegranates  are 
grown.  Manufactures  and  trade  are  un- 
important The  chief  towns  are  Bel- 
linzona,  Locarno,  and  Lugano.  Pop. 
138,638,  most  of  whom  are  Catholics  and 
speak  Italian. 

Tinlr^ll  (tik'el),  Thomas,  an  English 
XXCiLCix  ^^  ^j  letters,  born  in  Cum- 
berland in  1686.  His  success  in  litera- 
ture and  in  life  was  mainly  due  to 
Addison,  who  procured  for  him  in  171? 
an  under-secretarvship  of  state.  In  1725 
he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  lords- 
justices  of  Ireland,  a  post  he  held  till 
his  death  in  1740.  His  chief  works  are 
Prospect  of  Peace,  a  ballad  entitled 
Colin  and  Lucy,  and  a  fine  elegy  on  the 
death  of  Addison. 


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Ticket-of-leave 


Tide 


TinlrAf-Af-lAQirA  &  certificate  given  York,  situated  upon  the  stream  connect- 
j.iClS.Cl.  Ul  iCiiVCy  j^  ^  convict  by  ing  lakes  George  and  Champlain.  It 
which  he  is  permitted  to  go  at  liberty,  figured  prominently  during  the  colonial 
under  certain  restrictions,  before  the  ex-  and  revolutionary  period,  bavins  a  fort- 
piradon  of  his  sentence.  This  system  ress  built  by  the  French  in  17^,  which 
exists  in  Britain  and  a  similar  system,  was  attacked  by  the  British  in  1758  and 
known  as  parole,  has  recently  been  captured  by  Ethan  Allen  in  1775.  The 
adopted  in  parts  of  the  United  States,  ruins  of  the  old  fort  remain  an  object 
It  amounts  to  a  conditioned  pardon,  de-  of  interest.  Pop.  2475. 
pendent  upon  the  conduct  of  the  pris-  TiJ^ol  Motor  ^  motive  power  receiv- 
oner.  *  jm.vvva,  ^^^  .^^  energy  through 
Ticking  (tik'ing),  a  strong  cloth,  com-  the  lift  and  fall  of  the  tides  acting  upon 
AJ.VXWLU5  njQniy  made  of  twilled  linen  a  suitable  apparatus, 
or  cotton  and  of  a  striped  pattern*  It  Tide  (^^^^»  ^^®  rising  and  falling  of  the 
is  chiefiy  used  for  covering  mattresses  for  **^^  water  of  the  sea,  which  occurs 
beds.  periodically,  as  observed  at  places  on  the 
Ticknor  (tik-nur),  Geobge,  historian,  coasts.  The  tide  appears  as  a  general 
•*•  ^  bom  at  Boston  in  1791 ;  died  wave  of  water,  which  gradually  elevates 
there  in  1871.  He  was  graduated  from  itself  to  a  certain  height,  then  as  gralu- 
Dartmouth  College  in  ISO?,  and  was  ad-  ally  sinks  till  its  surface  is  about  as 
mltted  to  the  bar  in  1813.  In  1815  he  much  below  the  medium  level  as  it  wae 
embarked  for  Europe,  and  visited  the  before  above  it.  From  that  time  the 
chief  capitals  for  the  purpose  of  pursu-  wave  again  begins  to  rise;  and  this 
ing  his  studies.  On  his  return  in  1820  reciprocating  motion  of  the  waters  con- 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  modem  tinues  constantly,  with  certain  varia- 
languages  and  literature  in  Harvard  tions  in  the  height  and  in  the  times  of 
University.  In  1835  he  resigned  his  attaining  the  greatest  degree  of  height 
professorship,  and  for  the  next  three  and  of  depression.  The  alternate  rising 
years  traveled  in  Europe  with  his  family,  and  falling  of  the  tide-wave  are  observed 
In  1849  he  published  a  History  of  Span-  to  take  place  generally  twice  in  the 
ish  Literature,  corrected  and  enlarged  course  of  a  lunar  day,  or  of  24  hours 
editions  being  subsequently  published.  49  minutes  of  mean  solar  time,  on  most 
It  was  at  once  recognized  by  scholars  as  of  the  shores  of  the  ocean,  and  in  the 
a  work  of  value,  and  has  been  translated  greater  part  of  the  bays,  firths,  and  rivers 


{ 


into  Spanish 
and  German. 
After  com- 
pleting some 
works  of  min- 
or interest  he 
produced,  in 
1863,  a  Me- 
moir of  Pres 
cott,    the    his 


torian,   with 
whom 


n,   witn    /^ 
he    had    [mJ    T\ 

long    main-     ^-^ 

tained    a   close 

friendship. 

Ticks       *  family  of  the  Aca- 

A,x%j£kOf     j.jjj^  ^j^  miteH,  class 

Arachnida.  Ticks  are  para- 
sitic animals,  po»^i?f^.^ing  oval 
or  rounded  btMliei^p  and 
'months,  in  the  form  of  suck- 
ers, by  which  tln?y  attach 
themselves  to  dogfi.  sheep, 
oxen,  and  other  mnnjmals^ 
Birds  and  reptUes  are  also 
annoyed  by  the  attacks  of 
certain  species  and  man  is 
subject  to  their  attncka. 

Ticonderoga    <,'^,V.°- .15: 

itge     in     Essex     C^.,     New 


Ilpi. 


I1»& 


© 


Tidsi. 


which  commu- 
n  i  c  a  t  e  freely 
with  it      The 

©tides  form  what 
are  called  a 
flood  and  an 
ebb,  a  high  and 
low  water.  The 
whole  interval 
between  high 
and  low  water 
is  often  called  a 
tide;  the  water 
is  said  to  flow 
and  to  ebb; 
and  the  rising 
is  called  the 
flood^tide  and 
the  falling  the 
ebb-tide.  The 
rise  or  fall  of 
the  waters,  in 
regard  to  eleva- 
tion or  depres- 
sion, is  exceedingly  different  at 
different  places,  ana  is  also  vari- 
able everywhere.  The  interval 
between  two  succeeding  high- 
waters  is  also  variable.  It  is 
shortest  about  new  and  full  moon, 
being    then    about    12    hours    19 


llt.lL 


© 


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) 


Tide 


minutes;  and  about  the  time  of  the 
moon's  quadratures  it  is  12  hours  80 
minutes.  But  these  intervals  are  some- 
what different  at  different  places.  Tides 
are  caused  by  the  attraction  which  the 
sun  and  moon  exert  over  the  water  of 
the  earth.  The  moon  is  the  nearest  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  to  the  earth,  and  the 
mobile  nature  of  water  leads  it  to  yield 
readily  to  the  attractive  influence.  Those 
parts  of  the  waters  directly  under  the 
moon's  vertical  path  in  the  heavens  are 
drawn  out  towards  the  moon.  At  the 
same  time  the  moon  attracts  the  bulk 
of  the  earth,  and,  as  it  were,  pulls  the 
earth  away  from  the  water  on  the  sur- 
face furthest  from  it,  so  that  here  also 
the  water  is  raised,  although  not  quite 
80  much  as  on  the  nearer  side.  The 
waters  being  thus  heaped  up  at  the  same 
time  on  these  two  opposite  parts  of  the 
earth,  and  the  waters  situated  half-way 
between  them  being  thus  necessarily  de- 
pressed, two  hiph  and  two  Uho  tides  oc- 
cur in  the  period  of  a  little  more  than 
one  revolution  of  the  earth  on«  its  axis. 
The  sun's  influence  upon  the  tides  is 
evidenced  in  its  either  increasing  or 
diminishing  the  lunar  tide,  according  as 
the  sun's  place  in  the  heavens  coincides 
with  the  line  of  the  moon's  attraction, 
or  the  reverse.  It  is  this  difference 
which  produces  what  are  known  as  spring 
tides  and  neap  tides.  Spring  tides  occur 
at  new  and  full  moon,  and  are  the  result 
of  the  gravitating  influence  of  both  sun 
and  moon;  neap  tides  occur  when  the 
moon  is  in  her  quarters,  and  are  not  so 
high  as  the  spring  tides,  the  lunar  in- 
fluence being  lessened  by  the  sun's  force 
acting  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to 
it.  The  accompanpring  figures  illustrate 
the  theory  of  the  tides,  s  Being  the  earth, 
M  the  moon,  s  the  sun,  Wi  w*  the  water 
raised  up  by  attraction  on  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  earth.  Fig.  1  shows  spring 
tide  at  new  moon,  fig.  2  spring  tide  at 
full  moon,  the  low  tides  being  at  o  and  d. 
Fig.  3  illustrates  the  neap  tides,  Oi  a, 
being  small  tides  caused  by  the  sun  alone. 
The  interference  of  coasts  and  irregulari- 
ties in  the  ocean  beds  cause  the  great 
variations  as  to  time  and  range  in  the 
actual  tides  observed  at  different  places. 
In  some  places,  as  in  the  Qerman  Ocean 
at  a  point  north  of  the  Straits  of  Dover, 
a  hign  tide  meets  low  water,  and  thus 
maintains  perpetual  mean  tide.  In  the 
case  cited  high  water  transmitted  through 
the  Straits  of  Dover  encounters  low  water 
transmitted  round  the  north  of  Scotland, 
and  vice  versa.  The  interval  of  time  at 
any  place  between  noon  and  the  time  of 
high  water  on  the  day  of  full  or  new 
moon  is  called  the  establishment  of  the 


Tieck 


part    The    height    of    the    tide    differs 

greatly  in  different  localities.  In  the 
adfic  Ocean  it  is  generally  small,  fre- 
quently not  exceeding  two  feet  It  is 
much  higher  in  the  contracted  waters  of 
the  British  coast  than  in  the  open  waters 
of  American  ports.  In  bays,  where  the 
inflowing  waters  are  lifted  through  con- 
traction, the  tides  are  necessarily  high, 
and  this  is  especietlly  the  case  in  the  long 
and  narrow  Bay  of  Fundy,  where  the 
tides  are  exceptionally  high,  rising  from 
50  to  70  feet,  while  the  rush  of  water 
into  and  out  of  the  bay  is  very  rapid. 
Ti^nrA  (tI'dOr),  one  of  the  Moluccas 
xiaure  {^hjch  gee). 
TiAnlr  (tek),  Lxtdwio,  a  German  writer, 
**^^*^  bom  at  Berlin  in  1773.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Halle,  and 
at  QOttingen  and  Erlangen,  and  having 
returned  to  Berlin  came  forward  as  a 
writer  of  tales  and  romances,  including 
his  tale  of  Ahdallah,  and  a  novel  entitled 
WUliam  Lovell.  His  Peter  Lehrecht,  a 
History  ioithout  Adventures,  and  Peter 
Lebrechfs  Volksm&rchen  displayed  great 
imaginative  power  and  rich  humor.  At 
Jena  in  1799-1800  he  entered  on  friendly 
relations  with  the  Schlegels,  Novalis, 
Brentano,  and  others,  and  through  this 
association  arose  what  has  been  denom- 
inated as  *  the  Romantic  School  of 
Oermanv.'  In  1799  he  published  Ro- 
mantische  Dichtungen,  Bui  in  1804  ap- 
peared his  comedy  Kaiser  Octavianus. 
His  Phantasus,  however,  gave  the  first 
sign  of  his  having  freed  himself  from  the 
mysticism  and  extravagance  of  his  earlier 
works.  In  1817  he  visited  England, 
where  he  collected  material  for  his 
Shakespeare:  and  on  his  return  resided  at 
Ziebingen  till  1819{  when  he  removed  to 
Dresden.  From  this  period  his  writings, 
as  exemplified  in  his  Tales,  bear  the  true 
stamp  of  genius.  These  tales  were  ulti- 
mately published  complete  in  twelve 
volumes  (Berlin,  1853),  the  principal 
being  DichterUhen  (*  A  Poet's  Life  — 
Shakespeare ')  ;  Der  Tod  des  Poeten 
(*The  Poet's  Death  —  Camoens*);  the 
Witches*  Sabbath;  and  Aufruhr  in  den 
Cevennen  (*  Revolt  in  the  Cevennes'), 
an  incomplete  work.  In  1826  he  pub- 
lished his  Dramaturgische  Blatter.  His 
study  of  Shakespeare  resulted  in  Shakes- 
peare's Vorschule,  and  the  continuation 
of  the  German  translation  of  Shakespeare 
commenced  by  Schle^el.  His  last  story 
of  iniportance  was  Vtttoria  Accorombona 
(1840).  On  the  accession  of  Friedrich 
William  IV  Tieck  was  invited  to  the 
Prussian  court  in  1841,  invested  with  a 
considerable  pension  and  the  rank  of  a 
privy-councilor,  and  thenceforward  acted 
as  a  sort  of  supervisor  of  the  Prussian 


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Tiel 


Tiger-beetle 


Btafe.  He  died  at  Berlin  on  April  28, 
I80&, —  His  brother,  Chbibtian  Fbied- 
BiCH  (bom  in  1776;  died  in  1851),  was 
celebrated  as  a  sculptor. 
Tiel  (^^^)'  ^  ^^^^  ^^  Holland,  in  the 
***'*  province  of  Gelderland,  19  miles 
w.  8.  w.  of  Amhem.  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  WaaL  It  carries  en  a  considerable 
general  trade.  Pop.  10.788. 
TiATifaiTi     (te-en-ts£n),  a  town  in  the 

river-port  of  Pekin,  70  miles  away,  and 
with  which  it  communicates  by  the  Pel-ho 
Biver  and  by  a  railway  line.  The  Pei-ho 
is  navigable  only  by  native  craft,  and 
large  vessels  have  their  caixoes  trans- 
shipped outside  the  mouth  of  the  Taku 
roadstead.  A  large  import  trade  is  car- 
ried on,  chiefly  in  European  goods 
i Tientsin  being  one  of  the  treaty  ports), 
'he  principal  Imports  are  cottons,  sugar, 
opium,  paper,  and  tea;  exports,  dates, 
cotton,  camers  wool,  and  coal.  The 
Taku  forts  were  taken  by  the  British  and 
French  in  1860,  and  the  capture  of 
Pekin  followed.  Since  then  the  defenses 
of  the  Pei-ho  have  been  immensely 
strengthened.  The  city  is  surrounded 
by  a  lofty  wall  with  towers  and  presents 
a  mean  appearance  by  its  great  expanse 
of  low  nouses.  The  foreign  quarter, 
however*  which  is  outside  the  main  city, 
is  well  Imilt.  Pop.  estimated  at  about 
800,000. 

Tierra  del  Pnego  <5T''>i^/^^i 

Fire'),  a  large  group  of  Islands  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  South  America, 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Strait 
of  Magellan.  It  consists  of  one  large 
island  and  numerous  smaller  islands,  with 
a  total  area  of  about  32,000  square  miles. 
The  eastern  part  of  the  group  belongs  to 
the  Anentine  Republic,  the  western  part 
to  Chile.  These  islands  consist  chiefly  of 
mountains  covered  with  perpetual  ice  and 
snow,  or  clothed  with  stunted  forests, 
mainlv  evergreen-beech.  The  climate  is 
wretched.  The  natives  in  the  northeast 
resemble  the  Patagonians  in  color, 
stature,  and  habits;  but  those  in  the 
southeast  are  short  and  stunted,  unclean 
in  their  habits,  and  pass  a  most  de- 
graded existence.  Tierra  del  Fuego  was 
discovered  by  Magalhaens  (Magellan)  in 
1520,  and  named  'Land  of  Fire'  from 
the  numerous  flres  he  saw  on  its  coast 
during  the  night. 
Ti^nuMstf    (ti-ir-2ft-t&;  'third  es- 

the  ancient  French  monarchy  to  the 
third  order  of  the  nation,  which,  together 
with  the  nobility  and  clergy,  formed  the 
i$4fts  g4n4rauw  (states-general).  It  con- 
sisted of  the  deputies  of  the  oourgeotBie, 


that  is,  the  free  inhabitants  of  the  towns 
and  communes  who  did  not  belong  to 
either  of  the  other  two  estates.  In  1789 
the  states-general,  or  rather  the  tiers' 
6iat  by  itself,  assumed  the  name  of  the 
National  Assembly. 

Tiff  an  V  (tif'a-ni).  Louis  Oohfobt, 
Axuaujr  American  artist  and  art  man- 
ufacturer, born  in  New  York  CJity  in 
1848.  In  1880  he  began  to  devote  him- 
self almost  entirely  to  the  production  of 
decorative  glass.  The  Favrile  ^ass, 
which  he  discovered,  is  favorably  known 
in  both  Europe  and  America. 
Tiffifi  (tif 'in),  a  city,  capital  of  Seneca 
j.UiUi  p^,  qj,{q^  jg  situated  on  the  San- 
dusky River,  40  miles  s.  E.  of  Toledo. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Heidelburg  University 
and  the  college  of  Ursullne  Sisters. 
Natural  gas  and  oil  are  produced  and  it 
is  the  shipping  point  for  large  quantities 
of  wheat  and  com.  The  manufactures 
include  stock  food,  chemicals,  grain,  coal, 
woolen  goods,  farming  implements,  emery- 
wheels,  pottery,  glass,  well-dnlling  ma- 
chinery, etc.  Pop.  13,217.  _ 
Tiflia  (tif-lis),  capital  of  Russian  Cau- 
xxuxo  casia.  Manufactures  include  cot- 
ton and  silk,  leather,  soap,  etc.  The  ar- 
tisans of  Tiflis  are  celebrated  as  silver^ 
smiths,  gunsmiths,  and  sword  makers. 
Pop.  303,150. — ^The  government  has  an 
area  of  17,000  sq.  miles :  produces  cereals, 
fruits,  etc    Pop.  1,000,000. 

Ti^er  (^i?®''5  ^^^**  tigr%9  or  Tigris  re- 
^"^  g(U\8)^  a  well-known  carnivo- 
rous animal,  possessing,  in  common  with 
the  lion,  leopard,  etc.,  five  toes  on  the 
front  feet  and  four  on  the  hinder  feet, 
all  the  toes  being  furnished  with  strong 
retractile  claws.  The  tiger  is  about  the 
heieht  of  the  lion,  but  the  body  is  longer 
and  the  head  rounder.  It  is  of  a  bright 
fawn-color  above,  a  pure  white  below, 
irregularly  crossed  with  black  stripes. 
The  tiger  is  an  Asiatic  animal,  attaining 
its  fuU  development  in  India,  the  name 
of  'Bengal  tiger'  being  generally  used 
as  synonymous  with  those  specimens 
which  appear  as  the  typical  ^d  most 
powerful  representatives  of  the  species. 
The  tiger  also  occurs  in  Java  and  Su- 
matra. In  habits  it  is  far  more  active 
and  agile  than  the  lion,  and  exhibits  a 
large  amount  of  fierce  cunning.  It  gen- 
erally selects  the  neighborhood  of  water- 
courses as  its  habitat,  and  springs  upon 
the  animals  that  approach  to  drink. 
•Man-eaters'  are  tigers  which  have  ac- 
quired a  special  liking  for  human  prey. 
The  natives  destroy  tigers  by  traps,  pits, 
poisoned  arrows,  and  other  means. 
Tiger-hunting  is  a  favorite  Indian  sport. 

Tiger-beetle  ;^^t't:1Sie.T?^t 


( 


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Tiger-cat 


TiU 


opteroas  insects  which  are  swift  and 
active  in  their  movements,  and  prey  upon 
other  insects. 

TwAr-ftftf  a-  name  of  not  very  defi- 
J.i)^t;rut^  ^j^^  significaUon,  some- 
times given  to  some  of  those  animals  of 
the  family  Felidse  which  are  of  middling 
size,  and  resemble  the  tiger  in  their  form 
or  markings,  such  as  the  chati,  the 
margay,  the  ocelot,  the  serval,  etc,  which 
see. 

Tiger-flower  Z^^^^i^Ant 

of  the  nat  order  Iridaces,  frequently 
cultivated  in  gardens  on  account  of  the 
magnificence  of  its  flowers.  The  stem 
is  about  1  foot  in  height,  with  sword- 
shaped  leaves.  The  flowers  are  large, 
of  a  singular  form, 
and  very  evanescent. 
The  petals  are  of  a 
fine  orange-red  to- 
wards the  extremity; 
whitish  or  yellowish 
and  beautifully 
spotted  at  the  base. 

Tiger-lily  (,«««« 

num)  a  native  of 
China,  common  in 
American  gardens, 
having  scarlet  flowers 
turned  downward,  the 


Tiger-lily  {LUium 
HffHnum), 


perianth  being  reflexed.  I^  is  remark- 
able for  having  axillary  buds  on  the 
stem.  The  bulbs  are  eaten  in  China  and 
Japan. 

*  o  **   of   lepidopterous   insects, 

the  caterpillars  of  which  are  well  known 
under  the  popular  name  of  *  woolly 
bears.'  The  moth  is  colored  red  and 
brown.  The  larve  feed  on  dead-nettles. 
Tifirhe  ^^^*  ^^^^  Blackford,  an  Irish 
o  poetess,  bom  in  Dublin  in  1774, 
and  married  to  Henry  Tighe  in  179a 
Her  writings  were  published  after  her 
death  in  1810.  Her  cnief  poem  is  Psyche, 
or  the  Legend  of  Love,  written  in  the 
Spenserian  stanza.  Her  other  poems  are 
short  occasional  pieces,  frequently  of  a 
religious  cast. 

Tiglath-pile'ser.   see  AMyno. 

i^UCS      S^  Armenia, 


Tigra': 
Tigr«. 


See  Ahytsinia. 


Tifinis  (*^'8fris),  a  river  in  Western 
o  •»  Asia,  having  its  principal  source 
in  the  Turkish  province  of  Diarbekir,  on 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Anti-Taurus,  a 
few  miles  to  the  east  of  the  Euphrates. 
It  flows  generally  southeast,  passes 
Diarbekir,  Mosul  and  Bagdad,  and  joins 


the  Euphrates  somewhat  more  than  100 
miles  from  its  embouchure  in  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  after  a  course  of  IICK)  miles, 
the  united  stream  being  known  as  the 
Shatt-el-Arab.  Large  rafts,  supported  by 
inflated  skins,  are  much  in  use  for  the 
transport  of  goods.  The  region  between 
the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates  is  known 
as  Mesopotamia. 

Tikus.    s^  ^*'^^- 

Tilden  (til'den)f  Samuel  Jones, 
statesman,  bom  in  New  Leb- 
anon, New  York,  in  1814.  He  was 
elected  to  the  State  assembly  in  1845, 
and  in  1846  was  a  member  of  the  State 
Constitutional  Convention.  From  1855 
more  than  half  the  railway  corporations 
in  the  North  were  his  clients.  By  1868 
he  had  become  the  leader  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party  in  New  York  State.  His 
determined  opposition  and  practical 
measures  broke  up  the  Tweed  rmg.  He 
was  elected  in  i874  Governor  of  New 
York  and  in  1876  was  Democratic  candi- 
date for  President  The  election  was  so 
close  that  a  contest  arose,  the  dispute 
being  finally  settled  by  the  decision  of 
an  Electoral  Commission.  The  electoral 
vote,  as  declared  finally,  was  185  for 
Haves;  184  for  Tilden.  In  1880  and 
in  1884  a  renomination  was  pressed  upon 
him,  but  declined.  The  greater  portion 
of  his  fortune  (which  was  estimated  at 
$5,000,000)  he  devoted  to  public  uses, 
but  the  will  was  contested  and  the  estate 
went  to  the  next  of  kin.  He  died  August 
4,  1886. 

^TSIa  (til),  a  term  applied  to  a  variety 
of  articles  made  either  for  orna- 
ment, such  as  inlaid  paving  tiles  (see 
Encau9iio  TUe»  and  Afo«aio),  or  for  use. 
as  in  tile-draining  (see  Draininp)  ana 
roofing,  which  last  are  made  similarly 
to  bricks,  and  of  similar  clay. 
Tiliacece  itiH-a'se-e).  the  llme-tree 
AAXAw^/wvw  family,  a  nat.  order  of  poly- 
petalous  dicotyledonous  plants,  consisting 
chiefly  of  trees  or  shrubs,  with  simple, 
toothed,  alternate  leaves,  furnished  with 
stipules.  The  species  are  generally  dif^ 
fused  throughout  the  tropical  and  tem 
perate  parts  of  the  globe.  They  have  all 
a  mucilaginous  wholesome  juice,  and  are 
remarkable  for  the  toughness  of  the 
fibers  of  their  inner  bark,  which  is  used 
for  various  economical  purposes  under 
the  name  of  hast.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant genera  are  TUia  and  Corchorus, 
the  former  containing  the  common  lime, 
the  latter  jute. 

Till     ^  name  given  in  Scotland  to  un- 
'   stratified  stony  bowlder-clays,  and 
now  extended  bv  geologists  to  any  similar 
surface  or  drift  deposit 


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Tillanclsia 

Tillandsia     (tjl-and'si-a),  a  genus  of 
^  epiphytes,     belonging     to 

the  nat  order  Bromeliaceae,  natives  of 
tropical  America.  T.  amcmo  and  T. 
9plenden$  are  cnltiyated  in  hothouses  on 
account  of  the  singular  variety  and 
splendor  of  the  colors  of  the  spathes  and 
flower^spikes.  T.  umetiideg  is  a  native 
of  the  Southern  United  States,  where  it 
hangs  in  festoons  from  trees. 
Tiller  (^**'*^}»  ^«  '^^er  or  handle  of 
the  helm  by  which  the  rudder  of 
a  vessel  is  turned.  See  Steering  ^p- 
paraiue. 

Tillmail  (tn'man),  benjamin  Ryan, 
statesman,  born  in  South 
Carolina  in  1847.  A  farmer  until  1886, 
he  began  to  agitate  for  industrial  educa- 
tion and  other  reforms;  was  elected 
(Governor  of  South  Carolina  in  1890  and 
1882  and  United  States  Senator  in  1894. 
As  a  member  of  the  Senate  he  has  been 
radical  in  his  views  and  very  pronounced 
in  his  expression  of  them.  He  instituted 
in  his  state  a  system  of  selling  liquor 
under  State  control  and  founded  an  in- 
dustrial school  for  boys,  the  largest  lu  tue 
South.    He  died  July  3,  1918. 

TiUotson  ,\rp*Xks»fcfo?f: 

ier  near  Halifax,  was  born  in  1630.  In 
1647  he  became  a  student  of  Clare  Hall, 
Cambridge,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  in 
1651.  He  was  a  Presbyterian  preacher 
until  1662,  when  he  submitted  to  the 
Act  of  Uniformity,  and  was  chosen 
preacher  to  the  society  of  Lincoln's  Inn, 
and  lecturer  at  St.  Lawrence,  Jewry,  in 
1664.  After  becoming  a  D.D.  in  1660, 
he  was  made  king's  chaplain,  and  pre- 
sented to  a  prebend  of  Cfanterbury.  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  dean  of 
Canterbury,  and  in  1689  he  became  dean 
of  St  Paul's.  During  the  suspension  of 
Archbishop  Sancroft,  Tillotson  exercised 
the  archiepiscopal  jurisdiction,  and  in 
1691  reluctantly  accepted  the  arch- 
bishopric. His  liberal  views  rendered 
him  obnoxious  to  the  advocates  of  ortho- 
doxy, and  he  was  assailed  with  great 
animosity  after  his  acceptance  of  the 
primacy.  He  died  in  1694.  Tillotson's 
sermons  were  at  one  time  very  popular. 

Tillv     (^*^'*»     t6-y6),     JOHANN     TSEBK- 

****J  LAES,  Count  of,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  generals  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  bom  about  1559,  in  Walloon 
Brabant.  After  being  educated  by  the 
Jesuits  he  served  successively  in  the 
Spanish,  Austrian,  and  Bavarian  armies. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Thirty  Years'  war 
he  led  the  army  destined  to  crush  the 
Protestants  in  Bohemia.  (See  Thirty 
Years*  war.)  He  defeated  them  on  the 
White  MountalDfl  (Nov.,  1620),  and  ia 


Timber 


1622  conquered  the  Palatinate,  defeat- 
ing several  Protestant  commanders.  On 
August  27,  1626;  he  defeated  Christian 
IV  of  Denmark  m  Brunswick,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  return  to  his  own  country. 
In  1630  Tilly  succeeded  Wetllenstein  as 
generetlissimo  of  the  imperial  troops.  The 
act  by  which  he  is  best  known  in  history 
is  the  bloody  sack  of  Magdeburg,  May  10, 
1631,  the  inhabitants  being  ruthlessly 
slaughtered.  Gustavus  Adolphus  met  him 
at  Breitenfeld,  near  Leipzig,  September  7, 
and  Tilly  was  entirely  beaten,  and  was 
himself  wounded.  In  a  subsequent  en- 
gagement with  the  Swedes  on  the  Lech 
a  cannon-ball  shattered  his  thigh,  and 
caused  his  death  in  1632. 
Tilsit  (til'sit),  a  town  of  Bast  Prus- 
*  •'  sia,  on  the  Memel,  by  means  of 
which  it  carries  on  a  large  trade.  Manu- 
factures include  iron  castings,  machinery, 
paper,  cloth,  soap,  oils,  leather,  cheese, 
etc.  Pop.  37.148.  The  town  is  cele- 
brated for  the  peace  concluded  here  in 
July,  1807,  between  Russia  and  Prussia 
and  Napoleon.  See  Prussia, 
Tilf-liftTnni^r  *  large  and  heavy 
XlU-nammer,  hammer  worked  by 
steam  or  water  power,  and  used  in  forg- 
ings.  It  has  been  largely  superseded  by 
the  steam-hammer,  but  is  still  advanta- 
geously used  with  light  work.    Cogs  (ar 


i 


Tilt-hammer. 

at  0  0  in  cut)  being  brought  to  bear  on 
the  tail  of  the  hammer  (a),  its  depres- 
sion causes  the  head  (d)  to  be  elevated, 
which,  when  the  tail  is  liberated,  falls 
with  considerable  force  by  its  oyrn 
weight. 

Tilton  (til'tun),  Theodore,  anthor, 
•*•*•'"  was  born  in  New  York  City  in 
1855 ;  died  in  1907.  He  was  chief  editor 
of  the  Independent,  1863-71,  and  of  the 
Golden  Age,  1871-74.  He  wrote  The 
Sexton* 9  Tale  (poems,  1867)  ;  Sanctum 
Sanctorum  (1869)  ;  Tempest  Tossed 
(1874)  ;  Thou  and  I  (poems,  1882),  etc. 
Timber  (^i°>'b^r)»  &  general  term  ap- 
plied  to  wood  used  for  con- 
structive purposes,  as  that  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  fir  and  pine,  the  oak, 
ash,  elm,  beech,  sycamore,  chestnut,  wal- 
nut, mahogany,  teak, .  etc.    The  sap   in 


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Tin  Tinamou 

taken  prisoner.  The  conquests  of  the  greater  part  of  the  foreign  metals  in 
Tartar  now  extended  from  the  Irtish  a  solid  state.  The  molten  tin  is  stirred 
and  Volga  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  in  order  to  disperse  the  gases,  and,  when 
from  the  Ganges  to  the  Grecian  Archi-  partially  cool,  it  separates  in  zones,  the 
pelago.  He  was  making  mighty  prepa-  upper  consisting  of  nearly  pure  tin, 
rations  for  an  invasion  of  China  when  while  the  under  is  so  impure  that  it 
death  arrested  his  pr^ress  at  his  camp  must  be  melted  again.  The  upper  layer 
at  Otrar,  beyond  the  Sir-Daria,  in  140d,  is  removed,  cast  into  blocks,  and  sold  as 
and  his  empire  inunediately  fell  to  hlock-tin,  the  purest  specimens  being 
pieces.  He  was  fanatical  in  his  reli-  called  refined-tin.  Tin-pyrites,  the  other 
gion,  and  although  no  conquests  were  ore  of  tin,  contains  from  14  to  30  per 
ever  attended  with  greater  cruelty,  dev-  cent  of  tin,  and  is  found  in  Cornwall, 
astation,  and  bloodshed,  he  was  in  a  in  Saxony,  and  in  Bolivia.  Pure  tin 
measure  a  patron  of  science  and  art,  has  a  fine  white  color  like  silver.  It 
and  is  also  reputed  author  of  the  /f>-  has  a  slightly  disagreeable  taste,  and 
stiiutions  of  Timur  and  the  AutohioQ'  emits  a  pectQiar  sound  when  rubbed. 
raphy  of  Timurf  both  translated  into  Its  hardness  is  between  that  of  gold  and 
English.  lead,  and  it  is  verv  malleable.  Specific 
Wljl  a  hard,  white,  ductile  metal;  at-  gravity  7.2a  Melting  point  about  230** 
*  omic  weight  118;  chemical  symbol  O.  Tin  is  very  flexible,  and  when  bent 
Sn  (from  L,  siannum).  Tin  appears  emits  a  crackling  sound,  sometimes 
to  have  been  known  in  the  time  of  called  the  cry  of  ttn.  It  loses  its  luster 
Moses;  and  the  Phoenicians  traded  when  exposed  to  the  air,  but  undergoes 
largely  in  the  tin  ores  of  Ck>rnwall.  The  no  further  alteration.  Oxygen  combines 
mountains  between  Galicia  and  Portu-  with  tin,  forming  protoxide  of  tin  or  atan- 
gal,  and  those  separating  Saxony  and  nous  omide  (SnO)  ;  aesquioxide  (Sn^O.), 
Bohemia,  were  also  productive  of  tin  and  dioxide  or  «f an m'c  oaride  (SnOa).  The 
centuries  a^o,  and  still  continue  unex-  compounds  of  chlorine  with  tin  are  di- 
bausted.  Tin  occurs  in  the  Malay  chloride  or  Btannous  chloride  ( SnCla) ,  sea- 
Peninsula,  the  island  of  Banca,  India,  quiohloride  (SusGla),  and  stannic  chloride 
Mexico,  Bolivia,  Peru,  the  United  States,  (SnCl4).  Stannic  chloride  has  long  been 
Australia,  etc.  In  the  United  States  known  as  the  fuming  liquor  of  Ltbavius, 
there  are  rich  deposits  of  both  vein  ore  so  called  from  Libavius,  a  chemist  of 
and  stream-tin,  but  they  are  yet  little  the  sixteenth  century.  Tin  also  com- 
worked,  the  extraction  of  the  tin  being  bines  with  phosphorus  and  with  sul- 
difficult.  The  most  important  localities  phur.  Stannus  sulphide  (SnSa)  has 
are  the  Straits  Settlements,  Banca,  and  long  been  known  in  chemistry  as  aurum 
Bolivia.  In  Australia  tin  is  found  in  mosaicum  or  mosaic  gold.  Tin  will 
New  South  Wales  and  Victoria;  also  oc-  unite  with  arsenic  and  with  antimony, 
curs  in  Tasmania.  There  are  only  two  but  does  not  readily  combine  with  iron, 
ores  of  tin;  the  native  binoxide,  called  Combined  with  copper  it  forms  bronze, 
tin-stone,  and  the  double  sulphide  of  tin  bell-metal,  and  several  other  useful  al- 
and copper,  called  tin-pyrites.  The  loys.  With  lead  it  forms  pewter  and 
former  is  the  only  ore  used  for  obtaining  solder  of  various  kinds.  Tin-plate  is 
metallic  tin.  It  occurs  in  various  cr^s-  formed  by  dipping  thin  plates  of  iron 
tallized  forms,  in  deep  lodes  blended  with  into  melted  tin ;  they  are  afterwards 
several  other  metals,  as  arsenic,  copper,  cleaned  with  sand  and  steeped  for 
zinc,  and  tungsten,  when  it  is  known  as  twenty-four  hours  in  water  acidulated 
mine-tin;  or,  in  disseminated  masses  in  bv  bran  or  sulphuric  acid.  Tin  is  prin- 
alluvial  soil,  in  which  state  it  is  called  cipally  employed  in  the  formation  of  al- 
stream-tin.  Mine-tin,  when  i^educed  to  loys.  Its  oxides  are  used  in  enameling, 
the  metallic  state,  yields  hlook-tin,  while  and  for  polishing  the  metals,  and  its 
stream-tin  yields  a  purer  sort  called  grain-  solution  in  nitro-muriatic  acid  is  an  im- 
tin.  The  ore  is  first  ground  and  washed,  portant  mordant  in  the  art  of  dyeing, 
and  then  roasted  in  a  reverberatory  fur-  rendering  several  colors,  particularly 
nace  to  expel  the  sulphur  and  arsenic,  scarlet,  more  brilliant  and  permanent. 
Mixed  with  limestone  and  fuel,  it  is  Tin-plate  is  used  for  roofing,  the  making 
again  fused  in  a  furnace  for  about  eight  of  culinary  utensils,  etc. 
hours,  the  earthy  matters  flowing  off  Tin&.mnil  (tin'a-mO),  the  name  given 
with  the.  lime,  while  the  oxide  of  tin,  **'**«"***viA  ^^  ^  genus  and  family  of 
reduced  to  a  metallic  state,  falls  by  its  birds  occurring  in  South  America,  and 
own  weight  to  the  bottom,  and  is  drawn  allied  in  some  respects  to  the  ostrich  and 
oft.  The  tin,  still  impure,  is  again  mod-  emeu.  They  somewhat  resemble  a  par- 
erately  heated,  when  it  melts  and  flows  tridge,  and  vary  in  size  from  that  of  • 
oft  into  the  refining  basins,  leaving  the  pheasant  down  to  that  of  a  quail    The 


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Tinavelly 


Tinos 


treat  tinamoa  (Tinimus  bratiliensis)  is 
about  18  inches  long,  and  inhabits  the 
forests  of  Guiana. 


Grest  TiiiBmoa  (Tindmus  brasUienHs). 
Tinavelly.     ®*®  Tinnevem. 

Tincal  ^  ting'kal ),  the  commercial 
name  of  borax  in  its  crude  or 
unrefined  state.  See  Boraa, 
Tincture  (tingk'tOr),  a  spirituous  so- 
*^*^  lution  of  the  active  princi- 
ples of  some  vegetable  or  other  medicinal 
substance. 

Tindal  (^n'^al).  Matthew,  an  Bng- 
lish  controversial  writer,  bom 
about  1657;  entered  Lincoln  College,  Ox- 
ford, in  1672;  became  a  fellow  of  All 
Souls*,  and  received  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
After  the  revolution  he  sat  as  a  judge  in 
the  Court  of  Delegates.  In  1706  he  pub- 
lished a  treatise  entitled  the  Right  of 
the  ChrUtian  Church,  attacking  hierarch- 
ical supremacy.  This  work  excited  the 
animosity  of  the  high  church  clergy,  and 
the  House  of  Commons  ordered  it,  to- 
gether with  two  defenses  of  it  written 
by  Tindal,  to  be  burned  by  the  common 
hangman.  In  1730  he  published  his 
most  famous  work,  Christianity  as  Old 
as  the  Creation,  or  the  Gospel  a  Repub-* 
lication  of  the  Reliffion  of  Nature,  in 
which  he  maintains  that  there  has  been 
no  revelation  distinct  from  the  internal 
revelation  of  the  law  of  nature  in  the 
hearts  of  mankhid.  He  died  in  1733. 
Tindall  ®'  Ttndale,  William,  a 
aauuonu^  martyr  to  the  Reformation, 
bom  about  1484  in  Gloucestershire,  ano 
educated  at  Oxford.  After  taking  orden 
he  went  as  a  tutor  to  Gloucestershire, 
where,  in  consequence  of  his  opinions  in 
favor  of  the  reformation  doctrines,  he 
was  reprimanded  by  the  chancellor  of 
the  diocese.  He  then  removed  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  probably  began  bis  Eng- 
lish version  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
•obaeqiiantlj  procteded  to  Germany, 
7—10 


visiting   Luther  at   Wittenberg.     Having 
completed  his  translation  he  got  it  partly 

Erinted  in  quarto  at  Cologne;  but  be 
ad  to  flee  from  this  town,  and  the 
complete  work  was  printed  in  octavo  at 
Worms.  The  greater  part  was  sent  to 
England,  and  the  prelates  Warham  and 
Tunstall  collected  all  copies  they  could 
seize  or  purchase,  and  committed  them 
to  the  flames.  The  only  fragment  of  the 
quarto  edition  known  to  exist  is  pre- 
served in  the  British  Museum.  Of  the 
first  octavo  edition  only  two  copies  re- 
main, one  in  the  Baptist  Museum  at 
Bristol,  the  other  (imperfect)  in  the 
library  of  the  Chapter  of  St  Paul's. 
Revised  editions  were  soon  issued  by 
Tindall  himself.  Tindall  also  translated 
the  Pentateuch,  and  subsequently  Jonah. 
In  1530  he  took  up  his  residence  at  Ant- 
werp. In  1535  he  was  thrown  into 
prison  at  Vilvorde  near  Brussels,  and 
being  found  guilty  of  heresy  he  was 
strangled  in  1536  and  his  body  burned 
at  the  stake.  Tindall's  translation  of  the 
Scripture  is  highly  eftteemed  for  perspi* 
cuity  and  noble  simplicity  of  idiom. 
Tinder  (^J^'d^r),  any  substance  arti» 
ficially  rendered  raadily  ignit- 
ible  but  dot  inflammable.  Before  the  in« 
vention  of  chemical  matches  it  was  the 
chief  means  of  procuring  fire.  The  tin* 
der,  ignited  by  a  spark  from  a  flint,  was 
brought  into  contact  with  matches 
dipped  in  sulphur.  Tinder  may  be 
made  of  half-burnt  linen,  and  of  various 
other  substances,  such  as  amadou,  touch- 
wood, or  German  tinder  (which  see). 
Tinea.  ®^^  Ring-worm,  also  Clothes- 
moth. 
TiTl-foil      P"'*®  ^^°»  or  an  alloy  of  tin 

about  TiAnith  part  of  an  inch  thick. 
When  coated  with  mercury  it  forms  the 
reflecting  surface  of  glass  mirrors. 
TiTlTl^v^lli  ( tin-€-vel'i ) ,  a  town  in 
xiiiiicvciii  ^^g  southeast  of  India, 
in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  the  largest 
town  of  the  district  of  the  same  name, 
the  administrative  headquarters  of  which 
are  at  Palamkotta  (which  see)  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Tambraparni  River.  It 
has  an  interesting  ancient  temple  and  Is 
an  active  Protestant  missionary  center. 
Pop.  40,4G9.— The  district,  which  occu- 
pies the  extreme  southeastern  corner  of 
the  Indian  peninsula,  has  an  area  of  5381 
square  miles.  Pop.  2,059,G07. 
Tinnin?  (tin'ing),  the  process  of  cov- 
o  ering  or  coating  other  metals 
with  a  thin  coat  or  layer  of  tin,  to  pro- 
tect them  from  oxidation  or  from  cor^ 
rosion  by  rust 

Tin  oil    (tfi'n6s),    or    Tino     (anciently 
xiUOT   teno«),  an  island  in  the  Grw^M 


i 


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Tin-plate 


Tipton 


Archipelago,  one  of  the  Gycladee,  im- 
mediately southeast  of  Andros;  area, 
about  85  sq.  miles.  It  produces  barley, 
silk,  wine,  figs,  oranges,  and  honey. 
There  is  a  town  of  the  same  name  near 
the  south  coast  Pop.  of  the  island  12,- 
300;  of  the  town,  about  2000. 

Tin-plate.   ^^^^ 

Tintoretto  («n.t6-ret't5),  the  sur. 
AAuvvA^vw  imme  q£  i^  Venetian  his- 
torical painter,  Giaoomo  or  Jaoopo  Ro- 
BUSTi.  bom  at  Venice  in  1518;  died  there 
in  IC^.  He  studied  for  a  few  days 
under  Titian,  but,  being  dismissed  with- 
out explanation  by  his  master,  he  after* 
wards  pursued  his  studies  alone,  and  en- 
deavored, according  to  his  own  motto, 
to  unite  Titian's  colorings  with  the 
drawing  of  Michael  Angelo.  He  painted 
many  works  for  his  native  city,  among 
which  are  a  L<ut  Judgment,  the  Israd" 
ties  Worshiping  the  Oolden  Coif,  & 
Cruoifiaion.  the  Marriage  of  Cana,  the 
Miracle  of  8t.  Mark  (*Miracolo  dello 
Schiavo')f  his  masterpiece.  His  por- 
trait, by  himself,  is  in  the  Louvre;  and 
there  are  many  of  his  paintings  in  Ger- 
many. Spain,  France,  and  England. 
EiQual  in  several  respects  to  Titian  or 
Paul  Veronese,  he  wants  the  dignity  of 
the  former,  and  the  grace  and  richness 
of  composition  of  the  latter.  His  man- 
ner of  painting  was  bold,  with  strong 
lights,  opposed  by  deep  shadows.  His 
execution  was  very  unequaL 
TinOCeraS  ( tl-nos'^r-as ),  or  Tmo- 
AXAi.vv«^Ac»a  THERiUM,  a  genus  of  mam- 
mals now  extinct,  found  in  the  Eocene, 
and  representing  the  order  Dinocerata. 
The  individuals  were  all  large,  some  of 
them  nearly  equaling  the  elephants,  while 
the  brain  was  smaller  than  that  of  any 
living  or  fossil  mammaL 

Tippecanoe  <,*'i^Sli^f' i'^S.  5lS 

in  the  K.  part  of  the  State,  flows  w.  s.  w. 
and  8.  200  miles,  and  empties  into  the, 
Wabash  10  miles  above  Lafavette.  It  is 
famous  for  the  battle  fouf^ht  near  its 
mouth,  November  7,  1811,  m  which  the 
Indians,  undei  Tecumseh's  brother,  the 
prophet,  were  defeated  by  General  Har- 
rison. 

Ti-nTiAToli  (tip-p€'r&),  a  district  of 
Xipperan  ^^^i^i^  i^dla,  in  the  Chit- 
tagong  division  of  Bengal;  area,  2491 
square  miles.  Capital,  Comilla. 
TiTmprarv  (tip-p6r-ft'ri),  an  Inland 
Xipperary  county  in  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Munster;  area,  1659  square 
miles.  The  soil  is  extremely  fertile;  the 
chief  crops  are  oats,  potatoes,  and 
wh^at  T^e  highest  elevation  is  3000 
Ue*^i  the  level  country  forms  part  of  the 


great  central  plain  of  Ireland,  and  in- 
cludes some  branches  of  the  Bog  of  Al- 
len. It  is  drained  mainly  by  the  river 
Suir.  Mineral  productions  comprise 
coal,  copper,  zinc  and  argentiferous 
lead;  slates  of  good  quality  are  exten- 
sively obtained  near  Killaloe.  Grazing  is 
the  principal  employment,  and  there  are 
numerous  dairies.  Chief  towns:  Clon- 
mel,  Carrick-on-Suir,  Nenagh,  Thurles. 
Cashel.  Tipperary  and  Roscrea.  Pop. 
160,232. —  TIPPERABY,  the  county  town, 
situated  on  the  river  Arra,  98  miles 
s.  w.  of  Dublin,  in  a  district  called,  from 
ite  fertility,  the  'Golden  Vale.'  It  has 
a  large  trade  in  butter.     Pop.  6281. 

Tippoo  Sahib   (ti-P«'  saiiib),  sm. 

^  ^^wv  •^%m*M^*0  ^^  ^f  Mysore,  son  of 
Hyder  Ali.  bom  in  1749,  succeeded  his 
father  in  1782.  (See  Hyder  Ali  Khan,) 
He  continued  the  war  in  which  his  father 
was  engaged  with  the  British,  and 
abandoned  the  Camatic  in  order  to  check 
the  British  advance  on  the  Malabar 
coast.  In  April,  1783,  he  forced  the 
British  commander,  Matthews,  to  sur- 
render at  Bednore.  Matthews  and  a 
part  of  the  garrison  were  put  to  a 
shameful  death.  Mangalore  also  fell 
into  his  hands;  but  in  March,  1784,  be- 
ing deprived  of  the  assistance  of  the 
French  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
(Sept,  1783),  he  was  induced  to  sign  the 
Treaty  of  Mangolore  on  advantageous 
terms.  In  1789  he  attacked  the  RaJah 
of  Travancore,  an  ally  of  the  British. 
An  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  was 
concluded  (June,  1790)  between  the 
East  India  Company,  the  Peishwa  of  the 
Mahrattas,  and  the  Nizam.  In  the  cam- 
paign of  1790  and  1791  several  places 
were  reduced  by  the  allies,  and  Tippoo 
was  finally  besieged  in  his  capital,  Serin- 

fapatam.  By  a- peace  concluded  in  Feb., 
792,  the  sultan  agreed  to  relinquish 
half  his  territor^r  and  to  pay  33,000,000 
rupees.  But  Tippoo  was  unwilling  to 
submit  to  this  loss  and  entered  into 
negotiations  with  the  French.  Suspect- 
ing that  Tippoo's  preparations  were  con- 
nected with  Bonaparte's  invasion  of 
Egvpt,  the  Company  determined  to  an- 
ticipate hostilities,  and  on  Feb.  22,  1799, 
in  connection  with  their  allies,  they  de- 
clared war  against  the  sultan.  Tippoo 
was  defeated  in  two  battles,  and  retreated 
to  Seringapatam ;  which  place  was  at- 
tacked bv  General  Baird  on  May  4,  and 


completely  reduced,  Tippoo  perishing  in 
the  assault. 

Tintnii  (tip'tun),'a  town  in  Stafford- 
^^  shire,  England,  8  miles  w.  N.  w. 
of  Birmingham.  It  dep^ids  chiefly  on 
its  manufactures  of  heavy  iron  gooda 
Pop.  31,763. 


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Tipula 

TlDTilfl.    (tip'u-la),  a  genus  of  dipter- 
"^^    oufl  insects  or  flies,  of  which 
the   great  crane-fly    (T.  giaaniea)    is  a 
typidftl  species.    See  Crane-fly, 

Tiraspol    (Jy«:f?^*^^'y'>»  *  ^^^^  ^i 

*^  South    Russia    government 

Kherson,  on  the  Dniester.     Pop.  31,616. 

Tirl pm nixt  ( tirl-m6v ) ,  a  town  of  Bel- 
linemonx     ^^^    ^  ^^^^^  Brabant 

It  has  a  diarch  dating  from  the  ninth 
century,  and  manufactures  of  woolens, 
breweries,  and  a  large  trade.  Pop.  18,544. 
TimaU  C^r'nou),  Tybnau,  a  royal 
free  town  of  Hungary,  county 
of  Pressburg.  Pop.  13,181. 
Timova  (tir'n6-vA),  or  Teb'nova,  a 
xuiiuva  ^^  ^j  Bulgaria,  capital  of 
province  of  same  name.  Pop.  12,185. 
Tirol.     See  Tyrot 

Tiraitz  (tecr'pitz),  Alfmd,  Grand 
Au^Auo  xdiobal  von,  a  German  com- 
mander, born  in  1849.  He  entered  the 
navy  at  sixteen;  saw  service  in  South 
America  and  the  West  Indies  and  in  the 
Franco-German  war.  He  was  made  a 
rear-admiral  in  1895,  and  in  1898  became 
secretary  of  state  for  the  Admiralty,  the 
head  of  the  German  navy.  He  is  a  man 
of  creat  personal  force  and  has  done  much 
to  build  up  the  German  navy. 
Tinma  (tt'rins),  a  very  ancient  ruined 
xirjruB  ^^  ^j  Greece,  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, in  the  plain  of  Argolis,  about  3 
miles  from  the  sea,  with  remains  of 
Cyclopean  walls,  and  of  a  palace  of  the 
eleventh  or  tenth  century  B.C.,  excavated 
by  Schliemann. 

TiftfiliftTiilnrf  ( tish'en-dorf ) ,  L  o  b  e- 
xiscuenaon    ^^^  frudrich  Kon- 

BTANTIN,  a  German  biblical  <7itic,  bom 
in  1815,  studied  at  Leipsic,  and  in  1845 
became  professor  extraordinary  there, 
becoming  professor  ordinary  of  theology 
in  1859.  He  made  several  visits  to  the 
East,  and  brought  back  valuable  MSS., 
the  most  remarkable  being  (in  1859)  the 
famous  Sinai  tic  Ck>dex  (which  see). 
TiBchendorf  was  continually  engaged  in 
editorial  labors,  and  was  broken  down 
by  overwork  in  1873.  He  died  at  Leipsic 
ial874. 

Tiflio.     See  Garofato,  Berwenuio. 

TissHA  (tish'fl),  (1)  in  animal  anato- 
Axoouv  my,  the  texture  or  grouping 
of  anatomical  elements  of  which  the  sys- 
tems of  organs  are  composed.  Thus  in 
special  histology  we  speak  of  muscular 
tts9U€,  or  flesh ;  oaseouM  tissue,  or  bone ; 
adipose  tissue,  or  fat;  cartilaginous  tis- 
suOf  or  gristle;  pigmentary  tissue^  or 
coloring  matter  seen  in  the  skin,  etc.; 
gnolgr>  oetMiirf  or  oonneoUve  tissue, 
widely  diatribaied  in  every  part  of  the 


Titanic 


body,  and  serving  to  bind  together  and 
consolidate  other  parts  and  tissues.  (2) 
In  vegetable  anatomy,  the  minute  ele- 
mentary structures  of  which  the  organs 
of   plants   are   composed.    Plant  tissues 


{ 


1, 


VxasTABLx  Tissns. 
^roienohyms     or    Woody     Tiiiue.     2, 


Horizontal  section  of  Prosenehymatoni  TiHue. 
8.  Do.  do.  of  a  Single  Cell,  snowing  the  sue- 
cessive  layers  of  deposit  in  the  interior  which 
give  hardness  and  flrmnesi  to  the  wood  of 
plants.  4,  Cylindrical  Parenchyma.  5,  Round 
or  Elliptical  Parenchymatous  Tissue.  6, 
Spongiform  or  Stellate  Tissue. 


are  composed  of  elementary  membrane 
and  elementary  fiber,  and  the  principal 
forms  under  which  they  exhibit  them- 
selves constitute  ceUular  tissue,  fibrous 
tissue,  and  vascular  tissue. 

Experiments  have  been  made  in  keeping 
pieces  of  animal  tissue  alive  in  proper 
media  outside  of  the  body.  So  far  thev 
can  be  kept  alive  only  for  a  certain  length 
of  time — from  three  to  fifteen  days — but 
it  is  believed  that  death  may  be  ratner 
contingent  than  necessary,  due  to  the  ac- 
cumulation of  waste  products.  Alexis 
Carrel  has  devised  a  system  of  artificial 
rejuvenescence,  by  washing  the  tissue 
from  time  to  time  in  Ringer's  solution 
and  by  placing  it  in  a  medium  of  plasma 
and  distilled  water.  The  excised  heart  of 
a  turtle  will,  under  appropriate  condi- 
tions, continue  beating  for  several  days. 
Tit.     See  Titmouse. 

Titania.     See  Mah. 

Tif  onin  Wreck  of  thk.  On  the  night 
lixamc,    ^f   ^p^    14.^^    1912,    took 

place  the  greatest  disaster  recorded  in 
the  history  of  ocean  travel,  the  total 
wreck  on  her  maiden  trip,  of  one  of  the 
two  largest  ships  that  had  ever  been  built, 
with  the  loss  of  1635  of  her  passengers 
and  crew.  The  Olympic  and  lltanic,  of 
G6.000  tons  each,  were  launched  by  the 
White  Star  Line— the  Olympic  in  1910, 
the  Titanic  in  1911.  l^ese  floating  palaces 
were  of  equal  dimePsioPBfc  having  a  total 


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;Titanio  Titie 

lenfth  of  882^  feet,  breadth  02^  feet  the  band  playing,  and  without  a  cry  of 
and  height  from  bottom  of  keel  to  top  of  deapair  from  the  doomed  multitude, 
the  captain's  house  106^  feet  Olieir  It  was  at  break  of  day  that  the  Car- 
decks  numbered  11,  and  they  were  pathia,  reached  by  the  call  for  aid,  came 
equipped  with  15  watertight  bulkheads,  ?|rithin  sight  of  the  lifeboats.  Those  who 
the  claim  being  made  that  they  were  un-  fiad  not  perished  from  exposure  were 
sinkable.  While  of  66,000  tous  displace-  taken  on  board  and  the  ship's  head  was 
ment,  their  registered  tonnage  was  45,-  tamed  backward  for  New  xork,  whence 
000  tons.  The  Titanic,  the  one  of  these  she  had  sailed.  She  arrived  with  the 
twin  steamers  with  which  we  are  spe-  rescued  on  the  evening  of  Thursday,  April/ 
cially  concerned,  was  capable  of  carrying  18.  Those  alive  numbered  705.  Severali 
5000  passengers,  and  had  an  average  died  on  the  voyage  homeward.  The  story' 
speed  of  21  knots.  She  was  prepared  in  told  indicated  that  the  berg  had  rent  the 
almost  every  particular  for  the  comfort,  side  of  the  Titanic  through  a  gretit  part 
enjoyment  and  safety  of  her  passengers,  of  her  leugth,  rendering  many  ot  her 
being  equipped  with  such  unusual  appli-  waterproof  compartments  useless.  The 
ancesas  salt-water  swimming  pools,  squash  disaster  would  probably  not  have  occurred 
racquet  couits,  sun  parlors  and  other  in  a  head-on  collision.  The  loss  was 
pleasure  devices.  The  one  condngency  great,  not  only  in  life,  but  in  value  of  the 
unprovided  for  was  that  of  sufficient  life-  ship  and  cargo,  estimated  at  112,500,000. 
boats  to  carry  those  ou  board  in  the  im-  A  number  of  multi-millionaires  and  prom- 
probable  event  of  an  accident.  Her  water-  Jnent  persons  were  aboard.  Investigation 
tight  oompartmentB  were  deemed  sufficient   into  the  causes  of  the  disaster  led  to  more 

The  iHtanic  left  Southampton,  Bng-  adequate  safety  regulations, 
land,  on  April  10,  1912,  in  charge  of  TitaniUm  («-til'ia-iun),  a  meUl  dis- 
Captoin  B.  J.  Smith,  a  navigator  of  long  *~^~7  covered  in  1791.  It  is 
experience,  her  crew  and  passengers  num-  round  combined  with  oxygen  in  several 
bering  2340.  A  disaster  was  threatened  minerals,  and  occurs  especially  in  iron 
at  the  outset,  the  suction  made  by  her  ores,  whidi  hence  receive  the  name  of 
great  bulk  as  she  began  her  course  being  tttaniferous  iron  ores.  Titanium  is  a 
so  great  as  to  drag  the  American  liner  wrk  green,  heavy,  amorphous  powder,  and 
New  York  from  her  quay,  a  perilous  col-  Bome  auttiorities  doubt  its  metaUic  diar- 
lision  being  imminent  Proceeding  on  her  «cter.  Olie  ores  of  this  metsl  indudo 
eventful  voyage,  Sunday,  April  14,  found  nienachanite,  from  Menachan  in  Cornwall, 
her  in  the  seas  southeast  of  Newfound^  Where  it  was  originally  found;  iserine, 
land,  then  infested  with  icebergs  to  an  fr^  the  nyer  Iser  in  SUesia;  sphene, 
nnusual  extent  News  of  the  presence  of  J2?/«»  °"*^fi^»  ®?^  i  ^  ».  _.,.  i 
these  bergs  was  received  by  wireless  mes-  TltaHS  \\}  tans),  in  Greek  mythology, 
sages  from  other  vessels,  but  there  was  .  ,„  ^he  sons  and  dauahters  of  Urft- 
no  abatement  in  the  speed  of  the  Titanic,  «»»  (Heaven),  and  G€  JEarth).  They 
her  record  rate  of  21  knots  an  hour  being  Were  twelve  in  number,  six  sons  Md  six 
maintained.  At  10.25  at  night  her  wire-  O*?*^*^'*^  t?®^  ^?f  awinst  Urftnus. 
less  operators  sent  news  of  disaster  far  J?<>  deposed  him,  rai^ng  Cronus,  one  of 
over  the  seas,  their  message  being  picked  ftf>r  number,  to  the  throne.  They  were 
np  by  a  number  of  ships  within  range,  afterwards  overcome  by  Zeus,  and 
It  stated  that  the  Titonic  had  struck  an  ^^n  into  Tartarus.  -,,^^^^ 
iceberg  and  needed  immediate  assistonce,  TltchClier,  T^^^  Bradpobd,  an 
her  position  being  given  as  latitude  41»  ^.  .     .  \  ^ufS.^^^   psychoi- 

46'  nOTth,  longitude  50»  14'  west     The  ggf**   ^S^n   at   Chlchwter,   England    in 
•ti/w«ir  nf  fh»  ^i««lftn  xr\th  thp  hAwr  hfl<1  1867.  _  He  Studied  at  Brasenose  College, 


shock  of  the  colUsion  with  the  bera  had  JS'- ,  "e  studied  at  iiraswiose  College, 
been  so  slight  that  few   of  those  on  hoard  Oxford,  and  at  the  University  of  Leip/igj 
apprehended  danger  untU  an  hour  or  more  JSJ,  ?22o*^S    i?*^   lecturer  at   Oxford 
hkd  passed.    Thin  it  grew  apparent  that  ^^J^^'^fy,^^  h^^  ?2g  profewof 
the  riiip  was  fatally  wounded  and  was  ^.P^^^f^W  ^^^^e  sinf  18fc,  a^^^ 
alowly  filUng  and  the  Ufeboats  were  hast  fjined  J^ternafaonal    |ame- .    His    best- 
Uy  lowered  and  set  afloat  the  men  on  ^^Zn»^nQM!^^^% !^ 
board  holding  heroically  back  and  putting  ^^ZK^il^l^Ai^^rS?^^^^ 
the  women  and  children  on  board,     l^n-  tTJ^  nSL^V'^Jt^I^^J*^ 
fortunately  the  boats  were  not  capable  of  Jt*J*n^^k{  ^""^  Tewilook  of  PBychoU 
holding  one  third  of  the  passengers  and  2Z?J^      /iVi*.   A««i^fl-^^«    *^#i-    •. 
crew,  yet  no  panic  took  place,  the  great-  TlthC     tf^V  nf?/^r^^''?;«JS^r.^^  ^ 
est  ieroism  was  shown,   and  wh*»n    the  ,.       «„.i^!tS^v??ril^'«if^«^^  ?J?"fhI 
great  ship   finally    olunged   beneath    the  l^i^fil^^rS^lt^Z^^l^a  it^^K^'^.^^ 
^ters,  at  2.20  A.  M^.  carrying  more  than  l^^^y,^\}f^2^^  *Jj  ♦^2^lJ?J^^«f^*^ 
1600  to  inevitable  death,  she  did  so  with  »^  ^^  industry  of  the  occupants,  al- 


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Tithe 


lotted  to  the  clergy  for  their  maintenance. 
The  custom  of  giving  and  paying  tithes 
is  very  ancient,  and  was  legally  en- 
joined by  Moses  (Lev.  xxvii,  Deut  xiv, 
and  elsewhere).  In  778  Charlemagne 
established  the  payment  of  tithes  iu  those 
parts  of  the  Koman  Empire  under  his 
sway,  dividing  them  into  four  parts:  one 
to  maintain  the  edifice  of  the  church,  the 
second  to  support  the  poor,  the  third  the 
bishop,  and  the  fourth  the  parochial 
clergy.  Similar  laws  were  afterwards 
enacted  in  various  countries  of  Western 
Europe.  Their  payment  was  first  en- 
joined in  England  by  a  constitutional  de- 
cree of  a  synod  held  in  786.  Oflfa,  king  of 
Mercia,  in  794  made  a  law  giving  the 
tithes  of  all  his  kingdom  to  the  church, 
and  similar  laws  were  enacted  by  Athel- 
stan  and  Canute.  The  first  mention  of 
tithes  in  statute  law  is  in  1285.  In  the 
earliest  arrangement  a  man  might  give 
the  tithes  to  what  priests  he  pleased, 
which  were  called  arhttrary  conseoration$ 
of  tithes;  but  when  dioceses  were 
divided  into  parishes,  the  tithes  of  each 
parish  were  allotted  to  its  own  particu- 
lar minister.  It  is  now  generally  held 
that  tithes  are  due  of  common  right  to 
the  parson  of  the  parish^^  unless  there 
be  a  special  exemption.  The  parson  of 
the  parish  may  be  either  the  actual  in- 
cumbent or  else  the  appropriator  of 
the  benefice.  (See  Impropriations,) 
Tithes  in  English  law  are  of  three 
kinds:  L  prtedial,  arising  immediately 
from  the  soil,  as  corn,  hay,  fruit,  etc.; 
2,  mimed,  such  as  calves,  lambs,  pigs, 
fowls,  wool,  etc;  3,  personal,  arising 
from  the  profits  of  personal  industry  ui 
a  trade,  profession,  or  occupation.  They 
are  divided  into  great  and  small.  Great 
tithes  are  chiefly  com,  hay,  and  wool, 
and  belong  to  the  rector;  small  tithes 
are  chiefly  mixed  and  personal  tithes,  and 
belong  to  the  vicar.  Originally  all  the 
land  in  the  kingdom,  except  crown  and 
church  lands,  was  tithable.  By  acts 
passed  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII, 
however,  tithes  could  be  temporarily  re- 
deemed by  the  payment  of  a  lump  sum. 
The  circumstance  that  tithes  were  en- 
acted from  dissenters  and  the  difficulties 
of  collecting  them,  long  led  to  constant 
bickerings  between  the  clergy  and  the 
people.  The  popular  demand  for  a 
measure  of  commutation  was  at  last  met 
by  the  Tithe  C!ommutation  Act  (1830). 
This  act.  amended  by  subsequent  stat- 
utes, provides  for  the  conversion  of  all 
the  uncommuted  tithes  in  England  and 
Wales  into  a  com  and  rent  charge,  pay- 
able in  money,  and  estimated  on  the 
average  price  of  a  bushel  of  com  for  the 
seven    years    ending    at    the    preceding 


Titian 


Christmas.  In  Ireland  the  tithes  were 
commuted  into  a  money  rent  charge  in 
1838,  which  by  the  Irish  Church  Act  of 
18G0  was  vested  in  the  commissioners  of 
church  temporalities,  with  power  to  sell 
such  rent  charge  at  22^  years  purchase 
to  the  landowner.  The  tithes  in  Scot- 
land are  called  teinds  (which  see). 
Tithes  were  collected  in  Virginia  in 
colonial  times,  and  Patrick  Henry  first 
won  fame  as  an  orator  by  his  vigorous 
defense  of  those  who  refused  to  pay  them. 
The  lack  of  an  established  church  has 
kept  this  form  of  taxation  out  of  the 
United  States,  all  church  support  being 
Toluntary. 

Tithin?  (tn^'ing),  an  ancient  subdi- 
o  Tision  of  England,  forming 
part  of  the  hundred,  and  consisting  of 
ten  householders  and  their  families  held 
together  in  a  society,  all  being  bound  for 
the  peaceable  behavior  of  each  other,  the 
chief  of  whom  was  the  tithtM-man. 
TithonUS  (t^-thO'nus),  in  Greek  my- 
**"  ^  *^  thology,  a  son,  or  brother, 
of  lAomedon,  king  of  Trov.  He  was  be- 
loved by  Eos  (Aurora,  Morning),  who 
importuned  Zeus  to  make  him  immortal. 
Her  prayer  was  granted,  but  she  had 
neglected  to  ask  for  continual  youth,  and 
in  time  her  lover  took  on  all  the  signs 
of  extreme  age.  Tithonus'  prayer  to  the 
gods  to  be  relieved  of  the  burden  of  old 
age  was  answered  bv  his  being  metamor- 
phosed into  a  grasshopper. 
Tififln  (tish'i-an),  or  Tiziano  Vecel- 
XXUan  jjQ  (tit-si-tt'no  ve-cheni-6),one 
of  the  most  aistinguished  of  the  great 
Italian  painters,  and  head  of  the  Vene- 
tian school,  was  bom  at  Pieve  de  Ca- 


i 


Titian. 


dore.  in  the  Camic  Alps,  in  1477.  He 
studied  under  Giovanni  Bellini  of  Venice, 
and  in  1507  was  associated  with  the 
pahiter  Giorgione  in  executing  certain 
frescoes.    In    1511    he    was    invited    to 


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Titicaca 


Titration 


Padaa,  where  he  executed  three  remark- 
able frescoes  which  are  still  to  be  seen 
there.  In  1512  he  completed  the  un- 
finished pictures  of  Giovanni  Bellini,  his 
former  master,  in  the  Sala  del  Gran 
Consiglio  at  Venice,  and  the  senate  were 
BO  pleased  that  they  gave  him  an  im- 
portant office.  To  this  period  are  at- 
tributed his  pictures  of  the  Tribute  Money 
and  Sacred  and  Profane  Love.  In  1514 
he  painted  a  portrait  of  Ariosto  at  Fer- 
rara,  and  after  his  return  to  Venice  he 
painted  an  Asnimption  of  the  Virgin 
(1516),  considered  one  of  the  finest  pic- 
tures in  the  world;  it  is  now  in  the 
Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts  in  Venice. 
About  1528  he  produced  his  magnificent 

Sicture,  The  Death  of  8t,  Peter  the 
lartyr — ^^  a  picture,*  says  Alrarotti. 
'  in  which  the  great  masters  admitted 
they  could  not  find  a  fault,'  unfor- 
tunately destroyed  by  fire  in  1867.  In 
1530  the  Emperor  Charles  V  invited  him 
to  Bologna  to  paint  his  portrait  and  ex- 
ecute various  other  commissions.  In 
1532  he  again  painted  the  emperor's  por- 
trait, and  he  is  said  to  have  accompanied 
Charles  to  Madrid,  where  he  received  sev- 
eral honors.  He  remained,  it  is  said, 
three  years  i|i  Spain,  in  which  country 
many  of  his  masterpieces,  such  as  The 
Sleeping  Venu9^  Christ  in  the  Garden,  St. 
Margaret  and  the  Dragon^  are  still  to  be 
found.  In  1537  he  painted  an  Annuncia- 
tion^ and  in  1541  he  produced  The  De- 
scent of  the  Holy  Ohost  on  the 
Apostles,  The  Sacrifice  of  Abraham,  and 
David  and  Goliath.  In  1543  he  painted 
his  picture  of  The  Virgin  and  San 
Tiziano:  and  in  1545  he  visited  Rome, 
where  he  painted  the  famous  group  oi 
Pope  Paul  III,  the  Cardinal  Famese,  and 
Duke  Ottavio  Famese.  He  was  patron- 
ized as  warmly  by  Philip  II  as  by  bis 
father,  Charles  V.  Of  Titian's  private 
life  but  little  is  known.  He  died  of  the 
plague  in  1576,  aged  ninety-nine,  having 
painted  to  the  last  with  almost  undimin- 
ished powers.  Titian  excelled  as  much 
in  landscape  as  in  figure-painting,  was 
equally  great  in  sacred  and  profane  sub- 
jects, in  ideal  heads  and  in  portraits,  in 
frescoes  and  in  oils;  and  though  others 
may  have  surpassed  him  in  single  points, 
none  eaualed  him  in  general  mastery. 
A^  a  colorist  he  is  almost  unrivaled,  and 
his  pictures  often  reach  the  perfection  of 
sensuous  beauty. 

Titicaca  (tlt-^kft^ki),  a  lake  on  the 
northwestern  frontiers  of 
Bolivia,  situated  in  a  valley  of  the 
Andes,  12,600  feet  above  sea-level;  esti- 
mated area,  5300  square  miles.  It  con- 
tains several  islands,  and  abounds  with 
fish. 


Titlark,      see  Pipit. 

Title-deeds,    ^"^  l^^'  ^?  *^«  ^<^? 

**"**'  \*.«*«***o,      ments,    such    as    mort- 

Sages,  conveyances,  etc.,  which  afford  evi- 
ence  of  the  ownership  of  real  property. 

Titles  of  Honor,  appellations  given 
Axi;j.«^0  vj.  AA\/Aj.\/xy     ^^  certain  persons 

in  virtue  of  particular  offices  or  dignities 
possessed  by  them,  or  as  marks  of  dis- 
tiiiction  and  special  rank.  'Hiey  have 
existed  probably  among  all  peoples. 
Such  were  in  Rome  the  titles  of  Magnus 
(Great)  and  Africandus  (African)  ;  and 
the  epithets  Csesar,  the  name  of  a  fam- 
ily, and  Augustus,  which  were  gradually 
applied  to  all  who  filled  the  imperial 
throne.  See  Nobility,  Peer,  and  Address 
{Forms  of). 
Titling.  See  Pipit. 
TitTnonae       (tit'mous),  Tit,  or  ToM- 

number  of  dentirostral  insessorial  birds 
inhabiting  most  parts  of  the  world. 
They  are  very  active  little  birds,  contin- 
ually flitting  from  branch  to  branch, 
devouring  seeds  and  insects  and  not  spar- 
ing even  small  birds  when  they  hap- 
pen to  find  them  sick  and  are  able  to 
put  an  end  to  them.      Their  notes  are 


Bloa  Titmoote,  msle  snd  female  (Parus 
cmrvUus). 

shrin  and  wild.  They  build  in  the  hol- 
lows of  trees,  in  walls,  etc  The  great 
titmouse  (Parus  major)  is  between  five 
and  six  inches  long,  ana  inhabits  Europe 
generally.  There  are  various  other  Bu- 
ropean  species,  and  several  occur  in  the 
United  States,  some  of  them  known  as 
chickadee  (which  see). 
Titration  (tl-tr&'shun),  in  chemical 
analysis,  a  process  for  as- 
certaining the  quantity  of  any  given 
constituent  present  in  a  compound,  by 
observing  the  quantity  of  a  liquid  of 
known  strength  (called  a  standard  solu' 
tion)  necessary  to  convert  the  constitu- 
ent into  another  form.    The  reaction  is 


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Titns 

ofliially  marked  by  a  change  of  color  or 
by  the  formation  of  a  precipitate. 
Tifnfl  (tl'tus),  or  in  full,  Titus  Fiay- 
xxi/uo  j^g  g^^BiiaJs  VEaPASiANUS,  a 
Roman  emperor,  bom  a.d.  40,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  Emperor  Vespasian. 
He  served  with  credit  as  a  military 
tribune  in  Germany  and  Britain,  and 
accompanied  his  father  in  the  war 
against  the  Jews  as  commander  of  a  le- 
gion. When  Vespasian  became  emperor 
(69)  Titus  was  left  to  conduct  the  war 
in  Judea.  He  took  Jerusalem  (a.d. 
70),  and  after  visiting  Egypt  returned 
to  Rome  in  triumph,  and  was  associated 
with  his  father  in  the  government  of  the 
empire.  He  became  sole  emperor  in  79, 
and  showed  himself  an  enlightened  and 
munificent  ruler,  distinguished  by  benevo- 
lence and  philanthropy.  He  died  Sept. 
13,  81,  after  a  reign  of  a  little  over  two 
years  and  two  months.  His  brother 
uomitian  was  strongly  suspected  of  hav- 
ing poisoned  him. 

Titnfl  ^  disciple  and  assistant  of  the 
xxvuo,  apostle  Paul,  and  the  person  to 
whom  one  of  the  canonical  epistles  of 
the  New  Testament  is  addressed.  He 
was  a  gentile  by  origin,  and  probably  a 
native  of  Antloch.  He  labored  with 
Paul  in  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia  and 
Crete,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  first 
Christian  bishop  of  Crete. 
Tifna  Epibtle  to,  one  of  the  three 
^^^^*^  pastoral  epistles  of  the  New 
Testament  (the  remaining  two  being  those 
addressed  to  Timothy),  believed  to  have 
been  written  by  St  Paul  after  his  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome.  The  topics 
handled  are  the  same  which  we  find  in 
the  other  two  kindred  epistles.  See 
Timothyt  EpUiles  to. 
Titus  liviUS.     ^ee  Livius. 

Titnsville  ( ti'tus-vll ),  a  dty  of 
XiroSYUie  Crawford  Co..  Pennsylva- 
nia on  the  Pennsylvania  and  New  xork 
Ontral  railroads.  It  has  steel  and  forge 
works,  oil  refineries  and  manufactures  of 
iron,  radiators,  saddlery,  etc.  Pop.  9000. 
TinniiiTi  (ty9-mftn'),  a  town  in  the 
XlUinen  government  of  Tobolsk,  West- 
em  Siberia,  on  the  Tura,  an  affluent  of 
the  Tobol.  It  is  the  center  of  the  West- 
em  Siberian  trade,  and  has  various  man- 
ufactures. Pop.  29,588. 
TifTPrfnn  (  tiv'er-tun  ),  a  municipal 
XlverbUli  borough  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Devon,  pleasantly  situated  12 
miles  north  by  east  of  Exeter.  It  con- 
sists of  several  well-fbrmed  streets,  and 
has  a  spacious  market  place,  guildhall, 
assembly  rooms,  public  baths,  etc.;  and 
important  manufactures  of  lace.  Pop. 
(3911)  50,706. 


Toad 

Tivnli  (tiV5-M;  the  ancient  Tihur),  a 
xivuu  ^^^  ^£  Central  Italy.  17  miles 
s.  IV.  E.  of  Rome  (connected  by  tramway), 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Teverone  (or 
Anio),  which  here  forms  fine  falls.  It 
has  steep,  narrow,  and  ill-paved  streets, 
and  houses  in  general  poorly  built;  with 
a  modem  handsome  cathedral,  and  some 
other  churches.  It  was  a  favorite  re- 
sort of  the  ancient  Romans,  and  among 
the  remains  in  the  town  and  neighbor^ 
hood  are  the  circular  temple  oi  the 
Sibyl,  the  ruins  of  Hadrian's  villa, 
the  villa  of  Maecenas,  etc.  The  wine  of 
Tivola  was  famous  in  ancient  times* 
Pop.  12,881. 
TizianO.     ®®®  Titian. 

TlaKCala  J[«*'k»-1A),  a  ^ate  of 
^^^^  Mexico,  surrounded  nearly 

on  all  sides  by  the  state  of  Puebla ;  area* 
15,957  square  miles.  Pop.  172,315.  The 
capital,  which  bears  the  same  name,  wfui 
once  an  important  citv.  Pop.  2715. 
Tlemcen  (tlem-sen')»  a  town  of  Al- 
V^"  geria,  in  the  province  of 
Oran,  70  miles  s.  s.  w.  of  the  city  of  that 
name,  finely  situated  2500  feet  above  the 
sea,  in  the  midst  of  olive  groves,  vine- 
yards, and  orchards.  Its  chief  buildings 
are  some  fine  mosques.  Pop.  24,060. 
Toad  0^)*  ^^  name  applied  to  va- 
*  nous  genera  of  tailless  amphibians. 

Toads  have  a  thick,  bulky  body,  covered 
with  warts  or  papillse.  They  have  no 
teeth,  and  the  tongue  is  fixed  to  the  front 
of  the  mouth,  but  the  posterior  extremity 
is  free  and  protrusibfe.  The  hind  feet 
are  but  slightly  webbed.  They  leap 
badly,  and  generally  avoid  the  water,  ex- 
cept in  the  breeding  season.  Their  food 
consists  of  insects  and  worms.  Toads 
have  a  most  unprepossessing  aspect  and 
outward  appearance.  The  bite,  saliva, 
etc.,  of  the  common  toad  of  Europe 
(Bufo  vulgdris)  were  formerly  consid- 
ered poisonous,  but  no  venom  or  poison 
apparatus  of  any  kind  exists  in  these 
creatures.  The  toad  is  easily  tamed,  and 
exhibits  a  considerable  amount  of  intel- 
ligence as  a  pet.  It  lies  torpid  in  some 
hole  during  winter.  Insects  are  caught 
by  a  sudden  protrusion  of  the  tongue, 
which  is  provided  with  a  viscous  secre- 
tion. There  are  several  species  of  toads 
in  the  United  States.  The  Surinam  toad 
is  described  fh  the  article  Pipa.  The 
toad  is  extremely  tenacious  of  life,  but 
experiments  have  conclusively  shown  that 
there  is  no  trath  in  the  oft-repeated 
stories  of  the  creature  being  able  to  sup- 
port life  when  inclosed  in  solid  rock  for 
immense  periods  of  time.  Dr.  Buckland 
has  shown  that  when  excluded  from  air 
and  food,  frogs  and  toads,  in  virtue  of 


i 


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Toad-fish 


Tobacco 


their   slow   circulation   and   cold-blooded 
habits,   might  sarvlTe  about   a  year  or 
eighteen  months  at  most. 
Toad-fish    ^  i^&nie  sometimes  given  to 
*  ^  the     Lophiu9     piacatoriu9. 

See  Angler, 

Toad-flax  ^^®  English  name  of  va- 
Avcxiu  ^a^f  novm  plants  of  the  genus 
Linariat  order  Scrophulariaceae.  The 
common  toad-flax  is  L.  vulgdris,  which 
in  its  general  habits  is  not  unlike  flax. 
The  flowers  are  of  a  bright  yellow;  the 
corolla  labiate,  resembling  that  of  snap- 
dragon in  shape,  but  provided  with  a 
long  spur.  It  grows  in  hedges  and  fields, 
and  is  a  reputed  purgative  and  diuretic 
The  ivy-leaved  toad-flax  (L.  Cymbalaria) 
is  often  found  trailing  over  old  walls. 
Allied  to  this  genus  is  the  Antirrhinum 
(which  see). 

TnhfLPnA  (to-bak'6),  a  very  important 
AOOacCO  jjj^jjj^  belonging  to  the  nat 
order  Atropaces,  or  night-shade  order. 
The  introduction  of  the  use  of  tobacco 
forms  a  singular  chapter  in  the  historv 
of  mankind.  According  to  some  authori- 
ties smoking  was  practiced  bv  the 
Chinese  at  a  very  early  date.  At  the 
time  of  the  discovery  of  America  to- 
bacco was  in  frequent  use  among  the 
Indians,  and  the  practice  of  smoking, 
which  bad  with  them  a  religious  char- 
acter, was  common  to  almost  all  the 
tribes.  (See  Calumet)  The  name  to- 
bacco was  either  derived  from  the  term 
used  in  Hayti  to  designate  the  pipe,  or 
from  Tabaca  in  St.  Domingo,  whence 
It  was  introduced  into  Spain  and  Portu- 
gal in  1559  by  a  Spaniard.  It  soon 
found  its  way  to  Paris  and  Rome,  and 
was  first  used  in  the  shape  of  snuff. 
Smoking  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  introduced  into  England  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  but  Camden  says  the 
practice  was  introduced  by  Drake  and  his 
companions  on  their  return  from  Vir- 
ginia in  1585.  It  was  strongly  opposed 
by  both  priests  and  rulers.  Pope  Urban 
VII  and  Innocent  IX  issued  bulls  ex- 
communicating such  as  used  snuff  in 
church,  and  in  Turkey  smoking  was 
made  a  capital  offense.  In  the  canton  of 
Bern  the  prohibition  of  the  use  of  to- 
bacco was  put  among  the  ten  command- 
ments, immediately  after  that  forbidding 
adultery.  The  Counterblast  or  denuncia- 
tion written  by  James  I  of  Enj^land  is 
a  matter  of  history.  All  prohibitions, 
however,  regal  or  priestly,  were  of  no 
avail,  and  tobacco  is  now  the  most  ex- 
tensively used  luxury  on  the  face  of  the 
earth.  The  most  commonly  cultivated 
tobacco   plant    (Nicotidna   tab(icum)    is 

S'ltinous,  and  covered  with  a  very  short 
WJ> ;  the  stem  upright,  4  or  5  feet  high, 


and  branching;  the  leaves  are  lanceolate, 
■ometimes  two  feet  long;  the  flowers  are 
terminal  and  rose-colored.  A  less  es- 
teemed species  is  N,  ruaticOf  distinguished 
by  a  short  yellowish-green  corolla.  All 
tne  tobacco  plants  are  natives  of  Amer- 
ica, and  that  continent  has  continued  the 
principal  producer,  the  chief  tobacco- 
growing  countrv  being  the  United  States, 
and  the  chief  localities  being  Kentucky, 
North  Carolina,  and  Virginia.  The  N, 
quadrivalie  and  N.  re-  ~ 
panda  have   white  or 

Sellow  corollas.  The 
itter  is  cultivated  to 
some  extent  in  CuIml 
and  is  known  as  Yara 
tobacco.  There  are 
^Ye  leading  types  of 
tobacco  grown  in  the 
United  States  — the 
Seed  Leaf,  White  Bur- 
ley,  Heavy  Shippinc 
or  Dark,  Yellow,  and 
Perique.  Tobacco 
owes  its  prineipal 
properties  to  the  pres- 
ence of  a  i>oisonous 
alkaloid  named  nico- 
tine (see  Nicotine). 
The  cultivated  forms 
of  the  present  day  are 
highly  developed  and 
very  sensitive.  In 
some  localities  the 
plants  are  shielded 
with  slats  or  cheese- 
cloth. Clayey  soils  yield  heavy  leavea; 
sandv  soils,  light.  All  plants  except  those 
which  are  to  be  kept  for  seed  are  topped. 
When  the  leaves  begin  to  turn  yefiow 
the  plants  are  cut  close  to  the  ground, 
and  afterwards  carried  to  the  dry-shed, 
where  thev  are  hung  up  in  lines  to  dry. 
Artificial  heat  is  sometimes  nsed.  Prim- 
ing, which  is  also  largely  practiced,  con- 
sists in  removing  the  leaves  in  the  order 
in  which  they  mature.  When  perfectly 
dry  the  leaves  are  stripped  from  the 
stalks  and  packed  in  boxes,  in  which  they 
are  allowed  to  heat  and  sweat  or  ferment 
Cigarette  tobacco  is  cured  in  large  drying 
ovens  and  is  consequently  light  in  color 
and  without  the  agreeable  cigar-leaf 
aroma.  Snuff  is  tobacco  ground  to  a  pow- 
der and  perfumed.  Chewing  tobacco  con- 
sists of  pressed  cakes  or  plugs,  or  of  a 
spongy  mass  of  fine  threads  called  'fine 
cut,'  and  is  flavored  with  vanilla,  sugar, 
licorice,  etc.  Pipe  tobacco  is  sold  in  rolls 
of  the  natural  leaf,  or  it  may  be  cut  fine. 
In  the  manufacture  of  cigars  the  leaves 
are  saved  for  'wrappers,'  while  smaller 
pieces,  sometimes  of  inferior  grade,  are 
used  as  '  fillers.' 


VirginiA  Tobaoeo 
{Nicididna  Ia6d- 
cum). 


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Tobago 


As  the  best  leaf  is  grown  in  Cuba,  so 
also  are  the  best  cigars  made  there. 
The  leaf  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
Manila  cheroots  is  gcown  chiefly  on  the 
island  of  Luzon.  Tobacco  is  one  of  the 
most  profitable  crops  in  the  United 
States;  about  one-half  of  the  produc- 
tion is  abM>rbed  for  home  use,  the  other 
being  exported,  the  far  largest  customer 
being  Britain.  The  plant  has  numerous 
insect  enemies,  among  them  being  the 
Northern  tobacco- worm  (Protoparoa 
celeut),  and  P,  Carolina,  the  tobacco- 
worm  of  the  Southern  States.  These 
are  called,  when  adult,  sphinx-moths; 
they  are  strong,  rapid  flyers,  and  at 
twilight  are  often  mistaken  for  hum- 
ming-birds. The  eggs  are  laid  singly  on 
the  tobacco  leaves,  and  quickly  hatch; 
the  larva  —  homworm  —  is  a  voracious 
feeder  and  inflicts  much  damage,  par- 
ticularly in  the  large,  *  wrapper^  leaves. 
The  greasy  cutworm  (Agrostia  ypsUon) 
is  another  pest  The  tobacco-fly  or 
flea-beetle  (Crepidodera  cucumerit)  lives 
through  the  winter  in  a  winged  state. 
The  annual  tobacco  crop  of  the  United 
States  ranges  from  700.000,000  to  1,000,- 
000,000  pounds,  much  surpassing  that 
of  other  countries,  and  its  consumption 
there  also  much  exceeds  that  of  any 
other  country. 

TAhfLiTA  (td-bft'gO),  an  island  of  the 
xvun^v  j^ritigh  ^egt  Indies,  belonsing 
to  the  Windward  group,  was  annexed  in 
1889  to  Trinidad ;  area,  114  square  miles. 
Two-thirds  of  the  island  are  covered  with 
primeval  forests,  and  out  of  a  total  area 
of  73313  acres,  only  about  10,000  acres 
are  cultivated.  Sugar,  rum,  molasses, 
and  cocoanuts  are  the  chief  productions; 
but  attention  is  now  being  turned  to  the 
cultivation  of  cocoa  and  coffee,  for  which 
the  soil  and  climate  are  admirably 
adapted.  This  island  is  one  of  the  most 
healthy  of  the  West  Indies.  Tobago  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1408,  and 
was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  France 
in  1763.  Principal  town,  Scarborough. 
Pop.  18,751. 

Tobit  i.to'bit).  Book  of,  one  of  the  Old 
Testament  apocryphal  books,  re- 
jected by  the  Jews  and  Protestants,  but 
included  in  the  Roman  Catholic  canon. 
It  contains  an  account  of  some  remark- 
able events  in  the  life  of  Tobit,  a  Je^*  of 
the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  carried  captive  to 
Nineveh,  and  his  son  of  the  same  name. 
TobOSrean  (t^bog'an),  a  kind  of 
*         »o  sledge,    of    Indian    inven- 

tion, made  of  a  piece  of  birch  bark  or 
similar  material,  with  the  front  end 
turned  up  and  a  rope  attached  by  which 
it  was  drawn  over  the  snow.  This  was 
m  use  in  Canada  and  was  adopted  and 


Todas 


improved  by  the  fur-traders  and  explor- 
ers of  that  country.  Lately  it  has  be- 
come used  for  sport  in  cities  of  cold 
climates.  As  such  it  is  made  of  carefully 
prepared  hickorpr  splints,  from  5  to  15 
feet  long,  the  sides  strongly  braced,  and 
is  used  to  slide  down  a  snow-covered  hill- 
side or  an  artificial  slope  covered  with 
frozen  snow,  called  a  toboggan  slide. 
Tobol  (to-boD,  a  river  of  Siberia, 
which  rises  in  the  west  slope  of 
the  Ural  Mountains,  in  the  government 
of  Orenburg,  and  joins  the  Irtish  at  the 
town  of  Tobolsk,  after  a  course  of  about 
550  miles. 

Tnbolftlr  (td-bolsk'),  capital  of  the 
XUUUX5&  government  of  Tobolsk,  West- 
em  Siberia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Irtish.  It  has  a  cathedral,  arsenal,  bar- 
racks, a  large  prison  for  Siberian  exiles, 
a  theater,  etc.  The  climate  is  exceed- 
ingly severe  in  winter.  Pop.  21,401.— 
The  government  comprises  the  north- 
western part  of  Siberia,  and  has  an 
area  of  539,659  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  1,656,700.  Its  mineral 
products,  of  the  Ural  region,  include 
iron,  copper,  gold,  silver,  and  platinum. 
The  north  is  widely  forested;  the  south 
fertile,  yielding  wheat,  oats,  and  other 
grains. 
TAAQTifiTifl     (td-kftn-tSns'),  a  river  of 

14**  s.,  flows  northward,  receives  the 
Araguay,  and  enters  the  Atlantic  by  the 
Parfl  estuary,  forminji;  one  mouth  of 
the  Amazon.  The  entire  course  is  1590 
miles,  and  is  navigable  for  1080;  but 
navigation  is  much  impeded  by  sand- 
banks and  rapids. 

TocqueviUe  h^^l^'m.i''^^ 

DE,  a  French  writer,  born  in  1805;  died 
in    1859.     Being    commissioned    by    the 

government  to  proceed  to  the  United 
tates  to  report  upon  the  penitentiary 
system,  the  results  of  his  inquiry  were 
published  in  1833  under  the  title  Du 
SysUme  Piniieniiaire  aux  Eiaia-Unia 
ei  de  son  Application  en  France,  His 
most  celebrated  work,  however,  was  La 
D^mocratie  en  AmMque  ('Democracy 
in  America,*  two  vols.  Paris,  1834), 
which  was  translated  into  the  principal 
European  languages.  In  1849  he  ac- 
cepted the  portfolio  of  foreign  affairs,  but 
soon  resigned  it.  After  the  coup  d*6iat 
of  1851  he  lived  retired  from  public  af- 
fairs. He  wrote  also  UAncien  Jtigime  et 
la  Revolution;  Histoire  Philoaophique 
du  Rigne  de  Louis  XV,  etc. 
Tndas  (t6'das),  a  race  inhabiting  the 
AvuMo  upper  part  of  the  Neilgherry 
Mountains,  in  Southern  India.  They  are 
few  in  number,  and  under  the  influence 


i 


Digitized  by 


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Toddy 


Tokens 


of  polyandry  and  IntemDerance  they  are 

rapidly  disappearing.    Their  language  is 

Dravidian. 

Tnrlrlir  (tod'i),  the  name  given  by  the 

which  are  extracted  from  the  different 
species  of  the  palm  tribe,  including  the 
cocoanut  tree.  When  newly  drawn  from 
the  tree  it  is  a  sweet,  cool,  refreshing 
beverage,  but  when  it  has  been  allowed 
about  ten  or  twelve  hours  to  ferment  it 
becomes  highly  intoxicating.  The  name 
toddy  is  also  given  to  a  mixture  of  spirits, 
hot  water,  and  sugar. 

Todhnnter  (todTiun-ter).    ibaao, 

a.v\ui>UKUv%^A  mathematician,  was  born 
at  Rye,  England,  in  1820;  studied  at 
University  College,  London,  and  after- 
wards graduated  as  senior  wrangler  at 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
resided  as  fellow,  tutor,  and  principal 
mathematical  lecturer  until  his  death  in 
1884.  He  wrote  a  series  of  popular  text- 
books on  mathematics,  a  Htstory  of  the 
Mathematical  Theoriet  of  Attraction  and 
the  Figure  of  the  Earth  (two  vols.,  1873), 
etc 

Tnrlli^hi^Ti  (t6tna-b«n),  Fsajtcis  Ed- 
XOaxeueu     ^^^    count,  a  Russian 

feneral  and  military  engineer,  bom  in 
818;  died  in  1884.  After  leaving  the 
schools  of  Riga  he  entered  the  College  of 
Engineers  at  St  Petersburg,  and  served 
against  the  Circassians  m  1848.  In 
1854  he  took  the  chief  part  in  the  de- 
fense of  Sebastopol,  and  after  the  peace 
of  185G  wrote  a  Narrative  of  the  War  in 
the  Crimea,  During  the  Russo-Turkish 
war  Todleben  was  sent  (in  1887)  to 
reduce  Plevna.  The  place  was  soon  in- 
vested, and  Osman  Pasha,  the  Turkish 
commander,  was  compelled  to  surrender 
at  discretion.  For  his  services  Todleben 
was  created  a  count,  and  he  subsequently 
became  commander-in-chief  of  the  Rus- 
sian army  in  Turkey.  He  was  after- 
wards appointed  governor  of  Odessa,  and 
later,  of  Wikia. 

ToHmordeTl  (tod'mor-den),  a  town 
XOamoraeu  ^^  England,  partly  in 
Lancashire,  partly  in  Yorkshire  (West 
Riding),  on  the  Calder,  in  a  beau- 
tiful and  romantic  valley,  21  miles 
N.  N.  E.  of  Manchester.  It  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  cotton  goods.  Pop.  25,- 
455. 

Todv  (^^'^);  ^^^  name  of  certain 
xwujr  tropical  birds,  genus  Todus^  fam- 
ily Todidffi.  They  are  birds  of  gaudy 
?Iumage,  and  feed  on  insects,  worms,  etc. 
'he  most  elegant  species  is  the  T.  regiua 
(royal  or  kingtody).  a  native  of  Cayenne 
and  Brazil.  The  green  tody  (T,  viridis) 
is  also  a  pretty  bird,  about  the  size  of  a 
wren.    It  is  very  common  in  Jamaica. 


Roman  Senator  wear* 
ing  the  Toga. 


Tofana     ^^     Aqua     Tofana,     under 
*^  "•   •*•    Aqua, 

To^a  (t6'ga),  the  principal  outer  gar- 
^-^B^  ment  of  wOol  worn  by  Roman 
citizens.  It  cov- 
ered the  whole  of 
the  body  except 
the  right  arm, 
and  was  origin- 
ally worn  by  both 
sexes  until  the 
matrons  adopted 
the  Btola.  The 
toga  virilis,  or 
manly  gown,  was 
assumed  by  Ro- 
man youths  when 
they  attained  the 
age  of  fourteen. 
The  variety  in  the 
color,  the  fineness 
of  the  wool,  and 
the  ornaments  at- ' 
tached  to  it  indi- 
cated the  rank  of 
the  citizen;  gener- 
ally it  was  white. 
ToffO  (^^'s^)*  Heihachibo,  a  Japan* 
o^  ese  admiral,  who  took  an  active 
part  in  the  war  with  China  in  1894,  and 
opened  the  war  with  Russia  in  19()4  by 
an  attack  on  the  Russian  fleet  at  Port 
Arthur.  On  May  27-28,  1905,  he  anni- 
hilated a  powerful  Russian  fleet  in  the 
Korean  Straits,  winning  one  of  the  most 
notable  of  naval  victories. 
Tnc^nlflTiil  (td'g6-land),  a  German 
XO^Oiana  protectorate  on  the  Slave 
Coast,  Guinea,  acquired  in  1885.  It  lies 
between  the  British  Gold  Coast  Colony 
and  Dahomey,  with  a  coast  line  of  12 
miles,  but  a  wide  expansion  haland,  the 
total  area  being  estimated  at  33,000  sq. 
miles.  Various  tropical  plants  are  grown, 
and  palm  oil,  gum  and  palm  kernels  are 
exported.  Pop.  estimated  at  900,000, 
with  less  than  200  whites. 
Tokar  (t^'kar),  a  town  of  the  Eastern 
Soudan,  south  of  Suakin,  the 
scene  of  two  battles  between  English  and 
Arabs  in  February,  1884.  Pop.  20,000. 
Tokat  (t^kftf),  a  town  of  North- 
*^  eastern    Asia    Minor,    75    miles 

south  of  the  Black  Sea.  near  the  Yeshil 
Irmak.  Pop.  about  30,000. 
Tokfl.V  (td-ka'),  a  town  of  Hungary, 
Avivajr  ^^  ^jjg  conflux  of  the  rivers 
Theiss  and  Bodrog;  pop.  5110.  This 
town  is  celebrated  for  the  wine  grown  in 
its  vicinity,  especially  for  a  fine,  rich, 
sweet  variety.  Inferior  and  imitation 
wines  are  often  sold  under  this  name. 
Tokens  (tO'kens),  pieces  of  money 
current  by  sufferance,  and  not 
coined  by  authority ;  or  coins  only  nomi- 


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Tokio 


ually  of  their  professed  value.  In  Eng- 
land tokens  first  came  into  use  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII,  owing  to  the  want 
of  authorized  coins  of  lower  value  than 
a  penny.  Stamped  tokens  of  lead,  tin, 
and  even  leather  were  issued  by  vintners, 
grocers,  and  other  tradesmen  during  the 
time  of  Elizabeth,  and  were  extensively 
circulated,  being  readily  exchanged  for 
authorized  money  at  the  shops  where  they 
were  issued.  Token  money  has  been 
frequently  issued  in  other  countries. 


Toledo 


empire,  with  fall  faculties  and  an  at- 
tendance of  about  4000  students.  This 
city  may  be  considered  the  center  of  the 
political,  commercial,  and  literary  activ- 
ity of  Japan.  Its  foreign  trade  is 
limited,  on  account  of 'the  shallowness  of 
the  bay  and  rivers,  but  manufactures  are 
active  and  developing.  Its  population, 
once  estimated  at  1,!SOO,000,  fell  oflt  till 
in  1872  it  was  about  780,000.  It  has 
since  rapidly  increased  and  in  1909  was 
2,168,151,  ranking  as  the  fifth  city  in 
the  world. 


{ 


Tolrio    (t5'k6-0),   or  Tokyo,   formerly  the  world. 

xvikAv    ^j^jj^    Yeddo,    the    capital    of  Toland    (Wland),   John,    an   English 

Japan,  and  chief  residence  of  the  mikado,   *v*«*""^  deist,   bom   in   1669;    died   in 


Japan,  and  chief  residence  of  the  mikado, 
is  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  8.  B.  coast  of  Hondo,  the  largest  of 
the  Japanese  islands,  and  is  connected 
by  rail  with  Yokohama  and  Kanazawa. 
The  bulk  of  the  houses  are  of  woooL  but 
there  are  manv  new  buildings  of  brick 
and  stone,  and  an  imperial  palace  has 
been    erected    near    the   center,    as    also 


TOKIO.' 

cMsuJimirLxt 


P  A   a  t  f  t    0      Q    Q  £  A  H 


public  oflSces,  etc  The  greater  part  of 
the  town  is  flat,  and  intersected  by  nu- 
merous canals  crossed  by  bridges.  The 
streets  of  the  modem  city  have  been 
made  fairly  wide  and  regular;  they  are 
kept  clean  and  some  of  them  are  tra- 
versed by  railways.  Gas  has  been  in- 
troduced, and  the  sanitary  arrangements 
have  been  improved.  Education  is  well 
organized,  ana  there  are  numerous  pri- 
vate and  elementary  schools.  Tokio  con- 
tains the  imperial  university,  the  most 
Jbiportant  educational  institution  of  the 


1722.  He  entered  Glasgow  University 
in  1687;  was  graduated  M.A.  from  Edin- 
burgh in  1690,  and  afterwards  studied 
theology  at  Leyden.  In  1696  he  pub- 
lished his  Christianity  not  Mysterious, 
which  created  a  great  sensation,  and  was 
burnt  by  the  hangman  at  Dublin,  bv 
order  of  the  Irish  parliament,  in  1697. 
He  subsequently  settled  down '  as  a 
voluminous  pamphleteer  in  London.  Of 
his  other  works  the  chief  were:  Life  of 
MUton  (1698),  accompanying  an  edition 
of  his  writing  Anglta  Libera  (1701). 
Socinianism  Truly  Stated  (1705),  and 
Pantheisticon  (1750).  In  the  last  of 
these  works  Toland  distinctly  avowed 
himself  a  pantheist. 

Tnl^iln  (to-le'dd;  anciently  ToUtum), 
xuxcau  ^  ^ijy  Q^  gpj^.^^  .jj  ^^^  Castile, 

capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
on  a  rocky  eminence  washed  by  the  Ta- 
gus,  and  1820  feet  above  the  sea,  55  miles 
southwest  of  Madrid.  It  is  the  see  of 
an  archbishop,  who  is  primate  of  Spain. 
The  streets  are  narrow  and  steep,  and 
the  houses  crowded  together.  Toledo 
contains  a  ruined  alcazar,  or  palace  and 
fortress,  dating  from  1551,  and  a  Gothic 
cathedral,  one  of  the  grandest  in  the 
world,  completed  in  1492,  in  the  style  of 
the  thirteenth  century;  also  other  in- 
teresting buildings.  The  Toledo  sword- 
blades,  renowned  for  many  centuries,  are 
manufactured  in  a  larse  building  (a 
government  establishment)  on  the  Tagus, 
about  a  mile  from  the  town.  Toledo 
was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  193  B.C., 
and  is  celebrated  in  the  history  of  Spain. 
It  was  successively  the  seat  of  sovem- 
ment  under  the  Goths,  Moors,  and  kings 
of  Castile.  Pop.  23,317.  Province:  area 
6919  sq.  miles.  Pop.  376,814. 
ThIaHa  a  <^ity,  capital  of  Lucas  Co., 
xuxcuuy    Qjjj^,^  ^jj   ^jjg  Maumee   River. 

about  six  miles  from  Lake  Erie,  and  65 
miles  s.  s.  w.  of  Detroit  Toledo  is  the 
northern  terminus  of  the  Miami  and 
Erie  Canal,  and  the  center  of  several 
extensive  railway  lines.  It  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor  and  is  one  of  the  largest 


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) 


Tolentino  Tomato 

grain-shipping    points    of    the    country;  towards  an  explanation  of  hia  peculiar 

also   ships   large   quantities   of   iron-ore,  social  and  mystic  religious  ideas.    Among 

coal,   lumber,  provisions,  lire  stock,  etc.  them  are  ConfesHont,  My  Reliffion,  The 

Manufactures    are    important,    beer    and  Search  for  Happiness,  Two  Oeneraiions, 

wine  being  largely  produced   and  many  Infancy  and  Youths  Death,  Qreat  Proh- 

other    articles    made.     Boat-    and    ship-  lemM  of  History,  What  is  My  Life?  The 

building  are  large  industries.    The  city  Kreuizer  SonaPi,  etc    Regarded  as  one 

has  some  notable  public  buildings,  and  of  the  leading  writers  and  reformers  of 

possesses     a     aodlogical     garden.    Pop.  the  world,  he  was  annoyed  in  his  old  age 

168,497.  by  visitors  and  the  social  duties  which 

TMlfknfiTiA  ( t6-lftn-te'n5) ,   a    town    of  interfered   with    his    life    pursuits,   and 

xviciitiiiu  Central  Italy,  in  the  prov-  left    home    secretly    with    an    idea    of 

ince  of  Macerata,  with  a  fine  cathedral,  escaping  these  distractions.    The  severe 

Here  Pope  Pius  VI,  in  1797,  concluded  weather  to  which  he  was  thus  exposed 

a  humiliating  peace  with  Bonaparte,  and  broueht   on   inflammation   of   the  lungi, 

[in  the  neighborhood,  in  1815,  Murat,  at  and  he  died  November  19,  1910. 

the   head    of    the    Neapolitans,    was   de-  TnltftPfl    (tol'teks),  a  prehistoric  people 

:feated  by  the  Austrians  under  Bianchi.  *vj.wci/o    ^f  Mexico  and  Central  Amer- 

Pop.   (commune)    13,197.  ica,  to  whom  the  Aztecs  and  the  Mayas 

Tolcrfttion*     ^^  Religious  Liberty,  ascribed    their    arts   and   ancient   monu- 
ments.    See  Mexico, 

Toleration,  Acr»-.  see^co/roi-  Xoln-babam  '^^^^,1^^^^, 

Tolima  (t^'lS-mA),  a  state  of  the  Re-  tree  of  tropical  South  America,  the 
^^^^^  public  of  Colombia,  intersected  Myrospermum  i\fyroTylon)  toluiferum 
by  the  upper  course  of  the  Magdalena.  or  peruiferum.  Tolu-balsam  becomes  hard 
and  embraced  between  the  two  chief  and  may  he  pulverized,  has  a  pleasant 
chains  of  the  Cordillera;  area,  18,400  aromatic  flavor,  and  is  used  in  certain 
sq.  miles.  It  produces  cacao,  sugar,  medicinal  preparations, 
maize,  and  tobacco,  and  is  rich  in  gold  Tnlnnfl  (tG-lonci),  a  Mexican  city, 
and  silver.  The  volcano  of  Tolima  has  *viuv€fc  ^^^^  of  the  State  of  Mexico, 
a  height  of  17,660  feet  Pop.  305,185.  45  miles  s.  w.  of  the  federal  capital; 
Capital,  Neiva.  situated  8500  feet  above   the  sea.    The 

Toll  (^^1)*  A  ^^  P^^^>  ^^  ^^^y  imposed,  city  has  a  cathedral,  a  theater,  etc.,  and 
'*'^"  for  some  liberty  or  privilege  or  is  noted  for  its  hams  and  sausages, 
other  reasonable  consideration:   such  as    Pop.  25,940. 

(a)  the  payment  claimed  by  the  owners  Toluol  (toro-ol).  See  TriniiroUh 
of  a  port  for  goods  landed   or  shipped   ■*•"•■•»"'■•      luene, 

there;     (6)     the    sum    charged    by    the  Tn-molifliiylr    (tom'a-hftk),     the     light 
owners  of  a  market  or   fair  for  goods   ^^uuxuuw ]s.    battle-axe  of  the  North 
brought   to  be  sold   there;    (c)    a   fixed  American  Indians.     The  head  was  origi- 
charge  made  by  those  intrusted  with  the 
maintenance    of    roads,    streets,    bridges, 
etc.,   for  the  passage  of  persons,  goods, 
and  cattle.     See  Roads. 
Tolstoi    (tol'stoi).  Count  Leo  Niko- 
xvxobvx   LAiEvrrcH,   a   celebrated   Rus- 
sian  novelist,   bom   Au^.   28,    1828.     In 
1851  he  accompanied  his  brother  to  the 
Caucasus  and  entered  the  army,  and  dur- 
ing the  Crimean   war  took  part  in  the 
defense  of  Sebastopol.    At  tne  close  of 
the  war  he  retired  to  his  estates  and  de- 
voted   himself    to    literary    composition 
and  schemes  for  the  education  and  social 
improvement  of  the  peasantry.     Eventu-       Tomabawki  of  the  North  American  Indians, 
ally  he  gave  himself  up  to  working  out 

the  higher  problems  of  life  experi-  nally  of  stone  attached  to  the  shaft  by 
mentally  —  working  along  with  the  thongs,  etc.,  but  steel  heads  were  after- 
peasantry  in  a  sort  of  communistic  life,  wards  supplied  by  American  and  Euro- 
Among  his  earliest  writings  of  moment  pean  traders.  The  Indians  could  throw 
are  his  vivid  sketches  from  Sebastopol.  the  tomahawk  with  remarkable  accuracy. 
His  three  great  novels  are  the  Cossacks,  Tomato  (^-m^'^*  tu-m&'tO;  Lyooper* 
War  and  Peace,  and  Anna  Karenina.  '*'*'*"«*''V  •ioiim  etculentiim),  a  plant  be- 
His  later  writings  are  all  mostly  directed  longing    to    the    nat.    order    Solanacett. 


A 


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Tomb 


Formerly  known  also  as  Love  Apple, 
It  is  a  native  of  Soath  America,  bat  has 
been  introduced  into  most  other  warm  or 
temperate  countries.  It  is  cultirated 
for  the  sake  of  its  fmit,  which  is  fleshy, 
nsnally  scarlet  or  orange,  irregularly 
shaped,  and  is  largely  used  in  sauces, 


Tomato  {Lifeop$r9ieum  eteultntum). 


stews,  and  soups,  as  well  as  eaten  by 
itself.  The  plant  is  a  tender,  herbaceous 
annual,  with  yellow  flowers,  and  has 
come  into  hich  repute,  and  its  cultiva- 
tion has  rapidly  extended  in  many  parts 
of  the  world.  Its  general  use  as  food 
has  been  chiefly  within  recent  times. 
Tomb  (t^°>)»  A°7  sepulchral  structure, 
MVMU.U  Qgyaiiy  n  chamber  or  vault 
formed  wholly  or  partly  in  the  earth, 
with  walls  and  a  roof,  for  the  reception 
of  the  dead.  See  8aroophagu8f  Burial 
and  Funeral  Riiee. 

TaiviYioa  Tombak  (tom'bak),  an  alloy 
lOmDaCy  consisting  of  from  about  75 
to  86  parts  copper,  mixed  with  25  to 
15  parts  sine,  and  used  as  an  imitation 
of  gold  for  cheap  Jewelry.  When  arsenic 
is  added  it  forms  white  tombac. 

Tombigbee  irh^JTsli'TSho'cilS^ 

go  county,  Mississippi,  and  after  an  ir- 
regular course  of  460  miles  joins  the 
Alabama  River  ^  miles  above  Mobile; 
the  united  stream  is  called  Mobile  River 
below  the  junction.  It  is  navigable  for 
410  miles  from  Mobile  Bay. 
TnmnAil  (tom'kod),  an  American  name 
AUmcoa  f^^  certofai  small  cod-fishes. 
TninellAftO  (tom-el-ld's6),  a  town  of 
lOmeUOBO    ^p^j^  ,^  ^a  Mancha,  50 

miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Ciudad  ReaL  It  has 
lately  risen  into  importance  as  a  center 
of  the  wine  trade,  a  mat  part  of  the 
claret  and  'cognac*  of  commerce  being 
here  produced.     Pop.  13,929. 

Tompkins  i}^!.)!^^^:.,  ^"f^m^n 

*  vice-president,  was  bom  in 

Westchester  Co..  New  York,  in  1774 ;  died 
in  1S26.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in 
1804,  was  governor  of  New  York  1807- 
17,  and  was  vice-president  of  the  United 
•tatet  daring   President   Monroe's   two 


Tone 

terms.  He  was  entfgetic  in  the  war 
against  Bneland  and  aided  in  having 
slavery  abolished  in  New  York. 

Tommy  Atkins,  5,,-^,,|i'^,t» 

British  army.  It  is  said  to  have  origi- 
nated in  the  custom  of  makinir  out 
blanks  for  military  accounts  witn  the 
name,  '  I,  Tommy  Atkins,'  etc.  Kipling 
has  immortalized  it  in  verse. 

Tom  of  Coventry,  |,'U^?J«.'^«- 

Tomsk  *  *®^^  ®'  Western  Siberia, 
*  capital  of  the  government  of 
Tomsk,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tom,  on 
the  great  road  to  China.  Manufactures 
include  cloth,  leather,  and  soap;  and 
there  is  an  extensive  trade  in  furs,  fish, 
and  cattle,  obtained  in  exchange  for  arti- 
cles of  European  and  Chinese  manu- 
facture. Pop.  112,083.— The  government 
of  Tomsk  has  an  area  of  331,159  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  2,412,700.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Obi  and  its  tributaries. 

Tonawanda  il^lvVeTaf *iJ4w*  ffi 

on  the  Niagara  River,  11  miles  s.  e.  of 
Niagara  Falls.  Bridges  connect  it  with 
North  Tonawanda,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
Tonawanda  creek.  It  has  a  large  pine 
lumber  trade,  engine,  boiler,  and  steel 
works,  and  wooden  ware  factories.  An 
armory  is  located  here.  Pop.  8200. 
Ton  (^°)'  A  denomination  of  weight 
equivalent  to  20  hundredweights 
(contracted  to  act),  or  224M)  lbs.  In 
the  United  States  goods  are  sometimes 
weighed  by  the  short  ton,  of  2000  lbs., 
the  hundredweight  being  reckoned  at 
100  lbs.;  but  it  has  been  decided  by  act 
of  Congress  that,  unless  otherwise 
specified,  a  ton  weight  is  to  be  under- 
stood as  2240  lbs.  avoirdupois. 
Tone  (^^i^)t  iu  music,  the  sound  pro- 
Avu%^  duced  by  the  vibration  of  a  string 
or  other  sonorous  body ;  a  musical  sound. 
Nearly  every  musical  sound  is  composite, 
that  is,  consists  of  several  simultaneous 
tones  having  different  rates  of  vibration 
according  to  fixed  laws,  which  depend  on 
the  nature  of  the  sonorous  body  and  the 
mode  of  producing  its  vibrations.  The 
simultaneously  sounding  components  are 
called  partial  ioncM;  that  one  having  the 
lowest  rate  of  vibration  and  the  loudest 
sound  is  termed  the  prime,  principal,  or 
fundamental  tone;  the  otner  partial 
tones  are  called  harmonica  or  overtones 
Ti\r\tk  Theobald  Wolfe,  Irish  patriot, 
*"^^>  bom  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  in 
1763;  educated  at  Trinity  College;  stud- 
ied law  in  London,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  at  the  Middle  Temple  (1798).  He 
was  an  ardent  sympathizer  with  the  doc- 
trines of  the  French  revolution,  and  hav 

f 


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Tonga  Islands 


Tonio  Sol-fa  System 


ing  promoted  the  combination  of  the  Irish 
Catholics  and  Dissenters  he  founded  the 
society  of  United  Irishmen  in  1791. 
The  discovery  of  his  secret  negotiations 
with  France  drove  him  to  the  United 
States  (1795).  He  sailed  for  France  in 
1796,  and  became  brigadier  in  Heche's 
projected  expedition  to  Ireland.  He 
served  in  the  Bavarian  armv  in  1797, 
and  in  1798  he  was  captured  on  board 
a  French  squadron  bound  for  Ireland. 
He  was  brought  to  Dublin,  and  sen- 
tenced to  death  by  a  court-martial,  but 
committed  suicide  in  prison,  November 
19,  179a 

Tonga  Islands  fcVAan.f*'' 
Tongataboo  <i-f]S?:'*r'-f^?fe- 

most  southern   of  the  Friendly  Islands, 

in    the    Pacific    Ocean.    It    is    of    coral 

formation,    about    60    miles    in    circuit. 

Its  soil  is  extremely  fertile.     See  Friendly 

Ulands. 

Tongking.     ^^  Tonquin, 

Tnncrr^ft  (to^-gr;  Flemish,  Tongeren), 
XOngres  ^  ^^^^  ^^  Belgium,  in  the 
province  of  Limburg,  on  the  Geer,  12 
miles  southwest  of  Maestricht  Tongres 
has  a  church  (Notre  Dame)  dating  from 
1240.     Pop.  9152. 

Tnnimik  (tung),  the  organ  found  in 
xviiguc  ^^  mouth  of  most  vertebrate 
animals,  which  exercises  the  sense  of 
taste,  and  also  assists  in  speech  and  in 
taking  food.    The  name   tongue  is   also 

fiven  to  very  different  structures  in 
nvertebrata.  In  man  the  tongue  is  at- 
tached by  its  base  or  root  to  the  hvoid 
bone,  its  other  extremity  being  free. 
The  upper  surface  is  convex  with  a 
fibrous  middle  septum,  called  the  raphi. 
The  front  two-thirds  of  the  tongue  are 
rough,  and  bear  the  papilke,  in  which  the 
sense  of  taste  resides.  The  posterior 
third  is  smooth,  and  exhibits  the  open- 
ings of  numerous  mucous  glands.  The 
substance  of  the  tongue  consists  of  nu- 
merous muscles.  The  papillae,  which 
cause  the  characteristic  roughness  of  the 
tongue,  are  of  three  kinds,  circumvaUate^ 
fungiform,  and  filiform.  The  largest  or 
circumvallate  papillse  number  from  eight 
to  ten,  and  occupy  the  posterior  part  of 
the  upper  surface.  Tney  vary  from 
Ath  to  tVth  inch  in  diameter.  The 
fungiform  papilloi  are  scattered  irregu- 
larly, the  filiform  over  the  front  In 
structure  the  papillae  are  like  those  of 
the  skin  (which  see),  and  contain  capil- 
lary vessels  and  nervous  filaments.  Nu- 
merous follicles  and  mucous  or  Ungual 
glands  exist  on  the  tongue,  the  func- 
tion of  these  latter  beincr  the  seccetion 


of  mucus.  The  nervous  supply  is  dis- 
tributed in  the  form  of  three  main  nerves 
to  each  half  of  the  organ.  The  gustatory 
nerves  and  the  glossopharyngeal  branches 
are  the  nerves  providing  the  tongue  with 
common  sensation,  and  also  with  the 
sense  of  taste;  while  the  hypoglossal 
nerve  invests  the  muscles  of  the  tongue 
with  the  necessarv  stimulus.  The  con- 
ditions necessary  for  the  exercise  of  the 
sense  of  taste  are:  firstiv,  the  solution 
of  the  matters  to  be  tasted;  secondly,  the 
presence  of  a  special  gustatory  nerve ;  and 
thirdly,  that  the  surface  of  the  tongue 
itself  be  moist  The  t<^  and  edges  of  the 
tongue  are  more  sensitive  to  taste  than 
the  middle  portion.  The  sense  of  touch 
is  very  acute  in  the  tongue. 
Tonic  (ton'ik),  or  Key-note,  in  music, 
the  first  or  fundamental  note  of 
any  scale,  the  principal  sound  on  which 
all  regular  melodies  depend,  and  in  which 
they  or  their  accompanying  basses  natu- 
rally terminate. 

Tonic  ^°  medicine,  any  remedy  which 
>  improves  the  tone  or  vigor  of 
the  fibers  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  or 
of  the  muscular  fibers  generally.  Tonics 
mav  be  said  to  be  of  two  kinds,  medical 
and  non-medicaL  Medical  tonics  act 
chiefly  in  two  ways:  (1)  indirectlv,  by 
first  influencing  the  stomach  and  in- 
creasing its  digestive  powers;  such  be- 
ing the  effect  of  the  vegetable  bitters, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  calumba, 
chamomile,  cinchona  bark,  gentian,  tar- 
axacum, etc.  (2)  Directly,  by  passing 
into  and  exerting  their  influence  through 
the  blood;  such  being  the  case  with  the 
various  preparations  of  iron,  certain 
mineral  acids,  and  salts.  The  non- 
medical tonics  are  open-air  exercise,  fric- 
tion, cold  in  its  various  forms  and 
applications,  as  the  shower-bath,  sea-bath- 
ing, etc. 

Tonic  Sol-fa  System,  .^..Tet'  of 

notation  and  teaching  which  has  re- 
ceutlv  been  widely  spread  among  the 
English-speaking  population  of  the  globe, 
chiefly  through  the  untirins  efforts  of 
the  Rev.  John  Curwen,  of  Plaistow,  who 
obtained  the  leading  features  of  his  plan 
from  Miss  Glover,  of  Norwich.  The  fol- 
lowing is  an  outline  of  the  system:  As 
of  the  two  relations  of  musical  sounds, 
those  of  pitch  and  key  (see  Music),  the 
latter  Is  of  transcendent  importance, 
every  means  should  be  taken  to  impress 
this  fact  on  the  mind  and  ear  of  the 
learner.  Any  diatonic  scale  is  a  natural 
scale,  whether  it  is  founded  on  the  key 
of  C,  D,  E,  or  on  any  other  tone  thus 
represented  by  a  letter-name  iij  the 
ordinary   notation.    The   tonic   or   key- 


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Tonka 


note  of  the  scale  is  always  called  do]i« 
the  second  rmj^  the  others  me,  f  ah,  soh, 
lah,  to,  successively,  no  matter  what  the 
absolute  pitch  of  the  sound  may  be,  the 
initials  only  being  ordinarily  used  in 
printed  music:  thus,  d,  r,  m,  f ,  s,  1,  t« 
To  designate  a  sound  of  absolute  pitch, 
the  tonic-solfaist  uses  the  first  seven  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet  just  as  the  followers 
of  the  other  musical  system  do.  Time 
and  accent  are  marked  thus,  |  :  | ,  or 
I  :  :  I ,  or  |  :  i  :  | ,  etc. ;  the  space  be- 
tween the  lines  and  dots  indicating  the 
aliquot  parts  of  the  bar  (the  beat  or 
pulse),  the  line  showing  the  strong  ac- 
cent, the  short  line  the  medium  accent, 
and  the  colon  the  weak  accent  Ac- 
cidental or  chromatic  tones  are  indicated 
by  a  change  in  the  vowel  sounds  of  the 
Bvllables ;  thus,  dolu  rmj^  f  ah*  etc.,  when 
sharpened  become  de,  re,  fe,  etc.;  and 
me,  te,  etc.,  flattened  become  ma,  ta, 
etc  The  higher  octaves  are  marked  d|, 
rl,  m|,  etc,  the  lower  d|,  r|,  m|,  etc. 
The  '  last  two  lines  of  the  psalm  tune 
French  would  therefore  be  printed 
thus: — 
Key  F. 

:s|d|:t|l:s|s:fe|s:m|r:d|d:t(1d 

In  teaching  the  system  great  use  is  made 
of  the  modulator,  a  chart  which  repre- 
sents pictorial ly  in  an  upright  position 
the  relative  places  of  the  notes  of  the 
scales,  the  chromatic  notes,  the  closely 
related  scales,  etc. 

Tonka  (^onta),  Tonga,  the  fruit  of 
x.vuA.a  ^jjg  Dipterix  odorata  or  Couma- 
rouna     odordta,     a     shrubby     plant     of 


Tonquin 


Tonka  Bean  Plant  {DipUrix  odordta), 

Guiana,  nat.  order  Leguminosie,  subor- 
der Papilionacesp.  The  fruit  is  an  ob- 
long, dry,  fibrous  drupe,  containing  a 
sinpe  seed.    The  odor  of  the  kernel  is  ex- 


tremely   agreeable.     It    is    used    in    per- 
fumery.    Called  also  Tonkin  bean,  Ton- 
*quin  hean.     See  Coumarin, 

Tonnaee  ^^^^y)*  *  ^^^  originally 

o  signifying  the  number  of 
tons  weight  which  a  ship  might  carry 
with  safety,  but  now  usea  to  denote  the 
gauge  of  the  vessel's  dimensions,  and 
the  standard  for  tolls,  dues,  etc.  It  is 
generally  assumed  that  40  cubic  feet 
shall  constitute  a  ton,  and  the  tonnage 
of  a  ship  is  considered  to  be  the  multiple 
of  this  ton  which  most  closely  corre- 
sponds with  the  internal  capacity  of  the 
vessel.  Formerlv  the  rule  was  to  multi- 
ply the  length  of  the  ship  by  the  breadth, 
assume  the  depth  to  be  the  same  as  the 
width,  multiply  by  this  assumed  depth, 
and  divide  the  product  by  04,  the 
quotient  being  the  tons  burden.  But 
this  mode  was  found  to  be  both  mis- 
leading and  dangerous ;  for  as  harbor  and 
light  dues,  towage,  etc.,  were  charged 
according  to  tonnage,  shipowners  had 
their  vessels  built  so  deep  and  narrow 
that  they  were  often  unsea worthy.  An 
improved  system  was  introduced  in  1835. 
The  depth  from  the  deck  to  the  bottom 
of  the  hold  is  taken  at  different  places, 
and  the  breadth  is  measured  at  different 
elevations  in  depth.  If  the  vessel  is  a 
steamer  an  allowance  is  made  for  the 
space  occupied  by  the  engine-room, 
boilers,  coal-bunks,  etc  In  vessels  with 
a  break  or  poop  in  the  upper  deck,  the 
tonnage  of  this  poop  space  must  be  ascer- 
tained and  added  to  the  ordinary  tonnage. 
This  system  of  measurement  is  in  com- 
mon use  in  the  United  States  and  British 
countries. 

Tonnage  and  Ponndage^^^Jj'g® 

formerly  imposed  in  England  on  exports 
and  imports.  Tonnage  was  a  duty  upon 
all  wines  imported.  Poundage  was  an 
ad  valorem  duty  of  12d.  in  the  pound  on 
all  merchandise  imported  or  exported. 
They  were  first  levied  by  agreement,  and 
were  granted  by  parliament  to  the  crown 
for  a  limited  period  in  1370.  They  were 
afterwards  granted  to  successive  sover- 
eigns until  1787,  when  they  were  finally 
abolished. 

Tonanin     (ton-k§n').   Tongkino,    the 
*  most   northern   province  of 

Anam  in  Asia;  area,  between  40,000 
and  50,000  square  miles.  The  chief  river 
is  the  Song-ka.  The  principal  agricul- 
tural products  are  rice,  cotton,  spices, 
and  sugar;  and  the  province  is  rich  in 
timber  and  minerals.  The  climate  is  un- 
healthy. By  treaty  dated  June,  1884, 
Tonquin  was  ceded  to  France.  Pop. 
estimated  at  from  8;;000,000  to  10,000,* 
000.    See  Anam. 


{ 


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Tonsberg 


Toothache 


Tonsber^  (tuns-Wrg'),  a  town  in 
AOiiBuer^  Norway,  situated  on  a  fjord 
branching  off  from  Cbristiania  Fjord. 
(See  Christiania,)  Many  vessels  be- 
long to  the  town.     Pop.  8620. 

TonsiUtis  i^iZ'u      "'"^-      ^*« 

Tonsils  (^<>Qs^ls)t  iQ  anatomy,  two 
X.V.UOUO  oblong  suboval  bodies  situated 
on  each  side  of  the  throat  or  fauces. 
Their  minute  structure  resembles  that 
of  the  closed  sacs  or  follicles  of  Peyer 
in  the  intestine,  and  their  function  is  not 
yet  understood.  See  Palate. 
Tonsure  (ton'shOr),  the  name  given 
to  the  bare  place  on  the 
heads  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek 
priests,  formed  by  shaving  or  cutting 
away  the  hair  and  keeping  it  so.  The 
custom  of  cutting  away  the  hair  in  token 
of  the  dedication  of  a  person  to  the 
service  of  God  is  mentioned  as  early  as 
the  fourth  century.  Shaving  the  hair 
precedes  consecration:  it  is  performed  by 
the  bishop.  The  tonsure  admits  the  sub- 
ject into  holy  orders,  and  the  extent  of 
the  tonsure  increases  with  the  rank  held. 
TATifiTi#k    ( ton-ten' )f  a  kind  of  life  an- 

ventor  Tontl,  an  Italian  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  A  tontine  is  an  annuity 
shared  by  subscribers  to  a  loan,  with 
the  benent  of  survivorship,  the  annuity 
being  increased  as  the  subscribers  die, 
until  at  last  the  whole  goes  to  the  last 
survivor,  or  to  the  last  two  or  three, 
according  to  the  terms  on  which  the 
money  is  advanced.  By  means  of  ton- 
tines many  government  loans  were 
formerly  raised  in  England. 
Tooke  i^^)»  John  Hobne,  son  of 
John  Home;  a  rich  poulterer, 
was  bom  in  Westminster,  England,  in 
1736.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster 
and  Eton,  afterwards  proceeding  to  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1760  he 
entered  the  church,  and  obtained  the  liv- 
ing of  New  Brentford.  A  close  friend- 
ship with  Wilkes  ended  in  a  public 
altercation  in  1770  and  1771.  The  year 
1771  also  witnessed  his  contest  with 
Junius,  in  which,  in  the  general  opinion, 
he  came  off  victor.  In  1773  he  resigned 
his  benefice  to  study  for  the  bar  (te 
which  from  being  in  orders  he  was  not 
admitted)  ;  and  oy  his  legal  advice  to 
Mr.   Tooke,  of  Purley,   he  became  that 

fentleman's  heir,  and  assumed  his  name, 
n  1777  he  was  prosecuted  for  a  seditious 
libel  condemning  the  American  war,  and 
his  trial  resulted  in  a  year's  imprison- 
ment, and  a  fine  of  £200.  He  was  a 
short  time  member  of  parliament  for  Old 
Samm.  He  died  in  1812.  He  wrote 
several   political   DCMnpblets  and  an   in- 


fenious  linguistic  work  entitled  Epea 
HeroeniGt  or  the  Divenions  of  Purley. 
TadIa  (t51),  John  La  whence,  a  come- 
J.UU1C    ^^^^  jj^j.jj   .jj  London  in   1833, 

and  was  educated  at  the  City  of  London 
School.  After  serving  for  some  time  as 
a  clerk  he  took  to  the  stage,  and  made 
his  first  appearance  at  the  Haymaiicet 
in  1852.  In  1880  he  commenced  the 
management  of  the  Folly  Theater,  Lon- 
don»  which  he  later  on  reconstructed  and 
named  after  himself.  In  1874  he  visited 
America,  in  1888  he  published  his  Remi- 
niaoenoes,  and  in  1890  made  a  successful 
tour  in  the  Antipodes.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  popular  actors  on  the  stag^ 
and  inimitable  in  his  i>ersonation  of 
semipathetic  and  semiludicrous  char- 
acters. Among  his  most  successfol  im- 
personations were  Paul  Pry,  Caleb 
Plummer  in  the  Cricket  on  the  Hearth^ 
Vnde  Dick  in  Vnde  Dick's  Darling,  etc 
TnAin'hft  (t5ms),  Robert,  secessionist, 

gia,  in  1810;  died  in  1886.  He  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in 
1853  and  1859,  became  a  leader  in  the 
Secession  party  in  Georgia  and  resigned 
from  the  Senate  to  join  the  Confederate 
cause.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  in  the 
Confederate  Congress  in  1861;  Senator, 
Febmary,  1862 ;  and  resigned  to  become  a 
brigadier-general  in  the  army,  but  won  no 
distinction  as  a  soldier.  He  refused  to 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United 
States  government  after  the  war  and  re- 
mained rebellious  till  his  death. 
TnoTi  1  ^^^ ) »  TooNA,  the  wood  of  an 
-^""^  East  Indian  tree,  the  Cedr&a 
Toona,  nat  order  Cedrelacee.  It  is 
sometimes  called  Indian  mahogany,  and 
also  Indian  cedar.  Another  species  (C 
AuBtrdlie)  yields  the  so-called  cedar- wood 
of  New  South  Wales.  Toonwood  is 
highly  valued  as  a  furniture  wood,  and 
is  used  for  door-panels,  carving,  etc 
See  Cedrela, 
ToOl^Onef .    ®^  Tourguenleff. 

Tooth.     SeeTcei*. 

ToofTillpTiik  (tdth'ftk),  a  well-known 
lOOXnacne  iffectlon  of  the  teeth,  arts- 
ing  from  various  causes.  Inflammation 
of  the  fangs  of  the  teeth  is  a  common 
cause.  If  the  inflammation  is  not  re- 
duced matter  forms,  and  the  result  is 
a  gum-boil.  Caries  is  a  frequent  cause 
of  toothache,  the  outer  part  of  the  tooth 
rotting  away  and  exposing  the  nerve. 
Neuralgic  toothache  is  a  purely  nervous 
variety,  and  may  occor  either  in  sound 
or  carious  teeth.  As  a  preventive  against 
toothache  the  teeth  should  be  kept 
scrupulously  clean,  and  when  they  show 


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Tooth-shell 


Tornado 


symptoms  of  decay  the  services  of  a 
skillful  dentist  should  be  had  recourse 
to.  The  decay  of  a  tooth  is  very  often 
arrested  by  stopping  or  filling  up  the 
cavity. 

Tooth-shell.     ®^  DentaUum. 
ToothwOrt.     ^^  Dentaria. 
Toowoombd.    (t5-w6m'b4),   the   prin- 

ling  Downs  district  of  Queensland,  Aus- 
tralia, 100  miles  west  of  Brisbane.  It 
occupies  one  of  the  best  localities  in 
Soutnem  Queensland,  in  the  center  of  a 
large  agricultural  settlement;  contains  a 
number  of  religious,  educational,  and 
other  pnblic  buildings,  and  many  hand- 
some private  residences.  Wine  is  pro- 
duced in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  9137. 
Tonaz  (tO'paz),  a  mineral,  ranked  by 
*    "  mineralogists    among    gems, 

characterized  by  having  the  luster  vitre- 
ous, transparent  to  translucent ;  the  color 
yellow,  white,  green,  blue;  fracture  sub- 
conchoidal,  uneven ;  specific  gravity,  8.409. 
It  is  harder  than  quartz.  It  is  a  silicate 
of  aluminium,  in  which  the  oxygen  is 
partly  replaced  by  fluorine.  It  occurs 
massive  and  in  crystals.  The  primary 
form  of  its  crystal  is  a  right  rhombic 
prism.  Topazes  occur  generally  in  igne- 
ous and  metamorphic  rocks,  and  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  as  Cornwall,  Scot- 
land, Saxony,  Siberia,  Brazil,  etc.  The 
finest  varieties  are  obtained  from  Brazil 
and  the  Ural  Mountains.  Those  from 
Brazil  have  deep  yellow  tints ;  those  from 
Siberia  have  a  bluish  tinge;  the  Saxon 
topazes  are  of  a  pale  wine-yellow,  and 
those  found  in  the  Scotch  Highlands  are 
of  a  sky-blue  color.  The  purest  from 
Brazil,  when  cut  in  facets,  closely  re- 
semble the  diamond  in  luster  and  bril- 
liance. 

Tone  (^^P)t  *  popular  name  for  a 
^^r^  species  of  Buddhist  monument  in- 
tended usually  to  mark  some  important 
event.  The  oldest  monuments  of  this 
kind  are  spherical  or  elliptical  cupolas, 
resting  on  a  circular  or  rectilinear  base, 
with  an  umbrella-shaped  structure  on  the 
apex.     See  Dagoha. 

Tone  (Galeus  catiM),  a  European  fish 
*"F^  of  the  shark  family,  attaining  a 
length  of  six  feet. 

TnnAlra  (to-p$'k&),  a  city  of  Kansas, 
XOpeKa  capital  of.  the  State  and 
county  seat  of  Shawnee  Co.,  on  the  Kan- 
sas River,  67  miles  w.  of  The  Missouri 
River.  It  has  wide,  well-built  streets, 
and  contains  a  handsome  State  house, 
State  memorial  building,  State  hospital 
for  the  insane,  reform  school,  Washburn 
College,  Bethany  College,  etc.  It  has  ex- 
8—10 


tensive  railroad  shops,  flour  mills,  cream- 
eries, packing  houses,  foundries  and  other 
industries.     Since  1885  there  have  been 
no  saloons  in  the  city.     Pop.  47,385. 
Top-Haneh.     ^^  Constantinople. 

Tophet.     ^^  Gehenna. 

ToplitZ.    SeeTepKte. 

ToTpTi-fiftli  (tOrch'fish),  a  deep-sea, 
lOrcn-nsn  pedlculate  fish  which  is 
found  off  Madeira.    The  first  dorsal  spine 


Torch-Fish  {lAiaophryU  lueiff), 

carries  a  luminous  bulb  above  the  eyes 
which  resembles  a  torch. 
Tor^an     (t^^sou),  a  strongly  fortified 
o  town  of  Prussia,  province  of 

Saxony,  45  miles  e.  N.  E.  of  Merseburg, 
on  the  Elbe.     Pop.  12,299. 
Torm  ATI  til    L  tor'men  -  til ;     Potentitta 
lOrmeniU   i^ormentma),     a     trailing 

Slant  common  in  healthy  or  waste  places, 
ee  PotentUla. 
Tornado  (tor-na'dO),  a  term  applied 
^  to  hurricanes  and  whirlwinds 
in  general,  such  as  are  prevalent  in  the 
West  Indies  and  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  about  the  time  of  the  equinoxes 
and  in  the  Indian  Ocean  about  the  time 
of  changes  in  the  monsoons.  They 
are  accompanied  with  severe  thunder  and 
lightning  and  torrents  of  rain,  but  are 
of  short  duration  and  limited  area.  It 
is  especially  applied  to  the  very  destruc- 
tive whirling  storms,  of  very  narrow 
width  and  brief  duration,  common  on 
the  plains  of  the  Mississippi  valley  and 
occasionally  appearing  beyond  this  area. 
Originating  in  an  overhanging  cloud,  a 
tornado  sends  down  a  funnel-shaped 
cloud  to  the  ground,  the  lower  portion 
long  and  narrow.  This  is  caused  by  an 
immensely  rapid  vertical  whirl  in  the  air, 
capable  of  twisting  off  the  limbs  of  great 
trees  and  of  destroying  whatever  it 
touches.  The  tornado  is  a  traveling 
storm,  its  track  usually  a  narrow  one^ 
but    often    several    hundred    miles    in 


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Tornca  Torpedo 

length.  Death  and  destruction  are  left  gineering  works,  agricnltural  implement 
in  Its  path,  especially  where  this  passes  factories,  breweries,  carriage-works,  tan- 
through  a  town  or  city,  and  tornadoes  neries,  soap-works,  boot  and  shoe  fac- 
are  greatly  feared  in  the  localities  sub-  tories,  piano  and  organ  foctories,  stove 
ject  to  their  visitations.  foundries,  etc.  There  is  a  large  export 
TomeS  (tor'ne-6),  a  seaport  of  North  trade  in  flour,  grain,  live-stock,  etc 
Finland,  Russia,  at  the  mouth  Toronto  was  founded  in  1794.  The 
of  the  River  Tomea,  which  rises  in  latest  official  census  gives  a  population  of 
Sweden  and  forms  part  of  the  boundary  376^538,  but  the  city  subsequently  took 
between  it  and  Russia.  It  has  an  active  a  <^nsu8  through  its  police  department, 
trade   in   timber,   nsh,   pitch,    furs,    etc.,  the  returns  of  which  were  as  foUowi:    • 

and   near   by    is    a   hill    which    tourists  Ward   1 63,704 

ascend   at  the  summer  solstice   to  view  **       2 00,204 

the  midnight  sun.    Pop.  1500.  ••       8 54,758 

Toronto  (t^ron'tO),  one   of  the  chief  ••       4 71^60 

xuxuiLtu  ^j^jgg    ^f    ^g    Dominion    of  •*       5 72,897 

Ganada,  capital  of  the  province  of  On-  ^       6 83,589 

tario,   situated   in   the   county   of   York,  ••       7 18,395 

on  a  small  bay  on  the  northwest  coast  

of  Lake  Ontario,  315  miles  w.  8.  w.  of  Total    425,407 

Montreal  Its  site  is  low,  but  rises  Tomedo  (.tor-pd'do),  the  name  of 
gently  from  the  water's  edge  to  a  height  *vj.fFcu.v  ^g^^g  allied  to  the  rays,  form- 
of  above  100  feet  The  fine  bay  in  front  ing  the  type  of  the  family  Torpedinldie, 
of  the  city  forms  a  splendid  harbor.  The  and  noted  for  their  power  <^  giving 
town  is  regularly  built,  the  streets  cross  electrical  shocks  by  means  of  specially- 
each  other  at  right  angles,  and  are  developed  electrical  organs.  The  electri- 
wide,  well  paved,  and  in  general  of  cal  organs  consist  of  two  masses  placed 
handsome  architecture.  The  common  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and  composed 
material  is  brick,  of  a  pleasing  light  of  numerous  vertical  gelatinous  columns 
color;  the  public  buildings  are  numerous,  separated  by  membranous  septa,  and 
and  many  of  them  very  handsome.  The  richly  furnished  with  nervous  filaments, 
churches  most  worthy  of  notice  are  the  The  production  of  electricity  by  these 
Anglican  and  the  Roman  Catholic  cathe-  fishes  is  explicable  on  the  ground  of  tiie 
drals,  both  in  the  pointed  style,  the  conversion  of  an  equivalent  of  nerve 
Metropolitan  Church  (Methodist),  and  force  into  electric  force  by  the  electric 
St.  Andrew's  Church  (Presbyterian),  organ;  just  as,  under  other  circum- 
Among  secular  buildings  the  finest  (al-  stances,  nerve  force  is  converted  into 
most  completely  destroyed  by  fire  in  1890)  motion  through  the  musdes.  The  power 
is  the  University  of  Toronto;  the  others  of  the  discharge  varies  with  the  health 
comprise  the  lieutenant-governor's  resi-  and  size  of  the  fish.  The  torpedoes  occur  in 
dence;  the  magnificent  new  Parliament  typical  perfection  chiefly  in  the  Mediter- 
Buildings;  Osgoode  Hall,  the  seat  of  the  ranean  Sea,  and  in  the  Indian  and  Pad- 
provincial  law  courts;  the  normal  school  fie  Oceans.  A  spedmen  may  measure  4 
buildings;  Trinity  College,  in  connection  ft.  long,  and  weigh  from  60  to  70  lbs. 
with  the  Protestant  Episcopal,  a  highly  Tomedo  ^  name  for  two  distinct 
ornate  building;  the  Upper  Canada  Col-  ^^'^x'^'^^^Jc' asses  of  submarine  destruc- 
lege;  the  custom-house;  the  post-office;  tive  agents,  namely,  torpedoes  prope^ 
the  public  library;  the  Government  which  are  moveable,  and  are  propdled 
School    of    Practical    Science;    and    the  against  an  enemy's  ship;  and  submarine 

froup  of  buildings  where  the  annual  in-  mines,  which  lie  stationary  in  the  water, 
ustrial  exhibitions  are  held.  Charitable  Of  the  first  class,  called  offentive  t^r^ 
and  benevolent  institutions  are  numerous,  pedoea,  there  are  three  principal  types: 
Queen's  Park,  in  which  the  university  (a )  the  *  automobile,*  of  which  the 
is  situated,  is  the  prindpal  public  park.  Whitehead  is  the  best-known  form;  (5) 
The  university  is  one  of  the  best  equipped  the  *  towing  torpedo  *  of  Captain  Har^ 
in  America;  and  besides  Trinity  College  vey;  and  (c)  the  'epar'  or  'out- 
there  is  Knox  Ck>llege,  a  Presbysterlan  rigger'  torpedo.  The  Whitehead,  or  fish 
theological  institution;  Wydiffe  College,  torpedo,  may  be  described  as  being  a 
an  Anglican  theological  school;  M'Mas-  cigar-shaped  vessel,  varying  from  14  to 
ter  University,  supported  by  the  Bap-  22  feet  in  length,  and  from  14  to  21 
tdsts:  the  Upper  Canada  (College;  the  inches  in  diameter,  the  largest  weighing 
Provindal  Normal  and  Model  Schools ;  2000  pounds.  It  is  made  of  specially  pre- 
two  schools  of  medicine,  two  colleges  of  pared  steel,  and  is  divided  into  three  com- 
music,  a  veterinary  college,  etc  Tfte  in-  partments;  the  war  head  contains  the 
4aaUie8   include   iron-foundriea  and   en-  charge,  consisting  of  wet  guncotton,  trini- 


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Torpedo  Torpedo-boat 

tro-tolnol  or  some  other  high  exploBive.  only  from  a  fixed  base  and.  are  thus  fitted 

This  charge  is   exploded   bv   a   priming  to  be  discharged  only  from  shore,  it  beins 

charge  of  dry  guncotton  which  in  tnm  evidently  a  difficult   problem   to  control 

is  fired  by  a  primer  struck  by  a  firing  their  movements  when  discharged  from  a 

pin  carried  in  the  war  nose  screwed  into  moving  base,  as  a  ship  or  torpedo-boat 

the  head  of  the  torpedo  before  discharg-  To  the  latter  the   Whitehead,  or  other 

ing.     The  central  portion  of  the  torpedo  self-moving   form,    is   well   adapted,    but 

contains  the  air  flask  in  which  air,  com-  it    is    unlikely    that    the    wire-controlled 

pressed   to   2500   pounds   to   the   square  forms  are  ever  likely  to  be  used  except 

inch  pressure,  is  carried  for  driving  the  from  shore  stations.    The  Whitehead  is 

propelling  engine.     The  after  part  con-  the  form  commonly  in  use.     In  addition 

tains  the  encine,  which  is  of  reciprocating  to  these  types  of  traveling  torpedoes  sev- 

design ;  the  horizontal  steering  gear  which  eral  kinds  of  fixed  torpeooes  are  in  use, 

consists  of  a  gyroscope  driven  by  a  spiral  known   as   torpedo  mines   or  submarine 

spring.     Any   deflection    of  the   torpedo  mines.    These  have  been  for  many  years 

from  the  line  on  which  it  was  fired  causes  effectively  used  in  warfare,  and  are  of 

the  ^roscope  to  act  on  a  steering  engine  two  types,   the  self-acting  and  the  con- 

which  moves  tiie  horizontal  rudders  and  trolled.    The    first    type    is   fired    either 

restores  the  torpedo  to  its  proper  course,  mechanically  or  electrically.    A  conunon 

The  compartment  also  contains  the  au-  mechanical   device  consists  in   a  set  of 

tomatic  vertical  steering  gear.  pins  projecting  at  different  angles  from 

The  range  of  torpedoes  may  be  as  high  the  head  of  the  torpedo,  any  one  of  which 
as  10,000  yards  at  a  speed  of  25  knots  being  struck  is  driven  down  on  a  fulmi- 
an  hour,  but  shorter  ranges  (up  to  2500  nating  base.  The  electrically  fired  are 
yards)  are  more  practical  and  at  the  anchored  so  as  to  float  5  to  20  feet  be- 
shorter  ranges  speeds  up  to  50  knots  per  low  the  surface,  or  may  be  ground  mines 
hour  have  been   attained.  with  a  buoyant  float.     The  electric  cir- 

In  recent  practice  the  use  of  torpedoes  cuit  is  completed  and  the  mine  fired  when 

has  been  almost  entirely  confined  to  sub-  float  or  mine  is  struck  by  a  passing  vessel, 

marines,  which  use  a  short-range  torpedo  The  controlled  mines  have  wires  leading 

carrying  a  very  large  charge  of  high  ex-  to  shore  stations.     In  one  form  the  clos- 

ploeive.    The  long  range  guns  of  modem  ing  of  the  circuit  at  the  station  does  not 

battleships  and  battle  cruisers  precluding  fire  the  mine,  which  must  be  touched  by 

a  sufficiently  near  approach  for  the  use  the  vessel  to  complete  the  firing  circuit 

of  torpedoes.    There  are  several  forms  of  In    another    form    observers    watch    the 

torpedo  operated  from  shore.  Of  these  the  movement  of  the  vessel  and  fire  the  mine 

Brennan  carries  in  its  interior  two  drums  from   shore  when  the  ship  is  over  the 

on    which    is   wound    piano   wire.     The  torpedo.    The  spar  or  oumgger  torpedo 

wires  pass  out  of  the  rear  and  are  at-  consists  simply  of  a  metal  case  contain- 

tached    to   jK>werful    enidnes   on    shore,  ing  the  explosive  substance  (gunpowder, 

These  reel  the  wires  oir  the  drums,  can*,  gun-cotton,    dynamite,    etc.),    and    fitted 

ing  the  latter  to  rotate  rapidly  and  to  f^^  a  fuse  constructed  so  that  it  can  be 

act  upon  the  propellers.     Increased  speed  °^  **  ^l^^fi  ^'  exploded  by  contact 

in  the  enrines  causes  the  torpedo  to  move  ^\^n  *  ship  s  side.     It  is  screwed  on  to 

more  rapidly,  while  it  can  be  steered  by  *  long  spar,  whicli  is  usuaUy  fixed  m  the 

diecking  one  of  the  wires,  these  acting  °^^   ^'  *   swift   boat   or   steam-launch, 

on  vertical  rudders  in  the  torpedo.    The  which  endeavors  to  reach  and  push  the 

operating  range  is  a  mile  or  more.    In  the  torpedo  against  the  hostile  vesseL     Sta- 

Sims-Edison   torpedo   there  is  a   'float'  tionary    torpedoes   or   submarine    mines, 

from  which  the  torpedo  is  suspended,  so  such  as  are  placed  in  channels  or  coasts 

that  it  hangs  about  six  feet  below  the  to  prevent  the  approach  of  an  enemy's 

inrftice.     Here  an  electric  motor  forms  vessels,  usually  consist  of  a  strong  metal 

the  propelling  agency,   it  being  worked  case    containing    an    effective    explosive, 

from    shore    throogh    an    electric    cable  such  as  gun-cotton,  etc..  and  having  a 

wliicfa  is  paid  out  as  the  torpedo  advances  fuse    or    cap    which    will    explode    the 

towards  its   mark.     Another   form,   the  charge  on  the  slightest  contact;  or  the 

Lay    torpedo,    has   compressed   carboi^  explosion  may  be  effected  by  means  of 

add  gas  for  its  motive  power,  the  working  electricity,  the  operator  firing  it  at  will 

of   the   engine   being   controlled   by    an  from  the  shore. 

operator  on  shore  throuch  an  electric  TnimA/lA.TinQf  The  modern  torpedo- 
cable.  Both  these  forms  can  be  exploded  iOrpcao-PUai.  ^^^^  jg  ^  g^,^!  ^^p. 
by  aid  of  the  electric  current  through  the  ship  equipped  with  torpedo  tubes  as  its 
eable,  their  speed  bdng  about  10  or  11  chief  weapons  of  offense.  It  must  be 
knots  per  qiile.  The  three  wlr^-controlled  capable  or  bil^  sneld,  able  to  launch  its 
loiiDg  mentioned  can  be  folly  oontrolM  torpedoes  effectuaJuy  and  seaworthy  in  pro* 


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Torpedo  Net 


Torrens  System^ 


portion  to  its  size.  There  are  two  main 
types,  the  torpedo-boat  destroyer  and  the 
torpedo-boat,  a  smaller  type  of  200  to  400 
tons  displacement  which  has  been  largely 
superseded  by  the  destroyer  type  and 
relegated  to  harbor  and  coast  defense. 
This  type  is  equipped  with  two  or  three 
torpedo-tubes,  several  three-inch  guns  and 
smaller  arms.  It  has  a  speed  of  from  25 
to  30  knots.  The  torpedo-boat  destroyer 
is  a  larger  vessel  usually  of  900  to  1200 
tons  displacement,  though  larger  vessels 
in  this  class  have  been  built  From  four 
to  eight  torpedo  tubes  are  carried  and 
four  4-inch   guns,   together  with   lighter 

Sieces.  A  destroyer  has  a  speed  of  about 
0  knots  per  hour  and  is  highly  efficient 
both  as  a  scout  and  as  a  defense  against 
submarines.  Originally  designed  for_night 
attacks  on  larger  ships  the  development 
of  rapid-firing  guns  and  searchlisfhts  has 
been  such  that  operations  of  this  char- 
acter are  rare  tnough  destroyers  were 
actively  engaged  on  both  sides  during 
naval  engagements  in  the  European  war 
(q.  v.).  The  motive  power  of  these  ves- 
sels is  steam  generated  by  fuel  oil  for  the 
sake  of  space,  economy  and  convenience. 
They  are  driven  by  high  powered  quad- 
ruple expansive  engines  operating  twin 
propellors  and  are  sufficiently  seaworthy 
to  accompany  a  battleship  fleet  on  the 
high  seas. 

Originally  a  torpedo-boat  consisted 
simply  of  a  small  boat  filled  with  ex- 
plosive which  was  itself  destroyed  in  the 
explosion.  Such  vessels  were  used  as 
early  as  1585  at  Antwerp.  Submarine 
craft  carrying  torpedoes  which  were  to 
be  affixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  enemy 
ships  followed.  Surface  craft  appeared 
in  the  American  Civil  War,  most  of  them 
using  torpedoes  on  long  spars  attached 
to  their  bows,  but  it  was  not  until  1877 
when  Herreshofif  brought  out  the  first 
torpedo-boat  fitted  to  discharge  White- 
head Torpedoes  that  the  nrindples  of  the 
modem  vessel  of  this  class  were  estab- 
Kshed.  .       ^        ^  *    ^    , 

TAimAfiA  Wpf  A  net  made  up  of  steel 
lOrpeaOXiei.  ,{q^9  ^bi^h   is  earned 

on  a  warship  as  a  defense  against  sub- 
marine torpedoes.  The  usual  practice  is 
to  suspend  the  net  from  the  ends  of 
booms  pivoted  at  the  inboard  end  to  the 
side  of  the  ship.  When  the  shin  is  at 
rest  these  booms  are  swung  out  horizon- 
tally and  the  net  unfurls,  falling  to  a 
sufficient  depth  to  protect  the  hull.  When 
the  ship  is  in  motion  the  net  is  of  no  use 
and  the  booms  are  swung  ij»  the  net 
being  furled  and  lying  in  a  shelf. 
TAt^iiQV  (tor-k(^').  a  seaport  and 
lOrqnay  ^aterin^-place  of  England. 
on  the  8onth  coast  of  Devonshire,  pleas- 


antly situated  on  a  series  of  heights  and 
depressions  on  the  north  side  of  Torbav. 
It  is  well  built,  and  consists  principally 
of  two  streets,  of  several  commanding 
terraces,  and  of  a  great  number  of 
isolated  cottages  and  villas,  with  gar- 
dens attached.  It  has  several  handsome 
churches,  a  town-hall,  assembly-rooms, 
etc.,  and  a  long  pier  forming  an  excel- 
lent promenade.  The  water  supply  and 
drainage  system  are  excellent  Vor  in- 
valids its  climate  in  winter  is  among  the 
best  in  England.  Here  William  of 
Orange  landed  in  his  invasion  of  1688. 
Pop.  (1911)  38,772. 
Torane  (tork),  or  TOBC,  a  personal 
^  ornament  worn  by  certain  an- 
cient nations,  as  by  the  ancient  Britons, 
Gauls,  and  Germans.  It  consists  of  a 
stiff  collar,  formed  of  a  number  of  gold 
wires  twisted  together,  and  sometimes  of 
a  thin  metal  plate,  generally  of  gold,  and 
was  worn  round  the  neck  as  a  symbol  of 
rank  and  command. 

Torqnemada  <»';;'|Jl*;S^6ai'?^ 

bom  at  VaUadolid  in  1388 ;  died  in  1468. 
He  entered  the  Dominican  Order  in  1403 
and  became  noted  for  his  theological  writ- 
ings and  took  part  in  many  Important 
church  councils. 

Torquemada,  Jj*?;^*?/^  ^  '•*- 
Torre  Annunziata  <^!;^,.r^: 

port  in  the  province  of  Naples,  Italy,  at 
the  foot  of  Vesuvius,  on  the  Bay  of 
Naples.    Pop.  28,084. 

Torre  Del  Greco    ^rpornrW 

in  the  province  of  Naples,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Naples,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Vesuvius. 
The  town  has  suffered  much  by  eruptions 
of  Vesuvius.  Pop.  35,328. 
Tnrr#kTift  (tor^rens).  Lake,  a  large 
xurrcus  shallow  salt  lake  of  South 
Australia,  about  00  miles  N.  of  Spencer's 
Gulf.  Length,  about  130  miles;  average 
breadth.  20  miles.  In  the  dry  season  it 
is  merely  a  salt  marsh. 

Torrens  System,  %l^ToA^!o 

real  estate  originated  by  Robert  S.  Tor- 
rens, and  first  brought  legally  into  opera- 
tion in  South  Australia  in  1858.  Some- 
thing of  the  same  character  had  been  em- 
ployed in  Austria  in  1811  and  Hungary 
in  1855,  and  Denmark  had  registered 
titles  by  judicial  decree  as  early  as  1550. 
But  the  Torrens  system  differed  from 
these  earlier  forms,  and  gradually  spread 
throusrh  the  Australian  provinces  and  to 
the  Fiji  and  New  Guinea  Islanda  In  all 


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Torrens  System,  Torsk 

these  the  registration  of  titles  was  made  4)efore  the  Legislature  of  Michigan.  These 

(ompulsory   on   the   alienation   of  crown  were    the   latest    States    to    take   action 

lauds,  but  was  otherwise  voluntary.   Only  upon  the  system, 

fee  simple  titles  could  be  registered,  and  Torres  Strait     (tor'rez),    the    strait 

the  title  obtained  by  registration  became  *vxxco  i^i^xaai^      which  separates  Aus- 

indefeasible.  tralia  from  New  Guinea,  bein^  about  80 

From  Australia  the  system  snread  to  miles  across.    It  ia  crowded  with  islands, 

various  colonies  in  America,  to  Norway,  shoals,  and  reefs,   rendering  its  naviga- 

Denmark,  Germany  and  Austria,  to  Eng-  tion  difficult. 

land  in  1862  and  Ireland  in  1865^     In  Torres  Vedrfi^    (tor'rOsh    v&'drash), 

these,   leaseholds  for  life  or  for  twenty  *v***'"  '  ^u.xc*o     Lines   of,   so-called 

/ears  were  included.     Absolute,  qualified  from    a    village    in    Portugal    24    miles 

or  possessory  titles  may  be  registered  in  northwest  of  X/isbon.     These  stupendous 

England;  only  absolute  titles  in  Ireland,  works,     constructed     by     Wellington     in 

In  Canada  the  system  was  adopted  in  the  1810,  consisted  of  two  fortified  lines,  the 

several  provinces  at  various  dates  from  one  29  miles  in  length,  the  other,  in  the 

1871  to  1906,  the  act  being  compulsory  on  rear  of  the  former,  24  miles  in  length, 

alienation  of  crown  lands,  except  in  Brit-  forming  an  impregnable  barrier  between 

ish   Columbia,   and   voluntary   otherwise  the    French    troops    and    Lisbon.      The 

except  in  Ontario,  where  it  is  wholly  vol-  lines    of    Torres    Vedras    saved    Lisbon, 

untary.  bafDed    a    well-appointed    French    army. 

The  registration  of  land  titles  under  and  gave  Wellington  a  fair  opportunity  to 
statutes  usuaUy  known  as  '  Torrens  Acts '  enter  upon  offensive  operations.  See  Spain. 
has  been  adopted  in  many  parts  of  the  Tnrrf^ir  (tor'ri),  John,  botanist,  bom 
United  States.  Illinois  in  1895  was  the  *"**^J  at  New  York  in  1796;  died  in 
first  to  adopt  it  The  act  was  held  1873.  He  became  a  physician  in  New 
there  to  be  unconstitutional,  but  was  re-  York  and  engaged  in  botanical  study, 
enacted  in  1897,  the  point  of  objection  publishing  the  first  volume  of  his  Flora 
being  removed.  The  same  happened  in  of  the  Northern  United  States  in  1824. 
Ohio,  a  law  being  passed  in  1896  and  With  Prof.  Gray  he  produced  a  Flora  of 
repealed  as  unconstitutional  in  1898.  It  North  America  in  1838.  He  was  pro- 
was  re-enacted  in  1913  when  the  Consti-  fessor  of  chemistry  at  Princeton  College, 
tution  was  amended.  Various  other  1830-54,  and  botanist  of  the  Geological 
States  adopted  it.  New  York,  in  1906,  Survey  of  New  York.  In  1860  he  pre- 
being  among  the  latest  to  do  so.  The  sented  his  herbarluni,  containing  about 
method  pursued  differs  in  form  in  differ-  50.000  specimens,  to  Columbia  College, 
ent  States,  the  local  procedure  varying  Torripplli  ( tor-ri-chel'l€),  Evangb- 
widely.  The  daim  to  the  title  must  be  av^aa^cjxi  j^^^j^  ^^^  Italian  physicist, 
definitely  passed  on  by  examiners  of  title  bom  in  1606 ;  died  in  1647.  TorriceUi's 
and  in  the  event  of  a  contest,  this  needs  name  is  important  in  the  history  of 
to  be  passed  upon  by  a  court.  The  de-  science  as  the  discoverer  of  the  law  on 
cree,  when  given,  becomes  absolute  and  which  the  barometer  depends.  See 
conclusive  after  a  period  varying  in  dif-  Barometer. 

ferent  States  and  Territories,  ranging  Torrinoion  (tor'ing-tun),  a  borough 
from  thirty  days  in  Massachusetts  and  *vxxa*a5vvij.  ^^  Torrington  township, 
the  Philippines  to  five  years  in  California.  Litchfield  Co.,  Connecticut,  on  the  Nauga- 
The  title,  when  registered  is.  generally  tuck  river,  26  miles  w.  by  N.  of  Hart- 
speaking,  indefeasiole,  the  exceptions  ford.  Its  manufactures  are  of  brass,  ma- 
being  by  private  parties  for  fraud,  foe  chinery,  needles,  automobile  accessories, 
varying  oeriods  and  under  varying  oondi-  hardware,  etc.     Pop.  20,000. 

"tc  protect  the  todefewible  quality  of  Towioil  Balance    i^s^t^J-^^St"^' em" 

the    r<»«^stered    title,    provision    is    gen-  ployed  to  measure  the  intensities  of  very 

erally  made  for  an  'assurance  fund,*  the  small  forces.     It  consists  of  a  fine  wire, 

proceeds  of  which  are  used  for  the  reim-  silk  thread,  or  the  like,  suspended  from  a 

bnrsement  of  any  one  injured  by  reason  fixed    point,    and    having    a    horizontal 

of  the  decree  upon  which  the  registration  needle  attached,    the   force   being  meas- 

wfls  based.     Such  a  person  must  bring  ured  bv  the  resistance  to  twisting  which 

suit  within  a  fixed  period,  varying  from  the    filament    exhibits    when    the    force 

six  to  ten  years  in  different  States.     A  (that  of  attraction,   for  instance)    acts 

constitutional    amendment    submitted    In  on  the  needle. 

1915  in  Pennsylvania  provided  that  new  Torsk     i^rosmius  vulgdris),  a  fish  of 

courts  should  be  established  for  carrying  *v*^'*'      the   cod   tribe  found   in   great 

the  system  into  effect  in  that  State.    In  quantities  off  the  Orkney  and   Shetland 

the  same  year  a  Torrens  bill  was  brought  Islands,  where  it  constitutes  a  consider- 


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Torso 


Tortoise-shell 


able  article  of  trade.  It  is,  when  salted 
and  dried,  a  savory  stoclc-fish.  It  ifi 
from  18  to  30  inches  long,  and  is  called 
also  iusk. 

Torso  (tor'sO;  Italian),  an  art  term 
xuxav  gignifying  the  trunk  of  a  statne 
of  which  the  head  and  the  extremities  are 
wanting.  The  torso  of  Hercules,  in  the 
Belvedere  at  Rome,  is  considered  by  con- 
noisseurs one  of  the  finest  works  of  art 
remaining  from  antiquity. 

Torstenson  <'^/«^J?T°^'  '^?^^' 

AVA0VVU0VU  a  Swedish  general,  bom 
in  1603;  died  in  1051;  distinguished  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  war  (which  see).  He 
was  appointed  leader  of  the  Swedish 
army  in  Germany  in  1641,  and  com- 
manded it  for  five  years. 
Tort  ^°  ^^^'  denotes  injustice  or  in- 
Avxify  jury.  Actions  upon  torts  or 
wrongs  are  all  personal  actions  for  tres- 
passes»  nuisances^  assaults,  defamatory 
words,  and  the  like. 

Tortoise  (tor'tis),  the  name  applied 
■*'"**'"*  to  various  genera  of  reptiles 
included  in  the  order  Cbelonia,  along 
with   the  turtles  and   their  allies.    The 


Oonunon  or  Greek  Tortoise  {TestCdo  OrcBca). 


distinctive  features  of  the  tortoises  and 
other  Chelonians  consist  in  the  modifi- 
cation of  the  skeleton  and  of  the  skin- 
structure  or  scales  to  form  the  well- 
known  bony  box  in  which  their  bodies  are 
inclosed,  the  upper  portion  of  which  is 
the  carapace,  the  lower  the  plastron.  The 
Testudinidse  or  typical  land-tortoises  have 
short  stunted  limbs  adapted  for  ter- 
restrial progression;  the  short  toes  are 
bound  togetner  by  the  skin,  and  have 
well-developed  nails.  The  carapace  is 
strongly  convex,  and  is  covered  by  homy 
epidermic  plates.  The  homy  jaws  are 
adapted  for  cutting,  or  may  be  divided 
into  serrated  processes.  The  head,  limbs, 
and  tail  can  be  completely  retracted 
within  the  carapace.  Though  capable  of 
swimming,  the  tortoises  proper  are  really 
terrestrial  animals,  and  are  strictly  vege- 
table feeders.  The  most  familiar  ex- 
ample is  the  common  Greek  or  European 
tortoise  {TestQdo  OrcBca)  so  freauently 
kept  as  a  household  pet,  and  which  oc- 
curs chiefly  on  the  eastern  borders  of 
the  Mediterranean.    These  animals  some- 


times live  to  a  great  age  (over  100  years 
according  to  some),  and  hibernate 
through  the  colder  season  of  the  year. 
They  attain  a  length  of  12  inches.  A 
much  larger  species  is  the  great  Indian 
tortoise  {T.  Indica),  which  attains  a 
length  of  over  3  feet  and  a  weight  of 
200  lbs.  Its  flesh  is  reckoned  food  of 
excellent  quality,  as  are  also  its  egas. 
The  box  tortoise  of  India  and  Mada- 
gascar {Cinywis  arachnoides)  is  remark- 
able for  the  curious  development  of  the 
front  part  of  the  plastron,  which  shuts 
over  the  anterior  aperture  of  the  shell 
like  a  lid  when  the  animal  retracts  it- 
self. In  the  box  tortoise  of  North 
America  {CistOdo  Carolina)  the  hinder 
part  of  the  plastron  forms  a  lid.  It  is 
included  among  the  Emyds  or  terrapins. 
(See  Terrapin,)  Other  genera  include 
the  alligator  terrapin  (Chelydra  serpen- 
tina) of  America,  also  called  the  'snap- 
ping turtle.'  (See  Snapping  Turtle,) 
The  mud  or  soft  tortoises  (Trionyohida) 
occur  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  North  Amer- 
ica. They  have  soft  fleshy  lips,  and  no 
homy  plates  are  developed  in  the  skin. 
Very  frequently  also  the  ribs  are  not  so 
modified  as  to  form  a  hard  carapace,  as 
in  other  chelonia.     See  also  Turtle, 

Tortoise-sheU,  *,fr?oX'JhlTiTr 

rather  the  scutes  or  scales  of  the  tortoise 
and  other  allied  chelonians,  especially  to 
those  of  the  Chelonia  imhrto&ta  (the 
hawk*s-bill  turtle),  a  species  which  in- 
habits tropical  seas.  The  homy  scales 
or  plates  which  form  the  covering  of 
this  animal  are  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  combs,  snufif-boxes,  etc., 
and   in   inlaying   and   other   omamental 


H«wk*Bbf11  or  Tortolse-Bhell  Turtle 
{Chelonia  imbrie&ta) . 

work.  It  becomes  very  plastic  when 
heated,  and  when  cold  retains  with  sharp- 
ness any  form  it  may  be  molded  to  in 
its  heated  state.  Pieces  can  also  be 
welded  together  under  the  pressure  of 
hot  irons.  It  is  now  largely  imitated  by 
horn  and  cheap  artificial  compounds. 


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Tortoise-shell  Butterfly 


Toucan 


Tortoise-shell  Butterfly,  J^^^^ 

two   British   batterflies,    the   small    tor- 
toise-shell    (Vanessa    uriloa)     and    the 
large     tortoise-shell      (F.     polyoMdroM) , 
from    the  coloring  of  the  wings. 
Tnrfnlfl.    J[tor-t6'lA),    a   British   West 

Virgin  Islands;  area.  2o  sq.  miles.  It 
is  bare  and  rugged*  nsing  to  a  height  of 
1000  feet.  It  contains  Roadtown,  the 
capital  of  the  group.  Pop.  8431. 
TnrfATiA  (tor-tO'n&),  a  town  in  North- 
lOrrona  ^^  italy/  12  miles  east  of 
Alessandria,  in  the  province  of  Ales- 
sandria. The  principal  edifice  is  the 
cathedral  (1575).  Pop.  7889. 
TArfAfto  (tor-tO'iA),  a  fortified  city  of 
xun^usa  ^p^^j^^  ^  Catalonia,  48  miles 
southwest  of  Tarragona,  on  the  Ebro. 
There  is  a  cathedral  dating  from  1374, 
but  the  other  buildings  are  unimpor- 
tant. An  active  trade  is  carried  on. 
Pop.  24,452. 

TortueaS  (^r-tO'gis),  or  Dbt  Tob- 
AVA  yu^a,9  xuoAS,  a  group  of  ten  small, 
low,  barren  islands  belonging  to  Florida, 
about  40  miles  w.  of  the  most  western 
of  the  Florida  Keys.  On  Loggerhead  Key 
there  is  a  lighthouse  150  feet  high.  Fort 
Jefferson,  on  one  of  the  islands,  was  a 
penal  station  during  the  Civil  war. 
Torture  (tor'ttlr),  the  arbitrary  and 
especially  excessive  inniction 
of  pain  judicially,  whether  to  extort  con- 
fession or  to  aggravate  punishment 
Torture  has  been  common  in  all  the  na- 
tions of  modem  Europe,  and  it  was  also 
practiced  by  the  ancient  Romans.  The 
practice  was  first  adopted  by  the  church 
in  the  early  middle  ages,  and  when  the 
old  superstitious  means  of  discovering 
guilt  (as  in  ordeal  by  fire  and  water) 
lost  their  eflicacy  torture  became  general 
in  Europe.  Though  never  recognized  by 
the  common  law  of  England,  it  was  em- 
ployed there  as  late  as  the  reign  of 
Charles  I,  and  in  Scotland  torture  was 
not  wholly  abandoned  till  very  near  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Every 
reader  is  familiar  with  the  horrid  tor- 
tures inflicted  on  those  accused  of  witch- 
craft, and  on  many  of  the  Covenanters, 
by  means  of  thumbkins,  the  boot,  etc., 
in  order  to  discover  alleged  hiding-places 
and  the  like.  In  the  German  States  tor- 
ture continued  to  be  practiced  under  cer- 
tain restrictions  till  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  chief  instru- 
ment of  torture  was  the  rack  (which 
see) . 

Taihi  TVnff  ^  Hindu  girl  of  wonder- 
lOrU  iraiX,  f„,  prec<^ity,  bom  at 
C!alcatta  hi  1856;  died  in  1877.  She 
spent    several    years    in    England    and 


France,  studied  the  literature  of  these 
countries  with  avidity,  and  at  eighteen 
published  a  critical  essay,  showing 
strange  maturity,  on  Leconte  de  Lisle. 
She  next  studied  Sanskrit  and  translated 
Sanskrit  texts  into  English  blank 
verse.  In  1876  she  published  A  Sheaf 
Gleaned  in  French  Fields,  being  English 
translations  of  about  200  French  poems. 
After  her  death,  in  her  twenty-second 
year,  was  published  a  romance  in  French, 
Le  Journal  de  MdUe  d*  Arvers,  and  An- 
cient Ballads  and  Legends  of  Hindustan, 
TorV  (td'ri),  a  political  party  name  of 
*^*J  Irish  origin,  first  used  in  Eng- 
land about  1679,  applied  originally  to 
Irish  Catholic  outlaws,  and  then  gener- 
ally to  those  who  refused  to  concur  in  the 
scheme  to  exclude  James  II  from  the 
throne.  The  nickname,  like  its  contem* 
poraneous  opposite,  Whig,  in  coming  into 
popular  use  became  much  less  strict  in  its 
application,  until  at  last  it  came  simply 
to  signify  an  adherent  of  that  political 
party  in  the  state  who  disapproved  of 
change  in  the  ancient  constitution,  and 
who  supported  the  claims  and  authority 
of  the  King,  church,  and  aristocracy; 
while  their  opponents,  the  Whigs,  were  if 
favor  of  more  or  less  radical  changes,  an^ 
supported  the  claims  of  the  democracy* 
In  modem  times  the  term  has  to  some  ex< 
tent  been  supplanted  by  Conservative. 
Tnfam  (to-tft'ra;  Podocarpus  totara), 
XUtaiH.  ^  timber-tree  of  New  Zealand, 
allied  to  the  vew. 

Totem  (totem),  a  rade  picture  of 
Avw^^iu  g^jjjg  natural  object,  as  of  a 
bird  or  beast,  used  by  the  American  In- 
dians as  a  symbol  and  designation  of  a 
family  or  tribe.  A  similar  practice  has 
been  found  to  prevail  among  other  sav- 
age peoples,  and  some  theorists  have 
given  it  a  very  wide  extension  on  purely 
conjectural  grounds. 

ToUfiftn  ^  tou'kan ;  Rhamphastos  ) ,  a 
xvuvooi.    genus  of  scansorial  or  climb- 


i 


Red-billed  Toucan   {Rhatnphattos 
€rythrorhynehus  ) . 


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Touch 


Tonlon-snr-Mer 


img  birds  of  the  family  Rhamphastids.  cause  found  in  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor.    A 

These  birds  inhabit  the  tropical  regions  series  of  needles   (called  touch-needles), 

of  South  Americat  and  are  distinguished  of  which  the  composition  is  known,  are 

by  a  large  keeled  bill.    The  bill  is  about  used  for  comparison  with  the  article  to 

8  inches  long,  and  its  substance  is  hoi-  be  tested.    When  the  color  of  die  streak 

lowed  out  into  air-cells,  thus  being  com-  produced   by    both    the  needle   and    the 

paratively    light    The   toucans   feed   on  trinket   on   the   stone   is   the  same   the 

fruits,  seeds,  insects,   etc    The  prevail-  quantity  of  alloy  they  contain  is  supposed 

ing  colors  among  the  toucans  are  yellow,  to  be  similar. 

bUck,  and  red.    The  bill  is  frequently  TnTinliiuAAil     &  "oft  white  substance 

very  brilliantly  colored.  XOUCnwooo,    j^^^  ^j,,^  ^^^  ^  ^^. 

Tonell  ^^  sense  of  feeling  and  the  verted  by  the  action  of  such  fungi  as 
xvuvu)  most  widelv  diffused  of  the  PolypHrue  igniariue.  It  is  easily  ignited, 
flenses.  It  resides  in  the  skin  (see  Skin),  and  continues  to  bum  for  a  long  time 
and  is  exercised   through  certain  struc-   like  tinder. 

tures  situated  in  the  papille  of  the  true  Toin  (^^0»  a  town  of  France,  depart- 
skin  and  connected  with  terminal  fila-  ^^*^  ment  of  Meurthe -  et  -  Moselle, 
ments  of  sensory  nerves.  These  struc-  on  the  Moselle,  12  miles  west  of  Nancy, 
tures  have  some  variety  of  form,  and  are  It  is  strongly  fortified,  and  has  a  fine 
called  tactile  cells,  tactile  corpuscles,  com-  Gothic  cathedral,  completed  in  the  fif- 
pound  tactile  corpuscles.  Pacinian  cor-  teenth  century.  Toul  was  taken  in  the 
puscles,  etc.  All  the  kinds  are  to  be  Franco-€torman  war  after  a  siege  of  five 
regarded  as  terminal  organs  of  the  sen-  weeks,  September  23,  1870.  Pop.  0523. 
sory  nerves,  act-  "  " 

ing  as  the  media 
by  which  im- 
pressions made 
on  the  skin  are 
communicated  to 
the  nerve  fibers. 
Although  the 
sense  of  touch 
is  diflfused  over 
the  whole  body, 
it  is  much  more 
exquisite  in  some 
parts  than  in 
others.  Experi- 
ment shows  the 
tip  of  the  tongue 
to  be  the  most 
sensitive  surface, 
the  points  oi 
the  fingers  come 
next,  while  the 
red  part  of  the 
lips  follow  in 
order.  The  neck, 
middle     of     the 


Toui-opf  Harbour 


Toula.'  IJJ 
Tonlon-snr- 
Mer  (»-•«?- 

sur-m&r), 
a  seaport,  and 
after  Brest  the 
most  important 
naval  station  of 
France,  in  the 
department  of 
the  Var,  situ- 
ated on  a  bay  of 
the  Mediterra- 
nean, 42  miles 
E.  8.  B.  of  Mar- 
seilles. It  is  de- 
fended by  nu- 
merous forts  and 
redoubts,  and 
strong  forts  and 
outworks  occupy 
all  the  heights 
surrounding    the 

town.      Toulon 

back,   and    the   middle  of   the  arm  and   has  a  cathedral,  originally  Romanesque, 


iQlfBnBAnEAH 


thigh  are  the  least  acute  surfaces. 
Tonch-me-not.     ®«®  Impatiens. 


of  the  eleventh  century,  a  good  town-hall, 
theater,  etc.,  besides  the  arsenal  and 
other  marine  establishments,  which  are 
on  a  most  extensive  scale.  The  chief 
harbors  and  docks  are  separated  from  the 


Toncll-needleS.     S«®  Touchstone. 

Tonrh-na.'nfir     V^V^^  steeped  in  salt-  roadstead  by  moles,  which  are  hollow  and 

xuu^u  }Ma,}M%ii,j    peter,      which     bums  bomb-proof,  and  lined  by  batteries,  and 

slowly,  and  is  used  as  a  match  for  firing  the    storehouses,    shipyards,    workshops, 

gunpowder,  etc.  etc.,  are  most  complete.    The  trade  is  not 

TnTinTiafnTiP     &  variety  of  extremely  important     Toulon  suffered  severely  at 

XUUi/iiStuiiC,    compact  siliceous  schist,  the  hands  of  the  republicans  in  1793  after 

used  for  ascertaining  the  purity  of  gold  the  withdrawal  of  the  British,  whom  the 

and  silver.     Known  also  as  black  Jasper  inhabitants  had  voluntarily  admitted,  and 

and     hasanite.    It    was    called     Lydtan  who  destroyed  here  the  French  republi- 

«/ofie,  or  lapis  Lydia,  by  the  ancients,  be-  can  fleet    Pop.  101,002. 


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Toulouse 


Toiu^e 


Tonlnnftp  (t5-15z),  a  town  of  South- 
XOUiOUSe  g^  France,  capital  of  the 
department  of  Haute-Garonne,  on  the 
Garonne  (which  is  navigable  and  crossed 
by  three  bridges),  160  miles  s.E.  of  Bor- 
deaux. The  streets  are  narrow  and  ir^ 
regular^  and  the  houses  generally  un- 
pretentious. Among  remarkable  public 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the  church  of 
Ht.  Semin,  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  and  the 


till  508,  when  Clovis  gained  possession  of 
it.  Subsequently  it  became  the  capital 
of  Aquitaine,  was  long  governed  by  mde- 
pendent  counts,  and  in  thQ  thirteenth 
century  fell  a  prey  to  the  cruel  bigots  of 
the  Inquisition  (see  Albigenses) ,  and  then 
was  joined  to  the  French  crown.  The 
French  were  defeated  by  the  British  under 
its  walls  in  1814.  Pop.  (1911)  149,576. 
ToTirarn    (ttt-rak'6),  a  name  of  inses- 

Coryihaix  or  TurOcus^  natives  of  Africa, 
and  allied  to  the  Scansores,  or  climbing 


St.  Semln,  Toulouse. 

Palais  de  Justice.  Toulouse  has  univer- 
sity faculties,  a  Roman  Catholic  univer- 
sity, a  lyceum,  and  other  educational  in- 
stitutions, public  library  of  60,000  vols., 
etc  It  is  the  chief  entrepot  of  the  dis- 
trict for  agricultural  produce  and  general 
trade,  and  is  an  important  industrial 
center.  It  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity, 
and  rose  to  eminence  under  the  Romans, 
who  embellished  it  with  a  capitol,  amphi- 
theater, and  other  edifices  of  which 
vestiges  still  remain.  It  was  the  capital 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Visigoths  from  419 


Touraco  {Coryihaix  eryihrohph'UB). 


birds.  Their  prevailing  color  is  green, 
varied  in  some  species  with  purple  on  the 
wings  and  tail.  They  feed  cniefly  on  soft 
fruits,  and  frequent  the  highest  branches 
of  the  forest  trees. 

TnnrfliTiA  (t5-r&n),  an  ancient  prov- 
XOUIUine  j^^  ^^  France,  bounded 
north  by  Maine,  east  by  Orltenais  and 
Berry,  soath  by  Berry  and  Poitou,  and 
west  by  Anjou  and  Poitou.  It  now 
forms   the  department  of  Indre-et-Loire. 

TOUrCOing  ^^-•LTe'^'deJarS  o1 
Nord,  9  miles  n.  n.  e.  of  Lille;  a  well- 
built  thriving  manufacturing  town,  the 
staple  manufactures  being  woolen,  cotton, 
linen,  and  silk  stuffs,  brides  dye-works, 
soap-works,  sugar  retineries,  machine 
works,  etc    Pop.  82,644. 

TnHIHyAA      (tO]>zh&').      ACBION     WlNB- 

AUur^ee  ^  novelist,  bom  at  Wil- 
liamsfield,  Ohio,  in  1838;  died  in  1905. 
He  served  through  the  Civil  war,  and  in 
1866  engaged  in  the  practice  of  law  at 
Greensboro,  N.  C.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Constitutional  conventions 
of  1868  and  1875,  and  was  judge  of  the 
Superior  Court.  1868-73.  In  1897  he 
was  appointed  United  States  Consul  of 
Bordeaux.  France.  His  best-known  novel 
was  A  FooV%  Errand,  He  wrote  also 
Br%ck9  Without  Straw  and  other  novels, 
and  some  legal  works. 


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Tonrgnenieff 


Tours 


xviuguviix^u  Seboetevitoh,  a  cele- 
brated Roasian  novelist,  born  at  Orel  in 
1818;  died  near  Paris  in  1883.  He  be- 
longed to  a  noble  and  ancient  family,  and 
was  educated  at  Moscow,  St.  Petersburg, 
and  Berlin.  In  1842  he  obtained  an  ap- 
pointment in  the  ministry  of  the  interior ; 
but  having  written  an  article  displeasing 
to  the  authorities,  he  was  shortly  after^ 
wards  banished  to  his  paternal  estate. 
For  some  years  he  led  the  life  of  a  country 
gentleman,  gaining  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance witn  Russian  peasant  life.  His 
first  important  publication  v^as  trans- 
lated into  English  under  the  title  of 
Ru8$ian  Life  in  the  Interior,  or  the  E»- 
perienoee  of  o  Sportsman,  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  great  number  of  short  tales 
and  dramas,  contributed  principally  to 
Russian  periodicals.  His  earliest  novels 
were  A  Nest  of  Nobles  (1859),  and  On 
the  Eve  a8(»$).  A  powerful  politico- 
social  novel,  Fathers  and  Sons,  was  pub- 
lished in  1861,  and  met  with  much  ad- 
verse criticism  in  Russia.  His  other 
works  include  Smoke.  Sprinq  Floods, 
Virgin  Soil,  etc.,  all  of  which  have  been 
translated  into  English.  Tourguenieif 
has  been  ranked  with  the  greatest  masters 
of  fiction. 

Tourmaline  (Wr'M-lln),  f  mi^ral 
AWM.AAUCMJ.A&V  occurring  crystallized  in 
three-sided  or  six-sided  prisms,  terminated 
by  three-sided  pyramids,  the  primary 
form  being  a  rhomboid.  It  scratches 
glass  easily,  has  a  specific  gravity  of  3, 
and  consists  principally  of  a  compound 
silicate  and  borate  of  alumina  and  mag- 
nesia. Tourmaline  occurs  most  commonly 
in  igneous  and  metamorphic  rocks,  espe- 
cially in  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica-slate. 
Some  varieties  are  transparent,  some 
translucent,  some  opaque.  Some  are 
colorless,  and  others  green,  brown,  red, 
blue,  and  black.  Red  tourmaline  is 
known  as  rubeUite,  blue  tourmaline  as 
indioolite,  and  black  tourmaline  as  schorl. 
The  transparent  varieties  include  various 
well-known  jewelry  stones,  as  the  Brazil- 
ian sapphire,  the  Brazilian  emerald,  etc. 
Prisms  of  tourmaline  are  much  used  in 
polarizing  apparatus,  and  it  possesses 
powerful  electric  properties. 
TnTiniAi  (t5r>nft;  in  Flemish,  Doomik, 
XOUTUU  ^or'nik)^  a  town  of  Belgium, 
in  the  province  of  Halnaut,  on  both  sides 
of  the  Scheldt,  which  is  here  crossed  by 
seven  bridges  and  lined  by  fine  quays. 
The  streets  are  for  the  most  part  spa- 
cious, with  well-built  houses.  Among  the 
principal  edifices  are  the  cathedral,  an 
ancient  structure  in  the  Romanesque 
style;  the  Church  of  St  Brice  (twelfth 
century) ;  and  the  old  monastery  of  St. 


Martin,  now  used  as  a  town-house.  The 
leading  manufactures  are  linens,  wool- 
ens, cottons,  and  Brussels  carpets. 
Toumai  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of 
Belgium,  and  was  anciently  the  chief 
town  of  the  Nervii,  and  afterwards  the 
residence  of  some  of  the  early  FranUsh 
kings.    Pop.  (1904)  36,744 

Tournament  4iSr'?"JSS?™L'^'^ 

NET,  a  common  sport  of 
the  middle  ages,  in  which  parties  of 
mounted  knights  encountered  each  other 
with  lances  and  swords  in  order  to  dis- 
play their  skill  in  arms.  Tournaments 
reached  their  full  perfection  in  France  in 
the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  where  they 
first  received  the  form  under  which  they 
are  known  to  us.  They  were  introduced 
into  Ehigland  soon  after  the  Conquest  by 
the  Normans.  Jousts  were  single  com- 
bats between  two  knights,  and  at  a 
tournament  there  would  often  be  a  num- 
ber of  jousts  as  well  as  combats  between 
parties  of  knights.  The  place  of  combat 
was  the  lists^  a  large  open  place  sur- 
rounded by  ropes  or  a  railing.  Galleries 
were  erected  for  the  spectators,  among 
whom  were  seated  the  ladies,  the  supreme 
judges  of  tournaments.  A  knight  taking 
part  in  a  tournament  generally  carried 
some  device  emblematic  of  a  lady*s  favor. 
Tournaments  gradually  went  out  with  the 
decline  of  chivalry. 

Tournefort  <J»ri»'>'/^SS=boSS: 

ist,  bom  in  1656.  He  was  educated  by 
the  Jesuits,  and  in  1683  became  profes- 
sor of  botany  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes, 
Paris.  He  visited  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor,  and  wrote  Voyage  au  Levant, 
His  chief  work  is  entitled  Institutiones 
Ret  Herbaricp  (three  vols.,  Paris,  1700). 
He  died  in  1708,  being  then  professor  of 
medicine  in  the  Collie  de  France. 

Tourneur  ,\r?4'>fc<^ofw!SS 

existence  we  have  little  certain  infor- 
mation beyond  the  respective  dates  of  hii 
first  and  last  extant  works  (1600-13). 
The  two  plays  on  which  his  tame  rests 
are  The  Atheist* s  Tragedy  (1607)  and 
The  Revenger's  Tragedy  (1611). 

Tourniquet  ii^-'iJ^'^li,  J»  ^^^^l 

practice  of  sursery  to  stop  bleeding,  its 
use  being  only  intended  to  be  temporary. 
Some  kind  of  ligature  twisted  tight' with 
a  stick  forms  a  simple  tourniquet 
Tnnrft  i^^^)^  &  town  of  France,  capi- 
Auum  ^j  ^j  ^jj^  department  of  Indre^ 
et-Loire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Loir^ 
145  miles  by  rail  southwest  of  Paris. 
The  Loire  is  here  crossed  bv  two  sus- 

gension  bridges,  a  railway  bridge,  and  a 
ne  stone  bridge  1423  feet  long.    Many 


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of  the  streets  are  nMicious  and  elegant, 
and  there  are  seyeral  historic  chateaux  in 
the  neighborhood.  The  principal  edifice 
is  the  cathedral  (Tours  being  an  arch- 
bishopric), fianiiea  by  two  towers,  205 
feet  high,  a  fine  building  begun  in  the 
twelftli,  completed  in  the  sixteenth, 
century.  Of  the  old  abbey  church  of  St 
Martin  of  Tours  only  two  towers  remain. 
The  modem  buildings  include  the  Church 
of  St.  Joseph,  the  theater,  and  the  mu- 
seum. Manufactures  include  silk,  clothe 
carpets,  chemicals,  etc.,  and  there  is  a 
large  printing  and  publishing  establish- 
ment Tours  was  known  to  the  Romans 
by  the  name  of  GesarodunuuL  In  later 
times  it  became  famous  for  its  silk  manu- 
factures, and  had  a  population  of  80,000, 
when  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes 
deprived  it  of  nearly  half  its  inhabi- 
tants, a  blow  from  which  it  has  never 
recovered.  In  1870  Tours  was  the  seat 
of  the  government  of  national  defense. 
Pop.  6lS07. 

Tonrvillft  (Wr-vil),  De,  Anne  Hua- 
*^""  wx**v  jjjQjy  j^  CJoLENTiN,  Count. 
a  distinguished  French  admiral,  bom  at 
Tourville,  La  Manche,  in  1642;  died  at 
Paris  in  1701.  He  entered  the  navy  in 
1660,  became  a  captain  in  1667,  and  was 
created  vice-admiral  in  1689.  He  de- 
feated a  Dutch-English  fleet  off  the  Isle 
of  Wight  in  July,  1690.  In  1692  he  was 
ordered  to  attack  a  far  superior  Dutch- 
English  fleet  off  La  Hogue,  and  was  de- 
feated. He  was  created  a  marshal  in 
1693.  and  in  1694  destroyed  a  Dutch  and 
English  trading  fleet  off  Cape  St  Vin- 
cent 

Tonssaint-LoTiverture  4moK?  a 

distinguished  negro,  bom  a  slave  in  the 
Island  of  Hayti  in  1743.  After  the  in- 
surrection of  1791  Toussaint  served  in 
the  army  of  the  blacks,  and  later  rose  to 
be  their  leader.  He  displayed  great  mili- 
tary and  political  ability,  and  in  1796  the 
French  government  appointed  him  gen- 
eral-in-chief  of  the  troops  in  San  jDo- 
mingo.  After  a  severe  straggle  with  in- 
surrectionary movements  he  assumed  su- 
preme civil  authority,  and  in  1801  was 
completely  master  of  the  island.  He  was 
appointed  president  for  life  of  the  Re- 
public of  Hayti,  and  under  his  vigor- 
ous government  the  commerce  and  agri- 
culture of  the  island  began  to  revive. 
But  Napoleon  did  not  choose  to  see  him 
independent,  although  professedly  loyal 
to  France,  and  sent  a  powerful  expedi- 
tion to  subdue  Toussaint  who  was 
forced  to  surrender.  After  a  vigorous  re- 
sistance he  was  seized  and  sent  to  Franc^ 
where  he  died  in  prison,  on  the  27th  of 
April,  1806. 


Tower  (^<'^'^^)»  CHAHTJnfAGiCB,  diplo- 
mat, was  bom  at  Pottsville, 
Pennsylvania,  in  184a  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1872;  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1878 ;  became  an  oflicer  and 
director  in  several  corporations;  and  in 
1897  was  appointed  Minister  to  Austria- 
Hungary.  In  1899  he  was  made  Am- 
bassador to  Russia,  and  in  1902  to  Ger- 
many, returning  in  1908w  He  is  the 
author  of  The  MarquU  de  La  Payette  in 
the  American  Revolution. 

Tower  of  London,  S~1«^^*S.'2; 

London,  consisting  of  a  collection  of 
buildings  of  various  ages  on  a  somewhat 
elevated  position  on  the  north  bank  of  j 
the  Thames,  outside  the  old  city  walls.* 
It  covers  about  13  acres,  and  is  sur^ 
rounded  by  a  battlemented  wall  flanked 
with  massive  towers,  and  encircled  by  a 
moat  There  is  also  an  inner  line  of 
circumvallation  broken  by  towers^  and  in- 
terspersed with  other  buildings.  In  the 
center  is  the  White  Tower,  the  keep  of 
the  old  fortress,  around  which  are 
grouped  the  chapel,  the  jewel-house,  bar- 
racks, and  other  buildings.  The  Tower 
was  a  first-class  medieval  fortress,  and 
served  at  once  as  a  palace,  a  prison,  and 
a  place  of  defense.  The  White  Tower 
was  built  by  Gundulf,  bishop  of  Roch- 
ester, for  William  I,  in  1078.  It  was 
successively  strengthened  by  various 
English  sovereigns.  The  regalia,  con- 
sisting of  the  royal  crowns,  scepters, 
etc.,  are  now  kept  and  exhibited  in  the 
jewel-bouse.  The  armory  contains  a 
fine  collection  of  armor  and  wMpons.  In 
the  part  called  the  Bloody  Tx>wer  the 
two  young  princes,  sons  of  Edward  IV, 
were  murdered.  The  Tower  is  now 
chiefly  used  as  an  arsenal,  and  has  a 
small  military  earrison  of  the  yeomen  of 
the  guard.  It  is  govemed  by  a  constable 
and  deputy-constable.  The  governorship 
is  still  a  post  of  distinction.  The  White 
Tower  was  slightly  damaged  on  January 
24.  1885,  by  an  explosion,  the  work  of 
Irish  dynamitards. 

Town.  ®^  ^**y- 

Townn^lerk,  ^l^^^^  a^munidiga 

the  town-coundL  In  the  United  States, 
an  officer  who  acts  as  custodian  of  civic 
or  municipal  records,  and  enters  all  the 
official  proceedings  of  a  city,  town,  or 
borough.  In  England  his  chief  duties 
are  to  keep  the  records  of  the  borough 
and  lists  of  burgesses  and  to  take  charge 
of  the  voting  papers  at  municipal  elec- 
tions. 

Town-OOnncil,  \^^  governing  body 
<A.vTTu  vwuuvAAy  ^   ^  municipal  cor- 


i 


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poratioD  elected  by  the  legal  voters. 
The  principal  duties  of  this  body  are  to 
manage  the  property  of  the  city,  impose 
taxes  for  public  purposes,  pass  laws  for 
the  good  government  of  the  town,  for  the 
prevention  of  nuisances,  and  the  like. 
ToWTIslieTld  (toun'zend),  Chables, 
AUWIlBIieua  g^^j^^j  viscount,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman,  bom  at  Rainbam,  Norfolk, 
'  in  1G74 ;  succeeded  to  the  peerage  in 
1(>87,  and  took  his  seat  as  a  Whig  in  the 
House  of  Peers  in  1695.  After  acting 
as  a  commissioner  for  arranging  the 
Scottish  Union  (1706),  he  was  joint 
plenipotentiary  with  Marlborough  in  the 
conference  at  Gertruydenburg  (1709), 
and  then,  as  ambassador  to  the  states- 
general,  signed  the  Barrier  Treaty.  For 
this  he  was  censured  by  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  declared  an  enemy  to  the 
queen  and  kingdom.  He  thereupon  en- 
tered  into  communication  with  the 
Elector  of  Hanover,  who,  on  his  acces- 
sion ns  George  I,  appointed  Townshend 
secretary  of  state,  1714.  In  1717  he 
became  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland;  and 
he  was  again  secretary  of  state  from 
February,  1721,  to  May.  1730,  when  he 
retired  on  account  of  differences  with  his 
brother-in-law  and  colleague.  Sir  Robert 
Walpole.  He  died  in  1738. 
TniUTlftTiPTirl  (toun'zend),  Charles, 
xgwu^nena  grandson  of  the  above, 
born  in  1725;  entered  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  1747,  and  became  a  commissioner 
of  trade  and  plantations  in  1749.  He 
was  a  lord  of  the  admiralty  in  1754, 
member  of  the  privy-council  in  1756, 
secretary  of  war  in  1761-(53,  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  in  1706.  He  supported 
Granville's  stamp-act  (17(55),  and  in- 
troduced the  celebrated  resolutions  for 
taxing  the  American  colonies  (June  2, 
1767).  He  died  in  1767.  From  so 
often  changing  his  political  opinions  he 
was  known  as  the  *  weathercock/  but  he 
had  a  great  reputation  for  oratory  and 
ready  wit. 

TrnxTTiflliin  (toun'sbip),  a  subdivision 
XOWnsiup  ^^  ^  county,  without  ref- 
erence to  its  population.  Townships 
in  the  central  and  western  United  States 
are  frequently  square  areas  of  six  miles 
to  a  side.  In  England,  a  township  is  a 
division  of  a  parish  which  has  a  con- 
stable, and  may  have  overseers  of  the 
poor  belonging  to  itself. 
Toixmqinllft  (tounz'vil),  the  chief 
XOWnSYlUe  municipality  of  North 
Queensland,  Australia,  on  Cleveland 
Bay,  about  850  miles  n.  w.  of  Brisbane. 
Being  the  port  of  an  immense  territory, 
including  several  gold-fields  and  a  large 
area  of  pastoral  country,  there  is  a  large 
shipping    trade.    Extensive    harbor    im- 


provements have  been  made.    Pop.  12,717. 
Toxicolo^V    (tok-si-kol'5-ji),   the  sci- 
&•'    ence  of  poisons  and  anti- 
dotes.    See  Poison. 
Toxotea     (toks'o-t§z),  an  East  Indies 

genus  of  fishes,  with  two 
species.  See  Archer-fish, 
Trafierv  (tra'se-ri),  the  ornamental 
xxa^cxjr  stonework  in  the  head  of  a 
Gothic  window,  arising  from  the  mul- 
lions,  and  presenting  various  combina- 
tions of  curved  or  straight  lines. 
TrEched.    (trftte-a),  or  Windpipe,  in 

anatomy,  the  name  given  to 
the  tube  extending  from  the  larynx 
(which  see)  down  into  the  chest  to  a 
point  opposite  the  third  dorsal  vertebra, 
where  the  tube  divides  into  two  chief  di- 
visions or  bronchi  (which  see),  one  of 
which  supplies  each  lung  with  the  air 
necessarv  for  respira- 
tion or  breathing.  The 
trachea  in  man  is  of 
cylindrical  form,  about 
4i  inches  long,  and 
from  3  to  1  inch  in 
diameter,  and  is  com- 
posed of  from  sixteen 
to  twenty  rings  or 
zones  of  gristly  or 
cartilaginous  nature, 
separated  and  con- 
nected by  fibrous  tis- 
Bue.      Each     cartilage       Trachea  —  Sec- 

forms       an       " 

ring,  being 
behind,  and  having 
the  gristly  edges  merelv  joined  by  fibrous 
membrane.  The  windpipe  is  lined  by 
delicate  mucous  membrane  which  is  cov- 
ered by  epithelial  cells  provided  with  deli- 
cate vibratile  processes  or  cilia.  All 
mammals,  reptilia,  and  birds  possess  a 
trachea,  but  some  amphibia  want  this 
organ;  the  lungs  in  such  cases  spring- 
ing directly  from  the  larynx.  The  cut 
shows  the  trachea  A  A,  the  epiglot- 
tis B,  the  larynx  c,  and  the  oesopha- 
gus D. 

Traclieotomy    J^^*  •  ke  -  ot '  o  -  mi) , 

or  Bronchotomy,  an  operation  in  which 
an  opening  is  made  into  the  trachea  or 
larynx,  as  in  cases  of  suffocation. 
Trachoma  (tra-kO/ma),  a  specific 
contagious  form  of  m- 
flammation  of  the  conjunctiva  of  the  eye. 
It  is  associated  with  filthy  conditions  and 
is  common  in  Egypt,  Arabia  and  parts  of 
Europe.  Individuals  suffering  with  the 
disease  are  denied  entry  to  the  United 
States. 

Trachvte  (traltlt),  a  compact  vol- 
*  '"•'  wv  ^jj.^  j.^jj^  breaking  with  a 
rough  surface,  and  often  containing  cryv^ 


imperfect    tion  througli  part 
unclosed    of  face  and  neck. 


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tals  of  glassy  felspar,  and  sometimes 
hornblende  and  mica.  This  rock  is  ex- 
tremely abundant  among  the  products  of 
modem  volcanoes. 

Tracing-paper  < lif^SSr  wwTSS: 

ables  a  drawing  or  print  to  be  clearly 
seen  through  it  when  laid  on  the  draw- 
ing, so  that  a  pen  or  pencil  may  be  used 
in  tracing  the  outlines  of  the  original. 
It  is  prepared  from  smooth  unsized  white 
paper  rendered  transparent  by  a  varnish 
made  of  oil  of  turpentine  with  an  equal 
part  of  Canada  balsam,  nut-oil,  or  other 
oleo-resin. 

Tractarianism  ^tl'^i^f^t'^iV 

given  to  a  system  of  religious  opinion 
and  practice  promulgated  within  the 
Church  of  England  in  a  series  of  papers 
entitled  Tracts  for  the  Times,  and  pub- 
lished at  Oxford  between  1833  and  1841. 

Traction-engine.   1^^^^?^'^*^^ 

Tracv  (^^'^Ot  benjamin  Fbankun, 
^  statesman,  bom  at  Oswego,  New 
York,  in  1830.  He  became  brevet  brig- 
adier-general in  the  Civil  war,  United 
States  district  attorney  in  1866,  and  judge 
of  the  New  York  Court  of  Appeals  in 
1889.  In  1889  he  became  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  under  President  Harrison.  He 
was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  mayor 
of  New  York  in  1897.  Died  Aug.  6,  1915. 
Trade     ^^^^  ^^*     ^^^  Board, 

Trade' Dollar,  -^  ^itk"'<^- 

taining  378  troy  grains  of  silver  and 
42  troy  grains  of  alloy.  Dollars  of  this 
description,  issued  under  Act  of  Con- 
gress of  Feb.  12,  1873,  were  legal  tender 
to  the  amount  of  $5.  Those  issued  under 
the  Act  of  July  22,  1876,  possessed  no 
legal  tender  power.  The  trade  dollars 
were  intended  for  trade  with  countries 
doing  business  on  a  silver  basis;  hence 
the  name. 

Trail  Pain  a  rV  &  peculiar  mark  used 
ATaae-marK,    ^^^^  manufacturer  to 

distinguish  his  own  productions  from 
those  of  other  persons.  Such  marks  can 
now  be  registered  and  protected  in  all  the 
more  important  countries,  and  between 
these  also  there  is  a  general  reciprocity 
as  to  protection.  Regarding  trade- 
marks many  nice  questions  may  arise, 
i^nd  it  is  not  easy  to  define  what  con- 
stitutes a  valid  trade-mark.  A  mere 
descriptive  title  or  a  geographical  name 
will  not  constitute  a  proper  trade-mark; 
what  it  is  best  to  select  is  some  invented 
word  or  words*  or  a  word  or  words  hav- 
ing no  reference  to  the  character  or 
^oality  (though  suggestive  of  excellence), 


some  distinctive  device,  figure,  emblem, 
or  design,  or  a  written  signature  or  copy 
of  such.  Any  mark  or  name  calculated 
to  mislead  as  to  the  real  nature  or  origin 
of  the  soods  will  be  vitiated.  In  the 
United  states  trade-marks  are  registered 
at  the  Patent  Office,  at  a  fee  of  $25, 
the  right  running  for  thirty  years. 

TradeSCantia  (trad-es-kan'she-a),  a 
A  M,  «.u>^»wwAj.  V4.c»  genug  qI  hly-like  plants, 

nat  order  Commelynaces.  The  species 
are  natives  of  America  and  India,  and 
many  of  them  are  cultivated  as  orna- 
mental plants  in  flower  gardens.  They 
are  well  marked  by  their  three  sepals, 
three  petals,  three-celled  capsule,  and 
filaments  clothed  with  jointed  hairs.  T* 
virginica,  a  United  States  species,  is 
known  by  the  name  of  spiderwori.  It 
has  succulent  stems,  shinme  grass-like 
leaves,  and  blue  or  purple  flowers,  and 
it  is  common  in  the  flower  borders  of 
gardens.    Other  species  are  cultivated. 

Trades-nnions.   t>^il^^%^ 

combination  of  workmen  to  enable  each 
to  secure  the  conditions  most  favorable 
for  labor';  and  although  trades-unions, 
as  they  are  generally  called,  almost  al- 
ways have  other  objects  in  view  In  ad- 
dition to  that  specified  in  the  definition, 
that  object  is  their  distinguishing  one. 
Combinations  of  this  sort  in  Qreat 
Britain  are  considerably  more  than 
three  centuries  old,  for  there  is  a 
statute  of  the  year  1548  expressly  di- 
rected against  them.  They  are  looked 
upon  as  the  lineal  descendants  of  the 
mediaeval  gilds.  Trades-unions  generally 
endeavor  to  regulate  the  prices  and  the 
hours  of  labor,  and  in  many  cases  the 
number  of  men  engaged  by  an  employer, 
the  number  of  apprentices  which  may  be 
bound  in  proportion  to  the  journeymen 
employed  b/  a  master^  and  the  like. 
As  accessories  these  unions  may  collect 
funds  for  benefit  societies,  and  undertake 
the  insurance  of  tools,  libraries,  and 
reading-rooms;  but  their  fund,  to  which 
every  member  must  regularly  contribute 
a  stated  sum,  is  principally  reserved  for 
enabling  the  men  to  resist,  by  strikes  and 
otherwise,  such  action  on  the  part  of  the 
employers  as  would  tend  to  lower  the 
rate  of  wages  or  lengthen  the  hours  of 
labor.  That  trades-unions  enable  the 
men  to  benefit  by  the  state  of  trade 
more  than  they  otherwise  would  have  done 
would  appear  from  the  fact  that  the 
worst-paid  trades  are  those  without 
unions.  Trades-unions  are  also  said  to 
have,  furthered  the  safety  of  the  laborer 
by  producing  beneficial  modifications  of. 
the  conditions  in  which  he  works.  Some 
hostility  against  trades-unions  has  been 


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Krodaced  by  the  outrages  of  a  more  or 
M  serious  nature  of  which  some  of  the 
unions,  or  members  of  them,  liave  been 
guilty,  such  outrages  being  directed 
against  the  property  of  employers,  or 
against  the  persons  and  tools  of  non- 
union men.  The  Trades  Unions  of  the 
United  States  originated  within  the  last 
century,  and  have  united  into  general 
organisations  embracing  laige  numbers 
of  workmen.  The  oldest  of  these,  the 
KnighU  of  Labor,  originated  in  1869. 
The  American  Federation  of  Labor,  or- 
ganised in  1887.  includes  the  areat  bulk 
of  the  local  unions,  both  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  It  has  a  membership 
of  about  2,000,000,  representing  about 
27,000  local  unions  in  the  two  countries. 
Britain  has  also  a  general  Federation  of 
Trades-Unions  and  similar  organisations 
exist  in  other  parts  of  Europe  and  else- 
where. See  Labor  Organizations. 
TrfliiA«iinTii1  one  of  those  perpetual 
ITaae-Wina,  or  constant  win^  which 
occur  in  all  open  seas  on  both  sides  of 
the  equator,  and  to  the  distance  of  about 
30""  north  and  south  of  it  On  the  north 
of  the  equator  their  direction  is  from 
the  northeast  (varying  at  times  a  point 
or  two  of  the  compass  either  way) ;  on 
the  south  of  the  equator  they  proceed 
from  the  southeast  The  origin  of  the 
trade-winds  is  this:  —  The  great  heat  of 
the  torrid  lone  rarefies  and  makes  lighter 
the  air  of  that  region,  and  in  consequence 
of  this  rarefaction  the  air  rises  and 
ascends  into  the  higher  regions  of  the 
atmosphere.  To  supply  its  place  colder 
air  from  the  northern  and  southern  re- 
gions rushes  towards  the  equator,  which, 
also  becoming  rarefied,  ascends  in  its 
turn.  The  heated  air  which  thus  as- 
cends into  the  upper  regions  of  the 
atmosphere  being  there  condensed  flows 
northward  and  southward  to  supply  the 
deficiency  causfnl  by  the  under-currents 
blowing  towards  the  equator.  These 
under-currents  coming  from  the  north 
and  south  are,  in  consequence  of  the 
earth's  rotation  on  its  axis,  deflected 
from  their  course  as  they  approach  the 
equatorial  region,  and  thus  b^me  north- 
east and  southeast  winds,  constituting 
the  trade-winds.  The  belt  between  the 
two  trade-winds  is  characterized  by 
calms,  frequently  interrupted,  however, 
by  violent  storms.  Trade-winds  are  con- 
stant only  over  the  open  ocean,  and  the 
larger  the  expanse  of  ocean  over  which 
they  blow  (as  in  the  Pacific)  the  more 
steady  they  are.  In  some  places  the 
trade-winds  become  periodical,  blowing 
one-half  of  the  vear  in  one  direction  and 
the  other  half  in  the  opposite  direcUon. 
See  Ifomoofi. 


Tradition  (tw-diah'un),  in  iU  gen- 
*  "^^  **  eral  application,  is  any 
knowledge  handed  down  from  one  gen- 
eration to  another  by  oral  communica- 
tion. It  plays  a  very  important  part  in 
the  Jewish  and  Roman  Catholic  churches. 
In  theology,  the  term  is  specifically  ap- 
plied to  that  body  of  doctrine  and  dis- 
cipline, or  any  article  thereof,  supposed 
to  have  been  put  forth  by  Christ  or  his 
apostles,  and  not  committed  to  writing, 
but  stUl  held  by  many  as  an  article  of 
faith. 
TradUCdaiiisnL    ^^  CreaOoniBm. 

Trafalgar  LT^^^/recuV^'Wal: 

gkf)f  a  low  and  sandy  cape  on  the 
southwest  coast  of  Spain,  at  the  north- 
west entrance  of  the  Strait  of  Qibraltar. 
The  famous  naval  battle  in  which  Nelson 
lost  his  life,  after  defeating  a  larger 
French  and  Spanish  fleet  under  the  com- 
mand of  Villeneuve  and  Qravina,  was 
fought  off  this  cape,  October  21.  1805. 
The  Franco-Spanish  fleet  lost  19  ships 
out  of  33. 

Tragacanth  i^Sf'ISS)^.^ 


termed 


gum-dragoi 
the    prod- 


in    or    gum-tragacanth 


uce  of  several 
species  of  the 
aenus  Astragilh 
Xu9,  leguminous 
plants  natives  of 
the  mountainous 
regions  of  West- 
em  Asia.  In 
commerce  tra{^- 
canth  occurs  in 
small  twisted 
thread-like  pieces, 
or  in  flattened 
cakes,  in  color 
whitish  or  yel- 
lowish, devoid  of 
taste  or  smelL 
It  is  demulcent,  Trsgscmnth  {AttragVliu 
and    is    used    in  gymnUiw), 

coughs  and  ca- 
tarrhs, and  to  make  lozenges  and  pills 
It  is  employed  also  in  calico-printing. 
Tra^edv  (^nLJ'e-dl),  a  dramatic  poem, 
*^^  ^  representing  an  important 
event  or  a  series  of  events  in  the  life  of 
some  person  or  persons,  in  which  the 
diction  is  elevated  and  the  catastrophe 
melancholy.  Tragedy  orixinated  amons 
the  Greeks  in  the  worship  of  the  god 
Dionysus  or  Bacchus.    See  Drama. 

Tragopan   <,*Sf(,*-^ii,&, «  «! 

the  genus  Oeriomii,  and  of  the  family 
PhasknidiB,  closely  allied  to  the  commMi 


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Tn^opogon 

fowl.  O.  noi^lra^  a  common  species,  is  a 
naUve  of  the  Himalayas.  The  plumage 
is  spotted,  and  two  fleshy  protuberances 
bang  from  behind  the  eyes.  When  the 
bira  is  excited  it  can  erect  these  pro- 
tuberances until  they  look  like  a  pair  of 
horns.  A  large  wattle  hangs  at  either 
side  of  the  lower  mandible. 
TragOpOgOn.    ®^  QoaU^Aieard. 

Tram-bands,  S.e'Tatu?r^fX^' 

miUtia  and  volunteers,  instituted  by 
James  I  and  dissolved  by  Charles  II. 
The  term  was  afterwards  applied  to  the 
London  militia,  from  which  the  3d  regi- 
ment of  the  line  originated,  and  in  which 
the  renowned  John  Oilpin  was  a  captain. 
IVAJyia  Abmobbd,  railway  trains  of 
AAcuowy  which  the  engine  and  carriages 
are  protected  from  email-arm  fire  by 
armor  in  the  shape  of  high  parapets  of 
iron  or  steel  plaung.  Loopholes  in  the 
armor  allow  the  men  to  use  their  rifles. 

Training  CoUeges.  |^!''"'«* 

TrftmTi  (trft'j&n),  in  full.  Ma  bo  us 
AAajou  tlLPius  TRAJANX78,  a  Roman 
emperor,  bom  in  Spain  52  A.D.,  was  the 
son  of  Trajanus,  a  distinguished  Roman 
commander  under  Vespasian.  He  served 
against  the  Parthians  and  on  the  Rhine, 
where  he  acquired  so  high  a  character 
that  Nerva  adopted  him  and  created  him 
Cssar  in  9  7. 
Nerva  died  in 
98,  and  Trajan, 
who  was  then  in 
Germany,  peace- 
a  b  1  y  succeeded 
to  the  throne. 
He  made  peace 
with  the  Qerman 
tribes,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  intro- 
duce enlightened 
measures  of  re- 
form into  the 
public  service. 
One  of  his  great- 
est military 
achievements  was 
his  defeat  of  the 
D  a  c  i  a  n  s,  and 
the  reduction  of 
Dacia   to   a   Ro- 


Tramp 

anonymous  charaes.  For  some  years 
Trajan  occupied  himself  with  the  work 
of  administration,  but  in  114  he  set  out 
on  an  expedition  against  the  Parthians 
which  resulted  in  the  reduction  of 
Armenia  to  a  Roman  province.  He  died 
in  Cilicia  in  117  aj>..  after  having  nomi- 
nated Hadrian  as  his  successor.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  sensual  in  his  private 
life,  but  his  good  qualities  as  a  ruler  were 
such  that  even  250  years  after  his  death 
senators  greeted  a  new  emperor  with  the 
wish  that  he  might  be  more  fortunate 
than  Augustus  and  better  than  Trajan. 

Trajan's  Column.  ^^^^^ 
Trajan's  Wall,  %J^^^,'^\^l 

(Roumania),  extending  s.  from  the 
Danube  to  Kustendii  on  the  Black  Sea, 
a  distance  of  87  miles.  It  is  a  double, 
in  some  places  a  triple,  earthwork  on  the 
south  side  of  a  natural  fosse  consisting 
of  a  narrow  marshy  valley.  Another 
wall  of  the  same  name,  built  by  a  Ro- 
man legion,  105-155  a.d.,  extends  from 
the  Pruth  B.  to  the  Black  Sea. 
TrfilAA  (tr&-le'),  a  town  and  seaport 
xnuee  ^  Ireland,  in  the  county  of 
Kerry,  on  the  river  Lee,  55  miles  south- 
west of  Limerick.  It  has  an  active  trade 
in  farm  produce.  By  means  of  a  canal 
vessels  up  to  800  tons  can  discharge 
their  cargoes  within  100  yards  of  the 
town.    Pop.  9687. 

ilVoTnTnel  (tnun'el),  an  instrument 
Axooiuiii^x    ^^j.  ^jn^^ing  ovals,  used  by 

joiners  and  other  artificers.  One  part 
consists  of  a  cross  with  two  grooves  at 
right  angles ;  the  other  is  a  beaii-compasa 


i 


Trmjan. 


man  province.  It  is  supposed  that  it 
was  in  commemoration  of  this  war  that 
he  erected  at  Rome  the  column  which 
still  remains  under  his  name.  In  103 
he  wrote  the  famous  epistle  to  Pliny, 
governor  of  Pontus  and  Bithynia,  direct- 
ing him  not  to  search  for  Christians, 
but  to  punish  them  if  brought  before 
him;   and   on  no  account  to  listen   to 


Trammel. 


carrying  two  pins  which  slide  in  those 
grooves,  and  also  the  describing  pencil. 
TrotnTi  tbe  colloquial  name  for  va- 
xiiuu|i,  grants  or  wanderers.  The 
term  '  tramp '  in  general  use  means  a 
wandering,  disorderly  person,  without 
visible  means  of  support,  though  vagrant 
in  a  wider  sense  is  applied  to  many  per- 
sons who  cannot  be  classed  as  tramps. 
In  Bngland  laws  have  been  enacted  for 
many  centuries  for  the  regulation  of 
vagrancy.  In  the  United  States  tramps 
were  formerly  so  few  that  before  the 
Civil  war  they  received  little  attention. 
Later,  partly  owing  to  the  disbandment 


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Tramway  Transit 

of  the  armies,  the  scatterine  of  the  camp-  of  the  main  Caucasus  ridge,  and  which 
followers,  the  disastrous  times  of  1873,  includes  the  governments  of  Kutais. 
and  the  incr^se  of  foreign  vagrants  by  Tiflis,  Elisabethpol,  Erivan,  Kars,  etc. 
immigration,  they  increased  so  largely,  Transcendental  (™o8-sen-den'tal), 
besides  becoming  so  dangerous  and  vi-  **"'""^*'"«*'"»'"'*  a  term  applied  in 
dous  in  character,  that  the  evil  was  so  the  system  of  philosophy  founded  by 
great  as  to  attract  public  attention.  Kant  to  all  those  principles  of  knowl- 
Now  many  of  the  states  have  promul-  edge  which  are  original  and  primary,  and 
gated  vagrancy  laws  to  abate  the  nui-  which  are  determined  d  priori,  such  as 
sance.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  Bp&ce  and  time.  They  involve  necessary 
severe  treatment  Is  not  a  great  deter-  and  strictly  universal  truths,  and  so 
rent.  transcend    all    truth    derived    from    ex- 

Tram  WftV  (tram'wa),  the  English  perience,  which  must  always  be  con- 
xiaiiiwajr  ugm^  f^p  street  railways,  tingent  and  particular.  The  term  trau' 
which  see;  also  Electricity  and  Trolley,  scendentali^m  is  now  generally  used  in 
Trance  (trans),  a  condition  resem-  a  sense  not  very  different  from  mysticism, 
xAaiAv«7  biing  sleep,  in  which  con-  or  for  that  which  is  vague  and  illusive 
sclousness  and  many  of  the  vital  func-  in  philosophy.  In  mathematics  the  term 
tions  are  susx>endea,  and  during  which  is  applied  to  quantities  that  cannot  be 
the  action  of  the  heart  is  diminished  and  expressed  in  oixiinary  algebraic  terms, 
the  breathing  reduced.  The  subjects  of  Transent  (tran'sept),  in  architecture, 
trance  are  usually  hysterical,  and  In  **o^"*^i'»»  th^  transverse  portion  of  a 
some  cases  it  is  induced  by  exhausting  church  which  is  built  in  the  form  of  a 
disease  or  emotional  disturbance.  In  cross;  that  part  between  the  nave  p.nd 
this  condition  the  face  is  pale,  the  limbs  choir  which  projects  externally  on  each 
relaxed,  the  mental  functions  are  in  side,  and  forms  the  short  arm  of  the 
abeyance,  no  effort  at  rousing  will  pro-  cross  in  the  general  plan.  See  Cathedral, 
duce  a  return  to  consciousness,  and  this  Transfnsion  (  trans-fa'sbun  ),  the 
state  may  last  from  a  period  of  several  **»-**«»'^W'0*vix  transmission  of  blood 
hours  to  many  weeks  or  months.  When  from  the  veins  of  one  living  animal  to 
the  trance  lasts  for  a  lengthy  period  those  of  another,  as  from  one  of  the  lower 
food  is  taken  in  a  mechanical  way  at  animals  into  a  man,  or  from  man  to  man, 
intervals  by  the  sleeper.  Most  cases  with  the  view  of  restoring  the  vigor  of 
recover.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  exhausted  subjects.  This  operation  is  a 
sort  of  ecstatic  state  in  which  some  per-  very  old  one,  but  seems  to  have  generally 
sons  are  said  to  fall.  ended   in   failure   until   about   1824,   the 

Trani  C^^'***)'  *  seaport  Sn  South  chief  cause  of  failure  probably  being  the 
AAooAA  Italy,  province  of  Bari,  on  the  want  of  due  precautions  to  exclude  the 
Adriatic,  26  miles  northwest  of  Bari,  air  during  the  process.  It  is  now  oc- 
with  old  walls  and  bastions,  and  a  ca-  casionally  resorted  to  as  a  last  measure 
thedraL     Pop.  34,688.  in  cases  of  great  loss  of  blood  by  hemor- 

TrftTinnpliflr  (tran-kwe-b&r'),  a  sea-  rhage,  especially  in  connection  with 
xjiiui^ueuiir        ^  j^  ^jj^  district  of  labor. 

Tanjore,  Madras  Presidency,  India,  for-  Transit  (tran'sit),  in  astronomy,  (a) 
merly  a  Danish  settlement  and  a  busy  ■*•*"'""*•  the  passage  of  a  heavenly 
nort.     Pop.  13,142.  body  across  the  meridian  of  any  place, 

TransbaikaUa   ^^rVr^^vU 

E.  of  Lake  Baikal;  area,  240,780  sq. 
miles.  It  has  an  elevated,  well-watered 
surface,  and  climate  dry  and  extreme 
both  in  summer  and  winter.  Agriculture 
'  and  trade  are  limited ;  gold  is  found  to 
some  extent.     Pop.  742,^. 

Transcaspian  Kcgion  i^lt^]' 

a  territory  to  the  E.  of  the  Caspian  re- 
cently  annexed    by    Russia.     It   has   an 
area  of  220,000  sq.  miles,  mostly  unin- 
habited desert,   and   is   traversed  by   the  Transit  of  Mebcubt. 
Transcaspian    Railway,    which    connects   a,  Mercury.     The  dotted  line  ■howi  the  path. 
Samarcand  with  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Trn.n  firman  OAfti  ft  (  trans-ka-ka'shi-a  ) ,  a  phenomenon  which  is  usually  noted  by 
xj:iiU5i.»uuii5itt     ^jjj^j     p^j^     Q^    ^jj^  ^  ^j^^g.^  instrument.    The  determination 

lieutenancy  of  the  Caucaaos  which  lies  b.   of  the  exact  times  of  the  transits  of  the 


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Transit  Instrument  Transvaal 

heaveiily  bodies  across  the  meridian  of  objects.  In  the  teaching  of  the  Brah- 
the  place  of  observation  enables  the  manic  Hindus  it  has  its  foundation  In 
astronomer  to  ascertain  the  differences  the  belief  of  the  connection  of  all  living 
of  right  ascensions,  the  relative  situa-  beings,  and  of  the  gradual  purification  of 
tions  of  the  fixed  stars,  and  the  varied  the  spiritual  part  of  man  and  its  return 
motions  of  the  sun,  planets,  and  comets,  to  the  common  source  and  origin  of  all 
in  reipect  to  the  celestial  meridians,  things  —  God.  The  Buddhists  accept  a 
(h)  The  passage  of  one  heavenly  bodj  similar  doctrine,  but  with  them  the 
over  the  disk  of  a  larger  one;  but  the  ultimate  goal  of  the  soul  is  not  absorp> 
term  is  chiefir  restricted  to  the  passage  tion  by  the  Deity,  but  annihilation,  Nir* 
of  the  inferior  planets.  Mercury  and  vana.  Transmigration  also  formed  part 
Venus,  over  the  sun's  disk.  The  tran-  of  the  teachhig  of  the  Egyptian  priests, 
sits  of  Venus  are  of  great  importance  in  The  doctrine  probably  pa^ea  from  Bgypt 
astronomy,  as  they  aliord  the  best  means  into  Greece,  where  it  was  never  generally 
of  determining  the  sun's  parallax,  and  current,  but  was  confined  to  tne  mys- 
consequttitly  the  dimensions  of  the  teries  and  some  philosophic  systems, 
planetary  system.  These  transits  are  of  TraiISVa.al  itrans-vttr),  now  Vaal 
rare  occurrence,  four  taking  place  in  '*'*«***»^«'«**  Kiveb  Colony,  was  orig- 
243  years,  at  intervals  reckoning  from  the  inally  formed  by  part  of  the  Boers,  of 
transit  of  1874,  in  the  order  of  8,  122,  8,  Dutch  descent,  who  left  Cape  Colony  in 
and  105  years,  which  gives  the  transit  1836  for  Natal,  and  quitted  that  colony 
years  1882  (Dec.  6),  2004,  2012,  2117.  on  its  annexation  by  Great  Britain  in 
The  transits  of  Mercury  occur  more  1845.  Its  independence  was  recognised 
frequently,  but  they  are  of  far  less  as-  by  the  British  government  in  18S&,  It 
tronomical  interest,  as  they  cannot  be  lies  north  of  the  Vaal  River  and  south 
used  for  the  same  purpose,  the  planet  of  the  Limpopo  River,  and  is  bounded  or 
being  too  distant  from  us.  the  west  by  Becnuanaland,  east  by  Por- 
Transit  Instrument,  ?»  impor-  tuguese  territory,  SwazUand,  and  Zulu- 
AACM&Mv  AAMVA  luuvuvy  ^^^  iustru-  Isud,  south  by  Natal  and  the  Orange 
ment  adapted  for  observing  the  exact  River  Colony.  Area,  114,360  so.  miles, 
time  of  the  passage  of  heavenly  bodies  Its  population  is  1,68C,212,  of  whom 
across  the  meridian.  (See  Tratmt.)  about  300.000  are  whites.  Its  largest 
It  consists  essentially  of  a  telescope  fixed  town  is  Johannesburg,  with  a  popula- 
at  right  angles  to  a  horizontal  axis,  tlon  of  237,220.  This  city  is  a  gold- 
which  latter  has  its  ends  directed  exactly  mining  center.  The  region  is  a  plateau 
to  the  east  and  west  points  of  the  hori-  of  from  1500  to  6000  leet  elevation.  It 
son,  so  that  the  line  of  collimation  or  is  well  suited  to  agricultural  and  stock- 
optical  axis  of  the  telescope  may  move  raising  pursuits,  and  large  numbers  of 
in  the  plane  of  the  meridian.  The  in-  farm  animals  are  kept.  The  great 
strument  is  susceptible  of  certain  nice  wealth  of  the  region  is  in  its  mineral 
adjustments,  so  that  the  axis  can  be  resources,  notably  gold,  diamonds,  and 
made  perfectly  horizontal,  and  at  right  coal.  The  gold  mines  have  the  greatest 
angles  to  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  in  output  in  the  world,  and  the  diamond 
which  plane  tne  telescope  must  move,  product  is  of  considerable  value. 
It  is  generally  used  in  connection  with  In  1877,  owing  to  a  war  with  the 
the  mural  circle  (which  see).  Kaffirs,  a  British  force  assisted  the 
Tranakei  (trans'kl),  a  division  on  the  Boers  and  the  territory  was  annexed  to 
east  coast  of  Cape  Colony,  Great  Britain.  Troubles  ensued,  the 
Africa,  extending  southward  from  the  Boers  rose  in  arms  in  1880  and  defeated 
Kei  River  to  Tembuland,  and  bordering  the  British  in  1881  at  Majuba  Hill, 
on  the  Indian  Gcean;  area,  2552  sq.  Their  independence  was  then  recognized, 
miles.  The  interior  rises  to  an  elevation  though  their  foreign  relations  remained 
of  about  9800  feet  It  is  a  very  fertile  under  British  supervision.  The  rapid 
region,  with  dense  forests.  Many  cattle  development  of  the  gold-mining  industry 
and  sheep  are  raised.  Copner  and  coal  brought  new  elements  of  difficulty  into 
are  found.     Pop.  177,647;  1700  whites,  the  problem,  the  Boers  refusing  to  the 

Transmigration  of  the  Sonl,  Xa}i^^°£lJiL^'*^^^«^  miners  who  sought 

^  ,  ....  V  "*®*'^    country    any    political    privileges, 

or  McTEMPSTCHOSis,  (met-emp-si-kd'sis),  while  laying  upon  them  the  great  burden 

the  passage  which,  according  to  the  be-  of     taxation.    The     discontent     of     the 

lief   of   many    races    and    tribes    at   all  Uitlanders  (outlsnders)   led,  in  1895,  to 

times,   the  soul   after   the  death  of  the  an  invasion  of  the  republic  by  a  party 

body   makes  through    the   bodies   of   the  of   British   settlers   under  Dr.   Jameson, 

lower  animals  or  other  human  bodies,  or,  This  was  easily  suppressed  by  the  Boera 

It  may  be,  through  plants  or  inanimate  and   the   troubles  grew   more  prominent 
9—10 


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Transylvania 


Trapani 


M  yean  went  on  until  in  18d9  a  petition, 
signed  by  21,000  British  subjects,  was 
sent  to  the  queen  pointing  out  their 
grievances.  The  negotiations  which  fol- 
lowed proved  ineffective,  and  conditions 
grew  so  strained  that  the  British  gov- 
ernment called  out  25,000  of  the  reserve 
forces.  In  reprisal  the  Boer  government 
demanded  that  all  troops  on  the  frontier 
should  be  instantly  withdrawn  and  that 
no  more  troops  should  be  sent  to  South 
Africa.  This  demand  not  beinj;  com- 
piled with,  a  Boer  force  at  once  mvaded 
Natal,  where  they  invested  Ladysmith, 
and  for  a  time  bad  much  success.  In 
1900  the  tide  of  the  war  turned,  the 
British  forces  Increasing  until  nearly 
250,000  men  were  in  the  field  under  Lord 
Roberts.  Ladysmith  and  the  other  be- 
sieged towns  were  relieved,  and  though 
the  Boers  fought  with  great  courage  and 
skill  they  were  so  largely  outnumbered 
that  their  case  grew  hopeless.  Bloem- 
fonteln,  Johannesburg,  and  Pretoria  were 
occupied,  and  the  Transvaal  Republic 
with  the  Orange  Free  State,  which  had 
joined  It  In  the  war,  were  proclaimed 
British  colonies.  President  Kruger  fled 
to  Europe,  where  he  sought  In  vain  for 
European  Intervention,  and  the  war  on 
the  part  of  the  Boers  became  a  series 
of  guerilla  raids,  continued  until  but  a 
handful  of  fighting  men  were  left  In 
May,  1902,  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed, 
and  the  two  republics  passed  under 
British  rule,  the  terms  granted  them  be- 
ing very  favorable.  For  the  restoration 
and  restocking  of  the  Boer  farms,  which 
had  been  ruined  during  the  war,  £3,000,- 
000  were  given  by  the  British  govern- 
ment, which  also  agreed  to  make  loans, 
free  of  Interest  for  two  years,  for  the 
same  purjpose,  while  no  special  tax  waa 
to  be  laid  on  the  colonies  to  pay  the 
expenses  of  the  war.  The  total  cost  of 
the  war  to  Qreat  Britain  was  about 
£233,000,000  or  $1,165,000,000.  In  the 
years  that  have  succeeded  these  events 
the  possessions  of  the  suffrage  by  the 
Boers  has,  in  a  measure,  given  them  pos- 
session of  the  country  again,  they  form- 
ing a  majority  of  the  inhabitants,  this  re- 
sulting In  the  election  of  one  of  their  late 
leaders  to  the  chief  post  of  authority  In 
the  colony.  The  Transvaal  and  Orange 
Free  State  now  form  States  of  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  organized  in  1910. 
Tranavlvania  (tran-sil-va'nl-a;    Ger- 

Hungarian,  Brdely),  a  grand-principality 
belonging  to  the  crown  of  Hungary, 
forming  the  southeastern  portion  of  the 
Austrian  Empire;  area,  21,213  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  the 
CfuiMithlan  chAin  covering  Its  southern 


and  eastern  frontier,  and  sending  out 
numerous  ramifications  Into  the  Interior. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Aluta  or  Alt, 
the  Maros,  and  the  Ssamos,  all  flowing 
directly  or  Indirectly  into  the  Danube. 
The  forests  are  extensive  and  valuable; 
the  vine  flourishes  everywhere,  and  the 
crops  Include  maize,  wheat,  rye,  hemp, 
flax,  tobacco.  The  minerals  are  Impor- 
tant, and  Include  gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead,  coal,  salt  and  iron.  The  chief 
towns  are  Hermannstadt,  Kronstadt,  Bis- 
triti  and  Szamos-Ujvar.  BMucation  is 
in  a  very  backward  state.  The  popula- 
tion (2,456,^8)  is  very  mixed.  Including 
Roumanians,  Ma^ars,  Germans,  Gyp- 
sies, Jews,  Bulgarians  and  others.  Since 
186t  it  has  been  an  integral  part  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Hungary. 
OVoTi  a  term  rather  looselv  and  vaguely 
****r>  applied  by  the  earlier  geologists 
to  some  or  all  of  the  multifanous 
igneous  rocks  that  belong  to  the  paljeoxoic 
and  secondary  epochs,  as  distinct  from 
granite  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  recent 
volcanic  rocks  on  the  other.  Trap-rocks 
often  assume  a  terraced  appearance, 
whence  their  name  from  trappa,  the 
Swedish  for  a  stcdr.  Their  composition 
may  be  described  as  consisting  chiefly  of 
felspar  and  hornblende.  Trap-rocks  of 
crystalline  structure  are  distinguished  as 
greenstones,  basalts,  clink-stones,  compact 
felspar,  and  felspar  porphyries;  while 
the  softer  and  more  earthy  varieties  are 
known  as  clavstones,  clavstone  porphy- 
ries, amygdaloids,  trap-tuffs,  and  wackes. 
Basalt  (which  see)  is  the  most  compact, 
the  hardest,  and  the  heaviest  of  the  trap- 
rocks.  The  hill  scenery  of  trappean  dis- 
tricts Is  often  picturesque. 
Trana  (trap'a),  a  genus  of  plants, 
*  -fc^  order  Onagraceie.  consisting  of 
several  species,  floating  in  water,  and 
having  long  jointed  root-stocks,  with  haii^ 
like  roots.  They  yield  edible  seeds.  T. 
natan9  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe 
has  received  the  name  of  water-caltrops 
from  its  four-homed  fruits.  These,  which 
are  called  Jesuits*-nuts  In  Italy,  and 
water-chestnuts  in  France,  are  ground 
Into  flour  and  made  into  bread  in  the 
south  of  Europe.  T,  hUpin68a  yields  the 
Singhara-nuts  of  Northern  India. 
TraDani  (trtt'pA-n§;  ancient,  Drepd- 
AAayaux  ^^^  ^j.  Dfrepdnum),  a  forti- 
fied seaport  town  in  Sicily,  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  47  miles 
w.  s.  w.  of  Palermo,  on  a  peninsula  shaped 
like  a  sickle,  and  hence  Its  ancient 
name,  from  the  Greek  drepan^  a  sickle. 
It  has  a  cathedral  of  no  great  merit, 
lyceum,  nautical  school,  etc.  There  Is  a 
good  trade,  and  the  fisheries  are  exten- 
sive.   At  a  short  distance  s.  ir.  e.  of  the 


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Trap-door  Spider 


Travertine 


Trap-door  Spider 
and  Nest. 


town  is  Mount  San  Qiuliano,  the  an- 
cient Eryx.     (See  Eryw.)     Pop.  68,986. 

Trap-door  Spider,  «  ^«  %f^^^- 

that  have  the  habit  of  constructing 
tubular  dwellings  in  the  ground,  some- 
times a  foot  or  more 
in  depth,  and  an  inch 
or  so  in  diameter, 
closed  by  a  sort  of 
hinged  door.  They 
belong  to  several 
genera,  and  are  found 
in  Southern  Europe, 
Western  United 
States,  and  elsewhere. 
The  dwelling  is  lined 
with  the  silky  sub- 
stance spun  by  the 
insect,  and  the  hinge 
of  the  door  is  formed 
of  the  same,  the  door 
itself  being  con- 
structed sometimes  of 
earthy  particles  con- 
nected by  threads, 
sometimes  of  leaves,  etc.  Some  species 
construct  nests  that  have  a  main  tube 
and  one  or  more  branches,  the  latter 
having  a  door  where  they  join  the  main 
tube.  Cieniza  Sauvagei  of  Corsica,  Ne- 
tn€9ia  (Myq&le)  ccementaria  of  S.  W. 
Europe,  and  Ctenlza  Calif omica  of  the 
United  States  are  examples. 
Tni.'nP70lfl  (trap'e-zoid),  or  Trapb'- 
XrapeZOia  2\uM,  a  quadrilateral  fig- 
ure  of  unequal  sides, 
and  consequently  un- 
equal angles.  It  is  dif- 
ferent from  a  parallelo- 
gram, which  is  a  quadri- 
lateral figure  with  the  opposite  sides 
equaL 

Trappe,  ^tippl'^"^''^-  ^^  ^' 
Trasimenus,  ^^^%^  ^**   Perugia. 

Trass  ^  volcanic  production,  ronsist- 
*  ing  of  ashes  and  scoriae  thrown 
out  from  the  ancient  Eifel  volcanoes,  on 
the  Rhine,  near  Coblentz.  It  is  equiv- 
alent, or  nearly  so,  to  the  puzzolana  of 
the  Neapolitans,  and  if  used  as  A  cement. 
The  same  name  is  given  to  a  coarse  sort 
of  plaster  or  mortar  made  from  several 
other  argillo-ferruginous  minerals,  used 
to  line  cisterns  and  other  reservoirs  of 
water. 

Tranii  (troun),  Lake  of,  a  small  but 
''•**^^  beautiful  lake  in  Upper  Aus- 
tria near  the  town  of  Gmunden.  The 
river  Traun  passes  through  the  lake  ^nd 
enters  the  Danube. 

Trftnt^non  (trou'te-nou),  a  town  of 
XTauxenau    Northern    Bohemia,     in 


/ZX 


the  valley  of  the  Riesengebirge,  with 
flax-spinning  and  other  industries.  Pop. 
16,096. 

Trftvanror^  (trav-an-kdr'),  a  native 
ATavancore    ^^j^  ^^^^  gubsldiary 

to  the  presidency  of  Madras,  occupying 
the  extreme  southwest  of  the  peninsula; 
mrea,  7091  square  miles.  It  ui  for  the 
most  part  hilly,  and  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  Western  Ghats,  elsewhere 
chiefly  by  the  sea,  having  Gape  Gomorin 
in  the  extreme  south.  Hie  climate  is 
healthy,  and  the  soil  fairly  fertile.  The 
principal  products  are  iron,  plumbago, 
timber,  pepper,  areca  nuts,  sugar,  cocoa, 
coffee,  tea,  etc.    Pop.  2,952,157. 

Traveler's  Tree     <  ^^w^^noia  ^  moo- 

Urania  apecioaa),  an  arborescent  plan^ 
native  of  Madagascar,  having  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  palm  about  90  feet  in 
height  and  forming  the  only  species  of 
the  genus  to  which  it  belongs.  Its 
trunk  terminates  in  a  bundle  of  leaves, 
each  of  which  is  borne  by  a  petiole  6  or 
8  feet  in  length  and  has  a  blade  about  6 
feet  long.  The  seeds  of  tills  tree,  ground 
into  fiour,  are  eaten  by  the  natives,  and 
the  water  contained  in  the  cup-like 
sheaths  of  its  leaf-stalks  was  formerly 
ibelieved  to  be  an  aid  to  travelers. 

TraveUng  Sidewalk,  J,  ^X^j 

moving  in  a  continuous  manner  with  a 
uniform  rate  of  speed  for  the  purpose  of 
transportation,  it  was  first  suggested 
in  1870,  but  not  put  to  practical  use 
until  1893,  at  the  Golumbian  Exposition, 
Chicago.  One  with  three  parallel  plat- 
forms was  a  feature  of  the  Faris  Exposi- 
tion, 1900.  It  was  a  belt  or  loop  rail- 
way, with  one  or  more  intermediate 
steps  between  the  first  stationary  and 
the  third  fast-moving  platform,  which 
was  furnished  with  seats.  Two  speeds 
enabled  a  passenger  to  mount  or  alight 
easily  on  or  from  the  rapid  platform. 
In  some  cities  this  principle  is  taken 
advantage  of  in  the  large  stores  as  a 
traveling  stairway   or   escalator. 

Traverse  City   <rj;r^'8eV**o'i 

Grand  Traverse  Co.,  Michigan,  on  the 
west  arm  of  Grand  Traverse  Bay,  147 
miles  N.  of  Grand  Rapids.  It  has  a  good 
harbor  and  is  a  summer  resort.  Here  is 
the  Traverse  City  State  Hospital.  The 
manufactures  are  fruit  baskets,  wooden 
dishes,  furniture,  etc.,  and  it  is  a  fruit 
'  and  potato  center.    Pop.  12,115. 

