Skip to main content

Full text of "Women workers in seven professions : a survey of their economic conditions and prospects"

See other formats 


Presented  to  the 

UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO 
LIBRARY 

by  the 

ONTARIO  LEGISLATIVE 
LIBRARY 

1980 


WOMEN    WORKERS    IN    SEVEN 
PROFESSIONS 


FROM  THE 
BROAD  WA  Y  HO  USE  LIST 


HISTORY  OF  EMIGRATION  FROM  THE 
UNITED  KINGDOM  TO  NORTH  AMERICA  : 
1763-1912.  By  S.  C.  JOHNSON,  D.Sc. 
Demy  8vo.  6s.  net. 

"  A  work  of  sound  learning  and  considerable  research,  and  a 
contribution  of  value  to  a  question  of  much  present  and  future 
importance." — The  Scotsman. 

"A  valuable  contribution  to  comparative  sociology." — Pall 
Mall  Gazette. 


THE  STATUS  OF  WOMEN  UNDER  THE 
ENGLISH  LAW:  1066-1909.  A  Com- 
pendious Epitome  of  Legislative  Enactments 
and  Social  and  Political  Events  arranged  as 
a  Continuous  Narrative,  with  References  to 
Authorities  and  Acts  of  Parliament.  By 
A.  B.  WALLIS  CHAPMAN,  D.Sc.  (Econ.), 
and  MARY  W.  CHAPMAN,  B-Av,  .  -Fc^,1:  . 

8vo.,  is.  net.     Leather  as.  6d.  net.",  '"7  .'••') 

•  • 

"  Most  valuable  to  workers."  —  Englishwoman. 

".,.• 


•    :• 

GEORGE  ROUTLEDGE  &  SONS,  LTD-. 


* 


WOMEN  WORKERS 
SEVEN    PROFESSIONS!;5 

•*».?• 

A   SURVEY   OF    THEIR    ECONOMIC          & 
CONDITIONS   AND   PROSPECTS 


EDITED     FOR    THE    STUDIES    COMMITTEE   OF 
THE    FABIAN    WOMEN'S    GROUP 


BY 


EDITH   J.  MORLEY 


LONDON 

GEORGE   ROUTLEDGE  &  SONS,   LIMITED 

NEW  YORK  :   E.  P.'  BUTTON  AND  CO. 
1914 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

THE  task  of  collecting  and  editing  the  various 
essays  of  which  this  book  is  comprised,  has  not 
been  altogether  easy.  Some  literary  defects  and 
absence  of  unity  are,  by  the  nature  of  the  scheme, 
inevitable :  we  hope  these  are  counterbalanced  by 
the  collection  of  first-hand  evidence  from  those  in 
a  position  to  speak  authoritatively  of  the  professions 
which  they  follow.  Experientia  docet,  and  those 
who  desire  to  investigate  the  conditions  of  women's 
public  work  in  various  directions,  as  well  as  those 
who  are  hesitating  in  their  choice  of  a  career,  may 
like  carefully  to  weigh  these  opinions  formed  as  a 
result  of  personal  experience. 

For  other  defects  in  selection,  arrangement, 
proportion  and  the  like,  I  am  alone  responsible. 
I  have,  from  the  first,  been  conscious  that  many 
people  were  better  suited  to  the  editorial  task  than 
myself — women  with  more  knowledge  of  social 
and  economic  problems,  and,  perhaps,  with  more 
leisure.  But  at  the  moment  no  one  seemed  to  be 
available,  and  I  was  persuaded  to  do  what  I  could 
to  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  Studies  Committee 
of  the  Fabian  Women's  Group.  If  I  have  in  any 
measure  succeeded,  it  is  owing  to  the  generous 
help  and  unvarying  kindness  I  have  received  in 
all  directions.  In  the  first  place,  I  would  express 
my  gratitude  to  the  members  of  the  Studies 
Committee,  and  more  particularly  to  Mrs  Charlotte 
Wilson,  the  fount  and  inspiration  of  the  whole 


vi  PREFATORY   NOTE 

scheme,  to  Mrs  Pember  Reeves,  and  to  Mrs 
Bernard  Shaw.  My  indebtedness  to  all  the 
contributors  for  their  promptitude,  patience,  and 
courtesy,  it  is  impossible  to  exaggerate.  I  hope  it 
will  not  be  thought  invidious  if  I  say  that  without 
Dr  Murrell's  sub-editorship  of  the  Medical  and 
Nursing  Sections,  and  the  unstinted  and  continual 
help  of  Dr  O'Brien  Harris,  the  book  could  not 
have  appeared  at  all.  The  latter's  paper  on 
"  Secondary  School  Teaching  "  has  had  the  benefit 
of  criticism  and  suggestions  from  one  of  the  most 
notable  Head  -  Mistresses  of  her  day  —  Mrs 
Woodhouse,  whose  experience  of  work  in  the 
schools  of  the  Girls'  Public  Day  School  Trust  was 
kindly  placed  at  the  author's  disposal.  Similarly, 
some  of  the  details  mentioned  in  the  section  on 
"  Acting,"  were  kindly  supplied  by  Mrs  St  John 
Ervine.  Lastly — for  it  is  impossible  to  mention 
all  who  have  assisted — I  wish  to  thank  Miss  Ellen 
Smith  for  her  unsparing  secretarial  labours,  and 
Miss  M.  G.  Spencer  and  Miss  Craig,  of  the  Central 
Bureau  for  the  Employment  of  Women,  for  the 
Table  which  appears  at  the  end  of  Section  I.  This 
is  unique  as  an  exhaustive  summary  of  a  mass  of 
information,  hitherto  not  easily  accessible  to  the 
general  public. 

EDITH  J.  MORLEY. 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  READING, 
December  1913. 


CONTENTS 

SECTION  PAGB 

PREFATORY  NOTE.    By  the  Editor  v 

FOREWORDS.     ON  BEHALF  OF  THE  STUDIES  COM- 
MITTEE OF  THE  FABIAN  WOMEN'S  GROUP      .        xi 

I.  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION  I 

I.  INTRODUCTION.  By  EDITH  J.  MORLEY,  Oxford  Honour 
School  of  English  Language  and  Literature.  Professor 
of  English  Language,  University  College,  Reading. 
Fellow  and  Lecturer  of  University  of  London 
King's  College  for  Women I 

II.  WOMEN     AT    THE    UNIVERSITIES    AND    UNIVERSITY 

TEACHING  AS  A  PROFESSION.    By  EDITH  J.  MORLEY        n 

III.  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  TEACHING.     By  (Mrs)M.O'BRiEN 

HARRIS,  D.Sc.,  London,  Hon.  Member  of  Somerville 
College,  Oxford.  Headmistress  of  the  County 
Secondary  School,  South  Hackney  ....  24 

IV.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHING.     By  (Mrs)   KATE 

DICE,  C.T.,  Class  Teacher  in  the  service  of  the  London 
County  Council,  Hon.  Sec.  of  the  Fabian  Education 
Group 37 

V.  TEACHING  IN  SCHOOLS  FOR  THE  MENTALLY  AND 
PHYSICALLY  DEFECTIVE.  By  (Mrs)  JESSIE  E. 
THOMAS,  C.T.,  Class  Teacher  at  the  London  County 
Council  School  for  Physically  Defective  Children, 
Turney  Road,  Dulwich  ....  .  .  52 

VI.  THE  TEACHINGOF  GYMNASTICS.  ByMARYHANKiNSON, 
Hon.  Sec.  of  the  Ling  Association.  Diploma  of  the 
Dartford  Physical  Training  College  ....  59 

VII.  THE  TEACHING  OF  DOMESTIC   SUBJECTS.     By  (Mrs) 
MARGARET     M'KILLOP,     M.A.    (Dublin).      Oxford 
Ho  nour  Schools  of  Natural  Science  and  of  Mathematics.         65 
vii 


viii  CONTENTS 


Fellow  and  Tutor  of  University  of  London  King's 
College  for  Women  ; 

and 

E.  BEATRICE  HOGG,  first  -  class  Diploma,  National 
Training  School  of  Cookery.  Instructress,  London 
County  Council  Probationary  and  Training  Centres, 
Examiner  in  Domestic  Subjects  to  the  City  and 
Guilds  of  London  Institute,  the  Nautical  School 
of  Cookery,  etc.  Some  time  Hon.  Sec.  London 
Branch,  Assistant  Teachers  of  Domestic  Subjects  .  65 

TABLE  I.  SHOWING  THE  COST  AND  DURATION  OF 
EDUCATION  IN  ARTS  AND  SCIENCE,  AND  THE 
SCHOLARSHIPS  AVAILABLE  FOR  WOMEN  STUDENTS 
AT  THE  VARIOUS  BRITISH  UNIVERSITIES.  Reprinted 
(with  additions),  by  special  permission,  from  the 
pamphlet,  "  Openings  for  University  Women,"  pub- 
lished by  the  Central  Bureau  for  the  Employment  of 
Women  for  the  Students'  Careers  Association  .  .  82 

TABLE  II.  SHOWING  SOME  ADDITIONAL  POST-GRADUATE 
RESEARCH  SCHOLARSHIPS  IN  ARTS  AND  SCIENCE 
AVAILABLE  FOR  WOMEN  STUDENTS,  AWARDED  BY 
BODIES  OTHER  THAN  UNIVERSITIES  OF  THE  UNITED 
KINGDOM.  Compiled  (with  additions)  by  special  per- 
mission, from  the  "  Report  on  the  Opportunities  for 
Post-Graduate  Work  open  to  Women"  published  by 
the  Federation  of  University  Women  .  .  .  .136 


II.  THE  MEDICAL  PROFESSION  INCLUDING 
DENTISTRY.  Sub  -  Editor  :  CHRISTINE  M. 
MURRELL,  M.D.,  B.S.,  London,  Assistant  Medical 
Officer  of  Health  (Special  Schools)  London  County 
Council  ;  Lecturer  and  Examiner  on  Adolescence, 
Health,  First  Aid,  Infant  Care,  etc.,  London  County 
Council  and  Battersea  Polytechnic,  Honorary  Medical 
Officer,  Paddington  Creche,  and  for  Infant  Con- 
sultations, North  Marylebone ;  late  Medical  Registrar 
and  Electrician  and  late  Resident  House  Physician, 
Royal  Free  Hospital 137 

I.  MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY.    By  the  Sub-Editor      .        .      137 

II.  DENTAL  SURGERY.      By    (Mrs)    Eva    M.   HANDLEY 
READ,  M.R.C.S.,  L.R.C.P.,  L.S.A.,  L.D.S.     Dental 


CONTENTS  ix 

SECTION  PAGE 

Surgeon  to  the  Royal  Free  Hospital,  the  Margaret 
M 'Donald  Baby  Clinic,  and  the  Cripple  Hostel 
Camberwell.  .  .  ' 167 

III.  THE  NURSING  PROFESSION  TOGETHER  WITH 
MIDWIFERY  AND  MASSAGE.  Sub  -  Editor : 
CHRISTINE  M.  MURRELL. 171 

PREFACE.     By  the  Sub-Editor 171 

I.  GENERAL  SURVEY  AND  INTRODUCTION.     By  E.   M. 

MUSSON,  Matron  of  the  General  Hospital,  Birmingham       172 

II.    NURSING     IN    GENERAL    HOSPITALS.      By    E.    M. 

MOSSON 181 

III.  NURSING  IN  PRIVATE   HOMES  AND  CO-OPERATIONS. 

By  GERTRUDE  TOWNEND,  Sister  in  her  own  Nursing 
Home ;  late  Deputy  -  Sister,  St  Bartholomew's 
Hospital ;  late  Matron,  Royal  Ear  Hospital,  Dean 
Street.  . 184 

IV.  NURSING  IN  POOR  LAW  INFIRMARIES.     By  ELEANOR 

C.  BARTON,  President  of  the  Poor  Law  Infirmary 
Matrons'  Association 187 

V.  NURSING  IN  FEVER  HOSPITALS.     By  S.  G.  VILLIERS, 

Matron  of  the  South-West  Fever  Hospital    .        .         .191 

VI.  DISTRICT  NURSING.  By  AMY  HUGHES,  General  Super- 
intendent of  the  Queen  Victoria  Jubilee  Institute  for 
Nurses 194 

VII.  NURSING  IN  SCHOOLS  AND  NURSES  AS  INSPECTORS. 

By  H.  L.  PEARSE 198 

VIII.  NURSING   IN   HOSPITALS   FOR    THE   INSANE.      By  a 

Matron  of  one  of  them 201 

IX.  NURSING  IN  THE  COLONIES.  By  A.  FRICKER,  Matron 
of  the  Colonial  Hospital,  Trinidad,  under  the  Colonial 
Nursing  Association 205 

X.  NURSING  IN  THE  ARMY  AND  NAVY.    By  the  Sub-Editor      208 
XI.  PRISON  NURSING.     By  the  Sub-Editor  ....      209 

XII.  MIDWIFERY  AS  A  PROFESSION  FOR  WOMEN  (OTHER 
THAN  DOCTORS).  By  ANNIE  M'CALL,  M.D.,  Senior 
Medical  Officer  and  Lecturer,  Clapham  Maternity 


x  CONTENTS 

SECTION  PAGE 

Hospital  and  School  of  Midwifery  ;  late  Lecturer  in 
and  Demonstrator  of  Operative  Midwifery,  London 
""  School  of  Medicine  for  Women  ;  Examiner,  Central 
Midwives'  Board  ;  Vice-Chairman  of  the  Committee  of 
the  London  County  Council  for  the  Supervision  of 
Midwives  in  the  County  of  London  ....  209 

XIII.  MASSAGE.     By  EDITH   M.  TEMPLETON,  Secretary  of 

the  Incorporated  Society  of  Trained  Masseuses    .        .      217 

IV.  WOMEN  AS  SANITARY  INSPECTORS  AND 
HEALTH  VISITORS.  By  (Mrs)  F.  J.  GRKEN- 
WOOD,  Sanitary  Inspector,  Metropolitan  Borough  of 
Finsbury,  late  Chief  Woman  Inspector,  Sheffield ; 
Associate  Royal  Sanitary  Institute ;  Certificate,  Central 
Midwives'  Board  ;  Diploma,  National  Health  Society  .  221 

V.  WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE  .        .        .        .235 

I.  THE  HIGHER  GRADES  :  PRESENT  POSITION  AND 
PROSPECTS  FOR  THE  FUTURE.  By  a  Woman  Civil 
Servant  , 235 

II.  THE  LOWER  GRADES  AND  THE  PRESENT  POSITION. 

By  Another  Woman  Civil  Servant     ....       260 

VI.  WOMEN     CLERKS     AND     SECRETARIES.       By 

(Mrs)  ELSPETH  KEITH  ROBERTSON  SCOTT         ,        .      280 

VII.  ACTING  AS  A  PROFESSION  FOR  WOMEN.     By 

LENA  ASHWELL 298 

APPENDIX  I.    SCHEME  OF  WORK  OF  THE  FABIAN 

WOMEN'S  GROUP 315 

APPENDIX  II.  LATEST  CENSUS  RETURNS  OF  WOMEN 
WORKERS  IN  THE  SEVEN  PROFESSIONS  CON- 
SIDERED IN  THIS  BOOK 317 


\ 


FOREWORDS 

ON  BEHALF  OF  THE  STUDIES  COMMITTEE  OF  THE 
FABIAN  WOMEN'S  GROUP 

THE  present  economic  position  of  women  bristles 
with  anomalies.  It  is  the  outcome  of  long  ages 
of  semi-serfdom,  when  women  toiled  continuously 
to  produce  wealth,  which,  if  they  were  married, 
they  could  enjoy  only  at  the  good  pleasure  of  their 
lords,  —  ages  when  the  work  of  most  women  was 
conditioned  and  subordinated  by  male  dominance. 
Yet  in  those  days  the  working  housewife  com- 
manded the  consideration  always  conceded  to  a 
bread-winner  —  even  when  dependent.  In  modern 
times  women's  economic  position  has  been  under- 
mined by  the  helpless  dependence  engendered 
amongst  the  well-to-do  by  "parasitism"  resulting 
from  nineteenth  -  century  luxury  —  to  quote  the 
striking  word  of  Olive  Schreiner.  Similarly, 
dependence  has  been  forced  upon  large  sections  of 
women-folk  amongst  the  manual  workers  by  the 
loss  of  their  hold  upon  land  and  by  the  decay  of 
home  industries.  Now  a  new  force  is  at  work  : 
the  revolt  of  the  modern  woman  against  parasitism 
and  dependence  in  all  their  forms  ;  her  demand  for 
freedom  to  work  and  to  choose  her  sphere  of  work, 
as  well  as  for  the  right  to  dispose  of  what  she 
gains. 

Six  years  ago  some  women  of  the  Fabian 
Society,  deeply  stirred  by  the  tremendous  social 
import  of  this  movement,  banded  themselves 
together  to  unravel  the  tangled  skein  of  women's 

xi 


xii  FOREWORDS 

economic  subjection  and  to  discover  how  its  knots 
were  tied.  The  first  step  was  to  get  women  to 
speak  out,  to  analyse  their  own  difficulties  and 
hindrances  as  matters  boldly  to  be  faced.  What- 
ever the  truth  may  turn  out  to  be  with  regard  to 
natural  and  inevitable  differences  of  faculty  between 
men  and  women,  it  is  at  least  certain  that  difference 
of  sex,  like  any  other  persistent  condition  of 
individual  existence,  implies  some  difference  of 
outlook.  The  woman's  own  standpoint — that  is 
the  first  essential  in  understanding  her  position, 
economic  or  other :  the  trouble  is  that  she  has 
but  recently  begun  to  realise  that  she  inevitably 
has  a  standpoint,  which  is  not  that  of  her 
husband,  or  her  brother,  or  of  the  men  with 
whom  she  works,  or  even  that  which  these 
persons  imagine  must  naturally  be  hers.  Her 
point  of  view  is  her  own,  and  it  is  essential 
to  social  progress  that  she  shall  both  recognise 
this  fact  and  make  it  understood. 

The  aim  of  the  Fabian  Women's  Group  was 
to  elicit  women's  own  thoughts  and  feelings  on 
their  economic  position,  and  to  this  end  we  invited 
women  of  experience  and  expert  knowledge,  from 
various  quarters  and  of  many  types  of  thought, 
to  discourse  of  what  they  best  knew  to  audiences 
of  women.  After  the  lectures,  the  questions  raised 
were  discussed  in  all  their  bearings  by  women 
speaking  amongst  women  without  diffidence  or 
prejudice.  In  this  manner  the  physical  disabilities 
of  women  as  workers  have  been  explained  clearly 
by  women  doctors,  and  carefully  and  frankly 
weighed  and  considered  ;  the  part  taken  by  women 
in  producing  the  wealth  of  this  country  in  past 
times  has  been  set  forth  by  students  of  economic 
history,  and  much  scattered  material  of  great  value 
unearthed,  and  for  the  first  time  brought  together 
concerning  a  subject  hitherto  deemed  negligible 


FOREWORDS  xiii 

by  the  male  historian.  Lastly,  women  employed  in 
or  closely  connected  with  each  leading  occupation  or 
group  of  occupations  to-day — from  the  professions 
to  the  sweated  industries  —  are  being  asked  to 
describe  and  to  discuss  with  us  the  economic  con- 
ditions they  have  directly  experienced  or  observed.1 

It  is  hoped  in  time  to  complete  and  shape 
for  publication  all  the  material  accumulated 
during  these  six  years.  We  make  a  beginning 
with  this  book  of  essays  on  the  economic  position 
of  women  in  seven  of  the  leading  professions 
at  present  open  to  them.  Some  of  the  papers 
appear  almost  in  the  form  in  which  they  were 
first  read  to  the  group  and  its  women  visitors : 
when  the  original  lectures  did  not  fully  cover  the 
ground,  they  have  been  revised,  altered,  expanded, 
or  re-written,  or  essays  by  new  writers  have  been 
substituted  for  those  originally  presented.  Thus 
the  papers  on  "  Teaching  in  Secondary  Schools  "  by 
Dr  O'Brien  Harris  and  that  on  "Teaching  in 
Elementary  Schools  "  by  Mrs  Dice,  take  the  place 
of  an  address  on  "  The  Life  of  a  Teacher,"  by 
Miss  Drummond,  President  of  the  Incorporated 
Association  of  Assistant  Mistresses.  This  paper 
was  withdrawn  at  the  writer's  request,  but  many 
valuable  points  from  her  lecture,  which  she 
generously  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Editor, 
have  been  embodied.  The  other  papers  in  the 
Education  Section  are  all  new.  Similarly,  in  the 
section  which  deals  with  the  profession  of  Nursing, 
Miss  Hughes'  paper  on  "  District- Nursing"  is  the 
only  one  which  is  based  on  a  lecture  given  to 
the  group  ;  the  other  articles  are  all  supplementary. 
Together,  we  believe  they  form  a  unique  and  almost 
exhaustive  description  of  the  profession. 

That  the  volume  might  be  made  as  useful  as 

1  For  an  analysis  of  the  whole  scheme  of  work  of  the  Fabian 
Women's  Group,  see  Appendix  I. 


xiv  FOREWORDS 

possible,  the  same  method  has  been  followed 
throughout.  The  paper  and  discussion  at  the 
group  meeting  have  formed  the  nucleus  from  which 
a  thorough  treatment  of  the  subject  has  been 
developed. 

We  hope  and  believe  that  this  book  may  help  to 
arouse  deeper  interest  in  the  vigour  and  energy  with 
which  professional  women  are  now  striving  to  make 
good  their  economic  position ;  that  it  may  serve  to 
enlist  active  sympathy  with  their  struggle  against 
the  special  difficulties  and  hindrances  which  beset 
them,  and  make  plain  the  value  to  society  of  the 
work  they  can  do.  We  also  believe  that  the 
information  here  brought  together  may  be  useful 
in  helping  young  women  to  choose  and  prepare 
for  their  life-work. 

No  pains  have  been  spared  to  make  the  book  as 
accurate  as  possible,  and  to  bring  it  in  every  case 
up  to  date. 

It  should  be  clearly  emphasised  that  each 
contributor  to  this  volume  has  expressed  her 
own  opinions  freely  and  independently,  and  that 
the  writers  have  been  selected  because  they  are 
leading  members  of  their  respective  professions, 
not  because  they  represent  a  particular  school  of 
thought.  We  have  endeavoured  to  get  our 
material  from  the  most  authoritative  quarters, 
irrespective  of  the  personal  views  of  those  who 
have  supplied  it.  All  the  writers  have  given 
generously  of  their  time  and  labour  in  order  that 
they  might  contribute  to  an  investigation  of  pro- 
found social  and  national  importance — the  clear 
presentation  of  the  economic  position  of  women  as 
it  appears  to  women  themselves.  Widely  different 
as  are  the  professional  interests  and  divergent 
the  opinions  of  the  writers  of  these  essays, 
no  one  can,  as  we  think,  read  consecutively  the 
various  sections  of  the  book  without  arriving  at  the 


FOREWORDS  xv 

conclusion  that,  on  certain  fundamental  questions, 
there  is  substantial  agreement  among  them.  Almost 
all,  as  a  result  of  their  professional  experience, 
definitely  express  the  conviction  that  women  need 
economic  independence  and  political  emancipation  : 
nowhere  is  there  any  hint  of  opposition  to  either  of 
these  ideals.  The  writers  are  unanimous  in  their 
insistence  upon  the  importance — to  men  as  well 
as  to  women — of  equal  pay  for  equal  work,  irre- 
spective of  sex.  Wherever  the  subject  of  the 
employment  of  married  women  is  mentioned — and 
it  crops  up  in  most  of  the  papers — there  is  adverse 
comment  on  the  economically  unsound,  unjust,  and 
racially  dangerous  tendency  in  many  salaried 
professions  to  enforce  upon  women  resignation  on 
marriage.  It  is  clear  that  professional  women  are 
beginning  to  show  resentment  at  the  attempt  to 
force  celibacy  upon  them  :  they  feel  themselves 
insulted  and  wronged  as  human  beings  when,  being 
physically  and  mentally  fit,  they  are  not  permitted 
to  judge  for  themselves  in  this  matter.  Apart  from 
their  righteous  indignation,  it  may  be  suggested 
that,  even  from  the  ratepayers'  point  of  view,  the 
normal  disabilities  of  motherhood,  with  the  con- 
sequent leave  of  absence,  would  probably  in  the 
long  run  be  less  expensive  than  the  dismissal,  at 
the  zenith  of  their  powers,  of  experienced  workers, 
who  have  to  be  replaced  by  younger  and  less 
efficient  women.  It  is,  moreover,  a  truism  that 
the  best  work  is  produced  by  the  most  contented 
worker.  A  fundamentally  happy  woman,  con- 
tinually strengthened  and  refreshed  by  affectionate 
companionship,  is  obviously  better  able  to  endure 
the  strain  of  professional  work  than  her  unmarried 
sister,  who  at  best,  is  deprived  of  the  normal  joys 
of  fully  -  developed  womanhood.  The  action  of 
Central  and  Local  Authorities  and  of  other  employers 
who  make  marriage  a  disability  for  their  women 


xvi  FOREWORDS 

employees,  is  alluded  to  by  our  contributors  with 
an  indignation,  the  more  striking  for  the  studied 
calm  with  which  it  is  expressed.1 

The  future  as  foreshadowed  in  these  papers 
seems  to  us  bright  with  hope.  In  spite  of 
difficulties,  opposition,  rebuffs,  and  prejudice,  pro- 
fessional women  workers  are  slowly  but  surely 
advancing  in  status  and  in  recognition.  They 
are  gaining  courage  to  train  themselves  to  claim 
positions  of  responsibility  and  command,  and  to 
refuse,  if  occasion  arises,  to  be  subordinated,  on 
the  ground  of  their  womanhood,  to  men  less  able 
than  themselves.  They  are  learning  by  experi- 
ence,— many  have  already  learned, — the  need  for 
co-operation  and  loyalty  to  one  another.  While 
they  are  thus  gaining  new  and  valuable  qualities, 
they  have  never  lost,  in  spite  of  many  hardships, 
the  peculiar  joy  and  lofty  idealism  in  work  which 
are,  in  part,  a  reaction  from  ages  of  economic  and 
personal  dependence. 

1  In  Western  Australia  the  following  Amendment,  34OA.,  to 
the  Criminal  Code  has  passed  the  third  reading  in  the  Legislative 
Assembly,  and  is  expected  to  pass  the  Legislative  Council  before  this 
book  appears : — 

(1)  Any  person,  who,  either  as  principal  or  agent — 

(a)  Makes  or  enters  into  or  enforces  or  seeks  to  enforce  any 

rule,  order,  regulation,  contract,  agreement  or  arrange- 
ment in  restraint  of  or  with  intent  to  restrain,  prevent 
or  hinder  the  marriage  of  any  person  (N.B.  A  woman 
is  a  "  person"  in  Western  Australia)  who  is  in  his  employ- 
ment or  in  the  employment  of  his  principal,  and  is  of 
the  age  of  twenty-one  years  or  upwards  ;  or 

(b)  Dismisses   or  threatens  to  dismiss  any   person  from  his 

employment  or  the  employment  of  his  principal,  or  alters 
or  threatens  to  alter,  any  such  person's  position  to  the 
prejudice  of  such  person  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  such 
person  has  married  or  intends  to  marry,  or  with  a 
view  to  restrain,  prevent,  or  hinder  such  person  from 
getting  married  ; 

is  guilty  of  an  offence,  and  is  liable  to  imprisonment  for 
three  months,  or  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  five  hundred 
pounds. 

(2)  The  provisions  of  this  section  shall  apply  to  corporations  so 

far  as  they  are  capable  of  being  applied. 


WOMEN    WORKERS    IN    SEVEN 
PROFESSIONS 

SECTION   I 

THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

"  All  stood  thus  far 

Upon  equal  ground  :  that  we  were  brothers  all 
In  honour,  as  in  one  community." 

I 

INTRODUCTION 

UNTIL  recently,  girls  who  desired  to  earn  their 
livelihood  drifted  naturally  into  teaching,  which 
was  often  the  last  refuge  of  the  destitute.  Even 
nowadays,  it  is  taken  too  much  for  granted  that 
some  form  of  teaching  is  the  obvious  opening 
for  educated  women,  who  aspire  to  economic 
independence.  But,  thanks  to  various  causes 
and  developments,  it  is  now  almost  universally 
recognised  that  teaching  is  a  profession,  and  one 
which  can  be  entered  only  by  candidates,  who  are 
properly  equipped  and  trained.  In  a  book  such 
as  this,  it  may  then  be  assumed  that  the  elderly 
governess,  driven  to  teach  by  poverty  and  lack  of 
friends,  with  no  qualifications  but  gentility,  good 
manners,  good  principles,  and  a  humble  mind,  is 
a  figure  which  is  mercifully  becoming  less  and  less 
common.  It  is  still  necessary,  however,  to  insist 
on  the  fact  that  brains  and  education  and  train- 
ing are  not  by  themselves  sufficient  to  produce  a 
successful  teacher.  Quite  literally,  teaching  is  a 
"calling "  as  well  as  a  profession  :  the  true  candidate 

I  A 


2  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

must  have  a  vocation  ;  she  must  mount  her  rostrum 
or  enter  her  class-room  with  a  full  conviction  of 
the  importance  of  her  mission,  and  of  her  desire 
to  undertake  it.     This  earnest  purpose  should  not, 
however,  destroy  her  sense  of  humour  and  of  pro- 
portion ;    it   is  possible  to  take  oneself  and  one's 
daily  routine  of  work  too  seriously,  a  fault  which 
does  not  tend   to  impress  their  importance   on  a 
scoffing  world.     No  girl  should  become  a  teacher 
because  she  does  not  know  how  else  to  gain  her 
living.     The  profession  is  lamentably  overstocked 
with  mediocrities,  lacking  enthusiasm  and  vigour, 
drifting  more  and  more  hopelessly  from  one  post 
to  another.     But  there  is  plenty  of  room  for  keen 
and  competent  women,  eager  to  learn  and  to  teach, 
and  this  is  true  of  all  branches  of  the  profession, 
No  work  can  well   be    more  thankless,  more  full 
of  drudgery  and  of  disappointment  than  that  of  a 
teacher  who  has  missed  her  vocation.     Few  lives 
can  be  more  full  of  happy  work  and  wide  interests 
than  those  of  teachers  who  rejoice  in  their  calling. 
Yet  there  is  need  to  call  attention   to   certain 
drawbacks  which  are  common  to  all  branches  of 
the  profession.     As  a  class,  teachers  are  badly  paid, 
and    many   are    overworked.      The   physical   and 
mental  strain  is  inevitably  severe :  in  many  cases 
this  is  unnecessarily  increased  by  red-tape  regula- 
tions that  involve  loss  of  time  and  temper  and  an 
amount  of  clerical  work,  which  serves    no   useful 
purpose.      Teachers    need    to    concentrate     their 
energies  on  essentials :  of  these  the  life  intellectual 
is  the  most  important,  and  this,  however  elementary 
the  standard  of  work  demanded  in  class.     No  one 
can  teach  freshly  unless  she  is  at  the  same  time 
learning,  and  widening  her   own    mental   horizon. 
Too  many  forms  to  fill  up,  too  many  complicated 
registers  to  keep,  too  many  meetings  to  attend— 
these  things  stultify  the  mind  and  crush  the  spirit. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

They  are  not  a  necessary  accompaniment  of  State 
or  municipal  control,  though  sometimes  under 
present  conditions  it  is  hard  to  believe  that  they 
are  not  the  inevitable  concomitants  of  official  regula- 
tions. Anything  which  tends  to  make  teachers' 
lives  more  narrow,  is  opposed  to  the  cause  of 
education.  This  truth  should  be  instilled  into  all 
official  bosoms.  Wherever  the  State  or  the  local 
authority  intervenes,  wherever  public  money  has 
been  granted,  there  regular  inspection  obviously 
becomes  inevitable,  but  the  multiplication  of 
inspectors,  each  representing  a  different  authority, 
is  not  necessary  or  sensible.  At  present,  in  all 
grant  -  aided  institutions,  whatever  their  status, 
inspectors  do  not  cease  from  troubling,  and 
teachers  as  well  as  administrative  officers,  though 
weary,  find  no  rest.1  This  is  as  detrimental  to 
the  pupil  as  to  the  teacher,  for  it  lowers  the  in- 
tellectual standard  by  substituting  form  for  matter 
and  the  letter  for  the  spirit.  Thus  the  inspector 
of  an  art-school  who  enquires  only  about  what 
are  officially  termed  "  student  -  hours,"  and  not 
at  all  about  the  work  therein  accomplished,  does 
not  make  for  artistic  efficiency  either  in  teacher 
or  taught.  Yet  this  instance  is  of  very  recent 
occurrence,  and  there  are  countless  parallel  cases. 
No  wonder  the  Universities  demand  freedom  from 
State  control ;  no  wonder  Training  Colleges  and 
subsidised  secondary  as  well  as  elementary  schools 
groan  under  its  tender  mercies.  The  present  forms 
taken  by  this  control  are  mostly  obnoxious  to  all 
practical  educationists.  They  arise  from  lack 
of  trust  in  the  teaching  profession  on  the  part  of 
administrators — a  mistrust  which  it  is  of  primary 

1  The  ideal  inspector  is,  of  course,  a  help  and  not  a  hindrance  to 
the  teacher,  acting  as  a  propagator  of  new  ideas  and  bringing  into 
touch  with  one  another,  workers  who  are  widely  separated.  But  the 
reach  of  most  inspectors  far  exceeds  their  grasp. 


4  THE   TEACHING   PROFESSION 

importance  to  allay  by  increased  efficiency, 
independence,  and  organisation.  Nationalisation 
of  the  schools  is  necessary,  if  a  real  highway  of 
education  is  to  be  established  :  it  must  be  obtained 
without  irritating  conditions  which  make  freedom, 
experiment,  and  progress  too  often  impossible.  The 
task  before  the  teaching  profession  is  to  retain  full 
scope  for  initiative  and  experiment,  whilst  working 
loyally  under  a  public  body.  This  should  be  specially 
the  work  of  the  socialist  teacher,  while  the  socialist 
administrator  and  legislator  must  see  that  their 
side  of  the  work  leaves  full  room  for  individuality. 
In  the  following  section  it  is  obviously  impossible 
adequately  to  consider  all  branches  of  the  teaching 
profession,  and  it  has  therefore  been  thought  the 
wisest  course  to  select  the  leading  varieties  of  work 
in  which  women  teachers  are  engaged  and  to  treat 
them  in  some  detail.  The  writers  of  the  various 
articles  express  their  own  points  of  view,  gained  by 
practical  first-hand  experience  of  the  work  they 
describe.  Allowance  must,  perhaps,  in  some  cases 
be  made  for  personal  enthusiasm,  or  for  the  depres- 
sion that  arises  from  thwarted  efforts  and  unfulfilled 
ideals.  At  any  rate  no  attempt  has  been  made  to 
co-ordinate  the  papers  or  to  give  them  any  particular 
tendency.  As  a  result,  certain  deductions  may  be 
made  with  some  confidence.  Women  teachers  of 
experience  are  convinced  of  the  manifold  attrac- 
tions of  their  profession,  and  at  the  same  time  are 
alive  to  its  disadvantages  as  well  as  to  its  possi- 
bilities. Alike  in  University,  secondary  school,  and 
elementary  school  there  is  the  joy  of  service,  and 
the  power  to  train, 

"  To  riper  growth  the  mind  and  will. 

"  And  what  delights  can  equal  those 
That  stir  the  spirit's  inner  deeps, 
When  one  that  loves,  but  knows  not,  reaps 
A  truth  from  one  that  loves  and  knows  ?  " 


INTRODUCTION  5 

Of  all  teachers,  perhaps  she  who  elects  to  work 
in  an  elementary  school  is  in  this  respect  most 
fortunate  and  most  rich  in  opportunities,  since,  to 
many  of  her  children,  she  is  the  one  bright  spot  in 
their  lives,  the  one  person  who  endeavours  to  under- 
stand and  to  stimulate  them  to  the  effort  which  all 
normal  children  enjoy.  For  her,  too,  particularly  if 
her  work  lies  in  a  poor  district,  there  is  the  oppor- 
tunity, if  she  care  to  take  it,  for  all  kinds  of  social 
interests.  There  will,  of  course,  be  much  to  sadden 
her  in  such  experiences,  but  at  least  they  will  add  a 
sense  of  reality  to  her  teaching  which  will  keep  her 
in  close  touch  with  life.  She  will  find  that  there 
are  compensations  for  hard  work  and  red-tape 
regulations,  even  for  low  remuneration  and  slow- 
ness of  promotion.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that, 
inadequate  as  is  her  salary,  it  contrasts  not  unfavour- 
ably with  that  of  other  occupations  for  women,  e.g. 
clerkships  and  the  Civil  Service,  in  which  the  work 
is  in  itself  less  attractive.  As  compared  with  the 
assistant  mistress  in  a  secondary  school,  her  lot  is 
not  altogether  unenviable.  If  she  has  shorter 
holidays,  larger  classes,  and  at  the  worst,  but  by 
no  means  inevitably,  a  lower  stipend,  these  facts 
must  be  counterbalanced  by  remembering  that  she 
has  comparatively  few  corrections,  much  less  home- 
work, and  no  pressure  of  external  examining  bodies, 
that  her  tenure  is  far  less  insecure,  and  that  her 
training  and  education  have  been  to  a  very  large 
extent  borne  by  the  State  or  by  local  authorities. 

The  following  table  gives  the  approximate  cost 
of  College  education  for  elementary  teachers-in- 
training.  If  it  be  compared  with  the  expenses 
that  have  to  be  met  by  other  students  from  private 
sources  (vide  p.  7,  or,  in  greater  detail,  pp.  82 
et  seq.),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  elementary  teacher 
begins  her  career  with  a  substantial  subsidy  from 
the  State. 


THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 


Elementary  Teachers. 

The  following  is  a  typical  table  of  annual  cost  at  a  University  College 
which  provides  for  two-year  and  for  three-year  students.  The 
training  is  obtainable  at  slightly  lower  cost  to  students  in  some 
other  colleges. 


Grants  by  Board  of 
Education  to  College. 

Fees  payable  by  students 
to  College. 

Tuition. 

Maintenance. 

Tuition. 

Maintenance. 

Women    students 
in  residence 

£13 

£20 

£n 

From  £12  to 
^22  accord- 
ing to  accom- 
modation. 

(It  is  to  be 
for  m 
made 

Women  students 
living  at  home. 

noted  the 
en  studen 
practical 

£13 

it  the  Governn 
ts  in  residenc 
y  to  cover  ex 

420 
(paid  to 
student) 

lent  maint 
e  is  £40,  i 
penses.) 

£12 

enance  grant 
vhich  can  be 

Men  students  receive  ^25  maintenance  grant. 

Apparently  the  Government  policy,  as  evidenced 
by  its  maintenance  grants,  is  to  discourage  women 
students  from  entering  residential  colleges.  Yet 
it  is  a  well  -  known  fact  that  the  wear  and  tear 
involved  in  living  at  home  is  far  greater  than  at 
college — especially  for  women — and  the  educational 
advantages  correspondingly  fewer  than  those  result- 
ing from  residence. 

County  Councils  frequently  provide  "free  places" 
at  local  colleges,  together,  in  some  cases,  with 
supplementary  bursaries  for  maintenance.  Non- 
resident students — e.g.,  in  London — seldom  have 
any  out-of-pocket  expenses  for  their  actual  educa- 
tion. Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  education  up 

11  • 

to  college  age  is  free  to  junior  county  scholars  and 

to  bursars,  who  also  receive  small  grants  towards 
maintenance. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

•  ) 

"  -'       f* 
College  Fees  for  other  than  Elementary 

Teachers-in-  Training^ 

Oxford  and  Cambridge  Colleges        From  ,£90  to  ^105  a  year  for  a 

minimum  of  3  years  (of  24 
weeks). 

Other     Residential     Universities 

and  Colleges         .         .        .      From  ^52    to    ,£90   or  ^110  a 

year  for  a  minimum  of  3 
years  (of  30  to  35  weeks). 

Non-residential  Colleges      .        .      From   £20  to  ,£55  a  year  for  a 

minimum  of  3  years.  (The 
cost  of  maintenance  must  be 
reckoned  at  about  ^40  a 
year,  as  a  minimum.) 

Students  who  desire  to  do  advanced  work  will 
need  at  least  one,  and  probably  two,  additional 
years  at  the  University,  while  all  women  who 
intend  to  teach  in  schools  ought  also  to  spend 
one  year  in  training. 

A  large  number  of  County  Councils  provide 
"senior"  scholarships  to  cover  or  partially  to  cover 
college  fees.  In  some  counties  only  one  or  two 
such  scholarships  are  given  annually,  and  there 
is  severe  competition :  in  others  they  are  com- 
paratively easy  to  obtain,  though  there  are  never 
enough  for  all  candidates  who  desire  a  University 
education.  Most  of  these  scholarships  are  not 
renewable  for  a  fourth  year  of  training  —  an 
extremely  short-sighted  policy  on  the  part  of  the 
authorities. 

At  practically  every  University,  entrance  or 
other  scholarships  and  exhibitions  are  awarded 
annually.  Competition  for  these  is  usually  very 
severe,  and  they  are  extremely  difficult  to  gain. 
At  Oxford  and  Cambridge  only  quite  exceptional 
candidates  can  hope  to  secure  scholarships  at  the 
women's  colleges.  Moreover,  scholarships  seldom 
cover  the  complete  cost  of  maintenance  and  tuition  ; 
at  Oxford  and  Cambridge  they  never  do  so. 

1  See  table  at  end  of  section,  p.  82. 


8  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

Most  secondary  teachers,  then,  must  incur 
liabilities  varying  from  £60  to  ^350,  apart  from 
school,  holiday,  and  personal  expenses,  before  they 
obtain  their  first  degree.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
graduate  with  good  testimonials  can  very  often 
obtain  her  professional  training  at  comparatively 
small  cost  by  means  of  a  bursary :  with  luck,  she 
may  get  maintenance  as  well  as  free  tuition.  Every 
year,  however,  as  training  is  more  widely  recognised 
as  essential,  the  proportion  of  scholarships  avail- 
able becomes  smaller.  With  the  advent  of  the 
new  Teachers'  Register,  which  makes  training  in- 
dispensable after  1918,  girls  will  more  and  more 
often  be  obliged  to  find  means  to  pay  for  their  own 
training.  At  present  it  is  often  possible  to  borrow 
for  this  purpose  from  loan  societies  specially  formed 
to  meet  the  needs  of  women  preparing  to  enter 
professions. 

The  training  for  kindergarten  and  lower-form 
mistresses  is  less  expensive,  arduous,  and  lengthy. 
Students  are  required  to  give  evidence  of  having 
received  a  good  secondary  education  ;  they  can  then 
take  their  First  Froebel  Certificate  after  one  year, 
and  their  Higher  Froebel  Certificate  after  about 
two  years'  training.  The  cost  of  such  training  varies 
from  ^30  to  ^58  non-resident;  ^"120  to  ^150 
resident.  If  they  elect  to  go  to  the  House  of 
Education  at  Ambleside,  the  training  is  for  two 
years,  and  is  specially  suited  to  those  who  wish  to 
teach  in  private  families.  The  cost  amounts  to  yCgo 
a  year,  including  residence,  which  is  obligatory. 

Kindergarten  assistant-mistresses  usually  obtain 
from  £go  to  ^"100  salary  for  part-day  work,  while 
for  whole-day  work  the  rate  is  the  same  as  that  of 
their  colleagues.  Mistresses  in  charge  of  a  large 
kindergarten  department  often  receive  additions  to 
their  stipend  if  they  are  willing  to  train  student- 
mistresses  for  Froebel  examinations. 


INTRODUCTION  9 

The  Ambleside  students  usually  teach  small 
private  classes,  or  accept  posts  as  resident 
governesses  in  families.  Their  remuneration  varies 
in  accordance  with  the  work  done,  but  it  is  usually 
about  the  same  as  that  received  by  kindergarten 
and  lower-form  mistresses. 

The  stipends  of  other  secondary  teachers  are 
considered  in  the  article  by  Dr  O'Brien  Harris 
(see  p.  32).  It  should  be  noted  that  in  good  private 
schools  where  the  standard  of  teaching  is  equally 
high,  the  salaries  are  approximately  on  the  same 
scale  as  in  public  schools.  But  private  schools 
vary  enormously  in  standing.  When  they  are 
inferior,  the  teachers  are  paid  miserable  pittances, 
and  are  often  worth  no  more  than  they  receive. 
Such  schools,  however,  are  rapidly  decreasing  in 
number,  since  they  cannot  survive  competition  with 
public  State-aided  schools.  The  best  private  schools, 
on  the  other  hand,  supply  a  real  need,  and,  as  a 
large  proportion  of  their  pupils  do  not  enter  for 
public  examinations,  it  is  possible  in  them,  to  make 
valuable  experiments  which  could  not  easily  be  tried 
in  larger  subsidised  institutions. 

In  boarding  -  schools,  the  conditions  do  not 
markedly  differ  from  those  obtaining  in  day-schools. 
The  chief  danger  is  lest  the  teachers  should  suffer 
from  the  strain  of  supervision-duties  in  addition  to 
their  work  in  school.  But  in  the  better  schools  this 
is  avoided  by  the  appointment  of  house-mistresses, 
the  teaching  staff  living  apart  from  the  girls,  either 
in  lodgings  or  in  a  hostel  of  their  own.  When  they 
"live  in,"  the  value  of  their  board  for  the  school 
terms  is  usually  reckoned  at  about  ^40  a  year, 
which  is  deducted  from  the  ordinary  salary  of  an 
assistant.  The  cost  of  living  in  a  mistresses'  house 
is  usually  higher,  but  there  are  many  counter- 
balancing advantages,  the  chief  of  which  is  complete 
freedom  when  school  duties  are  over. 


io  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

It  would  not  be  surprising  if  all  women  who 
have  incurred  the  heavy  expenses  of  preparation  for 
a  teaching  career,  were  dissatisfied  with  the  very 
small  return  they  may  expect  by  way  of  salary. 
Certainly  if  we  judged  by  the  standard  of  payment, 
the  profession  might  well  appear  unimportant. 
Men  and  women  alike  receive  inadequate  remunera- 
tion in  all  its  branches,  but,  as  in  other  callings, 
women  are  worse  paid  than  men.  One  might 
imagine  that  the  training  of  girls  was  less  arduous 
or  less  important  than  that  of  boys,  since  no  one 
suggests  that  women  teachers  are  less  conscientious 
or  less  competent  than  their  male  colleagues.  Now 
that  at  every  stage  co-education  of  the  sexes  is 
becoming  less  unusual,  it  is  wise  policy  in  the 
interests  of  men  as  well  as  of  women,  to  make  the 
standard  of  remuneration  depend,  not  on  the  sex 
of  the  worker,  but  on  the  quality  of  the  work. 
Otherwise  men  will  gradually  be  driven  from  the 
profession,  as  is  already  the  tendency  in  the  United 
States  of  America  and,  to  some  extent,  in  elementary 
teaching  in  this  country.  Needless  to  say,  the 
women's  salaries  need  levelling  up :  it  would  be 
hopeless  policy  to  reduce  the  men's  maxima  to  those 
of  the  women.  In  many  secondary  schools  and  in 
at  any  rate  some  elementary  ones,  there  is  too 
great  a  discrepancy  between  the  salary  of  the  head 
and  that  of  the  assistants.  Here  again,  teachers 
might  endeavour  to  arrive  at  some  united  expression 
of  opinion.  All  would  probably  agree  that  the 
profession  should  be  entered  for  the  sake  of  the 
work  itself,  and  not  on  the  remote  chance  of 
becoming  a  head-mistress.  But  while  the  difference 
in  salary  is  very  great,  it  is  inevitable  that  ambitious 
teachers  must  aspire  to  headships,  even  though 
they  be  better  suited  to  class  work. 

Finally,  it  may  be  repeated,  that  with  all   its 
drawbacks,   the   teaching  profession   has   much  to 


WOMEN  AT  THE   UNIVERSITIES         n 

recommend  it  to  those  who  desire  to  make  it  their 
life-work.  It  is  not  suited  to  all  comers :  it  makes 
heavy  demands  on  mind  and  body  and  heart ;  it 
gives  little  material  return.  But  it  gives  other 
returns  in  generous  measure.  For  teachers  it  is 
less  difficult  than  for  most  people  to  preserve 
their  faith  in  human  nature,  less  impossible,  even 
in  the  midst  of  daily  routine,  to  believe  in  the 
dignity  of  labour,  and  to  illuminate  it  with  the  light 
of  enthusiasm  and  aspiration. 

".'»..  whether  we  be  young  or  old 

Our  destiny,  our  being's  heart  and  home, 
Is  with  infinitude,  and  only  there ; 
With  hope  it  is,  hope  that  can  never  die, 
Effort,  and  expectation  and  desire, 
And  something  evermore  about  to  be." 

II 

WOMEN  AT  THE  UNIVERSITIES  AND  UNIVERSITY 
TEACHING  AS   A  PROFESSION 

When  a  girl  is  about  to  leave  school  at  the  age 
of  seventeen  or  eighteen,  she  is  often  as  little  able 
to  determine  what  profession  she  wishes  to  adopt, 
as  is  her  brother  in  similar  case.  If  she  is  intelli- 
gent, well-trained  and  eager  to  study,  her  natural 
impulse  is  to  go  to  college,  and  to  get  there,  it  is 
still  usually  the  line  of  least  resistance  to  say  that 
she  wishes  to  become  a  teacher.  When  there  are 
pecuniary  difficulties  in  the  way,  the  decision  must 
be  taken  still  earlier.  The  unfortunate  child  in  the 
elementary  school  used  to  be  compelled  to  make  her 
choice  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen,  often  to  find 
later  on,  when  the  first  barriers  of  pupil-teaching 
and  King's  Scholarship  were  surmounted,  that  she 
was  not  really  suited  to  her  profession  or  that 
continued  study  was  uncongenial.  Even  now,  when 
the  system  is  different  and  better,  children  are  bound 


12  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

too  early  by  a  contract  they  find  it  hard  to  break. 
It  cannot  be  too  often  insisted  that  every  intelligent 
child  who  is  worthy  of  a  junior  or  senior  scholar- 
ship, is  not  therefore  of  necessity  predestined  to  the 
profession  of  teaching — a  profession  so  arduous,  so 
full  of  drudgery  and  of  disappointment  that  it  should 
be  entered  by  those  only  who  are  sure  of  their 
mission,  and  full  of  the  spirit  that  makes  learning 
and  teaching  a  lasting  joy. 

There  should  be  other  paths  from  elementary 
and  secondary  school  to  the  University  than  that 
which  leads  to  the  teacher's  platform. 

Moreover,  granted  that  the  desire  to  teach  is 
a  real  one,  and  that  the  girl  has  aptitude,  it  ought 
still  to  be  unnecessary  to  choose  a  particular  branch 
of  the  profession  before  she  has  become  an  under- 
graduate. A  University  career  means,  among  other 
things,  the  discovery  of  new  powers,  new  interests, 
and  opportunities ;  sometimes  it  brings  with  it  the 
painful  conviction  that  aspiration  has  outstripped 
capacity.  The  bright  girl  who  has  excelled  at 
school,  may  find  that  she  is  unfitted  for  independent 
honour  work :  she  is  not  necessarily  worse  on  that 
account,  but  she  must  substitute  some  other  plan 
for  her  ambition  to  become  a  "specialist."  The 
slow  plodder  who  could  never  trust  her  memory  at 
school,  may,  at  College,  discover  unsuspected  powers 
of  investigation  and  co-ordination  which  mark  her 
out  for  some  branch  of  higher  study.  The  University, 
the  first  contact  with  a  more  independent  and  larger 
life,  is  the  "  testing-place  for  young  souls"  :  students 
should  enter  its  portals  as  free  women,  the  world  all 
before  them  where  to  choose.  In  many  cases  not 
until  the  first  degree  is  taken,  has  the  proper  time 
come  to  determine  finally  the -profession  which  is 
to  be  adopted.  This  is  the  ideal — for  most  people 
admittedly  a  far  away  one  at  present.  But  even 
now,  the  would-be  teacher  should  not  be  asked  to 


WOMEN  AT  THE   UNIVERSITIES         13 

decide  earlier  than  this  on  the  particular  branch  of 
the  profession  which  she  is  to  enter.  The  average 
pass  graduate  will  do  best  to  fit  herself  as  an  all- 
round  form  mistress  :  there  should  be  no  reason  to 
determine  in  what  type  of  school,  elementary  or 
secondary.  The  training  required  should  be  the 
same  if  the  classes  were,  as  they  ought  to  be,  of 
manageable  size,  and  the  equipment  in  both  types  of 
institution  equally  good.  Teachers  in  both  kinds 
of  school  would  benefit  if  the  present  absurd  division 
between  them  ceased  to  exist.  Children  under 
fourteen  require  similar  discipline  whatever  their 
social  status :  even  if  the  subjects  taught  are  to 
differ  somewhat — a  matter  which  is  controversial 
and  need  not  be  discussed  here — the  teachers  need 
similar  training  and  the  same  kind  and  amount  of 
academic  education.  Until  these  are  secured,  there 
can  be  no  real  equality  of  opportunity  for  the 
elementary  school  child :  only  the  very  best 
intellects  in  the  class  of  60  can  hope  to  compete 
with  the  average  individually  educated  child  in  the 
form  of  20  or  30 — and  this  is  true  whatever  the 
merits  and  enthusiasm  of  the  teacher. 

Some  girls  will  welcome  the  larger  opportunities 
for  social  service  which  are  open  to  the  elementary 
school-teacher :  others  will  prefer  and  be  better 
suited  to  the  conditions  of  the  secondary  school. 
Clearly,  the  student,  whose  expenses  have  been 
defrayed  by  the  Government  on  condition  that 
she  enters  its  service,  must  fulfil  her  undertaking : 
but  that  should  not  in  itself  limit  her  to  one  type 
of  school  in  these  days  of  grant-aided  institutions.1 
The  new  four-year  course  makes  it  possible  for  her, 
as  for  independent  students,  to  train  in  the  year 
subsequent  to  taking  a  degree — an  essential  reform 
if  the  old  over-strain  and  rush  are  to  be  avoided.  It 

1  Her  local  authority  may,  however,  have  claims  upon  her,  if  she 
has  promised  to  teach  in  an  elementary  school. 


14  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

is  generally  accepted,  and  in  girls'  secondary  schools 
commonly  acted  upon,  that  professional  training  for 
one  year  after  graduation,  is  indispensable.  The 
teacher  is  born,  not  made,  but  she  needs  help  if 
she  is  to  avoid  mistakes  equally  disastrous  to  her- 
self and  her  pupils :  she  requires  some  knowledge 
of  child-character,  some  acquaintance  with  the 
history  and  theory  of  education,  some  leisure  to 
formulate,  some  opportunity  to  consider  the  aims 
as  well  as  the  methods  of  her  teaching.  We  have, 
perhaps,  passed  beyond  the  stage  when  it  is  necessary 
further  to  discuss  the  value  and  effect  of  train- 
ing. It  is  still  desirable  to  emphasise  the  fact  that 
the  untrained  woman  teacher  finds  it  increasingly 
difficult  to  obtain  satisfactory  and  well-paid  school 
posts.1  Girls  should  endeavour  by  every  means  in 
their  power  to  secure  this  fourth  year  at  college, 
which  is  essential  to  their  competency  and  to  security 
of  employment.  It  would  also  be  well  to  impress 
on  county  councils  that  their  work  is  but  half  done 
if  they  continue  to  refuse  a  renewal  of  scholarships 
for  training  to  those  who  have  taken  a  degree. 

Students  who  have  graduated  with  honours 
will  have  to  decide  before  they  begin  to  train, 
whether  they  wish  to  become  specialist  teachers 
and  whether  they  have  sufficient  intellectual  capacity 
to  do  so.  Generally  speaking,  a  student  who  has 
obtained  third  -  class  honours  will  do  better  to 
prepare  herself  for  ordinary  form  work ;  she  is  not 
likely  to  obtain  control  of  the  teaching  of  her  own 
subject  in  a  first-rate  school,  though  doubtless  she 
will  often  get  the  opportunity  to  take  some  classes 
under  the  direction  of  the  specialists.  Graduates 
in  high  honours  will  usually  desire  to  devote  them- 
selves mainly  to  the  subject  in  which  they  have 
proved  their  ability,  and  their  training  must  be 

1  Trained  teachers  only,  men  and  women,  will  be  admitted  to  the 
new  Register. 


WOMEN   AT  THE   UNIVERSITIES         15 

adapted  to  their  end.  Modern  language  or 
English  specialists  will  need  practical  training  in 
phonetics,  for  example  :  mathematicians  require  to 
study  modern  methods  of  teaching  their  subject, 
and  so  forth.  The  best  training  colleges,  of  course, 
provide  for  such  cases ;  in  this  respect,  University 
training  -  departments  have  the  advantage  over 
others,  since  they  can  secure  the  services  of  experts 
for  the  discussion  of  their  own  subjects. 

There  remains,  lastly,  the  case  of  the  student 
who,  while  definitely  desiring  to  teach,  wishes  at  the 
same  time  to  go  on  with  her  own  work,  to  under- 
take research  or  advanced  or  independent  study. 
Such  an  one  will  aim  at  a  University  or  College 
appointment,  in  the  hope  of  pursuing  her  own 
work  under  congenial  conditions.  At  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  a  woman  is,  at  this  stage  and  always, 
definitely  at  a  disadvantage  by  reason  of  her  sex. 
For  her  there  are  scarcely  any  fellowships  or  post- 
graduate scholarships,  and  too  often  the  promising 
scholar  is  caught  up  in  the  whirl  of  teaching  for 
her  daily  bread  at  the  very  moment  when  it  is 
most  necessary  for  her  to  have  leisure  and  ease  of 
mind.  Few  things  are  more  required  in  women's 
education  at  the  moment  than  liberal  endowments 
for  post-graduate  study.  The  comparatively  new 
Federation  of  University  Women  Graduates  has 
done  good  work  by  making  a  list1  of  the  oppor- 
tunities available  for  women  graduates,  either  by 
open  competition  or  otherwise,  at  the  various 
Universities  and  elsewhere  :  it  has  also  founded, 
and  twice  awarded,  an  annual  fellowship  for  a 
woman  who  has  already  published  a  distinguished 
contribution  to  learning.  But  much  more  is  needed 
in  this  direction  if  women  are  to  have  the  same 
chances  as  men  to  qualify  themselves  for  the  higher 
university  appointments.  At  almost  all  the  new 
1  See  tables  at  the  end  of  this  section,  pp.  82  to  136. 


THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

t%  » 

,:Y>V  Universities  men  and  women  are  nominally  alike 
eligible  for  every  teaching  post.  In  practice, 
women  are  rarely  if  ever  selected  for  the  higher 
positions.  Sex  prejudice  undoubtedly  counts  for 
something  in  this  result.  It  may  be  assumed  that, 
with  two  candidates  of  equal  merit,  preference  will 
certainly  be  given  to  the  man  :  indeed,  it  is  certain 
that  a  woman  must  be  exceptionally  qualified  and 
far  more  distinguished  than  her  male  competitors 
to  stand  a  chance  of  a  professorial  appointment 
even  in  the  most  liberal  of  co-education  universities 
—Manchester,  for  example,  where  the  conditions 
are  exceptionally  good.  This  fact  should  not  deter 
fully  qualified  women  from  applying  for  professorial 
chairs.  The  power  of  suggestion  is  very  great, 
and  it  is  well  to  accustom  appointment  committees 
to  the  consideration  of  women's  claims :  in  time  it 
may  appear  less  strange  to  choose  a  strong  woman 
candidate  than  to  reject  her  in  favour  of  a  less 
qualified  male  applicant. 

It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  the  case 
does  not  at  present  often  arise.  The  girl  who  has 
had  a  brilliant  undergraduate  career,  and  who  has 
real  capacity  for  advanced  study,  exists  in  her 
hundreds.  But  in  almost  every  case  when  she  is 
not  financially  independent,  at  best  after  an  interval 
of  preparation  for  her  M.A.,  she  accepts  a  junior 
lectureship  or  demonstratorship,  and  from  that  time 
onwards  is  swallowed  up  in  the  vortex  of  teaching 
and  routine  work.  Often  she  makes  heroic  efforts 
and  succeeds  in  producing  independent  results,  but, 
so  far,  to  nothing  like  the  extent  that  would  be 
commensurate  with  the  promise  of  her  under- 
graduate achievement.  Generally  she  is  too  con- 
scientious about  detail,  too  interested  in  her 
students  individually  and  collectively,  to  secure 
sufficient  time  for  her  own  studies. 

If  a  lecturer  be  known  to  teach  between  twenty 


WOMEN   AT  THE   UNIVERSITIES         17 

and  thirty  hours  a  week,  it  is  tolerably,  though  not 
entirely,  safe  to  assume  that  it  is  a  woman  who  is 
so  foolish.  In  so  doing,  she  is  destroying  her 
chances  of  advancement  —  intellectual  and  pro- 
fessional— and  is  laying  her  whole  sex  open  to  the 
charge  of  being  unsuited  to  university  work  except 
in  its  lower  branches. 

It  is  certain  that  the  number  of  University 
appointments  open  to  women  is  on  the  increase, 
and  that  there  is  no  present  likelihood  that  the 
demand  for  qualified  women  will  remain  stationary. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  necessary  qualifications, 
personal  as  well  as  intellectual,  are  high ;  the  work 
is  hard,  though  attractive,  and  it  is  in  every  respect 
undesirable  that  those  whose  talents  can  better  be 
exerted  in  other  branches  of  the  profession  should 
endeavour  to  obtain  College  posts.  Roughly 
speaking  such  openings  are  of  four  kinds : — 

(i)  Administrative  posts.  These  are  usually 
the  reward  of  long  and  successful  service  in  junior 
appointments.  The  heads  of  the  various  women's 
University  Colleges  are  often,  but  by  no  means 
invariably,  well  paid,  and  may  look  forward  to  a 
salary  ranging  from  £400  to  ;£i,ooo.  Such  posts 
are  obviously  few  in  number  and  entail  hard 
work  and  grave  responsibility.  They  necessarily 
preclude  much  time  for  research,  or  even  for 
teaching.  The  corresponding,  but  much  less 
responsible,  influential,  and  well-paid  position  in  a 
co-educational  University  is  that  of  Dean  or  Tutor  of 
Women  Students.  This  post  is  usually,  and  should 
always  be  held  by  a  woman  of  senior  academic 
standing,  whose  position  in  the  class  -  room  or 
laboratory  commands  as  much  respect  as  her 
authority  outside.  The  Dean  or  Tutor  is  respon- 
sible for  the  welfare  and  discipline  of  all  women 
students,  and  is  nowadays  usually  a  member  of  the 
Senate  or  academic  governing  body.  Sometimes 


18  THE   TEACHING   PROFESSION 

she  is  also  Warden  of  a  Women's  Hostel,  but  this 
is  obviously  undesirable  if  there  be  more  than  one 
Hall  of  Residence,  lest  she  may  appear  to  favour 
her  own  students  at  the  expense  of  the  others. 

(2)  Professorial  posts  and  Staff  Lectureships.1 
These   are   almost  entirely  confined  to   Women's 
Colleges,  though  there  are  a  very  few  exceptions 
to    this   rule.      The    University   of    London    has 
established  University  Professorships  and  Reader- 
ships at  the  various  constituent  Women's  Colleges.2 
One  of  the  former  and  several  of  the  latter  are 
held  by  women  who   have   been   appointed   after 
open   competition.     In    addition,    a    woman,    Mrs 
Knowles,  holds  a  University  Readership  at  the  co- 
educational London  School  of  Economics.     There 
are  also  one  or  two  women  professors  at  the  newer 
Universities,    but    these   as    a    rule    retain    their 
positions  by  right  of  past  service  in  a  struggling 
institution,  not  as  a   result   of  open   competition, 
when    University   status    had   been    attained    and 
reasonable   stipends  were  offered   to  new-comers. 
The  National  University  of  Ireland  has,  however, 
appointed  several  women  professors  at  its  various 
constituent  Colleges. 

Salaries  probably  range  from  ,£300  to  £joo,  the 
better  paid  posts  as  yet  very  seldom  falling  to  women. 

(3)  Lectureships,    assistant    lectureships,     and 
demonstratorships.      These    are    usually   open   to 
women  in  practice  as  well   as   in   theory,   though 
much  depends  on  the  personal  idiosyncrasy  of  the 
head  of  the  department,  and  on  the  importance  of 

1  On  the  Continent  even  in  Germany,  and  in  the  U.S.A.  several 
women  have  been  elected  to  University  chairs. 

a  Dr  Benson,  Staff  Lecturer  at  Royal  Holloway  College,  was 
raised  to  the  status  of  University  Professor  of  Botany  in  1912  with- 
out open  competition  ;  Dr  Spurgeon  was  appointed  to  the  new 
University  Chair  of  English  Literature,  tenable  at  Bedford  College 
as  from  ist  September  1913,  after  open  competition.  These  professor- 
ships are  the  only  two  held  by  women  at  the  University  of  London 
but  there  are  several  women  Readers. 


WOMEN   AT  THE   UNIVERSITIES         19 

the  post  and  the  salary  offered.  But  since  it  is, 
unhappily,  often  easy  to  secure  an  able  woman  for 
the  same  stipend  as  that  which  must  be  offered  to 
an  inexperienced  man,  fresh  from  college,  difficulties 
are  not,  as  a  rule,  placed  in  the  way  of  such 
appointments.  The  salary  begins  at  about  ^150 
(sometimes  less),  and  rises  normally  to  about  ^"200 
or  £250.  A  few  senior  and  independent  lecture- 
ships are  better  remunerated. 

(4)  Closely  allied  with  University  work  is  the 
work  of  training  teachers.  In  Training-Colleges, 
and  in  University  training-departments  there  is 
a  constant  demand  for  lecturers  and  mistresses  of 
method.  These  posts,  which  are  remunerated  on 
about  the  same  scale  as  other  University  lecture- 
ships, are  well  suited  to  those  whose  interest  lies 
mainly  in  purely  educational  matters.  Girls  who 
have  obtained  good  degrees,  but  who  do  not  wish 
to  devote  themselves  entirely  to  scholarship,  will 
find  here  an  attractive  and  ever-extending  sphere 
of  influence.  Lecturers  in  Training-Colleges  must, 
of  course,  themselves  hold  a  University  teaching- 
diploma  :  they  should  have  school  experience  of 
various  kinds,  and  they  must  be  enthusiastic  in 
the  cause  of  training  and  of  teaching.  For  com- 
petent and  broad-minded  women  there  are  many 
openings  in  this  branch  of  the  profession,  and 
there  is  much  scope  for  independent  and  original 
work  in  many  directions.  The  training  of  teachers, 
as  well  as  actual  teaching,  is  of  the  nature  of  scientific, 
experimental,  and  observational  work.  Lecturers  in 
Training-Colleges  most  of  all,  but  to  a  large  extent 
teachers  of  every  degree,  must  be  students  of 
psychology  and  of  human  nature.  Mistresses  of 
Method  are  well  aware  that  the  ideal  type  of  train- 
ing has  not  yet  been  evolved  :  they  are  seeking 
new  ways  of  carrying  on  their  work  and  experi- 
menting with  new  methods  at  the  same  time 


20  THE   TEACHING   PROFESSION 

as  they  are  guiding  others  along  paths  already 
familiar  to  themselves.  This  absence  of  finality, 
characteristic  of  the  teaching  profession  as  a  whole, 
and  constituting  one  of  its  chief  attractions,  is 
especially  noticeable  in  all  work  connected  with 
the  training  of  teachers. 

Senior  appointments  at  all  properly  constituted 
Universities  are  of  life  tenure — nominally  until  the 
age  of  sixty-five,  though  probably  earlier  retirement 
will  be  made  possible.  They  are  made  by  the 
Council,  which  usually  entrusts  the  election  either 
to  the  Senate  or  to  a  committee,  on  which  are 
representatives  of  both  the  Council  and  the  Senate. 
Unfortunately  this  procedure  is  not  universal,  and 
the  teachers  are  not  invariably  consulted  in  their 
official  capacity.  Junior  appointments,  while  subject 
to  ratification  by  the  Council,  are  usually  made  in 
the  first  instance  by  the  head  of  the  department 
concerned,  usually,  but  not  invariably,  after  consulta- 
tion with  the  Dean  of  the  Faculty  or  the  Vice- 
Chancellor.  They  are  sometimes  of  three  years' 
tenure  with  or  without  possible  extension,  sometimes 
subject  merely  to  terminal  notice  on  either  side. 

In  the  last  four  or  five  years  contributory 
pension  schemes  for  the  professorial  body  and 
for  permanent  assistants  in  receipt  of  a  specified 
income  (usually  ^250  or  £200  and  upwards)  have 
been  compulsorily  established  at  all  British  Uni- 
versities in  receipt  of  a  Government  grant.  In 
June  1913,  the  Advisory  Committee  on  the 
Distribution  of  Exchequer  Grants  to  Universities 
and  University  Colleges  laid  on  the  table  of  the 
House  of  Commons  a  scheme  which  came  into 
force  on  2Qth  September,  and  is  compulsory  on 
every  member  of  the  staff  entering  a  University 
after  that  date  at  a  salary  of  ^300  or  upwards. 
Members  appointed  at  salaries  of  between  £200 
and  ^300  have  the  option  of  joining  the  scheme, 


WOMEN  AT  THE   UNIVERSITIES         21 

while  those  appointed  at  salaries  of  between  £160 
and  ^200  may  join  with  the  consent  of  the  institu- 
tion. Members  of  existing  schemes  are  entitled  to 
join  under  similar  conditions.  Special  facilities  are 
given  for  the  transference  of  policies  from  one 
University  to  another,  since  the  view  is  taken  that 
the  teachers  in  all  the  Universities  constitute  a  pro- 
fession comparable  with  the  Civil  Service,  and  that 
transference  from  one  University  to  another  should 
not  be  accompanied  by  a  financial  penalty  any  more 
than  is  transference  from  one  Government  office  to 
another. 

A  competent  girl  who  can  bide  her  time  can 
usually  get  a  footing  in  some  University.  Her 
future  advancement  will  depend  on  her  value  to 
the  institution,  on  her  original  writing  and  research 
even  more  than  on  her  teaching,  work  on  committees 
and  influence  with  the  students.  Largely,  too,  it 
will  depend  on  her  tact  and  popularity  with  her 
colleagues  :  to  a  very  considerable  extent  it  still 
rests  also  on  conditions  over  which  she  has  no 
control,  and  which  are  part  and  parcel  of  the  slow 
recognition  of  a  woman's  right  to  compete  on  equal 
terms  with  men. 

It  seems,  as  far  as  can  be  judged,  that  future 
opportunities  are  likely  to  occur  when  the  right 
candidates  for  posts  are  there  in  sufficient  numbers 
to  make  their  exclusion  on  the  ground  of  sex, 
already  seldom  explicitly  stated,  impossible  or 
inexpedient.  Meanwhile  it  is  probable  that  in- 
dividual women  will  continue,  in  some  cases,  to 
suffer  injustice,  while  in  others,  by  virtue  of  their 
unquestionable  attainments  and  strength  of  person- 
ality, they  may  attain  the  positions  they  desire. 
Slow  progress  is  not  altogether  bad  for  the  ultimate 
cause  of  women  at  the  Universities  :  nothing  could 
injure  that  cause  so  much  as  mistakes  at  the  initial 
stage.  An  important  appointment  given  to  the 


22  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

wrong  woman,  or  to  one  in  any  respect  inferior  to 
her  colleagues,  would  be  used  as  an  argument 
against  further  experiment  for  many  years. 

University  women  teachers  can  best  help  to 
secure  equality  of  opportunity  by  rendering  them- 
selves indispensable  members  of  the  body  corporate. 
In  their  case  much  is  required  of  those  to  whom 
little  is  given.  Above  all  they  must  avoid  the 
temptation  to  live  entirely  in  the  absorbing  interests 
of  the  present :  they  must  remember  that  it  is  the 
business  of  a  University  to  make  contributions  to 
learning  as  well  as  to  teach.  Secondly,  they  must 
insist  on  equality  of  payment  and  status  when 
there  is  any  disposition,  overt  or  acknowledged, 
to  differentiate  on  the  score  of  sex.  It  is  not  right 
to  yield  on  these  points,  for  an  important  principle 
is  at  stake.  On  the  other  hand  the  time  and  place 
for  insistence  must  be  wisely  selected,  and  any  claim 
made  must  be  incontrovertible  on  the  score  of 
justice  and  practicability.  Lastly,  women  on  com- 
mittees and  elsewhere  are  not  justified  in  keeping 
unduly  in  the  background.  When  they  have  some- 
thing worth  contributing  to  the  discussion,  it  is  not 
modesty  but  lack  of  business  capacity,  which  makes 
them  silent.  "  Mauvaise  honte "  is  as  much  out 
of  place  as  undue  pertinacity.  Women  who  are 
unwilling  or  unable  to  assert  themselves  when 
necessary,  are  not  in  place  at  a  co-educational 
University.  Most  women,  however,  will  derive 
intellectual  stimulus  from  the  free  interchange  of 
opinion,  possible  only  when  both  sexes  are  work- 
ing happily  together,  with  common  interests  and 
common  aims. 

If  relatively  too  much  space  in  this  article  has 
been  given  to  women's  work  at  mixed  Universities, 
the  excuse  lies  ready  to  hand.  In  Women's  Colleges 
there  is,  of  course,  no  sex  bar,  and  the  way  lies  clear 
from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  ladder.  Con- 


WOMEN   AT  THE   UNIVERSITIES         23 

ditions  of  appointment,  tenure,  and  work  do  not 
greatly  differ  from  those  described,  except  in  so 
far  as  the  stipends  tend  to  be  lower,  especially 
for  more  responsible  posts,  when  these  are  ordinarily 
occupied  by  women.  It  is  a  sign  of  the  times  that 
in  at  least  one  Women's  College  in  a  mixed  Uni- 
versity, it  has  been  recently  necessary  to  rule  that 
posts  are  open  to  men  as  well  as  to  women,  unless 
it  is  specially  stated  to  the  contrary.  Thus,  when 
the  power  is  theirs,  women  also  may  be  unwisely 
tempted  to  erect  a  new  form  of  sex  barrier.  To  do 
so  would  be  to  play  into  the  hands  of  those  enemies 
who  are  always  raising  the  voice  against  equal  pay 
for  equal  work.  The  most  suitable  candidate  for  a 
post  is  the  one  who  should  be  selected,  irrespective 
of  sex.  It  is  this  principle  that  women  are  endeavour- 
ing to  establish.  They  must  do  so  by  scrupulous 
fairness  when  the  power  is  theirs :  by  making  them- 
selves indisputably  most  fitted,  when  they  are  knock- 
ing at  the  closed  door. 

One  further  topic  needs  discussion  in  this 
section  —  the  continued  employment  of  married 
women  in  University  posts.  At  present  there  is 
no  universal  rule,  and  every  case  has  to  be  judged 
on  its  merits.  Every  lecturer  who  marries,  can  and 
ought  to  help  to  form  the  precedent  that  con- 
tinuance of  professional  work  is  a  matter  for  her 
own  decision  and  is  not  one  that  concerns  governing 
bodies.  Already  a  good  many  women,  mothers  as 
well  as  wives,  have  set  the  good  example  and  have 
established  their  own  position,  sometimes  without 
question,  sometimes  as  the  result  of  a  difficult 
struggle.  It  is  clear  that  Universities,  with  their 
long  vacations,  and  with  their  established  recog- 
nition of  long  absences  for  specified  purposes,  have 
less  ground  than  most  employers  to  raise  difficulties 
for  married  women.  Thus  the  holder  of  an  A.  K. 
scholarship  may  travel  for  a  year,  in  order,  by  the 


24  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

wise  provision  of  the  founder,  to  enlarge  his  or  her 
mind  and  bring  back  new  experience  to  University 
organisation,  research,  and  teaching.  The  woman 
who  fulfils  the  claims  of  sex,  and  to  do  so  journeys 
into  the  realm  where  life  and  death  struggle  for 
victory,  cannot  thereby  be  unfitted  for  the  profession 
for  which  she  has  qualified.  Enlargement  of  mind 
and  new  experience  will  help  her  too,  in  the  daily 
routine.  It  is  for  her  alone  to  decide  whether  new 
claims  and  old  can  be  reconciled.  If  in  practice  in 
an  individual  case  they  cannot,  then  and  only  then 
has  the  University  or  College  a  right  to  interfere, 
and  on  no  other  ground  than  that  the  work  suffers. 
Since  women  workers  are  as  a  rule  only  too  con- 
scientious, this  contingency  is  unlikely  often  to  arise. 


Ill 
SECONDARY   SCHOOL  TEACHING 

The  girls'  secondary  day  schools  of  this  country, 
largely  built  up  in  the  first  place  by  the  individual 
pioneer  work  of  broad-minded  women  during  the 
last  thirty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  are  now 
in  most  cases  coming,  if  not  under  State  control,  at 
least  into  the  sphere  of  State  influence.  These 
women  educationists  in  some  cases  worked  on  old 
foundations,  in  others  obtained  from  guilds  or 
governors  a  share  for  girls'  education  of  funds 
previously  allocated  to  various  benefactions  or  to 
the  education  of  boys  only.  Private  enterprise, 
individual  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Girls'  Public  Day 
School  Company,  collective,  added  schools  in  most 
important  towns. 

Thus  by  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century 
there  was  provision  for  a  large  number  of  girls  of 
the  middle  class  up  to  eighteen  years  of  age,  in 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL  TEACHING        25 

schools  which  as  High  Schools  were  analogous  to 
the  Grammar  Schools  for  boys  dating  to  a  corres- 
ponding burst  of  educational  activity  rather  more 
than  three  centuries  earlier.  Dependent  on  the 
fees  of  their  pupils  or  on  special  funds  or  endow- 
ments, these  schools  could  not,  for  the  classes 
unable  to  pay  a  fee,  adequately  supplement  the 
elementary  schools  of  the  country,  which  provide 
for  such  children  education  at  most  up  to  fourteen 
or  fifteen  years  of  age.  The  Education  Act  of 
1902,  therefore,  placed  education  beyond  this  age 
in  the  hands  of  local  authorities,  the  Board  of 
Education  supplementing  the  rates  by  grants  for 
secondary  education  -  -  so  that  publicly  owned 
schools  have  been  started  by  municipalities  and 
County  Councils,  while  other  institutions  receive 
grants  on  certain  conditions. 

Schools  of  all  the  types  mentioned  and  a  few 
others,  providing  education  at  least  from  ten  to 
sixteen  (or  eighteen)  years  of  age,  are  known  as 
secondary  schools,  and  it  is  to  work  in  them  that 
this  article  refers.1  Various  as  may  be  their  origins, 
and  different  their  aims,  the  teachers  in  them  form 
a  fairly  homogeneous  group,  with  definite  points  in 
common,  resultingfrom  the  requirements  of  the  Board 
of  Education  for  the  earning  of  the  grant  now  paid 
to  most  of  these  schools,  or  for  the  register  in  force 
for  a  short  time — as  well  as  from  the  co-ordinating 
influence  of  membership  of  the  Headmistresses'  or 
the  Assistant  Mistresses'  Associations  and  other  pro- 
fessional and  educational  bodies,  and  of  educational 
literature  from  the  publications  of  the  Board  of 
Education  downwards. 

It  would  be  well  if  for  this,  as  for  other  parts  of 

1  "  A  secondary  school ...  is  a  school  which  provides  a  progressive 
course  of  general  education  suitable  for  pupils  of  an  age  -  range  at 
least  as  wide  as  from  twelve  to  seventeen"  (Board  of  Education, 
Circular  826). 


26  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

educational  work,  people  of  middle  age,  or  in  fact 
all  whose  school  days  lie  in  the  past,  would  dismiss 
their  ideas  gained  from  schools  of  even  the  end  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  and  realise  that  the  daily  life 
of  a  school  to-day  is,  in  most  cases,  very  different 
from  that  which  they  have  in  their  minds.  The 
time-table  and  the  class-room  work  may  not  appear 
dissimilar  to  the  casual  observer,  but  a  difference 
there  is,  nevertheless.  The  chief  alteration,  how- 
ever, is  that  a  girl's  education  is  increasingly  carried 
on  by  many  agencies  other  than  these.  In  the 
school  society  rather  than  in  the  class-room  lesson, 
at  net-ball  and  hockey  rather  than  in  the  drill  lesson, 
on  the  school  stage  or  in  the  school  choir  she  learns, 
rather  than  is  taught,  her  most  valuable  lessons. 
Examinations  still  exist,  it  is  true ;  but  these  come 
later  in  a  girl's  school  life,  and  are  more  frequently 
based  on  the  school  curriculum  and  held  in  the 
school  than  used  to  be  the  case. 

What  does  all  this  new  life  mean  in  the  work 
of  the  teacher  and  her  preparation  for  it? 

Miss  Drummond,  President  of  the  Incorporated 
Association  of  Assistant  Mistresses,  spoke  thus  on 
the  subject  * : — 

"  In  a  lesson  in  a  good  school  there  is  most  often  a 
happy  give  and  take  between  the  teacher  and  the  class. 
The  teacher  guides,  but  every  girl  is  called  on  to  take  her 
part  and  put  forward  individual  effort.  The  homework  is 
no  longer  mere  memorizing  from  some  dry  little  manual, 
but  requires  thought  and  gives  scope  for  originality.  The 
whole  results  in  a  rigorous  mental  discipline,  real  stimulus 
to  power  of  original  thought,  eager  enthusiasm  in  learning. 
...  It  means  an  enormously  increased  demand  upon  the 
teacher."  Again,  "  it  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that 
the  work  of  the  school  is  limited  to  lesson  hours.  We  aim 
not  only  at  giving  a  definite  intellectual  equipment  but  at 
producing  independence  and  self-reliance  together  with  that 

1  Lecture  on  "The  Life  of  a  Teacher"  given  to  the  Fabian 
Women's  Group,  1912. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL  TEACHING    27 

public  spirit  which  enables  a  girl  quite  simply  and  without 
self-consciousness  to  takeher  partin  the  life  of  a  community." 

