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Words and Sentences

INCLUDING

A Review of Grammar

ALFKED M. HITCHCOCK

Hartford Public High School

NEW YORK
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY

BV THE SAME AUTHOR

Hitchcock's Practice Book in
English Composition

226 pp. 12 mo. 80 cents

Eennetll Beal, Salem {Mass ) High School:— 1\. is the first
case of a book on that subject that I know of where the writer
has had the courageous good sense to limit his effort rigidly to
actual possibilities for the average boy and girl. . . . You
may put me on record as liking the wholesome, live good sense
of the composition,

Helen Marshall, Free Academy, Norwich, Conn.:— I have
been experimenting with the Practice Book in English Com-
position in one of my classes, and find it is one of the most
practical books I have seen for teaching much of the rudiment-
ary work. It is just what it professes to be, and is very helpful.

A. J. George, Newton {Mass.) High School: — After examin-
ing the book, 1 have decided to recommend it for trial.

R. W. Bowles, Phillip's Exeter Academy:—! am glad to
say that Mr. Hitchcock's little book has impressed me more
favorably than any other work of this kind that I have seen.
The author's treatment of the subject seems to be unusually
fresh and interesting. I shall turn it over to our teacher in
Junior ^vork with my earnest recommendation that he give it
a trial.

Mary R. "Willai'd, Jam-stcwn yN. F.) High School:— Ut.
Hitchcock's understanding of the faults of young students, and
his appl*c£.ficn of '.hepyoper remedy, amounts to positive

ge'niv^' :■';,':'.. ':;'.,; /•'•,, .

Henry Holt and Company

Publishers New York

MA^f^'

PREFACE

The exercises here collected are the result of a
strong conviction that just now, in these days of
slovenly, lawless speech, we teachers need to say to
our pupils, Come, before it is too late let us go back
to dictionary and grammar. No matter what else is
left undone, we must learn to spell and pronounce com-
mon words correctly; we must learn how to construct
sentences that obey the laws of syntax.

At what point in the course may such exercises as
these be introduced with profit? In most schools, it
is safe to say, drill in accuracy of speech is needed
every year. We have all too little of it and — this
is heresy — far too much theme-writing, too much
and too elaborate study of heavy classics. The
foundations are neglected.

It is hardly necessary to acknowledge in detail my
indebtedness to Archbishop Trench and to the recog-
nized authorities on English grammar. A book of
this sort cannot hope to be original, except, perhaps,
as ingenuity may occasionally be shown in setting
forth principles clearly, or in devising exercises to
drive them home.

iii

241052

CONTENTS

I
WOEDS

PAGE

I. Getting Acquainted with the Dictionary 1

II. Pronunciation 11

III. Word-building and Spelling 17

II
A BRIEF REVIEW OF GRAMMAR.. 35

WORDS AND SENTENCES

PART I

WORDS

I.— GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH THE
DICTIONARY

The English language is made up of hundreds of
thousands of words. Not all of these are in use to-
day; some are found only in very old books, and still
others are slowly dying. When the spinning-wheel
went out of use, a small group of spinning-wheel
terms slipped away because there was nothing for
them to do. When the stage-coach disappeared,
along with it went a little vocabulary pertaining to
stage-coach things. Every important invention, we
may almost say every change in fashion, retires, some-
times permanently, a few words — renders them ob-
solete.

Related in a way to obsolete words are not a few
terms that are in every-day use, yet are found in some
small province only. The English-speaking people

2 AVOKDS AND SENTENCES

are widely scattered; and though all have the same
names for most things, still each country, each sec-
tion of a country, each community even, has a few
words that are not found elsewhere, or if found else-
where, then with different meanings. There are
terms peculiar to the English colonies in Africa, for
example. New Englanders employ a few terms that
sound strange to the ear of the Southerner. Pro-
vincialisms, as such stay-at-home words are called,
are to be found everywhere, doing good service, but
in a narrow field.

Every art, trade, occupation, science has its sepa-
rate vocabulary of technical terms. The lawyer em-
ploys many expressions that are meaningless to most
of us; so too does the doctor. It is said that the
student of zoology who reads all that has been written
on this branch of science will find over one hundred
thousand terms employed, comparatively few of
which are in common use. Every line of manufac-
ture, every branch of sport even, has its technical
terms. They do not stay at home as do provincial-
isms, but each group is of special service to some
one class of individuals.

A recently published dictionary defines over three
hundred thousand terms, all of which, it is claimed,
are in active use to-day or are to be found in books
that English-speaking people may care to read.
This number is amazing, especially when we bear in
mind that many obsolete and provincial words and
a far greater number of technical terms have been

ACQUAINTANCE WITH DICTIONARY 3

excluded. The dictionary is even more select than
this. Every day new words come into existence.
When things are discovered or invented, they must
be named. How many terms associated with steam
and electricity were unknown a century ago! Ex-
ploration, trade, manufacture, science, all are con-
tributing each year a large number of new words.
But not all these find their way at once into the
dictionary. They must first be tried, passed about
from mouth to mouth for a time, experimented with,
till it is reasonably sure that they are really needed.

Not only is the dictionary cautious in accepting
newly coined words, as they are called; it is careful,
though perhaps not sufficiently so, about admitting
many expressions commonly heard on the street or
wherever people talk loosely — words that are ex-
ceedingly coarse and vulgar, others that are what we
know as^ang. Such colloquial or loose expressions
are seldom found in print. They dwell on the out-
skirts of respectability, unfit to appear in good
societ}^; or we may think of them as vagrants.
Occasionally a word of this sort works its way out
of the slums of speech and at last gains admittance
to the dictionary; yet where one succeeds in living
down its low origin, hundreds remain but mouth-
words, without respectability. Most of them live
but a short time.

The immensity of the English language, even when
we exclude the relatively unimportant groups of
words just considered — the obsolete, the provincial,

4 WORDS AND SENTENCES

the technical, the newly coined, the colloquial or
loose— is difficult to reahze, except as one compares
it with his own scant vocabulary. Shakespeare, we
are told, used at least fifteen thousand different words,
Milton eight thousand. The average man of to-day,
it is estimated, employs about five thousand. But
how about you? How much of the English language
do you possess? In a way, it is all yours; in a truer
sense, no one really owns a word till he has mastered
i^_can pronounce it, spell it, and knows precisely
what it means. If you were to attempt to make a
dictionary and record in it simply the words you have
thoroughly mastered, the words which you really
own, what would be the result?

Fortunately no one will ever set a task so unreason-
able. Every schoolboy knows that his vocabulary
is a s^;iall one, that he misspells, mispronounces, mis-
uses many of the terms he commonly employs. It is
no disgrace to be young; most of the blunders, care-
less mistakes which fall from the lips of schoolboys
and schoolgirls, or slip from their pens in writing
letters, are pardonable. Yet a time should come,
and usually does come, when the average youth be-
gins to feel ashamed when he blunders in his speech.
He wants to put away childish errors. He prefers
not to misspell, mispronounce, and misuse words.
Perhaps someone has laughed at him for spelling
college with a d, or for pronouncing gentlemen as if it
were spelled genlemnn, or for writing Mary's voice
was edible as jar as the corner, or for closing a letter

ACQUAINTANCE WITH DICTIONARY 5

•a i^Jii <?]...

with Yours respectively. It is not pleasant to be
laughed at.

t^eforming one's speech, however, is not an easy
matter. Many of the words found in the youth's
vocabulary have been picked up by the ear, on the
street, on the playground; the eye may never have
seen them in the printed page. And many words are
so commonly mispronounced, or indistinctly uttered,
or improperly employed, that the ear does not re-
ceive what is correct. Other terms are acquired
from reading; but the young reader rushes along so
rapidly that the eye merely glances at words and
does not hesitate to skip whatever looks difficult in
the way of long or strange expressions. In this most
natural manner the mind receives many words which
have been imperfectly seen ; the memory is crowded
with wrong or indistinct impressions. It is indeed
difficult, where so much needs correcting, to de-
termine where and how to begin. Here are a few
simple suggestions.]

First, be convinced that the undertaking is worth
while. Every word mastered is a word owned; it is
so much power. We need all the power we can get,
in this busy age. A large vocabulary may not be re-
_£uired for the work you are to do, but a fully mas-
tered vocabulary is necessary. Mistakes in speech
are costly; they cause delays and misunderstand-
ings. Have too a little pride in the matter. In-
correct speech is the badge of illiteracy.

Second, be more careful about what you read and

6 WORDS AND SENTENCES

how you read. Form the habit of reading aloud ten
minutes every day, scanning each word closely, pro-
nouncing distinctly, bringing out clearly the mean-
ing of each sentence. No book is better for this
kind of drill than the Bible, but any good book will
do, or even the daily newspaper. Memorize a short
poem, now and then, or a paragraph of vigorous
prose. \The purpose of exercise of this sort is to train
the eye and the ear and the tongue to do their work
more carefully. \

Third, take pains to use language correctly when
talking and writing. Break yourseK of the habit of
careless expression. The little training received in
school will amount to nothing, if you permit your-
self to abuse language w^hen you are on the street or
at home. Correct expression conies through habit.
Keep in training all the time.

Finally, try to become interested in words; learn
to respect them. Studying coins or stamps is not a
foolish fad, neither is collecting picture postals; but
words are more interesting than coins or stamps or
postals, and are better worth studying. On the
Study of Words, by Archbishop Trench, though
written years ago, is a most delightful book for
present-day readers. Words and their Ways in Eng-
lish Speech, by Greenough and Kittredge, a more re-
cent work, contains many interesting chapters. But
the best book of all is the dictionary itself. By all
means own a good one and learn how to use it.

Looked at in one way, the dictionary is a vast

ACQUAINTANCE WITH DICTIONARY 7

collection of condensed compositions, each telling all
that the average person needs to know about some
word: how it is spelled and pronounced, and what
are its meanings. Frequently a quotation containing
the word properly used will be given ; and sometimes
a group of synonyms, or terms which have nearly the
same meaning. The dictionary does more than this.
Whenever possible, it tells the life-story of a word —
where it came from, what it meant originally; for
many words change in meaning from age to age, just
^s a person'^ character changes during his lifetime.

But there is another way of regarding the diction-
ary. It is a great law book. Ours is a free country,
yet we are not free to do as we please. We must en-
dure, for the common good, restraint of many kinds.
Words are free; but when we misuse them we be-
come law-breakers. One has no more right to abuse
or misuse his country's language than he has to de-
stroy his neighbor's property. The dictionary, stem
book, lays down laws regarding spelling, pronuncia-
tion, meanings, which word-respecting people obe)^

Form the habit, then, of consulting a good, un-
abridged dictionary. See what the law says about
this and that term which you are using commonly,
yet with a suspicion that you may be using it im-
properly. Lay down the book you are reading, now
and then, and look up the meaning of some new word.
If an expression has an odd sound to your ear, and
you find yourself wondering where it came from, how
it got its present meaning, turn to the dictionary .j

8 WORDS AND SENTENCES

Perhaps it will tell you precisely what you wish to
know. Practice of this kind soon becomes fascinat-
ing, for words are wonderful when studied.

EXERCISES

I. Reread Chapter One to see if it does not contain a
few words about whose meanings you are uncertain.
Before consulting the dictionary, try to reason out for
yourself what each word must mean.

II. Open the dictionary at random and select an in-
teresting word. Give, in complete sentences, all the
information the dictionary supplies concerning it. .

III. Without consulting a dictionary, try to discover
how the following terms became a part of the English
language: grunt, hiss, mew, snarl, twitter, whiz, click,
chatter, chirp, crackle. What other words of this sort
can you suggest?

IV. The following are representatives of a class of
words which have come into the language in an inter-
esting way. Try to discover their origin, consulting for
this purpose an unabridged dictionary. Italics, canary,
champagne, meander, worsted, cologne, copper, atlas,
herculean, tantalize, martial, phaeton, volcano, cereal,
panic, macadam, guy, babel, tawdry, quixotic, bedlam,
lynch, mackintosh, gingham, damask, dimity, dollar,
calico, cambric, boycott, derrick, artesian, guillotine, pidl-
man, pompadour, dunce, namby-pamby, colossal.

V. Nearly one-third of our language is, directly or
indirectly, of Latin origin; but every nation has con-
tributed a few terms. Where did each of the following

ACQUAINTANCE WITH DICTIONARY 9

originate? First guess, then consult the dictionary.
Wigmam, potato, tea, candy, yacht, sabbath, soprano,
adieu, postscript, telephone, chess, snob, perk, lad, bun-
galow, mosquito, tulip, ambassador, daisy, czar, canoe,
physics, minister, crag, dairy.

VI. Often words become doubly interesting when
their derivation is known. Thimble, for example, comes
from an old Anglo-Saxon word thunia meaning thumb.
Was the thimble once worn on the thumb? Squirrel is
from a Greek word meaning shadow-tail. So a squirrel is
an animal that casts a shadow with its tail? Look up
the derivation of the following: Emma, Margaret, silly j
lunatic, cranberry, miser, witch, cunning, salary, style,
indent, pope, curfew, linen, acrobat, villain, sophomore,
dandelion, buxom.

VII. Sometimes the full force of a word is not appre-
ciated until its derivation is known. Dilapidated, for
example, is from a Latin word lapis meaning a stone,
and the prefix dis meaning apart. Knowing this, the
word presents to the mind a picture of a stone building
tumbled down. Consulting a good dictionary, try to
discover the original meaning of the following: December,
manuscript, bisect, phonograph, quadruped, bicycle, Flor-
ida, subterranean, centennial, accumulate, manufacture,
error, eradicate, circus, valedictory, alderman, journey,
neighbor, arduous, wealth, mayor, Sunday, Monday,
Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday.