TrflVprfiTip  (trav'er-tSn),  a  white 
xraveiTine  ooncretioijary  limeatooe. 
usually    hard    and    86Qucryiit«Uin%    ^ 


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Travnik 


Treasure  Trove 


posited  from  the  water  of  Bprings  hold- 
ing carbonate  of  lime  in  solution.  Trav- 
ertine is  abundant  in  different  parts  of 


Trarertine  with  impreuioni  of  leaTes. 

Italy,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
edifices  of  ancient  and  modem  Rome 
are  built  of  this  stone. 

Travnik  J[f5*^'S*i;  \i?:?' S^^ 

nia,  on  toe  JL«asva..  it  nas 
a  garrison  of  Austrian  troops.  Pop.  6261. 
TrA^iTKF  (trftHng),  a  mode  of  fish- 
xntWiin^  ine  in  which  a  net  in  the 
form  of  a  large  bag,  with  a  strong  frame- 
work keeping  the  mouth  properly  dis- 
tended, is  dragged  along  the  bottom  of 
the  sea.  It  is  the  mode  chiefly  adopts 
in  deep-sea  fishing,  and  in  British 
waters  has  largely  developed  in  recent 
years,  being  much  prosecuted  by  small 
steam  vessels  specially  built  for  the  pur- 
pose, but  it  is  not  allowed  within  three 
miles  of  the  shore.  Cod,  whiting,  and 
other  white  fish  are  taken  bv  it  in  large 
numbers,  and  some  kinds  of  flat  fish,  as 
soles,  can  scarcely  be  taken  in  any  other 
way.  Trawling  can  be  practiced  only 
on  a  smooth  bottom,  as  a  rough  bottom 
would  destroy  the  net.    See  Net. 

Traz-os-Montes  .  ( tr^hHw-mcv'tash ; 

.■.ACMi  V0  .iu.vu««^o  •Beyond  the  Moun- 
tains'), a  northeast  frontier  province 
of  Portugal;  area,  4260  square  miles. 
The  province  is  fertile  in  parts,  and  the 
wine-gpowing  district  of  Alto  Douro  Is 
the  native  country  of  port  The  chief 
towns  are  Villa  Real  and  Bragansa. 
Pop.  427,358. 
Treacle    (^'kl).    Bee  sugar. 

Treacle-murtard,  J^ST^iy^^iS: 

cheiranih{>ide$,  also  called  ioorm^eed. 
See  Eryaitnufn, 

Tread-mill,    *°  ipstrnment  of  punish- 

">    ment,  of  modem  origin, 

roDsisting  of  a  large  wheel*  about  20  or 


25  feet  wide,  with  steps  on  its  external 
surface,  upon  which  crmiinals  are  placed. 
Their  weight  sets  the  wheel  in  motion, 
and  they  maintain  themselves  in  an  up- 
right posture  by  means  of  a  horizontal 
bar  fixed  above  them,  of  which  they  keep 
hold  while  moving  their  feet  from  step  to 
-step.  The  power  thus  obtained  may  be 
applied  to  the  same  purpose  as  water- 
power,  steam,  etc.  The  tread-mill  has 
recently  been  abandoned  in  most  peniten- 
tiaries. It  was  introduced  into  the 
prisons  of  Great  Britain  about  1820. 
Treason  0i^'2i>)t  high.  Treason, 
the  crimen  Iwew  majeMtatie 
of  the  Roman  law,  is  that  crime  which 
is  direct! V  committed  against  the  su- 
preme authority  of  the  state,  and  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  greatest  crime  that 
can  be  committed.  Formerly  in  England 
certain  offenses  against  private  superiors 
were  ranked  as  petit  or  petty  treason, 
and  it  was  in  opposition  to  such  offenses 
that  treason  against  the  sovereign  was 
called  high  treason;  eventually  high 
treason  was  made  the  only  treason.  In 
a  monarchy  it  is  considered  to  be  the 
betraying  or  the  forfeiting  of  allegiance 
to  the  monarch ;  but  in  a  republic  It  has 
reference  to  the  government  or  the  whole 
community.  The  concealment  of  treason 
is  called  misprision  of  treason.  (See 
MieprtBion,)  In  the  United  States  trea* 
son  consists  in  levying  war  by  a  dtixeq 
against  the  country,  or  adhering  to  its 
enemies.    The  penalty   is  death. 

Treasott-f elony,  SJ«™  BriSfn^S 

designate  snch  offenses  as  seeking  or  in- 
tending to  deprive  the  sovereign  of  any 
of  the  royal  powers  or  prerogatives,  to 
levy  war  within  the  realm  in  order  to 
forcibly  compel  a  change  in  the  royal 
measures,  to  intimidate  either  house  of 
Parliament,  or  to  excite  an  invasion  in 
any  part  of  the  country.  Treason- 
felony  is  punishable  with  penal  servi- 
tude for  life  or  for  a  term  not  less  than 
seven  years,  or  with  imprisonment  for 
a  term  not  exceeding  two  yean  with  or 
without  hard  labor. 

Treasure  Trove  <  J'«^'°^   ^"S^  >• 

AAvcM>«u.«^  .a.xvvi^  ^jj^^  j^  silver- 
plate,  or  bullion  found  hidden  in  the 
earth  or  in  any  private  place,  the  owner 
of  which  is  not  known.  In  Britain  snch 
treasure  belongs  to  the  ctown ;  but  if  the 
owner  is  known,  or  is  ascertained  after 
the  treasure  is  found,  the  owner  and  not 
the  crown  is  entitled  to  it.  It  is,  how- 
ever, the  practice  of  the  crown  to  pay 
the  finder  the  foil  value  of  the  property 
on  its  beimr  delivered  up.  On  the  other 
hand,  diouTd  the  finder  conceal  or  ap- 
propriate it  he  is  guilty  of  an  indictable 


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Treasury  Tree-ferns 

offense  puoishable  by  fine  and  imprison-  Asiatic  Torkey,  capital  of  a  pashalic  of 

ment    In  the  United  States  such  treas-  the  same  name,  on  the  Black  Sea.    It 

ure,  under  the  common  law,  beloxigs  to  has   an   extensive  trade,   exporting   silk, 

the  government,  thoagh  the  right  is  sel-  wool,  tobacco,  wax,  oil,  etc.,  from  Asiatic 

dom,  if  ever,  enforced.    If  the  treasure  Turkey ;  and  silk  fabrics,  shawls,  oarpets, 

is  found  on  the  surface,  not  hidden  in  etc..    from    Persia.    Pop.    estimated    at 

the  earth,  the  law  is  construed  that  the  40,000. 

finder*  not   the  government,   is   entitled  Treble    (treb'l),  in  music,  the  highest 

to  it  *A^Mx%?    vocal  or  instrumental  part  in 

Tre&snrV  (treth'ur-i),  the  department  a  concerted  piece,  such  as  is  sung  by 

*  «^  of  a  government  which  has  women  or  boys,  or  played  by  instruments 
control  over  the  management  collection,  of  acute  tone,  as  the  violin,  flute,  oboe, 
and  expenditure  of  the  public  revenue,  clarinet,  etc.,  or  on  the  higher  keys  oi 
The  Treasury  depaitment  in  the  United  the  piano,  organ,  etc.:  so  called  because 
States  is  in  charge  of  the  Secretary  of  it  was  originally  a  third  part  added  to 
the  Treasury,  appointed  by  the  Presl-  the  ancient  canto  fermo  and  the  counter- 
dent  and  Senate,  and  a  member  of  the  point 

President's  Cabinet  It  has  sole  charge  Tredc^ftr  X  tred'S-gUr ) ,  a  town  of 
of  the  national  finances,  under  the  laws  ******^6***  England,  in  the  countv  of 
of  Congress,  collects  the  revenue,  pays  all  Monmouth,  12  miles  west  by  south  of 
expenditures,  audits  all  accounts,  has  Abergavenny,  on  the  Sirhowy.  Near  it 
charge  of  public  buildings,  national  are  valuable  mines  of  coal  and  iron- 
banks,  coinage  and  paper  money.  stone,  with  extensive  blast-furnaces  and 
Treatv    C^^'^O*  an  agreement,  league,  steel  works.    Pop.  18,497. 

J'  or  contract  between  two  or  Tree  ^^^^>  *  perennial  plant  having  a 
more  nations  or  sovereigns  formally  **^''  woody  trunk  of  varying  size,  from 
signed  by  commissioners  properly  author-  which  spring  a  number  of  branches,  hav- 
ised,  and  ratified  by  the  several  sover-  ing  a  structure  similar  to  the  trunk, 
eigns  or  the  supreme  power  of  each  state.  Trees  are  thus  distinguished  from  shrubs. 
Treaties  are  of  various  kinds,  as  treaties  which  have  perennial  stems  but  have  no 
for  regulating  commercial  intercourse,  trunk  properlv  so-called ;  and  from  herbs, 
treaties  of  alliance,  offensive  and  de-  whose  stems  live  only  a  single  year.  It 
fenslve,  treaties  of  peace,  etc.  In  most  is  diflicult,  however,  to  fix  the  exact 
monarchies  the  power  of  making  and  limit  between  trees  and  shrubs.  Trees 
ratifying  treaties  is  vested  in  the  sover-  are  both  endogenous  and  exogenous,  by 
ei^;  in  republics  it  is  vested  in  the  far  the  greater  number  both  of  indi- 
chief  magistrate,  senate,  or  executive  viduals  and  of  varieties  belonging  to  the 
council ;  in  the  United  States  of  America  ktter  class.  Those  of  which  the  whole 
it  is  vested  in  the  President  by  and  with  foliage  falls  off  periodically,  leaving 
the  consent  of  the  Senate.  Treaties  may  them  bare  in  winter,  are  called  deciduous; 
be  concluded  and  signed  by  diplomatic  those  of  which  the  foliage  falls  only 
agentBL  but  these,  of  course,  must  be  partially,  a  fresh  crop  of  leaves  being  al- 
fumished  with  full  powers  by  the  sover-  ways  supplied  before  the  mature  leaves 
eign  authority  of  uteir  states.  Among  are  exhausted,  are  called  evergreen. 
the  most  significant  and  important  of  re-  Trees  are  the  longest  lived  organisms  of 
cent  treaties  were  two  treaties  of  arbitra-  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  attain  a 
tion  formed  in  1911  between  the  United  great  and  indefinite  age,  far  exceeding 
States  on  the  one  part  and  France  and  that  of  animals.  See  Arhoriculture, 
Great  Britain  on  the  other,  providing  for  Botany,  Timber,  etc. 
the  ])eaceable  settlement  of  almost  any  Tree*Gr&.b  ^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  genus  Birgus, 
question  that  could  arise  between  these  **^^  vx€*m,  in^ji^j^j  among  the  land- 
nations,  even  those  affecting  so-called  na-  crabs.  It  breaks  open  the  shell  of  the 
tional  honor.  Similar  treaties  have  since  cocoa-nut,  etc.,  by  repeated  blows  of  its 
been  made  with  other  nations,  until  they  great  claws,  in  order  to  feed  upon  the 
now  number  30  in  alL  soft  pulp  of  the  nut.  Tree-crabs  can 
Trebbia  (treb'bS-A),  a  river  of  North  live  lor  long  periods  out  of  water,  but 

*  **  Italy,  which  rises  in  the  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  sea. 
Apennines,  and  flows  into  the  Po  near  Tree-f  emS  ^^®  name  given  to  several 
Piacenza  after  a  course  of  65  miles.  ^^^'^  x^aaxo,  species  of  ferns  which 
Here  Hannibal  defeated  the  Romans  in  attain  to  the  size  of  trees,  as  the  Also- 
218  B.C.,  Lad  in  the  vicinity  the  Austrians  phila  vestlta,  Cihotium  Billardieri,  etc. 
and  Russians  under  Suvaroff  defeated  They  are  found  in  tropical  countries, 
the  French  under  Macdonald  in  1799.  A  handsome  species,  Cyathea  medulldris, 
TTAbizond  X  ^^^'^  *  ^^^^  •  anciently  contains  in  its  trunk  a  mucilaginous  pulp 
AAvvAAvuu  ff^^0mg)^   n   seaport    in  comparable  to  sago,  which   is   used  ex- 


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Tree-frog  Trenton 

tensively  for  food  in  Polynesia  and  New  as    far   as   Gainsborough,    25   miles,    by 

2iealand.  vessels  of  200  tons,  and  more  than  100 

Trei^-fr09     ^  name  of  frogs  differing  miles  by  barges. 

MASfsi  AAvgi    £|.Qm  proper  frogs  in  the  Trent      (German,  Trienf,  Latin,  Tri- 

extremities  of  their  toes,  each  of  which  dentum),  a  town  in  the  Tyrol, 


is  expanded  into  a  rounded  viscous  pellet  Austria,    picturesouely    situated    on    the 

that   enables    the  animals   to   adhere   to  left  bank  of  the  Etsch  or  Adige.     It  is 

the  surface  of  bodies  aud  to  climb  trees,  fortified,  and  has  a  castle,  formerly  resi- 

wbere   they    remain   during   the   summer  dence    of    the    prince-bishops,    a    noble 

feeding    upon    insects.     Hyta    versicolor^  Romanesque  cathedral  dating  from  1212, 

of    the    Northern    and    Middle    United  and    other    interesting    buildings.    Trent 

States,  is  very  noisy  towards  evening.  is    a    place   of    great    antiquity,    having 

Trefoil    (tre'foil),    a    distinctive    title  been  made  a  bishopric  before  380.    The 

a.xv;xvxx    uppij^d    to   plants   of   various  only   memorable   event   in   its   history   is 

kinds  on  account  of  a  peculiarity  of  the  the  council   which   was  held  in   it,  and 

form  of  the  leaf,  which  consists  of  three  bears  its  name    (see  below).    Pop.  24,- 

leaflets;  examples,  buckbean,  clover,  and  808. 

medick.    The  same  term  is  also  applied  Trent    ^^^^^^  o^*  &  celebrated  oecu- 

to    an    ornamental    foliation    in    Gothic  '  menical   council   of   the   Roman 

architecture,   used   in  the  heads  of  win-  Catholic  Church,  convened  to  settle  vari- 

dow  lights,  tracery,  paneling,  etc  ous  controversies  that  were  agitating  the 

TrATTiofAila     (trem-a-to'da),  a  division  church    during    the    Reformation    period, 

xrematuutt    ^^  gcolecida,  belonging  to  and   for  the  reform  of  abuses,     ft   met 

the  group  of  Platyelmia   or  flat-worms,  during   the   pontificate   of    Paul    III    at 

and    represented   by   such   forms  as   the  Trent  in  1545,  but  the  wars  in  Germany 

flukes  or  Distoms  (see  Difftoma)  and  their  caused    its    transference    to    Bologna    in 

allies.    They   are  parasitic   worms,   usu-  154(>,    when    it    dispersed.     Pope    Julius 

ally  of  a  flattened  or  rounded  form,  and  III  again  convoked  it  at  Trent  in  1551, 

are  furnished  with  one  or  more  suctorial  but  it  dispersed  a  year  later  on  the  ap- 

pores,    like    minute    cupping-glasses,    for  proach   of   the   Lutherans.     Eight   years 

adhesion  to  the  tissues  of  their  hosts.  afterwards  it  was  again  called  together 

TrATtinlifA     (trem'u-llt),  a  mineral,  a  by  Pius  IV,  and  it  finished  ito  labors  in 

xremoilie    variety  of  hornblende.     It  1563.    This    council    definitively    settled 

ib  a  silicate  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  the    doctrines    of    the    Roman    Catholic 

is  white  or  colorless,  and  usually  occurs  Church. 

in  long,  prismatic  crystals.  Trent  Affftir      ^^      October,      1861, 

Tr  ATI  nil     RicuABD   Chenevix.   ecclesi-  **^""  *x«.cw.x.    q^^^  Charles  Wilkes, 

xxc^xiv/AA,   astic     and     philologist,     was  United  States  Navy,  intercepted  at  sea 

bom  at  Dublin,  in  1807,  and  was  gradu-  the   British   mail   steamer   Trent   bound 

ated  at  Cambridge  in  1829.     He  entered  from  Havana  to  St  Thomas,  and  took  off 

the  church,  and  eventuallv  became  dean  two  0)nfederate  commissioners,  accredited 

of    Westminster    (1856-63),    and    arch-  to   France,    Messrs.    Mason    and    Slidell, 

bishop    of    Dublin,    1864.     He    was    the  who  were  among  her  passengers.    They 

author  of  a  collection  of  poems,  and  a  were  taken  to  Boston,  and  imprisoned  at 

popular  writer  on  philological  and  theo-  Fort  Warren,  but  were  released  on  Jan. 

logical     subjects.     His     works     include  1*  1862,  on  the  demand  of  the  British 

Notes  on  the  Parables  (1841),  Notes  on  government,  and  permitted  to  proceed  to 

the  Miracles    (1846),  On  the  Study  of  Europe.    The  affair  created   intense  ex- 

Words   (1851),  Proverbs  and  their  Les-  citement    at    the    time,    but    Secretary 

sons     (1853),    Bynonyms    of    the    New  Seward  accepted  England's  demand  as  an 

Testament     (1854).    English    Past    and  adoption  of  the  American  doctrine  which 

Present    (1855),    On    Plutarch    (1874),  denied  the  right  to  search,  and  on  that 

Lectures   on    Mediwval    Church   History  basis  gave  up  the  captives.    The  demand, 

(1878),    and    many    others.    He    died  however,  gave  rise  to  much  irritation. 

March  28,  1886.  Trenton    (t''«Ji'tmi),    a    city,    capital 

TrATinliAft       the  name  given  fn  general  of  Grundy  O).,  Missoun.  is 

xreucucs,      ^^  ^j,  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^Ich  on  a  branch  of  the  Grand  River,   102 

are   used   in   attacking   a  fortress.    See  miles  n.  e.  of  Leavenworth,  Kansas.    It 

Siege^  Sap^  Fortification.  is  the  seat  of  RusUn  College  and  has 

TrATif    &  I'iv^^  of  England  which  rises  railroad    shops    and    flour    mills.    Pon. 

xreni,  ^  Staffordshire,  4  miles  north  5656. 

of  Burslem.     It  flows  through  the  conn-  Trenton   ^  ^^»  ^^  capital  of  New 

ties  of  Stafford,  Derby,  Nottingham,  and  ***^**''vaa|  jeyggy^  ^^  ^^^  Delaware  at 

Lincoln,  and  falls  into  the  Humber  after  the   head   of   tide-water   and   steamboat 

a  course  of  144  miles.    It  is  navigable  navigation,  29  miles  iv.  b.  of  Philadelphia. 


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Trepang  Trevithick 

It  is  laid  out  with  great  regularity,  and  such  officers  may  maintain  poesesaion  if 
has  a  state-bouse,  court-house,  state-  once  they  gain  entrance.  Malicious  tres- 
prison,  state  hospital  for  insane,  armory,  pass  is  a  willful,  malicious,  or  mis- 
reform  home  for  girls,  normal  and  model  chievoua  injury  of  private  or  public 
schools,  and  a  Koman  Catholic  college,  property,  real  or  personal 
The  manufactures  are  large  and  numer-  Trevelvail  i^'®"^^'  y*^)»  SiB 
ous,  including  extensive  pottery  works,  **^^^*J»**  Geoboi  Otto,  nephew  of 
wire-cable  and  other  iron  works,  steam  Lord  Macaulay,  bom  in  1838.  He  was 
turbines,  and  various  others.  Pop.  educated  at  Harrow,  was  graduated  at 
108,000.  The  battle  of  Trenton,  per-  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  entered 
haps  more  than  any  other,  decided  the  the  Indian  civil  service  by  competition, 
success  of  the  Revolution,  by  giving  new  He  was  elected  to  parliament  in  1865, 
courage  and  confidence  to  the  people.  On  and  with  the  exception  of  a  short  in- 
the  morning  of  December  25,  1770,  Wash-  terval  always  followed  Gladstone's  lead, 
ington,  with  about  2500  men,  crossed  holding  several  cabinet  positions.  He  is 
the  Delaware  River  from  the  Pennsyl-  the  author  of  the  Life  and  Letters  of 
vania  side,  eight  miles  above  Trenton.  Lord  Macaulay,  Early  EUtory  of  Charles 
After  a  forced  march,  he  surprised  CoL  James  Fom,  History  of  the  American 
Rail,  the  Hessian  general,  and  captured  Revolution,  etc 

his  entire  force.  Tr^v^ft    (trSvz;    German    Trier,    Lat 

TreDftn^    (tre-pang*),    the     ^j^  **^v^»   Augusta  Trevirorum),  a  town 

'^      o    sea-slug,    a     ma-     |^k  In   the   province   of   Rheinland,   Prussia, 

Hue     animal    of    the    genus     «H  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Moselle.     It  is 

Holothuria,   belonging   to   the     «■  considered   the   oldest  city   in   Germany, 

class     Echinodermata,     order     IV  and  contains  many  Roman  remains.     It 

Holothuridse,       popularly     MM  is  surrounded  by  wails,  and   is  indiffer- 

known  as  *  sea-cucumbers,'  or    »■  ently    built.    The    chief    buildings    are 

btehes-demer.  ^H^  ^^^    cathedral,    built    at    various    times 

TrPTtflTiTiiTifF  (tre-pan'ing),     ^^^  from  the  sixth  century  downwards,  and 

xxcpitiiiiiii^  the  operation        T«  containing    the    Holy    Coat     (see    Holy 

of  cutting  a  circular  opening         ^S  Coat  of  Treves)  ;  the  Liebfrauenkirche, 

into  the  skull  by  means  of  a        J^V  or    Church    of    our    Lady,    an    elegant 

surgical    instrument   called   a       JV  Gothic    structure;    and    the    old    archi- 

trepan  or  trephine.    This  con-       S^  episcopal  palace,  now  used  as  a  barracks, 

sists  of  a  handle,  to  which  is       ^|»  The  Roman   remains  include  an  amphi- 

fixed    a    small    hollow    steel         *^  theater,  the  Porta  Nigra   (Black  Gate), 

cylinder,    of    about    i    to    1      Trepang  baths,    etc.    Treves    became    a    Roman 

inch  in  diameter,  having  teeth    (Hoiothu-  colony  under  Augustus,  and  subsequently 

cut  on  its  lower  edge  so  as  liasdUlis),  it  was  the  residence  of  several  emporors. 

to  form  a  circular  saw.    Tre-  It    rose    to    great    splendor    under    the 

panning  is  especially  resorted  to  for  the  archbishop-electors,    who   exercised   g*eat 

purpose    of    relieving    the    brain    from  political    influence    in    Germany.     Fiom 

pressure,  as  in  fracture  of  the  skull  or  1473  to  1797  it  had  a  university.     Pop. 

In  cerebral  abscess.  43,324. 

Trpsnfliift  (tres'pas),  in  law,  a  term  TrAirifio  (trft-v6'£6),  a  town  of  Italy, 
xrcsptuis  which  is  applied  generally  ^rcvisu  capital  of  the  province  of 
to  any  offense  against  the  person  or  Treviso,  15  miles  N.  N.  w.  of  Venice,  on 
property  of  another,  but  is  more  espe-  the  Sile.  It  is  a  walled  town  with 
cially  applied  to  a  peaceable  but  unlaw-  spacious  streets  and  large  squares,  and 
ful  entry  upon  the  property  of  another,  has  a  great  number  of  nandsome  build- 
the  remedy  for  which  is  by  action  of  dam-  ings.  The  manufactures  consist  chiefly 
ages.  Any  injuries  committed  against  of  silk  and  cotton  goods,  machinery,  and 
land  or  buildings  are  in  the  most  ordi-  cutlery.  Pop.  16»933. 
nary  sense  of  the  word  trespasses,  as  Trevitlliclc  (trav'i-thik),  Richabo, 
entering  another's  house  without  permis-  *'*'^^''^"^^*^  engineer  and  inventor, 
sion,  walking  over  the  ground  of  another,  bom  in  Cornwall  in  1771 ;  died  in  1833. 
or  suffering  any  cattle  to  stray  upon  it.  In  1797  he  succeeded  his  father  as  a 
or  any  act  or  practice  which  damages  the  leading  engineer  *  in  Cornish  mining, 
property,  or  interferes  with  the  owner's  Amone  his  first  inventions  was  an  im- 
or  occupier's  rights  of  possession.  A  cred*  proved  pump,  which  soon  came  into 
itor  or  customer  can  be  ordered  away  by  universal  use  in  de^p  mining.  He  next 
a  householder  or  shopkeeper,  and  even  perfected  a  high-pressure  steam-engine, 
the  civil  courts  have  no  power  to  give  a  and  began  to  experiment  in  the  con- 
right  of  entry  to  officers  intrusted  with  struction  of  locomotive  engines.  Passen- 
the  execution  of  legal  processes,  though  gers    were   first   conveyed   by   steam   by 


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Triad  Tridiina 

means   of  his   road   locomotive   in   1801,  lines  of  a   triangle  are  all   corvee,  the 

and    he   soon    after   successfully    worked  triangle    is    said    to    be    ourvUmeoTt    as 

a  tram  road  locomotive.     His  ideas  were  fig.  5.     If  one  or  two  of  the  aides  are 

afterwards   taken   up   and   developed   by  straight  and  others  or  other  curve,  the 

Stephenson.     He  was  the  first  to  recog-  triangle    is   said    to   be   mwiUmear^    fig. 

nize   the  value  of   iron   in  shipbuilding,  6.     If   the  sides   are   all   arcs   of   great 

and  the  application  of  steam  to  agricul-  circles  of  the  sphere,  or  arcs  of  the  same 

ture.     His    request    for    recognition   and  circle,  the  triangle  is  said  to  be  apkeri- 

reward  for  his  numerous  inventions  was  cal, 

disregarded   by   the  government,  and   he  Trifl.Tl?1lla.tion    ^    method    used    in 

died  in  poverty.  **"o*"**    ^"»  su rv eying.     See 

Triad    (trt'ad),   a  trinity,  a  unity   of  Trigonometrical  Survey, 

^*  three.     In  Welsh  literature,  the  Trios    Tbiassic  System.    See  Otology, 

name  is  given  to  a  class  of  ancient  com-  ***«**»> 

positions  —  moral    and    historical  —  com-  Tribmie     (trib'fln:  trihUnua),  in  Ro- 

prising      enumerations      of      particulars  ****'•***''    man  antiquity,  originally  an 

bound   together  in  knots  of  three.    The  officer  connected   with   a   tribe,   or  who 

Hindu  Triad,   Trimurii^  or  trinity,  con-  represented  a  tribe  for  certain  purposes; 

sists  of  the  three  deities  Brahma,  Vishnu,  especially,  an  officer  or  magistrate  chosen 

and   8iva,   considered  as  an  iniseparable  by  the  people  to  protect  them  from  the 

unity.  oppression  of   the  patricians  or  nobles. 

Trial     ^^^  *^^^  ^°^  Procedure,  Civil,  and  to  defend  their  liberties  against  any 

AxxAx.  attempts  that  might  be  made  upon  them 

Triangle    (trfang-gl),  in  geometry,  a  by  the  senate  and  consuls.    These  magis- 

*    o*^    figure     bounded     by     three  trates  were  at  first  two,  but  their  num- 

lines  and  containing  three  angles.    The  ber  was  increased  to  five  and  ultimately 

three  angles  of  a  plane  triangle  are  equal  to   ten.    This    last   number   appears    to 

to    two    right   angles    or    180**,    and    its  have    remained    unaltered    down    to    the 

area  is  equal  to  half  that  of  a  rectangle  end    of    the    empire.    There    were    also 

or  parallelogram  of  the  same  base  and  military   tribunes,   officers  of  the  army, 

altitude.    The  triangle  is   the  most   im-  each  of  whom  commanded  a  division  or 

portant  figure  in  xeometry,  and  may  be  le^^ion,    and    also    other    officers    called 

considered     the    element    of     all     other  tribunes;  as,  tribunes  of  the  treasury,  of 

figures.    If  the  three  lines  or  sides  of  the  horse,  etc    See  Rome  {History). 

a  trianele  are  all  straight,  it  is  a  plane  TricUna    (tri-kl'na),  a  minute  nema- 

or  rectilinear  triangle,  as  in  figs.   1,  2,  ***^*****»   toid    worm,    the    larva    of 

8,  4.     If  all  the  three  sides  are  equal,  it  which    was    discovered    in    1835    in    the 

is  an  equilateral  triangle,  as  in   fig.  2.  tissue  of  the  voluntary  muscles  of  man. 

If  two  of  the  sides  only  are  equal.lt  is  giving  rise  to  a  disease  since  known  as 

an  isosceles  triangle,   fig.  3.    If  all  the  trichtniasis  or  trichinosis.    The  worm  is 

A                  A  common  also  to  several  other  mammals, 

|\                    A                A  especially   to   the  pig,   and   it  is  gener- 

I  \              /  \           /  \  ally  from  it  that  man  receives  the  dis- 

I  -\          /   •  \         /    \  ^^^s®*    When  a  portion  of  flesh,  say  of 

|\/'\/*\  the  pig,  containing  larv»  is  taken  into 

lA.       \   /             \    /        \  the  stomach   the   larvs   in   a   few  days 

become  developed  into  procreative  adult 

W                   >^\          fv  worms,  having  in  the  meantime  passed 

W             X       \       /     X  ^^^  "*®  intestines.    The  male  worm  is 

\\         /           \     I      \  about  V«th  of  an  inch  long,  the  female 

\4\      /        t       \/<\  about  a  half  more.    The  female  produces 

U   \  /                  If          I  embryos      in      extraordinary      numbers, 

^^^^^'v^.^^^^  /^-^  which  gain  entrance  into  the  muscles  by 

»nJ^"7^    4*—*^  penetrating  the  mucous  coat  of  the  intes- 

Triangles.  tine  and  entering  the  capillaries,  whence 

they  art  carried  to  their  habitat  by  the 

three  sides  are  unequal,  it  is  a  scalene  circulation.    There  they  disorganise  the 

triangle,  fig.  4.    If  one  of  the  angles  is  surrounding    tissue,    setting    up    at    Uie 

a    right    angle,    the    triangle    is    right-  same  time  morbid  action  in  the  system, 

angled^  as  fig.  1,  having  the  right  angle  manifested  by  swelling  of  the  face,  body, 

at  A.     If  one  of  the  angles   is  obtuse,  and  limbs,  fever,  pains,  etc.,  and  result- 

the   triangle   is  called   ohtuse-angled,   as  ing  sometimes  in  deatlL    In  the  mnsdes 

fiff.   4,   having   the   obtuse  angle  b.    If  they  become  quiescent,  are  encased  in  a 

an  the  angles  are  acute,  the  triangle  is  cyst  covered  with  c^careous  matter,  and 

Qcute-^npledf  as  figs.  2,  3.    If  the  three  may   give   no   more    trouble    Thorough 


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TricMniasis  Trifolium 

cookinr  kills  the  trichinae,  and  thus  pre-  TridaCna.     ^®®  Clam. 

Tents  bfection. 

TrirliiTiiflaift    Trichiwobis      ( trik-i-  Triil^ntinp   Rmmril    the     Council 

iTicJumasiS)  m^a^jg,    triki-no'sis),  J-naenxme  uouncu,  ^^  rp^.^^^  g^ 

a  painful  and  sometimes  fatal  disease  Trent  and  Trent,  Council  of. 
produced  in  man  by  eating  meat,  espe-  Triest  (tr6-est';  Italian,  Trieste)^  a 
dally  the  flesh  of  pigs,  either  raw  or  m-  ***^»''  seaport  town  in  Austria,  214 
sufficiently  cooked,  infested  with  iri-  miles  southwest  of  Vienna,  on  a  gulf 
chinw.  Set  Trichina.  of  same  name,  at  the  northeastern  ex- 
Trir^TiinrtnAlv  (trich-in-op'6-li),  a  tremity  of  the  Adriatic.  The  old  town, 
xiiv/iiiiiuyuxjr  j^^jj  ^£  British  India,  on  an  acclivity  crowned  by  a  castle,  has 
capital  of  district  of  same  name,  in  the  steep  and  narrow  streets,  but  in  the 
presidency  of  Madras,  on  the  right  bank  new  town  the  streets  are  spacious  and 
of  the  Cavery.  It  is  a  military  station,  well  paved,  and  there  are  handsome 
and  contains  a  citadel  on  a  granite  peak  thoroughfares  and  squares.  The  chief 
500  feet  high,  which  commands  the  sur-  buildings  are  an  ancient  cathedral  in  the 
rounding  country.  The  native  town  lies  Byzantine  style,  and  the  exchange  block 
at  the  foot  of  the  rock,  and  beyond  it  of  buildings,  which  is  a  handsome  edi- 
are  the  European  quarters,  barracks,  fice.  Triest  is  the  chief  Austrian  port, 
hospitals,  St.  John's  Church,  with  the  and  the  most  important  trading  place  in 
tomb  of  Bishop  Heber,  a  Iloman  Catholic  the  Adriatic,  and  has  now  very  extensive 
chapel,  etc.  Pop.  122,028.  harbor  accommodation.  Triest  is  the 
Triclininin  Oi^*Klln'i-um>,  among  headquarters  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
AXXVAXUJ.U111  £^g  Romans  the  dining-  Lloyd's  shipping  company,  who  have  ex- 
room  where  guests  were  received,  fur-  tensive  shipbuilding  and  other  establish- 
nished   with  three  couches,   which   occu-  ments    here.     Triest    existed    under    the 

?>ied  three  sides  of  the  dinner  table,  the  Roman  empire   (Latin  name  Tcrgeste  or 

ourth  side  being  left  open  for  the  free  Tergestum),    but    did    not    rise    to    im- 

ingress  and  egress  of  servants.    On  these  portance  until  recent  times.     Pop.  221,- 

couches,   which   also  received   the   name  993. 

of  tricilinium,  the  guests  reclined  at  din-  Trif olilllll   ^  trS-fdli-um  ) ,  the  Trefoil 

ner  or  supper.    Each  couch  usually  ac-  ^^-^v**"-"*  or  Clover,  a  genus  of  low 

commodated  three  persons.  herbs,  with   the  leaves,  as  a  rule,  di^- 

Tricolor   Ort^ul-ur),  the  French  na-  tately    trifoliate   and    with    red,    purple, 

*  tional  flag,  or  one  formed  white,  or  yellow  flowers,  rareljr  solitary, 
after  the  model  of  it.  The  French  tri-  There  are  about  150  species,  chiefly  found 
color  is  blue,  white,  and  red  in  equal  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  abounding  in 
vertical  sections,  the  blue  being  next  Europe  and  many  of  them  natives  of  the 
the  flag-staff.  United  States.  Several  of  the  species 
TVirAirnia  TriTrnwia  (tri-kd'pis),  are  very  useful  in  agriculture,  both  as 
±TlCOUpiS,  XTlKUpiS  fcHARii!lo8,  pasture  plants  and  from  their  power  of 
«  Greek  statesman,  bom  at  Nauplia  in  enriching  the  soil.  This  arises  from  their 
1832;  died  in  1896.  He  became  minis-  roots  being  infected  by  certain  nitrogen- 
ter  of  foreign  affairs  in  1866,  and  pre-  fixing  germs,  through  the  action  of  which 
mier  in  1875  and  on  several  later  occa-  the  clovers  add  to  the  nitrogenous  con- 
sions,  and  was  active  in  efforts  for  the  tents  of  the  soil.  The  true  clovers  have 
development  of  Greece.  Failing  in  his  herbaceous,  not  twining  stems,  roundish 
efforts  to  relieve  the  country  from  its  heads  or  oblong  spikes  of  small  flowers, 
financial  difficulties,  he  was  crushingly  the  corolla  remaining  in  a  withered  state 
defeated  in  the  election  of  1895.  until  the  ripening  of  the  seed.  The  most 
Tricvcle  (tn'si-kl),     a     three-wheeled  important  to  the  farmer  is  the  common 

*  ^  variety  of  velocipede,  intro-  Red  Clover  (T.  pratense)^  a  native  of 
duced  about  187o,  and  therefore  subse-  Europe,  but  naturalized  in  all  parts  of 
qnently  to  the  bicycle.  The  earliest  pat-  the  United  States,  widely  cultivated  and 
tema  were  rear-steering,  but  were  soon  growing  freely  in  meadows  and  pastures, 
superseded  by  front-steering  machines,  The  White  or  Dutch  Clover,  Creeping 
the  latter  being  steadier.  Tricycles  were  Trefoil,  or  Shamrock  (T.  repens)  is 
first  worked  by  pedaled  levers,  but  this  found  in  most  parts  of  North  America 
form  soon  gave  way  to  the  rotary  action,  and  Europe,  nearly  always  springing  up 
which  is  produced  by  a  cranked  axle  to  where  a  barren  heath  is  turned  with  the 
which  the  pedals  are  fixed.  This  axle  spade  or  ploui'h.  It  is  a  valuable  feed- 
is  connected  by  chains  running  on  ing  plant  in  dry  and  thin  soils,  and  its 
toothed  wheels  with  the  driving  axle,  spontaneous  growth  in  a  meadow  Is  hailed 
The  positions  and  sizes  of  the  wheels,  as  a  sign  of  improving  conditions.  In 
and  the  steering  gear,  vary  neariy  in  laying  down  permanent  pastures,  except 
fTirj  make.  in  strong  land,  it  sbomd  be  somewhat 


i 


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Trinidad 


TripoU 


•tock  raisinc  region.  Has  railway  shops, 
foundryand  machine  shops  and  other  in- 
dustries. Pop.  10,204. 
ISnuirlorl  on®  <>'  *^«  British  West 
xniuuiiU)  jjj^j^  Islands,  and,  except- 
ing Jamaica,  the  largest  and  most  valu- 
able.  It  is  tlie  most  southeriv  of  the 
Windward  group,  lies  immediately  off  the 
northeast  coast  of  Venezuela,  and  is 
about  65  miles  long  by  40  mUes  broad; 
area,  1756  square  miles.  There  is  a  lake 
of  mineral  pitch,  104  acres  in  extent,  con- 
taining an  almost  inexhaustible  supply. 
The  chief  products  are  sugar,  cocoa, 
molasses,  rum,  cocoanuts.  pitch,  timber 
and  fruits.  The  climate  is  healthy,  and, 
though  hot,  is  well  suited  to  Europe^s. 
Trinidad  is  a  crown  colony,  the  puUie 
affairs  being  administered  by  a  lieutenant- 
goTemor,  assisted  by  an  executive  and  a 
lerislative  committee.  It  was  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  July,  1491,  and  taken 
from  Spain  by  the  British  in  1797.  The 
capital  Port  of  Spain,  on  the  northwest 
side  of  the  island,  is  one  of  the  finest 
towns  in  the  West  Indies.  Pop.  (1912) 
840000. 

TriTiiioii  a  town  near  the  southern 
xmuaaa,  ^^^  ^^  Qu|>a,  in  SanU 
Clara  province.  It  is  one  of  the  seven 
original  dties  established  by  Diego  Vel- 
asquez ;  founded  in  1514.  Pop.  12,000. 

Trinitrotoluene  ti^;\,^*»J^lS>i: 

line  substance,  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether  and  benzine.  It 
has  recently  been  adopted  as  the  base  of 
shell-fillers  instead  of  prussic  or  ammo- 
nium nitrate  compounds.  It  is  not  dan- 
gerous to  handle,  bums  without  explod- 
ing, and  has  no  bad  effects  physiologically. 
TVinifv  (trin'i-ti),  a  theological  name 
xxxiixtjr  gj^^^  ^  ^jjg  peity  as  expres- 
sive of  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the 
Triune  nature  of  God,  the  union  of  the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Spirit 
as  Three  Persons,  and  One  God.  The 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  nowhere  ex- 
pressly taught  in  the  Old  Testament,  but 
m  the  New  Testament  it  is  clearly 
taught,  though  the  word  Trinity  does 
not  occur.  A  comprehensive  statement  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  found  in  the 
Athanasian  Creed,  which  asserts  that '  the 
Catholic  faith  is  this:  That  we  worship 
one  God  as  Trinity,  and  Trinity  in  Unity 
— neither  confounding  the  persons  nor 
dividing  the  substances — for  there  is  one 
person  of  the  Father,  another  of  the  Son, 
and  another  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  But  the 
Godhead  of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son, 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  all  one;  the 
alory  Equal;  the  majesty  co-etemaL* 
iMfference  in  interpretation  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  led  to  the  division  of 
the  Church  into  the  Eastern  and  Western. 


Trio 


in 
ics 


(tr6'5,  tri'6),  a  musical  composi- 
tion for  three  voices  or  for  three 
instruments.    Also  a  record  or  subordinate 
division  of  certain  musical  compositions. 

Triple  Amance.|«-^^*^«ti 

are  known  by  this  name.  The  first  was 
formed  in  1668  bv  Great  Britain, 
Sweden,  and  the  Netherlands  asniinst 
Louis  XIV ;  the  second  in  1717  by  Great 
Britain,  J^rance,  and  Holland  against 
Spain.  In  18S2  was  formed  that  of  Aus- 
tria, Germany  and  Italy.  From  this  Italy 
withdrew  during  the  European  war. 

Triple  Entente  <2»^*grt>Je^o^J 

Britain,  France  and  Russia.  Great 
Britain  remained  for  long  outside  of  alli- 
ances, but  at  the  opening  of  the  twentieth 
century,  owing  cluefly  to  the  efforts  of 
Edward  VII,  began  to  enter  into  formal 
ententes,  first  with  France  and  then  with 
Russia.  The  Triple  Entente— or  Under- 
standing— ^aroee  from  a  Dual  Alliance 
between  Russia  formed  in  1887,  an  in- 
formal understanding  between  Britain  and 
France  in  1904,  and  a  similar  understand- 
ing between  Britain  and  Russia  in  1907. 
Tri-nlA*  (trip'let),  in  music,  acombina- 
xxx^i^v    ^Q^  ^j£  ^pgg  ^oteg  to  \^  played 

in  the  time  of  two.  They  are  joined  by 
a  slur  and  distinguished  by  having  the 
figure  3  above  them. 

Tripod    (trf:p?d), 

AAx^vu.  anciently  a 
bronze  altar  consist- 
ing of  a  caldron 
raised  on  a  three- 
legged  stand  of 
bronze.  Such  was  the 
altar  of  Aiiollo  at 
DelphL  Tripods  of 
fine  workmanship  in 
precious  metals  were 
placed  in  Apollo's 
temple. 

Tripoli  (trip'o^).a 

the  north  of  Africa, 
largely  desert ;  is 
bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Mediterranean,  west  by  Tonla, 
south  by  Fezzan  and  the  Libyan  Desert, 
and  east  by  the  Libyan  Desert  and 
Barca ;  area,  about  410,000  square  miles. 
Its  boundaries  are  somewhat  uncertain, 
but  it  extends  inland  for  about  800  miles. 
The  coast-line,  which  is  700  or  800  miles 
in  length,  including  the  Gulf  of  Sidra, 
or  Greater  Syrtis,  has  only  one  harbor, 
that  of  the  capital,  Tripoli.    The  eastern 

gart  of  the  interior  is  mostly  barren  sand, 
ut  in  the  south  and  west  it  is  diversified 
by  mountain  ranges,  attaining  a  height 
Of  about  4000  feet    The  richest  tract  of 


Antique  Tripod. 


{ 


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Tripoli  f  ritiouni 

Tripoli  is  that  which  stretches  aboat  15  it  was  the  capital  of  Morea>  but  Ibrahim 
miles  along  the  coast,  and  inclades  the  Pasha  took  possession  of  it  in  1828  and 
capital.  It  is  prodactive  of  wheat,  bar-  razed  it  to  the  ground.  It  has  been 
ley,  millet,  and  Indian-corn;  oranges,  partially  rebuilt  Fop.  10,4^. 
pomegranates,  lemons,  figs,  apricots,  Trinng  See  Camhndge,  Univeraity  of. 
plums,  and  other  fruits.    Abundant  rains   ***r^°» 

fall  from  November  to  March,  while  from  Trintvcll  (trip'tik),  a  picture,  carv' 
May  to  September  the  heat  is  intense,  the  •^'-'■if^j^"'  ^g^  q^  other  representation 
sirocco  often  blows,  and  the  thermometer  in  three  compartments  side  by  side; 
rises  at  times  to  a  high  figure.  The  most  frequently  such  as  is  used  for  an 
population,  which  in  the  outlying  dis-  altar-piece.  The  central  picture  is 
tncts  consists  of  Berbers  and  Bedouins, 
and  in  the  town  chiefly  Moors,  is  esti- 
mated at  about  1,000,000.— Tripoli,  the 
capita],  stands  on  a  tongue  of  land  pro- 
jecting into  the  sea,  has  a  moderately 
good  harbor,  and  consists  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  narrow  and  uneven  lanes,  the  chief 
buildings  being  the  governor's  castle, 
the  great  mosque,  a  handsome  structure, 
synagogues,  bazaars,  public  baths,  etc. 
The  trade  across  the  desert  extends  as 
far  as  Timbuctoo  and  Bornou.  The  chief 
manufactures  are  carpets,  long  cele- 
brated, other  woolen  goods,  and  leather. 
Tripoli,  originally  held  by  tlie  Phoenicians, 
became  in  time  part  of  the  Roman  prov- 
ince of  Africa,  and  in  the  8th  century 
was  conquered  by  the  Arabs.  It  was  Triptych. —  Painting  by  Allegretto  Nucci,  1465. 
taken  b/  Spain  in  1510,  and  assigned  to 

the  Knights  of  St.  John,  who  had  been  usually  complete  in  itself.  The  sub- 
driven  from  Rhodes  by  the  Turks.  The  sidiarv  designs  on  either  side  are  smaller. 
Knights  surrendered  to  the  Turks  in  1551  and  frequently  correspond  in  size  and 
and  it  remained  a  province  of  Turkey  shape  to  one-half  of  the  principal  picture, 
until  1714,  when  its  bey  became  largely  Trireme  (tn'rOm),  a  galTov  or  vessel 
independent  Turkey  subdued  it  again  ■^•'■•'"'•ciiic  ^^^.jj  three  benches  or  rnnkn 
in  18->5,  and  it  remained  a  vilayet  o_f  the  of  oars  on  each  side,  a  common  class  of 
Ottoman  empire  until  1911,  when  Italy,  war-ship  amont:  the  ancient  Oreeks.  Ro- 
which  had  long  sought  to  extend  its  in-  mans.  Carthapinians,  etc.  The  trireme 
terests  in  Africa,  invaded  it  and  after  a  was  also  nrovided  with  a  large  square 
war  continuing  until  October,  1012,  ob-  sail,  which  could  be  raised  during  a  fair 
tained  possession.  At  present  the  posses-  wind  to  relieve  the  rowers,  but  was  never 
sion  is  limited  in  great  measure  to  the  employed  in  action, 
narrow  atrip  of  coast  held  by  the  Italian  Triqnipcnflfiifl  See  Hermes  TrUmc- 
army  of  occupation.    Pop.  of  the  capital  AnsmeglBlUB.     ^^^^ 


jaw 
Thero 


about  30,000.  Trismus  '(triz'mus),  a  species  of 

Trinnli  Tababolto,  or  Tripolis,  a  ***""*•*•»  nag  affecting  the  under 
xxxi^/xxy  geaport  of  Syria,  capital  of  a  with  spastic  rigidity ;  locked- jaw.  1 
paahalic  of  the  same  name,  situated  on  are  two  kinds  of  trismus,  one  attacking; 
the  Mediterranean,  48  miles  northeast  infants  during  the  two  first  weeks  from 
of  Beyrout  There  is  a  trade  in  silk,  their  birth,  and  the  other  attacking  per- 
wool,  cotton,  tobacco,  galls,  etc.  I'up.  sons  of  all  ages,  and  arising  from  colds 
about  90,000.  or  a  wound.     See  Tetanus. 

Trinnli  a  mineral  originally  brought  m*-i.-,«.  W  A  Pirn  Tin  (dA-k^n'yA). 
XTipOUy    ^^^    TripoU    and    used    in  AFlSXan  U  ilCUIIiia    ^^   j^ »    ^    ^^ 

poliahing  metals,  marbles,  glass,  etc.  It  three  islands  in  the  South  Atlantic  (the 
10  a  kind  of  siliceous  rottenstone,  of  a  others  being  Nightingale  and  Inaccessible 
yellowish-gray  or  white  color,  rough  to  island),  about  1300  miles  8.  w.  of  St. 
the  touch,  bard  in  grain  but  not  com-  Helena.  It  is  mountainous,  and  one 
pact,  and  readily  Imbibes  water.  It  is  peak  rises  to  the  height  of  7640  feet 
also  found  in  BYance,  Italy  and  Ger-  The  island  was  taken  possession  of  by 
numy.  .    .       ,.  .    v  .  Great  Britain  in  1817.    Pop.   less  than 

Trinolitzfl.  (trip-u-lifKi),  a  town  of  loo. 

***«^**''  Soathem  Greece,  province  hp^ifi^nm  (trit'i-kum),  the  ffenm  of 
pt  Azcadia.     PrtHom  to  the  revolution  xriwcum  g^^^g^^  including  wh«at 


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Triton  Troglodyte 

Triton      ^^  Newt  Travancore  state*  Madras  presidency,  sit- 

xxxtuii.  uated    about    two    miles    irom    the    sea. 

Tritonidie    (tn-ton'i-de),  a  family  of  The  town  is  of  considerable  importance, 

Axxtuiuuo;   marine    nudibranchiate,  has  a  fort  containing  the  rajahs  palace 

gasteropodous   molluscs,   many   of   which  and   other  buildings,   an  ancient   temple, 

are    found    on    the    coast    of    England,  college  with  European  instructors,  medi- 

France,   and    other   European   countries,  cal    school,    hospitals,    Napier    museum, 

Tritons  (tri'tonz),  in  Greek  mythology,  various  handsome  buildings,  and  a  mili- 

^    ^  the  name  of  certain  sea-gods,  tary  cantonment     Pop.  57,882. 

They  are  variously  described,  but  their  Trivinm    (tHv'i-um),  the  name  given 

body  is  always  a  compound  of  the  human  *****»*"*•      in  the  middle  ages  to  the  first 

figure  above  with  that  of  a  fish  below,  three  of  the  seven  liberal   arts  —  gram- 

They    carry    a   trumpet    composed    of    a  mar,  rhetoric,  and  logic.    The  other  four, 

shell,  which  they  blow  at  the  command  consisting  of  arithmetic,  music,  geometry, 

of  Poseidon  to  soothe  the  waves.  and    astronomy,    were    called    the   quad- 

Trinmnh     (tn'umf),    in  Roman    an-  rivium.    See  Arts. 

MxxiL±u.yfu,   tiquity,   a  magnificent  pro-  Troad      ^^  Troy. 

cession  in  honor  of  a  victorious  zeneral,  **^"'**» 

and  the  highest  military  honor  which  he  Trooha.     (f^'^^)*    derived     from    the 

could    obtain.     It    was    granted    by    the  ^*'^^^"'^    Greek   and  meaning  a  circle, 

senate   only    to   one   who   had    held   the  As   known   in    Cuba,    during   the   insur- 

ofllce  of  dictatof,  of  consul,  or  of  praetor,  rection  of  1895-98,  it  was  a  barrier,  ex- 

and  after  a  decisive  victory  or  the  com-  tending  across  the  island,  built  of  posts, 

plete   subjugation    of   a   province.     In    a  at    times    three   and    even    five   deep,   to 

Koman  triumph  the  general  to  whom  this  which  barbed   wire  was  strung.     Behind 

honor   was  awarded  entered  the  city  of  this  stockade  the  Spanish  soldiers  fought. 

Rome  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses.  United   States  officers  speak  of  its  dire 

crowned     with     laurel,     and     having     a  effectiveness. 

scepter    in   one   hand   and   a   branch   of  TrOChee    (trO'ke),  in  prosody,  a  foot 

laurel    in   the  other.    He   was   preceded  ^''^^^^^    of    two    syllables,    the    first 

by     the    senate    and     the    magistrates,  long    and    the    second    short,    as    Lat. 

musicians,    the    spoils,    the    captives    in  fdmo,  or  Eng.  nation. 

fetters,   etc.,   and   followed   by  his  army  TrOcMlidffi      ^^  Humming-hird. 

on    foot,    in   marching   order.    The   pro-  •*-*v*/Aijj-i.u.«i« 

cession  advanced  in  this  order  along  the  Trochn  (tro-sbU),  Louis  Jules,  a 
Via  Sacra  to  the  Capitol,  where  a  bull  '^*-^^**'^  French  general,  bom  in  Brit- 
was  sacrificed  to  Jupiter,  and  the  laurel  tany  in  1815;  educated  at  St  Cyr;  en- 
wreath  deposited  in  the  lap  of  the  god.  gaged  in  the  Algerian^  Crimean,  and 
Banquets  and  other  entertainments  con-  Italian  campaigns ;  published  a  pamphlet 
eluded  the  solemnity.  A  naval  triumph  entitled  UArm^  Frangaise  en  1867,  and 
differed  in  no  respect  from  an  ordinary  showed  the  weakness  of  the  French 
triumph,  except  that  it  was  upon  a  army,  by  which  he  forfeited  the  favor 
smaller  scale,  and  was  characterized  by  of  Napoleon.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
the  beaks  of  ships  and  other  nautical  Franco-German  war  (1870),  however, 
trophies.  he  was  made  /governor  of  Paris,  and 
Triumphal  Arch,    see  Arc*.  when^fte  repubhc^w«  ^^n^Uimed^he^^ 

Trinmirir  (tn-am'vir),  one  of  three  a  posidon  which  he  held  until  the  capitu- 
xxxuiAivxx  jjj^Q  united  in  office.  The  lation.  He  wrote  Pour  la  V4rit4  ei  pour 
triumvirs  (L.  triumviri)  of  Rome  were  la  Justice,  and  L*Arm4e  Frangaise  en 
either  ordinary  magistrates  or  officials,  1819,  He  died  in  1896. 
or  else  extraordinary  commissioners  who  Tro^lodvte  (  trog'lu  -  dit ) ,  a  cave- 
were  frequently  appointed  to  execute  **v5xw\*jv^  dweller;  one  dwelling  in 
jointly  any  public  office.  But  the  men  a  cave  or  underground  habitation.  The 
best  known  in  Roman  history  as  ancient  Greeks  gave  the  name  troglodyte 
triumvirs  were  rather  usurpers  of  power  to  various  races  of  savages  inhabitmg 
than  properly  constituted  authorities,  caves,  especially  to  the  cave-dwellers  on 
The  term  triumvirate  is  particularly  ap-  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  and  along  the 
plied  in  Roman  history  to  two  famous  banks  of  the  Upper  Nile  in  Nubia  and 
coalitions,  the  first  in  59  B.  c.  between  Abyssinia,  the  whole  of  this  district  be- 
CiBsar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus;  the  second  ing  known  by  the  name  Troglodytik& 
in  43  B.  c.  between  Antony,  Octavian,  It  is  shown  by  archsological  investi- 
and  Lepidus.  See  Rome  (History),  gations  that  cave-dwellers  in  all  lo> 
Trivandrnm  (tP6-van'dr5in),  a  town  calities  probably  preceded  house-build* 
xixvouuxuui  ^  India,  the  capital  of  ers. 


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Troglodytes 

TrOelodyteS      <  -tea ) .     the     generic 
4.xv5AVF\i.jr  vwo     name    of    the    wrens; 

also  that  of  the  gorilla  and  chimpanzee. 
Trnfrnn     (tro'gon),   a   genus   of  birds, 

gonidae.  The  trogons  inhabit  the  forests 
of  the  intertropical  regions. 
Trm'q  "Rivi^rpci  (trwu-ri-vy&r;  'three 
irOlS  lilViereS  divers'),  an  old  city 
of  Quebec,  Canada,  situated  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  St  Lawrence  and  St  Maurice 
rivers.  It  has  various  thriving  indus- 
tries. Pop.  (1913)  18,000. 
Trollev      (trol'li;  electric  railway).   A 

•^  truck  which  travels  along 
overhead  wires  conveying  an  electric  cur- 
rent, and  forms  a  means  of  connection 
between  them  and  a  railway  car.  Cars 
moved  by  this  system  have  come  very 
widely  into  use  and  are  commonly  known 
as  trolley  cars.  See  Electric  RaUwap. 
TrolloBe   (tw>rop),  Anthony,  an  Eng- 

•t^  lish  novelist,  a  younger  son 
of  Frances  M.  TroUope,  was  bom  in 
London  in  1815;  died  in  1882.  In  1841 
he  was  appointed  clerk  to  a  post- 
o£Sce  surveyor  in  Ireland,  where  his  ex- 
periences gave  him  material  for  bis  first 
novels.  The  MacdermoU  of  Ballycloran 
(1847),  and  The  Kellya  and  the  O^KeUys 
(1848),  neither  of  which  was  success- 
lul.  Meanwhile  he  was  appointed  in- 
spector of  rural  post-oflSces  in  Ireland 
and  parts  of  England,  and  continuing  his 
novel-writing  bis  first  success  was  The 
Warden  (1^),  followed  by  Barcheater 
Towers  (1857),  Dr,  Thome  (1858),  and 
numerous  others.  He  also  published  ac- 
counts of  his  travels,  including  The 
West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  Main 
(1859),  Australia  and  New  Zealand 
(1873),  South  Africa  (1878),  besides  a 
Lfife  of  Cicero  (1881),  etc — Thomas 
AooLPHUS  Tbollope,  eldest  brother  of 
the  above,  was  bom  in  1810;  resided 
chiefly  in  Florence;  and  was  the  author 
of  Impressions  of  a  Wanderer  in  Italy 
(1852),  Tuscany  in  1849-59  (1859), 
History  of  Florence  (1865),  etc.  He 
died  in  1892. —  Fbances  Milton  Trol- 
Ijopb,  mother  of  the  above,  was  born 
about  1790,  and  died  in  1863.  She  was 
the  author  of  Domestic  Manners  of  the 
Americans  (1831),  The  Refugee  in  Amer- 
ica (1832),  books  which  were  very 
severe  upon  American  life  and  customs. 
Trolls  (trdls),  in  Northem  mythology, 
a  name  of  certain  supernatural 
beings,  in  old  Icelandic  literature  repre- 
sented as  a  kind  of  giants,  but  in  modem 
Scandinavia  regarded  as  of  diminutive 
size,  and  represented  as  a  kind  of  mis- 
chievous imps  or  goblins. 
TrnmlinTiP  (troml>dn),  a  deep-toned 
xrumouue    ^^^^    instrument    of    the 


Troop 


trumpet  kind,  consisting  of  three  tubes; 
the  first,  to  which  the  mouthpiece  is  at- 
tached, and  the  third,  which  terminates 
in  a  bell-shaped  orifice,  are  placed  side 
by  side;  the  middle  tube  is  doubled,  and 
slides  into  the  other  two  like  the  tube 
of  a  telescope.  By  the  manipulation  of 
the  slide  the  tube  of  air  is  altered    n 


i 


1,  Valve  Trombone.        2,  Slide  Trombone. 


length,  and  the  pitch  accordingly  varied. 
The  trombone  is  of  three  kinds,  the  alto, 
the  tenor,  and  the  bass;  and  some  instru- 
ments are  fitted  with  pistons,  when  they 
are  known  as  valve  trombones. 
Trnmn  Martin  Habpebtzoon,  the 
j,xvxu.^f  son  of  a  Dutch  naval  officer, 
was  bora  at  Briel  in  1597.  He  went  to 
sea  with  his  father  in  1607;  received 
the  appointment  of  lieutenant-admiral; 
gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Span- 
ish and  Portuguese  fleet  near  Dunkirk  in 
1639;  encountered  Blake  and  Monk  in 
1653,  and  in  the  same  year  he  again 
encountered  Monk  and  was  killed  in  the 
battle. —  His  son,  Cornelius,  bom  at 
Rotterdam  in  1629,  was  also  dis- 
tinguished in  the  naval  service  of  his 
country.  He  died  in  1691. 
TroTTifiA  (trom'sen),  a  seaport  of  Nor- 
J.1U1XIOV  ^^y  capital  of  the  province 
of  Troms5,  situated  on  a  small  island 
of  the  same  name  off  the  west  coast.  It 
has  an  extensivQ  trade  In  fish,  train-oil, 
etc    Pop.  6956k 

Trondhjem  MI'^tT^ci.Jt  T^^ 

way,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  country, 
situated  on  a  bay  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Nid,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Trond- 
hjem-fiord.  It  poaiesses  strong  fortifica- 
tions on  the  mainland  and  on  the  small 
rocky  island  of  Munkholm.  The  chief 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  which  in 
some  parts  is  as  old  as  1033 ;  the  Kongs- 
gaard,  or  palace  of  the  old  Norwegian 
kings;  and  a  museum,  including  a  pic- 
ture-gallery, and  a  library  with  some  rare 
MSS.  The  trade  consists  chiefly  in  ex- 
ports of  timber,  dried  and  salted  fish,  tar, 
and  copper.    Pop.  (1910)  45,335. 

'TrOOB   ^^^P)»     ^     ^^y     o^     cavalry, 
•t^    usually  consisting  of  sixty  troop- 
lers,  under  the  command  of  a  captain  and 
two  lieutenants. 


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Tmmpet-sliell 


Trust 


from    the   blowing   of    trumpets   in    the 
temple  with  more  than  asual  solemnity. 

Trumpet-shell.   ®^  ^^'*^'^- 
Trumpet-weed,  ^t^l^^!^^^^ 

fUa  huccindliSf  the  stem  of  which  being 

hollow  is  used  as  a  siphon,  and  also  as  a 

trumpet 

Trumpet-wood.     ^^  Cecropia. 

Trunk-fish.     ®®®  Oatradon. 

Trunk-hose,  t  ^^'S^  ^'  short  wide 

**^"*''  breeches  gathered  in 
above  the  knees,  or  immediately  under 
them,  and  distinguished  according  to  their 


Tmnk-hoBe. 

1,  Charles  IX  of  Prance,  1550-1574. 

2,  Bobert  Oarr,  Earl  of  Somerset,  died  1645. 

peculiar  cut  as  French,  Gallic,  or  Vene- 
tian. This  garment  prevailed  during  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII,  Elizabeth,  and 
James  I. 

Truro  (^ru'rO),  an  episcopal  city,  sea- 
port,  and  municipal  borough  of 
England,  county  of  Ck)mwall.  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Kenwyn  ana  St.  Allen. 
8i  miles  n.  of  Falmouth.  The  principal 
edifice  is  the  new  cathedral  (the  first 
Protestant  cathedral,  except  St.  Paul's, 
built  in  England),  consecrated  in  1887, 
when  Truro  was  established  as  a  bish- 
opric. The  smelting  of  tin  is  carried  on 
to  a  great  extent.  Pop.  11,325. 
Trnrri  Nova  Scotia,  on  the  Intercolo- 
J.IUIU9  Dial  Railway.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  foundry  materials,  lasts  and 
pegs,  hats  and  caps,  knit  goods,  etc. 
Pop.  6l0r.  (See  Truro.) 
Truss  ^  surgery,  a  bandage  or  appa- 
'  ratus  used  in  cases  of  hernia 
to  keep  up  the  reduced  parts  and  hinder 
furtlier  protrusion,  and  lor  other  pur- 


poses.—  In  building,  a  combination  of 
timbers,  or  of  iron-work,  or  of  both  to- 
gether, so  arranged  as  to  constitute  an 
unyielding  frame.  The  simplest  example 
of  a  truss  is  the  principal  or  main  couple 
of  a  roof,  in  which  the  tie-beam  is  sus- 
pended in  the  middle  by  the  king-post  to 
the  apex  of  the  angle  formed  by  the 
meeting  of  the  rafters.    See  Roof, 

Trust  ^^  ^^^»  *  *^"®'  ^  ^  peculiar 
species  of  ownership,  in  which 
property,  real  or  personal,  is  invested  in 
one  or  more  persons  for  the  benefit  of 
others.  The  person  who  holds  the  pzop' 
erty  is  a  trustee;  the  person  for  whose 
benefit  it  is  held  is  called  cestui  que 
trust  (he  that  has  the  benefit  of  the 
trust).  Trusts,  as  originally  employed 
in  England,  applied  to  real  estate  only, 
but  in  recent  times  have  been  extended 
to  personal  property,  and  before  the  mid- 
die  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  latter 
form  developed  into  what  are  known  as 
commercial  trusts,  great  trade  combina- 
tions ostensibly  intended  to  cheapen  ex- 
penses, regulate  production,  and  re- 
move competition,  but  practically  going 
beyond  those  ostensible  purposes.  Trusts 
of  this  kind  quickly  made  their  way  to 
the  United  States,  where  they  have 
developed  more  rapidlv  and  greatly  than 
in  England,  some  of  them  having  be- 
come immense  in  the  amount  of  capital 
involved,  so  much  as  to  be  regarded  by 
the  community  at  large  with  hostility  as 
threatening  the  foundations  of  honorable 
industry.  As  so  regarded,  the  term  trust 
is  applied  to  cases  foreign  to  its  original 
application,  being  employed  to  designate 
trade  combinations  in  general,  irrespec- 
tive of  their  form  and  mode  of  creation. 
As  such  the  term  corporation  is  also 
commonly  applied.  The  combinations 
now  in  existence  have  ceased  to  be  nor- 
mal trusts  from  the  fact  that  the 
trustees  have  come  to  control,  not  the 
real  and  personal  property  of  the  cor- 
porations involved,  but  the  shares  of 
their  stockholders.  This  gives  the  trus- 
tees the  power  of  managing,  though  not 
the  legal  ownership  of,  the  property  con- 
cerned. Against  these  great  combina- 
tions of  financial  and  commercial 
property  a  vigorous  enmity  has  arisen, 
and  the  governing  powers  have  pro- 
ceeded against  them  in  various  instances 
as  law-breakers  and  foes  of  the  com- 
munity. Thus  suits  were  brought  against 
the  Sugar  Trust  in  New  York,  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  in  Ohio,  and  the 
Chicago  Gas  Company  in  Illinois,  and 
the  illegality  of  these  combinations  was 

E roved.    The    forfeiture   of   one   charter 
1    each    case,    with    the   liability    to   a 
similar  forfeiture  in  the  case  of  the  other 


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Trust 


corporations  coQcemed,  operated  effectu- 
ally to  dissolve  these  trusts  in  their 
earlier  forms.  This  preliminary  battle 
against  the  trusts  simply  changed,  with- 
out destroying  them.  They  were  quickly 
reorganized  in  new  and  different  forms 
and  continued  in  operation.  They  disap- 
peared as  corporate  trusts,  but  con- 
tinued to  exist  as  combinations  held 
together  by  contract  And  their  old 
methods  of  injurious  procedure  were 
continued:  the  stifling  or  competition  of 
minor  concerns,  the  procuring  of  special 
rates  and  privileges  in  railroad  traas- 
portation,  the  issue  of  watered  stock, 
increasing  the  sum  of  floating  capital  far 
beyond  the  value  of  the  property;  all 
these  tending  to  keep  alive  the  enmity 
of  the  community  at  large.  There  have 
"been  many  new  suits  at  law  brought 
against  the  trusts,  and  legislative  in- 
vestigations by  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, the  New  York  Senate,  and  the 
Canadian  Parliament  Anti-trust  laws 
have  been  passed  in  a  number  of  the 
states,  and  in  1890  Congress  passed  a 
National  Anti-trust  Act  It  cannot  be 
said  that  these  had  much  beneficial 
effect  Most  important  of  all  has  been 
the  creation  of  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission,  for  the  purpose  of  dealing 
with  all  illegal  practices  of  the  trusts. 
Unfortunately  tnis  Commission  was 
lon^:  hampered  by  lack  of  full  powers  of 
action,  a  weakness  only  recently  re- 
moved by  new  legislation.  Of  late  years 
it  has  proceeded  actively  against  the 
trusts  and  won  some  notable  victories. 
A  spectacular  one  of  these  was  the  de- 
cision given  by  a  Federal  court  in  1907, 
fining  the  Standard  Oil  Company  the 
immense  sum  of  $29,240,000  for  accept- 
ing illegal  rebates  in  railroad  freights. 
This  decision  was  afterwards  reversed  by 
a  United  Stalies  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals, 
but  it  went  far  to  do  away  with  the 
evil  of  rebating,  which  is  now  strictly 
forbidden  by  law.  Another  notable  suit 
was  against  the  Sugar  Trust,  in  the 
operation  of  which  fraudulent  methods 
of  weighing  imported  su^ar  had  been 
discovered.  In  a  decision  rendered 
March  5,  1909,  the  trust  was  fined 
$134,116  for  these  practices,  and  in  1910 
it  was  compelled  to  disgorge  over  $2,000,- 
000  for  fraudulent  weighing.  The  two 
most  important  suits  were  those  brought 
against  the  Standard  Oil  and  the  Amer- 
ican Tobacco  corporations  in  1911. 
These  were  both  decided  adversely  to  the 
trusts,  which  were  found  guilty  of 
stifling  competition  and  ordered  to  dis- 
solve. Steps  have  been  taken  by  the 
companies  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  court, 
bot  bow  effective  their  breaking  up  into 


Truxton 


their  elements  will  prove  remains  to  be 
seen.  Variuu&  devices  have  been  proposed 
for  the  more  elTective  control  of  trusts 
by  the  Federal  Government,  and  a  Corpor- 
ation Tax  has  been  imposed  since  l909. 
The  Clayton  Anti-Trust  Bill,  passed  by 
Congress  in  1014  supplements  the  Sher- 
man Law  and  makes  it  more  rigid;  and 
the  Trade  Commission  Bill,  likewise 
passed  in  1914,  provides  for  a  commission 
with  full  iaquisitional  powers  into  the 
operation  and  organization  of  corpora- 
tions and  authority  to  condemn  unfair 
methods  of  competition. 
Tmstee  (trus-te'),  in  law,  a  person  to 
*  whom  property  is  legallv  com- 

mitted in  trust  for  the  benefit  of  some 
other  party  or  parties,  or  for  some 
special  purpose.  See  Trust.  No  one  is 
compelled  to  undertake  a  trust,  but  if  he 
once  accept  he  cannot  renounce  it  unless 
the  trust-deed  contains  a  provision  en- 
abling him  to  do  so,  or  a  competent  court 
grants  him  a  discharge,  or  by  the  con- 
sent of  all  those  beneficially  interested  in 
the  estate.  Trustees  are  liable  for  the 
consequences  of  any  breach  of  trust 
however  innocent,  and  the  estate  of  a 
trustee  deceased,  who  has  misapplied  the 
trust  fund,  is  uable  for  the  deficiency; 
but  generally  speaking,  the  law  only  re- 
quires of  a  trustee  the  same  amount  of 
care  and  prudence  he  would  be  expected 
to  display  in  managing  his  own  affairs. 
Where  there  are  several  trustees  each  is 
liable  for  his  own  acts  and  receipts  only, 
unless  there  is  common  agreement 
Trusts  are  generally  to  protect  the  in- 
terests of  married  women  and  children, 
by  placing  in  the  hands  of  trustees  for 
them  the  legal  rights  which  they  would 
be  incapable  of  exercising.  Frequently 
trusts  involve  the  sale  or  purchase  of 
lands,  or  investment  of  funds,  in  which 
cases  the  trustee  has  to  exercise  due 
caution,  as  he  may  be  rendered  liable 
for  any  loss. 

T-m-villn  or  Trujuxo  (both  tru-h^l'- 
J.riULUiU,    y^x    ^^  ^  ^Q^jj  ^f  Western 

Spain,   prov.   of  Caceres,   the   birthplace 

of  Pizarro.     Pop.  12,512.      (2)    A   town 

(also  called  Chimti)  in  the  north  of  Peru, 

near  the  coast,  and  havine  as  its  port 

•Salaverry.     It  was  founded  by  Pixarro, 

has  a  university,  and  a  good  trade.    Pop. 

about  8000.     (3)  The  canital  of  the  state 

of  Truxillo,  Venezuela,  90  miles  8.  w.  of 

Barquisimeto.      Extensive    coal    deposits 

exist  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  10,000. 

TmvfATi  (truks'tun),  Thomas,  naval 
ATUXliOn    ^gj^^   ^^  ^^  Long,  igi^^ 

in  1755;  died  in  1822.  He  commanded 
a  privateer  and  took  valuable  prizes  in 
the  Revolution.  In  1794  he  was  made 
captain  in  the  navy  and  in  the  naval 


i 


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Trygonidae  Tuber 

war  with  France  (1799-1800)  captured  ernment  remained  in  her  hands,  the  em- 
the  French  frigates  U  Insurgente  and  peror  being  kept  in  a  virtual  captivity. 
La  Vengeance.  The  latter  victory  She  opposed  rerorm,  encouraged  the  Boxer 
brought  him  a  gold  medal  from  Congress,  movement,  but  a  few  years  later,  after 
TrVGronidflB  (tn-gon'i-de),  the  family  the  Russo-Japan  war,  became  herself  a 
•^^  name   of    the    stingrays  reformer  and  took  active  steps  to  mod- 

( which  see).  emize  Chinese  administration  and  meth- 

TsaritSVH  ^  Russian  city  in  Saratov  ods  of  education.  In  many  respects  a 
A»M  "''J  **>  province,  on  the  Volga,  woman  of  unusual  powers,  the  tendency 
Pop.  (1910)  100,847.  of  historians  is  to  class  her  among  the 

TftRmfeov^-Sfklo  (tsar'skO-yS  sye-l6),  great  women  rulers  of  the  world.  From 
j.Mi9&vjrc  acxv  ^  a  b  s  ko  J  k-selo  the  death  of  her  husband  in  1861  to  the 
(*  Czar's  Town '),  a  town  of  Russia,  in  time  of  her  death,  a  period  of  nearly  half 
the  province  of  St.  Petersburg,  containing  a  century,  she  was  practically  the  ruler 
the  summer  residence  of  the  imperial  fam-  of  China«  She  died  November  15,  1908. 
ily.    Pop.  22,353.  TnRm    (tS'am),    a    town    of    Ireland, 

Tachaikovakv  (chl-kofski),  Peter  •^"►0'"*  county  of  Gal  way,  129  miles 
.■.»^AM%xA.vFT0A.j  iLiTcn,  a  noted  Rus-  northwest  from  Dublin.  It  is  the  seat 
sian  composer,  born  in  1840;  died  in  of  the  Bishop  of  Tuam,  and  also  of  the 
1893.  In  1862,  when  the  Conservatory  Roman  Catholic  archbishop.  Its  princi- 
of  Music  was  founded  at  St.  Petersburg,  pal  edifices  are  the  Protestant  and  Ro- 
he  gave  up  an  official  position  to  devote  man  Catholic  cathedrals,  the  bishops' 
himself  to  music,  studying  under  Anton  nalaces,  and  the  college  of  St.  Jarlath. 
Rubinstein  and  Zaremba.     From  1866  to  Pop.  3012. 

1878  he  taught  in  the  conservatory ;  then  npriflninf  n  Talanila  (  1 5  -  a  -  m  6't  a  ) , 
retired  to  devote  himself  to  composition.  AU^«U*AV«'U  J-o*******  i>AUMOTU,  or  Low 
He  is  best  known  by  his  symphonies.  Archipelago,  an  extensive  group  of  is- 

Tsetse-flv  (^^t'se),  a  South  African  lands  in  the  Pacific,  lying  eastwards  from 
^  dipterous  (two-winged)  in-  the  Society  Islands  and  south  of  the 
sect  (Oloasfna  morsitans),  akin  to  the  Marquesas.  They  are  mostly  under 
gad-fly,  whose  bite  is  often  fatal  to  horses,  French  protection,  and  have  a  population 
dogs,  and  cows,  but  was  long  considered  of  7000.  They  exjwrt  pearls,  motherK)f- 
in noxious  to  man  and  wild  beasts.    It  has  pearl,  trepang,  etc. 

been  discovered  that  the  same  insect  car-  TnRricks  (  tO'a-rikz  ),  TuAfiSGSy  or 
ries  the  ^erms  of  the  deadlv  sleeping  sick-  *  uaxiui^p  TawIbiks,  a  race  of  no- 
ness,  which  has  long  been  known  in  parts  mads  supposed  to  be  connected  with  the 
of  Africa  and  of  late  years  has  proved  Berbers  in  their  origin,  and  inhabiting  a 
especially  fatal  to  the  natives  of  Uganda,  great  part  of  the  Sahara  desert  between 
Active  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  5°  w.  Ion.  and  13°  E.  Ion.  They  are  of 
check  the  ravages  of  this  disease  by  pre-  a  handsome  and  muscular  physique,  of 
ventlve  methods,  the  habits  of  the  fly  war-like  habits,  fierce  and  cruel  aisposi- 
being  studied  and  its  haunts  broken  up.  tion,  and  Mohammedans  in  religion. 
Tsi-nan  Tsinanfu,  a  Chinese  city  on  Their  numbers  are  estimated  at  200,000. 
'  the  Ta-tsin  River.  Glass  and  Tnher  (ttt'ber),  in  botany,  an  under- 
silk  wares  made.  Pop.  300,000.  Auucx  ground  fleshy  stem  or  append- 
TovA  Hai  An    ^^®    ^^*®    dowager    em-  age  to  the  root,  being  usually  an  oblong 

^^  •***    ^"^^  press    of    China,    born  ^ 

in   Manchuria.     She   became  one  of  the  "* 

wives  of  the  emperor  Hsien  Fung,  who 
ascended  the  throne  in  1850.  A  woman 
of  remarkable  political  acumen,  she 
raised  herself  to   the   position   of  co-em- 

gress.  On  the  emperor's  death  she  put 
er  son,  Tung  Chi,  on  the  throne,  acting 
as  re|:ent  during  his  minority.  From 
that  time  forward  she  was  the  practical 
ruler  of  China.  On  the  death  of  Tung 
Chi,    in    1875,    she    placed    her    nephew,  Tuberous  Roots. 

Kwang  Seu,  an  infant,  on  the  throne,  l,  Palmate  {Orchis  maculata).  2,  Didjmoni 
she  again  becoming  regent.  When  he  iOrehi§  mascula).  8,  Fasciculate  {Fiearia 
grew  up  and  assumed  control,  his  at-  ranunctUoide$), 
tempted  reform  movements  led  to  his  be- 
ing deprived  of  authority  by  his  despotic  or  roundish  body,  of  annual  duration, 
aunt,  backed  by. the  conservative  party,  composed  chiefly  of  cellular  tissue  with 
a&d  from  that  time  to  her  death  the  gov-  a  great  quantity  of  amylaceous  matter. 


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Tubercle 


Tuberculosis 


intended  fer  the  development  of  the 
Btems  or  branches  which  are  to  spring 
from  it,  and  of  which  the  rudiments,  in 
the  form  of  buds,  are  irregularly  dis- 
tributed over  its  surface.  Examples  are 
Been  in  the  potato,  the  Jerusalem  arti- 
choke, and  arrow-root.  Tubers  are  dis- 
tinguished, according  to  their  forms,  into 
didymou$  (in  pairs),  palmate  (hand- 
like),  fasciculate,  globular ,  ohlonOf  etc 
Tnberfilp  (tH'b^r-kl),  a  small  aggre- 
XlLOercie  ^^^^  of  round  cells  Snd 
cnberde  bacilli  which  tend  to  spread  and 
invade  surrounding  tissues.  In  doing  so 
it  breaks  down  in  the  center  into  an 
opaque,  yellowish  or  cheesy  material,  car- 
rying the  normal  tissue  with  it  in  its  de- 
structive change.  Tubercles  may  be  de- 
veloped in  different  parts  of  the  body,  but 
are  most  frequent  in  the  lungs  and  mes- 
entery. The  tubercle  bacillus  in  the  lungs 
is  the  cause  of  the  well-known  fatal  dis- 
ease, pulmonary  consumption. 

Tuberculin*  f  ""^t^^  "?2J^  contain- 

AUWVJ.VIUAU9  ing  the  growth  products 
of  the  tubercle  bacillus,  put  forth  as  a 
cure  for  tuberculosis  hj  Dr.  Koch  in  1890. 
It  failed  as  a  cure,  but  is  used  in  diag- 
nosing tuberculosis  of  cattle. 

Tuberculosis  ^ttl-bAr-kd-to'da)  is  the 
*u.»/vAviMv»M  Q^jjj^  applied  to  an  in- 
fectious, contagious  disease  due  to  inocu- 
lation by  a  rod-sbaped,  microscopical 
germ,  the  Bacillus  tuberculosis,  measur- 
ing  in  diameter  0.25  and  in  length  1.5  to 
3.5  micromillimeters.  There  are  two  va- 
rieties, the  human  and  the  bovine,  the 
former  being  the  longer.  The  tubercle 
bacillus  attacks  chiefly  the  warm-blooded 
animals,  being  common  among  the  do- 
mestic creatures  —  fowls,  cows,  pigs,  etc. ; 
the  horse  is  only  slightly  susceptible  to 
infection.  The  guinea-pie,  while  com- 
paratively immune  to  infection,  is  very 
susceptible  to  inoculation. 

The  bacillus  gains  entrance  into  the 
body  through  wounds,  the  air  inhaled, 
or  food  ingested.  It  reaches  the  blood 
stream,  where  the  bacilli  multiply  and 
are  carried  throughout  the  body,  no  or- 
gan or  tissue  being  exempt  from  their 
ravages.  The  bacilli  produce  a  toxin, 
which  is  disseminated  throughout  the 
system  by  the  blood.  In  the  various  tis- 
sues the  bacilli  lodge  and  multiply  and 
around  them  is  formed  the  characteristic 
tubercle,  which  aives  the  name  to  the 
bacillus  and  the  disease.  The  tubercle  is 
a  small  nodule,  which  may  be  white, 
gnjt  or  yellow  in  color.  The  smallest 
tubercles  are  called  miliary.  These  may 
be  many  or  few  in  any  particular  area. 
The  tubercle  is  a  mass  of  epithelioid  cells 
with   large,   oval  nuclei   and  glistening, 


nuclear  bodies.  In  the  center  are  so- 
called  'giant  cells,'  which  are  round  or 
oval,  with  prolongations,  and  containing 
from  20  to  100  round  or  oval  nuclei, 
which  in  old  giant  cells  are  arranged  in 
a  chain  around  the  periphery.  Outside 
the  epithelioid  cells  is  a  zone  of  lymph 
cells  from  the  blood.  In  old  tubercles 
the  center  undergoes  a  cheesy  degenera- 
tion, due  to  lack  of  blood  supply  in  the 
center.  Sometimes  a  fibrous  capsule  sur- 
rounds and  imprisons  the  tubercle.  The 
severity  of  any  case  of  tuberculosis  is 
proportionate  to  the  number  of  tubercles 
present 

Anv  injury  may  provide  an  entrance 
for  the  germs,  as  tney  may  be  floating 
in  the  air  at  the  time.  A  person  may 
inhale  them  at  any  moment,  since  a  tu- 
berculous person  may  be  exhaling  them 
in  the  vicinity  or  they  may  be  wafted  by 
the  breeze  from  a  distance.  Or  a  tuber- 
culous person  may  expectorate  them  and 
after  the  sputum  has  been  desiccated 
they  may  then  be  blown  about.  The 
mere  inhalation  of  the  germs,  however, 
will  not  produce  the  disease,  as  the  tis- 
sues of  the  body  may  be  able  to  destroy 
or  cast  off  the  bacillL  Attendants  in 
tuberculosis  hospitals,  exercising  proper 
care,  do  not  become  infected.  .But 
should  a  sickly  person  inhale  them,  his 
likelihood  of  escaping  the  disease  is  not  so 
good,  and  if  a  well  person  harboring  the 
germs  becomes  ill  or  some  acute  inflam- 
matory disease  —  cold,  pneumonia,  influ- 
enza, etc. —  tuberculosis  may  then  start 
up.  Prolonged  exposure  to  the  exhala- 
tions from  tuberculous  persons  in  poorly 
ventilated  apartments,  as  in  crowded  ten- 
ements; the  faulty  disposal  of  tubercu- 
lous sputum;  the  coughing  by  the  tu- 
berculous into  non-tuberculars*  faces; 
infecting  the  pockets  by  placing  spit- 
cloths  therein,  are  modes  of  infection. 
Foul  air,  overcrowding,  lack  of  sunshine, 
dark  bouses,  dampness,  combined  with 
low  altitude  and  insanitary  conditions 
generally  are  all  potent  factors  in  the 
propagation  of  the  disease.  Direct  con- 
tagion by  kissing  is  possible  and  also 
may  occur  by  using  eating  and  drinking 
utensils  after  a  tuberculous  person  that 
have  not  been  sterilized.  Infection  by 
tuberculous  meat  eaten  in  a  partially 
raw  condition  has  been  frequently  dem- 
onstrated, as  well  as  by  contaminated 
milk.  The  latter  is  thought  to  be  the 
source  of  intestinal  tuberculosis  in  chil- 
dren. The  eating  of  tuberculous  meat 
has  probably  been  pretty  well  eradicated 
by  careful  inspection  of  abattoirs  and 
veterinary  bacteriological  inspection,  but 
vigilance  in  this  direction  must  not  be  re- 
lazed.    All   meat   should   be   thoroughly 


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Tuberculosis 


Tuberose 


<!3ooked  to  kill  all  germs  that  may  have 
found  a  lodgment  therein.  The  disease  is 
not  hereditary,  but  a  predisposition  is 
transmitted  to  offspring. 

Tuberculosis  is  to  be  prevented  by 
strict  attention  to  hygienic  rules.  Tu- 
berculous persons  should  not  swallow 
their  sputum  nor  expectorate  it  on  the 
ground  or  pavement  or  into  cuspidors,  but 
carefully  eject  it  into  impermeable  re- 
ceptacles, without  soiling  their  hands, 
clothes,  or  the  receptacle.  All  the  spu- 
tum receptacles  should  be  destroyed  by 
fire.  All  eating  utensils  of  the  tuber- 
culous should  be  sterilized  by  thorough 
boiling,  as  also  should  all  their  clothes, 
though  the  latter  may  be  fully  sterilized 
by  exposure  to  formaldehyde  gas  for 
twenty-four  hours.  All  meat  and  milk 
should  be  freed  from  tubercle  by  veteri- 
nary inspection  of  herds.  All  excreta 
from  the  tuberculous  should  be  sterilized 
by  fire,  5  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  solution, 
or  4  per  cent  chlorinated  lime  solution. 
Much  fresh  air  should  be  admitted  to 
rooms  which  human  beings  and  animals 
inhabit.  The  tuberculous  should  avoid 
kissing  and  fondling  others.  Bedrooms 
should  be  cleansed  with  moist  cloths  and 
not  have  the  dust  swept  into  the  air. 
Sunlight  and  fresh  air  are  the  enemies  of 
germs. 

Tuberculosis  is  the  most  widespread 
and  fatal  disease  to  which  man  is  heir, 
about  40  per  cent,  of  deaths  in  cities  be- 
ing due  to  it.  Longitude  and  latitude 
have  but  slight  influence  upon  its  prev- 
alence, thou^  altitude  appears  to  exert 
a  more  or  less  controlling  influence  upon 
the  life  of  the  tubercle  bacillus. 

Tuberculosis  of  the  skin  is  called  lu- 
pus and  contains  tubercles.  Eventually 
large  areas  of  skin  are  transformed  into 
reddish,  ulcerated  patches,  more  or  less 
deep,  with  pjockets  of  yellowish,  piirulent 
matter.  It  is  treated  by  X-ray,  Finsen's 
phototherapy,  radium,  surgical  removal, 
and  caustics.  The  lymph  glands  are  at- 
tacked and  enlarge  and  finally  degenerate, 
surgical  removal  being  required.  The 
mucous  membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal 
may  become  affected,  tubercles,  ulcera- 
tions, hoemorrhages  and  weakness  result- 
ing. If  the  ulceration  is  sufficiently  deep 
to  produce  perforation,  peritonitis  or  fis- 
tula may  result,  which  latter  is  frequent 
in  and  around  the  rectum.  The  liver, 
pancreas,  spleen,  kidneys,  and  other  vis- 
cera may  be  affected  similarly. 

The  great  tuberculous  disease,  however, 
is  tuberculosis  of  the  lung.  There  are 
two  varieties  of  the  disease  —  acute  and 
chronic  —  and  three  successive  stages. 
In  this  disease  small  nodules  are  scat- 
tered more  or  less  profusely  throughout 


the  diseased  areas.  As  the  affection 
progresses  the  nodules  enlarge  and  be- 
come more  numerous,  finally  coalescing  to 
form  large  masses  of  consolidated  matter. 
When  this  liquefies,  cavities  are  formed. 
If,  with  this  infection,  there  is  added 
some  of  the  pus-forming  bacteria,  a  more 
rapid  variety  is  the  consequence,  and  an 
irregular  fever  results.  In  the  acute  dis- 
ease there  is  a  sudden  chill,  fever,  pain 
in  the  side,  cough,  and  bloody  sputum. 
In  a  fortnight  a  mucopurulent  expectorar 
tion  occurs,  which  may  contain  the  ba- 
cilli. Then  are  found  chills,  fever,  and 
drenching  sweats;  the  fever  is  higher  tn 
the  evening  than  in  the  morning;  the 
heart  is  weak  and  rapid,  breathing  is  dif- 
ficult, and  the  tubercular  gradually  sinks. 
The  chronic  disease  begins  usually  as  a 
bronchitis,  though  it  may  come  on  stealttk- 
ily  with  no  prodromal  signs.  People  us- 
uallv  describe  it  as  a  severe  cold  that 
settles  on  the  chest  and  cannot  be  gotten 
rid  of.  There  is  some  cough,  dry  at  first, 
but  later  profuse  expectoration,  fever,  and 
emaciation  occur.  There  are  gradual  loss 
of  strength  and  appetite,  ansemia,  profuse 
or  slight  hoemorrhage.  This  may  con- 
tinue for  a  long  period  o£  time  or  sud- 
denly get  worse. 

It  is  treated  by  cold,  dry  air  at  an  ele- 
vation of  2000  or  3000  feet  above  sea 
level,  which  is  stimulating  to  the  tissues, 
arousing  Nature's  forces  to  repel  the 
bacteria  and  excrete  the  toxins.  They 
should  remain  outdoors  the  entire  time, 
summer  and  winter,  if  possible,  only  pro- 
tected from  storms.  Buildines  with  re- 
movable sides,  or  large  sashes,  constructed 
of  a  material  to  withstand  strong  chem- 
ical disinfectants,  should  be  occupied,  and 
the  body  will  adapt  itself  to  the  en- 
vironment, provided  warm  clothing  is 
worn.  At  a  lower  altitude  in  damp 
weather  ventilation  is  secured  by  having 
open  the  windows  in  an  adjoining  apart- 
ment and  an  open  fireplace  in  the  room 
occupied.  Personal  hygiene  is  impera- 
tive, as  are  the  preventive  measures  al- 
ready given.  An  impermeable  sputum 
flask  should  receive  the  expectoration. 
The  tubercular  requires  good  nourish- 
ment Milk,  cream,  meat,  eggs,  butter, 
vegetables,  and  game  should  be  liberally 
provided.  Tuberculin  is  administered 
sometimes  by  hypodermic  injection  until 
the  person  no  longer  reacts  to  it 

TnViPrAflP  (ttll)e-r<>s;  Polyanihe$  tube- 
xuDeruse  ^^^^    ^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  „^^ 

order  Liliaceae,  originally  brought  from 
the  East,  and  now  largely  cultivated  in 
American  gardens  both  for  its  perfume 
and  for  its  beautiful  white  flowers.  It 
has  a  bulbous  root,  and  an  upright 
branchless   stem   growing   to   the   height 


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Tubicols  Tuokerman 

of  3  or  4  feet.    It  is  caltivated  for  the  Tnnlr^r    3^*  Geoboe,  jurist,  was  bom 

perfumers  in  France  and  Italy.  xuuxk^jx,  j^  Bermuda  m  1762;  died  in 

Tubicolffi     (ta-bik'u-l€;    'tube-dwell-  1827.    While    he    was    stiU   a    boy    his 

ers*),  an   order   of  anne-  father    removed     to     Virginia    and     he 

lids,  comprehending  those  which  live  in  entered  the  William  and  Mary  College, 

calcareous  tubes,  composed  of  secretions  where   he   was  graduated   in   1772.    He 

from    the    animal    itself,    as    in    serpula  studied  law,  and  during  the  Revolution- 

( which  see)  ;  in  tubes  composed  of  sand  ary    war    served    in    the    patriot    army, 

and  fragments  of  shell  connected  together  In    1778    he    married    Mrs.    Randolph, 

by  a  glutinous  secretion,  as  in  terebella;  mother    of    the    celebrated    John    Ran- 

or   in   a  tube  composed   of  granules  of  dolph    of    Roanoke.    After    the    war   he 

sand  and  mud,  as  in  sabella.  became  a  judge  and  also  professor  of  law 

TiiViiTicrATi    (tU'bing-in),    a    town    of  in  William  and  Mary  (College,  was  made 

AuuxiAgcu  Wttrtemberg,  in  the  circle  judee  of  the  State  Court  of  Appeals  in 

of  the  Schwarzwald   (Black  Forest),  on  1803,   and  of  the   United   States   Court 

the     Neckar.     18    miles     southwest    of  for   the  eastern  district  of   Virginia  in 

Stuttgart.    It    is   irregularly    built,   and  1813.     He  published  numerous  works  in 

the  streets  are  for  the  most  part  steep  prose    and    verse,    and    was    especially 

and  narrow,  but  the  environs  are  pictur-  happy   in   vers  de  societ4, —  Henby  St. 

esque.    There  are  various  manufactures,  Gboboe  Tucker,  his  son,  was  bom  in 

but    the    town    is    supported    chiefly    by  Virginia  in  1781;  died  in  1848;  studied 

the    university,    which    was    founded    in  law  under  his  father,  and  like  him  be- 

1477.     It  has  a  library  of  300,000  vols.,  came  eminent  in  the  profession.     He  was 

a  botanic  garden,  chemical   laboratories,  professor   of   law   in   the   University  of 

collections    of    zodlogy    and    comparative  Virginia,  chancellor  of  the  fourth  Judi- 

anatomy,    of     minerals,     of    coins    and  cial  district,  president  of  the  State  Court 

medals,    etc.    The    number    of    teachers  of  Appeals,  and  a  member  of  Congress 

is   nearly    100,    of    students   over    1200.  1815-19.     He  wrote  Lectures  on  Consti- 

Reuchlin    and    Melanchthon    were    pro-  tutional  Law  and  other  legal   works. — 

fessors  here,  as  was  also  F.  C.  Baur,  who  Beveblet  Tuckeb,  another  son,  bom  in 

founded  the  Tttbingen  school  of  theology.  1784;  died  in  1851.     He  also  became  a 

a   school    which    has   been   distinguished  lawyer,  and  served  as  a  judge  in  Mis- 

by  its  critical  method,  and  its  tendency  souri  from  1815  to  1830.     From  1834  to 

to  the  rejection  of  the  supernatural  ele-  his  death  he  was  professor  of  law   in 

ment  in  Christianity.    Pop.  16,809.  William   and  Mary   College.     He   wrote 

TnliinorJi.    (tu-bip'o-ra),    a    genus    of  legal  works  and  several  novels,  one  of 

xuuxi^vxn    corals  belonging  to  the  or-  which.    The  Partisan   Leader,   published 

der  Alcyonaria,  and  represented  by  the  in  1836,  in  a  measure  foreshadowed  the 

familiar   organ-pipe   coral    (T.   musica),  secession    movement    of    1861.     In    the 

and  by  other  species.  convention    at    Nashville    in    1850,    his 

Tnlmfti  TalsiTirlq    (t5-b»-I'),  a  group  visrorous  invectives  against  the  North  re- 

lUDUai  ISianaS  ^    the    Pacific  c^led   the  speeches  of  his   half-brother. 

Ocean,  south  of  the  Society  Islands,  and,  John    Randolph    of    Roanoke. —  George 

like  them,  under  France.  Tucker,  a  nephew  of  St.  Geon^e  Tucker, 

Tnlmlftr  T^riflirp      See  Bridge,  was  born  in  Bermuda  In  1775;  died  in 

lUDlUar  linage.                   ^^  IS^l     H^    ^^^^    ^^    Virginia    in    1787, 

TnfikflllOfi  (  tuk-a-ho' ) ,  a  singular  studied  law  under  his  uncle  at  William 
Auvxvcui.v^  vegetable  found  in  the  and  Mary  College,  and  was  a  member  of 
southern  seaboard  section  of  the  United  Congress  from  1819  to  1825,  when  he 
States,  growing  underground,  like  the  became  professor  of  ethics  and  political 
European  traffic.  It  is  also  called  Indian  economy  in  the  University  of  Virginia, 
bread  and  Indian  loaf.  It  is  referred  to  holding  this  position  for  twenty  years, 
a  genus,  Pachvmat  of  spurious  fungi,  but  He  wrote  a  standard  Life  of  Thomas 
in  all  probability  it  is  a  peculiar  condition  Jefferson;  a  History  of  the  United 
of  some  root,  though  of  what  plant  has  States,  down  to  1840;  The  Valley  of  the 
not  been  properly  ascertained.  Shenandoah,  a  novel,  and  A  Voyage  to 
T4ip1rpr  (tuk'er),  Abraham,  an  Eng-  the  Moon,  a  satirical  romance.  Sfost  of 
XUI/&CX  j^gjj  miscellaneous  and  philo-  his  later  life  was  spent  in  Philadelphia, 
sophical  writer,  bom  in  1705;  died  in  Tllokermfl.n  (tuk'er-man),  Henry 
1774.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  lived  *»*^«^^*"*"'"  Theodore,  an  American 
the  life  of  a  private  country  gentleman,  man  of  letters,  born  at  Boston  in  1813; 
and  published  his  chief  work.  The  Light  died  in  1871.  His  writing  are  very  nu- 
of  Nature,  under  the  pseudonym  of  Ed-  merous,  and  consist  mamly  of  mono- 
ward  Search.  It  has  been  frequently  re-  graphs  relating  to  biography,  literatures 
published.  and  art    Among    the    best    known    are 


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Tucson 

Italian  Sketch  Book;  Artist  Life;  The 
Optimist;  Characteristics  of  Literature; 
EssaySt  Biooraphical  and  Critical,  etc. 
Tn/»aATi  (tuk'sim),  a  city,  the  capital 
XUCSUli  ^^  pinj^  county,  Arizona,  130 
miles  8.  E.  of  Phoenix.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  University  of  Arizona  and  of  St. 
Joseph's  Aoademy.  The  chief  industries 
have  to  do  with  mining  and  stock-raising. 
Hides,  wool,  and  metals  are  dealt  in. 
Pop.  13.193. 

TnGnm    (t^'^ni)»    *   species   of   palm 
^  (Astrocaryum  vulgdre  )    of 

great  importance  to  the  Brazilian  In- 
ians,  who  make  cordage,  bow-strings, 
fishing-nets,  etc.,  from  the  fine  durable 
fiber  consisting  of  the  epidermis  of  its 
unexpanded  leaves.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  the  fiber  or  thread,  and  to  an  oil 
obtained  from  the  plant. 
TTiPTimRTI  (  t6  -  ku  -  man'  ) .  or  S  A  N 
XUCUmau  Miguel  de  Tucuman.  a 
town  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  in 
the  northwest  of  the  country,  near  the 
foot  of  a  mountain  range  on  the  Upper 
Rio  Dulce.  It  is  a  rising  place,  con- 
nected by  railway  with  Buenos  Ayres. 
Pop.  about  55,000.  The  province  is 
fertile,  and  has  a  fine  climate;  area, 
8050  sq.  miles.  Pop.  263,079. 
Tndela  (tO-tha'lA),  a  city  of  Spain, 
province  of  Navarre,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ebro,  156  miles  north- 
east of  Madrid.  It  has  an  ancient  ca- 
thedral and  other  churches,  a  medical 
college,  etc.  Pop.  9499. 
TtiiI nr  (tti'dur),  the  family  name  of  an 
xuuur   j^ngiigij  r^jyal   line  founded  by 


Tmdor   Architecture,    Hongrave   Hall,    Essex, 
1588. 


Taileries 

Owen  Tudor  of  Wales,  who  married  the 
widowed  oueen  of   Henry   V.    The  first 
of  the  Tudor  sovereigns  was  Henry  VII ; 
the  last,  Elizabeth.     See  England. 
TTlflnr-fiftUTPr     ^  trefoil  ornament 

architecture.  It  is  placed  upright  on  a 
stalk,  and  is  employed  in  long  rows  as 
a  crest  or  ornamental  finishing  on  cor- 
nices,  ridges,  etc 

Tudor  Stvlf*  ^^  architecture,  a  name 
XUQOr  Diyie,  frequently  applied  to 
the  latest  Gothic  stvle  in  England,  being 
the  last  phase  of  the  perpendicular,  and 
sometimes  known  as  Flortd  Oothic  The 
period  of  this  style  is  from  1400  to  1537 ; 
but  the  term  is  sometimes  extended  so 
as  to  include  the  Elizabethan  period  also, 
which  briuM  it  down  to  1C03.  It  is 
the  result  of  a  combination  of  the  Italian 
style  with  the  Gothic.  It  is  character- 
ized by  a  flat  arch,  shallow  moldings, 
and  a  profusion  of  paneling  on  Vie 
walls. 

TnesdaV  (ttte'^*)*  the  third  day  of 
«^  our  week,  so  called  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  god  of  war,  Tiu.  See  Tvr. 
Tufa  (tfl'fa),  or  Tuff,  the  name  orig- 
**  inally  given  to  a  kind  of  volcanic 
rock;  consisting  of  accumulations  of 
scoria  and  ashes  about  the  crater  of  a 
Tolcano.  The  name  is  now  applied  to 
any  porous  vesicular  rock;  thus  rounded 
fragments  of  greenstone,  basalt,  and  other 
trap-rocks,  cemented  into  a  solid  mass, 
are  termed  trap-tuff ,  while  a  vesicular 
carbonate  of  lime,  incrusting  and  incor- 
porating twigs,  moss,  shells,  and  other 
objects  that  lie  in  its  way,  is  called  oalc 
tttff. 

TuilerieS  (twA'le-ris;  from  Fr.  tuile, 
a  tile,  because  the  spot  on 
which  it  is  built  was  formerly  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  tiles),  the  resi- 
dence of  the  French  monarchs,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Seine,  in  Paris. 
Catharine  de*  Medici,  wife  of  Henry  II, 
began  the  building  (1564)  ;  Henry  IV 
extended  it,  and  founded  the  old  gallery 
(1600)  ;  and  Louis  XIV  enlarged  it 
(1654),  and  completed  that  gallery. 
The  side  towards  the  Louvre  consisted  of 
five  pavilions  and  four  ranges  of  build- 
ings; the  other  side  had  only  three  pa- 
vilions. During  the  revolution  of  1830 
the  palace  was  sacked.  It  was  restored 
by  Louis  Philippe  to  its  former  splendor, 
but  in  1848  it  was  again  pillaged.  The 
Tuileries  then  became  successively  a  hos- 
pital for  wounded,  a  picture  gallery,  and 
the  home  of  Louis  Napoleon  in  1851.  On 
May  23,  1871,  it  was  almost  totally  de- 
stroyed by  fire  (the  work  of  the  commun* 
ists),  and  the  remaining  portions  wera 
removed  in   the  year  18&3. 


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Tula  Tmnof 

viiHia    (tU'lk),  a  goverament  of  Central  compact,    and    fine-grained,    and    is   em- 

* *****   Russia ;  area,  11,954  square  miles,  ployed  for  various  useful  purposes.    The 

The  surface   is   generally   flat,   and    the  bark,    especially    of    the    roots,    has    an 

principal  rivers  are   the  Oka,   the   Upa,  aromatic  smell  and  bitter  taste,  and  has 

and   tne  Don.     By  canal   there  is  com-  been    used   in   medicine  as  a   tonic   and 

munication   with    the   Baltic,    the   Black  febrifuge. 

Sea,   and   the   Caspian.     Much  grain    is  TuUe    ^^^^»  ^  town  of  France,  capital 

produced,   and   vast  numbers   of   horses,  of  the  department  of  Corrfeze,  sit- 

cattle,    and    sheep   are    reared.     Iron    is  uated  on  the  Corr^ze,  115  miles  n.  I7.  b. 

smelted    and    manufactured    to    a    large  of   Bordeaux.     It  has   a   cathedral  and 

extent    Pop.  1.662,000. —  Tula,  the  capi-  episcopal  palace,  a  communal  college,  a 

tal,  is  situated  on  the  Upa,  107  miles  diocesan  seminary,   courtuouse,  etc.,  and 

south   of   Moscow.     It    is   the    residence  manufactures    of    firearms,    wax-candles, 

both  of  a  civil  and  a  military  governor,  playing-cards,    leather,    and    the   famous 

the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  extensive  Point  de  Tulle  lace.     Pop.  11,741. 

manufactures  of   firearms,   as  also  cut-  Tulle  ^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^P^°  ^^^  manu- 

lery,      ornamental      steelworks,     platina  »***^)  factured  at  Tulle  in  France  in 

Buuu-boxes,    silks,    hats,    goap,    candles,  narrow  strips,  and  much  used  on  ladies' 

cordage  and  leather.    Pop.  136,530.  caps,  etc. 

Tula-metal,  *"*  ?."^y  ^^  silver,  with  TiQloCh    <^«1'^)»  .iS^^*     theologist. 

'  small  proportions  of  lead  ******'*'**  born    in    1823    at    Bridge   pf 

and  copper,  forming  the  base  of  the  cele-  Earn,  Perthshire;  died  in  1886.     He  was 

brated     Russian     snuff-boxes     popularly  an  influential  leader  in  the  councils  of  the 

called  platinum  boxes.  Scotch    Church,    was    for    many    years 

Tnle     (t5'le),  a  large  species  of  rush  or  principal  of  St.  Mary's  College,  St.  An- 

sedge,  Soirpus  validuSy  nat  order  drews,  and  was  the  author  of  the  Burnet 

Cyperacee,    which    grows    to    a    great  prize  essay  on  Theism    (1855),  Leaders 

height^  and  covers  large  tracts  of  marshy  of    the    Keformation     (1859),     Enalish 

land  m  parts  of  California,  being  also  Puritanism    and    its    Leaders     (lo61), 

found   generally   throughout   the    United  Rational  Theology  and  Christian  PhUos- 

States.  ophy  in  England  in  the  Seventeenth  cen- 

Tnlin    (tti'lip),  a  genus  of  plants  (Tu-  tury    (1872).  Pascal    (1878),  Facts  of 

*»***P   ttpa),  nat.  order  LiliaceuB.     The  Religious  Life  (1877),  etc. 

species    are   bulbous    herbaceous    plants,  TnllTia  Hostilins    (  tul'us     hos-tiri- 

inhabiting  the  warmer  parts  of  Europe  *********  *avoi/xaxu.o   ^^^     according  to 

and    Asia    Minor,   and    are   now    exten-  the  legend,  third  king  of  Rome  and  suc- 

sively     cultivated     in     gardens.    About  cessor   to   Numa   Pompilius     (B.a    670^ 

forty    species    have    been    described,    of  638),  a  warlike  monarch,  in  whose  reign 

which   the   most   noted   is    the   common  took  place  the  combat  of  the  Horatii  and 

garden  tulip    (7.  gesneriana),  a  native  Curiatii. 

of  the  Levant,  now  an  ornament  in  TnlfpliA  (tulfcha),  a  town  of  Ron- 
American  gardens.  Upwards  of  1000  •*•*"«'*'**«*  mania,  on  the  Danube,  which 
varieties  of  this  plant  have  been  enu-  near  it  divides  into  its  three  chief  mouths, 
merated.  The  wild  tulip  (T.  sylvestris)  It  has  a  good  trade.  Pop.  18,880. 
has  yellow  flowers,  and  blooms  in  April  Tnlao  a  city  in  Tulsa  Co.,  Oklahoma, 
and  May.  The  sweet-scented  tulip  (T.  ****»**>  14  miles  N.  N.  K.  of  Sapulpa.  It 
suaveolens),  prized  for  its  fragrance,  is  is  the  center  of  a  vast  oil-producing  region, 
grown  in  the  United  States.  About  the  Among  the  industries  are:  oil  refining, 
middle  of  the  sey«ateenth  century  an  coal  mining,  wheat  milling,  etc  Pop. 
extraordinary   tulip   mania   prevailed    in  28,240. 

Holland.  Enormous  sums  were  given  Tnmbrel  (tum'brel),  Tumbril,  a 
for  bulbs,  the  ownership  of  a  bulb  being  *"-*""**'*  covered  cart  or  carriage 
often  divided  into  shares,  in  which  men  with  two  wheels,  which  accompanies 
speculated  as  they  do  in  ordinary  stocks  trooj^s  or  artillery^  for  conveying  the  tools 
or  shares.  The  close  of  this  mania  led  to  of  pioneers,  cartridges,  and  the  Uke. 
great  losses.  Tnmor  (^^'Q^ui*)'  ^^  surgery,  in  its 
Tnlin-tree  *^  American  tree  bearing  **"*v*  widest  sense,  a  morbid  enlarge- 
Atux^  i»x^vy  flowers  resembling  the  ment  or  swelling  of  any  part  of  the 
tulip,  the  Liriodendron  tulipifera,  nat.  body  or  of  any  kind ;  more  strictly,  how- 
order  MagnoliaceflB.  It  is  one  of  the  ever,  it  implies  a  permanent  swelling  oc- 
most  magnificent  of  the  forest  trees  in  casioned  by  a  new  growth,  and  not  a 
the  temperate  parts  of  North  America,  mere  enlargement  of  a  natural  part. 
Throughout  the  States  it  is  generally  which  is  called  hypertrophy.  Tumors 
known  by  the  name  of  tulip  poplar,  white  may  be  divided  into  two  well-defined 
wood,  or  canoe-wood.    The  wood  is  light,  classes:    (a)  Simple,  hemgn,  or  innooeni 


i 


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Tumuli 


Tunis 


tutnorSf  the  substance  of  which  has 
anatomical  resemblance  to  some  tissues 
of  the  body;  they  gradually  increase  in 
size;  and  generally  only  produce  incon- 
venience from  the  great  bulk  they  some- 
times attain;  a  complete  cure  may  be 
effected  by  simple  excision,  (b)  Malig- 
nant tumors^  which  bear  no  resemblance 
in  substance  to  normal  tissue;  they  are 
exceedkigly  liable  to  ulceration,  they  in- 
vade all  the  textures  of  the  part  in  which 
they  occur,  affecting  the  mass  of  the 
blood,  and  terminate  fatally;  when  ex- 
cised they  are  apt  to  recur  not  only  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 
previous  site,  but  also  in  remote  parti 
of  the  body.  This  recurrence  in  remote 
parts  is  due  to  transference  of  some  of 
the  elements  of  the  tumor  by  fiieans  of 
lymphatic  or  blood  vessels.  Hence  if  a 
malignant  tumor  is  to  be  excised  it  must 
be  done  early  to  avoid  such  secondary 
infection  if  possible.  Innocent  tumors 
are  often  named  from  the  tissues  in 
which  thev  occur,  as  adipose  or  fatty 
tumors,  fibrous  tumors,  cartilaginous 
tumors,  tony  tumors,  and  the  like.  Of 
the  malignant  class  cancer  is  a  well- 
known  example.  See  Cancer, 
Tumuli  (^'n^A'lOf  artificial  mounds 
Au»u&uxj.  ^£  earth  or  stone  raised  to 
mark  the  resting-place  of  the  dead.  They 
are  very  abundant  in  parts  of  the  United 
States,  the  work  of  prehistoric  Indians. 
Bee  Boifrows, 

'Tnyt  an  old  measure  of  capacity.  The 
•*•**">  English  tun  of  wine  contained 
four  hogsheads,  or  252  gallons,  but  in 
English-si)eaking  countries  the  gallon  is 
now  the  highest  legal  measure  of  capacity. 

Tunbridge  WeUs,  l^rTJ^nl 

place  of  England,  partly  in  Kent,  partly 
in  Sussex,  32  miles  s.  s.  E.  of  London,  4 
miles  8.  of  Tunbridge.  It  has  a  spacious 
parade,  a  town  hall,  corn  exchange,  pub- 
lic halls.  Pump  Room  for  visitors  tak- 
ing the  waters.  Convalescent  Home  for 
Children,  and  manufactories  of  toys  and 
fancy  articles.  The  spring  to  which  the 
place  owes  its  origin  and  prosperity  is 
chalybeate,  and  is  considered  very  effi- 
cacious in  cases  of  weak  digestion.  Pop. 
35,703. 

Tundras  ^X^^.nJ^'S^.to^^^l^f 

to  the  immense  stretches  of 
flat,  boggy  country,  extending  through 
the  northern  part  of  Siberia  and  part  of 
Russia,  where  vegetation  takes  an  Arctic 
character.  They  are  frozen  the  greater 
part  of  the  year,  and  are  very  difficult 
to  cross  when  not  frozen. 
TnTi<ysfATi  (tung'sten),  a  metal  dis- 
xua^ucu  covered  in  1781;  atomic 
weight  184;  symbol  W  (from  its  other 


name  wolfram).  It  has  a  grayish-white 
color  and  considerable  luster.  It  is  brit- 
tle, nearly  as  hard  as  steel,  and  less 
fusible  than  manganese.  The  ores  of 
this  metal  are  the  native  tungstate  of 
lime  and  the  tungstat*  of  iron  and  man- 
ganese, which  latter  is  also  known  by 
the  name  wolfram. 

TunS^S  (tun'gus),  a  term  applied  to 
^^^o  certain  Mongolian  tribes  in 
the  northeast  of  Asia,  consisting  of  no- 
madic and  hunting  peoples,  spreiMl  over 
Eastern  Siberia,  in  a  wider  sense  the 
term  Tungtisians  is  wted  to  include  the 
Manchus,  who  conquered  China  in  1644. 
'TniiiA  (tH'nik),  an  ancient  form  of 
AIUU.V  garment  in  constant  use  among 
the  Greeks.  Among  the  Romans  the 
tunic  was  an  under  garment  worn  by 
both  sexes  (under  the  toga  and  the 
palla),  and  was  fastened  by  a  girdle  or 
belt  about  the  waist  The  term  is  also 
used  ecclesiastically  to  denote  a  dress 
worn  by  the  sub-deacon,  made  originally 
of  linen,  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  then 
of  an  inferior  silk,  and  narrower  than  the 
dalmatic  of  the  deacon,  with  shorter  and 
tighter  sleeves. 

Tunicata  i^^,;°^"^>>'  *'!  ^^^^  ^' 

^^^  Molluscoida  or   lower   mol- 

lusca,  which  are  enveloped  in  a  coriace- 
ous tunic  or  mantle,  provided  with  two 
orifices,  the  one  branchial  and  the  other 
anal,  and  covering  beneath  it  a  second 
tunic,  which  adheres  to  the  outer  one 
at  the  orifices.  These  animals  are  popu- 
larly named  sea-squirts,  and  are  found 
either  solitary  or  in  groups,  fixed  or 
floating,  and  sometimes  joined  together 
in  a  common  mass.     See  Ascidia. 

Tuniner-fork,  a  steel  instrument  with 
AM.uxAi.g  xvj.A.y    ^^^    prongs,    designed 

when  set  in  vibration  to  give  a  musical 
sound  of  a  certain  fixed  pitch.  The  ordi- 
nary tuning-fork  sounds  only  one  note 
—  usuallv  the  middle  or  tenor  C  in 
America,  and  A  in  Germany;  but  soma 
are  made  with  a  slider  on  each  prong, 
which,  according  as  it  is  moved  up  or 
down,  regulates  the  pitch  of  the  note 
produced. 

aS]Yi{a  (tti'nis),  a  country  of  North 
Auau.o  Africa,  now  a  French  protecto- 
rate, is  bounded  on  the  north  and  north- 
east by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  south- 
east by  Tripoli,  and  on  the  west  and 
southwest  by  Algeria;  area,  estimated 
about  51,000  square  miles.  The  coast- 
line presents  three  indentations,  forming 
the  Bay  of  Tunis  on  the  north  and  those 
of  Hammamet  and  Cabes  or  the  Lesser 
Syrtis  on  the  east.  The  northwest  por- 
tion of  the  country  is  traversed  by  the 
Atlas  Mountains,  which  on  their  lower 
slopes  have  many  fertile  tracts,  partly 


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Tunis 


under  culture.  Between  these  moun- 
tains and  the  Gulf  of  Hammamet  on  the 
east  stretches  the  extensive  plain  or 
plateau  of  Kairwan.  The  only  river  of 
any  consequence  is  the  Mejerdah.  Agri- 
culture is  very  much  neglected;  the 
principal  crops  are  wheat,  barley,  and 
maize;  olive  plantations  are  numerous, 
while  tobacco  is  largely,  and  cotton,  in- 
digo, saffron,  and  opium  partially,  grown. 
On  several  parts  of  the  coast  the  fisheries, 
including  that  of 
romXt  are  valuable. 
The  manufactures 
consist  chiefly  of 
woolen  fabrics,  soap, 
dyed  skins,  and  ordi- 
nary and  morocco 
leather.  The  inhabi- 
tants consist  of  a  mix- 
mre  of  Moors  and 
Arabs,  along  with 
Berbers,  here  called 
Kroumirs,  occupying 
the  elevated  tract 
north  of  the  valley  of 
Mejerdah.  In  an- 
cient times  Tunis  be- 
longed to  the  Cartba- 
pfinians,  afterwards 
formed  part  of  the 
Roman  province  of 
Africa,  and  many  rel- 
ief of  Roman  archi- 
tecture remain. 
It  was  subdued 
about  675  by 
the  Arabs,  be- 
came a  powerful 
state  under  inde- 
pendent rulers  in 
the  thirteenth 
century,  and  in 
1575  was  incor- 
porated with  the 
Ottoman  Em- 
pire.  In  the 
spring  of  1881 
the  French  in- 
vaded Tunis,  in 
order  to  punish 
the      turbulence 


Mlnmret  at  Tonia. 


of  the  Kroumirs, 
and  the  French  minister  resident  is  now 
the  virtual  ruler  of  the  country.  Under 
French  administration  the  Tunisian  debt 
has  been  consolidated,  commerce  has  in- 
creased, the  means  of  transit  have  been 
improved,  and  a  number  of  primary 
schools  established.  The  resident  army 
of  occupation  numbers  10,000  men. 
Pop.  estimated  at  nearly  2,000.000.— 
Tuins,  the  capital  city,  is  situated  on 
a  salt  lagoon  connected  with  the  Bay  of 
Tunis   by  a  narrow  channel,  where  is 


Tunnel 


the  port  of  Ooletta,  there  being  another 
salt  lake  on  the  other  side  of  the  city. 
Both  Tunis  and  Goletta  are  built  of  the 
materials  of  ancient  Carthage.  Almost 
the  only  building  of  importance  is  the 
palace  of  the  bey  in  the  Moorish  style; 
the  bazaars  are  also  interesting,  and  un- 
der French  direction  a  cathedral  and 
other,  buildings  have  .  been  erected,  and 
schools,  etc.,  established.  Pop.  about 
250,000,  nearly  half  being  Christians  and 
Jews. 
TunkerS.     ^^  DunkerB. 

Tunnel  (^un'el),  a  subterranean  pas- 
^^^  sage  cut  through  a  hill,  a  rock, 
or  any  eminence,  or  under  a  river,  a 
town,  etc.,  to  carry  a  canal,  a  road,  or 
a  railway  in  an  advantageous  course.  In 
the  coofitruction  of  canals  and  railways 


i 


St.    Gothard    Tunnel.     Section    showing   eon< 
atruction  in  soft  strata. 

tunnels  are  frequently  had  recourse  to 
in  order  to  preserve  the  desired  level  and 
for  various  other  local  causes.  Tunnels, 
when    not    pierced    through    solid    rock. 


St.   Gothard   Tunnel.     Section  near  entrance 
on  Italian  side. 

have  usually  an  arched  roof  and  are 
lined  with  brick- work  or  masonry.  The 
sectional  form  of  the  passage  is  various. 
Among  the  greatest  works  of  this  kind 
are   the   tunnels  of   St   Gothard,   Mont 


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Tunny 


Turbine 


Cenis,  the  Arlberg,  the  Simplon,  and  the 
recently  constructed  Loetschberg,  in  the 
Alps.  In  Britain  the  Severn  and  Mersey 
tunnels  are  noteworthy,  while  in  America 
the  Hoosac  tunnel  and  that  through  the 
Cascade  range  in  the  State  of  Washington 
are  of  much  interest  (See  the  various 
headings.)  Many  important  tunnels  un- 
der rivers  have  been  recently  constructed, 
the  most  interesting  bein^  those  unu^r 
the  Hudson  and  East  nvers  at  New 
York,  especially  the  great  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  tunnel,  which  passes  under  both 
rivers  and  under  the  city  of  New  York. 
Another  of  interest  is  die  tunnel  under 
the  Elbe,   Germany,  at   Hamburg.     Two 

freat  tunnels,  through  the  Pyrenees  from 
Vance  to  Spain,  were  completed  in  1913. 

TfnjijiY  i^'"^''^»  ^  fi^^  ^^  ^^^  genus 
A\MMM,j  Thynnua  and  family  Scombe- 
ridie,  the  T.  vulg&riSf  closely  allied 
to  the  mackerel.  These  fish  live  in 
shoals  in  almost  all  the  seas  of  the 
warmer  and  temperate  parts  of  the  earth. 
They  are  taken  in  immense  quantities 
on  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  where  the 
fishing  is  chiefly  carried  on.  The  flesh 
is  delicate  and  somewhat  resembles  veal. 
The  common  tunny  attains  a  length  of 
from  4  feet  to  even  20  feet,  and  some- 
times exceeds  half  a  ton  in  weight.  Its 
color  is  a  dark  blue  on  the  upper  parts, 
and  silvery  white  below.  The  American 
tunny  {T,  aecundo-dorsaiis)  is  found  on 
the  American  coast  from  New  York  to 
Nova  Scotia.  The  albacore  (T.  pacifi- 
CU8)  and  the  bonito  are  allied  species. 

TunstaU  ii^a'.T'sVS.Sk'^fi 

miles  N.  E.  of  Newcastle-under-Lyme.  It 
has  rapidly  risen  from  a  hamlet  to  a 
considerable  town,  with  manufactures  of 
china  and  earthenware,  bricks  and  tiles, 
etc.  The  district  is  rich  in  coal  and  iron- 
stone. Pop.  of  district  39,292. 
TuBftlA  (ttt-pe'ya)»  a  genus  of  remark- 
'^  able  mammals.     See  Bartering, 

TnBftlo  (ttl'pe-ld),  a  North  American 
*  "  *^  forest  tree  of  the  genus  Nyaaa, 
the  N*  dentioulaiOf  nat  order  Santala* 
ce».  It  is  a  lofty  tree  of  great  beauty. 
The  same  name  is  given  to  other  species 
of  the  genus,  some  of  which  are  also 
called  Uack  gum,  sour  gum,  gum  tree, 
piptridge,  etc. 

TlinTier  (tup'er),  Snt  Chables.  a  Ca- 
xu|y|fvx  nadian  statesman,  born  at 
Amherst,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1821 ;  died  Oc- 
tober 10,  1915.  He  was  a  representative 
for  Nova  Scotia  in  the  British  Parlia- 
ment for  many  years,  was  premier  of 
Nova  Scotia,  18C4--(>7,  held  various  posts 
in  the  Dominion  cabinet,  and  become 
premier  of  Canada  in  1896,  losing  his 
post  the  same  year.    As  minister  of  rail- 


ways, 1879-84,  he  promoted  the  construe- 
ti(m  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway. 
He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  who 
formed  the  fishery  treaty  of  1887-88,  and 
was  made  a  baronet  in  the  latter  year. 
TnnnAT  Martin  Fabquhab,  writer. 
xuppci,  bom  in  London  in  1810;  died 
in  1889.  He  was  educated  at  the  Char- 
terhouse and  Christ  Church,  Oxford; 
studied  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar 
at  Lincoln's  Inn.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  novels  and  plays,  but  his  fam9 
rests  upon  his  Proverbial  Philosophy 
(1838),  a  work  in  a  kind  of  blank  verse 
which  has  gone  through  numerous  edi- 
tions. His  reminiscences  are  to  be  found 
in  My  Life  as  an  Author  (1886). 

classes  into  which  human  speech  has  been 
divided,  and  including  the  Ugrian  or 
Finnish^  Samoyedic,  Turkish,  Mongolian, 
Tungusic,  and  possibly  the  Dravidian. 
It  is  called  also  Altaic  and  Scythian,  It 
is  characterized  as  agglutinate  and  polv-^ 
synthetic,  from  the  fact  that  its  words 
are  polysynthetlc,  or  composed  of  several 
distinct  words,  each,  even  in  composition, 
retaining  its  significance.  See  Philology, 
Turban  (t^^*n),  a  form  of  head- 
Au^wcMj.    jj^ggg  ^Qpu  by  tjje  Orientals. 

It  varies  in  form  in  different  nations,  and 
different  classes  of  the  same  nation.  It 
consists  of  two  parts:  a  cap  without 
brim,  fitted  to  the  head;  and  a  sash, 
scarf,  or  shawl,  usually  of  cotton  or 
linen,  wound  about  the  cap,  and  some- 
times banging  down  the  neck. 
Tnrbellana  (Jur-be-lAr'i-a),  an  order 
Au^v^xMMM»  ^^  Annuloida,  of  the 
class  Scolecida,  almost  all  the  members 
of  which  are  aquatic  and  non-parasitic. 
There  are  two  sub-orders,  Planarida  and 
Nemertida.  See  these  articles. 
Turbine  (turl)in),  a  kind  of  horizon- 
•*■  tal  water-wheel,  made  to  re- 

volve by  the  escape  of  water  through 
orifices,  under  the  influence  of  pressure 
derived  from  a  fall.  Turbines  are  now 
made  after  a  large  variety  of  patterns. 
The  oldest  and  simplest  is  the  Scotch 
turbine,  or  Barker's  mill  (which  see). 
In  another  common  form  the  water 
passes  vertically  down  through  the 
wheel  between  the  fixed  screw  blades, 
which  gives  it  a  spiral  motion,  and  then 
strikes  similar  blades  attached  to  a  mov- 
able spindle,  but  placed  in  the  opposite 
direction,  so  that  the  impact  of  the  water 
communicates  a  rota^  motion  to  the 
blades  and  spindles.  Or  the  water  may 
be  passed  from  the  center  horizontally 
outwards  through  fixed  curred  bladeSi  so 
as  to  give  it  a  tangential  motion,  and 
thereby  cause  it  to  act  on  the  blades  of 


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i 


CcmrtnyoftUUPnUonUCo. 

HYDRAULIC  TDBBINBS 

Oae  of  four  0000  hopMpoirer  machines  In  ooune  of  erection.    The  water  head  required  to  operate  them  i« 
66  feet  and  the  speed  150  revoltttionB  per  minute. 


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Turbot 


Turgot 


the  wheel  which  revolyef  oatside.  In 
the  annexed  cut  the  water  is  introdnced 
into  a  close  cast-irm  vessel  a  by  the  pipe 
ht  connecting  it  with  the  reservoir. 
Here,  by  virtue  of  its  pressure,  it  tends 
to  escape  by  any  aperture  which  may 
be  presented ;  but  the  only  apertures  con- 
sist of  those  between  a  series  of  curved 
float-boards,  ff,  fixed  to  a  horizontal 
plate  ff,  mounted  upon  a  central  axis  h, 
which   passes   upwards   through  a   tube 


Section  of  Turbine. 


connecting  the  upper  and  lower  covers, 
o  and  (i,  of  the  vessel  a.  Another  series 
of  curved  plates  ee,  is  fixed  to  the  upper 
surface  of  the  disk  d,  to  give  a  deter- 
minate direction  to  the  water  before 
flowing  out  at  the  float-boards,  and  the 
curves  of  these  various  parts  are  so  ad- 
justed as  to  render  the  reactive  force 
of  the  water  available  to  the  utmost  ex- 
tent in  producing  a  circular  motion  in 
the  disk  and  the  axis  h  with  which  the 
machinery  is  connected.  The  turbine  has, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  replaced  the  old- 
style  water  wheel,  and  has  been  adapted 
to  steam  engine  purposes  by  substituting 
steam  for  water  as  the  moving  agent. 
See  Steam  Turbine,  Oaa  Turbine, 
TnrTiM  (turni>ot),  a  well-known  and 
xuruub  jjjgjjjy  esteemed  fish  of  the 
genus  Rhombu9  or  Pleuronectea  {R,  or 
P.  mammua),  family  Pleuronectidse  or 
flat-fishes.  Next  to  the  halibut,  the  tur- 
bot is  the  largest  of  the  Pleuronectidn 
found  on  the  Eluropean  coasts,  and  is  the 
most  highly  esteemed  for  the  table.  It 
is  of  a  short  and  broad  form,  brown  on 
the  upper  side,  which  is  usually  the  left 
side,  and  attains  a  large  size,  sometimes 
weighi^     from     70     to     90     lbs.    The 


American  or  spotted  turbot  (RhambuM 
maculatus),  common  on  the  coasts  of 
New  England  and  New  York,  attains  a 
weight  of  20  lbs. 

TnrdnS    (tur'dus),  the  genus  of  birds 
^         to  which  the  thrush  belongs. 

Tnrenne  (to-ren),  henbi  de  la  toub 

D'AUVEBGNE,       ViCOMTE       DE, 

Marshal  of  France,  bom  in  1611  at 
Sedan,  was  the  second  son  of  Henri  de 
la  Tour  d'Auvergne,  duke  of  Bouillon, 
and  of  Elizabeth,  princess  oi  Nassau- 
Orange.  He  learned  the  art  of  war 
under  his  uncles  Maurice  and  Henry  of 
Nassau  in  the  Dutch  service,  entered  the 
service  of  France  in  1630,  served  with 
distinction  in  Germanv  and  North  Italy, 
and  in  1643  received  the  command  of 
the  army  of  the  Rhine  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  war,  and  was  made  a  marshal. 
His  successes  in  this  post,  as  in  the 
battle  of  NOrdlingen  (1645),  great W  con- 
tributed to  the  close  of  the  war.  During 
the  disturbances  of  the  Fronde  the  vic- 
tories of  Turenne  led  to  the  termination 
of  the  civil  war.  In  the  war  against 
Spain  he  also  distinguished  himself,  and 
after  its  close  in  1659  he  was  named 
marshal-general  of  France.  When  war 
was  renewed  with  Spain  in  1667  he  con- 
quered Flanders  in  three  months.  In 
the  Dutch  war  of  1672  Turenne  had  the 
chief  command.  He  first  marched  against 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  and  having 
driven  him  back  as  far  as  the  Elbe 
forced  him  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Vos- 
sem  in  1673;  while  in  the  brilliant  cam- 
paign of  1674-75  he  destroyed  two  Aus- 
trian armies  by  the  battles  of  Mfihl- 
hausen  and  Tfirkheim,  and  conquered  and 
devastated  the  Palatinate.  In  1675  he 
was  killed  while  making  preparations  to 
engage  Montecuculi. 

Turcot  l^ur-go),  Anne  Robebt 
*"'  o^  Jacques,  was  bom  at  Paris 
in  1727,  and  died  in  1781.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  church,  but  renouncing  this 
purpose  he  studied  law,  and  in  1671  was 
appointed  intendant  of  Limoges,  which 
post  he  occupied  for  twelve  years. 
Shortly  after  the  accession  of  iJouis 
XVI,  in  1774,  Turgot  was  appointed 
comptroller-general  of  France,  and  In 
order  to  reform  the  political  ana  financial 
condition  of  the  country  he  moderated 
the  duties  on  articles  of  the  first  neces- 
sity, freed  commerce  from  many  fetters, 
and  encouraged  industry  by  enlarging 
the  rights  of  individuals,  and  abolishina 
the  exclusive  privileges  of  companies  ana 
corporations.  Such,  however,  was  the 
opposition  of  the  clergy  and  nobilitv  to 
his  reforms  that  he  was  dismissed  from 
office  in  1776»  and  retired  into  private 
life. 


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Tm^eneff  Turkey 

TnTon^n^ft      S^  Tourguenief.  with    silk,   which    the   country   produces 

XlU^ueacn*  abundantly,  are  exported  to  India,  Kaah- 

Tnrin    (^'^Q!  Italian,  ToHao),  a  city  mere,  and  Tibet;  while  opium,  tea,  linens, 

AUAX1&    ^^  North  Italy,  capital  of  prov-  and  woolens  are  imported.    The  inbabit- 

ince  of  same  name,  at  the  confluence  of  ants,  who  are  mostly  Mohammedans,  are 

the  Dora  Riparia  with  the  Po,  and  be-  very  mixed.     In   1863  a  rebellion  broke 

tween    those    two    rivers.    The    city    is  out,   and  after  a   war  of  several   years 

essentially    modem,     the    streets     being  Eastern     Turkestan     succeeded,      under 

broad  and   regular,   and  many  of  them  Yakoob  Beg,  in  effecting  its  separation 

lined    with    arcades,    while    there    are  from  the  Chinese  Empire,  but  after  his 

nomerons    wide    squares    and    gardena  assassination,    in    1877,    it    was    again 

The   chief   boildincs   are   the   cathedral,  brought  under  Chinese  sway.    The  chief 

a  renaissance  boilding,  completed  in  the  towns   are   Kashgar   and    xarkand,   and 

beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  pop.  is  estimated  at  about  2,000,000. 

remarkable  for  its   marble   facade;   the  -^Westebn   Turkestan   comprises   the 

royal    palace,    a    plain    brick    building,  Trans-Caspian    districts,    the    Turkoman 

which  contains  the  king's  private  library,  steppes,    the   khanates   of   Bokhara   and 

with    valuable     MSS.,    and    the    royal  Khiva,  and  the  oasis  of  Merv.    This  im- 

armory;  the  university,  a  fine  edifice  re-  mense   region,   under  the  government  or 

cently  coostmcted,  in  which  there  is  a  protection  of  Russia,  is  watered  by  the 

larce    librarv;    the    Palaszo    dell'    Ac-  Oxus  or  Amu  Darya,  and  the  Jaxartes 

caoemia    delie    Scienze,    witti    a    picture  or  Syr  Darya.     Maize,  millet,  rice,  and 

gallery  and  museums  of  natural  history  cotton  are  cultivated  in  the  oases  along 

and  antiquities;   the  Palazzo  Carignano,  the  rivers  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills, 

used  at  one  time  by  the  Sardinian  and  and  trade  has  greatly  increased  since  the 

Italian  parliaments  when  they  met  here  Russian   occupation.    Pop.   estimated   at 

(1848-65),  and  now  given  up  to  a  col-  between  5,000,000  and  6,000,000. 

lection  of  natural  history ;  the  Madama  T|]rke8tfl.II     ^  town  of  Asiatic  Russia, 

Palace,  an  old  and  interesting  building.  *  ^""■^^"''^"•j    in   Syr   Darya  province, 

and   several    theaters.    The   environs   of  145  miles  n.w.  of  Tashkend.    It  was  for- 

the  city  are  beautiful,   and   offer  many  merly  an  important  place  of  pilgrimage, 

objects    of    interest.    Among    the   educa-  and  its  mosque,  built  by  Tamerlane,  is 

tional  establishments,  in  addition  to  the  one  of  the  most  striking  edifices  in  Cen- 

university,   which   is   attended   by   about  tral  Asia.     Pop.  11,592. 

2700  ■tudents,  are  an  episcopal  seminary,  TTn-tpv   (tur'ki),  a  Mohammedan  em- 

a  royal  mUitary  academy,  a  polytechnic  ^  ^^^y  pj,^  of  Southeastern  Europe 

school,    and   various   other   colleges   uid  and  Western  Asia,  under  the  rule  of  a 

schoola    The   manufactures   consist,   be-  sultan.     In   Europe   it  now   occupies  a 

sides  the  staple  of  silk,  chieflv  of  woolens,  small  portion  of  the  Balkan   peninsula, 

cottons,      linen,      paper,      ir^mpngery,  and  in  this  portion  is  situated  the  capi- 

earthenware,  and  porcelain.    Turin   was  tal,  Constantinople,  but  the  larger  part 

ancioatly   the  capital   of  a   tribe  called  of  Turkey  is  in  Asia.     The  immediate 

the  Taurini,  and  under  the  Roman  Em-  possessions  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  or  those 

fire  was  called  Augusta  Taurinorum.  directly  under  the  sultan's  rule,  until  the 
t  was  long  the  capital  of  Savoy,  thg  Balkan  war  extended  from  Montenegro, 
of  the  Sardinian  kingdom,  and  from  1881  Bosnia,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria  on  the  north 
to  1865  of  United  Italy.  Pop.  427.106.  to  the  iEgean  and  Greece  on  the  south, 
Turkestan  (tOr-kes-tan;),  a  wide  re-  and  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Adriatic, 
. .  ™^  gion  of  Central  Asia,  the  Straits  of  Otranto,  and  the  Ionic  Sea. 
roughly  divided  into  two  portions.  East-  The  Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878  greatly  re- 
em  Turkestan  and  Western  Turkestan,  dnced  the  area  under  direct  Turkish  rule. 
Eastern  or  Chinese  Turkestan  is  in-  besides  confirming  the  independence  and 
closed  on  three  sides  by  lofty  mountain  extending  the  limits  of  several  of  the 
ranges  (Thian-Shan,  Karakorum,  Kuen-  formerly  tributary  states ;  and  the  Treaty 
Lan),  and  on  the  east  has  the  desert  of  of  Bukharest  in  1913,  still  further  reduced 
Gobi  Near  tlie  center  is  the  basin  of  the  limits  and  power  of  Turkey.  (See 
tlie  Lob-nor,  a  lake  fed  from  the  west  Ottoman  Empire  and  Balkan  War,  The 
by  tlie  Tarim  and  its  tributaries.  The  immediate  possessions  in  Europe  have  an 
greater  part  of  this  area  is  uncultivated  area  of  11400  sq.  miles,  pop.  about  2,000,- 
steppe,  but  there  are  fertile  j;>ortions  000 :  in  Asia,  682,960  sq.  miles,  pop. 
watered  by  the  rivers  Kashcar,  Yarkand,  17,000,000 :  in  Africa,  400,000  sq.  m&es, 
and  Karakash.  The  products  include  pop.  D,S2i.lOO.  Egypt,  however,  has 
cereals,  root-crops,  and  cotton  in  large  ceased  for  the  present  to  be  part  of  Tur- 
quantitiet,  partly  manufactured  in  the  kev  and  TripoU  has  come  under  Italian 
country.    Oaiptta  and  felt  clotlis»  along  rule.    The  island  of  Crete  or  Candia.  in  the 


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TurKcy 


Xur&ey 


^geau  Sea,  formerly  possessed  by  Tur- 
key, was  at  the  close  of  the  Balkan  War 
left  autonomous,  its  annexation  by  Greece 
being  foreseen. 

European  Turkey, — European  Turkey 
was  by  the  Treaty  of  Bukbarest  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  Balkan  War  (1913)  re- 
duced to  a  very  small  area,  including, 
however,  the  creat  strongholds  of  Con- 
stantinople and  Adrianople.  It  stretches 
from  the  new  eastern  limits  of  Bulgaria 
and  the  Black  Sea  on  the  west  and  north 
to  the  JEgean  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora  on 
the  east  and  south.  Until  1913  Turkev  in- 
cluded the  provinces  of  Adrianople,  Mace- 
donia and  Albania.  (See  Balkan  ^^ar,) 
In  1908  the  Turkish  provinces  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina,  which  had  been  ad- 
ministered by  Austria  since  the  Congress 
of  Berlin,  in  1878,  were  formally  annexed 
by  the  latter  country.  Turkey  protested, 
but  eventually  accepted  a  payment  of 
$12,500,000  from  Austria  as  compensa- 
tion for  the  provinces.  In  1909  the  inde- 
pendence of  Bulgaria  was  also  recognized 
bv  Turkey,  on  tne  assumption  by  Kussia 
of  $9,000,000  of  the  Ottoman  national 
debt  The  climate  of  European  Turkey 
is  Mediterranean,  with  sub-tropical  rains 
and  summer  droughts.  The  temperature 
is  variable,  and  owing  to  the  cold  north- 
east winds  is  much  colder  than  that  of 
other  Mediterranean  countries  in  the  same 
latitude.  There  are  few  manufactures  ex- 
cept in  Constantinople  and  Adrianople. 
The  special  industries  are  tanning  (re- 
cently established)  and  manufactui-es  of 
fine  muslins,  velvets,  silks,  carpets  and 
ornamental  weapons.  Until  the  outbreak 
of  the  Balkan  War,  Turkey  was  making 
substantial  advance  in  agriculture. 

Turkey  in  Asia  comprises  the  ];>enin- 
sula  of  Asia  Minor,  the  country  inter- 
sected by  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris, 
the  mountainous  region  of  Armenia  be- 
tween their  upper  courses  and  the  Black 
Sea,  the  ancient  lands  of  Syria  and 
Palestine,  and  the  coast  strips  of  Arabia 
along  the  Red  Sea  and  Persian  Gulf. 
jOmitting  Arabia,  the  country  consists 
mainly  of  (1)  a  high  plateau  traversed 
bv  the  mountains  of  Taurus  and  Anti- 
Taurus,  and  stretching  from  the  Archi- 
pelago to  the  borders  of  Persia;  (2)  a 
plateau  of  less  elevation  and  extent 
(Syria  and  Palestine)  traversed  bv  the 
double  range  of  Lebanon;  and  (3)  the 
extensive  plain  of  Mesopotamia  on  the 
Lower  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  (See  Asia 
Minor.  Armenia^  Kurdiatant  Mesopoia- 
mia,  Syria,  and  Palestine.)  The  islands 
Chios,  Lesbos,  Rhodes,  etc.,  belong  to 
Turkey  in  Asia,  while  the  island  of 
Samoa  is  a  tributary  principality,  and 
Cyprus   is  held   by  Britain.    The  chief 


towns  in  Asiatic  Turkey  are  Smyrna* 
Damascus,  Bagdad,  Aleppo,  and  Beyrent« 

Commerce,  Communications,  etc — 
The  chief  exports  are  raisins,  figs,  and 
dates,  silk,  cotton,  wool,  and  mohair, 
opium,  coffee,  wheat,  wine,  valonia,  olive- 
oil,  and  tobacco;  while  the  imports  are 
cotton,  woolen,  and  silk  goods,  metals, 
iron,  steel,  glass  wares,  etc.  Accounts 
are  usually  kept  in  grush  or  piastres, 
the  value  of  which  is  something  less  than 
4^  cents;  a  hundred  piastres  make  a 
Tuiicish  lira  or  gold  medjidi4  (value 
about  36  cents),  and  500  make  a 
•purse.'  The  unit  of  weight  is  the  ohe, 
equal  to  about  29  lbs.  avoirdupois.  The 
usual  linear  measure  is  the  arshin,  equal 
to  30  inches. 

People. — ^The  inhabitante  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire  are  of  very  diverse  races. 
First  in  order  are  the  Osmanli  Turks, 
who,  as  the  dominant  race,  are  dif  used 
over  the  country.  They  are  proprietors 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  soil,  fill  all 
the  civil  and  military  offices,  live  gen- 
erally in  towns  employed  In  various 
trades,  and  are  seldom  agriculturists. 
The  Crreeks  form  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion over  great  part  of  the  iEgean  coasts 
and  islands,  and  constitute  to  a  very 
considerable  extent  the  mercantile  and 
trading  community  of  Turkey.  Amauts, 
or  Albanians,  are  found  in  the  west 
throughout  Albania;  the  northwest  is  oc- 
cupied by  Servians;  and  Bulgarians  in- 
habit the  district  south  of  the  Danube 
and  east  of  Servia  and  Albania.  In 
Asiatic  Turkey  the  Turks  are  an  im- 
portant element,  but  there  are  also  num- 
bers of  Armenians,  Arabs,  Kurds,  Jews, 
Greeks,  Circassians,  etc.  The  Turkish 
language  belongs  to  the  Turanian  family 
of  languages,  and  is  allied  to  the  Hun- 
^rian  and  the  Finnish.  The  literature 
IS  considerable  in  bulk,  but  not  very 
original,  consisting  in  great  part  of 
translations  from  the  Persian  and  the 
Arabic,  and  in  recent  times  from  Eu- 
roi>ean  literature. 

Government. — ^The  head  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Turkey  is  a  monarch,  usually 
designated  the  sultan,  regarded  by  the 
Turks  as  the  caliph  or  head  of  Islam. 
His  edicts  bear  the  name  of  Hatti-sherif. 
and  his  government  is  often  designated 
as  the  Sublime  Porte.  The  public  officers 
who  conduct  the  administration  under 
the  sultan  are  divided  into  three  classes. 
The  first  class  is  that  of  law  and  religion, 
and  at  their  head  is  the  Sbeik-ul-Islam. 
who  governs  a  judicial  and  ecclesiastical 
body  called  the  Ulemas.  The  secimd 
class  consists  of  the  'officials  of  the 
pen,*  or  the  members  of  administration, 
and  at  their  head  is  the  grand-vizier  or 


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Turkey  Turkey-stone 

SadratenL    The  third  class  includes  the  schools   in   that   city.    Roberts   College, 

'  officials  of  the  sword/  at  their  head  be-  in  the  Qiristian  section  of  the  capital,  is 

lag  the  Seraskier  or  minister  of  war,  and  an    important   institution,   of   American 

the  Gapudan  Pasha  or  minister  of  marine,  origin. 

The  supreme  deliberative  body  is  the  History, —  See  Ottoman  Empire, 
divan  or  privy-council,  with  the  grand-  Tnrkev  ^  large  galUnaceous  bird 
visier  at  its  head,  other  members  being  **"'^^J>  (Meleagris  gallo  pavo),  well 
the  Sheik-ul-Islam  and  the  ministers  of  known  as  an  inmate  of  the  poultry  yard, 
war,  marine^  finance,  justice,  education.  It  is  a  native  of  North  America,  and 
commerce,  etc  The  immediate  posses-  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  the  six* 
sions  of  the  Turkish  Empire  are  divided  teenth  century.  Wild  turkeys  abound  in 
into  general  governments  or  vilayets,  at  some  of  the  forests  of  the  United  States, 
the  head  of  each  of  which  is  a  governor  where  they  feed  on  berries,  fruits,  in- 
bearing  the  title  of  vali.  The  vilayets  are  sects,  reptiles,  etc.,  their  plumage  being 
themselves  subdivided  into  sanjaks,  ad-  a  golden  bronze,  shot  with  violet  and 
ministered  by  mutessarifs;  and  these  green,  and  banded  with  black.  On  ac- 
again  into  kazas  administered  by  kaima-  count  of  its  size  and  the  excellence  of 
kans.  Military  service  is  obligatory  on  its  flesh  and  eggs  the  turkey  is  one  of 
all  Mohanmiedans.  The  service  lasts  the  most  valued  kinds  of  poultry.  There 
twenty  years:  six  with  the  Nissam  and  is  another  species,  the  Honduras  or  West 
first  reserve,  eight  years  in  the  Redif,  Indian  turkey  (MeleagrU  ooeUato), 
and  six  in  the  Mustafiz  (eauivalent  to  which  derives  its  specific  name  from  the 
the  German  Landsturm).  The  army  on  presence  of  bright  eye-like  spots  on  the 
a  i>eace  footing  comprises  about  375,000  tail-coverts.  It  is  not  so  large  as  the 
of  all  arms  and  ranks ;  if  put  on  a  war  common  turkey,  but  its  plumage  is  more 
footing  it   might  contain  500,000  more,  brilliant 

It  is  organized  on  a  new  system  dating  Tnr1rpv-1iil79^ri1    ^^  Tubket  Vuir 

from  1887.  At^xk^j  MuxiAoxu^  txjbsl,  a  rapacious 

Finances.'^'The  financial  condition  of  bird    belonging    to    the    vulture    familv 

Turkey    is    thoroughly    unsound.    From  (Vulturidse)  and  the  genus  Ca^^rie<  ((/. 

IK^  the  state  had  contracted  a  series  aura)  :  so  named  from  its  bearing  a  dis- 

of  foreign  loans,  the  total  nominal  capi-  tant  resemblance  to  a  turkey.     It  Is  about 

tal  of  which  amounted  to  about  f  1,140,-  2h  feet  long,  and  with  wings  extended 

000,000  in   1877.    In   1875   the  ffovem-  about   6   feet   in   breadth,  general   color 

ment    announced    that   they    would    pay  black   or   brownish.     It  inhabits   a  vast 

half    the    interest   on    the   debt,    but   in  range  of  territory  in  the  warmer  parts  of 

1876  they  declared  themselves  unable  to  America.     It    is    of    importance    in    the 

pay  anvthlng.     In  1881  an  arrangement  cities  of  the  southern  United  States  as 

was  effected   by  delegates   of   the  bond-  a  destroyer  of  carrion,  and  is  protected 

holders  who  met  at  Constantinople.    The  on  account  of  its  useful  services  in  this 

capital  of  the  debt  was  reduced  to  $532,-  direction. 

1^5,000,  and  the  Turkish  government  Tlirkev-Cfl.rDet  ^  carpet  made  en- 
agreed  to  hand  over  the  excise  revenues  ^••"'^^J  v€*i^^v,  ^i^ij  ^f  ^ool,  the 
to  a  commission  representing  the  bond-  loops  being  larger  than  those  of  Brus- 
holders,  so  that  interest  to  the  extent  sels  carpeting  and  alwavs  cut  The  cut- 
of  1  per  cent  has  been  paid  since  1882.  ting  of  the  yam  gives  it  the  appearance 
In  addition  to  the  foreign  debt  the  coun-  of  velvet 

try   is   burdened   with   an   internal   and  Tnrlrpir-rprI     A  brilliant  and  durable 

floating  debt    At  the  end  of  1910  the  debt  AUiikcy  rcu,  ^^   ^j^^   produced    by 

remained  about  as  above  stated,  with  no  madder  upon  cottom  doth,  and  introduced 

immediate  prospect  of  liquidation.  from  the  East  about  the  end  of  the  eight- 

Religion    and   Education. — The    estab-  eenth   century.    The   processes    which    a 

lished  religion  of  Turkey  is  Mohammed-  fabric  undergoes  in  receiving  this  dye  are 

anism,  but  Christianity  under  the  Greek  numerous,   and   vary   in   different   estab- 

form  is  professed  by  a  large  majority  of  lishments,  but  the  most  essential  is  the 

the  Ore^  and  Bulgarians,   while  part  preliminary  treatment  of  the  fabric  with 

of  the  Albanians  are  Roman  Catholics,  oils  or  fats,  combined  with  certain  other 

The   educational    system    of   Turkey,    in  substances,  such  as  carbonate  of  potash 

accordance  with   the  law   of   1869,   pro-  or  soda. 

Tides    for    the    erection    of    elementary  Tiirkev-stoiie     ^     ^^^     fine-grained 

schoc^  in  every  oommune,  and  of  sec-  ^**^^^J  owu.^,   siliceous    slate,    com- 

otidary  schools  in  the  larger  towns.    The  monly  of  a  greenish-gray,  sometimes  of 

University    of    Constantinople,    officially  a     yellowish-     or    brownish-gray    color, 

iooode^  in  1$00,  has  not  yet  been  opened.  When  cut  and  polished  it  is  used  for 

IhfiBEie  axe  law,  military,   and  medical  sha^ening  small  cuttiiig  instruments. 


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TufEomans  Tume^ 

TnrlrnmaTia  (tur'k5-manz),  a  no-  1807  he  wag  elected  professor  of  per- 
X  lu  JkUiuaua  ^^^^  Tartar  people  oo  spective  in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  the 
copying  a  territory  stretching  between  following  year  appeared  his  Liber  Stu- 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Aral,  diorum,  or  Book  of  Studies,  which 
the  khanates  of  Khiva  and  Bokhara,  Charles  Turner,  Mr.  Lupton,  and  others 
Afglianistan,  and  Persia.  They  do  not  engraved.  Other  works  by  him  which, 
form  a  single  nation,  but  are  divided  into  were  engraved  are  his  illustrations  of 
numerous  tribes  or  clans.  Lord  Byron's  and  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
Turks  ^  widely  spread  race,  supposed  poems;  Roger's  Italv  and  Poemt;  The 
>  to  have  had  its  original  seat  in  Riv€r$  of  England;  The  Riven  of 
Turkestan  or  Siberia,  but  now  extending  France,  and  Scenery  of  ike  Southern 
from  European  Turkey  through  Asia  to  Coast.  'The  reputation  of  Turner,* 
the  shores  of  the  Northern  Ocean.  Be-  says  Mr.  R.  N.  Womum,  'among  land- 
sides  the  Ottoman  Turks  or  Osmanli  of  scape-painters  stands  alone,  solitary, 
Turkey,  the  Turkomans,  Kirghiz,  Us-  colossal;  no  man  has  displayed  at  the 
becks,  Yakuts,  etc.,  all  belong  to  the  same  time  such  great  powers  of  general- 
Turkish  race.  See  Turkey,  Ottoman  izlng  and  concentrating  the  beauties  of 
Empire,  etc.  nature.  For  half  a  century  Turner  pro- 
TnrVa  Talotiila  constitute  the  s.  E.  duced  a  succession  of  great  works,  from 
XUTJLS  J.»xiiuas  portion  of  the  Ba-  1790  to  1840.  After  this  period,  he  fell, 
hama  chain,  and  along  with  the  Caicos  for  the  most  part,  into  that  vague  trifling 
Islands  are  a  dependency  of  Jamaica,  with  mere  effects  of  light  and  shade  and 
having  a  government  of  their  own.  The  color  which  has  done  so  much  for  a  time 
chief  island  is  Grand  Turk,  about  7  miles  to  almost  destroy  the  great  reputation 
long  and  2  broad.  Their  chief  export  is  he  had  justly  acquired  by  his  previously 
salt.  See  Caicos  Islands.  unrivaled  works.  He  worked  in  three 
Tnrmerifi  (tur'me-rik),  the  dried  tu-  styles:  the  best  of  his  early  works  re- 
aumLiuvxav  Ij^j^  ^j.  rhiaonjeg  of  CurcH-  semble  Wilson  and  the  Poussins;  in  his 
ma  lonaa,  nat  order  ZingiberacesB  (gin-  second  style  Claude  was  his  model;  and 
ger).  It  is  largely  employed  in  In-  in  his  third  he  competed  with  nature 
dia  and  China  as  an  important  ingredi-  onlv.  ...  As  examples  of  his  three 
ent  in  curir  powder.  Unsized  white  styles  may  be  mentioned  the  Garden  of 
paper,  steeped  in  an  alcoholic  solution  of  the  Hesperides,  the  Shipwreck,  and  the 
turmeric,  when  dried,  is  employed  as  a  Sun  Rising  in  Mist,  illustrating  the 
test  to  detect  alkalies,  which  change  its  first;  Crossing  the  Brook,  the  Morning 
color  from  vellow  to  reddish  brown,  of  the  Chase,  and  Apuleia  in  Search  of 
Turmeric  yields  a  yellow  color,  which  Apuleius,  his  second  or  Claude  style;  the 
has  great  brightness  but  little  durability.  Rtse,  and  the  Fall  of  Carthage,  1815  and 
It  is  also  used  medicinally  in  the  East  1817,  showing  his  transition  from  this 
as  a  carminative.  second  style  to  his  third  and  greatest,  of 
Turner  Charles  Tennyson.  See  which  the  Bay  of  Baim,  CaUgula*s 
>  under  Tennyson.  Bridge,  and  ChUde  Harold* s  Pilgrimage. 
Tnmer  (tur'ner),  JOSEPH  Mallobd  painted  between  1823  and  1S32,  are  grand 
WILLIAM,  a  great  English  examples;  and  lastly,  the  Fighting 
lands^pe-painter,  was  bom  in  London  Temeraire,  painted  in  1830,  may  be  in- 
in  1775;  died  in  1851.  His  father,  who  stanced  as  tne  indication  of  the  point  of 
was  a  hair-dresser,  proposed  to  teach  the  final  transition  from  the  sublime  to  what 
boy  that  trade,  but  afterwards  allowed  we  must  call  the  ridiculous  in  some  of 
him  to  follow  his  inclination,  and  in  those  strange  productions  which  occupied 
1789  he  entered  the  Roval  Academy  as  the  last  years  of  his  prolonged  life.'  By 
a  student.  After  remaining  there  for  five  his  will  he  bequeathed  all  his  pictures 
years,  and  working  actively  at  his  pro-  and  sketches  to  the  nation,  on  condition 
Ifession  for  another  five,  during  which  of  a  suitable  building  being  erected  within 
I  period  he  sent  to  the  exhibition  no  less  ten  years  for  their  reception.  They  have 
than  fifty-nine  pictures,  he  was  elected  been  placed  in  the  Turner  Gallery,  occu- 
in  1799  an  associate  of  the  Royal  pying  two  rooms  in  the  National  Gallery. 
Academy.  In  the  two  following  years  Tnrnf^r  Sharon,  historian,  was  bom 
he  exhibited  fourteen  pictures,  and  in  -^^^^^^^f  in  London  in  1768;  died  in 
1802  was  elected  an  academician.  Till  1847.  Educated  at  a  private  school  in 
this  date  he  had  chiefly  been  known  as  Clerkenwell,  he  was  articled  to  and  be- 
a  landscape-painter  in  water-colors,  but  came  an  attorney  in  the  Temple,  but  sub- 
thenceforth  be  turned  his  attention  to  sequently  devoted  his  time  to  historical 
oil-painting,  and  in  the  ensuing  half-  and  philological  researches.  His  chief 
century  produced  at  the  Academy  ex-  works  are:  History  of  the  Anglo-Sawons 
hibitioni   upward!^  of  200  pictures.    In  (three    vols.,    1799-1806)  \    aittory    of 


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Turnhout 


Turn-table 


England  (nine  vols.,  179^1829)  ;  Sa- 
cred History  of  the  World  (three  vols., 
1832):     and    Richard    Third,    a    poem 

TumilOUt  L^^^'^ont'),  a  town  of 
AU.AAUAVMV  Belgium,  province  of  Ant- 
werp, 26  miles  K.NJB.  of  the  town  of 
Antwerp.  It  has  manufactures  of  linen, 
woolen,  and  cotton  fabrics,  colored  paper, 
playing-cards,  and  various  other  Indus- 
tries. Pop.  (1904)  22,162. 
Tnminir  (tumping),  the  art  of  giving 
*********©  circular  and  other  forms  to 
articles  of  wood,  metal,  bone,  ivory,  etc., 
by  making  them  revolve  in  various  man- 
ners in  a  machine  called  a  lathe,  and 
applying  cutting  instruments  so  as  to 
produce  the  form  required;  or  by  making 
the  cutting  instrument  revolve  when  the 
substance  to  be  operated  upon  is  fixed. 
See  Lathe. 

Tnmin  (tur'nip),  the  common  name 
XUnup  ^^  ^^^  Braaeica  Rapa,  a  cru- 
ciferous, biennial  plant,  much  cultivated 
on  account  of  its  esculent  root,  and  of 
the  same  genus  as  the  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, and  broccolL  The  turnip,  as  a 
culinary  vegetable  and  as  a  cattle  food, 
was  well  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. The  root  is  generally  used  as  a 
culinary  vegetable  in 
all  temperate  climates, 
and  in  some  countries 
the  vegetable  is  culti- 
vated on  a  large  scale 
for  feeding  stock,  the 
root  being  invaluable 
for  this  purpose.  In 
the  field  culture  of 
the  larger-rooted  va- 
rieties the  most  ad- 
vantageous mode  is 
by  drills.  The  roots 
of  the  turnip  have 
often  a  tendency  to 
divide  and  become 
hard  and  worthless 
—  a  condition  known 
as  finger-and-toe,  or 
dactylorhiza.  The 
plant  thrives  best  on 
a  rich  and  free  soil 
and  in  moist  cloudy 
weather.  There  are 
aeveral  varieties,  all  apparently  the  re- 
sult of  cultivation.  The  Swedish  turnip, 
which  forms  a  valuable  field  crop,  Is 
probably  a  hybrid  between  B.  campeatria 
and  B,  Rapa  or  Napue,  rape.  B.  NapuB 
yields  rape,  cole,  or  colza  seeds,  from 
which  a  well-known  fixed  oil  is  ex- 
pressed. 

TurniD-fly,  Tuw^i^.  the  Haltica 
*^  **jj  f^^ff^^^^^  a  small  coleop- 

ttroat  ioaecty  very  destmctive  to  young 


turnips.  It  is  common  in  British 
meadows  from  April  to  October,  and  may 
be  recognized  by  two  yellow  stripes  on 
its  wing-cases.  The  name  turnip-fly  is 
also  given  to  a  hymenopter,  the  Athalia 
centifolia.    The  larvae  of  this  fly,  popu- 


4 


Striped  Turnip-fly  (HtUtica  nemZrum).  a  a. 
Natural  aise.  b  b.  Magnified,  c,  Larva,  nat- 
ural aize. 

larly    known    as    niggers,    are    very    de- 
structive to  the  leaves  of  the  turnip. 
Turnpike    (tum'pXk),     a     gate     that 
•*^  may  be  set  across  a  road, 

and  is  watched  bv  a  person  appointed 
for  the  purpose,  in  order  to  stop  car- 
riages, carts,  wagons,  etc.,  and  sometimes 
travelers,  till  toll  is  paid,  for  the  cost 
and  upkeep  of  the  road.  Such  roads  are 
called  turnpike-roads,  or  simply  turn- 
pikes, and  formerlv  were  common  in  the 
Atlantic  States,  but  recently  tolls  on 
roads  have  been  very  largely  abolished. 
See  Roads. 

Tnmsnit  (tnm'spit),  a  name  given 
xtaxuoyxb  j^  ^  variety  of  terrier  dogs, 
tmm  their  being  trained  to  turn  the  spits 
or  roasting-jacks  in  mansions.  The  breed 
is  now  practically  extinct 
TnmafATiP  &  grallatorial  bird  of  the 
XUrnsliUne,  plover  family  {Strepsilas 
coU&ris.)  The  length  of  the  bird  is  about 
9  inches.  It  takes  its  name  from  its 
practice  of   turning  up  small  stones  in 


'rumip. 


Tumatone  {Strtptilat  coUdris). 

search  of  the  marine  worms,  minute 
crustaceans,  etc.,  on  which  it  feeds.  It 
appears  in  most  parts  of  the  globe,  and 
is  found  throughout  North  America,  on 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts. 
Turn-table,  «n  railways,  a  circular 
AUAu  v<»MAw,  platform  of  iron  and 
wood,  supported  on  rollers,  and  turning 
upon  a  center  without  much  friction,  even 


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Turpentine 


Tuscaloosa 


when  loaded  with  a  considerable  weight 
It  is  used  for  removing  single  carriages 
from  one  line  of  rails  to  another,  and 
also  for  reversing  engines  on  the  same 
line  of  rails. 

Tnraentine  (tor'pen-tin),  an  oleo- 
xurpeauue  ruinous  substance  flow- 
ing naturally  or  by  incision  from  several 
species  of  trees,  as  from  the  pine,  larch, 
fir,  pistacia,  etc  Common  turpentine  is 
obtained  from  the  Pinut  tylvestrU  or 
Scotch  fir,  and  some  other  species  of 
pine.  Venice  turpentine  is  yielded  by 
the  larch,  Larim  Europaa;  Strasburg  tur- 
pentine by  Ahiet  picea  or  silver  fir;  Bor- 
deaux turpentine  by  Pinu9  maritima  or 
maritime  pine;  Canadian  turpentine,  or 
Canada  balsam,  by  Ahie9  halsamifera 
or  balm  of  Gilead  fir;  and  Chian  turpen- 
tine by  Pistacia  Tereltinthus.  All  the 
turpentines  dissolve  in  pure  alcohol,  and 
by  distillation  yield  oils  which  are 
termed  »pirit$  of  turpentine.  Oil  or 
spirits  of  tun>entine  is  used  in  medicine 
externally  as  an  excellent  rubefacient  and 
counter-irritant,  and  internally  as  a 
vermifuge,  stimulant,  and  diuretic  It  is 
also  much  used  in  the  arts  for  dissolving 
resins  and  oils  in  taking  varnishes. 
Large  quantities  of  it  are  obtained  from 
the  pine  forests  of  the  South  Atlantic 
SUtes. 

Turpentine-tree,  J5me"^^r5 

trees  of  the  genus  Pistacia,  nat.  order 
Anacardiaces,  which  yield  turpentine, 
as  the  P.  Terehinthus,  the  Chian  or 
Cyprus  turpentine  tree,  P.  lentiacus,  the 
Alount  Atlas  mastic  or  turpentine-tree, 
etc.     See  Pistachio, 

TriTOpfh  (tur'peth),  the  root  of  Con- 
XUrpeia  ^o/^^j^,  Turpethum  or  Ipo- 
mesa  Turpethum,  a  plant  of  Ceylon, 
Malabar,  and  Australia,  which  has  a 
cathartic  property.  It  is  sometimes 
called  vegetable  turpeth,  to  distinguish  it 
from  mineral  turpeth.    See  next  article. 

Tnrpeth-mineral  ^^.^  ««ie'giv«eS 

to  the  yellow  basic  sulphate  of  mercury. 
It  acts  as  a  powerful  emetic,  but  it  is 
not  now  used  internally.  It  is  a  very 
useful  errhine  in  cases  of  headache, 
amaurosis,  etc 

Turquoise  <^"^'\^?r  tur'kwftg),  s 

****H**^**'^  greenish-blue  opaque  pre- 
cious stone,  consisting  essentially  of  a 
phosphate  of  alumina^  containing  a  little 
oxide  of  iron  and  oxide  of  copper.  The 
true  or  oriental  turquoise,  a  favorite  or- 
namental stone  in  rings  and  other  articles 
of  jewelry,  is  found  only  in  a  mountain 
region  of  Persia,  and  was  originally 
brought  into  Western  Europe  by  way  of 
Turlrey  (hence  the  name). 


Tnrrpf    (tur'et),     in    architecture,,    a 
xiurct    jjj^^  ^f  g^^j,  ^^^^^     Turrets 

are  chiefly  of  two  kinds,  such  as  rise  im- 
mediately from  the  ground,  as  staircase 
turrets,  and  such  as  are  formed  on  the 
upper  part  of  a  building  by  being  car- 
ried up  higher  than  the  rest 
Tnrret-Ship.     ^^  Ironclad  vessels. 

Turtle  (^^^0»  the  name  given  to  the 
marine  members  of  the  order 
Chelonia,  being  reptiles  which  differ  but 
little  from  tortoises,  the  name  turtle  or 
tortoise  being  in  some  cases  applied  in- 
differently. Thev  are  found  in  all  the 
seas  of  warm  climates,  and  feed  chiefly 
on  marine  plants.  The  most  important 
species  is  the  green  turtle  (Chelonia 
mydas),  which  is  from  6  to  7  leet  long, 
and  weighs  from  700  to  800  pounds.  Its 
flesh  is  highly  esteemed  as  a  table  luxury. 


Hswk'sbiU Tartle  iOhsOnsimbrienta). 

It  is  a  native  of  the  tropical  parts  of  the 
Atlantic  as  well  as  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
being  especially  abundant  near  Ascension 
Island.  The  logger-head  turtle  (Ch^ne 
or  Chelonia  caretta)  yields  an  oil  which 
is  used  for  lamps  and  for  dressing  leather. 
The  hawkVbill  turtle  (C.  imbncdta)  is 
remarkable  for  the  beautiful  imbricated 
horny  plates  covering  the  carapace,  and 
constituting  the  tortoise-shell  of  com- 
merce.    See  Tortoise, 

Turtle-dove  <^*V:<«*'  comments),  a 
small  variety  of  pigeon, 
about  11  inches  in  length,  color  pale 
brown  marked  with  a  darker  hue  above, 
a  purple  tinge  pervading  the  feathers  of 
the  breast  They  are  in  general  smaller 
and  more  slender  than  the  domesticated 
pigeons,  and  their  cooing  note  is  plaintive 
and  tender. 

Tuscaloosa  (tos-kA-W'sA),  a  city. 
AU9vc»xw9a  ^japiUl  of  the  county  of 
that  name,  Alabama.  It  was  once  the 
capital  of  the  state.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Black  Warrior  River,  56  miles  s.w. 
of  Birmingham.    Here  is  the  Univenity 


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Tuscan  Order  of  Arohitectnre 


Tutenag 


Tosean  Order. 


of  Alabama  and  various  other  edacational 
institiiUons.  It  is  engaged  in  the  coal 
and  iron  industries,  has  cotton  manufac- 
tures, and  is  an  important  cotton  sliipping 
center.    Pop.  8407. 

Tuscan  Order  of  Architecture, 

one  of  the  five  orders 
of  architecture,  ac- 
cording to  Vitruvius 
and  Palladia  It  ad- 
mits of  no  ornaments, 
and  tho  columns  are 
never  fluted.  Other- 
wise it  differs  so  lit- 
tle, however,  from 
the  Doric,  that  it  is 
generally  regarded  as 
being  only  a  variety 
of  the  latter.  See 
Doric, 

TuMany  i^^?'^,)^{i 

ian,  Toioana),  for- 
merly a  grand^luchy, 
now  a  department  of 
Italy;     area,    d289 

Xare  miles.  Pop. 
ut  2,500.000.  The 
chain  of  the  North- 
em  Apennines  forms 
a  considerable  por- 
tion of  its  northern 
boundary,  the  sea  being  its  boundary 
on  the  west  The  principal  river  is  the 
Amo.  Cereals  cover  a  large  area,  and 
vineyards,  oliveyards,  and  orchards  are 
numerous.  The  manufacture  of  silk  is 
considerable.  The  marble  of  Tuscany, 
especially  that  of  Siena,  is  well  known. 
Tuscany  corresponds  to  the  ancient 
Etruria,  which  was,  however,  of  wider 
extent  (See  Etruria.)  After  the  fall 
of  the  Western  Empire  (476)  it  passed 
successively  into  the  hands  of  the  Ostro- 
goths. Byzantine  Greeks,  and  Lombards. 
Charlemagne  made  it  a  French  province, 
and  it  was  governed  by  marquises  or 
dukes  until  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries,  when  it  became  broken  up  into 
a  number  of  smaH  republics,  four  of 
which  were  Florence,  risa,  Siena,  and 
Lucca.  From  the  first  Florence  occupied 
the  leading  place,  and  it  gradually  ex- 
tended its  territory.  In  15o9  Pope  Pius 
I  granted  to  Cosmo  I  the  title  of  Grand- 
duke  of  Tuscany,  and  this  position  was 
retained,  with  interruptions,  by  the 
Medici  family  (which  see)  until  1737, 
when  it  passed  to  Francis  Stephen,  duke 
of  Lorraine.  In  1859,  when  under  his 
descendant,  the  grand-duke  Leopold,  it 
was  annexed  to  Sardinia  bv  a  popular 
vote,  and  in  1861  became,  with  Sardinia, 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 


Tnscnlum  llS^'^j^^iorm^rSK 

near  the  site  of  the  modem  Frascati,  15 
miles  8.  E.  of  Rome.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  elder  Cato,  and  a  favorite 
residence  of  Cicero.  Many  fine  remains 
have  been  dug  up  in  recent  times,  among 
them  being  the  so-called  Villa  of  Oicerow 
the  Forum,  theater,  amphitheater,  and 
ancient  castle  or  citadel. 

Tuskegee  Institute  <5^JS'g^i„! 

al.  non-sectarian  institution  at  Tuskegee, 
Alabama,  founded  by  Booker  Washington 
in  1881  for  the  instruction  of  colored 
students  in  industrial  pursuits.  Aided 
by  charitably  disposed  persons  and  man- 
aged with  remarkable  ability,  it  has 
played  an  important  part  in  the  develop- 
ment in  industry  of  the  negroes  of  the 
South.  It  has  now  167  instructors  and 
over  1600  students,  with  an  endowment 
of  nearly  $2,000,000. 

TuSSar-silk  (^^s'^r),  or  Tussbh- 
AM00WA  0AAA.  gjj^^  ^  coarse  silk  ob- 
tained from  the  cocoons  of  a  wild  native 
Bengal  silk-worm.  See  Silk, 
TuSSilaerO  (tus-ai-la'gO),  coltWoot,  a 
^^^^^  genus  of  broad -leaved 
plants,  nat  order  CompNositfle,  sub-order 
CorymbifersB.  The  species  are  natives 
of  Europe  and  America.  T,  Farfdra 
(common  colt*s-foot)  is  found  in  the 
Northern  and  Middle  States.  See  ColVa- 
loot. 

Tussook-grass  (^f^^^;-  f <^^«;«. 

grass,  of  the  same  genus  as  the  cock's- 
foot  grass  of  the  United  States,  a  native 
of  the  Falkland  Islands,  Fuegia,  and 
South  Patagonia.  It  grows  m  great 
tufts  or  tussocks  sometimes  5  to  6  feet 
in  height,  the  long  tapering  leaves  hang- 
ing over  in  graceful  curves.  The  plant 
is  a  useful  food  for  cattle,  and  several 
attempts  have  been  made  to  establish  it 
for  that  purpose. 

Tussock-moth,  a  grayish-whlte  moth 
a.u.o0vvA  AuvvAA)  about  an   mch  long, 

the  caterpillars  of  which  do  great  mis- 
chief in  hop  grounds,  and  are  known  as 
hop  dogs.  The  caterpillar  is  delicate 
green  in  color,  with  brush-like  tufts  of 
yellow  hairs  on  several  of  the  segments. 
It  feeds  on  leaves  throughout  the  sum- 
mer, becomes  a  hairy  chrysalis  about 
September,  and  emerges  as  a  moth  in 
the  following  spring. 
Tntena?  (ta'te-nag),  Chinese  white 
o  copper,  an  alloy  of  copper 
50,  nickel  19,  and  zinc  31,  uised  for  taole 
ware,  etc.  A  small  quantity  of  lead  or 
iron  is  added  in  some  formulas.  It  much 
resembles  packfong,  which  is  also  called 
Chinese  white  copper. 


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Tutioorin 


Twin  Falls 


Tntieorin    (t5-t«-kor'in),  a  seaport  of 
XUUCOnu  i^^i^    ^   terminuB   of    the 

Soath  Indian  Railway,  33  miles  east  of 
Tinnerelly,  Madras.  The  roadstead  is 
and  the  trade  considerable.    Pop. 


Tutor  (tti'tur),  (1)  in  many  nniversi- 
""  ties,  the  name  given  to  scholars 
attached  to  the  various  colleges,  by 
whom,  assisted  by  private  tutors,  the 
education  of  the  students  is  chiefly  con- 
ducted. They  are  selected  from  the  col* 
lege.  (2)  In  Scots  law.  the  guardian  of 
a  bo7  or  girl  in  pupilarity.  Bv  com- 
mon law  a  father  is  tutor  to  his  children. 
Failing  him  there  may  be  three  kinds 
of  tutor,  a  tutorHu>minatef  a  tuior^t-laWt 
or  a  tutor^tive. 

a.u.vvM.«i^«u  Wtirtemberg,  on  the 

Danube,  near  the  Baden  frontier.     Pop. 

(1905)   14,627. 

Tutuila  </^iH'*^'  ^*  of  theUrgest 
A.U.V1UA0  of  the  Samoan  or  Navigators' 

Islands.  It  rises  about  2000  feet  above 
the  sea,  is  covered  with  vegetation,  and 
has  the  excellent  harbor  of  Pango  Pango, 
or  Pago  Paga  It  was  annexed  to  the 
United  States  in  1899.  Pop.  about  4000. 
Tuvere  («l-y6r',  or  twe'yar).  See 
xujrvxv  blast-furnace. 
Tver  (^^Ar)>  ^  ^own  of  Russia,  capi- 
tal  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  situated  in  a  plain  on  the  Volga, 
96  miles  northwest  of  Moscow.  It  con- 
sists of  the  Kremlin  or  fortress,  sur- 
rounded by  an  earthen  wall,  and  the 
town  proper.  The  manufactures  are 
numerous  and  varied.  Pop.  45,644. — 
The  government  of  Tver  has  an  area  of 
25,225  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  2.053,000.  Rye,  barley,  hemp,  and  flax 
are  largely  cnltivated,  and  the  forests  are 
extensive. 
^P^^JH     Mabk.    See  Clemens. 

Twat  ^°  ^^^^"  group  in  the  Sahara, 
^^^^f  southeast  of  Morocco,  to  which 
it  is  considered  as  belonging.  The  in- 
habitants are  al>out  800,000  in  number, 
partly  Arabs,  partiv  Berbers,  and  are 
fanaUcal  Mohammeaans. 
Tnj^^il    (tw^),   a   river  of   Scotland, 

of  Peeblesshire,  forms  the  boundary  line 
between  England  and  Scotland  for  16 
miles,  runs  through  England  for  a  short 
distance,  and  then  enters  the  North  Sea 
at  Berwick;  total  length,  97  miles.  Its 
waters  abound  with  salmon  and  trout, 
and  its  name  is  celebrated  in  connection 
with  some  of  the  best  literature  of  Scot- 
land. 

TuTAHil  H.iTKy  i^  political  combination 
XWeea  Mug,  ^"^^^^     York     city 


which,  about  1868-71,  secartd  eoatrol 
of  the  municipal  elections  and  reTemMS. 
the  latter  of  which  were  plundered  of 
many  millions  of  dollars.  Its  mling 
spirit  was  William  M.  Tweed,  who  be- 
came the  head  of  the  Tammany  organisa- 
tion. He  was  brought  to  trial  in  1873 
and  sentenced  to  prison  for  12  years. 
He  escaped  in  1875,  but  was  captured 
and  brought  back,  and  died  AprU  12, 1878. 
Tw^lfth-flav  ^^^  twelfth  day  after 
XWeUin-aay,  Christmas,  upon 
which  is  held  the  festival  of  Epiphany 
(which  see).  On  the  evenhig  of  this 
day,  called  Twelfth-night,  various  social 
rites  and  ceremonies  are  observed  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  One  of  these  is  the 
baking  of  a  cake,  into  which  a  bean  is 
introduced,  the  person  who  receives  the 
bean  being  made  king  for  the  occasion. 
Ttinnlr^Tilioni  (twik'en-am),  a  town 
XWlOKennam  li  Middlesex.  England, 
on  the  Thames,  nearly  11  miles 
8.W.  of  London.  In  the  18th  century 
it  was  a  fashionable  resort  Pop.  29.374. 
Twilight  (twi'Ut),  daylight  whidi 
X  wAugut  continues  after  sunset,  occa- 
sioned by  the  reflection  of  sunlight  from 
the  higher  parts  of  the  atmosphere  which 
are  soli  illuminated  after  the  sun  has 
become  invisible  from  ordinary  heists, 
and  which  contain  floating  matter  whidi 
reflects  the  sun's  beams.  It  is  supposed 
to  last  till  the  sun  is  about  18*  below  the 
horizon,  but  is  much  influenced  by  the 
state  of  the  atmosphere  as  to  douds.  etc 
The  light  preceding  sunrise  is  also  given 
this  name.  In  low  altitudes  (that  is, 
near  the  equator)  there  is  little  twiliaht. 
TtxTilicyl^f  QlA*n  a  method  of  indne> 
llVlllgni  Dieepy  ^  painless  child- 
birth, worked  out  in  the  medical  dinic 
of  the  University  of  Baden,  and  in  1914 
reported  to  have  been  used  successfully 
in  5000  cases  in  Freiburg.  Germany.  The 
*  twilight  sleep '  is  a  borderland  condition 
between  sleepinc  and  waking,  induced  by 
the  hypodermic  In jcction  of  a  small  quan- 
tity of  a  combination  of  two  drucs,  scop- 
olamine and  morphine,  which  produces  an 
unusual  delicately  balanced  condition  of 
consciousness  in  which  the  body  loses  aU 
sense  of  pain,  but  retains  the  power  of 
muscular  contraction. 
qVrr{11  a  textile  fabric,  in  whidi  die 
AwxxAy  weft  threads  do  not  pass  over 
and  under  the  warp-threads  in  regular 
succession,  as  in  common  plain  weaving, 
but  pass  over  one  and  under  two,  over 
one  and  under  three,  etc. 
TToHti  Ffi^llfl  *  dty,  county  seat  of 
llVlIIJJauS,  Twin  Wlls  Co.,  Idaho, 
near  the  Snake  River,  120  miles  8.  w.  or 
Pocatello.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  dis- 
trict   Pop.  8000. 


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Twin  Screw 


Tyndall 


Twin  SfirftW  *  propeller  of  a  steam- 
X^V^m  DCrew,  Tessel,  composed  of 
two  teparate  and  parallel  screws  which 
reroWe  fai  opposite  directions,  thus  giy* 
inc  increased  power  over  a  single  screw 
propellet.  The  twin-screw  system  is 
now  employed  in  the  principal  warships 
of  the  world,  and  triple-screws  are  used 
on  many  modem  Teasels. 
Tunftft  Sib  Tbatebs,  bom  in  West- 
*^"^  minster.  England,  in  1810. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford;  became  a 
fellow  and  tutor  in  his  college;  was  ap- 
pointed successively  professor  of  politi* 
cal  economy  at  Oxford  (1842-49)  ;  pro- 
fessor of  international  law,  King's 
College,  London  (1862-55)  ;  professor  of 
ciTil  law  in  Oxfoid  (1855-70)  :  and  ad- 
Tocate-general  of  the  crown  (1867-72). 
His  chief  worlu  are:  The  Oregon  Qnst- 
tion  17«amffied  (1846),  View  of  the 
Progreu  of  PolUioal  Economy  in  Europe 
(1847),  Leotnret  on  the  Science  of  In' 
iemationol  Law  (1856),  the  Law 
of  Netione  (1863),  and  BeUigerent  Right 
on  the  High  Beae  (1884).  He  died  in 
1807. 
Tvhnra    (tfbnm),  a  turnpike  at  the 

London,  noted  for  the  public  executions 
of  metropolitan  malefactors   which   long 
took   place  near   it.    The   turnpike  was 
removed  in  1829. 
Tyche~  t^'^^)*     ^^  Fortune. 

Tyco  Bralie.    see  Brohe. 

Tvl^r  (tlHer),  a  town  of  Texas,  capi- 
*  J*«^  tal  of  Smith  Co.,  19  miles  N.  w. 
of  Troup.  It  has  cotton  and  oil  mills 
and  other  industries.  Pop.  10,400. 
IWr  John,  tenth  president  of  the 
*/*^*>  United  SUtes,  was  bom  in 
Virginia,  March  29,  1790.  He  studied 
law.  was  elected  to  Congress  in  181G,  and 
in  1825  became  governor  of  Virginia  and 
also  succeeded  John  Randolph  as  United 
States  Senator.  He  subsequently  be- 
came identified  with  the  Whig  party,  and 
in  1840  was  elected  Vice-President  under 
the  presidency  of  General  Harrison.  On 
Harrison's  death  in  1841  he  succeeded  as 
President,  and  as  such  came  into  col- 
lision with  his  party  on  the  National 
Bank  Bill  and  other  questious.  The  an- 
nexation of  Texas  was  the  chief  event  of 
his  term  of  office,  at  the  end  of  which 
he  retired  into  private  life.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Secession  war  he  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  South,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Confederate  congress.  He 
died  in  Richmond  in  January,  1862. 
1Sr1*i*  Moses  Corr,  historian,  bom  at 
*y*^*>  Oriswold,  Connecticut,  in  1885. 
He  graduated  at  xale  University  in  1857, 


studied  theology,  and  l>ecame  a  CJongre- 
gational  pastor  in  1850.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  in  Michigan 
University,  1867-72  and  1874-81,  and 
literary  editor  of  The  Christian  Union, 
1872-74.  He  became  priest  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  1883. 
He  wrote  History  of  American  Litera- 
ture During  the  Colonial  Period.  Man- 
Mat  of  English  Literature,  etc  He  died 
December  28,  1900. 

Tyler  ^^T*  ^^  En^ish  soldier  who 
*J*''*>  served  in  the  French  wars,  and 
was  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  rebellion 
of  1S81  against  the  poll-tax  (which  see). 
He  led  the  men  of  Kent  upon  London, 
where,  after  fire  and  pillage,  they  were 
partly  dispersed  by  a  promise  of  the 
king  to  grant  them  charters  of  freedom 
and  amnesty.  Tyler,  however,  remained 
with  a  body  of  the  insurgentcu^  and  was 
met  by  the  king  next  dav  at  Smithfield, 
where,  for  his  apparent  insolence  in  the 
royal  presence,  he  was  stabbed  by  Wil- 
liam Walworth,  mayor  of  London. 
qVlAT  EowABO  BuBNETT.  anthropolo- 
'^J^^''9  eist,  bom  at  Camberwell,  Eng- 
land, in  1832.  He  devoted  himself  with 
much  success  to  researches  in  the  historv 
of  man  and  civilization:  became  presi- 
dent of  the  Anthropological  Society, 
keeper  of  the  Oxford  University  Mu- 
seum, and  reader  in  anthropology.  He 
was  appointed  first  Gifford  lecturer  at 
Aberdeen  in  1888.  His  chief  works  are: 
Researches  into  the  Early  History  of 
Mankind;  Primitive  Culture;  and  A»- 
thropology.  He  was  made  professor  of 
anthropology  at  Oxford  in  1895. 
Tympanum  <  tim'pa-num  ),  (Da 
*j***r«***»****  cavity  of  an  irregular 
shape  situated  in  the  ear.  (See  Ear,) 
(2)  In  architecture,  the  triangular  spare 
in  a  pediment  included  between  the 
cornices  of  the  inclined  sides  and  the 
horizontal  cornice;  also,  any  similar 
space,  as  above  a  window,  or  the  space 
included  between  the  lintel  of  a  door 
and  the  arch  above  it.  The  tympanum 
is  often  ornamented  with  carving  or 
sculpture. 
TvHCLale    ^^^^'^'^^'   ^^  Ttndall,  WO- 

Tunilall  (tin'dal),  John,  physicist, 
xyuoau  ^^  j^  jggO  at  Leighlin 
Bridge,  Carlow,  Ireland;  was  educated  in 
a  neighboring  school;  joined  the  Irish 
Ordnance  Survey  in  1839;  engaged  in 
railway  engineering  for  several  years; 
was  appointed  teacher  in  Queenwood  Col- 
lege, Hants;  was  elected  to  the  chair  of 
natural  philosophy  in  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion in  1853;  visited  Switzerland  in  1866 
along  with  Huxley,  and  made  repeated 
investigations    in    that    country 


i 


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Tyne 


Type-setting  Machine 


fluently:  lectured  throughout  the  United 
States  In  1872;  and  presided  over  the 
British  Association  in  1874  at  Belfast 
His  chief  works  are:  The  Olaoiera  of 
the  Alpt  (I860)  ;  Heat  Considered  a»  a 
Mode  of  Motion  (1863) ;  On  Radiation 
(1866);  Sound  JiBG6);  Light  (1870); 
The  Forme  of  Water  (1872)  ;  Floating 
Matter  in  the  Air  (1881),  etc  He  died 
December  4,  1883. 

Tyt«^  (tin),  a  river  of  Bngland, 
^jMM.^  formed  by  the  Junction  near 
Hexham  of  the  North  Tyne,  which  rises 
in  the  Cheviots,  and  the  South  Tyne, 
which  rises  in  the  east  of  Cumberland. 
The  united  stream  enters  the  sea  at 
Tynemouth  after  a  course  from  Hexham 
of  nearly  30  miles.  The  Tyne  has,  since 
1854,  been  the  subject  of  large  engineer- 
ing  operations,  consisting  of  extensive 
dredging,  the  construction  of  piers  at  its 
mouth,  the  formation  of  lar^  docks,  and 
the  building  of  a  swing-bridge  at  New- 
castle. These  Improvements  have  re- 
sulted in  a  great  increase  in  its  trade. 
See  Netocaette-on-Tyne. 

Tynemouth  <f-^|^i  ^^^'ft 

Northumberland,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tyne  on  its  north  bank.  There  are 
many  handsome  buildiuj^  a  parade 
nearly  a  mile  long,  the  ruins  of  a  pictur- 
esque old  priory,  an  aquarium,  winter- 
garden,  baths,  etc.,  and  the  place  is  much 
frequented  for  sea-bathing.  The  port  of 
North  Shields  and  several  villages  are 
included  within  the  borough.  Pop.  58,- 
822. 

Tvne  (^P)*  ^  rectangular  solid  of 
*Jr^  metal,  wood,  or  other  hard  ma- 
terial having  a  raised  letter,  figure, 
punctuation  mark,  or  other  character  on 
the  upper  end,  which,  when  inked,  is  used 
to  make  Impressions  on  paper  and  other 
smooth  surfaces;  the  term  is  also  used 
collectively.  Types  must  be  all  of  a  uni- 
form height,  and  perfectly  true  in  their 
angles,  otherwise  they  could  not 
be  locked  firmly  together  to  be 
printed  from.  The  nicks  d  d  d 
shown  in  figure  are  notches 
made  on  one  side  of  the  type 
to  assist  the  compositor  in  dis- 
l,  tlnguishing  the  bottom  from  the 
top ;  the  groove  (e)  is  a  channel 
made  In  the  bottom  of  the  type 
to  make  It  stand  steadily.  From 
the  character  of  the  letters  types 
are  known  as  capitals,  small 
or  lower-case  letters,  italic8f  scripts,  etc. 
From  their  size  they  receive  the  following 
names,  the  titles  ranging  from  hrilUant, 
which,  however,  Is  rarely  used,  to  Eng- 
lish, the  largest  tyi>e  used  In  ordinary 
book  work:  — 


BrUliMit... 

Diamo 

P«ari. 

Baby WOUam  Csxton  was  the  first  Ena^ 

Nonparaa  .....WiUsm  Cazton  was  the  first  Bndia 

Mfakkm William  Caxton  was  the  first  Eng 

Bravier William  Cazton  was  the  first 

BmttK9oiB  ^..William  Caxton  was  the  fir 
Lone  Primer  William  Caxton  was  the 
Small  pfoL^^William  Caxton  was  th 

Pica .William  Caxton  was 

William  Caxton 


Bievi« WiMxk  lltttrr  or  <Mft  &i9lisl| 

Late  in  the  nineteenth  century  the 
*  point'  system  was  adopted  generally  by 
printers.  The  old  names  with  their  near- 
est  equivalent  in  the  point  system  are  as 
follows : 

BriUiant    31  poiAt 

Diamond   4  ** 

Pearl    41  •* 

Ruby    5 

Nonpareil    6  ** 

Minion    7  " 

Brevier    8  ** 

Bourgeois    9  ** 

Long  Primer ....10  •* 

SmaU  Pica 11 

Pica 12  •• 

English   14  •* 

Types  are  made  by  casting  (which  is 
now  done  by  machinery),  the  letter  being 
first  cut  upon  the  end  of  a  steel  punch, 
and  the  punch  then  driven  into  a  piece 
of  copper,  which  forms  the  matrix  or 
bottom  of  the  mold  intended  to  produce 
the  letter.  Type-metal  is  an  alloy  of 
lead,  antimony,  and  tin.    See  Printing, 

Type-setting     Machine, 

a  mechanical  device  for  setting  type.  A 
machine  for  this  purpose  was  patented 
In  England  as  early  as  1794,  out  the 
first  in  any  way  available  was  the 
Churd  machine  of  1822.  This  cast  the 
types  as  well  as  set  them.  Various  other 
machines  were  subseouently  produced, 
but  it  was  not  until  tne  last  quarter  of 
the  century  that  any  was  Invented  that 
competed  profitably  with  hand-setting. 
Of  those  now  in  use  that  set  previously- 
cast  types,  there  are  two  which  may  be 
named,  the  Thorne  and  McMillan  ma- 
chines. The  first  of  these  sets  and  dis- 
tributes the  type,  while  the  second  has 
separate  machines  for  setting  and  dis- 
tributing. Of  type-casting  machines, 
there    are    two    in    common    use,    the 


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Typewriter  Typhoon 

Mergantbaler    and    the    Lanston.    The  feet,  eyes,  or  ears.    It  la  a  native  of 

Mergantbaler  machine,  perfected  in  1884,  South  Africa. 

is  known  as  the  Linotype*  from  the  fact  TvDiiOid  FeVfiT  (tl'foid),  called  also 
that  it  casts  a  line  of  type  instead  of  *Jl'**^***  **^^*  enteric  fever  and 
single  types.  It  has  long  been  widely  gastric  fever,  a  disease  somewhat  re- 
used in  newspaper  offices  and  is  now  sembling  typhus,  but  essentially  different, 
largely  employed  in  book  setting.  The  It  is  characterized  by  serious  disorder  of 
Lanston,  known  as  the  Monotype,  casts  the  bowels,  and  is  not  infectious  in  the 
single  types,  a  keyboard  being  used  as  sense  that  it  can  be  communicated  from 
in  the  Linotype,  each  key  controlling  one  person  to  another  by  breath  or  bv 
the  casting  of  a  special  type-letter,  mark,  the  skin,  as  in  scarlet  fever  and  small- 
space,  etc.  This  is  in  considerable  nse,  poz.  The  poison  seems  to  consist  of 
and  there  are  other  single-type  machines  living  organisms  or  disease  germs  which 
on  the  market.  exist  in  the  discharges  from  typhoid  fever 
nVnPizrrif  AT  ^  machine  intended  to  patients,  may  gain  admission  to  the 
xjriicwAxtcX)  be  used  as  a  substitute  water  of  wells,  and  hence  to  the  human 
for  the  pen.  and  by  which  the  letters  stomach,  through  drinking  water  or  that 
are  produceo  by  the  impression  of  inked  used  to  wash  milk  dishes.  When  these 
types.  The  essential  elements  in  such  germs  gain  access  to  the  alimentary  canal 
machines  are  a  movement  to  bring  the  of  a  person  whose  general  health  is  im- 
type  into  position,  an  inking  device,  an  paired,  the  disease  is  usually  set  up. 
impression  movement,  and  means  for  let-  It  is  uncertain  what  time  may  elapse 
ter  and  line  spacing.  A  successful  form  between  the  introduction  of  the  poison 
of  the  machine  has  a  series  of  letter  and  the  appearance  of  the  disease,  but 
keys  arranged  in  rows,  to  be  worked  by  the  period  is  usually  about  three  weeks, 
the  fingers  of  both  hands,  a  letter  being  The  symptoms  of  the  disease  are  languor, 
imprinted  on  the  paper  (which  moves  chills,  violent  headache,  thirst,  and 
automatically)  each  time  a  key  is  struck,  pains  in  the  limbs.  Soon  diarrhoea  sets 
In  recent  years  many  type-writers  have  in,  accompanied  by  a  distended  and  ten- 
been  brought  before  the  public,  such  as  der  state  of  the  abdomen.  The  temper- 
the  Remington,  Hammond,  Bar-Lock,  ature  rises,  the  skin  loses  its  moisture, 
etc,  and  improvements  are  made  from  the  kidneys  cease  to  act  freely,  and  the 
time  to  time.  In  these  there  are  two  tongue  becomes  drv  and  brown.  Then 
rows  of  keys,  29  in  all.  Each  key  works  a  rose-colored  rash  appears  over  the 
a  lever  to  which  is  attached  a  capital  chest  and  abdomen,  which  mav  soon  dis- 
letter,  an  ordinary  Roman  letter,  and  appear,  only,  however,  to  be  followed  by 
a  figure.  The  capital  letters  and  the  a  new  crop  of  spots.  At  this  stage  de- 
fiffures  are  brought  into  play  by  means  lirium  and  other  serious  symptoms  arise, 
of  two  small  shift  stops,  and  the  print-  and  as  the  disease  advances  ulceration 
ing  as  it  is  performed  is  in  full  view  of  or  perforation  of  the  bowels  may  take 
the  operator.  In  others,  as  the  Gali-  place.  While  the  symptoms  here  de- 
graph,  Yost,  and  Smith  Premier,  there  is  scribed  are  those  of  a  typical  case,  there 
a  separate  key  for  every  character  pro-  are  numerous  instances  where  the  pa- 
ducible.  tient  may  have  no  marked  looseness  of 
Tvnliaceffi  (tl-f&'se-^),  a  nat.  order  the  bowels,  no  spots  on  the  skin,  and 
Ajri^uov^cx^  of  m  o  n  o  c  o  t  yledonous  no  delirium.  In  the  treatment  of  the 
plants,  characterised  by  their  calyx  be-  disease  the  most  important  thing  is  the 
mg  three-sepaled  and  half-glumaceous.  or  dieting.  Only  soft  liquid  foods  are 
a  mere  bundle  of  long  hairs,  by  tnelr  allowable,  such  as  milk»  in  abundance, 
long  lax  filaments,  clavate  anthers,  soli-  boiled  bread  and  milk,  corn-flour,  etc. 
tary  pendulous  ovules,  and  peculiar  Looseness  of  the  bowels,  if  excessive, 
habit  The  order  includes  two  genera,  should  be  checked  bv  catechu  and  chalk 
Typha  and  Sparganium,  the  species  of  mixture,  with  the  addition  of  laudanum, 
which  are  abundant  in  the  northern  if  necessary,  to  a  grown-up  i>er8on.  The 
parts  of  the  world.  They  are  herbaceous  ^ease  is  serious  and  often  proves  fatal, 
reed-like  plants,  growing  in  marshes  and  See  Vaccination. 

ditches.     See  Reed-mace,  TtrnTinTi    (tffon),   the  Greek   designa- 

TvDhline    (tiflin),    a    curious    lizard  *JF"""   Uon    of    an    Egyptian    deity 

A^|/iuxuv  belonging    to    a    family    in  called    Set    or    Seth,    son   of   Seb,    and 

which  the  eyes  and  ears  are  hidden  under  brother  to  Osiris,   whom  he  is  said   to 

the    skin.    In    the    typical    species,    the  have  destroyed.    He  seems  to  have  repre- 

common   typhline    (or   blind   acontias —  sented  the  volcanic  forces  of  the' earth. 

TpphUna    Cuvferii),    the    limbs    are   en-  TvnllOIITl   (tl-f5n'),    a    violent    hurri- 

tlrely  wanting,  and  the  animal  looks  ut-  *jlf**^'vii.  ^^^     especially  one  of  those 

terly  helpless,  having  no  apparent  legs,  which  rage  on  the  coasts  of  China,  and 


i 


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Typhus  Tevcr  Tyrol 

Japan  and  the  neighboring  archipelago.  Tvrfl.ILt  (^'^c^t)»  originally,  in  an« 
They  occur  from  May  to  November,  bat  *  J  *■***"  clcnt  Qreece,  one  who  had 
are  most  frequent  and  disastrous  during  usurped  the  ruling  power  without  the 
the  months  of  July,  August,  and  Sep-  consent  of  the  people  or  at  the  expense 
tember.  of  the  existing  government  Such  a 
TvDlmfl  Fever  (tl'^us),  known  also  ruler,  although  he  obtained  his  power 
*J""  ^  as  hospital  fever,  illegally,  did  not  always  use  it  oppres- 
jail  fever,  etc.,  is  essentially  a  fever  of  sively  and  violently;  on  the  contrary,  it 
the  poor,  ill-fed,  and  badly-housed  in-  was  frequently  used  humanely  and 
habitants  of .  large  cities.  It  is  infec-  beneficentlv,  and  some  tyrants  were 
tious,  and  the  infection  is  believed  to  be  patrons  of  literature  and  art.  In  mod- 
transmitted  by  germs  carried  by  lice  or  em  times  the  word  has  a  different 
other  vermin.  Free  ventilation  is  the  significance,  indicating  a  cruel  or  op- 
least  favorable  condition  for  the  spread  pressive  ruler. 

?La^  a^^riod^'^SSrSv^'S  Tyrant  Flycatcher,  f^.  ''•'"•" 

twelve  days  may  pass  aftet*  the  person  Tttta  (^i*)»  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
is  infected.  Then  there  is  generally  a  ^J*"^  cities  of  ancient  Phoenicia,  and 
shivering,  followed  by  a  hot,  dry  skin,  a  with  its  elder  sister,  Sidon,  long  a  great 
suffused  condition  of  the  eyes,  a  small  trading  mart.  It  was  built  partly  on 
pupil,  thirst,  a  dull,  stupid  expression,  an  island  and  partly  on  the  mainland; 
great  prostration,  and  costive  bowels,  and  the  insular  fortifications  formed  its 
About  the  seventh  day  a  rash  of  irregu-  chief  strength  when  besieged  and  taken 
lar  spots  and  of  a  dusky  hue  appears  by  Alexander  the  Great  in  B.O.  832.  A 
over  the  chest  and  back,  but  sometimes  mole  or  causeway  then  constructed  to 
this  is  entirely  absent.  As  the  disease  the  island  was  the  origin  of  the  isthmus 
advances  the  patient's  strength  becomes  which  now  connects  it  with  the  main- 
exhausted,  the  urinary  secretion  is  land.  Tyre  was  famous  in  the  tenth 
scanty,  if  not  entirely  suppressed,  de-  century  B.C.  under  Hiram,  the  friend  of 
lirium  sets  in,  and  the  disease  is  often  Solomon;  was  besi^ed  In  vain  bv  the 
complicated  by  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  or  Assyrians  in  725-720  B.O.,  and  by 
pleurisy.  About  the  fourteenth  day,  in  Nebuchadnezzar,  585-572  B.C.,  and  re- 
favorable  cases,  the  turn  of  the  fever  is  mained  an  important  place  till  it  came 
shown  by  the  patient  falling  into  a  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  It  was 
sound  sleep,  from  which  he  awakes  with  famous  for  a  dye  (the  Tyrian  purple) 
the  fever  gone.  In  unfavorable  cases  the  obtained  from  the  shell-fish  Murem 
prostration  increases,  the  feverishness  is  (which  see).  The  modem  Tyre  or  Sur 
heightened,  convulsions  may  occur,  and  is  an  insignificant  place  of  6000  inhabl- 
at  length  the  patient  sinks  into  uncon-  tants,  under  the  government  of  Beirut, 
sciousness.  The  treatment  consists  in  See  also  PhcBnicia, 
keeping  the  patient  in  a  well-ventilated  Tvrol  (tir'ol),  or  Tibol',  a  province  of 
room,  and  preventing  exhaustion  by  a  *J**'*  Austria  (including  Tyrol  proper 
light  and  wholesome  diet  Milk,  beef-  and  Vorarlberg),  is  bounded  north  by 
tea,  nourishing  soups  without  vegetables,  Bavaria  and  Lake  Constance,  west  by 
should  be  given  to  the  patient  in  small  Switzerland,  east  by  Salzburgand  IUyria« 
quantities  at  short  intervals.  south,  east,  and  west  by  venetla  and 
TvBOfirraDllV  (tI-PO«'Pa-fi).  See  Lombardy;  area,  11325  square  miles. 
*Jr*'&*«*if**i/  Printing,  In  magnificence  of  scenery  Tyrol  is  only 
Tyr  (tir),  in  northern  mythology,  the  inferior  to  Switzerland,  of  which  it  is 
^^  son  of  Odin,  brother  of  Balder,  a  continuation.  The  Alps  enter  it  from 
and  the  god  of  war  and  victory.  He  Switzerk^nd  in  three  chains,  of  which 
corresponds  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  Tiw,  the  central  (the  Tyrol  or  Oetzthaler 
from  whom  Tuesday  is  named,  and  the  Alps)  is  the  loftiest,  and  divides  the 
day  is  similarly  named  among  the  Danes  country  into  North  and  South  Tyrol, 
and  Icelanders.  The  drainage  of  North  Tyrol  is  mainly 
IVniTiTiiia  (tl-ran'us),  a  genus  of  in-  carried  to  the  Danube  by  the  Inn,  which 
xjrnumus  gegsorial  birds.  The  best-  is  the  only  navigable  river;  that  of 
known  species  is  the  tyrant  fly-catcher  South  Tyrol  is  mostly  conveyed  to  the 
(T.  Carolinen$i9) ,  which  is  remarkable  Adriatic  by  the  Adige.  About  one-third 
for  its  bold  and  pugnacious  disposition,  of  the  surface  is  practically  inaccessible. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  United  States,  feeds  another  third  is  occupied  by  forests, 
on  insects,  and  is  not  afraid  to  attack  The  vine  and  cereals  are  cultivated,  and 
birds  of  prey  much  lanrer  than  itself,  minerals,  especially  iron  and  salt,  are 
It  is  also  called  lynuil-tiirt&e  and  king-  extensively  worked.  Silk,  metal  wares, 
bird,  wood  articles,  lace,  and  embroidery,  aro 


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Tyrone 


Tytler 


amoDf  the  maniifactims.  The  capital  is 
Innabrock.  Pop.  850,002. 
TirrATi^  (tl-r6n'),  a  ooanty  of  Ireland, 
xyruue  ^  ^^  province  of  Ulster; 
bounded  by  Londonderry,  Donegal, 
Armagh,  Monaghan,  and  Fermanagh; 
area,  1260  8q.  miles.  The  surface  is 
hilly,  rising  into  mountains  in  the  north 
and  south,  and  declining  to  a  level  to- 
wards Lough  Neagh.  The  soil  in  the 
lower  districts  is  fertile,  and  the  county 
Is  watered  by  numerous  branches  of  the 
Foyle  and  Blackwater.  Agriculture 
cenerally  is  in  a  backward  state.  Goal 
is  mined  to  a  small  extent  near  Dun- 
gannon  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
county;  linens,  woolens,  earthenware^ 
whiskey,  beer,  chemicals,  etc.,  are  made. 
Principal  towns,  Strabane  and  Dun- 
gannon.  Pop.  150,567. 
IVpatia  ^  borough  of  Blair  Co.,  Penn« 
AyruuCi  gvlvania,  on  the  Little  Juni- 
ata River,  14  miles  N.  E.  of  Altoona. 
It  has  extensive  coaling  interests,  rail- 
road shoDS,  lumber  and  paper  mills,  etc 

Tyrrhenian  Sea  (tir-rt'ni-an),  the 

*/********•***  *^**  name  given  to  the 
part  of  the  ^fedUerran^an  Sen  adjoining 
the  soiitUweflt  coabI  of  Italy*  and  extend- 
ing to  Corsica*  Sardinia^  aod  Sicily. 
Tvrtffina  (tlr-t^'ua),  a  Greek  lyric 
*^  poet  of  the  »<"veiith  century 

B.O.,  a  native  of  Attka,  celebrated  for  his 
war  soues  written  for  the  Spartans. 
IVtiefTiiH     (ter'it),  Thomas,  bom  in 

1786.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at 
Queen 'a  Collep?,  Oxford  i  became  a  fellow 
of  Merton;  clerk  to  the  Honae  of  Ck>m« 
mons  (l?61-^7) ;  and  in  1781  was  ap- 


pointed a  curator  of  the  British  Museum. 
Among  his  writings  were:  Obtervaiiotu 
on  9ome  Pa$9age4  of  Shakespore  (1766)  ; 
an  edition  of  Chaucer  (1775)  :  and  an 
edition  of  the  so-called  Rowley^B  Poems, 
in  the  appendix  of  which  he  exposes  the 
fraud  of  CSiatterton. 
TvfM^nft  (tfsens),  Peteb,  a  distin- 
xyBSeus  mulshed  Flemish  painter,  bom 
at  Antwerp  in  1625;  died  in  1602.  He 
excelled  both  in  portraits  and  historical 
painting.  Amonc  the  latter  is  The  At- 
sumption  of  the  Virgin, —  His  sons, 
NiOHOULS  and  AuousTiifE,  were  also 
talented  artists,  the  former  painting  birds 
and  flowers,  the  latter  landscapes  of  great 
merit 

TvtlPT  Patbiok  Fraseb,  fourth  son 
*J"^^>  of  Alexander  Fraser  Tytler 
(Lord  Woodhouselee),  was  bom  at 
Edinburgh  in  1791,  and  died  in  1849. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  became  a  lawyer,  and  finally 
engaged  in  literature,  writing  his  chief 
work,  the  History  of  Scotland,  1823-43. 
Among  his  other  works  are  his  biogra- 
phies of  the  Admirable  Grichton,  Wlck- 
ly£f,  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.— His 
father,  Alkzandeb  Fraseb  Tttleb 
(Lord  Woodhouselee),  Scotch  judge,  was 
bom  at  Edinburgh  in  1747;  died  in  1813. 
His  chief  work  is  the  Elements  of  Oen- 
erol  History,  He  also  contributed  papers 
to  The  Mirror,  The  Lounger,  etc. —  Lord 
Woodhouselee's  father,  Wiluah  Tttleb, 
of  Woodhouselee,  born  in  1711; 
died  in  1792,  nublished  an  Inquiry  into 
the  Evidence  Against  Mary  Queen  of 
Soots,  Criticisms  of  Hume's  and  Robert- 
son's Histories,  the  Poetical  Remains  of 
Jamm  the  First,  etc. 


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u 


rr  the  twenty-fint  letter  and  the  fifth 
'  vowel  in  the  English  alphabet.  Its 
true  primary  sound  was  that  which  it 
still  retains  in  most  of  the  languages  in 
Europe,  that  of  oo  in  cool,  tool,  aood, 
wood,  etc.,  answering  to  the  French  ou 
in  tour,  the  sound  being  sometimes  short, 
sometimes  long. 
TJbangi.     ^^  Mohangi. 

tfbeda  (^ba'da),  a  city  of  Spain, 
^  ^  province  of  Jaen,  on  the  right 
t>ank  of  the  Guadalquivir.  It  contains  a 
fine  cathedraL     Pop.  19,913. 

uucrwc^  bom  in  Rhenish  Prussia  in 
1826;  died  in  1871.  He  studied  at  GOt- 
tingen  and  Berlin,  and  in  1862  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  philosophy  at 
K5nigsberg.  He  wrote  A  8y»iem  and 
HUtory  of  Logio  (1875)  and  A  Bitiory 
of  Philosophy,  both  translated  into  Eng- 
lish. 
XJbeS     ^^*    ®^  Seiuhal. 

TTcayale  (»-ka-gri«)t  or  Uoata'u,  a 
•^  large  river  of  Peru,  one  of 

the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon.  It  he- 
fins  in  the  Apurimac,  is  upwards  of 
.000  miles  in   length,   and   is  navigable 

by  large  vessels  for  100  miles. 


fi 


TtdaiDiir    (^'^^pv),  or  Oodktpobe, 

"  a  town  in  the  northwest  of 
India,  capital  of  a  native  state  of  the 
same  name  in  Rajputana,  on  a  lake 
2000  feet  above  sea-level,  contains  a 
notable  royal  palace,  and  exports 
turmeric,  cotton,  indigo,  etc.  Pop.  45,- 
595. —  The  state,  which  has  an  area  of 
12,670  sq.  miles,  came  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Britain  in  1817,  and  the  rajah 
ranks  highest  in  dignity  among  the 
Rajput  chiefs.  Pop.  1,030,212. 
Tidal.    ^^  ^^^  Right,  and  Allodium. 

TT AtL\^  (fi'dal),  Nicholas,  the  author 
uuiux  ^^  ^^jp^  Roister  Doister,  the 
first  regular  English  comedy,  bom  in 
1506;  died  in  1556.  He  was  master  of 
Eton  School  from  1534  to  1541,  and  the 
play  was  written  for  performance  by  the 
^holars.  Its  authorship  was  not  ascer- 
12—10 


tained  till  181&  He  was  in  favor  at 
court  as  a  writer  of  pageants  and  Inter- 
ludes. 

TTddevflllfl.  (ud-e-vAl'lA),  a  seaport  in 
UaaeviUili  ^^^  southwest  of  Sweden, 
at  the  inner  end  of  the  Byfjord.  It  has 
an  active  trade  and  textile  manufactures. 
Pop.  9442. 

TTdine  (O'd^nA),  a  walled  town  of 
vuAuv  North  Italy,  ci^ital  of  a  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name  and  see  of  an 
archbishop,  60  miles  northeast  of  Venice. 
It  contains  a  castle  (now  a  barrack),  a 
Romanesque  cathedraL  bishop's  palace, 
etc  and  has  manufactures  of  linen,  silk, 
woolens,  etc.  Pop.  (1914)  48,962. 
TTfo  {6'fk),  a  government  of  Russia, 
*'***  separated  in  18«5  from  Orenburg; 
area  47,094  square  miles.  On  the  east, 
where  it  is  bordered  by  the  Southern 
Urals,  the  country  is  mountainous, 
wooded,  provided  with  excellent  pastures, 
and  rich  in  minerals.  It  is  also  well 
watered  by  the  Bielaya,  and  has  abun- 
dance of  arable  land  on  which  good  crops 
are  raised.  Pop.  2,620^600.— Ufa,  the 
capital,  stands  on  the  Bielaya,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Ufa,  735  miles  east 
by  north  of  Moscow.  It  is  the  see  of  a 
bishop,  and  has  considerable  manufac- 
tures and  trade.    Pop  (1910)  103,485. 

UffiziGaUery  SS^''*^-    «- 

N.  w.  of  the  Victoria  Nyansa.  It  is  a 
rich  agricultural  country  with  a  mild 
and  uniform  climate,  and  the  inhabitants 
are  of  a  comparatively  high  type. 
Within  it,  wholly  or  in  part,  are  the 
large  hikes  Victoria.  Albert,  Albert  Ed- 
ward, Kiogo  and  Rudolf.  It  was  first 
visited  by  Speke  and  Grant  in  1860,  and 
is  the  seat  of  several  mission  stations. 
Under  King  Mtesa,  however,  and  his 
successor  Biwanga.  the  Ghristians  were 
persecuted,  and  Bishop  Hannington  was 
put  to  death  by  the  latter.  It  is  now 
a  British  protectorate,  the  British  seat 
of  administration  being^  Entebbe,  the  na- 
tive capital  Menga  Pop.  estimated  at 
4,000,000. 


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Ugrians  tlmaoese 

DT^riftTlA    (tt'gri-4nz),    a   term   applied  of  Russia   and   signed   a   separate  peace 

V5AJ.CUA0    ^^  ^^  Finnic  group  of  Tu-  with     Germany    in    1918.       Pop.     about 

ranian    peoples,    comprising    the    Lapps,  30.000,000. 

Finns,    and    Magyars    or    Hungarians;  TJlans      (ti'lanz).     See   Uhlans, 

their  language  is  termed  Ugrian.  v*a.4i.o 

TTlilsiTifl  r^'iant),  JoHANN  LuDWiG,  TTIpAr  (ul'ser),  a  sore  in  any  of  the 
Uiiiauu  ^^  j^^  ^j.  Tubingen  in  ^*^^*  soft  parts  of  the  body,  either 
1787;  died  in  1862.  open  to  the  surface  or  to  some  natural 
TTliI  EiDWiN  Fuller,  statesman,  bom  cavity,  and  attended  with  a  secretion  of 
'  at  Rush,  New  York,  in  1841;  died  pus  or  some  kind  of  discharge.  Ulcers 
in  1901.  He  studied  law,  became  are  of  various  kinds,  as  Moorhutic,  oaf»- 
mayor  of  Grand  Rapids,  Mich^  in  ceroMM,  »orofulou9f  etc 
1890,  and  was  made  assistant  Secre-  TnAftliArcy  (5'le-o-borg),  a  town  of 
tary  of  State  in  October,  1893;  and  W^«»""*5  Russia,  in  the  Grand-duchy 
during  the  sickness  of  Secretary  Gres-  of  Finland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ule&, 
ham  was  Acting  Secretary  of  State,  in  the  gulf  of  Bothnia.  Pop.  (1904)  17,737. 
While  in  this  office  be  was  entrusted  TTleiIlfi.8  (U-16'maz),  the  hierarchical 
with  the  arbitration  to  settle  the  boun-  *'"*«*"  corporation  of  learned  men 
dary  between  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  in  Turkey,  composed  of  the  Imams  or 
Republic.  He  was  made  ambassador  to  ministers  of  religion,  the  Muftis  or  doc- 
Germany  in  February,  180G.  tors  of  law,  and  the  Cadis  or  adminis- 
ITlllfl.118    (3'Iai^)>    a    species    of    light  trators  of  justice. 

cavalry  in  the  armies  of  the  TTlfilaa  ("I'fi-las),  Ulphilas,  or  WuL- 
Austrians,  Russians  and  Germans.  wxoiacwj  riLAS,  a  bishop  of  the  Gothe 
TTIlTicllSVille  (ytl'riks-vil),  a  citv  of  of  Moesia,  was  bom,  it  is  supposed,  in 
vuAAvuovAXA^  Tuscarawas  Co.,  Ohio,  311;  consecrated  bishop  by  Eusebius  of 
on  Stillwater  Creek,  9  miles  s.  E.  of  New  Nicomedia,  probably  at  Antioch,  in  341; 
Philadelphia.  It  has  manufactures  of  died  at  Constantinople  in  381.  He 
fire  clay  and  sewer  pipe.  Pop.  4751.  translated  most  of  the  Bible  into  Gothic 
Trintall  MnnntflinA  (Q-in't&),  op  (Moeso-Gothic),  employing  the  Greek  of 
UlUl^aa  moUnxaiUS  uinta,  a  the  Septuagint  for  the  Old  Testament, 
range  of  lofty  mountains  in  Utah,  which  and  a  Greek  text,  different  from  the  re- 
extend  B.  from  the  Wahsatch  range,  and  ceived  text,  for  the  New.  Only  some 
occupy  a  large  area.  Some  of  the  peaks  fragments  of  this  translation  have  been 
reach  an  altitude  of  over  13,000  feet.  preserved,  including  the  greater  part  of 
ITist  i^'^st),  two  islands  of  the  Outer  the  four  gospels,  and  these  are  of  the 
vxoif  Hebrides,  named  North  and  South  highest  linguistic  value.  See  Gotht, 
Uist    The    people    are    principally    en-  TTIIftixrfltfkr     (<ilz'wa-ter),    the    largest, 

Sged  in  fishing.     Pop.  about  9000.  uiiownwci    ^^^^^  Windermere,  of  the 

itlanders      (weetMan-derz),    out-  English  lakes,  8  miles  n.  of  Windermere; 

xbxcuAucxo     landers  or  foreigners,  the  length,    7i    miles.     It    is    noted    for    its 

fiame  given  by  the  Boers  of  the  Trans-  picturesque  scenery, 

vaal    to   the    whites   who    lived    In   that  TJlin    ^11^2i}»   *  strongly  fortified  town 

country    before    its    annexation    to    the  of  Wflrtemberg,  45  miles  s.  s.  E. 

British  empire.  of    Stuttgart,    on    the   left    bank   of   the 

TTiifliTi      (P-Jftn')>  a  town  of  India,  in  Danube,    on    both   sides    of   which   there 

vjjaxii      Scindias  dominion,  350  miiea  are    important    fortifications.     It    is    an 

northwest  of  Bombay,   surrounded   by  a  old  town,  irregularly  built,  with  narrow 

stone   wail  with   round   towers.     It  was  winding  streets,  and  has  a  cathedral  in 

one  of  the  seven  ancient  holy  cities  of  the  the  old  Gothic  style,  one  of  the  largest 

Hindus.    Pop.  39,892.  churches    in    Germany    with    the    tallest 

TTVroiiiA      (Q'kran)  ,  a   region   in   the  spire  in  the  world  (530  feet  —  completed 

ujikioxiic      ^o^jiY^  of  Russia  along  the  in      1890).     Its     manufactures     mclude 

northern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea ;    called  machinery,  woolen  and  linen  cloth,  leather, 

also  Little  Russia,  to  distingulKh  it  from  paper,  brassware,  etc.    The  capitulation  of 

White  Russia  Ijring  further  north  along  Ulm  in  1805,  when  General  Mack  surren- 

the  border  of  Austria-Hungary,  and  Great  dered  to  Napoleon,  was  the  turning-point 

Russia,    which    centers    around    Moscow  of  the  campaign  in  Austerlitz.  Pop.  5(5,109. 

and  Petrograd.     It  formed   the  Russian  TJlinaGeffi     (ul-mft'se-§),   a   nat.   order 

governments  of  Kief,  Chemigof,  Podolsk,  w*"*«»v^«/    ^^    exogens,    oi    which    the 

Karkof  and  Poltava.     When  Nicholas  II  genus   Ulmu»  or  elm  is  the  typo      It  is 

was  deposed  and  the  communal  system  of  nearly  related  to  Urticace®  (the  nettles), 

{government   was   inaugurated    under   the  from  which   it  differs  only  in  having  a 

eadership  of  Lenine  (q.v.),  the  Ukraine  two-celled      fruit      and      hermaphrodite 

peoples   declared   themselves   independent  flowers.    It  consists  of  trees  and  skrabSi 


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THna    . 


XTmbel 


which  have  scabrous,  alternate,  simple, 
deciduous  leares  and  fugacious  stipules. 

TJlna.   ^^^rm. 

TTlphilaS.     ^ee  Ul/Uas. 

TTlriPi  (ol-r6't86),  Hermann,  a  Ger- 
""*^^  man  philosopher,  bom  in  1806; 
died  in  1884.  Having  studied  at  Halle 
and  Berlin,  in  1834  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Halle  Uni- 
versity. His  principal  works  are:  A 
History  of  Greek  Poetry  (1835),  Shakes- 
pere's  Dramatic  Art  (18^),  The  Funda- 
mental Principle  of  Philosophy  (1845- 
46),  Compendium  of  Logic  (1860),  Qod 
and  Nature  (1862),  Body  and  Soul 
(1866),  Elements  of  Practical  Philosophy 
( 1873) • 

TTlster  (ul'ster),  the  most  northerly  of 
the  four  provinces  of  Ireland, 
8613  sq.  miles  in  area.  It  is  moun- 
tainous in  part,  the  heights  reaching 
2800  feet  The  coast  is  bold  and  rocky. 
In  the  north  is  the  famous  Giant^s 
Causeway.  This  province  is  the  chief 
seat  of  the  Irish  linen  manufacture,  and 
shipbuilding  is  actively  carried  on  at  Bel- 
fast    Pop.  1,581,350. 

Ulster  King  of  Anns,  J  ^  «  p^^- 

aid  of  Ireland,  and  of  the  order  of  St. 
Patrick.    This  office  was  created  in  1552. 

intima  Thnle  (Uppermost  Thule), 
wAVAAuo.  AAJ.U.J.V  ^  name  given  in  an- 
cient times  by  the  inhabitants  of  South- 
em  Europe  to  the  remote  regions  of 
the  unknown  North.  The  Greek  navi- 
gator Pytheas  (who  probably  lived  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century 
B.C.)  made  a  voyage  along  the  coast  of 
Britain  and  wrote  an  account  of  what  he 
learned  about  the  Shetland  and  Orkney 
Islands  and  possiblv  the  n.  mainland 
calling  the  region  Thule.  The  name  be- 
came vague  in  its  application,  especially 
under  the  form  Ultima  Thule.  Norway, 
Ireland,  etc.,  bore  the  title  in  turn;  and 
many  strange  superstitions  were  current 
regarding  the  region. 

Tntimatum  <«l-ti-mfl'tum),  any  final 
wAVAAAj.wvM.AAj.  ppopQgaj  Qj.  Statement  of 

conditions;  e8i>ecially,  in  diplomatic  ne- 
gotiations, the  final  terms  of  the  one 
party,  the  rejection  of  which  often  in- 
volves an  immediate  mpture  of  diplo- 
matic relations  and  a  declaration  of  war. 

intramarine  /"' '},"?;  ™»;  ''!?'^ v,^ 

vAVA»uj.aAAuv  |jeau^,fu]  and  durable 
skj-blue  pigment,  a  color  formed  of  the 
mmeral  called  lapis  lazuli.  This  sub- 
stance is  much  valued  by  painters,  on 
account  of  the  beauty  and  permanence 
of  its  color,  both  for  oil  and  water  paint- 
ing:   Artificial    ultramarine    is   prepared 


by  heating  sulphide  of  sodium  with  a 
mixture  of  silicic  add  and  alumina. 

Xntramontanism   i^^^i^^^; 

of  that  party  in  the  Church  of  Rome 
who  place  an  absolute  authority  in  mat- 
ters of  faith  and  discipline  in  the  hands 
of  the  pope,  in  opposition  to  the  views 
of  the  party  who  would  place  the  na- 
tional churches,  such  as  the  Galilean,  in 
partial  independence  of  the  Roman  curia* 
and  make  the  pope  subordinate  to  the 
statutes  of  an  oecumenical  counciL  Ac- 
cording to  ultramontanism  the  pope  is 
superior  to  general  councils,  independent 
of  their  decrees,  and  considered  to  be 
the  source  of  all  jurisdiction  in  the 
church.  The  Vatican  Council  of  1870 
virtually  established  the  views  of  ultra- 
montanism as  dogmas  of  the  church. 

Xnugh  Beg,  Olug  Beg  iS'^^t 

Moslem  astronomer,  bom  in  1394,  grand- 
son of  Tamerlane,  and  king  of  Transox- 
iana.  He  began  to  reign  in  1446  and 
was  killed  by  his  son  in  1459. 
TTlverfttAH  (ftl'ver-stun,  locally  pn^- 
UlVerSXOn  i^^nced  tts'tun),  aieaiK)rt 
of  EiUgland,  in  Lancashire,  about  H 
mile  from  Morecambe  Bay,  to  which 
there  is  a  canal.  It  has  a  paper-mill, 
shoe-factory,  blast-furnaces,  etc..  and 
there  is  a  small  amount  of  shipping. 
Pop.  (1911)  9552. 

TTIiraapa  (Q-lis'ste;  in  Greek,  Odys- 
Uljr55C5     ^g^^)^    ^.jj^    ^f    ^^^    jgj^j    ^^ 

Ithaca»  was  'one  of  the  Greek  heroes 
who  engaged  in  the  war  against  Troy. 
In  returning  to  his  own  country  after 
the  siege  he  visited  the  country  of  the 
Lotophagi  in  N.  Africa,  the  Cyclopes  in 
Sicily  (see  Polyphemus) ,  the  island  of 
i¥]olus,  king  of  the  winds,  reached  the 
island  JEtsa,  where  Circe  changed 
(temporarily)  his  companions  into  pigs; 
visited  the  infernal  regions,  where  he 
consulted  the  soothsayer  Tiresias  how  to 
return  to  his  country;  passed  in  safety 
the  coast  of  the  Sirens,  and  the  dangers 
of  Scylla  and  Charybdis;  remained  for 
seven  years  with  the  nymph  Calypso 
after  losing  all  his  men;  and  at  last, 
after  an  absence  of  twenty  years,  re- 
turned to  Ithaca.  Here  he  found  his 
palace  occupied  and  his  substance  wasted 
by  suitors  for  the  hand  of  his  wife 
Penelope,  but  with  the  aid  of  his  son 
Telemachus  he  put  them  to  death.  He 
lived  about  sixteen  years  after  his  re- 
turn. These  adventures  of  Ulysses  are 
the  subject  of  Homer's  Odyssey, 
TJmballa.     see  Amtala. 

TTmbel  (um'bel),  in  botany,  a  variety 
VAUMVA  ^  inflorescence  which  coMisti 


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TTmbelliferse 


TTncial  Letters 


of  a  DtuDber  of  pedicels  or  flower-stalks, 
nearly  equal  in  len£th»  springing  from  a 
common  center,  with  tne  blossoms  on 
their  smnmits  forming  a  level  or  rounded 


IJmbeU  of  Hemlock. 


surface.  When  a  number  of  such  um- 
bels are  combined  in  the  same  way  we 
have  a  compound  umheL  the  smaller  um- 
bels being  called  partial  umbels. 

XTmbellifero  4'•nS;J^'rd'1i'p2^^^- 

nat  order  of  plants,  the  flowers  of 
which  are  almost  alwavs  in  regular  com- 
pound umbels.  The  plants  of  this  order 
are  natives  chiefly  or  the  northern  parts 
of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  nearly 
all  herbs  with  fistular  furrowed  stems 
and  divided  leaves;  the  fvuit  consists 
of  two  indehiscent  ridged  carpels  united 
by  a  commissure.  Some  are  very  poi- 
sonous, as  hemlock  and  certain  others; 
others  are  esculents,  as  celery,  carrots, 
and  parsnips:  many  yield  aromatics,  as 
caraway,  coriander,  dill,  anise;  a  few 
secrete  a  foetid  gum-resin,  much  used  in 
medicine,  as  asafetida,  galbanum,  opop- 
anax  and  sagapenum. 
TTmber  (umb^r),  a  well-known  min- 
eral  pigment,  of  an  olive-brown 
color  in  Its  raw  state,  but  much  redder 
when  burnt.  It  occurs  either  naturally 
in  veins  and  beds,  or  is  prepared  artifici- 
ally from  various  admixtures.  The 
commercial  varieties  are  known  as 
Turkey  umber,  raw  and  burnt,  and  Eng- 
lish umber,  the  latter  being  an  artificial 
ochrey  admixture. 

**  ^*^     vel  and  Placenta. 

TTmlirQ  (um'bra),  in  astronomy,  a 
^"^"**  term  applied  to  the  total 
shadow  of  the  earth  or  moon  in  an 
eclipse,  or  to  the  dark  cone  projected 
from  a  planet  or  satellite  on  the  side 
opposite  to  the  sun.  See  Penumbra, 
Eclipse^ 


UmbrellA  (um-brel'la),  a  portable 
^*AM.^M,^MM»  giju^g^    screen,    or    canopy 

which  opens  and  folds,  carried  in  the 
hand  for  sheltering  the  person.  The  um- 
brella had  its  origin  in  the  East  in  very 
remote  times,  where  it  was  (and  still 
is)  regarded  as  an  emblem  of  royalty 
or  a  mark  of  distinction;  but  as  a  de- 
fense from  the  rain  it  was  not  used  in 
the  West  till  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

TTmbrella-bird,  ?.^®®/"A**  ^^,"«rican 

**  "*•  Mxx*A,  jjjj^    (Cephaioptirua 

omAtus)  allied  to  the  crows,  remarkable 
for  the  crest  of  blue-black  feathers  rising 
from  the  head  ^nd  curving  towards  the 
end  of  the  beak,  which  it  nearly  reaches. 
Another  long  tuft  of  feathers  hangs 
down  from  the  breast. 

Umbrella-tree,  ®  °*.™®  «2^f?  *®  ^^ 

v«xA»^A^x4.«.  wxvv,  gp^,eg  of  Magnolia, 
M,  umbrella  and  M.  tripetala,  from  the 
form  and  position  of  the  leaves.  The 
same  name  is  given  to  PanddnuB  odora- 
tissimuSf  the  screw-pine. 
TTTnlirifl  (um'bri-a),  a  division  of 
uiuuxiit    jj^iy^  ^jj  ^jj^  Adriatic,  which 

derives  its  appellation  from  the  Um- 
brlans,  by  whom  it  was  inhabited  in 
ancient  times.  It  now  forms  the  prov- 
ince of  Perugia.  The  Umbrians  were  an 
ancient  people  who  spoke  a  language  akin 
to  the  Latin.  See  Euaubine  Tables. 
Umlaut  C?m'loat),  in  philology,  the 
^  change  of  a  vowel  in  one  syl- 

lable through  the  influence  of  one  of 
the  vowels  c,  f\  u  in  the  syllable  im- 
mediately following  —  a  common  feature 
in  several  of  the  Teutonic  tongues. 
Ummre  (u^'P^r)*  a  person  to  whose 
^  r*'*'^  sole  decision  a  matter  in  dis- 
pute between  two  parties  is  referred. 
Specifically,  in  law,  a  third  person  to 
whom  the  dispute  is  referred  for  decision 
when,  in  an  arbitration,  the  arbitrators 
do  not  agree. 

Umritsir.  ®^  Amritsir. 
Unalaska  /^-na-ias'k/),  one  of  the 

vucMCMMko.  largest     of     the     Aleutian 
Islands  (which  see),  being  75  miles  long, 
and    20    miles    at    its    extreme    breadth. 
On  it  there  are  a  number  of  volcanoes. 
UnaH    i^'°?^'  ^  species  of  sloth.     See 

Uncaria  (un-kA'ri-a),  a  genus  of 
^    ^       •*  plants.     See  Gambtr. 

Uncial  Letters  ("«^'8hai),  letter  of 

ancient  Latin  and  Greek  manuscripts. 
These  letters  were  compounded  between 
the  majuscule  or  capital  and  minuscule 
or  small  character,  some  of  the  letters 
resembling  the  former,  others  the  latter. 
Uncial  writing  ii  supposed  to  have  been 


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Uncle  Sam  TJngulata 

employed  in  Latin  MSS.  as  early  as  the  TTnderwOOd  l^^ci^^  Mabous,  botan- 
third  or  fourth  century,  but  was  seldom  *'****^*'^w**>  isK  born  at  New  Wood- 
used  after  the  tenth.  stock.  New  York,  in  1853.  He  became 
TTnde  Sam  ^^^  familiar  name  of  the  professor  of  geology  and  botany  in  the 
**  ^  United  States  govern-  Illinois  Wesleyan  University,  and  wrote 
ment,  used  as  John  Bull  is  with  respect  Our  Native  Fem»  and  Hoto  to  Study 
to  England.  It  is  an  extension  of  the  Them,  and  other  botanical  works, 
letters  U.  S.  (United  States),  printed  TJnderwriter  ^^^  name  given  to  in- 
or  stamped  on  the  government  property.  vi*u.cx  wxxv^x,  dividual  marine  in- 
It  was  first  used  in  Trov,  New  lork,  in  surers.  These  persons  were  formerly 
1812,  when  certain  goods  purchased  for  not  permitted  to  enter  into  any  joint- 
the  government  and  branded  U.  S.,  were  stock  action  as  a  company,  but  wrote 
officially  inspected  by  Samuel  Wilson,  under  policies  of  insurance  with  the 
whose  local  nickname  was  Uncle  Sam.  sums  for  which  they  severally  bound 
The  coincidence  of  initials  suggested  the  themselves.  The  system  still  prevails 
application  of  the  nickname  m  full  to  abroad,  but  there  are  also  numerous 
the  government  companies  whose  business  it  is  to  grant 
ITllGOIlfoniiable  (un-ka-for'ma-bl),  marme  insurances.  The  underwriters  of 
vuvvuAvx  MMj.^  jjj  geology,  a  term  American  cities  do  not  confine  their 
applied  to  strata  whose  planes  do  not  business  to  marine  insurance  alone, 
lie  parallel  with  those  of  the  subjacent  TJiidilie    (nn'din),    a    water-spirit    of 

wu-uxii^    ^^  female  sex,  resembling  in 

character  the  sylphs  or  spirits  of  the 
air,  and  corresponding  somewhat  to 
the  naiads  of  classical  mythology.  Ac- 
cording to  Paracelsus,  when  an  undine 
married  a  mortal  and  bore  a  child  she 
received  a  soul.  One  of  these  spirits  is 
the  heroine  of  a  celebrated  romance  by 
De  la  Motte  Fouqufi. 

Undidatory  Theory   A"?'taphy"8: 

ics,  the  theory  which  regards  light  as  a 
Unconformable  Strata.  mode  of  motion  generated   by  molecular 

vibrations  in  the  luminous  source,  and 
or  superjacent  strata  but  have  a  dif-  propagated  by  undulations  in  the  subtle 
ferent  line  of  direction  or  inclination,  medium  known  as  the  ether,  presumed  to 
See  also  Conformable,  pervade  all  space  and  to  occupy  the  m- 

TTti/»+iati  Extreme.  See  Extreme  tervals  which  separate  the  molecules  or 
\3  u\*\,i.\3U,y    u faction.  atoms    of    bodies.     When    these    undula- 

TTn  A  ik'Ttrr^ti-nYiA    "RailrAarl  ^'^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  *ct  on  the  nerves  of  our 

UnaergrOHna    itaiiroaa,  retina  they  produce  in  us  the  sensation 

the  name  given  before  the  Civil  war  to  of  light.    The  only  other  theory  of  li^ht 

a  secret  arrangement  for  helping  slaves  which  can  be  opposed  to  this,  and  which 

to   escape    from    the    South,    by    passing  is  variously  called  the  corpuscular,  emis- 

them   from   one  hiding  place   to  another  sion,  or  material   theory,  supposes   light 

until  they  reached  Canac^  or  other  places  to  consist  of  material  particles,  emitted 

of  safety.     Large  numbers   gained   their  from     the     source,     and     projected     in 

freedom  in  this  way,  through  the  aid  of  straight    lines    in    all    directions    with    a 

antislavery  sympathizers.  velocity  which  continues   uniform  at  all 

TTnrlpraTiAf-wliPPl     a  form  of  water-  distances,   and    is   the   same  for  all   in- 

uuucisiiuw  wiicci,    yf\^ee\   having  a  tensities.    The     undulatory     theory     is, 

number  of  float-boards  disposed  on  its  cir-  however,    now    universally    adopted    by 

cumference,    and    turned    round    by    the  physicists. 

moving  force  of  a  stream  of  water  acting  TTnomlfttft   (nng-gQ-lfl  ta),    the    ungu- 

on    the   float-boards   at   its    lowest   part.  ^  "&»**"'•'"'  late  or  hoofed  quadrupeds. 

In  this  wheel  the  water  acts  entirely  by  forming  the  largest  and  most  important 

its  momentum,  its  weight  taking  no  part  order   of   the   mammalia.     This  order   is 

in  the  effect.  subdivided    into    (a)    the   section    Peris- 

TTth^ptwaaiI     Francis     Henry,     au-  sodactyla,   or  odd-toed   ungulates,   which 

uuucrwuuu,   jjjQ      j^j^    j^j.    Enfield,  includes  the   rhinoceros,    the  tapirs,   the 

Massachusetts,    in    1825;    died    in    1894.  horse   and   all    its   allies;    and    (6)    the 

He  wrote  Handbook  of  American  Liter-  Artiodactyla,    or   even-toed,    which    com- 

ature.   Handbook   of  English   Literature,  prises  the  hippotamus,  the  pigs,  and  the 

and  some  novels  and  biographies.  whole    group    of    ruminants,    including 


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TTnicom  Union  of  South  Africa 

oxen,    sheep,    goats,    antelopes,    camels,  UnifiTenitUS  dci  flliUS    <**^^     ^ 

deer,    etc.     In    the    former    section    the  *'***&*'***•'**»  **vx  uuuo    gQ^t^^     son 

hind    feet    are    odd-toed    (one    or    three  of  God*;  from  the  initial  words),  a  bull 

toes)    in  all  the  members,  and  the  fore-  of  Pope  Clement  XI  (1713). 

feet  in  all  except  the  tapirs;  in  the  lat-  TTtiiati    (Qn'yun),    a    town   of   Hudson 

ter  section  the  toes  are  always  even  in  w-^**"!!    ^j^^^  ^^^  Jersey,  opposite  New 

number,  either  two  or  four.  York,  one  mile  N.  of  Hoboken.     It  has 

TTnicOrn    (^'m-kom),  a  fabulous  ani-  gUk  and  other  industries.     Pop.  21,023. 

^      ^^  **  mal  represented  as  with  one  TTtiiftn      a  town  of   Union  CJo.,   South 

horn  i^rowin^   from   its  forehead.     Such  w*"vii,    Carolina,  70  miles  N.  N.  w.  of 

an   animal    is    frequently    mentioned   by  Columbia.     It    has    cotton,    cotton-seed- 

Qreek  and  Roman  writers,  who  generally  oil,  and  hosiery  mills.     Pop.  5623. 

describe  it  as  a  native  of  India,  of  the  TTfiiAn      The,  in  English  history,  the 

size  and  form  of  a  horse,  the  body  being  vnxwii,     uniting  of  the  parliaments  of 

white,  and  a  straight  horn  growing  from  Scotland    and    England    by    the    Act   of 

its  forehead.     The  reem  of  the  Hebrews,  Union,  1707;  also,  the  legislative  union 

of    which    unicorn    is    a    mistranslation  of  Ireland  with  Great  Britain  in  1800. 

(Deut   xxxiii,   17,  and  elsewhere),   was  — The  Union  is  a  term  frequently  applied 

probably  a  urus.    It  was  a  two-horned  to  the  United  States  of  America. 

animal.    The  unicorn  is  one  of  the  sup-  TTtiiati   Poliinna      are    textile   fabrics 

g)rters    of    the    royal    arms    of    Great  *'*""ii  4:auxiU9|    j^^^^g  ^£  ^  mixture 

ritain,  in  that  posture  termed  salient,  of  different  materials,  as  cotton  and  wool. 