Besides  games,  which  may  be  organised  by  a 
special  mistress  (see  p.  59)  or  by  ordinary  members 
of  the  school  staff, 

"  there  are  nearly  always  several  societies,  run  again  by 
the  girls  as  far  as  possible,  but  almost  always  with  the 
inspiration  and  sympathy  of  some  mistress  at  the  back  of 
them.  Thus  there  are  social  guilds  of  various  kinds. 
These  vary  from  mere  working  parties  for  philanthropic 
purposes  to  large  organisations  which  embrace  a  number 
of  activities.  .  .  .  Of  something  the  same  kind  are  the 
archaeological  and  scientific,  the  literary  and  debating 
societies.  . .  .  These  societies  are  among  the  most  interesting 
and  important  parts  of  the  work  of  a  teacher,  as  they  are 
also  among  the  most  exacting.  Games  and  societies  together 
tend  to  lengthen  the  hours  of  a  school  day,  but  even  on 
leaving  school,  her  work  is  not  finished.  There  are  always 
corrections  to  be  done.  .  .  .  Still  this  is  not  all  if  lessons 
are  to  be  kept  as  alive  and  stimulating  as  they  should  be. 
First  and  foremost,  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  the 
teacher  should  not  be  jaded.  She  must  get  relaxation, 
she  must  mix  with  other  people  and  exchange  ideas,  she 
must  go  about  and  keep  in  touch  with  all  kinds  of 
activities.  But  at  the  same  time  she  has  to  read  in  her 
own  subject,  she  has  to  keep  up  with  modern  methods  of 
teaching,  she  has  to  think  out  her  various  lessons." l 

Just  as  the  headmaster  of  a  public  school  often 
seeks  for  a  cricketer  rather  than  a  classical  scholar 
for  his  staff,  so  the  headmistress  thinks  not  only  of 
academic  attainments  but  seeks  for  an  assistant 
who  can  keep  going  a  school  society  or  a  magazine 
(while  leaving  it  in  the  hands  of  the  girls),  who 
enjoys  acting  and  stage  management,  who  can  take 
responsibility  for  a  dozen  girls  on  a  week's  school 
journey  (the  nearest  approach  to  camping  out — and 
experience  of  this  would  perhaps  be  a  recommenda- 
tion !).  She  wants  some  one  not  merely  to  teach 

1  Miss  I.  M.  Drummond,  loc.  cit. 


28  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

or  manage  or  discipline  girls,  but  a  woman  who 
can  share  the  life  of  the  girls,  or  at  least  under- 
stand it  well  enough  to  let  them  live  it. 

Not  that  the   intellectual   side   is  unimportant. 
A   University  degree  is   normally  required  in  an 
assistant  and  this  involves  a  three  or  four  years' 
course   of  considerable   expense  (see  p.   7).      An 
honours  degree  is  often  essential — always,   nowa- 
days, in  the  case  of  a  headmistress.     Whilst  well- 
trained  foreigners  hold  an  important  place  in  some 
schools,    modern    languages    are    more   frequently 
taught  by  an  Englishwoman  who  has  lived  abroad 
rather  than  by  a  foreign  governess ;  even  English, 
happily,   is   no   longer  entrusted   to   any  one    not 
specially  qualified.     As  will  be  seen  from  the  article 
on  domestic  work,  the  graduate  in  chemistry  has 
in   this   a   promising  field,    while    the   botanist   or 
zoologist  and  the  geologist  have  the  basis  on  which 
to  specialise  in  nature-study  or  geography.     This, 
however,  usually  comes  after  the  preliminary  general 
academic  training.     It  is  well  to  keep  up  a  many- 
sided  interest  apart  from  bread-and-butter  subjects, 
not  only  in  view  of  demands  that  may  be  made  on 
one,  but  because  the    intellectual  woman  will  best 
qualify  by  developing  her  own   powers  as  far  as 
possible.     If  of  the  right  calibre,  she  can  afterwards 
readily  take  up  even  a  new  subject  and  make  it 
her   own.      A    good  secondary  school  needs   that 
some  of  its  mistresses  should  have  the  habits  and 
tastes  of  the  scholar  who  loves  work  for  its  own 
sake,  or  rather  for  the  sake  of  truth.     A  woman 
with  strong  well-trained  intellectual  power  need  not 
fear  the  competition  of  even  the  capable  woman  of 
action  indicated  in  the  preceding  paragraph.     Both 
qualifications  may,  in  fact,  exist  in  the  same  person. 
The  woman  with  brains  is  indeed  needed  in  the 
schools.     The  work  of  women's  education  was  but 
begun  by  the  illustrious  pioneers  to  whom  reference 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL  TEACHING        29 

has  already  been  made.  There  are  to-day  many 
new  problems  to  solve,  new  difficulties  caused  by 
the  very  success  of  the  older  generation.  On  the 
one  hand  it  was  necessary  that  women  should  at 
first,  by  following  the  same  lines  as  men,  prove 
their  powers  on  common  ground ;  now  they  must 
find  whether  there  are  special  fields  for  them,  and 
how,  if  these  exist,  they  may  best  be  occupied. 
They  need  no  longer  be  afraid  to  emphasise  what 
was  good  in  the  old-fashioned  education  of  girls. 
Might  not,  for  example,  elocution  and  caligraphy 
with  advantage  re-appear  as  good  reading  aloud 
and  beautiful  penmanship  ? — just  as  physical  train- 
ing carries  on  the  lessons  of  deportment  and  the 
Domestic  Science  course  revives  the  lessons  of 
the  still-room,  the  kitchen,  and  the  store.  On  the 
other  hand,  under  the  existing  pressure  to  relieve 
the  burden  of  childhood,  women  must  see  to  it 
that  the  mothers  of  the  coming  generation  are 
not  sacrificed  to  the  earliest  stages  of  the  lives  of 
their  children  that  are  to  be.  The  motherhood  of 
women  and  their  home-making  powers  are  indeed 
to  be  developed,  but  not  at  the  expense  of  their 
own  lives  and  their  citizenship.  Women  educators, 
then,  must  take  what  is  good  in  boys'  education, 
what  has  been  good  in  girls',  and  must  utilise  both. 
This  work  is  great,  and  it  is  specially  difficult  because 
legislation  and  administration  are  almost  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  men.  Now  men  are  apt  to  take 
for  granted  either  that  girls  should  be  treated  just 
like  boys,  or  that  they  are  entirely  different  and 
are  to  be  brought  up  on  different  lines  ;  and  women 
who  see  the  truth  there  is  in  both  of  these  pro- 
positions are  hindered  alike  by  the  men  who  hold 
the  one  and  those  who  hold  the  other. 

The  pioneer  girls'  schools  of  the  nineteenth 
century  did  much  experimental  work  and  established 
the  right  of  individual  initiative  and  a  distinct  line 


30  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

of  work  for  each  school.  Perhaps  special  gratitude 
is  due  in  respect  of  this  to  the  governing  body 
of  the  Girls'  Public  Day  School  Trust,  since  its 
schools  were  numerous  enough  soon  to  create  a 
tradition  requiring  for  their  Headmistresses  great 
initiatory  power  and  considerable  freedom. 

"  This  freedom,"  writes  a  recently  retired  Headmistress 
of  thirty  -  six  years'  standing  (Mrs  Woodhouse,  late  of 
Clapham  High  School),  "  was  of  the  greatest  value  as  lead- 
ing to  differentiation  of  type  and  character  of  school.  It 
ensured  a  spirit  of  joy  in  work  for  the  whole  staff;  for  the 
Headmistress  and  her  band  of  like-minded  colleagues  were 
co-workers  in  experiments  towards  development  and 
sharers  in  the  realisation  of  ideals.  The  vitality  thus 
secured  has  been  appreciated  at  its  true  value  by  His 
Majesty's  Inspectors  when  in  recent  years  they  have 
come  into  touch  with  these  schools,  and  as  far  as  my 
experience  goes,  they  have  left  such  initiative  untouched." 

The  danger  resulting  from  the  progress  made 
in  education  during  the  twentieth  century  is  that 
secondary  schools,  coming  as  nearly  all  now  do 
under  the  cognizance  if  not  the  control  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  may  become  too  much  office- 
managed  and  State  -  regulated,  thus  losing  life  in 
routine.  The  task  of  resisting  this,  of  working 
loyally  with  local  and  central  government  depart- 
ments, and  yet  of  keeping  the  school  a  living 
organism  and  not  merely  a  moving  machine  is 
one  requiring  by  no  means  ordinary  ability.  Is 
there  not  here  a  call  to  women  of  the  highest 
power  and  academic  standing  ? 

It  is  true  that  the  direct  facing  of  these  wider 
problems  does  not  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  assistant 
mistress  in  her  earlier  years.  But  the  ambitious 
aspirant  to  a  profession  looks  to  the  possibility  of  a 
judgeship  or  bishopric  in  choosing  his  life-work.  The 
capable  woman  then  will  look  at  all  the  possibilities 
in  the  teaching  profession.  Long  before  she  is  Head- 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL  TEACHING        31 

mistress  she  will  have  made  her  mark  in  her  school 
—for  not  only  the  numerous  activities  mentioned  but 
also  the  organisation  of  ordinary  school  work  require 
initiative  and  self-reliance.  The  head  of  a  large 
school  is  only  too  glad  to  hand  over  to  a  competent 
assistant  the  organisation  of  her  own  department 
and  its  co-ordination  with  other  school  activities. 

Just  because  there  are  now  openings  in  other 
branches  of  work  for  women  of  the  highest  power, 
those  of  this  type  should  give  teaching  some  con- 
sideration. Since  it  has  ceased  to  be  the  only 
avenue  for  trained  and  educated  women,  it  is  no 
longer  so  crowded  with  them,  and  as  in  other 
callings,  there  is  plenty  of  room  at  the  top. 

In  addition  to  a  degree,  the  qualification  of 
training  is  a  strong  recommendation.1  It  involves, 
as  a  rule,  a  year  after  graduation,  in  special 
colleges  such  as  exist  in  Oxford,  Cambridge,  or 
London,  or  in  the  Secondary  Training  Depart- 
ment of  one  or  other  of  the  local  Universities. 
The  expense  varies,  usually  meaning  a  fee  of 
about  £10  to  .£30  in  addition  to  cost  of  living; 
so  that  a  fairly  expensive  year  intervenes  between 
graduation  and  the  commencement  of  a  salary. 
Alternatives  to  a  training-college  course  have  been 
recently  suggested  by  the  Board  of  Education,  and 
may  shortly  be  available.  During  the  training 
period  the  intending  teacher  must,  if  this  is  not 
already  determined,  decide  on  the  special  branch 
for  which  she  wishes  to  prepare,  according  to  her 
qualifications  and  the  needs  of  schools.  If  actual 
teaching  experience  can  first  be  obtained  for  two 
or  three  years,  it  enables  earning  to  begin  at  once 
and  greatly  increases  the  value  of  the  training 
taken  subsequently. 

1  By  the  Conditions  of  Registration  issued  November  1913,  one 
year's  training  will  be  required  for  all  entering  the  profession  after  the 
end  of  1918. 


32  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

The  secondary  teacher  thus  spends  from  three 
to  five  years  in  academic  and  professional  training  ; 
and  in  accordance  with  current  economic  ideas 
should  receive  a  salary  proportionate  to  the  outlay 
involved.  The  scheme  of  salaries  approved  by 
the  Assistant  Mistresses'  Association  in  January 
1912  suggests  ,£120  as  the  initial  minimum  salary 
(non-residential)  for  a  mistress  with  degree  and 
training,  rising  in  ten  years  to  ^220  in  ordinary 
cases,  to  ^250  where  "  positions  of  special  responsi- 
bility" are  occupied.  jCioo  to  ^180  is  suggested 
for  non-graduates.  "  These  salaries  are  higher  than 
those  provided  by  the  Girls'  Public  Day  School 
Trust,  and  other  governing  bodies  outside  the 
London  County  Council.  In  most  cases  £120  to 
^130  a  year  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average  for 
an  assistant  mistress."  l  Headmistresses'  salaries 
vary  from  ,£200  to,  at  least  in  one  exceptional 
case,  ^"1,500.  They  often  depend  in  part  on 
capitation  fees.  The  Headmistresses'  Association 
considers  that  the  minimum  should  be  ^300. 

In  secondary  schools  as  in  other  grades  of 
educational  work  the  salaries  of  women  are  lower 
than  those  of  men,  as  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
London  County  Council  scale  of  salaries. 


Men  :  Assistants     .  .  ;£i5°v£3°°  (or 

Heads           .  .  ^400-^600  (or  ^800) 

Women  :  Assistants  .  ^120-^220(01^250) 

Heads      .  .  £zQQ-£^SQ  (or  ^600) 


The  difference  between  the  salaries  of  heads 
and  assistants  is  in  many  cases  greater  than  is 
desirable.  Things  being  as  they  are,  it  is  well  that 
there  should  be  some  prizes  to  attract  ability  into 

1  Miss  I.  M.  Drummond  loc.  cit.  For  example,  a  science 
graduate  with  special  qualifications  in  geography,  three  years' 
experience,  and  a  training  diploma  has  recently  been  appointed  to 
a  leading  London  High  School  at  a  salary  of  £i  10,  with  no  agree- 
ment for  yearly  or  other  augmentation.  [EDITOR]. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL  TEACHING        33 

the  profession.  On  the  other  hand,  a  woman,  whose 
best  work  is  that  of  an  assistant,  should  not  be 
tempted  to  give  it  up  for  the  salary  of  a  head- 
mistress. The  assistant  has  the  opportunity  for 
closer  and  more  personal  touch  with  her  girls,  being 
intimately  responsible  for  a  smaller  number ;  she 
has  also  better  opportunities  for  working  out  the 
teaching  of  her  subject  and  improving  its  technique. 
Education  would  gain  if  more  of  the  ablest  teachers, 
specially  successful  in  one  or  other  of  these  directions, 
were  left  in  a  position  to  continue  this  work,  instead 
of  feeling  obliged  to  substitute  for  it  the  perhaps 
uncongenial  task  of  organisation  on  a  large  scale, 
and  that  contact  with  visitors,  organisers,  inspectors, 
committees,  and  the  public,  which  occupies  the  time 
of  the  heads  of  schools.  The  truth  of  this  is,  I  am 
told,  better  appreciated  in  Germany  than  in  this 
country. 

Since  local  authorities  took  over  the  work, 
secondary  teachers  have  gained  considerably  both 
as  regards  salaries  and  tenure.  They  are  now,  as 
a  rule,  better  paid  than  elementary  teachers,  which 
was  not  always  the  case  before  1902. 

The  tenure  of  the  teacher  varies  in  different 
schools.  It  is  now  less  common  than  formerly  for 
the  appointment  and  dismissal  of  the  staff  to  be 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Headmistress  ;  and 
assistants  are  thus  safe-guarded  against  possible 
unfair  and  arbitrary  action.  The  Headmistress,1 
however,  has  almost  invariably  a  preponderating 
voice  in  the  selection  of  her  staff — as  is  right  if 
the  school  is  to  be  a  living  organism,  not  merely 
one  of  a  series  of  machines  with  interchangeable 
parts ;  but  the  power  of  dismissal,  if  in  her  hands, 

1  The  practice  of  the  Girl's  Public  Day  School  Trust,  largely 
followed  by  other  governing  bodies,  is  to  give  the  Head  the  right 
of  nomination,  and  of  dismissal  during  the  probationary  period 
subject  to  the  veto,  rarely  exercised,  of  the  Committee. 

C 


34  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

is  usually  safe-guarded  by  the  right  of  appeal  to 
the  appointing  body — local  authority  or  board  of 
governors  as  the  case  may  be.  This  right  of 
appeal  should  be  universal,  and  formal  agreements 
should  in  all  cases  be  made.  (A  model  form  of 
agreement  has  been  drawn  up  by  the  Association 
of  Assistant  Mistresses.) 

Pensions  are  not  generally  provided  for  secondary 
teachers  ;  but  a  national  pension  scheme  for  them 
is  under  consideration,  and  there  is  hope  that  it  will 
not  be  long  delayed. 

The  poorer  members  of  the  teaching  profession 
come  under  the  National  Health  Insurance  Act 
and  are  provided  for  by  the  University,  Secondary 
and  Technical  Teachers'  Insurance  Society  which 
already  numbers  eleven  thousand  members.  This 
society  also  offers,  in  its  Dividend  Section,  to 
those  not  compulsorily  insured  the  opportunity  for 
voluntary  insurance  against  sickness.  Association 
among  secondary  teachers  has  been  considerably 
furthered  by  the  desire  to  qualify  for  membership 
in  the  Insurance  Society. 

The  distinctive  associations  for  secondary 
mistresses  are  the  Headmistresses'  Association  and 
the  Association  of  Assistant  Mistresses  in  Public 
Secondary  Schools.  These  are  concerned  with 
general  educational  as  well  as  professional  problems, 
and  their  opinion  is  sought  at  times  by  the  Board 
of  Education  with  regard  to  proposed  regulations. 
Each  of  them  is  represented  on  the  recently 
established  Registration  Council,  which  has  just 
reported  (November  1913). 

Membership  of  the  Teachers'  Guild  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  of  the  College  of  Preceptors, 
and  of  the  National  Union  of  Teachers  is  also 
open  to  secondary  teachers.  In  the  last  -  named 
they  may  join  hands  with  the  great  body  of 
elementary  teachers  ;  in  the  first  two  organisations 


SECONDARY  SCHOOL  TEACHING        35 

with  private  teachers  also.  There  are  also  associa- 
tions for  teachers  of  certain  subjects,  the  Ling 
Association  and  the  Association  of  Teachers  of 
Domestic  Subjects.  Membership  of  such  bodies 
as  the  Historical,  Geographical  and  various 
Scientific  Associations  is  valuable  because  not 
confined  to  teachers. 

Though  the  President  of  the  Association  of 
Assistant  Mistresses  has  said  that  "there  would 
be  a  strong  feeling  against  definite  organisation  for 
the  purpose  of  forcing  up  rates  of  remuneration," l 
yet  that  body  has  investigated  the  scales  of  pay 
offered  by  local  authorities,  and  writes  in  protest 
when  posts  are  advertised  at  low  rates. 

Under  present  conditions  the  principle  of  general 
equality  of  income,  not  yet  being  considered  as  a 
serious  proposition,  it  is  surely  economically  right 
for  the  teaching  profession  to  claim  remuneration 
sufficient  to  give  it  a  status  corresponding  to  the 
worth  and  dignity  of  its  work.  Above  all,  women 
not  entirely  dependent  on  their  earnings,  and  there- 
fore in  a  position  to  resist  under-payment,  should 
not  act  as  blacklegs  and  keep  down  the  rate 
for  others  dependent  for  a  livelihood  on  their 
occupation. 

Under-payment  for  teachers  means  a  narrower, 
more  anxious  life  than  should  be  theirs  who  are  to 
live  in  the  strongly  electric  atmosphere  of  a  body 
of  girls  and  young  women  and  yet  keep  a  calm 
serenity  of  spirit — a  life  less  full  than  is  essential 
for  those  who  have  to  give  at  all  times  freely  of 
their  best. 

Similarly,  in  order  that  the  fullest  possible  life 
may  be  open  to  the  woman  teacher,  it  seems  desirable 
that  continuance  in  the  profession  after  marriage 
should  be  more  usual  than  it  is.  Again,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  pupils  this  is  desirable.  Mrs 

1  Miss  I.  M.  Drummond  loc.  tit. 


36  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

Humphrey  Ward  is  not  the  only  opponent  of 
women's  suffrage  to  state  that  the  atmosphere  of 
girls'  schools  suffers  from  the  preponderating 
spinster  element.  Suffragists  may  for  once  join 
hands  with  her  and  urge  that  the  married  woman 
is  in  some  ways  better  suited  for  young  people  than 
her  unmarried  colleague.1  Often  the  most  valuable 
years  of  a  woman's  life  are  lost  to  the  school  by 
her  enforced  retirement  at  marriage.  She  gives 
to  it  her  younger,  less  experienced  years,  when  she 
knows  less  of  the  world,  less  of  the  problems  of 
the  household,  less  of  the  outlook  of  the  parents. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  parents'  point  of 
view  is  important  if  there  is  to  be  right  co-operation 
between  home  and  school.  To  the  teacher-mother 
there  will  come  an  altogether  new  power  of  under- 
standing, which  should  ultimately  compensate  the 
school  for  broken  time  during  the  earlier  years  of 
the  life  of  her  children.  Provision  for  absence  in 
these  cases  might  well  render  more  possible  pro- 
vision for  a  "rest-term"  or  a  WancUrjakr,  such  as 
should  be  possible  to  all  mistresses  at  intervals  in 
their  teaching  career.  Mistresses  are  not  as  a  rule 
aware  that  under  most  existing  agreements  they 

1  This  is  surely  a  better  solution  than  that  proposed  in  the 
November  1913,  Educational  Supplement  to  the  Times.  The 
suggestion  is  there  made  that  the  "  conventual  system "  prevailing 
in  some  girls'  boarding-schools  should  be  changed  by  having  Head- 
masters instead  of  Headmistresses.  The  writer  apparently  fails  to 
realise  that  one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  co-educational  schools 
is  to  attract  the  right  sort  of  mistress,  because  there  is  no  prospect 
that  she  may  ultimately  attain  a  headship.  The  same  danger  will 
inevitably  arise  in  any  schools  which  introduce  Headmasters.  If 
the  masculine  element  is  desirable,  and  we  agree  that  this  may  well 
be  so,  the  obvious  course  is  either  to  have  some  male  assistants,  or 
to  have  married  house-mistresses,  on  the  analogy  of  the  married 
house-master  at  boys'  schools.  A  still  better  solution,  in  our 
opinion,  is  co-education,  with  pupils  of  both  sexes,  a  mixed  staff, 
and  a  joint  Headmaster  and  Headmistress.  In  many  of  the  new 
County  and  Municipal  Secondary  Schools  this  innovation  has  been 
successfully  adopted,  though  the  Senior  Mistress  is  unfortunately  in 
all  cases  definitely  subordinate  to  the  Headmaster.  [EDITOR.] 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL  TEACHING      37 

may  claim  to  continue  their  work  after  marriage. 
They  would  in  a  large  number  of  cases  be  render- 
ing a  service  to  girls'  education  by  doing  so.  Many 
secondary  teachers  will  welcome  the  idea  that  they 
need  not  abandon  either  the  career  they  have 
chosen  or  the  prospect  of  their  fullest  development  as 
women.  The  teaching  profession  would  thus  retain 
many  valuable  members  now  lost  to  it  on  marriage, 
and  the  ranks  of  married  women  be  recruited 
by  many  well  suited  to  be  the  mothers  of  citizens. 
The  career  of  teaching  adolescent  girls  gives 
to  those  following  it,  in  the  daily  routine,  many 
experiences  which  others  seek  for  in  leisure  hours. 
The  woman  among  girls  has  the  privilege  of  hand- 
ing on  to  them  the  keys  to  the  intellectual  treasuries 
where  she  has  enriched  herself,  of  setting  their  feet 
in  the  paths  which  have  led  her  to  fruitful  fields. 
She  may  watch  over  the  birth  and  growth  of  the 
reasoning  powers  of  her  pupils  and  guide  them  to 
their  intellectual  victories,  initiating  them  into  the 
great  fellowship  of  workers  for  truth.  It  is  interest- 
ing but  it  is  not  easy  work.  We  have  seen  that 
the  material  recompense  of  the  teacher  is  not  great, 
and  if  she  looks  for  other  return  she  will  too  often 
be  disappointed.  And  yet  there  is  compensation. 
Here  as  elsewhere  he  that  saveth  his  life  shall  lose 
it ;  but  he  that  loseth  his  life  shall  indeed  find  it. 


IV 
ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL  TEACHING 

Progressive  women  to-day  resent  the  social 
system  which  requires  them  to  be  economically 
dependent  upon  others.  They  realise  that  social 
service  needs  labour  of  a  highly  skilled  variety,  and 
they  therefore  demand,  on  the  one  hand,  training  for 


38  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

their  work  as  a  guarantee  of  their  efficiency  in  its  per- 
formance, and,  on  the  other  hand,  monetary  payment 
and  security  of  tenure  as  guarantees  to  them  of 
economic  independence.  As  a  natural  corollary  to 
woman's  lack  of  political  power,  there  are  no  spheres 
of  professional  work  in  which  prevailing  conditions 
are  in  these  respects  completely  satisfactory. 
Perhaps  the  teaching  service  in  the  State  schools 
comes  nearest  to  complying  with  progressive 
demands :  at  any  rate  Government  recognises  the 
need  for  training,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  meets  its 
cost;  a  salary,  more  or  less  adequate,  is  paid  in  return 
for  the  teaching  given,  and  security  of  tenure  is,  with 
few  exceptions,  assured.  Again,  the  work  done  in 
the  State  schools  is  now  generally  and  rightly 
regarded  as  of  first  -  rate  importance  to  the  com- 
munity, and  therefore  as  meriting  national  gratitude 
in  the  form  of  Government  superannuation.  Popular 
prejudice  against  compulsory  education,  once  so 
strong,  may  now  be  said  to  have  disappeared,  and 
the  work  of  the  pioneers  who  endeavoured  to  create 
a  public  opinion  in  its  favour,  has  borne  fruit. 
To-day  the  parents'  attitude  towards  the  teacher 
is  normally  one  of  friendly  co-operation  and  respect, 
with  the  result  that  the  latter  is  fast  becoming  a 
powerful  factor  in  shaping  and  influencing  the 
democracy.  The  school  is  extending  its  influence 
in  every  sphere  which  touches  on  the  social,  physical, 
intellectual,  and  spiritual  well-being  of  the  people. 
Activities  which,  until  recently,1  were  associated  only 
with  institutions  distinctly  religious  in  character, 
are  now  regularly  connected  with  the  work  of 
primary  schools.  Thus  the  teacher  has  every 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  public  spirit,  within 

1  In  this  connection,  the  work  of  the  Care-Committees,  now  an 
integral  feature  of  the  elementary  education  system,  must  not  be 
forgotten.  It  will  be  fully  considered  in  a  later  volume  of  this  series. 
[EDITOR.] 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL  TEACHING      39 

school  and  without.  He  is  daily  confronted  with 
the  problem  of  evolving  and  developing  an  educated 
democracy,  which  will  demand  and  obtain  proper 
conditions  of  life. 

The  nature  of  the  work  asked  of  the  teachers  in 
primary  schools,  has  led  to  insistence  by  the  State 
on  the  necessity  for  their  professional  training,  as 
well  as  for  their  academic  proficiency.  These 
requirements  have  met  with  the  counter-demand 
on  the  part  of  the  teachers  in  State  schools,  for 
State  registration.  When  this  Register,1  now  in 
process  of  creation,  has  become  an  accomplished 
fact,  one  of  the  chief  remaining  obstacles  to  the 
progress  of  the  teaching  service  will  be  removed. 

It  is  now  time  to  turn  to  the  conditions  of 
training,  service,  and  remuneration  prevailing  in 
English  and  Welsh  elementary  schools.  The 
Scotch  service  differs  in  some  respects,  while  the 
state  of  primary  education  and  the  position  of 
elementary  teachers  in  Ireland2  are  altogether 
worse  than  in  Great  Britain. 

The  Board  of  Education  recognises  the  follow- 
ing grades  of  men  and  women  teachers  in  public 
elementary  schools  :  pupil  teachers,  bursars  and 
student  teachers,  uncertificated  teachers,  and 
certificated  teachers.  Women,  over  eighteen  years 
of  age,  who  have  been  vaccinated,  may,  without  any 
other  qualifications,  be  engaged  as  supplementary 
teachers,  although  the  Board  cannot  entertain  any 
application  for  the  recognition  of  men  in  this 
capacity.  A  supplementary  teacher  may  teach 
(i)  infants'  classes,  that  is  to  say,  classes  in  which 
the  majority  of  the  scholars  are  under  eight  years 

1  The  conditions  for  registration  were  issued  on  22nd  November 
1913,  after  this  book  had  gone  to  press.     [EDITOR.] 

2  Vide   Article    on    Education   in    Ireland,  by    May  Starkie   in 
The  New  Statesman  Supplement  on  "The  Awakening  of  Ireland," 
mh  July  1913.    [EDITOR.] 


40  THE   TEACHING   PROFESSION 

of  age,  or  (2)  the  lowest  class  of  older  scholars  in  a 
school  or  department  in  a  rural  parish,  if  the  average 
attendance  in  the  school  does  not  exceed  100. 

The  number  of  supplementary  teachers  employed 
in  the  schools  of  England  and  Wales  in  the  year 
1910-11  was  14,454. 

If  we  turn  to  uncertificated  teachers,  we  find 
that  during  the  year  1909-10  there  were  45,549 
employed  in  the  schools  of  England  and  Wales, 
and  that  this  number  was  increased  by  182  during 
the  year  1910-11.  Of  the  uncertificated  teachers 
of  England  in  the  year  1910-11,  5,106  were  men 
and  35,222  were  women. 

The  vast  majority  of  rural  schools  have  only  one 
certificated  teacher  on  the  staff,  and  in  hundreds 
of  rural  schools  the  head  teacher  is  not  certificated. 

The  following  statistics  with  regard  to  certifi- 
cated teachers  have  been  taken  from  the  published 
return  of  the  Board  of  Education,  1910-1 1  : l — 


England. 

Wales. 

Trained     . 
Untrained 

Men. 

Women. 

Men. 

Women. 

22,134 
9,060 

30,410 
33.121 

2,260 
539 

1810 

1598 

These  figures  show  that  of  men  teachers,  70  per 
cent,  in  England  and  81  per  cent,  in  Wales  are 
trained,  while  of  women  teachers  only  46  per  cent, 
in  England  and  51  per  cent,  in  Wales  are  trained. 

These  statistics  are  indicative  of  the  urgent 
need  for  total  abolition  of  uncertificated  and  supple- 
mentary teachers,  since  the  recognition  of  these 


1  Since  this  patper  was  written,  a  fresh  report  (Code  6707)  has  been 
published  by  the  Board  of  Education.  The  statistical  tables  do  not 
materially  differ  from  those  given  abov  e. 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL  TEACHING      41 

grades  offers  a  direct  incentive  to  girls  just  to 
bridge  over  the  period  between  leaving  school 
and  getting  married,  without  qualifying  even  for 
what  ought  to  be  regarded  as  the  lowest  ranks 
of  the  profession.  This  fact  is  at  once  realised, 
when  one  contrasts  the  percentage  of  women 
teachers  who  are  untrained,  viz.,  54  per  cent,  in 
England,  49  per  cent,  in  Wales,  with  the  corre- 
sponding figures  for  men  teachers,  viz.,  30  per  cent, 
in  England  and  29  per  cent,  in  Wales. 

Every  candidate  for  teachership,  who  has  passed 
through  a  Training  College,  is  required  by  the  Board 
of  Education  to  serve  in  a  recognised  school — a 
woman  for  five  out  of  the  first  eight  years  after 
leaving  College  ;  a  man  for  seven  out  of  the  first 
ten  years  after  leaving  College — or  pay  the  whole  or 
part  of  the  Government  grant  in  respect  of  College 
training.  But,  notwithstanding  this  agreement, 
enforceable  under  Act  of  Parliament,1  the  Board  of 
Education  neither  takes  steps  to  find  employment 
for  such  candidates  in  the  State  schools  of  the 
country,  nor  admits  any  responsibility  on  its  part 
for  the  conditions  under  which  teachers  are 
employed.  By  the  Education  Act  of  1902,  local 
authorities,  of  which  there  are  318,  were  made 
chiefly  responsible  for  the  work  of  education,  and 
it  is  these  local  authorities  who  lay  down  the 
conditions  of  appointment. 

This  refusal  by  the  Board  of  Education  of 
responsibility  for  appointments  and  conditions  of 
appointment  to  teaching  posts,  leaves  it  for  local 
authorities  to  fix  scales  of  salaries,  and  to  decide  such 
questions  as,  for  example,  whether  married  women 
teachers  shall  be  employed.  The  grave  effect  of 
this  state  of  things  on  the  economic  interests  of 
the  teachers  of  the  country  cannot  be  too  much 

1  On  the  other  hand,  the  Board  seldom  proceeds  against  teachers 
who  have  broken  their  bond.     [EDITOR.] 


42  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

emphasised,  having  regard  to  the  fact  that  local 
authorities  are  bodies  composed  mainly  of  men 
elected  on  a  rate-saving  principle. 

The  salaries  paid  to  bursars  and  student 
teachers  are  insufficient  to  cover  charges  for 
maintenance,  clothes,  books,  etc.  Speaking  gener- 
ally, a  quite  substantial  sum  must  also  be  found 
during  each  year  of  the  collegiate  course,  for 
college  expenses  and  for  board  and  lodging  during 
vacations,  so  that  a  candidate's  parents  must  hold 
themselves  financially  responsible  for  her  during 
the  various  stages  of  her  training,  except  in  so 
far  as  the  cost  is  covered  by  scholarship  and 
maintenance  grants.  Women  candidates  are  in 
this  respect  far  worse  off  than  their  male  colleagues, 
as,  at  every  stage  of  their  training,  they  receive  a 
smaller  maintenance  grant.  At  a  residential  college, 
while  men  receive  £40,  women  receive  £20 ;  at  a 
non-residential  college  the  grant  for  men  is  ^25, 
for  women  £20.  As  the  whole  supply  of  teachers 
for  each  year  leaves  the  Training  Colleges  in  July,1 
it  follows  that  many  of  these  must  wait  for  varying 
periods  before  finding  employment :  during  these 
periods  the  burden  of  maintenance  must  again  be 
borne  by  the  parents.  The  need  for  legislation  in 
the  economic  interests  of  teachers  is  borne  out 
by  the  fact  that  highly  trained  students  of  good 
character  are  unable  to  find  employment,  even  at 
low  salaries.  Of  4,384  teachers  who  left  the 
training  colleges  in  July  1908,  at  least  1,226  were, 
three  months  later,  without  employment,  and  259 
were  known  to  be  without  employment  even  twelve 
months  later  ;  whilst  of  the  4,386  students  who  left 
the  Training  Colleges  in  July  1909,  1,528  were  still 
\ 

1  The  e.xPeriment  of  ending  the  College  course  for  certain  students 
at  Easter,  is -now  being  made.  But  the  movement  is  too  young,  and 
the  Colleges  ^experimenting  are  too  few,  to  make  it  possible  to  draw 
deductions,  /f't  any  rate  it  looks  like  a  move  in  the  right  direction. 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL  TEACHING      43 

without  employment  in  October  1909.  These 
figures  are  for  both  sexes,  but  by  far  the  larger 
number  of  teachers  are  women. 

These  facts  explain  why  it  is  that  local 
authorities,  bent  on  keeping  down  the  rates,  have 
been  enabled  to  obtain  the  services  of  certificated 
teachers  at  the  scale  of  salaries  which  they 
advertise  for  uncertificated  teachers  :  in  fact  many 
fully  qualified  certificated  teachers  have  been  forced 
to  work  for  a  rate  of  payment  lower  than  that  re- 
ceived by  an  unskilled  labourer  ;  a  natural  corollary 
to  this  condition  of  things  is  that  many  would-be 
teachers  refuse  to  expend  time  and  money  on 
training. 

This  state  of  affairs  has  had  one  other  effect 
which  is  of  vital  importance  when  the  economic 
position  of  women  teachers  is  being  considered, 
namely,  that  local  authorities,  in  order  to  appease 
the  popular  outcry  against  this  apparently  over- 
stocked market,  have  been  led  to  sanction  regula- 
tions for  the  compulsory  retirement  of  women 
teachers  on  marriage.  Happily  the  London  County 
Council  has  not  succumbed  to  this  temptation,  and 
there  are  other  equally  enlightened  authorities. 
But  constant  watchfulness  is  needed  in  order  to 
prevent  retrogression  in  this  matter.  Young 
teachers,  anxiously  awaiting  promotion,  sometimes 
foolishly  resist  the  appointment  or  retention  of 
married  women.  This  is  a  suicidal  policy,  to  be 
resisted  at  all  costs,  both  in  the  interests  of  the 
teachers  and  of  the  children.  Salaries  are  bound 
to  remain  low,  while  women  are  forced  to  consider 
their  profession  in  the  light  of  a  stop-gap  until 
marriage,  and  not  as  a  life-work.  Moreover,  there 
are  real  dangers  in  entrusting  girls'  education 
entirely  to  unmarried  women.  The  salaries  of 
assistant  teachers  vary  very  considerably.  In  no 
single  instance  is  a  woman  teacher  paid  the  same 


44 


THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 


rate  of  salary  as  a  man  of  the  same  professional 
status.  This  is  true  even  when  the  work  is 
identical  in  character,  as  is  the  case  in  mixed 
schools  and  pupil  teachers'  centres.  One  of  the 
results  of  this  inequality  of  payment  is  that  women 
teachers  are  often  employed  to  teach  the  lower 
classes  in  boys'  schools,  and  some  rural  schools 
are  staffed  entirely  by  women,  not  because  the 
woman  teacher  is  deemed  more  suitable  for  the 
work,  but  because  her  labour  is  cheaper ;  hence 
the  need,  in  the  teaching  profession,  for  recog- 
nition of  the  principle  of  "  equal  pay  for  equal 
work."  Without  it,  the  status  of  the  woman 
becomes  lower  than  that  of  the  man,  inferior  or 
unqualified  women  are  appointed,  and  men  are 
driven  from  the  profession.  Only  when  there 
is  equality  of  pay  can  there  be  security  that 
the  best  candidate  will  be  appointed,  irrespective 
of  sex. 

The  following  table  taken  from  the  latest 
returns  of  the  Board  of  Education  contrasts  the 
number  of  women  and  men  employed  in  the 
elementary  schools  of  England,  and  the  number 
of  women  and  men  employed  in  the  better  paid 
higher  elementary  schools  of  the  country,  for  the 
year  1910-11. 


Elementary 
Schools. 

Higher 
Elementary 
Schools. 

No. 

of  Head  Teachers  (certificated)      Men 

12,477 

36 

„             ,                    „               Women 

16,648 

4 

Assistant       ,                    „               Men 

18,659 

161 

,,             ,                    ,,               Women 

46,881 

117 

„             ,         (uncertificated)  Men 

5,091 

4 

» 

„             ,                    „                Women 

34,910 

2 

An  examination  of  statistics  with  regard  to  the 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL  TEACHING      45 


salaries   of  teachers    in  England,  taken    from   the 
same  returns,  year  1910-11,  shows  that— 

I.  Average  salaries  (Elementary  Schools)  were  : — 


Head  Teachers  (Certificated) 

),  11  » 

„  „         (uncertificated) 


Men  . 
Women 
Men  . 
Women 

Assistant  Teachers  (certificated)  Men 
„  „  ,,  Women 

„  „    (uncertificated)  Men 

Women 


£    s.    d. 
176    3  ii 

122    l8 

94    8 
68     3 


127 
92 
65 
54 


I 

o 
3     5 

9  " 
8    6 

2    II 


II.   (i)  67.93  Per  cent-  °f  tne  certificated  head  masters  receive  less 
than  ^200  per  annum. 

(2)  93.9  per  cent,  of  the  certificated  head  mistresses  receive  less 

than  ^200  per  annum. 

(3)  93.38  per  cent,  of  the  certificated  assistant  masters  receive 

less  than  ^"200  per  annum. 

(4)  97-73  Per  cent,  of  the  certificated  assistant  mistresses  receive 

less  than  ^150  per  annum. 

III.  The  salaries  of  certificated  teachers  (England)  were  : — 


Head  Teachers. 

Assistant  Teachers. 

Men. 

Women. 

Men. 

Women. 

Under  ^50    . 

I 

2 

2 

352 

Totals    .£50  and  under  £100    . 

394 

4,967 

3,838 

29,915 

„             100 

150  . 

4,506 

8,032 

9,933 

15,548 

,         150 

200   . 

3,575 

2,631 

3,651 

1,065 

200 

250   . 

2,395 

742 

i,235 

I 

250 

300   . 

963 

209 

... 

... 

300 

35°  • 

422 

65 

... 

... 

350 

400   . 

125 

... 

... 

... 

400 

450   . 

93 

... 

... 

... 

450 

500   . 

2 

... 

... 

... 

560      .        . 

• 

I 

i.. 

... 

IV.  The  salaries  of  uncertificated  teachers  are  usually  lower  than 

the  wage  of  a  skilled  artisan — the  average  for  men  head 
teachers  being  below  ,£100,  and  for  women  head  teachers 
below  ,£70,  whilst  7,855  assistant  teachers  receive  less 
than  ^50. 

V.  Supplementary   teachers  usually   receive,   of  course  without 

board  or  lodging,  a  salary  equal  to  the  money-wage  of  an 
average  domestic  servant.  They  are  commonly  less  well 
qualified  than  is  she,  for  the  work  undertaken. 


46  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

The  chances  of  promotion  to  a  headship  are 
obviously  so  few,  that  the  certificated  teacher  will 
probably  remain  an  assistant  all  her  life.  Chances 
of  head-teacherships  are  being  still  further  reduced 
by  the  amalgamation  of  departments  under  a  head 
master. 

In  the  schools  of  many  large  urban  education 
authorities,  less  than  i  per  cent,  of  the  assistant 
teachers  obtain  promotion  in  twelve  months.  The 
total  number  applying  for  the  163  places  to  be 
filled  in  the  last  promotion  list  that  was  formed 
by  the  London  Education  Authority,  was  2,337, 
so  that,  as  a  direct  result  of  the  publication  of  that 
list,  2,174  teachers  resumed  their  work  after  the 
summer  vacation  of  1911  with  feelings  of  less 
hopefulness  with  regard  to  their  future  prospects. 
The  issue  of  a  promotion  list  is  in  itself  a  fact 
to  be  deplored,  seeing  that  it  acts  as  a  check  to 
mental  alertness.  For  the  2,174  unsuccessful 
candidates  for  inclusion,  their  application  has  now 
either  destroyed  hope,  or  suspended  any  chances 
of  its  realisation  for  at  least  two  years.  There 
is  a  consciousness  in  the  unsuccessful  applicant  of 
somehow  being  worth  less  than  she  was  before, 
since  she  is  now  an  assistant  mistress  without 
potentiality  for  head  teachership.  This  feeling 
does  not  promote  good  work.  The  issue  of  a 
promotion  list  is  from  every  point  of  view  bad 
policy,  and  although  its  direct  action  is  confined 
to  London,  its  sphere  of  indirect  influence  is  very 
far  -  reaching,  since  London  County  Council 
applicants  for  country  posts  are  often  asked 
whether  they  have  been  included  in  it. 

The  essential  qualification  in  a  mistress  of  an 
elementary  school  is  ability  to  teach  a  great  variety 
of  subjects  :  she  must  be  qualified  for  and  prepared 
to  teach  all  the  subjects  which  make  up  the 
curriculum  of  her  school.  The  diversity  of  these 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL  TEACHING      47 

will    be    seen    from    the    subjects    taught    in    an 
average  typical  elementary  school : — 

Girls'  Department. — Reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, English  grammar,  literature,  history, 
geography,  nature  study,  hygiene,  physical 
training,  drawing  (including  brush-work), 
needlework  (including  cutting-out),  knit- 
ting, scripture. 

Infants  Department.  —  Reading,  writing, 
number,  kindergarten  and  other  varied 
occupations,  physical  exercises  (dancing 
and  games),  needlework  and  knitting, 
singing,  drawing,  painting,  modelling, 
recitation,  oral  composition,  dramatising 
stories,  scripture. 

The  ordinary  day  is  divided  into  two  sessions : 
the  morning  session  lasting  from  9  A.M.  to  12 
noon,  and  the  afternoon  session  from  2  P.M.  to 
4  P.M.  (infants),  4.30  P.M.  (girls). 

The  strain  of  a  teacher's  life  in  an  elementary 
school,  and  the  deadening  influence  of  routine  work 
will  be  realised  when  it  is  stated  that,  besides 
teaching  all  the  subjects  above-mentioned,  she  is 
in  front  of  her  class  of  sixty  pupils  during  the 
whole  of  the  two  sessions  each  day,  from  Monday 
morning  to  Friday  afternoon. 

In  addition  to  the  purely  teaching  work  the 
mistress  has  to  take  her  share  in  the  various 
activities  which  are  now  centring  in  the  school — 
Care  Committees,  After  -  Care  Committees,  the 
feeding  of  necessitous  children,  the  cleansing  of 
children,  medical  inspection,  and  so  forth.  There 
are  also  such  social  activities  as  old  girls'  clubs, 
school  journeys  and  school  parties,  in  which  she 
has  to  co-operate  ;  finally,  the  strain  is  not  lessened 
by  the  fact  that  she  has  to  satisfy  two  sets  of 


48  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

inspectors,  viz.,  those  of  the  Board  of  Education 
and  those  of  the  local  authority  who  require  her 
to  keep  special  report  books,  varying  in  character 
and  in  the  amount  of  detail  required,  according  to 
the  idiosyncrasies  of  the  particular  inspectors  who 
may  happen  to  be  allocated  to  her  district. 

In  spite  of  the  building  regulations  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  many  school  premises  are 
far  from  satisfactory  with  regard  to  lighting,  ventila- 
tion, construction,  and  often  even  cleanliness  ;  these 
defects  naturally  have  their  effect  on  the  health  of 
the  teachers,  so  that  notwithstanding  medical  in- 
spection during  training  and  the  rejection  of  the 
unfit,  an  alarming  number  of  cases  of  consumption 
has  been  reported  to  the  Benevolent  Fund  of  the 
National  Union  of  Teachers.  In  addition  to  this, 
the  strain  (already  referred  to)  under  which  teachers 
in  the  Metropolitan  and  larger  urban  districts  work, 
is  resulting  in  an  increasing  number  of  nervous 
breaksdown. 

The  conditions  under  which  a  teacher  works  in 
a  school  in  a  rural  district  are  so  unsatisfactory 
that  they  deserve  special  mention.  There  are 
245  schools  in  Wales  and  2,199  *n  England  with 
an  average  attendance  of  less  than  40 ;  such 
schools  are  staffed  by  a  head  teacher,  assisted,  in 
all  probability,  only  by  a  supplementary  teacher. 
Education  suffers  in  these  circumstances  as  a  result 
of  the  number  and  the  manysidedness  of  the 
responsibilities  which  devolve  upon  the  head 
teacher ;  while  the  consciousness  of  her  inability 
to  realise  her  ideals  will  re-act  unfavourably  upon 
her  health.  Another  factor  that  must  be  borne  in 
mind  is  that  these  rural  schools,  being  small,  should, 
to  secure  efficiency,  be  proportionately  expensive  for 
up-keep.  In  order  to  keep  the  cost  of  maintenance 
as  low  as  possible,  however,  the  remuneration 
offered  to  teachers  in  rural  schools  is  so  small  as 


ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL  TEACHING      49 

to  be  a  national  disgrace.  To  this  must  be  further 
added  the  fact  that  many  rural  teachers  are  com- 
pelled to  live  5,  10,  and  even  15  miles  away  from 
a  railway  station,  so  that  the  cost  of  living  is  much 
more  than  it  would  be  in  town.  Thus  it  is  that 
rural  schools  which  should  cost  more  for  up-keep 
than  large  urban  schools,  work  out  at  a  smaller 
figure  per  scholar.1 

Not  only  is  her  salary  low,  but  a  mistress  in  a 
rural  school  often  has  to  live  in  a  state  of  semi- 
isolation  from  social  and  intellectual  activities.  It 
should  excite  no  surprise,  therefore,  that  mistresses 
are  reluctant  to  apply  for  such  posts.  This  difficulty 
of  shortage  of  supply  is  having  a  sinister  and  subtle 
effect  on  the  economic  interests  of  married  women 
teachers,  for,  owing  to  the  difficulty  in  obtaining 
assistant  teachers  in  rural  districts,  it  frequently 
happens  that  where  the  head  teacher  is  a  master, 
his  wife,  who  may  be  a  fully  qualified  certificated 
teacher,  has  to  act  as  his  assistant  and  receive  the 
pay  of  a  supplementary  teacher. 

During  her  years  of  service,  each  mistress  in 
an  elementary  school  is  required  to  contribute 
£2,  8s.  per  annum  to  the  Government  Super- 
annuation Fund.  These  contributions  purchase  a 
small  annuity  to  which  the  Government  add  a 
pension  at  the  rate  of  los.  for  each  year  of  service. 
When  she  becomes  qualified  for  a  pension,  the 
mistress  must  surrender  her  certificate  and  cease 
to  practise  as  a  teacher,  so  that,  if  we  assume 
she  has  begun  work  at  the  age  of  twenty  and 
has  continued  teaching  to  the  age  of  sixty  -  five, 
she  will,  after  forty-five  years  of  recorded  service, 
receive  a  pension  of  £22,  IDS.  per  annum,  plus 

1  This  is  a  matter,  the  investigation  of  which  should  be  included 
in  Mr  Lloyd  George's  Land  Campaign.  There  is  an  obvious  con- 
nection between  the  status  of  the  agricultural  labourer  and  the 
inefficiency  of  rural  schools.  [EDITOR.] 

D 


5P.,          THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

the  annuity  which  her  contributions  will  have 
purchased.  It  should,  however,  be  mentioned  that 
London  and  a  few  other  towns  have  established 
complementary  schemes  whereby  teachers,  though 
contributing  more,  obtain  pensions  more  commen- 
surate with  their  salaries.  Under  the  Govern- 
ment scheme,  the  superannuation  allowance  cannot 
become  payable  until  the  teacher  has  attained  the 
age  of  sixty-five  years,  and,  even  then,  it  can  be 
obtained  only  by  a  teacher  whose  years  of  recorded 
service  are  not  less  than  half  the  number  of  years 
which  have  elapsed  since  she  became  certificated ; 
thus,  if  the  mistress,  being  certificated  at  the  age 
of  twenty,  marries  and,  by  the  regulations  of  the 
local  authority,  is  forced  to  resign,  she  forfeits 
all  claim  to  the  Government  contribution,  unless 
she  has  completed  twenty-two  years  of  recorded 
service :  nor  are  her  contributions  returned  to  her. 

Teachers  in  elementary  schools  are  well 
organised  for  the  purpose  of  self-protection.  The 
National  Union  of  Teachers  is  a  powerful  body, 
having  a  membership  of  78,000  men  and  women 
teachers.  It  is  directly  represented  in  Parliament, 
both  on  the  Liberal  and  Labour  sides,  and  owes 
its  influence  largely  to  the  voting  power  of  its 
members.1 

When  the  National  Insurance  Act  of  1912  came 
into  force,  there  were  85,000  elementary  teachers 
to  whom  its  clauses  applied,  and  who  therefore 
found  it  advisable  to  join  an  approved  society.  For 
this  purpose  the  Teachers'  Provident  Society  of 
the  National  Union  of  Teachers  was  re-organised 
as  an  approved  society  under  the  Act.  In 
addition  to  providing  protection  for  its  members, 
the  National  Union  of  Teachers,  by  means  of  its 

1  The  women  members  are  in  a  large  majority,  but,  being  women, 
do  not,  as  yet,  possess  the  vote.  Their  peculiar  interests,  of  course, 
do  not  obtain  representation. 


,«.,. 

ELEMENTARY   SCHOOL  TEACHING*"*, 54 

Benevolent  and  Orphan  Fund,  helps  those,  who, 
through  ill-health  or  other  causes  are  in  need  of 
assistance.  It  also  maintains  two  orphanages — 
one  for  boys  in  London,  and  one  for  girls  in 
Sheffield. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  a  strong  probability 
of  a  dearth  of  qualified  teachers  for  elementary 
schools  in  the  near  future.  There  are  several 
factors  which  have  been  influential  in  bringing 
about  this  state  of  affairs — one  is,  the  uncertainty  of 
employment,  even  after  a  long  and  comparatively 
costly  training.  This  defect  will  be  remedied  only 
when  a  rational  method  of  regulating  the  supply 
of  teachers  is  established,  so  that  each  candidate 
may  be  certain  that,  if  she  qualifies,  she  will  be 
guaranteed  employment. 

Many  desirable  persons  are  debarred  from 
entering  the  teaching  profession,  because  the  rate 
of  remuneration  is  low,  considering  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  work ;  and  this  drawback  is  still 
further  emphasised  by  the  very  inadequate  pension 
which  is  offered  at  the  close  of  the  teacher's  career. 
This  difficulty  can  be  overcome  only  when  the 
main  burden  of  the  cost  of  education  is  removed 
from  local  taxation  and  placed  on  the  national 
exchequer. 

Another  factor  which  tends  to  make  the  teach- 
ing profession  unattractive,  is  the  very  strenuous 
life  which  it  entails  under  modern  conditions. 
Again,  so  far  as  women  are  concerned,  there  is 
not  complete  security  of  tenure,  though  apart  from 
the  regulation  that  obtains  under  some  local 
authorities,  requiring  women  to  resign  on  marriage, 
teachers  in  elementary  schools,  owing  to  the  efforts 
of  their  various  organisations,  possess  far  greater 
security  of  tenure  than  teachers  in  any  other  branch 
of  the  profession.  Another  point  in  favour  of  the 
teachers  in  elementary  schools,  is  their  freedom 


52  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

from  the  burden  of  extraneous  duties,  and  from 
the  nightmare  of  external  examinations. 

When  schools  can  be  more  generously  staffed, 
so  that,  for  example,  the  number  of  assistant 
teachers  exceeds  the  number  of  classes  to  be 
taught,  a  good  deal  will  have  been  done  to  relieve 
the  strain  under  which  teachers  are  at  present 
working. 

Finally,  when  education  authorities  and  the 
public  generally,  become  sufficiently  enlightened 
to  realise  that  it  is  uneconomical  to  dismiss  a 
teacher  when  she  marries — i.e.,  when  by  her 
experience  she  is  most  capable  of  preparing  her 
pupils  for  life — then  women  will  be  encouraged  to 
enter  the  teaching  profession,  and  to  realise  that 
they  must  equip  themselves  as  well  as  possible 
for  what  is  to  be  their  life-work. 


V 

TEACHING  IN  SCHOOLS   FOR  THE  MENTALLY 
AND   PHYSICALLY   DEFECTIVE 

The  particular  branch  of  teaching  which  forms 
the  subject  of  this  paper — namely,  that  carried  on 
in  schools  for  mentally  or  physically  defective 
children — affords  scope  for  a  lifetime  of  very  happy 
work  to  women  who  are  really  fitted  for  it. 

The  qualifications  required  by  teachers  in  these 
schools  are  the  ordinary  certificates  accepted  by 
the  Board  of  Education,  but,  in  practice,  a 
preference  is  given  to  women  who  have  taken  up 
studies  which  bear  on  their  particular  work.  For 
instance,  it  is  obvious  that  a  good  grounding  in 
psychology,  physiology,  and  hygiene  is  especially 
valuable  in  schools  of  this  description,  and  proofs  of 
the  successful  study  of  these  subjects  undoubtedly 


TEACHING   DEFECTIVE   CHILDREN      53 

carry  weight  in  deciding  appointments  to  these 
schools.  Also,  it  is  unusual  to  appoint  young 
teachers,  coming  straight  from  Training  Colleges, 
with  very  little  practical  experience  in  dealing  with 
children,  though  under  special  circumstances  such 
appointments  are  occasionally  made.  The  large 
majority  of  women  appointed  to  the  London 
mentally  defective  or  physically  defective  schools 
are,  however,  teachers  of  several  years'  standing, 
who  are  also  under  the  age  limit  of  thirty-five. 

The  salary  of  assistant  teachers  in  the  London 
special  schools  is  ,£10  a  year  more  than  the  salary 
such  assistants  would  be  getting  in  the  ordinary 
Council  schools.  This  extra  pay  only  obtains  until 
the  normal  maximum  salary  of  assistant  mistresses  is 
reached,  i.e.,  ^"150,  so  that  the  monetary  advantage 
is  confined  to  reaching  the  maximum  a  little  earlier 
than  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  With  regard  to 
head  teachers,  the  extra  salary  varies  with  the  size 
of  the  school,  jCio  being  allowed  for  a  one-class 
centre,  £20  for  a  two-,  three-,  or  four-class  centre, 
and  ^30  for  a  five-  or  six-class  centre.  Schools  of 
six  classes  are  unusual ;  the  majority  of  schools 
contain  three  or  four  classes.  Elder  mentally 
defective  boys  from  several  neighbouring  schools 
are  frequently  grouped  together  in  a  special  centre 
under  masters,  and  there  are  a  few  schools  specially 
for  elder  mentally  defective  girls,  naturally  under 
mistresses.  For  elder  physically  defective  girls 
there  are  centres  in  London  where  they  may  be 
specially  trained  in  blousemaking  and  fine  needle- 
work. These  centres  have,  in  addition  to  an 
ordinary  teacher,  a  trade  mistress  duly  qualified 
in  the  particular  branch  of  work  undertaken.  The 
age  of  compulsory  retirement  from  teaching  in 
special  schools  is  sixty  -  five,  as  in  the  case  of 
ordinary  schools.  For  both  branches  of  the  service 
married  women  are  eligible.  The  hours  of  work 


54  THE   TEACHING   PROFESSION 

in  mentally  defective  schools  are  from  9.30 
to  12  and  from  2  to  4.  In  physically  defective 
schools  the  hours  are  nominally  from  9.30  to  12, 
and  1.30  to  3,  but  in  practice  they  are  longer,  as 
the  children  begin  to  arrive  at  school  in  their 
ambulances  by  8.45,  and  in  the  afternoon  the  last 
children  rarely  leave  till  an  hour  after  the  time  of 
stopping  actual  lessons.  It  is  usual  to  arrange 
things  so  that  the  teacher  who  comes  "early"  one 
week,  is  free  to  come  "late"  the  next,  and  it  is 
also  usually  taken  in  turns  to  stay  late  in  the 
afternoons.  The  short  dinner  recess  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  most  of  the  children  necessarily  have 
their  dinner  at  school,  so  there  is  no  reason  to 
allow  the  usual  two  hours  for  going  home  and 
coming  back.  During  the  dinner-hour  the  children 
are  in  charge  of  the  school  nurse  and  the  ambulance 
attendants. 

Work  in  both  sorts  of  special  school  has  its 
own  particular  difficulties.  One  great  drawback  is 
the  impossibility  of  adequate  classification.  In  a 
small  three-class  centre,  there  will  be  children  from 
five  years  old  up  to  sixteen  years.  That,  of  course, 
in  physically  defective  schools  means  that  the 
work  usually  divided  among  all  the  classes  of  an 
ordinary  infant  school  must  be  done  in  the  lowest 
class,  the  second  class  must  take  the  work  of 
standards  I.  to  III.,  while  the  highest  class  must 
take  that  of  standards  IV.  to  VII.  It  is  true 
that  the  special  schools  have  a  great  advantage 
over  ordinary  schools  in  that  the  classes  never 
contain  more  than  twenty-five  children,  but  even 
granted  the  small  numbers,  the  need  for  taking 
several  groups  in  a  class  makes  the  work  very 
exhausting.  The  more  successful  the  teacher,  that 
is  to  say,  the  more  truly  she  draws  out  the  in- 
dividual powers  of  each  child,  the  harder  does  her 
work  become,  for  she  tends  more  and  more  to  have 


TEACHING   DEFECTIVE  CHILDREN      55 

a  class  of  children  working  at  varying  stages.  In 
the  mentally  defective  schools  it  is  not  possible 
to  reach  the  work  of  the  higher  standards,  so 
that  there  is  not  the  same  difficulty,  but  there  is 
the  even  greater  one  of  dealing  with  different 
standards  of  defect,  instead  of  different  standards 
of  attainment. 

Another  difficulty  encountered  in  the  physically 
defective   schools   is    the    interrupted    school  -  life. 
Children  will  frequently  drop  out  for  three  months, 
six  months,  or  a  year  at  a  time  in  order  to  have 
some  operation  performed  in  hospital,  or  to  go  to 
a  convalescent  home,  or  because  of  an  attack  of 
illness.     Both  branches  of  the  special  schools  are 
faced  with  the  peculiar  difficulty  of  the  "spoilt" 
child — the  lame  girl  who,   by  reason  of  her  help- 
lessness, has  been  indulged  and  waited  on  by  the 
healthy  members  of  her   family ;    the   ill-balanced 
boy  whose  brain-storms  have  been  so  disturbing 
that  any  opposition  to  his  will  has  been  shirked. 
It  must  not  be  thought  that  these  children  are  in 
the  majority  at  special  schools,  but  they  do  form  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  children  there  ;  they  give 
much  trouble,  and  they  call  for  a  great  deal  of  tact 
and  patience.     Patience  is  so  continually  needed  in 
special-school  work  that  women  who  are  not  par- 
ticularly patient   would   find   themselves  definitely 
unfit  for   it.      Indeed,  although  patience   and   the 
hopeful  spirit  do  not  figure  on  the  list  of  qualifica- 
tions demanded  of  candidates,  they  might  well  head 
it,   for   most   certainly  an    irritable   or   despondent 
woman  could  not  find  any  work  for  which  she  was 
more  unsuited,  or  in  which  she  was  more  likely  to 
be  miserable  and  unsuccessful. 

A  further  difficulty  of  the  special-school  teacher 
lies  in  the  "all-round"  demands  made  on  her. 
The  children  she  must  teach,  are  defective  in  mind 
or  body,  or  both.  Some  will  respond  to  one 


56  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

subject,  some  to  another ;  some  will  make  poor 
progress  with  headwork,  but  will  do  excellent  hand- 
work. The  teacher  must  be  able  to  help  each  child 
along  its  own  path,  and  must  be  familiar  with  the 
various  forms  of  simple  handwork  as  well  as  with 
the  more  usual  school  subjects.  Basket- weaving, 
clay-modelling,  raffia-work,  fretwork,  bent-ironwork, 
strip-woodwork,  rug-making,  painting,  and  brush- 
work,  as  well  as  different  forms  of  needlework  and 
embroidery,  are  all  branches  of  handwork  helpful 
in  different  degrees  to  these  children.  The  import- 
ance of  handwork  to  them  is  felt  so  keenly,  that  the 
special-schools  time-tables  usually  show  a  morning 
devoted  to  headwork  followed  by  an  afternoon 
occupied  by  handwork. 

But  as  well  as  the  difficulties  attendant  on 
teaching  in  special  -  schools,  there  are  some  very 
real  advantages.  Foremost,  perhaps,  is  the  oppor- 
tunity it  affords  of  knowing  and  understanding  each 
child  in  a  way  that  is  not  possible  when  the 
class  consists  of  sixty  children.  Very  closely 
allied  with  this,  is  the  great  advantage  of  freedom 
in  the  preparation  of  syllabuses,  in  the  choice  of 
subject  matter  and  the  manner  of  teaching  it. 
Time  -  tables  must  be  approved  by  the  proper 
authorities,  and  the  superintendents  and  inspectors 
must  be  satisfied  as  to  the  character  of  a  teacher's 
work,  but,  when  those  conditions  are  fulfilled, 
originality  on  the  part  of  teachers  is  welcomed,  and 
completely  happy  relations  between  teacher  and 
children  are  possible.  It  can  be  readily  understood 
that  with  a  class  numbering  twenty-five,  each  child 
can  take  a  much  larger  and  much  more  active 
share  in  the  work,  can  be  free  to  express  his  own 
views,  ask  his  own  questions  and  work  out  his  own 
ideas  in  a  way  impossible  with  a  class  of  sixty. 
When,  in  addition,  it  is  remembered  that  the 
teacher  is  free  to  frame  her  plans  of  work  accord- 


TEACHING   DEFECTIVE   CHILDREN       57 

ing  to  the  actual  needs  of  the  children,  as  shown 
to  her  through  discussions  and  questions,  the 
reason  why  the  work  attracts  women  in  spite  of 
its  obvious  difficulties  is  apparent. 

The  real  thought  and  care  spent  by  the  educa- 
tion authorities  on  these  schools  must  have  struck 
every  one  who  has  worked  in  them.  If  we  compare 
what  is  now  done  for  these  deficient  children  with 
what  was  done  some  fifteen  years  ago,  the  stage  of 
progress  at  which  we  have  arrived  is  nothing  short 
of  wonderful.  Yet  every  one  must  also  be  con- 
vinced that  things  are  not  well,  so  long  as  the 
supply  of  children  for  these  special  schools  con- 
tinues to  grow ;  those  who  work  in  them  can  see 
two  ways  in  which  that  supply  might  be  checked. 
Teachers  in  mentally  defective  schools  continually 
mourn  the  sad  fact  that  the  children  under  their 
care  have  been  guarded  from  wrong,  and  guided 
to  right  along  happy  paths  of  busy  interest  until 
they  are  sixteen,  only  to  be  turned  adrift  into  the 
world  at  an  age  when,  more  than  ever  before  in 
their  lives,  they  need  a  kindly  and  wise  influence 
"  to  strengthen  or  control."  For  want  of  some 
further  plan  of  continued  supervision,  the  patient 
work  of  years  is  too  often  rendered  nugatory,  and 
the  child  slips  back  into  the  very  slough  from 
which  the  school  had  hoped  to  save  it.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  defect  in  many  children 
in  these  mentally  defective  schools  shows  itself  as 
a  lack  of  self-control,  a  want  of  mental  balance, 
a  missing  sense  of  moral  values,  an  incapacity 
for  concentration — the  very  characteristics  which 
render  their  unhappy  possessors  the  easiest  prey 
to  the  evil  -  minded.  Teachers  who  know  both 
the  good  to  which  the  child  can  attain  when 
properly  safe-guarded,  and  also  the  evil  into  which 
it  will  too  probably  fall  when  left  alone,  are  very 
anxious  to  see  some  step  taken  which  will  ensure 


58  THE   TEACHING   PROFESSION 

that  every  child  who  needs  continued  control  shall 
have  it.1 

Teachers  in  physically  defective  schools  can  also 
see  the  need  for  prevention  of  defect  rather  than  its 
mere  alleviation.  The  more  usual  forms  of  defect 
are  missing  limbs,  tuberculous  troubles  (notably  in 
joints),  heart  cases,  paralysis,  cases  of  chorea,  and 
cases  of  general  debility.  The  list  must  not  be 
taken  as  complete,  for  there  are,  of  course,  various 
unusual  forms  of  defect  too.  It  sometimes  happens 
that  after  a  stay  of  some  time  in  a  physically 
defective  school,  a  child  becomes  so  much  better 
that  it  is  able  to  return  to  the  greater  strain  of 
an  ordinary  school ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  often 
apparent,  that  if  certain  children  had  been  admitted 
earlier  to  the  physically  defective  school,  their 
particular  trouble  might  have  been  greatly  mini- 
mised, if  not  altogether  avoided.  What  then 
appears  to  be  needed  is  an  intermediary  type  of 
school  to  which  children  might  be  drafted  who 
are  not  as  yet  absolutely  defective,  but  who  are 
liable  to  become  so.  Children  of  tubercular 
tendencies,  who  should  be  guarded  against  falls 
or  blows  more  carefully  than  normal  children ; 
those  highly  -  strung  nervous  children  who,  if 
exposed  to  the  strain  of  ordinary  school  life  run 
the  risk  of  chorea ;  children  suffering  from  the 
after-effects  of  diseases  such  as  rheumatic  or  scarlet 
fever,  who  need  particularly  to  avoid  over-exertion 
or  too  violent  exercise  ;  children  of  such  marked 
general  debility  that  their  power  of  resisting  disease 
is  abnormally  low — all  these,  if  neglected,  tend  to 
become  qualified  candidates  for  the  physically 
defective  schools.  If  they  could  attend  a  school 
designed  to  suit  their  needs,  they  would  in  many 

1  Something  in  this  direction  will  be  achieved  by  the  new  Act, 
to  which,  however,  there  are  counterbalancing  grave  objections  which 
cannot  be  considered  here.  [EDITOR.] 


THE  TEACHING   OF   GYMNASTICS        59 

cases  be  quite  able  to  return,  after  varying  periods, 
to  their  places  in  the  ordinary  schools.  The  open- 
air  schools  are  an  attempt  to  meet  this  need  on 
the  very  best  lines,  but  there  are  far  too  many  of 
these  border-line  children  for  the  available  accom- 
modation. If  the  great  expense  entailed  by  new 
schools  of  this  description  be  considered,  it  seems 
not  unreasonable,  while  waiting  for  them,  to  allow 
the  admission  of  these  children  to  the  invalid 
schools  already  working,  by  simply  making  the 
term  "physically  defective"  elastic  enough  to 
include  a  latent  as  well  as  a  developed  defect. 
Whatever  the  apparent  expense  of  such  measures 
may  be,  any  extension  of  the  preventive  side  of 
this  work  cannot  but  be  a  real  economy.1 

There  is  just  one  other  point  for  the  considera- 
tion of  women  who  think  of  taking  up  work  in 
special  schools.  They  should  be  thoroughly  strong 
and  healthy,  or  they  will  prove  unequal  to  a  strain 
which  tells  at  times  even  on  the  strongest.  But 
to  women  of  good  health  who  possess  the  right 
temperament,  these  schools  offer  a  field  of  useful 
and  congenial  work. 


VI 

THE  TEACHING  OF  GYMNASTICS 

No  school  of  any  importance  is  considered 
properly  equipped  unless  the  staff  includes  a 
gymnastic  and  games  mistress.  Several  systems 
of  gymnastics  are  practised  in  England,  but  the 
Swedish  system  is  steadily  proving  its  superiority  ; 
so  much  is  this  felt  that  a  number  of  teachers 

1  Open-air  schools,  and  school  sleeping  camps  such  as  those 
established  experimentally  in  various  urban  slum-districts,  are  other 
efforts  to  meet  the  needs  of  physically  defective  children.  Teachers 
in  open-air  schools  in  provincial  towns,  work  under  approximately 
similar  conditions  to  those  described  by  Mrs  Thomas.  [EDITOR.] 


60  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

who  have  previously  taken  a  two  years'  course 
of  training  in  some  other  system,  are  at  the 
present  time  taking,  or  have  just  completed,  a 
second  two  years'  course  in  the  Swedish  system. 
As  long  ago  as  1878  the  London  School  Board 
introduced  the  Swedish  system  into  its  schools, 
but  it  was  not  till  1885  that  the  first  physical 
training  college  was  opened  in  this  country,  and 
this  was  for  women  only.  In  1903  this  system  was 
adopted  for  the  navy,  and  in  1906  for  the  army; 
it  has  also  been  adopted  in  the  Government  schools 
and  Training  Colleges,  as  well  as  in  all  the  principal 
private  schools  and  colleges  for  girls,  and  in 
many  boys'  schools,  including,  among  others,  Eton, 
Winchester,  Clifton,  and  Repton.  The  following 
remarks,  therefore,  apply  only  to  the  Swedish  system. 

Until  1885,  the  rationally  trained  teacher  of 
gymnastics  was  unknown  in  England,  and  the 
physical  training  of  the  girls  in  this  country  was 
monopolised  by  dancing  mistresses  and  drill 
sergeants,  most  of  whom  were  ignorant  of  the  laws 
which  govern  the  human  body.  In  that  year 
Madame  Osterberg  started  a  Physical  Training 
College  for  women  students  at  Hampstead,  the 
college  being  removed  to  Dartford  Heath,  Kent, 
in  1895.  Since  then  similar  institutions  have  been 
opened  at  Bedford,  Erdington,  Chelsea,  etc.,  and 
there  is  a  growing  army  of  women  qualified  to 
teach  gymnastics  and  games,  and  in  many  cases 
dancing  and  swimming.  These  trained  teachers 
have  studied  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene  ; 
they  have  themselves  experienced  what  they  teach 
others ;  they  have  been  trained  to  observe,  and 
deal  gently  and  carefully  with  growing  girlhood. 
They  have  also  studied  deformities  such  as  spinal 
curvature,  round  shoulders,  and  flat  feet,  and  are 
able  to  take  all  such  cases  under  their  special  care. 

The  course  of  training  lasts  from  two  to  three 


THE  TEACHING   OF  GYMNASTICS       61 

years,  and  the  cost  in  a  residential  college,  is  about 
jCioo  a  year.  To  ensure  success  as  teachers, 
students  should  be  tactful,  observant,  and 
sympathetic ;  they  should  be  medically  fit,  and 
physically  suited  to  the  work,  and  should  produce 
evidence  of  a  good  general  education.  The 
requirements  of  the  colleges  vary  as  to  educa- 
tional qualification,  some  being  satisfied  with  a 
school  -  leaving  certificate  while  others  demand 
Matriculation.  This  raising  of  the  standard  is 
a  step  in  the  right  direction  and  may  hasten  the 
time  when  the  gymnastic  teacher  will  be  thought 
worthy  of  a  University  degree  or  diploma. 

The  training  includes  theoretical  as  well  as 
practical  work,  and  the  idea  which  used  to  be 
prevalent,  is  now  practically  exploded,  that  a  girl 
who  could  not  pass  examinations  but  who  was 
fairly  good  at  gymnastics  or  games  might  make  a 
good  gymnastic  teacher.  The  theoretical  subjects 
include  Physiology,  Hygiene,  Anatomy,  Theory  of 
Movements,  Psychology,  and  a  certain  amount  of 
Pathology  ;  whilst  the  practical  side  includes  Educa- 
tional Gymnastics  and  Teaching,  Remedial  Gym- 
nastics and  Massage,  Games  (hockey,  cricket, 
lacrosse,  lawn  tennis,  net  -  ball,  and  gymnasium 
games),  Swimming  and  Dancing.  Dancing  is 
becoming  more  and  more,  a  necessary  part  of  the 
equipment  for  the  successful  gymnastic  teacher, 
who  must  be  able  to  teach  the  ordinary  ball-room 
dances  as  well  as  Morris  and  country  dances. 

A  typical  week's  work  in  the  second  year's 
course  in  one  of  the  colleges  includes  six  hours' 
Gymnastics  ;  five  hours'  Remedial  Gymnastics,  and 
five  hours'  actual  treatment  under  supervision,  of 
patients  in  the  clinic ;  six  hours'  Anatomy,  two 
hours'  Physiology,  two  hours'  Hygiene,  two  hours' 
Vaulting,  three  and  a  half  hours'  Dancing.  In 
addition  to  this,  four  afternoons  (from  2  to  4  P.M.) 


62  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

are  devoted  to  games  ;  class  singing-lessons  are 
given  twice  a  week  for  half  an  hour,  in  addition 
to  a  quarter  of  an  hour's  practice  every  day,  and 
each  student  teaches  in  the  elementary  schools 
three  half  hours  a  week,  and  also  gets  some 
practice  in  the  high  school.  Add  to  all  this  the 
time  required  for  private  study,  and  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  work  is  fairly  strenuous  and  that 
none  but  strong,  healthy  girls  should  undertake  it. 

After  the  course  of  training  the  gymnastic 
teacher  usually  takes  a  post  in  a  school,  and  having 
had  a  few  years'  experience,  may  then  become  an 
organiser  or  inspector  to  an  education  committee,  a 
trainer  in  an  elementary  training  college  or  physical 
training  college,  the  head  of  the  gymnastic  depart- 
ment of  a  school  clinic,  or  she  may  prefer  to  start 
a  private  practice,  holding  classes,  treating  cases  of 
deformity,  and  also  acting  as  visiting  gymnastic 
teacher  or  games  -  coach  to  schools  in  the 
neighbourhood. 

The  rate  of  remuneration  varies  according  to 
the  kind  of  work  undertaken ;  the  initial  salary 
in  schools  is  usually  £60  to  ^80  per  annum 
resident,  or  £  i oo  to  £  1 20  non-resident.  Organisers 
and  inspectors  command  a  much  higher  salary ; 
the  three  Government  inspectors  start  at  £200 
rising  to  ^400  with  first-class  travelling  expenses, 
and  the  four  woman-organisers  employed  by  the 
London  County  Council  Education  Committee 
start  at  ^"175,  rising  by  £10  a  year  to  ^240  plus 
actual  travelling  expenses.  Some  women  do  well 
in  private  practice,  making  from  ^200  to  ^300 
a  year.  The  salaries  of  the  gymnastic  teachers  in 
the  London  County  Council  secondary  schools  are 
fixed  at  ^130  a  year  with  no  possibility  of  advance- 
ment, and,  though  this  may  compare  favourably  with 
the  initial  salaries  of  other  teachers  on  the  staff,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  teaching  life  of  a 


THE   TEACHING   OF   GYMNASTICS       63 

gymnastic  teacher  is  shorter  and  there  are  no 
headmistress-ships  to  which  to  look  forward.  The 
few  "  plums  "  of  the  profession  are  the  inspectorships 
of  the  Government  and  of  the  more  important 
education  committees.  For  the  latter,  women 
have  often  to  compete  with  men,  and  even  in 
cases  where  both  men  and  women  inspectors  are 
employed — the  men  doing  the  same  work  in  the 
boys'  schools  as  the  women  do  in  the  girls' — the 
men's  salaries  are  considerably  higher,  despite  the 
fact  that  most  women  give  up  professional  work 
on  marriage,  either  voluntarily  or  compulsorily,  and 
have  therefore  a  shorter  time  in  which  to  recover 
the  cost  of  their  training,  whereas  if  they  do  not 
marry,  they  have  to  make  provision  for  old  age 
and  in  many  cases  to  contribute  to  the  support  of 
others  besides  themselves. 

With  regard  to  this  employment  of  women  after 
marriage,  there  would  seem  to  be  no  reason  why 
the  principals  or  assistants  of  colleges  or  institutes, 
or  the  women  with  private  practices  should  not 
continue  their  work ;  but  in  schools,  even  where 
the  terms  of  the  appointment  do  not  demand 
resignation  on  marriage,  it  is  not  customary  for 
married  teachers  to  be  employed. 

Up  to  the  present,  the  supply  of  trained 
gymnastic  teachers  has  scarcely  satisfied  the 
demand,  and  fresh  openings  are  from  time  to 
time  created.  When  physical  exercises  were 
made  compulsory  in  all  the  elementary  schools, 
the  class  teacher  had  and  still  has,  to  give  this 
instruction  to  her  class,  but  there  has  been  an 
increasing  demand  for  organisers  to  teach  the  ele- 
mentary school  teacher  and  superintend  her  work. 
This  has  also  led  to  specialist  teachers  being 
appointed  to  all  the  elementary  training  colleges 
and  pupil  teachers'  centres.  Then  came  medical 
inspection,  and  with  it  the  need  for  school  clinics, 


64  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

which  could  not  be  complete  without  a  department 
for  treating  curvatures,  flat  feet,  etc.,  and  giving 
breathing  exercises,  especially  after  the  removal 
of  adenoids.  Though  these  clinics  are  only  in 
the  experimental  stage  they  are  sure  to  expand, 
and  it  is  expected  that  a  large  number  of  trained 
gymnastic  teachers  will  be  required  for  them. 
Further  it  is  possible,  and  may  be  found  desirable, 
that  specialist  teachers  should  be  appointed  for 
groups  of  elementary  schools,  so  relieving  the  class 
teachers  of  this  part  of  their  work.  Large  secondary 
and  private  schools  often  appoint  two,  three,  or 
four  trained  teachers  who  are  jointly  responsible 
for  gymnastics,  games,  dancing,  swimming,  and 
the  treatment  of  deformities  throughout  the  school. 
Besides  all  these  openings  a  considerable  number 
of  gymnastic  teachers  find  work  in  the  colonies, 
especially  in  South  Africa,  Australia,  and  New 
Zealand. 

To  band  together  the  teachers  of  Swedish 
gymnastics  and  to  guard  their  interests  generally, 
the  Ling  Association  was  founded  in  1899. 
Though  it  is  open  to  men  and  women,  very  few 
men  have  joined,  as  the  number  of  men  with  the 
necessary  qualifications  is  very  small.  Members 
must  have  trained  for  at  least  two  years  at  a 
recognised  college,  and  it  was  not  till  1912  that 
the  first  training  college  for  men  was  opened  in 
England. 

With  a  view  to  standardising  the  training  and 
diplomas  of  gymnastic  teachers,  the  Ling  Associa- 
tion in  1904  started  a  diploma  -  examination. 
Though  the  syllabus  drawn  up  is  practically  the 
same  as  those  used  in  the  different  colleges,  most 
of  the  colleges  still  grant  their  own  diplomas  at 
the  end  of  the  course. 

It  is  hardly  possible  at  present,  to  specify  the 
usual  age  of  retirement  for  gymnastic  teachers, 


TEACHING  OF   DOMESTIC  SUBJECTS    65 

but  when  a  woman  becomes  too  old  for  regular 
school  teaching  she  can  organise,  supervise,  and 
inspect,  or  continue  to  practise  remedial  work 
which  includes  massage. 

Most  of  the  gymnastic  teachers  who  come 
within  the  scope  of  the  Insurance  Act  have  joined 
the  University,  Secondary  and  Technical  Teachers' 
Provident  Society. 


VII 
THE  TEACHING  OF   DOMESTIC  SUBJECTS 

There  are  several  reasons  why  instruction  in  the 
domestic  arts  and  in  the  management  of  a  house  has 
not  until  quite  recently  formed  part  of  the  curriculum 
in  girls'  secondary  schools.  In  the  first  years  of 
the  existence  of  these  schools,  no  handicraft  was 
encouraged  except  needlework,  and  this  was  soon 
almost  crowded  out  of  the  time-table.  It  was 
assumed  that  household  management  was  taught 
by  the  mother.  There  was  a  second  assumption 
made  even  more  confidently  than  the  first,  that  a 
well-informed  young  woman  with  an  active  brain 
would  find  no  difficulty  in  arranging  her  domestic 
affairs.  This  theory  was  founded  on  still  another 
assumption — that  there  would  always  be  on  hire 
a  sufficiency  of  servants  already  well  trained  for 
their  work. 