VIII. The first ten words in the group below are
Saxon; the rest are Norman-French. At one time the
Saxons and the Normans lived side by side in England.
Which were the conquerors and which the conquered
people? Scepter, throne, royalty, court, castle, prince,

10 WORDS AND SENTENCES

^palace, treasurer, hall, duke; spade, rake, scythe, rye, oats,
house, home, hearth.

IX. Explain the meaning of the following terms as
applied to words: obsolete, provincial, technical, newly
coined, slang, colloquial. Try to think of examples of
each kind. You will find in the Bible many words no
longer used in common speech. Strictly speaking,
however, they are not obsolete, but archaic. Archaic
means out of fashion but still understood. If you have
a friend who has at some time lived in a distant part
of the country, you will notice, probably, that he has
in his vocabulary a few provincial expressions.

II.— PRONUNCIATION

Clear enunciation does not make a gentleman,
but it is a sign of good breeding. Educated people,
refined, courteous people, those who respect lan-
guage and are thoughtful of the comfort of others, try
to speak distinctly and correctly. They consider it
ill-mannered, when reading aloud or talking, to mum-
ble their words, misplace accents, clip syllables, or
otherwise abuse language.

Mispronunciation is due principally to carelessness.
We know how most of the commoner words should
be pronounced, but we are slaves to habit — the habit
of reading and talking too rapidly. Ruskin, a great
English essayist, once said, ''If you read ten pages of
a good book, letter by letter, that is to say, with real
accuracy, you are for evermore in some measure an
educated person." This kind of careful reading, the
eye noting every syllable, every letter, must form the
Jbasis of all serious effort to learn how to pronounce.
Butthe ear must help the eye, intently listening when
those whom it is safe to imitate are reading aloud
_or Jalking. And the vocal organs must be trained to

12 WORDS AND SENTENCES

obey; for it is one thing to know how a given word
should be pronounced, and quite another thing to be
able to pronounce it. Training the eye, the ear, and
the tongue to take pams: that is the secret of the
whole matter^

The following exercises are exceedingly simple.
Their purpose is tc call attention to a few of the many
words commonly mispronounced. To run through
them once or twic3 will accomplish little; they call
for repeated practice, day after day.

EXERCISES

I. Pronounce the following, making sure that the ac-
cent falls where it should. If in doubt, consult a good
dictionary.

Address, recess, discourse, influence, express, illustrate,
character, finance, mischievous, deficit, precedence, prece-
dent, mustache, romance, herculean, exquisite, alloy, alias,
combatant, reputable, infamous, condolence, caricature,
comparable, interesting, incomparable, disreputable, formi-
dable, gondola, chastisement, clandestine, irremediable,
hyperbole, idea.

II. In careless speech perhaps becomes praps, usually
contracts into usally. All the words in the following
group suffer from this kind of abuse. Pronounce care-
fully, giving each syllable due attention.

General, several, persorml, temperance, regular, reason-
able, laboratory, difference, singidar, perhaps, calaihte,
usually, naturally, governor, original, parenthesis, inci-
dentally, superintendent, delivery, enthusiasm, miserable,

PRONUNCIATION 13

reverend, bravery, machinery, battery, restaurant, sentinel,
military, curiosity, cardinal, artistically, boisterous, il-
literate, miniature, vulnerable, sarsaparilla, poem.

III. Ath el etics, sawr, drownded, and naow are com-
mon mispronunciations of athletics, saw, drowned, and
now. Occasionally a silent letter is sounded, as in ojten . /
and herb. Be careful not to make mistakes of this sort
when pronouncing the following words:

Brethren, draw, business, down, often, height, umbrella,
sword, cow, Wales, spasm, saw, salmon, found, herb,
house, ought, athletics, soda, straw, intellect, law, mountain,
how, persevere, caught, column, drowned, drama, com-
plainant, spasm, extra, thought, soften.

IV. Punkin and cunni^i are common mispronuncia- 2r^cw'^4-ii
tions of pumpkin and cunning. Pay especial attention

to consonants when pronouncing the following words:

Fact, government, perfect, speaking, quarter, orphan,
connect, including, arctic, particular, adjacent, pumpkin,
partridge, expect, leaving, except, extract, February, in-
ferring, anarchy, instinct, recognize, tract, anything,
recognition, attract, cunning, subtract, reading, object,
doing, accept. Harvard.

V. Pronounce, taking pains to give full value to the
vowel in each final syllable. Do not turn object into
objict, nor judgment into judgmunt.

Providence, statement, sentiment, professor, benevolence,
gentlemen, object, similar, amusement, admittance, govern-
ment, regular, parliament, difference, reverend, singular,
independent, rudiments, audience, prominent, reverence,
restaurant, vehement, countrymen, irrelevant, judgment,
disconsolate, argument, jurymen, extravagance, battlement,
accomplishment, accident, intemperance.

14 WORDS AND SENTENCES

YI. Italian should not be pronounced as if spelled
Eyetalian, nor American as if it were Amurican. Pay
particular attention to all the vowels in this group of
words:

Foreigner, nominate, get, educate, rather, visible, Ameri-
can, capability, candidate, animal, complication. Coli-
seum, engine, yet, Italian, solemn, definition, ceremony,
genuine, separate, barbarism, clemency, representative.

VII. Give the vowel p its full sound. Do not sub-
stitute the sound of some other letter. Do not insert
the letter r.

Innocent, eloquent, society, siualloio, accommodate, com-
position, provide, tomatoes, mosquito, diagonal, professor,
fellow, oyster, proposition, mountain, decoration, apolo-
gize, chocolate, borrow, apoplexy, sorrow, sonorous, intro-
duction, potatoes, piano, process, cow.

VIII. Perhaps no vowel is more commonly mispro-
nounced than u. Seldom should it be given the sound
of 00 as in the word 600^.

Blue, student, truth, tube, Tuesday, duke, gratitude,
suit, stupid, produce, tutor, tune, dutiful, attitude, avenue,
destitute, stimulate, rudiments, picture, educate, genuine,
institute, speculate, juice, natural, occupy, durable, argu-
ment, altitude, culinary, figure, cruel.

IX. The vowel a^ represents a number of different
sounds. Are you sure that you pronounce the following
words correctly?

Ask, half, gape, catch, canH, parent, haunt, laugh,
chaste, launch, extra, calf, path, psalm, patent, calm, be-
cause, father, vaunt, alternate,
-^ X. Th, ngth, sph, and similar combinations are diffi-
cult for some tongues. Master the following:

PRONUNCIATION 15

Length, depths, Thursday, sphere, strength, thousand,
drouth, diphthong, architecture, naphtha, twelfth, chasm,
drought, eighth, trough, eleventh, thought, architect.

XI. Each word in this group presents some difficulty.
When in doubt, do not guess; consult a dictionary.

Amateur, juvenile, victuals, debris, bestial, viscount,
fianc4, docile, deaf, epitome, cayenne, detour, suite, leisure,
odious, courtesy, irrelevant, hundred, decrepit, column,
again, sesame, sergeant, pantomime, forehead, tedious,
chimney, coffee, clapboard, creek, enmity, immediate,
representative, apron, spoon.

XII. The following are selected from the preceding
groups. Pronounce them slowly and with distinct
enunciation. Go through the list again and again;
master each word.

Tuesday, February, Italian, American, pumpkin, quar-
ter, psalm, governor, solemn, illustrate, strength, laboratory,
character, stupid, Arctic, government, detour, fellow,
several, often, rather, influence, discourse, forehead, Wales
laugh, drowned, swalloiu, height, length, gentlemen, ridic-
ulous, sentiment, willing, deaf, intellect, sword, superin-
tendent, fiance, recess, engine, sphere, tract, catch, object,
professor, avenue, saiv, column, partridge, architect, inter-
esting, decorous, debris, chimney, suite, twelfth, miserable,
romance, difference, potatoes, pantomime, produce, creek,
hundred, umbrella, genuine, subject, temperance, mis-
chievous, address, express, athletics, recognize, patent,
illustrate, mustache, gratitude, student, juvenile, speaking,
gape, coffee.

XIII. Make a list of words you have discovered,
through your study of the preceding exercises, that you
have been unconsciously mispronouncing.

16 WORDS AND SENTENCES

XIV. Make a list of words you hear commonly mis-
pronounced by your associates.

XV. Write, as if to a child, a fifteen-line paragraph
explaining the dictionary's way of indicating the correct
pronunciation of words. This is a difficult task; do it
well.

III.— WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING

Horse and shoe, when combined, form the com-
pound horseshoe. Add the suffix ness to the adjective
good and we have the noun goodness. Regain is but
the word gain plus a prefix. In returnable, three ele-
ments are discoverable, a simple word, a prefix, and a
suffix; in ungentlemanly there are four elements. Even
a superficial examination of the dictionary reveals the
fact that comparatively few words are simple; that
there are scores of prefixes, scores of suffixes, by
means of which our language multiplies.

The words examined in the paragraph above are
readily analyzed; a glance shows how they are put
together. But analysis is not always so simple.
Words adopted from a foreign language do not, as a
rule, retain their original form; only the vital part of
each — the root or the stem, as it is called — is retained.
Jacere, for example, is a foreign word meaning to
throw. Its root is ject, as seen in interjection. With-
out some familiarity with foreign languages, it is not
always easy to detect word-roots. Many prefixes
too are from languages other than our own. Some

18 WORDS ANi) SENTENCES

are so commonly employed that we recognize them
readily enough and know what they mean; yet oc-
casionally one is so changed in the process of joining
it smoothly to a root that to determine where the pre-
fix ends and the root begins is not a simple matter.

So many words are of Latin derivation — our pon-
derous dictionary would shrink at least one-third if
they were all dropped from it — that some educators
believe the best way to master English is to master
Latin first. Whether this indirect method is best or
not, it is for several reasons an exceedingly good one.
Those who are unable or unwilling to adopt it should
at least master the more commonly employed Latin
prefixes. For frequently a prefix furnishes a hint of
what the word it introduces means, and sometimes
it throws the door wide open, revealing at once the
entire secret. Familiarity with the Latin prefixes
also helps one to spell correctly. A large proportion
of words commonly misspelled are of Latin origin.
The trouble lies in the joint, where the prefix is neatly
attached to the root. If one knows the prefixes
thoroughly and understands word-joinery, there is
little danger of tripping; a moment's thought will
tell what the spelling must be.

Ab or abs signifies from. Norma is the Latin word
for rule; hence the English word normal, meaning
according to rule or natural. Abnormal, then, means
away from the rule or unnatural. Abstract is made up
of abs and the root of a Latin word meaning to draw;
hence to abstract is to draw from.

WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 19

abduct
absolute

abhor
abrupt

abdicate
absent

abolition
abstain

Ante signifies before. This prefix is seen in ante-
date and antecedent. Sometimes it changes to anti,
as in anticipate. There is a Greek prefix anti mean-
ing against. It is seen in antislavery and antidote.
An antidote is something given to counteract or work
against a poison or a disease.

anterior
antediluvian

anteroom
antiquity

anticipation
antiquary

antique
antechamber

Circum signifies about or around. It is found in
but few words and is easily recognized.

circumference
circumvent

circumnavigate
circumlocution

circumspect
circumscribe

De signifies from or down. Caput is Latin for
head; decapitate, then, means behead or take the head
from the body. Deposit is made up of de meaning
down and a Latin word signifying to place or to put.

degrade deform debate deliberate

detest deflect debar delirium

deduce decrease demerit declivity •

decamp decay defect degrade

Inter signifies between, together, or among.
easily recognized and presents no difficulties.

It is

interval
interweave

interhide
international

interregnum
interpose

20 WORDS AND SENTENCES

intercollegiate interfere intermpt

intermediate interview intersect

interchange interlace intermission

Non signifies not. It presents no difficulties.

nonsense non-combatant nondescript

nonconformity nonentity nonpareil

noncommittal non-resident

Per signifies through or by.

perforate perpetual percent perusal

perpetrate permeate persevere perennial
persecute perspire permission perspective

Post signifies behind or after.

posterior postscript postgraduate posthumous
postpone posterity postlude post-mortem

Pre signifies before. Judicium is a Latin word
meaning judgment. A prejudice, then, is a judg-
ment formed without careful examination. Pre is
a very useful prefix, appearing in a great many
words.

prelude preamble prefix prepaid

preface preposition presage premature

precede precaution precipitate preliminary

predominate prehistoric premium predecessor
precept premeditate precocious president

Pro signifies forward, before, or instead of. Videre
is the infinitive form of a Latin word meaning to see.

WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 21

To provide, then, is to look ahead or make ready for
what is to come. A great many words contain this
useful prefix.

proceed

prologue

prostrate

promise

procession

program

promote

professor

protect

protrude

promenade

proclaim

project

product

prosecute

pronoun

Re signifies back or again, and appears in a multi-
tude of words.

rebate

recollect

retail

reiterate

recess

reconcile

reduce

remember

remunerate

repeal

resign

retract

revenge

retreat

reflect

Se signifies

apart. It

appears in

but few words.

secede

seclude

secret

secrete

select

separate

seduce

secretion

Super signifies above. It presents no diflSculties.

superb superlative superficial

superintend superstructure superstition

superfluous supernumerary

Trans or tran signifies across, beyond, or through.

transfer trans- Atlantic transient transpose
transplant translate transform transact

transparent translucent transom transgression

22 WORDS AND SENTENCES

The fourteen prefixes considered thus far are sim-
pler than the six to be examined next, in that they
are unchangeable. Re remains re and se remains se,
no matter to what root they may be joined. This is
not true of the following :

Ad signifies to. It is recognized at once in adhere
and adjacent. In many words, however, ad changes
to ah, af, ag, al, an, aj), ar, as, or at, before h, f, g, I,
n, p, r, s, and t. That is, for the sake of ease in pro-
nunciation the final letter of the prefix changes to
the first letter of the stem. Words containing ad in
a disguised form are misspelled frequently. The
troublesome ones, it will be seen, contain the double
consonant. It is almost safe, when in doubt, to
double the consonant J

abbreviate application admission affluence

^ accent arrogant affection attempt

?^ affix assert accompany appearance

^y alliteration attend attribute apparatus

annihilate adapt arrive array

Con signifies with or together. Other forms of this
suffix are com, col, cor, and co. Col is found before
stems beginning with I, cor before stems beginning
with r, com before m, con before n. Com and col ap-
pear before other letters too, but not in words one is
inclined to misspell; so when in doubt, it is safe to
double the consonant. Carefully note the spelling
of the following. Observe, too, how strong the idea
of with or together is in most of the words.

WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 23

convene

connect

combine

commerce

conference

concrete

compete

corrupt

conspire

concord

compare

correspond

continent

complex

command

collide

co-education

cohere

conspire

collection

Dis usually signifies apart, though sometimes it
has the force of a negative. Dif and di, other forms
of dis, are found in a few words. There is a tempta-
tion to substitute diss for dis in disappear and all
other words in which the root begins with a. The
opposite tendency is seen when the root begins
with s, as in dissatisfy. Most words introduced
by dis are familiar; a moment's thought is all
that is necessary to determine the root, and
this once determined, the correct spelling becomes
obvious.

disability

dissect

dissolve

discomfort

disadvantage

dissemble

dissuade

digress

disapprove

dissent

discharge

dilute

disappoint

dissimilar

disengage

difficulty

disallow

dissipate

disjoin

diffident

Ex signifies out, off, or beyond. E and ef are other
forms. Words introduced by ex present few diffi-
culties; there is no temptation to double the final
letter. E and ef are sometimes troublesome because
the Latin stems they introduce are unfamiliar; or
because we forget that ex changes to ef before a stem

WORDS AND SENTENCES

beginning with /. Note with care the first eleven
words below :

efface

emigrant

elapse

explain

effect

emissary

excavate

explode

effeminate

enervate

excellent

export

effervescent

eloquent

excursion

express

effort

elocution

exliaust

extort

In signifies in, into, or not, without. It is exceed-
ingly common, and exceedingly troublesome to poor
spellers, who forget, or do not know, that in changes
to il, im, ir, before /, m, r. Study the following words
faithfully, first noting the form of the prefix, then de-
termining the significance of the prefix.

illegible

immaterial

irrational

uTfOse

illiterate

inamediate

irreducible

innovation

illiberal

immense

irregular

inoculate

illogical

immigrant

irreligious

inquisitive

illumine

immoral

irresolute

inhale

illustrate

immunity

irreverence

inherit

Sub signifies under. It changes to sue, suf, svg
sum, sup, sur, before c, /, g, m, p, and r. Let the
poor speller remember this double consonant arrange-
ment; it will save him many slips.

success
suffix
suggest
suffer

surreptitious subcontract suppress

summar}^ subscribe suppose

support subdivide suburb

subconscious sul) jugate suffice

WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 25

In the following table the prefixes are, for con-
venient reference, arranged alphabetically.

Ab (abs)

signifies from.

Ad (ab, af, ag, al, an,

ap, ar, as, at)

to.

Ante

before.

Circum

about, around.

Con (co, col, com, cor)

with or together.

from or down.

Dis (di, dif)

apart or not.

((

out, off, or beyond.

In (11, ini, ir)

in, into, or not, with-
out.

Inter

between, together, or
among.

Non

((

not.

Per

through or by.

Post

behind or after.

Pre

before.

Pro

forward, before, or in-
stead of.

back or again.

apart.

Sub (sue, suf, sug, sum.

sup, sur)

under.

Super

above.

Trans (tran)

across, beyond, or
through.

26 WORDS AND SENTENCES

Suffixes, more numerous than prefixes, and fully

as useful, appear in so many of our conmionest words

that their significance is learned almost unconsciously.

' It will not do to pass them b}^ however, without

noting certain rules w^hich tell how suffixes are joined

, to stems. These rules should be learned.

Final silent e is kept before an added syllable be-
ginning with a consonant, and dropped before a suflix
beginning with a vowel ; but words ending in ce or
ge retain the e before a and o. Words ending in ie
drop the e and change the / to j^ before ing.

Love + ly makes lovely, love + able makes lovable.
Change + able makes cliangeahle and service + able
makes serviceable; otherwise there would be a
temptation to give g and c the hard sound as in rang
and cuj). Tie_^\-ing makes tying. The e is dropped,
since it is final silent e, and i changes to y to prevent
the doubling of i. Singeing and dyeing retain the e
to distinguish them from singing and dying. Truly,
duly, shoeing, hoeing, toeing, awftd, argument, and
judgment are other exceptions to the rule.

hoping advertisement subduing amazement

excitement infringement advantageous tracea])le
salable tying engagement blamable

peaceable tasty coming conceivable

movable spongy dining flying

Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a
single vowel double the consonant before an added
syllable beginning with a vowel, if the word formed

WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 27

is to be accented on the syllable preceding the suffix ;
otherwise the consonant is not doubled.

This rule, like the preceding one, is to prevent mis-
pronunciation. Hop + ing makes hopping. If the
consonant were not doubled, we should have no way
of distinguishing it from hoping, a very different
w^ord.

goddess

deference

occurrence

usually

literally

baggage

redden

permitting

deferred

slipped

planned

nutting

preference

beginning

beginner

gripping

preferring

stopped

swimming

compelling

When preceded by a consonant, final y is generally
changed to / before an added syllable not beginning
with /; otherwise it remains unchanged.

Holy -{-day makes holiday, and plenty -rjul makes
plentiful] but joy -^ Jul makes joyful, and toy+ing
makes toying. There are a few exceptions to the
rule, among them being shy, sly, and dry, which re-
tain the y before ness and ly; but these we are not
apt to misspell.

pitiful volleying modifying compliance

denying modifier defiance joyous

EXERCISES

I. Without referring to the table, explain the signifi-
cance of each of the following: ab, ad, ante, circum, con,
de, dis, ex, in, inter.

28 WORDS AND SENTENCES

II. Explain the significance of each of the following:
non, per, post, pre, pro, re, se, suh, super, trans.

III. Without referring to any book, write down all
the words you can think of which contain the prefix ah
in any of its forms. Do the same with each of the
twenty prefixes. (This may be made a class contest.)

IV. What prefixes appear in the following words?
Give the original form of each. Apparel, commence,
illegible, suppress, attribute, alliteration, aggregate, supply,
immigrant, communicate, irreligious, illiterate, suffix.

V. In which of the following words has the prefix the
force of in or into, and in which has it the force of 7iot or
without! Illogical, illuminate, imbibe, impediment, ir-
regular, immigrant, involuntary, insomnia, inspiration,
inoculate, insane, inquisitive, independent, infamy, in-
debted, incendiary.

VI. Open the dictionary at random and note how
many words containing Latin prefixes there are on a
single page. Do the same with a column from the edi-
torial page of any newspaper. Do the same with a page
from a magazine.

VII. Ceive and cept are roots from a Latin w^ord mean-
ing to take. Form as many words as you can by adding
prefixes and suflftxes.

VIII. Cede, ceed, and cess are roots meaning to go or
to yield. Form from these roots as many words as you

can.

IX. In the same manner form words from the roots
due and dxict, which are from a Latin word meaning to

lead.

X. Feet is from a Latin w^ord meaning to do or to make.

Form words from it.

WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 29

XL Jed is from ix Latin word meaning to throw.
Form words from it.

XII. Junct is from a Latin word meaning to join.
Form words from it.

XIII. Mit and miss are roots meaning to send. Form
words from them.

XIV. Pon and fosit are roots meaning to place. Form
words from them.

'.-^-XV. Tract means to draw. Form words from it.

XVI. State the rule for adding syllables to words
ending in silent e.

XVII. State the rule for adding syllables to words
ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel.

XVIII. State the rule for adding syllables to words
ending in y.

XIX. Give the rule governing each of the words in
the Ust below.

dying
pitiful
preference
truly

XX. Study with great care the spelling of the follow-
ing words, paying particular attention to prefixes.
With what letter does the stem of each word begin?

goddess

subduing

deference

serviceable

advantageous

purity

shammed

lying

hungriest

hoeing

shying

judgment

dissect

effervescent

emergency

emigrant

accuracy

disobedience

irregular

opponent appoint
disappear aggregate
misspell correspondent

immense

access

disagree describe
adjacent apparatus
suppress effeminate

immediately

affirm

addict

accidentally

ascertain

dissimilar

interrupt

WORDS AND SENTENCES

XXL The following are troublesome because of their
suffixes, in each case there being a temptation to use a
wrong ending. Master them.

affirmative visible forcible dictionary

spherical bachelor connotative audible

contemptible conservative coincidence identical

experience popular comparatively obedience

burglar infinite spontaneous purity

imperative penitentiary independence resistance

participle secretary correspondent conspirator

XXII. Words containing the diphthongs ei and ie are
troublesome until one learns that when the diphthong
has the sound of long e, / comes first except when
the diphthong is preceded by c. Weird, seize, neither,,
and leisure are important exceptions. With this rule
in mind, study the following words:

yield niece receive

shrieve perceive fiend

receipt deceit shriek

relieve besiege achieve

conceive

pierce

wield

apiece

XXIII. The following are commonly misspelled be-
cause commonly mispronounced. Are you sure that
you are accustomed to pronounce them correctly?

embroidery

recognize

ransacking

artistically

tournament

sophomore

athletics

cemetery

quarter

temperament

cartridge

farthest

intellect

laboratory

lightning

literally

strategy

tragedy

tremendous

accidentally

XXIV. The following, frequently misspelled, are very
simple when analyzed. Often a long word is but a

WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 31

short, famihar word to which prefix and suffix have

been added. A moment's thought should clear away
all difficulty.

recollect preparation imagination incidentally

agreeableness recommend undoubtedly handsome
narrative criticism ridgepole condescend

sensibility miraculous graphically analysis

XXV. Here are groups of words arranged in pairs.
Put each pair into a sentence or two so constructed as
to show without doubt that you know what each word
means.

admission
admittance

affect
effect

allusion
illusion

ascent
assent

altar
alter

bare
bear

berth
birth

brake
break

breath
breathe

bridal
bridle

calendar
calender

canon
cannon

canvas
canvass

capital
capitol

ceiling
seaUng

cereal
serial

cession
session

chandelier
chanticleer

cite
site

clothes
cloths

coarser

courser

colonel
kernel

complement
compUment

conservator}^
observatory

council
counsel

creak
creek

currant
current

deceased
diseased

desert
dessert

dual
duel

dyeing
dying

eligible
legible

WORDS AND SENTENCES

emerge

emigrant

fain

faint

immerge

immigrant

feign

feint

feat

formally

fort

forth

fete

formerly

forte

fourth

gait

gilt

grease

hail

gate

guilt

Greece

hale

heal

hew

humerus

lead

heel

hue

humorous

led

leaf

lightening

lose

mantel

lief

lightning

loose

mantle

meat

medal

miner

partition

mete

meddle

minor

petition

peace

peal

pedal

persecute

piece

peel

peddle

prosecute

pillar

prescribe

principal

prodigy

pillow

prqscribe

principle

progeny

prophecy

real

respectfully

ring

prophesy

reel

respectively

wring

role

sewer

shear

sleight

roll

sower

sheer

slight

soar

stake

stationary

statue ^

sore

steak

stationery

statute

stile

tail

team

waist

style

tale

teem

waste

WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 33

XXVI. Here is a final list of words, some of which we
have already examined, calling for careful study. Ana-
lyze them syllable by syllable. Master them once for
all.

pronunciation

belligerent

prejudice

apparent

divine

among

imitate

arriving

salary

around

muscle

dissolve

control

brilliant

arrange

together

speech

proceed

altogether

equip

mysterious

beseech

business

whether

vegetable

surprise

gas

rummage

galloped

separate

variegated

melancholy

professor

similar

privilege

announce

artillery

divide

appetite

rhythm

catarrh

color

sleeve

malady

difficult

across

caterpillar

excel

sovereign

embarrass

restaurant

essential

acquisition

pamphlet

precede

villain

accord

expel

terrestrial

allow

hospital

undoubtedly

agreeable

grammar

writer

acquaintance

luscious

twelfth

burglary

callous

syllable

until

exaggerate

abolish

parliament

drowned

nymph

college

soliloquy

accommodate

consonant

WORDS AND SENTENCES

persevere

committee

possess

academy

sympathy

finally

career

repetition

artificial

reverend

warrior

annual

agree

annex

messenger

paradise

opportunity

career

odor

drudgery

resurrect

duchess

amateur

achieve

noticeable

assassin

graphically

pursue

literary

barbarous

commencement

milHonaire

shepherd

negotiate

remedy

accustomed

marriage

bereave

sergeant

accordingly

collapse

fascinate

milliner

feminine

discourtesy

gasoline

cylinder

disapprove

image

physical

hypocrisy

Italy

discipline

trespass

incandescent

genius

appeal

fiery

implement

haggard

describe

crystal

enemy

necessity

kerosene

complexion

crescent

different

dissipate

approach

coincide

unanimous

phase

etiquette

all right

PART II

A BRIEF REVIEW OF ENGLISH
GRAMMAR

Words are but feeble things except when properly
arranged in groups and set to work. , They resemble
in this respect the parts of a machine, a typewriter
for instance, which must be assembled with care,
each part properly fitted in its place, before the
machine becomes serviceable. The dictionary, which
we may call first of the great law-books of lan-
guage, considers words singly, telling what each one
means, how it should be spelled, how pronounced.
Grammar, correctly speaking, includes all, or nearly
all, that the average dictionary contains. As the
term is commonly employed, however, the special
province of grammar is to record what is good usage
among language-respecting people as regards words
when grouped for service — what forms they take
and how they are arranged^ It may well be called
the second great laT^^-book. \ The following review
is much too brief to be complete. It touches but
lightly upon many things and passes by others

36 WORDS AND SENTENCES

altogether, the purpose being merely to freshen the
memory in regard to such matters as are of real
importance to one who is trying to learn to speak
and write correctly.