It   was   taken   from    the   arms   of   Scot-  cotton    and    silk,    and    similar    mixtures, 

land,   which  had   two   unicorns  as  sup-  in  which  flax,  hemp,  jute,  etc.,  are  mixed 

porters.  with  other  fibrous  materials, 

TTnifiATTI-mnt    ^    popular    name    of  TTtiinn  Janir     the   national   ensign   of 

unicorn  rooi;,  ^j^^   .  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^  union  jacK,  3^^^^  „^  ^  \^^ 

no$a,  a  native  of  Nortn  America,  which  form  as  a  jack — that  is,  displayed  at  the 
furnishes  one  of  the  most  intense  bitters  end  of  a  bowsprit  The  name  has  come 
known,  used  as  a  tonic  and  stomachic.  (wrongly)  to  be  applied  to  the  union  flag 
TTniform  (<i'ni-^orm),  the  distinguish-  itself.  It  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
w  ^*'***'  ing  dress  of  any  body  of  crosses  of  St  George,  St  Andrew  and  St 
soldiers,  sailors,  members  of  a  society  Patrick.  The  jack  is  not  flown  on  shore, 
or  club,  etc  Military  uniforms  seem  TTTiinn  nf  Snnfli  Afn'pft  a  federa- 
first  to  have  been  adopted  in  England  "^"011  01  DOnxn -ainca,  ^j^^^  ^^ 
about  the  time  of  Henry  VIII,  being  four  British  colonies  of  South  Africa, 
used  for  his  bodv-guard  and  that  of  sue-  including  those  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
ceeding  monarcbs.  Uniforms  for  the  Hope,  NataL  Transvaal,  and  Orange 
army  came  in  use  in  1661,  when.  Free  State,  dating  from  May  31,  1910. 
on  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts,  a  The  movement  for  the  union  of  the 
standing  army  was  first  formed.  Scai'let  South  African  colonies  was  launched  by 
became  the  national  color  of  the  a  convention  in  1908.  This  convention  re- 
British  uniform,  as  blue  did  of  that  of  assembled  in  January,  1909,  and  pro- 
the  French  and  German,  though  the  color  ceeded  to  draft  a  constitution  which,  after 
varied  with  circumstances,  white  being  revision,  was  adopted.  This  constitution 
used  in  hot  climates.  Blue  was  adopted  vests  the  executive  power  in  the  Brit- 
in  the  United  States,  and  during  the  isb  kings  and  his  representative ;  the  legis- 
Civil  war  blue  and  gray  were  the  dis-  lative  in  a  Senate  and  House  of  Assembly, 
tinctive  colors  worn  by  the  soldiers  of  A  Sui)reme  Court  is  also  provided  for, 
the  North  and  South  respectively.  The  of  which  the  several  supreme  courts  of 
head-dress  forms  a  distinctive  part  of  the  colonies  are  to  form  part.  This  con- 
the  uniform,  and  very  showy  hats  and  sists  of  judges  elected  by  each  of  the  four 
helmets  are  at  times  worn,  but  chiefly  for  States.  The  Senate  consists  of  40  mem- 
parade  purposes.  In  recent  times,  hers,  8  appointed  by  the  governor-general 
owing  to  the  advent  of  smokeless  powder  and  8  elected  by  each  of  the  four  states, 
and  long  range  rifles  with  telescopic  The  House  has  121  members,  divided 
sights,  showy  uniforms  of  any  kind  and  among  the  States  according  to  their  re- 
color  have  grown  dangerous,  and  there  spective  importance ;  the  Cape  colony  hav- 
is  a  growing  tendency  to  adopt  the  ing  51,  Natal  17,  Transvaal  36.  and 
khaki,  dust-colored  wear,  from  its  indis-  Orange  Free  State  17.  The  federation 
tinctness  when  at  a  distance.  The  idea  was  confirmed  by  Parliament,  August  16, 
of  display  in  military  dress  is  being  1909.  Herbert  John  Gladstone  was  ap- 
abandoned  in  favor  of  that  of  safety.  pointed  as  the  first  governoivgeneral. 
TTnifAmiifiy  Act  of.  See  Act  of  General  Louis  Botha,  of  the  late  Boer 
viuxviiuii^jTy  xjf^ifoffg^Hy^  army,  being  made  premier.     Each  colony 


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Union  Theological  Seminary 


United  Brethren  in  Christ 


retained  Its  own  goyernor  and  legislature. 
The  area  of  this  new  federal  union  is 
4r2,887  sq.  miles,  the  pop.  5,450,217. 

Union  Theological  Seminary^ 

a  divinitjr  school  in  New  York  City.  Pres- 
byterian in  origin  but  now  independent  of 
ecclesiastical  control.  It  offers  courses 
leading  to  the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  di- 
vinity and  doctor  of  divinity.  The  semi- 
nary buildings  are  on  Broadway  at  120th 
Street.  There  are  130,000  volumes  in  the 
library.  In  1917  there  were  30  instruc- 
tors and  230  students. 

Uniontown,  ^^l^iZ?T^f^ 

B.  by  B.  of  Pittsburgh.  It  is  in  an  iron, 
and  coal  district,  and  has  coke,  iron,  steel, 

flass,  and  other  industries.  Pop.  13,- 
44. 
Unit  (^'°^^)>  ^^  arithmetic  the  least 
*^  "  whole  number,  or  one,  represented 
by  the  figure  1.  Every  other  number  is 
an  assemolage  of  units.  This  definition 
is  applicable  to  fractions  as  well  as  to 
whole  numbers.  In  mathematics  and 
physics  a  unit  is  any  known  determinate 
quantity  by  the  constant  repetition  of 
which  any  other  quantity  of  the  same 
kind  is  measured.  It  is  not  itself  one, 
but  is  a  length,  or  a  surface,  or  a  solid, 
or  a  weight,  or  a  time,  as  the  case  mav 
be,  while  1  is  only  a  numerical  symbol. 
—  Specifio  gravity  unit:  for  solids  or 
liquids,  1  cubic  foot  of  distilled  water 
at  62*  Fahr.=  1;  for  air  and  gases.  1 
cuWc  foot  of  atmospheric  air  at  62® 
Fahr.=  1.  The  unit  of  heat,  or  thermal 
unit,  in  the  United  States  and  Britain, 
the  quantity  of  heat  which  corresponds  to 
1®  Fahr.  in  the  temperature  of  1  lb.  of 
pure  water  at  about  39**  Fahr. ;  in  France, 
the  heat  required  to  raise  a  gramme  of 
pure  water  at  about  3.94'*  C,  1*  C. —  In 
electricity  the  unit  of  quantitff  is  that 
quantity  of  electricity  which  with  an 
electro-motive  force  of  one  volt  will 
flow  through  a  resistance  of  1,000,000 
ohms  in  one  second,  called  a  farad;  unit 
of  current,  a  current  of  one  farad  per 
second;  unit  of  work,  that  which  will 
produce  a  velocity  of  one  meter  ^39.37 
mches)  per  second  in  a  ma^  weighing 
one  gramme  (15.432  grains)  after  acting 
ui>on  it  a  second  of  time. —  A  dunamic 
unit  is  one  expressing  the  quantity  of 
a  force  or  the  amount  of  work  done. 
One  such  unit  is  the  foot-pound  (which 
see).  The  system  of  units  recommended 
bpr  a  committee  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion for  scientific  calculations,  and 
known  as  the  C,0,8.  system,  adopts 
the  centimeter  as  the  unit  of  length,  the 
gramme  as  the  unit  of  mass,  and  the 
$eoond  as  the  unit  of  time,  these  words 


being  represented  respectively  by  the 
above  letters.  (See  Dynamics.)  In 
this  system  the  unit  of  area  is  the  square 
centimeter,  the  unit  of  volume  is  the 
cubic  centimeter,  and  the  unit  of  velocity 
is  a  velocitv  of  a  centimeter  per  second. 
The  unit  of  momentum  is  the  momentum 
of  a  gram  moving  with  a  velocity  of  a 
centimeter  per  second. 
Unitarian  (tt-m-ta'ri-an),  a  religious 
^  "^     sect  or  congeries  of  sects, 

distinguished  by  the  denial  of  the  re- 
ceived doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  The  Uni- 
tarians may  be  divided  into  classes:  (1) 
The  conservative  or  orthodox  Uni- 
tarians, who  accept  the  general  articles 
of  the  Christian  creed  (with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Trinity),  such  as  miracles, 
the  resurrection  of  Christ,  and  the 
plenary  inspiration  of  Scripture.  (2) 
The  liberal  or  progressive  Unitarians, 
whose  creed  is  purely  rationalistic. 
The^  consider  Christ  as  a  mere  man, 
inspired  as  other  great  men  are,  though 
in  a  greater  degree;  they  reject  the 
doctrmes  of  original  sin,  eternal  punish- 
ment, the  belief  in  miracles,  and  gener- 
ally the  whole  supernatural  element  in 
Christianity.  They  den^  the  necessity 
of  an  atonement,  considering  Christ's 
death  but  as  a  martyrdom  in  defense  of 
truth.  This  latter  class  forms  the 
majority.  Unitarian  views  have  been 
held  more  or  less  in  all  ages  of  the 
church,  but  they  came  more  prominentlv 
forward  during  the  Reformation  period, 
especially  in  connection  with  the  teach- 
ing of  the  elder  and  younger  Socinus, 
L«ilius  and  Faustus,  uncle  and  nephew. 

United    Brethren    in    Christ, 

an  American  religious  sect,  founded  by 
Philip  William  Otterbcin,  a  minister  of 
the  German  Reformed  Church,  nnd  Mar- 
tin Boehm,  a  Pennsylvania  Mcnnonite. 
The  church  was  organized  in  1800;  it 
was  at  first  confined  to  a  membership 
that  was  largely  German,  but  it  widened 
its  scope  and  grew  rapidly.  There  are 
nearly  3600  churches,  with  about  346.000 
members  and  2000  ministers.  Ten  col- 
leges and  several  academics  are  supported 
by  the  church.  Bonobrake  Theological 
Seminary,  Dayton,  Ohio,  dates  from  1871. 
The  church  has  an  extensive  publishing 
house  at  Dayton.  The  theology  of  the 
United  Brethren  in  Christ  is  Arminian. 
They  have  two  sacraments :  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supi)cr.  The  ceremony  of  the 
washing  of  feet  is  sometimes  used.  Home, 
Foreign  Mission  and  other  societies  are 
supported.  At  the  time  of  tho  revision  of 
the  Confession  of  Faith  in  1880,  the  con- 
servative element  withdrew  and  estab- 
lished the  *  Old  Constitution '  body,  which 


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XTnited  Greeks 


ITnited  States 


now  has  an  estimated  membership  of 
about  22.000. 

United  Greeks  5M3?*^«.^ 

to  the  Greek  Church,  but  whom  the  Ro- 
man Church  has  united  with  her  own 
members  on  certain  conditions.  They  re- 
tain the  ancient  rite,  the  Greek  language 
during  service,  the  strict  Greek  fasts,  and 
the  Lord's  supper  under  both  forms,  in 
common  with  the  old  Greek  Church. 

TTnited  Kingdom.   ^  ^^*^** 
Tlnited  Presbyterian  Chnrch^ 

the  Bame  adopted  by  that  Scottiah 
church  which  waB  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  Sec^sloa  Chunch  and  the  Relief 
Church  in  May,  l&il.  This  churth  ad- 
beres  to  the  theological  dootrinea  taught 
in  tbe  Westminster  Coufe^fiion  of  Faith 
and  the  Larger  and  Sborter  CatechismB. 
The  Bystem  of  chorrh  govertiment  diflfera 
from  that  of  the  Established  and  Free 
churches  only  In  having  no  iatennediate 
court  between  the  presbyteries  and  the 
Bupreme  court,  the  latter  of  wbich  is 
called  a  General  Synods  and  stta  o&ce  a 
year.  In  the  Onltetl  States  there  are 
about  1000  churehea  and  orer  150,000 
memhere. 

TTnited  States  li^%''^^^i^, 

a  federal  republic  of  North  America,  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  important  coun- 
tries of  the  world,  which  occupies 
nearly  one-half  the  total  area  of  the 
continent  and  extends  from  the  At- 
lantic  to  the  Pacific  oceans,  and  from 
the  Mexican  republic  and  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico on  the  south  to  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  on  the  north.  Its  greatest 
length,  from  east  to  west,  is  2800  miles ; 
greatest  breadth,  north  to  south,  1600 
miles ;  area,  3,026,789  square  miles,  equal 
to  more  than  three-fourths  that  of  all 
Europe.  In  addition  it  possesses  the 
isolated  territory  of  Alaska,  590,884 
square  miles  in  area,  making  its  total 
extent  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Europe. 
Recent  additions  to  its  territory  com- 
prise the  Philippine  and  Hawaiian 
Islands,  in  the  Pacific,  and  the  island  of 
Porto  Rico  in  the  Atlantic,  with  a  few 
smaller  islands,  adding  a  further  area  of 
132,310  square  miles,  the  total  area 
under  the  American  flag  being  3,749,983 
square  miles.  The  boundaries  on  east 
and  west  are  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans,  on  the  south  the  waters  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  ^northern  border 
line  of  Mexico.  On  the  north  the 
boundary  west  of  the  95th  meridian  of 
w.  longitude  is,  with  slight  exception, 
the  49tli  parallel  of  v,  latitttde.    Bast 


of  this  meridian  it  is  irregular,  follow 
ing  the  median  line  of  the  great  lakes 
and  the  8t  Lawrence  Btver,  which  It 
leaves  at  the  45th  parallel  of  latitude. 
This  parallel  forms  the  northern  bound- 
ary of  New  York  and  Vermont,  but 
Maine  projects  northward  nearly  to  the 
pazallel  of  47**  30^.  The  population  of 
this  country,  exclusive  of  its  outlying 
portions,  was  in  1910,  91,972,266 ;  in- 
clusive of  Alaska,  Hawaii,  and  Porto 
Rico,    93,402,151.    That    of    the   Philip- 

?ine  Islands  (census  of  1903)  was 
,635,426,  makuig  a  total  under  the 
dominion  of  the  great  republic  of  over 
100,000,000.  This  includes  a  n€«ro 
population  of  nearly  10,000,000,  and  a 
foreign-born  population  of  over  13,000,- 
000,  exclusive  of  that  in  the  island  pos- 
sessions. The  federation  consists  of  48 
states  (13  ori^ally)  ;  2  organized  terri- 
tories, Hawaii  and  Alaska;  1  unorgan- 
lized,  Porto  Rico;  and  the  depend- 
encies of  the  Philippine,  Guam  and 
Tutuila  islands.  There  are  three  cities 
of  over  1,000,000.  eight  of  over  500.000 
populatioQ*  these  being  New  York,  4,766,- 
§83:  Chic4igo,  2.185,283;  Philadelphia, 
1.549,003;  St  Louis,  687,029:  Boston. 
670.5S5;  Cloveland,  560,663;  Baltimore, 
5aS,485,  flDd  Pittsburgh,  533,905.  The 
cities  of  over  100,000  number  fifty-one. 
The  table  on  the  following  page  gives  the 
areas  and  populations  of  the  States  and 
Territories,  those  marked  *  being  the 
original  States. 

PhyHcal  Characienstio9,—  The  United 
States  is  very  diversified  in  physical 
aspect,  soil  and  climate,  extending,  as 
it  does,  from  25""  to  49""  N.  latitude,  and 
from  east  to  west  over  lowlands,  plains, 
plateaus  and  mountain  ranges.  It  has 
two  broadly  marked  features,  the  Mis- 
sissippi River,  with  its  great  valley, 
crossing  it  from  north  to  soutl^  and  the 
wide  elevation  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
with  its  bordering  plains  and  plateaus, 
following  the  same  direction  farther  west. 
The  Mississippi  Valley,  covering  about 
one-half  the  area  of  the  United  States, 
comprises  in  its  northern  portion  a 
prairie  region,  largely  treeless,  in  parts 
quite  level,  but  generally  a  rolling  coun- 
try. South  of  the  Missouri  and  the 
Ohio  its  surface  is  more  varied,  there 
being  numerous  hilly  tracts,  while  the 
level  reaches  are  often  swampy  near 
the  rivers.  Forests  formerly  covered 
this  southern  region  somewhat  generally, 
and  considerable  tracts  of  woodland  re- 
main, but  farming  and  erasing  lands  now 
occupy  in  great  part  the  ancient  forest 
area. 

Passing  eastward  from  this  vast  valley, 
with  its  elevatioQ  varying  from  700  feet 


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United  States 


TJnited  States 


Btfttw. 


Alabamn. ..,.,.. 

AfluJOBflJi.  .,.,,,. 

Arisona ......... 

Californim. , , 

Colorndo .  , , 

*Cono«fticut 

•Delmwart* . . 

Florida. ......... 

*t}roT«ia .»,..,.. 

Jd&ho * .  - 

llUrioift 

IndiA&A. ..,...«,. 
Iowa  ►,♦......,.. 

Kadaa.  ... . . 

Louiiidna. . ,  . 

Mjup^e. . » , , 

•MfliyliiDd, 

MicbicAii.. 

MinnHota. .,.,., 
MiflewJppL ...... 

MuMoun 

Mod lann .  . 

KtbraAkft... , . , , . 

Nl?V|lCtjl|  ,    r  ...... . 

*Nffw  HnxnpAhiTp 
•New  Jertry. . . . . 
Kew  Mt^iiico. , . .  * 
•Nrw  York 

Nonb  D&kota,.. 

Ohio... . 

OklflLhoma ....... 

Or*5ioii , , . . . 

•PeanwylvBQui, 

*  Rhode  Islnnd  ,  . , 
•^uib  Camlitia.. 
South  Dfikota.... 

Tf^DiieflA^e 

Teiaa , 

rtob.,. 

V?rmoiil*,*^t ,*. . 

Washifi^too. ,,,, , 
Wmt  Vinjinia. .. . 

Wisroniim 

Wyomjng 

Turrit  oripfl 
■j>d  DiftUirta* 
D-  of  Columbia. . 

Alfii^kA.  .  ■ , 

HawaJi . , , ^ 

Porto  RicH*.  I . . '.  t . 


Afea 
inSq. 


158,297 
103  .MS 

4,0«. 

2,370 

se,66a 

59,265 

5fl,l47 
83,158 
4n.,WH 
48,5<Mi 
33,04  a 
12,327 

^,682 
4fi.86r> 
50,420 

Hft,ftn7 
77,520 

UO,(5ftO 
0,34 1 

122,634 
40,204 
fi2,42fl 
70.R37 
41,040 
70.05 
06,690 
4a,l2fl 
1,248 

3o.om» 

77,<J15 
42,022 
265,896 
84,060 
0,554 
42,fl27 
00,127 
24,170 
66,066 
97.UH 


70 

^^90,884 

6,440 


Popu- 

Ifltton, 

leoo. 


1,828,607 

1,311,564 

122,031 

L485,0.'i3 

539.700 

008,355 

1 84  J  35 

528,542 

2,216,331 

161,772 

4.82J,5ijO 

2,516,402 

2.131,853 

1.470.405 

2.li7,l74 

l,;t«l.625 

Mm05(> 
2,«*l,'>.34fl 
J,42O.0SL1 
1,751,304 
1.551,270 
3,*06,ftfir 

243,329 

1,088,53?* 

42.335 

411,588 
l,8ft3.6m> 

it>3,3l0 
7,2flJ<.0l2 
l.KOa.BlO 

3l0,l4fi 
4,157,54^1 
l,fXK).00n 

413,534] 
0^302,11'^ 

42«,,55r» 
1,340,3  Ui 

401.570 
2,020,6 1«| 
3,048,710 

2Trt,740 

343,541 
1, §54, 184 

518,103 

05S,800 

2,Oft«.042 

02,531 


278,7  IS 

8:^,441 

lo4,001 

0."a,243 


Popu- 

latitiiiii 

leia 


331,069 

64,356 

101,900 

1,118,013 


at  the  bead  of  navigation  to  sea  level  in 
the  coast  district,  an  elevated  region  is 
reached,  the  Appalachian  uplift,  which 
borders  the  great  valley  on  the  east,  as 
the  Rocky  Mountain  region  does  on  the 
west.  Those  mountains  extend  from 
northern  New  England  to  central 
Georgia  and  Alabama,  reaching  an  eleva- 
tion of  6293  feet  in  Mount  Washington, 
N.    U.,    and    6710    in    Mount    Mitchell, 


N.  G.  (See  Appalachian  Mountains.) 
From  the  eastern  base  of  this  mountain 
system  to  the  sea  extends  a  coast  plain, 
narrow  in  Maine,  but  widening  south- 
ward, with  the  exception  of  a  narrow 
belt  at  New  York,  and  finally  attaining  a 
width  of  200  miles  in  North  Carolina. 
It  is  hilly  in  parts  of  New  England, 
but  below  New  xork  presents  a  distinct 
coast  region  and  a  more  elevated  slope, 
the  latter  southward  becoming  a  somewhat 
abrupt  terrace,  rising  from  a  few  hun- 
dred to  more  than  a  thousand  feet  and 
known  as  the  'Piedmont  Plateau.'  The 
coastal  region  is  seldom  more  than  100 
feet  in  height,  and  has  a  sandy  soil, 
with  extensive  swamps  in  many  places 
near  the  coast.  The  coastal  plain  ex- 
tends from  the  Atlantic  westward  along 
the  Gulf  border  and  in  its  South  At- 
lantic portion  ectends  far  southward, 
forming  the  peninsular  State  of  Florida. 
In  this  are  extensive  swamps,  which  have 
been  partly  reclaimed.  Proceeding  west- 
ward from  the  Mississippi  River,  the 
land  rises  in  a  very  irentle  slope  until  it 
reaches  the  base  of  the  western  plateau, 
where  elevations  of  5000  and  6000  feet 
are  attained.  This  region,  known  as  the 
Great  Plains,  has  a  light  rainfall  and 
is  not  nearly  so  well  adapted  for  agricul- 
ture as  the  lower  eastward  region,  but 
it  is  covered  with  nutritive  grasses  and 
forms  extensive  regions  of  pasturage, 
the  great  grazing  section  of  the  country. 
Westward  still  the  foot-hills  of  the 
mighty  Rocky  Mountain  system  appear. 
(For  the  characteristics  of  the  latter  see 
Rocky  Mountains.)  Westward  from  this 
region  of  lofty  peaks  and  arid  soil 
stretches  to  the  ocean  the  Pacific  slope, 
broken  by  mountain  ranges  which  em- 
brace the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Coast 
Range,  and  including  the  Great  Basin, 
a  vast  arid  plateau,  none  of  the  drain- 
age of  which  reaches  the  sea.  The  Great 
Salt  Lake  is  its  most  extensive  body  of 
water,  the  relic  of  a  supposed  much  more 
extensive  lake  of  past  ages,  known  to 
geologists  as  Lake  Bonneville.  From 
these  mountains  and  plateaus  the  land 
slopes  downward  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
In  the  northeast  Puget  Sound,  a  deep 
open  channel  of  navigable  water,  ex- 
tends far  into  the  State  of  Washington. 
In  southeast  California  is  another  great 
depression,  the  Mohave  Desert,  waterless, 
but  sinking  in  its  deepest  part  to  a  depth 
of  260  feet  below  sea-level. 

A  splendid  system  of  drainage  exists 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  broad  surface 
of  the  republic,  especially  in  its  great  cen- 
tral agricultural  plain,  which  is  crossed  by 
the  Mississippi  tnrough  nearly  its  whole 
width,  while  its  great  lateral  affluents,  the 


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ITnited  States  United  States 

MiMoari  and  Ohio,  with  their  numerous  the  rainfall  is  abundant,  but  not  ex- 
branches,  gather  up  the  greater  parts  cessive,  and  in  the  Mississippi  valley  the 
of  the  waters  of  the  east  and  west,  and  rains  are  sufficient  in  quantity  and  regu- 
farther  south  the  Arkansas,  Red,  and  lar  enough  in  distribution  to  aid  eyery- 
other  streams  pour  their  waters  into  the  where  in  successful  agriculture.  On 
great  central  artery  of  drainage.  East-  the  Pacific  slope,  on  the  contrary,  the 
ward  of  the  Appalachian  extend  numer-  rains  come  periodically,  there  being  wet 
ous  shorter  streams,  the  Connecticut,  and  dry  seasons,  while  within  the  Rocky 
^ud8on.  Delaware,  Susquehanna,  Poto-  Mountain  system  the  rainfall  is  in  gen- 
mac,  James,  Roanoke,  Savannah  and  eral  so  deficient  that  irrigation  is  neces- 
various  others.  On  the  Pacific  slope  the  sary  to  render  agriculture  remunerative, 
rivers  are  of  lesser  size,  the  mountains  or  even  possible,  in  many  sections.  On 
diverting  much  of  the  waterflow  into  the  coast  of  Washington  the  annual  fall 
interior  reservoirs,  as  in  the  Great  is  in  places  as  high  as  80  inches,  while  , 
Basin,  while  the  lesser  rainfall  supplies  in  the  mountain  r^ions  it  is  reduced  to 
a  smaller  quantity  of  water.  The  Co-  14  inches  or  even  less,  and  in  the  Cali- 
lumbia,  with  the  exception  of  the  Yukon,  fornia  Desert  and  Death  Valley  there 
of  Alaska,  is  the  largest  river  of  the  may  be  no  rain  for  years  at  a  time, 
continent  flowing  into  the  Pacific  In  the  arid  and  semiarid  sections  of  the 
There  are  various  smaller  streams,  the  west,  irrigation,  long  practiced  by  the 
most  notable  being  the  Colorado,  famous  people,  has  been  taken  in  hand  by  the 
from  the  gnind  canyon  through  which  government,  already  with  the  addition  of 
it  flows.  This,  however,  renders  it  un-  Targe  areas  of  very  productive  land  to 
serviceable  to  mankind  except  in  its  low-  the  national  resources  and  the  promise  of 
est  section,  where  it  is  proving  of  great  millions  of  acres  of  fertile  farm  lands  in 
value    as    a    source    of    irrigation.    A  the  future. 

notable  feature  of  the  water  system  of       Flora. —  The   territory    of   the   United 

the  United  States  is  the  series  of  great  States,  when  settlement  first  began,  was 

lakes  which  extend   between   the   States  covered  in  ereat  part  with  dense  forests, 

and  eastern  Canada,  sending  their  waters  a  region  of  flounshine  woodland  unsur- 

by  the  channel  of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  passed    in    extent    and    value.     But    the 

the  ocean,  and  forming  an  interior  com-  needs  of  settlers  led  to  the  removal  of 

mercial  waterway  nowhere  rivaled.  vast   acres   of    this   woodland    for   agri- 

Climate, —  The    great    width    of    the  cultural  puri>ose8,  and  the  demands  for 

United  States  from  north  to  south  and  lumber  of  an  increasing  population  has 

its  diversified  topography  give  it  a  great  added     immensely     to     this     destructive 

variety    of    climatic    conditions,    varying  process,    until    what   fovests   remain   are 

from   semi-arctic   to   semi-tropic   in   tern-  largely    confined    to    the   mountains   and 

peratures.     The  icy  blasts  from  the  great  are    insufficient    to   supply    the    growing 

northwestern  level  of  the  continent  find  demand.     The    government    has    recently 

their  wa^  southward  over  the  wide  cen-  undertaken    to    conserve    what    remain 

tral    plains    with    little    interruption,    to  of  those  forests  on  the  public  lands.     The 

the  Appalachians,  which,   in  a  measure,  existing   forests   cover   550,000,000   acres 

save  the  Atlantic  States  from  their  Arctic  or    about    one-fourth    the    area    of    the 

influence.     Warm    southern     winds,    en-  United  States.     Much  the  larger  part  of 

tering    from    the   Gulf    region,    similarly  this  woodland  belongs  to  private  owners, 

make  their  way  over  the  valley,  bring-  but    there    are    very    extensive    national 

ing     summer     temperatures,     often     of  forests,  and  nearly  200,000,000  acres  of 

tropic  heat     This  frequent  variation  of  these  nave  been  withdrawn  from  settle- 

the    winds    between    north    and    south  ment  and  sale  to  be  kept  for  the  benefit 

makes    the    climate    of    the    east    more  of  the  whole  community  and  utilized  for 

variable   and    with    greater   extremes    of  the   preservation   of   the   head- waters   of 

temperature  than  that  of  the  west,  where  streams.     A   forest  service  has  been  or- 

tbe    changes    of    temperature    are   much  ganized    for    the    care    of    these    large 

more    regular. .  In    the    North    Atlantic  national  forests  and  vigorous  efforts  are 

States   the    temperature   frequently  falls  being    made    to   prevent    the   decimating 

below  zero,  and  in  Minnesota  it  descends  fires   which   have   proven    so   destructive 

to  as  low  as   — 40**,  but  the  dryness  of  in   the  past.    The   forest   region  of   the 

the    air    renders    such    extremes    easily  country    embraces    a    northern    belt    of 

bearable,    except    when    accompanied    by  pines,   in   which   the  white  pine,  one  of 

strong  winds  and  *  blizzard  *  snows.     In  the    noblest    and    most    valuable    to   the 

the  Middle  Atlantic  States  the  tempera-  wood-worker  of  American  trees,  occupies 

ture  at  times  rises  in  summer  to  100**  or  a   conspicuous   place.     It    has,    however, 

even  above,  but  such  extremes  are  rarely  been   verv   largely   removed  by   wasteful 

of    long    continuance.     In    this    section  and  reckless  forestry  and  the  less  valu- 


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ITnited  States  United  States 

able  pines  of  the  South  are  in  a  measure  sheep,  the  so-called  Rocky  Mountain  goat 
taking  its  place.  Other  northern  trees  (a  goat-like  antelope),  the  wapiti  or 
of  considerable  industrial  value  are  the  American  stag,  the  Virginia  deer,  the  pec- 
n>ruce,  hemlock,  yellow  cedar,  larch,  lin-  cary,  the  cougar  or  puma,  the  black 
den,  ash,  maple,  birch  and  elm.  Some-  and  grizzly  bear,  the  panther,  the 
what  farther  south  range  the  hickories  prairie  wolf,  the  raccoon  and  the  beaver, 
and  oaks,  the  chestnut,  tulip  tree,  walnut.  Among  the  birds  are  swans,  wild  tur- 
poplar,  plane,  beech,  catalpa,  cherry  keys,  wild  geese,  wild  ducks,  eagles,  vul- 
and  other  valuable  timber  trees,  some  of  tures,  mocking  and  humming  birds,  etc. 
these  extending  as  far  south  as  the  Gulf  Among  the  reptiles  are  the  rattlesnake 
coast.  The  flora  of  the  southern  coast  and  other  snakes,  turtles  and  tortoises, 
regions  is  especially  characterized  by  sev-  alligators,  etc.  The  smaller  animals  in- 
eral  species  of  pine,  the  live  oak,  pal-  elude  the  lynx,  weasel,  foxes  of  several 
metto,  cypress  and  other  species.  The  species,  muskrat,  marten,  skunk,  otter, 
Appalachian  mountains  are  generally  prairie-dog,  opossum,  rabbit,  porcupine, 
covered  with  thick  forests  and  the  lower  numerous  species  of  squirrels  and  gophers, 
Mississippi  valley  is  richly  forested,  and  a  large  number  of  destructive  ani- 
The  prairie  region  of  the  northern  half  mals  of  the  rat  and  mouse  family.  Among 
of  this  valley,  ranging  from  western  water  animals  there  is  a  great  varietv  of 
Indiana  to  eastern  Dakota,  formerlv  fishes,  many  of  them,  as  the  cod,  shad, 
mainly  treeless,  now  contains  much  herring,  salmon,  mackerel,  etc.,  highly  es- 
woodland,  of  recent  planting,  and  the  teemed  for  table  use.  Chief  among  shell- 
great  plains  east  of  the  Rocky  moun-  fish  is  the  oyster,  more  abundant  on  the 
tains,  where  the  woodland  was  of  old  Atlantic  coast  than  anywhere  else  in  the 
chiefly  confined  to  the  banks  of  streams,  world  and  unequaled  in  quality  in  any 
is  becoming  in  a  measure  forested.  The  other  country.  Of  crustaceans,  the  Ion- 
vast  mountain  region  of  the  west  is  ster  comes  first,  of  a  siiecies  quite  distinct 
richly  covered  with  woodland,  especially  from  that  of  Europe.  As  for  domestic 
on  the  coast  ranges,  where  grows  one  of  animals  there  are  none  of  American 
the  densest  and  loftiest  forests  on  the  origin,  all  the  animals  of  field  and  house- 
globe.  This  Pacific  region  has  a  char-  hold  having  been  brought  from  Europe, 
acteristic  flora  of  its  own,  largeljr  com-  It  is  the  same  with  the  poultry  yard,  with 
posed  of  coniferous  woods  and  yielding  the  exception  of  the  turkey  and  some 
the  tallest  masts  and  finest  spars  to  be  species  of  swimming  birds, 
anywhere  obtained.  Noblest  among  Minerals. —  The  mineral  resources  of 
these  trees  in  the  north  is  the  great  the  United  States  are  enormous  in  sup- 
Douglas  fir,  and  in  the  south  the  splen-  ply  and  exceedingly  varied  in  kind,  be- 
did  redwood  of  the  California  coast  mg  in  some  respects  beyond  rivalry, 
range  and  the  giant  sequoias  of  the  Very  much  of  this  wealth  is  centered  in 
Sierra  Nevada,  the  most  stupendous  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  and  the 
trees  of  the  earth.  The  minor  flora  Pacific  coast  states,  but  this  does  not 
of  the  country  embraces  a  large  variety  apply  to  the  highly  valuable  stores  of 
of  fruit  trees  and  berries,  with  plants  of  coal,  petroleum,  natural  gas  and  iron, 
economic  value  for  various  purposes,  which  are  very  largely  developed  in  the 
The  pines  of  the  south  have  a  utility  Appalachian  region  and  the  Middle 
separate  from  that  of  timber  purposes,  West  The  Appalachian  coal  fields  em- 
yielding  large  quantities  of  tar,  turpen-  brace  an  area  of  over  59,000  square 
tine,  rosin,  and  similar  products^  known  miles,  including  the  small  but  richly  pro- 
collectively  as  '  naval  stores.'  In  many  ductive  anthracite  region  of  Penn* 
rural  districts  the  forests  supply  the  sylvania.  In  addition  there  are  about 
principal  fuel  used.  Peat  is  locally  em-  125,000  square  miles  in  Illinois,  Mis- 
ployed  as  fuel,  and  in  some  of  the  tree-  souri  and  other  Mississippi  valley  States, 
less  districts  hay,  straw,  and  flax  are  Petroleum,  at  first  obtained  only  in 
burned  for  domestic  purposes,  ingenious  Pennsylvania,  has  been  found  abundantly 
inventions  having  rendered  such  ma-  elsewhere,  and  extends  to  Texas  and  tlM 
terials  useful  for  this  purpose.  California  coast,  where  it  occurs  in  large 
Fauna. —  The  fauna  of  the  United  quantity.  Iron  ores  abound  in  many  sec- 
States,  like  its  flora,  is  very  varied,  in-  tions,  being  very  rich  in  Pennsylvania, 
eluding  many  species  found  in  foreign  West  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Alabama, 
lands,  and  some  which  are  exclusively  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Missouri  and 
American.  Among  wild  animals  are  the  several  other  States.  Copper  is  nn- 
bison  or  buffalo,  now  almost  extinct  in  equaled  in  quantity,  the  United  States 
a  wild  state,  the  moose  or  American  elk.  supplying  over  five-eighths  of  the  world's 
the  caribou,  or  reindeer,  the  prong-homed  product.  Its  great  fields  are  in  Arizona^ 
antelope,  the  big-horn  or  Rocky  Mountain  Montana,     Michigan,     Utah     and    Call- 


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fornia,  the  ores  of  Michigan  being  90- 
95  per  cent,  pure  metal.  Gold  and 
silver  are  widely  distributed,  the  United 
States  standing  second  only  to  South 
Africa  in  its  production  of  gold,  and  to 
Mexico  in  that  of  silver.  The  leading 
States  in  these  metals  are  California, 
Ck>]orado.  Nevada,  and  the  territory  of 
Alaska,  in  gold;  and  Montana,  Ck>lorado, 
Nevada,  Utah,  Idaho  and  Arizona  in 
silver.  Other  metals  in  which  this 
country  is  rich  are  lead  and  sine  Tin 
ore  is  abundant  but  in  unworkable  con- 
dition, and  there  are  minor  yields  of 
nickel,  platinum,  mercury,  antimony,  etc. 
In  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  are  vast 
deposits  of  lignitic  coal,  hitherto  little 
used,  but  now  becoming  available,  and 
of  late  years  exceedingly  valuable  coal 
deposits  have  been  found  in  Alaska,  not 
yet  worked.  Copper  is  also  abundant  in 
this  territory.  Aside  from  the  minerals 
mentioned  are  many  others  of  economic 
value,  including  salt,  borax,  limestone, 
marble,  sulphur,  cement,  etc.  Geolog- 
ically the  United  States  possesses  ex- 
amples of  all  the  formations,  and  is  rich 
alike  in  fossils  of  the  primary  and  the 
later  periods.  It  is  especially  notable 
for  its  abundance  of  vertebrate  remains 
in  the  geologic  strata  ranging  from  the 
Permian  to  the  Quaternary,  including  the 
gigantic  dinosaurs  of  the  Jurassic  and 
Cretaceous  epochs,  the  flying  reptiles  and 
toothed  birds  of  the  Cretaceous,  and  the 
greatly  varied  mammals  of  the  Tertiary 
age.  Among  the  latter  are  several  types 
in  the  life  history  of  the  horse,  and  in 
later  time  the  horse  itself.  There  are 
also  giant  edentates,  allied  to  the  more 
recent  ones  of  South  America;  and  the 
mammoth  and  mastodon,  relatives  of  the 
elephant,  all  of  which  appear  to  have  ex- 
isted in  recent  geologic  times.  These  are 
the  more  notable  among  a  multitude  of 
fossil  forms. 

Agriculture, —  It  is  estimated  that  the 
arable  lands  of  the  United  States  exceed 
a  million  and  a  quarter  smiare  miles  in 
area,  of  which  over  870,000  square  miles 
were  occupied  as  farms  in  1910,  about 
475,000   square    miles   consisting   of   im- 

E  roved  lands.  Considerable  additions 
ave  been  made  to  this  area  within  the 
last  decade,  irrigation  in  the  west  hav- 
ing brought  under  cultivation  large  areas 
once  deemed  hopelessly  arid.  The  basin 
of  the  Mississippi,  the  Pacific  coast 
lands,  and  the  valley  of  the  Red  River 
of  the  north  vie  with  each  other  in  fer- 
tility, and  other  highly  productive  lands 
are  those  of  the  Gulf  coast,  the  region 
draining  into  the  Great  Lakes,  and 
much  of  that  east  of  the  Appalachian 
mountains.     Westward,    however,     is    a 


very  extensive  section  in  great  i^art  unfit 
for  cultivation  except  under  irrigation 
on  account  of  deficient  rainfall.  This 
comprises  most  •f  the  region  between  the 
eastern  foot-hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
system  westward  to  the  Sierra  Nevada 
and  Cascade  ranges,  an  immense  area 
embracing  about  one-third  of  the  whole 
country.  It  includes  the  States  of  Ari- 
zona, New  Mexico,  Nevada,  Utah, 
Wyoming,  Montana,  most  of  Colorado, 
and  southern  California,  a  larse  part  of 
Oregon,  Idaho  and  Texas,  and  parts  of 
the  Dakotas,  Nebraska  and  Kansas.  A 
large  part  of  this  jgreat  region  is  grass- 
covered  and  yields  food  to  immense  herds 
of  cattle  and  sheep.  Much  of  it  also  may 
yet  be  rendered  fertile  bv  irrigation,  but 
there  is  a  great  extent  of  absolute  desert 
to  which  irrigation  cannot  be  applied. 

Of  American  crops  the  two  distinctive 
ones  are  cotton  ana  Indian  com,  of  each 
of  which  the  United  States  produces 
much  more  than  all  the  rest  of  the 
world  combined.  Most  of  the  cotton 
goods  of  the  world  are  woven  from 
American  cotton.  The  com,  however,  is 
very  largely  consumed  at  home,  especially 
for  the  feeding  of  live  stock,  the  hog- 
harvest  being  largely  dependent  upon  it. 
Wheat  is  another  product  of  great  im- 
portance, the  crop  of  the  United  States 
having  long  been  the  largest  in  the 
world.  Russia  in  Europe  is  now  a  dose 
rival,  but  all  other  countries  are  far  sur- 

gassed.  There  are  also  large  crops  of 
ay  and  oats,  the  five  named  being  the 
leading  crops  of  the  country.  Other 
products  of  great  importance  are  i>ota- 
toes,N tobacco,  sugar,  and  rice.  In  1910 
the  com  crop  reached  the  vast  total  of 
over  3,000,000,000  bushels,  the  wheat 
crop  nearly  700.000,000  bushels,  the  oat 
crop  1,100,000,000  bushels,  the  cotton 
supply  (1911)  12,132,332  bales,  the  total 
value  of  all  farm  crops  increased  from 
$5,000,000,000  in  1900  to  about  $9,000,- 
000,000  in  1911.  Other  cereals  grown 
are  rye,  barley,  and  buckwheat,  and  com- 
mon farm  products  include  sweet  potatoes, 
flax,  hops  and  peanuts,  each  largely 
grown.  No  other  part  of  the  world  is 
so  rich  in  fruits,  alike  in  quantity  and 
variety.  Very  important  among  these  are 
the  apple,  peach  and  pear.  Plums,  apri- 
cots, cherries  and  grapes  are  produced 
abundantly,  and  a  considerable  variety  of 
berries  and  nuts  are  grown.  The  grape 
is  an  important  crop  in  many  parts  of 
the  east,  and  especially  so  in  California, 
and  much  wine  is  made.  To  the  tem- 
perate products  must  be  added  those  of 
the  semitropics,  the  orange,  lemon,  olive, 
fig  and  almond,  abundant  in  California, 
and  the  orange  and  pineapple  of  Florida. 


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Live-Mtock. —  The  abundant  com  and 
bay  crops  of  the  United  States  and  the 
very  extensive  grazing  grounds  of  the 
region  of  prairies  and  plains  give  a  great 
opportunity  for  the  raising  of  live-stock. 
The  leading  cattle-breeding  State  is 
Texao;  sheep-raising  is  most  extensive  on 
the  elevated  plains  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  on  the  Pacific  slope; 
horses  and  mules  are  bred  in  great  num- 
bers in  Missouri,  Kentucky  and  Tennes- 
see, while  hogs  are  raised  in  all  the  corn- 
growing  States  of  the  Central  and  South- 
ern section.  Slaughtering  and  beef  and 
pork-packing  are  carried  on  very  exten- 
sively in  Chicago,  and  various  other  cities 
of  the  Middle  West.  The  dairying  in- 
dustry of  the  country  is  very  large  and 
immense  quantities  of  butter  and  several 
varieties  of  cheese  are  made. 

Manufactures, —  The  United  States  has 
become  the  foremost  manufacturing 
country  in  the  world,  its  supplies  of  coal 
and  iron  exceeding  those  of  any  other 
quarter  of  the  globe,  while  the  industry, 
inventive  genius  and  enterprise  of  the 
peoi>le  and  the  rapid  development  of  fa- 
cilities for  transportation  helped  to  ad- 
vance the  material  interests  of  the  coun- 
try throughout  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  have  ^iven  unquestioned  industrial 
supremacy  m  the  twentieth.  Among  the 
greatly  varied  manufacturing  industries 
that  of  textiles  stands  high,  the  cotton  and 
woolen  manufacture  being  very  flourish- 
ing, while  in  silk  manufacture  this  coun- 
try is  becoming  a  rival  of  France.  Knit 
goods  are  largely  produced,  while  the  pro- 
'  auction  of  ready-made  clothing  is  a  very 
active  industry.  Iron  and  steel  produc- 
tion has  reached  a  very  high  level,  sur- 
passing that  of  any  other  country,  while 
the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  wares 
is  most  varied  and  abundant.  Chief 
among  these  industries  are  the  production 
of  building  steel,  iron  bridges,  railroad 
iron  and  steel,  locomotives,  armor  for 
steel-clad  battleships,  fire-arms,  steel  cars 
and  machine-shop  products  in  general. 
Other  great  fields  of  manufacture  are 
those  of  electrical  appliances,  automobiles, 
agricultural  implements,  tin-plate,  leather, 
boots  and  shoes,  paper  (the  pulp  for 
which  consumes  whole  forests),  pottery, 
furniture,  flour,  beet-sugar,  beer,  lumber- 
products  and  many  others.  As  for  the 
smaller  industries,  they  are  innumerable. 
The   value   of   manufactured   goods   has 

frown  from  $5,300,000,000  in  1880  to 
20.600,000,000  in  1910. 
Commerce  and  Transportation. —  The 
commerce  of  the  United  States  has  vied 
with  its  manufactures  in  development. 
Transportation  has  been  provided  with 
extraordinary      rapidity.    For      internal 


commerce  the  navigable  inland  waters  of 
the  country  have  been  of  immense  value, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  steam  transpor- 
tation was  established  upon  them  early 
in  the  history  of  the  republic.  Canals 
were  early  provided  to  add  to  the  facili- 
ties in  this  direction,  chief  among  these 
being  the  Erie  Canal,  from  Buffalo  to 
Albany,  which  for  the  greater  part  of 
a  century  has  been  a  valuable  carrier  of 
freight  But  railroad  development  has 
largely  replaced  that  by  water  in  the  in- 
land commerce  of  the  country.  This 
began  in  1830  with  23  miles  of  track. 
In  1900,  seventy  years  later,  it  had 
erown  to  194,334  miles.  In  1912  it 
had  reached  nearly  250,000  miles,  far 
surpassing  in  length  that  of  any  other 
country,  and  equaling  that  of  all  Europe. 
The  foreign  trade  of  the  country  has 
grown  to  great  proportions,  though  it  is 
much  surpassed  by  the  internal  commerce. 
In  the  last  century  the  great  bulk  of  it 
consisted  of  agricultural  products  and 
meats,  cotton  being  a  leading  article  of 
export.  Of  recent  years,  however,  this 
country  has  ceased  to  feed  and  clothe 
Europe  to  the  extent  of  the  past,  the 
home  demand  having  grown  so  greatly, 
especially  for  food  stuffs,  as  to  consume 
the  great  bulk  of  them,  while  several 
other  countries  are  competing  largely  in 
wheat,  and  to  a  small  extent  in  cotton. 
On  the  other  hand  the  export  of  manu- 
factured goods  has  grown  until  now 
these  form  a  very  considerable  part  of 
the  goods  sent  abroad.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  twentieth  century  the  commerce 
of  the  United  States  was  valued  at  about 
$2,500,000,000.  In  1911  it  reached  a 
total  of  about  $3,500,000,000.  Of  this 
much  the  greater  part  were  exports,  the 
balance  of  trade  in  its  favor  being  in 
1900  about  $500,000,000.  It  has  de- 
creased somewhat  since  then,  but  is  still 
a  notable  amount.  About  two-thirds  of 
the  exports  go  to  Europe,  half  this 
amount  going  to  the  British  Isles.  The 
bulk  of  the  British  purchases  consists  of 
cotton  and  food-stuffs.  The  exports  of 
manufactured  goods  embrace  iron  and 
steel  wares,  leather,  tobacco,  oils,  agri- 
cultural implements,  copper  manufac- 
tures, cotton  goods,  leather,  wood  prod- 
ucts, etc.  The  imports  include  chemicals, 
cotton  goods,  fibers,  fruits,  furs,  hides 
and  skins,  wool,  tin-plate,  india  rubber, 
jewelry,  silk  goods,  coffee,  sugar,  tea, 
tropical  fruits  and  various  other  wares. 

Government, —  The  government  of  the 
United  States  is  a  federal  republic  based 
on  the  constitution  of  1787,  drawn  up 
by  delegates  from  the  thirteen  original 
States,  and  subsequently  amended.  The. 
constitution  and  modes  of  adminlitl^tion. 


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of  the  individual  States  bear  a  close  re- 
semblance to  each  other  and  to  the  na* 
tional  government  Bach  State  main- 
tains its  independence,  and  by  means  of 
a  State  legislature  and  executive  (vested 
in  a  governor)  has  complete  manage- 
ment of  its  own  affairs.  The  combined 
States  have  one  supreme  legislature, 
which  takes  the  name  of  Congress,  and 
consists  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of 
Representatives.  The  Senate  consists 
of  two  members  from  each  State  elected 
bj  its  citizens  for  six  years,  one-third 
of  the  whole  body  being  renewable 
biennially.  The  House  of  Representa- 
tives consists  of  members  chosen  for  two 
vears  bv  the  people  of  the  several  States, 
in  numbers  proportioned  to  their  popula- 
tion as  ascertained  by  the  decennial 
census.  The  head  of  the  executive  power 
of  the  government  is  a  President,  elected 
by  the  people  and  holding  his  office  for 
a  term  of  four  years,  witn  a  Vice-Presi- 
dent elected  at  the  same  time  and  for 
the  same  term.  Only  persons  bom  in  the 
United  States  and  who  have  reached  the 
age  of  85  years  are  eligible  to  the  presi- 
dency. The  President  is  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army  and  navy  and  of  the 
mUitia  in  the  service  of  the  Union.  He 
has  the  power  of  a  veto  on  all  laws  passed 
by  Congress:  but,  notwithstanding  his 
veto,  any  bill  may  become  a  law  on  its 
being  afterwards  passed  by  each  House  of 
Congress  by  a  two-thirds  vote.  The  Vice- 
President  is  em  ofHoio  President  of  the 
Senate.  The  presidential  succession  is 
fixed  by  Chapter  4  of  the  acts  of  the 
49th  Congress,  1st  session.  In  case  of 
the  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  in- 
ability of  both  the  President  and  Vice- 
President,  then  the  Secretary  of  State 
shall  act  as  President  till  the  disability 
of  the  President  or  Vice-President  is  re- 
moved or  a  President  is  elected.  If  there 
be  no  Secretary  of  State,  then  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Treasury  will  act;  and  the 
remainder  of  the  order  of  succession  is; 
Secretary  of  War,  Attorney-General, 
Postmaster-Oeneral,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  Secretary  of  the  Interior  (the  of- 
fices of  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Secre- 
tary of  Commerce,  and  Secretary  of 
Labor,  were  created  after  the  passage  of 
the  act).  By  the  15th  amendment  to  the 
Constitution  neither  race  nor  color  af- 
fects the  rights  of  citizens,  though  un- 
taxed Indians  and  Chinese  are  excluded 
from  the  frsnrhise.  The  same  is  the  case 
With  women  except  in  ten  states  in  which 
they  have  full  franchise  and  a  number 
of  others  in  which  they  have  a  partial 
franchise.  There  is  a  third  section  of 
the  government,  the  judicial,  consisting 
of  a  Supreme  Court,  which  deals  with 


interstate  subjects  of  controversy  and 
has  the  power  of  invalidating  the  enact' 
ments  of  Congress,  if  it  decides  that  they 
are  not  in  conformity  with  the  Constitu- 
tion. (See  succeeding  article  on  United 
Staiee^  PoUiioal  Development  of  the,) 
The  governments  of  the  States  are  based 
on  a  similar  principle,  each  having  its 
Supreme  Court,  the  decisions  of  which 
are  final  on  a  constitutional  question. 
The  Constitution  can  be  amended  only  by 
a  vote  in  favor  of  the  proposed  amend- 
ment of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  and 
subsequently  by  the  acceptance  of  three- 
fourths  of  the  States;  or  by  the  calling 
of  a  constitutional  convention  on  the  de- 
mand of  two-thirds  of  the  States,  with 
ratifying  conventions  in  three-fourths  of 
the  States.  While  each  State  is  guar- 
anteed a  republican  form  of  government, 
and  in  general  their  governments  are 
based  on  the  same  principle  as  that  of 
the  national  government,  the  territories, 
organized  and  unorganized,  are  under  the 
direct  control  of  Congress,  the  organized 
ones  being  represented  in  Congress  by 
a  delegate,  who  has  no  vote,  and  having 
legislatures  elected  by  their  people. 

Finances, —  The  public  debt  of  the 
United  States  reached  its  ultimate  height 
in  1866,  as  a  result  of  the  expenditure 
for  the  Civil  war,  its  amount  on  July  1 
of  that  year  being  $2,773,236,173. 
Thirty  years  before  the  country  had  been 
out  of  debt  and  with  an  excess  of  funds 
which  it  divided  among  the  several 
States.  After  the  war  the  reduction  of 
this  debt  proceeded  with  marked  rapidity, 
until  by  1912  the  interest-bearing  debt 
had  decreased  to  $963349390,  and  the 
debt  bearing  no  interest  to  $383,499,246, 
making  a  total  of  $1346,848,636,  in- 
cluding $1351,810  on  which  interest  had 
ceased.  Against  this  there  was  in  the 
treasury  a  reserve  fund  and  cash  balance 
amounting  to  $300,400,000.     During  this 

Eeriod  the  expenses  of  the  government 
ad  steadily  increased  until  what  was 
called  a  billion  dollar  Congress  was 
reached  in  McKinley's  first  term,  while 
in  1912  the  appropriation  for  a  single  ses- 
sion of  Congress  was  over  $660,000,000. 
Artnff. —  The  United  States  army  is 
based  on  the  principle  of  that  of  Great 
Britain,  being  recruited  by  voluntary 
enlistment  only,  not  by  conscription  and 
forced  military  service  of  all  able-bodied 
men,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  the  na- 
tions of  Europe.  The  island  condition  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  strength  of  her 
navy  has  removed  the  necessity  of  general 
military  duty,  while  the  oceans  which 
divide  the  United  States  from  all  other 
powerful  nations  have  rendered  a  nower- 
f  ul  army  in  this  country  in  times  of  peace 


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unnecessary,  a  strong  navy  being  de-  National  Guard,  are  subject  to  duty  nn- 
pended  upon  for  protection.  As  a  result  der  demand  of  the  government  if  any 
the  army  has  been  generally  restricted  to  national  emergency  should  arise.  The 
the  numbers  requisite  for  military  police  militia  law  of  1903,  amended  in  1908, 
duty,  the  keeping  a  great  multitude  of  provided  that  'The  militia  shall  consist 
men  under  arms  in  times  of  ];>eace  in  of  every  able-bodied  male  citizen  of  the 
readiness  for  possible  war  being  not  respective  States  who  is  more  than  18 
considered  requisite.  This  policy  has  al-  and  less  than  45  years  of  age.'  These 
ways  prevailed,  no  more  men  being  kept  are  to  be  divided  into  the  organized 
in  the  ranks  than  are  deemed  necessary  to  militia  and  a  reserve  militia,  subject  to 
maintain  internal  order,  the  government  duty  should  necessity  demand.  The  total 
relying  upon  the  enlistment  of  volunteers  number  of  this  unorg^ized  reserved  mill- 
in  times  of  emesgency.  In  1790  the  tia  wad  stated  in  1015  at  20,538,347. 
national  army  consisted  of  only  12(30  Navy. —  The  United  States  has  the 
men,  under  the  command  of  the  Presi-  credit  of  first  demonstrating  the  advan- 
dent.  In  1861  its  numbers  had  grown  tage  of  an  ironclad  navy,  this  being  done 
to  14,000.  During  the  Civil  war  2,039,-  in  the  Civil  war  by  both  sides  engaged. 
748  men  were  called  into  the  ranks  Britain  and  France  had  already  built 
chiefly  by  voluntary  enlistment,  in  some  ironclads,  but  the  first  battle  between 
measure  by  conscription,  or  by  bounties  ships  thus  protected  w^as  the  memorable 
of  from  ^00  to  $1000  to  each  volunteer,  conflict  in  Hampton  Roads,  in  1862,  be- 
After  the  war  the  army  was  disbanded  tween  the  Monitor  and  Merrimac  The 
with  the  exception  of  the  number  re-  wooden  ships  of  the  older  navy,  previously 
quired  for  peace  service,  and  by  an  act  attacked  by  the  Merrimac,  proved  hope- 
of  Congress  of  July  15.  1870,  tnis  num-  lessly  feeble  before  this  powerful  antag- 
ber  was  limited  to  30,000  men.  This  onist  and  were  put  out  of  service  with 
number  was  subsequently  increased  dur-  startling  suddenness,  and  only  her  encoun- 
in^  the  century  to  about  60,000.  The  ter  with  the  Monitor  checked  the  Merri- 
brief  war  with  Spain,  in  1898,  demanded  mao  In  her  career  of  destruction.  The 
a  sudden  enhancement  of  the  army,  which  lesson  thus  taught  was  quickly  taken 
was  readily  accomplished  by  a  call  for  advantage  of  in  Europe,  where  a  rivalry 
volunteers.  But  the  lack  of  careful  in  building  iron-  and  steelclad  war-vessels 
supervision  of  this  large  body  of  raw  begun  which  has  continued  without  in« 
soldiers  was  seriously  felt,  bad  manage-  terruption  to  the  present  day.  But  the 
ment  resulting  in  the  death  of  large  United  States  was  very  slow  in  putting 
numbers  of  them  by  disease.  After  the  into  practice  the  lesson  it  had  taught, 
olsbandment  of  this  volunteer  force  the  Resting  secure  in  its  thousands  of  miles 
limit  of  strength  of  the  regular  army  of  ocean  boundary,  it  let  twenty  yeais 
was  fixed  by  Secretary  of  War  Root  and  pass  before  It  awakened  to  the  advisabil- 
General  Miles  at  77,284  men,  in  accord-  ity  of  preparing  for  possible  naval  war. 
ance  with  General  Miles's  proposition  of  Id  1882  there  were  140  vessels  on  the 
one  soldier  for  every  thousand  inhabitants,  navy  list,  but  of  these  25  were  mere  tugs. 
The  length  of  service  was  fixed  at  five  while  a  laige  number  of  the  others  were 
years.  The  need  of  a  more  scientific  antiquated  and  useless.  Shortly  after 
management  of  the  military  establish-  this  the  government  aroused  to  the  need 
ment  was  seriously  felt,  and  by  a  bill  of  possessing  a  modern  naval  establish- 
of  February  14,  1903,  the  oflice  of  Lieu-  ment,  and  began  the  construction  of  the 
tenant-General  commanding  was  dropped  powerful  navy  it  has  since  possessed.  Its 
and  a  staff  corps  of  eminent  ofllcers,  ap-  long  negligence  left  to  the  European  na- 
pointed  by  the  President,  was  adopted,  tions  the  task  of  experimenting  in  the  new 
In  accordance  with  the  policy  pursued  system  of  war-vessel  construction,  and 
in  European  army  organizations.  Under  gave  It  the  important  advantage  of  par- 
laws  passed  in  1901,  1907  and  1908  the  ticipating  without  cost  in  lessons  learned 
army  now  comprises  30  regiments  of  by  a  long-continued  practical  study  of  the 
infantry,  15  of  cavalry,  6  of  field  artil-  new  system  in  Europe.  At  the  period 
lery,  and  a  coast  artillery  corps,  with  of  the  Spanish-American  war  a  navy  of 
a  Porto  Rico  regiment  of  infantry,  and  fair  strength  for  that  date  existed,  one 
a  considerable  force  In  the  Philippines,  that  with  remarkable  quickness  put  the 
52  companies  of  which  are  native  scouts,  weaker  Spanish  navy  out  of  commission. 
The  total  strength  of  the  army  is  about  Since  then  many  war-vessels  fitted  to 
87,000,  and  it  is  provided  by  law  that  compete  on  equal  terms  with  the  strongest 
it  shall  not  exceed  100,000  men.  In  ad-  of  tnose  possessed  by  other  nations  have 
dition  to  these  are  the  organized  State  been  built,  and  in  1912  the  United  States 
militia,  a  drilled  and  equipped  force  of  bad,  built  and  building,  28  battleships  of 
over  120,000  men.    These,  Imown  as  the  recent  type  with  9  of  older  type,  12  first- 


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clau  armored  cruisers,  and  a  considerable  British  dispossessed  the  Dutch  on  Man- 
number  of  second  and  third-class  cruisers,  hattan  Island,  and  named  the  settlement 
monitors,  gunboats,  torpedo  boats,  destroy-  New  York.  The  first  effort  at  a  union 
ers  and  submarines.  In  this  respect  it  of  the  colonies  was  in  1643,  when  the 
ranks  high  among  other  nations,  Great  settlements  in  Massachusetts,  Connecti- 
Britain  considerably  and  Germany  slightly  cut  and  New  Hampshire  formed  a  con- 
surpassing  it  in  number  and  strength  of  federacy  for  mutual  protection  called 
war  ships.  The  United  States  nas  a  sat-  *  The  United  Ck>lonie8  of  New  England.' 
isfactory  number  of  the  powerful  Dread-  The  growth  of  the  colonies  was  at- 
nought  and  super-Dreadnought  class.  Of  tended  by  occasional  warlike  relations, 
these  the  Arkansas  and  Wyoming,  with  not  only  with  the  Indians,  but  between 
their  ^.000  tons  displacement  and  arma-  the  Europeans  of  different  nations.  There 
ment  of  twelve  12-inch  guns ;  the  New  was  war  on  several  occasions  between  the 
York  and  Tewas,  27,000  tons,  and  the  Enelish  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia 
Nevada  and  Oklahoma,  27,500  tons,  each  and  the  Spanish  of  Florida,  and  three 
with  ten  14-inch  guns,  are  much  sur-  successive  wars  broke  out  between  the 
passed  by  the  31,400>enii«y{vanta  and  Art-  British  of  the  North  and  the  French 
tona  and  the  32,000  CaUfomia,  Idaho  and  of  Canada,  in  1689,  1702  and  1744. 
Mississippi  with  twelve  14-in.  guns  each.  These  were  hostilities  between  the  colo- 
History. —  The  territory  now  occupied  nists  arising  from  wars  in  Europe,  but 
by  the  United  States  of  America,  though  in  1754  a  more  important  war  begun 
it  appears  to  have  been  visited  on  its  due  to  rivalir  between  the  colonists 
2f.  K.  coast  by  Norse  navigators  about  the  themselves,  and  which  in  turn  gave  rise 
year  1000,  continued  the  sole  posses-  to  an  European  war.  This,  known  as 
sion  of  numerous  tribes  of  Indians  till  the  French  and  Indian  war,  continued 
the  rediscovery  of  America  by  Colum-  until  1763,  its  origin  being  an  effort  of 
bos  in  1492.  In  1498  an  English  ex-  the  French  to  take  possession  of  the 
pedition,  under  the  command  of  Sebas-  Ohio  Valley  and  the  determination  of 
tian  Cabot,  explored  the  east  coast  of  the  British  colonists  to  prevent  this. 
America,  from  Labrador  to  Virginia,  Its  seven  years'  continuance  was  attended 
perhaps  to  Florida.  In  1513  Juan  Ponce  by  varying  fortunes  of  war,  the  French 
de  Leon  landed  in  the  Florida  peninsula,  at  first  generally  successful,  the  British 
and  explored  a  portion  of  that  region  in  finally  everywhere  victorious,  Quebec,  the 
a  romantic  search  for  the  Fountain  of  capital  and  military  stronghold  of  Can- 
Touth.  In  1539-1542  Ferdinand  de  Soto  ada,  being  finally  taken.  The  result 
led  a  Spanish  expedition  from  the  coast  was  disastrous  to  France,  which  was 
of  Florida  across  Alabama,  and  dis-  obliged  to  surrender  its  possessions  in 
covered  the  Mississippi  river.  In  1584-  Canada  to  Great  Britain.  Its  territory 
1585  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  sent  two  ex-  west  of  the  Mississippi  was  transferred 
peditions  to  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  to  Spain.  The  close  of  this  war  was 
and  vainly  attempted  to  form  settlements  soon  followed  by  discontent  on  the  part 
on  Roanoke  Island.  A  Spanish  settle-  of  the  colonists  with  their  treatment  by 
ment  was  made  at  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  the  British  government  In  1761  the 
In  1565.  The  first  successful  English  enforcement  against  smugglers  of  the  op- 
settlement  was  that  planted  at  James-  pressive  Navigation  laws,  by  the  use  of 
town.  Virginia,  in  1607.  In  1609  the  general  search  warrants  which  gave  the 
Dutch  explored  the  Hudson  River,  and  customs  officials  the  right  to  enter  and 
some  years  later  began  a  settlement  on  search  any  domicile,  caused  a  strong 
Manhattan  Island,  New  York  harbor,  excitement  against  the  English  govem- 
Plymouth,  Massachusetts,  was  settled  by  ment,  especially  in  Boston.  Parliament 
the  Pilgrims,  members  of  a  persecuted  also  resolved  to  increase  the  revenue  by 
religious  sect,  in  1620,  and  Massachu-  a  general  stamp-duty  through  all  the 
setts  Bay  by  the  Puritans,  another  sect,  American  colonies.  Accordingly,  the 
in  1628  and  1630.  Later  settlements  Stamp  Act  of  1766  was  passed ;  but  this, 
were  those  of  Connecticut,  in  1633;  after  opposition,  was  repealed  next  year, 
Manrland,  in  1634;  Rhode  Island,  in  Britain  still  claiming,  however,  its  right 
1635;  Carolhia  in  1663  and  1670;  to  tax.  In  accordance  with  this  claim 
Pennsylvania  in  1682,  and  Georgia  in  a  duty,  In  1767,  was  imposed  upon  tea, 
1733.  Meanwhile  the  French  from  paper,  glass,  etc.;  but  the  colonial  op- 
Canada,  under  La  Salle  and  others,  had  position  was  such  that  three  years  later 
explored  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Missis-  the  duties  were  all  repealed  except  the 
sippi,  and  settlements  bad  been  made  one  upon  tea.  To  such  a  pass  had  the 
at  points  in  Illinois  and  along  the  Missis-  opposition  now  come  that  in  1773,  when 
sippi,  while  Mobile  was  founded  in  1702  British  ships  loaded  with  tea  attempted 
•ad  New  Orleans  in  1718.    In  1664  the   to  effect  a  landing  in  the  port  of  Boston, 


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a  number  of  the  inhabitants,  disguised 
as  Indians,  seized  them  and  threw  their 
cargoes  into  the  sea.  In  punishment  of 
this,  parliament  passed  the  Boston  Port 
Bill,  wh^h  declared  that  port  closed  to 
all  comioerce,  and  transferred  the  seat 
of  colonial  government  to  Salem.  This 
caused  loucn  suffering  in  Boston  and 
from  thi&  time  It  became  to  many  evident 
that  a  conflict  was  inevitable.  This  be- 
gan in  April,  1775,  when  a  British  force, 
sent  from  Boston  to  destroy  the  mili- 
tary stores  at  Concord,  fired  upon  the 
colonists  at  Lexington,  and  was  subse- 
quently attacked  and  forced  to  retreat. 
Before  the  end  of  April  the  British  gov- 
ernor and  army  were  besieced  in  Boston 
by  a  revolutionary  force  of  20,000  men ; 
the  northern  fortresses  of  Ticonderoga 
and  Crown  Point  were  seized ;  and  a  Con- 
tinental Congress  which  assembled  at 
Philadelphia  took  measures  to  equip  an 
army  and  navy,  with  George  Washington, 
who  had  won  fame  in  the  French  and 
Indian  war,  as  commander-in-chief.  On 
June  17  the  British  attacked  the  in- 
trenched position  of  the  colonists  on 
Bunker  Hill,  which  commanded  Boston 
harbor,  and  captured  it  with  great  loss 
to  their  troops.  In  the  following  year 
thev  were  forced  to  evacuate  the  city 
and  retreat  to  Halifax.  This  success 
encouraged  the  colonists  in  their  resist- 
ance, and  it  was  declared  by  the  thir- 
teen States  assembled  in  Congress  that 
*The  United  Colonies  are,  and  ought 
to  be,  free  and  independent  States;  that 
their  political  connection  with  Great 
Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  dissolved.' 
This  resolution  was  embodied  in  a 
declaration  of  independence,  drawn  up 
bv  Jefferson  and  adopted  July  4,  1776w 
The  British  government  now  sent  an 
army  asainst  the  colonists  under  the 
command  of  Sir  William  Howe^  and  in 
a  battle  on  Long  Island  (August,  1776) 
Washington  was  defeated  and  obliged  to 
abandon  New  York.  He  retreated 
through  New  Jersey  and  crossed  the 
Delaware,  but  later  in  the  year  won  a 
victory  at  Trenton,  New  Jersev,  which 
enabled  him  to  establish  himself  in  that 
State  and  threaten  New  York.  In  1777 
the  British  invaded  Pennsylvania  by  way 
of  Chesapeake  Bay,  defeated  Washing- 
ton on  the  Brandywine  and  captured 
Philadelphia.  Fortune^  however,  favored 
the  Americans  in  the  north,  where  Gen- 
eral Gates  at  Stillwater  defeated  General 
Burgoyne,  his  whole  armv  being  forced 
to  surrender.  This  event  led  to  a  treaty 
with  France  in  1778,  and  subsequently 
Spain  and  Holland  gave  support  to  the 
Americans.  The  British  army  now  left 
Philadelphia  and  the  conflict  was  trans- 
13—10 


ferred  to  the  South.  Here  it  was  prose- 
cuted with  varying  fortunes,  but  in  1781 
the  surrender  of  Lord  Cornwallis  with  his 
army  at  Yorktown  to  a  combined  French 
and  American  force  under  Rochambeau 
and  Washington,  virtoallv  terminated  the 
war.  On  September  3,  1783,  Great 
Britain  formallv  recognized  the  independ- 
ence of  the  United  States  by  a  treaty  of 
peace  signed  at  Paris.  The  new-formed 
States,  however,  were  very  imperfectly 
united,  and  in  1787  a  convention  met  at 
Philadelphia  and  after  four  months'  de- 
liberation framed  a  Constitution.  This 
Constitution,  which  remains  the  basis  of 
the  government,  came  into  operation  in 
March,  1789,  and  on  April  30  Washing- 
ton became  the  first  president.  The  Con- 
gress appointed  by  the  thirteen  States 
then  proceeded  to  impose  duties,  estab- 
lish a  federal  judiciary,  organize  the 
executive  administration,  fund  the  debt 
of  the  United  States,  and  establish  a 
national  bank.  In  1792  Washington 
was  unanimously  reelected  president,  but 
in  1796  he  refused  to  be  elected  for  a 
third  term.  During  his  administration 
the  States  of  Vermont,  Kentucky,  and 
Tennessee  were  admitted  into  the  Union. 
John  Adams  was  elected  second  presi- 
dent, and  it  was  while  he  held  office 
that  the  hostile  demeanor  of  France  led  to 
a  brief  naval  war  in  which  all  the  success 
lay  with  the  United  SUtes.  In  1800 
the  seat  of  government  was  transferred 
from  Philadelphia,  which  had  been  the 
capital,  to  Washington,  and  in  1803,  nn- 
der  President  Jefferson  the  territory  of 
the  new  Union  was  immensely  add^  to 
by  the  purchase  from  France  of  Lonisi- 
ana^  the  great  region  between  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  A 
new  source  of  hostility  to  Great  Britain 
soon  arose  from  her  claim  to  the  alle- 
giance of  American  naturalized  subjects 
and  the  right  to  search  American  vessels 
for  British  seamen.  In  1807  the  Brit- 
ish frigate  Leopard  overhauled  the  United 
States  frigate  Chesapeake,  near  the  en- 
trance to  Chesapeake  Bay,  compelled  her 
to  surrender,  and  took  off  four  of  her  men. 
Reparation  was  asked  in  vain ;  some  time 
later  all  trade  with  France  and  England 
was  prohibited  by  Act  of  Congress,  and  in 
June,  1812,  war  was  declared  against 
Great  Britain.  This  lasted  until  the  end 
of  1814,  the  armies  having  varying  suc- 
cess upon  land,  but  the  Americans  win- 
ning a  brilliant  series  of  naval  victories. 
The  final  event  in  the  war  was  Jackson's 
victory  over  the  British  at  New  Orleans, 
fought  after  the  treaty  of  peace  had 
been  signed.  After  this  the  chief  his- 
torical events  were  the  wars  against  tha 
southern  Indian  tribes  and  l£t  acqoisi' 


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tion  of  Florida  from  the  Spanish  in  1819 ; 
the  annexation  of  Texas,  which  led  to  a 
war  with  Mexico  isx  1S4G;  and  the 
acquisition  of  a  large  territory  in  north- 
ern Mexico,  consisting  of  New  Mexico 
and  Upper  California,  which  were  ceded 
to  the  United  States  on  payment  of  the 
sum  of  $15,000,000  to  Mexico.  The 
great  question  during  this  and  the  suc- 
ceeding period  was  that  of  slavery  in 
the  South,  against  which  a  strong  party 
arose  in  the  North.  Texas  had  been  in- 
troduced into  the  Union  as  a  slave- 
holding  state,  and  the  endeavor  to  act 
similarly  with  regard  to  the  territory  of 
Kansas  led  to  local  conflicts.  The  ques- 
tion was  still  further  complicated  by  an 
antislavery  insurrection  (1859)  at  Har- 
per's Ferry,  led  by  John  Brown,  which 
nelped  to  bring  the  question  of  the  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  to  a  crisis.  The  presiden- 
tial election  of  1860  turned  to  a  great  ex- 
tent upon  this  question,  and  when  Abra- 
ham Lincoln,  the  Republican  candidate, 
was  elected,  the  slave-holding  States  of 
South  Carolina,  Mississippi,  Florida,  Ala- 
bama, Georgia,  Louisiana,  and  Texas 
formally  seceded  from  the  Union.  These 
States  formed  themselves  into  a  separate 
union  on  February  4,  1801,  which  they 
named  *  The  Confederate  States  of  Amer- 
ica,' with  Jefferson  Davis  as  president. 
They  were  subsequently  joined,  after 
hostilities  had  begun,  by  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  Tennessee  and  Arkansas.  The 
custom-houses,  arsenals,  and  United 
States  buildings  in  these  States  were 
seized  and  occupied  by  the  Confederates, 
and  every  preparation  made  to  organize 
a  separate  government.  War  was  in- 
evitable, and  the  first  blow  was  struck 
on    April     12,    1861,    the    Confederates 

Sroceeding  to  bombard  Fort  Sumter,  in 
harleston  harbor,  which  wai  forced  to 
surrender.  President  Lincoln  then  called 
out  by  proclamation  75,000  volunteers, 
and  the  first  battle  on  a  large  scale  took 
place  at  Bull  Run,  south  of  Washington, 
on  July  21,  the  Federal  forces  being  de- 
feated. During  the  remainder  of  1801 
^frequent  collisions  took  place  between  the 
rival  forces  at  different  points.  In  the 
spring  of  1802  General  Grant  captured 
Fort  Donelson,  on  the  Cumberland 
River  and  obtained  a  victory  over  the 
Confederates  at  Shilob,  or  Pittsburgh 
Landing,  in  Tennessee.  In  April  the 
Federal  fleet,  under  Porter,  ran  past  the 
forts  at  the  entrance  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  aided  in  the  capture  of  Vicksburg  and 
Arkanaaa  Post.  An  attempt  was  then 
made,  by  General  McCSellan  to  invest 
Ridimond,  the  capital  of  the  Confed- 
eracy, but  this  was  prevented  by  the  Con- 
federate generals  Lee  and  'Stonewall' 


Jackson,  who  drove  the  Federals  back  to 
the  James  River,  where  they  established 
themselves.  General  Lee  then  assumed 
the  offensive  and  moved  with  his  whole 
army  upon  Washington,  defeating  General 
Pope  with  great  loss  at  Bull  Bon  and 
invading  Maryland.  Here  he  was  met 
on  the  banks  of  the  Antietam  by  Mc- 
Clellan,  and,  after  an  obstinate  fight, 
compelled  to  recross  the  Potomac.  Soon 
afterwards  MoClellan  was  superseded 
by  Bumside,  and  in  December  another 
advance  to  Richmond  was  commenced. 
This  General  Lee  had  anticipated,  and 
intrenched  himself  behind  the  town  of 
Fredericksburg,  a  position  from  which 
the  Federals  endeavored  in  vain  and 
with  severe  loss  to  dislodge  him.  In 
the  following  April  General  Hooker, 
superseding  Bumside  in  the  command  ox 
the  army  of  the  Potomac,  commenced 
another  movement  towards  Richmond, 
but  was  defeated  bv  General  Lee  at 
Chancellorsville.  Following  np  this  gain 
Lee  transferred  his  army  to  the  valley 
of  the  Shenandoah,  entered  Maryland, 
and  crossed  into  Pennsylvania.  At  Get- 
tysburg he  unexpectedlv  encountered  the 
Federal  forces  under  Meade,  and  after 
three  days  of  desperate  fighting  and 
the  loss  of  28,000  men  was  defeated 
and  was  forced  to  retreat  into  Virginia. 
On  the  Mississippi  the  fortune  of  war 
was  also  in  favor  of  the  Federals.  Aided 
by  the  fleet,  which  dashed  past  Port 
Hudson  and  seized  Natchez,  General 
Grant  assumed  the  offensive  and  cap- 
tured Vicksburg  with  its  large  garrison, 
while  at  the  end  of  this  year  (1863)  he 
inflicted  severe  defeat  upon  Bragg  at 
Chattanooga.  In  1864  General  Grant,  as 
the  result  of  his  successes,  was  appointed 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  armies, 
and  at  once  he  set  himself  to  reorganize 
the  Federal  forces.  He  took  command 
of  the  army  of  the  Potomac  himself,  with 
which  he  proposed  to  meet  Lee,  while  he 
despatched  Sherman  to  operate  against 
the  Confederate  forces  In  Georgia.  In 
May  Grant  moved  his  main  force  across 
the  Rapidan  and  immediately  attacked 
Lee  in  The  Wilderness,  where  severe  fight 


ght- 
Un- 


ing  lasted  for  six  consecutive  days, 
able   to    route    the   Confederates,   Grant 
endeavored  by  a   flank  movement  to  cut 
them  off  from  Richmond,  but  Lee  antici- 

gated  the  attempt  and  foiled  it.  Severe 
attles  followed  and  finally  Grant  crossed 
the  James  River  and  attacked  Petersburg, 
but  was  repelled,  and  obliged  to  begin 
a  regular  siege.  Meanwhile  Shermau, 
with  a  large  Federal  force,  defeated 
Hood  (who  nad  superseded  Johnston  as 
commander   in   Georgia),   and   occupiec* 


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Atlanta.  From  this  point  he  crossed  the 
country  by  forced  marches,  seized  Savan- 
nah, and  by  February,  1865,  occupied 
Charleston  and  marched  into  North  Caro- 
lina. During  this  brilliant  movement  the 
forces  under  Lee  and  Grant  had  faced 
each  other  in  the  lines  round  Richmond, 
but  in  April,  1865,  a  general  advance  was 
made  by  the  Federals.  Lee  defended 
Petersburg  and  Richmond  with  great 
skill  and  obstinacy,  but  after  three  days' 
sanguinary  conflict  the  Confederate  lines 
were  broken,  and  Richmond  lay  at  the 
mercy  of  the  Northern  armies.  Lee  re- 
treated to  Appomattox  Court  House,  but 
was  so  closely  followed  by  Grant  that  he 
was  obliged  to  surrender  with  his  whole 
army.  The  remaining  Confederate  arm- 
ies in  the  field  soon  afterwards  sur- 
rendered, and  the  four  years'  war  ended 
in  favor  of  the  Federal  government.  In 
the  course  of  the  war  the  abolition  of 
slaverv  had  been  proclaimed  by  President 
Lincoln,  and  he  had  just  entered  (April, 
1865)  upon  his  second  term  of  the  presi- 
dency when  he  was  assassinated  in 
Ford's  theater  at  Washington  by  John 
Wilkes  Booth. 

As  the  seceded  States  returned  to 
their  allegiance  to  the  Union  they 
were  readmitted  to  their  state  and  na- 
tional privileges,  being  obliged  to  agree 
to  a  number  of  amendments  to  the  Con- 
stitution, two  of  which  gave  the  manu- 
mitted slaves  the  rights  of  citizenship, 
including  that  of  the  suffrage.  The  elec- 
tion of  General  Grant  to  the  presidency 
in  1868  served,  in  some  measure,  to  con- 
solidate matters.  The  government  de- 
clared its  ability  to  pay  the  enormous 
war  debt,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to 
reform  the  civil  service.  The  question 
of  equal  rights,  without  regard  to  color 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude,  gave 
rise  in  1874  to  hostile  conditions  in 
the  Southern  States  between  the  negro 
and  the  u;hite  population.  The  difficult 
suppression  of  the  hostile  Indians  in  the 
northwestern  states  formed  one  of  the 
tasks  of  the  Grant  administration.  His 
administration  was  also  able  by  means 
of  arbitration  to  bring  the  claim  of 
damages  against  Great  Britain  for  the 
depredations  of  the  Alabama  and  other 
cruisers  built  there,  to  a  favorable  issue 
for  the  United  States.  In  1876  a  Cen- 
tennial Exposition  was  held  in  Phila- 
delphia, in  celebration  of  the  one  hun- 
drcMlth  year  of  American  independence. 
The  exhibitors,  from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  numbered  30,865,  and  the  exposi- 
tion was  the  most  brilliant  which  had 
been  held  iip  to  that  time.  After  a 
presidency  of  two  terms  General  Grant 
was  succeeded  by  Rutherfocd  B.  Hayef^ 


whose  election  was  strongly  contested 
but  was  granted  by  an  electoral  commis- 
sion formed  by  compromise  between  the 
parties.  At  the  next  election  (1880)  the 
Republicans  elected  General  Garfield. 
Soon  after  (July  2,  1881 )  he  was  shot  by 
Charles  J.  Guiteau,  and  died  Sept.  19, 
1881,  Chester  A.  Arthur,  the  vice-presi- 
dent, becoming  president.  In  1885  Grover 
Cleveland,  the  first  Democrat  holding  the 
office  since  1861,  succeeded  as  president 
The  Anti-polygamy  bill,  virtually  disfran- 
chising Mormons,  became  a  law  in  1886; 
also  the  Interstate  Commerce  bill,  estab- 
lishing a  commission  to  secure  uniformity 
of  railroad  rates,  nationalize  through- 
route  traffic,  and  break  up  harmful  trade 
combinations.  In  1888  North  Dakota, 
South  Dakota,  Montana  and  Washington 
territories  were  admitted  as  States.  A 
bill  passed  in  1879  prohibiting  the  immi- 
l^ration  of  Chinese  as  laborers,  amended 
in  1882  making  the  restriction  to  last  for 
20  years,  was  further  amended  in  1888 
by  taking  away  from  the  Chinese  now 
or  heretofore  in  the  country  the  privilege 
of  return  unless  they  had  previously  pro- 
cured certificates.  President  Cleveland 
retired  to  private  life  after  a  cautious 
and  prudent  administration,  signalized 
by  patient  attention  to  details  and  strong 
assertion  of  official  prerogative.  In  1889 
Benjamin  Harrison,  elected  by  the 
Republicans,  became  president,  the  is- 
sue of  the  campaign  being  Free-trade 
V8.  Protection.  One  result  was  the 
enactment  of  a  strongly  protective  tariff 
bill.  Acts  to  admit  Wyomiuff  and  Idaho 
as  States  were  passed  in  1800.  On  June 
19,  1890,  the  report  of  the  International 
American  Conference  was  presented, 
forming  the  basis  of  the  policy  of  reci- 
procity by  which  treaties  were  entered 
into  with  Germany,  France,  Spain, 
Brazil  and  the  countries  of  Central  and 
South  America.  By  the  end  of  1892 
these  treaties  began  to  bring  about  an 
anticipated  increase  of  trade.  The  Beh- 
ring  Sea  question,  long  a  diplomatic 
stumbling-block  between  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  was,  after 
skillful  diplomacy,  referred  to  a  board  of 
arbitration.  In  1892  Cleveland  was  re- 
elected to  the  Presidency,  and  during  his 
administration  a  new  tariff  bill  was 
passed,  under  Democratic  auspices,  re- 
ducing the  rates  but  not  sufficiently  to 
satisfy  the  President,  who,  however,  per- 
mitted it  to  become  a  law  without  his 
signature.  An  interesting  event  of  his 
administration  was  a  grand  exposition  of 
industry  held  at  Chicago  in  1893,  in  honor 
of  the  discovery  of  America  by  (iolumbus. 
four  ce&tnries  before.  Another  event  of 
loterett,  aa  suataiJUQg  tb«  *  MoAroe  Voo 


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TTnited  States 


trine,'  was  the  intervention  of  the  Presi- 
dent in  a  controversy  between  Great 
Britain  and  Venesuela  in  regard  to 
boundary  questions.  Cleveland  went  so 
far  as  to  threaten  forcible  intervention 
if  Yenesaela  was  despoiled  of  any  of  its 
rightful  territory,  and  demanded  a  set- 
tlement by  arbitration.  This  was  finally 
granted  and  an  amiable  settlement 
reached.  In  1896  William  McKinley,  the 
Republican  candidate,  was  elected  to  the 
prMidency.  Important  events  marked  his 
administration.  An  insurrection  against 
Spain  liad  broken  out  in  Cuba,  and  the 
war  there  was  attended  by  acts  of  bar- 
barity against  which  the  people  of  the 
United  States  vigorously  protested.  The 
battleship  Maine^  sent  to  Havana  harbor, 
was  sunk  by  an  explosion^  nearly  all  on 
board  perishing.  This  untoward  event  led 
to  a  declaration  of  war  and  a  brief  period 
of  hostilities  succeeded,  in  which  the 
United  States  was  uniformly  successful. 
Santiago,  Cuba,  was  taken,  after  the 
destruction  of  the  fleet  guarding  it,  and 
a  similar  capture  and  destruction  of  a 
Spanish  fleet  took  place  at  Manila,  capi- 
tal of  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  re- 
sult was  the  freeing  of  Cuba  from  Span- 
ish rule,  and  the  cession  to  the  United 
States  of  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippine  Is- 
lands, and  the  small  Pacific  island  of 
Guam.  Another  event  of  interest  was 
the  annexation  to  the  United  States  of 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  in  the  mid-Pacific 
In  1900  the  United  States  took  part  in 
the  occupation  of  Peking,  China,  as  a 
result  of  the  '  Boxer '  outbreak  against 
the  national  embassies  to  that  countrv. 
The  gratitude  of  China  was  subsequently 
won  l>y  the  government  of  this  country, 
which  remitted  its  share  of  the  large 
indemnity  which  the  offended  nations  had 
exacted 

In  1900  President  McKinley  was  re- 
elected to  the  presidency,  Theodore 
Roosevelt  being  elected  vice-president. 
In  September,  1901,  the  President  was 
shot  by  an  anarchist  while  visiting  an 
exposition  at  Buffalo,  New  York,  and 
died  of  the  wound,  Vice-President  Roose- 
velt succeeding  to  the  presidency.  Im- 
portant events  of  his  administration  were 
the  full  establishment  of  the  republic  of 
Cuba,  the  purchase  by  the  United  States 
of  the  partly  completed  Panama  Canal 
and  the  taking  of  active  steps  towards 
its  completion,  the  settlement  oy  arbitra- 
tion of  the  disputed  boundary  between 
Alaskla  and  Canada,  and  the  holding  of  a 
magnificent  World's  Fair  at  St.  L.ouis, 
in  recognition  of  the  centennial  anniver- 
sary of  the  purchase  of  the  great 
Louisiana  territory.  There  was  also  im- 
por^nt   Itgislation,   at   the   instance   of 


tiie  President,  tending  to  control  the 
operations  of  railroads  and  ot^er  corpor- 
ationi.  In  1904  Roosevelt  was  elected 
to  the  presidency,  and  during  this  term 
instituted  a  number  of  reform  movements, 
bills  being  passed  to  regulate  freight 
charges  on  railroads,  to  prevent  the  evil 
of  rebates  in  freight  charges,  to  check 
unclean  methods  of  meat  packing  and 
adulteration  of  food-stuffs,  and  to  in- 
vestigate the  great  business  corporations, 
several  of  which  proved  to  be  nests  of 
fraud  and  corruption.  Among  the  gen- 
eral events  was  a  Peace  Conference  held 
at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  at  the  instance 
of  President  Roosevelt,  which  broucht 
to  an  end  the  terrible  war  of  1904-1905 
between  Russia  and  Japan.  In  1906 
San  Francisco  was  in  great  part  destroyed 
by  a  severe  earth9uake  and  subsequent 
conflagration,  causing  a  loss  that  elici- 
tated  large  sympathetic  contributions 
from  all  parts  of  the  countrv.  Oklahoma 
Territory  and  the  Indian  Territory  were 
united  in  1906  and  admitted  to  the  Union 
as  a  State,  which  was  given  the  name 
of  Oklahoma.  Another  event,  of  spec- 
tacular character,  was  a  circumnaviga- 
tion of  the  globe  by  a  fleet  of  American 
battleships,  which  visited  all  the  leading 
ports  of  the  Pacific  and  returned  to 
Hampton  Roads,  February  22,  1909.  In 
1908  William  H.  Taft,  late  Secretary  of 
War,  was  nominated  as  the  Republican 
candidate  for  the  presidency,  elected  in 
November,  and  inaugurated  March  4, 1909. 
The  beginning  of  his  term  was  signalized 
by  a  special  session  of  Congress  and  the 
enactment  of  a  new  tariff  bill  making 
considerable  reductions  in  the  customs 
charges.  These  reductions  were  not  suf- 
ficient to  give  general  satisfactjlon.  Presi- 
dent Taft  was  an  advocate  of  several 
radical  measures,  one  of  these  being 
a  treaty  of  reciprocity  with  Canada, 
which  was  passed,  but  failed  to  meet  the 
approval  of  Canada.  The  formation  of  a 
new  party,  the  Progressive,  was  one  of 
the  notable  pi^jitlcal  events  of  1912,  and 
another  was  the  election  to  the  presidency 
of  Woodrow  Wilson,  a  Democrat  The 
chief  events  of  his  administration  were 
the  passage  of  a  lower  tariff  bill;  the 
reform  of  the  currency  system ;  measures 
regulating  corporations;  the  passage  of 
income  tax  and  popular  vote  for  senators' 
amendments  to  the  Constitution  and  semi- 
warlike  relations  with  Mexico. 

Wilson  was  re-elected  in  1916.  Ten- 
sion in  the  Mexican  situation  was  greatly 
increased  by  a  raid  into  American  terri- 
tory by  Villa,  a  Mexican  bandit,  and  a 
primitive  expedition  was  sent  into  Mex- 
ico and  the  niiobilization  of  practically  the 
eatire    national    guard,  on    the    border. 


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Vnited  States  XTnited  States 

Gennan  submarine  attacks  on  shipping  under  the  control  of  Herbert  C.  Hoover 
led  to  the  breaking  off  of  diplomatic  re-  and  Harry  A.  Garfield,  and  an  embargo  on 
lations  with  Germany  in  1917,  and  war  commerce  between  the  United  States  and 
was  threatened.  The  strength  of  the  the  neutral  nations  of  Northern  Europe 
army  was  increased  to  208,828  and  a  bill  which  had  been  supplying  Germany  with 
passed  for  large  increases  in  the  navy,  war  materials  purchasecT  in  the  United 
The  acquisition  of  the  Danish  West  In-  States.  In  October  a  second  Liberty 
dies  was  completed  in  1917.  Loan  was  negotiated,  the  large  sum  of 
When  the  second  term  of  Woodrow  about  $5,000,000,000  being  obtained  from 
Wilson  as  President  of  the  United  States  the  people  by  these  loans.  Congress  ad- 
began,  on  March  4,  1917,  the  relations  journed  on  October  6,  after  passinga  war 
between  this  country  and  Germany  had  loan  tax  estimated  to  yield  $2,53437(4000 
grown  seriously  strained  as  a  result  of  the  of  revenue,  chiefly  by  increased  levies 
relentless  U-boat  war  on  the  part  of  Ger-  upon  incomes  and  taxes  on  excess  war 
many.  It  was  growing  evident  that  an  profits.  It  also  included  an  increase  in 
overt  act  on  the  part  ot  the  latter  country  the  postal  rates,  stamps  on  chedu,  on  the- 
would  precipitate  war  between  the  two  nter  tickets,  travelers  tickets  and  various 
nations.  Diplomatic  relations  between  other  items  of  daily  use.  The  second  war 
these  countries  having  already  been  appropriation  of  Congress  in  1917  cov- 
broken,  only  open  hostilities  remained,  ered  the  large  total  of  $4,810,779,370,  of 
and  an  attack  on  the  liner  Lucania  by  which  $3,771,927,320  was  maae  available 
a  submarine  was  regarded  as  the  overt  for  immediate  use.  This  was  the  largest 
act  awaited.  Congress  was  at  once  called  appropriation  ever  made  in  the  United 
into  extra  session  and  on  April  4  and  5  States,  exceeding  by  more  than  S2,000,- 
the  two  Houses  decided  by  heavy  ma-  000,000  the  first  bill  passecl.  Tne  war 
jorities  that  a  *  state  of  war '  existed  be-  bond  bill  passed  by  Congress  on  Septem- 
tween  Germany  and  the  United  States,  ber  6  amounted  to  $11,538,945,460. 
This  action  threw  the  nation  into  a  state  When  Congress  came  again  into  session 
of  intense  activities  and  strenuous  prepa-  on  December  3,  its  first  act  was  to  declare 
rations,  for  hostile  relations  at  once  began,  war  against  Austria,  this  being  carried 
The  navy  was  immediately  mobilized,  90  with  only  one  dissenting  vote.  During 
German  vessels  in  American  ports  (620,-  the  war  a  number  of  munition  plants, 
0(X)  tons,  $148,000,(XX)  value)  were  taken  stores  of  materials,  vessels  laden  with  war 
over  by  the  government,  together  with  14  supplies,  etc.,  haa  beon  destroyed,  pre- 
Austrian  ships.  Active  financial  measures  sumably  by  spies,  and  it  became  necessary 
were  also  instituted,  consisting  in  a  reve-  to  take  steps  to  prevent  German  and  Aus- 
nue  bill  for  a  bond  issue  of  $5,(XX),0(X),000  trian  residents  in  this  country  from  work 
and  a  Liberty  Loan  for  public  subscrip-  of  this  kind  and  to  pass  stringent  laws 
tion  of  $2,(XX),(XX),(XX).  Of  the  sums  dealing  with  spies  and  alien  enemies, 
raised  $3,(X)0,(X)0,0()0  were  to  be  loaned  Aliens  were  not  permitted  upon  the  water 
to  the  European  allies  of  the  United  fronts  of  the  seaport  cities  unless  with 
States.  Other  steps  taken  in  war  prepa-  permits,  and  decisive  measures  were  taken 
ration  were  the  conscription  of  the  Na-  to  protect  all  depots  of  supplies.  The  in- 
tional  Guard  of  volunteer  soldiers  into  dustrial  staff  of  the  country  was  largely 
the  Federal  service  and  the  passage  of  a  employed  in  the  production  of  war  mate- 
Relective  conscription  bill,  covering  all  the  rials,  the  railroads  were  requisitioned  for 
young  men  of  the  nation  between  21  and  the  transportation  and  such  materials  and 
31  years  of  age.  Registration  for  this  all  the  products  of  the  country  held  sub- 
purpose  was  made  on  June  5,  1917,  the  ject  to  government  demands.  All  this 
number  registered  being  about  10,(XX),000.  led  to  a  large  increase  in  the  prices  of 
In  July  a  first  draft  was  made,  to  cover  food,  fuel  and  other  necessaries  of  life, 
an  army  of  over  600,0(X),  and  a  force  of  some  of  these  growing  very  scarce  and 
regulars  was  subseouently  sent  to  Prance,  dear,  while  the  railroad  service  became  so 
under  the  command  of  General  Pershing,  congested  that  on  December  28  the  Presi- 
late  commander  of  the  Villa  punitive  ex-  dent  took  possession  and  assumed  control 
pedition  to  Mexico.  This  force  was  at-  of  the  railroad  lines  of  the  country  and 
tacked  on  the  high  seas  by  German  sub-  the  systems  of  water  transportation  under 
marines,  but  reached  Europe  in  safety,  their  control.  William  G.  McAdoo  was 
Other  important  steps  taken  were  for  the  appointed  Director  General.  Meanwhile 
building  of  a  large  number  of  small  ves-  large  numbers  of  the  newly  organized 
sels,  fitted  to  cope  with  submarines,  and  army  were  transported  to  France  with- 
for  the  construction  of  20.(X)0  war  aero-  out  loss,  the  seas  in  the  danger  «one 
planes  for  field  service  at  the  seat  of  war.  being  patrolled  by  swift  destroyers.  The 
Bills  were  also  passed  for  the  regulation  new  recruits  were  put  under  intensive 
of  the  food  and  fuel  supply  of  the  country,  training  on  French  soil  and  before  the 


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V nited  States  V  nited  States 

year  ended  many  of  them  were  in  the  Si^oumey       (1791-1865) ;      the      sons- 

trenches,    getting    their    final    discipline  writers,     Francis     Scott     Key,     Samael 

under  the  guns  of  the  foe.     Their  pres-  Woodworth,  John  H.  Payne   (author  of 

ence  on  the  battlefield  and  a  large  increase  *  Home,    Sweet    Home '),    and    Stephen 

in  their  numbers  were  felt  to  be  absolutely  C.  Foster.     The  later  and  in  part  more 

necessary.      The    coal    situation    became  famous    names    are    John    G.    Whittier 

acute  at  the  end  of  1917  and  the  beginning  (1807-92),  Henry  W.  LongfeUow   (1807- 

of  1918,  and  to  relieve  it  the  President  or-  82),    £klgar    A.    Poe    (1808-49),    James 

dcrcd  cessation  of  general  industrira  for  a  Russell  Lowell    (1819-01 ) ,  Kalph  Waldo 

t>eriod  of  five  days  and  the  Monday  of  Emerson    (1803-82),   Oliver   W.   Holmes 

each  week  for  several  weeks.  (1809-94),    Wait    Whitman     (1819-92), 

Literaiure.—The  first  literary  work  of  Thomas   B.   Aldrich    (1836-1907),   Alice 

any   consequence   in   the    United    States  Cary  (1820-71),  and  others  of  later  date, 

was    a    translation    of   Ovid's   Metamor-  "^^e   prominent   novelists   include   James 

photes  by  George  Sandys,  written  in  Vir-  ^^l^"^^    ^^^.All^^^^\  u^*™« 

ginia    (1620)    and   published   in   London  ^*''^«  ,P«,Hyi?«,  J?J^^vV'-^^'  r^^'S?  i: 

'p'^\.^:  ^rr  ^'^^^^'  **;:  fiir7^o)^a^^^^^^ 

^/"^'n  ^^^^.u^^®  ^?V?22^«^'l  "^""^  ^4)  Harriet  Beecber  Stowe  (1811-96), 
of  John  Winthrop  (1588.1649),  gov-  and  Bayard  Taylor  (1825-78).  Those  of 
^^9.^^^^^^^***^***^^^'  ^y.?*^  Winslow  more  recent  date  include  WilUam  Dean 
(1595-1655),  governor  of  Plymouth  col-  Howells,  Francis  M.  Oawford,  Frances 
ony,  Nathaniel  Morton  (1613-85),  etc.,  H.  Burnett,  Henry  Jamen,  Georee  W. 
have  been  valuable  to  the  historian.  The  Cable,  Francis  Bret  Harte.  Mary  Is.  Mur- 
most  notable  ef  the  earlier  writers  were  free,  Frank  Stockton,  Louisa  Biay  Alcott, 
the  theologians,  such  as  Increase  and  etc.  There  are  also  many  writers  of  the 
Cotton  Mather,  Roger  Williams,  and  short  tale,  most  famous  among  them  being 
above  all  Jonathan  Edwards.  The  only  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  followed  by  others  too 
one  whose  writin^rs  are  still  read  to  any  numerous  to  mention.  Humorous  writers 
extent  was  Benjamin  Franklin,  whose  also  became  numerous,  the  most  famous 
Auiohiographv  and  Poor  Richard's  Al-  among  them  being  Washington  Irving, 
manao  are  the  only  popular  literature  James  Russell  Lowell,  Samuel  L.  Clemens 
remaining  from  the  colonial  period.  Tlie  (*Mark  Twain')  and  Charles  Farrar 
Bucceedinx  or  revolutionary  era  was  chiefly  Brown  (*  Artcmus  Ward  *) . 
remarkable  for  its  political  writers,  The  United  States  has  been  the  blrth- 
among  whom  were  James  Otis  (1725-83),  place  of  a  number  of  historians  of  su- 
Josiah  Quincy  (1744-75).  John  Adams  perior  merit,  chief  among  whom  are 
(1735-1826),  Thomas  Jefferson  (1743-  George  Bancroft  (1800-91),  John  Fiske 
1826).  Alexander  Hamilton  (1757-1804),  (1842-1901).  William  H.  Prescott  (1796- 
John  Jav  (1745-1829),  and  James  Madi-  1859),  George  Ticknor  (1791-1871), 
son  (1751-1836).  Of  historical  writings  John  Lothrop  Motley  (1814-77),  Francis 
belonging  to  this  period  there  were  the  Parkman  (1823-93),  Wood  row  Wilson 
Jlitiory  of  New  England  by  Hannah  (bom  1856),  John  Bach  McMaster  (bom 
Adams;  of  the  American  Revolution^  by  1852),  and  others.  Of  writers  who 
William  Gordon  and  David  Ramsay,  and  achieved  fame  in  other  fields  than  those 
the  Annals  of  Americat  by  Abiel  Holmes,  mentioned  may  be  named  Washington 
Philology  was  represented  at  this  time  by  Irving,  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  whose  Es- 
Lindley  Murray  (1745-1826),  and  by  says  are  oi  world-wide  fame;  Henry  D. 
Noah  Webster  (1758-1842),  the  compiler  Thoreau,  Bayard  Taylor,  William  Ellery 
of  a  famous  dictionary.  The  list  of  poets  Channing  and  George  W.  Curtis.  The 
includes  Philip  Freneau  (1752-18^^2),  orators  of  high  reputation  include  such 
John  Tmmbull  (1750-1831),  and  Joel  well-known  names  as  Patrick  Henry, 
Bariow  (1755-1812).  The  first  well-  Daniel  Webster,  Henry  Cloy,  John  C. 
known  novelist  was  Charles  Brockden  Calhoun,  Edward  Everett.  Wendell  Phil- 
Brown  (1771-1810).  lips,  Henry  Ward  Beecher  and  Charles 
It  was  not,  however,  until  the  nine-  Sumner.  This  compilation  of  names  is 
teenth  century  that  the  United  States  by  no  means  exhaustive,  and  there  are 
produced  the  higher  forms  of  pure  liters-  many  writers  of  recent  date  that  might 
ture.  The  poets  of  this  epoch  may  be  well  have  been  added,  but  the  list  given 
headed  by  William  CuUen  Bryant  (1794-  includes  the  most  famous  of  American 
1878),  and  following  him  come  Richard   literary  artists. 

H.  Dana    (1787-1879).  Charles  Spraguc  TTTiif^il  $iffif^s      Political  Develop- 
(1791-1875),  James  G.   Percival    (1795-    wiutcu  Oittics,     mknt  of  the.    The 
1856).    Joseph    R.    Drake    (1795-1820),   description  of  the  United   States  so  far 
Washington    Allston    (1779-1843),    Fite-   given   is   confined   to   its   natural   condf 
Greene   Halleck    (1790-1867),  and  Mrs.  tions   and  its  industrial,   historical  an4 


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literary  progress.  To  gain  a  fuller  idea 
of  its  progress  and  significance  as  a 
whole,  it  seems  desirable  to  speak  of  its 
political  development,  as  exemplified  in 
the  several  great  State  papers  which 
have  been  from  time  to  time  issued,  and 
which  have  few  counterparts  in  the  his- 
tory of  any  other  country.  The  United 
States  differs  from  republics  in  general 
in  the  fact  that  its  system  is  the  result  of 
a  nradual  evolution  instead  of  a  revo- 
lutionary overthrow,  as  in  the  case  of 
France;  or  of  imitation,  as  in  the  case 
of  the#  other  American  republics,  the 
governments  of  which  were  based  upon 
that  of  the  United  States.  The  repub- 
lic of  Switzerland  alone  resembles  that 
of  the  United  States  as  being  a  result  of 
political  evolution.  But  it  is  on  so  smaU 
a  scale  that  it  cannot  properly  be  com- 
pared to  the  giant  federal  organization 
of  the  United  States,  which  ranks  in 
size  with  the  greatest  of  the  world's  na- 
tions, covering  half  a  continent  The 
stages  by  which  the  organization  of  this 
great  government  was  reached  are  indi- 
cated in  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
the  Constitution,  and  the  other  great 
documents  which  appeared  from  time  to 
time,  each  as  the  outcome  of  a  period  of 
preceding  development  and  each  as  a 
stepping  stone  of  a  future  development 
in  the  great  problem  of  political  prog- 
ress. Tbis  country  has  been  democratic 
in  sentiment  from  its  origin  in  the  col- 
onies that  settled  at  successive  periods, 
along  the  Atlantic  coast,  their  people 
plainly  indicating  this  feeling,  and  resist- 
ing all  efforts  to  subject  them  to  the 
dominance  of  king  or  parliament  without 
due  representation.  They  insisted  on  hav- 
ing their  own  legialatnrea,  makinf  their 
own  laws,  imying  their  own  ofiicials,  and 
in  other  ways  maintaining  a  just  degree 
of  independence.  This  spirit  is  shown  in 
all  the  American  State  papers. 

At  a  very  early  date  in  the  history  of 
the  United  States,  that  on  which  the 
Pilgrims  sought  a  new  home  beyond  the 
seas  on  the  l^leak  New  England  shore, 
the  immigrants  gathered  In  the  cabin  of 
their  little  ship,  the  Mayflower,  and 
drew  up  for  themselves  a  compact  of 
government  in  which  they  determined  to 
make  their  own  laws  and  choose  their 
own  governors.  This  brief  declaration 
of  intentions,  dating  from  1620,  forms 
the  first  chapter  in  the  great  volume  of 
documentary  American  historv,  and  we 
give  it  here  as  the  genesis  of  American 
political  progress. 

THE  MAYFLOWER  COMPACT 
In    the    name    of    God,    Amen:    We, 
whose    names    are     underwritten,     the 


loyall  subjects  of  our  dread  Soveraiane 
Lord  King  James,  by  ye  grace  of  God 
of  Great  Britaine.  France,  and  Ireland, 
King,  defender  of  ye  faitn,  &c.«  having 
undertaken,  for  ye  glorie  of  God  and  ad- 
vancement of  ye  Christian  faith,  and 
honour  of  our  King  and  countrie,  a  voy- 
age to  plant  the  first  colony  in  ye  North- 
erne  parts  of  Virginia,  doe  by  these 
presents  solemnly  and  mutually  in  ye 
presence  of  God  and  one  of  another, 
covenant  and  combine  ourselves  together 
into  a  civill  body  politick,  for  our  better 
ordering  and  preservatione  and  further- 
ance of  ye  ends  aforesaid ;  and  by  vertue 
hereof  to  enact,  constitute,  and  frame 
such  just  and  equall  lawes,  ordinances, 
acts,  constitutions,  and  oflSces,  from  time 
to  time,  as  shall  be  thought  most  meete 
and  convenient  for  ye  generall  good  of 
ye  colonie,  unto  which  we  promise  all 
due  submission  and  obedience.  In  wit- 
ness whereof  we  have  hereunto  sub- 
scribed our  names.  Cape  Cod  11  of  No- 
vember,  in  the  yeare  of  the  raigne  of 
our  Soveraigne  Lord  King  James  of 
Englandj  France^  and  Ireland  18  and  of 
Scotland  54.    Anno  Domini,  1620. 

Passing  onward  down  the  road  of  de- 
velopment, it  is  proper  to  sute  that  Vir- 
ginia had  already  a  legislature  of  its  own 
election,  though  under  a  governor  ap- 
pointed by  the  king.  The  New  England 
colonies  went  farther,  electing  their  own 
legislatures  and  governors  and  making 
their  own  laws,  so  that  from  their  origin 
they  were  practically  republics,  their  alle- 
giance to  the  distant  kin^  being  one 
rather  of  formality  than  of  submission. 
In  1689  the  New  Haven  colony  became  so 
liberal  as  to  give  all  freemen  the  right  to 
vote,  embodying  this  principle  in  a  writ- 
ten instrument,  the  first  known  in  his- 
tory drawn  up  by  a  people  for  their  own 
government.  The  document  made  no 
mention  of  the  English  king  or  com- 
pany, and  was  in  effect  the  constitution 
of  a  separate  republic  In  1043  a  step 
was  taken  towards  the  formation  of  a 
federal  republic,  the  colonies  of  Ply- 
mouth, Massachusetts,  Connecticut  and 
New  Haven  forming  a  confederation  for 
defense  against  the  Dutch  and  Indians. 
This  they  called  'The  United  Colonies 
of  New  England.' 

The  time  came  when  it  appeared  de- 
sirable to  combine  all  the  colonies  for 
defensive  purposes,  and  in  1754  a  con- 
vention was  held  in  Albany  in  which 
the  question  of  a  general  union  was 
brought  forward.  Of  the  several  plans 
offered  that  of  Benjamin  Franklin  was 
adopted.  It  provided  for  a  union  of  the 
colonies    under    the    following    terms: 


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FrankUn  susgested  that  Philadelphia, 
the  most  central  laiise  city,  should  be 
the  capital  of  the  united  colonies.  The 
foverament  sitting  here  was  to  consist 
of  a  grand  council,  elected  every  third 
year  by  the  colonies,  but  holding  yearly 
meetings,  with  a  governor-general  ap- 
pointed by  the  kinf  with  power  of  veto 
over  all  laws.  This  government  was  to 
have  the  power  to  make  general  laws, 
levy  taxes,  regulate  commerce  and  per- 
form other  governmental  duties.  This 
governmental  scheme  proved  in  advance 
of  the  times  and  was  rejected,  the  colo- 
nies thinking  that  it  took  too  much  power 
from  them  to  give  it  to  the  general  gov- 
ernment, the  king  that  it  gave  too  much 
power  to  the  colonies. 

The  first  colonial  congress  held  in 
America  was  that  known  as  the 
'SUmp  Act  Congress,'  held  at  New 
York  in  1765,  and  composed  of  dele- 
gates from  nine  of  the  colonies,  its  pur- 
pose being  to  consider  the  threatening 
relations  between  the  Parliament  of 
Britain  and  the  colonies  of  America. 
It  made  an  appeal  to  the  king  for 
American  rights.  In  1774  the  idea  of 
colonial  union  had  further  advanced  and 
the  *  First  Continental  Congress '  met 
in  Philadelphia,  all  the  colonies  but 
Georgia  being  represented.  It  also  peti- 
tioned the  king  to  redress  the  wrongs 
of  the  colonists,  and  drew  up  a  declara- 
tion of  rights.  It  did  not  ask  for 
American  representation  in  Parliament, 
but  demanded  the  right  to  make  all  laws, 
except  those  relating  to  foreign  com- 
merce, and  to  levy  all  taxes  needed  for 
colonial  uses.  In  1775  the  *  Second 
Continental  Congress '  met,  with  delegates 
from  all  the  colonies.  This  issued  a 
'Declaration  of  Colonial  Rights,'  and  on 
July  4,  1776,  a  'Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence.' This  famous  paper,  with 
which  the  history  of  the  United  States 
began,  is  here  given. 

THE     DECLARATION     OF     INDE- 
PENDENCE 

IN  C0NGBES8  JULY  4,   1776. 

The  unanimous  declaration  of  the 
thirteen  United  States  of  America. 
When  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it 
becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to  dis- 
solve the  political  bands  which  have 
connected  them  with  another,  and  to  as- 
sume among  the  powers  of  the  earth  the 
separate  and  equal  station  to  which  the 
Laws  of  Nature  and  of  Nature's  God 
entitles  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the 
opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they 
should  declare  the  causes  w^ch  impel 
^em  to  the  separation. 


We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self- 
evident,  that  all  men  are  crtated  equal, 
that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator 
with  certain  unalienable  Rights,  that 
among  these  are  Life,  Liberty  and  the 
pursuit  of  Happiness.  That  to  secure 
these  rights.  Governments  are  instituted 
among  Men,  deriving  their  just  powers 
from  the  consent  of  the  governed.  That 
whenever  any  Form  of  Government  be- 
comes destructive  of  these  ends,  it  is  the 
Right  of  the  People  to  alter  or  to  abol- 
ish it,  and  to  institute  new  Government, 
laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles 
and  organizing  its  powers  in  subh  form, 
as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to 
effect  their  Safetv  and  Happiness.  Pru- 
dence, indeed,  will  dictate  that  Govern- 
ments long  established  should  not  be 
changed  for  light  and  transient  causes; 
and  accordingly  all  experience  hath 
shown,  that  mankind  are  more  disposed 
to  suflter,  while  evils  are  sufferable,  than 
to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the 
forms  to  which  they  are  accustomed. 
But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and 
usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the 
same  Object,  evinces  a  design  to  reduce 
them  under  absolute  Despotism,  it  is 
their  right,  it  is  their  duty,  to  throw 
off  such  Government,  and  to  provide 
new  Guards  for  their  future  security.^ 
Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of 
these  Colonies;  and  such  is  now  the 
necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter 
their  former  Systems  of  Government 
The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great 
Britain  is  a  history  of  repeated  injuries 
and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  ob- 
ject the  establishment  of  an  absolute 
Tyranny  over  these  States,  To  prove 
this,  let  Facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid 
world. 

He  has  refused  his  Assent  to  Laws, 
the  most  wholesome  and  necessary  for 
the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  Governors  to 
pass  Laws  of  immediate  and  pressing 
importance,  unless  suspended  in  their 
operation  till  his  Assent  should  be  ob- 
tained; and  when  so  susnended,  he  has 
utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  Laws  for 
the  accommodation  of  large  districts  of 
people,  unless  those  people  would  re- 
linquish the  right  of  Representation  in 
the  Legislature,  a  right  inestimable  to 
them  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies 
at  places  unusual,  uncomfortable,  and 
distant  from  the  depositorv  of  their  pub- 
lic Records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
fatiguing  them  into  compliance  with  his 
measures. 


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He      has      dissolved      Representativefundamentally  the  Forms  of  our  Govern- 

Houses    repeatedly,    for    opposing    with  ments: 

manly  firmness  his  invasions  on  the  rights  For  suspending  our  own  Legislaturea 

of  the  people.  and    declaring   themselves   invested   witE 

He  has  refused  for  a  long  time,  after  power   to   legislate  for   us   in   all   case« 

such    dissolutions,    to    cause    others    to  whatsoever. 

be  elected ;  whereby  the  Liegislative  pow-  He  has  abdicated  Government  here,  by 

ers,  incapable  of  Annihilation,  have  re-  declaring  us  out  of  his  Protection  an4 

turned  to  the  People  at  lar^e  for  their  waging  War  against  us. 

exercise;    the    State    remainii^    in    the  He  has   plundered   our  seas,   ravage^ 

meantime  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of  our  Coasts,   burnt   our   towns,   and   de^ 

invasion   from   without,  and  convulsions  stroyed  the  lives  of  our  people, 

within.  He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  pop-  Armies  of  foreign   Mercenaries  to  com; 

ulation  of  these  States;  for  that  purpose  plete  the  works  of  death,  desolation  an^ 

obstructing  the  Laws  for  Naturalhsation  tyranny,    already    begun    with    circum 

of  Foreigners,  refusing  to  pass  others  to  stances  of  Cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely 

encourage    their   migrations   hither,    and  paralleled   in    the   most   barbarous   ages, 

raising  the  conditions  of  new  Appropria-  and    totally    unworthy    the    Head    of   a 

tions  of  Lands.  civilized  nation. 

He  has  obstructed  the  Administration  He  has  constrained  our  fellow-Citizena 

of   Justice,    by    refusing    his    Assent    to  taken  captive  on  the  high  Seas  to  beat 

Laws  for  establishing  Judiciary  Powers.  Arms  against  their  Country,  to  become 

He  has  made  Judges  dependent  on  his  the    executioners    of    their    friends    an^ 

Will  alone,  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices.  Brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves  by  theii 

and   the  amount  and   payment  of  their  Hands, 

salaries.  He  has  excited  domestic  insurrectioni 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  New  among  us,  and  has  endeavored  to  bring 

Offices,     and     sent     hither     swarms     of  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers,  th« 

Officers  to  harass  our  people,  and  eat  out  merciless  Indian   Savages,  whose  known 

their  substance.  rule  of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished  dci 

He  has   kept  among  us,  in  times  of  struction  of  all  ages,  sexes  and  condi* 

peace.  Standing  Armies  without  the  Con-  tions. 

sent  of  our  legislature.  In  every   stage  of  these   Oppressions 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  Military  We  have  Petitioned  for  Redress  in  the 
independent  of  and  superior  to  the  Civil  most  humble  terms.  Our  repeated  Petf^ 
power.  tions  have  been  answered  only  by  re- 
He  has  combined  with  others  to  sub-  peated  injury.  A  Prince,  whose  character 
ject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign  to  our  is  thus  Marked  bv  every  act  which  may 
constitution,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  define  a  Tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler 
laws;  giving  his  Assent  to  their  Acts  of  of  a  free  people, 
pretended  Legislation:  Nor  have  We  been  wanting  in  atten- 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  tions  to  our  British  brethren.     We  have 

troops  among  us.  warned  them  from  time  to  time  of  at- 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  Trial,  tempts  by  their  legislature  to  extend  an 

from  punishment  for  any  Murders  which  unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.     We 

they   should  commit  on   the  Inhabitants  have     reminded     them     of    the    circum- 

of  these  States:  stances  of  our  emigration  and  settlement 

For   cutting   off   our  Trade   with   all  here.     We  have  appealed  to  their  native 

parts  of  the  world:  justice  and  magnanimity,   and   we  have 

For  imposing  Taxes  on  us  without  our  conjured  them  by  the  ties  of  our  com- 

Consent:  mon    kindred    to   disavow   these   usurpa- 

For  depriving  us  in  many  cases  of  the  tions,  which   would   inevitably   interrupt 

benefits  of  Trial  by  jury:  our     connections     and     correspondence. 

For  transporting  us  beyond  Seas  to  be  They  too  have  been  deaf  to   the  voice 

tried  for  pretended  offences:  of    justice    and    of    consanguinity.     We 

For  abolishing  the  free  System  of  Eng-  must  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity 

lish    Laws    in    a    neighboring    Province,  which    denounces    our    Separation,    and 

establishing    therein    an    Arbitrary    gov-  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  man- 

emment,    and    enlarging    its    Boundaries  kind.  Enemies  in  War,  in  Peace  Friends, 

so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an  example  and  We,  therefore,  the  Representatives 

fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same  of  the  United  States  or  America,  in 

absolute  rule  into  these  Colonies:  GfiNERAL    Congress    Assembled,  appeal- 

For  taking  away  our  Charters,  abolish-  ing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world 

ing  our  most  valuable  Laws,  and  altering  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in 


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the  Name,  and  by  authority  of  the  good 
People  of  these  Colonies,  solemnly  Pub- 
USH  and  VVCLASM,  That  these  United 
Colonies  are,  and  of  Bight  ought  to  be 
Fbeb  Ain)  INDKPENDIITT  States;  that 
they  are  Absolved  from  all  Allegiance  to 
the  British  Crown,  and  that  all  political 
connection  between  them  and  the  State 
of  Great  Britain,  is  and  ought  to  be 
totally  dissolved;  and  that  as  Fbcb  and 
Independent  States,  they  have  full 
Power  to  levy  War,  conclude  Peace,  con- 
tract Alliances,  establish  Commerce,  and 
to  do  all  other  Acts  and  Things  which 
Independent  States  may  of  right  do. 
And  for  the  support  of  this  Declaration, 
with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of 
Divine  Providence,  We  mutually  pledge 
to  each  other  our  Lives,  our  Fortunes, 
find  our  sacred  Honor. 

In  this  notable  paper  the  colonies 
united  in  declaring  their  independence 
from  Great  Britain,  but  they  were  still 
separate  commonwealths,  though  fighting 
together  for  one  general  object.  Some- 
thing rarther  was  needed.  In  the  Decla- 
ration they  called  themselves  simply 
'  Free  and  Independent  States.'  If  they 
were  to  be  'United  States'  a  great 
further  step  in  political  evolution  was 
needed.  To  win  their  independence  an 
actual  Union  appeared  necessary,  and  on 
July  11,  1776,  the  Continental  Congress 
appointed  a  committee  to  draw  up  a 
form  of  confederation  for  the  States. 
This  was  completed  and  signed  July  % 
1778,  but  its  ratification  was  made  gradu- 
allv  by  the  several  States,  Maryland 
being  the  last  to  accept  it  (January  80, 
1781).  The  first  Congress  under  the  con- 
federation met  on  March  2,  1781.  This 
first  form  of  a  United  States  Constitution 
is  of  much  importance  as  a  step  forward 
towards  a  firm  and  durable  Union.  It 
is  here  appended: 

THE    ARTICLES    OF   CONFEDERA- 
TION 

Abtioles  op  Confederation  and  Per- 
petual Union  between  the  States 
OF  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts 
Bat,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence 
Plantations,  Connecticut,  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Dela- 
ware, Maryland,  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia. 

Article  I,  The  style  of  this  Con- 
federacy shall  be,  'The  United  States  of 
America.' 

Artide  11.    Each     State     retains     its 


sovereignty,  freedom,  and  independence, 
and  every  power,  jurisdiction,  and  right, 
which  is  not  bv  this  Confederation  ex- 
pressly delegated  to  the  United  States  in 
Ck)ngress  assembled. 

Artide  IIL  The  said  States  hereby 
severally  enter  into  a  firm  league  of 
friendship  with  each  other,  for  their  com- 
mon defence,  the  security  of  their  liber- 
ties, and  their  mutual  and  general  wel- 
fare, binding  themselves  to  assist  each 
other  against  all  force  offered  to,  or  at- 
tacks made  upon  them,  or  any  of  tftem, 
on  account  of  religion,  sovereignty,  trade, 
or  any  other  pretence  whatever. 

Artide  IV.  The  better  to  secure  and 
perpetuate  mutual  friendship  and  inter- 
course among  the  people  of  the  different 
States  in  this  Union,  the  free  inhabit- 
ants of  each  of  these  States,  paupers, 
vagabonds,  and  fugitives  from  justice  ex- 
cepted, shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges 
and  immunities  of  free  citizens  in  the 
several  States;  and  the  people  of  each 
State  shall  have  free  ingress  and  egress  to 
and  from  any  other  State,  and  shall  enjoy 
therein  all  the  privileges  of  trade  and 
commerce  subject  to  the  same  duties,  im- 
positions, and  restrictions  as  the  inhabit- 
ants thereof  respectively;  provided  that 
such  restrictions  shall  not  extend  so  far 
as  to  prevent  the  removal  of  property 
imported  into  any  State  to  any  other 
State  of  which  the  owner  is  an  inhabit- 
ant; provided  also,  that  no  imposition, 
duties,  or  restriction  shall  be  hiid  by  any 
State  on  the  property  of  the  United 
States  or  either  of  them.  If  any  person 
guilty  of,  or  charged  with,  treason,  fel- 
ony, or  other  high  misdemeanor  in  any 
State  shall  flee  from  justice  and  be  found 
in  any  of  the  United  States,  he  shall, 
upon  demand  of  the  governor  or  execu- 
tive power  of  the  State  from  which  he 
fled,  be  delivered  up  and  removed  to  the 
State  having  jurisdiction  of  his  offence. 
Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in 
each  of  these  States  to  the  records,  acts, 
and  judicial  proceedings  of  the  courts 
and  magistrates  of  every  other  State. 

Article  V.  For  the  more  convenient 
management  of  the  general  interests  of 
the  United  States,  delegates  shall  be  an- 
nually appointed  in  such  manner  as  the 
Legislature  of  each  State  shall  direct,  to 
meet  in  Congress  on  the  first  Monday  in 
November,  in  every  year,  with  a  power 
reserved  to  each  State  to  recall  its  dele- 
gates, or  any  of  them,  at  any  time 
within  the  year,  and  to  send  others  in 
their  stead  for  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
No  State  shall  be  represented  in  Con- 
gress by  less  than  two,  nor  by  more  than 
seven  members;  and  no  person  shall  be 


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capable  of  being  a  delegate  for  more  than 
three  years  in  any  term  of  six  years ;  nor 
shall  any  person,  being  a  delegate,  be 
capable  of  holding  any  office  under  the 
United  States  for  which  he,  or  another 
for  his  benefit,  receives  any  salary,  fees, 
or  emolument  of  any  kind.  Each  State 
shall  maintain  its  own  delegates  in  any 
meeting  of  the  States  and  while  they  act 
as  members  of  the  Committee  of  the 
States.  In  determining  questions  in  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled, 
each  State  shall  have  one  vote.  Freedom 
of  speech  and  debate  in  Congress  shall 
not  oe  impeached  or  questioned  in  any 
court  or  place  out  of  Congress;  and  the 
members  of  Congress  shall  be  protected 
in  their  persons  from  arrests  and  im- 
prisonments during  the  time  of  their  go- 
ing to  and  from,  and  attendance  on.  Con- 
gress, except  for  treason*  felony,  or 
breach  of  the  peace. 

Article  VL  No  State,  without  the 
consent  of  the  United  States  in  Coiyress 
assembled,  shall  send  any  embassy  to.  or 
receive  any  embassy  from,  or  enter  into 
aiiy  conference,  agreement,  alliance,  or 
treaty  with  any  king,  prince,  or  state; 
nor  shall  any  person  holding  any  office 
of  profit  or  trust  under  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them,  accept  of  any 
present,  emolument,  office,  or  title  of  any 
kind  whatever  from  any  king,  prince,  or 
foreign  state;  nor  shall  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled,  or  any  of 
them,  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  two  or  more  States  shall  enter  int* 
any  treaty,  confederation,  or  alliance 
whatever  between  them,  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  United  States  in  Congress 
assembled,  specifying  accurately  the  pur- 
poses for  which  the  same  is  to  be  entered 
Into,  and  how  long  it  shall  continue. 

No  State  shall  lay  any  imposts  or 
duties  which  may  interfere  with  any  stip- 
ulations in  treaties  entered  into  by  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled 
with  any  king,  prince,  or  state,  in  pur- 
suance of  any  treaties  already  proposed 
by  Congress  to  the  courts  of  France  and 
Spain. 

No  vessel  of  war  shall  be  kept  up  in 
lime  of  peace  by  any  State,  except  such 
number  only  as  shall  be  deemed  neces- 
sary bv  the  United  States  in  Congress 
assembled  for  the  defence  of  such  State 
or  its  trade,  nor  shall  any  body  of  forces 
be  kept  up  by  anv  State  in  time  of  peace, 
except  such  number  only  as,  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  United  States  in  Congress 
assembled  shall   be  deemed   requisite   to 

?:arrison  the  forts  necessary  for  the  de- 
ence   of   such   State;    but   every    State 
shall  always  keep   up  a   well-regulated 


and  disciplined  militia,  sufficiently  armed 
and  accoutred,  and  shall  provide  and  con- 
stantly have  ready  for  use  in  public 
stores  a  due  number  of  field-pieces  and 
tents,  and  a  proper  quantity  of  arms, 
ammunition,  and  camp  equipage. 

No  State  shall  engage  in  any  war 
without  the  consent  of  the  United  States 
in  Congress  assembled,  unless  such  State 
be  actually  invaded  by  enemies,  or  shall 
have  received  certain  advice  of  a  resolu- 
tion bein^  formed  by  some  nation  of  In- 
dians to  invade  such  State,  and  the  dan- 
ger is  so  imminent  as  not  to  admit  of 
a  delay  till  the  United  Sutes  in  Congress 
assembled  can  be  consulted;  nor  shall 
any  State  grant  commissions  to  any  ships 
or  vessels  of  war,  nor  letters  of  marque 
or  reprisal,  except  it  be  after  a  declara- 
tion of  war  by  the  United  States  in 
Congress  assembled,  and  then  only 
against  the  kingdom  or  state,  and  the 
subjects  thereof,  against  which  war  has 
been  so  declared,  and  under  such  regula- 
tions as  shall  be  established  by  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled,  unless  such 
State  be  infested  by  pirates,  in  which  case 
vessels  of  war  may  be  fitted  out  for  that 
occasion,  and  kept  so  long  as  the  danger 
shall  continue,  or  until  the  United  States 
in  Congress  assembled  shaU  determine 
otherwise. 

Article  VIL  When  land  forces  are 
raised  bv  any  State  for  the  common  de- 
fence, all  officers  of  or  under  the  rank 
of  Colonel  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Leg- 
islature of  each  State  respectively  by 
whom  such  forces  shall  be  raised,  or  in 
such  manner  as  such  State  shall  direct, 
and  all  vacancies  shall  be  filled  up  by 
the  State  which  first  made  the  appoint- 
ment 

Article  VIII.  All  charges  of  war,  and 
all  other  expenses  that  shall  be  incurred 
for  the  common  defence,  or  general  wel- 
fare, and  allowed  by  the  United  States 
in  Congress  assembled,  shall  be  defrayed 
out  of  a  common  treasury,  which  shall 
be  supplied  by  the  several  States  in  pro- 
portion to  the  value  of  all  land  within 
each  State,  granted  to,  or  surveyed  for, 
any  person,  as  such  land  and  the  build- 
ings and  improvements  thereon  shall  be 
estimated,  according  to  such  mode  as  the 
United  States  in  Congress  assembled 
shall,  from  time  to  time,  direct  and  ap- 
point The  taxes  for  paying  that  pro- 
portion shall  be  laid  and  levied  by  the 
authority  and  direction  of  the  L^isla- 
tures  of  the  several  States,  within  the 
time  agreed  upon  by  the  United  States 
in  Congress  assembled. 

Article  IX.  The  United  States  in 
Congress  assembled  shall  have  tbe  mI; 


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and  exclusive  right  and  power  of  deter- 
mining on  peace  and  war,  except  in  the 
cases  mentioned  in  the  sixth  Article;  of 
sending  and  receiving  ambassadors; 
entering  into  treaties  and  alliances,  pro- 
vided that  no  treaty  of  commerce  shall 
be  made,  whereby  the  legislative  power 
of  the  respective  States  shall  be  re- 
strained from  imposing  such  imposts  and 
duties  on  foreigners  as  their  own  people 
are  subjected  to,  or  from  prohibiting  the 
exportation  or  importation  of  any  species 
of  goods  or  commodities  whatever;  of 
establishing  rules  for  deciding,  in  all 
cases,  what  captures  on  land  or  water 
shall  be  legal,  and  in  what  manner  prizes 
taken  by  land  or  naval  forces  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  United  States  shall  be  divided 
or  appropriated;  of  i^ranting  letters  of 
marque  and  reprisal  in  times  of  peace; 
appointing  courts  for  the  trial  of  piracies 
and  felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas: 
and  establishing  courts  for  receiving  and 
determining  finally  appeals  in  all  cases  of 
captures;  provided  that  no  member  of 
Congress  shall  be  appointed  a  judge  of 
any  of  the  said  courts. 

The  United  States  in  Congress  as- 
sembled shall  also  be  the  last  resort  on 
appeal  in  all  disputes  and  differences  now 
subsisting,  or  that  hereafter  may  arise 
between  two  or  more  States  concerning 
boundary,  jurisdiction,  or  any  other  cause 
whatever;  which  authority  shall  always 
be  exercised  in  the  manner  following: 
Whenever  the  legislative  or  executive 
authority,  or  lawful  agent  of  any  State 
in  controversy  with  another,  shall  pre- 
sent a  petition  to  Congress,  stating  the 
matter  in  question,  and  praying  for  a 
hearing,  notice  thereof  shall  be  given  by 
order  of  Congress  to  the  legislative  op 
executive  authority  of  the  other  State  in 
controversy,  and  a  day  assigned  for  the 
appearance  of  the  parties  by  their  law- 
ful agents,  who  shall  then  be  directed  to 
appoint,  by  joint  consent,  commissioners 
or  judges  to  constitute  a  court  for  hear- 
ing and  determining  the  matter  in  ques- 
tion; but  if  they  cannot  agree.  Congress 
shall  name  three  persons  out  of  each  of 
the  United  States,  and  from  the  list  of 
such  persons  each  party  shall  alternately 
strike  out  one,  the  petitioners  beginning, 
until  the  number  shall  be  reduced  to 
thirteen ;  and  from  that  number  not  less 
than  seven  nor  more  than  nine  names,  as 
Congress  shall  direct,  shall,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Congress,  be  drawn  out  by  lot; 
and  the  persons  whose  names  shall  be  so 
drawn,  or  any  five  of  them,  shall  be 
commissioners  or  jndges,  to  hear  and 
finally  determine  the  controversy,  so 
always  as  a  major  part  of  the  judges  who 


shall  hear  the  cause  shall  agree  in  the 
determination;  and  if  either  party  shall 
neglect  to  attend  at  the  da^  appointed, 
without  showing  reasons  which  Congress 
shall  judge  sufficient,  or  being  present, 
shall  refuse  to  strike,  the  Congress  shall 
proceed  to  nominate  three  persons  out  of 
each  State,  and  the  secretary  of  Congress 
shall  strike  in  behalf  of  such  party  alh 
sent  or  refusing;  and  the  judgment  and 
sentence  of  the  court,  to  be  appointed  in 
the  manner  before  prescribed,  shall  be 
final  and  conclusive;  and  if  any  of  the 
parties  shall  refuse  to  submit  to  the  au- 
thoritv  of  such  court,  or  to  appear  or 
defend  their  claim  or  cause,  the  court 
shall  nevertheless  proceed  to  pronounce 
sentence  or  judgment,  which  shall  in  like 
manner  be  final  and  decisive;  the  judg- 
ment OP  sentence  and  other  proceedings 
being  in  either  case  transmitted  to  Con- 
gress, and  lodged  among  the  acts  of 
Congress  for  the  security  of  the  parties 
concerned;  provided,  that  every  commis- 
sioner, before  he  sits  in  judgment,  shall 
take  an  oath,  to  be  administered  by*  one 
of  the  judges  of  the  supreme  or  superior 
court  of  the  State  where  the  cause  shall 
be  tried,  *  well  and  truly  to  hear  and  de- 
termine the  matter  in  question,  accord- 
ing to  the  best  of  his  judgment,  without 
favor,  affection,  or  hope  of  reward.'  Pro- 
vided, also,  that  no  State  shall  be  de- 
prived of  territory  for  the  benefit  of  the 
United  States. 

All  controversies  concerning  the  pri- 
vate right  of  soil  claimed  under  different 
grants  of  two  or  more  States,  whose 
jurisdictions,  as  they  may  respect  such 
lands,  and  the  States  which  passed  such 
grants  are  adjusted,  the  said  grants  or 
either  of  them  being  at  the  same  time 
claimed  to  have  originated  antecedent  to 
such  settlement  of  jurisdiction,  shall,  on 
the  petition  of  either  party  to  the  Con- 
gress of  the  United  States,  be  finally  de- 
termined, as  near  as  may  be,  in  the  same 
manner  as  is  before  prescribed  for  de- 
ciding disputes  respecting  territorial 
jurisdiction  between  different   States. 

The  United  States  in  Congress  as- 
sembled shall  also  have  the  sole  and  ex- 
clusive right  and  power  of  regulating 
the  alloy  and  value  of  coin  struck  by 
their  own  authority,  or  by  that  of  the 
respective  States;  fixing  the  standard  of 
weights  and  measures  throughout  the 
United  States;  regulating  the  trade  and 
managing  all  affairs  with  the  Indians, 
not  members  of  any  of  the  States:  pro- 
vided that  the  legislative  right  of  any 
State,  within  its  own  limits,  be  not  in- 
fringed or  violated;  establishing  and 
regulating  post-offices  from  one  State  tD 


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another,     throughout     all     the     United 
States,  and  exacting  such  postage  on  the 

gapers  passing  through  the  same  as  may 
e  requisite  to  defray  the  expenses  of 
the  said  office;  appointing  all  officers  of 
the  land  forces  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States,  excepting  regimental 
officers;  appointing  all  the  officers  of  the 
naval  forces,  and  conmiissioning  all 
officers  whatever  in  the  service  of  the 
United  States;  making  rules  for  the  gov- 
ernment and  regulation  of  the  said  land 
and  naval  forces,  and  directing  their 
operations. 

The  United  States  in  Congress  as- 
sembled shall  have  authority  to  appoint 
a  committee,  to  sit  in  the  recess  of  Con- 
gress, to  be  denominated  *a  Committee 
of  the  States,*  and  to  consist  of  one  dele- 
gate from  each  State,  and  to  appoint 
such  other  committees  and  civil  officers 
as  mav  be  necessary  for  managing  the 
general  affairs  of  the  United  States 
under  their  direction;  to  appoint  one  of 
their  number  to  preside;  provided  that 
no  person  be  allowed  to  serve  in  the 
office  of  president  more  than  one  year  in 
any  term  of  three  years ;  to  ascertain  the 
necessary  sums  of  money  to  be  raised  for 
the  service  of  the  United  States,  and  to 
appropriate  and  apply  the  same  for  de- 
fraying the  public  expenses;  to  borrow 
money  or  emit  bills  on  the  credit  of  the 
United  States,  transmitting  every  half 
year  to  the  respective  States  an  account 
of  the  sums  of  money  so  borrowed  or 
emitted;  to  build  and  equip  a  navy;  to 
agree  upon  the  number  of  land  forces, 
and  to  make  requisitions  from  each  State 
for  its  quota,  in  proportion  to  the  num- 
ber of  white  inhabitants  in  each  State, 
which  requisition  shall  be  binding;  and 
thereupon  the  Legislature  of  each  State 
shall  appoint  the  regimental  officers, 
raise  the  men,  and  clothe,  arm,  and 
equip  them  in  a  soldier-like  manner,  at 
the  expense  of  the  United  States;  and 
the  officers  and  men  so  clothed,  armed, 
and  equipped  shall  march  to  the  place 
appointed,  and  within  the  time  agreed 
on  by  the  United  States  in  Congress  as- 
sembled; but  if  the  United  States  in 
Congress  assembled  shall,  on  considera- 
tion of  circumstances,  judge  proper  that 
any  State  should  not  raise  men,  or 
should  raise  a  smaller  number  than  its 
quota,  and  that  any  other  State  should 
raise  a  greater  number  of  men  than  the 
quota  thereof,  such  extra  number  shall 
be  raised,  officered,  clothed,  armed,  and 
equipped  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
quota  of  such  State,  unless  the  Legisla- 
ture of  such  State  shall  judge  that  such 
extra  number  cannot  be  safely  spared 
put  9f  the  same.  In  which  c^se  they  shall 


raise,  officer,  clothe,  arm,  and  equip  as 
many  of  such  extra  number  as  they 
judge  can  be  safely  spared,  and  the  offi- 
cers and  men  so  clothed,  armed,  and 
equipped  shall  march  to  the  place  ap- 
pointed, and  within  the  time  agreed  on 
by  the  United  States  in  Congress  as- 
sembled. 

The  United  States  in  Congress  as- 
sembled shall  never  engage  in  a  war, 
nor  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal 
in  time  of  peace,  nor  enter  into  any 
treaties  or  alliances,  nor  coin  money,  nor 
regulate  the  value  thereof,  nor  ascertain 
the  sums  and  expenses  necessary  for  the 
defence  and  welfare  of  the  United  States, 
or  any  of  them,  nor  emit  bills,  nor  bor- 
row money  on  the  credit  of  the  United 
States,  nor  appropriate  money,  nor 
agree  upon  the  number  of  vessels  of  war 
to  be  built  or  purchased,  or  the  number 
of  land  or  sea  forces  to  be  raised,  nor 
appoint  a  commander-in-chief  of  the 
armv  or  navy,  unless  nine  States  assent 
to  the  same,  nor  shall  a  question  on  any 
other  point,  except  for  adjourning  from 
day  to  day,  be  determined,  unless  by  the 
votes  of  a  majority  of  the  United  States 
in  Congress  assembled. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States 
shall  have  power  to  adjourn  to  any  time 
within  the  year,  and  to  any  place  within 
the  United  States,  so  that  no  period  of 
adjournment  be  for  a  longer  duration 
than  the  space  of  six  months,  and  shall 
publish  the  journal  of  their  proceeding^ 
monthly,  except  such  parts  thereof  rela- 
ting to  treaties,  alliances,  or  military 
operations  as  in  their  judgment  require 
secrecy ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the 
delegates  of  each  State,  on  any  question, 
shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  when  it 
is  desired  by  any  delegate;  and  the  dele- 
gates of  a  State,  or  any  of  them,  at  his 
or  their  request,  shall  be  furnished  with 
a  transcript  of  the  said  journal  except 
such  parts  as  are  above  excepted,  to  lay 
before  the  Legislatures  of  the  several 
States. 

Article  X,  The  Committee  of  the 
States,  or  any  nine  of  them,  shall  be 
authorized  to  execute,  in  the  recess  of 
Congress,  such  of  the  powers  of  Con- 
gress as  the  United  States  in  Congress 
assembled,  by  the  consent  of  nine  States, 
shall,  from  time  to  time,  think  expedient 
to  vest  them  with ;  provided  that  no 
power  be  delegated  to  the  said  Com- 
mittee, for  the  exercise  of  which,  oy  the 
Articles  of  Confederation,  the  voice  of 
nine  States  in  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  assembled  is  requisite. 

Article  XI,  Canada,  acceding  to  thii 
Confederation,  and  joining  in  the  meas- 
ures of  the  United  States,  «haU  be  md- 


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mitted  into,  and  entitled  to  all  the 
advantages  of  this  Union;  but  no  other 
colony  shall  be  adniitted  into  the  same, 
unless  such  admission  be  agreed  to  by 
nine  States. 

ArtMe  XIL  All  bilU  of  credit 
emitted,  moneys  borrowed,  and  debts 
contracted  by  or  under  the  authority  of 
Congress,  before  the  assembling  of  the 
United  States,  in  pursuance  of  the  pres- 
ent Confederation,  shall  be  deemed  and 
considered  as  a  charge  against  the 
United  States,  for  payment  and  satisfac- 
tion whereof  the  said  United  States  and 
the  public  faith  are  hereby  solemnly 
pledged. 

Article  ZIIL  Every  State  shall  abide 
by  the  determinations  of  the  United 
States  in  Congress  assembled  on  all 
questions  which  by  this  Confederation 
are  submitted  to  tnem.  And  the  Arti- 
cles of  this  Confederation  shall  be  In- 
violably observed  by  every  State,  and 
the  Union  shall  be  peri>etual;  nor  shall 
any  alteration  at  any  time  hereafter  be 
made  in  any  of  them,  unless  such  altera- 
tion be  agreed  to  in  a  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  and  be  afterwards  con- 
firmed by  the  Legislatures  of  every 
State. 

And  whereas  it  hath  pleased  the 
Great  Governor  of  the  world  to  incline 
the  hearts  of  the  Legislatures  we  respec- 
tively represent  in  Congress  to  approve 
of,  and  to  authorize  us  to  ratify,  the  said 
Articles  of  Confederation  and  perpetual 
Union,  know  ye,  that  we,  the  under- 
signed delecfates,  by  virtue  of  the  power 
and  authonty  to  us  given  for  that  pur- 
pose, do,  by  these  presents,  in  the  name 
and  in  behalf  of  our  respective  con- 
stituents, fully  and  entirely  ratify  and 
confirm  each  and  every  of  the  said  Arti- 
cles of  Confederation  and  perpetual 
Union,  and  all  and  singular  the  matters 
and  things  therein  contained.  And  we 
do  further  solemnly  plight  and  engage 
the  faith  of  our  respective  constituents, 
that  they  shaU  abide  by  the  determina- 
tions of  the  United  States  in  Congress 
assembled  on  all  questions  which  by  the 
said  Confederation  are  submitted  to 
them ;  and  that  the  Articles  thereof  shall 
be  inviolably  observed  by  the  States  we 
respectively  represent,  and  that  the 
Union  shall  be  perpetual. 

The  Articles  of  Confederation  served 
their  purpose  while  the  war  for  inde- 
pendence continued.  The  necessity  of 
working  together  was  then  imperative. 
But  the  war  had  no  sooner  ended  than 
their  innate  weakness  became  i4n>are»t' 
The  States  hftd  kept  too  lacs«  ft  ^hie^ve  of 


power  for  themselves  and  left  the  Con- 
federation a  weak  and  almost  i>owerle8S 
body.  They  had  retamed  the  power  of 
taxation,  which  proved  a  fatal  defect. 
No  Union  could  hold  together  with  the 
purse-strings  in  the  hands  of  thirteen 
semi-independent  commonwealths.  Also 
there  was  no  President,  Congress  being 
at  once  the  legislative  and  the  executive 
body.  The  new  government  could  pass 
laws  but  could  not  make  the  people  obey 
them.  It  could  incur  debt  but  could  not 
tax  the  people  for  money  to  pay  its 
debts.  The  States  were  to  provide 
money  for  this  purpose,  but  they  showed 
little  inclination  to  do  so.  They  were 
jealous  of  one  another  and  each  was  in- 
clined to  act  as  a  single  nation.  Wash- 
ington thus  described  the  situation: 
*  We  are  one  nation  to-day  and  thirteen 
to-morrow.'  Evidently  the  political  evo- 
lution of  the  United  States  was  far  from 
complete.  It  must  go  farther  or  go  back 
to  dissolution ;  be  one  strong  nation  or 
thirteen  weak  ones.  The  last  alterna- 
tive frightened  the  States.  They  were 
already  being  pressed  and  threatened  by 
foreign  nations.  Feeling  that  they  could 
not  stand  alone,  and  could  not  keep  to- 
gether under  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion, a  convention  was  called  to  revise 
these  Articles.  It  met  at  Philadelphia 
in  1787.  The  Articles  of  Confederation 
proved  unsuited  for  revision,  no  change 
could  make  them  serve  the  purpose,  and 
the  convention  devoted  its  four  months 
of  labor  to  working  out  a  new  Constitu- 
tion. This  Constitution,  as  afterwards 
amended,  is  that  under  which  the  United 
States  has  since  been  governed.  Glad- 
stone has  spoken  of  it  as  the  greatest 
document  ever  produced  by  the  force  of 
human  genius.  Its  full  text,  with  its 
amendments,  follows,  with  the  under- 
standing that  the  headlines  of  the  several 
sections  as  here  given,  such  as  *  Preamble,' 
'Legislative  Powers,'  etc.,  are  appended 
for  the  convenience  of  readers,  and  do 
not  occur  in  the  original  document: 

CONSTITUTION   OF   THE    UNITED 
STATES 

Preamble. —  We,  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more 
perfect  Union,  establish  justice,  insure 
domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the 
common  defence,  promote  the  general 
welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of 
liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do 
ordain  and  establish  this  Coxstttution 
for  the  United  States  of  America. 

Article  /.  Legislative  Powers. —  Sec- 
tion I.  All  legislative  powers  herein 
S^saated  shall  be  Tested  in  a  Cooipress  of 


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the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of 
a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

House  of  Representatives. —  Section 
II.  1.  The  House  of  Representatives 
shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen 
€?very  second  year  by  the  people  of  the 
several  States,  and  the  electors  in  each 
State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requi- 
site for  electors  of  the  most  numerous 
branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

Qualifications  of  Representatives. —  2. 
No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who 
shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who 
shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant 
of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be 
chosen. 

Apportionment  of  Representatives. — 
3.  Kepresentatives  and  direct  taxes  shall 
be  apportioned  among  the  several  States 
which  may  be  included  within  this 
Union  according  to  their  respective  num- 
bers, which  shall  be  determmed  by  add- 
ing to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons, 
including  those  bound  to  service  for  a 
term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not 
taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other  persons. 
The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made 
within  three  years  after  the  first  meet- 
ing of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten 
vears,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by 
law  direct  The  number  of  Representa- 
tives shall  not  exceed  one  for  everv  thirty 
thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at 
least  one  Representative;  and  until  such 
enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of 
New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to 
choose  H;  Massachusetts,  8;  Rhode 
Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  1; 
Ck>nnecticut,  6;  New  York,  6;  New  Jer- 
sey, 4;  Pennsylvania,  8;  Delaware,  1; 
Maryland,  6:  Virginia,  10;  North  Caro- 
lina, 6;  South  Carolina,  5,  and 
Georgia,  3.* 

Vacancies,  How  Filled. —  4.  When 
vacancies  happen  in  the  representation 
from  any  State,  the  Executive  Authority 
thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  t* 
fill  such  vacancies. 

Ofllcers.  How  Appointed. —  5.  The 
House  of  Representatives  shall  choose 
their  Speaker  and  other  officers,  and 
shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeach- 
ment. 

Senate. —  Section  III.  1.  The  Sen- 
ate of  the  United  States  shall  be  com- 
posed of  two  Senators  from  each  State, 
chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for  six 
years;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one 
vote. 

Classification     of     Senators. —  2.   Im- 

*  Set  Article  XIV,  Amendments. 


mediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled 
in  consequence  of  the  first  election,  they 
shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be 
into  three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  Sen- 
ators of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated 
at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of 
the  second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the 
fourth  prear,  and  of  the  third  class  at 
the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that 


one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second 
year;  and  if  vacancies  happen  by  resig- 
nation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess 


of  the  Legislature  of  any  State,  the  Ex- 
ecutive thereof  may  make  temporary  ap- 
pointments until  the  next  meeting  of  the 
Legislature,  which  shall  then  nil  such 
vacancies. 

Qualifications  of  Senators. —  3.  No 
person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not 
have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty  years, 
and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when 
elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State 
for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

President  of  the  Senate. —  4.  The  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States  shall  be 
President  of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have 
no  vote  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other 
officers,  and  also  a  President  pro  tempore, 
in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or 
when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States. 

Senate  a  Court  for  Trial  of  Impeach- 
ments.—  6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the 
sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall 
be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the 
President  of  the  United  States  is  tried, 
the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside:  and  no 
person  shall  be  convicted  without  the 
concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
present 

Judgment  in  Case  of  Conviction. —  7. 
Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall 
not  extend  further  than  to  removal  from 
office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and 
enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit 
under  the  United  States;  but  the  party 
convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable  and 
subject  to  indictment,  trial.  Judgment* 
and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

Elections  of  Senators  and  Repre- 
sentatives.—  Section  IV.  1.  The  times, 
places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections 
for  Senators  and  Representatives  shall 
be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  Legis- 
lature thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at 
any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  reg- 
ulations, except  as  to  places  of  choosing 
Senators. 

Meeting  of  Congress. —  2.  The  Con- 
gress shall  assemble  at  least  once  in 
every  year,  and  such  meeting  shall  be  on 
the   first   Monday   in   December,   unless 


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they   shall   by   law   appoint   a   different  of  Representatives  and  the  Senate  shall, 

day.  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to 

Organization    of    Congress. —  Section  the  President  of  the  United  States ;  if  he 

y.     1.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  approve,   he   shall    sign    it,   but   if   not, 

the  elections,  returns,  and  qualifications  he  shall   return   it,   with   his   objections, 

of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  to   that   House   in  which   it   shall   have 

each   shall   constitute   a    quorum    to   do  originated,    who   shall    enter   the    objec- 

business;  but  a  smaller  number  may  ad-  tions  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  pro- 

joum  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  au-  ceed    to    reconsider    it.     If    after    such 

thorized    to    compel    the    attendance    of  reconsideration  two-thirds  of  that  House 

absent    members    in    such    manner    and  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be 

under  such  penalties  as  each  House  may  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the 

provide.  other  House,  by  which  it  shall  likewise 

Rule  of  Proceedings. —  2.  Each  House  be  reconsidered ;  and  if  approved  by  two- 
may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceed-  thirds  of  that  House  it  shall  become  a 
ings,  punish  its  members  for  disorderly  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of 
behavior,  and  with  the  concurrence  of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas 
two-thirds  expel  a  member.  and  nays  and  the  names  of  the  persons 

Journals     of     each     House. —  3.  Each  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be 

House  shall  keep  a  journal   of  its  pro-  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  House  re- 

ceedings,  and  from  time  to  time  publish  spectively.     If      any      bill      shall      not 

the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  be    returned    by    the    President    within 

in  their  judgment  require  secrecy;   and  ten    days    (Sundays   excepted)    after    it 

the   yeas  and   nays   of   the   members   of  shall    have   been   presented    to   him,   the 

either  House  on  any  question   shall,  at  same    shall    be    a    law,    in    like   manner 

the  desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  as    if    he    had    signed    it,     unless    the 

be  entered  on  the  journal.  Congress   by   their   adjournment   prevent 

Adjournment  of  Congress. —  4.  Neither  its  return;  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be 

House,   during   the  session   of  Congress,  a  law. 

shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  other,  Approval    and    Veto    Powers    of    the 

adjourn  for  more  than   three  days,   nor  President. —  3.  Every    order,     resolution, 

to  any  other  place  than  that  in  which  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the 

the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting.  Senate    and    House    of    Representatives 

Pay    and     Privileges    of     Members. —  may  be  necessary   (except  on  a  question 

Section  VI.     1.  The  Senators  and  Rep-  of   adjournment)    shall   be   presented    to 

resentatives  shall  receive  a  compensation  the  President  of  the  United  States;  and 

for  their  services,   to  be  ascertained   by  before  the  same  shall  take  effect  shall  be 

law,  and  paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of  the  approved  by  him,   or,  being  disapproved 

United  States.     They  shall  in  all  cases,  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by  two-thirds 

except  treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  of  the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Repre- 

peace,   be  privileged   from   arrest  during  sentatives,    according    to    the    rules    and 

their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  limitations  prescribed   in   the  case  of  a 

respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  and  bill. 

returning  from   the  same;   and   for  any  Powers  Vested  in  Congress. —  Section 

speech   or  debate   in   either   House  they  VIII.     1.  The      Congress      shall      have 

shall    not    be    questioned    in    any    other  power: 

place.  To  lay   and   collect   taxes,  duties,   im- 

Other  OflSces  Prohibited. —  2.  No  Sen-  posts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and 
ator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  provide  for  the  common  defence  and  gen- 
time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be  ap-  eral  welfare  of  the  United  States;  but 
pointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  au-  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be 
thority  of  the  United  States  which  shall  uniform  throughout  the  United  States, 
have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during  the  United  States. 

such  time;   and   no  person   holding  any  3.  To    regulate  commerce  with  foreign 

office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  nations,   and   among   the   several   States, 

member  of  either  House  during  his  con-  and  with  the  Indian  tribes, 

tinuance  in  office.  4.  To    establish    a    uniform    rule    of 

Revenue  Bills. —  Section  VII.     1.  All  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on  the 

bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  subject   of   bankruptcies   throughout   the 

in  the  House  of  Representatives,  but  the  United  States. 

Senate    may    propose    or    concur    with  5.  To  coin  money,   regulate  the  value 

amendments,  as  on  other  bills.  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the 

How    Bills    Become   Laws. —  2.  Every  standard  of  weights  and  measures, 

bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  6.  To  provide  for   the  punishmert  of 


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counterfeiting  the  securities  and  current 
coin  of  the  United  States. 

7.  To  establish  post-offices  and  post- 
roads. 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science 
and  useful  arts  by  securing  for  limited 
times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  ex- 
clusive rights  to  their  respective  writings 
and  discoveries. 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to 
the  Supreme  Court. 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and 
felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas,  and 
offences  against  the  law  of  nations. 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of 
marque  and  reprisal,  and  make  rules 
concerning  captures  on  land  and  water. 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but 
DO  appropriation  of  money  to  that  use 
shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two 
years. 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy. 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government 
and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces. 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the 
militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union, 
suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  inva- 
sions. 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming, 
and  disciplining  the  militia,  and  for  gov- 
erning such  part  of  them  as  may  be  em- 

§loyed  in  the  service  of  the  United 
tates,  reserving  to  the  States  respec- 
tively the  appointment  of  the  officers, 
and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia 
according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by 
Congress. 

iT.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in 
all  cases  whatsoever  over  such  district 
(not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may, 
by  cession  of  particular  States  and  the 
acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat 
of  Government  of  the  United  States,  and 
to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places 
purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  Legisla- 
ture of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall 
be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines, 
arsenals,  dry-docks,  and  other  needful 
buildings. 

IS.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be 
necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into 
execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all 
other  powers  vested  by  this  Constitution 
in  the  Government  of  the  United  States, 
or  in  any  departmeht  or  officer  thereof. 

Immigrants,  How  Admitted. —  Sec- 
tion IX.  1.  The  migration  or  importa- 
tion of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit, 
shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hun- 
dred and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may 
be  imposed  on  such  Importation,  not  ex- 
ceeding ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

1410 


Habeas  Corpus. —  2.  The  privilege  of 
the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be 
suspended,  unless  when  in  cases  of  re- 
bellion or  invasion  the  public  safety  may 
require  it. 

Attainder.  3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or 
ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

Direct  Taxes. —  4.  No  capitation  or 
other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in 

Eroportion  to  the  census  or  enumeration 
ereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

Regulations  Regarding  Customs  Dut- 
ies.—  5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on 
articles  exported  from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any 
regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the 
ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another, 
nor  shall  vessels  bound  to  or  from  one 
State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay 
duties  in  another. 

Moneys,  How  Drawn. —  7.  No  money 
shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury  but  in 
consequence  of  appropriations  made  by 
law;  and  a  regular  statement  and  ac- 
count of  the  receipts  and  expenditures 
of  all  public  money  shall  be  published 
from  time  to  time. 

Titles  of  Nobility  Prohibited.— 8.  No 
title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the 
United  States.  And  no  person  holding 
any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them 
shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Con- 
gress, accept  of  any  present,  emolument, 
office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever, 
from  any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

Powers  of  States  Defined. —  Section 
X.  1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any 
treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation;  grant 
letters  of  maraue  and  reprisal;  coin 
money:  emit  bills  of  credit;  make  any- 
thing but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender 
in  pajrment  of  debts;  pass  any  bill  of 
attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  im- 
pairing the  obligation  of  contracts,  or 
grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State,  shall,  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  Congress,  lay  any  impost  or 
duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except 
what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for 
executing  its  inspection  laws;  and  the 
net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid 
by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall 
be  for  the  use  of  the  Treasury  of  the 
United  States;  and  all  such  laws  shall 
be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of 
the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent 
of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  or  tonnage, 
keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of 
peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or  com* 
pact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  for* 
eign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless 
actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent 
danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

Article  II,  Executive  Power,  in  WhoiD 


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Vested. —  Section  I.  1.  The  Executive 
power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of 
the  United  Sutes  of  America.  He  shall 
hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  f«ur 
years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent, chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected 
as  follows: 

Electors. —  2.  Each  State  shall  ap- 
point, in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature 
thereof  mav  direct,  a  number  of  electors, 
equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators 
and  Representatives  to  which  the  State 
may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress;  but  no 
Senator  or  Representative  or  person 
holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under 
the  United  States  shall  be  appointed  an 
elector. 

Proceedings  of  Electors. —  Proceed- 
ings of  the  House  of  Representatives. — 
3.  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  re- 
spective States  and  vote  by  ballot  for 
two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall 
not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State 
with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make 
a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and 
of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which 
list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  trans- 
mit, sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  directed  to 
the  President  of  the  Senate.  The  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, open  all  the  certificatei,  and  the 
votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall 
be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors 
appointed,  and  if  there  be  more  than  one 
who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an 
eoual  number  of  votes,  then  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  immediately 
choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  Presi- 
dent; and  if  no  person  have  a  majority, 
then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the 
said  House  shall  in  like  manner  choose 
the  President.  But  in  choosing  the 
President,  the  vote  shall  be  taken  bv 
States,  the  representation  from  each 
State  having  one  vote.  A  ouorum,  for 
this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member 
or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the 
States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States 
shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every 
case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President, 
the  person  having  the  greatest  number 
of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice- 
President.  But  if  there  should  remain 
two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the 
Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot 
the  Vice-President.* 

Time  of  Choosing  Electors. —  4  The 
Congress    may    determine    the    time    of 

*  This  cUnte  it  tuperteded  by  Artlold  XTT, 
AmendmtnU- 


choosing  the  electors,  and  the  day  oo 
which  tney  shall  give  their  votes,  which 
day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the 
United  States. 

Qualifications  of  the  President-— 6. 
No  person  except  a  natural-bom  citixen, 
or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  at  the 
time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution, 
shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent; neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible 
to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained 
to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years  and  been 
fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the 
United  States. 

Provision  in  Case  of  His  Disability.— 
6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  Presi- 
dent from  office,  or  of  his  death,  resigna- 
tion, or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers 
and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same 
shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President  and 
the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the 
case  of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or 
inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice- 
President,  declaring  what  officer  shall 
then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer 
shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability 
be  removed  or  a  President  shall  be 
elected. 

Salary  of  the  President — 7.  The 
President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive 
for  his  services  a  compensation  which 
shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished 
during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have 
been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive 
within  that  period  any  other  emolument 
from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

Oath  of  the  President — 8.  Before  he 
enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office  he 
shall  take  the  following  oath  or  affirma- 
tion: 

*  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that 
I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  will, 
to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  pro- 
tect and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.* 

Duties  of  the  President. —  Section  II. 
1.  The  President  shall  be  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the 
United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the 
several  States  when  called  Into  the 
actual  service  of  the  United  States;  he 
may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of 
the  principal  officer  in  each  of  the  execu- 
tive departments  upon  any  subject  re- 
lating to  the  duties  of  their  respective 
offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant 
reprieves  and  pardons  for  offences  against 
the  United  States  except  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment 

May  Make  Treaties,  Appoint  Ambassa- 
dors, Judges,  etc. — 2.  He  shall  have 
power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate,  to  make  treaties, 
provided  two-thifdt  of  the  Seoatom  piee- 


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ent  concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and 
by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambasBadors, 
other  public  ministers  and  consuls, 
judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all 
other  officers  of  the  United  States  whose 
appointments   are   not    herein   otherwise 

f>royidcd  for,  and  which  sliall  be  estab- 
ished  by  law;  but  the  Congress  may  by 
law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  in- 
ferior officers  as  they  think  proper  in  the 
President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or 
in  the  heads  of  departments. 

May  Fill  Vacancies. —  3.  The  Presi- 
dent shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacan- 
cies that  may  happen  during  the  recess 
of  the  Senate  by  granting  commissions, 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their 
next  session. 

May  Make  Recommendations  to  and 
Convene  Congress. —  Section  III.  He 
shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Con- 
gress information  of  the  state  of  the 
union,  and  recommend  to  their  con- 
sideration such  measures  as  he  shall 
judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may, 
on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both 
Houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of 
disagreement  between  them,  with  respect 
to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  ad- 
journ them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think 
proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and 
other  public  ministers ;  he  shall  take  care 
that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and 
shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the 
United  States. 

How  Officers  May  be  Removed. —  Sio- 
TION  IV.  The  President,  Vice-Presi- 
dent, and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  removed  from  office  on 
impeachment  for,  and  conviction  of, 
treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and 
misdemeanors. 

Article  IIL  Judicial  Power,  How 
Vested. —  Section  I.  The  judicial 
power  of  the  United  States  shall  be 
vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in 
■och  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may 
from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish. 
The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  in- 
ferior courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  dur- 
ing good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated 
times,  receive  for  their  services  a  com- 
pensation which  shall  not  be  diminished 
daring  their  continuance  in  office. 

To  What  Cases  it  Extends. —  Section 
II.  L  The  judicial  power  shall  extend 
to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity,  arising 
under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the 
United  States,  and  treaties  made,  or 
which  shall  be  made,  under  their  au- 
thority; to  all  cases  affecting  ambassa- 
dors, other  public  ministers,  and  consuls ; 
to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime 
jariidktiptt;,  to  contronrersies  to  whiqh 


the  United  States  shall  be  a  party;  to 
controversies  between  two  or  more 
States;  between  a  State  and  citizens  of 
another  State;  between  citlxens  of  dif- 
ferent States;  between  citizens  of  the 
same  State,  claiming  lands  under  grants 
of  different  States,  and  between  a  State, 
or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign 
States,  citizens  or  subjects. 

Jurisdiction  of  the  Supreme  Court — 
2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors, 
other  public  ministers,  and  consuls,  and 
those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  party, 
the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  original 
jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  be- 
fore-mentioned the  Supreme  Court  shall 
have  appellate  jurisdiction,  both  as  to 
law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and 
under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress 
shall  make. 

Rules  Respecting  Trials. —  3.  The 
trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment, shall  be  by  jury,  and  such 
trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the 
said  crimes  shall  have  been  committed: 
but  when  not  committed  within  any 
Stats  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or 
places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have 

Treason  Defined. —  Section  III.  1. 
Treason  against  the  United  States  shall 
consist  only  in  levying  war  against  them, 
or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving 
them  aid  and  comfort  No  person  shall 
be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the 
testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the  same 
overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open 
court 

How  Punished.— 2.  The  Congress 
shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punish- 
ment of  treason,  but  no  attainder  of 
treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood 
or  forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of 
the  person  attainted. 

Article  IV.  Rights  of  States  and 
Records. —  Section  I.  Full  faith  and 
credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the 
public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  pro- 
ceedings of  every  other  State.  And  the 
Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe 
the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records, 
and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the 
effect  thereof. 

Privileges  of  Citizens. —  Section  II. 
1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be 
entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immunities 
of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

Executive  Requisitions. —  2.  A  person 
charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  fel- 
ony, or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from 
justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State, 
shall,  on  demand  of  the  Executive  au- 
thority of  the  State  from  which  he  fled, 
be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  tha 
State  haviag  Joriadictioa  of  the  crim^ 


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United  States  United  States 

Laws  Regulating  Service  or  Labor. —  this  Constitntion  as  under  the  Confedera* 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  tion. 

one  State,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escap-  Supreme  Law  of  the  Land  Defined.— 

ing   into  another,   shall,   in  consequence  2.  This  Constitution  and  the  laws  of  the 

of  any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  dis-  United   States   which  shall  be  made  in 

charged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  pursuance  thereof  and  all  treaties  made, 

shall   be  delivered   up  on   claim   of   the  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the  au- 

party    to   whom   such    service    or   labor  thority   of   the   United    States,   shall   be 

may  be  due.  the  supreme  law   of  the  land,   and   the 

New    States,    How    Formed    and    Ad-  judges    in    every    State    shall    be    bound 

mitted. —  Section    II L     1.  New    States  thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or 

may  be  admitted  by   the  Congress  into  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  not- 

this  Union,  but  no  new   State  shall   be  withstanding. 

formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  Oath:  of  Whom  Required  and  for 
of  any  other  State,  nor  any  State  be  What — 3.  The  Senators  and  Represen- 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  tatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  mem- 
States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  bers  of  the  several  State  Legislatures, 
consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers, 
concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Congress.  both  of  the  United  States,   and  of  the 

Power  of  Congress  over  Public  Lands,  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or 

—  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  affirmation  to  support  this  Constitution; 
dispose  of  and  make  all  needful  rules  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  re- 
and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  quired  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or 
or  other  property  belonging  to  the  United  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 
States;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  Article  17/.  Ratification  of  the  Con- 
shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  stitution. —  The  ratification  of  the  Con- 
claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  ventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient 
particular  State.  for   the  establishment  of   this   Constitu- 

Republican  Government  Quaranteed. —  tion  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the 

Section   IV.    The   United   States   shall  same, 
guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union 

a   republican   form   of  ffovemment,   and  Done  in  Convention  by  the  unanimous 

shall  protect  each   of  tnem   against  in-  consent  of  the  States  present  the  seven- 

vasion;  and,  on  application  of  the  Leg-  teenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of 

islature,  or  of  the  Executive   (when  the  our   Lord   one   thousand   seven    hundred 

Legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  and   eighty-seven,   and   of   the   Independ- 

domestic  violence.  ence   of   the   United    States   of   America 

Article  V,    Constitution,  How  Amended,  the    twelfth.     In     witness    whereof    we 

—  The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names, 
both    Houses   shall    deem    it   necessary,  Go:  Washington, 

shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Con-  Presidt.  and  Deputy  from  Virginia, 
stitution,  or,  on   the  application  of  the 

Legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  Avinvm*irwT«   -m  twit   nmcaTTTTTT^nw 

States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  pro-  Amendments  to  the  constitution 

posing    amendments,     which,    in    either  *_,.  »      .      j..^.      ^          .4        j       ^ 

case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  pur-  AT**^^^  tn  addttton  to,  and  Amen^^i 

poses,  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ^f/  *}^  Cpmt%tut%on  of  the  United  States 

ratified    by    the    Legislatures    of    three-  of  America,  proposed  hy  Congress,  and 

fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  con-  ^V*^^  ^^  *^  h^^^V'''1S:Z{  *^l/-^?^i 

ventions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  fi""*^*.  Pursuant  to  the  Fifth  ArUole  of 

one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  **^  prtgtnal  Constitution. 
be  proposed   by   the  Congress;   provided 

that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  Article  I,  Religion  and  Free  Speech, 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hun-  —Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting 
dred  and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  an  establishment  of  religion,  or  pro- 
the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  Ninth  hibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or 
Section  of  the  First  Article;  and  that  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech  or  01  the 
no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  press;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peace- 
deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  ably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition  the 
Senate.  Government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 
Article  VL  Validity  of  Debts  Recog-  Article  II.  Rieht  to  Bear  Arms.— A 
nized. —  L  All  debts  contracted  and  en-  well-regulated  mintia  being  necessary  to 
gagements  entered  into  before  the  the  security  of  a  free  State,  the  right  of 
adoption  of  this  Constitution  shall  be  as*  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shaJl 
valid  against   the   United   States   under  not  be  infrmged.               « 


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Artide  III.  Soldiers  in  Time  of  United  States  by  the  Constitution,  nor 
Peace. —  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  re- 
peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house  without  served  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to 
the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  the  people. 

war  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by       Article    XL    Judicial       Power.— The 

law.  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall 

Article  IV,  Right  of  Search. —  The  pot  be  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit 
right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  iQ  Iaw  or  equity,  commenced  or  prose- 
persons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects,  cuted  agahist  one  of  the  United  States, 
against  unreasonable  searches  and  seiz-  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citi- 
ures,  shall  not  be  violated,  and  no  war-  sens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  State, 
rants  shall  issue  but  upon  probable  Article  XII.  Electors  in  Presidental 
cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation.  Elections. —  The  electors  shall  meet  in 
and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  bal- 
be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  lot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one 
to  be  seized.  of  whom  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabi- 

Artide  F.  Capital  Crimes  and  Arrest  tant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves; 
Therefor. —  No  person  shall  be  held  to  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  per- 
answer  for  a  capital  or  other  infamous  ^^  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  dis- 
crime, unless  on  a  presentment  or  indict-  tinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
ment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  Vice-President;  and  they  shall  make 
arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as 
the  militia,  when  in  actual  service,  in  President,  and  of  all  persons  voted  for 
time  of  war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of 
any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall 
offence  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  »*«?»  and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to 
life  or  limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  the  seat  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness  against  States^  directed  to  the  President  of  the 
himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty.  Senate;  the  President  of  the  Senate 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law;  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the 
public  use  without  just  compensation.  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be 

Article  VI,  Right  to  Speedy  Trial. —  counted;  the  person  having  the  greatest 
In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  number  of  votes  for  President  shall  be 
shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  ma- 
public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  jority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors 
State  and  district  wherein  the  crime  appointed;  and  if  no  person  have  such 
shall  have  been  committed,  which  dis-  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having 
trict  shall  have  been  previously  ascer-  the  highest  numbers,  not  exceeding  three, 
talned  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  Presi- 
nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation;  to  dent,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  choose  immediately,  bv  ballot,  the  Presi- 
bim;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  ob-  dent.  But  in  choosing  the  President, 
taining  witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the 
have  the  assistar.ce  of  counsel  for  his  representation  from  each  State  having 
defence.  one   vote;    a   quorum    for    this    purpose 

Article  VII,    Trial  by  Jury. —  In  suits  shall   consist  of  a   member  or  members 

at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  con-  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  ma- 

troversy  shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  jority  of  all   the  States  shall  be  neces- 

right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  sary  to  a  choice.     And  if  the  House  of 

and  no  fact  tried  bv  a  jury  shall  be  other-  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  Presi- 

wise    reexamined    in    any    court    of   the  dent,  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall 

United  States  than  according  to  the  rules  devolve    upon    them,    before    the    fourth 

of  the  common  law.  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the 

Article    VIII,    Excessive     Bail. —  Ex-  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as 

cessive  ball   shall  not   be   required,   nor  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  consti- 

excessive   fines    imposed,   nor   cruel   and  tutional     disability     of     the     President 

unusual  punishments  inflicted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 

Article  IX,    Enumeration    of    Rights,  votes  as  Vice-President  shall  be  the  Vice- 

—  The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  certain  rights  shall  not  be  construed  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  ap- 
to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  pointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  ma- 
the  people.  jority,     then     from     the     two     highest 

Article  X.    Reserved  Rights  of  States,  nombers   on    the   list   the   Senate   shall 

—  The    powers    not    delegated    to    the  choose  the  Vice-President;  a  quorum  tot 


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the  purpose  shall   consist  of  two-thirds  States,  shall   have   engaged  ia  iiunirre6» 

of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  tlon  or   rebellion   asamst   the  tame,  or 

majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  given   aid   and   comfort   to   the  enemies 

necessary    to   a   choice.     But   no  person  thereof.     But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote 

constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  of    two-thirds    of    each    House,    remove 

President    shall    be    eligible    to    that   of  such  disability. 

Vice-President  of  the  United  States.  The  Public  Debt— 4.  The  validity  of 

Article    XIII.    Slavery     Prohibited. —  the   public   debt   of   the    United   States, 

1.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  serv-  authorized  by  law,  including  debts  in- 
itude,  except  as  a  punishment  for  crime  curred  for  payment  of  pensions  and 
whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  in- 
convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United  surrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be 
States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  questioned.  But  neither  the  United 
jurisdiction.  States   nor   any   State  shall   assume  or 

2.  Congress  shall   have  power  to  en-  pa^  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in 

force  this  article  by  appropriate  l^^la-  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against 

tion.  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the 

Article  XIV.    Protection  for  all  Citl-  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave:  but 

sens. —  1.  All   persons   bom   or  natural-  all   such   debts,   obligations,   and   claims 

ized  in  the  United  States,  and  subject  to  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void, 

the  jurisdiction   thereof,  are  citizens  of  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to 

the    United    States    and    of    the    State  enforce,   by   appropriate   legislation,   tn« 

wherein    they    reside.     No    State    shall  provisions  of  this  article, 

make   or   enforce   any   law   which   shall  Article  XV,    Right    of    Suffrage. —  1. 

abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  united 

citizen*  of  the  United  States;  nor  shall  States   to   vote   shall   not   be  denied  or 

any   State   deprive   any   person   of   life,  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any 

liberty,  or  property  without  due  process  State    on    account    of    race,    color    or 

of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  previous  condition  of  servitude, 

its  jurisdiction   the  equal  protection  of  2.  The  Congress  shall   have  power  to 

the  laws.  enforce  the  provisions  of  this  article  by 

Apportionment    of    Representatives. —  appropriate  legislation. 

2.  Kepresentatives  shall  be  apportioned  ArUcle  XVI,  The  Congress  shall  have 
among  the  several  States  according  to  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  incomes, 
their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  irom  whatever  source  derived,  without 
whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State,  apportionment,  among  the  several  states, 
excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or 
the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  enumeration. 

pllMon^f^nT^Jh!  nni^If'tt^^o^^^^  ^rticU    XV IL    The    Senate    of    the 

f/n?«H?ai  ^n^^Poilr^   ^J^^^.SSFfv'a  ^^ited  Statcs  shall  be  comoosed  of  two 

fnTlnXioi  nffi^oSf^'p    «fof.   ^^^  Senators  from  each  State,  elected  by  the 

mal»l«  nf   ?^^T^J^L^.^^fL.2L^^.  Reople  thereof,  for  six  years;  and  each 

3i^^  fn  Inl  nf^Si^u   i^ifJS?/'   is  Senator  shall  have  one  vote.     The  elec- 

«ri.^h  S^-^^i^fni^'^f  ^'winfi^^n^^^^^  tors  iu  each  State  shall  have  the  quaU- 

Sf  ll}lTMf^^^.f,y:T^l.J^\l!fI^  fications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most 

oi  ?f '«SS  Jal  oStiHSi^oF^l.f'^f^^^  numerous    branch    of    the    State    Legis- 

or  in  any  way  abndged,  except  for  par-  i«f«-oa 

ticipation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  w^«  «*.a«..^a.  i«.».«^..  i«  ♦v^  «^^«- 

basis  of  representation  therein  shall  be  ^^S^rT^^J'J^^^fF^^^  ^^^I^^It^ 

reduced    in    the    proportion    which    the  ^^^^iJL^'L^^ll^^ 

number  of  such  male  citizens  shall  bear  fii^"'t^**''5^i^i.rt^'  T  fii?*^.!,'^ 

to    the   whole   number   of  male  cithtens  iX1p«^^v?iJ  tSof^h^rSj.!^^^^^ 

twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State,  nancies,  provided  that  the  Legiriature  of 

Rebenion   Aiainst   the   Unh^  Stftt«L  ^?^  ^>*^  ^^^  empower  the  Executive 

Ket^iiion  Against   the   ^mt^   Stat«k  ^Yi^^^^i  to  make  temporary  appointments 

Repre^eU^U^^n^cSL^^^^  ^^..^I^^^'L^.^  l^^i^^ 

President    and    Vice-President,    or    hold  «^^^^o°  ^  «!«  Legislature  may  direct 

any  office,   civil  or  military,  under  the  Ratification   or  the  Constitution. 

United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who.  The  Constitution  was  ratified  by  the 

having  previously   taken   an  oath,  as  a  thirteen  original  States  in  the  following 

member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  order: 

the  United   States,  or  as  a  member  of  Delaware,     December    7,    J'W,     unani- 

any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  execu-  mously. 

tive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  Pennsylvania,   December  12i    1*97.   tocs 

support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  46  to  23. 


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New  Jersey,  December  18,  1787,  unani-  nor  can  I  forget,  as  an  encouragement  to 

moQsly.  it,  your  indulgent  reception  of  my  senU- 

Oeorfia,  January  2,  1788,  unanimously,  ments  on   a  former  and  not  dissimilar 

Connecticut  January  0,  1788,  vote  128  occasion.     Interwoven  as  is  the  loye  of 

to  40.  liberty    with    every    ligament    of    your 

Massachusetts,    February    6,   1788,   vote  hearts,   no   recommendation   of   mine   is 

_  187  to  168.                  ^           ^       ^^  necessary  to  fortify  or  confirm  the  at- 

MaryUind,  April  28,  1788,  vote  63  to  12.  tachment 

South  Carolina,  May  28,  1788,  vote  140  The  unity  of  government,  which  con- 

to  78.  stitutes    you    one    people,    is   also    now 

New  Hampshire,  June  21,  1788,  vote  57  ^j^^  j^  ^^^^    i^  isHusUy  so;  for  it  is 

tri!^  .     T        «te  iToo       ^    oo  «    TO  *  DoaJn  pillar  in  the  edifice  of  your  real 

Virgima,  June  25^788,  vote  89  to  79.  indepenrf?nce  —  the     support     ot     your 

^^^^Jn^Jl^^^^^J^^  vote  ao  to^  tranSuillity  at  home,  your  peace  abroad, 

^^i'^  P*?K*°*  November  21,  1789,  vote  ^^   ^^^^  ^^^^y    of  /our  prosperity,   of 

R^^Al^d.   May   29,   1790,   vote   M  pL''''Uut''^l! in^ti  tHor^See'ffi 

^"  **•  from  different  causes  and  from  different 

Ratification  or  thb  Amendicents  quarters,    much    pains    will    be    taken, 

December  15.  17~-    ^          ,               ^  as   this   is    the  point   in   your   political 

XI  vw  declared   in    force   January   8.  fortress  against  which  the  batteries  of 
1798.  internal    and    external    enemies    will    be 

XII  regulating  elections,  was  declared  in  most    constantly    and    actively    (though 
force  September  28,  1804.  often  covertly  and  insidiously)    directed 

XIIL     The     emandpation     amendment  -T^*,>    ^'    infinite    moment    that    you 

was  proclaimed  December  18,  1865.  should   properly    estimate    the    immense 

XIV.     Reconstruction    amendment    was  ^*,\"®,,^^  ^^^^  5?^^S'^^'  u"°K"   '^  li^l 

proclaimed  July  28,  1868.  collective  and  individual  happ  new ;  that 

▼V      nj^^mm^  ^Txm^I^t^  «.M«««;i«MA..f  ^o.  V^^   shouW   cherish   a   cordial,   habitual 

^;w,i!fSS  ^f^fc'ft?  amwidment  was  J^^d    immovable   attachment    to    it;    ac- 

^J!?**ii?    .^*^*      '    ^     .           ^  customing  yourselves  to  think  and  speak 

Xvl.    The  income   tax   amendment   be-  of  it  as  of  the  palladium  of  your  polit- 

came  a  provision  of  the  Constitution,  iod  safety  and  prosperity;  watching  for 

February  8,  1918.  its   preservation    with    jealous   anxiety; 

XVn.    Popular  election  of  Senators  be-  discountenancing  whatever  may   suggest 

came  a  provision  of  the  Constitution,  even   a   suspicion    that   it   can,   in   any 

April  8.  1913.  event,    be    abandoned ;    and    indignantly 

•    -«^^  ^           .«♦•..           ,   ,  frowning  upon  the  first  dawning  of  every 

In  1796  George  Washington  took  leave  attempt  to  alienate  any  portion  of  our 

of  the  people  in  a  famous  address.     Its  country  from  the  rest,  or  to  enfeeble  the 

concluding  portions  are  here  given:  sacred  ties  which  now  link  together  the 

various  parts. 

TirAanTxrnmrki^*a  V4i>VTrr«TT  ^^'  '^^®  ^^^  ^^®  ®V«T  inducement  of 

WASHINGTON'S  FAREWELL  sympathy     and     interest    Citiaens     by 

ADDtil!i»B  birth   or  choice   of   a   common   country, 

Here,  perhaps,  I  ought  to  stop;  but  a  that  country  has  a  right  to  concentrate 

solicitude  for  your  welfare,  which  can-  your  affections.    The  name  of  America, 

not  end  but  with  my  life,  and  the  appre-  which  belongs  to  you  in  your  national 

hension     of     danger     natural     to     that  capacity,    must    alwajrs    exalt    the    just 

solicitude,  urge  me,  on  an  occasion  like  pride  of  patriotism,  more  than  any  ap- 

the  present,  to  offer  to  your  solemn  con-  pellation   derived   from  local  discrimina- 

templation,   and  to   recommend   to   your  tions.     With  slight  shades  of  differences, 

frequent  review,  some  sentiments,  which  vou    have    the   same    religion,    manners, 

are  the  result  of  much  refiection,  of  no  habits,     and    political     principles.    You 

inconsiderable    observation,    and    which  have,    in   a   ^mmon   cause,   fought   and 

appear  to  me  all-important  to  the  per-  triumphed     together;     the    independence 

manency  of   your   felicity   as   a   people,  and  liberty  vou  possess  are  the  work  of 

These  will  be  afforded  to  you  with  the  joint  counsels  and  joint  efforts,  of  com- 

more  freedom,   as  you  can  only  see  in  mon  dangers,  sufferings  and  successes, 

them    the    disinterested    warnings    of    a  It    is    important,    likewise,    that    the 

parting   friend,    who   can   iKtssibly    have  habits   of   thinking,    in   a   free   country. 

Qo  personal  motive  to  bias  his  counsel;  should    inspire    caution    in    those    in- 


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trusted  with  its  administration,  to  con- 
fine themselyes  within  their  respective 
constitutional  spheres,  avoiding  In  the 
exercise  of  the  powers  of  one  department, 
to  encroach  upon  another.  The  spirit 
of  encroachment  tends  to  consolidate  the 
powers  of  all  the  departments  in  one, 
and  thus  to  create,  whatever  the  form 
of  government,  a  real  despotism.  A  just 
estimate  of  that  love  of  power,  and 
proneness  to  abuse  it  whicn  predomi- 
nates in  the  human  heart,  is  sufficient 
to  satisfy  us  of  the  truth  of  this  posi- 
tion. The  necessity  of  reciprocal  checks 
in  the  exercise  of  political  power,  by 
dividing  and  distributing  it  into  dif- 
ferent depositories,  and  constituting 
each  the  guardian  of  the  public  weal, 
against  invasions  by  the  others,  has  been 
evinced  by  experiments,  ancient  and 
modern;  some  of  them  in  our  own  coun- 
try and  under  our  own  eyes.  To  pre- 
serve them  must  be  as  necessary  as  to 
institute  them.  If,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
people,  the  distribution  or  modification 
of  the  constitutional  powers  be,  in  any 
particular,  wronjj,  let  it  be  corrected  by 
an  amendment  m  the  way  which  the 
Constitution  designates.  But  let  there 
be  no  change  or  usurpation;  for  though 
this,  in  one  instance,  may  be  the  instru- 
ment of  good,  it  is  the  customary  weapon 
by  which  free  governments  are  destroyed. 
The  precedent  must  always  greatly  over- 
balance, in  permanent  evil,  and  partial 
or  transient  benefit,  which  the  use  can, 
at  any  time  yield. 

Observe  good  faith  and  justice  toward 
all  nations;  cultivate  peace  and  har- 
mony with  all;  religion  and  morality 
enjoin  this  conduct;  and  can  it  be  that 
good  policy  does  not  equally  enjoin  it? 
It  will  be  worthy  of  a  free,  enlightened, 
and,  at  no  distant  period,  a  great  nation, 
to  give  to  mankind  the  magnanimous 
and  too  novel  example  of  a  people  al- 
ways guided  by  an  exalted  justice  and 
benevolence.  Who  can  doubt  that,  in 
the  course  of  times  and  things,  the  fruits 
of  such  a  plan  would  richly  repay  any 
temporary  advantages  which  mieht  be 
lost  by  a  steady  adherence  to  it?  Can 
it  be  that  Providence  has  not  connected 
the  permanent  felicity  of  a  nation  with 
its  virtue?  The  experiment,  at  least,  is 
recommended  by  every  sentiment  which 
ennobles  human  nature.  Alas!  is  it  ren- 
dered impossible  by  its  vices? 

Against  the  insidious  wiles  of  foreign 
influence  (I  conjure  you  to  believe  me, 
fellow-citizens)  the  jealousy  of  a  free 
people  ought  to  constantly  awake;  since 
history  and  experience  prove  that  for- 
eign influence  is  one  of  the  most  baneful 
foes     of     republican     government.    But 


that  jealousy  to  be  useful,  must  be  im- 
partial; else  it  becomes  the  instrum^it 
of  the  very  influence  to  be  avoided,  in- 
stead of  a  defence  against  it  Excessive 
partiality  for  one  foreign  nation,  and 
excessive  dislike  for  another,  cause  those 
whom  they  actuate  to  see  danger  only 
on  one  side,  and  serve  to  veil,  and  even 
second,  the  arts  of  influence  ob  the  other. 
Real  patriots,  who  may  resist  the  in- 
trigues of  the  favorite,  are  liable  to  be- 
come suspected  and  odious,  while  its 
tools  and  dupes  usurp  the  applause  and 
confidence  of  the  people,  to  surrender 
their  interests. 

The  great  rule  of  conduct  for  us  in  re- 
f^rd  to  foreign  nations,  is,  in  extend- 
ing our  commercial  relations,  to  have 
with  them  as  little  political  connection 
as  possible.  So  far  as  we  have  already 
formed  engagements,  let  them  be  ful- 
filled with  perfect  good  faith.  Here  let 
us  stop.  Europe  has  a  set  of  primary 
interests,  which  to  us  have  none,  or  a 
very  remote  relation.  Hence  she  must 
be  engaged  in  frequent  controversies,  the 
causes  of  which  are  essentially  foreign 
to  our  concerns.  Hence,  therefore,  it 
must  be  unwise  in  us  to  implicate  our- 
selves by  artificial  ties,  in  the  ordinary 
vicissitudes  of  her  politics,  or  the  ordi- 
nary combinations  and  collision  of  her 
friendships  or  enmities.  Our  detached 
and  distant  situation  invites  and  en- 
ables us  to  pursue  a  different  course. 
If  we  remain  one  people  under  an  effi- 
cient government,  the  period  is  not  far 
off  when  we  may  defy  material  injury 
from  external  annoyance;  when  we  may 
take  such  an  attitude  as  will  cause  the 
neutrality  we  may  at  any  time  resolve 
upon,  to  be  scrupulously  respected ;  when 
belligerent  nations,  under  the  impossi- 
bility of  making  acquisitions  upon  us, 
will  not  lightly  hazard  the  giving  us 
provocation;  when  we  may  choose  peace 
or  war,  as  our  interest,  guided  by  jus- 
tice, shall  counsel. 

In  offering  to  you.  my  countrymen 
these  counsels  of  an  old  and  affectionate 
friend,  I  dare  not  hope  that  they  will 
make  the  strong  and  lasting  impression 
I  could  wish ;  that  they  will  control  the 
usual  current  of  the  passions,  or  prevent 
our  nation  from  running  the  course 
which  hitherto  has  marked  the  destiny 
of  nations;  but  if  I  may  even  flatter 
myself  that  they  may  be  productive  of 
some  partial  benefit;  some  occasional 
good;  that  they  may  now  and  then  recur 
to  moderate  the  fury  of  party  spirit,  to 
warn  against  the  mischiefs  of  foreign 
intrigues,  to  guard  against  the  impos- 
tures of  pretended  patriotism;  this  hope 
will  be  full  recompense  for  the  solicitude 


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for   your   welfare   by   which   they   have 
been  dictated. 

Qeobge  Washington. 

United  States,  September  17,  1796. 

Next  in  order  in  the  series  of  famous 
American  documents  is  the  *  Monroe  Doc- 
trine/ issued  in  1823  as  part  of  Presi- 
dent Monroe's  message  to  Ck>ngress  in 
that  year.  Spain  had  long  been  hav- 
ing trouble  with  her  American  colonies 
and  there  was  serious  danger  of  some  of 
the  other  nations  of  Europe  giving  her 
aid  and  receiving  American  territory  in 
exchange.  Russia  was  also  seeking  to 
extend  its  holdings  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
Under  these  threatening  circumstances 
Monroe  gave  warning  to  all  ambitious 
nations  that  the  United  States  would 
not  stand  idly  by  and  see  the  southern 
republics  seized  by  any  foreign  power. 
This  declaration  holds  good  to-day  and 
has  been  frequently  invoked  as  a  warn- 
ing to  European  powers  to  keep  off  of 
American  soil.  We  give  below  the  text 
of  this  significant  declaration  of  Amer- 
ican policy,  the  recognized  political  prin- 
ciple of  *  America  for  the  Americans.' 

THE    MONROE    DOCTRINE 

In  the  discussions  to  which  this  inter- 
est has  given  rise,  and  in  the  arrange- 
ments by  which  they  mav  terminate,  the 
occasion  has  been  deemed  proper  for  as- 
serting, as  a  principle  in  which  rights 
and  interests  of  the  United  States  are 
involved,  that  the  American  continents, 
by  the  free  and  independent  condition 
which  they  have  assumed  and  maintain, 
are  henceforth  not  to  be  considered  as 
subjects  for  future  colonization  by  any 
European  power.  .  .  .  We  owe  it,  there- 
fore, to  candor  and  to  the  amicable  rela- 
tions existing  between  the  United  States 
and  those  powers  to  declare  that  we 
should  consider  any  attempt  on  their 
part  to  extend  their  sjrstem  to  any  por- 
tion of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to 
our  peace  and  safety.  With  the  existing 
colonies  or  dependencies  of  any  £}uro- 
pean  power  we  have  not  interfered  and 
shall  not  interfere.  But  with  the  gov- 
ernments who  have  declared  their  inde- 
pendence and  maintain  it,  and  whose 
independence  we  have,  on  great  con- 
sideration and  on  Just  principles, 
acknowledged,  we  could  not  view  any 
interposition  for  the  purpose  of  oppress- 
ing them  or  controlling  in  any  other 
manner  their  destiny  by  any  European 
power  in  any  other  light  than  as  the 
manifestation  of  an  uc^riendly  disposi- 
tion toward  the  United  States. 

Though  this  doctrine  has  the  weight 


only  of  an  executive  statement,  it  has 
been  maintaiaed  as  resolutely  as  though 
it  were  a  section  of  the  Ck>nstitution,  be- 
ing invoked  on  several  occasions,  and 
especially  in  that  of  the  occupation  of 
Mexico  by  France  during  the  American 
Civil  war.  European  nations  have  rarely 
ventured  to  disregard  it,  and  never  suc- 
cessfully. 

The  most  perilous  threat  against  the 
stability  of  the  Union  came  in  later 
years,  when  the  great  controversy  be- 
tween the  advocates  of  slavery  and 
emancipation  arose.  It  led,  as  all 
know,  to  one  of  the  greatest  wars  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  the  struggle  in 
the  field  between  the  parties  which  had 
for  years  contended  on  the  rostrum.  In 
the  midst  of  this  great  war  President 
Lincoln  issued  a  proclamation  of  free- 
dom for  the  slaves  which  the  event  of 
the  war  lifted  into  the  category  of  the 
great  State  papers  of  the  United  States. 
Its  terms  have  since  been  accepted  by 
North  and  South  alike.  The  text  of 
this  proclamation  is  here  given: 

THE  EMANCIPATION  PROCLA- 
MATION 

Whereas,  On  the  twenty-second  day 
of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 
one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty- 
two,  a  proclamation  was  issued  by  tne 
President  of  the  United  States,  contain- 
ing among  other  things  the  following, 
to  wit: 

'That  on  the  first  day  of  January,  in 
the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  sixty-three,  all  persons  held 
as  slaves  within  any  State  or  designated 
part  of  a  State,  the  people  whereof  shall 
then  be  in  rebellion  against  the  United 
States,  shall  be  then,  thenceforward,  and 
forever  free;  and  the  executive  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  including  the 
military  and  naval  authority  thereof, 
will  recognize  and  maintain  the  freedom 
of  such  persons,  and  will  do  no  act  or 
acts  to  repress  such  persons,  or  any  of 
them,  in  any  efforts  tney  may  make  for 
their  actual  freedom. 

'That  the  Executive  will,  on  the  first 
day  of  January  aforesaid,  by  proclama- 
tion, designate  the  States  and  parts  of 
States,  if  any,  in  which  the  people 
thereof,  respectively,  shall  then  be  in 
rebellion  against  the  United  States;  and 
the  fact  that  any  State,  or  the  people 
thereof,  shall  on  that  day  be  in  good 
faith  represented  in  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  by  members  chosen 
thereto  at  elections  wherein  a  majority 
of  the  qualified  voters  of  such  State 
shall  have  participated,  shall,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  strong  countervailing  testimony, 


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United  States  United  States 

be  deemed  conclusive  eyidence  that  such  to  be  an  act  of  justice,  warranted  by  the 

State,  and  the  people  thereof,  are  not  Constitution  upon  military  necessity,  I 

then    in    rebellion    against    the    United  inyolce  the  considerate  judgment  of  man* 

States.'  kind  and  the  gracious  iayor  of  Almighty 

Now,  therefore,   I,  Abraham  Lincoln,  God. 
President  of  the  United  States,  by  vir- 
tue of  the  power  in  me  vested  as  com-  In  witness  whereof  I  have  hereunto 
mander-in-chief  of  the  army  and   navy  set  my  hand  and  caused  the  seal 
of  the  United  States,  in  time  of  actual  of  the  United  States  to  be  affixed, 
armed    rebellion    asainst    the    authority  Done  at  the  citr  of  Washington, 
and  government   of   the   United   States,  this  first  day  of  January,  in  the 
and  as  a  fit  and  necessary  war  measure  year  of  our  Lord   one   thousand 
for   suppressing   said    rebellion,    do,    on  eight     hundred     and     sixty-three, 
this  first  day  of  January,  in  the  year  of  and  of  the   Independence  of  the 
our   Lord   one   thousand   eight   hundred  United    States    of    America    the 
and  sixty-three,  and  in  accordance  with  eighty-seventh, 
my  purpose  so  to  do,  publicly  proclaimed  *.«.«.,,  t^^»* 
for  the  full  period  of  one  hundred  days  Abrahau  Lxncout. 
from    the    day    first    above    menttoned.  q^^  ^^j^  ^^i^f  5^t   notable  declara- 
order  and  desUmate  as  the  States  and  ^ion  from  President  Lincoln  will  suffice 
parts    of    States    wherein     the    people  ^^   ^^^^    ^his   series   of   naUonal    docu- 
thereof,  respecUvely.  are  this  day  In  re-  ^^^^^    ^  ^  y^  ^^dress  at  the  dedica- 
bellion   against   the   United   States,   the  tj^n  ^f  Gettysburg  Cemetery,  November 
following,  to  wit:  19   igQ^    j^  j^g  ^i^^^  been  regarded  as 

Aransas,    Texaj    I^uisiana    (except  ^  '^^   p^„    unsurpassed    f^   dignity 

L^t^esT^Sl'^ei;.?:!^  cte  ^^^-'^^^  '-  '^^  --^^''  ^'^^^' 
lonnrLif^efst''^^^^^^^^  LINCOLN'S  GETTYSBURG  SPEECH 
tin  and  Orleans,  including  the  city  of  Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our 
New  Orleans),  Mississippi,  Alabama,  fathers  brought  forth  upon  this  conti- 
Florida,  Georflda,  South  Carolina,  North  nent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty. 
Carolina  and  Virginia  (except  the  forty-  and  dedicated  to  the  proposition  that  all 
eight  counties  designated  as  West  Vir-  men  are  created  equal 
ginia,  and  also  the  counties  of  Berkeley,  Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  dvfl 
Accomac  Northampton,  Elizabeth  City,  war,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or  any 
York,  Princess  Anne  and  Norfolk,  in-  nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can 
eluding  the  cities  of  Norfolk  and  Ports-  long  endure.  We  are  met  on  a  great 
mouth)  ;  and  which  excepted  parts  are,  battlefield  of  that  war.  We  are  met  to 
for  the  present,  left  precisely  as  if  this  dedicate  a  portion  of  it  as  the  final  rest- 
proclamation  were  not  issued.  ing-place  of  those  who  here  gave  their 

And  by  virtue  of  the  power,  and  for  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.     It  is 

the  purpose  aforesaid,  I  do  order  and  de-  altogether    fitting   and   proper   that   we 

clare    that    all    persons    held    as    slaves  should  do  this. 

within  said  designated  States,  and  parts  But  in  a  larger  sense  we  cannot  dedi- 

of  States,  are  and  henceforward  shall  be  cate,   we  cannot  consecrate,   we  cannot 

free,  and  the  executive  government  of  the  hallow  this  ground.    The  brave  men,  liv- 

United  States,  including  the  military  and  ing  and  dead,  who  struggled  here  have 

naval  authorities  thereof,  will  recognise  consecrated  it  far  above  our  power  to  add 

and  maintain  the  freedom  of  said  per-  or  detract    The  world   will  little  note 

sons.  nor  long  remember  what  we  say  here  but 

And  I  hereby  enjoin  upon  the  people  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here, 

so  declared  to  be  free  to  abstain  from  It  is  for  us,  the  living,  rather  to  be  dedi- 

all  violence,  unless  in  necessary  self-de-  cated  here  to  the  unfinished  work  that 

fence;  and  I  recommend  to  them  that  in  they  have  thus  far  so  nobly  carried  on. 

all  cases  when  allowed,  they  labor  faith-  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated 

fully  for  reasonable  wages.  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us; 

And     I     further    declare    and    make  that  from  these  honored  dead  we  take 

known,    that   such    persons,   of   suitable  increased  devotion  to  the  cause  for  which 

condition,  will  be  received  into  the  armed  they  here  gave  the  last  full  measure  of 

service  of  the  United  States  to  garrison  devotion ;    that   we   here   hiffhlv    resolve 

forts,     positions,     stations,     and     other  that  the  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain ; 

glaoes,  and  to  man  vessels  of  all  sorts  that  the  nation  shall,  under  God,  have  a 

1  said  service.  new  birth  of  freedom,  and  that  govern- 

And  c^oo  this  act,  sincerely  believed  ment  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and 


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for  tb«  people,  ehall  not  perish  from  tbe 
•artlL 

The  poUtleal  oondidon  of  the  United 
States,  as  it  at  present  stands,  is  a  re- 
sult of  the  several  stages  of  soyem* 
mental  evolntion  above  deocribea,  and 
especially  of  the  operation  of  the  Gon- 
stitntioQ,  the  basis  of  the  Federal  Union 
of  the  States.  This  Constitution  em- 
bodies the  general  principles  of  govern- 
ment adapted  to  the  orcanisation  of  such 
a  union,  the  result  being  that  when 
particular  questions  have  arisen  in  tbe 
history  of  the  nation,  it  has  frequently 
become  the  duty  of  the  Supreme  Court 
to  decide  on  the  constitutionality  of  such 
questions.  Thus  numerous  acts  have 
been  passed  by  Congress  tbe  agreement 
of  which  with  the  Constitution  was 
doubtfuL  It  is  not  the  dutv  of  the  Su- 
preme Court  to  deal  with  such  acts  unless 
a  suit  is  brought  bv  some  party  or  par> 
ties  to  determine  their  constitutionality, 
in  which  case  the  Supreme  Court  takes 
the  matter  in  hand  and  renders  a  decision 
as  to  whether  they  are  in  harmony  with 
the  Constitution  or  the  contrary.  Such 
a  dedsion  is  final  and  by  this  means  the 
intmity  of  the  Constitution  against  dis- 
cordant acts  of  Congress  is  preserved  and 
its  exact  significance  developed.  In  this 
way  the  Supreme  Court  of  tbe  United 
States  has  become  a  great  balance  wheel 
by  the  aid  of  which  the  course  of  gov- 
ernment is  made  to  run  true.  It  may  be 
further  stated  here  that  tbe  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States  differs  from 
that  of  Qreat  Britain  in  being  a  written 
document,  inflexible  in  its  provisions, 
while  that  of  Great  Britain  is,  properly 
considered,  not  a  constitution  at  all,  but 
simply  an  aggregation  of  the  many  acts 
of  Parliament,  which  is  changed  or  added 
to  by  every  new  Parliamentarv  measure. 
The  general  organization  of  the  Federal 
republic  is  as  follows:  Tbe  powers  of 
the  national  government  are  of  broad 
and  general  scope,  embracing  those  sub- 
jects that  affect  the  country  as  a  whole 
or  pass  beyond  the  borders  of  any  single 
State,  including  the  relations  of  the  coun- 
try to  foreign  nations  and  of  tbe  States 
to  each  other.  Under  this  general  gov- 
ernmental organisation  lie  tbe  several 
States,  each  a  sovereign  commonwealth 
within  its  own  borders  and  with  ffO\  em- 
mental  control  over  all  subjects  that  re- 
late to  itself  alone,  or  to  intrastate  as 
distinct  from  interstate  interests.  Thus 
each  State  has  duties  of  importance  be- 
longing to  itself,  outside  of  tbe  jurisdic- 
tion or  the  general  government,  and  to 


deal  with  these  it 
Asntal  oifgniiatioa 


a  govern- 
on  the  model 


of  the  national  government  Each  State 
has  its  Constitution,  its  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  its  Qovemor 
(corresponding  to  the  President),  its  Su- 
preme Court,  with  duties  similar  to  those 
of  the  National  Supreme  Court,  and  in 
all  these  respects  is  a  copy  in  miniature 
of  the  Federal  governmental  organisa- 
tion. It  has  its  own  code  of  laws, 
which  is  not  operative  beyond  its  bor- 
ders, and  in  this  way  is  a  little  nation 
in  itself,  with  powers  which  cannot  be 
abrogated.  Tracing  down  the  details  of 
this  composite  scheme  of  government  we 
come  to  the  cities,  in  which  in  some 
measure  the  same  type  of  organisation  is 
preserved,  as  they  have  a  legislative  body 
of  two  branches,  and  a  Mayor  as  their 
chief  executive  oflldaL  They  lack  the 
Supreme  Court  and  their  local  govern- 
ment is  in  some  measure  under  State 
control,  but  in  various  respects  each  is  a 
Uttle  sovereignty  in  itself.  This  is 
especially  the  case  in  the  metropolitan 
city  of  New  York,  the  present  population 
of  which  exceeds  that  of  the  remainder 
of  the  State,  and  which  has  control  of 
local  interests  of  great  diversity  and  im- 
portance, in  the  management  of  which  it 
has  accumulated  a  municipal  debt  far 
greater  than  that  of  any  State  in  the 
Union  and  surpassed  only  by  the 
national  debt  of  the  countrv  as  a  whole. 
In  the  development  of  this  great 
congeries  of  self-governing  units  some 
friction  has  from  time  to  time  arisen, 
and  there  has  been  vigorous  discussion 
of  State  and  National  jurisdiction  and 
powers,  the  result  being  at  present  the 
existence  of  two  great  political  parties, 
the  Democratic  and  the  Republican,  the 
first  standhig  for  State  rights,  the  sec- 
ond favoring  a  broadening  of  the  Na- 
tional sovereignty.  While  these  parties 
difiTer  in  other  particulars,  this  funda- 
mental distinction  has  usually  been  main- 
tained, and  since  the  formation  of  the 
government  two  parties  with  these  gen- 
eral views  have  existed,  at  first  those  of 
the  Federalists  and  Anti-Federalists,  and* 
after  them  parties  with  various  names, 
but  with  this  division  of  views.  At 
present  the  tendency  seems  to  be  towards 
a  widening  of  tbe  powers  of  the  national 
government,  but  it  has  not  escaped 
vigorous  opposition  from  the  adherents 
of  the  States  rights  doctrine.  There  has 
also  recently  been  developed  a  degree  of 
friction  between  the  executive  and  the 
legislative  branches  of  the  general  gov- 
ernment, the  executive  in  some  respects 
trenching  upon  the  functions  of  the  leg- 
islative and  this  vigorously  maintaining 
its  rights  and  privileges.  There  has  also 
been  manifested  a  tendency  to  bring  the 


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great  business  orgaDizations  of  the  coun- 
try within  some  considerable  degree  of 
goyernmental  control,  under  the  plea  that 
their  vast  growth  and  power  has  made 
them  inimical  to  the  rights  of  the  public 
at  large  and  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
government  to  act  as  guardian  of  the 
industrial  rights  of  the  people. 

With  this  orief  review  of  the  status  of 
governmental  and  industrial  affairs  now 
existing  within  the  United  States  it  will 
be  of  interest  to  consider  in  some  meas- 
ure the  workings  of  the  great  Federal 
organisation  here  outlined.  In  the  pre- 
ceding artide*  on  the  subject  of  the 
United  States  in  general,  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  government  under  the  Con- 
stitution is  stated,  and  in  the  Con- 
stitution itself,  as  above  given,  may  be 
found  the  clauses  which  define  this  or- 
ganization. But  in  the  working  of  the 
government  machinery  several  adventi- 
tious departments  have  arisen,  some 
account  of  which  is  necessary  before  the 
operation  of  the  governmental  organiza- 
tion can  be  properly  understood.  This 
has  principally  to  do  with  the  great  ex- 
ecutive departments  of  the  government, 
the  series  of  officials  who  compose  the 
cabinet  of  the  President,  but  who  were 
not  provided  for  in  the  Constitution, 
having  arisen  through  the  multiplicity  of 
executive  labors. 

It  was  quickly  perceived,  in  fact,  that 
the  duties  of  the  executive  branch  of  the 
government  were  too  varied  and  numer- 
ous for  management  and  control  by  any 
one  official,  and  at  the  start  President 
Washington  was  obliged  to  call  several 
persons  to  his  aid,  the  so-called  cabinet 
officers,  at  first  consisting  of  the  Secre- 
taries of  State,  of  War,  and  of  the 
Treasury,  and  the  Attorney-General, 
appointed  in  1789.  These  had  no  official 
standing  under  the  government,  but  were 
simply  aids  to  the  President,  chosen  by 
him  and  removable  at  his  will,  yet  in- 
dispensable to  the  multitudinous  duties 
arising  in  the  conduct  of  public  affairs. 
This  continues  the  position  of  these  offi- 
cials to  the  present  day,  in  which  they 
form  the  President's  official  family  and 
;body  of  advisers,  but  possess  no  power 
beyond  that  which  the  President  chooses 
to  give  them  and  whose  advice  he  is  in 
no  respect  obliged  to  take.  From  time 
to  time  it  became  advisable  to  add  other 
officials  to  the  four  above  named.  The 
Postmaster-General  was  at  first  looked 
upon  as  a  temporary  position  only,  and 
did  not  become  permanent  until  1794,  and 
this  official  was  not  considered  a  Cabinet 
officer  until  1829.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  was  added  to  the  list  in  1798. 
The  later  additions  to  the  list  were  thoee 


of  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  1849. 
Secretary  of  Aifriculture  in  1889,  and 
Secretary  of  Commerce  in  1903,  and 
Secretary  of  Ivabor  in  1913.  Under  each 
of  these  officials  there  are  assistants  and 
a  considerable  number  of  division  and 
other  officers,  the  scone  of  departmental 
work  having  grown  wide  and  its  duties 
numerous  and  complicated  as  time  went 
on  and  the  country  grew  in  population 
and  wealth.  Members  of  the  Cabinet  re- 
ceive salaries  of  $12,000  a  year.  The 
duties  of  the  several  heads  of  depart- 
ments are  as  follows: 

Duties  of  the  Secretary  of  State. —  The 
Secretary  of  State  is  charged,  under  the 
direction  of  the  President,  with  the 
duties  appertaining  to  correspondence 
with  the  public  ministers  and  the  consuls 
of  the  United  States,  and  with  the  repre- 
sentatives of  foreign  powers  accredited 
to  the  United  States;  and  to  negotia- 
tions of  whatever  character  relating  to 
the  foreign  affairs  of  the  United  States. 
He  is  the  medium  of  correspondence  be- 
tween the  President  and  the  chief  ex- 
ecutives of  the  several  States  of  the 
United  States;  he  has  the  custody  of  the 
Great  Seal  of  the  United  States,  and 
countersigns  and  affixes  such  seal  to  all 
executive  proclamations,  to  various  com- 
missions, and  to  warrants  for  the  extra- 
dition of  fugitives  from  justice.  He  is 
regarded  as  the  first  in  rank  among  the 
members  of  the  Cabinet  He  is  the  cus- 
todian of  the  treaties  made  with  foreign 
states,  and  of  the  laws  of  the  United 
States.  He  grants  and  issues  passports, 
and  exequaturs  to  foreign  consuls  in  the 
United  States  are  issued  through  his 
office.  He  publishes  the  laws  and  resolu- 
tions of  Congress,  amendments  to  the 
Constitution,  and  proclamations  declar- 
ing the  admission  or  new  States  into  the 
Union. 

Duties  of  the  Secretory  of  the  Treas- 
ury.—  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is 
charged  by  law  with  the  management 
of  the  national  finances.  He  prepares 
plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  revenue 
and  for  the  support  of  the  public  credit; 
superintends  tne  collection  of  the  rev- 
enue, and  directs  the  forms  of  keephig 
and  rendering  public  accounts  and  of 
making  returns;  grants  warrants  for  all 
moneys  drawn  from  the  treasury  in  pur- 
suance of  appropriations  made  by  law, 
and  for  the  payment  of  monevs  into  the 
treasury;  and  annually  submits  to  Con- 
gress estimates  of  the  probable  revenues 
and  disbursements  of  the  government. 
He  also  controls  the  construction  of  pub- 
lic buildings;  the  coinage  and  printing 
of  money;  the  administration  of  the  life- 
saving,    revenue-cutter    and    the    pnbUc 


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health   and   marine-hospital   branches  of  Department    He    appoints    all    officers 

the  public  service,  and  furnishes  gener-  and  employees  of  the  department,  except 

ally  such  information  as  may  be  required  the   four   Assistant    Postmasters-General 

by  either  branch  of  Congress  on  all  mat-  and  the  purchasing  agent,  who  are  ap- 

ters   pertaining  to   the   foregoing.  pointed  by   the  President,  by  and  with 

Duties  of  the  Secretary  of  War, —  The  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate; 
Secretary  of  War  is  head  of  the  War  appoints  all  postmasters  whose  corn- 
Department,  and  performs  such  duties  pensation  does  not  exceed  $1,000;  makes 
as  are  required  of  him  by  law  or  may  be  postal  treaties  with  foreign  govem- 
enjoined  upon  him  by  the  President  con-  ments,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
cerning the  military  service.  He  is  sent  of  the  President;  awards  and  ex- 
charged  by  law  with  the  supervision  of  ecutes  contracts,  and  directs  the  man- 
all  estimates  of  appropriations  for  the  agement  of  the  domestic  and  foreign  mail 
expenses  of  the  department,  including  service.  ^  ^^  „  ^  ,  ,  „ 
the  mUltary  establishments ;  of  all  pur-  ^J*^„  of  *^«  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
chases  of  army  supplies;  of  all  expendi-  —The  Secretary  of  the  Navy  performs 
tures  for  the  support,  transportation  such  duties  as  the  President  of  the 
and  maintenance  of  the  army,  and  of  }^°.*^?^  States,  who  is  Commander-in- 
such  expenditures  of  a  civil  nature  as  Chief,  may  assign  him,  and  has  the  een- 
may  be  placed  by  Congress  under  his  «ral  superintendence  of  construction, 
direction.  He  also  has  supervision  of  manning,  armament,  equipment  and  em- 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  ployment  of  vessels  of  war. 
West  Point  and  of  military  education  in  Duties  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 
the  army,  of  the  Board  of  Ordnance  and  — The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  is 
Fortification,  of  the  various  battlefield  charged  with  the  supervision  of  public 
commissions,  and  of  the  publication  of  business  relating  to  patents  for  inven- 
the  Official  Records  of  the  War  of  the  tions;  pensions  and  bounty  lands;  the 
Rebellion.  He  has  charge  of  all  mat-  public  lands  and  survevs:  the  Indians; 
ters  relating  to  national  defense  and  sea-  ^ucation ;  the  Geological  Survey  and 
coast  fortifications,  army  ordnance,  river  Reclamation  Service;  the  Hot  Springs 
and  harbor  improvements,  the  prevention  Reservation,  Arkansas;  Yellowstone  Na- 
of  obstruction  to  navigation,  and  the  tional  Park.  Wyoming  and  the  Yosemite, 
establishment  of  harbor  lines;  and  all  Sequoia,  and  General  Grant  parks,  Cali- 
plans  and  locations  of  bridges  authorized  fomia,  and  other  national  parks;  distri- 
by  Congress  to  be  constructed  over  the  bution  of  appropriations  for  agricultural 
navigable  waters  of  the  United  States  and  mechanical  colleges  in  the  States  and 
require  his  approval  He  also  has  charge  territories ;  and  supervision  of  certain 
of  the  establishment  or  abandonment  of  hospitals  and  eleemosynary  institutions 
military  posts,  and  of  all  matters  re-  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  He  also 
lating  to  leases,  revocable  licenses,  and  exercises  certain  powers  and  duties  In 
all  other  privileges  upon  lands  nnder  the  relation  to  the  territories  of  the  United 
control  of  the  War  Department.  States. 

Duties  of  the  Attorney-Oenerdl. —  The  Duties  of  the  Secretary  of  Ayriculture, 

Attorney-General  is  the  head  of  the  De-  —  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  exercises 

partment  of  Justice  and   the  chief  law  personal   supervision   of  public  business 

officer  of  the  government.     He  represents  relating  to  the  agricultural  industry.    He 

the  United   States  in  matters  involving  appoints  all  the  officers  and  employees  of 

legal  questions;  he  gives  his  advice  and  the  department  with  the  exception  of  the 

opinion,  when  they  are  required  by  the  Assistant  Secretary  and  the  Chief  of  the 

President  or  by  the  heads  of  the  other  Weather  Bureau,  who  are  appointed  by 

Executive  Departments,  on  questions  of  the   President,  and  directs  tne  manage- 

law  arising  in  the  administration  of  their  ment  of  all  the  bureaus,  divisions,  offices, 

respective  departments ;  he  appears  in  the  and    Uie    Forest    Service,    embraced    in 

Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  the   department     He   exercises   advisory 

cases  of  especial  gravity  and  importance;  supervision  over  agricultural  experiment 

he   exercises   a   general   superintendence  stations,    which    receive    aid    from    the 

and  direction  over  United   States  attor-  National  Treasury;   has  control  of  the 

neys   and  marshals   in   all   judicial   dis-  quarantine  stations  for  imported  cattle, 

tricts  in  the  States  and  territories;  and  of  interstate  \]uarantine  rendeied  n^ces- 

he  provides  special  counsel  for  the  United  sary  by  sheep  and  cattle  diseases,  and  of 

States  whenever  required  by  any  depart-  the  inspection  of  cattle-carrying  vessels; 

ment  of  the  government.  and   directs   the   inspectioi)   of  domestic 

Duties    of    the    Postmaster^Qeneral. —  and    imported    food   products '  under   the 

The   Postmaster^eneral   has   the   direc-  meat  inspection  and  pure  food  and  drugs 

tion  and  management  of  the  Post-Office  laws.    He  Is  charged  with  tht  duty  of 


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Swuing  roles  and  regoUtions  for  the  pro- 
tection, maintenanoe,  and  care  of  the 
National  Forest  Beserres.  He  also  is 
cbarxed  with  carrying  into  effect  the  laws 
prohibiting  the  transportation  by  inter- 
state commerce  of  game  killed  in  viola- 
tion  of  local  laws  and  excluding  from  im- 
portation certain  noxious  animals,  and 
has  authority  to  control  the  importation 
of  other  animals. 

Dutie$  of  the  Secretary  of  Commerce, 
— The  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor 
is  charged  witn  the  work  of  promoting 
the  commerce  of  the  United  States,  and 
its  mining,  manufacturing,  shipping,  fish- 
ery and  transportation  interests.  His 
duties  also  comprise  the  investigation  of 
the  organisation  and  management  of  cor- 
porations (excepting  railroads)  engaged 
in  interstate  commerce;  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Lighthouse  Service,  and  the 
aid  and  protection  to  shipping  thereby; 
the  taking  of  the  census,  and  the  collec- 
tion and  publication  of  statistical  infor- 
mation connected  therewith;  the  making 
of  coast  and  geodetic  surveys ;  the  collect- 
ing of  statistics  relating  to  foreign  and 
domestic  commerce;  the  inspectlou  of 
steamboats,  and  the  enforcement  of  laws 
relating  thereto  for  the  protection  of  life 
and  property;  the  supervision  of  the 
fisheries  as  administered  by  the  Federal 
Government;  the  supervision  and  control 
of  the  Alaskan  fur  seal,  salmon  and 
other  fisheries ;  the  jurisdiction  over  mer- 
chant vessels,  their  registry,  licensing, 
measurement  entry,  clearance,  transfers, 
movement  of  their  cargoes,  and  passen- 
gers, and  laws  relating  thereto,  and  to 
seamen  of  the  United  States;  the  super- 


nese;  the  custody,  construction,  main- 
tenanoe  and  application  of  standards  of 
weights  and  measurements;  and  the 
gathering  and  supplying  of  information 
regarding  industries  and  markets  for  the 
fostering  of  manufacturing.  He  has 
power  to  call  upon  other  departments 
for  statistical  data  obtained  by  them. 

It  is  his  further  duty  to  make  such 
special  investigations  and  furnish  such 
information  to  the  President  or  Congress 
as  may  be  required  by  them  on  the  fore- 
going subject-matters  and  to  make  annual 
reports  to  Congress  upon  the  work  of 
said  denartment. 

DutieM  of  ike  Secretary  of  Labor, — 
The  Secretary  of  Labor  is  diarged  with 
fostering,  promoting  and  developinr  the 
welfare  of  the  wage-earners  of  the  United 
States;  improving  their  working  condi- 
tions and  advancing  their  opportunities 
for  profitable  employment.  He  has  power 
to  act  as  mediator  and  to  appoint  com- 
missioners of  conciliation  in  labor  dis- 
putes whenever  in  his  judgment  the  in- 
terests of  industrial  peace  may  require  it 
to  be  done.  Further,  he  is  vested  with 
authority  over  any  bureau,  office,  officer, 
board,  branch  or  division  of  public  serv- 
ice included  in  the  Department  of  Labor. 

The  act  creating  the  Department  of 
Labor,  approved  March  4.  1913,  changed 
the  name  of  the  Department  of  Com- 
nferce  and  Labor  to  the  Department  of 
Commerce.  The  Bureau  of  Labor, 
Bureau  of  Immigration,  Division  of  Na- 
turalisation and  Children's  Bureau  were 
organised  into  this  new  department 

The  Armv  of  the  United  States  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  year  of  America's 


Army  Pay  Table. 


Oaios. 


PAV  or  ornccKS  ik  activs  sxrvicx. — ^Tearlj  p*j. 


Pints 
yesri* 
tArrioe. 


After  5 
year*' 
Mrvice. 


After  10 

yean' 
•erriee. 


After  15 
yean' 
lerriee. 


After  20 
yean' 
ierrice. 


Lienttnaat-Gsaeral    . . . 

Major-Oenenl    

BrigadieT'Oenenl     . . . . 

Colonel   ih)    

Lieatensnt-Oolonel    (h) 

Major   (6)    

Oaptain     

First  liieateiiABt   

Second  Lieutenant    ... 


$11.^00 
g,000 
6,000 
4,000 
8.500 
8,000 
2,400 
2,000 
1,700 


10  p.  e. 


20  p.  c. 


80  p^  e. 


94.400 
8,850 

'8,800 
2,640 
2,200 
1,870 


14,800 
4,200 
8,600 
2,880 
2.400 
2,040 


fS.OOO 
4,500 
8,000 
8,120  .   \ 
2,600/ 
2,216 


40  p.  c 


f5,000 
4,500 
4.000 
8,860 
2,800 
2,880 


vision  of  the  inunlgimtion  of  aliens,  and  entrance  into  the  European  war  (1918)  / 
the  enforcement  of  the  laws  relating  had  a  strength  of  1,500.000  men.  The  / 
thereto,  aott  t»  the  ewlmriim  of  (M-  Army  and  Navy  pay  is  aa  per  UUe : 


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Chaplaiiii  have  the  rank  and  pay  of  $24,  nn  increase  of  $12;  over  924,  and 
major,  captain  and  first  lieutenant,  re-  less  than  $45,  an  increase  of  $8;  and 
■paetiTalj.  those  whose  base  pay  is  $45  or  more  per 


Obapb. 


PAY  or  BBTIRSD  OFriosss. — ^Yearly  pay. 


First  5 
years' 
serrice. 

After  5 
yean' 
serrice. 

After  10 
years' 
serrice. 

After  15 
years' 
service. 

After  20 
years' 
serrice. 

98,250 

93.666* 
8,150 
2,700 
2,160 
1,800 
1,580 

' 93.750  66' 
8,875.00 
2.924.40 
2,840.00 
1.950.00 
1.657.44 

6,000 

4,500 
8.000 
2,625 
2,250 
1,800 
1,500 
1,275 

'  98,800.66  * 
2,887.50 
2,475.00 
1.980.00 
1,650.00 
1,402.50 

93.756' 
8,875 
8,000 
2.520 
2.100 
1,785 

Lleutenaat-GMiarsl    . . . 

Major-Oeneral    

Brifsdier-Oenarsl    . . . . 

Ooloael   (b)    

Lieatensnt-Oolonel    ( b ) 

Major   (b)    

Captain     

First  Lieataiuuit   

Seeond   Lieutenant    ... 


(•)  Service  increase  of  pay  of  officers   month,  an  increase  of  $6  per  month. 


below   rank   of   brigadier-general   cannot 
exceed  40  per  cent  in  all. 

(I))  The  maximam  pay  of  a  colonel  is 
$6000,  of  a  lieatenant-colonel  $4500,  and 
of  a  major  $4000. 


Fir8t-cla«8  seumen  receive  $38.40  por 
month  ;  Rcumcu  frunners,  $36.60 ;  firemen, 
first  clasH,  $46.50;  musicinns.  first  cln.«s, 
$43.20;  seoond-olass  seamen,  $35.00; 
third-class    seamen.    $32.60.      First-class 


Navy  Piy  TaUs. 


Baitk. 


Admiral    

Rear-Admirala,  first  9 

Rear-Admirala,  seoond 
aina    

Brifad'r-GaneraltOom- 
mandant  Marine 
Corps    

Captains     

Commanders     

Lieutenant  •  Command* 
•rs    

Lieutenants    

Lieutenants  (Junior 
Grade)    

Basigns     

Chief  Boatswains. 
Chief  Gunners,  Ch'f 
Carpenters,  Chief 
Sail-makers     

Midshipmen  (at  Naval 
Aeademy)    


Atl 


$14,850 
8.800 

6.600 


6.600 
4.400 
8.850 

8.800 
3.640 

S.200 
1.870 


1,870 
600 


Cn  Shor^ 
Duty. 


$18,600 
8.000 

6,000 


6.000 
4.000 
8.500 

8.000 
2.400 

2.000 
1,700 


1.700 
600 


Rank. 


Midshipmen  (after 
graduation) 

Mates    

Medical  and  Pay  Di- 
rectors and  Inspec- 
tors having  the  same 
rank  at  sea 

Fleet  •  Surgeons  and 
Fleet-Paymasters   . . 

Surgeons  and  Pay- 
masters      

(Thaplains     

Professors  and  Civil 
Engineers   


Kaval  Constructors. 


At  Sea. 


$1,400 
1.500 


4,400 

4.400 

8.800 
2.200 

to 
4,400 
2,640 

to 
4,400 
2,640 

to 
4,400 


On  Shore 
Duty. 


$1,400 
1,125 


4,000 

4,000 

8,000 
2,000 

to 
4,000 
3.400 

to 
4,000 
2.400 

to 
4,000 


The  pay  of  non-commissioned  officers  is 
from  $40.20  to  $96  per  month,  and  of 
privates  from  $33  to  $36.60  per  month. 

The  Act  of  Congress  of  May  22,  1917, 
provided  that  commencing  June  1,  1917, 
and  continuing  until  six  months  after  the 
war,  all  enlisted  men  of  the  navy  of  the 
United  States  whose  base  pay  does  not 
exceed  $21  per  month  shall  receive  an  in- 
crease of  $15  per  month;  those  virhose 
base  pay  ia  over  $21,  and  not  exceeding 


petty  officers  receive  from  $47.60  to 
$77.50 ;  second-class,  from  $46.50  to  $52 ; 
third-class,  $41.  Chief  petty  officers  re- 
ceive from  $61  to  $83  per  month,  present 
war  pay.  In  the  messmeo  branch  attend- 
ants receive  from  $32.60  to  $41;  cooks 
from  $41  to  $61 ;  stewards  to  com- 
manders in  chief  and  commandants,  $72; 
cabin  and  wardroom  stewards,  $6^1 ;  other 
stewards,  $46.50. 


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Hospital  apprentices  receive  from 
$20.90  to  $26.40  per  mouth;  pharmacista* 
mates,  from  $38.50  to  $44 ;  cliief  pharma- 
cists' mates,  acting  appointment,  $66; 
chief  pharmacists*  mates,  permanent  ap- 
pointment, $77  per  month. 

The  organization  of  the  legislative 
branch  of  the  government  is  as  follows: 

The  Senate. —  Two  Senators  are 
elected  by  the  legislature  of  each  State 
for  terms  of  six  years  each.  Each  Sena- 
tor must  be  thirty  years  or  over  of  a^e, 
and  must  have  been  for  at  least,  nine 
years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 
He  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  State  from 
which  he  is  chosen,  and  cannot,  while  in 
the  Senate,  hold  any  civil  position  under 
the  government  nor  act  as  a  Presidential 
elector.  He  is  elected  in  the  following 
manner:  The  election  takes  place  on  the 
second  Tuesday  after  the  organization  of 
the  legislature  chosen  next  before  the  ex- 

firation  of  the  preceding  senatorial  term, 
n  each  house  of  the  legislature  the  mem- 
bers present,  by  a  viva  voce  vote,  the 
name  of  a  person  or  persons  for  Senator, 
and  the  name  of  the  person  receiving  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  is  entered  upon 
the  journal  of  that  house.  At  noon  on 
the  next  day  the  members  of  both  houses 
meet  in  a  joint  session,  at  which  the 
journals  of  Uie  two  bodies  are  read,  and 
If  the  same  person  received  a  majority  of 
the  votes  in  both  houses  he  is  declared 
elected  Senator.  However,  if  no  person 
receives  such  majorities,  the  members  in 
joint  session  proceed  by  a  viva  voce  vote 
to  choose  a  Senator,  a  majority  of  all 
the  members  being  necessary  for  an  elec- 
tion. If  such  a  majority  is  not  secured 
at  the  first  session,  the  two  houses  meet 
Jointly  at  noon  on  each  succeeding  legis- 
lative day  and  take  at  least  one  ballot 
for  Senator  until  one  is  elected  or  the 
legislature  adjourns.  If  a  vacancy  in 
the  representation  of  any  State  in  the 
Senate  occurs  by  reason  of  death  or 
otherwise,  sudi  vacancy  is  filled  by  the 
legislature  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
Senator  is  regularly  elected.  But  if 
such  vacancy  should  occur  during  a  re- 
cess of  the  legislature,  or  if  the  legisla- 
ture should  adjourn  without  electing  a 
Senator,  the  governor  of  such  State  may 
fill  the  vacancy  by  a  temporary  appoint- 
ment until  a  Senator  is  elected  at  the 
next  session  of  the  legislature.  This 
method  has  been  varied  in  one  imjnortant 
particular  since  the  passage  in  191^  of  the 
XVII  amendment  to  the  Constitution ; 
Senators  being  now  chosen  by  direct  vote 
of  the  people.  This  important  function  is 
thus  taken  from  the  legislature. 
House  of  Representatives, — ^The  House 


of  Representatives  is  composed  of  mem- 
bers chosen  each  two  years  by  the  people 
of  the  several  States.  The  number  of 
members  depend  upon  the  pojpulation  of 
the  States,  each  one  representing  a  fixed 
number  of  inhabitants,  varying  after 
each  census.  As  fixed  under  the  1910 
census  the  total  number  of  members  is 
436,  including  three  from  the  new  States 
of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  admitted  in 
1912,  there  being  one  for  each  211,877  of 
population. 

Qualifications, — ^A  Representative  must 
have  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty-five 
years  and  have  been  seven  years  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States.  He  must  be  an  in- 
habitant of  the  State  from  which  he  is 
chosen  and  cannot  hold  an^  civil  office 
under  the  United  States  during  his  term 
of  office  nor  serve  as  a  Presidential 
Elector.  By  custom  he  is  a  resident  of 
the  district  from  which  he  is  chosen. 

Election. —  The  number  of  Representa- 
tives to  which  each  State  is  entitled  is 
determined  by  Congress  after  each  decen- 
nial census.  Congress  has  fixed  the  time 
of  their  election  as  the  *  Tuesday  next 
after  the  first  Monday  in  November*  in 
every  even-numbered  year.  In  States  en- 
titled to  more  than  one  Representative, 
they  are  elected  by  *  districts  composed 
of  contiguous  territory  and  containing 
as  nearly  as  possible  an  eciual  number  of 
inhabitants,'  which  districts  are  deter- 
mined and  the  boundaries  fixed  by  the 
legislatures  of  the  States.  When,  in  a 
reapportionment,  a  State's  representation 
is  increased,  the  additional  Representa- 
tives are  chosen  by  vote  of  the  whole 
State,  until  the  State  is  redistricted. 
They  are  called  Representatives  or  Con- 
gressmen-at-Large. 

Judicial  Branch  of  the  Oovemment, — 
The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States 
is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  nine  Cir- 
cuit Courts,  nine  Circuit  Courts  of 
Appeal,  eighty-six  District  Courts,  and 
a  Court  of  Claims.  Judges  of  the  United 
States  courts  are  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent with  the  consent  of  the  Senate  and 
serve  during  good  behavior. 

The  Supreme  Court  is  composed  of  a 
Chief  Justice,  and  eight  Associate  Jus- 
tices. The  court  sits  at  Washington,  and 
holds  one  session  annually,  commencing 
on  the  second  Monday  in  October. 

The  United  States  is  divided  into  nine 
judicial  circuits.  To  each  circuit  the 
Supreme  Court  allots  one  of  its  justices, 
who  must  attend  at  least  one  term  of 
such  court  in  every  two  years.  For  each 
circuit  there  are  also  appointed  two  or 
more  circuit  judges.  The  Circuit  Court 
sits  twice  a  year  in  each  district  within 
the  circuit 


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The  Circuit  CJourts  of  Appeal  are  nine 
in  number  and  were  created  for  the  pur- 
pose of  relieving  the  Supreme  Court  of 
certain  classes  of  appeals.  A  Circuit 
Court  of  Appeals  consists  of  three 
judges,  two  of  whom  form  a  quorum.  It 
IS  held  by  the  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  allotted  to  that  circuit  and  two 
circuit  judges,  but  a  district  judge  is 
also  competent  to  act.  No  judge,  how- 
ever, can  hear  a  case  in  the  Circuit  Court 
of  Appeal  at  the  trial  of  which  he  pre- 
sided in  the  District  or  Circuit  Court 

Congress  has  set  apart  each  State  as 
a  judicial  district,  except  in  case  of  the 
more  populous  States,  which  are  divided 
into  two  or  more  districts.  There  are 
eighty-six  judicial  districts  in  the  States 
and  territories.  There  are  one  or  more 
resident  judges  in  each  district  and  the 
court  is  held  by  a  district  judge. 

The  Court  of  Claims  consists  of  a 
Chief  Joatice  and  four  Associate  Judges. 

The  State  governments  are  organized 
in  the  following  manner: 

The  Bmeouiive  Department — At  the 
head  of  this  department  is  the  Governor, 
elected  by  the  people,  for  a  term  of  one 
to  four  years.  It  is  his  duty  to  see  that 
the  laws  are  executed.  He  may  call  to 
his  assistance  judges  and  gherifiFs  and,  in 
case  of  need,  the  militia  of  the  State. 
When  public  business  is  conducted  with 
another  State,  the  Governor  acts  in  the 
name  of  the  State.  He  sends  a  message 
to  the  legislature  at  the  opening  of  its 
session,  informing  it  of  the  conditions 
throughout  the  state,  and  in  time  of 
pressing  need  may  call  the  legislature  in 
extra  session. 

In  many  States  the  Governor  has  the 
power  to  pardon  criminals,  or  commute 
their  punishment.  He  appoints  many 
officers  and  in  some  States  he  appoints 
Che  judges  of  the  State  courts.  Most  of 
the  States  elect  a  Lieutenant-Governor  to 
serve  when  the  Governor  is  unable  to  be 
at  his  post.  He  acts  as  the  President 
of  the  State  Senate.  The  Secretary  of 
State,  sometimes  elected,  sometimes  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governor,,  is  the  highest 
clerk  of  the  executive  department  The 
State  Comptroller  or  Auditor  manages 
the  financial  business  of  the  State  gov- 
ernment. The  State  Treasurer  is  the 
custodian  of  the  funds  of  the  State,  which 
he  disburses  only  on  orders  from  the  offi- 
cers designated  by  law.  The  Attorney- 
General  is  the  law  officer  of  the  State. 
The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instmc- 
tion  is  the  head  of  the  school  system  of 
the  State. 

In  addition  to  these  officers,  which  are 
found  in  almost  every  State  there  are  in 

15  10 


many  States  other  executive  officers  and 
boards  whose  duties  are  very  important, 
such  as  the  Insurance  Commissioner, 
the  Board  of  Railroad  Commissioners, 
the  Inspector  of  Factories,  the  Liquor 
License  Commissioners,  the  Board  of 
Charities,  the  Board  of  Health,  the  Tax 
Commissioner,  the  Board  of  Pardons, 
the  Superintendent  of  Banlcs,  the  Board 
of  Medical  Examiners,  the  Commissioner 
of  Agriculture  and  the  Board  of  Public 
Works. 

The  Leffislative  Department, —  The 
legislature  of  a  State  is  always  divided 
into  two  branches  —  a  Senate  and  a 
House  of  Representatives.  In  some 
States  the  lower  house  is  called  the  As- 
sembly, in  others  the  House  of  Delegates, 
in  New  Jersey  the  General  Assembly. 
In  many  of  the  States  the  whole  legis- 
lature is  called  the  General  Assembly. 
Both  the  Senate  and  the  lower  house  are 
representative  bodies.  The  counties  or 
towns  and  cities  are  represented  in  the 
lower  house  according  to  population,  de- 
termined by  a  census  taken  every  five  or 
ten  years.  The  State  is  divided  into 
senatorial  districts  from  each  of  which 
a  senator  is  elected.  The  minimum  age 
for  senators  is  generally  higher  than  for 
representatives,  and  their  term  is  usu- 
ally longer. 

The  State  legislature  may  not  pass 
any  law  contrarv  to  the  Constitution  of 
the  State  nor  of  the  United  States.  It 
grants  charters  for  the  government  of 
cities,  boroughs  and  villages;  and  for 
the  organization  of  railroad  companies, 
banks,  colleges,  and  many  other  public 
and  private  institutions.  It  makes  lawi^ 
governing  the  public  schools.  It  defines 
the  boundaries  of  counties  and  towns. 
It  makes  laws  concerning  property,  real 
and  personal.  It  makes  laws  concerning 
the  social  relations,  marriages,  divorces, 
etc.  It  makes  laws  regulating  the  man- 
ner of  holding  elections  and  the  oualifi- 
cations  of  voters.  It  re^^ulates  railroads, 
and  other  public  utilities  operating 
within  the  State.  It  regulates  manu- 
facturing, trading,  mining,  agriculture, 
hunting,  fishing,  etc 

The  Judicial  Department, —  The  lowest 
court  is  conducted  by  a  justice  of  the 
peace  or  magistrate,  who  acts  in  the 
name  of  the  State.  He  renders  deci- 
sions only  in  small  and  unimportant 
cases.  The  next  court  is  called  the  Cir- 
cuit Court,  the  District  Court,  the  Su- 
perior Court,  the  Supreftie  Court  or  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas.  This  court 
sits  in  the  courthouse  at  the  county 
seat  The  same  judge  may  serve  in 
several  counties.  The  judges  are  gener- 
ally elected,  hot  in  some  States  appointed 


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) 


by  the  Governor.  Appeals  from  the 
lower  court  are  taken  to  the  Supreme 
Court,  or  Court  of  Appeals,  the  highest 
court  of  the  State.  It  usually  meets  at 
the  capital  of  the  Stale.  In  some  States 
there  is  an  intermedin  te  court  between 
the  lower  and  hlffher,  which  hears  ap- 
peals in  certain  classes  of  cases. 

The  District  of  Colufubia. —  The  mu- 
nicipal government  of  t  e  District  of 
Columbia  is  vested  by  act  of  Congress 
approved  June  11.  1878»  in  tiiree  Com- 
missioners, two  of  whom  are  appointed 
by  the  President  from  citiiens  of  the 
District  having  had  three  years'  resi- 
dence therein  immediately  preceding  that 
appointment,  anC  confirmed  by  the  Sen- 
ate. The  other  Commissioner  is  detailed 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States 
from  the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the 
United  States  Army,  and  must  have 
lineal  rank  senior  to  captain,  or  be  a 
captain  who  has  served  at  least  fifteen 
years  in  the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the 
Army.  The  Commissioners  appoint  the 
subordinate  official  service  of  said  gov- 
ernment, except  the  Board  of  ESducaaon, 
which  is  appointed  by  the  Supreme  Court 
•f  the  District  of  Columbia. 

County  Oovemment. —  Every  State 
and  territory  is  divided  into  counties 
(in  Louisiana  called  parishes).  In  the 
Southern  States  and  in  many  of  the 
Western  States  the  county  —  outside  of 
towns  and  cities  —  assumes  most  of  the 
functions  of  local  government.  Each 
county  has  a  county  seat  where  the  pub- 
lic business  is  transacted.  Most  of  this 
business  is  done  by  a  ^Vmrd  of  County 
Commissioners  or  Supervisors,  called  in 
some  States  the  county  court;  in  others 
the  levy  court,  because  it  levies  the  taxes. 
There  are  no  County  Commissioners  in 
Rhode  Island. 

As  a  rule  the  County  Commissioners 
fix  the  rate  of  taxation  for  the  county, 
appropriate  money  for  the  payment  of 
the  salaries  of  county  officers  and  to  meet 
the  other  expenses  of  county  government, 
make  contracts  for  building  and  repair- 
ing roads  and  bridges,  appoint  subordi- 
nate county  officials,  and  represent  the 
county  in  the  courts  when  it  Is  sued  for 
damages. 

At  every  county  seat  one  or  more 
judges  sit  for  the  trial  of  cases.  These 
judges  are  generally  State  officers,  but 
they  receive  the  assistance  of  several 
county  officers.  The  Sheriff  carries  out 
the  orders  of  the  judge.  He  has  the 
custody  of  prisoners,  executes  the  death 
penalty,  sells  property  and  preserves 
peace  and  order.  When  necessary  he 
may  call  to  his  aid  deputies  or  helpers. 
The    Prosecuting   Attorn^,   called   also 


the  State's  Attorney,  the  District  Attor^ 
ney,  the  County  Attorney,  or  the  Solic- 
itor, appears  in  the  county  court  and 
presents  the  case  against  a  criminal. 
The  Coroner  takes  charge  of  the  body  of 
a  person  found  dead  or  who  dies  mys- 
teriously, and  inquires  into  the  cause  of 
death.  If  foul  play  is  suspected,  be  im- 
panels a  jury  and  holds  an  '  inquest.' 
In  some  States  in  case  of  a  vacancy  by 
death,  resignation  or  inability  to  act  of 
the  sheriff  he  assumes  the  duties  of  that 
office.  The  Clerk  of  the  County  Court 
or  Prothonotary  keeps  the  records  of  the 
county  court  In  some  States  he  keeps 
a  record  of  deeds  and  mortgages,  issues 
marriage  certificates  and  records  births 
and  deaths. 

The  above  officers  are  found  in  almost 
every  State;  in  many  States  there  are 
also  a  County  Treasurer,  County  Audi- 
tor, County  Assessors,  County  Tax  Col- 
lectors, Register  or  Recorder  of  Deeds 
and  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

The  Probate  or  Orphans*  Court — In 
Qeorgia  the  judee  of  this  court  is  called 
'  Ordinary ' ;  in  New  York  and  New  Jer- 
sey *  Surrogate.' 

Townahip  Oovemment. —  In  the  Mid- 
dle Atlantic  and  Middle  Western  States, 
township  government  is  organized.  It 
usually  supposts  public  schools,  cares  for 
public  roa(&,  and  helps  the  poor.  In 
many  States  it  levies  and  collects  taxes 
for  these  purposes.  The  township  offi- 
cers vary  greatly  in  different  states. 
The  more  usual  ones  are  the  Supervisor 
or  Trustee,  who  cares  for  roads  and 
bridges;  the  School  Directors,  who  con- 
trol the  public  schools;  the  Township 
Clerk,  the  Assessors,  the  Tax  Collector, 
the  Auditors,  the  Constable,  who  assists 
the  justice  of  the  peace  and  is  the  peace 
officer  of  the  township,  and  the  Overseers 
of  the  Poor. 