It  is  obvious  nowadays  that  the  mistresses  of 
the  first  two  decades  of  high-school  teaching,  being 
the  first  college-bred  women,  were  suffering  from 
a  reaction  against  domestic  interests,  and  the 
manner  in  which  these  had  absorbed  the  old- 
fashioned  woman.  Their  best  pupils  were  at  once 
destined  for  college ;  they  were  considered  too 
good  for  mere  domestic  life,  and  were  prepared 


66  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

for  careers,  mostly  for  teaching.  This  tendency 
was  naturally  accentuated  by  the  fact  that  all 
mistresses  were  single  women,  with  little  prospect 
of  any  but  a  celibate  life. 

In  the  earlier  stages  of  girls'  education,  then, 
it  was  the  teacher  who  urged  the  promising  girl 
to  have  a  career ;  but  the  more  recent  develop- 
ment is  that  the  parents,  harassed  by  increasing 
economic  pressure,  and  encouraged  by  the  instances 
they  meet  of  successful  professional  women,  press 
more  and  more  strongly  for  their  girls  to  be 
educated  for  professions,  whether  they  are  excep- 
tionally gifted  or  not.  It  is  recognised  in  almost 
all  grades  of  the  middle  class  that  the  chance  of 
a  daughter  marrying,  and,  further,  the  chance  of 
her  marriage  being  an  assured  provision  for  her 
maintenance  throughout  life,  is  by  no  means  a 
certainty. 

These  considerations  must  militate  against  the 
appearance  of  domestic  subjects  in  the  school  time- 
table, but  there  are  others  working  in  exactly  the 
opposite  direction.  These  are  the  increase  in  house 
rent  and  general  rise  in  prices  which  make  economy 
in  domestic  affairs,  and  good  management,  more 
valued ;  the  dearth  of  servants ;  and  the  decay  of 
the  old  traditions  of  housekeeping.  Another  factor 
is  the  new  cult  of  hygiene,  and  increased  interest 
in  diet,  shown  especially  by  the  inhabitants  of  large 
towns,  who  bewail  their  lack  of  energy  and  fitness. 

If  the  home  is  to  establish  itself  as  an  acknow- 
ledged success  in  modern  conditions,  it  ought  to 
be  run  by  women  with  brains.  It  is  now  becoming 
acknowledged  that  the  work  needs  the  application 
of  the  scientific  method  of  thinking.  It  may  be 
true  that  home-making  in  the  non-material  sense 
is  an  art,  but  housekeeping  nowadays  is  a  science  ; 
and  so  much  a  science  that  a  woman  who  has  the 
chance  of  making  herself  an  expert  will  be  tempted 


TEACHING   OF   DOMESTIC  SUBJECTS    67 

to  make  housekeeping  a  career,  and  to  undertake 
the  job  on  a  much  larger  scale  than  is  needed  in 
the  ordinary  house. 

Thus,  while  there  was  practically  no  teaching 
of  domestic  subjects  in  girls'  secondary  schools  until 
about  seven  years  ago,  a  demand  for  teachers  of 
the  kind  has  sprung  up  very  recently,  and  is 
rapidly  increasing. 

The  headmistress  anxious  to  undertake  some- 
thing of  the  sort  has  had  many  difficulties  to  face 
in  the  immediate  past.  The  only  teachers  of 
domestic  arts  whom  she  could  engage  had  received 
a  very  different  education  from  the  other  members 
of  her  staff.  If  their  whole  time  were  not  taken  up 
with  teaching  their  subject,  they  had  few  or  no 
subsidiary  subjects  to  offer,  nor  were  they  prepared 
for  those  curiously  mingled  clerical  and  pastoral 
duties  which  fall  to  the  lot  of  a  form  mistress.  In 
general  education  they  might,  indeed,  be  obviously 
below  the  girls  in  the  upper  forms,  whose  general 
culture  had  been  sedulously  cultivated  for  years. 
If  teachers  of  this  kind  were,  nevertheless,  not  to 
be  kept  for  selected  "stupid  girls,"  it  was  possible 
(i)  to  introduce  domestic  work  of  the  simple  handi- 
craft nature  into  the  middle  school,  leaving  it  out 
of  the  upper  school  where  there  was  a  greater 
pressure  on  the  time-table,  or  (2)  to  organise  a 
post-school  domestic  course  for  girls  who  were  not 
preparing  for  a  profession. 

The  type  of  woman  offering  herself  as  a  teacher 
in  domestic  arts  has  meanwhile  been  changing 
and  developing,  owing  to  the  fact  that  a  marked 
advance  has  taken  place  in  the  facilities  for  train- 
ing. The  minimum  qualifications  now  required  by 
most  education  authorities  are  diplomas  for  cookery, 
laundry-work,  and  housewifery,  granted  by  a  train- 
ing school  recognised  by  the  Board  of  Education. 
It  is  advisable  to  take  a  fuller  course  which 


68  THE  TEACHING  PROFESSION 

includes  needlework  and  dressmaking.  Most  train- 
ing schools  for  domestic  arts  provide  a  two  or  three 
year-course,  according  to  the  subjects  taken.  The 
three-year  course,  including  cookery,  laundry-work, 
housewifery,  dressmaking,  and  needlework,  costs 
about  ^75.  Scholarships  are  offered  both  by  the 
training  schools  and  by  public  bodies.  These  cover 
the  whole  normal  period  of  training,  and  an  exten- 
sion course  for  scientific  study.  The  subjects 
included  are  the  principles  and  processes  involved 
in  cookery,  laundry-work,  and  household  manage- 
ment, the  last  comprising  such  diverse  matters  as 
the  selection  and  furnishing  of  various  types  of 
houses,  repairing  furniture,  the  choice  and  care  of 
household  linens,  simple  upholstery,  management 
of  income,  first-aid,  home-nursing,  and  the  care  of 
infants  and  young  children.  Many  training-schools 
arrange  for  their  students  to  gain  experience  in  a 
creche  or  similar  institution,  and  to  visit  homes  of 
various  types.  Practical  experience  is  gained  in 
housekeeping  and  catering,  superintending  the 
arrangements  for  meals,  ordering  stores  and  keep- 
ing accounts.  Voice  production  and  blackboard 
drawing  are  also  taught,  while  science  is  studied 
concurrently  with  the  above.  The  course  in 
science  embraces  some  Theoretical  and  Practical 
Chemistry,  Physics,  Physiology,  Hygiene  (personal 
and  school  hygiene  and  preventive  measures),  and 
the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Education.  Domestic 
Science  students  gain  teaching  experience  not  only 
in  the  various  departments  of  the  training-school, 
but  also  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools ; 
happily  the  training  is  the  same  for  those  intend- 
ing to  take  up  either  elementary  or  secondary 
teaching. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  present-day  teacher 
of  household  arts  is  much  more  fitted  to  train 
the  well  -  educated  girl  to  organise  household 


TEACHING   OF   DOMESTIC  SUBJECTS    69 

matters,  than  was  her  predecessor.  Not  only  is 
manipulative  skill  acquired,  but  scientific  reasons 
for  processes  and  methods  are  outlined,  and 
improvements  are  suggested.  There  is,  however, 
still  the  danger  that  the  student's  training  in 
science  has  been  so  subordinated  to  the  acquire- 
ment of  manipulative  skill  that  her  knowledge  of 
scientific  facts  is  not  sufficiently  based  on  scientific 
training  and  method. 

Much,  then,  is  to  be  urged  in  favour  of  the 
woman  with  a  science  degree  taking  courses  in 
domestic  arts,  but  it  is  essential  for  her  to  attain 
a  high  standard  of  practical  work.  It  has  some- 
times been  found  that  a  very  academic  and  scientific 
method  of  treatment  has  tended  to  lower  the 
standard  of  manipulative  skill.  Nevertheless 
qualified  graduates  find  themselves,  at  the  moment, 
greatly  in  demand.  The  economical  headmistress 
must  always  be  on  the  look  out  for  an  acquisition 
to  her  staff  who  will,  like  Count  Smorltork's  politics, 
"surprise  in  herself  many  branches."  If  the  head- 
mistress can  solve  her  difficulty  about  her  domestic 
arts  teacher  by  engaging  a  college-bred  woman, 
with  a  degree  to  put  on  the  prospectus,  all  sorts  of 
ordinary  subjects  for  her  odd  hours  and  under- 
taking to  teach  cooking  as  well,  she  will  jump  at 
the  chance,  and  pay  her  £10  to  £20  more  salary 
than  the  ordinary  assistant  -  mistress.  She  will 
economise  greatly  by  the  arrangement.  If  she  has 
some  amount  of  money  to  back  her  schemes,  and 
a  large  school  to  administer,  she  will  prefer  two 
people  to  one  composite  one.  But  she  will  beg 
them  to  collaborate  and  to  work  together.  She 
will  not  expect  the  woman  with  the  science  degree 
and  a  brief  subsequent  training  in  the  arts  to 
have  the  manipulative  skill  of  the  one  who  has 
done  something  like  one  thousand  hours  of  actual 
practice,  according  to  the  prescription  of  the  Board 


70  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

of  Education.  She  will  ask  the  former  to  show 
the  girls  how  modern  science  is  connected  with 
the  modern  house,  and  how  the  scientific  way  of 
thinking  helps  in  keeping  a  house,  as  it  does  in 
keeping  one's  own  health  and  fitness. 

During  the  past  five  years  one  secondary  school 
after  another  has  taken  up  Domestic  Arts  as  a 
school  subject.  The  initiative  usually  comes  from 
the  headmistress,  and  is  a  matter  of  personal  judg- 
ment, so  that  the  introduction  is  still  an  experi- 
ment on  trial,  and  the  method  of  trial  varies. 
Before  giving  some  indication  of  the  methods  tried, 
we  must  return  to  the  demand  for  teachers.  It 
will  be  clear  from  what  has  been  said,  that  a  science 
graduate  who  has  studied  and  practised  household 
arts  and  cooking,  or  a  trained  teacher  of  Domestic 
Arts  who  has  also  some  science  certificate  and  a 
high  standard  of  general  education,  will  at  this 
moment  command  a  higher  salary  than  the  ordinary 
secondary  schoolmistress,  and  is  practically  certain 
of  a  post.  But  either  of  these  individuals  requires 
an  unusually  long  period  of  training,  for  which  most 
people  have  neither  the  time  nor  the  spare  capital. 

One  woman's  college  in  London  has  started 
courses  of  its  own  in  "  Home  Science  and 
Economics,"  and  awards  a  three-year  certificate  to 
its  students ;  also  a  diploma  for  science  graduates 
who  take  a  year's  course,  and  a  certificate  to 
Domestic  Arts  teachers  who  take  a  closely  related 
year's  course.  This  is  King's  College  for  Women, 
which  has  just  obtained  the  formal  approval  of 
London  University  for  its  three  years'  curriculum. 
In  a  very  short  time  arrangements  will  be  made 
to  grant  a  University  Diploma  to  the  students  who 
have  taken  this  course,  the  fee  for  which  amounts 
to  30  guineas  a  session.  A  scholarship,  covering 
the  cost  of  tuition,  is  from  time  to  time  awarded 
to  undergraduate  students,  and  there  is  also  a 


TEACHING  OF   DOMESTIC  SUBJECTS    71 

one-year  post  -  graduate  Gilchrist  scholarship  of 
50  guineas.  The  name  of  "  Household  and  Social 
Science "  is  recommended  by  the  Royal  Com- 
missioners for  the  new  co-ordination  of  subjects. 
Various  American  universities  and  colleges  give 
diplomas  of  the  same  kind :  and  the  New  Zealand 
University  has  just  initiated  one.  The  three-year 
course  at  King's  College  for  Women  may  possibly 
be  modified  by  the  University  authorities :  at 
present  it  consists  of  two  years'  training  in  various 
branches  of  pure  science,  and  a  third  year  in  which 
these  branches  are  applied  to  household  matters  of 
all  kinds.  For  instance,  the  usual  type  of  academic 
course  of  Inorganic,  Organic, and  Physical  Chemistry 
gives  place  in  the  third  year  to  the  study  of  food, 
cooking  utensils  and  cookers,  soap  and  other  cleans- 
ing materials,  and  woven  materials.  Biology  and 
Physiology  give  place  to  household  Bacteriology 
and  Hygiene.  Practice  in  Housewifery  and  Cook- 
ing occupies  one  day  per  week  throughout  the  three 
years.  A  very  important  feature  in  this  course  is 
the  introduction  of  Economics.  As  with  the  natural 
sciences,  two  years'  study  of  ordinary  Economics, 
chiefly  industrial,  is  followed  by  a  year  of  Economics 
applied  to  the  household,  in  which  an  attempt  is 
made  to  show  the  present  and  past  relations  of  the 
household  to  society.  King's  College  for  Women  is 
the  first  institution  in  England  to  see  the  great 
importance  of  studying  the  connection  of  domestic 
life  with  the  outside  industrial  world,  instead  of 
treating  it  as  an  isolated  phenomenon. 

This  is  the  outline  of  the  three-year  course  : 
students  are  encouraged  to  stay  a  fourth  year  for 
special  work ;  the  appointments  which  they  take 
up  at  the  end  of  three  or  four  years  are  not 
always  as  teachers,  but  in  various  other  vocations 
which  need  not  be  specified  here.  As  teachers, 
the  holders  of  these  certificates  are  subject,  of 


72  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

course,  to  a  double  fire  of  criticism.  The  science 
specialist  thinks  they  do  not  know  enough  science, 
and  points  out  that,  beyond  a  few  elementary  facts 
in  Chemistry,  Physics,  and  Physiology  soon  picked 
up  in  an  elementary  training  in  these  subjects,  there 
stretches  a  region  of  very  abstruse  science  which 
cannot  be  attacked  except  by  specialists  in  Organic 
Chemistry,  in  the  Physiology  of  Nutrition,  and  so 
on.  But  it  is  now  suggested  that  many  scientific 
problems  connected  with  domestic  subjects  are 
waiting  for  solution.  If  some  of  these  were  solved, 
they  would  bridge  the  gulf  between  the  elementary 
and  the  abstruse,  but  they  must  show  themselves 
of  sufficient  interest  to  investigators.  Here  is  a 
field  for  work  eminently  suited  to  the  scientific 
woman  with  a  practical  turn  of  mind.  Meanwhile, 
the  cookery  diplomee  thinks,  often  justifiably,  that 
the  new  teachers  have  not  had  sufficient  practice 
in  the  art  of  cooking.  Criticism  of  this  kind  is 
inevitable  whenever  a  new  co-ordination  of  subjects 
is  attempted,  and  it  will  keep  the  new  arrangement 
on  its  trial  until  it  can  justify  itself.  The  question 
at  issue  in  this  case,  as  probably  readers  will  have 
divined  if  they  are  interested  in  the  problem,  is 
whether  the  whole  method  and  tradition  of  teach- 
ing housekeeping  ought  not  to  be  under  revision, 
so  that  it  may  in  a  few  years  be  a  "subject" 
vastly  different  from  the  traditional  handing  -  on 
and  practising  of  receipts.  Once  the  barrier  is 
broken  down  between  the  scientifically  trained 
and  the  domestic  woman,  the  whole  aspect  of 
affairs  changes.  It  is  a  sign  of  the  change 
that  the  training  -  colleges  and  cookery  -  schools, 
besides  introducing  more  Chemistry,  Hygiene,  and 
Physiology  into  their  curricula,  are  definitely  asking 
that  the  teachers  they  employ  for  these  subjects, 
shall  be  women  with  science  degrees  as  well  as 
some  knowledge  of  domestic  arts.  For  instance, 


TEACHING  OF   DOMESTIC  SUBJECTS    73 

at  the  Gloucester  School  of  Cookery  at  least  one 
former  teacher  had  taken  the  Natural  Science  Tripos 
at  Girton  as  well  as  Domestic  Science  Certificates : 
at  Battersea  Polytechnic  a  recent  appointment  is 
that  of  a  Domestic  Science  diplomee,  who  subse- 
quently took  a  science  degree  at  Armstrong  College, 
while  at  the  National  Training  School  of  Cookery, 
one  member  of  Staff  is  at  present  a  science 
graduate,  who  subsequently  obtained  the  King's 
College  for  Women  Diploma  in  Home  Science 
and  Economics.  Again,  the  new  Government 
report  just  issued  on  handwork  in  secondary 
schools,  while  in  many  ways  non  -  committal, 
distinctly  prefers  special  training  for  teachers  of 
Domestic  Subjects  following  on  a  good  general 
education — i.e.,  a  University  degree  plus  technical 
qualifications,  rather  than  a  teaching  diploma  in 
Domestic  Subjects  plus  a  little  science.  There  is, 
then,  likely  to  be  an  increasing  number  of  openings 
for  women  who  can  afford  the  double  training. 
Schools  of  housecraft  to  give  all-round  training  to 
educated  women,  are  springing  up  in  all  parts  of 
the  United  Kingdom  :  in  those  which  are  attached 
to  Polytechnics  and  similar  institutions  the  fullest 
advantage  is  taken  of  the  pure  and  technical 
science  teaching  available  in  their  laboratories. 

To  those  who  look  for  a  real  advance  in  house- 
hold science  the  weak  point  of  the  present  situation 
is  the  want  of  proper  correlation  and  standardisa- 
tion of  the  work  going  on.  The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion does  not  examine ;  it  accepts  the  diploma 
given  by  any  one  of  a  fairly  large  number  of 
domestic  science  schools.  In  consequence,  teachers 
from  different  quarters  may  be  using  quite  different 
processes  and  methods  in  laundry  work,  cooking,  or 
housekeeping.  It  is  time  some  fundamental  things 
were  agreed  upon,  and  although  standardising  must 
not  be  allowed  to  become  stereotyping,  at  present 


74  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

constructive  generalisation  is  needed,  as  well  as  the 
upsetting  of  out-grown  traditions.  In  this  context 
it  would  be  well  to  discuss  a  question  more  properly 
to  be  taken  at  the  end  of  this  paper  —  the  con- 
nection between  the  teaching  in  elementary  schools 
and  that  in  secondary  schools.  There  is  no  reason 
to  introduce  differentiation  in  the  training  of  the 
teachers :  it  is  obvious,  for  instance,  that  the  recent 
development  of  including  economics  in  that  training, 
is  of  extraordinary  value  to  the  elementary  school 
teacher.  But  it  is  difficult  to  correlate  the  instruc- 
tion given  in  the  management  of  a  middle-class 
household,  with  from  eight  to  twenty  rooms,  and 
from  one  to  a  dozen  servants,  with  that  given  in  the 
management  of  a  workman's  cottage  or  of  a  flat 
without  assistance.  The  connection  which  does 
need  systematising  and  establishing  is  between  the 
management  of  a  middle-class  house  and  the  train- 
ing of  domestic  servants,  which  ought  naturally 
to  form  part  of  the  trade  or  technical  after-school 
work  for  elementary  scholars.  Here  again,  if 
training  is  to  be  followed  by  certificates,  and  the 
domestic  servant  is  to  be  in  the  smallest  degree 
an  expert,  some  standardisation  of  training  is 
necessary.  We  may,  of  course,  find  that  domestic 
service  becomes  so  much  a  matter  of  expert  work 
that  it  is  taken  up  on  a  large  scale  by  middle- 
class  girls,  but  that  can  hardly  be  prophesied 
yet,  although  the  "lady  servant"  is  an  existing 
phenomenon.  It  is,  of  course,  also  possible  that 
a  modern  curriculum  of  "  Household  and  Social 
Science "  may  attract  a  certain  number  of  men  of 
the  suitable  type  of  mind.  The  attitude  of  the 
community  is  changing  so  rapidly  that  one  may 
hope  those  fears  to  be  groundless  which  speak  of 
"  relegating  women  back  to  the  limited  sphere  of 
domesticity,"  and  thereby  losing  so  much  that  has 
been  gained  with  regard  to  their  education. 


TEACHING   OF   DOMESTIC   SUBJECTS     75 

We  must  now  return  to  give  a  few  particulars 
which  have  been  passed  over.  Any  information 
on  this  subject  is,  however,  liable  to  be  very  soon 
out  of  date.  A  secondary  school  that  elects  to 
teach  cooking  and  laundry  work  will  want  a 
specially  fitted  room,  which  will  cost  about  as  much 
as  a  simple  science  laboratory,  and  will  be  arranged 
in  as  close  connection  with  the  science  laboratory 
as  is  convenient.  This  means  serious  expense,  and 
the  headmistress  is  naturally  anxious  to  have  con- 
siderable use  made  of  the  room.  Thus  she  will  be 
led  to  introduce  the  subject  into  a  large  proportion 
of  the  classes,  instead  of  limiting  it  to  one  or  two 
middle-school  forms,  or  to  a  selected  part  of  the 
upper-school.  She  may,  however,  try  to  solve  the 
economic  problem  by  making  it  a  post  -  school 
course  for  which  special  fees  are  charged.  Certain 
schools,  notably  Clapham  and  Croydon  High 
Schools  and  Cheltenham  Ladies'  College  are  able 
to  make  a  very  important  feature  of  this  type  of 
course.  To  make  it  a  success,  the  prestige  of  the 
school,  its  influence  over  girls  and  their  parents, 
must  be  great  and  commanding.  Otherwise,  unless 
the  girls  are  aiming  definitely  at  some  professional 
work  after  the  course,  there  is  a  tendency  to  laxness 
in  attendance,  or  to  the  relinquishment  of  the  work 
in  the  middle,  which  tendency  is  engendered  by 
the  nature  of  the  subject.  The  mother's  excuse 
for  getting  her  grown-up  girl's  company  and  help 
will  naturally  be,  "  Gladys  can  boil  the  potatoes  at 
home  instead  of  at  school."  A  valid  answer  will 
be  that  Gladys  is  being  taught  to  free  her  mind 
from  the  eternal  English  boiled  potato  by  learning 
many  other  ways  of  treating  it,  and  at  the  same 
time  learning  its  proper  place  in  a  diet. 

Failing  the  post-school  course,  the  admittance 
of  domestic  subjects  to  a  notable  place  in  the 
general  school  curriculum  leads  to  great  stress  being 


,,jg<     ->  THE  TEACHING   PROFESSION 

laid  on  the  teaching  of  the  elements  of  Physical 
Science.  The  eminently  "  feminine "  subject, 
Botany,  gives  place  to  Physics  and  Chemistry  in 
the  middle  -  school,  followed  by  Physiology  and 
Hygiene  in  the  upper  -  school.  The  subjects  are 
to  be  illustrated  whenever  convenient,  by  reference 
to  home  life.  A  student  choosing  her  science 
subjects  at  College  should  bear  these  in  mind  as 
likely  to  be  at  present  of  the  best  market  value. 
Though  it  is  very  true  that  a  practical  woman 
who  is  a  good  teacher  will  nowadays  connect 
any  science  subject  with  home  life,  still  a  parallel 
course  of  domestic  arts  will  draw  chiefly  on  the 
lessons  given  in  these  four. 

Another  fact  worthy  of  notice  is  that  a  married 
woman  who  is  anxious  to  continue  her  former 
profession  of  science  teaching  will  not  as  a  rule 
have  to  surfer  the  usual  unfavourable  handicap. 
That  a  married  woman  should  teach  the  domestic 
subjects  is  quite  a  reasonable  proposition  to  many 
who  would  exclude  her  from  most  professions :  if 
she  be  also  a  mother  it  may  even  count  as  an  asset 
instead  of  a  disadvantage. 

The  Delegacy  for  Oxford  Local  Examinations 
has  been  the  first,  as  far  as  we  know,  to  set  a  paper 
in  domestic  science  to  senior  candidates.  There 
has  been  a  demand  for  it  in  the  London  Matricula- 
tion, but  objection  has  been  raised  on  the  score  of 
its  being  a  smattering  and  a  soft  option.  The 
Oxford  Delegacy  has  introduced  two  new  headings 
— Domestic  Science  and  Hygiene — and  sets  two 
papers  under  each,  without  any  practical  work.  The 
first  paper  is  the  same  under  both  headings — Ele- 
mentary Physics  and  Chemistry,  and  the  prepara- 
tion for  this  is  intended  to  be  made  at  least  one 
school  year  before  the  preparation  for  the  second 
paper.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  Hygiene  paper 
is  for  boys  and  girls  ;  it  includes  a  little  Physiology, 


, 
TEACHING  OF   DOMESTIC 


Personal  Hygiene,  and  Hygiene  of  Buildings.  The 
Domestic  Science  paper  is  for  girls  only  ;  it  has 
several  details  in  common  with  that  in  Hygiene, 
but  its  main  features  are  the  simple  outlines  of 
the  chemistry  of  foods  and  of  cleansing  substances. 
In  a  few  years  the  suitability  of  these  subjects  for 
both  sexes  may  have  impressed  the  community. 

We  may  notice,  lastly,  the  arrangements  made 
for  instruction  in  Domestic  Subjects  in  elementary 
schools.1  This  is  given  in  a  specially  equipped 
Centre  attached  to  a  public  elementary  school,  the 
girls  from  that  and  other  schools  attending  either 
for  a  half  or  whole  day  weekly  during  their  last 
two  years  at  school.  In  some  cases  for  about 
fifteen  weeks  before  they  leave  school,  girls  give 
half  the  week  to  Domestic  Subjects.  This  experi- 
ment has  been  so  successful,  that  it  is  likely  to  be 
extended  in  the  future.  A  carefully  graded  syllabus 
is  followed  ;  due  proportion  of  time  is  given  to 
theory  and  demonstration  as  well  as  to  practical 
work.  Each  girl  is  required  to  do  a  certain  amount 
of  work  by  herself,  and  much  thought  has  been 
expended  in  order  to  make  the  lessons  as  useful  as 
possible.  The  care  of  infants  and  young  children 

1  An  interesting  sidelight  on  economic  conditions  is  afforded  by 
the  instructions  issued  by  the  London  County  Council  for  the  guidance 
of  teachers  of  Domestic  Subjects  (Syllabus  of  Instruction  in  Domestic 
Economy.  Revised,  March  1912).  The  girls  are  to  be  taught  account- 
keeping  in  order  to  "  cultivate  a  well-balanced  sense  of  proportion  in 
spending  and  saving.  .  .  .  Weekly  incomes  suitable  for  consideration 
in  London,  to  begin  with,  are  355.,  ^3,  and  283.  taken  in  that  order." 
The  number  in  family  is  supposed  to  be  six,  i.e.,  parents  and  four 
children. 

The  obvious  irfference  is  that  experts  do  not  find  it  possible  to 
deal  satisfactorily  with  cases  in  which  there  are,  say,  six  children 
and  an  income  of  253.  An  income  of  £i  a  week  is  not  even 
mentioned,  though  many  a  London  school-girl  must  know  "  in  the 
last  three  years  of  her  school-life"  that  her  mother  has  not  more 
than  this  to  spend.  Translated  into  concrete  quantities  of  food, 
clothing,  and  rent,  this  "  living  wage  "  is  found  insufficient  for 
daily  needs.  The  teacher  therefore  is  encouraged  to  ignore  the 
economic  conditions  of  most  of  her  pupils.  [EDITOR]. 


78  THE   TEACHING   PROFESSION 

is  receiving  increased  attention,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
much  may  be  done  to  mitigate  evils  of  wrong  feed- 
ing and  treatment.  As  far  as  possible,  the  teaching 
in  the  Centres  is  correlated  with  that  in  the  schools. 
Where  there  are  science  laboratories  the  experi- 
ments are  made  on  food  -  stuffs,  changes  wrought 
by  application  of  heat  in  various  ways,  the  chemistry 
of  common  objects,  and  so  on. 

The  opportunity  for  definite  science  training 
in  connection  with  Domestic  Subjects  teaching  in 
elementary  schools  is  still  very  small,  and  will 
probably  remain  so  while  the  school-leaving  age 
is  fourteen.  The  problem  before  the  teacher  in 
some  instances  is  to  combat  not  only  an  entire 
ignorance  of  the  home  arts,  but  also,  in  poor 
districts,  an  active  experience  of  household  mis- 
management and  vicious  habits.  The  teaching  in 
these  cases  has  to  be  intensely  practical,  and  to  aim 
chiefly  at  character-building  ;  the  manual  work  of 
the  subject  has  been  found  of  the  greatest  educa- 
tional value  in  this  respect.  Though  the  training 
of  all  Domestic  Subjects'  teachers  should  reach  the 
same  standard  of  scientific  knowledge,  yet  the 
actual  work  to  be  done  in  different  types  of  schools 
is  thus  seen  to  be  necessarily  widely  divergent  in 
character. 

In  higher  elementary  or  "central"  schools, 
where  the  pupils  normally  remain  until  the  end  of 
the  school  year  in  which  they  reach  the  age  of 
fifteen,  Domestic  Subjects'  teaching  may  have  a  much 
wider  scope  than  at  the  ordinary  Centre,  as  the 
pupils  are  at  a  very  intelligent  age,  and  represent 
the  best  of  the  elementary  scholars.  A  special 
syllabus  is  prepared  according  to  the  individual 
need  of  each  school,  by  the  Domestic  Subjects' 
teacher  and  the  headmistress ;  the  instruction  is 
a  very  definite  part  of  the  curriculum,  and  the 
teacher  a  member  of  the  school  staff. 


TEACHING  OF   DOMESTIC  SUBJECTS    79 

In  London  and  other  large  towns,  and  with 
certain  County  Councils,  the  Centre  is  under  the 
general  supervision  of  the  headmistress  of  the 
school  to  which  it  is  attached,  but  technical  details 
are  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  of  Domestic 
Subjects  and  of  the  superintendent  who  visits 
periodically.  In  some  rural  areas,  the  conditions 
are  not  so  satisfactory.  Frequently  one  teacher 
has  to  serve  several  villages,  visiting  them  for 
instruction  on  certain  days.  The  accommodation 
in  such  places  is  often  sadly  deficient,  and  much 
ingenuity  and  resource  are  needed  to  overcome 
difficulties  which  do  not  occur  when  the  Centre  is 
well-equipped  and  in  continuous  use,  and  the 
teacher,  as  she  should  be,  a  regular  member  of 
the  school  staff. 

On  leaving  school,  there  are  many  scholarships 
open  to  the  girls  for  further  training,  (a)  for  a 
home  course,  (b}  for  domestic  service,  (c)  for  the 
trades  of  laundress,  needlewoman,  dressmaker,  and 
cook.  These  scholarships  are  held  at  Technical 
Institutes,  or  Trade  Schools,  and  the  training  given 
is  admirable  in  kind. 

A  qualified  teacher  who  wishes  to  take  up 
elementary  school  work  will  have  no  difficulty, 
if  physically  fit,  in  obtaining  a  post  under  a  County 
Council  or  other  educational  authority  at  a  salary  of 
,£80  per  annum,  usually  rising  by  annual  increments 
to  £120.  The  maximum  is  not  so  high  as  that 
for  teachers  of  ordinary  subjects,  and  pensions  are 
not  universal,  though  most  councils  make  fairly 
adequate  provision  for  retirement,  breakdown,  and 
ill-health. 

There  is  at  present  very  little  direct  promotion 
open  to  the  Domestic  Subjects'  teacher  in  ele- 
mentary schools.  In  London  there  are  practising- 
centres  for  students  in  training,  and  training  centres 
for  teachers  during  the  probationary  period,  the 


8o  THE   TEACHING   PROFESSION 

managers  of  which  hold  very  responsible  posts 
that  carry  extra  salary.  The  inspecting  staff  is 
usually  chosen  from  teachers  of  experience,  but 
this  is  necessarily  limited  in  numbers,  vacancies 
occurring  only  rarely.  The  salary  attached  to 
these  posts  is  from  ^150  to  ^"300.  Many  good 
posts  in  the  Colonies  have  been  obtained  by 
Domestic  Subjects'  teachers  in  elementary  schools. 
Some  teachers  have  become  foreign  missionaries, 
Children's  Care  Committee  visitors,  or  home  mission 
workers  and  visitors.  Some  have  established 
model  laundries,  others  have  taken  charge  of 
students'  hostels  and  boarding-houses ;  while  many 
have  been  successful  in  the  needle  -  trades, 
luncheon  and  tea  -  rooms,  and  in  lecturing  and 
demonstrating  for  gas  and  electric  companies. 

Several  organisations  for  self -protection  and 
the  advancement  of  the  profession  are  open  to 
teachers  of  Domestic  Subjects.  The  Association 
of  Teachers  of  Domestic  Subjects  was  founded  in 
1896,  and  has  done  valuable  work  for  the  members. 
It  is  affiliated  to  the  Association  of  Teachers  in 
Technical  Institutes,  and  is  thus  enabled  to  obtain 
good  legal  advice.  A  representative  has  been 
appointed  to  sit  on  the  Council  for  the  Registration 
of  Teachers.  The  Association  is  helping  to  educate 
public  opinion,  and  to  review  and  consider  the 
pedagogy  of  domestic  subjects  in  all  classes  of 
schools.  Domestic  Subjects'  teachers  are  also 
admitted  to  membership  of  other  Teachers' 
Associations,  which  safeguard  the  interest  of 
their  members  and  offer  advantages  for  training 
and  travelling.  Members  of  the  Association  of 
Teachers  of  Domestic  Subjects  have  the  right  to 
join  for  the  purposes  of  the  Insurance  Act  the 
"Approved"  section  of  the  Secondary,  Technical 
and  University  Teachers'  Provident  Society.  The 
London  County  Council  has  secured  "exception" 


TEACHING   OF   DOMESTIC  SUBJECTS    81 

from  the  Act  for  their  Domestic  Subjects'  teachers, 
their  allowance  for  sick  leave  being  better  than 
the  provisions  of  the  Act.  The  Association  of 
Teachers  of  Domestic  Subjects  has  obtained  special 
terms  for  members  from  two  assurance  companies 
for  deferred  annuities  or  endowment  assurances. 
The  London  Teachers'  Association  has  also  a 
provident  section. 

We  have  seen  that  Domestic  Arts  may  now 
claim  a  position  of  importance  in  both  the  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  school  curricula,  and  that 
the  teaching  of  these  subjects  may  rank  as  a 
profession  in  which  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
scope.  The  attitude  of  mind  towards  these 
subjects  has  much  changed  during  the  last  few 
years,  largely  owing  to  the  efforts  of  those  who 
have  taken  them  up  as  subjects  of  scientific  study. 
Much,  however,  remains  to  be  done,  both  in 
organising  the  teaching  in  schools,  and  in  the 
training  of  teachers  in  domestic  subjects.  Only 
those  who  have  had  scientific  training,  are  com- 
petent to  put  the  work  on  a  sound  scientific  basis. 


TABLE   I. 


COST  and  DURATION  of  COURSES  for  the  first  degree  in  the  Faculties 
of  Arts  and  Science,  together  with  Scholarships  in  those  Faculties 
available  for  Women  at  the  Universities  and  University  Colleges  l 
of  the  United  Kingdom. 


1.  Scholarships,  etc.,  printed  in  italics  are  available  for  Women  only. 

2.  Scholarships,  etc.,  printed  in  black  type  are  not  restricted  to  graduates  of  any  one  University. 

3.  County  Council  and  Borough  Scholarships  are  included  only  when   tenable  at  a  specified 

University  or  College.     Particulars  of  others  should  in  each  case  be  obtained  from  the 
respective  Director  or  Secretary  of  the  Education  Committee. 

4.  No  scholarship  or  prize  is  included  of  which  the  value  is  less  than  £15. 

ENGLAND. 

UNIVERSITY    OF    BIRMINGHAM. 

Duration  of  Pass  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :  3  years. 
Duration  of  Honours  (M.A.,  M.Sc.)  in  Arts  or  Science  :  4  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :  54  guineas  for  the  course. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :    From  47  guineas  to  /i86,  2s.  for 

the  course,  according  to  subjects  chosen. 
Cost  of  Residence  (optional)  :  From  40  to  55  guineas  per  annum. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remarks. 


Entrance  (2). 
Fentham's  Trust 

University  (2) 
University  (2) 
University  (15) 

Theodore  Mander 


Not  more  than  £25 

i  year 


£75 

£30 
£30 


3  years 

i  year 
i  year 


Free  tuition  and  not 
more  than  £30  main- 
tenance .  4  years 


£24 


2-3  years 


Awarded  only  to  candi- 
dates who  have  resided 
for  5  years  in  the  City 
of  Birmingham 

Science 

Arts 


Open  to  sons  and  daugh- 
ters of  burgesses  of 
Wolverhampton,  and 
awarded  to  those  in- 
tending to  take  Degree 
Courses  in  the  Facul- 
ties of  Science  or  Com- 
merce 


1  University  Colleges  are  those  in  receipt  of  a  Government  Grant  as  doing  work  of  a  University 
standard.  Thus  the  Polytechnics  and  Colleges  such  as  the  Albert  Memorial  College,  Exeter,  are  not 
included,  although  they  prepare  students  for  degree  examinations. 

82 


COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES         83 

UNIVERSITY  OF  BIRMINGHAM — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Polytechnic  (2) 

£45  circa 

.     3  years 

Ascough 

£36  circa 

.     i  year 
(renewable) 

Chemistry 

George  Henry  Marshall  . 

£t°       • 

.     3  years 

Classics 

German 

Education       Committee 
Major  (5) 

£>o       . 
£>o       . 

.     3  years 

Offered    each    year    for 
5  years  from  1913 

Corbett 

£28  circa 

i  year 

For  2nd  year  students. 
Mathematics 

Post-Graduate. 

University  (4) 

£50      . 

i  year 

Arts  and  Science 

Research  (4) 

£50      . 

i  year 

Arts  and  Science 

Priestley  (3) 

£96  circa 

i  year 
(renewable) 

Chemistry  Research 

1851  Exhibition     . 

£150     . 

.     2  years 

Scientific  Research 

UNIVERSITY    OF    BRISTOL. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Arts  or  Science,  Pass  or  Honours  :  3  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :  18  guineas  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :  20  guineas  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Residence  (optional)  at  Clifton  Hill  House  :   40  guineas 
per  annum. 


Bursaries,      variable     in 
number 

Vincent   Stuckey   Lean 
Scholarship 

Tuition  fees  and  main- 
tenance   grant 
i  year 

Interest  on  £1,000 
i  year 

Awarded  (to  children  of 
Bristol  ratepayers  only) 
according  to  qualifica- 
tion 

Science 

84         COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  BRISTOL — continued. 


Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Post-Graduate. 

Catherine  Winkworth 

£30      .         .     i  year 

Arts 

Catherine  Winkworth 

£30       .         .     i  year 

Science 

Capper  Pass  Scholarship 

£25       .         .1  year 

Metallurgy 

Hugh  Conway  Scholarship 

£20       .         .     i  year 

English  Literature 

UNIVERSITY   OF   CAMBRIDGE. 

The  only  University  Scholarships  for  which  women  are  eligible 
are  the  Arnold  Gerstenberg  Studentship  (income  of  £2,000)  for 
Philosophical  Research  and  the  Benn  W.  Levy  Studentship  for 
Research  in  Biological  Chemistry  (£100  a  year).  Scholarships  at 
Girton  and  Newnham  are  for  women  only. 

The  University  does  not  grant  degrees  to  women. 

GIRTON  COLLEGE. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :  3  years.  (Pass  candidates 
are  not  accepted.) 

Cost  of  Course  :  ^105  per  annum,  including  tuition,  examina- 
tions, and  residence.  For  out-students  the  fees  are  £12  a  term. 


Jane  Agnes  Chessar 

Not  less  than  £88 
4  years 

Classics 

Russell  Gurney 

£40       .          .     3  years 

History 

Sir  Francis  Goldsmid 

£45       •         •     3  years 

Mary  Anne  Leighton 

About  £16     .     3  years 

Barbara      Leigh      Smith 
Bodichon 

About  £44     .     3  years 

Todd  Memorial 

About  £35     .     3  years 

Higgins 

£40       .         .     3  years 

Henry  Tomkinson 

At  least  £20  .     3  years 

COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES         85 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CAMBRIDGE,  GIRTON  COLLEGE — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remarks. 


Clothworkers 

Skinners 

Gilchrist 

Queen's  School,  Chester 

Dove     . 


For  Certificated  Students 

Gilchrist  Studentship 


Old  Girtonians'   Student- 
ship 


John  Elliot  Cairnes 

Sir  Arthur  Arnold 
Harkncss 


Fellowships. 

Pfeiffer 
Girton  College 

Prizes. 

Gamble  . 

Therese  Montifiore 


£60 
£50 
£50 
&o 
£20 


3  years 
3  years 
3  years 
3  years 
3  years 


i  year 


Not  less  than  £48 

i  year 


About  £70 


£120      . 


i  year 
i  year 


2  years 
Various 


Also  tenable  at  Newnham 


For  girls  from  St  Leon- 
ard's School,  St  An- 
drew's. Classics. 


For  Professionals.  Open 
to  Students  at  Newn- 
ham and  Girton 


For  research  in  Political 
Economy  or  Economic 
History 


Geology.  Also  tenable  at 
Newnham.  Awarded 
biennially 


Opeu  to  students  of  all 
Universities 


Interest  on  £500 
Interest  on  £1,700 


86 


COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAMBRIDGE — continued. 
NEWNHAM  COLLEGE. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :  3  years  (Pass  candidates 

are  not  accepted). 
Cost  of  Course  :  From  £go  to  £105  per  annum,  including  tuition, 

examinations,  and  residence.     For  out-students  the  fees  are 

£12  a  term. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

College  (2)      . 

£50         . 

3  years 

Chthworkers 

£50         . 

3  years 

College  (i  or  more) 

£35         • 

3  years 

Classical       . 

£50 

3  years 

Also  tenable  at  Girton 

Modern  Languages 

£50         . 

3  years 

Also  tenable  at  Girton 

Liverpool  Clough    . 

£50         • 

2-3  years 

For  those  entering  the 
teaching  profession 
only 

Gilchrist 

&>o      . 

3  years 

Also  tenable  at  Girton 

Mary  Ewart  . 

£100     . 

3  years 

For  students  who  have 
been  in  residence  three 
terms 

Harkness 

£70     • 

i  year 

Geology.  Also  tenable 
at  Girton.  Awarded 
biennially 

Certificated  Students 

Arthur  Hugh  Clough 

i¥>     • 

i  year 

Mary  Ewart  . 

£150    . 

i  year 

Travelling  scholarship 

Gilchrist 

£100     . 

i  year 

Tenable  only  by  those 
entering  a  profession. 
Held  alternate  years  at 
Newnham  and  Girton 

Bathurst 

£75  or  under. 

i  year 

Awarded  from  time  to 
time  for  proficiency  in 
Natural  Science.  Not 
restricted  to  Newnham 
students 

Marion  Kennedy  Student- 
ship 

#o       .         . 

i  year 

Holder  eligible  for  2nd 
year 

COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES         87 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CAMBRIDGE,  NEWNHAM  COLLEGE — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Fellowships. 

Associates  (2) 

£100     .         .     i  year 

Awarded  alternate  years 

Mary  Bateson 

^100     .          .     i  year 

"N"  . 

;£ioo     .         .     i  year 

Prizes. 

Creighton  Memorial 

&5 

Awarded  for  an  essay  on 
History  or  Archaeology 

UNIVERSITY   OF   DURHAM. 
DURHAM  COLLEGE. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Arts  :  Pass  2  years ;  Honours,  3  years. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Science  :  Pass  and  Honours,  3  years. 

Cost  of  Tuition,  Arts  and  Science  :  £21  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Residence  in  Abbey  House  (optional)  :  From  £12  to  £16  a  term. 


Entrance. 

Foundation  Scholarships 

£7°       - 

i  year 

May  be  renewed.     Arts 

Foundation  Scholarships 

£40       • 

i  year 

May  be  renewed 

Foundation  Scholarships 

&$o       • 

.     i  year 

May  be  renewed 

Entrance  Exhibitions  (2) 

£20       . 

i  year 

May  be  renewed 

Pears  Scholarship  . 

£50       . 

.     3  years 

Arts 

Scholarships  (2) 

£70       . 

.     i  year 

Scholarships  (2) 

£jo       . 

i  year 

Exhibitions  (2) 

£20       • 

.     2  years 

Persons  of  limited  means 

Undergraduate. 

Scholarships  (2) 

£>o       . 

i  year 

2nd  year  students 

Scholarships  (2) 

£jo       . 

i  year 

2nd  year  students 

88         COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  DURHAM,  DURHAM  COLLEGE — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Undergraduate  —  contd. 

Gisborne  Scholarship 

£50 

i  year 

and  year  students 

University           Classical 
Scholarship 

£50 

i  year 

University   Mathematical 
Scholarship 

£»0 

i  year 

University            Hebrew 
Scholarship 

£20 

i  year 

Thorp  Scholarship. 

£20 

i  year 

Newby  Scholarship 

*x« 

.  2  or  3  yrs. 

Arts 

Scholarships  (3)     . 

£20 

i  year 

Modern  B.A. 

Prizes. 

Gibson 

£20 

Essay 

ARMSTRONG  COLLEGE,  NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. 

Duration  of  Pass  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :  3  years. 
Duration  of  Honour  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :  3  to  4  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  :  £20  per  annum. 
There  is  no  Hall  of  Residence. 


Entrance. 

Exhibition    . 

£20       .         .1-2  years 

Science 

Exhibition    . 

£15       .          .  1-2  years 

Science 

Exhibitions  (2) 

£15       .         .  1-2  years 

Arts 

Newcastle  -  upon  -  Tyne 
Corporation       Exhibi- 
tions (10) 

Free    admission    to   a 
degree  course  .  2  years 
(renewable) 

Open  to  candidates  resi- 
dent    in      Newcastle. 
Arts 

COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES         89 

UNIVERSITY  OF  DURHAM,  ARMSTRONG  COLLEGE,  NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE — contd. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remarks. 


Entrance — contd. 

Newcastle  -  upon  -  Tyne 
Corporation  Exhibi- 
tions (10) 

Newcastle  -  upon  -  Tyne 
Corporation  Exhibi- 
tions (10) 

Gateshead  Corporation 
Exhibitions  (2) 


Undergraduate. 

Junior  Pemberton 

Thomas  Young  Hall 
Nathaniel  Clerk     . 

Senior  Pemberton 

Post-Graduate. 
Research  Studentships  (2) 
1851  Exhibition     . 

1851    Exhibition    Proba- 
tionary Bursaries 

Johnston  Chemical 


Free    admission    to    a 

degree  course  .  2  years 

(renewable) 


|  Open  to  candidates  resi- 
dent in  Newcastle. 
Arts 


Free    admission   to   a  Open  to  candidates  resi- 

degree  course  .  2  years  dent     in     Newcastle, 

(renewable)  Science 

Free    admission    to    a  I  Open  to  candidates  resi- 

degree  course  .  2  years  dent  in  Gateshead 
(renewable) 


^30  and  remission  of 
two  -  thirds  of  the 
class  fees  .  i  year 


£20  with  remission  of 
two  -  thirds  of  the 
class  fees  .  3  years 


i  year 


£40  and  fees  .     i  year 


£62,  los. 


£70       • 
£60       . 


1  year 

2  years 
i  year 

i  year 


Awarded  on  the  results  of 
the  first  B.Sc.  examina- 
tion 


Awarded  on  the  results  of 
the  first  B.Sc.  examina- 
tion 


Awarded  on  the  results  of 
the  first  B.Sc.  examina- 
tion 


Candidates  must  have 
passed  the  first  B.Sc. 
examination 


Science 

Science  Research 


Open  to  Bachelors  of 
Science  of  any  British 
University  of  not  more 
than  3  years'  standing 


90         COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  DURHAM,  ARMSTRONG  COLLEGE, 
NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE — continued. 


Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Fellowships. 

College 

£125     .         .     i  year 

Pemberton    . 

^120     .          .     3  years 

Open  to  graduates  in 
Science  of  Durham 
University  of  not  more 
than  6  years'  stand- 
ing from  their  first 
degree 

UNIVERSITY   OF    LEEDS. 

Duration  of  Pass  Course,  Arts  or  Science  :  3  years. 
Duration  of  Honour  Course,  Arts  or  Science  :  3  to  4  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :  £ng  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :  £27  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Residence  at  University  Hall  (optional)  :  From  £32  to 
per  annum. 


Emsley 

£20       . 

.     2  years 

Edward  Baines 

£20       . 

.     2  years 

Charles  Wheatley  . 

£25       • 

.     3  years 

Arts 

William  Summers 

£35       . 

.     3  years 

Arts 

Brown 

£4<>       • 

2  years 
(renewable) 

Science 

Senior  City  (14) 

£50       . 

3  years 
(renewable) 

Open  to  candidates  of 
not  less  than  17  and 
not  more  than  30 
years  of  age 

County      Major      (West 
Riding)  (14) 

£55  circa 

.     3  years 

Open  to  candidates  of 
not  less  than  16  and 
not  more  than  30  years 
of  age 

Free  Studentships  (West 
Riding) 

Tuition  Fees.     3  years 

COST   AND   DURATION  OF   COURSES         91 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LEEDS — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Frizes. 


Name 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remarks. 


Major  (North  Riding)  (4) 

Scholarships  (East  Riding) 

Salt 

City  Council 

Post-Graduate. 
1851  Exhibition     . 

University  (limited  num- 
ber) 

Gilchrist 
John  Rutson 

Fellowships. 
University    . 


£60 


.   1-3  years 


£60  .  .  1-3  years 
£20  .  .  2  years 
Not  specified 


.     2  years 
.  1-2  years 

i  year 

i  year 
(renewable) 

.     i  year 


£80 
£70 


Open  to  candidates  of  not 
less  than  16  and  not 
more  than  20  years  of 
age 


Arts 


Science 

Awarded  ordinarily  on 
Final  Honours  Examin- 
ations 

Modern  Languages 
Arts 


UNIVERSITY    OF   LIVERPOOL. 

Duration  of  Pass  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :  3  years. 
Duration  of  Honour  Course  in  Arts  :    3  to  4  years. 
Duration  of  Honour  Course  in  Science :   4  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :  £ig  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :  £25  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Residence  in  University  Hall  (optional)  :  From  35  to  50 
guineas  a  session. 


Bibby  (2)      . 

£20               .3  years 

Open    to    candidates    of 

not     more     than     18 

years  of  age 

Morris  Ranger 

£20       .         .     3  years 

Ladies'           Educational 

£30       .         .     3  years 

Open  to  women  of  not  less 

Association 

than  1  6  and  not  more 

than  19  years  of  age 

92         COST   AND  DURATION   OF  COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LIVERPOOL — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Elizabeth  James    . 

£4°                -3  years 

Arts  or  Law 

Tate  (Arts)    . 
Tate  (Science)  (3)  . 

£35                 -3  years 
£35       •         .3  years 

Open  to  candidates  who 
have  been  educated  in 
one  of  the  schools  of 
Liverpool  or  the  neigh- 
bourhood, and  who  are 
not  more  than  18  years 
of  age 

Senior  City  (8) 

£30  and  free  admission 
to  lectures  .    3  years 

Open  to  candidates  of  not 
less  than  16  and  not 
more  than  19  years  of 
age 

Senior  City  Technical  (2) 

£50  and  free  admission 
to  lectures  .     3  years 

Open  to  candidates  of  not 
less  than  16  and  not 
more  than  25  years  of 
age 

Derby  (2) 

£35                 -3  years 

One  without  limit  of  age, 
one  for  candidates  of 
not  more  than  18 
years  of  age 

Canning 
Iliff      .... 
William  Rathbone 

£28       .         .     3  years 
£20       .          .      3  years 
£20       .          .     3  years 

Arts  including  Mathe- 
matics, or  B.Sc. 
Honours  in  Mathe- 
matics 

Gossage 
Lundie  Memorial  . 

£70  circa        .     3  years 
£15       •         -3  years 

Open  to  pupils  of  schools 
in  the  Borough  of 
Widnes 

Wallasey  Borough  Council 

£35       -         -3  years 

Open  to  candidates  under 
19  years  of  age 

W.  P.  Sinclair 

Interest  on  £1,000 
3  years 

Arts  or  Honour  School 
of  Mathematics 

Henry  Deacon 

£50       .         .3  years 

Open  to  candidates  of  not 
more  than  19  years  of 
age  who  intend  study- 
ing    in     the     Honour 
School  of  Chemistry 

COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES         93 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LIVERPOOL — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Sheridan  Muspratt 

£50                .2  years 

Chemistry 

Thomas  Hornby    . 

£20       .         .     i  year 
(renewable) 

Greek 

Korbach 

£20       .         .     i  year 
(renewable) 

Undergraduates    reading 
German         in         the 
Honour      School      of 
Modern  Languages  or 
graduates    wishing    to 
proceed  with  German 
study  or  research 

Henry    Warren    Meade- 
King 

Interest  on  £1,000 
2  years 

Economics 

Holt  Travelling      . 

£5°       •          -     I  y^ 

Architecture 

Isaac  Roberts  (2)  . 

£50       .         .1  year 
(renewable) 

Science.     Open  to  gradu- 
ates and  under-gradu- 
ates 

Sir  John  Willox     . 

£50                .2  years 

Chemistry 

Post-Graduate 

Korbach 

£20      .         .     i  year 
(renewable) 

See  above,  undergraduate 
scholarship  of  same  name 

Gilchrist 

£80       .         .     i  year 

Modern  Languages 

Isaac  Roberts  (2)  . 

£50       .         .     i  year 
(renewable) 

See  above,  undergraduate 
scholarship  of  same  name 

1851  Exhibition     . 
University  (2) 

£150     .         .     2  years 
£25      .         .     x  year 

Tenable  at  any  University 
in  England  and  abroad, 
and    to    be    used    for 
Science  Research  work 

1851  Exhibition  Bursary 

£70      ..       .     i  year 

Derby  .... 

£45  circa       .     i  year 
(renewable) 

Mathematics 

Owen-Templeman 

Interest  on  £450 
i  year  (renewable) 

Celtic 

Stanley  Jones 

Interest  on  £1,300 

Economics 

94         COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LIVERPOOL — continued. 


Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Fellowships. 

University    . 

i  year 

Charles  Beard 

£75                 -i  year 

History 

Oliver  Lodge 

Interest  on  ^2,650 
i  year 

Physics 

UNIVERSITY    OF    LONDON. 

The  duration  of  the  Course  in  Arts  or  Science,  Pass  and  Honours, 
is  3  years.  (See  under  separate  Colleges  for  Fees.) 

All  students  of  the  University  are  eligible  for  University  Scholar- 
ships, Exhibitions,  and  Prizes  in  accordance  with  the  regulations 
laid  down  in  each  case. 


University  Undergraduate. 

Exhibitions  (5) 

£40       .          .     2  years 

Arts  and  Science 

Scholarships  (19)    . 

£50       .         .1  year 

Arts  and  Science 

Mitchell  Exhibitions  (4) 

2  of  £25      )  i  year 
2  of  £-20      \  (renewable] 

For  candidates  from  the 
City  of  London 

St  Duristan  Exhibitions  for 
Women  (3) 

£60       .         .     3  years 

For  residents  in  London 
of  restricted  means 

Gilchrist  Scholarships,  for 
Women  (2) 

£40       .          .     2  years 

One  in  Arts,  one  in 
Science  (the  latter  may 
be  increased  by  £10) 

University  Post-Graduate. 

The  Lindley  Studentship 

£100 

For  research  in  Physi- 
ology (awarded  every 
3rd  year) 

The  University  Student- 
ship in  Physiology 

£5° 

For  research  (under- 
graduates are  also 
eligible) 

COST  AND   DURATION  OF  COURSES        95 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remarks. 


University  Post-Graduate 
— continued 

George  Smith  Studentship 


Gilchrist  Studentship  for 
Women 


Gilchrist  Studentship  in 
Modern  Languages 


books 


worth    of 


£80 


Carpenter  Medal  (or  its 
pecuniary  equivalent) 


Ouseley  Memorial 

Scholarships  (3) 

Gilchrist  Scholarships  (2) 


£20 


Awarded  to  the  best 
Internal  Candidate  for 
B.A.  Honours  in  Eng- 
lish on  condition  of 
preparation  for  M.A. 

For  graduates  in  Honours 
who  undertake  to  pre- 
pare for  and  practise 
some  profession 

For  internal  graduates  in 
Honours  (French  or 
German)  who  under- 
take to  follow  abroad 
a  course  of  prepara- 
tion for  the  profession 
of  Modern  Language 
Teacher 

Awarded  every  3  years 
for  a  Thesis  in  expe- 
rimental Psychology 
presented  for  a  Doc- 
tor's Degree 

Oriental  Languages,  not 
restricted  to  graduates 


Oriental  Languages,  not 
restricted  to  graduates 
Grants  are  also  made  from  the  Dixon  Fund  in  aid  of  scientific  investigations. 


BEDFORD  COLLEGE  FOR  WOMEN. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :  27  guineas  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :  From  27  to  38  guineas  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Residence  in  College  (optional) :  From  58  to  68  guineas  per  annum. 

All  Scholarships  at  Bedford  College  are  open  to  women  only. 


Undergraduate. 

• 

Reid  Scholarships  (2) 

£30       . 

.     3  years 

Arts 

Clift  Scholarship     . 

£30       . 

.     3  years 

Arts 

96         COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON,  BEDFORD  COLLEGE  FOR  WOMEN — continued. 


Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Undergraduate  —  contd. 

Courtauld  Scholarship 

£30       .          .     3  years 

Arts 

Henry  Tate  Scholarship  . 

£50       .         .     3  years 

Science 

Arnott  Scholarship 

£50                 .3  years 

Science 

Pfeiffer  Scholarships  (2)  . 

£5°       •          •     3  years 

Reid  Scholarship    . 

£60       .         .     3  years 

Jane  Benson  Scholarship 

£60       .          .     2  years 

Awarded  biennially  to  a 
student     of     Bedford 
High  School 

Post-Graduate. 

Reid  Fellowship 

^50       .         .     2  years 

Awarded            biennially 
either  to    an    Arts  or 
a    Science  graduate 

EAST  LONDON  COLLEGE. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  or  Science  :  £10,  IDS.  per  annum. 
There  is  no  Hall  of  Residence. 


Entrance. 

Drapers'  Company  (2) 

Drapers'  Company  (2) 

Post-Graduate. 
Research  Studentship 


£40       .         .     3  years 


3  years 


Conditions  not  yet  pub- 
lished 


Arts.  Candidates  must 
not  exceed  19  years 
of  age 

Science.  Candidates 
must  not  exceed  19 
years  of  age 


COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 


97 


UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON — continued. 
UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON  KING'S  COLLEGE  FOR  WOMEN. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :  ^25,  43.  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :  £31,  IDS.  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Residence  in  King's  Hall  (optional)  :  From  £ij,  los.  to 

£26,  53.  per  term. 
All  Scholarships,  etc.,  except  the  three  which  are  specified,  are 

open  to  both  men  and  women,  and  are  tenable  by  the 

former  at  King's  College,  Strand. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance. 

Skinners'  Company  Schol- 

£4<>      •• 

3  years 

Arts 

arship 

Merchant  Taylors'  Schol- 

A° 

3  years 

Arts  or  Science 

arship 

Sambrooke  Scholarship  . 

£25         ... 

2  years 

Classics 

Sambrooke  Scholarship  . 

£25         • 

2  years 

Science 

Undergraduate. 

Inglis  Scholarship 

£3°         • 

i  year 

English    or    History    in 

Sambrooke  Exhibition    . 

£5°       . 

i  year 

alternate  years 
Classics 

Post-Graduate. 

Inglis  Studentship. 

£100     . 

i  year 

Awarded    on    the   result 

of  the    B.A.  Honours 

Examination   in   Eng- 

lish and  in  History  in 

alternate    years.     The 

selected  Student  is  re- 

quired to  prepare  for 

M.A.  and  to  give  some 

Layton  Research  Student- 

£150    . 

2  years 

assistance  in  teaching 
Science 

ship 

Gilchrist   Scholarship  in 

£52,   IDS. 

i  year 

For  graduates  intending 

Home  Science 

to  take  the  Post-Grad- 

uate Diploma  in  Home 

Science  and  Economics. 

For  women  only 

Prizes. 

Carter  Prize 

£15  in  books 

and  gold 

English  Verse 

medal 

Carter  Prize 

/i  5  in  books 

and  gold 

Botany 

medal 

G 


98         COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 


UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON — continued. 
ROYAL  HOLLOWAY  COLLEGE. 

Cost  of  Residence  and  Tuition  :  ^100  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Tuition  for  out-students  :  £12  per  term. 

All  Scholarships  at  Royal  Holloway  College  are  for  women  only. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remarks. 


Entrance. 

Founder's  Scholarships  (4) 

Entrance  Scholarships  (8) 
Martin  Holloway    . 
Several  Bursaries   . 

Undergraduate. 

Driver  (3) 

Christie 

Post-Graduate. 

Several  Studentships 

Prizes. 
R.  C.  Christie,  Esq. 

Martin  Holloway    . 


£60  . 
£50  . 
£35  - 
Not  exceeding 


£30 


£60 


3  years 
3  years 
3  years 

£3<> 
3  years 

3  years 
2  years 


Varying  in  amount 

i  year 


For  students  who  have 
been  at  least  three 
terms  in  residence 

For  History 


For  students  wishing  to 
take  up  post-graduate 
work 


French  Literature 


UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON,  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :  From  £24,  33.  to  ^42  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :  £35  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Residence  in  College  Hall  (optional)  :   From  ^53  to 
£82  per  annum. 


Entrance. 

Andrews  Entrance  Schol- 
arships (3) 

Campbell  Clarke  Entrance 
Scholarship 

£30      •         .     i  year 
£4°       •         •     3  years 

Arts  and  Science.      Age 
limit,  1  8 

English    Language    and 
Literature.  Age  limit  1  8 

COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES         99 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON,  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance  —  continued. 

Goldsmid 

^30 

.     3  years 

Science.     Age  limit,  18 

Rosa  Morison 

^3° 

3  years 

Arts.     Age  limit,  18 

Member's  Scholarship     . 

£30 

.     3  years 

Classics 

West    .... 
Morris 

£3<> 
£16 

i  year 
.     2  years 

English      and      English 
History 

St  Pancras    . 

College  fees  for  3  years 

Limited     to     candidates 
born  in  St  Pancras 

Campbell  Clarke    . 

£40 

2  or  3  years 

English    Language    and 
Literature 

Undergraduate. 

Andrews  Scholarships 

;£30 

.     i  year 

Arts  and  Science 

Derby  Zoological   . 

£60 

.     2  years 

Ellen  Watson  Memorial  . 

£15 

i  year 

Science.       Candidates 
must  be  under  21 

Fielden  Research  . 

£50 

i  or  2  years 

Research  in  German 

Eleanor  Grove 

£30 

i  year 
(may  be  renewed) 

Research  in  German 

John  Oliver  Hobbes 

£20 

.     i  year 

Modern    English    Litera- 
ture 

Hollier. 

£60 

i  year 

Greek  and  Hebrew 

Jews'  Commemoration   . 

&5 

.     2  years 

Arts  or  Science 

Joseph  Hume 

£20 

i  year 

Jurisprudence  and  Politi- 
cal Economy 

Maiden    Medal    and 
Scholarship 

£20 

.     i  year 

Proficiency  in  Greek 

Mayer  de  Rothschild 

£40 

i  year 

Pure  Mathematics 

John  Stuart  Mill    . 

£20 

i  or  2  year 

Philosophy   of    Mind    or 
Logic 

Rosa  Morison 

£30 

i  year 

English    Language    and 
Literature 

loo       COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  LONDON,  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remarks. 


Undergraduate — contd. 
Ricardo         .         . 

Tuffnell 

Post-Graduate. 

George  Jessel  Studentship 
Jevons  Memorial    . 

Physics     Research     Stu- 
dentships (2) 

Quain  .... 


Quain  . 


Quain  . 


£z° 
£100 

£50 

£35 

-/6o  ^ 
•/"AO  f 

£150 
£100 


Prizes. 


3  years 


2  years 


i  year 
i  or  2  years 


3  years 
3  years 


Awarded  every  third 
year  for  Political 
Economy 

Science.  Candidates 
must  be  under  24 


Research  in  Mathematics 

Research      in      Political 
Economy 


English.    Awarded  every 
third  year 

Biology.    Awarded  every 
third  year 


English  Essay 


WESTFIELD  COLLEGE. 

Cost  of  Residence  and  Tuition  :  £35  a  term. 

Cost  of  Tuition  for  Out-students  :  £15  a  term. 

All  Scholarships  at  Westfield  College  are  for  women  only. 


Entrance. 

Draper's  Company  (2) 
A  my  Sanders  Stephens    . 

£50  .  .  3  years 
£50  .  .  3  years 

Candidates  must  be  un- 
der age  of  20 

College  Scholarships  (2  or 
more) 

£35  to  £50  .  3  years 

COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       101 


UNIVERSITY    OF    MANCHESTER. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Arts  or  Science,  Pass  and  Honours  :  3  years. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :  £18  per  session. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :  Pass,  from  £20  to  £30  per  annum. 

Honours,  from  £12,  123.  to  £45  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Residence  in  Ashburne  Hall  or  Langdale  Hall  (optional)  : 

'From  ^40  to  £52,  IDS.  per  annum. 


Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Rogers           .          .          .      £40 

.     2  years 

Biennial.     Classics 

Seaton           .          .          .      £40 

.     2  years 

Biennial.     Mathematics 

Dalton           .          .          .      £40 

.     2  years 

Mathematics 

Hulme           .          .          .      £35 

.     3  years 

English  and  History 

Jones   .          .          .          •      £35 

.     2  years 

History 

James  Gaskill        .         .      ^35 

.     2  years 

Mathematics  and  Chem- 
istry 

John  Buckley         .         .      £30 

.     3  years 

Mathematics  and  Science 

Grace  Calvert         .          .      £30 

.     2  years 

Science.     Biennial 

Bleackley      .          .                £15 

3  years 

Science  (not  till  1915) 

Theodores     .          .          .      £15 

i  year 

French  and  German 

Dora  Muir    .         .         .      ^30 

.     3  years 

Alice  Fay      .         .         .      £25 

.  Not  more  than 
3  years 

Ashburne  Hall        .         .      £60 

.     3  years 

Marjory  Lees          .         ,      £40 

.     3  years 

Old  Ashburnians     .          .      ^30 

.  1-3  years 

Jevons           .          .          .      £70       .          .     i  year 

Russian         .          .          .      £60  ist  year  \ 
£25  2nd  year/  2  yea 

Economic  Science   (once; 
in  six  years) 

Bishop  Fraser         .          .      £40 

.     2  years 

Classics 

Oliver  Heywood     .         .      £50 

.     2  years 

Classics 

102       COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MANCHESTER — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Dieschfield    . 

£30       .         .     i  year 

Robert  Platt 

£50       .          .  1-2  years 

Zoology  and  Botany 

Robert  Platt 

£50       .          .     2  years 

Physiology 

Education  (2) 

£50       •          •      i  year 

Intending  Teachers 

Faulkner  (Arts)  and  Beyer 
(Science)  (3) 

£100     .          .     i  year 

Victoria 

£40                 .      i  year 

Classics 

Wellington    . 

£30                 .1  year 

Greek.     Biennial 

Walters 

£30                .1  year 

French.     German 

Bradford 

;£35                 .1  year 

History 

Shuttleworth 

£45                 .1  year 

Political  Economy 

Dalton 

£35                 .1  year 

Mathematics 

Derby  .... 

£3°       •          •     i  year 

Mathematics 

Heginbottom 

£15       .         .     i  year 

Physics 

Dalton 

£50       .          .     2  years 

Chemical 

Mercer 

£30       •          •     i  year 

Chemistry 

Post-Graduate. 

Roscoe 

£50                  -i  year 
(renewable) 

History 

Gilchrist 

£80       .         .     i  year 

Modern  Languages 

Graduate 

£25                .1  year 

One    in    each    Honours 
School    in    Arts    and 
Science 

Travelling     . 

£60  for  ist  year,  and  £j 
for  2nd  year 

Russian 

1851  Exhibition 

£150     .          .2  years 

Science 

Schuster 

£50       •          •     r  year 

Engineering  or  Chemistry 

COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       103 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MANCHESTER — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Fellowships. 

John  Harling 

^125     .         .  1-2  years 

Physics,  English 

Honorary  Schunk  . 

£100     .          .      i  year 

Chemistry 

Jones   .... 

^150     .          .     2  years 

History 

John  Bright 

£100     .         .     2  years 

Public  Health  (2)  . 

£50                .1  year 

Prizes. 

Lee     Greek     Testament 
Senior 

&5 

Warburton    . 

£30 

UNIVERSITY    OF    OXFORD. 
Duration  of    Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :    3    to  4    years. 


(Pass 


candidates  are  not  accepted  at  the  Women's  Colleges.) 
Women  are  not  eligible  for  any  University  Scholarships  or  Prizes. 
All  Scholarships  at  the  Women's  Colleges  are  for  women  only. 
The  University  does  not  grant  degrees  to  women. 

SOMERVILLE   COLLEGE. 

Combination  Fee  :  From  ^84  to  £105  per  annum. 


Entrance  Scholarships  (3) 

£40-^60    .           3  years 

Entrance  Exhibitions  (2)  . 

£20-^30    .           3  years 

Shaw  Lefevre 

&>o 

Awarded  only  to  students 
in  residence 

Certificated  Students. 

Mary  Ewart  Travelling 
Scholarship 

^100-^200 

Awarded  occasionally,  and 
open  to  women  gradu- 
ates of  Durham  and 
Dublin,  as  well  as  to  all 
certificated  students  of 
the  Women's  Colleges  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge 

104       COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  OXFORD — continued. 
LADY  MARGARET  HALL. 

Cost  of  Tuition  :  £27  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Residence  (obligatory)  :  From  £65  to  £75  per  annum. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance. 

Jephson  Scholarship 

£50       .         .3  years 

College  Scholarship 

^40       .         .     3  years 

College  Scholarship 

£35                 -3  years 

ST  HILDA'S  HALL. 

Cost  of  Tuition  :  £26,  53.  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Residence  (obligatory)  :  £75  per  annum. 


Entrance. 

College  Scholarship 

£50       . 

.     3  years 

College  Scholarship 

£30       . 

.     3  years 

Hay  Scholarship     . 

&5-£45 

.     3  years 

Cheltenham  Scholarship  . 

varies  in  amount 
3  years 

Open  only  to  pupils  of 
Cheltenham       Ladies' 
College 

Si  HUGH'S  COLLEGE. 
Combination  Fee  :    From  £70  to  £95  per  annum. 


Entrance. 

Old  Students'  Scholarship 

£30       . 

3  years 

College  Scholarship 

£30       . 

3  years 

College  Scholarship 

£25       • 

.     3  years 

Clara     Evelyn     Mordan 
Scholarship 

£4°       • 

3  years 

Awarded      every      third 
year 

COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       105 


UNIVERSITY  OF  OXFORD — continued. 

SOCIETY  OF  HOME  STUDENTS. 
Cost  of  Tuition  :    From  £24  to  ^30  per  annum. 

The  Society  of  Home  Students  provides  for  the  education  of 
students  who  are  not  in  residence  at  any  College.  It  undertakes 
to  prepare  students  for  pass  as  well  as  honours  examinations. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Ottley  Scholarship  . 

£40       .          .     3  years 

Open  only  to  pupils  of 
Worcester  High  School. 

Gilchrist  Travelling 

^100     .          .     i  year 

Open  to  certificated 
women  students  at 
Oxford 

UNIVERSITY    OF    SHEFFIELD. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Arts  or  Science,  Pass  and  Honours  :  3  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  varies  according  to  subjects  chosen. 
Cost  of  Residence  in  the  University  Hostel  (optional)  :    From 
29  to  43  guineas  per  annum. 


Entrance. 

Firth  .... 

£30       .         .     3  years 

Arts,  Science 

Corporation 

£3°       •          •     3  years 

Arts,  Science 

Town  Trustees  (2) 
Education  Committee   . 

^50       .          .  3-4  years 

£15,  ist  year-| 
£20,  2nd  year  1  3  years 
£25,  3rd  yearj 

Tenable  at  Sheffield, 
Oxford  and  Cambridge 

Town  Trustees  (4) 

£50                 -3  years 

Open  only  to  candidates 
under  19  years  of  age 
educated  in  Sheffield 

Education  Committee  . 

£50       .          .     3  years 

Applied  Science 

Earnshaw  1  . 

£50  at  least  .     i  year 
or  more 

Open  to  inhabitants  of 
the  City  of  Sheffield, 
and  tenable  at  any 
University  in  the 
United  Kingdom. 
Awarded  for  Mathe- 

matics or  Classics 

1  This    does    not  appear  to  come  under  either    of   the    categories    of   County  and  Borough 
Scholarship  alluded  to  in  Note  3,  p.  28.     The  Editor  therefore  includes  it  here. 


106       COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  SHEFFIELD — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remarks. 


Entrance — continued. 
Mechanics'  Institute 

Whitworth    Exhibitions 
(30) 

Whitworth  (4) 
Technical     . 

Education  Committee   . 
Education  Committee  (4) 

Post-Graduate. 
Frederick  Clifford 

1851  Exhibition  . 

Fellowships. 

Sorby 

Town  Trustees 


£50  and  free  admission 
to  lectures  .  1-2  years 

£50       .          .     3  years 


3  years 


£•20,  ist  year;  £25,  2nd 
year ;  £30, 3rd  year ; 
and  free  admission  to 
lectures  .  3  years 


£50 


£50  circa 


£150     . 


3  years 
3  years 

2  years 
2  years 


Interest    on    £15,503, 
i6s.  6d.      .     5  years 


£75 


i  year 


Awarded  on  the  results 
of  Examinations  of  the 
Board  of  Education 

Awarded  on  the  results 
of  Examinations  of  the 
Board  of  Education 


Arts 

Pure  or  Applied  Science 


Open  to  graduates  resid- 
ing within  a  radius  of  40 
miles  of  the  University 

Science 


Chemistry.     Next  award 
1914 


UNIVERSITY    COLLEGE,    NOTTINGHAM. 
Students  read  for  the  external  degrees  of  the  University  of  London. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :    £12,  123.  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :  £18  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Residence  at  Hylton  House  (optional)  :  £30  per  annum. 


Entrance. 

Scholarships  (3)    . 

Studentships 

£3°                 •     J  Year 
(renewable) 

Remission  of  fees 
i  year  (renewable) 

Arts   and    Science.     For 
students   not  over   19 
years  of  age 

COST   AND   DURATION  OF  COURSES       107 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  NOTTINGHAM — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remarks. 


Entrance — continued. 
Parker  Senior  Exhibitions 

County  Council  Scholar- 
ships (5) 

Undergraduate. 

Weinberg  Scholarship    . 

College  Studentships 

Post-Graduate. 
Science  Research  (2) 

Heymann  Research 


1851  Exhibition  Scholar- 
ship 


3  years 


College  and  travelling 
fees,  and  books 


to  £18 


1  year 


i  year 


0   and   free    admis- 
sion .          .     i  year 


£35 


£i5°     • 


i  year 


2  years 


For  daughters  of  residents 
in  Nottingham 

Open  to  candidates  under 
19,  ordinarily  resident 
in  the  County 


For  students  in  need  of 
pecuniary  assistance 

For  students  in  need  of 
pecuniary  assistance 


May  be  divided  between 
two  candidates.  Prefer- 
ence given  to  students 
in  the  Faculty  of  Arts 

For  Research  work  in 
Science.  Tenable  at 
any  University 


UNIVERSITY    COLLEGE,    READING. 
Students  read  for  the  external  degrees  of  the  University  of  London. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :    £20  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :    From  ^20  to  ^24  per  annum. 
(There  is  a  reduction  for  local  students.) 

Cost  of  Residence  in  St  Andrew's  Hall,  Wessex  Hall,  and  St 
George's  Hostel  (obligatory  for  students  not  residing  with 
parents  or  guardians)  :  From  ^32  to  ^42  per  annum. 


Entrance. 

Open  Scholarships — 
Major  (2) 


Minor  (2) 


£65 


2  years 
(renewable) 


Remission    of    College 

fees  .          .     2  years 

(renewable) 


Science 
Arts 


<*  l?^08       COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  READING — continued. 


^W^~ 

tS    ^*N*— 


Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 


Entrance — continued. 

County      Borough      of 

Reading — 
Minor  Scholarships  (2) 


Si  Andrew's  Hall  . 


St  Andrew's   Hall  Bur- 
saries 

Exhibition    . 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remission    of    College 
fees,  i  year  (renewable) 


£40 


.     2  years 
(renewable) 


Amount  variable 


Remission   of    College 
fees       .          .      i  year 


Remarks. 


For  candidates  educated 
in  Borough  of  Reading 


Students  in  need  of 
pecuniary  assistance 

For  graduates,  whether 
already  students  of  the 
College  or  not.  Second- 
ary Education  Course 


HARTLEY    UNIVERSITY    COLLEGE,    SOUTHAMPTON. 
Students  read  principally  for  the  external  degrees  of  the  University  of  London. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :   £20  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :    £24.  per  annum. 
There  is  no  Hall  of  Residence. 


Entrance. 
College  (2)    . 

College  (2)    . 
Exhibitions  (4) 


Thomas 
Rooper 


Godolphin 


£26,  8s.,  ist  year  "k 
^34,  8s.,  2nd  year  L* 
£36,  8s.,  3rd  year  J  yea 


£26,  8s.,  ist  year  \    2 
^34,  8s.,  2nd  year  /years 


£15  and  £iS  .     3  years 


i  year 


Open  to  candidates  be- 
tween the  ages  of  16 
and  19 

Open  to  candidates  who 
have  been  educated  for 
at  least  two  years 
at  a  Public  Elemen- 
tary School  in  the  late 
Mr  Rooper's  Inspec- 
torial District 


COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       109 

- 


IRELAND. 

UNIVERSITY    OF    DUBLIN. 

TRINITY   COLLEGE. 

Duration  of  Arts  Course,  Pass  and  Honours,  4  years. 
Duration  of  Science  Course :  Pass,  4  years  ;   Honours,  5  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  :   £16,  i6s.  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Residence  in  Trinity  Hall  (for  women  not  residing  with 
their  parents  or  guardians)  :    From  £11  to  ^15  a  term. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


r, 

-   .  '!' 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance. 

Exhibitions  (12)    . 

fl5  (6)}           '  2  years 

Examination    results    of 
Irish  Board  of  Inter- 
mediate Education 

Junior  Exhibitions  (16) 

f£  {$}       .    *  years 

Candidates  under  19 

Sizarships  (10) 

College  fees 

Students     in     need     of 
pecuniary  assistance 

Non-foundation  Scholar- 
ship 

£30                 .5  years 

Arts  or  Science 

James  Patrick  Kidd 

£80       .         .     4  years 

Arts  or  Science 

Irish  Society  Scholarship 

£60       .          .     3  years 

Open     only     to     pupils 
of      an     Intermediate 
School  in  Londonderry 
or  Coleraine 

Undergraduate. 

Senior  Exhibitions  (16) 

/is  f  •      •  2  years 

Arts  or  Science 

Lloyd  Exhibition 

£16       .          .2  years 

Mathematics 

Mullins  Exhibition 

£17       .          .3  years 

Classics 

Ekenhead  Scholarship  . 

£32       .         .     3  years 

Science.     Open    only    to 
natives  of  Antrim 

FitzGerald        Memorial 
Scholarship 

£50       .         .     i  year 

Research  in  Science 

Blake  National  History 
Scholarship 

£85       •          -4  years 

i  io       COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  DUBLIN,  TRINITY  COLLEGE — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Prizes. 

Bishop    Law's    Mathe- 
matics 

^20 

Algebra     and     Trigono- 
metry 

M'Cullogh    . 

£30  and  £20 

Mathematics 

Townsend  Memorial 

£22 

Mathematics 

Vice  Chancellor's 

£20 

Classics 

Ferrar  Memorial  . 

£8 

Classics 

Marshall  Porter  Memorial 

Interest  on  £500 

Classics 

Wray  Prize 

£$o 

Mental  and  Moral  Philo- 
sophy 

Cobden  Prize 

Hebrew,     Chaldee    and 
Syriac 

£20 
£40 

Essay     on     Political 
Economy 

Ferguson  Memorial 

£20 

Celtic  Literature 

M'CREA    MAGEE    COLLEGE,    LONDONDERRY. 

(In  connection  with  the  University  of  Dublin.) 

Duration  of  Course  in  Arts :  Pass,  3  years  9  months  to  4  years ; 

Honours,  4  years. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Science,  Pass  and  Honours :   4  years. 
Cost  of  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :    From  ^32,  I2s.  to  ^50,  8s. 

for  the  course. 
There  is  no  Hall  of  Residence. 


Bigger 

£30       .          .1  year 

Grocers'  Company 

£25       .         .     i  year 

M'Crea  Science     . 

£25       •         •     *  7ear 

Mathematics  and  Physics 

Adams'  Bursary  . 

^15       .         .     i  year 

COST   AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES       in 

M'CREA  MAGEE  COLLEGE,  LONDONDERRY — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

M'Crea  Science     . 

£30       .         .     i  year 

Mathematics  and  Physics 

Grocers'  Company 

£25       .         .     i  year 

Findlater     . 

£25       .          .     i  year 

Irish  Society 

£20       .         .     i  year 

Mabel 

£20       .          .      i  year 

Modern  Literature 

NATIONAL    UNIVERSITY    OF    IRELAND. 

All  students  of  the  University  are  eligible  for  University 
Scholarships,  etc.,  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  laid 
down  in  each  case. 


University  Under- 
graduate. 

Dr  Henry  Hutchinson 
Stewart  Literary 
Scholarship 

Tipperary  County  Coun- 
cil (6) 


University  Post-Graduate. 

Coyne  Memorial  Scholar- 
ship 


University       Travelling 
Studentships  (3) 


£30 


£50 


£52 


£200 


3  years 


3  years 


i  year 


2  years 


Awarded  on  results  of 
First  Examination  in 
Arts 


Awarded  in  alternate 
years  for  Essay  on 
Political  Science 


In  Arts  and  Science  sub- 
jects in  rotation 


ii2       COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

NATIONAL  UNIVERSITY  OF  IRELAND — continued. 
UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  DUBLIN. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Arts  or  Science,  Pass  and  Honours  :  3  years. 
Cost  of  Arts  Course  :    £28,  103. 