The simplest complete word-group, it will be re-
called, is the sentence, with its two vital parts, sub-
ject and predicate. The former names that concern-
hig which the sentence tells something; the latter is
the part which does the telling. There are four kmds
of sentences: the declarative, used in making an
assertion; the interrogative, used in asking a ques-
tion; the imperative, used in entreating, commandj^
ing, and in giving directions f^ the exclamatory, used
in expressing deep feeling.

Declarative : The tide has turned.
Interrogative: Has the tide turned?
Imperative: Seek the truth.
Exclamatory: How gallantly they ride!
Another set of names is used to indicate the struc-
ture of sentences. If made up of one subject and
one predicate, a sentence is called simple. If made
up of two or more independent clauses, it is called
compound. A sentence made up of one independent
' clause and one or more dependent clauses is called
complex. Compound-complex is a name applied to
a^_seritimiifi-madfi_U£_of_Jndepe^ or

more of which are^&omplex. \ By "clause; as used in
Iheabove definitions, is meant a group of words con-
taining a subject and a predicate and forming part
of a sentencc.j It differs from a^hrase^ which is a

e%^

,v-^

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 37

group of related words that does not contain subject ^'^
'^ and predicate. It resembles a phrase in that it is
often used as if it were a single word.

Phrase : in the morning

Clause : where I had determined to spend the night
/ Simple sentence: We reached the village.
' Compound sentence: The stars fade and dawn
appears.

Complex sentence : In the evening we reached the
village where I had determined to spend the night.

A Compound-complex sentence: We_discQYacfid_tha±

wejiadjorgotten the-packet and Pierre was sent-io^
JL

Thus we have the following display :

■ Declarative making an assertion
Interrogative asking a question
Purpose - Imperative commanding, directing,
or entreating <'->'■' '■'■'
Exclamatory expressing deep feeling

Sentences

.^-.

Structure

Simple having but one subject

and one predicate

Compound made up of two or more
independent clauses

Complex containing one or more

dependent clauses

There are eight kinds ofjwords: nouns, pronouns, \
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunc-
tions, and interjections. It should be remembered, (
however, that just a^ upon occasion a lawyer may
become a lecturer, or a schoolboy a fisherman, so a
given word may be now one ^^part of speech", now

38 WORDS AND SENTENCES

another. What a word is doing determines what it
should be called. If used to name something, it is a
noun. If used as a substitute for a noun, it is a pro-
n oun . Nouns an cl__Qronouns^ indeed all words or
word-groups used like nouns, are called substantives.
A verb^a word oFphrase used to assert something
concerning that which a substantive names or desig-
nates. Adjectives are words used to modify the
meaning of substantives, and adverbs are words used
to modify the meaning "of verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs. Adjectives and adverbs, and all words or
word-groups used like adjectives or adverbs, are
called modifiers. Prepositions connect substantives
with other words and show how they are related;
conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. Prepo-
sitions and conjunctions, and other parts of speech
when used like them, are called connectives. An_in-__
terjection js ^ w-nrd-^a_cry or an exclamation-^used
tQ_expressj££pJBeling. These definitions are not in
every instance complete; but they serve sufficiently
well to point out in a general way the service per-
formed by each part of speech .

Noun : The day is done. ^
>-^ Pronoun: They nm.

Verb : The birds have floivn.

Adjective: A soft answer turneth away wrath.

Adverb : The sentinel walked softly.
-^Preposition : Two of the ships were lost.
^•Conjunction : Come and trip it as ye go.

Interjection: Alas!

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 39

Thus we have the following display :

words used as nam^s

Nouns

Pronouns

words used as substitutes for nouns

Verbs

words used in making assertions , Yyf'^'^ic^^ t^ZJi^

Adjectives

words used to modify substantives

Adverbs

words used to modify verbs, adjec-
tives, adverbs

irts of

Prepositions

words used to connect substantives

Speech

with other words and show how
they are related

Conjunctions

words used to connect words, phrases,
clauses

Interjections

cries and exclamations used to ex-
press deep feeling

Studyins; this table for a moment, one cannot fail
to see that the various parts of speech enjoy but little
independence; they must work together just as the
individuals of a community must; all are needed,
none is self-sufhcient. Nouns are helpless without
verbs, and verbs helpless without nouns. Pronouns,
great time-savers that enable us to take short cuts,
and to push ahead without too often retracing steps,
are meaningless when by themselves. Adjectives
and adverbs must have something to cling to, other
words to work for; and connectives, when by them-
selves, are like mortar without bricks, bridges with-
out banks to join, or signboards where there are no
cross-ways. Interjections, of all the parts of speech,
enjoy a degree of lonely independence; yet a page of
interjections and nothing else would be unintelligible.j
The Ohl Alas! or ^lercy! means nothing until some

40 WORDS AND SENTENCES

complete sentence explains what has produced the
emotion represented by the exclamation.^

In the second place it may be noted that though no
word is wholly independent, the eight parts of speech
are of different value or rank; which suggests again
a parallel between words and individuals. The noun
is easily the most important, in numbers as well as
in service. If w^e could have but this one part of
speech w^e should manage somehow, though lamely,
without the other seven. Next comes the verb,
without which there could be no complete sentence.
A workaday world might get along fairly w^ell with
these two parts of speech alone. Adjectives and
adverbs are plainly inferior to nouns and verbs, and
the connectives are of a still lower order; yet vigor,
precision, and beauty of expression depend so largely
on a command of these minor groups of words that
they are entitled to our full respect and merit close
study. The relative hnportance of each part of
speech may be tested in an interesting way by taking
a paragraph from any book and removing from it
in turn the nouns, the pronouns, and so on.

Finally comes the thought that though there is no
such thing as independence among words, and though
some parts of speech may be considered of higher
rank than others, nevertheless each term in the lan-
guage enjoys a kind of supremacy, each is a specialist
doing some one thing better than it can be done by
any other.

In tcrj ej?tions an d prepositions do not change hi

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 41

form^nor can iht^y he. subdivided iiitQ_xlasses or
varieties according to the service the3^_j3ert'orm.
OHTer parts o7~speech may be subdivided, and with
the exception of the conjunction they may be ''in-
flected" more or less; that is, they may be bent into
this or that shape to express shades of meaning and
to show the relationship of word to word, much as
some machines may be ''adjusted" to perform
different kinds of work. For example, hoys^js^axi
inflected form of hoy, and worked an inflected form oi
worlc. Centuries ago, our language was much more
highly inflected than it is to-day. Many forms have
dropped out of use, and others are gradually dis-
appearing. Yet the shades of meaning and the re-
lationships they once expressed still remain, and
often the names of these are retained even though
the inflected forms are gone. \ We will now take up
each part of speech separately, considering its sub-
divisions, its inflections, and the service it performs.
Kinds common, proper

number: singular, plural
Forms -I gender: masculine, feminine, neuter

case: nominative, possessive, objective

Nouns

(1) subject of verb, (2) object of verb, (3)
indirect object of verb, (4) object of prep-
osition, (5) denoting possession, (6) ap-
. How used \ positive to a substantive, (7) predicate
nominative, (8) nominative absolute, (9)
nominative by address, (10) adverbial
objective

A common noun is a name which may be applied
to any one of an entire class of things; a proper noun

42 WORDS AND SENTENCES

designates a particular one^^ distinguishing it from
others of the same class. Ijlliterate people some-
times fail to begin the proper noun with a capital,
and frequently begin with a capital a word, especially
the name of a plant or an animal, with which they are
not familiar. Do^ is a common noun; so too is
zc/i%osawni.s, notwithstanding the fact that it has
many syllables and sounds strange to the ear.

The regular way of forming the plural is by adding
s or es to the singular, observation rather than hard
and fast rules teaching which ending is correct in a
given case.1 It is well to remember, however, that
nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change
the y to I and add es; that a few, though not all,
words ending in fe change the f to v and add s; and
that a few, though not all, ending in o preceded by a
consonant add es. Foreign words are troublesome
in that many of them have plural endings not found
in our language. The oddest rule is that which bids
us indicate the plural of figures, letters, and signs by
adding 's. (See exercise VI on page 72.)
pony ponies valley valleys

knife knives potato potatoes

vertebra vertebrae 6 6's

t t's + +'s

Few nouns have separate forms to indicate jliffer:
^enceJn^^^derTiburt^^

liaye gender, so we may speak of nouns as masculine^
femimh(?paRfHTCirteT.~~"lt^
case as itls~witii gender. One form now suffices for

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 43

both nominative and objective; the only inflection
is that which denotes what is loosely called posses-
sion. The regular way of forming the possessive is
by adding 's to the singular and to all plurals not
ending in s. Plurals ending in s add the apostrophe
only. When a noun of more than one syllable ends
in axi s or z sound, some writers prefer to indicate the
singular possessive by adding simply the apostrophe;
others, and they are to be commended, follow the
regular rule.; Ulysses's voyages, Xerxes' s exercises,
and similar phrases have an unpleasant sound. Per-
haps the sanest way is to avoid such ugly combina-
tions by writing, the voyages of Ulysses and the exer-
cises of Xerxes. \ | If two or more nouns joined by and ^
show joint possession, as in the sentence This is John
and Henry's boat, the sign of possession is needed
with the last noun only; but we write correctly
This is either John's or Henry's, and This is neither
John's nor Henry's. \ (See exercise VII on page 72.)

man's mens' Dickens's masterpiece

lady's ladies' The deeds of Themistocles

Brown and Green's harness shop (joint possession)

Goldsmith's and Burns's poems (separate posses-
sion)

Is this Monday's or Tuesday's Tribune?

It is neither Monday's nor Tuesday's.

The ways in which nouns are used will be better
understood later on when the other parts of speech
have been examined. Since this is a review of
grammar, the following examples should not prove

WORDS AND SENTENCES

wholly unintelligible. The numbers correspond to

those found in the table on page 41.

1. Fire burns. 2. Obey the law. 3. They
offered Ccesar a crown. 4. He lives in Savannah.
5. Great Expectations is the title of one of
Dickens's best novels. 6. We followed the Ohio
River, a branch of the Mississippi. 7. This is my
native land. 8. The day being clear, we had an
extended view. 9. In thee, 0 Lord, do I put
my trust. 10. Good-bye, proud world, I'm going
home,

Personal: I, you, thou, he, she, it; myself,
yourself, etc.

Relative or Conjunctive: who, which, what,
that; whoever, whosoever, etc.

Demonstrative: this, that

Interrogative: who, which, what, whether

Indefinite or Adjective: each, either, neither,
some, any, many, few, all, both, aught,
naught, one, some one, any one, every one,
no one, such other, each other, one another

Pronouns ■

Kinds

Forms

Person: first, second, third

Number: singular, plural
I Gender: masculine, feminine, neuter
[Case: nominative, possessive, objective

How used: (1) To take the place of the noun, serving
in all save the last of the ten
ways mentioned in connection with
nouns; (2) to take the place of a
noun and at the same time serve
as a connective (relative pronouns
only)

Personal pronouns, so called because some always
represent the ''first" person or the one speaking,

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 45

others the '^second" person or the one spoken to,
and others the ''third" person or the person or thing
spoken of, are so commonly misused that it seems
l)est to give their inflections in full.

Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu.

Nom. I we you you

Pos. my or mine our or ours you or yours your or yours

Obj. me us you you

Nom. thou ye he she it they

Pos. thy or thine your or yours his her its their or theirs

(or hers)
Obj. thee you him her it them

Singular

Nom. myself thyself or yourself himself herself itself

Pos, — — _ _ _ _

Obj. myself thyself or yourself himself herself itself

Plural

Nom. ourselves yourselves themselves

Pos. — — —

Obj. ourselves yourselves themselves

Notice that there are no such forms as ourn, youer,
yourn, hisn, hern, theirn, theirselves, itsself, and that
in no form is the apostrophe used. ^'ouWe, a con-
tracted form of you are, is often confused with yo^ir.
' The relative pronouns are so calledbecausethey_
/'relate^ or reterto^substantlYfi&l Since at the same
time they introduce clauses, thus serving as con-
-^.nectives, they are also called conjunctive pronouns.
Of all the conjunctives, who alone is inflected. |

Sing.

Plu.

Nom.

who

Pos.

whose

Obj.

whom

46 WORDS AND SENTENCES

Notice that there is no such form as whoes or ivhos.
Who's is a contracted form of who is.

The interrogatives, so called because used in ask-
ing questions, are not inflected, with the exception
of who, which differs in no respect from the relative
who.

The demcjnstratives this and that, with th<^ir pInrRi —
forms these and those, direct attention to pmisoa^ or_
things, pointing them out. Be careful not to use
the personal jpronoun as if it^ere a demonstrative.
Look at them hoys should be Look at those hoys. Re-
member too that these and those are plural forms,
while sort and kind are singular. These kind, those -/;'
sort, and similar vulgarisms are very common .T

The hidefinites, so called because they do not
definitely represent particular persons or things, are
a low order of pronoun, more often used as adjec-
tives. Indeed, many pronouns do double duty,
serving now as pronouns, now as adjectives; and we
have seen that relative pronouns serve as conjunc-
tions. , This leads to confusion, which disappears
only when we apply to a word in a given sentence the
name which best describes the service it performs in
that sentence.