Town  Oovemment* — The  town  as  a 
politiod  organization  is  characteristic 
of  the  New  England  States.  It  cor- 
responds in  effect  to  the  townships 
elsewhere,  being  partly  rural,  and  con- 
taining villages,  all  combined  into  one 
political  group.  Its  most  important  fea- 
ture is  the  town-meeting,  composed  of  all 
citizens  and  usually  held  once  a  year  in 
the  town  hall.  At  this  meeting  the  rate 
of  taxation  Is  fixed,  money  is  appropri- 
ated, by-laws  are  passed,  and  town  offi- 
cers are  elected.  The  principal  officers 
are:  The  Selectmen,  who  carry  into 
effect  the  measures  adopted  at  the  town 
meeting;  the  Town-clerk,  who  keeps  the 
records;  the  Assessors;  the  Tax-collec- 
tor; the  Town-treasurer;  the  Overseers 
of  the  Poor;  the  Constable;  the  Sur- 
veyor of  Highwayst  who  keeps  roads  and 


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ITniversal  Language 


bridges  in  repair;  the  Fence-viewers, 
who  settle  disputes  over  boundaries,  and 
the  Field-driver,  or  Pound-keeper,  who 
takes  charge  of  stray  animals. 

Village  or  Borough  Qovemmeni, —  In 
thickly  settled  communities  a  village  or 
borough  may  be  organized  under  a  char- 
ter from  the  State.  It  usually  has  a 
President  or  Mayor  or  Chief  Burgess 
and  a  body  of  Trustees,  Ck)mmi8sioner8. 
Councilmen  or  Burgesses,  who  pass  local 
laws  or  ordinances,  levy  taxes,  and  pro- 
vide  for  police  and  fire  protection,  street 
paving,  sewerage,  etc;  and  School  Di- 
rectors, who  provide  for  the  needs  of  the 
schools.  It  may  also  have  a  Clerk,  a 
Treasurer,  Assessors,  a  Tax  Collector,  a 
Constable   and  a   Street  Commissioner. 

City  Oovemment. —  When  the  village 
or  borough  grows  to  a  large  size,  it  be- 
comes a  city;  it  is  still  organized  under 
a  charter  from  the  State,  but  with 
broader  functions  and  greater  powers. 
The  city  always  has  two  departments  — 
executive  and  legislative — the  judicial 
department  being  a  part  of  the  State  gov- 
ernment 

The  Mayor  Is  the  executive  officer  of 
the  city.  His  powers  and  functions  vary 
greatly.  He  ha  nearly  always  elected  by 
the  people,  but  in  a  few  cases  is  chosen 
by  the  City  Council.  His  term  of  office 
varies  from  one  to  four  vears.  His  chief 
duty  is  to  carry  out  the  ordinances  of 
the  Council.  In  most  cities  he  can  veto 
an  ordinance,  but  it  can  be  passed  over 
his  veto  by  a  two-thirds  or  three-fourths 
vote. 

The  City  Council  is  the  legislative  de- 
partment of  the  city.  In  large  cities  it 
often  has  two  branches,  whose  members 
are  called  Aldermen  and  Councilmen,  or 
Select  and  Common  Councilmen.  These 
members  are  usually  elected  by  wards. 
They  meet  in  the  city  hall  and  make 
laws,  called  ordinances,  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  city.  Their  powers  and 
limitations  are  defined  by  the  State  legis- 
lature. 

The  Commission  Plan. — In  many  cities 
of  the  country,  more  than  300  in 
number,  the  '  Commission  *  plan  of  city 
government  has  been  adopted.  The  com- 
mission consists  of  a  Mayor  and  a  small 
body  of  Councilmen  or  Aldermen,  each 
the  head  of  a  department,  and  all  elected 
by  the  whole  body  of  voters  without  re- 
gard to  wards  or  precincts  and  usually 
without  regard  to  party.  The  commis- 
sion both  makes  the  laws  and  executes 
them.  The  Mayor  is  chairman  of  the 
commission  but  does  not  have  the  veto 
power. 

tTiiivfl.1vfe  (a'ni-vtlv) ,  a  moUuflC  with 
umvadve    ^  ^^  compoeed  of  a  gis- 


gle  piece.  The  univalves  include  most 
of  the  Gasteropoda,  as  laad-snails,  sea- 
snails,  whelks,  limpets,  etc  The  major- 
ity of  univalve  shells  are  cone-shaped 
and  spiral. 


BfllMl. 


BodjirhtA 


Univalvjc  SHXX.L  OF  Buecinum  undatum. 

A,  Apex.  B,  Base,  o,  Aperture,  d,  Aii> 
terior  canal,  x,  Poiterior  canaL  F,  Inner 
lip,  pillar  lip,  columellar  lip  or  labinm.  o, 
Outer  lip  or  labrum.  dfcg,  Peristome  or 
margin  of  aperture,  w,  Whorli  or  volutions, 
s,  Suturei,  or  line*  of  aeparation.  v,  Variz. 
— ^The  last  whorl  of  the  ihelL  usually  much 
larger  iimn  the  rest,  it  called  the  'body 
whorl,'  the  rest  of  the  volutions  constitute 
the  *  spire.' 

Universalist  ^l;£kir'^"'2k^ 

according  to  the  'profession  of  belief 
as  adopted  in  1803,  at  Winchester,  New 
Hampshire,  by  the  New  England  Con- 
vention, believes  in  the  Holy  Scriptures; 
in  one  God,  whose  nature  is  love,  re- 
vealed in  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  by  one 
Holy  Spirit  of  Grace,  who  will  finally 
restore  the  whole  family  of  mankind  to 
holiness  and  happiness;  that  believers 
ought  to  be  careful  to  maintain  order 
and  practice  good  works,  as  holiness  and 
true  happiness  are  inseparably  connected. 
The  system  of  government  is  a  modified 
Presbyterianism.  The  general  convfen- 
tion,  held  annually,  consists  of  clerical 
and  lay  delegates  f^m  each  State  con- 
vention. There  are  in  the  United  States 
about  900  churches  and  66,000  members. 

Universal  language,  JJ^SSIHS 

serve  as  a  medium  of  commercial  com- 
munication for  all  countries,  with  the 
possibilitv  of  its  eventually  superseding 
all  existing  languages.  Such  languages 
have  been  partly  or  fully  worked  out  at 
various  times,  as  by  Urquhart,  Dalgamo, 
Wilkins,  Leibnitas,  and  various  others  in 
the  past,  and  in  Volapfik  and  Esperanto 
of  recent  times.  Vigorous  efforts  have 
been  made  to  get  these  two  artificial 
languages  adopted,  but  as  yet  with  little 
prospect  of  success.  Figedn  JBnoUih  and 
the  IrtN^  Fronca  of  the  liedi&rbuitai 


( 


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tTniversal  Prime  Meridian 


TJnivenity  Settlements 


are  partial  and  spontaneous  efforts  in  the 
same  direction. 

Universal   Prime   Meridian, 

in  astronomy,  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich, adopted  at  an  international  con- 
ference of  scientific  men,  held  at  Wash- 
ington. D.  C.  in  1883.  While  adopted  by 
the  other  principal  countries,  it  was  not 
adopted  by  France  until  1911.  but  is  now 
in  use  throughout  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  Universal  time,  for  international 
purposes,  was  adopted  at  the  conference 
above  named.  It  is  reckoned  from  mean 
noon  at  the  Universal  Prime  Meridian, 
the  day  commencing  at  midnight,  and 
being  divided  into  24  (instead  of  into 
two  portions  of  12)  hours  each. 
University  (ft-ni-jer'si-ti),  a  corpo- 
«'  rate  body  or  corporation 
established  for  the  purposes  of  instruc- 
tion in  all  or  some  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  literature  and  science,  and 
having  the  power  of  conferring  certain 
honorary  dignities,  termed  degree^y  in 
several  faculties,  as  arts,  medicine,  law, 
theology  and  others.  In  most  cases  the 
corporations  constituting  universities  in- 
clude a  body  of  teachers  or  professors 
for  ffiving  instruction  to  students;  but 
this  is  not  absolutely  essential  to  a  uni- 
versity, the  staff  of  London  University, 
for  instance,  being  merely  an  examining 
body.  In  the  middle  ages,  when  the 
term  began  to  be  used  m  reference  to 
seminaries  of  learning,  it  denoted  either 
the  whole  bodv  of  teachers  and  learners, 
or  the  whole  body  of  learners,  with  cor- 
porate rights  and  under  by-laws  of  their 
own,  divided  either  according  to  the 
faculty  to  which  they  were  attached,  or 
according  to  the  country  to  which  they 
belonged  (hence  the  'nations*  into 
which  the  students  were  classed,  and 
which  still  exist  in  some  universities). 
At  a  later  period  the  expression  uni- 
verB%ta9  literarum  (the  whole  of  literature 
or  learning),  was  used  to  indicate  that  all 
the  most  important  branches  of  knowl- 
edge were  to  be  taught  in  these  estab- 
lishments. Some,  forming  their  notion 
of  a  university  from  the  universities  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge,  suppose  that  it 
necessarily  means  a  collection  and  union 
of  colleges,  that  it  is  a  great  corporation 
smbodying  In  one  certain  smaller  and 
iubordinate  collegiate  bodies;  but  this 
is  not  correct,  for  many  universities  exist 
in  which  there  are  no  colleges.  The 
oldest  of  the  European  universities  were 
those  of  Bologna  and  Paris,  and  these 
formed  the  models  on  which  most  of  the 
other  earlv  universities  were  established, 
a  papal  bull  being  generally  regarded 
as  necessary  ta  tl^    The  United  StotM 


possesses  the  largest  number  of  institu- 
tions bearing  the  name  of  universities, 
but  a  large  proportion  are  sectarian,  and 
may  represent  only  a  single  faculty,  and 
in  no  proper  sense  deserve  the  name. 
For  the  chief  universities  see  under 
separate  heads,  and  refer  to  the  articles 
on  the  different  countries. 

tTnivenity  CoUege,  f^^f^  £[ 

stitutlon  belonging  to  a  university,  or 
such  as  mi^ht  belong  to  a  university. 
The  University  College,  London,  is  close- 
ly connected  with  London  University. 
(See  London^  University  of,)  The 
name  is  given  especially  to  three  of  the 
four  colleges  which  are  intended  to  form 
a  Welsh  University,  viz.  the  VniverHty 
College  of  Walet  at  Abervstwith,  Unl- 
veraitg  College  of  South  Wales  at  Car^ 
dlff,  and  the  University  CoUege  of  North 
Walet  at  Bangor.  The  students  of 
these  colleges,  proceeding  to  degrees,  have 
to  go  through  a  course  at  either  London, 
Dublin,  Edinburgh,  or  Glasgow.  The 
University  College  of  Oxford  is  the 
oldest  of  its  colleges,  founded  about  1253. 

University  Extension,  *  e"  t''^ 

progress  to  extend  the  means  of  higher 
education  to  persons  of  all  classes  and 
of  both  sexes  engaged  in  the  regular 
occupations  of  life.  Anv  community  may 
avail  itself  of  the  privileges  by  forming 
a  local  committee,  which  provides  the 
necessary  funds  and  fixes  fees,  etc.  The 
mode  of  instruction  consists  In  courses 
of  lectures  by  specialist  graduates  of  the 
universities,  each  lecture  being  preceded 
or  followed  by  a  class,  in  which  the 
students  are  orally  examined  by  the 
lecturer,  who  also  corrects  written 
papers  done  at  home.  An  examination 
is  held  at  the  end  of  each  course  and 
certificates  awarded.    The  movement  be- 

gan  in  1872  with  Cambridge  University, 
ut  Oxford  did  not  go  heartily  into  it 
till  1885.  The  movement  has  extended 
widely  in  Britain  and  in  1890  reached 
the  United  States,  where  there  has  de- 
veloped a  liberally  conducted  movement 
for  university  extension,  spreading  from 
Philadelphia  as  a  center  to  many  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  being  established 
mainly  in  connection  with  colleges  and 
universities.  A  well-developed  plan  has 
been  evolved  by  which  institutions  of 
learning  in  every  section  are  enabled  to 
share  in  the  benefits  of  the  movement 
and  to  extend  them  to  others. 

University  Settlements,    j^^'^jgj 

poor  districts  of  cities  where  educated 
men  and  women  live  and-  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  poorer  classes  for  social 


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(Jnterwalden 


Tlrsmia 


edacational  and  civic  purposeA.  These 
■ettlements  provide  dubs,  and  offer  a 
home  and  recreation  for  poor  workers. 
Children  are  taken  care  of  and  have 
many  amusements,  all  with  a  view  to 
waken  in  them  a  desire  for  better  things 
and  right  living.  The  first  settlement  m 
the  United  States  was  founded  in  New 
York  city  September  1,  1889,  by  the  grad- 
uates of  several  women's  colleges.  It  has 
since  extended  to  all  the  large  cities  of 
the  country,  Hull  House,  Chicago, 
opened  in  the  same  month  with  the 
New  York  settlement,  being  one  of  the 
most  notable  examples. 

wMvwATVMA««.wu.  g^igg  canton,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Vierwaldstfttter  Lake, 
on  the  east  by  mountains  which  separate 
it  from  Uri,  on  the  south  by  Bern,  and 
on  the  west  by  Lucerne;  area,  295  sq. 
miles.  It  is  divided  into  two  valleys, 
Upper  and  Lower  (Obwalden  and  Nid- 
walden),  bv  a  forest  called  Kemwald, 
and  these  districts  being  also  politically 
distinct,  send  each  one  representative  to 
the  Swiss  Council.  The  chief  town  of 
Obwald  is  Samen,  and  of  Nidwald, 
SUnz.  Pop.  28.000.  Both  cantons  are 
almost  entirely  Roman  Catholic. 
TTnvftro  (3-ny6'r0),  a  district  of  Bqua- 
uu/uru  ^^^j^,  Africa,  lying  to  the  west 
and  north  of  Uganda,  to  which  it  is 
tributary,  and  stretching  to  the  Nile. 

TTpanishads  iferS^ui;.  1i  ^T. 

given  to  a  series  of  treaties  or  com- 
mentaries on  the  Vedic  hymns,  the  con- 
tents of  which  are  partly  ritualistic, 
partly  speculative.  They  are  of  different 
dates,  some  of  them  being  as  old  as  sev- 
eral centuries  b.c. 


Upai  Tree  (AntiarU  toxiearia). 


llDftfl  (tt'pas),  a  tree  common  in  the 
w^c»o  fQi^g^g  Qf  Java,  and  of  some  of 
the  neiffhborinff  islands,  and  found  also 
in  tropical  Africa.  It  is  a  species  of 
the  genua  Antiom  (A*  UMricaria)^  aat 


order  Artocarpacee.  Many  exaggerated 
stories  were  formerly  current  concerning 
the  deadly  properties  of  this  plant,  its 
exhalations  being  said  to  be  fatal  to  both 
animal  and  vegetable  life  at  several 
miles  distance  from  the  tree  itself.  The 
truth  is,  that  the  upas  is  a  tree  which 
yields  a  poisonous  secretion  and  nothing 
more. 

Tlliemivilc  (5-per'ne-vik),  the  most 
upciiiivuk  northerly  of  the  Danish  I 
settlements  in  Greenland,  on  an  island! 
off  the  west  coast,  in  lat.  72"  48'  N. 
It  has  long  been  a  place  of  call  for 
arctic  expeditions. 
Upholsterer-bee.   ®^  Carpenter-hee. 

TJdoIu  <^P^-lS')f  the  chief  of  the  Sa- 
vyvAu.  m^jj^n  group  of  islands  in  the 
South  Pacific.  It  is  about  150  miles  in 
circumference,  and  cotton  and  cocoa-nut 
oil  are  its  principal  products.  Apia  is 
the  capital.  It  belongs  to  Germany. 
Pop.  19,842. 

Upper  Senegal-Niger,  ^Jf^""^ 

French  West  Africa,  formed  in  1894  out 
of  the  territories  of  Senegambia  and  the 
Niger,  with  the  exception  of  the  former 
Sen^ral  protectorate,  which  was  restored 
to  Senegambia.  In  1907  the  several 
Dahomey  districts  were  added  to  the 
colony,  which  now  has  an  area  of  302,- 
136  sq.  miles.  Capital,  Bamaka;  pop. 
5,000,000. 

XlDSala  ("p-8a'ia)»  *  town  of  Sweden, 
wyoo^M  45  miles  n.  w.  of  Stockholm. 
It  has  a  cathedral  (archiepiscopal,  the 
finest  in  Sweden),  which  contains  the 
tombs  of  some  Swedish  kings  and  of 
Linnieus;  a  celebrated  university  founded 
in  1477,  with  a  library  of  about  250,000 
volumes,  a  botanical  garden,  observatory, 
etc.     Pop.  22,855. 

UDShlir  ("P'«hur),  Abel  Pabkeb, 
^'•r  statesman,  bom  in  Northamp- 

ton Co.,  Virginia,  in  1790.  In  1841  he 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Navy  by 
President  Tvler.  Two  years  later,  on 
the  resignation  of  Daniel  Webster,  he 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  State. 
Early  in  1844  he  was  on  the  United 
States  steamer  Princeton^  on  the  Po- 
tomac River,  in  company  with  the  Presi- 
dent and  other  members  of  the  cabinet, 
to  witness  experiments  with  a  large 
wrought-iron  gun  which  burst,  and 
mortallv  wounded  him  together  with  sev- 
eral others.  He  died  near  Washington, 
February  28,  1844. 
XTp'upa.     ®^  iloopoe. 

TTr^inift  (O-rS'ml-a),  a  diseased  con- 
urwmitt   ^j^j^j^    ^j    ^jj^    j^y    arising 

from  the  presence  of  urea  in  the  blood, 
in  consequence  of  the  urine  not  being 


( 


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XTral 


Urban 


) 


properly  secreted,  as  in  Bright's  disease 
or  other  ailments,  thus  leaving  in  the 
blood  elements  that  should  be  carried 
off. 

Tlrftl  C^^'r^Of  a  rivtfr  of  Russia,  which 
**  nses  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  forms 

part  of  the  boundary  between  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  enters  the  Caspian  after 
a  course  of  about  1000  miles. 

Ural  Mountains,  S^l^'^^aSd ""  piS: 

teaus  stretching  nearly  north  and  south 
between  Europe  and  Asia,  from  the 
shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  for  a  dis- 
tance of  about  1900  miles;  highest  sum- 
mit, 5613  feet.  There  is  but  fittle  strik- 
ing scenery,  and  the  rise  is  so  gradual  in 
some  parts  that  the  traveler  from  Perm 
to  Ekaterinburg,  for  instance,  hardly 
notices  that  he  has  crossed  the  chain. 
The  Ural  Mountains  are  celebrated  for 
the  mines  of  gold,  platinum,  copper,  coal 
and  iron  which  they  contain,  and  in  the 
south  are  many  broad  valleys  of  remark- 
able fertilitv. 

TTrolaIr  (0-ralsk')>  a  town  of  Russia, 
uraiSJL  on  the  Ural,  170  mUes  w.  s.  w. 
of  Orenburg.  It  has  a  considerable 
trade,  espedally  in  fish  and  caviare. 
Pop.  43,006.  It  is  the  capital  of  Uralsk 
province,  which  borders  on  the  Caspian 
Sea,  with  an  area  of  about  126,000  sq. 
miles. 

TTraniA  ^  fl-ra'ni-a  ) ,  in  Greek  my- 
vxoaucft  thology,  the  muse  of  astron- 
omy. She  is  gen- 
erally represented 
holding  in  her  left 
hand  a  celestial 
globe  to  which  she 
points  with  a  little 
staff. 

a  rare  metal 
whose  chemical 
symbol  is  U,  ato- 
mic weight  240, 
specific  gravity 
18.4.  The  chief 
source  of  uranium 
is  pitchblende. 
iMetallic  uranium 
'is  obtained  in  the 

form    of    a    black 

powder,  or  some-  Uranis,  antiqne  itatue  In 
times       aggregated  the  Vatican, 

in   small    plates, 

having  a  silvery  luster  and  a  certain 
decree  of  malleability.  It  forms  several 
oxides,  which  are  used  in  painting  on 
porcelain,  yielding  a  fine  orange  color  in 
the  enameline  fire,  and  a  black  color 
in  that  in  which  the  porcelain  itself  is 
baked.    It  is  strongly  radio-active,  per- 


haps from  containing  radium,  a  con- 
stituent of  pitchblende. 

TTraima     (u'ra-nus),  in     Greek     my- 

U  ran  us    t^joiogy^  ^^^  g^n  ^f  q^^,  the 

earth,  and  by  her  the  father  of  the  Titans, 
Cyclopes,  etc.  He  hated  his  children, 
and  confined  them  in  Tartarus,  but  on 
the  instigation  of  Geat  Kronos,  the 
youngest  of  the  Titans,  overthrew  and 
dethroned  him. 

TJ'ranTIS,  ^°,  astronomy,  one  of  the 
V  A»M«.iM9^  primary  planets,  and  the 
seventh  from  the  sun,  discovered  by 
Sir  William  Herschel  in  1781.  It 
was  first  called  Oeorgiutn  Sidus  in 
honor  of  George  III,  and  afterwards 
Herschel,  in  honor  of  the  discoverer, 
finally  receiving  its  present  name  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  practices  of  naming 
the  planets  after  the  deities  of  mythol- 
ogy. To  the  naked  eye  it  appears  like 
a  star  of  the  sixth  magnitude.  Its 
mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  about  1754 
millions  of  miles,  and  the  length  of  the 
year  30,686.82  days,  or  about  84  of  our 
years.  Its  mean  diameter  is  estimated 
at  about  33,000  miles.  Its  volume  ex- 
ceeds the  earth's  about  74  times,  but 
as  its  mean  density  is  only  0.17  (the 
earth's  being  1)  its  mass  is  only  about 
12%  times  more.  The  length  of  its  day 
is  supposed  to  be  between  9  and  10  hours. 
It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  this 
planet  has  four  satellites,  which  differ 
from  the  other  planets,  primarr  and 
secondary  (with  the  exception  of  Nep- 
tune's satellite),  in  the  direction  of  their 
motion,  this  being  from  east  to  west,  and 
they  move  in  planes  nearly  perpendicular 
to  the  ecliptic. 

XT'rari.  ^^ouran. 

TTm.  TvnhA  1^'"^  tyS'be),  a  town  of 
Ura  lyUDe   ^^^^^     Turkestan,     in 

the  district  of  Sir  Darya,  with  walls 
and  a  citadel.  Pop.  22,()8& 
Urban  (u<^l>an),  the  name  of  eight 
vauooa  pop^^  Qf  whom  the  most  nota- 
able  were:  Ubban  II  (Othon  de 
Lagny),  1088-99,  was  elected  by  one 
party  in  the  church,  and  in  a  council 
held  at  Rome  he  excommunicated  his 
rival  Clement  III  and  his  supporter,  the 
Emperor  Henry  IV.  By  his  decision 
and  energy  he  extended  the  power  of  the 
popedom,  and  it  was  at  his  kistigation 
that  the  first  crusade  was  undertaken, 
and  Jerusalem  captured. —  Urbait  VI 
(Bartolommeo  Prignani),  1378-89.  so 
exasperated  the  cardinals  by  his  reform- 
ing zeal  that  they  caused  a  schism  ir 
the  church  by  electing  Clement  VII 
The  two  popes  excommunicated  esLck 
other  until  urban  died,  under  circum- 
stances    which     suggested     poisoning.— 


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TJrbana 


Urine 


Ubban  VIII  (Maffeo  Barberini),  1623- 
44,  was  more  of  a  temporal  prince  than 
a  cleric,  extending  the  power  of  the 
church  by  raising  armies,  bailding 
fortresses,  and  entering  into  an  alliance 
with  France  against  the  powers  of  Aus- 
tria and  Germany.  He  condemned 
Galileo  and  Jansen. 

TTrhfliifl  a  city,  county  seat  of  Cham- 
Uroana,  paign  Co.,  Ohio,  47  mUes 
w.  by  N.  of  Columbus.  Here  ia  Urbana 
University  (Swedenborgian),  organized 
in  1851.  It  has  manufactures  of  straw- 
board,  w^ol,  brooms,  paper  and  auto- 
matic telephones,  etc.    Pop.  7739. 

XTrbana    ^"':*^^'*Al  *  <?ty,  county 

***"***•*  seat  of  Champaign  Co.,  Il- 
linois, 31  miles  w.  of  Danville.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  a 
flourishing  institution  with  over  5000  stu- 
dents, of  the  Illinois  Laboratory  of  Na- 
tural History,  and  of  a  Government  Ex- 
periment Station.  It  has  railroad  repair 
shops  and  other  industries.  Pop.  8500. 
TTrbinO  (^r-b^'no),  a  town  of  North 
^  Italy,    province    of    Pesaro    e 

Urbino,  21  miles  west  by  south  of 
Pesaro.  It  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop, 
the  seat  of  a  university;  the  chief  build- 
ings being  the  ducal  palace  and  the 
cathedraL  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Raphael,  whose  house  is  still  shown. 
Pop.  18,244. 

TJrobilL     ^'^    ^^  Echinui. 
TTrdll*     ®^  HinduttanL 

Tr«^  (Qr),  Andbew,  chemist,  bom  at 
^^^  Glasgow  in  1778;  died  In  1857. 
He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  and  Edin- 
burgh universities,  where  he  was  grad- 
uated in  medicine;  became  professor  of 
chemistry  at  the  Andersonian  Institution 
(1804),  director  of  the  Observatory, 
Glasgow  (1809),  and  was  appointed 
analytical  chemist  to  the  Board  of  Cus- 
toms (1834)  in  London.  His  chief 
works  are:  A  Dictionary  of  Chemiiiry 
(two  vols.,  1821),  The  Cotton  Manufao- 
turet  and  Mines  (two  vols.,  1837) 
and  a  Dictionary  of  ArU,  Manufao' 
tur€8  and  Mines  (two  vols.,  1837- 
39),  enlarged  by  Dr.  Robert  Hunt  (4 
vols.,  1875-78). 

\Tredo  (ti-re'd<^),  a  genus  of  minute 
vxcuv  parasitic  fungi,  the  species  of 
^bich  are  parasitic  on  plants.  The  dis- 
eases called  smut,  brand,  burnt  ear,  rust, 
etc,  are  caused  by  their  ravages. 
Wrftter  (tl-rg'ter),  the  excretory  duct 
vx^^v^x  ^j.  ^^^  which  conveys  the 
urine  from  each  kidney  to  the  bladder. 
In  man  it  is  about  the  size  of  a  goose- 
quill;  and  its  length  is  from  16  to  18 
inches. 


TTretTirsi.  (fl-re'thra),  in  anatomy,  the 
ureiora  ^^^^j  j^^j^^  ^^^^  the  tiad- 

der  to  the  external  urinary  opening,  and 
serving  for  the  excretion  of  the  urine. 
In  the  male  it  is  a  complicated  structure 
varying  in  length  from  8  to  9  inches, 
and  in  the  female  it  is  a  narrow  mem- 
branous canal  about  1^  inches  in  length. 
TJrfft  (ur-ftt'),  a  town  of  Turkey  in 
^  ••  Asia,  in  Upper  Mesopotamia,  a 
seat  of  an  Armenian  bishop,  and  of  a 
French  and  an  American  mission.  Pop. 
about  60,000. 

Tlr^a  (^i^^)t  &  Chinese  town  in 
***&«*  Northern  Mongolia,  on  the  river 
Tola,  on  the  trade  route  between  Peking 
and  Kiachta.  Pop.  30,000. 
TTri  (d'ri),  a  canton  in  Switzerland, 
**  bounded  by  Schwyx,  Unterwalden, 
Valais.  Tessin,  Orisons  and  Glarus; 
area,  415  square  miles.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  mountainous  of  the  Swiss  cantons, 
presenthig  a  complete  chaos  of  mountain 
masses,  the  most  famous  of  which  is  the 
St.  Gothard.  An  interesting  mass  is  the 
Urirothstock,  9620  feet  high.  The  most 
important  portion  of  the  canton  Is  the 
valley  of  the  Reuss,  which  enters  the 
Liske  of  Uri,  an  arm  of  the  L<ake  of 
Lucerne.  The  chief  industry  is  cattle- 
rearing;  sheep  and  goats  are  also  numer- 
ous: and  timber  is  exported.  The  in- 
habitants are  mostly  Roman  Catholics, 
and  speak  German.  Uri  was  one  of  the 
three  original  Swiss  cantons.  It  is 
visited  by  many  tourists.  The  capital  is 
Altorf.    Pop.  19,700. 

Uric  Acid  <^'?i>'^«„.ra„a'?tlS 

in  the  healthy  urine  of  man  and  quad- 
rupeds, and  in  much  larger  quantity  in 
the  urine  of  birds.  Uric  acid  constitutes 
the  principal  proportion  of  the  urinary 
calculi  and  the  concretions  causing  the 
complaint  known  as  the  gravel. 
Urim  (^'^^)*  *  ^^°^  o^  ornament  or 
**  "^^  appendage  belonging  to  the  cos- 
tume of  the  Jewish  high-priest  in  ancient 
times,  along  with  the  thummin^  in  virtue 
of  which  he  gave  oracular  answers  to  the 
people,  but  what  the  urim  and  thummio 
really  were  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
a  seer  tained. 

Xlrinary*  Calculi,  ^ee  caicuiu». 

Urine  (fi'rin),  an  animal  fluid  or 
**  **  liquor  secreted  by  the  kidneys, 
whence  it  is  conveyed  into  the  bladder 
by  the  ureters,  and  through  the  urethra 
discharged.  In  its  natural  state  it  is 
acid,  transparent,  of  a  pale  amber  or 
straw  color,  a  brackish  taste,  a  peculiar 
odor,  and  of  a  snecific  gravity  varyinc 
from  1.012  to  1.030.  The  character  of 
the  urine,  however,  is  apt  to  be  altered 


< 


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TTrmiyah  TTraguay 

by  the  state  of  health,  the  season  of  the  family.    But  the  order  is  more  frequently 

year,  age,  food,  and  a  variety  of  other  confined  to  the  Urticee,  or  nettle  family, 

causes.    A    knowledge    of    the    urine    in  typical     genus,     Urtica.     (See     Nettle,) 

health,  and  of  the  variations  to  which  it  The    juice    of    the    restricted    order    is 

is  subject  in   disease,   is  of   the  utmost  watery,  not  millur;  the  wool  in  the  ar- 

importance   to   the   medical   practitioner,  boreous  or  shruDbery  species,  which  are 

One  of  its  morbid  constituents  is  diabetic  all  tropical,  is  soft  and  light.    The  fiber 

sugar.    See  Diahetea,  of  the  bark  of  some  is  valuable.     It  is 

TIrmivah      ^^  Urumiyah,  in  the  restricted  Urticace»  that  species 

wA.uu.jrcu&«  covered  with  stinging  hairs  are  found. 

TTrri    a  kind  of  vase,  often  one  for  hold«  TTni'hainhfl    (  nr-al)am-ba  ),    one    of 

^^">  ing  the  ashes  of  the  dead.     See  W^**"»"*"»   the  head  streams  of  the 

Cinerary  Urn,  Vase,  Amazon    (which  see). 

TTrodelfl.    (fi*i^o-de'la),  an  order  of  am-  TTm'bTi    (tl-ral)Q),  the  native  name  of 

vAvu^ACR.    piiibiim  vertebrates  in  which  *'****'^  an  American  vulture,  the  Catk- 

the  larval  tail  is  always  retained  in  the  arUta  Iota    (black  vulture  or  zopilote), 

adult,  the  body  being  elongated  posteri-  veir  nearly  allied  to  the  turkey-buzzard, 

orly     into     the     tail.    There     are     two  which    it   closely   resembles.     This   vora- 

sections,   the  Perennihranchiate   Urodela,  clous  bird  is  common  in  the  villages  and 

in  which  the  gills  are  retained  through  towns   of    the   southern    portion    of    the 

life,  as  in  proteus,  siren,  etc. ;  and  toe  United  States,  acting  as  a  scavenger. 

Caducibranchiatej  in  which  the  gills  dis-  Trrnmiov    (^ru-gwl',  or  fi-m-gwa'),  a 

appear    at    maturity,   as   in    newts    and  *'***8*"*/    river    of     South     America, 

salamanders.  which   rises   in   Brazil,   in   the  province 

XTrsa  llajor.  XTrsa  Minor.  ®^  ?*°^  catharma,  flows  first  west- 

vAoa    .uM^jvxy     vAon    .iu.xaj.vj.*  ^^^^ds,   then  gradually   turns  south,  and 

See  Bear,  Great  and  Little,  finally   enters   the  estuary  of  La  rlata 

TTrfline  Seal    (nr'sin;    Otaria    urtlna  opposite    Buenos    Ay  res;    length,    about 

wA0Au«  Kn^tM     ^y     Arctocephdlus     iir-  800  miles. 

sinus),  one  of  the  otaries  or  eared  seals,  TTrnanAV    ^^   BAin>A   Oriental   del 

a  native  of  the  North  Pacific,  about  8  *'*»*5*"*/i  Uruguay,    a    republic    of 

feet  long.    Called  also  sea-bear.  South  America,  bounded  on  the  north  and 

TTrsimift  CtAUff^t^       a     non-sectarian  ?^f*^!f«*  ^^ .?^^\^\^^L^^^t  **^  *^® 

ursinus  ^^ouege,     collegiate  institn-  Atlantic,  on  the  south  by  the  Rio  de  la 

tion,  established  in  1869  at  CoUegeville,  Plata,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Uruguajr, 

Pa.    It  has  about  300  students.  separating  it  from  the  Argentine  Repub- 

TTrftftTi     (ur'sun),  a  name  given  to  the  1^/    aroa    estimated    at    72,150    square 

ursou     srethison  dorsdtum,  or  Cana-  ^ll^*-    Th«  surface  forms  a  vast  undu- 

dian   porcupine,  which   is   18  inches   in  Jatmg  plain,  generally  flat,  but  broken  in 

length,  and  the  quills  of  which  are  smaller  ♦?«  interior  by  several  ndges  of  moderate 

than  in  the  common  porcupine.  elevation.    Gold  is  mined  to  some  extent, 

TIrRTlla     (ur'sii-la),  St.,  a  virrin  mar-  and  fUver,  copper  and  lead  exist.    The 

Ursuia     ^y     according  to  the  legend  a  P"**^^P?*   ^^.^"".^  *?®  ^®^'  ^^'K^  ^^- 

daughter  of  a  prince  in  Britain  put  to  l\^^  the  state  into  two  nearly  equal  poiv 

death  at  Coloene  by  a  horde  of  Huns,  fi^n?'  and  on  the  southeast   frontiel  is 

some  say  in  384,  others  in  453.  together  *»>«  larg«  '?^®,?u^  Menm.    The  climate  is 

with  11,000,  or  more  probably  11,  largins  mild  and  healthy,  the  feneral   range  of 

who    accompanied  her.  *be  thermometer  being  from  82**  to  90* 

TTrfiTllini'fl      (-Unz),  or  Nuns  or  St.  F.    The  extensive  plains  seem  admirably 

urBUUUes      tJasuLA,   a  sisterhood  adapted    for    agriculture,    but    they    are 

founded  by  St.  Angela  Mericl  at  Brescia,  occupied  by  large  herds  of  horses,  sheep 

in  1537.    They  devote  themselves  to  the  and   cattle,    the   rearing   of   these^  beinc 

succor  of  poverty  and  sickness  and  the  the    pnncipal    industry.    The    pnncipal 

education  of  female  children.     They  had  agricultural   products   are  wheat,   maise, 

many  houses  in  France  during  the  aeven-  oats,  rye,  millet  and  flaxseed.    The  chief 

teenth  century.    The  Cana^an  Ursulines  exports     are     hides,     tallow,     preserved 

date  from  16&.  meat,  sheepskins,  bones,  wool  and  horse 

TTrtiTia      a      n  ^air,  while  the  chief  imports  are  cotton 

UTBUB.     8ee  Hear,  goods,  woolens,  coal  and  iron.     Primary 

TTrtifiafififfi     (ur-ti-ka'se-e),  a  nat  or-  education  is  compulsory;  there  are  nor- 

u  X  iiAuau^cxj     ^gj.   ^£    exogenous   trees,  mal,   secondary   and  hisher   institutions, 

herbs  and  shrubs.    In  an  extended  sense  and    a    university    at    Montevideo.    The 

the   order   includes   the    Ulmeas,    or   elm  Roman    Catholic    Is    the    state    religion, 

family ;     the   Artocarpejp,    or    breadfruit  but  all  faiths  are  tolerated.    The  country 

family;    and   the   Cannabinetc.   or  hemp  is  divided  into  nineteen   provinces,  ana 


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TJminiyali  TTtali 

by  the  constitution  of   1830  it  is  cov-  TJaliailt    (u^^^'^nt;  French,  Ou€s$ant), 

erned   by   a  president,   a   senate   and   a  *"»•******"    an  island  of  France,  15  miles 

house    of    representatives.     Uruguay    at  off  the  west  coast  of  the  department  of 

one    time   formed    part    of    the    Spanish  Finist^re,   to  which  it  belongs;   area,  6 

viceroyaKy    of    Buenos    Ayres,    and    the  square  miles.     It  presents  a  very  bold  and 

lans[uage    of    the    country    is    Spanish,  rocky  coast;  fishmg  and  the  rearing  of 

Capital     and     chief     port,     Montevideo,  sheep  are  the  principal  occupations.    Fop. 

Pop.  (1908)   1,042,66a  2761 

TTmmivflJl   (^ni-me'a),     or     Us'ia-  TTalioa    (fl'shas),  in  Hindu  mythology, 

VAUUXAJCU&  YAH,    a    town    of   Persia,  *'•'**•*•'  one  of  the  ancient  elemental  di- 

said  to  be  the  birthplace  of  Zoroaster,  in  vinities.  the  goddess  of  the  dawn.     In  the 

the  west  of  the  province  of  Azerbijan,  Vedic    n^ns    she    is    represented    as    a 

situated  near  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  young  wife  awakening  her  children  and 

65  miles  southwest  of  Tabreez.    The  sur-  giving  them  new  strength  for  the  toils  of 

rounding  district  is  of  surpassing  fertil-  the  coming  day. 

ity.  Pop.  about  30,000. —  The  lake,  sit-  TTglier  vUBbei')f  a°  officer  who  has  the 
uated  4300  feet  above  sea-level,  is  about  *'"**^*  care  of  the  door  of  a  court. 
80  miles  long  from  north  to  south,  by  20  hall,  chamber,  or  the  like.  In  the  royal 
miles  broad.  It  is  extremely  shallow  household  of  Britain  there  are  four  gen- 
throughout.  tlemen  ushers  of  the  privy  chamber.  The 
TTmintsi  (u-r5m'tsS)y  a  city  of  Cen«  Oenileman  u»her  of  ihe  Uack  rod  is  an 
vAUAuvoA  ^j^j  ^g.^^  j^  ^jj^  Chinese  officer  of  the  order  of  the  Garter  (see 
province  of  Dzoungaria,  on  the  northern  Black-rod) ;  the  Usher  of  the  green  rod, 
side  of  the  Thian-Shan  Mountains.  It  an  officer  of  the  order  of  the  Thistle, 
was  formerly  of  great  commercial  Im-  The  service  of  ushers  is  customary  in 
portance  in  the  trade  between  Russia,  American  churches,  at  weddings,  and  in 
Turkestan  and  India.  Pop.  estimated  at  places  of  amusement. 
30,000.  TJslier  ^^  Usshek,  James,  Arch- 
TTmii  (ft'rus),  a  kind  of  laige  ox  which  *'*»•***'*>  bishop  of  Armagh,  bom  at 
*'*"  ran  wild  in  Gaul  at  the  period  of  Dublin  in  1580;  died  in  1^.  He  took 
the  Roman  invasion,  as  described  by  orders  in  1601;  in  1607  received  the  pro- 
Cesar,  perhaps  the  wild  ox  such  as  still  fessorship  of  divinity  at  Trinity  College, 
exists  in  Ehigland,  at  Chillingham  in  Dublin,  and  the  office  of  chancellor  of 
Northumberland  and  Hamilton  in  Lan-  St.  Patrick's;  in  1620  the  bishopric  of 
arinhire,  or  else  the  aurochs.  Meath;  in  1623  a  place  in  the  Irish 
TTgo^aro  (tk-sa-ga'ra),  part  of  the  privy-council;  and  in  1624  the  primacy 
V  00*5 MA  a  German  possessions  in  East  of  Ireland.  He  was  a  man  of  great  eru- 
Africa,  occupying  an  extensive  area  of  dition^  his  chief  works  l}eing  the  Annalea 
country  inland  north  of  the  river  Rufiji.  Vetert9  et  Novi  Testamenii,  which  forms 
It  has  mountains  of  considerable  height,  the  basis  of  the  received  biblical  chro- 
and  is  generally  fertile.  nolo^y;  and  Britannicarum  Ecdesiarum 
TTsambArfl.    ^  A-sam-ba'ra  ),    a   moun-  Anttquiiates, 

voc»AUMc»xc»  talnous  territory  of  Ger-  TJaliVTi'D  ^^  Uskub  (us'kup),  a  town 
man  East  Africa,  situated  about  50  miles  *'"'*'^^r>  of  Northwestern  Turkey,  on 
N.  w.  of  Zanxibar,  extending  inland  from  the  river  Vardar,  seat  of  a  Greek  arch- 
opposite  the  island  of  Pemba.  The  bishop,  with  manufactures  of  leather,  etc 
country   grows  rice,  maise,   india-rubber  Pop.  20,000. 

and  tobacco.  TTssiiri    (^^^'rO.    a    river   of   Eastern 

Usbeoks    (Ss'beks),    or    Usbeks,    a  *"»*•****  Asia,  a  tributary  of  the  Amoor, 

Turkish  tribe  which  at  one  forming  for  a  long  distance  the  boundary 

time  formed  the  ruling  class  throughout  between   Russia  and  Chinese  territories; 

Western    Turkestan,    m    Bokhara,    Kho-  length,  300  miles. 

kand,  Khiva  and  Balkh,  and  parUy  also  TJanfmot    (^'z^-^rukt),    in    law,    the 

in      Eastern      Turkestan.     In      Western  **"****  w-^"   temporary    use    and    enjoy- 

Tnrkestan  they  are  now  completely  under  ment  of  lands  or  tenements,  or  the  right 

the  control  of  Russia,  but  in  the  districts  of  receiving  the  fruits  and  profits  of  lands 

mentioned  they  still  form  the  nobility  and  or  other  things  without  having  the  right 

landowners.  to  alienate  or  change  the  property. 

TTftf^ilnni    (5'ze-dom),    a    Prussian  TTftTirv    (tl'zha-ri).     See  Interest. 

useaom  ,g,^^^  .„  ^^^  g^j^j     ^^  ^^^  usury 

coast   of    Pomerania;    area,    150   square  TJtall    (^'^'^)*  a  Western  State  of  the 

miles.    The  inhabitants  are  employed  in  ^           Amencan  Union,  bounded  N.  by 

agriculture    and    fishing;    chief    towns,  Idaho,  n.  k.  by  Wyoming,  e.  by  Colorado, 

Swinemttnde    and    Usedom.    Pop.    about  b.  by  Arizona,  and  w.  by  Nevada;  area, 

88,000.  84,990  sq.  miles.    The  northeastern  part 


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trtah  Lake  TTtioa 

of  the  State  consists  of  the  hi£h  rangei  of  the  Jordan  River.    Several  Mormon 

of   the   Uinta  and   Wasatch   Mountains,  towns  are  on  its  eastern  shores. 

Practically  all  of  eastern  and  southeast-  TTtahs     ^^  Utes,  a  tribe  of  American 

em  Utah  consists  of  a  series  of  broad  de-  **  va'**o>    Indians  of  the  Shoshone  fam- 

vated    plateaus,    deeply    cut   by   canyons  ily,  living  on  reservations  in  Utah  and 

and  narrow  stream  valleys.     The  west-  Colorado,  having  sold  most  of  their  lands 

em    portion    of   the    State   lies    entirely  to  the  United  States  govemment.    Pop. 

within    the   Great   Basin   region    and   is  about  2000. 

separated  from  the  more  eastern  portion  TT'folro-moTi/l      See   Ootaoamund, 

by  the  steep  escarpment  of  the  plateau.  "  WUWUUaaa. 

Within  the  Great  Basin  region  broad,  TTtAniA  (<i'ter-us),  or  Womb,  an  or- 
nearly  level  desert  areas  are  interrupted  wi»cxu»  ^  ^£  females,  situated  be- 
by  steep  and  rugged  mountain  chains  run-  tween  the  bladder  and  rectum,  in  which 
ning  north  and  south.  Within  the  pla-  the  embryo  is  contained  until  it  arrives 
teau  portion,  there  are  numerous  small  at  matunty,  when  it  is  finally  bora  or 
valleys  which  are  irrigated  for  intensive  expelled.  In  the  virgin  female  it  is  some- 
agriculture,  but  upon  the  plateau  itself  what  pear-shaped,  and  measures  about  3 
grazing  is  the  principal  industry.  The  inches  long,  2  inches  broad,  1  inch  thick, 
greater  portion  of  the  agricultural  land  and  weighs  about  1^  oz.  It  is  divided 
of  the  State  lies  along  the  western  border  into  a  fundus  or  base,  a  body  and  a 
of  the  mountain  and  plateau  district  cerviw  or  neck.  It  opens  into  the  vagina 
where  the  water  from  higher  levels  is  by  a  transverse  aperture  (os  uteri), 
brought  down  and  applied  to  the  sandy  The  organ  is  retained  in  its  place  by  cer- 
and  gravelly  loams  around  the  margin  of  tain  ligaments  derived  from  the  peri- 
the  Great  Basin  region,  and  to  the  finer  toneum.  Its  internal  cavity  is  small, 
grained  sediments  of  the  stream  valleys  and  at  each  superior  angle  at  the  fundus 
and  of  the  level  floors  of  recent  lake  a  Fallopian  tube  or  oviduct  enters, 
basins.  The  possible  dry  farm  area  of  These  tubes  convey  the  ova  or  eggs  from 
Utah  is  practically  all  of  that  which  is  the  ovarjf  (which  see)  to  the  uterus, 
not  covered  by  mountains  or  under  ir-  In  structure  the  utems  is  composed  of 
rigation  canals,  with  the  exception  of  an  outer  serous  coat,  a  middle  muscular 
some  of  the  more  desert  districts  where  coat,  and  an  inner  mucous  lining.  The 
the  rainfall  is  less  than  ten  inches.  The  arteries  of  the  uterus  are  derived  from 
irrigating  ditches  of  the  State  are  over  the  internal  iliac  and  the  aorta;  the 
6,887  miles  in  length,  of  an  estimated  veins  are  large,  and  are  called  Hnuiea 
cost  of  $17,840,775.00,  and  the  reservoirs  in  the  impregnated  state.  The  nerves 
are  extensive.  The  agricultural  products  spring  from  the  inferior  hypogastric  and 
include  wheat,  oats,  barley,  com,  pota-  spermatic  plexuses,  and  from  the  third 
toes,  onions,  cabbage,  peas,  tomatoes,  and  fourth  sacral  nerves.  The  womb  is 
sugar  beets  and  fmits.  Over  37,000  liable  to  many  diseases,  of  which  the  most 
acres  are  devoted  to  the  sugar  beet  and  frequent  and  important  are  inflamma- 
46,000  acres  to  fmit  and  nursery  in-  tory  affections  and  tumors.  It  is  also 
terests.  The  chief  wealth  of  the  State  liable  to  become  displaced  in  various 
is  in  its  agricultural  and  mineral  re-  ways  from  laxity  of  its  liraments  and 
sources.  Its  minerals  embrace  gold,  sil-  other  causes  (see  Prolap$u9  uieri) , 
ver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  coal,  salt,  etc.  TTfiAO  (tlti-k&).  an  ancient  city  of 
In  silver  yield,  Utah  stands  next  to  Mem-  ^  •'•^^«*  North  Africa,  on  the  river  Ba- 
tana.  Manufactures  are  mainly  confined  grada,  near  its  entrance  into  the  Medi- 
to  goods  for  inter-mountain  consumption,  terranean,  about  25  miles  IV.  w.  of  Car- 
though  much  beet  sugar  is  made,  and  thage.  After  the  destruction  of  Gar- 
there  are  large  smelting  works.  The  thage  Utica  became  the  capital  of  the 
capital  is  Salt  Lake  City;  the  next  Roman  province.  It  was  destroyed  by 
largest  city  Is  Ogden.  Utah  was  settled  the  Araos  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
in  1847  by  Mormons ;  organized  as  a  ter-  seventh  century. 

ritory  in  1850  and  in  1896  admitted  as  a  K'tica  *  ^^  <>'  New  York,  county 
State,  In  1882  Congress  passed  a  ^  "*«»,  ^^^  ^£  Oneida  CJountv,  situ- 
stringent  law  against  polygamy,  and  in  ated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Mohawk, 
1890  the  Mormon  CJhurch  decreed  its  95  miles  w.  by  N.  of  Albany.  It  has  beau- 
di  neon  tin  uance.  Pop.  (1910)  373,351.  tiful  parks  and  charitable  institutions, 
1Tta.ll  Lake  ^  fresh-water  lake  in  and  is  the  site  of  a  state  hospital  for  the 
*•»*!.»/,  j.jjg  Stsite  of  Utah,  30  insane.  Among  its  public  buildings  are 
miles  8.  of  Salt  Lake  Citv.  It  is  25  the  Federal  Building,  the  Ounty  BuUd- 
miles  in  length  w.  to  8.,  with  an  extreme  ingf  City  Hall,  State  Armory,  Public  Li- 
width  of  13  miles.  Its  waters  are  brary.  It  has  large  and  diversified  manu- 
irained  into  Great  Salt  Lake  by  means  facturing  interests  including  twenty-two 


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utilitarianism  TJzbegs 

textile  mills.  It  is  also  the  center  of  a  engaged  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Sue- 
large  dairy  country  and  is  a  market  for  cession.  On  April  11,  1713,  the  States- 
cheese.  It  is  on  the  Erie  Canal  and  the  general,  Prussia,  Portugal  and  Savoy, 
D.  L.  and  W.,  the  N.  Y.  C,  the  II.  R.,  signed  separate  treaties  with  France, 
the  N.  Y.  Ont.  and  W.,  and  the  W.  Shore  The  emperor  refused  to  accede  to  the 
railroads.  Pop.  (1910)  74,419.  peace,  and  his  differences  with  France 
TT+"ili+flriflniani  (Cl-til-i-tft'ri-an-izm),  were  subsequently  adjusted  by  the 
Uliliwniiiusni  ^jjg  general  name  treaties  of  Rastadt  and  Baden  in  1714. 
given  to  those  schools  of  morals  which  By  the  treaty  with  England,  France, 
define  virtue  as  consisting  in  utility,  among  other  things,  recognized  the 
The  name  is  more  specially  applied  to  Hanoverian  succession,  engaged  never 
the  school  founded  by  Jeremy  Bentham,  to  unite  the  crowns  of  France  and  Spain, 
of  which  the  m«8t  recent  exponent  is  and  ceded  to  Britain  Nova  Scotia,  New- 
John  Stuart  Mill,  but  there  are  many  foundland,  St.  Kitt's  and  Hudson  Bay 
other  developments  of  the  same  principle  and  Straits.  Gibraltar  and  Minorca 
both  in  ancient  and  modern  scnopls  of  were  also  ceded  on  behalf  of  Spain, 
morals.  See  Ethics,  Holland  retained  the  Spanish  Nether- 
TT+n-nifl  (tt-t6'pl-a),  a  name  invented  lands  until  a  barrier  treaty  was  arranged 
utupxa  by  Sir  Thomas  More,  from  the  with  Austria.  (See  Barrier  Treaty,) 
Greek  ou  iopoa  (no  place),  and  applied  Louis  XIV  recognized  the  title  of  the 
by  him  to  an  imaginary  island,  which  King  of  Prussia,  who  received  a  part  of 
he  represents  as  discovered  by  a  com-  Spanish  Guelderland,  and  the  sovereignty 
panion  of  Amerigo  Vespucci.  As  de-  of  Neufchatel  in  Switzerland,  while  re- 
cribed  in  his  work  called  Utopia,  writ-  nouncing  the  principality  of  Orange, 
ten  in  Latin  and  published  in  1516,  the  Savoy  and  Nice  were  restored  to  tne 
Utopians  had  attained  great  perfection  in  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  was  recognized  as 
laws,  politics,  etc.  presumptive  heir  to  the  Spanish  mon- 
TT'+rn/mia+a  See  Caliwtines,  archv,  and  received  the  title  of  king. 
U  truquiSliS.  pjjiifp  V  was  not  recognized  till  the  con- 
TT+rPPli+  (O'treAt),  an  important  town  elusion  of  these  treaties,  but  France 
Ubici^ub  of  Holland,  capital  of  a  prov-  treated  for  Spain,  and  formal  treaties 
ince  of  the  same  name,  2^  miles  south-  corresponding  with  those  with  France 
east  of  Amsterdam.  It  is  pleasantly  sit-  were  afterwards  signed  with  that  power, 
uated  on  the  Old  Rhine,  is  traversed  by  TTtiera  (^^-^ra'ri),  a  town  of  Spain, 
two  canals  crossed  by  numerous  stone  province  of  Seville,  18  miles 
bridges,  and  is  surrounded  by  strong  s.  e.  of  the  city  of  Seville.  It  has  a 
forts.  The  town  is  well  built,  and  has  fine  Gothic  church  and  a  Moorish  palace 
several   squares,    promenades,    a    govern-  Pop.  15,138. 

ment   house,   a   Protestant   cathedral    (a  TTtricularia      (A-trik-il-lft'ri-a),  the 

fine    Gothic    building),    mint,    handsome  ^       v ***«.*  »     generic     name    of     the 

town  hall,  palace  of  justice,  etc.    Educa-  hladderworta  (which  see), 

tional    establishments    include    a    well-  TT'vrila      See  Palate, 
equipped  university,  a  veterinary  school,  * 

musical  college,  and  schools  for  drawing  TjTbrid^e    (uks'brij),  a  town  of  Eng- 

and  architecture.     Utrecht  is  the  central  ^-^^^^^s^   land,  in  Middlesex,  on  the 

point  of  the  Dutch  railway  system,  and  CJolne,   15  miles  w.  of  London.     It  has 

carries   on   an   extensive   trade   in   grain  an    ancient    church,    an    iron    foundry, 

and  cattle,  and  in  the  manufactures  of  breweries,   brick   kilns,   etc.     There  is  a 

the  place,  which  include  Utrecht  velvet,  good    trade    in    corn    and    flour.    Pop. 

carpets,  floor-cloth,  cottons,  linens,  chem-  10,374. 

icals,  etc.  Utrecht  is  the  oldest  town  of  TTiTTnal  (^-13Q&10»  an  ancient  Indian 
Holland,  and  was  called  by  the  Romans  ^^^^^"^  town  of  Yucatan,  Central 
Trajectum  ad  Rhenum,  that  is  *  Ford  of  America,  about  35  miles  8.  w.  of  Merida. 
the  Rhine/  later  Ultra'trajectum,  Pop.  It  is  now  an  extensive  group  of  ruins. 
121,317.  The  province  of  Utrecht  has  Some  of  these  are  remarkable  relics  of 
an  area  of  532  'square  miles,  with  a  pop.  a  past  state  of  Indian  civilization.  They 
(1905)  of  276,543.  It  is  generally  flat,  comprise  several  large  temple  buildings 
is  well  watered  by  the  Rhine,  Vecht,  of  striking  architecture  and  adornment. 
Amstel  and  other  rivers,  and  is  better  TJz  ^  ^^^  ^^^  Testament,  a  region 
suited  for  dairy  farming  and  stock  rais-  "^  probably  lying  to  the  east  or  south- 
ing than  for  com  growing.  east  of  Palestine,  known  as  the  scene  of 
Tltrecht    PJ'^ce  of^  a  series  of  sepa-  the  story  of  Job. 

'  rate  treaties  agreed  upon  at  TTzbe^S      ^^  Vahecks, 

Utrecht  by  the  powers  which  had  been  ^*'"^6*»« 


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V 


yr  the  twenty-second  letter  of  the  Eng- 
'  lish  alphabet,  a  labial,  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  upper  teeth  with  the 
lower  lip,  and  a  gentle  expiration.  It 
resembles  the  letter  /,  but  is  sonant  and 
not  like  it  surd  or  hard, 
VaaI  P.iiTPr  (^^Uf  a  river  of  South 
vaai  JUVer  Africa,  rises  in  the  Quath- 
lamba  Mountains,  and  after  a  tortuous 
course  of  about  500  miles  joins  the 
Orange  River  (which  see).  It  divides 
the  Transvaal  Colony  from  the  Orange 
River  Colony. 

Vaccinatioa  ^J„f5^S*'^rl'ac<*?; 

in  order  to  procure  immunity  from  small- 
pox, or  with  modified  virus  of  any  disease 
m  order  to  produce  it  in  a  mild  form  and 
80  prevent  a  serious  attack.  The  practice 
of  anti-smallpox  vaccination  was  intro- 
duced by  Jenner,  and  it  soon  came  into 
common  use  instead  of  inoculation.  (See 
Jenner  and  Inoculation,)  The  usual 
method  in  vaccination  is  to  make  a  tew 
scratches  across  one  another,  with  a  clean 
lancet  point,  upon  the  upper  part  of  the 
arm.  The  matter  from  the  cowpox.  or 
from  the  vaccination  pustule  produced  on 
another  person,  is  then  rubbed  on  the  skin 
where  the  scratches  have  been  made.  If 
the  vaccination  proves  successful  a  small 
inflamed  pustule  appears  about  the  third 
day,  and  increases  in  size  until  the  tenth 
day.  On  the  eighth  day  the  constitu- 
tional effects  manifest  themselves  by 
slight  pain  in  the  part,  headache,  shiver- 
ing, loss  of  appetite,  etc.  These  subside 
spontaneously  in  one  or  two  days. 
Afterwards  the  fluid  in  the  pustule  dries 
up,  and  a  scab  forms  which  disappears 
about  the  twentieth  day,  leaving  a  slight 
scar  in  the  skin.  Repeated  vaccinations, 
with  intervals  of  several  years,  have 
been  recommended  by  medical  authorities. 
Anti-typhoid  vaccination  has  recently 
found  favor.  It  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  army  and  navy  earlv  in 
1912.  The  following  year  not  a  single 
case  of  typhoid  occurred,  despite  the  fre- 
quent exposure  to  unsanitary  conditions. 
Anti-typhoid  vaccination  has  also  been 
practiced  with  satisfactory  results  in  Brit- 
ish armies  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
in  the  Japanese  and  the  French  army. 


tleberry  belongs. 

Vacnnm  (vak'ti-um).  empty  space,  or 
vAviAiAAu  gp^^  devoid  of  all  matter 
or  body.  Whether  there  is  sach  a  thing 
as  an  absolute  vacuum  in  nature  is  a 
question  which  has  been  much  contro- 
verted. The  existence  of  a  vacuum  was 
maintained  by  the  Pythagoreans,  Epicu- 
reans, and  Atomists;  but  it  was  denied 
by  the  Peripatetics,  who  asserted  that 
*  nature  abhors  a  vacuum.'  The  modem 
theory,  which  seems  to  be  warranted 
by  experience,  is  that  an  absolute  vac- 
uum cannot  exist,  the  subtle  medium 
known  as  ether  being  believed  to  be 
everywhere  present.  In  a  less  strict 
sense  a  vacuum  (more  or  less  perfect) 
is  said  to  be  produced  when  air  is  more 
or  less  completely  removed  from  an  en- 
closed space,  such  as  the  receiver  of  an 
air-pump,  a  portion  of  a  barometric  tube, 
etc  In  the  receiver  of  the  air-pump  the 
vacuum  can  only  be  partial,  as  the  ex- 
haustion is  limited  by  the  remaining  air 
not  having  sufficient  elasticity  to  raise 
the  valve*^  The  Torricellian  vacuum, 
that  is,  the  space  above  the  mercury  in 
a  carefully  manipulated  barometer  tube, 
is  more  nearly  perfect  in  this  respect, 
but  even  this  space  is  to  some  extent 
filled  with  the  vapor  of  mercury. 

Vacnnm-brake.   ®^  ^'^*^- 
Vacuuin  Cleaner,  ?  "ystem  of 

w  MvuiAAu.  vAvcuAVAy  h  o  u  s  c  cleaning 
by  aid  of  machines  creating  a  partial 
vacuum  and  by  this  means  extracting  the 
dust  from  carpets,  sofas,  and  furniture 
in  general,  through  a  tube  with  a  spe- 
cial nozzle.  These  machines  have  come 
largely  into  use,  worked  by  hand  or 
power,  on  small  or  large  scale.  The 
same  principle  has  been  applied  to  other 
purposes,  on  the  farm,  or  elsewhere,  such 
as  the  moving  of  grain,  etc,  and  prom- 
ises to  become  somewhat  wide  in  its  ap- 
plications. 
Vacnum-tllbe.  ®^  Oeisdef^t  Tubes. 

Vade  HeCUm  iya'^e   mfilnim;    Lat. 

me;  I,  e.t  with  me).    A  portable  object 


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Vail  Valencia 

for  freqaent  or  occasional  ase;  a  pocket  bot  rising  in  Moont  Popovagora  to  1080 

companion;  a  book  or  manual  for  carry-  feet    They  are  well  wooded,  and  contain 

ing  about  on   the  person.    It   is   popu«  the  sources  of  the  Volga,  Dnieper,  and 

larly  given  to  any  readily  available  work  Ddna. 

of  reference,  or  a  key  to  any  science  or  VnlilAnATiflft    (v&l-dA-p&n'y&s),  a  town 

Srofession,    as    The    EUcirician^a    Vade  ^^^^P^^i^^   in   Spain,   New   Castile, 

fecufii.  The  LQwyer'9  Vade  Mecum^  etc  province  of  Giudad  Real,  110  miles  south 

Vfiil    (v&l),  Alfbxd,  inventor,  bom  at  of  Madrid.    It   is  celebrated   for  a   red 

^*"  Morristown,  New  Jersey,  in  1807;  wine.    Pop.  21,015. 

in  1837  became  associated  with  a  F.  B.  Vfl.1  dfi  Travers      (^^^  ^^  tr&-v&r), 

Morse  in  his  electric  telegraphy  expert-  ^«"  **«  AiavciB      ^    ^^j,       j^    ^j^^ 

ments.    He     made     several     important  Swiss     Jura,     canton     of     Neufchfttel, 

inventions    in    this    connection    and    is  drained  by   the  Reuse   flowing  into  the 

credited   with   that   of   the   alphabet   of  lake  of  NeufchateL    It  is  cultivated  in 

dots,    spaces    and    dashes   which    is    the  parts,  and  contains  a  deposit  of  asphalt, 

distinguishing  feature  of  the  Morse  sys-  yielding  annually  upwards  of  2000  tons, 

tem.     He    was    assistant    superintendent  See  Aaphali, 

of  the  first  telegraph  line  in  tnis  country,  VflldlVlfl.   (val-de've-ft).   a  seaport   of 

invented  the  finger  key,  and  received  the  '  «***"'^*«»  Southern  Chile,  on  the  navi- 

first     message     from     Washington.    He  gable  Calle-Calle.    Pop.  9704 — Its  port 

died  Jan.  18,  1859.  Is  Valdivia  Port,  or  Corral,  one  of  the 


Vail, 


Theodore  Newton,  electrician,  best  harbors  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  South 

'     was  bom  in  Carroll  Co.,  Ohio.  America, 

in  1845;  a  cousin  of  the  preceding,  and  Vflldofltfl.    (▼al-dos'ta) ,  a  city,  capital 

nephew  of  Stephen  Vail,  who  built  the  '  «****vo*»€»     ^^   Lowndes   Co.,   Georgia, 

engines  for  the  SavannaK  the  first  steam-  157  miles  8.w.  of  Savannah.    It  is  in  a 

ship  to  cross  the  Atlantic.    He  studied  cotton-growing  region,  and  has  manufac- 

medicine,  but  was  soon  engaged  in  the  tories   of   yam,   oil,   turpentine,   lumber, 

railroad  mail  service  and  in  1878  entered  and   fertilizers.    Pop.   7656. 

the  telephone  business,  organizing  the  first  VqIatiaa    (vft-lft^s),  chief  town  of  the 

Bell  Telephone  Co.    After  1896  he  was  ^^^^*^^^   department      of     Dr6me, 

engaged    m   introducing   street   railways  France,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone, 

and  telephones  in  Argentina.     He  built  66  miles  south  of  Lyons.     It  is  a  poorly- 

up  the  national   telephone  organization,  built    town    surrounded    by    old    oattle- 

and  has  secured  control  of  the  Western  mented  walls.    It  has  a  citadel,  a  small 

Union  Telegraph  Co.,  and  since  1907  has  ancient    cathedral,    a    public    library,    a 

been    president   of    the   American   Tele-  court-house,    and    a    theater.     It    is    a 

craph  and  Telephone  Co.,  and  the  New  bishop's   see,   and   has  manufactories   of 

York  Telephone  Ca  silk  and  cotton,  and  some  trade  in  wine, 

Volaift  (▼&-1&;     Qerman,     TTalUa),    a  liquors,    spirits,    silk,    fruit,    etc    Pop. 

VaiaiS  ^southern    cantoS    of    Switzer-  22.950. 

land,    abutting    on    France    and    Italy;  VfllenciR    (v&-len'shi-&),    a    city   of 

area,    2026    square    miles.    It    is    sur-  "^^-"•v*€»   Spain,  capital  of  the  prov- 

rounded  on  all  sides  bv  sections  of  the  ince  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Guada- 

Alps,  with  ridges  13,000  to  15,000  feet  laviar,  2  miles  from  the  Mediterranean 

high,     and     magnificent     glaciers.    The  and  190  miles  e.sjb.  of  Madrid.    It  has 

Rhone  traverses  the  whole  length  of  the  much    of    the    Moorish    character,    with 

canton,    forming    the    largest    valley    in  mostly    narrow    winding    streets,    lined 

Switzerland.    The   mountain   slopes   are  with  good  houses.    It  is  an  archbishop's 

covered  with  forests  of  pine  and  hard-  see,  and  has  a  cathedral    (datine  from 

wood     trees,     succeeded     by    productive  1262  and  greatly  injured  by  modemiza- 

orchards.    Rich    pastures    support    nu-  tion),   a   ro:^al   palace,   an   exchange,   a 

merous  cattle,   the  chief  source  of  sub-  general  hospital,  an  academy  of  the  fine 

sistence  of  the  inhabitants;  and  in  the  arts,    and   other   institutions.    The   uni- 

lower  yalley  of  the  Rhone  there  is  much  versity,  founded  in  1500,  is  one  of  the 

arable  land,  the  finer  fraits  are  grown,  leading  seats  of  leammg  in  the  kingdom* 

and  silk-worms  reared.    The  canton  pro-  Outside   the  walls   are  the   bull-ring,   a 

duces  a  good  deal  of  wine.    In  the  Upper  botanic    garden,    and    the    Alameda,    a 

Valais  German,  in  the  Lower  French  is  delightful    walk    bordered    with    orange, 

spoken.    The  canton  was  admitted  into  pomegranate,  and  palm  trees.    The  chief 

the  Confederation  in  1553.    Sion  is  the  manufactures  are  silk,  linen,  hemp,  glass, 

capital.    Pop.  114,438.  cigars,   paper,   and   soap.     Valencia   was 

Voliloi  TTilU    (vAl'dl),    a    range   of  founded    bv^  Junius    Brutus,    140    B.o. 

Vaiaai  lUUS    ^^^^^  ^^  western  Rus-  Pop.     233,34d.      The    old    province     of 

•la*  averaging  about  300  feet  in  height,  Talencia  is  now  broken  up  into  die  dircc 


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Valencia 


Valetta 


I 


provinces    of    ValeDcia«    Alicante,    and 

Castellon  de  la  Plana.    It  is  one  of  the 

most    fertile    and    pleasant    regions    of 

Spain. 

Vol^TiitiQ     ^  town  of  Venezuela,  about 

ibbean  Sea.  connected  by  railway  with 
Puerto  Cabello.  It  has  a  number  of 
notable  buildings,  and  an  active  com- 
merce in  coffee,  sugar,  rum,  cattle,  hides, 
etc.     Pop.  38,664. 

ValenrieiiTieq  (vA-lA^-syen) ,  a  for- 
VaienCienneS  tified  town  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Nord,  on  the 
Scheldt,  30  miles  6.E.  of  Lille.  It  is  a 
somewhat  gloomy  town  with  narrow 
streets,  but  the  houses  are  in  general 
well  built  There  is  a  handsome  cathe- 
dral of  the  thirteenth  century  and  a 
notable  town-hall  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. It  has  important  manufactures  of 
lace,  fine  linen,  hosiery,  beet-ssgar,  soap, 
etc.  Pop.  (1906)  25.077. 
Valens  (^&'ienz)>  Flavius,  a  Roman 
emperor  of  the  East,  born  in 
Pannonifi  in  328.  and  declared  emperor 
of  the  East  by  nis  brother  Valentmian 
I,  who  had  alreadv  been  elected  emperor. 
The  chief  event  of  his  reign  was  the  war 
with  the  Goths  under  Athanaric,  which 
lasted  during  the  whole  of  Valei^s'  reign. 
The  Goths  were  several  times  defeated, 
and  sued  for  peace,  which  was  granted 
them  (370).  In  377  the  Goths,  driven 
southwards  by  the  Huns,  asked  and  re- 
ceived permission  to  settle  on  Roman 
territory.  Irritated  by  the  treatment 
they  received  at  the  hands  of  the  im- 
perial officials  they  soon  took  up  arms, 
and  in  378  defeated  Valens  and  destroyed 
the  greater  part  of  his  army.  Valens 
was  never  seen  or  heard  of  afterwards. 

VfllpTiHo  or  Valencia  (vft-len'shi- 
viticuua,  ^^^  ^  g^^jj  j^j.^.,^  jgj^jj^ 

off  the  southwest  coast  of  Ireland,  be- 
longing to  County  Kerry,  about  5  miles 
long  by  2  miles  broad.  It  has  slate  and 
flag  quarries  and  productive  fisheries. 
The  British  Atlantic  telegraph  cables  to 
Newfoundland  start  from  Valentia,  and 
there  is  a  lighthouse. 
VflleTifiTiP  ^'^-  (varen-tin),  a  saint 
vaientme,    ^^    ^^^   Roman    calendar, 

said  to  have  been  martyred  in  306  a.d. 
The  custom  of  choosing  valentines  on  his 
day  (Feb.  14)  has  been  accidentally 
associated  with  his  name.  On  the  eve 
of  St.  Valentine's  day  young  people  of 
both  sexes  used  to  meet,  and  each  of 
them  drew  one  by  lot  from  a  number  of 
names  of  the  opposite  sex,  which  were 
put  into  a  common  receptacle.  Each 
gentleman  thus  got  a  lady  for  his  valen- 
tine, and  became  the  valentine  of  a  lady. 
The  gentlemen   remained   bound  to   the 


service  of  their  valentines  for  a  year. 
A  similar  custom  prevailed  in  the  Ho- 
man  Lupercalia,  to  which  the  modem 
custom  has,  with  probability,  been  traced. 
The  day  is  now  celebrated  by  sending 
anonymously  through  the  poet  sentT 
mental  or  ludicrous  missives  specially 
prepared  for  the  purpose.  But  this 
practice  is  also  on  the  decline. 

Valentinians  il?^*''^;^''!?:!!"?;^;! 

sect  of  iinostics 
(which  see). 

Valenza  ir^ii^^H^,  *   *®^^   ^f 

Northern  Italy,  provmce  of 
Alessandria,  pleasantly  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Po.  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral of  the  sixteenth  century.  Pop.  7115. 
VdlAriQTi  (va-le'ri-an;  ValerUlna  offi- 
vaicriau  oinolis),  a  plant  of  the  or- 
der Valerianacese,  native  of  Europe, 
which  grows  abundantly  by  the  sides  of 
rivers,  and  in  ditches  and  moist  woods. 
The  root  has  a 
very  strong 
odor,  which  is 
dependent'  on  a 
volatile  oil. 
It  is  used  in 
medicine,  in  the 
form  of  Infu- 
sion, decoction, 
or  tincture,  as  a 
nervous  stimu- 
lant and  anti- 
spasmodic (3ats 
and  rats  are 
very  fond  of  va- 
I  e  r  i  a  n.  Vale- 
riana ruhrat  or 
red  valerian,  is 
cultivated  in  gar- 
dens, as  well  as 
many  other  species, 
elegant    flowers.     V. 


Valerian  CValtriEna 
Qficinmis), 

on   account   of  its 
»ylvaticaf   wild   va- 


lerian, is  found  in  swamps  from  Vermont 
to  Michigan;  V.  pauciflora  in  Ohio,  Vir- 
ginia and  Tennessee;  V,  cUiata  in  low 
grounds  in  Canada,  Wisconsin  and  Ohio. 
The  true  valerian  of  the  shops  is  a  prod- 
uct of  V,  officindlis. 

VAlerifi.nilS  ( va-le-rl-a'nus),  PuB- 
vaienaiLUS  ^^g    Liciiaus,    a    Ro- 

man  emperor  from  253  to  260.  He  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Persians  in  260, 
and  his  after  fate  is  unknown. 

Valerius  Flaccus  <,7;'*'^1- ^^^l- 


Roman  epic  poet  who  flourished  in  the 
reign  of  Vespasian,  about  70-80  a.d. 


He 


was  author  of  the  Arponautica,  a  poem 
which  extended  to  eight  books,  but  was 
left  unfinished. 

Vq1a++o  (v&-let't&),  a  strongly  forti- 
V  aieixa  ^^  seaport,  capital  of  Malta, 
on  the  N,  &  coast  of  toe  Island,  situated 


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Vallialla  Vallisneria 


on  an  elevated  neck  of  land,  with  a  large  Valladolld.  ^  ^^^^  ^^  Mexico,  same 
and  commodious  harbor  on  each  side.  »  «***«***vax\ij  ^^  Morelia  (which  see). 
The  town  has  wide  streets  payed  with  Va.llfi.Tldi^'hn.Tn  (  va  -  Ian' de  -  gam  ) , 
lava,  spacious  squares,  and  fine  quays,  '  o,s^€M,xkuj.^iLa,iu.  Cuement  L.,  poli- 
lined  with  elegant  buildings.  From  the  tician,  born  at  New  Lisbon,  Ohio,  in 
inequality  of  the  site  the  communication  1820.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress 
between  the  different  streets  is  main-  1858-63,  supported  the  Southern  Con- 
tained by  flights  of  steps.  The  cathe-  federacy  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
dral,  built  in  1580,  contains  the  tombs  tives,  and  made  such  violent  harangues 
of  the  knights  of  Malta  or  of  St.  John  in  favor  of  the  insurgents  that  he  was 
(see  John,  KnighU  of  St.),  and  in  a  arrested  in  May,  1863,  on  a  charge  of 
chapel  are  the  kevs  ol:  Jerusalem,  Acre,  uttering  disloyal  sentiments.  He  was 
and  Rhodes.  Other  notable  buildings  tried  by  court-martial  and  sentenced  to 
are  the  governor's  residence,  formerly  confinement  until  the  end  of  the  war,  this 
the  palace  of  the  grand-masters;  the  being  commuted  to  banishment  to  the 
library,  museum,  universitv,  and  the  Confederate  lines.  Not  being  warmly 
military  hospital.  The  dockyard  is  received  there,  he  went  to  Canada.  In 
capable  of  admitting  the  largest  men-  the  same  year  the  Democrats  of  Ohio 
of-war.  Some  shipbuilding  and  various  denounced  his  banishment  and  nomi- 
other  industries  are  carried  on,  and  the  nated  him  for  governor,  but  he  was  M 
trade  includes  grain,  wine,  fruits,  cotton,  beaten  by  the  largest  majority  ever  given  /^ 
and  other  manufactures,  coals,  etc.  The  in  that  state.  He  died  in  1871.  [H 
mail  steamers  for  Alexandria,  Constan-  Vfllleio  (val-&'hd  or  vftl-yftHiO),  a  city  ^H 
tinople,  etc.,  call  here,  and  it  Is  the  chief  '  «***vjw  ^^^  seaport  of  California,  ^ 
station  of  the  British  fleet  in  the  Medi<»  capital  of  Solano  Co.,  on  an  arm  of  San  ^ 
terranean.  Pop.  61,268.  See  Malta.  Pablo  Bay,  23  miles  N.  E.  of  San  Fran- 
VaUiallfl.  ^  val-hal'a ) ,  in  Northern  cisco,  in  a  fruitful  farming  region.  It 
mythology,  the  palace  of  has  a  spacious  harbor,  flour-mills,  ship- 
immortality,  inhabited  by  the  souls  of  yards,  iron-foundries,  and  machine-shops, 
heroes  slam  in  battle,  who  here  spent  Large  quantities  of  grain  are  shipped, 
much  of  their  time  in  drinking  and  feast-  There  Is  a  United  States  navy  yara  on 
fng.  The  name  Is  applied  figuratively  Mare  Island,  near  this  place.  Pop.  11,340. 
to  any  edifice  which  is  the  final  resting-  Vallevfifild  ^  town  of  Quebec  prov- 
place  of  many  of  the  heroes  or  great  » «*"^jr«**^***;  Ince^  Canada,  on  Beau- 
men  of  a  nation,  and  specifically  to  an  hamois  Canal,  6  miles  8.  e.  of  Cotean 
edifice  built  by  Ludwig  I  of  Bavaria,  a  Landing.  Has  cotton,  fiour  and  other 
few  miles  from  Ratisbon.  See  Walhdlla,  industries.  Pop.  9447. 
Valkvriaft  (val-kir'i-as),  Valktes,  Vnllpir  Vnnr^  a  village  in  Chester 
YlU&yrias  jjj  Northern  mythology,  ^*"™  •'^"^^J  Co.,  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  'choosers  of  the  slain,'  or  fatal  sis-  the  Schuylkill  River,  and  24  miles  w. 
ters  of  Odin,  represented  as  awful  and  N.  w.  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  celebrated  as 
beautiful  maidens,  who,  mounted  on  the  place  where  Washington  with  about 
swift  horses  and  holding  drawn  swords  11,000  troops  went  into  winter  quarters 
in  their  hands,  presided  over  the  field  in  December,  1777.  It  was  here  also 
of  battle,  selecting  those  destined  to  that  Baron  Steuben  became  inspector- 
death  and  conducting  them  to  Valhalla,  general  of  the  army,  and  the  treaty  of 
where  they  ministered  at  their  feasts,  alliance  with  France  was  announced, 
serving  them  with  mead  and  ale  In  skulls.  May  6,  1778.  During  the  winter  the 
V&.ll&.dolid  (vAl-y&-do-lid'),  a  city  of  American  army  suffered  very  greatly 
Spain,  capital  of  the  from  cold  and  hunger,  and  about  half 
province  of  the  same  name,  98  miles  of  the  men  were  rendered  unfit  for  active 
northwest  of  Madrid.  It  has  a  cathe-  duty.  The  state  has  converted  the 
dral,  many  churches  and  suppressed  locality  into  a  public  park,  as  a  historic 
convents,  three  hospitals,  and  a  uni-  landmark,  and  a  monument  has  been 
versity.  The  church  of  Santa  Maria  la  erected  by  the  Daughters  of  the  Revolu- 
Antigua  dates  back  to  1088.  Columbus  tion  to  the  memory  of  the  soldiers  who 
died  in  this  city  and  Cervantes  dwelt  died  in  camp  during  that  winter  of  suffer- 
here     1603-06.     It     was     formerly     the  ing. 

capital     of    Castile.     The    manufactures  Vallisiierift  (^*''^*"°*'''^"*?»    *    genus 

consist  of  silks,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  c*xxj.o4a%^xxc»  ^£  aquatic  plants,  of  the 

hats,   jewelry,    paper,   etc.     Pop.   6i8,789.  nat  order  Hydrocharidaceie.    They  grow 

—  The    province   has   an    area    of   3042  at    the   bottom    of   the    water,    and    the 

square  miles,  and  a  population  of  278,-  male   and    female    flowers   are   separate. 

661.     It   is  well   watered  by   the  Douro  When   the   time   of   fecundation   arrives 

and  its  tributaries,  and  is  very  fertil«»-  the  male  flowers  become  detached,  and 


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VaUombrosa 


VamWry 


float  on  the  water;  the  female  flowers 
develop  long  spiral  peduncles,  by  means 
of  which  they  reach  the  surface,  where 
they  are  fertilized  by  the  male  flowers, 
y.  ^pir&lis  ffrows  in  still  waters  in  Italy, 
and  in  the  Khone;  it  is  commonly  grown 
in  aquariums. 

VaUombrosa  <  ^^-^oTDrbT^'sk ) ,  f or- 

vcMAVAUft/xvoa  merly  an  abbey  in  a 
wooded  valley  of  the  Apennines,  belong- 
ing to  the  diocese  of  Fiesole,  in  the 
Florentine  territory,  where  Giovanni 
Gualberto  founded  a  house  for  monks  in 
1038,  subject  to  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict 
The  building  (dating  from  1637)  now 
accommodates  an  institute  of  forestry. 
Valmv  (^&l-m^)>  &  village  of  Fraiice. 
«*****Jr  department  Marne,  celebrated 
for  the  afitair  known  as  *  the  cannonade 
of  Vahny/  where  the  French  republican 
troops  under  Kellermann  defeated  the 
Prussians  in  1792. 

Va1oi«  (V&1-W&),  House  of,  a  dynast; 
Y  aiuxs  ^jjj^jj  ^j^  France  from  1328 

to  1589.  In  1285  Philip  III  gave  the 
county  of  Valois  (now  in  the  departments 
Oise  and  Aisne)  to  his  younger  son, 
Charles,  and  upon  the  extinction  of  the 
Capet  dynasty,  in  1328,  the  eldest  son 
of  this  Charles  of  Valois  ascended  the 
French  throne  as  Philip  VI,  and  founded 
the  Valois  dynasty,  which  was  followed 
by  the  house  of  Bourbon.  See  France 
(HUtory). 

Valparaiso  ^7^\^^'^^}*r.^h^  ^^' 

w  cM^a.A«.x0v  ^jjpjj  p^j^  ^f  Chile,  capi- 
tal of  the  province  of  Valparaiso,  situ- 
ated on  a  large  bay  of  the  Paclflc,  90 
miles  w.  N.  w.  i 
of  Santiago. 
The  bay  is  open 
to  the  n  o  r  t  h, 
but  well  shel- 
tered from 
winds  in  other 
directions,  and 
is  capable  of 
accommodating 
a  very  large 
number  of  ves- 
sels. The  cus- 
tom-house  is 
the  only  public 
building  worth v 
of  note.  Val- 
paraiso is  the 
great  commer- 
cial emporium  of  Chile,  and  is  in  rail- 
way communication  with  Santiago,  the 
capital.  The  chief  imports  into  Val- 
paraiso are  manufactured  goods,  sugar, 
wln^  tobacco,  and  cigars.  The  exports 
consist  mainly  of  wheat,  barley,  wool, 
etc.,  and  of  mining  produce.  The  im- 
ports   of    Valparaiso    constitute    nearly 


the  whole  of  the  imports  of  C^ile,  while 
the  exports  form  a  large  portion  of  the 
total  exports.  Pop.  180,600.— On  August 
16,  1906,  the  city  was  destroved  by  an 
earthquake,  but  has  been  rebuilt 

Valparaiso,  ^cof'inl^:^!  '^^^Z 

8.  E.  of  Chicago.  It  contains  several  edu- 
cational institutions  and  has  manufac- 
tures of  school  specialties,  mica,  paints, 
and  varnishes.  Pop.  6987. 
ValDV  (^Al'POf  Richard,  an  English 
¥  tM-jfj  scholar,  bom  in  1754.  He  was 
graduated  at  Pembroke  College,  Ox- 
ford, in  1776.  He  entered  the  church, 
and  for  several  vears  held  a  living  at 
Bury  St  Edmunds.  From  1781  to  1830 
he  was  head-master  of  Reading  Gram- 
mar School,  and  compiled  a  LAtln  and  a 
Greek  grammar  and  several  classical  text- 
books, which  enjoyed  a  wide  reputation. 
He  died  in  1836. 

Valve  (^Al^)t  &  ^i°^  of  movable  lid  or 
voiXYv^  cover  adapted  to  the  orifice  of 
some  tube  or  passage,  and  so  formed  cz  to 
open  communication  in  one  direction  and 
to  close  it  in  the  other,  used  to  regulate 
the  admission  or  escape  of  a  fluid,  such 
as  water,  p^as,  or  steam.  Some  valves 
are  self-acting,  that  is,  they  are  so  con- 
trived as  to  open  in  the  required  direc- 
tion by  the  pressure  of  the  fluid  upon 
their  surface,  and  immediately  to  snut 
and  prevent  the  return  of  the  fluid  when 
the  direction  of  its  pressure  changes. 
Others  are  actuated  by  independent  ex- 
ternal agency.  Examples  of  the  former 
kind  are  presented  in  the  valves  of 
pumps,  and  In 
the  safety-valves 
of  steam  boilers, 
and  of  the  latter 
in  the  slide- 
valves  appended 
to  the  cylinder 
of  a  steam-en- 
gine  for  the 
purpose  of  reg 
ulating  the  ad- 
mission  and 
escape  of  the 
steam.  The  con- 
struction  of 
valves  admits 
of  an  almost 
endless  variety 
of  devices.  See 
Safety-valve,  Pump,  etc 
Vamhirv  (jAm'ba-re),  Herman,  a 
vamoeiy  Hungarian  traveler  and 
scholar,  bom  in  1832.  He  studied  at 
Pressburg,  Vienna,  and  Budapest,  and 
then  went  to  Constantinople,  where  he 
lived  by  teaching  French.  In  1858  he 
published  a  Turkish-German  dictionary. 


Digitized  by 


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Vampire 


Vanbrugh 


In  1861-64,  disguised  as  a  dervish,  he 
undertook  an  extensive  journey  of  ex- 
ploration through  Persia  into  Turkestan, 
and  visited  Khiva,  Bokhara,  and  Samar- 
cand.  In  1865  he  became  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  at  the  University  of 
Budapest,  and  he  wrote  many  valuable 
linguistic  works  as  well  as  works  on  his 
travels,  including  Travels  in  Central 
Asia  (1865)  ;  Wanderings  and  Adven- 
tures in  Persia  (1867)  ;  Sketches  of  Cen- 
tral Asia  (1868)  ;  History  of  Bokhara 
(1873)  ;  Central  Asia  and  Anglo-Russian 
Frontier  (1874)  ;  Islam  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century  (1875)  ;  The  Origin  of 
the  Magyars  (1882)  ;  The  Coming  Strug- 
gle for  India  (1885)  ;  Story  of  Hungary 
(1887)  ;  etc  The  Story  of  his  Life  and 
Adventures  appeared  in  1888.  He  has 
also  been  a  frequent  contributor  to 
periodical  literature  in  England,  Ger- 
many, and  Hungary. 
Vattitiv/A  (vani'plr),  a  superstition  of 
vampue  Eastern  origin  existing 
anicag  tie  ftlavonic  and  other  races  on 
the  Lower  Danube.  A  vampire  is  a 
jhost  still  possessing  a  human  body, 
which  leaves  the  grave  during  the  night 
and  sucks  the  blood  of  living  persons, 
particularly  of  the  :^oung  and  healthy. 
Dead  wizards,  heretics,  and  such  like 
outcasts  become  vampires,  as  does  also 
any  one  killed  by  a  vampire.  On  the 
discovery  of  a  vampire's  grave  the  corpse 
must  be  disinterred,  thrust  through  with 
a  white-thorn  stake,  and  burned. 
VQniT>irp.liflf  &  name  for  certain 
Vampire-OaX,  ^^^   inhabiting   South 

America.  The  name  was  giv«i  from 
the  blood-sucking  habits  attributed  to 
these  bats,  but  how  many  of  them  really 
attack  animals  and  suck  blood  from 
them  is  not  quite  clear.  One  species 
at  least,  known  as  the  vampire-bat 
{Vampyrus  spectrum)^  of  large  size  and 
having  formidable  teeth,  seems  to  be  con- 
clusively acquitted  of  the  charge,  its 
regular  food  being  fruits  and  insects. 
It  has  large  leathery  ears,  an  erect  spear- 
like appendage  on  the  tip  of  the  nose, 
wings  when  extended  measuring  28 
inches.  Several  bats,  however,  have 
been  proved  to  be  blood-suckers,  the  best- 
known  being  Desmodus  rufus,  a  species 
only  about  4  inches  long  ana  15  or  16 
in  expanse  of  wing.  It  has  large  promi- 
nent upper  incisors  of  peculiar  shape, 
and  upper  canines  somewhat  similar,  ana 
the  stomach  and  intestines  are  evidently 
specially  adapted  for  a  diet  of  blood. 
This  species  of  bat  seems  to  he  generally 
distributed  throughout  the  warmer  parts 
of  South  America  from  Chile  to  Guiana. 
The  blood-sucking  propensities  of  these 
bats  are  by  no  means  so  dangerous  as 

l6  10 


formerly  and  popularly  described?  but 
there  is  little  doubt  that  they  do  attack 
horses  and  cattle,  and  sometimes  even 
man  in  his  sleep. 

Van  C^^'^)*  cnief  town  of  a  vilayet  of 
the  same  name  in  Armenia,  Asi- 
atic Turkey.  It  is  pleasantly  situated 
near  Lake  Van,  and  is  overlooked  by  an 
old  citadel.  Cotton  cloth  is  manufac- 
tured and  exported.  Pop.  about  30,000. 
—  Lake  Van  is  a  salt-water  lake,  5467 
feet  above  sea-level;  area,  about  1600 
square  miles.  It  contains  many  islands, 
and  has  no  visible  outlet. 

Vanadium  ^^^^^^^^^  fsao?*^! 

though  what  was  at  first  considered  the 
metal  was  really  an  oxide;  chemical 
symbol  V;  atomic  weight  51.2.  Vana- 
dium has  a  stronsr  metallic  luster,  con- 
siderably resembling  silver,  but  still 
more  like  molybdenum.  When  in  mass 
it  is  not  oxidised  either  by  air  or  water, 
but  the  finely-powdered  metal  quickly 
takes  up  oxygen  from  the  air. 

VanBeneden|.-S.,''e-|d-)i 

Belgian  naturalist,  bom  at  Mechlin  in 
1809;  died  in  1894.  He  became  pro- 
fessor  of  geology  at  Ghent  in  1835,  and 
at  Louvain  in  1836,  remaining  there  till 
his  death.  In  1843  he  established  the 
first  laboratory  and  aquarium  for  the 
study  of  marine  life,  and  he  won  a  wide 
reputation  by  his  study  of  parasites. 
Vanhmo^li  Cyan-brO'),  Sib  John,  an 
Vanoru^n  English  architect  and 
dramatist,  bom  about  1666,  and  was 
educated  partly  in  England  and  partly  In 
France.  He  entered  the  army,  became 
well  known  in  London  as  a  man  of  fash- 
ion, and  then  tumed  his  attention  to 
play-writing.  His  first  play.  The  Re- 
lapse, was  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane 
about  1697,  and  was  followed  by  The 
Provoked  Wife,  and  JEsop,  The  first 
two  of  these  had  all  the  wit  and  most 
of  the  freedom  of  treatment  which  char- 
acterized that  period,  but  ^sop  was 
moral  and  dull,  and  therefore  unsuccess- 
ful. How  he  obtained  his  knowledge  of 
architecture  is  not  known,  but  at  this 
time  (1702)  Vanbrugh  designed  Castle 
Howard,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Car- 
lisle. Afterwards  he  entered  with  Con- 
greve  into  a  speculation  to  build  a  great 
theater  at  the  west  end  of  London,  in 
which  he  was  his  own  architect;  but  it 
did  not  prove  a  success.  In  1706  he  was 
commissioned  by  Queen  Anne  to  present 
the  garter  to  the  Elector  of  Hanover, 
and  the  same  year  he  was  occupied  with 
the  erection  of  Blenheim  Palace.  This 
work  got  him  into  considerable  pecuniary 
trouble,  as  parliament,  which  voted  itf 


( 


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Van  Buren 


Vanoouver  Island 


voted  nothing  for  its  payment  He  built 
many  other  mansions  for  the  nobility; 
in  i714  he  was  knighted  by  George  I, 
in  the  following  year  appointed  controller 
of  the  royal  works,  and  in  1716  surveyor 
of  Qreenwich  Hospital.  He  died  March 
26.  1726.  Vanbrugh's  plays  are  admir- 
able in  dramatic  conception  as  well  as  in 
wit,  and  his  architectural  works  received 
the  approval  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 

Van  Bnren  ^yViu^^'^^^)'  }^^F^' 

vc»u  A#ux«^u  gigjjth  president  of  the 
United  States,  was  bom  at  Kinderhook, 
New  York,  Dec.  6.  1782.  He  early 
studied  law,  and  in  J  812  was  elected  to 
the  state  senate.  He  was  attorney- 
general  from  1815  to  1819,  and  in  1821 
was  elected  United  States  senator.  In 
1828  he  became  governor  of  New  York, 
and  in  the  following  year  President 
Jackson  appointed  him  secretary  of 
state.  In  November,  1832,  he  was 
elected  vice-president  by   the  Democratic 

5  arty  in  association  with  President 
ackson,  and  in  1836  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States.  The  diffi- 
culties whicti  his  administration  had  t» 
face  were  chiefly  connected  with  the  de- 

Eosit  of  state  funds  in  private  banks,  and 
is  term  of  office  was  made  notable  by 
a  business  depression  of  great  intensity. 
He  was  again  nominated  for  President  in 
the  elections  of  1840  and  1848,  but  was 
unsuccessful  on  both  occasions.  He 
wrote  a  treatise  entitled  An  Inquiry  into 
the  Origin  and  Course  of  Political 
Parties  tn  the  United  States,  He  died 
in  July,  1862. 

Vancouver  (^an-kO'ver),  GpRGE, 
V  c»Ai.vvu.v«^A    ^jj      English      navigator, 

bom  about  1758;  died  in  1798.  He  en- 
tered the  navy 
as  midshipman 
in  1771;  ac- 
companied Cap- 
tain Cook  on 
his  second  and 
third  voyages 
of  exploration 
(  1772-74  and 
1776-79)  ;  was 
made  first  lieu- 
tenant in  1780; 
and  served  in 
the  West  In- 
dies until  1789. 
In  1790  he  was 
put  in  c  o  m- 
mand  of  a  small 
squadron  sent 
to  take  over 
N  o  o  t  k  a  from 
the  Spaniards, 
and  was  also 
chaiged    to    as- 


certain if  there  was  a  northwest  passage. 
He  sailed  in  the  Discovery  in  1791,  spent 
some  time  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  afterwards  at  Australia  and  New 
Zealand,  the  coasts  of  which  he  surveyed. 
He  then  went  north  and  received  forma] 
surrender  of  Nootka,  and  spent  the  thre« 
summers  of  1792-94  in  surveying  the 
coast  as  far  north  as  Cook'«  Inlet.  On 
his  return  voyage  he  visited  the  chief 
Spanish  settlements  on  the  west  coast  of 
South  America,  and  reached  England  in 
1795,  where  a  narrative  of  liis  voyage 
was  published  in  1798. 

Vancouver,  ?.*^^^  and  port  of  Brit- 
'  ish  Columbia,  on  the 
Strait  of  Georgia,  and  forming  the 
western  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pa- 
cific Hallway.  Though  established  as 
late  as  1885,  it  has  had  a  rapid  growth 
and  developed  a  flourishing  trade  and 
numerous  manufactures.  Pop.  (1914) 
207.383. 

Vanoonvpr  *  ^^^»  county  seat  of 
Y  aiLCOUVer^    ^^^^y^^  q^     Washington. 

on  the  Columbia  River,  6  miles  N.  of 
Portland,  Oregon ;  served  by  five  rail- 
roads, the  largest  seagoing  vessels  reach 
the  wharf,  fruit,  lumber,  flour,  walnuts, 
potatoes,  prunes,  and  dairy  products 
being  the  principal  sliipments.  There  are 
saw-mills,  fruit-packing  industries,  etc., 
mining  and  manufactures.     Poj;>.  12,000. 

Vancouver  Island,  f^-,  ^^ml  JS 

the  west  coast  of  British  Columbia,  of 
which  province  of  Canada  it  forms  part; 
length,  from  250  to  300  miles;  breadth, 
from  10  to  70  miles;  area,  about  12,000 
square  miles.  It  is  generally  moun- 
tainous, .  and  heavily  timbered.  The  cli- 
mate  is  tem- 
perate, and  the 
soil,  in  the 
south  and  east, 
fertile  and  fa- 
vorable to  agri- 
culture  and 
fruit  growing. 
The  interior  is 
p  o  c  k  y,  inter- 
spersed with 
small  grass 
tracts  suitable 
for  pasturage, 
and  with  lakes 
and  small 
streams.  Coal  is 
worked  (• 
Nanaimo),  an€ 
ffold,  copper  and 
iron  ore,  and 
other  minerals 
are  found. 
Horses,     cattle. 


Vancouver 
Island* 


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Vandals 


Van  Dyke 


sheep  and  pigs  thrive  well,  and  the  seas 
and  lakes  aboand  with  fish.  Large  quan- 
tities of  salmon  are  exported,  and  there  is 
an  extensive  trade  in  fur,  the  skins  ex- 
ported being  chiefly  those  of  the  mink, 
marten,  sable,  fox,  bear,  beaver,  otter, 
seal,  and  deer.  There  are  numerous  good 
harbors  along  the  coasts,  the  chief  of 
which  is  Esquimault  (which  see).  As 
this  island  lies  opposite  the  terminus  of 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  it  has  re- 
cently acquired  great  importance.  The 
chief  town  of  the  island,  and  the  capital 
of  British  Columbia,  is  Victoria,  in  the 
extreme  southeast.  Pop.  of  the  island 
about  50,000. 

Vandals  (v&Q'^^als)*  &  German  nation 
or  confederation,  probably 
allied  to  the  Ooths,  who  occupied  at  an 
early  period  the  country  on  the  south  of 
the  Baltic,  between  the  Oder  and  the 
Vistula.  At  a  later  period  they  appear 
to  have  descended  into  Silesia,  and  sub- 
sequent! jr  occupied  Pannonia,  Moravia, 
and  Dacia.  In  406,  in  conjunction  with 
a  German  host,  they  ravaged  GauJL  and 
thence  found  their  way  into  Spain. 
After  defeating  an  allied  annv  of  Goths 
and  Romans,  they  seized  Seville  and 
Carthagena,  and,  led  by  Genseric, 
crossed  to  Africa.  Here  they  vanquished 
the  Roman  governor  (429),  and  founded 
a  kingdom,  which  abisorbed  the  greater 
part  of  tne  Roman  possessions.  Gen- 
seric immediately  began  to  revive  the 
maritime  glories  of  Carthage,  and  ex- 
tended his  conquests  to  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
and  Corsica.  He  also  invaded  Italy 
and  sacked  Rome  In  4^.  Genseric  con- 
cluded a  long  reign  m  peace  in  477. 
The  kingdom  of  the  Vandals  was  con- 
tinued under  his  descendants  —  Hunneric, 
his  son,  who  immediately  succeeded 
him;  Gundamund,  484;  Thrasimund, 
496;  Hilderic,  523:  Gelimer,  530.  It 
was  overthrown  in  534  by  Belisarius,  the 
general  of  the  eastern  Emperor  Jus- 
tinian. 

VanderbUt  &-;' ^^ilai^',  ^^, 

Stateo  Island  in  1794;  died  in  1877.  A 
poor  boy,  he  engaged  in  steamboat  en- 
terprises, which  greatly  expanded,  and 
in  later  life  in  railroad  management,  and 
acquired  great  wealth.  His  son,  Wil- 
liam Henry  (1821-85)  added  enormously 
to  this  wealtn.  The  Vanderbilt  Univer- 
sity (Methodist  Eniscopal)  at  Nashville, 
Tennessee,  was  rounded  by  Cornelius, 
who  presented  it  with  $1,000,000;  to 
which  William  H.  added  $310,000. 

Van  Diemen's  land  feaLT^l: 
VanDyck  ^^-pf^eVhlp^  ^"JS^S^^ 


greatest  of  all  portrait-painters,  was 
bom  at  Antwerp  on  March  22,  1599, 
where  his  father  was  a  merchant  He 
studied  painting  first  under  Van  Balen, 
and  then  under  Rubens,  quitting  the 
studio  of  the  latter  after  a  few  years  to 
proceed  to  Italy,  where  he  spent  about 
five  years  (1623-28)  chiefly  at  Genoa, 
Venice,  and  Rome,  and  then  returned 
to  Antwerp.  Having  acquired  a  great 
reputation  as  a  portrait  painter  he  was 
invited  to  England  by  (Jharles  I,  who 
bestowed  upon  him  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood, a  considerable  annuity,  and  a  sum- 
mer and  winter  residence.    The  painter 


( 


bir  Anthony  Yandyck. 

rewarded  this  generosity  by  unceasing 
diligence,  and  executed,  besides  a  multi* 
tude  of  portraits,  several  mythological 
and  historical  paintings.  He  was  fond 
of  splendor,  and  lived  in  a  very  expensive 
style.  Shortly  after  his  marriage  to 
Mary  Ruthven,  a  granddaughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Gowrie,  he  died  (December  9, 
1641),  and  was  buried  in  St.  Paul's. 
Vandyck's  great  strength  lay  in  portrait 
painting,  and  he  excelled  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  chiaroscuro,  but  he  sometimes 
amused  himself  with  engraving  and  etch* 
ing. 

Van  Dvke  ^^^^  dik),  hewry,  au- 

A'j**.^  ^jjQ,.^  ^j^g  JJQJ.JJ  jj^  German- 
town,  Pennsylvania,  in  1852.  He  was 
educated  at  Princeton  and  Berlin,  became 
a  pastor  at  Newport  in  1878,  at  New 
York  in  1882,  preacher  to  Harvard  Uni- 
versity in  1890-92  and  1808-99,  and  lec- 
turer at  Yale  in  1896.  As  an  author  he 
has  been  prolific,  some  of  his  works  being 
The  Poetry  of  Tennyson  (1889),  The 
First  Christmas  Tree  (1897),  The  ToUing 
of  Felix  and  other  Poems  (1900),  The 
Open  Door  (1903),  The  Spirit  of  Christ- 
mas  (1905),  Out  of  DoQr§  in  th9  Bol$, 


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VandyEe  Brown 


Vapor 


Land  (1908).    In  1913  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  the  Netherlands. 

Vandyke  Brown,  t.^^jTi^^''^ 

kind  of  peat  or  bog-earth,  of  a  fine,  deep, 
semitransparent  brown  color;  so  called 
from  its  being  supposed  to  be  the  brown 
used  by  Vandyck  m  his  pictures. 
Vane  (^A°)*  ^^  Henbt,  an  English 
¥  cuA.^  statesman  and  writer,  born  in 
1612,  eldest  son  of  Sir  Henry  Vane, 
secretary  of  state.  He  was  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Oxford,  afterwards 
completing  bis  education  at  Geneva, 
where  he  became  a  puritan  and  a  re- 
publican. Returning  to  England,  he 
found  that  his  religious  and  political 
opinions  exposed  him  to  much  ill-will 
and  annoyance^  and  he  consequently 
emigrated  to  New  E2ngland,  arriving  at 
Boston  in  1635.  He  was  elected  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts  in  1636.  In  1637 
he  returned  to  England,  after  which  he 
was  knighted,  entered  parliament,  and 
became  treasurer  of  the  navy.  He  took 
part  in  the  impeachment  of  Strafford, 
and  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  parlia- 
ment in  the  civil  war  and  one  of  the 
leaders  in  the  Long  Parliament.  He  was 
also  a  supporter  of  the  Solemn  League 
and  Covenant.  He  was  averse  to  the 
execution  of  the  king,  and  came  into 
Conflict  with  Cromwell  in  consequence  of 
the  forcible  dissolution  of  the  Long 
Parliament  (1653).  In  1656  he  was  im- 
prisoned in  Carisbrooke  Castle  for  four 
months,  by  order  of  Cromwell,  on  ac- 
count of  a  pamphlet  he  had  written.  On 
his  release  he  continued  to  resolutely  op- 
pose the  government  of  Cromwell  and 
of  his  son  Richard.  In  1659  he  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  of  safety  and 
president  of  the  Council  of  State.  After 
the  Restoration  he  was  sent  to  the 
Tower  (Feb.,  1660),  and  subsequently 
moved  from  prison  to  prison.  A  rising 
of  the  Fifth  Rionarchy  party  (Jan.,  1661) 
led  to  increased  severity  towards  him, 
and  he  was  tried  for  high  treason  before 
the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  June  2,  1662, 
condemned,  and  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill 
on  June  14th.  He  wrote  various  theo- 
logical works  characterized  by  excessive 
mysticism,  and  his  relieious  views  gave 
rise  to  a  small  circle  of  disciples  known 
as  Vanists. 
Vanella.     ^^  Lapwing. 

VanEyck.   see  ^yc*. 

Vanilla  (va-nil'a),  a  flavoring  airent 
»  auxxxo.  ^g^  jjj  confectionery,  and  in 
the  preparation  of  ligueurs.  procured 
from  the  fruit  of  Vanilla  aromatica  and 
V.    planifoHOf    orchidaceous    plants    pf 


tropical  Amer- 
ica, remarkable 
on  account  of 
their  climbing 
habits,  and 
now  cultivated 
in  various 
tropical  coun- 
tries, including 
Ceylon  and 
India.  It  has  a 
fragrant  odor, 
and  is  also  used 
in  medicine  as 
a  stimulant  and 
promoter  of  di- 
gestion. 

Vannes<'»2i[: 

port  of  France, 
capital     of     the        VsnllU  (VanOaaro- 
department      of  matica.) 

Morbihan,  64  miles  n.  w.  of  Nantes.  It 
has  ancient  walls  and  gates.  There  is  a 
cathedral,  and  a  museum  ri«h  in  Celtic 
antiquities.     Pop.    (1906)    16,72a 

Van  Eensselaer  ^-»'-'"iufe^ 

man,  was  bom  in  New  York  in  1764; 
died  in  1839.  He  became  known  as  *  the 
Patroon,*  being  a  descendant  of  the  older 
patroons,  or  great  land  holders.  He  was 
lieutenant-governor  of  the  State  for  six 
years,  and  commanded  the  New  York 
militia  in  1812.  He  codperated  with 
Clinton  in  building  the  Erie  Canal,  and 
founded  in  1824  Rensselaer  Institute 
(now  the  Polytechnic  School)  at  Troy; 
was  distinguished  for  his  zeal  in  the  cause 
of  science. 

ViiTi  lU^Ti'  a  city,  capital  of  Van 
van  wen,  ^gy^  ^    5jjJ^j   27  miles 

w.  N.  w.  of  Lima.  It  has  railroad  shops, 
lumber  and  flour  mills,  and  oil-well  sup- 
ply works,  etc.  Pop.  7157. 
Vauor  (vft'pur),  in  physics,  a  term 
**"  applied  to  designate  the  gas- 
eous form  which  a  solid  or  liquid 
substance  assumes  when  heated.  Vapor 
is,  therefore,  essentially  a  gas,  and  see- 
ing that  all  known  gases  have  now  been 
proved  to  be  liqueflable,  no  physical  dif- 
ference can  be  said  really  to  exist  be- 
tween an  ordinary  gas,  such  as  oxygen, 
and  a  vapor,  such  as  steam.  In  common 
language,  however,  a  difference  is  usuallv 
recognized;  a  gaa  is  a  substance  which 
at  ordinary  temperatures  and  pressures 
exists  in  a  state  of  vapor;  while  a  vapor 
is  produced  by  the  application  of  heat 
to  a  substance  which  normally  exists  in 
a  solid  or  liquid  form.  The  difference 
has  been  otherwise  explained  to  be  one 
not  so  much  of  kind  as  of  degree;  steam 
in  tbe  boiler  of  a  steam-engine  being  sr.'d 


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Var 


Vamisli 


to  b€  in  a  state  of  vapor,  while  super- 
heated steam  is  said  to  be  a  gas.  Aque- 
ous vapor  formed  on  the  surface  of  the 
land  and  water  is  always  present  in 
suspension  in  the  atmosphere,  and  when 
it  meets  with  a  reduction  of  temperature 
it  condenses  into  water  in  the  form  of 
rain  or  dew. 

Var  (^^^)*  A  department  in  the  south- 
east  of  France,  bordering  upon  the 
Mediterranean,  and  covered  in  the  in- 
terior with  ramifications  of  the  Alps; 
area,  2349  square  miles,  of  which  only 
a  small  portion  is  arable.  There  are 
magnificent  forests  of  pine  and  oak,  and 
the,  vine,  olive,  mulberrv  and  tobacco 
are'  extensively  cultivated.  Minerals  in- 
clude salt,  lead,  coal,  marble,  gypsum 
and  building  stone.  The  manufactures 
consist  of  woolens,  perfume,  liqueurs, 
olive-oil,  soap,  leather  and  silk.  The 
coast  is  bold  and  deeply  indented;  and 
the  fishing,  both  of  tunny  and  anchovies, 
is  actively  carried  on.  The  capital  is 
Draguignan.     Pop.  326,384. 

Varangians  ^'"^iJ^f X)^,-  Ip 

plied  to  the  Norse  vikings,  who,  at  the 
close  of  the  ninth  century,  founded 
various  principalities  in  Russia.  Some 
of  them  afterwards  entered  the  service 
of  the  Byzantine  emperors,  and  became 
the  imperial  guards  at  Constantinople. 
Here  they  were  recruited  by  Anglo- 
Saxons  and  Danes,  who  fled  from  Eng- 
land to  escape  the  Norman  yoke. 
VaranidSB.     ^ee  Monitor. 

VnraariiTi  (v&-r&s-den'),  a  town  of 
V  urusuxu  Austria,  capital  of  a  county 
of  the  same  name  in  Croatia.  It  has 
an  old  castle,  several  Roman  Catholic 
churches,  a  high  school,  and  manufac- 
tories of  tobacco,  liqueurs,  vinegar,  and 
silk  wares.     Pop.   12,930. 

Variable  Quantities,  'Satfcs*  eSct 

quantities  as  are  regarded  as  being  sub- 
ject to  continual  increase  or  diminution, 
in  opposition  to  those  which  are  constant, 
remamin^  always  the  same;  or  quan- 
tities which  in  the  same  equation  admit 
of  an  infinite  number  of  sets  of  values. 
Thus,  the  abscissas  and  ordinates  of  a 
curve  are  variable  quantities,  because 
they  vary  or  change  their  magnitudes 
together,  and  in  passing  from  one  point 
to  another  their  values  increase  or 
diminish  according  to  the  law  of  the 
curve.  See  Calculus  (in  mathematical 
sense) . 

Variable  Stars,  |^"|  ^('^i^^!^. 

crease  and  diminution  of  their  luster. 
This  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  dark  com- 


panions, which  cut  ott  part  of  their 
light  at  intervals  by  rotating  around 
them. 

Varicose  Veins  Ml^^Ski  I^?!, 

which  became  dilated  and  uneven,  and 
form  hard  knotty  swellings  in  the  situ- 
ation of  their  valves.  The  disease  is  a 
common  affection  of  the  lower  limbs, 
where  sometimes  the  varix  bursts  and 
hemorrhage  takes  place.  It  also  occurs 
in  the  veins  of  the  scrotum  and  lower 
rectum,  producing  in  the  latter  case 
bleeding  piles.  Varicose  veins  are 
caused  by  local  obstruction  of  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood,  and  are  common 
in  pregnancy,  while  stout  people,  and 
those  who  stand  most  of  the  day  at 
work,  are  apt  to  suffer  from  them.  The 
treatment  consists  in  the  application  of 
proper  bandages,  and  rest  to  the  limb 
supported  in  an  elevated  position. 
VarietV  (va-ri'e-tij,  in  scientific 
J^  classifications,  a  subdivision 
of  a  species  of  animals  or  plants;  an 
individual  or  group  of  individuals  differ- 
ing from  the  rest  of  the  species  to  which 
it  belongs  in  some  accidental  circum- 
stances which  are  not  essential  to  the 
species.  Varieties  are  considered  as  less 
permanent  than  species,  and  those  natu- 
ralists who  look  upon  species  as  strictly 
distinct  in  their  origin,  consider  varieties 
as  modifications  of  them  arising  from 
particular  causes,  as  climate,  nourish- 
mentj  cultivation,  and  the  like.  See 
Spectes. 

Mama  (vftr^nft),  a  fortified  town  of 
vuriiu,  ]^uigaria  (of  which  it  is  the 
chief  port),  on  the  Black  Sea.  It  has 
a  good  harbor,  and  a  large  trade  with 
Constantinople  In  ^rain.  It  is  the  see 
of  a  Greek  archbishop.  A  memorable 
battle  between  the  Turks  and  Hunga- 
rians was  fought  here  in  1444.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Russians  in  1828,  but  re- 
stored to  Turkey  a  year  later  bv  the 
Peace  of  Adrianople.  The  Crimean 
expedition  sailed  from  Varna  in  1854. 
Pop.  (1906)  37,155. 

Varnhagen  von  Ense  ^fon^'en'^K 

Karl  August,  a  German  biographer, 
born  at  DUsseldorf  in  1785;  died  at 
Berlin  in  1858.  He  had  a  considerable 
military  experience  hi  his  younger  days, 
and  was  latterly  engaged  in  the  Prus- 
sian diplomatic  service.  Among  his  chief 
works  are  Biographische  DenkmalCf 
Denkwurdigkeiten  und  VermUchie  Schrif- 
<en,  Tagebucher,  and  Lives  of  Von 
Seydlitz,  Sophia  Charlotte,  Marshal 
Keith,  etc. 

Varnish    (v&r'nlsh),  a  solution  of  res- 
inous     matter,     forming     a 


i 


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Varnish  Tree 


Vascular  Tissue 


clear,  limpid  fluid,  capable  of  hardening 
without  losing  its  transparency,  and 
used  by  painters,  gilders,  cabinet  makers, 
etc,  for  coating  over  the  surface  of  their 
work,  in  order  to  give  it  a  shining, 
transparent,  and  hard  surface,  capable 
of  resisting  in  a  greater  or  less  degree 
the  influences  of  air  and  moisture.  The 
resinous  substances  most  commonly  em- 
ployed for  varnishes  are  mastic,  sandarac, 
lac,  copal,  amber,  and  asphalt;  and  the 
solvents  are  fixed  oil,  volatile  oil,  and 
alcohol.  Varnishes  are  colored  with 
arnotto,  gamboge,  saftron,  dragon's- 
blood,  etc.  Fixed-oil  varnishes  are  the 
most  durable,  and  are  the  best  adapted 
for  exposure  to  the  weather.  Volatile- 
oil  varnishes  consist  of  a  solution  of 
resin  in  oil  of  turpentine.  They  are 
chiefly  used  for  paintings. 

Varnish  Tree,  ^^^:  °^"f  ^^''®°u:*? 

¥  MAUAOM  AAwwy  various  trees  which 
furnish  a  resinous  juice  used  for  varnish- 
ing or  for  lacquermg.  They  are  chiefly 
natives  of  the  hotter  parts  of  the  East- 
em  Hemisphere. 

Varro  (^a^'^)*  Marcus  Terentius, 
one  of  the  most  learned  men 
and  prolific  writers  of  ancient  Rome, 
born  B.C,  116,  served  in  the  army,  and 
subsequently  filled  several  public  oflSces. 
Varro  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Cicero, 
and  was  proscribed  by  Antony,  but  he 
escaped  and  returned  to  Rome  under 
Augustus,  and  died  there  in  B.c.  27. 
Of  his  numerous  writings,  chiefly  on. 
language,  history,  and  philosophy,  only 
one  has  come  down  to  us  entire  —  a 
treatise  upon  agriculture  (De  Re  RuS' 
Uca),  Fragments  of  a  treatise  on  the 
Latin  language  (De  Lingua  Laiina)  are 
also  extant. 

VorriTin  (va'r5-na>,  in  Hindu  my- 
Y  aruna  thology,  the  god  of  water,  the 
cause  of  rain,  lord  of  rivers  and  the  sea. 


Vanma,  the  Indian  God  of  Waters. 


nally  the  sky  or  heavens.  He  is  repre- 
sented as  a  white  man,  four-armed,  rid- 
ing on  a  sea  animal. 

Varus  (va'rus),  PuBLius  Quintilius, 
a  Roman  general.  In  7  B.C., 
having  received  from  Augustus  the  com- 
mand to  introduce  the  Roman  jurisdic- 
tion into  the  German  territory  conquered 
by  Drusus,  he  was  carrying  out  his  mis- 
sion when  he  was  suddenly  attacked  by 
an  immense  host  under  Arminius,  and  his 
whole  army  destroyed.  Varus  put  an  end 
to  his  own  life.  See  Arminius, 
Vasa  (▼*'84)j   GusTAvus.     See   €hw- 

Vasari  (vA-sA're),  Giorgio,  an  Italian 
painter  and  architect,  but  most 
distinguished  as  the  biographer  of 
artists,  was  born  at  Arezzo,  in  Tuscany, 
in  1512j  and  studied  under  Luca  Signor- 
elli,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Andrea  del 
Sarto.  As  an  architect  he  showed  great 
ability:  as  a  painter  he  was  less  success- 
fuL  His  Vite  de*  pOk  ecceUenti  Pittorit 
ScuUori  ed  ArchitetU  (*  Lives  of  the  Most 
Excellent  Painters,  Sculptors  and  Archi- 
tects')  is  of  great  interest,  but  contains 
many  errors.     Vasari  died  in  1574. 

Vasculares  (vas-w^-JfL'^^*  ^'  ^^' 

vcftovuAax^^o     CUT^AB    I'LANTS.    a    great 

division  of  plants,  consisting  ot  those  in 
which  vascular  tissue  appears,  and  includ- 
ing all  phanerogamous  plants,  both  ezog^ 
enous  and  endogenous.    See  Vellulares, 

Vascnlar  Surgery,  ^l  K  Va! 

sels,  practically  created  by  Alexis  Carrel. 
Vascular  surgery  was  only  in  its  initial 
sta^e  when  Dr.  Carrel  began  his  investi- 
gations, so  that  an  entire  system  had  to 
be  worked  out  The  first  point  was  to 
show  that  the  wall  of  a  vessel  could  be 
sutured  without  giving  rise  to  coagulation 
in  the  interior.  This  had  already  been 
done  in  the  case  of  a  puncture  in  the  wall 
of  a  vein,  but  it  was  now  demonstrated 
that  an  incision  in  the  wall  of  an  artery 
could  be  sutured  while  the  continnity  of 
the  *  lumen '  or  point  of  opening  was  pre- 
served. The  methods  which  had  proved 
successful  in  the  surgery  of  other  organs, 
however,  were  too  gross  for  the  surgery 
of  the  blood-vessels  and  only  infinite  care 
led  to  the  desired  results.  It  is  now  the 
standard  treatment  of  an  incised  wonnd 
to  suture  the  wound  and  not  to  tie  the 
vessel  in  its  continuity. 

Vascular  Tissue  pi^ts^JSriVts  !5 

elongated  ducts  or  cells,  whicn  may  have 
closed  extremities,  so  that  fluids  pass 
from  one  cell  to  another  through  the 
partition  walls,  or  these  partitions  may 


the  Hindu   Neptune  or  Poseidon   indeed  .  -        

His     name     corresponds     with      Greek   be  partly  obliterated,  thus  forming  a  con 
Ourftnos     (Ur&nus),    and    meant    origi-   tinuous  tube.    See  Botany. 


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Vase 


Vassar  College 


Vase  (^^t  T&z),  a  name  applied  to  cer- 
tain  vessels  of  an  ornamental 
character.  Vases  were  made  in  ancient 
times  of  all  materials,  but  those  which 
have  come  down  to  us  in  greatest  num- 
bers are  the  so-called  Etruscan  vases, 
made  of  terra  cotta,  and  adorned  with 
painted  figures.  (See  Etruscan  Vases,) 
Such  vases  have  been  found  in  most 
Greek  cities  as  well  as  in  Etruria,  and 
all  are  really  the  productions  of  Greek 
art    The    Greek    vases    of    the    oldest 


Grecian  YsBes. 

style  mostly  come  from  Corinth  and  the 
islands  of  Thera  and  Melos;  and  those 
of  the  late  rich  style  have  been  almost 
exclusively  discovered  in  Lower  Italy 
(Apulia  and  Lucania),  and  were  prob- 
ably manufactured  there,  chiefly  in  the 
fourth  and  third  centuries  B.c.  Vases 
were  used  for  all  purposes,  but  one 
peculiar  and  very  common  application 
of  them  was  to  adorn  sepulchers. 
Chased  metal  vases  were  in  use  in  an- 
cient times  both  among  the  Greeks  and 


Chineie,  Japaneie,  and  Indian  Yaaea. 


Romans,  and  many  of  the  more  valuable 
and  beautiful  kinds  of  stone  were  also 
used  for  making  vases.  Murrine  vases 
(which  see)  were  highly  esteemed  at 
Rome.  Another  favorite  kind  of  vases 
at  Rome  was  that  called  cameo  vases, 
made  of  two  layers  of  glass,  the  outer 
of  which  was  opaque,  and  was  cut  down 
so  as  to  leave  figures  standing  out  upon 
the  lower  layer  as  a  ground.  The  cele- 
brated Portland  vase  is  an  example  of 
this  kind.  At  a  later  period  glass  vases 
surrounded    with    delicate    filigree    work 


were  introduced.  Italy,  France,  and  Ger- 
many in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  produced  many  vases  which  are 
the  perfection  of  artistic  form  and  ex- 
ecution, and  since  the  fifteenth  century 
many  masterpieces  of  the  glass  art  in 
the  form  of  vases  have  issued  from  the 
Venetian  manufactories.  From  India, 
China  and  Japan  have  also  been  ob- 
tained vases  of  varying  materials,  espe- 
cially of  porcelain,  vying  in  elegance  of 
form  and  beauty  of  ornamentation  with 
those  produced  in  Europe. 

Vasectomy   (^^  ■  ??^ '  ^V  ^\l "  ^! 

voov^vi/vAuj  operation  of  cutting  out 
a  small  section  of  the  vas  deferens  of  the 
male.  It  is  done  in  some  penal  institu- 
tions and  homes  for  mental  defectives  to 
prevent  procreation  of  similar  public 
charges.  It  is  legally  enforced  on  these 
classes  of  persons  in  eight  states.  The 
result  of  the  operation  is  to  prevent 
propagation  of  unfit  persons  and  improve 
the  mental  and  physical  condition  of 
those  operated  upon.  This  operation  has 
already  been  carried  out  for  over  six 
years  in  one  of  the  States  of  the  Union, 
which  has  the  most  intelligent  criminal 
and  charitable  code,  with  actual  results 
that  far  exceeded  expectations.  The  ef- 
fect upon  the  male  criminal  was  to  ren- 
der him  much  more  amenable  to  disci- 
pline, to  improve  his  general  nutrition  and 
nis  mental  balance,  and  to  give  him  a 
sense  of  protection  against  himself  and 
of  a  new  grip  upon  his  life  problem.  For 
instance,  while  the  average  rate  of  re- 
lapse and  return  of  thousands  of  convicts 
sent  out  from  this  institution  has  been 
about  25  per  cent,  out  of  106  men  set 
at  liberty  on  parole  after  being  submitted 
to  vasectomy,  only  5  have  relapsed  and 
been  brought  back.  It  originated  with 
Dr.  H.  C.  Shaip,  of  Indianapolis,  and  is 
called  the  *  Indiana  plan.'  The  vas  def- 
erens can  at  any  time  be  reunited  and 
thus  restored  to  its  i>re-operation  condi- 
tion, with  the  function  of  procreation 
restored.  The  corresponding  operation 
on    the    female    is    called    salpingotomy 

(which  see). 

Vaseline  (vas'e-lgn),  a  name  given  to 
a  product  obtained  from  pe- 
troleum after  the  lighter  hydrocarbons 
are  driven  off,  and  composed  of  a  mixture 
of  parafi^ns.  It  is  used  as  a  base  for 
ointments,  pomades,  cold-cream,  etc.,  and 
for  coating  surgical  instruments  and 
steel  surfaces  generally  to  protect  them 
from  rust. 
Vassal*     ^®^  Feudal  System, 

Vassar  CoUege,  ^,„,'L°S^f  n/^ 

York,   founded   by   Matthew    Vassar   in 


{ 


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Vateria 


Vaud 


1861  for  the  higher  education  of  women. 
It  confers  the  decrees  of  B.A.  and  M.A., 
and  the  course  of  studies  resembles  those 
of  other  first-class  colleges.  Its  annual 
class  of  students  numbers  over  1000  and 
it  has  endowed  funds  of  nearly  $1,400,000. 
Vateria.  (  ^^  ~  ^^'^  *  & ) »  a  senna  of 
^*  ••  plants,  nat  order  Dipterocar- 
paceie.  Two  species,  F.  indioa  and  F. 
lanceafolia,  belong  to  India,  forming 
large  trees,  valuable  both  for  their  tim- 
ber, and  also  for  the  products  which  they 
yield.  V,  indica,  whose  timber  is  much 
employed  in  shipbuilding,  produces  the 
resin  called  in  India  copal  and  in  Eng- 
land gum  anime.  It  also  yields  a  fatty 
substance  called  piney^iallow. 
Vathi    ^^  Vathy.  See  Ithaca. 

Vatican  (.^a^'-kan),  the  most  exten* 
sive  palace  of  modem  Rome, 
the  residence  of  the  pope,  built  upon 
the  Vatican  Hill,  from  which  it  has  re- 
ceived its  name,  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  river  from  the  bulk  of  the  city, 
immediately  to  the  north  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Peter's.  It  is  a  long  rec- 
tangular edifice  lying  north  and  south, 
with  an  irregular  cluster  of  buildings  at 
either  end.  The  present  building  was 
begun  by  Pope  Eugenius  III  (1145-53), 
and  has  been  enlarged  and  embellished 
by  many  subsequent  popes  down  to  the 
last  one  (Pius  X).  It  now  possesses 
twenty  courts,  and,  it  is  said,  11,000 
rooms  of  one  sort  or  another.  Immense 
treasures  are  stored  up  in  it.  Here  are 
celebrated  collections  of  pictures  of  many 
of  the  great  masters,  and  museums  in 
which  all  periods  of  the  arts  are  repre- 
sented by  many  of  their  most  perfect 
productions.  Among  its  noblest  art 
treasures  are  the  frescoes  on  the  ceiling 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  painted  by  Michael 
Angelo,  and  consisting  of  scenes  and 
figures  connected  with  sacred  history; 
and  the  frescoes  painted  by  Raphael  on 
the  ceilings  and  walls  of  certain  apart- 
ments known  as  Raphael's  stanze,  the 
subjects  being  biblical,  allegorical,  etc. 
Since  the  return  of  the  popes  from  Avig- 
non, the  Vatican  has  been  their  principal 
residence,  and  here  the  conclaves  alwavs 
meet  for  the  election  of  new  popes.  The 
Vatican  Library  was  first  constituted  by 
Pope  Nicholas  V  (1447-55),  and  was 
added  to  and  enlarged  by  Leo  X,  Pius 
IV,  Pius  V,  and  other  popes.  The  most 
important  part  of  the  library  is  the  man- 
uscript collection,  which  is  said  to  con- 
tain about  25,600  MSS.  The  number  of 
printed  volumes  has  been  estimated  at 
from  150,000  to  220.000,  including  2500 
fifteenth-century  editions,  and  a  great 
number  of  bibliographical  rarities. 


Vatican  Codex,  see  code^. 
Vatican  Council,  ^t.ncf  "r\t 

dHiurch  of  Rome  which  met  in  the  Vati- 
can in  1870,  under  Pope  Pius  IX,  and 
declared  the  personal  infallibility  of  the 
pope  when  speaking  cw  cathedrd  to  be  a 
dogma  of  the  Church. 
VoffAl  Embich  von  (fon  vat-tel'),  a 
vattCl,  celebrated  Swiss  jurist  and 
writer,  bom  hi  Neufchfttel  In  1714;  died 
in  1767.  His  great  work  was  The  Right 
of  Natives,  or  the  Principlei  of  Natural 
Law  Applied  to  the  Conduct  and  Affairs 
of  Natives  and  Sovereigns.  This  has 
been  published  in  numerous  editions  and 
translated  into  the  principal  European 
languages. 

Vfl.ll1)fl.n  l^^b&Q),  S£ba8TIEN  lb 
wcftUMCftu  pBKgxmg^  Seioneub  de.  Mar- 
shal of  France,  and  the  greatest  military 
engineer  of  that  country,  descended  of 
an  ancient  and  noble  familv,  was  bom 
in  1633,  and  early  entered  the  army, 
where  he  rose  to  the  highest  military 
rank  by  his  merit  and  services.  He  was 
made  governor  of  the  citadel  of  Lille  in 
1668,  commissioner-general  of  fortifica- 
tions in  1677,  and  marshal  of  France  in 
1703.  He  died  at  Paris  in  1707.  As 
an  engineer  he  carried  the  art  of  fortifi- 
cation to  a  degree  of  perfection  unknown 
before  his  time.  He  strengthened  and 
improved  above  300  citadels,  erected 
thirty-three  new  ones,  aod  directed  fifty- 
three  sieges. 

VannlnaA  (v5-klfiz),  a  department  In 
VaUCiUSe  ^^  southeast  of  France; 
area,  1381  so.  miles.  It  is  mgged  and 
mountainous  In  the  east,  but  more  than 
one-half  of  the  whole  surface  is  arable, 
and  vineyards  occupy  about  one-sixth  of 
this  portion.  The  mulberry  (for  the 
rearing  of  silk-worms)  and  olive  are  ex- 
tensively cultivated,  and  much  attention 
is  paid  to  the  culture  of  aromatic  and 
meoicinal  plants.  Vaucluse  takes  its 
name  from  the  valley  and  village  of  that 
name,  celeorated  by  Petrarch.  Avignon 
is  the  capitaL  Pop.  (1906)  239.178. 
Von /I  OT  Fayb-de-Vaud  (pe-e-d6-v5; 
vauu,  German,  Waadt  or  Waadtland), 
a  westem  canton  of  Switzerland;  area, 
1244  sq.  miles.  It  has  three  mountain 
systems  —  the  Alps  in  the  southeast,  the 
Jura  in  the  west,  and  the  Jorat  in  the 
south,  connecting  the  other  two.  Vaud 
belongs  partly  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine 
and  partly  to  that  of  the  Rhone.  The 
soil  is  moderately  fertile;  and  the  vine 
is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  south. 
There  are  no  manufactures  of  impor- 
tance. The  inhabitants  are  mostly 
Protestants.    Vaud  became  a  canton  of 


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Vaudeville  Teddei 

the  Swiss  Confederation  in  1803.  The  Brahma,  and  by  the  extinction  of  all 
capital  is  Lausanne.    Pop.  281^79.  consciousness  of  outward  things. 

Vaudeville  (vft'^er^iO,  a  term  first  Vl^rlM  (vft'daa;  from  the  Sanslcrit  root 
#  ,,.  ^  \.  applied    to   the    Norman    ▼«**»»   t^,  meaning  'know'),  the  old- 

follC;Song  of  the  fifteenth  century,  which  est  of  the  Shastras  or  sacred  writings 
originated  with  Oliver  Basselin,  who  lived  of  the  Brahmans,  and  the  oldest  com- 
In  the  Tal  or  Van  de  Vere.  The  folk-sonc  positions  in  .  the  Sanskrit  language, 
led  to  a  series  of  plays  interspersed  with  Their  date  is  unknown.  Sir  W.  Jones 
songs,  and  known  as  Vaudevilles,  occa-  fixes  it  at  1500  b.c.,  and  Bitter  at  1400 
sionally  as  Virelais.  The  word  is  now  to  1600  B.C.  They  are  four  in  number, 
appUed  to  Ught  theatrical  entertainments,  called  respectively  the  Rig,  Yajur,  Sama, 
Vault.  *^  ^architect  re,  a  continued  and  Atharva  Veda.  All  the  Vedas  are 
.^  .  J^f^^h^P^  ^^  arched  roof,  so  con-  believed  to  be  inspired,  and  are  held  by 
structed  that  the  stones,  bricks,  or  other  the  Brahmans  in  the  highest  respect, 
material  of  which  it  is  composed  sus-  The  religious  system  of  the  Vedas  is  at 
tain  ana  keep  each  other  in  their  places,  bottom  monotheistic.  It  derives  a  poly- 
theistic appearance  from  the  mention  of 
the  deity  by  various  names  according  to 
the  difference  of  his  manifestations  and 
attributes  (Sarya,  Mitra,  etc.,  the  sun: 
Soma,  the  moon;  Agni,  fire;  Indra,  the 
firmament,  etc.),  but  the  unity  of  the 
supreme  being  is  expressly  asserted  in 
more  than  one  passage.  Each  of  the 
Vedas  is  divided  into  three  parts:  the 
-  -«  first  called  the  SanhitA.  a  collection  of 

1,  GK>thic  Oroined    2,  Spherical  or  hymns   and    prayers    called    mantras    or 

Vault.  Domical  Vanlt.  a&nas;  the  second,  BrAhmana^  which  re- 

lates chiefly  to  ritual ;  and  the  third,  the 
Vaults  are  cylindrical,  elliptical,  single,  Jn&na  or  Upanishada,  which  is  the 
double,  cross,  diagonal,  Gothic,  etc.  philosophical  portion  of  the  work.    The 

Vaux  (^Qhs),  Calvert,  landscape  Upanishads  are  sometimes  called  col- 
V  n%M^  architect,  born  at  London  in  lectively  the  Veddnta,  The  Rig-veda  is 
1824,  came  to  the  United  States  in  1848.  the  oldest  of  the  Vedas,  and  the  Atharva- 
With  L.  L.  Olmstead  he  devised  the  veda  the  latest.  Some  scholars  question 
plans  for  Central  Park,  New  York,  and  whether  the  latter  should  be  regarded 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  and  the  State  as  a  Veda.  Varying  greatly  in  age,  the 
Reservation  at  Niagara.  He  died  in  1895.  Vedas  represent  many  stages  of  thoucht 
Vector  (^^^'t^r),  in  mathematics,  the  and  worship,  the  earliest  being  the  sim- 
^  "  name  given  to  any  quantity  plest,  the  later  following  and  reflecting 
which  involves  direction  as  well  as  mag-  the  development  of  the  Brahmanical 
nitude.  The  simplest  example  is  the  posi-  system,  with  all  its  superstitions  and 
tion  of  one  point  with  respect  to  another,  ntes. 

fully  represented  by  the  straight  line  Veddfl.1lS  (ved'da-),  a  wild,  semi-sav- 
joining  them.  Other  vector  quantities  are  ^^^n'**^  f^g^  race,  about  400  in  num- 
velocity,  force,  electric  induction,  etc  her,  residing  in  the  interior  of  Ceylon, 
'V^AtLYiftL  Philnan'n'hv  (ve-dan'tA),  and  said  to  be  a  remnant  of  the  ab«- 
veaania  rmiOSOpny    ^  ^^^^^^  ^J  ^.^.^j^g  ^^  Ceylon.    The  forest   Veddahs 

Brahmanic  philosophy,  first  set  forth  in  a  live   in   trees   and   caves  and  subsist  on 

work   called   the    Veddnta,  said   to   have  game,    which   they   kill   with   rude   bows 

been    written    more   than    two    thousand  and  arrows.    The  village  Veddahs  dwell 

years   ago,   and   described   as  containing  in  certain   districts,   but   hold   slight   in- 

the  quintessence  of  the  Veda».    This  sys-  tercourse    with    the    other    inhabitants, 

tem  is  based,  like  that  of  the  Eleatics  The  two  tribes  do  not  intermarry,  and 

among  the  Greeks,  upon  the  unity  of  all  they  have  their  own  chiefs  whom  they 

real   existence.    The  sole   real   existence  elect  and  obey. 

is  denominated  knowledge  Undna),  soul,  ITaAAtkr    (ved'er),     EuHU,     painter, 

or   God.     The  multiplicity  of  individual  ^^^^^*    bom   at   New   York   in   1836. 

life  and  variety  of  external  life  in  the  He    became    a    student    in    Italy,    and 

universe  is  merely  phenomenal,  and  has  finally  made  that  country  his  permanent 

all  proceeded  from  the  one  real  being  by  residence.     His     works     are     ireouently 

the  exercise  of  the  power  of  ignorance  marked  by  a  mystical  and  poetical  qual- 

(ajndna),  which  may  be  vanquished  by  ity  and  are  highly  suggestive.     His  nest 

a  religious  and  ascetic  mode  of  life,  or  by  pictures  are  The  Lair  of  the  Sea  8er- 

meditation   on    the   one   supreme   spirit,  pent^    A    Venetian    Dancing    Qirl,    Th9 


i 


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Vei^  Carpio  Veins 

Death  of  Abel,  and  An  Arab  LUtening  to  pending  upon  80lar  energj,  organic  and 

the  Sphinm.    His    illustrations   of   Fits-  mineral    constituents,    and    water.    Sm 

gerald  8    translation    of     the     Rubaiyai   Botanif, 

of  Omar  Khayy&m  (1884)  won  great  VMrAfolilA  Tirorv  the  name  which 
praise.  vcgcxaDie  ivoiy,  i3  ^ppii^  ^^  ^^^ 

Vein.  Cftmio  (^^'C^  kar'pe-O),  Fe-  kernels  of  the  nuts  (ooroeo-^ute)  pro- 
»*  wi»A^*w  jj^  Lope  de,  a  Span-  duced  by  the  Phutelephae  macrooarpa,  a 
ish  poet  and  dramatist,  bom  at  Madrid  palm  growing  in  South  America.  It  is 
in  1562  ofpoor  but  noble  parents;  died  very  hard  and  compact,  has  the  appear^ 
there  in  1635.  After  studymc  at  Alcal&  ance  of  ivory,  and  may  be  turned  In  tlM 
he  became  the  secretary  of  the  Duke  of  lathe,  being  used  for  buttons,  umbrella 
Alva.  In  1582  he  joined  the  army,  and  handles,  etc  The  stem  of  the  palm  is 
in  1588  accompanied  the  Invincible  extremely  short,  but  the  leaves  rise  to 
Armada.  After  being  twice  married  and  the  height  of  80  or  40  feet, 
twice  a  widower,  he  in  1009  became  a  V^^AtohlA  l/TorrAiiT  a  species  oC 
priest,  and  subsequently  entered  the  ^^B^^^^^  maiTOW,  ^^  ^,^ 
order  of  St  Francis.  He  had  already  vated  as  a  culinary  vegetable,  and  used 
published  various  poems,  but  his  dra-  fried,  boiled,  or  otherwise.  See  Squaeh. 
matic  and  poetical  productions  were  now  Vi»9AtAh1^  PliirftinlAcnr  ^^^  func- 
multiplied  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  ▼©gClraDlC  riiysiOiO^,  ^^^^  ^ 
He  enjoyed  an  immense  popularity,  and  tivities  of  plants.  These  include  tho 
^^ived  marks  of  distinction  from  the  functions  of  germination;  respiration,  as 
.ving  of  Spain  and  Pope  Urban  VIII.  shown  in  the  inhalation  of  oxygen  and 
About  three  hundred  of  his  dramatic  exhalation  of  carbon  dioxide;  traneoira* 
works  have  been  printed.  They  reveal  <ton,  the  vaporization  of  water  by  the  heat 
an  inexhaustible  but  ill-regulated  imag^  yielded  in  respiration;  assimilation,  the 
inatlon,  a  strong  mixture  of  the  sub-  taking  in  of  carl>on  under  the  influence 
lime  and  the  ridiculous,  and  extraor-  of  sunlight,  a  process  the  reverse  of 
dinary  facility  in  versification.  He  respiration;  absorption,  the  intaklnc  of 
wrote  altogether  upwards  of  eighteen  water  from  the  air  and  soil;  metabolism^ 
hundred  comedies,  but  only  some  four  the  formation  of  complex  organic  sub- 
bund  1 3^1  and  fifty  are  extant  in  print  or  stances  from  the  simple  chemical  ele- 
manuscript.  ments;  growth:  plant  movements;  r^- 
Veeetable  Clieinistry.  t*»«^«I>art-  production,  sji^  other  processes  of  a 
w^gvvMVA^  vruvuuovAj,  mentofor-  physiological  character, 
ganic  chemistry  which  investigates  the  Ve?etfi.rifi.Tli8Tn  ( vej-e-tft'ri-an-ism ), 
chemical  compounds  found  in  vegetables.  '  ^5^«^*a»a"o«i.  ^^  theory  and  prae* 
These  compounds  are  chiefly  made  up  tice  of  living  solely  on  vegetables.  The 
of  carl>on,  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  nitro-  doctrines  and  practice  of  vegetarianism 
gen,  but  potash,  soda,  mne,  and  other  are  as  old  as  the  time  of  Pythagoras,  and 
substances  are  occasionally  present  in  have  for  ages  been  strictly  observed  by 
small  and  variable  quantities.  Sugar,  many  of  the  Hindus;  and  of  late  years 
starch,  gum,  and  other  distinct  com-  the  practice  of  subsisting  solely  upon 
pounds  existing  already  formed  in  plants,  vegetable  food  has  come  prominently  be- 
and  capable  of  separation  without  sufTer-  fore  the  public  in  connection  with  dietetic 
ing  decomposition,  are  called  proximate  reform. 

or    immediate   principles    of    vegetables.  Vaii   (vS'yl).     See  CamiUus  and  Bome» 
Proximate  anal}(sis  is  the  separation  of 

a  particular  pnnciple  from  others  with  Vein  (^^)>  ^  mining^  a  crack  or  fis- 
which  it  is  mixed.  Ultimate  analysis  ^  ^"^^  sure  in  a  rock,  filled  up  by  sub- 
consists  in  the  reduction  of  the  proximate  stances  different  from  the  rock,  and 
principles  to  their  simplest  parts.  The  which  may  either  be  metallic  or  non- 
more  important  classes  of  compounds  to  be  metallic  Veins  are  sometimes  many 
obtained  from  vegetables  are  acids,  alka-  yards  wide,  having  a  length  of  many 
lis  or  alkaloids,  oils  and  resins.  Color-  miles,  and  they  ramify  into  innumerable 
ing  matter,  tannin,  albumen,  gluten,  smaller  parts,  often  as  slender  as  threads 
yeast,  and  other  substances  are  also  Metallic  veins  are  chiefly  found  in  the 
obtained.  Of  the  acids  the  chief  are  primary,  and  lower  and  middle  secondary 
acetic  acid   or  vinegar,  oxalic,    tartaric  rocks. 

and  benzoic  acids.    The  alkaloids  are  or-  Veina    (^&Q2)»    &    system    of   membra- 

ganic    bases    which    produce    remarkable  ^"*»  nous  canals  or  tubes  distributed 

toxicological   effects.     During  the  sermi-  throughout    the    bodies    of    animals    for 

nation  of  seeds  there  is  a  conversion  of  the    purpose    of    returning    the    impure 

starchy   matter   into  sugar.    The   nutri-  blood   to   the  heart  and   lungs,  after   i^ 

tion  of  plants  may  be  regarded  as  de-  has  been  conveyed  to  the  various  parts 


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Velasqni^z 


Vellum 


by  the  arteries.  They  are  not  elastic 
and  have  no  polsation  (thus  differing 
from  the  arteries )»  the  motion  of  the 
blood  in  them  being  mainly  secured  by 
pressure  of  the  moving .  parts  between 
which  they  are  embedded,  the  backward 
flow  of  the  blood  being  prevented  where 
necessary  by  a  series  of  valves  which 
permit  a  current  only  towards  the  heart. 
The  veins  at  their  farthest  extremities 
form  capillaries  which  collect  from  the 
tissues  the  blood  brought  by  the  arterial 
capillaries.  These  minute  branches 
unite  to  form  veins,  which  similarly  unite 
in  turn,  formina  gradually  larger 
branches  and  trunks  as  thev  approach 
the  heart  The  venous  blood  from  the 
head,  neck,  and  upper  limbs  is  all  re- 
turned to  the  heart  by  one  great  vein, 
the  vena  cava  guperiar,  while  that  from 
the  lower  limbs  and  belly  is  returned  by 
the  vena  cava  inferior.  The  portal  vein 
{vena  portw)  receives  the  venous  blood 
from  the  intestines  and  conveys  it 
through  the  liver  to  the  vena  cava  in- 
ferior. From  each  lung  to  the  heart 
come  two  pulmonary  veins  carrying  back 
the  blood  that  has  been  purified  In  the 
lungs,  after  being  carried  to  them  by  the 
pulmonary  artery.  See  Heart, 
V^1fiiiniiA7  (ve-lAslKcth),  or  in  full 
w  ^aopo^i^uva  j^j^  Diego  Rodbiquez  db 
SiLVA  T  Velasquez  (or  Velazquez), 
an  eminent  Spanish  historical  and  por- 
trait painter,  was  bom  at  Seville  in 
1599.  He  studied  flrst  under  Francisco 
Herrera  the  elder,  and  afterwards  under 
Francisco  Pacheco.  He  was  appointed 
principal  painter  to  Philip  IV  in  1623. 
In  1629  be  went  to  Italy,  where  he 
closely  studied  the  works  of  Michael 
Angelo,  Raphael,  and  Titian.  On  his 
return  to  Spain  in  1631  he  was  received 
with  great  distinction,  and  in  1658  the 
king  raised  him  to  the  dignity  of  a  noble. 
He  died  in  1660.  His  compositions  ex- 
hibit strong  expression,  freedom  of  pen- 
cil, and  admirable  coloring.  Among  his 
best  works  are  the  Aguaaor,  or  *  Water 
Carrier*;  the  Orlando  Muerto;  a  Nativ- 
ity, or  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds;  the 
Brothers  of  Joseph;  Moses  Taken  from 
the  Nile;  portraits  of  Philip  IV  and  of 
Elizabeth  bis  queen.  Pope  Innocent  X, 
and  other  dignitaries;  and  many  pictures 
from  history  and  from  common  life. 
Velde  (vel'd«)>  Adrian  van  deb,  a 
¥  vxu^  celebrated  Dutch  landscape 
painter  and  engraver,  was  bom  at  Am- 
sterdam in  1635,  and  died  in  1672.  He 
came  under  the  influence  of  Wouverman, 
and  excelled  in  pastoral  scenes,  which 
he  executed  in  admirable  drawing  and 
color.  He  also  painted  some  large  his- 
torical and  religious  pieces,  and  etched 


a  number  of  plates. —  His  father,  WiL- 
LEic  VAK  DEB  Velde  the  Bldcr,  was 
bom  at  Leyden  in  1610.  He  was  origi- 
nally bred  to  the  sea,  but  afterwards 
studied  painting,  and  early  became  dis- 
tinguished for  nis  excellence  In  marine 
subjects.  He  entered  the  service  of 
Charles  II  of  EngUnd.  He  chiefly 
painted  in  black  and  white,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  present  at  several  sea- 
fiahts  in  order  to  sketch  the  incidents. 
He  died  at  London  in  1093. —  Another 
son,  WnxEH  van  deb  Velde,  the 
Younger,  was.  bom  at  Amsterdam  In 
1038,  and  painted  the  same  class  of  sub- 
jects as  his  father,  whom  he  surpassed. 
He  also  entered  the  service  of  Charles 
II.  His  principal  works  are  chiefly  to 
be  found  in  the  royal  collections  and 
cabinets  of  £}ngland.  He  died  at  Lon- 
don in  1707. 

Velellfl.  (^el*«l'&)*  A  curious  genus  of 
^*^**«*  coelenterate  animals,  of  the 
class  Hydrosoa,  order  Physophorids,  and 
represented  by  free-swimming  oceanic 
forms,  which  occur  around  the  British 
coasts,  but  more  frequently  in  warm 
seas.  The  best-known  member,  Velella 
vulgaris,  or  *  Sallee  Man,'  is  about  2 
inches  in  lenath  by  1^  in  height  It  is 
of  a  beautiful  blue  color  and  semitrans- 
parent,  and  floats  on  the  surface  of  the 
sea  with  its  vertical  crest  exposed  to  the 
wind  as  a  sail 

Velez-Malaga  .^^Wkn^ 

dalusia,  province  of  Malaga,  on  the 
Velez.  1}  miles  from  the  Mediterranean, 
and  14  miles  N.  e.  of  Malaga.  The  dis- 
trict is  very  fertile,  and  produces  sugar- 
cane, maize,  etc.  Fop.  23,586. 
VaIitia  (vft-l^'nd),  a  small  stream  of 
¥cxiuu  Central  Italy,  a  tributary  of 
the  Nera,  at  its  junction  with  which  it 
forms  beautiful  falls  about  650  feet 
high.     See  Terni, 

Yelleius  Paterculus.    ^^sf^*^ 

Velletri  (vel-l&'tre),  a  town  in' Italy. 
^®"®*"  province  of  Rome,  and  H 
miles  southeast  of  Rome.  The  chief 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  a  handsome 
Gothic  structure  rebuilt  in  1660;  the 
town-hall,  built  from  the  designs  of 
Bramante;  and  the  palaces  Lancellotti 
or  Qinetti,  and  Borgia.  Pop.  14,243. 
VaIIata  (veHdr'),  a  town  and  fort  of 
vcixui^  India,  presidency  of  Madras, 
district  of  North  Arcoc,  on  the  PalAr 
River.  The  town  has  a  Vlshnulte  tem» 
pie,  mosque,  military  offices,  chuich,  mia 
sions,  a  hospital,  barracks,  etc  Poa 
43^7. 
Vellum.     •**  Pi^rchment. 


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Velocipede  Venddme 

VelOGinede   (ve-los'i-pM),  a  light  ve-  2595    sq.    miles.    The    surface    is    much 

T^Avvx^^u^  j^j^j^  ^j,  carriage  impelled  diversified,  and  is  watered  in  the  north 

by  the  feet  of  the  rider  himself.    One  by  tributaries  of  the  Loire,  and  in  the 

o!  the  older  forms  of  this  carriage  con-  south  by  the  Lay  and  tributaries  of  the 

sisted  of  two  wheels  of  nearly  equal  size»  Charente.    The  principal  crops  are  grain, 

placed   one   before    the   other,   and   con-  flax,   and   hemp;    aud   a   white   wine   is 

nected  by  a  beam  on  which  the  driver's  also    produced.    Capital,    La    Roche-sur- 

seat  was  fixed.     The  rider,  sitting  astride  Ton.    At  the  time  of  the  revolution  the 

the  machine,  propelled   it  by   the  thrust  Vendfons    espoused    the    royalist    cause, 

of  each  foot  on  the  ground.     This  form  and,    inspirited    by    La    Roche jaquelein, 

dates  from   the   early   part  of   the   last  Cathelineau,     and     other     leaders,     and 

century.     In  the  latter  half  of  the  cen-  aided  by  the  hilly  and  wooded  nature  of 

tnry  treadles  operating  cranks  on  the  axle  the  ground,  they  resisted  the  republicans 

of  the  front  wheel  came  into  use,  and  with  varied  success  from   1793  to  179G, 

soon  many  modified  and  improved  kinds  when  the  rising  was  completely  quelled 

became  popular  under  the  name  of  the  by    the   activity   of   General    Hoche.     In 

bicycle   and    tricycle.     See   Bicycle,   Tri-  1799-1800,  and  again  in  1814  and  1815, 

cycle,  some  risings  took  place  in  favor  of  the 

VAl/w»ifir    the   rate  at  which   a   body  Bourbons,    but    they    were   quickly   sup- 

YClUClty,   changes      its      position      in  pressed.   Pop.  (1906)  442,777.   See  Cfcoii- 

space.     Velocity    is    popularly    expressed  an9  and  La  Rochejaquelein, 

as   so  many   miles   per   hour,  or   as   so  Veild^ini&ire      (v&Q-da-mi-ftr;  that 

many   feet  per  second.    The  velocity  of  »  ^'****^"****«***^      is,  *  vintage  month '), 

a    body     is    uniform    when     it    passes  the   first   month   in    the    French    revolu- 

through    equal    spaces    in    equal    times^  tionary  calendar,  from  September  22  to 

variaUe  when  the  spaces  passed  through  October  21.     See  Calendar, 

in  equal  .times  are  unequal,  accelerated  Vcildettft    ( ^^Q'det'a ;  an  Italian  word 

when  it  passes  through  a  greater  space  ^  ^'**^^»'»^    from  L.  vindicta,  revenge), 

in  equal  successive  portions  of  time,  as  a  blood-feud;  the  practice  of  the  nearest 

is  the  case  of  falling  bodies  under  the  of  kin  executing  vengeance  on  the  mur- 

action  of  gravity,  and  retarded,  when  a  derer  of  a  relative.     In  Corsica  the  veb- 

less  space  Is  passed  through  in  each  sue-  detta  is   regarded  as  a  duty  incumbent 

cessive  portion  of  time.    Angular  velocity  on   the   relatives  of  the  murdered   man, 

is  such  a  velocity  as  that  of  the  spoke  of  and,  failing  to  reach  the  real  murderer, 

a   wheel,   being  measured   as  a  number  they    take    vengeance    on    his    relatives. 

of  angles  of  a  specified  extent  (as  right  The  practice  exists,  although  to  a  more 

angles)  divided  by  a  measure  of  time  in  limited   extent,   in   Sicily,   Sardinia    and 

specified     units.     See     Fall    of    Bodiet,  Calabria,  as  well  as  among  the  Druses, 

Dynamics,  Projectiles,  Motion^  etc  Circassians,  Arabs,  etc. 

Velvet     (v^l'vet),    a    rich    silk    stuff,  Vendome    Iv&Q-ddm  ),     a     town     of 

covered  on  the  outside  with  a  *av4*i.v    France,  in   the  department 

close,  short,  fine,  soft  shag  or  nap.     In  of  Loir-et-Cher,  on  the  Loir.     It  is  regu- 

this  fabric  the  warp  is  passed  over  wires  larly  and  well  built,  and  contains  a  fine 

80   as    to   make   a   row   of   loops   which  old  church.     Pop.   (1906)   7381. 

{>roject  from  the  backing,  and  are  thus  Vendomfi     LouiSf  Dukb  of,  the  cele- 

eft,    by    withdrawing    the    wire,    for   an  vxiu.viti^,    brated    general    of    Louis 

uncut  or  pile  velvet,   but   are  cut   with  XIV,  was  the  grandson  of  C^sar,  eldest 

a    sharp    tool    to    make    a    cut    velvet,  son  of  Henry  IV  and  Qabrielle  d'Estrtfes. 

Florence    and    Genoa    have    been     long  He  was  bom  in  lt>54,  early  entered  tbe 

noted  for  the  manufacture  of  velvet,  but  military   service,   and   received,   in   1702, 

Lyons,   in   France,  is  now   its  principal  the  command  of  the  French  army  in  the 

seat.    O)tton  and  woolen  fabrics  woven  war   of    the    Spanish   Succession.     After 

in  this  manner  are  called  velveteen  and  having    distinguished    himself    in    Italy, 

pluih  respectively.  Tyrol,   and   Belgium,   the   Duke  of   Bur- 

Vendace    i  ^^^'^^  ) »     &     species     ot  gundy  was  placed  over  him ;  and  the  dis- 

*        fishes,    of    the    family    Sal-  agreement  of  the  two  commanders  caused 

monids,  genus  Coregdnus   {C,   Wtllough-  the  defeat  of   the  French  at  Oudenarde 

btt),   found   in   Europe   in   some   of   the  (July  11,  1708)      Vend6me  was  recalled, 

rivers  and  lakes  of  Britain  and  Sweden.  Soon  after  being  placed  in  command  in 

The    average    length    is    about    6    to    7  Spain    he    gained    several    distinguished 

inches.    The    fish    is    esteemed    a    great  successes,  but  died  in  1712.     His  brother, 

delicacy,  and   is   taken  with  the  sweep-  Philip,  was  grand  prior  of  the  order  of 

net  about  August.  the    Knights   of   Malta   in   France.    He 

Vendue    (v&9'^&)»  ^  western  maritime  was  bom  in  1655,  served  in  the  Spanish 

wvuuw   department  of  France;  area,  war  of  Succession,  and  died  in  1724. 


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Veneet 


Venezuela 


Veneer    (^^i^^^')*   &    t^in    layer   of 

'^  choice  hard  wood,  such  as  ma- 

hogany, rosewood,  maple,  etc.,  glued  to 
the  surface  of  wood  of  a  commoner  sort, 
such  as  fir  or  pine,  so  as  to  give  the 
whole  the  appearance  of  being  made  of 
the  more  valuable  material.  It  is  mostly 
used  for  furniture,  and  owing  to  recent 
improvements  in  sawing  machinery,  lay- 
ers as  thin  as  paper  can  be  obtained. 
Venesection.    ^^  Phlebotomy. 

Venetian  Architecture  g^h^J  n*)'; 

Venetian  Gothic,  that  style  of  Italian 
architecture  employed  by  the  Venetian 
architects  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  early 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The 
principal  characteristics  are:  each  story 
IS  provided  with  its  own  tier  of  columns 
or  pilasters,  with  their  entablature,  and 
separated  from  the  other  stories  by  con- 
spicuous friezes  or  belts,  often  in  the 
form  of  balustrades  broken  by  pedestals 
and  ornamented  by  figures;  arched  win- 
dows ornamented  with  columns,  the 
spandrels  being  often  filled  with  figures: 
ornamental  parapets  are  common;  ana 
the  whole  has  a  rich  and  varied  effect. 
This  style  of  architecture  is  character- 
ized by  Fergusson  as  "  Gothic  treated 
with  an  Eastern  feeling,  and  enriched 
with  many  details  borrowed  from  East- 
ern styles.*' 

Venetian  School,  JSho^t^^hf^h 

counts  among  its  masters  Titian,  Paul 
Veronese,  Giorgione,  Tintoretto,  and 
many  other  illustrious  names.  See 
Painting, 

VauattiaIo  (ven-e-zw^lA),  a  north- 
VeneZUeia  ^^^  republic  of  South 
America,  bounded  by  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
British  Guiana,  Brazil,  and  Colombia; 
area,  599.538  square  miles.  The  Andes 
enter  Venezuela  from  the  west  in  two 
branches;  the  western  branch  has  a 
moderate  elevation,  rarely  exceeding  4000 
feet,  but  the  eastern  branch,  which  is 
about  300  miles  lonp;  by  GO  miles  broad, 
has  an  average  altitude  of  12,000  feet, 
culminating  in  Sierra-Nevada-de-Merida 
with  summits  attaining  15,000  feet. 
There  are  other  branches  running  north- 
east and  parallel  to  the  north  coast,  and 
in  the  south,  on  the  frontiers  of  Guiana, 
are  the  mountains  of  Parima.  From 
these  mountains  to  the  coast  chain  at 
Caracas,  and  from  the  Andes  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  extend  vast 
plains  (or  llauos)  with  an  area  of  300,- 
000  sq.  miles.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Orinoco  and  its  affluents;  the  principal 
lakes  arc  Maracaibo  and  Tacarigua. 
The  climate   is  equatorial   io  character. 


and  the  seasons  are  distinguished  into 
the  wet  and  the  dry.  It  is  not  un- 
healthy on  the  whole.  The  greater  part 
of  Venezuela  is  liable  to  earthquakes. 
The  valleys  and  tablelands  of  the  coast 
mountains  are  the  chief  seats  of  cultiva- 
tion. The  region  of  palms  extends  from 
the  sea-level  to  the  height  of  8800  feet; 
mingled  with  the  palms  are  cacti«  mi- 
mo8»,  the  pineapple,  the  milk  tree,  ma- 
hogany, and  trees  yielding  caoutchouc, 
sarsaparilla,  copaiba,  and  other  drugs. 
Above  2000  feet  are  the  forests  of  cbi' 
chona  or  Peruvian-bark  tree,  the  vanilla, 
plantain,  etc.  All  the  grains  of  tenr 
perate  regions  attain  perfection  at  an  ele- 
vation of  8000  feet.  Cultivated  planU 
include  the  cacao,  cocoanut,  tobacco, 
maize  (two  crops  yearly),  cotton,  coffee, 
sugar  and  indigo.  Among  the  minerals 
are  gold,  silver,  tin  and  copper;  good 
coal  is  found  in  the  coast  districts: 
asphalt  and  petroleum  abound  round 
Lake  Maracaibo*.  The  gold  mines  are 
now  being  worked  by  English  and  other 
capital.  The  wild  animals  include  the 
Jaguar  (now  rare),  puma,  tapir,, ounce, 
monkeys,  serpents,  alligators,  the'  mana- 
tee, etc.  The  population  is  of  Spanish, 
Indian  and  Negro  origin,  either  of  pure 
or  mixed  blood.  More  than  half  the 
population  are  mestizoes,  mulattoes  and 
other  mixed  breeds.  Venezuela  was 
formerly  divided  into  twenty  states,  four 
territories,  and  a  federal  district,  but  a 
readjustment  in  1904  reduced  the  num- 
ber of  states  to  thirteen,  and  made  the 
territories  five.  The  Republic  of  Vene- 
zuela was  formed  in  1831  by  secession 
from  the  other  members  of  the  free  state 
founded  by  Bolivar.  (See  Colombia.) 
The  capital  is  Caracas.  The  chief  ports 
are  La  Guayra,  Puerto-Cabello,  Mara- 
caibo and  Ciudad  Bolivar.  Discovery 
of  gold  led  Great  Britain  to  claim  that 
the  boundary  of  British  Guiana  extended 
to  the  Orinoco,  thus  including  the  gold 
fields.  Upon  Venezuela *s  protest,  and  at 
the  instance  of  the  United  States  govern- 
ment, the  dispute  was  arbitrated  dv  the 
Congress  at  The  Hague,  and  a  satisfac- 
tory adjustment  made.  Columbus  reached 
the  coast  of  Venezuela  in  1498,  and  it 
was  visited  by  Ojeda  and  Vespucci  in 
1499.  It  was  settled  by  Spain,  but  a 
struggle  for  independence  begun  in  1810, 
resulted  in  its  freedom  and  formation 
into  a  federal  republic.  As  in  Latin 
America  generally  it  has  been  the  scene 
of  many  rebellious  outbreaks,  and  under 
its  recent  president,  Castro,  it  came  into 
hostile  relations  with  several  foreign 
nations^  Castro  disregarding  his  '  com- 
mercial engagements.  This  gave  dissat- 
isfaction among  the  people,  and,  in  De> 


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Venice 


Venice 


cember,  1908,  during  a  visit  to  Europe, 
he  was  deposed,  Ylce-PresideDt  Gomes 
being  installed  in  his  place.  Pop.  2,591,- 
000. 

Venice  (ven'is;  Italian,  Venezia),  a 
¥  %iMkx\f%,   pj^y  j^jj J  seaport  of  Northern 

Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  on  a  number  of  islets  in  a  shallow 
lagoon  in  the  northwest  of  the  Adriatic, 
23  miles  east  of  Padua  by  rail.  The 
islets  are  very  low,  and  the  houses  are 
mostly  supported  on  piles.  A  railway 
viaduct  nearly  2)  miles  long  connects 
the  town  with  the  mainland.  The  city 
is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Canal- 
axso  or  Grand  Canal,  spanned  by  an  ele- 
gant bridge,  the  Rialto,  and  several  lesser 
bridges.  The  numerous  branch  canals 
are  crossed  by  about  380  bridges,  which 
rise  rapidly  towards  the  center  to  afford 

Passage  to  the  gondolas  and  other  boats. 
?he  city  is  also  intersected  by  calli  or 


narrow  lanes  for  pedestrians:  but  the 
canaJs  are  really  the  streets  of  Venice, 
and  it  possesses  neither  horses  nor 
i^heeled  carriages.  Near  the  center  of 
the  city  there  is  one  street  about  18  feet 
wide,  the  Meroerla,  but  the  great  center 
of  business  and  amusement  is  the  Piazza, 
or  Square  of  St  Mark,  and  the  piazetta 
adjoining  it.  The  Piazza  is  about  570 
feet  long  by  200  broad,  contains  some  of 
the  more  remarkable  public  buildings, 
and  is  lined  with  hanclsome  shops  and 
cafte.  The  piazetta  faces  the  sea.  The 
Palace  of  the  Doges,  reconstructed  by 
Marino  Falieri  in  1354,  abuts  on  the 
piazetta.  It  is  in  the  Venetian  Gothic 
style,  and  has  two  of  the  sides  resting 
on  double  ratigas  of  arcades.  It  contains 
a  auifiber  of.  beautiiul  balls,  sooie  witli 


ceilings  and  walls  painted  by  Tintorettow 
Paolo  Veronese,  and  other  distinguished 
masters.  The  Ponte-del-Sosplri  (Bridge 
of  Sighs)  connects  the  palace  with  the 
public  prisons  on  the  opposite  side  of  a 
narrow  canal.  The  church  of  St.  Mark, 
now  the  cathedral  (erected  976-1071), 
is  in  the  Romanesque-Byzantine  style, 
and  is  surmounted  by  five  domes.  The 
principal  front  is  adorned  with  500 
columns  of  precious  marbles,  and  the  in- 
terior is  lavishly  decorated.  Above  the 
doorway  are  the  four  celebrated  bronze 
horses  brought  from  Constantinople  by 
the  Doge  Dandolo  in  1204.  Other  nota- 
ble churches  are  Santa-Maria-Gloriosa- 
de'-Frari  (thirteenth  century),  contain- 
ing the  tomb  of  Titian,  and  numerous 
works  of  art ;  San  Giovanni-e-Paolo ;  and 
Il-Santissimo-Redentore,  one  of  Palla- 
dio's  finest  structures.  Of  the  numerous 
palaces  the  chief  are  the  Palazzo-Reale ; 
the  Palazzo-Giustiniani ;  the  Palazzo- 
Contarini-Fasan,  restored  in  1867;  and 
the  Palazzo-Comer  della-Cft-Grande,  now 
the  seat  of  the  government  authorities. 
The  remaining  public  buildings  include 
the  Accademia  oelle  Belli  Art!,  contain- 
ing works  by  Titian,  Giorgione,  Tin- 
toretto, Paolo  Veronese,  and  others;  the 
Dogano,  or  custom-house;  the  arsenal; 
the  Zecca,  or  mint;  etc.  The  chief  man- 
ufactures are  woolen  cloth,  cloth  of  gold 
and  silver,  velvet,  lace,  ornamental  and 
colored  glass,  mosaic,  jewelry,  castings, 
etc.  The  trade  is  extensive;  the  imports 
include  colonial  goods,  dye-woods,  coal, 
iron,  oil,  etc ;  exports,  timber,  rice,  linen, 
glass,  coral,  etc  The  harbor  is  spacious, 
but  the  entrances  are  shallow. —  Venice 
is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  in  the 
fifth  century  by  inhabitants  of  the  sur- 
rounding districts,  who  took  refuge  from 
the  cruelty  of  Attila  on  the  islets  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Brenta.  In  697  Pauluccio 
Anafesto  was  elected  the  first  doge  or 
duke,  and  in  819  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  removed  from  Malamocco  to 
Rivoalto  (Bialto),  and  the  adjacent  is-! 
lands  were  connected  by  bridges.  The 
Crusades  (1096-1271)  greatly  increased 
the  wealth  and  power  of  the  Venetians 
by  giving  employment  to  their  shipping. 
In  1204  the  jDoge  Enrico  Dandolo  con- 
quered Constantinople,  and  upon  the 
a  {vision  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  Venice 
received  a  large  accession  of  territory. 
Under  Dandolo*s  successors  the  Vene- 
tians gradually  lost  all  their  mainland 
possessions.  But  in  1386  they  captured 
Corfu,  Durazzo,  Argos,  etc.;  in  1405 
their  general,  Malatesta,  conquered 
Vicenza,  Belluni,  Verona,  and  Padua: 
and  besides  these  and  other  conquests  on 
Uod,    the   Veoetiao    fleet    defeated    tbo 


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Venice  Venus 

Turkish  at  GalHpoIi  in  1416,  and  in  1421  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  is  surrounded  by 

subjugated     all     the     towns     along    the  forts.     Pop.  5650. 

Dalmatian  coast    At   the   close   of   the  Vfintnor    (^^i^t'ner),  a  watering-place 

fifteenth  century   Venice  had  a   popula-  '  ^iai'Iavx    ^^    England,   on   the   south- 

tion  of  200,000,  and  was  the  center  of  east  shore  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  in  the 

activity  of  the  commerce  of  Europe.     Its  district  of  Undercliif.     It  has  many  ac* 

power  then  began  to  decline,  its  commerce  commodations    for  visitors   and   a   good 

was  gradually  superseded  by  that  of  the  beach  for  bathing.    Pop.  5787. 

Portuguese,  and  in  1508  a  league  to  sub-  Ventose      ^^  Calendar, 

due  the  republic  was  formed  at  Cambrai  vixwov. 

between  Pope  Julius  II,  the  Emperor  of  VATifrinlA     ^^  Heart. 

Germany,  and  the  kings  of  France  and  ^<5"''"^*<5» 

Spain.    All  its  possessions  on  the  main-  VentrillMllliflin     (  Ten-triKu-kwiim  )* 

land  were  taken,   and  the  work  of  de-  ^aai'aaav^iaaoaii.    ^^  ^^  ^£  speaking 

struction  was  all  but  completed  by  war-  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  a  hearer  to 

fare  with  the  Turks  at  intervals  from  believe  that  the  sound  comes,  not  from 

1649  to  1718.    The  French  took  posses-  the  person  speaking,  but  from  a  different 

sion  of  the  city  in  1797.    It  subsequently  source.    The  name  (Latin,  venter,  belly, 

became  part  of  the  Austrian  Empire,  of  and  loqui,  to  speak)  orisinated  from  the 

Napoleon's  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  from  erroneous    supposition    that    the    sounds 

1815  to  1866  of  the  Lombardo- Venetian  uttered  were  formed  in  the  belly,  whereas 

Kingdom    under    Austria.    In    1866    the  practice  alone  is  necessary  to  carry  this 

city  and  province  were  ceded  to  Napoleon  act  of  illusion  to  a  high  degree  of  perfec- 

III,    Emperor   of   Fmnce,   under   whose  tion.    The   sounds    are    formed    by    the 

auspices   they   Were   united   by   a   plebi-  ordinary  vocal  organs  —  the  larynx,  the 

scite    to    the    Kingdom    of    Italy.    Pop.  palate,   the   tongue,   the   lips,   etc    The 

169,568.  art  of  the  ventriloquist  consists  merely 

Venice    Guur  of.    See  Adriatic  Sea.  in  this:  —  After  drawing  a  long  breath 

^  >  he  breathes  it  out  slowly  and  gradually, 

V^nir^  fsLoina.    (ve-nTre    fft'sl-as;  dexterously    modifying    and    diminishing 

Yciurc  ittoitts    tat  in,    'that   you  the  sound  of  the  voice;  besides  this  he 

cause  to  come'),  in  law,  a  writ  or  pre-  moves  his  lips  as  little  as  possible,  and 

cept   directed    to    the    sheriff,    requiring  by  various  contrivances  diverts   the  at- 

him  to  cause  a  Jury  to  come  or  appear  ten  tion   of  his  auditors.    This  art  was 

in    the  neighborhood   where   a   cause   is  known  to  the  ancient  Greeks, 

brought  to  issue  to  try  the  same.    This  Venue    (ven'Q),    in    English   law,   the 

writ  was  abolished  in  England  in  1852.  *  ^"•*^    place,     that     is,     the    county, 

but  the  precept  issued  by  the  justices  of  where  an  action  is  to  be  tried,  and  from 

assize,  which  is  substituted,  is  sometimes  whence  juries  are  to  be  summoned  for 

loosely  spoken  of  as  a  ventre,  trial  of  causes.    The  venue,  in  all  cases, 

Venlo     (ven-lO')»  a  town  of  the  Neth-  civil  and  criminal,  may  be  changed  for 

erlands.   province  of   Limburg,  sufficient  cause, 

on  the  right  bank  of  the  Meuse.     It  has  VenuS    C^^'nn^)*  the  Roman  name  of 

manufactories    of    needles    and    cigars.  ^-^^^    tne  goddess  of  love,  called  by 

Pop.  15,000.  the  Greeks  Aphrodite.     In  the  Iliad  she 

Veil  Am  AH  ft  AnimQla    ^"^myl^   cap-  is  described  as  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and 

venomous  AnunaiS,  ^,^    ^^     j^  Dl^g.  ^ut  Hesiod  represenU  her  as  the 

flictine  poisonous  wounds  by  means  of  offspring    of    Urftnus,    bom    among    the 

special    organs    or    contrivances.    They  foam    (Greek,  aphroe)   of  the  sea.    She 

include  spiders,  bees,  wasps,  hornets,  scor-  surpassed  all  other  goddesses  in  beauty, 

pions,  certain  serpents,  etc.     In  all  cases  and  hence  received  the  apple  which  was 

the  venomous  matter  must  be  introduced  to  be  awarded  to  the  most  beautiful  by 

directly   into  the  circulation   to  produce  Paris.    She  was  the  wife  of  Hephsstoa 

its  effects.  (Vulcan),  but  also  bestowed  her  love  on 

VenOSfl.    (▼A-n^'sA;    anc.    Venuiia),   a  the  gods  Arte    (Mars),  Dionysus   (Bac- 

town    of    Italy,    province    of  chus),  Hermes  (Mercury),  and  Poseidon 

Potensa.    It    has    a    cathedral,    and    a  (Neptune),  and  the  mortals  Anchlses  and 

castle  dating  from  the  fifteenth  century.  Adonis.    The  myrtle,  rose,  poppy,  apple, 

Horace  was  bom  here.    Pop.  8508.  and  other  fraits  were  sacred  to  her,  as 

Ventilation    (ven-ti-l&'sbun) .      See  were  also  the  dove,  sparrow,  swan,  swal- 

wvuvAAAMvu    -pf^ farming    and    VentHa-  low,  ram,  hare,  and  tortoise.    The  chief 

tion,  places  of   her   worship    in   Greece  were 

Ventimi^lift    (-meryA),    a    town    of  the  islands  of  Cyprus  and  C!ythera.    In 

"^^o****    Italy,  province  of  Porto  Rome   several    temples .  were    erected    to 

Maurizio,  7  miles  east  of  Mentone.    It  her  under  different  names.     In  the  best 


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days  of  art  this  goddess  was  always 
represented  draped.  In  later  times  nude. 
The  scene  of  her  arising  from  the  sea 
was  sculptured  by 
Phidias  on  the 
base  of  the  statue 
of  Zeus  at  Olym- 
pia,  and  one  of  the 
most  famous  pic- 
t  u  r  e  s  of  Apelles 
represented  the 
same  subject  The 
Venus  of  Capua 
and  the  Venus  of 
Milo  represent  her 
as  Venus  Victrix, 
with  one  foot  on 
a  helmet  and  rais- 
ing a  shield.  The 
Venus  de'  Medici 
is  supposed  to  be 
a  free  copy  of  a 
statue  of  her  by 
Praxiteles,  which 
was  celebrated 
aboye  all  her 
other  statues  in 
ancient  times. 
Among  modem 
one    of     the    most 


Tenui,  antique  itstue 
In  the  Britiih  Museum. 


statues    of    Venus, 

famous  is  that  by  Canova,  in  which 
she  is  represented  as  issuing  from  the 
bath. 

Venus  ®°®  ***  ^^®  inferior  planets, 
^  having  its  orbit  between  Mer- 
cury and  the  earth,  and  the  most  brilliant 
of  all  the  planetary  bodies.  From  its 
alternate  appearance  in  the  morning  and 
evening  it  was  called  by  the  ancients 
Lucifer  and  Hesperus,  the  morning  and 
evening  star.  The  mean  distance  of 
Venus  from  the  sun  is  about  06,134,000 
miles,  its  diameter  7510  miles,  and  its 
period  of  revolution  round  the  sun  about 
224.7  mean  solar  days.  Its  volume  is 
equal  to  about  fj^ths  of  the  earth,  but 
its  density  being  slightly  greater  its  mass 
is  actually  equal  to  about  IJ^ths  of  the 
earth.  It  probably  revolves  about  an 
axis,  in  a  period  of  about  23  hrs.  21 
min.,  the  axis  of  rotation  being  inclined 
to  the  ecliptic  at  an  angle  of  about  75**. 
According  to  its  various  positions  rela- 
tively to  the  sun  and  earth  it  exhibits 
phases  like  the  mooa.  Like  Mercury, 
Venus  transits  the  face  of  the  sun.  but 
at  longer  intervals.  The  transits  of 
Venus  are  of  much  more  importance  than 
those  of  Mercury,  because,  being  nearer 
to  us  when  in  transit,  its  position  on  the 
sun  is  measurably  different  for  observers 
placed  on  different  parts  of  the  earth. 
See  Transit. 

See  Dioncea, 


Venus'  Fly-trap. 


Vera  Cmz  ^  y^'i^  krOs  ) ,  the  chief 
seaport  of  Mexico,  and 
capital  of  a  state  of  the  same  name.  The 
harbor  is  merely  an  open,  unsafe  road 
stead,  but  there  is  a  large  trade.  The 
town  has  broad  and  regular  streets,  and 
some  good  buildings,  and  is  defended  by 
the  fortress  of  San-Juan-de-UUoa  on  an 
island  in  front  of  the  harbor.  The  situ- 
ation of  the  town  is  exceedingly  un- 
healthy. It  was  founded  bv  Cortez  'm 
1520  and  was  captured  by  General  Scott 
in  1847.  Pod.  48,m— The  state 
stretches  along  tne  8.  w.  part  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico;  area,  29,28o  square  miles. 
The  products  embrace  all  kinds  of  grain 
crops,  tobacco,  sugar,  cotton,  fruits,  dye- 
woods  and  timber.  Cattle,  horses  and 
sheep  are  numerous.     Pop.  981,030. 

Veratrin  {^^^^A'W'ft^n^i^ 

alkaloid  found  in  Veratrum  Sabadilla, 
Veratrum  album,  etc.  It  is  generally 
obtained  as  a  crystalline  powder,  nearly 
white,  very  acrid  and  poisonous,  insoluble 
in  water,  but  very  soluble  in  alcohol. 
In  the  form  of  tincture,  and  still  more 
in  that  of  ointment,  veratrin  is  mush 
used  as  an  external  application  in  cases 
of  neuralgia  and  obstinate  rheumatic 
pains.  The  smallest  quantity  entering 
the  nose  causes  violent  and  even  danger- 
ous sneezing. 

Veratrum  i^®''"^'^'^™>v  f  .^t"" 

^-'—•'*»****  known  genus  of  plants  be- 
longing to  the  nat.  order  Melantbaces. 
Veratrum  al'uum  (common  white  helle- 
bore) is  a  native  ot  most  alpine  meadows 
in  the  southern,  central  and  northern 
parts  of  Europe.  It  has  large  plaited 
leaves,  erect  stems,  and  large  panicles  of 
greenish  flowers.  It  yields  the  substance 
veratrin  (which  see).  Every  part  of 
both  is  acrid  and  poisonous,  especially 
the  rhizomes.  The  F.  viride  of  North 
America  (American  hellebore)  is  an  acrid 
emetic,  and  acts  strongly  in  lowering  the 
action  of  the  heart. 

Verb  '°  grammar,  that  part  of  speech 
^  whose  essential  function  is  to 
predicate  or  assert  something  in  regard 
to  something  else  (the  subject  or  thing 
spoken  of)  ;  as,  the  boy  runs,  the  man 
lifts  the  stone,  fishes  «trtm,  he  suffers 
much.  Verbs  usually  have  the  power  of 
indicating  time  and  mode  by  means  of 
tenses  and  moods,  these  varying  in  the 
different  languages,  as  does  also  the  con- 
jugation or  system  of  verbal  inflections 
and  forms  as  a  whole.  They  have  been 
divided  into  active  and  neuter  verbs,  ac- 
cording as  they  predicate  action  or  state. 
Active  verbs  are  divided  into  intransitivs 
and  transitive,  according  as  the  action 
IS  confined  to  the  actor  or  passes  from 


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him  to  an  object.  Intransitive  verbs  often 
take  an  objective  of  their  own  nature ;  as. 
he  run9  a  race;  he  $leep$  the  sleep  of 
death.  When  a  verb  may  be  used  either 
transitively  or  intransitively,  as  he  walks 
the  horse,  he  walks  to  church,  the  verb 
in  the  former  use  is  said  to  be  oauaaiive. 
Many  causative  verbs  are  distinguished 
from  their  corresponding  intransitlves  by 
a  change  of  form,  as  ttf,  set;  lie,  lay; 
fall,  fell.  Paative  verbs  affirm  suffer- 
ing or  endurance  of  what  another  does. 
Hence,  only  verbs  which  take  an  object 
after  them  can  have  a  passive  voice,  be- 
cause it  can  be  said  of  objects  only  that 
they  suffer  or  endure  the  action  directed 
on  or  towards  them  by  the  subject  of  the 
active  verb.  Passive  verbs  are  thus  the 
correlatives  or  complements  of  active 
verbs. 

Verbascum.   ^^  Muiiein. 

VerbenA  (ver-bC'na),  a  fenoi  ol 
vcrucua  plants,  the  type  of  the  nat 
order  Verbenaceae.  Most  of  the  species 
are  American ; 
about  seventy 
are  enumer- 
ated. V,  offici' 
ndlie  (common 
vervain),  a 
plant  widely 
distributed,  was 
once  held  in 
great  repute 
for  its  medici- 
nal virtues, 
and  entered  into 
the  compos! tit  n 
of  varioT  8 
charms  and  love 
philters.  S  e  v  - 
eral  species  are 
cultivated  for 
the  great  beauty  o€  their  flowers,  being 
fine  border  plants.  The  verbena  of  the 
perfumers  is  the  lemon-grass,  from  which 
the  *  oil  of  verbena  *  is  extracted. 
VerbenaCeaS  (ve^^be-na'se^^),  a  nat 
•^^  order  of  plants,  con- 
sisting of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous 
Elants  common  in  the  tropics  of  both 
emispheres,  but  rare  in  £urope,  Asia 
and  North  America.  They  have  generally 
opposite  or  whorled,  simple  or  compound 
leaves  without  stipules;  flowers  in  op- 
posite corymbs,  or  spiked  alternately, 
sometimes  in  dense  heads,  seldom  axillary 
or  solitary.  The  verbena  and  teak  are 
examples. 

Vercelli  (ver-chel'le),  a  town  of 
Vfuri/cm   ^^^^^  j^^iy^  province  of  No- 

vara,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Sesia, 
44  miles  w.  s.  w.  of  Milan  by  rail.  It 
has   a   modern   cathedral,   a   castle,   now 

17  lo 


Yerbenai  —  Garden  va- 
rieties. 


converted  into  courts  of  justice ;  hospital, 
cavalry  barracks,  etc.,  flourishing  mann- 
factures  and  trade.    Pop.  17,922. 

Verd-antiaue  (yero-an-tek'),  la 

w  w««»  M»*vA^i*v  mmeralogy,  an  aggre- 
gate of  serpentine  and  white  crjrstalliaed 
marble,  having  a  greenish  color.  It  is 
beautifully  mottled,  takes  a  fine  polish, 
and  is  much  used  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. The  term  is  also  given  to  a  green 
Incrustation  on  ancient  coins,  brass  or 
copper.  Oriental  Verd-cntique  is  a  green 
porphyry  used  as  marble. 
JTarAt^n    (f&r'd^n),  a  town  of  Prussia, 

V  crucu  ^  Hanover,  on  the  Aller,  21 
miles  8.  BL  of  Bremen.  It  has  a  fine 
Qothic  cathedral,  a  gymnasium,  brew- 
eries, distilleries  and  manufactories  of 
cigars.    Pop.  9842. 

Verdi  (Ver'de),  Giuseppe,  an  Italian 
operatic  composer,  bom  in  1814, 
His  first  production  was  Oberto,  Conie 
di  San  Bonifazio  (1839),  and  in  1842 
he  brought  out  with  great  success  at 
the  La  Scala,  Milan,  his  Nabuco,  fol- 
lowed by  /  Lombardi  (1843),  Bnuini 
(1844),  Rigoletto  (1851),  //  Trovatare 
(1853),  La  Traviata  (1853),  Vn  Ballo 
in  Maschera  (lSGd),Aida  (1871),  Monte- 
euma  (l878),  and  Otello  (1886).  Verdi 
had  a  fine  dramatic  gift,  and  his  melodies 
are  showy  and  taking.  He  died  in  1901. 
Verdict.     See  Jury. 

Verdigris    (^^i^di-ffris),    a   polsonoas 
o  substance,  prepared  by  ex- 

posing copper  to  the  air  m  contact  with 
acetic  acid,  and  used  as  a  pigment,  as  a 
mordant,  in  medicine,  etc. 
Verditer  (ver'di-t6r),  a  blue  pigment 
prepared  by  dissolvmg  ver- 
digris in  acetic  acid. 
Vprrlnn     (ver-duv),  a  town  of  France 

Y  ciuuu  department  of  the  Meuse,  150 
miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Paris.  It  is  a  walled 
town  defended  by  a  citadel,  the  work  of 
Vauban.  The  chief  buildings  are  the 
episcopal   palace,   the  barracks,   and  the 

fiublic  library.  Verdun  is  famous  lor 
ts  liqueurs  and  confectionerv,  and  it  has 
breweries,  tanneries,  dye-works,  etc.  The 
Germans  captured  it  in  18T1  and  vigor- 
ously besieged  it  in  1916.  This  siege  was 
of  such  importance  in  the  history  of  the 
European  war  that  a  special  description 
of  its  purpose  and  general  events  is  requi- 
site to  a  just  conception  of  this  great  con- 
flict. It  constitutes  one  of  the  leading 
phases  of  the  war  in  its  western  field, 
paralleling  the  Battle  of  the  Mame  (g.v.) 
as  a  desperate  effort  to  break  through  the 
IiYench  lines  at  a  vulnerable  point  and 
expose  Paris  to  peril  of  capture.  Verdun 
was  a  specially  hard  point  at  which  to 
smash  the  French  line,  l)eing  the  stroof* 


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Verdun  Vereshtclia£:iii 

•■t  of  a  series  of  fortified  places  facing  Harcourt  was  captured  and  on  the  6th 
the  German  frontier.  An  attack  on  it  at  BetMncourt  fell  into  their  hands.  On  the 
the  beginning  of  the  war  had  led  to  great  11th  Germany  claimed  a  total  of  36,000 
development  in  its  outer  defenses,  so  that  French  prisoners,  but  the  loss  of  the  Ger- 
it  became  rather  a  fortified  area  than  a  mans  in  their  assaults  on  the  French  posts 
fort  Its  fall,  then,  would  have  been  so  had  been  very  heavy  and  their  efforts  now 
much  the  more  serious  for  France,  and  slackened,  while  the  French  began  a  series 
the  army  under  the  German  Crown-Prince  of  counter-attacks,  though  with  no  marked 
was  selected  to  undertake  its  capture.  change  in  the  situation,  losses  and  gains 
A  well-devised  effort  to  take  the  city  being  successively  made.  Thus  on  May  22 
by  surprise,  one  that  nearly  succeeded,  the  French  recaptured  part  of  Fort 
was  the  method  pursued.  A  series  of  vio-  Douaumont  and  some  trenches  on  Dead 
lent  attacks,  extending  widely  along  the  Man's  Hill,  but  they  lost  their  hold  on  the 
western  front,  was  made  in  the  early  fort  three  days  later  and  also  the  village 
weeks  of  1916.  which  was  intended  to  of  Gumidres,  west  of  the  Meuse.  Inces- 
mislead  the  Allies  as  to  the  proj|M!ted  sant  assaults  on  the  part  of  the  Germans 
assault,  Verdun  being  left  at  rest.  These  followed,  with  no  marked  gains,  but  on 
continued  through  late  January  and  early  June  7,  by  a  sudden  shifting  of  the  point 
February,  Arras  being  specially  their  of  attack.  Fort  Vaux  was  captured.  On 
center,  the  indications  being  that  a  drive  the  23d,  after  two  weeks  of  furious  fight- 
was  about  to  be  made  upon  Dunkirk  and  ing,  Thiaumont  was  taken  by  the  Ger- 
Calais.  The  French  were  next  attacked  mans  and  by  July  1  it  had  been  lost  and 
in  Champagne  and  at  other  points,  while  taken  three  times  by  either  side,  whUe  on 
all  remained  quiet  at  the  strong  fortress  the  4th  it  again  fcU  into  German  hands, 
on  the  Meuse.  The  result  was  a  weaken-  The  Somme  drive  had  now  been  launched 
ing  of  the  garrison  of  Verdun.  Suddenly,  on  the  part  of  the  Allies  and  it  was  hoped 
on  the  23d  of  February,  the  storm  broke,  that  this  would  lessen  the  German  pres- 
eight  German  army  corps  (300,000  men)  sure  on  Verdun,  but  the  attacks  con- 
taking  part  in  it.  These  were  hurled  tinned,  though  with  no  marked  gains, 
upon  the  weakened  French  lines  with  such  For  more  than  four  months  this  great 
impetuous  force  that  in  the  first  day's  contest  had  continued  and  though  the 
assault  more  than  six  miles  of  trenches  Germans  had  gained  considerable  terri- 
were  carried,  the  defenses  being  pene-  tory  and  a  number  of  the  outlying  forts, 
trated  to  a  depth  of  neariy  two  miles*  Verdun  remained  intact  and  the  great 
while  3000  French  prisoners  were  taken,  effort  to  break  through  the  French  line 
The  second  day  added  as  much  more  to  had  so  far  failed. 

the  captures,  bringing  the  Germans  from  The  fighting  points  now  shifted  to  other 

a  distance  of  8  miles  to  a  point  only  4%  sections  of  the  long  battle-line,  and  com- 

miles  from  the  fortress.    The  next  day  Fort  parative  quiet  remained  at  Verdun  until 

Douaumont   was   taken   and   held  firmly  the  end  of  October,  when  the  policy  of 

against  the  furious  counter-attacks  of  the  surprise  shifted  to  the  other  side.     An 

French.     The  purpose  of  the   Germans  attack  was  made  on  October  24,  and  was 

had  now  become  evident  and  troops  were  so  sudden  and  impetuous  that  the  Ger- 

hurried  to  the  danger  point  in  all  haste,  mans  were  utterly  overwhelmed.    Not  at 

the  British  taking  over  several  miles  of  a  single  point  were  they  able  to  stop  the 

French  trenches  to  permit  this  reinforce-  furious    rush.      Douaumont    and    Thiau- 

ment.    In  the  first  six  days  the  Germans  mont  were  wrested  from  their  hands,  the 

daimed  to  have  taken  16.800  prisoners  German  line  being  broken  over  a  front  of 

and  78  cannon.    But  French  resistance  in  4  1-3  miles  and  penetrated  to  a  depth  of 

this  direction  now  jttiffcned,  and  the  Ger-  nearly  two  miles.     Thus  in  three  hours 

mans  found  it  advisable  to  shift  to  new  the  French  recaptured  ground  which  it 

points  of  attack.     The  first  assaults  on  had  taken  the  Germans  months  to  cap- 

the  left  bank  of  the  Meuse  were  made  on  ture  and  hold. 

March  6  and  defenRive  points  were  car-  Verduil      ^  town  of  Quebec  province, 

ried  there  and  during  the  following  week,  »*^***""**j     Canada,     1%     miles     from 

including  the  Forest  of  Cumi^res,  but  in  Montreal.     Pop.   (1911)  11,629. 


the  succeeding  period  the  Germans  were  VAr^QTifnTincnTi    (  ve-res-tch&'gin  ), 

firmly  faced.  V  CTCSIIXCIiagin   Vasilit,  a  Russian 

Le  Morte  Homme  (Dead  Man's  Hill)  historical  painter,  bom  in  1842,  and  was 

became  a  central  point  in  the  struggle  in  educated    at    the    naval    school    in    St. 

mid-March,  both  sides  clniming  its  cap-  Petersburg.      In    1864    he    entered    the 

ture,  though  each  referred  to  a  different  15cole   des   Beaux   Arts   at   Paris,   where 

MU.    Malancourt  was  taken  by  the  Ger-  Gerome  was  his  master.     He  Joined  the 

mans  on  March  31.   and   the  village  of  Caucasian      expedition     under     General 

Vaud  and  Caillotte  Wood.     On  April  5  Kaufmann  in  1867,  and  in  1869  went  to 


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Vergil  Vernal  Orass 

Siberia.  He  took  t>art  in  the  Rumo-  Wantifully  scarlet  color,  obtained  fron 
Turkish  war,  and  was  woonded  at  crystallized  mercuric  sulphide.  It  is 
PleTna.  From  that  time  on  he  Tislted  all  tensively  employed  in  painting,  in  mal 
the  chief  cities  of  Europe  exhibiting  his  red  sealing-wax,  and  other  purposes, 
pictures.  He  was  drowned  in  the  sinking  Vermin  (ver'min),  obnoxious  insects* 
of  a  Russian  warship  during  the  Russo-  »^***"**  as  bugs,  fleas  and  lice; 
Japanese  war  in  1904.  troublesome  animals,  as  rats  and  mice; 

Vernl     ^^  yirgU.  game-destroying  species,  as  weasels,  poto- 

vvA^AA.  ^^^  ^jg^  hawks  and  owls.    The  fox  is 

Veriniee    (Ter'JOs),   a   sharp  vinegar  called  vermin,  but  not  in  a  sense  of  dig» 

verjUlUC     ^^^^   ^^  ^^    .  j^^   ^^  ^^^   respect 

crab-apple;  alse  the  sour  Juice  of  unripe  VArmATif  (yer-monf),  one  of  th« 
grapes  Is  used  for  cnlina^  purposes.  ^  ^xiiiwuv   United   States,   bounded   H. 

Verlfline  (▼er-lftn'),     Paul,     French  by  Quebec,  E.  by  New  Hampshire  (from 

w  ^AAc»*uv  lyrical  poet,  bom  in  1844 ;  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Connecticnt 
died  in  1896.  In  a  quarrel  with  Rim-  River),  8.  by  Massachusetts  and  w.  by 
baud,  he  aimed  a  pistol  and  was  imnris-  New  York  and  Lake  Champlain.  Length 
oned  for  two  years.  He  left  prison  a  de-  143  miles,  width  40  to  85 ;  area,  9664 
Tont  Catholic.  His  poems  are  remarkably  square  miles.  The  surface  is  traversed 
beautiful  both  in  thought  and  rhsrthm.  from  south  to  north  by  the  Green  Moun- 
V^rm^^r   (ver-mftr^),  or  Jan  Van  der  tains  (French,  VerU  Mont$),  which  cul- 

vuAiuuux  j^Tgjo^  OF  Dklft,  s  Dutch  minate  in  Mansfield  Mountain  in  the 
painter,  bom  in  1682 ;  died  in  1675.  He  n.  w.,  4280  feet  high.  They  are  generally 
was  greatly  influenced  by  Pieter  de  Hooch,  covered  by  dense  forests,  but  afford  ex- 
His  genre  pictures  sre  highly  prized.  cellent      pasturage.    The      drainage      is 

VAmiAiA  (^^r-ma^id),  or  Rio  Gbandb.  shared  between  Lake  Champlain  In  the 

'^*"*^J"   See  Paraguay,  west,  and  the  Connecticut  and  its  afflu- 

Vermea     (ver'mfo;    Latin,    'worms'),  ents.    The    surface    is    generally    fertile, 

vvi.iti^o  Iphe  sixth  class  of  snimals  in  the  best  soil  being  on  the  western  slope 
the  Linniean  arrangement  of  the  animal  of  the  mountains  near  the  border  of  Lake 
kingdom,  comprising  all  animals  which  Champlain.  The  climate  is  healthy, 
could  not  be  arranged  under  Vertebra ta  and  the  temperature  ranges  from  20^ 
and  Insecta.  below  zero  in  winter  up  to  90®  in  sum- 

VermiGelli     (-<^beri$ ;   Italian*  '  little  mer.    Farming  and  grazing  are  the  chief 

vvxiux\/vxxx  ^QrjQs').  See  Mac  a-  occupations,  all  the  agricultural  staples 
roni,  being    abundantly    produced,    while    the 

Vermiform  Appendix,   |-wVh  ^f .  lnifr,Tr5d^cnruSe°'«d 

from  the  intestines  which,  so  far  as  is  excellent,   and   cattle,   sheep   and    horses 

known,   is   peculiar   to   man,   certain    of  are   raised   in    large   numbers.     Vermont 

the  higher  apes,  and  the  wombat.    The  is    the   greatest    breeding   state   for   fine 

vermiform  appendix  in  the  human  species  horses   and    for   Spanish    merino   sheep, 

hangs  from  the  cii^cum,  which  is  the  point  Manufactures    are    of    much    importance 

of  Junction  between  the  smaller  intestines  and  cover  a  wide  range  of  goods,  includ- 

and    the   ascending   colon.     In    size   and  ing   cotton    and    woolen    goods,    leather, 

shape  it  resembles  a  man*s  little  fineer.  bar  and  pig  iron,  machinery,  etc.     Large 

It  IS  functionallv  useless  to  man  and  it  quantities   of   lumber   are   exported    and 

appears  to  be  the  relic  of  an  organ  of  tbere  are  extensive  marble,  granite  and 

utility    to   some    of    the    lower   animals,  slate    quarries.      Rutland   is   the   largest 

Its    lining   membrane   secietes   a   mucus  marble  center  in   the  world,   and  Barrc 

which  in  health  constantly  wells  up  into  the  largest  granite   center.     There   is  a 

the   lower   end   of   the  colon    where   the  considerable  internal  and   transit   trade, 

ileocecal    valve    opens,    and    this   mucus  but   the   foreign   trade  is   limited,    beinc 

acts  as   a    lubricant   to  the  valve.     The  chiefly  carried  on  through  New  York  and 

appendix   is  subject  to  inflammatory  at-  Massachusetts.    Vermont  was  first  settled 

tacks  arising  probably  from  the  ingestion  by    emigrants    from    Massachusetts,    and 

of  matter  from  the  bowels.    Attacks  of  joined  the  TTnion  in  1791,  after  the  state 

this    kind    are    somewhat    frequent,    the  of  New  Turk  had  renounced  a  claim  to 

^mial  treatment  being  surgical,  the  dis-  the  territory  for  $30,000.  Montpelier  is 

eased  organ  being  removed.     Lighter  at-  the  capital,  but  Burlington  (1910)    (pop. 

tacks  are  treated  hi  remedial  methods.  20,463)   is  the  largest  town.     Pop.  ®D,- 

Vennifn^e    (ver'mi-fftj).      See    4.it-  966.                          ,      ,    ,         ^   .^ 

Vl^rmilion  (vewniryun),  the  name  ^''^"«"  witwi  ^^^^  odoriltum), 
wxAuxxxvu     ^i^^jj  ^  ^  nlgmcnt  of  a  sweet-scented    pasture    grass,     that    to 


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Vernation 


Veronese 


which   the   odor   of    new-mown    hay    is 

chiefly    due,    growing    in    most    of    the 

States. 

Vernation  /▼er-na-hun).    a    botan- 

vvAUAMvu   i^j    j^pjjj^    indicating    the 

manner  in  which  the  leaves  are  arranged 
in  the  leaf  bud.  In  some  plants  the 
leaves  are  placed  together ,  in  a  very 
simple  method,  in  others  thev  are  curi- 
ouslv  folded,  rolled,  or  plaited  and  inter- 
laced with  each  other,  but  so  as  to  sepa- 
rate readily  when  the  time  for  their  ex- 
pansion comes. 

Verne  (Tem),  Jules,  a  popular 
▼  vxuv  French  romancer,  bom  at  Nan- 
tes in  1828.  He  studied  law  for  some 
time,  but  afterwards  began  writing  short 

1>ieces  for  the  stage.  In  1863  he  pub- 
ished  Five  Weeikf  in  a  Bailoont  and  the 
vein  of  the  marvelous,  tinged  with  a 
quasi-scientific  truthfulness,  was  after- 
wards worlced  by  him  with  great  success. 
His  more  popular  works  are:  Twenty 
Thou$and  League9  %nder  the  Sea,  From 
the  Earth  to  the  Moon,  Acro8$  Africa  in 
a  Balloon,  To  the  Center  of  the  Earth, 
and  Bound  the  World  in  Eighty  Days. 
Most  of  his  works  have  been  translated 
into  English  and  German.  He  died  in 
1906.  ^ 

Vemet  (▼er-nft),  Jean  Emile  Hob- 
wxuw  ACE,  a  French  painter,  grand- 
son of  Claude  Joseph  Vemet,  a  distin- 
guished painter  of  sea  pieces  and  sea- 
port scenes;  and  son  of  Antoine  Charles 
Horace    Vemet,    painter    of    battle    and 

Snre  pictures.  He  was  bom  In  Paris 
1798;  and  died  in  1863.  His  first 
master  In  art  was  his  father,  and  at  an 
early  age  he  acquired  the  favor  of  the 
imperial  court  by  his  battle  pieces,  in 
which  he  adopted  a  realistic  treatment 
in  opposition  to  the  classical  school  of 
David.  His  pictures  connected  with  the 
wars  of  Napoleon  are  very  numerous. 
In  1828  Charles  X  appointed  him  direc- 
tor of  the  French  Academy  in  Rome,  a 
post  he  ably  filled  till  the  end  of  1834, 
roducing  a  series  of  pictures,  partly 
istorical,  partly  genre.  Louis  Philippe 
then  commissioned  him  to  paint  galleries 
of  the  museum  at  Versailles  with  scenes 
relating  to  the  conquest  of  Algeria,  a 
country  which  he  several  times  visited. 
In  1840  we  find  him  travelina  in  Egypt, 
Palestine,  and  Syria;  in  1842  he  ac- 
companied the  Emperor  Nicholas  on  a 
Joumey  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Sebas- 
topol;  and  in  1845  he  visited  Spain  and 
Algeria.  In  1853  he  followed  the  French 
armv  to  Varna,  but  soon  returned  to 
Paris  and  produced  his  last  great  picture. 
The  Battle  of  the  Alma. 
V^miAr   (ver'ni-er),  an  index  fitted  to 


I  hi 


scale  (as  that  of  a  barometer)  and  hav- 
ing divisions  marked  upon  it,  by  means 
of  which  readings  may  be  taken  to  small 
fractions  of  the  parts  actually  marked 
ou  the  scale.  Suppose  we  have  a  scale 
of  inches  and  tenths  of  an  inch,  and 
suppose  the  index  is  -^ths  of  an  inch, 
and  divided  into  10  divisions.  Suppose 
that  in  taking  a  reading  the  end  of  the 
index  is  past  the  8  figure  on  the  scale 
we  write  down  8,  that  it  is  past  3  of  the 
tenth  spaces  and  part  of  another  we  add 
.3,  then  looking  up  the  index  we  find  that 
its  6th  division  most  nearly  coincides 
with  a  division  on  the  scale  and  we  add 
.06,  and  so  the  position  of  the  index  is 
taken  as  marking  8.36  inches. 
VAmAn  a  town  (township)  in  Tol- 
veruuu,  land  Co..  Connecticut,  which 
contains  the  city  of  Rockville  and  the 
Tillage  of  Vernon,  in  which  woolens, 
warps,  and  yams  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  9087. 

VAmiio  (v6-r5'nA),  a  city  of  North- 
vcruua  em  Italy,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  same  name,  beautifully  situated 
on  both  sides  of  the  Adige.  The  town 
is  surrounded  by  battlemented  walls,  and 
is  entered  by  five  beautiful  gates.  The 
streets  are  narrow  and  crooked,  but  there 
are  several  elegant  squares.  Verona  has 
a  Roman  amphitheater,  supposed  to  have 
been  built  about  the  second  or  third  cen- 
tury of  our  era,  the  interior  of  which 
is  nearly  perfect;  an  imposing  cathedral 
in  the  Gothic  style  dating  from  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  many  other  magnifi- 
cent churches  rich  in  paintings  and  other 
art  treasures.  Other  notable  edifices  are 
the  Palazzo  del  Consiglio,  adorned  with 
statues  of  celebrated  natives  of  the  town ; 
and  the  Gothic  tombs  of  the  Delia  Scala 
family  (Scaligeri),  who  ruled  Verona 
from  1262  to  1389.  Modem  public  build- 
ings include  theaters,  a  museum,  a  li- 
brary, hospitals,  literary  institutions, 
etc.  The  town  has  manufactures  of 
silks,  woolens,  hats,  etc.,  and  a  consider- 
able trade.  Verona  was  subject  to  the 
Romans  in  the  second  century  b.g..  and 
on  the  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire  it 
was  taken  by  the  Goths,  and  became 
the  capital  of  Theodoric's  empire.  In 
774  it  was  captured  by  Charlemagne,  and 
subsequently  became  an  independent  re- 
public. Weary  of  the  continual  dissen- 
sions of  its  nobles,  it  voluntarily  ceded 
itself  to  Venice,  under  which  it  remained 
from  1405  to  1797.  It  subse<iuently  be- 
longed to  the  Austrians,  and  in  1866  be* 
came  a  city  of  the  new  Kingdom  of  Italy. 
Pop.   (1914)   84,755. 

Veronese    (va-ro-na'ze),     Path^     the 

V  vAwu^v^    popular      name      of    Paolo 

Cagliari,  an  eminent  Italian  artist,  born 


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Veronica  Vertigo 

at  Verona  in  1528.  He  studied  paint-  the  Germans  established  their  headquar- 
ing  under  bis  uncle,  Antonio  Badile,  and  ters  at  Versailles;  and  from  March,  1871, 
worlied  successively  in  Venice,  Rome,  till  1879  it  was  the  seat  of  the  French 
and  other  cities  of  Italy,  but  Venice  government  Pop.  (1911)  60.458. 
was  bis  chief  residence.  He  was  an  Verse  ^  measured  and  cadenced  font 
excellent  colorist,  and  was  distinguished  *  ^  ^^' of  speech  or  composition,  usnally 
by  the  richness  and  fertility  of  bis  Im-  adopted  in  poetry.  It  seems  to  be  the 
agination.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  natural  language  of  passion,  vet  it  baa 
Titian  and  Tintoretto.  He  died  at  unquestionably  been  improved  and  de- 
at  Venice  April  19,  1588.  His  pictures  veloped  by  art.  The  use  of  rhymed 
are  exceedingly  numerous  and  varied  in  cadences  is  a  comparatively  modem  in- 
subject.  Among  bis  masterpieces  are:  vention.  (See  Rhyme.)  Grammarians 
The  Marriage  at  Cana  (now  in  the  have  elaborately  classified  the  varieties 
Louvre),  The  CaUing  of  Bi.  Andrew  to  of  verse^  and  analytically  distinguished 
the  AjpoBtle^hip,  The  Rape  of  Europa,  the  possible  divisions  of  words  into  bars 
The  Family  of  Dariu$  at  the  Feet  of  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables. 
Alewandtr,  Adoration  of  the  Magi.  Con-  (See  Rhythm,)  The  term  is  also  ap- 
aecration  of  8t,  Nicholas  and  8t,  tielena,  plied  to  a  line  of  poetry  consisting  of  a 
and  The  vision  of  the  Invention  of  the  certain  number  of  metrical  feet  dbposed 
Croae.  The  last  five  mentioned  are  in  according  to  the  rules  of  the  species  of 
the  British  National  Gallery.  poetry  which  the  author  intends  to  com- 
VeroniGfl.  (ve-ron'l-ka).  See  Speed-  pose.  Verses  are  of  various  kinds,  as 
^*  toeU,  hexameter,  pentameter,  etc.  Blank  verse 
Veronififl.  Saint,  a  female  saint  who,  is  verse  in  which  the  lines  do  not  end 
"****>  according  to  legend,  met  in  rhymes.  (See  Blank  Verae,)  Heroic 
out  Saviour  bending  under  the  weight  of  verae  is  rhymed  verse  in  Which  the 
the  cross,  and  offered  him  her  veil  to  lines  usually  consist  of  ten  syllables,  op 
wipe  the  sweat  from  his  brow,  when  the  in  English  of  five  accented  syllables, 
divine  features  were  found  miraculously  constituting  five  metrical  feet, 
impressed  on  the  cloth.  This  veil  was  Vftrspr7  (ver'sbets),  a  town  of  Hun- 
brought  from  Palestine  to  Rome,  where  »^*»^^«*  gary,  county  of  Temesvar.  It 
it  is  still  preserved  by  the  canons  of  St.  is  the  see  of  a  Greek  bishop,  and  has 
Peter's.  silk  mills,  and  a  large  trade  In  silk  and 
VerrftZZATlO  (ver-rat-sa'nd),  or  Vkb-  wine.  Pop.  22,199. 
v^xxcMiAcuAv  ii^^iji^  Giovanni  de,  Vprfif  a  Russian  measure  of  length, 
an  Italian  navigator,  bom  about  1486.  *^^o«'9  equal  to  3500  English  feet,  or 
He  is  believed  to  have  visited  the  coast  very  nearly  two-thirds  of  a  mile, 
of  North  America  in  the  service  of  VAi^f  aVi'to  See  Spine. 
France  in  1508  or  earlier.     In  1524  he  VCriCDra. 

is  said  to  have  traced  the  coast  from  VArfAlirofo  (ver-te-brft'ta),  the  name 
Cape  Fear  to  New  England,  probably  vcrtcurata  ^j^^  ^^  ^^^  highest  sub- 
entering  the  Hudson  River  and  Newport,  kingdom  of  animals,  consisting  of  those 
This  visit  has  been  doubted  by  some  animals  which  in  early  life  usually  pos- 
writers  and  does  not  seem  well  authenti-  sess  a  backbone,  but  which  invariably 
cated.  He  finally  became  a  privateer  or  possess  a  notochord  (which  see) ;  which 
pirate,  and  was  taken  and  executed  at  nave  never  more  than  four  limbs  dis- 
Pico,  Spain,  in  1527.  posed  in  pairs;  which  possess  jaws  as 
Versailles  (▼^i^&lz';  French  pron.  parts  of  the  head;  and  which  have  the 
vvxDcuuco  ver-sA-y4),  a  town  of  great  nerve-centers  contained  within  a 
France,  capital  of  the  department  of  special  case  formed  by  the  skull  and 
Seine-et-Oise,  in  a  plain,  11  miles  8.  w.  spinal  column.  In  all  Vertebrata  save 
of  Paris.  It  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  the  lancelet  a  distinct  heart  is  developed, 
handsomest  towns  in  Europe,  having  been  The  Vertebrata  include  the  classes 
built  under  the  auspices  of  the  soveieigns  Pisces  (fishes).  Amphibia  (frogs,  etc.). 
of  France,  particularly  Louis  XIV,  who  Reptilia  (reptiles),  Aves  (birds),  and 
made  it  the  seat  of  his  court  and  erected  Mammalia  (quadrupeds  and  man), 
the  palace.  The  latter  is  a  large  and  They  have  also  been  classified  into 
imposing  building  with  an  extensive  park  Ichtbyopsida,  including  Pisces  and  Am- 
and  gardens,  fine  fountains,  etc.  Louis  phibia;  Sauropsida,  comprisuig  Reptilia 
Philippe  converted  the  palace  into  a  na-  and  Aves;  an4  Mammalia.  See  these 
tional  museum,  and  it  contains  an  im-  headings. 

mense  collection  of  statues  and  paintings  VertllPO    i^^^^^'t^)*  <ui  attack  of  gid- 

representing  personages  and  events  con-  *  ^*'  ^^6^  diness    or    swimming   of    the 

nected  with  the  French  monarchy  from  head  in  which  objects  appear  to  move  in 

Clovis    downwards.    In    October,    1870,  various  directions  though  sUtlonary,  and 


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the  person  affected  finds  it  difficult  to 
maintain  an  erect  posture.  It  is  a  com- 
mon symptom  of  an  irregular  (exces- 
sive or  dnectiye)  supply  of  blood  to  the 
brain  and  of  nervous  and  general  de- 
bility ;  but  it  frequently  arises  from  some 
disturbance  of  the  digestive  organs. 
Vertne  (▼er'ta),  Geoboe,  a  distin- 
▼  cxifuc  guished  engraver,  bom  in 
Westminster  in  1684.  He  enjoyed  the 
.patronage  of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  and 
'became  engraver  to  the  Society  of  An- 
tiauaries  in  1717.  He  died  in  1756. 
His  best-known  works  include  twelve 
Portraits  of  Poets  and  ten  Portraits  of 
Charles  I  and  His  Friends, 
VcrtnmnUS  (  ver-tum'nus  ),  a  R^ 
^  ^^^^^  man  deity  who  ]^ resided 

over  crops  and  orchards.  He  is  gen- 
erally represented  as  a  young  man 
crowned  with  fiowers,  and  holding  in  his 
right  hand  fruit,  and  a  horn  of  plenty 
in  his  left  He  was  the  husband  of 
Pomona. 

Vcr'ulam,  ^^-   ^^  ^®^^- 

Vervain.     ^*®  verbena. 

Verviers  (ver-vi-ft),  a  town  of  Bel- 
w^xvA^Ao  gi^nj^  province  of  Liege,  on 
the  Vesdre,  14  miles  e.  s.  e.  of  Liege.  It 
is  celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of 
broadcloth,  which  is  the  staple  of  the 
town.  There  are  also  cotton,  leather, 
and  other  manufactures.  Pop.  49,168. 
Vesalins  (ve-s&'li-us),  Andbeas,  the 
w  ^ocuxuo  father  of  modem  anatomy, 
bora  at  Brussels  in  1514;  died  at  Zante 
in  1564.  He  was  physician  to  the  Em- 
peror Charles  V  and  to  Philip  II.  His 
chief  work,  De  Corporis  Humani  Falrioa, 
opened  a  new  era  in  the  science  of 
medicine. 

Vesonl  (v^8^1)»  a  town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  department  of 
Haute-SaOne,  on  the  Durgeon,  27  miles 
N.  of  Besancon.  It  is  surrounded  bv 
vineyards,  and  is  well  built.     Pop.  8702. 

Vespa.  ^^  ^**''- 

VAfi'nafliaTi  (ves-pft'zhi-an;  Lat  Vks- 
vespasiua  p^si^Nus).  Titus  Fla- 
vius,  Emperor  of  Rome,  was  bom 
near  Reate,  in  the  country  of  the 
Sabines.  in  a.d.  9.  After  serving  with 
distinction  in  Germany  and  in  Britain 
as  commander  of  a  legion,  he  was  made 
consul.  He  afterwards  became  pro- 
consul of  Africa,  and  on  the  rebellion 
of  the  Jews  he  was  sent  with  an  army 
into  Judsa  (a.d.  66).  He  reduced  nearly 
all  Galilee,  and  was  preparing  to  attack 
Jerusalem  when  he  received  news  of 
Nero's  death  (a.d.  68).  Then  followed 
Che  emperors  Qalba,  Otho   and  Vitellius, 


and  in  aj).  69  Vespasian  was  himself 
elected  emperor  bv  the  army,  and  arrived 
in  Rome  about  the  middle  of  the  year  70, 
leaving  the  siege  of  Jemsalem  to  his  son 
Titus.  He  immediately  reformed  the 
discipline  of  the  army,  purified  the  sena- 
torial   and    equestrian    orders,    and    im- 


Ooin  of  Vegpaiian. 


proved  the  administration  of  Justice. 
He  favored  arts,  letters,  and  learned 
men,  particularly  Ouintilian,  Pliny  and 
Josephus.  He  rebuilt  a  part  of  the  city, 
restored  the  capitol,  and  erected  the 
gigantic  amphitheater,  the  ruins  of  which 
are  still  celebrated  under  the  name  of 
the  Coliseum.    Vespasian  died  A.D.  79. 

Vespucci  Amerigo  ^^t^^^h  oi 

Amebicus  Vespucius,  an  Italian  navi- 
gator, after  whom  the  continent  of 
America  is  named;  bom  in  Florence  in 
1451.  He  took  part  in  a  voyage  to 
America  in  1499,  by  which  part  of  the 
mainland  of  South  America  was  explored. 
In  1501  he  was  sent  by  Portugal  on  an 
exploring  vovage  to  BraziL  He  appears 
to  have  made  four  voyages  to  the  New 
World,  probably  serving  as  astronomer. 
Without  any  initiative  on  his  part,  his 
name  was  applied  by  a  mapmaker  to  the 
lands  visited  by  him,  and  in  time  came 
to  designate  the  whole  continent  He 
died  in  1512. 

Vesta  (^^s'ta),  a  Roman  divinity,  the 
goddess  of  the  hearth.  She  was 
worshiped,  along  with  the  Penates,  at 
every  family  meal,  when  the  household 
assembled  round  the  hearth,  which  was 
in  the  center  of  the  room.  Her  public 
sanctuary  was  in  the  Foram.  and  the 
sacred  fire  was  kept  constantly  burning 
in  it  by  the  vestals,  her  priestesses.  The 
vestals  are  said  to  have  been  established 
by  Numa.  There  were  at  first  four, 
and  afterwards  six  of  them.  They  were 
taken  from  six  to  ten  years  of  age.  They 
were  bound  to  virginity  for  thirty  years, 
the  term  of  their  service,  after  which 
they  were  allowed  to  marry.    Their  per^ 


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Vesta  Veto 

sons    were    inviolable,    and    they    were  pveeent   one,  being  subsequently  altered 

treated  with  great  honor,  and  had  im-  by  Tolcanic  forces  in  the  same  manner 

portant   public    privileges.    The   punish-  as   800   feet   of    the   present   cone    was 

ment  of  a  vestal  who  was  guilty  of  un-  carried   away   by  an   eruption   of   1822. 

chastity  was  burying  alive.  The  first  recorded  symptoms  of  activity 

VAflf  Q    ^  astronomy.     See  A$teraid9*  exhibited  by   Vesuvius  occurred   in  A.D. 

^^^^^f  63.    In  79  a  great  erupUon  buried  in 

VAflfolfl      See  Ve9ia.  ashes  the  Roman  cities  of  Herculaneum 

vesiaiB.  ^nj    Pompeii.    The   next    recorded    dis- 

VftfltniftTltft    (vest'ments),  Saobed,  the  charge  of  ashes  and  lava  was  in  1036. 

¥  cobAucuvo  official  garments  worn  by  Since  then  there  have  been  many  violent 

ministers  of  religion.    The  term  is  also  eruptions,  the  most  noted  of  which  was 

applied     to     the     altar    cloths.    Among  that  of  1631,  when  it  is  estimated  that 

Catholics    and    High    Churchmen,    who  18,000  lives  were  lost    Many  other  se- 

believe  that  Christianity  has  retained  a  vere  eruptions  have  since  taken  place,  a 

special  priesthood  and  ritual,  much  im-  verv   violent   one   in   1872,  and   several 

S>rtance  is  attached  to  vestments.    Sea  within  the  present  century.    A  wire-rope 

iiualism^  also  Chasuble,  Stole,  etc  railway,  traversed  by  one  carriage  going 

Vestrv    (ves'tri),  a  room  adjoining  a  up  while  another  is  coming  down,  was 

▼  ^Dvxjr    church  where  the  vestments  of  opened  in  1880,  and  carries  visitors  to                   ^ 

the   clergy   are   kept.    Hence   the   place  within  a  short  distance  of  the  crater.                       ^1 

of  meeting  of  those  having  the  charge  VefifiTinlA  TroiTifl    trains     of     rail-                ^M 

of  parochial  affairs,  and  collectively  the  ^wtiuuic  xrauiS|  ^^^    ^„                          H 

persons  themselves  to  whom  these  affairs  vided  with  inclosed  and  connected  plat'                ^B 

are  intrusted.     In  England  the  minister,  forms.    The  expedient  of  inclosinff,  or  as                  ^ 

church-wardens,    and    chief    men    of    a  it  has  been   termed,   the  vestibuling  of, 

parish  generally  constitute  a  vestry,  and  car  platforms  for  the  comfort  and  con- 

the  minister,    whether   rector,    vicar,   or  venience   of   passengers   having   occasion 

perpetual   curate,   is  ex-officio  chairman,  to  pass  from  car  to  car  while  a  train  is 

The   powers   of   the   vestry   include   the  in    motion    adds    considerably    to    their 

expenditure    of    the    parish    funds,    the  safety. 

repairing   or   alteration    of   churches   or  VeSZDrini    i^es'prim),     a     town     of 

chapels,  and  the  appointment  of  certain  '^            Western    Hungary,    north 

parish   officers.     In   London   the  vestries  of  Lake  Balaton,  with  a  fine  cathedral, 

are    highly    important    bodies.     In    the  Pop.  14,144. 

Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  Vetcll     ^^^  popular  name  applied   to 

the   vestry   is    a   committee   chosen   an-  '    plants  of  the  genus  FuTio,  mors 

nually  by  the  parish,  which,  in  conjunc-  especially  to  V.  sativa,  the  common  vetch 

tion  with  the  church  wardens,  manages  or  tare.    The  name  is  also  applied,  with 

its  temporal  concerns.  various  epithets,  to  many  otner  legumi- 

Vftfmvillfi     (ve-sQ'vi-us),     a     volcanic  nous  plants  of  different  genera;  as,  the 

T^auTxuo    mountain    of    Southern  horseahoe   vetch,    of    the    genus    Hippo- 

Italy,  10  miles  s.  s.  s.  of  Naples.    It  rises  cripU;  the  mitk-vetch,  of  the  genus  A«- 

in  the  center  of  a  plain  2300  feet  above  tragdlus,  etc.    See  Tare,  Vicia, 

the  sea,  in  a  pyramidal  cone  of  about  VAfAriTiA'nr   Arf    (vet-er-e-nft'ri), the 

1900  feet;  total  height,  over  4200  feet,  ^ '^•''^^Aiittry  .nxt    ^^^     ^^^^     ^^j^ 

liable    to   alteration    at    eruptions.    The  with  the  nature,  causes,  and  treatment 

cone  is  truncated,  and  about  2000  feet  of    the    disorders    of    domestic    animals, 

in    diameter.     Previous    to    an    eruption  The  first  veterinary  school  was  instituted 

about  1838  the  top  was  an  uneven  plane,  in  1762  at  Lyons ;  in  1766  that  at  Alfort 

but   was  then   converted   into   a   hollow  near  Paris  was  opened.    A  similar  insti- 

cup  sloping  to  a  depth  of  500  feet.    A  tution  was  established  at  London  in  1791, 

precipitous  rocky  ridge.  1400  feet  high,  and  in  the  year  following  one  in  Berlin, 

called  Monte  Somma,   lies  to  the  north  In    Edinburgh   instruction   in   veterinary 

of  the  cone,  from  which  it  is  separated  medicine  began  to  be  given  by  Mr.  Dick 

by   a   deep   valley   called   the   Atrio   del  in    1819,   and   in   veterinary   surgery   in 

Cavallo.    At    the    western    extremity    of  1823.     In  the  United   States   veterinary 

this  valley  an  observatory  has  been  estab-  chairs  have  been  added  to  some  of  the 

lished.    The    lower   belt   of    the   sloping  universities,  but  most  of  the  schools  are 

plain  is  about  2  miles  broad;  it  is  laid  private   institutions, 

out    in    vineyards    and    well    cultivated.  Vfeto    (^^'^'*    Latin,   'I   forbid'),   the 

Above  this  belt  the  plain  Is  rugged  and  ^  ^•'^    power  which  one  branch  of  the 

covered   with   scoriae.     Monte   Somma   is  legislature  of  a  countij  has  to  negative 

supposed  to  have  formerly  formed  a  com-  the  resolutions  of  another  branch,  or  the 

plete  cone  of  larger  dimensions  than  the  right  of  the  executive  branch  of  govern- 


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Vcvcy  Vice-president 

mentf  such  as  king,  president,  or  gov-  Vibnmnni  (vi-bar'num),  a  genos  of 
emor,  to  reject  the  bills,  measures,  or  muki.a*iuii  plants,  nat  order  Gapri- 
lesolutions  proposed  by  the  legislature,  foliacese,  including  the  gelder-rose  and 
In  Britain  the  power  of  the  crown  is  laurustine  (which  see),  and  Y,  Lat^ 
confined  to  a  veto,  a  right  of  rejecting  t(kna^  the  wayfaring  tree,  native  of  N. 
and  not  resolving,  and  even  this  right  America,  Europe  and  Asia.  The  young 
is  rarely  exercised,  the  last  occasion  be-  shoots  are  used  in  Germany  for  basket- 
ing in  1707.  In  the  United  States  the  making;  the  wood  is  sometimes  employed 
president  may  veto  all  measures  passed  in  turning  and  cabinet  making;  the  ber- 
by  Ck>ngress,  but  after  that  right  has  ries  are  used  for  making  ink.  and  the 
been  exercised  the  rejected  bill  may  be-  bark  of  the  root  for  making  bird-lime, 
come  law  bv  being  passed  by  two-thirds  VinQr  (vik'&r),  in  a  general  sense,  a 
of  each  of  the  houses  of  Ck>ngre8s.  representative  or  vicegerent.  The 
Vevev  (ve-v*')»  a  town  of  Switzer-  pope  calls  himself  vicar  of  Christ  on 
'^'^/  land,  canton  Vaud,  beautifully  earth.  In  the  Church  of  England  a  vicar 
situated  at  the  n.  e.  margin  of  Lake  is  the  priest  of  a  parish  who  receives 
Geneva,  11  miles  E.  s.  E.  of  Lausanne,  a  only  the  smaller  tithes  or  a  salary.  A 
favorite  place  for  visitors  and  foreign  vicar  apoatolio,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
residents.  Pop.  11,781.  Church,  is  a  bishop  who  possesses  no 
Viadnct    iTl'^-^^t).    See  Bridge  and  diocese,    but    who    exercises    jurisdiction 

UaUicaya.  over  a  certain  district  by  direct  authority 

Viannfl.     (vS-an'A),  a  seaport  of  Portu-  of   the   pope;   vicar  general,    the   official 

gal,  province  of  Minho,  at  the  assistant  of  a  bishop  or  archbishop, 

mouth  of  the  Lima,  40  miles  n.  of  Oporto.  Vice-adiuiral.     ^^  AdtniraL 

VlwiS    i:Lt«f^?tfc.%?rv?n^*  2f  Vice^hanCeUor.     see  C*««ce«or. 

Lucca,  on  the  Mediterranean,  a  favorite  VinA.i«ATifiTi1      See  Consul. 
watenng  place.     Pop.  14,863.  VlCe-COnSUl. 

Viationm  (vl-at1-kum),  lUerally  pro-  Vicenza  i7'5?®°T?V'  *  ^}^7'^.  ^' 
'  *"^   vision    for    a    journey;    in    » *^^**««'    North    Italy,    capital    of    a 

the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  province  of  the  same  name,  49  miles 
eucharist  administered  to  patients  who  west  of  Venice,  beautifuUv  situated  on 
are  so  ill  as  to  be  deemed  beyond  hope  the  Bacchiglione,  where  joined  by  the 
of  recovery.  Retrone  at  the  foot  of  some  wooded  hills. 

Viatka  (^^tnci),  Vyatka.  a  town  It  is  well  built,  containing  handsome 
of  Russia,  capital  or  the  gov-  streets  and  several  elegant  squares.  The 
emment  of  same  name,  on  the  Viatka,  500  public  buildings  are  almost  all  the  work 
miles  s.  N.  E.  of  Moscow.  It  has  a  ca-  of  Palladio,  who  was  bom  here,  or  of 
thedral,  some  manufactures,  and  a  large  scholars  who  rather  slavishly  imitated 
trade.  Pop.  15,776. —  The  government  him.  The  most  remarkable  ^ifices  are 
has  an  area  of  59,172  square  miles,  the  Duomo  or  cathedral;  the  Palazzo 
and  a  pop.  of  3,082,788.  The  sur-  della  Ragione  (town-hall),  an  ancient 
face  is  much  broken  by  low  hills,  and  Gothic  building,  with  fine  connected 
large  tracts  are  under  wood  and  natural  buildings  by  Palladio;  the  Museum,  one 
pasture.  The  soil  yields  good  crops  of  of  Palladio's  finest  buildings;  the 
corn,  flax  and  hemp.  The  drainage  be-  Palazzo-Prefitizzio,  and  the  theater,  both 
longs  to  the  basin  of  the  Volga.  by    Palladio;    the    Academy   of    Sciences 

Viborff  (vfi'borg),  a  town  of  Den-  and  Arts,  founded  in  1550;  Ivceum, 
o  mark,  on  the  lake  of  Viborg,  churches  and  hospitals.  Pop.  (1914) 
86  miles  n.  w.  of  Aarhus.  It  is  a  bishop  s  50,296. — The  province  has  an  area  of  1050 
see,  and  has  a  good  cathedral ;  and  manu-  sq.  miles ;  pop.  450,000. 
f act u res  of  linen,  tobacco,  etc.  Pop.  Vinprnv  (vls'rof),  the  governor  of  a 
8623.  viucruy  ^^j^^^^j^     ^^     country,     who 

Vi^bor?    or  WiBOBO,  a  seaport  of  Fin-   rules  in  the  name  of  the  monarch  with 

o>   land,    capital    of    a    govern-   regal  authority  as  his  substitute, 
ment  of  the  same  name,  on  a  deep  inlet  VinA-nrAsi^ATif    an  executive  official 
of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  74  miles  n.  w.    ^  ^^^  prcsiucut,  ^^  ^^^  United  States 
of  St  Petersburg.     It  has  an  active  ex-  government,     who     ordinarily     presides 
port  trade.     Pop.  estimated  31,000.  over  the  Senate,  voting  only  in  case  of 

Vibrio  (vJ'bri-O),  a  name  of  certain  a  tie  vote  in  that  body;  but  who  suc- 
infusoria  or  microscopic  organ-  ceeds  to  the  office  of  President  in  case 
isms,  sometimes  called  microscopic  eeU,  of  the  death  or  disability  of  the  elected 
and  now  often  regarded  as  bacteria,  or  president.  On  several  occasions  the  vice- 
of  fungoid  nature,  Tiresident  has  succeeded  to  the  presidency. 


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Vichy 


Victor  Emmanuel  II 


He  is  elected  with  and  in  the  same  way 
as  the  president,  the  person  receiving  the 
highest  number  of  electoral  votes  for  the 
vice-presidency  obtaining  the  office,  if  this 
number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  body 
of  electors.  If  not,  then  the  Senate  is 
empowered  to  choose  a  Vice-President 
from  the  two  receiving  the  most  votes. 
In  this  case  a  majority  vote  in  the  Sen- 
ate, if  a  quorum  of  two-thirds  is  present, 
will  suffice  for  the  election. 
VipTiv  (ve-she),  a  town  of  France,  in 
¥  xviijr  t)jg  department  of  the  AUier,  in 
a  valley  of  the  river  of  that  name,  32 
miles  s.  s.  e.  of  Moulins.  It  was  once 
a  place  of  strength,  and  is  celebrated  for 
its  thermal  alkaline  sprmgs.  The  Vichy 
waters  are  in  much  request  for  disorders 
of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  of  the 
urinary  organs,  in  gout,  rheumatism,  etc 
Much  of  the  water  is  sent  out  in  bottles. 
Pop.   (1906)    14,520. 

Vicia  (vis'i-a),  the  vetch  genus  of 
w  xvxa  plants,  which,  besides  the  vetches, 
inclades  also  the  F.  Faba  or  common  field 
bean.     See  Vetch, 

Vicksbnrcr  tf>»>.r«).  »  city  of 

o  Mississippi,  county  seat 
of  Warren  Co.,  situated  on  the  Missis- 
sippi and  Yazoo  Rivers,  400  miles  above 
New  Orleans.  It  is  a  port  of  entry  and 
the  most  important  commercial  city  of 
the  State.  Vicksburg  has  an  extensive 
trade  in  cotton  and  is  the  business  center 
of  a  large  district.  Its  industries  em- 
brace railroad  car  works,  iron  foundries, 
oil  mills,  saw-mills,  wagon,  broom,  mat- 
tress, furniture  and  ice  factories,  etc. 
During  the  Civil  War  this  place  was 
strongly  fortified  by  the  Confederates. 
After  a  long  siege  it  was  surrendered  to 
Grant,  Julv  4.  1863.  Pop.  20,814. 
Vico  .(v6^^^6),  Giovanni  Battista,  a 
jurist,  critic,  and  historian,  was 
bom  at  Naples  in  1668,  was  educated 
by  the  Jesuits,  and  studied  law.  In 
1697  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  the  University  of  Naples, 
and  in  1735  historiographer-royal.  His 
Principi  d'una  Scienza  Nuova  d*intorno 
alia  Commune  Natura  delle  Nazioni 
(1725)  has  caused  him  to  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  philosophy 
of  history.  He  also  wrote  De  antiquis- 
8ima  Italorum  Sapientia  and  other  works. 
Vico  died  at  Naples,  January  20,  1744. 

Victor  Amadeus  H,  J>„»>^\„«/  i^; 

king  of  Sardinia,  was  born  in  166G;  died 
in  1732.  He  joined  the  Austrians  in 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  and 
at  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1713)  he  ob- 
tained the  addition  of  Sicily  to  his 
dominions.  In  1720  he  gave  up  that 
island  to  the  Austrians  in  exchange  for 


Sardinia^  and  then  took  the  title  of  King 
of  Sardinia.  He  abdicated  in  favor  of 
his  son,  Charles  Emmanuel  IIL  in  1730. 

Victor  Emmaimel  U  1^^^°^^^ 

uele),  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  Albert, 
king  of  Sardinia,  was  born  at  Turin, 
March  14,  1820.  His  aptitude  for  a  mili- 
tary career  became  evident  when  he  com- 
manded the  Savoy  brigades  against 
Austria  (1848-49),  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  battle  of  Goito  by  his 
reckless  valor.  After  the  battle  of 
Novara  (March  23,  1849)  his  father 
abdicated*  and  Victor  Emmanuel  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Sardinia.  He  had 
then  to  negotiate  with  Austria  under 
most  unfavorable  circumstances,  but  he 


Victor  Emmanuel. 

steadily  refused  to  give  up  the  princi- 
ple of  representative  government  in  the 
Sardinian  constitution,  and  this  gained 
for  him  the  name  of  honest  king  (re 
galantuomo)  and  the  good-will  of  the 
Italian  people.  This  latter  was  only 
gained,  however,  after  much  calumny  and 
misunderstanding,  but  the  young  king 
pursued  from  the  first  a  policy  which  led 
to  the  national  unity  of  Italy.  Under 
the  advice  of  his  celebrated  minister, 
Cavour,  he  regulated  the  finances,  re- 
organized the  army,  and  secularized  the 
church  property,  for  which  he  was  ex- 
communicated by  the  pope.  He  took 
part  in  the  Crimean  war,  and  in  1859, 
assisted  by  France,  renewed  the  contest 
with  Austria,  taking  part  in  the  battles 
of  Magenta  (June  4)  and  Solferino 
(June  24).  By  the  Treaty  of  Villa- 
franca  and  the  Peace  of  ZOrich  which 
followed  these  successes,  Lombardy  was 
added  to  his  dominions,  but  he  had  to 
cede  Savoy  and  Nice  to  France.  Parma, 
Modena  and  Tuscany  now  became  united 


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Victoria 


Victoria 


to  Sardinia,  and  Garibaldi's  successes  in 
Sicily  and  Naples  brought  the  whole  of 
Sonthem  Italy  over  to  victor  Bmmanuel. 
On  March  17,  1861,  he  assumed  the  title 
of  King  of  Italy,  and  early  in  1865 
Florence  became  the  royal  residence.  By 
the  Peace  of  Vienna  (1866)  Austria 
ceded  Venetia,  and  on  the  withdrawal 
of  the  French  garrison  from  Rome  in 
1870  that  city  annexed  itself  to  Italy, 
of  which  it  was  made  the  capitaL  The 
king  entered  Rome  on  July  2,  1871,  and 
took  up  his  residence  in  the  Quirinal. 
He  died  January  9.  1878,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Humbert. 
VinfArin  (vik-td'ri-a),  a  British  od- 
VlCXOna  ^^^y  in  the  southeast  of  Aus- 
tralia,  bounded  K.  by  New  South  Wales, 
8.  E.  by  the  Pacific,  8.  by  Bass  Strait 
and  the  Southern  Ocean,  and  w.  by 
South  Australia;  area,  87,884  square 
miles.  It  has  about  600  geographical 
miles  of  sea-coast,  with  considerable  bays 
and  indentations,  especially  about  the 
middle,  where  Port  Phillip  Bay,  with  an 
area  of  875  square  miles  and  an  entrance 
barely  2  miles  wide,  affords  shelter  suf- 
ficient for  the  largest  fleet  The  interior, 
thouffh  diversified  by  mountains,  is 
chiefly  distinguished  by  yast  unwooded 
plains  mostly  occupied  as  pasture. 
There  is  one  principal  mountain  range, 
a  portion  of  the  Great  Dividing  Range 
of  Eastern  Australia,  running  from  east 
to  west  through  the  colony,  with  various 
off-shoots.  Its  highest  peak  is  Mount 
Bogong,  of  6500  feet  elevation.  It  is  di- 
vided into  separate  ranges  called  the 
Grampians  and  the  Australian  Alps, 
which  are  connected  by  such  ranges  as 
the  Pyrenees  and  Hume  Range,  contain- 
ing numerous  cones  and  extinct  craters, 
and  composed  of  metamorphic  rocks  of 
granite,  quartz,  syenite,  etc  This  is 
the  region  of  the  goldfields.  The  rivers 
are  numerous,  but  are  generally  small 
and  dry  up  in  summer,  leaving  the  coun- 
try parched.  The  chief  is  the  Murray, 
which  rises  in  the  Australian  Alps,  forms 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  colony  for 
980  miles,  is  in  all  1300  miles  long,  and 
is  navigable  for  several  hundred  miles. 
The  climate  of  Victoria  is  temperate,  but 
liable  to  sudden  fluctuation;  and  hot 
winds  blow  at  intervals  from  November 
to  February,  causing  great  discomfort 
The  hottest  period  Is  in  January  and 
February,  when  the  thermometer  may 
rise  to  108*  in  the  shade.  For  the  chief 
animal  and  vegetable  products  native  to 
the  colony  see  Australia.  Some  of  the 
common  English  quadrupeds  and  birds 
have  been  introduced,  such  as  hares,  rab- 
bits, deer,  pheasants,  partridges,  larks, 
stc.»  and  are  now  becoming  quite  plenti- 


fuL  Rabbits  have  become  so  numerous 
in  some  districts  as  to  prove  a  serious 
nuisance  and  source  of  loss  to  the  planters. 
Victoria  is  the  principal  gold-producing 
colony  of  Australia,  the  yield  amounting 
in  value  to  about  $15,000,000  annually. 
The  total  yield  since  the  discovery  of 
gold  in  1851  has  been  about  $1,500,000,- 
000.  Tin,  antimony,  copper  and  coal  are 
also  among  the  minerals  worked.  Agri- 
culture has  much  improved  of  late  years, 
wheat  and  oats  being  the  two  cereals 
chiefly  cultivated.  The  great  staple  of 
the  colony,  however,  is  wool,  the  annual 
wool  clip  yielding  nearly  $20,000,000. 
The  estimated  number  of  sheep  ap- 
proaches 15^000,000  and  of  cattle  nearly 
22,000,000.  The  vine  is  extensively  cultf- 
yated,  and  the  wines  are  becoming  well 
known  in  Europe.  Many  kinds  of  fruits 
are  grown,  also  tobacco,  hops,  etc  Vic- 
toria is  divided  into  the  four  districts  of 
Gipps  Land^  the  Murray,  Wimmera  and 
Loddon,  which  are  subdivided  into  thirty- 
seven  counties.  The  government  is  in- 
yested  in  a  governor  appointed  by  the 
crown,  aided  by  an  executive  ministry 
consisting  of  twelve  members,  and  a 
parliament  consisting  of  a  legislative 
council  of  forty-eight  members  elected  for 
fourteen  provinces,  and  a  legislative  as- 
sembly or  ninety-five  members  for  eighty- 
four  districts.  On  Januanr  1,  1901,  it 
became  one  of  the  states  of  the  common- 
wealth of  Australia.  Victoria  was  first 
colonized  from  Tasmania  in  1834.  It 
made  rapid  progress,  especially  in  sheep 
breeding,  and  the  discovery  of  gold  in 
1851  caused  a  rush  of  population  from 
all  parts.  Hitherto  it  had  been  known 
as  Port  Phillip,  and  formed  part  of  New 
South  Wales,  but  in  this  vear  (independ- 
ently of  the  gold  discovery)  it  was  erected 
into  a  separate  colony  under  the  name 
of  Victoria.  In  1850  the  population 
numbered  76,162;  in  1854  it  was  812,- 
307.  In  1856  responsible  government 
was  conferred  on  the  colony.  The  chief 
towns  are  Melbourne  (the  capital).  Gee- 
long,  Ballarat  and  Sandhurst  The 
population  was  estimated  in  1911  as 
1350,000,  including  nearly  10,000  Chi- 
nese,  and  several  hundred  aborigines. 
VirfATifl  capital  of  British  Colum- 
ViUl^uriliy  bia,  is  situated  on  Van- 
couver Island,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  in  very  beauti- 
ful scenery.  The  public  buildings  in- 
clude the  Parliament  house,  government 
offices,  provincial  museum  and  library, 
city  hall,  etc.,  while  in  the  environs  are 
many  attractive  villas,  surrounded  by 
beautiful  gardens.  The  manufacturing 
interests  Include  powder  works,  potteries, 
coaling,  lumber    and  brewing  industries, 


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Victoria 


Victoria  Nyanza 


and  large  fish-canning  establishments. 
It  is  also  engaged  in  boat  building.  The 
harbor  of  Victoria  for  lai^e  vessels  is 
at  Esqulmault,  3  miles  distant,  where 
there  is  a  station  of  the  British  navy. 
Pop.  31,660. 
Victoria.     S^  Hong-Kong, 

Victoria  T  (Alexandbina),  Queen 
VlClona  X  ^^  q^^^  Britain  and  Ire- 
land and  Empress  of  India,  only  child  of 
Edward,  duke  of  Kent,  and  of  his  wife 
Princess  Victoria  Mary  Louisa,  was  bom 
at  Kensington  Palace,  May  24.  1819. 
Her  father  died  January  23,  1820,  and 
she  became  heiress-presumptive  to  the 
crown  on  the  accession  of  William  IV 
in  1830.  The  latter  dying  without  issue 
(June  20,  1837),  she  ascended  the  throne 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  that  of 
Hanover  falling  by  the  Salic  law  to  her 
uncle,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  She 
was  crowned  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
June  28,  1838,  and  on  Feb.  10,  1840. 
married  her  cousin,  Prince  Albert  of 
Saze-Goburg-Gotha,  who  died  December 
14,  1861.    In  1876  she  assumed  the  title 


was  so  marked  by  literary  progress  and 
political  and  industrial  development  that 
it  is  spoken  of  appreciatively  as  the  Vic- 
torian era,  as  a  counterpart  of  the 
Elizabethan  era.     She  died  Jan.  22,  1901. 