Cost  of  Science  Course  :  Variable,  according  to  subjects  chosen. 
Cost  of  Residence  in  Loreto  Hall  or  St  Mary's  Dominican  Hall 
(optional)  :    From  ^30  to  £40  per  annum. 


Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance. 

Scholarships  (4)    . 

&>o 

i  year 

Scholarships  (4)    . 

£4° 

i  year 

Scholarships  (4)    . 

£30 

i  year 

Scholarships  (4)    . 

£20 

i  year 

Undergraduate. 

Scholarships  (4)    . 

£50 

.     2  years 

Arts  and  Science.  For 
2nd  year  students 

Scholarships  (4)    . 

£4<> 

2  years 

Arts  and  Science.  For 
2nd  year  students 

Scholarships  (4)    . 

&<> 

.     2  years 

Arts  and  Science.  For 
2nd  year  stiidents 

Scholarships  (4)    . 

£20 

2  years 

Arts  and  Science.  For 
2nd  year  students 

First     Class     E  x  h  i  b  i- 
tions  (4) 

{,20 

i  year 

Result  of  Examination  in 
2nd  year 

Post-Graduate. 

Scholarships  (5)    . 

£60 

i  year 

Result  of  B.A.  and  B.Sc. 
Honours  Examination 

Scholarship 

£30 

i  year 

Scholarships  (2)    . 

£i5 

i  year 

First     Class     Exhibi- 
tions (3) 

£20 

i  year 

Result  of  B.A.  and  B.Sc. 
Examination 

COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURTS/,* 

NATIONAL  UNIVERSITY  OF  IRELAND  —  continued. 

UNIVERSITY    COLLEGE,    GALWAY. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :    £10  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :    ^15  per  annum. 
There  is  no  Hall  of  Residence. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


• 

•   * 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance. 

College  (4)    . 

£30 

i  year 

College  (8)   . 

£^5 

i  year 

Tinder-Graduate. 

College,  2nd  year  . 

£30 

i  year 

Arts 

College,  2nd  year  (3) 

£25 

i  year 

Arts 

College,  2nd  year  . 

£30 

.     i  year 

Science 

College,  2nd  year  (2) 

£25 

i  year 

Science 

Blayney 

£30 

i  year 

Scholars      must     attend 
Honours  Courses 

Dr  and  Mrs  W.  A.  Browne 

£32 

.     i  year 

Modern  Languages 

Post-Graduate. 

College  (4)    . 

£60 

i  year 

Prizes. 

Irish   .... 

65 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  CORK. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :    £g  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  varies  according  to  subjects  chosen. 
There  is  no  Hall  of  Residence. 


Entrance  and  Under- 
graduate. 

College  Scholarships  (12) 
Honan  Scholarships  (3) 

£2o-£4o         .     i  year 
£50       .          .  3-5  years 

To  candidates  born  in  one 
of  the  counties  of  Mun- 
ster  other  than  Clare 

H 


ii4       COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

NATIONAL  UNIVERSITY  OF  IRELAND,  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  CORK — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance  and  Under- 
graduate —  contd. 

Cork  County  Council  (10) 

^24                 .3  years 

Kerry  County  Council  (2) 

£50       .          .     3  years 

Open  to  candidates  of  not 
more  than  19  years  of 

age 

Kerry  County  Council  (3) 

£jo       .         .         - 

Open  to  candidates  of  not 
more  than  19  years  of 

age 

Waterford  County  Coun- 
cil (3) 

Waterford    County 
Borough  (2) 

£5°       •         •     3  years 
£50       .          .     3  years 

Open    to    candidates    of 
not  more  than  19  years 
of  age 

College  Scholarships  (8) 

£20-^40          .  2-3  years 

Open  to   2nd   year  stu- 
dents 

Post-Graduate  Scholar- 
ships. 

Studentships  (2)   . 

£150     .         .     3  years 

QUEEN'S   UNIVERSITY,    BELFAST. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Arts  or  Science,  Pass  and  Honours  :  3  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  varies  according  to  subjects  chosen,  but  does 
not  exceed  £11,  us.  per  annum  for  the  Arts  Course. 


Entrance  and  Under- 
graduate 

Entrance  (12) 

£4° 

i  year 

Arts,  Science,  and  Medi- 
cine 

Second  and  Third  Year 
(H) 

;£4°       - 

.     2  years 

Arts  and  Science 

Porter 

£20       . 

.  1-3  years 

Porter 

£40       • 

i  year 

Sullivan 

£40  circa 

i  year 

Open  to  pupils  of  the 
Royal  Belfast  Aca- 
demical Institution 

COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       115 

QUEEN'S  UNIVERSITY,  BELFAST — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance  and  Under- 
graduate —  contd. 

Sullivan  (2)            . 

£40  circa       .     3  years 

Open  to  teachers  in  Irish 
National  Schools 

Sir  Hercules  Pakenham 

£20       .         .     i  year 

Science 

Emily  Lady  Pakenham 

£20       .          .      i  year 

Arts 

Reid-Harwood 

^40  circa       .     i  year 

Modern  Languages 

Andrews  Studentship    . 

£36,  los.        .     2  years 

Awarded  alternate  years 
for  Chemical  and  Phy- 
sical Science 

Blayney 

£27       .     •    .     i  year 

Arts 

County  Borough  (4) 

£40       .         .     3  years 

Arts,  Science,  Medicine, 
Law,  Commerce 

Antrim  (2) 

£40       .         .     3  years 

Tenable  at  any  Univer- 
sity in  Ireland 

Donegal  (2) 

£45       •         •     3  years 

Tenable  at  any  Univer- 
sity in  Ireland 

Kildare  (4)  .          . 

£50       .          .     3  years 

Tenable  at  any  Univer- 
sity in  Ireland  by  non- 
Roman  Catholic  stu- 
dents 

King's  County      . 

£50       .         .     3  years 

Tenable  by  non-Roman 
Catholics 

Monaghan  (3)        .         . 

£50       .         .     3  years 

Tenable  at  any  Univer- 
sity in  Ireland  by  a 
non  -  Roman  Catholic 
student 

Monaghan  Bursaries  (2) 

£25       •         .     3  years 

Tenable  at  any  Univer- 
sity in  Ireland  by  a 
non  -  Roman  Catholic 
student 

Westmeath  (3)      . 
Wexford  (3) 

£5°       •         •     3  years 
£50       .         .3  years 

Tenable  in  the  National 
University  of  Ireland 
or  in  Queen's  Univer- 
sity, Belfast 

Tenable  in  any  Univer- 
sity or  College  in  Ire- 
land by  a  non-Roman 
Catholic  student 

ii6       COST   AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 

QUEEN'S  UNIVERSITY,  BELFAST — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance  and  Under- 
graduate —  contd. 

Wexford  Bursaries  (2)   . 
Post-Graduate. 

£25       .          .     3  years 

Tenable  in  any  Univer- 
sity or  College  in  Ire- 
land by  a  non-Roman 
Catholic  student 

Studentships  (5)    . 

£50       .         .     i  year 

Arts 

Studentships  (4)   . 

£50       .         .     i  year 

Science 

Dunville  Studentships  (2) 

£50  ist  year   \ 
£100  2nd  year/  2  ?** 

Physical  Science  and  Bio- 
logical Science 

Purser 

£108     .         .     i  year 

Mathematics 

Studentship 

£80       .          .     i  year 

Arts 

ALEXANDRA    COLLEGE,    DUBLIN. 

Students  read  for  the  Examinations  of  the  University  of  Dublin,  the 
National  University  of  Ireland,  and  Queen's  University,  Belfast. 
Duration  of  Course  in  Arts  or  Science,  Pass  and  Honours :  3  to  4  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  :    From  £ij  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Residence  in  Alexandra  Hall :  From  £58  to  £68  per  annum. 
Alexandra  College  is  for  women  only. 


Entrance  and  Under- 
graduate. 

Skinner  s'    Entrance 
Scholarship 

Governess       Association 
Scholarship 

Pfeiffer  Entrance  Scholar- 
ship 

Stearns  Scholarships  (2) 


Wilson  Suffern 

Skinners'  Senior  Scholar- 
ship 


£42  total  value 
£42  total  value 
£30  total  value 
£20  total  value 

£27  total  value 


Candidates       must       be 
under  17  on  ist  Jan. 

Candidates       must       be 
under  17  on  ist  Jan. 

Candidates       must       be 
under  17  on  ist  Jan. 

Candidates       must       be 
under  17  on  ist  Jan. 


Candidates       must 
under  17 


be 


Awarded      in     alternate 
years 


COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

ALEXANDRA  COLLEGE,  DUBLIN — continued. 


117 


Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Frizes. 

Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance  and  Under- 

graduate —  contd. 

Pfeiffer       Senior 
Scholarship 

£30  total  value 

Pfeiffer  Literature 

£30  total  value 

— 

Jellicoe      Memorial 
Scholarship  (Governess 
Association) 

£24  total  value 

Jellicoe  Memorial 

£25  total  value 

Trench  Memorial  (Senior) 

£15  total  value 

Trench  Memorial  (Junior) 
R.  P.  Graves  Memorial  . 

£15  total  value 
£15  total  Value 

Candidates       must       be 
under  17 

SCOTLAND. 

SCHOLARSHIPS  TENABLE  AT  ANY   SCOTTISH  UNIVERSITY./^ 


David  Anderson  (2) 

j£3°       .          .4  years" 

Restricted  to  candidates 

,  from  specified  schools 

or  districts 

Duart 

£32       .         .     3  years 

Restricted  to  candidates 

from  specified  schools 

or  districts 

IN 

Maclean 

£25       .          .     4  years} 

Restricted  to  candidates 

from  specified  schools 

or  districts 

James  Stewart     . 

;£35                 -3  years 

Restricted  to  candidates 

from  specified  schools 

or  districts 

Strang-Steel 

£3°       .         .     4  years 

Restricted  to  candidates 

from  specified  schools 

or  districts 

Glenbuck 

£27                 .3  years 

Restricted  to  candidates 

from  specified  schools 

or  districts 

Ferguson  Bursaries 

j£25  to  £30    .     4  years 

Restricted  to  candidates 

from  specified  schools 

or  districts 

ii8       COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

SCHOLARSHIPS  TENABLE  AT  ANY  SCOTTISH  UNIVERSITY — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Louson 

£20       .         .4  years 

Dumfries      .         . 

£30       .         .3  years 

Spence  (2)    .          . 

£30  ist  year  j 
£40  2nd  year/ 

For  2nd  year  Arts  stu- 
dents 

Menzies        .         . 

£45       •          -4  years 

Tenable  at  St  Andrews, 
Glasgow,  or  Edinburgh 

Patrick  A.  Lowson 

£70       .         .     2  years 

Tenable  at  any  Univer- 
sity in  the  United 
Kingdom 

Cowan          . 

£30  for  2  years   \  ,vears 
£20  for  3rd  year  J  3y' 

Tenable    alternately    at 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow 

SCHOLARSHIPS,    ETC., 


OPEN   TO   STUDENTS   OF  ANY  SCOTTISH 
UNIVERSITY. 


Undergraduate. 

Franco-Scottish  Society 
Travelling  Scholarships 

£15       .          .     i  year 

For  students  wishing  to 
study  in  France 

Spence  Bursaries 

—       .          .         — 

See  above,  Scholarships 
tenable  at  any  Scottish 
University 

James  Stewart  Bursary 

—       .          •         — 

See  ante,  Scholarships 
tenable  at  any  Scottish 
University 

Post-Graduate. 

Ferguson  Scholarships  (3) 

£80       .          .     2  years 

Arts  and  Science.  Open 
to  Masters  of  Arts 

Carnegie  Research  Fel- 
lowships 

£15°     •         .2  years 

Arts,  Science,  Medicine 

Carnegie  Research  Schol- 
arships 

^100     .          .     i  year 

Arts,  Science,  Medicine 

1851  Science  Scholarship 

£150     .         .2  years 

Tenable  at  any  approved 
institution 

COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       119 

SCHOLARSHIPS,  ETC.,  OPEN  TO  STUDENTS  OP  ANY  SCOTTISH  UNIVERSITY — contd. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Post-Graduate  —  contd. 

Shaw  Philosophical  Fel- 
lowship 

^150     .          .     5  years 

Mental  Philosophy.  Open 
to  Arts  Graduates 

George    Heriot    Bursary 
for  Women 

£30       .          .     i  year 

Open  to  graduates  of  the 
United  Kingdom  for 
training  as  teachers. 
Tenable  at  St  George's 
Training  College,  Edin- 
burgh 

UNIVERSITY    OF    ABERDEEN. 

Duration  of  Pass  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :    3  years. 
Duration  of  Honours  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :    5  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :    £10,  los.  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :    £21  per  annum. 
There  is  no  Hall  of  Residence. 


Entrance  and  Under- 
graduate. 

Adam  (9) 

J       >|c  >        .     4  years 

Arts 

Campbell  (6) 

£18       .          .     4  years 

Arts 

Cargill  (8)    . 

£20       .          .     4  years 

Arts 

Crombie  (8) 

£15       .          .4  years 

Arts 

Fullerton  (9) 

£15       .          -4  years 

Arts 

Gammie 

£35       •         •     2  years 

French  and  German 

Gordon  and  Cuming 

£20       .          .     4  years 

Hutton  (7)   . 

;£29  (2)) 

£20  (3)  V         .4  years 
£18  (2)J 

Competitors  must  not  be 
under  14 

Macpherson  (3)     . 

£20       .          .     4  years 

Arts.       Gaelic  -  speaking 
candidates. 

Mather  (4)   . 

£15       .          .4  years 

Arts 

120       COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ABERDEEN — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance  and  Under- 
graduate —  contd. 

Melvill  (2)    . 
Milne  and  Fraser  . 

£20 

.     4Jyears 

Hff 

.     4;years 

Arts 
Arts 

Moir  (14) 

£*0  (4)    \ 

£i5  (to)/ 

.     4  years 

Arts 

Red    Hyth,  Smith  and 
Short 

£25         . 

4  years 

Arts  or  Science 

Reid  and  Cruden 

£20         . 

.     4  years 

Arts 

Rolland 

£25         • 

.     4  years 

Arts 

Ross   .... 

£20 

.     4  years 

Arts 

Simpson  (5) 

£30         . 

4  years 

Arts 

Highland      Society      of 
London 

£I5     . 

3  years 

Gaelic  -  speaking    candi- 
dates 

Post-Graduate. 

Robert  Fletcher    . 

£30    . 

2  years 

Mathematics 

Fullerton,      Moir,     and 
Gray  (7) 

£ioo(4)\ 
£75  (3)   J 

2  years 
3  years 

Arts 

Fullerton     . 

£100     . 

.     2  years 

Science 

Knox 

Income  on 

£2,000 
i  year 

Arts 

Reid  Scholarships 

Croom  Robertson  Fellow- 
ship 

£200     . 

i  year 
3  years 

Amount     not     specified. 
Arts  or  Science 

Arts 

James  Day  Scholarship 
Fullerton  Scholarship   . 

£100     . 
£100     . 

i  year 
2  years 

Graduate  in  Arts  intend- 
ing to  take  up  teaching 
Science 

Prizes 

Arnott 

Interest  on 

£1,000 

Natural  Philosophy 

Dr  Black     . 

£28 

Latin 

COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       121 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ABERDEEN — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Prizes  —  continued. 

Blackwell     . 

£20 

English  Essay 

Caithness     .          . 

£20 

History 

^reig  .... 

£30 

Natural  Philosophy 

Simpson  and  Boxill 

£65  and  £28 

Mathematics 

Jimpson 

&5 

Greek 

UNIVERSITY   OF    EDINBURGH. 

Duration  of  Pass  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :  3  years. 

Duration  of  Honour  Course  in  Arts  :  4  years. 

Duration  of  Honour  Course  in  Science  :  5  years. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :  £10,  los.  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :    ^15,  153.  per  annum  for  5  years 

for  M.A.  and  B.Sc.     £21  per  annum  for  B.Sc.  only. 
Cost  of  Residence  in  Muir  Hall  (optional)  :  From  £10  to  £13,  los. 

a  term. 


Bursaries. 

George  Heriot  Bursary 

£20 

.     3  years 

Arts  or  Science 

Heriot  High  School  Uni- 
versity 

£30       . 

.     3  years 

R.  Johnstone  Bursary  . 

£i9,  I3S. 

.     4  years 

Chrystie  Bursary 

£18        . 

.     4  years 

Pringle     and     Wardrop 
Bursary 

£19,  4s. 

.     4  years 

Mitchell  and  Shortt 

£27.  58- 

4  years 

Dundas 

&6       . 

.     4  years 

Fraser 

£22,  4s. 

7  years 

Arts 

Grant 

^45       • 

.     4  years 

Arts 

122       COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  EDINBURGH — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Bursaries  —  continued. 

Stuart 

£17,  I2S. 

3  years 

Arts  or  Science 

Jardine 
Bruce  (4) 

£42,  I2S.  6d.  . 

£40  (in 

£30  (3)J 

4  years 
4  years 

Arts  or  Science.  Limited 
to  natives  of  Scotland 

Patrick 

£45     • 

4  years 

Ayrshire  Club 

£30     . 

2  years 

Peebleshire  Society 

£20 

4  years 

Arts  or  Science 

Rhind 

£20 

4  years 

Bruce  of  Grangehill  and 
Falklands  Bursaries 

^20  ?  } 

3  years 

Arts,  ist  and  2nd  year 
Students 

Horsliehill  Scott  . 

£39,  i6s. 

2  years 

3rd  year  Arts  Students 

Harrison 

£25,  i8s.  6d.. 

2  years 

3rd  year  Arts  Students 

Border     Counties     and 
Walter  Scott 

^20   ?) 

4  years 

Arts  or  Science.  For  stu- 
dents having  attended 
schools  in  certain  speci- 
fied counties.  Natives 
of  Argyllshire,  Bute,  or 
Western  Islands 

Argyllshire  . 

£20       . 

3  years 

Arts  or  Science.  For 
students  having  at- 
tended schools  in  cer- 
tain specified  counties. 
Natives  of  Argyllshire, 
Bute,  or  Western  Is- 
lands 

Ardvorlich 

£l5'  I3S'        ' 

4  years 

Arts.  Students  must 
come  from  certain 
specified  parishes 

Sibbald 

£30       • 

3  years 

Arts  and  Science.  Speci- 
fied parishes 

Edinburgh  Angus  Club  — 
Dalhousie  Bursary 

£25       . 

4  years 

Preference  given  to  candi- 
dates from  the  County 

Orkney  and  Zetland 

£40       . 

3  years 

For  natives  of  Orkney 
and  Zetland 

COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       123 

UNIVERSITY  OF  EDINBURGH — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Bursaries  —  continued. 

Grierson  (5) 
Lanarkshire 

4*>(4)\ 
£84(41 

£zo 

4  years 
4  years 

Preference  given  to 
natives  of  parishes  of 
Cranford  or  Leadhills 

Johnstone  of  Harthope 
Bursary 

£17,  2S. 

4  years 

Natives  of  Moff  at, 
Peebles,  and  students 
of  name  of  Alexander 
or  Johnstone  preferred 

Marshall 

£36,  I3S. 

4  years 

Restricted 

Fothringham  and  Forrest 

£24          • 

4  years 

Restricted 

Marquess  of  Zetland 

£40          . 

3  years 

Arts.  For  natives  of 
County  of  Orkney  and 
Zetland 

Thomson 

£25          • 

4  years 

Patterson     . 

£16       . 

2  years 

In  Anglo-Saxon  Gram- 
mar or  Literature 

John  Welsh  (8)     . 

£20       . 

4  years 

Mathematics  and  Classics 

Mackinnon  (3) 

£22,  45.  6d.    . 

3  years 

Arts.  Gaelic  -  speaking 
students 

Whitelaw  (3) 

£24,  I2S. 

3  years 

Arts 

Renton 

£ig,  us. 

i  year 

Student  must  be  between 
age  of  1  6  and  2  1  .  Arts 
and  Science 

Newton 

=£23,  5s. 

2  years 

Natural  Philosophy  and 
Mathematics 

Mann 

£29,  6s.  6d.    . 

3  years 

Candidates  must  reside 
iu  Nairn 

Allan  .... 

£30       . 

3  years 

Arts  or  Science 

James  Fairbairn  . 

^33,  43.  6d.    . 

4  years 

Jardine  or  Thorlieshope 
Mackenzie    . 

£40,  los. 
£22 

4  years 
4  years 

Open  to  natives  of  Rox- 
burghshire and  Dum- 
friesshire 

124       COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  EDINBURGH — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Bursaries  —  continued 

Maclaurin    . 

£gi,  I2S.  8d.       4  years 

Restricted  to  students  of 
name  of  founder 

Bailie  Cousin's 

£32,  153.        .3  years 

Maule 

£21,  25.          .     6  years 

Donald  Fraser 

£50       .         .     i  year 

For     Science     Research 
work 

Baxter  of  Balgavies 

£30       •          •     3  years 

For  students  educated  at 
High  School,  Dundee 

Masterton  Memorial 

£30       .         .3  years 

For  sons  and  daughters 
of  ministers  of  United 
Free  Church 

London    Inverness-shire 
Association 

£18       .          .3  years 

Preference  to  students  of 
County  of  Inverness 

Lanfine 

£35       •          '     2  years 

Auchairne    . 

£53,  153.  4d.  .     3  years 

Natives  of  County  of  Ayr 

Edinburgh     Morayshire 
Club 

£20       .          .3  years 

Arts  or  Science.    Natives 
of  County  of  Moray 

Undergraduate. 

Vans  Dunlop 

£100     .          .     3  years 

Arts  and  Science 

Fettes  Exhibition  (2)     . 

£60       .          .     4  years 

Skirving 

£50       .          .     3  years 

Mackay  Smith 

£27       .         .     2  years 

Natural  Philosophy 

Nichol  Foundation 

£50       .         .     i  year 

Laboratory  Work 

Hope  Prize 

£30      .         .     i  year 

Chemistry 

Misses    Baxter    of    Bal- 
gavies 

£40  (2)         i  or  2  years 

Men    and    women    edu- 
cated in  High  School 
of  Dundee 

COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       125 

UNIVERSITY  OF  EDINBURGH — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Fellowships. 

Guthrie 

£86       . 

.     4  years 

Classical  Literature 

Hamilton     . 

£100     . 

3  years 

Philosophy 

Edmonstonne  Aytoun  . 

£85       . 

3  years 

English  Literature 

Falconer  Memorial 

£123     . 

.     2  years 

Science 

Post-Graduate. 

Pitt  Club  Classical 

£?6       • 

.     4  years 

Mackenzie  Club  Classical 

£118     . 

.     4  years 

Sir  David  Baxter  Mathe- 
matical 

£68        . 

.     4  years 

Sir  David  Baxter  Philo- 
sophical 

£68       . 

.     4  years 

John  Edward  Baxter    . 

£100     . 

.     3  years 

Arts  and  Science 

Drummond  Mathematical 

^103     • 

.     3  years 

Bruce  of  Grangehill  and 
Falklands 

£100     . 

.     3  years 

Classical 

Bruce  of  Grangehill  and 
Falklands 

£100     . 

3  years 

Mental  Philosophy 

Bruce  of  Grangehill  and 
Falklands 

£100     . 

.     3  years 

Mathematics 

Gray  .... 

£97       - 

.     2  years 

Arts  or  Science 

Rhind 

£93       • 

2  years 

Graduates     and     under- 
graduates of  not  more 
than  3  years  standing. 
Arts 

Charles  Maclaren 

£110     . 

.     3  years 

Mathematics  and  Natural 
Philosophy 

126       COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  EDINBURGH — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes, 


Name. 

Value  and  T  enure. 

Remarks. 

Post  -Graduate  —  conld. 

Neil  Arnott           .         . 

£40       .          .     i  year 

Experimental  Physics 

George  Scott  (Travelling) 

£40       .          .     i  year 

To  enable  graduates   to 
travel   for  purpose   of 
Research 

Macpherson 

£85       .          .     i  year 

For  study  of  Celtic 

Kirk  Patrick 

£64       .         .1  year 

History 

C.  B.  Black 

£74       .         .2  years 

Greek.     Open  to  gradu- 
ates and   undergradu- 
ates 

George  Heriot's  Travel- 
ling 

^100     .          .     i  year 

To    graduates    intending 
to   become   teachers   of 
Modern  Languages 

Baxter  Physical  Science 

£80       .          .     2  years 

Baxter  Natural  Science 

£80       .          .     2  years 

Prizes. 

Ellis    .... 

£50 

Physiology 

Lord  Rector's       . 

£26,  5s. 

Essay 

Bruce  of  Grangehill  and 
Falkland 

£20 

Logic  and  Metaphysics 

Scott  and  Dunbar 

£i5 

Greek 

Cousin 

&5 

Essay 

Blackie  Celtic 

£60 

COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       127 


UNIVERSITY    OF    GLASGOW. 

QUEEN  MARGARET  COLLEGE. 

Duration  of  Arts  Course :    Pass,  3  years  ;    Honours,  4  years. 
Duration  of  Science  Course,  Pass  and  Honours  :    3-4  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :   £10,  los.  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :   £63  the  course  of  3  or  4  years. 
Cost  of  Residence  at  Queen  Margaret  Hall  (optional)  •    From 
175.  to  253.  a  week  without  lunch. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance. 

Barbour  (Kilbarchan)  (i) 

&5 

3  years 

Arts.     Candidates    must 
not  be  over  18 

John  Clark  (24)     . 

£30 

.     4  years 

Arts 

Crawfurd  and  Brown  (i) 

£19 

133.  4d.  .     4  years 

Arts 

Forfar  (5)     . 

£58 

.     4  years 

Arts 

Forrester  (i) 

£20 

.     3  years 

Arts 

Foundation  (2) 

£20 

.     4  years 

Arts 

Gartmore  (i) 

£22 

.     3  years 

Arts 

General  Council  (5) 

£20 

2  or  3  years 

Arts 

Glasgow  City  Education 
Endowments  (10) 

& 

•    .        4  or  2  years 

Arts 

George  Grant  (i)  . 

£40 

3  or  4  years 

Arts 

George  Grant  Junior  (i) 

M> 

4  years 

Arts 

Hamilton     Educational 
Trust  (3) 

£20 

.     3  years 

Arts.     Competitors  to  be 
pupils  from  public  or 
State-aided   schools  in 

burgh    and    parish    of 
Hamilton 

Hastie  (i)    . 

£27 

.     4  years 

Highland  Society,  Glas- 
gow (12) 

£20 

.     3  years 

Hill  (6)         ... 

£20 

.     3  years 

Arts.       For     pupils     in 
School   Board   district 

of  Govan 

James  Laing  (8)    . 
Lanfine  (6)  . 

£25 
£^7 

.     4  years 
2  years 

Arts.       For     candidates 
educated    at    least    3 
years     in     schools     in 
County  of  Stirling 

128       COST   AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  GLASGOW,  QUEEN  MARGARET  COLLEGE — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance  —  continued. 

Lorimer  (4) 

£25  and  £17  .     3  years 

Mathematics 

Alexander  Manderson  (i) 

£15       '          •     3  years 

Arts.  Natives  of  the 
Lower  Ward  of  Ren- 
frewshire 

Marshall  Trust  (20) 
Sir  Walter  Scott  . 

£30       .         .4  years 
£25       .          .     4  years 

Arts.  Pupils  from  public 
or  State-aided  schools 
in  Lanarkshire  or  Stir- 
lingshire 

A.  and  B.  Stewart  (13)  . 

£20       .          .     3  years 

Arts 

Stewart  (3)  . 

£15       .          .     4  years 

Arts 

King  Williams  (2) 

£15       .          .     3  years 

Arts 

Ayrshire  Society  (4) 

£i5       •         -3  years 

Arts  or  Science.  For 
descendants  of  Society 
or  natives  of  Ayrshire 
and  Glasgow 

Denny  (4)    . 

£30       .          .     4  years 

Arts  or  Science.  Stu- 
dents over  14  who 
have  been  2  years  at 
Dumbarton  Burgh 
Academy 

Dumfriesshire  Society  (2) 

£15       .         .     4  years 

Arts  or  Science 

Hart  (2)       . 

£30       .         .5  years 

Arts  or  Science.  Prefer- 
ence to  students  born 
in  Ayrshire 

Pratt  (2)      . 

£20       .         .     4  years 

Arts  or  Science 

Undergraduate. 

Will.  Houldsworth 

£150     .         .     2  years 

Research  in  Science 

Mackay  Smith 

£48       .          .     2  years 

Natural  Philosophy  and 
Chemistry 

MacKinnin  . 

£60       .         .     i  year 

Science  and  Modern  Lan- 
guages 

Thomson   Experimental 

£20       .         .     i  year 

Science 

COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       129 

UNIVERSITY  OF  GLASGOW,  QUEEN  MARGARET  COLLEGE — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Post-Graduate. 

Breadalbane  (2)    . 

£$6         .            • 

3  years 

Arts  or  Science 

George  A.  Clark    . 

•AI7O       .             . 

4  years 

Arts  or  Science 

John  Clark  . 

£5®         •             • 

4  years 

Arts 

Alexander  Donaldson    . 

£44 

2  years 

Chemistry 

Robert  Donaldson 

£66       . 

2  years 

Science 

Eglinton 

£^5       . 

2  years 

Arts 

William  Euing 

£80       . 

5  years 

Arts 

Luke  .... 

£95 

3  years 

Arts 

Metcalfe 

£120     . 

3  years 

Arts 

Reid  Stuart 

£60       . 

3  years 

Arts 

Walter  Scott 

£80       . 

2  years 

Arts 

Mackinnon  . 
Prizes. 

£60       . 

i  year 

Geology,  Natural  History, 
Modern         Languages 
Examination     as     for 
Final  Hons.  Degree 

Arnott 

£25  and  £15 

Examination 

Cobden 

£20 

Essay 

Findlater 

£58 

Examination 

Gladstone  Historical 

£^5 

Examination 

Henderson  . 

£21 

Essay 

William  Jack 

£35 

Thesis  for  D.Sc. 

Kelvin 

£35 

Thesis  for  D.Sc. 

Macfarlan  and  Cook 

£21 

Examination 

MacKenzie  . 

£^5 

Essay 

Reid   .... 

£^5 

Original  Research 

Watson 

£50 

Examination 

130       COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 

UNIVERSITY    OF    ST    ANDREWS. 
UNITED  COLLEGES. 

Duration  of  Pass  Course  in  Arts  :    3  years. 
Duration  of  Honour  Course  in  Arts  :    4  years. 
Duration  of  Pass  and  Honour  Courses  in  Science  :   4  to  5  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :   £10,  IDS.  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :   ^15,  153.  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Residence  in  University  Hall  (optional)  :    From  ^45  to 
/75  per  annum. 


Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance    and    Under  - 
graduate. 

Foundation  Bursaries  (4) 

£20 

.     4  years 

Foundation  Bursary  (i) 

&>o 

.     4  years 

Patrick  Kidd 

£52 

.     3  years 

William  Byers 

£39 

3  or  4  years 

Preference  given  to  stu- 
dents of  Mairs  anc 
Strathmartine.  Arts 

Russell  (6)   . 

£y> 

£40 

(i)}        '      3  years 

Arts  and  Science 

Simson  (6)   . 

£20 
=£30 

(?)}        '      3  years 

Valentine 

£25 

.     3  years 

Restricted  to  women  re- 
siding in  the  County  o 
Fife,  Ross  or  Cro 
marty,  or  in  village  o 
Findhorn,  Morayshire 

Fife,  Clackmannan,  and 
Kinross  Bursary 

&5 

3  or  4  years 

Restricted  to  student; 
coming  from  the  above 
counties 

Wilkie 

&9 

.     4  years 

Henry 

&5 

.     4  years 

Madras 

£20 

.     4  years 

Fairweather          .         . 

£25 

.     3  years 

Arts  or  Science.  Foi 
pupils  from  any  schoo 
in  Dundee 

Blyth  (2)     . 

£20 

.     3  years 

COST  AND   DURATION  OF  COURSES       131 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ST  ANDREWS,  UNITED  COLLEGES — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance     and    Under- 
graduate —  continued. 

George  Scott 

£27       .       3  or  4  years 

Arts.  Restricted  to  ap- 
licants  who  are  natives 
of  the  Parishes  of  Dull, 
Weem,  Logierait  in 
Perthshire 

Wood  of  Orkie 

£20       .       3  or  4  years 

Restricted  to  pupils  who 
have  attended  public 
or  state-aided  schools 
in  the  Parishes  of  New- 
burn,  Kilconquhar, 
Scoonie,  Largo,  Kenno- 
way,  Elie,  Largoward 

Lumsden 
Ramsay 

£35       .       i  to  3  years 
£40                .4  years 

For  women  students  edu- 
cated at  St  Leonard's 
School,  St  Andrews 

Baxter  (2)    . 

£21       .          .2  years 

For  2nd  year  students 

Cheape  (2)    . 

£23       .         .     3  years 

For  2nd  year  students 

Thomas  Thow 

£50       •         •     i  year 

Arts.  For  2nd  year  stu- 
dents natives  of  and 
resident  in  Dundee  or 
the  County  of  Forfar 

Stephen  Williamson 

£47       •         -i  year 

For  4th  year  Honours 
students 

Smeaton 
Post-Graduate. 

£20       .         .     i  year 

For    4th    year    Honours 
students 

Bruce  and  Falkland 

^50       .         .     2  years 

Berry 

^80       .         .     i  year 

May  be  continued  for  2nd 
year.     Arts  or  Science 

Grants  (6)    . 
Prizes. 

£20       .         .     i  year 

For  students  entering  on 
Course  of  Training  for 
Secondary  Teachers 

Miller  (2)      . 

&o 

Arts  and  Science 

Arnott   (2)  . 

£20  and  £10 

Chancellor's 

ftl 

Essay 

i32       COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ST  ANDREWS — continued. 
DUNDEE  COLLEGE. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Arts  :  Pass,  3  years  ;   Honours,  4  years. 

Duration  of  Course  in  Science :  Pass  or  Honours  :  3  years. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :   £10,  los.  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :   £21  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Residence  in  Mayneld  Hostel  (optional)  :   £i  per  week. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 


Value  and  Tenure. 


Remarks. 


Entrance. 

Armitstead  . 

David  Myles 

Entrance  Scholarships  (9) 

Educational  Endowment 

Undergraduate. 

Bursaries  (n) 

Bursaries  (8) 
Bute  Bursary 

Post-Graduate. 

William    Strong    (2    or 
more) 

Prizes. 

Gladstone  Memorial 


•£I5          •     1  Year 

i  year 
.     3  years 

to  £20     .     i  year 
to  £20     .     i  year 


Income  on  ^1,000 

3  years 


Income  on  ,£3,240 

i  year 


£20  (in  books) 


For  second  and  third  yea 

For    fourth    and    subse 
quent  years 


Essay 


COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       133 
WALES. 

UNIVERSITY    OF    WALES. 
Scholarships,  etc.,  not  connected  exclusively  with  one  College. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Undergraduate. 

Price    Davies    Scholar- 
ship (2) 

£30       .         .     2  years 

Tenable  at  Aberystwyth 
or  Bangor 

Post-Graduate. 

University  Fellowships  (3) 

£125     .          .2  years 

University  Studentships 
(6) 

£65       .          .     2  years 

Awarded  on  nomination 
by  the  Colleges 

Eyton  Williams  Student- 
ships (6) 

£65       .          .     2  years 

Isaac  Roberts  Scholar- 
ship 

£50                 .1  year 
(renewable) 

Open  to  graduates  of 
any  University  in 
the  United  Kingdom. 
Science.  Tenable  at 

Cardiff 

1851  Science  Scholarship 

£150     .          .2  years 

Tenable  at  any  approved 
institution 

Gilchrist    Modern    Lan- 
guage Studentship 

£80       .          .      i  year 

Open  to  graduates  in- 
tending to  teach 
Modern  Languages. 
Tenable  abroad 

ABERYSTWYTH  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE. 

Duration  of  Pass  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :    3  years. 
Duration  of  Honour  Course  in  Arts  or  Science  :   3  to  4  years. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :   £12  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :    £16  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Residence  in  Alexandra  Hall  (optional)  :   From  £11,  us. 
to  £ij,  iys.  per  annum. 


Entrance    and    Under- 

graduate. 

David  Davies 

£40        .          .      i  year 

Entrance 

(renewable) 

Open  .... 

£40                  .1  year 

Entrance 

(renewable) 

134      COST   AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 

UNIVERSITY  OF  WALES  :    ABERYSTWYTH  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE — continued, 


Scholarships, 

Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 

Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance     and    Under- 
graduate —  continued. 

Visitor's       .         .          . 

£15         • 

i  year 
(renewable) 

Entrance 

Commercial  Travellers  of 
North  Wales 

£20 

i  year 
(renewable) 

Entrance 

Scholarship  (i) 

£20         . 

i  year 
(renewable) 

Confined  to  students  in 
tending  to  proceed  tx 
the  Degree  of  B.Sc.  ii 
Agriculture  and  Rura 
Economy 

Brereton 

£15         • 

i  year 
(renewable) 

Entrance 

Elizabeth  Davies   . 

^20 

i  year 
(renewable) 

Entrance.  Limited  t( 
women  natives  of  Car 
diganshire  or  Car 
marthenshire 

Cynddelw  Welsh  Scholar- 
ship 

£20 

i  year 

For  students  undertakin; 
to  pursue  a  course  o 
Welsh  study 

Humphreys  Owen 

£20         . 

i  year 
(renewable) 

For  natives  of  Mont 
gomeryshire 

Post-Graduate. 

Keeling  Resewell  Schol- 
arship 

£40         - 

i  year 

Thomas  Davies     . 

£54        - 

i  year 

For    Research    work    ii 
Chemistry  or  Agricultur 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  OF  NORTH  WALES  (BAN GO R). 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  or  Science  :  £12  per  annum. 

Cost  of  Residence  in  University  Hall  (optional)  :  £25  to  £42  per  annum. 


Entrance    and    Under  - 
graduate. 

Eyton  Williams    . 

£4°       • 

.     3  years 

Eyton  Williams    . 

=£30       . 

.     3  years 

Eyton  Wilh'ams  Exhibi- 
tion 

£20       • 

.     3  years 

COST  AND   DURATION   OF   COURSES       135 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WALES,  UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  OF  NORTH  WALES 
(BANGOR) — continued. 

Scholarships,  Bursaries,  and  Prizes. 


Name. 

Value  and  Tenure. 

Remarks. 

Entrance    and    Under  - 
graduate  —  continued. 

Piercey        .         .         .      £30 

.     3  years 

Confined  to  candidates 
from  Flintshire  or 
Denbighshire 

Richard  Hughes  .          .      £50 

i  year 

Isaac  Roberts  (2)            .      ^50 

Not  less  than  i  yr. 

Post-Graduate. 

Osborne  Morgan  .          .      £40 

Not  more  than 
3  years 

Open  to  past  and  present 
students 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  OF  SOUTH  WALES  AND  MONMOUTHSHIRE 
(CARDIFF). 

Cost  of  Tuition  in  Arts  :  £10  to  £12  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Tuition  in  Science  :    £10  to  £16  per  annum. 
Cost  of  Residence  in  Aberdare  Hall  (optional) :  ^34  to  £43,  IDS.  per 
annum. 


Entrance    and    Under  - 
graduate. 

Drapers'  Company 

£35       . 

i  year 
(renewable) 

Science 

Sir  Alfred  Thomas 

£20 

3  years 

Caroline  Williams 

£25       • 

.     3  years 

College 

£25       . 

.     3  years 

Craddock  Wells  (5) 

^20  and  fees  .     i  year 

Open  to  candidates  under 
19  years  of  age 

Studentships         < 
Post-Graduate. 

Fees  and 
grant 

maintenance 
3  years 

Open  only  to  natives  of 
Glamorgan  and  Mon- 
mouth,  the  City  of 
Cardiff  and  the  County 
Borough  of  Newport 

Catherine  Buckton 

£4<>       • 

i  year 

136        COST  AND   DURATION   OF  COURSES 


en 

f 

T) 

I 

,S|S                       |g 

Sg    s 

f  fOT3                                   <• 
S-0   C   «                                   *• 

°-"  "  o 

2 

rt 

1 

Value  a 
ration. 

SB«         B    fi    *•« 

^'.S                       §  g 

III 
V  "    >* 

^2    "^ 

i 

>> 

ii 
rt 

B, 

C/l 

"gQ 

^jss      .i  J  S* 

H£      o-S 
>2  «    *~  5 

n 

•2 

,0^-rrvl       ,0       ,0        04 

•3 

J 

g  J  i             S,     S,     "0,3 

&S    §8 

5 

8 

S>  M  0^5,5             '    ° 

g 

< 

s?               «5   <i    si* 

s? 

<i 

<?            ^  »5    M" 

tf 

•g 

h 

.£ 

•3° 

•O  "  iL.i 

S^ll 

60 

J 

v«   rt 
O   u 

S! 

rt'S 

||^.s 

'S  1 

•£ 

'2 

w   « 

.1 

-=  5 

8      S 

Is 

V. 

i 

c  3 

a 

ll-g 

of|« 

SH     j-. 

• 

J 

'*>  " 

> 

«    s 

"f  -foa  i< 

*  i 

I 

i 

4_*  M 

<n  o. 

S 

^ja  « 

8  *  u  ao 

^  S 

Restrict 

V 

^u 

a  4-1 
W   M 

IS 

If 

i* 
.I 

<L>   O 

111 
boa^ 

iliii 

^S  g  ^  rt 

-|j     /-y 

J3-0 

*.n  fc* 

2  -2 

CJ  'O    4) 

y  v  >  *o  2                  ,j2 

a>  ° 

>   4) 

.2  i 

~-<  — 
'E  <* 

ca 

II 

>  c 

-olc 
gp* 
O 

IS! 

S  o  1  S3                  'iS 

S-1*^.0           S 

rt     . 

S^-3-S 

0 

o  J^  »r 

O  -(-> 

-2  *^  o  *^ 

I 

4J     ^     C 

5'g 

|«*« 

1 

C   c< 

•S.I 

'E-C-S  «                c 

PH 

£  §^ 

1—  H 

1—  ( 

T)v§ 
(Ut-1 

•d 

c  S2  o  **                        ^ 
4*  *j  »*-t 
>  -  c  o 

:         3 

e 

1                       1  .i 

rt 

w 

Ii 

-o 

S  5  -"2  c                       0 

.2 

§ 

"S                                            «            Ml                    |^ 

J 

pq 
< 

1§ 

23  ^ 
S^ 

i 

rt 
| 

"'sS'S                    -a 
Sg*|                     g 

^°^£                S 

^  "oj  *1                                      ^ 

'i    '1 

0 

^ 

>. 

E                        '=      'I      ,0  P  m 

1 

H 

Studentships 
graduates  of 

"1 

pa 

"   0    r  T  «                                     « 

a  S  i  -                "s 
sgw-o                a 
^"^S^   §•   t    i 

**-  o  W       >%     .—      ..i-      *j 
.^•rOS>>C         o        O        e 

^     u  **  v    t/3    c/5    £ 

ill]]   111 

ister  Institute  of  I 

secial  Trustees  ; 
Langley,  Cambric 

c 

0 

B 

'c 

'H 
£ 

1 

•3           °  *°  'it^oj 

•c               1    *8     "^  '  «r 

'S                 B    e     8  8    *8 

"S                 •§    -8    '£  £  2  § 

£o 

<!                   «     »J     >J 

i-J        <n 

p 

pa                >3    »3    < 

rt  ^ 

,       . 

, 

•< 

1    0 

I*                  II 
~5     ~v 

JS 

"o 

£ 

| 

O  "C 

o                    ^     fa 

o 

bfl 

C 

ti- 

•4J to 

?              -8-8 

V 

§ 

le                                                "          ** 

o  ^* 

pi 

p 

^* 

—                      55     s 

CM  -^ 

•s 

to                2     S 

C                                 w         w 

J4 

c 

it* 

1                |     S    1 

£G 

H 

.S                              <u         u 

•3               rt    & 

b 

o 

X 

<o 

Is' 

2                §     § 

H                     c      c 

K 

<\a 

£ 

•S               ^     S    ^  „ 

>  fl 

8^0. 

be  j£ 

V 

1        i  '"§  ?'* 

'«•§ 

^                    -•§-•« 

°"S 

°£ 

I 

Pen 

<                S    S 

o 

O 

ft. 

p^                    c^     ffi     F^ 

0>T3 

o 

O    05 

•s          s   c 

"2 

8                             S 

c 

*j 

c     .«      >. 

1=                            .«i        «        S 

1 

c                                      c 
.1                                     •- 

s.s 

ti 

[3 
a 

4_»                                            O          C/2            M 

§          -si 
I          lid 

•§                   J?    !2     .2 

O                 bJD 

"o         ,2 
'C          o 

*•         '5 

o          *» 

'hilosophy 

o 
c 

ts 

2* 

•a            f  1  "2 

B                 §     §     2 

a 
t—  i 

w                    PH     M     M 

pa       PH 

m 

CO 

w    w 

SECTION    II 

THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 
INCLUDING   DENTISTRY 

I 

MEDICINE  AND   SURGERY 

IT  may  be  safely  claimed  that,  although  there  is 
still  much  to  be  done,  in  medicine  women  have 
gained  as  good  a  position  as  in  any  other  branch 
of  labour. 

One  of  the  most  important  considerations  in 
discussing  any  branch  of  women's  work  is  what 
sort  of  women  are  suited  for  it.  The  following  are 
the  chief  requisites  for  the  medical  profession  : — 

(1)  The   first  and  most  important   qualification 
is  enthusiasm.     It  is  impossible  to  follow  this  pro- 
fession  with  success,  unless  it  is  work   for  which 
one  has  not  only  aptitude  but  also  natural  taste. 
It   necessitates   a   very   strenuous   life,   and    many 
unpleasant  details  of  work,  which  are  unimportant 
to  a  person  to  whom  the  occupation  is  acceptable 
as  a  whole,  but  which  would  be  quite  insuperably 
disagreeable  to  any  one  to   whom   the  total   idea 
of  life  embodied  in  it  was  unattractive. 

(2)  Another  very  important  qualification    is   a 
knowledge   of  men   and   things.      A   doctor  must 
never   forget   that   she   is    dealing   primarily   with 
human  nature  ;  certainly  human  nature  which  may 
be  for  a  time  unhinged,  or  the  mechanism  of  which 

137 


138  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

may  not   be    working   smoothly,   but   nevertheless 
with  the  human  individual  as  a  whole. 

The  so-called  "bedside"  manner  which  is  the 
butt  for  so  much  ridicule  is  not  so  purely  ridiculous 
as  one  might  be  tempted  to  think.  Its  basis  is  to 
be  found  in  this  very  knowledge  of  human  nature 
which  is  so  essential,  although  the  superstructure  is 
often  nothing  more  than  vapid  futility.  In  addition 
to  this  the  ideal  doctor  should  possess  a  trained 
scientific  mind,  and,  of  the  two,  the  former  is 
infinitely  the  more  important,  although  the  latter 
is  very  valuable,  not  only  for  itself,  but  for  the 
training  which  it  gives  in  "tidy"  thinking. 

(3)  Good  health.     A  sick  doctor  is  an  anomaly 
and  many  people  prefer  to  be  indifferently  treated 
by  some  one  who  is  cheerful  and  healthy,   rather 
than  have  the  most  expert  advice  from  a  woeful 
person. 

(4)  A  good  general  education  is  essential.    This 
should  include  a  certain  amount  of  Latin,  which 
is  needed  throughout  medical  work.     The  student 
must    also     possess     the     necessary    capacity    for 
acquiring    knowledge.      It   is    very   usual   to   find 
among  the  general  public — women  in  particular— 
an   idea   that   a   tremendous   amount   of  a   vague 
quality   which   they   describe    as    "cleverness"   is 
necessary  in   order   to   follow  one  of  the  learned 
professions.     Certainly  this  is  not  so  in  medicine. 
It    is,    however,    necessary    to    be    possessed    of 
average  intelligence  and  a  good  memory,  and  it  is 
difficult  for  people  to  pass  the  qualifying  examina- 
tions if  they  have  for  many  years  given  up  "  school 
work" — i.e.,  the  habit  of  learning  large  numbers 
of  new  facts. 

(5)  Money.       For    three    reasons  :      (i.)    The 
training  is    expensive,     (ii.)  It   is   also   strenuous, 
making   a   certain  amount  of  margin  for  suitable 
recreation  very  desirable,     (iii.)  Earning  capacity, 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  139 

although  ultimately  high,  so  far  as  women  are 
concerned,  is  much  delayed,  and  the  work  itself 
is  one  of  considerable  nerve-strain.  It  is,  there- 
fore, very  important  that  economic  worry  should, 
if  possible,  be  avoided. 

Medicine  is  one  of  the  few  professions  in  which 
women  receive  as  high  remuneration  as  men.  A 
very  strenuous  battle  was  fought  between  the 
public  authorities  and  medical  women  on  the 
subject  of  equal  pay  for  equal  work.  All  sorts  of 
dodges  have  been  used  to  get  cheap  woman  labour, 
but,  so  far,  the  victory  has  been  almost  completely 
on  the  side  of  medical  women.  By  the  word 
"almost"  is  meant  the  fact,  that  if  two  or  three 
posts  of  varying  grades  and  remunerations  are 
created  under  a  health  authority  the  woman  nearly 
always  gets  the  lowest,  whatever  her  qualifications 
and  experience.  With  this  exception  the  victory 
has  been  complete,  and  this  has  been  entirely  due 
to  two  things  :— - 

(1)  The  very  able  support  given  by  the  British 
Medical  Association,    which  practically  served   as 
a    Trade    Union    for    doctors,    stated    the    lowest 
rate   of   remuneration   to    be   accepted,    and    kept 
a    black    list   of  posts   which   were   advertised   at 
salaries   below    this    rate.       The    Association   has 
throughout   supported   with    absolute    consistency, 
the  principle  of  equal  pay  for  equal  work  for  the 
two  sexes,  and  has  helped  us  as  medical  women 
to  fight  many  battles. 

(2)  The  other  factor  has  been  the  public  spirit 
of  the  medical  women    concerned,   without  which 
nothing  could  have  been  done.     One  of  the  forms 
of  public  service  most  essential  at  the  present  day 
and  for  which  the  individual  gets  neither  honour 
nor  even  thanks,   is  that  of  refusing   "black  leg" 
labour.      It   is   generally   admitted    by  those  who 
have   to   deal   with   the   question    of   salaries   and 


i4o  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

conditions  of  work  under  public  authorities,  that 
medical  women,  as  a  whole,  have  shown  at 
least  as  great  public  spirit  as  men  in  refusing 
unsatisfactory  terms.  To  lose  a  post  which  would 
give  one  enough  for  one's  own  needs  and 
which  would  mean  so  much  more  in  the  way  of 
experience  and  adequate  scope  for  one's  energies, 
and  to  refuse  it  simply  because  it  would  lower  the 
market  rate  of  pay,  is  a  very  fine  thing  to  do. 
Unless,  however,  this  high  tone  is  maintained  the 
position  of  medical  women  will  become  as  bad  as 
that  of  some  other  working  women.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  can  be  maintained,  the  position 
already  gained  may  be  used  as  a  very  powerful 
lever  in  raising  the  rate  of  pay  in  other  departments 
of  women's  work.  There  is  sufficient  support  for 
us  amongst  medical  men.  Everything,  therefore, 
depends  upon  the  personnel  of  the  women  doctors, 
and,  as  things  become  easier  for  the  students,  it 
becomes  more  and  more  difficult  to  convince  the 
new  recruits  of  the  strenuousness  of  the  fight  in 
earlier  years  and  of  the  need  for  constant  vigilance 
and  self-sacrifice  at  the  present  time. 

Those  who  fought  so  nobly  in  the  past  have 
earned  the  lasting  respect  and  gratitude  of  those 
who  come  after  them.  An  account  of  their  labours 
has  been  written  by  Mrs  Isabel  Thorne,  and  is 
called  a  "  Sketch  of  the  Foundation  and  Develop- 
ment of  the  London  School  of  Medicine  for 
Women."1  It  reads  like  a  romance  and  shows 
the  absolute  determination  and  pluck  which  were 
needed  by  the  women  in  order  to  gain  their  point. 
As  one  learns  of  the  rebuffs  and  indignities  which 
they  endured,  it  reminds  one  of  the  struggle  which 
is  at  the  present  time  going  on  for  the  parlia- 
mentary vote.  There  is  one  thing  which  makes 

1  Publisher,     G.     Sharrow,    28A     Devonshire     Street,    Portland 
Place,  W. 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  141 

one  inclined  to  "back  the  women  every  time," 
and  that  is  their  stupendous  patience.  A  very 
short  rtsumt  of  the  facts  may  not  be  out  of  place 
here.  Miss  Elizabeth  Blackwell,  English  by  birth 
but  resident  in  America,  succeeded  in  1858  after 
much  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  degree  of  M.D.  of 
the  University  of  Geneva,  United  States  of  America. 
She  then  applied  to  have  her  name  placed  upon 
the  register  of  duly  qualified  medical  practitioners 
of  the  General  Medical  Council  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  and  it  was  discovered  to  the  dismay 
of  the  authorities  that  she  could  not  be  refused. 
The  next  step  was  taken  by  Miss  Garrett,  now  Dr 
Garrett  Anderson.  She  decided  to  qualify  herself 
for  the  medical  examinations  of  the  Society  of 
Apothecaries,  London,  who  also,  owing  to  the 
wording  of  their  charter,  were  unable  to  refuse 
her,  and  in  1865  she  successfully  passed  the 
required  tests.  In  order,  however,  to  prevent  a 
recurrence  of  such  "  regrettable  incidents."  the 
society  made  a  rule  that  in  future  no  candidates 
should  be  admitted  to  their  examinations  unless 
they  came  from  a  recognised  medical  school,  and, 
as  no  such  school  would  admit  women,  this  closed 
their  doors. 

In  the  meantime  Miss  Jex-Blake  had  applied 
to  Edinburgh  University  for  medical  education, 
but  had  been  refused  on  the  score  that  it  was 
impossible  to  make  such  alterations  "  in  the 
interests  of  one  lady."  Mrs  Thorne,  Miss  Chaplin, 
Miss  Pechey,  and  Mrs  de  Lacy  Evans  then  decided 
to  join  Miss  Jex-Blake,  thus  making  five  instead 
of  one.  They  were  allowed  to  matriculate,  but 
forced  to  form  separate  classes  and  to  guarantee 
100  guineas  for  each  class.  They  were  not,  how- 
ever, allowed  to  receive  scholarships,  to  which 
their  work  would  have  entitled  them,  on  the  score 
that  they  were  women.  Mrs  Thorne  states  that 


142  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

their  "success  in  the  examination  lists  was  their 
undoing,"  as,  owing  to  this,  and  to  the  fact  that 
they  were  unjustly  debarred  from  receiving  the 
distinctions  that  they  had  gained,  a  great  deal 
of  bad  feeling  was  aroused. 

As  the  agitation  increased,  the  efforts  of  these 
pioneers  to  obtain  a  qualifying  course  for  women 
in  Edinburgh,  were  supported  by  a  committee  of 
sympathisers,  which  speedily  rose  to  five  hundred 
members,  and,  after  a  severe  struggle,  the  question 
of  clinical  teaching  in  the  Infirmary  was  settled 
partially  in  the  women's  favour  in  1872.  Later, 
the  question  of  the  validity  of  the  original  resolu- 
tions admitting  women  to  the  University  was  raised 
and  decided  against  them.  They  had,  therefore, 
been  four  years  at  the  University  and  were  finally 
excluded.  This,  however,  proved  to  be  only 
temporary  as,  in  later  years,  the  University  reopened 
its  medical  degrees  to  women  ;  but  not  in  time 
to  allow  of  the  return  of  these  courageous  pioneers. 

In  the  meantime  Dr  Garrett  Anderson,  having 
taken  her  degree  in  Paris,  had  been  steadily  work- 
ing in  London,  forming  the  nucleus  of  the  present 
New  Hospital  for  Women,  and  the  pioneers  from 
Edinburgh  came  to  London  and  helped  her  to 
start  a  school  of  medicine  for  women. 

This  was  successfully  accomplished  owing  to  the 
kind  help  of  many  people,  both  within  and  without 
the  profession,  but  no  clinical  teaching  could  be 
obtained,  as  all  the  big  London  hospitals  were 
closed  to  women  students.  Finally,  however, 
arrangements  were  made  with  the  Royal  Free 
Hospital  in  Gray's  Inn  Road.  It  had  no  men's 
medical  school  attached  to  it,  and  the  admission 
of  women  to  the  hospital  was  due  to  the  kind 
intervention  of  the  Rt.  Hon.  J.  Stansfeld,  M.P., 
who  met  the  Chairman  of  the  hospital,  Mr  James 
Hopgood,  while  away  on  a  holiday,  and  induced 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY 

him  to  persuade  the  hospital  authorities  to  give 
the  dangerous  experiment  a  trial.  So  seriously 
was  it  regarded,  that  the  women  students  had  to 
guarantee  an  indemnity  to  the  hospital  of  300 
guineas  annually  in  addition  to  their  fees,  as  it 
was  felt  that  the  general  support  might  decrease 
by,  at  least,  this  amount  when  the  public  became 
aware  that  there  were  medical  women  studying 
at  the  hospital !  This  was  soon  found  not  to  be 
the  case,  and  the  yearly  indemnity  was  generously 
remitted  by  the  hospital  authorities,  the  students 
simply  paying  the  usual  fees  for  instruction.  In 
connection  with  this  subject,  it  may  be  of  interest 
to  note  that  to-day  the  presence  of  medical  women 
at  the  hospital  is  evidently  found  by  the  authorities 
to  be  an  important  means  of  gaining  the  sympathy 
of  the  general  public,  for  appeals  for  funds  may 
frequently  be  seen  in  London  omnibuses  stating, 
as  the  ground  for  an  appeal,  the  fact  that  this  is 
the  only  general  hospital  in  London  where  women 
medical  students  are  trained. 

The  medical  school  which  began  in  a  small 
Georgian  house  has  now  a  fine  block  of  buildings 
with  all  modern  appliances,  and  the  hospital  is, 
at  the  time  that  this  book  goes  to  press,  under- 
going extensive  alterations  and  additions,  including 
enlargement  of  the  students'  quarters. 

The  success  of  this  pioneer  work  has  been 
sufficiently  amazing,  but  it  is  most  important  that 
every  one  should  realise  that  the  fight  is  still  going 
on.  Not  a  day  passes  but  somebody  tries  to  get 
medical  women  to  work  either  for  less  pay  or  under 
less  honourable  conditions  than  those  required  by 
their  medical  brethren,  and  one  of  the  most  trying 
parts  of  work  in  this  profession  at  the  present 
time  is  the  constant  alertness  required  both  for 
detecting  and  defeating  these  attempts.  That  they 
should  be  made  is  not  surprising,  when  we 


144  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

remember  the  lower  market  value  attached  to 
women's  work  in  almost  every  other  occupation. 
Practical  examples  of  the  sort  of  attempts  made, 
may  be  of  service. 

Example  i. — A  medical  woman  went  as  locum 
tenens  for  a  practitioner  in  a  country  town  during 
the  South  African  War.  The  practitioner  himself 
was  at  the  time  absolutely  incapacitated  by  a 
severe  form  of  influenza,  complicated  by  ocular 
neuralgia  which  made  work  absolutely  impossible. 
Owing  to  the  War,  he  was  quite  unable  to  get  a 
man  to  act  as  locum  tenens.  A  woman  consented 
to  help  him  in  his  extremity,  at  considerable 
inconvenience  both  to  herself  and  to  the  people 
with  whom  she  was  working  at  the  time.  She 
carried  on  the  practice  during  the  depth  of  the 
winter,  having  on  some  occasions  to  go  out  in 
the  snow  -  sleigh  and  frequently  to  drive  in  an 
open  trap  at  night  in  the  deadly  cold.  She  carried 
on  the  work  with  such  conspicuous  success  that 
her  ''chief"  asked  her  to  stay  on  as  his  assistant 
when  he  was  convalescent.  For  this  he  offered 
her  ,£85  a  year,  living  in,  saying,  without  any  shame, 
that  he  knew  that  this  was  not  the  price  that  any 
man  would  command,  but  that  it  was  plenty  for  a 
woman.  He  was  bound  to  admit  that  he  had  lost 
no  patient  through  her,  that  he  charged  no  lower 
fees  when  she  went  to  a  case  than  when  he  did, 
that  she  did  half  the  work  while  acting  as  his 
assistant,  and  that  she  had  kept  his  practice  together 
for  him  while  he  was  ill.  Fortunately,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  she  had  behind  her  means  of  subsistence 
without  her  salary,  she  was  able  to  refuse  his 
unsatisfactory  offer,  although  at  considerable 
violence  to  her  feelings,  for  she  had  made  many 
friends  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Example  2. — A  husband  and  wife,  both  medical, 
went  to  settle  in  a  town  in  the  north  of  England. 


'45 

They  both  practised,  the  qualifications  of  both  were 
excellent,  but  the  woman  was  the  more  brilliant 
of  the  two,  having  better  degrees  and  more  dis- 
tinctions. Both  applied  to  be  admitted  to  the  local 
medical  society.  The  man  was,  of  course,  accepted, 
the  woman  refused  on  the  score  of  her  sex,  this 
meaning  that  she  would  be  cut  off  from  all  oppor- 
tunity of  hearing  medical  papers  and  discussing 
medical  subjects  with  her  colleagues.  During  the 
next  few  months  a  local  friendly  society  was  anxious 
to  obtain  a  medical  officer  and  was  offering  terms 
regarded  as  insufficient  by  the  local  doctors. 
Among  others  approached  by  this  society  was 
the  medical  woman  in  question.  Directly  the 
officials  of  the  medical  society,  which  had  banned 
her  when  her  own  benefit  was  concerned,  heard 
that  she  had  been  approached  by  the  friendly 
society,  they  elected  her  without  asking  her 
consent  to  the  very  society  from  which  they  had 
previously  excluded  her,  in  order  that  she  might 
be  unable  to  take  the  post  in  question,  whereby 
they  might  have  financially  suffered. 

Example  3.  —  The  exclusion  from  medical 
societies  referred  to  under  Example  2,  like  many 
similar  actions  in  life,  tends  to  recoil  on  its 
instigators.  For  instance,  a  medical  woman  in 
another  northern  town  applied  for  and  accepted  a 
post  which  the  local  men  had  decided  was  unsatis- 
factory in  some  particulars,  and  for  which  therefore 
none  of  them  had  applied.  They  were  loud  in 
their  denunciations  of  the  woman  in  question,  but 
owing  to  the  fact  that  her  men  colleagues  had  not 
recognised  her  professionally  in  other  ways,  she 
was  quite  unaware  of  her  offence  for  several  months 
after  undertaking  her  new  duties. 

Example  4. — Men  and  women  are  sometimes 
appointed  on  apparently  equal  terms  and  conditions 
to  posts  which  are  not,  however,  really  equal,  in 

K 


H6  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

that  there  is  a  chance  of  promotion  for  the  men 
but  none  for  the  women. 

Example  5. — In  another  town  in  the  north  of 
England  men  and  women  appointed  to  do  the 
work  of  school  medical  inspection  on  equal  terms 
recently  considered  that  they  were  not  sufficiently 
remunerated.  They  met  and  decided  that  they 
would  together  apply  for  better  terms.  A  rumour 
was  then  set  abroad  that  the  authority  under  whom 
they  worked  would  certainly  not  consider  such  an 
increase  in  expenditure.  In  this  crisis  the  men  on 
the  staff,  although  they  had  so  far  joined  with  their 
women  colleagues  in  sending  up  their  petition,  sent 
up  another  of  their  own,  without  informing  or 
consulting  the  women  at  all,  in  which  they  said  that 
they  considered  it  was  time  that  this  equality  of 
remuneration  for  both  sexes  should  cease.  They 
begged  the  authority  to  neglect  their  public  appeal, 
but  to  grant  instead  increased  remuneration  to  the 
men,  and  the  men  only.  One  of  the  reasons  given 
for  this  suggestion  on  the  part  of  the  men  was  that 
their  liabilites  were  greater.  The  result  of  enquiry, 
however,  proved  that  of  the  three  men,  one  only 
was  engaged  to  be  married,  the  other  two  had  no 
one  dependent  upon  them ;  whereas  of  the  three 
women,  two  were  supporting  other  people — one 
being  a  married  woman  separated  from  her  husband 
and  with  two  children  to  support  and  educate. 

Example  6. — The  following  is  an  instance  of 
the  way  in  which  the  Government  is  sometimes 
responsible  for  encouraging  women's  "black  leg" 
labour.  Dr  Leslie  Mackenzie  in  his  evidence  given 
recently  before  the  Civil  Service  Commission  said 
that  the  Treasury  refused  to  allow  the  Scottish 
Local  Government  Board  to  have  a  woman  medical 
inspector  at  a  medical  inspector's  salary,  but  per- 
mitted them  to  engage  a  woman  with  medical 
qualifications  at  a  woman  inspector's  salary,  which 


• 

J 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  iW       f 


rf 

was,  of  course,  much  less.  Sad  to  relate  a  woman 
was  found  to  accept  this  post. 

These  examples  have  been  given  because  it  is 
necessary  that  a  woman  intending  to  adopt  the 
profession  of  medicine  should  know  the  sort  of 
work,  quite  apart  from  the  treatment  of  her  cases, 
which  a  medical  woman,  worth  her  salt,  has  to  do. 
It  may  be  asked  how  it  is,  if  these  difficulties  are 
still  constantly  arising,  that  our  pioneers  were  so 
successful  ?  For  several  reasons  :  first,  because 
they  were  in  the  best  sense  women  of  the  world  : 
they  understood  when  to  be  firm  and  when  to  give 
way.  They  understood  mankind.  Secondly,  they 
had  an  assured  position.  This  is  probably  the  most 
essential  condition  of  all  for  success.  Before 
decent  terms  and  conditions  of  work  can  be 
demanded,  the  worker  must  be  in  such  a  position 
financially  that  she  can,  if  necessary,  refuse  the 
work  in  question,  and  if  possible  the  employer  must 
be  aware  of  this  fact.  So  often  women  enter  the 
labour  market  only  when  driven  by  stark  necessity, 
that  it  is  unfortunately  the  easiest  thing  in  the 
world  to  exploit  them.  People  of  either  sex  faced 
by  starvation  for  themselves  or  those  dependent  on 
them  must  take  the  first  thing  that  offers  if  the 
conditions  be  in  any  way  bearable.  In  my  opinion, 
next  to  the  parliamentary  vote,  the  most  powerful 
lever  in  raising  the  condition  of  women  will  be  the 
entrance  into  the  labour  market  of  a  considerable 
number  of  women  so  trained  in  Economics  that  they 
will  always  "play  the  game,"  and  at  the  same  time 
sufficiently  remote  from  want  to  be  able  to  resist  the 
sweating  employer. 

Some  people  discourage  women  of  independent 
means  from  entering  the  labour  market  through 
the  mistaken  idea  that  if  such  women  work  they 
are  taking  away  the  chance  of  some  other  women 
who  are  in  need.  In  case  any  reader  may  be  in 


148  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

doubt  on  this  question,  I  should  like  to  point  out 
that  it  is  the  groups  of  workers  among  whom 
no  such  economically  independent  individuals  are 
to  be  found,  that  are  always  exploited  by  the  un- 
scrupulous employer ;  they  are  such  easy  prey. 

What  really  makes  women  workers  afraid  of 
their  independent  sisters  is  that  extremely  per- 
nicious system  of  payment  euphemistically  known 
as  "pocket-money."  This  should  be  swept  off 
the  face  of  the  earth.  Even  the  richer  woman  has 
some  rights,  notably  the  right  to  work,  and  I  would 
suggest  that  she  has  this  particular,  and  certainly 
not  unimportant  function  of  raising  the  rate  of 
remuneration.  From  my  knowledge  of  her,  I 
consider  that  she  is  most  anxious  to  do  nothing 
but  good  to  her  fellows.  The  only  thing  she  needs 
in  order  to  become  a  help  instead  of  a  menace  to 
her  poorer  sisters  is  knowledge  of  the  rules  that 
govern  the  economic  labour  market. 

Owing  to  the  necessary  expense  and  prolonged 
training  for  the  medical  profession  it  has  probably 
attracted  a  larger  proportion  of  working  women 
who  were  not  subject  to  immediate  economic  stress 
than  most  other  branches  of  work,  and  it  is,  in  my 
opinion,  due  to  the  presence  of  such  women,  that 
the  conditions  in  it  as  a  whole  are  so  satisfactory. 

Having  discussed  the  sort  of  woman  suitable 
for  the  medical  profession,  I  now  pass  on  to  a 
consideration  of  the  course  of  training  which  must 
be  taken  in  order  to  fit  her  for  the  work. 

Before  beginning  her  training,  the  student  has 
to  decide  what  medical  qualification  she  will  take. 
Her  choice  lies  between 

(1)  A  degree  of  one  of  the  universities,  and 

(2)  A  diploma. 

It    is    essential    to    go    to    some     University    or 
Examining  Board  which  admits  women   and  not 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  149 

to  one,  such  as  Oxford  or  Cambridge,  where 
women  are  denied  the  degree  to  which  their  work 
entitles  them.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  women  medical 
students  are  not  accepted  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge. 
It  is  not  possible  to  practise  medicine,  in  a  satis- 
factory way  unless  one  is  actually  in  possession 
of  the  qualification.  Any  one  who  does  so,  how- 
ever well  trained,  ranks  as  a  quack,  and  is  not 
legally  entitled  to  sign  death  certificates  nor  to 
recover  fees. 

The  degrees  open  to  women  in  medicine,  as 
in  other  branches  of  learning,  are  those  of  London, 
Glasgow,  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and,  in  fact,  of 
all  the  Universities  of  the  United  Kingdom  except 
the  two  just  mentioned. 

Qualifying  diplomas  other  than  degrees  are 
those  granted  by  : — 

(1)  The    Conjoint    Examining    Board   of    the 

Royal     Colleges     of     Physicians     and 
Surgeons  of  England. 

(2)  The  Royal  Colleges  of  Scotland. 

(3)  The  Royal  Colleges  of  Ireland. 

(4)  The  Society  of  Apothecaries  of  London. 

The  authorities  at  the  Women's  Medical  School 
strongly  advise  students  to  take  a  degree,  and  that 
the  best  open  to  them,  namely,  in  Great  Britain, 
that  of  London  for  the  south,  or  one  of  the  good 
Scottish  Universities  for  the  north.  Their  reason 
for  this  advice  is  that  they  feel  that  it  is  extremely 
important  that  medical  women  should  rank  as  high 
as  possible  in  their  profession. 

At  London  University  there  are  no  sex  restric- 
tions. A  woman  is  eligible  not  only  to  take  the 
examinations  on  equal  terms  with  a  man,  but  all 
the  rights  and  honours  (except,  of  course,  the 
Parliamentary  vote)  are  also  open  to  her.  Women 


150  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

may  vote  for  and  sit  upon  the  Senate,  become 
members  of  Convocation  and  take  any  of  the 
exhibitions,  medals,  or  scholarships  which  are 
offered  to  candidates  at  examinations.  For  this 
reason  women  feel  attached  and  like  to  belong  to 
the  London  University,  and  to  do  it  honour. 

Having  decided  which  qualification  she  wishes 
to  take,  the  candidate  applies  to  be  entered  as 
a  medical  student  at  a  definite  school.  If  she 
elects  to  work  in  London  she  must  follow  the  course 
of  study  at  the  Royal  Free  Hospital  School  of 
Medicine  for  Women  at  8  Hunter  Street,  Brunswick 
Square. 

At  Glasgow  the  students  are  all  entered  at 
the  Women's  College  (Queen  Margaret's).  The 
medical  course  is  taken  in  conjunction  with  men 
students.  At  the  Royal  Infirmary  some  wards 
are  open  to  women  for  clinical  instruction. 

At  Dublin  the  students  are  admitted  to  the 
degrees  and  diplomas  in  medicine,  surgery,  and 
midwifery  on  the  same  conditions  as  men.  A 
special  anatomical  department  with  dissecting  room, 
etc.,  has  been  erected  by  the  Board  of  Trinity 
College  for  them. 

At  Edinburgh  the  arrangements  for  women 
students  are  largely  separate  from  those  for  the 
men.  The  degrees  are  open  to  them. 

At  Durham  the  degrees  are  open  to  women, 
and  most  of  their  work  is  done  with  the  men. 

The  same  applies  to  Liverpool,  Manchester, 
Leeds,  Birmingham,  and  Sheffield. 

The  course  takes  from  five  to  six  years,  but  it 
is  wise  to  allow  the  longer  time.  The  preliminary 
examination  in  general  subjects  is  taken  before 
admission  to  the  medical  school.  After  this,  the 
first  year  at  the  medical  school  is  spent  in  scientific 
study,  such  as  Biology,  Inorganic  Chemistry,  etc. 
Having  passed  her  first  scientific  examination,  the 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  151 

student  proceeds  to  the  study  of  the  human 
individual,  and  deals  for  the  next  two  years  with 
Anatomy,  which  includes  dissection,  Physiology, 
the  study  of  drugs  in  Materia  Medica  and 
Pharmacology,  and  Organic  Chemistry.  When 
the  examination  in  these  subjects  has  been  satis- 
factorily negotiated,  she  passes  on  to  medical 
work  proper,  the  study  of  disease  and  the  result 
of  accident  in  the  living  person — in  other  words, 
she  walks  the  wards  of  the  hospital  and  under- 
takes duties  as  clerk  to  physicians  and  dresser  to 
surgeons,  from  whom  she  receives  instruction  in 
medicine,  surgery,  and  pathology.  Special  branches 
are  also  studied,  such  as  midwifery,  women's 
diseases,  and  affections  of  the  throat,  ear,  eye,  and 
skin.  The  treatment  of  minor  accidents  also  receives 
special  attention.  During  the  whole  of  this  time 
the  student  also  attends  regular  courses  of  lectures 
on  these  subjects,  and  she  then  takes  her  final 
examination.  If  this  be  a  degree  examination, 
she  becomes,  on  passing  it,  Bachelor  of  Medicine, 
or  M.B.,  and  Bachelor  of  Surgery,  Ch.B.  or  B.S. 
Having  obtained  a  diploma,  she  is  generally 
entitled  to  style  herself  a  Member  or  Licentiate 
of  the  college  of  which  she  has  passed  the  qualify- 
ing examination,  for  example,  M.R.C.S.,  L.R.C.P. 
orL.S.A.  On  application,  she  is  then  placed  upon 
the  Medical  Register,  and  is  known  as  a  registered 
medical  practitioner. 

The  cost  of  the  training  is  approximately  as 
follows : — 

For  a  London  Degree. 

Fee  at  the  Medical  School  for  Women,  if  paid 
as  a  composition  fee  in  five  yearly  instalments 
of  ^28,  ^51,  ^45,  ^"40,  and  ;£i5;  Total: — ^179, 
or,  if  the  whole  sum  is  paid  on  entrance  to  the 


152  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

school,  £160.  In  addition  there  is  a  fee  of  three 
guineas  for  the  special  study  of  fevers.  These  fees 
include  everything  in  the  way  of  material,  except 
books  and  instruments  for  which  it  is  wise  to 
allow  another  £30.  The  examination  fees  of  the 
university  are  ^25.  These  amounts  make  no 
allowance  for  any  failures,  and  consequent  revision 
of  work,  and  re-entry  for  examination.  In  reckon- 
ing the  expense,  the  necessary  cost  of  living  for 
the  six  years  must  also  be  included.  For  those 
students  whose  homes  are  not  in  London  there 
are  flats  and  boarding-houses  where  it  is  possible 
to  live  very  reasonably.  Suitable  board  and 
residence  can  be  obtained  from  about  255.  a 
week. 

For  the  Diploma  of  the  Conjoint  Board. 

The  school  fees  are  the  same ;  the  examination 
fees  are,  however,  higher,  namely  ,£42. 

For  other  qualifications,  the  school  fees  are  £20 
less  for  the  course. 

Certain  scholarships  are  available  for  students, 
of  which  all  particulars  can  be  obtained  from  the 
secretary  of  each  school. 

When  a  woman  becomes  a  registered  medical 
practitioner,  she  is  for  the  first  time  legally  entitled 
to  treat  patients  herself,  and  is  entrusted  with 
responsibility.  As  in  most  other  branches  of 
knowledge  in  the  world,  while  she  has  simply 
been  learning  and  carrying  out  her  duties  under 
authority,  she  has  had  no  opportunity  of  really 
testing  her  own  knowledge.  It  is,  therefore,  very 
generally  felt  amongst  newly  qualified  medical 
practitioners  that  they  need  more  experience  before 
undertaking  quite  independent  medical  work.  This 
experience  is  best  gained  by  taking  hospital  posts. 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  153 

By  this  is  meant  positions  of  moderate  responsi- 
bility, such  as  that  of  resident  house  physician  or 
resident  house  surgeon  in  a  hospital,  where  the 
newly  qualified  doctor  is  under  the  authority  of  an 
experienced  visiting  "chief,"  but  is  expected  to 
deal  with  ordinary  incidents  as  they  may  arise, 
to  realise  the  relative  importance  of  different 
symptoms,  and  report  those  that  matter  to  the 
visiting  physician  or  surgeon. 

It  is  at  this  stage  that  the  doctor  must  decide 
whether  she  wishes  to  become 

(a)  a   ''specialist"   in   some   particular  branch 

of  medicine  or  surgery, 
a  general  practitioner,  or 
whether  she  wishes  to  work  in  the  public 

service. 

(a)  If  she  wishes  to  be  a  specialist  she  must 
so  arrange  her  future  work  as  to  gain  experience 
in  the  branch  which  she  selects.  For  this  purpose 
it  is  necessary  to  take  posts  at  special  hospitals, 
and  ultimately  to  become  a  member  of  the  staff 
of  some  hospital  in  the  department  chosen.  Here 
women  find  that  they  are  heavily  handicapped. 
The  only  hospital  of  any  size  in  London  of  which 
the  members  of  staff  are  all  women  is  the  New 
Hospital,  Euston  Road,  and  this  admits  only  of  a 
small  staff,  giving  opportunities  to  comparatively 
few  women  for  special  experience. 

The  Royal  Free  Hospital,  where  women  take 
their  training  as  students,  has  now  two  women  on 
its  staff  in  the  department  for  gynaecology.  It 
has  also  a  woman  anaesthetist,  and  some  of  the 
minor  posts,  such  as  clinical  assistant  to  the  out- 
patients, pathologist,  etc.,  are  open  to  them.  All 
the  physicians,  the  surgeons,  and  the  assistant 
physicians  and  surgeons  are,  however,  men. 


154  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

Of  the  hospitals  for  special  ailments  in  London, 
none  so  far  admits  women  to  the  staff,  and  it  has 
only  recently  become  possible  for  them  even  to 
form  part  of  the  medical  audience  at  the  out- 
patients' department  at  some  of  these  special 
hospitals. 

No  London  Hospital  for   Diseases  of  Women 
and  Midwifery  (except  that  of  Dr  M'Call), 

or  for  Diseases  of  Children  (except  one  recently 
started  by  women), 

or  for  Diseases  of  the  Eye, 

or  for  Diseases  of  the  Ear,  Nose  and  Throat, 

or  for  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System, 
admits  women  to  its  staff,  although  several  of  them 
allow  women  to  take  appointments  as  clinical 
assistants,  pathologists,  anaesthetists,  and  other 
minor  posts.  Their  admission  to  the  full  staff 
is,  perhaps,  merely  a  question  of  time,  and  of 
the  naturally  slow  movement  of  the  British 
mind  towards  admitting  women  to  positions  of 
responsibility. 

There  has,  however,  been  of  late  years  a 
tendency  on  the  part  of  medical  women  themselves 
to  take  this  matter  into  their  own  hands,  and  new 
women's  hospitals  are  being  started  about  London 
where  the  staff  is  exclusively  composed  of  women. 

(b)  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  newly  qualified 
doctor  decides  to  become  a  general  practitioner, 
her  course  is  much  simpler.  She  takes  such  posts 
as  are  available,  which  she  thinks  will  aid  her 
general  knowledge  of  medicine.  Then  she  selects 
a  neighbourhood,  puts  up  a  plate,  and  waits. 

This  course  also  involves  delayed  earning 
capacity,  as  she  must  be  prepared  to  face  outlay 
for  several  years  without  much  return.  During 
this  time  she  generally  augments  the  income  which 
she  gets  from  her  private  practice  by  other  part- 
time  paid  work,  notably  by  giving  lectures  in  first 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  155 

aid,  etc.,  by  school  inspection,  where  part  -  time 
officers  are  appointed,  and  other  such  work.  She 
also  generally  does  a  certain  amount  of  voluntary 
work  on  that  most  pernicious  system  of  giving  her 
services  in  order  to  get  known.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  doctors  are  everywhere  so  terribly  exploited. 
When  they  are  all  so  busy  doing  work  which 
they  think  will  bring  them  into  the  public  view, 
this  becomes  of  no  particular  use  to  any  of  them, 
and  the  only  people  who  benefit,  and  at  the 
same  time  scoff,  are  the  members  of  the  general 
public,  who  become  so  used  to  getting  the  doctor 
to  work  for  nothing  or  next  to  nothing,  that  it 
comes  as  a  shock  when  they  have  to  pay.  It  is 
a  healthy  sign  that  the  long-suffering  doctor  is  at 
last  beginning  to  show  symptoms  of  fight,  and  in 
the  future  it  may  be  hoped  that  doctors,  like  lawyers, 
will  not  be  required  to  give  their  services  free  to 
the  community.  It  may  be  true  that  if  a  man  will 
not  work  neither  shall  he  eat,  but  the  converse 
should  also  be  true,  that  if  a  man  works  he  should 
eat,  and  at  present  it  is  not  by  any  means  always 
true  of  the  doctor. 