In the first group of sentences given below, the pro-
nouns are used like nouns, serving as subject, object,
etc., the numbers corresponding to those in the
noun table. Notice that the pronoun is not used as
an adverbial objective, iln the second group, the
pronouns take the place 6? nouns and at the same
time serve as connective's, i

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 47

1. This is the forest primeval. 2. Take it, if
you wish. 3. Please give him my cane. 4. May
we go with him'f 5. My courage weakens, and
so, I suspect, does yours. 6. A few fortunate
ones, those who had clear records in deportment,
were permitted to go. 7. This is he. 8. This
having been attended to, w^e retired for the
night. 9. Go to the ant, thou sluggard.

1. Let him who standeth take heed lest he fall.
2. This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack
built.

articles: a, an, the

numerals: one, two, first, sec-
ond, etc.

pronominals : my, thy, his, her,
its; this, that; which, what;
each, every, either, neither,
some, any, many, few, all,
both, other

r Kinds ■

Adjec-
tives

limiting

descriptive

proper

Forms: positive, comparative, superlative

How used: To modify substantives attributively,
appositively, and predicatively

Adjectives present few difficulties, except as they
change to indicate degrees of comparison. In some
cases degree is indicated by an entire change of
word, as in good, better, best; in others -erand -est are
added to the positive form, as in siveet, sweeter, sweet-
est; and in still others the comparative and the super-
lative are indicated by placing more and most or less

48 WORDS AND SENTENCES

and least before the adjective. No rule covers all
cases; what is right must be learned through obser-
vation. Uneducated people sometimes forget that a
proper adjective — that is, an adjective derived from
a proper noun, as Roman derived from the proper
noun Rome — should begin with a capital. The dis-
tinction between a pronoun and a pronominal adjec-
tive is not troublesome if we remember that the
adjective always modifies a substantive.
Pronoun: This is my book-
Adjective: This book belongs to me.
The three ways in which an adjective may be used
— perhaps we should say four ways, since an adjec-
tive is sometimes used as a noun — are here illustrated.
1. The green fields invite us. 2. The crowd,
heedless, rushed into danger. 3. The fields are
green. 4. The wicked shall perish.

f 1 . Transitive, intransitive
Kinds I 2, Strong conjugation, weak^conjugation

Voice: active, passive

Mood: indicative, subjunctive, potential, im-
perative

Verbs

Forms -I Tense: present, past, future, perfect, past per-
fect, future perfect
Person: first, second, third
Number: singular, plural
.Verbals: infinitives, participles

How used: (1) To form the essential part of the predi-
cate; (2) to serve as a substantive (in-
finitive); (3) to serve as an adjective
(participle)

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 49

The verb is a difficult part of speech to master.
Very few — perhaps it is safe to say not more than
one in a hundred — ever do master it. Grammarians
cannot agree perfectly on all points relating to it, and
they differ widely in regard to the names which should
be applied to its various forms and relations. We
shall try, without going too deeply into matters, to
get hold of such essentials as are needed in order to
talk about verbs intelligibly and use them with a
reasonable degree of correctness.

A verb is used transitively when it requires an ob-
ject to complete its meaning; that is, when it requires
a substantive to ^'receive its action", as in the sen-
tence Jack huilt a house. A verb is used intransi-
tively when it does not require an object, as in the
sentence The sun shines. Some verbs are always
used intransitively, others may be used either way.
(See exercise XIII on page 78.)

Verbs are said to be of the strong or the weak con-
jugation according to the way they are inflected.
Weak verbs regularly add d or ed to the root to form
the past tense and the past participle. Strong verbs~| — -
regularly change the vowel of the root, either in the
past tense or in the past participle or in both, and
sometimes add n or en to form the past parti-
ciple.

Weak conjugation : work, worked, worked.
Strong conjugation : speak, spoke, spoken.

Many verbs, both strong and weak, are inflected
more or less irregularly, and some irregularities are

50 WORDS AND SENTENCES

so misleading that it is often difficult to tell what
conjugation a verb belongs to even though its prin-
cipal parts, as the present, past, and past participle
forms are called, are familiar to us. It is a comfort
to reflect that knowing the principal parts of a verb
is of more importance than being able to tell to what
conjugation it belongs. (See exercise X on page 76.)
Perhaps the best way to get at the many difficulties
presented by voice, mood, and tense will be to display
a complete verb. Pronouns will be used for the pur-
pose of showing the various forms called for by sub-
jects in the first, second, and third person, singular
and plural; for a verb ''agrees" with its subject in
person and number. It should be remembered that
the pronoun is not a part of the verb.

ACTIVE VOICE

INDICATIVE MOOD

Simple Form

Emphatic Form

Progressive Form

PRESENT

I love

I do love

I am loving

you love or

thou

you do love or thou

you are loving or

lovest *

dost love

thou art loving

he loves

he does love or he
doth love

he is loving

we love

we do love

we are loving

you love

you do love

you are loving

they love

they do love

they are loving

* The older forms for the second person are given in the
present and past tenses only, though they are found in other
tenses as well.

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 51

I loved

you loved or thou

lovedst
he loved
we loved
you loved
they loved

I shall love
you will love
he will love
we shall love
you will love
they will love

I will love
you shall love
he shall love
we will love
you shall love
they sliall love

I have loved
you have loved
he has loved
we have loved
you have loved
they have loved

I had loved
you had loved
he had loved
we had loved
you had loved
they had loved

PAST

I did love
you did love or

thou didst love
he did love
we did love
you did love
they did love

SIMPLE FUTURE

I was loving

you were loving or

thou wast loving
he was loving
we were loving
you were loving
they were loving

I shall be loving
you will be loving
he will be loving
we shall be loving
you will be loving
they will be loving

VOLITIONAL FUTURE

I will be loving
you shall be loving
he shall be loving
we will be loving
you shall be loving
they shall be loving

PERFECT

PAST PERFECT

I have been loving
you have been loving
he has been loving
we have been loving
you have been loving
they have been loving

I had been loving
you had been loving
he had been loving
we had been loving
you had been loving
they had been loving

52 WORDS AND SENTENCES

FUTURE PERFECT

I shall have loved I shall have been loving

you will have loved you will have been loving

he will have loved he will have been loving

we shall have loved we shall have been loving

you will have loved you will have been loving

they will have loved they will have been loving

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Simple Form Emphatic Form Progressive Form

PRESENT

(if) I, you, he love (if) I, you, he do love (if) I, you, he be

loving
(if) we, you, they (if) we, you, they do (if) we, you, they be
love love loving

PAST

(if) I, you, he loved (if) I, you, he, did (if) I, you, he were

love loving

(if) we, you, they (if) we, you, they (if) we, you, they

loved did love were loving

POTENTIAL MOOD ^ c,^^^i\.i\\^<^~' j
Simple Form Progressive Form -^r^^JLY ii>yt^
PRESENT

I, you, he may * love I, you, he may be loving

we, you, they may love we, you, they may be loving

PAST

I, you, he might f love I, you, he might be loving

we, you, they might love we, you, they might be loving

PERFECT

I, you, he may * have loved I, you, he may have been loving
we, you, they may have loved we, you, they may have been

loving

PAST PERFECT

I, you, he might f have loved I, you, he might have been lov-
ing
we, you, they might have loved we, you, they might have been

loving
* Can and must are other potential auxiliaries,
j- Could, would, and should are other auxiliaries.

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 53

love

to love, loving

IMPERATIVE MOOD

PRESENT

do love
INFINITIVES

PRESENT

PERFECT

to have loved, having loved

loving
having loved

Simple Form

I am loved
you are loved
he is loved
we are loved
yon are loved
they are loved

I was loved
you were loved
he was loved
we were loved
you were loved
they were loved

I shall be loved
I will be loved

PARTICIPLES

PRESENT
PERFECT

be loving

to be loving

to have been loving

having been loving

PASSIVE VOICE

INDICATIVE MOOD

Progressive Form
PRESENT

I am being loved
you are being loved
he is being loved
we are being loved
you are being loved
they are being loved

PAST

I was being loved
you were being loved
he was being loved
we were being loved
you were being loved
they were being loved

SIMPLE FUTURE
VOLITIONAL FUTURE

54 WORDS AND SENTENCES

PERFECT

I have been loved

PAST PERFECT

I had been loved

FUTURE PERFECT

I shall have been loved

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

PRESENT

(if) I be loved

PAST

(if) I were loved (iO I were being loved

POTENTIAL MOOD
PRESENT

PAST

I may be loved
I might be loved

PERFECT

I may have been loved

PAST PERFECT

I might have been loved

IMPERATIVE MOOD

PRESENT

be loved

INFINITIVES

PRESENT

to be loved, being loved

PERFECT

to have been loved, having been loved

PARTICIPLES
PRESENT

being loved

PAST

loved

PERFECT

having been loved

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 55

As we study this display, we note first of all that
though the verb has a few inflections— Zoves, loved,
loving^iis conjugation is made up largely of phrases
inwhich am, have, do, shall, mill, may, etc., appear.
These words, verbs all of them, are called auxiliaries,
because they are used principally in combination
with other verbs, helping to express various shades
of meaning. It is good mental exercise to dissect
a long phrase like may have been loving and try to
determine what each word does toward completing
the idea; but ordinarily it is better for the young
student to think of the phrase as if it were all a
single word.'^ (See exercise XII on page 77.)

The indicative mood is used in plain, straight-
away assertion and question. It presents no diffi-
culties except in two tenses, the past and the future,
and these must be examined with great care.

Was is singular, loere is plural. It is therefore in-
correct to write They was all present. We loas pleased
to see him; for the verb should agree with its subject
in number. But note that nowhere is loas found in
the second person singular. It is you were loving and
not you was loving, you were being loved and not you
was being loved. It is odd that the plural form luere
should be used with the singular pronoun you, but it
is so used by those who speak correctly. Those who
say you vms instead of you were belong, as a rule, to
the large, unfortunate class who use aint and haint
for am not and haven't. Aint and haint are forms
unknown to grammar.

56 WORDS AND SENTENCES

Shall and vnll are troublesome because each per-
forms a double service, sometimes indicating plain
futurity and sometimes volition, or an act of the will.
They cease to give trouble when the meaning of the
words futurity and volition is clearly understood and
a few simple rules have been mastered. When one
says / shall he twenty to-morrow, or Friday will he the
thirteenth, he does not mean that he is determined to
be twenty on the morrow, or that he promises to
make Friday the thirteenth, for these are matters
over which he has no control; he simply states a
future certainty. On the other hand / will give you
a dollar for your knife is a promise; and He shall suffer
for this is a threat or the expression of a determina-
tion. Promises, threats, resolves, and the like, are
acts of the will; they come under the general term
volition. Three rules cover nearly all troublesome
cases :

I. To express a simple future, use shall with the
first person, will with the second and the third.

II. To express volition, use will with the first per-
son, shall with the second and the third.

-^ III. In an interrogative sentence, use shall with the
first person always. With the second person and the
third use shall when shall is expected in the answer
and will when will is expected in the answer. (See
exercises XVI and XVII on pages 79 and 80.)

The subjunctive mood is used most commonly in
conditional clauses to imply that the contraiy of that
which is stated is true, as in the sentence // to-day

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 57

were to-morrov), we should know all about it. It is
also used sometimes to express a wish, as in the sen-
tence 0 that I were home ! But the subjunctive mood
has almost disappeared from our common speech.
[The idea of extreme doubt, supposition, condition
contrary to fact, etc., remains, but it is no longer ex-
pressed by a separate system of forms such as we
have in the indicative mood. The indicative and]
potential forms, helped out not a little by the con-'i
junctions if, though, unless, except, lest, and whether, [
now do most of the work formerly done by the sub-
junctive. Little attention, therefore, need be paid
to this mood, except in a single case where it still
performs an important service. Notice carefully the
indicative and subjunctive past tense progressive ^
forms of the verb love:

Indicative
I was loving we were loving

you were loving you were loving

he was loving they were loving

Stibjunctive
if I were loving if we were loving

if you were loving if you were loving

if he were loving if they were loving

The if is not a part of the verb; it appears in con-
nection with the subjunctive merely because some
such conjunction is frequently, though not always,
used with that mood. It may be used with the in-
dicative too; but if I was loving and if I were loving
do not mean the same thing. The former expresses

58 WORDS AND SENTENCPE

a simple condition in past time; the latter has nothing
to do with past time, but sets forth a state of affairs
contrary to fact or merely thought of. Note the
following sentences:

If the day was pleasant, they must have en-
joyed the drive.

If the day were pleasant, they might enjoy
the drive.
In the first sentence the speaker tells simply what
must have happened under a given condition. The
sentence has to do with past time. It does not sup-
pose something which is not true; it is a pure con- "^
ditional sentence. In the second there is an element
of make-believe. The day, we know at once, is not
pleasant, but the speaker imagines what might
happen were the day different. The sentence has
nothing to do with past time. The rule covering
the use of the two moods in the past tense is as
follows :

Use the past tense of the indicative to express simple"'
condition in past time. Use the past tense of the sub-
junctive to express the idea of uncertainty, extreme
doubt, or condition contrary to fact in present time.
(See exercise XV on page 79.)

Potential is a term, old-fashioned and very much
too narrow but still convenient, applied by some to
all verb phrases containing the auxiliaries may, can,
must, might, could, would, or should, auxiliaries which
help the verbs they accompany to express a variety
of ideas such as obligation, power, possibility, liberty.