Victoria  Cross,  ?  British  military 
V  xw  uvi  xc*  vrx  voa,    decoration    i  n  s  t  i  - 

tuted  at  the  close  of  the  Crimean  war  in 
1856.  It  is  granted  to  soldiers  and 
sailors     of     any  . 

rank   for  a  sin-      I I_ 

ffle  act  of  valor  f^f^^^S^^^ 
m  presence  of  '■  ^^^'^^s^^  •  — » 
the  enemy.  It 
was  instituted 
in  imitation  of 
the  French  cross 
of  the  Legion 
of  Honor.  It  is 
a  Maltese  cross, 
with  a  royal 
crown  in  the 
center,  sur- 
mounted  by  a 
lion„  and  the 
words  *  For 
Valour 'indented 
on  a  scroll  be- 
low   the    crown. 


Victoria  Oroii. 


Queen  Victoria. 


of  Empress  of  India.  Her  children  were 
nine  in  number,  of  whom  the  eldest,  Vic- 
toria, became  empress  of  Germany,  and 
the  second,  Albert  Edward,  succeeded  her 
on  the  throne,  as  Edward  VII.  A  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  Victorian  era  was  the 
rapid  development  and  extension  of  the 
British  colonies.  Of  the  warlike  events 
of  her  reign  the  most  important  were 
those  of  the  Crimea  and  South  Africa 
and  the  rebellion  in  India.    Her  period 


The  ribbon  is  red  for  the  army,  and  blue 
for  the  navy.  A  pension  of  £10  a  year 
accompanies  the  decoration.  Since  the 
foundation  upwards  of  400  officers  and 
men  have  been  recipients  of  this  honor. 

Victoria  FaUs,  SaiSbSrVhic'h 

see),  in  lat  17*  55'  s..  Ion.  26'*  32r  k.  The 
river  here,  nearly  a  mile  broad,  drops  330 
feet  into  a  narrow  transverse  fissure  or 
crack  crossing  its  course,  the  water  then 

Massing  away  in  a  narrow  rocky  gorge, 
'hey  vie  with  Niagara  Falls  in  grandeur 
and  surpass  them  In  height.  These  falls 
were  discovered  by  Livingstone  in  1866. 
The  gorge  above  the  falls  is  now  crossed 
by  a  single-span  railway  bridge,  the  most 
elevated  structure  of  its  kmd  in  the 
world,  the  rails  standing  420  feet  above 
the  water. 

Victoria  Harbor.   ^^  Lahuan. 
Victoria  Land,  South  Victoria, 

the  name  given  that  portion  of  the  sup- 
posed Antarctic  continent  which  bounds 
Ross  Sea  on  the  west.  It  is  mountain- 
ous in  character,  and  contains  the  two 
volcanoes  Erebus  and  Terror.  South- 
ward it  extends  from  Cape  Adare  to  a 
lofty  plateau  of  wide  extent. 

Victoria  Nyanza,  i,;f4%2^„t'^ 

miles  inland  from  the  Indian  Ocean, 
crossed  near  its  north  end  by  the  equator, 
about  3800  feet  above  the  sea ;  area,  about 


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Victoria  Eegia 


Vienna 


26,000  square  miles,  or  nearly  as  large 
as  Scotland.  It  communicates  with  the 
Albert  Nyanza  by  means  of  the  Victoria 
Nile,  and  is  the  principal  feeder  of  the 
Nile,  It  contains  many  islands,  some  of 
them  of  considerable  size.  The  Ripon 
Falls,  about  1200  feet  across,  mark  the 
discharge  of  the  Nile  from  the  lake.  It 
was  discovered  by  Captain  Speke  in 
1858.  The  area  of  the  lake  is  almost 
equally  divided  between  British  and 
German  East  Africa.  Its  most  impor- 
tant tributary  is  the  Kagera,  now  looked 
upon  as  the  head-stream  of  the  Nile. 

Victoria  Beeia,  ^^^  "^^^l  8^»?°  *^ 

w  AwvvAAw  M»^^xc»9  ^  magnificent  wa- 
ter lily,  first  found  in  the  river  Berbice, 
in  British  Guiana,  in  1837,  by  Sir 
Robert  Schomburgk.  It  belongs  to  the 
nat.    order    of    Nymphseacese,    and    was 


tive,  bom  at  Arras  in  1771.  He  began 
his  career  as  a  thief,  and  was  suc- 
cessively soldier,  deserter,  gambler,  and 
vagabond,  being  often  imprisoned  for  his 
offenses.  He  entered  the  police  service 
as  a  detective  in  1810,  his  success  in  this 
vocation  being  so  great  as  to  give  him  a 
wide  reputation.  He  died  in  1850,  leav- 
ing a  history  of  his  exploits,  which  is 
not  considered  truthful. 
Vi PT1  Ti II.  ( v§  -  en  '  n4 ;  German,  Wien) , 
liifsuuu,  capital  of  the  Austro-Hun- 
garian  Empire,  is  situated  in  a  plain  on 
the  right  bank  of  t^e  Danube,  and  is 
intersected  by  a  narrow  arm  of  the  river 
into  which  fall  the  Wien  and  other  small 
streams.  The  city  proper  is  surrounded 
with  a  rampart  and  ditch,  called  the 
Lines,  and  consists  of  the  Innere  Stadt, 
or  old  town,  and  the  municipal  districts 


Street  in  Vienna. 


dedicated  by  the  discoverer  to  Queen 
Victoria.  The  leaves  measure  5  or  6  feet 
across;  they  are  of  a  bright  green  above 
and  a  deep  violet  on  the  lower  surface, 
with  a  uniformly  turned-up  margin  about 
3  inches  hi^h.  The  flowers  are  more  than 
1  foot  in  diameter,  are  of  all  shades  from 
white  to  pink,  and  exhale  an  agreeable 
odor.  The  plant  is  successfully  culti- 
vated in  the  United  States. 
Vienna  (vi-lK]p'y&)f  a  ruminant  ani- 
mal  {Auchenia  vicugna) , 
closely  allied  to  the  llama.  It  is  a 
native  of  South  America,  frequenting  the 
lofty  slopes  of  the  Andes  of  Chile,  etc., 
near  the  region  of  perpetual  snow,  and 
somewhat  resembles  the  chamois  in  its 
habits.     See  Llama, 

Vidoca     ^  ^^ "  ^^^  ^  ♦     Eugene    Fran- 
^*^    QOiB,  a  famous  French  detec- 


of  Leopoldstadt,  the  chief  commercial 
district :  Landstrasse,  the  official  district ; 
Mariahilf,  Neubau,  and  Margaretben, 
manufacturing  districts;  Alser^rund, 
containing  large  general  and  military 
hospitals;  and  the  residential  districts  of 
Wieden,  Josefstadt,  and  Favoriten,  besides 
extensive  suburbs.  The  old  town  is  still 
the  court  and  fashionable  quarter  of  the 
city,  and  is  encircled  by  the  Ringstrasse, 
a  handsome  boulevard,  55  yards  wide. 
Vienna  is  on  the  whole  a  handsome,  well- 
built  town,  with  fine  squares  and 
straight  and  spacious  streets.  The 
Prater,  a  public  park  on  the  bank  of  the 
Danube,  is  about  4  miles  long  and  2 
broad,  and  is  considered  the  finest  public 
park  in  Europe.  Of  the  churches  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  Domkirche,  or 
cathedral,   of   St.   Stephen,   a   crucifonn 


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Googk 


Vienna 


Vienna 


Gothic  structure,  with  a  maiu  tower  453 
feet  high.  The  interior  is  adorned  with 
numerous  statues  and  monuments,  and 
the  tower  contains  a  bell  of  18  tons 
weight.  The  Capuchin  church  contains 
the  imperial  burying  vaults;  the  Votiv- 
kirche    (1856-79)    is   one   of   the   finest 


St.  Stephens,  Yiemia. 

specimens  of  modem  Gothic  The  im- 
perial palace  (Kaiserliche  Burg)  is  a 
poor  though  ancient  structure;  the  im- 
perial summer  residence,  Sch5nbrunn,  is 
about  2  miles  from  the  city.  The 
modern    palaces   of    the   archdukes   and 


others  of  the  nobility  are,  many  of  themi 
handsome  buildings.  Deserving  of  spe- 
cial mention  are  the  houses  of  parlia- 
ment, the  magnificent  Gothic  town-house 
(1872-83),  the  courts  of  justice,  the 
museums  of  art  and  of  natural  history, 
and  the  exchange.  The  university  was 
founded  in  1237,  and  reorganized  by 
Maria  Theresa.  It  has  some  350  teach- 
ers. 6000  students,  and  a  library  of  340,- 
00()  vols.  Other  notable  public  buildings 
are  the  Joseph inum  (an  academy  for 
army  surgeons),  the  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tute, and  the  Seminar! um,  a  Roman 
Catholic  institute  for  the  training  of 
priests.  There  are  also  Hungarian  and 
Protestant  theological  institutes,  an  acad- 
emy of  fine  arts,  a  conservatoire  of 
music,  several  public  libraries  and  mu- 
seums, and  a  number  of  gymnasia  and 
schools.  The  imperial  library  contains 
900,000  volumes  and  25,000  MSS.  The 
imperial  museum  of  natural  history  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  Europe.  The  Treas- 
ury, among  other  imperial  treasures,  con- 
tains the  regalia  of  Charlemagne.  There 
are  many  hospitals  and  other  benevolent 
institutions,  and  the  scientific  and  liter- 
ary associations  are  too  numerous  to 
mention.  The  principal  theaters  are  the 
Hofburg  and  the  Stadt  theaters,  and  the 
fine  Opera  house.  Vienna  is  the  first 
manufacturing  town  in  the  empire,  and 
its  manufactures  include  cotton  and  silk 
goods,  leather,  porcelain,  arms,  hardware, 
and  man^  other  articles.  There  is  also 
a  large  inland  trade.  Vienna  appears 
to  have  been  a  Roman  station  in  the 
first  century.  It  was  afterwards  in- 
cluded in  Upper  Pannonia,  and  called 
V  Tubotirt.  After  being  taken  by  Attila, 
f  47(0,  and  by  Charlemagne,  about 
.  it  became  the  capital  of  the  margra- 
■  ^  of  Austria  in  1142,  a  free  im- 
V' rial  city  \n  1237;  it  was  besieged  by 
Suitiin  Solyman  in  1529,  and  by  Kara 
Miji^taphn  in  1683,  was  occupied  by  Napo- 
iiiPii,  November  13,  1805,  and  May  12, 
1809;  the  old  walls  were  demolished  in 
1860.  It  is  now  the  center  of  a  great 
railway  system,  and  the  regulation  and 
deepening  of  the  Danube  is  expected  to 
make  it  the  center  of  the  shipping  trade 
between  eastern  and  western  Europe. 
Pop.  (1911)  2,004,291. 
Vienna  Congress  of.  This  congress 
w  x\iiLiM,ny  ^^g  assembled  on  November 
1,  1814,  to  reorganize  the  political  sys- 
tem of  Europe  after  the  first  overthrow 
of  Napoleon.  The  principal  powers  rep- 
resented in  it  were  Austria,  Russiat 
Prussia,  England,  and  France.  Spain, 
Portugal,  Sweden,  and  other  minor 
powers  were  also  consulted  on  matters 
more     nearly     concerning     them.    Xh« 


i 


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Yienne 


Viga 


leadinf  territorial  adjuftmentt  effected 
by  the  congrees  were  the  following  >— 
Austria  recovered  Lombards  and  Ye- 
netia,  while  Tuecany  and  Modena  were 
conferred  on  collateral  branches  of  the 
imperial  house.  The  King  of  Sardinia 
recovered  Piedmont  and  Savoy,  with  the 
addition  of  Genoa.  Murat  retained  Na- 
ples, but  the  Bourbons  were  soon  rein- 
stated. Holland  and  Belgium  were 
erected  into  a  kingdom  for  William  I, 
Prince  of  Orange.  Hanover,  with  the 
title  of  king,  was  returned  to  the  King 
of  England,  and  Great  Britain  retained 
Malta,  Heligoland,  and  several  con- 
quered colonies.  A  federative  constitu- 
tion, with  a  diet  at  Frankfort,  was  es- 
tablished for  Germany.  Prussia  re- 
ceived the  duchy  of  Posen,  the  Rhine 
province,  and  a  part  of  Saxony.  Russia 
received  the  greater  part  of  the  ipand- 
dnchy  at  Warsaw,  Cracow  becoming  a 
free  state,  protected  by  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia.  Sweden  retained  Norway, 
and  Denmark  was  indemnified  with  Lau- 
enburg.  The  congress  was  suddenly 
broken  up  by  Napoleon's  escape  from 
Elba  (February,  1815)  ;  but  its  acts 
were  signed  by  the  powers  interested  on 
June  9,  1815. 

Vienne  i'^^ol' r'UJ^Tre.'^KS 

square  miles.  The  surface  is  generally 
fiat;  it  is  well  watered  by  the  Vienne 
and  the  Creuse.  Three-fifths  of  the  sur- 
face is  arable,  and  all  kinds  of  cereals, 
maize,  hemp,  and  indifferent  wines  are 
produced.  Iron  is  abundant,  and  there 
are  excellent  quarries  of  marble,  granite, 
millstones,  whetstones,  lithographic  stones, 
and  limestone.  The  manufactures  con- 
sist of  woolens,  lace,  cutlery,  paper,  pig- 
iron,  etc  The  capital  is  Poitiers.  Pop. 
336343.—  Haute- VIENNE  (  Ot-v«-enn ; 
'Upper  Vienne')  is  a  hilly  department 
adjoining  Vienne  on  the  southeast;  area, 
2130  sq.  miles.  Almost  the  whole  de- 
partment belon^^s  to  the  basin  of  the 
Loire,  and  it  is  crossed  by  the  upper 
course  of  the  Vienne.  The  principal 
crops  are  buckwheat,  rye,  beans  and 
peas;  and  horses,  mules  and  swine  of  a 
superior  breed  are  reared.  Minerals  in- 
clude iron,  copper,  tin,  lead,  coal,  anti- 
mony and  kaolin.  Porcelain,  woolen  and 
other  tissues,  paper  and  leather  are  the 
chief  manufactures.  Limoges  is  the  cap- 
ital. The  Limoges  chinaware  ranks  with 
the  finest  made.     Pop.    (1906)   333,021. 

ViATiTiA  &  town  of  France,  depart- 
V  icuuc,   jjjgjjj.  ^j  j^j,^   ^^  ^g  Rhone, 

41)  miles  n.  n.  w.  of  Grenoble.  It  is  an 
ancient  place,  with  narrow  dark  streets. 
It  has  a  cathedral,  a  museum,  public 
llbraryi    college,    etc    Vienne    contains 


namarons  Roman  remains,  and  figures 
prominently  in  ecclesiastical  history,  and 
was  the  capital  of  the  Burgundian  king- 
dom.   Pop.  24,619. 

ViATOPTi  (fSr'i^n),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Vicrscu  Pr^^i^  district  of  DOssel- 
dorf,  18  miles  w.  of  town  of  that  name, 
and  10  miles  s.  w.  of  Crefeld.  It  has 
important  manufactures  of  satin,  plush, 
silk,  woolen,  linen,  and  cotton  fabrics; 
leather,  tobacco,  etc    Pop.  27,577. 

Yierwaldstattersee.  l^^^^/f^"^ 

ViPrsjATi  (vyllr-»6p),  a  French  town. 
Vierzon  department  of  Cher,  124 
miles  8.  of  Paris.  It  has  manufactures 
of  machinery,  porcelain,  glass,  etc»  and 
a  technical  school.  Pop.  11,812. 
Vio^iraTiA  (vi-jft'vA-n6),  a  town  of 
Vl^Vano  n^iy  province  of  Pavia, 
on  the  Mora,  15  miles  s.  8.  E.  of  Novara. 
It  is  a  bishop's  see,  and  has  manufactures 
of  silks,  hats,  soap  and  macaroni.  Pop. 
18,0^ 

Vi^^fiftOn  (vig'fas-sun),  Gudbrand^ 
Vl^USBOn  ^  Scandinavian  scholar, 
bom  in  Iceland  in  1827;  died  at  Oxford 
in  1889.  He  was  educated  first  at  the 
high  school  of  Reikiayik,  afterwards  at 
Copenhagen  University.  He  lived  in 
Copenhagen  from  1849  till  1864,  having 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  old  Ice- 
landic literature.  His  first  work,  Tima- 
ialf  on  the  chronology  of  the  SagoBt 
was  published  in  1855,  and  revealed  the 
hand  of  a  master.  In  1858  he  brought 
out  the  Bitkupa  85gur,  or  *  Lives  of  the 
Icelandic  Bishops,'  and  in  1864  the  Epr- 
hy^gja  Saga,  In  the  latter  vear  he  came 
to  England  to  undertake  the  Icelandic- 
English  Lexicon,  begun  by  Cleasby,  and 
in  1866  began  at  Oxford  this  work,  which 
kept  him  engaged  for  seven  years,  the 
result  being  the  excellent  dictionary  is- 
sued from  the  Clarendon  Press.  In  1878 
the  Clarendon  Press  published  his  Stur- 
lunga  8aga,  to  which  he  prefixed  Pro- 
leaomena,  containing  a  complete  history 
of  the  classic  literature  of  Iceland.  This 
was  followed  by  several  minor  works  and 
essays,  by  the  Orkneyinga  Saga  and 
Hahonar  aaga,  and  by  the  Corpui  Poeti- 
cum  Boreale  (in  conjunction  with  F. 
York  Powell),  a  complete  collection  of 
the  ancient  Icelandic  poetry,  with  trans- 
lation. At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
engaged  upon  a  work  entitled  Originet 
Islandiw, 

Vicil  (^*i'>'l  I-at^^  <^V»^»  watchful), 
o  an  ecclesiastical  term  applied  at 
first  to  the  evening,  and  afterwards  to 
the  whole  day,  preceding  a  great  festival. 
This  name  originated  from  the  circum- 
stance that  the  early  Christians  spent  a 
part  of  the  night  preceding  such  festivala 


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Vigilance  Committee 


Viking 


in  prayers,  to  prepare  themselves  for  the 
coming  celebration. 

Vigilance  Committee,  '^.Z'^l 

citizens  formed  at  times  in  parts  of  the 
United  States  for  the  purpose  of  pun- 
ishing and  discouraging  crimes  with 
which  the  authorities  had  failed  to  deal 
with  sufficient  vigor.  An  example  of 
this  is  the  uprising  of  such  a  committee 


In  1885  appeared  his  celebrated  drama 
Chatterton.  He  also  wrote  SteUo 
(1832)  ;  Servitude  et  Grandeur  MUi- 
iairee  (1835)  ;  and  Lee  Desiiniea,  a 
philosophical  poem  published  after  his 
death  in  1864. 

Vifi*0    (^^'C(^)»   ^  ci^   ^^^   seaport  of 

o^   Northwestern  Spain,  province  of 

Pontevedra,    <m   a   spacious   bay.     It    is 

surrounded  by  walls  with  bastions,  and 


I 


in  earlv  San  Francisco  to  deal  with 
criminals  who  defied  the  law.  Lynch 
law  is  summary  justice  (or  injustice) 
applied  by  such  committees.  Thougn 
usually  arising  under  stress  of  great 
provocation,  such  organizations  are  apt 
to  develop  into  an  evil,  which  in  its  turn 
needs  suppression. 

Viffnv  v^n-yg),  Alfred  Viotob, 
'  6  «/  Count  de,  a  French  poet  and 
novelist,  bom  in  1799,  entered  the  royal 
guard  in  1816,  but  retired  from  military 
service  in  1828,  and  devoted  himself  ex- 
clusively to  literature.  He  died  in  Paris 
in  18^.  His  PoHnea  (1822)  and  his 
allegory  of  Eloa,  ou  la  Sosur  dee  Angee, 
placed  him  among  the  leaders  of  the 
new  romantic  school  of  poets.  In  1826 
he  published  Po^ee  Antiquee  et  Mod- 
emee,  and  also  an  historical  novel,  Cinq' 
Mar$9   which   attracted   much   attention. 


has  steep,  narrow,  and  tortuous  streets. 
The  fishing  of  sardines  and  tunnies  is 
important,  and  there  is  an  active  foreign 
trade.    Pop.  23.259. 

Vi1riTi0>  (viring;  from  the  Icelandic 
vuuu^  !?♦*,  a  bay  or  fiord,  and  the 
termination  ing,  implying  one  who  be- 
longs to  or  is  descended  from:  literally 
one  who  lurked  in  bays  and  issued  thence 
to  plunder),  a  rover  or  sea-robber  belong- 
ing to  one  of  the  bands  of  Northmen 
who  scoured  the  European  seas  during 
the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  centuries. 
This  word  has  been  frequentlv  confounded 
with  eea-king,  a  term  which  is  applied 
to  a  man  of  royal  race,  who  toox  by 
right  the  title  of  king  when  he  assumed 
the  command  of  men,  although  only  of 
a  ship's  crew;  whereas  the  former  term 
is  applicable  to  any  member  of  the  rover 
bands.    See  Northmen, 


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Vilas  yiUein 

Vilas     WiiJJAM    F.,    statesman,    bom  and  was  bom  at  Moulins  in  1653.    He 

vxxoo)    at    Chelsea,    Massachusetts,    in  early    distinguished    himself    under    Tu- 

1840;   died  Aug.  27,   1908.     He  became  renne,  Cond^,  and  Luxembourg,  and  was 

a  colonel   in   the  Civil   war,   was  after-  created  mar^chal  de  canip  in  1690,  and 

wards     prominent     in     the     Democratic  lieutenant-general  in  1693.     In  the  wars 

Sarty,  and  was  postmaster  general  1885-  of   the   Spanish   succession   he  was  sent 

9,  and  secretary  of  the  interior  in  1889.  to  co5perate  with  the  Elector  of  Bavaria. 

He  was  United  States  senator  1891-97.  He  defeated   Prince  Louis  of  Baden  at 

Vilavet    (vil-a-yet'),  a  name  officially  Friedlingen,  October  14,  1702,  for  which 

wxxa«jrcb    uppii^    gin^»^    13^5    ^q    the  he  received  the  marshal's  baton ;  and  ha v- 

large  administrative  districts  of  Turkey,  ing  joined   the  elector,   he   defeated   the 

Vl1lA-AlfR     (vil'yA-ai'tA),   a   town    of  Prince  of  Baden  at  HOchstadt,  Sept  21, 

▼  ±xxa  axbo.    i^exijjQ^   gtate   of   Oajaca,  1703.     His  success  in  dealing  with  the  in- 

in  a  fruitful  region  producing  coffee,  to-  surrection  of  the  Camisards   (see  Cami- 

bacco,  etc.     Pop.  5000.  sards  and  Cavalier,  Jean)    obtained  for 

Villach    (vil'AA),  an  old  and  pictur-  him  the  title  of  duke   (1705).     Having 

esquely  situated  town  of  Aus-  been  sent  to  defend  the  frontier  against 

tria,  on   the  Drave,  with   warm  sulphur  Marlborough,    he    forced    the    formidable 

baths  in   the  neighborhood.     It  has   Im-  lines  of  Stollhofen,  near  Strasburg,  and 

portant  industries.     Pop.  9690.  penetrated    far    into    Germany     (1705- 

Villafranfta   (vei'lA-frftn'kA),  a  town  1707).     In  1709  he  replaced  VendOme  in 

viiiaiiituua  Q^     i^^jy^     province     of  Flanders,  and  fought  the  battle  of  Mal- 

Verona,  on  the  Tartaro.     It  is  celebrated  plaquet  against  Marlborough  and  Eugene, 

as  having  been  the  center  of  the  wars  of  in  which  he  was  seriously  wounded.     In 

1848    and    1866.     The    preliminaries    of  1712  he  defeated   the  allies  at   Denain, 

peace    between    Napoleon    III    and    the  took  Marchiennes,  and  relieved  Landrecy. 

Emperor   of   Austria   were   signed    here,  After  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  he  <^posed 

July  11,  1859.     Pop.  5037.  Eugene  with  uninterrupted  success,  and 

Villaee  Communities,  *  ^^^  ^f  ??*^^j?^»5^  J^4J5  ^*S  ^^^  Peac«  <>'  Rastadt, 

wAAA<»5v  \/vAUAxxuuAVA^O|  political  March  7.  1714.  On  the  renewal  of  the 
and  industrial  organization  claimed  to  war  with  Austria,  in  1733,  he  was  sent 
have  widely  prevailed  in  early  times,  to  Italy  at  the  head  of  an  army,  with  the 
and  which  has  left  its  traces  to  the  title  of  Marshal-general  of  France.  After 
present  time.  Those  organizations  seem  a  successful  campaign,  he  died  at  Turin 
to  have  been  common  among  the  tribes    in  1734. 

of  the  Aryan  family  of  mankind,  and  VillAfro-nnliA  (v$l-fr&9sh),  a  town 
they  still  exist  in  the  villages  of  Russia  ▼^^ciniuuliC  ^^  France,  depart- 
and  India,  while  evidences  of  their  former  ment  Aveyron,  at  the  junction  of  the 
existence   are   found    in    other   localities.    Alzou  with  the  Aveyron.     Pop.  6297. 

w  .?^V^  ^®H!!"  ^^""i  ^  -A^"^^  ?^  l*?f  Villefranchc-siir-Sadne    ^:^V 

built  their  huts,  and  laid  out  fields  ^  ^^^^^^^v**^  01**  wmvu^  sOn),a 
which  they  cultivated  in  common  as  one  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
great  family.  Every  few  years  the  land  Rhone,  on  the  SaOne,  20  miles  N.  w.  of 
surrounding  the  village  was  divided  into  Lyons.  Pop.  14,794. 
family  lots,  while  beyond  these  lots  was  Villelia.rdo'llin  (vil-Ar-^lJ-ap).  G»OF- 
a  larger  area  used  in  common  for  pastur-  ^  *"^'»*«**"'Vuj.xi  yroy  de,  a  French 
age  or  other  j^urposes.  The  Russian  historian,  bom  about  1160,  died  about 
Jitr,  or  village,  is  a  significant  example  1213.  He  took  an  important  part  in  the 
of  this  interesting  phase  of  civilization,  fourth  crusade,  was  present  at  the  siege 
The  government  is  in  the  hands  of  an  and  capture  of  Constantinople,  and  when 
elected  council  of  village  elders  and  a  the  Greek  emperor  was  overthrown  and 
headman  acting  as  chief  of  the  council.  Baldwin  established  in  his  stead,  he  re- 
VillaiOVOSa  (vil-yA-AO-yO'sA),  a  sea-  ceived  an  extensive  territory  for  himself 
V  UmMj V J  voo.  p^j^  q£  Spain,  province  in  Thrace.  His  Histoire  de  la  Con- 
Alicante,  in  the  Mediterranean.  Pop.  quite  de  Constantinople,  is  one  of  the 
8902.  most    valuable    historical    works    of    the 

Villarreal  (vSl-yAr-ra-ar),  a  town  of  middle  ages. 

Spain,  province  Castillon,  Villein  (vil'en),  a  species  of  feudal 
4  miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  in  an  ***^***  seHa  who  were  allowed  to 
orange  growing  district.  It  is  sur-  hold  portions  of  land  at  the  will  of  their 
rounded  by  old  walls.     Pop.  16,068.  lord,  on  condition  of  performing  menial 

Villa.r8    (^iJ"^'')»  CJlaude  Louis  Heo-  and  non-military  services.     It  frequently 
TOB,  Due  DE,  one  of  the  great-    happened    that    lands   held    in   villeinage 
est  generals  of  the  age  of  Louis   XIV,   descended     in     uninterrupted     snccession 
was  the  son  of  the  Marquis  de  Villars,   from  father  to  son,  antil  at  length  the 


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ViUcncnvc  Vimy  Bidge 

occupiers  or  villeins  became  entitled,  by  sqnare  miles  and  a  ponulation  of  l,501r 
prescription  or  custom,  to  bold  their  112.  The  surface  is  generally  flat,  and 
lands  so  long  as  they  performed  the  re-  the  government  produces  good  crops  of 
quired  services.  And  although  the  vil-  grain,  hemp,  and  flax.  Manufactures  and 
leins  themselves  acquired  freedom,  or  trade  are  limited.  The  town  of  Vilna 
their  land  came  into  the  possession  of  dates  back  to  the  10th  century.  It  was 
freemen,  the  villein  services  were  still  the  capital  of  Lithuania  in  1320,  and  was 
the  condition  of  the  tenure,  according  to  united  with  Poland  in  1447.  It  is  re- 
the  custom  of  the  manor.  These  cus-  ported  to  have  had  a  printing  press  as 
toms  were  preserved  and  evidenced  by  the  early  as  1519.  Armies  have  devastated  it 
rolls  of  the  several  courts-baron,  in  which  many  times.  It  was  almost  obliterated  in 
they  were  entered,  or  kept  on  foot  by  the  the  Ilusso-Polish  wars.  It  was  captured  by 
constant  immemorial  usage  of  the  several  the  Russians  in  1655  and  ceded  to  Russia 
manors  in  which  the  lands  lay.  And  as  in  1656.  The  Swedes  occupied  it  in  1702 
such  tenants  had  nothing  to  show  for  and  in  1706.  The  Russians  again  took 
their  estates  but  the  entries  into  those  possession  in  1788  and  it  was  finally  an- 
rolls,  or  copies  of  them  authenticated  by  nexed  to  Russia  in  1705,  after  the  parti- 
the  steward,  they  at  last  came  to  be  tion  of  Poland.  In  the  great  European 
called  tenants  by  copy  of  court-roll,  and  war  the  Teutonic  forces  fought  their  way 
their  tenure  a  copyhold,  to  Vilna  in  1015.  The  evacuation  by  the 
Vill ATI ATiifA  ( v€l  -  neiiv ) ,  P I E  B  B  E  Russians  occurred  on  September  19. 
vixiciiCUYC  ^^Bi^g  i^^  B^.  yjjneiro  (vi-ma'i-r&),  a  village  of 
TiSTE  SiLVESTBB  DE,  a  French  admiral,  *'^***^**«*  Portuguese  Estremadura,  3 
bom  in  1763,  entered  the  navy  in  1777.  miles  from  Torres  Vedras.  It  is  remark- 
He  led  the  rear  division  at  the  battle  able  for  the  battle  between  Wellington 
of  the  Nil^  and  escaped  with  his  own  and  Junot,  fought  on  August  21,  1808, 
and  four  other  ships  to  Malta.  In  1804  which  was  followed  by  the  Convention  of 
he  was  made  vice-admiral,  and  in  1805  Cintra  (August  30). 
Napoleon  appointed  him  to  the  command  Virnv  Bldfire  Battle  of.  The 
of  the  Toulon  squadron,  with  orders  to  :  ^  -^^^w,  ^^^  ^^^  named  is 
divert  the  British  fleet  from  the  Eu-  the  last  elevation  in  the  range  of  chalk 
ropean  coasts.  He  was  eventually  shut  hills  which  extend  from  the  North  Sea  to 
up  in  Cadiz  by  Nelson,  but  with  the  hope  Arras.  It  has  two  prolonged  summits,  the 
of  repairing  his  ill  success  by  a  brilliant  northern  one  named  La  Folie,  from  a  for- 
victonr  he  sailed  out  of  Cadiz,  along  with  ^ler  farm  on  its  side;  the  southern  one 
the  Spanish  fleet  under  Gravina,  and  called  Telegraph  HilL  as  the  seat  of  an 
offered  the  enemy  battle  off  Cape  Trafal-  old  semaphore  post,  it  was  laid  open  to 
gar  (which  see).  Villeneuve's  flagship,  attack  as  a  result  of  the  battle  of  the 
the  Buoentaure,  was  captured,  and  the  Somme  (g.  i?.).  As  the  Germans  retired 
admiral  taken  as  prisoner  to  England,  after  the  assault  on  the  Somme  this  de- 
In  April,  1806,  he  was  released  and  re-  vation  offered  them  a  post  of  great  nat- 
tumed  to  France,  but  learning  that  his  oral  strength  and  they  prepared  to  hold  it 
reception  by  the  emperor  would  be  un-  at  all  costs,  planting  a  strong  force  in 
favorable,  he  committed  suicide.  the  fortifications  along  its  crest  and  sides. 
TT-ii  fK^  TtomA  ^f  a  n.,»,K^.  lo  the  autumn  of  1916  a  force  of  Cana- 
VllleneUVe,  *of  °  iu„wnRfnF?fn^/  ^ans  under  Sir  JuHan  Byng  was  moved 
.         ■  of  small  towns  m  France,  ^^  t^is  front  and  remained  there  during 

.      .  ^  -   -         ^^ 


i 


/  ,#  jt  V  M  prelude  to  the  battle  was  a  bombardment 
Vllllfl..  2.^  WiLNA  (vfilna),  a  town  of  of  great  vigor,  guns  thundering  continu- 
>  Russia,  capital  of  the  govern-  ously  against  the  height,  whUe  a  fleet  of 
ment  of  the  same  name,  aa  the  Villa.  It  aircraft  moved  to  and  fro  above  the 
is  picturesquely  situated,  and  contains  trenches,  directing  the  fire  of  the  artillery 
numerous  churches  and  convents.  It  has  and  driving  off  German  idrplanes. 
a  governor's  palace,  a  town-house,  Greek  By  the  time  fixed  for  the  assault,  at 
and  Roman  Catholic  cathedrals,  and  the  end  of  the  first  week  of  ApriL  hardly 
numerous  educational  establishments,  a  foot  of  land  remained  on  the  ridge  not 
There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  agricul-  torn  by  shellfire.  The  time  fixed  for  the 
tural  produce  sent  to  Baltic  ports,  assault  was  the  hour  of  5.80  in  the  mom- 
Pop.  10^,000.— The  government,  which  ing.  Rain  was  falling  heavily  and  the 
lies  m  the  Baltic,  has  an  area  of  16,406  ground  was  a  bed  of  mud.    The  distano* 

i8  lo 


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Vimy  Bidge 


Vinci, 


) 


to  the  hilltop  varied  from  1200  yards  to  a 
mile.  As  the  Canadians  advanced,  under 
the  protection  of  a  barrage  of  shellfire, 
they  were  subjected  to  a  tierce  bombard- 
ment, chiefly  of  machine  guns»  on  the  ex- 
treme left.  But  they  were  not  to  be 
checked,  and  in  a  half  hour  they  had 
reached  and  won  the  front  line  trenches 
in  the  center  of  La  Folie  ridge.  Many  of 
the  Germans  were  ready  and  eager  to  sur- 
render, as  for  a  number  of  days  their  food 
supply  had  been  cut  off  by  the  intense 
artillery  fire.  By  nightfall  the  crest  of 
Telegraph  Hill  had  also  been  won,  the 
only  point  still  held  by  the  Germans  being 
HiU  145,  where  a  strong  resistance  was 
kept  up  by  machine  guns.  When  the 
morning  of  April  10  broke,  the  rain  of 
the  preceding  day  had  changed  to  snow, 
which  swept  over  the  ridge  in  a  driving 
storm.  But  the  daring  Canadians  were 
not  to  be  held  back,  and  in  a  short  time 
HiU  145  was  in  their  hands.  Still  an- 
other hill  here  confronted  them,  an  eleva- 
tion which  they  had  given  the  name  of 
'The  Pimple.'  This  was  held  bv  a  body 
of  the  Prussian  Guard,  and  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  12th,  the  time  fixed  for  the  as- 
sault, the  courageous  Canadians,  who  had 
defeated  a  strong  German  counter-attack 
on  the  previous  day,  made  a  vigorous  dash 
upon  this  final  stronghold.  A  driving 
snow-storm  was  raging,  the  slopes  of  the 
Pimple  were  deep  in  mud,  but  the  Cana- 
dians hurled  themselves  forward  and  won 
their  way  to  the  trenches,  where  a  hand- 
to-hand  fight  went  on.  The  assault  kept 
up  for  nearly  an  hour,  at  the  end  of  which 
the  Pimple  was  won  and  its  garrison  dead 
or  prisoners. 

By  nightfall  the  Canadian  line  had  ex- 
tended till  it  reached  beyond  the  Vimy- 
Arras  Railway,  while  Vimy,  Petit  Vimy 
and  several  other  villages  had  been  taken. 
In  their  forward  movement  the  cavalry, 
which  had  so  little  to  do  in  this  struggle, 
played  its  first  active  part,  riding  far  in 
advance  of  the  infantrv,  and  capturing 
villages  and  gun  positions  as  it  went. 
The  retreat  of  the  Germans  from  this 
fierce  assault  was  in  no  sense  a  matter  of 
strategy.  They  were  driven  back  with 
such  impetuosity  that  they  had  no  time 
to  remove  their  guns,  many  of  them  being 
left  behind  uninjured,  while  a  large  supply 
of  ammunition  was  abandoned.  The 
final  act  in  the  battle  of  Vimy  Ridge  was 
the  dashing  capture  of  Arleux  by  the 
Canadians.  The  victory,  as  a  whole,  is 
claimed  as  the  most  important  won  by  the 
Allies  to  that  date,  and,  in  the  words  of 
Belloc,  *  the  greatest  operation  in  the  mili- 
tary history  of  England.'  However  this 
estimate  be  reearded,  the  Canadians  won 
glory    for   their   native    land,    the   chief 


among  the  British  colonies.  What  had 
been  called  *  the  hinge  of  the  Hindenburg 
line '  was  in  their  hands,  and  a  door  had 
been  opened  to  the  plains  surrounding 
Doust.  From  the  Vim^r  Ridge  the  British 
dominated  Lens,  the  important  coal  re- 
gions that  surround  it,  and  the  valley  of 
the  Scarpe.  In  this  week  of  battle  the 
Canadians  captured  4081  prisoners,  63 
guns  of  all  calibres,  124  machine  guns 
and  104  trench  mortars,  while  their  cas- 
ualties barely  equalled  the  number  of 
prisoners  taken. 

VinneTiTies  (va^-senn),  a  town  of 
V  mcennes  prance,  department  of  Uie 
Seine,  about  2  miles  east  of  Paris.  Its 
large  old  castie  was  once  the  residence  of 
the  French  kings,  but  was  converted  into 
a  State  prison  by  Louih  XI.    Pop.  29,791. 

Vincennes  ilL-Ti^'o"  ^*Ji~"5i! 

diana,  on  the  Wabash  River,  58  miles 
8.  by  w.  of  Terre  Haute.  The  river  is 
navigable  to  this  point.  Manufactures 
include  flour,  lumber,  staves,  glass,  paper, 
tools,  furniture,  steel  sashes  and  doors, 
steel  bridge,  farm  implements,  sewer  pipe, 
etc.  There  are  coal  mines,  oil  and  gas 
wells  in  the  vicinity,  and  a  shipping  trade 
in  grain  and  catUe.  Pop.  143^. 
VinnpTif  (vin'sent),  John  Jervis. 
Yinceni  Eabl  or  St.,  a  distinguish^ 
British  naval  commander,  bom  at  Mea- 
ford,  Staffordshire,  in  1734.  He  entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  commanded 
the  Foudroyant  in  the  action  between 
Admiral  Keppel  and  the  French  fleet  in 
July,  1778.  In  1794  he  commanded  a 
squadron  in  the  West  Indies,  and  re- 
duced Martinique,  Guadeloupe,  and  St. 
Lucia.  On  the  14th  of  February,  1797, 
in  command  of  the  Mediterranean  squad- 
ron of  fifteen  sail,  he  defeated  twenty- 
seven  Spanish  ships  of  the  line  off  Cape 
St.  Vincent,  and  was  created  a  peer  with 
the  titie  of  Baron  Jervis  and  Earl  of  St. 
Vincent,  and  a  pension  of  £3000  a  year. 
In  1799  he  became  admiral ;  in  1801  first 
lord  of  the  admindtv;  and  in  1821  ad- 
miral of  the  fleet.  He  died  in  1823. 
ViTinpTif  St..  one  of  the  British  West 
vmueui,  India  Islands.  See  8t  Vin- 
cent. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  H  yf^^J";^ 

Vinci  (vin'ch^s),  Lbonardo  da,  one  of 
the  greatest  Italian  painters, 
also  distinguished  as  a  sculptor,  architect, 
and  civil  and  military  engineer,  a 
scientific  inventor,  and  a  man  of  uni- 
versal genius,  was  the  natural  son  of 
Pietro  da  Vinci,  a  Florentine  notary,  and 
was  bom  at  tne  village  of  Vinci,  near 
Florence,  in  1452.  He  excelled  in  nil 
accomplishments,  and  acquired  distinction 


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Vinci  Vine 

in  mathematics,  pbiysics,  botany,  anatomy,  have  availed  themselves.  In  1797  some 
literature,  and  philosophy;  but  he  espe-  frannents  of  Da  Vinci's  were  published 
dally  excelled  in  the  arts  of  design,  and  at  Paris  under  the  title  of  Essai  $ur  les 
his  father  placed  him  in  the  studio  of  Ouvrageg  Phyiico-MaiMmaiiqueg  de 
Andrea  Verocchio,  a  celebrated  pamter  Leonard  da  Vincif  etc.,  which  created  a 
and  sculptor,  who  was  soon  surpassed  by  profound  sensation  by  their  scientific  in- 
his  pupil.  Two  of  his  earlier  productions  sight  and  anticipation  of  modem  dis- 
are  still  extant:  The  Adoration  of  the  coveries.  Da  Vinci's  paintings  were  the 
Magi,  in  the  gallery  of  the  Ufl^i  at  result  of  profound  theoretical  study  of 
Florence,  and  The  Virgin  of  the  Roche  his  art;  fie  executed  slowly,  and  was 
in  the  British  National  Gallery.  About  seldom  satisfied  with  his  finish  of  a  pic- 
1482  he  entered  the  service  of  Ludovico  ture,  so  high  was  his  ideaL  His  knowl- 
il  Moro,  duke  of  Milan,  by  whom  he  was  edge  of  anatomv  was  deep.  He  made  a 
employed  in  engineering  as  well  as  special  study  of  the  human  countenance 
artistic  work.  His  great  painting  of  the  under  all  circumstances.  His  extant 
Lord*e  Supper  was  finished  in  1499.  The  works  are  few,  and  some  of  those  at- 
original  has  been  wholly  defaced,  but  tributed  to  him  are  believed  to  have  been 
judginff  from  copies  and  engravings,  this  executed  by  his  pupils, 
work  Is  universally  regarded  as  one  of  Vindhva  MonntfllnS  (vind'hya), 
the  greatest  ever  produced.    One  of  the    •  ***^***,7«' -^^  •***"«•***•»    a   mountain 

range  in  India,  stretching  east  to  west 
from  the  basin  of  the  Ganges  to  Guzerat 
It  forms  the  N.  boundary  of  the  valley  of 
the  Nerbudda,  and  unites  the  north  ex- 
tremities of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Ghauts.  It  is  of  granitic  formation, 
overlaid  with  sandstone. 
Vine  (.^^)»  &  well-known  climbing 
^  shrub,  type  of  the  order  Vitaceee, 
which  consists  of  climbing  plants  with 
woody  stems,  simple  or  compound  leaves, 
peduncles  sometimes  changed  into  ten- 
drils, small  green  flowers,  and  round 
berries.  The  species  are  found  in  both 
the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  especially  in 
Asia.  The  best  known  and  most  useful 
of  the  order  is  the  Vitia  vinifira,  the 
grapevine,  cultivated  in  the  Old  World 
Leonardo  da  Vinci.  from    time   immemorial,   of   which   there 

are  numerous  varieties,  distinguished  by 
best  copies  is  that  in  the  Royal  Academy,  possessing  lobed  sinuately-toothed,  naked 
London,  by  his  pupil,  Marco  d'  Oggi-  or  downv  leaves.  It  is  a  native  of  Cen- 
onno.  After  the  occupation  of  Milan  by  tral  Asia,  and  its  cultivation  extends 
Louis  XII  (1499)  he  retired  to  Florence,  from  near  SS"*  north  latitude  to  the 
where  he  painted  his  celebrated  portrait  equator,  but  in  south  latitude  it  only  ex- 
of  Mona  Liea  del  Giocondo,  known  as  La  tends  to  about  40^.  It  is  rarely  grown 
(hoconda,  in  the  Louvre  (from  which  it  at  a  greater  altitude  than  3000  feet, 
has  recently  been  stolen).  In  1502  he  France  is  probably  the  greatest  vine- 
was  appointed  chief  engineer  and  archi-  growing  country  in  the  world,  though  its 
tect  of  the  pope's  army,  and  visited  many  cultivaticm  is  active  in  several  other 
of  the  fortified  posts  in  the  papal  do-  countries  of  Europe.  Several  species  of 
minions.  In  1607  he  returned  to  Milan,  vine  are  indigenous  in  North  America, 
and  painted  a  Madonna  and  ChUd  in  the  as  the  Vitie  Lahrueoa,  the  wild  vine  or 

Ealace  of  the  Melzi  at  Vaprio.  In  1512  fox-grape ;  F.  cordifolia  or  riparia,  heart- 
e  jpalnted  two  portraits  of  Duke  Maxi-  leaved  vine,  river-side  vine,  or  frost- 
milian,  son  of  Ludovico,  and  in  1516  ac-  grape;  and  V.  cutivdlia,  the  summer 
companied  Francis  I  to  France.  He  died  grape.  About  1771  a  European  vine  was 
at  Cloux,  near  Amboise,  May  2,  1519.  introduced  on  the  Pacific  slope,  and  the 
Leonardo  executed  several  important  en-  culture  has  increased  to  great  dimensions, 
gineering  works  at  Milan,  and  wrote  especiallv  in  California.  In  other  parts 
numerous  treatises^  few  of  which  have  of  the  United  States,  however,  the  native 
been  published.  His  Trattato  della  Pit-  American  species  are  chiefly  cultivated, 
tura  was  printed  in  1651,  and  contains  and  a  number  of  excellent  varieties  have 
a  mass  of  information  on  the  principles  been  produced,  both  for  table  and  wine 
of  art,  of  which  all  subsequent  writers  purposes.    The  vine  has  also  been  hitro- 


i 


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Vinegar 


Vinland 


duced  into  Australia,  where  it  thrives 
well,  and  Quantities  of  wine  are  pro- 
duced. The  vine  grows  in  every  sort  of 
soil,  but  that  which  is  light  and  gravelly 
is  best  suited  for  the  production  of  fine 
wines.  It  is  a  long-lived  plant;  indeed, 
in  suitable  climates  the  period  of  its 
duration  is  not  known.  It  is  propagated 
from  seeds,  layers,  cuttings,  graftings,  and 
by  inoculation,  the  first  method  being  used 
for  obtaining  new  varieties.  Some  vines 
produce  dark-colored  berries  (black  or 
red  so  called),  others  white.  The  Bur- 
gundy may  be  considered  the  most  gen- 
eral vineyard  grape  of  France,  and  the 
best  wines  in  Italy  and  Spain  are  also 
made  from  grapes  of  this  description. 
The  sweet  wines  are  made  from  sweet- 
berried  grapes  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
plants  till  overripe.  Most  varieties  of 
the  vine  bear  only  once  in  the  season, 
some  oftener,  especially  in  warm  cli- 
mates. In  recent  times  the  vine  has 
been  subject  to  a  disease  caused  by  the 

frowth  of  a  fungus  known  as  Otdium, 
t  appeared  about  1845,  and  gradually 
spread  over  Southern  Europe.  Its  rav- 
ages abated  about  1863,  but  the  vine  has 
since  been  attacked  by  a  still  more  de- 
structive disease  produced  by  an  insect 
called  the  Phytlowera  (which  see). 
Grapes  are  extensively  used  in  the  dry 
state  under  the  name  of  raisins,  chiefly 
imported  from  Spain  and  the  Levant,  and 
now  largely  produced  in  California.  The 
dried  currants  of  commerce  are  tho 
produce  of  the  small  seedless  Corinthian 
grape  which  is  cultivated  in  Greece  and 
m  many  of  the  Greek  Islands.  The  vine 
is  mentioned  in  the  most  ancient  his- 
torical records,  and  the  grape  has  been 
in  use  for  the  making  of  wine  for  more 
than  4000  years.  The  Phoenicians  intro- 
duced the  vine  into  Europe.  Vineyards 
are  mentioned  in  Domesday  Book  as  ex- 
isting in  England,  but  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  II  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
began  to  be  neglected.  For  the  manu- 
facture of  wines  see  Wine, 
ViTiPcrar  (vin'e-gar),  the  name  given 
viuc^ui   j^  ^jijy^g  ^jj^  impure  acetic 

acid  (which  see),  obtained  by  the  vinous 
fermentation.  In  wine  countries  it  is 
obtained  from  the  acetous  fermentation 
of  inferior  wines,  but  elsewhere  it  is 
usuffUy  procured  from  an  infusion  of 
malt  which  has  previously  undergone  the 
vinous  fermentation.  Vinegar  may  also 
be  obtained  from  strong  beer,  by  the 
fermentation  of  various  fruits,  or  of  a 
solution  of  sugar  mixed  with  yeast;  in 
short,  all  liquids  which  are  capable  of 
the  vinous  fermentation  may  be  made  to 
produce  vinegar.  The  cider  of  apples, 
tQr  example^  is   largely  converted  into 


vinegar.  Vinegars  yield  by  distillation 
a  purer  and  somewhat  weaker  acetic  acid, 
called  diatiUed  vinegar.  Wood  vinegar 
is  an  impure  acetic  acid  obtained  by  the 
distillation  of  wood;  called  also  Pyrolig- 
neous  acid.  Common  and  distilled  vine- 
gar are  used  in  phannacy  for  preparing 
many  remedies,  and  externally  in  medi- 
cine, in  the  form  of  lotions.  The  use  of 
vinegar  as  a  condiment  is  universaL 
ViTiAcyo'r.AAl  &n  animal  so  called 
Txuc^iur-cei^  ^^^  .^  eel-like  shape. 

but  in  fact  a  minute  thread-worm  or 
Nematode  which  is  found  in  paste,  vine- 
gar stagnant  water,  and  in .  fermenting 
and  decaying  substances.  Its  body  is  al- 
most transparent,  though  with  thick  cu- 
ticle, and  it  multiplies  with  great  rapidity. 

Vinegar-plant,  It^f^enUu)^: 

fflaucunit  a  fungus  found  on  decaying 
substances,  and  in  fluids  in  a  state  of 
acetification.  It  forms  a  flocculent  mass, 
which  is  tough  and  crust-like  or  leathery. 
A  small  piece  of  this  when  immersed  in 
a  mixture  of  sugar  or  treacle  and  water 
produces  a  rather  insipid  kind  of  vinegar. 
VitiaIcitiiI  a  borough  in  Cumberland 
VXUeiaua,    ^^^     yr^^  Jersev,  34  mUes 

8.  by  E.  of  Philadelphia.  Glass,  boots, 
shoes,  clothing,  grape  juice  and  wine  are 

Sroduced,  and  there  is  a  large  poultry 
idustrv.  A  Training  School  and  State 
Home  for  Feeble-minded  are  located  here. 
Pop.  5282. 

Vinet  (▼i'^A)*  Alexandre  Rodolphe, 
a  Swiss  theologian  and  writer, 
bom  at  Lausanne  in  1797 ;  died  in  1847. 
In  1817  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
the  French  languaj^e  and  hterature  at 
the  Basel  Gymnasium,  in  1835  at  the 
Basel  University,  and  in  1837  accepted 
the  chair  of  theology  in  the  academy  at 
Lausanne.  In  1840  he  seceded  from  the 
national  church,  maintaining  that  there 
should  be  no  connection  between  (jhurch 
and  State.  His  views  on  this  subject 
were  enforced  in  his  Eaaai  $ur  la  Jfani- 
feataiion  dea  ConvictioM  reHgieuaea^ 
et  aur  la  Separation  de  VEgliae  de  VEtat 
(1842).  In  1815  he  gave  up  his  chair. 
He  was  an  earnest  and  eloquent  preacher, 
and  wrote  Hiatoire  de  la  LtttSraiure 
Francaiae,  au  XVIIl^  Siide;  Etudes  aur 
la  Litt6rature  Frangaiae  du  XlXs 
Sidcle^  etc. 

Vinland  (vin'land),  the  name  giver 
VUUana  ^^  ^^^  settlement  madS  bj 
the  early  Norsemen  on  the  North  Amer* 
ican  coast,  probably  that  of  New  Eng- 
land, though  its  location  is  questioned, 
about  1000  A.D.  So  called  from  the  vines 
they  found  growing,  the  name  signifying 
*Wineland.'  The  settlement  existed  for 
about  ten  years. 


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Viol 


Viper 


Viol  (^'^l)>  ^  ^^^^'^  ^^  ancient  musical 
^^  instruments  wliicli  may  be  re- 
garded as  tlie  precursors  of  the  modem 
violins.  They  were  fretted  instruments 
with  three  to  six  strings,  and  were  played 
on  with  a  bow.  There  were  three  instru- 
ments differing  in  pitch  in  a  set,  the 
treble,  tenor»  and  bass  viols,  and  in  con- 
certs they  were  commonly  played  in 
pairs:  two  treble,  two  tenor,  and  two 
bass.  The  bass  viol,  or  viol  de  aamhOf 
was  the  last  to  fall  into  disuse,  which  it 
did  about  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 
Viola.     ®®®  yioUn  and  Violet. 

ViolaCCSB.    SeeFtofe*. 

Violet  (vl'ti-let;  Vidla),  the  popular 
WXVXV2V  name  given  to  the  species  of 
the  nat.  order  Violacen,  which  are  favor- 
ite flowers  in  all  northern  and  temperate 
climates,  and  many  of  them  among  the 
first  to  make  their  appearance  in  the 
spring.  The  corolla  is  composed  of  five 
unequal  petals;  the  roots  are  mostly 
perennial;  the  leaves  are  alternate  and 
stipulated;  and  the  flowers  are  peduncu- 
late. More  than  a  hundred  species  are 
known.  The  greatest  favorites  are 
Viola  odorAtOf  or  common  sweet  violet, 
and  V,  tricolor^  or  heart*s-ease,  the  former 
being  especially  esteemed  for  its  fra- 
grance. The  well-known  pansies,  so  com- 
mon as  garden  flowers,  are  but  varie- 
ties of  V.  tricolor  produced  by  cultivation. 
ViftlAf  one  of  the  colors.  See  Color, 
YXUiei.,  Spectrum,  etc. 
Violet-wood.    ®^  King-wood. 

VinliTi  <vl'u-lin),  a  musical  instru- 
viuuu  ^^^^  consisting  of  four  cat- 
gut strings,  the  lowest  of  which  is 
covered  with  silvered  copper  wire, 
stretched  by  means  of  a  1> ridge  over  a 
hollow  wooden  body,  and  played  with  a 
bow.  It  is  considered  the  most  perfect 
of  musical  instruments,  on  account  of 
its  capabilities  of  fine  tone  and  expres- 
sion, and  of  producing  all  the  tones  in 
any  scale  in  perfect  tune.  It  forms  with 
its  cognates,  the  viola,  violoncello  or  bass 
violin,  and  double-bass,  the  main  element 
of  all  orchestras.  The  principal  parts 
of  the  violin  are  the  tcroll  or  head,  in 
which  are  placed  the  pins  for  tuning  the 
strings;  the  necK  which  connects  the 
scroll  with  the  body,  and  to  which  is 
attached  the  finger-board,  upon  which  the 
strings  are  stopped  by  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  as  it  holds  the  neck  in  playing; 
the  helly,  over  which  the  strings  are 
stretched,  and  which  has  two  /-shaped 
sound  holes,  one  on  each  side;  the  bach 
or  under  side;  the  mdu  or  r%b9^  uniting 


the  back  and  belly;  the  taU-piece,  to 
which  the  strings  are  fastened;  and  the 
bridge*  The  back,  neck,  and  sides  are 
generally  of  sycamore,  the  belly  of  deal, 
the  finger-board  and  tail-piece  of  ebony. 
Almost  all  the  different  pieces  are  fas- 
tened together  with  glue.  The  four 
strings  of  the  violin  are  tuned  at  in- 
tervals of  fifths.  G,  on  the  upper  space 
of  the  bass  staff,  D,  A,  E,  reckoning  up- 
wards. Every  intermediate  semitone  in 
its  ordinary  compass  of  Sj  octaves  may 
be  produced  by  stopping  the  strings  with 
the  finjKers  and  the  compass  may  be  al- 
most indefinitely  extended  upwards  by 
the  harmonics  produced  by  touching  the 
strings  lightly.  The  viola,  or  tenor 
violin,  has  four  strings  tuned  G  (in  the 
second  space  of  the  bass  staff),  D,  A,  O, 
reckoning  upwards,  and  is  an  octave 
higher  than  the  violoncello  and  a  fifth 
lower  than  the  violin.  (See  Violoncello 
and  Contraba9$o,)  The  violin  can,  to  a 
limited  extent,  be  made  to  produce  har- 
mony by  sounding  two  or  three  strings 
together.  The  finest  violins  are  by  old 
makers,  which  cannot  be  imitated,  and 
the  precise  cause  of  their  superiority  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  explained.  The 
Cremona  violins  stand  in  the  first  rank, 
the  celebrated  maker  being  the  Stradivari 
(Straduarius),  Amati,  and  Guarneri 
(Guamerius)  ;  of  German  makers  the 
most  celebrated  are  Stainer  or  Steiner 
and  Klotz;  Vuillaume  of  the  French, 
and  Forrest  of  the  English. 
Violoncello  ^  vl-u-lon-sero,  or  chel'd) , 
^  a  powerful  and  express- 
ive bow  instrument  of  the  violin  kind, 
held  by  the  performer  between  the  knees, 
and  filling  a  place  between  the  violin  and 
double-bass.  It  has  four  strings,  the  two 
lowest  covered  with  silver  wire.  It  is 
tuned  in  fifths,  O  (on  the  second  ledger- 
line  below  the  bass  staff),  G,  D,  A, 
reckoning  upwards,  and  is  an  octave 
lower  than  the  viola  or  tenor  violin. 
Its  ordinary  compass  from  C  on  the  sec- 
ond ledger-line  below  extends  to  A  on 
the  second  space  of  the  treble,  but  soloists 
frequently  play  an  octave  higher. 

a  name  ap- 
plied to  va- 
rious V  e  n  o  - 
mous  serpents 
belonging  to 
the    family 

Viperidffi,  sub-  _ 

order      Viper-     Head  and  Tail  of  Common 
ina,  and  char-         viper  {Pelia9  6#n«#). 
acterized,  like 

other  members  of  that  section,  by  having 
no  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw  save  the  two 


i 


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Virchow 


Virgil 


) 


hollow  poison-fangs.  The  common  viper 
or  adder  (Pelias  Herua  or  Vipira  com- 
munis) ^  the  only  venomous  serpent  which 
occurs  in  Britain,  appears  to  be  very 
local  in  its  distribution.  It  is  generally 
of  a  brownish-yellow  color,  with  zigzag 
markings  and  black  triangular  spots.  Its 
bite  is,  as  a  rule,  not  fatal,  but  may 
induce  pain,  sickness,  and  fever.  The 
food  consists  of  frogs,  mice,  birds,  eggs, 
etc.  The  viper  is  viviparous  —  retain- 
ing its  eggs  within  the  body  till  the 
young  are  hatched.  Among  other  ser- 
pents denominated  vipers  are  the  death 
viper  or  adder  (AcanthdphiM  antarctica) 
or  Australia;  the  horned  viper  or  asp 
(Certutes  Hasselquistii)  and  plumed 
viper  {Clotho  cornUta)  of  North  Africa. 
No  species  of  viper  is  found  in  America, 
though  Heterodan  niger  has  been  called 
the  black  viper. 

Viwyinixr  (f6r'*6),  Rudolph,  a  Ger- 
¥iii.uuw  ^^^  pathologist  and  anthro- 
pologist, bom  in  1821.  studied  medicine 
at  Berlin,  and  early  became  famous  as 
a  lecturer  on  pathological  anatomy  at 
Berlin  University.  His  advanced  liberal 
opinions  during  the  movement  of  1848 
induced  the  government  to  deprive  him 
(temporarily)  of  his  appointment.  In 
1849  he  accepted  a  chair  at  Wttrzburg, 
where  he  remained  seven  years,  return-^ 


Rudolf  Virchow. 

ing  to  Berlin  in  the  autumn  of  1856  as 
professor  in  the  university  and  director 
of  the  pathological  institute  attached  to 
it.  He  rendered  immense  service  to 
medical  science  by  his  discoveries  in  re- 
gard to  inflammation,  ulceration,  tuber- 
culosis, and  numerous  other  morbid 
processes  of  the  human  body,  and  had 
great  influence  on  the  whole  of  modem 
medicine,  including  hospital  reform  and 
sanitary  science.  After  18^  he  was  one 
of  Bismarck^s  most  powerful  opponents 


in  the  Prussian  parliament  and  Reich- 
stag, and  was  made  a  member  of  impor- 
tant commissions,  etc  In  1856  he  was 
elected  an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Medicine.  London;  in  1859  a 
corresponding  member  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Medicine;  and  in  1873  a 
member  of  the  Berlin  Academy  of 
Sciences.  He  was  on«  of  the  founders 
of  the  German  Anthropological  Society, 
and  an  enthusiastic  worker  in  this  field, 
accumulating  facts  (partly  in  company 
with  Schliemann)  in  Asia  Minor,  the 
Caucasus,  Egypt,  Nubia,  etc.  Among 
his  important  works  are:  Cellular  Pa- 
tholoffy,  Handhuch  der  Speziellen  Pathol- 
ogie  und  Therapie,  Vber  den  Hunger^ 
iyphu9,  Die  Aufgabe  den  Naturwiisen- 
aohaften  in  dem  neuen  nationdlen 
Lehen  Deut8chland$j  Die  Freiheii  der 
Wisaenschaft  im  Modemen  Staat^  and 
many  others.  Most  of  his  medical  works 
have  been  translated  into  English.  He 
died  SepL  5,  1902. 

Virril  (ver'jil),  full  name,  Publius 
'**o**  VIBGILIU8  (or  Vebgiuub  ), 
Mabo,  the  most  distinguished  epic,  didac- 
tic, and  pastoral  poet  of  ancient  Rome, 
was  born  at  Andes  (probably  Pietola), 
a  little  village  near  Mantua,  October 
15,  70  B.C.  His  father  possessed  a 
:farm  there,  which  he  cultivated  himself, 
and  Virgil  received  a  good  education. 
He  appears  to  have  come  to  Rome  about 
41  or  40  B.C.,  when  his  estate  was  lost 
at  the  time  of  the  agrarian  division.  It 
was  restored  to  him,  however,  on  applica- 
tion to  Augustus,  who  henceforward  be- 
came his  patron.  He  also  enjoyed  the 
patronage  of  Maecenas,  and  was  intimate 
with  Horace.  His  health  was  delicate, 
and  his  retiring  nature  led  him  to  reside 
for  the  most  part  outside  Rome,  either  at 
Tarentum  or  Naples.  His  Eclogues^  a 
series  of  bucolic  or  pastoral  poems,  were 
written  about  41-39  B.C.  His  Oeorgics, 
a  poem  on  agriculture,  was  completed  in 
B.C.  81.  The  JEneid,  an  epic  in  twelve 
books  on  the  fortunes  of  iBneas  (which 
see),  was  probably  begun  about  B.C.  29. 
It  occupied  the  author  many  years,  and 
never  received  his  finishing  touches.  In 
RC.  20  Vinil  appears  to  have  engaged  on 
a  tour  in  Greece.  But  Augustus,  havhig 
arrived  at  Athens  on  his  return  from  the 
East,  Virgil  determined  to  accompany 
him  home.  At  Megara,  however,  he  fell 
sick,  and  he  died  at  Brundusium,  B.C.  19. 
His  poems  exhibit  a  remarkable  command 
of  language,  and  great  taste  and  skill 
in  the  management  of  all  the  materials 
of  poetry.  He  is  unrivaled  in  beauty 
of  versification.  He  was  amiable  and 
modest,  free  from  envy  and  jealousy,  and 
of    irreproachable    character.    Medieval 


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Virginia  City  Vishnu 

of  Dulath.  It  has  iron  mining  interests.  Vischer  (fis^'ir),  Peteb,  a  Gennan 
Pop.  10,473.  *ov«.^x    sculptor,  bom  at  Nuremberg, 

Vir<yiTii£i  TifTT  county  seat  of  Storey  Bavaria,  In  1455,  son  of  a  worker  in 
Txxgxiiia  vxbjr,  q^^  Nevada,  is  situ-  bronze.  Little  is  known  of  his  private 
ated  in  a  rocky  region  of  the  Sierra  life,  but  he  attained  great  fame  as  an 
Nevada,  at  an  elevation  of  6205  feet.  It  artist,  and  received  orders  both  from 
owes  its  importance  to  its  gold  and  silver  German  and  foreign  princes.  His  most 
mines,  especially  the  famous  Comstock  celebrated  work  is  the  tomb  of  St 
Lode  and  the  Big  Bonanza*  which  were  Sebaldas  in  Nuremberg,  which  contains 
long  the  richest  producers  of  silver  in  the  seventy-two  figures,  besides  those  of  the 
United  States.    Pop.  2244.  apostles     and     prophets.     He     died     at 

Vir<niiifl  (]t^^i\^t  the  ParikenooU'  Nuremberg  in  1529. 
Virginia  Ureeper,  ^^^  quinquefoUa,  Viaconti  (vis-kon'te),  an  old  Milan- 
a  climbing  plant,  native  of  the  United  ^  *»^""«'A  ese  family,  celebrated  for  its 
States,  nsed  as  an  ornamental  covering  political  consequence  and  its  patronage 
for  walls,  etc,  and  sometimes  called  ilmsr-  of  science.  The  family  reached  the  sum- 
ican  Ivy,  mit  of  its  grandeur  and  splendor  in  the 

Vironniji  TyTilifonr  Tuafif-nf^  reign  of  Gian  Galeazzo,  who  assumed 
Virginia  OUll^ary  XnSlUnxe,  the  government  in  1385.  In  later  years 
a  state  school  esteblished  In  1889  at  Lex-  it  decreased  in  importance, 
ington,  Va.  The  instructors  hold  com-  Visconnt  (^I'kount),  a  title  of  no- 
missions  in  the  state  militia  and  the  stu-  »*»^vmkU.v  ^jjity  u^xt  in  rank  to  that 
dents  are  organised  as  a  military  corps  of  of  earl,  and  immediately  above  that  of 
cadets.  During  the  Civil  War  the  cadets  baron.  It  is  the  most  recently  estab- 
were  in  active  service  for  thirteen  months,  lisbed  English  title,  having  been  first 
Vir<niiifl  TTiiiirATVifir  (officially  The  conferred  by  letters  patent  on  John, 
Vir^nia  UniVCrSUy  "ffniversUy  of  Lord  Beaumont,  by  Henry  VI  in  1440. 
Virffinia),  near  Charlottesville,  Virginiau  The  title  is  frequently  attached  to  an 
was  chartered  in  1819,  and  opened  earldom  as  a  second  title,  and  is  held 
in  1824  under  the  rectonuiip  of  Thomas  by  the  eldest  son  during  the  lifetime  of 
Jefferson.  It  enjovs  stote  patronage,  the  father.  See  Peer,  Nobility  and  Coro* 
receives    an    annual    grant    of    money,  net. 

and  has  a  library  containing  75,000  ViftTiTin  (vish'nO),  the  second  god  of 
Tolnmes.  visimu     ^^  ^.^^^  ^^^^  ^j^^  ^^^^^ 

Vircrin  Islands  (^^i^^)f  ^  group  being  Brahma  and  Siva),  and  by  his 
1-  ^  »  „  ,  ,  ^^  small  islands  in  special  worshipers  considered  to  be  the 
the  West  Indies  belonging  to  the  United  greatest.  In  the  early 
States  and  Great  Britain.  St.  Croix,  St.  Ycdas  he  appears  as  a 
Thomas  and  St  John  were  purchased  bv  manifestation  of  the 
the  United  States  from  Denmark  in  1917.  sun,  and  he  was  not 
Culebra,  Culebrita  and  Vieques  also  be-  regarded  as  the  most 
]ong  to  the  United  States  (formerly  to  exalted  deity,  this  rank 
Spain)  and  the  rest  of  the  group,  Tortola,  being  accorded  to  him 
Anegada,  Virgin  and  Gorda  to  Great  by  the  later  writers  of 
Britain.  The  area  of  the  group  is  about  the  Rflmflyana,  the 
150  square  miles.  See  Danish  West  Mahftbhflrata.  and  more 
12?*^*.    .         .  ^    .      m «_  especially    of    the    Pu- 

tober  31,   1876)    of   the   United   States  nu     are     chsracterized 

steamer   Vtrgtntus  off   Jamaica,   by   the  by  the  idea  that  when- 

SpanUh  wars^p  Tornado.    The  ship  was  ever    a    great    physical 

taken  to  Santiago,  Cuba,  and  52  of  the  or    moral    disorder    af- 

pajwengers  and  crew  were  court-martialed  fected  the  world,  Vish- 

and  ^ecuted.     The  action  of  the  loc^  ^u  descended  in  a  small       

offidals   was   disowned    by   the   Spanish  portion    of   his   essence      viihiwonhis 

government  to  set   it   right      Such  Hanbird Gsmds. 

VlSCacha    V?®;^*,^*V    x  ^^ost6mu$  descents    are    called 

.      ,     M  «  trtohoaactylus),    B,    rodent  avatars,  or  incarnations,  and  are  gener- 

ajimal  of  South  America,  allied  to  tte  ally    given    as    ten,   nine   of   which    are 

S^?i*^^i.*^'*l^-.'®?*ii^®^*^i.*Sr*i®^"£^  already  past,  the  tenth  being  yet  to  come. 

ImUt  with  a  short  tail,   inhabiting  the  He    is    generally    represented    as    having 

Sampas  of  the  Argentine  ««R"J>"5  «nd  f^^^  ^rms,  each  hand  holding  some  par- 

viM  in  burrows  fike  the  prairie  dog  of  ^^^^g^j.  object,  and  as  riding  on  a  being 

North  America.  half  man  half  bird. 


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Visible  Speecli  Vitrnvins  PoUio 

VifriM^  flTMiAPli  ^  term  applied  the  fovemment  of  the  lame  name,  on 
VlBlOie  opceuu,  ^,y  p^^  Alexander  the  Dflna.  316  miles  8.  of  St  Petersburg. 
Melville  Bell,  its  inventor,  to  a  system  The  streets  are  narrow  and  dirty,  and 
of  alphabetical  characters  designed  to  the  houses  mostly  built  of  wood.  Its 
represent  every  possible  articulate  ut-  manufactures  are  woolen  and  linen 
terance  of  the  organs  of  speech.  The  cloth,  leather,  and  mead.  It  has  a  con- 
system  is  based  on  an  exhaustive  classi-  siderable  trade.  Pop.  103340.— The  gov- 
fication  of  the  possible  actions  of  the  emment  has  an  area  of  17.483  square 
speech  organs,  each  organ  and  every  miles.  The  surface  is  generally  flat,  and 
mode  of  action  having  its  appropriate  much  occupied  by  woods  and  morasses, 
symbol  It  is  said  that  this  invention  The  whole  drainage  is  carried  to  the 
is  of  great  utility  in  the  teaching  of  the  Baltic.  The  soil  suits  rye  better  than 
deaf  and  dumb  to  speak,  and  in  enabling  any  other  grain.  The  only  mineral  of 
learners  of  foreign  languages  to  acquire  value  is  iron.  P^.  1,802,916. 
their  pronunciation  from  books.  Vif.Ar1)A  (vS-terbO),  a  town  of  Italy, 
Viuotith    (vi«'i-goth).    See  Goths.  /  ^'^^^ ""   in  a  fertile  valley  in  the  pro v- 

Vision     (vish'un).     See   Eye,   Optiot,  of  Rome.    It  has  a  Gothic  cathedral  con- 
-"^^vu.    ^^^^  taining  the  tombs  of  several  popes,  an  an- 

ViafnlA  (vis'ttl-l&:  German,  Weich-  cient  Episcopal  palace,  and  a  town-hall. 
VlSlUia   ;^    vlk's*l),   a    river   which   Pop.  17^344. 

rises  in  the  Carpathians,  traverses  Viti  Lavh  (▼6'tfi  Ift'v5),  the  chief 
Galicia,  Poland,  and  Prussia,  and  after  '*"*  *»vwu.  igi^nj  ^f  j.|,g  pyj  group, 
a  course  of  about  650  miles  empties  by   See  Fi/t. 

several  mouths  into  the  Gulf  of  Danzig.  Vitis  (^tis),  the  typical  genus  of  the 
It  flows  past  the  towns  of  Cracow,  War-  '  "  **  order  vitaceae,  comprising  the 
saw,  Bromberg,  and  Dancig,  and  is  navi-  vines  (which  see). 

gable  from  the  first-mentioned  place.  Vitorifl.     (v6-t6'rfr-a),  a  town  of  Spain, 

VifanACP    (vI-t&'se-€).    See  Vine.  wxwa*»    |^     Biscay,    capital    of    the 

Vli;ace»  province    of    Alava,  66    mfies   K.    B.    of 

VitflliflUa  (vi-tA'li-anz).  See  ApolU-  Burgos.  The  chief  buildings  are  four 
vxiffviiniiir  fmrianM.  parish  churches,  a  palace  of  deputies,  an 

VitflUfione  (vftA-sk«p),  an  appa-  academy  of  music,  theater,  and  prison. 
T  xncMvvjtfv^  ratus,  under  various  It  has  a  Gothic  cathedral  built  In  the 
names,  by  which  instantaneous  photo-  twelfth  century,  but  with  few  features 
graphic  pictures  of  moving  objects  are  of  interest  Leather,  soap,  etc.,  are 
illuminated  bv  the  electric  or  calcium  manufactured.  Pop.  33,617. 
light  and,  whUe  in  rapid  motion,  pro-  Vitrifi^ll  PnrfR  (vit'ri-fld),  the 
jected  upon  a  screen  bv  an  arrangement  vai/xxii^«  ^  vavo  ^^^^g  glyen  to  cer- 
of  powerful  lenses.  These  magnify  the  tain  prehistoric  hill  fortresses  princi- 
objects  represented  on  the  1^  *  films '  to  pally  found  in  Scotland,  but  atoo  in 
life-size  on  the  screen  and  portray  the  France  and  Germany.  The  materials  of 
objects  in  motion.  See  Afoving  PioiureM,  which  thev  are  constructed  are  perfectly 
Vif  aTisIt^      See  Viiepsk.  or  partially  vitrified  or  transformed  into 

Vitelline  (vl-tenfai)  consists  of  it  is  now  generally  believed  that  the 
'**'  ^    casein  and  albumen,  form-  vitrifaction    was    intentional,    being    ef- 

ing  the  yolk  of  birds'  eggs.  fected  by  means  of  piled-up  fuel. 

Vitellins  (vi-tel'li-us),  Aulus,  a  Ro-  Vitriol  <vit'ri-ul),  Blue.  See  C<«>per. 
wxi^xxxuo   jjjj^j^    emperor,    bom    about    '*«'**^* 

15  ▲.!)•  He  was  a  favorite  with  Vitriol  ^been,  the  same  as  copperas 
Caligula,  Claudius  and  Nero,  and  was  ^  ^^^av*,  ^^  sulphate  of  iron.  See  Cop- 
put  by  Galba  in  command  of  the  Ger-  perat, 

man  legions.    His  army  soon  proclaimed  Vitriol  ^^  ^'*  ^^^  com'mon  name  for 

him   emperor.    Galba  was  slain  by  the  'strong  sulphuric   acid    (which 

oartisans  of  Otho   and   a  contest  arose  see). 

tor  the  throne  in  which  Otho  was  de-  Vifrmnna  Pnllin    (vi-trO'vi-us   poK- 

feated   and    Vitellius   recognized   as   em-  ^*«'*^viu»  X'UlilU   ,^j^   Mabcus,   a 

peror.     Meanwhile    Vespasian    had    been  celebrated  Latin  writer  on  architecture, 

proclaimed  at  Alexandria,  and  one  of  his  who    flourished    in    the    time    of    Julius 

generals     marched     against     Rome,     de-  Caesar  and  Augustus,  and  wrote  his  work 

Tested   the   supporters   of   Vitellius,   and  De  Architectura  probably  about  B.O.  13. 

put  him  to  death  (60  a.d.).  This  treatise  is  valuable  as  a  compendium 

VifAitalr   (v§'tyepsk),   or  Vitebsk',   a  of  the  writings  of  numerous  Greek  ar- 

V11.eps&  ^^    ^   Russia,    capiUl    of  chitects. 


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Vitry-lc-Fransois    Ur^iio^S: 

fied  town  of  France,  dep.  Mame,  on  the 
river  Mame.    Pop.  8561. 
Vittoria.     see  Fi*or»«, 

Vitus'  Dance,  s^-  i^'^^^h  ot  cho^ 

WAVM.O  «#«»<Av^9  ^^  ^  spasmodic  or 
convulsive  disease,  allied  to  rheumatism, 
and  due  to  an  irritable  condition  of  the 
spinal  cord»  in  which  the  muscles  of  the 
extremltiea  and  other  parts  are  thrown 
into  various  involuntary  motions,  and 
perform  in  an  irregular  manner  those 
motions  usually  controlled  by  the  will. 
The  disease  attacks  both  sexes,  but 
chiefly  the  female,  and  is  specially  a 
disease  of  childhood,  occurring  in  those 
who  are  of  a  weak  constitution  or  im- 
properlv  nourished.  It  generally  appears 
from  the  eighth  to  the  fourteenth  year. 
In  serious  cases  the  spasmodic  movements 
are  violent  and  incessant,  and  speech  and 
swallowing  are  interfered  with. 
Vivandier^  (vi-van-di-^r),  a  woman 
VXVancuere  itt^^hed  to  French  and 
other  European  continental  regiments, 
who  sells  provisions  and  liquor.  The 
dress  of  the  vivandieres  is  generally  a 
modification  of  that  of  the  regiment  to 
which  they  are  attached. 
ViverridSB    (▼i-^er'i-de),  a  family  of 

.  .  mammals    containing    the 

civits  and  allied  tribes. 

Viviparous  Animals  (;J7^- 

which  bring  forth  their  young  alive.  See 
Reproduction. 

Vivisection    (▼iv-e-sek'shun),    the 
,1  TT  p  r  a  c  t  i  c  e  of  operating 

with  the  knife  upon  living  animals  for 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  some  fact  in 
physiology  or  pathology  which  cannot  be 
otherwise  investigated.  It  is  also  prac- 
ticed in  order  to  illustrate  previously 
known  facts,  and  to  enable  students  to 
acquire  operative  dexterity.  Vivisection 
for  the  latter  purpose  solely  is  condemned 
in  the  United  States,  but  is  carried  on 
in  the  veterinary  colleges  in  France. 
Though  the  term  vivisection  strictly  is 
applicable  to  cutting  operations  only,  it 
is  generally  employed  for  all  scientific 
experiments  performed  on  living  animals, 
whether  they  consist  of  cutting  opera- 
tions, the  compression  of  parts  by  liga- 
tures, the  administration  of  poisons,  the 
inoculation  of  disease,  the  subjection  to 
special  conditions  of  food,  temperature, 
or  respiration,  or  to  the  action  of  drugs 
and  medicines. 

Vizacranatam  (▼«-«a-«r«-pu-tiini'),   a 

V  ixiaga^iavaiu  ^^^  ^^  British  India, 
Madras  Presidency,  at  the  entrance  of 
tbe  Ve/agatam  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 


It  is  a  military  station.  Pop.  40,8d2. 
Vizier  (vi'zir;  Arabic,  waztr,  a  bearer 
,.  ^  T.  of  burdens),  a  titie  given  to 
high  political  ofilcers  in  the  Turkish  Em- 
pire and  other  Mohammedan  countries. 
The  president  of  the  divan  or  prime  min- 
ister is  known  as  grand  vizier. 

Vlaardingen  ^l^^Sl'^Slf,,*  ii»^ 

Province    of    S.    Holland,    on     the    New 
laas,  a  seat  of  the  Dutch  herring  fishery. 
Pop.  17,000. 

Vladikavkas  (viA-dyf-kaf-kas'),   a 

,      ^t  town  of  Russia,  capi- 

tal of  Terek  district,  at  the  northern  base 
of  the  Caucasua  Pop.  49,924. 
Vladimir  (7iA-<iy6'm6r),  one  of  the 
vAc%«uauAA  ^j^^g^  towns  in  Russia, 
capital  of  a  government  of  the  same 
name,  105  miles  N.  b.  of  Moscow.  It  has 
considerable  manufactures,  and  a  trade  in 
fruit  During  the,  thirteenth  century  it 
rivaled  Moscow  in  importance.  Pop.  ®,- 
170. — The  government  has  an  area  of 
18,815  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
1,730,400.  There  are  important  manufac- 
tures of  linens  and  woolens,  and  several 
blast-furnaces. 

Vladivostok  (4irtS:;»A/. 

atic  Russia,  on  the  Siberian  coast.  Sea 
of  Japan.  It  was  founded  in  1861,  and 
since  1870  has  been  the  chief  station 
of  the  Russian  Pacific  fleet  Vast  sums 
have  been  spent  on  wharves,  shipyards, 
and  arsenals,  and  it  is  the  termination 
of  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway.  The  trade  is  of  grow- 
ing importance  and  there  are  a  number 
of  manufactures.    Pop  (1911)  91,464. 

Vliessingen  ^J,^^^"/^"" >•  ®^* 
Vocational  Guidance,  ^^Zn'e^n^ 

cation,  having  for  its  object  the  direction 
of  young  persons  into  vocations  for  which 
they  are  adapted. 

Vocational  Training.  JJ  o  vement. 

into  the  schools  instruction  in  agriculture, 
domestic  science  and  the  trades  have  been 
widespread  in  recent  years;  and  experi- 
ments have  given  highly  satisfactory  re- 
sults. Investigations  have  shown  that  the 
fourteen-year-old  child  who  leaves  school 
to  find  employment  is  ill-trained  and  un- 
familiar with  the  needs  of  industry.  To 
remove  these  conditions  is  the  object  of 
vocational  training. 

Voice  (vols),  the  name  given  to  the 
^**'^  result  of  the  production  of  sound 
in  nearly  all  higher  vertebrate  animals. 
*  Speech'  (which  see)  is  a  modification  of 
'voice.'  In  man  the  voice  is  produced 
by  the  inferior  laryngeal  ligamenta  (see 
Larynw).    These  *  vocal  cords  *  consist  g/ 


i 


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two  elastic  folds  of  mucous  membrane, 
80  attached  to  the  cartilages  of  the  larynx 
and  to  muscles  that  they  may  be 
stretched  or  relaxed  and  otherwise  altered 
so  as  to  modify  the  sounds  produced  by 
their  vibration.  The  higher  the  note 
produced  the  greater  is  the  tension  of 
the  cords;  and  the  range  of  voice  there- 
fore depends  upon  the  amount  of  tension 
which  the  coids  can  undergo.  Rc|^rd- 
ing  the  compass  and  application  of  the 
voice  in  speaking  and  singing  physiolo- 

fists  have  noted  three  kinds  of  sequence, 
n  ordinary  speaking  a  monotonous  se- 
quence is  observed,  the  notes  having 
nearly  all  the  same  pitch,  and  the  variety 
of  the  sounds  being  due  rather  to  articu- 
lation in  the  mouth  than  to  definite 
movements  of  the  glottis  and  vocal  cords. 
A  passage  from  high  to  low  notes,  with- 
out intervals,  forms  the  second  kind  of 
sequence;  or  the  same  sequence  is  ob- 
served in  the  passage  from  low  to  high 
notes.  Such  a  sequence  is  exemplified 
in  crying  and  howling  both  in  man  and 
in  lower  animals.  The  true  musical  se- 
quence forms  the  third,  in  which  the 
successive  sounds  tiave  vibrations  cor- 
responding in  relative  proportions  to  the 
notes  of  the  musical  scale.  The  male 
voice  admits  of  division  into  tenor  and 
bass,  and  the  female  into  soprano  and 
contralto.  The  lowest  female  note  is  an 
octave  or  so  higher  than  the  lowest  note 
of  the  male  voice,  and  the  female's  high- 
est note  is  about  an  octave  above  that 
of  the  male.  The  compass  of  both 
voices  taken  together  is  about  four 
octaves,  the  chief  difference  residing  in 
the  pitch  and  also  in  the  quality  or 
timbre.  The  difference  of  pitch  between 
the  male  and  female  voice  is  due  to  the 
length  of  the  vocal  cords,  while  the  dif- 
ference in  timbre  appears  to  result  from 
differences  in  the  nature  and  extent  of 
the  walls  and  cavity  of  the  larynx,  throat, 
and  mouth.  Cheat  note%  differ  from 
falsetto  notes  in  that  the  former  are 
natural  notes  produced  by  the  natural 
voice,  while  the  latter  are  produced  by 
a  stopping  action  on  the  cords.  Finally 
it  may  be  noted  that  the  actual  strength 
of  the  voice  depends  on  the  degree  of 
vibration  of  the  vocal  cords,  and  also  in 
a  minor  degree  on  the  resonance  of  the 
larynx,  lungs,  and  chest  generally. 
VolaDlik  (^d'iA'PUk),  the  name  given 
"^^  to  a  universal  language  in- 
vented by  Johann  Martin  Schleyer,  of 
Constance,  after  twenty  years'  labor. 
The  name  means  '  world-speech,'  being 
based  on  English  world  and  speak,  and 
a  number  of  the  vocables  are  modified 
English  words.  In  structure  the  lan- 
guage is  simple  and  extremely   regular, 


and  the  orthography  is  entirely  phonetic, 
the  words  being  pronounced  as  they  are 
written,  and  vice  versa.  The  study  of 
Volapiik  made  some  progress,  but  has 
been  superseded  by  a  new  artificial  lan- 
guage called  Esperanto  (which  see). 

Volatile  Oils  (^oi'a-tii).   See  oiu. 

Volcano  (^ol-ka'nd),  tea  popular 
sense,  a  conical  hill  or  moun- 
tain composed  of  material  (volcanic  ashea 
and  lava)  brought  up  by  igneous  forces 
from  the  interior  of  the  earth  through 
a  pipe  or  vent.  At  the  top  there  is  a 
cup-shaped  hollow  called  the  crater.  A 
volcanic    eruption    generally    commences 


Outline  of  Volcanic  Neck. 


Ground-plan  of  Volcanic  Neck, 
a.    Surrounding   strata,     h.   Volcanic  vent 
e.  Core  of  lava. 


Section  of  Volcanic  Neck, 
a.     Surrounding    strata.     ««,     Surface     of 


ground.     «,    Crater, 
stored. 


dd.   Original    cone,    re- 


with  the  discharge  of  immense  quantities 
of  gases.  This  is  followed  by  the  ejec- 
tion of  ashes  and  hot  fragments  of  rock. 
Lastly  there  is  a  flood  of  molten  rock  or 
lava.  Volcanoes  which  show  such  out- 
bursts more  or  less  frequently  are  called 
active  volcanoes;  those  which  are  known 
to  have  been  active  in  historic  times,  but 
have  long  been  quiescent,  are  called 
dormant  or  sleeping  volcanoes;  and  those 
which  present  all  the  phenomena  of  vol- 
canoes«  but  which  have  shown  no  activity 
in  historic  times,  are  called  e^iinot  or 


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dead  volcanoes.  The  mud  volcanoes  or 
9aUes  of  the  Crimea  and  elsewhere 
(conical  hills  of  slowly-flowing  mud)  ; 
toe  fumaroles  (fissures  from  which  steam 
issues)  ;  the  tolfataras  (holes  from 
which  sulphurous  fumes  proceed)  of 
Italy,  etc.;  the  geysers  and  hot  springs 
of  the  Yellowstone  Park,  Iceland,  New 
Zealand,  etc,  are  si^ns  of  weak  or  de- 
creasing volcanic  activity  in  the  special 
districts  in  which  they  occur.  Volcanoes 
may  occur  as  isolated  conical  mountains, 
such  as  Vesuvius,  Etna,  or  the  Peak  of 
Tenerifite.  They  also  form  various 
groups  or  svstems  of  mountains.  One 
remarkable  fact  in  the  distribution  of 
volcanoes  is  their  proximity  to  the  sea, 
for  out  of  323  active  volcanoes  enumer- 
ated by  Fuchs,  all,  excepting  two  or  three 
in  Central  Asia  and  about  the  same  num- 
ber in  America,  are  within  a  short  dis- 
tance at  least  of  the  ocean.  There  are 
certain  regions  over  the  whole  of  which 
active  volcanic  vents  are  distributed  at 
intervals.  Of  these  great  regions  that 
of  the  Andes  is  one  of  the  best  defined. 
Am  almost  uninterrupted  line  of  volcanoes 
stretches  from  the  46th  degree  of  6.  lat. 
in  Chile  to  the  north  of  Mexico,  includ- 
ing Tunguragua,  Cotopaxi,  ALntisana« 
Pichincha,  Orizaba,  Popocatepetl,  Jorullo, 
etc  Another  continuous  line  of  volcanic 
action  commences  in  the  north  of  Alaska, 
passes  through  the  Aleutian  Isles  over 
to  Kamtchatka  in  N.  E.  Asia,  then  pro- 
ceeds southward  without  interruption 
through  a  space  of  between  60**  and  70° 
of  latitude  to  the  Moluccas.  It  includes 
the  Kurile,  Japanese,  and  Philippine  Isl- 
ands, traverses  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo, 
Celebes,  New  Guinea,  and  extends  to 
various  parts  of  the  Polynesian  Archi- 
pelago and  New  Zealand.  A  volcano  in 
this  series,  on  the  island  of  Krakatoa, 
in  the  Straits  of  Sunda,  burst  into  one 
of  the  most  violent  eruptions  on  record 
on  the  26th  of  August,  1883.  (See  Kra- 
katoa,) In  the  Old  World  the  volcanic 
region  extends  from  the  Caspian  Sea 
to  the  Azores,  embracing  the  greater  part 
of  the  Mediterranean  and  its  most  promi- 
nent peninsulas.  Here  volcanic  action 
is  most  prominently  visible  in  Vesuvius, 
Etna,  and  the  Lipari  Islands.  Among 
disconnected  volcanic  groups  may  be 
mentioned  Iceland  (Mt.  Hecla,  in  par- 
ticular), the  Sandwich  Islands,  and  the 
island  of  Bourbon,  Madagascar,  and 
Mauritius.  (See  Vesuvius,  Etna,  Hecla, 
etc.)  Also  those  of  the  West  Indies, 
especially  Mount  Pel^  in  the  island  of 
Martinique,  an  outbreak  of  which  on 
May  8,  1902,  destroyed  the  citv  of  St. 
Pierre  and  all  its  inhabitants,  about  30,- 
000   in   number.     (See   Pel6e,   Mount.) 


Submarine  volcanoes  show  a  frequent  ex- 
istence, but  such  phenomena  are  for  the 
most  part  inaccessible.  In  the  present 
century  several  instances  of  the  nse  and 
disappearance  of  islands  owing  to  vol- 
canic action  have  been  observed.  Vari- 
ous theories  have  been  proposed  to  ac- 
count for  the  immediate  cause  of  volcanic 
action.  It  is  now  generally  accepted 
that  it  is  produced  by  internal  heat  at 
a  certain  depth  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  and  the  evolution  of  a  great 
body  of  elastic  vapor,  apparently  in  many 
cases  due  to  the  sudden  vaponzation  of 
water  which  has  made  its  way  down- 
ward, expanding  and  seeking  to  escape 
where  the  least  amount  of  resistance  is 
presented,  and  manifesting  itself  in  the 
explosions  that  accompany  an  eruption, 
or  in  the  upheaval  of  rocks  and  the  pro- 
duction of  earthquakes.  See  also  Earth, 
OeyserSf  Earthquakes,  etc 
VnlA  (v61;  Arvicdla),  a  genus  of  ro- 
^  "*^  dents  closely  allied  to  the  rata 
and  mice,  and  included  in  that  family. 
Some  are  terrestrial,  others  aquatic 
The  common  vole  of  Europe  (A.  agres- 
tis),  the  meadow-mouse,  or  short-tailed 
field-mouse,  is  injurious  to  young  planta- 
tions, devouring  the  bark  and  destroying 


i 


Common  Vole  (Arvielfla  agrestia). 

the  roots.  It  is  reddish  brown  above 
and  frray  below.  The  water-vole  (A. 
amphihius)  or  water-rat  is  much  larger, 
and  swims  well  though  its  feet  are  not 
webbed.  It  is  of  a  pale  or  chestnut 
brown,  tinted  with  gray.  There  are 
many  other  species  in  the  Old  and  New 
World. 

Vol^a  (vorg&),  a  river  in  Russia,  the 
o*  longest  in  Europe;  rising  in  a 
small  lake  in  the  east  of  the  Valdai 
Hills,  and  falling  into  the  Caspian  Sea 
by  about  seventy  mouths,  near  Astra- 
khan, after  a  total  estimated  course  of 
2400  miles.  Its  basin  is  estimated  at 
from  500,000  to  700,000  square  miles. 
It  flows  generally  southeast  past  Tver, 


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YaroslAT,  Ko«troiDa«  and  Nijni-Novflrorod 
to  Katan,  thence  south  past  Simbirsk 
and  Saratov,  and  proceeds  southeast 
from  Sarepta  to  the  Caspian.  Its  chief 
tributaries  are  the  Kama  on  the  left 
bank  and  the  Oka  on  the  right.  It  is 
navigable  by  barges  from  its  source,  and 


Mouths  of 
Tes  Volga. 


communicates  with  the  Caspian,  Baltic, 
and  Polar  Seas  by  a  system  of  canals. 
Its  banks  are  fertile  and  weil  wooded, 
and  its  waters  abound  in  fish,  particu- 
larly sturgeon,  carp,  and  pike  of  extraor- 
dinary sise. 

Vnlliimio  (voMn'i-a),  a  government 
V  um/ma  j^  southwest  Russia ;  area, 
27,690  square  miles.  The  soil  is  fertile, 
producing  all  kinds  of  grain,  particularly 
wheat;  and  fine  breeds  of  cattle  and 
horses  are  reared.  The  hills  in  the  south 
are  rich  in  iron.  There  are  also  con- 
siderable manufactures.  The  capital  is 
Jitomir.  Pop.  8,647,500. 
Volition    <v6-lwl»'un).    See  WiU. 

Volnev  (vorne),  Cowstantine  Fbak- 
wvu&«^jr  g^ig^  ^  distinguished  French 
author  and  traveler,  bom  at  Craon  in 
1757;  died  in  1820.  He  published  in 
1787  his  Travelt  in  Egypt  and  Byria^  a 
work  of  high  reputation,  and  in  1791  his 
Ruin^t  or  Meditations  on  the  Revolu- 
tiont  of  Empires,  a  philosophical  work 
which  attracted  great  attention.  Among 
his  other  works  was  one  on  the  Climate 
and  Soil  of  the  United  States. 

Vologda  \rK^i,t«RaTa,^.* 

155,033  square  miles.  The  surface  is 
for  the  most  part  covered  with  woods, 
lakes,  and  morasses.  Its  forests  furnish 
considerable  quantities  of  timber  and 
charcoal.  Pop.  1,365,587.— The  capiUl 
ia  Vologda,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name. 


in  a  beautiful  district,  85  miles  E.8.E.  of 
St.  Petersburff.    Pop.  27,822. 
VnlftPi    (vorsl),     an     ancient     Italian 
V  uiM/i  ^^j^  ^jj^  j^gjj  jj^  Latium,  on 

both  sides  of  the  river  Liris  (Gariff llano). 
Their  principal  city  was  CorioU,  from 
which  Coriolanus  derived  his  surname. 
After  having  several  times  endangered 
the  Roman  State  thev  were  conquered, 
and  disappeared  from  history  (888  B.a). 
Voltll.  (▼ortA),  ALB88AITDB0,  an  Ital- 
Yvxna  Ij^jj  natural  philosopher,  bom  at 
Como  in  1745;  died  there  in  1827. 
Two  treatises,  published  in  1709  and 
1771,  in  which  be  gave  a  description  of 
a  new  electrical  machine,  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  his  fame.  He  was  successively 
professor  of  physics  at  the  gymnasium  in 
Como  and  in  the  University  of  Pavia« 
where  he  invented  the  electrophorus  and 
electroscope.  He  also  devised  several 
other  electrical  appliances,  and  in  1800 
the  voltaic  pile  (which  see).  In  1728 he 
made  a  tour  through  France,  Germany, 
England  and  Holland.  In  1801  Na- 
poleon invited  him  to  France,  where  a 
medal  was  struck  in  his  honor.  In  1810 
he  was  created  a  senator  of  Italy,  with 
the  title  of  count ;  and  in  1815  was  made 
director  of  the  philosophical  faculty  of 
Padua. 

Voltaic  Electricity  at.S'jr,>: 

tricity,  galvanism.  See  Oalvanio  Bat' 
tery  and  Galvanism, 

Voltaic  Pile,  y vita's  arrangement 
w  vAvcMv  A  M^%iy  ^^^  producmg  a  cur- 
rent of  electridtv, 
consisting  of  a  pile 
of  alternate  disks  of 
two  dissimilar  met- 
als, as  copper  and 
zinc,  sine  and  silver, 
zinc  and  platinum, 
separated  by  pieces 
of  flannel  or  paste- 
bo  a  r  d  moistened 
with  salt  water  or 
with  water  acidu- 
lated with  sulphuric 
acid. 

Voltaire^-';?^). 

Mabie  Abouet  de, 
a  celebrated  French 
writer,  born  at 
Paris,  November  21, 
1G94;  died  there 
May  30,  1778.  His 
father  was  Fran- 
cois Arouet,  a  no- 
tary, and  he  was  des- 
tined for  the  legal 
profession,  but  abandoned  the  law  lor 
letters.    In  1718  a  tragedy  named  (Edip€ 


Voltaio  Pile. 

p,  potitiye,  n.  nega* 

tivs  sno. 


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was  brought  out  by  bim,  and  was  a  Zadig,  Candide,  L*Inff4nu,etc't  his  bis- 
great  success.  It  is  said  that  this  play  tories:  SUcle  de  Louis  XI V^  and  His- 
was  finished,  and  that  two  cantos  of  totre  de  CAaWea  Z//;  his  correspondence; 
his  epic  the  Henriade  were  written  in  and  more  than  all,  perhaps,  on  his 
the  Bastille,  where  he  was  confined  from  poetical  epistles,  satires,  and  occasional 
May,  1717,  to  April,  1718,  for  writing  light  poems,  which  all  exhibit  wit,  gayet7, 
certain  satirical  verses  on  the  regent  viYacfty,  and  grace.  Several  of  his 
He  now  became  the  fashionable  poet  and  tragedies,  such  as  Zaire,  Alzire,  MeropCf 
resided  mainly  at  Paris,  leading  a  life  of  Mahomet,  had  great  success  in  their  day, 
gayety  and  pleasure  in  the  society  of  but  are  not  assigned  a  high  place  in 
the  great  It  was  about  the  beginning  French  literature.  His  comedies,  the 
of  this  period  that  he  adopted  the  name  best  of  which  is  VEnfant  Prodiffue,  were 
of  Voltaire.  In  1726  he  was  again  im-  less  successfuL  His  Henriade,  an  epic 
prisoned  in  the  Bastille  for  sending  a  poem,  had  great  success,  and  exercised 
challenge  to  the  Chevalier  Rohan,  by  a  powerful  influence  when  it  first  ap- 
whom  he  had  been  grossly  insulted.  He  peared,  but  is  not  highly  esteemed  now. 
was  liberated  within  a  month,  and  went  His  Pucdle,  dealing  in  mock-heroic  man- 
to  England  on  the  invitation  of  Lord  ner  with  the  history  of  Joan  of  Arc, 
Bolingbroke.  Here  he  resided  till  1729  abounds  in  obscene  passages,  and  treats 
in  friendship  with  the  leading  deists,  and  sneeringlv  of  religion,  virtue  and  all  that 
acquired  some  knowledge  of  English  men  hold  most  sacred,  but  is  viewed  by 
literature.  His  Henriade  was  completed  Brougham  as  '  the  great  masterpiece  of 
and  published  by  subscription  in  Eng-  Voltaire's  poetic  genius.* 
land.  After  his  return  to  France  he  VAHaraAfAi*  ( vol-tam'e-ter) ,  an  in- 
lived  chiefly  at  ParU  til!  1734.  During  ^O^i^aiiicwr  gtniment  in  which  a 
this  period  he  raised  himself  from  very  current  of  electricity  is  made  to  pass 
moderate  circumstances  to  a  condition  through  slightly  acidulated  water,  and 
of  affluence  by  successful  monetary  specu-  as  the  water  is  thus  decomposed,  oxygen 
lations.  From  1734  to  1749  he  resided  and  hvdrogen  being  liberated,  the  quan- 
with  the  Marchioness  de  GhAtelet  at  tity  of  electric  current  passing  through 
Girey,  in  Lorraine.  She  died  in  1749,  in  a  given  time  may  be  ascertained  In 
and  Voltaire  then  accepted  the  oft-re-  terms  of  the  quantity  of  water  decom* 
peated  invitations  of  Frederick  the  Great  posed. 

to  come  and  live  at  his  court  at  Pots-  Volterrfi.     (▼^l-ter'A;  ancient  Volatef 

dam.     Here  he  was  received  with  great  v* ««**«»    f^g^^  ^  town  in  Italy,  prov- 

bonor,  but  a  series  of  disagreements  with  ince    of    Pisa,    33    miles    southwest    of 

the  king  ended   in  Voltaire's  retirement  Florence.     It  was  anciently  one  of  the 

from    the   Prussian   court   in   1753.    He  twelve  principal  cities  of  Etruria,  is  sur- 

then  resided  for  a  short  time  at  Stras-  rounded  by  Etruscan  walls,  and  possesses 

burg,   Ck>lmar.   and   Lyons,   removing  at  a  museum  rich  in  Etruscan  antiquities, 

the  end  of  1754  to  Geneva.    For  ahnost  Pop.  5522. 

the  whole  of  the  remainder  of  his  life  Vnlfprra     Daniels  da.     See  Ricoia-^ 

he  lived  in  Switserland,  or  close  to  its  ^  uiicrni,    ^^^^ 

borders.  In  1760  or  1761  he  fixed  his  Voltmeter  (v^^^^™^^®**)*  ao  instru- 
residence  with  bis  niece,  Madame  Denis,  v*w«x^v^x  ^j^^^  ^^^  measuring  the 
at  Femey,  where  he  received  a  constant  pressure,  electromotive  force,  or  dif- 
succession  of  distinguished  visitors,  and  ference  of  potential  at  the  ends  of  an 
maintained  a  correspondence  which  in-  electric  current.  There  are  a  numbet 
eluded  in  its  range  most  of  the  crowned  of  such  instruments,  of  which  the  gold- 
heads  of  Europe.  In  Feb.,  1778,  he  went  leaf  electroscope  may  be  considered  a 
to   Paris,   where   he  was   received   with  crude  example. 

enthusiasm  by  all  classes.    But  the  ex-  VnlfnmA     (vol-t&r^5),    a    river    of 

citement    of    the   occasion    hastened    his  ▼"*•'*"""     Italy,  rising  in  the  prov- 

death.    His  works  embrace  almost  ev«ry  ince  of  Oampobasso,  flows  s.e.  to  its  June- 

branch  of  literature:  poetrv,  the  drama,  tlon  with  the  Galore,  and  then  west  past 

romance,   historv,   philosophy,   and   even  Gapua  into  the  M^terranean. 

science.    Hatred  of  fanaticism  and  super-  VnlnnfAAra  (vol-un- tSrz'),    citizens 

sHtion  was  his  chief  characteristic,  and  ▼  "*i"*«''5'5r»  ^y^^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  accord 

nearlv   all   his  works  are  strongly   ani-  offer  the  state  their  services  in  a  military 

mated   by   a   spirit   of   hostility   to   the  capacity    without    the   stipulation    of    a 

Eriests  and  the  religion  they  represented,  substantial    reward.    The    oldest    volun- 

[e  upheld  theism,  however,  with  as  much  teer  force  in  Great  Britain  is  the  Hon* 

seal   as   he  denounced   Ghristianity   and  orable  Artillery  Gompany  of  the  city  of 

priesthood.     Voltaire's      literary      fame  London,    which    received    its   charter   of 

chiefly  rests  oa  his  philosophical  noyels:  incorporation    from    Henry     VIII.    la 


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Volunteers  of  America 


Vortex 


case  of  a  war  of  ma^itude  the  United 
Staten  has  always  relied  on  its  volan- 
teer  soldiery.  During  the  Civil  War,  in- 
cluding retell liHtment 8,  there  were  li.G56,- 
533  men  in  the  field — the  great  body  of 
whom  were  volunteers. 

Volunteers  of  America,  f^u/^^^n^d 

philanthropic  organization,  founded  In 
1896  by  Commander  and  Mrs.  Balling- 
*:on  Booth,  formerly  of  the  Salvation 
Army,  in  part  as  a  protest  against  the 
rigid  militarism  of  that  body.     Over  100 


Tolutes  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Capitals, 
a  a,  Volutes.  b,  Helix. 

stations  for  philanthropic  work  are  in 
operation  in  the  United  States,  and  ac- 
tivities are  being  extended  to  other  lands. 
Volute  (voltlt'),  in  architecture,  a 
kind  of  spiral  scroll  used  in 
the  lopic,  Corinthian,  and  Composite 
capitals,  of  which  it  is  a  principal  orna- 
ment. The  number  of  volutes  in  the 
Ionic  order  is  four.  In  the  Corinthian 
and  Composite  orders  they  are  more 
numerous,  in  the  former  beinir  accom- 
panied with  small  ones,  called  helices. 
Vomer  (^^'™ci')t  ui  anatomy,  one  of 
the  bones  of  the  skull,  forming 
in  man  part  of  the  septum  or  division 
between  the  cavities  of  the  nostrils.  In 
fishes  it  is  a  feature  of  importance  for 
classification  purposes. 
Vomit  (^ODt^'^w  to  expel  matters  foi> 
v"**"  cibly  from  the  stomach  through 
the  cesopharuB.  At  times  it  is  sympathet- 
ic, as  in  affections  of  the  kidneys,  uterus, 
brain«  etc.  At  others  it  is  symptomatic, 
as  in  castritis,  peritonitis,  etc 

Vonael     (von^del),      JOOST     VAN     DEN 

one  of  the  most  celebrated 
poets  of  Holland,  born  in  1587;  died  in 
1669.  His  works  display  so  much  genius 
and  elevated  imaginanon  that  he  has  been 
called  the  Dutch  Shakespeare,  They 
include  metrical  versions  of  the  Psalms, 
of  Virgil,  and  of  Ovid,  together  with 
satires  and  tragedies.  Of  the  latter 
PalOfnedetL  the  Conquest  of  Amsterdam, 
and  Lueifer  are  considered  the  master- 
pieces of  Dutch  tragedy. 
VA1I  ITAlflt  Hermann  Edward,  a 
YUa  AUlB^  distinguished      historian. 


bom  at  Feliin,  Livonia,  in  184L  H* 
was  professor  of  history  at  Strassbars 
and  Freiburg,  and  at  the  University  of 
Chicago  after  1892.  He  wrote  ConstiiU' 
iional  History  of  the  United  States,  Con- 
stitutional Law  of  the  United  States^ 
lives  of  John  C.  Calhoun,  John  Brown, 
etc. 

Voodou,  or  Voudoo  ^.t^^^^^^S 

by  the  negroes  of  the  United  States  and 
the  West  Indies  to  certain  supeistitious 
rites  and  beliefs  brought  from  Africa, 
also  to  the  sorcerer  who  practiced  these 
rites.  If  the  negro  wished  to  destroy 
an  enemy  he  sought  the  aid  of  the  voo- 
dou 'doctor,'  who  would  often  under- 
take to  remove  the  designated  party. 
This,  it  is  thought,  was  usually  done  by 
the  aid  of  poison,  though  apparently  by 
incantations.  At  one  time  no  slave  could 
be  induced  to  expose  himself  to  the 
wrath  of  one  of  these  conjurers,  and  in 
many  cases  the  victim  of  a  voodou  is 
thought  to  have  died  from  sheer  fright, 
all  hope  being  given  up  when  he  believed 
he  was  under  the  fatal  spell.  Voo- 
douism  flourished  most  in  this  country 
in  the  rice,  cotton,  and  sugar  plantations 
of  the  far  South,  where  the  negroes  were 
less  immediately  under  the  influence  of 
their  masters  than  those  living  farther 
north. 

Vorarlber^  (fOr'arl-berg),  a  west- 
VUruriDCr^  em  district  of  Austria- 
Hungary,  officially  included  in  the  Tyrol. 
Area,  1005  square  miles;  pop.  129,237. 
VorOTiPl  (va-r6'nyesh),  a  town  of 
vuruucj  fi^ggia,  capital  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  same  name,  on  the  Vo- 
ronej,  290  miles  8.8.E.  of  Moscow.  It 
is  an  important  entrepdt  on  the  railway 
between  Moscow  and  the  Sea  of  Azov. 
It  has  manufactures  of  woolen  and  linen 
cloth,  soap  and  vitriol,  tanneries,  and  a 
considerable  trade.  Pop.  84,146. —  The 
government  has  an  area  of  25,440  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  3,097,700.  It  is  in- 
tersected by  the  Don,  which  receives  the 
whole  of  the  drainage,  partly  through  its 
tributaries,  the  Voronej  and  Khoper. 
The  soil  is  generally^  fertile,  and  large 
crops  of  grain  are  raised. 
VnrfpT  (vor'teks),  the  form  produced 
V  ui  vcA.  ^Yxen  any  portion  of  a  fluid  is 
set  rotating  round  an  axis.  Familiar  ex- 
amples are  seen  in  eddies,  whirlpools, 
waterspouts,  whirlwinds,  and  on  a  larger 
scale  in  cyclones  and  storms  generally. 
Descartes  supposed  certain  vortices  to 
exist  in  the  fluid  or  ether  of  space  en- 
dowed with  a  rapid  rotatory  motion  about 
an  axis,  and  filling  all  space,  and  by 
these  he  accounted  for  the  motions  of  the 
universe. 


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Vortex  Bing 


Vowel 


Vortex  Bine.    ^  P^^^?  vordcai 

^^^  *"«***6>  molecular  filament  or 
column  returning  into  itself  so  as  to  form 
a  ring  composed  of  a  number  of  small 
rotating  circles  placed  side  by  side,  like 
beads  on  a  string,  as  the  singular  smoke- 
rings  which  are  sometimes  produced  when 
a  cannon  is  fired,  or  when  a  smoker  skill- 
fully emits  a  puff  of  tobacco  smoke.  Re- 
cent investigations  of  the  motion  of  vor- 
tices suggested  to  Lord  Kelvin  the  possi- 
bility of  founding  on  them  a  new  form  of 
the  atomic  theory,  and  the  vortex  atom 
was  for  a  time  widely  accepted  by  scien- 
tists, but  was  finally  abandoned  bv  its 
author  as  mathematically  incapable  of 
demonstration. 

VortiAfkllft     or    'Bell-animalcule,* 

soria.  having  a  fixed  stem  capable  of  being 
coilea  into  a  spiral  form,  and  vibratile 
organs  called  cilia  fringing  the  bell- 
shaped  disc  or  head,  which  are  constantly 
in  rapid  motion  and  attract  particles  of 
food.  The  species  are  very  numerous  in 
fresh  water,  and  are  generaUy  micro- 
scopic. 

VnnfFf^s  (vOzh),  a  chain  of  mountains 
voB^^es  ^^^^  ^QQ  ^^^  j^j^^  extend- 
ing N.  N.  B.  to  8. 8.  w.  along  the  frontiers 
of  France  and  Alsace^  nearly  parallel  with 
the  Rhine.  The  breadth  varies  from  20 
to  45  miles,  and  the  highest  peak  is 
Ballon-de-Guebwiller,  4685  feet.  A  great 
part  of  the  Vosges  is  densely  wooded,  and 
the  eastern  and  southern  slopes  are  often 
covered  with  vineyards.  There  is  also  ex- 
cellent pasturage.  The  lU,  Lauter.  Mo- 
selle, Meurthe,  Saar  and  Sadne  rise  in 
this  chain. 

VAftfTAa  <^  eastern  frontier  depart- 
vusi^eSy  j^g^^  ^f  Prance;  area.  ^79 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  Vosges  Mountains,  which  send  out 
ramifications  over  the  greater  part  of  its 
surface,  while  in  the  south  it  is  traversed 
by  the  chain  of  the  Faucilles.  Grain, 
hemp,  flax  and  potatoes  are  extensively 
grown,  and  the  department  is  famous  for 
its  kirsch-wasser.  It  was  in  this  moun- 
tainous region  that  France  struck  Its  first 
blows  in  the  European  war.  While  Ger- 
many was  invading  Belgium,  France  drove 
strongly  into  the  Vosges  uplands,  pene- 
trating Abace  as  far  as  Mulhausen.  But 
its  forces  were  eventually  driven  back 
nearly  to  the  frontier.  They  held  the 
steep  escapement  facing  the  valley  of  the 
Rhine  against  all  the  efforts  of  the  Ger- 
man army  to  displace  them  until  the  tide 
of  war  drew  thoir  forces  to  the  more  wes- 
terly region,  when  the  Vosges  campaign 
ended.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Meuse,  MoujBon,  Madon,  Moselle,  Saone 

a^  10 


and  Meurthe,  all  unnavigable  within  the 
department.  The  minerals  are  valuable. 
The  manufactures  are  various,  fipinal  is 
the  capitaL    Pop.  429,812. 

Vo88  (^^)9  JoHANN  Heinbioh,  e  Ger- 
*  ^^^  man  poet  and  translator,  bom  in 
1751.  He  received  a  scanty  school  edu- 
cation, served  for  a  time  as  private  tutor 
in  a  family,  and  in  1772  went  to  Got- 
tingen,  where  he  studied  the  classical  and 
modem  languages,  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Gottingen  Dichterbund, 
or  poets'  union.  In  1775  he  retired  to 
Wandsbeck  in  order  to  edit  the  Muaenair 
manaeht  which  he  published  till  1800.  In 
1778  he  became  rector  of  a  school  at 
Ottemdorf,  in  Hanover,  and  in  1782  went 
as  rector  to  Eutin.  In  1805  he  became 
professor  at  Heidelberg,  where  he  re- 
mained till  his  death  in  182a  Between 
1785  and  1802  he  published  several  vol- 
umes of  original  poems,  the  best  of  which 
is  the  idyllic  LuUe.  As  a  translator  Voss 
exhibited  great  skill  in  the  handling  of 
meters,  and  a  wonderful  conunand  of  lan- 

Siage.  Among  his  translations  that  of 
omer's  works  is  undoubtedly  the  great- 
est, being  the  classical  German  version  of 
these  great  epics.  A  translation  of 
Shakespeare,  which  he  undertook  with 
his  sons,  was  published  in  nine  volumes  in 
1829. 

VnaaiTia  (vosh'e-us),  Gebhabd  Jo- 
VQSSIUS        ^^j,j,     ^    p„^^jj    classical 

scholar,  bom  in  1577.  studied  at  Dor- 
drecht and  Ijeyden.  In  1614  he  under- 
took the  direction  of  the  theological  col- 
lege at  Leyden,  and  subsequently  became 
Srofessor  of  rhetoric  and  chronology, 
'avoring  the  Remonstrants,  he  became 
obnoxious  to  the  prevailing  party  in  the 
church,  and  was  deprived  of  his  office. 
Archbishop  Laud  then  conferred  on  him 
a  prebendary  stall  at  Canterbury,  with 
permission  to  continue  his  residence  in 
the  Netherlands.  In  1633  he  was  invited 
to  Amsterdam,  to  occupy  the  chair  of 
history,  and  continued  there  till  his  death 
in  1649.  Several  of  his  sons,  especially 
Isaac,  also  distinguished  themselves  as 
scholars. 

Voussoirs    ^I^^'!^'   ^H;  uf^^ 

v»o«vxA»  shaped  stones  which  form 
an  arch.  The  under  sides  of  the  vous- 
soirs form  the  intrados  or  sofiit  of  the 
arch,  and  the  upper  sides  the  extrados. 
The  middle  voussoir  is  the  keystone. 
Vowel  (vou'el),  a  simple  articulated 
sound,  which  is  produced 
merely  by  voice  proceeding  from  the 
larynx,  modified  bv  a  greater  or  less  ele- 
vation or  depression,  expansion  or  con- 
traction of  tne  tongue,  and  contraction 


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Viilean,  from  an 
Antique. 


or  expansion  of  the  lipe.  The  vowel 
Bounds  of  the  English  alphabet  are  im- 
perfectly represented  by  five  letters,  a, 
0.>f,  0,  u  (and  sometimes  to  and  y). 
Vowels  are  distinguished  from  consonants 
in  that  they  result  from  an  open  position 
of  the  vocal  organs,  while  consonants 
are  the  result  of  an  opening  or  shutting 
action  of  the  organs;  thus  the  former 
can  be  pronounced  by  themselves,  while 
consonants  re- 
quire  to  be 
sounded  with  the 
aid  of  a  vowel. 

Vulcan  k<!"'': 

K  a  n; 
Latin  VulcO- 
»««),  in  Roman 
mythology,  the 
god  who  presided 
over  the  fire  and 
the  working  of 
metals,  and  pat- 
ronised handi- 
craftsmen of 
every  kind.  By 
some  writers  he 
is  said  to  have 
been  bom  lame, 
but  by  others  his 
lameness  is  at- 
tributed to  his 
having  been  thrown  from  Olympus.  He 
was  completely  identified  with  the  Greek 
Hephiestus  (which  see). 
Vlllcanite  (▼"I'^a-nlt),  a  kind  of 
vulcauized  caoutchouc, 

di£ferin|[  from  ordinary  vulcanized  caout- 
chouc m  containing  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  sulphur  —  from  30  to  60  per 
cent. —  and  in  being  made  at  a  higher 
temperature.  It  is  of  a  browuish-black 
color,  is  hard  and  tough,  cuts  easily,  and 
takes  a  good  polish,  on  which  account 
it  is  largely  used  for  making  into  combs, 
brooches,  bracelets,  and  many  other  or- 
naments. As  it  is  especially  distin- 
guished by  the  large  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity which  it  evolves  when  rubbed,  it 
is  much  used  in  the  coust ruction  of 
electric  machines.     See  Vulcanization, 

Vidcanization  i'tlSS^'ti^'^rJal' 

ing  caoutchouc  or  india-rubber  with  sul- 
phur to  effect  certain  changes  in  its 
properties,  and  yield  a  soft  T vulcanized 
indta-ruhher)  or  a  hard  (vulcanite) 
product.  Other  ingredients,  as  litharge, 
white-lead,  whiting,  etc.,  are  added  tc  the 
sulphur  to  give  color,  softness,  etc.  The 
substance  thus  formed  possesses  the  fol- 
lowing properties:  it  remains  elastic  at 
all  temperatures,  it  cannot  be  dissolved 
by  the  ordinary  solvents,  neither  is  it 
affected   by   heat   within   a    considerable 


range  of  temperature;  finally,  it  acquires 
extraordinary  powers  of  resisting  com- 
pression, with  .a  great  increase  of 
strength  and  elasticity.  See  Vulcanite 
and  India-rubber, 

Vulgar  Fractions.    ^  FractionM. 

Vnl^tt-ti^    (vuVg&t),   the   Latin    trans- 

has,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  of- 
ficial authority,  and  which  the  Council 
of  Trent,  in  their  fourth  session,  on  May 
27,  1G46,  declared  '  shall  be  held  as  au- 
thentic in  all  public  lectures,  disputa- 
tions, sermons,  and  expositions;  and. that 
no  one  shall  presume  to  reject  it,  under 
any  pretense  whatsoever.'  Even  in  the 
early  period  of  the  church  a  Latin  trans- 
lation of  the  Old  Testament  existed, 
called  Itala,  made  after  the  Septuagint. 
St  Jerome  found  that  this  translation 
was  not  always  accurate,  and  between 
385-405  A.  D.  made  a  new  Latin  trans- 
lation from  the  Hebrew,  which,  however^ 
was  only  partially  adopted  by  the  church. 
In  the  sequel  the  translations  were  com- 
bined, and  formed  the  Vulgate  {ver§io 
vulgdta^  common  or  usual  version).  This 
grew  up  between  the  eighth  and  six- 
teenth centuries.  The  version  jiow  in 
use  is  the  edition  published  by  Clement 
VIII  in  1592  (improved  edition  1593). 
Vulture  (▼ul'ttir),  the  common  name 
viuburi;  ^Qj.  ^jj^  raptorial  birds  be- 
longing to  the  family  Vulturidie,  char- 
acterized by  having  the  head  and  part  of 
the    neck    destitute    of   feathers,    and   a 


iEcji'plijiri  \  > 


rather  elongated  beak,  of  which  the  upper 
mandible  is  curved  at  the  end.  The 
strength  of  their  talons  does  not  corre- 
spond with  their  size,  and  they  make 
more  use  of  their  beak  than  of  their 
claws  a. id  are  unable  to  carry  off  their 


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prey,  like  the  eagles  and  hawks.  In  gen- 
eral they  are  of  a  cowardly  nature,  living 
chiefly  on  dei^d  carcasses  and  offal.  Their 
win£s  are  very  strong  and  give  them  re- 
markable powers  of  swift  and  Ions  sus- 
tained flight.  Unlike  other  birds  of  prey 
the  female  is  smaller  than  the  male. 
Their  geoxraphical  distribution  is  con- 
fined chiefly  to  warm  countries,  where 
they  act  as  scavengers  to  purify  the 
•earth  from  the  putrid  carcasses  with 
which  it  would  otherwise  be  encumbered. 
The  griffon  vulture  (Vultar  fulvu$)  in- 
habits the  mountainous  parts  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  as  does  alBO  the  cinere- 
ous or  brown  vulture  (7.  ciner^§).  The 
former  measures  nearly  4  feet  from  tip 
of  beak  to  end  of  tail.  The  bearded  vul- 
ture, or  Iftmmergeier  (Oypaetos  bar- 
bdiu9)t  inhabits  the  Alps,  Asia,  and 
Africa.  The  Egyptian  vulture  (Neo- 
phron percnoptiru9)  is  often  called 
'  Pharaoh's  Chicken  ^  from  its  frequent 
occurrence  in  ancient  hieroglyphics,  where 
it  is  used  as  an  emblem  of  paternal  love. 
This  bird  is  very  common  in  Northern 


Africa  and  Persia  and  is  frequently  seen 
in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  about  2 
feet  long,  has  pointed  wings,  and  is 
raven-like  in  form.  Greatest  among  the 
vultures  are  the  l&mmergeier,  4  feet  in 
length,  the  king  vulture  {Sarcorham' 
phui  papa)  of  South  America,  and  the 
giant  condor  (Sarcorhampkus  condor  or 
ffryphui)  of  the  Andes,  the  largest  of  the 
family,  and  the  most  powerful  flyer 
among  birds.  The  turkey-buzzard  {Co- 
tharte$  aura),  about  2^  feet  long,  is  com- 
mon in  the  eastern  United  States  and  is 
protected  in  southern  cities  for  its  serv- 
ices as  a  destroyer  of  carrion.  See 
Condor,  Egyptian  Vulture,  King  Vulture, 
Ldmmergeier,  and  Turkey-buzzard, 
Vvatka  (vy&t'k&),  a  city  of  Russia, 
jni^xxA  capital  of  a  govemmenc  of 
the  same  name,  is  situated  on  Vyatka 
River,  280  miles  N.  E.  of  Nijni-Novgorod. 
It  is  largely  engaged  in  the  corn  trade 
and  the  manufacture  of  wax  and  tallow 
candles.  Pop.  about  20,000. —  The  gov- 
ernment has  an  area  of  59,239  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  over  3,000,000. 


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w 


TIT  the  tweDty-tbird  letter  of  the  Eng- 
f  lisb  alphabet,  representing  a  con- 
sonantal sound  formed  by  opening  tbe 
mouth  with  a  contraction  of  the  lips, 
such  as  is  performed  in  tbe  rapid  passage 
from  the  vowel  sound  u  {oo)  to  that  of 
i  (ee).  Tbe  character  is  formed,  as 
its  name  indicates,  by  doubling  the  u  or 
V,  At  tbe  end  of  words  or  syllables  it 
is  either  silent,  as  in  low,  or  it  modifies 
the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  new,  how,  hav- 
ing then  tbe  power  of  a  vowel. 
W&eI    i^^^*  ^  branch  of  tbe  Rhine. 

oee  Rhine, 

Wfl.bfl.fill  (wftlmsb),  a  river,  tbe  most 
wauaou  injpiQptant  northern  tribu- 
tary of  the  Ohio.  It  rises  in  the  N.  w. 
of  Ohio,  winds  across  Indiana,  forms 
the  boundary  between  Indiana  and  Illi- 
nois, and  falls  into  the  Ohio  after  a 
course  of  550  miles.  It  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  to  La  Fayette,  and  connects 
Lake  Erie  with  tbe  Ohio  by  tbe  Wabash 
and  Erie  CanaL 

UTaKoali  ft  city,  capital  of  Wabash 
wauaBliy  Co.,  Indiana,  on  tbe  Wa- 
bash River.  47  miles  s.  w.  of  Fort  Wayne. 
It  has  active  manufactures  of  furniture, 
paper,  machinery,  hats,  larse  railroad 
shops,  etc;  in  the  vicinity  is  excellent 
building  stone.  Pop.  8687. 
TXTo/feA  (wAs),  an  Anglo-Roman  poet, 
^  ^^^  native  of  Jersey,  born  in  1115 ; 
died  in  118i.  Two  important  works  by 
him  remain,  the  Brut  d*Angleterre  (see 
Layamon),  and  the  Ronian  de  Rou,  a 
history  of  Rollo  and  tbe  dukes  of  Nor- 
mandy, including  the  conquest  of  Eng- 
land. 

TXTonA  (wft'kO),  a  city,  county  seat  of 
¥V  auu  AfcLennan  county,  Texas.  It  is 
situated  on  tbe  Brazos  River,  100  miles 
N.  B.  of  Austin,  and  as  the  center  of  a 
large  and  fertile  cotton  and  wheat  grow- 
ing district,  commands  a  large  trade  in 
agricultural  products.  Its  industries  in- 
clude flour  and  cotton-seed  oil  mills,  brick, 
tile  and  bottle  works,  etc.  It  has  warm 
and  medicinal  artesian  waters.  Pop. 
42.000. 

Wiiilai     o'  Waday   (wa-dl')f  an  ex- 
wiiuiuy    tensive    negro    stote    in    tbe 
19—10 


central  Soudan,  between  Kanem  and 
Bagirmi  in  tbe  w.  and  Darfur  in  tbe  B., 
with  a  pop.  estimated  at  about  2,000,- 
000.  It  consists  principally  of  an  ele- 
vated plateau,  very  fertile  in  some  parts, 
but  extending  into  the  Sahara  and  largely 
arid.  Its  fertile  districts  produce  abun- 
dantly maize,  millet,  indigo,  cotton,  etc. 
The  prevailing  religion  is  Mohammedan. 
Formerly  very  powerful  and  warlike,  it 
is  now  a  protectorate  of  France,  con- 
stituting part  of  the  Lake  Chad  territory 
or  Uinterland  of  French  Congo.  Capital 
Abesbr. 

Wade  (^A<^)>  Benjamin  B^nklin, 
Tvauc  statesman,  born  at  Spring- 
field, MassachusetU,  in  1800;  died  in 
1878.  He  studied  law,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  Ohio  in  1825,  and  elected  state 
senator  1837  and  1841,  made  judge  in 
1847.  and  elected  United  States  senator 
by  the  Whigs  in  1851,  remaining  in  tbe 
senate  till  1809.  He  advocated  tbe 
Homestead  bill,  voted  for  tbe  repeal  of 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  opposed  tbe 
Kansas-Nebraska  bill  of  1854,  and  during 
tbe  Civil  war  was  prominent  in  public 
affairs.  He  was  elected  president  of  tbe 
senate  in  1867,  and  was  a  prominent 
candidate  for  the  vice-pn»sidency  in  1868. 
WiiHa  James  Franklin,  military 
^*^^>  officer,  born  in  Ohio  in  1843. 
He  entered  the  army  &»  lieutenant  in 
1861,  served  with  distinction  throughout 
tbe  war,  was  brevetted  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  in  1865,  entered  tbe  regu- 
lar army,  and  rose  in  rank  from  major 
in  1866  to  brigadier-general  in  1897.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  war  with 
Spain  and  was  made  military  governor  of 
Cuba  in  1899.  He  subsequently  served 
in  tbe  Philippines  as  major-eeneral,  com- 
manded the  Atlantic  division  1904-07, 
and  retired  in  1907. 

WsirlAlfli  (wtt-d^lf),  a  military  post 
wiiuciiu  jij  ^y^  Equatorial  Province 
of  what  was  formerlv  tbe  Egyptian  Sou- 
dan, on  tbe  Albert  Nyanza,  now  in  tbe 
Congo  Free  State,  about  85  miles  N.  of 
the  Albert  Nyanuu  It  is  famous  as  tbe 
chief  station  of  Emin  Paaha.  8^ 
8hnUg€r. 


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Wading  Birds 


Wagtail 


Wading  Birds.   ®*®  ordOatores. 

Wfl.di    (^&'<in>  &  watercourse;  chiefly 
¥¥  auj.     ^jjg  ^^^  jg  j|yy  pj^j.^  ^f  ^jjg  time. 

Wafer  (wA'fer),  a  thin  circular  cake 
of  unleavened  bread,  gener- 
ally stamped  with  the  Christian  mono- 
gram, the  cross,  or  other  sacred  sjrmbol, 
used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 
the  administration  of  the  Eucharist — 
Also  a  small  disc  of  dried  paste  usually 
made  of  flour  and  water,  gum  and  color- 
ing matter,  used  for  sealing  letters,  etc 
Waiter  (wA'Jer),  a  bet  or  something 
VY  a5v^x  gtaif^  QQ  tjie  event  of  a  con- 
test or  some  unsettled  question.  The 
partv  whose  opinion  proves  to  be  correct 
receives  what  has  been  staked  by  both. 
By  statutes  of  Bncland,  Scotland,  and 
the  United  States  all  contracts. or  agree- 
ments, whether  by  parole  or  in  writing, 
depending  on  wagers,  are  null  and  void, 
and  money  due  thereon  cannot  be  recov- 
ered in  any  court  of  law.  A  wager  is 
therefore  merely  a  debt  of  honor. 
Was^a  (wA'Jez),  generally  speaking, 
^  the  payment  given  for  per- 
sonal services;  but  the  term  is  now  usu- 
ally restricted  to  the  money  paid  at  short 
intervals  for  mechanical  or  muscular 
labor,  otiier  than  that  performed  by  the 
more  educated  classes,  to  which  the  word 
salary  bears  reference.  In  some  States 
wages  can  be  legally  attached  for  debt. 
TXTafmAi*  Ghabijes,  a  French  writer, 
WH^uer,  bom  in  Alsace  in  1852. 
He  became  an  evangelist,  inculcating 
simple  Ghristiuiity  divested  of  dogma- 
tism, and  attracted  great  attention  by 
The  Simple  Life,  in  which  this  principle 
was  maintained.  Other  works  were 
YouiK  Courage,  etc.  He  lectured  in  the 
United  SUtes  in  1904. 
Wamier  (vAA'n^r),  Wilhelm  Rioh- 
o  '^^  ABD,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  modem  composers,  bom  at 
Leipzig  in  1818 ;  died  at  Venice,  Feb  13, 
18fi3.  He  received  bis  education  at 
Leipzig  and  Dresden.  From  1834  he 
filled  various  musical  engagements  at 
Madgeburg,  Riga  and  KOnigsberg.  In 
183S^1  he  went  to  Paris  and  London, 
and  composed  his  operas  of  Rienzi  and 
the  Flying  Dutchman.  The  brilliant  suc- 
c\sss  of  these  operas  secured  him  the 
conductorshlp  at  the  Royal  Opera  of 
Dresden  in  1843.  He  joined  the  insur- 
rectionary movement  of  1848-49,  and 
was  compelled  to  exile  himself.  Until 
his  return  to  Germany  in  1864  he  spent 
most  of  his  time  in  Switzerland,  Italy, 
Paris  and  London.  His  Tannhdu$er 
and  Lohengrin  appeared  in  1845  and 
1860,  respectively.  The  late  King  of  Ba- 
Taria,  Louis  II,  became  an  enthusiastic 


and  liberal  patron  of  Wa^er,  and  the 
theater  at  Baireuth,  especially  built  for 
Wagner,  was  chiefly  supported  from  the 
king's  purse.  Here  his  famous  tetralogy 
Der  Ring  des  Nihelungen,  consisting  of 
Das  Rheingold,  Die  WalkUre,  Siegfried 
and  Ootterdammerung,  was  first  per- 
formed in  1876  before  an  unusually  bril- 
liant and  appreciative  audience.  About 
a  year  before  his  death  he  produced  his 
last  creation,  Parsifal.  In  1870  he  had 
married,  as  second  wife,  Cosima  von 
BUlow,  a  daughter  of  the  Abb^  Liszt. 
Wagner     labored     to     reform     dramatl*; 


Wilhelm  Richard  Wagner. 

music  according  to  the  ideas  of  Gluok 
and  Weber,  and  gave  his  creations  a 
national  character  by  selecting  his  sub- 
jects from  old  German  heroic  legends. 
His  theory  (not  in  itself  specially  origi- 
nal) was  that  in  a  perfect  musical  drama 
the  three  arts,  poetry,  music,  and  dra- 
matic representation,  should  be  welded 
together  into  one  well-balanced  whole. 
This  theory  he  demonstrated  with  con- 
summate ability  and  unsurpassed  mac* 
nificence.  His  particular  views  on  music 
are  embodied  in  a  well-known  work  en- 
titled Oper  und  Drama. 
VJtkWtkfn  (vft'gram).  a  village  of 
WH^ram  ^^^^  Austria,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rossbach,  12  miles  N.  B.  of 
Vienna,  famous  for  tne  great  battle  in 
1809  between  the  French  under  Napoleon 
and  the  Austrians  under  the  Arcnduke 
Charles,  each  about  100,000  strong.  The 
battle  was  well  contested,  but  the  re^^uii 
gave  Napoleon  a  decisive  victory,  which 
was  followed  up  by  an  armistice  and  the 
treaty  of  SchOnbrunn  (October  14). 
TXTflcH-flil  (wag'tAl),  a  name  of  birds 
wa^au  included  in  the  family  of 
the  warblers,  and  so  termed  from  their 
habit  of  jerking  their  long  tails  when 
running     or     perching.    They     inbcipit 


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Wah  Wakefield 

meadow  lands  and  pastures,  frequent  Spanish  torpedo-boat  destroyers.  He  is 
water  pools  and  streams,  are  agile  run-  now  a  rear-admiral  in  the  nayy. 
ners,  and  have  a  rapid  flight  Their  food  Woite  (^^^)>  Mobbison  Kkmiok, 
consists  of  insects.  Their  nests,  built  on  «^»^  jurist,  bom  at  Lyme,  Ck>nnecti- 
the  ground,  contain  from  four  to  six  cut  in  1816 ;  died  in  1888.  He  was  grad- 
eggs.  These  birds  belong  to  both  Old  uated  from  Yale  Ck>llege  in  1837,  became 
and  New  Worlds,  and  migrate  south-  a  prominent  lawver  in  Ohio,  and  in  1874 
wards  in  winter.  Representative  varie-  became  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
ties,  distributed  principally  over  the  Court  of  the  United  States. 
European  continent  and  the  East,  are  Waits  (wftts),  the  name  given  at  one 
the  white  wagtail  (MotaciUa  alba);  the  ''«7*«"»  time  to  the  king's  minstrels, 
gray  wagtail  (if.  campestHs  or  Boa-  whose  duty  it  was  to  guard  the  streets 
rula)  ;  and  the  yellow  or  Ray's  wagtail  at  night  and  proclaim  the  hour;  to  the 
(if.  9ulphurea  or  Budytes  Rayi).  musicians   of   a    town;    and   to    private 

T[7a  li      See  Panda,  bands     when     employed     as    serenaders. 

^***»  The  term  is  now  applied  in  England  to 

WahahpM  (wA-ha'b€s),   Waha'bis,    those  who  sing  or  play  carols  on  Christ- 
w  liiiiiuccsi  ^jj.  waha'bites,  a  Moham-   mas  and  New  Years  Eve  with  a  view  to 
medan    sect,    founded    in    Arabia    about    donations.      ,     ,      ^        —  ^       , 
1760     by     Abd-el-Wah&b,     an     oriental   WaitZCll    (^^^en),  or  VIcz  (ylts),  a 
scholar  of  high  attainments.     He  deemed  market  town  and   bishopric 

it  his  mission  to  restore  Islamism  to  of  Hungary,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
strict  harmony  with  the  teachings  of  the  Danube,  20  miles  n.  of  Budapest.  It 
Koran  and  the  Sunna.  Thousands  has  a  splendid  cathedral  and  several 
flocked  to  the  Wahabee  standard,  and  monastic  and  scholastic  establishments, 
enabled  the  reformer  to  secure  the  whole   Pop.  16,808. 

of  his  native  province  Nejd,  and  to  carry  TXTa^atlDH  (^^^Wi-Wp^)*  *  pictur- 
his  victorious  arms  into  Yemen.  Under  •"^"•w  f**  esque  lake  in  the  South 
his  successors  the  greater  part  of  Arabia  Island  of  New  Zealand;  area,  112  acres, 
fell  under  the  Wahabee  power.  Mecca  Queenstown  and  Glenorchy,  on  the 
and  Hejaz  were  captured  in  1803,  and  borders  of  the  lake,  are  favorite  tourist 
the  loss  of  the  sacred  city  roused  the  resorts,  on  account  of  the  magnificent 
Turks  to  action.  Several  expeditions  mountain  scenery  in  the  vicinity, 
were  sent  from  Egypt,  and  in  1818  Woke  (^*^)t  ^  *®"^  corresponding 
Ibrahim    ^asha    was    at    last    successful  originally  to  vigil,  and  applied 

in  dispersing  the  Wahabee  forces,  in  cap-  to  a  festival  held  on  the  anniversary  of 
turing  their  capital,  Derayeh,  and  their  the  day  on  which  the  parish  church  was 
leaders,  who  were  executed  at  Ck)n-  consecrated  and  dedicated  to  a  saint 
stantinople.  The  Wahabees,  however,  A  lyke  or  lick  wake  (Anglo-Saxon,  lie, 
gradually  regained  their  influence,  espe-  a  corpse)  is  the  watching  of  a  dead 
cially  in  their  native  homes  of  Nejd,  body  by  night  by  the  relatives  and  friends 
where  they  form  at  present  an  independ- .  of  the  deceased.  The  practice,  once  gen- 
ent  state  of  Arabia.  The  latest  statistics  eral,  is  now  confined  to  the  lower  Irish 
of  Islamism  estimate  their  number  at  four  classes,  and  is  frequently  accompanied  by 
millions.  scenes  much  out  of  keeping  with  the  sad 

WoiVsito    (wft-kE't6),  one  of  the  prin-  occasion. 

wai&atu  ^jp^i  ^^^^  ^^  j^g^  2ea.  Wakefield  (wftk'f€ld),  a  municipal 
land,  in  the  North  Island;  length,  about  ^«^c"c*«  and  parliamentary  bor- 
200  miles.  It  traverses  a  district  of  ough  of  England,  in  the  West  Riding  of 
great  fertility.  Yorkshire,  on  the  Calder,  9  miles  s.  of 

Wainscot  (^ft^'skot),  the  name  Leeds.  It  is  well  built,  with  wide  and 
^^^  given  to  paneled  boards  regular  streets,  and  several  fine  public 
(usually  oak  or  chestnut)  employed  to  buildings.  Leeds,  Bradford,  and  Hali- 
line  the  internal  walls  of  an  apartment,  fax  have  to  a  great  extent  absorbed 
Wainscoting  of  oak  was  commonly  used  the  woolen  manufactures  of  Wake- 
in  England  for  interior  lining  in  Eliza-  field,  but  there  are  still  several  im- 
bethan  and^  Stuart  times.  portant    establishments,    and    the    trade 

Wainwri&rht  ^  ^*?'^^L^ »  Richabd,  m  wool,  com,  Sour,  and  malt  is 
«T    ...  T    .«^5*^**   officer,    bom    at  very    extensive.     Wakefield    was   created 

Washington  in  1849,  was  graduated  from  a  bishopric  in  1888.  Pop.  61,5ia 
the  Naval  Academy  in  1868.  became  lieu-  WnlrAfiAlH  a  town  (township)  of 
tenant  commander,  and  was  executive  ^  "^^"^*^>  Middlesex  Co.,  Massachu- 
officer  in  the  Maine  when  the  ship  was  setts,  10  miles  w,  of  Boston.  It  has  im- 
blown  up  in  Havana  harbor  in  1898.  portant  manufactures  of  rattan  and  knit 
He  commanded  the  Olouoester  in  the  goods,  boots  and  shoes,  stoves,  pianos,  etc. 
naval  fight  .at  Santiago  and  sunk  two  Fop.  12,000.- 


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Waloheren  Wales 

Wftlcheren    (vAl't^^n),    an    island  ori^n   the   Waldenses  have  been  distin- 

wTCMvuvAVAi.  ^^   Holland,   province  of  ruished  by  their  pure  morals  and  their 

Zeeland.  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt.     It  mdustry. 

is    level,    below    high-water    mark,    very  rjrr^ij^^^^    (val'der-sfi).      Alfbed, 

fertile,     populous,     and     prosperous.     It  Waiacrsee     (Jqunt    von     a    German 

M?iSiih„5^  i^l^^f^  ^""ZT  vLS""pS5'  «««»«ral,  bom  in  1832;  died  in  1904.    He 

K   ^**^iS55u^^^P'^^    ***^    ^^^    ^^^'  Served  in  the  Austrian  and  French  wars 

about  40.000.  r-».»r-a     tvwv.  of  1806  and  1870.  became  Moltke's  chief 

WolCOtt  ^^^""^^'S^tf^LJ^f  a«istant  in  1881,  and  chief  of  staff  of^the 

V.W   vn.v  ^S^vf^^^nH;     ^  ^9lS^  <>«"n*°  army  on  the  resignation  of  Von 

New   York   Mills,    New   York,    in    1850.  ^oltke.      In    1900    he    was    made    com- 

He  studied  geology,  became  assistant  on  mander-in^ihief   of   the   allied   forces   in 

the   New   York    and   afterwards   on    the  phina. 

United    States    Geological    Survey,    and  '^*""*' 

^rector  of  the  latter  in  1894.  He  wrote  lir«l|M|  (wto),  a  principality  in  the 
The  TrUohiie,  The  Cambrtan  Fauna  of  vVttiCB  southwest  of  the  island  of 
North  America,  etc.  Great  Britain,  which  since  Edward  I 
Waldeck  (^&1'<1^^)>  &  small  princi-  gives  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales  to  the 
pality  of  Western  Germany,  heir-apparent  of  the  British  crown ;  area, 
under  Prussian  administration^  consist-  7446  si^uare  miles;  pop.  2,032,103.  As  a 
ing  of  the  two  separate  territories  of  whole  it  is  very  mountainous,  particu- 
Waldeck  and  Pyrmont;  total  area,  433  larly  in  the  north,  where  Snowdon,  the 
square  miles;  pop.  60»127.  It  is  chiefly  culminating  point  of  South  Britain,  rises 
agricultural.  The  reigning  house  is  to  the  height  of  3571  feet ;  and  it  is  inter- 
one  of  the  most  ancient  in  Germany.  sected  by  beautiful  valleys,  traversed  by 
TXTolHATiaAa  (wal-den's^),  a  Chris-  numerous  streams,  including  among  others 
woAucuBCB  ^.^jj  gg^  which  owes  iu  the  large  river  Severn.  It  is  rich  in 
origin  to  Peter  Waldus  (Waldo),  a  rich  minerals,  particularly  coal,  iron,  copper, 
citfisen  of  Lyons.  About  1170  Waldo  by  l«ad,  and  zinc,  and  to  these  Wales  owes 
his  preaching  collected  numerous  fol-  its  chief  wealth.  The  coal  trade  is  most 
lowers,  who  were  often  confounded  with  extensive,  and  Cardiff  (which  see)  is  one 
the  Albigenses  and  others,  whose  fate  ?'  the  largest  coal  ports  m  the  worid. 
they  shared.  Their  chief  strongholds  I«>n,  steel,  and  copger  works  are  also 
were,  and  still  are,  in  the  mountain  tract  ?**  a  large  scale.  Besides  the  mineral 
of  the  Cottian  Alps,  southwest  of  Turin.  iBdustries,  there  are  considerable  woolen 
where,  since  1848.  they  (about  10,000)  °;*R?^*^'"'??»  especially  of  flannel,  coarse 
enjoy  the  same  religious  nghts,  and  now  ^o^h  and  bosierv  (See  England  and 
also  the  same  political  rights,  as  the  ^"^^VH  ^J^^  inhabitants  are  almost 
Roman  Catholics*^  of  Italy.  *"  The  design  JSJ^^L^SIJ^SaHv  RHto^-^lhn^^^ 
of  the  founder  was  to  reform  the  clergy,  L" VaintortLttrhr^^^  whe'S  ^^l 


S^Hnl;    u^.^    .^rt^AiZ^rZ  Ihl  io"^  are  Protestant  Nonconformists,  the 

f^Hn^^Wrf.    piS?  fniSp^^^^  °»o«t  numerous  bodies  being  the  Congre- 

SfcJinf.  i2.^Sh  ^/J^^«l  gationalists,    the    Calvinistic   Method&ts, 

religious  society.    They  were,   therefore,  j^^^j  ^^^  Baptists. 

excpmmun^ted  as  heretics,  and  for  cen-  Previous  to  the  Roman  occupation 
turies  suffered  occasional  persecution,  wales  appears  to  have  been  chiefly  in- 
Separate  congregations  found^  their  way  habited  liy  three  British  tribes,  called 
to  various  parts  of  Europe,  and  some  the  Siluiis,  Dimet«,  and  Ordovices. 
of  these  became  attached  or  amalgamated  During  the  later  period  of  the  Roman 
with  other  reformed  sects.  The  spiritual  occupation  the  subject  part  of  the  is- 
teachers  of  the  modern  Waldenses  are  land  was  divided  into  four  provinces,  of 
supplied  from  the  academies  of  the  Cal-  which  one,  including  the  country  from  the 
vinistic  churches.  The  Waldensian  rites  Dee  to  the  Severn,  was  called  Britannia 
are  limited  to  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Secunda.  It  was  after  the  invasion  of 
supper,  respecting  which  they  adopt  the  the  Saxons  that  the  country  acquired 
notions  of  Calvin.  Each  congregation  a  distinctive  national  character,  as  the 
is  superintended  by  a  consistory  composed  refuge  of  the  vanquished  Britons  who 
of  elders  and  deacons,  under  the  presi-  were  gradually  driven  to  the  west.  Prom 
dency  of  the  pastor,  which  maintains  the  this  period  till  the  final  conquest  of  the 
strictest  moral  discipline,  and  adjuste  country  by  Edward  I  there  was  little  but 
vnall  differeocet.    Fiom  the  time  of  their  a  auccessioo  of  petty  wars  between  the 


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Wales  Wales 

riral  chiefs  or  kings  into  which  both  There  are  a  number  of  poetic  pieces  at- 
coontries  during  a  great  part  of  the  tributed  to  Taliessin,  Aneurin,  Merlin, 
Saxon  period  were  divided,  or  the  more  and  Llywarch  Hen,  bards  supposed  to 
systematic  efforts  6f  the  larger  monarchy  have  lived  in  the  fifth  century ;  but  great 
to  absorb  the  smaller.  Among  the  great-  and  reasonable  doubts  have  been  thrown 
est  of  the  Welsh  heroes  of  the  early  on  the  authenticity  of  these  early  pro- 
period  was  Cadwallon.  After  being  de-  ductions,  which,  in  their  present  form  at 
feated  by  Edwin  of  Deira,  or  North-  least,  are  not  believed  to  be  earlier  than 
umbriat  and  compelled  to  flee  to  Ireland,  the  eleventh  century.  Subsequent  to 
he  returned  and  defeated  the  Saxons  in  this  time  there  were  numerous  poems 
numerous  battles,  but  was  at  last  de-  written,  many  in  praise  of  warriors, 
feated  and  slain  by  Oswald  of  North-  others  dealing  with  love,  or  descriptive 
nmbria  in  635.     The  last  of  the  Welsh  of  nature. 

princes.  Llewellyn,  who  revolted  against  Dafydd  ap  Gwilym  (1293-1366)  has 
£dwara  'I.  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  frequently  been  called  the  Ovid  of  Wales. 
Earl  of  Mortimer  in  1284,  and  since  that  A  welcome  guest  at  everv  mansion  in 
time  the  principality  has  been  incorpor-  Wales,  he  traveled  much  throughout  the 
ated  with  England.  There  were,  however,  land.  As  a  poet  of  nature,  few,  if  any,, 
for  a  number  of  years,  occasional  insur-  English  writers  equal  him  and  none  ap- 
rections,  some  with  French  assistance.  In  preached  him  before  Wordsworth.  He  is 
1400  Owen  Glendower,  incensed  by  an  familiar  with  every  bird  and  flower,  and 
encroachment  by  Lord  Qrey  de  Ruthyn,  his  descriptions  of  natural  objects  are 
rose  in  arms  and  held  his  own  for  a  not  the  conventional  ones  of  Chaucer,  but 
considerable  period,  Henry  IV  taking  the  indicate  a  profound  and  loving  familiarity 
field  against  him  in  vain.  In  1401  yery  with  nature's  innate  secrets.  To  the 
severe  rescriptive  laws  against  the  Welsh  earlier  poets  of  Wales  we  must  ascribe 
were  passed  and  Sir  Henry  Percy  (Hot-  the  origin  of  the  favorite  romances  of 
spur).  Justiciary  of  Chester,  was  put  Arthur  and  his  knights,  which  had  long 
in  command,  but  Owen  held  his  own,  been  floating  as  folklore,  but  were  first 
Henry  IV,  who  invaded  the  country  in  put  by  them  into  literary  shape.  Geoffrey 
1402,  being  driven  back  by  extraordinary  of  Monmouth  made  these  legends  known 
storms.  Owen  was  recognized  as  Prince  to  British  writers,  and  within  twenty 
of  Wales  in  1402,  and  allied  himself  with  years  afterwards  the  legendary  heroes  of 
Hotspur  and  others  for  a  partition  of  the  early  Britain  were  household  names 
kingdom,  but  Kinr  Henry  intercepted  throughout  Europe.  Among  the  Welsh 
Hotspur  in  his  march,  defeating  him  near  bards  of  later  date  may  be  named  Huw 
ShrewsbuiT.  Owen  continued  to  hold  out  Morris  (1622-1709)  and  Goronwy  Owen 
until  his  death  in  1415.  Wales  was  in-  (1772-80),  the  laUer  the  author  of  Cy- 
corporated  with  England,  with  English  wydd  v  Farn  ('Day  of  Judgment*), 
laws  and  liberties,  in  1536;  the  lords  which  is  regarded  as  the  finest  poem  in 
marchers'  surviving  jurisdiction  was  abol-  the  Welsh  language.  There  are  extant 
ished  in  1689 ;  and  the  Welsh  judiciary  a  number  of  prose  tales  or  romances,  the 
was  incorporated  in  the  judicial  system  of  chief  of  which  are  contained  in  a  collec- 
England  in  1831.  tion   known  as   the   Mahtnogior^   which 

The  native  name  of  the  Welsh  Ian-  dates  back  to  the  era  of  the  Arthur  ro- 
guage  is  Cymraeg,  the  speech  of  the  mances.  All  their  literature  existed  in 
Cymri  (which  see).  The  names  Wales  manuscript  until  1546,  when  appeared  the 
and  Welsh  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin,  first  Welsh  book  eyer  printed  Modern 
from  iceaUu,  strangers,  foreigners  (plural  works  in  Welsh  are  largely  confined  to 
of  wealh).  The  Welsh  language  is,  with  theology,  history  and  biography,  though 
the  other  Celtic  languages,  included  in  there  were  many  song  writers  in  the  nine- 
the  Indo-European  group.  The  alphabet  teenth  century,  with  some  writers  of 
contains  thirteen  simple  and  seven  double  literary  essays  and  novels.  Much  has 
consonants,  and  seven  Towels,  with  nu-  been  done  in  the  recent  period  in  reSdit- 
merous  diphthongs  and  triphthongs.  It  ing  the  old  Welsh  literature.  The  Jfy- 
is  still   spoken   exclusively   by  about   a  vyrian  Archaiology,  containing  poems,  hls- 

Suarter  of  a  million  of  the  inhabitants  of  torical  and  other  medieval  works,  was 
tie  principality.  The  necessities  of  published  early  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
commerce  are,  however,  gradually  doing  the  Mabinooion,  with  translations  in 
for  the  Welsh  language  what  they  have  1838,  and  Uie  Four  Ancient  Bookt  of 
done  for  the  Irish  and  Gaelic,  and  Eng-  TFolet,  containing  the  Book  of  Aneurin, 
lish  is  becoming  more  and  more  the  Ian-  the  Book  of  Taliesin,  the  Black  Book  of 
gnace  of  eyeryday  life  in  Wales.  The  Carmarthen,  and  the  Red  Book  of  Her- 
«arUest  remains  of  Welsh  literature  are  aest,  in  1868,  and  other  Welsh  texts  at 
•ipposed  to  belong  to  the  ninth  century,  different  dates. 


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Walei Walker 

TXToIas  Pmwcb  or,  the  tiUe  appUed  burgh,  Scotland,  in  1845,  daughter  of 
w  lUCBf  ^  ^g  eldeat  son  of  the  Eng-  John  Colquhoun,  author  of  The  Moor  and 
liflh  sovereign  since  the  period  of  the  con-  the  Loch.  She  wrote  The  Baby*$  Orand* 
quest  of  Wales  by  Edward  I.  After  the  mother,  A  Btiffnecked  Oeneration.  Th9 
fall  of  the  last  native  Welsh  princes,  Lie-  Matchmaker,  The  Intruder,  and  other 
wellyn  and  David,  in  1284,  Edward  is  books.  ^  ,.  .  .  . 

fabled  to  have  presented  the  Welsh  with  Wiilfiflnll  BlLV  (warfish),  a  British 
a  prince  in  his  infant  son  Edward,  bom  w»*^»^"  -"»/  settlement  and  har- 
at  Carnarvon  Castle,  but  he  warn  not  bor  of  refuge  in  Southwest  Africa,  on 
really  created  Prince  of  Wales  nntil  1801.  the  coast  of  Damaraland ;  area,  with 
Edward  III  made  his  son,  the  Black  Penguin  Island,  about  450  so.  miles ;  pop. 
Prince.  Prince  of  Wales  in  1343,  and  1000.  It  was  acquired  by  Great  Britain 
from  that  time  HU  the  present  the  title  in  1878,  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  in  1884, 
has  been  continuously  borne  by  the  eld-  and  is  governed  by  a  resident  magistratt 
est  son  of  the  British  monarch.     Until  from  that  colony. 

the  reign  of  Charles  II  the  connection  TITolliQlla  (wAl-hiHa),  a  magnHicent 
with  Wales  was  maintained  by  the  odd  ^  "^*"  *  and  sumptuously  decorated 
arrangement  of  providing  a  Welsh  wet-  Boric  octostyle  peripteral  temple,  on  the 
nurse  for  the  infant  Prince  of  Wales.  Danube,  near  Katisbon;  built  between 
The  title  has  usually  been  bestowed  by  1830-42.  as  a  national  pantheon,  con- 
patent  and  investiture,  though  in  a  few  secratea  to  celebrated  Germans  of  all 
instances  a  simple  declaration  has  sufficed  walks  of  life.  The  idea  of  the  erection 
to  make  the  hcdr  to  ^e  throne  Prince  of  is  derived  from  the  Walhalla  or  Valhalla, 
Wales.  The  eldest  son  of  t^e  sovereign  the  ancient  paradise  of  Odin  and  the 
inherits  the  title  of  Duke  of  Cornwall,  Scandinavian  deities.  (See  Valhalla.) 
which  title  was  first  bestowed  in  1337,  on  lITollrAr  (wa'ker),  FnAivois  AifA&A, 
Edward,  the  Black  Prince.  Edward  III  ^  »a^cx  pofitical  economist,  was  born 
bore  the  title,  before  his  accession  to  at  Boston,  Massachusetts,  July  2,  1840, 
the  throne,  of  Earl  of  Chester,  and  this  son  of  Amasa  Walkeb  (1779-1875). 
title  haa  since  accompanied  that  of  Prince  author  of  Nature  and  Use$  of  Money  and 
of  Wales.  When  a  Prince  of  Wales  dies  Soienee  of  Wealth,  He  was  graduated 
before  his  father,  his  son,  or  his  next  from  Amherst  College  in  1860,  became 
vounger  brother,  is  given  the  title,  be-  chief  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Statistics  in 
ing  heir  apparent,  thou^  this  waa  not  18^,  superintendent  of  the  census  in  1870 
done  in  the  case  of  Charles  I  until  four  and  1880,  commissioner  of  Inlian  affairs 
years  after  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  in  1871,  professor  of  political  economy  at 
The  Prince  of  Wales  also  bears  the  Scotch  Yale  in  1873,  and  president  of  the  Massa- 
titles  of  Great  Steward  of  Scotland,  Duke  chusetts  Institute  of  Technology  in  1881. 
of  Rotibsay,  Earl  of  Carrick,  Baron  of  His  works  include  The  Indian  Question; 
Renfrew  and  Lord  of  the  Isles,  and  the  Wagee  and  the  Wage  OUu$:  Money, 
Irish  title  of  Eari  of  Dublin  was  created  Trade  and  Industry;  Political  Hoonomy; 
for  him  in  1849.  The  Prince  of  Wales  Land  and  iU  Rent,  etc.  He  died  Janr 
has   a   separate   household   and  obtains  nary  5,  1897. 

the  larger  nart  of  the  revenues  of  the  Tn'ollrAr  Fbedebick,  an  English  paint- 
Dudiy  of  (3omwall,  amounting  approxi-  ^  O'^^^'-f  er,  bom  at  London  In  1840; 
mately  to  |600,00(X  with  an  annuity  of  died  in  1875.  At  an  early  age  he 
about  $100,000.  By  a  statute  of  the  began  drawing,  and  after  spending 
Order  of  the  Garter  in  1805,  the  Prince,  about  eighteen  months  in  an  archir 
when  he  receives  hia  title,  becomes  a  tecf  ■  office  became  a  student  at  the 
Knight  of  the  Garter.  The  arms  of  the  Royal  Academy  (1858),  and  commenced 
Prince  are  those  of  the  sovereign,  and  he  deagning  for  wood  engravers.  The  illus- 
bears  besides  a  badge  composed  of  a  trations  he  supplied  mm  1800-64  to  the 
plume  of  three  white  ostrich  feathers  en-  ComhiU  Magatine  and  Onoe  a  Week  are 
circled  by  an  ancient  coronet  of  a  Prince  full  of  life,  and  rank  high  as  specimens 
of  Wales,  with  the  motto  'Ich  Dien*  of  this  kind  of  draughtsmanship.  Some 
(*  I  Serve*).  of  these  drawings  he  reproduced  in  water- 

Wftlfift  WILLIAM,  an  English  astron-  color,  in  which  medium  he  produced  a 
«^**">  omer,  bom  about  1734 ;  died  in  number  of  exquisite  pictures.  In  1863  he 
1798.  He  observed  the  transit  of  Venus  exhibited  his  first  oil  painting,  The  Lost 
at  Hudson  Bay  in  1768,  and  accompanied  Path,  at  the  Royal  Academy,  and  was 
Captain  Cook  in  his  second  and  third  made  an  associate  R.A.  in  1871.  His 
voyages.  Chosen  a  Fellow  of  the  Loyal  best  works  in  oil  are  The  Bathers  and 
Society  in  1776;  and  published  Otnerai  By  the  PlouaK  Originality,  poetic  feel- 
Observations  Made  at  Hudson  Bay,  ing,  graceful  drawinc  and  remarkable 
UTalfAnl  (wftl'fuid),  LnoT  Bkthia,  puiity  and  range  of  color  characteriie  hia 
^*"^™  novelist,    iwm    near    Bdiar  pain^iga. 


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Walker 


Wallace 


WallrAr  Obobob,  was  born  of  Bog* 
wax&eri  ligj^  parents,  in  county  Ty- 
rone, Ireland,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  the  Boyne  in  1690.  He 
studied  theology  at  Glasgow  University, 
and  after  taking  orders  obtained  the  Uy- 
ing  of  the  parish  of  Donoughmore.  He 
was  rescued  from  obscurity  by  the  arrival 
of  James  II  in  Ulster  (1689),  which 
caused  Walker  to  seek  refuge  in  London- 
derry; and  in  the  memorable  siege  of 
that  city  he  took  the  most  prominent 
part  both  in  word  and  deed.  (See  Lon^ 
donderry,)  After  the  siege  Walker  went 
to  London,  was  presented  with  the  bish- 
opric of  Derry  and  £5000  and  parliament 
voted  him  its  thanks.  Instead  of  taking 
quiet  possession  of  his  bishopric  he  ac- 
companied William  III  in  his  Irish  cam- 
paign, and  fell  a  victim  to  his  courage. 
Wflllrpi*  John,  an  English  lezicograph- 
waiJicr,^^^  bom  in  Middlesex  in 
1732;  died  in  1807.  He  published  A 
Rhyming  Dictionary  and  Critical  Dic- 
tionary and  Ewpositor  of  the  English 
Language,  which  became  very  popular. 
T[rfl11rpr  RoBEBT  J.,  statesman,  was 
wauicry  jj^yjj  ^j  Northumberland, 
Pennsylvania,  in  1801 ;  died  in  1869.  He 
removed  to  Natchez  in  1826,  practiced 
law  there,  and  was  elected  United  States 
Senator  by  the  Democratic  party  in  1835. 
He  strongly  supported  the  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  United  States,  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  the  Treasury  by 
President  Polk  in  1845,  and  made  a 
report  in  favor  of  free  trade  which  at- 
tracted much  attention.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  Kansas  in  1857, 
but  dissatisfaction  with  the  policy  of  the 
government  caused  him  to  resign  his  gov- 
ernorship in  1858. 

T[rfl11rpr  William,  filibuster,  was 
wiu&cry  j^^  ^^  Nashville,  Tennes- 
see, in  1824,  and  emigrated  to  California 
about  1850.  In  1855  he  led  a  party  of 
adventurers  to  Nicaragua,  took  the  side 
of  one  of  the  factions  engaged  in  civil 
war,  captured  Granada,  assumed  the  title 
of  President  of  Nicaragua,  and  reestab- 
lished slavery,  which  had  been  abolished. 
He  was  driven  from  power  in  1857  and 
retired  to  New  Orleans.  In  1860  he  led 
an  expedition  against  Honduras  and  was 
captured  and  shot  at  Truxillo  in  Septem- 
ber, 1860. 

Walking  Delegate,  ^^  ^  e  n°  "^  ?n 

official  of  a  trade  union,  whose  duty  is 
to  visit  places  where  members  of  the 
union  are  emploved  and  ascertain  if  they 
are  keeping  the  laws  of  the  craft.  When 
an  unexpected  strike  has  been  ordered 
by   the  union  directors  it  is  his  duty 


to  notify  the  workmen  to  stop  work  at 
the  place  or  places  indicated. 

Walking-Leaves  and  Walking- 

Stifika      ^^    Leaf-ineectt,    Phaemida, 
i^vxvxKo.     Mimicry. 

WalkyriaS.     see  Fattyna*. 

Wflllfl.bv  (wora-bi),  a  name  common 
YvcMxaruj  ^^  several  rather  small-sized 
kangaroos  of  the  genus  Halmatarus.. 
TXTolliiAA  (worias),  Alfred  Russell 
wauace  ^aturaUst,  was  born  at  Ust 
Monmouthshire,  England,  Jan.  8,  182?, 
and  was  educated  at  Hertford  Grammar- 
schooL  He  spent  many  years  in  travel 
ing,  especially  in  South  America  and 
the  Asiatic  Islands,  and  the  valuabl« 
material  collected  in  these  scientific  ex 
plorations  he  embodied  in  Travels  on  the 
Amagon  and  Rio  Negro,  The  Malay 
Archil^lagOj.  Tropical  Nature,  The  Oeo 
graphtciU  Distribution  of  Animals,  etc 
His  observation  of  animal  life  early  led 
him  on  to  the  track  of  natural  selection, 
and  before  Darwin  gave  his  famous  work 
to  the  world  he  had  published  his  Bpecu 
lations  on  the  Oriptn  of  Bpecies,  His 
share  in  establishing  the  theory  was 
acknowledged  by  Darwin.  But  while 
Darwin,  in  his  later  editions  of  the 
Origin  of  Species,  somewhat  modified  his 
original  conclusions,  ^  Wallace,  in  bis 
recent  work,  Darwinism,  an  imposition 
of  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selection 
(1889),  strongly  insists  upon  the  com- 
plete controlling  power  of  these  primary 
laws  and  conditions.  Wallace,  however, 
differs  from  Darwin  on  the  subject  of  the 
intellectual,  moral,  and  spiritual  nature 
of  man.  He  contends  that  the  higher 
faculties  have  been  developed  not  under 
the  law  of  natural  selection,  but  under  a 
higher  law,  which  has  come  in  imper- 
ceptibly; and  that  the  Darwinian  theory 
supports  this  view.  Among  his  later 
works  are  Miracles  and  Modem  Spiritu^ 
atism  (in  which  he  declares  a  full  be* 
lief).  Island  Life,  Land  Nationalization, 
etc.  He  died  November  7.  1913. 
TXTolloAA  Lewis,  soldier  and  author, 
wouituc,  bom  at  Brookville,  Indi- 
ana,  April  10,  1827.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  the  Mexican  and  Civil 
wars;  was  appointed  Governor  of  New 
Mexico,  1880;  and  Minister  to  Turkey, 
1881-85.  He  practiced  law  and  wrote 
very  extensively.  Among  his  works  are 
The  Fair  Qod;  Ben  Hur,  A  Tale  of  the 
Christ,  etc.  The  latter  has  had  a  greater 
circulation  than  any  work  since  Uncle 
Tom*s  Cabin.  He  died  February  15, 
1905. —  His  wife,  Susan  E.  Wallace, 
wrote  The  Storied  Sea,  Along  the  Bos- 
porus, and  other  works. 


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Wallace  Wallenstein 

Wallace     ^'^  Wiluah,   the  hero  of  height  of  220  feet.     It  serves  the  pur- 
^    Scottish     independence,     is   pose  of  a  Scottish  Walhalla,  and  busts 
said  to  have  been  the  younger  son  of  Sir  of  eminent  Scotchmen  are  from  time  to 
Malcolm      Wallace     of     Elderslie     and   time  added. 

Auchinbothie,  by  Margaret,  daughter  of  WqIIoaa  William  Vincent,  musi- 
Sir  Reynold  Crawford,  sheriff  of  Ayr.  ^  «*""'V^)  ^al  composer,  was  bom  of 
He  was  probably  bom  about  1270.  For  Scotch  parents,  at  Waterford,  England, 
the  most  detailed  particulars  we  possess  in  1814;  died  in  France  in  1865.  His 
about  this  famous  Scottish  character  we  father,  a  bandmaster  in  the  army,  taught 
are  almost  entirely  dependent  on  Blind  him  to  play  on  the  usual  military  instru- 
Harry  (see  Harry  the  Mimtrel)  ;  but  ments,  and  procured  him  teachers  of  the 
the  narratives  cannot  bear  the  scmtiny  violin,  pianoforte,  and  guitar.  He  spent 
of  the  critical  historian.  Contemporary  some  years  in  Australia,  and  made  an 
Scottish  records  do  not  exist,  while  the  extensive  concert  tour  in  the  Australian 
English  chroniclers  of  the  period  were  colonies,  in  India,  and  in  America.  In 
but  imperfectly  informed  and  prejudiced.  1845  he  went  to  London,  and  devoted 
Wallace  is  described  as  a  man  of  hercu-  himself  to  composition.  His  first  opera, 
lean  proportions  and  stren^^th,  and  it  is  Maritana,  was  produced  at  Drury  Lane, 
certain  that  he  possessed  in  a  high  de-  in  1846,  and  secured  him  at  once  a  repu- 
gree  the  qualifications  of  a  commander,  tation.  Lvrline  and  the  Amber  Witch 
He  is  represented  as  having  been  for  are  his  other  chief  operatic  compositions, 
some  years  engaged  in  a  partisan  war  For  the  pianoforte  he  wrote  numerous 
against  the  English  before  what  is  repre-  airs  of  great  sweetness,  which  are  very 
sented   by  Blind   Harry  as  the  turning-   popular. 

point     in    his    career    took    place,     the  T[ra11fl.oliio       See  Roumania. 
slaughter  of  Haselrig  in  revenge  for  the    ^  «*"'*"'V*""" 

murder  of  his  wife,  and  in  pursuance  of  Wollonk  (wal'lak),  James  William, 
his  vow  of  etemal  vengeance  against  the  «'<"'«'V»xk  ^^^  American  actor,  bom  in 
invaders  of  his  country.  Henceforth  he  London  in  1795 ;  died  in  1864.  He  made 
continued  in  open  resistance  to  the  Eng-  his  first  appearance  in  the  United  States 
lish,  and  having  collected  a  considerable  at  the  Park  Theater,  New  York,  in  1818, 
force  was  besieging  the  castle  of  Dundee  opened  the  National  Theater  in  1825, 
when  he  heard  that  Surrey  and  Cress-  Wa Hack's  Lyceum  in  1852,  and  Wal- 
ingham  were  advancing  upon  Stirling  lack's  Theater  in  1861. —  His  son,  Lbsteb 
with  a  large  army.  He  met  them  in  the  John,  bora  in  New  York  in  1820,  con- 
vicinity  of  that  town,  and,  thanks  to  his  ducted  Wallack's  Theater  with  much  suc- 
ingenious  military  tactics,  gained  a  com*   cess  for  many  years.     He  wrote  the  plays 

{)lete  victory  (1297).  After  this  Wal-  of  The  Veteran  and  Rosedale,  also  Me- 
ace  appears  with  the  title  of  Guardian  tnoirs  of  Fifty  Year%,  He  died  Septem- 
of  the  Kingdom,  which  was  temporarily    ber  6,  1888. 

cleared  of  the  English,  and  is  found  con-  X7all&.roo  (^ol'a-rd),  the  native  Aus- 
ducting  a  series  of  organized  raids  into  '▼«****"'*^^  tralian  name  given  to  two 
England.  In  1298  Edward  I  entered  species  of  kangaroos,  the  Maordpiu  an- 
Scotland  with  an  army  estimated  at  ttpolinu$,  the  red  wallaroo,  and  M. 
nearly  90,000  men.  Wallace  retired  be-  rohu€tu$,  the  black  wallaroo,  found  in 
fore  him,  wasting  the  country,  but  was    New  South  Wales. 

at  length  overtaken  at  Falkirk,  com-  TXTolloron  ^  seaport  town  in  South 
pelled  to  fight,  and  after  a  gallant  re-  ^  «***"'*  w,  Australia,  on  the  Spencer 
sistance  his  army  was  routed.  He  sue-  Gulf,  91  miles  north  of  Adelaide.  The 
ceeded  in  escaping,  and  little  is  known  Wallaroo  and  other  copper  mines  are  in 
of  his  movements  henceforth.  He  was  the  neighborhood,  and  the  largest  smelt- 
excluded  from  the  peace  granted  by  EM-  ing  works  in  the  colony  are  carried  on 
ward  to  the  Scottish  council  of  regency  «t  Wallaroo  Bay.  Pop.  2920. 
in  1304,  and  every  effort  was  made  to  Wollo  Wallft  (woI'lA  woriA),acity, 
secure  his  apprehension.  It  was  effected  »"»  ^»  €***«»  capj^ni  ^f  ^  county  of 
through  Alexander  de  Monteith,  gov-  the  same  name  in  Washington,  on  the 
eraor  of  Dumbarton  Castle.  Wallace  Walla  Walla  River.  It  is  in  a  rich  grain, 
was  conveyed  to  London,  and  after  a  fruit  and  livo-stock  region  with  an  exten- 
mock  trial  found  guilty  of  treason  and  sive  trade.  It  has  a  large  foundry,  agri- 
rebellion.  and  executed  on  August  cultural  machine  works,  flour  mills,  etc 
23,  1305.  A  memorial  to  Wallace  has  Here  are  several  collegiate  institutions, 
been  placed  on  the  summit  of  Abbey  a  state  penitentiary,  and  a  military  post. 
Craig,   near  Stirling,   in   the  form  of  a  P«n.  20,963. 

Scotch  baronial  tower,  surmounted  by  Wallenstein  <v**  en-stin),  Al- 
an   architectural    crown,    and    having    a        ^^^^^»^^^^    brecht  Wenzel  Eufl»- 


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Wallenstein  Wallis 

BIU8,  YON,  Duke  of  Friedland,  a  famous  TXTollAr  (worer),  Edmund,  an  Eng- 
leader  In  the  Thirty  Years'  war,  was  ^"^^*  lish  poet,  bom  at  Coleshill, 
born  on  the  paternal  estate  of  Hermanic,  Hertfordshire,  in  1605 ;  died  in  1687. 
Bohemia,  In  1583;  assassinated  at  Eger  He  was  early  left  an  orphan  with  a 
in  1634.  Both  his  father  and  mother  considerable  estate,  and  was  educated  at 
belonged  to  the  Bohemian  evangelical  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
church^^but  shortly  after  their  early  His  mother  was  a  sister  of  John  Hamp- 
death  Wallenstein  went  over  to  the  Ro-  den,  and  a  royalist,  but  all  the  rest  of 
man  Catholic  faith.  He  finished  his  his  relatives  were  against  the  court  It 
studies  at  the  Universities  of  Bolocna  is  stated  that  Waller  wrote  poetry  at 
and  Padua,  and  traveled  in  Italy,  Ger-  eighteen,  but  his  first  collection  of  poems 
many,  France,  Spain,  England  and  the  did  not  appear  until  1645.  As  an  ele- 
Netherlands.  He  took  military  service  gant  amatory  and  panegyrical  poet,  a 
in  Hungary,  and  returned  to  Bohemia  at  brilliant  talker  and  wit,  he  was  a  great 
the  peace  of  1606  with  the  rank  of  cap-  favorite  at  court,  in  parliament,  and  in 
tain.  When  the  Thirty  Years'  war  broke  society.  But  his  political  conduct  is  not 
out  in  Bohemia  (16j8)  he  joined  the  honorable.  At  heart  he  probably  re- 
imperial  forces  against  his  native  coun-  mained  true  to  royalty,  but  he  sang  the 
try.  His  estates,  valued  at  30  million  praises  of  the  Lord  Protector  as  well  as 
florins,  he  was  allowed  to  form  into  those  of  the  Charleses.  He  was  sent  as 
the  territory  of  Friedland,  and  in  1624  the  commissioner  from  parliament  to  the 
he  was  created  Duke  of  Friedland.  He  king  after  Edgehill.  Shortly  after  he 
raised   a   large  army   to  assist   the  em-  plotted  in  favor  of  the  king,  and  when 

Seror  against  the  Lower  Saxon  League;  detected   turned   informer.     His  brother- 

efeated     Count     Mansfeld     at     Dessau  in-law,  Tomkins,  and  the  latter's  friend, 

(April,    1626),    and    compelled    Bethlen  Chaloner,   suffered   death,    while   Waller 

Gabor   to   conclude   a    truce;    conquered  by    his   judicious    bribery    got    off    with 

Silesia,    and    bought   from   the   emperor,  banishment  and  a  fine  of  £10,000.    After 

partly  with  military  services,  partly  with  nearly  ten  years  of  exile  in  Paris,  Crom- 

plunder,  the  duchy  of  Sangan  and  other  well  allowed  Waller  to  return  in  1653, 

extensive   estates.     In    September,    163(1  and  he  took   his  usual  place  in  sodetv 

owing  to  the  jealousy  of  the  nobles  and  and  parliament,  and  was  afterwards  wel- 

the  license  of  his  followers,  he  was  de-  come  at  the  courts  of  Charles  II  and 

S rived  of  his  command,  and  retired  to  his  James  II. 

uchy    of    Friedland    until    the    emperor  Wallflower    (wftl'flou-er),    the    com- 

was   compelled    to   seek   his   aid   against  «*****v  ^  ^*    mon  name  of  the  species 

Gustavus     Adolphus.     Wallenstein     now  of  plants  belonging  to  the  genus  Chei- 

obtained  almost  absolute  power,  and  did  ranihus,  nat  order  Cruciferae.     They  are 

not  fail  to  abuse  It     His  behavior  hence-  biennial    or    perennial    herbs    or    under- 

forth  leaves  no  doubt  that  the  emperor's  shrubs.    Many  of  them  exhale  a  delicious 

interests   were   second   to   his   own,   and  odor,  and  are  great  favorites  in  gardens, 

that  he  would  not  have  hesitated  to  join  The  best  known  is  the  C.  Cheiri,  or  com- 

the  emperor's  enemies  to  secure  his  own  mon  wallflower,  which,  in  its  wild  state, 

independence  and  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  grows   on   old    walls   and    stony    places. 

After  some  partial  successes  he  encoun-  In   the  cultivated  plant  the  flowers  are 

tered    the   King   of    Sweden    at   Ltttzen,  of  more  varied  and  brilliant  colors,  and 

November  16,  1632,  in  which  battle  Wal-  attain  a  much  larger  size  than   in  the 

lenstein  was  defeated  and  Gustavus  killed,  wild  plant,  the  flowers  of  which  are  al- 

Wallenstein  had  unsuccessfully  treated  on  ways  yellow. 

his  own  account  with  the  Swedish  king,  Wfllllllffford    (wol'ing-fird),   a   bor- 

and   he   now   secretly   reopened   negotia-  ^  •****"&* v*"-    ©ugh    of    New    Haven 

tions    with    France    and     the    German  Co.,  Connecticut,  on  the  Quinepiac  River 

princes,  occasionally  taking  the  field  to  and  two  railroads,  12  miles  n.  n.  e.  of 

display  his  military  power.     The  court  at  New    Haven.     It    has    manufactures    of 

Vienna  was  well  aware  of  his  crafty  di-  silver   and   plated    ware,    insulated    wire 

plomacy,  but  the  emperor  was  not  strong  and  fireworloi.     Pop.  11,155. 

enough  to  remove  him,  and  had  recourse  TXTollia    (wol'ls),    John,    an    English 

to  assassination.    This  was  done  at  Eger,  «•***»   mathematician,  bom  in  1616 ; 

where    Wallenstein    had    retreated     for  died  in  1703.     Educated  for  the  church 

safety,    and    where    he    was    killed    by  at  Emanuel  0>llege.  Cambridge,  he  took 

Colonel  Gordon,  commandant  of  the  for-  orders  in  1640,  and  in  1663  obtained  a 

treat,  and  his  fellow  officers  Butler,  Les-  living  in  London.    He   was   one  of  the 

lie.    and   Devereux.    Wallenstein   la   the  secretaries  to  the  assembly  of  divines  at 

subject  of  and  gives  the  title  to  one  of  Westminster;  became  Savilian  professor 

Schiller's  best  dramatic  poems.  of  geometry  at  Oxford  in  1649,  and  D.D. 


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Walloons 


Walpole 


in  1654.  Charles  II,  for  seryiceB  ren- 
dered to  the  royal  canse,  made  him  one 
of  the  royal  chaplains,  and  in  1661  he 
was  one  of  the  divines  appointed  to  re- 
vise the  Book  of  Common'  Prayer.  He 
was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  useful 
members  of  the  Royal  Society,  founded 
in  1663.  He  was  the  author  of  many 
mathematical,  theological,  and  contro- 
versial works  and  papers,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  his  Aritkmeiio  of 
the  Infinities  and  his  Mechanics, 
Walloons  (wa-lOnz'),  or  Wallonb', 
lineal  descendants  of  the 
old  Gallic  Beige,  who  occupy  the  Bel- 
gian provinces  of  Hainault,  Li^e, 
Namur,  and  part  of  Southern  Brabant 
and  Western  Luxembourg.  They  are 
superior  in  physique  to  their  Flemish 
compatriots,  and  a  large  proportion  of 
them  have  black  hair  and  eyes.  In  1005 
there  were  resident  in  Belgium  3,600,000 
Flemish,  and  3300.000  Walloons.  Their 
language,  also  called  Walloon,  is  a 
French  patois  retaining  numerous  Gallic 
words,  but  it  somewhat  varies  in  the 
different  provinces. 

WftU  Paner  paper  used  to  cover  the 
wau  Jraper,  ^^jj^  ^^  dwellings,  or- 
namented with  a  pattern  printed  in 
colors.  It  has  come  into  very  general 
use,  and  manv  of  the  more  costly  wall 
papers  are  highly  artistic  and  ornamental. 

Wallsend  i^i^J'^^t^',  *,  ^^^"^  .?^ 

•^  ^  **  Northumberland,  on  the 
Tyne,  4  miles  N.  E.  of  Newcastle.  It  is 
named  from  being  situated  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  Roman  Wall,  and  was 
formerly  famous  for  its  coal.  Metal  and 
chemical  works  form  the  chief  industries. 
Pop.  41,464. 

WaU  Street,  ^jJeV'To^S'  X7  ?n 

which  the  yarious  exchanges  and  the 
largest  banking  institutions  are  situated, 
and  stocks  and  bonds  are  dealt  in  to  a 
vast  extent.  Its  control  over  finance  has 
spread  until  now  it  affects  the  whole 
country  and  is  a  rival  of  the  great 
financial  centers  of  Europe. 
WfllTint  (warnut),  the  common  name 
Wainnx  ^^  Species  of  trees  and  their 
fruit  of  the  genus  Juglane,  nat  order 
Juglandaceas,  The  best  known  are  the 
common  European  species  of  walnut  tree 
(J.  repia),  a  native  of  several  Eastern 
countries  and  the  black  walnut  (J. 
nigra),  found  in  most  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  latter  often  grows  to  large 
size,  the  trunk  in  favorable  situations  at- 
taining a  diameter  of  6  to  7  feet.  The 
European  species  is  a  large,  handsome 
tree  with  strong  spreading  brapches. 
The  timber  of  the  walnut  is  of  great 
Talue,  is  very  durable,  takes  a  fine  polish, 


and  is  a  beautiful  furniture  wood.  It 
is  also  employed  for  turning  and  fancy 
articles,  and  especially  for  gun-stocks, 
being  light  and  at  the  same  time  hard 
and  fine  grained.  The  ripe  fruit  is  one 
of  the  best  of  nuts,  and  forms  a  favorite 
item  of  dessert  It  yields  by  expression 
a  bland  fixed  oil,-  which,  under  the 
names  of  toalnui-oU  and  nut-oil,  is  used 
by  painters,  and  in  the  countries  in  which 
it  is  produced  is  a  common  article  of  diet. 
In  copper-plate  printing  it  is  employed 
to  produce  a  fine  impression,  either  in 
black   or  colors.     By   boiling   the  husks 


Walnttt  iJufflanaregia), 

when  beginning  to  decay,  and  the  bark  of 
the  roots,  a  substantial  dark-brown  color 
is  obtained,  which  is  used  by  dyers  for 
woolens,  and  also  by  cabinet-makers  to 
stain  other  species  of  wood  in  imitation 
of  walnut  The  fruit,  in  a  green  state, 
before  the  shell  hardens,  is  much  used 
for  pickling.  The  American  species 
yields  a  wood  preferable  to  the  European 
walnut  for  furniture  and  carpentry  pur- 
poses, its  abundant  use  having  caused  a 
scarcity  of  this  handsome  and  valuable 
lumber.  Its  nuts  are  inferior,  the  shell 
being  much  harder,  though  the  kernel  is 
very  oily.  The  butternut  (/.  cathartioa) 
is  another  noteworthy  variety.  See  But- 
ternuU 

Wfll-nnip  (worpol),  Horace,  Barl  of 
Wiupoxe  orford,  third  son  of  Sir 
Robert  Walpole,  bom  in  1717;  died  in 
1797.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  on  leaving 
which  he  traveled  two  years  on  the  con- 
tinent in  company  with  Gray,  the  poet 
Returning  in  1741  he  entered  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  he  sat  for  various  con- 
stituencies up  to  1768.    He  always  took 


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Walpole  Walrus 

a  lively  but  superficial  interest  in  politics,  many  improvements  in  the  tariff.  lo 
inclining  sentimentally  to  extreme  opin-  1724  he  was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Bath, 
ions.  In  1747  he  purchased  Strawberry  in  1726  a  Knight  of  the  Garter,  and 
Hill,  near  London,  where  he  erected  a  on  February  9,  1742,  two  days  before  his 
Gothic  villa,  laid  out  the  grounds  with  resignation,  he  was  created  Earl  of  Or- 
minute  ingenuity,  and  made  it  a  principal  ford.  In  an  age  famous  for  venality 
business  of  his  life  to  adorn  and  furnish 
it  with  objects  of  curiosity  and  anti- 
quarian interest.  His  maintenance  was 
provided  for  bv  some  sinecure  appoint- 
ments, obtainea  through  his  fathers  in- 
fluence. To  his  antiquarian  taste  he 
added  authorship,  first  in  verse  and 
afterwards  more  extensively  In  prose,  and 
in  1757  he  established  a  private  printing 
press  at  Strawberrv  Hill,  at  which  he 
printed  not  only  his  own  works  but 
those  of  others.  In  1791  he  succeeded 
his  nephew  in  the  peerage.  He  never 
took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
appears  to  have  avoided  using  his  title. 
Walpole's  works  are  numerous;  but  his 
fame  as  a  writer  rests  on  his  LetterM  and 
Memoirs,  The  former  are  held  to  be 
unsurpassed    in    the    English    language, 

and    both    are    highly    interesting    and  ai,  w^k-,*  w-i.w*!- 

valuable    as    a   storehouse   of    the    more  Sir  Robert  Walpole. 

evanescent  traits  of  contemporary  his- 
tory. His  romance,  The  Castle  of  and  lax  morals  he  was  the  least  cor- 
Otranio,  is  also  well  known.  Walpole's  rupted,  the  soberest,  and  the  haniest 
manners  were  affected;  he  was  fastidi-  working  of  the  leaders  of  both  factions, 
ously  aristocratic,  sensitive  to  criticism,  An  able  monograph  on  Walpole  has  been 
and  eager  for  applause;  but  under  his  published  by  John  Morley. 
vanity  and  frivolity  there  existed  a  sub-  WQl'niir?&.  (v&ljP^i^saJt  Walbubga, 
stratum  of  good  sense  and  sound  judg-  ^  •"••■■F  ***&•"'  or  Walpurgis,  a  female 
ment  saint,    born    in    England    early    in    the 

WalDOle  ^^^  RoBEBT,  Earl  of  Or-  eighth  century;  died  in  779.  She  wa« 
-^  '  ford,  statesman,  was  bom  for  many  years  a  nun  in  a  Dorsetshire 
at  Houghton,  England,  in  1676;  and  died  convent.  As  a  niece  of  St.  Boniface 
in  1745.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and  and  sister  of  St.  Willibald.  first  bishop 
at  King's  College,  Cambridge;  succeeded  of  Eichstfldt,  Bavaria  (741-786),  she 
to  the  paternal  estate  in  1700,  and  en-  was  induced  to  proceed  to  Germany  to 
tered  parliament  as  member  for  Castle  found  convents,  and  in  754  she  became 
Rising.  In  1702  he  was  elected  for  abbess  of  Heidenheim,  a  convent  within 
King's  Lynn,  became  an  active  member  her  brother's  bishopric.  She  died  at  the 
of  the  Whig  party,  and  soon  distin-  latter  place,  but  was  buried  at  Eichstttdt, 
guished  himself  by  his  business  capacity,  where  her  shrine  was  visited  by  many 
and  by  his  easy,  plausible,  and  dispas-  pilgrims  and  was  the  scene  of  many 
sionate  debates.  He  was  secretary  of  miracles.  The  eve  of  May  1,  associated 
war  and  leader  in  the  Commons  in  170S,    with   some   of   the  most   popular   witch 

faymaster  of  the  forces  in  1714  and  superstitions  of  Germany,  is  called  Wal- 
rzO,  and  first  lord  of  the  treasurv  and  purgu-night,  but  her  feast  falls  properly 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  1715,  and  on  the  25th  of  February, 
again  in  1721.  From  the  latter  date  Wolriifl  (worms),  a  marine  camiv- 
until  1742  he  held  without  interruption  ^  «*****»  orus  mammal,  the  single  spe- 
the  highest  office  in  the  state,  that  of  cies  constituting  a  genus  Trichicus,  as 
prime  minister.  During  his  long  ad-  well  as  the  family  Trichecids,  and  be- 
ministration  the  Hanoverian  succession,  longing,  with  its  allies,  the  seals,  to  the 
to  which  he  was  zealously  attached,  pinnigrade  section  of  the  order  Camiv- 
became  firmly  established,  a  result  to  ora.  The  walrus,  which  is  also  known 
which  his  prudence  and  political  as  the  morse,  sea-horse  and  sea-cow,  has 
sagacity  largely  contributed.  He  pro-  a  general  resemblance  to  the  seals,  but 
moted  by  an  enlightened  policy  the  com-  is  especially  remarkable  from  the  up- 
mercial  prosperity  of  the  nation,  and  per  canine  teeth  being  enormously  d«- 
zeUeved     the    weight    of    taxation     by  veloped  in  the  adults,   constituting  two 


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Walsall 


Waltham 


larve  pointed  tusks  directed  downwards 
and  slightly  outwards,  and  measuring 
usually  12  to  15  inches  in  length,  some- 
times even  2  feet  and  more.  There  are 
no  external  ears.  The  animal  exceeds 
the  largest  ox  in  size,  attaining  a  length 
of  20  feet.  It  is  monogamous,  and 
seldom  produces  more  than  one  young  at 


Pacific  Walrus  (Odobamus  obelus). 

a  birth;  gregarious  but  shy,  and  very 
fierce  when  attacked.  It  mhabits  the 
high  northern  latitudes,  where  it  is 
hunted  by  whalers  for  its  blubber,  which 
fields  excellent  oil;  for  its  skin,  which 
IS  made  into  a  durable  leather;  and  for 
its  tusks.  Its  favorite  food  consists  of 
crustaceans. 

T^Qlaoll  (wol'sftl),  a  parliamentary 
and  municipal  borouch  of 
England,  in  the  county  of  Stafford,  S  miles 
N.  N.  w.  of  Birmingham.  The  present 
town  is  almost  entirely  modem.  Exten- 
sive coal,  iron,  and  limestone  deposits 
in  the  immediate  vicinity,  and  ample 
canal  and  railway  communication  with 
leading  trade  centers,  have  made  an  im- 

g>rtant  manufacturing  town  of  Walsall, 
rass  and  iron  foundries  are  numerous 
and  on  a  large  scale;  and  for  saddlers' 
and  carriage-builders'  ironmongery,  tools, 
locks,  and  keys,  etc.,  Walsall  has  long 
been  famous.  Pop.  92,130. 
Wfllftli  Robert,  author,  born  at  Bal- 
wttisuy  tinjQpe^  Maryland,  in  1784; 
died  in  1859.  In  1837  he  removed  to 
Paris,  and  was  U.  S.  consul  there  1845- 
52.  He  edited  the  American  Review  of 
History  and  Politics,  the  first  American 
quarterly,  and  was  the  author  of  vari- 
ous works  of  literature,  political  in 
eharacter.    He  conducted  the  American 


Register,  the  National  Oazette,  and  the 
Museum     of     Foreian     Literature     and 
Science,    and    edited    Didactics:    Social, 
Literary  and  Political. 
WfllfiVi     William    Shepabd,    Joumal- 

of  the  preceding.  He  wrote  much  for 
periodicals,  became  editor  in  1886  of 
Lippincotvs  Magazine,  and  published 
Faust:  The  Legend  and  the  Poem, 
Paradoses  of  a  Philistine,  Handy  Book 
of  Literary  Curiosities,  historical  and 
scientific  books  for  the  young,  etc. —  His 
brother,  Henbt  Collins  Walsh  (bom 
1863),  also  a  joumalist,  wrote  By  the 
Potomac  and  other  Poems,  The  Last 
Cruise  of  the  Miranda  (a  record  of  an 
Arctic  voyage),  etc 

Walsingham  «'^iSfarWS 

Statesman  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
born  of  good  family  about  1536;  died  in 
1590.  After  studying  at  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  he  traveled  on  the  continent 
for  some  time,  and  acquired  a  good 
knowledge  of  foreign  languages  and 
politics.  He  was  introduced  by  Cecil, 
Lord  Burleigh,  to  public  service,  and  was 
employed  in  embassies  to  France,  the 
Netherlands,  and  Scotland.  He  also  sat 
in  the  House  of  Commons  for  various 
constituencies,  and  occupied  important 
public  offices.  His  sagacity  and  discre- 
tion caused  him  to  be  much  employed, 
often  against  his  own  desire,  in  the  in- 
trigues of  Elizabeth,  especially  against 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  The  unraveling 
of  the  Babington  plot  was  intrusted  to 
Walsingham,  and  he  was  also  one  of 
the  commissioners  who  tried  Queen 
Mary. 

Walter  (wftl'ter),  John,  an  English 
waiter  journalist,  bom  fn  1739;  died 
in  1812.  He  founded  the  London  Times, 
the  greatest  of  British  joumals,  in  1788. 
He  was  succeeded  by  two  others  of  the 
same  name.  The  last  died  in  1894  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Arthur. 
Wfllfpr  Thomas  U.,  architect,  bora 
Wiiiiciy  j^j.  Philadelphia  in  1804;  died 
in  1887.  He  was  the  architect  of  Girard 
College,  in  Philadelphia,  a  magnificent 
Grecian  structure,  and  in  1851  was  made 
architect  of  the  United  States  Capitol 
extension.  In  addition  to  this  work  he 
built  several  of  the  department  buildings 
at  Washington.  He  was  for  many  years 
professor  of  architecture  in  the  Franklin 
Institute,   Philadelphia. 

Wfllfliflni  (wol'tham),  a  city  of  Mid- 
waiiaam    ^j^^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  Charles 

River,  Massachusetts,  9  miles  west  of 
Boston.  The  river  supplies  abundant 
water-power  to  its  factories  of  watches, 
wAtch-tools,  and  cottons.    The  WMUiaa 


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Waltham  Abbey 


Waltz 


m,    or 

Waltham  Grosi^  about  a  mile  from  Wal- 
tham Abbey,  is  a  famous  cross  erected 
1291-94  by  Edward  I.  Pop.  of  district 
6796. 


machine-made  watches  are  known 
throughout  the  world.  There  are  vari- 
ous other  industries,  including  knit  goods, 
automobiles,  bleachery  and  dye  works. 
Pop.  27,834. 

Waltham  Abbey,  *^  '^igiW^'iS  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide 

the  county  of  Essex,  12  miles  north  by    (f0'gl-vl-d6),   one   of   the   most   eminent 

old  German  lyric  poets  of  the  class  of 
Minnesinaen,  was  bom  about  1170;  died 
at  Warzburg  about  1230.  His  earliest 
patrons  were  Duke  Leopold  VI  of  Aus- 
tria and  his  son  Frederick.  Subse- 
quently he  yisited,  for  shorter  and  longer 
periods,  the  courts  of  most  German 
princes,  who  were  in  favor  of  an  im- 
perial as  against  a  papal  policy  and  who 
could  appreciate  his  distinguished  muse. 
The  emperor  Frederick  II  provided  him 
with  a  small  estate  near  Wttrzburg, 
where  he  seems  to  have  always  retired 
when  disgusted  with  traveling,  the 
courts,  and  intrip;ues,  and  there  he  died. 
He  was  a  politician  and  reformer  as  well 
as  a  poet,  and  his  exquisite  and  manly 
verses  breathe  a  liberalism  far  in  ad- 
vance of  his  times;  while  the  subjects 
of  his  favorite  love  songs  are  women  true 
and  noble. 

Walton  (^ftl'^n)*  IZAAK,  the  anther 
of  the  famous  Compleat  Ang- 
ler,  was  born  at  Stafford  in  1593;  died 
at  Winchester  in  1683.  For  a  number 
of  years  he  carried  on  successfully  in 
London  some  branches  of  the  drapery 
trade,  but  retired  at  the  age  of  fifty, 
and  devoted  his  remaining  forty  years 
to  a  life  of  cultured  ease  and  pleasure. 
In  1626  he  married  a  relative  of  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer,  and  about  1646  a  half- 
sister  of  Bishop  Ken.  Through  these 
matrimonial  alliances  he  became  friendly 
and  intimate  with  many  of  the  distin- 
guished ecclesiastics  of  his  time,  and 
wrote  the  biographical  memoirs  of  some 
of  them.  His  first  edition  of  the  Com- 
pleat Angler  appeared  in  1653.  It  is  to 
his  exquisite  delineations  of  rural  scen- 
ery, his  genuine  love  for  the  Creator 
and  His  works,  the  ease  and  unaffected 
humor  of  the  dialogue,  and  the  delight- 
ful simplicity  and  purity  of  the  style, 
that  this  notable  work  owes  its  charm. 
TXTaltz  (^^1^)*  &  dance  of  Bohemian 
origin,  executed  with  a  rapid 
wheeling  motion,  the  gentleman  having 
his  arm  round  his  partner's  waist.  The 
music  is  written  in  triple  time  in 
crotchets  or  quavers,  and  consists  of 
eight  or  sixteen  bar  phrases.  Several 
of  these  phrases  are  now  usually  voited 
to  prevent  monotony.  The  vaUe  d  deux 
temp$  is  a  form  of  waltz  in  which  two 
steps  are  made  to  each  bar  of  three 
beats.    Clotiicai    icdHze$^    are    compoai- 


Wftlthsm  Cross. 

east  of  London,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Lea.  It  derives  its  name  from  an  old 
abbey  founded  by  King  Harold  in  1060; 
and  is  now  chiefly  known  for  its  govern- 
ment gunpowder  and  guncotton  factories. 


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Wampum  Wandering  Tew 

tiomi  in  walti  form  not  intended  for  0tni^  him  wbfle  beinc  led  to  llie  cruel* 
dance  tnnee.  Ilxion,  osing  the  wordk  'Go,  Jeeos:  fo 
WAmimm  (wam'pom),  the  Indian  on  faster.*  Jems  replied,  'I  go,  not 
VT  cMu^tuu  jj^mg  £^y  gjjgjj  beads,  used  thon  shalt  wait  till  I  return.*  The  story 
by  the  United  States  tribes  for  oma-  goes  on  to  state  that  Gartaphilus  was 
ment  and  as  money,  or  a  medium  of  baptised  by  Ananias  with  the  name  of 
commerce.  They  were  often  fastened  Joseph  and  settled  in  Armenia,  and  had 
together  into  a  broad  belt,  called  by  often  eaten  at  the  bishop's  table.  He 
them  Wampumpaque,  or  Wampeaque.  was  thirty  years  old  when  he  insulted 
They  were  shaped  by  them  out  of  sea-  Christ,  and  wbeneyer  he  reached  the  age 
shells,  cut  into  round  pieces,  but  the  of  one  hundred  he  fell  into  a  faint  and 
colonists  soon  entered  into  this  enter-  recovered  to  find  himself  again  thirty 
prise  and  quickly  reduced  the  value  of  years  of  ace.  The  bishop's  brother 
wampum  by  producing  an  oversupply.  afterwards  visited  England,  and  some  of 
^Vanftmaker  (wa-na-ma'ker),  JoHir,  the  monks  with  him  confirmed  the  story. 
▼¥  MuaAuaav^x  merchant,  was  bom  in  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  name 
Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  July  11,  Cartaphilus  (Gr.,  ^ very  dear*)  may  have 
1838.  He  engaged  in  the  mercantile  arisen  from  the  disciple  'whom  Jesus 
business  in  1861,  displayed  great  ability  loved,'  and  of  whom  he  said  to  Peter, 
and  enterprise,  and  in  1876  opened  the  *If  I  will  that  he  tarry  till  I  come, 
first  department  store  in  the  United  what  is  that  to  thee?*  (John  xzi,  22). 
States.  This,  started  in  Philadelphia,  This  saying  may  have  been  gradually 
has  a  counterpart  in  New  York,  both  of  transformed  in  its  significance  into  that 
them  very  large  and  prosperous.  In  of  the  legendary  wanderer.  As  for  the 
1880-93  he  was  postmaster-general,  and  Armenian  origin  of  the  story,  a  question- 
has  taken  an  active  part  in  politics  from  Able  point  is  the  fact,  that  there  exists 
the  reform  side,  alM>  in  Sunday-school  iu>  trace  of  such  a  story  in  Armenia  or 
work,  the  Bethany  Sunday  School,  Phila-  anywhere  in  the  East 
delphla.  founded  by  him,  becoming  one  €k>ming  down  to  a  date,  three  hundred 
of  the  largest  in  the  country.  years  later,  the  story  crops  up  again  In 
WfLTirlpriTil^  Jl^ixr  ™^  ^ero  of  a  a  new  development  Paul  von  Eitsen, 
wttuaermi^ficwi  medieval  legend,  bishop  of  Sleswick.  is  said  to  have  seen 
which  deals  with  a  Jew  who  cannot  die,  the  Jew  at  Hamburg  in  1547,  listening 
but  is  condemned  to  wander  until  the  day  to  his  sermon.  He  was  a  tall,  ragged 
of  judgment  in  punishment  for  an  insult  barefoot  gaunt  wanderer,  with  long  hair 
offered  to  Christ  when  on  his  way  to  falling  over  his  shoulders.  His  name  had 
the  place  of  crucifixion.  This  legend  is  now  become  Ahasuerus,  and  his  occupa- 
not  of  ancient  origin,  nor  is  it  wide-  tion  at  the  time  of  Christ  that  of  a  shoe- 
spread.  No  trace  of  it  is  found  in  the  maker.  He  could  talk  in  the  language  of 
literature  of  the  early  middle  ages,  and  every  country,  was  never  seen  to  lau^ 
its  popularity  has  been  chiefly  confined  itnd  rebuked  with  the  greatest  severity  all 
to  a  few  countries,  as  Germany,  France,  blasphemies  against  the  name  of  Christ 
Scandinavia  and  the  Netherlands.  The  This  story  became  widely  current  during 
legend  takes  several  forms,  and  has  its  the  succeeding  period,  and  from  this  time 
analogues  in  the  story  of  Cain,  whose  forward  we  meet  with  many  precise  ver- 
curse  presents  some  mmilarity,  and  the  sions  and  variations. 
Arab  story  of  Samirl,  the  maker  of  the  One  of  the  most  celebrated  appear- 
Golden  Calf,  who  became  a  similar  home-  ances  of  the  Jew  was  at  Brussels  in 
less  wanderer.    The  Wandering  Jew  ap-  1640,    where   he    was    seen    and    talked 

rears  to  make  his  first  appearance  in  an  with    by    two    reputable    citizens.      His 

talian  legend,  which   may  be  of  great  name    now    becomes    Isaac    LAquedom, 

antiquity.    This  tells  how  a  Jew  named  which  Bdttcher  thinks  is  possibly  a  cor- 

Malcnus  struck  Jesus  with  an  iron  glove,  ruption,  by  a  man  of  small  learning,  from 

Since    then   he   has    lived    underground,  the     Hebrew     Ut-k^dem      ( *  the     former 

doomed  to  turn  endlessly  around  a  pillar  world*).    These  versions  made  their  way 

until  the  day  of  judgment    We  first  read  into  other  countries,  and  their  substance 

of  the   historic   Wandering   Jew   in  the  appears  in  a  poem  in  Percy's  Relique$, 

Hittoria  Major  of  Matthew  Paris  (com-  llie  name  Laquedom  is  used  In  a  beau- 

pleted  in  1259).    His  version  is  that  an  tiful  French  compUUnie  on  the  subject 

Armenian  bishop  visited  Ensland  in  1228*  Still  another  name  has  been   given  the 

and  among  the  wonders  of  his  country  Jew,    that    of    Buttadeus,    and   various 

told  of  a  Jew  named  Cartaphilus,  then  other    appearances    are    on    record    at 

alive  and  well  known  to  him,  yet  who  Beauvais,     Leipzig,     Ltibeck,     Moscow, 

kad  been  a  doorkeeper  in  the  palace  of  Madrid  and  HulL    The  latter  record  is 

Pilate  in  the  time  of  Christ  and  had  in  a  tract  of  1760,  in  which  four  min- 


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'  Wanderoo  War 

Isten  of  Hiillt  Yorkshire,  tell  bow  '  some  is   found   in   Canada  and   the   northern 

tLne  since,'  the  Jew  yisited  Hull  and  was  parts    of    the    United    States    from    the 

lucked    up,    but    the    prison    doors    flew  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.    Its  flesh  is  not 

open  before  one  condemned  to  have  no  much  prized,  being  coarse  and  dr^,  but 

resting  place.    The  Turkish  Spy,  writing  its  hide  is  made  into  an  excellent  kind  of 

from   Paris  in  1644,  gravely   tells  of  a  leather. 

conversation  with  him,  now  as  Michob  \X7oT)T)in|y  (wop'ing) ,  a  district  of 
Ader,  i»  several  languages,  including  a  a'i»i»A**5  jj^gt  London,  in  Middle- 
five  or  six  hour  talk  In  Arabic  sex,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Thames, 
In  thia  talk  the  Jew  '  the  Younger  inhabited  chiefly  by  persons  employed  in 
Brother  of  Time.'  told  his  listener  that  the  shipping  of  the  port  of  London, 
there  was  scarcely  a  true  historv  in  ex-  Here  are  the  London  Docks,  St  Cather- 
istence.  When  asked  about  what  had  ine's  Docks,  etc.,  and  the  stupendous 
become  of  the  lost  Ten  Tribes  of  Israel,  warehouses  belonging  to  the  custom- 
he  was  unable  to  give  any  satisfactory  house,  etc.  See  London. 
account  of  them.  Such  are  the  various  TXTay*  (wftr),  a  contest  between  nations 
notiona  which  have  arisen  concerning  ^^^  or  countries  {international  war), 
this  curious  story.  The  conception  in-  or  between  parties  in  the  same  country 
volved  is  one  that  has  been  connected  (dvU  ioar),  carried  on  by  force  of  arms, 
with  ether  characters  and  incidents,  like  usually  arising  in  the  first  case  from  dis- 
that  of  Cain  fleeing  with  the  brand  of  putes  about  territorial  possessions  and 
murder  on  him,  the  Wild  Huntsman  of  frontiers,  unjust  dealings  with  the  sub- 
German  legend,  and  the  famous  story  of  Jects  of  one  country  by  another,  ques- 
the  Flving  Dutchman,  so  weirdly  treated  tions  of  race  and  sentiment,  jealousy  of 
by  Coleridge.  fRie  Wandering  Jew  has  military  prestige,  or  mere  lust  of  con- 
found a  place  more  than  once  in  litera-  quest,  rarely  nowadays  from  the  whim  of 
ture,  as  in  Bugene  Sue's  novel  under  a  despot.  In  the  case  of  -  civil  war  it 
that  title,  and  the  theme  presented  itself  arises  from  the  claims  of  rival  contend- 
favorably  to  Goethe,  but  was  abandoned  ers  for  supreme  power  in  the  state,  or 
for  that  of  Faust  for  the  establishment  of  some  important 
WonrlArAA  TXTonrlAni  (wanMer-0;  point  connected  with  civil  or  religious 
WanaerOO,  WanaerU  lfaoaou9  liberty,  in  all  cases  the  aim  of  each 
sUenus),  a  monkey  of  southern  Hin-  contending  party  is  to  overthrow  or 
dustan,  especially  near  the  Malabar  weaken  the  enemy  by  the  defeat  or  dis- 
coast  They  are  long,  slender,  black  persion  of  his  army  or  navy,  the  occu- 
animals,  notable  for  the  large  mane  or  pation  of  important  parts  of  his  country, 
ruff,  and  beard,  which  stand  out  like  such  as  the  capital  or  principal  admin- 
a  gray  or  white  frame  to  the  black  istrative  and  commercial  centers,  or  the 
face,  and  give  it  a  very  peculiar  aspect  ruin  of  his  commerce,  thus  cutting  off 
Ws.ndswortTl  (wons'worth),  a  tton-  his  sources  of  recuperation  in  men, 
vrauuowvxvu,  ^^^  suburban  parlia-  money,  and  material.  International  or 
mentaij  borough,  created  in  1885.  public  war  is  always  understood  to  be 
Pop.  311,402.  Wandsworth  proper  is  authorized  by  the  monarch  or  sovereign 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Wandle  power  of  the  nation;  when  it  is  carried 
with  the  Thames,  immediately  to  the  Into  the  territories  of  a  hitherto  friendly 
B.  w.  of  Battersea,  and  is  an  important  power  it  is  called  an  oppressive  or  of- 
center  of  industry.  fensive  ioar^  and  when  carried  on  to 
WantA^e  (won'tftj),  a  market  town  resist  such  aggression  it  is  called  de- 
wauungv  of  England.  Berkshire,  on  tensive.  Previous  to  the  outbreak  of 
a  small  tributary  of  the  Thames,  situated  nostilities  between  countries,  the  power 
in  the  fertile  vale  of  the  White  Horse,  taking  the  initiatory  step  issues  a  deolo- 
Pop.  3628.  ration  of  war,  which  now  usually  takes 
WaDftntflJce  (wft'pen-tftk,  wop'n-tak),  the  form  of  an  explanatory  manifesto 
w  a|ivuifcuk.v  ^jjg  name  formerly  given  addressed  to  neutral  governments.  Dur- 
In  some  of  the  northern  shires  of  £}ng-  ing  the  progress  of  the  struggle  certain 
land,  and  still  g[iven  in  Yorkshire,  to  lavos,  usages,  or  rights  of  war  have  come 
a  territorial  division  of  the  county,  cor-  to  be  generally  recognised;  such  laws 
responding  to  the  hundreds  of  the  south-  permitting  the  destruction  or  capture  of 
em  counties.  armed  enemies,  the  destruction  of  prop- 
Wamti  (wop'i-ti),  a  species  of  deer,  erty  likely  to  be  serviceable  to  them. 
wa^ixux  ^^  North  American  stag  the  stoppage  of  all  their  channels  of 
{Cervus  Canadensis) .hetits  considerable  traffic,  and  the  appropriation  of  every- 
resemblance  to  the  European  red  deer,  thing  in  an  enemjrs  country  necessary 
though  it  is  larger  and  of  a  stronger  for  the  support  and  subsistence  of  the 
make,  its  antlers  also  being  larger.    It  invading    army.    On    the    other    hand 


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War  Ward 

tboagh  an  enemy  may  be  starred  into  the  Alliance  Between  Church  and  Siaift 
surrender,  wounding,  except  in  battle,  etc.,  but  his  great  work  is  the  Divine  he* 
mutilation,  and  all  cruel  and  wanton  gatxon  of  Moses,  It  was  assailed  in 
devastation,  are  contrary  to  the  usages  many  quarters,  and  Warburton  carried 
of  war,  as  are  also  bombarding  an  un-  on  the  controversy  with  ability  and  in- 
protected  town,  the  use  of  poison  in  any  temperate  vigor.  A  defense  of  I'ope's 
way,  and  torture  to  extort  information  Essau  on  Man  secured  him  the  friendship 
from  an  enemy;  and  generally  the  ten-  of  the  poet  By  the  death  of  Ralph 
dency  in  all  laws  and  usages  of  war  is  Allen  (which  see),  Warburton  succeeded 
becoming  gradually  more  favorable  to  to  the  splendid  seat  of  Prior  Park,  in 
the  cause  of  humanity  at  large.  These  Gloucesterstiire.  He  was  appointed,  in 
principles  of  warfare,  it  should  be  stated,  1746,  preacher  to  the  society  of  Lincoln's 
refer  to  warlike  conflicts  as  now  con-  Iiui,  and  from  at  time  his  advancement 
ducted.  As  conducted  in  former,  less  civ-  was  rapid,  until  he  became  the  bishop  of 
ilised  times,  no  such  rules  existed  and  Gloucester  in  1751). 
war  was  carried  on  with  little  regard  to  X7ard  ^^ft^)*  Abtekas,  a  Revolu- 
mercy    or    morality.     See    also    Interna-  tionary     general,     bom     at 

tional  Law,  Shrewsbury,     Massachusetts,     In     1727; 

'Vffur  I'EASANTS'.  See  Pea9ant%'  loor.  died  in  1800.  He  served  in  the  French 
'^  *""*  >  and     Indian     war     under    Abercrombie. 

Wfl.rbefik  (wgrVk),  or  OsBEC,  Pee-  At  the  siege  of  Boston,  in  1775.  he  be- 
¥v  MX  u^vi^  ^jjj^  jjj^  g^jj  ^£  ^  Flemish  came  second  in  command  under  Wash- 
Jew,  was  set  up  by  Margaret  of  York,  Ington.  He  resigned  in  April,  1776,  and 
dowager-duchess  of  Burgundy,  as  a  pre-  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  1791  to 
tender  to  the  crown  of  England  agamst   1795. 

Henry  VII.  For  this  purpose  she  Wor^  Abtemus.  See  Browne,  C,  F. 
claimed  to  recognize  him  as  her  nephew,  ' 

Richard  Plantagenet,  duke  of  York,  the  Word  ^dwasd  Mathew,  an  English 
younger  of  the  two  princes  who  were  *  *^>  .painter,  born  at  London  in 
murdered  in  the  Tower  by  Richard  III.  1816;  died  at  Windsor  hi  1879.  In  1835 
He  was  patronized  by  France  and  Scot-  he  joined  the  classes  at  the  Royal  Acad- 
land,  married  a  kinswoman  of  the  emy.  The  following  year  he  went  to 
Scottish  king,  James  IV,  made  several  Italy,  where  he  studied  fresco  painting 
fruitless  invasions  of  England  and  Ire-  under  Cornelius.  He  took  part  in  the 
land,  was  taken  prisoner  after  an  at-  competition,  opened  in  1843,  for  decorat- 
tempt  on  Cornwall  (Oct,  1497),  and  in|:  the  House  of  Parliament,  his  design 
connned  to  the  Tower,  where,  his  plot-  bemg  illustrative  of  events  in  the  hls- 
ting  being  continued,  he  was  executed  tory  of  Boadicea.  Eight  of  his  designs 
(>fovember,  1499).  were   finally   accepted,   and   executed   by 

Warblers  (wftr'blerz;  Sylviadie),  the  him  in  the  corridor  of  the  House  of  Com- 
wwnxuxMxo  ua^jje  applied  to  a  family  mons  in  1853.  For  his  subjects  he  gen- 
or  dentirostral  insessorial  birds,  gener-  erally  chose  interesting  historical  epi- 
ally  small,  sprightly,  very  shy,  and  re-  eodes  and  popular  characters;  hence, 
markable  for  the  clearness,  sweetness,  many  of  his  paintings  have  been  largely 
and  flexibility  of  their  song.  Insects  reproduced  by  the  engraver.  Dr.  John- 
form  their  food,  and  most  of  them  are  ion  in  Lord  Chesterfield's  Anteroom, 
migratory.  The  typical  warblers  belong  and  the  Royal  Family  of  France  in  the 
to  the  genus  Sylvia  (which  see).  Vnnple,  are  cc^nsidered  his  best  works. 

Warhnr+nn  (wftr'b*r-tun),  WiL-  VJarA  ^*8»  Herbert  D..  Elizabeth 
warounon  ^^^^  ^^  English  prel-  W»™,  stuabt  Phelps,  American 
ate,  was  bom  at  Newark-upon-the-  author,  born  in  Boston  in  1844;  died  in 
Trent  in  1698;  died  at  Gloucester  in  1911.  She  took  an  active  interest  in 
1779.  He  was  brought  up  to  the  law,  temperance  and  other  reform  movements, 
but  not  finding  this  profession  to  his  Her  works  Include  Gates  Ajar,  A  Singu- 
taste  he  relinquished  it,  and  in  1723  took  lar  Life,  The  Man  in  the  Case,  Story 
deacon's  orders  in  the  church      In  1727  of  Jesus  Christ, 

he  began  to  distinguish  himself  as  a  Word  Herbert  Dickinson,  author, 
writer  by  his  inc^uiry  into  the  Causes  of  '**"'*  ^>  bom  at  Waltham,  Massachu- 
Prodigies  and  Miracles,  This  led  to.h>8  setts.  In  1861.  He  married  Elisabeth 
being  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Brand  Stuart  Phelps  (which  see)  in  1888.  He 
Brou|:hton,  in  Lincolnshire,  where  he  bees  me  an  editorial  writer  for  daily  and 
remamed  many  years,  composing  here  monthlv  publications,  and  wrote  The 
most  of  those  works  which  contributed  New  Senator  at  Andover,  The  Master  of 
to  the  establishment  of  his  fame.  In  the  Magicians,  The  Captain  of  the  Kit* 
1736  appeared  his  first  important  work,   tiwipk.  The  Burglar  Who  Moved  Par^ 


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Ward  Warming  and  Ventilation 

dise,  The  Light  of  the  World,  Love  iian  Ewaminer,  His  Lettert  from  PaU 
Letters  of  an  American  Oirit  etc  myra,  in  the  Knickerhooker  Magazine, 
Ward  ^^*  HuHFHBT  (Mary  Au-  were  published  in  1856,  under  the  name 
gusta  Arnold),  was  born  at  of  Zenobia,  which  was  followed  by  Au- 
Hobart,  Tasmania,  June  11,  1851,  a  relian  and  ProbiM,  classical  romances, 
granddaughter  of  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby,  which  brought  him  a  high  reputation. 
Her  father,  Thomas  Arnold,  was  an  Other  works  were  The  Works  and 
author  of  some  reputation.  She  mar-  Oenius  of  Washington  Allston,  and 
ried  T.  Humphry  Ward,  editor  of  Men  8ketche9  on  European  Capitals, 
of  the  Time,  The  English  Poets,  etc  VJar  Indemnitv  ^^®  ^™  ^^  money 
As  a  novelist  she  is  known  under  her  '*•**  **xM.^iiiiin*j,  exacted  from  a 
husband's  name.  She  gained  a  wide  defeated  country  by  its  yictorious  an- 
popularity  in  1888  by  her  novel  of  tagonist  This  money  payment  replaces 
Robert  Elsmere,  which  had  a  phenome*  the  spoils  of  war  of  former  history,  and 
nal  success.  Other  works  from  her  pen  was  first  adopted  within  the  past  cen- 
are  David  Orieve,  Marcella,  Sir  George  tury,  the  highest  indemnity  ever  exacted 
Tressady,  Lady  Rose's  Daughter,  The  being  the  $1,000,000,000  paid  by  France 
Case  of  Richard  Meynell,  and  a  number  to  Germany  after  the  war  of  1870-71. 
of  others,  all  of  considerable  popularity.  A  similar  indemnity  has  been  demanded 
Ward  J^^BSf  A  British  painter,  bom  in  all  recent  wars,  on  the  principle  of 
"■>  in  London  in  1769;  died  at  repayment  to  the  conqueror  of  the  costs 
Cheshunt  in  1859.  He  early  became  of  making  war.  It  is  aside  from  land 
eminent  as  an  engraver,  and  onlv  took  exactions,  since  Germany  took  from 
to  painting  when  arrived  at  middle  age.  France  also  the  province  of  Alsace- 
Hls  exquisite  delineation  of  animals  Lorraine.  The  conduct  of  the  United 
speedily  secured  him  fame,  and  he  was  States  has  been  generous  in  this  respect 
extensively  patronized  by  George  III.  After  the  war  with  Mexico  it  paid  that 
Warii  John  Quincy  Adams,  sculp-  country  for  the  territory  occupied  and 
Wara,  ^  ^^^  ^^  Urbana,  dhio.  in  "tamed,  and  after  the  war  wi^  Spain. 
1830 ;  died  May  2,  1910.  After  studying  in  1898,  paid  Spain,  $20,000,000  for  its 
medicine  for  a  time  he  became  a  sculp-  property  in  the  Fhilippmes.  It  was  the 
tor  and  won  the  reputation  of  being  one  same  with  the  Boxer  indemnity  exacted 
of  the  ablest  that  this  country  had  pro-  ^ron?  ^^^^  in  1900,  the  United  States 
duced.  Among  his  works  are  the  statues  remitting  its  share  of  this  indemnity,  a 
of  Shakespeare,  Central  Park,  New  York ;  generosity  not  displayed  by  any  of  the 
of  General  Thomas,  at  Washington,  1>.  C,  European  nations  concerned, 
and  of  General  Washington  at  New-  Waiilie  (wftr'ing),  Geobgb  F.,  en- 
buryport  He  also  produced  The  Escaped  ^  .  ®  gineer  and  author,  born  m 
;S7are,  The  Indian  Hunter,  The  Good  Westchester  Co.,  New  York,  in  1833, 
Samaritan,  etc.  He  became  a  member  of  He  was  an  engineer  of  Central  Park,  New 
the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  18G3,  York  City,  1857-61,  senred  in  the  Civil 
and  its  president  in  1872.  war,  becoming  a  cavalry  colonel,  and 
TfTflril  Lestkb  Frank,  geologist  and  afterwards  attained  distinction  as  a 
^^^^^  sociologist,  bom  at  Joliet,  Illi-  sanitary  and  agricultural  engineer.  He 
nois,  in  1841.  He  was  graduated  at  executed  the  new  sewerage  works  of 
Columbian  College,  Washington,  D.  C,  Memphis,  Tennessee,  in  1880,  in  1895 
in  1809,  served  as  assistant  geologist  in  was  appointed  street  commissioner  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  1881-  New  York,  and  surprised  the  people  of 
88,  and  afterwards  as  geologist  and  that  city  by  an  honest  administration, 
paleontologist  Among  his  many  works  and  in  1898  went  to  Havana  and  en- 
are  :  Dynamic  Sociology,  Geological  Dis-  deavored  to  eradicate  the  causes  of  yel- 
trihution  of  Fossil  Plants,  Principles  of  low  fever.  The  result  was  that  he  took 
Sociology,  Pure  Sociology,  Applied  So-  the  fever  himself  and  died  of  it  He 
ciology,  etc.  He  died  April  18,  1913.  wrote  Elements  of  Agriculture,  Sanitary 
TXJTqjia     (w&r),   a   town   of   Hampshire  Drainage,     Village     Improvements     and 

^    Co.,    Massachusetts,    on    Ware  Farm  Villages,  etc 
River,  27  miles  E.  N.  k.  of  Springfield,    It'^rarmini^    tLYxA    Y^r\ti\tM(%r\ 

has  manufactures  of  cottons  and  woolens,  Warming    ana     VenUiailOn. 

boots    and    shoes,    hosiery,    paper,    etc  The  condition  of  the  atmosphere  of  our 

Pop.  8774.  houses  and   apartments   is   of  such   im- 

Ware     ^warV  William,  author,  bom  portance  to  health   and   vigor  of   mind 

^^/v^         *t  Hingham.  Massachusetts,  in  that     warmmg     and     ventilation,     two 

1797;    died    in    1852.      He    became    a  closely     allied     subjects,     are     receiving 

church   pastor   at   New   York   and   else-  more    and    more    attention    as    sanitary 

where,  and  for  a  time  edited  the  ChriS'  science     advances.    Their     neglect     haJi 

20 — ^10 


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fl 


Wanning  and  Ventilation  Wanning*  and  Ventilation 

been  the  cause  of,  and  is  still  responsible,  perature  of  the  water,  the  greater  is  the 
for  an  incalculable  amount  of  human  motive  power  for  circulation.  There  are 
disease  and  suffering.  The  body,  to  re-  also  several  systems  of  heating  by 
main  in  health,  requires  a  certain  de-  passing  steam  or  hot  air  through  pii>es. 
gree  of  heat;  so  that,  if  the  surrounding  Ventilation  is  the  means  of  renewing 
atmosphere  is  too  low  in  temperature,  the  atmosphere,  and  of  maintaining  its 
artificial  means  must  be  employed  to  purity  bv  expelling  foul  air  and  ad- 
raise  it.  The  temperature  which  is  mitting  fresh,  without  drafts.  Of  the 
found  the  most  agreeable  for  the  air  of  products  which  vitiate  the  air  pulmonary 
apartments,  in  which  the  occupants  are  exhalations  are  the  most  important  Air 
not  engaged  in  bodily  exercise,  is  from  which  has  been  utilized  bv  living  beings 
63®  to  65*"  F.  The  charcoal  brasler  is  is  always  charged  with  carbonic  add,  and 
a  very  ancient  method  of  warming  an  also  with  a  varying  amount  of  watery 
apartment  The  Greeks  and  other  na-  vapor,  the  quantity  of  which  is  in- 
tfcns  commonly  used  it,  and  they  sought  creased  as  the  ajr  is  warmed;  and 
to  correct  the  deleterious  nature  of  the  smaller  quantities  of  ammonia,  and  or- 
fumes  by  burning  costly  odorous  gums,  ganic  matter,  especially  bacteria,  still 
spices,  and  woods;  but  the  carbonic  acid  further  assist  in  rendering  the  atmos- 
;iven  off  by  the  combustion  of  charcoal  pbere  not  only  unfit  but  dangerous 
Is  very  injurious  to  health.  The  ordi-  for  respiration.  Authorities  on  hygiene 
nary  open  coal-fire  is,  if  not  the  most  vary  somewhat  as  to  the  amount  of  air 
economical,  at  least  the  most  agreeable  necessary  for  healthy  living  rooms,  but 
means  of  heating  apartments,  but  the  it  is  generally  admitted  that  not  less  than 
waste  of  heat  is  very  considerable.  1000  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  healthy 
This  waste  early  led  to  the  introduction  person  should  be  supplied  every  hour, 
of  closed  stoves,  first  in  earthenware  and  and  from  3000  to  4000  cubic  feet  to 
then  in  metal.  These  closed  stoves,  of  rooms  occupied  by  invalids.  We  may 
which  there  are  innumerable  varieties  in  renew  the  air  in  a  room  in  an  instant 
form  and  construction,  are  particularly  by  throwing  open  doors  and  windows, 
favored  in  America  and  on  the  European  but  this  process  probably  would  be  at- 
continent,  and  certainly  effect  a  great  tended  with  danger  to  the  health  of  the 
saving  in  fuel;  but  they  do  not  form  inmates  from  the  violence  with  which 
natural  ventilators,  like  the  open  fire-  the  air  currents  would  enter  and  leave 
places,  and  are  liable  to  overheat  the  the  room.  The  most  common  form  of 
rooms  and  to  render  tl#  air  in  them  too  ventilation  is  the  chimney,  and  with  a 
dry.  For  public  buildings,  warehouses,  good  fire  in  an  open  grate  it  proves 
conservatories,  etc.,  the  most  extensively  under  ordinary  conditions  to  be  suffi- 
employed  systems  of  beating  are  those  of  cient  The  difference  in  the  weight  of 
steam  and  hot-water  pipes.  The  hot-  hot  air  and  burnt  gases  in  the  chimney 
water  apparatus,  in  its  simple  and  prac-  and  the  column  of  air  Outside  supplies 
tical  form,  was  introduced  by  Atkmson  the  motive  force  necessai^  to  expel  the 
in  1822.  The  circulation  of  water  is  former.  Mechanical  ventilation  is  gen- 
brought  about  on  the  principle  of  the  ex-  erally  effected  by  means  of  gratings  in 
pansTon  of  water  by  beat,  and  its  the  ceilings  or  cornices  in  communica- 
^eater  lightness  in  consequence.  What-  tion  with  flues  leading  into  the  open  air, 
ever  be  tne  height  of  the  water  above,  and  a  variety  of  arrangements  have 
the  water  when  heated  in  the  lower  part  been  invented  to  prevent  down-drafts, 
of  a  boiler  will  rise  to  the  surface,  mak-  Public  and  other  large  buildings  are 
ing  room  for  other  and  cooler  particles  commonly  ventilated  in  the  roof,  though 
to  be  heated,  in  their  turn;  hence  if  a  sometimes  by  gratings  in  or  near  the 
pipe  full  of  water  rise  from  the  top  of  floor,  but  this  latter  method  is  objection- 
a  boiler  to  any  required  height,  and  able  on  account  of  draft.  Automatic 
then  return  by  gentle  bends  to  the  ventilation  is,  of  course,  irregular,  owing 
boiler  at  the  lower  part,  heated  water  to  changes  in  wind  and  temperature, 
will  rise  and  occupy  the  upright  pipe,  which  increase  or  reduce,  or  even  revert 
and  the  colder  water  will  descend  into  the  motive  power.  In  places  where 
the  boiler  to  take  its  place.  Thus  a  large  numbers  of  people  congregate  and 
continuous  circulation  may  be  maintained  a  uniform  renewal  of  air  is  required, 
through  pipes  in  a  building,  the  heated  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  resort  to 
water  rising  up,  passing  on,  and  return-  machinery.  Many  systems  are  in 
ing  cooled,  to  the  lower  part  of  the  operation,  varying  with  the  nature  of 
boiler,  causing  a  satisfactory  tempera-  the  building  to  be  ventilated.  Air  flues, 
ture  to  be  everywhere  felt  The  greater  shafts,  or  pipes  are  usually  the  medium 
the  elevation  to  which  the  heated  water  through  which  air  passes  in  and  out, 
Ascends,  and  the  higher  tha  iaitial  tem-  and   this  passage  i^  generally  regulated 


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Warner Warrington 

by  pump  or  fans  moved  by  steam  op  officers,     to     search     private     premises, 

gas  engines.    The  proper  ventilation  of  €k>mmercia]    warrants    usually    authorize 

mines  forms  one  of  the  most  difficult  and  the   delivery    of   goods   or   money,    such 

important    functions    of    a    mining    en-  as  Dock  Warrant,  Dividend  WarranU, 

gineer.      See   Mining,   and   also   Saniia-  etc 

*52I^  .       .      .    ^  ^  Warranty    (wor'an-ti),     in    law,    d 

Warner  (war'ner),  Chabms  Dudley,  ^ «***»"!'/  guarantee  or  securi^;  a 
J  ,r  ^y  author,  was  bw^^  at  Plain-  promise  or  covenant  by  deed,  made  by 
field,   Massachusetts,   in   1829,   and  was  a  bargainer  for  himself  and   his   heirs, 

Kaduated  from  Hamilton  College  in  1851.  to  warrant  or  secure  the  bargainee  and 
1853  he  was  connected  with  a  sur-  his  heirs  against  all  men  in  the  enjoy- 
veying  party  on  the  Missouri  frontier;  ment  of  an  estate  or  other  thing  granted, 
he  then  studied  law  and  pracUced  in  Worren  iwor'en),  a  city,  capiul  of 
Chicago;  became  connected  with  the  »''«»**^**  Trumbull  Co.,  Ohio,  14  miles 
newspaper  press;  traveled  in  Europe;  N.  w.  of  Youngstown.  It  has  large  pot- 
and  in  1884  became  joint-editor  of  Hat'   teries,  extensive  machine  shops,  produces 

Set***  Magtutine.  His  works  include:  electric  lamps  and  appliances,  etc.  It  is 
iy  Summer  in  a  Garden,  SaunteringB,  in  a  rich  agricultural  and  dairying 
Baokloa  Studies,  My  Winter  on  the  country.  Pop.  11,081. 
Vile,  in  the  Levant,  Washington  Irving,  VJorr^n  county  seat  of  Warren  Co., 
etc.  He  edited  Library  of  the  WorWe  vv«*xx^ii,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Alle- 
Best  Literature,  Died  October  20,  1900.  ghenv  River,  120  miles  N.  e.  of  Pittsburg 
X^ftraer  Susan,  an  American  writer,  on  three  railroads.  It  is  in  an  agricul- 
'  "'***^  >  bom  at  New  York  in  1819;  tural  and  oil  region,  but  the  chief  Indus- 
died  in  1885.  In  1851  she  published,  tries  are  connected  with  oil  products  and 
under  the  pseudonym  of  Elizabeth  manufacturing.  Here  is'  a  State  Insane 
Wetherell,  a  novel  entitled  The  Wide,  Asylum.  Pop.  13,650. 
Wide  World,  which  soon  attained  ex-  X^orreil  ^  town  in  Bristol  Co.,  Rhode 
traordinary  popularity  on  both  sides  of  '*«***^"^  Island,  10  miles  B.  k.  of 
the  Atlantic.  Queeohy,  which  appeared  Providence.  Cotton  goods  and  yam  are 
in  1852,  was  almost  equally  popular,  manufactured.  A  trading  post  was  es- 
She  wrote  also  various  otiier  worics,  but  tablished  here  in  1632.  Pop.  of  town 
none  Ihat  had  any  special  favor  with  the  6585. 

public  WArren     Gouverneub  Kemblb,  mili- 

Wfim       See  Weaving.  w**va*,    ^       officer,    bom    at    Cold 

^*^P*  Spring,    New    York,    in    1830;    died    in 

X7fl.TT)iTl9  ^  mode  of  fertilizing  poor  1882.  He  was  graduated  at  West  Point 
wnx^xug  (warp'ing),  in  agriculture  Academy  in  1850,  and  became  a  colonel 
or  barren  land  by  means  of  artificial  of  volunteers  in  1861,  and  brigadier 
inundation  from  rivers  which  hold  large  general  in  1862.  In  1863  he  was  made 
quantities  of  earthy  matter,  or  warp,  chief  of  topographical  engineers,  and 
in  suspension.  The  operation,  which  subsequently  chief  of  engineers.  He 
consists  in  inclosing  a  bodv  or  sheet  of  was  promoted  major  general  in  Mav, 
water  till  the  warp  has  deposited,  can  1863,  and  in  March,  1864,  was  put  in 
only  be  carried  out  on  flat  low-lying  command  of  the  5th  corps  of  the  army, 
tracts  which  may  be  readily  submerged.  General  Sheridan  was  displeased  with 
\Xr&.rrflllt  (wor'ant),  an  instrument  his  conduct  at  the  battle  of  Five  Forks, 
waxxcuxu  ^jj.  document  authorizing  April  1,  1865,  and  removed  him  from 
certain  acts  which  without  It  would  be  his  command.  He  was  mustered  out  in 
illegal.  Warrants  may  be  divided  into  May,  1865,  as  major  of  engineers,  and 
executive,  judicial,  and  commercial  war-  in  1876  was  made  lieutenant-colonel  in 
rants.  The  first  include  Death,  Extra-  the  United  States  army.  A  statue  of 
dition,  and  Treasury  Warrants  (author-  him  was  placed  on  Little  Round  Top, 
ity  to  receive  payments  at  the  treasury).  Gettysburg,  in  1888. 
Common  forms  of  judicial  warrants  are:  \X7orren  Joseph,  a  Revolutionary 
the  Warrant  of  Arrest,  usually  issued  ^  a'Ax^A*j  patriot,  bom  at  Roxbury, 
by  a  justice  of  the  peace  for  the  appre-  Massachusetts,  in  1741.  On  June  14, 
hension  of  those  accused  or  suspected  of  1775,  he  was  made  major-general  in  the 
crimes;  the  Warrant  of  Commitment,  a  army  befoae  Boston;  took  part  in  for- 
written  authority  committing  a  person  tifying  Bunker  Hill,  and  was  killed  in 
to  prison ;  the  Distress  Warrant,  a  war-  the  Bunker  Hill  battle  of  June  17,  17^. 
rant  issued  for  raising  a  sum  of  money  A  statue  of  him  was  erected  at  Bunker 
upon  the  goods  of  a  party   specified   in    Hill  in.  1857. 

the    warrant ;    the    Search    Warrant,   an  War  ftevemie        '^®    taxation    act 
authority,    generally    granted    to    police-    »•«'*  "«'vvv*x»*^.      ^^^    ^^^^    designed 


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War  Kevenuc  War  Revenue 

to  supply  the  United  States  goverament  In  addition  to  these  income  taxes,  there 

with  funds,  in  addition  to  those  raised  by  is  a  considerable  variety  of  war  taxes,  an 

loan,  for  the  exoeuscs  arising  from  the  important  one   being   that  on  beverages, 

partiapation  of  this  country  in  the  Euro-  Qq  distilled  spirits  now  in  bond  or  that 

pean  war,  covered  a.  wide  scope,  including  j^ay  hereafter  be  produced  in  or  imported 

S.Tn  "h^iAnZ  ^.?r«Hon«"*'«nl^''n^  ^^^o  the  United  States,  if  intendcd^o  be 
pronts  m  business  operations,  and  on  a  ,.„,^  „„  iv««-^«««^«  «  «.«L  ^#  eom  -  ^«„-« 
targe  number  of  arUdes  used  in  daily  Ufe  "«ed  as  beverages,  a  tax  of  $2.10  on  every 
operations.  The  taxes  on  incomes  pro-  ^^i  g^on,  or  wme  gallon  when  below 
vided  by  the  existing  law  covered  a  tax  l'^-  }^J]ot  to  be  used  as  beverages  the 
of  1  per  cent  on  the  net  income  of  all  sin-  tax  is  91.10  per  gallon.  On  beers,  ales, 
gle  persons  over  |r»000  and  married  per-  porters  and  other  fermented  liquors,  the 
sons  over  $4000,  with  a  surtax  on  incomes  tax  will  be  $1.00  on  every  barrel  con- 
over  $20,000,  this  gradually  increasing  in  taining  not  more  than  31  gallons.  The 
percentage  as  the  income  grew  larger,  tax  on  cigars  and  other  tobacco  products 
Under  the  new  law^  the  exemption  ie  re-  varies  in  regard  to  the  sevend  forms 
duced  and  applies  in  the  case  of  single  which  tobacco  takes  in  manufacture  and 
persons  to  incomes  over  $1000  andof  ug©  and  the  prices  at  which  these  are 
married  persons  to  incomes  over  $2000.  b^ij.  Thus  25  cents  per  1000  are  laid  on 
Under  the  1017  enj^.ctmeit  uv  additjnnnl  ^          weighing  not  more  than  3  pounds 

srm\    2    per   c<^Dt   lH?twi^eu    ?7(MN)   iitid  ^ents   each,   and   so   on   in   an   mtncate 

ilO,000.  3  per  cent  between  $10.tKH>  and  variety  of  charges.         ,.,..,       .  ^  ^ 

|l2,0CHJ,  4  per  cent  between  $t2>IH¥)  mii  .    A  war  tax  is  laid  on  facihties  furnished 

Slfi/KKX  5  per  ctajt  betwt  I'n  $15.tH»o  muJ  by  public  utihties  and  insurance.     Lnder 

|20,(HJf»,  7  per  eetit  bc^twrn^u  |i20.rMK]  Mm  I  this  head  are  taxes  of  3  per  cent  on  the 

|40.(MXX  10  perceot  h.rw.-Ti  J!?4n,iMM>  awl  charge  for  freight  or  express  carriage  by 

irrf>rMK>,  14  per  ceiif  In  lur. :,  ,<:t;o,<MM>  uuJ  rail  or  water;  and  8  per  cent  on  the  cost 

iSfKMMK  IS  p<*r  rotit  bttv^^t  u  $,Sa.iHXI  uhi  of  tickets  of  travelers  by  rail  or  water; 

?:iO(M>tH>.   22  iMiT  cent  between   *liH>.(HH)  also  5  per  cent  on  the  cost  of  seats  or 

aiidlirrf^mKv.  2hperi7Pntbemi*en  $154>JX>')  berths  m  parlor  or  sleeping  cars  or  on 

nnrl  |l^tK(.niHi,  :\u  p,^r  t^».nt  botwoen  ^200.-  vessels.     These  taxw  and  various  others 

CKin   jiiid   .^j.-,rM>M(),   'M   per  cent  b^?t^%>e^  came  into  effect  on  Nov.  1,  1917.    Among 

IliTiOpOtiO  4iPLii   $::fi^MM><>.  ;1T  p^^r  cent  be-  the   others    were    taxes    on    the    vanous 

twf^n  $Ht¥HKHi  mill  srit>ii.fMNt,  40  per  oeut  kinds  of  insurance,  and  on  war  excises  on 

Vrw(H^u   |tr.oo,(MM>  uhA   .>^7"»a.i)00.   4ri   per  automobile    trucks,    wagons    and    motor 

f?ect    Wvtwf^.*ii    ^TGO.tXM*    siml    $1 ,0(>D,00<:>,  cycles,  the  latter  being  3  per  cent  of  the 

nnfl  50  per  ot^iit  over  $1.0<K>,CKX1     Uo*ier  selling  price.     In  addition  may  be  named 

tho^n   hi  WSJ   t^ie  tiff  a]   tJix   oil   in*nim*^  of  player  pianos,  graphophoncs,  moving  pic- 

SIDO.OCMJ  iimountstoni^MSO;  on  iiicume.^  ture    fihns,    jewelry,    yachts,    motor    or 

of   $500,000    to   $192,680;    on    those   of  pleasure   boats,    and    a   large   variety   of 

$1,000,000  to  $475,180.     In  addition  to  other  articles  used  for  pleasure  purposes, 

these  taxes  on  individuals  there  is  imposed  including  playing  cards,  toys  and  games: 

a  corporation  tax  of  40  per  cent  on  the  also  perfumes,  essences,  toilet  soaps  and 

annual  income  of  the  corporation,  joint  powders.    In  addition  taxes  are  levied  on 

stock  company,  etc.  PiUs»  tablets,  powders,  chewing  gums  and 

Taxes  on   excess   profits   are  also  im-  other  substances  in  great  variety, 

posed,  in  addition  to  those  above  enumer-  .    After  December  1,  1917.  a  tax  became 

ated,  upon  the  income  of  every  corpora-  imposed  on  tickets  of  admission  to  places 

tion,  partnership,  or  individual,  these  be-  of  amusement  of  1  cent  on  each  10  cents 

ing  equal  to  the  following  percentages  of  or  fraction  thereof,  including  admission  by 

the  net  income :  20  per  cent  of  the  amount  season   ticket   or  subscription.     Also  all 

of  the  net  income   (in  excess  of  certain  dues  for  membership  in  any  club  or  asso- 

deductions  provided  for) ,  if  not  in  excess  elation  are  taxed  10  per  cent  if  amounting 

of  15  per  cent  of  the  invested  capital  for  to  over  $12  per  year.     Stamp  taxes  are 

the  taxable  year,  25  per  cent  of  the  net  imposed  on  bonds,  debentures  or  certin- 

income  if  in  excess  of  15  but  not  of  20  cates  of  indebte<lness  of  5  cents  for  every 

per  cent  of  the  invested  capital ;  and  so  on  $100   of   face   value;   on    indemnity   and 

in   increasing  percentages   up  to  60  per  surety  bonds  a  tax  of  50  cents ;  on  parcel 

cent  of  the  amount  of  the  net  income  in  post  packages,  when  the  postage  amounts 

excess  of  33  per  cent  of  the  invested  cap-  to  25  cents,  of  1  per  c^nt  on  each  dollar 

ital.    The  amount  of  deduction  is  varied  or    fractional    part    thereof;    on    postal 

and  intricate  in  its  appUcation  to  the  dif-  cards  and  letters,  and  on  numerous  other 

f  erent  cases  involved.  articles  to  which  a  stamp  tax  is  apphcable. 