(c]  Should  she  decide  to  enter  the  public  service, 
she  will  still  require  to  take  a  certain  number  of 
posts,  especially  those  dealing  with  eyes,  ears, 
and  skin,  and  must  also  obtain  the  Diploma  of 
Public  Health.  To  gain  this  diploma  she  will 
need  to  devote  several  months  to  post-graduate 
study  in  that  subject  before  taking  the  necessary 
examination. 

The  chief  posts  at  present  open  in  the  public 
service  to  a  woman  are  : — 

(1)  School  medical  officer,  or  assistant  medical 

officer  of  health. 

(2)  Assistant  medical  officer  in  some  asylums 

and  poor  law  infirmaries. 


156  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

There  is  one  woman  inspector  of  prisons  who 
is  a  medical  woman,  but  she  is  not  a  medical 
inspector  and  was  not  appointed  in  that  capacity. 
It  is  much  to  be  hoped  that  women  prison  medical 
officers  will  speedily  be  appointed  on  equal  terms 
with  their  medical  colleagues.  The  conditions  for 
women  prisoners  from  the  standpoint  of  health  are, 
at  the  present  time,  extremely  unsatisfactory. 

The  tendency  is  to  employ  more  and  more 
women  in  the  public  service,  and  therefore  the 
opportunities  are  likely  rapidly  to  become  more 
numerous. 

The  Act,  under  which  medical  school  inspection 
was  made  obligatory,  particularly  mentioned  the 
suitability  of  women  for  much  of  this  work.  It  is 
therefore  becoming  usual  all  over  the  country  to 
have  at  least  one  woman  school  doctor,  and  in 
some  districts  there  are  several  on  the  staff.  This 
work  is  not  extremely  arduous,  is  free  from  the 
heavy  strain  of  private  practice,  and,  if  the  school 
medical  officer  is  allowed  reasonable  freedom  in 
her  work,  may  be  made  of  much  interest.  It 
is,  however,  somewhat  monotonous,  and  has  the 
great  disadvantage  that  at  present  the  stimulus 
of  promotion  is  largely  absent,  as  the  higher  ad- 
ministrative posts  are  almost  universally  in  the 
hands  of  men.  This  is  a  disadvantage  which 
will  also  be  gradually,  perhaps  rapidly  removed 
as  the  prejudice  against  women  in  authority  dies 
down. 

After  having  practised  medicine  for  some  years, 
further  degrees  indicating  experience  are  open  to 
the  medical  practitioner ;  thus,  if  she  has  taken  the 
Bachelorship  of  Medicine  she  may,  after  the  lapse 
of  three  or  four  years,  enter  for  her  Doctorate. 
This  is  gained  either  by  a  further  examination  or 
by  writing  a  thesis  on  some  subject  of  original 
research.  If  she  has  taken  the  Diploma  of  the 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  157 

Royal  Colleges,  it  is  open  to  her  to  sit  for  the 
Fellowship  in  Surgery  or  Membership  in  Medicine. 
She  is  also  open  to  election  to  the  Fellowship  in 
Medicine. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  give  anything  like  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  remuneration  to  be  obtained 
in  medicine,  as  it  varies  tremendously. 

The  first  posts,  which  are  taken  soon  after 
qualification,  if  really  first-rate  in  the  experience 
which  they  give,  seldom  include  any  salary  at  all, 
though  board  and  lodging  are  provided.  Posts 
which  rank  as  slightly  inferior  to  these,  but  still 
give  a  considerable  amount  of  experience,  are 
often  associated  with  honoraria  varying  from 
about  ^"50  to  ^150  a  year,  including  board  and 
lodging. 

(a)  If  we  turn  again  to  our  three  sub-divisions 
we  find  that  a  specialist  or  consultant  cannot  expect 
to  earn  her  working  expenses  for  a  good  many 
years.  She  must  have  one  room  at  least  in  a 
certain  specialist  quarter  of  the  town,  known  as  the 
consultants'  area,  and  there  the  rents  are  usually 
high,  in  London  about  ^150  a  year,  in  the  provinces 
slightly  less. 

We  have  already  stated  that  she  requires  some 
hospital  post ;  for  this  she  will  receive  no  remunera- 
tion, but  if  the  hospital  where  she  works  has  a 
medical  school  attached  to  it,  she  may  expect  to 
get  a  certain  number  of  patients  through  the 
recommendation  of  students  whom  she  teaches  at 
the  hospital.  There  is  generally  also  some  teach- 
ing at  the  hospitals,  for  which  the  students  pay 
definite  fees.  She  may  also  augment  her  income 
by  lectures  and  work  of  that  description.  She  will 
probably  find  it  necessary  to  write  papers  on  her 
special  branch  of  work  and  on  the  cases  which 
come  under  her  observation,  but  for  this  she  will 
very  seldom  be  paid.  It  is,  therefore  only  possible 


158  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

for  a  girl  with  some  monetary  resources  independent 
of  her  work,  to  take  up  successfully  a  special 
branch  of  medicine. 

If  she  elect  to  become  a  surgeon,  a  hospital 
post  is  an  absolute  necessity,  and  her  income  will, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  medical  specialist,  be  delayed. 
Eventually,  however,  if  she  is  successful,  it  is  greater 
than  that  to  be  obtained  on  the  medical  side.  The 
fees  are  high,  and  therefore  money  can  be  made 
more  speedily  in  this  branch  of  the  work.  People, 
however,  hesitate  as  a  rule  to  trust  a  very  young 
surgeon,  so  she  will  at  first  get  her  work  chiefly 
as  assistant  to  her  seniors  and  must  be  content  to 
wait  some  years  for  the  much  bigger  fees  which  she 
will  get  as  principal.  Ultimately  she  should  make 
;£  1,000  to  ^2,000  a  year. 

(6)  If  she  elect  to  become  a  general  practitioner, 
her  outlay  at  first  is  probably  as  great  as  that  of  the 
specialist,  if  not  greater,  but  the  return  is  quicker, 
and  a  great  deal  depends  upon  the  choice  of  a 
neighbourhood.  If  she  chooses  an  upper  middle 
class  district  she  also,  like  the  specialist,  must  be 
content  to  wait,  and  in  fact  she  is  ill-advised  to 
choose  such  a  neighbourhood  unless  she  can  rely 
on  some  good  social  introductions. 

If  she  choose  a  district  partly  middle  and  partly 
lower  middle  class  her  return  will  be  infinitely 
quicker.  She  may  expect  to  cover  her  expenses  in 
the  course  of  two  or  three  years.  The  work  is, 
however,  incessant  and  rather  harassing.  If  she 
select  a  working-class  neighbourhood  and  have  a 
dispensary,  her  return  will  be  still  quicker,  such 
places  frequently  paying  their  expenses  in  the  first 
or  second  year.  The  people  are  nice  to  deal  with, 
and  the  work  is  interesting,  but  it  is  apt  to  be  very 
distressing  for  two  reasons — (i)  that  owing  to  the 
poverty  of  the  patients  they  can  so  seldom  be 


MEDICINE   AND  SURGERY  159 

attended  under  conditions  in  which  they  have  a 
fair  chance  of  recovery,  and  (2)  there  is  apt  to  be 
an  appreciable  amount  of  dirt. 

The  most  varying  reports  are  given  as  to  the 
incomes  to  be  made  in  private  practice  and  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  get  at  the  truth,  because  it  is 
obviously  to  everybody's  interest  to  make  them 
appear  as  high  as  possible.  A  woman's  practice 
also  is  admittedly  rather  a  specialist  one.  She  does 
not  get  the  general  local  practice  of  the  ordinary 
practitioner,  but  instead  certain  selected  women 
who  want  to  consult  a  member  of  their  own  sex. 
These  often  live  at  considerable  distances,  thus 
making  the  work  more  difficult  to  arrange  and 
the  travelling  more  expensive  than  in  the  case  of 
the  ordinary  medical  man.  It  is  rare  for  a  woman 
to  be  able  to  buy  a  practice.  She  must  generally 
build  it  up  for  herself,  as  it  is  of  little  or  no  use 
for  her  to  buy  a  man's  practice,  and  there  are 
only  very  few  women's  available. 

Generally,  it  may  be  stated  that  a  woman  covers 
her  expenses  by  about  the  third  or  fourth  year  after 
starting,  and  she  may  ultimately  make,  according 
to  the  district  and  her  success,  anything  between 
^"400  and  ^"1,500  a  year.  Frequently  two  medical 
women  settle  together,  which  seems  to  be  a  very 
good  arrangement. 

(c)  If  she  elect  to  enter  the  public  service  her 
outlay  is  very  small.  Beyond  equipping  herself  for 
this  work  in  certain  special  branches  already 
described,  all  that  is  necessary  is  that  she  should 
be  able  to  keep  herself  until  she  obtains  a  suitable 
post.  The  salary  given  for  whole  time  work  in  the 
public  service  should  not  be  less  than  ^"250  a  year 
rising  to  ^400  or  ,£500  a  year.  In  most  cases  the 
school  doctor  gets  the  school  holidays,  including 
the  whole  of  every  Saturday. 


160  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

English  women  who  go  to  India,  do  so  generally 
in  connection  with  either 

(1)  a  missionary  society,  or 

(2)  a  hospital  under  the  Dufferin  Fund. 

(1)  Many  missionary  societies  engage  medical 
women  to  treat   the   native  women.     Salaries,   of 
course,  differ,  but  are,  on  the  whole,  low,  as  the  aim 
of  a  missionary  is   not   supposed,  primarily,  to  be 
financial  gain.     Generally  somewhere  about  jCno 
in  English  money  is  given,  with  an  allowance  for 
carriage  and  house   including   the   chief  items   of 
furniture.     Leave  is  also  granted  with  second  class 
return  fare  every  five  years — in  some  missions  every 
three  years.     The  medical  experience  is  excellent, 
the  opportunities  of  doing  good  professional  work 
are  practically  unlimited,  and  the  professional  position 
of  the  doctor  quite  untrammelled.     She  is  assisted, 
usually,  by  good  nurses,  under  a  proper  scheme, 
these   being   Indian   girls    superintended   by   fully 
trained  English  sisters. 

(2)  Under  the  Dufferin   Fund1  things  are  very 
different.      It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  speak  of  this 
branch  of  the   work,   as  it  is,  at  the  present  time, 
the  subject  of  enquiry,  and  it  may  be  legitimately 
expected  that  it  will,  before  long,  be  put  on  a  more 
satisfactory  basis.     The  fund  was  originally  started 

1  Quite  recently  the  outline  of  a  new  scheme  was  put  before 
a  meeting  at  the  Women's  Medical  School  in  London  by  the 
Director-General  of  the  Indian  Medical  Service.  Under  this  scheme 
the  Women's  Medical  Service  in  India  would  not  be  upon  the  same 
footing  as  the  Indian  Medical  Service  (I. M.S.)  for  men,  but  would 
remain  as  at  present,  a  Dufferin  Association.  It  would,  however, 
receive  a  Government  grant  of  ;£io,ooo  yearly,  and  proper  arrange- 
ments would  be  made  for  pay,  furlough,  promotion,  and  security  of 
tenure.  The  scheme  is  open  to  criticism  on  some  points,  but,  as  a 
whole,  it  marks  a  considerable  advance  on  the  previous  conditions 
of  service  in  this  department  of  women's  work,  and  may  be  welcomed 
as  a  genuine  if  somewhat  belated  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 
Government  to  deal  fairly  with  an  urgent  question. 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  161 

by  Lady  Dufferin  as  the  direct  result  of  a  command 
by  the  iate  Queen  Victoria,  and  it  was  intended 
to  provide  the  services  of  medical  women  for  the 
Purdah  women  of  India  who,  owing  to  the  strictness 
of  their  rules,  were  not  infrequently  debarred  from 
the  full  benefit  of  medical  treatment  by  men.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  the  doctor  in  charge  of  most 
of  the  Dufferin  Hospitals  is  under  the  local  senior 
civil  surgeon,  who  is  a  man.  As  he  has  the  right, 
if  he  wishes  to  exercise  it,  of  seeing  any  of  the 
patients,  and  doing  any  of  the  operations  or  other 
treatment  necessary,  it  is  obvious  that  the  hospitals 
are  of  little  or  no  use  to  Purdah  women,  as  they 
have  no  guarantee  against  treatment  by  a  man. 

There  is  also  no  security  of  tenure  for  the  doctor 
who  is  not  allowed  to  be  present  at  the  meetings 
of  the  governing  body,  and  may  find  herself  dis- 
missed or  transferred  from  a  good  post  to  a  bad 
one  at  short  notice. 

The  remuneration  varies  roughly  between  ^250 
and  ,£500  a  year,  with  house  but  no  carriage 
allowance.  The  doctor  is  entitled  to  add  to  her 
salary  by  private  practice.  In  some  towns  this  is 
a  considerable  item,  whereas  in  others  it  is  quite 
negligible.  There  is  no  definite  furlough  allowance, 
and  the  doctor  ma.y  be  removed  from  her  post  and 
required  to  keep  herself  on  very  little  for  a  con- 
siderable period  of  time  before  being  appointed 
to  another  hospital.  All  this  causes  a  severe 
drain  on  the  resources  of  doctors  without  private 
means.  The  staff  is  also  frequently  inefficient,  and 
the  nursing  is  sometimes  very  indifferent,  being 
undertaken  by  Eurasian  girls  under  partly  trained 
women  who  have  never  been  "home." 


In   the   practice   of    medicine   as   in   all   other 
branches  of  women's  labour,   the  question  of  the 

L 


162  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

effect  of  marriage  upon  work  is  a  very  important 
and  difficult  one.  In  its  general  aspect  it  lies  at 
the  very  heart  of  the  whole  question  of  the  working 
woman.  Its  effect  on  the  medical  woman  varies 
according  to  the  branch  of  her  profession  which  she 
selects.  If  she  wishes  to  become  (a)  a  specialist 
or  (fr)  a  general  practitioner,  she  has  perfect 
freedom  of  choice  as  to  what  she  will  do  in  the 
event  of  marriage ;  and  some  women  retire  while 
others  continue  their  work.  The  latter  is  a  much 
more  desirable  course  from  the  point  of  view  of 
medical  women  as  a  whole.  The  medical  woman 
who  is  married  can,  better  than  any  one  else,  render 
to  society  certain  services  in  her  profession,  and  it 
is  desirable  that  these  should  not  be  lost.  In  any 
event  no  woman  need  retire  from  her  work  on 
marriage,  though  it  is,  of  course,  most  important 
that  the  married  medical  woman  should  not  deny 
to  herself  and  to  her  husband  the  normal  healthy 
joy  of  having  children.  To  continue  in  practice, 
however,  while  bearing  a  child  requires  a  certain 
amount  of  expenditure,  as  such  a  doctor  will  need 
to  retire  from  practice  for  at  least  two  or  three 
months,  probably  longer,  and  is  therefore  put  to 
the  expense  of  engaging  a  locum  tenens.  This 
ought,  however,  to  be  possible  when  both  husband 
and  wife  are  earning  incomes. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  society  as  a  whole, 
it  is  waste  that  any  one  who  has  had  such  a  long 
and  arduous  training  as  that  required  for  the 
medical  profession  should  not  use  it  in  service  to 
the  community.  There  is  a  form  of  selfishness 
not  sufficiently  recognised,  which  consists  not  in 
acquiring  goods  but  in  acquiring  knowledge  with- 
out rendering  it  again  in  service  to  one's  fellow 
men  and  women. 

Should  the  doctor  decide  (c)  to  enter  the  public 
service,  the  question  will  probably  not  be  in  her 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  163 

own  control  as  there  is  an  ever-increasing  tendency 
on  the  part  of  public  authorities  to  insist  on  single 
women  or  widows  only  among  the  medical  women 
whom  they  employ.  There  is  a  big  fight  to  be 
waged  here — one  of  the  many  that  our  pioneers 
have  left  for  us  and  our  successors.  The  lack  of 
social  instinct  which  lies  behind  this  edict  is 
amazing.  What  can  be  more  anti-social  than 
that  a  young,  healthy,  and  highly-trained  woman 
should  have  to  decide  between  marriage  and 
executing  that  public  work  for  which  she  has 
with  great  labour  fitted  herself?  In  at  least 
some  cases  of  which  the  writer  is  aware,  the 
demand  that  a  doctor  shall  retire  on  marriage,  has 
led  to  a  decision  against  matrimony,  and  this  is 
not  surprising,  although  very  serious  as  a  general 
problem.  The  great  need  of  society  at  the  present 
day  is  that  the  most  healthy  and  well-trained  young 
men  and  women  should  be  induced  to  found 
families,  and  public  authorities  by  this  bar  put  on 
the  trained  woman,  are  doing  their  best  to  hinder 
marriage. 

Medical  women  have,  for  their  protection, 
societies  of  registered  medical  women  in  London 
and  in  the  north  of  England  and  also  in  Scotland, 
these  working  more  or  less  in  touch  with  one 
another.  In  common  with  other  medical  societies 
they  have  meetings  at  which  the  advances  in 
medical  science  are  discussed,  and  they  also  act 
in  a  modified  way  as  Trade  Unions.  Members 
of  these  societies  can  always  gain  information 
from  them  as  to  the  recognised  rate  of  pay  in  any 
particular  branch  of  the  work  which  they  may 
wish  to  undertake. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the 
excellent  work  which  has  been  done  by  the  British 
Medical  Association  in  uniting  the  men  and  women 
of  the  profession  and  helping  both  to  keep  up 


164  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

the   salary    rate.     Without   this   aid    the   women's 
associations  would  have  been  comparatively  help- 
less, as  they  would  have  erred  in  ignorance,  though 
certainly  not  by  intention.    The  gratitude  of  medical 
women  to  this  association  cannot  therefore  be  over- 
stated, and   I  think    I  am  justified  in  saying   that 
the  same  is  true  with  regard  to  medical  men.     If 
their  chief  "  Union  "  had  not  admitted  women  we 
might  unwittingly  have   become   a  danger  to  our 
medical  colleagues  as  black-leg  labour.     This  has 
been    almost   universally  the   case   in    other   work 
which  women  have  taken  up,  and  one  cannot  help 
wishing  that  men  in  other  branches  of  labour  might 
speedily   realise   the    fact   that   women   cannot   be 
stopped    from    working,    and   that    the   only   wise 
thing,  from    the   men's   point  of  view  as  well   as 
from  the  women's,  is  to  admit  all  to  their  unions 
that  they  may  fight  shoulder  to  shoulder  for  better 
labour  conditions,  and  not  against  each  other.     An 
example   of  a   case   where   this   was   realised   has 
already  been  quoted  under  Example  2,  page  144. 
With    regard   to   the    opportunities    for    post- 
graduate  study : — At  first   all   the    men's    medical 
societies    were    closed    to   women,    the    provincial 
societies  being  among  the  first  to  recognise  their 
women  medical  colleagues.     London,  being  in  this 
as  in  all  things  conservative,  took  many  years  to 
move,  and  did  so  very  grudgingly  ;  but  now  nearly 
all  the  important   medical  societies  admit  women, 
in  this  falling  into  line  with  the  learned  professions 
generally.     The  Royal  Medical  Society,  London,  at 
first  admitted  women  to  its  separate  sections  only, 
while   denying   them   the   Fellowship,   with   which 
would  have  gone  that  mysterious  power  which  men 
so  deeply  resent  our  possessing — the  power  to  vote 
on  matters  of  its  internal  economy.     The  authorities 
of  this  society  have,   however,   recently   admitted 
medical  women  on  perfectly  equal  terms  with  men 


MEDICINE   AND   SURGERY  165 

to  their  Fellowship — a  privilege  for  which  we  are 
deeply  grateful,  as  post  -  graduate  knowledge  of 
recent  investigations  is  absolutely  essential  to  good 
work. 

In  conclusion,  the  general  position  of  medical 
women  at  present  may  be  shortly  summarised  as 
follows : — 

Their  legal  status  is  absolutely  identical  with 
that  of  men  in  every  respect,  by  which  is  meant 
that  by  being  placed  upon  the  Medical  Register  they 
have  every  privilege,  duty,  and  responsibility  which 
they  would  have  if  they  were  men.  In  obtaining 
this  and  allowing  many  other  things  to  be  settled 
by  their  successors  our  pioneers  showed  their 
tremendous  wisdom. 

We  have  in  the  medical  profession,  what  women 
are  now  claiming  in  the  State,  the  abolition  of  legal 
sex  disqualification.  With  this  firm  platform  upon 
which  to  stand,  it  entirely  depends  upon  medical 
women  themselves  what  position  they  will  gain 
in  their  profession.  All  other  disabilities  and  dis- 
qualifications are  minor  and  remediable. 

This  absolute  equality  of  medical  men  and 
women  before  the  law  includes  the  rights  to 

(1)  Practise  in  any  department  of  medicine  in 

which  their  services  may  be  demanded. 

(2)  Recover  fees  if  necessary. 

(3)  Sign  death  certificates. 

(4)  Sign  any  certificates  for  which  a  medical 

signature  is  essential. 

Under  this  latter  heading  a  curious  anomaly 
arises.  If  a  man  is  signed  up  as  a  lunatic,  he  is, 
for  so  long  as  he  remains  a  lunatic,  debarred  from 
using  his  Parliamentary  vote,  and,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  above,  a  medical  woman's  signature  is 
as  valid  as  that  of  a  man  for  this  disfranchising 


166  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

certificate  of  lunacy.  The  State,  therefore,  at  the 
present  time  allows  that  a  medical  woman  may  be 
sufficiently  learned  and  reliable  to  disfranchise  a 
man,  though  she  be  not  sufficiently  learned  and 
reliable  to  vote  herself. 

The  Insurance  Act  concerned  medical  women 
only  in  the  same  way  that  it  affected  their  men 
colleagues.  The  sole  reason,  therefore,  for 
mentioning  it  in  this  paper  is  that  it  affords  an 
indication  of  two  things:— 

(1)  that  the  Government  therein  makes  no  sex 

distinction  in  the  profession ; 

(2)  that  the  bogey  of  sex  cleavage,  so  often 

mentioned  by  the  timorous  in  the  politi- 
cal world,  is  here,  as  always  where  it  is 
put  to  the  test,  proved  to  be  without 
foundation. 

Unfortunately,  the  Insurance  Act  divided  the 
medical  profession  into  two  parties ;  women,  no 
more  than  men,  were  unanimous  on  the  subject  and 
some  were  to  be  found  on  either  side. 

Women  are  still  debarred  from  the  full  use 
of  their  medical  powers  in  the  following  ways  :— 

(1)  The   demand   for   their   services   from  the 
general  public  is  at  present  not  so  great  nor   so 
universal  as  that  for  men.     This  is  not  surprising 
when  it  is  realised  for  how  short  a  time  there  have 
been   medical  women ;    however,  the   demand   on 
the  part  of  the  public  is  very  rapidly  increasing, 
naturally,  of  course,  amongst  their  own  sex. 

(2)  As  in  other  work  the  tendency  is  to  restrict 
women  to  the  lower  branches  of  public  work,   or 
to  the  so-called  "  blind  alley  "  occupations.     This 
can   only  be  cured   by  public  demand,   and   some 
improvement  is  to  be  noted  in  this  respect.     There 
is,  however,  no  doubt  that  general  practice  affords 


DENTAL  SURGERY  167 

at  present  the  most  unrestricted  field  for  a  medical 
woman's  activity,  because  there  she  suffers  from  no 
limitations  except  those  of  her  own  personality  in 
relation  to  society.  Any  patients  who  are  inclined 
to  trust  her  are  absolutely  free  to  do  so,  and  it  is 
open  to  her  to  demand  what  fees  her  services  are 
found  to  be  worth. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  she  enters  the  public  service 
she  may  admittedly  qualify  herself  in  every  way 
by  attainments  and  experience  in  the  lower  ranks 
for  one  of  the  higher  administrative  posts  and  be 
barred  simply  by  sex  disqualification.  This  also 
will  no  doubt  in  time  improve,  and  the  pioneer 
work  that  it  implies  may  attract  many,  but  the 
progress  is  necessarily  slower. 

(3)  She  is  still  debarred  from  full  opportunity 
for  specialist  work.  (See  efforts  being  made  by 
women  themselves  to  obviate  this  by  the  starting 
of  women's  hospitals,  p.  149.) 

Finally,  then,  the  medical  profession  should 
attract  women  of  good  average  capacity  and  general 
education,  good  health  and  certain,  even  if  moderate, 
means.  Above  all  do  they  need  public  spirit,  which 
will  make  them  anxious  to  maintain  and  improve 
the  excellent  position  medical  women  have  so  far 
obtained.  It  is  a  very  widely  interesting  life,  bring- 
ing those  who  adopt  it  out  of  the  study  into  direct 
touch  with  human  affairs. 


II 

DENTAL  SURGERY 

It  is  not  sufficiently  well-known  that  dental 
surgery  as  a  profession,  opens  up  a  practically 
unexplored  and  lucrative  work  for  women. 

The  training  in  the  British  Isles  can  be  carried 


168  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

out  in  London,  Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  Dublin, 
each  of  these  cities  granting  their  Licentiate  of 
Dental  Surgery.  In  London,  the  National  Dental 
Hospital,  and  the  London  School  of  Medicine  for 
Women  (Royal  Free  Hospital)  have  special  facilities 
for  women  students,  including  special  bursaries  and 
scholarships,  while  dental  and  medical  studies  can 
be  carried  on  concurrently.  The  course  of  study 
includes  the  passing  of  a  Professional  Preliminary 
Examination  or  Matriculation,  followed  by  two 
years'  mechanical  work,  and  two  years'  hospital 
practice.  The  student  can  be  articled  to  a  qualified 
dental  practitioner  for  mechanics,  or  can  obtain 
tuition  at  the  Dental  Hospital.  This  branch 
includes  the  preparation  of  models,  vulcanite  and 
metal  dentures,  crowns,  and  bridges,  etc. 

The  Dental  Hospital  course  for  two  years 
includes  lectures  on  Physics  and  Chemistry,  Dental 
Anatomy  and  Surgery,  Metallurgy  and  Materia 
Medica.  At  the  same  time  practical  work  is 
done  --  extractions,  fillings,  crowns,  bridges, 
dentures,  and  the  regulation  of  children's  teeth. 
At  the  medical  school  and  hospital,  lectures  on 
Anatomy,  Physiology,  Surgery,  and  Medicine  must 
be  attended,  and  dissections  on  the  human  body, 
and  clinics  in  the  ward  must  be  completed.  At 
the  end  of  each  year  examinations  in  the  subjects 
are  taken,  the  whole  course  covering  a  minimum 
time  of  four  years.  The  qualification  of  the 
Licentiate  of  Dental  Surgery  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons  of  England  is  now  open  to  women. 
The  composite  fee  for  training  extending  over 
four  years,  is  about  ^200,  but  an  additional  sum 
of  at  least  £100  is  required  for  incidental  expenses. 
Should  the  woman  student  desire  to  confine  herself 
to  dental  mechanics  this  would  materially  lessen  the 
expense.  The  average  wage  for  a  good  male 
mechanic  is  £120  per  annum.  Hospitals  can  be 


DENTAL  SURGERY  169 

joined  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  and  it  is  advisable 
to  begin  study  soon  after  leaving  school  or  college. 

If  it  is  possible,  a  woman  should  obtain  a 
medical  qualification  as  well  as  the  L.D.S.  Much 
of  the  work  can  be  taken  at  the  same  time 
as  the  dental  course.  A  medical  degree  enlarges 
a  dentist's  sphere  of  usefulness  and  interest  and 
adds  to  her  locus  standi:  on  the  other  hand,  it 
necessitates  two  or  three  years'  extra  study,  and 
the  fees  are  increased  by  several  hundred  pounds. 

The  woman  dentist  will  probably  find  it 
necessary  to  start  practice  on  her  own  account  as 
soon  as  she  is  qualified,  as  it  is  not  likely  she 
will  be  able  to  obtain  an  assistantship  with  men 
practitioners,  but  there  are  an  increasing  number 
of  posts  open  to  women,  such  as  dental  surgeon 
to  school  clinics  or  to  factories.  These  posts  offer 
the  same  salaries  to  men  and  women.  Smaller  part- 
time  appointments,  with  an  honorarium  attached,  can 
be  obtained,  and  are  especially  useful  to  the  newly 
qualified  practitioner  who  is  building  up  a  practice. 

It  is  essential  for  the  woman  who  intends  to 
succeed  in  this  profession  to  have  excellent  physical 
and  mental  health,  though  great  muscular  strength 
is  not  necessary.  During  student  life  and  in 
practice,  every  care  should  be  taken  of  the  general 
health — exercise  in  the  open  air  being  especially 
necessary,  though  this  should  not  be  too  energetic 
in  character.  It  is  a  well  -  known  fact  that  male 
dentists  doing  careful  and  conscientious  work,  can- 
not, as  a  rule,  stand  the  strain  for  many  hours 
daily  after  they  have  reached  middle  age,  and  the 
intending  student  should  consider  this  point. 

The  prolonged  hours  of  standing  in  a  cramped 
position,  the  confined  space,  the  exactitude 
required  for  minute  and  painful  operations,  are 
some  of  the  causes  of  this  overstrain.  Great  self- 
control  and  will  power  must  be  exercised  as  the 


i;o  THE   MEDICAL   PROFESSION 

patients,  especially  children,  are  frequently  nervous, 
and  confidence  must  be  imparted  to  them  if  the 
work  is  to  be  well  done. 

The  British  Dental  Association  and  the  Odonto- 
logical  Society  are  both  open  to  women,  and  male 
practitioners  have  always  displayed  the  utmost 
courtesy  though  some  prejudice  must  be  expected. 
The  general  public  apparently  welcome  the  advent 
of  women  dentists  as  the  few  qualified  women  in 
London  and  the  Provinces  have  excellent  practices. 
It  is  curious,  however,  to  note  that  few  English- 
women have  taken  up  the  profession,  there  being 
about  twelve  practising  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
though  in  Germany,  Russia,  and  the  United  States 
there  are  great  numbers  of  women  practitioners. 

With  regard  to  restrictions  from  which  women 
at  present  suffer,  one  dental  hospital  only  is  open 
to  women  in  London,  and,  until  recently,  no  posts 
could  be  obtained.  But  as  more  women  qualify, 
these  disadvantages  will  probably  be  removed.  It 
is  also  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  mechanical 
work  in  private  work-rooms.  Women  should  bear 
in  mind  that  they  require  exactly  the  same  facilities 
for  study  as  men,  and  try  to  get  admittance  to  all 
hospitals  and  posts  on  an  equal  basis — i.e.,  the 
salary  should  be  equal  for  equal  work,  and  a 
smaller  fee  should  not  be  accepted. 

In  deciding  whether  a  practice  should  be  started 
in  London  or  a  provincial  town,  the  question  of 
capital  must  be  carefully  considered,  as  it  is 
improbable  that  the  expenses  will  be  met  during 
the  first  year  of  practice.  The  upkeep  necessarily 
varies  with  the  locality  chosen,  and  a  minimum 
capital  of  ,£150  is  desirable. 

Pioneer  women  must  be  prepared  to  do  their 
work  conscientiously,  and  to  the  utmost  of  their 
ability,  and  they  must  always  remember  that  their 
work  will  be  very  severely  criticised. 


SECTION    III 

THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

TOGETHER   WITH 

MIDWIFERY  AND   MASSAGE 

PREFACE 

ALL  fully  trained  nurses  start  with  the  same  course 
of  training,  namely  as  probationers  in  hospitals. 
Their  subsequent  work,  however,  is  extremely 
varied,  and  it  has  been  found  impossible  to  do 
justice  to  them  all  in  one  paper.  This  section 
has  therefore  been  sub-divided  as  follows: — 

First. — A    general    survey   of    the   profession 

including   an  account   of  the  training  of 

all     nurses,    by    Miss     E.     M.     Musson, 

Matron,    General   Hospital,    Birmingham. 

Second. — A  short  description,  by  an  expert,  of 

each  branch  of  the  work  open  to  a  nurse 

when    she    has    completed    her    general 

training.      Under    each    sub-division    the 

writer   has  given   a   short   description  of 

(a)  the  work, 

(6)  special  training  required, 
(^r)  rate  of  remuneration, 
(d)  suggestions   for    improvement    in 
conditions  of  work. 

The  sub-divisions  are  set  out  in  the  Table  of 
Contents. 

171 


172  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

I  wish  here  to  express  my  very  great  indebted- 
ness to  all  the  contributors  to  this  section,  and 
especially  to  Miss  Townend,  who  has  throughout 
given  most  valuable  advice.  All  the  writers  are 
busy  people  to  whom,  however,  the  opportunity 
of  being  able  to  help  their  fellow  women  was 
irresistible  —  to  what  good  purpose  the  papers 
themselves  give  eloquent  testimony. 

CHRISTINE  M.  MURRELL. 


I 
GENERAL  SURVEY  AND  INTRODUCTION 

Although  the  number  of  women  engaged  in 
nursing  the  sick  is  probably  greater  than  in  any 
other  profession  except  that  of  teaching,  very 
considerable  ignorance  prevails  with  regard  not 
only  to  the  life  and  training  of  nurses,  but  also 
with  regard  to  the  profession  and  its  history. 
Several  mistaken  beliefs  are  commonly  held  in  this 
country  ;  one  is  that  nursing  was  an  unknown  art 
before  the  Christian  Era ;  another,  that  there 
was  never  a  nurse  worthy  of  the  name  before 
the  Crimean  War,  when  the  immortal  Florence 
Nightingale  rose  like  a  resplendent  star,  bringing 
light  and  hope  to  her  stricken  countrymen,  and 
showing  the  way  to  the  hundreds  of  women  who 
have  since  essayed  to  follow  her  bright  example. 
One  other  belief,  as  dangerous  at  the  present 
time  as  it  is  erroneous,  is  that  England  holds 
an  unassailable  position  with  regard  to  the  pre- 
eminence of  her  training  schools  for  nurses. 

We  read  of  wonderful  provision  for  the  care 
of  the  sick  made  in  some  ancient  kingdoms,  whose 
civilisation  was  already  a  bygone  tale  when  the 
Christian  Era  dawned,  and  it  is  only  reasonable 


GENERAL   SURVEY  173 

to  suppose  that  the  attendants,  for  whose  conduct 
rules  were  made,  were  the  prototypes  of  the 
nurses  of  to-day,  inasmuch  as  they  were  employed 
in  tending  the  sick  under  physicians  or  wise  men. 
It  is  true  that  the  teaching  and  example  of  Christ 
gave  great  encouragement  to  all  philanthropic 
endeavour,  and  that  the  care  of  the  sick — more 
especially  the  sick  poor  —  has  ever  since  been 
accounted  an  act  of  devotion,  peculiarly  acceptable 
to  the  Saviour  of  mankind.  From  legend  and 
from  history  of  early  Christian  times,  we  learn  of 
individuals  and  also  of  communities,  both  of  men  and 
women,  whose  lives  were  spent  in  tending  the  sick 
as  a  religious  duty.  Later  on,  the  idea  of  penance 
also  became  associated  with  nursing,  the  dressing 
of  repulsive  sores,  or  cleansing  of  unclean  persons, 
being  deemed  a  salutary  act  of  self-abasement. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  the  treatment  of  the 
sick  was  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  religious 
communities.  In  England,  after  the  Reformation 
and  suppression  of  the  monasteries  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  the  sick  received  but  little  care, 
and  though,  after  an  interval,  some  of  the  hospitals 
formerly  attached  to  the  religious  houses  were  re- 
opened with  a  staff  of  laymen  or  laywomen,  these 
were,  as  a  rule,  a  sorry  substitute  for  the  devoted 
monks  and  nuns,  ignorant  and  bigoted  though  these 
may  have  been. 

Nursing  did  not  improve  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  Its  practice  fell  largely  into 
the  hands  of  women  of  a  low  class,  as  did  that 
of  medicine  and  surgery  into  the  hands  of  the 
barber-surgeon.  There  were  a  few  devoted  nurses 
as  there  were  some  notable  doctors,  but  Sairey 
Gamp  and  Betsy  Prig  are  types  of  the  drunken 
and  degraded  women  too  often  found  both  in 
hospitals  and  private  houses  during  the  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Yet  all  this  time  the 


174  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

practice  of  nursing  was  still   carried  out  by  nuns 
in  many  hospitals  on  the  continent. 

The  scientific  discoveries  of  the  nineteenth 
century  have  caused  remarkable  changes,  none 
being  more  striking  than  the  change  in  the 
knowledge,  methods,  and  position  of  the  medical 
profession.  It  has  become  a  most  scientific 
profession,  and  scientific  medicine  and  scientific 
surgery  have  made  necessary  scientific  nursing. 
This  was  foreseen  by  the  remarkable  woman 
who  devoted  her  gift  from  a  grateful  nation  to 
found  a  "School  for  Nursing." 

Miss  Nightingale,  a  highly  educated  woman 
of  good  social  position,  had  all  her  life  been 
drawn  to  care  for  the  sick  and  wounded.  She 
had  seized  every  opportunity  to  learn  all  that  she 
could  about  the  laws  of  health  and  the  causes  of 
disease,  as  well  as  how  to  carry  out  the  practical 
work  of  nursing.  Like  Mrs  Fry  and  Miss  Agnes 
Jones,  it  was  to  Germany  that  she  went  to  find 
a  school  where  she  might  be  taught.  At  Kaisers- 
werth  on  the  Rhine,  Frederike  Fliedner,  the  wife 
of  the  Pastor,  had  formed  a  small  colony  where, 
under  Protestant  deaconesses,  pupils  might  be 
trained  to  care  for  the  sick  and  the  mentally 
afflicted.  Miss  Nightingale  not  only  went  to 
Kaiserswerth  but  wherever  she  thought  anything 
might  be  learned  of  the  art  of  nursing.  She  was 
not  the  only  Englishwoman  whose  heart  was  filled 
with  a  wish  to  redeem  nursing  from  its  degraded 
position  ;  besides  Mrs  Fry,  who  founded  a  Private 
Nurses'  Institute  in  London  where  Miss  Nightingale 
herself  went  to  learn,  and  whose  life  was  spent 
in  trying  to  alleviate  the  lot  of  prisoners,  and  Miss 
Agnes  Jones,  who  devoted  herself  to  obtaining 
reforms  in  the  Poor  Law  hospitals,  Miss  Florence 
Lees,  Mrs  Wardrope,  Sister  Dora,  and  others  may 
be  mentioned. 


GENERAL  SURVEY  175 

Miss  Nightingale's  forceful  character,  her  deter- 
mination, her  knowledge  of  the  world,  and  her 
social  position  all  combined  to  crown  her  efforts 
with  success  when  the  Crimean  War  gave  her 
the  great  opportunity  which  she  so  promptly  seized. 
Her  commanding  genius,  her  truly  remarkable 
foresight,  led  her,  when  the  war  was  over,  to 
found  the  profession  of  scientific  nursing.  She 
realised  that  it  was  not  devotion  which  was  lack- 
ing, but  knowledge,  hence  the  founding  of  the 
School  of  Nursing  at  St  Thomas's  Hospital,  where 
women  of  a  better  class  than  were  formerly 
employed  might  be  taught  both  its  theory  and 
practice. 

Although  the  scheme  met  with  great  opposition 
at  first,  it  eventually  proved  a  great  success,  and 
other  hospitals  soon  perceived  that  the  best  way 
to  combine  economy  with  greater  efficiency  was 
to  start  a  nursing  school.  Unfortunately,  there 
was  no  limit  to  the  number  of  schools  and  no 
sort  of  supervision  or  inspection,  so  that  at  the 
present  day,  hospitals  of  every  size,  even  of  ten 
beds  or  even  fewer,  special  hospitals  devoted  to 
the  treatment  of  one  class  of  disease  only,  hospitals 
good,  bad,  or  indifferent,  all  profess  to  train  nurses. 
Each  one  is  a  law  unto  itself,  in  some  the  teach- 
ing is  excellent,  in  others  poor,  in  some  there  is 
practically  no  teaching  at  all.  In  the  majority  of 
well  managed  hospitals  there  is  an  examination 
to  test  a  nurse's  knowledge  before  she  is  awarded 
a  certificate  ;  in  others  it  is  merely  a  question  of 
so  many  years  (or  months)  of  service,  without 
any  test  of  ability  or  special  fitness.  This  lack 
of  a  minimum  standard  constitutes,  at  the  present 
time,  a  danger  to  the  public,  and  a  great  injustice  to 
the  nursing  profession  itself.  The  public  have  no 
guarantee  that  a  nurse  has  learned  the  special  work 
which  she  is  engaged  to  perform,  and  a  trained 


176  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

nurse  must  compete  with  unqualified  persons  who 
usurp  her  title  and  adopt  her  dress,  and  often  bring 
her  profession  into  great  disrepute.  For  nearly 
thirty  years  a  number  of  medical  men  as  well  as 
nurses  have  been  agitating  for  the  registration  of 
nurses  by  the  State,  and  Bills  for  that  object  have 
been  introduced  into  the  House  of  Commons  every 
year  since  1904.  In  1905  a  Select  Committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  sat  for  two  sessions  to 
enquire  into  the  expediency  of  the  measure,  and 
were  unanimously  agreed  "that  it  is  desirable  that 
a  Register  of  Nurses  should  be  kept  by  a  Central 
Body  appointed  by  the  State."  In  1908  a  Nurses' 
Registration  Bill  was  introduced  into  the  House 
of  Commons  and  passed  the  third  reading  without 
opposition  and  with  the  support  of  the  Govern- 
ment, and  was  then  sent  to  the  House  of  Lords, 
but,  owing  to  persistent  opposition  by  persons  of 
social  and  financial  influence,  the  Bills  are  always 
blocked  in  their  way  through  the  House.  The 
Bill  at  present  before  the  House  is  drawn  up  by 
a  Committee  of  medical  men  and  nurses  repre- 
senting the  British  Medical  Association,  and  all 
the  large  self-governing  bodies  of  nurses,  with 
Lord  Ampthill  as  chairman.  It  is  estimated  to 
represent  some  30,000  persons.  It  provides  for 
the  foundation  of  a  Central  Council  to  be  composed 
chiefly  of  medical  practitioners  and  nurses,  together 
with  certain  lay  people.  This  Council  would  have 
authority  to  regulate  the  training  of  nurses,  to 
appoint  examiners  to  test  their  efficiency  when 
trained,  and  to  keep  a  register  of  those  nurses 
who  have  passed  this  test,  and  who  can  produce 
evidence  of  practical  ability  and  good  character. 
Special  provision  is  made  for  nurses  already  in 
practice,  and  for  a  term  of  grace  during  which 
those  already  in  training  can  register,  on  payment 
of  a  fee,  without  entering  for  the  State  examina- 


GENERAL  SURVEY  177 

tion.  It  is  not  proposed  to  make  it  penal  for 
untrained  persons  to  act  as  nurses,  provided  that 
they  do  not  call  themselves,  or  represent  them- 
selves to  be,  registered  nurses.  The  Council  would 
also  be  given  certain  disciplinary  powers  over 
members  of  the  profession. 

The  chief  opposition  to  the  Bill,  which  has  so 
far  prevented  its  obtaining  a  third  reading,  comes 
from  the  Central  Hospital  Council,  a  body  mainly 
composed  of  members  of  the  governing  bodies  of 
some  London  hospitals,  who  in  no  way  represent 
the  nursing  profession,  and  whose  knowledge  of 
finance  is  greater  than  their  knowledge  of  nursing. 
It  is  very  certain  that  some  powerful  and  stable 
authority  is  needed  to  bring  order  and  discipline 
into  the  ranks  of  the  profession,  which  at  the 
present  time  is  in  a  somewhat  chaotic  state ;  to 
compel  all  training  schools  to  fulfil  their  obligations 
to  their  pupils  by  providing  proper  teaching,  and 
to  oust  those  nurses  whose  moral  conduct  or 
practical  efficiency  will  not  bear  investigation.  It 
is  meet  that  the  control  of  a  great  profession  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  its  own  members,  rather  than 
in  the  hands  of  those  whose  only  qualification  is 
financial  ability,  or  social  standing. 

Registration  is  in  force  in  New  Zealand,  South 
Africa,  Queensland,  thirty-four  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  and  other  countries,  and  has  already 
had  the  effect  of  improving  the  training  of  nurses 
and  the  conditions  under  which  they  work.  Our 
training  schools,  which  in  the  past  have  been 
considered  the  first  in  the  world,  are  now  being 
eclipsed  by  the  well-organised  and  well-equipped 
schools  of  America  and  Australia,  where  the 
interests  of  the  pupil  nurses  are  not  subordinated 
to  the  interests  of  the  hospitals,  as  they  too  often 
are  with  us.  The  lack  of  status  will  be  more 
keenly  felt  in  the  not  far -distant  future,  when 

M 


178  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

English  trained  nurses  will  find  it  necessary  to  pass 
an  examination  in  the  countries  where  registration 
is  in  force,  before  they  are  recognised  there  as 
trained  nurses,  unless  some  system  of  reciprocity 
is  adopted.  This  cannot  be  until  there  is  a 
recognised  minimum  qualification  in  this  country. 

Unfair  competition  with  the  untrained  and  semi- 
trained  is  one  of  the  difficulties  with  which  nurses 
have  to  contend.  Their  economic  position,  it  must 
be  admitted,  is  bad.  This  is  partly  due  to  the 
growth  of  the  profession  from  the  religious  sister- 
hoods, partly  to  the  low  standards  of  living,  and  of 
honesty,  of  women  of  the  Sairey  Gamp  and  Betsy 
Prig  type,  who  for  so  long  represented  the  pro- 
fession, and  partly  also  to  the  difficulty  of  forming 
any  strong  union  of  trained  nurses  under  present 
conditions,  which  the  unsatisfactory  and  untrained 
persons  calling  themselves  "nurses,"  do  not  wish 
to  alter.  The  small  sum,  averaging  £10  to  £12 
per  annum  (varying  from  £6  the  first  year  to  £20 
or  a  little  more  in  the  fourth)  which  is  earned  by 
the  nurse  in  training  is  not  a  matter  for  complaint 
if  she  be  properly  dealt  with  in  other  respects. 
The  teaching  and  training  she  receives  are  her  real 
return  for  the  work  done  for  the  hospital.  In 
hospitals  where  there  is  no  proper  teaching  of  the 
pupils,  or  where  they  are  badly  housed  and  fed,  the 
sum  is  indeed  too  small  for  the  heavy  nursing  and 
domestic  work  which  the  probationers  in  training 
are  expected  to  perform.  It  is  the  remuneration 
of  nurses  when  trained  which  gives  cause  for  dis- 
satisfaction, and  which  deters  many  suitable  women 
from  entering  the  profession. 

The  age  of  entry  for  a  probationer  varies  from 
twenty-one  to  twenty-three  years  of  age  in  general 
hospitals,  but  some  children's,  special  and  fever 
hospitals  admit  them  at  nineteen.  The  almost 
universally  accepted  term  for  general  training  is 


GENERAL  SURVEY  179 

three  years,  though  the  engagement  is  frequently 
for  four  years  ;  the  fourth  year  gives  the  nurse  very 
valuable  experience,  and  is  of  value  to  the  hospital 
as  it  thereby  retains,  for  a  certain  time,  the  services 
of  the  pupils  when  they  are  of  the  greatest  use.  It 
is  very  usual  for  a  nurse  to  add  some  additional 
qualification  to  her  general  nursing  certificate.  She 
may  already  have  been  especially  trained  in  a 
children's  or  fever  hospital,  or  she  may  take  the 
certificate  of  the  Central  Midwives'  Board,  or  of 
the  Incorporated  Society  of  Trained  Masseuses. 

Many  women  spend  five  or  six  years  in  learning 
before  they  finally  take  posts  as  private  nurses  or 
as  Sisters  of  hospital  wards,  or  enter  some  other 
branch  of  the  profession.  A  nurse  is  therefore 
seldom  less  than  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  when 
she  begins  to  practice  her  profession,  and  is  often 
older  still.  The  comparatively  late  age  at  which 
the  training  is  started  is  a  drawback,  as  most 
women  who  have  to  earn  their  own  living  must 
begin  to  train  as  soon  as  they  leave  school  at 
seventeen  or  eighteen,  and  have  thus  found  other 
employment.  The  late  age  at  which  the  well- 
trained  nurse  begins  her  professional  career,  and 
the  fact  that  employment  is  not  always  easily  found 
after  middle  age,  makes  her  full  wage-earning  life 
a  short  one.  As  the  payment  is  by  no  means 
excessive  in  the  case  of  private  nurses,  poor 
in  the  case  of  district  nurses,  and  usually  very 
inadequate  in  the  case  of  Sisters  in  the  voluntary 
hospitals,  the  problem  of  how  to  make  provision 
for  old  age  and  sickness  is  a  very  real  and 
pressing  one. 

The  woman  who  aspires  to  be  a  nurse  should 
be  well  educated,  and  physically  and  mentally 
robust.  She  must  be  prepared  to  give  all  her 
energies  to  the  exacting  and  laborious  work  which 
she  will  be  expected  to  perform.  Intelligence,  good 


i8o  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

temper,  unquestioning  obedience,  are  all  necessary 
to  complete  success.  In  the  best  hospitals  her 
work  will  be  carefully  supervised  by  competent 
Sisters,  and  the  practical  training  which  she  receives 
in  the  wards  will  be  supplemented  by  lectures  on 
theory,  and  practical  demonstrations.  Reports  of 
her  work,  conduct,  and  promise  of  efficiency  will 
be  submitted  to  the  Matron  at  regular  intervals. 
She  will  gain  experience  in  the  nursing  of  men, 
women,  and  children,  in  medical  and  surgical  work, 
and,  as  far  as  opportunity  allows,  in  gynaecological 
or  other  special  work.  As  she  shows  herself  fitted 
for  greater  responsibility,  it  will  be  given  to  her 
gradually,  but  always  under  skilled  inspection.  She 
will  be  periodically  examined  in  the  subjects  which 
she  has  been  taught,  and  at  the  end  of  her  en- 
gagement, if  her  ability  and  conduct  are  con- 
sidered satisfactory,  and  she  has  passed  the  required 
examinations,  she  will  receive  the  certificate  of 
the  hospital.  She  is  now  a  qualified  nurse  and 
should  be  considered  as  such,  but  there  is  a 
tendency  among  lay  committees  to  treat  all  nurses 
as  if  they  were  still  probationers,  rather  than 
highly  skilled  women  following  an  independent  and 
honourable  calling. 

It  was  formerly  the  rule  for  well  -  educated 
women  to  pay  a  fee  and  receive  a  somewhat  shorter 
training,  but  as  this  has  been  found  unsatisfactory 
for  the  pupil,  and  the  hard  work  expected  of  them 
is  not  appreciably  less  than  for  ordinary  proba- 
tioners, comparatively  few  paying  probationers 
present  themselves. 

The  most  crying  abuse  which  needs  reforming 
is  that  of  the  long  hours  on  duty,  which  in  many 
hospitals  still  amount  to  an  average  of  seventy-three 
to  eighty  hours  a  week,  and  in  some  cases  even 
more.  If  it  is  realised  that  in  a  busy  hospital  the 
nurse  on  duty  rarely  sits  down,  and  that  she  is 


NURSING   IN   GENERAL   HOSPITALS    181 

working  with  her  brain  as  well  as  with  all  the 
muscles  of  her  body,  no  one  can  deny  that  these 
hours  are  a  disgrace  to  a  country  which  prides 
itself  on  the  excellence  of  its  voluntary  hospital 
system. 

Despite  the  hard  work,  the  inadequate  pay,  and 
the  life  of  strict  self-denial  which  must  be  practised 
by  a  nurse,  hers  remains  one  of  the  happiest,  and 
one  of  the  most  soul-satisfying  occupations  which 
a  woman  can  follow.  The  joy  of  service,  of  good 
work  done,  and  of  bringing  happiness  into  lives 
over-shadowed  by  poverty  and  sickness,  are  all 
hers.  "  Real  joy  comes  not  from  ease,  not  from 
riches,  not  from  applause  of  men,  but  from  having 
done  things  worth  while."1 


II 
NURSING   IN   GENERAL  HOSPITALS 

A  hospital  nursing  staff  falls  into  two  divisions. 
The  first  division,  that  containing  the  probationers 
in  training,  is  described  under  the  General  Survey 
of  Nursing.  The  first  step  after  this  training  is  to 
take  a  post  as  Staff  Nurse.  This  is  usually  held  for 
a  short  time  only,  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  experi- 
ence and  learning  something  of  Sisters'  duties.  The 
Staff  Nurse  is  expected  to  exercise  some  supervision 
over  the  probationers,  and  to  assist  the  Ward  Sister 
in  their  practical  training.  In  the  absence  of  the 

1  It  should  be  noted  that  the  nursing  profession  does  not  preclude 
the  employment  of  married  women,  though  comparatively  few  such 
apply  for  general  training,  since  this  necessitates  living  in  hospital 
for  three  or  four  years.  But  the  Midwifery  training  and  that  for 
Massage,  for  which  a  few  months  suffice,  are  frequently  undertaken 
by  those  who  are  married. 

For  nurses  under  Public  Authorities,  the  same  bar  is  generally 
placed  on  marriage  as  that  already  referred  to  in  the  case  of  medical 
women.  [SUB-EDITOR.] 


i82  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

Ward  Sister  she  will  be  responsible  for  the  care  of 
the  patients.  A  Staff  Nurse's  salary  ranges  from 
£24  to  ^30  in  the  Provinces  and  a  little  more  in 
London.  Her  hours  on  duty  are  usually  the  same 
as  those  of  the  probationers,  with  one  whole  day, 
or  possibly  a  week-end,  once  a  month,  and  three 
weeks'  holiday  in  the  year. 

A  Ward  Sister's  post  is  usually  considered  the 
most  enviable  one  in  the  profession.  She  has  con- 
siderable responsibility  and  requires  great  tact  and 
sympathy  in  order  that  she  may  deal  rightly  and 
justly  with  all  under  her  charge.  The  patients 
must  be  her  first  care  and  she  must  carry  out 
the  orders  of  the  medical  officers  faithfully  and 
intelligently.  She  must  be  firm  but  not  hard, 
cheerful,  punctual  herself  and  insisting  on  punctuality 
in  others.  She  must  constantly  superintend  and 
assist  in  the  practical  nursing  of  the  patients, 
seizing  every  opportunity  for  teaching  the  nurses 
in  her  ward.  Her  influence  over  both  patients  and 
nurses  is  far  -  reaching,  and  should  be  carefully 
exercised.  Her  words  and  her  example  may  be 
remembered  long  after  she  has  ceased  her  work. 
She  will  be  held  responsible  for  the  cleanliness  and 
order  of  her  ward  and  for  the  care  of  the  appliances, 
utensils,  and  linen,  and  for  the  economical  use  of 
the  ward  stores.  Her  work  in  many  respects 
resembles  that  of  the  mother  of  a  large  household  ; 
for  sick  people,  even  grown  men  and  women,  are 
very  like  children  in  their  helplessness  and  depend- 
ence on  her :  it  should  bring  out  all  her  most 
womanly  qualities.  She  has  a  certain  amount  of 
authority,  and  occasion  to  exercise  her  powers  of 
organisation.  Her  salary  varies  in  different  hospitals. 
In  most  provincial  hospitals  it  begins  at  ^"30  and 
rises  to  a  maximum  of  ^36,  in  some  to  ^40.  In 
London  hospitals  the  rate  is  somewhat  higher. 
Only  a  few  hospitals  make  provision  for  any  but 


NURSING   IN   GENERAL   HOSPITALS  , 

the  smallest  pensions  ;  many  make  no  provision  at 
all,  and  the  only  real  drawback  to  the  life  of  a 
Sister  in  most  voluntary  hospitals  is  the  "carking 
care"  due  to  lack  of  provision  for  long  sickness 
or  old  age. 

The  next  step  is  probably  to  a  Night  Sister's 
post,  which  in  most  hospitals  is  that  of  a  senior 
Sister  who  is  in  charge  of  the  patients  and  of  the 
nursing  at  night.  This  work  is  interesting  and  the 
experience  is  valuable.  The  salary  is  slightly 
higher  than  that  of  a  Ward  Sister.  As  Home  Sister 
or  Assistant  Matron  the  nurse  gains  her  experience 
of  administrative  work.  There  is  at  present  a 
great  lack  of  systematic  training  in  the  duties  which 
fall  to  a  Matron,  and  such  posts  are  eagerly  sought 
after  by  any  one  ambitious  to  become  Matrons 
or  Lady  Superintendent.  The  positions  and  work 
of  a  Matron  varies  very  much  according  to 
the  size  of  the  hospital,  which  may  be  a  small 
cottage  hospital  with  one  probationer,  or  a  large 
general  hospital  with  two  or  three  hundred  nurses. 
Let  no  one  take  a  Matron's  position  with  the  idea 
of  leading  an  easy  life.  The  responsibility  and 
anxiety  are  very  great,  the  worries  inseparable 
from  the  position  are  endless  and  the  salary 
rarely  adequate.  In  many  cottage  hospitals  ^40 
to  ^50  is  deemed  sufficient  for  the  services  of  a 
fully-trained  educated  woman,  who,  in  addition  to 
the  house-keeping,  the  nursing  of  the  patients  by 
day  and  dealing  with  emergencies,  is  often  called 
up  at  night,  and  is  frequently  unable  to  leave  the 
building  for  days  together.  It  is  only  in  one  or 
two  of  the  largest  hospitals  that  the  salary  begins 
at  £200  or  rises  to  ^"300  ;  a  few  begin  at  ^130  to 
£1^0  and  rise  to  ^200,  but  the  great  majority  of 
matronships  in  this  country  average  about  £100  a 
year.  The  Matron  is  usually  expected  to  enter  to 
some  extent  into  the  social  life  of  the  neighbourhood; 


*n 
*  fy 

,,^3 


184  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

her  work  is  very  exacting  and  fatiguing,  and 
renders  necessary  a  really  restful  holiday  once  a 
year,  so  that  she  is  rarely  able  to  save  sufficient  to 
provide  for  her  independence  when  she  is  no  longer 
able  to  work.  The  larger  the  hospital,  the  larger 
the  nursing  school,  and  the  greater  the  responsi- 
bility. The  Matron  of  a  large  hospital  must 
superintend  the  catering  and  other  domestic  depart- 
ments as  well  as  the  work  in  the  wards  and  the 
teaching  of  the  probationers.  She  must  study  not 
only  the  welfare  of  the  patients  and  of  the  hospital 
but  also  that  of  the  nursing  staff.  She  must  learn 
to  know  not  only  the  names  and  faces  of  her  sub- 
ordinates and  pupils,  but  also  their  characters,  their 
strong  points  and  their  weaknesses  ;  she  must  be 
prepared  to  spend  a  large  part  of  each  day  in 
adjusting  small  difficulties,  and  in  making  all  the 
wheels  run  smoothly.  She  must  also  be  prepared 
to  be  misunderstood  and  to  bear  the  brunt  of  the 
blunders  and  mistakes  which  must  inevitably  be 
made  where  so  many  of  the  workers  are  totally 
inexperienced  pupils.  On  the  other  hand,  her  life 
is  very  full  of  interest  and  not  devoid  of  creature 
comforts.  It  is  often  rendered  very  happy  by  the 
confidence  and  affection  which  she  receives  from 
her  colleagues  and  from  successive  generations  of 
pupils  who  pass  through  her  hands. 


Ill 
NURSING  IN  PRIVATE  HOMES  AND  CO-OPERATIONS 

Institution  nurses  comprise  those  who  work  for 
private  institutes  and  those  who  belong  to  a  nurses 
institute,  attached  to  a  hospital.  Such  a  nurse  is 
paid  a  salary  of  about  ^30  to  ^40  per  annum  ; 


PRIVATE  AND  CO-OPERATIVE  NURSING  185 

she  does  private  work,  being  sent  to  the  cases  by 
the  institute  to  which  she  belongs  ;  the  fees  are 
not  hers,  but  are  paid  to  the  institute.  In  the 
intervals  between  her  cases  she  is  housed  and 
boarded,  and,  in  some  few  cases,  she  receives  also 
a  percentage  on  the  money  she  earns.  This  system 
is  not  approved  of  by  nurses  generally,  but  many 
are  glad  to  have  something  certain,  and  to  be 
relieved  of  the  anxiety  of  not  knowing  how  long 
they  may  have  to  wait  when  their  case  is  finished. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  salary  usually  offered  is 
far  too  low.  A  well  established  institute  should 
be  able  to  offer  at  least  ^40  to  £50  per  annum, 
and  in  addition,  a  percentage  ranging  from  5  per 
cent,  to  10  per  cent,  on  the  money  earned  ;  also  a 
full  month's  holiday  should  be  allowed  in  the  year. 

About  the  independent  private  nurse  there  is 
little  to  say.  She  has  a  poor  chance,  unless  she 
has  several  doctors  personally  interested  in  her.  If 
she  has  no  private  income  or  home  of  her  own,  it  is 
not  advisable  for  a  nurse  to  adopt  this  kind  of  work. 
The  risk  is  too  great,  and  employment  too  uncertain. 
This  manner  of  working  is  suitable  only  for  those 
who  are  not  entirely  dependent  on  their  earnings. 
There  are  many  who  adopt  it :  but  the  cost  of  the 
rent  for  a  room  is  a  heavy  item,  and  when  work  is 
scarce  there  is  the  cost  of  maintenance  in  addition. 
There  are  very  few  independent  private  nurses  who 
can  work  without  some  assistance  from  an  agent. 
The  independent  private  nurse  generally  applies 
to  nursing  homes  and  private  institutes  for  supple- 
mentary cases,  and,  in  return,  she  usually  pays 
2S.  6d.  in  the  pound  on  the  money  she  earns,  the 
home  or  institute  acting  as  an  agent  in  obtaining 
work  for  her. 

The  co  -  operative  system  is  the  most  popular 
and  also  the  most  satisfactory  for  the  private  nurse. 
She  joins  a  co-operation  that  finds  the  work  for 


$ji\   ^186  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

vf>~ 
*\^   her.     She  takes  all  her  own  earnings  and  pays  a 

small  percentage  to  the  co-operation,  usually  is.  6d. 
in  the  pound. 

The  advantages  of  the  system  are  : — 

i  st.  The  nurse  takes  her  own  earnings. 

2nd.  She  is  protected  by  the  regulations  of  the 

co-operation. 
3rd.  Only  fully  qualified  and  certificated  nurses 

are  sent  out  by  these  co  -  operations, 

which  do  not  engage  the  half-trained 

person  or  the  failures. 

It  is  important  for  a  nurse  wishing  to  join  a 
co-operation  to  choose  a  well-recognised  and  a  not 
over  -  staffed  society.  Many  co  -  operation  nurses 
complain  that  they  do  not  get  sufficient  work,  and 
their  expenses  between  their  cases  are  therefore 
heavy,  falling  as  they  do  entirely  on  themselves. 

The  problem  of  the  nurse  employed  at  a  private 
nursing  home  is  a  complex  one.  Unfortunately 
her  good  or  ill  fortune  depends  entirely  upon  her 
employer's  business.  If  the  home  is  a  flourishing 
one,  the  nurse  may  possibly  be  offered  a  fair  salary 
and  a  tolerable  amount  of  comfort.  Usually  the 
small,  struggling,  private  home  means  hard  work,  a 
minimum  salary,  and  little  or  no  comfort.  Even  in 
large  and  well  established  homes  the  nurse  is  often 
the  last  consideration :  times  off  duty  are  very 
uncertain  and  rarely  fixed,  the  accommodation  is 
bad,  the  food  often  insufficient  and  badly  cooked. 
It  is  practically  impossible  for  the  very  small  home 
to  deal  justly  by  the  nurse. 

The  following  suggestions  for  the  improvement 
of  the  conditions  under  which  the  nurses'  work  in 
a  private  home,  may  be  offered  ;  they  apply  only  to 
homes  of  ten  beds  and  upwards. 

(i)  There  should  be  three  shifts  of  nurses,  and 


NURSING   IN   POOR   LAW   INFIRMARIES  187 

no  nurse  should  be  on  duty  for  more  than 
eight  and  a  half  hours. 

(2)  Salaries  should  range   from   ^35   to  ^45 

per  annum,  with  uniform. 

(3)  There   should   be   proper  accommodation, 

comfortable    cubicles    or    separate  bed- 
rooms, and  a  nurses'  sitting-room. 

(4)  There   should  be  sufficient  food  properly 

served  in  a  dining-room,  and  not  eaten  in 
bath-rooms  or  on  the  staircases. 

These  improvements  are  not  feasible  where 
there  are  fewer  than  ten  beds,  but  they  should  be 
the  rule  in  all  hospitals  and  institutes.  It  is  a 
disgrace  to  the  nation  that  this  section  of  women 
workers  is  sweated  to  such  an  extent. 

At  present  there  is  no  law  to  protect  a  nurse 
from  being  put  on  "night  duty"  when  she  has 
already  wrorked  in  the  day ;  and  there  is  no  com- 
pensation for  a  nurse  whose  health  has  been 
permanently  injured  as  a  result  of  nursing  others. 
The  same  remedy,  "  State  registration,"  is  required 
in  these  as  in  all  other  branches  of  nursing,  to 
enable  nurses  to  obtain  a  decent  standard  of  wages 
and  to  prevent  incompetent  and  untrained  persons 
from  imposing  on  the  public  and  taking  their  work. 
But  this  reform,  like  many  other  reforms  concerning 
women's  work,  will,  doubtless,  have  to  wait  until 
women  are  enfranchised. 


When  we  consider  the  subject  of  nursing  in 
Poor  Law  Infirmaries  it  is  well  to  remember  that 
though  the  conditions  are  in  many  ways  practically 
identical  with  those  obtaining  in  general  hospitals, 


188  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

yet  there  exists  at  the  same  time  certain  differences 
both  in  the  administration  and  the  work,  and  certain 
customs  and  regulations,  peculiar  to  nursing  under 
the  Local  Government  Board. 

According  to  the  latest  returns  there  are  about 
644  unions  in  England  and  Wales  connected  with 
which,  provision  is  made  for  the  reception  of  sick 
poor,  varying  in  some  unions  from  a  few  beds  in 
the  workhouse  wards,  to  large  separate  Infirmaries 
containing  several  hundred  patients.  Of  these 
Union  Infirmaries,  about  78  are  at  present  recog- 
nised as  training  schools  for  nurses.  They  require 
to  be  of  a  certain  size  and  have  a  resident  medical 
officer,  and  are  in  effect  State  Hospitals. 

In  these  recognised  Poor  Law  training  schools, 
probationers  can  enter  at  the  age  of  twenty-one. 
They  usually  come  on  three  months'  trial,  the 
period  of  training  being  three  years  ;  in  some  places 
this  is  now  being  extended  to  four  years,  but  in  these 
cases  an  effort  is  made  to  provide  instruction  in 
midwifery  and  massage  in  the  fourth  year.  The 
salary  for  probationary  nurses  varies  slightly  in 
different  institutions  but  on  an  average  is  about 
as  follows: — £10  in  the  first  year,  ^18  in  the 
second,  and  £20  to  ^23  in  the  third.  The  ward 
sisters  are,  as  a  rule,  paid  from  ^30  to  ^40,  and 
the  Matron  ;£ioo  to  ^150. 

There  are  at  present  no  medical  schools  attached 
to  Poor  Law  Infirmaries,  and  in  most  cases  no 
Honorary  Physicians  or  Surgeons.  The  Medical 
Superintendent  is  the  responsible  head  of  the 
institution,  and  has  under  him,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  institution,  a  variable  number  of  Resident 
Medical  Officers.  There  are,  as  a  rule,  fewer  opera- 
tions than  in  voluntary  hospitals,  therefore  the 
surgical  training  is  not  so  good  ;  the  nurses  also 
miss  the  excellent  experience  of  an  out-patients' 
department ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  there 


NURSING   IN   POOR   LAW   INFIRMARIES  189 

is  no  medical  school,  gives  the  nurses  the  advantage 
of  undertaking  dressings  and  treatment  which  would 
otherwise  fall  to  the  share  of  dressers  and  students. 

The  medical  training  in  Infirmaries  is  excellent, 
and  the  lectures  and  theoretical  teaching  are  in 
most  cases  very  conscientiously  and  thoroughly 
carried  out.  Besides  a  great  deal  of  acute  work, 
the  nurses  learn  the  care  of  chronic  invalids,  and 
all  the  stages  of  convalescent  nursing,  as  the 
patients  are  kept  in  much  longer  than  in  hospital. 
Infirmary  nurses  also  gain  special  experience  in 
the  phthisical  wards  which  should  be  of  great 
advantage  to  them  if  they  later  take  up  public 
health  work  or  nursing  in  sanatoria.  Nurses  in 
Poor  Law  Infirmaries  have  often  to  deal  with  a 
specially  difficult  and  trying  type  of  patient,  and 
learn  lessons  in  tact,  management,  and  patience 
which  stand  them  in  good  stead  all  the  rest  of 
their  lives. 

The  Poor  Law  Officers'  Superannuation  Act 
provides  for  a  deduction  of  2  per  cent,  from  the 
salary  and  emolument ;  the  advantages  of  the 
Act  are  that,  after  serving  the  Local  Government 
Board  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  ten  years, 
an  officer  is  entitled  to  a  pension  under  the  follow- 
ing conditions : — 

(1)  Incapacity  from  the  duties  of  her  office  by 

reason  of  permanent  infirmity  of  mind  or 
body. 

(2)  Attainment  of  the  full  age  of  sixty  years, 

coupled  with  an  aggregate  of  forty  years 
Poor  Law  service. 

(3)  Attainment  of  the  full    age    of  sixty-five 

years. 

If  these  conditions  are  not  fulfilled  none  of 
ihe  money  can  be  recovered.  The  pension  which 


190  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

can  be  claimed  is  one-sixtieth  (for  each  year  of 
service)  of  the  whole  value  of  the  average  salary 
and  emoluments  during  the  last  five  years  of  office, 
up  to  forty  years  of  service.  Thus  a  nurse  whose 
salary  and  emoluments  were  valued  at  ;£8o  could, 
after  forty  years'  work,  claim  a  pension  of  some- 
thing over  ^"53  a  year.  The  Guardians  have  the 
power  of  adding  on  years  of  service  to  augment 
the  pension.  Nurses  have  to  decide  within  three 
months  of  the  date  of  their  appointment  whether 
they  wish  to  avail  themselves  of  the  provisions  of 
the  Act.  As  it  is  optional,  the  majority  decide  to 
"contract  out,"  in  which  case  they  receive  their  full 
salary,  but  relinquish  any  claim  to  pension.  It  is 
hoped  that  in  the  future  the  Act  may  be  amended 
so  as  to  be  more  popular  and  useful  to  nurses. 

There  are  many  openings  for  well-trained  Poor 
Law  nurses ;  not  only  do  they  obtain  excellent 
posts  as  Matrons,  Sisters,  and  private  nurses,  but 
an  increasing  demand  is  made  for  their  services 
as  district  nurses  under  Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee 
Institute,  as  school  nurses  under  the  London 
County  Council,  colonial  nurses,  etc.,  in  fact  in 
every  branch  of  the  nursing  profession. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  Poor  Law 
Infirmaries  are  as  a  rule  understaffed  with 
nurses ;  this  is  especially  so  in  the  smaller  country 
places  where  often  very  inadequate  provision  is 
made  for  the  efficient  nursing  of  the  sick.  It  is 
also  felt,  and  this  again  especially  in  the  rural 
institutions,  that  the  status  of  the  Matron  or 
Superintendent  Nurse  is  not  sufficiently  defined 
as  being  head  of,  and  responsible  for,  the  nursing 
staff.  This  vague  and  ill-defined  position  is  often 
the  cause  of  the  difficulties  met  with  in  connec- 
tion with  the  nursing  in  the  smaller  workhouse 
infirmaries  arid  prevents  the  most  suitable  nurses 
from  undertaking  these  important  posts. 


NURSING   IN   FEVER  HOSPITALS       191 

In  all  branches  of  the  nursing  profession 
we  want  the  best  type  of  woman  to  apply  for 
training,  but  this  is  especially  so  under  the  Poor 
Law  where  the  majority  of  the  patients  are  the 
flotsam  and  jetsam  and  failures  of  life.  There 
are  many  problems  to  be  met  with,  and  difficulties 
to  be  overcome,  but  at  the  same  time  there  is 
much  good  work  to  be  done  and  promising  open- 
ings arise  for  the  most  efficient.  The  well- 
educated,  thoughtful  Poor  Law  nurse  should  be 
able  to  carve  out  for  herself  a  career  of  great 
use  to  the  community  and  at  the  same  time  of 
absorbing  interest  to  herself  and  full  of  possibilities. 


V 
NURSING   IN   FEVER   HOSPITALS 

The  treatment  of  infectious  diseases  in  London 
is  undertaken  by  the  Metropolitan  Asylums  Board 
—a  large  body  composed  of  guardians  of  the 
poor  and  some  members  appointed  by  the  local 
Government  Board.  The  patients  are  nursed  in 
eight  large  hospitals  distributed  in  the  various 
districts  of  the  Metropolis,  the  newest  of  which 
are  handsome,  well  -  built  institutions  in  which 
no  expense  has  been  spared  in  the  equipment  of 
the  building.  The  conditions  of  the  work  carried 
on  compare  very  favourably  with  those  of  any  large 
general  hospital. 

This  work  is  necessarily  of  a  special  nature  * 
and  the  fact  that  it  is  infectious,  deters  some  women 
from  taking  it  up,  but  this  need  not  be  so ;  for 
in  all  hospitals,  more  especially  in  those  set  apart 
for  children,  which  are  favourite  starting-places 
for  young  nurses,  cases  of  infectious  illness  con- 
stantly occur. 


192  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

The  work  is  particularly  good  from  a  medical 
point  of  view,  as  all  the  patients  are  acutely  ill. 
In  addition  to  those  suffering  from  scarlet  fever, 
diphtheria,  enteric  fever,  or  smallpox,  within  the 
last  three  years  several  beds  have  been  set  apart 
for  measles  and  whooping  cough,  so  that  it  will 
soon  be  possible  for  a  nurse  to  go  through  her 
training  at  a  general  hospital  without  seeing  any 
case  of  these  common  forms  of  disease,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  rarer  cases  of  cerebro  -  spinal 
meningitis,  typhus  fever,  or  cholera.  The  special 
operations  performed  for  laryngeal  diphtheria,  and 
also  the  treatment  by  anti-toxins,  which  plays  so 
large  a  part  in  modern  medicine,  are  carried  out 
in  the  infectious  hospitals  under  the  most  favour- 
able conditions.  The  Colonial  Nursing  Association, 
and  many  of  the  larger  co-operations  for  nurses, 
make  a  condition  of  appointment  that  the  nurse 
shall  have  had  some  experience  in  fever  nursing. 

The  nursing  staff  in  the  fever  hospitals  consists 
of: — 

(1)  Sisters,  who  must  hold  a  certificate  from 

a  recognised  training  school  for  nurses, 
and  must  in  most  cases  possess  some 
knowledge  of  fever  nursing.  They 
receive  a  salary  of  ^38  rising  to  ^44. 

(2)  Staff  nurses,  who  must  be  either  certificated 

nurses,  or  fully  trained  in  infectious 
nursing.  These  are  paid  a  salary  of 
£26  rising  to  ^32,  or  in  the  case  of  a 
certificated  nurse  £30  rising  to  ^34. 

(3)  Probationers,    who   are   engaged    for    two 

years,  and  receive  a  salary  of  £iS  rising 
to  £20. 

The  probationers  are  given  instruction  in 
elementary  anatomy  and  physiology,  in  general  and 


193 

fever  nursing,  and  are  examined  at  the  end  of  their 
period  of  training.  Those  who  reach  the  required 
standard  are  given  a  certificate,  and  certain  of 
them  have  the  opportunity  of  entering  a  general 
hospital.  The  two  years'  fever  training  counts  as 
one  year  in  those  hospitals  where  the  course  is 
a  four-year  one. 

During  an  epidemic  this  staff  is  augmented  by 
the  employment  of  temporary  assistant  nurses,  at 
a  salary  rising  from  £20  to  £22.  In  all  cases 
board,  lodging,  washing,  and  uniform  are  provided. 

There  are  several  higher  offices  such  as  house- 
keeper, assistant  matron,  and  matron,  which  in 
many  cases  are  filled  from  the  ranks  of  the  sisters, 
who  all  hold  a  certificate  of  general  training.  The 
age  for  compulsory  retirement  is  sixty-five,  but  in 
cases  of  ill-health  a  pension  may  be  granted  after 
ten  years'  service.  Only  those  nurses  receive  a 
pension  who  come  under  the  provisions  of  the 
Poor  Law  Officers'  Superannuation  Act.  Those 
who  decide  to  avail  themselves  of  this,  pay  a  small 
percentage  of  their  salary  and  emoluments. 

The  hours  off  duty  are  much  the  same  as  in 
other  hospitals,  twelve  hours  weekly,  and  in  addition 
one  whole  day  monthly,  and  a  church  pass  on 
Sunday. 

The  sisters  are  given  four  weeks'  holiday,  and 
the  other  nurses  three  weeks,  annually. 

The  drawbacks  to  fever  nursing,  as  to  all  other 
branches  of  hospital  work,  are  the  long  hours  on 
duty,  which  amount  to  about  sixty-four  hours  weekly 
on  day  duty,  and  seventy-two  hours  on  night  duty  ; 
the  engrossing  nature  of  the  work,  as  a  nurse  is 
always  under  discipline  when  inside  the  hospital, 
whether  on  or  off  duty,  and  what  is  constantly 
apparent  to  those  who  work  in  special  hospitals, 
the  lack  of  organisation  in  the  nursing  profession. 
There  is  at  present  no  uniform  standard  of  training. 

N 


194  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

Consequently  a  nurse  who  receives  her  certificate 
after  three  years  spent  in  a  small  hospital  with  a 
very  limited  number  of  cases,  or  in  a  larger 
institution  where  the  standard  of  nursing  is  low 
and  the  work  badly  done,  takes  exactly  the  same 
place  as  a  highly  trained  nurse,  who  has  perhaps 
spent  four  years  in  one  of  the  most  up-to-date 
hospitals.  This  tends  to  keep  away  some  of  the 
most  efficient  candidates. 

At  the  same  time,  the  Local  Government  Board 
allows  great  freedom  of  opinion  to  its  officers, 
and  no  attempt  is  made  to  dissuade  nurses  from 
organising  or  joining  other  movements  for  the  im- 
provement of  conditions  of  labour  among  women, 
which  cannot  be  said  for  all  managers  of  general 
hospitals.  This  is  a  point  in  favour  of  nursing  in 
fever  hospitals,  and  those  women  who  prefer  living 
in  community  to  a  solitary  life,  especially  those 
without  home  ties,  may  reckon  on  healthy  accom- 
modation, good  food,  regular  hours,  and,  on  the 
whole,  favourable  conditions  in  their  work. 


VI 
DISTRICT  NURSING 

There  is  another  branch  of  nursing  which  is 
open  to  nurses  who  hold  a  certificate  from  a  large 
general  hospital,  or  a  recognised  Poor  Law  train- 
ing school,  known  as  District  Nursing.  This  is 
working  among  the  people  in  their  own  homes, 
and  is  a  valuable  experience  to  those  who  are 
interested  in  dealing  with  the  social  problems  of 
the  day. 

The  largest  institution  for  this  kind  of  work 
is  Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee  Institute  for  Nurses, 
incorporated  by  Royal  Charter  in  1889,  to  which 


DISTRICT   NURSING  195 

are  affiliated  the  majority  of  the  District  Nursing 
Associations  in  the  United  Kingdom.  In  addition 
to  full  hospital  training,  the  Council  of  the  Institute 
require  that  any  nurse  desiring  to  be  enrolled  as 
a  Queen's  Nurse,  must  have  six  months'  special 
experience  in  nursing  the  sick  poor  in  their  own 
homes  under  the  supervision  and  tuition  of  a  super- 
intendent. This  experience  is  for  the  purpose  of 
enabling  the  candidate  to  learn  to  adapt  her 
nursing  skill  to  the  altered  conditions  she  finds 
in  the  ordinary  working-man's  home,  and  also  to 
show  her  how  the  friends  of  the  patients  can  be 
educated  to  supplement  the  skilled  services  rendered 
by  the  nurse  during  her  visits.  It  is  difficult  at 
first,  for  one  accustomed  to  the  constant  attention 
and  the  presence  of  every  appliance,  as  provided 
in  the  wards  of  a  hospital  or  infirmary,  to  realise 
that  even  an  acute  and  critical  case  can  be 
adequately  tended  without  a  trained  nurse  being 
always  at  hand.  During  the  six  months'  experience 
these  and  many  other  difficulties  are  explained, 
and  it  is  shown  how  the  orders  of  the  medical 
men  can  be  carried  out  with  safety,  even  in  the 
absence  of  the  trained  nurse. 

Not  only  does  the  candidate  receive  this 
practical  education,  but  she  is  also  required  to 
attend  a  series  of  lectures  dealing  with  subjects 
which  lie  beyond  the  ordinary  hospital  curriculum. 
Various  social  subjects  are  dealt  with  :  the  effect  of 
the  Poor  Law,  and  of  the  Children  Act,  questions 
concerning  the  Insurance  Act,  principles  of  thrift, 
and  similar  matters  are  explained  in  relation  to 
the  conditions  under  which  the  majority  of  working 
people  live. 

There  are  also  lectures  on  hygiene,  sanitation, 
tuberculosis,  coupled  with  practical  demonstrations 
in  the  out-patients'  department  of  hospitals  and 
tuberculosis  dispensaries.  In  these  ways  the 


196  THE    NURSING   PROFESSION 

Queen's  Nurses  are  prepared  to  meet  the  various 
problems  connected  with  the  housing  and  sanitary 
conditions  affecting  the  people,  and  to  carry  out 
the  provisions  of  the  Insurance  Act  as  regards  the 
treatment  of  tuberculosis  patients ;  they  learn  the 
care  of  school  children  under  the  various  educa- 
tion committees,  and  are  also  trained  to  be  health 
missioners  in  the  homes  of  the  people  they  visit. 