REVIEW (3F ENGLISH GRAMMAR 59

Many granimarians 1 elieve that there is no potential
mood and that the so-cahed potentials are indicatives
and subjunctives. It is of more importance that we
learn to use may, can, and the rest of the auxiliaries
correctly than it is that we settle this disputed point.
May, can, would, and should are the four auxiliaries
most commonly misused. Can denotes ability to do.
May sometimes denotes a wish, as in the sentence
May you have a pleasant journey; and sometimes
possibility, as in the sentence It may rain] and some-
times permission, as in the sentence You may go now.
The point to be remembered is this :

Can denotes ability to do ; may denotes permission.
Hence You can go means You are able to go; You
may go means / give you permission to go. (See ex-
ercise XIX on page 81.) ^
Should is sometimes used to express the idea of
duty or obligation, and would to express the idea of
accustomed action, as in the sentences We should he
just to our enernies and We would hear the swallows
chattering in the big chimney whenever the mother bird
brought food. But they are used also like shall and
will and in a general way follow the same rules,
should corresponding to shall, and would to will. This
is seen when a sentence in direct discourse is turned
into indirect discourse. He said, "I shall be home
to-morrov)'' becomes He said that he should be home
to-morrow. He said, "I will help pay for the boat''
becomes He said he would help pay for the boat. In a
conditional clause, shoidd is used with all three per-

60 WORDS AND SENTENCES

sons to express futurity and loould with ail tliree per-
sons to express volition; but in the principal clause
of a conditional sentence, should and loould follow
the rules for shcdl and will.

Simple future: If he should call, I should be
glad to see him.

Volition: If he should need money, T would
send him a draft.
All this is quite puzzling; but we may simplify mat-
ters a little by remembering two rules which cover
nearly all troublesome cases :

I. In indirect discourse use should where shall
would be used in direct discourse; use would where
will would be used in direct discourse.

II. In the principal clause of a conditional sentence,
use should with the first person and would with the
second and third persons to express simple future.
Use would with the first person and should with the
second and third persons to express voUtional future.
(See exercise XVIII on page 81.)

Infinitives are verb forms that are used like nouns,
and participles are verb forms that are used like ad-
jectives. They retain the essential idea of the verb
from which they are derived; like verbs they have
voice and tense; and they may be modified as verbs
are modified, and may govern the objective case.
At the same time they have the force of nouns and
adjectives.
^ The verb always forms the principal part of tlie
predicate, stating or asking something concerning the

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 61

substantive which serves as its subject. The prin-
cipal ways in which infinitives and participles are
used are illustrated below. Note that while the in-
finitive commonl}^ serves as a substantive, the sub-
stantive idea is lacking in the last three examples in
the first group. The last sentence in the second group
shows the participle in what is called the absolute
construction.

1. To give is more blessed than to receive.
2. Ask him to wait for us. 3. I purchased this
before seeing the others. 4. Winning a battle
is not always gaining what one desires. 5. It
is never too late to mend. 6. We went to the
beach to gather driftwood. 7. It was a victory
to he "proud of. 8. I am glad to hear such good
news.

1. There is a familiar adage about lohistling
girls. 2. I left him standing by the road. 3.
The dog, harking furiously, soon frightened them
. away. 4. Having sung till we could sing no more,
we covered up the embers and prepared for
bed. 5. The bell having rung, we formed in line.

Simple

r hence, how, however, now, so,
Conjunctive \ then, thence, wlien, whence,

I where, whither, why, etc.
Expletive: there
Responsives: yes, no

r Kinds ■

Adverbs

Forms: positive, comparative, superlative

How used: To modify verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs; to serve as conjunctions

62 WORDS AND SENTENCES

Adverbs are easily recognized, especially the sim-
ple ones indicating time, place, motion, manner, etc.
A few are compared like adjectives.

much, more, most

soon, sooner, soonest

quickly, more quickly, most quickly
Conjunctive adverbs are so called because they in-
troduce subordinate clauses much as relative pro-
nouns do, at the same time serving as modifiers.
Where have they gone?
They have gone ivhere we cannot follow.
In the first sentence, where is plainly an adverb.
In the second, it serves not only as an adverb but
as a conjunction joining They have gone and ive cannot
jollow; hence it is a conjunctive adverb. The ex-
pletive there, seen in such sentences as There loas
mounting in hot haste, is so called because it ^' fills
out". Since it stands first, oftentimes, where we
naturally expect to find the subject, it is frequently
mistaken for the subject and made to govern the
verb. Thus we have such errors as There loas four
of us; for the thoughtless person assumes that the
expletive must be singular and so should be followed
by a verb in the singular number. Yes and no, almost
always used independently, are not, strictly speaking,
adverbs at all, since they modify nothing.

The following sentences show how adverbs are
used :

1. Go quietly. 2. What could be more beau-
tiful! 3. She sleeps 7nost soundly now. 4. He

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 63

will come lohen we are ready. 5. There are
many reasons why we should go. 6. Yes, let us
be patient.

Prepositions

Kinds: All of the same kind

Forms: No changes in form

How used : To connect words and show the re-
lation between them

' Prepositions form but a small group, a hundred or
so, not more than fifty or sixty of which are in com-
mon use. All are of the same kind, do the same
thing; they introduce phrases, connecting sub-
stantives with other words and showing the relation-
ship between them. The object of a preposition is in
the objective case. When a prepositional phrase
modifies a substantive, it is called an adjective phrase;
when it is used like an adverb, it is called an ad-
verbial phrase. (See exercise III on page 68.)

Adjective: He wore a badge of blue ribbon.

Adverbial: They will come in the morning.

f Kinds: Coordinate, subordinate
Conjunctions ■! Forms: No changes in form

I How used: To connect words, phrases, clauses.

Conjunctions differ from prepositions in that the
former are usually employed to connect clauses, while
the latter are always employed to connect single
words. When a conjunction is used to connect sin-
gle words, the words are in the same construction;
that is, they are used alike, are of the same rank.

64 WORDS AND SENTENCES

The two words joined by a preposition are always of
unequal rank :

The house and the barn were burned.

The hay was stored in the barn.
In the first sentence house and ham are in the same
construction; that is, both are subjects of the same
verb. Was stored and ham, in the second sentence,
are in different constructions; ham modifies ivas
stored adverbially. It is not difficult, therefore, to tell
whether a given connective is a preposition or a con-
junction ; but it is sometimes puzzling to tell whether
a conjunction is coordinate or subordinate. Coor-
dinate conjunctions connect words, phrases, and
clauses which have the same grammatical relation;
that is, are in the same construction. Subordinate
conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses, and are
found, therefore, in complex sentences only. There
are three kinds of subordinate or dependent clauses:
adjective, adverbial, noun. If one can learn to
recognize these three kinds, he should have no diffi-
culty in distinguishing between the two kinds of con-
junctions. A noun clause is used like a noun, an
adjective clause is used like an adjective, and an
adverbial clause is used like an adverb. The first
three illustrations given below contain subordinate
conjunctions introducing noun clauses, the remain-
ing ones contain subordinate conjunctions introduc-
ing adjective and adverbial clauses.

1. That the steamship is lost is beyond all
question. 2. They report that the steamship is

REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 65

lost. 3. It all depends on where the steamship
went ashore./- 4:. The steamship struck ivhile the
passengers were at dinner. 5. // it had not been
foggy, the accident would not have happened.
6. Do unto others as you woidd have them do
unto you. 7. Return to the place whence you
came. 8. There was a time ivhen we could
have escaped.
All connectives — prepositions, relative pronouns, sim- ,
pie conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs — are exceed- 1
ingly important in that they bind together the various
parts of a sentence. (See exercises IV and XXI on
pages 69 and 82.)

Selecting items here and there from the preceding
paragraphs, combining and condensing them, we
have the following summaiy concerning how words
are used in the building of sentences :

I. Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate,
the former naming that concerning which something is
asserted or some question asked, the latter asserting or asking
something concerning that which the subject names. The
vital part of the predicate is always a verb. The vital part
of the subject is always a noun or some word or word-group
that is used like a noun.

II. The meaning of a verb may be modified (i) by a noun
or pronoun objective, (2) by a predicate noun or adjective
qualifying the subject of the verb, (3) by an adverb, an
adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause. The meaning of
a noun may be changed (i) by an adjective, (2) by a noun or
a pronoun in the possessive case, (3) by a phrase or a clause.
An adjective may be modified by an adverb, an adverb by
another adverb.

66 WORDS AND SENTENCES

Several of the rules governing person, number,
gender, and case have been given or implied in earlier
paragraphs. Supplementing these we have the
following :

I. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.
II. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number.

III. A noun or pronoun the object, direct or indirect, of a

verb is in the objective case.

IV. A predicate noun or pronoun agrees in case with the

subject it qualifies.
V . A word in apposition with another word agrees with it

in case.
VI. A noun or pronoun governed by a preposition is in the

objective case.
VII. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, num-
ber, and gender.
VIII. A noun or pronoun with an appositive adjective or its
equivalent is sometimes used in the nominative case
absolutely.

EXERCISES

I. Point out the subject of each sentence. If the sub-
ject is made up of more than one word, analyze it, show-
ing how the bare subject is expanded. How many kinds
of modifiers do you find?

I, Clouds will intervene. 2. Honor and shame from
no condition rise. 3. A pleasing countenance is a silent
recommendation. 4. A fool's bolt is soon shot. 5.
The proof of the pudding is in the eating. 6. What
cannot be cured must be endured. 7. He who arrives
first at the mill should first have his grist. 8. To be
poor without being free is the worst state into which
man can fall. 9. In the lexicon of youth, which fate
reserves for a bright manhood, there is no such word
as fail. 10. It is better to fall from the window than
from the roof. 11. Count not your chickens before they
are hatched. 12. Avarice, mother of all wickedness,
always thirsty for more, opens wide her jaws for gold.

13. The Sunflower, thinking 'twas for him foul shame
To nap by daylight, strove t'excuse the blame;
It was not sleep that made him nod, he said,
But too great weight and largeness of his head.

— Cowley.

II. Point out the predicate of each sentence. If the
verb is modified, analyze the predicate, showing how it

68 WORDS AND SENTENCES

is expanded. How many kinds of modifiers do you
find?

1. Time flies. 2. Make haste slowly. 3. Light gains
make a heavy purse. 4. A thing of beauty is a joy for-
ever. 5. At night all cats are gray. 6. Strike while
the iron is hot. 7. Give us this day our daily bread.
8. Young folks tell what they do, old ones what they
have done, and fools what they intend to do. 9. A
soft answer turneth away wrath; but grievous words
stir up anger. 10. A bad workman always quarrels
with his tools. 11. When the fox is asleep, nothing
falls into his mouth. 12. All is not gold that glitters.
13. When beechen buds begin to swell.

And woods the l)luebird's warble know.
The yellow violet's modest bell

Peeps from the last year's leaves below.

— Bryant.

III. Point out the phrases and tell what each one
modifies. Analyze each phrase. How many kinds do
you find?

1. A hare is not caught by a drum. 2. Look not a
gift-horse in the mouth. 3. It is necessary to wait for
the lame man. 4. A sparrow in the hand is better than
a goose in the wing. 5. Unto the pure all things are
pure. 6. Burning the candle at both ends is folly. 7.
To be or not to be — that is the question. 8. It is more
blessed to give than to receive. 9. He who follows two
hares is sure to catch neither. 10. We all have suffi-
cif^nt strength to bear the misfortunes of others. 11.
Frightening a bird is not the way to catch it. 12. It is
great folly to think of being wise alone. 13. Please ask

EXERCISES 69

him to remain a minute. 14. By following the trail we
easily found the cabin. 15. I do not enjoy benig left
alone 16 The brook, winding in and out, at length
reaches the river. 17. All hope having been abandoned .
the boat was allowed to drift. 18. Having been warned
of their danger, the girls turned back. 19. The snow,
sweeping across the open fields, piled high agamst the
cabin. 20. Many a tale is lost in telhng.
21. And then there w^as a little isle
Which in my very face did smile.

The only one in view;
A small green isle, it seemed no more.
Scarce broader than my dungeon door.
But in it there were three tall trees.
And o'er it blew the mountain breeze,
And by it there were waters flowing.
And on it there were young flowers growing
Of gentle breath and hue— Byron.

IV Point out and analyze each clause. Which ones
are subordinate? Which of the subordinate clauses are
substantive? adjective? adverbial?

1 Adversity makes men and prosperity makes mon-
sters 2 He who has good health is rich, though he
may not know it. 3. What is well done is twice done
4 Go where glory waits. 5. Ask what ye will and it
shall be granted. 6. Honor the old, instruct the young
consult the wise, and bear with the foolish. 7. He that
gathereth in summer is a wise son; but he that sleepeth
in harvest is a son that causeth shame. 8. If the sky
falls, we shall catch larks. 9. One does not always
know who may be trusted. 10. Tell me what you read

70 WORDS AND SENTENCES

and I will tell you what you are. 11. All philosophy,
says Epictetus, lies in the two .words sustain and ab-
stain. 12. We must expect to work for what we get.
13. Where no wood is, there the fire goeth out. 14.
Much may be made of a Scotchman, Johnson once re-
marked, if he be caught young. 15. Make hay while
the sun shines. 16. Keep thy shop and thy shop will
keep thee. 17. Let another man praise thee, and not
thine own mouth; a stranger, and not thine own hps.

18. For of all sad words of tongue or pen.

The saddest are these: '^It might have been.'*

— Whittier.