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Warrington 


Warthe 


Warnnerton  (wor'mg-tun),  a  town 
YVtiirxu^tuu  ^^  Lancashire.  Eng- 
land,  with  a  sinall  portion  in  Cheshire. 
River,  canal,  and  railway  communica- 
tions secure  it  exceptional  carrying  fa- 
cilities. Tanneries,  iron,  glass,  and  soap 
works,  cotton  mills,  and  breweries  are 
numerous.  The  Manchester  Ship  Canal 
passes  here.    Pop.  72,178. 

War  Risk  Insurance,  f^/'****'" 
Warrnambool  U7portTo;S'U'vic* 

toria,  170  miles  southwest  of  Melbourne. 
It  lies  in  a  fertile  agricultural  district, 
and  has  an  extensive  trade  in  wool,  flour, 
and  dairy  produce  with  Melbourne.  Popc 
6410. 

Warsaw  (wa.r'sa),  a  clt]r  of  Russia, 
waxoa.w  capital  of  Russian  Poland, 
or  the  Vistula  Province,  as  that  country 
is  now  officiallv  designated.  It  lies  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula,  and  extends 
for  over  5  miles  along  that  river.  Its 
water  communications  have  long  made  it 
one  of  the  most  important '  commercial 
centers  of  Eastern  Europe,  and  it  is  now 
connected  by  rail  with  Moscow,  Petro- 
gradj  S.  W.  Russia,  Dantzic,  and 
Berlin.  Two  bridges  connect  it  with 
Praga,  a  suburb  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river.  Warsaw  is  famous  for  its  huge 
churches,  numerous  and  magnificent  pal- 
aces and  monuments,  remnants  of  former 
Polish  grandeur:  for  its  educational  in- 
stitutions; and  tor  Its  many  and  exten- 
sive gardens,  parks,  and  suburban  drives. 
It  was  formerly  also  exceptionally  rich  in 
literature  and  art  treasures ;  most  of  these 
have  been  confiscated  and  transferred  to 
Petrograd.  Leather,  boots  and  shoes, 
woolen  and  linen  stuffs,  plated  ware,  ma- 
chinery, chemicals,  spirits  and  beer,  are 
some  of  the  most  important  industrial 
products.  It  became  an  important  place 
in  the  middle  ages,  and  earlv  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century  supplanted  Cracow  as 
the  capital  of  Poland.  As  such  it  was 
several  times  stormed  and  captured,  com- 
ing under  Russian  rule  in  1813.  Although 
strongly  protected  by  the  fortresses  on 
the  Narev  and  Novo-Georgievsk  on  the 
Vistula,  it  was  taken  by  the  German 
armies  on  August  5,  1915,  one  year  after 
the  opening  of  the  European  war  ig.v,). 
The  population  in  1913  was  872,000. 

Warship.      See  Navy  and  Ironclad. 

VJart  (wart),  a  small  dry  hard  tumor 
'^*"'*''  making  its  appearance  most 
frequently  on  the  hands,  sometimes  on  the 
face,  ana  rarely  on  other  parts  of  the 
body,  and  occurring  usually  on  children. 
Warts  may  be  described  as  collections  of 
abnormally    lengthened    pupilbe    of    the 


skin,  and  closely  adherent  and  ensheathed 
in  a  thick  covering  of  hard  dry  cuticle. 
In  most  cases  they  disappear  of  them- 
selves, or  they  may  be  removed  by  appli- 
cations of  nitric  or  glacialacetic  acid,  etc. 

War  Tax.       see  war  Revenue. 

(v&rt'bqrii),  an  ancient 
mountain  castle  in  Ger- 
many, near  Eisenach,  in  the  grand  duchy 
of  Saxe-Weimar.  It  was  built  in  1067  as 
a  residence  for  the  landgraves  of  Thur- 
ingia.    Here,  according  to  the  legend,  took 


Wartbnrg 


The  Wartburg. 

place  the  poetic  contest  known  as  the 
^  War  of  the  Wartburg/  between  Walther 
von  der  Vogelweide  ana  six  other  eminent 
poets  of  Germany,  in  1206.  It  was  the 
residence  of  Luther  in  1521-22,  and  the 
room  in  which  he  worked  at  the  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  is  still  shown. 
WorfViP  (v&r't*),  or  Wabta,  a  river 
Warxne  ^^  Germany.  It  rises  in 
Poland,  35  miles  n.  w.  of  Oracow,  flows 
N.  and  w.,  then  through  Prussia  w.  N.  w., 
and  after  watering  Posen  joins  the  Oder 
at  Kiistrin.  Total  length,  483  miles,  of 
which  220  are  navigable. 


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Wart-hog  Washburnc 


TXroi4  TiAcy  A  name  common  to  certain  fhe  two  great  manufacturing  towns  of 
WttXb-iiu^,  members  of  the  hog  fam-  Birmingham  and  Coventry  (which  see). 
ily,  genus  Phacochtsrue,  distinguished  Pop.  (1911)  1,040,628. 
from  the  true  swine  by  their  dentition,  Tlfftrw^ftV  (wftr'wils),  a  town  (town- 
which  in  some  respects  Wttiwiuiw  gj^jp^  j^  g;^^^  Qq^  Rhode 
resembles  that  of  the  Island.  It  contains  several  villages  and 
elephants.  The  head  is  has  important  cotton  manufactories.  Pop. 
very     large;     immense  26,629. 

tusks  project  from  the  TXro'rixni^lr  Richard  Neville.  Eaxl 
mouth  outwards  and  Wttiwiuik,  ^p^  .  ^jj^  kingmaker/  a 
upwards,  and  the  great  English  nobleman,  born  in  1428; 
cheeks  are  furnished  killed  in  1471.  He  was  the  son  of  an 
^_^  —     with    flesh-like    excres-  earl  of  Salisbury,   and   became  Earl  of 

cences  resembling  Warwick  by  marrying  the  heiress  of  tiie 
Head  of  Wart-hog.  warts.  They  feed  on  title  and  estates.  Taking  the  Yorbst 
the  roots  of  plants,  side  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  he  was 
which  they  dig  up  with  their  tusks,  the  main  instrument  in  placing  Edward 
The  African  wart-hog  or  haruja  (P.  IV  on  the  throne  in  1461  in  Place  of 
Pliant)  of  Abyssinia,  and  the  vlacke-  Henry  VI,  and  became  the  most  powerful 
vark  of  the  Dutch  settlers  of  the  Cape  nobleman  In  the  kingdom.  Quarming 
(P.  JEthiopicua  or  PaUaaii)  are  familiar  with  Edward  on  account  of  the  latter  s 
species.  marriage,  he  went  over  to  Henrys  side, 

TXTorfATi    (war'tun),  Thomas,  an  Eng-  and  was  able  to  place  bim  again  on  the 
WartOn  {4»  pJet' and   critic,   son   of  throne,  but  ^s  army  was  defeated  and 
the   Rev.   Thomas   Warton,   professor  of  himself  slain  In  the  battie  of  Bamet 
poetry  at  Oxford,  was  bom  at  Basing-  WashbUm,    ^^7*  f^fSS?  J?. 
stoke^n  172S;  died  at  jOxford  in  1796,  ^v"  ^tl  . .    '. oA?r^.l?.,ij*?S«^^^ 
He    was    educated 
Trinity  College,   O 

ttois^an^d'^^^^^^  1853  ^^,^^^^^^^^1''^^:'^''^^ 

nrnfpsfinr  nf  noptrv  ftt  Oxford   in   17.^7  vard   University   loDo-7o.     He  was  tne 

Yl^\f&\^Zm  g^°t  abilit/  fJr  author  of»«'e«J  works  on  Mtapr«d«^ 

ten  years;  appointed  Camden  professor  *'"°»F  *5T* 'p?^  p^^«    7W.M.T^ 

of     fiistorv    In     1785;     and     Succeeded  f^'*  f<'^^^<>^P;'>J^J^lJ^^'s^, 

Whitehea/as  poet-laureate  in  the  same  ''^  17*^2,^"  1  1S**7r?7**  ""*' ®*^ 

year.     Several   church   livings   were  aUo  *l*r'«t,  ^«^       P^i^ifi^   OOLMW 

held  by  him.     He  rendered  great  service  Washblinie,   Xm^^^^ o Idi??' 

♦^   i:«^^.^4^.,.»v   i>«   u5«    TTim*.,^^,  ^4    i3\.^Aii»i^  '    American        suiuicr, 


Uon  as  k^litera^^'^iritic:  and   a^  head-  -^J^e^SfS^  ^^^^^^ 

master  of  Winchester  School   (m6-9G).  ^^^  X¥^%^^f^^  rSu^  SS  2d 

To  him  we  owe  an  essay  on  the  ^txUnga  ^^^^^n  Cavalry,  of  which  he  became 

and  Gemiij  of  Pove.  coloneL    Was  active  during  the  war  and 

Warwick  /^^  "V»   a   parliamentary  ^    major-general  in  1862.    He  was 

I     ^11        ^J?^*""?*^.  ?:^  r'^i^"K^•  i""  ^  a  member  orCoSgress  1867-71.  when  he 

rocky  hill  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Avon,  chosen  governor  of  Wisconsin.    Died 

the  county  town  of  Warwickshire.     The  w~  ^4  j^g^ 

principal  object  of  interest  is  Warwick  ttt^-,i,V-  *^  EUHU  BENJAMIN, 
Castle,  the  most  magnificent  of  the  an-  Wasnouriiey  statesman,  bom  at  liv- 
cient  feudal  mansions  of  the  English  ermore.  Maine,  in  1816.  He  practiced  law 
nobility.  Pop.  12,414.— The  county  has  ^^  Galena.  luinois,  was  elected  to  Con- 
an  area  of  902  sq.  miles.  The  surface  ^^^  ^  1852,  and  remained  there  until 
is  gently  undulating,  well  watered,  1339  when  President  Grant  appointed 
chiefly  by  the  Avon  and  the  Tame;  the  ^im  Secretary  of  State,  and  soon  after 
soil  generally  fertile,  suitable  for  grain,  Minister  to  France.  During  the  Franco- 
root,  and  pulse  crops,  and  there  is  a  German  war  be  made  the  American  lega- 
large  amount  of  pasture  for  dairying  ^lon  a  place  of  refuge  for  the  Germans 
and  grazing  purposes.  Coal  (output  and  other  foreigners  who  would  not  leave 
over  a  million  tons  per  annum)  and  paris.  For  th&  he  received  honors  from 
several  kinds  of  building  stone  are  the  German  emperor.  He  published  in 
abundant.  Warwickshire  is  also  fa-  1887  AeooIIfottOfM  0/  a  ifff»t«ter  lo 
mous  for  its  manufactures  and  includes  Franoe,  and  oied  in  that  year. 


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"Washing-macliiiie  Wasliii^on 

TKTashillfir-IIiacllilLe.  ^      machine  a    climate    similar    to    that   of    Britain. 
,  ^,  ?  ^  :  lor  wa  8  h  i  n  g  Coal,  iron  ore  and  timber  are  abundantt 

clotnea.  A  great  number  of  machines  and  rich  deposits  of  the  predous  metals 
liaye  been  contrived,  the  most  general  are  worked  in  the  N.  E.  The  Columbia 
feature  of  them  beinff  that  the  clothes  Biver  and  Puget  Sound  swarm  with  sal- 
are  agitated  by  artindal  means  in  a  mon«  which  are  tinned  and  exported, 
▼essel  or  trough  containing  the  cleansing  Ther«  are  mamificent  natural  harl^rs  on 

Stents.  There  are  many  kinds  of  domes-  the  Pacific  Tuget  Sound,  which  pene- 
c  washlns-machines,  one  of  the  simplest  trates  deeply  into  the  State,  is  a  yast 
being  the  doUy,  a  wooden  disk  with  three  harbor,  with  1594  miles  of  shore  line,  and 
or  four  projecting  arms  placed  horizon-  Seattle,  its  principal  port,  is  becoming  the 
tally  on  an  upright  shaft  in  a  tub.  The  metropolis  of  the  northwest  coast  Olym- 
shaft  is  fixed  in  a  slip  at  the  bottom  and  pia,  at  the  head  of  Puget  Sound,  is  the 
passes  through  a  cross-piece  at  the  top,  capitaL  Shipbuilding  is  an  important  in- 
and  is  turned  either  by  a  cross  handle  or  dustry,  and  other  manufactures  are  grow- 
by  simple  spur  gear.  The  arms  are  moved  iug  rapidly.  More  than  20,000,000  acres 
around  backward  and  forward  among  of  the  State  are  in  timber,  many  of  the 
the  clothes.  Nearly  all  domestic  wash-  trees  being  of  immense  size.  Pop. 
Ing-machines  consist  of  a  tub  or  dstem   (1910)  1,141,990. 

of  a  form  suited  to  the  character  of  the  WasTiiTifH-ATi  capital  of  the  United 
moving  parts  of  the  apparatus.  Some  »» "^•^""B  •'"">  States,  is  in  the  Dia- 
operate  by  squeezing  the  clothes  between  trict  of  Columbia,  at  the  confluence  of 
grooved  rollers,  others  by  rubbing  them  the  Anacostia  with  the  Potomac,  here 
between  corrugated  surfaces  by  a  rock-  navigable  bv  ships  of  the  largest  class; 
Sng  or  up  and  down  movement,  others  230  miles  by  rail  from  New  York,  40 
have  a  combined  squeezing  and  rubbing  miles  s.  w.  of  Baltimore.  The  site  was 
action,  while  still  others  are  constructed  selected  in  1790  by  Washington  himself, 
on  the  principle  of  the  old  dash  wheel  And  the  plan  of  the  city  was  dravni  up 
used  in  aye  and  bleaching  works.  Some  on  a  most  magnificent  scale.  The  streets 
recent  washing-machines,  which  have  (70-120  feet  wide)  cross  each  other 
come  into  considerable  use,  consist  of  a  at  right  angles  and  are  intersected 
ribbed  drum  or  cage  formed  of  tubes  fixed  diagonally  by  avenues  (120-180  feet 
into  the  end  of  the  drum.  The  clothes  are  wide),  which  bear  the  names  of  States 
placed  inside  the  cage,  which  is  kept  re-  of  ^e  Union.  A  large  number  of  ^ese 
volving  in  opposite  ways  by  turns  inside  spadous  thoroughfares  are  planted  witii 
a  thin  metal  case,  the  hot,  soapy  water  fine  shade  trees,  and  are  well  paved  and 
drculating  freely  between  the  rtubes.  well  kept  Numerous  open  spaces,  larce 
WoaliiTicrf  AH  (wosh'ing-tun),  one  of  and  smalL  some  of  them  beautifully  laid 
waBUmgXOU  ^^  p^^^t^c  States  of  out,  aredistributed  throughout  the  vast 
^e  American  Union,  in  the  extreme  area  occupied  by  the  citv.  First  among 
northwest  section,  being  bounded  N.  by  the  numerons  public  buildings  ranks  the 
British  Columbia,  w.  by  the  Pacific  Capitol,  an  architecturally  beautiful  edi- 
Ocean,  E.  by  Idaho,  and  s.  by  Oregon:  fice  on  a  hill  above  the  Potomac,  in  the 
area.  69,127  eq.  miles.  Prior  to  1861  midst  of  a  highly  ornamented  park  of  50 
it  also  comprised  the  present  States  of  acres.  It  consists  of  a  central  building  of 
Idaiho  and  Montana.  It  is  drained  by  freestone,  two  wings  (each  with  a  dome) 
the  Columbia  and  its  tributaries,  and  of  white  marble,  and  a  lofty  central 
the  elevated  Cascade  Mountain  range  dome  of  iron,  surmounted  bv  a  statue  of 
runs  through  the  State  from  N.  to  6.,  liberty  (total  height,  307^  feet), 
about  100  miles  from  the  Pacific  coast,  The  Rotunda,  in  the  center  of  the  main 
dividing  it  into  two  distinct  parts.  The  building,  is  a  magnificent  hall,  adorned 
western  part  is  a  rich  timber  country  with  bas-reliefo  and  paintings,  and  & 
with  heavy  rainfall  and  many  highly  fer-  colossal  statue  of  George  Washington, 
tile  valleys,  in  which  hops,  fruits  of  all  The  entire  structure  covers  3%  acres, 
kinds,  and  vegetables  of  immense  size  are  and  cost  over  $13,000,000.  It  accommo- 
grown.  The  eastern  part  is  well  adapted  dates  the  two  Houses  of  Congress,  the 
for  the  growth  of  all  kinds  of  grain,  and  U.  S.  Supreme  Court,  and  untu  recently 
other  farm  products,  some  sections  being  the  Capitol  also  housed  the  extensive 
admirably  suited  for  wheat  raising.  Cat-  library  of  Congress,  now  transferred 
tie  and  live  stock  of  all  kinds  do  well,  the  to  a  magnificent  'Congresdonal  library 
abundance  of  grasses  and  lightness  of  building,  an  extensive  and  impodng  edifice 
the  snowfall  permitting  them  to  graze  In  the  Italian  Renaissance  style  of  archi- 
through  the  winter  season.  The  State  is  tecture^erected  in  1888-97,  at  a  cost  of 
very  rich  in  natural  resources  and  ad-  $6,180,000.  It  measures  470  feet  in 
vantages,  and  the  coast  district  enjoys  length   and  340  in  width,  its  entrance 


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WasMngton  Washington 

hall  and  stairways  being  unsurpassed  in  can  Republics,  etc. 

beauty  of  design  and  decoration.  This  The  National  Soldiers*  Home,  two 
ornate  edifice  contains  at  the  present  miles  above  the  cit;^,  founded  in  1851. 
time  nearly  2,000,000  books,  pamphlets,  has  523  acres  of  improved  park  and 
manuscripts,  maps,  etc  The  collection  forest  and  serves  as  an  attractive  rural 
is  rich  In  history,  political  science,  official  resort  and  free  drivine  park,  in  addition 
documents  and  Americana  (including  to  its  function  of  providing  a  comfortable 
important  files  of  newspapers  and  manu-  home  for  veterans  and  Invalids  of  the 
scripts  of  colonial  and  later  times).  North-  United  States  Army.  The  National 
westward  from  the  Capitol  extends  Penn-  Asylum  for  the  Insane,  with  nearly  lOOt 
aylvania  avenue,  160  feet  wide  and  the  inmates  (either  of  the  Army  or  Navy,  or 
most  notable  of  the  city's  highways,  its  from  the  District  of  Ck>lumbia),  is  situ- 
main  drive  extending  to  the  Treasury  ated  on  the  heights  above  Anacoetia,  an 
building,  an  immense  edifice  in  the  eastern  tmtnch  of  the  Potomac  Among 
Grecian  style  of  architecture,  near  which  the  institutions  of  learning  in  the  dtj 
is  the  prepident^s  house,  or  executive  are  the  C^rge  Washington  (formerly  the 
mansion,  commonly  known  as  the  White  Columbian)  University,  Georgetown  Uni- 
House,  built  of  free  stone  and  surrounded  versity  (Roman  Catholic),  Howard  Uni- 
by  extensive  grounds.  It  is  handsomely  versity  (for  colored  students).  Catholic 
furnished  and  is  a  place  of  interest  to  all  University  of  America,  founded  in  1887. 
visitors  to  the  national  capitaL  West  American  University  (Methodist),  and 
of  the  White  House  is  a  large  and  hand-  the  National  Deaf  Mute  College.  Monu- 
Bome  building  accommodating  three  of  ments  are  numerous,  chief  among  them 
the  governmental  department  the  State,  being  the  national  Waahington  Menu- 
the  War  and  the  Navy,  it  being  567  feet  ment,  near  the  Potomac,  a  towering 
in  lengtii  and  342  in  width.  Other  im-  obelisk  of  white  marble  555^  feet  high, 
portant  public  edifices  are  the  Land  built  at  &  cost  of  SI  4230,000,  and  con- 
Office  (formerly  the  General  Post  Office),  taining  commemorative  slabs  from  most 
of  white  marble ;  the  Patent  Ofllce,  with  of  the  States.  Bronze  statues,  equestrian 
a  great  Doric  portico ;  the  building  of  the  and  others,  are  very  numerous,  there  being 
Smithsonian  Institution  (devoted  to  hardly  a  public  square  or  civic  circle 
scientific  research  and  the  promotion  of  without  its  monument  The  city,  with  its 
useful  knowledge),  of  red  sandstone,  in  euburb  of  Georgetown  (now  West  Wash- 
the  Byzantine  style,  with  picturesque  in^^ton),  and  the  rural  portion  of  the 
towers:  the  building  of  the  Department  District,  covers  an  area  of  about  70 
of  Agriculture;  the  Pension  Office,  Post  square  miles.  In  addition  to  its  many 
Office  and  various  others.  An  interesting  small  parks  and  the  zoological  park  of  167 
edifice  among  them  is  the  new  structure  acres,  it  possesses  Rock  Creek  Park  of 
of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  over  1500  acres,  extending  for  miles  alone 
in  which  is  housed  an  enormous  collection  the  picturesque  banks  of  the  stream^amid 
of  economic  products,  examples  of  art  forests  of  great  natural  beauty.  Wash- 
and  manufacture,  and  objects  of  natural  ington  is  abundantly  supplied  with  pure 
history,  the  latter  including  the  exten-  water  by  a  conduit  15  miles  long,  from 
sive  series  of  African  animals  contributed  the  Falls  of  the  Potomac  Opposite,  in 
by  ex-President  Boosevelt  as  a  result  of  Virginia,  is  Arlington,  with  its  beautiful 
his  African  hunting  trip.  Other  institu-  national  cemetery,  and  about  15  miles 
tions  are  the  Army  Medical  Museum,  below  the  city  is  Mount  Vernon,  formerlv 
with  valuable  pathological  collections,  the  the  home  of  Washington.  Pop.  331,069. 
botanical  garden  and  the  zoological  (See  Columbia,  Disiriot  of  A  « 
gardens,  situated  in  the  Rock  Creek  dis-  WaftliiTicrf'ATi  *  city,  county  seat  of 
trict  The  United  States  Naval  Observa-  VV  asxungxon,  Daviess  Co.,  Indiana, 
tory,  of  white  marble,  occupies  a  retired  19  miles  E.  of  Vincennes.  It  is  in  a  farm- 
and  commanding  site  on  Georgetown  ing  and  coal  mining  region,  and  pro- 
Heights.  Other  interesting  institutions  duces  canned  goods,  lumber,  furniture 
are  the  Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art,  a  and  iron  products,  cooperage  stock,  un- 
notable  collection  of  paintings  and  derwear,  etc  Pop.  7854. 
statuary,  housed  in  a  handsome  new  WftsTiiTifH-ATi  a  town,  county  seat  of 
marble  building;  the  Carnegie  Institu-  vv usiuil^tuu,  geaufort  Co.,  North 
tion.  founded  in  1902,  'to  encourage  in-  Carolina,  on  the  Tar  River,  33  miles  v. 
vestigation,  research  and  discovery,*  with  of  Newbem.  It  has  foundries  and  manu- 
an  endowment  by  Andrew   Carnegie  of  factures  of  lumber,  knit  goods,  boats,  bug- 

t  10,000,000;  the  Washington  Academv  of  gies,  fiour,  oil,  etc    Pop.  6211. 
Idences,    National    Geographic    Society,  WaftTiiTicH-nTi    county  seat  of  a  county 
Biological   Society,  Anthropological   Soc-    ^»waa^B  •'"**>  of  the  same  name   in 
iety.  International  Bureau  of  the  Ameri-  Pennsylvania,  25  miles  8.   w.   of  Pitts- 


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Washington  Washington 

bargh.  It  is  in  a  coal  and  oil  region,  Vernon«  then  the  residence  of  his  half- 
and  has  extensive  manufactures  of  tin  brother  Lawrence,  wxio  had  inherited  the 
plate,  iron,  steel,  glass,  etc.  Here  is  greater  part  of  the  estate.  This  gave 
Washington  and  Jefferson  College  and  him  access  to  books  and  to  better  teach- 
other  collegiate  institutions.  Pop.  25,000.  ers  and  brought  him  in  contact  with 
Wasllin0i:on    Booker     Taliavebbo,  Lord  Fairfax,  a  relative  of  Lawrence's 

WW  a.ouj.ug  vvu|  ^ucator,  born  of  Af ri-  wife,  who  possessed  a  larife  tract  of  land 
can  parentage  at  Hale's  Ford,  Virginia,  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  The  boy, 
about  1859.  The  son  of  a  slave,  he  who  had  been  dissuaded  by  his  mother 
succeeded  in  obtaining  entry  at  Hamp-  from  entering  the  British  navy,  had  ac- 
ton Institute,  was  graduated  in  1875  and  quired  some  knowledge  of  mathematics 
taught  there  until  put  in  charge  of  the  and  surveving,  and  was  employed  by 
Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  Insti-  Lord  Fairfax  in  1747  to  survey  his  val- 
tute,  Alabama,  in  1881.  This,  under  his  ley  property.  He  alternated  surveying 
care,  has  made  a  remarkable  progress  in  with  hunting,  spent  the  winters  at 
industrial  education,  and  has  done  much  Mount  Vernon,  and  in  1751  accompanied 
toward  solving  the  race  problem  between  his  brother,  stricken  with  consumption,^ 
the  blacks  and  whites,  while  its  president  to  Barbadoes.  Here  Lawrence  died  in 
is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  remark-  1752,  leaving  George  guardian  of  his  only 
able  men  of  the  age.  He  has  published  daughter  and  heir  to  his  estate  if  she 
Satoing  and  Reaping,  Up  from  Slavery^  should  die  without  issue.  Lawrence  had 
Future  of  the  American  Nepro  and  already  given  his  younger  brother  in- 
various  other  works.  Died  in  1915.  atruction  in  the  use  of  arms  and  the  art 
TXTaaliiTicH-nTi     BusuROD,  judge,  was  of  war,  a  training  soon  to  become  nsefuL 

wasiiiu^tuii,  ^^^^  jij  Westmoreland  He  was  appointed  adjutant-general  in  the 
Ck)unty,  Virginia,  in  1759;  died  in  1829.  Virginia  militia  at  the  age  of  nineteen. 
He  was  a  nephew  of  George  Washing-  and  in  1752,  when  twenty-one  years  of 
ton,  and  a  member  of  the  Virginia  age,  was  chosen  for  a  service  of  great 
Convention  which  ratified  the  Constitu-  importance.  The  French  had  built  some 
tion  of  the  United  States  in  1788.  In  forts  on  territory  near  Lake  Erie  claimed 
1798  he  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  by  Virginia,  and  Governor  Dinwiddle  sent 
United  States  Supreme  Court  The  a  messenger  to  warn  them  off.  The  mes- 
estate  of  Mount  Vernon  was  left  to  him  senger  returned  in  fright  before  finishing 
in  the  will  of  hit  illustrious  unde.  his   work   and    the   governor   now  chose 

TXTofiliiTicFfATi     George,   the  hero   of  Washington,  possibly  at  Lord  Fairfax's 

w  osiiiu^iuu,  American  independ-  instigation,  as  a  strong  and  capable 
ence,  and  the  'father  of  his  country,'  as  young  man,  familiar  with  the  ways  of 
he  has  long  been  popularly  called,  was  the  wilderness  and  fitted  for  the  duty, 
bom  at  Bridges  Creek,  Westmoreland  There  was  no  turning  back  by  the  new 
County,  Virginia,  February  22,  1732.  He  messenger.  He  made  a  long  and  perilous 
came  of  good  English  stock,  being  the  journey  through  the  wilderness  and  over 
grandson  of  John  Washington,  who  emi-  the  mountains  to  the  French  forts  south 
grated  in  1657  from  Northamptonshire,  of  the  Ohio,  gave  the  warning  required, 
England,  where  the  Washington  family  and  took  occasion  to  study  the  Indian 
had  been  one  of  excellent  standing.  In  situation  and  gain  a  definite  idea  of  the 
.Virginia  John  Washington  and  his  broth-  designs  of  the  French.  On  his  retom, 
er  Lawrence  brought  a  large  tract  of  which  was  accomplished  at  great  risk 
land  on  the  western  side  of  tne  Potomac  of  life,  he  suggested  to  the  governor 
and  about  fifty  miles  above  its  mouth,  the  building  of  a  fort  at  the  point  where 
Here  John  married,  acquired  wealth  and  the  Monongahela  and  Alleghanv  rivers 
position,  and  left  the  paternal  homestead  unite  to  form  the  Ohio.  In  the  following 
to  his  second  son  Augustine,  who  was  spring  the  French  came  down  the  Alle- 
the  father  of  George  Washington  by  ghany,  drove  away  the  British  workmen, 
his  second  wife,  Mary  Ball.  George  was  and  completed  the  fort  for  themselves, 
but  ten  years  of  age  when  his  father  Washington's  military  career  now  began, 
died,  six  children  in  all  being  left  to  the  He  was  made  second  in  command  of  a 
mother's  care.  Little  or  nothing  is  force  sent  from  Virginia  to  deal  with  the 
known  of  his  childhood,  though  various  French,  but  the  death  of  the  colonel  threw 
problematical  stories  have  gathered  about  the  command  into  his  hands  and  he  per- 
nis  name,  some  of  them,  possibly,  based  formed  his  responsible  task  with  great 
upon  fact.  He  appears  to  have  been  a  skill  and  judgment.  Outnumbered  by  the 
strong,  healthy  boy,  quiet  and  thoughtful  French,  he  built  a  small  woodland  fort 
beyond  his  age,  not  brilliant  as  a  student,  where  he  defended  himself  with  soldierly 
bnt  with  the  innate  qualities  of  a  man  resolution,  surrendering  only  when  de- 
of  action.     In  1747  he  went  to  Mount  f^nse  had  become  hopeless  and  favorable 


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Washing^ton  Washingloii 

tenns  were  offered.  eent   Vimnia   in   the   Continental   Gon- 

Orden  beixic  sent  from  England  that  gresa  which  met  at  Philadelphia  in  Sep- 
any  English  field  officer  should  be  sape-  tember,  1774.  At  the  end  of  the  first 
rior  in  command  to  any  colonial  officer,  session,  when  Patrick  Henry  was  asked 
even  one  of  higher  rank.  Washington  at  whom  he  considered  the  greatest  man  in 
once  resigned ;  but  in  1756  he  consented  the  Congress,  he  replied,  *  If  yoo  apeak 
to  accompany  Braddock  as  a  volunteer 
on  his  unfortunate  expedition.  The  af- 
fair would  have  ended  very  differently  if 
the  opinionated  Englishman  had  listened 
to  the  advice  of  his  Virginian  aide-de- 
camp, but,  as  it  proved,  Washington  was 
almost  the  only  officer  who  returned  un- 
harmed from  the  disastrous  expedition. 
He  was  now  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Virginia  forces,  and  in  1756  visited  Bos- 
ton and  had  an  interview  with  General 
Shirley,  the  commander-in-chief,  with 
whom  he  satisfactorily  settled  the  ques- 
tion of  rank.  During  the  remainder  of 
the  war  he  was  occupied  on  the  fron- 
tier, where  the  Indians  were  attacking 
the    settlers,    and   in   1758   accompanied  George  Washington. 

General  Forbes  in  the  second  expedition 

against  Fort  Duquesne.  He  commanded  of  solid  information  and  sound  Judgment, 
the  part  of  the  army  which  occupied  that  Colonel  Washington  is  unquestionably 
fort  in  November,  1758,  and  by  putting  thegreatest  man  on  that  floor.' 
an  end  to  the  operations  of  the  French  Washington  and  his  fellow  patriots  had 
in  tibat  quarter,  settled  the  question  of  mot  aimed  at  separation  from  the  mother- 
ownership  of  the  Ohio  region.  This  ended  country,  but  simply  at  Justice  and  fair 
bis  military  career  for  that  period.  Elec-  treatment,  but  alter  the  affair  at  Lex- 
ted  in  1758  to  the  House  of  Burgesses  ington,  April  19,  1775,  nothing  remained 
of  Virginia,  he  was  on  his  first  appear-  but  to  resist  British  tyranny  by  force 
ance  hlghlv  complimented  by  the  speaker  of  arms,  and  on  the  15th  of  June  Wash- 
for  his  milltanr  service.  Washington  rose  ington  was  unanimously  elected  by  Con- 
to  reply,  but  in  such  a  state  of  nervous-  cress  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Amer- 
ness,  that  he  could  not  speak  a  word,  ican  forces.  Ue  had  continued  a  mem* 
*8it  down.  Mr.  Washington,'  said  the  her  of  Congress,  but  now  left  it  to  take 
iq>eaker;  'Your  modesty  equals  your  command  of  the  forces  then  besieging 
valor,  and  that  surpasses  the  power  of  Boston.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  bad 
any  language  I  possess.'  In  1750  he  taken  place,  with  much  credit  to  the 
married  Martha  Custis,  a  rich  voung  provincials  for  bravery,  but  Washington 
widow,  and  settled  down  to  the  life  of  found  the  militia  a  disorganized  mass, 
a  farmer  at  Mount  Vernon,  which  had  more  an  armed  mob  of  pamots  than  an 
fallen  to  him  through  the  death  of  his  army.  It  took  him  some  time  to  under- 
niece.  This,  added  to  the  estate  of  his  stand  this  half  disciplined  body  of  New 
wife,  made  him  one  of  the  richest  men  Englanders,  and  for  them  to  understand 
In  the  land,  his  estate  growing  throuah  him.  but  he  soon  brought  order  out  of 
purchase  until  it  reached  a  total  of  8000  confusion  and  won  the  love  and  respect 
acres.  He  managed  it  himself,  kept  his  of  his  men.  Munitions  of  war  were 
own  books,  and  nandled  all  his  affairs  greatly  lacking  and  Congress  was  nearly 
with  method  and  Judgment  while  winning  destitute  of  money  or  credit  and  sadly 
a  reputation  for  mercantile  integrity,  unfit  to  deal  with  the  situation.  Under 
For  srears  he  remained  a  member  of  the  these  circumstances  it  is  a  matter  of 
House  of  Burgesses,  but  took  no  promi-  great  credit  to  Wenhinirton  that  in  nine 
nent  part  in  its  debates,  being  ever  more  months'  time  he  forced  the  British  to 
a  man  of  action  than  an  orator.  In  evacuate  Boston  with  their  army  of 
1778  he  came  again  prominently  into  veterans  and  surrender  to  him  the  first 
public  affairs  as  a  member  of  the  con-  seat  of  the  war. 

vention  that  met  at  Williamsburg  and  We  must  deal  briefly  with  the  remain- 
asserted  the  right  of  the  colonies  to  self-  ing  history  of  the  war.  the  events  of 
government  declaring  that  taxation  and  which  are  noted  under  United  States. 
representation  could  not  justly  be  sepa-  The  defeat  of  the  Americans  on  Long 
rated.  rHiis  convention  chose  him,  with  Island  led  to  the  loss  of  New  Tork  and 
Patrick  Henry  and  five  others,  to  repre-  the  retreat  of  Washington  across  New 


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WasMngton  WashingtoiL 

Jersey,  followed  by  the  brilliant  victory  hasty  southward  inarch,  besieged  York- 
at  Trenton  on  Christmas  ni£ht.  177(5,  town  with  a  force  of  about  15,000  men, 
and  the  subteanent  yictory  at  rrinceton,  and  on  October  19  forced  Cornwallis  to 
on  Janoary  8,  1777.  These  soccesses  surrender  his  forts  and  his  force  of  7000 
greatly  revived  the  spirits  of  the  Ameri-  veterans.  It  was  the  most  important 
cans,  which  had  been  much  depressed  by  event  of  the  war.  since  it  brought  it  to 
the  preceding  ill  fortune,  but  Washington  a  rapid  close,  the  discouraged  British 
had  still  many  difficulties  to  contend  with  government  givinc  up  the  struggle, 
in  the  lack  of  recruits,  the  want  of  Throufhout  this  contest,  Washingtoii 
money  and  war  materials,  and  the  snpe-  was  obviously  the  strongest  and  ablest 
riority  of  his  foes  in  all  military  req-  man  in  the  field,  quiet»  energetic,  capa- 
uisites.  Their  one  lack  lay  in  their  ble,  rarely  losinc  his  temper,  quick  to 
commanders,  among  whom  Cornwallis  take  advantage  oi  every  opportnnky,  res- 
was  the  only  able  soldier.  In  military  olute  in  endurance,  bearing  the  attacks 
ffenius  none  of  them  compared  with  Wash-  of  his  enemies,  the  lack  of  resources,  the 
ington,  and  he  did  not  fail  to  take  ad-  continued  difficulties  which  surrounded 
vantage  of  their  weakness  and  ineffi-  him,  with  the  spirit  of  a  hero  and  the 
dency.  The  next  movements  of  the  en-  composure  of  a  pnilosopher,  and  triumph- 
emy  were  Burgoyne's  disastrous  march  ing  in  the  end  as  such  men  must  tri- 
sonthward  from  Canada  and  Howe's  ex-  umph,  through  an  innate  force  of  charac-* 
pedition  against  Philadelphia  by  way  of  ter  that  never  yields  to  defeat  Wash- 
Chesapeake  Bay.  Washington's  army  ington  has  since  been  regarded  as  a  mil- 
was  defeated  by  superior  forces  at  the  itary  genius  of  a  high  type,  not  a  daiaMng 
Brandywine,  the  British  occupied  Phila-  meteor  of  war  like  Alexander  or  Napo- 
delphia,  and  their  alert  opponent  soon  leon,  but  a  leader  capable  of  obtaining 
after  attacked  them  at  German  town,  los-  great  results  by  the  wise  handling  ot 
ing  the  battle  mainly  through  the  con-  slender  means.  A  patriot  in  rrain,  whose 
fusion  caused  by  a  fog.  But  the  loss  in  only  desire  was  the  independence  of  his 
this  quarter  was  recompensed  by  the  de-  country,  he  vigorously  rejected  the  de- 
feat and  capture  of  Burgorne's  army  at  mand  of  his  followers  that  he  should 
Saratoga,  and  Washington's  army  went  make  himself  a  king,  and  retired  to  his 
into  winter  quarters  at  Valley  Forge  home  at  Mount  Vernon,  taking  up  with 
with  reviving  hope  from  the  cheering  composure  and  relief  his  old  pursuit  of 
news  from  the  North.    The  winter  was  a  agriculture. 

severe  one  and  the  men  at  Valley  Forge  He  was  not  permitted   to  remain  In 

suffered   greatly   from  want  of  clothing  seclusion.      Confusion    and    Inefficiency 

and  other  necessaries.    The  spirit  of  their  reigned    supreme   in   governmental    rela- 

great  leader,  however,  remained  unbroken,  tions  and  the  necessity  of  a  stronger  gov- 

and  when  'the  tidings  of  the  alliance  with  ernment  became  daily  more  manifest    In 

France  and  the  danger  of  the  Delaware  the  events  that  followed,  leading  to  the 

being  closed  by  a  French  fleet  caused  the  calling  of  the  Constitutional  Convention 

British  to  evacuate  Philadelphia,  Washing-  of  1787,  Washington  took  an  active  part* 

ton  was  quickly  on  their  track,  attacked  and  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  oon- 

them  at  Monmouth,  and  probablv  would  vention  which,  in  the  short  space  of  a 

have  given  them  a  crushing  defeat  but  few  months,  devised  the  admirable  Con- 

for  the  misconduct  of  one  of  his  subor-  stitution   which   has   since    formed    the 

dinates.    The  following  winter  was  passed  basis  of  government  of  the  United  States, 

by  Uie  American  army  at  Morristown,  Unanimously  elected  the  first  president 

New  Jersey,  and  in  1780  the  war  was  of  the  new  Union,  he  accepted  it,  as  he 

transferred  to  the  South,  the  weakness  said,    'with    more   diffidence   and    reluc> 

and   destitution   of   Washington's   army  tance  than  ever  I  experienced  before  in 

obliging  him  to  remain  on  the  defensive,  my    life.'      The    mental    characteristics 

tibough  closely  watching  the  movements  which  make  a  man  a  great  soldier  are 

of  the  enemy  in  and  about  New  York,  usually  not  those  that  fit  him  to  be  a 

The  climax  came  in  1781,  when  Lord  constitutional  governor,  but  Washington's 

Cornwallis  injudiciously  moved  his  army  Judgment,    good    sense    and    moderation 

to    Yorktown,    Virginia,    fortified    that  adapted  him  very  well  to  his  new  duties, 

place  and   awaited   reinforcements  from  and  he  dealt   with   the  difficulties  that 

New  York.     The  alert   American  com-  surrounded  him  in  his  new  position  with 

mander   took   instant  advantage  of   the  a    wisdom    that    few    of   his    associates 

opportunity.    He  had  been  reinforced  by  manifested.     Reelected   in  1792,   he   re- 

a  French  army,  a  French  fleet  bad  en-  luctantly  resumed  the  duties  which  re- 

lered  Chesapeake  Bay  and  cut  oif  Com*  moved  him   from   the   private   life   that 

wallis'   communication   with   New  York,  appealed  more  to  his  disposition,   espe- 

and  Washington  at  once  set  out  on  a  ^cially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  he  was 


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Washington  Court  House  Watcli 

ass^ied  by  political  foes  as  viruientiv  as  Washington  Monumeut, 

he  had  formerly  been  by  military  foes,  *>  — .w*»i***j.w**i#, 
On  the  7th  of  December.  1796,  ne  for  a  magnificent  monument  erected  at 
the  last  time  met  the  Houses  of  Con-  Washington,  D.  C.  by  the  American  peo- 
gress,  and  made  to  them  a  dignified  ple  in  honor  of  George  Washington.  It 
Farewell  Address,  so  full  of  wise  advice  stands  in  the  Mall,  a  public  park  ex- 
ihat  it  has  since  been  regarded  as  one  of  tending  to  the  Potomac,  aud  is  555^  feet 
the  great  state  papers  of  the  country,  high  and  55  feet,  1^  inches  square  at 
Declining  a  third  term  in  office,  he  re-  base,  tapering  upward  to  34  feet,  54 
tired  a^dn  to  Mount  Vernon,  but  in  inches  square.  It  is  built  of  blocks  of 
1798  his  services  were  once  more  de-  marble  two  feet  thick,  and  has  a  stair- 
manded  by  his  countrymen.  A  naval  way  and  an  elevator  in  its  interior,  the 
conflict  liaa  arisen  between  France  and  States  having  contributed  richly  carved 
the  United  States,  there  was  danger  of  stones  for  the  decoration  of  its  interior 
a  declaration  of  war,  and  a  small  army  walls.  The  comer-stone  was  laid  in, 
was  raised,  of  which  Washington  was  1848  and  the  work  finished  Dec.  C,  1884. 
appointed  commander-in-chief.  Fortu-  WasMta  (wosh'i-tft),  a  river  of  Ar- 
nately  no  war  followed  and  the  home  '^  »»aj-h'«.  Kansas  and  Louisiana,  an 
life  of  the  venerated  chief  was  not  again  affluent  of  Red  River;  length,  GOO  miles; 
disturbed.  He  died  after  a  short  illness,  valuable  for  navigation, 
due  to  acute  laryngitis,  at  Mount  Ver-  TXTogn  (wosp),  the  common  name  ap- 
Don.  on  December  14,  1799.  ir  plied  to  insects  of  various  gen- 
History  presents  us  with  few  characters  era  belonging  chiefly  to  the  family 
■o  worthy  of  our  admiration  and  esteem  Vespide,  order  Hymenoptera.  Those 
as  George  Washington.  His  mental  best  known  belong  to  the  genus  VespOf 
gifts  were  not  of  the  daszlin^  kind  nor  and  live  in  societies,  composed  of  fe- 
were  his  talents  of  the  brilliant  order,  males,  males,  and  neuters  or  workers. 
jet  he  possessed  the  essentials  of  wisdom  The  females  and  neuters  are  armed  with 
In  a  high  degree,  his  nowers  and  traits  an  extremely  powerful  and  venomous 
of  diaracter  being  so  finely  proportioned  sting,  especially  so  in  the  Hornet, 
and  adjusted  and  so  firmly  controlled  TZTootp  PrnHnnfft  TTfi1i7QfiATi  A-f 
by  a  heroic  will  and  high  moral  faculty,  Wasie  rrOUUCXS,  UUXlZaXlOU  01. 
as  to  enable  him  to  witiistand  alike  dis-  in  the  process  of  manufacture  much  sub- 
aster  and  obloquy,  to  reject  the  prompt-  stance  is  useless  for  the  purpose  in- 
ings  of  ambition,  and  to  pursue  the  even  tended  and  vast  quantities  of  material 
tenor  of  his  way  unmoved  by  but  one  have  in  the  past  been  thrown  aside  as 
aspiration,  to  promote  the  happinee»,  'waste.'  Within  later  times  much  of 
prosperity  and  good  governnient  of  his  this  material  has  been  found  useful  for 
country.  The  equipoise  and  harmony  of  other  purposes,  being  at  times  more 
his  powers,  his  keen  foresight  and  rare  valuable  than  the  original  product  This 
Judgment,  led  to  that  wise  disrrimina>tipn  utilization  of  waste  has  proceeded  to 
which  is  the  outcome  alike  of  well  de-  such  an  extent  that  comparatively  little 
veloped  mental  and  moral  faculties,  niaterial  is  now  discarded  as  useless. 
Washington  merited  the  noble  title  of  Thus  'waste  silk*  is  now  valuable. 
•  Father  of  his  Country.'  though  it  retains  this  name.  Rags  of 
Wash,  inert  on  Conrt  HonSC.  **^  kinds  are  now  so  much  in  demand 
^  .  „  ^  ^^.  tliat  no  one  speaks  of  them  as  waste, 
a  city,  county  seat  of  Fayette  Co,.  Ohio,  Much  heat  was  wasted  in  the  past  which 
on  Paint  Creek,  75  miles  B.  N.  E.  of  Cm-  fg  now  made  useful.  The  vast  heaps 
cinnati.  It  has  a  poultry  packing  house,  of  waste  coal  dust  at  the  mines  are  now 
and  manufactures  of  stoves,  furniture,  being  converted  into  burnable  briquets 
shoes,  fertilizers,  etc.  Pop.  8000.  ^  and  utilized  in  other  ways,  and  the 
WashUUrtOn  and  Lee  IFniVCr-  refuse  of  oW  smelting  works  is  being 
.  *  *  ^i_  A  ^  made  to  yield  metal  by  improved  proc- 
ritV.  V*®  ^  outcome  of  the  Augusta  esses.  The  science  of  chemistry  has  done 
:  ,  Aaidemy,  Aurasta  Co.,  Virginia,  much  in  utiUzing  refuse,  coal  tar,  for  in- 
founded  in  1749.  Becoming  the  Wash-  gtance,  now  yielding  a  multitude  of  use- 
Ington  Academy,  it  was  removed  in  1906  fuj  products.  The  saving  effected  by  this 
to  Lexington,  Va.  Before  the  Civil  war  utilization  is  too  varied  to  be  further 
•Stonewall'  Jackson  was  one  of  ito  pro-  particularized,  and  the  saving  amounts  to 
fessors.     In  1865   Gen.   Robert   B.  Xee  yast  sums. 

5*^®*  ^?o»7iP'??^®°*' -s*°^  !♦      ^       *  Watcli    (woch),  a  well-known  pocket 

death,  in  ISJOit  was  given  its  Pfesent  WaXCn  i\^trument  for  measuring^me, 

■*™*-^   ^^JSP^  *n  ^^   ^   instructors  invented  at  Nttrnberg  in  the  end  of  the 

and  about  600  pupils.  fifteenth  century.    The  wheels  in  watches 


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Watch  Water 

are  urged  on  by  the  force  of  a  spiral  of  compensatioa  (which  see)  in  the 
sprinf^,  generally  of  steel,  contained  in  balance,  have  combined  to  give  to  the 
a  cylindrical  barrel  or  box,  to  which  one  best  chronometers  of  to-day  a  uniformity 
end  of  a  chain  is  fixed,  the  chain  als*  of  rate  which  it  is  probably  impossible 
making  several  turns  round  the  barrel  to  excel.  A  number  of  watches  for 
outside;  the  other  end  of  the  chaui  is  special  performances  are  also  con- 
fixed to  the  bottom  of  a  cone  with  a  structed.  Such  are  the  calendar  watch, 
spiral  groove  cut  on  it,  known  as  the  the  repeater,  the  chronograph  (which 
fusee  (which  see).  On  the  bottom  of  see),  etc  Large  quantities  of  the 
the  fusee  the  first  or  great  wheel  is  put  cheaper  class  of  watches  are  now  made 
The  barrel-arbor  is  so  fixed  in  the  frame  by  machinery  in  the  United  States, 
that  it  cannot  turn  when  the  fusee  is  Switzerland,  France,  Germany,  and  Eng- 
winding  up.  The  inner  end  of  the  land.  They  are  generally  produced  on 
spring  hooks  on  to  the  barrel-arbor,  the  the  interchangeable  system,  that  is,  if 
outer  to  the  inside  of  the  barrel.  If  the  any  part  of  a  watch  has  become  unfit 
fusee  is  turned  round  in  the  proper  for  service,  it  can  be  cheaply  replaced 
direction  It  will  take  on  the  chain,  and  by  an  exact  duplicate,  the  labor  of  the 
consequently  take  it  off  from  the  barrel,  watch  repairer  thus  becoming  easy  and 
This   coils   up    the   spring;    and    if    the  expeditious. 

fusee  and  great  wheel  are  left  to  them-  Wofch    (i^utical),  a  certain  part  of 

selves,   the   force  exerted  by  the   spring  ^^^"'  t^^  officers  and  crew  or  a  ves- 

in  the  barrel  to  unroll  itself  will  make  sel   who   together   work   her  for  an   al- 

the  barrel  turn  in  a  contrary  direction  lotted   time,   the  time  being  also   called 

to  that  by  which  it  was  bent  up.    This  a   watch.    The   time  called   a   watch  is 

force  communicating  itself  to  the  wheels  four  hours,   the  reckoning  beginning  at 

will    set    them    in    motion.    Their    time  noon    or    midnight     Between    4    and    8 

of  continuing  in  motion  will  depend  on  p.m.  the  time  is  divided  into  two  short 

the  number  of  turns  of  the  spiral  groove  or  dog-icatchea,  in  order  to  prevent  the 

on    the   fusee,    the  number   of    teeth    in  constant  recurrence  of  the  same  portion 

the    first    or    great    wheel,    and    on    the  of   the   crew   keeping   the  watch  during 

number    of    leaves    in    the    pinion    upon  the  same  hours. 

which  the  great  wheel  acts,  etc.  The  \X7oteT  (^ft'^^^)>  ^  liquid  which  cov- 
necessity  of  keeping  the  watch  from  ^^  **•"*'*  ers  the  greater  part  of  the 
'  running  down,'  aud  of  making  the  earth's  surface.  It  was  classified  among 
wheels  move  with  uniform  motion,  gave  the  elements  until  the  close  of  the  eight- 
rise  to  the  use  of  the  balance-wheel  and  eenth  century,  when  Lavoisier,  profiting 
hair-spring  (taking  the  place  of  the  by  the  experiments  of  Cavendish,  proved 
pendulum  of  a  clock)  and  the  variously  it  to  be  a  compound  of  hydrogen  and 
and  ingeniously  designed  mechanism,  the  oxygen,  in  the  proportion  of  two  volumes 
escapement  (which  see).  On  the  per-  of  the  former  gas  to  one  volume  of  the 
fection  of  the  escapement  the  time-  latter;  or  by  weight  2  parts  of  hydrop^en 
keeping  qualities  of  a  watch  largely  de-  to  16  parts  of  oxygen ;  hence  its  chemical 
pend.  Of  the  many  varieties  invented  formula  is  H^O.  Pure  water  is  a  color- 
and  perfected,  watches  are  now  almost  less,  tasteless,  inodorous  liquid;  a  power- 
exclusively  provided  with  either  the  ful  refractor  of  light;  a  bad  conductor 
horizontal,  toe  lever,  the  chronometer  of  heat  and  electricity;  it  is  very 
or  the  detached  escapement.  (See  Chro^  slightly  compressible,  its  absolute  dlmin- 
nometer.)  In  all  but  the  best  class  ution  for  a  pressure  of  one  atmosphere 
of  modem  watches  the  fusee  has  been  being  only  about  51.3  million ths  of  its 
abandoned  in  favor  of  the  going-barrel,  bulk.  Although  water  is  colorless  in 
The  latter  offers  better  facilities  for  small  quantities,  it  is  blue  like  the 
keyless  work,  and  keyless  watches  are  atmosphere  when  viewed  in  mass.  It 
manufactured  in  great  quantities.  The  takes  a  solid  form,  that  of  ice  or  snow, 
going-barrel  watch  can  abo  be  produced  at  32®  F.  {0°  C),  and  all  lower  tem- 
at  a  cheaper  rate,  and  for  ordinary  pur-  peratures;  and  it  takes  the  form  of 
poses  is  amply  reliable.  The  main-  vapor  or  steam  at  212®  F.  (100®  C.) 
spring  in  this  class  of  watch  is  very  under  a  pressure  of  29.9  ins.  of  mercury, 
long,  but  only  a  few  coils  are  brought  and  retains  that  form  at  all  higher 
into  action.  The  great  wheel  is  at-  temperatures.  Under  ordinary  condi- 
tached  to  the  going-barrel  itself,  thus  tions  water  possesses  the  liquid  form 
the  spring  force  is  directly  transmitted  only  at  temperatures  lying  between  32® 
to  the  escapement.  The  invention  of  the  and  212®.  It  is,  however,  possible  to 
spiral  hair-spring  by  Dr.  Hooke  (about  cool  water  very  considerably  below  32® 
1658),  the  scientific  application  of  its  F.  and  yet  maintain  it  in  the  liquid 
properties  since,  and  the  intelligent  use  form.    Water  may  also  be  heated,  under 


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Water 


'Water 


prMsare,  many  degrees  above  212®  F. 
withoot  passing  into  the  state  of  steam. 
The  spedfic  gravity  of  water  is  1  at  Z9J2^ 
Fm  being  the  unit  to  which  the  specific 
gravities  of  all  solids  and  liqaids  are 
referred,  as  a  convenient  standard,  on 
account  of  the  facility  with  which  it 
is  obtained  in  a  pure  state ;  one  cubic 
inch  of  water  at  W"*  F.  and  29.9  inches 
barometrical    pressure,    weighs    252.468 


Tsnk  and  Pump  Honse. 

grahis.  Distilled  water  is  815  times 
heavier  than  atmospheric  air.  Water  is 
at  its  greatest  density  at  39.2'*  F. 
(=4*  C.),  and  in  this  respect  it  pre- 
sents a  singular  exception  to  the  general 
law  of  expansion  by  heat  If  water  at 
39.2®  F.  be  cooled,  it  expands  as  it 
cools  till  reduced  to  32®,  when  it  solidi- 
fies; and  if  water  at  30.2®  F.  be  heated, 
it  expands  as  the  temperature  increases 
Ko  accordance  with  the  general  law.    In 


a  chemical  point  of  view  water  exhibits 
in  itself  neither  add  nor  basic  proper- 
ties :  but  it  combines  with  both  acids  and 
bases,  forming  hydrates;  it  also  com- 
bmes  with  neutral  salts.  Water  also 
enters,  as  a  liquid,  into  a  peculiar  kind 
of  combination  with  the  greater  number 
of  all  known  substances.  Of  all  liquids 
water  is  the  most  powerful  and  general 
solvent,  and  on  this  important  property 
its  chemical  use  depends.  Without 
water  not  only  the  operations  of  the 
chemist  but  the  processes  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life  would  come  to  a  stand. 
In  consequence  of  the  great  solvent 
power  of  water  it  Is  never  found  pure  in 
nature.  Even  in  rain-water,  which  is 
the  purest,  there  are  always  traces  of 
carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  and  sea-salt. 
Where  the  rain-water  has  filtered 
through  rocks  and  soils,  and  reappears 
as  spring  or  river  water,  it  is  always 
more  or  less  charged  with  salts  derived 
from  the  earth,  such  as  sea-salt,  gypsum, 
and  chalk.  When  the  proportion  of 
these  is  small  the  water  is  called  $oftt 
when  larger  it  is  called  hard  water. 
The  former  dissolves  soap  better,  and  is 
therefore  preferred  for  washing;  the 
latter  is  often  pleasanter  to  drink. 
Some  springs  contain  a  considerable 
quantity  of  foreign  ingredients,  which 
impart  to  the  water  particular  proper- 
ties. They  are  known  under  the  general 
term  mineral  waterB^  and  accordiDg  to 
the  predominating  constituents  held  in 
solution  are  divided  into  carbonated 
waters  (alkaline,  magnesian,  calcareous, 
and  chalybeate),  sulphatic  waters  (con- 
taining chiefly  sulphates),  chlorinated 
waters  (containing  chiefly  chlorides), 
and  sulphuretted  waters  (containing 
large  quantities  of  sulphides  or  of 
sulphuretted  hydrogen).  The  only  way 
to  obtam  perfectly  pure  Vater  is  to  dis- 
til it,  but  matter  simply  held  in  suspen- 
sion may  be  got  rid  of  by  suitable 
filtration.  The  great  reservoirs  of  water 
on  the  globe  are  the  oceans,  seas,  and 
lakes,  which  cover  more  than  three-fifths 
of  its  surface,  and  from  which  it  is 
raised  by  evaporation,  and,  uniting  with 
the  air  In  the  state  of  vapor,  is  wafted 
over  the  earth  ready  to  be  precipitated 
in  the  form  of  rain,  snow,  or  hail,  and 
make  its  way  by  river  channels  to  the  sea. 
Water,  like  air,  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  life,  and  healthy  human  life  requires 
that  it  should  be  free  from  contamina- 
tion, hence  an  ample  and  pure  water 
supply  is  considered  as  one  of  the  first 
laws  of  sanitation.  In  addition  to  the 
abundant  surface  pressure  of  water,  it 
penetrates  the  rock  crest  of  the  earth 
to  considerable   depths   and  by   its  sol- 


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Water-bed 


Water-oreM 


vent  powers  produces  important  effects. 
It  can  be  reached  by  bonng  in  some  of 
the  most  arid  parts  of  the  earth,  and 
rising  to  the  surface  as  artesian  waters, 
brings  fertility  to  desert  regions.  It  is 
supposed  also  to  be  the  cause  of  Tolcanic 
eruptions,  through  the  explosive  force  of 
steamt  into  which  it  is  converted  when 
it  aiisks  to  thiL*  Lotier  parts  of  the  f^arth's 
cruat, 

MTofAf.'h^tfl  &  bed  consisting  of  aft 
waier-oeUj  india-rubber  mattress 
filled  with  water,  and  generally  ui^ed  by 
persons  (."onQned  to  bed.  Its  ptiability 
prevents  pressure  on  tbe  body  of  tbe 
patient,    an<t    thus   acta    to  prevent    bed- 


the  Waterbury  watches  and  clocks,  which 
are  known  throughout  the  world. 
Electro-plate  is  also  made  and  there  are 
numerous  rolling  mills  and  foundries 
and  extensive  manufactures  of  pins,  but- 
tons, pearl  goods,  lamps  and  many 
other    products.    The    city    contains    a 


-W^': 


ptpl^/S't^ 


r^^^&^m 


Geological  Drainage  of  Water  Into  Wells. 


sores.  Water-beds,  however,  have  been 
largely  superseded  by  the  more  con- 
venient and  healthier  air-beds  (which 
see). 

Water-beetle,  ^^®,  ^*™®  ^7^^  *? 

«««.«w  w^^vA^y  various  species  of 
beetles,  having  legs  adapted  for  swim- 
ming, the  two  hinder  pairs  being  flat- 
tened and  fringed  with  hairs.  They  are 
exceedingly  voracious  both  in  the  adult 
and  larval  state,  even  devouring  young 
fishes. 

Water-boatman  ^^^'^'l^.^*  |[,"J*: 
Waterbury  ^^,ri^bo*/&JLu^ 

in  a  valley  on  the  Naugatuck  River,  77 
miles  northeast  of  New  York.  It  is 
an  important  railway  junction  and 
manufacturing  town.  Brass  and  brass 
goods  are  the  staple  products,  the  largest 
part  of  the  output  of  the  country  being 
produced   here.    It  is  also  the  seat  of 


number  of  benevolent  and  academic  in- 
stitutions.   Pop.  73,141. 
Water-Chestmit.    SeeTrapa. 

Water-clock.     ^^  Clep^ydra. 

Water-colors,  °"f^  ^°  painting  are 
WW  cftv^A  vvAVAOy   colors      carefully 

ground  up  with  water  and  isinglass  or 
other  mucilage  instead  of  oil.  Water- 
colors  are  often  prepared  in  the  form 
of  small  cakes  dried  hard,  which  can 
be  rubbed  on  a  moistened  palette  when 
wanted.  Moist  water-colors  in  a  semi- 
fluid state  are  also  used;  they  are  gen- 
erally kept  in  metal  tubes,  which  pre- 
serve them  from  drying  up. 

Water-cress  (^««*««*;**«»»  orndfuueh 

wAvoo  ^  cruciferous  plant  dis- 
tributed throughout  Europe,  Western 
Asia,  North  Africa,  introduced  Into  North 
America  and  certain  British  colonies,  and 
choking  some  rivers  of  New  Zealand, 
where  the  stem  grows  as  thick  as  tha 


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Water-cure 


Water-hog 


wrist  It  grows  on  the  margin  of  clear 
streams,  or  even  partly  immersed  in  the 
water.  It  has  antiscorbutic  properties, 
and  is  cultivated  near  many  large  towns 
to  be  used  as  salad,  or  otherwise. 
Water-cure.     ^^  Bydropathy, 

Water-dofiT,  *  ^^5^^^  ^l  ^?^  ^''^^ 

w»  nw^A  U.V59  ^  curly  coat,  long  ears, 
a  rounded  head,  and  webbed  toes.  It 
seems  to  be  allied  to  the  poodle,  but 
differs  from  the  latter  in  its  firmer  set 
and  stouter  body,  and  in  its  larger  size. 
The  water-dog  Is  highly  intelligent,  but 
less  so  than  the  retriever.  It  is  usually 
of  a  grayish  white  varied  with  black 
and  brown. 

Waterfall  ^^  (^^^^raa. 

TXTafAr.flAO  A  name  given  to  various 
wairer-uea,  genera  of  small  swim- 
ming crustaceans  belonging  to  the  class 
Entomostraca.  Among  the  commonest 
are  CyprU  and  Cydops  (which  see). 
One  very  familiar  water-flea  is  the 
Daphnia  pulem.  See  Daphnia. 
Waterford  (wft'ter-furd),  a  city  and 
mrawciiuiu  seaport  in  the  southeast 
of  Ireland,  capital  of  the  county  of  same 
name,  97  miles  a.  s.  w.  of  Dublin,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Suir,  which  soon  after 


joins  the  Barrow,  the  combined  stream 
reaching  the  sea  by  the  fine  estuary 
known  as  Waterford  Harbor.  It 
stretches  along  the  Suir  for  about  1 
mile,  has  convenient  quay  accommodation 
for  large  vessels,  ana  commands  a  con- 
siderable   shipping    trade.     The    bulk    of 

the   manufactures   of    Waterford   county  «       ^       i. 

are    carried    on    at    Waterford    and    its  Water-ho&T.     °®*  CapyMra, 
Ticinity,  and   most  of   the  exporU   pass    " -"  o 


through  Waterford  Harbor.  There  are 
large  bacon-curing  establishments,  brew- 
eries, saw  and  flour  mills,  etc.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  Episcopal 
and  Roman  Catholic  cathedrals.  Pop. 
26,769.— The  county  belongs  to  the 
province  of  Munster.  The  area  is  721 
sq.  miles.  The  coast  is  in  general  bold 
and  rocky,  and  besides  the  harbors  of 
Waterford  and  Youghal  at  its  east  and 
west  extremities  respectively,  has  the 
deep  indentations  of  bungarvan  Harbor 
and  Tramore  Bay.  The  interior  is 
largely  rugged  and  mountainous.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Suir  and  the 
Blackwater.  Dairying  is  the  chief  re* 
source  of  the  rural  population.  Slat& 
sandstone,  and  marble  are  quarried,  and 
there  is  a  large  export  of  potter's  clay. 
The  fisheries  are  valuable.     Pop.  87,187. 

Water-gas,  \^t\ZT'^r^,^^. 

candescent  carbon.  It  is  used  for 
heating  and  welding  j^urposes  in  metal' 
lurgy,  and  also  for  illumination,  espe- 
cially in  the  United  States.  Numerous 
deaths  from  poisoning  have  resulted 
from  its  use,  however,  this  being  largely 
due  to  its  want  of  smell.  Burnt  in  the 
usual  way  it  gives  a  blue  flame,  but  by 
suspending  a  comb  of  thin  magnesium 
rods  in  the  flame  the  filaments  are 
quickly  heated  to  a  white  heat,  produc- 
ing a  bright  glow  light  of  hign  illu« 
mmating  power,  but  which  is  neither  un* 
pleasant  to  the  eye  nor  prejudicial  to 
the  sight  Mantels  made  of  several  in- 
fusible metals  are  now  in  common  use 
and  give  a  brilliant  light  with  a  com- 
paratively small  consumption  of  gas. 

Water-SrlaSS,  *.  Bubstance  which, 
WW  c»i»^j.  gACft0»9     when   solid,    resembles 

glass,  but  is  slowly  soluble  in  boiling 
water,  although  it  remains  unaffected  by 
ordinary  atmospheric  changes.  It  con- 
sists of  the  soluble  silicates  of  potash 
or  soda,  or  a  mixture  of  both.  It  is 
prepared  either  by  breaking  down  and 
calcining  flint  nodules,  the  fragments  or 
particles  of  which  are  then  added  to  a 
solution  of  caustic  potash  or  soda, 
whereupon  the  whole  is  exposed  for  a 
time  to  intense  heat,  or  by  fusing  the 
constituents  together  in  a  solid  state, 
and  afterwards  reducing  them  to  a  viscid 
condition.  Among  the  purposes  to  which 
water-glass  is  applied  are  painting  on 
glass,  coating  stone,  wood  and  other 
materials  to  render  them  waterproof, 
glazing  scenery  and  paintings,  fixing 
wall-paintings,  etc. 

Water-hen.  ^^  oaiiinuie. 


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Waterhouse  Water  Power 

WaterhOUSe  (wft'ter-hous),  Alfrbd,  ■UT'aterloo  »  ^^^y»  county  seat  of 
vyauciiiwuDC        £i^    j^  jj^j^j^   at   vvaienuu,  Blackhawk   Co.,  Iowa,   on 

Liverpool  in  1830;  studied  architecture  Cedar  River,  100  miles  n.  e.  of  Des 
in  Manchester,  and  designed  various  Moinos  .  It  is  the  trade  center  of  a  wide 
important  buildings  in  that  city  and  farming  and  grazing  region,  and  has  rail- 
London.  He  also  partly  reconstructed  road  repair  shops,  canning  and  packing 
Balliol  College,  Oxford  and  Caius  and  factories,  and  manufactures  of  gasoline 
Pembroke,  Cambridge.  He  was  elected  engines,  automobiles,  farming  and  cream- 
a  royal  academician  in  1885.  ery  implements,  etc.    I*op.  35,000. 

Waterhouse  John  William,  an  WftterlnA  Stanley,  author,  bom  in 
watcmousc,  English  painter,  born  WaicnOO,  st.  Clair  Co..  Michigan,  in 
about  1840,  became  a  member  of  the  1846.  He  became  a  journalist  and 
Royal  Academy  in  1895.  Among  his  editor  of  various  papers,  the  latest  the 
paintings  are  Mariamne,  Ulysses  and  the  Washington  Critic  and  Capital,  His 
Sirens  and  The  Lady  of  Shalott.  works    include   A   Man   and   a    Woman, 

Wftter-lilv  See  yymphmacecB^  LO'  Armageddon,  The  Wolfs  Long  Howl, 
TTc»i.i^x  ixxjr.  ^^^^  miumhium,  V»o-  The  Seekers,  These  Are  My  Jewels, 
toria  Regia,  The  Cassowary,  etc. 

Waterloo  Iwa-ter-lS'),  a  village  of  Watermelon.  *,  favorite  fruit,  cul- 
vvMvvxxw  Belgium,  nearly  10  miles  »»  "••'^^""^^avii,  tivated  largely  in  the 
8.  s.  E.  of  Brussels.  It  is  famous  for  the  United  States  and  many  other  countries 
memorable  battle  which  was  fought  here  for  its  cool  and  refreshing  juice  and 
on  June  18,  1815,  and  which  finally  palatable  pulp.  It  often  grows  to  a  very 
shattered  the  power  of  Napoleon.  The  large  size,  resembling  the  pumpkin  in 
Prussian  defeat  at  Ligny,  and  his  own  shape.  It  is  the  melon  of  Scripture, 
unsuccessful  engagement  at  Quatre  WafAr-miQAl  or  Dippeb.  See  Dip- 
Bras  on  the  16th  of  June,  caused  Wei-  W  aiCr-OUSei,  ^^^  o  x/ p- 
lington  to  retire  towards  Waterloo,  while  TXroi'AT.'n'i^n'liAT*  the  popular  name 
BlUcher  concentrated  his  troops  at  ^  ""'^^  pil/Cncr,  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^ 
Wavre,  about  10  miles  distant.  The  der  Sarraceniacee,  the  leaves  of  which 
whole  British  position  formed  a  sort  of  somewhat  resemble  pitchers  or  trumpets 
curve,  the  center  of  which  was  nearest   in  general  form. 

to  the  enemy.  The  French  forces  oc-  TU'Qtfir.'nIfl.Tltfl.iTi  ^^^  common  name 
cupied  a  series  of  heights  opposite,  ^  0'«vi  ^Aaui/axu^  ^£  various  species 
there  being  a  valley  of  no  great  depth,  of  plants  of  the  genus  Alisma,  nat. 
and  from  500  to  800  yards  in  breadth,  order  Alismacecp.  One  species,  A.  Plan- 
between  them.  Each  army  probably  tdgo  (great  water-plantain),  is  a  com- 
consisted  of  about  70,000  men.  The  mon  wild  pUint  in  wet  ditches  and  by 
object   of   Napoleon    was    to    defeat    the   river  sides. 

British,  or  force  them  to  retreat,  before  TXToter  Power  ^  general  phrase  ap- 
the  Prussians,  who,  he  knew,  were  com-  **  at^x  avwux^  plied  to  the  various 
ing  up,  could  arrive  in  the  field;  while  means  by  which  the  energy  of  moving 
that  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington  was  to  water  may  be  utilized.  To  make  such  a 
maintain  his  ground  till  he  could  be  source  of  energy  effectual  it  is  neces- 
joined  by  his  allies,  when  it  might  be  in  sary  and  sufficient  to  have  the  water 
his  power  to  become  the  assailant.  The  falling  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  level. 
French  began  the  battle  about  noon,  and  Such  conditions  more  or  less*  favorable 
it  continued  with  great  fury  till  even-  exist  in  all  streams,  though  in  many 
ing,  when  the  appearance  on  the  scene  cases  the  fall  is  so  slight  and  the  ve- 
of  the  Prussians  caused  Bonaparte  to  locity  of  the  water  so  small  that  prac- 
redouble  his  efforts.  His  imperial  tically  no  useful  work  can  be  obtained 
guards,  which  had  been  kept  in  reserve.  Of  the  various  machines  by  which  the 
made  a  final  attempt.  Wellington's  necessary  transformation  is  usefully 
line,  however,  charged  them  at  the  point  effected,  the  most  common  are  what  are 
of  the  bayonet,  and  the  imperial  guard  known  as  water-wheels,  in  their  several 
began  a  retreat,  in  which  they  were  im-  forms  of  turbines,  undershot  wheels, 
itated  by  the  whole  French  army.  The  breast-wheels,  and  overshot  wheels  (see 
British  left  the  pursuit  to  the  Prussians,  these  terms).  Recently  the  application 
The  whole  French  army  was  disi>ersed  of  water-power  through  the  aid  of  tur- 
and  disabled,  and  their  artillery,  bag-  bines  to  the  development  of  electricity 
gage,  etc.,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  cob-  and  its  secondary  application  in  this  form 
querors.  Their  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  to  power  purposes  at  great  distances 
and  prisoners  amounted  to  between  40,-  from  its  source,  together  with  the  grow- 
000  and  50,000.  The  allied  loss  ing  cost  of  coal  as  a  source  of  power 
amounted  to  23,000  killed  and  wounded,  and   its   threatened   ezhaostlon  in  some 

21  10 


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Waterproof  Glotk  Waterspout 

localities,  have  brought  the  question  of  do  not  altogether  obstruct  ventilation, 
the  conservation  and  utilization  of  water-  Consecutive  dipping  of  cloths  in  soap 
I>ower  into  great  prominence  as  a  prob-  and  alum  solutions,  or  in  gelatine  and 
ably  indispensable  need  of  mankind.  Its  gall  solutions,  or  in  a  solution  of 
most  important  application  in  this  di-  acetate  of  lead  and  then  in  a  solution 
rection  hitherto  made  has  been  tiiat  of  of  alumina,  has  been  reported  to  with 
the  Falls  of  Niagara  power-works,  both  more  or  less  success.  The  new  sub- 
on  the  American  and  the  Canadian  side,  stance  called  algin,  obtained  from  sea- 
Here  enormous  electrical  power  has  been  weed,  has  been  strongly  recommended 
developed  by  the  use  of  turbines,  its  for  the  same  purpose.  Another  recent 
most  important  application  being  in  the  patent  process  consists  in  treating  the 
city  of  Buffalo  for  manufacturing,  elec-  fibers  in  the  solution  instead  of  the 
trie  railways  and  otherwise.  It  has  also  manufactured  textile,  and  the  fabric 
been  applied  extensively  in  Canada.  A  thus  produced,  while  rain-resistinz,  of- 
great  dam  on  the  lower  Susquehanna,  re-  fers  the  same  ventilation  as  ordinary 
ceotly  completed  and  estimated  to  yield  materiala. 

100,(K)0  horse-power,  is  Supplying  Balti-  TXTo  f  at  1)01)1)1  f       9Ln   American   spe. 

more,  many  miles  distant,  with  dectrical  VYttlcr  JVauuit,      ^^^^     ^^^^    ^^^^ 

power,    and   may    in    the   future  supply  dant    in    the    swampy    tracts    bordering 

rhiladelphia.    Applications  of  water-pow-  on  the  Mississinpi  end  its  tributaries  in 

er  in  this  way  have  become  numerous  and  the    southwestern    States,    whence   it    is 

extensive  in  various  parts  of  the  United  also  called   the  swamp  hare.      It  is  an 

States  and  in  other  countries.     A  great  excellent  swimmer,  and   subsists  chiefly 

concrete  dam,  0096  feet  in  total  length,  on  the  roots  of  aquatic  plants, 

ia  being  built  across  the  Mississippi  at  TXToi-A-p  Poil      a    bird    generally    dis- 

Keokuk,   Iowa,  at  the  foot  of  the  Des  watcrjMtii,    tributed   over  America 

Moines  rapids,  which  is  expected  to  yield  and  Europe,  and  fairly  common,  though 

dOO.OOO  horse-power,  a  little  more  than  not    often    seen,    from    its    shy,    retiiid 

half  that  obtained  from  the  Niagara.    In  habits.     It  freanenta  marshes  and  bogs, 

view  of  the  coming  wide  installation  of  and  swims  and  dives  well,  but  has  poor 

works  of  this  character,  far-seeing  capi-  powers  of  flight    It  is  a  delicious  oird 

talists  have  made  insidious  efforts  to  gain  for  the  table  and  is  a  favorite  game  bird, 

control  of  the  leading  sources  of  water-  TXTofAr  Potvi        Ra^  TTmtJi^-nMtii^  ifjum. 

nower,  not  yet  occupied,  in  the  United  Water  Ham.      See  HydruuUe  Rmm. 

States,    having    in    view    doubtless    the  TXfQfAr.rof      So»  Vni^ 

coming  replacement  of  steam  by  electric-  Waicr-rai.     Bee    voie. 

ity    in    railroad    traction.      To    forestall  TXTofAr.finn'minTi    ^^^   popular  name 

this,  the  government  has  withdrawn  the  ^  ^^^^  JM/Orpiuu,  ^^   jf^^^  ^  ^^^^ 

important  water-power  sites  in  the  West  of   hemipterous   insects,    the    species   of 

from  private  exploitation,  reserving  them  which  innabit  ponds,  etc.     Some  of  them 

for  the  benefit  of  the  people  at  large  when  are  powerful  insects,  2  or  3  inches  in 

the  time  for  their  utilization  shall  arrive,  length.     They     receive     their     popular 

HrQ^ATTirAAf  Plnfli     cloth     rendered  name  from  the  scorpion-like  form  of  the 

waierprooi  V/1UI.1I,   impervious      to  forelegs,    with    which    they    seise    their 

water.      There    are    numerous    processes  prey. 

for  waterproofing  fabrics  of  all  kinds.  UTafAraliAil  SSIao  TfinttrM 
The  earliest  patent,  that  of  Macintosh  WaxersneO.  See  Ktver$. 
(1823),  consisted  in  covering  cloth  with  lITflf  AranAnf  ^  remarkable  meteoro- 
a  paste  obtained  by  dissolving  caont-  ^  o,h^xoy%iui0f  logical  phenomenon 
chouc  in  benzol  or  coal  naphtha.  In  freonently  observed  at  sea,  and  exactly 
the  treatment  of  cotton  and  hnen  cloth  analogous  to  the  whirlwinds  experienced 
a  small  proportion  of  sulphur  is  gen-  on  land.  It  occurs  when  opposite  winds 
erally  added.  A  thin  layer  of  this  of  different  temperatures  meet  in  the 
rubber  solution  is  spread  on  the  fabric  upper  atmosphere,  whereby  a  great 
by  special  machinery,  after  which  the  amount  of  vapor  is  condensed  into  a 
cloth  is  doubled,  pressed  and  finished  thick  black  cloud,  to  which  a  vortical 
in  calenders,  the  waterproof  layer  be-  motion  is  given  by  the  action  of  the 
ing  thus  in  the  center  of  the  finished  opposing  winds,  the  force  of  which  ex- 
material.  Textiles  thus  manipulated  be-  tends  downward.  This  vortical  motion 
come  also  impervious  to  air,  and  from  causes  the  cloud  to  take  the  form  of  a 
a  hygienic  point  of  view  unsuitable  for  vast  funnel,  which,  descending  near  the 
prolonged  personal  wear.  This  led  to  surface  of  the  sea,  draws  up  the  water 
the  introduction  of  other  solutions  and  in  its  vortex,  which  joins  in  its  whirl- 
methods  of  application  intended  to  pro-  ing  motion.  The  whole  column,  which 
dace  fabrics  which,  while  resisting  rain,  after  the  junction  extends  from  the  sea 


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:^HH 


Waterton  Waterworks 

to  the  clouds,  assames  a  magnificent  ap-  paper,  wood-pulp,  steam  engines,  air- 
pearance,  being  of  a  light  color  near  its  brakes,  silk,  etc.  There  is  here  a  State 
axis,  but  dark  along  the  sides.  When  armory,  homes  for  the  aged  and  orphans, 
acted   on   by   the   wind   the   column   as-  etc.     Pop.  26,730. 

Bumes  a  position  oblique  to  the  horizon,  WofprfAwn  a  city,  county  seat  of 
but  m  calm  weather  it  maintains  its  ▼»0'«'Ca  wvwii,  Coddington  Co.,  South 
vertical  position,  while  at  the  same  time  Dakota,  225  miles  west  of  Minneapolis. 

~    ^^^^H  It  is  the  trade  center  of  a  rich  farming 

j^^H  country,  and  has  a  large  wholesale  and 

.  .','9[^H         jobbing  trade.     Pop.  7010. 

■W         TXTflfprfn'o/Ti      a  city  of  Jefferson  and 
1  WaxeiTOWn,    ^^^      ^^^^  Wisconsin. 

on  the  Hock  River,  44  miles  w.  by  N.  of 
Milwaukee.  It  is  the  trade  center  of  an 
extensive  farming  region  and  has  manu- 
factures of  machinery,  bricks,  flour, 
apiary  supplies,  dairy  products,  shoes, 
boxes,  etc.  Here  is  the  Northwestern 
^  University    (Lutheran)    and   the   Sacred 

Waterspout  Heart  College   (Catholic).     Pop.  8829. 

it  is  carried  along  the  surface  of  the  Waterville  ^  ^^^^  ^^  Kennebec  O)., 
sea.  Sometimes  the  upper  and  lower  *»  "•"^'^  **"^>  Maine,  on  the  Kennebec 
parts  move  with  different  velocities,  Kiver,  81  miles  N.  n.  e.  of  Portland, 
causing  the  parts  to  separate  from  each  Various  falls  afford  water-power.  Here 
other,  often  with  a  loud  report.  The  is  Colby  College  (1820),  and  the  Colbum 
whole  of  the  vapor  is  at  length  absorbed  Classical  Institute.  Manufactures  in- 
in  the  air,  or  it  descends  to  the  sea  in  dude  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  machin- 
a  heavy  shower  of  rain.  Sudden  gusts  ery,  foundry  products,  furniture,  shirts, 
of  wind,  from  all  points  of  the  compass,  etc.  At  Winslow,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
are  very  common  in  the  vicinity  of  the  river,  are  large  paper  and  pulp  mills, 
waterspouts.  What  are  sometimes  Waterville  was  settled  as  a  part  of  Wins- 
called  waterspouts  on  land,  or  cloud-  low  in  1764.  Pop.  12,500. 
luntSt  are  merely  heavy  falls  of  rain  Watervliet  ("^^^*U  ^  ^^  ^^  ^^' 
of  a  local  character  that  occur  gen-  *^  "••'^-^  ^•"^•'  bany  Co.,  New  York,  on 
erally  daring  thunder-storms.  In  sandy  the  Hudson  River,  opposite  Troy,  on  the 
deserts  they  draw  up  the  sand  as  Delaware  and  Hudson  Railroad  and  the 
waterspouts  draw  up  water.  The  tor-  Erie  Canal.  It  has  a  national  arsenal, 
nado  of  the  central  United  States  is  a  car-works,  foundries,  woolen  factories, 
destructive  example  of  the  whirling  hardware  works,  etc.  Pop.  15,074. 
storms  which  on  the  ocean  produce  water-  'WRtPT-'wliepl  ^  wheel  moved  by 
spouts.  »T»v^x   Tv^v^xi    ^jter,   as   the   over- 

WofprfnTi  Charles,  an  English  nat-  shot  wheel  the  undershot  wheel,  the 
waicrtUU,  ^pjjig^  bom  at  Walton  breast-wheel  and  the  turbine.  (See 
Hall,  Wakefield,  in  1782;  died  in  1865.    these    terms.) 

He  was  educated  at  the  Koman  Catho-  Waterworks  *^®  reservoirs,  with 
lie    College    at    Stonyhurst,     where    he  .  vx*».s»,      ^j^^jj,      accompanying 

evinced  a  great  taste  for  natural  his-  pumping  machinery  and  distributing 
tory.  He  spent  many  years  in  travel,  pipes,  by  which  water  is  now  supplied 
and  published  Wandertngs  in  South  to  cities.  This  process  is  by  no  means 
America  and  Essays  in  Natural  History^  modern.  We  read  in  the  Bible  that  King 
With  an  Autobiography,  Hezekiah    made   a   pool   and    a   conduit 

Wfttertown  (wft'ter-town),  a  village  and  brought  water  into  the  city  of  Jeru- 
wni/vxiivwu  ^£  Watertown  township  salem.  In  the  Roman  Empire  the  bring- 
(town),  Middlesex  Co.,  Massachusetts,  on  ing  of  water  into  cities  by  means  of 
the  Charles  River,  7  miles  w.  of  Boston^  aqueducts  was  very  common  and  many 
of  which  it  is  a  residental  suburb.  Ic  remains  of  the  masonry  aqueducts  of 
bas  a  national  arsenal  and  manufactures  ancient  Rome  still  exist  The  great 
of  paper,  rubber  goods,  woolens,  shoddy,  modern  cities  of  Europe  and  America 
soap,  starch,  etc.  Pop.  of  town,  13,000.  owe  their  possible  existence  to  copious 
Watertown  ^  ^^^y*  capital  of  Jef-  supplies  of  water,  brought  often  from  con- 
Tv  a.vvj.vwvTuy  ferson  Co.,  New  York,  siderable  distances,  carried  in  large  pipes 
on  Black  River,  about  10  miles  from  under  the  streets  and  supplied  to  houses 
I^ke  Ontario.  The  rapids  of  the  river  by  means  of  small  pipes,  a  sufficient  head 
yield  abundant  water-power,  which  is  of  water  being  needed  to  drive  tie  supply 
utilized    in    extensive    manufactures    of  to  the  upper  stories  of  houses.     Water 


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Watford  Watson 

for  this  purpose  is  obtained  from  yarioas  miles  n.  by  w.  of  Elmira.    It  has  large 
80uf(^  by  pumping  from  rivers,  as  in  salt   works  and   brewing  industries.     It 

Philadelphia,  from  a  lake,  as  in  Chicago^  is  notable  for  the  deep  and  picturesque 

and  by  conveyance  from  large  reservoirs,  ravine    known    as    Watkin's    Glen,    in 

as  in  New  York  and  many  other  cities,  which   are   numerous   beautiful   cascades 
The  most  striking  example  of  the  latter  and    which    attracts    large    numbers    of 

method  of  supply  is  that  of  New  York  visitors.    Pop.  2817. 
city,  which  has  long  been  supplied  from  Wotklll      (wot'kin),  Sir  Edward  Wil- 
the    Croton    reservoir,    the    water   being    '*  «*!».»-"*      ham,      railway      manager, 
conveyed  through  a  great  rock  tunnel  to  was  bom  at  Salford.  England,  in  1819; 

the  city.     The  need  of  a  larser  supply  died  in  1894.     He  became  secretary  to 

has  led  to  the  damming  of  Esopus  and  the  Trent  Valley  Railway  in  1845,  and 

Catskill  Greeks  in  the  Catskill  Mountain  from  that  time  was  director  or  manager 

region,  to  form  a  lake  capable  of  hold-  of  several  of  the  leading  railways,  especi- 

ins  130,000,000,000  gallons.     Great  tun-  ally  the  Southeastern.    In  1861  he  went 

nels  have  been  made  to  convey  the  water  to  Canada  in  connection  with  the  union 

to  the  city,  including  a  number  of  steel  of    the    Canadian    provinces,    and    after 

pipe    siphons,    the    most    remarkable    of  1864  was  long  a  member  of  parliament, 

which    IS   one   which    passes    under   the  He    was   a    strenuous    promoter    of   the 

Hudson  River  at  the  great  depth  of  1100  Channel   Tunnel,   and   of   Wembly   Park 

feet      The    amount   of    water    expected  Tower,    designed    to    exceed    the    Eiffel 

from  this  stupendous  work  is  600,000,000  Tower  in  height     In  1889  he  acquired 

sallons  daily.    The  supply  for  the  city  of  part  of  Snowden  by  purchase.     He  was 

London  has  for  half  a  century  or  more  a  knight  of  several  foreign  orders, 

been  in  the  hands  of  eight  companies,  five  TZrofliTio'sfrAAf   (wot'ling-stret),    one 

of  which  draw  all  their  supplv  from  the  W  auingSirccii    ^^  ^^  lloman  miU- 

Thames,  with  the  exception  of  a  portion  tary  roads  In  Britain,  running  from  near 

obtained   from   wells  and   springs.     The  Dover  by  London,  St  Alban's,  Dunstable 

East  London  Company  obtains  nearly  all  and    Towcester,    into    North    Wales,    a 

its  supply  from  the  river  Lea,  the  New  branch    also    extending    into     Scotland. 

River  Company  from  the  Chadwell,  Am-  Traces  of  this  ancient  road  still  exist  in 

well  and  Lea.  the  Kent  Company  entire-  many  parts  of  its  course  and  in  some  sec- 

ly   from  chalk  wells.     Meters  are   used  tions  it  is  still  in  use  as  an  important 

and   the  average  use  of  water  per  day  highway. 

per  head  is  25  gallons.  This  is  greatly  Wotson  (wot'son),  Jamss  Craxo, 
exceeded  in  some  American  cities,  especi-  "  o-^ovi*  astronomer,  bom  in  Elgin 
ally  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  whose  County,  Canada  West  in  1838.  He  was 
ciUzens  use  (or  waste)  more  water  than  graduated  at  the  University  of  Michi- 
those  of  any  other  city  in  the  world.  It  gan  in  1857,  and  became  professor  of 
obtains  its  supply  from  the  Delaware  and  astronomy  there  in  1859.  In  1863  he 
Schuylkill  rivers*  an  extensive  filtration  was  made  professor  of  the  observatory, 
plant  having  recently  been  constructed  In  1879  he  became  professor  of  as- 
to  purify  the  waters  of  these  rivers,  tronomy  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin, 
The  system  of  purification  here  employed  and  died  there  Nov.  23,  1880.  He  dia- 
ls that  of  slow  sand  filtration^  but  in  covered  23  asteroids,  receiving  the  Le- 
many  places  coagulating  chemical  sub-  lande  medal  of  the  French  Academy  of 
stances  are  used  for  the  removal  of  im-  Sciences  for  discovering  six  of  them  in 
purities.  A  disinfecting  agent  now  com-  one  year.  He  also  discovered  several 
ing  into  wide  use  is  hypochlorite  of  lime,  comets,  was  a  member  of  the  eclipse  ex- 
It  must  be  said  in  conclusion  that  the  pedition  of  1869  and  1870,  and  of  the 
methods  of  purification  now  employed  transit  of  Venus  expedition  in  1874.  He 
have  proved  very  efficacious  in  the  pre-  wrote  Theoretical  Astronomy, 
vention  of  such  epidemic  diseases  as  TX7Qf«rt"n  John  (pseudonym  *Ian 
cholera  and  typhoid  fever.  Wtti,»uu,  Maclaren^),  a  clergyman 
Wflffnrrl  (woff6rd),  a  town  of  Eng-  and  novelist  of  Scotch  parentage,  bom 
witbiuiu  j^j^  j^  Hertfordshire,  on  at  Manningtree,  Essex,  England,  in 
the  river  Colne  and  the  Grand  Junction  1850.  Educated  at  Stirling  and  Bdin- 
CanaL  It  is  well  built,  and  has  large  burgh,  he  became  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
breweries,  com  and  paper  mills.  A  ter,  and  was  stationed  at  Liverpool 
bridge  across  the  Colne  connects  it  with  1880-1905.  His  Beside  the  Bonnie 
Bushey,  a  residential  suburb.  Pop.  Briar  Bush  made  him  famous  as  an 
(1911)  40,953.  author.  This  was  followed  by  a  rapid 
TU'afViTia  (wotTsin*),  a  village,  capi-  series  of  works.  A  popular  preacher 
wabluuB  ^^  ^f  Schuyler  Co.,  New  and  lecturer,  he  visfted  the  United 
York,  at  the  head  of  Seneca  Lake,  22  States  on  lecturing  tours  in  1896  and  in 


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Watteau 


1907,  dying  daring  the  latter  tour  at 
Mount  Pleasant,  Iowa. 
WofQCTi  John  Cbittenden,  admirah 
waison,  jj^j.^  ^^  Frankfort,  Ken- 
tucky, in  1842.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  Naval  Academy  in  1860,  and  served 
in  the  navy  throughout  the  Civil  war, 
being  master  on  Farragut's  flagship,  the 
Hartford,  from  1862  to  the  end  of  the 
war.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  on 
the  Mississippi  and  in  Mobile  Bay,  in 
the  latter  engagement,  when  Admiral 
Farragut  had  taken  a  position  in  the 
port  mizzen  rigging  to  observe  the  flght, 
Watson  lashed  him  to  the  rigging  to 
prevent  the  danger  of  his  falling.  He 
was  made  commodore  in  1897,  com- 
manded the  blockading  squadron  in  the 
North  Cuban  coast  in  1898,  and  in  1899 
succeeded  Dewey  in  command  at 
Manila,  being  appointed  rear-admiral. 
He  was  United  States  naval  representa- 
tive at  the  coronation  of  Edward  VII  in 
1902.  Retired  August  24,  1904. 
W^atson  ^I^OMAS  E.,  politician  and 
^  historian,  was  bom  in  Co- 
lumbia Co.,  Georgia,  in  1856.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  by  the  Populist 
party  in  1891,  and  was  nominated  for 
vice-president  by  this  party  in  1896, 
and  for  President  in  1904.  He  became 
publisher  of  Tom  WaUon^a  Magazine  in 
1905,  and  in  1906  founded  the  Jefferso- 
nian  Magazine  and  the  Weekly  Jeffer- 
Bonian.  He  wrote  The  Story  of  France 
and  Life  of  Napoleon,  popular  histories; 
also  Life  of  Jefferson  and  Bethany,  a 
Study  and  Story  of  the  Old  South, 
Watt  (^®^)»  James,  the  celebrated 
•'■*"•'  improver  of  the  steam  engine, 
was  bom  at  Greenock,  January  19, 
1736;  and  died  at  his  seat  of  Heath- 
field,  Staffordshire,  August  25,  1819. 
His  father  was  a  merchant  and  magis- 
trate of  Greenock,  and  James  received  a 
food  education  in  its  public  schools, 
laving  determined  to  adopt  the  trade 
of  mathematical  instrament  maker,  he 
went  to  London  (1754)  to  learn  the  art, 
but  ill  health  compelled  him  to  return 
after  only  a  year's  apprenticeship. 
Shortly  after  his  return  be  endeavored 
to  establish  himself  in  Glasgow.  The 
corporation  objecting,  he  was  appointed 
in  1757  mathematical  instrument  maker 
to  the  university,  and  resided  within  its 
walls  till  1763,  when  he  removed  into 
the  town.  From  this  time  till  1774  he 
acted  as  a  civil  engineer  —  made  several 
surveys  for  canals  and  harbors,  and 
some  of  his  plans  were  afterwards  car- 
ried into  execution.  It  was  during  this 
period  that  he  conceived  and  gave  shape 
to  his  improvements  on  the  steam- 
engine,    which   have  rendered   his   name 


famous.  (See  Steam-Engine.)  To  give 
his  inventions  practical  form  he  asso- 
ciated himself  in  1774  with  Mathew 
Boulton  (see  Boulton),  the  firm  of 
Boulton  and  Watt  having  their  works 
at  Soho,  Birmingham.  He  retired  from 
business  in  1800.  Watt  was  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Societies  of  London  and 
Edinburgh,  and  member  of  the  National 
Institute  of  France.  He  was  twice  mar- 
ried, and  was  survived  by  one  son,  who 


Jamee  Watt. 

carried  on  the  establishment  at  Soho  in 
partnership  with  a  son  of  Mr.  Boulton's. 
Besides  his  great  improvements  to  the 
steam  engine,  which  first  rendered  it  ef- 
fective for  general  industries,  Watt  in- 
vented or  improved  a  variety  of  mechan- 
ical appliances,  including  a  letter-copying 
press.  He  was  a  man  of  high  mental 
powers  generally,  and  possesseid  a  wide 
and  varied  knowledge  of  literature  and 
science. 

VTatt  ^^^  name  of  the  electrical  unit 
^  of  activity  or  rate  of  doing 
work.  It  is  measured  by  the  product  of 
the  voltage  or  electromotive  force  of  the 
source  into  the  current  supplied.  Thus 
a  dynamo  which  is  yielding  30  amperes 
at  a  voltage  of  100  is  working  with  an 
activity  of  3000  watts.  The  watt  is 
equal  to  0.735  foot-pound  per  second; 
so  that  one  horse  power  per  second  is 
equal  to  746  watts.  It  is  customary  to 
use  the  kilowatt  as  the  practical  unit. 
It  is  equal  to  1000  watto  or  1.2  horse 
power  per  second. 

"Waff pan  (v&t-6),  Jean  Antoine,  a 
WaXXeaU  ^^.^^^^  painter,  born  at 
Valenciennes  of  poor  parents,  in  1684; 
died  at  Nogent-sur-Mame,  in  1721.  In 
1702  he  went  to  Paris,  and  eamed  his 


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Wattersoii 


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bread  by  working  for  decorative  painters. 
For  many  years  lie  struggled  in  ob- 
scurity, but  his  talent  once  recognized 
he  rapidly  became  popular  and  prosperous. 
In  1717  he  was  rei'eived  at  the  Acad- 
emy, and  enrolled  as  a  painter  of  fites 
galantes,  that  is,  pleasure  parties,  balls, 
masquerades,  etc.,  subjects  in  which  he 
excelled.  Lightness,  elegance,  and  bril- 
liancy form  '  the  chief  attractions  of  his 
style. 

Watt#»rflOTi  (  wat'er  -  sun  ) ,  Henbt, 
WaXXerSOn  journalist,  born  at  Wash' 
ington,  D.  C,  in  1840.  He  edited  the 
Republican  Banner,  Nashville,  Tennes- 
see, before  and  after  the  Civil  war,  and 
during  this  war  served  in  the  Confed- 
erate army.  He  edited  the  Louisville 
Journal,  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  1867-68, 
and  after  that  date  the  Courier-Journal. 
and  won  the  reputation  of  being  one  oi 
the  most  brilliant  of  American  journal- 
ists. He  wrote  History  of  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  Abraham  Lincoln,  etc. 

Wattle-bird  ffi?"l1id  "u«1*" 

chosra  carunculata)  belonging  to  the 
honey-eaters,  and  so  named  from  the 
large  reddish  wattles  on  its  neck.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a  magpie,  and  is  of 
bold,  active  habits. 
TXTflfflp-frPA     A  name  given  in  Aus- 

watiieiree,  ^^j.^  ^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^ 
cies  of  acacia. 

Wattle-turkey,  »,'"'-|  t^sh^tu^ 

key.  See  TallegaUa, 
Watts  (wots),  Geobob  Frederick, 
vv»vv0  ^j^  English  artist,  bom  in 
1820.  He  first  exhibited  at  the  Roval 
Academy  in  1837.  Among  his  more  im- 
portant pictures  are:  iAfe*s  Illusion 
(1849),  The  Window  Scat  and  Sir 
Galahad  (18G2),  Ariadne  (1863),  Esau 
(1865),  Love  and  Death  (1877),  Time, 
Death,  and  Judgment  (1878),  Happy 
Warrior  (1884),  Hope  (1886),  Judg- 
ment of  Paris  (1887),  The  Angel  of 
Death  (1888),  and  Fata  Morgana 
(1889).  He  was  one  of  the  most  sub- 
tle and  powerful  of  portrait-painters, 
among  his  successful  work  in  this  line  be- 
ing portraits  of  Tennyson,  Millais,  Leigh- 
ton,  Cardinal  Manning,  Browning;  etc. 
He  was  perhaps  the  greatest  idealist  in 
contemporary  British  art.  He  became 
R.A.  in  1868,  and  in  1886  presented 
some  of  his  famous  pictures  to  the  na- 
tion. He  died  June  1,  1904. 
W^attS  ^^^^G,  an  English  divine  and 
^  poet,  bom  at  Southampton  in 
1674;  died  at  London  in  1748.  In 
1702  he  became  minister  of  a  Dissenting 
congregation  in  the  metropolis,  but  ill 
health  compelled  him   in   1712  to  relin- 


quiab  his  pastoral  duties.  His  Psdlma 
and  Hymns  give  him  the  first  TAuk 
among  English  hymn  writers.  He  was 
the  author  of  various  other  works  in 
prose  and  verse. 

Waukegan  Ufe;nWke  ^o/i'J& 

nois,  on  the  w.  shore  of  Lake  Michigan, 
35  miles  w.  by  n.  of  Chicago.  It  is  built 
on  a  commanding  bluff,  has  a  good  har- 
bor, and  is  a  poi)ular  summer  and  health 
resort,  having  mineral  waters  which  are 
largely  used.  There  are  varied  manu- 
factures, including  sugar  refineries,  steel 
wire,  and  brass  works,  scales,  and  organ 
works,  etc.  It  is  the  business  center  of 
a  large  farming  district  Pop.  16,069. 
WahVprIiii.  (wa-ke'sha),  a  town, 
WaUKesna  ^^^ty  seat  of  Waukesha 
Co.,  Wisconsin,  on  Fox  River,  17  miles 
west  of  Milwaukee.  Here  are  numerous 
mineral  springs,  the  waters  of  which  are 
widely  exported.  There  are  iron,  alumi- 
num and  bridge  works,  motor  works, 
breweries,  etc.  A  State  industrial  school 
for  boys,  and  Carroll  College  are  located 
here.     Pop.  8740. 

Wfl.1isa.11  (wa'sa),  a  city,  county  seat 
«***«»«•*»  of  Marathon  Co.,  Wisconsin, 
42  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Grand  Rapids. 
There  is  a  county  school  of  agriculture 
and  domestic  science,  and  extensive  in- 
dustries, including  lumber,  paper,  granite, 
veneer,  flour,  turpentine,  shoes,  leather, 
saw-mill  macliinery,  etc  Pqp.  18,640. 
TXTayA  (wllv),  in  physics,  a  disturb- 
ance  of  matter  in  such  a  way 
that  energy  is  transmitted  through  great 
distances,  sometimes,  but  not  always,  ac- 
companied with  a  slight  permanent  dis- 
placement of  the  particles  of  the  con- 
veying medium.  When  a  disturbance 
is  produced  at  a  point  in  air,  waves  pro- 
ceed from  that  point  as  concentric 
spheres  and  carry  sound  to  the  ear  of 
a  listener.  (See  Sound.)  Light  is  sup- 
posed to  be  propagated  by  the  wave 
motion  of  the  ether  in  a  manner  some- 
what analogous  to  the  propagation  of 
sound  In  air.  (See  Vndulaiory  Theory.) 
When  waves  are  produced  by  the  dis- 
turbance of  a  small  quantity  of  liquid, 
as  when  a  pebble  is  thrown  into  a  pool, 
they  appear  to  advance  from  the  dis- 
turbed point  in  widening  concentric  cir- 
cles, the  height  of  the  wave  decreasing 
gradually  as  it  recedes  from  the  center; 
but  there  is  no  progressive  motion  of  the 
liquid  itself,  as  is  shown  by  any  body 
floating  on  its  surface.  The  whole  seems 
to  roll  onwards,  but,  in  reality,  each 
particle  of  water  only  oscillates  with  a 
vertical  ascent  and  descent.  Where  the 
depth  of  the  liquid  is  invariable  ov«r  its 
extent,   or  sufficient  t«  allow  the  ^scil- 


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latioDS  to  proceed  unimpeded,  no  pro- 
gressive motion  takes  place,  each  ridge 
or  column  being  kept  in  its  place  by  the 
pressure  of  the  adjacent  columns. 
Should,  however,  free  oscillation  be  pre- 
vented, as  by  the  shelving  of  the  shore, 
the  columns  in  the  deep  water  are  not 
balanced  bv  those  in  the  shallow  parts, 
and  they  thus  acquire  a  progressive  mo- 
tion towards  the  latter,  or  take  the  form 
of  hreakers,  hence  the  waves  always  roll 
in  a  direction  towards  the  shore,  no  mat- 
ter from  what  point  the  wind  may  blow. 
The  height  of  the  wave  depends  in  a 
great  measure  on  the  depth  of  the  water 
m  which  it  is  produced.  The  waves  of 
the  ocean  have  been  known  to  reach  a 
height  of  43  feet,  from  trough  to  crest. 
The  horizontal  pressure  of  a  strong  At- 
lantic wave  has  been  recorded  as  high 
as  3  tons  to  the  square  foot 
TXTgxr  (waks),  an  unctuous-feeling  sub- 
"  **^  stance  partaking  of  the  nature 
of  fixed  oil.  It  is  secreted  bv  bees,  and 
is  also  an  abundant  vegetable  produc- 
tion, entering  into  the  composition  of 
the  pollen  of  flowers,  covering  the  en- 
velope of  the  plum  and  of  other  fruits, 
and,  in  many  instances,  forming  a  kind 
of  varnish  to  the  surface  of  leaves. 
Common  wax  is  always  more  or  less 
colored,  and  has  a  distinct,  peculiar  odor, 
of  both  of  which  qualities  it  may  be 
deprived  by  exposure  in  thin  slices  to 
air,  light,  and  moisture,  or  more  speed- 
ily by  the  action  of  chlorine.  At  ordi- 
nary temperature  wax  is  solid  and  some- 
what brittle;  but  it  may  be  easily  cut 
with  a  knife.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
0.96.  At  ISS*'  Fahr.  it  melts,  and  it 
softens  at  86°,  becoming  so  plastic  that 
it  may  be  molded  by  the  band  into  any 
form.  Wax  is  insoluble  in  water,  and 
is  only  dissolved  in  small  quantities  bv 
alcohol  or  ether.  The  principal  appli- 
cations of  wax  are  to  make  candles  and 
medicinal  cerates;  to  give  a  polish  to 
furniture  or  floors;  to  form  a  lute  or 
cement,  for  which  it  Is  used  by  chemists; 
and  to  serve  as  a  vehicle  for  colors. 
(See  Encaustic  Painting.)  Sealing-wax 
is  not  properly  a  wax.  See  also  Candle- 
herry,  Carnauha,  China  Wax,  Waa- 
palm. 
Wax      Mineral.     See  Ozokerite. 

WfuraTiflnliii*     «     town,     capital    of 

waxanacme,  ^j.^  ^^^  r^J^^g   3^ 

miles  s.  of  Dallas.  It  has  cotton,  cot- 
ton-seed oil  and  lumber  mills.  Pop. 
<;205. 

WaT-Wn  *  small  finch,  genus  Es- 
Wtti  uiii,    ^^^^^   g^   ^^„^   ^^^^    .^g 

beak  being  red  like  wax.  It  is  often 
kept  in  cages. 


Wax  Il^iectS.      see  China  Warn. 
Wax-myrtle,      see  Candleherry. 

Wax-painting.    p^J^^f ''''''' 

W^ax-Hftlm  (Cerowylon  andieola),  a 
*  l^i**""*  species  of  palm  ^rielding  a 
substance  consisting  of  two-thirds  resin 
and  one-third  wax,  which  is  found  on  its 
trunk  in  the  form  of  a  varnish.  It  is 
a  native  of  the  Andes,  towering  in  ma- 
jestic beauty  on  mountains  which  rise 
many  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  sometimes  attaining  the  height 
of  160  feet 

XUa-r  TvAA  ^  genus  of  tropical  Amer* 
WttA.  J.1CC,  j^jj  trees,  some  of  the 
species  of  which  yield  a  copious  supply 
of  yellow  resinous  juice,  which  resembles 
gamboge  so  closely  that  it  is  called 
American  gamboge.  Like  gamboge,  it 
has  purgative  properties. 
Wax-wincr  {^^P^^  ,  garrula),  an 
w»  cfrA.  WW  XM,^  insessonal  bird  belonging 
to  the  dentiroBtral  section  of  the  order. 
It  d*  rivf^a  its  name  from  the  appendages 
attachi^d  to  the  secondary  and  tertiary 
quiU  feathers  of  the  wings,  which  have 
iXm  appearance  of  red  sealing  wax.  An 
Aroericaa  wax- wing  is  the  cedar-bird 
(which  see). 

Wnvprn^q  (wa'kros),  a  town,  capital 
way  cross  ^^   ^y^^.^   ^^^   Georgia,   60 

miles  w.  of  Brunswick,  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast  Line  and  the  Atlanta  and  Birming- 
ham railroads.  It  has  car  works,  and 
manufactures  of  lumber  and  naval 
stores.    Pop.  14,485. 

IXrQtrlQTiii  (wa'land),  Francis,  an 
waymua  educator,  bom  in  New 
York  city,  in  17i)(i.  He  was  graduated  at 
Union  College  in  1813,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  Brown  University  in  1827- 
1855.  He  was  the  author  of  many  valu- 
able works,  including:  Elements  of 
Moral  Science,  Elements  of  Political 
Economy,  Limitations  of  Human  Re- 
sponsibility.  Domestic  Slavery  Consid- 
ered as  a  Scriptural  Institution,  Ele- 
ments of  Intellectual  Philosophy,  etc. 
He  died  in  1865. 

VTftVne    \W^°)»    Anthont,    a    Revo- 
J^  lutionary     soldier,     born     at 

Easttown,  Chester  Co.,  Pennsylvania,  in 
1745.  A  surveyor  in  his  youth,  he  was 
elected  to  the  general  assembly  in  1774. 
and  was  a  member  of  the  committee  of 
safety  in  1775.  In  the  latter  year  he 
caised  a  regiment  and  entered  the  army 
as  a  colonel.  He  served  in  Canada  in 
1776,  afterwards  took  command  of  Fort 
Ticonderoga,  and  joined  Washington's 
army  in  1777  as  a  brigadier  general. 
He  took  a  leading  part  iii  the  battles  of 


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Brandywine  and  Germantown,  and  was  TXTAafliAr  Tlnrpan  a  bureau  of  ob- 
commended  by  Washington  for  his  gal-  ^«^*''"^*  xiuircttu,  gervation 
lantry  at  Monmouth.  His  daring  and  founded  in  1870  by  the  United  States 
brilliant  exploit  in  the  capture  of  the  GoTernment  its  purpose  being  to  make 
atrong  fortincations  at  Stony  Point  won  daily  otsei^vations  of  the  state  of  the 
idm  a  vote  of  thanks  from  Congress,  weather  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  to 
fie  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Yorktown,  collate  the  informatioii  thus  obtained, 
was  a  member  of  the  constitutional  con-  and  to  calculate  from  the  results  a  fore- 
▼ention  of  1787,  and  as  major  general  cast  for  each  of  various  defined  districts^ 
in  1794  gained  a  complete  victory  over  these  being  published  so  that  the  peo^ 
the  insurgent  Indians  in  western  Ohio,  pie  of  each  district  may  know  in  ad< 
He  died  in  December,  1796,  on  his  re<  vance  the  kind  of  weather  likely  to  oc- 
tum  from  the  west.  Although  called  cur.  While  of  importance  to  the  agricul- 
*Mad  Anthony,*  on  account  of  his  im-  turist,  these  forecasts  are  frequently  of 
petuouB  daring,  he  did  not  lack  prudence  still  more  importance  to  ship  masters, 
and  judgment,  and  was  an  able  com*  storm  warnings  being  given  that  may 
mander.  keep  them  in  port  when  storms  are  im- 

TXTaimAa'hnrA  (wftns'bur-o),  a  town  minent  and  thus  save  their  ships  from 
W  lijriicsuuru  ^^  FrankUn  Co.,  Penn-  danger  of  injury  or  shipwreck.  This 
s^lvania,  near  South  Mountain  and  An-  system  has  made  great  progress  since 
tietam  Creek,  14  miles  s.  by  e.  of  Cham-  its  institution,  and  reports  are  now  re- 
bersburg.  It  has  large  factories,  pro-  ceived  daily  from  more  than  3600  land 
ducing  engines,  boilers,  agricultural  im-  stations  and  about  50  foreign  stations, 
plements,  machinery,  etc.  Also  stock-  while  bv  means  of  wireless  telegraphy 
ing  and  shirt  factories,  vise  works,  etc  some  2000  ships  send  reports  of  the 
Copper,  iron  and  oil  are  found  in  its  weather  conditions  at  sea.  Study  of  re* 
Tlcinity.    Pop.  7199.  suits    has    led    to    the    conception    that 

TDTovoTi  ^^  Wezzan«  an  inland  town  more  than  80  per  cent  of  winds  and 
«**'«***>  Qf  Morocco,  picturesquely  storms  follow  beaten  paths,  their  move- 
dtuated  on  the  northern  slope  of  a  two-  ments  beinc  governed  by  physical  con- 
peaked  mountain,  90  miles  8.  K.  of  ditions,  a  knowledge  of  which  enables 
Tangier.  It  is  a  sacred  city  and  a  place  the  bureau  officials  to  estimate  very 
of  pilgrimage,  the  headquarters  of  the  closely  their  probable  speed  and  direc- 
Grand  Shereef.  The  principal  buildings  tion  and  send  warnings  of  their  coming 
are  the  great  mosque  and  the  tombs  of  a  in  advance.  These  forecasts  cover  the 
long  line  of  shereefs.  The  trade,  which  weather  probabilities  for  24  to  48  hours 
is  carried  on  chiefly  in  Morocco,  is  most*  in  advance  and  at  times  embrace  general 
ly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.  Pop.  about  indications  for  a  week.  The  forecasts 
1a),000.  are    based    upon    simultaneous    observa- 

TXTAQTmATifk  Bishop's,  and  Monk  tions  of  local  weather  conditions  taken 
w caxiuu utii^  Weabmouth.  (See  daily  at  8  o'clock  in  the  morning  and 
Sunderland.)  8  o'clock  in   the  evening.  Eastern  time, 

Wpfl.fip1  (we'zl;  MuBtela  vulffdris),  a  at  about  200  regular  atationa  in  the 
vv^oiD^A  digitigrade  carnivorous  ani-  United  States  and  the  West  Indies,  and 
mal,  a  native  of  almost  all  the  temper,  from  reports  received  daily  from  vari- 
ate  and  cold  parts  of  the  northern  hem-  ous  other  American  localities.  The  re- 
isphere.  llie  body  is  extremely  slender,  suits  of  these  observations  are  tele- 
the  head  small  and  flattened,  the  neck  graphed  to  Washington,  where  they  are 
long,  the  legs  short  It  feeds  on  mice,  charted  for  study  and  interpretation  by 
rats^  moles  and  small  birds,  and  is  often  experts.  l%ese  telegraphic  reports  In 
useful  as  a  destrover  of  vermin  in  ricks,  their  complete  form  include  data  regard- 
bams  and  granaries.  The  polecat,  fer-  ing  the  temperature,  atmospheric  pres- 
ret,  ermine  and  sable  are  akin.  The  sure,  precipitation  of  rain,  wind  direction, 
weasel,  like  the  related  species,  is  very  wind  velocity,  general  weather  conditions! 
courageous,  and  is  marked  by  agility  and  and  the  kind,  amount  and  direction  of 
wariness  and  pertinaceous  blood-thirst,  movement  of  the  clouds.  From  these  data. 
It  is  very  persevering  in  hunting,  keen  associated  with  those  of  preceding  re- 
in scent  and  in  sight,  bites  severely  and  ports,  the  forecaster  is  able  to  trace  the 
has  a  disagreeable  smell.  It  usually  path  of  a  storm  area  from  its  first  ap- 
sleeps  during  the  day,  and  is  most  active  pearanc©  and  to  form  an  approximate 
at  night.  Tlie  fur  is  sometimes  used,  but  decision  as  to  its  probable  future  course, 
the  animal  is  too  small  to  have  any  In  addition  to  the  forecast  center  at 
commercial  importance.  Washington,  there  are  others  at  Chicago, 

Weather  (weth'er).     Se.Meteorolo„.  ^l^^^toi^r^^^'r^sll^^'or^^^t 


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Weather  Bureau 


Weaver 


are  sent  to  the  surrounding  areas.  With- 
in two  hours  after  the  morning  observa- 
tions, the  forecasts  are  telegraphed  to 
more  than  2300  principal  distributing 
points,  whence  they  are  further  sent  out 
by  mail,  telegraph  and  telephone,  being 
mailed  daily  to  135,000  addresses  and  re- 
ceived by  nearly  4,000,000  telephone  sub- 
scribers. Maps  of  wind  and  weather  con- 
ditions are  printed  and  distributed,  and 
other  means  of  disseminating  the  informa- 
tion are  taken.  One  of  the  most  valuable 
services  rendered  is  that  of  the  ^^arnings 
of  cyclonic  fitorms  for  the  benefit  of 
marine  interests.  These  are  displayed  at 
nearly  300  points  on  the  ocean  and  lake 
coasts,  including  all  important  ports  and 
harbors,  warnings  of  coming  storms  be- 
ing received  from  12  to  24  hours  in  ad- 
vaDce.  Hie  result  has  been  the  saving 
of  vast  amounts  of  maritime  property, 
estimated  at  many  millions  of  dollars 
yearly.  For  storm  signals,  flags  of  dif- 
ferent colors  and  markings  are  displayed, 
each  signifying  some  special  condition  of 
wind  and  weather  likely  to  occur.  Ag- 
riculturists also  derive  great  advantage 
from  these  warnings,  especially  those  en- 
gaged in  the  production  of  fruits,  vege- 
tables and  other  market  garden  products. 
Warnings  of  frosts  and  of  freezing  weather 
have  enabled  the  growers  of  such  products 
to  protect  and  save  large  quantities  of 
valuable  plants.  It  is  said  that  on  a 
single  night  in  a  small  district  in  Florida, 
fruits  and  vegetables  were  thus  saved  to 
the  value  of  more  than  $100,000.  In 
addition,  live  stock  of  great  value  has 
been  saved  by  warnings  a  week  in  ad- 
vance of  the  coming  of  a  flood  in  the 
Mississippi ;  railroad  companies  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  forecasts  for  the  preser- 
vation, in  their  shipping  business,  of 
products  likely  to  be  injured  by  extremes 
of  heat  or  cold,  and  in  various  other 
ways  the  forecasts  are  of  commercial,  or 
other  value.  Similar  bureaus  have  been 
established  in  other  countries  and  prog- 
ress is  being  made  towards  an  interna- 
tional study  of  the  weather.  In  this, 
observations  made  in  the  arctic  and  ant- 
arctic regions  may  hereafter  become  of 
utility.  One  of  the  chief  stations  for 
observations  is  that  at  Mount  Weather, 
in  the  Blue  Hidge  Mountains  of  Virginia. 
This  is  equipped  with  delicate  instru- 
ments in  considerable  variety  for  the 
study  of  the  varying  conditions  of  the 
upper  air.  Kites  and  captive  balloons 
are  sent  up  every  favorable  day,  ascend- 
ing to  heights  of  two  or  more  miles,  and 
equipped  with  self-registering  instruments 
to  record  the  temperature  and  other  con- 
ditions of  the  atmosphere.  At  other  times 
free  balloons  are  liberated,  carrying  sets 


of     automatic  registering     instruments. 

Some  of  these  travel  hundreds  of  miles, 

but  nearly  all  are  eventually  found  and 
returned. 

Weatherford,  |.„<?J^^'r  ^^'lefat  af 

miles  w.  of  Fort  Worth.     It  has  several 

collegiate    institutions,    and    cotton    and 

other  manufactures.    Pop.  6500. 

Weaver-bird  (^6'vr),  a  name  given 
weaver  oira  ^^    ^jj^^g    ^^    various 

genera,  belonging  to  the  Fringillidse  or 
finches.  They  are  so-called  from  the 
remarkable  structure  of  their  nests, 
which  are  woven  in  a  wonderful  manner 
of  various  vegetable  substances.  Some 
species  build  their  nests  separate  and 
singly,    and    hang     them    from    slendei 


Yellow-crowned  Weaver  and  Nest 
(P.  icterocephUtta), 

branches  of  trees  and  shrubs;  but  others 
build  in  companies,  numerous  nests  sus- 
pended from  the  branches  of  a  tree  be- 
ing under  one  roof,  though  each  one 
forms  a  separate  compartment  and  has 
a  separate  entrance.  They  are  natives  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  Asia,  of  Africa,  and 
of  Australia.  The  Ploceua  icierocephdlus, 
or  yellow-crowned  weaver,  is  a  native  of 
South  Africa. 

TXTaq  iTAr  Jahes  B.,  lawyer,  bom  at 
weaver,  Dayton,  Ohio,  in  1833.  He 
served  in  the  Union  army  during  the  Civil 
war,  becoming  a  brigadier  general  of  vol- 
unteers. Subsequently  he  practiced  law  in 
Iowa;  filled  several  public  oflSces;  edited 
the  Iowa  Tribune;  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress 1870-81,  and  18a5-89;  was  the 
Greenback  candidate  for  President  in 
1880;  and  in  1892  the  candidate  of  the 


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Weaving  *  Weaving 

Populist  party,  receiyinf  22  electoral  works  to  and  fro  like  a  pendulam  by 
votes.  He  was  mayor  ofColfax,  Iowa,  in  an  attachment  of  vertical  rods  at  each 
1904-06.  He  died  February  6,  1912.  side  called  the  swords.  Attached  to  the 
Weaving  (wgv'ing),  the  art  of  inter-  lay  is  what  is  called  the  reed,  which  is 
"  ^"v***©  lacing  yam  threads  or  a  sort  of  comb  having  a  tooth  raised 
other  filaments  by  means  of  a  loom,  so  between  every  two  threads  of  the  warp, 
as  to  form  a  web  of  cloth  or  other  and  so  by  driving  up  the  lay  after  a 
woven  fabric.  In  this  process  two  sets  weft  thread  has  been  introduced  the 
of  threads  are  employed,  which  traverse  weaver  strikes  home  that  thread  to  its 
the  web  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  place  in  the  cloth.  A  great  improve- 
The  first  set  extends  from  the  end  of  ment  was  made  upon  the  hand-loom 
the  web  in  parallel  lines,  and  is  com-  when  John  Kay,  about  1740,  invented  the 
monly  called  the  tcarp;  while  the  other  flv-shuttle,  as  it  was  called.  This  en- 
set  of  threads  crosses  and  interlaces  with  abled  the  weaver  to  drive  the  shuttle 
the  warp  from  side  to  side  of  the  web,  both  ways  with  the  right  hand  by  means 
and  is  generally  called  the  weft  or  woof,  of  a  cord  attached  to  a  box  or  trough 
In  all  forms  of  weaving  the  warp-  placed  at  each  end  of  the  shuttle-race, 
threads  are  first  set  up  in  the  loom,  and  which  impelled  the  shuttle  to  and  fro  at 
then  the  weft  threads  are  worked  into  each  jerk  of  the  cord.  But  the  most  im- 
the  warp,  to  and  fro,  by  means  of  a  portant  improvement  was  made  on  the 
shuttle.  It  was  by  this  fundamental  hand-loom  by  Joseph  Jacquard,  of 
process  of  lacing  two  sets  of  threads  in  Lyons,  who,  in  1801,  invented  an  ap- 
looms  of  simple  mechanism  that  the  paratus  by  which  the  most  intricate  pat- 
mummy  cloths  of  Egypt,  the  fine  terns  could  be  woven  as  readily  as  plain 
damask  and  tapestries  of  the  Greeks  and  cloth.  This  is  accomplished  by  an  in- 
Romans,  the  Indian  muslins,  the  shawls  genious  arrangement  ot  hooks  and  wires, 
of  Cashmere,  and  the  famed  textile  fab-  by  means  of  which  the  warp  threads  are 
rics  of  Italy  and  the  Netherlands  were  lifted  in  any  order  and  to  any  extent 
produced.  From  the  latter  countries  necessary  to  make  the  shedding  re- 
weaving  by  means  of  a  hand-loom  was  quired  by  the  pattern.  The  order  in 
introduced  into  England.  This  loom,  in  which  these  hooks  and  wires  are  sue- 
its  latest  form,  consists  of  a  frame  of  cessively  lifted  and  lowered  is  deter- 
four  upright  posts  braced  together  by  mined  by  means  of  a  series  of  paste- 
cross-beams,  the  center  beam  at  the  back  board  cards  punctured  with  holes  cor- 
being  the  warp  beam,  the  beam  in  front  responding  to  a  certain  pattern  and  the 
being  that  upon  which  the  web  is  wound,  caixis  passing  successively  over  a  cylin- 
while  just  below  this,  in  front,  is  the  der  or  drum.  The  hooked  wires  pass 
breast-beam  for  the  support  of  the  throush  these  holes  and  lift  the  warp- 
weaver  at  his  work.  At  the  top  of  the  threads  in  an  order  which  secures  that 
loom  is  an  apparatus  by  which  the  hed-  the  arranged  pattern  is  woven  into  the 
dies  are  lifted  or  lowered  by  means  of  fabric.  When  the  pattern  is  extensive 
treadles  under  the  foot  of  the  weaver,  the  machine  may  be  provided  with  as 
These  heddles  consist  of  two  frames,  many  as  1000  hooks  and  wires.  Another 
from  which  depend  cords  attached  by  a  development  was  made  in  the  art  of 
loop  or  eye  to  each  thread  in  the  warp,  weaving  by  the  invention  of  the  power- 
As  these  threads  are  attached  to  the  loom  by  the  Rev.  E.  Cartwrigbt  hi 
frames,  alternately,  it  follows  that  when  1784.  In  the  power-loom,  which  has 
one  heddle  is  raised  every  second  thread  been  gradually  improved  and  adapted  to 
in  the  warp  is  also  raised,  while  the  re-  steam-power,  the  principal  motions  of 
maining  threads  are  depressed;  and  this  the  old  method  of  weaving,  such  as 
is  called  shedding  the  tcarp.  When  the  shedding  the  warp-threads,  throwing  the 
warp  threads  are  thus  parted  there  is  shuttle,  and  beating  up  the  thread,  are  still 
left  a  small  opening  or  shed  between  the  retained.  The  frame  of  -the  power-loom 
threads,  and  it  is  through  this  opening  is  of  cast-iron,  and  motion  is  communi- 
that  the  weaver  drives  his  shuttle  from  cated  to  the  loom  by  means  of  a  shaft, 
side  to  side.  The  shuttle,  which  is  hoi-  the  stroke  of  the  lay  being  made  by 
low  in  the  middle,  contains  the  weft-  cranks  attached  to  the  driving  shaft, 
thread  wound  round  a  bobbin  or  pirn,  while  the  shuttle  is  thrown  by  means 
and  as  the  shuttle  is  shot  across  the  of  a  lever  attachment  at  the  center  of 
web  this  weft  thread  unwinds  itself,  the  loom.  Although  the  principle  of  the 
When  the  thread  is  thus  introduced  it  loom  is  the  same  in  all  kinds  of  weav- 
is  necessary  to  bring  it  to  its  place  in  ing,  yet  there  are  numberless  modifica- 
the  fabric.  This  is  accomplished  by  tions  for  the  production  of  special  fab- 
means  of  the  lay  or  hattcuy  which  is  rics.  The  lappet  loom  is  one  suitable 
suspended  from  the  top  of  the  loom,  and  for  weaving  either  plain  or  gauze  cloths, 


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A  MODERN  mOH  SPEED  POWER  LOOM 

This  wonderful  machine  is  capable  of  turning  out  beautiful  and  intricate  fabrics  vith  great  rapidity  and  Is 
almost  entirely  automatic  in  its  action. 


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Webb  City  Webster 

and  also  for  putting  in  representations  in  August,  1823.  In  1826  Weber  visited 
of  flowers,  birds,  or  the  like.  Cross  London  to  superintend  the  production  of 
weaving  is  a  term  applied  to  that  process  Oheron  at  Covent  Garden  Theater.  It 
in  which,  as  in  gauze  weaving,  the  was  enthusiastically  received.  The  coni- 
warp  threads,  instead  of  lying  con-  poser,  however,  was  out  of  health,  and 
stantly  parallel,  cross  over  or  twist  died  in  Ix>ndon,  June  5,  1826.  Besides 
around  one  another,  thus  forming  a  operas,  he  wrote  a  large  number  of  other 
plexus  or  interlacing  independent  of  that  works. 

produced  by  the  weft.  Double  weaving  Wfibster  (web'ster),  a  village  in 
consists  fai  weaving  two  webs  simultane-  ^'^"«»«'^*  Webster  township  (town), 
ously  one  above  the  other,  and  inter-  Worcester  Co.,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
weaving  the  two  at  intervals  so  as  to  French  River,  16  miles  s.  by  w.  of  Wor- 
form  a  double  cloth.  Kidderminster  or  cester.  It  has  extensive  manufactures 
Scotch  carpeting  is  the  chief  example  of  of  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  boots  and 
this  process.  PUe  weaving  is  the  proc-  shoes,  optical  goods,  etc.  The  lake  is  a 
ess  by  which  fabrics  like  that  of  velveU,  summer  resort  Pop.  11,509. 
velveteens,  corduroy,  and  Turkey  car-  TXTebstcr  ^^^^  ^^  Hamilton  Co.,  Iowa, 
pets  are  produced.  In  the  weaving  of  ^woi#^*,  ^^^  ^^^  Boone  River,  20 
these  fabrics,  besides  the  ordinary  warp  miles  E.  of  Fort  Dodge.  It  has  railroad 
and  weft,  tnere  is  what  is  called  the  shops  and  various  manufactures.  Pop. 
pile-warp,  the  threads  of  which  are  left    5208. 

in  lo<^s  above  the  surface  till  cut,  and  TXTebster  ^^^^^^^  famous  orator  and 
the  cutting  of  which  constitutes  the  ^^^"^•'^^j  statesman,  born  January 
pile.  18,  1782,  at  Salisbury,  New  Hampshire. 

Webb  Citv  ^  ^^^^  ^^  Jasper  Co.,  He  studied  for  four  years  at  Dartmouth 
VTC/Mu  vrxi/jr^  Missouri,  5  miles  if.  w.  College,  and  having  adopted  the  legal 
of  Joplin.  It  is  the  center  of  a  lead  and  profession  was  admitted  as  a  practi- 
zinc  region,  and  has  large  mining  inter-  tioner  in  the  Court  of  Common '  Pleas 
ests.  Has  also  a  foundry,  iron  works,  for  Suffolk  county.  In  1813  he  was 
etc.     Pop.  11,817.  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Federal  party 

Wphh  Cha&les  Henbt,  humorist,  in  New  Hampshire,  and  from  that 
^^"">  born  at  Rouse's  Point,  New  period  to  the  close  of  his  life  took  a 
York,  in  1834;  died  in  1005.  Under 
the  pen  name  of  *  John  Paul  *  he  wrote 
for  several  newspapers,  his  humorous 
sketches  being  chiefly  contributed  to  the 
New  York  Tribune,  He  wrote  several 
burlesque  dramas. 

Weher  (vft'b^r),  Kabl  Mabia  Fbied- 
TT^M^A  RICH  Ernst,  Baron  von,  a 
German  musical  composer,  was  bom  at 
Eutin  in  Holstein  in  1786.  His  father 
was  a  musician  and  had  him  carefully 
educated.  In  1800  he  wrote  the  opera 
of  the  Waldmadchen  (*  Wood-maiden ') . 
and  had  it  performed  at  Chemnitz  and 
Freiberg  in  Saxony.  In  1803  he  visited 
Vienna,  where  he  became  acquainted 
with  Haydn  and  the  Abb6  Vogler,  from 
whom  he  received  great  help  in  his 
studies.     The     latter     procured    him     a  Dsxiiel  Webster, 

musical     directorship     in     Breslau,     on 

which  he  entered  in  1804.  Two  years  prominent  part  in  public  affairs,  being 
later  he  exchanged  this  post  for  a  similar  especially  distinguished  as  an  orator, 
one  at  Carlsruhe,  and  he  was  subse-  No  public  speaker  could  surpass  him  in 
quently  (1813-16)  director  of  the  opera  producing  an  impression  on  an  audience, 
at  Prague.  At  the  close  of  1816  he  set-  and  he  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 
tied  at  Dresden,  where  he  was  founder  of  the  world's  orators.  He  became  a 
and  director  of  the  German  opera.  In  senator  in  1827,  and  in  1836  (and  again 
1820  he  went  to  Berlin  to  bring  out  Der  in  1848)  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
Freischiitz,  the  most  celebrated  of  his  for  the  presidency.  In  1841,  under  the 
compositions.  It  was  performed  in  Lon-  presidency  of  General  Harrison,  he  was 
don  and  Paris  two  years  later.  In  1822  appointed  secretary  of  state,  and  he  had 
Euryanihe  was  produced  on  commission  an  important  part  In  the  arransamept 
for  Yieima,  and  was  brought  out  there  of   the  Ashburton  Treaty  of   1842.    B^ 


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Webster  Groves 


Wedgwood-warc 


was  opposed  to  the  admission  of  Texas 
as  a  slave  state  and  to  the  Mexican  war, 
but  supported  Clay's  •compromise*  of 
1850.  In  1850.  on  the  death  of  Presi- 
dent Taylor,  ne  became  secretary  of 
state  under  President  Fillmore.  This 
office  he  continued  to  occupy  till  his 
death,  which  took  place  at  bis  estate  of 
Marshfield,  Massachusetts,  October  24, 
1852.  Among  his  many  notable  orations 
the  most  famous  was  that  called  out 
by  the  nullification  movement  of  South 
Cfarolina  in  1830.  His  great  argument 
in  defense  of  the  Union  and  the  Consti- 
tution on  that  occasion  has  rarely  or 
never  been  surpassed  in  the  history  of 
oratory.  Its  closing  sentence,  *  Liberty 
and  Union,  now  and  forever,  one  and  in- 
separable,' has  become  an  American 
watchwoid. 

Webster  Groves,  LoVibVmu: 

souri,  10  miles  w.  s.  w.  of  the  central 
point  of  St.  Louis,  to  which  it  is  closely 
related.     Pop.  7080.  ^ 

TXTfibfiter  ^<^^^9  a  dramatic  poet  of 
w^i#ob«^xy  the  seventeenth  century, 
was  clerk  of  the  parish  of  St.  Andrew, 
Holbom,  and  a  member  of  the  Company 
of  Merchant  Tailors.  His  works  are: 
The  White  Devil  (1612)  ;  The  DeviVa 
Law-caae  (1(523);  The  Duchess  of 
Malfy  (1G23)  ;  AppiuB  and  Virginia 
(1054)  ;  The  Thracian  Wonder  (1601)  ; 
and  A  Cure  for  a  Cuckold,  a  comedy 
(1661).  He  also  assisted  Dekker  in 
writing  the  History  of  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt,  and  the  comedies  Westward  Ho! 
and  Northward  Ho!  By  some  critics  he 
is  accounted  second  only  to  Shakes- 
peare. 

Webster,  IT' J'^i^^Wlnt:^', 

Connecticut,  in  1758,  and  educated  at 
Yale  College.  He  chose  the  law  as  a 
profession,  but  relinquished  it  for  teach- 
ing (1782).  About  the  same  time  he 
began  the  compilation  of  books  of  school 
instruction,  and  published  his  Gram- 
matical  Institute  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage, in  three  parts:  Part  1,  Wehster^s 
Spelling  Book;  Part  2,  A  Plain  and 
Comprehensive  Grammar;  Part  3,  An 
American  Selection  of  Lessons  in  Read- 
ing and  Speaking,  All  these  works  had 
an  enormous  sale.  His  literary  activity 
was  henceforth  very  great,  the  works  is- 
sued by  him  during  the  next  few  years 
including  important  legal  and  linguistic 
studies.  In  1789  he  settled  at  Hartford 
to  practice  law,  but  removed  in  1793  to 
New  York,  where  for  some  time  he  de- 
voted himself  to  journalism.  In  1806 
be  published  an  8vo  English  Dictionary, 
wUich  }^   ihe  way  for  his  great  work. 


the  American  Dictionary  of  the  English 
Language,  In  preparing  this  work  he 
visited  England,  and  finished  the  diction- 
ary during  an  eight  months'  residence 
in  Cambridge.  The  first  edition  of  his 
dictionary  was  published  in  1828  (2 
vols.  4to)  ;  it  was  followed  by  a  second 
in  1840;  since  which  time  several  en- 
larged and  improved  editions  have  ap- 
peared. He  died  in  May,  1843. 
IXTed^e  (^'®<^J)>  *  piece  of  wood  or 
o  metal,  thick  at  one  end,  and 
sloping  to  a  thin  edge  at  the  other,  used 
in  splitting  wood,  rocks,  etc.  In  geo- 
metrical terms  it  is  a  body  contained 
under  two  triangular  and  three  rectangu- 
lar surfaces.  It  is  one  of  the  mechani- 
cal powers,  and  besides  being  used  for 
splitting  purposes  is  employed  for  pro- 
ducing great  pressure,  and  for  raising 
immense  weights.  All  that  is  known 
with  certainty  respecting  the  theory  of 
the  wedge  is  that  its  mechanical  power 
is  increased  by  diminishing  the  angle  of 
penetration.  All  cutting  and  penetrat- 
ing instruments  may  be  considered  as 
wedges. 

Wfido^wood  (wedj'wyd),  Josiah,  a 
wea^WOOa  celebrated  potter,  bom  at 
Burslem,  Staffordshire,  England,  in 
1730.  He  received  little  education,  and 
went  to  work  in  his  brother's  factory  at 
the  age  of  eleven.  An  incurable  lame- 
ness, the  result  of  smallpox,  which  sub- 
sequently compelled  him  to  have  his 
right  leg  amputated,  forced  him  to  give 
up  the  potter's  wheel.  He  removed  for 
a  time  to  Stoke,  where  he  entered  into 
partnership  with  persons  in  his  own 
trade,  and  where  his  talent  for  orna- 
mental pottery  was  first  displayed.  Re- 
turning in  1759  to  Burslem,  he  set  up  a 
small  manufactory  of  his  own,  in  which  he 
made  a  variety  of  fancy  articles.  His 
business  improving,  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  white  stoneware,  and  to  the 
cream-colored  ware  for  which  he  became 
famous;  and  he  succeeded  in  producing 
a  ware  so  hard  and  durable  as  to  render 
works  of  art  produced  in  it  almost  in- 
destructible. His  reproduction  of  the 
Portland  Vase  is  famous.  He  also  exe- 
cuted paintings  on  pottery  without  the 
artificial  gloss  so  detrimental  to  the  ef- 
fect of  superior  work.  (See  Wedgwood- 
ware.)  His  improvements  in  pottery 
created  the  great  trade  of  the  Stafford- 
shire Potteries.  He  died  in  1795.  See 
Pottery, 

Wedgwood-ware,  'or^mMtrw°*d 

pottery,  without  much  superficial  glaze, 
and  capable  of  taking  on  the  most  bril- 
liant and  delicate  colors  produced  bv 
fused    metallic    oxides    and    ochers;    Sv 


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Wedncsbury  Weigelia 

named   after  the   inventor.     It  is   much  TXTeeks    ^^^^'^  o^*     ^^  Pentecost. 

used  for  ornamental  ware,  as  vases,  etc.,  vv-g^o? 

and,  owmg  to  its  hardness  and  property  TXTAA-nAr-ninTiVAir     or  Sai.     See  8a- 

of   resisting   the  action   of  all   corrosive  ^ ^cpcr  muui^ey,   ^^-^^ 

substances,  for  laboratory  mortars.  IXTee'Dill^-fl.sll     J^ra^lnua    petKfilto,    a 

Wednesbnrv    (wenzl^er-i  ),    a    par-  ^  ^^tr^^-B  «*«'"•?   variety  of  ash  differ- 

«y    hamentary   borough  of  ing    from    the   common    ash    only    in    its 

England,  in  Staffordshire,  19  miles  8.  8.  E.  branches   arching  downwards   instead   of 

of  Stafford,  in  the  district  known  as  the  upwards. 

Black    Country,   and   an    important   seat  TXreeDill^-birGll     ^  variety  of  the 

of  wrought-iron  manufactures.    It  has  an  ^  ^^r*'"'B  "■"^•"•^   b  i  r  c  h-tree,  known 

ancient  church.     Pop.  28,108.  as      BetUla      pendUla,      with      drooping 

WpilTipailQir    (wenz'da),  the  name  of  branches,   common   in   different  parts   of 

weanesaay  ^^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  Europe. 

week    (in   Latin,    dies   Mercurii,   day   of  TX7AA'niTi(y.ixri11/>ix7    a  species  of  wil- 

Mercury),  derived  from  the  old  Scandi-  ^  ^^JfAU^  wiiiuw,  j^^^    ^j^^   8  alia 

navian  deity  Odin  or  Woden.  Bahylonica,    whose    branches    grow    very 

IXTaa^    (  w§d  ),    Thublow,    journalist,  long  and  slender,  and  hang  down  nearly 

born    at    Cairo,    New    York,    in  in    a    perpendicular    direction.     It    is    a 

1797 ;  died  November  22, 1882.    He  served  native  of  the  Levant,  but  has  been  intro- 

as  a  private  in  the  war  of  1812,  after-  duced  into  the  United  States  and  other 

wards  engaged   in  newspaper  work,  and  countries. 

in    1820    founded    the    Albany    Evening  Weerd     ^^  Weebt   (vftrt),  a  town  of 

Journal,  which  became  the  organ  of  the  ^'vxu.,    Holland,    in    the    province   of 

Whig    party,    and    which    he    controlled  Limburg.     Pop.  8677. 

for  35  years.     He  was  a  leader  in  state  ^XTpAver    (^^'^^^)»  &  name  of  several 

and    national    politics,    but    declined    all  ^^*'**'*    acanthopterygious     fishes     of 

offices    for    himself.     He   supported    Lin-  the  genus   Trachinus,   included  by  many 

coin  and  the  Civil  war,  and  was  sent  by  authorities     among     the     perches.     Two 

the  President  on  a  mission  to  Europe  in  species   are    found    in    the   Atlantic,   viz. 

1861-62.     He    wrote    Letters    from    Eu-  the  dragon-weever,  sea-cat,  or  sting-bull, 

rope  and  the  West  Indies,  Reminiscences,  T.   draco,   about    10   or   12   inches   long, 

and   Autohiographp,  and   the  lesser  weever,   T,  vip^a,  called 

W^66d     ^  ^o.me  applied  to  uncultivated  also   the  adder-pike,   or  sting-fish,   which 

'   plants  growing  wild  or  contami-  attains  a   length  of  5  inches.     They  in- 

nating     cultivated     ground.     Many     are  flict    wounds    with    the    spines    of    their 

useful.  first  dorsal  fin,  which  are  much  dreaded. 

IXTaaV     (wgk),  a  period  of  seven  days.  Their  flesh  is  esteemed. 

one  of  the  common  divisions  of  TXTaaviI  (w§'vil),  the  name  applied  to 

time,    the   origin    of   which    is    doubtful.  ^  ^^^^  beetles   of    the    family    Curcu- 

Among    the    nations    who    adopted    the  lionidse,    distinguished    by    the    prolonga- 

week  as  a  division  of  time,  the  Chinese,  tion    of    the    head, 

Hindus,     Egyptians,     Chaldeans,     Jews,  so    as    to    form    a 

Persians,  and  Peruvians  have  been  men-  sort    of    snout    or 

tioned,   but   in  some  cases  the  antiquity  proboscis.    Many  of 

of  the  practice  is  doubtful,  and  in  others  the  weevils  are  dan- 

the    name    has    been    applied    to    other  gerous    enemies    to 

cycles    than    that    of    seven    days.     The    the      agriculturist,  ^ 

nations  with  whom  the  weekly  cycle  has  destroying   grain,  ^              ^\^  i  "j 

been  traced  with  certainty  to  the  great-  fruit,       flowers,  ^^"^atlnar^) 

est  antiquity  are  the  Egyptians  and  the  leaves,   and    stems.              r       *         *      i 

Hebrews.     With     the     former     we     only  The    larvae    of    the   ,:i     h  "TnL.?*!;?!! 

know  of  its  existence,  but  with   the  lat-  corn-weevil      (  C  a-  nified,     c,     Larvi      5' 

ter  it  had  a  much  more  important  char-  landra  granaria)  is  Egg   (both  mAgnifled)! 

acter.     The  use  of  tlie  week  was  intro-  very  destructive  to 

duced  into  the  Roman  Empire  about  the  grain,   that   of  the  pea-weevil    (Bruchus 
first  or  second  century  of  the  Christian  pisi)  to  peas.    See  Corn-iceevil  and  Pea- 
era    from    Egypt,    and    had    been    recog-  beetle, 
nized    independently    of    Christianity   be-  WAff      See  Weaving, 
fore  the  Emperor  Constantino  confirmed  ^   ^' 

it    by    enjoining    the    observance   of    the  TXTaic^aIici     (  wl-g6'li-a  ),  a  genus  of 

Christian    Sabbath.     With    the    Moham-  ^  c-^B^"*    shrubs  of  the  order  Capri- 

medans    the   week    has    also   a    religious  foliaceas  (honeysuckles),  natives  of  China 

character,     Friday     being     observed     by  and  Japan,  now  cultivated  in  gardens  for 

them  as  a  Sabbath.  the  beauty  of  their  flowers. 


i 


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Weighing  UacMne 


Weights  and  Measures 


Weighing  Machine,  see  Balance. 

TXTei^ht  ('^^^h  ^^e  measare  of  the 
o  force  by  which  any  body,  or 
a  given  portion  of  any  substance,  gravi- 
tates or  is  attracted  to  the  earth;  in  a 
more  popular  sense,  the  quantity  of  mat- 
ter in  a  body  as  estimated  by  the  bal- 
ance, or  expressed  numerically  with  ref- 
erence to  some  standard  unit  In  deter- 
mining weight  in  cases  where  very  great 
Srecision  is  desired,  due  account  must 
e  taken  of  temperature,  elevation,  and 
latitude.  Hence  in  fixing  exact  stand- 
ards of  weight  a  particular  temperature 
and  pressure  of  air  must  be  specified; 
thus  the  standard  brass  pound  is  directed 
to  be  used  when  the  Fahrenheit  ther- 
mometer stands  at  62^  and  the  barom- 
eter at  30°.  See  also  Gravity,  and 
next  article. 

Weights   and   Measures, 

the  standard  used  in  accurately  weigh- 
ing and  measuring  quantities,  of  especial 
importance  in  buying  and  selling,  scien- 
tific operations,  etc.  The  origin  of  the 
English  measures  is  the  grain  of  com. 
Thirty-two  grains  of  wheat,  well  dried, 
and  gathered  from  the  middle  of  the  ear, 
were  to  make  what  was  called  one 
I>enny  weight ;  20  pennyweights  were 
called  one  ounce;  and  20  ounces,  one 
pound.  Subsequently,  it  was  thought 
better  to  divide  the  pennyweight  into  24 
equal  parts,  to  be  called  gratns,  Will- 
iam the  Conqueror  introduced  into  Eng- 
land what  was  called  troy  weight 
(which  see).  The  English  were  dissat- 
isfied with  this  weight,  because  the 
pound  did  not  weigh  so  much  as  the 
pound  at  that  time  in  use  in  England; 
consequently  a  mean  weight  was  estab- 
lished, making  the  pound  equal  to  16 
ounces.  (See  Avoirdupoi9,)  But  the 
troy  pound  was  not  entirely  displaced 
by  the  pound  avoirdupois;  on  the  con- 
trary it  was  retained  in  medical  prac- 
tice, and  for  the  weighing  of  gold,  silver, 
jewels,  and  such  liquors  as  were  sold  by 
weight.  There  are  70(X)  grains  in  one 
pound  avoirdupois,  and  5760  grains  in 
one  pound  troy;  hence  the  troy  pound 
is  to  the  avoirdupois  pound  as  14  to  17, 
or  as  1  to  1.215.  The  troy  pound  was 
retained  as  the  British  standard  by  an 
act  passed  in  1824;  and  in  order  that 
the  standard  pound,  in  case  of  damage 
or  destruction,  might  be  restored,  by 
reference  to  a  natural  standard,  it  was 
ascertained  that  a  cubic  inch  of  dis- 
tilled water,  at  a  temperature  of  62® 
Fahr.,  weighed,  in  air,  252.458  grains; 
and  it  was  directed  that  the  standard 
pound  should  be  restored  by  the  making 


of  a  new  standard  troy  pound,  weighing 
5760  of  such  grains.  In  Britain  the 
unit  of  lineal  measure  is  the  yard,  all 
other  denominations  being  either  multi- 
ples or  aliquot  parts  of  the  yard.  The 
length  of  the  imperial  standard  yard,  ac- 
cording to  the  act  of  parliament  passed 
in  1824,  was  the  straight  line  or  distance 
between  the  centers  of  the  two  points 
in  the  gold  studs  in  the  brass  rod  m  the 
custody  of  the  clerk  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  entitled,  standard  yard,  1760. 
By  the  same  act,  the  brass  rod,  when 
used,  must  be  at  the  temperature  of  62** 
of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  It  was 
enacted  at  this  time  that  if  this  standard 
should  be  lost  or  destroyed^  the  length 
of  the  yard  should  be  determined  by 
reference  to  the  length  of  a  pendulum 
vibrating  seconds  of  mean  time  in  a 
vacuum  in  the  latitude  of  London,  at 
sea-level.  When  the  standard  yard  was 
actually  destroyed,  however,  by  the  fire 
which  consumed  the  two  Houses  of  Par- 
liament in  1834,  the  commissioners  ap- 
pointed to  restore  the  standard  decided 
that  it  was  better  to  do  so  by  means  of 
authentic  copies  of  the  old  standard  that 
were  in  existence.  This  was  accord- 
ingly done,  and  five  new  official  copies 
were  made,  one  of  which,  to  be  regarded 
as  the  national  standard,  is  preserved 
at  the  exchequer  in  a  stone  coffin  in  a 
window-seat  of  a  groined  room.  The 
national  standard  yard  is  thus  the  dis- 
tance between  two  fine  transverse  lines 
on  a  square  rod  of  gun-metal  38  inches 
long.  In  France  the  mitre  is  the  stand- 
ard or  unit  of  linear  measure;  the  are, 
or  100  square  metres,  the  unit  of  sur- 
face measure;  and  the  Bt&re,  or  cube  of 
a  m^tre,  the  unit  of  solid  measure.  The 
system  of  measure,  called  the  decimal 
or  metric  system,  based  upon  these 
standards,  is  now  largely  adopted.  For 
all  sorts  of  liquids,  corn,  and  dry  goods, 
the  British  standard  measure  is  declared 
by  the  act  of  1824  to  be  the  imperial 
gallon,  which  should  contain  10  lbs. 
avoirdupois  weight  of  distilled  water 
weighed  in  air  at  the  temperature  of  62** 
Fahr.,  the  barometer  being  at  30  inches. 
The  official  measurement  of  this  quan- 
tity of  water  measured  under  the  speci- 
fied conditions  gave  as  the  result  27 1. 274 
cubic  inches,  which,  though  since  ascer- 
tained to  be  slightly  in  excess  of  the 
true  measurement  (277.123  cubic  inches), 
is  still  the  legal  capacity  of  the  gal- 
lon. The  United  States  has  adopted 
the  weights  and  measures  prevalent 
in  Britain  and  the  two  countries  are 
alike  in  this  respect  Prior  to  183^ 
there  existed  a  bewildering  irregularity 
in  the  weights  and  measures  used,  but 


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Wei-hai-wei 


Weld 


since  then  they  have  been  in  great  meas- 
ure regulated  by  statute,  and  entire  uni- 
formity has  been  introduced.  By  the 
statutes  the  imperial  standard  yard, 
pound,  and  gallon  are  fixed,  and  all  local 
measures  of  capacity  abolished.  The 
legal  stone  is  fixed  at  14  lbs.  avoirdupois. 
All  articles  sold  by  weight  must  be  sold 
by  avoirdupois,  except  gold,  silver,  plati- 
num, and  precious  stones,  which,  as  noted 
above,  are  still  to  be  sold  by  troy  weight. 
While  the  system  described  is  in  common 
use  in  all  Enfflish-soeaking  countries, 
the  French  metrical  system  has  extended 
widely  beyond  the  borders  of  France,  and 
is  now  In  use  to  some  extent  in  nearly 
all  civilized  countries.  In  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  it  is  largely 
used  in  scientific  measurement.  Be- 
sides the  articles  on  Avoirdupois,  Troy 
Weighit  etc.,  see  Ounce,  Pound,  Bushel, 
Decimal  System,  etc 

Wei-hai-wei  (e;:;^^ 'th^e  ^^. 

ince  of  Shantung,  China,  extending  16 
miles  along  the  bay  of  the  same  name; 
area  about  285  sq.  miles;  pop.  about 
150,000.  A  Chinese  fleet  was  destroyed 
in  the  bay  during  the  war  with  Japan 
in  1895.  The  territory,  with  the  walled 
city  of  Wei-hai-wei,  was  leased  to  Great 
Britain  by  China  in  1898. 
TXTAiTnai*  (vi'm&r),  the  capital  of  the 
wciiuair  grand-duchy  of  Saxe- Wei- 
mar, stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ilm, 
and  in  a  beautiful  valley  surrounded  by 
hills,  but  is  not  well  built,  and  not- 
withstanding the  presence  of  the  court 
has  a  dull  and  lifeless  appearance.  Its 
public  edifices  most  deserving  of  notice 
are  the  ducal  palace*  the  so-called  Red 
and  Yellow  Castles,  now  united  and  oc- 
cupied by  several  public  departments; 
the  public  library,  containing  an  exten- 
sive collection;  the  museum;  the  theater; 
the  Stadtkirche,  with  an  altar-piece,  one 
of  the  finest  works  of  Lucas  Cranach. 
Weimar  is  closely  associated  with  the 
names  of  Schiller,  Ck)ethe,  Herder,  and 
Wieland,  the  first  three  of  whom  are 
buried  here,  and  statues  to  all  the  four 
adorn  the  town.  The  houses  of  Goethe, 
Schiller,  Cranach,  and  Herder  are  also 
objects  of  much  interest  Pop.  (1910) 
34.582. 

Weimar^  Saxe.    See  Sawe-Weimar. 

VI^inhfAm  (vInTiIm),  a  town  in 
W  einneim  g^^^j,  Germany,  in  Ba- 
den, on  the  Weschnits,  10  miles  N.  of 
Mannheim,  with  manufactures  of  ma- 
chinery, silks,  woolens,  etc.  Pop.  12,560. 
TXTeir  (^^^)*  ^  ^^^  erected  across  a 
'  river  to  stop  and  raise  the  water, 
either  for  the  purpose  of  taking  fish,  of 


conveying  a  stream  to  a  mill,  or  of  main- 
taining the  water  at  the  level  required 
for  navigating  it,  or  for  purposes  of 
irrigation. 

TiTAJr  Habbison,  an  English  artist, 
^^^y  was  bom  at  Lewes,  Sussex,  in 
1824,  and  educated  at  an  academy  in 
Camberwell.  Having  learned  the  trade 
of  a  wood-engraver  ne  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  painting.  His  first  exhibited 
gicture  was  in  oil,  entitled  The  Dead 
hoi.  In  1847  he  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  new  Society  of  Painters  in 
Water  Colors.  He  became  chiefly  noted 
for  his  pictures  of  country  life,  animals, 
fruits,  dowers,  and  landscapes.  As  an 
illustrator  of  books  and  periodicals  he 
is  well  known.  He  was  the  author  of 
The  Poetry  of  Nature;  Everyday  Life 
in  the  Country;  Animal  Stories:  Old  and 
New;  and  The  Cat.  He  died  Jan.  4» 
1900. 

Weismann  i,^^^"^;.^^  "a't" 

Frankfort-on-the-Main  in  1834;  studied 
medicine,  and  in  1860  became  phy- 
sician to  the  Archduke  Stephen  of  Aus- 
tria. He  attracted  great  attention  by 
his  Essays  on  Heredity  (translated  1892), 
in  which  he  denied  hereditary  transmis- 
sion of  other  than  race  characters.  With 
this  he  advanced  a  theory  of  generation 
that  was  accepted  by  many  oiologists. 
Others  st^ongl^  opposed  it  and  it  was 
sustained  by  him  in  several  volumes.  It 
is  known  in  biologv  as  Weismannism. 
It  maintains  that  the  nucleus  of  every' 
germ  cell  contains  a  germ-plasm  which  is 
not  derived  from  the  body,  but  is  trans- 
mitted from  germ  to  germ.  Thus  it  is 
unaffected  by  the  hereditary  character- 
istics of  the  body,  but  contains  and  re- 
produces those  of  the  race  only.  Bioloe- 
ical  science  is  divided  between  the  friends 
and  foes  of  this  unproved  hypothesis. 

Weissenbnrg  i^'oeSyV  V'Z 

province  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Vosges  Mountains,  on  the  Lauter, 
34  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Strasburg.  In  the 
Franco-German  war  of  1870-71  a  battle 
took  place  at  Weissenburg  on  Aug.  4, 
1870,  the  first  important  engagement  be- 
tween the  two  armies,  in  which  the 
French  were  defeated.  Pop.  6946. 
WeiSSenfelS  ivl's^p-felsl,  a  town  of 
w  c^xoocux^xo  Prussia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Merseburg.  in  the  province  of 
Saxony,  on  the  Saale,  with  manufactures 
of  porcelain,  shoes,  woolen  fabrics,  gold 
and  silver  articles,  etc.  It  has  a  church 
containing  the  remains  of  Gustavns 
Adolphus.  Pop.  ^.894. 
Weld.    ®^  byer's-ioeed. 


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Welding 


Wellington 


WMflin^  (weld'ing).  the  onion  pro- 
mfciiuix^  duced  between  the  surfaces 
of  pieces  of  malleable  metal  when  heated 
almost  to  fusion  and  hammered. 
TX7a11qii/1  a  town  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
weuana,  ^^^  WeUand  Canal,  12  miles 
8.  of  St  Catharines.  Pop.  6500.  The 
canal,  opened  in  1829.  affords  navigation 
around  the  Niagara  falls  and  rapids;  is 
26%  miles  in  length  and  by  means  of  26 
locks  rises  326%  feet. 
TXTAllAft  (welz),  Gideon,  an  American 
W6iic»     ^^^^1     ^g^p    ^jj^     political 

leader,  bom  in  Glastonbury,  Conn.,  July 
1,  1802.  He  studied  law  and  in  1826  be- 
came editor  and  proprietor  of  the  Hart- 
ford Times,  favoring  Andrew  Jackson's 
election  to  the  presidency.  From  1827  to 
1835  he  was  a  member  of  the  Connecticut 
legislature.  He  became  identified  with  the 
Republican  party  in  1857.  and  was  chair- 
man of  the  Connecticut  delegation  in  the 
Convention  that  nominated  Lincoln.  He 
was  secretary  of  the  navy,  1861-69.  Ha 
died  February  11,  1878. 
TXTaIIas  THOBLA.S,  colonial  eovemor, 
mfciics,  born  in  England  1598;  came 
to  America  about  1636,  and  settled  in 
Hartford,  Conn.  He  was  commissioner  of 
the  United  Colonies  in  1649  and  1654,  and 
governor  in  1655  and  1658. 
^CXTAllpfllAir  *  town  of  Norfolk  county, 
weiiesiey,  Massachusetts,  15  miles 
w.  by  8.  of  Boston.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Wellesley  College^  founded  in  1875.  for 
the  higher  education  of  women,  which  in 
1913  had  an  enrollment  of  1480  students. 
133  instructors  and  a  library  of  74,000 
volumes.    Pop.  of  town  5413. 

Wellesley,  ^^J^''^^  ^'^^    ^^  ^^ 

WpIIpqIptt  (welzli),  Richabd  Col- 
wexiesiey  j^  Weslet,  Marquess, 
eldest  brother  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
was  bom  at  Dublin  in  1760.  He  was  ap- 
pointed governor-general  of  India  m 
1797.  He  became  lord-lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land, in  1821.  He  resigned  in  1828,  but  in 
the  Grey  ministry  he  again  became  lord-, 
lieutenant  of  Ireland  (1833-35).  He. 
died  in  1842. 

WeUhausen  i^ii^SI^T^ii,  SS 

theologian  and  critic,  bom  1844.  Among 
his  works  are  Tewt  der  BUcher  Samuelis, 
Die  Phariaaer  und  Sadducder, 
WplfnTA  WorV  ^^^  ^^i™  applied  to 
weuare  WOrs,  various  activities 
undertaken  by  large  corporations  and 
other  employers  for  the  benefit  of  their 
employes.  These  range  from  lunch 
rooms  and  locker  rooms  to  extensive  med- 
ical and  sanitary  systems,  and  the  pro- 
visions for  old  age  pensions,  compensa- 
tion for  industrial  accidents,  etc. 


WelUngborougli  i^^^'^^^^'^U- 

amptonshire,  on  the  river  Nen,  10  miles 
northeast  of  Northampton.  It  has  a 
handsome  parish  church,  a  grammar 
sfliool,  and  a  com  exchange,  nccommo- 
daiiug  also  a  literary  institute.  The 
principal  industries  are  the  manufacture 
of  boots  and  slioes,  and  the  smelting  of 
iron.     Pop.  19,758. 

WeUington,  LSlfeV  To?  £*n*sa°«! 
on  Slate  Creek,  30  miles  s.  by  w.  of 
Wichita.  It  has  flour  mills  and  grain 
elevators,  and  is  the  division  point  for 
the  Santa  F6  Railroad.    Pop.  7034. 

Wellington  T^ZT,]' in^  sC^ 

shire,  11  miles  cast  of  Shrewsbury,  with 
manufactures  of  nails,  farm  implements, 
brass  and  iron  ware,  etc.    Pop.  7820. 

Wellinerton,  S  ^^^°  P^  England,  in 
o  *^^"'  Somerset,  with  manu- 
factures of  druggets  and  serges.  From 
this  place  the  Duke  of  Wellington  took 
his  title.  Pop.  7634. 
Wellineton,  f^e  capital  of  New  Zea^ 
o  *^^"^  land,  is  situated  on 
Port  Nicholson,  an  islet  of  Cook's  Strait, 
on  the  southwest  extremity  of  the  pro- 
vincial district  of  Wellington,  North  Isl- 
and. Its  harbor  is  6  miles  long  and  5 
wide.  It  has  two  wharfs  and  a  patent 
slip.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
Government  House,  the  Houses  of  Legis- 
lature, the  Government  Buildings,  Wel- 
lington College,  a  Roman  Catholic  college, 
etc  It  has  several  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers,  botanic  gardens,  tramways, 
etc.,  and  is  lighted  by  electricity.  Pop. 
64,372. — The  provincial  district  of  Wel- 
lington has  an  area  of  11,250  sq.  miles. 
It  has  an  equable  and  healthy  climate, 
but  is  subject  to  earthquake  shocks.  It 
is  intersected  by  several  mountain 
ranges,  but  there  are  many  fine  agricul- 
tural and  pastoral  districts.  Gold  was 
found  in  1881.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Manawatu  and  Wanganui. 
WpIIiuH-oh  Abthub  Welleslet, 
Wemn^On,  duke  op,  bom  in  1769. 
was  the  third  son  of  the  first  Earl  of 
Momington,  and  was  educated  at  Eton, 
at  Brighton,  and  finally  at  the  Military 
College  of  Angers.  In  1787  he  received 
a  commission  as  ensign  in  the  73d  Foot, 
and  after  a  rapid  series  of  changes  and 
promotions,  attained  by  purchase  in  1793 
the  command  as  lieutenant-colonel  of  tli'^ 
33d  Regiment.  During  1794  and  1795 
he  served  with  his  regiment  under  the 
Duke  of  York  in  Flanders.  In  1796  his 
regiment  was  despatched  to  Bengal, 
Colonel  Wellesley  landing  at  Calcutta  in 
Feb.,  1797,  at  a  critical  moment  for  th« 


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Wellington  Wellington 

British  power  in  India.  War  had  just  perseded;  but  before  giving  up  the  com- 
been  declared  against  Tippoo  Saib,  and  mand  he  gained  the  battle  of  Vimeira  over 
an  army  of  80,000,  of  which  Colonel  Junot,  the  campaign  being  brought  to  a 
Wellesley's  regiment  formed  part,  close  with  the  convention  of  Cintra,  by 
marched  against  him.  An  engagement  which  the  French  agreed  to  evacuate 
took  place  at  Mallavelly  (Mysore)  on  Portugal.  In  1809  Wellesley  was  ap- 
the  2Tth,  in  which  Wellesley,  who  com-  pointed  to  take  the  chief  command  m 
manded  the  left  wing,  turned  the  right  the  Peninsula,  which  had  been  overrun 
of  the  enemy.  He  was  subsequently  by  the  French.  The  famous  passage  of 
employed  to  dislodge  the  enemy  from  their  the  Douro,  and  the  defeat  of  Soult  which 
posts  in  front  of  Seringapatam,  and  after  followed,  fittingly  opened  this  masterly 
the  capture  of  that  capital  he  was  ap-  campaign.  For  the  victory  at  Talavera 
pointed,  in  1799,  to  the  administration  (July  28),  the  first  of  a  long  list  that 
of  Mysore,  his  brother  being  at  this  subsequently  took  place  in  the  Penin- 
time  governor-general.  (See  Wellesley,)  sula,  the  government  raised  the  com- 
In  1802  he  attained  the  rank  of  major-  mander-in-chief  to  the  peerage  as  Vis- 
general,  and  in  the  following  year  he  count  Wellington.  Towards  the  end  of 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  force  1810  Wellington  fought  the  battle  of 
destined  to  restore  the  Peishwa  of  the  Busaco,  which  was  followed  by  the  fa- 
Mahrattas,  driven  from  his  capital  by  mous  fortification  and  defense  of  the 
llolkar.  After  this  operation  had  been  lines  of  Torres  Vedras.  A  little  later 
successfully  performed  the  other  Mah-  (in  1811)  occurred  the  victory  of  Fuen- 
ratta  chiefs,  Scindia  and  the  Rajah  of  tes  de  Onoro.  In  the  following  year  he 
Berar,  showed  hostile  designs  against  took  Oiudad  Rodrigo  and  Badajoz  by 
the  British,  and  Wellesley  was  ap-  storm,  and  fought  the  battle  of  Sala- 
pointed  to  the  chief  military  and  polit-  manca,  accounted  one  of  his  most  famous 
ical  command  in  the  operations  against  victories.  On  August  12,  1812,  Welling- 
them.  After  an  active  campaign,  in  ton  entered  Madrid.  For  his  brilliant 
which  he  took  Ahmednuggur  and  Arun-  conduct  of  the  campaign  thus  far  he  re- 
gabad,  he  encountered  a  powerful  Mah-  ceived  the  thanks  of  parliament,  was 
ratta  army,  assisted  by  French  officers,  raised  to  the  dignity  of  marquis,  and  a 
at  Assay e,  on  September  23,  and  en-  sum  of  £100,000  was  voted  to  purchase 
tirely  defeated  it.  The  parallel  sue-  him  an  estate.  Next  followed  the  bat- 
cesses  of  General  Lake,  and  the  defeat  of  tie  of  Yittoria  (June  21,  1813),  for 
the  Rajah  of  Berar  by  Wellesley  at  Ar-  which  decisive  victory  Wellington  was 
gaum  on  November  29  compelled  the  given  the  baton  of  field-marshal ;  then 
submission  of  the  Mahrattas,  and  peace  battles  in  the  Pyrenees,  the  capture  of 
was  restored  on  conditions  drawn  up  by  San  Sebastian,  and  the  crossing  of  the 
the  successful  general.  Early  in  1805,  Bidassoa  into  France.  In  1814  the  bat- 
his  health  failing,  Wellesley  obtained  tie  of  Orthez  was  gained,  and  in  the 
leave  to  return  home,  and  arrived  in  same  year  the  battle  of  Toulouse,  in 
England  in  September.  He  had  before  which  Soult's  best  troops  were  routed, 
leaving  Madras  received  his  appoint-  and  the  hopes  of  France  in  the  Penin- 
ment  as  Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath,  sula  utterly  annihilated.  The  way  was 
From  November  to  February  he  was  en-  now  open  for  the  British  troops  to  the 
gaged  as  brigadier-general  in  Lord  Cath-  heart  of  France.  In  six  weeks,  with 
cart's  expedition  to  the  continent,  which  scarcely  100,000  men,  Wellington  had 
was  without  result.  In  January,  1806,  marched  600  miles,  gained  two  decisive 
be  succeeded  Lord  Comwallis  as  colonel  battles,  invested  two  fortresses,  and 
of  his  own  regiment,  the  33d.  On  Ai>ril  driven  120,000  veteran  troops  from 
10,  1806,  he  married  Lady  Catherine  Spain.  Napoleon  abdicated  on  April  12, 
Pakenham,  third  daughter  of  the  Earl  and  a  few  days  later  the  war  was 
of  Longford.  He  was  sbortl:r  after-  brought  to  a  close  by  the  signing  of  con- 
wards  elected  M.P.  for  Rye,  and  in  April,  ventions  with  Soult  and  Berthier.  In 
1807,  was  appointed  secretary  of  state  May  the  triumphant  general  was  created 
for  Ireland.  In  August  he  received  the  Marquis  of  Douro  and  Duke  of  Welling- 
command  of  a  division  in  the  expedition  ton,  with  an  annuity  of  £10,000,  com- 
to  Copenhagen  under  Lord  Cathcart  and  muted  afterwards  for  £400,000.  He  re- 
Admiral  Gambler,  and  took  Kioge  on  ceived  the  thanks  of  both  Houses  of 
April  29,  the  only  land  operation  of  im-  Parliament.  In  July  he  went  as  am- 
portance.  On  April  28,  1808,  he  at-  bassador  to  France,  and  succeeded  Lord 
tained  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  and  Castlereagh  as  British  representative  in 
in  June  received  the  command  of  a  force  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  In  April  ho 
destined  to  operate  in  the  north  of  Spain  took  the  command  of  the  army  assem* 
and  Portugal.    He  was  subsequently  su-  bled  in  the  Netherlands  to  oppose  Nap<^ 

22  10 


( 


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Wellman  Welsbach  Light 

leon.  (See  France  and  Waterloo,)  On  WaITo  David  A.,  economist,  born  In 
his  return  to  England  after  the  restora-  ^^^^9  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  in 
tion  of  peace  he  received  a  vote  of  £200,-  1828.  He  was  graduated  from  Williams 
000  for  the  purchase  of  the  estate  of  College  in  1847.  Among  other  publica- 
Strathfieldsaye,  to  be  held  on  presenting  tions  his  essay  on  Our  Burden  and  Our 
a  colored  flag  at  Windsor  on  the  18tn  Strength,  issued  in  1864,  had  a  large 
of  June  each  year.  With  the  return  ef  circulation.  In  1867  he  visited  Europe, 
peace  he  resumed  the  career  of  politics,  under  government  commission,  and  in- 
He  accepted  the  post  of  master-general  vestigated  industries  competitive  with 
of  the  ordnance  with  a  seat  in  the  cabi-  those  of  the  United  States.  His  ex- 
net  of  Lord  Liverpool  in  January,  1819.  perience  resulted  in  his  acceptance  of 
In  1822  he  represented  Great  Britain  in  free-trade  doctrines.  He  was  a  prolific 
the  Congress  of  Vienna.  In  1826  he  was  writer  of  pamphlets  on  economic  sub- 
nppointed  high-constable  of  the  Tower,  jects.  He  died  in  1898. 
On  January  22,  1827,  he  succeeded  Wellg  Herbebt  George,  a  British 
the  Duke  of  York  as  commander-in-chief  '^*'"°>  novelist,  bom  at  Bromley, 
of  the  forces.  On  January  8.  1828,  he  Kent,  in  1866.  He  wrote  a  Tewt  Book  of 
accepted  the  premiership,  resigning  the  Biology  in  1893,  and  followed  this  by  a 
command  of  the  forces  to  Lord  Hill.  In  series  of  highly  imaginative  stories,  en- 
January,  1829,  he  was  appointed  gov-  titled  The  Time  Machine,  The  War  of 
ernor  of  Dover  Castle  and  lord  warden  of  the    Worldt,    When   the   Sleeper    Wahe$ 


the  Cinque  Ports.  In  1^0  repeated  and  various  others,  among  the  latest  be- 
motions  for  parliamentary  reform  were  ing  The  New  Machiavetti. 
defeated,  but  the  growing  discontent  Wells  Horace,  dentist,  bom  at  Hart- 
throughout  the  country  on  this  subject  ^**o>  ford,  Vermont,  in  1815.  He 
and  a  defeat  in  parliament  caused  the  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  em- 
resignation  of  the  government  in  Novem-  ploy  anssthetics  successfully,  by  inhal- 
ber.  His  opposition  to  reform  made  the  ing  nitrous  oxide  gas  to  destroy  pain 
duke  so  unpopular  that  he  was  assaulted  in  dental  operations.  He  tried  it  first 
by  a  mob  on  June  18,  1832,  and  his  on  himself  in  1844.  Dr.  Morton,  of 
life  endangered.  He  accepted  office  un-  Boston,  substituted  ether  for  nitrous 
der  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1834-41,  and  oxide  in  1846.  Wells  lost  his  reason  in 
again  in  1846»  when  he  helped  to  carry  1848,  probably  as  a  result  of  inhaling 
the  repeal  of  the  corn-laws,  which  till  chloroform,  and  committed  suicide, 
then  he  had  opposed.  In  1842  he  re-  WAllgton  ^  ^^^^  ^^  ^^  Louis  Oa. 
sumed  the  command  of  the  forces  on  the  ^"oi'Vii.,  Missouri,  in  the  vicinity  of 
death  of  Lord  Hill.  He  died  at  Walmer  St.  Louis  city.  Pop.  7312. 
Castle,  September  14,  1852.  TXTAllQfi^Ti  ( wels'tun  ),  a  town  of 
Wellman  Walter,  joumalist  and  ^  cuswiu  ^^ackson  Co.,  Ohio,  32  miles 
'  ^  explorer,  was  born  at  Men-  s.  E.  of  ChiUicothe.  There  are  coal 
tor,  Ohio,  November  3,  IS.'^S.  He  estab-  mines  in  the  vicinity,  and  it  has  iron, 
lished  a  weekly  newspaper  at  the  age  of  steel  and  cement  works.  Pop.  6875. 
14;  at  21  established  the  Cincinnati  Wellsville  (welz'vil),  a  cit^  of  Co- 
Evening  Post,  and  has  been  a  corre-  lumbiana  Co.,  Ohio,  on  the 
spondent  of  the  Chicago  Herald  and  Ohio  River,  48  miles  w.  N.  w.  of  Pitts- 
Record'Herald  since  1884.  In  1892  he  burgh.  It  has  iron  and  tin-plate  works, 
marked  with  a  monument  the  supposed  boiler,  tanks,  sewer-pipe  and  pottery 
landing  place  of  Columbus  in  Watling  worlcs,  etc.  Pop.  7769. 
Island;  in  1894  and  1898  headed  Arctic  WAlfthflpTi  JAahf  &n  invention  of 
exploring  expeditions;  in  1906  built  a  wcwuaoii  xii^iit,  ^.^^.j  ^^^j.  ^^^ 
large  airship  at  Paris,  and  attempted  an  Welsbach,  an  Austrian,  in  1884.  In 
aerial  flight  to  the  north  pole  in  1907  Europe  it  is  known  as  the  Auer  light, 
and  again  in  1909,  both  proving  failures.  It  is  based  upon  the  discovery  that  cer- 
In  1910  he  attempted  a  flight  from  the  tain  materials  become  incandescent  at 
United  States  to  Europe,  starting  at  At-  a  low  temperature.  The  process  fol- 
lantic  City,  N.  J.  He  failed  in  this  lowed  is  to  saturate  a  combustible  fila- 
effort,  but  made  a  flight  over  the  ocean  ment  in  the  form  of  a  network  with  a 
of  1000  miles,  the  greatest  airship  flight  solution  of  a  salt  of  a  refractory  earth, 
made  to  that  time.  such  as  zirconium.  It  is  then  dried  out 
Wells  1^^^)*  ^  city  of  England,  in  aad  burned,  the  combustible  element  dis- 
Somersetshire,  contains  one  of  appearing  and  leaving  a  frame  of  refrac- 
the  most  magnificent  cathedrals  in  Eng-  tory  material,  which  becomes  incandes- 
land,  415  feet  long,  with  a  transept  cent  at  a  low  temperature.  The  fila- 
measuring  155  feet,  and  three  towers,  ment  is  called  a  mantle  and  is  exceed- 
Pop.  4655.  ingly  fragUe.    It  gives  a  brilUant  light 


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Welwitschia  Werner 

and   has   come   into   very   wide   use  for  square    miles.     Its    chief    feeder    is    the 

stores  and  dwellings.  Klar.    By  a  canal  it  communicates  with 

Wftlwiffloliiii    (wel-wich'i-a),    a    re-  Lake  Wetter,  but  its  only  proper  outlet 

vv  ^xwAbo^/iAxa   markable    plant    grow-  is  at  its  southwestern  extremity,  where 

ing   in   Southern   Africa   in  dry   regions  its   superfluous   waters    are    received    by 

near  the  western  coast,  between  lat.  14**  the  river  Gotha.     In  winter  it  is  frozen 

and  23**  8.     It  presents  a  stem  or  rhizome  for    several    months,     and    crossed     by 

forming  a  woody  mass  rising  to  a  foot  at  sledges.     It  abounds  with  fish, 

most   above   the   ground,    and   having   a  TXTenlOGk     (wen'lok),  a  municipal  bor- 

diameter  of  from  4  to  5  inches  to  as  many  ^"*vvxi.    ^^^^  ^^  England,  in  Shrop- 

feet,  this  mass  bearing  the  two  original  shire,  12  miles  southeast  of  Shrewsbury, 

cotyledonary    leaves,    which,    when    they  It   comprises   Much    Wenlock,    Broseley, 

reach   their   full   development   of  6   feet  Madeley,  Coalbrookdale,  etc.    There  are 

in  length  or  so,  become  dry  and  split  up  larse    iron    and    other    industries.     Pop. 

into  shreds  but  do  not  fall  off.     Every  15,244. 

year  several  short  flower-stalks  are  de-  TXTATilnnlr  O-ronii  ^^  geology,  that 
veloped  at  the  base  of  these  leaves,  but  ^c^^^*'  \Tiuujti,  subdivision  of  the 
no  other  leaves  are  produced.  There  Silurian  system  lying  immediately  be- 
seems to  be  but  one  species,  W,  mira-  low  the  Ludlow  rocks,  and  so  called  from 
hilia.  It  is  placed  among  the  Gneta-  being  typically  developed  at  Wenlock. 
ceee.  See  Qeology, 
Wen,  ?f«3*1r'Xr  S'^of  ttS  Wentletrap.  S«e  Boalaria. 
body.  They  are  formed  by  the  accu-  Wpnf^xrorfh  (went'wurth).  Sib 
mulation  of  sebum  in  a  hair  follicle,  or  ^  cutwurtn  rj^noMAS,  Earl  of  Straf- 
in  the  recesses  of  the  sebaceous  gland  ford.  See  Strafford, 
of  the  hair  sac,  causing  distension  of  TXTArdaTi  (ver'dou),  a  town  of  Sax- 
the  sac.  An  encysted  tumor,  in  its  com-  »'*'***«***  ©ny,  on  the  river  Pleisse,  25 
mencement,  is  always  exceedingly  small,  miles  w.  s.  w.  of  Chemnitz,  with  exten- 
and  perfectly  indolent;  and  it  is  often  sive  manufactures  of  yarn  and  worsted, 
many  years  before  it  attains  any  great  machinery,  etc  Pop.  (1905)  19,473. 
size.  TXTerden  (^^^''^^^i^)*  &  manufacturing 
IXTAiiPAaloiia  (wen'ses-lfts),  or  Wen-  »^^***^"  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  15 
wenoesxaus  ^^^^  ^^  Emperor  of  miles  northeast  of  Dttsseldorf.  Coal 
Germany  and  King  of  Bohemia;  bom  in  mining  is  carried  on  in  the  vicinity. 
1361;  was  the  son  of  Charles  IV,  whom  Pop.  (1905)  11,029. 
he  succeeded  in  1378.  He  favored  the  WereWolf  (wSr'wjjlf),  a  man- wolf, 
Hussites,  but  was  unable  to  save  the  life  ''*'*^  ^**  a  man  transformed  into  a 
of  Huss.  He  died  in  1409.  wolf  according  to  a  superstition  prev- 
TXT^n-pliniXT'  (wen'chou),  a  Chinese  alent  in  ancient  and  medieval  times. 
well  (/iivw  ^.j.^^^  VOtU  in  Chew-  It  was  generally  thought  that  such  be- 
kiang,  at  the  head  of  a  bay.  Pop.  100.000.  ings  had  the  form  of  a  man  by  day,  and 
Wends  ^^^  name  of  a  section  of  the  that  of  a  wolf  by  night 
'  '  Slavonic  race,  now  dwelling  VJ^rff  (werf),  Adriaan  van  deb,  a 
mostly  in  that  part  of  Germany  known  '^  ^*'"'  Dutch  painter,  bom  near  Rot- 
as Lusatia,  partly  in  Prussia,  partlv  terdam  in  1659;  died  there  in  1722.  He 
in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony.  In  the  sixth  was  a  pupil  of  Van  der  Neer,  and  among 
century  the  Wends  were  a  powerful  peo-  his  celebrated  painting  are  the  Judg- 
pie,  extending  along  the  Baltic  from  the  tneni  of  Solomon,  Chrtst  Carried  to  the 
Elbe  to  the  Vistula,  and  southwards  to  Sepulcher,  Ecce  Homo,  Abraham  with 
the  frontiers  of  Bohemia.  They  com-  Sarah  and  Hagar,  and  Magdalen  in  the 
prised  a  variety  of  tribes.  The  favor-  Wildemets,  Van  der  Werff  was  partic- 
ite  occupation  of  the  Wends  was,  and  ularly  noted  for  his  small  historical 
still  is,  agriculture.  There  are  several  pieces,  which  are  most  exquisitely  fin- 
dialects  of  the  Wend  language  still  ex-  ished,  and  still  in  high  request. —  His 
tant.  brother  and  pupil,  Pieteb  tan  deb 
Wener  (vender),  the  largest  lake  of  Webff  (born  in  1665),  painted  portraits 
*  Sweden,  and  after  those  of  and  domestic  pieces,  and  was  a  very  able 
Ladoga  and  Onega  the  largest  in  Eu-  artist.  Died  m  1718. 
rope,  situated  in  the  southwest  of  the  TXTATHnlrl  Webotld.  See  Anglo- 
kingdom.  It  is  147  feet  above  sea-level,  ^c^6"^>  Sawon. 
and  of  very  irregular  shape.  Its  great-  TJCTerTier  (v^r'n^r),  Abraham  Gott- 
est  length,  northeast  to  southwest,  is  '^*'''""^*  ix)b,  a  German  mineralogist, 
about  100  miles;  and  its  breadth  may  born  in  1750;  died  in  1817.  In  1775 
average    about    30    miles;    area,    2306  he  was  appointed  inspector  and  teacher 


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Wemigcrode 


Wessez 


of  mineralogy  and  mining  in  the  Min- 
ing Academy  at  Freiberg,  in  which  po- 
sition he  remained  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  Werner  was  the  first  to  separate 
geology  from  mineralogy,  and  to  place 
the  former  on  the  basis  of  observation 
and  experience.  The  great  geological 
theory  with  which  his  name  is  connected 
is  that  which  attributes  the  phenomena 
exhibited  by  the  crust  of  the  earth  to  the 
action  of  water,  and  is  known  as  the 
Wernerian  or  Neptunian  theory,  in  dis- 
tinction to  the  Uuttonian  or  Plutonic,  in 
which  fire  plays  the  chief  part. 

Wernigerode  i^^^V^^u^^lSl 

the  province  of  Saxony,  43  miles  south- 
west of  Mad|;eburg,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Harz  Mountains.  It  has  several  interest- 
ing ancient  Gothic  buildings,  a  residence 
of  the  Counts  Stolberg- Wernigerode,  with 
a  library  of  about  120,000  volumes,  etc 
Pop.  (1905)  13,137. 

Werra.  g^^  weaer. 
TXTAflpI  (vft'zl),  a  river  port  and  strong- 
wcDCX  jy  fortified  town  in  Rhenish 
Prussia,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Rhine 
and  the  Lippe,  30  miles  n.  n.  w.  of  DOs- 
seldorf.  It  contains  the  old  Gothic 
church  of  St.  Willibrord,  recently  re- 
stored, a  fine  old  Gothic  town  house,  and 
many  quaint  buildings.  The  manufac- 
tures comprise  woolens,  chemicals,  leather, 
etc.  Pop.  (1905)  23,237. 
Weaer  (^^'z^r).  a  river  of  Germany, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the 
Fulda  and  Werra  at  MUnden,  flows  gen- 
erally in  a  northwest  direction,  and, 
after  a  very  circuitous  course,  traverses 
the  city  of  Bremen,  and  then  falls  by  a 
wide  mouth,  very  much  encumbered  with 
sand-banks,  into  the  German  Ocean.  Its 
length,  including  the  Werra,  is  about 
430  miles.  The  navigation  for  vessels 
of  large  size  ceases  aoout  10  miles  be- 
.  low  Bremen.  See  Bremen. 
\X7ao1av    (wes'li),    Charles,    younger 

J^  brother  of  John  Wesley,  was 
born  at  Epworth,  England,  in  1708,  and 
was  educated  at  Westminster  School 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  accom- 
panied his  brother  to  Georgia  as  an  or- 
dained clergyman,  but  after  his  return 
to  England  he  became,  in  1738,  a 
preacher  in  the  Methodist  connection, 
and  materially  assisted  the  success  of 
the  movement  by  his  numerous  hymns, 
large  collections  from  which  have  been 
frequently  published.  He  died  in  1788. 
Two  of  his  sons,  Charles  and  Samuel, 
were  celebrated  for  musical  genius. 
TZTAalAy     John,   the   founder  of   Wes- 

^^    leyan   Methodism,    was   bom 
at    Epworth,    Lincolnshire    (his    father 


being  rector  of  the  parish),  June  17, 
1703,  and  educated  at  the  Charterhouse, 
and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  He  took 
his  degree  of  B.A.  in  1724,  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1725,  became  a  fellow  of  Lin- 
coln College,  and  lecturer  and  modera- 
tor in  classics  in  1726;  and  took  priest's 
orders  in  1728.  He  now  gathered  to- 
gether a  number  of  pupils  and  com- 
panions who  met  regularly  for  religious 
purposes,  and  by  their  strict  and  method- 
ical habits  acquired  the  name  of 
Methodists.  Among  these  companions 
were  Hervey,  Whitefield,  and  Law,  the 
author  of  the  Serious  Call  to  the  Uncon- 
verted. In  1735  Wesley  accepted  an 
invitation  from  General  Oglethorpe  to 
go  out  to  America  to  preach  to  the 
colonists  of  Georgia.  After  a  stay  of 
two  years  he  returned  to  England  (Feb., 
1738),  and  in  the  following  Majr  an  im- 
portant event  took  place  in  his  inner 
religious  life,  namely,  his  conversion. 
In  June  he  paid  a  visit  to  Herrnhut,  the 
Moravian  settlement,  returning  to  Eng- 
land in  September.  Early  in  the  follow- 
ing year  (1739)  he  began  open-air 
preaching,  in  which  he  was  closely  asso- 
ciated with  Whitefield,  from  whom,  how- 
ever, he  soon  separated,  but  without  a 
permanent  personal  breach.  Having 
now  the  sole  control  of  the  religious  body 
which  adhered  to  him,  he  devoted  his  en- 
tire life  without  intermission  to  the  work 
of  its  organization,  in  which  he  showed 
much  practical  skill  and  admirable 
method.  His  labors  as  an  itinerant 
preacher  were  incessant.  He  would  ride 
from  40  to  60  miles  in  a  day.  He  read 
or  wrote  during  his  journeys,  and  fre- 
quently preached  four  or  five  timet  a 
day.  He  married  in  1750  Mrs.  Vizelle, 
a  widow  with  four  children,  but  the 
union  was  unfortunate,  and  they  finally 
separated.  He  died  March  2,  1791. 
He  held  strongly  to  the  principle  of 
episcopacy,  ana  never  formally  sepa- 
rated from  the  Church  of  England.  His 
collected  works  were  published  after  his 
death  in  thirty-two  volumes,  octavo.  He 
contributed  to  the  collection  of  hymns, 
the  greater  part  of  which  were  writ- 
ten by  his  brother  Charles.  See  Metho- 
dists. 

Wesleyan  Methodists,  f^tuf*''- 

TXTessex    (wes'seks),     that     is,     West 
^  Saxons,  one  of  the  most  im- 

portant of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdoms  in 
England  during  the  sixth,  seventh,  and 
eighth  centuries,  and  the  early  part  of 
the  ninth,  and  that  in  which  the  other 
kingdoms  were  ultimately  merged  in  the 
reign  of  Egbert  in  827.  It  included  the 
counties    of    Devon,    Dorset,    Somerset 


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West  Western  Australia 

Wilts,  Hants,  Berks  and  a  part  of  facturing  region.  It  is  closely  associated 
Cornwall.  with   Berwick,   its  banking  point     Pop. 

TTTAaf      Benjamin,    painter,    born    in  5512. 

TV  ^oby  Delaware  Co.,  Pennsylvania,  Westhoro  (west^ur-5),  a  town  of 
October  10,  1738.  He  showed  great  pre-  ''^^•'"v*^  Worcester  Co.,  Massachu- 
cocity  in  his  aptitude  for  painting,  and  at  setts,  33  miles  from  Boston,  on  the  Bos- 
the  age  of  eighteen  established  himself  as  ton  and  Albany  Railroad.  Its  maniifac- 
a  portrait-painter  at  Philadelphia.  In  turts  include  iron  and  brass  beds,  trellises. 
July,  1760,  he  visited  Italy,  and  settling  tape,  leather,  straw  and  leather  goods, 
in  Rome,  painted  Cimon  and  Iphigenia,  underwear,  etc.  Pop.  5446. 
and  Ang^luM  and  Medora,  He  visited  Wcstbrook  (^est'bruk),  a  citar  of 
England   in  1763,   and   was  so  well   pa-  ^      .,  Cumberland  Co«  Maine, 

tronlzed   that  he  determined  to  make  it  ^  miles   N.   w.   of  Portland.     There  are 
his   future   residence.     He   painted    Hec-  Paper,   cotton    and   silk   mills,    foundries 
tor  and  Andromache,  The  Return  of  the  *5^  ot^^er  industries.    Pop.  8500. 
Prodigal  Son,  and  a  historical  painting  Wcst   BrOIUWicll.    ^   municipal 
of    Agrippina,    the    last    for    the    Arch-  ^         ,  ,.      ^    ^     ,  *°"      parliamen- 

bishop  of  York,  who  introduced  him  to  ^^J  borough  of  England,  in  Stafford- 
George  III,  who  became  his  steadfast  *?*r**  V  1®  *°  ^  "^^  '^^^  ^°^  ^*^  ^' 
patron,  and  gave  him  commissions  to  the  ^^^  f^^  ^^^  extensive  iron  works  and 
extent  of  about  £1000  a  year  for  up-  SfS?!*^*"^®^  ^^  ™®^^  «*^^^8-  ^OP- 
wards    of    thirty    years.     He    painted    a  JJ;         ^,  ,  ,  x.  s 

series  of  historical  works  for  Windsor,  WCSt  Chester  }  w  e  s  t  ches-ter  ) ,  a 
and  for  the  oratory  there  a  series  on  the  ^«  ^  ^  „  borough,  capital  of 
progress  of  revealed  religion.  On  the  ^ff^^^..  ^^•»  V^S??^^^?^'.  " , situated 
death  of  Reynolds,  in  1792,  he  was  P%  «»^«8  w.  of  Philadelphia.  It  stands 
elected  president  of  the  Royal  Academy.  *!L*  V^*^ /5r^*5^  ^'^??'^°»  a  rolling  coun- 
He  afterwards  painted  a  number  of  reli-  {7»  about  4o0  feet  above  tide-water,  and 
gious  and  historical  pictures  of  large  ^.  *  notable  courthouse,  a  botanical 
size,  among  them  being  Christ  I/eo«wf^  fj^^^^'/^^  »»  *^«  8^^'?^  a  State  normal 
the  Sick  (in  the  National  Gallery),  the  f^J^^^^  *°^  ^^^^T  educational  institufaons. 
Crucifixion,  Ascension,  and  Death  on  the  H^^^^Vi^^Ff^^  *°^  dairying  industries, 
Pale  Horse.  The  Death  of  General  ^^.^^^'^l^'^^^^^t  f  1?*^^ ,  «!iS?^»^«' 
Wolfe  at  Quebec  and  The  Battle  of  La  ^«^^«:  ^«f «»  ?lP?,Vi5V^:  ^^l'  ^^'W^r^ 
Hogue  are  accounted  the  best  of  his  his-  WcstCOtt  (west  kot),  Edwabd  Noyes, 
torical  pieces.  *  The  400  historical  pic-  ^„,  ^^^  v^^t  jI!  VcYt®  u™-*^,,^^'^' 
tures  which  he  painted  show  skill  in  SJr  n^  wn^t  'nlwi^^'  ^®  '*  ^2?"^° 
composition  and  considerable  inventive  ^^^  .^^^.^?[S^£«^^  £,^^^^ 
Dower  but  thev  have  no  real  vitalitv  *  ^*  A'^frjjF^,^  J^^^*  ^^  which  the  humor 
C''in%Ie'Ind  monZnoui  in'cXr   *"^ 

they  now  possess  little  interest.  Many  Si'^iJ,}!  *'h^f^S"'?t^°S;.Kii^.*«;?i'*^  ^"'^^ 
of  bis  woAs  have  been  engraved.  He  2Ji  ^^•^•,''*^7^ '*5  Py,^*'*^^?'""-;,,.^  ,„ 
died  in  London  March  11,  1820.  and  Wcsterlv  teJ /J;^2A„J?.i.iT.''fe™V' 
was  buried  in  St  Paul's  Cathedral.  Washington   CrRh^de^^l^lt'S,  <o«e 

West  African  Colonies  S^n  ^  Pawcatuck  River,  44  mUes  8.  w.  of 
rf<\A  r««<.ot  T«*r^o  r<«*»K{.  «*»^QLi^«  Providence.  Cottons  and  woolens  are 
liinp  rwhir.J'  fff\  ^*"*'^*'  ^^^  S'^"*  largely  manufactured,  also  thread  and 
44^    X  V^i.  '^      0  xMii        1       r.       printing   presses,   and   a   highly   superior 

WeStAlllS,  ^w^Ufnf'n^rn.^eS  ^.-'"o^Mlrs^  ^  l«?el,\ua^ried. 
from  Milwaukee.  Its  manufactures  in-  xxrl^i.^^^  A««4.«^ii^  a  Rrifiah 
elude  engines,  chains,  belts,  steam  pumps,  WeStem  Australia,  colony  which 
etc.     Pop.  0645.  includes  all   that  portion  of  the  Austra- 

West  Bay  City  (fomieriy  Wenona),  Han  continent  situated  westward  of 
T.      n      xiw  \u  ^o'*"-'*    ""'^J-    ""^  129'>    E.    Ion.      This    territory    measures 

Bay  Co.,  Michigan,  on  the  Saginaw  River,  1490  miles  from  n.  to  8.,  and  850  miles 
near  ite  mouth,  and  opposite  Bay  City,  from  e.  to  w.  The  total  estimated  area 
It  has  shipbuilding  and  coal-mining  in-  ig  975,920  sq.  miles,  thus  making  it 
dustries,  and  manufactures  lumber,  beet-  the  largest  of  the  Australian  colonies. 
^}^^^A^  ^o  ,^.^'  ,  chemicals,  etc.  Pop.  The  really  occupied  portion,  apart  from 
(19U0)  13,119;  It  IS  now  incorporated  scattered  settlements  round  the  coasts, 
with  Bay  City.  ,     .      ^      is  almost  entirely  in  the  southwest,  and 

West   Berwick,    ?    ^P^«^    ^n   ^o-  is   about   r>00   mlles    in    length,   and   150 
...  '.  lumbia    Co.,    Penn-  miles     in     average     breadth.      The     re- 

Avlyama,  in  an  agricultural   and  manu-  mainder  is  almost  wholly  desert  or  sand- 


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Western  Empire 


West  Indies 


covered  plain,  with  large  areas  desti- 
tute of  vegetation.  A  region  of  moun- 
tains border  the  western  coast  line, 
with  other  more  interior  ranges.  West- 
em  Australia  was  first  settled  in  1821) 
as  the  Swan  River  Settlement,  and  for 
many  years  the  population  was  very 
small.  In  1850  it  was  made  a  con- 
vict station,  and  remained  such  till  the 
abolition  of  transportation  in  1868. 
Since  that  time  it  has  been  making 
gradual  progress.  Perth  is  the  capital, 
on  Swan  River.  Besides  this  river  there 
are,  in  the  southwest,  the  Blackwood, 
Murray,  Murchison,  etc.,  further  north, 
the  Gascoyne,  Ashburton,  Fortescue,  De 
Grey,  Fitzroy,  etc.,  none  of  them  navi- 
gable at  all  seasons.  The  south- 
west has  vast  forests,  which  supply 
valuable  timber  for  exportation,  es- 
pecially that  known  as  jarrah  (which 
see).  Other  trees  are  the  lofty  euca- 
lyptus or  blue  gum,  sandalwood,  karri, 
etc.  Ck)pper  and  lead  are  found  in 
abundance  and  are  slightly  worked. 
The  other  chief  minerals  are  gold,  coal, 
zinc,  and  iron;  the  gold  deposits  being 
widespread  and  the  product  of  much 
value.  The  pearl  fisheries  are  rising  in 
value.  The  Kimberley  and  northern  dis- 
tricts contain  boundless  pastures,  and 
there  are  lands  suitable  for  the  growth 
of  sugar,  tobacco,  wheat,  etc.  in  the 
Kimberley  district  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  gold  are  now  obtained  from 
quartz  reefs.  In  other  parts  are  soils 
and  climates  admirably  adapted  for  the 
cultivation  of  silk,  olives,  the  vine,  etc. 
Fruits  are  abundantly  general.  The  live 
stock  includes  sheep,  cattle,  horses,  pigs, 
goats,  and  a  few  thousands  of  camels. 
Sheep  are  largely  kept  and  the  wool 
clip  is  large  and  valuable.  The  princi- 
pal exports  are  wool,  pearls  and  shells, 
timber,  and  sandalwood.  The  chief  im- 
ports from  Great  Britain  are  apparel 
and  haberdashery,  ale,  iron,  cottons, 
telegraph  wire,  etc.  In  1901  the  colony 
became  a  State  of  the  commonwealth  of 
Australia,  its  population  at  that  date 
being  184,124.    Pop.  (1914)  ^5,019. 

Western  Empire,  L^I?- e^a'pi^e! 

consisting  of  Italy,  Illyricum,  Spain, 
Gaul,  Britain  and  Africa,  which  Valen- 
tinian  I  reserved  for  himself  when  in 
364  he  shared  the  imperial  authority 
with  his  brother  Valens,  who  reigned  in 
Constantinople  as  Emperor  of  the  East, 
and  whose  territories  comprised  the  east- 
em  half  of  the  Roman  Empire.  This 
partition  of  the  Roman  Empire  became 
final  in  395,  when  Theodosiui  the  Great 
divided  the  Roman  world  between  his 
sons,  Honorius,  who  became  Emperor  of 
Rome  and  the  West,  and  Arcadius,  who 


became  Emperor  of  Gonstantinople  and 
the  East.  The  Western  Empire  termi- 
nated in  476. 

Western  Eeserve,  S,^Sf/i'o1 

what  is  now  the  State  of  Ohio,  once 
forming  part  of  the  claims  of  Connecti- 
cut in  the  Northwest  Territory.  When, 
by  the  treaty  of  1783,  Great  Britain  re- 
linquished the  territory  s.  of  the  Great 
Lakes  and  E.  of  the  Mississippi,  disputes 
arose  among  the  States  of  Virginia, 
New  York,  Massachusetts,  and  Connecti- 
cut as  to  the  right  of  occupancy  in  that 
locality.  The  difllculty  was  finally  set- 
tled by  the  cession  of  the  whole  to  the 
Federal  government,  but  CJonnecticut  re- 
served a  tract  of  nearly  4,000,000  acres 
on  Lake  Erie.  The  State  finally  dis- 
posed of  this  in  small  lots  to  colonists, 
and  so  accumulated  a  very  large  school 
fund. 

WAftf-fipIrl  (wesffgld),  a  town  (town- 
WeSXneia    \^^^^    ^{   Hampden    Co., 

Massachusetts,  on  Westfield  River,  9 
miles  w.  of  Springfield.  It  contains  a 
State  Normal  School,  Westfield  Athe- 
nseum,  and  other  institutions.  The  man- 
ufactures are  extensive  and  include 
whips,  cigars,  paper,  steam  heaters, 
machinery,  thread,  etc.  The  town  was 
settled  in  1658.  Pop.  16,044. 
TXTAof-fiAlii  a  town  of  Union  Ca,  New 
Wesxneia,  ^^^^^  7  miles  w.  by  s. 
of  Elizabeth.  It  is  chiefly  a  residence 
place  for  New  York  business  men.  Pop. 
6420. 

TXTAof  TTo'irp'h  ^  borough  of  New 
WeSl  Haven,  Haven  (5).,  Connecti- 
cut, separated  from  New  Haven  by  the 
West  Kiver.  It  has  manufactures  of 
buckles,  pianos,  safes,  etc.  Within  its 
limits  is  Savin  Rock,  on  Long  Island 
Sound,  a  popular  resort  Pop.  8543  (in- 
cluded in  pop.  of  Orange). 

West  Hoboken,  ^fo^,"'  h«c^- 

near  the  Hudson  River,  coT>tiguous  with 
Hoboken  and  Jersey  City.  Its  manufac- 
tured products  include  embroideries,  silks, 
braids,  pearl  buttons,  artificial  flowers, 
etc.  The  town  was  set  off  from  Bergen 
in  1861.    Pop.  35,403. 

Westhoughton  <4'*S>i^eai?SS; 

5  miles  w.  8.  w.  of  Bolton,  with  manu- 
factures of  silk  and  cotton,  and  coal 
mining.     Pop.  15,046. 

West  India  Apricot.  8«t*rf.""^ 
West  Indies  <ti'e°TNkx^  th?"^ 

tensive  archipelago  which  lies  between 
North  and  Soutn  America,  stretching 
from  Florida  to  the  shores  of  VenesBuela. 
It  is  divided  into  the  Bahamas,  the  group 


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Westinglioiue  Westminster  Abbey 

stretching  from  near  the  coast  of  lantern,  the  oil  cook  stove,  the  stove 
Florida  m  a  southeaster)^  direction;  the  board,  etc  He  died  December  28,  1900. 
Greater  Antilles,  compnsinc  the  foar  WAatmACOtt  (  west'ma - kot ) ,  Sib 
lar^t  islands  of  the  croup,  Cuba«  ^  vo»a**€»wi#v  rjchakd,  sculptor,  bom 
Hajti,  Porto  Rico  and  Jamaica;  and  in  London  in  1775.  In  1793  he  went  to 
the  Lesser  Antilles,  stretching  like  a  Rome  to  study  under  Canova,  and  made 
great  bow.  with  its  convexity  towards  such  progress  that  he  gained  the  pope*s 
the  east,  rrom  Porto  Rico  to  Trinidad,  annual  gold  medal  for  sculpture.  He 
near  the  coast  of  Venexueku  Almost  the  also  obtained  a  first  prize  for  sculpture 
whole  archipelago  lies  within  the  torrid  at  Florence.  In  1798  he  returned  to 
zone.  The  total  area  does  not  exceed  England,  and  rose  rapidly  in  his  profes- 
95,000  square  miles,  of  which  the  Greater  sion.  Many  of  the  monuments  in  St. 
Antilles  occupy  nearly  83,000  square  Paul's  are  from  his  chisel.  He  designed 
miles.  The  climate  is  tropical,  but  mod-  also  the  AchiUe$  in  Hyde  Park,  the 
ified  by  the  surrounding  oceans  and  the  statue  of  Lord  Erskine  in  Lincoln*s  Inn 
elevated  surface  of  many  of  the  is-  Old  Hall,  that  of  Nelson  in  the  Liver- 
lands,  and  the  islands  abound  in  trop-  pool  Exchange,  besides  statues  of  Addi- 
ical  productions,  as  sugar,  cotton,  coffee,  son,  Pitt,  etc.  He  was  elected  an 
tobacco,  maize,  etc.;  oranges,  lemons,  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1805, 
limes,  pomegranates,  citrons,  pineap-  a  full  member  in  1816,  and  in  1827  suc- 
ples,  etc.;  manioc,  yams,  potatoes,  etc  ceeded  Flaxman  as  lecturer  on  sculpture. 
Except  Hayti  and  Cuba  (which  are  in-  In  1837  the  dignity  of  knighthood  was 
dependent),  Porto  Rico,  Santa  Cms,  St.  conferred  on  him.  He  died  in  1856. 
Thomas,  and  St.  Johns  (which  now  be-  We8tinea.t1i  (west'm^th).  a  county 
long  to  the  United  States,  the  latter  three  "  ^"•'***^"'«**  In  Ireland,  m  the  prov- 
purchased  recently  from  Denmark ),  and  a  ince  of  Leinster,  with  an  area  of  708 
few  islands  off  the  coast  of  S.  America,  sq.  miles.  The  surface  is  hilly  in  the 
the  W.  L  Islands  are  in  the  possession  north,  but  elsewhere  undulates  gently, 
of  European  powers.  The  chief  British  The  drainage  is  shared  between  the 
possessions  are:  Jamaica,  Barbados,  Shannon  and  the  Bovne.  The  former, 
St.  Luda,  St.  Vincent,  Trinidad,  To-  with  its  expansion  Lough  Ree,  forms 
bago,  Antigua,  St.  Kitt's,  Dominica,  Vir-  the  western  boundary  of  the  countv; 
sin  Islands  and  the  Bahamas. — Dutch:  other  rivers  are  the  Brosna  and  the 
St.  Bustatius,  Saba,  St.  Martin  (partly  Inny;  and  there  are  a  number  of  lakes. 
French),  Bonaire  or  Buen  Ayre,  Cura-   The  principal  grain  crop  is  oats,  but  the 

So,  and  Oruba  or  Aruba. — French:  larger  part  of  the  available  surface  is 
artinique,  Deseada,  Guadeloupe,  Marie  devoted  to  srazing.  Important  means  of 
Galante,  St.  Martin  (partly  Dutch),  St.  communication  are  furnished  bv  the 
Bartholomew,  and  Les  Saintes.  See  the  Shannon,  the  Royal  Canal,  and  a  branch 
various  islands  and  groups.  of  the  Grand  CanaL    The  county  town 

Westin^llOTlse  (  west'ing-hous  )»  is  MuIUngar.  Pop.  of  county,  61,629. 
Yv^ovxAA5Aj.vuo^  Geoboe,  inventor,  Westminster  (west'min-ster),  a  city 
capitalist  and  manufacturer,  was  bom  ^oitAua.MM,oits^*,  ^^  Middlesex,  England, 
at  Central  Bridge,  New  York,  in  1846.  seat  of  government  and  the  residence 
He  entered  the  machine  shop  of  his  father  of  royalty,  is  now  so  united  with  London 
and  at  the  age  of  15  designed  a  rotary  that  in  appearance  they  form  one  city, 
engine.  He  served  in  the  Union  army  in  and  in  orainary  speech  are  mentioned  as 
1863-64.  He  is  best  known  by  the  fa-  one^  though  they  have  their  separate 
mous  air-brake  that  bears  his  name,  so  jurisdictions.  Temple  Bar  (now  re- 
generally  used  in  railroad  traffic.  He  moved)  separated  the  two  cities.  Within 
originated  other  devices,  including  elec-  the  city  and  liberties  are  Westminster 
trical  machinery,  railroad  signals,  etc.,  Hall,  Abbey,  and  School,  Buckingham 
and  was  an  extensive  manufacturer  of  Palace^  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  St. 
electrical  goods,  bis  enormous  manufactur-  James-  Palace,  the  Whitehall  Banquet- 
ing establishment,  that  of  the  Westing-  ing  House,  etc.  Pop.  160,277.  (See 
house  Mfg.  Co.,  being  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  London.) 
He  died.  March  12,  1914.  WMtmillfttl^r   AMl^V     ^^^    corona- 

Westlake  (west'iak).  wiluam,  bom  vv ewminsxer  iiooey,  ^^^^  ^^^^^ 

in  Cornwall,  England,  in  of  the  sovereigns  of  England,  and  one  of 
1831 ;  removed  to  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  the  chief  ornaments  of  London,  is  a  mag- 
early  in  life;  later  learned  the  tin-  nificent  Gothic  pile,  situated  near  the 
smith's  trade;  was  employed  by  Capt.  Thames,  and  adjoining  the  Houses  of 
John  Ericsson  to  make  model;*  for  his  Parliament.  In  1065  a  church  was  built 
first  hot-air  ensine.  His  Inventions  era-  here  In  the  Norman  style  by  Edward  the 
brac«  the  W^clake  car  heater,  the  globe  Confessor.     Part  of  this  structure  still 


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Westminster  Assembly  Weston-super-Mare 

remains  in  the  pyx-house  and  tho.  south  the  Confession  of  Faiths  and  the  Larger 

side  of  the  cloisters;  but  the  mniu  build-  and    Shorter    Catechisma,    which    remain 

ing,    as    it    now    stands,    was    Ugun    in  practically  the  standards  of  the  Presby- 

11^  by  Henry  III   (who  built  the  choir  terians    to    the    present    day.      At    the 

and  transepts),  and  was  prncticnlly  com-  Restoration  the  whole  proceedings  of  the 

Dieted  by  Edward  I.     Various  additions,  Westminster  Assembly  were  annulled  as 

however,  were  made   (including  the  nave  invalid. 

and  aisles,  the  west  front,  and  the  Jem-  TXTAaf-minQf  Ar  TToll      the  hall  of  the 

salem    Chamber)    down    to    the    time   of  W  CStminstcr  AlUl^    ^j^    p^j^^    ^^ 

Henry  VII,  who  built  the  chapel  which  Westminster,  was  erected  by  Richard  II 

bears  his  name,  while  the  upper  parts  of  (1397-99)     on     the     foundations     of     a 

the    two    western    towers    were    designed  structure    built    by    William    Rufus.      It 

by  Sir  Christopher  Wren.     The  extreme  has  a  fine  porch,  and   its  hammer-beam 

length   of    the   church,    including    Henry  roof  of  carved   timber  is  considered  the 

VIi*s    chapel,    is   531    feet;    breadth    of  most  notable  of  its  kind;  length  of  the 

transepts,  203  feet;   height  of   the  roof,  building,  290  feet,  breadth  68  feet,  and 

102  feet;  height  of  towers,  225  feet.    The  height  110  feet     This  building  is  closely 

coronation   ceremony   takes  place  in   the  associated  with  many  stirring  events  in 

choir,  where  the  coronation  stone  brought  English  historv;  but  it  is  chiefly  remark 

by  Edward  I   from  Scotland  is  situated  able  as  the  place  where  were  held  such 

beside  the  coronation-chairs  of  the  Eng-  great  State  trials  as  those  of  the  Chan- 

lish    sovereigns.      Westminster    Abbey    is  cellor  More,   Lady  Jane  Grey,   the  Earl 

distinguished   as   the   burial-place   of  nu-  of  Strafford,  King  Charles  I,  and  Warren 

merous  English  kings  from   Edward  the  Hastings,  and  as  the  center  of  the  highest 

Confessor  to  George  II;  the  north  tran-  English    courts    of    law    till    these    were 

sept    is    occupied    chiefly   by    monuments  removed    to   the   new    buildings    recently 

to  warriors  and  statesmen;  while  in  the  erected    for    their   accommodation.     The 

south    transept    is    situated    the    *  Poets*  hall   now   serves   as   a    fine   vestibule    to 

Comer,*   the   burial   and   memorial  place  the  Houses  of  Parliament, 

of  most  of  England's  great  writers  from  TXTpafmiTicifpr    SpViooI     or  the  Royal 

Chaucer  to  RoWt  Browning.     See  Lon-  WeSXminSXer    OCnOOl,  School  of 

dofu  St.    Peter's,    Westminster,    one    of    the 

Westminster  Assembly  of  Di-  QTli'Ss^^'L^a^CrtanSS 

vines    *    celebrated    assembly    held    at  in    1868.      There    are    forty    foundation- 

Yxuca^  Westminster  for  the  settlement  ers,  the  number  of  vacancies  yearly  being 

of  a  general  creed  and  form  of  worship  ten. 

throughout  Great  Britain.     By  an  ordi-  WpftfrnnrplflTirl    (  wesf  m5r-land  ) ,  a 

nance   passed   June   12,    1643.    121   cler-  ^  c»wmuiciauu    county   in   England, 

gymen,     with     ten     lords     and     twenty  bounded     by     Cumberland,     Lancashire, 

commoners  as  lay  assessors,  were  nomi-  Morecambe    Bay,    Yorkshire,    and    Dur- 

nated    as    constituents    of    the    assembly,  ham;  area,  783  square  miles.     The  sur- 

The  assembly  began  its  sittings  in  July,  face,     with    the    exception    of    a    small 

1643,  in   Westminster  Abbey,  but  in  the  portion    in    the    south    sloping    to    More- 

meantime  a  royal  proclamation  had  been  cambe  Bay,  is  very  mountainous.     Much 

issued   forbidding  the   assembly   to   meet,  of  the  celebrated  lake  scenery  of  England 

which    had    the    effect    of    inducing    the  is   within   the   limits   or   on   the   borders 

greater   part   of   the   Episcopal    members  of    this    county,    the    chief    lakes    being 

to   absent    themselves.     The   majority   of  T^lleswatcr,  Grasmere,  Rydal  Water,  and 

those  who  remained  were  Presbyterians,  Windermere.     The    principal    rivers    are 

but  there  was  a  strong  minority  of   In-  the    Eden,    Lune,    and    Kent.     The   min- 


dependents.     A  deputation  was  now_sent    erals  include  graphite,  roofing  slate,  mar- 

Dg-    hie,   and   small   quantities  of 
lish  parliament  to  the  General  Assembly    and  copper.     Appleby  is  the  chief  town. 


along  with  commissioners  from  the  Eng-    hie,   and   small   quantities  of  coal,   lead, 


of  the  Scottish  Church  and  the  Scottish  Pop.  63,575. 

Convention    of    Estates,    soliciting    their  IXTpfitlHOIlIlt     ^   town  of  Quebec 

cooperation    in    the    proceo«lings    of    tho  '^  ^^       ^         >    province,  Canada.     Pop. 

Westminster   Assembly,    and    accordingly  14,579. 

in    September    four    Scottish    clergymen,  TXTpof  TjJeW  York     ^  town  of  Hud- 

with  two  laymen,  were  admitted  to  seats  '*  ^^*'  *'^        •*•*'  *^}   son  Co.,  New  Jer- 

and    votes    by    an    act    of    the    English  sey,  adjacent  to  West  Hoboken.     It  has 

legislature.      The   assembly   continued    to  silk  mills.     Pop.   13,560. 

hold     its    sittings     till     February,    1649.  TXTpQfoTi.aTi'npr.'M'QrA    (mft'rg;    that 

Among    the    results    of    its    deliberations  wesiun  SUpcr  mare    j  ^^  ^     Weston- 

were   the   Directory  of  Public   Worships  on-Sea),    a    seaport    and    watering-place 


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West  Orange 


West  Virginia 


in  England  in  the  count v  of  Somerset, 
on  the  Bristol  Channel*  l9  miles  south- 
west of  Bristol.  It  is  recommended  as 
a  place  of  resort  both  in  winter  and 
summer.  A  fine  esplanade*  pier,  etc.,  are 
here.     Pop.  23,235. 

West  Oranere,  a^town  of  Essex  Co., 
WW  \/ov  vAorugv^  -^^^  Jerscj,  adjoin- 
ing the  city  of  Orange.  It  contains 
Llewellyn  Park,  a  beautiful  residential 
tract  on  the  8.  E.  slope  of  Orange  Moun- 
tain ;  also  a  large  country  club.  Hats, 
etc.,  are  made  here.  Pop.  10,980. 
Westphalia  (.wesffa-ll-a),  the  name 
w«  %r»v^MMr.i^Mr  gjygjj  ^j-  different  periods 

to  (1)  one  of  the  circles  of  the  old  Ger- 
man Empire;  (2)  one  of  Napoleon's 
kingdoms  (1807-13),  conferred  upon  his 
brother  Jerome;  and  (3)  now  to  a  prov- 
ince of  Prussia.  The  latter  is  bounded 
by  Rhenish  Prussia,  Holland,  Hanover, 
Brunswick,  Hesse  and  Nassau.  Its 
area  is  7771  square  miles.  The  surface 
'  in  the  south  and  northeast  is  generally 
mountainous;  the  northwest  spreads  out 
into  extensive  and  often  marshy  plains, 
and  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Ems; 
the  northeast  and  a  small  part  of  the 
east  to  the  basin  of  the  Weser;  the  re- 
mainder, constituting  the  far  larger  por- 
tion of  the  whole,  belongs  to  the  basin 
of  the  Rhine,  whose  chief  tributaries  are 
the  Ruhr  and  Lippe.  Besides  iron  and 
coal  in  abundance  the  minerals  include 
copper,  lead,  zinc  and  salt;  and  the 
manufactures  are  varied  and  important. 
The  province  is  divided  into  the  three 
governments  of  MUnster,  Minden  and 
Amsberg.  MUnster  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
(1905)    3,018,090. 

Westphalia,  ^^^=.  ^E:   ^^^  °*°**^ 

w«  ^»^w2r****'^**9  given  to  the  peace  con- 
cluded in  1648  at  MUnster  and  Osna- 
brtick,  by  which  an  end  was  put  to  the 
Thirty  Years*  war  (which  see).  By 
this  peace  the  sovereignty  of  the  members 
of  the  empire  was  acknowledged.  The 
concessions  that  had  been  made  to  the 
Protestants  since  the  religious  peace  in. 
1555  were  confirmed.  The  elector-pala- 
tine had  the  palatinate  of  the  Rhine  and 
the  electorate  restored  to  him;  Alsace 
was  ceded  to  France;  Sweden  received 
Western  Pomerania,  Bremen,  Verden, 
\yi8mar  and  a  sum  equal  to  £750,000; 
Brandenburg,  Mecklenburg,  Hanover  and 
Brunswick  were  compensated  by  the 
secularization  of  numerous  ecclesiastical 
foundations.  The  independence  of  the 
United  Provinces  was  recognized  by 
Spain. 

West  Pittston,  *  borough  of  Lu- 
WW  x^av  ^M,vvav^^AM,J  g^^jj^  Q^^  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  the  North  Branch  of  the  Sus- 
quehanna  River,   opposite   Pittston,   and 


on  the  Lackawanna  and  Lehigh  Valley 
Railroads.     Pop.  6848. 

West  Point,  r'tlT^'ud^^T  K 

about  50  miles  above  New  York  City. 
It  is  notable  as  the  seat  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  and  is  a  fa- 
vorite summer  resort.  A  fortress  was 
built  here  during  the  Revolutionary 
war,  and  the  treason  of  Benedict  Arnold 
consisted  in  his  endeavor  to  deliver  this 
to  the  British.  The  site  of  the  academy 
commands  one  of  the  finest  river  views 
in  the  world. 

XUt^^i"  Trnir  the  official  post  -  office 
wcat  xiuy,  designation  of  the  town 
of  Watervliet   (which  see). 

Westport  J-tlLTc'Uy'K  a^t 

the  mouth  of  a  small  river  in  Clew 
Bay.  10  miles  s.  s.  w.  of  Castlebar.    Pop. 

West  Springfield,  fti^TS.  ^'^S?: 

den  Co.,  Massachusetts,  with  a  village  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  Connecticut  River, 
opposite  Springfield.  It  has  some  manu- 
factures. Pop.  of  town,  922^, 
W^Qf  ToniTiQ  a  city  of  Hillsboro 
WeSX  lampa,  ^o.,  Florida,  in  West 
Tampa  precinct     Pop.  8258. 

West  Virginia,  instate   of^^^the 

bounded  N.  and  E.  by  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland,  E.  and  s.  by  Virginia,  and  w. 
by  Ohio  and  Kentucky;  area  24.170  sa 
miles.  The  surface  is  very  largely  moun- 
tainous and  hilly,  being  traversed  in 
the  east  and  center  by  parallel  ranges 
of  the  Allegheny  Mountains.  About  two- 
thirds  of  the  area  is  covered  with  for- 
ests. The  soil  of  the  ridges  is  fertile, 
and  the  summits  of  many  of  the  moun- 
tains are  level,  forming  natural  meadows 
or  glades.  Blue  grass  is  indigenous  and 
grazing  excellent,  especially  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Great  Kanawha.  The  forests 
are  chiefly  made  up  of  hardwood  trees 
of  valuable  kinds,  making  the  lumber 
interest  very  important;  coal  is  a 
highly  valuable  product,  nearly  the  whole 
State  lying  within  the  Allegheny  coal 
system.  The  coal  is  bituminous  and  is 
estimated  to  underlie  16,000  square 
miles.  Petroleum  is  also  abundant  and 
is  extensively  produced,  and  natural 
gas  is  found  in  some  sections.  Other 
minerals  include  salt,  largely  produced; 
iron-ore,  glass-sand,  kaolin,  limestone  and 
grinding  stone.  The  minerals  and  min- 
eral springs  are  practically  inexhaustible. 
The  live-stock  interests  of  the  State  are 
large,  especially  sheep.  West  Vir^nia  be- 
ing famous  for  its  wool.  The  agncultural 
staples    include    com,    wheat,    oats    and 


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Westward-Ho 


Whale 


tobacco,  and  orchard  fruits  are  ezten- 
flively  cultivated.  Manufactures  are  as 
yet  little  developed,  except  in  the  towns 
on  the  Ohio  river,  but  the  State  has 
enormous  water-pov^er,  all  its  streams 
having  a  rapid  descent.  This  will  un- 
doubtedly be  utilized.  The  leading  in- 
dustries are  those  of  steel  and  iron,  glass, 
flour,  salt,  lumber  and  wood  products, 
coke,  pottery,  firebrick,  leather,  cigars  and 
tobacco.  Wheeling  is  the  largest  and 
most  important  city;  and  the  manufac- 
toring  center,  nearly  all  the  industries 
named  flourishing  here.  Pop.  1,221,119. 
Wpfttwrarfl-Wo  *  sea-bathmg  place 
Wesiwaxa  .no,    ^^   England,   in   the 

county  of  Devon,  on  Barnstaple  Bay, 
about  3  miles  n.  w.  of  Bideford.  West- 
ward-Ho College  is  a  military  school, 
and  there  is  an  excellent  golfing  links. 
IXTAffAT  (vet'ter),  a  lake  in  Sweden, 
Wt;iicr  ^^^^  24  miles  southeast  of 
Lake  Wener;  greatest  length,  80  miles; 
medium  breadth,  about  15  miles.  Its 
height  above  the  level  of  the  Baltic  is 
nearly  300  feet,  but  its  depth  is 
in  some  parts  above  400  feet  The 
Wetter  forms  part  of  the  canal  connec- 
tion between  the  Cattegat  and  the  Bal- 
tic. The  chief  town  on  its  shores  is 
J5nk5ping. 

Wi^ffi^rTiftm  (vet'ter-h6m),  a  monn- 
WeXXernom   ^j^^   ^^   Switzerland,    in 

the  Bernese  Oberland,  with  three  peaks 
respectively  12,149,  12,166  and  12,107 
feet  high. 

TXTAf^laT  (vetz'lUr),  a  town  in  Rhenish 
W  C1.Z.ltir  Prussia,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Lahn  and  Dill.  It  was  anciently  a 
free  imperial  town,  and  was  the  seat  of 
the  imperial  German  court  of  justice 
from  1698  to  1806.  Pop.  (1905)  12,276. 
TU'A'vf  A-r#1  (  weks'f urd  ) ,  a  maritime 
weAlora  county  in  Ireland,  on  the 
Irish  Sea  and  St.  George's  Channel; 
area  901  sq.  miles.  The  chief  inlet  on 
the  east  coast  is  Wexford  Harbor, 
which,  though  spacious,  is  of  intricate 
navigation  and  obstructed  by  a  be.r. 
The  surface  of  the  interior  is  hilly,  rising 
into  a  ridge  on  the  northwest,  declining 
into  a  level  peninsula  to  the  southeast. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Slaney  Ind  Bar- 
row. The  prevailing  soil  is  Stiff  clay, 
generally  well  cultivated,  and  producing 
oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  potatoes.  The 
fisheries  are  extensive.  Pop.  104,104. 
—  Wexford,  the  county  town,  is  a  sea- 
port on  the  river  Slaney,  where  it  en- 
ters Wexford  Harbor.  The  herring  and 
salmon  fisheries  employ  many  persons; 
malt  is  manufactured,  and  distilling, 
brewing,  and  shipbuilding  are  carried  on. 
The  chief  trade  is  in  exporting  grain, 
cattle/  poultry,  butter,  etc     Pop.  11,168. 


TJSTexio  (vek'si-eu),  a  cathedral  city  of 
Southern  Sweden,  with  an  old 
cathedral.  Pop.  7365. 
WavIpt  Valebiano  y  NicouLU,  a 
w  ujrxcx;  Spanish  general,  bom  at  Bar- 
celona in  1840.  He  was  a  military  at- 
tach6  of  Spain  at  Washington  during 
the  American  Civil  war  and  served  in 
the  army  under  Sheridan.  He  took  part 
in  the  Carlist  war,  has  a  high  reputa- 
tion as  a  soldier,  was  made  governor  of 
the  Canary  Islands  in  1879  and  captain- 
general  of  the  Philippine  Islands  in  1889. 
He  afterwards  held  high  offices  in  Spain 
and  in  1896  was  sent  to  Cuba  to  sup- 
press the  insurrection.  His  ruthless 
cruelty  to  the  natives  excited  such  in- 
dignation in  the  United  States  that  he 
was  recalled  in  the  autumn  of  1897. 
WAvmfiTi  (wft'man),  Stanley  John, 
wt;ymau  ^  English  novelist,  bom  at 
Ludlow  in  1855.  His  novel  of  romance 
and  adventure,  A  GenUeman  of  France 
(1893),  became  highly  popular,  and  was 
followed  by  a  number  of  others  in  the 
same  vein. 

Weymouth    and    Helcombe- 

B.eris  ^  seaport  of  England,  in  Dor- 
^^B  ^  setshire,  on  a  semicircular  bay, 
7  miles  south-southwest  of  Dorchester, 
Weymouth  being  on  one  side,  Melcombe- 
Regis  on  the  other  of  the  small  river 
Wey,  over  which  is  a  bridge.  There  is 
a  considerable  coasting  trade,  the  chief 
export  being  Portland  stone.  Malcombe- 
Hegis  attracts  numerous  visitors.  There 
is  a  fine  esplanade,  about  1  mile  in 
length.     Pop.  22.325. 

Weymouth  tt^C  T^c^l 

setts,  on  Boston  Harbor,  11  miles  s.s.e. 
of  BostcQK.  It  has  manufactures  of 
boots  and  shoes,  isinglass,  fireworks,  etc., 
and  i  considerable  trade.  Pop.  12,895. 
TI71|q1a  (wfil),  the  common  name  given 
'"***^  to  the  larger  mammals  of  the 
order  Cetacea  (which  see).  They  are 
characterized  by  having  fin-like  anterior 
limbs,  the  posterior  limbs  being  absent, 
but  having  their  place  supplied  by  a 
large  horizontal  caudal  fin  or  tail. 
Their  abode  is  in  the  sea  or  the  great 
rivers,  and  they  resemble  the  fishes  so 
closely  in  external  appearance  that  not 
only  non-scientists,  but  even  some  of  the 
earlier  zoologists  regarded  them  as  be- 
longing to  that  class.  The  whales  are 
usually  divided  into  two  families,  the 
Balsenidffi  and  the  Physeteridae  or  Cato- 
dontidse.  The  Balsenidffi,  or  whalebone 
whales,  are  distinguished  by  the  absence 
of  teeth,  by  the  presence  of  baleen  or 
whalebone  in  the  mouth.  The  typical 
representative  of  this  family  is  the  corn- 


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Reproduced  by  permission  of  The  Philadelphia  Museums* 

THB  WBTTBRHORN  ASUAL  RAILWAY 

rhis  remarkable  railway  operate*  on  the  famous  Wetterhom  Mountain  in  Switierland.    The  care, 
holding  twenty  passengere.  are  carried  on  wire  cables  and  balance  each  other  by  means  of  a  cable 
attached  to  each,  which  passes  around  a  drum  at  the  top. 


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'Whale  Wharton 

moi  i^  Greenland  whale  (BalcBna  use,  and  the  danger  of  the  fishery  is 
mysticituB) ,  so  valuable  on  account  of  greatly  reduced.  When  captured  the 
the  oil  and  whaleb<')ne  which  it  furnishes,  animal  is  cut  up,  the  blubber  boiled  and 
(See  Whalebone.)  It  is  principally  the  oil  extracted,  and  the  whalebone 
found  in  the  Arctic  seas,  but  it  is  also  dried.  In  recent  years  there  has  been 
found  in  considerable  numbers  in  many  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  whale 
other  parts  of  the  world.  Its  length  is  products  in  America,  with  a  correspond- 
usually  about  60  feet,  and  its  greatest  ing  increase  in  prosperity, 
circumference  from  30  to  40  feet.  Al-  TXHialeback  ^^^  name  of  a  form  of 
lied  to  the  Greenland  whale  is  the  ror-  '^'"«**^*'«*^'^^    steam    vessel    invented 

by  Capt  Alexander  McDougall.  of  West 
Superior,  Wisconsin,  in  1874,  tor  use  on 


the  Great  Lakes.  In  1888  the  first 
whaleback  barge  was  built  of  437  tons 
registry  and  1400  tons  capacity.  The 
name  whaleback  was  suggested  by  the 
resemblance  of  the  visible  portions  of 
the  vessel,  when  afloat,  to  the  back  of  a 
whale.  A  whaleback  crossed  the  At- 
lantic in  1891.  Vessels  of  this  kind  are 
now  in  common  use. 

Whalebone  (wai'bon)    or  baleen, 

WW  M«»A\/»/v^\^    ^     ^gjj  _  known     elastic 
horny    substance   which   hangs   down    in 

n.»..i...<iwi,.i» /R^i^^«  •»...».•..:#... \  thin  parallel  plates  from  the  sides  of  the 

Greenland  Whale  (BaJamamy*tice(u#).  ^pp^*'    .^^     J^     ^^^     ^^^.^^    ^^    ^j^^,^g 

qual.     It  measures  as  much  as  85  feet  called       Baleenidie.     These       plates      or 

in   length,    and   from   30   to  35    feet   in  laminse  vary  in  size  from  a  few  inches 

circumference.     (See    Rorqual,)     Of   the  to  12  feet  in  length;  the  breadth  of  the 

Physeteridee    or    Catodontidse,    the    best  largest  at  the  thick  end,  where  they  are 

known    species    is    the    sperm-whale    or  attached  to  the  jaw,  is  about  a  foot,  and 

cachalot    (PhyaSter    or    Catodon   maoro-  the   average    thickness    is    from   four    to 

cephdlui),    which    averages    from    50    to  five  tenths  of  an  inch.     From  its  flexi- 

70   feet   in   length.     (See  Sperm-whale,)  bility,  strength,  elasticity,  and  lightness, 

Some  species  of  the  Delphinidse  or  dol-  whalebone    is    employed    for   many    pur- 

phin   family  are  also  known   as  whales,  poses,  as  for  ribs  to  umbrellas  and  para- 

(See      Beluga,      Caaing-tchale,)     Whale  sols,  for  stififening  corsets,  etc.     In  com- 

fishing  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  and  whale-  merce   it  is  often  called  whale-fin. 

bone    has    been    an    important    industry  TXThol^.lmiQA    (Cydmus     ceti/   order 

since    the    twelfth    century.     It   was    for  wiiiticiuusc    Laemodipoda).  a  genus 

long  prosecuted  with  great  ent/gy  by  the  .  of    small    crustaceans,    so    named    from 

Dutch,   English,  French,  and  Americans,  living    a    parasitic    life    on   whales  and 

but   of   recent   times   it   has   greatly   de-  other  cetaceans. 

creased,  chiefly  on   account  of  the  scar-  TXThamnnfl    (hwttm-pO'a),    a    port    of 

city    of    whales.     The     British     whaling  ^  ^o,uiyvti    China,  on  an  island  of  the 

fleet  now  numbers   barely   a   dozen   ves-  same  name,  12  miles  E.  of  Canton,  with 

sels,    mostly    belon'^ing    to    Dundee    and  comniodious  docks,  etc.,  for  the  cleansing 

Peterhead.     The  American  whale  fishery  and  repair  of  vessels, 

is    chiefly    prosecuted    by    New    Bedford  Wharton    (hwftr'tun).     Anna     Hol- 

ressels,     but    is    fast    dwindling    away.  lingswobth,   author,   born 

The  instruments  used  in  the  capture  of  in   Cumberland   Co.,   Pennsylvania.     She 

the  whale  are  the  harpoon  and  the  lance,  became    a    resident   of   Philadelphia   and 

The   harpoon   is   an    iron   weapon   about  wrote    Through    Colonial    Doorways,    A 

3  feet  in  length,  terminating  in  an  arrow-  Last  Century  Maid,  Heirlooms  in  Mima' 

shnped  head.     This  is  attached  to  a  line,  ture,     and     other     works     dealing     with 

and  is  thrown  at  the  whale  by  hand,  so  Colonial  life. 

cs  to  transfix  it,  or  is  discharged  from  a  WhartOn     ^^th,    American    author, 

small    swivel   cannon   placed    mj   a   boat.  ^q_-     _      1   ^''^^  i^  New  York  City  in 

The   lance   is   a   spear  of   iron   about   6  j^^'    Her  fiction  includes :  Tfce  FaWcy  o/ 

feet    in    length,    terminating    in    a    thin  Decision    (1902},    The   Descent   of  Man 

sharp  steel   head.     These,   with   the   nee-  ajf*  Other  Stones  (1904),  The  House  of 

essary  lines,  boats,  etc.,  are  all  the  ap-  S*^*;.  (1905),    The   Fruit   of    the   Tre€ 

paratUB     required      for     capturing     the  (1907)  and  Ethan  Frame  (1912). 

whale.     In    modem    whale    fishing   guns,  TXrharfnTi      Francis,  jurist   wp^  i)orn 

with  explosive  bullets,  are  brought  into  ^^^^^^^"-9   at   Philadelphia    in    :iSU(ii 


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Wharton  Wheat 

died  in  1889.  He  became  professor  of  these  works  were  written  originally  for 
logic  and  riietoric  of  Kenyon  College,  tlie  Encyclopcedia  Metropolitana.  He 
Ohio,  in  1856;  was  afterwards  ordained  occupied  the  chair  of  political  economy 
as  a  rector  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  at  Oxford  in  1830-31,  and  afterwards 
became  professor  in  the  Episcopal  di-  published  Introductory  Lectures  on  Po- 
vinity  school  at  Cambridge,  Mass. ;  also    Utical    Economy,     In    1831    he    was    ap- 

Srofessor  of  international  law  in  the  pointed  archbishop  of  Dublin,  a  position 
Boston  Law  School,  and  in  1885  solici-  in  which  he  did  much  for  national  edu- 
tor  for  the  State  Department  at  Wash-  cation  and  other  worthy  objects  in  Ire- 
ington.  He  wrote  A  Treatise  on  the  land,  including  the  foundation  and 
Criminal  Law  of  the  United  States,  A  endowment  of  a  chair  of  political  econ- 
Treatise  on  Medical  Jurisprudence,  The  omy  in  Trinity  College.  Besides  the 
Conflict  of  Laws»  etc  works  mentioned  he  wrote  or  edited  many 

TXThorf^Ti     Joseph,  manufacturer,  was   others. 

wuaxi/uu,  bom  at  Philadelphia  in  TrrUf^^f  (hw^t ;  THticum  sativum) ,  the 
1826;  died  in  1909.  He  engaged  in  the  v¥iicau  most  important  species  of  grain 
white-lead  manufacture,  was  manager  of  cultivated  in  Europe,  and  a  very  im- 
the  Lehigh  Zinc  Co.,  1853-63,  aided  in  portant  crop  in  America,  India,  Aus- 
founding  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Co.,  and  tralia,  etc.  It  grows  readily  in  almost 
established  extensive  nickel  works  at  every  climate;  but  its  natural  home 
Camden,  New  Jersey.  He  founded  the  seems  to  be  a  temperate  climate,  and 
Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Eco-  the  soils  best  adapted  for  its  culture 
nomics,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  are  rich  clays  and  heavy  loams.  Of 
endowed  a  chair  of  history  and  economics  cultivated  wheats  there  are  many  varie- 
at  Swarthmore  College.  ties,     the     differences,     however,     being 

WliartOTI  Thomas  Whabton,  Mar-  mostly  due  to  soil,  climate,  and  mode  of 
vYA&axuvuy  Qujg  Qj.^  Ijq^jj  1(^^;  died  cultivation.  Three  primary  varieties 
1715;  is  the  reputed  author  of  the  cele-  may  be  mentioned:  (a)  T,  hybemum 
bra  ted  political  ballad  LillihuUero,  and  imuticum),  winter  or  unbearded  wheat; 
was  severely  castigated  by  Swift. —  Uis  (5)  T,  cpstivum  (aristatum),  summer 
son,  Philip  Wiiabton  (1G99-1731),  or  bearded  wheat;  (c)  T,  spelta  (ad- 
was  created  a  duke  in  1720.  Like  his  hcerens),  spelt  or  German  wheat,  which 
father,  he  lived  a  very  profligate  life,  is  of  much  less  value  than  the  others, 
and  is  now  chiefly  remembered  as  the  but  grows  on  poorer  soils  and  more  ele- 
subject  of  Pope's  satire,  as  his  father  vated  localities.  White  wheat  and  red 
was  of  Swift's.  wheat    are   names    applied    according    to 

WTiatelv  (hwafli),  Richard,  Arch-  the  color  of  the  grain,  the  red  sorts  be- 
vv  Aia,b^j.j  bishop  of  Dublin,  was  born  ing  generally  hardier  than  the  white,  but 
in  London  in  1787;  died  in  18G3.  He  of  inferior  quality,  and  the  yield  is  less, 
received  his  education  at  a  private  Winter  wheat  is  sown  in  the  autumn, 
school  at  Bristol,  and  at  Oriel  College,  with  the  view  of  being  harvested  the 
Oxford.  He  graduated  B.A.  m  1808,  following  year;  summer  wheat  is  sown 
and  in  1810  won  the  English  essay  in  the  sprmg  of  the  year  in  which  it  is 
prize.  In  1819  he  made  his  first  ap-  reaped.  The  native  country  of  the  culti- 
pearance  as  an  author  by  publishing  his  vated  wheat  has  usually  been  considered 
famous  Historic  Doubts  Relative  to  to  be  the  central  parts  of  Asia,  and  it 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  In  1822  Whately  has  been  reported  as  growing  wild  in 
was  appointed  Bampton  lecturer  at  Ox-  Kurdistan,  Mesopotamia  and  elsewhere, 
ford,  and  delivered  eight  lectures  On  the  but  this  lacks  proof.  It  has  been  culti- 
Use  and  Abuse  of  Party  Feeling  in  Mai-  vated  from  a  very  early  period,  probably 
ters  of  Religion.  He  held  the  living  of  as  early  as  3000  B.C.  in  China.  It  was 
Halesworth  in  Suffolk^  in  1822-25,  and  one  of  the  principal  crops  in  ancient 
was  then  appointed  principal  of  St  Al-  Egypt  and  Palestine,  and  has  been  found 
ban's  Hall,  Oxford.  In  the  latter  year  in  the  lake  dwellings  of  prehistoric  Eu- 
he  published  Essays  on  Some  of  the  rope.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  all  the 
Peculiarities  of  the  Christian  Religion,  temperate  parts  of  the  continents,  is 
A  second  series  of  essays  On  Some  Dif-  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  north- 
ficulties  in  the  Writings  of  St,  Paul  and  em  India,  and  is  very  extensively  culti- 
Other  Parts  of  the  New  Testament,  vated  in  thu  United  States,  Canada  and 
came  out  in  1828;  and  a  third  series,  wide  regions  of  South  America.  Wheat 
The  Errors  of  Romanism  Traced  to  Their  of  very  fine  quality  is  produced  in  Ans- 
Origin  in  Human  Nature,  in  1830.  In  tralia.  It  does  not  thrive  in  the  torrid 
1827  was  published  The  Elements  of  zone,  except  in  elevated  situations. 
Logic,  and  the  scarcely  less  popular  though  it  does  well  in  subtropical  regions. 
Elements  of  Rhetoric  in  1828.     Both  of  A  hardy  plant,  it  can  endure  very  severe 


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Wheat  Wheat-ear 

winters  if  covered  with  snow.  For  its  ished  the  quantity  it  can  spare  to  send 
successful    cultivation    it    must    have    a  abroad  and   the  extra  supply   needed   in 

mean  temperature  of  not  less  than  55**  F.  Europe  is  now  largely  obtained  from 
for  three  or  four  months  of  the  year.  As  other  countries.  Chief  among  these  may 
it  is  an  annual  plant,  its  capacity  for  be  named  Argentina  and  Canada,  both 
enduring  cold  is  of  importance,  since  this  of  these  countries  possessing  large  areas 
permits  it  to  be  sown  in  the  autumn,  so  fitted  for  wheat  cultivation.  Though 
as  to  have  a  good  start  in  the  following  they  have  come  somewhat  recently  into 
spring.  Its  cultivation  does  not  extend  the  market  for  wheat  supply,  their  an- 
as   far   north    as    that    of   oats,    rye    or  nual   harvest   is   rapidly    increasing   and 

barley,    its    northern    limit    in    Europe  their   surplus    for    exportation    growing, 

being  about  60°  N.  latitude.    The  quality  Wheat    is    not    native    to    America,    its 

of  the  grain  varies  in  different  soils  and  first  introduction  being  by  the  Spaniards 

climates,   and    certain   varieties   are   dis-  about    1630.      It    was    planted   in    New 

tinguished  by  difference  of  quality  and  of  England  and  Virginia  shortly  after  their 

external    appearance.      The    varieties   of  settlement,   the  spread  of  its  cultivation 

wheat  are,  from  its  long  cultivation,  very  keeping  pace  with  that  of  settlement  and 

numerous,  many  of  these  varieties  being  its   production    becoming   phenomenal   in 

in     high     esteem     in     certain     districts,  the  middle  west  within  a  comparatively 

though  little  known  beyond  them.     The  recent  period.     Of  late  years  a  variety 

relative  proportions  of  straw  and  grain  of   wheat   adapted    to   dry   climates   has 

differ  greatly   in   different  varieties,   the  been  introduced,  with   the  result  that  a 

proportion    of    grain    to    that    of    straw  large  area   of  semiarid   land,   unadapted 

when  dried  for  stacking  varying  from  20  to   the   former   varieties,   is   becoming   a 

to  47  per  cent.     The  value  of  wheat  de-  wheat-raising   territory   of   some   import- 

§ends  mainly  upon  the  quantity  of  fine  ance.  This  is  not  well  fitted  for  bread- 
our  which  it  yields,  the  best  wheat  making,  and  is  known  as  macaroni  wheat, 
yielding  76  to  80  per  cent.,  at  times  as  from  its  chief  use.  At  the  present  time 
much  as  86  per  cent.,  while  inferior  the  United  States  and  European  Russia 
wheat  may  be  under  or  little  over  60  are  about  equal  in  product,  each  having 
per  cent.  In  general  the  smoother  and  an  annual  yield  of  about  700,000,000 
thinner  the  grain  is  in  skin  the  more  fine  bushels.  France  and  British  India 
flour  it  yields.  The  greater  part  of  the  come  next  with  about  half  this  quantity 
husk  is  separated  in  milling  and  is  known  and  Austria- Hungary  with  about  250,'> 
as  bran.  000,000.  Other  countries  with  over  100,- 
Wheat  being  the  most  esteemed  of  the  000,000  bushels  each  are  Canada,  Argen- 
cereals,  especially  for  bread-making,  the  tina,  Germany,  Italy,  Roumania  and 
increase  in  its  growth  has  kept  pace  with  Spain.  The  principal  diseases  to  which 
the  development  of  the  art  oi  ac[riculture  the  wheat  plant  is  subject,  some  of  them 
and  the  increase  in  wealth  in  many  the  source  of  great  loss  to  farmers,  are 
countries.  Yet,  only  within  recent  times  due  to  the  presence  of  parasitic  fungi,  the 
has  it  become  a  common  article  of  food  chief  of  these  diseases  being  known  as 
among  the  laboring  classes  in  any  coun-  rust,  smut,  bunt,  and  mildew.  The 
try  and  it  is  still  little  eaten  by  these  plant  is  attacked  also  by  a  number  of  in- 
classes  in  many  countries.  On  the  other  sect  pests,  such  as  threadworms,  wire- 
hand  its  use  is  growing  in  some  of  the  worms  and  others  of  what  are  known  as 
rice-eating  countries,  as  in  China.  In  corn  insects.  The  Hessian  fly  has  long 
England,  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  been  a  destructive  enemy  of  wheat  in 
eighteenth  century,  only  the  wealthier  American  fields,  first  known  as  scourge  in 
classes  used  wheaten  bread  as  a  com-  the  years  1786  and  1789,  and  claimed  to 
mon  article  of  food,  house  servants  being  have  been  introduced  from  Germany  bv 
provided  with  rye.  oats  or  barley,  and  the  Hessian  mercenaries  in  the  British 
in  northern  England  and  Scotland  the  army.  In  some  years  it  has  caused  enor- 
use  of  wheaten  bread  was  very  rare  for  mous  loss.  The  eggs  are  laid  on  the 
half  a  century  later.  At  the  present  leaves,  and  the  larvae  bore  into  the  stem, 
day  the  use  of  wheat  is  spreading  rapidly  suck  the  juices  and  kill  the  plant, 
throughout  the  world  as  the  most  desir-  TXTTieot-ear  (Saa^icdla  oBnanthe),  a 
able  and  palatable  bread-making  cereal.  »^ -"■**«*«'  ^^*-  bird  of  the  crder  Insea- 
For  many  years  past  the  United  States  sores  belonging  to  the  dentirostral  section 
has  been  the  greatest  of  wheat  producers,  of  the  order,  and  to  the  family  of  the 
growing  annually  enough  to  supply  Eu-  Sylviadae  or  warblers.  Its  average  length 
rope  largely  with  wheat  flour  from  its  is  6%  inches,  and  its  color  gray  above, 
snrplus,  while  retaining  an  abundance  breast  brown,  and  under  parts  white.  It 
for  home  use.  The  rapid  increase  in  its  is  a  native  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia, 
population,   however,   has  greatly   dimin-  and  is  found  in  Alaska  and  Greenland. 