The  possession  of  the  certificate  of  the  Central 
Midwives'  Board  is  a  valuable  asset  to  the  district 
nurse,  even  if  she  is  not  willing  to  practise  as  a 
midwife ;  not  only  does  it  enable  her  to  act  in 
emergencies,  but  it  gives  her  the  necessary  know- 
ledge to  instruct  the  mothers  in  the  care  of  their 
own  health  and  also  in  that  of  their  infants. 

Of  late  years  nothing  has  become  of  greater 
importance  than  the  attention  given  to  the  con- 
ditions of  child-life,  and  no  other  class  of  worker  is 
so  suitable  to  deal  with  this  as  the  district  nurse. 

The  candidate  Queen's  Nurse  can  obtain  the 
requisite  training  direct  from  the  Institute,  or 
from  one  of  the  large  training  associations  in 
London,  Liverpool,  Birmingham,  Manchester,  etc.; 
the  conditions  are  practically  the  same  at  all. 
After  a  month's  trial,  the  candidate,  if  satisfactory, 
is  given  a  further  six  months'  training.  She  has, 
however,  before  this  to  sign  an  agreement  to 
work  for  one  year  for  the  Association  which 
trains  her.  In  the  case  of  candidates  trained 
directly  by  the  Queen's  Institute,  it  is  understood 
that  they  will  work  wherever  required  for  that 
twelve  months.  At  the  end  of  the  six  months' 
training,  a  simple  examination  on  practical  district 
nursing  is  necessary  before  a  candidate  is  enrolled 
as  a  Queen's  Nurse.  These  conditions  apply 
equally  to  England,  Wales,  Ireland,  and  Scotland  ; 
the  Queen's  Nurse  in  Ireland  being  trained  in 
Dublin,  and  in  Scotland  at  Edinburgh.  A  certain 


DISTRICT   NURSING  197 

number  of  Welsh-speaking  women  are  given  three 
years'  hospital  training  by  the  Institute  on  condition 
that  they  serve  for  two  and  a  half  years  in  Wales 
after  their  district  training. 

Midwifery  training  is  given  at  the  expense  of 
the  Institute  to  a  certain  number  of  suitable 
Queen's  Nurses  every  year. 

The  salaries  commence  at  the  rate  of  ,£30  a 
year,  together  with  uniform  and  the  usual  allow- 
ances, board  and  lodging,  etc.  The  salary  rises 
to  ,£32  the  second  year,  and  to  ^35  the  third 
year.  The  minimum  inclusive  salary  is  £90,  rising 
to  £92  the  second  year,  and  to  ^95  the  third  year. 

Queen's  Nurses  may  work  in  town  or  country, 
and  after  the  first  year  their  wishes  are,  as  far  as 
possible,  consulted  concerning  the  locality  in  which 
they  prefer  to  live. 

Opportunities  of  promotion  are  good,  as  there 
are  the  following  official  posts  :  Superintendent  and 
Assistant  Superintendents  in  the  larger  towns, 
and  County  Superintendents  and  Assistant  County 
Superintendents  in  connection  with  the  twenty- 
three  affiliated  county  associations ;  also  posts  as 
Inspectors  throughout  the  different  counties.  The 
salaries  of  these  posts  vary  from  £40  per  annum, 
with  all  found,  to  ;£ioo;  for  Superintendents  the 
commencing  inclusive  salary  is  £110  rising  to 
£120]  for  County  Superintendents,  ;£i2o;  for 
Inspectors,  ;£i8o. 

The  special  duty  of  the  County  Superintendent 
lies  in  the  supervision  of  the  village  nurses,  who 
must  be  midwives  and  also  possess  a  certain  amount 
of  general  training,  without  necessarily  being  fully 
trained  nurses. 

The  minimum  time  now  accepted  by  the  Institute 
for  the  training  for  village  nurses  is  twelve  months. 
An  increasing  majority  of  these  women  have  served 
from  one  to  two  years,  or  even  longer,  in  Cottage 


198  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

Hospitals  or  small  Poor  Law  Infirmaries,  and  in 
addition  have  had  their  midwifery  district  training. 
Village  nurses  are  employed  in  rural  areas  where 
the  population  is  below  3,000,  and  where  there  is 
neither  work  nor  money  to  justify  the  employment 
of  a  fully  trained  nurse. 

There  are  other  organisations  for  district  nursing 
which  work  on  much  the  same  lines  as  the  Queen's 
Institute. 

Recent  legislation  has  opened  many  oppor- 
tunities for  district  nurses  as  preventive  and  educa- 
tional agents ;  especially  preventive,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  able  to  check  disease  by  inculcating  and 
maintaining  a  higher  standard  of  domestic  hygiene, 
dealing  not  only  with  disease,  but  with  the  causes 
that  produce  it. 

VII 

NURSING   IN   SCHOOLS   AND    NURSES  AS 
INSPECTORS 

Nurses  are  engaged  by  public  authorities  in 
schools  of  various  descriptions. 

A.  The  majority  are  engaged  in  work  at  ele- 
mentary and  secondary  schools. 

Three  years  training  in  a  recognised  hospital 
or  infirmary,  and  experience  in  skin  diseases  or 
infectious  diseases  are  required  as  well  as  previous 
experience  as  sanitary  inspector,  health  visitor,  or 
school  nurse.  This  training  is  obviously  very 
comprehensive. 

The  work  is  two-fold.     Either 

(1)  The    nurses    assist    the   doctors   at   their 

medical  inspection  of  the  children,  or 

(2)  They  are  themselves  responsible  under  the 

Medical  Officer  of  Health  for  the  personal 
cleanliness  of  the  scholars. 


NURSING   IN  SCHOOLS  199 

This  necessitates  frequent  inspection  of  both 
the  clothing  and  persons  of  the  children.  Certain 
cases  which  are  found  to  need  attention  are  also 
visited  in  their  homes.  The  school  nurse  is  so 
much  alone  in  her  work  that  she  requires  to  be 
very  experienced  and  her  powers  of  observation  to 
be  highly  trained  in  order  to  enable  her  to  detect 
signs  of  ill-health  in  its  early  stages.  Firmness 
and  kindness  are  constantly  required  in  dealing 
with  parents,  and  tact  and  consideration  in  her 
dealings  with  all  with  whom  her  work  brings  her 
in  contact. 

In  the  London  area  the  salary  begins  at  ;£8o 
rising  by  £2,  IDS.  yearly  to  ,£85,  and  then  by  ^5 
yearly  to  ,£105.  Uniform  and  travelling  expenses, 
within  the  county,  are  provided.  The  nurse  is 
required  to  contribute  to  the  superannuation  fund 
from  which  she  can  ultimately  draw  a  pension  if 
she  remains  all  her  working  life  in  the  service  of 
the  Council. 

The  hours  of  work  are  from  9  A.M.  to  4.30  P.M. 
five  days  weekly,  and  from  9  to  12.30  on  Satur- 
days. Clerical  work  must  be  done  out  of  school 
hours.  Holidays  are  arranged  during  the  school 
holidays. 

There  are  128  nurses  working  under  one  Super- 
intendent, two  Assistant-Superintendents,  and  four 
Divisional  Assistant-Superintendents. 

B.  There  are  42  nurses  attached  to  schools  for 
the  physically  defective  whose  special  duties  are 
concerned  with  the  care  of  the  crippled  and  delicate 
children  who  attend  these  schools.  Certain  special 
precautions  against  injury  and  strain  are  neces- 
sary for  these  children,  and  the  nurse  receives  in- 
structions concerning  these  from  the  visiting 
doctor.  The  salary  is  the  same  as  that  mentioned 
above,  and  the  nurses  get  the  school  holidays. 
At  open  -  air  schools  the  nurse's  work  is  some- 


200  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

what    similar    to    that    in    the    schools    for    the 
physically  defective. 

C.  There  are  8  nurses  now  working  under  the 
Infant  Life  Protection  Act. 

All  women  who  undertake  the  care  of  an  infant 
for  payment  have  to  be  registered.  Of  such 
children,  a  large  proportion  is  illegitimate.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  nurses  to  visit  every  such  case. 
Each  nurse  has  an  area  allotted  to  her ;  the  work 
is  arduous  and  responsible  as  the  visitor  has  full 
powers  under  an  Act  of  Parliament  summarily 
to  remove  the  child  if  the  conditions  required 
by  the  Act  are  not  complied  with.  The  nurse 
who  undertakes  this  work  should  have  been 
trained  in  maternity  work  (and  if  possible  have 
been  examined  by  the  Central  Midwives'  Board). 
She  should  also  have  her  certificate  from  the 
Sanitary  Institute  as  she  is  expected  to  report  on 
the  sanitation  of  the  premises  as  well  as  on  the 
condition  of  the  child.  There  is  a  considerable 
amount  of  clerical  work  in  connection  with  these 
posts. 

The  salary  of  these  nurses  is  good,  compared 
with  the  usual  salaries  for  nurses — ;£i2O  to  ^150, 
with  a  further  rise  to  ^200  after  ten  years  of 
service. 

The  superannuation  fund,  which  is  compulsory 
for  all  permanent  officers,  yields  a  provision  of  not 
less  than  one-third  of  the  average  rate  of  pay  in  a 
case  of  complete  breakdown  in  health  after  ten 
or  more  years  in  the  service  of  the  council.  The 
retiring  age,  apart  from  breakdown,  is  sixty-five 
years. 

The  conditions  of  work  in  the  Provinces  are 
much  the  same  in  general  outline  as  those 
described  above,  which  prevail  in  London,  except 
that  in  the  country  the  nurse  often  undertakes  in 
addition  the  work  done  in  London  by  Care  Com- 


MENTAL   NURSING  201 

mittees  and  Attendance   Officers.     This,  although 
it  increases  her  work  also  increases  its  variety. 


VIII 
NURSING  IN   HOSPITALS   FOR   THE   INSANE 

Mental  nursing  as  a  profession  for  educated 
women  has  much  to  recommend  it.  It  is  of 
absorbing  interest  to  those  of  a  sympathetic  nature 
and  of  a  scientific  turn  of  mind,  and  it  develops 
all  the  finer  qualities,  self-control,  patience,  tact,  and 
common-sense.  It  gives  scope  for  originality  and 
accomplishments  of  every  kind.  The  work  itself 
is  difficult,  and  is  the  one  of  all  the  many  branches 
of  nursing  which  demands  the  closest  personal 
devotion  and  service,  great  as  is  the  necessity  for 
these  in  all  forms  of  a  nurse's  work. 

Mental  nurses  are  employed  in  (i)  county 
asylums,  (2)  mental  hospitals,  (3)  private  work. 

(i)  County  Asylums —  These  may  take  from 
1,000  to  2,000  patients  each.  They  are  usually 
situated  in  the  country  with  healthy  surroundings 
and  large  grounds,  and  they  are  generally  placed 
within  reasonable  access  to  some  town. 

Probationer  nurses  are  received  for  training 
from  twenty  -  one  years  of  age.  They  must  be 
of  good  health  and  physique.  A  nurse  who  is 
successful  in  this  branch  of  work  should  be  able 
to  obtain  her  certificate  from  the  Medico  Psycho- 
logical Board  at  the  end  of  three  years'  training. 
The  salary  is  .£19  the  first  year,  with  an  annual 
increase  of  £i  up  to  ^35.  Free  board,  lodging, 
washing,  medical  attendance,  are  also  supplied  and 
uniform  after  three  months'  trial.  The  hours  on 
duty  are  from  6  A.M.  to  8  P.M.,  with  two  hours  off 
for  meals.  Nurses  get  leave  from  8  P.M.  to  10  P.M. 


202  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

daily  and  one  day  weekly ;  they  also  have  four- 
teen days'  holiday  after  the  first  twelve  months, 
increasing  subsequently  to  three  weeks  a  year. 

The  duties  of  the  nurse  in  an  asylum  consist 
of  the  care  of  the  patients,  the  supervision  of  the 
cleanliness  of  the  wards  and  linen,  and  also  of 
the  work  done  by  the  patients  in  the  various 
departments  --  the  needleroom,  laundry,  kitchen, 
corridors,  etc.  It  is  obvious  that  in  view  of  the 
number  of  patients,  individual  attention  is  practi- 
cally impossible.  Entertainments  of  all  kinds  are 
provided  for  the  help  and  amusement  of  the 
patients,  and  nurses  are  expected  to  assist  in 
arranging  these.  Consequently  any  one  with  a 
gift  for  music,  acting,  singing,  or  other  accomplish- 
ment is  an  acquisition  to  the  staff. 

(2)  Registered  Mental  Hospitals. — These,  owing 
to  their  different  circumstances,  vary  much  in  their 
conditions  of  service.  Most  of  them  are  training- 
schools  and  receive  probationers  of  good  education, 
from  twenty-two  years  of  age,  for  a  course  of  train- 
ing. This  consists  of  lectures  by  the  Medical  Staff 
and  Matron,  the  subjects  receiving  most  attention 
being  Elementary  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and 
Psychology ;  and  there  is,  of  course,  practical 
training  in  the  nursing  of  mental  cases  :  in  some 
hospitals  a  course  of  Massage  and  Swedish  Drill 
are  added  in  the  fourth  year. 

Salaries  are  on  the  whole  lower  than  in  the 
County  Asylums,  beginning  at  anything  from  ^"15 
rising  to  £19  in  the  third  year  with  a  bonus  of  ^3 
on  passing  the  final  examination  of  the  Medico- 
Psychological  Board.  There  must,  however,  be 
set  against  this  lower  rate  of  remuneration,  the  fact 
that  these  mental  hospitals  are  often  situated  more 
centrally  than  the  county  asylums,  thus  making 
less  expenditure  necessary  for  travelling  to  and 
from  the  hospital  when  out  on  leave.  The  usual 


MENTAL   NURSING  203 

free  board,  lodging,  washing,  medical  attendance, 
and  uniform  are  also  given  after  three  months' 
satisfactory  service. 

The  hours  of  duty  are  from  7  A.M.  to  8  P.M. 
with  two  hours  off  for  meals,  etc.  Leave  during 
a  month  varies  with  the  different  hospitals,  but  is 
usually  two  whole  days,  three  half  days,  four  even- 
ings from  6  P.M.  to  i o  P.M.,  and  four  evenings  from 
8  P.M.  to  10  P.M.  :  there  is  also  annual  leave  of 
fourteen  days  after  the  first  twelve  months,  in- 
creasing to  three  weeks  after  three  years'  service. 

The  work  in  a  mental  hospital  is  totally  different 
from  that  in  large  asylums.  As  there  are  fewer 
patients,  individual  treatment  is  the  rule,  and  the 
nurse  gets  more  intimate  knowledge  of  her 
patients'  condition,  which  she  may  thus  do  much 
to  ameliorate.  Owing  to  the  homelike  freedom 
allowed,  nurses  need  to  be  specially  patient  and 
tactful.  In  return  for  this,  however,  by  their  much 
closer  companionship  with  their  patients  they  gain 
the  opportunity  of  thoroughly  knowing  and  there- 
fore sympathising  with  and  guiding  them,  and  on 
this,  successful  treatment  largely  depends.  The 
majority  of  the  patients  in  these  hospitals  are 
suffering  from  acute  forms  of  insanity,  and  this 
adds  both  to  the  strenuousness  and  to  the  interest 
of  the  nursing  work :  the  fact  that  such  patients 
frequently  recover,  acts  as  a  great  incentive  to  the 
work. 

Private  asylums  are  on  a  different  basis  and 
do  not  as  a  rule  offer  training. 

A  trained  nurse  may  hope  for  promotion  to  posts 
as  Sister  of  a  ward,  Night  Superintendent,  Assistant 
Matron,  or  Matron.  These  posts  demand  personal 
attributes  in  addition  to  good  training — e.g.,  powers 
of  organisation  and  administration,  a  knowledge  of 
housekeeping,  laundry  work,  etc.  For  the  higher 
posts,  training  in  general  nursing  is  essential.  In  all 


204  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

forms  of  mental  nursing  it  is  undoubtedly  a  great 
advantage  if  the  nurse  has  had  a  preliminary 
general  training  before  entering  on  the  special 
branch  of  the  work. 

The  conditions  for  private  mental  cases  are  the 
same  as  those  described  under  private  nursing  for 
general  work  (see  page  184).  The  fees,  however, 
compare  very  favourably  with  those  obtained  for 
general  work,  being  almost  universally  higher.  The 
great  disadvantage  is  that  the  hours  are  very  long 
and  the  work  necessarily  exhausting. 

Much  has  been  done  of  recent  years  to  improve 
the  conditions  of  service  for  workers  in  institu- 
tions, and  there  is  still  room  for  ameliora- 
tion. Particularly  is  this  so  with  regard  to  the  long 
hours  on  duty  and  insufficient  leave,  due,  chiefly, 
to  shortage  of  staff.  Increase  is  also  urgently 
needed  in  the  salaries  in  every  department  so  that 
the  nurses  may  be  able  to  make  provision  for  old 
age.  When,  as  now,  so  many  of  them  are 
dependent  on  a  pension  as  the  only  provision  for 
their  old  age,  they  are  bound  to  stay  at  one 
institution  for  the  whole  or  nearly  the  whole  of 
their  lives — an  arrangement  which  is  not  to  the 
benefit  of  either  party,  for  "change  is  necessary  to 
progress,  and  the  tendency  is,  from  long  years  of 
service  in  one  place,  to  narrow  and  lose  the 
adaptability  of  earlier  years." 

More  arrangements  are  needed  for  the  recrea- 
tion of  the  nurses  when  off  duty,  especially  in 
institutions  situated  in  the  country.  Swimming 
baths  would  be  a  real  boon  ;  the  beneficial  effects 
of  this  form  of  exercise  upon  both  nerves  and 
body  being  too  well  known  to  need  further 
comment.  Its  value  also  in  promoting  mutual 
helpfulness  is  by  no  means  negligible.  Reading- 
rooms,  apart  from  the  general  common-room,  are 
very  valuable,  as  are  also  tennis  courts  where 


NURSING   IN   THE   COLONIES          205 
<• 

^  :an  be  arranged.     All  these,  of  course,  mean 

r  se,   but,  if  the  better  class  woman  is  to  be 

'ed  to  the  work,  her  interests  must  be  con- 

^  ed.       Moreover,    healthful    recreations,    apart 

Irom  their  benefit  to  the  nurse  herself,  must  react 

favourably  on  the  patients. 


IX 
NURSING   IN   THE  COLONIES 

Colonial  nursing  is  usually  undertaken  by  those 
who  possess  the  spirit  of  adventure,  and  do  not 
mind  the  prospect  of  pioneering  work.  Love  of 
novelty,  strong  interest  in  fresh  scenes  and 
peoples,  a  desire  to  make  more  money  than  can 
in  most  cases  be  made  in  England,  help  a  nurse 
in  colonial  work,  provided  that  work  really  means 
her  life,  and  she  loves  it.  But  let  it  be  emphatically 
stated  that  the  nurses  who  are  not  wanted  in 
the  colonies,  in  any  capacity,  are  those  who  are 
failures  in  their  work  in  England,  or  who  simply 
leave  the  dull  work  of  the  old  country  with  the 
object  of  having  a  good  time  abroad.  Such  women 
may  do  immense  harm  in  countries  where  it  is 
essential  to  the  Empire  that  English  people  should 
be  looked  up  to  with  respect  and  admiration,  and 
where  almost  the  most  important  part  of  an  English 
nurse's  work  (quite  the  most  important  if  she  is 
working  in  a  hospital),  is  to  make  the  native  nurses, 
of  whatever  race  they  may  happen  to  be,  see  the 
dignity  and  possibilities  of  their  profession,  and 
be  stirred  with  the  desire  to  become  proficient 
themselves. 

No  special  training  is  required  for  colonial 
work.  A  thorough  all-round  training,  including 
midwifery,  a  high  standard  of  nursing  ethics,  a 


206  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

knowledge  of  hospital  organisation,  and  good 
business  abilities  are  needed.  The  rest  is  chiefly 
a  matter  of  temperament  and  constitution.  It 
goes  without  saying  that  a  nurse  for  foreign 
climates,  whether  tropical,  as  in  the  majority  of 
colonial  posts,  or  subject  to  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold,  such  as  in  Canada,  must  be  physically  strong ; 
she  should  also  be  of  an  even  temper  and  philo- 
sophical disposition,  easily  adaptable  to  climate, 
conditions,  circumstances,  and  racial  peculiarities. 

The  nature  of  the  work  will  vary  greatly  with 
the  locality  and  the  kind  of  post  undertaken.  The 
colonial  nurse  who  does  private  work  will  find 
patients  and  their  needs  much  the  same  all  the 
world  over ;  she  must,  however,  be  prepared  for 
anything,  and  ready  to  make  the  best  of  all  things 
in  emergencies. 

In  tropical  hospitals  it  is  altogether  another 
matter.  If  the  nurse  taking  a  Matron's  post  in 
such  a  hospital  is  the  first  European  to  have 
occupied  that  post,  she  will  probably  have  every 
detail  to  organise  and  put  in  order,  from  providing 
dusters  for  use  in  the  wards,  to  arranging  off-duty 
time  for  the  nurses.  She  will  mostly  likely  see 
at  once  that  everything  wants  altering,  and  yet 
she  will  have  to  "make  haste  slowly,"  very  slowly, 
or  she  will  have  everything  in  a  ferment,  and 
every  one  in  open  rebellion  against  her. 

If  she  is  working  in  the  East,  she  will  have 
the  endless  complications  of  caste  and  race  and 
religion  to  deal  with,  and  will  have  for  some 
time,  to  learn  vastly  more  than  she  teaches. 
Her  success  or  failure  will  depend  very  largely 
upon  how  she  gets  on  with  the  medical  depart- 
ment —  in  other  words,  upon  her  own  tact 
and  common  -  sense,  and  whether  she  can  so 
approve  herself  to  the  various  medical  officers 
that  they  will  loyally  back  her  up  in  her  attempts 


NURSING   IN  THE  COLONIES          207 

at  reform.  Once  things  are  established  in  work- 
ing order,  it  is  a  question  of  constant  supervision, 
day  by  day,  for  in  no  tropical  hospital  is  it  possible 
to  expect  that  native  nurses  will  do  their  work 
well  and  conscientiously,  without  the  constant 
example  and  supervision  of  their  trained  Matron 
and  Sisters. 

Colonial  posts  are  chiefly  to  be  obtained  through 
the  Colonial  Nursing  Association,  of  which  offices 
are  at  the  Imperial  Institute,  South  Kensington. 

Salaries  vary  considerably,  according  to  climate 
and  the  nature  of  the  work.  In  very  unhealthy 
climates,  such  as  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  the 
salary  is  high,  and  the  risks  proportionately  so. 

Private  nurses,  and  those  holding  subordinate 
posts  in  hospitals  get  salaries  varying  from  £60, 
which  is  the  minimum,  to  £120  a  year.  An 
Assistant  Matron  may  in  some  few  cases  get  a 
salary  increasing  to  ^150  or  £200.  In  a  large 
hospital  there  is  the  ordinary  chance  of  promotion 
— a  Sister  may  be  made  Assistant  Matron,  or  an 
Assistant  Matron  become  Matron;  but  most  colonial 
posts  are  simply  for  a  certain  term  of  years,  at 
the  expiration  of  which  the  nurse  seeks  fresh  fields, 
her  passage,  both  out  and  home,  being  paid.  If, 
however,  there  should  be  a  desire  on  both  sides 
for  a  renewal  of  the  engagement,  the  nurse  can 
usually  obtain  an  increase  of  salary. 

A  Matron's  salary  will  vary  from  £100  to  ^250, 
in  large  Government  hospitals  in  the  Colonies 
where,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  leave  entails 
a  journey  to  England,  and  a  very  expensive 
passage.  In  colonial  posts  there  is  usually  six 
weeks  leave  yearly  (which  may  be  taken  as  three 
months  together  in  the  second  year),  but  in  most 
places  there  is  no  bracing  climate  within  a  reasonable 
distance.  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  India 
and  Ceylon,  where  the  hills  are  easily  accessible. 


208  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

Each  Government  has  its  own  arrangements  with 
regard  to  pensions  ;  some  posts  include  pensions, 
but  not  all.  The  retiring  age  is  usually  sixty  years. 
There  is,  unfortunately,  no  pension  obtainable  from 
the  Colonial  Nursing  Association  itself.  This  is 
certainly  one  respect  in  which  it  would  be  well 
if  an  alteration  could  be  made ;  it  is  a  question  of 
funds  and  has  already  been  brought  forward  for 
consideration.  There  would  be  vastly  more  induce- 
ment for  really  capable  nurses,  no  longer  very 
young  (the  age  limit  for  joining  is  thirty-five)  to 
join  the  Colonial  Nursing  Association,  and  serve 
their  country  in  foreign  dependencies,  if  they  were 
assured  of  even  a  small  pension  after  ten  years' 
hard  work  in  trying  climates. 


X 

NURSING   IN   THE   ARMY  AND   NAVY 

The  training  required  by  Army  and  Navy  nurses 
is  that  for  general  work.  Additional  experience 
according  to  the  branch  of  the  service  which  the 
nurse  wishes  to  enter  is  also  useful.  Only  fully 
trained  nurses  are  appointed.  Some  of  the  tend- 
ing of  the  sick  is  done  by  the  men  themselves, 
under  supervision. 

In  the  Military  Service  the  salaries  are  as 
follows :  Matron-in-Chief,  ^"305  ;  ordinary  Matron, 
from  ^75  to  ^150 ;  Sister,  from  ^50  to  ^65  ;  Staff 
Nurse,  from  ^40  to  ^45,  with  allowance  for  board, 
washing,  etc.,  and  arrangements  for  leave  and 
pension  after  twenty  years'  service. 

In  the  Naval  Service  the  arrangements  are 
slightly  different,  but  the  salaries  work  out  at 
about  the  same.  Foreign  service  is  obligatory. 

There  is  also  a  small  Army  Nursing  Reserve, 


MIDWIFERY  AS  A  PROFESSION        209 

but  this  is  quite  inadequate  for  purposes  of  defence, 
and  great  efforts  have  recently  been  made  to 
supplement  it  by  voluntary  organisations,  such  as 
the  British  Red  Cross  Society. 


XI 

PRISON   NURSING 

This  is,  at  the  present  time,  carried  out  by  the 
ordinary  staff  of  prison  warders.  There  are  all 
over  England  not  more  than  two  or  three  trained 
nurses  among  them,  and  it  is  most  desirable  that 
properly  trained  women  should  be  in  charge  of 
prison  infirmary  wards,  just  as  much  as  in  the 
infirmary  wards  of  workhouses.  Prisoners  are  just 
as  likely  to  suffer  from  disease  as  other  people, 
and  they  surely  do  not  forfeit  all  claim  to  expert 
care,  simply  because  they  have,  perhaps  in  a 
moment  of  weakness,  yielded  to  temptation.  To 
one  form  of  illness  needing  specially  expert 
nursing,  they  are  peculiarly  liable — mental  disease. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  gauge  the  amount  of 
good  which  might  be  done  both  for  the  individual 
and  for  society  by  providing  trained  nurses  to 
attend  to  these  unfortunate  people. 


XII 

MIDWIFERY   AS   A  PROFESSION   FOR  WOMEN 
(OTHER  THAN   DOCTORS) 

This  is  not  a  paper  to  discuss  the  suitability 
of  women  for  midwifery.  All  through  the  ages  it 
has  been  done  by  women,  until  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  in  England  and  its  colonies,  it 

o 


210  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

gradually  became  customary  for  men-doctors  to 
attend  such  cases  ;  apart  from  this,  the  work  of 
midwifery  has  never  been  in  the  hands  of  men, 
except  when  abnormal  cases  have  required  the 
assistance  of  a  doctor  with  knowledge  of  anatomy 
and  skilled  in  instrumental  delivery.  Even  before 
the  passing  of  the  Midwives  Act  in  1902,  statistics 
proved  that  three-quarters  of  all  confinements  in  this 
country  were  attended  by  women. 

Continental  countries  have  been  alive  to  the 
need  for  training  the  women  who  did  this  work. 
For  instance,  in  the  great  General  Hospital  in 
Vienna  with  its  3,000  beds,  550  beds  were  kept 
apart  for  maternity  wards,  and  of  these,  200  were 
reserved  for  the  State  training  of  midwives  —  a 
course  of  one  year's  duration  being  obligatory, 
with  daily  lectures  on  every  detail  in  midwifery 
from  the  Professor  of  Obstetrics.  The  present 
writer  attended  these  lectures  daily  for  six  months 
in  1885,  and  was  made  to  feel  the  importance 
in  teaching  of  "hammering"  at  essentials  and  of 
questioning,  so  that  the  lecturer  might  discover 
whether  he  were  talking  above  the  head  of  the 
least  clever  of  the  audience. 

England's  population  increased  so  steadily  and 
rapidly  during  the  nineteenth  century,  that  it  seemed 
to  trouble  no  one  that  countless  lives  of  mothers 
and  babies  were  lost  during  the  perils  of  child- 
birth ;  it  remained  the  only  civilised  country  of 
Europe  where  a  woman  could  practise  as  a  midwife 
without  any  training  at  all. 

For  nearly  twenty  years  before  the  passing  of 
the  Midwives  Act  in  1902,  a  small  band  of  devoted 
women  laboured  in  season  and  out  of  season  urging 
on  Parliament  the  need  of  a  bill  requiring  a 
minimum  of  three  months'  theoretical  and  practical 
training  and  an  examination  before  trusting  a 
woman  with  the  lives  of  mother  and  child. 


MIDWIFERY  AS  A  PROFESSION        211 

This  historical  fact  alone  is  a  sufficiently  cogent 
reason  for  the  now  ever-increasing  demand  on  the 
part  of  women  for  the  parliamentary  vote. 

The  Central  Midwives  Board  (C.  M.  B. ),  a  body  of 
eight  members  (experts  elected  by  various  bodies, 
such  as  the  Royal  Colleges  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons,  the  British  Nurses'  Association,  the 
Midwives'  Institute,  etc.),  now  exercises  supervision 
over  the  midwives  of  the  whole  of  England  and 
Wales,  though  local  supervising  authorities  also 
take  cognisance  of  midwives'  work  and  investigate 
cases  of  malpractice  and  the  like.  The  address 
of  the  Central  Midwives'  Board  is  Caxton  House, 
Westminster. 

The  training  for  the  examination  of  the  Central 
Midwives'  Board  is  based  on  the  method  pursued 
in  medical  education  in  English-speaking  countries, 
viz.,  there  is  not  one  uniform  course,  but  each  of 
the  training  schools  attached  to  hospitals  follows 
out  its  own  plan  of  training,  each  hospital  having 
been  approved  by  the  Central  Midwives'  Board  as 
giving  an  adequate  training  for  its  examination. 
There  are  now  seven  maternity  hospitals  in 
London,  where  women  students  may  train  in 
midwifery.  Of  these,  only  one  —  the  Clapham 
Maternity  Hospital  (with  its  training  school 
founded  by  Mrs  Meredith  in  1885)  —  is,  and 
always  has  been,  entirely  officered  by  women. 
Here  the  course  advised  is  six  months,  viz., 
three  months  in  the  hospital  (Monthly  Nursing), 
and  three  months  in  the  hospital  and  district 
doing  Midwifery  proper.  During  this  time  over 
200  cases  may  be  seen,  and  nearly  100  cases 
attended  personally.  The  cost  of  this  training 
is  ^35  to  ,£40,  which  includes  board  and  residence 
for  twenty-six  weeks.  Students  previously  trained 
elsewhere  may  take  one  months'  extra  training 
at  a  cost  of  ten  guineas.  Private  doctors  and 


212  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

midwives    may  also   take   pupils  if  recognised   as 
teachers  by  the  Board. 

Midwifery  training  is  now  required  not  only 
by  those  who  are  going  to  act  as  midwives, 
but  also  by  most  missionaries,  all  fully  trained 
nurses  (for  matrons'  posts  or  colonial  posts)  and 
by  health  visitors  and  inspectors  before  obtaining 
appointments. 

But  it  should  be  borne  in  mind,  especially  in 
considering  the  present  condition  and  future 
prospects  of  Midwifery  as  a  profession,  that  even 
now  a  large  though  ever-decreasing  proportion  of 
registered  midwives  are  still  ignorant  women  who 
have  never  passed  the  Central  Midwives'  Board  or 
any  other  examination,  and  have  had  no  teaching 
from  any  one  more  experienced  or  better  informed 
than  themselves.  For  when  the  Midwives'  Act 
came  into  force  in  1903,  it  was  necessary  to  move 
slowly,  and  so  a  clause  was  inserted,  permitting 
women  who  had  been  in  bond  -fide  practice  for 
more  than  one  year  before  1902  to  continue  their 
work  under  inspection  and  supervision  (with  many 
attempts  at  teaching  them  by  means  of  simple 
lectures  and  demonstrations).  This  plan,  or  some 
similar  one,  was  necessary,  not  only  in  the  interests 
of  the  midwives  themselves,  a  set  of  decent  and 
kindly,  if  ignorant  women,  who  would  have  been 
ruined  by  too  sudden  a  change,  but  also  because  a 
large  number  of  mothers  in  England  would  have 
been  left  with  no  one  to  help  them  in  their  time 
of  need  unless  they  were  prepared  to  run  the 
risk  of  breaking  the  law.  This,  until  recently, 
respectable  English  women  disliked  to  do. 

It  is  important  to  remember  this  fact,  when 
considering  the  present  and  future  prospects  of 
the  midwife.  The  untrained  woman  used  to  charge 
55.  or  75.  6d.  for  her  services,  and  the  fact  that 
her  name  had  been  enrolled  on  the  Government 


MIDWIFERY  AS  A  PROFESSION        213 

Register,  that  she  was  subject  to  the  supervision 
of  an  inspector,  without  having  spent  anything 
on  her  change  of  status  beyond  the  los.  registra- 
tion fee,  did  not  suggest  the  need  of  any  particular 
change  in  her  scale  of  charges.  Thus  Js.  6d.  per 
case,  unfortunately  still  remains  the  very  common 
fee  for  midwifery,  though  this  now  involves,  under 
the  rules  of  the  Midwives'  Board,  not  only  the  long 
hours  of  watchful  care  at  the  birth,  but  ten  days 
of  daily  visits  to  supervise  both  mother  and  baby, 
with  careful  records  of  pulse  and  temperature,  etc., 
kept  in  a  register.  Naturally,  the  general  public 
who  employ  midwives — viz.,  the  poorer  classes — do 
not  differentiate  between  the  trained  certificated 
midwife  and  the  untrained  bond-fide  midwife  whose 
name  is  on  the  register,  and  thus  the  scale  of 
charges  remains  very  low  and  the  profession, 
as  one  for  educated  women,  is  thereby  greatly 
injured. 

Granted  an  intelligent  woman  is  willing  to  give 
six  months'  work  and  study  and  ^35  to  ,£40  for  her 
training,  what  chance  has  she  of  earning  a  decent 
living?  If  she  could  command  155.  or  173.  6d.  per 
case  afterwards,  she  could  make  a  decent  living, 
given  fairly  hard  work  and  the  acceptance  of  real 
responsibility.  If  she  had  100  cases  a  year,  she 
would  earn  ^"75  at  155.  per  case,  and  so  on. 
This  rise  in  the  fees  payable  to  midwives  has 
just  been  made  possible  by  the  National  Insurance 
Act  of  1911,  the  framers  of  which  appear  to  have 
recognised  the  necessary  result  of  the  Midwives' 
Act  of  1902.  As  the  bond-fide  midwife,  who  has 
received  no  training,  gradually  dies  out,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  provide  the  means  of  paying  trained 
midwives,  whom  the  people  are  obliged  to  employ 
in  place  of  the  old  ones,  but  who  would  soon  be 
non-existent  were  the  means  of  paying  them  not 
also  provided  by  the  State. 


214  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

A  303.  maternity  benefit  is  now  given  for  every 
confinement  of  an  insured  person  or  the  wife  of 
an  insured  person.  As  the  patient  may  have  free 
choice  of  doctor  or  midwife,  it  seems  possible,  now 
that  it  has  been  established  that  the  benefit  shall  go 
direct  to  the  mother  or  her  nominee,  that  hereafter 
the  greater  part  of  it  may  be  paid  over  to  the 
person  who  can  supply  that  most  necessary  item  of 
the  treatment,  i.e.,  good  and  intelligent  midwifery 
with  nursing  care  of  mother  and  child.  Therefore, 
it  is  the  right  moment  for  the  careful,  well-trained 
popular  midwife  definitely  to  raise  her  fees  to  all 
"insured"  patients,  being  still  willing  to  help  the 
poor  at  a  low  fee  as  before.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  in  about  one-tenth  of  all  her  cases, 
medical  help  will  be  required,  but  this  case  could 
probably  be  guarded  against  by  an  insurance  fund, 
if  properly  organised. 

We  frankly  admit  that  as  things  now  stand- 
apart  from  the  possibility  of  the  maternity  benefit 
being  made  to  help  her — midwifery  is  financially 
but  a  poor  profession.  But  to  an  enthusiastic  lover 
of  her  kind,  who  has  other  means  or  prospects 
for  her  future  than  the  proceeds  of  her  profession, 
there  is  much  that  is  attractive  in  this  most  useful 
calling. 

Now  let  us  turn  to  a  consideration  of  the  poor 
mother.  Dr  Matthews  Duncan  in  1870  put  the 
puerperal  mortality  at  i  in  100  for  in-patients  and 
i  in  1 20  for  patients  in  their  own  homes — shocking 
figures  for  a  physiological  event !  Miss  Wilson, 
a  member  of  the  Central  Midwives  Board,  stated 
in  1907  that  the  average  mortality  of  English 
women,  from  puerperal  fever,  a  preventable  disease, 
is  47  in  10,000  or  1  in  213,  but  that  in  three 
of  the  best  lying-in  hospitals  this  figure  has  been 
reduced  to  less  than  /  in  3,000.  To  quote  Miss 
Alice  Gregory  in  her  article  on  this  subject  in 


MIDWIFERY  AS  A  PROFESSION        215 

Tke  Nineteenth  Century  for  January  1908:  "We 
feel  there  is  something  hopelessly  wrong  somewhere. 
It  becomes  indeed  a  burning  question  :  By  what 
means  have  the  Maternity  Hospitals  so  marvellously 
reduced  their  death  rate  ?  " 

The  answer  is  not  now  far  to  seek  in  the 
opinion  of  the  writer,  who  has  worked  continuously 
at  Midwifery  since  ist  May  1884.  It  is  probably 
wholly  contained  in  the  three  following  points  : — 

(1)  All  that  makes  for  scrupulous  asepsis  in 

every  detail  for  the  surroundings  of  the 
mother. 

(2)  The  absence  of  "  Meddlesome  Midwifery." 

(3)  Pre  -  maternity  treatment,  a  factor  which 

the  writer  considers  to  be  of  great  im- 
portance, and  of  which  she  would  like 
to  have  much  more  experience. 

By  this  is  meant  the  building  up  of  the  future 
mother's  health  by  improved  hygiene  and  careful, 
wise  dieting  and  exercising  and  bathing  during  the 
last  three  months  of  pregnancy,  which  enables 
many  a  stumbling-block  to  be  removed  out  of  the 
way.  Hence,  the  utility  of  pre-maternity  wards 
wisely  used.  This  is,  one  knows,  a  "counsel  of 
perfection "  ;  but  every  expectant  mother  should 
and  could  be  taught  how  to  treat  herself  wisely  at 
this  time. 

These  three  points  are  all  in  favour  of  the  well- 
trained  midwife. 

(i)  Scrupiilous  Asepsis,  if  intelligently  taught, 
can  be  learned  in  six  months'  training,  though  one 
feels  bound  to  add  it  requires  moral  "grit"  in  the 
character  to  make  one  unswervingly  faithful  in 
observing  it.  The  midwife,  too,  should  run  no 
risk  of  carrying  infection  from  others,  as  a  doctor 
might  do. 


216  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

(2)  "  Meddlesome   Midwifery "  is  not  so  much 
a  temptation  for  the  midwife  as  the  doctor,  though 
she   also   may    want   to    do    too    much.      Patience 
combined   with    accurate    knowledge    when   inter- 
ference is  urgently  needed,  is  part  of  her  training. 

(3)  The   midwife   who   becomes  a  wise  friend 
to  her  patients  will  be  just  the  one  to  whom  the 
mother  will  gladly  apply  early,  and  who  will  know 
if    it    is    advisable    to    send    for    skilled    medical 
advice.     Contracted   pelvis,   threatened   eclampsia, 
and    antepartum    haemorrhage    are    typical    cases, 
which    lose    half    their    terror    if    diagnosed    and 
treated  early. 

If  ever  it  is  recognised  that  good  midwifery  is 
at  the  root  of  the  health  of  the  nation  and  the  new 
maternity  benefit  is  made  to  help  in  obtaining  it, 
it  will  at  once  become  worth  while  for  educated 
and  intelligent  women  to  take  to  the  profession 
seriously.  A  practice  could  then  be  worked  by 
sets  of  two  or  three  midwives  in  co-operation, 
and  with  proper  organisation  as  regards  an  insur- 
ance fund  for  securing  operative  midwifery  from 
medical  practitioners  when  necessary. 

There  is  ample  room  for  a  much  larger  body 
of  trained  midwives  than  exists  at  present,  if  the 
health  and  welfare  of  the  nation  are  to  be  secured, 
while  the  women  themselves  could,  under  these 
conditions,  earn  a  sufficient  livelihood. 

Trained  nurses  also  specialise  in  midwifery. 
They  take  the  full  course  of  training  described 
above,  completing  this  by  passing  the  Central  Mid- 
wives'  Board  Examination.  They  do  not  practise 
for  themselves,  but  work  only  under  doctors,  thus 
replacing  the  monthly  nurse.  The  improvement 
in  health  and  comfort  of  both  mother  and  child, 
when  nursed  by  some  one  thoroughly  competent, 
is  very  marked. 

The  fees  which  they  receive  for  this  work  are 


MASSAGE  217 

usually  12  to  14  guineas  for  the  month,  and  in  some 
cases  may  rise  to  18  guineas. 


XIII 
MASSAGE 

This  work  demands  a  healthy  body  and  cheerful 
mind,  a  love  of  the  work,  endurance,  and  much 
tact  in  dealing  with  the  nervous  cases  for  which 
this  form  of  treatment  is  found  to  be  beneficial. 

It  may  be  undertaken  either 

1 i )  As  a  separate  profession,  or 

(2)  As  an  additional   qualification  by  trained 

nurses. 

The  training  must  be  good  and  adequate  to 
ensure  any  success  as  a  masseuse,  so  great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  the  choice  of  a  school. 
The  many  training  schools  advertised  are  of  vary- 
ing degrees  of  efficiency,  and  those  prepared  to 
train  in  a  few  weeks,  or  by  correspondence  only, 
are  obviously  unsatisfactory. 

On  application  to  the  secretary  of  the  Incor- 
porated Society  of  Trained  Masseuses,  information 
can  be  obtained  with  regard  to  the  training  schools 
in  London  and  the  Provinces  where  a  course  of 
instruction  in  massage  is  given,  which  is  accepted 
by  the  society  as  adequate. 

The  society  itself  is  an  independent  examining 
body  which  insists  on  a  satisfactory  standard 
for  massage  workers.  It  holds  two  examina- 
tions yearly  and  grants  a  certificate  to  successful 
candidates.  No  one  may  enter  for  the  examination 
unless  she  can  show  that  she  has  received  her 
training  at  one  of  the  schools  approved  by  the 
society. 


218  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

Adequate  training  in  massage  includes  a  course 
of  not  less  than  six  months  in  Elementary  Anatomy 
and  Physiology,  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Massage 
and  a  course  of  bandaging.  Students  usually  attend 
the  classes  from  10  A.M.  to  4  P.M.,  lectures  being 
given  in  the  morning,  demonstrations  and  practical 
work  on  "  model  patients  "  in  the  afternoon  hours. 

Sufficiently  advanced  students  are  allowed  to 
attend  at  hospitals  or  infirmaries  to  see — and  them- 
selves to  carry  out  under  the  teacher's  supervision 
—the  treatment  ordered  for  the  patients  by  the 
doctor.  In  this  way  all  students  have  opportunity 
during  their  training  of  seeing  and  giving  treat- 
ment to  the  various  cases  which  they  may  have 
to  deal  with  as  qualified  masseuses  when  working 
under  private  doctors. 

Some  training  schools  give  their  own  certificate 
after  training,  and  this  is  useful  as  a  guarantee  of 
the  training  taken.  It  is  not,  however,  such  an 
assurance  of  efficiency  to  the  medical  profession 
or  the  general  public  as  the  certificate  gained 
after  examination  by  an  independent  examining 
body. 

There  is  also  a  further  examination  held  by  the 
society  once  yearly  in  Medical  Gymnastics.  The 
minimum  time  to  expend  on  this  is  a  further  six 
months  after  qualifying  as  a  masseuse,  so  that  it 
takes  a  year  to  gain  the  double  qualification. 

In  addition  to  supplying  the  independent 
examination  in  these  subjects,  the  society  watches 
over  the  interests  of  the  masseuses.  All  its 
members  are  bound  to  observe  the  rules  of  the 
society.  The  result  of  this  is  threefold. 

(i)  The  doctor  is  assured  that  the  masseuse 
will  not  undertake  cases  on  her  own 
diagnosis,  but  work  only  under  qualified 
direction. 


MASSAGE  219 

(2)  The  public  is  assured  that  the  masseuse 

is  a  trustworthy  woman  as    well  as  an 
efficient  worker. 

(3)  The    masseuse   herself  is   protected    from 

undesirable    engagements.      This    is    of 
considerable  importance. 

The  training  for  the  examination  previously 
mentioned  is  from  10  to  15  guineas  for  those  taking 
the  course.  There  is  generally  some  reduction 
made  for  nurses.  The  further  course  in  Medical 
Gymnastics  costs  from  20  guineas. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  whole  train- 
ing is  comparatively  inexpensive ;  it  is,  however, 
not  a  profession  to  be  entered  lightly.  London 
is  already  overstocked  and  the  better  openings 
at  the  present  time  are  to  be  found  in  the  Pro- 
vinces, in  Scotland  and  the  Colonies.  It  is  well 
to  start,  if  possible,  in  a  town  where  the  masseuse 
is  already  known  either  to  the  doctors,  or  to 
some  influential  residents.  Much  depends  on  the 
individuality  of  the  masseuse,  and  one  who  is  pre- 
pared to  give  all  her  time  to  the  work,  taking 
every  call  that  comes,  may  reasonably  expect  to 
make  in  her  first  year  from  ,£50  to  £100.  By 
the  third  year  a  steady  connection  should  be 
formed,  bringing  in  an  income  of  ^150  to  .£250. 
This  cannot,  however,  be  expected  unless  the 
masseuse  has  some  introductions  to  start  her  in 
her  work. 

Fees  in  the  country  vary  from  35.  6d.  to  75.  a 
visit,  and  in  London  and  some  other  places  they 
rise  to  IDS.  6d.  for  an  hour  or  less. 

Hospital  and  nursing  -  home  appointments  are 
most  useful  as  experience  for  the  masseuse  in  her 
first  year ;  they  should  be  tried  before  she  finally 
decides  where  to  start  work.  Such  appointments 


220  THE   NURSING   PROFESSION 

are   residential,  and  the  salaries  offered  vary  from 
to  ;£7°  a  year- 


It  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  owing  to  the  short  and  com- 
paratively inexpensive  training,  very  many  women  take  up  this  work, 
so  that  the  above  excellent  results  are  not  realised  unless  the 
masseuse  has  good  introductions.  The  value  of  a  thoroughly  reliable 
society  such  as  that  mentioned  cannot  be  over-estimated,  not  only 
for  its  certificate,  but  also  on  account  of  the  information  it  can 
give  as  to  the  respectability  of  posts  advertised  for  masseuses 
Many  of  these  are  unfortunately  merely  blinds  for  undesirable  houses- 

[SUB-EDITOR.] 


SECTION   IV 

WOMEN  AS  SANITARY  INSPECTORS 
AND   HEALTH   VISITORS 

THE  introduction  of  women  into  the  public  health 
service  is  a  modern  development,  although  they 
have  been  engaged  in  it  longer  than  is  usually 
known. 

Women  who  are  employed  in  Public  Health 
Work  hold  office  under  Local  Sanitary  Authorities, 
and  their  work  must  not  be  confused  with  that  of 
the  Women  Home  Office  Officials,  who  were  first 
appointed  in  1895;  these  inspect  factories  and 
workshops,  but  their  powers  and  duties  are  of  a 
different  character.  For  instance,  the  Women 
Home  Office  Inspectors  deal,  amongst  other  things, 
with  the  cleanliness  of  factories,  but  not  with  the 
cleanliness  of  workshops,  and  with  the  heating  of 
workshops,  while  the  ventilation  of  the  same 
workshops  is  under  the  control  of  the  local 
sanitary  officials. 

Glasgow  was  the  first  county  borough  to  utilise 
the  services  of  Women  Health  Officials,  for  in  May 
1870  four  "Female  Visitors,"  afterwards  known  as 
Assistant  Sanitary  Inspectors,  were  appointed  in 
connection  with  the  Public  Health  Department. 
Their  duties  were  :  "  by  persuasion  principally,  to 
induce  the  women  householders  to  keep  the 
interiors  of  their  dwellings  in  a  clean  and  sanitary 
condition,  and  to  advise  generally  how  best  this 
can  be  maintained."  They  possessed  the  same 

221 


222,    WOMEN  AS  SANITARY  INSPECTORS 

right  of  entry  to  premises  as  the  men  inspectors, 
and  were  required  to  hold  the  certificate  of  the 
Incorporated  Sanitary  Association  of  Scotland. 
They  reported  certain  nuisances,  but  themselves 
dealt  with  others,  such  as  "dirty  homes  or  dirty 
bedding,  clothing,  and  furnishing." 

The  workof  Women  Health  Officials  in  England, 
dates  from  the  passing  of  the  Factory  and  Work- 
shops Act  of  1891,  when  certain  duties  with  regard 
to  workshops,  which  had  previously  been  performed 
by  the  Home  Office  Inspectors,  were  laid  upon 
Sanitary  Authorities. 

In  the  opinion  of  Dr  Orme  Dudfield,  late 
Medical  Officer  of  Health  for  Kensington :  "  It 
soon  became  apparent  that,  not  only  was  systematic 
inspection  necessary,  but  also  that  many  of  the 
duties  involved  were  of  so  special  and  delicate  a 
nature  that  they  could  not  be  satisfactorily  dis- 
charged by  male  inspectors."  He  therefore  recom- 
mended the  appointment  of  two  Women  Inspectors 
of  Workshops  in  Kensington.  In  the  meantime 
the  city  of  Nottingham  had  appointed  a  Woman 
Inspector  of  Workshops  in  May  1892,  and  in 
accordance  with  Dr  Dudfield's  recommendation  two 
Women  Inspectors  were  appointed  in  Kensington 
in  1893. 

These  ladies  were  appointed  as  inspectors  of 
workshops  only.  They  did  not  hold  Sanitary 
Certificates,  nor  had  they  the  status  of  Sanitary 
Inspectors.  In  practice,  this  entailed  a  visit  by  a 
male  inspector  every  time  it  was  necessary  to  serve 
a  legal  notice  for  the  abatement  of  any  contra- 
vention of  the  Factory  and  Workshops'  Act. 
Therefore,  when  these  ladies  resigned  upon  their 
appointment  as  Factory  Inspectors,  it  was  decided 
to  appoint  the  in  -  coming  ladies  as  Sanitary 
Inspectors,  with  power  to  deal  with  these  matters 
themselves.  It  was,  however,  Islington  which 


ft 

r\ 

to 


AND  HEALTH  VISITORS  ' 


appointed  the    first  woman  with   the   legal  status 
of  Sanitary  Inspector  in   1895. 

By  1901,  eleven  women  had  been  appointed  in 
the  Metropolitan  area  as  Sanitary  Inspectors,  nearly 
all  of  them  exclusively  engaged  in  the  inspection 
of  workshops.  Since  that  time  the  number  of 
women  appointed  by  Local  Sanitary  Authorities  has 
increased  considerably,  both  in  London  and  the 
Provinces.  The  exact  number  outside  London  is 
only  known  approximately,  as  no  register  exists 
which  is  available  to  the  public.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  this  information  may  be  obtainable 
from  the  last  census  returns.  The  figures  with 
regard  to  London  are  published  annually  by  the 
London  County  Council,  and  there  are  now  forty- 
one  Women  Sanitary  Inspectors  in  the  Metro- 
politan area. 

Sanitary  inspectors  in  London,  whether  men 
or  women,  are  required  to  hold  the  certificate  of 
the  Sanitary  Inspectors'  Examination  Board,  the 
examination  for  which  is  the  same  for  men  and 
women.1  Outside  London  no  definite  qualifica- 
tion is  required  by  the  Local  Government  Board, 
but  it  is  usual  in  county  and  municipal  boroughs 
for  a  sanitary  certificate  to  be  demanded  from 
candidates  for  the  position  of  Inspector  of  Nuisances 
(the  term  used  outside  London  for  Sanitary  Officials). 
Men  and  Women  Sanitary  Inspectors  possess  equal 
rights  of  entry  to  premises  and  equal  statutory 
powers  for  enforcing  compliance  with  the  law. 

The  duties  of  Women  Sanitary  Inspectors  have 
become  very  varied  and  numerous  during  the  past 
ten  years  ;  they  differ  considerably  according  to 
locality  and  to  the  opinions  of  the  local  Medical 
Officer  of  Health.  Broadly  speaking,  before  1905 

1  Full  particulars  of  this  can  be  obtained  from  the  Secretary, 
Sanitary  Inspectors'  Examination  Board,  Adelaide  Buildings,  London 
Bridge. 


224    WOMEN  AS  SANITARY  INSPECTORS 

women  in  London  were  mainly  engaged  in  the 
inspection  of  workshops,  whereas  in  the  Provinces 
(with  the  exception  of  Nottingham,  Leicester,  and 
Manchester)  they  were  engaged  in  house-to-house 
visitation  in  the  poorer  parts  of  the  towns,  with  a 
view  to  the  promotion  of  cleanliness,  giving  advice 
to  mothers  concerning  the  feeding  and  care  of 
infants  and  young  children,  and  the  detection  of 
sanitary  defects.  The  inspection  of  workshops  in 
the  Provinces  was  a  later  development. 

These  varied  duties  have  called  for  special 
qualifications,  and,  in  addition  to  certificates  in 
sanitation,  Women  Sanitary  Inspectors  usually 
hold  qualifications  in  nursing  or  midwifery.  The 
general  education  of  the  women  who  take  up  this 
profession  is,  on  the  whole,  superior  to  that  of 
the  men.  Most  of  the  women  have  had  a  high 
school  education,  and  many  are  University 
graduates,  while  the  men,  as  a  rule,  come  from  the 
elementary  schools. 

The  duties  of  a  Woman  Sanitary  Inspector  are 
sufficiently  varied  to  avoid  monotony,  and  may 
comprise  any  or  all  of  the  following  :— 

A.  (i)  The  inspection  of  factories  in  order  to 
see  that  suitable  and  sufficient  sanitary 
accommodation  is  provided  for  women, 
in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of 
the  Public  Health  Acts. 
(2)  The  carrying  out  of  the  provisions  of 
the  Public  Health  and  Factory  and 
Workshops  Acts,  with  regard  to  the 
registration  and  inspection  of 

(a)  laundries,  workshops,   and   work- 

places (including  kitchens  of 
hotels  and  restaurants)  where 
women  are  employed ; 

(b]  Outworkers'  premises. 


AND  HEALTH  VISITORS  225 

(3)  The  inspection  of  tenement  houses  and 
houses  let  in  lodgings,  and  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  bye-laws  of  the  Sanitary 
Authority  affecting  these. 

(4)  House-to-house  inspection  in  the  poorer 

parts  of  the  district. 

(5)  The   inspection  of  public  lavatories  for 

women. 

(6)  The  carrying  out  of  duties  and  inspection 

concerning 

(a)  Notifiable      infectious      diseases, 

such  as  scarlet  fever. 
(&)  Non-notifiable  infectious  diseases 

such  as  measles. 
(c)  The  notification  of  consumption. 

(7)  Taking    samples    under   the    Food    and 

Drugs  Acts.  (This  work  is  rarely 
given  to  women.) 

For  many  of  the  above  duties,  women  are 
obviously  better  fitted  than  men,  but  for  the  follow- 
ing most  important  group  of  duties  men  are  practi- 
cally disqualified  by  reason  of  their  sex  : — 

B.  Health  visiting.      Work  in  connection   with 
the  reduction  of  infantile  mortality  : — 

(1)  Notification  of  Births  Act,   1907.     Visit- 

ing infants  and  giving  advice  to  mothers 
about  the  feeding  and  general  manage- 
ment of  young  children. 

(2)  Advising    expectant    mothers      on     the 

management  of  their  health  and  as 
to  the  influence  of  ante-natal  conditions 
on  their  infants. 

(3)  Work  in  connection  with  milk  depots  and 

infant  consultations. 

(4)  Promotion  of  general   cleanliness  in  the 

home  and  discovery  of  sanitary  defects 


6\ 

7) 


226    WOMEN  AS  SANITARY  INSPECTORS 

remediable  under  the  Public  Health 
Acts. 

(5)  Investigation  of  deaths  of  infants  under 
one  year  of  age. 

Lecturing  at  mothers'  meetings. 

Organisation       of      voluntary       Health 
Workers   in  the   district   and  arrange- 
ment of  their  work. 
C.  The  following   duties  may  also  be  required 

in  the  Provinces  : — 

(1)  Work  relating  to  the  administration  of 

the  Midwives'  Act,  1902  (where  the 
County  Council  have  delegated  their 
powers  to  the  District  Council). 

(2)  The  inspection  of  shops  under  the  Shop 

Hours  Act,  1892-94,  and  the  Seats  for 
Shop- Assistants  Act,  1899. 

The  work  described  under  C.  i  and  2,  is  per- 
formed in  London  (except  in  the  City)  by  special 
inspectors  appointed  by  the  London  County 
Council,  who  also  inspect  employment  agencies 
where  sleeping  accommodation  is  provided  and 
carry  out  certain  duties  under  the  Children's  Act. 

(3)  Work  in  connection  with  the  medical 
inspection  of  school  children  (per- 
formed in  London  by  the  London 
County  Council  school  nurses). 

The  duties  of  Men  Sanitary  Inspectors  are  very 
clearly  defined,  and  differ  considerably  from  those 
of  the  women.  Men  are  mainly  engaged  in  the 
inspection  and  reconstruction  of  drains,  the 
detection  of  structural  defects  in  the  houses  of 
the  working  classes,  the  carrying  out  of  bye-laws 
with  regard  to  tenement  houses,  the  investigation 
of  cases  of  notifiable  infectious  diseases,  the 


AND  HEALTH  VISITORS  227 

inspection  of  workshops  and  factories,  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  law  with  regard  to  the  sale  of  foods 
and  drugs  and  the  abatement  of  smoke  nuisances. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  duties  enumerated 
above,  Women  Inspectors,  as  a  general  rule,  are 
brought  into  very  close  and  intimate  contact  with 
the  homes  of  the  people,  and  this  necessitates  the 
exercise  of  much  tact  and  patience.  The  large 
demands  thus  made  upon  their  powers  of  persuasion 
and  teaching  capacity,  involve  a  considerable  strain 
upon  their  nervous  energy  as  well  as  their  physical 
strength.  The  work  of  the  Men  Inspectors,  on  the 
other  hand,  being  of  a  more  official  character,  does 
not  involve  the  same  strain. 

There  is  no  uniformity  of  practice  with  regard 
to  hours  of  work,  holidays,  remuneration  or  super- 
annuation, either  within  or  without  the  metropolitan 
area.  Each  Local  Authority  makes  its  own  arrange- 
ments. Many  have  no  superannuation  scheme  and 
give  no  pensions.  Men  and  women  working  for 
the  same  Authority  usually  work  under  the  same 
conditions  as  to  hours  and  holidays :  the  rate  of 
remuneration,  however,  is  by  no  means  the  same. 
The  salaries  of  Women  Sanitary  Inspectors 
within  the  Metropolitan  area  range  from  ;£ioo  to 
£200  per  annum,  the  latter  figure  being  reached 
only  in  two  boroughs  and  in  the  City  of  London  : 
whilst  the  salaries  of  the  men  range  from  ^150  to 
^350.  The  average  maximum  salary  of  the  women 
is  ^150,  and  the  average  maximum  salary  of  the 
men  is  ^205.  Outside  London,  the  salaries  of 
both  men  and  women  are  lower,  those  of  the 
women  ranging  from  ,£65  to  ^100,  a  few 
rising  to  ^150.  Payments  are  made  monthly, 
and  a  month's  notice  can  be  demanded  on 
leaving,  though  it  is  frequently  not  enforced. 
Another  unjust  distinction  frequently  made 
between  men  and  women  is  that  the  latter  are 


228    WOMEN  AS  SANITARY  INSPECTORS 

generally  compelled  to  retire  upon  marriage,  thus 
enforcing  celibacy  on  some  of  our  most  capable 
women. 

The  hours  of  work  are  usually  from  9  A.M.  to 
5  or  6  P.M.  and  to  i  P.M.  on  Saturdays.  If  we  con- 
sider the  nature  of  the  work,  the  holidays  appear 
most  inadequate — viz.  :  only  from  two  to  three 
weeks  per  annum  are  allowed  in  London,  and 
from  ten  to  fourteen  days  in  many  provincial  towns. 


The  Health  Visitor,  as  a  public  official,  was  not 
known  until  1899,  when  several  were  appointed  by 
the  City  Council  of  Birmingham.  The  name 
"  Health  Visitor"  was  thought  to  be  more  feminine 
and  suitable  than  that  of  Inspector,  and  it  was 
imagined  that  she  would  in  consequence  be  better 
received  in  the  homes  of  the  people.  As  a  private 
society  in  Manchester  had  previously  engaged 
women  of  an  inferior  class  and  education  with  the 
title  of  "  Health  Visitor,"  this  designation  was 
deprecated  by  women  already  in  the  profession. 
Many  smaller  provincial  towns,  however,  followed 
the  example  of  Birmingham,  and  appointed  Health 
Visitors  instead  of  Women  Sanitary  Inspectors.  It 
was  not  until  later  that  the  Health  Visitor  was 
introduced  into  London,  and  in  the  following 
way : — 

In  the  Metropolitan  area  (exclusive  of  the  City) 
half  of  the  salary  of  all  Sanitary  Inspectors  is  paid 
out  of  the  County  Rate,  and  their  duties  are  defined 
in  Sections  107  and  108  of  the  Public  Health 
( London)  Act,  1 89 1 .  As  Medical  Officers  of  Health 
and  the  public  generally  became  more  and  more 
interested  in  the  question  of  infant  mortality, 
Women  Inspectors  were  employed  to  investigate 
infant  deaths,  to  visit  houses  where  a  birth  had 
taken  place  and  advise  mothers  on  infant  care, 


AND  HEALTH  VISITORS  229 

to  manage  milk  depots,  to  weigh  babies,  and  to 
assist  at  infant  consultations,  and  to  do  a  great 
deal  of  work  which  hitherto  had  not  been  con- 
sidered the  work  of  a  Sanitary  Inspector.  There  was 
never  any  question  as  to  the  value  of  the  work  done 
nor  of  the  efficiency  with  which  it  was  performed, 
but  the  Local  Government  Board  Auditor  took  the 
view  that  it  did  not  come  within  the  scope  of  the 
order  of  1891,  defining  the  duties  of  a  Sanitary 
Inspector,  and  he  refused  to  sanction  the  payment 
out  of  the  County  Rate  of  half  the  salary  of  those 
women  who  were  engaged  in  Health  Visiting  work. 
In  March  1905,  the  borough  of  Kensington  solved 
the  difficulty  for  itself  by  appointing  a  Health  Visitor 
and  paying  the  whole  of  her  salary  out  of  the  Local 
Rate ;  but  less  wealthy  boroughs  felt  unable  to  do 
this.  It  was  work  which  the  Sanitary  Authorities 
wanted  to  undertake ;  it  was  work  which  the 
London  County  Council  and  the  Local  Government 
Board  were  desirous  of  seeing  performed,  but  this 
technical  difficulty  stood  in  the  way.  It  was  over- 
come by  the  inclusion  in  the  London  County 
Council  General  Powers'  Act  of  1908,  of  Section  7, 
which  empowered  Sanitary  Authorities  in  the 
Metropolitan  area  to  appoint  Health  Visitors,  and 
this  enabled  the  London  County  Council  to  con- 
tribute half  their  salaries  out  of  the  County  Rate. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  at  the  present  time  (November 
1913)  the  whole  of  the  salary  of  Health  Visitors  in 
London  is  being  paid  out  of  the  Local  Rate,  as 
the  Exchequer  contribution  account  is  completely 
depleted  by  the  payment  of  the  moiety  of  the  salary 
of  Sanitary  Inspectors. 

The  essential  difference  between  a  Woman 
Sanitary  Inspector  and  a  Health  Visitor  is  that  the 
Woman  Sanitary  Inspector  is  a  statutory  officer 
with  a  legal  position,  having  definite  rights  of 
entry  and  certain  statutory  powers  for  enforcing 


230    WOMEN  AS  SANITARY  INSPECTORS 

the  Public  Health  Acts,  while  a  Health  Visitor  is 
a  purely  advisory  officer,  with  no  legal  status  or 
right  of  entry  or  power  to  carry  out  any  of  the 
provisions  of  the  Public  Health  Acts. 

In  actual  practice,  the  title  of  Inspector  has 
in  no  way  proved  an  obstacle  to  successful  health 
visiting,  as  may  be  demonstrated  by  an  enquiry 
into  the  work  now  being  carried  on  by  Women 
Sanitary  Inspectors  in  Sheffield,  Leeds,  Liverpool, 
Bradford,  London,  and  other  places.  On  the 
contrary,  it  has  enabled  officials  to  obtain  an  entry 
into  dirty  and  insanitary  places  and  to  expose 
cases  of  neglect,  which  might  otherwise  have 
remained  undiscovered. 

The  Health  Visitor  is  usually  paid  a  lower 
salary  than  the  Woman  Sanitary  Inspector ;  this 
ranges  in  London  from  £100  to  £120;  in  the 
provinces  it  may  be  as  low  as  £6$  per  annum, 
and  rarely  rises  above  £100.  The  hours  of  work 
and  holidays  are,  as  a  rule,  the  same  as  for 
Women  Sanitary  Inspectors.  The  difference  in 
salary  has  proved  a  great  temptation  to  Local 
Authorities  in  London  to  appoint  Health  Visitors 
when  Women  Sanitary  Inspectors  would  have  been 
more  useful  and  efficient  officers.  Indeed,  it  is 
to  be  deplored  that  very  few  members  of  Local 
Authorities  understood  the  advantages  to  be  gained 
by  the  appointment  of  the  more  highly  qualified 
official.  The  immediate  effect  of  Section  7  was 
that  several  boroughs,  having  no  women  officials, 
proceeded  to  appoint  Health  Visitors ;  other 
boroughs,  which  possessed  Women  Sanitary  In- 
spectors, also  appointed  Health  Visitors.  Seven 
or  eight  boroughs  re  -  appointed  their  women 
officials  in  the  dual  capacity  of  Sanitary  Inspector 
and  Health  Visitor  so  that  the  work  in  those  cases 
went  on  as  before.  An  indirect  effect  has  been 
the  almost  complete  cessation  of  the  appointment 


AND  HEALTH  VISITORS  231 

of  Women  Sanitary  Inspectors  and  the  diminu- 
tion in  their  number  in  some  boroughs  by  the 
lapse  of  appointments  on  resignation  or  marriage. 
The  inspection  of  workshops  where  women  are 
employed  has,  in  several  instances,  fallen  back 
into  the  hands  of  Men  Inspectors,  whose  unsuit- 
ability  for  this  work  first  called  women  in  England 
into  the  Public  Health  Service. 

In  September  1909  the  Local  Government 
Board  issued  the  following  order  with  regard  to 
Health  Visitors  in  London  : — 

"  Art.  i.  Qualifications.  A  woman  shall  be  qualified 
to  be  appointed  a  Health  Visitor  if  she 

(a)  is  a  duly  qualified  medical  practitioner  ;  or 

(b)  is  a  duly  qualified  nurse  with  three  years'  training 

in  a  hospital  or  infirmary,  being  a  training  school 
for  nurses  and  having  a  resident  physician  or 
surgeon ;  or 

(c)  is  certified  under  the  Midwives'  Act,  1902  ;  or 

(d)  has   had   six   months'    nursing    experience   in    a 

hospital  receiving  children  as  well  as  adults, 
and  holds  the  certificate  of  the  Royal  Sanitary 
Institute  for  Health  Visitors  and  School  Nurses,or 
the  Diploma  of  the  National  Health  Society ;  or 

(e)  has   discharged  duties  similar  to  those  presented 

in  the  regulations  in  the  services  of  a  Sanitary 
Authority  and  produces  such  evidence  as  suffices 
to  prove  her  competency ;  or 

(/")  has  a  competent  knowledge  and  experience  of 
the  theory  and  practice  of  nurture,  and  the  care 
and  management  of  young  children,  of  attendance 
on  women  in  and  immediately  after  child-birth, 
and  of  nursing  attendance  in  cases  of  sickness 
or  other  mental  or  bodily  infirmity. 

"  Art.  2.  Every  appointment  must  be  confirmed  by 
the  Board. 

"Art.  6.  Enables  a  Sanitary  Authority  to  determine 
the  appointment  of  a  Health  Visitor  by  giving  her  three 
months'  notice,  and  no  woman  may  be  appointed  unless 


232     WOMEN  AS  SANITARY  INSPECTORS 

she  agrees  to  give  three  months'  notice  previous  to  resign- 
ing the  office  or  to  forfeit  a  sum  to  be  agreed. 

"  Art.  8.  Outlines  the  duties  of  the  Health  Visitor  but 
prohibits  her  from  discharging  duties  pertaining  to  the 
position  of  a  Sanitary  Inspector  (unless  with  the  consent 
of  the  Board  she  holds  the  dual  appointment). 

"Art.  9.  The  Board's  approval  is  required  to  the 
salary  to  be  paid  to  the  Health  Visitor,  and  an  allowance 
in  respect  of  clothing,  where  uniform  or  other  distinctive 
dress  is  required,  may  be  made." 

The  Board  in  their  circular  letter  state  that 
they  consider  that,  in  consideration  of  the  impor- 
tance of  the  duties  and  of  the  salaries  often  paid  to 
Women  Sanitary  Inspectors  in  London,  the  salary 
ought  not  to  be  less  than  £100  per  annum. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  it  is  quite 
possible  for  a  Health  Visitor  to  be  appointed 
practically  without  any  qualification  for  the  position, 
and  with  absolutely  no  knowledge  of  Public  Health 
Law  and  sanitation. 

It  is,  therefore,  apparent  that  there  are  two 
classes  of  women  officials  in  connection  with  Public 
Health  Departments,  one  on  the  same  footing  as  the 
men,  with  equal  powers  and  responsibilities,  but 
remunerated  at  a  much  lower  rate,  and  another 
with  a  lower  status  and  a  still  lower  rate  of 
remuneration.  The  duties  of  the  second  class 
may  be  performed  equally  well  by  the  first,  but 
the  duties  of  the  first  cannot  be  performed  by 
the  second.  The  introduction  of  the  Health  Visitor 
has  therefore  lowered  the  status  of  the  Public  Health 
Service. 

The  remedy  for  this  state  of  affairs  is  for 
competent  woman  officials  in  the  future  to  be 
appointed  in  the  dual  capacity  of  Sanitary  Inspector 
and  Health  Visitor  at  an  adequate  remuneration, 
and  for  the  order  of  1891  defining  the  duties  of 
a  Sanitary  Inspector  to  be  expanded  to  meet  the 


AND  HEALTH  VISITORS  233 

developments    which   have    been    taking    place    in 
the  Public  Health  Acts  since  that  date. 

There  are  two  organisations  which  Women 
Sanitary  Inspectors  may  join  : — 

(1)  The  Women  Sanitary  Inspectors'   Associa- 

tion, which  includes  as  members  Women 
Sanitary  Inspectors  and  Health  Visitors 
holding  recognised  certificates  in  sanita- 
tion. (Health  Visitors  holding  official 
appointments  but  without  these  recog- 
nised certificates  in  sanitation  may  become 
associates.) 

(2)  The  Sanitary  Inspectors'  Association,  which 

is  composed  of  a  large  number  of  Men 
Sanitary  Inspectors  and  a  few  Women 
Sanitary  Inspectors.  This  is  not  open 
to  Health  Visitors. 

There  is  no  approved  society  for  Sanitary 
Inspectors  under  the  Insurance  Act.  The  income 
of  the  majority  of  Men  Inspectors  exempts  them 
from  the  operation  of  the  Act,  but  a  large  number 
of  Men  and  Women  Inspectors  receiving  less 
than  £160  per  annum,  have  joined  the  approved 
society  of  the  National  Association  of  Local  Govern- 
ment Officers. 

To  sum  up,  we  may  say  that  on  the  whole 
the  life  of  a  Health  Official  is  a  healthy  and  suitable 
one  for  a  woman  of  average  physique ;  it  demands 
great  activity,  with  many  hours  spent  out  of  doors, 
and  whoever  undertakes  it  must  be  prepared  for 
surprises  and  difficulties.  She  may  find  herself 
in  an  office  staffed  entirely  by  men,  with  chief, 
committee,  and  council  composed  entirely  of  men 
—indeed  everything  looked  at  from  /the  male 
standpoint.  She  either  works  singly  or  in  small 
groups  of  two  or  three,  except  in  a  few  large 


234    WOMEN  AS  SANITARY  INSPECTORS 

towns  where  the  women  officials  may  number  from 
ten  to  twenty.  Thus  isolated  and  scattered,  it  is 
extremely  difficult  for  the  Women  Health  Officials 
to  form  an  effective  organisation.  What  is  accom- 
plished under  one  Authority  may  have  little  or  no 
effect  upon  another. 

One  condition  which  presses  heavily  on  many 
women  is  the  shortness  of  the  holidays.  The  work 
is  always  arduous,  particularly  in  poor  districts 
where  one  is  brought  face  to  face  with  poverty, 
disease,  and  suffering,  and  from  two  to  three  weeks 
is  not  sufficient  for  rest  and  recuperation,  par- 
ticularly as  the  years  pass  on. 

The  creation  of  public  opinion  and  the  advent  of 
a  greater  number  of  women  on  Municipal  Councils 
and  Health  Committees  is  greatly  needed  to  improve 
the  conditions  under  which  women  officials  work, 
and  to  support  their  reasonable  demands.1 

1  The  above  article  considers  under  the  term  "  Health  Visitors  ;> 
such  women  only  as  are  serving  under  public  Municipal  Authorities. 
Unfortunately,  since  it  gives  rise  to  confusion,  the  name  is  also  used 
in  connection  with  officials  privately  appointed  by  various  charitable 
institutions.  These  have  no  universally  recognised  standard  of 
attainments  :  some  of  the  so-called  "  Health  Visitors  "  are  without  any 
qualifications,  others,  e.g.,  those  employed  by  the  Jewish  Board  ot 
Guardians,  are  fully  trained  and  do  excellent  work,  comparable  with 
that  performed  by  Hospital  Almoners.  We  hope,  in  a  later  volume  of 
this  series,  to  publish  an  article  on  their  duties  and  position.  [EDITOR.] 


SECTION  V 

WOMEN   IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 


THE   HIGHER   GRADES  :   PRESENT  POSITION 
AND   PROSPECTS   FOR  THE   FUTURE 

THE  claim  that  women  should  be  allowed  to  enter 
not  only  the  lower  but  the  higher  branches  of  the 
Civil  Service  is  being  freely  made  at  the  present 
time.  It  is  very  generally  felt  that  posts  in  which 
the  holder  has  to  execute  judgment  and  to  decide 
on  administrative  matters  should  be  open  to  women 
as  well  as  to  men. 

Many  reasons  are  urged  for  admitting  women 
more  freely  to  a  share  in  the  responsible  work  of 
the  Service,  but  the  true  basis  of  their  claim  lies  in 
this — that  the  most  successful  form  of  government 
and  [the  happiest  condition  for  the  governed  can 
only  be  attained,  in  the  State  as  in  the  family, 
when  masculine  and  feminine  influences  work  in 
harmony. 

It  is  not,  perhaps,  widely  known  that  women 
have  already  made  their  way  into  many  branches 
of  the  Service  and  have  done  invaluable  work 
therein.  Perhaps  the  strongest  argument  that 
can  be  urged  in  favour  of  their  admission  into  yet 
other  branches  of  the  Service  will  be  found  in 

235 


VA 

\  v& 

m   236        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

.^v- 

^  $•£••  the  following  brief  survey  of  the  appointments 
held  and  the  work  already  done  by  them  in  various 
directions. 

Tke  Local  Government  Boards 

The  credit  of  being  the  first  Government 
Department  to  appoint  a  Woman  Inspector  belongs 
to  the  English  Local  Government  Board.  As  far 
back  as  1873,  yielding  to  the  pressure  of  public 
opinion,  that  Board  appointed  a  Woman  Inspector, 
with  full  powers  to  inspect  workhouses,  and  district 
schools.  During  the  short  period  of  her  appoint- 
ment, this  lady  did  excellent  work,  and  called 
attention  to  much  needed  reforms  in  the  education 
of  girls  in  Poor  Law  Schools.  Unfortunately,  owing 
to  a  breakdown  in  health,  she  was  obliged  to 
resign  her  appointment  in  November  1874,  and 
the  Local  Government  Board,  either  repenting  of 
its  enlightened  action,  or  not  appreciating  the  aid 
of  a  woman  even  in  matters  concerning  the  welfare 
of  women  and  girls,  refrained  from  appointing  a 
woman  to  succeed  her.  It  was  not  until  1885  that 
another  Woman  Inspector  was  appointed,  and  then 
her  work  was  restricted  to  the  inspection  of  Poor 
Law  Children  boarded  out  beyond  the  Union  to 
which  they  belonged.  In  1896,  once  more  by  reason 
of  the  pressure  of  public  opinion,  a  woman  was 
appointed  as  an  Assistant  Inspector  of  Poor  Law 
Institutions  in  the  Metropolis.  In  1898  a  second 
Inspector  of  Boarded-out  Children  was  appointed, 
and  in  1903  the  number  of  Inspectors  was  increased 
to  three,  each  Inspector  having  a  district  assigned 
to  her. 

Four  years  ago  the  total  number  of  Women 
Inspectors  was  increased  to  seven,  and  the  scope 
of  their  duties  somewhat  widened,  as  will  be  seen 
below.  There  is  now  one  Superintendent  Inspector 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  237 

••- 

§ 

at  a  salary  of  ,£400  to  ^450,  and  six  Inspectors  at 
^250  to  ^350.  Candidates  for  these  inspectorships 
must  have  had  considerable  administrative  experi- 
ence. They  must  hold  a  certificate  of  three  years' 
training  as  a  Nurse,  and  the  Central  Midwives' 
Board's  certificate  is  considered  desirable.  These 
qualifications  have  only  been  required  since  1910. 

The  duties  assigned  to  the  Women  Inspectors 
include  (i)  the  inspection  of  boarded-out  children, 
both  within  and  beyond  the  Poor  Law  Unions 
to  which  they  belong;  and  (2)  the  inspection  of 
Poor  Law  Institutions — i.e.,  infirmaries,  sick  wards 
of  workhouses,  maternity  wards,  and  workhouse 
nurseries  :  also  of  Certified  Homes,  Cottage  Homes, 
and  Scattered  Homes. 

The  duties  of  the  Women  Inspectors  in  connec- 
tion with  the  boarding-out  of  Poor  Law  Children 
include  the  visiting  of  officials  of  Boarding-Out 
Committees,  and  of  homes  in  which  children  are 
boarded  out;  the  Inspector  visits  a  sufficient  number 
of  children  and  homes  to  enable  her  to  satisfy  herself 
that  the  duties  of  the  Boarding-Out  Committee  are 
carried  out  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and  makes  a 
report  to  the  Board  thereon.  Women  Inspectors 
arrange  their  own  inspections  of  boarded  -  out 
children  within  a  prescribed  district. 

Each  of  the  fourteen  districts  into  which  the 
country  is  divided  for  Poor  Law  purposes  is  placed 
under  the  care  of  a  General  Inspector  (male), 
whilst  the  half  dozen  Women  Inspectors  are 
available  for  duty  in  these  districts,  but  only  at 
the  invitation  of  the  General  Inspector.  If  an 
Inspector  omits  to  arrange  for  these  visits  it  is 
possible  for  his  district  to  remain  unvisited  by  a 
Woman  Inspector  for  an  indefinite  period.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  there  are  still  194  Unions 
without  a  woman  on  the  Board  of  Guardians,  the 
present  arrangement,  by  which  the  Women 


238        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

Inspectors  can  only  inspect  Poor  Law  Institutions 
on  sufferance,  is  seen  to  be  indefensible  and  the 
need  for  reform  in  this  direction  urgent. 

There  is  one  Assistant  Woman  Inspector,  who 
is  a  highly  qualified  medical  woman,  in  the  Public 
Health  Department  of  the  Board.  She  has  been 
in  office  only  a  few  months,  but  it  has  been 
remarked  in  more  than  one  quarter  that  the 
enhanced  value  of  the  recent  report  of  the  Board's 
Medical  Officer  on  Infant  Mortality  is  due  to  her 
co-operation. 