19. Breathes there the man with soul so dead,
Who never to himself hath said,

"This is my own — my native land!" — Scott.

V. Attention has been called to the fact that many
words are used now as one part of speech, now as an-
other. Note carefully each italicized word in the sen-
tences below. What duty does it perform? What part
of speech is it? What other part of speech may it be
at times?

1. Good, quickly, with, or, himself, and laughed are
common words. 2. Three cheers for the red, white, and
hlue\ 3. The French were victorious. 4. The captain
made a home run. 5. Six of the boys consented. 6.
Waiting is tiresome, even in this cool waiting-room. 7.
To go is better than to perish. 8. The tongue of the
just is as choice silver. 9. Be just to your enemies.
10. It called, just then, a second time. 11. They say
he lives in a glass house. 12. The imiidering clouds go
by. 13. Why do you drive so fasti 14. Oh, young

EXERCISES 71

Lochinvar is come out of the West. 15. Call me early,
for I must take an early train. 16. The under part next
received attention. 17. The last shall be first. 18. He
pitched an in curve. 19. He must be there by 7iow.
20. Wait till the clouds roll by. 21. Yonder shepherd
beckons. 22. Look yonder I 23. Try hard to break
this hard stone. 24. Good-bye, proud world, I'm going
home. 25. Please black the stove. 26. The public
made known their wishes. 27. We walked about the
garden. 28. The wind blew so strong that they turned
about and walked the other uny. 29. Who called urith-
in't 30. We shall be there loithin an hour. 31. I am
about through. 32. Since then, we have been careful to
lock the door. 33. Where shall you house your canoe,
this winter? 34. The culprit was brought before the
judge. 35. The judge had never seen him before. 36.
He escaped before he had served his sentence. 37. Do
not remain out after dark. 38. The after effects were
unpleasant. 39. We purchased a to let sign. 40. I
will come after I have finished my letter. 41. Slow up,
please! 42. That is too bad. 43. That boy is an
athlete. 44. The errand that we were to do is now un-
necessary. 45. I think that we may go now. 46. Now
what part of speech is the word that'i 47. My ship
rides at anchor. 48. This is mine. 49. This boy was
called Leonidas. 50. Let each take one. 51. Each
girl may take two. 52. Whose name was mentioned
firsfi 53. The one whose name is called first must go.
54. Who calls? 55. He goes last who once was first.
56. Why are you so quiet? 57. The train was late, so
we went for a walk. 58. When shall their glory fade!
59. When the cats are away, the mice will play. 60.

72 WORDS AND SENTENCES

Why should we complain. 61. He asked why we were
so merry. 62. Thank her for her kindness. 63. We
have waited since eleven. 64. Since we must remain,
let us make the best of it. 65. Where are the reapers?
66. Go where glory waits. 67. The stag at eve had
drunk his fill 68. We lost the way and had to foot it
home.

VI. Write the plural forms of ally, alley, volley, val-
ley, cry, lady, folly, fairy, gypsy, reply, turkey, pulley,
galley, soliloquy, journey, attorney, chimney, colloquy,
caddy, chief, dwarf, loaf, scarf, staff, cloth, wife, self,
himself, myself, gulf, calf, roof, leaf, proof, motto,
buffalo, domino, dynamo, cargo, veto, hero, portico,
zero, potato, piano, echo, solo, tomato, alumna, alumnus,
larva, formula, focus, nebula, phenomenon, stratum,
bacterium, medium, erratum, dictum, oasis, antithesis,
thesis, axis, analysis, crisis, parenthesis, hypothesis,
corps, tableau, beau, genus, radius, Norman, Northman,
Frenchman, German, merchantman, daughter-in-law,
bill-of-fare, hanger-on, handful, James, Heiuy, Mary,
Dr. Jones, Miss Stone, Mrs. Grundy, Mr. Grundy, Master
Grundy, 6, m, +.

VII. Write the singular possessive forms of ally, alley,
fairy, caddy, oasis, daughter-in-law, Mr. Grundy, I, you,
he, she, it, who, Dickens, Jones, Wiggs, Themistocles,
the King of England, Dickens and Thackeray (joint
possession), Edward Clark, Esq., Byron and Scott
(individual possession), Addison or Steele (as in the

sentence This is or ), Keats, Holmes,

Clarke the hardware merchant.

EXERCISES 73

Write the plural possessive form of ally, alley, lady,
fairy, caddy, hero, oasis, corps, beau, calf, daughter-in-
law, they, Henry, Miss Stone, Jones, Wiggs, Dickens,
King of Sweden.

Which of the two forms enclosed in parenthesis is
correct? 1. Think of (me, my) asking such a question!
2. The (train, train's) being late resulted in (them, their)
faihng to make connections. 3. There is some talk of
(Mr. Taylor's, Mr. Taylor) being made president. 4.
What sense is there in a (boy, boy's) losing his temper!

5. I never heard of (him, his) doing anything cowardly.

VIII. The sentences below illustrate common errors
in the use of pronouns and pronominal adjectives.
Correct the errors, in each case telling why the pronoun
as used is incorrect.

1. The contrast between he and Macbeth is marked.
2. Whom do they think I am? 3. Let's see who'll get
there first, you or me. 4. If I were him, I'd accept the
offer. 5. Everyone except she applauded the speaker.

6. Yourself and your family are invited to attend our
opening Friday evening. 7. Who is you're friend? 8.
We have been waiting this two hours. 9. Who'se to
blame? 10. They must look out for theirselves. 11.
Let he who standeth take heed lest he fall. 12. I am
sure it was them. 13. He shot hisself accidentally.
14. Who are you going to invite? 15. I think it's wing
is broken. 16. The weather will not permit of me stay-
ing out late. 17. Please pass me some of them grapes.
18. I know who I like and who I don't like better than
him. 19. He was less clumsy than myself. 20. This
isn't ourn; it must be theirn. 21. The three Clarke

74 WORDS AND SENTENCES

boys and myself went in the automobile. 22. It must
have been us you saw. 23. There is no use in me trying
for the prize. 24. They called upon a man whom they
thought would surely know all about it. 25. I wonder
who he means. 26. It lies between you and I. 27.
Why should we not enjoy what is our's? 28. The boat
righted it's self instantly. 29. He allowed my brother
and I to take his gun. 30. I think you are as tall as
her. 31. Here is the gentleman who you wished to see.

32. Between you and I, the game was not won fairly.

33. Do you like these kind better? 34. I do not know
who to turn to. 35. He is the one who I consider the
strongest candidate. 36. Us girls have great larks. 37.
I thought you said their were good boats. Are these
them? 38. Neither John nor Arthur brought their
lunch. 39. No one should allow themselves to be de-
ceived. 40. When any one is going camping, they
should take warm clothing.

IX. The simplest rule in sentence-building, and un-
questionably the rule most frequently violated, states
that a verb should agree with its subject in person and
number. He don't, you uns, they was, and / says are
expressions commonly used even by those who think
that they speak correctly. Point out the bare subject
of each of the following sentences. Point out the bare
predicate. Point out the error in agreement. Try to
give a clear explanation of how, in all prol^ability, the
error came about. Was it due to failure to see that
the subject was a collective noun or the plural form
of a foreign term? Did the writer assume that tJiere,
coming immediately before the verb, was a substantive

EXERCISES 75

in the singular number? Did he mistake for the subject
some noun standing nearer the verb than the real sub-
ject? Did he forget that ivith is a preposition, not a
conjunction?

1. In back of the grapes was two pineapples. 2.
There was so many attending the game that we could
not get a good seat. 3. If each of the boys are closely
watched, the trick will soon be apparent. 4. First the
girl's name is given, then follows her age and birthplace.
5. This house don't look quite as old-fashioned as the
other. 6. Under these was two basket-balls and a pair
of boxing-gloves. 7. On the north side is a door and
two windows. 8. He don't know any better than to
say they aint\ 9. There was but two girls present. 10.
The phenomena was most singular. 11. The papers
tell where and when there is to be bargain sales. 12.
Two of us remained at home, so there was but two to
go in the boat. 13. The father with his three sons were
saved. 14. Every one of the articles were sold. 15.
There's no two ways about it! 16. Tales of a Wayside
Inn were written by Longfellow. 17. Fifteen minutes
were soon gone. 18. No one Ijut Edward and George
were absent. 19. It happened when you was away.
20. More than one has made the same mistake. 21.
Quickness as well as strength are needed. 22. A hun-
dred feet of hose were rapidly paid out. 23. To the
captain and the manager of the team are due most of
the credit. 24. We was having the time of our lives.
25. Honesty, as well as cleverness, count. 26. Two-
thirds of the roof were shingled before the rain fell. 27.
My favorite study are mathematics. 28. The binding
of the books were insecure. 29. Home, with all its

WORDS AND SENTENCES

many comforts, were soon forgotten. 30. I says
''walk"; he says ''ride". 31. On the platform even
with the sill is three cages. 32. Thirty thousand dollars
were paid for the mansion. 33. Each of the sticks were
given a coat of walnut stain. 34. Was you surprised to
see your mother? 35. Which of the two boys were
John? 36. It will clear before eleven; you see if it
don't.

X. Learn the following table so thoroughly that if a
principal part of any verb be given you can without
hesitation supply the remaining parts. Words starred
are of the new or weak conjugation.

arise

arose

arisen

awake

awoke

awaked

bear

bore or

born or

beat

beaten

bare

borne

begin

began

begun

bend *

bent

bid

bade or

bidden

bite

bit

bitten

bid

break

broke

broken

bring *

brought

burst

choose

chose

chosen

cling

clung

come

came

come

cost *

cost

did

done

draw

drew

drawn

drive

drove

driven

drink

drank

drunk

drown *

drowned

eat

ate or eat

; eaten

fight

fought

flee*

fled

fling

flung

flow*

flowed

fly

flew

flown

forbid

forbade

forbidder

I forget

forgot

forgotten

freeze

froze

frozen

give

gave

given

went

gone

grow

grew

grown

hear*

heard

hit*

hit

hurt*

hurt

hyrt

knit *

knit

lay*

laid

lain

lead *

led

leap *

leapt

let*

let

lie

lay

lain

lie*

lied

EXERCISES

loose *

loosed

lose*

lost

put*

put

rid*

rid

run

ran

run

see

saw

seen

set *

set

shrink *

shrank

shrunk

sing

sang

sung

sit

sat

slay

slew

slain

sling

slung

speak

spoke

spoken

spring

sprang

sprung

steal

stole

stolen

string

strung

swear

swore

sworn

swim

swam

swum

tear

tore

torn

think *

thought

throw

threw

thrown

wake

waked *

wear

wore

worn

or woke

wet*

wet

wring

wrung

write

wrote

written

XI. Notice that there are no such forms as brung,
busted, costed, drowndedj growed, hitted, hurted, runned,
swored, sivimmed, wored. Write sentences in which the
past tense and past participle forms of the following
verbs are used: bring, burst, cost, drown,' grow, hit,
hurt, run, wear, swim, swear.

XII. Give the active and passive past perfect of
beat; the active past, simple and progressive forms, of
begin; the passive past progressive of bite; all the in-
finitives and participles of bring; the active past of
come, eat, and fling; the passive past progressive of hear;
the active past progressive of lie (to recline); the active
potential past of see; the active present and past sub-
junctive of sing; the participles of swim; the active
present progressive of slay; the passive present pro-
gressive of slay; the active simple future of write. Give
a synopsis (all first person forms in all moods and tenses,
all imperative, infinitive, and participial forms) of love.

78 WORDS AND SENTENCES

Conjugate work in the active progressive. Conjugate in
full the verb help.

XIII. Which of the verbs found in Exercise X are
always used transitively? intransitively? Which may
be used either way?

XIV. Lie and sit are intransitive verbs; lay and set
are transitive. Supply the correct forms in the follow-
ing sentences:

1. The tree has there many years. 2. Let the

book where it is. 3. I think I have here

long enough. 4. We at anchor till the storm

blew over. 5. In which direction does our camp

? 6. The grounds were beautifully out.

7. When the culprits were caught, they the

blame on others. 8. Speckle has an egg in the

box that by the stable door. 9. I think the

town now to the east. 10. Will you not

down? 11. He said that he would — down for a

while; so we his blankets in the shade. 12.

His only fault, they said, in the one word am-
bition. 13. Where the tree falleth, there must it

1. He was in the room. 2. We had

up most of the night. 3. After the sun had

the air grew chilly. 4. Please down

minute. 5. After we had there a long time, the

door opened. 6. The house, he said, back a

little from the street. 7. Old wives a-sunning .

8. The little bird at his door in the sun.

EXERCISES 79

XV. Complete the following sentences by inserting
was and were where needed, in each case giving a reason
for your choice. Remember that the indicative is used
to denote simple condition in past time, the subjunctive
were to denote a mere supposition or to present a state
of affairs contrary to fact.

1. We looked to see if it still raining. 2. If

he coming, he would be here now. 3. If he

tardy, he should bring an excuse. 4. If I

you, I should start at once. 5. Would that it

true! 6. If he asked, he would come.

7. If he asked, I knew nothing of it. 8. I wish

that I with you. 9. If he strong, w^e

should take him with us. 10. If it true then, it

must be true now. 11. He would seem stern ■ —

it not for a twinkle in his eye. 12. If it he, I

failed to recognize him. 13. Suppose you asked

to go; what should you say? 14. We used the cottage

as freely as if it our own. 15. Why, man, if the

river — dry, I am able to fill it with my tears; if

the wind down, I could drive the boat with my

sighs.

16. Love Virtue; she alone is free.

She can teach you how to climb

Higher than the spiry chime;

Or, if Virtue feeble — — ^ — ,"

Heaven itself would stoop to her. — Milton.