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Wheat-eel 


Wheeler 


Wheat-eel,  ^  disease  in  wheat  called 
vTuv^oi/  c^A,    ^jg^   ear-cockle  and  pur^ 

pl€8.    See  Ear^ockle, 

TXTTiAof.'fl'fr    a  name  common  to  insects 

wiit;at  ny,  ^^  ^j^^  ^^^^g  Ceddomyia, 

applied  especially  in  England  to  O. 
triticif  sometimes  also  called  the  wheai- 
midge.  It  is  a  two- winged  gnat  about 
the  tenth  of  an  inch  long,  and  appears 
about  the  end  of  June.  The  females 
lay  their  eggs  in  clusters  among  the 
chaffy  flowers  of  the  wheat,  where  they 
produce  little  footless  maggots,  whose 
ravages  destroy  the  flowers  of  the  plant, 
and  render  It  shriveled  and  worthless. 
The  American  wheat-fly  (C.  destructor) 
is  described  and  figured  under  Hessian- 
fly, 

WliAfifATi  (bwe'tun),  Henby,  jurist 
WneaXOn  ^^^  diplomatist,  bori  at 
Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  Nov..  1785; 
died  in  March,  1848.  He  studied  law, 
edited  the  National  Advocate  in  New 
York,  and  held  official  positions,  be- 
coming minister  to  Germany  in  1837. 
He  gained  a  wide  reputation  for  his 
able  works  on  legal  subjects,  especially 
his  Elements  of^  International  Law,  a 
standard  authority,  and  History  of  the 
Law  of  Nations  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
foa,  a  work  of  the  greatest  merit. 
Among  his  other  works  is  a  History  of 
the  Northmen, 

Wheatstone   i^^^*^«*M°>^  ^m 

^w  AM,^,nvav^JXL^,  Ohables,  Scientific  m- 
vestigator  and  discoverer,  born  at  Glou- 
cester in  1802;  died  at  Paris  in  1875. 
Before  he  was  of  age  he  commenced 
business  for  himself  in  London  as  a 
maker  of  musical  instruments,  and  in 
1823  attracted  the  attention  of  men  of 
science  by  the  publication  in  Thomson's 
Annals  of  Philosophy  of  a  paper  entitled 
New  Experiments  on  Sound,  This  was 
followed  liy  a  number  of  other  papers, 
some  of  them  describing  inventions  of 
his  own,  all  of  which  are  remarkable  for 
their  ingenuity  and  delicacy  of  mechan- 
ical construction.  In  1834  Wheatstone 
was  appointed  professor  of  experimental 
philosophy  in  King's  College,  London, 
but  he  seldom  lectured.  In  1836  he  ex- 
hibited at  King's  College  experiments 
showing  the  velocity  of  electricity,  which 
suggested  to  him  the  idea  of  applying 
his  apparatus  to  telegraphing  and  in 
1837,  m  conjunction  with  W.  F.  Cooke, 
he  took  out  the  first  patent  for  the 
electric  telegraph.  He  was  a  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  from  the  year  1836, 
and  in  1868  he  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood.  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  papers,  chiefly  contributed  to 
the  Philosophical  Magazine  and  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Instituti^** 


Wheel  ^^  instrument  of  torture  for- 
^  merly  employed  in  France  and 
Germany,  on  which  the  criminal  was 
placed  with  his  face  upwards  and  his 
legs  and  arms  extended  along  the  spokes. 
On  the  wheel  being  moved  round  the 
executioner  broke  the  wretch*s  limbs  by 
successive  blows  with  a  hammer  or  iron 
bar,  and  after  a  more  or  less  protracted 
interval  put  an  end  to  the  sunerings  of 
his  victim  by  two  or  three  severe  blows, 
called  coups  de  grdce  (mercy  strokes), 
on  the  chest  or  stpmacb.  or  by  strang- 
ling him.  In  Germany  its  use  lingered 
down  till  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 
Wh^^l    (hw5l),  Persian.    See  Persian 

Wheel  and  Axle,  ^?^  9^  }^^  ^^ 

▼¥  Aj.^^j.  c»u.u.  ^^u%j,%^j  chanical  pow- 
ers, which  consists  of  a  wheel  round  the 
circumference  of  which  a  string  may  be 
wound,  having  a  small  weight  attached 
to  its  free  end,  and  an  axle  whose  cir- 


k  m 


Wheel  and  Axle. 

cumference,  being  smaller  than  that  of 
the  wheel,  will  sustain  a  heavier  weight 
at  the  end  of  the  string  which  is  wound 
upon  it  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that 
or  the  string  on  the  wheel. 
WTippIat  (hwel'er),  William  Almon. 
infiiccicx  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  was  bom  at  Malone,  New  York, 
in  1819;  died  in  1887.  He  was  for  a 
time  state  senator,  and  was  member 
of  Congress  1861-63  and  1869-77.  He 
opposed  an  increase  of  salary  and  re- 
turned the  extra  pay  allotted  him  under 
the  salary  bill.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  *  Wheeler  Compromise  *  of  the  Louisi- 
ana difficulties  of  1875,  and  in  1876  was 
nominated  by  the  Republican  party  for 
vice-president  and  elected  under  the  de- 
cision of  the  Electoral  Commission,  serv- 
ing through  the  Hayes  administration. 
WTiaaIat  Joseph,  soldier  and  legis- 
wuccici,    j^j^^^     ^^j^    ^^    Augusta. 

Georgia,  in  1836.  He  was  graduated  at 
West  Point,  and  was  appointed  a  brevet 
second-lieutenant  of  dragoons  in  1859. 
He  resigned  April  22,  1861,  entering  the 
Confederate     service    as    lieutenant    </ 


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Wheeling  Whin-chat 

artillery;  his  promotion  was  rapid;  tlie  mastership  of  Trinity,  and  in  this 
from  1862  until  the  close  of  the  war  position  labored  earnestly  and  success- 
be  commanded  the  cavalry  corps  of  the  fully  to  obtain  for  the  natural  and  moral 
Army  of  the  West.  During  the  war  he  sciences  a  better  recognized  position 
was  three  times  wounded  and  had  six-  among  the  studies  of  the  university.  He 
teen  horses  shot  under  him.  After  1881  became  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
till  the  Spanish  war  he  was  a  member  1820,  and  was  one  of  the  first  members 
of  Congress.  He  served  with  distinction  of  the  British  Association,  of  which  he 
in  that  war  and  subsequently  served  in  was  president  in  1841.  He  died  in  1866. 
the  Philippines,  and  in  1900  was  made  Among  Whewell's  multifarious  writings 
a  brigadier  general  in  the  regular  army,  may  be  mentioned  the  Bridgewater^ 
He    died    June   25,    1906.  treatise,  Astronomy  and  General  Physics, 

\Xr>iAAli-ncy  (hw^ring),  the  largest  city  Considered  with  Reference  to  Natural 
wuccilli^  of  West  Virginia,  Uie  coun-  Theology  (1833)  ;  History  of  the  Induo- 
ty  seat  of  Ohio  Co.,  on  the  Ohio  River,  92  tive  Sciences  (1837)  ;  Philosophy  of  the 
miles  below  Pittsburgh,  with  several  Inductive  Sciences  (1840)  ;  History  of 
branches  of  three  railroad  systems  and  Scientifio  Ideas;  Elements  of  Morality, 
many  miles  of  trolley  lines.  There  are  including  Polity  (1845)  ;  On  Liberal 
large  manufacturing  interests  producing  Education  in  General;  Lectures  on  the 
iron,  steel,  tinplate,  pipe,  nails,  machin-  History  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  England 
ery,  tin  cans,  glass,  enameled  ware,  sto-  (1852);  Platonic  Dialogues  (1859-61); 
gies  and  other  tobacco  products,  pottery,  and  Lectures  on  Political  Economy 
leather,  etc.  Wheeling  is  the  center  of  a  (1863). 
large  coal  industry,  adjoining  Belmont  TVliev  ^^  MUk. 
County,  Ohio,  the  largest  coal-producing    ^  ■">^j« 

county  in  that  State,  with  mines  employ-  WTiiHoTi-hirH  (  hwid'a),  a  name 
in«  15,000  men.  Natural  gas  is  obtein-  VVniaan  Oira  gj^^^  ^^  weaver-birds 
able  at  low  rates.     Pop.  41,641.  of  the  genus  Vidua,  inhabiting  Western 

IXTli aaI.tttiti  JoT¥r  in  Gothic  architec-  Africa,  and  found  in  abundance  in  the 
vTM^^A  wxAx^AVTVy  ^^j.g^  ^  circular  kingdom  of  Dahomey,  near  Whidah,  In 
window  with  radiating  mullions  re-  size  the  Whidah-bird  resembles  a  linnet 
sembling  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  See  or  canary,  and  during  the  breeding  sea- 
Rose-window,  son    the    male    is    supijlied    with    long, 

Whelk  C'^^^^J^)*  fl-  general  name  ap-  drooping  tail-feathers,  giving  it  a  grace- 
plied  to  various  species  of  gas-  ful  appearance, 
teropodous  molluscs.  The  large  or  com-  TUTii^  (hwig),  in  English  history,  the 
mon  whelk  ( Buccinum  und&tum )  is  ^  B  name  which  was  from  the  time 
found  on  the  coast  of  Europe,  and  is  of  Charles  II  to  within  little  more  than 
distinguished  by  the  shell  having  its  a  generation  ago  applied  to  the  political 
canal  notched,  and  the  mouth  or  aper-  party  that  advocates  such  changes  in 
ture  of  large  size.  The  whelks  are  the  constitution  as  tend  in  the  direction 
typically  carnivorous  molluscs,  and  pos-  of  democracy.  The  term  is  of  Scottish 
sess  long  odontophores  or  tongues  pro-  origin,  and  various  explanationi  of  it 
vided  with  siliceous  or  flinty  teeth,  are  given.  It  was  originally  applied  to 
These  animals  are  largely  used  for  food  the  Covenanters  of  the  southwest  of 
and  bait.  Scotland.     From  Scotland  the  word  was 

TXTheiTV    (^^er'i),    a    light,    shallow  brought  to  England,  where  it  was  used 
J^     boat  used  in  England,  with   as  the  distinguishing  appellation  of  the 
seats  for  passengers,  and  plying  on  rivers,   political    party   opposed    to    the    Tories, 
Whetalate-.     ^^®  Hone,  The  term  Liberals  is  now  generally  ap- 

plied  to  the  representatives  of  the  party 
Whewell  (^^'^*)»  Wiluam,  phUoso-  formerly  known  as  Whigs.  The  Whig 
pher,  was  bom  at  Lancas-  party  in  the  United  States  stood  op- 
ter,  England,  in  1794,  and  received  his  posed  to  the  Democratic  party  from 
early  education  at  the  free  grammar  about  1835  to  1856,  when  the  Northern 
school  of  his  native  town,  afterwards  at  wing  of  the  Whigs  merged  in  the  new 
Haversham  Grammar  School,  whence  he  Republican  party.  See  Tory, 
went  to  Trinity  CJollege,  Cambridge.  TXThin  (hwin).  See  Furze. 
In  due  course  he  became  fellow  and  tutor        *" 

of  his  college.  In  1828  he  was  elected  TXTTiiii.n'hQf  a  passerine  bird  of  the 
profespyr  of  mineralogy.  In  1832  he  ^"A^^^^a^  genus  Saancdla  or  Prat- 
resigned    this    chair    for    that    of    moral   incdla,  the  8,  or  P,  rubetra.     It  is  com* 

Khiilosophy,  which  he  held  till  1855,  when  mon  in  Northern  Europe  during  summer, 
e    became    vice-chancellor    of    the    uni-   frequenting    broom    and    furze,    on    the 
versity.     In   1841   he  was  nominated  to  highest  twigs  of  which   it  perches,  and 


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^^ippe^-iIl  N^Thist 

occasionally    sings    very    sweetly.     It    is  chiefly  by  tlie  meeting  of  currents  of  air 

closely    allied   to   the   stone-chat    (which  which  run  in  different  directions.     When 

see).  they  occur  en  land  they  give  a  whirling 

Whi'D'Der-iTl     ^^     ^^^     hunting,     one  motion    to    dust,    sand,    etc.,    and    some- 

v¥  ux^^cx  xAiy    ^jjQ   keeps    the    bounds  times  even  to  bodies  of  great  weight  and 

from   wandering,  and   whips   them   in,   if  bulk,    carrying   them   either    upwards   or 

necessary,     to     the     line     of     scent.     In  downwards,    and    scattering    them    about 

politics,    one    who    enforces    party    dis-  in  all  directions.     At  sea  they  often  give 

cipline  among  the  supporters  of  the  gov-  rise    to    water-spouts.     They    are    most 

emment   or   opposition,    and    urges   their  frequent    and    violent    in    tropical    coun- 

attendance.  tries,  and  are  common  in  an  exaggerated 

WhlDTjle    (hwip'el),     Edwin     Percy,  form     in     the     Central     United     States, 

¥»  xxx^^xv    essayist,  was  born  at  Glou-  where  they  are  known  under  the  name 

cester,   Massachusetts,   in   1819;    died    in  of  Tornadoes. 

1886.     He  contributed  essays  and  critical  TXriiiskeV    (^^^^'ki;    a    corruption    of 

articles    to    the    reviews    and    magazines  ^    the    Gaelic    word    uisge, 

of  his  time,  a  collection  of  his  articles,  water,    whiskey    being    called    in    Gaelic 

Essays  and  Revietcs,  being  published   in  visge-heatha^    which    signifies    water    of 

1849.     Other  works  were  Essays  on  Suh-  life),  the  name  applied  to  an  ardent  spirit 

iects     Connected    toith     Literature    and  distilled  generally  from  barley,  but  some- 

lAfe,   and    Character  and   Characteristic  times   from  wheat,  rye,  sugar,  molasses, 

Men,     He   was   esteemed   as   a   lecturer,  etc.     There    are    two    chief    varieties    of 

and   published   a   volume  of   lectures  on  whiskey,    viz.,    malt-whiskey    and    grain- 

Literature  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth.  whiskey.     The  former  variety  is  of  finer 

WhlTI-TIOOr-Will     ^^®  popular  name  quality,    and    made   chiefly    from    malted 

¥¥  xxx^  ^vvx    v¥  XXX,    ^j    ^^    American  barley  and  sometimes  from  rye.     The  lat- 

bird,    the    Chordeiles,    Antrostomus,    or  ter  is  made  from  sugar,  molasses,  pota- 

Caprimulgus  vociferus,  allied  to  the  Eu-  toes,  Indian  com,  barley,  oats,  etc.     See 

ropean   goat-sucker  or  night-jar,  and   so    DistUlation,  

MiJ^J^riVr'S'of'^iVniJIdlSre^"!  Whispering  GaUery,  Whisper- 

is   about    10   inches   long,   and   feeds  on  rntf  Dome    ^   S^aHery  or  dome  of  an 

flying     moths     and     other     insects.     Its  6      "       f  elliptical  or  circular  form, 

note   is   heard   in   the   evening,   or  early  in  which   faint  sounds  conveyed  around 

in   the  morning.     During   the  day   these  the  interior  wall  may  be  readily  heard, 

birds  retire  into  the  darkest  woods.  while   the  same  are  inaudible   elsewhere 

WTllTI  Sllfl.ke     ^^^  name  given  a  spe-  in  the  interior. 

TV  xxx^  Mixaxwcy   gjgg    distinguished    by  ^nHiict   (hwist),  a  well-known  game  at 

its  very  slender  back  and  tail,  which  has  ^  **^^^  cards,  first  clearly  described  by 

been  compared  to  the  thong  of  a  whip,  Edmond  Hoyle  in  his  Short  Treatise  on 

and  long  and  narrow  head,  which  ends  the  Oame  of  Whist   (1743).     The  game 

in   a  protruding   rostral   shield   or   in   a  is  played  with  the  full  pack  of  fifty-two 

flexible    anout.     They    are    arboreal    in  cards  by  four  persons,  two  being  partners 

habit,   usually   ^reen   in   color,  and   feed  against   the   other   two,   each   player  re- 

on  birds  and   lizards.  ceiving  thirteen  cards  dealt  out  one  by 

WTHrlTJOOl    (hwerrpQl),     a     circular  one  in  rotation.     The  last  card  dealt  is 

"           eddy  or  current  in  a  river  turned  face  up,  and  is  called  the  trump 

or  the  sea  produced  by  the  configuration  card;    it   gives   a   special   power   to   the 

of  the  channel,  by  meeting  currents,  by  suit    to    which    it    belongs.     The    cards 

winds   meeting    tides,    etc.,    as    those   of  rank    as    follows:    ace    (highest),    king, 

Charybdis,     the     Maelstrom,     and     Cor-  queen,   knave,   and   the  others   according 

,  ryvreckan.  to  their  number  of  pips.     Play  is  com- 

^WThirlwiff     Whiblwig - beetlb     (Oy-  menced  by  the  person  on  the  left  hand 

I  ^  **^*-*'^*'B9    rinus   natdtor),   a   beetle  of  the  dealer  laymg  down  a  card  face  up 

»  which    abounds    in    fresh    water    in    the  on  the  table,  the  other  players  following 

United    States;    may    be    seen    circling  in    succession    with    cards    of    the    same 

round  on  its  surface  with  great  rapidity,  suit  if  they  have  them.     When  all  have 

Its  eyes  are  divided  by  a  narrow  band,  played  the  player  who  has  laid  the  high- 

80  that,  although  it  has  only  two,  it  is  est  card  takes  the  four  cards  laid  down, 

made  to  look  as  if  it  had   four.  which    constitute    a    trick.     The    winner 

Whirlwind   (hwerl'wind),    a    violent  of  the  trick  then  leads,  as  the  first  of  a 

wind  moving  in  a  spiral  new  trick,  the  winner  of  which  becomes 

form,  as  if  moving  round  an  axis,   this  the  leader,  and  so  on.     When  a  player 

axis  having  at  the  same  time  a  progres-  cannot   play   a   card    of   the   same   suit, 

Bive   motion.    Whirlwinds   are  produced  he  may  play  one  of  the  tramp  suit,  and 


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White 


take  the  trick,  or  lay  one  of  a  different 
salt,  which  gives  him  no  chance  of  win- 
ning the  trick.  When  the  hand  is 
played  out  the  score  is  taken  as  follows: 
the  partners  who  conjointly  gain  the 
majority  of  tricks  score  one  point  for 
every  trick  taken  above  six.  The  ace, 
king,  queen  and  knave  of  the  trump  suit 
are  called  honors,  and  count  one  each 
for  the  side  who  holds  them;  if  one 
side  hold  three  honors,  they  count  two 
by  honors,  as  the  opposite  side  can  have 
but  one;  if  one  side  hold  all  the  honors, 
four  by  honors  is  counted;  should  the 
honors  be  equally  divided  neither  side 
counts,  the  honors  being  then  said  to 
cancel  each  other.  In  long  tchist,  an 
obsolescent  form  of  the  game,  ten  of 
these  points  made  a  game.  In  short 
iohist,  the  game  now  generally  played, 
the  number  has  been  reduced  to  five  or 
seven,  and  in  this  form  it  is  common  to 
count  by  tricks  alone,  honors  not  being 
counted.  A  rubber  consists  of  a  series 
of  three  games,  and  is  won  by  the  side 
that  secures  two  of  them.  Should  ene 
party  gain  two  games  in  succession,  the 
third  of  the  rubber  is  not  played. 
WTiiQflAr  (hwist'ler),  James  Abbott 
WmSUer  j^,cXeil,  artist,  born  at 
Lowell,  Massachusetts,  in  18M.  He 
studied  art  in  Paris  and  in  1855  went 
to  England,  where  he  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life.  His  paintings  at- 
tracted great  attention  and  found  ardent 
admirers  and  severe  critics.  His  etch- 
ings are  universally  praised,  and  he  is 
now  looked  upon  as  the  greatest  painter 
of  his  age.  One  of  the  most  admired 
of  them  is  a  portrait  of  his  mother. 
He  is  the  author  of  the  cuttingly  satir- 
ical Oentle  Art  of  Making  Enemies.  He 
died  July  17,  1903. 

Wlii^fftTi  (hwis'tun),  William,  an 
wmsion  Jjngiigh  divine  and  mathe- 
matician, born  in  1667;  died  in  1752. 
He  studied  at  Clare  Hall,  Cambridge, 
where,  having  taken  his  degree  in  1600. 
he  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  his  college,  ana 
became  an  academical  tutor.  Entering 
into  holy  orders  he  was  appointed  in 
1694  chaplain  to  the  Bishop  of  Norwich. 
In  1696  he  published  a  Theory  of  the 
Earth  on  the  principles  of  the  Newtonian 
philosophy;  in  1698  became  rector  of 
Lowestoft;  and  in  1701  was  appointed 
deputy-professor  of  mathematics  at 
Cambridge  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who 
shortly  afterwards  resigned  the  pro- 
fessorship in  his  favor.  He  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  university  in  1710  for 
Arian  opinions,  and  the  following  year 
was  deprived  of  his  professorship.  He 
then  removed  to  the  metropolis,  and 
published     his     Primitive     Christianity, 

2310 


which  caused  him  to  be  prosecuted  as  a 
heretic,  though  the  proceedings  were 
ultimately  terminated  by  an  act  of  grace 
(1715).  Towards  the  close  of  his  life 
he  became  a  Baptist.  Among  his  latest 
labors  were  his  Memoirs  of  My  Otcn  Life 
(1749-50).  Besides  numerous  original 
productions  he  published  a  well-known 
translation  of  the  works  of  Josephus. 
Txri|-ifA  (hwit),  Andbew  Dickson, 
wiutc  educator,  bom  in  1832  at 
Homer,  Cortland  Co.,  New  York,  was 
graduated  from  Yale  b  1853.  He  filled 
the  position  of  president  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, was  minister  to  Germany  1879- 
81,  and  was  appointed  ambassador  there 
in  1897.  Among  his  ntmierous  works 
are  Outline  of  Lectures  on  History^  The 
New  Germany,  and  The  Warfare  of 
Science  with  Theology, 
TXriiJ+A  Edwabd  Douglass,  jurist, 
^  born  in  Lafourche  parish, 
Louisiana,  in  1845.  He  served  through 
the  Civil  war  in  the  Confederate  arm^ 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  of  Louisi- 
ana in  1808.  He  was  elected  to  the 
State  senate  in  1874,  appointed  a  jus- 
tice of  the  Louisiana  Supreme  Court  in 
1878,  and  was  United  States  Senator 
from  Louisiana  1891-94.  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  appointed  an  associate  jus- 
tice of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  In  this  position  be  showed  great 
learning  and  efficiency,  and  on  December 
11,  1910,  he  was  appointed  by  President 
Taft  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States. 
TUTi-ifA  GiLBEBT,  naturalist,  bom  in 
wiutcy  ^^20  at  Selborne,  England; 
died  in  1793.  He  was  educated  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a 
fellow  in  1744.  He  declined  all  church 
preferment,  but  in  his  later  vears  served 
as  curate  in  his  native  village,  in  the 
beautiful  rural  scenery  of  which  he  spent 
the  greater  part  of  his  days,  occupying 
his  leisure  hours  mainly  with  the  study 
of  natural  history,  in  which  he  was  a 
most  assiduous  and  accurate  observer. 
His  "Natural  History  of  Selborne  was 
published  in  1789,  and  has  retained  a 
deserved  and  unimpaired  popularity  to 
the  present  day.  Mr.  White  was  also  the 
author  of  letters  on  the  antiquities  of 
Selborne. 

TXTTi-ifA  Henbt  Kirke,  poet,  bom  at 
VVUil/e)  xottingham,  England,  in  1785. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  butcher,  but  being 
of  a  delicate  constitution  he  was  put  to 
the  trade  of  stocking  weaving.  From  his 
infancy  he  manifested  great  love  of 
learning,  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
produced  some  notable  specimens  of 
poetry.  He  published,  in  1803,  a  poem 
called  Clifton  Orove;  and  after  his  death 


( 


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WMte  Whitefield 

his  Remains,  consisting  of  poems,  letters,  caring  for  the  wounded  and  sick  American 

etc.,   were  edited   by   ooutbey.     He   died  soldiers   and   sailors,    but   the   aiding   of 

in  180G.  the   widows   and   orphans   of   those   who 

White     RiCHABO  Grant,  author,  was  are  killed  in  battle  or  die  of  disease  or 

Y¥Ui.uuy    born  in  New  York  city.  May  accident 

22,  1821.  HU  literary  tendencies  drew  ^J^hite  ElCDhailt,  J^.^Jephant  af- 
him  from  law,  and  his  musical,  dramatic  — **^^**mi**vj  fg^jted  with  al- 
and art  criticisms  gave  him  prominence,  binism.  Such  animals  appear  to  have 
He  occupied  a  place  among  the  most  been  known  to  the  ancients.  They  are 
learned  Shakespearean  scholars.  He  highly  esteemed  by  some  Eastern  poten- 
died  in  1885.  tates,  and  are  considered  sacred  in  Siam. 
White  William,  Protestant  Episco-  A  specimen  nurehased  by  the  late  P.  T 
v¥  uxi/cy  p^j  5igjjQp^  ^ng  ijQrn  in  Phila-  Bamum  from  King  Theebaw,  of  Burma, 
delphia.  in  1748.  He  was  ordained  was  brought  to  the  United  States  in 
priest  in  1772,  and  subsequently  became  1884,  but  the  genuineness  of  this  is  very 
rector  of  Christ  Church  and  St.  Peter's  doubtful.  It  is  generally  reported  that 
Church,  Philadelphia.  During  the  Kev-  when  the  King  of  Siam  desires  to  ruin 
olution  Dr.  White  sided  zealously  with  anyone  he  makes  him  a  present  of  a  white 
the  colonies.  In  178G  he  was  elected  elephant.  The  sacred  elephant  has  an 
Bishop  of  Pennsylvania,  being  conse-  enormous  appetite,  and,  being  sacred,  it 
crated  in  Lambeth  palace,  England,  in  is  a  crime  to  let  it  die,  so  that  the  gift 
1787.  He  lived  to  see  the  Episcopal  generally  entails  financial  ruin  on  the 
Church     thoroughly     organized     in     the  recipient, 

United  States,  he  consecrating  eleven  TXThifAflAlH  (hwit'fSld),  Gboboe, 
bishops.  He  died  in  1830.  wmwcuciu  founder  of  the  Calvin^ 
Wllite  William  Hall,  an  English  istic  Methodists,  was  bom  in  1714  at 
>  novelist  who,  under  the  pea  Gloucester,  England.  At  the  age  of 
name  of  *  Mark  Rutherford,*  has  writ-  eighteen  he  entered  as  servitor  at  Pem- 
ten  The  Revolution  in  Fanner* s  Lane,  broke  College,  Oxford,  where  he  became 
Clara  Hapgood,  etc.,  also  Spinoza's  acquainted  with  the  Wesleys,  and  joined 
Ethics.  the  small  society  which  procured  them 
White  Ants  ^^  Termites,  the  name  of  Methodists.  (See  Meiho- 
J_^  ^^^^o*  ^^^^  ^^^  Wesley.)  He  was  ordained 
IJSrhite-hait  *  name  for  the  young  deacon  in  1736,  and  soon  became  very 
TVAuv^  ucarxby  of  the  herring.  It  popular  as  a  preacher.  In  1738  he  went 
abounds  in  the  Thames  during  the  spring  to  the  American  settlement  of  Georgia, 
and  summer,  and  is  much  prized  by  the  where  his  ministrations  gave  great  satis- 
Londoners.  The  English  cabinet  used  faction  to  the  colonists.  In  the  follow- 
to  assemble  at  Greenwich  previous  to  ing  year  he  returned  to  England  to  pro- 
the  prorogation  of  parliament  in  autumn  cure  subscriptions  for  buildmg  an 
to  partake  of  a  white-bait  dinner.  orphan  house  in  the  settlement.  Having 
WhitehovS  ^^  illegal  association  taken  priests'  orders,  he  repaired  to 
J^  ^  formed  in  Ireland  about  London,  where  the  churches  in  which 
1760.  The  association  consisted  of  he  preached  proved  incapable  of  hold- 
starving  day  laborers,  evicted  farmers,  ing  the  crowds  who  assembled  to  hear 
and  others  in  a  like  condition,  who  used  him.  He  now  adopted  preaching  in  the 
to  assemble  at  nights  to  destroy  the  open  air,  and  visited  various  parts  of  the 
property  of  harsh  landlords  or  their  country,  addressing  vast  audiences.  In 
agents,  the  Protestant  clergy,  and  tithe  1739  he  again  embarked  for  America, 
collectors,  or  any  others  that  had  made  and  made  a  tour  through  several  of  the 
themselves  obnoxious  in  the  locality.  In  colonies,  preaching  with  great  effect  to 
many  cases  they  did  not  confine  their  immense  crowds.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
acts  of  aggression  merely  to  plunder  and  land  in  the  following  year,  where  for  a 
destruction,  but  even  went  the  length  time  differences  between  him  and  Wes- 
of  murder.  ley  deprived  him  of  many  followers 
White  Cross  ^^  organization  simi-  After  visiting  many  parts  of  England, 
WW  UAVM  vrxvooy  i^j.  jj^  many  respects  Scotland,  and  Wales  ne  again  returned 
to  the  famous  Red  Cross,  from  which  to  America,  and  remained  there  nearly 
it  differs  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  it  is  four  years.  Soon  after  his  return  he 
distinctly  American.  It  was  founded  in  was  introduced  to  the  Countess  of  Hunt- 
1898  by  Mrs.  Jane  Creighton,  of  Port-  ingdon.  who  made  him  one  of  her 
land,  Oregon,  who  became  its  first  presi-  chaplains.  A  visit  to  Ireland  and  two 
dent.  The  motto  of  the  organization  more  voyages  to  America  followed,  and 
is  Truth,  Charity  and  Philanthropy,  for  several  years  his  labors  were  un- 
and   its   purposes   include   not   only    the  remitting.     At    length,    on    his    seventh 


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Whitefish 


White-throat 


visit  to  America,  he  died  at  Newbury* 
port,  Mass.,  in  1t70. 

Whiteflsh,  ft  ^*^S'  ^*  salmon  fam- 
VVUAVVU0U9    ijy      (Coregontts     alius) ^ 

found  abundantly  in  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  in  some  American  rivers.  It  is  15 
to  20  inches  long,  bluish-gray  above  and 
white  below.  It  is  caught  in  large 
numbers  and  Is  esteemed  as  a  food  fish. 

WhitehaU  ^-akr*  K''ai°e 

the  admiralty  office,  and  that  of  the 
commander-in-chief  (the  Horse  Guards), 
etc.  (See  London.)  On  the  banic  of 
the  Thames  was  a  palace  called  White- 
hall, built  before  the  middle  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  In  1530  it  became  the 
residence  of  the  court,  but  in  1697  was 
destroyed  by  fire,  excepting  the  Ban- 
queting Hall,  added  bv  James  I,  accord- 
ing to  a  design  of  Inigo  Jones,  in  1619. 

Whitehaven    '^T^^^^t^^TZ 

seaport  of  England,  in  Cumberland,  situ- 
ated on  a  bay  of  the  Irish  Sea,  has  a 
good  harbor  and  doclc,  and  enjovs  a  con- 
siderable shipping  trade.  Iron  ship-build- 
ing is  carried  on,  and  there  are  blast- 
furnaces and  iron  and  brass  foundries. 
l»op.  19,048. 

"UThif  AlinrQA  a  river  port  of  the  Tu- 
Wmxenorse,  j^^^  Territory,  Canada, 
situated  on  the  Yulcon  River  at  the  foot 
of  Whitehorse  Rapids,  the  head  of  navi- 
gation of  the  Yulcon  River  456  miles  Irom 
Uawson  City  and  110  miles  from  Skag- 
way,  Alaska.  It  is  in  the  center  of  the 
copper  belt,  at  the  head  of  the  trail  con- 
necting the  Shushana  gold  district  of 
Alaska  with  the  steamer  and  rail  service. 
Pop.   (1911)   727. 

White-lead,     see  Ceruse. 

White  lady,  The,  ^,^|„y|„'^. 

lish  and  Scotch  folklore,  a  supernatural 
visitant  supposed  to  haunt  certain  places 
and  to  be  seen  on  particular  occasions. 
It  dates  from  the  sixteenth  century,  being 
first    seen    at    Rosenberg,    in    Bohemia. 

White  Mountains,  *  group  of 

«v  AAAvvr  .««.vu.A*v«*AA^^  mountains  in 
New  Hampshire,  belonging  to  the  AUe- 
ghenies.  They  have  fine  scenery  and  are 
a  favorite  summer  resort.  The  culmi- 
nating point  is  Mount  Washington,  6288 
feet. 

White  Oak,  ^  *p^^^^  ,?^  ^*^»  J**« 

vvuAvv  voko.,     Quercus  alba,  a  native 

of   the   United    States   and   of   parts   of 

Canada. 

TITliifA  PiTiA    the  Pinus  8trohu8,  one 

W  Uil/e  X-inc,  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^  valuable  and 

inieresting  species  of  pines,  common  to 
the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States 


and  Canada.  It  is  widely  used  in  car- 
pentry.    See  Pine, 

Wliif  A  pioiTiQ  a  village,  county  seat 
WmxeriamS,  ^^  wistchester  Co.. 
New  York,  10  miles  north  of  New  York 
City,  the  birthplace  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  and  scene  of  the  Battle  of  White 
Plains,  1776.  It  is  chiefly  a  residential 
village,  containing  many  beautiful  homes. 
Pop.  20,000. 

White  Kiver,  iVnJ'a  SmT -'In'^ 

'  Kansas,  witn  a  course 
of  800  miles.  It  joins  tiie  Mississippi 
above  the  influx  of  the  Arkansas  river, 
and  has  several  important  affluents.  To- 
gether with  its  tributaries  it  affords 
500  miles  of  boat  navigation.  (2)  A 
river  in  Indiana,  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  East  and  West  Forks, 
emptying  into  the  Wabash  near  Mount 
CarmeL 

White  Sea  *  ^^^B!^  ^^^  o^  the  Arc- 
wmi/e  oea,    ^.^     5^^^^^     penetrating 

into  Northern  Russia  to  tlie  distance  of 
between  300  and  400  miles.  It  has  an 
area  of  about  47^000  square  miles,  with 
a  coast-line  of  1000  miles.  It  is  navi- 
gable only  from  the  middle  of  May  to 
the  end  of  September. 

WMte  Slave  Traffic,  ^f^f  ™  «g; 

business  of  organized  vice,  which  is  now 
attracting  widespread  attention.  The  re- 
I>ort  of  the  Chicago  Vice  Commission 
throws  light  on  the  financial  aspect  of 
prostitution,  and  conditions  in  Chicago 
may  be  taken  as  typical  of  conditions  in 
every  important  city.  According  to  con- 
servative estimates,  the  annual  profits 
from  nrostitution  in  Chicago  are  $16,- 
000,000  and  the  number  of  persons  devot- 
ing their  time  exclusively  to  the  business 
of  organized  vice  about  6000.  In  tiie 
opinion  of  John  D.  Rockefeller  Jr.,  who 
has  developed  a  Bureau  of  Social  Hy- 
giene, the  prostitutes  are  in  the  majority 
of  cases  '  merely  tools  in  the  hands  of 
men.*  Economic  conditions,  it  is  be- 
lieved, render  easy  the  procuring  of  girls. 
Wliife  Sx[relliTio^    ^«  popular  name 

eases  of  the  joints  resulting  from  chronic 
inflammation  in  the  dones,  cartilages, 
or  membranes  constituting  the  joint 
Among  the  diseases  known  under  this 
name  are:  (a)  acute  or  chronic  inflam- 
mation of  the  synovial  membrane;  (b) 
pulpy  thickening  of  the  synovial  mem- 
orane;  (c)  ulceration  of  the  cartilages; 
id)  scrofulous  diseases  of  the  joints  be- 
ginning In  the  bones. 

White-throat,  »,««sJi  ''SSif/'^, 

warblers.  The  common  white-throat 
{Mylvia  undAta)    attains  a   length   of  5 


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Whitgift  Whitman 

inches,  frequents  gardens  and  hedces,  and  pricks,  contusions^  etc.    They  often  occur 

is  a  regular  summer  visitor  to  Northern  without  any  apparent  cause,  but  are  al- 

Europe.  ways  preceded  by  the  entrance  of  bacteria 

Whit^ft  (hwit'gift),     John,     Arch-  through  a  wound. 

TTiui«5xj.i#  bighop  of  Canterbury,  was  IXT'hifTnfl'n  (hwit'man),  a  village  of 
born  at  Grimsby  in  1530,  and  com-  w^"*'"^**"  Plymouth  Co.,  Massachu- 
pleted  his  education  at  Cambridge  under  setts,  21  miles  8.  of  Boston.  Its  manu- 
Ridley  and  Bradford.  He  imbibed  from  factures  include  boots  and  shoes,  leather- 
his  uncle.  Abbot  AVhitgift,  opinions  that  board,  tacks,  etc.  Pop.  7292. 
inclined  him  later  to  tbe  side  of  th(^  \Xriiitnia.Tl  Cuables  Setmoub,  Ameri- 
Reformation;  but  by  a  cautious  reserve  ^  *^^^^'*'^9  can  jurist  and  statesman, 
he  escaped  persecution  during  the  reign  born  at  Norwich,  Connecticut,  August 
of  Queen  Mary,  and  on  tbe  accession  of  28,  1SG8.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
Eilizabeth  was  ordained  priest.  lie  held  Ism  and  began  the  practice  of  law.  In 
successively  many  posts  at  Cambridge,  in-  1001  he  was  apnointed  assistant  corpora- 
eluding  the  mastership  of  Pembroke  Hall  tion  counsel  of  New  York  City ;  in  1904 
and  Trinity  College,  and  the  regius  pro-  president  of  the  Board  of  Ci^  Magis- 
fessorship  of  divinity.  In  1577  he  was  trates ;  in  1907  judge  of  the  Court  of  Gen- 
appointed  bishop  of  Worcester,  and  on  the  eral  Sessions ;  in  1910  district  attorney  of 
death  of  Grindal  (1583)  was  raised  to  New  York  City;  and  in  1914  he  waa 
the  primacy.  Ue  had  always  been  a  rigid  elected  governor  of  New  York  on  the  Re- 
disciplinarian ;    but   he   now   became    an  j)ublican  ticket. 

inquisitor,  insisted  on  new  articles  of  sub-  ^Xrhitma.n  ^^^^^^^^^t  pioneer,  bom  at 
scription,  suspended  the  clergy  who  re-  ^^  iiAuiii.a.ix,  RushviUe,  New  York,  in 
fused  them,  and  in  every  way  acted  as  1802.  He  emigrated  to  the  Pacific  coast 
the  intolerant  ecclesiastic.  He  took  a  in  1836,  to  serve  as  a  missionary,  and  in 
leading  part  in  the  conference  at  Ilamp-  1843  made  a  visit  to  the  East,  riding  over 
ton  Court  under  James  I,  and  died  soon  3000  miles  on  horseback  through  the 
after,  in  1604.  Rocky  Mountain  region  in  winter,  and 
Whiting  (hwlt'ing;  Merlangus  mer-  euflfering  great  hardships.  His  purpose 
"^  o  langu8)t  a  well-known  fish  was  said  to  have  been  to  acquaint  the  gov- 
belonging  to  the  cod  tribe.  It  abounds  emment  with  the  value  of  the  Oregon 
in  the  seas  of  Northern  Europe  generally,  country,  but  later  criticism  seemed  to 
and  exceeds  all  the  other  nshes  of  its  ^how  that  it  was  not  politicaL  He  was 
tribe  in  its  delicacy  and  lightness  as  an  killed  by  Indians  in  1847. 
article  of  food.  The  American  whiting  is  TXTTiifTnoTi  Walt,  poet,  was  bom  at 
known  as  the  hake.  wniiman,  j^^^^  ^^^  ^o  Island. 
Wllitin?  a  town  of  Lake  Co.,  Indi-  New  York,  in  1819.  In  his  earlier  years 
o'  ana,  near  Lake  Michigan,  17  he  was  an  errand  boy  and  printer,  and 
miles  8.  E.  of  Chicago.  Its  industries  subsequently  a  school  teacher,  editor,  and 
include  wire-fence,  paints,  lumber,  etc.  general  writer  for  the  press.  He  was 
Pop.  6587.  founder  of  the  Long  Islander  and  editor 
UriiifiTKy.'nnTif  A  British  fish  of  the  of  the  Brooklyn  Eagle.  Previous  to  the 
wmun^  poui,,  ^^  £^jjj.jy  (^Mor-  CivU  war  he  took  an  extended  Southern 
rhua  lusca).  See  Bib.  trip.  During  the  war  Whitman  gave  de- 
Whltlock  (hwit'lok),  Brand,  Ameri-  voted  service  in  the  hospitals  of  Virginia 
"  can  author  and  statesman,  and  Washington.  This  irretrievably 
bom  in  Urbana,  Ohio,  March  4,  1869.  He  ruined  his  ^reat  physical  health.  In  1873 
engaged  in  newspaper  work,  studied  law.  he  was  stricken  with  paralysis  at  Wash- 
was  admitted  to  the  Illinois  bar  in  1894  ington  and  went  to  Camden,  N.  J.,  where 
and  to  the  Ohio  in  1897.  In  1905  he  was  he  lived  till  his  death,  March  26,  1892. 
elected  mayor  of  Toledo  as  Independent  He  had  been  a  clerk  in  the  period  from  the 
against  four  other  candidates,  served  four  war  to  1874.  The  first  edition  of  his 
terms  and  refused  the  fifth.  In  December,  poetic  volume.  Leaves  of  OrasBtthen  quite 
1913,  he  was  appointed  by  President  Wil-  small,  was  issued  in  1855.  There  nave 
son  U.  S.  minister  to  Belgium.  His  pub-  been  numerous  subsequent  editions,  each 
lished  works  include  The  Turn  of  the  BaU  one  with  added  pages,  the  last  in  Decem- 
ance  (19(n),  Fort tf  Years  of  li  (1914), etc  ber,  1891,  under  his  own  supervision.  His 
Whitlow  (hwit15),  in  sun^ery,  is  an  entire  published  works  now  appear  In  ten 
inflammation  aflrecting  the  volumes — Leaves  of  OrasSj  containing  all 
skin,  tendons,  or  one  or  more  of  the  finger  the  poems,  and  Prose  WorhSt  indudins 
bones,  and  generally  terminating  in  an  Speptmen  Days  and  CoUed,  He  discarded 
abscess.  Tnere  is  a  similar  disorder  rhyme  and  metrical  uniformity  in  his 
which  attacks  the  toes.  Whitlows  differ  poems,  and  while  possessed  of  great  poet- 
much  in  their  depth  and  extent.  The  ical  ability  failed  to  gain  wide  popularity, 
usual    exciting   causes    of    whitlows    are  largely  because  he  insisted  on  introduc* 


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Whitney 


Whitworth 


ing  in  his  poems  sexual  subjects  tabooed 
in  ordinary  polite  society. 
"UrhifTiAv  (hwit'ni),  Adeline  Dut- 
WJUiney  ^^  (Train),  author,  born 
in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1824.  Wrote 
Faith  Oariney's  Girlhood,  The  Qay- 
worthy 8,  Leslie  Qoldthwaite's  Life,  As- 
cutney  Street,  etc.  She  died  in  190G. 
WViifTiAir  ^Li,  inventor,  born  at 
wiutlicjry  westborough,  Massachu- 
sets,  in  1765,  and  educated  at  Yale  College, 
where  he  was  graduated  in  1792.  Going 
then  to  Georgia  as  a  teacher,  he  invented 
the  machine  since  known  as  the  cotton 
gin,  its  purpose  being  to  separate  the  cot- 
ton from  the  seed,  thus  greatly  cheapen- 
ing the  production  of  this  important 
fiber.  Returning  to  the  North  he  started 
business  in  conjunction  with  a  man 
named  Miller  as  a  manufacturer  of  cot- 
ton gins.  But  his  invention  was  pirated 
and  the  profits  of  the  business,  together 
with  $50,000  voted  to  him  by  the  State  of 
South  Carolina,  were  swallowed  up  in  his 
lawsuits  in  defense  of  his  rights.  He 
subsequently  went  into  the  manufacture 
of  firearms,  for  which  he  received  a  gov- 
ernment contract,  and  in  this  way  made 
a  fortune.  He  died  in  1825. 
IXT'hi'f'nA'U'  William  Dwioht,  a  dis- 
wiutucjTy  tinguished  philologist,  bom 
in  1827,  at  Northampton,  Massachusetts, 
studied  at  Williams  College,  Williams- 
town,  and  at  Yale  College,  giving  spe- 
cial attention  to  Sanskrit  language  and 
literature.  He  also  studied  Sanskrit  in 
Germany  from  1850  to  1853,  returning 
in  the  latter  year  to  America.  The  first- 
fruits  of  his  studies  in  Sanskrit  was  an 
edition  of  the  Atharva-Veda  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Roth  (1856).  He  had  previ- 
ously (1854)  been  made  professor  of 
Sanskrit  and  of  comparative  philology  at 
Yale  College.  Among  his  independent 
wt)rks  may  be  mentioned  Language  and 
the  Study  of  Language  (1867),  Oriental 
and  Linguistic  Studies  (1872-74),  Life 
and  Growth  of  Language  (1875),  Sans- 
krit Grammar  (a  highly  important 
work),  German  Grammar,  etc.  He  was 
editor  of  the  great  Century  Dictionary 
of  the  English  Language.  He  died  in 
1S94.  His  brother,  Josiaii  D  wight 
Whitney,  became  in  1865  professor  of 
jreology  in  Harvard  University  and  pub- 
lisiied  a  number  of  works  on  geology. 

Whitstable  i^-JX'd!'  cLry^f* 

Kent,  6  miles  bv  rail  w.  N.  w.  of  Canter- 
bury, of  which  it  is  the  port  It  has  ex- 
tensive oyster  fisheries.     Pop.  7084. 

Whitsuntide  ^^Ji^X"^  ^  *     ^"^ 

Whi+fiAr    <hwifi-er),    John    Green- 


Quaker  parents  in  1807  at  Haverhill, 
Massachusetts,  and  educated  at  the  acad- 
emy of  his  native  place.  In  his  younger 
days  he  worked  on  his  fatber*s  farm  and 
learned  the  shoemaking  trade,  but  early 
began  to  write  for  the  press,  and  in 
1831  published  his  first  work.  Legends 
of  New  England,  in  prose  and  verse.  He 
carried  on  the  farm  himself  for  five  years 
and  in  1835-3G  he  was  a  member  of  the 
legislature  of  Massachusetts.  After  hav- 
ing edited  several  other  papers  he  went  to 
Philadelphia  to  edit  the  Pennsylvania 
Freeman,  an  antislavery  paper,  the  of- 
fice of  which  was  burned  by  a  mob  in 
1839.  In  the  following  year  he  returned 
to  his  native  state,  settling  in  Amesbury, 
where  (or  at  Danvers,  Mass.)  he  after- 
wards chiefly  resided.  Among  the  nu- 
merous volumes  of  poetry  which  he 
from  time  to  time  gave  to  the  world  the 
following  may  l^  mentioned:  Moll 
Pitcher,  Lays  of  My  Home,  The  Voices 
of  Freedom,  Songs  of  Labor,  Snow 
Bound,  In  War-ttme,  National  Lyrics, 
Ballads  of  New  England,  The  King's 
Missive,  Poems  of  Nature,  St.  Gregory's 
Guest,  etc.  At  Sundown  was  published 
after  his  death.  Whittier's  poems  are 
distinguished  by  their  freshness,  their 
quiet  power,  and  intense  feeling.  His 
nature  poetry  is  faithful  and  beautiful, 
and  his  Barclay  of  Vry  and  Barbara 
Frietchie  rank  high  amon^  ballads  of 
moral  heroism.  My  Psalm  is  considered 
a  masterpiece  in  the  realm  of  spiritual 
thought.     He  died  September  7,   1892. 

Whittlesey  «l-^*,>iS°d.*"?nTh"e 

county  of  Cambridge,  6  miles  east  by 
south  of  Peterborough.  Pop.  4207. 
About  4  miles  southwest  of  the  town  was 
the  shallow  lake,  Whittlesey  Mere,  now 
drained  and  the  land  reclaimed. 
WlilttTed^lk  (hwit'rej),  Worthino- 
WiUl.l.rea^e   ^^^^^    painter,    born    at 

Springfield,  Ohio,  in  1820.  Among  his 
best-known  works  are  The  Old  Hunting 
Grounds,  The  Pilgrimage  to  Saint  Roche, 
The  Rocky  Mountains  and  The  Old 
House  by  the  Sea,  lie  died  in  1910. 
Whitwftrfli  (hwit'wurth),  Sie  Jo- 
WmiWOITIl   gj,pj^     ^^    Elnglish    enei- 

neer,  was  bom  in  1803;  died  in  1887. 
After  working  as  a  journeyman  in  Man- 
chester and  London,  he  started  business 
in  the  former  city  in  1833  as  a  manu- 
facturer of  engineers'  tools,  thus  found- 
ing the  firm  of  which  he  was  long  the 
head.  He  subsequently  turned  his  at- 
tention to  a  uniform  system  of  screw- 
threads,  which  was  soon  very  generally 
adopted.  This  was  followed  by  standard 
gauges,  which  have  been  universally  ac- 
cepted for  engineering  work.    In  18o4-55 


( 


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Whooping-cougli 


Wickliffe 


be  began  bis  experiments  witb  firearma, 
wbicb  led  to  tbe  production  of  tbe  Wbit- 
wortb  rifle,  and  later  brougbt  bim  into 
competition  witb  Armstrong  as  a  manu- 
facturer of  rifled  ordnance.  He  was  also 
the  originator  of  the  fluid-pressed  steel, 
used  in  tbe  manufacture  of  cannon  and 
ships'  plates.  He  was  created  a  baro- 
net in  1809.  Tbe  Wbitworth  scholar- 
ships, for  the  cultivation  of  theoretical 
and  practical  skill  in  mechanical  and  en- 

fineering  arts,  were  founded  by  him  in 
869.     He  was  tbe  author  of  Guns  and 
Steel   (1873). 
Whooping-cough.    ®,® ^^  Hooping- 

Whorl  (h^'^rl),  in  botany,  a  ring  of 
^^  organs  all  on  the  same  plane. 

Whortleberry  (J^wur'ti-beM;  {Vao- 

WVUVXVAWVJ.XJ  ctntutn),  a  genus  of 
shrubbery  plants,  the  type  of  the  nat. 
order  Vacciniaceae,  with  alternate  leaves, 
pink  or  red  bell-like  flowers,  and  berries 
of  a  dark  purple,  bluish,  or  red  colour. 
The  common  whortleberry,  bilberry,  or 
blaeberry  (F,  tnyrtilluB)  is  a  hardy 
plant  which  grows  in  forests,  heaths, 
and  on  elevated  mountains.  In  some  of 
tbe  pine  forests  of  Scotland  the  plant 
attains  the  height  of  3  feet  The  berries 
have  a  pleasant,  sweet  taste,  and  are 
used  for  making  jelly.  The  berries  of  tbe 
red  whortleberry  (V,  Vitis-idcBa)  are  of 
a  bright  red  color,  and  possess  acid  and 
astringent  properties;  from  their  similar^ 
ity  to  cranberries  they  are  sold  as  such 
in  various  parts  of  Scotland.  (See 
Cranberry,)  Whortleberries  are  gener- 
ally known  in  the  United  States  as 
huckleberries  and  blueberries  and  grow 
abundantly  In  mountain  soil. 
WTivHali  (bwi'da),  a  town  of  West 
Wiijruaii  Africa  in  the  kingdom  of 
Dahomey,  on  the  Bight  of  Benin.  Pop. 
about  20,000. 

Whydah-bird.    ^^^  whidah-hird. 

Whvmner  ^  bwim'f er  ) ,  Edward, 
Wiijrmpci  traveler  and  artist,  bom 
in  London  in  1840.  He  is  best  known 
as  a  mountain-climber,  and  was  the  first 
to  ascend  the  Matterhom  and  Chim- 
borazo.  He  published  Scramble  Among 
the  Alps,  Travels  Among  the  Great 
Andes  of  the  Equator,  etc.  He  died  in 
1911. 

Whyte-Melville,  ^^l  ^?n°fn 

Fifesbire,  Scotland,  in  1821.  He  en- 
tered the  army,  and  fought  in  the  Cri- 
mean war.  He  first  made  himself  known 
as  a  novelist  in  1853,  when  he  published 
Digby  Grand,  This  was  followed  by 
Chneral  Bounce^  Kate  Coventry,  Market 
Harboroughf  The  Oladiatora,  Sarohedon, 


Satanella^  Holmby  House,  Bones  and  /. 
etc.     He  was  killed  in  tbe  hunting-field 
in  187a 
WibOI^.     ®^  Viborg. 

Wi  oh  1  f  n  ( wicb'i-tfl ) ,  a  city  of  Kansas. 
WlCniXa  situated  at  the  junction  oi 
the  Arkansas  and  the  Little  Arkansas 
River,  in  south  central  Kansas,  at  the 
junction  of  seven  different  lines.  Wich- 
ita's history  dates  back  only  to  1872.  It 
is  the  leading  manufacturing  and  distrib- 
uting center  of  tbe  Southwest  It  has 
packing  houses,  railroad  shops,  flouring 
mills,  woodworking  establishments,  and 
other  large  enterprises.  It  is  the  largest 
implement  and  machinery  distributing 
point  in  its  territory.  It  has  a  number  of 
odncational  institutions.  Pop.  67,847. 
Wirhlf  A  "PaIU     capital   of   Wichita 

Wichita  River,  about  95  miles  n.  w.  of 
Fort  Worth.  It  has  grain  and  lumber 
interests.  Pop.  82t)0. 
TXTirlr  (^ik)t  a  seaport  of  Scotland, 
^^^^^  capital  oi  the  county  of  Caith- 
ness, at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of  Wick, 
on  tbe  left  bank  of  the  river  Wick,  over 
which  is  a  bridge  connecting  it  with  its 
suburb  Pulteney-Town.  It  is  tbe  head- 
quarters of  tbe  herring  fishery  of  Scot- 
land.    Pop.  7911. 

WipVlifFp  (wik'lif),  Wtcuffe,  Wic- 
wioiuine  LIJ.J.  wyklyt,  etc.,  John, 
religious  reformer,  was  bom  about  1320 
at  Hipswell,  near  Richmond,  in  York- 
shire.    He  was  educated  at  Oxford;  waa 


John    .ickliffe. 

elected  master  of  Balliol  College,  and  in 
1361  was  appointed  rector  of  Fylingham, 
or  Fillingham.  in  Lincobishire.  He 
afterwards  became  doctor  of  theology 
nnd  teacher  of  divmity  in  the  university: 


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Wickliffe  Wieland 


and    for   some   time    held    the   living   of  by    the    Council    of    Constance,    and    in 

Ludgershall,    in    Buckinghamshire.      Dis-  1428  his  remains  were  dug  up,  burned, 

putes  existed  at  this  period  between  Ed-  and  the  ashes  cast  into  the  Swift    The 

ward   III   and   the  papal   court   relative  influence  of  his  doctrines  spread  widely 

to  the  homage  and  tribute  exacted  from  on    the    Continent,    and    may    easily    be 

John,   and   uie   English   parliament    had  traced   in    the   history   of   the   Reforma- 

resolved  to  support  the  sovereign  in  his  tion.     Wickliffe    was    the    author   of   an 

refusal     to    submit     to     the     vassalage,  enormous  number  of  writings  in   Latin 

Wickliffe  came  forward  on  behalf  of  tne  and  English,  and  he  ranks  undoubtedly  as 

patriotic  view  and  wrote  several  tracts,  the  father  of  English  prose.     Many  of  his 

which   procured    him    the    patronage    of  writings  still  remain  in  MS.,  and  It  was 

John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster.     In  not  until  1850  ^at  the  whole  of  his  Bible 

1374  he  was   one  of   the  commissioners  appeared. 

sent   by  the  king   to   Bruges   to   confer  Winlrlow  (wllfr5),  a  maritime  county 
with  the  nuncio  of  Gregory  XI  respect-  ^^^^^^^  of  Ireland,  in  the  province 
ing  the  statutes   of  provisors  and   pne-  of  Leinster,  bordering  on  the  Irish  Sea; 
munire.    Shortly    before    Edward    gave  area  781  sq.  miles.    The  coast  is  mostly 
him  the  valuable  rectory  of  Lutterworth,  precipitous.     The    surface    is    diversified 
in  Leicestershire,  which  he  held  till  his  and    picturesque,    rising    into    mountain- 
death.     Here    he    labored    zealously    and  groups,  the  loftiest  of  which  is  Lugna- 
unweariedly   as  a  preacher  and   pastor,  quilla,   3039   feet    high,    and    intersected 
though  he  lived  at  times  also  in  Oxford  by  deep  and  romantic  valleys.     Its  min- 
or London.     In   some  of   his  utterances  erals  include  a  little  gold  in  the  streams, 
he  is  said  to  have  styled  the  pope  Anti-  lead  and  copper  ores,  and  pyrites  in  con- 
Christ,  charging  him  with  simony,  covet-  siderable  quantities.    The  principal  rivers 
ousness,     ambition,     and     tyranny.    His  are  the  Slaney,  Vartrey,  and  Avoca.    It 
opinions  began  to  spread,  and  the  church  is     mainly     a     pastoral     county.    Pop. 
grew     alarmed.    Courtenay,     bishop     of  60,824. —  Wicklow,  the  county  town,  is 
London,  summoned  him  to  appear  before  at  the  head  of  a  small  bay  and  ia  a  sea- 
a   convocation  at   St    Paul's.     Wickliffe  bathing  resort.     Pop.  328». 
appeared    there    on    February    19,    1377,  TXTiddlll    ^^  Vidin  (vi'den),  a  town  of 
attended  by  his  friends,  John  of  Gaunt  '»*^***">   Bulgaria,  on  the  right  bank 
(then    the    virtual    ruler    of    England),  of    the    Danube.     Ships    can    reach    the 
Lord  Percy,  the  earl-marshal,  and  others,  town  at  high-water,  and  there  is  a  con^' 
Hot   words   passed    between    the    bishop  siderable  trade,  chiefly  in  corn,  wine  and 
and    the    duke;     blows    followed;     and  salt     Widdin     was     formerly     strongly 
the  meeting  broke  up  in  confusion.     In  fortified.    Pop.  14,551. 
May  following  the  pope  addressed  three  TXTid^eon     ^^    Wigeon     (wij'un).    a 
bulls  to  the  King,  tne  primate,  and  the  »»*^6*'^">    species   of   natatorial   bird 
University  of  Oxford,  commanding  them  allied    to    the    Anatidse    or    ducks;    the 
to    take    proceedings    against    Wickliffe,  MarSoa     peneldpe.    It     breeds     in     the                    ^ 
who  in  answer  to  the  prelate's  summons  Arctic  regions,  and  is  common  in  north-                   ^ 
appeared    in    the    chapel    of    Lambeth,  em    Europe    in    winter.    The   American                   H 
Proceedings    were,    however,    stopped    by  widgeon  is  the  MarSca  Americdna,     It  is                   V 
order  of  the  queen-mother,  and  Wickliffe  most  abundant  in  the  Carolinas  and  is                    ^ 
was  dismissed  with  simply  an  injunction  often  called  hald-pate,  from  the  white  on 
to  refrain  from  preaching  the  obnoxious  the  top  of  the  head, 
doctrines.     About   this   time  he  was  en-  '\I7iHTies    (^^<1'Q^)»  &  thriving  manu- 
gaged  in  translating  the  Bible  from  the  ***^***'®    facturing    town    of    England, 
Vulgate  with  the  assistance  of  some  of  county  of  Lancaster,  on  the  Mersey  (here 
his   friends.    In   1381   he  publicly   chal-  crossed     by     a     magnificent    iron-girder 
lenged    the    doctrine    of    transubstantia-  bridge),   13  miles  E.   s.  E.  of  Liverpool 
tion,  and  his  heresies  were  condemned  by  by    rail.    There    are    extensive    chemical 
the   theologians   of   Oxford,    as   well    as  works,    copper-smelting    works,    rolling- 
b^  a  provincial  council  called  by  Arch-  mills,  iron-foundries,  etc     Pop.  31,544. 
bishop  Courtenay  and  held  at  the  Black-  TXTiilA'iiT.'hirH      See  WhidaH-hird. 
friars,   London,   in  1382.     Wickliffe  was  ^  ^^^"^  "*^^' 

proclaimed  a  heretic,  his  works  were  con-  ^XTieland   (v^lAnt),  Chbistoph  Mab- 

demned   to  be  burned,  and  some  of  his  *^*a'"u.  ^jj^^    ^    German    romancist 

followers  were  imprisoned;   but  he  was  and  poet,  bom   in   1733;  died   in   1813. 

allowed  to  retire  unmolested  to  his  rec-  He   was  educated   at   the   University  of 

tory  of  Lutterworth.    A  stroke  of  paraly-  Tttbingen ;    was    appointed    professor   of 

sis  terminated  his  life  on  the  31st  of  De-  philosophy  in  1769  at  Erfurt;  and  three 

cember.   1384.     About  thirty  years  after  years    afterwards    went    to    Weimar    as 

his  death  his  doctrines  were  condemned  teacher   to   the  sons  of   Dachess    Anna 


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Wieliczka 


Wilberforce 


Amalle.  Uere,  or  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood,  he  resided  till  his  death, 
being  a  member  of  the  circle  to  which 
Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Herder  belonged. 
The  early  period  of  his  literary  life  was 
devoted  to  pietistic  or  at  least  serious 
poetry  such  as  The  Nature  of  Things 
(1752),  Twelve  Moral  Letters  in  Verse 
Anti^vid  (1752),  The  Trial  of  Ahra- 
kam*s  Faith  (1753)  ;  in  the  second 
^riod  he  produced  the  romances  Agathon 
(1766),  and  Don  Sylvio  de  Rosalva 
(1764),  the  poem  Musarion  (1768),  and 
a  prose  translation  of  Shakespeare  in 
eight  vols.  (1762-66)  ;  while  in  the 
third  and  ripest  period  were  written  the 
romantic  epic  of  Oheron  (1781)  ;  History 
of  the  Abderites  (1781)  ;  The  Rtpuhlio 
of  Fools,  London  (1861);  The  Secret 
Historv  of  Peregrinus  Proteus  (1791), 
etc  He  also  published  translations  of 
Horace,  Lucian,  and  the  Letters  of 
Cicero. 

W'i^liP7lrft  (vyel-ich'ki),  a  town  in 
WXeUCZKa  Austria,  Galicia,  situ- 
ated  8  miles  southeast  of  Cracow,  and 
noted  for  its  extensive  salt  mines.  Pop. 
6012. 

Wiener-Neustadt  (j^n^r-noi'stAt ) , 

WW  *^*M,^s,  *'^  •*»•'«'**»' a  town  of  Austria, 
25  miles  a.  of  Vienna.  It  was  almost 
entirely  destroyed  by  fire  in  1834,  but  a 
number  of  interesting  mediasval  buildings 
yet  remain.  There  are  important  man- 
ufactures of  locomotives,  machinery,  pot- 
tery, leather,  etc.     Pop.   !£8  45&. 

Wiesbaden  (y^'ba-d^n),  a  town  in 

wv  x^oMM\«.^u  Prussia,  provmce  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  finely  situated  at  the  foot 
of  Mt.  Taunus,  in  the  valley  of  the  Salz- 
bach,  about  2  miles  from  the  Rhine.  It 
is  noted  for  its  medicinal  saline  springs 
(the  temperature  of  the  Kochbrunnen 
being  156^  F.),  and  it  attracts  annually 
upwards  of  60,000  visitors.  The  chief 
buildings  are  the  Kursaal,  a  new  town- 
house,  an  old  and  a  new  palace,  library, 
museum,  English  church,  and  other 
churches,  theater,  etc  Pop.  ( 1910 )  109,033. 
Wife.     ^^  Marriage. 

Wiff  an  artificial  covering  of  hair  for 
oJ  the  head,  used  generally  to  con- 
ceal baldness,  but  formerly  worn  as  a 
fashionable  means  of  decoration.  For- 
mally curled  wigs  are  stir,  worn  pro- 
fessionally by  judges  and  lawyers  in 
Great  Britain,  and  wigs  are  commonly 
used  in  making  up  for  the  stage. 
Wi^an  (^is  fill)*  &  municipal  and  par- 
o  liamentary  borough  of  Lanca- 
shire, Bngland,  on  the  Douglas,  21  miles 
northeast  of  Liverpool.  Wigan  stands 
in  the  center  of  an  extensive  coal  field, 
and  its  manufactures,  which  are  impor- 


tant, consist  chiefly  of  calicoes,  fustians, 
and  other  cotton  goods,  linens,  checks, 
cotton  twist,  etc,  besides  iron-foundries, 
iron-forges,  railway-wagon  works,  iron- 
rolling  mills,  large  breweries,  chemical 
works,  and  com  and  paper  mills.  Pop. 
<19lTf  65,528. 

Wifrcn-n  (wig'in),  Kate  Douglas,  au- 
wx^^iu  ^jjQj.^    ^jjg    j^j^    ^^    Philadel- 

§hla  in  1857.  The  daughter  of  R.  N. 
mith,  she  married  Mr.  Wiggin  in  1880, 
and  in  1891,  after  his  death,  0.  N.  Riggs. 
She  engaged  in  kindergarten  work  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  wrote  a  series  of 
highly  popular  juvenile  tales,  including 
Timothy*s  Quest,  The  Story  of  Pansy, 
The  Birds*  Christmas  Carol,  etc. 

^XTi^ht  (^^^)>  I^i^  ^^t  an  island  off 
vv  xguv    j^g  g^jyjjj  ^^g^  Q^  England,  in 

the  county  of  Hants,  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  Spithead  and  the  Solent; 
23  miles  in  length,  13  miles  broad;  area, 
147  sq.  miles.  A  range  of  chalk  downs, 
which  cross  the  island  from  east  to  west 
and  form  excellent  sheep-walks,  separate 
it  into  two  districts  somewhat  different 
in  character.    The  general  appearance  is 

giotnresque,  and  the  geology  of  the  island 
I  interesting.  The  air  is  remarkably 
mild,  and  the  district  known  as  the  Un- 
dercliff,  lying  along  the  south  coast,  and 
completely  sheltered  from  the  north,  has 
long  been  a  resort  for  invalids.  The 
chief  towns  are  Newport  (the  capital), 
Ryde,  CJowes,  Ventnor,  Bembridge, 
Freshwater,  Yarmouth  and  the  fashion- 
able health  resorts  of  Sandown  and 
Shanklin.  Near  Cowes  is  Osborne 
House,  a  favorite  residence  of  the  late 
Queen  Victoria.  C^risbrooke  Castle  is 
an  interesting  ruin.     Pop.  .88,193. 

Wigtownshire  i:?:'^;^,^^.^.'^*^? 

county  of  Scotland;  area,  491  sq.  miles. 
The  coast  is  indented  by  numerous  deep 
and  spacious  bays,  of  which  Wigtown 
Bay,  Luce  Bay  and  Loch  Ryan  are  the 
most  important.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Cree  and  Bladenoch,  both  partially  navi- 
gable. It  is  mostly  a  dairying  country. 
Pop.  32,685.  Stranraer  is  the  largest 
town  and  Wigtown  the  capital. 
TXTicniTci'm    (wig' warn),  an  Indian  cabin 

wxgwam  Qj.  i^^  ^  ^„^   jjj   ^jj^ 

United  States  and  Canada.  These  huts 
are  generally  of  a  conical  shape,  formed 
of  bark  or  mats  laid  over  stakes  planted 
in  the  ground  and  converging  at  top, 
where  is  an  opening  for  the  escape  of  the 
smoke. 

*Wilhi*rfftrri^  (wil'ber-fors),  Samuel, 
WUDenorce  ^^  English  prelate,  son 
of  William  Wilberforce,  the  philanthro- 
pist, was  born  at  Clajpham  in  1805;  was 
graduated  from  Oriel  College,  Oxford ;  was 


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Wilberforce 


Wilkes 


appointed  curate  of  Checkendon  (1828) 
and  became  dean  of  Westminster  and 
bishop  of  Oxford  in  1845.  He  was  the 
leader  of  the  High  Church  party,  and  the 
author  of  Note-book  of  a  Country 
Clergyman  (1833),  Euchari9tica  (1839), 
A  History  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  America  (1844),  a  volume  of 
University  Sermons,  and  numerous  other 
works.  He  was  killed  by  a  fall  from 
his  horse  in  1873. 


Wigwams  of  North  American  Indiani. 

WilhArfnrPA  William,  a  celebrated 
WllDenorue,  English  philanthropist, 
was  bom  at  Hull  in  1759;  died  in  1833. 
After  completing  his  education  at  St. 
John's  CJollege,  Cambridge,  he  was,  in 
1780,  elected  member  of  parliament  for 
his  native  town;  and  in  1784  was  re- 
turned by  the  county  of  York.  In  1786 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Clarkson 
(see  Clarkson,  Thomas),  who  gained  his 
sympathies  on  behalf  of  the  agitation 
against  the  slave  trade.  In  1791  he 
moved  for  leave  to  bring  in  a  bill  to 
prevent  further  impnortation  of  African 
negroes  into  the  British  colonies.  Year 
after  year  he  pressed  this  measure,  but 
was  always  defeated  till  1807,  when  it 
was  passed  during  the  short  administra- 
tion of  Fox.  He  then  devoted  his  en- 
ergies to  bring  about  the  total  abolition 
of  slavery,  and  three  days  before  his 
death  he  was  informed  that  the  House 
of  Commons  had  passed  a  bill  which  ex- 
tinguished slavery  in  the  British  colo- 
nies. 

Wilrnv  Bu^  Wheeler,  poetess,  bom 
w  X1UU&9  ^j  Johnstown  Center,  Wiscon- 
sin, in  1858.  She  has  written  much 
creditable  verse,  contributing  to  current 
periodicals,  and  publishing  Poems  of  Pas- 
sion, Poems  of  Pleasure,  Drops  of  Watery 
etc.;  also  a  number  of  novels. 
"Willi A  (wild),  OscAB,  poet  and  dra- 
^"^^  matist,  bom  at  Dublin,  Ireland, 
in  1856,  son  of  Sir  William  Wilde,  an 
eminent    Irish    surgeon    and    writer    oo 


medical  subjects.  His  mother  was  a 
poetess.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Ruskin,  and 
after  his  college  days  became  noted  for 
eccentricities  in  dress  and  manner.  He 
wrote  ably,  producing  Poems,  The  House 
of  Pomegranates,  Lady  Windermere*s 
Fan,  a  play,  Dorian  Qray,  a  novel,  and 
various  other  works.  In  1896  he  was 
sentenced  in  London  to  two  years'  im- 
prisonment for  vicious  practices.  He 
died  November  30,  1900. 

Wilhelmina  ^^'^^'■^,\^; 

Queen  of  the  Netherlands,  only  child  of 
William  III  by  his  second  wife,  was 
born  at  The  Hague,  August  31,  1880. 
Her  mother  was  regent  until  August  31, 
1898,  in  which  year  she  was  crowned. 
In  1901  she  married  Duke  Henry  of 
Mecklenberz-Schwerin.  The  people  of 
the  Netherlands  were  very  anxious  for 
an  heir  to  the  throne,  and  this  anxiety 
was  satisfied  by  the  birth  of  a  daughter 
in  1909. 

Wilhelmsliaveii  <^y;^l^,?/;r?ti^ 

tion  belonging  to  Germany,  on  the  w. 
side  of  the  Jade,  an  inlet  of  the  North 
Sea.  The  entrances  to  the  harbors  are 
sheltered  by  lon^  moles,  the  whole  town 
is  strongly  fortified,  and  there  are  nu- 
merous docks,  building-slips,  etc.  Pop. 
(1905)  26,012.  See  Jade, 
Wimelmshohe.     SeeCa*«el. 

TXTilVpa  (wilks),  C^harles,  naval  oflB- 
Wimes    ^^^  ^^  j^  j^g^  York  City. 

April  3,  1798;  entered  the  navy  in  1816 
and  became  a  lieutenant  in  1826.  In 
1838  he  commanded  an  exploring  expedi- 
tion sent  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment to  the  Antarctic  regions.  Here  he 
discovered  what  he  claimed  to  be  an 
Antarctic  continent,  sailing  far  along  its 
coast  He  completed  a  voyage  around 
the  world,  returning  in  1842  and  pub- 
lishing an  account  of  his  explorations. 
In  1861»  while  in  command  of  the  San 
JaointOf  he  intercept^  the  British 
steamer  Trent  and  took  as  prisoners  J. 
M.  Mason  and  J.  Slidell,  Confederate 
commissioners  to  Europe,  an  event  that 
produced  a  great  sensation  and  threats 
of  war  in  England.  In  1862  he  was  pro- 
moted commodore,  after  which  he  com- 
manded a  squadron  in  the  West  Indies. 
In  July,  1866,  he  was  made  a  rear-ad- 
miral. He  died  Febroary  8,  1877. 
H^illrAfi  John,  political  agitator,  bora 
WllKeSy  in  London  in  1727;  died  in 
1797.  He  was  the  son  of  a  rich  distil- 
ler, and  was  educated  for  some  time  at 
Leyden.  He  was  returned  to  parliament 
as  a  member  for  Aylesbury  (1757),  and 
attained    considerable    notoriety    by    the 


i 


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Wilkes-Barre  Wilkinsbiirg 

SublicatioQ  of  a  paper  entitled  the  North  academician.  In  1825,  owing  to  ill 
Triton,  in  No.  &  of  which  (17G3)  he  health,  he  made  an  extended  tour  through 
commented  severely  on  the  king's  speech  Italy,  Germany,  and  Spain.  In  the  lat- 
to  parliament  The  home  secretary  in  ter  country  his  style  as  a  painter  under- 
consequence  issued  a  general  warrant,  went  a  marked  change  when  he  came 
upon  which  Wilkes,  with  others,  was  ap-  under  the  influence  of  Velasquez  and 
prehended  and  committed  to  the  Tower,  Murillo.  Retumyig  after  three  years  to 
but  released  by  Chief  Justice  Pratt,  who  England,  he  was  appointed  (1830) 
declared  the  prosecution  illegal.  On  the  painter  in  ordinary  to  the  king,  and  was 
next  meeting  of  parliament,  however,  a  knighted  in  1836.  His  pictures,  such  as 
special  law  was  passed  to  sanction  his  the  Blind  Fiddler.  Rent  Day,  Cut  Fin- 
prosecution,  and  in  1764  he  was  ex-  ger,  RahUt  on  the  W<UL  Penny  Wed- 
pelled  from  the  House  of  Commons.  As  ding,  Cotter^a  Saturday  Night,  Duncan 
he  had  by  this  time  withdrawn  to  France  Cfray,  Blind  Man*»  Buff,  CheUea  Pen- 
and  did  not  appear  to  receive  sentence,  aionera  Reading  the  Gazette  of  Waterloo, 
he  was  outlawed.  He  returned,  how-  John  Know  Preaching  before  the  Lord9  of 
ever,  to  England  at  the  election  of  1768,  the  Congregation,  etc,  are  well  known 
and  was  sent  to  parliament  as  repre- 
sentative of  Middlesex,  but  was  expelled 
from  the  House  and  committed  to  prison. 
Three  times  after  this  he  was  reelected 
within  a  few  months  by  the  same  con- 
stituency, but  the  HousA  of  Commons 
persisted  in  keeping  him  out.  giving  rise 
to  a  formidable  agitation  in  favor  of 
*  Wilkes  and  liberty.*  He  was  released 
from  prison  in  1770,  having  been  elected 
alderman  of  London,  and  he  was  next 
appointed  sheriff  oif  Middlesex,  lord- 
mayor  of  London,  and  again  (1774) 
member  of  parliament  for  Middlesex. 
On  this  occasion  he  was  allowed  to  take 
his  seat,  and  in  1782  the  resolutions  re- 
specting the  Middlesex  election  were  ex- 
gunged  from  the  journals  of  the  House  of 
ommons.  He  published  many  speeches 
and  pamphlets,  and  his  correspondence 
was  pubUshed  after  his  death  Sir  David  Wilkie. 

Wilkes-Barre  (wilks'ba-re),    a   aty, 

vTXAxv^o  ^axxv  capital  of  Luzerne  as  engravings.  These  belong  for  the 
Co.,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  east  bank  of  most  part  to  his  early  and  best  period, 
the  north  branch  of  the  Susquehanna  when  his  method  was  characterized  by 
River,  about  140  miles  northwest  of  Phil-  subdued  coloring  and  minute  and  spir- 
adelphia.  It  is  the  center  of  rich  anthra-  ited  drawing.  His  later  and  less  success- 
cite  coal  field,  and  has  manufactures  of  ful  style  is  distinguishable  by  a  breadth 
machinery,  locomotives,  cars,  mining  of  treatment  which  sometimes  shows 
engines  and  tools,  iron  castings,  wire  looseness  in  drawing,  and  deals  chiefly 
ropes,  lace,  silks,  tinware,  lumber,  cutlery,  with  historical  subjects.  It  is  repre- 
brewery  products;  axles,  springs,  adding  gented  by  The  Entrance  of  Oeorge  IV 
machine^*,  tobacco,  etc.  Pop.  67,105;  into  Holyrood,  The  Spanish  CouncU  of 
within  8-mile  radius,  245,000.  War,  The  Maid  of  Saragosaa,  Napoleon 

Wilkie    (^Jl'k6).   Sib  David,   one  of  and  Piua  VII. 

the  most  famous  painters  of  TXTilklTIS  Maby  Eleanob,  novelist, 
the  British  school,  was  son  of  the  minis-  ^  *^*J^^^^y  bom  at  Randolph,  Massa- 
ter  of  Cults,  near  Cupar,  Fifeshire,  born  chusetts,  in  1862.  She  produced  graphic 
there  in  1785;  died  at  sea  off  Gibraltar  stories  of  New  Englana  life,  and  jub- 
in  1811.  while  returning  from  a  visit  to  lished  A  Humble  Romance,  The  Wind 
Palestine.  He  received  his  early  art  in  the  Rose  Bush,  Dr.  Gordon,  Pembroke^ 
training  at  the  Trustees'  Academy,  Edin-  Jerome,  etc.  She  married  Dr.  O.  M. 
burgh;  entered  the  schools  of  the  Royal    Freeman  in   1902. 

Academy,  London,  in  1805;  first  exhib-  TXTillriTiQliiircr  a  borough  in  AUe- 
ited  there  (1806)  The  Village  Politicians,  ^"^"ISWUr^,  ^^^^  ^^  ^  Pennsyl- 
which  at  once  established  his  reputation;  vania,  7  miles  E.  of  Pittsburgh,  many  of 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Acad-  whose  business  people  reside  hera  I^oD- 
emy   in   1809,   and   in    1811   became   an    18,924. 


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Wilkinson  William  I 

WillriTianTi  ( wil'kin-sun) ,  Sib  John  witnesses  must  attest  and  subscribe  the 
¥v  uxkxiiovu  ^^BDijEB^  ^  distinguished  will  in  the  presence  of  the  testator. 
English  archsologist,  bom  in  1797;  died  Willa.rd  (wil'ard),  Frances  Eliza* 
in  1875.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  '^'■""«"^"'  beth,  bom  near  Rochester, 
and  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and  after-  New  York,  in  1839.  Was  the  author  of  a 
wards  resided  twelve  years  in  Egypt  As  number  of  works  and  lectured  on  her 
the  result  of  his  investigations  there  he  travels  in  Europe,  Egjrpt  and  Palestine, 
published  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  She  was  best  known  in  connection  with 
the  Ancient  Egyptians  (five  vols,  temperance  work,  and  for  her  active  la- 
1837-41).  His  other  works  are:  A  bors  in  this  cause.  She  became  president 
Handbook  for  Travelers  in  Modem  of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Egypt  (1847),  A  Popular  Account  of  Union  in  1879;  founded  the  World's 
the  Ancient  Egyptians^  Dalmatia  and  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union  in 
Montenegro  (1848),  and  The  Egyptians  1883  and  was  its  president  from  1888 
under  the  Pharaohs  (1857).  until  her  death,  February  18,  1898. 
\X7;i1  The,  is  usually  described  as  one  IXTiIIatiIioII  (wiren-hftl),  a  town  of 
^"*>  of  th^  three  faculties  by  means  of  ^"^C^"*"^  England,  in  West  Staf- 
which  the  human  mind  finds  expression,  fordshire,  12  miles  N.  w.  from  Birming- 
the  other  two  being  thought  (or  Intel-  ham.  There  are  brass  and  iron  foun- 
lect)  and  feeling  (or  emotion).  It  is  dries,  but  the  staple  industry  is  in  locks 
the  faculty  by  which  a  choice  is  made  and  padlocks.  Pop.  18^858. 
between  two  courses  of  action,  as  distinct  IXTillesden  ('^"^'dn),  a  parish  in  Mid- 
fiom  the  exercise  of  this  power,  which  ^ou.^11.  ^i^g^j  ^^^j  suburb  of  Lou- 
is more  fitly  described  as  volition.  This  don,  7  miles  N.  w.  of  St.  Paul's.  It  is 
faculty  of  the  will,  in  the  maturitv  of  its  also  a  local  government  district  and  con- 
complex  power,  is  usually  conceived  as  tains  parts  of  Kilbum,  Kensal  Green, 
having  been  educated  by  a  process  of  etc.,  and  an  important  railway  junction, 
sensation;  pleasure  and  pain  giving  rise  Pop.  154,267. 

to  the  motives  by  which  the  active  de-  Willet  (^^^'^t;  Symphemia  semipal- 
termining  energy  is  set  in  motion.  Yet  "'****'''  mata),  a  bird  of  the  snipe  fam- 
the  exact  relation  between  will  and  mo-  ily  found  in  America.  It  is  a  fine  game 
tive,  the  question  whether  the  motive  bird,  and  its  flesh  and  eggs  are  prized 
governs  the  will  or  the  will  determines  for  food.  Called  also  stone  curlew, 
the  motive,  has  never  been  authori-  "WlUlftm  I  (wil'yam),  suraamed  the 
tatively  settled.  Thus  the  *  freedom '  Conqueror,  King  of  Bng- 
of  the  will  has,  until  now,  been  main-  land  and  Duke  of  Normandy,  born  in 
tained  as  a  metaphysical  and  theological  1027,  was  the  natural  son  of  Robert, 
belief  in  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  duke  of  Normandy,  by  Arlotta,  the 
'necessity.'  Aristotle  in  his  Ethics  in-  daughter  of  a  tanner  of  Falaise.  His 
cidentally  asserted  the  freedom  of  the  father  having  no  legitimate  son,  William 
will ;  with  this  the  Stoics  and  Epicureans  became  the  heir  at  his  death,  and  ruled 
agreed;  as  did  also  Justin  Martyr,  Normandy  with  great  vigor  and  ability. 
Origen,  and  St  Augustine;  while  its  The  opportunity  of  gainmg  a  wider  do- 
later  adherents  were  Reid,  Stewart,  minion  presented  itself  on  the  death  of 
Kant,  and  Hamilton.  On  the  contrary,  his  second  cousin,  Edward  the  Confessor, 
among  the  early  Christians,  the  Qnostics  king  of  England,  whose  crown  he 
denied  the  freedom  of  the  human  will;  claimed.  To  enforce  this  claim  he  hi- 
so  also  did  Spinoza ;  while  the  more  mod-  vaded  England,  and  the  victory  of  Hast- 
em  advocates  of  the  doctrine  of  *neces-  ings,  in  which  his  rival  Harold  was 
sity*  were  Hobbes,  Hume,  Jonathan  Ed-  killed,  ensured  his  success  (1066).  Oa 
wards,  and  John  Stuart  Mill.  his  return  to  Normandv,  however,  the 
Will  ^^  Testament,  in  law,  the  legal  English,  being  treated  by  the  Norman 
>  declaration  of  a  man's  intentions  leaders  like  a  conquered  people,  broke 
as  to  what  he  wills  to  be  performed  after  out  in  revolt,  but  William  speedily  re- 
his  death  in  relation  to  his  property.  In  turned  and  suppressed  the  insurrection. 
England,  as  also  in  its  colonies  and  most  The  resistance  of  two  powerful  EiXiglish 
of  the  United  States,  no  will,  whether  nobles,  Edwin  and  ^lorcar,  who  had 
of  real  or  personal  estate,  is  valid  unless  formed  an  alliance  with  the  kings  of 
it  be  in  writing,  and  signed  at  the  foot  Scotland  and  Denmark,  and  with  the 
or  end  by  the  testator,  or  by  some  person  prince  of  North  Wales,  soon  after  drew 
in  his  presence,  and  by  his  direction.  William  to  the  north,  where  he  obliged 
Such  signature  must  be  made  and  the  Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland,  to  do  homage 
document  acknowledged  as  his  will  by  the  for  Cumberland.  In  1069  another  insur- 
testator  in  the  presence  of  two  or  more  rection  broke  out  in  the  north,  and  at 
witnesses  at  the  same  time,  aci  such  the  same  time  the  English  resumed  arms 


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William  II 


William  ILL 


in  the  eastern  and  southern  counties, 
only,  however,  to  be  suppressed  with  mer- 
ciless rigor.  He  now  established  the  ad- 
ministration of  law  and  justice  on  a  firm 
basis  throughout  England,  conferred  nu- 
merous grants  of  land  on  his  own  fol- 
lowers, and  introduced  the  feudal 
constitution  of  Normandy  in  regard  to 
tenure  and  services.  He  also  expelled 
numbers  of  the  English  Church  dignita- 
ries and  replaced  them  by  Normans. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  reign  he  insti- 
tuted that  general  survey  of  the  landed 
property  of  the  kingdom,  the  record  of 
which  still  exists  under  the  title  of 
Domesday  Book.  Although  the  English 
bad  been  completely  subdued,  William 
had  to  suppress  several  formidable  re- 
volts by  his  own  vassals,  while  in  1080 
he  was  at  open  war  with  his  son  Robert. 
In  1087  he  went  to  war  with  France, 
whose  king  had  encouraged  a  rebellion 
of  Norman  nobles.  He  entered  the 
French  territory,  and  committed  great 
ravages,  but,  by  a  fall  from  his  horse  at 
Mantes,  received  an  injury  which  caused 
his  death  at  the  abbey  of  St.  Gervais, 
near  Rouen  (1087). 
Willifmi  TT    sumamed    Rufus,    from 

the  preceding,  was  bom  in  Normandy  in 
1056,  and  crowned  at  Westminster  in 
1087  on  the  death  of  his  father.  The 
Norman  barons  were  discontented  with 
this  arrangement,  and  sought  to  make 
his  eldest  brother,  Robert,  king  of  Eng- 
land, but  this  project  was  defeated  by 
William,  who  secured  the  aid  of  Lan- 
franc,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  the 
English  nobles.  Having  repressed  the 
conspiracy,  he  forced  the  Norman  barons 
to  withdraw  to  Normandy  and  confis- 
cated their  English  estates.  On  the  death 
of  Lianfranc  he  also  seized  the  estates 
connected  with  the  vacant  bishoprics  and 
abbeys.  In  1090  he  sent  an  army  into 
Normandy,  while  he  himself  crossed  the 
Channel  the  following  year.  A  recon- 
ciliation was  effected  between  the  two 
brothers,  and  in  1096  Robert  mortgaged 
Normandy  to  his  brother  for  a  sum  suf- 
ficient to  enable  him  to  join  a  crusade  to 
the  Holy  Land.  A  characteristic  incident 
in  William's  reign  was  his  contention 
with  Anselm,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
regarding  church  property  and  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  pope.  (See  Anselm,) 
In  1100  he  met  his  death  while  hunting 
in  the  New  Forest,  by  an  arrow  shot 
accidentally  or  otherwise  from  the  bow 
of  a  French  gentleman  named  Walter 
Tyrrel. 
William  TTT     Stadtholder     of     Hol- 

land»    son    of    William    II    of    Nassau, 


prince  of  Orange,  and  Henrietta  Mary 
Stuart,  daughter  of  Charles  I  of  Eng- 
land, was  bom  at  The  Hague  on  the  4th 
of  November,  1650.  During  his  early 
life  all  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
grand  pensionary  John  De  Witt,  but 
when  France  and  England,  in  1672,  de- 
clared war  against  the  Netherlands,  there 
was  a  popular  revolt,  in  which  Cornelius 
and  John  De  Witt  were  murdered,  while 
William  was  declared  captain-general, 
grand-admiral,  and  stadtholder  of  the 
United  Provinces.  In  the  campaign 
which  followed  he  opened  the  sluices  in 
the  dykes  and  inundated  the  country 
round  Amsterdam,  thus  causing  the 
French  to  retire,  while  peace  was  soon 
made  with  England.  In  subsequent  cam- 
paigns he  lost  the  battle  of  SenefPe 
(1674)  and  St.  Omer  (1677),  but  was 
still   able   to  keep   the   enemy   in  check. 


William  III. 

In  1677  he  was  married,  and  the  Peace 
of  Nijmegen  followed  in  1678.  For  some 
years  subsequent  to  this  the  policy  of 
William  was  directed  to  curb  the  power 
of  Louis  XIV,  and  to  this  end  be  brought 
about  the  League  of  Augsburg  in  1^6. 
As  his  wife  was  heir-presumptive  to  the 
English  throne  he  had  kept  close  watch 
upon  the  policy  of  his  father-in-law, 
James  II,  and  in  1688  he  issued  a  declara- 
tion recapitulating  the  unconstitutional 
acts  of  the  English  king,  and  promising 
to  secure  a  free  parliament  to  the  people. 
Being  invited  over  to  England  by  some 
of  the  leading  men  he  arrived  suddenly 
at  Torbay,  November  5,  1688,  with  a  fleet 
of  500  sail,  and  with  14.000  troops. 
Upon  landing,  a  great  part  of  the  nobility 
declared  in  his  favor,  and  in  December 


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William  IV  William  II 

James  fled  with  his  family  to  France,  duchies  of  Schleswig-IIolstein ;  quarreled 
after  which  William  made  his  entry  into  with  Austria,  and  engaged  in  a  campaign 
London.  The  throne  was  now  declared  which  ended  in  the  victory  of  Stdowa 
vacant,  the  Declaration  of  Rights  was  (1866)  ;  and  went  with  the  rest  of  Ger- 
passed,  and  on  February  13,  1689,  Mary  many  to  war  with  B^rance  in  1870  (see 
was  proclaimed  aueen  and  William  king.  Oermany  and  France),  In  this  war  the 
Scotland  soon  afterwards  followed  Eng-  operations  of  the  Prussian  generals  were 
land's  example  (with  a  partial  resistance  under  the  personal  supervision  of  the 
under  Dundee)  ;  but  in  Ireland,  whither  king.  The  results  of  this  war  were  so 
Louis  XIV  sent  James  with  an  army,  favorable  for  Germany  that  the  German 
the  majority  of  the  Catholics  maintained  States  combined  in  raising  William  to 
the  cause  of  the  deposed  king,  until  they  the  imperial  dignity,  and  he  was  pro- 
were  defeated  at  the  Boyne  (1690)  and  claimed  emperor  of  Germany  at  Ver- 
at  Aughrim  (1691).  In  the  war  with  sallies  January  18,  1871,  during  the  siege 
France  William  was  less  successful;  but  of  Paris.  He  died  March  4,  1888. 
although  he  was  defeated  at  Steinkirk  IXTillioTn  TT  ninth  king  of  Prussia 
(1692)  and  Neerwinden  (1693)  Louis  w  iiiiam  AX,  ^^  ^j^^^  emperor  of 
was  finally  compelled  to  acknowledge  him  Germany,  was  bom  at  Berlin,  January 
king  of  England  at  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  27,  1859,  eldest  son  of  the  crown  prince 
in  1697.  In  1701  James  II  died,  and  (afterward  emperor)  Frederick  and  Prin- 
Louis  XIV  acknowledged  his  son  as  king  cess  Victoria  of  England.  After  a  care- 
of  England.  England,  Holland,  and  the  ful  training  at  home,  the  education  of 
empire  had  already  combined  against  the  young  prince  was  completed  in  the 
Louis,  and  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Sue-  gympasium  at  Gassel,  and  he  also  re- 
cession was  just  on  the  point  of  com-  ceived  a  thorough  military  training  and 
mencing  when  William  died,  March  8,  full  instruction  in  the  arts  of  govem- 
1702,  from  the  effects  of  a  fall  from  his  ment  and  administration.  An  accident 
horse,  his  wife  having  already  died  child*  at  birth  caused  a  weakening  of  his  left 
less  in  1694.  arm  which  became  permanent,  and  in 
W-illiOTTi  TV  King  of  Great  Britain  addition  he  has  a  serious  anection  of 
y^iiwtm  J.V,  ^jj^j  Ireland,  and  third  the  ear,  which  so  far  has  defied  treat- 
son  of  George  III,  bom  in  1765;  died  in  ment.  Yet,  despite  these  afflictions,  his 
1837.  He  served  in  the  navy,  rising  ardent  temperament  led  him  to  become 
successively  to  all  the  grades  of  naval  a  skilful  horseman  and  a  tireless  hunter, 
command,  till  in  1801  he  was  made  ad-  as  well  as  an  enthusiastic  yachtsman, 
miral  of  the  fleet.  In  1789  he  had  re-  and  he  is  deeply  interested  in  all  kinds 
ceived  the  title  of  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  of  army  evolution.  He  married  Augusta 
in  June,  1830,  he  succeeded  his  brother  Victoria  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Augustin- 
George  IV  to  the  throne.  The  great  leg-  burg  in  1881,  and,  after  the  brief  reign 
islative  events  which  render  his  reign  of  his  father,  succeeded  to  the  imperial 
memorable  are  the  passage  of  the  reform  dignity  on  June  15,  1888.  Since  his 
act,  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  col-  accession  he  has  shown  himself  a  ruler 
onies,  and  the  reform  of  the  poor-laws,  of  exuberant  energy  and  has  made  him- 
He  married  (1818)  Adelaide,  sister  of  jelf  felt  as  a  vigorous  power  alike  in  his 
the  Duke  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  by  whom  home  government  and  in  international 
he  had  no  surviving  children,  but  by  his  European  affairs.  An  exaggerated  idea 
connection  with  Mrs.  Jordan,  the  actress,  of  the  imperial  dignity,  embracing  the 
he  had  a  large  family.  exploded  conception  of  the  divine  right 
"Williflm  T  first  German  Emperor.  ?f  kings,  was  shown  in  the  speeches  of 
vyxxixtiui  J.,  and  seventh  king  of  *»**  ^^ly  rule,  and  the  intense  energy 
Prussia,  second  son  of  Frederick  William  with  which  he  pushed  forward  the  op- 
m,  was  born  March  22,  1797.  .\t  an  ganization  of  the  army  and  navy  led  to 
early  age  he  began  the  study  of  military  apprehensions  of  warlike  purposes,  while 
affairs;  took  part  in  the  campaigns  of  his  later  career  has  given  warrant  for 
1813-14  under  BlUcher:  married  in  1829  the  alarm  to  which  his  early  actions  and 
Princess  Augusta  of  Saxe-Weimar ;  be-  expression  of  views  gave  rise.  His  in- 
came  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne  of  dependence  of  action  and  decision  of 
Prussia  on  his  father's  death  in  1840 ;  opinion  soon  led  to  strained  relations 
was  commander  of  the  forces  which  sup-  wi**\  Prince  Bismark,  who  had  long  been 
pressed  the  revolutionary  movement  dominant  in  political  affairs,  the  auto- 
(1849)  in  Baden;  was  created  regent  in  <^ratic  premier  findine  his  authority 
1858;  and  on  the  death  of  the  king,  his  greatly  diminished  by  the  resolute  asser- 
Srother,  in  1861,  succeeded  to  the  throne  tiveness  of  the  strong-willed  young  em- 
of  Prussia.  During  his  reign  Prussia  pe^or-  A  decided  break  came  when  Wil- 
defeated  Denmark  (1864),  annexing  the  '^*™  established  a  system  of  partial  state- 
Digitized  by  VjOOQIC 


WiUiamn  WiUiam  the  SUent 

socialism,  of  which  Bismarck  strongly  (lis-  being  that  he  ordered  the  dissolution  of 
approved.  This  quickly  led  to  the  re-  the  parliament  and  a  new  election.  He 
tirement  of  the  able  chancellor,  and  his  opened  himself  to  drastic  parliamentary 
replacement  by  Count  Capri vi,  a  man  criticism  in  1910,  in  a  speech  at  KOnigs- 
more  ready  to  yield  to  the  emperor's  berg,  in  which  he  reminded  his  hearers 
views,  or  more  in  accord  with  them,  that  his  grandfather,  William  I,  believed 
Since  that  date  several  changes  have  himself  the  chosen  instrument  of  God  and 
taken  place  in  the  chancellorship.  The  in  possession  of  the  crown  by  6od*8 
foreign  policy  of  the  new  regime  led  to  grace  alone.  The  following  words,  with 
a  strengthening  of  the  triple  alliance  be-  which  he  concluded,  indicated  that  he 
tween  Germany,  Austria  and  Italy,  a  entertained  a  similar  opinion :  '  Consider- 
weakening  of  the  older  bond  between  ing  myself  as  the  instrument  of  the 
Germany  and  Russia,  and  to  a  colonial  Master,  regardless  of  passing  views  and 
expansion  indicated  by  Germany's  taking  opinions,  I  go  my  way^  which  is  solely 
an  active  part  in  the  partition  of  Africa  devoted  to  the  prosperity  and  peacefid 
between  the  European  powers.  A  large  development  of  the  Fatherland.'  These 
area  of  territory  in  the  west,  a  second  words  were  sharply  controverted  in  the 
in  the  southeast,  and  a  third  in  the  press  and  by  the  Socialists  in  the  Reich- 
Guinea  region  of  that  continent  were  won  stag.  William  throughout  showed  that 
by  Germany  in  consequence.  In  1890  he  was  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  ener- 
the  island  of  Heligoland,  in  the  German  getic  of  ruling  monarchs  and  one  ready 
Sea,  was  ceded  by  England  to  Ger-  to  maintain  the  political  and  commercji 
many,  in  return  for  which  England  was  interests  of  his  country  to  the  verge  of 

f ranted    certain    advantages    in    Africa,  war.     This    was    shown    in   his   contest 

n  the  negotiation  of  the  treaty  of  peace  with    France   in    1905,   on    the   Morocco 

between  Turkey  and  Greece  at  the  end  of  question,  in  which  war  seemed  imminent, 

the  war  of  1897j   William   took   a  very  and  the  renewal  of  this  contest  in  1911, 

prominent  part,   insisting  that  provision  at    which    date    the    hostile    feeling   was 

lor  payment  of  the  defaulted  interest  due  abated  through  the  cession  by  France  of  a 

by  Greece  to  foreign  bondholders   (main-  large  area,  in   Africa   to  Germany.      To 

ly    German )    should    form    part    of    the  what  extent  William  is  responsible  for  the 

terms    of    settlement.     The    treaty    was  great  conflict  in  Europe  which  began  in 

made  to  accord  with  the  emperor's  views.  July,  1914,  and  continued  with  unabated 

In   his  internal   administration,   William  fury  and  frightful  loss  of  life  and  property 

has  actively  sought  to  establish  a  more  for  more  than  two  years,  it  is  for  from 

pronounced  personal  government,  a  pur-  easy  to  estimate.     The   Entente   powers 

pose  in   which  he  has  met  with  strong  accuse  him  of  plunging  Europe  into  war 

parliamentary  opposition,     fie  has  made  to  gratify  his  ambition  and  give  suprem- 

himself   a   leader   in    European    policies,  acy  to  Germany,  and   this   sentiment  is 

and    Germany,    under    his  control,    has  widely  entertained  in  the  United  States, 

advanced  greatly  in  strength  and  politi-  The  nnal  decision  upon  this  subject  must 

cal  importance.     lie  has  also  taken  steps  await  the  calm  inquiry  and  full  investiga- 

to  placate  the  workingmen  by  establish-  tion  of  the  days  to  come, 

ing  a  system  of  old-a^e  insurance  under  WilHQTii  the  IiIOH      ^^^       Scotland 

State   auspices,   and    inaugurating   other  '' **^«''*"  •'***' -^^vai..    (ffigtQry), 

legislation  in  their  favor.  The  great  William  thC  Silent,  S*'""'  ^i 
growth  of  Socialism  has  proved  a  dis-  "  ****«-***  v*x\*  i^j.avai.v,  Nassau  and 
turbing  element,  and  he  has  sought  to  re-  Prince  of  Orange,  eldest  son  of  William 
press  it.  William's  plans  for  an  increase  count  of  Nassau,  was  bom  in  1533,  and 
of  the  army  and  navy,  with  the  necessary  was  educated  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
additional  taxation,  on  several  occasions  faith.  He  had  large  estates  in  the  Neth- 
brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  Reich-  erlands,  and  held  high  ofllces  under 
stag  and  long  continued  a  source  of  alarm  Charles  V  and  his  son  Philip  II ;  but 
in  Europe,  especially  in  Great  Britain,  the  reckless  persecution  of  the  Protes- 
The  result  was  a  contest  between  these  tants  roused  him  against  the  Spaniards, 
countries  in  the  building  of  war  vessels,  and  when  the  Dukc  of  Alva  with  a 
the  British  government  striving  strenu-  Spanish  force  was  sent  to  subdue  the 
ously  to  maintain  its  supremacy  and  Netherlands  (1567),  he  retired  to  Ger- 
the  German  government  increasing  the  many.  He  now  declared  himself  a 
strength  of  its  navy  at  a  disturbing  rate.  Protestant,  and  personally  led  an  army 
A  conflict  between  William  and  the  into  Brabant  against  Alva,  but  failed  to 
Reichstag  took  place  in  December.  190B,  bring  about  an  engagement  In  1572 
when  that  body  opposed  the  emperor's  the  estates  appointed  the  prince  stadt- 
views  of  maintaining  a  large  garrison  in  holder  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Friesland 
German    Southwest    Africa,    the    result  and  Utrecht,  with  power  to  prosecute  the 


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William  and  Hary  College  Williamstown 

war  against  Spain.     In  1574  the  prince's  WilliamS    ^^^  Moniek.     See  Monier 

brothers,  Louis  and  Henry,  were  defeated  '    )\  illiams. 

and  killed  in  a  battle  at  Mookerheide.  Williams  ^^^^^^^  ^  Baptist  divine 
but  this  disaster  was  to  some  extent  com-  '  and  founder  of  the  colony 
pensated  by  the  raising  of  the  siege  of  of  Rhode  Island,  North  America,  was 
Leyden.  In  1576  the  brutality  of  the  born  of  Welsh  or  Cornish  parenU  about 
Spanish  soldiers  was  such  that  William  151)9;  died  in  1U83.  lie  was  ^nt  as  a 
was  able,  to  negotiate  the  pacification  of  scholar  to  the  Charter-Louse,  afterwards 
Ghent,  a  treaty  in  which  the  provinces  he  studied  either  at  Oxford  or  Cambndee. 
bound  themselves  to  expel  the  Spaniards  g®  i^^^^i^x.  to  have  taken  ordera  in  the 
from  the  Netherlands.  In  the  troublous  English  Church,  but  because  of  his  re- 
times which  followed  the  prince  acted  te"/„5^^'^(v*}f.^'"ifril^^^^^ 
with  great  discretion,  and  it  was  by  his  ?°5\^°/-  fhY^i^.-.^Ztt^^^^f  ^tC^.ZVi 
political  prudence  thit  the  five  northern  f^^^Zlat^lJ^A    ifj.    fr.    L  ^«ni«i^ 

ra^'aitliS  iSfd'^tt^foLSn'^  TrrrUoTof  'Ai?ssi?hutt»'r^ 

if   Jhi'rfniiin^f  ^ho    TTni/^    K^lhpr  Pa^^ed   to   Rhode   Island   and   founded   a 

fini.      Tn^  owt     th?«^   iio^?^..  ^wJ;  settlement,    which   he    called   Providence. 

P?nf;  cTf  a  ^rw  nf  >r,rf^^^^  "^re    he    proclaimed    complete    religious 

ni?in*^triLi'J''^f^h5*i?^  tolerance,   thus   making   R&ode   Island   a 

"P***^.  ^^t  ^^l^   ^l^^^   ^"""^5;   ^^1^1  ^^^  haven  for  those  persec^uted  by  the  Puri- 

iTjy^  }^tK^^^    life    was    attempted    in  ^^^^^     u^  ^^s  an  earnest  friend  of  the 

1582  at  Antwerp,  and  he  was  ultimately  Indians.     He   was  twice  in   England   in 

assassinated   at  Delft   m   1;)84  by  a  fa-  connection  with  a  charter  for  the  colony, 

natic  named  Balthasar  Gerard.  ^nd  there  made  the  acquaintance  of  Mil- 

Wllliam     and     Mary     College,  ton  and  other  prominent  Puritans.     He 

^T       ,...!,  published  A  Key  into  the  Language  of  the 


inent  Virginians  were  educated  here.  yet  More  Bloudy  (1652),  etc. 
Williams,  Fbancis  Howard,  an  WilHamS  Talcott,  an  American 
J^,~;f?  American  dramatic  writer,  wmiams,  journalist,  born  of  Amer- 
born  in  Philadelphia,  in  1844.  Among  lean  parents  in  Turkey,  July  20,  1849. 
his  plays  are :  The  Prtnceas  Eltzabcthf  From  1881  till  1912  he  was  on  the  staff 
A  Lyric  Drama,  A  Reformer  in  Ruffles,  of  the  Philadelphia  Press,  He  then  be- 
At  the  Rise  of  the  Curtain,  etc.;  also  came  head  of  the  school  of  Journalism 
The  Flute  Player  and  Other  Poems,  founded  by  the  late  Joseph  Pulitzer  as 
The  Burden  Bearer,  An  Epic  of  Lin-  an  adjunct  of  Columbia  University. 
coin,  etc. —  His  son,  Francis  Churchill 

WiLLL/iMS,  is  the  author  of  The  Captain.  "flTi-niQniQTin-H-  (w  il'y  umz-port),  a 
a  novel,  and  several  other  stories  and  ^r^  xxixnuioyMLh  ^j^y^  ^^^  county  seat 
sketches.  of  Lycoming   Co.,   Pennsylvania,   on   the 

Williams  Joh^,  missionary,  was  west  branch  of  the  Susquehanna  River, 
**  "f  bom  near  London  in  1796*  94  miles  N.  by  w.  of  Harrisburg.  It  is 
and  served  as  an  ironmonger's  appren-  attractively  laid  out,  with  several  parks, 
tice.  Having  been  ordained  a  minister  and  a  city  hall,  government  buildings, 
in  1816,  he  sailed  for  the  South  Seas  Masonic  temple,  cathedral,  and  other 
under  the  auspices  of  the  London  Mis-  notable  buildings.  It  was  formerly  the 
sionary  Society ;  achieved  a  remarkable  greatest  lumber  market  in  Eastern  United 
success  in  civilizing  the  islanders;  and  States.  The  mountains  to  the  north  are 
after  his  return  to  England,  in  18.'?4.  he  heavily  timbered  and  there  are  rich  coal 
published  the  account  of  his  Jt.bors  in  mines  in  the  vicinity.  There  are  large 
A  Narrative  of  Missionary  Enterprise  lumber  mills,  steel  works,  rubber  fac- 
in  the  South  Sea  Islands  (1837).  Re-  tories,  furniture  factories,  machine  shops, 
turning  to  Polynesia  in  1838  he  was  mur-  tanneries  and  a  large  silk  mill.  This  city 
dered  by  the  natives  of  Erromanga  in  is  the  seat  of  Dickinson  Seminary.  Pop. 
1839.  31,860. 

Wi11in.Tnft  John  Shabp,  senator,  TXT^iKayYiqf^^ijrTYi  a  town  of  Williams- 
W  imams,  ^^  ^^  Memphis,  Tennes-  ^  llUamSliOWn,  ^^^  township 
see,  in  1854.  He  engaged  m  law  prac-  (town),  Berkshire  Co«  Massachusetts, 
tice  in  1877,  was  elected  to  Congress  from  on  the  Hoosac  River,  6  miles  N.  w.  of 
Mississippi  in  1893,  and  was  long  the  North  Adams.  It  lies  in  a  fertile  valley. 
Democratic  leader  in  the  House.  He  noted  for  beautiful  scenery,  and  is  a 
was  elected  to  the  Senate  in  1008  for  summer  resort  The  town  has  bleaching 
the  term  1911-17.  and  finishing  works  and  manufactures  of 


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WiUiamstown  Wilmington 

corduroy  and  ctnton  ^^njtU.  Williams  The  Huntingdon  or  white  willow  {SaliiB 
t'ollege^oundod  r«t>:i,  is  situated  here,  alba)  and  the  Bedford  willow  {8,  Rut- 
Fop,  5000.  selliana)  are  large  trees,  yielding  a  light 
WiUiamstown  *  seaport  in  Vic-  soft  timber,  valuable  for  resisting  the 
j.».uA0vvwu9  toria,  on  the  south-  influence  of  moisture  or  damp.  The 
west  shore  of  Ilobson  Bay,  immediately  weeping  willow  {8,  Babylonica)  is  a  na- 
opposite  Sandridge  (Port  Melbourne),  tive  of  China,  and  is  a  fine  ornamental 
and  9  miles  by  rail  from  Melbourne,  tree.  The  willow  has  for  long  been  con- 
Tlie  piers  are  commodious,  and  there  are  sidered  as  symbolical  of  mourning, 
shipbuilding  yards,  patent  slips,  the  Al-  WlllftW-llPrh  See  Epihbium. 
fred  graving  dock,  and  government  work-    ▼»***vw  uvxu. 

shops.  There  is  a  lighthouse  on  the  Willow-TTifttli  a  species  of  mouse- 
peninsnla  on  which  the  town  is  built,  and  »»"*vw  mutu,  colored  moth  (Caro- 
a  lightship  further  down  the  bay.  Pop.  drina  cubicularis) ,  the  hinder  wings  of 
14.083.  which  are  pure  white.     The  larvie   feed 

Willimantic    ^  wil-i-man'tik  ) ,  a  city  on  grains  or  wheat 

^  of  Windham  Co.,  Con-  Wi11n^][7.nfl1r  ^^  ^Vmerican  tree  of 
necticut,  is  on  the  Willimantic  River,  16  ^"^^^  "<*^J  the  genus  OuercuM,  the 
miles  N.  w.  of  Norwich.  It  contains  a  Q.  Phellos.  The  wood  is  of  loose,  coarse 
State  normal  training  school.  The  river  texture,  and  is  little  used, 
affords  abundant  water-power,  and  the  ^VilloW-Wren  ^P^^^^  irochilus,  one 
manufactures  are  extensive,  especially  of  x^nj  ^f  ^^^  m^g^  abundant 

cotton  thread,  of  which  it  is  the  greatest  of  the  warblers,  and  a  summer  visitant 
producer  in  the  country.  There  are  also  in  Britain,  with  a  pleasing  song.  The 
large  silk,  silk-twist,  and  cotton  mills,  general  color  is  dull,  olive-green  above, 
plumbers'  supplies  and  steam-heating  the  chin,  throat  and  breast  yellowish- 
works,  etc.  Pop.  11,230.  white,  and  the  belly  pure  white. 
Willift  (wil'is),  Nathaniel  Pabkeb,  WilmeTflin^  ^  borough  in  Alle- 
^^^*  author,  bom  at  Portland!  ^""1CI^*""&>  gheny  Co.,  Pennsvl- 
Maine,  in  1807;  died  in  18G7.  lie  was  vania,  13  m.  e.  8.  e.  of  Pittsburgh.  P.  6133. 
educated  at  Boston,  Andover  and  Yale  ^XTil  mprsHnrf  &  ^^'^'^  of  Prussia,  3 
College;  employed  by  S.  P.  Goodrich  '^"^^^*^"*^'  m.  s.  w.  of  Berlin.  Pop. 
(Peter   Parley)    to   edit   The   Legendary    d^lO)  102.716. 

(1828)  and  The  Token  (1829);  estab-  Wilmin^On  (wil'ming-tun),  a  city 
lished   the  American  Monthly  Magazine,  »  ^       and  port  of  entrv,  capi- 

which  was  merged  in  the  New  York  Mir-  tal  of  Newcastle  Co.,  Delaware,  is  situ- 
ror;  traveled  in  France,  Italy,  Greece,  ated  on  the  Delaware  River  and  Bran- 
European  Turkey,  Asia  Minor  and  dywine  and  Christiana  Creeks,  27  miles 
finally  England;  returned  to  America  in  s.w.  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  the  commer- 
1837,  and  afterwards  edited  The  Uome  cial  and  manufacturing  emporium  of  the 
Journal.  His  numerous  published  writ-  State^  and  has  large  and  nourishine  in- 
ings  include:  Pencilinga  by  the  Way  dustnes,  especially  in  powder-making, 
(1835),  Inklinga  of  Adventure  (1836),  vulcanized  hber  and  glazed  kid.  There 
Loitering*  of  Travel  (1839),  People  I  are  also  large  shipyards,  iron  and  steel 
Have  Met  (1850),  Famous  Persons  and  works,  and  manufactures  of  cars,  car- 
Places  (1845),  Outdoors  at  Idlewild  wheels,  bridges,  boilers,  paper,  leather, 
(ia54),  and  The  Convalescent,  His  Ram-  etc.  Among  its -institutions  are  a  govem- 
blea  and  Adventures   (1859).  mei^t  building,  court-house.   State  insane 

Willnw  (wiro),  the  common  name  of  asylum,  normal  school  and  other  in- 
wiuuw  ^jiffepenj  species  of  plants  be-  dustrial  institutions.  Old  Swedes*  Church 
longing  to  the  genus  8alia,  the  type  of  built  in  1698,  marks  the  site  of  the  oldest 
the  natural  order  Salicaceae.  The  spe-  Swedish  settlement  in  the  Delaware 
cies  of  willows  are  numerous,  about  160  valley.  Pop.  87,411. 
having  been  described,  35  belonging  to  TXr,l«miii*rl-Aii  a  <?ity,  port  of  entry 
the  United  States.  They  are  either  trees  ^  imuil^tUll  ^^^  capital  of  New 
or  bushes,  and  grow  naturally  in  a  moist  Hanover  Co.,  North  Carolina,  is  situ- 
soil.  On  account  of  the  flexible  nature  ated  on  the  east  bank  of  Cape  Fear  River 
of  their  shoots,  and  the  toughness  of  about  25  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  is 
their  woody  fiber,  willows  have  always  the  largest  commercial  town  in  the 
been  used  as  materials  for  baskets,  hoops.  State.  Its  notable  public  buildings  in- 
crates,  etc.  The  wood  is  soft,  and  is  used  elude  a  Federal  building,  city  hall,  union 
for  wooden  shoes,  pegs,  and  the  like;  station,  etc.  The  river  has  a  depth  of 
it  is  also  much  employed  in  the  manu-  26  feet  at  mean  low  water  and  extensive 
facture  of  charcoal,  and  the  bark  of  all  port  facilities  including  11  large  term- 
the  species  contains  the  tanning  principle,  inals  erected  during  the  past  two  years. 


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Wilna 


Wilson 


Wilmington  has  a  large  export  trade  in 
cotton  and  lumber.  It  has  extensive 
manufactures,     including     large     lumber 


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^  Wilmington.  N.  C. 

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f   ♦    •    ?    !    •                     • 

1 

mills,  metal  works,  machine  shops,  ve- 
neer mills,  handles  and  heading  factories, 
turpentine  distilleries,  etc.  Pop.  25,748. 
Wilna.     Se«F«na. 

WUmot  Proviso.  S>x 'o".ndTte 

United  States  terminated  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  a  vast  territory  by  the  latter. 
Mr.  Wilmot,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1846, 
offered  in  Congress  what  became  historic 
as  the  *  Wilmot  Proviso,*  that  *  No  part 
of  the  territory  thus  acquired  should  be 
open  to  the  introduction  ©f  slavery.' 
This  proviso  brought  heated  discussion 
of  the  slave  question,  and  civil  war  and 
a  dissolution  of  the  Union  were  threat- 
ened in  consequence.  The  proviso  failed 
of  passage. 

^nr-ilann  a  town,  capital  of  Wilson 
WliSUUy  Q^^  j^Qp^jj  Carolina,  about 
44  miles  E.  by  s.  of  Raleigh.  Cotton 
goods,  cottonseed-oil,  etc.,  are  manufac- 
tured.    Pop.  6717. 

Wilson  {  ^^I'sui^  )>  Alexandeb,  an 
^  American  ornitholcM^ist,  was 
bom  at  Paisley,  Scotland,  in  1766.  He 
emigrated  to  America  in  1704;  as- 
sisted in  editing  the  American  edition  of 
Ke€8'9   Cyclopedia;  also   worked  at   his 

24  10 


trade  as  a  weaver  and  taught  a  school 
at  Kingsesslng,  near  Philadelphia.  Be- 
coming interested  in  ornithology,  he  re- 
solved to  write  and  illustrate  a  work 
on  American  birds,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose traveled  on  foot  through  West- 
ern New  York,  then  a  wilderness,  ob- 
serving its  birds.  He  told  the  story  of 
his  excursion  in  a  lively  and  graphic 
work  called  The  Foresters.  The  result 
of  his  labor  was  the  American  Omiihol- 
ogy  (seven  vols.,  1808-13),  a  work  which 
was  completed  by  Ord,  with  a  continua- 
tion by  Lucien  Bonaparte.  It  was  the 
pioneer  of  the  magnificent  works  of 
Audubon  and  Charles  Bonaparte.  He 
died  in  1813,  worn  out  by  his  great  labor 
on   this    work. 

TXTilann  Sib  Daniel,  archsologist, 
WllSUliy    ^^g    ^^j.jj    ^^    Edinburgh    in 

1816;  educated  at  the  university  there; 
became  secretary  to  the  Roval  Society  of 
Antiquaries;  was  appointed  (1853)  pro- 
fessor of  history  and  English  literature 
in  University  College,  Toronto,  Canada; 
and  in  1880  was  elected  president  He 
wrote  numerous  works,  including  Pre- 
historic Man,  Caliban,  the  Missing  Link, 
The  Lost  Atlantis,  Anthropology,  Left- 
Handedness,  etc.  He  died  in  1892. 
m'llQnn  Henry,  statesman,  was  bom 
Yvxisuii,  jjj  parmington.  New  Hamp- 
shire, in  1812.  In  18ft,  as  the  '  Natick 
cobbler,*  he  addressed  political  meetings, 
being  elected  in  that  year  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature.  In  1856  he  was 
elected  United  States  Senator.  His 
speeches  bear  the  impress  of  clear-sighted 
statesmanship.  Mr.  Wilson  was  an  ar- 
dent antislavery  man,  and  was  the  au- 
thor of  the  bill  by  which  slavery  was 
abolished  in  the  District  of  Columbia 
(1862).  He  was  reelected  to  the  Senate 
in  1865,  and  was  chosen  vice-president 
of  the  United  States  in  Grant^s  second 
term  (1862).  He  died  in  this  office  No- 
vember 22,  1875. 

Wilson  HoBACB  Hatican,  oriental- 
wxAovu.^     jgj^  ^jjg  JJQJ.JJ  ^^  London,  in 

1786;  died  in  1860.  He  was  educated 
for  the  medical  profession,  went  out  to 
Bengal  as  assistant-surgeon  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  East  India  0)mpany;  was 
appointed  to  an  office  in  the  Calcutta 
mint,  of  which  he  afterwards  became 
assay-master  and  secretary;  devoted  his 
leisure  to  the  study  of  Sanskrit;  was 
elected  (1832)  Boden  professor  of  San- 
skrit at  Oxford  University;  and  soon 
afterwards  became  librarian  at  the  India 
House  and  director  of  the  Royal  Asiatic 
Society.  His  writings  included  a  San- 
skrit'English  Dictionary  (1819),  and  nu- 
merous translations  of  Sanskrit  poems, 
etc. 


i 


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Wilson  Wilson 

Wilson  J'^^^'IBt  American  jurist  and  and  settled  in  Edinburgh.  He  was  one 
^  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  of  the  original  contributors  to  Black- 
Independence,  was  born  in  Scotland  in  wood's  Magazine,  established  in  1817*  and 
1742;  came  to  America  in  1763  and  three  years  afterwards  was  appointed 
made  his  home  in  Philadelphia ;  delegate  to  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  m  Edin- 
to  Congress,  1775-77,  1782--83  and  1785-  burgh  I'niversity,  a  position  which  he 
87;  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  Su-  held  until  1851.  Besides  his  numerous 
preme  Court  in  1789.    Died  1798.  magazine  articles,  the  most  characteristic 

iXTilson      James,   ez-Secretary   of  Ag-  of  which  were  some  of  the  Nocie$  Am- 

wAAovuy  riculture,  was  bom  in  Scot-  hroaianw  and  those  published  subse- 
land  in  1836.  He  was  a  member  of  guently  as  the  Recreations  of  Christopher 
Congress,  1873-77  and  1883-85.  Ap-  North  (1842),  he  wrote  other  tales.  • 
pointed  to  the  cabinet  office  by  President  TXTilanTi  Woodrow,  twenty -eighth  presl- 
McKinley,  he  held  that  position  during  '^  """">  dent  of  the  United  States,  edu- 
the  Taft  and  Roosevelt  administrations,  cator  and  author,  was  bom  at  Staunton, 
WiloATi      James  Grant,  author,  born   Virginia,   December  28,   1856.     He  was 

wusuuy  in  New  York  dtv  in  1832,  graduated  from  Princeton  in  1879;  stud- 
served  in  the  Civil  War.  Besides  nu-  Ted  law  at  the  University  of  Virginia; 
merous  addresses,  essays,  and  articles  in  practiced  law  in  Atlanta  (1882-83)  ;  re- 
periodicals,  he  published :  Biographical  ceived  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  at  Johns  Hop- 
Sketchea  of  lUinois  Officers;  Life  of  kins  University  (1886)  ;  was  professor  at 
General  Grant;  The  Presidents  of  the  Bryn  Mawr,  1^85-88 ;  at  Wesleyan.  1888- 
Vnited  States;  Thackeray  in  the  United  90 ;  at  Princeton.  1800-1910.  In  1902  he 
States,  etc.  He  was  the  editor  of  Apple-  became  president  of  Princeton  Univer- 
Um^s  Cyclopwdia  of  American  Biography ^  sity.  He  wrote  A  History  of  the  Amer^ 
and  of  Memorial  History  of  the  City  of  iean  People  and  others  work^  and  be- 
Uew  Yorkf  etc    Died  May  2,  1914.  came  prominentias  a  reformer.     He  was 

Wilson     J^^BS  Harbison,  American  elected  governor  of  New  Jersey  in  1910. 

vvuovuy  soldier  and  author,  bom  in  He  was  chosen  on  the  strength  of  his 
niinois  in  1837.  His  conduct  through-  irreproachable  character  and  his  sdenti- 
oot  the  Civil  War  was  such  as  to  win  fie  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  goven- 
for  him  the  title  of  brevet  major-general  meut,  and  during  his  first  year  in  oflBce  a 
of  Yolnnteers  for  gallant  and  meritorioas  number  of  important  reform  measures  in- 
service  during  the  war.  In  1865  he  com-  eluded  in  his  platform  were  enacted.  His 
manded  a  cavalry  expedition  into  Georgia  successful  record  as  ^ovemor  brought  him 
and  Alabama  daring  which  he  captured  the  Democratic  nomination  for  President 
Jefferson  Davis.  He  entered  the  regular  in  1912  and  his  subsequent  election.  His 
army  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  the  term  of  office  was  marked  by  intema- 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  retiring  from  tional  questions  rarely  equalled  in  impor- 
the  service  in  1870.  Served  in  the  Span-  tance.  Including  the  revolutionary  out- 
ish  War  and  in  the  China  expedition  of  breaks  in  Mexico  and  the  great  European 
1900 ;  represented  the  United  States  war,  both  of  these  involving  .the  lives  and 
Army  at  the  Coronation  of  Kins  Edward  interests  of  American  citizens.  President 
VII;  in  1901  was  placed  on  the  retired  Wilson  handled  these  momentous  ques- 
list  as  a  brigadier-general  United  States  tions  in  the  cause  of  peaceful  relations,  so 
Army.  Among  other  things  he  wrote:  far  as  the  safety  and  dignity  of  the 
China:  Travels  and  Investigations  in  the  American  govemment  permitted.  In  1916 
Middle  Kingdom^  A  Life  of  General  he  was  a  second  time  elected  President 
Grant,  etc  and  began  his  second  term  on  March  4, 

"Wilson     John,  better  known  in  liters-  1917.    Although  a  lover  of  peace  and  the 
*    ture  as  *  Christopher  North,*  nominee  of  a  party  who   had  presented 
was  bom  in  Paisley,  Scotland,  in  1785 ;  him  for  re-election  as  *  the  man  who  kept 
died  in  1854.     He  was  educated  at  Glas-  us  out  of  war,*  he  was  forced  into  the 

S»w  University  and  Magdalen  College,  affray  to  defend  the  honor  of  the  country 
zford,  where  he  gained  the  Newdigate  and  the  safety  of  the  lives  of  Americans 
prize  for  an  English  poem,  as  also  a  on  the  high  seas  who  were  being  murdered 
great  reputation  tor  athletics.  Leaving  by  Germany's  undersea  navy.  Too,  there 
Oxford  he  bought  the  estate  of  Elleray,  was  the  holy  cause  of  invaded  Belgium, 
near  Windermere,  and  there  formed  an  President  Wilson's  notes  to  Germany 
acquaintance  with  Wordsworth.  Southey,  and  his  messages  to  Congress  were  ac- 
and  Coleridge ;  contributed  to  Coleridge's  claimed  among  all  the  Allied  peoples,  who 
Friend,  and  published  a  poem  called  came  to  look  upon  him  as  the  leader  of  the 
The  Isle  of  Palms  (1812).  Another  world's  thought.  His  slogan,  *to  make 
poem.  The  City  of  the  Plague,  appealed  the  world  safe  for  democracy,*  became  a 
U  1816.     He  now  passed  the  Scots  bar,  powerful    rallying   cry.      On    the    3d    of 


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Copytit:htffv  f!,irTi    j*  t nim:. 


WOODROW  WILSON 


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) 


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Wilson  Wilts 

February,  1917,  he  severed  diplomatic  re-  deavored  to  help  in  the  upbuilding  of  the 
lations  with  Germany  and  suggested  sim-  new  republic,  first  sending  a  special  diplo- 
ilar  action  on  the  part  of  other  nations,  matlc  mission  headed  by  Elihu  Root,  and 
The  machinations  of  the  agents  of  Ger-  later,  when  the  BoLsheviki  had  taken  con- 
many  in  America,  as  well  as  other  parts  troL  assuring  the  Soviet  of  American  sym- 
of  the  world,  were  rapidly  bringing  that  pathy  in  the  crucial  days  of  March,  1918. 
late  flourishing  empire  to  scorn  and  con-  In  one  of  his  speeches  he  declared, 
tempt.  *The  peace  we  make  must  deliver  Bel- 
President  Wilson  had  settled  the  diffi-  gium  and  Northern  France  from  the 
cult  Mexican  situation,  and  the  with-  Prussian  conquest  and  the  Prussian  men- 
drawal  of  American  troops  from  that  ace,  but  it  must  also  deliver  the  peoples 
country  was  completed  by  February  5.  of  Austria-Hungary,  the  pe2ple8  of  the 
The^  torpedoing  or  American  ships  con-  Balkans,  and  the  peoples  of  Turkey  alike 
tinning,  he  asked  Congress  to  authorize  in  Europe  and  in  Asia  from  the  impudent 
him  to  arm  merchant  ships.  The  Senate  and  alien  domination  of  the  Prussian  mil- 
debate  on  the  question  was  protracted  by  itary  and  commercial  autocracy.*  In  his 
a  few  pacifists  whom  the  President  styled  speech  of  February  11,  1918,  President 
*a  group  of  wilful  men.'  The  second  ses-  Wilson  presented  four  principles  which 
don  of  the  64th  Congress  ended  without  he  said  must  be  acceptea  by  the  military 
passing  the  bill.  President  Wilson  took  and  annexationist  party  or  Germany  as 
matters  into  his  own  hands,  declared  he  they  had  been  accepted  by  all  other  peo- 
had  full  power  and  went  ahead  with  his  pies.  *  The  tragic  circumstance,'  he  said, 
program  of  arming  merchant  ships.     To  is  that  this  one  party  in   Germany  is 

guard  against  filibustering  in  future  the  apparently  willing  and  able  to  send  mil- 
enate,  in  special  session  on  March  8,  lions  of  men  to  their  death  to  prevent 
passed  the  famous  Cloture  rule.  See  what  all  the  world  now  sees  to  be  just.' 
Cloture,  The  great  railroad  dispute.  These  are  the  four  principles: 
which  threatened  a  nation-wide  strike  in  First — ^That  each  part  of  the  final  set- 
March,  was  settled  by  President  Wilson,  tlement  must  be  based  upon  the  essential 
who  insisted  that  the  demands  of  the  men  justice  of  that  particular  case  and  upon 
for  a  basic  eight-hour  day  must  go  into  such  adjustments  as  are  most  likely  to 
effect.  Later  he  took  over  control  of  the  bring  a  peace  that  will  be  permanent, 
railroads.  Second — ^That    peoples    and    provinces 

On  the  assembling  of  the  65th  Congress,  are  not  to  be  bartered  about  from  sover- 

summoned  by  the  President  in  extra  ses-  eignty  to  sovereignty  as  if  they  were  mere 

sion,  he  called  for  a  declaration  of  war  on  chattels  and  pawns  in  a  game,  even  the 

Germany  and  provision  for  full  co-opera-  great  game,   now   forever  discredited,  of 

tion  with  the  Allies.    The  Senate  passed  the  balance  of  power;    but  that, 

the  war,  resolution  by  a  vote  of  82  to  6;  Third — Every  territorial  settlement  in- 

the  House  by  a  vote  of  373  to  50.     The  volved  in  this  war  must  be  made  in  the 

n'eat  peace  President  became  a  great  war  interest  and  for  the  benefit  of  the  popu- 

President.    He  ordered  the  immediate  ex-  lations  concerned,  and  not  as  a  part  of 

pansion  of  the  army  and  navy  to  full  war  any  mere  adjustment  or  compromise  of 

strength  and  advocated   an   Army  Draft  claims  among  rival  states ;   ana. 

Bill,  which  was  passed   by  Congress  in  Fourth — ^That  all  well-defined  national 

May.     (See  Conscription,)     Although  de-  aspirations  shall  be  accorded  the  utmost 

termined  to  bring  all  the  resources  of  the  satisfaction   that  can  be   accorded   them 

country  to  bear  on  the  struggle,  if  need  without  introducing  new  or  perpetuating 

be,   he   kept   in   view   the   possibility   of  old  elements  of  discord  and  antagonism 

peace    ana     refrained     from    war    with  that  would  be  likely  in  time  to  break  the 

Austria-Hungary  in  the  hope  that  through  peace  of  Europe,  and  consequently  of  the 

that  country  he  might  reacn  the  people  of  world. 

Germany  and  persuade  them  to  overthrow  IXTiltS      ^^  Wiltshire,  a  southwestern 

the  war  lords.     But  the  dual  monarchy  ''•^*'»>     county    of    England,    bounded 

was  plainly  under  the  thumb  of  the  Prus-  by  the  counties  of  Gloucester,  Somerset, 

sian  militarists  and  on  December  3,  1917,  Dorset.    Hants,    and   Berks ;     area   1350 

President  Wilson  asked   Congress  for  a  sq.  miles.     The  north  is  flat  and  fertile, 

declaration  of  war  on  Austria-Hungary,  the    south    is    Salisbury    Plain,    an    ele- 

As  indicating  the  unanimit;{r  of  the  nation,  vated  tableland,  chiefly  uncultivated.  The 

the  House  of  Representatives  passed  the  strata    of    the    county,  are    principally 

war   resolution  with  but  one  dissenting  cretaceous,  belonging  to  the  great  central 

vote,  registered  by  London,  a  New  York  chalk  district  of  England;    and  the  chief 

Socialist.    The  Senate  adopted  the  resolu-  rivers    are    the   Kennet    and    the   Upper 

tion  unanimously.  and  Lower  Avon.    The  larger  proporaon 

Through   the  Russian   debacle  he  en-  of    the   surface   is   in   pasture,    aevoted 


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Wimbledon 


Wind 


chiefly  in  the  south  division  to  the  rear- 
ing of  sheep,  and  in  the  north  to  cattle- 
grazing  and  the  dairy,  Wiltshire  bacon 
and  cheese  being  famous.  The  manu- 
factures comprise  woolen  goods,  for  which 
the  principal  localities  are  Wilton,  Brad- 
ford, Trowbridge,  Westbury,  etc.,  excel- 
lent cutlery  and  steel  goods  at  Salisbury, 
ropes  and  sacking  at  Marlborough,  iron- 
founding  at  Devizes,  and  there  is  a  col- 
lege of  agriculture  at  Downton.  Capital, 
Salisbury.  Pop.  (10U)  286376L 
Wimbledon  (wim'bl-dun),  a  town 
WUauieagiL  ^^  England,  county  of 
Surrey,  7  miles  southwest  of  London,  at 
the  northeast  extremity  of  Wimbledon 
Common.  Up  to  1889  it  was  well  known 
in  connection  with  the  shooting  competi- 
tions of  the  National  Rifle  Association. 
There  are  remains  of  an  ancient  British 
earthwork.     Pop.  54,876. 

Wimborne  Minster   (wim'bum), 

»«AA«AvvAuv  ou^uov^A  ^  town  m 
Dorsetshire,  England,  on  the  river  Allen, 
near  its  confluence  with  the  Stour.  The 
princ^ipal  building  is  the  minster,  a  fine 
cruciform  structure  in  various  styles. 
Pop.  3711. 

TXTiTi/^Air  (win'si),  a  strong  and  dura- 
wxiii/Cjr  ^jjle  cloth,  plain  or  twilled, 
comi)osed  of  a  cotton  warp  and  a  woolen 
weft. 

W^inch  ^  ^'i^d  of  hoisting  machine  or 
>  windlass,  in  which  an  axis  is 
turned  by  means  of  a  crank-handle,  and 
a  rope  or  chain  is  thus  wound  round 
it  so  as  to  raise  a  weight. 
T[7iti#%1ia11  (  winch'el  ),  Alexander, 
Wincueu  geologist,  bom  at  North 
East,  New  York,  in  1824;  died  in  1801. 
lie  held  professorships  in  the  University 
of  Michigan  and  elsewhere  and  for  a 
number  of  years  served  as  State  geologist 
of  Michigan.  He  wrote  Sketches  of  Crea- 
tiottt  Oeology  of  the  Stars,  Preadamites, 
World-Life^  and  various  other  works. 
WJTlpTi^TliloTi  A  town  (township)  in 
Wmcnenaon  Worcester  Co.,  Massa- 
chusetts. It  contains  several  villages, 
with  manufactures  of  cottons,  toys,  wood- 
en ware,  hardware,  leather,  etc  Pop.  of 
town,  5678. 

Winchester  ^T.^^X'^Ji' ^^x^i 

in  Hampshire,  on  the  Itchen,  12  miles 
N.  E.  of  Southampton.  The  most  impor- 
tant edifice  is  the  cathedral,  which  was 
built  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh 
century,  but  has  since  been  much  added 
to  and  altered.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
cross;  length  from  east  to  west,  545 
feet,  width  of  the  transepts  208  feet. 
Besides  being  in  itself  of  great  architec- 
tural importance,  it  contains  numerous 
monuments  of  historical  interest;  as  the 


tombs  of  William  Bufus,  of  Edmund,  son 
of  Kinff  Alfred,  and  of  Izaak  Walton; 
the  golden  shrine  of  St  Swithin;  bronze 
figures  of  James  I  and  Charles  I,  etc. 
The  other  important  buildings  and  in- 
stitutions are  St  Mary's  College,  founded 
in  1387,  the  town  hall,  the  old  castle, 
a  corn  exchange.  In  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury Winchester  was  the  principal  seat 
of  the  woolen  manufactures  in  England 
and  had  a  large  foreign  trade.  Pop. 
C19U)  40;W2. 

WiTi#«liAftf  Ar  «  <^*y»  <?o«nty  seat  of 
WmcneSXer,  Clark  Co..  kentucky, 
18  miles  E.  of  I^xington.  It  is  the  seat 
of  Kentucky  Wesley  an  College.  The 
industries  are  stock-raising,  farming, 
planing  and  flour  mills,  etc.  Pop.  9743. 
"WinnliAafpr  «  <^ty»  county  seat  of 
WincneSXer,  Frederick  Co.,  Va..  32 
miles  s.  w.  of  Harper's  Ferry.  It  lies 
in  the  Valley  of  Virginia  and  baa  several 
educational  institutions,  also  extensive 
manufactures  of  gloves,  leather,  woolen 
goods,  paper,  lumber,  flour^  etc.  National 
and  Confederate  cemeteries  are  located 
here.  During  the  Civil  war  in  its  vicinity 
were  fought  several  battles,  it  being  re- 
peatedly occupied  by  both  contestants. 
Pop.  5864. 

WiTinli#fcat#fcr  ^  village  and  township 
Wmcnesier,  of  Middlesex  Co.,  Mas- 
sachusetts, 8  miles  n.  n.  w.  of  Boston. 
It  has  a  State  aviary,  a  home  for  aged 
people,  etc.,  and  manufactures  of  leather, 
machinery  and  watch  hands.  Q«orge 
Bancroft  and  Theodore  Parker  were  bom 
here.     Pop.  of  town,  0309. 

Winckelmann  (vink'ei-man),   Jo- 

vv  AAi.vAVAAu»Ai.u  jj^j^j^  Joachim. 
critic  and  historian  of  ancient  classical 
art,  was  bom  at  Stendal,  Prussia,  in 
1717.  He  was  educated  at  Berlin  and 
Halle;  became  a  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ceived a  pension  from  the  papal  nuncio 
at  Dresden  (1755),  and  visited  Rome, 
where  he  was  appointed  librarian  to 
Cardinal  Alban.  In  1768  he  was  mur- 
dered and  robbed  in  an  inn  at  Trieste. 
His  chief  work  is  Anmerkungen  uher  die 
Baukunst  der  Alten  (1762). 
W^ind  ^  current  in  the  atmosphere,  as 
'  coming  from  a  particular  point. 
The  principal  cause  of  currents  of  air  is 
the  disturbance  of  the  equilibrium  of  the 
atmosphere  by  the  unequal  distribution 
of  heat  When  one  part  of  the  earth's 
surface  is  more  heated  than  another,  the 
heat  is  communicated  to  the  air  above 
that  part,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
air  expands,  becomes  lighter,  and  rises 
up,  while  colder  air  rushes  in  to  supply 
its  place,  and  thus  produces  wind.  It  is 
thus  that  the  sea-breeza  is  produced  every 
afternoon    at    places    near    the    coast. 


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especially  in  intertropical  countries,  the 
ground  having  been  heated  by  the  sun's 
rays  to  a  higher  temperature  than  the 
sea;  while  about  twelve  hours  later,  the 
reverse  effect  —  a  land-breeze  —  occurs, 
the  ground  having  fallen  at  night  to  a 
lower  temperature  than  the  sea.  As  the 
heat  of  the  sun  is  greatest  in  the  equa- 
torial regions,  the  general  tendency  there 
is  for  the  heavier  columns  of  air  to  dis- 
place the  lighter,  and  for  the  air  at  the 
earth's  surface  to  move  from  the  poles 
toward  the  equator.  The  only  supply 
for  the  air  thus  constantly  abstracted 
from  the  higher  latitudes  must  be  pro- 
duced by  a  counter-current  in  the  upper 
regions  of  the  atmosphere,  carrying  back 
the  air  from  the  equator  towards  the 
poles.  These  are  known  respectively  as 
the  Trade  and  the  Anti-Trade  iotnds. 
Besides  the  unequal  distribution  of  heat 
already  mentioned,  there  are  various  other 
causes  which  give  rise  to  currents  of 
air  in  the  atmosphere,  such  as  the  con- 
densation of  the  aqueous  vapors  which 
are  constantly  rising  from  the  surfaces  of 
rivers  and  seas,  and  the  agency  of  elec- 
tricity. Winds  have  been  divided  into 
fixed  or  constant^  as  the  trade-winds; 
periodical^  as  the  monsoons;  and  variable 
winds.  (See  Trade-winds^  Monsoon.) 
There  are  also  local  winds,  which  receive 
particular  names;  as,  the  etesian  wind, 
the  siroccot  the  simoom^  the  harmattanf 
the  mistral,  tpphon,  etc.  The  velocity 
and  force  of  the  wind  vary  considerably, 
as  shown  by  the  anemometer.  Thus  a 
light  wind  traveling  at  the  rate  of  5 
miles  an  hour  exercises  a  pressure  of  2 
oz.  on  the  square  foot;  a  light  breeze 
©f  10  miles  an  hour  has  a  pressure  of 
8  oz. ;  a  good  steady  breeze  of  20  miles, 
2  lbs.;  a  storm  of  60  miles,  18  lbs.;  a 
violent  hurricane  of  100  miles,  50  lbs., 
a  pressure  which  sweeps  everything  be- 
fore it.  Whirling  winds,  known  in  the 
United  States  as  tornadoes,  are  at  times 
of  enormous  violence,  the  air  movement 
being  at  the  speed  of  many  hundreds  of 
miles  an  hour.  See  Cycloxw. 
UTiTii^'hAr  a  borough  of  Somerset  Ca, 
WinaDer,  Pennsylvania,  21  miles 
N.  E.  of  Somerset.  It  has  coal-mining 
nnd  other  industries.     Pop.  8013. 

Windermere  i^'^^^^Z^l 

sheet  of  water  in  England,  and  renowned 
on  account  of  the  beauty  of  its  scenery, 
is  partly  in  Westmoreland  and  partly  in 
Lancashire.  It  is  about  11  miles  long, 
and  averages  1  mile  in  breadth;  its  prin- 
cipal feeders  are  the  Bratha;jr  and  the 
Rotbay,  and  it  has  numerous  islets. 
Windfalls  (wind'gftlz),  are  puffy 
Wiua^aus   g^ellings    about    the   fet- 


lock joints  of  animals,  especially  the 
horse,  a  result  of  over- work  on  hard 
roads.  They  are  not  accompanied  with 
I>ain  or  lameness  and  cause  no  serious 
trouble.  A  long  rest  may  cure  them  in 
young  horses. 

Windham  |.$f;rLt!^sjsr"iH>?s 

in  London  in  1750;  died  in  1810.  After 
being  educated  at  Eton,  Glasgow,  and 
Oxford,  he  was  returned  to  parliament 
(1784)  as  member  for  Norwich.  Op- 
posed at  first  to  Pitt's  administration 
he  joined  in  Burke's  condemnation  of 
the  French  Revolution,  and  advocated 
the  war  against  France;  became  secre- 
tary of  war  in  1794,  and  remained  in  this 
position  until  the  retirement  of  Pitt  in 
1801;  took  office  again  in  the  Grenville 
administration  (1806),  and  brought  for- 
ward a  bill  to  limit  the  term  of  service 
in  the  army,  as  also  to  increase  the  pay 
and  pensions  of  officers  and  men ;  re- 
tired from  office  (1807),  and  strenuously 
opposed  the  Copenhagen  and  Walcheren 
expeditions.  He  was  the  friend  of  Dr. 
Johnson  and  Cobbett,  and  combined  the 
varied  qualities  of  scholar,  orator,  states- 
man, athlete,  and  sportsman. 

Wind-instniinent,  %°    >n«tr"/»ent 

w¥  AAJ.M.  AA1.0VJ.  u.axj.>^A«.v,    q£  music,  played 

by  means  of  artificially-produced  currents 

of  wind,  as  the  organ,  harmonium,  etc., 

or  by  the  human  breath,  as  the  flute,  horn. 

etc.     See    Instrument    and    Instrumental 

Music, 

TXTiTii^losa  (wind'las),  a  modification 
WlliUlUBB      qJ  ^j^^  ^,jj^g,  ^jj^  ^^ig  ^^^ 

for  raising  weights.  The  simple  form  of 
the  windlass  used  in  ships,  for  raising 
the  anchors,  consists  of  a  strong  beam  of 
wood  placed  horizontally,  and  supported 
at  its  ends  bv  iron  spindles,  which  turn 
ip  collars  or  bushes  inserted  in  what  are 


Ship's  Windlass. 

termed  the  windlass  hitts.  This  large 
axle  is  pierced  with  holes  directed  to- 
ward its  center,  in  which  long  levers  or 
handspikes  are  inserted  for  turning  it 
round  when  the  anchor  is  to  be  weighed 
or  any  purchase  is  required.  It  is  fur- 
nisbea    with    pawls   to   prevent    it    from 


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Windsor 


taming  backwards  when  the  pressure  <m 
the  handspikes  is  intermitted. 
Windmill      ^  °^^'^  which  receives  its 
VT  j»uu.iiAxxj.y    motion   from    the    impact 

of  wind  upon  sails,  and  which  is  used 
for  grinding  com,  pumping  water,  etc. 
In  structure  the  wmdmill  is  a  conical 
or  pyramidal  tower,  and  from  the  posi- 
tion of  the  sails  in  relation  to  the  wind- 
shaft  it  is  described  as  either  vertical  or 
horizontal.  In  the  former,  a  section  of 
which  is  here  given,  the  wind  is  made  to 
act  upon  sails  or  vanes  ▲  ▲  attached 
by  means  of  rectangular  frames  to  the 
axle  or  windBhaft  of  the  mill.  This  axle 
is  placed  nearly  horizontal,  so  that  the 
sails  by  the  pressure  of  the  wind  revolve 
in  a  nearly  vertical  plane,  thus  giving  a 
rotarv  motion  to  the  driving  wheel  e 
fixed  in  the  wind-shaft.  The  movement 
thus  produced  is  transferred  by  means  of 


WiTH^nm     WnxiAH,   statesman,   be 
Wrnaoni,    j^    Behnont   Co.,   Ohio, 


bora 
in 
1827 ;  died  in  1891.  He  was  elected  to 
Congress  from  Minnesota  in  1858  and 
to  the  senate  in  1870;  was  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  under  Garfield,  in  1881,  and 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  under  Har- 
rison, in  1889. 

WinHA^or  (win'do),  an  opening  in  the 
wmuuw  ^^^  ^^  ^  building  to  admit 
light  and  air  into  the  interior.  In 
dwelling  houses  in  ancient  times  the 
windows  were  narrow  slits,  and  it  was 

not   until  about  , . 

the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century 


Section  of  upper  part  c»f 
Wiudmiil. 

bevel- wli  eels  to  the  ma  id  shaft 
F,  which  is  conoected  with  the 
specific  machinery  of  the  mill.  As  the 
sails  to  be  effective  must  always  face  the 
wind,  this  is  accomplished  in  modern  mills 
by  a  self-adjusting  cap  B,  moved  by  a  fan 
or  flyer  c  attached  to  the  projecting  frame- 
work at  the  back  of  the  cap.  B^  means 
of  a  pinion  on  its  axis,  motion  is  given 
to  the  inclined  shaft  and  to  the  wheel  d 
on  the  vertical  spindle  of  the  pinion  a; 
tills  latter  pinion  engages  the  cogs  on  the 
outside  of  the  fixed  rim  of  the  cap, 
and  by  these  means  the  sails  are  kept 
constantly  to  the  wind,  when  the  wind 
causes  the  fan  o  to  revolve.  In  the 
horizontal  windmill,  which  is  considered 
inferior  to  the  other,  the  wind-shaft  is 
vertical,  so  that  the  sails  revolve  on  a 
horizontal  plane.  In  most  of  the  wind- 
mills used  in  America,  the  sails  consist 
of  narrow  boards  arranged  in  a  circular 
framework  at  a  constant  angle  to  catch 
the  wind.  Windmills,  while  widely  re- 
placed by  the  steam  engine,  are  still 
larrely  used  in  the  United  States  and 
Holland. 


were    almost     un- 
known  in    the   re- 
ligious   edifices    of  '-^^       - 
the         Egyptians,  West  Window,  Erwux 
Greeks,     and     Ro-             Cathedral, 
mans,    the    light 

being  admitted  at  the  roof,  but  they 
constitute  an  essential  and  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  Gothic  style.  In  modem 
houses  windows  are  made  capable  of  be- 
ing opened  and  shut  by  means  of  case- 
ments or  sashes.  In  Britain  a  window 
tax  was  imposed  in  1695,  and  m 
1851,  when  the  tax  was  abolished, 
each  house  having  more  than  seven  win- 
dows was  taxed.  No  such  tax  was  ever 
imposed  in  the  United  States. 
Windpipe.     ^^  Trachea, 

Windsor  (^iJ^'^^r),  or  New  Wnro- 
SOB,  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  in  England,  county  of 
Berks,  beautifully  situatea  on  the 
Thames,  22  miles  w.  from  London,  and 
connected  by  a  bridge  with  Eton.  There 
are  several  churches  and  chapels,  bar- 
racks, an  infirmary,  etc.  The  only 
manufacture  of  importance  is  that  of 
tapestry.  Pop.  19,840.  Windsor  owes 
its  chief  Importance  to  its  castle,  which 
stands  east  of  the  town  on  a  height  over- 
looking the  river  Thames,  and  is  the 
principal  royal  residence  m  the  kingdom. 
It  was  begun,  or  at  least  enlarged,  by 
Henry  I,  and  has  been  altered  and  added 
to  by  almost  every  sovereign  since.  The 
castle  stands  in  the  Home  Park  or 
•Little  Park,'  which  is  4  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  this  again  is  connected 
with  the  Great  Park,  whfch  is  18  miles 
in  circuit,  and  contains  an  avenue  of 
trees  3  miles  in  length.  The  chief  fea- 
tures  of  interest  in   the  castie  are  tb« 


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Windsor  Winged  Lion 

old     state     apartments;     St.     George*8  arrested  while  part  of  the  sugar  is  un- 

Chapel,  where  the  Knights  of  the  Garter  changed  a  fruity  wine  is  the  result     If 

are   installed,   and    the   vaults   of   which  the  process,  however,  is  completed,  and 

contain  the  remains  of  Henry  VI,  Edward  all   the  sugar  converted   into  alcohol,  a 

IV,  Henry  Vlll^Charles  I,  George  III.  dry  wine  is  obtained.    When  an  efferveB- 

George  IV,  and  William  IV;  the  Uouna  cing    wine,    like    champagne,    is    desired 

Tower  or  ancient  keep;  and  the  present  the  fermenting  liquid  is  bottled,  and  the 

state  apartments  occupied  by  the  sovei;-  process  of  fermentation  completed  in  the 

eign.  bottle,  where   the  carbonic  acid  gas  re- 

Windsor    *  ^°^°  ®°^  P^*"^  ®^  entry,  mains  to  give  it  a  sparkling  effervescent 

^  capital  of  Hants  Co.,  Nova  quality.     When  the  wine  is  red  in  color 

Scotia,   on   an    arm    of   Minas   Bay,   45  it  shows  that  the  skins  of  the  grape  have 

miles  N.  w.  of  Halifax.     It  is  the  seat  remained  in  the  vat  during  fermentation, 

of    King's    College,    founded     in     1788.  while  in  tohite  wines  the  skins  have  been 

There  are*  here  extensive  mines  of  lime-  removed    before    that    process   is   begun, 

stone,  gypsum  and  oth^r  useful  minerals.  The  leading  character  of  wine  must  be 

Windsor  was  settled  about  1745  and  in-  referred    to    the    alcohol    which    it    con- 

corporated  in  1878.     Pop.  3398.  tains,   and   upon   which   its   intoxicating 

mrindfiOr    ^  ^^^^  ^  Ontario,  Canada,  powers  principally  depend.    The  amount 

vTxii.u.Dvxy  on    the    Detroit    River   and  of  alcohol  in  the  stronger  ports  and  sher- 

Grand    Trunk,    Canadian     Pacific,    and  ries  is  from  16  to  25  per  cent ;  in  hock, 

other  railways.     It  is  in  a  fruit  region,  claret,  and  other  light  wines  from  7  to 

and   has   saU,    chemical,    and   other   im-  12  per  cent     Wine  containing  more  than 

portant  industries.     Pop.  20,000.  13  per  cent  of  alcohol  may  be  assumed 

IXTiTii^nrfirii  TQlciTi^fi    (  wind'ward  ),  to  be  fortified  with  brandy  or  other  spirit 

wiiiuwaiu  X9XiiiiUB    ^jjg  q£  ^jjg  jj.  rpije  most  celebrated  ancient  wines  were 

visions  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  in  the  West  those   of   Lesbos   and    Chios   among   the 

Indies,  so  called  in  opposition  to  another  Greeks,  and  the  Falernian  and  Cecuban 

division  of  the  same,  called  the  Leeward  among      the      Romans.     The      principal 

UlandB.    The  term  is  vaguely  used,  but  modem  wines  are  Port,  Sherry,  Claret, 

generally  includes  Martinique,  St  Lucia,  Champagne,     Madeira,     Hock,     Marsala, 

St     Vincent,    Grenada,    Barbados,    and  etc.     The  varieties  of  wine  produced  are 

Tobago.  almost  endless  and  differ  in  every  con- 

Xffinf^    (win),  the  term  specifically  ap-  stituent  according  to  the  locality,  reason, 

^^^^   plied  to  the  fermented  juice  of  and   age.    The   principal   wine-producing 

the  grape  or  fruit  of  the  vine,  though  it  countries   are  ,  France,   Germany,   Spain, 

may  also  be  applied  to  the  fermented  juice  P^j-tugal,     Italy,     Sicily,    Greece,     Cape 

of  any   fruit     (See   Vine.)     Wines  are  Colony,  Australia,  and  the  United  States, 

distinguished   practically   by    their  color,  ^"^^^  *^^«'T*«.!  SHf^V^^t^l^^^^liS^; 

hardness  or  softness  on  the  palate,  their  8"^?^  m  the  United  States  is  the  product 

flavor,  and  their  being  still  or  effervescing.  ^U!^^^  country,  chiefly  of  California. 

The  differences  in  the  quality  of  wines  de-  Wine-meaSUre,    ?JU«n«.    bv    which 

Eend  partly  upon  differences  in  the  vmes,  .  ,  ...  ,  measure  oy  wnicn 
ut  more  on  the  differences  of  the  wmes  and  other  spirits  were  sold.  In 
soils  in  which  they  are  planted,  in  the  this  measure  the  gallon  contamed  231 
exposure  of  the  vineyards,  in  the  treat-  c"«>ic  pches.  ^  ^„„Hf 
ment  of  the  grapes,  and  the  mode  of  Winficld  ^^  ^*?.^'  iL  nl^'ir^n™^ 
manufacturing  the  wines.  When  the  J^^^^*^  «®*^  ^^  ^:^l*T„^'bf  *i^ 
grapes  are  fully  ripe,  they  generally  yield  50  nulw  B.  8.  E.  of  Wichita.  Here  are 
the  most  perfect  wine  as  to  strength  and  an  institution  for  the  feeble-minded,  two 
flavor.  The  juice  is  expressed  from  the  colleges,  a  Chautauqua  Assembly,  flour 
grapes  by  means  of  presses  of  all  va-  mills,  produce  plants,  etc.  Pop.  tJTUU. 
rieties  of  construction,  from  the  simple  Wlllfired  Bull.  ^  architectural  dec- 
lever  and  wedge  press  to  the  machine  ^"*6^^  ,  \  option  of  frequent 
with  hydraulic  power.  It  is  usual  to  occurrence  in  ancient  Assyrian  temples, 
separate  the  juice  as  it  is  expressed  into  where  winged  human-headed  bulls  and 
first,  second,  and  third  *  runs,'  the  first  lions  of  colossal  size  usually  guarded  the 
pressing  being  the  best  quality,  and  the  portals.  They  were  evidently  typical  of 
amount  of  all  the  juice  is  usually  about  the  union  of  the  greatest  intellectual  and 
70  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  grapes,  physical  powers.  _  u  i  j  i.u 
The  juice  of  the  grape  when  newly  ex-  Win^fill  LioTl  *°®  symbol  of  the 
pressed,  and  before  it  has  begun  to  fer-  ^  *^8^^  xixuii,  evangelist  St.  Mark, 
ment,  is  of  a  sweet  taste,  and  is  called  which  was  adopted  as  the  heraldic  de^ 
must.  The  fermenting  process  requires  vice  of  the  Venetian  Republic.  A  a»>-^ 
much   time  and  attention,   and   if  it  be  brated  bronse  figure  of  the  winged  \\m^ 


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Wing-shell  '  Winsey 

of  St  Mark  sarmomitiiis  a  magnificent  Canadian   Pacific   now  gave  it   a   great 
.     ,  granite   colamn^    formed   out    of    a  boom,  wild  land  apecnlation  setting  in, 
mngle  block,  stands  in  the  pianetta  of  and   the   population   doubling  in  a  few 
St  Mark  at  Venice.  months.    This  *  boom  *,  however,  checked 

IXriTKy.aliAll        SUa  Pimmj^  ^^  development  of  the  city,  a  business 

Wing-Sneii.       see  P%fm9.  coUapse   following,    which    ckused    much 

WlTiTliTW*^  (win'i-peg),  a  lake  of  loss  and  rapidlj  diminished  the  popula- 
w¥  xAMMx^sif^  Canada,  province  of  Mani-  tion.  But  prosperity  soon  returned  and 
toba ;  length,  about  250  miles ;  breadth,  in  1886  it  had  20,2^  population.  Being 
from  5  to  70  miles.  It  receives  the  sur-  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  prairie  re- 
plus  waters  of  lakes  Winnip^oos  and  f^on,  which  extends  for  a  thousand  miles 
Manitoba,  besides  the  river  Winnipeg,  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  lying  west- 
but  its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Saskatch-  ward  of  the  great  L<aurentian  formation 
ewan  and  the  Red  River.  Its  surplus  extending  to  Montreal,  it  is  admirably 
water  is  discharged  by  the  Nelson  River  situated  as  an  important  railway  center, 
into  Hudson  Bay.  The  river  of  the  same  The  first  railway  to  reach  it  was  the 
name,  which  flows  into  Lake  Winnipeg,  Pembina  branch  of  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
rises  in  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and  has  ^  1878.  This  branch  connects  with  the 
a  length  of  about  250  miles.  Its  navi-  nulway  system  of  the  United  States, 
gation  is  interrupted  by  faUa.  ^^   Canadian    Pacific   main   line    soon 

WinniTieir  capital  of  the  province  of  after  traversed  the  city  and  several 
w  xiuupc^^y  Manitoba,  Canada,  stands  branches  radiated  from  this  center.  These 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Assiniboine  and  advantages  and  its  location  on  navi- 
the  Red  rivers,  40  miles  8.  of  Lake  Win-  sable  rivers  made  it  the  commercial  focus 
nipeg.  It  occupies  a  central  position  on  of  the  vast  agricultural  territory  of  the 
the  Canadian  Padfic  Railway,  1424  miles  Canadian  Northwest,  a  fact  to  which  it 
by  rail  w.  n.  w.  of  Montreal,  and  512  ^b  lanely  owing  its  rapid  development 
miles  1?.  V,  w.  of  Minneapolis.  The  In  1^1  it  had  a  population  of  25,042, 
locality  of  t^e  city  is  that  of  the  old  Red  ^^^  ^  1^1  of  42,340,  but  dnce  the 
River  colony  of  Lord  Selkirk,  founded  in  latter  date,  the  settlement  of  the  wheat- 
1812.  In  fact,  five  fur  traders'  forts  have  growing  territory  of  the  Northwest  has 
stood  within  the  city  limits :  Fort  Rouge,  given  it  ft  phenomenal  growth,  its  popu- 
a  French  outpost  (1736)  ;  Fort  Gibraltar,  lation  reading  136.035  in  1911.  The 
built  by  Montreal  traders  (1804-15)  ;  <^ty  is  handsomely  laid  out,  with  numer> 
Fort  Doufflas,  the  Lord  Selkirk  strong-  ous  interesting  edifices,  including  the  city 
hold  (1813-15)  :  Old  Fort  Garry,  of  the  hall,  the  parliament  buildings,  the  grain 
Hudson  Bay  Company  (1821-35),  and  exchange,  governor's  residence,  court- 
New  Fort  Garry  (1835-82).  Hie  trans-  house.  University  of  Manitoba  (a  well 
fer  of  Ruperf s  Land  to  Canada  in  1870  endowed  institution  with  four  affiliated 
led  to  the  founding  of  the  Manitoba  prov-  colleges),  St  John's  Episcopal  College, 
ince,  and  at  that  date  Winnipeg  began/  Manitoba  Medical  College  and  St  Boni- 
as  a  village,  half  a  mile  north  of  Fort  'ace  (Roman  Catholic)  C3ollege.  Among 
Garry.  It  owes  its  sudden  expansion'  the  business  interests  of  the  dty,  the 
into  an  important  city  largelv  to  its  ^ast  bazaar  known  as  the  Hudson  Bay 
position  on  the  Canadian  Pacinc,  while  Company's  stores  stands  preeminent 
it  is  also  benefited  by  railway  connec-  There  are  also  great  flour  mills  and  grain 
tion  with  the  United  States  and  by  sev-  elevators,  the  repair  shops  of  the  Cana- 
eral  other  railways  which  radiate  from  dian  Padfic  Railway,  and  manufactures 
it  The  site  of  the  city  is  on  a  prairie,  of  agricultural  implements,  cottons,  sew- 
part  of  it  being  originally  swampy,  though  ing  silk  and  dairy  implements, 
it  is  now  well  drained.  It  extends  on  W'inOIia.  (wi-n6'n4),  a  city  county 
hoiii   sides   of   the   Assiniboine,   and   on  "vaj-c*     ^^^  ^^  Winona  Co.,  Minne- 

the  west  side  of  the  Red  River,  the  sota,  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
east  side  of  which  is  occupied  by  its  Mississippi.  It  is  one  of  the  largest 
suburb  of  St  Boniface,  settled  in  1817  grain-shipping  points  in  the  United 
by  Lord  Selkirk's  German  De  Meuron  States,  and  an  active  manufacturing  city, 
soldiers.  The  growth  of  Winnipeg  has  producing  agricultural  implements,  car- 
been  remarkably  rapid.  In  1871,  the  pop-  riages  and  wagons,  flour,  patent  medicines, 
ulation  of  the  village  was  only  241,  but  malt  liquors,  etc.  Here  is  a  State  normal 
it  grew  so  rapidly  that  in  1873  it  was  school  and  other  educational  institutions, 
incorporated   as  a   city,   in   the  face  of  Pop.  22.000. 

vigorous  opposition  by  the  Hudson  Bay  W'ingev  *^^  Wincey,  a  doth  consist- 
Compapy.      Canadisn    immigration    now  ''^Jy  ing  of  woolen  warp  and  cot- 

became  rapid,  and  in  1881  it  had  7985  ton  weft,  or  of  wool  mixed  with  a  por- 
Inhabitants.     Its  central  position  on  the  tion  of  cotton.     Heavy  winseys  are  used 


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Winslow  Winten 

for  skirtings,  light  winseys  for  men's  WiTififi^H  (win'sted),  a  borough  and 
shirts.  *  '      *  -^  wmstea    ^^^  ^^  ^j^^  capitals  of  Litch- 

WiTiolAxir  (winz'16),  Edwabd,  gov-  field  Co.,  Connecticut,  at  the  outlet  of 
WlUSiUW  ernor  of  Plymouth  col-  I^ng  Lake,  28  miles  N.  w.  of  Hertford, 
ony,  Massachusetts,  was  born  in  1695  at  It  has  a  county  hospital,  children's  home, 
Droitwich,  England,  sailed  in  the  May-  and  varied  manufactures.  Pop.  7754. 
flower,  was  governor  or  assistant  governor  Winston  ^^^^  Clark,  publisher,  po- 
after  1624,  and  returned  on  three  occa-  ^•*"*»»'^**>  litical  reformer,  was  bom 
aions  to  England  to  further  the  interests  at  Darlington,  Indiana,  in  1856.  He  was 
of  the  colony.  In  doing  this  he  published  graduated  at  Ilaverford  College  in  1881 ; 
Oood  Net09  From  New  EngJnnd  (1624),  entered  the  publishing  business  in  Phila- 
Hyprocrisie  Unmasked  (1646),  and  New  delphia.  and  in  18H4  organized  and  be- 
England^B  Salamander  (1647),  all  these  came  president  of  The  John  C.  Winston 
being  yaluable  descriptions  of  the  young  Company,  lie  has  long  been  prominent 
colony.  He  was  appointed  by  CromweU  in  reform  politics  in  Philadelphia, 
chief  commissioner  of  an  expedition  WiTlstOTl-Ssi.lein  *  ^^*y»  countv 
against  the  West  Indies  and  died  at  sea  W^"»«'«"  oaiciu,  ^^^^  ^^  Forsyth 
in  1655. — JosiAH,  his  son,  bom  in  1629;  County,  North  Carolina.  Winston  and 
died  in  1680 ;  was  assistant  governor  from  Salem  were  formerly  separate,  but  were 
1657  to  1673.  and  afterwards  governor  consolidated  into  one  city  in  1913. 
until  his  death.  He  was  appointed  gen-  Salem  was  established  in  1766 ;  Winston 
eral-in-chief  of  the  United  Colonies  in  in  1849.  The  city  is  located  within  fifty 
1675,  and  in  the  same  year  the  ^t  pub-  miles  of  the  main  range  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
lie  school  was  founded  under  his  auspices.  Mountains  and  is  an  important  railroad 
— John,  Josiah's  grandson,  born  in  1702 ;  and  industrial  center,  with  varied  manu- 
died  in  1774;  carried  out,  under  orders  factures.  It  is  the  principal  trading 
from  the  British  authorities,  the  removal  center  of  a  wide  area.  Pop.  30,000. 
of  the  Acadians.  W^lllt    I^^^eb  ^^  painter,  was  born  at 

TXriYifilnnr  Forbes  Bbnignus.  physi-  ^'  *""»  Stone,  Staffordshire,  England, 
wiUBiuwy  cian.  bom  at  London  in  in  1784;  died  in  1849.  He  descended 
1810;  died  in  1874.  He  was  educated  from  a  Dutch  family  settled  in  New 
in  Scotland  and  Manchester;  studied  York,  studied  Mezzotint  engraving,  but 
medicine  at  New  York  and  London  Uni-  soon  took  up  oil  and  water-color  paint- 
versities  passed  the  College  of  Surgeons  ing.  He  became  notable  for  his  beautiful 
in  1835;  and  in  1849  was  graduated  water-color  illustrations  of  English  land- 
M.D.  from  Aberdeen.  He  devoted  him-  scape,  architecture  and  country  life.  His 
self  chiefly  to  the  investigation  of  men-  favorite  fields  of  work  were  in  Uncoln, 
tal  disease,  and  published  Anatomy  of  Yorkshire  and  Derbyshire,  though  he  also 
Suicide  (1840),  iManity  in  Criminal  painted  scenes  on  the  Thames  and  the 
Cases  (1843K  Obscure  Diseases  of  the  Trent,  in  Wales  and  elsewhere.  He  ex- 
Brain  (I860),  etc.  hibited  mainly  in  the  rooms  of  the  Water- 
TXTinaloixr  John,  naval  officer,  born  color  Society.  He  is  well  represented 
WAiiMvw,  ^^  Wilmington.  North  Car-  both  in  the  National  Gallery  and  at 
olina,  in  1811;  died  in  1873.  He  en-  South  Kensington.  Among  his  cele- 
tered  the  navy  about  1827,  and  in  1862  brated  pictures  are  The  Cricketers^  Lin- 
served  under  Oiptain  Foote  on  the  coin  Cathedral,  The  Hay  Harvest^  Rich- 
Mississippi  River.  In  1863  was  put  in  mond  Hill,  Cows  in  Winter,  A  Cornfield 
command  of  the  Kearsage,  a  7-gun  and  A  Woody  Landscape,  the  last  two 
steamer,  and  sent  to  the  coast  of  Europe  oil  paintings. 

to  watch  the  Confederate  cruisers.  Here  Winter  (^^i^'ter),  the  coldest  season 
on  June  19,  1864,  he  met  the  privateer  '»***•'***  of  the  year,  in  the  northern 
Alabama,  and  sunk  it  after  a  short  fight,  hemisphere  comprising  the  months  of 
its  crew  being  rescued.  He  was  ap-  December,  January  and  February.  The 
pointed  commodore  in  1865  and  rear-  astronomical  winter  begins  on  the  short- 
admiral  in  1870.  est  day  (December  22)  and  ends  with 
WiTifior  Justin,  historian,  bom  at  the  vernal  equinox  (March  21). 
''^  *"**"*»  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  Winfpr  John  Stbanoo.  See  Stan- 
1831;  died  in  1897.  He  was  superin-  ^  ^^^^^^  nard,  Mrs.  Arthur. 
tendent  of  the  Boston  Public  Library,  IJCTiTiter  William,  author  and  dra- 
and  librarian  of  Harvard  University.  ^  matic  critic,  was  born  at 
He  was  the  highest  authority  on  the  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  in  1S.H6.  He 
early  history  of  North  America.  Hia  studied  law.  but  soon  forsook  it  for  a 
works  are  Memorial  History  of  Boston,  career  in  literature,  which  he  had  beeun 
and  The  Narrative  and  Critical  History  in  early  life.  In  1854  appeared  his  first 
0/  America,                                                       dramatic  criticism,    a   field   in   wbirh   ho 


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Winter-cress 


Wire-glass 


has  since  continued,  gaining  high  repu- 
tation as  a  critic.  He  has  written  much 
under  his  own  and  other  names,  largely 
in  poetry  and  on  stage  subjects,  and  has 
edited  many  of  Shakespeare's  and  other 
plays,  also  the  Poepis  of  Oeorge  Arnold, 
the  rorms  and  iStorte.'i  of  John  Urouunam, 
etc.    He  died  June  30.  1917. 

Winter-cress,  *'o  cTc?'f??ou''sT.in"J 

of   the   genus   Barharea,    Barbarea   vul- 

gdris,  called  also  yellow  rocket,  grows  on 

the  banks  of  ditches  and  rivers,  and  about 

hedges  and  walls.     It  is  bitter  and  sharp 

to  the  taste,  and  is  sometimes  used  as  a 

salad. 

WiTif^r<rrf^f^Ti     &    name     of    several 

winxergreen,  ^,^^^3^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^ 

being  the  partridge-berry  (which  see). 
The  name  is  also  given  to  a  genus  of 
perennial   plants    {Pyrola),   order  Pyro- 


northeast   of   ZQrich.     The   principal   in- 
dustries are  cotton  spinning,  silk  weaving, 
iron     foundries,     machine    making,     etc 
Pop.  22,335. 
WiTifliro'n     a    town     (township)     of 

winxnrop,  g^^^j^    ^^    Ma^chu- 

Rotts.  5  miles  N.  E.  of  Boston.  It  forms  a 
peninsula  in  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  is 
a  favorite  summer  resort  Pop.  10,132. 
WiTifnii  A  borough  of  Lackawanna 
wmtuuy  ^^^  Pennsylvania.  18  miles 
N.  E.  of  Scranton.  It  is  in  a  coal-mining 
district     Pop.  5280. 

IXTire  ^^^  metallic  substance  drawn 
^  to  an  even  thread  or  slender 
rod  of  uniform  diameter  by  being  passed 
between  grooved  rollers  or  drawn  through 
holes  in  a  plate  of  steel,  etc.  Wire  is 
usually  cylindrical,  but  it  is  also  made 
of  various  other  forms.  The  metals  most 
commonly    drawn    into    wire    are    gold. 


6       7      8 


8      10     II 

Sizes  of  Plain  Wire 


12  13  14  15  16  17  18  »  20 


lace»,  having  sh^rt  stems,  broad  ever- 
green leaves,  and  usually  racemose  white 
or  pink  flowers.  P.  rotundifolia  pos- 
sesses astringent  properties  and  was  for- 
merly used  in  medicine. 

Winter-moth,  tia'^tuJat^Z 

larvfB  of  which  are  exceedingly  injurious 
to  apple,  pear,  cherry,  and  plum  trees. 
The  moths  appear  in  their  perfect  state 
in  the  beginning  of  winter. 

Winter's-bark  i:''S\t''trJZ\: 

order  Magnoliacese,  a  native  of  South 
America.  It  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  the 
bark  of  which  has  an  a|;reeable,  pungent, 
aromatic  taste,  and  tonic  properties. 

Winter  Solstice,    ^ee  soutice. 
Winterthur  L'J^'^'T LS.rt^l 

canton  of  Ztlrich,  on  the  Eulach,  12  miles 


silyer,  copper,  aluminum,  iron  and  steel ; 
but  Uie  finest  wire  is  made  irom  platinum. 
Copper  and  iron  wire  is  extensively  used 
for  telegraph  and  telephone.  For  fences 
great  quantities  of  plain  and  barbed  wire 
are  produced.  During  the  European  war 
barbed  wire  was  extensively  employed  as 
a  protection  against  infantry  attack  by 
the  enemy.  Wtredratoing  is  Uie  name  for 
the  process  of  making  wire.  An  impor- 
tant use  of  wire  in  engineering  is  for  the 
manufacture  of  wire  rope.  This  is  com- 
posed of  strands  of  metal  wire  twisted  to- 
gether. These  wire  ropes  have  displaced 
nberropes  in  many  branches  of  industry. 
They  are  employed  for  suspension  bridges, 
for  hoisting  machines,  telegraph  cables* 
ship's  hawsers,  etc.  Endless  wire  ropes  or 
cables  ore  employed  on  traction  railways 
in  some  instiincos. 

Wire-rfaSS  window  glass  in  which 
'^    *     gxa,oi»,     ^  screen  of  woven  wire 


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Wireless  Telegraphy  '  Wireless  Telegrapliy 

is  imbedded.  The  molten  glass  is  poured  dicated  and  they  are  taken  up  in  Boffi- 
on  an  iron  nlatform  and  the  netted  wire,  cient  strength  to  repeat  their  pulsations 
heated  red  not,  is  pressed  into  it.  Tiie  and  in  this  way  reproduce  the  signals 
result  is  an  unbreakable  sheet  of  gln^^.  sent  from  Hie  transmitter.  One  dUfi- 
WirAlAflft  Tplpcrrfl'n'hv  ^^  send-  culty  hitherto  has  been  Uiat  a  message 
wxreiess  xeie^apny,  j^^  ^^  ^^j^  ^^^y  ^  received  by  hundreds  of  receiying 
graphic  messages  Hirough  open  space,  instruments  in  all  directions,  thus  pre- 
without  the  use  of  conducting  wires,  venting  secrecy.  Many  efforts  liave  been 
Three  different  methods  have  been  made  made  to  overcome  this  defect,  but  as  yet 
use  of  in  wireless  telesraphy,  which  may  with  only  partial  success.  The  distance 
be  classed  as  conduction,  induction  and  to  which  messages  can  be  sent  has  so  far 
wave  methods.  In  the  first  method  cur-  depended  largely  on  the  height  to  which 
rents  are  sent  through  the  earth  from  the  wires  extend  above  the  earth's  snr- 
an  electrode  to  another  at  the  sending  fac^  lofty  poles  being  erected  at  the 
station.  In  induction,  use  is  made  of  stations.  The  height  of  these  has  been 
the  property  which  alternating  currents  gradually  increased  until  the  Eiffel  Tower 
possess  of  exciting  similar  currents  in  at  Paris  has  been  utilized  as  a  sending 
neighboring  conductors,  the  aim  being  to  station.  The  strength  of  the  electric 
get  as  intense  a  current  as  possible  in  waves  has  been  similarly  increased  to 
the  secondary  circuit.  Mr.  W.  H.  Preece,  add  to  their  space-penetrating  capacity. 
England,  by  combining  the  two.  signaled  The  record  of  wireless  telegraphy  has 
in  this  way  as  far  as  40  miles.  The  been  in  this  way  improved  until  now  it 
third  and  the  only  method  which  has  has  come  into  daily  competition  with 
proved  practically  available  is  by  the  use  other  means  of  news  sending.  Methods 
of  electro-magnetic  waves.  Guglielmo  of  tuning  the  instruments  have  been 
Marconi,  an  Italian,  after  long  experi-  adopted  which  limit  the  influence  of  tht 
ment,  patented  in  1897  a  method  en-  currents  to  properly  tuned  receivers  and 
tirely  independent  of  wires,  the  electric  in  this  way  some  degree  of  secrecy  is 
waves  being  sent,  presumably,  through  attained.  Though  the  honor  of  inventing 
the  ether,  by  the  aid  of  a  transmitting  the  art  of  wireless  telegrs^^hy  is  gener- 
apparatus,  and  being  detected  by  a  ally  ascribed  to  Marconi,  this  is  to  fdve 
cohereff  a  glass  tube  filled  with  metallic  him  more  credit  than  he  deserves.  The 
filings,  into  the  end  of  which  the  ter-  principles  involved  were  discovered  by 
minals  of  a  relay  circuit  enter.  The  others  and  the  utmost  done  by  him  was 
wave  falls  on  conducting  material  and,  to  invent  a  practical  method  of  apply- 
the  spark  gap  being  replaced  by  a  ing  them.  There  are  other  systems  of 
coherer,  the  metallic  filings  magnetic-  wireless  telegraphy  of  later  invention 
ally  ding  together,  closing  the  relay  than  that  of  Marconi,  tiirough  a  different 
circuit,  so  that  a  signal  is  made.  On  application  of  the  same  principles,  but 
breaking  the  current,  a  slight  tap  on  the  none  so  far  that  seems  likely  to  supplant 
coherer  or  other  means  breaks  the  co-  the  Marconi  process.  Messages  have  been 
hesion  of  the  filings  and  the  relay  dr-  sent  to  enormous  distances,  far  surpass- 
cuit  is  broken.  In  this  way  a  rapid  ing  the  width  of  the  Atlantic,  as  from 
succession  of  signals  can  be  sent  In  Nova  8ootia  and  Ireland  to  Argentina, 
1899  Marconi  conducted  in  England  an  a  distance  of  6600  miles.  Under  excep- 
exhaustive  series  of  successful  experi*  tional  conditions  a  distance  of  6600 
men ts,  sending  messages  across  the  Eng-  miles  was  at  length  attained,  and  oom- 
lish  Channel  from  the  South  Foreland  munication  between  Japan  and  the  United 
to  the  French  coast  near  Boulogne,  and  States  was  established  in  1915.  For 
extending  his  results  until  much  longer  overland  messages  the  limit  of  distance 
distances  were  covered.  The  process  of  is  less  than  oversea.  Trans-Atiantic 
development  was  continued  until,  to  the  passenger  Tessels  are  now  fitted  out  with 
world's  astonishment,  signals  were  sent  wireless  apparatus,  by  means  of  which 
across  the  Atlantic  and,  finally,  conuner-  almost  constant  communication  can  be 
dal  messages  were  transmitted  over  this  kept  up  between  passing  vessels  and 
distance.  between  ships  and  shore.    The  effidency 

Marconi's  system  is  based  on  the  prop-  of  the  wireless  process  as  a  very  oseful 
erty  supposed  to  be  exerted  by  the  Ti-  appliance  on  shipboard  has  been  fre- 
brations  or  waves  of  electric  currents  quentiy  demonstrated  by  indicating  the 
passing  through  a  wire  of  setting  up  locality  of  sinking  ships  and  calling 
similar  vibrations  in  the  ether  of  space,  others  to  their  aid.  Relief  has  been 
These  waves  extend  in  every  direction  brought  in  this  way  to  vessels  in  distress 
from  the  point  of  departure  and  by  in-  and  many  lives  saved.  An  important  ex- 
gepious  and  very  delicate  receiving  in-  ample  is  that  of  the  sinking  of  the 
struments.  their  presence  in  space  is  in-  Titanic  in  1912.     By  means  of  wireless 


i 


i 


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Wireless  Telephony  Wisconsiii 

messages    from   ship   to   ship   the   width  by  tbe  Anti-Masonic  party  Aod  reoeived 

of  the  Pat  ilic  has  been  practically  cov-  the  electorial  vote  of  Vermont    He  died 

ered,  as  ships  enroute  from  America  to  February  28,  1834. 

Australia  or  Asia  can  be  kept  in  touch  Wisbefih  ^*  WlBBEACH  (wis'bfich)^ 
with  Honoluln  through  almost  the  entire  *9um\^*m^  ^  ^^^^  ^^  Cambridgeehire, 
journey.  Law  in  the  United  States  now  England,  on  the  Nene,  on  the  island  of 
requires  that  all  ocean  passage-steamers  Ely,  40  miles  N.  of  Cambridge.  Vessels 
carrjring  50  or  more  passengers  on  of  nearly  500  tons  can  ascend  to  Nene, 
routes  of  200  miles  or  over,  must  be  and  the  place  has  some  trade  and  manu- 
equipped  with  efficient  wireless  apparatus  factures.  It  was  long  famous  for  its 
and  operators.  The  distance  reached  woad  and  this  is  still  made  here  for  dye- 
must  be  at  least  100  miles.  Tbe  Cana-  ing.  A  castle  was  founded  here  by  Wil- 
dian  law  provides  that  every  sea-going  liam  the  Conqueror  in  1071^  was  aeyeml 
and  coasting  passenger  ship  of  over  400  times  rebuilt,  but  waa  demolisbed  in  1810. 
tons  gross,  registered  in  Canada,  and  Pop.  (1911)  10,828. 
every  sea-eoing  and  coasting  freight  ship  Tirxa'Kv  (^'b^)t  &  seaport  famous  iik 
of  over  1200  tons  gross,  shaU  be  equipped  ^  *»*'/  medieval  times  on  the  Swedish 
with  a  wireless  apparatus.  Wireless  mes-  island  of  Gothland,  130  miles  B.  of  Stock- 
sages  have  been  successfully  sent  from  holm.  It  was  one  of  the  most  important 
aeroplanes,  balloons  and  submarine  ves-  commercial  cities  in  Europe  during  the 
sels,  and  the  naval  vessels  of  all  nations  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  and  a  prin- 
are  kept  in  easy  communication  by  this  cipal  factor  of  the  Hanseatic  Leagne  in 
method.  Wireless  press  messages  be-  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth.  It  was 
tween  America  and  Europe  are  also  mat-  captured  and  plundered  by  Valdimar  III 
ters  of  daily  performances.  Great  Britain  of  Denmark,  In  1361,  and  this  proved 
proposes  to  send  wireless  messages  e  ound  fatal  to  its  prosperity.  Its  remains  at- 
the  world  by  a  system  of  relays.  test  its  early  grandeur.    Pop.  6666. 

Wireleaa TelfiTilionv.  ^"^  -*7*'  WisroTifiin  (wis-kon'sin),  a  river 
wireless  j.eiepuuiijr.   ^em  of  elec-  vviscQnsia  ^j^-^j^  ^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^^^^ 

trical  transmission  employed  in  wireless  em  border  of  Wisconsin,  runs  southward, 
telegraphy  has  recently  been  applied  sue-  becomes  navigable  at  Fortage  city,  ana 
cessfully  in  telephony,  through  the  in-  enters  the  Mississippi  4  miles  below 
vention  of  suitable  apparatus,  and  tt  is  Prairie-du-Chien  after  a  course  of  nearly 
possible  to  telephone  many  miles  with-  600  miles.  It  is  remarkable  for  its 
out    wires.      Distances    reached    in    this  rapids  and  falls. 

manner  have  rapidly  and  remarkably  in-  WifinriTifiiTi  one  of  the  northern 
creased,  and  in  Sentember,  1915,  a  mes-  VYISUUUMU,  United  States,  bounded 
sage  sent  from  Arlington,  Va.,  to  Call-  north  by  Lake  Superior,  northeast  by 
fomia  was  distinctly  heard  in  Hawaii.  Michigan,  east  by  Lake  Michigan,  south 
WirA«WOrmS  "^®  name  given  the  by  Illinois,  and  west  by  Iowa  and  Min- 
vYA*^  TTVAAU0)  grubs  of  tbe  click  beetle  nesota,  the  Mississippi  river  separating  it 
(Elater  or  Agriotes).  They  are  perhaps  from  the  latter  States;  area,  66,066  aq. 
the  moat  injurious  of  farm  pests,  destroy-  miles.  It  condsts  of  an  ondulating 
ing  root,  grain  and  fodder  cropa  Their  plateau,  varying  from  600  to  1500  feet 
name  is  given  from  their  Hkeness  in  above  the  sea-level,  with  high  bluffs  abnf 
rtuipe  and  toughness  to  a  piece  of  wire,  the  rWers  and  lakes,  elsewhere  diversi- 
Tbej  are  of  yddovTish  color,  ^  to  %  inch  fied  with  prairie  and  woodland.  Besides 
in  length,  with  three  pairs  of  legs  and  a  Michigan  and  Superior  there  are  nu* 
suctorial  appendage  below  the  tail,  merous  small  lakes;  the  chief  rivers. 
Among  the  natural  enemies  of  these  which  drain  into  the  Mississippi,  are  the 
worms,  moles,  plovers,  pheasants  and  St  Croix,  Chippewa  and  Wisconsin, 
rooks  are  the  most  important  In  winter  the  weather  is  severe,  but  on 

Wirt  WnxiAH,  lawyer,  bom  at  Bla-  the  whole  the  climate  is  dry  and  healthy. 
^  *'*'  *'*  densburg,  Maryland,  in  1772 ;  The  northern  part  of  the  State  is  heavily 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1792,  and  in  timbered,  but  is  fast  becoming  settled. 
1806  settled  in  Richmond,  Vs.,  where  The  State  ranks  high  in  agrictiltural 
he  became  a  prominent  lawyer.  He  dis-  value,  the  soil  outside  the  wooded 
tinguished  himself  at  the  trial  of  Aaron  country  being  good  and  producing  large 
Burr,  in  1807,  as  one  of  the  counsel  for  crop,  such  as  wheat,  corn,  rye,  oats, 
the  prosecution.  He  held  many  State  barley,  potatoes,  hay  and  beet  su^r. 
offices,  was  appointed  United  States  Dis-  Fruit  growing  is  an  important  industry, 
trict  Attorney  in  1816,  and  Attorney-  and  cheese  and  butter  making  have  very 
General  in  1817,  holding  the  latter  office  greatly  increased.  So  has  tobacco-grow- 
till  1829,  through  three  administrations,  ing,  which  is  profitable,  the  leaf  com* 
He  was  nominated  for  President  in  1832  manding  a  high  price  tat  wrappeiik 


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Sire  □/    typi\  tnJfCsiittH 
rtlitfk't  i>nrar<iMiL<  o/ p/uce* 


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Wisdom  Witchcraft 

In  the  north  the  lumber  business  is  large,  trines ;   returned   to   Scotland   and  began 

Horses   are   kept   in   large   numbers   and  to  teach,  but  was  prosecuted  for  heresy; 

sheep  are  numerous,  the  wool  clip  being  fled  to  England  in  1538,  and  remained  in 

valuable.     The  mineral   wealth  is   great.  Cambridge    for    six    years;    returned    to 

especially  of  iron  ore,  of  which  the  yield  Scotland   in   1543,   and   preached   in   the 

is  enormous.    An  excellent  hydraulic  ce-  chief    towns,    for   which    oflfense,    at    the 

ment   comes   from    the    vicinity    of    Mil-  order    of   Cardinal    Beaton,    he   was   ar- 

waukee.     Galena,     limestone,     lead     and  rested    in    the    house    of    Cockbum    of 

zinc  are  mined.     The  lakes  and  streams  Ormiston,    tried    by    a    clerical    assembly 

abound    with    fish,    especially    trout   and  in  St.  Andrews,  and  burned  at  the  stake 

black    bass.     The    manufactures    in    the  there  in  1546. 

cities  are  chiefly  furniture,  agricultural  Wielifl-rrT  (wish'fl),  a  police  burgh, 
implements,  carriages,  saddlery,  woolen  ^▼^o^O'W  g^otland,  Lanarkshire,  15 
goods,  leather,  brooms,  nails,  paper,  steel  miles  s.  e.  of  Glasgow.  It  has  several 
rails,  etc  At  Milwaukee  are  some  of  the  large  coal-mines,  iron,  steel,  and  nail 
largest  beer  brewing  corporations  in  the  works,  fireclay  brick- works,  railway- 
world.  There  are  a  number  of  universi-  wagon  works,  and  a  distillery.  Pop. 
ties    and    colleges,    the    Wisconsin    Uni-  20,873. 

veraity,  Madistn,  being  liberally  subsidized  TI7ioT«ftf.    (v§s'mar),    a    seaport    town 

by   the   State.     Wisconsin   was  admitted  ▼viDuiai    ^^      Mecklenburg  -  Sch we rin, 

to  the  Union  in   1848.     The  inhabitants  North  Germany,  situated  at  the  head  of 

to  a  large  extent  are  German  in  origin,  a  bay   in  the  Baltic,   18  miles  N.  E.  of 

Milwaukee  is  the  chief  town,  and  Madi-  Schwerin.     It    has    some    manufactures, 

»^  the  capital.     Pop.   (1910)   2,333,860.  an   excellent  harbor,   and  a  considerable 

Wisconsin.  Univebsity   of,    a    State  trade    in    coal,    timber,    iron,    etc.     Pop. 

'  co-educational  institution,  (1905)    21,902. 

located    at    Madison,    Wisconsin,    widely  WiQQl^Tn hourly      See   Weissenburg. 

known  throughout  the  country  because  of  ''^ -^SoCiuuu  Ul^. 

its  active  extension  work  in  all  parts  of  Wistariil.  (wis-tft'ri-a),  a  genus  of 
the  State.  The  University  comprises  a  WA»«'»Aia  plants,  nat.  order  Legu- 
CoUege  of  Letters  and  Science,  Graduate,  minosse.  The  species  are  deciduous. 
Engineering,  Law,  Agriculture,  Medicine  twining,  and  climbing  shrubs,  natives  of 
and  Library  Schools ;  and  a  flourishing  Japan,  China  and  North  America.  When 
summer  bchool  is  maintained.  The  ex-  in  flower,  they  form  some  of  the  hand- 
tension  division  consists  of  the  depart-  somest  ornaments  of  the  garden.  W. 
ment  of  correspondence  study,  iiistrut-  frutesoens  is  a  species  belonging  to  the 
tion  by  lectures,  debating  and  public  dis-  United  States. 

cussion,  and  general  information  and  wel-  •fTTi-fp^  Annis  Lee  (Fumess),  bom 
fare  work.  For  the  purposes  of  this  WlSlCr,  ^^  Philadelphia  in  1830,  mar- 
extension  study  the  State  18  divided  into  rfed  Dr.  Caspar  Wister.  She  translated 
fourteen  districts,  with  university  head-  into  English  numerous  novels  from  the 
quarters  in  each.  The  College  of  Aj?ri-  German  of  E.  Marlitt  and  others,  which 
culture  maintains  an  experiment  station,  became  very  popular.  She  died  in  1908. 
long  and^  short  courses  in  agriculture.  TCTigtA-  Owen,  novelist,  born  at  Phil- 
farmers  institutes,  and  courses  in  home  WlSVCr,  ^delphia  in  1860.  He  was 
I^^Z'^^^'a'^  *^^™P^V^  ^^  Univer-  graduated  from  Harvard,  became  a  law- 
sity  at  Madison  covers  926  acres  on  Lake  yer,  and  gained  wide  repute  by  The  Vir- 
Mendota  and  contam  some  26  buildings,  ginian,  a  novel  of  cowboy  life.  Lady 
The  students  in  1912  nunabered  5(48.  Baltimore  gained  equal  popularity.  He 
Wisdom  l^^.u°°J,''  Book  of,  called  has  written  various  other  stories  and 
QUA/^    |jy  ^jj^  Septuagint  the   Wis-  sketches. 

^oV^fthTo^fi-  ^?sVien^t*  '''^^''"''  Witchcraft     ^,t=^r;V;er'    Xh 

Wise  (^^)»     Henry     A.,     statesman,  persons  were  formerly  supposed  to  obtain 

was  born  on  the  eastern  shore  of  by  entering  into  compact  with  the  devil, 

Virginia  in  1808,  and  died  in  1876.     He  who  engaged  that  they  should  want  for 

was  sent  as  Minister  to  Brazil  in  1844,  nothing,  and  be  able  to  assume  whatever 

and  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia  in  shape  they  pleased,  to  visit  and  torment 

1855,   after  a   most   energetic  campaign,  their   enemies,   and   accomplish   their   in- 

W^ifiliart   (''^^'Art),    George,   one   of  fernal  purposes.     As  soon  as  the  bargain 

*****           the    first     martyrs     to     the  was  concluded  the  devil  was  said  to  dc- 

Protestant     religion     in     Scotland,     was  liver   to   the   witch   an   imp   or  familiar 

bom  in  Kincardineshire  early  in  the  six-  spirit,    to   be    ready   at   call,    and    to   do 

teenth     century;     traveled     in     Europe  whatever    it    was    directed.     By    the    aid 

where    he    accepted    the    Reformed    doc-  of   tb's   imp  and   the   devil   together   the 


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Witch-hazel  Wittcnbcrgc 


witch,   who  was  almost   always  an   old   came  president  of  Princeton  College.    Ha 
woman*  was  enabled  to  transport  lierself   identified  himself  with  the  cause  of  the 
through  the  air  on  a  broomstick,  and  to  colonists   and    was   elected   to   the   Con- 
transform    herself    into    various    shapes,   tinental    Congress.     His    patriotic    work 
Kirticularly  those  of  cats  and  hares;  to   was  arduous  and  of  supreme  importance, 
flict  diseases  on  whomsoever  she  pleased.   He  died  in  179i. 
and  to  punish  her  enemies  in  a  variety  of  Witness     (wifnes),  in  law,   (o)    one 
ways.    The  belief  in  witchcraft  is  very    "  aw****"**    ^Jj^  sigDB  his  name  as  evl- 
ancient.    It    was    a    common    belief    in  dence  of  the  genuineness  of  another  signa- 
Burope   till    the   sixteenth   century,   and   ture;   (6)  a  person  who  gives  testimony 
mainUdned  its  ground  with  tolerable  firm-  or  evidence  under  oath  or  affirmation  in 
neas  till  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  a  judicial  proceeding.    See  Evidence, 
century.    Indeed  it  is  not  altogether  ex-  Witt     ^^    ^^  ^^  ^**** 
tinct  even  at  the  present  day.    Numbers    "*'"'j 

of  reputed  witches  were  condemned  to  TfT-iff-A  Sergei  Yxtijevitch,  a  Russian 
be  burned,  so  that  in  England  alone  rt  ^^UrC,  statesman,  was  bom  in  1840 
is  computed  that  no  fewer  than  30,000  at  Tiflis,  his  father  being  a  government 
of  them  suffered  at  the  stake.  The  last  official  of  German  extraction  and  his 
victim  was  executed  in  1722  in  Scotland,  mother  a  member  of  one  of  the  oldest 
and  in  the  United  Kingdom  prosecution  Russian  noble  families.  After  leaving 
for  witchcraft  was  abolished  m  1736  by  the  Odessa  Universify  he  devoted  some 
act  of  parliament  In  the  United  Stata  time  to  journalism,  but  in  1877  entered 
a    few    executions    for    witohcraft    took    the  railroad  service,  in  which  he  showed 

Slace  in  the  early  colonial  period,  the  the  highest  efficiency  during  the  war  with 
alem  witchcraft  delusion  becoming  his-  Turkey  (1877-78).  In  1879  he  was 
toricaL  In  France  executions  lor  witeh-  called  to  St  Petersburg  to  be  made  rail- 
craft  were  prohibited  by  an  edict  of  way  manager,  and  was  promoted  rapidly 
Louis  XIV  as  early  as  1670.  until    in    1892    he    became    Minister    of 

T[rif^li.lifi.7Al      S^  Wych'hazel.  Communications  and  soon  afterwards  of 

mriU/U  lu&^ci.  Finance.    In  the  latter  charge  he  intro- 

Wif^TtftiTATnAt  (wife-na-ge-mof ;  lit-  duced  many  reforms,  increased  the 
wx  1*^11.05 v;iuv»  erally,  'meeting  of  revenue,  negotiated  large  loans  abroad, 
the  wise  men'),  among  the  Anglo-  and  concluded  important  conmiercial 
Saxons,  the  great  national  council  or  treaties.  In  1903  he  was  made  President 
parliament,  consisting  of  athelings  or  of  the  Committee  of  Ministers  and  a 
prhices,  nobles  or  ealdormen,  the  large  member  of  that  of  the  empire.  In  1905 
landholders,  the  principal  ecclesiastics,  he  was  the  chief  Russian  plenipotentiary 
etc.  The  meetings  of  this  council  were  in  the  negotiations  at  Portsmouth,  New 
frequent ;  they  formed  the  highest  court   Hampshire,  yielding  the  treaty  or  peace 


_ary  to  give  validity  to  laws,  and  treaties  32  miles  w.  n.  w.  of  Amsberg,  on  the 
with  foreign  states  were  submitted  to  Ruhr.  The  chief  industries  are  connected 
their  approval.  They  had  even  power  to  with  iron  and  steel,  lead,  chemicals,  plate- 
elect  the  king.  See  Anglo-Sawons.  glass,  fire-brick,  etc.  Pop.  35,841, 
Wither  (with'er),  Geoboe,  an  Eng-  Wittenberg  (vifen-burg),  a  town  in 
W  liner  ,\gjj  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  j^  Hamp-  Wlll^enoerg  f^^ussia,  province  of 
shire  in  1588;  died  in  1667.  He  was  Saxonv,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe, 
educated  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford;  45  miles  southeast  of  Magdeburg.  It 
afterwards  entered  himself  a  student  of  was  while  Luther  was  a  professor  in 
Lincoln's  Inn;  and  in  1613  published  his  Wittenberg  that  he  nailed  his  ninety-five 
satires  entitled  Abuses  Stript  and  Whipt,  theses  to  the  door  of  the  Schlosskirche. 
the  severity  of  which  led  to  his  confine-  The  university  of  which  he  was  professor 
ment  in  the  Marshalsea.  Having  been  was  united  to  Halle  in  1817.  The  prin- 
released  he  took  an  active  part  on  the  cipal  buildings  are  the  Schlosskirche,  in 
side  of  the  Parliament  when  toe  Civil  war  which  both  Luther  and  Melanchthon  are 
broke  out.  and  sold  an  estate  to  raise  a  buried;  the  Stadtkirche,  where  Luther 
troop  of  horse.  Under  the  Long  Parlia-  and  Melanchthon  preached;  the  remains 
ment  he  enjoyed  various  lucrative  employ-  of  the  Augustine  monastery,  with  Luther's 
ments.  apartments;  the  houses  of  Melanchthon 
'    '"*         -  *     -  ^jj^  Cranack.-    the  town   hall,   the  gym- 

nasium,  etc     Pop.  20^382. 

tion  of  Independence,  was  bom  in  Gif-  ^XTiftATiliArffA   (vit^enbe^-ge),  an   in- 

-    -^     ■    ^*      -^-^     In  1768  he  ba-  WlXXeilDerge  ^ustrial  town  of  Pram- 


Witherspoon  ii^^M^e^beS: 

tion  of  Independence,  w 
ford,  Scotland,  in  1722. 


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Witwatersrand  Wolf 

sia  district  of  Potsdam,  at  the  junction  Wnlf    (wulf),   a   quadruped   belonging 

of    the    Stepenitz   with   the   Elbe.    Pop.  ^           to  the  digitigrade  camivora,  and 

18,501.  very  closely  related  to  the  dog.    The  com- 

TXTif'OTQfArarQ'nfl  (  wit  -  wft't^rz-rant ;  mon  European  wolf  (Cania  lupua)  is  yel- 

W II, waiersraiiu  .  ^  h  i  t  e    Water  lowish  or  fulvous  gray ;  the  hair  is  harsh 

Range'),  a  ridge  of  land  in  the  Trans-  and  strong,  the  ears  erect  and  pointed, 

vaal.  South  Africa,  about  100  miles  long  the  tail  straight,  or  nearly  so,  and  there 

E.  to  w.,  in  lat.  26*^  s.     This  is  the  great-  is  a  blackish  band  or  streak  on  the  fore- 

est    gold-yielding    region    in    the    world,  legs  about  the  carpus.    The  height  at  the 

Gold  was  discovered  here  in  1886,  and  shoulder  is  from  27  to  29  inches.    The 

was  the  proximate  cause  of  the  Boer  war.  wolf  is  swift  of  foot,  crafty,  and  rapa- 

The    output    has    increased    until    it    is  cious;  a  destructive  enemy  to  the  sheep- 

nearly  double  that  of  the  United  States,  cote  and  farm-yard ;  it  associates  in  packs 

yjJt\ai\    (wOd),  a  cruciferous  plant  of  to  hunt  the  larger  quadrupeds,  such  as  the 

wuau    ^jj^   genus   ladtia,   the   /.    tino-  deer,  the  elk,  etc.     When  hard  pressed 

toria,  formerly  cultivated  to  a  great  ex-  ^i^h  hunger  these  packs  have  been  known 

tent  in   Britain  on  account  of  the  blue  to  attack  isolated  travelers,  and  even  to 

dye  extracted  from   its  pulped  and   fer-  enter  villages  and  carry  off  children.     In 

mented  leaves.     It  is  now,  however,  nearly  general,  however,  wolves  are  cowardly  and 

superseded    by    indigo,    which    gives    a  stealthy.     Wolves   are   still    plentiful    in 

stronger    and    finer    blue.    The    ancient  some  parts  of  Europe,  as  in  districts  of 

Britons  are  said   to  have  colored   their  ^^^ 

bodies  with  the   dye  procured  from   the  ^  i-tlm^S^' 
woad  plant.     WUd  tDoad,  weld,  or  wold 
is  the  Reseda  Luteola,  a  British  plant, 
which  yields  a  beautiful  yellow  dye.    See 
Dyer'S'Weed. 

Wftlrnm  (wa'bum),  a  city  of  Mid- 
wouuru  ^jgggj  Co.,  Massachusetts,  10 
miles  N.  w.  of  Boston.  It  has  the  largest 
leather-making  establishments  in  New 
England;  also  has  large  manufactures  of 
shoes,  glue,  chemicals.    Pop.  15,308. 


Wodfl.n      o'     Woden    (wd'den),     the 
TTvuau^     Anglo-Saxon     form    of    the 


name  of  the  deity  called  by  the  Norse  -           «r  ,*  /^    >  , 

Odin.     Wednesday  derives  its  name  from  Common  Wolf  (Oanit  lupus). 
him,  and  his  name  is  also  seen  in  several 

place-names,    as    Wedneabury,    etc.    See  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  Turkey 

Odin,  and  Russia;  they  probablv  ceased  to  ex* 

WniiiznilA     Watwode     (wft'wOd)     an  ist    in    England   about    tne   end    of    the 

wuivifuuc,  old    Slavonic  name   for  a  fifteenth  centurv;   the   last   of   them   in 

general,  afterwards  used  as  a  title  of  civil  Scotland  is  said  to  have  been  killed  by 

rank    and    authority.     The    princes    of  Cameron  of  Lochiel  in  1680,  while  in  Ire- 

Wallachia    and     Moldavia    were    called  land  they  are  known  to  have  existed  until 

Woiwodes,   and   this   title  was  also   ap-  at  least  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 

plied   at  an  early  period   to  the  Poli&  century.    The  wolf  of  North  America  is 

kings.  generally  considered  to  be  the  same  ape- 

■"■    ^      "            an    Bng^  cies  as  the  European  wolf,  though  indl- 
-*'* — *"  ~ary  much  in  color  and  otherwise. 

^  f  prairie-wolf  or  coyote  (C  ocfcro- 

was   born   in    lt38;    died   in   1819.     He  P««)»   abounding   on   the   plains   of   the 

studied  medicine ;    resided  some  time  in  western  part  of  the  United  States,  is  a 

Jamaica,  where  he  took  clerical  orders;  burrowing  animal.    The  Tasmanian  wolf 

and    afterwards    established    himself    in  is  a  marsupial. 

Cornwall,  where  he  discovered  the  artis-  Wolf    i7®^^)»    Friedrich    August,    a 

tic  genius  of  the  painter  Opie.     He  pub-  German  critic  and  scholar,  bom 

lished  a  number  of  satirical  poems,  and  in^  1759;  died  in  1824.     His  fame  as  a 

in    particular    turned    his    humor    upon  critic    rests    upon    his    Prolegomena    to 

George  III.     Between  1778  and  1808  he  Homer  (1795),  in  which  he  endeavors  to 

is    said    to    have   put    forth   some    sixty  show  that  the  Odyssey  and  Iliad  in  their 

satirical   productions    in    verse,    most   of  present   form   are  not   the   work  of  one 

them  now  forgotten.  hand,   but   of  several.     This   opinion   he 

Wnlrl     <*^  WELD.     See  Dyer^a-toeed,  further  defended  in  his  Letters  to  Heyne 

^^^^y  (1797).    Seeflomer. 


Kings.  geoerauy  cod 

Wolfiott    (wol'kot),    John,    an    Bng^  cies  as  the  I 

vxvvvv   jigjj  writer,  generally  known  viduals  vary  i 

by  his  nom  de  plume  of  *  Peter  Pindar,'  The  little  pra 


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Wolfe 


Wolseley 


HTnlf*  (wulf),  CuABLES,  the  author 
WUlie  of  the  Ode  on  the  Burial  of  Sir 
John  Moore,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1791 ; 
died  in  1823.  He  was  educated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Dublin,  and  it  was  while  there 
that  the  poem  which  has  secured  his  fame 
was  published  in  the  A'eirry  Telegraph 
(1817).  He  was  also  the  author  of  sev- 
eral other  poems,  and  his  Remains  were 
published  at  Dublin  (two  vols.,  1825). 
TKTolfe  Jakes,  an  English  general, 
¥¥  vxxc^  ^j^g  Ij^j^  ^^  Westerham,  Kent, 
in  1727;  entered  the  army  and  proceeded 
with  his  regiment  to  the  Low  Countries; 
took  part  in  the  battles  of  Dettingen, 
Tontenoy,  Falkirk,  CuUoden  and  Laf- 
feldt,  being  wounded  in  the  last.  After 
distinguished  service  against  the^  French 
in  America  he  was  entrusted  (lio9)  with 
an  army  of  8000  men  with  which  to  as- 
sault Quebec.  During  the  night  this 
small  force  scaled  the  Heights  of  Abra- 
ham, which  commanded  the  town,  and  in 
fhe  battle  which  took  place  next  day  the 
British  were  victcyious;  but  General 
Wolfe  was  wounded  in  the  engagement, 
and  died  in  the  moment  of  victory, 
his  opponent,  Montcalm,  being  also  mor- 
tally wounded. 

Wolfenbiittel  ^ 'M^lcV"  Te^ 

nrany,  on  the  Oker,  7  miles  south  of 
Brunswick.  It  has  a  castle,  town  house, 
arsenal;  a  library  of  about  300,000  vol- 
umes, besides  MSS. ;  a  statue  of  Leasing, 
who  was  long  librarian  to  the  duke;  a 
gymnasium,  etc.     Pop.   17,873. 

Wolffian  Bodies  Sy'!liff;\\,  %fl 

coverer),  in  physiology,  a  term  applied 
to  certain  bodies  in  the  vertebrate  em- 
bryo, preceding  the  two  kidneys,  whose 
functions  they  perform.  As  the  foetus 
advances  they  gradually  disappear,  their 
place  being*  supplied  by  the  true  kidneys, 
except  in  fishes,  in  which  they  are  per- 
manent. 
Wolf-fish.     S^^  Sea^wolf. 

TITnl fro  TTi  (wulf'ram),  a  native  tnng- 
woiiram    ^^^^^  ^^   .^^^   ^^^   man^- 

nese.  Its  color  is  generally  a  brownish 
or  grayish  black.  It  occurs  massive  and 
crystallized,  and  in  concentric  lamellar 
concretions,  and  is  the  ore  from  which 
the  metal  tungsten  is  usually  obtairyed. 

Wolfram  von  Eschenbach. 

See  Eschenbach, 

TXTnlf  a.liQTiA  &  poisonous  plant  of 
won  S  Dane,  ^^g  genus  Aconitum 
(A,  Napellus),  It  is  a  native  of  Alpine 
pastures  in  Switzerland,  and  found  m  a 
wild  state  in  oue  or  two  parts  of  Eng- 
land*    Se«  Aconite, 


WoUaston  (fBl'as-tun),  Woxiam 
¥w  vAMMwu  jj  Y  D  E ,  a  distinguishetl 
chemist,  bom  in  London  in  1776;  died 
in  1828.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
took  the  degree  of  M.D.,  practiced  as  a 

Ehysician  in  London,  but  finally  devoted 
imself  to  scientific  research.  He  was 
the  inventor  of  the  p>niometer,  an  in- 
strument for  measnrmg  tha  angles  of 
crystals,  and  the  discoverer  of  palladium 
and  rhodium,  and  of  the  malleability  of 
platinum. 
WnlliTi     (voHn),   an    island   of   Prus- 

on  the  north  side  of  the  Great  Haff: 
length,  20  miles;  breadth,  from  3  to  10 
milea.  Fishing  and  cattle  rearing  are  the 
chief  employments  of  the  people.  Pop. 
about  15,000. 

Wolseley  .tt2!^V^U^?5I^ 

LEY,  a  British  general,  was  bom  near 
Dublin  in  1833;  died  in  1913.  He 
entered  the  army  as  ensign  in  1852; 
took  part  in  the  second  Burmese 
war  (1852-53),  where  he  was  severely 
wounded;  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Crimea,  and  was  wounded  at  the  siege 
of  Sebastopol;  engaged  in  the  siege 
and  capture  of  Lucknow  during  the  In- 
dian mutiny  of  1857-58;  and  was  em- 
ployed in  1800  in  the  Chinese  war.  He 
was  despatched  to  Canada  in  1861,  and 
again  in  1807,  having  received  command 
of  the  Red  River  expedition,  which  he 
carried  to  a  successful  issue.  Three  years 
afterwards  Wolseley  (now  K.C.M.G.  and 
major-general)  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  an  expedition  to  punish  the  King 
of  Ashantee,  and  after  a  brief  campaign 
he  entered  Coomassie  (Feb.,  1874)  and 
received  the  submission  of  the  king,  being 
rewarded  by  a  grant  of  £25,000  and  the 
dignity  of  K.C.B.  After  the  defeat  of  a 
British  force  by  the  Zulus  in  South 
Africa,  in  1879.  he  was  despatched  as  high 
commissioner,  but  before  bis  arrival  the 
Zulus  had  been  defeated  at  Ulundi,  and 
little  remained  for  him  to  do.  His  next 
command  was  in  Egypt,  in  1882,  where 
his  forces  successfully  stormed  the  lines 
of  Tel-el-Kebir  and  captured  Arabi 
Pasha.  For  this  he  received  the  thanks 
of  parliament  and  was  created  a  baron, 
his  army  rank  being  also  raised  to  that 
of  general.  His  next  appointment  was  as 
adjutant-general  of  the  forces.  When 
the  Mahdi  subdued  the  Soudan,  and  heM 
General  Gordon  prisoner  in  Khartoum. 
Wolseley  was  despatched  in  1884  with  a 
relief  expedition.  He  concentrated  his 
forces  at  Korti,  and  sent  a  column  across 
the  desert  to  Khartoum,  but  before  its 
arrival  the  place  had  fallen.  On  his  re- 
turn to  England  be  was  created  a  vis- 


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Wolsey 


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count.  In  1888  he  was  made  ranger  of 
Greenwich  Park.  From  1895  to  1900  he 
was  commander-in-chief,  being  succeeded 
in  the  latter  year  by  Lord  Roberts.  He 
is  the  author  of  the  Soldier'a  Pocket  Book 
(1869),  etc 
Wolsev    (wnrsi).     Thomas,     Cardi- 

son  of  a  butcher,  was  bom  at  Ipswich, 
England,  in  1471.  He  was  educated  at 
Magdalen  Ck>llege,  Oxford,  where  he  took 
his  degrees  as  a  scholar  of  distinction. 
After  quitting  the  university  he  was  ap- 

gointed  to  the  parish  of  Lymington,  in 
omerset  Then  he  became  a  private 
chaplain  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, one  of  the  governors  of  Calais, 
chaplain  to  Henry  Vll,  and  latterly  Dean 
of  Lincoln.  When  Henry  VIII  became 
king  the  advancement  of  Wolsey  was 
rapid.  Successively  he  was  appointed 
Canon  of  Windsor.  l>ean  of  York,  Bishop 
of  Lincoln,  Archbishop  of  York,  and  his 
nomination  as  cardinal  in  1515  and  pope*s 
legate  in  1518  completed  his  ecclesiasncal 
dignities.  In  1515  he  was  also  appointed 
lord-chancellor  of  the  kingdom.  He  was 
twice  a  candidate  for  the  papacy,  and  his 
power  in  England,  as  sdso  nis  revenues, 
were  only  equaled  by  those  of  the  crown. 
Part  of  his  immense  revenues  he  expended 
in  display,  and  part  more  laudably  for 
the  advancement  of  learning.  He  pro- 
jected on  a  magnificent  scale  the  College 
of  Christ  Church,  at  Oxford;  founded 
several  lectures,  and  built  the  palace  at 
Hampton  Court,  which  he  presented  to 
the  king.  This  rapid  preferment  by  the 
king  was  largely  the  result  of  a  remark- 
able series  of  diplomatic  victories,  in 
^hich  Wolsey  had  been  the  means  of  en- 
abling Henry  to  hold  the  balance  between 
Francis  I  and  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
His  success  in  the  region  of  politics  ter- 
minated in  the  splendors  of  the  Field  of 
the  Cloth  of  Gold  (1520).  In  his  am- 
bitious career  the  cardinal  nad  made  many 
enemies,  who  were  held  in  check  so  long 
as  he  retained  the  favor  of  his  royal  mas- 
ter. This  favor  Wolsey  lost  when  he 
failed  to  obtain  from  rope  Clement  a 
decision  granting  the  king's  divorce  from 
Catharine  of  Aragon.  Thenceforth  the 
enemies  of  the  fallen  prelate  harried  him 
unmercifully.  He  was  banished  from 
court,    stripped    of    his    dignities,    found 

Siltv  of  a  praemunire,  and  sentenced  to 
prisonment  Finally,  after  a  brief  res^ 
pite,  during  which  he  was  restored  to 
some  of  his  offices,  and  had  returned  to 
his  see  of  York,  he  was  arrested  at  Ca- 
wood  Castle  on  a  charge  of  high  treason, 
and  on  his  wav  to  London  as  a  prisoner 
he  died  in  1530  of  dysentery  at  Leicester 


Mabt.      See 
nHfi,  Mary, 
See  Olutton. 


Qod- 


Wolstoneoraft; 

Wolverene. 

Wolverhampton  to^fTm^HS': 

pal  and  parliamentary  borough  of  Eng- 
land, county  of  Stafford,  13  miles  N.  w. 
of  Birmingham.  It  contains  the  collegi- 
ate church  of  St  Peter,  a  Roman  Catholic 
chapel  designed  by  Pugin,  an  exchange,  a 
market  hall,  art  gallery,  town  hall,  etc. 
It  is  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Midland 
mining  district,  has  extensive  beds  of  coal 
and  ironstone  in  its  vicinity,  is  the  larg- 
est manufacturing  town  in  Stafford,  and 
is  known  as  the  capital  of  the  Black 
Country.  The  chief  industries  are  the 
smelting  of  iron  ore,  and  manufactures 
in  brass,  tin,  steel  papier-mftchd,  iron, 
galvanised  iron,  ana  chemicals.  Pop. 
95,333. 

Woman's  Christian  Temper- 
ance XJnioiU   ^^  Temperance  SoMe^ 

Woman  Suffrage.  f^J^  women*. 

Wombat  i'^om'btLt;  Phaecolomyjt 
icomhai),  a  marsupial  ani- 
mal, a  native  of  Australia  and  Tas- 
mania. It  is  about  8  feet  in  lencth,  and 
has  coarse,  almost  bristly  fur,  of  a  gen- 


Wombst  (Pkaseolamyt  wombat) , 

era]  gray  tint,  mottled  with  black  and 
white,  it  burrows,  feeds  on  roots,  and  its 
flesh  is  said  in  fatness  and  flavor  to  re- 
semble pork. 

Women'!  Eights,  |^  ST  liSa"^ 

made,  on  behalf  of  women,  for  a  legal, 
political  educational  and  social  status 
equal  to  that  of  meiv  on  the  basis  of 
natural  right  and  also  oi  tk«  right  to  a 
voice  in  public  affairs  as  property  hold- 
ers and  taxpayers.  The  nrst  distinctir* 
claim  for  eouality  in  tlie  employment 
education  and  political  liberty  of  womea. 


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Women's  Eights  Women's  Bights 

was  that  made  in  1792  by  Mary  Woll-  been  successful  in  a  number  of  countries, 
itonecraft,  in  her  Vindication  of  the  These  include  Australia  and  New  Zealand, 
RighU  of  Women,  For  the  pioneers  in  where  full  sufifrage  exists,  also  Norway, 
a  public  movement  i|i  that  direction,  we  Finland.  Iceland,  Denmark  and  Isle  of 
must  seek  the  United  States^  where  a  Man.  In  Great  Britain  women  can  vote 
band  of  resolute  women  met  in  1848  at  for  all  public  officials  except  members  of 
Seneca  Falls,  New  York,  the  first  Wo-  parliament. 

men's  Bights  Convention  ever  held,  at  Suffrage  for  women  exists  in  all  the 
which  the  claim  of  suffrage  for  woman  provinces  of  Canada  except  Quebec.  They 
on  equal  terms  with  man  was  first  def-  also  have  municipal  suffrage  on  the  same 
initely  made,  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton  be-  terms  as  men  in  the  British  Isles  and  in 
ing  the  prime  mover  in  the  demand.  The  Sweden.  In  some  other  countries  women 
movement  was  not  confined  to  suffrage,  suffrage  has  made  progress.  In  Great 
but  covered  other  fields  of  inequality  be-  Britain,  before  the  European  war,  the  de- 
tween  man  and  woman,  and  since  that  mand  for  full  sufbage  took  a  new  stage, 
date  the  fight  has  gone  on  all  along  the  proceeding  from  quiet  demand  to  militant 
line.  The  demand  for  property  and  edu-  insistence.  The  House  of  Conmions  was 
cational  rights  has  made  more  rapid  prog-  assailed  by  bands  of  suffragists,  many  of 
ress  than  that  for  suffrage  and  in  these  whom  willingly  suffered  imprisonment  as 
directions  there  is  little  left  to  gain.  At  martsrrs  to  the  cause.  Punishment  for 
present,  many  colleges  and  universities  their  acts  only  inspired  them  to  more  vig- 
admit  women  to  a  full  coarse  of  instruc-  orous  attempts,  the  assault  upon  the  Par- 
tion  in  all  departments,  most  of  those  liamcnt  being  succeeded  by  attacks  on  pri- 
founded  since  1840  receiving  women  on  yate  property,  the  assailants  resorting  to 
equal  terms  with  men.  Women  have  also  window  breaking,  etc.  Many  thinking 
colleges  of  their  own,  where  full  courses  wf>men  defended  these  methods  on  the 
of  instruction  may  be  had,  and  also  medi-  ground  that  the  straggle  amounted  to 
cal  colleges  as  advanced  in  their  courses  actual  warfare  and  was  due  to  the  fact 
as  those  confined  to  men.  Full  courses  of  that  women  had  been  insulted  and  bru- 
stady  in  legal  science  may  also  be  ob*  tally  treated  while  seeking  the  vote  by 
tained  and  courses  in  medicine  have  for  peaceful  measures.  During  the  European 
years  been  open  to  women.  In  most  of  war  militant  methods  were  desisted  from 
the  States  the  legal  profession  is  open  to  and  in  1917  the  suffragists  won  a  notaUe 
women,  though  few  have  as  yet  embarked  victory,  330  members  of  the  House  of 
in  it.  In  regard  to  property  rights,  the  Commons,  out  of  440  present,  voting  in 
same    equality    has    been    widely    estab-  their  favor. 

lishedf  women  retaining  the  control  of  In  the  United  States  milder  methods 
their  own  property  after  marriage,  in- were  adopted,  yet  more  effective  ones  as 
stead  of  letting  it  fall  to  their  husbands,  the  above  record  shows.  The  suffrage 
as  under  the  older  system.  In  this  re- parades  and  conventions  held  in  large 
spect  there  is  now  httle  distinction  be- cities  have  been  dignified  and  impressive, 
tween  the  rights  of  men  and  women.  For  In  1917,  however,  a  method  of  picketing 
many  years  past  the  fight  for  equal  rights  the  White  House  at  Washington  was 
of  suffrage  has  been  vigosously  waged,  adopted  by  a  small  party  of  extremists 
and  the  progress  of  women  In  this  di-and  gave  such  annoyance  that  those  tak- 
rection  has  become  notable,  especially  ing  part  in  it  were  imprisoned.  The 
within  the  present  century.  In  the  Uni- method  was  deemed  unwarranted  by  the 
ted  States,  women  now  ciossess  the  right  ^eaders  in  the  movement, 
of  suffrage  in  thirteen  States :  in  Wyo-  A  meeting  of  the  National  Woman  Suf- 
ming  (1869),  Colorado  (1893),  Utah  f rage  Association  was  held  at  Washington 
(1896),  Idaho  (1896),  Washington  in  1910,  it  being  addressed  by  Prerident 
(1910).  California  (1911),  Arissona,  Kan-  Taft,  this  being  the  first  occasion  in  which 
sas  and  Oregon  (1912),  Illinois  (1913),  this  body  had  been  addressed  by  a  Presi- 
Montana  and  Nevada  (1914),  New  Yoris  dent  of  the  United  States.  A  monster  pe- 
(1917).  Also  Alaska  Territory  (1913).  tition,  with  500,000  signatures,  was  at  the 
In  1917  Indiana,  Ohio  and  Rhode  Island  same  time  presented  to  Congress,  calling 

Save  women  the  right  to  vote  for  Presl-  for  the  reference  of  the  suffrage  question 
ential  electors  and  North  Dakota  gave  to  popular  vote.  This  has  developed  into 
them  municipal  suffrage,  this  to  be  ex-  a  demand  for  an  amendment  to  the  con- 
tended to  Presidential  electors  in  1920.  stitution  establishing  a  national  right  of 
School  suffrage  for  women  prevails  in  woman  suffrage  and  in  response  to  a  mcR- 
some  form  in  thirty-one  States,  tax-paying  sage  from  President  Wilson  the  Susan  B. 
suffrage  for  women  tax-nnyers  in  Mon-  Anthony  Amendment  was  passed  by  the 
tana^~IiOuisiana  and  Michigan.  Outside  House  in  January,  1918. 
the  TFnited    States   woman   suffrage   has      The  industrial  rights  of  women  hav« 


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Wonders  of  the  World Wood 

beea  the  subject  of  legislative  enactment  Democrats  in  1841,  and  in  1854  was 
in  many  of  the  States  during  recent  dected  mayor  of  New  York,  where  he 
years,  one  of  the  latest  notable  events  in.  introduced  various  reforms.  In  1861, 
this  direction  being  a  decision  of  the  Su-  when  the  southern  states  were  seceding, 
preme  Court  of  'Illinois  in  April,  1911,  he  recommended  that  New  York  should 
in  which  was  upheld  the  law  of  1909,  s€»cede  and  become  a  free  city.  He  was 
which  Mmited  the  employment  of  women  reelected  to  Congress  in  1868,  and  re- 
in laundries,  factories,  etc.,  to  ten  hours  mained  a  member  until  bis  death,  Febrw* 
in  any  one  day.     This  decision,  in  con-    ar.r  13,  1881. 

nection  with  that  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  "HToofl  George  B.,  an  eminent  physi- 
the  United  States  upholding  the  Oregon  »» vwu,  ^j^^^^  ^^g  ^^^  ^^  Greenwich, 
ten-hour  law,  clearly  establishes  the  right  New  Jersey,  in  1797 ;  died  in  1879.  He 
of  a  State  to  use  its  police  power  in  was  graduated  in  medicine  from  the  Uni- 
restricting  the  freedom  of  contract,  to  versity  of  Pennsylvania  in  1818,  became 
their  injury,  of  adult  women.  The  a  professor  in  the  Philadelphia  College  of 
Southern  Conference  on  Women  and  Pbar.'nacy,  and  in  1835  in  the  University 
Child  Labor  formed  a  permanent  organ-  of  Pennsylvania,  where  be  remained  until 
ization  at  Memphis,  Tenn.,  in  April,  i860.  He  did  much  to  advance  the  in- 
1911,  its  purpose  being  to  secure  uni-  terests  of  the  University,  and  in  1865  en- 
form  legislation  on  hours  and  conditions  dowed  there  an  auxiliary  faculty  of  medi- 
of  labor.  Such  legislation  is  generally  cine.  His  medical  works  included  a 
demanded  and  is  likely  to  take  place.  Treatise  on  the  Practice  of  Medicine,  a 
Wonders  of  the  World.  ^^  ^l  TreatUe  on  Therapeuttct  and  Pharma- 
vvvuu^xo  vx  i»u«.  vTvxAu..  ^icut  colooy,  a  PharmacopoBta,  and  great  part 
times  seven  of  these  were  enumerated,  of  the  United  States  Dispensatory,  All 
These  were  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  the  these  were  admirable  works  and  highly 
Mausoleum  of  Artemisia,  the  temple  of  nseful  in  the  study  of  medicine. 
Diana  at  Ephesus,  the  Hanging  Gardens  Trrg^gxA  Horatio  C,  physician,  was 
of  Babylon,  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  the  VVUUU,  ^^  ^^  Philadelphia  in  1841. 
Statue  of  Jupiter  Olympus  and  the  He  was  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Pharos  of  Alexandria.  ^  Pennsylvania  in  1862,  and  was  appointed 

WoO-GhaHfiT  (w5-chang),  a  city  of  to  professorships  of  medical  botany  and 
^*^^*^^  China,  province  of  Hu-  nervous  diseases.  He  wrote  much  on 
P4,  on  the  Yang-tse-kiang,  opposite  the  medical  and  other  subjects,  his  writings 
city  of  Hankow.  Pop.  estimated  at  over  being  Essay  on  Thermic  Fever,  or  Sun- 
500,000.  stroke;  The  Fresh  Water  Alga  of  North 

Wood       ^^  Ttmher.  America,  A  Study  of  Fever,  A  Treatise 

'  in    Therapeutics,    and    many    papers    on 

Wooil  (^Tl<^K  Anthony,  antiquary,  medicine,  botany,  and  other  branches  of 
^^^^    bom  at  Oxford  in  1632;  ^ed  in  science. 

1695.  He  was  educated  at  Merton  Col-  T^dd^  James  Fbedebio,  an  American 
lege,  Oxford,  where  he  took  his  degrees,  »»vwu,  archbishop,  was  bom  in  Phila- 
and  spent  his  life  in  examining  and  sift-  delphia  in  1813,  educated  in  England, 
ing  the  records  of  the  university.  The  and  became  a  bank  cashier  in  Cincinnati, 
result   of    bis    laborious    researches    was  He  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in 

Published  as  Historia  et  Antiquitates  1836,  studied  at  Rome  and  became  a 
Jniversitatis  Oxoniensis  (1674),  this  be-  priest,  was  made  bishop  of  Philadelphia 
ing  a  Latin  translation  of  Wood's  English  in  1860,  and  archbishop  in  1875.  He 
treatise  under  the  authority  of  the  uni-  died  June  20,  1883. 
versity.  He  was  also  the  author  of  IJJiMxA  Rev.  John  Geoboe,  naturalist, 
Athenw  Oxonienses  (1691-92).  wuuu,   ^^^  ^  London  in  1827;  died 

Wood  ^I'l^^f  or  Price,  an  English  suddenly  at  Coventry  in  1889.  He  was 
yyvvu.^  novelist,  better  known  as  Mrs.  an  enthusiast  in  natural  history,  and 
Henry  Wood,  bora  at  Worcester  in  1820 ;  published  a  large  number  of  books  on 
died  in  1887.  Among  her  many  novels  zo<)logy  and  kindred  subjects,  which  had 
may  be  noted  E<ist  Lynne,  which  has  had  great  popularity. 

ar  enormous  success  both  as  a  book  and  T[7|)|)^  Leonard,  physician  and  sol- 
a  drama;  The  Channings,  St.  Martin's  "vvu,  ^^^^^  ^^g  ^^^  ^^  Winchester, 
Eve,  A  Life's  Secret,  Roland  Yorke,  Dene  New  Hampshire,  in  1860.  He  was  grad- 
HollotD  and  the  Johnnie  Ludlow  Stories,  uated  from  Harvard  Medical  School  in 
reprinted  from  the  Argosy.  1884,  and  was  appointed  Assistant  Sur- 

Wood  Fernando,  congressman,  was  geon  in  1886,  with  rank  of  captain  in 
^  vviA,  Ij^j^  ^^  Philadelphia  about  1891.  He  received  a  medal  of  honor  for 
1812.  He  became  a  merchant  in  New  services  against  Geronimo  in  1888.  In 
York,    warn   elected   to   Oongreas   by   the   1898   he  became   colonel   of   Roosevelt'a 


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Wood  Ant  Wood-pulp 

'  Rough  Rider  *  regiment  and   took  part  Wood-^TOnse     ^^  OaperoaUzie, 

in  the  Spanish  war,  in  which  he  was  pro-  ^^^  ©awi*.*!^. 

moted  brigadier-general.     In  18^  he  was  WoodhOUSClcC.    ®^  ^«^^- 

appointed  governor  of   Cuba,    in   which  »»  *'*'****viao**x^^. 

island  he  hai  much  to  do  with  stamping  WAod.lorlr     &  small  species  of  lark, 

out  yellow  fever.    He  was  made  brigadier-  '"'  ^^**  xaxxw,   ^^  Alauaa  arhorea,  not 

general    in    the    regular   army    in    1901,  unfrequeut  in  some  parts  of  England,  but 

major-general  in  1903;  commanded  in  the  rare  in  Scotland.     Its  »>ng  is  more  melo- 

Phllippines  1906-08,  and  in   Dec.,  1909,  dious   than   that   of   the   skylark,  but   it 

was  appointed  chief  of  staff  of  the  army,  does  not  consist  of  so  great  a  variety  of 

WaaiI    Anf     A     common     species     of  notes,  nor  is  it  so  loud. 

WTOU  AU\y    ^^^    f^^^^    ^    ^^^^^  WoodlifiP     See  Slater. 

where  it  makes  a  great  heap  of  vegetable  WOOOnuc. 

fragments,  beneath  which  ft  hbj  numer-  TI7#\#\|9.TiTrm'n'h      in     ancient    mythol- 

ous  chambers  and  passages.     It  has  the  ^vuu  uymyiiy    ^y  ^  goddess  of  the 

power  of  ejecting  an  acid  secretion  as  a  wood,  a  dryad.     In  zoology  this  name  is 

defense  against  enemies.  given  to  the  beautiful   lepidopteroos  in- 

Woodbine    (wadl)ln),  a  name  given  sects  of  the  genus  Endryat. 

"^^             the  honeysuckle  and   also  WoAll-oil     *  balsamic  substance   (an 

some  other  climbers,  such  as  some  kinds  ^  ^^'^  ^*^    oleo-resin)    obtained    from 

of  ivy,  the  Virginia  creeper,  etc.     Spe-  several    species   of    Dipterocarpus   grow- 

cially  applied  to  CUtus  quinquefolia,  a  ing  in   Pegu,   Assam,   and   some  of  the 

vigorous  climbing  plant,  supporting  itself  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.    It  is 

by  means  of  its  radiating  tendrils.  used  medicinally,  as  a  varnish,  in  litho- 

Woodbnrv     I^aniel    R.,    statesman*  graphic  ink,  etc. 

vwwuMUAjr,  bom  at  Francestown,  TXT'Anil'nAAlrAr  a  name  for  the  birds 
New  Hampshire  in  1789;  died  in  1851.  WOOapeCiier,  belonging  to  the  fam- 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1812,  was  ily  Picid®,  and  the  order  Scansores  or 
appointed  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  climbers.  They  are  characterized  by  their 
in  1817,  and  was  elected  governor  of  long,  straight,  angular  beak,  adapted  for 
New  Hampshire  in  1823.  He  was  a  splitting  the  bark  of  trees ;  by  their  slen- 
member  of  the  United  States  Senate  der  tongue,  with  its  spines  at  the  tip 
1825-31,  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  curved  backwards  to  enable  them  to  ex- 
navy  by  President  Jacluon  in  1831  and  tract  insects  from  crevices;  and  by  their 
secretary  of  the  treasury  in  1834,  hold-  gtifif  tail,  which  acts  as  a  prop  to  sup- 
ing  that  position  until  1841,  when  he  port  them  while  climbing.  The  noise 
was  reelected  senator.  In  1845  he  sue-  they  make  in  tapping  the  bark  of  a  tree 
ceeded  Joseph  Strong  as  a  justice  of  the  to  discover  where  an  insect  is  lodged  can 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.  A  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance, 
collection  of  his  Political,  Judicial  and  Piou9  major,  mediuf,  minor,  and  viridis, 
Literary  Writings  was  published  in  1852.  the  green  woodpecker,  are  European 
Woodohnok  ^^  popular  name  of  species.  In  America  the  most  characteris- 
*  a  rodent  mammal,  a  tic  species  are  P.  principalis  or  the  ivory- 
species  of  the  marmot  tribe,  the  Arc  billed  woodpecker,  P.  aurdtus  or  gold- 
tomys  monaw,  or  ground-hog,  common  in  winged  woodpecker,  and  the  Califomian 
the  United  States  and  Canada.  It  is  of  woodpecker  (Melanerpes  formicivdrus) , 
a  heavy  form,  from  15  to  18  inches  long,  TXTAnii.TiiiyAATi  See  Bina-dove. 
blackish  or  grissled  above  and  chestnut-  WOOa-pigeon. 

red  below.  It  excavates  burrows  in  TtTftnil.T^-nlT*  the  fibrous  product  of 
which  it  passes  the  winter  in  a  dormant  ▼^vwu  pu^p^  ground-up  wood  from 
state.  which  paper  is  made.  This  branch  of 
^JSToodcOCk  *  ^'^  ®'  *°®  genus  manufacture  has  grown  to  enormous 
,  '  ScoUpaw,  the  S.  rustx-  proportions,  to  supply  the  great  demand 
eola,  same  genus  as  the  snipe.  It  is  for  printing  paper  of  recent  years, 
widely  distributed,  being  found  in  all  Spruce,  hemlock,  and  poplar  are  com- 
parts of  Europe,  the  north  of  Asia,  and  monly  employed  and  other  trees  and 
as  far  east  as  Japan.  The  bird  is  about  plants  are  coming  into  use,  such  as  white 
13  inches  in  length,  the  female  being  fir,  balsam,  pine,  cottonwood,  etc,  the 
somewhat  larger  than  the  male.  Its  food  wood  being  simply  ground  up  finely  and 
is  chiefly  worms.  The  American  wood-  made  into  paper,  or  treated  with  cliem- 
cock  iSodlopaco  or  PhUoheles  minor)  is  ical  substances  to  yield  a  better  product 
a  smaller  bird,  but  very  similar  in  plum-  suitable  for  book  purposes.  The  total 
lage  and  habits.  use  of  wood  for  this  purpose  in  the  United 
'wonil  V.ntrtajn'nv  See  Engraving,  States  in  1910  was  over  4,000,000  cords. 
WIHia  XiUKHiyill);.  rpj^g    ^g^j  consumption  of  pulp  wood  in 


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Woodruff 


Woolen  Manufacture 


the  United  States  has  led  to  a  large  de- 
mand from  the  extensive. coniferous  for- 
ests of  Canada,  to  facilitate  which  the 
tariff  has  been  taken  off  from  Canadian 
wood-pulp.  Wood-pulp  has  been  applied 
to  otner  purposes  than  papermaking, 
bricks,  and  even  car-wheels,  being  made 
from  it,  while  among  its  other  products 
artificial  silk  may  be  named,  the  fine  pulp 
being  forced  through  minute  holes  in  a 
Diate  and  yielding  threads  of  a  smooth, 
silk-like  finish  and  considerable  strength. 
It  can  be  woven  into  silk-like  fabrics. 

Woodruff  (^W^J'"-"^)'  WooDBOOF,  the 
vw***  «u«.  common  name  of  plants  of 

the  genus  AsperUla,  nat.  order  Rubiaces. 