The  jurisdiction  of  the  Local  Government 
Board  in  London  is  confined  to  England  and 
Wales — Scotland  and  Ireland  having  their  own 
Boards  in  Edinburgh  and  Dublin  respectively. 

The  Local  Government  Board  for  Scotland 
appointed  a  Woman  Inspector  for  the  first  time 
about  three  years  ago,  at  a  salary  of  ^"200  a  year. 
She  is  a  fully  qualified  medical  woman.  Her  duties 
include  both  Poor  Law  Work  (e.g.  the  inspection  of 
children  in  poor-houses  or  boarded  out,  enquiries 
into  complaints  of  inadequate  relief  to  widows) 
and  Public  Health  Work  (e.g.  enquiries  into  any 
special  incidence  of  disease). 

The  Local  Government  Board  for  Ireland 
employs  two  Women  Inspectors,  one  at  a  salary 
of  .^200-10-^300  and  the  other  at  a  salary  of 
£200,  to  inspect  boarded-out  children. 

There  are  no  prescribed  qualifications  for  these 
posts ;  but  they  have  always  been,  and  still  are, 
held  by  highly  qualified  women  --  distinguished 
graduates  and  experienced  in  social  work ;  one 
is  a  doctor  of  medicine. 

Sir  Henry  Robinson,  Vice-President  of  the 
Local  Government  Board  for  Ireland,  said  in 
his  evidence  before  the  Royal  Commission  on 
the  Civil  Service  that  he  would  like  to  have  one 
or  two  women  doctors  to  go  round  the  work-houses 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  239 

and  to  visit  the  female  wards,  but  the  salaries 
offered  by  the  Treasury  to  women  doctors  seemed 
to  him  too  low  to  attract  well  qualified  women. 

The   Home    Office 

It  was  about  twenty  years  ago  that  the  Home 
Office  began  to  realise  that  the  ever-increasing 
number  of  women  and  girl  workers  in  factories 
and  workshops  made  it  imperative  that  women 
as  well  as  men  inspectors  should  be  appointed 
if  the  Factory  Acts  intended  for  the  protection 
of  workers  were  to  be  effectually  enforced.  There 
was  no  doubt  even  from  the  first  about  the  useful- 
ness of  these  Women  Inspectors,  but  in  ten  years' 
time  the  number  appointed  for  the  whole  of  the 
United  Kingdom  had  only  increased  to  eight.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  present  year,  1913,  they 
numbered  eighteen,  and  only  within  the  last  few 
months  has  this  number  been  increased  to  twenty. 

There  is  one  Woman  Inspector  of  Prisons  at 
a  salary  of  ^"300-15-^400.  (The  lowest  salary 
received  by  Men  Inspectors  is  ^600-20-^700.) 

There  is  also  one  Woman  Assistant  Inspector  of 
Reformatories  and  Industrial  Schools.  Her  salary 
is  ^200-10-^300,  whilst  that  of  Men  Assistant 
Inspectors  is  ^"250-15-^400. 

Women  Factory  Inspectors  are  appointed  in  the 
same  way  as  men.  A  register  of  candidates  is 
kept  in  the  office,  in  which  the  name  of  every 
applicant  is  entered.  When  a  vacancy  occurs  a 
selection  is  made  from  the  list,  and  the  best 
qualified  candidates  are  interviewed  by  a  Com- 
mittee of  Selection,  consisting  of  the  Parliamentary 
Under-Secretary,  the  Private  Secretary,  the  Chief 
Inspector  of  Factories  and  the  Chief  Woman 
Inspector.  Generally  speaking,  about  one  half  of 
the  candidates  interviewed  are  selected  to  sit  for 


240        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

an  examination  in  general  subjects.  At  the  end 
of  two  years'  probation  a  qualifying  examination 
in  Factory  Law  and  Sanitary  Science  must  be 
passed. 

The  Principal  Woman  Inspector  is  responsible 
to  the  Chief  Inspector  of  Factories  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Women  Inspectors'  work  throughout 
the  United  Kingdom.  Women  Inspectors  are 
stationed  at  Manchester,  Birmingham,  Glasgow, 
and  Belfast.  The  work  of  the  Women  Inspectors 
is  so  organised  as  to  be  entirely  separate  from 
that  of  the  Men  Inspectors,  although  they  cover 
the  same  ground.  The  nature  and  scope  of  the 
women's  work  is  so  generally  known  that  it  is 
perhaps  unnecessary  to  describe  it  in  much  detail. 
Investigations  into  cases  of  accident  affecting 
women  and  girl  workers  or  into  complaints  as  to 
the  conditions  under  which  they  work  are  promptly 
made  by  the  Women  Inspectors.  Women  Inspectors 
(equally  with  men)  have  power  to  enter  and  inspect 
all  factory  and  workshop  premises  where  women 
and  girls  are  employed.  They  are  empowered  to 
enforce  the  provisions  of  the  Factory  and  Truck 
Acts  and  to  prosecute  in  cases  of  breach  of  the 
law.  They  conduct  their  own  prosecutions. 

The  reports  of  the  Women  Inspectors  evoked 
much  appreciative  comment  during  a  recent  debate 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  Some  interesting 
remarks  on  their  work  are  also  to  be  found  in 
the  evidence  given  before  the  Royal  Commission 
on  the  Civil  Service  by  Sir  Edward  Troup,  K.C.B., 
Permanent  Under-Secretary  of  the  Home  Office. 

The  number  of  Women  Inspectors  at  present 
employed  is  not  nearly  large  enough  to  cope  with 
the  work  that  needs  to  be  done.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  staff  enumerated  above  is 
responsible  for  the  inspection  of  factories  and 
workshops  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  as  well  as  in 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  241 

England,  and  that  the  number  of  women  engaged 
in  industrial  work  has  increased  during  the  last 
five  years  from  about  one  and  a  half  millions  to 
two  millions.  The  necessity  of  increasing  the 
number  of  Women  Inspectors  has  frequently  been 
urged  upon  the  Government  in  the  House  of 
Commons  and  in  the  press,  and  it  seems  probable 
that  the  Government  must  soon  yield  to  this 
pressure. 

The  following  extract  from  the  Women  s  Trade 
Union  League  Quarterly  Review,  July  1913,  may 
be  of  interest  in  this  connection : — 

"  That  the  Women  Inspectors'  staff  in  particular  is  far 
below  the  numerical  strength  which  would  enable  it  to 
cope  adequately — we  do  not  say  completely — with  the 
task  presented  to  it,  has  long  been  patent  to  every  one 
who  knows  anything  of  the  industrial  world  and  the 
part  taken  in  it  by  the  woman  worker.  But  in  1912 
promotions  and  resignations  left  gaps  in  the  already 
meagre  ranks  which  for  some  time  were  not  filled  even 
by  recruits,  with  the  result  that  the  number  of  inspections 
was  necessarily  reduced  in  proportion.  To  those  who 
realise,  as  we  do,  the  importance  of  the  women  inspectors' 
visits,  both  in  detecting  infringements  of  the  law  and  in 
making  clear  its  provisions  and  their  value  to  the  employer 
and  worker  alike,  this  decrease,  even  for  a  time,  of  the 
opportunities  which  Miss  Anderson's  staff  enjoy  of 
exercising  their  beneficent  and  educative  influence  seems 
altogether  deplorable.  The  recent  promise  of  the  Home 
Secretary  to  increase  that  staff  by  two  is  very  welcome, 
but  we  cannot  pretend  to  think  that  such  an  increase 
will  meet  the  need  which  these  pages  reveal." 

There  is  one  Woman  Inspector  of  Prisons,  a 
qualified  medical  woman,  who  acts  also  as  Assistant 
Inspector  of  State  and  Certified  Inebriate  Reforma- 
tories. Her  salary  is  ^300-15-^400,  whilst 
the  lowest  salary  received  by  Men  Inspectors  is 
^"600-20-^700. 

There   is   one   Woman   Assistant   Inspector  of 

Q 


242        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

Reformatories  and  Industrial  Schools  in  Great 
Britain.  Her  salary  is  ,£200-1 0-^300,  whilst  that 
of  Men  Assistant  Inspectors  is  ^250-15-^400. 

The  Board  of  Trade 

The  first  woman  to  be  admitted  to  the  higher 
branches  of  the  Board  of  Trade  was  appointed  as 
a  Labour  Correspondent  in  1893.  ^n  I9°3  sne 
became  the  Senior  Investigator  for  Women's 
Industries,  the  salary  of  the  post  being  fixed  at 
^450.  A  Senior  Investigator's  Assistant  was 
also  appointed  at  a  salary  of  ^120-10-^200, 
but  the  salary  has  now  been  increased  to  ^200- 
^300.  These  posts  are  open  only  to  University 
women  with  high  honours. 

The  Senior  Investigator,  with  the  help  of  her 
Assistant,  undertakes  special  enquiries  into  the 
conditions  in  women's  industries.  Perhaps  her 
most  important  function  is  to  originate  investiga- 
tions concerning  women,  which  will  yield  informa- 
tion likely  to  be  useful  to  the  Department  in  the 
future,  when  some  particular  question  comes  up 
for  discussion  or  decision.  For  instance,  when 
the  question  of  bringing  laundries  within  the 
scope  of  the  Trade  Boards  Act  was  under  dis- 
cussion, the  investigations  previously  made  by 
the  Women  Investigators  into  wages  and  con- 
ditions proved  invaluable. 

There  are  also  three  Women  Investigators 
appointed  in  connection  with  the  Trade  Boards. 
Their  duty  is  to  assist  in  the  collection  of  informa- 
tion relating  to  the  scheduled  trades,  in  all  of 
which  a  large  number  of  women  is  employed. 
They  may  be  called  upon  to  help  in  the  preliminary 
work  involved  in  setting  up  new  Trade  Boards. 
They  explain  as  far  as  necessary  the  provisions 
of  the  Act  to  the  working  women  concerned  get 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  243 

nominations  of  workers  to  sit  on  those  Boards 
and  otherwise  assist  the  Boards  in  carrying  out 
their  functions.  They  also  conduct  inspections  to 
see  that  the  law  is  carried  out. 

All  these  appointments  are  made  by  the 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Civil  Service  Commissioners. 


Labour  Exchanges 

The  establishment  of  Labour  Exchanges  under 
the  Board  of  Trade  some  years  ago  gave  occasion 
for  the  appointment  of  a  considerable  number  of 
women  to  responsible  posts.  On  the  organising 
staff  at  the  Central  Office  there  is  a  Principal 
Woman  Officer  at  ^400-15-^450,  who  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  organisation  of  the  women's  work 
in  all  the  Labour  Exchanges.  She  has  an 
Assistant  at  ;£i  50-^7,  ios.--^2OO.  A  woman  also 
acts  as  Secretary  to  the  large  London  Juvenile 
Advisory  Committee.  She  has  the  acting  rank 
of  an  Assistant  Divisional  Officer,  although  her 
salary  (,£300-1 5-^400)  is  less  than  that  received 
by  men  Assistant  Divisional  Officers. 

There  are  nine  Senior  Organising  Officers  with 
salaries  of  ^250-10-^350,  six  of  whom  are  women. 
The  three  men  holding  these  appointments  deal 
with  Juvenile  work  only,  whereas  some  of  the 
women  are  in  charge  of  both  Women's  and  Juvenile 
work.  Of  the  five  Junior  Organising  Officers  at 
£200- £7  j  ios.-^25O,  three  are  women.  The  nine 
Assistant  Organising  Officers  at  ;£  150-^7,  ios.- 
^200  are  all  women.  All  these  officers  are  engaged 
in  organising  the  work  of  the  Juvenile  and  Women's 
Departments  all  over  the  country,  and  inspecting 
local  offices.  There  are  also  twenty  secretaries 
to  Juvenile  Advisory  Committees,  who  may  be 


244        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

either  men  or  women.  The  salary  for  these  posts 
is  ^150-5-^200. 

In  the  Divisional  Offices  there  are  some  staff 
posts  open  to  women  at  a  salary  of  ^200  to  ^300. 
Their  work  is  purely  clerical,  and  is  concerned 
with  Unemployment  Insurance. 

The  original  appointments  in  this  branch  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  were  made  by  a  Selection 
Committee  on  which  the  Civil  Service  Com- 
missioners were  represented.  Applications  were 
invited  by  advertisement,  and  a  large  number 
of  candidates  was  interviewed.  The  more  recent 
appointments  have  been  filled  by  candidates  who 
have  first  appeared  before  a  Board,  and  have  then 
passed  a  qualifying  examination,  conducted  by 
the  Civil  Service  Commission. 

Board  of  Education 

The  Board  of  Education  (or  the  Education 
Department,  as  it  was  then  called)  was  established 
in  consequence  of  the  passing  of  the  Elementary 
Education  Act  of  1870.  Its  jurisdiction  was  and 
still  is  limited  to  England  and  Wales. 

Notwithstanding  that  it  was  responsible  to 
Parliament  for  regulating  the  conduct  of  public 
elementary  education  all  over  the  country,  and 
that  in  those  schools  there  were  hundreds  of 
women  teachers  and  thousands  of  little  girl 
pupils,  it  seems  not  to  have  occurred  to  the 
Department  to  call  in  the  aid  of  women  either 
as  inspectors  or  administrators  until  the  appoint- 
ment in  1884  of  a  Directress  of  Needlework.  A 
Directress  of  Cookery  was  added  in  1891,  and 
laundry  work  was  brought  under  her  supervision 
in  1893.  It  was  only  when  the  passing  of  the 
Education  Act  of  1893  nacl  brought  other  forms 
of  education — secondary,  technical,  and  scientific— 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  245 

more  completely  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Department  that  the  need  for  Women  Inspectors 
began  to  be  felt.  In  justice  to  the  Department 
it  must  be  said  that  having  once  realised  the 
need,  they  did  not  meet  it  grudgingly.  The  first 
Women  Inspectors  were  appointed  in  1904,  and 
by  the  spring  of  1905  there  were  no  less  than 
twelve,  one  of  whom  was  appointed  as  Chief. 
Since  then  the  number  has  been  steadily  increasing, 
and  there  are  now  45 — a  much  more  satisfactory 
rate  of  progress  than  that  of  the  Women  Factory 
Inspectors. 

Educational  Inspectors. — There  are  now  i  Chief 
Woman  Inspector,  at  a  salary  of  ^650 ;  45 
Inspectors,  8  at  ^400-10-^500,  and  35  at 
^"200- 1 5-^400. 

The  method  of  appointment  of  Women 
Inspectors  is  similar  to  that  of  men — i.e.,  by 
nomination  of  the  President  of  the  Board  of 
Education.  The  Chief  Woman  Inspector  first 
interviews  candidates,  weighs  their  qualifications, 
and  reports  upon  them  to  the  Secretary.  There 
is  no  examination  on  appointment.  Besides 
academic  qualifications,  which  are  the  same  as 
those  of  men,  many  of  the  Inspectors  have 
special  qualifications,  as  well  as  having  had 
practical  experience  in  teaching. 

A  special  class  of  work  is  allotted  to  each 
Inspector :  about  17  of  them  are  occupied  in 
inspecting  Girls'  and  Infants'  Public  Elementary 
Schools:  15  are  responsible  for  Domestic  Subject 
Centres  in  Elementary  Schools :  4  for  Girls'  and 
Mixed  Secondary  Schools  :  3  for  Training  Colleges 
(women's  and  mixed) :  and  3  again  for  Domestic 
and  Trade  Courses  and  Girls'  Clubs. 

In  the  case  of  secondary  schools,  the  Women 
Inspectors  pay  special  attention  to  women's  subjects, 
but  they  also  take  part  in  full  inspections.  They 


246        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

are  not  in  charge  of  districts,  and  therefore  do  not 
carry  on  the  miscellaneous  correspondence  with  the 
Local  Education  Authorities  which  falls  to  the  lot 
of  a  District  Inspector.  In  relation  to  domestic 
subjects,  however,  the  Women  Inspectors  are 
practically  in  charge  of  districts,  and  deal  directly 
with  Local  Education  Authorities.  They  inspect 
the  work  done  by  girls,  and  look  into  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  schools  with  regard  to  health,  suitability 
of  curricula,  etc. 

In  the  case  of  elementary  schools,  the  Women 
Inspectors  are  attached  to  the  various  districts  and 
are  directed  by  the  District  Inspectors  (men)  as 
occasion  requires,  to  deal  with  infants'  and  mixed 
schools,  and  to  carry  out  routine  inspections  of 
public  elementary  schools. 

Medical  Inspectors.  —  There  are  one  Senior 
Medical  Officer  at  ^600-^800 ;  one  Junior 
Medical  Officer  at  ^400-20-^500 ;  and  also  three 
Inspectors  of  Physical  Exercises  at  ,£200-1 5-^400. 

The  Women  Medical  Inspectors  take  part  in 
the  work  of  the  medical  branch  in  the  same  way 
as  men ;  Physical  Exercises  come  under  their 
jurisdiction. 

The  Board  of  Education  also  employs  three 
women  on  the  permanent  staff  of  the  Department 
of  Special  Enquiries  and  Reports.  The  salaries 
are  ;£  100-^7,  ios.-^i8o,  and  the  posts  are  pension- 
able. The  duties  consist  partly  of  library  work 
and  partly  of  giving  assistance  in  the  general 
intelligence  work  of  the  office. 

The  Right  Hon.  A.  H.  Dyke  Acland  said  in 
his  evidence  before  the  Royal  Commission  on  the 
Civil  Service  that  he  did  not  see  why  at  the 
Board  of  Education  the  same  sort  of  women 
who  become  good  inspectors  and  headmistresses 
should  not  take  part  in  the  administrative  work 
of  the  office. 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  247 

Scotch  Education  Department 

The  first  Woman  Inspector  was  appointed  by 
the  Scotch  Education  Department  in  1902,  and 
two  others  were  appointed  in  1910.  Their  scale 
of  salary  is  ,£200-1 5-^400.  They  are  strictly 
specialist  inspectors  for  domestic  economy  subjects, 
cookery,  laundry,  etc.,  for  which  they  have  qualifica- 
tions including  experience  in  teaching  and  inspect- 
ing such  subjects. 

Specially  qualified  women  are  occasionally 
employed  by  the  Department  to  inspect  girls' 
schools,  and  are  paid  a  fee  according  to  the  time 
occupied. 

National  Education  Board,  Ireland 

Two  Women  Inspectors  are  employed  by  the 
Irish  National  Education  Board.  Their  salary 
is  ^150-10-^300,  the  same  as  that  of  Men 
Junior  Inspectors  ;  Men  Senior  Inspectors  receive 
^"300-20-^700. 

There  are  two  Women  Organisers,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  organise  weak  schools. 

There  are  also  14  Organisers  of  Domestic 
Economy  ;  their  work  is  similar  to  that  of  Inspectors  ; 
they  travel  about  and  have  authority  in  the  schools  ; 
they  do  not  inspect  general  subjects,  but  confine 
themselves  to  cookery,  laundry  and  domestic 
science. 

There  are  also  six  Women  Organisers  of 
Kindergarten. 

The  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries. 

This  Department  has  recently  employed  a  few 
women  upon  various  kinds  of  scientific  work. 
Three  women  are  appointed  as  Assistant 


248        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

Naturalists  in  the  Fishery  Branch,  at  a  salary 
of  ,£150  per  annum,  and  two  as  Junior  Assistant 
Naturalists  at  £2  per  week.  They  are  appointed 
on  the  nomination  of  the  President,  without 
examination,  but  they  must  possess  the  necessary 
scientific  qualifications  and  have  taken  a  recog- 
nised course  of  study.  These  posts  are  non- 
pensionable.  The  Fishery  Branch  deals  with 
questions  relating  to  the  natural  history  and 
diseases  of  fish,  fish-hatcheries  and  laboratories, 
the  protection  of  undersized  fish,  the  effect  of 
methods  of  capture,  international  investigations, 
and  grants  in  aid  of  fishery  research.  The 
women  are  engaged  upon  the  same  work  as  men, 
except  that  they  do  not  write  technical  reports 
and  are  not  liable  to  be  called  upon  for  sea  duty. 

In  the  Herbarium  and  Library  of  the  Royal 
Botanic  Gardens  at  Kew  there  are  two  Women 
Assistants  at  ^"150-10-^300  (the  Men  Assistants' 
scale  is  ^150-15—^300).  Scientific  qualifications 
are  required  for  these  posts,  and  there  is  an 
examination  by  the  Civil  Service  Commission. 
The  Library  is  maintained  for  official  con- 
sultative work,  to  supply  the  basis  of  an  accurate 
nomenclature  throughout  the  establishment  and  as 
an  aid  to  research.  The  Herbarium  aims  at 
representing  the  entire  vegetation  of  the  earth 
with  especial  regard  to  that  of  British  posses- 
sions. A  scheme  for  preparing  a  complete  series 
of  floras  of  India  and  the  Colonies  was  sanctioned 
by  the  Government  in  1856,  and  has  been  steadily 
prosecuted  ever  since.  The  principle  work  of  the 
staff  is  the  correct  identification  of  the  specimens 
which  reach  Kew  from  every  part  of  the  world, 
and  their  incorporation  in  the  Herbarium.  It  is 
visited  for  the  purposes  of  study  and  research 
by  botanists  from  every  country. 

The  scientific  work  in  the  various  branches  of 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  249 

the  Board  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries  would 
seem  to  afford  some  scope  for  women  of  scientific 
attainment.  Sir  T.  Elliott,  formerly  Permanent 
Secretary  to  the  Board,  in  his  evidence  before  the 
Royal  Commission  on  the  Civil  Service,  said  he 
considered  that  women  could  do  good  work  in 
many  directions,  and  that  their  help  might  be 
especially  valuable  in  entomology. 

Tke  Public  Trustee '  s  Office. 

The  Public  Trustee's  office  was  established  in 
1908,  under  the  Act  of  1906.  Two  Women 
Inspectors — or  more  correctly  speaking,  Visitors — 
are  now  employed,  one  of  whom  receives  a 
salary  of  ^200  and  the  other  ^180. 

These  Visitors  are  attached  to  the  special 
Department  set  up  to  take  charge  of  children 
(i)  left  by  will  to  the  guardianship  of  the 
Public  Trustee,  or  (2)  who  have  been  awarded 
damages  in  the  High  Court  either  for  injury  or 
for  the  loss  of  parents  or  guardians. 

As  regards  the  first-named,  the  Public  Trustee 
has  express  powers  under  his  rules  to  act  either  as 
sole  guardian  or  co-trustee.  In  these  cases  the 
Women  Visitors  assist  the  Public  Trustee  in  dis- 
charging his  trust.  They  visit  the  children,  go 
thoroughly  into  the  circumstances  of  each  case, 
consulting  with  relatives  and  family  solicitors. 
Schools  are  chosen,  holidays  arranged,  careers 
decided  upon,  apprenticeship  or  training  provided 
for ;  medical  attendance  is  secured  and  even 
clothing  attended  to. 

In  all  cases  concerning  children  in  which  an 
action  for  damages  has  been  brought  under  the 
Common  Law  or  under  Lord  Campbell's  Act,  the 
money  awarded  as  compensation  is  paid  over  to 
the  Public  Trustee,  unless  the  judge  otherwise 


250        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 


directs.  A  large  part  of  the  Women  Visitors' 
work  consists  of  supervising  these  compensation 
cases.  It  is  important  to  see  that  the  money  is 
spent  upon  the  children,  and  in  the  manner  most 
likely  to  promote  their  future  welfare — e.g.,  in 
providing  education  or  special  training.  In  the 
case  of  injured  children,  proper  medical  attention 
is  secured  and  any  instruments  or  artificial  limbs 
which  may  be  necessary. 

It  is  becoming  increasingly  the  practice,  when 
funds  are  raised  locally  to  help  special  cases, 
to  place  the  money  collected  in  the  hands  of 
the  Public  Trustee,  instead  of  appointing  local 
trustees.  Where  the  beneficiaries  of  such  funds  are 
women  or  children — very  often  they  are  widows — it 
becomes  the  duty  of  the  Women  Visitors  to  find  out 
on  the  spot  how  the  money  can  best  be  applied,  and 
to  advise  the  Public  Trustee  accordingly. 

In  all  cases  the  supervision  is  continued  as  long 
as  it  is  required,  but  where  relatives  are  found  to 
be  competent  and  willing  to  take  charge  of  children 
the  responsibility  is  left  to  them. 

Such  work,  concerned  as  it  is  with  the  young 
and  the  helpless,  seems  peculiarly  suited  to  women. 
The  Public  Trustee,  in  his  evidence  before  the 
Royal  Commission  on  the  Civil  Service,  stated 
that  the  women  already  appointed  had  proved 
themselves  "  most  efficient." 

The  National  Health  Insurance  Commissions. 

The  Inspectors  appointed  by  the  National 
Health  Insurance  Commissions  are  so  recent  an 
institution  that  it  is  not  yet  possible  to  say  whether 
the  work  to  be  performed  by  this  Department  will 
afford  scope  for  the  employment  of  a  large  number 
of  educated  women. 

It   is   satisfactory   to   note,    however,    that   the 


£*;     &-..-t 

THE  HIGHER  GRADES  *""  wC?   ft 


() 

salaries  of  men  and  women  more  nearly  approtfitfiafe' 
to   equality   than    in   any   previous    appointments. 
The  salaries  of  the  Women  Commissioners  in  all 
four  countries  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  men, 
viz.,  ;£i,ooo  per  annum. 

The  English  Commission  has  10,  the  Scotch  i, 
and  the  Irish  i  Woman  Inspector  at  ^300-10-^400. 
Men  Inspectors  begin  at  the  same  salary  but  rise 
to  ^"500. 

The  English  Commission  has  25,  the  Welsh  3, 
the  Scotch  5,  and  the  Irish  4  Assistant  Women 
Inspectors  at  ^"100-10-^300.  Men  Assistant 
Inspectors  begin  at  the  same  salary,  but  after  two 
years  they  rise  by  £15  to  ^350. 

The  English  Commission  has  19,  the  Welsh  i, 
the  Scotch  5,  and  the  Irish  5  Women  Health 
Insurance  Officers,  on  a  scale  of  salary  £%o-$-£i 10, 
after  two  years  rising  by  £j,  los.  to  ^150.  This 
scale  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  Men  Health 
Insurance  Officers. 

The  duties  of  Men  and  Women  Inspectors  and 
Officers  under  the  National  Health  Insurance 
Commission  are  identical  in  character  and  scope. 

The  primary  function  of  these  officers  is  to 
impose  upon  the  whole  adult  population  the  new 
conditions  created  by  the  Act — i.e.,  they  have  to 
ensure  the  proper  payment  of  contributions  in 
respect  of  all  persons  liable  to  be  insured. 

Trades  are  assigned  to  Men  or  Women 
Inspectors  according  as  a  trade  employs  men  or 
women  in  greater  numbers. 

The  Insurance  Commissioners  work  through  the 
Inspectors  in  all  matters  that  are  more  susceptible 
to  local  treatment  than  to  treatment  by  correspond- 
ence. The  Inspectors  obtain  information  and  make 
local  enquiries  as  to  the  facts  in  cases  submitted  to 
the  Commissioners  for  determination  under  various 
sections  of  the  Act. 


252        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

An  interesting  account  of  the  very  varied  duties 
which  fall  to  the  lot  of  these  Officers  will  be  found 
in  the  first  "  Report  on  the  Administration  of  the 
National  Insurance  Act,"  Part  I.,  which  has  recently 
been  published.  The  following  extract  from  that 
Report  will  give  some  idea  of  the  work  done  by  the 
Women  Inspectors,  and  the  estimate  which  has  been 
formed  of  it. 

"  Inasmuch  as  the  Insurance  Commission  is  the  first 
Government  Department  in  which  a  woman  staff  has  been 
appointed  from  the  outset,  special  mention  may  be  made 
of  one  portion  of  the  work  carried  out  by  the  women 
inspectors  during  the  past  year.  The  enquiry  held  in  the 
autumn  by  Mr  Pope  on  the  objections  raised  to  the 
inclusion  of  married  women  outworkers  within  the 
provisions  of  Part  I.  of  the  Act  necessitated  much  careful 
investigation  among  employers  and  outworkers  in  a  large 
number  of  trades  all  over  the  country,  such  as  tailoring, 
glove-making,  lace  manufacture,  carding  of  hooks  and 
eyes,  pins  and  needles,  buttons  and  fish-hooks  at 
Birmingham,  net-making  at  Bridport,  chain-making  at 
Cradley  Heath,  straw  hat-making  at  Luton,  chair-making, 
box-making,  and  boot,  shoe,  and  hosiery  manufacture. 
This  investigation  was  undertaken  by  the  women  staff. 
The  enquiry  entailed  hundreds  of  visits,  both  in  the 
poorest  parts  of  industrial  towns  and  in  remote  country 
districts,  and  in  interviews  with  employers  and  workers 
great  tact  and  patience  were  required.  Of  the  evidence 
given  by  the  women  inspectors,  Mr  Pope  reports  that  they 
'  one  and  all  gave  evidence  with  extreme  moderation, 
impartiality  and  discretion.  The  conspicuous  fairness  and 
the  success  with  which  they  had  collected  information 
were  frequently  a  matter  of  commendation  from  employers, 
who  informed  me  that  the  enquiry  had  afforded  them 
information  about  their  own  trades  which  years  of  work  in 
it  had  not  made  known  to  them.' " 

The  General  Post  Office 

This  paper  would  not  be  complete  without  some 
reference  to  the  large  number — now  nearly  3,000— 
of  women  clerks  employed  by  the  General   Post 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  253 

Office,  all  of  whom  enter  the  service  by  open  com- 
petition, either  as  girl  clerks  between  sixteen  and 
eighteen  years  of  age  or  as  women  clerks  between 
eighteen  and  twenty.  Their  duties  are  necessarily 
of  a  clerical  nature,  and  in  their  earlier  years  at 
least  they  can  hardly,  perhaps,  be  included  in 
the  "  higher  grades."  Yet  the  supervisory 
posts  which  become  necessary  wherever  large 
numbers  of  workers  are  employed  call  for  consider- 
able administrative  ability  and  are  proportionately 
better  remunerated.  All  women  clerks  are  eligible 
for  these  posts,  and  indeed  they  are  never  filled 
in  any  other  way. 

The  highest  post  open  to  a  woman  clerk  in  the 
General  Post  Office  is  that  of  Superintendent  at  the 
Savings  Bank,  the  present  holder  of  which  is  on 
a  scale  of  ^350-20-^600.  There  are  4  Deputy 
Superintendents  at  ^270-15-^330;  13  Assistant 
Superintendents  at  £2 1 0-10-^2 60;  and  53  Principal 
Clerks  at  ^"150-10-^200.  The  Savings  Bank 
has  the  largest  group  of  women  clerks — number- 
ing 1,210 — of  any  department,  and  of  these  150 
are  in  the  first  class. 

The  next  largest  group  of  Women  Clerks  is 
in  the  Money  Order  Department;  in  this  office 
the  women  outnumber  the  men  in  the  proportion 
of  5  to  i.  They  number  592,  of  whom  67  are 
in  the  first  class.  There  is  one  Superintendent 
at  ^350-20-^500 ;  i  Deputy  Superintendent  at 
^"270-15-^330;  5  Assistant  Superintendents  at 
^210-10-^260;  and  24  Principal  Clerks  at 
^"150-10-^200. 

The  Accountant  General's  Department  has  i 
Superintendent  at  ^280-15-^400;  3  Assistant 
Superintendents  at  ^210-10-^260;  and  3 
Principal  Clerks  at  ^150- 10-^200.  The  staff  of 
clerks  numbers  416,  of  whom  57  are  in  the  first 
class. 


254        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

The  London  Telephone  Service  has  i  Assistant 
Superintendent  at  ^210-10-^260  and  5  Principal 
Clerks  at  ^150-10-^200,  with  a  staff  of  278  clerks, 
of  whom  2 1  are  in  the  first  class. 

The  Accountants  Offices  are  the  only  ones 
in  Edinburgh  and  Dublin  which  employ  women 
as  Clerks.  In  Dublin  there  is  i  Superintendent 
at  ^"210-10-^250  and  2  Assistant  Superintendents 
at  ^150-10-^170.  Of  the  staff  of  61  clerks,  7 
are  first  class.  In  Edinburgh  there  is  i  Super- 
intendent at  ^200-10-^250,  and  i  Assistant 
Superintendent  at  ^150-10-^190.  Of  the  staff 
of  69,  8  are  in  the  first  class. 

In  consequence  of  the  employment  of  so  large  a 
number  of  women,  the  General  Post  Office  found  it 
necessary  many  years  ago  to  employ  a  Woman 
Medical  Officer.  The  present  holder  of  this  office  re- 
ceives a  salary  of  ^350-20-^500.  She  has  the  help 
of  two  Assistants,  whose  salary  is  ;£  180-15-^300. 

A  few  posts  which  may  properly  be  deemed 
"higher"  are  also  open  to  Women  Counter 
Clerks  and  Telegraphists.  In  the  London  Postal 
District  there  are  3  Supervisors  at  ^180-10-^250, 
50  Assistant  Supervisors  (first  class)  at  ;£  140-6- 
^170),  and  6 1  Assistant  Supervisors  (second 
class)  at  ^n5-5-^i3°- 

In  the  Central  Telegraph  Office  the  Chief 
Supervisor  of  Women  Telegraphists  receives  a 
salary  of  ^180-10-^300  (not  a  large  salary  for 
supervising  a  staff  numbering  nearly  1,000),  the 
13  Supervisors  receive  ^180-10-^250,  and  the 
35  Assistant  Supervisors  ^"140-6-^170. 

The  Postal  District  and  Telegraph  Offices 
in  Dublin  and  Edinburgh  have  each  one  Woman 
Supervisor  of  Counter  and  Telegraph  Clerks  at 
^140-6-^875.  In  Dublin  there  are  12  and 
in  Edinburgh  6  Assistants  at  £\  10-5-^135. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  Supervisors  in 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  255 

the  provinces  whose  rates  of  pay  vary  from 
£i 49-6-^1 75  to  ,£  1 1 5-S-^1 35.  according  to  the 
size  of  the  district. 

The  Telephone  Service  also  offers  a  few 
important  posts  to  women.  In  the  London 
Telephone  Service  a  Woman  Superintendent  is 
appointed  at  ^200-10-^300,  9  Supervisors  at 
^159-6-^190,  and  40  Assistant  Supervisors  at 
^110-5-^145.  There  are  about  3,600  Women 
Telephonists  employed  within  the  London  postal 
area.  The  salaries  of  Supervisors  in  the  pro- 
vinces vary  from  ^125-5-^150  to  ^105-5-^120, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  district. 

The  variety  of  work,  which  is  now  efficiently 
performed  by  women  in  the  various  depart- 
ments above  enumerated,  seems  to  prove  con- 
clusively that  when  other  branches  are  opened 
to  them  they  will  be  equally  successful. 

In  the  statements  recently  submitted  to  the 
Royal  Commission  of  the  Civil  Service  on  behalf 
of  various  women's  organisations,  the  reasons  for 
throwing  open  to  women  the  more  highly  paid 
and  responsible  posts  were  admirably  set  forth. 

On  behalf  of  the  Association  of  Headmistresses 
it  was  stated  by  Miss  R.  Oldham  :— 

"  In  asking  that  in  future  some  of  the  more  highly  paid 
and  responsible  posts  in  the  Civil  Service  should  be  thrown 
open  to  women,  the  Headmistresses  are  conscious  of  the 
fact  that  modern  economic  conditions  have  evolved  the 
woman  who  must  of  necessity,  as  well  as  by  choice, 
become  self-supporting.  The  professions  of  teaching, 
medicine,  art,  and  literature  offer  openings  with  adequate 
remuneration  for  the  highly  educated  young  woman  of 
to-day.  Those  lower  branches  of  the  Civil  Service  which, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  alone  are  open  to  women  do  not 
supply  posts  of  enough  responsibility  and  administrative 
power  to  prove  attractive  to  able  women  of  secondary 
school  and  university  education,  many  of  whom,  in  the 


256        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

opinion  of  the  Headmistresses  are  fitted,  both  by  their 
education  and  by  their  natural  ability,  to  fill  positions 
of  equal  responsibility  with  their  brothers. 

"They  desire  to  submit  the  following  reasons  why 
women  should  be  considered  eligible  for  positions  of 
administrative  responsibility  in  the  service  of  the 
State  :— 

"(i)  Women  have  shown  by  their  success  in  positions 
of  great  responsibility  that  they  are  capable  of 
undertaking  high  administrative  work. 
"  (2)  Women  have  special  gifts  for  social  investigation 
and  inquiry,  and  special  knowledge  in  many 
important  subjects,  which  ought  to  be  used 
in  the  service  of  the  State. 

"  (3)  Under  present  conditions  of  women's  employ- 
ment in  the  Service,  the  ablest  and  most 
highly  qualified  women  do  not  enter  it. 
"(4)  The  presence  of  a  large  number  of  women  in 
the  lower  branches  of  the  Civil  Service  makes 
it  desirable  that  there  should  be  women 
employed  in  higher  and  more  responsible 
posts.  This  would  have  the  effect  of  ensuring 
good  discipline  and  judicious  promotion. 
"(5)  The  present  almost  total  exclusion  of  women 
from  high  and  responsible  posts  has  the  effect 
of  discrediting  them  as  applicants  for  such 
posts  outside  the  Service.  Private  employers 
when  asked  to  give  women  opportunities  for 
rising  to  posts  of  responsibility,  are  able  to 
point  to  the  failure  of  the  Government  to 
do  so." 

In  the  statement  submitted  by  Mrs  W.  L. 
Courtney  on  behalf  of  the  Council  on  Women's 
Employment  in  the  Civil  Service  the  claim  was 
made  :— 

"  That  women  should  be  eligible  for  first  division 
appointments,  or  equivalent  appointments,  in  suitable 
offices,  such  as  the  Education  Office,  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board,  the  Home  Office,  the  Insurance  Commission, 
and  the  Board  of  Trade.  It  has  already  been  found 
necessary  to  appoint  women  to  responsible  posts  in  the 
Inspectorate  of  each  of  these  offices,  and  the  same 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  257 

reasons  which  justify  those  appointments  point  also  to 
the  desirability  of  appointing  women  to  positions  in  the 
corresponding  internal  administrative  service." 

There  is  another  point  to  be  remembered  in 
this  connection ;  it  is  important  that  the  recom- 
mendations made  by  Women  Inspectors  should 
have  the  chance  of  being  considered  and  acted 
upon  by  women  in  an  administrative  capacity,  as 
well  as  by  men.  Otherwise  there  is  danger  that 
the  women's  point  of  view  put  forward  by  an 
Inspector  may  be  overlooked  or  her  recommenda- 
tions brushed  aside. 

Miss  Penrose,  Principal  of  Somerville  College, 
Oxford,  in  her  statement  for  the  Royal  Commission, 
said  : 

"  In  branches  of  the  Service,  such  as  the  Home  Office, 
the  Local  Government  Board,  and  the  Board  of  Trade,  in 
which  a  good  deal  of  work  is  done,  or  should  be  done,  by 
women  because  it  is  concerned  with  women,  I  think  it 
would  be  an  advantage  to  have  one  or  more  women  on 
the  general  administrative  staff,  which  deals  with  the 
work  of  the  departments  as  a  whole. 

"If  a  board  which  deals  with  human  beings,  does  not 
employ  women  except  to  carry  out  the  policy  of  the 
Board,  after  that  policy  has  been  initiated,  shaped  and 
embodied  in  regulations,  it  may  not  infrequently  be  found 
that  regulations  unsuitable  in  some  respects  to  be  applied 
to  women  have  been  drafted,  or  that  unnecessary  differ- 
ences of  treatment  have  been  created.  Just  as  in  so  far 
as  women  look  at  things  from  a  different  angle  it  is 
important  that  their  point  of  view  should  be  at  the  service 
of  a  department  at  as  early  a  stage  as  possible." 

An  illustration  of  this  may  be  found  in  the 
draft  Order  for  the  regulation  of  Poor  Law 
Institutions  which  is  now  before  the  public.  This 
draft  has  been  drawn  up  by  a  departmental  com- 
mittee of  the  Local  Government  Board,  composed 
entirely  of  men,  notwithstanding  that  it  will  regulate 

R 


258 

the  administration  of  institutions  staffed  by  women 
and  having  large  numbers  of  women  and  children 
as  inmates.  It  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  the 
draft  Order  meets  with  the  disapproval  of  many 
women  engaged  in  poor  law  work. 

The  Council  on  Women's  Employment  also 
claimed : — 

"That  women  should  be  made  eligible  or  considered 
for  appointment — 

"  As  scientific  specialists,  especially  museum  assistants 
and  keepers.  The  area  of  choice  would  thus  be  enlarged 
in  cases  where  there  is  sometimes  a  very  small  number  of 
suitable  candidates.  Women  have  been  notably  successful 
in  original  work  in  various  departments  of  botany,  and 
have  done  valuable  original  work  in  bacteriology  and 
archaeology.  They  are  already  employed  as  scientific 
specialists  in  certain  departments  and  in  temporary  work 
for  the  British  Museum,  though  hitherto  excluded  from 
its  permanent  service. 

"As  librarians,  keepers  of  records  and  papers,  and 
assistants  to  the  holders  of  these  offices,  and  to  positions 
requiring  qualifications  for  statistical  work  and  historical 
knowledge,  such  as  those  in  the  Public  Record  Office. 

"  That  appointments  in  suitable  offices  should  be  opened 
to  women  between  the  ages  of  19  and  24,  who  have  either 
passed  or  can  pass  an  examination  equivalent  to  that  of 
male  second  division  clerks,  or  clerks  of  the  intermediate 
class,  according  to  the  practice  of  the  department  in 
filling  its  appointments.  It  seems  desirable  that  the 
abilities  of  women  who  would  otherwise  be  occupied  in 
business,  teaching,  secretarial  and  clerical,  and  other  work, 
much  of  which  is  closely  comparable  with  that  of  second 
division  and  intermediate  clerks,  should  be  available  for 
the  work  of  the  Civil  Service,  especially  in  the  offices 
already  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  first  division 
appointments." 

These  claims,  pertinent  as  they  are,  and  strongly 
as  they  should  be  urged,  need  to  be  extended  still 
further. 

Women  claim  to  be  admitted  to  share  in  the 


THE  HIGHER  GRADES  259 

administrative  work,  not  only  of  those  departments 
directly  concerned  with  women,  but  also  in  those 
in  which  the  work  concerns  equally  men  and  women 
as  citizens — e.g.,  the  Treasury,  the  Foreign  Office, 
the  Colonial  Office,  the  Inland  Revenue.  No  one 
could  argue  that  the  work  of  these  departments  is 
unsuitable  for  women,  any  more  than  is  the  work 
of  the  General  Post  Office,  in  which  they  have  so 
conspicuously  succeeded.  Even  the  War  Office, 
with  the  charge  of  so  many  soldiers'  wives  and 
children  living  in  barracks,  removed  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  all  civic  services,  and  the  control  of 
so  large  a  number  of  Army  Nurses,  needs  women 
amongst  its  administrators. 

The  claim  must  also  be  made  quite  clearly,  that 
in  throwing  open  these  posts  to  women,  the  same 
method  of  recruiting  must  be  employed  as  for  men, 
and  the  remuneration  must  be  at  the  same  rate. 
In  asking  for  these  opportunities  women  are  simply 
asking  that  the  sex  disability  which  at  present  bars 
them  from  the  majority  of  posts  in  the  service, 
may  be  removed.  They  do  not  seek  admission  in 
some  special  way,  nor  do  they  wish  to  undercut 
men  by  accepting  lower  salaries.  They  ask  that 
the  sex  barrier  may  be  removed  in  the  case  of 
both  Class  I.  and  Class  II.  appointments — in  other 
words,  that  these  appointments  may  be  open  to 
them  on  the  same  conditions  as  they  are  or  may 
be  open  to  men. 

In  the  case  of  the  majority  of  the  appointments 
hitherto  held  by  women,  some  care  has  been 
taken  to  put  them  on  a  different  footing  from 
those  of  men  ;  in  these  instances  it  is  not  easy 
to  compare  the  work  of  women  with  that  of  men, 
or  to  urge  the  claim  of  women  to  be  paid  at  the 
same  rate  as  men  for  work  of  equal  value.  There 
are,  however,  some  conspicuous  instances — e.g.,  of 
the  Factory  Inspectors  and  Inspectors  of  Schools — 


260        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

in  which  no  such  differentiation  is  possible  and  in 
which  the  only  reason  for  paying  the  women  less 
than  the  men  seems  to  be  that  given  by  the  ex- 
Permanent  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  his 
evidence  before  the  Royal  Commission  on  the 
Civil  Service,  "that  women  ought  to  be  got  as 
cheaply  as  possible,  and  that  if  they  can  be  got 
for  less,  they  ought  not  to  be  paid  the  same  as 
men." 

There  seems  some  ground  for  believing  that 
official  opinion  in  this  matter  is  undergoing 
modification,  since  in  the  case  of  later  appoint- 
ments— e.g.,  in  the  Labour  Exchanges  and  in 
the  National  Health  Insurance  Commission — the 
tendency  has  been  to  approximate  the  salaries 
of  women  much  more  closely  to  those  of  men  and 
even  in  some  instances  to  make  them  identical. 
It  is  therefore  reasonable  to  hope  that  the  principle 
of  equal  pay  for  equal  work  will,  before  long,  be 
extended  to  appointments  of  longer  standing,  in 
which  its  application  would  be  no  less  just  than  in 
the  case  of  new  appointments. 


II 

THE   LOWER   GRADES   AND   THE   PRESENT 
POSITION 

So  far  as  the  position  of  its  women  workers  is  con- 
cerned, the  State  is  very  far  from  being  the  model 
employer  it  sometimes  professes  to  be.  When  one 
considers  the  very  wide  disparity  existing  between 
the  salaries  for  similar  work  of  women  and  of 
men,  one  realises  to  what  an  enormous  extent 
the  Exchequer,  and,  consequently,  the  taxpayer, 
has  benefited  by  the  economies  practised  at  the 
expense  of  the  women  Civil  Servants  ever  since 


THE  LOWER  GRADES  261 

their  introduction  in  the  early  seventies.  There 
is  not  a  shadow  of  doubt  that  economy  was  the 
motive  for  their  employment,  but  even  economy 
would  not  have  justified  the  continued  increase  in 
their  numbers,  had  they  not  exhibited  what  has  been 
called  by  a  high  official,  "remarkable  efficiency," 
and  also  the  very  desirable  qualities  of  docility, 
patience,  and  conscientiousness. 

When    the    Government   first    took    over    the 
telegraphs   from   the   private   companies,    it   found 
women  in  their  employ,  and  decided  to  retain  them 
in  the  service.     Women  Telegraphists  and  Counter 
Clerks  are  now  a  very  large   body  numbering  in 
London  about  2,000,  and  in  the  Provinces  about 
5,000, — a  total  of  7,000  women  as  compared  with 
16,000    men.      The    duties    of    men   and   women 
telegraphists   are    more    closely    comparable    than 
their  respective    work   in    any  other   class    in   the 
Civil    Service,   practically    the    only   differentiation 
being  that  women  are  debarred  from  night  duty. 
They  are  also  generally  exempt  from  Sunday  duty, 
excessive  late  duty,  and  special  duties  in  connection 
with  race  meetings,  although  the  Hobhouse  Com- 
mittee in  1907  recommended  that  women  should  do 
the  Sunday  work  if  required.     (As,  however,  pay- 
ment for  this  is  made  at  a  higher  rate,  there  is 
usually  no  lack  of  volunteers.)     Their  scale  of  salary 
in  the  Central  Telegraph  Office  is  i8s.  a  week  at 
eighteen  years  of  age,  rising  to  a  maximum  of  405. 
The  men's  scale  is  2os.  rising  to  653.     When  the 
necessary  technical  qualifications  are  acquired,  an 
allowance  of  33.  a  week  carried  beyond  the  maximum 
and  pensionable,  is  now  given  to  both  sexes  alike. 
Formerly  the  technical  allowance  for  women  was 
is.   6d.  per  week  only,  and  this  would  appear  to 
account  for  the  lower  proportion  of  women  who 
have  qualified  for  the  technical  increment. 

There  appears  to  be  a  tendency  to  stereotype 


262        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

certain  kinds  of  work  for  men  only,  in  order  to 
justify  the  differentiation  in  pay,  but  in  point  of 
fact,  most  of  the  work  now  exclusively  allotted 
to  male  telegraphists  was  at  one  time  done  by 
women.  The  work  done  by  men  and  women 
Counter  Clerks  is  identical.  The  women  in  the 
Telegraph  Service  have  no  separate  organisation, 
but  combine  with  the  men  in  the  Postal  Telegraph 
Clerks'  Association,  which  has  a  large  number  of 
branches,  and  carries  on  a  very  active  campaign 
for  improvement  in  pay  and  conditions  of  service. 
Equal  pay  for  equal  work  is  one  of  the  planks  in 
its  platform,  and  formed  part  of  the  case  put 
forward  before  the  Select  Committee  on  Post  Office 
Servants  last  year. 

Women  Clerks  are  employed  in  the  great 
financial  Services  of  the  General  Post  Office,  the 
Savings  Bank  Department,  Money  Order  Department 
(including  the  Postal  Order  Branch),  Accountant- 
General's  Department,  and  the  Controller's  Office 
of  the  London  Telephone  Service,  as  well  as  in 
the  Accountant's  Departments  of  the  General  Post 
Offices  in  Edinburgh  and  Dublin.  In  all,  they 
number  nearly  3,000.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  of 
interest  to  go  into  the  history  of  this  class. 

Women  Clerks  were  first  introduced  into  the 
General  Post  Office  in  1871  by  Mr  Scudamore, 
who  considered  that  as  women  were  more  "fault- 
finding" than  men,  they  might  well  be  used  as 
"a  check  on  the  somewhat  illiterate  postmasters  of 
the  United  Kingdom  in  the  interests  of  a  some- 
what long-suffering  public."  Entry  was  at  first  by 
nomination,  but  in  1881  the  appointment  of  Women 
Clerks  was  thrown  open  to  the  public  by  competitive 
examination  by  Mr  Fawcett,  who  was  then  Post- 
master General.  This  step  met  with  some  opposi- 
tion, and  Queen  Victoria  even  caused  a  letter  to  be 
written  to  Mr  Fawcett  expressing  her  strong  dis- 


THE  LOWER  GRADES  263 

approval  of  the  change.  The  Postmaster-General, 
however,  carried  his  point,  and  fixed  the  scale  of 
salary  at  ^65,  rising  by  £3  per  annum  to  £80. 
When  the  working  day  was  increased  from  six  to 
seven  hours,  the  maximum  was  raised  to  >£ioo.  The 
revisions  of  the  Tweedmouth  Inter-Departmental 
Committee  came  into  force  in  1897,  involving  many 
concessions  to  the  male  staff,  and  simultaneously  the 
minimum  salary  of  the  Women  Clerks  was,  without 
any  warning,  reduced  for  new  entrants  to  £55  per 
annum,  and  the  increment  for  the  first  six  years  was 
reduced  to  £2,  IDS. 

Realising  the  defencelessness  of  their  position, 
the  Women  Clerks  formed  an  Association  in  1901, 
and  so  strong  was  the  case  for  improvement  which 
they  were  able  to  bring  before  the  Hobhouse 
Parliamentary  Committee  of  1906,  that  in  spite  of 
considerable  misrepresentation  of  their  work  in 
the  evidence  given  by  Heads  of  Departments,  they 
were  able  not  only  to  get  back  the  1881  minimum 
of  ^65,  but  were  awarded  further  an  increased 
increment  of  £$  throughout  the  scale  and  a  rise 
of  £10  in  the  maximum.  This  was  the  position 
until  December  1911,  when  a  tentative  scheme  was 
introduced  in  the  Money  Order  Department  to  hand 
over  all  the  simpler  duties  to  a  new  class  of 
Assistant  Women  Clerks  with  an  eight-hour  day 
and  a  wage  of  i8s.  rising  to  345.  a  week.  The 
Association  of  Post  Office  Women  Clerks,  the  basis 
of  which  is  "  equal  pay  and  opportunities  for  women 
with  men  in  the  Civil  Service,"  and  which  there- 
fore necessarily  stands  for  simplification  of  the 
classes  of  employment,  regarded  the  restriction  of 
a  fresh  grade  of  women  to  yet  another  water-tight 
compartment  at  a  -low  wage  as  in  itself  an  evil. 
But  apart  from  this,  they  looked  upon  the  scheme 
as  a  deliberate  evasion  of  the  Hobhouse  Committee's 
recommendations.  So  strong  was  the  criticism 

o 


264        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

levelled  at  the  new  scheme,  both  by  Members  of 
Parliament  and  the  Press,  that  the  Postmaster- 
General,  Mr  Herbert  Samuel,  consented  to  refer 
the  matter  to  the  Select  Committee  on  the  Post 
Office  (known  as  the  Holt  Committee),1  which  was 
appointed  in  the  early  part  of  1912,  and  he  gave  an 
undertaking  that  no  more  appointments  to  the  new 
grade  should  be  made  in  the  Money  Order  Depart- 
ment until  the  Committee  had  reported.  The  value 
of  this  concession  was  considerably  lessened  by  its 
limited  application,  and  the  fact  that  many  Assistant 
Women  Clerks  were  subsequently  appointed  to  the 
London  Telephone  Service,  clearly  indicated  the 
intention  of  the  authorities  to  proceed  with  the 
development  of  the  scheme  in  a  Department  which 
provided  an  easier  field  of  operation  in  the  shape 
of  new  work  and  a  new  staff  taken  over  from  the 
National  Telephone  Company. 

In  1897  the  class  of  Girl  Clerks  was  created,  to 
undertake  some  of  the  simpler  duties  in  the  Savings 
Bank  Department,  hitherto  performed  by  Women 
Clerks.  They  were  subsequently  introduced  into 
the  Money  Order  Department  and  the  Controller's 
Office  of  the  London  Telephone  Service,  and  there 
are  approximately  250  now  employed.  They  take 
the  same  examination  as  Women  Clerks,  but  at  a 
lower  age — sixteen  to  eighteen — and  are  grouped 
apart  for  the  purpose  of  marking.  Their  hours  of 
duty  are  seven  daily,  and  their  salary  ^42,  raising 
by  ^3  per  annum,  to  ^48.  They  are  in  reality 
a  probationary  class,  and  become  Women  Clerks 
automatically  after  two  years'  service.  The  intro- 
duction of  this  class  was  not  considered  by  the 
Department  to  be  an  administrative  success,  as  the 
obligation  to  make  them  Women  Clerks  in  two 
years  prevented  their  being  employed  in  sufficiently 

1  See  the  end  of  the  article  for  the  Report  of  the  Holt  Committee. 


THE  LOWER  GRADES 


265 


large  numbers  to  effect  any  appreciable  economy. 
The  scheme  for  the  introduction  of  the  grade  of 
Assistant  Woman  Clerk  involved  the  abolition  of 
the  Girl  Clerk. 

The  Women  Clerks  are  an  analogous  grade  to 
the  Male  Clerks  of  the  Second  Division  who  are 
common  to  the  whole  Civil  Service,  and  they  do 
practically  the  same  class  of  work.  The  examina- 
tions for  the  two  classes  are  somewhat  severe  in 
character  and  are  roughly  comparable.1  There  is, 
however,  a  wide  disparity  in  the  salaries  paid,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  comparison  :— 


SECOND  DIVISION  CLERKS. 

£70  by  £?,  i  os.  per  an.  to  ^130 
thence  by  ^10  per  an.  to  .£200 
thence  by  £10  per  an.  to  ,£300 
(Efficiency   Bar   at  ^130  and 
£200) 

Above  the  salary  of  ^300  advance- 
ment to  higher  posts  by  pro- 
motion. 


WOMEN  CLERKS. 

Second  Class — 
£6$  by  £5  per  an.  to  £100 
(No  Efficiency  Bar) 

First  Class  (by  promotion) — 
&  15  by  £$  to  ^140 

Above  the  rank  of  First  Class 
Clerk  there  are  certain  higher 
posts  which  constitute  a  per- 
centage of  4.6  of  the  total 
number  of  First  and  Second 
Class  Clerks. 


The  existence  of  this  double  standard  of  pay- 
ment for  the  same  kind  of  work  is  not  only  an 
injustice  to  the  women  concerned,  but  is  a  standing 
menace  to  the  men,  who  rightly  consider  that  the 
presence  of  women  as  a  blackleg  class  keeps 
down  their  wages  and  reduces  their  prospect  of 
promotion.  A  sense  of  irritation  and  dissatisfaction 
is  thus  engendered  between  the  two  sexes.  The 
maintenance  of  separate  staffs  of  similar  status  but 
with  different  rates  of  remuneration,  enables  the 
department  to  play  off  one  against  the  other,  for 
the  existence  of  a  lower  paid  class  makes  it 
increasingly  difficult  for  the  Men  Clerks  to  sub- 
stantiate a  claim  for  better  pay  themselves.  The 
standard  of  their  work  is  raised  by  the  "moving- 

1  The  women  are  pressing  for  identical  examinations.     [EDITOR.] 


266        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

down"  or  "degrading"  of  duties,  without  any 
improvement  in  pay  such  as  they  would  probably 
be  able  to  obtain  if  women  were  not  involuntarily 
undercutting  them.  Women  fully  sympathise  with 
their  male  colleagues,  whose  prospects  are  injured 
in  this  way,  but  they  insist  that  the  only  solution 
of  the  difficulty  is  equal  treatment  and  fair  and 
open  competition.  The  Association  of  Clerks  of 
the  Second  Division  supported  the  Women  Clerks' 
claim  for  equal  pay  for  equal  work  in  their  evidence 
before  the  Royal  Commission  on  the  Civil  Service, 
and  it  is  gratifying  that,  in  spite  of  the  deter- 
mined policy  of  the  department  to  adhere  as  far 
as  possible  to  the  absurd  segregation  of  the  sexes, 
the  two  organised  bodies  of  Men  and  Women 
Clerks  are  on  excellent  terms. 

In  1883  the  class  of  Women  Sorters  was 
instituted,  its  original  scale  of  pay  ranging  from 
i2s.  per  week,  increasing  by  annual  increments 
of  is.  to  2os.  per  week.  In  1885  a  ^rst:  class 
was  created  with  a  maximum  of  303.  per  week. 
The  Tweedmouth  Committee  of  1897  abolished  the 
classification,  and  substituted  therefor  an  efficiency 
bar  at  2 is.,  so  that,  unless  incompetent,  all  the 
Women  Sorters  have  a  right  to  proceed  to  the 
maximum  of  305.  Since  the  salary  was  fixed  at 
that  figure,  the  work  of  the  Sorters  has  greatly 
improved  in  character.  Originally  introduced  for 
the  purpose  of  sorting,  arranging,  and  filing  the 
multitudinous  kinds  of  official  documents  and 
papers,  they  have  by  degrees  taken  over  more 
and  more  of  the  simpler  duties  formerly  performed 
by  the  Women  Clerks,  until,  at  the  present  day, 
it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  nearly  one-half 
of  their  duties  consists  of  elementary  clerical  work. 
The  Women  Sorters  are  recruited  from  an  examina- 
tion of  the  same  standard  as  that  hitherto  applied 
to  Telegraphists,  and  the  Women  Sorters'  Associa- 


THE  LOWER  GRADES  267 

tion  claims  that  the  principle  of  equality  between 
Sorters  and  Telegraphists,  which  was  recommended 
to  the  department  by  the  Tweedmouth  Com- 
mittee in  1897,  should  be  applied  to  the  Women 
Sorters.  Prior  to  1900,  vacancies  occurring  in 
the  female  staff  at  the  Returned  Letter  Office 
were  filled  by  transferred  Women  Telegraphists, 
but  since  that  date,  vacancies  have  been  filled 
by  successful  candidates  at  the  Women  Sorters' 
examinations,  who  are  awarded  the  Women  Tele- 
graphists' scale  of  pay.  There  is,  therefore,  the 
anomaly  of  two  different  scales  of  pay  being  given 
to  successful  candidates  in  the  Women  Sorters' 
examinations.  The  Women  Sorters  also  claim 
some  outlet,  or  prospect  of  advancement,  other 
than  that  provided  by  the  "  Senior  Sorterships,"  of 
which  there  are  a  few  in  each  department,  carrying 
a  supervising  allowance  of  35.  a  week ;  this  claim 
has  been  partly  met  by  the  apportionment  of  the 
new  posts  of  Assistant  Women  Clerks  previously 
mentioned. 

Women  Telephone  Operators  are  a  large  and 
rapidly  growing  class,  recruited  entirely  by  nomina- 
tion followed  by  a  qualifying  examination.  They 
number  at  the  present  time  about  4,000,  including 
Supervisors.  The  growing  use  of  the  telephone  is 
replacing  the  telegraph,  and  is  likely  to  make  of  this 
class  a  serious  rival  to  the  grade  of  Telegraphist. 
In  this  connection,  it  is  important  to  recognise  that 
the  change  is  likely  to  entail  an  enormous  increase 
in  the  use  of  cheap  labour.  The  maximum  salary 
of  the  Telephonist  in  London  is  only  285.  per  week. 
The  work  is  extremely  exacting  and  exhausting  to 
the  nervous  system,  so  much  so,  that  it  is  an 
absolute  necessity  for  the  maintenance  of  health 
that  proper  and  adequate  rest-room  accommodation 
should  be  provided,  and  that  the  operators  should 
be  equipped  with  apparatus  of  the  proper  type. 


268        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

The  classes  already  mentioned  have,  until  the 
present  year  (1913),  been  recruited  solely  for  the  Post 
Office,  but  the  class  of  Women  Typists,  numbering 
about  600,  are  a  Treasury  Class,  and  are  common 
to  the  whole  Civil  Service,  the  conditions  of  entry 
varying  according  to  the  Department.  In  the  Post 
Office  alone,  are  Typists  recruited  by  open  com- 
petitive examination.  The  scale  of  salary  is  2os. 
a  week,  rising  in  three  years  to  265.  :  they  then 
have  the  option  of  qualifying  in  shorthand,  after 
which  they  can  rise  to  315.  per  week.  In  the 
Post  Office,  however,  the  number  allowed  to  qualify 
in  this  way  is  limited  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  staff. 
The  supervising  posts  are :  Superintendent,  355. 
a  week,  and  Chief  Superintendent,  405.  a  week. 
No  higher  positions  are  open  to  Typists  any- 
where, no  matter  how  good  their  qualifications 
and  educational  equipment.  The  Association  of 
Civil  Service  Typists  claim  some  avenue  of  pro- 
motion to  clerical  work  in  the  Departments  in 
which  they  serve. 

There  are  also  about  650  women  employed  by 
the  Board  of  Trade  in  the  Labour  Exchange 
Service.  With  the  exception  of  about  180,  who 
were  transferred  from  the  Post  Office  for  Unemploy- 
ment Insurance  Work  under  Part  II.  of  the  National 
Insurance  Act,  these  women  were  admitted  by  the 
new  method  of  recruitment  adopted  by  the  Civil 
Service  Commissioner  under  Clause  VII.  of  the 
Order  in  Council  of  January  1910.  Under  this 
system,  applications  are  invited,  and  a  certain 
number  of  apparently  suitable  candidates  are  inter- 
viewed by  a  committee  of  selection,  and  those 
chosen  for  appointment  are  subsequently  required 
to  pass  a  qualifying  examination.  The  educational 
standard  of  this  examination,  for  both  men  and 
women,  is  so  low  that  it  appears  to  be  designed,  not 
for  the  purpose  of  selecting  candidates  of  good 


THE  LOWER  GRADES  269 

general    education,    but    merely    to    eliminate    the 
illiterate. 

The  scale  of  salary  for  these  posts  is  the  same 
for  women  as  for  men,  and  is  as  follows  :— 


Lower  Grade  £60,  rising  by  increments  of 

per  annum  to  ^105. 
Higher  Grade  ;£no,  rising  by  increments  of 
per  annum  to  ^150. 


There  are  also  a  few  higher  appointments.  Women 
are,  however,  under  a  particular  disability  in  that 
they  must  wait  for  a  vacancy  in  the  Higher  Grade 
before  passing  on  beyond  ^105,  whilst  in  the  case 
of  the  Men  Clerks  there  is  no  such  stoppage,  officers 
being  allowed  to  proceed  straight  on,  if  certified 
efficient. 

It  will,  no  doubt,  have  been  observed  that  the 
post  of  Women  Clerk  is  the  highest  in  the  Service 
open  to  women  by  competitive  examination,  and 
with  the  exception  of  some  sixteen  or  eighteen 
appointments  in  the  Board  of  Education,  Women 
Clerks  have  hitherto  been  recruited  for  the  Post 
Office  alone.  They  are  now  being  recruited  from 
this  examination  for  the  National  Health  Insurance 
Commissions.  The  exclusion  of  Women  Clerks 
from  the  numerous  State  Departments  such  as  the 
Home  Office,  Local  Government  Board,  Inland 
Revenue,  etc.,  is  mainly  traditional,  as  they  are 
not  excluded  by  the  wording  of  the  Order  in 
Council  of  loth  January  1910  (paragraph  5,  Part  I.) 
which  states  that 

"  all  appointments  .  .  .  shall  be  made  by  means  of  com- 
petitive examinations  according  to  regulations  framed,  or 
to  be  from  time  to  time  framed  by  the  Commissioners, 
and  approved  by  the  Treasury,  open  to  all  persons  (of  the 
requisite  age,  health,  character,  and  other  qualifications 
prescribed  in  the  said  regulations)  who  may  be  desirous 
of  attending  the  same.  .  .  ." 


270        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

In  this  passage  the  word  "persons"  is  inter- 
preted to  mean  men  only,  but  as  other  professions 
are  yielding  to  the  pressure  of  modern  economic 
conditions  and  are  opening  their  doors  to  women, 
it  is  time  that  the  State  considered  the  advisability 
of  profiting  by  the  services  of  women  eminently 
fitted  to  perform  clerical,  organising,  and  adminis- 
trative duties,  many  of  whom  may  possess  the 
special  qualifications  needed  for  the  work  in  various 
Government  Departments. 

The  present  limitation  of  the  employment  of 
women,  and  their  lack  of  prospects  of  advancement 
constitutes  a  serious  grievance.  Whilst  many 
avenues  are  open  to  men  to  improve  their  con- 
dition in  the  early  years  of  service,  if  they  possess 
the  necessary  ability  and  enterprise,  women  have 
no  such  opportunities,  and  have  practically  no 
chance  of  advancement  except  by  way  of  super- 
vision in  their  own  grade.  Moreover,  if  we  look 
at  this  question  from  the  point  of  view  of  advantage 
to  the  community,  we  find  that  the  present  mode 
of  staffing  the  higher  posts  of  the  service  from  the 
male  sex  narrows  the  field  of  selection.  It  is  in 
the  interests  of  the  public  that  the  best  type  of 
officer  should  be  secured,  and  not  merely  the  best 
male  available,  and  the  unrestricted  admission  of 
women  to  the  higher  classes  in  the  Civil  Service, 
and  their  payment  on  the  same  terms  as  men 
would  make  for  the  greater  efficiency  of  the  Depart- 
ment, by  securing  the  services  of  highly  qualified 
women,  who  at  present  are  not  attracted  by  the 
small  salaries  and  the  meagre  prospects  offered. 
It  must  also  be  realised  by  heads  of  families  that 
they  have  a  right  to  expect  that  the  service  of  the 
State — a  dignified,  secure,  and  independent  pro- 
fession— should  be  open  to  their  daughters  as  well 
as  to  their  sons.  Furthermore,  as  the  revenue,  out 
of  which  the  salaries  of  Civil  Servants  are  paid, 


THE  LOWER  GRADES  271 

is  collected  from  women  as  well  as  from  men, 
women  should  have  an  equal  right  to  earn  those 
salaries. 

Economy  in  working  and  simplification  of 
administration  would  be  attained  by  abolishing 
the  separate  examinations,  and  allowing  men  and 
women  to  enter  for  the  same  examinations  on 
equal  terms. 

There  are  certain  advantages  attached  to  service 
under  the  State,  which  are  taken  into  account 
when  salaries  are  fixed,  but  the  value  of  these 
privileges  to  the  staff  is  frequently  over-estimated 
by  the  outsider.  For  instance,  security  of  tenure 
and  the  prospect  of  a  pension  at  retirement,  often 
act  as  a  deterrent  to  clever  and  enterprising  officers 
who,  but  for  the  sacrifice  involved,  would  throw  up 
their  appointment  and  seek  more  remunerative 
and  promising  employment  outside.  Again,  the 
medical  attendance  provided  by  the  Post  Office  is, 
in  the  case  of  the  women  employed  in  the  Head- 
quarters Departments,  only  available  in  practice 
when  they  are  well  enough  to  attend  at  the  office 
to  wait  on  the  Medical  Officer  there.  In  theory, 
every  employee  is  entitled  to  the  services  of  a 
Medical  Officer  at  her  own  home  in  case  of  serious 
illness,  but,  in  fact,  the  Women  Medical  Officers  are 
too  few  to  be  able  to  give  the  necessary  individual 
attention.  As  an  instance  of  this,  it  may  be  stated 
that  to  one  Department,  numbering  1,800  women, 
the  part  time  of  one  doctor  only,  is  allotted. 

Other  advantages  are  a  steadily  progressing 
scale  of  salary,  provided  that  efficient  service  is 
rendered ;  annual  leave  with  pay ;  a  reasonable 
working  day — seven  hours  for  the  clerical  force  and 
the  typists,  and  eight  hours  for  the  other  classes  ;  in 
most  Departments  payment  is  made  for  overtime;  a 
pension  on  compulsory  retirement  after  ten  years' 
service,  except  in  the  case  of  women  retired  on 


p«^ 

SQk  %2        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

marriage,  when  a  gratuity  is  given  after  six  years' 
service,  amounting  to  one  month's  salary  for  every 
year  of  service  up  to  twelve  years.  A  com- 
passionate allowance  is  also  given  on  the  same 
basis  for  both  sexes,  in  cases  where  an  officer  is 
compelled  to  retire  through  ill-health  before  com- 
pleting ten  years'  service.  Sick  pay  is  granted  up 
to  a  maximum  of  six  months  on  full  pay  and  six 
months  on  half  pay.  The  full  period  of  leave  is 
not,  however,  always  allowed  before  retirement. 
It  is  given  only  at  the  discretion  of  the  Depart- 
ment, if  there  is  a  chance  of  complete  recovery  ; 
officers  have  no  definite  claim  to  it.  Although 
these  are  distinct  advantages  to  the  staff,  it  must 
not  be  overlooked  that  it  is  essential  for  the  State 
to  offer  some  inducements  of  this  kind,  in  order 
to  obtain  a  staff  more  or  less  permanent  who  will 
regard  their  employment  as  a  career.  It  is  most 
important  for  the  proper  conduct  of  a  Government 
office  that  the  officials  should  have  a  lasting 
interest  in  their  work,  and  a  share  in  the  success- 
ful administration  of  the  Department. 

Women  Civil  Servants  are  under  the  Super- 
annuation Act  of  1859  as  regards  their  pensions, 
and  receive  an  amount  equal  to  one-sixtieth  of 
their  annual  salary  at  retirement,  for  every  year 
of  service.  Under  the  Courtney  Scheme  of  1909, 
the  basis  of  calculation  is  one-eightieth  instead  of 
one-sixtieth,  and  the  reduction  in  the  pension  is 
compensated  by  a  cash  payment  at  retirement,  or, 
in  the  event  of  death  occurring  whilst  in  harness, 
a  cash  payment  is  made  to  the  next -of -kin. 
Women  secured  their  exclusion  from  the  provisions 
of  the  latter  scheme  at  their  own  request,  as  it  was 
felt  that  the  larger  pension  was  of  more  value  to 
them  than  the  cash  payment  at  death  or  retirement ; 
moreover  their  pensions  were  already  too  small  to 
admit  of  further  diminution. 


THE  LOWER  GRADES  273 

It  is  a  general  rule  throughout  the  Service  that 
a  woman  must  retire  on  marriage ;  as  already 
mentioned,  a  compensating  -  bonus  is  granted  in 
respect  of  the  loss  of  pension  thereby  sustained. 
A  married  woman  has  no  definite  claim  to  return 
to  her  employment,  should  she  again  desire  to  earn 
her  own  living,  and  only  if  widowed  is  she  allowed, 
in  certain  circumstances,  to  return  to  the  Service. 
Should  any  other  misfortune  overtake  her,  or 
should  she  for  any  other  reason  wish  to  become 
economically  independent,  she  is  not  allowed  to 
earn  her  living  by  means  of  her  own  profession 
of  Civil  Servant.  This  rule  of  the  Service  un- 
doubtedly acts  as  a  deterrent  to  marriage  for, 
according  to  the  statistics  published,  only  about  3 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  female  staff  annually  leave 
to  be  married.  It  need  hardly  be  pointed  out  that 
in  the  present  state  of  the  law  of  the  land,  when 
no  portion  of  a  husband's  income  is  secured  to  his 
wife  as  a  right,  a  woman  will  not  lightly  throw 
up  her  means  of  livelihood  with  no  prospect  of 
returning  to  it  should  she  so  desire,  in  order  to 
take  her  chance  of  happiness  with  a  man  whom 
the  law  permits  to  hold  her  in  subjection  body  and 
soul.  There  is  another  aspect  of  the  question : 
Women  Civil  Servants  have  to  pass  a  strict  medical 
examination  before  entering  the  Service ;  they 
have  to  furnish  satisfactory  evidence  of  respect- 
ability, of  the  health  of  their  antecedents,  and  of 
a  certain  standard  of  education.  They  are  there- 
fore what  is  known  as  "selected  lives":  if  these 
women  are  forced  to  remain  celibate  as  a  condition 
of  their  employment,  it  is  a  distinct  loss  to  the 
nation  of  a  specially  selected  class  of  potential 
mothers.  In  these  days,  when  the  declining  birth- 
rate is  causing  some  concern  to  our  statesmen, 
it  would  surely  be  worth  their  while  to  consider 
how  far  they  are  themselves  contributing  to  the 

S 


274        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

condition  of  affairs  which  they  deplore,  by  main- 
taining this  rigid  regulation  for  the  sake  of  a 
worn-out  sentiment.  The  compulsory  resignation 
on  marriage  is  a  definite  wrong  both  to  the 
women  concerned  and  to  the  community  at  large, 
for  women  of  selected  health  and  intellect  are 
discouraged  from  marriage  by  this  regulation. 
Pending  the  final  settlement  of  this  question  which 
is  likely  to  be  a  very  controversial  one,  the 
difficulty  might  be  met  by  a  modification  of  the 
existing  rule  allowing  married  women  who  have 
been  Civil  Servants  to  return  to  their  employment 
should  they  again  desire  to  earn  their  own  living 
by  means  of  the  only  profession  for  which  they 
have  qualified. 

Women  in  the  Civil  Service  are  in  a  peculiar 
position  with  regard  to  their  rights  as  citizens. 
They  are  handicapped  by  all  the  rules  governing  the 
political  action  of  men,  while  they  are  without  the 
means  of  maintaining  their  status  as  wage-earners. 
Although  they  are  prohibited  by  reason  of  their 
sex,  from  taking  part  in  any  Parliamentary  election 
as  voters,  they  are  nevertheless  bound  by  the  rules 
of  the  Civil  Service  which  were  drawn  up  when 
Civil  Servants  were  first  enfranchised.  These  rules 
state  that  "now  officers  have  been  relieved  of  the 
electoral  disabilities  to  which  they  were  formerly 
subject,  they  are  eligible  to  be  placed  on  the 
Parliamentary  Register  and  to  vote  at  a  parlia- 
mentary election.  Nevertheless,  it  is  expected  of 
them  as  Public  Servants  that  they  should  maintain 
a  certain  reserve  in  political  matters  and  not  put 
themselves  forward  on  one  side  or  the  other." 
This  rule  has  been  interpreted  by  the  Department 
to  mean  that  no  Woman  Civil  Servant  may  take 
an  active  part  in  any  Suffrage  Society  which  inter- 
feres in  party  politics.  Thus  women  are  forced  to 
accept  a  subservient  position,  and  are  also  pre- 


THE  LOWER  GRADES  275 

vented  from  taking  direct  steps  to  raise  their 
status.  The  principle  of  equal  pay  for  equal  work, 
if  conceded  without  equal  opportunities,  is  liable 
to  be  evaded,  and  must  be  safeguarded  by  statute, 
and  there  is  no  guarantee  that  any  improvement 
gained  will  be  permanent  until  women  have  political 
power  to  enforce  their  demands,  for  the  masculine 
point  of  view  dominates  every  Government  Depart- 
ment and  colours  all  administration. 

Moreover,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  women 
are  handicapped  by  being,  to  a  large  degree, 
dependent  on  reports  of  their  work  emanating  from 
male  Heads  of  Departments  who  are  in  many  cases 
prejudiced,  sometimes  unconsciously,  against  their 
employment.  Heads  of  Departments  do  not  as  a 
rule  take  the  same  amount  of  personal  interest  as 
a  private  employer  in  the  women  under  their 
control,  and  so  these  are  frequently  the  victims  of 
caprice.  If  the  person  in  authority  at  a  particular 
office  happens  to  object  to  employing  women,  he 
actually  opposes  their  appointment  in  that  office, 
and  deprives  them  of  the  chance  of  displaying  their 
ability.  Whilst  they  have  more  than  their  fair 
share  of  routine  work,  and  are  excluded  from 
practically  all  the  higher  posts,  they  are  on  that 
account  actually  accused  of  possessing  less  initi- 
ative, less  administrative  ability,  and  less  power  of 
acting  in  sudden  emergencies  than  men.  It  is 
indeed  a  vicious  circle.  They  are  prevented  by 
their  sex  from  acquiring  these  qualities  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  their  duties  and  excluded  from 
the  examinations  for  admission  to  those  posts  in 
which  such  qualities  would  be  of  use.  It  is  then 
seriously  urged  by  responsible  officials  of  the  Civil 
Service  as  an  argument  against  their  admittance 
to  superior  appointments,  that  they  are  lacking  in 
the  necessary  qualifications. 

Such  unreasonable  and  unfair  criticism  creates 


276        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

bitterness  in  the  minds  of  the  women,  who  find 
themselves,  in  a  large  number  of  cases,  saddled 
with  domestic  responsibilities  as  great  or  greater 
than  those  of  the  officials  who  would  seek  to  drive 
them  back  into  the  home,  and  who  endeavour  to 
prevent  them  from  rising  to  any  decent  posi- 
tions in  their  profession.  An  encouraging  sign, 
however,  is  the  enlightened  attitude  shown  by 
some  of  the  members  of  the  Royal  Commission 
on  the  Civil  Service ;  the  pertinent  enquiries  made 
of  the  Heads  of  Departments  regarding  the  position 
of  women  tend  to  show  that  the  question  will,  at 
least,  receive  consideration,  and  that  the  evidence 
placed  before  the  Commission  by  the  women's 
organisations  will  not  be  without  its  effect  on  the 
administration  of  the  Civil  Service  in  the  future. 
The  recognition  by  the  male  staff  in  the  Civil 
Service  of  the  importance  of  the  principle  of  equal 
pay  for  equal  work  is  a  sign  of  advance  which 
should  be  welcomed  by  all  who  have  the  cause 
of  women  at  heart.  This  increased  enlightenment 
was  evidenced  at  the  Annual  Conference  of  the 
Civil  Service  Federation  held  at  the  Guildhall  on 
the  nth  October  last.  Delegates  were  present, 
representing  approximately  100,000  Civil  Servants, 
and  the  following  resolution,  which  is  important 
enough  to  be  quoted  in  full,  was  passed  by  a 
majority  of  31  votes  to  10. 

"  That  this  Council  expresses  its  conviction  that  equal 
pay  for  equal  work  is  the  only  solution  of  the  problem 
of  male  and  female  labour  in  the  Civil  Service,  and 
considers  that  the  establishment  of  this  principle  is  the 
only  alternative  to  the  competition  of  cheapness  which 
is  the  result  of  the  existing  double  standard  of  payment, 
and  is  affecting  so  injuriously  the  conditions  of  service 
of  both  men  and  women.  It  therefore  pledges  itself  to 
endeavour  to  obtain  the  abolition  of  the  sex  disability." 

Women  in  the  Service  are  realising  more  and 


THE  LOWER  GRADES  277 

more  that  their  strength  lies  in  effective  combina- 
tion. A  new  organisation  has  recently  sprung  into 
being  as  a  result  of  the  introduction  of  Women 
Clerks  into  the  Board  of  Trade  and  the  National 
Health  Insurance  Service,  the  Federation  of  Civil 
Service  Women  Clerks  having  been  formed  for  the 
purpose  of  working  for  the  larger  interests  of  the 
women  in  the  various  clerical  departments  of  the 
Civil  Service.  The  general  policy  of  the  Federa- 
tion will  be  to  afford  a  ready  means  of  communica- 
tion between  various  sections  of  the  Service  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  joint  action  when  necessary 
in  the  interests  of  the  whole  body  of  Women 
Clerks,  and  to  enable  them  to  concentrate  more 
effectively  on  the  larger  issues  connected  with 
the  claim  for  equality  of  opportunity  for  women 
with  men  in  the  Civil  Service. 

This  article  will  not  be  complete  without  some 
reference  to  the  Report  of  the  Holt  Committee 
which  is  engaging  the  attention  of  the  Postmaster 
General  at  the  present  time. 