XVI. Supply shall or will, whichever is correct, in
each of the following sentences:

1. I hope to see you often. 2. I am deter-
mined that he have a pleasant time. 3. If you

80 WORDS AND SENTENCES

call at eight, you find me at home. 4.

I be greatly obliged if you bring the

books with you. 5. We know that we have to

work hard, but we think it do us no harm. 6.

John is determined that he be first. 7. John

tells me that he be able to join the party.* 8.

He writes that he be sixteen to-morrow. 9. If

you go, I want to go too. 10. I think we

be asked to remain. 11. The weather forecaster says

that we have a fair day to-morrow. 12. I think

^Q see land before night. 13. you be

able to accompany us? 14. When we reach

Dallas? 15. we have time to purchase tickets?

16. What I do if it rains? 17. you be

sorry to see the snow come? 18. How I know

where to go? 19. we be permitted to take

books home? 20. there be a bonfire, do you

think? 21. they know which road to take?

XVII. Show very clearly that the meaning of each of
the following sentences changes according as shall or
mill is supplied.

1. you attend the concert? 2. We

not disappoint you. 3. There be no laughter.

4. they wait for us? 5. He read the

book. 6. he provide lunch? 7. I be

king. 8. I drown, if you do not help me. 9.

He drown, if you do not help him. 10. You

drown, if no one helps you. 11. We

* Where shall would be used in direct discourse, use shall in
indirect discourse; where ivill would be used, use will in the
indirect.

EXERCISES 81

reach New York before eight. 12. I contribute

ten dollars. 13. -^-^ — you try for honors? 14. He
reports that the train wait for us.

XVIII. SupjDly should and would where the sense
requires in the following sentences:

1. I like to help you, and I if I could.

2. I hoped that I ^^-— - not be asked. 3. I know I

enjoy golf, but I think I prefer tennis.

4. I -^ — be afraid to ride such a spirited horse. 5.

If you will permit me, I like to add a word. 6.

If you rescued the crew, you be rewarded. 7.

He said that I go if there was room. 8. He

asked if I take him too. 9. I be sorry to

see him fail. 10. I send him aid if I thought he

would accept it. 11. What we do with a white

elephant if we had one? 12. I thought I fail.

13. If you speak to him, he give you a

courteous answer. 14. Had I been in his position, I

have done the same. 15. We planned that he

— go by train. 16. If you be in town, we

be pleased to have you call. 17. He promised

that the next lesson — be better prepared. 18.

He thought that he find it. 19. We returned it

lest he -^ think it had been stolen. 20. He thought

he ^^-^^^ be forced to tell the secret, in spite of all he

could do. 21. Had we delayed a moment longer, we
have lost everything.

XIX. Show clearly that each sentence changes in
meaning according as may or can is supplied:

1. I help you? 2. we tell all that we

82 WORDS AND SENTENCES

know? 3. we not find our way back to the

boat? 4. He says you go. 5. we have

the pleasure of your company? 6. What more

be done? 7. This not be done; it is against the

rules.

8. Now my task is lightly done,
I — fly and I run.

XX. Tell very clearly why each of the following sen-
tences is incorrect:

1. He thinks he must of left it in the train. 2. This
was the first time I was ever elected to office. 3. I
should be pleased if he will call at my home. 4. Do
you know when he come to town? 5. We done the best
we could. 6. They, thinking him to have been with
the others, did not worry about his absence. 7. You
had ought to have seen us! 8. It was enough to have
discouraged any one. 9. I intended to have written
long ago. 10. If I permit you to go, I should have to
ask you to return before nine. 11. I am not sure where
they went, but I think they may have went shopping.
12. They must have forgot all about it. 13. When the
storm broke, we all run for shelter. 14. Probably they
would have drove on for another hour, had not darkness
overtaken them. 15. We were to have sailed yesterday.
16. Don't it look dark!

XXI. Point out the connectives and tell what part
of speech each connective is. Which ones do double
duty, serving not only as connectives but as modifiers
or substantives? Which of the conjunctions are co-
ordinate and which are subordinate?

EXERCISES 83

1. He who hesitates is lost. 2. We sailed above the
clouds. 3. Time and tide wait for no man. 4. Neither
this nor that is precisely what I wish; but I will take a
little of each unless you can show me something else.
5. Notwithstanding the weight of the anchor, the yacht
continued to drift. 6. Let him who standeth take heed
lest he fall. 7. Underneath his faults were virtues little
dreamed of. 8. Let us accept whatever comes and be
of good cheer. 9. Although we have failed twice, a
third time we may succeed. 10. Before breakfast, take
a brisk walk through the fields. IL The paths of glory
lead but to the grave. 12. I go where the winds take
me. 13. Do you know why the harebell hangs its head?
14. We do not know whether to go or to remain; but
since it matters little which we do, we will decide the
matter by lot. 15. If thou faint in the day of adversity,
thy strength is small. 16. Can you imagine what has
happened that the train is so late? 17. Though he fall,
he shall not be utterly cast down. 18. I do not see how
we could have missed our way. 19. Between the hills
lay a peaceful valley through which ran a sober little
stream. 20. The undertaking is hazardous; still all
may go well provided we are careful. 21. Notwith-
standing all that has been said, the prisoner is blame-
less. 22. Throughout the night came cries of distress
from many quarters. 23. All except honor is lost.
24. Therefore, since the whole is equal to the sum of all
its parts, the angle A equals the angle B. 25. Wait
till you have heard both sides.

XXII. Point out the errors in the following sentences:
1. We had neither food or shelter. 2. I got this book

84 WORDS AND SENTENCES

off of James. 3. The reason we did this was because
we knew no better. 4. 1 am not sure but what we had
better go now. 5. We arrived at about six in the
evening. 6. He says he don't want no dinner. 7. We
have no money nor no means of procuring it. 8. He
looks like he was lame. 9. How nicely this tastes!
10. He has an itaUan accent. 11. Can you not make
it a Httle rounder at the top and squarer at the base?
And make this edge a Uttle straighter. 12. It will not
rain before noon, I don't think, 13. We reached shore
easy enough. 14. He returned in a very different spirit
than he once had. 15. Would he not comply to your
wishes? 16. No sooner had she said this when she be-
gan to cry. 17. Strike out boldly like me! 18. This
is very different than what we expected. 19. It was
not as bad as we expected. 20. Like as not we'll meet
them. 21. This is very pretty, but I think the other
more preferable. 22. Any one would have done the same
had he been frightened like John was. 23. As quick as
the twigs kindle, put on the heavier wood. 24. Now
pour enough water in the pan to cover the dishes. 25.
These kind are hard to catch. 26. A dollar doesn't
last long when divided between six hungry boys. 27.
I don't know as I can say much more, gentlemen. 28.
I shall be unable to go without I get my lessons first.
29. By eight we were near starved. 30. Scarcely had
we fallen asleep than the fire-bell began to ring.

XXIII. Analyzing a sentence means taking it to
pieces and pointing out how its parts are related. First
we should tell whether the sentence is simple, com-
pound, or complex. If it is compound, the clauses

EXERCISES 85

should be pointed out and the word or words connecting
them; if complex, the principal clause should be pointed
out first, then the subordinate members. Next we
should analyze each clause, pointing out subject and
predicate and the modifiers of each. Analyze the sen-
tences in exercises I, II, III, IV, and XXI.

XXIV. Parsing a word means telUng (1) what part
of speech it is, (2) what inflected form it represents, (3)
how it is used, (4) what rule it obeys. The things to
be told of the different parts of speech are as
follows:
y Noun: Kind (common or proper), number, gender,
case, how used, rule.

Pronoun: Kind (personal, relative, demonstrative,
interrogative, or indefinite), antecedent if the pronoun
is a relative, gender if it is a personal pronoun, person if
it is a personal or relative pronoun, number, case, how
used, rule.

Adjective: Kind (article, numeral, pronominal; com-
mon or proper), degree if the adjective can be com-
pared, how used.

Verb: Kind (transitive or intransitive), conjugation
(old or new), principal parts, voice, mode, tense, person,
number, rule.

Adverb: Kind (simple, conjunctive, expletive, re-
sponsive), degree if the adverb can be compared, how
used.

Preposition : The word it governs, the words between
which it shows relation.

Conjunction: Kind (coordinate or subordinate), the
words, phrases or clauses it connects.

86 WORDS AND SENTENCES

Interjection : Definition.
— Infinitive or Participle : To what verb it belongs,
voice, tense, how used.

Parse each word found in exercises I, II, III, IV,
and XXL

XXV. Analyze the following sentences and parse
each word:

1. Geography explains history. 2. Death lays his
icy hands on kings. 3. Unto the pure all things are
pure. 4. And when his armour-bearer saw that Saul
was dead, he fell likewise on the sword and died. 5.
Heaven lies about us in our infancy. 6. A man with-
out a sense of humor, some one has said, is occasionally
to be respected, often to be feared, and nearly always
to be avoided. 7. Facts in the mind, says Sir Oliver
Lodge, are not dead things in a portmanteau; they are
Uve things in a pond. 8. Truth makes all things plain.
9. Patience is bitter but its fruit is sweet. 10. A good
name is better than a girdle of gold. 11. Labor rids us
of three great evils: tediousness, vice, and poverty.
12. In vain do you lead the ox to the water, if he is not
thirsty. 13. Many generations have come and gone
since the little Mayflower lay rocking in yonder bay,
with the Pilgrim mothers and sisters looking out wist-
fully over the then lonely waters, and the children,
cooped up for many a weary week, asking when at last
they would be put on shore. 14. A wise man thinks
before he speaks; but a fool speaks and then thinks of
what he has been saying. 15. Disputes would not con-
tinue so long, if the wrong lay but on one side. 16. It
avails little to know what ought to be done, if you do

EXERCISES 87

not know how it is to be done. 17. The most original
modern authors, says Goethe, are not so because they
advance what is new, but simply because they know
how to put what they have to say, as if it had never
been said before. 18. As soon as the house was full
and the candles lighted, my old friend stood up and
looked about him with that pleasure which a mind sea-
soned with humanity naturally feels in itself at the sight
of a multitude of people who seem pleased with one an-
other and partake of the same common enjoyment.
19. We remain shackled by timidity till we have learned
to speak with propriety. 20. The earth opens her bosom
to receive impartially the beggar and the prince. 21.
I know not what course others may take; but as for me
give me liberty or give me death! 22. The planter, who
is man sent out into the field to gather food, is seldom
cheered by any idea of the true dignity of his ministry.
He sees his bushel and his cart and nothing beyond, and
sinks into the farmer instead of the man on the farm.
23. It is a pleasing sight, of a Sunday morning, when
the bell is sending its sober melody across the quiet
fields, to behold the peasantry in their best finery, with
ruddy faces and modest cheerfulness, thronging tran-
quilly along the green lanes to church; but it is still
more pleasing to see them in the evenings, gathered
about their cottage doors and appearing to exult in the
humble comforts and embellishments which their own
hands have spread around them. 24. After these
words, the dragon, awful monster, flashing with blaz-
ing flames, came on all wroth a second time to meet his
hated foemen.

88 WORDS AND SENTENCES

XXVI. Analyze the following sentences and parse

each word:

1. The moon was afloat

Like a golden boat
On the sea-blue depths of the sky
I When the miller of Dee

With his children three
On his fat, red horse rode by.
2 Who lacks the art to shape his thought, I hold,
Were little poorer if he lacked the thought.

— Aldrich.

3. The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is oft interred with their bones.

— Shakespeare.

4. Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow;

He who would search for pearls must dive below.

— Dryden.

5. The stars look very cold about the sky,

And I have many miles on foot to fare. — Keats.

6. I read whatever bards have sung

Of lands beyond the sea;
And the bright days w^hen I was young
Come thronging back to me. — LongfelloWo

7. In Xanadu did Kubla Khan

A stately pleasure-dome decree
Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
Through caverns measureless to man

Down to a sunless sea. — Coleridge.

8. In the moonlight the shepherds,

Soft lulled by the rills.
Lie wrapt in their blankets.
Asleep on the hills. — Arnold.

EXERCiSES ,,,;,,, 89

9. Yonder in the heather' tfiere^s a bed for sleeping,
Drink for one athirst, ripe blackberries to eat;
Yonder in the sun the merry hares go leaping,
And the pool is clear for travel-weary feet.

— Ada Smith.

10. The hare limped trembhng through the frozen

grass;
And silent was the flock in woolly fold;
Numb were the Beadsman's fingers while he told
His rosary, and while his frosted breath,
Like pious incense from a censer old.
Seemed taking flight for heaven, without a death,
Past the sweet Virgin's picture, while his prayer

he saith. — Keats.

11. While you converse with lords and dukes,
I have their betters here — my books;
Fixed in an elbow-chair at ease,

I choose companions as I please.

I'd rather have one single shelf

Than all my friends, except yourself;

For, after all that can be said.

Our best acquaintances are the dead. — Sheridan.

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE last DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL nNE~OF 25 CENTc:

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE Tr>»^
TH,S BOOK ON THE DATE D^E THE pE^ALTV
W,LU mCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH

oCIrd^ue ™ *'°° °" ^- seventh"o"v

DEC 14-1932
DEC 15 ISc ;
DEC 161932
fPV 211933

SEP 18 1940
N0V131940M

I^OV

^1940

SEP

10 J93(

Sep27'48J5

FEB

^3 193Q

JUN 4 198

CIRCULATION

iiiie V883

B 4 1984

6/</

R" 5 1985

LD 21-507n-8,-32

GENERAL LIBRARY -U.C. BERKELEY

QU{1Q7&IQ&'^

2^m5Z

# *■■ -r%

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