The  sweet  woodruff   (A.  odorata),  with 

its  whorled  leaves  and  white  blossom,  is 

found  plentifully  in  Britain  in  woods  and 

shady  places.    The  dried  leaves  are  used 

to  scent  clothes  and  also  to  preserve  them 

from   the  attacks   of   insects.    The   root 

of  the  dyer's  woodruff   (A.  tinctoria)   is 

used  instead  of  madder. 

VJfkfkAu     Lake  of  the.     See  Lake  of 

wooas,  ,^^  ^^^^, 

VliUiiiA  KATHABim:  Peabson,  novel- 
WOUUtt;  ist,  bom  at  Wheeling,  West 
Virginia,  in  1850.  Her  socialist  novel, 
Metzerott  Shoemakerf  attracted  much 
attention;  others  were  The  Mark  of  the 
Beast,  From  Dusk  to  Dawn,  etc. 

Woodsia  iTt?^/?!"*^'  *  T^^P  |.'^ 

*^  "  tributed  genus  of  polypodia- 
ceous  ferns.  TF.  hyperhorea,  the  flower- 
cup  fern,  is  a  very  small  species,  much 
resembling  W.  Perrinianat  forming  tufts 
on  rocks. 

TXTnAil.anrrAl  the  common  name  of 
WOOa-SOrreiy   ^^^^^  Acetosdla,  well 

known  for  the  aciditv  of  its  leaves,  and 
formerly  used  in  medical  practice  as  an 
antiscorbutic  and  a  refrigerant 

WoodBtock,  t„,^%,  'S^u^X^ 

nada,  county  seat  of  Oxford  Co.,  on  the 
Thames  River,  30  miles  E.  N.  E.  of  Lon- 
don. It  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade, 
and  has  various  manufactures.  Is  a  fa- 
vorite summer  resort     Pop.  9321. 

Wood-swallow,  \  °*°;?  ^^^  ^ 

VT  vv«&  0Tv»uvTV|  Australia  to  a  ge- 
nus of  birds  (ArMmiA),  famil^r  Ampe- 
lidffi  or  chatterers.  One  species  (A. 
sordidus)  is  remarkable  for  its  habit  of 
hanging  suspended  from  dead  branches 
in    clusters   resembling   swarms   of   bees. 

Woodworth,  L^-p^^U-riiu^ 

uate,  Massachusetts,  in  1785;  died  in 
1842.  He  was  an  editor  on  various  jour- 
nals, wrote  The  Champions  of  Freedom 
and  several  dramatic  works,  but  is 
chiefly  known  for  his  popular  poem,  The 
Old  Oaken  Bucket. 


prov- 


WOO-UOO,  treaty  port  of  China,  l 
ince  of  Ngan-Hoei,  on  the  Yoing-tse^ 
kiang,  about  50  miles  above  Nanking. 
Opened  to  trade  in  1887  it  has  recently 
become  of  considerable  commercial  im- 
portance, the  chief  exports  being  rice, 
silk,  feathers,  hides  uad  tea,  and  the  chief 
import  is  opium.  Pop.  about  115,000. 
Wool  (^uDf  that  soft  species  of  hair 
"  "^  *  which  growc  on  sheep  and  some 
other  animals,  as  the  alpaca,  some  spe- 
cies of  goats,  etc.,  which  in  fineness 
sometimes  approaches  to  fur.  Wool  is 
divided  into  two 'classes  —  short  or  card- 
inff  wool,  seldom  reachiiig  over  a  length 
of  3  or  4  inches,  and  long  or  comh%np 
wool,  varying  in  length  from  4  to  8 
inches,  each  class  being  subdivided  into 
a  variety  of  sorts,  according  to  their 
fineness  and  soundness  of  the  staple. 
Wools  which  unite  a  high  degree  of  fine- 
ness and  softness  with  considerable 
length  of  staple,  bear  a  high  price. 
English-bred  sheep  produce  a  good, 
strong,  combing  wool,  that  of  the  Scotch 
breeds  being  somewhat  harsher  and 
coarser.  The  finest  carding  wools  were 
formerly  exclusively  obtained  from 
Spain,  the  native  country  of  the  merino 
sheep,  and  at  a  later  period  extensively 
from  Germany,  where  that  breed  had 
been  successfully  introduced  and  culti- 
vated. Immense  flocks  of  merinoes  are 
now  reared  in  the  United  States,  Aus- 
tralia, South  America,  and  Europe,  the 
annual  wool  product  of  the  United  States, 
Russia  and  Argentina  being  about  325,- 
000,000  pounds  for  each  country,  while 
that  of  Australia  is  about  750,000,000 
pounds.  The  total  European  product  is 
about  800,000,000  pounds;  total  world 
product  2,700,000,000  pounds. 

Woolen  Manufacture.  '^^'^^ 

article  of  clothing  dates  from  the  earli- 
est times,  and  no  doubt  it  was  made  into 
cloth  earlier  than  either  flax  or  cotton. 
Among  the  ancient  Jews  wool  was  the 
staple  material  of  clothing:  and  the 
woolen  fabrics  of  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome  attained  special  excellence.  In 
time  the  Roman  manufactures  were  car- 
ried to  the  countries  in  which  Roman 
colonies  had  been  established.  In  Eng- 
land the  making  of  woolen  cloth  seems  to 
have  been  introduced  b^  the  Romans, 
but  It  did  not  rise  into  importance  as  a 
national  employment  until  much  later. 
The  woolen  cloths  of  England  were  for 
a  considerable  time  confined  to  the 
coarser  fabrics  of  domestic  manufacture, 
finer  cloths  being  imported  from  the 
Continent,  particularly  from  Brabant 
At    various    times    also    the    trade    was 


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Woolen  Manufacture 


Woolner 


hampered  by  many  illiberal  laws  for  its 
regulation,  for  prohibiting  exportation, 
etc  In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  Yorkshire  began  to  assume  an 
important  position  in  woolen  manufac- 
tures, and  that  county  is  now  the  chief 
seat  of  both  the  English  worsteds  and 
woolens.  Scotland,  especially  the  south, 
is  famous  for  the  sort  of  cloth  called 
tweeds.  The  industry  was  introduced 
into  the  United  States  in  the  early  colo- 
nial period  as  a  household  manufacture. 
It  has  now  grown  into  one  of  the  leading 
textile  industries. 

In  making  woolen  cloth  the  essential 
processes,  as  carried  on  in  modem  fac- 
tories, are: — (1)  the  atapling  of  the  raw 
wool.  In  this  process  the  stapler  or 
sorter  works  at  a  table  covered  with  wire 
netting,  through  which  the  dirt  falls 
while  the  various  qualities  of  wool  are 
being  separated.  The  wool  is  then  ready 
to  be  put  through  the  (2)  scouring 
machine,  where  it  passes  on  an  endless 
apron  into  an  oblong  vat,  which  contains 
a  steaming  soapy  solution.  Here  it  is 
carried  forward  gently  by  means  of  rakes 
until  it  is  thoroughly  soaked  and 
cleansed.    After  this  it  is  taken  to  the 

(3)  drying  framework  of  wire  netting, 
under  which  are  situated  steam-heated 
pipes.  A  fan-blast  drives  the  heated  air 
upwards  through  the  wet  wool,  which 
lies  on  the  wire  netting,  until  it  is  all 
equally  dried.  When  necessary  this  is 
the  point  in  the  process  when  it  is  '  dyed 
in  the  wool.*     It  is  then  ready  for  the 

(4)  icilleying  or  teasing  machine,  which 
consists  of  a  revolving  drum  furnished 
with  hooked  teeth,  close  above  which  are 
set  cylinders  with  hooked  teeth  moving 
in  a  contrary  direction.  The  wool  is 
fed  in  upon  the  drum,  which  whirls  with 
great  speed;  and  between  the  two  sets 
of  teeth  working  in  opposite  directions 
it  is  disentangled,  torn,  and  cast  out  in 
fine,  free  fibers.  With  some  classes  of 
wool  it  is  also  necessary,  at  this  stage, 
to  remove  suds  and  burrs  by  steeping 
them  in  a  solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  or 
passing  them  through  a  burring  machine, 
by  which  the  burrs  are  extracted.  The 
wool  is  now  dry  and  brittle;  and  before 
submitting  it  to  the  process  (5)  of 
carding,  it  is  sprinkled  with  oil  and  well 
beaten  with  staves  in  order  to  give  it 
suppleness.  This  process  of  carding  is 
accomplished  by  a  series  of  three  delicate 
and  complex  machines  called  a  scribbler, 
an  intermediate,  and  a  finisher.  These 
machines  have  various  intricate  cylin- 
ders and  rollers,  studded  with  teeth  and 
working  in  opposite  directions,  over 
which  the  wool  is  passed  until  it  is  torn, 
interblended,  and  finally  delivered  from 


the  finisher  in  a  continuous  flat  lap.  li 
is  then  cut  into  strips  and  passed  (6)  to 
the  condensing  machine,  which  rubs  the 
strip  into  a  soft,  loose  cord  or  sliver 
technically  called  a  'slubbing.'  The 
wool  is  now  ready  for  (7)  spinning  into 
yam,  and  this  is  accomplished  in  a  wool- 
spinning  mule,  which  draws  and  twists 
the  sliver  into  the  required  thinness,  the 
process  being  essentially  the  same  as  in 
cotton-spinning.  (See  Cotton-spinning,) 
The  wool,  which  has  thus  been  brought 
into  the  form  of  yarn,  is  now  fit  for  (8) 
weaving  into  woolen  cloth.  (See  Weav- 
ing.) When  it  is  taken  out  of  the  loom 
the  cloth  is  washed,  to  free  it  from  oil 
and  other  impurities,  and  also  beaten 
while  it  lies  in  the  water  by  wooden 
hammers  moved  by  machinery,  while  it 
is  again  dyed  if  found  necessary.  After 
it  has  been  scoured  in  water  mixed  with 
fuller's  earth,  the  cloth  undergoes  a 
process  of  (9)  teaseling  and  shearing 
(see  Teasel) t  in  which  the  pile  or  nap 
is  first  raised,  and  then  cut  to  the  proper 
length  by  machines.  When  this  is  done 
it  IS  (10)  steamed  and  pressed  between 
polished  iron  plates  in  a  hydraulic  press. 
In  the  manufacture  of  worsted  yam 
the  long-staple  wool  fibers  are  brought 
as  far  as  possible  into  a  parallel  condi- 
tion by  processes  called  giUing  and  comb- 
ing. The  wool,  in  a  damn  condition,  is 
passed  through  a  series  of  *gill  boxes,' 
in  which  steel  gills  or  coml»  separate 
and  straighten  the  fibers  until,  from  the 
last  box,  it  issues  in  a  long  sliver.  In 
this  condition  it  is  run  through  a  deli- 
cate combing  machine;  after  a  process 
of  roving  the  thread  is  spun  into  yarn. 
Merinos,  Thibets,  empress  and  Henri- 
etta cloths,  alpacas  and  other  kinds  of 
dress  goods  are  made  from  worsted 
yarns.  The  camel  hair,  cow  hair  and 
calf  hair  goods  are  of  cheaper  grades: 
most  of  these  contain  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  shoddy,  the  lower  grades  of 
wool  and  woolen  waste.  These  belong 
more  to  the  woolen  than  the  worsted 
trade. 

Wnnlnpr  (wuKner),  Thomas,  sculp- 
WOOiUer  tor^^^s  bom  at  Hadleigh, 
Suffolk,  in  1825;  educated  at  Ipswich; 
placed  at  the  age  of  thirteen  in  the  stu- 
dio of  William  Behnes;  exhibited  his 
first  notable  life-size  group,  The  Death 
of  Boadicea  (1844)  ;  ana  followed  up 
this  success  with  Puck^  Titania,  and 
Eros  and  Euphrosyne.  Besides  his  well- 
known  statues  of  Carlyle,  Tennyson, 
Gladstone,  Newman,  Darwin,  Kingsley« 
etc.,  his  more  celebrated  works  are: 
Elaine  with  the  Shield  of  Sir  Lancelot 
Ophelittt  In  Memoriam,  Virpilla  Be- 
wailing  the  Banishment  of   Coriolanu9, 


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Woolsack 


Worcester 


and  Achillea  and  Pallaa  Shouting  from 
the  Trenched.  He  was  elected  an 
A.R.A.  1871;  R.A.  in  1876.  He  has 
also  achieved  considerable  success  as  a 
poet  in  the  volumes  entitled  My  Beauti- 
ful Lady  (1863),  Pygmalion  (1884), 
Silenus  (1884),  and  Tiresias  (1886). 
He  died  in  1892. 

Woolsack  (wul'sak),  a  large  square 
WOOiSaCiL   jjj^g  Qf  ^^j^  without  back 

or  arms,  covered  with  red  cloth,  which 
forms  the  seat  of  the  lord  chancellor  of 
England  in  his  capacity  of  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Lords. 

TXTnAlftAV  Theodore  D wight,  an  eml- 
wuuiscjTi  jjp^^  scholar,  born  at  New 
York,  October  31, 1801 ;  died  July  1, 1889. 
He  was  graduated  from  Yale  (Jollege  in 
1820,  studied  law  and  theologv,  and  was 
professor  of  Greek  at  Yale  1831-46,  and 
then  its  president  until  1871.  From 
1871  to  1881  he  was  president  of  the 
American  revisers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. He  prepared  editions  of  several 
of  the  Greek  classic  authors,  and  wrote 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Interna' 
tional  LatOf  The  Religion  of  the  Past  and 
the  Future^  and  other  works. 
TXTnnlaoTi  Constance  Fenimobe, 
WUUisuUy  novelist  and  poet,  bom  at 
Claremont,  New  Hampshire,  in  1838; 
died  in  1894.  Her  works  embrace 
Castle  Nowhere.  Rodman  the  Keeper, 
Jupiter  Lights,  For  the  Major,  etc. 
Wool-tree.     ^^  Eriodendron. 

WnnliEripli  (wurich),  a  town  and 
WOOlWlCn  ^arriamentary  borough  of 
England,  county  of  London  on  the 
Thames,  8  miles  below  London  Bridge. 
It  stretches  about  3  miles  along  the  river, 
and  owes  its  importance  to  the  great 
arsenal,  which  has  a  circumference  of  4 
miles,  and  consists  of  gun  and  carriage 
factories,  laboratory,  barracks,  ordnance 
departments,  etc.  At  North  Woolwich, 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river,  many 
houses  and  extensive  factories  have  re- 
cently sprung  up.  Pop.  121,406. 
Wnnnftooki^f  (w6n-sok'et),  a  city  of 
WOOUSOC&ei  Providence  Co.,  Rhode 
Island,  on  the  Blackstone  River,  about 
40  miles  s.w.  of  Boston.  It  is  claimed 
to  be  the  largest  producer  of  woolen 
goods  of  any  city  in  the  United  States, 
and  has  extensive  cotton  mills,  employing 
over  4000  hands.  There  are  also  rubber 
shoe,  yarn  and  machinery  works,  etc. 
Pop.  38,125. 

Woorali  Poison.   ^"^  ^"'^"'^ 

'UfAAafAT  (wos't^r),  a  manufacturing 
WOOSlcr  ^..^y^  capital  of  Wayne  Co., 
Ohio.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  University 
of  Wooster,  founded  in  1870,  and  of  the 


Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
Plows,  whips,  furniture,  coach-pads, 
foundry  and  lumber  products  are  manu- 
factured. Pop.  6136. 
TXTootz  (w5tz),  a  superior  steel  from 
vTvvi»A  ^jj^  g^g^  Indies,  imported  into 
Europe  and  America  for  making  the  fin- 
est classes  of  edge-tools. 

Worcester  tea^^We^a'S'  onl 

of  the  most  ancient  cities  in  England, 
lies  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Severn, 
114  miles  N.  w.  of  London.  Its  most 
notable  building  is  a  Gothic  cathedral, 
originally  built  in  680  and  rebuilt  in  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Con- 
structed in  the  form  of  a  double  cross, 
with  a  central  tower,  it  has  been  added  to 
at  various  periods,  and  a  very  complete 
restoration  was  made  in  1857.  Among 
other  buildings  are  the  shire  hall,  the 
guildhall,  com  exchange,  museum  of 
natural  history,  etc.  .  Worcester  is  the 
chief  seat  of  the  English  leather  glove 
trade,  has  celebrated  porcelain  works, 
with  foundries,  carriage  factories,  and 
other  works.  JPop,  47^87.  The  county 
is  bounded  N.  by  Shropshire  and  Staf- 
fordshire, E.  by  Warwickshire,  s.  by 
Gloucestershire  and  w.  by  Herefordshire ; 
area,  751  sq.  miles,  about  half  of  which 
is  in  permanent  pasture.  The  surface  is 
a  broad  plain  varied  by  the  Malvern 
Hills  in  the  s.  w.^  several  valleys,  of 
which  the  Severn  is  the  most  notable, 
and  having  as  its  chief  rivers  the  Severn, 
Stour,  Teme  and  Avon.  Wheat  is  ex- 
tensively grown,  while  bop  gardens  are 
numerous.  Coal  and  iron  are  worked; 
there  are  large  manufactures  of  iron, 
steel,  and  hardware;  and  salt  is  obtained 
abundantly  from  the  salt  springs  at 
Droitwich.  The  carpets  of  Kiddermin- 
ster are  famous,  as  are  also  gloves  and 
porcelain  of  Worcester,  and  there  are 
important  glass  manufactures  at  Dudley 
and  Stourbridge.     Pop.  526,143. 

WOrceSier,  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^  Worcester 
Co.,  Massachusetts,  lies  on  the  Black- 
stone  River,  44  miles  west  of  Boston.  It 
is  the  second  city  of  the  State,  and  has 
many  notable  edifices,  including  the  city 
hall,  public  library.  State  armory,  Clark 
University,  Polytechnic  Institute,  Holy 
Cross  College,  American  Antiquarian 
Society,  Odd  Fellows'  Home,  and  an  Art 
Museum  with  endowment  of  $4,000,000. 
Its  industries  are  large  and  varied,  its 
wire  works  being  the  largest  in  the  world. 
There  are  also  great  loom  and  envelope 
works,  woolen  and  mohair  mills,  large 
carpet  works,  boot  and  shoe  factories, 
and  many  other  industries.  Worcester 
was  permanently  settled  in  1713 ;  incorpo- 


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Worcester 


Wordsworth 


rated  as  a  city  in  1848.  Pop.  (1913) 
166.206. 

^Xr^rAAttf  Ar  Edwabd  Somebset,  Ma^ 
WUrucBbcr,  quis  of,  one  of  tlie  ear- 
liest inventors  of  a  steam  engine,  was 
bora  abont  1601;  died  in  1667.  He  was 
engaged  in  tlie  service  of  Charles  I 
during  the  civil  war,  and  was  imprisoned 
in  the  Tower  from  1652-65.  He  after- 
wards publisfied  iSoaniUnpa  of  One  Hun- 
dred Inventions,  in  which  he  gave  a  de- 
scription of  his  steam  engine. 
Wnrnpftf^r    Blwood,  American  dergv- 

woroesT^er,        ^^^  ^„^     ^0^^^^^ 

Masilon,  Ohio,  in  1886.  Since  1904  he 
has  been  rector  of  Emmanuel  Church, 
Boston.  Soon  after  1904  he  inaugurated 
a  movement  for  the  treatment  of  nervous 
diseases  which  attracted  widespread  in- 
terest His  books  include  ReUgion  and 
Medicine  (1907),  and  The  Living  Word 

WnrMiif^r  Joseph  Emebson,  a  dis- 
WOrceSXer,  ^inguished  lexicographer, 
bom  at  Bedford,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1784.  His  first  work  was  a  Geographi' 
ool  Dictionary,  or  Univereal  Oaeettecr. 
It  was  followed  by  Oaeetieer  of  the 
United  Statee.  Blemente  of  Geography, 
Sketches  of  the  Earth  and  its  Inhabit- 
anU  and  BlemenU  of  History,  In  1830 
he  published  a  Comprehensive  Pronounc- 
ing and  Explanatory  EnoUsh  Dictionary, 
In  1860  be  published  the  great  quarto 
Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  (il- 
lustrated).   He  died  October  27,  1865. 

WnnlATt  John,  naval  officer  born  at 
woraeu,    ^^     ^^^^  ^^^  ^^^.^^  j^ 

1818;  died  in  1897.  He  entered  the 
navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1834,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  CJivil  war  was  taken 
prisoner  bv  the  Confederates,  being  ex- 
changed after  seven  months.  His  most 
eminent  service  in  the  war  was  as  cap- 
tain of  the  Monitor  in  its  famous  tight 
with  the  Merrimac  in  Hampton  Roads. 
He  comanded  the  iron-clad  Montauk 
in  its  operations  against  Fort  Sumter, 
was  made  commodore  in  1868  and  rear- 
admiral  in  1872,  and  retired  in  1886. 
Wordsworth  (wards'wiirth),  Chris- 
woroBWurtu  topheb,  youngest 
brother  of  William  Wordsworth,  was  bom 
at  Cockermouth  in  1774;  died  in  1846. 
He  was  the  author  of  Ecclesiastical  Biog- 
raphy and  other  works. 

Wordsworth  William,  a  celebrated 
woraBwori.ay  Enough  p^^t,  son  of 

an  attorney,  was  bom  at  Cockermouth, 
Cumberland,  April  7,  1770;  died  April 
23,  1850.  In  1787  he  was  sent  to  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge.  He  left  the 
university  after  taking  his  degree,  but 
without  having  otherwise  distinguished 
himself,    and    lived    aimlessly    hi    Lon- 


don and  elsewhere.  He  crossed  to 
France  in  1791,  and  exhibited  vehement 
sympathy  with  the  revolution,  remaining 
in  France  for  nearly  a  year.  After  his 
return,  disregarding  all  entreaties  to  en- 
ter upon  a  professional  career,  he  pub- 
lished his  Evening  Walk  and  Descriptive 
Sketches  (1793).  Two  years  afterwards 
he  received  a  legacy  of  £900  from  Raisley 
Calvert,  a  friend  whom  he  had  nursed  in 
his  last  illness.  With  this  sum  and  the 
consecrated  helpfulness  of  his  sister  Dor- 
othy he  contrived  to  keep  house  for  eight 
years,  while  he  gave  himself  to  poetic 
effort  as  his  high  *  office  upon  earth.* 
For  the  first  two  years  they  lived  at 
Racedown  in  Dorset,  where  the  poet, 
among  other  experiments,  began  his  trag- 
edy of  The  Borderers,  In  this  retreat 
they  were  visited  (1797)  by  C^oleridge, 
who  had  already  recognized  an  original 
poetic  ffenius  in  the  author  of  Descrip- 
tive Sketches,  Coleridge  was  at  this 
time  living  at  Nether  Stowey,  in  Somer- 
set, and  during  this  visit  he  induced  the 
Wordsworths  to  go  into  residence  at  Al- 
foxden,  in  his  immediate  neighborhood. 
Here  the  two  poets  held  daily  inter- 
course, and  after  a  twelvemonth  they 
published  Lyrical  Ballads  (1798)  in 
literary  copartnership.  Although  this 
volume  was  received  with  almost  com- 
plete public  indifference,  yet  Wordsworth 
felt  that  he  had  found  his  mission,  and 
after  a  winter  spent  in  Germany  he  and 
his  sister  settled  at  Grasmere  (1799), 
where  he  proposed  to  write  a  great  philo- 
sophical poem  on  man,  nature,  and  so- 
ciety. Thenceforth  his  life  was  marked 
by  few  incidents.  Those  worth  noting 
are  his  marriage  in  1802  with  bis  cousin 
Mary  Hutchison;  a  removal  from  Gras- 
mere to  Allan  Bank  in  1808;  his  ap- 
pointment in  1813  to  an  inspectorship  of 
stamps,  and  his  removal  to  Rvdal 
Mount;  several  journeys  into  Scotland 
and  to  the  continent;  his  acceptance  of 
a  D.C.L.  degree  conferred  upon  him  in 
1839  by  the  University  of  (Jxford;  and 
his  accession  in  1843  to  the  laureateship 
on  the  death  of  Southey.  Wordsworth^ 
great  philosophic  poem,  which,  in  his 
own  phrase,  was  to  be  the  Gothic  cathe- 
dral of  his  labor,  received  only  a  frag- 
mentary accomplishment  in  The  Prelude^ 
The  Ewcursion,  and  The  Recluse.  Yet 
enough  was  achieved  in  his  smaller  poems 
to  justify  his  own  conception  of  himself 
as  a  'dedicated  spirit,'  and  to  set  him 
apart  among  the  greatest  of  England's 
poets.  A  complete  edition  of  his  poetical 
works  has  been  published  by  Professor 
Knight,  his  prose  writings  have  been  col- 
lected and  published  by  Dr.  Grosart,  his 
Memoirs  were  published  in  1851  by  his 


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Work 


Wormseed 


nephewt  and  an  interesting  account  of 
the  poet  and  his  sister  Dorothy  is  found 
in  her  Diary  of  a  Tour  in  the  Highlands. 
VJqtIt  (wurk),  in  mechanics,  the  act 
of  producing  a  change  of  con- 
figuration in  a  system  in  opposition  to  a 
force  which  resists  that  change.  Accord- 
ing to  physicists  a  unit  of  work  is  taken 
as  a  weignt  of  one  pound  lifted  one  foot. 
See  Foot-pound,  Unity  Energy, 

Workhouse,  ^^»-  'S.J^t.S''^l 

the  public  expense,  those  who  are  able- 
bodied  being  compelled  to  work.  Under 
the  old  poor-laws  of  England,  there  was 
a  workhouse  in  each  parish,  partaking  of 
the  character  of  a  bridewell,  where  in- 
digent, vagrant,  and  idle  people  were  set 
to  work,  and  supplied  with  food  and 
clothing,  or  what  is  termed  indoor  relief. 
These  workhouses  were  described  as,  gen- 
erally speaking,  nurseries  of  idleness, 
ignorance,  and  vice;  but  a  new  system 
was  introduced  in  1834,  parishes  being 
now  united  for  the  better  management  of 
workhouses,  which  gave  rise  to  the  poor- 
law  unions,  with  their  workhouses.  In 
these  establishments  the  pauper  inmates 
are  employed  according  to  their  capacity 
and  ability.  Religious  and  secular  in- 
struction is  supplied,  while  habits  of 
industry,  cleanliness,  and  order  are  en- 
forced. Similar  institutions  exist  in  the 
United  States.    See  Poor. 

Workington     KeVt^w^n^Sn'd^Sea^ 

port  of  England,  county  of  Cumberland, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Derwent,  about  o 
miles  N.  of  Whiteliaven.  Its  industrial 
establishments  comprise  large  iron-smelt- 
ing works  and  works  for  steel  rails,  iron- 
plates,  ship-building,  etc.     Pop.  25,099. 

Workmen's  Compensation 

IiAWS  ^^s  relating  to  the  compensa- 
tion  of  workmen  for  injuries 
sustained  have  been  passed  by  many 
states.  In  nearly  all  the  states  of  the 
Union  the  laws  of  employers'  liability 
have  been  modernized,  but  only  in  a  few 
states  do  these  acts  apply  to  all  servants 
and  are  therefore  *  compensation  acts.* 
TXTnTlrfiATi  (wurk'sup),  a  market  town 
WOriLSOp  ^^  England,  in  Nottingham- 
shire, 26  miles  n.  of  Nottingham.  It 
has  a  beautiful  Norman  church,  iron- 
foundries  and  saw-mills.  Pop.  20,387. 
W^Orld  (wurld),  in  its  widest  sense 
defies  the  universe,  the  total 
of  all  existing  things.  In  its  narrower 
sense  it  means  the  earth,  its  figure,  di- 
mensions, mass,  and  all  else  related  to  it 
It  is  often  spoken  of  also  as  the  total  of 
human  beings,  '  the  world  of  man ' ;  also 
of  a  specific  group,  aa  '  the  literary  world.' 


World  Sconts,  f »,  ^^^^  (50^ 

the  chief  difference  being  that  it  is  di- 
vested of  all  military  significance,  and 
based  on  the  principle  that  all  mankind 
constitute  one  family,  and  that  in  a  strict 
sense  there  are  no  foreigners.  It  orig- 
inated with  Sir  Francis  Vane,  who  was 
concerned  with  General  Baden-Powell  in 
organizing  the  Boy  Scouts.  Not  relish- 
ing the  military  aspect  of  the  latter,  be 
devised  this  new  idea.  It  has  bad  won- 
derful success,  its  membership  going  up 
to  50,000  in  a  few  months,  and  spread- 
ing over  Europe,  though  not  yet  to  the 
United  States.  The  rules  of  helpfulness, 
etc.,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Boy 
Scouts  (which  see).  The  American  Boy 
Scouts  are  essentially  non-military. 
Worms  (^urms),  a  term  loosely  ap- 
plied  to  many  small  longish 
creeping  animals,  entirely  wanting  feet 
or  having  but  very  short  ones,  includ- 
ing such  various  forms  as  the  earth- 
worm, the  larvflB  or  grubs  of  certain 
insects,  intestinal  parasites,  as  the  tape- 
worm, thread-worm,  etc  In  zoological 
classifications  it  is  used  as  equivalent  to 
Vermes  or  to  Annelida.  In  medicine  it 
is  applied  to  the  parasitic  animals  which 
exist  chiefly  in  the  intestines,  and  to  the 
disease  due  to  the  presence  of  such  para- 
sites. Several  kinds  of  worms  may  in- 
fest the  human  body,  but  those  with 
which  children  are  so  commonly  annoyed 
are  the  small  worms  known  as  thread- 
worms. Vermifuges  or  anthelmintics  are 
names  given  to  medicines  that  cure 
worms,  such  as  extract  of  male-fem  root 
for  tapeworms,  santonin  for  thread- 
worms. See  Wormseed.  Wormwood, 
Tapeworm  and  Nematelmta. 
Worms  (^dnns),  one  of  the  most  an- 
WVAU&0)  ^.gjjj  cities  of  Germany,  is  in 
the  Grand-duchy  of  Hesse,  on  the  Rhine, 
25  miles  s.  of  Mainz,  and  20  miles  n.  w. 
of  Heidelberg.  The  chief  buildings  of 
interest  are  the  Romanesque  cathedral 
(twelfth  century),  a  magnificent  struc- 
ture with  four  round  towers  and  two 
large  domes;  the  Liebfrauenkirche  and 
church  of  St.  Martin;  the  town  house; 
and  the  monument  to  Lather,  consisting 
of  a  colossal  statue  on  a  raised  plat- 
form surrounded  by  figures  of  precursors 
of  or  persons  directly  connected  with  the 
Reformation.  At  Worms  was  held  the 
famous  diet  in  1521,  at  which  Lather 
defended  his  doctrines  before  the  Em- 
peror Charles  and  an  august  assemblage. 
Pop.  (1910)  46,819. 

WormA^^rl  ^  s^^  which  has  the 
WOrmsCCa,  property  of  expelling 
worms  from  the  intestinal  tube  or  other 
open  cavities  of  the  body.     It  is  brought 


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Wormwood  Wrack 

from  the  Levant,  and  is  the  produce  of  a  ouentlr  he  built,  in  Sayannah,  6a.,  the 
Kipecies  of  Artemisia  (A.  Sanionioa),  nrst  direct-acting  compound  engine  ever 
which  is  a  native  of  Tartary  and  Persia,  used  in  water-works;  erected  a  large 
In  the  United  States  the  name  is  gener-  plant  for  the  manufacturing  of  pumping 
ally  given  to  the  seed  of  Chenopodium  machinerv;  invented  the  duplex  pump, 
anthelmintioum.  See  Santonin  and  Ery-  and  devised  various  improvements  m 
ttmtfm.  steam  and  hydraulic  machinery.  He 
VUnrrnvjiMiA  (wurm'wud),  the  com-  died  December  17,  1880. 
wuJTiuwuuu  „j^j^  jj^g  ^j  several  Wotton  (woften),  Sib  Henbt,  a  dl- 
plants  of  the  genus  Artemina,  Com-  plomatist  and  miscellaneous 
mon  wormwood  (A.  Absinthium),  a  writer,  bom  in  1568;  died  in  1639.  He 
well-known  plant,  is  celebrated  for  its  was  educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford ; 
intensely  bitter  tonic  and  stimulating  resided  on  the  Ckintinent  for  some  years, 
qualities,  which  have  caused  it  to  be  an  and  on  returning  to  Bngland  was  em- 
ingredient  in  various  medicinal  prepara-  ployed  as  secretary  to  Essex.  On  the 
tions,  and  even  in  the  preparation  of  fall  of  that  nobleman  from  power  (1600) 
liqueurs.  It  is  also  useful  in  destroying  Wotton  fled  to  Florence,  where  he  was 
worms  in  children.  employed  by  the  grand-duke  to  reveal  to 
Wnrfit^H  (wur'sted),  a  variety  of  King  James  of  Scotland  a  plot  against 
wvxobcu  woolen  yam  or  thread,  spun  his  life.  When  the  Scottish  king  as- 
from  long-staple  wool  which  has  been  cended  the  throne  of  England  he  showed 
combed,  and  which  in  the  spinning  is  his  gratitude  by  making  Wotton  a  knight, 
twisted  harder  than  ordinary.  It  is  knit  employing  him  abroad  as  an  ambassa- 
or  woven  into  stockings,  carpets,  etc.  dor,  and  ultimately  (16C25)  appointing 
The  name  is  derived  from  Worsted,  a  him  provost  of  Eton.  His  ability  as  a 
village  in  Norfolk  where  it  is  supposed  writer  is  shown  in  IMiqui4B  Wottonianw, 
to  have  been  first  manufactured.  See  published  in  1651,  with  Izaak  Walton's 
Woolen  Manufacture,  Life  of  Wotton, 

Wort      ®®^  Brewing.  Wonnd     ^°  surgical  phrase,  a  break  or 

w»vM-»A*»,    i^jgg  ^j  continuity  in  any  of 

Worth     William    Jenkinb,    soldier,  the  soft  parts  of  the  body  occasioned  by 

>    bom  at  Hudson,  New  York,  external   violence,   and   attended   with  a 

in  1794;  died  in  1849.     He  entered  the  greater    or    less    amount    of    bleeding, 

army  as  a  private  in  the  war  of  1812,  Wounds  have  been  classified  as  follows: 

became    aid-de-camp    to    Generals   Lewis  (o)    Cuts,  incisions,   or  incised  wounds^ 

and  Scott,  and  fought  at  Chippewa  and  which   are  produced  by   sharp-edged   in- 

Lundy's  Lane,  being  severely  wounded  at  struments.     (6)      Stabs     or     punctured 

the    latter    battle.     Promoted    major    in  wounds,  made  by  the  thrasts  of  pointed 

1832  and  colonel  in  1838.     He  took  com-  weapons,     (c)     Contused    wounds,    pro- 

mand  of  the  Florida  war  in   1841   and  duced  by  the  violent  application  of  hard, 

brought   it   to  a  successful   termination,  blunt,   obtuse   bodies   to  the   soft   parts. 

He  served  under  General  Taylor  in  the  (d)  Lacerated  wounds,  in  which  there  is 

Mexican  war,  and  distinguished  himself  tearing  or  laceration,  as  by  some  rough 

at   the  storming  of  Monterey.     He   was  instrument,     (e)    All   those  common   in- 

afterwards    placed    in    command    of    the  juries  called  gunshot  wounds,     (f)   Poi- 

Southwest  soned  wounds,  those  complicated  with  the 

TKTortllill?    (wur'thing),   a   watering-  introduction    of   some    poison    or   venom 

v¥  vx  i>uxu5    place  in   England,  county  into  the  part.     Recent  success  in  accel- 

of  Sussex,  about  10  miles  west  of  Brigh-  crating  the  growth  of  tissues  seems  likely 

ton.     It  is  a  fashionable  resort,   having  to  revolutionize  the  treatment  of  wounds, 

an  esplanade,  libraries,  a  literary  institu-  Wonvermail    (jou'vftr-mAn),  Phiuf, 

tion,  reading-room,  etc.     There  is  also  an  "  viav^xaiacmi.  j)y^^,jj  painter,  bom  in 

extensive  mackerel  fishery.     Pop.  30,308.  1620;  died  in  1668.     He  was  the  son  of 

Wortllill^toil     Henry  Rossiteb,  in-  Paul    Wouverman,    a    historical    painter, 

Yv  vx  i>uxu5  bvuy   ventor,  bom  at  New  who  taught  him  the  rudiments  of  the  art. 

York  in  1817.     He  engaged  in  mercantile  The  subjects  in  which  he  excelled  were 

business,  but  in  1840  began  a  series  of  huntings,     hawkings,     encampments     of 

experiments  with  steam  for  the  propul-  armies,    farriers'    shops,    and    all    such 

sion  of  canal  boats.     Soon  afterward  he  scenes    as    admitted    the    treatment    of 

devised  a  small  steam  pump  to  be  used  horses  and  other  animals, 

in  the  maintenance  of  the  water  supply  TXTt^aV    (rak),  or  Sea.-wra.ck,  a  popu- 
in  the  engine  boiler,  and  in  1841  patented        AO'VXk  j^^^    name    for    sea-weed    cast 

an    independent    feed    pump    which    de-  ashore  by  the  waves,  but  sometimes  ap- 

veloped     into     the     direct-acting     steam  plied    specifically    to    the    genus    Fucus 

pump  that  he  patented  in  1840.    Subse-  See  Fucacew, 


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Wrangler                             *  Wright 

Wrftn^ler     i^^e'e^er),  in  Cambridge  1708  surveyor  of   the  royal   worlcs,   and 

Yvxaugxc/i.    University,      tlie      name  from    1685   to   1700   represented   various 

given    to   those   who   have   attained    the  boroughs  in  parliament.     Over  the  north 

first  class  in  the  public  examination  for  doorway    of    St.    Paul's    is    a    memorial 

honors  in  mathematics,  commonly  called  tablet    on    which    are    the    well-known 

the    mathematical    tripoa.    The    student  words:     Si    monumentum    requiris,    oif' 

taking  absolutely  the  nrst  place  is  called  cumapice.    See  Paul%  8t. 

the  senior  wrangler,  TXTrencll     ^^      instrument     consisting 

Wrasse     (ras)»   *he   name   of   various  ^  ^^"-^^y    essentially  of  a  bar  of  metal 

w  M.aooM    species    of    fish    belonging    to  having  jaws  adapted  to  catch  upon   the 

the   family   Labridc     They   are   prickly-  head  of  a  bolt  or  a  nut  to  turn  it;   a 

spined,  hard-boned  fishes,  with  lar^e  dou-  screw-key.  Some  wrenches  have  a  va- 
ble  and  fleshy  lips.  Several  species  are 
natives  of  the  British  seas,  as  the  ballan 
wrasse,  or  old  wife  {Lahrus  tinea  or 
maculatu8),  which  attains  a  length  of 
about  18  inches. 

TXTtati  (ren),  a  name  given  to  certain 
^^^**  birds  closely  allied  to  the  warb- 
lers,   distinguished    by    their   small    size, 

slender  beak,  short,  rounded  wings,  mot-  Wrench  is. 

tied   plumage,   and   the   habit   of   holding  i^  Screw-wrench.     2,  T»p-wrench.     8,  An- 

the  tail  erect.     The  wren  proper    {Trpg-  gie- wrench.     4.     Tube-wrench.     5.     Monkey- 

lodiftes  vulpdris)    is,   with   the   exception  wrench  for  hexagonal  and  square  nuts, 
of  the  golden-crested   wren,  the  smallest 

bird  in  Europe,  averaging  about  4  inches  rjety  of  jaws  to  suit  different  sizes  and 

m  length.     It  is  a  well-known  bird,  and  shapes  of  nuts  and  bolts,  and  others,  as 

has  rather  a  bold  loud  song.     The  Amer-  ^he   monkey-wrench,   have   an   adjustable 

lean    house-wren    {T,   domesticus)    is   a  inner  jaw. 

very  familiar  bird,  and  a  general  favorite  TIT-|kxliATtl     (reks'am),     a     municipal 

in  the  United  States.                      „     ,.  v  ^^^^^""^and     parliamentary     bor- 

Wren.    Sib  Christopher,  an   English  ough   of   North    Wales,   county   of   Den- 

^^\     L  architect,  bom  m  1631 ;  died  in  bigh,    12    miles    south    of    Chester.     Its 

1732.     He    was    educated    at    Wadham  church  of  St.  Giles,  built  about  1470.  is 

College,  Oxford;  became  a  fellow  of  All  one  of  the  finest  old  Gothic  buildings  in 

Souls  in  1G53;   was  appointed  professor  North  Wales.     The  town  has  large  brew- 

of    astronomy    at    Gresham    College    in  ^ries,    tanneries,    paper-mills,    etc.,    and 

1657,    and    three    years    afterwards   was  the  district  has  numerous  coal,  lead,  and 

elected   Savilian  professor  of  astronomy  \yq^  mines.     Pop.  20,408. 

at  Oxford.    He  had  been  appointed  by  TiT„Vl,f    Carroll  Davidson,  statisti- 

Charles  II  to  restore  old  St.  Paurs,  but  wiigut,   ^.^^    ^^  ^^^  ^^  Dumbar- 

after   the   great    fire    (1666)    it   became  ton.  New  Hampshire,  in  1840.     He  served 

necessary    to    rebuild    the   cathedral.     In  fn  the  Civil  war,  rising  from  private  to 

Ereparing  his  plans  he  was  considerably  colonel,  was  chief  of   the  Massachusetts 

ampered  by  the  ecclesiastical  authority,  bureau  of  statistics  1873-88.  and  United 

but  with  the  king's  permission  he  modi-  States  Commissioner  of  Labor  after  1885. 

fied    and    improved    the    design    as    the  in   1902   he   became   president   of  Clark 

building    proceeded.     Thus,    the    division  College.     He  published  Industrial  Evolu- 

of  the  exterior   into   two  orders  of  col-  Hon   of   the    united   States,    Outline   of 

umns,  and  the  present  dome  and  drum  on  Practical    Sociology ,    etc     He    died    in 

which  it  stands  were  alterations  on  the  1909. 

original  plan.  The  cathedral  was  begun  OTi^iylif  (rtt),  Horatio  Gouverneur, 
in  1675,  and  the  architect  saw  the  last  "  ^^B**"  general,  bom  at  Clinton.  Con- 
stone  laid  by  his  son  thirty-five  years  necticut,  in  1820;  died  in  1809.  lie  was 
afterwards.  Among  the  other  notable  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1841,  and 
buildings  which  Wren  designed  are:  the  after  some  service  in  the  army  was 
modern  part  of  the  palace  at  Hampton  promoted  major  in  1861.  He  served 
Court,  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  through  the  Civil  war,  was  made  briga- 
Cambridge,  the  hospitals  of  Chelsea  and  dier-^eneral  of  volunteers,  commanded  a 
Greenwich,  the  churches  of  St.  Stephen's,  division  at  the  Wilderness  and  a  corps  at 
Walbrook;  St.  Mary-le-bow:  St.  Mi-  Spotsylvania  and  Cold  Harbor,  and  was 
chael,  Comhill;  St.  Bride.  Fleet  Street;  promoted  major-general  in  the  United 
as  also  the  campanile  of  Christ  Church.  States  army  In  1865.  He  was  chief  of 
Oxford.  In  1680  he  was  chosen  presi-  engineers  at  the  time  of  his  retirement  in 
dent  of  the  Royal  Society,  appointed  in  1884. 


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Wright 


Writing 


^XTricylif  Obvillb,  bom  at  Dayton, 
wri^ut,  Ohio,  In  1871,  and  Wilbur. 
born  near  Millville,  Indiana,  in  18G7. 
brother  aeronauts,  the  first  to  succeed 
in  inventing  heavier-than-air  flying  ma- 
chines capable  of  bearing  the  weight  of 
a  man  in  the  air.  The  earliest  successful 
test  of  their  machines  was  made  at 
Kitty  Hawk,  North  Carolina,  in  1003, 
and  the  first  successful  long  distance 
flight  near  Dayton  in  1905.  After  that 
time  they  made  numerous  flights  in  the 
United  States  and  Europe,  and  were 
awarded  gold  medals  bv  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  many  other 
institutions.  In  1900  they  took  charge 
of  the  Government  aviation  sohool  at 
College  Park,  Maryland,  but  in  1910  re- 
turned to  Dayton  to  manufacture  aero- 
planes under  their  patent  Wilbur 
wrirht  died  in  1912. 
Wrist    SeeJJaiwJ. 

Writ  ^^^^9  ^  l^^>  ^  mandatory  pre- 
cept, issued  by  the  authority  and 
in  the  name  of  the  sovereign  or  the 
State,  for  the  purpose  of  compelling  the 
defendant  to  do  something  therein  men- 
tioned. It  is  issued  by  a  court  or  other 
competent  jurisdiction,  and  is  return- 
able to  the  same.  It  is  to  be  under 
seal,  and  attested  by  the  proper  oflScer, 
and  is  directed  to  the  sheriff,  or  other 
ofllcer  legally  authorized  to  execute  the 
same. 

Writer's  Cramp,  f^^^fl^fX 

the  patient  loses  complete  control  over 
the  muscles  of  the  thumb  and  the  fore 
and  middle  fingers,  so  that  all  attempts 
to  write  regularly,  and  in  the  severer 
cases  even  legibly,  are  unsuccessful.  It 
is  a  tetanic  contraction  of  the  muscles 
of  the  hand  and  forearm.  It  may  be  due 
to  cold,  rheumatism,  exhaustion  of  the 
muscles  by  long-continued  strain,  or  in- 
fection by  bacteria.  It  is  treated  dif- 
ferently, according  to  its  cause,  such  as 
by  heat,  antirheumatic  remedies,  rest, 
bacterial  vaccines,  massage,  etc.  Called 
also  Scrivener's  PaUy. 

Writers  to  the  Signet,    s^^  ^^ 

WrifiTK^  (rl'ting),  one  of  the  oldest 
wiitxu^  arts,  is  usually  divided  into 
ideographic  writing,  in  w^hich  signs  rep- 
resent ideas,  and  into  phonetic  writing, 
in  which  signs  represent  sounds.  Ideo- 
graphic writing,  in  its  earliest  form,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  an  attempt  to 
convey  ideas  by  copying  objects  direct 
from  nature,  and  this  form  of  it  has  thus 
acquired  ^  the  name  of  picture-writina. 
After  this  came  symbolical  writing,  m 
which    abbreviated    pictures    were    used 


as  arbitrary  symbols,  first  of  things,  and 
still  later  of  sounds  and  words.  This 
indicates  the  transition  into  phonetic 
writing,  in  which  the  signs  may  either 
represent  a  whole  syllable  (syUabic 
writing),  or  only  a  single  sound,  in 
which  case  they  are  called  alphaheiic 
These  signs  differ  in  form  ana  use  in 
the  various  alphabets.  Thus  the  Chi- 
nese signs  are  read  in  columns  from 
top  to  bottom,  the  Mexican  picture 
writing  from  bottom  to  top,  tie  Hebrew 
writing  from  right  to  left,  and  Latin, 
Greek,  and  all  European  languages  aa 
well    as    Sanskrit    from    \ett    to    ri^t. 


«»'  .» 


Wood  Writing  Tsblet. 

(See  Alphabet,)  In  the  Chinese  sys- 
tem of  writing  there  is  no  alphabet,  the 
characters  being  syllabic  and  strictly 
ideographic. 

Writing  was  introduced  to  the  western 
nations  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  the 
Phoenician  system  is  supposed  to  have 
been  based  on  the  Egyptian.  The 
cuneiform  writing,  another  ancient  sys- 
tem, invented  by  the  Accadian  inhab- 
itants of  Chaldea,  was  also  adapted  to 
several  languages,  as  the  Assyrian,  the 
Persian,  etc.,  in  a  variety  of  ways,  ideo- 
graphic»    syllabic    and    alphabetic    (set 


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Writing 


Wuhu 


Cuneiform  Wriimff).  Also  of  inde- 
pendent origin  is  the  Chinese  system. 
The  Egyptians  bad  three  distinct  kinds 
of  writing,  the  hieroglyphic,  the  hieratic, 
and  the  enchorial  or  demotic  (see  Hiero- 
gluphio),  and  it  was  from  the  second 
that  the  Phoenician  and  other  Semitic 
systems  of  writing  are  thought  to  have 
been  derived.  The  leading  Semitic 
forms  are  the  Samaritan  or  ancient 
Hebrew,  the  Chaldee  or  East  Aramaic, 
the  Syriac  or  West  Aramaic,  the  Kufic 
or  early  Arabic,  and  the  Neshki  or  mod- 
em Arabic.  At  what  time  writing  was 
introduced    into    ancient    Greece    is    not 


types,  became  common  in  inscriptions 
from  the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  cen- 
turies, and  were  employed  in  church 
books  from  the  time  of  St.  Louis.  In 
England  a  variety  of  styles  called  Sazop 
prevailed  in  the  early  middle  ages.  A 
mixed  style  was  formed  of  a  combina- 
tion of  Roman,  Lombardic  and  Saxon 
characters;  the  Norman  style  came  in 
with  William  the  Conqueror;  and  the 
English  court  hand,  an  adaptation  of 
Saxon,  prevailed  from  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury to  the  reign  of  George  II.  There 
have  been  various  attempts  made  to  in- 
troduce systems  of  phonetic  toriiing,  hi 


known  with  certainty,  but  probably  be- 
tween the  tenth  and  the  seventh  century 
B.  c.  From  Greece  it  passed  to  Sicily 
and  Italy,  and  thence  it  was  spread  as 
Christianity  spread.  Like  the  Semites, 
the  Greeks  originally  wrote  from  right 
to  left  In  medieval  manuscripts  a 
variety  of  styles  were  adopted  in  differ- 
ent epochs  and  countries.  Capitals 
were  not  then  used  as  now  to  distinguish 
prominent  words,  but  whole  manuscripts 
were  written  in  large  or  small  capitals. 
Uncial  letters,  which  prevailed  from  the 
seventh  to  the  tenth  centuries,  were 
rounded  capitals  with  few  hair-strokes. 
Gothic  characters,  which  were  merely 
faneifol    deriations    from    the    Roman 


which  each  sound  should  be  represented 
by  one  invariable  sign.  Systems  of 
shorthand  writing  are  generally  phonetic 
See  Shorthand. 

Wrvnpolr  (n'nek),  a  bird  allied  to 
wryneciL  ^^^^  resembling  the  wood- 
peckers. One  species,  the  common  wry- 
neck {Tunm  torquilla),  is  a  summer  vis- 
itant of  the  north  of  Europe.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  long  tongue,  its  power 
of  protruding  and  retracting  it,  and  the 
writhing,  snake-like  motion  which  it  can 
impart  to  its  neck  without  moving  the 
rest  of  the  body.  It  feeds  chiefly  oil 
insects. 

Wuhn.  ^^woo-Boo. 


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Wundt  Wyandotte 

Wundt  <^'*»"0,  WiLiiELM  Max,  a  Wiirzblirg*  (vwrts'bur^),  a  town  in 
German  physiologist  and  pay-  *'  ^^A^-wi^xg  ^^  northwest  of  Bavaria, 
chologist,  born  at  Neckarau  in  Baden,  on  the  Main,  60  miles  s.  e.  of  Franltfort. 
August  10,  18:^2.  The  list  of  his  works  Its  old  fortifications  have  been  demol- 
is  long  and  comprehensive,  including  phy-  ished,  and  the  site  laid  out  in  fine  promen- 
siology,  psycholof  V,  lo^ic  and  ethics,  lie  ades,  but  it  is  still  overlooked  by  the 
believes  that  the  straight  road  to  ethics  fortress  of  Marienberg,  on  a  lofty  hill 
lies  throu|?h  studying  the  history  of  the  outside  the  city.  The  most  important  edi- 
race  and  its  psychology.  His  comprehen-  fices  are  the  Romanesque  cathedral, 
sive  System  der  Philosophie  is  widely  erected  in  the  tenth  century,  with  an  in- 
known,  terior  highly  enriched  but  much  deterio- 
Wnrttembercr  ^  v^jr-tem-berfc  ) ,  or  rated  by  plaster  decoration  of  the  eight- 
o  WtBTEMBEBQ,  a  king-  eenth  century;  the  university,  with  vari- 
dom  of  the  German  Empire,  between  ous  new  buildings :  the  Julius  hospital 
Bavaria.  Baden,  Hohenzollem,  and  the  and  school  of  medicine,  and  the  royal 
I^ake  or  Constance,  which  separates  it  palace  (1720-44).  The  university  library 
from  Switzerland  :  area,  7531  sq.  miles ;  nas  200,000  volumes,  and  in  other  respects 
pop.  2,435,000.  Except  a  few  tracts  in  the  university,  especially  in  the  medical 
the  south,  the  surface  is  hilly  and  evea  faculty,  is  well  equipped.  The  manufac* 
mountainous.  In  the  west  the  Schwara-  tures  are  varied  in  character.  Pop. 
wald,    or    Black    Forest     (which    seeK  (1910)  84,496. 

^?Tu««?«tS  A?f4  Wnrzen  h^^^X^l^^,^ ,^ 

TK'^iS.nnV^iXn^  <n°i.™«°,Sl^  tnThp  Mulde,  with  a  cflth^ral,  ancient  castle, 

wards  into  that  riyer  %,  the  Neckar.  Wu-TlUg-f  aUg,  giP„'*»^'»'|Vin5iS 
while  the  Danube  flows  across  the  south-  ^.  ^  K-wnmr-tiinir  Phinfl  Hp  wuh  Pdn- 
em  districts.  A  part  of  the  Lake  of  Jl^.b  in  Ch!neJ2^'leami^e  at  cJ^tSn  £ 
Constance  is  also  included  in  WUrttem-  ^n^Tuh  «V  Ho^  iTn^  f  n5  -nf^SS  \»w 
berg.  The  climate  is  decided^  temperate,  fj'f}^^^^^  i5fn/"«^^^f;^^  tn  fhl  F^.rlf.h 
Ml  !.Td^^m1So'n"i?^tn'Y^^^^^^  Ur^^^Hr^e^S^i^edir^^^^^ 

^d  tle^e  cS?dva^te3on^nS^^^  VT^^^^<^^  law  at  Hong-Kong  till  18fi2, 
S?aler or^^s  sevSal  fim-?^^  ^i^^P  ^«  was  appointed  deputy  for  foreign 

maL^'^wtt^o'^^^^^^  Tpples;  !;F?pni1.L.t^W?h.  K^^^ 

which  are  employ^  in  cider  making,  are  ^^l^^h.f/iT^tuf  filt^!ii^«^  ?n  (^h^«  Tn 
largely  cultivated.  About  a  third  of  the  ?2^i*'"hi  1®  J^L^nVS^^l^rn^^^^  fh- 
count^  is  tinder  forests  which  consist  W},,^  TTn?.o,SKJ^^«.  ^  JL^'Lo^ 
^vi{a4Iv^#  yxoira  KAAytkAo  on^  rx\rxt%  c\^  1  lentsui  Univcrsity,  was  on  the  peace 
m^eral^  by  flfr^  a^e  embassy  to  Japan  U  1896,  and  aidS  in 

,     S^  anlMiTt  b^th  ofThich  are  w        negotiating  a  treaty  of  Commerce  with 
■    brth^ go^lJSm'Sf?:  le^oSerrarriS.^  ^^s  ill  19ol  f Jd^a^Iin^fiol  1?"^^ 

g??u%%s1.°oLr&t/c^^^^^^^  ^e^it  o^loiri^^  ^as^^n^rn^iS^^i" 

and  linen  goods,  paper,  woodei  clocks,  ^^^^  ?V^i?"^'  *2?  was  appointed  Min- 
toys.  musicil  instrai^nts,  and  chemical  ^.^^  o^,  J"»^ce  in  the  cabmet  of  the  pro- 
products.     The  government  is  an  hered-  "^f^oiiBX    government,    ^d    re;«.ppointed 

itary  constitutional  monarchy,  the  execu-  ^wter  to  the  United  States  in  1912. 

tive  power  being  lodged  in  the  sovereign,  WyaildotS    (wran-dotz;     In     Oanada 

and  the  legislative  jointly  in  the  sever-  ^  .J  .  ..  called  Huroiw),  an  Indian 
eign    and    a    parliament,    composed    of  $"*>«>?  North  America  belonging  to  the 

an  upper  and  a  lower  chamber.    In  the  Jroquois    family.     In    the    beginning    of 

Bundesrath   Wttrttemberg  is   represented  J?^^  seventeenth   century   they   were   set- 

by  four  members,  and  in  the  Reichstag  by  tied  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Huron, 

seventeen.      Education    is    generally    dif-  but   in  a  tnbal   war    (1636)    they  were 

fused,  and  the  center  of  the  educational  nearly    exterminated.     Part    of    the   dis- 

system    is    the    University   of   Tttbingen.  persed  tribe  settled  at  Ancien  Lorette  in 

Besides  Stuttgart  (the  capital),  the  chief  Lower  Canada,   where  their  descendante 

towns  are  Ulm,  Heilbronn.  and  Esslingen.  still  remain. 

The  history  of  the  state  is  of  little  gen-  Wvsi.Tll1nttp     (wfan-dot),    a    city    of 

eral  interest.     In  the  war  of  18C6  Wttrt-  ^J»"^"''''C    Wayne     Co.,    Michigan, 

temberg  sided  with  Austria  against  Pru9-  on  the  Detroit  River,  12  miles  s.  8.  w. 

sla.     It  became   a   member  of  the  Ger-  of  Detroit.     It  has  ship  and  boat  yards, 

man  Empire  on  its  foundation  in  1871.  and    manufactures    of    chemicals,    salt^ 


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Wyandotte  Wyoming 

trunks,  fur-robes,  coats,  malt  liquors,  TXTvPATnhe  (wlk'um),  High  or  Chip- 
auto  trucks,  stoves,  etc.  Pop.  8287.  »»  jrvvuiuc  pmQ^  a  municipal  borough 
Wvo^tiHaHp  Kansas,  is  a  part  of  of  England,  in  Buckinghamshire,  on  the 
w  yudiaQJfW,  Kansas  City.  Wye,  34  mUes  N.  w.  of  London.  Its  chief 
TXTTTATiflAffA  Cq-u^  Situated '5  miles  building  is  the  Church  of  All  Saints, 
W  yaiiaui»l.e  uave,  j^  ^^  Leaven-  built  about  1273  a.d.,  and  ite  chief  man- 
worth,  Indiana,  has  been  explored  for  ufactures  are  paper  and  lace.  Pop. 
over  20  miles,  and  rivals  the  Mammoth  24,558. 

Cave  in  the  size  of  some  of  its  chambers  ^J'^^  (wl),  a  river  of  South  Wales, 
and  in  its  stalagmites  and  stalactites,  ^  J^  vehich  rises  on  Plynlinmion,  in 
surpassing  the  Mammoth  Cave  in  the  Montgomeryshire,  passes  through  Rad- 
number  and  beauty  of  these.  It  is  not-  norshire,  Brecknockshire  and  Hereford- 
able  for  its  large  chambers.  shire,  and  falls  into  the  Severn,  after  a 
Wva.tt  (^I'&^)>  ^IB  THOiiAi^  the  first  course  of  130  miles,  near  Chepstow,  in 
▼▼jo'vv  writer  of  sonnets  in  the  Eng-  Monmouthshire.  Above  the  latter  place 
lish  language,  bom  in  1503;  died  m  it  is  only  navigable  by  barges. 
1542.  His  jm>etical  works  were  pub-  TXTTrlrpliani  (wik'am),  William  of, 
lished  in  1557.  wyKCaam  ^^  ^^  ^^  Wykeham, 
Wvant  ^  wl'ant) ,  AuEXAin)EB  H.,  Hampshire,  in  1324 ;  died  in  1404.  He 
•^  landscape  nainter,  was  bom  received  a  liberal  education  from  the  lord 
at  Port  Washington.  Ohio,  in  1836.  He  of  the  manor  of  Wykeham,  and  was  after- 
studied  at  Carlsruhe,  Germany,  under  wards  recommended  by  him  to  the  notice 
Hans  Gude,  and  made  attractive  studies  of  Edward  III.  Having  taken  holy  or- 
in  Ireland  of  the  lakes  of  Killamey.  ders  he  was  elevated  to  the  rich  see  of 
His  studies  of  autumn  effects  in  Amer-  Winchester,  and  in  1367  was  appointed 
ican  forests,  and  views  of  nature  in  the  to  the  chancellorship  of  England.  He 
Adirondacks  and  along  the  Ohio  river,  founded  (1373)  a  grammar  school  at 
have  made  his  fame  more  than  conti-  Winchester,  which  still  exists;  and  about 
nental.  He  died  November  29,  1892.  the  same  time  founded  a  college  at  Ox- 
Wvnhi^rli^v  ( wich'er-li ) ,  William,  ford,  now  called  New  College.  In  the 
wjvucxxcjr  ^  English  dramatist,  last  years  of  his  life  he  rebuilt  Winches- 
bom  about  1640  at  Ciive,  near  Shrews-  ter  Cathedral. 

bury;    died    in    1715.     His    early    years  WvntOTllL    (win'tun),     Andrew,     an 

were  spent  in  France,  afterwards  he  was  »»/iivvukU.    mjci^n^  rhyming  chronicler 

educated  at  Oxford,  and  entered  himself  of  ScotUnd,  who  lived  in  the  early  part 

at  the  Temple;  while  in  1670  he  became  of   the   fifteenth   century,    was   a   canon 

known  as  a  fashionable  man  about  town  regular  of  St  Andrew's,  as  also  prior  of 

and    the    author   of    Loi7e    m   a    Wood.  St     SerTs     Inch,     in     Lochleven.     His 

This  comedy  was  followed  by  the  Gen-  Chronicle,  which  is  in  the  Scottish  ver- 

ileman    Dancing    Master,    the    Country  nacnlar,    and    is    called    the    Orygynale 

Wife,  and  the  Plain  Dealer.    In  1680  he  CronykU   of   Scotland,    begins    with    the 

married    the    Countess    of    Drogheda,    a  creation   of   the   world,    and   is    brought 

young,  rich  widow,  who  at  her  death  left  down  to  the  death  of  Robert  III  in  1406. 

him    a   lawsuit,   the  expenses   connected  The  first  five  books  contain  an  outline  of 

with   which   brought   him    to   the   Fleet  general  history  and  geography;  the  four 

Prison.     Here    he    remained    for    seven  remaining  books  dealmg  with  the  history 

5 ears,   until   released   and   pensioned   by  of  Scotland, 

ames  II.    Wycherley  is  the  typical  dra-  WvAmiTl^    (wl-6'ming),    one    of    the 

mat  1st    of    the    Restoration    group,    in  '^JviuxiAg    tJnited    States    (admitted 

which  all  the  brilliancy  and  dissoluteness  June,  1890).     It  is  almost  rectangular  in 

of  that  school  are  very  prominent.  shape,  bounded  8.  by  Utah  and  Colorado, 

'UTvp'h.'hiiTPl     (wichliA-il),   the   com-  N.    by    Montana;    B.    by    Nebraska   and 

w  jr en  uit^ci    jjj^jj  jj^jjjg  ^j    j^^g  ^f  g^^  Dakota,  and  w.  by  Utah,  Idaho 

the  genus  Hamam€lis,  the  type  of  the  nat  and  Montana ;  area,  97,575  square  miles, 

order   Hamamelidaceo.     They  are  small  The  surface  is  to  a  large  extent  moun- 

:rees,  with  alternate  leaves  on  short  peti-  tainous,   the  main   chain   of   the   Rocky 

)les,  and  yellow  flowers  disposed  in  clus-  Mountains  extending  from  northwest  to 

ters  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  and  sur-  southeast     It   is   broken   by   deep   river 

rounded    by    a    three-leaved    involucram.  cafions  and   flat  topped   hills  or  buttes. 

They  are  natives  of  North  America,  Per-  which  rise  from  the  pUiin  or  valley  like 

sia,  or  China,  and  are  very  different  from  walled  cities  or  mounds.     Near  are  large 

the  true  hazel.    The  Virginian  wych-hazel  elevated  pUiteaus  or  parks,  of  which  the 

is  medicinally  important.    See  Uazeline*  principal  is  the  great  Yellowstone  Park. 

WvnlifFi*      See  WiokHffe.  The    river    system    includes    the    Platte 

wyciiue.  j^j        ^1^  jjg  tributaries  in  the  south- 


i 


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Wyoming  Wythe 
2rd''Sl^Y^S«?tJ^lVlS'™'«^Wyvmc    Thomson    Bidge. 

Powder  rivers  in  the  north.    The  moun-  See  AUaniio  Ocean, 

tainous  districts  abound  in  forests,  and  ^[rTrA'm'i'ncy  VqIIptt    in     Luzerne 

the  soil  of  the  valleys  is  a  fertile  loam  WJ""A1U^    viuicy^  ^^^  Pennsylva- 

very  suitable  for  agriculture,  but  need-  nia,  famous  as  the  scene  of  a  massacre 

ing  irrigation  in  great  part  of  the  State,  of  the  American  settlers  by  a  band   of 

It  is  claimed  that  10,000,000  acres  may  Tories  and  Indians  July  4,  177a    Nearly 

be  reclaimed  in  this  way,  and  irrigation  all  the  American  fighting  men  were  away 

is  being  actively  applied,  there  being  more  in  the  Continental  army  and  after  a  brief 

than    4600    miles    of    irrigating    ditches,  resistance  the  remaining  men  took  refuge 

Wheat,   oats   and   barley   are    the   chief  in  Forty  Fort,  where  most  of  the  fam- 

ciops,    and    large    tracts    are    used    for  Hies    of   the    valley   had    gathered.    The 

stock-raising,  which  is  the  chief  industry.  Tories,  under  Colonel  Butler,  offered  un- 

Wyoming   is   rich    in   mineral   resources  ezpectedly  easy  terms  of  surrender,  and 

Good    coal    is    abundant    and    there   are  the   settlers   went   back   to   their   homes, 

vast     beds     of     iron     ore,     while     gold  while  the  invaders  were  supposed  to  be 

and   silver   are   plentiful.    Other  miner-  leaving    the    valley.    Against    the    com- 

als  are  gypsum,  salt,  soda,  sulphur,  cop-  mands   of    their   white   leaders    the    In- 

per,     lead     and     tin.     Petroleum     seems  dians   remained,    and,    on    the    night    of 

abundant    in    the   central   and    southern  July  4,  began  massacring  the  inhabitants 

sections.    Of  the  larger  animals  grizzly  and  burning  the  houses.    All  who  could 

and  black   bears  and  several  species  of  escape  made  their  way  into  the  Wilkes- 

deer  are  still  abundant,  but  the  buffalo,  Barre  Mountains  and  the  swampy  land 

of  which  there  used  to  be  immense  herds  beyond,  where  many  of  the  women  and 

on     the     plains,    have    become    extinct,  children   died.     When   peace   was   estab- 

The  manufactures  consist  of  the  sawing  lished  the  surviving  settlers  returned.    A 

of  lumber   and   railroad   ties,  milling  of  memorial  marble  monument  is  erected  in 

quartz,  and  railroad  repair  and  macnine  the  valley. 

work  in  the  railroad  towns.  Acquired  TXTvtlifi  (with),  Gbobge,  an  American 
as  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  this  »» /•'•"^  patriot,  bom  in  Elizabeth 
territory  was  organized  hi  1868,  and  is  City  Co.,  Virginia,  in  1726;  died  in  1806. 
now  being  slowly  developed,  chiefly  He  was  elected  to  the  Continental  Con- 
through  means  of  the  Union  Pacific  Rail-  cress  in  1775,  signed  the  Declaration  of 
way,  by  which  it  is  traversed.  In  the  Independence  in  1776,  became  in  1777  a 
northwest  the  Yellowstone  district  has  judge  of  the  High  Court  of  Chancery,  and 
been  set  apart  by  the  government  as  a  served  as  chancellor  of  Virginia  for 
great  national  park.  See  Yelloicatone  twenty  years.  He  was  professor  of  law 
Ifational  Park,  The  capital  is  Cheyenne  at  William  and  Mary  college  1779-89, 
City.  The  State  is  rapidly  increasing  in  and  a  delegate  to  the  Constitutional  Con- 
population.    Pop.  (1910)  145,965.  vention  of  1787. 


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2  tbt  twenty-fourth  letter  of  the  Eng- 
'  liBh  alphabet  Except  when  used  at 
the  beginning  of  a  word,  m  in  Engliih  is 
a  double  consonant,  and  has  usuallj  the 
•oond  of  k9i  as  in  wam^  law.  osii,  etc.; 
but  when  terminating  a  8yllable»  espe- 
cially an  initial  syllable,  if  the  syllable 
following  it  is  open  or  accented,  it  often 
takes  the  sound  of  gg,  as  in  luwury,  em- 
hau»t,  esalt,  ewatiOf  etc.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  a  word  it  has  precisely  the  sound 
of  z. 


as  tungsten,  iridium,  or  platinum,  from 
which  focus  spot  the  Roentgen  Bays 
radiate  in  all  directions  accorduig  to  the 
law  of  inverse  squares.  They  are  used 
in  medicine  and  surgery  to  photograph 
the  skeleton  and  all  the  internal  organs 
of  the  human  body  as  an  aid  in  diagnosis, 
also  as  a  therapeutic  agent  to  destroy  dis- 
eased tissue  with  and  without  the  aid  of 
surgery.  Cancers  and  tumors  of  certain 
kinds  and  a  number  of  skin  diseases  ar« 


made  to  disapi^ear  by  their  use. 

X-Bay8»j:«^^t„«S['j5^S!^?;>  Xanthippe  &*"•»'*>•    ^  ^'^ 


covered  by  Wilhelm  Conrad  Rttntgen  of 
the  University  of  Wttrtiburg,  Germany, 
and  announced  by  him  in  December,  1896. 
Prof.  Rttntgen  named  them  X-Rayn  (*  un- 
known quantity*),  since  their  exact  na- 
ture was  unknown  when  they  were  dis- 
covered. They  are  invisible  rays  trans- 
mitted through  the  ether  in  a  manner 
similar  to  light  They  consist  of  very 
short,  irregular,  non-harmonic,  electro- 
magnetic pulses  in  the  ether  and  are 
capable  of  passing  through  all  substances 
in  a  remarkable  manner,  approximately  in 
inverse  proportion  to  the  atomic  mass  of 
the  material.  They  produce  fluorescence 
and  phosphorescence  in  many  crystalline 
substances  such  as  barium-platinocyanide, 
calcium  tungstate,  willemite,  calc  spar, 
fluorspar,  rock  salt,  calcium  sulphide,  etc., 
giving  a  method  of  making  their  presence 
visible.  They  reduce  the  silver  haloids 
of  photographic  emulsions ;  color  crystals, 
gems  and  glasses;  ionize  air  and  other 
gases;  excite  secondary  Roentgen  Rays 
m  all  substances  absorbing  them;  pre- 
doitate  mercurous  chloride  from  adueous 
solutions  of  mercuric  chloride  and  am- 
monium oxalate;  reduce  vitality  of  cell 
life  (and  in  large  amounts  destroy  it) ; 
and  increase  the  velocity  of  a  few  chemical 
reactions.  They  are  produced  by  passing 
uni-directional,  electric  current  of  from 
twenty  to  one  hundred  thousand  volts 
pressure  through  a  specially  constructed 
nigh  vacuum  tube,  within  which,  cathode 
rays  radiating  from  the  surface  of  a  con- 
cave cathode  are  focussed  upon  and  bom- 
bard a  target  of  refractory  material  such 
26—10 


Xanthorrhoea  ^g^^u^'^^'  ^ 
Xanthoxylum  ^p^X'2T^' 

XanthuS  ^Pf  !?*'*!}/  ^  indent  dty 
*^  of  Asia  Minor,  in  Lycia,  on 
the  river  Xanthus,  about  o  miles  above 
its  mouth.  Its  ruins  were  discovered  in 
1838  by  Sir  C.  Fellows ;  and  have  yielded 
a  large  collection  of  marbles,  now  in  the 
British  Museum.  The  river  rises  in 
Mount  Taurus,  and  falls  into  the  Med- 
iterranean a  little  to  the  west  of  Patara. 
YowiAr  Si'<  Fbancis  (zav'i-^r;  Span- 
^avier,  ish  pron.  Wv-i-er*),  surnamed 
the  apostle  of  the  Indie$,  was  bom  in 
1506  at  the  castle  Xavier  in  Navarre. 
He  fell  under  the  personal  influence  of 
Ignatius  Loyola,  and  became  one  of  the 
first  members  of  Loyola's  Sode^  of 
Jesus.  Under  the  auspices  of  John,  King 
of  Portugal,  he  went  to  the  East  Indies 
as  a  missionary  in  1541.  In  1649  he 
made  his  way  to  Japan.  He  was  about 
to  extend  his  field  of  labor  to  China,  when 
he  died  in  1552.  Cancmiced  in  1621. 
TfiTiiii.   (»6'ni-a),    a    dty,    capital    of 

Afiami  River,  66  miles  N.  B.  of  Cincinnati. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Zenia  Theological  Sem- 
inary and  the  Ohio  Soldiers'  and  SaOora' 
Home.  Wilberforce  University,  form- 
erly here,  is  now  at  Wilberforce,  8  miles 
away.  It  has  saw,  planing  and  paper 
mills,  marble  and  granite  works;  cord- 
age, twine,  shoes  and  other  industriea. 
Pop.  8706. 


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i  ?-s|i 
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Xenocrates 


fXylology 


Xenocrates  (^nok'ra-t&),  of  chai- 

.«.«uvvxa,i*«o  cedon,  a  Greek  philoso- 
pher, and  disciple  of  Plato,  bom  396 
B.C.;  and  from  339  until  his  death,  314 
B.O.,  head  of  the  famous  Academy  at 
Athens.  Metaphysics  and  ethics  were  his 
chief  subjects,  but  of  his  numerous  works 
only  the  titles  are  now  known. 
XenOphaneS  (je-nofa-ngz).  of  Colo- 
«a.%.uv^ua.u«o  pljQjj^  ^  Greek  philoso- 
pher, bom  probably  about  330  B.c. ;  for 
some  time  settled  at  Elea,  and  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  Eleatic  school  of 
philosophy.  The  character  of  his  teach- 
ing has  been  much  debated.  He  must 
have  been  at  least  seventy-two  when  he 
died.  See  Eleatio  School. 
XenOPhon  (zen'o-fon),  a  Greek  his- 
^r  ^**  torian  and  essayist,  bom 
at  Athens  about  430  B.C.;  became  early 
a  disciple  of  Socrates.  In  401  B.C., 
partly  from  curiosity,  and  in  no  military 
capacity,  he  joined  the  Greek  mercenaries 
attached  to  the  force  led  by  Cyrus  the 
Younger  against  his  brother  Artaxerxes 
II.  After  the  defeat  and  death  of  Cyrus 
on  the  field  of  Gunaxa,  the  chief  Greek 
officers  were  treacherously  assassinated 
by  the  victorious  satrap.  Xenophon  now 
came  to  the  front,  and  mainly  con- 
ducted the  famous  retreat  of  the  10,000 
through  wild  and  mountainous  regions, 
often  harassed  by  the  guerrilla  attacks 
of  barbarous  tribes,  until  after  a  five 
months'  march  they  reached  Trebizond 
on  the  Black  Sea,  February,  400  B.c. 
The  expedition  and  its  sequel  form  the 
subject  of  his  best-known  work,  the 
Anabasis,  Xenophon  fought  on  the  side 
of  the  Lacedaemonians  in  the  subsequent 
war  between  Sparta  and  Persia,  and  rose 
from  poverty  to  competence  through  the 
ransom  which  he  received  from  a  wealthv 
Persian  nobleman  whom  he  had  captured. 
With  Agesilaus,  under  whom  he  had  al- 
ready served,  he  fought  at  Coroneia  (394 
B.C.)  against  his  own  countrymen,  and 
was  on  this  account  formally  banished 
from  Athens.  For  more  than  twenty 
years  he  seems  to  have  lived  the  life  of 
a  country  gentleman  at  Scyllus  in  Elis, 
where  he  is  supposed  to  have  written 
most  of  his  works.  After  the  defeat  of 
ihe  Spartans  at  Leuctra  (371  ac), 
Xenophon  was  driven  from  Elis,  and  is 
said  to  have  retired  to  Corinth.  He  was 
certainly  alive  in  357  B.C.  Xenophon 's 
principal  works,  besides  the  Ana6o«w, 
are  his  Cyropwdia,  a  political  and  edu- 
cational romance  based  on  the  history  of 
Cyrus  the  Great;  the  HeUenica,  a  history 
of  Greece  where  Tbucydides  leaves  off, 
including  the  period  from  411  to  362 
n.c. :  and  the  ifemora&i7ta,  recollections 
^f  Socrates. 


XereS.    SeeJerc*. 

Xerxes  I  (^erk'sez).  King  of  Persia, 
famous  for  his  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  to  conquer  Greece,  was  the 
son  of  Darius  and  of  Atossa,  daughter  of 
Cyrus.  He  began  to  reign  485  B.C.,  and 
continued  his  father's  preparations  for 
another  Persian  invasion  of  Greece.  The 
army  which  he  collected  is  estimated  to 
have  exceeded  a  million  of  men,  with  a 
fleet  of  1200  sail.  Xerxes  crossed  the 
Hellespont  on  a  bridge  of  boats  (480 
B.C.),  and  met  with  no  resistance  until 
he  reached  the  Pass  of  Thermopylse. 
After  Leonidas  had  fallen  there  with  his 
Spartans  (see  Leonidas) ^  Xerxes  pressed 
forward  and  burned  Athens,  which  had 
been  forsaken  by  almost  all  its  inhabit- 
ants. He  watched  from  the  mainland 
the  naval  battle  of  Salamis  (September, 
480  B.C.),  and  fled  ignominiously  after 
the  overwhelming  defeat  of  his  fleet. 
Xerxes  was  assassinated  465  b.o.  He 
has  been  supposed  to  be  the  Ahasuems  of 
the  Booh  of  Esther, 

XiineneS  t^»-ma'nes),  Fbancisco,  a 
Spanish  cardinal,  born  m 
1437 ;  died  in  1517.  In  1492  he  was  ap- 
pointed confessor  to  Queen  Isabella  of 
CastilCj  and  in  1495  Archbishop  of  To- 
ledo, distinguishing  himself  as  a  reformer 
of  ecclesiastical  and  monastic  abuses.  In 
1507  he  was  made  a  cardinal,  and  in  1516 
King  Ferdinand  died,  leaving  Ximenes 
regent  during  his  grandson  Charles'  ab- 
sence in  the  Netherlands.  In  1517  Charles 
returned  to  Spain,  and,  prompted  by  jeal- 
ousy, dismissed  him.  Ximes  died  soon 
afterwards.  He  founded  and  endowed  the 
University  of  AlcalA  de  Henares. 
Xin^n  (shing-gO'),  a  river  of  Brazil. 
6  one  of  the  chief  tributaries  of 
the  Amazon,  rises  near  lat  15**  s..  Ion. 
59**  w.,  and  after  flowing  north  for  1300 
miles  joins  the  Amazon  240  miles  w.  of 
Parfi.     It  is  navigable  for  100  miles. 

Xiphias.   ^^  sword-fish, 
Xiphodon  K^-Jii^^^^^^^^^^ 

to  Anoploiherium, 

XylOC'opa.     ^^  Carpenter-hee, 

Xvlo&rraphv     (z^-log'ra-fi),    a    name 
"^   "6***Jr'**J      sometimes     given     to 
wood-engraving. 

Xvloloe^    (zMor6-ji),   the  science  of 
•^  o*'     wood-structure,  of  the  iden- 

tification of  woods  and  the  detection  of 
substitutes.  The  chief  value  of  the  work 
of  the  xylologist  at  present  is  in  discov- 
ering DPW  woods  with  properties  and 
Ktrurtural  rharaoters  8imilar  to  certain 
kinds  which  are  being  rapidly  exhausted. 


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Y  the  twenty-fifth  letter  of  the  Enclish 
'  alphabet,  was  taken  from  the  Latin, 

the  Latin  having  borrowed  it  from  the 
Greek  T  or  upsilon.  In  modem  English 
it  is  both  a  consonant  and  a  Towel.  At 
the  beginning  of  syllables  and  followed 
by  a  Towel  it  is  a  consonant ;  in  the  mid- 
dle and  at  the  end  of  words  it  is  a  vowel. 

Y  or  I J  (both  pronounced  I),  the  west- 
*  em  arm  of  the  Zuider  Zee  on  which 

Amsterdam  is  situated. 

7&blOIIOi«    ®^  Stanovoi  Mountaitu, 

Yaclit  j(yot),  a  light  and  elegantly 
fitted  up  vessel,  used  either  for 
pleasure  trips  or  racing,  or  as  a  vessel  of 
state  to  convey  kings,  princes,  etc.,  from 
one  place  to  another  by  sea.  There  are 
two  distinct  species  of  yacht:  the  mere 
racer,  with  enormous  spars  and  sails  and 
deeply-ballasted  hull,  with  fine  lines,  but 
sacrificing  everything  to  speed;  and  the 
elegant,  commodious,  well-proportioned 
traveling  yacht,  often  with  steam-propel- 
ling machinery,  fit  for  a  voyage  round 
the  world.  A  type  of  yacht  much  used  in 
America  is  that  with  a  center-board  or 
sort  of  movable  keel.  (See  Center- 
hoard.)  The  practice  of  yachting  as 
well  as  the  word  yacht  was  derived  from 
the  Dutch.  The  word  yacht  is  found  in 
use  in  English  in  Elizabeth's  time,  and 
James  I  had  a  yacht  built  for  his  son 
Henry  early  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
but  it  was  not  till  long  after  that  yacht- 
ing became  a  favorite  pastime  with  the 
rich.  The  first  yachting  club  in  the 
British  Kingdom  was  organized  at  Cork 
Harbor  in  1720.  The  first  yacht  club 
in  the  United  States  was  established  at 
New  York  in  1844.  In  each  country 
the  yachts  are  now  numbered  by  the 
thousand.  In  1851  the  America^  built  in 
New  York,  carried  oflf  a  cup  given  by  the 
Yacht  Squadron  at  Cowes,  and  her  vic- 
tory led  to  considerable  modifications  of 
the  build  of  British  yachts.  In  subse- 
quent international  contests  the  Ameri- 
can yachts  have  held  their  own,  and  the 
cup  has  never  recrossed  the  Atlantic. 
Yak  *^^  ^^  ^^  Po€phdgu$  grunniena, 
^^^>  a  fine  large  species  of  ox,  with 


cylindric  horns,  curving  outward,  long 
pendent  silky  hair  fringing  its  sides,  a 
bushy  mane  of  fine  hair,  and  long,  silky, 
horse-like  tail;  inhabiting,  both  in  the 
wild  and  the  domesticated  state,  Tibet 
and  the  higher  plateaus  of  the  Hima- 
layas; called  ffrunnien$  (grunting)  from 
its    very    peculiar    voice,    which    sounds . 


Tak  (Bos  ffrunnUns). 

much  like  the  gmnt  of  a  pig.  It  is  the 
ordinary  domestic  animal  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  those  regions,  supplying  milk, 
food,  and  raiment,  as  well  as  being  used 
as  a  beast  of  burden  and  to  draw  the 
plow.  The  tail  of  the  .yak  is  in  great 
request  for  various  ornamental  purposes, 
and  forms  an  article  of  commerce. 

YakubKhan   (y*-k»b').    ma- 

^^         HOMED,   Amir  of  Af- 
ghanistan.    See  Afghanistan. 

Yakutsk  ilt^^'^'l\Jir,F^^i^ZA^ 

Jfiastem  Diberia,  includes 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  basin  of  the  Lena, 
between  which  river  and  its  tributary, 
the  Vitim,  rich  gold  mines  are  worked. 
Area,  1.533,397  sq.  miles.  Pop.  261,731. 
Yakutsk,  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  stands  on  a  branch  of  the 
Lena,  and  is  the  principal  trade-center  of 
Eastern  Siberia.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Cossacks  in  1632.  Pop.  about  7000. 
YaIa  (yfil)t  EUHU,  philanthropist,  was 
bom  at  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
in  1648;  died  in  1721.  He  went  to 
England  while  very  young,  was  edu- 
cated  there,  and   never  returned   to  the 


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Tale  Tankee 

United  States,  becoming  an  Eait  India  scend.    The  tubers  of  D.  oULta,  the  West 

merchant    and    acquiring    great    wealth.  Indian    yam,    one    of    the    species    most 

He   gave   books   and    money    valued   at  widely     diffused,     sometimes     attain     a 

$4000  to  the  Collegiate  School  at  Say-  weight  of  50  lbs. 

brook,  Ck>nnecticut,  and  after  the  removal  VoTno  (yam'a),  a  Hindu  god,  the 
of  this  school  to  New  Haven  it  was  ^-^^"-^  judge  of  the  dead,  whose  good 
named  in  consequence  Yale  Ck>]]ege.  and  bad  actions  are  read  to  him  out  of  a 
Yale  L^us,  inventor,  bom  at  Sails-  record,  and  who  according  to  their  merits 
*<MV)  bury.  New  York,  in  1821;  died  in  and  demerits  are  sent  to  the  celestial  or 
1868.  In  1850  he  began  the  study  of  to  the  infernal  regions.  Hindus  offer  to 
mechanical  problems,  and  in  1851  pat-  him  daily  oblations  of  water, 
ented  a  safety  lock.  From  this  date  un-  Vamiicyofii  Ahitomo,  a  Japanese 
til  his  death  he  was  considered  an  author-  *»iii»B»t'»>  marquis  and  field-mar- 
ity  in  all  matters  relatin^f  to  locks,  his  shal;  bom  in  183a  The  son  of  a  Sam- 
most  notable  invention  bemg  the  double  urai  chieftain,  he  received  a  military 
lock,  which  comprised  two  locks  within  education,  and  In  1868  took  part  in  the 
a  sinele  case  and  operated  by  the  same  suppression  of  the  Shogunate^  He  be- 
er different  combinations.  The  '  Yale  came  Minister  of  War  in  1873,  created  a 
lock '  is  now  in  almost  universal  use.  national  army  out  of  the  feudal  retainers. 
Vol  A  TTTiivemifv  (yfti)*  one  of  the  and  in  1877  quelled  the  Satsuma  rebel- 
XIUC  uiUYcmiijr  oldest  of  the  lion.  He  conunanded  the  successful  Jap- 
American  universities,  was  orisinally  a  anese  forces  in  the  Chinese  war  of 
collegiate  school  established  at  Saybrook,  1894-05^  and  was  prominent  in  the 
Connecticut,  in  1701.  It  was  removed  in  Russo-Japanese  war  of  1904;  was  presi- 
1716  to  New  Haven,  and  soon  after  its  dent  of  the  councils  of  war  which  for- 
name  was  changed  to  Yale  College,  after  mulated  the  plan  of  campaign, 
its  patron  Elihu  Yale  (1648-1721).  In  Yoii<y.f7A.1risi.ti<y  (yang-tsS-ke-ang'), 
1887  its  name  was  changed  to  Yale  Uni-  ^^*^B  ^^C  iuaug  one  of  the  two 
versity  by  act  of  Assembly.  It  has  four  great  rivers  of  China,  is  formed  by  two 
faculties  —  philosophy  and  arts,  theology,  streams  rising  in  Eastern  Tibet,  in  lat. 
law,  and  medicine  —  in  all  of  which  its  26*  30*  N.,  Ion.  102*  K.  After  flowing 
goveming  body  grants  degrees.  The  first  east  and  then  south  it  enters  the  Chinese 
of  these  faculties  includes,  besides  the  province  of  Yunnan.  Pursuing  a  very 
original  academical  department,  a  scien-  tortuous  course,  much  of  it  through  most 
tific  and  engineering  school  —  decrees  for  fertile  and  densely-populated  regions,  it 
civil  and  dynamic  engineering  being  given  reaches  the  great  city  of  Nanking,  200 
—  and  a  school  of  fine  arts.  The  aggre-  miles  from  the  sea,  where  It  widens  grad- 
uate number  of  volumes  in  all  the  librar-  ually  into  the  vast  estuary  which  con- 
ies of  the  college  is  600,000,  of  which  nects  it  with  the  Yellow  Sea.  Its  whole 
1000  were  presented  to  it  in  1730  by  course,  under  various  names,  is  2900 
Bishop  Berkeley.  Its  museum  of  natural  milea,  and  the  area  of  its  basin  is  com- 
history  was  endowed  with  $150,000  by  puted  to  be  548,000  square  miles.  It  is 
George  Peabody  and  the  endowment  of  connected  by  the  Grand  Canal  with  the 
the  university  is  over  $13,000,000.  The  Hoang-ho  or  Yellow  River,  and  is  navi- 
numerous  buildings  cover  about  nine  gable  for  vessels  of  considerable  draught 
acres  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  the  oldest  for  1200  miles  from  its  mouth.  By  the 
dating  from  1752.  The  teaching  staff  Treaty  of  Tien-tsin  the  Lower  Yang-tse 
and  members  of  faculty  number  over  410,  was  opened  to  European  trade ;  and  700 
and  the  average  number  of  students  over  miles  from  its  mouth  is  the  treatv-port 
3000.  of  Hangkow,  the  great  commercial  city 
Yam  *  ItiTge  esculent  tuber  or  root  of  Mid-China.  The  highest  port  on  the 
*  «*-"*>  produced  by  various  plants  of  river  at  present  open  to  foreign  trade  is 
the  genus  DioscoreOt  order  Dioscoreace»,  Ichang,  1000  miles  from  its  mouth, 
growing  in  the  warmer  regions  of  both  YAfi^iiia  ^^  Janina. 
hemispheres.     Yams,     when     roasted     or  * 

boiled,  form  a  wholesome,  palatable,  and  Vonkee    (yanTtfi),    a   cant    name    for 

nutritious  food,  and  are  extensively  cul-  *«***^^^    Americans    belonging    to    the 

tivated  in  many  tropical  and  sub-tropical  New  England  States.     During  the  Ameri- 

countries.    The  Chinese  or  Japanese  yam  can  Revolution  the  name  was  applied  by 

(Z).  Batatas)   contains  more  nitrogenous  the   British  to  all   the  insurgents;   and 

and  therefore  nutritive  matter,  but  less  during  tha  Civil  war  it  was  the  common 

starch,    than    potatoes.     It    is    hardy    in  designation  of  the  Federal  soldiers  by  the 

Great  Britain  and  thrives  in  the  Unitcni  Confederates.     In    BriUin    the    term    is 

States,  but  its  cultivation  is  impeded  by  sometimes    improperly    applied    generally 

tbt  graath  depth  to  which  it«  roots  de-  to   natives   of    the   United    States.    The 


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Yankee-Doodle 


Yarrow 


most  common  explanation  of  the  term 
seems  also  the  most  plausible,  namely, 
that  it  is  a  corrupt  pronunciation  of 
English  or  of  French  Anglais  formerly 
current  among  the  American   Indians. 

Yankee-Doodle.  *  famous  air.  now 
A  MAu^w^  ^  vv^Mw^  regarded  as  Ameri- 
can and  national  In  reality  the  air  is 
an  old  English  one,  called  Nankey  Doo- 
dle, and  had  some  derisive  reference  to 
Cromwell.  The  really  national  air  of  the 
whole  United  States,  however,  is  *The 
Star-Spangled  Banner,'  which  divides 
public  favor  as  a  patriotic  song  with 
^America,*  beginning, 

*My  country,  'tis  of  thee. 
Sweet  land  of  liberty/  etc 

Yankton  (yank'tun),  a  city,  countj 
xau&WU  g^^^  ^f  Yankton  Co.,  SouS 
Dakota,  and  up  to  1883  the  capital  of 
Dakota  Territory.  It  is  on  the  N.  bank 
of  the  Missouri  River,  61  miles  N.  w.  of 
Sioux  City.  It  contains  Yankton  College 
and  has  flour  mills,  grain  elevators, 
brewery,  brick,  tile  and  cement  works, 
etc.     Pop.  4000. 

Yankton  Indians.  Sr  ^iL*>*   ^ 

.^uaAAvvu  Au^&AMuoy    North     and 
South  Dakota,  numbering  about  7000. 
Yard     ^  British  and  American  stand- 

^>  ard  measure  of  length,  equal  to 
3  feet  or  36  inches,  the  foot  in  general 
being  made  practically  the  unit.  As  a 
cloth  measure  the  yard  is  divided  into  4 
quarters  =  16  nails.  A  square  yard  con- 
tains 9  square  feet,  and  a  cubic  yard  27 
cubic  feet  See  Weights  and  Measures, 
Yard     ^°  ships,  a  long  cylindrical  piece 

^  of  timber,  having  a  rounded 
taper  toward  each  end,  slung  crosswise  to 
a  mast  All  yards  are  either  square  or 
lateen,  the  former  being  suspended  across 
the  masts  at  right  angles  for  spreading 
square  sails,  the  latter  obliquely.  Yards 
have  sheave-holes  near  their  extremities 
for  the  sheets  reeving  through.  Either 
end  of  a  yard,  or  rather  that  part  of  it 
which  is  outsiae  the  sheave-hole,  is  called 
the  yard-arm. 

Yare  (y^')>  ^  river  of  England,  which, 
**  rising  about  the  middle  of  Nor- 
folk, flows  eastpast  Norwich,  and  after 
receiving  the  Waveney  widens  into  the 
estuary  of  Breydon-water,  is  joined  by 
the  Bure,  and  enters  the  German  Ocean 
2^  miles  below  Great  Yarmouth,  after 
a  course  of  about  30  miles. 
Vfirlronii  (y&r-k&nd'),  the  chief  town 
xariLaua  >^  ^^  principal  oasis  of 
Eastern  Turkestan,  is  situated  on  the 
river  Yarkand.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  thick 
mud  wall,  and  its  rich  gardens  are  well 
watered    by    numerous    canals.     The    in* 


habitants,  chiefly  Persians,  are  keen  trad- 
ers. Pop.  estimated  at  from  75,000  to 
100,000.— The  river  rises  in  the  Kara- 
korum  Mountains,  and  helps  to  form  the 
river  Tarim,  which  enters  Lob  Nor. 

Yarmouth  i^!r°'."iVi'nM'v'"JnJ? 

more  strictly  called. 
Great  Yarmouth,  an  English  seaport, 
important  fishing  station,  and  watering 
place,  is  in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  20 
miles  east  of  Norwich.  It  is  situated  on 
a  long  and  narrow  tongue  of  land  run- 
ning from  north  to  southward  between 
the  German  Ocean  and  the  estuary  of  the 
Yare.  The  town  is  connected  by  a  bridse 
with  Little  Yarmouth,  or  South  Town,  m 
Suffolk.  The  parish  church  of  St  Nich- 
olas, founded  in  1101,  and  of  late  years 
completely  restored,  is  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  kingdom.  Yarmouth  has  a  naval 
lunatic  asylum,  the  only  one  in  the  king- 
dom. It  IS  the  great  seat  of  the  English 
herring  and  mackerel  fisherr,  and  also 
furnishes  large  quantities  of  white-fish. 
The  curing  of  nerring  as  'Yarmouth 
bloaters  *  is  an  important  industry.  The 
coast  is  dangerous,  but  Yarmouth  Roads, 
between  the  shore  and  a  range  of  sand- 
banks, offers  a  safe  anchorage.  Pop. 
(1911)   55,188. 

Yftrmonth  ^  seaport  town  of  Nova 
xarmouxn,  scotir^205  mUes  8.W.  of 
Halifax,  and  the  chief  shipbuilding  place 
in  the  province.  Pop.  6600. 
Yam  "*y  textile  fiber  prepared  for 
•**"^  weaving  into  cloth.  See  Thread, 
YarOSlaf .    ^^  Jaroslav, 

Yarr     ^  well-known  British  and  Euro- 
'    pean    plant,    Spergula   arvensis. 
See  Spurrey, 

Yarra-Yarra  (yaf'if-yar'rA),    the 

***  *****  Australian  nver  on 
which  Melbourne,  Victoria,  is  situated. 
Its  length  is  about  100  miles.  On  ac- 
count of  falls  it  is  not  navigable  above 
Melbourne.  See  Melbourne. 
Yarrell  (yar'el),  Whjjam,  an  emi- 
nent  naturalist,  was  the  son 
of  a  newspaper  agent  in  London;  bom 
there  in  1784 ;  died  in  1856.  He  assisted 
in  and  succeeded  to  his  father's  business. 
He  contributed  frequently  to  the  Trans- 
actions  of  the  Linniean  Society,  of  which 
he  became  a  fellow,  and  to  natural  his- 
tory periodicals.  His  two  works,  the 
History  of  British  Fishes  and  the  His- 
tory of  British  Birds,  are  standard  au- 
thorities. 

Yarriba.   ®«®  Yoruha. 

'Varrnju  (yar'/^),  a  name  given  to  a 
xurruw  p^ngen^  pjant,  AchUUta  miJ- 
Icfolium,  also  known  by  the  name  milfoU 
(which  see). 


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Yarrow  Yeast 

'YarrnxsT  &  parish  in  Selkirkshire,  son.  It  has  cotton,  oil  and  lumber  in- 
xaiiuwy  Scotland,  chiefly  pastoral,  terespts.  Pop.  6790. 
celebrated  for  its  poetical  and  historical  "V^qt  (7^^)*  ^^^  period  of  time  during 
associations.  The  river  Yarrow,  famous  *  which  the  earth  makes  one  com- 
in  song,  issues  from  the  foot  of  St.  plete  revolution  in  its  orbit,  or  the  period 
Mary*s  Loch,  and,  flowing  14^  miles  which  elapses  between  the  sun's  leaving 
eastward,  falls  into  the  Ettrick,  2  miles  either  equinoctial  point,  or  either  tropic, 
8.  w.  of  Selkirk.  and  his  return  to  the  same.  This  is  the 
Yata?ha.n  (yat'a-gan;  Turk,  yata-  tropical  or  aolar  year,  and  the  year  in  the 
^  ^^^  gdn),  a  sort  of  dagger-  strict  and  proper  sense  of  the  word, 
like  saber  with  double-curved  blade,  about  This  period  comprehends  what  are  called 
2  feet  long,  the  handle  without  a  cross-  the  twelve  calendar  months,  and  is  usu- 
guard,  much  worn  in  Mohammedan  coun-  ally  calculated  to  commence  on  January 
tries.  1  and  to  end  December  31.  It  is  not 
Votes  1^^^)*  Edmund  Hodgson,  an  quite  uniform,  but  its  mean  length  is 
English  novelist,  born  in  1831;  about  365  days,  5  hours,  48  mmutes  and 
died  in  189C  He  wrote  Broken  to  Har-  51.6  seconds.  In  popular  usage,  how- 
nesB,  Land  at  Last,  Dr.  Wainwrighfs  ever,  the  year  consists  of  366  days,  and 
Patientf  The  Impending  Sword,  Personal  every  fourth  year  of  366.  See  Leap- 
Reminiscences,  etc.  year, —  Anomalistic  year.  See  under 
Yawl  (yft^)»  ^  small  ship's  boat.  Anomaly. —  Civil  year,  the  ordinary  year 
xawx  |28ually  rowed  by  four  or  six  of  366  days. —  Ecdesiastical  year,  from 
oars;  a  jolly-boat;  also  a  sailing  boat  Advent  to  Advent. —  Gregorian  year,  Ju- 
similar  to  a  cutter,  but  having  a  small  lian  year.  See  Calendar. —  Lunar  year, 
sail  at  the  stern.  a  period  consisting  of  12  lunar  months. 
Vownin?  (yAwn'ing),  an  involuntary  The  lunar  astronomical  year  consists  of 

**  o  expansion  of  the  mouth,  a  12  lunar  svnodical  months,  or  354  days, 
reflex  muscular  action,  generally  pro-  8  hours,  48  minutes,  36  seconds.  The 
duced  by  weariness,  tedium,  or  an  in-  common  lunar  year  consists  of  12  lunar 
clination  to  sleep,  sometimes  by  hunger,  civil  months,  or  354  days.  The  em- 
etc.  When  yawning  is  troublesome,  it  holismio  or  intercalary  lunar  year  con- 
may  be  relieved  by  long,  deep  resplra-  sists  of  13  lunar  civil  months,  and  con- 
tion,  or  drawing  in  the  air  at  long  in-  tains  384  days. —  Sabbatical  year.  See 
tervals.  Sabbath, —  Sidereal  year.  See  Sidereal 
Yaws    (yft*)'    ^    disease    occurring    in  Time. 

**  **  America,  Africa,  and  the  West  Yeast  (y^^^*  *^®  yellowish  substance, 
Indies,  and  almost  entirely  confined  to  *•*'•**»''  having  an  acid  reaction^  pro- 
the  African  races.  It  is  characterized  by  duced  during  the  vinous  fermentation  of 
cutaneous  tumors,  numerous  and  succes-  saccharine  fluids,  rising  to  the  surface, 
sive,  gradually  increasing  from  specks  to  when  the  temperature  ot  the  fluid  is  high, 
the  size  of  a  raspberry,  one  at  length  in  the  form  of  a  frothy,  flocculent,  viscid 
growing  larger  than  the  rest;  core  a  matter  (surface  yeast),  and  falling  to 
fungous  excrescence;  fever  slight,  and  the  bottom  (sediment  yeast)  when  the 
probably  irritative  merely.  It  is  infec-  temperature  is  low.  The  ordinary  yeast 
tious  and  contagious,  and  is  produced  by  of  beer  consists  of  an  immense  number  of 
inoculation  with  Treponema  pertenius,  minute  cells,  which  constitute  a  plant 
which  may  be  carried  by  the  common  called  the  yeast-plant,  which  multiplies 
house  fly.  It  is  also  called  frambossia,  by  budding  off  other  cells,  or  sometimes 
from  the  French  framboise,  a  raspberry,  by  spores.  Little  is  known  regarding  the 
It  is  treated  by  intramuscular  or  intra-  genesis  of  the  yeast-plant  Pasteur's  re- 
venous  injections  of  dioxyamido-arseno-  searches  seem  to  snow  that  the  yeast 
benzol,  or  '606,'  a  remedy  brought  for-  which  forms  in  grape  juice  is  derive<l 
ward  by  Dr.  Ehrlich  for  syphilis,  both  chiefly  from  certain  germs  abounding 
diseases  being  caused  by  varieties  of  about  harvest-time  on  the  grapes,  and 
Treponema,  Milk  of  goats  thus  treated  diffused  throughout  the  atmosphere  of 
is  suggested  for  children  affected  with  breweries  and  wine-cellars,  etc.  Yeast  is 
the  disease.  not  only  generally  essential  to  the  produc- 
YazOO  B.iver  (j^'^)*  &  river  of  tlon  of  wine  from  grape  and  other  fruit 
.■.cMivv  jAxvcx  jyfississippi,  290  miles  juices,  and  to  the  manufacture  of  beer, 
long,  navigable  throughout  its  course,  but  it  is  also  an  acent  in  produclns  the 
and  joining  the  Mississippi  River  5  miles  fermentation  whereby  breaa  is  rendered 
above  Vicksbui^.  light,  porous,  and  spongy  and  has  super- 
YazAA  a  city,  capital  of  Yazoo  C3o.,  s«»ded  leaven.  (See  Fermentation.) — 
^  Mississippi,  on  the  navigable  German  yeast  is  prepared  in  various  ways 
Yazoo  River,  45  miles  N.  n.  w.  of  Jack-  from    common    yeast    collected,    drainedf 


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Yeats 


Yellow  Sea 


and  prened  till  nearW  dry*  It  can  be  so 
kept  for  several  months,  and  is  much  used 
bj  bakers* — Patent  yeaet  is  yeast  col- 
lected from  a  wort  of  malt  and  hop,  and 
treated  similarly  to  German  yeast — 
ArtifMiU  feast  is  a  doagh  of  floar  and  a 
small  quantity  of  CQmmoo.  7%ist  made 
into  sinall  cakes  and  dried. 
V^Qfji  (yftts),  William  Btttlbb,  an 
*^'*  Irish  poet,  bom  at  DnbUn,  in 
1866.  He  wrote  The  Wanderinge  of  Ot- 
Hn  and  Other  Poems,  Countess  Vathleen, 
Shadowy  Waters,  etc.,  and  varioas  plays 
of  verse  since  pablished  as  Plays  for  the 
Irish  Theater  (1912).  He  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Celtic  Renaissance,  and 
has  written  some  prose  works  including 
The  OeUio  TioiHght  and  Sygne  and  the 
IreUMnd  of  Hie  Tme. 

Yeddo.  seertwo. 
Yeisk.  ^^^^ 
Yelete.   see/i^.. 

Yell  il^^)*  ^®  second  largest  of  the 
^^^  Shetland  Islands,  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  Yell  Sound,  and  25 
miles  N.  of  Lerwick.  It  is  about  17^ 
miles  in  length,  and  from  half  a  mile  to 
6  miles  in  breadth.  The  surface  is 
chiefly  moorland,  and  fishing  is  the  lead- 
ing employment  Pop.  2579. 
VAllniiy  (ycl'O),  one  of  the  prismatic 
xcAiuw  g^ij^rg.  the  color  of  that  part 
of  the  solar  spectrum  situated  between 
the  orange  and  the  green ;  a  bright  golden 
color,  the  type  of  which  may  be  found  in 
the  field  buttercup,  which  is  a  pure  yel- 
low. United  with  blue  it  yields  green; 
with  red  it  produces  orange.  See  Color 
and  Spectrum, 
Yellow-berries.    ^^  French  Berries. 

YeUow-bird,  ^onTi' in-^gi^.^1^ 

States,  the  FringiUa  or  Chrysometris 
tristis.  The  summer  dress  of  the  male  is 
of  a  lemon  yellow,  with  the  wings,  tail, 
and  fore  part  of  the  head  black.  When 
caged  the  song  of  this  bird  greatly  resem- 
bles that  of  the  canary. 

;  TeUow  Fever,  P^Xw^^jJ-^  r. 

infectious  disease  of  tropical  and  semi- 
tropical  America  and  the  western  tropical 
coast  of  Africa.  It  is  caused  by  the 
injection  of  the  yellow  fever  bacteria 
through  the  bite  of  the  Stegomyia  fasciata 
mosquito,  which  was  proved  by  researches 
made  in  Havana,  Cuba,  in  1^,  by  Drs. 
Walter  Reed,  J.  Carroll  and  A.  Agra- 
mcDte,  of  the  United  States  Marine  Hos- 
pital Service.  The  symptoms  begin  in 
fiom  one  to  six  days  after  the  mosquito 


bite  is  inflicted.  One  attack  usually  con- 
fers lifelong  immunity.  There  are  three 
stacee:  L  The  febrile  stage,  beginning 
with  malaise,  headache,  irritable  stomach, 
chills,  high  fever;  pains  in  head,  back 
and  bmbs ;  scanty  urine ;  a  peculiar  odor. 
Slight  jaundice  occurs,  resembling  the 
appearance  just  prior  to  the  eruptive 
stage  of  measles.  The  white  of  the  eye 
is  colored  yellow.  The  coloring  deepens 
for  several  days,  and  may  become  quite 
dusky.  Albumin  appears  in  the  urine 
on  the  third  day.  2.  About  the  thi^d  or 
fourth  day  the  fever  drops  to  100**  or 
99°  F.  and  other  symptoms  improve.  A 
crisis  may  then  terminate  the  disease. 
3.  In  the  third  stage  the  previous  symp- 
toms may  reappear  in  wone  form  than 
before.  A  characteristic  is  an  abnor- 
mally slow  pulse  with  a  fever,  where  the 
pulse  rate  may  decrease  while  the  fever 
grows  higher.  The  other  symptoms  are: 
complete  jaundice,  black  vomit,  hsmor- 
rhages  from  mucous  membranes,  feeble 
pulse,  cold  surface,  irre^lar  respiration. 
Prevention  of  the  spread  of  the  disease  is 
accomplished  by  completely  screening  the 
patient  so  that  no  mosquito  can  bite  him 
to  carry  the  germs  elsewhere.  By  this 
method  epidemics  of  the  disease  can  be 
prevented  and  it  may  in  time  be  eradi- 
cated. It  is  treated  by  calomel  for  tiie 
bowels,  sodium  bicarbonate  to  reduce  ex- 
cessive urinary  acidity,  no  food  for  three 
or  four  days  because  of  the  condition  of 
the  stomadi,  febrifuges,  heart  stimulants 
and  other  treatment. 

YeUow-hammer,  ^^-^bl^f-o? 

the  genus  Emheriza,  the  E,  oitrinellaj 
called  also  yeUow-hunting,  The  head, 
cheeks,  front  of  the  neck,  belly,  and 
lower  tail-coverts  are  of  a  bright  yellow. 
The  upper  surface  is  partly  yellow,  but 
chiefly  brown,  the  feathers  on  the  top  of 
the  back  being  blackish  in  the  middle,  and 
the  tail  feathers  are  also  blackish.  The 
yellow-hammer  occurs  throughout  Europe. 
Vpllnixr   PitiA     A  North  American 

vai'i4ihUis,  The  wood  is  used  largely  for 
domestic  purposes  in  the  United  States. 
In  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia  the  name  is 
given  to  P,  resinosa,  and  it  is  also  applied 
to  P.  australis. 

Yellow  Eiver.     See  Hoangho. 

^AllATira  an  inflammation  of  the  liver, 
xcuuwsy  ^j.  ^  ^j^j  ^j  jaundice  which 

affects  horses,  cattle  and  sheep,  causing 
yellowness  of  the  eyes.  The  same  name 
is  given  to  a  disease  which  affects  the 
peach  tree. 

YeUowSea  <.?'k°rof'*'th';''Sc 


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THE  YELLOWSTONE 
View  of  the  Grand  Cafion  and  Inspiration  Point  from  Artist's  PoliiU 


^Q 


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Yellowstone  National  Pari 


Yeovil 


Ocean,  on  the  northeast  coast  of  China; 
length,  about  620  miles ;  greatest  breadth, 
about  400  miles.  It  is  very  shallow,  and 
obtains  its  name  from  the  lemon-yellow 
color  of  its  water  near  the  land,  caused 
by  mud  suspended  in  the  water  from  the 
inflow  of  tbe  rivers  Hoang-ho  and  Tang- 
tse-kiang. 

Yellowstone    National    Park, 

a  region  of  the  state  of  Wyoming,  occu- 
pying its  northwest  corner  with  slight 
extensions  into  Montana  and  Idaho;  of 
remarkable  natural  beauty  and  unique 
for  the  number  and  diversity  of  its  geysers 
and  hot  springs.  It  was  in  1872  with- 
drawn from  settlement  by  the  United 
States  government  to  become  a  park  or 
tract  for  the  recreation  of  the  people.  It 
was  originally  about  62  miles  in  length 
(from  N.  to  s.),  and  54  in  width,  with  an 
area  of  3350  sq.  miles,  but  in  1882  a  for- 
est preserve  of  over  2000  square  miles  was 
added  in  the  e.  and  s.,  making  the  total 
area  a  little  over  5500  so.  miles.  It  is 
readily  accessible  by  a  branch  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railway.  Its  surface  is 
mainly  an  undulating  plain,  diversified, 
however,  by  great  mountain  ranges,  one 
of  which,  the  Absaraka,  a  range  separat- 
ing the  waters  of  the  Yellowstone  river 
(which  see)  from  those  of  the  Big  Horn, 
contains  some  of  the  grandest  scenery  in 
the  United  States.  The  whole  region  ex- 
hibits an  endless  variety  of  wild  volcanic 
scenery  —  hot  springs,  mud  volcanoes, 
geysers,  cafions,  waterfalls,  etc.  The  gey- 
sers are  more  remarkable  than  those  of 
Iceland,  and  the  Grand  Geyser  in  Fire- 
hole  Basin  is  the  most  magnificent  nat- 
ural fountain  in  the  world.  The  Yellow- 
stone Lake,  one  of  many,  is  a  maj^nifi- 
cent  sheet  of  water,  with  an  area  of  150 
aq.  miles,  and  an  elevation  of  7440  feet. 
The  falls  of  the  Yellowstone  are  of  strik- 
ing beauty.  The  Mammoth  Hot  Springs 
also  are  notable,  from  their  beautiful 
terraces  and  basins  of  exquisitely  colored 
calcareous  deposits.  A  large  part  of  the 
park  is  covered  with  forest.  Stringent 
legislation  protects  the  game,  with  the 
result  that  elk,  deer,  antelope  and  bear, 
have  taken  refuge  in  it  and  have  rapidly 
increased  in  numbers. 

YeUowstone  Eiver,  f^/'wJterl 

United  States,  which  rises  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  about  lat.  44^  N.  and  Ion. 
110*  w.  After  a  course  of  about  25 
miles  its  passes  through  the  lake  of  the 
same  name,  and  runs  northward  through 
the  Yellowstone  National  Park.  Soon 
after  issuing  from  the  lake  the  river 
makes  at  intervals  a  series  of  falls  (the 
last  being  300  feet  high),  and  traverses 


cafions,  one  of  which,  the  Great  Cafion, 
is  30  miles  in  length,  its  steep  sides  being 
colored  in  bright  hues  and  shaped  in  a 
great  variety  of  fantastic  forms.  Run- 
ning in  a  northeasterly  direction  the  river 
ultimately  joins  the  Missouri  about  lat. 
48"*  N.,  after  a  course  of  some  1100  miles. 
Steamers  can  ascend  it  for  3(X)  miles  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Big  Horn,  which  is  its 
largest  affluent. 

YeUow-throat,    IJ^^  ^^^ 

bird  {Sylvia  Marilandica). 
Temen  (7^°>'^x^)f  &  division  of  Arabia, 
occupying  the  southwest  angle 
of  the  peninsula,  and  known  as  Arabia 
Felix.  Some  i>ortions  of  it  are  very 
fertile.  Among  its  princiiial  products 
is  coffee,  to  a  specially  prheed  kind  of 
which  Mocha,  one  of  its  seaports,  has 
given  a  name  everywhere  known.  Esti- 
mated area,  70,000  square  miles;  esti- 
mated population,  about  750,CKX).  (See 
Arabia.)  The  chief  potentate  is  the 
Im&m  of  Sana,  a  tributary  of  Turkey. 
Vau  &  Japanese  money  of  account, 
^^"^9  equivalent  to  $1.(>4. 
VatiiItqI^  (yen-ik^a-lft).  Strait  of, 
xem&axe  connecting  the  Black  Sea 
with  the  Sea  of  Azof,  is  about  20  miles 
long,  and  in  some  parts  only  2  miles 
broad  and  2  fathoms  deep. 
Yenisei  (yen'i-sl),  a  great  river  of 
A^uAo^A    ^g.j^^  j..g^  jjj  Mongolia,  flows 

northward  through  Siberia,  and  after  a 
course  of  about  2500  miles  enters  the  bay 
of  the  same  name  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Yeniseisk  Uw„tl''!,?  ^feasU'^H^! 

beria,  extending  from  the  Chinese  fron- 
tier to  the  Arctic  Ocean;  area,  986,908 
sq.  miles.  It  contains  rich  auriferous 
deposits.  Pop.  657,900. —  The  capital,  of 
the  same  name,  is  the  chief  entrepot  for 
the  gold  mines  of  the  province  and  the 
Siberian  fur-trade.  Pop.  11,739. 
VAnTnofirv  (yO'man-ri),  a  volunteer 
Xeomanry  cavalry  force  originally 
embodied  in  Britain  during  the  wars  of 
the  French  revolution.  They  must  fur- 
nish their  own  horses,  but  have  an  allow- 
ance for  clothing;  the  government  also 
supplying  arms  and  ammunition.  Unlike 
the  ordinary  volunteer  force,  the  yeo- 
manry cavalry  may  be  called  out  to  aid 
the  civil  powers  in  addition  to  their  be- 
ing liable  for  service  on  invasion  of  the 
country  by  a  foreign  enemy. 

Yeomen  of  the  Guard.  ^^5^^' 

V^Airil  (y^'vil),  a  municipal  borough 
AuuvxA  ^f  England,  in  Somerset,  on  the 
river  Yeo  or  Ivei,  40  miles  south  of  Brif^ 
tol.  It  has  a  fine  cruciform  church 
dating  from  the  fifteenth  century,  and  is 


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TH3  GREAT  40-INCH  BQUATOSIAL  TELBSCOPB,  YERKB8  OBSERVATORY 

^  perfect]ots  possible  seem  to  be  combined  in  this  instrument,  which  with  its  moving  dome  cost  som« 

.  1x70.000.    The  moving  floor  is  raised  by  electrical  means,  the  clock  rewinds  itself,  andyet  other 

iBOton  direct  the  telescope  to  the  desired  pUoe.  The  observatory  is  at  T^iams  Bay.  Wisconsin. 


i 


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Yerkes  Observatory 


Yonne 


noted    for    its 
Pop.  18,7(50. 


manafacture    of    glorei. 


Terkes  Observatory,  fP^  ^^^ 

by  Charles  T.  Terkes,  a  capitalist  of  Chi- 
cago, to  Chicago  University.  It  is  located 
at  Williams  Bay,  Wisconsin,  75  miles 
above  Chicago,  and  is  furnished  with  a 
40-inch  lens  telescope,  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  world.  It  is  thoroughly  equipped 
with  other  astronomical  instruments. 
VAftflA  (yez'6)t  Yezo,  or  Jesso  (offi- 
*^**"  cially  called  Hokkaido),  the 
most  northerly  of  the  larger  Japan  is- 
lands, has  an  area  of  about  30,300  sq. 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1904)  of  843,717,  in- 
cluding about  18,000  Ainos,  a  docile  ab- 
oriffinal  race.  The  island  is  mountainous 
and  volcanic,  and  is  rich  in  minerals,  in- 
cluding coal,  gold,  and  silver.  Matsmai 
and  Hakodadl  (which  see)  are  the  chief 
towns. 

Yew  (^^»  *°  evergreen  tree  of  the 
^  genus  Tamus,  nat.  order  Taxacese. 
The  common  yew  is  T,  baccdta,  indige- 
nous in  most  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  a 
handsome  tree,  growing  to  a  height  of 
from  30  to  40  feet,  with  numerous  spread- 
tor  branches,  forming  a  dense  head  of 
foliage.  Its  trunk  is  thick,  and  has  been 
known  to  attain  a  circumference  of  56 
feet.  Its  fruit  is  a  red  berry  with  green 
seeds.  It  used  to 
be  frequently 
planted  in  church- 
yards, and  its  tough 
elastic  wood  was 
extensively  used  in 
the  manufacture  of 
bows.  In  our  own 
days,  on  account  of 
the  durability  of 
the  timber,  and  of 
its  hard,  compact, 
close  grain,  it  is 
much  used  by  cabi- 
net-makers and 
turners.  There  are 
several  varieties  of 
it,  the  Irish  yew, 
which  has  a  more 
upright  growth  than  the  common  yew,  be- 
ing esteemed  the  finest.  The  American 
yew  (T.  haccaia  Canadensis)  is  a  low 
prostrate  shrub,  never  forming  an  erect 
trunk.  It  is  found  in  Canada  and  the 
more  northern  of  the  United  Staten,  and 
is  commonly  called  ground-hemlock, 
Yezd  (y^2^)»  ^  city  of  Persia,  prov- 
ince  of  Farsistan,  in  an  oasis  in 
a  Bandy  plain  190  miles  southeast  of 
Ispahan,  it  is  noted  for  its  velvet  and 
other  silk  manufactures,  and  contains 
about  4000  fire  worshipers.  Pop.  esti- 
mated at  50,00a 


Yaw  (Tmcus  haecdta) , 


Y^drasil    ^oooka.8iix    (ig'dra-ml),  in 
o^  ^  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 

giant  ash-tree  spread  over  the  wholt 
world,  the  branches  of  which  reach  above 
the  heavens,  the  roots  of  which  reach 
down  to  the  under  world.  Ygdrasil  typi- 
fies existence. 

Yiddish  (7i<l'iBli)»  Judisch  or  Judbo- 
a.Au«uou  (}eiij£^jj^    jargon    spoken    by 

the  Jews  in  Russia  and  Central  Europe 
and  carried  by  immigrants  to  America. 
It  is  a  High  CTerman  with  a  large  admix- 
ture of  Hebrew  and  other  langaages. 
It  is  spoken  by  over  six  million  people 
and  is  the  medium  of  a  considerable 
literature,  some  of  it  dating  from  the 
16th  century. 

Yo^fl.  (?^'S&;  union),  in  Hindu  phil- 
*^o**  ology,  one  of  the  six  Darsanas 
or  schools  of  Brahmanical  philosophy, 
that  of  Patanjali,  the  essence  of  which  is 
meditation.  Theoretically  at  least  its 
devotees  can  acquire  entire  command  oyer 
elementary  matter  by  certain  ascetic  prac- 
tices, such  as  lonf-continued  supprmion 
of  the  breath,  and  by  endeavoring  to  unite 
themselves  with  the  yital  spirit  which  per- 
vades all  nature.  When  the  mysncal 
union  is  effected,  the  disciple  (Yoei)  can, 
according  to  the  belief,  traverse  all  space, 
become  inyisible,  know  the  past,  present 
and  future. 

Yokohama  (y^ko-ha'ma),  the  most 

AVA.VUCMUA  important  of  the  Japan- 
ese ports  from  its  proximity  to  Tokio,  the 
capital  of  the  empire,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  a  railway  18  miles  in  length. 
The  foreign  settlement  consists  of  well- 
constructed  streets  with  business  estab- 
lishments. The  harbor,  a  part  of  the  bay 
of  Tokio,  is  good  and  commodious.  Steam- 
ers from  San  Francisco,  Vancouver  Is- 
land, etc.,  call  regularly.  The  population 
has  grown  rapidly  within  recent  years, 
increasing  from  70,019  in  1884  to  394,303 
in  1909. 

Yonkers  (yonglsers),  a  dty  of  West- 
XUUlLers  cheater  county.  New  York, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson  Riyer, 
adjoining  the  northern  line  of  New  York 
City.  It  is  both  a  residential  and  manu- 
facturing city,  its  industries  including 
large  carpet,  elevator  and  hat  manufac- 
tures, also  sugar  refineries,  sash,  door  and 
metal-foil  factories.  The  first  settlement 
here  was  made  about  1650.  Pop.  88,000. 
VniiTiA  (yon),  a  department  of  Cen- 
XOnne  ^^^  if^rance,  traversed  by  the 
river  Yonne,  which  is  nayigable  through- 
out it  The  soil  is  yery  fertile,  producing 
large  wheat  crops,  and  the  vines  yield  the 
finest  red  wines  of  Lower  Burgundy,  and 
the  finest  of  white  wines,  the  well-known 
Chablis.  Auxerre  is  the  capital  Area 
2880  sq.  miles.    Pop.  (1910)  3324277. 


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York 


Yosemite  Valley 


York  (y^^l^)*  01^  Yorkshire,  the  lar- 
^^*'^  gest  county  of  England,  faces  the 
North  Sea  on  the  N.  £.  and  extends  from 
the  Tees  river  on  the  N.  to  the  estnary  of 
the  Humber  in  the  s. ;  area  6067  sq, 
miles.  It  is  divided  into  the  North, 
South,  and  West  Ridings,  each  riding 
having  a  separate  lord-lieutenant  The 
surface  is  much  diversified,  there  being 
a  lam  central  valley  with  a  mountainous 
district  in  the  N.  B.  and  in  the  E.  an  ele- 
vated chalky  district  called  the  Weald. 
The  county  contains  some  of  the  most 
fertile  tracts  in  the  kingdom,  while  there 
are  areas  of  barren  moor.  The  central 
valley  is  drained  chiefly  by  the  Ouse  and 
its  tributaries.  The  West  Riding  con- 
tains some  of  the  richest  coal  mines  in 
the  Kinffdom  and  there  are  large  de- 
posits of  iron  in  the  N.  There  are  a 
number  of  large  manufacturing  centers, 
including  Leeds,  Sheffield,  Bradford,  Hud- 
dersfield  and  others.  Hull  and  York  are 
other  notable  cities,  York  being  the  cap- 
itaL  Pop.  (19U)  3,960,461. 
VftrV  (British,  Coer  Effroo,  or  Ehroc: 
^^*'^  Latin.  Ehoracum),  a  cathedral 
city  and  archDishop*s  see,  the  capital  of 
Yorkshire,  England,  188  miles  north  of 
London  by  rail,  is  situated  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Foss  and  the  Ouse.  The  city 
proper,  embracing  a  circuit  of  nearly  3 
miles,  was  inclosed  by  walls,  restored  bv 
Edward  I.  of  which  the  portions  still 
remaining  nave  been  converted  into  prom- 
enades, conunanding  a  prospect  of  the 
surrounding  country.  Tnere  are  many 
quaint,  old-fashioned  houses  in  the  nar- 
row streets  of  its  older  portion.  The 
great  object  of  attraction,  however,  is  the 
minster  or  cathedral,  the  finest  in  Eng- 
land, which  dates  from  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, but  did  not  begin  to  assume  its 
present  form  till  the  twelfth  century,  and 
was  not  completed  till  1472.  It  is  built 
in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross  with  choir, 
aisles,  transepts,  a  central  tower  and  two 
western  towers ;  extreme  length,  524  feet ; 
breadth,  250 ;  height  of  central  tower,  213 
feet.  (See  cut  at  Decorated  Style,) 
York  was  the  capital  of  Roman  Britain. 
It  was  made  an  archiepiscopal  see  by 
Edwin  of  Northumbria  in  624.  It  still 
ranks  second  theologically  and  polit- 
ically among  English  cities,  its  arch- 
bishop having  the  title  of  Primate  of 
England  (see  Archbishop),  and  its  chief 
magistrate  takes  the  title  of  lord-mayor. 
It  was  incorporated  by  Henry  I,  and  the 
city  boundaries  were  extended  in  1884. 
The  trade  is  local,  and  the  industries  un- 
important Pop.  82,297. 
York  ^  ^'^'  capital  of  York  Co., 
a.vAA.9  Nebraska,  on  a  branch  of  the 
Big  Blue  River,  50  miles  w.  of  Lincoln. 


It  is  in  a  farming  and  stock-raising  re- 
gion, and  manufactures  flour  and  fonn* 
dry  products.    Pop.  6235. 

York  ^  ^^^y*  ^P^^  o^  ^<>'^  ^M 
^  Pennsylvania,  lies  on  Codorus 
Creek,  a  branch  of  the  Susquehanna.  28 
miles  s.  s.  e.  of  Harrisburg.  It  is  in  a 
rich  agricultural  region  and  has  a  num- 
ber of  educational  and  charitable  institu- 
tions. The  industries  are  varied,  includ- 
ing bridge  and  chain  works,  i)aper  and 
pulp  mills,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
traction  engines,  water-wheels,  farm  im- 
plements, and  various  others.  The  0)n- 
tinental  Congress  met  at  this  place  in 
1777-78  while  Philadelphia  was  occupied 
by  the  British  army.  Pop.  55,000. 
Vnrlr  House  or,  an  English  royal 
•^"^"'^  house,  the  rival  of  that  of  Lan- 
caster. The  House  of  York  was  united 
to  the  House  of  Lancaster  when  Henrv 
VII  married  the  eldest  daughter  of  Ed- 
ward I  v.  The  emblem  of  the  Yorkists 
was  a  white  rose.  See  England  {Hi$- 
tory), 
York  Peninsula,  1^    Queensland, 

gion  lying  on  the  east  side  of  the  Gulf 
of  Carpentaria,  and  terminating  at  its 
north  end  in  Cape  York,  separated  from 
New  Guinea  by  Torres  Strait. 

Yorktown  'J^^^'Tii^^'c^^'^t: 

ginia,  on  the  right  bank  of  York  river, 
nearly  10  miles  from  its  mouth  and  36 
miles  N.  N.  w.  of  Norfolk.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  surrender  of  Lord  Com- 
wallis  to  General  Washington,  October 
19,  1781.  The  surrender  is  commemo- 
rated by  a  monument.  In  the  Civil  war 
it  was  fortified  by  the  Confederates,  who, 
having  been  besieged  bv  General  McClel- 
lan,  evacuated  it  May  4,  1862.  Its  popu- 
lation now  numbers  little  over  100. 
YAm'hfl  (y6'r0-ba),  a  country  of  West 
xuruuii  Africa,  north  of  the  Bight  of 
Benin.  It  is  peopled  b^  a  number  of 
confederated  tribes,  and  is  now  attached 
to  the  colony  and  protectorate  of  Lagos. 
Much  of  the  country  is  fertile  and  well 
cultivated,  and  the  inhabitants  have  made 
great  progress  in  the  industrial  arts. 
They  are  chiefly  pagans,  but  Mohamme- 
danism has  made  way  among  them.  Prot- 
estant and  Roman  Catholic  missions  have 
long  been  at  work  among  them.  Ibadan 
is  tne  largest  town. 

Yosemite  VaUey  if^''-*«^f- 

natural  wonders  of  North  America,  is  in 
Mariposa  countv,  California,  about  180 
miles  E.  by  8.  of  San  Francisco  and  mid- 
way between  the  eastern  and  western 
bnses  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  It  is  a  nar- 
row valley  at  an  elevation  of  3860  fete 


I 


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ELCAPTTAN 

ykm  in  the  Yosemite  Valley.  California. 


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Yoshihito Yoimg 

above  the  sea,  and  is  itself  nearly  level,  ated  at  Dartmouth  Ck>llege  in  1853;  was 
about  6  miles  in  length,  and  varying  in  a  captain  in  the  Olvil  war,  and  after- 
width  from  i  mile  to  a  mile.  On  each  wards  held  several  professorships,  be- 
side rise  enormous  domes  and  almost  ver-  coming  professor  of  astronomy  at  Frince- 
tical  cliffs  of  granitef  one  of  them,  called  ton  Ck>irege  in  1877.  He  made  very  im- 
the  Half  Dome,  being  4737  feet  higher  portant  spectroscopic  studies  and  dis- 
than  the  river  Merced  at  its  base,  while  eyeries  in  solar  physics  and  chemistry, 
there  are  various  others  equally  notable  His  .principal  work  was  The  Sun.  He 
in  aspect.  Numerous  waterfalls  and  cas-  died  January  4, 1908. 
cades  descend  fromprodigious  heights,  the  Vounfir  H^dward,  an  English  poet, 
chief  being  the  Yosemite  Falls,  which  ^  7  **o^  was  the  son  of  a  dean  of 
drops  nearly  half  a  mile.  The  Bridal  Veil  Salisbury,  and  bom  in  1083.  He  was 
Fall  is  also  very  picturesque.  This  val-  educated  at  Winchester  and  Oxford,  and 
ley  forms  part  of  the  California  Yosemite  obtained  in  1708  a  law  fellowship  at  All 
State  Park,  which  is  included  in  the  Souls.  Patronixed  and  pensioned  by  the 
larger  Yosemite  Natiopal  Park.  profligate  Duke   of    Wharton,    he    wrote 

Vftiiliilii+A  (y6-shi-h6't0),  emperor  or  '^^S^P^^SSJS  ajid  a  couple  of  plays,  one  of 
XUBlulUtu  naikado  of  Japan,  the  son  which,  Tfce  Revenge,  long  kept  posses- 
of  Mutsuhito,  born  in  1879,  proclaimed  ^^^  o'  the  stage.  His  first  great  liter- 
Crown  Prince  in  1889.  He  received  a  *jy  success  was  his  production  of  a  series 
liberal  education,  and  though  extremely  S\'*r'^®»  ^"£^  collectively  in  1728  as 
delicate  as  a  child  grew  into  robust  man-  ^^^  -^5^^^  SL V**^*  /*^  Universal  Pat- 
hood.  On  the  death  of  Mutsuhito  in  •*^^»  }^  1828  he  took  orders,  was  made 
1912,  Yoshihito  succeeded  to  the  throne.  *  ^J^.  ^^^BJF*  £^^  "'^^^'^  ^  Welwyn. 
Tftne^hftl  t7»'ftJ  o^  yal),  a  seaport  of  Sf'^-^  A^^*  Pl*^^?,l^^.*P^  P"^ 
XOU^OaX  YreiSnd,  on  tie  estuary  of  aPPeared  the  work  by  which  chiefly  he  is 
the  Blackwater,  county  Cork.  28  miles  wmembered,  the  gloomy  but  striking  ATtjyA* 
east  of  Cork.  It  has  manufactures  of  IMughtt.  He  died  in  1765. 
earthenware  and  bricks.     Pop.  5393.  YOIUie,    ^"^.  Flaog.    an    American 

XOUng     guishe^    africultural    writer,  f^V^  i^'v^^^J  T**  5^?^^^  ''Kr^^ 

bom  in  1741;  died  in  1820.   He  became  a  ^*,^viV«^'i  School, and  Chicago  Nor- 

farmer.  and  made  a  series  of  agricultural  iWf^r^rki  w,.kT#I^  ^^  ^^^^  ?! 

tours  in  England,   Ireland,  and  France.  if^^L?E/,'^^i^^  qk™k^®  University 

pubUshing  accounts  of  them,  and  in  1793  ?Jj  VSK??^  "^  1?P?-.   She  be^  teachmg 

he  was  appointed  secretary  to  the  newly-  !Si,i^««  nM^^"^*!  oqt^HS? "**'*5^®°^  ^1 

constitute  Board  of  Agriculture.    Of  his  ^^^^  S^^Vt^^^"^'  ^V'^AV^''  ^^ 

many    writings    his    TraveU   in   Prance,  ifeSl?2Sk  .^''^ Ju^ts  -f'^?!?*^/.??  Chicago, 

published  in  1792.  is  the  most  interesting.  iSTHM^^  ^iSS?Sq®'  ^®  Chicago  Nor- 

preacher   of   the   Mormon   doctrine.    He  .viv.nsf  in  Ift4i  ?<«^T??^^b^*°"' 
was  one  of  the  twelve  founders  of  Nan-  Twm  io^S^ident  of^rt.«   N»wV«?b 

5SL„r8;j,Vt?.'  iifdX^'su^  *of%rs?^:E:  t-^wTn'ttravii  w2r:*srtawShed^the 

Jweph  Smith,  and  the  flight  of  the  Mor-  horning  Pott  in   Philacfelphia   aad   tte 

cons  from  Nanvoo,  Young  became  their  gtandaPd  in  New  York?  was  EuropeiS 

leader  on  their  long  lourney  westward,  correspondent  of  the  ^er^W;  went  iSnnd 

was  elected  their  presfdent  on  their  set-  the  wSrld  with  General  Grint  "wm  ai^ 

tling  in  Utah,  and  when  this  was  made  pointed  minister  to  China;  and  In  laW 


the   Mormons    of    Utah.    Young   was   a  eral,  1903. 

kaan  of  great  practical  ability.  UUh  Youil?  Thomas,  scientist,  was  born 
flourished  under  his  rule,  and  he  long  ^wuu-g,  ^^  ^  Quaker  family  at  Mil- 
withstood  successfully  the  efforts  of  the  verton,  in  Somersetshire,  England,  in 
Urited  States  government  to  establish  1773.  He  qualified  himself  for  the  med- 
its  authority  there.  ical   profession,    but   a  fortune   left   him 

Tinnfir  Chables  Augustus,  astron-  made  him  rather  languid  in  his  practice 
*  •***&>  omer,  bom  at  Hanover,  New  as  a  physician  in  London.  In  1802  he 
tii  nnahire.  Dec  15.  1834 ;   was  gradu-  became   the   colleague   of  Davy   as   pro- 


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Yoni^  Ypres 

feisor  of  nataral  philosophy  at  the  Royal  Ypres  took  place  in  October,  1914«  whoi 
Institotion,  having  previously  made  the  Britain's  sznall  professional  army  with 
discovery  of  the  interference  of  light,  the  peat  bravery  stopped  the  German  forces 
result  of  researches  which,  completed  by  in  their  maivh  on  the  channel  ports  and 
Fresnel,  secured  the  triumph  of  the  un-  drove  them  out  of«the  town,  which  had 
dnlatory  theory.  In  1807  appeared  his  first  been  occupied  by  the  enemy  on  Octo- 
admirable  LeciurtM  on  Natural  Philoso-  ber  3.  In  the  second  battle,  in  the  spring 
pky.  In  1818  he  was  appointed  secre-  of  1915,  the  Canadians,  who  had  taken 
tary  to  the  Board  of  Longitude,  with  the  the  heights  before  the  town,  were  com- 
charge  of  supervising  the  Xautuial  Al-  pelled  to  retire  into  Ypres.  It  was  in  this 
wianack.  Young  preceded  Chanit>oOion  battle  that  the  Germans  first  introduced 
in  the  discovery  of  the  alphabetic  char-  poison  gas.  During  1916  the  Germans, 
acter  of  certain  of  the  Egyptian  hiero-  from  their  positions  on  the  heights,  poured 
glyphs.  He  was  a  man  of  universal  ae-  a  steady  stream  of  pro^'ectiles  into  the  old 
complishments,  adding  to  his  scientific  town.  Hardly  a  building  was  left  stand- 
and  mathematical  attainments  a  knowl-  ing,  and  even  the  beautiful  Cloth  HaU — a 
edge  of  the  cUssical  and  the  principal  glorious  relic  of  the  13th  and  14th  cen- 
modem  and  oriental  languages.  He  died  turies,  built  in  the  form  of  an  irregular 
in  1829.  trapesium  surmounted  by  a  square  tower 

^/^•n<n«»  ITa-m's  /n«i^<rf4a<ii  A floA.  ^^  oclfry — ^was  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins. 
Young  Men  8  Cnnrtian  ASSO-  i^  1917  the  third  battle  of  tpres  was 
/»iafiATia  Among  the  first  of  these  was  fought,  wiUi  the  British  and  Canadians 
Oiatiuiui.  ^jj^j  funded  in  London  tai  on  the  ofltensive.  The  Germans  were 
1844  by  George  Williams.  The  movement  i'?!*^  ^^  *?<*  ^«  famous  Passchendaele 
extended,  and  became  one  not  only  for  the  R»dge  ^^^  other  um>OTtant  heists  were 
religious  but  for  the  general  culture  anr!  gained  by  the  AUied  mwps.  The  Cana- 
social  wellbeing  of  young  men  engaged  in  <!"">»»  under  General  &ir  Arthur  Currie, 
business.  These  associations  became  ^^re  given  the  honor  of  leading  the  as- 
widelv  extended,  there  being  in  1916  in  ^^^  and  gained  a  bnUiant  victory.  1^ 
the  United  States  alone  700^  members,  town  of  Ypres  Was  full  of  memones  for 
with  buildings  and  property  valued  at  jvery  Canadian,  memon^  of  great  sacn- 
^90,000,000.  The  European  war  opened  gee  and  of  man^  comrades  laid  to  rest, 
a  new  field  of  work  for  them,  and  laixe  The  trenches  which  they  took  over  on  the 
sums  of  money  were  contributed  to  be  ^^^  ^^^'^  the  smne  trenches  where,  in 
used  in  their  special  Une  of  activity  for  Jlie  »pnng  of  1915,  the  Germans  had  at- 
soldiers  in  camp  and  field.  tackod  them  with  poison  gas.     High  offi- 

^r^«.-..w.4.^..«*«.     (vnim'tonn)      a    ritv   ^"  ^"<>  ™  them  had  played  their  part 

Co.,  Ohio,  on  the  Mahoning  River,  66  S*"!  »'.»'>«»  ""«»  »««>?  t^a'  SirTWw 
mil^B  soutLeast  of  Cleveland,  in  the  vicin-  Hwg,  m  h«  message  to  General  Currie, 
ity  of  iron  ore  and  coal  beds.  It  contains  ??ii  i„  J^iTf  ^^^S^^^^iZ^J^^t 
a  Federal  building,  various  homes  and  """f^y  ^»u*^u,^°*'^**  JSl.^P^?^! 
hospitals,  an  opera  house,  Ubrary,  etc.  ?,"«««5?  ^'S  which  your  command  of  ^e 
ItLi  an  important  iron  manuflJrturinK  S?""^*?  a^rf^n.*^«..'^mjr^^.!:?»i?; 
town,    having    many    large    mills    and  T^"  r?  /»'»«??»  y««  employed  totally 

foundries.  all>  nZufactuf«i  of  lumber.  f^i^'"L'"^f.Kp*^°,.^L^rmAJ^h^ 

/Mii«     ivwJfin<r    mttfA,^<iia     •w^nr/iA»     »tAf/>*  losscs  RTQ  rcliaDly  estimated  at  more  than 

«™  ^   Pon^ft (Sft^    ^         •  double   those   suffered   by   die    Canadian 

^rs,  etc     i-ov^y^fW^  n,     .   . .  troops.     The  skill,  bravery,  and  determi- 

X  0  n  n  g     women  8     LnnStian  nation  shown  in  the  attack  and  in  main- 

A  •    x»  /v«   ♦f.^   —«.<.»  u^^m   ..  taining  the  positions  won  against  repeated 

Associations,  ^^^  ^o^unT^'en  w"  ^T^^  T^i'"'  ^"^"^  ""'''  ^°  "^  ""^"^ 

KTn1ifrd^and^L**LiS'in%^^^^  ""^The^tide  of  battie  surged  back  in  1918 

^f   RHt^in   onH    A«?r^JL      rrS^^  ^^  the  desperate  and  reckless  attempt  of 

?L?Il^StiS^  «^f  ^«J^?  f^^'^^iS^  the  GermaSs  to  reach  Calais.    The  Brit- 

nhr.inTi^?»i  "jnf^o^LT^S^o J3  ^I'lL^^V  ^^   ^^^^   relinquished   the   heights,   but 

^ysical,  Boc^l,  imellec^al,  and  spmma^^  held  fast  at  Ypres,   as  the  French  had 

Ypres  i?:Pf'.^!?^&  Jp^«*»).'    ^el-  ^^^^  ^t  Verdun   and  the  Mame.      (See 

wlf  ini^^    «i  r°  lis  ^1  ^ISm^^^A^^  European    War.)      In    peace    times    tiie 

Ti^fvI^^^L}^^  ^^^  *"?  ^^^  ""^^  principal  trade  of  tiie  to^  was  in  cotton 

of    the    Xperlee,    28    miles  s.  8.  .w.    of  ^nd  lacea.     Jansen  was  bishop  of  Ypree 

^r';l^^  f  ^'^Z^^l  '^^'  ^^  "^^  ^^''''^  and  w  l>"ned  in  the  crypt  of  tiie  now 
I  nim^^.'^^r''^^-  i^il^®  successive  bom-  ^j^^,  cathedral  of  St.  Martin.  It  was 
ih  f  v»^^?i''.  ^l^'  %^'^^4i  ^^''i^A? ^  ''J  formerly  one  of  tiie  most  important  manu- 
tho  European  war.     The  first  battle  of  facturing  towns  of  Flandofs,  and  in  Uie 


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Ypsilanti  Yucatan 

14th  century  had  200,000  inhabitants  and  with  the  control  of  an  army  corps.     He 

employed  4000  looms.    The  population  in  now  became  the  leading  power  in  modem- 

1013  was  17,000.  izing  the  Chinese  army,  and  by  19(K1  had 

TMilftllti       (ip-si-lan'U),    a    city    of  a  corps  of  many  thouswids  of  weU-driUed 

Apsiiauti      Washtenaw  county,  Mich-  and  well-armed  men.    Also,  as  Yicero^  of 

Igan.  on  the  Huron  River,  29  mUes  w.  by  ChiU  province,   he  was  instrumental  in 

B.  of  Detroit.    It  is  the  seat  of  the  Michi-  introducing  the  modem  system  of  educa- 

ean  State  Normal  School,  and  has  manu-  i><>»^i5^2  "»«  empire.    At  an  earUer  date 

factures   of    paper,    cement,   agricultural  *»«  l»aa  become  awaire  of  the  plans  of  the 

implements,    veneers,    flour,    etc      Pop,  young  emperor  and  hw  reformer  aaaoci- 

0230  a^^    ^o   introduce    radical    reforms    and 

YnftilftTifi      a  distinguished  Greek  fam-  seize  the  reins  of  power  Jong  held  by  the 

XpSUauU,  iiy  prominent  in  the  Greek  empress  dowager.  He  informed  her  of 
movement  for  independence.  Dkmetbius  *^1!u ^^S?®***  '**  conseauence  of  which  she, 
was  bom  in  1703;  died  in  1832.  He  dis-  ^™  ^^^  support  of  the  cwiservatives, 
tinguished  himself  so  highly  in  the  revolu-  JJ*"®  »  palace  prisoner  of  Kwang  Sen, 
Son  of  S2I  as  to  be  maSe  president  of  !!i«,>.  X^I^It^^SJIw  J.^^^ 
the  Greek  legislative  council  after  the  II'IL^®  ^'^P!?;^  1^^?§S£*^^Si^*^^^^^ 
Uberation  from  the  Ottoman  yoke,  f^®"^  ^^'l  ^^^^  "\  J?^;  Pnnce  Ohun, 
Z^T  /x^  «/^  x^«^»«l  -  -o^i^s-^  ^e  regent,  dismissed  him  from  his  post  as 
Ysaye  ^?"^?\'  J?^®"?^.x*  .  iS^  Grand  councilor.  A  hasty  flight  probably 
il  r  .^^^^fe?*  *^  ¥^1^1''^^  saved  his  Ufe.  After  the  Wginning  of  thi 
h?**?T  ^J^al  i°  ;  iiwiy*^  J"i  ^^"♦1  revolution  of  1911  Yuan  was  recalled  by 
the  United  States  in  1804.  He  U  justly  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^  n^^^e  premier,  with  dicta- 
regarded  as  one  of  the  KfeatiMt  living  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^ei^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^  ^^e^y 
exponents  of  classical  and  virtuosic  yiolm  effort  to  savi  the  Manchu  dynasty.  Hi 
music.  He  was  violin  profe^or  at  the  ^^^^^  ^t  abiUty  in  deaKng  with  the 
Brussels  Conservatoire  from  1886  to  1898  difficult  situation,  arranged  an  armistice 
and  was  manager  and  conductor  of  the  or-  ^^j  ^^^  revolutionists,  but  found  it  im- 
^estral  concerts.  _  ,.  ^.  ,,  ,,  .  possible  to  save  the  empire.  The  leaders 
Yssel.  ®I  i?®5?^u  ^  1  J  ^  "il  V  1  ^  of  the  revolutionary  movement  insisted  on 
.t  «v7  ^^  the  Netherlands,  wWch  leaves  ^he  dethronement  of  the  child  emperor  and 
the  Rhine  near  Amhem,a^  receiving  the  ^^^  estabUshment  of  a  republic.  Yuan 
Old  Yssel  from  Rhenish  Prussia,  enters  ^^s  obliged  to  yield  to  this  demand,  and 
the  Zuyder  Zee  after  a  course  of  80  mil<».  on  the  abdication  of  the  imperial  famUy  in 
Ysselmonde,  IJasmMONDE  ( l  /l-  ^912  and  the  resignation  of  Sun  Yet  Sen. 
*u  *T  ^u  1  A  '"^'ri^^Vv^  *^  .1  t  the  provisional  president,  he  aocepted  the 
the  Netherlands  opposite  the  mouth  of  presidency.  An  attempt  by  him  to  restore 
the  YsseL  the  empire  at  the  close  of  1915  failed  and 
Ystad  V?®^t^«  ^  seaport  town  of  jjg  continued  to  hold  the  presidency  untU 
oo  .,  ^^H5^  Sweden,  on  the  Baltic,  hig  death  in  June,  1916. 
36  miles  southeast  of  Malmo.  It  has  a  Yneatftll  (y^-kfi-tAn'),  a  peninsula 
safe  and  spacious  harbor,  and  amwie  its  XUCaxan  f^^ming  the  southeastern 
industries  is  shipbuilding.  Pop.  9862.  extremity  of  Mexico.  Before  its  con- 
Vqfrsi.rlvfnrl'arir      ^^  Rhondda,  a  quest  by  the  Spaniards  it  was  the  seat 

xsLmuyiuuwi^,     township  of  South  of  a  flourishing  civilization.     It  is  now 

Wales,    in    Glamorganshire,    comprising  for  the  most  part  a  sparsely  cultivated 

several  villages,  the  inhabitants  of  which  region,  whose  forests  yield  excellent  tim- 

are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  collieries.    Pop.  ber.    cabinet-woods    and    dye-woods,    and 

152,798.  which   has    recently   been   productive   of 

Yttria      (it'ri-a),     the     protoxide     of  great  quantities  of  sisal  or  so  called  Yu- 

yttrium,  a  white  powder,  in-  catan    hemp.      Yucatan    is    rich   in    ar- 

soluble    in    water,    but   soluble   in   some  chitectural    remains    of   its    ancient    in- 

acids.     When   ignited   it   glows   with   a  habitants,    temples,    pyramids,    etc.,    the 

pure  white  light.  work  of  the  civilized  Mayas.     The  most 

Yttrinin       (it'ri-um),  an  earth  metal,  imposing  of  these  rains  are  those  at  Ux- 

AbVAAtui*      ^j^^  ^^   ^jj^   elements,   the  mal,    Labwa,    Loltun.    and    Chichen-itza. 

basis  of  yttria;  symbol  Y,  atomic  weight  Five-sixths    of    the   inhabitants   are   In- 

93.     Its  texture  is  scaly,  and  its  color  dians,  preserving  the  speech  of  their  an- 

grayish-black.  cestors,  whom  the  Spaniards  dispossessed. 

Yuan  Shi-kai    president    of    China,  In  1861  the  peninsula,  which  since  1824 

A  ucftu  MAAA  AMXy  ^,j^g     resident     com-  had  formed  one  state  in  the  Mexican  Coo- 

missioner   in    Korea    before   the   Japan-  federation,  was  divided  into  two:    Yuca- 

Chinese  war.    and    after  that   war   was  tan,  area  29.560  square  miles,  pop.  314,- 

made  vice-president  of  the  army  board,  087,  capital  Merida ;  and  Campeacfiy,  are« 

*       27  10 


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Yucea 


Yvoa 


18,100  Moare  miles,  pop. 
Campeadiy* 

VnOfifl.  (juk'A),  a  genus  of  American 
Auvva  plimtB,  nat.  order  Liliacee. 
The  spedea  are 
handsome  plants* 
with  white  flow- 
ers, extremely  ele- 
gant, but  desti- 
tute of  odor.  F. 
glorio9tL  or  com- 
mon Adam's  nee- 
dle, is  much 
prised  on  account 
of  its  panicle  of 
eleaant  flowers, 
which  attain  a 
height  of  10  or  12 
feet.  It  yields  a 
fiber  well  adapted 
for  paper-making 
F.  filament 0 80^ 
the  silk  grass, 
which  has  nani- 
des  of  pendtuouiu 

cUmatiied  as  a  garden  plant,  blossoming 
in  the  autumn. 

Yukon  (y<^'kon),  one  of  the  largest 
^^^'^  liyers  of  America,  rises  in 
Canada  atMut  lat.  57*  45'  N.,  Ion.  130** 
45'  w.,  pursues  a  generally  westward 
course,  of  which  the  length  is  estimated 
at  22u0  miles,  the  greater  portion  in 
Alaska,  and  enters  the  Pacific  Ocean  by 
several  mouths.  For  three-fourths  of  its 
course  it  is  navigable  by  steamers,  and  is 
a  channel  of  supply  for  the  gold  regions 
of  the  Klondike  and   parts  of  interior 


84,281,  capital  ten  members  of  a  Legislative  CoundL 
Dawson  City  is  its  chief  dty  of  impor- 
tance: Whitehouse  ranks  next,  mtuated 
as  it  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Yukon  River. 


VhVati  ^  territory  of  northwest  Can- 
XIULUUi  ^^  j^^j^  ^f  British  Colum- 
bia, adjoining  the  territory  of  Alaska; 
area  207,076  sq.  miles ;  area  lake  surface 
415^280  acres,  population  in  1001.  27,210 ; 
in  1911,  8512.  It  lies  in  the  basin  of  the 
Yukon  River  and  is  largely  mountainous. 
It  is  traversed  by  the  Lewis,  PeUv,  White, 
Stewart  and  Klondike  rivers.  There  are 
142  miles  of  railways.  The  gold  of  Klon- 
dike valley  gives  the  territory  its  chief 
importance,  though  copper  and  coal  are 
also  mined.  The  gold  produced  from  1807 
to  1014  amounted  to  $175,000,000.  The 
territory  is  goremed  by  commissioner  and 


Ynle  (y^)f  the  old  BndUh  and  Scan- 
X  U.XV;  dinavian  name  for  Christmas, 
still  to  some  extent  in  use,  as  in  the  term 
yule-loff, 

Ylinnfl.Tl  (yun-nan'),  the  most  south- 
*"***«***  westerly  province  of  China, 
is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Annam, 
Siam,  and  Burmah,  and  on  the  west  by 
Burmah.  It  is  extremely  rich  in  min- 
erals, espedally  iron  and  copper,  contain- 
ing also  many  varieties  of  precious  stones. 
At  least  a  third  of  the  cultivated  land  is 
said  to  be  under  the  poppy,  l^e  inhab- 
itants are  for  the  most  part  Chinese; 
but  there  is  a  large  number  of  non- 
Chinese  Mohammedans  (called  by  the 
Burmese  Panthays).  In  1860  the  Mo- 
hammedans rose  in  rebellion  against  the 
Chinese  government,  and  succeeded  in  es- 
tablishing an  independent  government,  but 
it  lasted  only  three  or  four  years.  By 
the  convention  of  Chefoo.  in  1876.  Uie  es- 
tablishment of  commercial  relations  be- 
tween British  subjects  and  Yunnan  was 
conceded  by  the  Chinese  government. 
Estimated  area.  146,500  square  miles; 
estimated  pop.  12.000,000.— -Yunnan,  the 
capital,  is  dtuated  in  the  southeast  of  the 
province,  and  is  a  busy  and  prosperous 
town.    Pop.  (1907)  45,000. 

Yvetot  (6v-t5),  a  town  of  France,  24 
Avvvuv  jj^^  northwest  of  Rouen. 
From  the  fifteenth  to  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  the  lords  of  Yvetot  bore 
the  title  of  king,  and  their  lands  were 
exempt  from  service  to  the  French  crown ; 
hence  B^ranger's  famous  song,  Le  roi 
d:Yveiot.  Pop.  (1906)  6214. 
Yvon  (^vov),  Adolphe,  painter,  was 
*  *^**  bom  at  Bscheviller,  France,  in 
1817.  He  studied  art  with  Paul  Dela- 
roche.  In  1843  he  visited  Russia,  and 
from  there  sent  pictures  to  the  Salons  of 
1847-48.  He  was  successful  in  portraits 
and  battle  scenes.  He  received  the  grand 
medal  of  honor  in  1857;  also  in  1867. 
His  pictures  are  full  of  movement,  and 
the  painting  sober  and  straightforward, 
free  from  affectation.  Diad  September  11, 
1893. 


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9    tbt  last  letter  of  the  Onglidi  alpha-  Zflirii     ^^  Otmgo. 

^>   bet,  U  a  sibilant  consonant,  and  is  ^^^^*  ^^ 

merely  a  vocal  or  sonant  8,  haying  pre-  Zambesi     (Mm-ba'ii),    the   most   iBi« 

cisely  the  same  soond  that  •  has  In  iw»e,  •*«****  "^"*    iK>rtant  river  in  Sontheast- 

eute,  pleose,  etc.     (See  8.)     The  words  em  Africa,  and  the  laifest  flowing  int« 

in  modem  Knglish,  which  begin  with  9  the  Indian  Ocean,  has  its  source  in  sev 

are    all    derived    from    other    languages,  eral  streams  uniting  in  the  far  interior, 

mostly  from   the  Greek.    When  not  in-  It  flows  first  southeast  and  then  north- 

itial,  however,  we  often  find  it  represent-  east,  then  curves  asain  to  the  southeast, 

ing  an  older  s  in  genuine  English  words,  and  reaches  the  Indian  Ocean  by  several 

as  in  hlaze^  freeze,  gaze,  graze^  etc  mouths  in  the  Mosambique  Chuinel  op- 

Zaandam      (sUn-dftm'),  or  Saabdam,  poslte    Madagascar.    The    delta    of    the 

a  town  in  the  province  or  Zambesi  covers  an  area  of  about  26,000 

North    Holland,    8    miles   northwest    of  square  miles,  and  commences   about  90 

Amsterdam.     It  is  noted  chiefly  as  the  miles  from  the  coast,  a  little  below  the 

place   where    in    1007    Peter   tbe   Great  confluence  of  the  main  stream  with  the 

worked  for  a  short  time  as  a  ship  carpen-  Shir^    The  course  of  the  whole  river  is 

ter.     Pop.  (1913)  26,172.  about  1400  miles,  and  it  drains  an  area 

Zabem    ^^^'h^m)  ;  French,  8avtme)f  of  600,000  square  miles.    Its  course  as  a 

a  town  of  Germany,  in  Alsace,  whole    is    through    fertile    valleys    and 

at  the  foot  of  the  Vosgcs  Mountains,  and  wooded  plains;  but  the  navigation  is  in- 

29#wP®   Rhine  and  Marne  Canal.     Pop.  terrapted     by     rapids     and     cataracts, 

^09.  among  the  latter  being  the  Victoria  Falls, 

Zafiatecafi    (sa-kA-ta'kAs),  a  state  of  which   are   among  the  ffnndeit  Jn   the 

£iacai.eca8    Xlexico,   belonging  to   the  worid.    The   vaUey   of    the   Zambesi    is 

central   tableland,   and   bounded    by   the  capable  of  immense  development  in  the 

states   of   Aguas-Calientes,    Jalisco,   Du-  way  of  trade.    The   Portuguese  govem- 

rango,  Cohahuila,  Nnevo-Leon,  and  San  ment  have  long  exercised  sway  for  three 

Luis  rotosi.    It  is  very  rich  in  gold  and  hundred  miles  from  the  months  of  tbe 

silver,     which    are     extensively    mined,  river,  and  bv  the  international  arrange- 

Area,  24,757  square  miles.   Pop.  462,190.  ment  of  1890  the  river  from  the  coast  to 

^Zacatbcas,     the    capital,    340    miles  the  confluence  of  the  8hir6  is  recognised 

northwest  of  Mexico,  is  the  center  of  one  as  being  in   Portuguese  territory;   west 

of  the  oldest  and  most  productive  silver-  of  that  point  it  forms  the  boundary  be- 

mining   districts   in   the   republic.     Pop.  tween  British  and  Portuguese  territory  as 

(1910)  25,900.  far  west  as  Zumbo,  460  miles  from  the 

Zacaton    (>&k'a-ton),  a  grass  of  wide  sea;  farther  west  it  passes  through  ter- 

**       growth  in  America,  which  is  ritory  under  British  influence,  its  early 

recommended  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  course  being,  however,  in  Portuguese  tw- 

'  Agriculture  for  the  manufacture  of  paper,  ritory.    The    Zambesi   and    its   afllnents 

to  which  it  seems  well  adapted.  are  now  free  to  the  flags  of  all  nations. 

ZfliFre     (zafer),   an   impure   oxide  of  9!oniia    (sft'mi-a),   a  genus  of_plants, 

Aiuixc     cobalt,  used  in  painting.  ^luum  ^^  ^^^  CycadaceiB.    Tfc  spe- 

ZafirazifiT     (^-Sfi-z^r),  the  capital  of  cies  are  found  in  tropical  America,  at  the 

«.     ..    .^     ^'J®    Egyptian    province    of  Gape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  Australia, 

Sharkiyeh.  at  the  junction  of  the  railways  and  partly  resemble  palms,  partly  tree- 


from     Cairo,     Sues,     Alexandria,     and  ferns.    JTsllr-drea^   is  a  ^ 

Damietta,  and  on  the  fresh-water  canal,  for  the  genus  in  Sooth  Africa,  where  the 
?  miles  from  Tel-el-Kebir,  the  scene  of  otttral  part  of  the  stem  pith  of  Z. 
Lord  Wolseleys  victory  over  AraM,  Cafrs  Is  formed  into  cakes,  ^tksd.  Mid 
September,  1882.    Pop.  34,0P^        ^  ^JSm  by  the  oatiTas. 


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Zamora 


Zebu 


Zomorn.  (th4-m6'r4),  a  city  in  Spain, 
/<amora    ^  j^^,  ^^  ^^^  province  of  the 

•ame  name,  182  miles  northwest  of  Mad- 
rid, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Doura 
Pop.  16,283. 

Zanesville  5**^\"h  i?®   ^1?*^ 

MCMAVBVAAAv  town  of  Musklngum  CJo., 
Ohio,  situated  on  the  Muslcingum  River 
142  miles  south  of  Cleveland.  Its  notable 
buildings  include  the  court-house,  Athe* 
neum.  and  the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Me- 
morial Hall.  It  is  in  a  coal  and  iron 
country  and  is  largely  engaged  in  manu- 
facture, having  three  large  encaustic  and 
mosaic  tile  works,  woolen,  cotton,  and 
hosiery  factories,  large  tul>e  works,  glass 
works,  railroad  shops,  etc  It  is  an  active 
trade  center  of  a  large  agricultural  dis- 
trict Pop.  28,026. 
ZnTlirwill     (sang'wil),    Ibeael,   novel- 

lly  in  London  in  1864.  He  was  graduated 
from  London  Universitv,  and  became  a 
Journalist.  He  is  widely  known  for  his 
tales  of  Jewish  life.  Children  of  the 
Ohetto,  Qheiio  Tragedies,  and  The  King 
of  8chnorrer$.  He  has  also  written  The 
Moiter,  Without  Prejudice,  etc — His 
brother  Louis  (bom  1869),  is  the  author 
of  A  Drama  in  DutcK  The  World  and  a 
Han,  etc 

Zante  (»&n'te;  ancient,  Zac^tku9)j 
^  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  is  25 
miles  long,  and  about  12  miles  broad; 
area.  277  square  miles.  The  greater  part 
of  the  interior  consists  of  a  fertile  and 

Sroductive  plain,  almost  covered  with  the 
warf  grape  which  produces  the  so-called 
currants;  also  olives,  almonds,  oranges, 
and  wine.  The  staple  ex];>ort  is  currants. 
Destructive  earthquakes,  causing  great 
loss  of  life  and  property,  occurred  in  Feb- 
ruary, March,  and  April,  1803.  Pop.  46,- 
082.  Zantb,  the  capital,  is  a  consider- 
able seaport  on  its  east  side.  Pop.  14,- 
65a 

Zannhar  («*n-«M>tr'),  a  sultanate 
£<ailUOar  ^^  ^^^  Africa,  which  for- 
merly comprised  the  whole  coast  between 
Magdiahu  (Magadoxo),  about  lat  2^  N., 
and  Cape  Delgado,  lat  lO""  42"  8.,  with 
the  four  islands  of  Zanaibar,  Pemba, 
Lamu,  and  Mafia.  The  continental  part 
of  the  sultanate  lias  recently  become  part 
of  British  East  Africa  and  German  East 
Africa;  while  the  island  and  town  of 
Zansibar,  and  the  island  of  P«nba,  are 
entirely  under  British  protection.  The 
island  (area.  600  sq.  miles)  is  very  fertile 
and  well  cultivated,  being  especially  suited 
for  the  cultivation  of  cloves,  sugar,  cof- 
fee, cocoa,  and  various  spices,  of  which 
thM^  is  a  considerable  export.  The  pop- 
ulation (200,000)  is  extremely  beteittee- 
Mous,  inclading  Eiir<^>eaiis»  Arabs*  half- 


caste  Portuguese  from  the  Malabar  coast 
of  India,  and  the  Soahilis  from  the 
mainland. —  Zaitzibab,  the  chief  town, 
on  the  west  side  of  the  island,  is  the 
center  of  trade  for  the  eastern  seaboard 
of  Africa,  and  of  missionary  and  explor- 
ing work  of  the  interior.  At  the  in- 
stance of  the  British  government  the 
slave  trade  has  been  abolished  and  slavery 
restricted  in  Zansibar.  Pop.  about  35,- 
000. 

y.a-ro  (z&'r&),  an  Austrian  seaport, 
*****  capital  of  Dalmatia,  lies  on  the 
Adriatic,  130  miles  southeast  of  Trieste. 
It  is  an  old  town,  with  interesting  me- 
diflBval  relics.  Its  chief  industry  is  the 
preparation  of  the  well-known  liqueur 
maraschino.     Pop.  32,551. 

Zarathnstra.  s^e  zoroiwter. 

ZarskOJC-SclO.  ^^  Tiar$koye-selo. 

7ao  (sS'a;  ancient  (7eo»),  one  of  the 
^^^  Cyclades,  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  14 
miles  from  the  coast  of  Attica;  13  miles 
long,  and  8  broad.  It  is  fertile,  pro- 
ducing fruit,  wine,  honey,  and  valonia. 
Pop.  5019.  most  of  whom  belong  to  Zea, 
the  capital 

7Ao1aTl^  (rt'land),  or  Seezand,  the 
£ieaiana  largest  of  the  Danish  islands, 
separated  from  Sweden  by  the  Sound  and 
from  Funen  bv  the  Qreat  Belt*  le^tjiu, 
81  miles,  breadth,  65.  It  -^r "i^ces  large 
crops  J  com,  and  has  excellent  pasture. 
It  coma  ins  the  capital  of  Denmark,  Co- 
penhagen. 

Zehra  '■^'b'&)>  ^®  Equui  or  AHnms 
^  **  eftro,  a  quadruped  of  Southern 
Africa,  nt  .riy  as  large  as  a  horse,  white, 
striped  wuh  numorons  brovmisli-black 
bands  on  th^  head,  trunk,  and  legs,  ex- 
cept on  the  jelly  and  inside  of  the  thighs. 
The  lebra  is  extremely  difficult  to  ap- 
proach, f rcHU  its  watchful  habits  and  great 
swiftness  of  foot  Only  in  a  few  in- 
stances has  it  been  domesticated.  The 
name  lias  been  sometimes  applied  to  the 
now  extinct  quagga  and  the  dauw  or 
Burchell's  sebra ;  but  they  differ  frun  the 
lebra  bi  having  no  stripes  on  the  lower 
limbs,  wl&ile  those  on  the  body  are  not 
so  black  as  the  true  lebra's.  See  Damw^ 
Quagga* 

7*Kii  (■S'bQ)f  a  raminant  of  the  ox 
Acuu  ^^  ^^  TaufMM  Indieus  or  Boe 
/actons,  called  also  Brahman  buU.  This 
quadruped  differs  from  the  common  ox  in 
having  one,  or  more  rarely  two,  humps 
of  fat  on  the  shoulders,  and  in  bavins 
eighteen  caudal  Tertebm  instead  of 
twenty-one.  It  is  found  extensively  in 
India,  and  also  in  Qiina*  Japam  and 
Africa.  Zebus  are  used  as  beasts  of 
draught  and  burdea,  aad  cocaakAally  for 


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Zebu 


Zend-Avesta 


riding.  Their  flesh  is  eaten  as  an  article 
of  food,  especially  the  hump,  which  is  es- 
teemed a  great  delicacy. 


Zebu  ( Taurus  Indieus ) . 
Zebu.    SeeCeftu. 

Zebnlnn  (««b'tt-lun),  the  tenth  son 
Mw«r«»«.M*  ^£  Jacob,  and  gave  his  name 
to  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  and 
to  a  region  ^f  Palestine.  At  the  first 
census  the  tribe  numbered  57,400,  and 
60,500  at  the  second.  The  territory  of 
the  tribe  lay  in  the  fertile  hilly  country 
to  the  north  of  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  and 
included  Naxareth. 

Zeohfl.rifl.h  (zek-a-rfi),  or  Zacha- 
£ici;iiana.u   ^^^^  ^j^^  eleventh  of  the 

minor  prophets,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
bom  In  Babylon,  and  to  have  been  in  the 
first  detachment  of  the  exiles  who  re- 
turned  to  Jerusalem  under  Zerubbabel 
and  Joshua.  He  began  to  prophesy  in 
the  second  year  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  and 
with  his  senior  contemporary,  the  prophet 
Haggai,  contributed  powerfuUv  by  his 
appeals  to  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple 
(Ezra,  vi,  14).  Chapters  i-viii  of  the 
prophecies  of  Zechariah,  are  generally  ad- 
mitted to  be  his  composition.  But  the 
two  other  sections  of  the  book  into  which 
critics  and  commentators  have  divided  it, 
chapters  iz-zi  and  zii-ziii,  have  been 
ascribed  by  many  to  a  pre-ezilic  author, 
partly  because  both  what  is  said  and  is 
not  said  in  them  is  regarded  as  irrecon- 
cilable with  a  post-ezilic  one. 

Zcdekiah  iH;^Fi?^'Al '*!.^  ""^i 

^  •***   of    Judah    of    the    lin(    of 

David.  When  he  was  twenty-one  yc  n  s 
of  age  Nebuchadnezzar  appointed  him 
succeed  his  nephew  Jehoiachim  (whom 
he  carried  to  Babylon)  as  king  of  Judah. 
He  took  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, which  he  afterwards  broke 
by  entering  into  an  alliance  with  Egypt. 
His  conduct  in  so  doing  was  denounced 
by  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  who,  as  well 
as  Ezekiel,  then  in  Chaldsa,  predicted 
the  approaching  fall  of  Jerusalem,  which 
was  besieged  by  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
taken,  B.C.  588.  Zedekiah,  whose  sons 
were  killed  in  his  presence^  bad  bis  eyes 


put  out,  and  was  carried  to  Babylon, 
which  city  was  probably  the  place  of  his 
death. 

Zedoarv  (ze^'^a-ri;  Curcuma  Zed- 
"**  J^  oaria),  a  plant  of  the  order 
Zingiberaces,  distinguished,  like  ginger, 
for  the  stimulating  and  aromatic  proper- 
ties of  the  root.  It  is  a  native  of  India 
and  China.  The  roots  of  several  other 
species  are  sold  under  the  same  name. 

Zeebmgge    ^J^'^^ -^ .ISle^^r 

great  importance  during  the  European 
war,  when  it  became  a  base  for  subma- 
rines during  the  German  occupation  of 
Belgium.  In  April,  1918,  it  wan  the  scene 
of  a  daring  raid  undertaken  by  British 
naval  forces,  with  the  co-operation  of 
French  destroyers.  Six  obsolete  cruisers, 
filled  with  concrete,  were  convoyed  under 
smoke  curtains  and  sunk  or  blown  up  at 
the  entrance  of  the  channel  leading  to  the 
Mubmarine  basin.  The  raid  was  under- 
taken in  conjunction  with  one  on  Ostend, 
also  in  German  hands,  and  here  two  block 
ships  were  nm  ashore  and  blown  up. 
Zeelfl.nd  (zS'Ian*!)*  Zealand,  or  See- 
**  LAND,  the  most  westerly 
province  of  Holland,  has  the  greater  part 
of  its  surface  below  the  sea-level,  and 
protected   by  dikes.     The  soil   is  fertile, 

Eroducing  rich  crops  of  wheat,  flax,  and 
emp,    and    much    dairy    produce   is    ex- 
ported.   The  capital  is  Middleburg.   Area, 
690  square  miles.    Pop.  227,292. 
ZeTmiTidfl.r    (zem-in-dar'),     in     India, 

cials  created  under  the  Mogul  gov- 
ernment of  India.  They  have  been 
regarded,  first,  as  district  governors;  sec- 
ond, as  landed  proprietors;  and  third,  as 
farmers  or  collectors  of  the  government 
revenue  on  land.  At  the  present  dav,  in 
Bengal,  the  zemindar  has  all  the  rights 
of  a  British  landed  proprietor,  subject  to 
the  payment  of  the  land-tax,  and  also  to 
a  certain  ill-defined  tenant-right  on  the 
part  of  tenants  who  have  long  held  pos- 
session of  their  farms. 
ZenAnfl.  (ze-na'na),  the  name  given 
to  the  portion  of  a  house  re- 
served exclusively  for  the  females  belong- 
ing to  a  family  of  good  caste  in  India. 
7eild    ^°  ancient  Iranian  language,  in 

^  **>  which  are  composed  the  sacred 
writings  of  the  Zoroastrians.  It  is  a 
member  of  the  Aryan  family  of  languages, 
and  very  closely  allied  to  Sanskrit.  See 
next  article. 
Zend-Avesta    (^end-a-vee'ta),    the 

*^    **  **    collective  name  for  the 

sacred  writings  of  the  Guebers  or  Par- 
sees,  ascribed  to  Zoroaster,  and  reverenced 
as  a  bible,  prayer-book,  and  sole  rule  of 
faith  and  practice^    It  consists  of  tevtViJ 


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Zennr 


Zeppelin 


diyisions,  of  which  the  oldest  is  written 
in  the  primitiye  Zend  languai^e.  This 
Iiartly  consists  of  gdthdM  or  songs,  some 
of  which  may  contain  the  actual  words 
of  Zoroaster,  and  are  yalnable  as  con- 
tainins  the  doctrines  he  taught.  An 
Bnglisn  translation  of  the  Zend-Ayesta 
has  been  pnblished. 

S^ntiiMF  i^^)*  9i  seaport  town  of 
*'^"5S     Austria,  on  the  Adriatic    Pop. 


Zenith  (^^eu'lth),  the  vertical  point  of 
"■  the  heavens  at  any  place,  that 
is,  the  p<^nt  right  above  a  spectator's 
head,  and  from  which  a  line  drawn  per- 
pendicular to  the  plane  of  the  horizon 
would,  if  produced,  pass  through  the 
earth's  center,  supposing  the  earth  a 
perfect  sphere.  Each  point  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  has  therefore  its  cor- 
responding senith.  The  opposite  pole  of 
the  celestial  horison  is  termed  the  nadir, 
(See  yadir.)  The  senith  distance  of  a 
heavenly  body  is  the  arc  intercepted  be- 
tween the  body  and  the  senith,  being  the 
same  as  the  oo-altitude  of  the  body. 
Z^nitLn  (s«n*J&n')>  a  town  of  Persia, 
£<C]ljaii  1^  ^^  province  of  Irak-Aejmi, 
with  manufactures  of  carpets,  woolen 
doths,  and  arms.  Pop.  15,000. 
S^AfiA  (sd'nO),  emperor  of  the  Eastern 
***""  Empire  from  474  to  491  A.D. 
He  is  reoresented  as  depraved  and  inca- 
pable. One  of  the  chief  events  of  his 
reign,  which  was  full  of  vicissitudes,  was 
the  permission  siven  by  him  to  Theodoric 
to  dethrone  Odoacer,  which  led  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom 
in  Italy. 

Zeno  ^'  Ornuic,  in  Cyprus,  where 
'  he  was  bom,  founder  of  the 
Stoic  school  of  philosophy,  flourished  in 
the  first  half  of  the  third  century  ac. 
Settling  in  Athens  he  attached  himself 
to  various  philosophical  sects  in  succes- 
sion, until  he  instituted  a  doctrine  of  his 
own.  He  taught  in  the  Stoa.  a  porch 
adorned  with  the  pictures  of  Polygnotus, 
whence  his  followers  were  called  Stoics, 
and  were  sometimes  designated  'dis- 
ciples of  the  porch.'  His  writings  are 
all  lost  In  his  ethical  system  the  nature 
of  moral  obligation  was  recognized  as 
unconditional,  virtue  as  the  only  good, 
and  vice,  not  pain,  as  the  only  eviL  De- 
veloped by  his  successors.  Stoicism  be- 
came the  creed  of  the  noblest  of  the 
Romans  until  Christianity  was  generally 
accepted.  (See  8ioic9,)  The  date  of  his 
death  is  uncertain. 

Zeno  ^'  Elba,  an  early  Greek  phi- 
^'  losopher,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  bom  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
entury  aa  He  taught  philosophy  at 
Athens,  and  Pericles  is  said  to  have  been 


one  of  his  pupils.  He  was  a  favorite 
disciple  of  Parmenides,  and  is  introduced 
as  discussinf  philosophy  with  his  master 
in  Plato's  dialogue  of  that  name.  He 
sought  to  recommend  Parmenides's  doc- 
trine of  the  one  by  controverting  the 
popular  belief  in  the  existence  or  the 
many. 

M^uvwxa.  myra,  was  the  wife  of  its 
king  Odenathus.  and  accompanied  him 
both  in  war  and  in  chase.  Gallienus,  in 
return  for  his  services,  adcnowledged 
Odenathus  as  emperor,  and  when  her  hus- 
band was  murdered,  267  A.D.,  she  as- 
sumed the  sovereifntf,  conquered  Egypt, 
and  called  herself  Queen  of  the  East 
Her  ambition  provoked  the  emperor 
Aurelian  to  make  war  on  her.  and  after 
a  stubborn  resistance  she  fell  into  his 
power  (273  A.D.)  and  was  obliged  to 
grace  his  triumph.  She  was  allowed  to 
pass  the  remainder  of  her  life  as  a  Roman 
matron.  Zenobia  was  a  woman  of  great 
courage,  beauty,  and  linguistic  accom- 
plishments, and  her  studies  were  directed 
by  Longinus  (which  see). 
Q^^nlif^  (s9'G-lIt),  a  generic  name  of 
^eOUie  ^^  number  of  minerals  whidi 
fuse  under  the  blowpipe,  l^ey  are 
hydrated  double  silicates,  of  which  the 
principal  bases  are  aluminum  and  cal- 
cium. 

Zephaniali  ^.-^-ni' ."T^'tJe' 

Bible,  the  work  of  the  ninth  in  order  of 
the  minor  prophets,  who  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Josian,  and  who  probably  ut- 
tered his  prophecies  some  time  betwe^i 
630  and  o24  ao.     The  subjects  of  his 

Srophecy  are  the  temporary  desolation  of 
ndea,  the  destruction  of  the  Philistines. 
MoaUtes,  Ammonites,  Assirrians,  etc,  and 
the  promise  that  God  will  effect  the  resto- 
ration and  felicity  of  a  righteous  rem- 
nant. 

ally,  any  soft,  mUd.  gentle  breese.  The 
poets  personify  Zephyrus,  and  make  him 
the  most  mUd  and  gentle  of  all  the  sylvan 
deiUes. 

Zennelin  (t«ep'pe-lin),  TssasapxAm 
£ieppeim  ^^t,  avUtor,  was  bora  at 
(Constance,  Baden,  in  1838.  He  entered 
the  army,  was  an  officer  of  cavalry  in 
the  Franco-German  war,  and  aftennirda 
rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general. 
He  subsequently  became  an  enthusiast  in 
aviation,  ouilding  dirigible,  power-driven 
air-shops,  and  making  many  experimental 
flights.  His  first  ascent  was  made  at 
Bern  in  IfiH^  and  in  1900  he  was  abla 
to  remain  an  hour  in  the  air.  In  8abM> 
quent  years  he  built  a  succession  of  verf 


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Zerafshan  Zenn 

fctrruW  ^r°4.?o'^"&ieS!  ZerdUSht.  see  «oro«l^ 
aeyeraf  of  his  great  airships  beinc  de-  Zermatt  (»«'-m*^)f »  ▼in«««  ftunoua 
stroyed.  A  fund  contributed  larg^  by  ^^^^^^^\  o  a  tourirt  center,  in  ti^ 
the  Qennan  nation  enabled  Count  Zeppe-  canton  of  Valais,  Switierland,  at  the  foot 
Un  to  continue  his  experiments,  and  ho  of  the  Matterhom.  Eleyation  6315  feet, 
threw  himself  enthusiastically  into  the  de-  v^rn  (s^'rO)*  in  physics,  any  convenient 
yelopment  of  his  ideas.  The  results  were  «ciw  ^^^^  ^^  reference  to  which 
happy:  he  produced  a  number  of  huge  quantitatively  estimable  phenomena  of  the 
dingibies  which  were  capable  of  sustained  game  kind  are  compared ;  such  as  the 
flights.  When  the  war  broke  out  in  1914  point  of  a  graduated  instrument  at  which 
the  imagination  of  the  German  people  was  Its  scale  commences :  the  neutral  point 
fired  by  the  prospect  of  a  fleet  of  Zeppelin  between  any  ascending  and  descending 
airships  hurling  death  and  destruction  ^cale  or  series,  generally  represented  by 
upon  the  enemv.  The  war-Zeppelin  b^  the  mark  0.  In  thermometers  the  xero 
came  an  actuality.  It  was  armed  and  of  the  Centigrade  and  Reaumur  scales  is 
carried  bombs,  but  proyed  inadequate  to  the  freesing  point  of  water;  in  Fahren- 
cope  with  the  anti-aircraft  guns  and  the  Beit's  scale,  S2*  bdow  the  freeiinff  point 
speedy  seaplanes  and  aerophines.  Super-  of  water.  (See  Thermometer.)  Ah$olute 
Zeppelins  were  constructed  on  modehi  pre-  zero  is  -273'  C,  or  273*  O.  below  the 
pared  by  the  count  a  short  time  before  he  freezing  point  of  water,  at  which  tempera- 
died.  One  of  these,  the  L  33,  fell  into  the  ture  any  given  body  is  supposed  to  con- 
hands  of  the  British  in  the  fall  of  1916  tain  no  heat. 

and  the  wreck  covered  over  an  acre  of  7||*.«|,l|||     <tser-rin'),  Cabl,  Ckrman- 
ground.    It  was  680  feet  long,  displaced  *««*«""*      American    musical   conduc- 
60    tons   weight   of   air,    contidned    two  tor,  bom   at  Malchow,  Mecklenburg,  in 
million  cubic  feet  of  gas.  and  is  said  to  isid.    He  setUed  in  Boston  in  1848,  and 
have  cost  $1,750,000.    The  Zeppelin  had  was  conductor  of  the  Handel  and  Haydn 
been  the  vessel  destined  by  the  Germans  Society  from  1854  to  1895.    During  this 
to  strike  terror  to  the  heart  of  England,  time  Boston  owed  much  of  its  good  music 
but  the  perfecting  of  the  anti-aircraft  gun  to  his  efforts  and  enthusiasm, 
and   the   speedy   armored    aeroplane   de-  7a4>1oti#1        a      ml-^*     ^ 
stroyed  the  effectiveness  of  the  huge  Zep-  ^CUaiia.       See  Shetland. 
pelhis.    Subsequent  German  air  raids  on   VaikvIaiIaii      (sQ'glo-don),  an  extinct 
^^^  Britain  were  carried  out  by  the  ^CTIglOaOll      ^g^nus  of  m    ' 


Great  Britain  were  carried  out  by  the  ^^u^xwu-w**      g^^^,  ^^  marine 

heavier-than-air  fliers,  which  presented  mals,  regarded  by  Huxley  as  intermediate 
lees  of  a  target  for  the  gunners  on  land  between  the  true  cetaceans  and  the  car- 
and  in  the  air.  As  a  weapon  of  aggressive  nlvorous  seals.  They  belong  to  the  Bocene 
warfare  the  Zeppelins  proved  unsatisfac-  and  Miocene,  and  Z,  oetoidee  of  the 
tory.  The  capture  and  destruction  of  Middle  Eocene  of  the  United  States  at- 
many  of  these  airships  was  a  severe  blow  tained  a  length  of  70  feet, 
to  Count  Zeppdin  and  tiie  German  people,  ZmUnvoiiA  (tsoi-len-rO'da).  a  town 
who  had  placed  the  most  extraordinary  ^euiCHTOaa  ^^  Central  Germany, 
hopes  in  them.  In  ms  Ferdinimd  Zei^  principaUty  of  Reuss-Greia.  Pop.  9419. 
pelin  visited  the  United  States  and  fought  h  (^Os),  in  mytiiology,  tiie  supreme 
wiUi  the  Union  troops  in  the  Civil  war.  ^iCUB  divinity  among  tiie  Greeks;  the 
Stj  Paul,  Minn.,  cUims  the  distinction  of  ^oler  of  tiie  otiier  gods;  generally  treated 
being  the  town  where  young  Zeppelin  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Roman  Jupiter, 
made  his  first  ascent  in  a  balloon.  Count  He  was  the  son  of  Cronus  and  Rhea. 
Zeppelin  died  March  8,  1917.  brother  of  Poseidon  (Neptune)  and  Hera 
^.^Ttkfmhttn  (ser-af-shan'),  a  river  In  (Juno),  the  latter  of  whom  was  also  his 
£ieraiBUau  central  Asia,  which  flows  wife.  He  expelled  his  fatiier  and  the 
westward  past  Samarkand,  and  becomes  dynasty  of  the  TitaniL  successfully  op- 
lost  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Amoo-  posed  the  attacks  of  the  giants  and  the 
Daria,  west  of  Bokhara.  Its  length  is  conspiracies  of  the  other  gods,  and  be- 
f rom  400  to  500  miles.  came  chief  power  in  heaven  and  earth. 
7ArhfH:     (tserpst),  a  town  in  the  Ger-  See  Jupiter. 

MJMM,  wov      ^^Q  duchy  of  Anhalt,  on  the  ZeilM      (tsois) .  JOHAlflf  Kaspam,  bom 

Nuthe,  21  miles  southeast  of  Magdeburg,  ^^*^^      in  1806;  died  in  1856;  a  native 


is  the  seat  of  various  manufactures ;  iron-  of  Bavaria,  may  be  said  to  have  fdunded 
founding  is  carried  on;  and  there  are  Celtic  philology  with  the  publication  in 
several  breweries.    Pop.  17,096.  1853  of  his  great  work,  the  Orammatiea 


<7A«ilA     ^      ,^  V     .     .  .        V  Celtiea,    In  his  later  years  he  was  a  pro- 

^eroa    (xer'da),  the  fennec  (9.  v.).         feasor  at  the  Bamberg  Lyceum. 

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Zetuds  Zinoognraphy 

7iiiiYia  (stlk'sis)»  a  celebrated  Greek  Zinfi  '^  metal,  frequently  called  tpeKer 
ACiL&xs  pginter^  ^ho  floarished  about  """^^  in  commerce;  chemical  symbol 
420-400  B.C.,  and  latterly  lived  in  Zn;  atomic  weight  65.  It  has  a  strong 
Bphesus.  He  belonged  to  the  Asiatic  metallic  luster  and  a  bluish-white  color, 
school  of  painting,  the  distinguishing  Its  texture  is  lamellated  and  crystalline, 
characters  of  which  were  accurate  Imita-  and  its  specific  gravity  about  7.  It  is 
tion  and  the  representation  of  physical  hard,  being  acted  on  by  the  file  with  dif- 
beauty.  One  of  his  most  famous  works  ficulty,  and  its  toughness  is  such  as  to 
was  a  picture  of  Helen,  He  was  a  con-  require  considerable  force  to  break  it 
temporary  of  the  painter  Parrhasius.  when  the  mass  is  large.    At  low  or  high 

Vil^Af  ZiBETH  (  sib'et ) ,  Viverra  zi-  degrees  of  heat  it  is  brittle,  but  between 
Aiucti  lei)^  an  animal  of  the  same  250**  and  300*  F.  it  is  both  malleable  and 
genus  as  the  civet  cat  It  is  found  in  ductile,  and  may  be  rolled  or  hammered 
Eastern  Asia,  and  in  some  of  the  larger  into  sheets  of  considerable  thinness  and 
Islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  It  drawn  into  wire.  Its  malleability  is  con- 
secrets  an  odoriferous  substance  which  siderablv  diminished  by  the  impurities 
resembles  that  secreted  by  the  civet.  It  which  the  zinc  of  commerce  contains.  It 
is  often  tamed  by  the  natives  of  the  fuses  at  773*"  F.,  and  when  slowly  cooled 
countries  where  it  is  found,  and  it  in-  crystallizes  in  four-  or  six-sided  prisms, 
habits  their  houses  like  a  domestic  cat.  Zinc  undergoes  little  change  by  the 
See  CiveU  action  of  air  and  moisture.    When  fused 

2{f  ZiPH,  the  second  month  of  the  in  open  vessels  it  absorbs  oxygen,  and 
**'"'>  Jewish  sacred  year,  extending  forms  the  white  oxide  called  flowers  of 
from  the  new  moon  in  May  (or  accord-  zinc  Heated  strongly  in  air  it  takes  fire 
ing  to  some  rabbis  in  April)  to  that  in  and  bums  with  a  beautiful  white  light, 
June.  forming  oxide  of  zinc.    Zinc  is  found  in 

Zillell  (*!©';  ancient  Zela),  a  town  the  United  States;  also  Britain,  Austria, 
mdXAxs^AL  ^£  northeastern  Asia  Minor,  39  Germany,  Belgium,  Italy,  etc  It  does 
miles  southwest  of  Tokat;  with  some  not  occur  in  the  native  state,  but  is  ob- 
manufactures,  and  an  annual  fair  at-  tained  from  its  ores,  which  are  chiefly 
tended  by  from  40,000  to  50,000  persons,  the  sulphide,  or  eino-hlende,  and  the  car- 
Pop.  20,000.  bonate,  or  calamine.  The  oxide  of  zinc 
f^iTnonoYi  (8«-mA-p&n'),  a  town  of  (ZnO)  is  a  fine  white  powder,  insoluble 
£iuanyu,a  Mexico,  state  of  Hidalgo,  in  water,  but  very  soluble  in  acids,  which 
with  gold,  silver,  and  lead  mines.  Pop.  it  neutralizes,  being  a  powerful  base  of 
(commune)  15,000.  the  same  class  as  magnesia.  It  combines 
f^immA-mioTiTi  (  tsim'ir-min  )»  J«-  also  with  some  of  the  alkalies.  Several 
Axuuuermauu  ^j^^j^  Georo,  an  emi-  of  the  salts  of  zinc  are  employed  in  medi- 
nent  physician  and  miscellaneous  writer,  cine  and  the  arts ;  as  the  sulphate,  which 
was  bom  in  1728  at  Brttgg,  in  the  Swiss  is  used  in  calico  printing,  and  in  medi- 
canton  of  Bern.  At  the  University  of  cine  as  an  astringent,  a  caustic  an 
G&ttingen  he  studied  under  and  was  be-  emetic,  and  a  tonic;  the  oxide  and  the 
friended  by  Haller,  and  eventually  was  carbonate,  used  as  pigments,  etc  Sheet- 
appointed  public  physician  to  bis  native  zitic  is  largely  employed  for  lining  water 
town.  He  became  famous  in  his  profes-  cisterns,  baths,  etc.,  for  making  spouts, 
sion,  and  published  several  works  on  mis-  pipes,  for  covering  roofs,  and  several  other 
cellaneous  subjects,  with  one  on  Ewperi-  architectural  purposes.  Plates  of  this 
ence  in  Medicine,  which  procured  him  metal  are  used  as  generators  of  elec- 
the  appointment  of  physician  for  Hanover  tricity  in  voltaic  batteries,  etc ;  they  are 
to  George  III.  The  loss  of  his  wife  and  also  employed  in  the  production  of  pic- 
other  domestic  calamities  brought  on  an  tures,  etc,  in  the  style  of  woodcuts, 
attack  of  hypochondria,  from  which  a  (See  Zincography,)  Zinc  is  much  em- 
second  marriage  relieved  him,  and  as  a  ployed  in  the  manufacture  of  brass  (see 
result  of  his  recovery  he  produced  his  Bra99)  and  other  alloys,  and  in  prepar 
once  celebrated  treatise  on  Solitude  ing  galvanized  iron.  See  €falvan%zed 
(1784),  by  which  out  of  his  own  country  Iron, 

he  is  alone  remembered.  In  1786  he  at-  yAr%i^\%\mr%A^  native  sulphide  of  zinc, 
tended  Frederick  the  Great  in  his  last  ««Anc-UiCUUC,  consisting  essentially 
illness,  about  whom  he  published  two  of  sulphur  and  sine,  but  often  contain- 
works,  one  of  them  Conver$aiion9  with  ing  a  considerable  proportion  of  iron. 
ihs  King,  which  involved  him  in  painful    See  Zinc. 

controversy.  Eventually  he  became  men-  yAr%nfktmkr%hjr  (sing-kog'ra-fl),  an  art 
tally  deranged,  and  died  in  1795.  His  «"lCUgr»piiy  i^^ts  essential  fea- 
AuUhiograpfijf  was  issued  in  1791.  tures   similar   to  lithography,   the   stone 


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Zinc-white  Zirknitz 

printing-surface  of  the  latter  beinc  re-  colors  of  their  bracts ;  but  they  are  chiefly 
plarced  by  that  of  a  pkte  of  polished  valued  for  the  salce  of  the  aromatic  and 
line.  A  form  of  this  art  called  anastatic  stimulating  properties  of  the  rhizome  or 
printing  is  described  under  Anaatatio.  «»t,  found  in  ginger,  galangal,  zedoary, 
7iTin.wTiifA    (ZnO),  oxide  of  zinc  a  ^fdamoms,  etc. 

^inO-WniXe  ^ig^ent  now  largely  lub-  ZlOn  C'^on);  »  ^^^^^  or  «mnence  in 
stituted  for  white-lead  as  being  less  lU-  -  ^„  . ,  :®5"g?r™;_^®  ^^^  residence 
bie  to  blacken  on  exposure;  but  it  has  not  J^^*^^  ^^  ^  successors.  See  Jerusa- 
an  equal  covering  power.  ^1,      .  ^  „     .     . 

7iii9ftr^11i  (dzen-ga-rem),  NiOOOLO  ZlOniSm  ^'l?^"*5"^V  ^.  movement 
^ingaxem  li„jow[0.  an  Italian  com-  ~\\y  VT  J^^c^  has  for  its  object  the 
poser,  bom  in  1762.  Alter  much  success  ?i?^%^i:J„?,/!y!Ll*IS.i^  *^*^T 
S  a  composer,  both  of  operas  and  of  S?|^  n^^JiL^f^.^'fJil®  n^^^^KJiS"*; 
sacred  muSic,  ill  1804  he  was  appointed  S;?i?%  ??fp!5,^®*'iur  w.  ifto«  ^^^IS 

te'- aSfon  '4fu^L.^5'c"o'^^^^^^  Te  SaMes^SnTsWS^^^^^^^ 
nTl*  nS  MonSlSn^  m«kin?  hl«  «m  ^^  ^"^^^^  ^^  Turkey,  and  that  a  Jewish 
tiS^'^nf  Wn,^n*^i^.M  «,^ti?*««5^^^  nutonommis  state  ehoild  be  founded  under 
king  of  Rome,  he  was  awested  and  fallen  Turkj.ii  fiuzeraitity.  A  Zionist  congress 
to  Paris,  but  was  immediately  liberated  ^^^  i,^j,|  ^^  Bast^j;  Switzerland,  in  August, 
and  penrtoned  by  the  emperor,  who  was  ig^j  -The  statemput  of  aims  adopted  by 
a.Kreat  Jdmirer  of  his  music.  When  he  2CK)  dolegatcs,  representing  Jews  of  all  na- 
died  in  r437  he  was  director  of  the  Royal  tion^iIUii^s,  began  :  '  Zionism  aims  at  es- 
College  -f  Music  at  Naples,  and  chapel-  t&blis^hlng  for  the  Jewish  people  a  pub- 
master  of  the  Neapolitan  Cathedral.  Uciy  rwognized  and  legally  secured  home 
Among  his  chief  operas  were  Montezuma  in  Palejitine/  Isrnnl  Zangwill,  English 
and  Romeo  and  Juliet,  ^  autlior  and  nlnywri^ht,  took  a  prominent 

ZinnS  Trhll.H.    ^^  Oenghit  Khan,      pnrt  in  the  Zionist  movement.    The  con- 
o  ception  of  an  autonomous  Jewish  state  in 

7iTiKATlilArf  (tsin'tsen-dorf)»  Nioho-  Palestine  met  with  little  practical  en- 
MxiubviAuvAx  j^g  LUDWIO,  CJOUNT  Gouragement  from  the  Turks.  The  cap- 
VON,  founder  of  the  community  of  Mo-  ture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  British  in  the 
ravian  Brethren,  or  Hermhuters,  was  fall  of  1017  has  given  the  Zionists  new 
bom  at  Dresden  in  1700.  After  study-  hope.  Mr.  Arthur  J.  Balfour,  Foreign 
ing  law  at  Wittenberg,  and  several  years  Minister  of  Great  Britain,  indorsed  the 
of  foreign  travel,  he  resolved  to  settle  principle  of  Zionism  ofiSdall^.  He  wrote : 
down  as  a  Christian  land-owner  among  The  government  view  with  favor  the 
a  pious  tenantry,  and  while  carrying  out  establisnment  of  Palestine  as  a  national 
this  intention  be  worked  assiduously  in  pom®  ^or  the  Jewish  people  and  will  use 
co5peration  with  congenial  friends  at  their  best  endeavors  to  facilitate  the 
creating  a  revival  of  religion  in  the  «chievement  of  this  object.'  TheFedera- 
Lutheran  Church,  Having  given  an  non  of  Ammcsn  Zionists  comprises  140 
asylum  on  his  estate  to  some  persecuted  ^cieties.  The  headquarters  are  in  New 
religionists  from  Moravia,  and  built  for  ^9'*»'  /.^.^„^ .  .y^r^    a-n.  \ 

them  the  village  of  Herrnhut,  he  settled  ZirOOIl     ^'^V*'^./.  ^F^*  «iO,).  a  min- 
among  them,  and  by  degrees  established  ^^^„.„^  m^^  ,*^;5*'?    ^'    nrconium. 
there  a  common  wofship;  and  a  oiission-  2^«^?^i/??°£  ^J^J^^^ 
ary  and  industrial  organization  based  on  ??,!,^?'  ^«  IT^lSS  k^J^'k   ^^"'^ 
thi  family,  not  on  the  monastic,  system.  S?^^'S!J?;„^^*l'^™^^^ 
This  association  became  known  through-  «J?-    ^^*.^°^/ Si^A.^i'^^^'^^IJft^^Iu 
out  the  world  as  the  Moravian  Brethren  ZirCOnU     l55^'^?"\U£'^* J  •  uft? 
(which   see).    To   the   extension   of   its  ^u,..  ,  ,. ,    .  2?rk.  •  ^f  ^m^iT'..^  ^ 
influence  Zinzendorf  devoted  his  fortune  ^^^  ^^^^    .sfcks    of  which  are  yme- 
and  his  energies,  visiting  in  the  course  w^^f  lim«  oxyhydrogen    flame 

^'e  dL^Sri7&"  ^"''""^  ^'  ''"''''"•  zSS^lim  the  metal  contained  in 
He  died  in  1760.     ........   -^    ^ircomum,    zircon  and  certain  other 

ZinZlberaCeS  l*Sj;v?J^^''«Tf"  KL"  y^nerals;  symbol  Zr;  atomic  weight 
-J  #  .  *  *  GiBERA.  CMC,  ana  t .  90.  it  appears  to  form  a  Unk  between 
order  of  plants,  of  which  the  genus  Ztiw*-  aluminum  and  silicon. 
her  (ginger)  is  the  type.  The  species  are  Zirknitz  (tserk'nitz),  or  Czibknicz. 
all  trcplcaf  plants,  or  nearly  so,  the  ^ITKIUXZ  ^  ,^^  ^^  Austria,  in  Cami- 
greater  number  inhabiting  various  parts  ©la,  30  miles  e.  n.  e.  of  Trieste,  about  5 
of  the  East  Indies.  They  are  gener-  miles  long  and  between  2  and  3  broad, 
ally  of  great  beauty  through  the  develop-  without  surface-outlet.  It  is  remarkable 
mtnt  ci  their  floral  envelopes  and  the  rich  for  the  occasional  disappearance  of  its 


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Zjgka \ Zoiltt» 

waters  for  weeks  and  even  months,  during  etc  Here  in  1800.  after  the  battle  of 
which  its  bottom  is  often  covered  with  Wagranif  an  armistice  was  concluded  be- 
luzuriant  herbage.  tween    Napoleon    I    and    the    Archduke 

7\f!ktL  (s^'ka)f  John,  leader  of  the  Charles.  Pop.  16.261. 
C4UAA  Hussites,  was  bom  about  1360  Zft^Yi  (sO'an),  the  Tirnis  of  the  Greeks 
in  Bohemia.  He  Joined  as  a  volunteer  •^vou  ^^^  Romans,  an  ancient  Egyp- 
the  Knights  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  and  tian  city,  on  the  right  bank  of  what  was 
fought  against  the  Poles,  as  also  with  the  the  Tanitic  bank  of  the  Nile,  now  only 
Hungarians  against  the  Turks.  He  is  a  canaL  It  was  probably  the  residence 
also  said  to  have  fought  on  the  English  of  Uie  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  and  con- 
side  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt  He  threw  aeqnently  the  scene  of  the  *  marvelous 
in  his  lot  with  the  militant  reformers  who  things '  that  were  done  '  in  the  field  of 
took  arms  after  the  martyrdom  of  Huss  Zoan'  (Ps.  Ixxxviii,  12).  The  temple 
and  Jerome  in  Bohemia,  and  became  their  was  one  of  the  grandest  in  Egypt.  Its 
leader;  established  himself  at  Mount  mins,  buried  under  mounds,  hiave  been 
Tabor,  which  he  fortified,  and  where  a  explored,  and  one  of  the  chief  curiosities 
town  grew  up  occupied  by  his  foUowers,  found  in  them  is  the  Canopus  stone,  with 
who  .took  the  name  of  Tabontes.  He  a  trilingual  inscription,  like  that  on  the 
died  in  October,  1424.  Eosetta  stone,  hieroglyphic,  demotic,  and 

Zither,  Zlthern  i'^i'' J*iJ.fi52f  <^reek,  recording  a  decree  of  Egyptian 
4  -^      \  •  ^       a  stringed  musical  princes  assembled  at  Canopus  B.a  254. 

*^'!^^^if^'"f  ^""^  -2^  \  sounding-box  Sftftufliftriii.  («6-an-thftM^),  an  oi^ 
pierced  with  a  large  circular  sound-hole  ^oanviiaria  ^^^  ^£  ^^  ^j^  Actino- 
near  the  middle,  the  strings,  to  the  num-  ^j^  represented  by  the  sea-anemones  and 
ber  of  tlurty-one  in  the  more  perfect  ^y  the  great  bulk  of  the  coral-polyps, 
forms  of  the  instrument,  being  made  of  lyLj-^*  /aft'di-ak)  an  imairinarv  belt 
ateel,  brass,  catgut,  and.  silk  covered  with  ZodiaC  or  «Sie  in  the  hSf^STStend^ 
S2?M'!!7nL''L?^^FSvr«7V»^l^^^^^  i«K  about  9«  on  each  side  of  the  ecliptic. 
E^^JiL  L!2  •.  ^Zt^  ^IJ^^  -*«^  It  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts  called 
fj^.!^  ^f  ^ii.if^?^r,«^X,^iS7  H^^  s»«ns.  It  was  marked  out  by  t^e  ancients 
SntpiSf^f   ?L^p^L^    «Sn^/;    thS  as  distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  heavens 

SSSSon^htfriStheriUh^^^^^  S,^"^^5*  .K^nCLt?^!^^'  t' ^^ 

armed  with  a  metal  ring  striking  the  S^^.S- J^^LiPkS^i?  ^T?  w^S? 
string.  These  strings.  wEich  are  tuned  ^®'®  *'^!^  ^^^^xi  ^\y.^\lr^^  ill 
in  fifths,  have  a  chromatic  range  from  C  S^P?L  ^™®  ^^  ^"  *^®  planets.  See 
in  the  second  space  on  the  bass  staff  to  £1"*t,""*  •  •  •  %  ^  /-x  a^^  1p-i\  :^ 
D  on  the  sixth  ledger-line  above  the  treble.  ZodiaOal  LuTllt  ^  ♦  "rTJS;  . '|„ «? 
AU  the  remaining  strings,  caUed  the  ac-  •'*'^*^~  **^  ^^It'SFut}^!'^ 
companying  strings,  are  struck  by  the  go»8  tract  of  an  elongated  triangular 
first  th^e  fingers  oi  the  right  hand,  and  fig"'^  Jyi°«  "^"^K  "^  ^^^  ^}^\^\  *^ 
being  unstopped  produce  only  the  single  ^^  t>e|°K  ^R,***!?  no"W)n,  and  iti  apex 
tone  to  which  they  are  tuned.  The  instru-  at  varying  altitudes,  seoi  at  certafai  eea- 
ment  is  played  on  a  table  with  the  key-  w>n»  of  the  year  either  in  the  w«it  after 
board  nearest  the  performer.  »unset  or  to  the  east  before  sunrise.     It 

ZittAn  (tsit'ou),  a  town  of  Saxony,  in  appears  with  greatest  brilliance  within 
£<iliWU  ^jj^  district  of  Bautzen,  on  the  the  ^^pJcSj^  where  it  sometimes  Hvals 
Mandau,  48  miles  E.S.E.  of  Dresden,  is  the  Milky  Way.  The  most  plausible  >y- 
the  center  of  the  manufacture  of  mixed  pothesis  respecting  it  is  that  it  consists 
cotton  and  woolen  stuffs  in  Saxony ;  of  a  continuous  disc,  probably  of  meteors 
manufactures  also  woolens,  cottons,  trim-  revolving  round  the  sun. 
mtogs,  etc,  and  has  bleach-fields,  dye-  Zofifl.  (»5-€'a),  the  name  given  to  an 
woAs.     machine-works,     tile-works     and  *'"*^    embryonic  staee   in  the  develop- 

otteries,  royal  institute  of  rfass-painting.  ment  of  Crustacea  (which  see), 
etc    There  are  a  number  of  lignite  mines  9?A»trAnA     (B6'e-tr6p),  an  optical  toy. 
worked  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  34,706.  ^ocww^^    ^hich   exhibits   pictures   of 

KlfitAiiQf  (zla-td-osf),  a  townof  Rus-  objects  as  if  endowed  with  life  and  ac- 
Aiawusii  g.  government  of  Ufa,  tivitv.  It  is  of  toterest  as  a  forerunner 
among  the  Ural  Mountains,  on  the  banks  of  the  principle  perfected  to  the  ktoeto- 
of  the  Ai,  which  supplies  with  motive  scope,  which  has  completely  replaced  it 
power  the  crown  iron-works.  It  has  man-  Each  shows  pictures  of  object^  givtog 
nfactures  of  swords,  bayonets,  firearms  different  phases  of  attitudes  and  made  to 
and  ordnance.    Pop.  20,973.  run  together  by  passing  before  the  eye 

Znflim      (tsnim),  a  town  of  Moravia,   in  quick  succession. 

on  the  Thaya,  has  mauufac-  7Ai1iia    (aO'i-his),  a  rhetorician  tt  an- 
tnres  of  earthenware,  leather,  cb<wu>iate,  ••vuuo     ^jj^^^  Greece^  bom  at  Amphip* 


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Zola 


Zodlogpioal  Garden 


olif.  chiefly  remembered  for  the  asperity 
of  his  criticieme  on  the  poems  of  Homer. 
The  time  at  which  he  lived  la  uncertain 
—  probably  the  third  century  b.o.  His 
name  is  used  proyerbially  as  that  of  & 
captious  or  snarling  critic. 
7a1o  (sO'la),  Emujb,  a  French  noyelist, 
^"**  bom  in  1840,  the  son  of  an  Italian 
ensineer.  After  working  for  Paris  pub- 
lishers and  writinc  for  the  press  he  at- 
tempted fiction  with  some  success.  He 
first  became  generally  known  by  com- 
mencing, in  187L  the  famous  series  of 
novels  entitled  Let  Rougon  Macquart 
HUiaire  NaiureUe  d'une  FamUle  sons  U 
Second  Empire*  They  were  based  on  a 
theory  that  It  is  the  duty  of  the  modem 
novelist  to  depict  human  life,  in  all  grades 
of  society,  exactly  as  it  is,  omitting  and 
softening  nothing,  however  repulsive  and 
disgusting.  Zola  carried  out  this  theory 
so  effectually  that  English  translations  of 
several  of  Uiese  novels  are  not  allowed 
to  be  sold.  One  of  the  series,  L'Aeiom- 
ffioir,  portraying  the  evil  consequences 
of  drunkenness,  was  dramatised  by 
Charles  Reade  as  'Drink,*  and  became 
popular.  Among  his  later  and  more  at* 
tractive  works  are  Lowrdee  (1894); 
Rome  (1896),  and  ParU  (1898).  In 
1897  he  condemned  the  course  adopted  by 
the  government  in  the  Dreyfus  case  and 
was  tried  for  libel  during  his  absence  and 
sentenced  tn  fine  and  imprisonment.  He 
escaped  ^Jih  penalty  by  remaining  abroad 
until  f»ft«ir  the  revision  of  the  Dreyfus 
triaL  H«  4ied  Sept.  29,  1902. 
7n11irAreiTi  (tsol'vir-In),  the  German 
^OUVerein  ^u^toms  union,  the  pre- 
cursor  of  the  present  German  Empire, 
founded  in  1827,  and  afterwards  greatly 
extended  through  the  efforts  of  the  gov- 
ernment of  Pruissia.  Its  principal  object 
was  the  establishment  of  a  uniform  rate 
of  customs  duties  throughout  the  various 
states  Joining  the  union.  The  territories 
of  the  Zollverein  now  coincide  with  those 
of  the  German  Empire,  and  include  also 
Luxembourg. 

7mnhor  (•^m'bor),  or  Sombob,  capl- 
^omoor  ^1  ^£  ^^  Hungarian  ccunty 
of  BAcs-Bodrog,  on  a  canal  which  unites 
the  Tbeiss  and  Danube,  about  120  miles 
south  of  Budai>est,  is  the  center  of  the 
eom  and  cattle  trade  of  an  extensive  dis- 
trict   Pop.  29,086. 

7ATiiLrfui  (son'a-ras),  Joanivk,  a  By- 
£iOliara»  gantine  historian,  flourished 
in  the  twelfth  century.  His  chief  work 
is  the  Chrofiicon^  a  history  extending 
from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  ▲.  d. 
1118.  Of  the  events  of  his  own  time  his 
account  is  meager;  but  his  works  con- 
tain valuable  fragments  from  lost  writ- 
ings of  earlier  historians 


Zone     ^^h  <^)  ^  geography,  one  of 
Auuc      ^jjg   ^^^   ^^^^  divisions  of   the 

earth,    bounded    by    circles    parallel 


to 


the  equator,  and  named  according  to  the 
temperature  prevailing  in  each.  The 
sones  are:  the  iorrii  ttone.  extending 
from  tropic  to  tropic,  or  23^^  north  and 
23i*^  south  of  the  equator;  two  temper- 
ate gonetf  situated  between  the  tropics 
and  polar  circles,  or  extending  from  the 
parafid  of  23^''  to  that  ofdOi**  north 


and  south,  and  therefore  called  the  north 
temperate  and  eouth  temperate  sone  re- 
spectively; and  two  priaid  gonee,  situated 
between  the  polar  circles  and  the  north 
and  south  poles.  (See  Climate,)  (2) 
In  natural  history,  the  name  is  given  to 
any  well-defined  belt  within  which  cer- 
tain forms  of  plant  or  animal  life  are 
confined ;  as  the  different  belts  of  vegeta- 
tion which  occur  as  we  ascend  mountains. 

MvvAu.  Qpganlsm.  not  independently  de- 
veloped from  a  fertilised  ovum,  but  de- 
rived from  a  preceding  individual  by  the 
process  either  of  fission  or  gemmation. 
ZoHlatrv  .(■^>-ora-tri),  animal  wor- 
^OOiairy  ^^.  adoration  paid  by 
man  to  any  of  the  lower  animals.  This 
cult  seems  to  have  passed  through  three 
stages:  (1)  The  animal  was  reverenced 
and  prmpitiated  as  possessing  a  power 
greater  than  that  of  man.  (2)  The  ani- 
mal was  regarded  as  an  incarnation  of 
some  deity  or  spirit.  (8)  It  was  raised 
to  the  position  of  a  tribal  ancestor. 

Zodlogioal  Garden  <'S^^^^ 

in  which  a  collection  of  animals  is  kept. 
The  gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society, 
Regent's  Park.  London  (familiarly  termed 
'the  Zoo'),  founded  in  1828,  are  prob- 
ably the  finest  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
They  belong  to  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London,  which  was  founded  in  1826. 
Of  the  other  chief  soOlogical  gardens,  the 
Jardin  des  Plantes  bi  Paris  is  the  oldest, 
having  been  founded  in  1794    Gardens 


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Zoological  Stations  Zorilla 

of  this  kind  fonn  a  popular  resort  in  the  have  originated.    Among  those  who  haye 

larger  American  cities.  modified  the  classification  of  Oavier  may 

^,-.,^        .  ^*,  ^    noted    Lamarck,    Ehrenberg,    Owen, 

Zoological   stations,      stations  Mllne-Edwards,    Von    Siebold,   Lenckart, 

u^tu  0  w  ;L  ""^  ^  S°l®U  Agassis,  Huxley,  Haeckel,  MiUler,  Dohrn^ 

which.have  of  late  years  been  estabbshed  Sjy    ilankester    and    others.    Professor 

i3  V.nSI!iP*'*n?h^^  stt .TSr^^  5?5ui^;iL'"l?  Huxley    recognises    the    following    sub- 

of  xoOlofy.     The   Stasione  Zoiilogl<»  at  kingdoms:  Vertebrata,  MoUuaca,  MoUus- 

Naples,  founded  mainly  in  Dohrn  m  1872.  coidV  Aniul^  iS^loida,  cSe^raS^ 

■S.HH.??J»  n7?hi'«2!lL  u^^ull  InfusoriT    iSa       Protozoa.      HaSS?S 

SSi^taT^US^St'SSli'sff^^?^^  VSr^l^A^rTh^SS^'^lc^M^^^^ 

l^xiZl,.^'    (lA^VMi  •  Or  eBon.  an  iini-  **•*"*•  .There  are  more  recent  syatems. 

Zoology     ^^^tudloSot'dTm^lrt^),  »ome  of  which  »re  far  more  elaborate  th« 

that  adeoce  wbiih  twate  of  the  naturif  *«»«  P/*"- .  That  of  Bay  Lankeater  may 

htotorT  of   animals,   or   their   structure.  5?,M^^l%°h!^„lm«iTtaX™'?St„'fSf™Kl 

physiology,  classifiration,  habits,  and  dis^  d hriding  the  animal  kingdom  into  t^  aub- 

trihurton      ThfTtPrm    'nafnral   hiRtnTv'  kingdoma  of  Protoeoa  (single-Celled  am- 

h«b^n  fr^nlnt^rused°Vs'5Jno''nymSSa  ^'^    '>^t^1^    iri^Z^^SlHSl- 

«rifi»  mr^i^^^^  K.^f'-it^K  «>  *«^«  iJr.v.^i.  luals).    The     latter     include     Porifera 


Of  biological  science,  constituting,  in  fact,  !!PAfSLi®i^;//filLl*  k1^^^ 
with  its  neignbor  b^ch.  botany  the  sci-  tfla  o«^^«a«i?i^  batrachia,  reptUes, 
ence  of  biofogy.     Its  study  comprehends  ^        w>d  mammals), 
such  branches  as  the  morphology  of  ani-  ZOODllYte    l«>o-"y  w,  9601^  an  anl- 
mal$,  or  the  science  of  form  or  struc-  .^              J   ™i^'  Uid  phytan,  a  plant), 
ture,   which  again   includes   comparative  the  name  given  by  Cuvier  to  any  member 
anatomy,  by  which  we  investigate  exter-  ?'  ^m  sub-kmgdom  Radiata.    It  is  now 
nal  and  internal  appearances,  the  post-  loosely  apphed  to  animals  of  extremely 
tions  and  relations  of  organs  and  parts;  lo^  organization  which  present  many  ex- 
the  development  of  animaUt  which  treats  temal  resemblances  to  plants, 
of  the  various  stages  leading  from  the  J^AAQnorA    (zOos-p()r),  a  spore  occur- 
•mbrjonlc    to    the    mature    state;     the  •'vvoywj.v    „n^  i^  cryptogamic  plants, 
phytology    of    animali,    which  includes  which,  having  cil- 
the  study  of  the  functions  of  nutrition,  re-  ia    or    long    fill- 
production,  and  of  the  nervous  system;  form     moving 
classification  or  tawonomy,  which  assigns  processes  project- 
to   the   various   individuals   their  proper  ing  from  its  sur- 
place  in  the  scale  of  life.    A  new  depart-  face,  moves  spon- 
ment   has   been   added    In    recent    times,  taneously    for    a 
sometimes  called  etiology,  which  investi-  short    time    after 
gates  the  origin  and  descent  of  animals,  being  discharged  from  the  sporeniase  of 
or   treats  of  the  evolutionary  aspect  of  the  parent  plant. 

zoological    science.     Various    systems    of  Zooiitft    (J^^  '  r6'ta),     Geboiomo,    a 

classification  have  been  framed  by  zoOlo-  *^**«'"'    Spanish    historian,    bom    in 

gists.     Linnaeus  divided  the  animal  king-  Estramadura  in  1512 ;  died  in  1581.    He 

dom    into    six    classes,    viz.,    Mammalia^  was  made  a  member  of  the  supreme  coun- 

Birds,    Fishes,    Amphibia,    Insects,    and  cil  of  Castile  in   1543,   was  afterwards 

Worms    (Vermes).    Cuvier    proposed    a  sent  as  an  embassy  to  Germany,  and  in 

more  scientific  arrangement.     He  divided  1549    was   appointed    historiographer   of 

the    animal     kingdom     into     four    sub-  the  kingdom.     His  principal  work,  Af»- 

kingdoms,     viz.,     Vertebrata,     MoUusca,  J»«^  of  the  Crown  of  Aragon,  enjoys  a 

Articulata  and  Radiata.    Modem  classi-  "igh  reputation. 

fications  have  been  based  chiefly  on  mor-  Zorillfi.  (z^rUla),  a  small  mammal 
phological  characters,  with  the  addition  •'^*"*«*  of  South  Africa  {Ictonym  to- 
ot the  study  of  cellular  embryology,  and  rilla).  related  to  the  badgers  and  the 
the  facts  of  heredity  and  adaptation.  American  skunks.  Like  the  latter,  it 
They  have  been  very  largely  influenced  by  secretes  a  liquid  having  a  very  offensive 
the  theory  of  evolution,  which  has  induced  odor,  which  it  can  discharge  to  a  con- 
many  naturalists  to  arrange  animal  forms  siderable  distance.  Its  glossy  fur  is 
as  nearly  as  possible  on  the  lines  of  de-  black  in  color,  with  white  bands  and 
•cent  from  which  they  ate  believed  to  spots. 


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Zoroaster  Zng 

ZorOftAter  (■^r^as'ter;  Old  Persian  very  popular.  He  died  in  1896. 
MvxvcMiv^A  ^araihu8ira,  later  Per.  Zosimns  (aos'l-mus),  a  Greek  histo- 
Zerdutki),  one  of  the  great  religious  ■^*'«»*«*»«»  rfan,  who  held  an  otBciai 
teachers  of  the  East,  the  founder  of  what  post  at  Constantinople  during  the  first 
was  for  centuries  the  national  religion  of  half  of  the  fifth  century  a.d.  He  was  a 
Persia,  and  is  still  adhered  to  by  the  pagan,  and  in  his  history  of  the  then  em- 
Parsees.  He  has  been  represented  by  pire  he  severely  criticised  the  Ghristiaii 
eminent  authorities  as  purely  mythical,  emperors,  representing  the  substitution 
but  it  seems  more  reasonable  to  believe  of  Christianity  for  paganism  as  largely 
that  he  was  a  real  and  historical  per-  responsible  for  the  decline  of  the  empire, 
sonage.  If  this  view  be  accepted,  he  was  Zauovar  (*w&vi),  originally  mercen- 
probably  a  native  of  the  east  of  Iran,  ••*'**«»  »^*»  aries  belonging  to  a  Kabyle 
but  there  is  great  uncertainty  as  to  the  tribe.  The  Zouaves  in  the  pay  of  the 
time  in  which  he  appeared  as  a  religious  Dey  of  Algiers  were,  when  Algeria  be- 
teacher.  He  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  came  a  French  possession,  incorporated 
been  a  contemporary  of  Moses,  by  others  witii  the  French  army  there,  preserving 
his  date  is  assigned  to  the  tenth  century  their  Arab  dress.  Ultimately  the  native 
before  Christ.  His  doctrines  are  to  be  element  was  eliminated,  and  the  Zouaves 
found  in  the  Parsee  scriptures  called  the  became  merely  French  soldiers  in  the 
Zend-Avesta  (which  see),  and  the  picturesque  Arab  costume.  As  such  they 
OdthA$,  which  is  the  oldest  part  of  that  distinguished  themselves  in  the  Crimea 
work,  are  declared  to  contain  his  au-  and  the  Franco-Italian  war  of  1859. 
thentic  utterances.  The  fundamental  7afi1iokke  (tshok'k^),  Johann  Hein- 
idea  of  his  doctrine  was  the  existence,  •^»v**vikxk\?  ^^^  Daniel,  a  Qerman 
since  the  beginning,  of  a  spirit  of  good,  author  bom  at  Magdeburg  In  1771 ;  died 
AhurO  MazdaO  (Ormuzd).  and  a  spirit  in  1848.  He  settled  in  Switzerland,  in 
of  evil,  AngrO  Mainyusn  (Ahriman).  which  country  he  held  an  honored  posi- 
These  two  are  in  perpetual  conflict,  and  tion  in  connection  with  education  and 
the  soul  of  man  is  the  great  object  of  the  public  affairs,  and  with  the  press.  His 
war.  Ormuzd  created  man  free,  so  that  autobiography,  several  of  his  tales,  and 
if  he  allows  himself  to  fall  under  the  the  '  Hours  of  Devotion  *  {Btunden  der 
sway  of  Ahriman  he  is  held  to  be  justly  Andaohi),  have  been  translated  into 
punishable.    When  he  dies  his  ^ood  and  English. 

evil  deeds  will  be  weighed  against  each  7acTiADO|i  (tsho'pou),  a  town  of  Sax- 
other,  and  accordingly  as  the  balance  is  «"^**v^«*"'  ony^  on  a  river  of  same 
struck  will  be  sent  to  heaven  or  to  hell,  name,  6  miles  southeast  of  Chemnitz; 
If  they  are  exactly  equal,  the  soul  iMisses  has  important  manufactures  of  woolens, 
into  an  intermediate  state,  and  remains  cottons,  etc  Pop.  6748. 
there  until  the  day  of  judgment  Or-  7iin/ili^ro  (dzijk'e-rO),  or  Zuooabo 
muzd  is  to  triumph  ultimately,  and  then  *'^"«"^**'  (dz^ri-rO),  Taddeo  and 
there  will  be  one  undivided  kingdom  of  Federiqo,  two  brothers,  Italian  painters 
Qod  in  heaven  and  on  earth.  TThe  re-  of  the  sixteenth  century,  were  chiefly 
ligion  of  Zoroaster,  when  it  became  that  noted  in  their  own  country  for  their 
of  Iran,  was  expounded  by  a  widely-  fresco-paintings.  Federigo,  the  younger 
spread  priesthood,  and  these  provided  for  of  the  two,  came  to  England  in  1674,  and 
it  a  ritual  and  ceremonial.  Minutely  received  commissions  to  paint  the  por- 
elaborated  laws  for  the  puriflcation  of  traits  of  high  personages,  among  them 
soul  and  body  were  laid  down.  They  in-  those  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  Mary  Queen 
eluded  a  prohibition  of  the  burning  or  of  Scots.  His  portrait  of  the  latter  was 
the  burying  of  the  dead  bodies  of  be-  oigraved  by  Vertue. 
lievers,  which,  by  the  Parsees  in  Bombay  2llfr  (ts6A),  a  central  and  the  small- 
and  elsewhere,  are  still  left  to  be  devoured  ^^HS  est  undivided  canton  of  Switzer- 
by  vultures.  See  Fire-worship,  Ouehres,  land,  bounded  by  Zflrich,  Schwyz,  Lu- 
Pwrs^es.  ceme,  and  Aargau ;  area,  92  square  miles. 

7Arri11o  ir  TyTArol    (thG-r^rya  fi  mO-  The  surface,  mountainous  in  the  south- 
^omixa  y  uorai  ^.^^  j^j^  j^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  ^^  Rossberg  occu- 

a  Spanish  dramatist  and  poet,  bom  at  pies   the   frontier,   slopes   more   or    lees 

Valladolid    in    1817.    He    was    intended  gradually  north  and  west,  till  it  becomes 

for  the  law,  but  devoted  himself  instead  comparatively   flat.    The  only   lakes  de- 

to   literary   pursuits.    In   1841   he  pub-  serring  the  name  are  those  of  Zug  and 

lished   8ong9  of  the  Trouhadoun;  this  BgerL    The    climate,    rigorous    in    the 

was  followed  by  a  collection  of  Hiiiarioal  mountainous   districts,    is    mild    on    the 

Legend*  mnd  Traditiane;  several  volumes  lower  south  slopes.    The  chief   nporto 

of  poeniSy  comedies,  etc.,  all  of  which  were  are  cattle,   fmita,   cider»   and     kirscli- 


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Znider  Zee  Zurbaran 

WMwr/  Area,  92  sqiiare  mUes;  pop.  took  ptaa  at  Ulundl,  where  therower  of 
ak026. — ZVQ,  the  capital,  stands  on  th%  the  Zulus  was  qnlte  croshecL  The  sabse- 
Bortb  shore  of  the  lake,  is  12  miles  north-  Q^ent  British  reorganization  of  Zula- 
MWt  of  Loceme,  with  which  and  with  Hind  did  not  work  snccessfolly,  and  in 
ZOrich  it  is  connected  by  raUway.  Pop.  1882  Cetewayo  was  restored,  a  strip  of 
<B0& — T.Agff  of  Zue,  or  Zuokrbb,  chiedSy  country  adjacent  to  Natal  being  consti- 
in  the  canton  of  Zug.  9  miles  lone  north  tuted  as  a  '  reserve.'  Into  this  reserve 
to  m>nth,  and  in  br^th  from  8  miles  to  1  Cetewavo  fled  in  1883,  after  being  de- 
pill^  llie  i^ores  are  low  In  all  directions  feated  by  a  hostile  Zulu  chief,  Usibepu, 
«xcept  the  south  and  southeast  In  the  and  there  he  died  in  1884.  However, 
former  direction  the  Rigi  and  in  the  latter  Cetewayo's  son,  Dinhralu,  misted  by 
the  Rossberg  rise  in  lofty  precipices,  pre-  Transvaal  Boers,  vanquished  Usibepu, 
tenting  scenery  of  a  grand  description,  and  drove  him  into  the  reserve.  Ulti- 
The  lake  has  a  maximum  depth  of  QSO  mately  the  Boers  took  possession  of  a 
feet.  The  fishing,  principally  pike  and  considerable  portion  of  the  country,  while 
carp,  is  productive.  Also  famous  for  a  the  remainmg  portion  of  Zululand,  with 
pecoliar  kind  of  trout  locally  called  the  reserve,  was  annexed  to  Britain  in 
adtML  1887.    Zululand  is  now  a  province  of  the 

9mmiA^^tW^^    (zoi'd6r-aft:    or   Zutdeb:   Natal  state.    Pop.  estimated  at  230,000. 

ZmderZee  ^i5i  sk),"^  alSifoi  Zulus  i^J^hA  ^''^')  ±^lfl^Ji 

tlie  North  Sea*  on  the  coast  of  rfoUand^;  ^^^'^^   Bantu   ^{^^^o Vki.^*  f^^"?h^ 

80  mUes  long,  40  miles  greatest  breadth,  people      which      is      notable      for     the 

It  wa»  formerly  a  lake,  but  was  united  physical  and  mental  development  of  its 

with  the  German  Ocean  by  inundations  members.    They  are  organized  as  a  pure 

In  tiie  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  democracr.  their  chiefs  being  elected  and 

file  islands  Texel,  VTieland,  Terschelling,  holding  office  during  the  pleasure  of  the 

Amdand,  etc,  separate  it  from  the  North  people.    They    have    a     very    complete 

Sea.  wiui  whidi  it  communicates  by  va-  though  unwritten  code  of  laws,  and  as  a 

rious  channels,  the  principal  one  being  be-  race  are  conspicuous  for  their  morality 

tween  Helder  and  TexeL    It  is  very  shal-  and     freedom     from     drunkenness     and 

low,  and  to  avoid  the  difficulties  of  its  crime.     See  Zululand, 

BftTigation  to  Amsterdam  the  North  Sea  ^nTnlio    («um'b6),    a    town    of    South 

Oaiua  was  constructed.    In  1914  the  gov-  ^^u-**^""   Africa,  near  the  confluence  of 

•rnment  lent  its  support  to  plans  for  the  the  Loangwa  with  the  Zambesi ;  lat  15*^ 

construction  of  a  dike  twen^r  miles  wide  37'  2"   8. ;    Ion.   30**   32'   e.  ;   450  miles 

maom  the  mouth  of  the  Zuyder  Zee,  thus  from  the  mouth  of  the  Zambesi.    It  marks 

fedaiming  a  large  area  oi  fertile  land;  the  western  point  of  the  Portuguese  ter- 

estimated  cost,  $80,000,000.  ritories  on  the  Zambesi ;  has  an  advan- 

KniTlfflins   tUt,  z^^^nlL  tageous  site;  was  formerly  the  seat  of  an 

AUin^UUB.  Bee  Zwingli.  important  trade,  and  contained  a  number 

••   «    «       n    imMsiJ\at,A\    m  tv%nth  Afrf-  of  Substantial  buildiugs ;  but  of  late  trade 

Zululand  <S^^^??i^tib   no?t^^^  ?*«   neglected,   and   the   town   fell   into 

»  2?^-  mulSf'  iTrt^ni^^  zSpt    l^^:  dWn'&^ro'?^ 
^•rf«3is;j^l55^''bl"T$A  sorof  Rom*^'fcu^ii"thfuii?e«^^ 

5l  ft.  tS&iirS'  tfe^^Ss?^     U  of  Beriin,  produced  several  excellent  edi- 
S.   a  ?2IS    Hne    of   llO    Su^^  tions  of  'litin  classics,  and   a  valuable 

i^fi.«r«^Srtion  r>f  5ie  TOunSTc  «nd  elaborate  Latin  grammar,  of  which 

Siefly™  ^ndiSati^^^^  there  have  been  several  English  transla- 

grass;  and  thinly  wooded.    The  coast  re-  tu*°"v  /4.k^,   ka  ,.a„'\      f»a  w 

/mi«Ai^  A?  NRtAl   Dossessina  an  organised  there  many  of  his  best  works.     Among 

2?S?of  c?nridSrffiJ5mSeS^    iSl^  these  his  «*.  Thoma.  Aquinaf  is  held  to 

mSiF  thSr  to?  Cetewayo,   they  came  be  one  of  the  most  admirable  paintings 

Sto%^^%i    theT^t^    (See  ever  produced  in  Spain.    There  are  so^^^ 

O^fwSoO     At  first  the  war  waa  unfor-  of  his  works  in  the  ^enes  of  Paris. 

tmSte  fcr  tiie  British  (a  body  of  troopa  Berlin,  Dresden  and  Munidi.     He  waa 

biStS    be^aSnihiUtid    at   IsanduUT,  eminentiy  succwsful  in  his  treatment  of 

botin  jSyT  1879,  a  general  engagement  the  Spanish  friar,  his  favorite  subject. 


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Ziirich  Zwingli 

vid  he  was  remarkable  for  his  ricbnesa  being  the  ecene  of  the  death  of  Sir  Philip 

of  coloring,  chiaroscuro  and  exquisite  rep-  Sidney,  who  was  killed  before  iU  walls 

resentation  of  velvets,  brocades  and  white  in  158G.     Pop.  10,000. 

draperies.       He    received    the    titie    of  Znvdcr  Zee      See  Zuider  Zee. 

painter  to  Philip  III,  and  was  patron-  ^'^ytier  ^ee. 

wed  by  Philip  IV.  .    ,     -,    .       ,  Zvomik     (^vor'nek),  a  fortified  town 

Ziirioll    (tsfl'n*;    ancient,    Turtcum).  ^vuriuik     ^^    Bosnia,    on    the    Drina. 

■'^^  a  town  of  Switzerland,  capital  pop.  8500 

of  the  canton  of  the  same  name,  is  beau-  ZweiliriifikeTl  ( tsvfbruk-^n ;  LaUn. 
tifully  situated  at  the  northern  end  of  ^WCloruCKen  ^ipf^nSm:  French! 
the  lake  of  Zttrich,  on  both  eidos  of  the  Deuw-Ponti,  two-bridges),  a  town3 
Limmat,  and  having  on  the  west  the  Sihl,  Bavaria,  in  the  Palatinate,  pleasantly 
which  joins  it  immediately  below.  It  situated  on  the  Scbwanbach;  has  manu- 
has  a  university  and  a  polytechnic  school,  factures  of  velvet,  plush,  cotton  fabrics, 
both  occupying  handsome  buildings,  a  machinery,  etc.  The  edition  of  the  claa- 
Romanesque  cathedral  of  the  eleventh-  sics  known  by  the  name  of  'Bipont* 
thirteenth  centuries,  town-hall,  public  was  published  here.  Pop.  14,711. 
library,  etc.  Its  most  considerable  in-  Z-aHnVpTi  (tsvik'ou),  a  town  of  Sax- 
dustry  is  that  of  silk,  but  its  cotton-  ^'Wiuikttu  ^^y^  ^q  ^^^^  w.s.w.  of 
spinning  and  manufacture  of  locomotives  Dresden,  with  several  fine  churches,  not- 
and  machinery  are  also  important.  Its  ablv  St.  Mary  (1453-1536),  restored 
inhabitanU  are  mainly  German-speaking  1884;  the  fine  Gothic  'Gewandhaoa' 
Z^^SS^^^^  ^'^P-.  (including  suburbs),  (1522),  now  a  theater;  town-house,  gor- 
205.000.~The  canton  holds  the  second  ernment  buildings,  etc.  The  railway- 
place  in  the  Swiss  confederation  as  re-  station  is  one  of  the  largest  in  Germany, 
gards  population.  It  is  one  of  the  north-  Zwickau  has  manufactures  of  linen  and 
era  cantons,  and  extends  from  the  lake  cotton  goods,  dyes,  and  chemical  prod- 
of  the  same  name  to  the  Rhine,  to  which  ucts,  etc. ;  productive  coal  mines  in  the 
its  waters  are  carried  by  the  Thur,  TOss,  vicinity  employ  over  8000  men.  Pod. 
Glatt,  and  Linmiat.    It  is  highly  culti-  (191 :{)  75,542. 

vated,  and   the   land   held   by   no   fewer  ZvriTl^er  (tswing'er),    TnoDon;    an 

than  36,000  proprietors.     There  are  ex-  •'^^"B^*    eminent   Swiss   bchohir  and 

tensive  manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton  physician,   was  bora   at   BAle  in  15«S3; 

goods.    Area,    655    square    miles.    Pop.  died  in  1588.     He  became  professor  of 

431,637.  Greek    at    Bftle,   and    published    On    the 

Ziirinli     Lake  of,  or  Zurichebsee,  lies  Rural  Method  of  Cato  and  Varro  and 

€4Uj,x\,iLy   jjjjjgfly   jn  ^jjg  canton  of  ZU-  a  collection  of  anecdotes  entitled  Theater 

rich,  but  partly  in  Schwyz.     Its  greatest  of  Human  Life,     His  son  and  several  of 

length  is  about  27  miles ;  while  its  great-  his  grandsons  were  noted  for  various  ac- 

est  breadth  does  not  exceed  3  miles,  and  quirements. 

ite  greatest  depth  600  feet.     Its  scenery  Zwin^li     (tsvinglfi),  or  (as  it  is  often 

is     distinguished     not     so     much      for  *''^"*©"    Latinised)    ZuiNQLins,    Dl- 

grandeur  as  for  beauty.    A  considerable  rich,  the  Swiss  reformer,  was  bora  in 

traffic   is  carried  on   upon   the   lake  by  the  canton  of  St  Gall,  where  his  father 

means  of  sailing  vessels  and  a  number  of  was  a  thriving  peasant  proprietor.     In- 

steamers.     It  is  well  supplied  with  fish,  tended  for  the  church,  he  studied  at  va- 

Its  chief  feeder  is  the  Linth  Canal,  com-  rious  places,  during  a  second  residence  at 

municating    with    the    Wallenstatter-see.  Basel  becoming  the  pupil  and  friend  of 

It  discharges  itself  at  the  town  of  Ziirich  Thomas  Wyttenbach,  a   reformer  before 

by  the  Limmat  the  Reformation,  and  from  him  learaed 

Ziiricll      treaty  of,  signed  there  No-  the  evangelical  doctrines  which  he  after- 

^     vember  10,  1859,  by  the  pleni-  wards   promulgated   with   signal   success, 

potentiaries  of  France  and  Austria,  em-  Ilia  first  overt  revolt  against  the  Roman 

bodied  the  conditions  of  the  preliminaries  Catholic  system  was  when  he  was  a  priest 

of  peace  agreed  to  at  Villafranca,  on  the  at  Einsiedein   (1516),  which  a  supposed 

part  of  Napoleon  III  and  the  Emperor  of  miracle-working  image  of  the  Virgin  had 

Austria,  Francis  Joseph,  and  closed  the  made  a  favorite  resort  of  pilgrims.    So 

Franco-Italian  war  by  Austria's  abandon-  effectively  did  he  denounce  pilgrimages  as 

ment  of  her  right  to  Lombardy.  superstitious  that  his  sermons  were  talked 

ZutDhen    (s^^'^^b),   a   fortified   town  of  in  Rome,  and  it  is  said  futile  offers  of 

^  r    ^^   of  Holland,  in  the  province  promotion  were  made  to  coax  him  into 

of  Gelderland,  20  miles  by  rail  south  of  silence.    In     1518     be     was     appointed 

Deventer,  has  an  active  trade,  especially  preacher    In    the    cathedral    of    Zttrich, 

in  timber  asd  grain.    It  is  notable  at  where  he  opposed  a  preacher  of  indul- 


i 


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gences.  Then  followed  other  denuncia- 
tioDS  of  Roman  Catholic  practices  and 
doctrines,  until  Ziirich,  the  authorities  of 
which  supported  Zwingli,  and  the  people 
of  which  adhered  to  him,  became  thor- 
oughly Protestant,  and  adopted  a  re- 
formed theology,  worship,  and  discipline. 
Zwingli  went  further  than  Luther,  whose 
'  doctrme  of  consubstantiation  led  to  what 
proved  on  the  whole  a  resultless  confer- 
ence on  the  subject  between  him  and 
Luther  and  Melanchthon  at  Marburg  in 
152&  In  1531  the  Forest  Cantons,  which 
adhered  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith, 
made  wa>  upon  ZUrich,  whose  troops 
Zwingli  accompanied  as  chaplain.  While 
in  the  thick  of  an  engagement  at  Kappel, 
near  Zarich,  he  was  mortally  wounded, 
October  11,  1531. 

ViTMnm^T  (tsw^r'ner),  Ebnbt  Fbied- 
^Wirner  \^^^  ^  German  architect, 
bom  in  Silesia  in  1S02;  died  in  1861. 
He  was  appointed  architect  of  the  an- 
cient Cologne  Cathedral  in  1833,  and 
spent  many  years  in  its  restoration  and 
completion.  His  work  is  considered  a 
highly  admirable  and  successful  ezamplt 
of  restoration. 

71171  f fan  (zwifft),  a  town  of  Austria- 
^^^*'^*'^  HungiTry,  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Morayia,  circle  of  Olmtitz,  40 
miles  li.  of  Brdnn.  It  is  a  seat  of  the 
textile  industry  and  has  manufactures  of 
tobacco,  etc.  Pop.  9029. 
Zwolle  (zwoHi),  a  town  of  Holland, 
"^  capital  of  the  province  of 
Overijssel.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with 
fine  suburbs  and  a  fine  church  (St. 
Michaers),  with  a  famous  organ. 
ZwoUe  conmiunicates  with  the  sea  by 
means  of  the  Willemsyaart  Canal. 
Among  its  industries  are  shipbuilding, 
cotton  manufacture,  tanning,  rope-mak- 
ing, etc.  Three  miles  from  the  town  is 
the  monastery  of  the  Agnetenberg,  where 
Thomas  &  Kempis  spent  most  of  his  life. 
Pop.  (1913)  33,836. 

Zwyndrecht  iS^ne'^S^^-eigiUrTn 


Bast  Flanders,  17  miles  N.  e.  of  Dender- 
monde,  in  the  Scheldt     Pop.  about  5000. 

£iy^»na    ^j^j^^  shark.    See  Shark. 

Zymotic  Diseases  ^^.TaSiidtS 

epidemic  and  endemic,  contagious  dis- 
eases, because  they  are  supposed  to  be 
produced  by  some  morbific  principle  act- 
ing on  the  system  like  a  ferment  (Greek 
Zffmi).  This  morbific  principle  or  poison 
gets  into  the  blood  in  minute  particles  or 
germs,  which  there  increase  and  multiply, 
the  disease  lasting  until  the  poison  naa 
become  worked  out,  or  has  been  destroyed. 
Among  these  diseases  are  measles,  scarlet 
fever,  smallpox,  typhus,  typhoid,  diph- 
theria, whooping-cough,  croup,  erysipeuuip 
etc. 

Zygophyllacea  <K"  h^LoS 

exogens,  containing  about  a  hundred  spe- 
cies of  herbaceous  plants,  trees  and 
shrubs,  found  in  the  hottest  parts  of 
both  hemispheres.  There  are  seyen 
khown  genera,  of  which  the  most  impor- 
tant is  Guaiacum  (which  see).  The 
abundance  of  species  of  Zygophyllum 
and  some  other  genera  constitutes  a  most 
striking  feature  of  the  North  African 
and  Arabian  deserts.  The  flowers  of 
Z,  fahago  are  employed  as  a  substitute 
for  capers,  and  are  known  as  bean- 
capers. 

plied  also  to  the  beer  of  the  northern 
nations;  a  liquor  made  from  malt  and 
wheat. 

Zyrnayovsk  LTS'^T^V  AA- 

ver-producing  district  of  Semipalatinsk, 
near  the  southern  border  of  Siberia.  It 
lies  among  the  slopes  of  the  Altai  Moun- 
tains, on  a  head-stream  of  the  Irtish 
River.  The  Zyrians  of  the  vicinity,  a 
Tartar  tribe,  are  Shamanists,  and  live 
byhunting  ii:  the  forests.    Pop.  about 


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