When  the  Report  was  published  in  August 
last,  it  was  generally  agreed  that  the  women  had 
been  badly  treated.  The  demand  for  equality  of 
remuneration  with  the  male  staff  which  was  put 
forward  by  the  Women  Telegraphists  and  the 
Women  Clerks  has  been  completely  ignored.  The 
Women  Sorters  are  awarded  an  increase  of  2s.  a 
week  in  the  maximum  salary,  and,  as  a  set  off,  it  is 
proposed  that  they  shall  undertake  a  larger  portion 
of  the  minor  clerical  duties  now  performed  by 
Women  Clerks.  The  immediate  supervision  of  the 
Women  Sorters  is  to  be  met  by  the  establishment 
of  the  Senior  Sorters  (who  at  present  receive  a 
supervising  allowance  of  33.  a  week)  as  a  regular 
supervising  class  with  a  fixed  scale  of  salary,  viz., 
325.  per  week  rising  by  is.  6d.  to  385.  The 


278        WOMEN  IN  THE  CIVIL  SERVICE 

ultimate  supervision  remains  in  the  hands  of  the 
Women  Clerks.  The  Committee  recommended 
the  abandonment  of  the  tentative  new  grade  of 
Female  Assistant  Clerks  on  the  ground  that  there 
is  no  need  for  a  class  intermediate  between  the 
Women  Sorters  and  the  Girl  and  Women  Clerks. 
A  further  recommendation,  causing  widespread 
dissatisfaction,  is  that  the  hours  of  duty  shall  be 
increased  by  three  and  a  half  hours  per  week.  The 
eight-hour  day  for  manipulative  work  and  the  seven- 
hour  day  for  clerical  work  has  hitherto  been  the 
standard  working  day  in  the  Post  Office,  and  the 
suggested  increase  with  no  compensating  rise  in 
salary  apart  from  an  immediate  increment,  not  to 
be  carried  above  the  maximum  of  the  scale,  has 
been  rejected  by  all  classes  with  indignation.1  The 
Women  Telegraphists  get  nothing,  the  Women 
Telephonists  nothing,  the  Women  Clerks  of  the 
First  and  Second  classes,  £10  and  ^5  increase 
in  the  maximum  salary  respectively.  The  Women 
Counter  Clerks  and  Telegraphists  in  the  provinces 
get  nothing,  although  the  men  of  the  same  class 
get  2s.  a  week  increase  in  the  maximum. 

It  is  understood  from  a  reliable  source  that  the 
higher  officials  of  the  Post  Office  admit  that  the 
women  on  the  whole  have  been  scurvily  treated, 
and  it  is  confidently  expected  that  the  Postmaster 
General  will  modify  and  improve  some  of  the 
proposals  when  the  final  revision  of  the  Report  is 
undertaken.  Apart  from  the  various  class  interests, 
the  only  recommendation  that  can  be  regarded  as 
in  any  way  satisfactory  to  women  is  the  abolition 
of  the  grade  of  Assistant  Women  Clerks  as  at 
present  constituted.  The  only  form  in  which  the 
new  grade  could  be  at  all  acceptable  would  be 

1  The  Postmaster  General  has  recently  (December  1913),  con- 
ceded the  point,  and  has  promised  that  there  shall  be  no  increase  in 
the  hours  of  duty  in  the  Post  Office  Service  ;  concessions  about  pay 
have  been  refused.  [EDITOR.] 


THE  LOWER  GRADES  279 

in  substitution   for  the  grades  of  Girl  Clerk  and 
Women  Sorter  with  a  scale  of  salary  comparable 
to  the   Male  Assistant   Clerk,   in  accordance  with 
the    claim    placed    before    the    Holt    Commission 
and   before   the    Royal   Commission   on   the  Civil 
Service.      The     insertion    of    a    new     watertight 
compartment   such    as   the   Department   proposed, 
between  the  Women  Sorters  and  Women  Clerks 
would   be   dangerous  to   the  interests,    and   detri- 
mental to  the  expansion  of  both,  while  the  present 
restriction  of  women  to  rank  and  file  work  con- 
tinues.    It   would   press   the    Sorters   still   further 
down    in    the    scale    by    depriving    them    of    all 
opportunity  of  succeeding  to  clerical  work,  as  the 
recruitment  of  the  Assistant  Clerks  from  their  ranks 
would  inevitably  be  very  small ;  and  it  would  also 
injure  the  prospects  of  promotion  of  the  Women 
Clerks   by   decreasing  their  numbers  and  by  de- 
priving them  of  higher  posts   due   to   growth   of 
work  and  increase  of  staff.     This  latter  result  was 
clearly  foreseen    by    the    Department    when    the 
scheme  was  first  promulgated.     Moreover,  it  would 
be  a  blow  to  the  general  status  of  women  in  the 
Post    Office    by    depreciating    the    value   of  their 
work  and  lowering  the  standard  of  their  employ- 
ment.      It  is  a  matter   for  congratulation,    there- 
fore, that  the  Select  Committee  have  advised  the 
abolition    of  the  new  grade,   and   the   Postmaster 
General,  having  agreed  in  the  House  of  Commons 
to    refer   the   matter    to    the    arbitrament   of  the 
Parliamentary    Committee,    can   hardly    repudiate 
their  decision. 


SECTION   VI 

WOMEN   CLERKS  AND 
SECRETARIES 

THE  salary  of  the  woman  secretary  of  the  best  class, 
whether  working  privately  or  for  a  firm,  seems 
to  be  £100  to  ^150  a  year.  Generally  speak- 
ing, this  is  exactly  what  it  was  twenty  years  ago. 
It  would  seem  that  the  highest  salaries  are  those 
given  by  City  men  to  confidential  clerks  (some- 
times relatives),  who  are  either  good  accountants  or 
good  linguists.  The  head  of  an  influential  typing 
office  and  registry  in  London  informed  me  that 
the  highly  paid  posts  of  translators  to  City  firms 
are  usually  filled  by  German  girls.  The  woman 
receiving  ,£200  to  ^"250  is  a  very  rare  person. 
I  know  only  of  one  who  receives  ^5  a  week,  and 
that  is  from  an  American  firm  in  London.  She 
does  private  secretarial  work,  but  has  no  book- 
keeping and  no  foreign  correspondence.  Some  years 
ago  I  knew  of  another  woman,  private  secretary 
to  the  head  of  a  large  publishing  firm,  who  had 
£200  a  year.  She  was  an  efficient  French  corre- 
spondent, an  able,  all-round  woman,  and  had  been 
with  the  firm  for  twenty  years.  There  are  now 
two  clerks  in  her  place  at  much  lower  salaries. 
There  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to  employ  two 
cheap  clerks  in  place  of  one  expensive  one. 

People  unacquainted  with  the  facts,  seldom 
realise  how  small  is  the  remuneration  of  capable 
secretaries.  I  am  acquainted  with  the  work  of 
a  woman  who  has  the  following  qualifications ; 

280 


WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES    281 

verbatim  shorthand,  neat  typing  and  sound  know- 
ledge of  secretarial  and  business  work,  including 
bookkeeping ;  she  is  methodical  and  conscientious 
in  her  work,  has  had  some  years'  City  Experience, 
three  years  in  the  shorthand  and  typing  offices  in 
the  Houses  of  Parliament  and  with  peers  and 
members.  She  is  asking  455.  a  week,  and  would 
take  405.  "with  prospects." 

Well  -  paid  posts  seem  to  be  exceptional.  A 
woman  with  an  intimate  knowledge  of  City  con- 
ditions, who  was  chief  accountant  to  an  im- 
portant firm  for  sixteen  years,  informs  me  that 
^175  is  the  highest  salary  she  has  ever  known 
a  woman  clerk  to  receive.  The  lowest  on  record 
seems  to  be  55.  a  week.  There  is  a  woman 
running  a  typing  office  in  the  City  who  hires  out 
shorthand  typists  at  this  figure  to  business  firms. 
She  employs  a  staff  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
girls.  Similarly,  an  industrial  insurance  company, 
nine  months  ago,  opened  a  new  department  to  deal 
with  the  work  of  the  new  Act.  They  engaged 
fifty  girl  clerks  at  IDS.  with  a  superintendent, 
also  a  woman,  at  305.  a  week. 

There  is  sometimes  difficulty  in  getting  accurate 
information  with  regard  to  payments.  The  heads 
of  typing  schools  and  colleges  are  apt  to  give  too 
rosy  a  picture,  and  the  individual  clerk  has  usually 
a  somewhat  narrow  experience  and  is  inclined  to 
be  pessimistic.  A  man  whom  I  interviewed  (in 
place  of  the  manager,  who  was  engaged),  at  one 
of  the  biggest  schools  for  training  clerks,  informed 
me  that  everything  depended  on  the  clerk.  He 
said  the  girls  who  were  getting  IDS.  a  week  were 
not  worth  more,  and  that  there  were  "  many " 
women  clerks  getting  from  £300  to  ^350.  I  said 
I  was  delighted  to  hear  this  as  I  had  had  difficulty 
in  running  to  earth  the  woman  clerk,  with  ^200, 
and  had  not  before  heard  of  the  higher  salaries.  I 


282     WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES 

took  out  my  notebook  and  begged  for  particulars. 
He  then  said  he  knew  of  "one "of  their  diplomees 
working  for  a  firm  of  florists,  who  had  a  salary 
of  .£300 :  she  was  able  to  correspond  in  English, 
French,  German,  and  Spanish.  I  asked  if  he 
would  kindly  give  me  her  name  and  address 
that  I  might  interview  her,  but  he  said  he  could 
not  possibly  do  that,  as  any  woman  clerk  who 
allowed  herself  to  be  interviewed  would  be  certain 
to  lose  her  post. 

The  manager  of  a  business  in  Manchester,  who 
employs  five  shorthand  typists,  pays  them  from 
155.  to  305.  He  admits  that  it  is  impossible  for 
the  girls  to  live  on  their  salaries  unless  they  are 
at  home  with  their  parents,  as  is  the  case  with  all 
of  them.  But  he  says  that  it  is  unreasonable  to 
expect  him  to  give  more  than  the  market  rates, 
and  that  for  303.  he  gets  excellent  service.  He 
suggests  that  the  only  way  to  raise  wages  is  for 
the  clerks  to  organise. 

The  principal  of  a  high  class  typing  office  in 
the  City,  a  woman  of  experience,  who  trains  only 
a  select  number  of  educated  girls,  never  allows  a 
pupil  from  her  school  to  begin  at  less  than  255. 
a  week  with  a  prospect  of  speedy  increase.  She 
pays  her  own  translator  ^3,  55.  a  week,  and  four 
members  of  her  staff  are  paid  at  the  rate  of  £160 
a  year. 

Mr  Elvin,  Secretary  of  the  Union  of  Clerks, 
tries  to  enforce  a  minimum  wage  of  353.  a  week 
as  the  beginning  salary  for  an  expert  shorthand 
typist,  and  this  may  be  regarded  as  the  present 
Trade  Union  rate.  Mr  Elvin's  difficulty  is 
chiefly  with  the  girls  themselves.  They  are  so 
accustomed  to  the  idea  of  women  being  paid 
less  than  men  that  it  is  not  easy  to  get  them  to 
insist  on  equal  pay.  In  one  case  he  was  asked 
to  supply  a  woman  secretary  for  a  certain  post. 


WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES     283 

He  agreed  to  find  a  suitable  person  if  the  firm 
would  guarantee  a  commencing  salary  of  353.  a 
week.  After  some  demur  this  was  conceded,  and 
he  sent  to  a  well-known  school  for  three  com- 
petent clerks  that  he  might  examine  them  and 
recommend  the  best  of  the  three.  After  the  test 
he  asked  them,  in  turn,  what  salary  they  expected. 
They  were  all  over  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  all 
competent.  One  mentioned  253.,  the  second  233., 
and  the  third  £  i  a  week.  On  being  asked,  they 
said  they  knew  they  were  worth  more,  but  they 
thought  that,  as  they  were  women,  they  would 
not  get  it. 

Where  there  is  no  one  to  safeguard  the  interests 
of  the  clerk,  an  employer,  on  the  look-out  for  cheap 
labour,  finds  it  easily  enough.  The  head  of  a  big  firm 
offered  a  French  girl,  an  expert  shorthand  writer  in 
three  languages,  153.  a  week,  with  a  possible  rise 
after  three  months.  She  finally  accepted  a  post  at 
303.  a  week  as  she  could  get  nothing  better  through 
registries  or  by  advertisement. 

Unless  a  girl  has  a  claim  on  a  school  where 
she  has  trained,  or  has  influential  friends,  it  is 
very  difficult  for  her  to  get  a  post  suited  to  her 
needs  in  London.  The  whole  profession  seems 
to  be  in  a  chaotic  condition,  and  the  chances 
through  advertisement  are  haphazard  and  unsatis- 
factory. Employment  bureaux  maintain  that  there 
are  more  good  posts  than  there  are  qualified  women 
to  fill  them,  but  individual  secretaries  are  timid 
about  giving  up  unsatisfactory  posts  as  they  do 
not  know  how  to  get  better. 

Take  the  case  of  a  private  secretary  to  a 
Member  of  Parliament.  He  loses  his  seat,  retires 
to  the  country,  and  gives  up  his  London  secretary. 
He  gives  her  a  number  of  introductions.  These 
lead  to  nothing,  and  she  is  forced  into  the  com- 
petition of  the  City.  Her  particular  training  is 


284     WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES 

of  no  use  in  a  commercial  office,  and  her  value 
falls  to  305.  a  week. 

A  woman  with  an  intimate  knowledge  of  women 
clerks  and  secretaries  in  the  City  for  the  past 
twenty  years,  says  that  it  is  difficult  to  over- 
estimate the  poverty  of  a  vast  number  of  girls. 
Many  of  them  are  the  chief  breadwinners  of  the 
family.  She  knows  of  half  a  dozen  cases  of  men 
of  forty  and  a  little  older  who  are  living  on  the 
earnings  of  their  daughters ;  there  may  be  two 
girls  in  the  family,  one  getting  125.  and  the  other 
255.  a  week. 

The  private  secretary  who  lives  in,  has  usually 
excellent  food  and  pleasant  surroundings,  but  in 
some  cases  the  life  is  a  solitary  one.  Unless  there 
is  a  governess  or  other  educated  employee  in  the 
household,  she  has  no  companionship.  The  salary 
varies  from  ^30  to  ^120  and  sometimes  more. 
There  is  apparently  no  fixed  rate.  One  lady  writes : 

"  For  two  years  I  lived  in  the  house  of  Sir  ,  the 

most  hopelessly  isolated  and  uninteresting  existence, 
within  the  four  walls  of  his  study.  A  secretary  should 
certainly  stick  out  for  a  free  week-end  once  a  month 
when  living  in.  Isolation  is  horribly  bad  for  one." 

The  secretary  living  in  with  congenial  literary  or 
medical  people,  where  she  is  made  one  of  the 
family  circle,  has  a  happier  time,  but  the  payment 
is  not  high. 

Apart  from  salary,  the  conditions  in  which  the 
woman  clerk  works  are  by  no  means  ideal. 

Twenty  years  ago,  in  a  far  northern  city,  there 
was  a  flourishing  new  school  where  over  thirty 
girls  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  were  being  taught 
shorthand,  typewriting,  book-keeping,  and  all  that 
goes  to  the  making  of  a  fully  -  equipped  clerk. 
This  school  was  the  first  experiment  of  the  kind 
in  an  enterprising  community.  As  the  pupils 
qualified,  with  Pitman  certificates  of  varying 


WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES    285 

degrees  of  speed,  at  the  end  of  six  months  or 
longer,  the  way  in  which  old  -  fashioned  lawyers 
accepted  the  innovation  of  attractive  young  women 
on  their  clerical  staff,  seemed  almost  magical. 
Decorum  relegated  the  young  women  to  separate 
rooms  from  the  rest  of  the  employes,  and  the 
formality  in  the  bearing  of  heads  of  departments 
towards  these  pioneer  females  must  have  been 
gratifying  to  Mrs  Grundy.  So  superior  to  human 
exigencies  seemed  these  dignified  men,  that  the 
subject  of  lavatory  accommodation  for  young 
women,  mewed  up  from  9  to  i  and  from  2  to 
5.30,  was  not  mentioned.  Woman's  modesty,  if  it 
were  to  reach  the  high  standard  made  for  her  by 
man,  had  to  come  before  her  health  or  comfort. 
Although  typists  of  all  grades  have  multiplied 
by  thousands1  during  the  past  twenty  years  —  in 
London  alone  there  are  over  25,000  women  clerks 
and  secretaries — there  is  still  need  for  adequate 
inspection  of  sanitary  accommodation  for  women 
workers  of  this  class.  Apart  altogether  from 
sanitary  accommodation,  common  sense  would 
seem  to  suggest  that,  in  the  case  of  any  one  who 
has  to  turn  out  decent  typing,  a  regular  supply  of 
hot  water  is  a  necessity  for  washing  hands  that 
may  have  to  change  a  ribbon  or  do  the  many 
little  messy  jobs  that  typing  involves. 

In  a  lecture  before  the  Fabian  Women's  Group 
in  February  1912,  Miss  Florence,  of  the  Associa- 
tion of  Women  Clerks  and  Secretaries,  said : 

"With  regard  to  the  sanitary  conditions — these  as  a 
rule  are  bad,  especially  where  there  is  only  one  woman. 
The  difficulty  has  been  shirked  by  the  women  themselves 
in  a  great  many  cases.  ...  I  do  not  see  how  these  can  be 
altered  except  by  improving  the  status  and  position  of 
women,  so  that  they  may  become  strong  enough  to  say 
they  will  not  have  it  if  it  is  too  bad." 

1  See  Appendix  II.,  p.  317. 


286     WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES 

Who  is  to  dictate  what  is  "too  bad"?  Surely 
the  only  remedy  is  to  have  a  proper  standard  of 
decency  enforced  by  law.  Women  as  a  rule  are 
fools  on  this  subject,  and  will  endure  almost  any 
discomfort,  rather  than  complain. 

In  giving  evidence  before  the  Royal  Commission, 
in  May  last  year,  concerning  the  conditions  of 
employment  and  their  effect  on  the  health  of 
Civil  Service  female  typists  and  shorthand  writers, 
Miss  Charlesworth,  Honorary  Secretary  of  the 
Civil  Service  Typists'  Association,  said  ; 

"The  statistics  as  regards  sickness  relating  to  our 
class  are  almost  too  small  to  be  of  very  much  use.  ...  I 
may  say  from  experience  that  they  are  greatly  influenced 
by  the  conditions  under  which  the  work  is  done.  In  my 
own  department  (Local  Government  Board)  our  average 
absence  from  sickness  in  the  old  office,  where  we  were 
much  overcrowded,  varied  between  ten  and  fourteen  days 
a  year,  while  in  our  new  office  the  average  has  steadily 
gone  down  from  twelve  to  a  fraction  over  six  last  year.  .  .  . 
It  is  very  striking  that  there  has  been  that  reduction  in 
the  average  number  of  days'  absence  per  year  from  sick- 
ness, from  twelve  to  six  in  four  years  while  we  have  been 
working  under  better  conditions  .  .  .  that  means  a  less 
number  of  typing  machines  in  one  room,  more  light  to 
work  by  and  more  air — better  rooms  to  work  in." 

This  evidence  is  interesting,  as  the  worst 
conditions  that  could  possibly  exist  in  the  lofty 
rooms  of  a  Government  office,  where  everything 
is  on  a  big  scale  and  there  is  a  certain  standard 
of  comfort,  must  be  superior  to  the  majority  of 
commercial  offices,  especially  in  London,  where 
space  is  so  expensive.  Think  of  four  girls  taking 
shorthand  notes  by  telephone  in  a  room  with  thirty 
typewriting  machines  working  at  once ! 

There  are  no  figures  available  with  regard  to 
the  health  of  women  clerks  generally.  The  common 
ailments  are  neuritis,  anaemia,  and  nervous  break- 


WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES     287 

down.  Typing  is  also  a  strain  on  the  eyesight 
and  hearing.  Miss  Charlesworth  says  that  in 
her  experience  it  is  the  girls  who  are  not  suited 
for  the  work  who  suffer  most  from  ill-health. 

One  typing  office  and  school,  of  high  repute 
for  excellence  of  work,  had  rooms  so  dark  that 
electric  light  was  always  used  in  one  or  other  of 
them  during  part  of  the  day.  No  sun  ever  entered 
the  work-rooms.  The  salaries  were  good,  but 
overtime  was  paid  at  only  6d.  an  hour.  There 
was  a  sort  of  compulsion,  too,  to  work  overtime ; 
some  of  the  best  typists,  occasionally  even  stayed 
all  night  during  excessive  rushes  of  work.  No 
holidays  were  paid  for,  and  it  was  regarded  as 
disloyalty  on  the  part  of  a  clerk  to  stay  away 
for  sickness.  There  was  an  instance  of  a  girl 
being  dismissed  because  she  stayed  away  a  fort- 
night owing  to  influenza.  This  particular  firm 
recently  moved  into  bigger,  brighter  rooms,  not 
out  of  humanity  to  its  staff,  but  because  the 
lease  had  run  out. 

Where  competition  is  as  keen  as  in  the  typing 
business,  it  is  often  the  case  that  the  comfort  of 
employees  is  considered  as  little  as  is  compatible 
with  running  the  place  at  a  profit.  There  seems 
to  be  no  inspection,  and  there  is  no  law  to  say 
how  many  typists  may  be  worked  together,  or 
what  limit  of  noise  shall  be  endured  by  them. 
Everything  is  ruled  by  the  individual  standard  of 
decency  of  the  employer.  Many  well  -  educated 
girls  enter  typing  offices  for  the  excellent  practical 
training  to  be  had,  and  for  the  short  time  they 
remain  they  are  willing  to  put  up  with  severe 
discipline  and  some  personal  discomfort.  There 
are,  of  course,  typing  offices  with  as  high  a  level 
of  comfort  and  decency  as  the  most  exacting  law 
would  prescribe.  Many  of  the  big  engineering 
firms  and  City  houses  have  most  comfortable 


288     WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES 

and    even    luxurious    quarters    for    their    women 
clerks. 

In  old  days  in  the  above-mentioned  northern 
school,  it  was  possible  to  get  complete  teaching 
as  a  clerk — excellent  teaching,  too — for  a  guinea 
a  term.  There  were  some  shorthand  typists  whose 
training  cost  them  only  that  initial  guinea  and  the 
fees  of  the  supplementary  course  of  evening  classes, 
55.  and  i os.  according  to  the  number  of  subjects. 
In  London  at  that  time  a  year's  course  in  the 
same  subjects  cost  as  much  as  60  guineas  at 
some  of  the  chief  typing  schools.  The  fee  now- 
adays, at  one  of  the  foremost  London  schools 
for  a  secretarial  course  for  six  months  only,  is  60 
guineas;  a  year's  course  is  ^zoo.1  This  includes 
book-keeping  and  shorthand  correspondence  in  one 
foreign  language,  besides  shorthand  and  typing,  etc. 

The  best  testimony  shows  that  a  year  is 
altogether  too  long  for  an  intelligent  well-educated 
girl  of  eighteen  or  more  to  spend  on  technical 
training.2  Mr  James  Oliphant,  writing  in  The 
School  World  for  July  1913  on  the  subject  of 
secretarial  training  for  girls,  says : 

" ....  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  curriculum  in  girls' 
schools  is  of  a  much  more  reasonable  character  than  that 
which  is  commonly  provided  for  boys,  and  that  the  more 
completely  it  is  fitted  to  supply  a  good  general  education, 

1  Satisfactory  secretarial  training  may  be  obtained  in  London 
from  reliable  teachers  for  a  fee  of  25  guineas  for  a  year's  course. 
It  is,  however,  necessary  to  make  searching  enquiries  before 
arranging  to  enter  any  school,  as  some  of  these  neither  give  a  sound 
training,  nor  obtain  posts  for  their  pupils  as  their  advertisements 
promise.  [EDITOR.] 

-  First  rate  secretarial  preparation  includes  more  than  merely 
technical  instruction.  It  gives  a  sound  business  training  as  well, 
and,  in  addition,  insists  on  one  or  more  foreign  languages.  A  girl 
who  hopes  to  become  something  more  than  a  shorthand-typist  ought 
not  to  scamp  her  professional  training  :  this  should,  of  course,  follow 
her  school-course— /.<?.,  not  begin  until  she  is  seventeen  or  eighteen. 
Graduates,  who  have  specialised  in  foreign  languages,  may  also  ad- 
vantageously prepare  for  the  better  secretarial  posts.  [EDITOR.] 


WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES     289 

the  better  it  would  be  adapted  to  the  special  needs  of  those 
who  wish  to  become  clerks  or  secretaries.  It  would  seem 
eminently  desirable  that  such  aspirants  should  continue 
at  the  secondary  school  between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and 
eighteen,  being  provided  with  a  specialised  course  of  study 
.  .  .  but  whenever  it  is  possible  it  would  be  well  to  insist 
that  no  subject  should  be  included  which  is  not  generally 
educative  in  the  widest  sense.  The  acquisition  of  such 
mechanical  arts  as  stenography  and  typewriting  should  be 
relegated  to  technical  colleges  where,  according  to  general 
testimony,  proficiency  can  be  gained  by  well-educated  girls 
in  a  period  varying  from  six  to  nine  months.  '  Commercial 
correspondence '  is  an  abomination  ;  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  the  ordinary  forms  of  letter-writing  should  be  imparted 
in  every  course  of  English  composition  .  .  .  while  the 
special  jargon  of  each  business  or  office  can  be  readily 
acquired  by  any  intelligent  girl  when  it  becomes  necessary." 

There  is  every  variety  of  price  at  the  various 
technical  training  schools  all  over  the  country, 
from  a  guinea  to  ;£ioo.  With  regard  to  the  train- 
ing given  in  non  -  technical  schools,  the  capable 
head  of  a  well-equipped  West  End  typing  office 
writes : 

"  It  is  a  pity  the  ordinary  schools  are  taking  it  up.  I 
know  of  at  least  one  so-called  secondary  school  which 
makes  a  speciality  of  '  Commercial  Training.'  The  girls 
who  take  up  the  subject  are  quite  the  wrong  kind,  with 
absolutely  no  real  education,  .  .  .  and  are  ready  to  accept 
anything  in  the  way  of  salary.  The  really  good  schools 
where  the  girls  remain  till  they  are  18  or  19  give  a  better 
training,  of  course.  .  .  .  But  I  do  not  think  the  schools 
have  any  right  to  undertake  a  specialised  vocational  train- 
ing ;  it  must  lower  the  standard.  Every  other  profession 
has  its  special  training  after  a  good  general  education  has 
been  acquired." 

The  best-known  societies  for  protecting  the 
interests  of  women  clerks  and  secretaries  are,  the 
Association  of  Women  Clerks  and  Secretaries  at 
12  Buckingham  Street,  Strand,  and  the  National 

T 


290     WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES 

Union  of  Clerks  at  186-188  Bishopsgate  Street. 
These  are  the  only  approved  societies  under  the 
National  Insurance  Act. 

The  Association  of  Women  Clerks  and  Secre- 
taries has  been  in  existence  for  eight  years,  and 
during  the  last  year  has  more  than  trebled  its 
members,  the  clerks'  attitude  towards  combination 
having  recently  changed  somewhat,  in  London  at 
any  rate.  The  Association  has  a  devoted  secretary 
and  does  excellent  work.  Its  aims  are : 

(1)  To  raise  the  status   of  women  clerks  and  secre- 

taries, and  to  encourage  a   higher  standard  of 
practical  training. 

(2)  To  secure  a  just  remuneration  for  all  grades. 

(3)  To  render  legal  aid  and  give  advice  to  members, 

and  to  benefit  generally  the  clerical  and  secretarial 
profession  for  women. 

(4)  To  maintain  a  registry  for  women  clerks  and  secre- 

taries, and  to  watch  for  openings  for  members  of 
the  Association. 

(5)  To  establish  and  maintain  an  Approved  Society 

under  the  National  Insurance  Act,  1911,  for  the 
benefit  of  Women  Clerks  and  Secretaries. 

The  Association  is  not  yet,  however,  strong 
enough  to  form  a  recognised  union  able  to  fix  a 
minimum  education  qualification  for  membership. 
An  important  conference  was  held  by  this  Associa- 
tion in  May  last  at  the  University  of  London. 
Every  speaker  emphasised  the  need  for  better  and 
wider  education  before  taking  up  the  profession, 
and  there  was  unanimity  of  opinion  that  no  girl 
should  be  allowed  to  start  the  technical  part  until 
she  was  at  least  sixteen.  A  remark  of  Mrs  W.  L. 
Courtney,  who  was  one  of  the  speakers,  is  well 
worth  quoting  :  "  One  of  the  cleverest  women  I  ever 
knew,  who  was  an  amateur  indexer,  said  to  me  one 
day,  '  It  does  not  matter  in  doing  this  work  about 
being  clever ;  what  matters  is  to  have  lived.' ' 


WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES    291 

There  is  not  much  chance  then  for  the  school-girl 
of  sixteen.1 

The  National  Union  of  Clerks  is  conducted  with 
energy  and  enlightenment.  It  has  increased  its 
membership  by  nearly  8,000  in  the  last  twelve 
months,  and  one  of  the  best  reasons  it  offers  women 
clerks  for  joining,  is  that  it  is  the  only  National 
Society  for  Clerks  that  has  always  accepted  women 
as  members  on  equal  terms  as  men.  There  are 
1,000  women  in  a  membership  of  10,000.  Not- 
withstanding the  hard  work  these  two  societies  are 
doing,  there  is  nothing  like  the  response  there 
should  be  from  women  clerks.  It  is  only  the 
exceptional  woman  clerk  who  has  yet  developed 
anything  like  a  corporate  conscience.  The  reason 
is  partly  that  she  is  often  an  isolated  being. 
Where  there  is  a  large  number  of  clerks  together, 
as  in  the  Civil  Service,  there  is  no  lack  of  the 
right  spirit. 

Here  are  a  few  of  the  causes  of  the  over- 
stocking of  the  clerical  market  by  women.  Almost 
any  one  can  be  a  clerk  of  a  kind.  The  training  is 
cheap  and  easily  obtainable.  Many  parents  want 
their  children  to  bring  in  money  early,  and  this 
seems  an  easy  way.  A  large  percentage  of  young 
girls  (in  1907-1909,  87  per  cent.)  who  fail  to  pass 
Civil  Service  examinations,  try  to  become  clerks. 
Some  time  ago  there  was  an  article  in  a  daily 
newspaper  entitled  "The  Passing  of  the  i5s.-a- 
week-Girl."  She  is  with  us  in  larger  numbers  than 
ever,  however,  and  she  has  added  to  her  numbers 
a  los.-a-week-girl  and  even  a  cheaper  girl,  as  we 

1  Apart  from  monetary  prospects  altogether,  no  girl  should  be 
allowed  to  enter  the  profession  until  she  is  old  enough  and  wise 
enough  to  protect  herself,  should  need  arise,  from  the  undesirable 
employer,  who  may  insult  her  with  unwelcome  attentions.  The 
possibility  of  such  annoyance  is  an  additional  reason  for  all  clerks  to 
join  a  Trade  Union,  which  helps  individuals  to  insist  on  proper 
conditions  of  work.  [EDITOR."| 


292     WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES 

have  seen.  We  meet  her  daily  in  Tube  and 
'bus,  looking  remarkably  attractive,  in  spite  of 
foolish  shoes  and  a  bad  habit  of  eating  four- 
penny  lunches.  The  chief  charge  some  of  her 
fellow  clerks  have  against  her,  apart  from  her 
inferior  work,  is  that  she  only  makes  use  of 
typing  as  a  road  to  marriage.  The  other  class 
of  offender  is  the  daughter  of  well-to-do  parents. 
Typing  is  regarded  as  a  ladylike  employment, 
and  parents,  who  would  never  expect  their 
daughters  to  be  self  -  supporting,  are  glad  for 
them  to  earn  pocket  money  or  just  enough  for 
dress. 

According  to  Mr  Elvin  of  the  National  Union 
of  Clerks,  even  in  prosperous  times  there  are  always 
3  per  cent,  of  unemployed  clerks.  In  bad  times 
the  percentage  must  be  greater.  Whether  the 
times  are  good  or  bad,  young  girls  with  the  most 
elementary  education  are  being  turned  out  by 
hundreds  from  typing  schools. 

The  only  remedy  is  that  the  output  of  clerks 
should  be  restricted ;  no  one  should  be  allowed  to 
become  a  clerk  who  has  not  reached  a  certain 
standard  of  efficiency.  The  parents  are  the  chief 
offenders.  Many  of  them  do  not  seem  to  have  the 
necessary  energy  or  intelligence  to  find  out  for 
what  their  daughters  are  best  fitted.  Advisory 
Committees  are  wanted  in  connection  with  all 
elementary  and  secondary  schools.  Of  the  girl 
typists  and  shorthand  writers  who  resigned  from 
the  Civil  Service  from  1894  to  1906  for  various 
causes,  17  per  cent,  left  to  take  up  other  work. 
The  lady  superintendent  in  one  of  the  Civil 
Service  typing  rooms  pointed  out  a  girl  and 
said  :  "  That  girl  would  have  made  an  excellent 
milliner  or  a  kindergarten  teacher,  but  she  is  not 
at  all  suited  for  this  work." 

The  chief  grievance  of  the  really  efficient  woman 


WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES     293 

clerk  and   secretary  is  that   she   has    not  enough 
scope.     One  woman  writes  : 

"  If  the  various  firms  and  professions  who  employ  girls 
as  typists  were  to  give  them  an  insight  into  the  business, 
whatever  it  might  be,  it  would  add  enormously  to  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  worker.  In  America  they  do  this  very 
often.  The  wonderful  Miss  Alice  Duckin,  the  lady  sky- 
scraper builder,  was  once  a  typist.  When  she  entered  the 
firm  they  allowed  her  full  scope  to  develop,  and  she 
mastered  the  building  trade  and  is  now  the  chief  partner 
of  Messrs  Duckin  and  Lass.  There  is  one  firm  of  lawyers 
in  London  who  allow  their  typists  to  attend  the  Law 
Courts,  and  give  them  work  to  do  which  is  usually  reserved 
for  men.  Only  under  such  conditions  can  the  profession 
expand." 

There  is  often  a  chance  for  a  secretary  in  a 
newspaper  office  to  develop  into  a  journalist.  But 
there  are  instances  when  the  private  secretary, 
who  begins  writing  for  the  paper  on  which  she  is 
employed,  is  told  that  she  was  engaged  not  as  a 
contributor  but  as  an  efficient  secretary. 

One  girl  who  had  been  for  ten  years  private 
secretary  to  a  literary  man  in  London,  horrified  her 
relatives,  and  gave  her  employer  a  shock,  by 
suddenly  throwing  up  her  much-envied  post  and 
entering  herself  at  a  hospital  for  a  particularly 
strenuous  kind  of  nursing.  Her  salary  as  secretary 
was  353.  a  week  ;  she  had  a  comfortable  room  of 
her  own  to  work  in,  a  good  annual  holiday,  and 
other  blessings.  Her  chief  said  "good  morning" 
and  "good  evening"  to  her,  but  she  saw  no  one 
else,  and  frequently  she  had  technical  German 
translations  in  the  evenings,  for  which  she  got 
nothing  extra.  Her  chief  did  not  know  German, 
and  thought  she  did  the  translations  as  easily  as 
she  wrote  shorthand.  Her  whole  work  was 
moderately  interesting,  but  the  dullness  of  her  life 
became  insupportable,  Another  private  secretary 


294    WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES 

at  the  end  of  fifteen  years  in  an   excellent  post, 
opened  a  tea-shop. 

An  Edinburgh  woman  sends  the  following 
interesting  statement  :— 

"  Secretarial  work  seems  to  me  one  of  the  most  con- 
genial for  educated  women.  In  Edinburgh  the  prospects 
are  excellent  The  headmasters  and  mistresses  of  all  the 
large  schools,  medical  men,  dentists,  university  professors, 
managing  editors  of  our  great  printing  and  publishing 
houses,  several  of  whom  are  editing  encylopaedias,  need  a 
fair  number  of  women  secretaries.  And  there  is  not  a 
sufficient  supply  for  the  law  offices  of  which  Edinburgh 
has  such  a  large  number. 

"  The  conditions  are  in  need  of  some  kind  of  organised 
supervision,  particularly  where  everything  depends  on 
an  individual  employer.  In  my  first  post  with  a  medical 
specialist,  for  instance,  my  time  was  never  my  own  ;  my 
work  began  at  9  and  often  did  not  end  at  midnight. 
Sunday  work  was  quite  common  ;  there  were  no  Saturday 
afternoons  off,  but  I  had  free  hours  here  and  there  which 
it  was  impossible  to  utilise. 

"  Another  post  I  had  was  ideal.  I  worked  for  two 
men,  for  one  of  whom  I  spent  the  morning  in  a  pathological 
laboratory.  Here  I  did  nothing  but  research  work  and 
writing.  In  the  afternoon  I  did  general  correspondence 
and  assistant  editing  of  one  of  the  medical  journals.  I  had 
free  evenings  and  Saturday  afternoons.  It  is  an  excellent 
plan  to  work  for  two  men,  as  it  gives  variety  and  may 
often  be  more  remunerative,  although  for  myself  I  never 
had  more  than  £100  a.  year.  There  is  lack  of  organisation 
in  this  profession,  and  posts  are  difficult  to  get  by  registry 
or  advertisement.  I  have  never  found  a  Women's  Employ- 
ment Bureau  of  any  use  whatever.  I  have  got  everything 
by  personal  recommendation." 

A  common  grievance  seems  to  be  the  amount 
of  overtime  imposed  on  many  clerks,  sometimes 
paid  for,  but  often  obligatory  whether  paid  for  or 
not.  There  is  a  naive  arrangement  in  the  Civil 
Service  Typing  Department.  It  seems  that  the 
typists  are  allowed  gd.  or  lod.  an  hour  for  over- 
time up  to  a  limit  of  fifteen  hours  a  month,  but  any 


WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES     295 

overtime  beyond  that  is  not  paid  for.  In  the 
Minutes  of  Evidence  before  the  Royal  Com- 
mission we  read  : — 

"  Commissioner.  Is  any  other  time  beyond  that  (15 
hours  a  month)  ever  exacted  ? 

"  Superintendent,  Yes. 

"  Commissioner.  Are  they  ever  required  to  work  longer 
than  that  ? 

"  Superintendent.  Yes. 

"  Commissioner.  And  are  they  not  paid  for  it  ? 

"  Superintendent.  No. 

"  Commissioner.  What  is  the  reason  for  that  ? 

"  Superintendent.  The  Treasury  laid  it  down  in  their 
minute. 

"  Commissioner.  Have  you  questioned  it  ? 

"  Superintendent.  Yes,  we  have  many  times  asked  the 
Treasury  to  allow  the  department  to  pay  for  more,  but  so 
far  as  I  know,  in  no  case  has  it  been  allowed,  and  at 
this  present  time  (May  1912),  in  the  London  Telephone 
Service  all  shorthand  -  typists  and  typists  and  super- 
intendents are  doing  a  great  deal  of  overtime,  but  only 
15  hours  in  a  month  of  4  weeks  is  paid  for.  Super- 
intendents are  not  paid  at  all  for  overtime.  The  only 
reason,  apparently,  for  the  limitation  is  that  the  salaries 
are  so  close  that  if  shorthand-typists  were  paid  for  more 
overtime  than  1 5  hours  they  would  be  earning  more  than 
the  superintendents." 

It  seems  impossible  to  tell  as  yet  how  the 
working  of  the  National  Insurance  Act  will  affect 
women  clerks.  The  secretary  of  the  Information 
Bureau  of  the  Woman's  Institute  says  that,  as 
far  as  she  knows,  good  offices  continue  to  pay 
their  clerks  their  salaries  in  cases  of  illness,  only 
making  a  deduction  of  the  75.  6d.  paid  as 
insurance  money. 

To  sum  up,  there  is  urgent  need  for  better 
organisation  among  clerks  and  secretaries.  They 
should  be  graded  in  some  way,  so  that  the  efficient 
who  are  out  of  work  may  easily  be  brought  in 


296    WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES 

touch  with  employers.  The  societies  reach  only 
a  small  proportion  of  the  workers,  many  of  whom 
do  not  even  know  of  their  existence.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  a  difficulty  in  the  way  of  men  and 
women  clerks  combining,  is  that  women  of  good 
education,  sometimes  in  possession  of  degrees,  find 
themselves  in  competition  with  men  of  an  inferior 
social  class.  A  large  proportion  of  the  best 
secretaries  are  the  daughters  of  professional  men. 
The  average  woman  clerk  is  invariably  a  person 
of  better  education  and  manners  than  the  male 
clerk  at  the  same  salary. 

In  the  next  place,  better  sanitation  and  better 
working  conditions  must  be  secured.  Only  last 
year,  a  firm  employing  hundreds  of  men  and  a 
dozen  women,  had  no  separate  lavatory  for  the 
women.  It  is  to  the  interest  of  the  employer  of 
women  clerks  to  look  after  their  health  and  to 
provide  rest  rooms.  Anti-feminists  are  positive  as 
to  women's  "inferior  physique,"  but  their  practice 
as  employers  is  too  often  inconsistent  with  their 
opinions. 

Most  important  of  all,  women  clerks  and 
secretaries  want  more  scope.  After  ten  years  of 
clerking  and  secretarying  they  find  that  they  are 
up  against  a  dead  wall.  There  is  no  prospect  of 
advancement,  and  no  call  on  their  initiative.  In 
private  secretarial  work  this  is  not  always  the 
fault  of  the  employer ;  it  is  often  inherent  in 
the  nature  of  the  work.  Unless  the  secretary  has, 
say,  literary  or  journalistic  ability  and  develops  in 
that  way,  she  is  worth  little  more  to  her  chief, 
if  he  is  a  literary  man,  after  fifteen  years  than  she 
was  at  the  end  of  ten.  There  may  be  progress 
from  a  less  desirable  to  a  more  desirable  post,  but 
there  can  be  no  advancement  in  the  work  itself. 
As  a  training,  however,  a  private  post  is  incompar- 
able. With  the  woman  who  works  for  a  commercial 


WOMEN  CLERKS  AND  SECRETARIES     297 

firm,  it  is  a  different  matter.  Women  of  the  best 
type  who  do  this  work,  have  a  right  to  complain 
when  they  are  without  chance  of  promotion.  They 
feel  that  they  should  be  given  the  same  opportunity 
of  rising  in  the  business,  whatever  it  may  be,  as 
is  open  to  any  intelligent  office  boy.  The  reply  of 
the  employer  is,  that  while  the  office  boy,  if  pro- 
moted and  given  increasing  pay,  may  be  expected 
to  stay  with  the  firm  for  a  lifetime,  there  is  not 
the  same  certainty  of  continuity  of  service  from 
women  clerks,  who  may  at  any  time  leave  to 
get  married.  There  are  cases,  however,  where 
women  have  stayed  on  after  marriage  when  it 
has  been  made  worth  their  while.  One  woman 
who  entered  a  firm  as  a  young  girl,  continued  with 
the  firm  after  marriage,  and  is  now,  as  a  widow, 
working  for  the  same  employers.  There  is  no 
reason  why  such  cases  should  be  exceptional. 

The  calling,  the  conditions  of  which  we  have 
been  considering,  suffers  from  its  accessibility  to 
the  half  trained  and  undisciplined  of  various  social 
grades.  When,  however,  the  righteous  complaint 
of  the  employer  against  the  incompetent  and 
scatter-brained  has  been  heard,  the  fact  remains 
that  among  women  clerks  and  secretaries  there  is 
an  exceptionally  large  proportion  who  give,  for  a 
moderate  return  and  limited  prospects  of  advance- 
ment, conscientious,  loyal,  and  skilful  service. 


SECTION   VII 

ACTING    AS    A    PROFESSION    FOR 
WOMEN 

I  DO  not  know  that  the  first  actress  who  ever 
faced  the  public  told  her  friends  that  the  profession 
was  not  all  paint  and  glitter,  because  being  a 
pioneer,  and  so  treading  on  the  corns  of  custom, 
she  was  held  as  an  unwomanly  creature,  and  had 
unpleasant  things  thrown  at  her,  as  well  as  words. 
So  her  impressions  are  not  recorded.  But  when 
women  had  settled  down  into  the  work,  and  were 
allowed  to  represent  themselves  in  the  theatre  (a 
privilege  not  as  yet  accorded  to  them  elsewhere), 
they  announced  practically  and  forcibly  that  all 
that  glittered  was  not  gold,  and  that  a  successful, 
much-loved  heroine  did  not  invariably  tread  the 
rosy  path  without  finding  the  proverbial  thorns. 

The  word  "hardship"  often  repeated  by 
successful  artists,  is  accepted  by  the  public  as  a 
truism,  which  affects  their  attitude  towards  the 
stage  as  a  career  about  as  much  as  the  statement 
that  the  world  is  round,  when  in  their  eyes  it 
appears  disappointingly  flat.  Yet  the  word  "hard- 
ship "  has  a  meaning  which  most  hurts  those  who 
have  most  capacity  for  pain,  and  who  are  specially 
sensitive  to  humiliations,  disappointments,  and  dis- 
comforts— artists. 

But  there  are  compensations,  urges  the  outsider  : 
good  pay,  congenial  work,  and  fame.  If  there 
are  hardships  what  a  glittering  prize  compensates 
for  the  suffering! 

298 


ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION  299 

Let  us  at  once  grant  the  compensations  which 
the  few  achieve.  The  few  make  world  -  wide 
reputations,  large  salaries,  and  many  devoted 
friends :  their  life  is  full  of  interesting  and  suc- 
cessful work.  But  the  average  individual  is  in  the 
great  majority,  and  the  many  spend  all  and  obtain 
nothing,  trying  to  obtain  a  bargain  which  is  no 
bargain :  a  bargain  in  which  there  is  something 
to  sell  and  no  one  to  buy  —  even  our  average 
actress  has  something  to  sell,  something  worth 
buying — composed  of  talent,  ambition,  long  study, 
and  application.  There  are,  of  course,  many  more 
successful  women  in  the  theatre  than  there  used 
to  be,  owing  to  the  tremendous  opening  up  of  this 
means  of  livelihood ;  but  though  the  successful 
are  more  abundant,  there  is,  alas !  no  doubt  a 
growing  number  of  unsuccessful  workers  in  this 
very  much  over-crowded  market.  In  fact,  it  is 
becoming  a  profession  in  which  it  is  only  possible 
to  survive  if  the  worker  has  some  private  means, 
or  a  supplementary  trade. 

I  believe  that  this  question  of  a  supplementary 
trade  requires  consideration,  and  am,  myself,  at 
present  working  on  the  subject,  in  the  hope  that 
a  scheme  may  be  evolved  to  ensure  those  willing 
to  work  an  opportunity  of  gaining  a  livelihood 
during  the  long  "resting"  periods.  This  waiting 
for  work  is  almost  universally  the  largest  part  of 
an  actress's  life ;  and  any  satisfaction  in  the 
magnitude  of  the  wages  which  may  be  obtained 
must  always  be  balanced  by  the  knowledge  that 
an  enormous  number  of  weeks  must  be  taken  into 
consideration,  when  work  is  quite  unattainable. 

Here  is  one  of  the  gravest  disabilities  of  the 
profession.  Only  continuous  work  can  develop  the 
powers  of  any  artist,  and  this  is  particularly  true 
of  the  art  of  the  theatre.  Under  the  present 
conditions  an  artist  is,  with  an  entire  want  of 


300  ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION 

reason,  raised  to  a  pinnacle  of  importance  when 
playing  a  good  part  in  a  successful  play ;  but  she 
may  with  equal  suddenness  be  dashed  into  a  gulf 
of  failure  and  non  -  productiveness,  also  without 
reason. 

There  have  been  many  artists,  who  at  the  end 
of  a  brilliant  run  of  a  successful  play,  to  the  success 
of  which  they  have  largely  contributed,  have  found 
themselves  forgotten  by  the  powers  that  be,  and 
have  discovered  with  bitter  disappointment  that 
a  successful  run  may  result  in  being  left  utterly 
ignored,  without  a  single  offer  of  work. 

The  Christmas  pantomime  and  the  summer 
season  cut  down  the  actor's  year  to  forty  weeks. 
From  information  which  I  was  able  to  obtain 
from  the  Actor's  Association,  the  average  yearly 
income  of  an  actor  is  £70.  From  this,  ^37 
may  be  deducted  for  travelling  and  other 
expenses.  For  though  the  actual  railway  fare  is 
usually  paid,  no  allowance  is  made  for  conveyance 
of  luggage  from  station  to  lodgings,  and  the 
constant  change  of  quarters  naturally  makes  the 
weekly  expenditure  on  a  higher  scale.  On  these 
figures  the  average  weekly  earnings  of  an  actor 
would  be  I2S.  6d.,  or  is.  gd.  per  day. 

This  is  the  average  income  of  an  actor  when 
working,  but  under  present  conditions,  the  aver- 
age day  for  an  average  actress  is  one  in  which 
she  looks  for  work.  So  let  us  take  the  average 
day  of  the  average  actress,  and  see  how  she 
spends  it. 

After  leaving  her  tiny,  grubby  back  room  in 
Bloomsbury  (time  and  fares  prohibit  a  bigger, 
better  room  in  the  suburbs),  where  she  has  cleaned 
her  own  shoes,  ironed  her  blouse  and  sewn  in 
frilling  before  starting,  she  walks  down  to  an 
agent.  The  waiting-room  there  has  a  couple  of 
forms,  which  are  already  filled,  and  groups  of  girls 


ACTING   AS  A   PROFESSION  301 

have  been  standing  for  some  time.  They  have 
all  had  insufficient  breakfasts,  badly  served  and 
ill-cooked ;  they  all  wear  cheap  and  uncomfortable 
shoes,  too  thin  for  wet  pavements ;  they  are  all 
obliged  to  put  on  a  desperately  photographic  pose 
and  expression,  in  case  the  agent's  eyes  light  on 
them.  One  or  two,  better  dressed  and  more  self- 
possessed,  secure  interviews  and  pass  out  by 
another  door.  No  information  about  the  part  is 
to  be  procured,  they  are  all  there  "on  the  chance." 
At  half  past  one  the  agent  comes  out  for  lunch, 
saying,  as  he  passes  through  the  room,  "  No  use 
waiting,  ladies  ;  no  one  else  wanted  to-day."  Our 
average  friend  has  stayed  for  three  hours,  knowing 
no  one  to  speak  to,  and  leaves  no  nearer  her  goal 
for  her  morning's  congenial  work.  She  lunches  on 
sandwiches  and  tea,  re-arranges  her  hat  and  veil, 
and  starts  out  with  fresh  hope  to  use  her  one 
letter  of  introduction  to  the  manager  of  a  West 
End  theatre. 

She  hands  it  to  a  door-keeper,  who  may  possibly 
be  considerate,  but  cannot  offer  her  a  chair.  There 
is  no  waiting  -  room ;  she  waits  in  a  draughty, 
tiny  passage,  stage  hands  constantly  squeezing  by 
her.  There  is  a  rehearsal  ;  she  must  wait,  or 
come  back  in  an  hour's  time.  She  walks  round 
and  looks  into  the  shops  in  Leicester  Square,  and 
returns  thoroughly  fatigued  and  a  little  pale,  at 
four  o'clock.  She  is  shown  into  an  office,  and  by 
virtue  of  her  letter  of  introduction  is  asked  to 
sit  down.  A  few  questions  are  put  to  her  about 
her  past  work :  she  does  not  know  what  part  the 
manager  has  in  mind,  and  puts  forward  inept 
qualifications.  In  two  or  three  minutes  the 
important  man  has  formed  his  opinion  of  her  face, 
carriage,  expression,  and  has  decided  if  he  will 
remember  her  or  not.  Her  name  being  average, 
the  odds  are  that  he  will  not ;  but  he  murmurs,  "  If 


ACTING  AS   A   PROFESSION 

V* 

anything  turns  up,  I  will  let  you  know,"  and  her 

big  chance  is  over.  There  is  nothing  approaching 
an  audition,  such  as  a  singer  gets.  It  is  the  only 
opportunity  afforded  her,  this  poor  and  hopeless 
method  of  proving  her  capacity  as  an  actress.  It 
leaves  her  poorer  for  the  day's  outlay  in  food. 
She  walks  back  to  the  little  room,  her  foothold 
in  London — the  great  art  market. 

This  is  a  "  congenial "  day's  work,  which  may 
be  repeated  for  weeks,  and  it  occurs  on  an  average 
in  every  three  months.  The  adventure  of  it  stales 
very  quickly. 

Let  there  be  no  mistake  in  the  mind  of  the 
reader.  This  is  not  only  the  experience  of  a 
would  -  be  actress,  a  well  -  trained,  medal  -  laden 
aspirant  from  one  of  the  good  dramatic  schools, 
but  is  one  of  the  bitter  and  frequent  experiences 
of  the  thoroughly  capable,  trained,  and  occasionally 
well  -  salaried  actress,  who  has  failed  to  arrive, 
during  her  eighteen  to  twenty  years  of  experience, 
at  the  much  coveted,  and  supposedly  safe  position 
at  the  top  of  the  theatrical  ladder. 

Suppose  our  average  actress  is  lucky,  and  her 
letter  of  introduction  gains  her  a  small  part  in  the 
London  production.  Into  her  three  lines  she  tries 
to  crowd  all  she  can  of  what  she  has  learned  from 
teachers  and  experience.  It  is  her  opportunity.  She 
has  stepped  forward  amongst  those  fortunate  ones 
whose  names  are  mentioned  in  the  programme.  She 
starts  for  rehearsal  happily  enough  from  the  little 
room  in  Bloomsbury,  passes  the  door-keeper  without 
question,  and  takes  up  her  stand  in  the  wings. 
There  she  stays  three  hours.  She  has  companion- 
ship in  hushed  whispers,  and  the  right  to  exist. 
At  two  o'clock  her  act  has  not  yet  been  reached, 
and  the  artists  are  allowed  to  leave  the  theatre  for 
half  an  hour  to  get  lunch.  As  she  is  not  paid 
for  rehearsals,  she  cannot  afford  more  than  sixpence 


ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION  303 

for  a  meal  ;  so  her  repast  is  necessarily  a  light  one. 
At  five,  rehearsal  is  dismissed,  and  she  has  gone 
through  her  part  twice.  Five  minutes  would  cover 
her  actual  acting  for  the  day ;  and  having  stood 
about  for  nearly  six  hours  she  walks  back  home 
to  her  room. 

As  the  play  nears  production,  the  rehearsal 
hours  lengthen,  and  the  lunch  times  shorten.  Her 
own  hoard  of  savings  offer  her  less  and  less  to 
spend  on  food,  and  when  finally  the  play  is  pro- 
duced— let  us  face  the  worst — it  not  infrequently 
occurs  that  the  run  of  the  piece  may  end  in  three 
weeks.  She  has  rehearsed  for  four  weeks,  has 
been  glad  to  accept  £2  for  her  tiny  part,  and 
out  of  that  short  run,  which  represents  £6,  she 
must  save  enough  to  tide  her  over  the  next  few 
weeks,  or  perhaps  months,  until  she  gets  her  next 
engagement,  more  unpaid  rehearsals,  and  perhaps 
another  short  run.  There  is  always  wearing 
anxiety,  and  the  unpleasing,  thankless,  humiliating 
searching  for  work,  under  the  most  distasteful 
conditions  possible. 

There  is  now  an  effort  being  made  by  a  few 
of  the  London  managers  to  pay  a  percentage  on 
salaries  for  rehearsing.  The  movement,  I  think, 
is  partially  due  to  the  Insurance  Act,  which,  of 
course,  touches  all  the  low  paid  labour  in  the 
theatre.  This  effort,  though  obviously  of  im- 
portance, can  hardly  as  yet  be  considered  as  quite 
satisfactory.  The  payments  for  five  weeks'  re- 
hearsals are  6s.  on  the  £1,  is.  salaries,  which 
include  dancers,  walkers-on,  etc.  :  and  i  2s.  6d.  a 
week  on  salaries  of  £$.  In  each  case,  of  course, 
the  threepence  insurance  has  to  be  deducted,  and 
it  must  be  quite  clear  that  no  woman  can  live  on 
55.  gd.,  much  less  make  a  good  appearance,  unless 
she  has  other  means  of  support. 

She    may    get   an    engagement   to   tour   for   a 


304  ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION 

limited  number  of  weeks.  If  so,  she  gazes  in 
despair  at  her  small  wardrobe,  trying  to  puzzle  out 
three  costumes  to  be  used  in  the  play,  for  actresses 
going  on  tour  have  usually  to  provide  their  own 
dresses. 

A  friend  of  mine  played  the  leading  part  on 
the  tour  of  a  West  End  production.  She  had  to 
find  all  her  own  dresses,  hats,  shoes,  stockings,  etc., 
and  her  salary  was  ^"3,  IDS.  a  week,  In  a  "boiled- 
down"  version  she  played  twice  nightly  for  £5  a 
week,  and  found  four  dresses,  two  hats,  an  evening 
cloak,  besides  the  shoes,  stockings,  gloves,  etc., 
incidental  to  a  well-dressed  part.  Another  soubrette 
on  a  salary  of  £2,  55.  paid  her  fare  both  on  joining 
and  leaving  the  company,  and  was  obliged  to 
provide  two  dresses,  one  evening  dress  and  cloak, 
shoes,  stockings,  etc. 

The  average  salaries  in  melodrama  are  £\ 
a  week,  out  of  which  must  be  provided  many 
dresses.  The  "heavy  lead"  or  "adventuress" 
type,  generally  magnificently  attired,  gets  about  £$ 
a  week.  In  London,  of  course,  in  the  West  End 
productions,  dresses  are  provided,  but  the  engage- 
ment is  not  for  a  definite  period  as  it  would  be  on  a 
tour,  and  a  curious  difficulty  arises  through  this 
arrangement,  since  the  actress  who  has  once  been 
beautifully  dressed  has  a  natural  and  very  com- 
prehensible predilection  thenceforward  to  continue 
to  be  so  delightfully  gowned.  Her  own  opinion  as 
to  what  a  dress  should  cost  almost  invariably,  after 
a  London  engagement,  ceases  to  be  on  a  level  with 
what  her  yearly  income  should  permit.  Clothes 
assume  a  horrible  importance  not  known  in  other 
trades,  since  her  appearance  may  mean  her  liveli- 
hood as  a  worker ;  for  do  we  not  know  of  engage- 
ments which  have  been  made  when  the  angle  of 
a  hat  has  exactly  coincided  with  the  mood  of  the 
manager  who  is  engaging  his  company  ? 


ACTING  AS   A   PROFESSION  305 

So  our  little  average  actress,  starting  off  on  tour, 
patches  and  manoeuvres  to  have  a  satisfactory 
appearance,  and  is  painfully  self  -  conscious  of 
deficiencies  when  the  eyes  of  the  manager,  or  the 
more  well-to-do  sharers  of  the  dressing-room,  appear 
to  enquire  too  closely  into  details.  One  of  my  first 
successes  was  a  triumphant  one  for  my  sister ; 
since  an  evening  blouse,  ingeniously  concocted 
from  a  table-centre,  received  some  long  notices  in 
the  Press. 

Theatrical  lodgings,  when  one's  salary  is  255.  a 
week,  are  not  always  the  most  pleasing  in  the  town. 
Rheumatic  fever  and  other  unpleasant  illnesses  have 
been  contracted  from  damp  beds,  when  the  landlady, 
in  her  desire  to  live  up  to  the  degree  of  cleanli- 
ness expected  of  her,  returns  the  sheets  too  quickly 
to  the  so  -  lately  vacated  bed  ;  because,  with  one 
company  leaving  in  the  morning,  and  another 
arriving  at  tea-time,  there  are  not  many  hours  to 
clean  out  a  room,  and  wash  and  iron  the  only  pair. 

The  lodgings  are  usually  extremely  bad  and 
dirty,  and  generally  in  the  least  attractive  and  most 
unsavoury  quarters  of  the  town.  The  food  is 
generally  unappetising  and  cooked  with  very  little 
intelligence.  There  have  been  many  cases  of 
women  finding  themselves  in  disreputable  houses ; 
and  even  recommended  lodgings  have  been  found 
empty  on  arrival,  the  police  having  raided  them.  I 
feel  very  strongly  that  the  only  comfortable  and 
dignified  way  to  meet  this  difficulty  is  to  have  a 
regular  chain  of  clubs,  on  the  principle  of  the  Three 
Arts  Club. 

Recently,  in  the  correspondence  of  a  leading 
"  Daily,"  I  read  a  letter  in  which  a  man  wrote  that 
actresses  on  tour  were  able  to  perfect  themselves  as 
wives  and  housekeepers.  This  throws  a  curious 
side-light  on  the  ignorance  of  people  in  general 
with  regard  to  the  theatre.  Actresses  may,  and 

u 


3o6  ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION 

do,  become  admirable  workers,  wives,  and  house- 
keepers ;  but  this  is  rather  from  the  hardships  of 
their  lives  than  from  any  possibility  of  developing 
a  natural  aptitude  for  housekeeping  whilst  travelling 
week  after  week  from  town  to  town,  and  living  in 
rooms  where  the  cleaning  and  cooking  are  done  by 
the  landlady.  As  all  domestic  work  is  undertaken 
by  the  people  who  let  the  rooms,  the  days  go  slowly, 
and  there  is  absolutely  nothing  of  interest  to  do. 
If  our  average  actress  is  with  a  successful  play,  her 
engagement  may  be  a  long  one ;  and  she  lives 
through  the  discomforts,  buoyed  up  by  the  hope  of 
further  opportunities,  and  a  swelling  account  at  the 
Post  Office. 

The  happiest  of  all  existences,  for  an  actress, 
despite  hard  work  and  much  study,  is  in  a  repertory 
theatre.  The  opportunities  are  great ;  ambition 
is  not  thwarted  at  every  step  ;  the  day  is  filled 
with  hard  study,  but  the  nights  result  in  greater 
or  smaller  achievement.  Everybody  with  whom 
she  comes  in  contact  is  working  as  hard  and 
earnestly  as  she  is.  Life  invigorating,  progressive, 
uplifting,  is  hers.  To-night  she  is  conscious  she 
was  not  quite  her  best,  but  next  week,  when  the 
play  is  done  again,  she  will  work  to  make  that 
point  real,  she  will  laugh  more  naturally,  cry  more 
movingly,  progress  a  little  further  on  the  way  to 
realise  her  dream  of  perfect  expression,  free  from 
worry  and  anxiety,  free  to  work. 

Having  achieved  a  certain  amount  of  experience 
on  tour  and  in  London,  and  being  more  or  less 
proficient  in  her  profession,  does  not,  however, 
ensure  an  increase  in  the  actor's  value.  A  domestic 
servant  receives  a  character,  which  is,  if  satisfactory, 
a  sure  means  of  employment ;  a  teacher,  inspector, 
etc.,  has  a  certificate  which  is  a  pronouncement 
of  efficiency ;  but  however  great  the  achievement 
of  the  theatre  there  is  no  lasting  sign  of  your 


ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION  307 

work,  and  the  want  of  definite  aim  is  mentally 
demoralising.  I  have  heard  men  say,  and  I  think 
not  unjustly,  that  as  many  of  these  women  are 
practically  "on  the  rocks,"  they  will  do  anything 
for  money  ;  and  this  brings  one  to  a  question  which 
looms  largely  when  considering  unskilled  trades. 
The  unskilled,  pleasure-loving,  short-sighted  but 
ambitious  girl,  is  apt  to  lose  her  sense  of  values, 
and  to  be  an  easy  and  sometimes  very  willing 
victim.  If  she  be  attractive,  the  eye  of  a  powerful 
person  may  alight  upon  her,  and  several  shades 
of  temptations  are  placed  before  her.  Not  only 
money,  and  the  advantages  which  an  outward  show 
of  prosperity  may  bring  with  it ;  not  only  amuse- 
ments and  luxuries ;  but  a  much  more  dangerous 
and  difficult  temptation,  which  is  not  possible  in 
other  trades,  is  placed  before  the  worker  —  the 
offer  of  greater  opportunities  in  her  work,  the 
opportunities  which  an  "understudy"  may  bring 
in  its  train ;  the  opportunity  of  a  small  part ;  the 
gratification  of  ambition.  There  is  no  more  im- 
morality than  in  other  trades,  but  there  is  an 
amount  of  humiliating  and  degrading  philandering, 
a  mauling  sensuality  which  is  more  degrading  than 
any  violent  abduction.  To  be  immoral  a  certain 
amount  of  courage  is  required ;  but  the  curse 
of  modern  theatrical  conditions  is  this  corrupt 
debauchery.  Many  girls  have  come  to  me  ex- 
plaining their  difficulties,  and  many  in  asking  my 
advice  ended  up  with  the  persistent  cry  of  the 
modern  woman,  "I  do  so  want  to  get  on ! " 
This  is  a  transitional  stage  in  the  world,  as 
well  as  in  the  theatre.  When  women  are  more 
intelligent  and  independent,  there  will  not  be 
the  same  amount  of  selling  themselves  for  the 
necessities  of  existence.  They  will  be  able  to 
secure  the  necessities,  and  a  large  number  of 
the  luxuries,  for  themselves — one  of  the  reasons, 


3o8  ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION 

doubtless,  why  the  reactionaries  cry  out  so  loudly 
against  the  woman's  movement. 

People  love  power  over  others  ;  they  love  to 
control  their  destinies ;  and  there  is  a  very  large 
number  of  men  who  drift  towards  the  theatre, 
and  like  to  consider  the  poor  little  butterflies  as 
creatures  of  a  different  species  from  their  wives 
and  daughters  —  a  species  provided  by  a  material 
Providence,  who  supplies  their  other  appetites. 
The  poor  little  butterflies  are  glad,  for  a  short 
time,  to  put  up  with  stupidity  and  egoism  for  the 
sake  of  a  temporary  relief  from  sordid  discomfort 
and  gloom.  Of  course,  I  am  not  speaking  of  the 
women  who,  without  economic  pressure,  lead  an 
illicit  life.  There  are  a  few  of  these  women  who 
are  more  than  able  to  protect  themselves,  and 
occasionally  avenge  their  sisters. 

Of  course,  there  are  also  theatres  which  are 
obviously  dependent  for  their  great  success  upon 
this  "oldest  profession  in  the  world":  theatres 
where  a  fairly  good  salary  is  offered  with  the 
suggestion  that  it  is  as  well  to  sup  at  some  well- 
known  restaurant,  at  least  three  times  a  week ; 
to  drive  to  the  theatre  in  a  motor  car,  and  to  be 
dressed  by  one  of  the  famous  dressmakers,  whose 
names  are  given  with  the  salary.  There  are 
theatres  where  an  eye  is  kept  on  the  number  of 
stalls  which  are  filled  by  the  employed.  But  on 
the  tours  of  these  successes,  the  managers  are 
often  very  strict  in  their  regulations,  and  do  every- 
thing to  prevent  those  employed  from  supplement- 
ing their  incomes  in  this  manner. 

There  are,  unfortunately,  too  many  women  who 
still  believe  in  dependence,  so  the  supply  is  quite 
as  great  as  the  demand.  To  the  real  artist  who  is 
deeply  centred  in  her  work,  this  particular  evil  is 
of  practically  little  importance.  A  great  belief  in 
her  own  powers  enables  her  to  push  aside  oppor- 


ACTING  AS   A   PROFESSION  309 

tunities  which  are  not  genuine.  Men  are  also 
human,  and  if  met  frankly  and  straightforwardly 
in  work,  or  for  that  matter,  out  of  it,  are  as  capable 
of  honest,  helpful  good  fellowship  as  any  woman. 
In  fact,  the  work  of  the  theatre,  which  employs  men 
and  women,  on  more  or  less  equal  terms,  is  a 
splendid  place  to  find  out  that  humanity  is  not 
limited  to  sexual  problems,  and  that  the  spirit  of 
work  removes  these  limitations,  and  gives  place  to 
a  healthy,  invigorating  atmosphere  of  camaraderie, 
It  is  quite  a  false  idea  that  a  move  in  the  wrong 
direction  is  in  any  way  necessary  to  success. 

Something  must  be  said  with  regard  to  the 
sanitation  and  ventilation  of  the  theatre.  Though 
there  has  been  latterly  a  great  effort  to  improve 
the  dressing-rooms  in  the  new  buildings,  there  is 
still  a  great  deal  to  be  remedied.  Here  is  a 
description  of  a  dressing-room  used  by  a  young 
artist  in  a  modern  West  End  theatre. 

"  We  were  seven  in  a  room  which  just  held  seven  small 
toilet  tables  on  a  shelf  running  round  the  wall,  and  a 
narrow  walking  space  from  the  door  to  the  window  in 
between.  This  dressing-room  was  two  floors  below  the 
level  of  the  street,  and  the  one  window  opened  on  a 
passage  covered  with  thick  glass,  so  that  there  was  no 
direct  air  channel.  Next  door  was  a  man's  urinal  used  by 
about  forty  men — actors,  stage  hands,  and  scene  shifters. 
A  pipe  from  this  place  came  through  the  dressing-room ; 
the  smell  sometimes,  even  in  the  winter,  was  overpower- 
ing ;  and  we  ourselves  bought  Sanitas  and  kept  sprinkling 
it  on  the  floor  of  the  room  and  the  passage.  Added  to 
this  was  the  fact  that  the  stairs  from  the  stage  led  straight 
down  facing  the  entrance  of  this  men's  urinal,  and  not 
infrequently  the  door  would  be  open  and  shut  as  we  came 
down,  and  it  was  altogether  very  objectionable." 

The  report  of  a  young  artist  who  toured  for 
some  time  with  a  comedy  sketch  in  the  music 
halls  shows  equally  bad  conditions.  This  sketch 
was  sent  out  by  a  first  rate  London  management, 


3io  ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION 

and  the  halls  visited  were  on  the  first  -  class 
tours.  She  told  me  that  in  one  of  the  largest 
towns  in  England  the  Music  Hall  had  only  one 
ladies'  lavatory,  which  was  on  the  stage  exactly 
behind  the  back  -  drop.  A  horse  was  necessary 
for  an  Indian  sketch  on  the  same  bill  in  which  the 
comedy  sketch  was  played,  and  the  recess  by  the 
lavatory  was  found  to  be  the  only  safe  place  to 
stable  the  horse.  The  door  of  the  ladies'  lavatory 
was  therefore  nailed  up  for  the  week.  Should  any- 
one wish,  she  could,  on  explaining  to  the  ushers 
in  the  front  of  the  house,  receive  a  pass  of  ad- 
mission to  the  ladies'  cloakroom,  but  to  reach  the 
front  of  the  house  meant  a  walk  of  four  minutes 
round  a  complete  block,  and,  even  if  it  had  not 
been  winter  time,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  any 
actress,  when  once  dressed  for  her  part,  to  go  into 
the  street  without  attracting  a  great  deal  of  notice, 
and  also  very  likely  entirely  spoiling  her  appearance, 
as  theatrical  "make-up"  is  only  meant  for  the  dry 
atmosphere  of  the  theatre. 

On  this  same  tour,  in  a  famous  south  coast 
resort,  this  lady  had  to  dress  in  an  underground  dress- 
ing-room with  twelve  others,  and  the  only  lavatory 
for  women's  use  was  opposite  the  stage-door  box, 
where  all  letters  were  called  for,  and  the  stage 
hands  lounged  about  the  whole  evening.  In  the 
most  important  town  on  this  tour  the  dressing-room 
in  which  she  was  directed  to  dress  had,  for  its  sole 
ventilation,  the  door  by  which  one  entered,  exactly 
facing  the  one  general  lavatory.  The  aperture,  high 
up  in  the  wall,  opened  into  another  room  where, 
during  this  week,  fifty  cocks  and  hens,  used  in  an 
animal  turn,  were  kept.  It  would  be  quite  im- 
possible to  describe  the  sickening  smell  which  all 
this  meant.  The  only  thoroughly  clean,  sanitary 
hall  which  she  visited,  was  in  Scotland. 

In  almost  all  the  theatres,  even  where  the  con- 


ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION  311 

ditions  are  considered  above  criticism,  the  lavatories 
reserved  for  the  ladies  are,  by  a  curious  arrange- 
ment, generally  on  the  floor  where  most  of  the 
actors  dress.  They  are  almost  invariably  difficult 
to  use,  for  as  the  dressing-rooms  are  usually  allotted 
by  men,  there  is  little  consideration  of  women's 
comfort  in  this  matter.  It  is  a  curious  side-light 
on  the  intelligence  of  men  that  they  almost 
universally  seem  to  think  that  women,  by  a  special 
Providence,  are  exempt  from  these  natural  laws ; 
and  almost  all  women  are  still  too  Early  Victorian 
to  insist  upon  some  change.  Many  of  the  old 
theatres  in  London  and  the  provinces  suffer  from 
want  of  proper  ventilation ;  and  many  of  them 
are  appallingly,  incredibly  dirty.  In  the  provinces 
dressing-rooms  are  sometimes  dripping  with  damp  ; 
and  it  is  not  an  uncommon  experience  to  share 
the  room  with  mice  and  other  vermin. 

It  is  only  possible  for  me  to  touch  very  lightly 
on  employment  by  the  cinematograph  firms ;  but 
from  the  enquiries  I  have  made,  the  usual  payment 
seems  to  be  roughly  from  53.  to  73.  6d.  a  day,  the 
workers  finding  their  own  clothes :  los.  6d.  if  the 
workers  can  ride  and  swim  :  33.  a  day  for  walking 
on,  when  light  meals  are  provided.  There  is  a 
form  of  application  to  be  filled  in,  which  demands 
the  following  particulars  : — 

Height. 

Bust  measurement. 

Waist  measurement. 

Skirt  length. 

Age. 

Line  of  work. 

Remarks. 

Ride  horseback.     Cycle.     Swim. 

The  pictures  take  about  ten  days  to  prepare,  and 


312  ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION 

as  a  supplementary  trade,  undoubtedly  this  work  is 
of  value  to  the  actress. 

An  evil  which  attacks  the  theatre  of  the  present 
day  is  the  horrible  mantle  of  respectability  which 
has  settled  on  the  profession.  Respectability  in 
Art  is  a  blight  which  undermines,  and  the  moment 
any  worker  or  profession  of  workers  is  accepted 
on  equal  terms  by  the  non-workers  of  the  com- 
munity, misery  invariably  ensues.  It  is  impossible 
for  a  non-worker  to  comprehend  the  life  of  a 
worker,  or  to  make  any  margin  for  the  work, 
which,  if  we  judge  by  the  example  of  their  own 
lives,  they  evidently  despise.  The  restrictions 
which  all  honest  work  brings,  along  with  its  com- 
pensations, are  annoying  to  ornamental  parasites ; 
and  the  contempt  for  restrictions  is  apt  subtly  to 
undermine  the  mind  of  the  worker. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  for  the  average  actress, 
when  such  an  enormous  number  of  people  are 
rushing  into  the  theatrical  profession,  there  is 
little  security.  The  life  of  a  successful  actress 
is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  very  best,  so  far,  open 
to  women.  It  is  not  a  fact  that  the  best  and 
greatest  actresses  are  always  the  successful  ones  : 
but  it  is  a  truth  that  all  the  successful  ones  have 
some  natural  qualifications  which  have  enabled 
them  to  gain  that  position. 

Then  what  is  the  matter  with  the  theatre  ? 
and  why  has  it  become  such  a  miserable  life  for 
the  average  worker?  It  is  an  unskilled  trade, 
and  the  people  who  have  control  of  the  trade  have 
a  contempt  for  the  average  worker.  They  believe 
they  can  teach  in  a  few  weeks,  what  they  have  not, 
in  years,  succeeded  in  mastering  themselves.  The 
unfortunate  worker  is  taught  like  a  parrot,  used  for 
a  short  time,  and  then  thrown  on  the  scrap-heap  of 
the  unfit  for  the  theatre,  when  the  theatre  has  un- 
fitted them  for  more  honourable  work. 


ACTING   AS   A   PROFESSION  313 

The  employer  is  at  the  present  moment  a 
man,  and  a  man  will  offer  a  salary  of  303.  a  week 
to  a  woman,  because  she  will  take  303.  :  but  he 
will  not  offer  that  sum  to  an  actor.  There  is  a 
subtle  assumption  that  because  women  will  take 
less,  they  are  not  entirely  dependent  on  their 
work ;  and  a  manager  will  sometimes  offer  a  large 
salary  to  a  woman  who  drives  up  in  a  motor  car, 
magnificently  dressed,  most  obviously  not  dependent 
on  her  earnings  ;  whilst  the  accomplished  actress, 
without  these  powerful  assets,  and  obviously 
dependent  on  her  work,  is  paid  practically  a  third 
of  that  salary. 

Let  us  sincerely  hope  that  this  transitional 
stage  from  the  days  when  each  town  had  its 
own  theatre,  and  engagements  were  always  for 
the  season,  to  the  waste  and  despair  of  the 
present  conditions  of  the  mass  of  the  workers 
in  the  theatre  of  this  country,  may  give  place  to 
some  system  which  will  select  the  fit  from  the 
unfit,  and  give  them  a  permanent  engagement 
with  a  proper  clause  of  notice  on  either  side, 
such  as  that  to  which  workers  in  other  trades 
are  entitled.  More  care  in  selection  ;  more  belief 
that  an  actress,  if  she  be  of  any  use,  can  represent 
a  diversity  of  types  ;  a  shutting  of  the  doors  on 
those  who  are  obviously  unfitted,  however  cheap 
their  labour  may  be,  would  be  salvation  to  the 
women  who  are  trying  to  earn  their  bread  in  the 
theatre.  For  it  is  time  we  ceased  to  grovel  before 
this  misused  word  "  Art,"  which  covers  the  wasteful 
cruelty  the  present  conditions  in  the  theatre  permit. 


APPENDIX    I 

SCHEME   OF  WORK   OF  THE   FABIAN   WOMEN'S 
GROUP 

THE  Group  was  formed  by  some  women  members  of  the 
Fabian  Society  in  1908,  chiefly  with  the  object  of  study- 
ing the  problem  of  women's  economic  independence  in 
relation  to  socialism.  The  work  was  mapped  out  on 
the  following  lines,  to  which  the  Group  has  adhered : — 

Part  I. — Differences  in  Ability  for  Productive  Work 
Involved  in  Difference  of  Sex  Function, 

Division    i.  —  Natural   disabilities   of  women    when   not 

actively  engaged  in  childbearing. 
Division  2. — Natural  disabilities  of  women  when  actively 

so  engaged. 

Part  II. —  Women's  Economic  Independence  in  Relation  to 
Social  Conditions. 

Division    i.  —  Women    as    productive    workers    and    as 

consumers  in  the  past. 
Division   2.  —  Women    as    productive    workers    and    as 

consumers  in  the  present. 

Part  III. — Practical  Steps  towards  such  Modification  of 
Social  Conditions  as  will  enable  Women  : 

(a)  Freely  to  use  and  develop  their  physical  and  mental 
capacities  in  productive  work,  while  remaining  free 
and  fully  able  to  exercise  their  special  function  of 
childbearing. 

(£)  Each  personally  to  receive  her  individual  share  of 
the  social  wealth. 

Two  Summaries  of  the  lectures  and  discussions  arising 

315 


316  APPENDIX   I 

out  of  Part  I.  were  issued  for  private  circulation  in  1910. 
Copies,  id.  each,  can  now  be  procured  through  the  Fabian 
Office,  3  Clement's  Inn,  W.C. 

Fifteen  papers  of  the  Historical  Series,  Part  II., 
Division  i,  have  already  been  given,  and  the  subjects 
considered  in  them  have  nearly  covered  the  field  of 
material  at  present  available  for  the  rough  preliminary 
enquiry,  in  which  the  Group  has  led  the  way.  When  the 
series  is  finished,  it  is  hoped  to  shape  the  material  into 
essay  form  for  publication. 

The  present  volume  is  the  outcome  of  lectures  and 
discussions  arising  out  of  Part  II.,  Division  2.  It  is 
hoped  that  it  may  prove  to  be  the  first  of  a  Series 
dealing  with  this  part  of  the  investigations  undertaken 
by  the  Women's  Group. 


APPENDIX    II 

LATEST  CENSUS  RETURNS1  OF  WOMEN  WORKERS 
IN  THE  SEVEN  PROFESSIONS  CONSIDERED  IN 
THIS  BOOK 


Total. 

Unmarried. 

Married. 

Widowed. 

I.  Teachers 

187,283 

171,480 

11,798 

4,005 

II.  Physicians,  Surgeons 
and  Registered  Practi- 
tioners 

477 

382 

76 

19 

III.  Midwives,  Sick  Nurses, 
Invalid  Attendants  . 

83,662 

55,288 

11,867 

16,507 

IV.  Poor  Law,  Municipal, 
Parish,  etc.,  Officers  . 

19,437 

14,439 

2,514 

2^484 

V.  National  Government 
Employees 

31,538 

25,843 

3,410 

2285 

VI.  Commercial  or  Business 
Clerks 

117,057 

114,429 

i,733 

895 

VII.  Actresses 

9,i7i 

5,259 

3,540 

372 

In  a  volume  which  may  be  issued  by  the  Census 
Office  in  February,  some  sub  -  divisions  of  the  above 
headings  will  be  made.  Thus  (i)  teachers  employed 
by  Local  Authorities  will  be  separated  from  those  in 
other  schools ;  (2)  the  number  of  dentists  (not  included 

1  In  connection  with  these  returns  of  1911,  it  must  be  remembered  that  a 
large  number  of  women  workers  resisted  the  census  in  that  year  as  a  protest 
against  their  exclusion  from  citizenship.  The  above  figures  are,  therefore, 
though  official,  unavoidably  an  understatement. 

317 


3i8  APPENDIX   II 

above)  will  be  given ;  (3)  the  number  of  midwives  will 
be  shown  separately ;  (4)  Poor  Law  will  be  distinguished 
from  other  Local  Government  Service ;  (5)  Post  Office 
Servants  will  be  distinguished  from  other  Civil  Servants ; 
(6)  clerks  will,  as  far  as  possible,  be  classified  according 
to  the  industry  with  which  they  are  connected ;  (7) 
actresses  in  music-halls  will,  as  far  as  possible,  be  dis- 
tinguished from  those  in  theatres. 


Printed  at 

The  Edinburgh  Press, 
9  and  1 1  Young  Street. 


PLEASE  DO  NOT  REMOVE 
CARDS  OR  SLIPS  FROM  THIS  POCKET 

UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO  LIBRARY